UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

THE

CYCLOPiEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

arts, gttiences, an^ ILiteraturt.

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,
TiT THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. IV.

LONDON:
Prikted for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

F.r. ANDJ. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAYOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADEI.L AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBIIRY
FARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. POOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AMD BRODIE AND DOWDING.

8 0 50 ?•" '^'^'

CYCLOP ^DIA:

I'? 12)
v.-f

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

A R T S and SCIENCES.

BAT

BATTERY Point, in Geography, lies on the north or
ftarboard ihore of the channel of Cork, in Ireland.
Battery, formed of haftre, to beat or Jlrike, in
the Military Art, denotes an eminence call up, on which
to plant artillery, that it may play to better advantage. It
confifts of an epaulement, parapet, or breafl-work, about
eight fi;et high, and eighteen or twenty thick. The plat-
form of a battery is laid with planks, that the wheels of the
carriages may not fink ; and it is made floping towards the
parapet, that the guns may not recoil much, and that they
may be more eafily drawn back. See Plate II. Fortif,
fg. 2 r. n. 2. and Plate VII. ^^. 38.

In all batteries, the open fpaces left to put the muzzles
of the great guns out at, are called emlrafurn ; and the di-
ftances between the embrafures, merlons. The guns are ge-
nerally from twelve to fixteen feet diftar.t from one another,
that the parapet may be ftrong, and the gunners may have
room to work.

There are alfo hattertes of mortars, the fame with thofc
of cannon, except that they have no emlrafures ; the (hells
being fired over the parapet, commonly at an ani^le of 45°
elevation : and the flope of the bread work is made inwards,
contrary to that of other parapets; having their platforms
about fix feet fquare and eight feet afundcr.

The battery of a camp is ufually furroundcd with a trench
and pallifades at the bottom, as alfo with a parapet on the
top, having as many holes as there are pieces of artillery,
and two redoubts on the wings, or certain places of arms.

Vol. IV.

capable of covering the troops which are appointed for
their defence.

All field batteries confift of four parts, viz. the tlitcf},
the parapet, the platform, and the magazine; which fee re-
fpeftively.

The Sieur Remy, in his Memoirs of Artillery, has given
a table for the ready finding of all the requifites for the con-
ftruftion of temporary batteries, and for their daily fervice,
the pieces being twenty-four pounders ; and although thefc
batteries are calculated only for fieges, andare of the coffer-
kind, yet from this table may be derived fuch notions as
will greatly help young artifts on other occafions.

_ It is alfo proper to mention the number of fafcines and
pickets that is ufually expected every day from the labour
of each man employed in that fervice.

Of fafcines 5 or 6 feet long, and 5 or 6 inches thick,
bound with two wyth bands each, one man will make 16 or
18 in a day, with two pickets to each.

Of fafcines 8 or 9 feet long by 8 or 9 inches thick, and
two pickets to each, oue man ufually makes 10 or 12 in a
day.

Of fafcines 12 feet long by 9 inches thick, with three
pickets to each, 8 or 10 ^.c ufually expcded from the day's
work of one man.

The days here underftood are fuch in which the men may
work about twelve hours. "*■

lu the following table C. (lands for hundred.

^ A Table

444045

printed by A. Sir.nhan,

BAT

BAT

^ TABLE for the ccnjlruaion of Battcrits.

r4

t>

CA

^
^

b

U

1

0

H.tl

Urn

•^

2

-3

en

*•*

3

i

0

-g

CO

0

to

SO

0

3
0

c

C4

1

CO

V

.s

HIM

>>

(J

n
u

to

•a

e
3

J3

C

I

c
0

c«

0

CO

>>

to

S
0

to

2

0

u

en

*-<

2
0

e

c

3

o

I*

n
Is

0.

■5

u

6

c

e

0
&

0

u

0 .

to

rJ

0

4-1

u
0

03

0

•0

35
0

tn

U3
•-t

V) u

4.J

w
tii

0

s

tn

u

>

•n

13

0
*^
tn

fc
15

to

1

♦J

.2

-3

'i

2

C
B
3

to

ta

ra

0

*-"

2

c

3
0

0
0

<a

0

to

B
3

P.

£

3

to
c
w

-J

e

3

11

c

;2

.5 5

s

-0

c

^
§
S

c
c

3
0

2

V3

CO

a; 14

so

70 15

120

40

2C

520 j 10

4

32

4

12

24 C

2 C

3 i ^°

60

85 20

.65

60

3<^

740 1 14

6

4«

6

18

36 c

3C

4I26

70

100 25

210

80

1 4C

960 1 1 8

8

64

8

24

48 c

4C

51 32

80

115 30

255

100

! 5C

1180 1 22

10

80

10

30

60 c

5C

6

38

90

130

35

300

120

6C

1400

26

12

96

12

36

72 c

6C

7

44

100

145

40

345

140

7C

1620

30

14

112

14

42

84 c
96 c

7C

8

?o

no

160 45

390

160

8 C

1840

34

16

128

16

48

8 C

9

56

120

17J 50

435

180

9C

2060

3«

18

144

18

54

108 c

9C

10 62

130

190 1 55

480

200

i 10 C

2280

42

20

160

20

60

120 c

loC

n 1 (58

140

20J , 60

S^S

220

II c

2500

46

22

176

22

66

132 c

II C

12|74

190

220 65

<;^o

240

12 C

2720 50

24

; 192

24

72

144 c

12 C

13 80

160

235 70

615

260

13 c

2940 54

26

1 208

26

78

156 c
168 c

'3^

14 86

170

250 1 75

660

280

14 c

3160

S«

28

224

28

84

.4C

15 92

180

265 So

705

300

«5C

33«o

62

30

240

30

90

180 c

i^C

16 1 9«

190

280 85

750

320

16 c

3600 1 66

32

256

32

96

192 c

16 c

When batteries are ereftcd at leifiire, and are d&'igned to
(land for fome years, they arc bed made of ftor.e, or brick,
or good loamy earth, as the materials may be moll ealily
procured.

To conftruft the profile of a battery, let its ground line
be AB {Plate II. Forilf. f^. 23. N° 2.), BD that of the
parapet, the inner flope of which is formed by making Y>a
= I i- foot, and the peipendicular « H' — 6 or 7 feet ; the
crown of the parapet HI is formed by making b\ a foot or
two lower than a H ; and the front of the battery IB is
found by making iB =.\b\ when of earth, or=i of b\ when
of mafonry. if DC be made = 2| or 3 feet, we (hall have
C the fill of the cmbrafure, the floor of which CG is to dip
a foot or two below the level line CF. The platform DE
is 1 8 or 20 feet, the tail E rifing about 6 inches above the
level line AB ; the lower double line reprefents the flceper
laid Icngthwife, and the upper double line fhaded with the
lines acrofs (hews the ends of the planks laid on the (leepers.
A gun on its carriage, with the wheels againft the knocker
at D, is annexed to the figure, for the purpofc of aiding the
apprchenfion. For the conflruclion of the embrafures, mer-
lons, ramp?, &c. fee the articles rcfpcftively.

Batterv, Open, is nothing more than a number of can-
non, generally field-pieces, or fuch as carry a ball not ex-

ceeding nine pounds weight, ranged in a line or row a-breaft
of one another, on fome fmall natural elevation of the ground,
or an artificial bank about a yard or two high. Thcfe can-
nons are ranged at the di (lance of about 15 or 16 feet from
one another; their (hot and loading utenfils lying by their
fide, and the powder lodged in a hole at fome diftance be-
hind the batter)'.

Battery, Covered, is when the cannon and gunners are
covered by a bank made of brufli-wood, faggots, and earth ;
about eighteen or twenty feet thick, and feven or eight
feet high. Tiic cannon ufcd in fuch batteries are generally
from nine to eighteen pounders ; fomctimes twenty-four
pounders are ufcd in them. See Fascine Battery.

Battery, futiL or buried, is that whofe platform is funk
or let down into the ground, with trenches cut into the
earth againft the muzzles of the guns, to fcr\'e for em-
brafures.

Tliis fort, which the French call batler'ie en terre, and
rulmante, is generally ufed upon the firfl making approaches,
to beat down the parapet of the place.

Batteries, Crofs, are two batteries at a confiderable di-
ftance from each other, which play athwart one another at
the fame time, and upon the fame point, forming right
angles; £0 that they thus combine and produce a greater

effed;

BAT

BAT

effect ; becaufe -what one bullet fiiakes, the other beats
down."

Battery en Barie, Barhet, or Open Battery, is a name
given to a batteiy, when tlie floor of part of it is fo raifed
tliat the guns placed on it have an advantageous command
over fome part of the neighbourhood, and when the guns
thus raifed fire over the crown of the parapet without any
enibrafure. Thefe barbets may be made either in a cuilin,
or at the faliant angle of a flanker. They (hould be always
2§ or 3 feet lower than the crown of the parapet, and
about 8 or 9 yards broad at the top, with a proper flope to
the bafe, of a length fuitable to the number of guns to be
mounted on theit;, allowing about five or fix yards for each,
and at eacli end have a proper ramp for afcending them.
For the further illiiftration of their nature and conllruclion,
let PQJIVX {Plate III. Fortlf. fg. 2^.) be a common
bank of a hue, tlie parapet of which is RSTV ; the ianer
flooe RS beirg about 6 or 7 feet higher than QR ; then
the bank ?nnoR, raifed fo high that the cannon may iire
over the crpwn of the parapet ST, is the barbet, the height
of %vhich. np is about 3 or 4 feet. On the top of tlie bar-
bet is raifed a piattorm, as in other batteries. Let the
figures z6 and 27 reprefeiit part of the plan of a line, and
one of its flankers, or of a battery conitrufted in fuch a
form ; where Aa is the length of the barbet, or raifed bat-
tery, fuited to the number of guns to be uled, which are
to be drawn up the ramps placed at the ends ; the breadths
being about 8 or 9 feet, and the length ab about 7 or 8 yards.

Battery, Cava!i-r. See Cavalier.

Battery d'EnJilads, is one which fweeps the whole
length of a flraiglit line, a ftreet, &c.

Battery en Echarp^, is that which plays obliquely.

Battery de Rev:rs, or Murdering Battery, is one that
plays on the back of any place ; and being placed on an
eminence, fees into it.

BATTERY^oin/, or par camerade, or cam^r^-//^, is when fe-
veral guns play at the fame time upon one place.

Battery en Rouage, is that ufed to difmount the ene-
my's cannon.

Battery a Ricochet, is adapted to the method of rico-
chet firing, firft invented and praftiied by Vauban, at the
liege of Aeth in 1692. The guns are loaded with fmall
charges, and are elevated, fo as to fire over the parapet ;
and the Hiot is hereby made to roll along tlie oppofite ram-
part. This method of firing with guns has fince been ap-
plied to mortars and howitzers with great fuccefs.

Battery Coffer, is that where the lides of the wall and
merlons only are formed of fafciues, and all the cavities or
included fpaces filled with earih.

To conllrudl a battery of this kind, mark o".t with aline
the limits of the parapet eighteen or twenty feet thick ;
and three or four feet before the parapet, mark out with
lines or ftakes the limits of the ditch, ten or twelve feet
broad, or even more, if earth is wanted ; allowing eight yards
in length for one gun, and fix yards more for every other g^n.
On the outlines of the parapet cut a trench five or fix inches
wide and deep, and there lay a row of fafcines, the ends
being jammed one into the other ; and let them be flaked
down. Lay on tliem another row, fo that the joinings of
thefe may not be diieftly over the joinings of the lower one,
and let all the knots of the bands be turned inwards ; ftake
thefe down ; and on them lay in like manner a third and
fourth row, &c. until the height be about three feet. The
fame kind of work being done at the ends, and for the
epaulement if wanted, the coffer for the wall will be finifhed.
Then let the men be difpofed along the place intended for
the ditch, and with proper tools break the gr-und and

throw it into the coffer ; where, as the earth is thrown in,
other men are to fpread it, and ftamp it down with rammers ;
and thus the coffer is to be filled. When the wall is finifhed,
let the embrafures be flaked out (fecMERLCK), and a coffer
formed in hke manner for each merlon, which is alfo to be
filled with earth, and rammed dov/n. Proceed to complete
it in the fame manner with the Fascine Battery.
Battery, Fa/cine. See Fasgi-ne Battery.
Battery, Gabion. See Gabion.

Battery, in Law, denotes an aft that tends to the
breach of the peace of the realm, by unlawfully ftriking,
beating, or offering other v-iolence to another perfon.

Battery is frequently confounded with affault, though in
law they are different offences ; becaufe, in the trefpats for
affault and batterv-, one may be found guilty of tlie af-
fault, yet not convicted of the battery : there may there-
fore be affault without battery ; but battery always implies
an affault. The leaft touching of another's perfon wilfully,
or in anger, is a batter)- ; for the law cannot draw the line
between differe.Tt ('egrees of violence, and therefore totally
prohibits the firfl and loweft flage of it : every man's ptr-
fon being facred, and no otner having, a right to meddle
with it in any the flig'ntefl manner. Upon a fimilar princi-
ple the Cornelian law "de injuriis" prohibited " pulfation"
as well as " verberation ;" dillinguilhing verberation accom-
panied with pain from puliation without any. However,
battery is in fome cafes juflifiah'e or lawful ; as where one
who hath authority, a parent w mailer, gives moderate cor-
rection to his child, his fcholar, or his apprentice. Thus
alfo on the principle of felf-defence, if one llrikes me firll,
or even only affaults me, I may flrike in my own de-
fence, and if fued for it, may plead " fon afTault demefne,"
or that it was the plaintiff's own original affault that occa-
fioned it. So likewife in defence of my goods 'or poffefiion,
if a man endeavours to deprive me of them, I may juflify
laying hands upon him to prevent him ; and if he perfi'.l
with violence, I may proceed to beat him away, i Fincli.
L. 203. Thus too, in the exercife of an office, as that of
churchwarden or beadle, a man may lay hands upon ano-
ther to turn him out of church, and prevent his dillurbing
the congregation, i Sid. 301. And if fued for this or the
like battery, he may fet forth the whole cafe, and plead
that he laid hands upon him gently, " moUiter manus impo-
fuit," for this purpofe. On account of thefe caufes of j uni-
fication, battery is defined to be the " unlawful" beating of
another ; for which the remedy is, as for affault, by aftion
of " trefpafs vi jt armis," in which the jurj' will give ade-
quate damages. Atrocious battery is fu'QJeft to trial by
infpeclion in putfuance of the order of the court ; in which
cafe the battery mufl be alleged fo certainly in the declara-
tion, that it may appear to be the fame with the battery
infpefted. In the cafe of a perfon's beating the fervant of
another, befides the remedy of an aclion of battery or im-
prifonment, which the fervant hiinfclf may have againll the
aggreffor, the mailer alfo, as a recompence for his immediate
lofs, may maintain an aftion of trefpafs, " vi ex. armis," in
which he mufl allege and prove tlie fpecial damage he ha*
fullained by the beating of his fervant, " per quod fervitium
amifit ;" and then the jury will make him a proportionable
pecuniary fatisfaftion. A fimilar practice obtained among
the Athenians ; with whom mailers were entitled to an ac-
tion againft fuch as beat or ill-treated their fcrvants. A
perfon guilty of battery againft a clergyman, is hable t»
three kinds of profccution for the fame offence ; an indift-
ment for the breach of the king's peace, a civil aiflion far
damages, and a fuit in the ecclefiailical court ; firil, " pro
corretiione et falute anims" by enjoining penance, and the«
B 2 ;i£aia

BAT

a^fain for fiich fum of money as fhal! he ajjrcjd on for lalirg
ej^the penance enjoined ; it being iifualin tlicfc courts to ex-
change their fpiritual cenfures for a round compcnfation in
money (2 Roll. Rep. 384.); perhaps, fays judge Blackftone,
beeaufc poverty is >reneraliy edeemed by the moralifts the bell
medicine " pro I'alute aninii." Bl. Com. vol. iii. and vol. iv.

Battery is fometimcs ufcd in fpeakinjr of the fabric of
metalline utenfils. In this fcnfe, battcry-woiks include pots,
fauccpans, kettles, and the like veffels, which though caft
at firft, are to be afterwards hammered or beaten into
form.

Some make battery for the kitchen, bnlUr'te Je cu'ifmc,
comprehend all utenfils for the fervice of the kitchen, whe-
ther of iron, brafs, copper, or otl'.cr matters. Others take
the term in a narrower fcnfe, and rellrain it to ntcnfils of
brafs or copper.

A fociety for the mineral and battery work of England
\va<! incorporated by queen Elizabeth.

Battery, in EUclrldly, is a combination of coated fur-
facts of glafs, fo conneded together, that they may be
charged at once, and difchargtd by a common conductor.
Mr. Gralath, a German eleftrician, was the firll who con-
trived to incrcafc the (hock, by charging feveral phials at
the fame time. Dr. Franklin, after he had analyzed the
JLeydeii phial, and found that it loll at one fmfaee the elec-
tric fire which it received at theother, conllrufted a battery,
confiilinjj of eleven panes of large fadi-glafs, coated on each
fide, and connected in fuch a manner that the whole might
be charged together, and with the fame labour as one fmgle
pane; and by bringing all the giving fides into contaftwith one
wire, and all the receiving fides with another, he contrived
to unite the.force of all the plates, and to difcharge theni at
onpe. SK. more complete battery is defcribed by Ur. Pricft-
ley, of which he fays, that after long ufe he fees no reafon
for wifhing the lead alteration in any part of it. This bat-
tery (fee PlateY. Ehdr'ulty, fg. l.) confills of 64 jars, each
ten inches long, and 2\ inches in diameter, coated within i J
inch of the top ; and contains in the whole 32 fquare feet.
The wire of each jar has a piece of very fmall wire twiftcd
about the lower end of it, to touch the infide coating in fe-
veral places ; and it is put through a pretty large piece of
cork, within the jar, to prevent any part of it from touch-
ing the fide, which would tend to promote a fpontancous
difcharge. Each wire is turned round, fo as to make a
hole at the upper end ; and "through thcfe holes a pretty
thick brafs rod with knobs paffes, one rod ftrving for one
row of the jars. The communication between thcfe rods is
made by laying over them all a thick chain. When part
only of the battery is ufed, the chain is laid over as many
rods as will furnidi the required number cf rows of jars.
The bpttom of the box, in which the jars ftand, is covered
with a plate of tin, and a bent wire touching the plate
pufles through the box, and appears on the oulfide. To
this wire any conduflor dcfigned to communicate with the
outfide of the battery is faltened, as the fmall wire in the
figure, and the difcharge is made by bringing the brafs
knob to any of the knobs of the battery. When a very
great force is required, th« quantity of coated lurface may
be increafed, or two or more batteries mav be ufed. Frank-
lin's Exp. and Obf. ed. 1769. p. 28. Prieltley's Jlill. &c.
of Elcftricity, ed. 1775. vol. ii. p. 99.

However complete the battery above defcribed appeared
to be at the time of its conftruftion, later ele£lricians have
difcovcrcd many imperfeiftions to which it was fubjcdt ; of
which the principal are thofe that rcfult From the form and
fi/.e of the jars, the fnbftance of the glafs, the height of
the coating, and the connexions within the battery. la

BAT

confcqiicnce of thefe imperfedlions in its ilruc^ure and con-
trivance, it is preventtd from receiving more than about
half the charrrt which it ouijht to receive in proportion to
the qiiantity of its coated furface.

The moft perfect batteries of modern conflruftion, fince
that of Dr. Prielliey, have been made in Holland for 1 ey-
Itr's mufeum at Hacrlcm, by Mr. Cut! bertfon of Polard-
ilreet, London, then rcfiding at Amfteiriam. Of thefe bat-
teries there are two, dillering in their magnitude and mode
of conftruflion. but allowed to be equally perfect. The
firft was completed in the year 1784, ard is compofed of
135 jars in 9 boxes, each containing"i5, which may be ufed
feparately or combined, as the nature of the experiment ic-
q'.iircs. Each box is a fepaiate battery of itfelf ; ai d the de-
fcription of one box with a view of the figure, will l-c fuf-
ficient fcr explaining its conllruflion and vSe. In Plale 1.
EieHlr'tcily, f.g. 2. is exhibited a pcrfpeiSne view of Teyllr'.j
firft battery, with its parts arranged in proper order for re-
ceiving a charge from the cleftrical machine. Each box, as
we have already obferved, contains ijjiirs; each jar is 11
inches high, and 6 ii;ches in diameter, contiafted at the
mouth to 4 inches, and coated fo as to contain about l^jo
fquare inches ; and thus the whole battery will contain
about 132 fquare feet of coated furface. Each box is di-
vided into 15 partitions, 5 of which are in the length and
3 in the breadth ; the height of the fides of the box being
fomewhat lower than the coating of the jars, as ai'c alio
the partitions in which they lland. The lid of the box is
made without hinge?, foi' t'le convenience of releafing it
from the box, that it may be removed while experiments are
performed. It is taken off by lifting it upwaitls. The out-
fide coatings of the jars are connefled by means of crof«
wires palling under the bottom of each jar ; and thofc on
the infide by means of a br-afs tramc, bearing 15 brafs balls,
fixed upon the frame above the centre of each jar. All-
thefe balls, excepting the four at the corners, have wires
fcrewcd to them and hanging downwards into the infide of
each jar ; but the wires of the four corner jars are fcrcwe J
to a foot, which is cemented to the bottom of each in the
infide. Upon thefe wires the whole frame reds, and is kept
in its proper pofition. The four corner balls have holes,
which receive the ends of the wii-cs, and terminate at a
proper height from the jars. By this contrivance the
infide connefting frame m.ay at any time be cafiiy removed;
and as this part of the machine is important, the conftruc-
tion of the faid frame is fhewn feparattd from the batteiy in
^g. 3.- It is according to the above conllruclion that Mr.
Cuthbcrtfcn forms his prefent batteries, excepting that he
has increafed the fize of the jars, fo as to make one bat-
tery contain about 17 fquare feet ; and he engages to prove
by experiment, that the batteries of his condrudtion are far
fuperior to any others. Teyler's fecond grand battery was
finiflied by Mr. Cuihbertfon in 1789. This is the largeft
and moft complete batteij that was ever made. The whole
battery, ftandkig in proper order for receiving a charge,
is exhibited injff. 4. It confifts of 100 jars of the fame
diape with that of thofe already defcribed, only that they
are fo enlarged in fize, that each of them contains 55 fquare
feet of coated furface, indcad of 140 inches, and the whole
battery contains 550 fciuaie feet of coating ; and for conve-
niency, it is put into four feparatc cafes, each containing 25.
jars in the form of a fquare, 5 on each fide. The boxes
are lined with lead on the infide for forming the outfide
communication ; each jar hasaperpendiculardandrcfting upon
its bottom, and fupported from falling fideways by three days
on the infide. Upon the top is fcrevved a three inch brafs
globe, from which proceeds a brafs tube about one inch in

diameter,

BAT

.diameter, to a large brafs globe, fupported by the middle
jar at a proper height, io as to keep the infide communica-
lion properly arranged. A view of the figure will flicw
how the four are combined, fo aa to charge and dilcharge
all the ICO jars at once.

Lieutenant colonel Haldane propofes the following me-
thod for meafiiring the force of an ekdtrical battery, during
the time of its being charged.

Let the battery be inlulated, and at a fmall diftance from
it place an uninfulated eledtrical jar, and near the jar, one
cf Mr. Cuthbertfon's electrometers. The tledrometer being
a.djuft;ed according to the degree of force which is intended to
be employed as a meafure of force to be communicated to the
battery, conneiil the eleftromcter with the jar ; make a me-
tallic communication between the interior fide of the jar and
the exterior fide of the battery, and connedt the interior fide
of the battery with the conductor of an eltftrical machine :
then, by the operation of the eleftiical machine, the battery
receives a quantity of the eleftrical fluid, and becomes
charged. The fluid, which departs from the exterior fide
of the battery, is received by the elcclrical jar, which alfo
becomes charged ; but this jar, being connefted with the
eleftrometer, explodes as foon as it acquires a force fufhcicnt
to put the eleftrometer into motion. The quantity of the
elcftrical fluid which is received by this jar, between each
of the explofions, is a meafure of the quantity of the fluid
in the battery ; and the number of explofions or difcharges
of this jar fhews the number of meafures which the battery
contains, and conftqucutly the force which it is capable of
exerting when dilehargcd.

For the author's demonftration of this method, and the
iUulVation of it by appropriate experiments, we mull refer
to Nichoifon's Journal, vol. i. p. 156, &c.

Battery, Galvanic; the name ufually given to an ap-
paratus for accumulating the electricity which is produced
by the mutual agencies of certain metallic and carbonaceous
fubilances, and peculiar fluids.

The firft inftrument of this kind was invented by the cele-
brated Volta of Pavia, in 1800, and various forms of it have
been fince adopted by different philofophers.

The original battery, or the electrical pile, is compofed of
plates of zinc, plates of filver, and pieces of palleboard, of the
lize of the plates, raoillened in a lolution of fait in water :
and arranged in the order of zinc, filver, pafteboard, zinc,
filver, pafteboard, and fo on, till aferies fufficiently numerous
is formed. On account of the exp«nce of filver, copper has
been lately generallv fubllituted for it, with but little dimi-
nution of efleft ; and folutions ol muriate of ammoniac, of
nitrous acid, and of muriatic acid, have been employed in-
ftead of the folution of common fait, with very great advan-
tage as to the increale of the power of the combination.
In general any two metallic fubllances which are perfetl
conduftors of electricity, may be ufed, provided tTie inler-
pofed fluid is capable of oxidating at lead one of them.

The powers ot galvanic batteries appear to be very much
connected with the chemical eiianges going on in them, and
hence plates of one metal may be made to fuppiy the place of
the two metals provided their different fides be expofed to
different chemically acling fluids, as has been (hewn by the
experiments of Mr. Davy. Thus copper, filver, and lead, all
form efficient combinations when they are arranged with two
different fets of pafteboard, one moiftened with diluted nitric
acid, and the other with folution of hydrofulphuiet of pot-
afti ; the order being metal, pafteboard moiftened with
acid, palleboard moiilened with hydrufulphuret, &c. In
fuch a cafe, if the batteiy is required to be of confiderable
psrmauency as to its cffciSis, it is necelTary to feparate the

3

BAT

pafteboard moiftened in the chemical agents from each other
by a third fet of pafteboards, moiftened in common water.

In inftances when piles are ereittd perpendicularly either
with two metals or with one metal, in confequtnce of the
oxidation andthelofs of moifture from prefTure and evapora-
tion, the eleftrical action ufually ceafes after a few days ; and
in order to renew it, afecond conltniction of theferies becomes
neceifary. Several methods have been propofed for mak-
ing iiiftruments m.ore permanent in their operation than
the pile, and more eafily rendered aftive ; but the moft in-
genious contrivance appears to be that of tl^e trough, dif-
covered by Mr. Cruickfhank. It confifts of a box of baked
wood, in which plates of copper and zinc, or of filver and
^inc foldered together at their edges, are cemented in fuch
a manner as to leave a number of water-tight cells, cor-
relponding to tlie number of the fcries : the arrangement
becomes a6live when the cells are filled with the proper fa-
line fluids ; and it may at any time be eafily freed from oxide
by the ufe of muriatic acid.

In the common apparatus of Volta, that part bounded by
the moft oxidablc metal, as, for inftance, the zinc, is found
in a pofitive ftate, with regard to eledlricity, and the other
part, as the copper, in a negative ftate ; and when a commu-
nication is made between the two ends, by means cf a con-
dudling body, a coiiftant circulation of elettricity is efta-
bliflied.

The electricity of the galvanic battery is capable of being
partly transferred into the Leyden phial ; and its efFefts, as
has been fully Ihewn by the experiments of Mefirs. Nichol-
fon, Carhile, Woolafton, Van Marum, and Ritter, are fimilar
to thofe of common eleflricity, in a low ftate of inlenfity.
It gives ihocks to living animal organs, and excites muf-
cular contraftions in bodies for a confiderable time after
death. It affumes the form of fire in paCTmg from one
conduftiiig body to another in its highly concentrated ftate ;
and it ignites fmall metalhc wires or leaves, and caufes them
to enter into combuftion. It, fets fire to charcoal, fulphur,
alcohol, and other inflammable bodies ; and it rapidly decom-
pounds water and various other fluids.

The intenfity of the eleftricity in galvanic batteries is
greater in proportion as the fcries compofing them are more
numerous : but the quantity of it depends upon the quantity
of furface they contain. Heuce equal numbers of large and
fmall plates arranged in different batteries produce nearly the
fame effefts on the human body which is an imperfect con-
duftor, and which can admit of the pafiage only of a certain
quantity of eleftricity of a low intenfity in a given time ;
but the large plates are in a determinate ratio, much more
powerful in igniting the metals, and in affecling ptrteft con-
diidtors through which a large quantity of electricity, in
any llate of intenfity, eafily and inllantly pafles.

Many important philofophical difcoveries, which will be
fully defcribed in the article Gavanism, have been already
made, by meaus,of the galvanic apparatus, in different parts of
Europe; and a numberof eulightenedexperimenters have been
employed in invelligatingthe principles on which its operation
depends, . The theory of it is, however, as yet obfcure, aod
the perfeft developement of it will probably be connefled
with views more profound than any that have been as yet
obtained "of the- nature and agencies of eleftricity, and its
relations to chemical changes. See Phil. Tranf. for 1800
and 1801.. Nichoifon's Jcurual, vol.iv. and v., and vol. i.
new feries. Journ^ils of the Royal Inft. vol. i. Tilloch's
Phil. Mag. vol. x. xi. andxii. Annalen derphyfik. Jouraal •
de phyfique. Ar.nales de Chiiiie.

BATTEURS ct'ejliadt; Icouts or horfemen, fentout be- ■
fore, aad on the wings of an army, two or three mile.;, to

ir.akc

BAT

make difcovcrit? ; nf which they arc to give an account to
the goiieral. See Scou rs.

liATTEUX, Charles, in Biography, honorary canon
of tlie church at Rlicims, which whs his native city, became
profclTor of philofophy at tlie Royal College of Paris, and dif-
tingiiifliL-d himfclf by 'I'.is judgment, kaniing, and charaaer.
He was chofen a me'nsber of the Academy of Infcriptions in
1759, and of the French Academy in 1761. His death,
wliich happened al Paris in 17S0, is fiippofed to have been
accelerated by the cliai^rin ref'ilting from tiic want of luccels
of the elementary worits, which he drew up by order of go-
Ternaient, for the life of the military fchool. His chief publi-
cations, written m French, are the following : " A Trauda-
tion ufthe Works of Horace," 2 vol;. l2mo.; " The Morals
of Epiftetus, exti-afted from his own writings," iimo. 1758;
, " A Courfe of tlie Belles Lettres," 5 vols. 1 imo. 1760 ; to
wliich are annexed his treatifes, before publirtied ; " The
Fine Arts reduced to a ungle Principle," and " On Oratorical
Compofition ;" " Hillory of Primary Caufes," 8vo. 1769;
«' The four Poetics of Ariftollc, Horace, Vida, and Boileau,
with Traiiflations and Remarks," 2 vols. 8vo. 1771 ; " Ele-
ments of Literature, estraAed from the Courfe of Belies
I-eltres," 2 vols. izmo. ; " Elementary Courfe for the
Ufe of the Military School," 45 vols. i2mo. ; and " Tranf-
lations of Ocellus Lucanus, and Timxus Locrenfis." Nouv.
Dia. Hill.

BATTIE, William, in B'tography, bora in Devonfliire,
in 1704, received his education at Eton School, whence
he went in 1722, to King's College in Cambridge. On
the death of his father, his mother moved to Eton, and
afterwards to Cambridge, that llie might be near her fon,
ind affill in leficiiiiig his cxpences. The Craven Scholarfhip
oecoming vacant foon after his admiffion, the Doftor offered
himfelf as a candidate, and had the good fortune to be fuc-
cefsful. Of the importance this fmall rtipcnd, only 25I. per
annum, was to him, we may judge, from v;!iat he fays on
the fubjecl, in a letter to a friend. " I (liall now," he fays,
•* begin to live agreeably, and have, 1 hope, got through the
worlf part of my life." A recoUeftion of the utility of this
ftipend to him, it is probable, Bowyer fays, induced him, in
the latter part of his life, to found a fimilar fcholarlhip, at
the fame univerfity. Purfning his ftudies, in 1 72<), he was
made Bachelor, and in 1730, Mailer of Arts ; he was alio
now one of the Fellows of the College. In 1729 he pub-
liihed 3 fpecimen of an edition of Ilocrates, in one volume
8vo. He at firll propofed (ludying the law, and his finances
not being equal to the cxpcnce of taking chambers in one of
the inns of court, in London, he communicated his intention
to two wealthy coufins in the city, of the name of Coleman;
but as they declined alfilling him, he turned his mind to the
ftudy of medicine, and in 1737, he took the degree of Doc-
tor in that facultv. For a (hort lime he praftifcd medicine
at Cambridge. Removing thence, he went to rcfide at IJx-
bridge,'.vhere,acquiring the confidence of fome of the principal
families in the neighbourhood, he foon came into confider-
able pradicc. About the year 1739, he married the daugh-
ter of Barnham Good, one of the mafttrs of Eton, having
kept up an intimacy with the lady from the time of his
quitting the fchool. He was now alfo noticed by his rela-
tions, the Colcmans, who were fo much gratified by the
confequence to which they faw him rifing, that the furvivor
ef them left him 30,0001. Continuing a few years longer
at Uxbridge, he at length removed to London. In 1745,
we find him, Fellow of the College of Phyficians. The
fame year lie fpoke the Harveian Oration, which was pub-
hlhed the following year. About the fame time he was
elected Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1 749, he com-

B A T

pletcd his edition of Ifocrates, which was publiHied in two
volumes, Svo. Though this work was not well received by
the qrilics, it was always a great favourite with the Doftor.
The year follov/ing he experienced a fciious mortification.
For taking an adive part in a difpute between the College
cf Phyficians ani Dr. Schomberg, and being one of the
moil (treimous in oppofing his admifiion as a Fellow, he was
held up to ridicule in a fatyrical poem, under the name of
the Battiad, in which a ludicrous account is given of t.hc dif-
pute, as well as fome feveic iarcafms on his favourite work.
The Battiad is fuppoftd to have been the joint produftion
of Mofes Mendez, Paul Whitehead, and Dr. Schomberg.
It was publilhcd, at the time, in folio, and afterwards, in
1776, in a colieelion of hu.norous pieces, in 2 vols. 8vo.
Another edition of this colleftion, much enlarged, was
printed in 1792, in 4 vols. i2mo. There being at this time
but one public afylum in London, for the reception of infane
perfons, which had been long found infufiicient to contain
all the indigent objcCls labouring under this affiiaion, a
fubfcription was fet on foot by feme wealthy and benevolent
individuals, to erea another ediiice for the purpofe, on the
plan of Bethlehem Hofpital. Tlie fclieme was fo much ap-
proved, and fo largely patronized, that in 1751 the managers
of the fund were enabled to take, and fit up, a large build-
ing on the north fide of Moorfields for the purpofe, and as
Dr. Battie had been very aftive in promoting the fubfcrip-
tion, he was appointed phyfician to tlie inlUtution, which
was called St. Luke's Hofpital. It contained one hundred
and ten beds, eighty of which were appropriated to recent
cafes, fuch as were fuppofed capable of being relieved, or
cured by medical treatment, and thirty for old and incurable
cafes. By the good condua of the managers, and the cha-
raaer the charity thence acquired, the committee found
thcmfelvcs enabled, in 1781, to take a piece of ground, in
Old Street, and erea a large and magnilicent building for
the rece])tion of the patients, who were removed into it in
1786. The new building contains beds for 185 recent
and curable patients, and for 120 incurables. The prc-
fent phyfician, who was eleaed into the office, in 1 781,
is Dr. Samuel F. Simmons.

In 1757 Dr. Battie publifhed a treatife on Madnefs, 4to.
in whicii, having thrown out fome cenfurcs on the medical
pia6lice formerly ufed in Bethlehem Hofpital, Dr. John
Monro, whofe father was implicated in the cenfurcs, replied,
rebutting liis charges, and having hnmoroufly taken for the
motto to his remarks, " O major tandem parcas infane mi-
nori." The Dr. was afterwards called by the wits. Major
Battie. In 1762 he publifhed " Aphorifmi de cognofceiidis
et curandis morbis nonnnilis, ad principia animalia accomo-
data," taken principally from his Lumleian leaures. In
February 1763 he was examined before a committee of the
Houfe of Commons, on the (late of the private mad-houfcs
in the kingdom, which he fhewed them, from inftances that
had fallen under his notice, to be fo ill conduaed, as fome-
times to be ufed as prifons for perfons whofe relatives were
intereded in getting them out of the way. This gave rife
to a fcries of^ regulations, made by the legiflature, witli a
view of preventing the continuance of thofe praaiccs ; but
they were not completely fiipprtficd until the year 1774,
when the power of licenfing private madhoufes was veiled
in the college of phyficians.

As tlie Dnaor had for fevcral years confined his praaice
to maniacal cafes, he had now Icifure to indulge his inclina-
tion for building, to which he was much attached. Befuies
a large houfe, No. 88, Great Ruffel Street, Bloomfhury. for
his town lefidencc, he built an elegant villa at Tv\iekenham,
lately the refidence of the Coiiatefs Dowager Pawlet. He

alio

BAT

BAT

alfo creAcJ a more confiderable houfe on the banks ef the
Than^es, at Marlow, in Buckinghamfliire, where he pafTcd
much of his leifure time, in the latter part of his hfe. Thefe
houfes were built under the immediate infpeftion of the
Dotlor, and after his own defigns. He died of a paralytic
ftioke, at his houfe in Great Ruflel Street, the 13th of
June 1776, aged feventy-two years. Having no male iflue,
his great property, upwards of 9o,oool. was divided between
his three daughters, of whom the eldeil was manned to cap-
tain, afterwards admiral Sir George Young, who fold the
houfe at Marlow, called Court Garden, to Richard Daven-
port, Efq. an eminent furgeon of Eflex Street, in the Strand,
London ; the fecond, to Philip Raflileigh, Efq. a gentle-
man of Conuvali ; and the third, to the late Sir John Call,
baronet.

BATTIFOLIUM, or Battifollum, in /lutinuity, a
kind of tower or defence, frequently mentioned by Latin
hiftorians of the middle age. It feems to have been wood,
and to have been erefted on fudden and hafty occafions.

BATTLE, in Geography,^ fmall market town of England,
in a hundred of the fame name, in SufTex, is fituated 6 miles from
Haftings, and 56 fouth-eaft from London. It was originally
called Epiton ; but the decifive viftorj- at Haftings, gained
by William, duke of Normandy, over king Harold, induced
the former, when he was fixed on the throne, and founded
the abbey, to change the name of the town to that which
at prefent it retains. Battle confills of one principal ftreet,
indifferently built ; and the parifh church is a neat building,
the incumbent of which is ftikd dean of Battle. The in-
habitants fupport alfo a charity fchool for forty boys. The
gunpowder which is raanufatlurtd here is efteeraed the bell
in Europe, and hence called " Battle powder," though
the town cannot boaft of any other trade. The neigh-
bourhood, however is fo fertile, that an incredible number
of large cattle are conftantly lent up to the London
markets for fale, efpeoially what are denominated ttall-fcd
oxen, which produce the largefl beef in England. Henry I.
granted a market to be kept on every " Lord's tfr.y ;" but
Anthony, lord Montague, who, about i6co, buiit himfelf
a beautiful feat here, obtained an att of pr.,liament to change
the market day to Thurfday, as it now continues. Battle
is reckoned unhealthy on account of its 'o-.v dirty fituation.
Its greateft boaft is the magnificent abbey built by V/illiam
the Conqueror, on Heathfield, near the town, in 1067, to
compenfate in fome fmall degree for the effufion of blood the
year before ; the higheil allar of the fabrickftnnding on ;he
very fpot where the body of the brave but unfortunate Ha-
rold was found. This abbey was filled with Benediftine
monks from Normandy, and endowed with fuch extenfive
privileges, that if a conviit were paffing to execution, it was
in the abbot's power indantly to releafe him, fhould they
meet on the road. At the diffolution its revenues were va-
lued at 880 1. 14 s. yd. The ruins of the abbey are very
ftately ; and what remains undeftroyed, ferves as a houfe for
the family of Wcbiler, and for the purpofts of the town,
the gate-houfe being ufed as the hall in which arc held fef-
fions and other meetings for this peculiar jurifdiction. From
Standard and Tillman hills are vei-y extenfive profpefts. A
faft related of abbot Hamo, in 1381, is worth recording ; a
body of Frenchmen landing and attacking Rye and Winchel-
fea, Hamo raifed whatever force he could colleft, repaired
to Winchelfea, and having fortified it as well as he was able,
checked the progrcfs of the enemy, till the force of the
country was fufficienlly powerful effedlually to repel them.
Battle has three fairs, and two hundred and ninety-four
houfes, inhabited by 2040 perfons.

ISattle IJIand. See Bav of St. Louis.

Battle, a river in New South Wales, which runs N. E.
into Salkahawen river, S. E. from Manchefter houfe.

Battle, or Battel, Wager of, in Law, a fpecies of trial
of great antiquity, which had its origin in the mihtary fpirit
of our anceftors, blended with fuperflition, and which con»
fiftsd in a kind of appeal to Providence, under an apprchen-
fion and hope, however prefumptucus and unwarrantable, that
heaven would give the victory to him who had the right.
Concerning the early hiftory and general prevalence of this
mode of trial, fee Combat. This trial, which had been the
immemorial practice of all the northern nations, and which
had been firft reduced to regular and ftatcd form among the
Burgundi, about tKe clofe of the fifth centuq-, and paffed
from them to the Franks and Normans, was introduced
into England, among other Norman cuftoms, by WilUam the
Conqueror ; but it was only ufed in three cafes, one military,
one criminal, and the third civil : the firft in the court
martial, or court of chivalry and honour ; the fecond in ap-
peals of felony ; and the third upon ifiue jiined in a writ of
right. In thefe writs of right, the "jus proprietatis" could
not often be afcertained without difficulty ; and this mode of
determining it was allowed for the fake of fuch claijnants as
might have the true right, but yet by the death of witnefles,
or other defefl of evidence, be unable to prove it to a jury.
Although the writ of right itfelf, and of courfe this mode of
trial, be^at prefent much difuf-rd, yet it is ftilllaw and in force,
if the parties chuf; to abide by it.

The lad trial by battel tiiat was waged in the court of
common pleas at Weftminflcr, though one afterwards occurs
in the court of chivalry in 1 631, and another in the county
palatine of Durham in 163'^, was in the 13th year of queen
Elizabeth, A. D. 1571 ; and was held m Tothill fields
Wefiminfter, " non fine magna juris confultorum perturba-
tione," fays fir Henry Spelman, who was himfelf a witnefs
of the ceremony. The form of it, defcribed by judge
Blackftone, is as follows.

When the tenant in a writ of right pleads the general
iffue, viz. that he hath more right to hold, than the demand-
ant hath to recover; and offers to prove it by the body of his
champion, which tender is accepted by the demandant ; the
tenant in the firft place muft produce his champion, who, by
throwing down his glove as a gage or pledge, thus wages or
ftipulates battel with the champion of the demandant ; who,
by taking up the gage or glove, ftipulates on his part to ac-
cept the challenge. The reafon why it is waged by cham-
pions, and not by the parties themfelves, in civil aAions, is
becaufe, if any party to the fuit dies, the fuit muft abate and
be at an end for the prefent ; and therefore no judgment could
be given for the lands in queftion, if either of the parties
were flain in battel :' and alfo that no perfon might claim an
excmprion from this trial, as was allowed in criminal cafes,
where the battel was waged in perfon.

A piece of ground is then in due time fet out, of fixty feet
fquare, enclofed with lifts, ^and on one fide a court ereAed
for the judges of the court of common pleas, who attend
there in their fcarlet robes ; and alfo a bar is prepared for the
learned ferjeants at law. When the court fits, which ought
to be by fun-rifing, proclamation is made for the parlies, and
their champions ; who are introduced by two knights, and
'are drtifed in a coat of armour, with red fandals, barelegged
from the knee downwards, bareheaded, and with bare arms to
the elbows. The weapons allowed them are only batons, or
ftaves, of an ell long, and a four-cornered leather target ; fo
that death very feldom enfued this civil combat. In the court
military- indeed they fought with fword and lance, according
to Spelman and Ruftiwcrth ; as likewife in France only vil-
leins fought with the buckler and baton, gentlemen armed at

all ,

BAT

all points. And upon tliis and other circiimftances, the pre-
fidcnt Montclqiiieii liath, witli great ingeiuiity, not only de-
Juccd the impious cullom of private diitls upon imaginary
points of honour, but hath alfo traced the heroic madnefs of
knight-errantry, from the fame original of judicial combats.
But to proceed.

When the champions, thus armed with batons, arrive
within the lifts, or place of combat, the champion of ihc te-
nant then takes his advcrfary by the hand, and makes oath
that the lencmcnti in difpiite are not the right of the de-
mandant ; and the champion of the demandant, then taking
the other by the hand, fwears in the fame manner that they
are ; fo that each champion is, or ought to be, thoroughly
pcrfuaded of the truth of the caufe lie fights for. Next an
oath againll forcery and enchantment is to be taken by both
the champions, in this or a finiilar form ; " liear this, ye
julliccs, that I have this day neither eat, drank, nor have
upon me, neither bone, (lone, ne grafs ; nor any inchant-
mcnt, forcery, or witchcraft, whereby the law of God may
be abafed, or the law of the devil e.-ialted. So help me God
and his faints."

The battel is thus begun, and the combatants are bound
to fight till tl'.e ftars appear in the evening : and, if the
champion of the tenant can defend himfelf till the ftars ap-
pear, the tenant (liall prevail in his caufe ; for it is fufficient
for him to maintain liis ground, and make it a drawn battel,
he being already in poffeHioii ; but, if vidtoiy declares itltlf
for either party, for him ia jud^jmcnt finally given. This vic-
tory may arife, from the dcatli of titlier of the champions :
which indeed hath rarely happened ; the whole ceremony, to
fay the truth, bearing a near rtfemblance to certain rural
athletic divei^fions, which are probablv derived from this ori-
ginrd. Or viftory is obtained, if either champion proves
rccrtani, that is,yiilds, and pronounces the horrible word of
fiavcn ; a word of difgrace and obloquy, rather than of any
determinate meaning. But a honlble word it indeed is to
the vanquifhed champion : fince as a punifhment to him for
forfeiting the land of his principal, by pronouncing that
fliameful word, he is condemned, as a recreant, " amittere
libcram legem," that is, to become infamous, and not be
accounted " liber et Icgalis homo ;" being fuppoied by
the event to be proved forfworn, and therefore never to
be put upon a jury, or admitted as a witnefs in any caufe.

This ic the form of a trial by battel ; a trial which the
tenant, or defendant, in a writ of right, has it in his eledlion at
this day to demand ; and which was the cnly decifion of fuch
writ of right after tbe conquell, till Henry II. by eonfent of
parliament, introduced the grand a/p/r, a peculiar fpecies of
trial by jury, in concurrence therevrith ; giving the tenant
his choice of either the one or the other. Which example,
of difcountcnancing thcfe judicial combats, was imitated
about a centur\' afterwards in France, by an edi£l of Louis
the Pious, A. D. 1260, and foon after by the reft of
Europe. The eftablifhment of this alternative, Glanvil,
chief juftice to Henry II., and probably his advifer here-
in, conlidcrs as a moil noble improvement, as in fadl it was,
of the law.

Tiie trial by battel may alfo be demanded at the eleflion
of tlie appellee, in either an appeal or an approvement ; and it
is carried on with equal fokninity as that on a writ of riglit ;
with this difference, that there each party might hire a cham-
pion, but here they mull fight in their proper perfons. And
therefore if the appellant or approver be a woman, a prieft, an
infant, or of the age of fixty, or lame, or blind, he or (lie may
counterplead and refufe the wager of battel ; and compel the
appellee to p'lt himfelf upon the country. Alfo peers of the
rtalm, bringing an appeal, flwll not be challenged to wage

BAT

battel, on acconnt of the dignity of their perfons ; nor the
citizens of London, by fpecial charter, becaufe fighting
feems foreign to their education and employment. So like-
wife if the crime be notorious ; as if the thief be taken with
the " mainour," or the murderer in the room with a bloody
knife, the appellant may nfufe the tender of battel from
the appellee ; for it is unreafonable that an innocent man
fliould ila.ke his life againft one who is already half-con-
vifted.

The form and manner of waging battel upon appeals are
much the fame as upon a writ of right : only the oaths of
the two combatants are vaftly more Ihiking and folemn.
The appellee, when appealed of felony, pleads 1:01 gul/ff,
and throws down his glove, and declares he will defend the
lame by his body : the appellant takes up the glove, and re-
plies that he is ready to make good the appeal, body for
body. And thereupon the appellee, taking the book in his
right hand, and in his left the right hand of his antagonift,
fwears to this effecl. " Hoc audi, homo, quem per manum
terieo, &c." " H'-ar this, O man, whom I hold by the
hand, who calk ft thyfclf John, by the name of baptifm, that
I, who call myfelf Thomai", by the name of baptifm, did not
fclonioufly murder thy father, WiUiam by name, nor am any
way guilty of the faid felony. So help me God, and the
faults ; and this I will defend againft thee by my body, as
this court ftiall award." To which the appellant replies,
holding the bible and his antagonill's hand, in the fame man-
ner as the ctlier : " Hear this, O man, whom I hold by the
hand, who callcft thyfclf Thomas, by the name of baptifm,
that thou art perjured ; and therefore perjured, becaufe that
thou fclonioufly diuft murder my father, William by name.
So help me God and the faints ; and this I will prove
againft thee by my body, as this court fliall award." The
battel is then to be fought with the fame weapons, viz.
batons, the fame folemnity, and the fame oath againft amu-
lets and forcery, that are ufed in the civil combat : and if the
appellee be fo far vanquiftied, that he cannot or will not fight
any longer, he fliall be adjudged to be hanged immediately ;
and then, as well as if he be killed in battel, providence is
deemed to have determined in favour of the truth, and his
blood fliall be attainted. But if he kills the appellant, or
can maintain the fight from fun-rifing till the ftars appear in
the evening, he fliall he acquitted. So alfo if the appellant
becomes recreant, and pronounces the horrible word of crnv^n,
he ftiall lofe his " liberam legem," and become infamous ;
and the appellee fliall recover his damages, and alfo be for
ever quit, not only of the appeal, but of all indidments like-
wife for the fame off'enee. Blackft. Com. vol. iii. p. 337,
&c. vol.iv. p. 346, &c.

Battle, in the MU'ilary Jlit, fignifies an engagement
between two hoftile armies, drawn up in regular order, in a
country fufftcicntly open for them to encounter in front at
the fame time ; or fliould fome obftacle occur to hinder the
readily entering into aflion of the whole line, for the greater
part of an army to begin the attack upon the troops oppofcd
to them, the reft remaining in fight, ready to aft as occafion
ciay require their afliftance or co-operation.

Other conflifts, when only certain points of the armies are
engaged, though geneially of much longer duration, and
often attended with fuperior flauglitcr, are oidy termed fights,
or, a? they are called by the Yvcnch, combals. (Fcuqniere's
Memoires, chap. 80.) Under this denomination rank there-
fore, though as obllinatc as moft others on record, the en-
gagements of Senefi'e, of Steinkerke, of Oudenarde, and of
fatter days, thofe of Zorndorft' and Hoclikirchen, equally
celebrated on account of the carnage which attended them,
and the importance of their confequcnces.

The

BAT

BAT

The lofs of a battle involves almoft always tliat of the
artillery of the vanquilhed, and frequently of the baggage.
As all thefe loffes mull be repaired before the beaten army
can again look their conquerors i.i the face, the enemy con-
fequently remains for a length of time mailer of the country,
and at liberty to can-y all his projefts into execution.
Thefe inconveniences are rarely fo feverely felt in cafe of ill
fucccfs in a partial combat, however defperate. Greater
part of the artillei^ is generally prcferved, and the baggage
almoll entire, for theoppofite ar.mies not clofing in front, the
divifions which have been engaged alone become the i of-
ferers.

But in a fet or pitched battle, the prefent objeiEl of atten-
tion, where both parties have time and room fufTicient to
arrange and extend themfeives in regular order, the cafe is
widely different. The leail unforeften advantage afforded
to an enemy, or the moil trivial circumflance unattended to,
may baffle the efi'orts of the mod experienced general, may
fnatch the palm of viclory from the hands of numbers and
valour, convert a fuccefsfnl pnrfuit to a diforderly flight, and
lead to the irretrievable ruin of an army, poffibly even of a
ftate.

The ancieuts never jeincd battle without a great deal of
preparation and religious ceremony ; as anakhig auguries,
offenng up facrifices, haranguing to excite the courage of
the foldiers, giving the word, or a teflci-a, &c. The fignals
of battle were, among the Romans, founding the clafficum,
or general charge, {biking upon their Ihields with their jave-
lins, and difplaying from the pnrtorium a peculiar flag,
oiled by Plutarch (in Fab. Max. and in Pomp.) a red
mantle. Csefar alfo mentions this flag in his B. Gallico,
1. ii. c. 20. In the moment of onfet, a fliout was raifed
by the v.holc army, for the double purpofe of encouraging
tiieir fellows, and linking terror into the enemy. Similar
to this was the cullom which prevailed among the Greeks,
of linging the pasan, or hymn of combat, as they moved for-
ward to the charge.

The rigid fupcrllition of the Jews at lirft prevented them from
fighting, or even from defending themfeives, on the fabbsth-
day ; but fatal experience of the inconvenience of the latter
precept, induced them, in their wars with the princes of the
^iyro-Macedonian dynafly, to difpenfe with its obfervance.
It was, however, in confequence of the averfion they Hill re-
tained to a violation of that holy day, that Pompey became
mailer of Jerufalem by affault, without any effeAual refift-
ance. Dion. Caff. lib. xxxvii.

The Romans did not carry their regard for religion fo far.
They had indeed their peculiar days, called " prxliarts
dies," wherein alone it was /^'it^'"'"/ to join battle ; and others
whereon it was unfit, called " dies atri :" but lefs fcrupulous
than the Hebrews, thefe latter were only obferved in refpeft
of attacking. No day was too facred for them to defend
themfeives in. (Maerob. Saturn, lib. i. c. 6.) We obferie
frequent inftances of their engaging by night. It was by
night that Scipio dellroyed near Utica the armies of Af-
drubal and Syphax (Liv. xxx. c. 5.) ; and the deciiive
battle between Pompey and Mithridates (Plut. in Pomp.)
was fought by moonlight.

The Athenians were prohibited, by the arcient laws of
their country, from drav. ing out their forces for battle till
after the 7th day of the month ; and Lucian, fpeaking of
the Lacedxmonians, relates, that by the ilatutes of Lycur-
gxis, they were not to fight before the full moon. A fimilar
cuflom prevailed among the ancient Germans, who reputed
it an impiety to engage in the wane of the moon ; and Ca;-
far intimates that his vidlory over Arioviilus was owing to
that prince's having, contrary to the religious notices of huj
Vol. IV.

countrymen, fought during the decreafe of the m.oon. The
barbarians were intimidated with the apprehenCon, . and
afforded Ctefar an eafy conquell. To ufc his own words :
" Acie ccmmifla impeditos religione hofte vicit." Csef.
dc Bel. Gal. lib. i.

An idea of the manner in which warlike operations were
carried on, and battles fought, among nations in their primi-
tive barbarous (late, has been given under the article
Att.\ck. We fliall not here repeat v/hat has been already
faid on that fubjcft.

Authors are fond of quoting the battle of Thymbra, be-
tween Crocfus and Cyrus (Xeiioph. Cyrop. lib. vi, vii.), as
the firll general engagement ever fought. But as it is oply
related in the Cyropasdia, a work whofc hiftorical veracity
has been feverely called in queftion, and as its recital is at-
tended with clrcumfl;ances of the moll romantic caft, we ftall
content ourfclvcs with barely mentioning it, and pafs on to
inftances better authenticated, and lefs embelliflied by the
marvellous.

At the battle of Merathon (Herod. Erat. feft. 107.
117.) the Greeks, conducted by Miltiadts the Athenian,
denionftrated the poflibility of compenfating by difcipline,
valour, and military fliill, for any inferiority in numbers. A
manccuvre not without its faults, but novel in the art of war
as then imderftood, obtained for them a viclorj' as fplendid as
extraordinary ; and which we may rank as tlie earlieft in
profane hiilory, of which any particular account has been
traiifmitted to us.

Tlie battle of Flafsa, from the numerous forces engaged on
cither fide, bell defenes the denomination of a pitched battle.
(Herod. Calliope, fe6l. 6 1 — 74.) It was fought upon the true
ancient model. Hurry and confufion reigned predominant.
Greeks and Perfians engaged in two feveral places, without
any attempt at co-operation, or the fmalieft exertion of mili-
tary genius on the part of their commanders. In the true lan-
guage of Homer, here " man was oppofed to man, and
ihield met Ihield ;" and the Greeks feem to have fairly
atchieved this aftonifhing conqneil by excelling their adver-
fanes in the vulgar qualities of bodily ftrength and brutal
courage.

After toiling through the heavy and fanguinary period of
the PeloponneCan war, where, though convinced at every
page of the rapid improvement of the Greeks in tadtics, wc
do not meet with any of thofe general or important contefts,
the fubjecl of the prefent article ; and after taking a curfory
examination of the malTacre of Cynaxa ; we at length arrive
at the battle of Lendra. (Plut. in Pelop. Xenophon.
Hellen. lib. vi. Diod. Sic. hb. xv.) This brilliant engage-
ment, between numbers comparatively trifling, deferves from
a fcientific reader more attention than that of Platsea, as it is
indifputably the firft occafion on which viftor)- was obtained
merely in confequence of an able difpofition. The famous
column of Epaminondas, which obhged 24,000 Lacedx-
monians, the bravefl; troops in Greece, to yield the honor of
the field to 6,oco Thebans, has been repeatedly cited with
admiration by the moll learned authors, and imitated by the
lirft military genhifes, on various occafions.

The battle of ManUnxa, the next inftance worthy of par-
ticular obfer^-ation, was won by the fame general (Xenoph.
Hellen. lib. vii.) on the very fame principle. The Lacedas-
monians, though conduced by their king Agafilaus, one of
the ableft leaders of his age, fuffercd themfeives to be again
deftroyed, by the precife difpofition which had already proved
fo fatal to them at Leuftra. The Spartan glory, by the lofs^of
this battle, futlained a blow it never afterwards recovered.
Epaminondas, whofe genius had made the braveft foldiers in
all Greece Auiok before weaker nerves, meaner fpirits, and
C isierior

li A T

infirur numhers. expired on the fieUI lie liad immortalized
no Ids by liis ptilonal exploits, than his able arrangements
hJorc the adioii. Henceforth pitched battles are more
frequently dilliugniflicd by maftcrly llrokes of general-

The formidable phalanx, then a late invention, lo lefs than
his own military talents, ficiired to Thilip of Maccdon his
triiiirph at Cbironia. (Diod. Sic. lib. xvi.

tm porta nt

ft

chi86.) The three great battle-: of Alexander again
Darius were gained but with little diffieiilty, owing to the
fiiperior taaics of the Greeks. Tliofc of lITus and Arbtla
in particular (Arrian. Alex.iii. (<.&. 15. Qiiin. Curt. lib. iv.)
were only (laughter. When we read that in the latter, with
tlie lols of only 1200 of his own men, the Macedonian de-
flroyed, according to the lead exaggerated accounts, 40,000
of the Ptrfians (Anianfays 300,000), it is pvttty plain that
the refilbnce was but nominal, and that the conquerors
had little more trouble than to do execution on their ene-

Taies. , , . ,

The Grecian hiftoiy, fubftquent to Alexander, is repkte
vith inftanccs of pitched battles ; but of which little or no
particular account has been left us. We are for the moll part
in the dark " itli viipeCt lo the order obferved in drawing up
the rival armies, and tlie manauvrts which accelerated or re-
tarded a vidory. The abrupt termination of the hiftoiy of
Diodorus Sieulus, deprives us of any details refpecling the
battle of Ipfus, except the brief and unfatisfaftory account
of Plutarch (inDem.). The number of the (lain alone leaves
us fometimes a little room to judge of the importance or the
obftinacy of a conflitt.

Polvbius, however, has left us (lib. ii.) a full and iiiterefting
account of the decilive engagement at SeUafia, which, for
a time, completely fubjctled the Grecian ftates to the power
of Maceuon. Here again the phalanx determined the for-
tune of the day, and dcmonftrated the fuptiiority of its clofe
and impenetrable order, over the more loole and (liallow bat-
talions of their antagonifts.

Among the Romans we (hall find ftill further occafion to
remark the rapid improvement of ancient tactics. Guided
by Polybius and I.ivy, we pciufe with peculiar intereft the
account of battles fought for the maftery of the world, per-
petually differing in fituation, in Uiccefs, and in confequences.
That of Tunis in particular, between Regulus and Xan-
thippus, calls ftrongly upon the attention. W^e are not
dazzled by a long lill of numerous forces and barbarous
auxiliaries, fatigued by a repetition of defultory attacks and
repulfes, or bewildered amidll a fciiesof complex manoeuvres.
Two armies nearly equal in numbers, of fmall ftrength,
but fupereminent valour, headed by renowned generals, en-
counter on a fpot of ground eafily fiirvcyed by the eye of
imagination. We remark their feveral dlfpofitions. The
fimple narrative of the hiftorian points out cleaily and fatis-
faftorily tlie faults or advantages of thofe difpolitions, the
miftaken raflineis of the Roman, and the confummate gene-
ralftiip of Xanthippus ; and before we enter upon the vicifTi-
tudes of the aftion, we are fully convinced tliat the errors
committed by Regulus muft ultimately lead to his total de-
feat. Polyb. hb. i.

The march of Hannibal, into Italy furni(hes us with
feveral inilances of pitched battles, various in their nature,
important in their confequences, and intercfting in defciip-
tion. Far from being fatigued with fol'owing the brave
Carthaginian through a continual fccne of (laughter, we con-
Cder and admire his condutt, feel for his difficulties, -.agcrly
accompany him in the field of carnage, and take a lively in-
tereft in his proceedings. The three famous engagements of
tb: Titlla (Polybk lib. iii. Liv, lib. xxi. fed. 53 — 56.); of

BAT

the like Thrafymenui (Polyb. ib. Liv, lib. xxii. feiJt. 4—
7.); and of Cfln/i.f (Polyb. ib. I.iv. xxii. fed. 44 — 52.);
rifing in importance one above the other, chiefly arrell our
attention. We find that previous to every one of thele, the
arrangements made by Hannibal were fuch as almoft to en-
fure fuccefs. A feries of artful movements were conilantly
employed to draw the Romans into the fnares prepared for
them ; and their commanders, dellitute of the genius it was
neccfTary to oppofc to fo formidable an enemy, ruilicd, as it
were, blindfold upon their ruin ; though pon'cfled in each of
the contcfts we have juft named of every advantage of num-
bers, refources, and, we may even add, of valour. The talents
of a fingle man reduced thofe advantages to nothing. Their
numbers were converted into an hir.dr.'.nce to tl-.emfelvcs,
their refources were intercepted or rendered ufelefs, and
tlielr valour, degenerating into defpair, precipitated them
madly upon certain deftrudion.

No adion was ever more obftinately fought, or as a
pitched battle deferves more confideiation, than that of
Zi:ma (Liv. lib. xxx. fed. 32 — 35. Polyb. Fragm. lib. xv.),
where the fortune of a Scipio finally triumphed over the
Carthaginian republic. Without more tiian barely naming
it here, we refer the reader for a more particular account
of that celebrated affair, to the article Zama.

From this time, Roman difcipline and valour reigned,
triumphant in every llruggle with foreign nations. The
armies of Antiochus, Perleus, and Mithridates, were de-
ftroyed, forthemoft part, with fcarcely an eflort ; and tlie
battles they ventured in defence of their dominions are only
miferable iuilances of the inferiority of mere courage, fup-
ported by tenfold numbers, to the cool and fteady bravery
of veteran foldiers, dirtded and managed by the talents of
an experienced general.

But however cheaply the legions of Flaminius, of L. Sci-
pio, of P. iEmilius, and of Lucullus, had eaine'd their lau-
rels, a harder talk was impofed on thofe who, under Cornelius
Sylla, and Julius Cxfar, turned their arms againft their own
countrvmen. They had to engage with troops equally cou-
rageous, expert, and ilridly dileiplined; with men who, under
Maiius and t'lc great Pompcy.had exteiminated the hordes of
the favage Cimbri, and had fubjugated the eallern v.orld ; in a
word, with Romans. Three pitched battles, thofe of Phar-
Jalia, Thapfus, and Munda, fignalized this bloody period, and
gave ample fcope for the exertion of the utmoll talents of the
matchlefs Caefar. Yet in the laft of thefe engagements,
that confummate general coiifclTed, that he contended not
for vidory, but for his life ; a fatisfadoi^ evidence of the
defperation with which it was fought. Plut. in Csef.

The two battles of Philippi are equally famous. Few
have been more decifive in the event, or more dillinguifhed
for the uncommon perfeverance and obllinacy with which
they were contelled.

In the age of Tacitus, we find the military fcience of the
Romans brought to perfedion. Similar to the train of
artillery which modern generals carry into the field, the army
of Vitellius at Cirmona planted its balillx to play upon
the enemy, and with Ihoweis of immenfe iloncs, Uvcpt them
away by whole ranks. (Tacit. Hill. lib. iii. fed. 23.) This
battle, and the fubfcquenl ftorming of the advcrfe camp by
ihe legions of Vefpafian, give us a perfed infight into the
mode of warfare as then pradifcd. Tacit, ibid. fed. 21

-33-

in the lower ages of the empire we meet with very few in-
ftanccs of conflids, remarkable either for their long duration
or for any celebrated manoeuvres put in execution by rival
generals. Nations relapfcd faft, even in this deftrudive fci-
ence, into their original barbarifm. Armies were no longer

compoTed

BAT

B A T

eompofcd of troops regularly trained and inured to fervice,
but of cowardly and undifciplined plunderers, to whom vic-
tory or defeat was alike the fignal for difbanding, on whofe
esertions therefore but fmall dependence could be placed,
and from whofe fucceffes httle or no benefit could be derived.
Numbers foon became, as formerly, the criterion of advan-
tage. War teemed with fanguiaarj- combats, productive of
trifling confequences. Courage fupplied the place of gene-
ralftip ; fuiy and carnage, of difcipline.

Never did a feries of pitched battles follow each other in
more rapid fuccefllon, than during the period fiibfequent
to the tiift irruption of the Arabs into the more civilized
provinces of Alia. Thefe enthufiallic followers of their
prophet, ifTuing from a peniniV.la of contemptible extent
•when compared to the empires they fo madly attacked, dared
to match their own puny forces againft the united efforts of
the Roman and Perfian monarchies. As we accompany
them in their progrefs, the moil incredible victories crowd
upon and harafs our refleclions. It is true, that among
thefe engagements, fo general, fo bloody, and fo decilive,
we do not find the flightell trace of difcipline or generaKhip.
A religious furj-, altogether irrefiftible, compenfated with
the Arabs the want of both thefe requifites. Aiznadin,
Kadefia, and Yermouk, are lalling monuments of Modem
glory ; but they do not convey the leaft information to the
military reader, or recompenfe in intercfl the attention he
may bellow in perufing them.

Alike barr:n, dr)-, and uninterefting are the details of
moll of thofe battles fought between the time of Charle-
magne and the beginning of the fevcnteenth century. Whe-
ther we perufe the murderous annals of the Crufades, where
all Europe and Afia feem mingled in reciprocal carnage ;
or the bloodlefs combats of the Italians in the days of Ma-
chiavel, when, after fighting a whole day, armies have fe-

?arated without the lofs of a man on either fide (Machiav.
lift. Flor. hb. vii. ) ; we are alike difgufted with the want
ef circumllances to excite our attention.

CrefFy, Poicliers, and Agincourt are names venerated
with reafon by every Englilhman ; but fetting afide any
confideration of the fplendid carnage which attended them,
and examining them in a military point of view, how little
{hall we find to extol, how much to cenfure. In all the
three cafes, the Engllfh armies were brought into the moft
imminent danger by the boyifh imprudence of their leaders,
who m.arched them, as it were bhndfold, into the heart of
an enemy's country, without taking the fmalleft pains, either
to fecure the necefTary fupplies of proviGons, or to enfure
a retreat. Not to be behind hand in imprudence, the
French generals, although certain of ftarving their antago-
nifts into a furrender merely by an inconfiderable delay, had
three times fucceffively the infanity to march up and attack
the Enghfh ftrongly and advantageoufly ported, and on
ground too where not a fourth of their own numbers was
capable of afting. Untaught by experience, they loll the
three great battles by exactly the fame fault ; and in all
three (the contefted tradition of the artillery ufed at Creffy -
alone excepted), we find no reafon to commend the military
fcience of our anceilors. Indeed, at Poitlicrs, the Black
prince polLfiTed fagacity fufficient to line the hedges on both
■fides of a narrow way with archers, for the purpofe of an-
Tioying.the French gens d'armes as they advanced through
it to the attack : a flratagem not half fo commendable as
that of Nevil earl of Sahlbury at the petty ikirmilh cf
Eloreheath in the reign of Henry VI. (Hohnlhed) ; an af-
fair as much furpaffing Poicliers in a taclical confideration,
as inferior in the bloody Hft of the killed, and ilic confe-
sjucnces that enfued upon it.

In proportion as we approach nearer to modem timer, we
view the mihtary fcience making falter Urides towards im-
provement. The invention of gunpowder efFctlLd by deo-rceu
an important change in the whole art of war. The armfand
order of the battalions underwent a total alteration. The
cavaln-, formerly the main dependence of an army, info-
much tliat no perfon of family v/ould ferve in any other ca-
pacity than as a horfeman, became a mere appendage to the
infantry, who, fince the invention of fire-arms, have gene-
rally decided the event of battles. The mufquet and bayo-
net are now fubflituted for the pike and fword ; and armies,
like fortified places, mull be approached in form, and bat-
tered down by artillery, while the moft complete defeat is
rarely attended with worfe confequences than the lofs of
the furroundiiig territory.

About the year 1630, the entrance of Guftavuc Adol-
phus and his Swedes into the German empire, and the great
events which fignahzed the war of thirty years, render mi-
litary hiftory more interefting. The celebrated battles
of Leip%ick and Lutzen, where the firft modern ufe was
made of the column, now the chief inftrument of the gain
of victories, are remarkable epochs. On thofe days the hard-
earned laurels of Tilly and of AValftein faded in a moment
before the comprehenfive genius of Guftavus, who by his
fliilful difpofitions bought, though with his life, the title of
the firft general of his age. A fuccefiion of heroes, Wei-
mar, Bannier, Torftenfon, and Wrangcl, adopted and im-
proved upon his maxims. Conde and Turenne profited anew
by tlie example ; and a fucccffioa of vi£lories obtained under
their aufpices, rendered the aims of Louis XIV. during 50
years inrincible.

On entering upon the hiftory of the war of i6go, we are
furpriztd at the rapid improvements in that part of the mi-
litar)- art, the fubjeft of the prefent article. The engage-
ment ot Sldniiri prefcnts a remarkable inftance of the
recovery of an affair judged enrirely dcfperate. The battle
of I.twJin ftiews us an army entrenched behind a number
of fortified \-illages, driven from all its defences, and carried
as it were by ftorm. The bayonet, ufed firft by Catinat at
the action of Marfaglia, added a new and terrible weapon
of offence to the infantry-, and by degrees entirely fuperfeded
the ufe of the pike. The reader will now obferve armie?
more numerous and more regularly fubfifted than formerly,
plans of attack and defence more ingenious ard connected,
artillery more formidable and better ferved, ar.d a degree of
method in military operations not before praftifed.

In the war of fucceffion, or that which took its rife from
the feparate claims of the houfes of Bourbon and Aullria to
the SpannTi monarchy, the three great battles oi'Hochftcdt,
of Ramillics, and of Turin, immortalized by the abilities
and fplendid victories of Eugene ar.d Marlborough, claim
particular attention. To enlarge upon each under the pre-
fent article, would trefpafs too much on the boundaries af-
fi^^ned to us; we therefore refer the fcicntific reader to the
heads Hochstedt, S:c. where he will find a fuccincl
account of thofe engagements, illuftrated by the criti-
cal remarks of an excelleut military judge, M. de Fcu-
quieres.

Of all the battles fought by Charles XII. in his nine ycEri*
war w ith the Ruffian empire about the fame period, that of
Pultowa alone i? remark;'.ble in a taclical point of view.
Narva, Duna, Ciiffow, &c. fumiih but fplendid and tranfitory
inftanccs of fuccefsful raPnnefs in a military madman. The
battle, or rather five battles, of Lefno on tlie Soffa, fought
by ge:icral Lewciihaupt againll the whole forces 01 the
C/.ar, are intcrcfting in fo far as ti'.ey difplay the aftoniftiiug
itfources of Swcdilb valour.

C 2 From

BAT

Prom a tranquillity of fifty years, hardly interrupted by
ibe (hort contcft for the fucceflion of Poland, Europe was
arouzed by the war of 1740. With wonder we bctiold a
nation, hardly befoie reckoned in the number of her powers,
a nation of foldiers, ftart into energy ; and, headed by a
monarch who to the moll confumniHle generalfliip joined
the quahlications rarely found ii\ military men, of love tor
the fciences, aud genius for their improvement, perform the
mod allonifliing and romantic exploits. It would be fiipcr-
fluous to follow the Pniffian hero through his career of
ridory and glorious dillrefs, or to enumerate the various
means and manoeuvres by which he triumphed at Friedberg,
at Prague, at LilTi, at Zorndorff, and at Torgaw, over the
firmneis and difciplinc of Aullrian forces, tlie talents of a
Daun, and the cnterprize of a Laudohn. Nor have we room
to enter into details of his defeats at KoUn, Hochkirchcii,
and Cunncrsdorff ; defeats which only throw additional luf-
tre on his tranfcendent abilities.

It feemcd impoffible for human genius to furpafs the
bounds prefcribed by the immortal Frederic to modern tac-
tics. His hand had modelled armies into mere machines,
liable to be diretted with promptitude at the pleafurc of
the mover. The fylK-ms pradifed in the PrufTian and
Aullrian fchools, feemed to defy alteration or improvement ;
and the art of drawing up armies i:i order of battle particu-
larly was reduced to certain rules, adapted to all iituations,
and which cnfnrcd every prefumptivc means of fucccfs.

A revolution, the effefts of which have been fcvcrely ftlt
in the mod remote corners of the globe ; a revolution, which
has fliaken the religious and political opinions of the molt
powerful nations, anived to overturn monarchies, to change
the face of Europe, and to convert it into one vaft
theatre of war. The military art did not efcape the ge-
neral influence. When the armies of Pniffia and Auftria,
numerous, valiant, and bred up in the fchools of Frederic
■and Laudohn, poured their united forces upon the French
republic, oppofed only by raw levies, undifciplined, halt
armed, and conduced by genera!;, many of whom knew
nothing of fervice by experience ; what refourccs could we
fuppofe a nation to polfefs, capable of counterbalancing
fuch dil'advantages. But with amazement we view the difci-
plined invaders, at the end of the full campaign, driven
back with (hame and defeat. We view the beft. otHcers in
Europe in a difgraceful retreat before mere novices in the
art of war. We view enthullafm fupply the place of com-
manders, of numbers, and of difcipline.

One general battle had fubjugated Belgium to the dif-
pofal of France, when the treachery of a general not only
occafioned the lofs of that countr)-, but endangered the
frontier of the republic itfelf, then covered ordy by a difor-
ganizcd army. Ncverthekfs, during a long and bloody
campaign, the forces of almoll the whole of Europe united
ftrove in vain to break through the full line of the boider-
ing fortreiFcs. The fcene wasfoon totally changed. The col-
leAcd energy of a nation, overbearing all oppofition, re-
pelled the attack ; retaliated iuvafion ; and by feven of the
moll brilliant campaigns recorded in hiftory, atchieved fuch
important, rapid, and extcnfive conquclls as almoll exceed
credibility.

We mud not place to the fole account of enthufiafm
thefe wonderful fuccelTes. Enthufiafm alone, though bnckcd
by dill greater numbers, mud ultimately have proved infuf-
ficicnt, when oppofed to difciplined troops and ftcilful gene-
rals. The art of war gradiially afliimed a new face. To the
maxims of the German fchool, others fucceeded dill more
prompt, more enei-getic, and peculiarly adapted to the na-
tion wliicli carried them into execution. To die excellence

BAT ,

of their artillery, their fl<ill in the art of managing the bay-
onet, and the incredible rapidity with which they have
executed the different modes of cliarging in column, as well
as to the extraordinary talents of their felf-taught generals,
the French owe chiefly their fuccenis in the late war. Un-
der the article Column, we fhall hazard fome obfervations
on th«ir mode of engaging.

In a war fo produftivc of bloody and general engage-
ments as the lad, it would be fuperfluous to dwell on parti-
cular indances. Never in one campaign did fo many bat-
tles take place as in 1 794, when from the beginning of
April forwards hardly a day paffed without fome defperate
conflift. In point of confequences, we mud affign the iird
rank to Jemappe, Tirlemont, Haguenau, Fleurus, Millcli-
mo, Areole, Marengo, and Hohenlinden ; but if we only
confider the flaughter on both fides, Lodi, Verona, Stock-
ach, Novi, and Zurich dand pre-eminent. A few remarks
upon tliefe, with fome other affairs of principal confequcnce,
will be found under their proper heads.

When we confider the immcnfe refources required to
maintain a large army, and the inconvenience with whicii
the movements of more unwieldy bodies .are dill attended,
we fhall lind room to commend the lefs extenfive fcale on
which we carry on our wars, compared to that of more an-
cient times. Indeed the armies, which we are alFured have
been brought forth to battle in the earlier ages, almod dag-
ger our belief. Sefodris is faid (Diod. Sic. i.) to have led
6oo,oco foot, 24,000 horfe, and 27,000 armed chariots, on
his famous expedition into Upper Afia. The fame hiilorian
fwclls the armies of Ninus and Semiramis to two and three
millions of men. We are told in fcripture that Zerali, a
barbarous potentate, invaded the kingdom of Judah with a
million of his fubjeifls, who were totally exterminated by
the Jcwidi monarch Afa ; nor are the accounts of the num-
bers engaged at mount Zemaraim on both fides, and the
carnage of t!;c Ifraelites on that occafion lefs marvellous.
(II. Chron".) Darius, in his Scythian expedition marched
at tlie head of i'even hundred lluuifiiid of his fubjcdls (He-
rod, lib. iii.) Xerxes invaded Greece with a fleet of more
than 1 300 triremes, and a land army of 2,100,000 men.
According to Herodotus (lib. vii.), the whole of his fea
and land forces numbered above five millions. Thefe num-
bers, immenfe as they are, will hardly appear exaggerated,
when we rcfleft on the hods afterwards brought into lIiE
fuld by the Goths and Huns, and the formidable fwarnis
of Croifcs in the middle ages. The lad Darius, when he
engaged Alexander at ld"us, mudered in his army fix hun-
dred thoufand men ; and fome hiilorians make his forces at
the battle of Arbela amount to a million.

The eafe with which ihele immcnfe hods were defeated by
comparatively trifling numbers of Greeks, gives us the mod.
mean idea of their bravery and military d:ill. We mud ex-
cept the indance of Platxa, where the victory was obdi-
nately difputcd, and the carnage confcquently dreadful.
There are few indances upon record of a battle fo completely
decifive. Of 300,000 men, of whom the Perlian army con-
fided at the commencement of the adlion, not four thoufand
efcaped the dellrnftion of that fatal day. (Herod, ix.)

The Romans, although they fometimes kept very nume-
rous forces on foot in different parts of their dominions,
feldom employed above forty thoufand men in the fame ar-
my. In their war with the Cifalpine Gauls, fubfequent to
the fird Punic, they levied between fcven and eight hundred
thoufand troops ; but thefe all a£led in feparate corps. One
of the largeft armies they ever brought into the field, was
that defeated, or rather deftroyed, at Cannse by Hannibal.
It confiiled of 76,000 foot and 7,200 horfe, of all whom

only

BAT

only about 3000 efcaped dtath or captivity. TI1I3 defeat,
terrible as it was, was feme years after revenged by the
(laughter of 60,000 Carthaginians on the banks of the Me-
taiirus. (Polyb. lib. ii & iii. Livy.)

We fliudder at the cruelties which fometimesaccoir.panied
the triumphs of Rome over her more barbarous and uiidifci-
plined enemies. L. Scipio di--flroyed 50,000 Syrians at
Magnefia. Marius, in his contell with the Teutones, took
or exterminated above 300,000 of them. In a fecond bat-
tle, againft the Cimbri, he flew 1 20,000, and captured half
that number. In three battles againll the generals of Mi-
thridates, Sylla cut in pieces 200,000 men. The bloody
defeats lie fuilained from Liicullus, during the fiege of Cy-
zicns, coil the fame Mithridates three hundred thoufand of
his forces. On one occafion, Julius Csefar annihilated an
army of 368,000 Helvetii; on another, he extirpated up-
wards of 430,000 Germans, who had crolled the Rhine in
queft of new fettlements. (Livy. I'lut. in Mar., Sylla, &
Lucull. Csef.de Bell. Gall.)

In the civil wars of the Romans themfclves, we find in-
ftances, confidering the inferior numbers of the troops en-
gaged, of flaughter equally dreadful. In the battle before
the Colline gate of Rome, Telefinus, a general of the Ma-
rian faflion, commanded 79,000 men againft Cornelius Sylla;
12,000 of thefe being taken, were chiefly maflacred in cold
blood after the aftion : all the rell perifhed either on the
field or in the flight by the fwords of their implacable coun-
trymen. In jullice to Casfar we mud obferve, that his tri-
umphs over the Fompeian party were in a great meafure
exempt from thefe atrocities. (Pint, in Sylla. Eutrop.)

It is the well-founded remark of a judicious and elttjant
writer, that our European battles appear only as Jlvirmifties,
when compared to thofe which have deluged the plains of
Afia with blood. (Voltaire, ElTai fur I'efprit et les mocurs
des nations.) In the year 12 18, fatally dillinguiflied as be-
ing the epocha of the firll irruption of the Moguls and Tar-
tars into the fouthern provinces of Afia ; the dellroyer
Ghengis-Khan marched to the iiege of Otrar at the head of
700,000 combatants. Mohammed, the reigning fultan of
Karazm, oppofed him with an army 400,000 ftrong. The
weaker {Sarty were defeated, and the Tartar conqueror com-
jnenced his fanguinary career by the dcftruftion of 150,000
of his enemies. This firll chaftifement only paved the way
for others Hill more terrible. In following the great Khan
through the dreadful fcenes tranfcribed by De la Croix from
the beil Eaftern authorities, we are fhocked at the unheard
of feverities exercifed upon fuch cities as mod incurred his
anger by an obftinate refiftance. The particulars of fuch
tragedies would but difguil the reader. To felec\ a few of
the mod remarkable inftances : — -At the ilorming of Ka-
razm, Mohammed's capital, 200,000 perfons were mafiacred,
and half that number fold for (laves ; 90,000 were (hot to
death with arrows in cold blood on the plains of Nefa ;
1,747,000 were butchered in the two cities of Nifliaburand
Tus, and their dependencies ; i, 600,000 in the diftrift of
Herat ; and in the lad battle fought by Ghengis Khan
againft the rebels of Tangut, 300,000 are reported to have
perifhed. To difmifs this fubjeft, the Cliinefe records in-
form us, that in the fird fourteen years of the Mogul empire,
the numbers of perfons deftroyed by Ghengis Khan amount-
ed to the dreadful total of eighteen millions and upwards.
(Petit de la Croix, Hid. de Glieng. Khan, Par. 1710.
Mod. Univ. Hid. vol. iv.)

The fubfequent wars of the Moguls abound with exam-
ples of almoft equal enormity. In the fiege of the capital
of the Chinefe empire by O.ktay Khan, a million of people
were (lain on both fides. Timur Bek, who carried on his
expeditions upon the fame plan as Ghengis, could briag

BAT

800,000 men at once into the field, with whom he fo com-
pletely defeated at Ancyi-a 4co,ooo Turks under Bajazet,
that iiot a fortieth part efcaped the common deftrudion.
In a word, it is in Afia that war has always been waged on
the mod gigantic fcale.

Lefs bloody in their conquefts, and more generous in
their difputes, the armies which during the two lad centu-
ries have been fet on fool by European nations, were com-
paratively trifling in number. The battle of Malpiaquet,
where 220,000 men were engaged on both fides, is mod re-
markable for the number of the combatants ; thofe of Hoch-
ftedt and Prague for the dedruftion of the human fpecies.
At Hochftcdt, the French and Bavarian army, which before
the atlion mudered 60,000 men, was reduced to one third of
that number. The battle of Prague cod the king of Pruf-
fia, by his own confelTion, 18,000 of his bed troops, while
the Auftrians loft 24,000 men.

It is with forrow we are obliged to remark, that the car-
nage on feveral occafions, during the lad unhappy conted,
has been unexampled in the hillory of modern war. Upon
the Rhine, in particular, the lofs on both fides, towards the
latter end of December 1793, '^ computed at 80,000
men.

The following concife lid of the mod remarkable and
decifive battles which have taken place (chiefly in Europe)
from the earliell ages, may not prove wholly unacceptable.

B.C.
Marathon, between the Greeks and Pei-fians, fought 490
Himera, in Sicily, between the Greeks and Carthagi-
nians, 480
Platasa, Greeks and Perfians, 470
Mycale, in Ionia, 47^
Eurymedon, ajq
In Egypt, between the Athenians and Perfians, 460
Of the AlTinaros, in Sicily, between the Athenians and

Syracufans, 41*

Cynaxa, in Perfia, 450

Coronea, between Agefilaus and the forces of the The-

ban alliance, aox

Leaftra, where the Spartans were entirely defeated by

Epaminondas and thcThebans, 371

ManciuRa, ag^

Cheronasa, ijg

Of the Granicus, 3^4

Ifllis, ■ ^ 333

Arbela, or Gaugamela, which fubverted' the Fcrfian

empire, 331

Of the Hydafpes, between Alexander and Porus, 327

Ipfus, in Phrygia, 301

Beneventum, in Italy, between Pyrrhus and the Ro-
mans, 274
Agrigentum, in Sicily, between the Romans and Car-
thaginians, 262
Tunis, in Africa, do. 255
Panormus, in Sicily, do. 251
Of the Macar, in Africa, between Hamilcar Barcas and

the revolted mercenaries, 239

Trebia, in Italy, between Hannibal and the Romans, 2 1 8
Of the lake Thrafymenus, do. 2 1 7

Cannce, do", one of the mod complete defeats men-
tioned in hiftory, 216
Sena, on the iVIetaurus, where the army of Afdrubal

was cut off by Nero, the Roman conful, 207

In Spain, between Scipio and Afdrubal the fon of

Gilco, 206

Zama, Hannibal totally defeated by Scipio, 202

Magnefia, between L. Scipio and Antiochus, J 90

Pydna, between Perfeus and P. .lEmilius, 168

Nephcris^

BAT

B.C.

NepKeris, declfive of the third Punic war, 147

Cirta, in Numidia, between Maiius and Jugurtha, 106

Near the Rhone, wliere tlic Romans fuftaincd a terrible

defeat from the Cimbri and Teutoncs, loj

Aqux Sextix, between M'lriiis and the Tcutoncs, 102

Vercclli, in which Marlus tolaliy exterminated the

Cimbri, . 101

Cheronia, between Sylla and the army of Mithri-

dates, 86

Orcliomenus, do. 85

Before the gates of Rome, between Sylla and the Sam-

nite Tclelinus, 82

Cabira, between I.uciillus and Mitliridates, 71

Tigranocerta, between Lucnlhis and Tigranes, 69

Carrhx, CralTus defeated by the Parthians, Si

Pharfalia, between Cuefar and Pompey. 4^

Philippi, 42

Allium, S 1

A.D.
Bedriacum, between the legions of Otho and VitcUius, 69
Cremona, between the generals of Vitcllius and Vcfpa-

fian, 69

Lugdnnum, in Gaul, between Sevenis and Albinus, 19S
Chalons, between jTitius and Attila, in which 300,000

perfons fell on both lides, 45 ■

Aiznadin, in Syria, 634

Kadcfia, in Fars, wliich fubvcrtcd the empire of -the

Saflanides in Perlia, 634

Ycrmuk, in Syria, where the Saracen general Khaled

totally defeated the Greeks, 636

Fontenay, in France, 841

Haftings, ^ lo66

Afcalon in J'alefline, between the Croifcs and the

Sai-acens, 1192

Bouvines, 1214

Otrar in Tartary, 121S

Of the Indus, between Ghengis Khan and Jalalo'ddin, 1221
Bannockburn, 1 3 '4

CelTy, 1346

Poiftiers, 1 356

Angouri, between Bajazct and Tamerlane, 1402

Agincourt, 1415

Towton, 1461

Bofworth, between Henry VII. and Richard III.
which fiuiflied the war between the houfcs of York
and Lancalter, 1485

Flodden, '513

Marignano, between Francis I. and the Swifs, '5 '5

Pavia, between Francis I. and Charles V. "^5^5

Mohatz in Hungary, which decided the fate of that

kingdom, 1526

S. Qninlin, 1557

N'euport, by prince Maurice over Albert, 1600

Prague, by the duke of Bavaria over the Elector Pala-
tine, lfi20
Leipzick, by Guftavus Adolphus over count Tilly, 163 1
Lutzcn, memorable for the death of Gullavus Adol-
phus, 1632
Nordlingen, where the Proteflant league in Germany-
was totally defeated, J 634
Breittenfeld, near Leipzick, 1642
Edgehill, 1642
Rocroy, 1643
Nafeby, 1 645
Jancowitz, 1645
VVorceftcr, 1 65 1
Before Vienna, which was relieved in confequence, 1683

BAT

A.D.

Boyne in Ireland, 1 f>9°

Fleurus, 1690

Staffarda, in which the Savoyards were defeated by

Catinat, 1690

Salankenien, where the Turks were totally defeated by

prince Lewis of Baden, 169 1

Aghrim in Ireland, 169 1

Steinkirk, lf'92

Landen 1693

Zentha on theTibifc, memorable for the total defeat of

the Turks by prince Eugene, 1697

Narva, 1700

Cliffow, 1702

Hochftedt, 2 Aug. 1704

Ramillies, 12 May, 1706

Turin, 27 Augult, 1706

Almanza, 14 April, 1707

Pultovva, 30 June, 1709

Malplaquet, 11 Sept. 1709

Denain, 171 2

Peterwaradin, 5 Aug. 171 6

Belgrade, l6Aug. 1717

Parma, iS June, 1734

Guaftalla, 8 Sept. 1734

Molwitz (the firft defeat given to the Auftrians by

Frederic III. j, 30 March, 1741

Czallow, 6 May, 1742

Fontcnoy, a memorable battle, 30 April, 1745

Fricdberg in Silefia, where the king of Prulha totally

defeated the Aullrians, 24 May, 1745

Rotto-frcddo in Italy, 3 1 May, 1 746

CuUoden, 16 April, 1746

Prague, 6 May, 1757

Koliu (the firft defeat fuftaincd by the king of PrufTia),

18 June, 1757
Plaffcy, which laid the foundation of the future power of

the Britiih nation in Bengal and Hindoitan, 23 June, 1757
Rofbach, 5 Nov. 1757

Brtflaw, 22 Nov. 1757

Lifla, 5 Dec. 1757

Zorndorfl" (in this battle the king of Pruflia totally de-
feated the Ruffians with terrible flaughter), 25 Aug. 1758
Hochkirchen, 14 Oft. 175S

Minden, i Aug. 1759

CunnerfdortT (the king of Pruffia here fuftaificd a com-
plete defeat from the Ruffians;, 1 2 Aug. 1 759
Torgau, 3 Nov. 1760
Freyberg, decifive of the feven years' war 29 0&. 1762
Choczim, 30 April, 1769
Focz.an, 1789
Jeniappe, in v.hich the Audrians were defeated by
Dumourier, and loft in confequence all their poftef-
fions in the Netherlands, 6 Nov. 1792
Tirlemont, where Dumourier was defeated by the prince
of SaxcCobourg, and the Netherlands fubfequentiy
recovered, 18 March, 1793
Between Dietz and I^ouvain, fought by the fame

generals, with timilar fucccfs, 22 March, 1795

Haguenau, 8 Dec. 1793.

In the neighbourhood of Landau (the Auftro-Pruffian
army was almoft deftroyed by tlie republican generals
Hoche and PichegriiJ, from the 22 to the 27 Dec. 1795
Moucron (Gen. Clairfait was again defeated by

Pithcgiu), 29 April, 1794

Fkurus (the prince of Cobonrg was defeated by JQur-
dan. This battle ultimately decided the fate of the
Netherlands), 26 June, 1794

Liege,

B A T

BAT

Liege, Ijetween Jourclan and Clairfait, 17 & 18 Sept. 1794
On the Roer between the fame generals, (Gen. Clairfait

was overthrown in both ihefeailions,) i{lto3dOft. 1794
Monten ;tte, lo April, 1796

Miikfimo, 17 April, 1796

Dego, 18 April, 1796

Bridge of Lodi, 1 1 May, 1796

Ettingen, 9 July, 179''

Near Nuremberg, . 22 Aug. 1796

Caftiglione, 15 Aug. 179^.

Roveredo, 4 Sept. 1 796

Arcole, 5, 6, and 7 Nov. 1796

S. Marco, 13 and 14 Jan. 1797

Before Mantua (Gen.-Provera and his whole divilion

laid down their arms), 16 Jan. 1797

On the Tagliamcuto ■ 16 March, 1797

Tarvis, 25 March, 1797

Stokach, 25 March, 1799

Verona, 26 and 30 March, 1799

Magnan, 5 April, 1799

Of the Adda, 27 April, 1799

Zurich, 4 June, 1799

On the Trebbia* f], 18, and 19 June, 1799

Novi, 16 Aug. 1799

Zurich, 24 Sept. 1799

Engen, 3 May, 1800

Moikirch, 5 May, 1800

On the Rifs» 9 May, 1800

Ulm, 21 May, 1800

Marengo, 14 June, 1800

Hohenlinden, 3 Dec. 1800

The chief view of the great commanders of modern times
has been, till of late years, rather to harafs, or ftarve an
cnemv, by frequent alarms, by cutting off his fupplies of
proviiions, carrying off his baggage, feizing his polts, &c.
than to (lake their fortune and reputation on the event of a
day ; a battle generally deciding the fate of a campaign, and
not unfrequently of the war. It is therefore a rule never to
venture a general aftion without important reafons, or when
abfolute neceffitv leaves no other choice.

Reafons for fecking and engaging the enemy are, a de-
cided fuperiority in number or quality of forces ; difcord
among the commanders of the oppofite army, when actuated
by different interefts ; an obvious incapacity on' their part,
demonftrated by a negledl of the ordinary- precautions in en-
camping, or on a march, the neccffity of relieving a con-
fiderable place bcfieged by the adverfary ; an apprehenlion
of the total ruin and difperiion of an army, unlefs prevented
by fuccefs in a general engagement ; an intelligence of rein-
forcements coming to the enemy, whofe junilion would ren-
der him fuperior, and change the ftate of affairs ; a parti-
cular advantage obtained in fome preceding action, which,
however indecifive, has given the enemy a fmart check, and
procured an evident fuperiority ; or in fine, the obhgation
of putting all to the ri(k of a battle.

The moft proper reafons for avoiding it are ; the having
lefs to hope for from a viftor}^, than to fear from an over-
throw ; inferiority either in number or courage of the troops ;
an expectation of frefh fnccours, or the iunclion of a con-
fiderablc detachment ; the impoffibility of bringing the ene-
my, too advantageoufly ported, to an eiigagement on fair
terms, or of forcing him in his entrenchments ; or the pro-
fpecl of ruining his army by temporifuig, and declining battle.
See Action.

But a refolution to engage being once taken, in confe-
quence of one or other of the reafons above recited, the next
object to be ccmfidered is the means of carrying it into exe-
cution with the ftrongeft prefumption of fuccefs. Thofe

meafurcs are partly preparatory to the affair ; but the moft
important and efTential chiefly take their rife out of the dif-
ferent circumflancci of the action itfclf, and are thofe which
almoll always determine its fuccefs.

Preparatory to fighting, a general Ihould carefully obfer\'e
the following particidars. He fiioulc form the order of bat-
tle according to tlie ftrength and quality of tlie troops of
which his own army is compoied, always having an eye
towards counterafting the difpofition in which it is ex-
pefted to find the enemy. The general officers (hould be
affigned their refpeftive ports, and copies of the order of
battle carefully fent to fuch as have a fcparate command,
who mull be rcfponlible for its obfervalion in every refpecl.
All the troops muft. be perfettly armed and equipped ; the
proper number of cartridges diftributed previoufly to the
battle ; waggons loaded with ammunition, and arms lla-
tioned in the rear of thofe battalions, which, it is prefumed,
will have the hotteft fire to fuilain ; and a frefli rclerve pro-
vided at the park of artillei"y ; as well to give out before and
during the action, if wanted, as after it is over, when there
are generally many miffing. Time, if poffible, (liould be
allowed to the troops to rcrt and rcfrcili themfelves, before
the engagement. Phyficians, furgeons, and medicines mud
be provided, and rather more in number than may be
deemed barely fufficient. The army muft be totally difen-
cumbered of the heavy baggage, and the remainder lodged
in a place of fafety at fome diltance. The advantages of tun
and wind, however trivial, are not to be neglefted. The
foldiers (liould likewife be infpired with the delire of fight-
ing, and a certainty of victor^' ; inflamed with the hope of
plunder and good quarters ; and the officers reminded of
glory and of rewards.

Thofe occafions of conquering which commonly only pre--
fent themfelves on the day of battle are, taking advant?ge of
the ground ; ftridl obfervance of the difpofition already con-
certed, and, (hould a correftion prove neceffary, the making
of it without confufion, and with the knowledge of all thofe
officers, who, from their fituations, rtiould become apprifed
of it. The artillery is to be planted along the line, accord-
ing to the nature of the country ; and every opportunity
narrowly watched of gaining an advantage, either by ex-
tending the wings to turn, if poffible, the flanks of the
enemy ; or by clofing and protetting, to draught fufficient
troops from them for a grand attack where the enemy may
appear moft feeble. Should the march to the enemy be
made by night, or little probability olTer of fini(hing the
conteft before dark ; the word (hould be given to ti'.c whole
fine before they march. If the advance is made in line, due
care (hould be taken to preferve the equality of the wings,
and the requifite dillance between the lines ; frequent halts
(hould be made, to give the artiller)' time to fire and load,
and the ranks to recover their order. Frequent warnings,
above all, (liould be given the fuldiers to receive the
enemy's fire, and ablhiiii from returning it till they have
drawn their adverfaries' ammunition from them : for troops
who have parted with their fire will moft infallibly give way
on feeing an opponent advance, ready to pour in a heavy
volley upon them. If, however, both parties purfue the
fame maxim, the only expedient is, to march up clofe to the
enemy, give in a general difcharge upon them, and prevent
its being returned by immediately having recourfe to the
bayonet, under cover of the fmoke, which feldom fails to
produce an important effedt.

If the advancing army, by reafon of the dirtance it has to
march, or the inequality and clofe nature of the ground, or
defiles, it mull pafs, cannot come at the enemy in front, the
approach muft be made in a fufficient number of columns, to
admit the formation in order of battle, out of Jiftancc of be-
I ing

BAT

mg cliir-ed whew in column. Tlic general ofRcers w ho con-
ducl tUcfc columns fhould alfo carefully obfcrve tlic motions
«)f each otljcr, fo that the heads of their divilloiis may at
lead prefcrve a front ; and that, when arrived at the ground
where the army is to deploy into line, the niovcmtnt may be
executed vith dili<;encc and caution, and at too great a
diftance to be attacked by the enemy before all the batta-
lions are drawn up in "the pre-concerted order.

The commander in chief (liouid poll himfclf where he rnay
bed and moll conveniently remark the effect of the lirll
charge, and whence he may with the leall difficulty difperfe
his orders, either to fuftain the troops who may have broken
the enemy, or to replace fuch as have themfelves been
thrown into diforder. For both thefe purpofes he (hould
make ufe of the fiipcrnumerary forces llalioned between the
two Hnes, or of thofe of the referve, as he may judge moll
advifable. Every other general officer ihould be al his par-
ticular nation, either to lead to the charge, or to remedy the
diforders which may arife in the brigade entrulled to his
command.

If t!ie battle becomes general and bloody, and fucccfs in-
clines to neither lide, the commander in chie^ (honld dirccl
his principal cflort againft that part of the line where the
enemy's relillance is mod oblliiialc ; and in this cafe he
fiiould himfclf hallen to the fpot, to animate the troop? by
hii prefence, and induce them to charge, under his eye, with
greater vigour. If fuccefs is complete throughout the lirlt
line, and it entirely overthrows that of the enemy, the princi-
pal attention of tlie general, and of the other officers, (hoiUd
be employed to rellrain the foldiers, prevent them from leaving
their colours to follow up the flyers, and, committing the
purfuit to fome detached corps of cavalry and infantry, to
march in good order, at a Heady pace, to fullain thefe de-
tachments, and alTail the fecond line of the enemy. The
artillery Ihould always accompany the firll line, iu the order
already dillributcd, in cafe the nature of the ground allows
of it. The remainder of the army (liould follow the move-
ment, always obferving, without confullon, the dillancc be-
tween the two lines appointed by the order of battle.

Should the lirlt line give way, or be thrown into diforder
by the enemy, the battalions are to retire through the inter-
vals left between thofe of the fecond line, behind which they
are to halt and rally. Great care is here necefTary to be
taken by the officers, that inllead of paffing through the in-
tervals, the routed troops do not diredtly rufli in upon the
ranks of the fecond line, and either tarry them ofi' in the ge-
neral flight, or throw them into fuch confulion and diforder
as it may be impoffible to repair before the enemy are upon
them.

On the firll line's giving way, the fecond ffiould march up
brilldy to its relief, and charge furioully upon the enemy
without giving him time to repair the diforder into which the
aAion and purfuit mull c f courfe have in fome meafure thrown
him. By executing this with promptitude and determina-
tion, it is often eafy to retrieve the ground whicli has been
loft, and to defeat and render nfelefs the enemy's firll line,
already confiderably weakened and deranged by the former
attacks. It is the fooncr efFetted, as the enemy's fire which
docs moft execution is thrown away ; the fubfequeiit dif-
charges, from the great hurry of loading, being ot little con-
fequence, in comparifon with the firil. The great mifchicf
is, that tlie fecond line, on feeing the firlh give way, are
ufually flruck with a panic which magnilics the enemy, and
on his nearer approach, either betake themfelves to flight,
or make but a faint refillance.

If, on the other hand, the viAory ftill remains conftant,
and the adverfe fecond line is overthrown, the general in chief
fhould ulc ftill greater care than i'oraierly to prevent his fol-

C A T

diers from difperfing, It 11 they llionld be charged and routed
by the firll: hue of the enemy, which may have retired and
raUied behind their fecond. He ffiould pulh the beaten
troops. Hill keeping his men in good order, and in lii\e, till
their confufion is general. He mult then progreffively aug-
ment the number of his detached forces ; without, however,
once fuftering any individual to quit his colours, unlefs com-
manded. It is at this moment that he fliould employ his
referve, and the diflerent corps which have not been en-
gaged, to purfue the enemy, prevent them from rallying,
and, hi/! of all, to make prifoners, which the men fliould
never be fiiffered to do during the combat, or even to think
of the booty, till the victory is abfohitely gained, and the
enemy fo fecUtercd and ac a diltance, as to leave no Ioniser
any fear of their turning upon the difftreiit detachments cm-
ployed in the purfuit. The general may then, for the reft
of the day, fuifer his foldiers to collect the booty. If, in full
purfuit, the detachments fall in among the enemies' baggage,
they mull not be fulTered to difljand inflead of following up
tiieir advantage. Their officers inuil with extreme atten-
tion, feveritv, and even blows, if milder methods are of no avail, .
pulli them forward till they have got clear of the baggage,
e.npioy them only in taking the enemy prifoners, or cutting
them down, and leave the pillage for the rtfl of the troops.

The lirll care of a general after the gain of a battle, fliould
be to pay proper attention to his wounded, and vifit, or at
lealt fend to vilit, the principals among tl.em ; to learn what
valiant actions have been performed in diflerent parts of the
field ; and to praile in general the whole army, particularly
thofe who moll deferve it. He fhould collect the trophies
of his conqiiell, fuch as the prifoners, colours, ftandards,
kettle-drums, and artillery, taken from the enemy ; give,
without delay, a firll account of his victory to his court, and
follow it up liy another and more circumilaiitial detail, accom-
panied by the colours and flandards he has won. Then, af-
ter burying the dead, dilhurtheniiig his camp of the wounded
of both parties, the prifoners, artillery, and other fuperflui-
ties, and fulfered the army to take a little repofe, in the exe-
cution of all which the leall pollible delay fhould be made,
the victorious general may apply himfelf to derive from his
fuceefs every advantage which time or place can furnilli, io
execution ot the plan already concerted or refolved on.

Cut as ths fortune of war is changeable, and notwith-
Handing every poffible precaution taken to enfure fuccefs, a
defeat will fometimes happen, the whole care of a general,
as well as his officers, fhould fuch an unforeleen event lake
place, muft be exerted to prevent an entire rout. The com-
mander fliould have this poffibility always prefent to his mind.
His own experience and fagacity, pointing out to him the
critical moment preceding the lofs of a battle, will alfo tcacli
him to take all thofe meafurcs proper for diminifhingthc dif-
order of a flight. A laft effort may be made with fucli
troops as yet remain unbroken, to give time to thofe al-
ready routed to re-afTemble and rally in the rear, and thus
fecurc an orderly retreat. A poll may be occupied impreg-
nable to the enemy ; or a dehle be fecured through which
the defeated army may pafs, and re-form behind it in fafety.

As the lofs of the battle generally involves that of the bag-
gage, fhould it accompany the troops, and almoft always
that of the artillery, the general fliould only remain in the
flrfl politiou to which he has retired for fafety, as long as
may be necefTary to colIcA the remainder of his forces, after
which he may conduft ihtm to a fortified camp, and there
repair his loflcc,, as well with cannon and arms brought from
the adjacent garrifons, ps by the fuccours which may arrive
to him. If the lofs is fo ferious as to threaten that of fome
confiderable place, he fhould throw the befl of his infantry
into the garrifon, and keep the field with the cavalry, in
4 order

BAT

order to incoirmoJe the enemy if he form the fiege ; or keep
him in awe, and prevent him from dividing his forces, if his
objeft is only to penetrate into the country, and lay it under
contribution.

If the conqueror, on account of his lofs in the engage-
ment, ilnds his infantry too much weakened to undertake a
heavy fiege ; (hould he be difabled from attempting it fcr
want of heavy artillei-y and ammunition ; or (hould he derive
no other profit from his vidlory than that of difconcerting
his enemy's projects, remaining mailer of the open country
during the reft of the campaign, or procuring his men quar-
ters upon hoflile territory ; the vanquifhfd general ought,
after the firll retreat, to occupy a defenfible pofition in the
vicinity of fome large town, whence he may procure thofe
accommodations his defeat may have deprived him of; fuch
as, cordials and medicines for the fick, frtfh baggage in lieu
of that loft, &c. He (hould encourage his troops, without
again facing the conquerors till he has repaired his lofFes by
the arrival of new fuccours, new arms, frc(h ammunition,
and artillery, hts cured the wounded, and finds himfelf
ftrong enough to oppofe the enemy, and prevent his eftab-
li(hment in advantageous quarters.

Bland, Military- Difcipliue. — Memoire de Feuquicres,
c. Ixxx.

Battle was alfo a term formerly ufed to denote a
body of forces drawn up in order of battle, and amounts to
the fame with what is otherwifc called Battalion.

In this fenfe ,we meet with the length or depth of the
Batik; the front, rear, and flanks <f the 5c«/?.

Battle, Ifngth of the, is the number of foldiers in rank,
^or the fpace from the left flank to the right.

Battle, Jipth of the, is the extent of a file, or the num-
ber of men from front to rear.

Battle, Uneof. See Line.

Battle array, the fame with order of Battle.

Battle, order of, figni'lcs the difpofition of the fqua-
drons and battalions of an army, into one or more lines, ac-
cording to the nature of the ground, either for the purpofe
of engaging an enemy, or being reviewed by thegeneral.

The Egyptians, whofe priority in civilization and in com-
irufiicating the arts to the reft of mankind is univerfally
allowed, were naturally, although they ranked many great
conquerors among their firft monarchs, a pacific nation. We
have no authorities to enable us to judge of the progrtfs
they had made in the art of war ; but from the fanciful ac-
count of the battle of Thymbra, given by Xenophou in his
Cyropxdia, we may fairly prcfume that they uiually fought
in large and deep battalions, forming a complete fquare. On
the above occafion he mentions twelve of thefe unwieldy
bodies, each confiding often thoufand men, and who fom-ed
the chief dependence of Croefus againft the army of Cyrus.

A people fo particularly favoured and proteiled by hea-
ven, as the ancient Jev>-s, little needed the afliftance of hu-
man invention, when, on any emergency, a new miracle was
always ready to enfure them fuccefs againft their enemies.
We find, therefore, nothing in the facr^rd fcriptuces that can
give us an idea of any order of battle obfcrved among them ;
■although the regular divifion of their numerous forces under
David, who diftributed them into twelve main bodies accord-
ing to their tribes, and each cf thefe into thoufands, or regi-
ments, into hundreds or companies, into tens, and even
into threes, induces us to imaguic, that they would not en-
tirely forget fuch minutix in the field. The Jewifli writers,
followed by the a'Jthor of the " DilTertation ftir la tacti-
que des Hebreux," afHrm, that they arranged ti;eir armies in
one fingle line, of confiderable depth, fometimes between
twenty apd thirty in file. Alonff the front of thtfe were

Vol. IV. ^

BAT

placed the light armed men, viz. the moft expert arcncr*,
fpearmcT, and (lingers, who began the onfet by a warlike
fhout, and with cafting thick (howers of darts and fionea
Kgriiult the enemy's front, in order to caufe terror and con-
f"non, and ftop the rulhiiig in of the chariots, vhi' h among
the Canaanitcs were very numerous, by wounding th.e horles
and drivers. This is the more probable, as it is a metlicd
common to moft of the Afiatic nations. Anc. Univ. Hift.
vol. iii. p. 184.

The order of battle dcfcribed by Xencphon (Cyropsdra)
to have been ufed by Cyrus at the aftion of Thymbra,
though perhaps a vifionary one as applied in the text, may
ferve to give an idea of the method generally ufed by the an-
cient Perfians in drawing up their armies, with which Xeno-
phon m.uft have been well acquainted. The cavalry, in the
fituation which it is indifpenfibly necefTar)- for them to ob-
ferve, were ported en the wings. The heavy armed infantry,
carrying, bcfides the pike, a fword for clofe combat, and
drawn up twelve deep, formed the firft line. The fecond
confiftcd entirely of light armed, who threw their darts over
the heads of the former, and annoyed and difordered the enemy
in their approach. The third Une, deilined to the fame
purpofe as the fecond, was compofed entirely of archers ;
their bows, which were extrem.ely well bent and ftrung, car-
r)-ing far beyond the front ranks, fo as to excelTively incom-
mode the enemy. With thefe were fometimes ir.termixed
(lingers, who threw large ftones with great effcd:. tor this
purpofe the Rhodians afterwards fubftiSuted leaden balls.
The fourth line, confifting cf heavy armed, and fimikr to
the firft, was intended to fupport the preceding ones, and
prevent them from giving way. It alfo ferved as a rear-
guard and a ccrps-de-referve to repu'.fe the enemy who (liould
penetrate fo far. The Perfians alfo made ufe of m.ovei.ble
to'.vers, erefted on large carriages, each drawn by fixteen
oxen, and contaiui.'.g twei.ty m.en, v.ho threw ftones and
darts. Thefe were placed in line in the rear of all the army,
behind the corps de refe.-\c, and favored the rallying of
thofe troops which were puflied and thrown into confufion
by the enemy. They placed likewife great reliance in armed
chariots, which they drew up fometimes in front of the bat-
tle, and fometimes upon the flanks, when in fear of being
enveloped.

Such was the extent of the military fcience of thofe na-
tions, who under Xerxes threatened Europe and the Well
with fubj ligation. But we fee no occafion on which they
knew how to profit by the advantage of the ground, to carry
the war, when necefTaiy, into a difiicuh country-, to make ufe
of defiles and ambufcades, either for the purpofe of covering
themfelves from the attacks of the enemy, or of annoying
him on his march ; or to protract an unequal campaign by-
avoiding a decifive action with a fuperior antagonift, and re-
ducing him to difticfs for want of forage and ammunition.
Neither do we obfer\-e that they paid the requifite attention
to the fupporting their flanks by rivers, mora{res, or heights,
when it would have been advantageous by givirg them an
equal front to an army much more numerous, and putting
them out of danger of being funounded. Rollin, Hift. Ar.-
cienne ; hv. iv. eh. 4.

The Perfians made fome alterations in this fyflrra ; but
thev were far from being judicious. Artaxerxes Mnemon
at the battle of Cunaxa, threw all his forces into one line,
for the purpofe of furrounding or ( utSnnkipg thofe of his
brother Cyrus ; but he pteferved the clumfy order of fquare
battalions, whofc unwiilc.iucfs rendered it impofllble for them
to take advantage of a fuccefs with the neccflarj- prompti-
tude, to retreat with facility, or manoeuvre with any efteft.
The difpofition of Miicmr.on the Rhodian, in oppofing the

D paf-

B A T

pa(ra;7e of tlic Cranicus by Akxantler was lefa faulty. He
lormtd two lints ; the firil of cavali7 to affuil and dllorder
the Greek' as thoy attempted to gain the bank of the river;
aud the Itcoiul, nl fume diftance, of infantry, with the in-
teiition, no duubt, of fupporting the firll : but, liowcvcr
jiidicious this arrangement mig'.it have been, lie wanted ge-
nuis or inclination to profit by it, and tamely fvsfFercd the
Macedonians to rcacli the iTiore, dtRat th-: ca%alry ojipofed
to them, and form tlieir phalanx mulKlurbed for tht- attack
of his heavy-armed foot, without (tirring from his pofitio'i,.
or calling a fingle javelin. It is impoirible to read, with-
out indignation, the unfoldierhke details of the pompous
maich of Darius, and the extreme fully, as well as ij;i:orance,
ConfDicuous in tie order of battle he made liis armies obferve
at Iflus and Gaiigamela. His awkward evolutions on the
former occafion, difordered his forces before the commence-
ment of tiie attion. In the latter inllance lie preferved the
ruinous arrangement of his infantry by nations, in huge
fquare battalions ; he intermixed them with corps of horfe no
Jels iinwitkly ; and, not content with having co.mmitted faults
fo incxcufable, he furpatfeJ them botli by another. The
nature of the ground, not allowing his immenfe army to ex-
tend itfelf upon a finglc front, fecmed to point out the nc-
ccffity of a fecond line, or at lead a corps de referve. He
indeed drew up, behind his centre, fevcral immenfe batta-
lions for which he had no room in front ; but fo clofc to the
firll line, that when thcfe gave way, the referve, inftead of
fiipporting, ferved only to augment thcirdiforder. Againft
Inch an enemy, it is by no means furpriiing that Alexander
fliould have been, with inferior forces, fo completely fuc-
cefsful. Xeiioph. Aiiab. lib. i. Arrian. in vit. Alex. lib. i.
& iii.

We now turn to the Greeks, who, of all people of anti-
quity, the Romans excepted, were the bell judges of war-
like affairs and military conducl ; but we cannot eafily excufc
them for the overfight they almoft conilaiitly cominitted in
the drawing up of their whole army on one front, and trulling
to a Tingle effort the fuccefs of the day. Their infantry
confillcd of two kinds of foldiers. The heavy arm.ed, who
carried large bucklers, lances, .".nd fwords, and in whom
confided the principal flrength of the army ; and the arch-
ers and (lingers who were generally diftributcd along the
front of the line, and employed their ilones, darts, and ar-
rows, to diforder the ranks of the enemy. Having made
their dlfcliarges, they retired round the flanks into the
rear of the heavy armed, whence they continued throwing
their darts during the reft of the aftiun. As for the heavy
armed, or Hophlts, we (liall follow Thucydidcs in defcrib-
ing their difpofition, according to the Lacedaemonian fyf-
tem, that nation being then reckoned the mod expert among
the Greeks in military knowledge. Their battalions confided
of four leffcr divifions, eacli confiding of 1 28 men, and fub-
divided into four others, each of 32 men. The effective
force of every large corps thus confided of 5 12 foldiers, who
were ufually drawn up in fmaller ones of four men iij front,
and eight in file. We find feven of thefe regiments engaged
at the fird battle of Mantinea, during the Pcloponiiefian
War. The depth of the files was, however, often altered,
when judged neceffary by their commanders.

The Lacedxmonisiis never made ufe of cavalry before the
Meifenian war, on which occafion they were convinced of
the impiafticability of carrj-ing on their operations in a flat
country without it. Even then they rarely exceeded the
number of fix hundred, and thefe were chiefly compofed of
the inhabitants of a little diftrift in Laconia called Sciritis,
a circumftance from which they derived their appellation of
tikirites. They were alwavs drawn up on the left flank of

6

B A T

the army, a pod they ciaimcd by right. So averfe were the
Greeks in general to the ufe of cavaliy, that in the ir.oil
flouriniing periods of the Athenian republic, they never
niudered above 1,200 in their army.

TheGreck tafticiansof thcmiddleageshaveexhaudcd tluir
imaginations in forming fanciful ordirs of buttle, prmcipjlly
for the cavalry. Minute geometricians and theoretical fol-
diers, they liHve confidcred the art of war in alight cntirrly
mechanical, and employing their pencils at random, h ive
given us uuon paper Inch plans and difpofitions as o..ly eould
exid in their own ideas, and could only originate in their
ignorance of the practical part of the fcience. It is hence
we derive the rhomb, the wedge, the orbicular, oval, and
angular manner of difpofii'g their forces, manccuvres per-
haps of ufe in exercifing a iqu?.dron, but not to be adopt-
ed in the field without immiiit-nt and inevitable danger. To
form a proper edimatioii of ancient taftics, we (liould con-
fult the writings of tliofe celebrated chaiaclers, who only
recount what they have in pcrfon feen, ai.d themfelvcs per-
formed. Such are Xencphon, Polybics, Jidius Ca^far, and
Arrian. In reading tlum we trace the military art among
the ancient Greeks and Romans to it.i highud pitch of per-
fection. The principal offenfive and defoafive operations if
a campaign in the open country, or of a fiep-, are developed
with order and perfpicuitv, and the images they prefen: to us
are diliuftly inipiintcJ on our im32,inati(m. Thucyd. lib.

iii RjUin, Hid. Anc. liv. x. ch. 2 Potter. Archccol.

torn. ii. lib. 3. ch. 9. — ^lian. tact. ch. lij Guifeliaidt,

Meinoires Milit. in dife. prelim.

Philip and Alexander put the laft hand to improving the
order of the Greek infantry in the creation and edabliOiment
of tlicir formidable phalanx. For a particuV^ir account of its
fonr.atioji and evolutions, we mull refer the reader to the
article Phalanx. For feveial ages, this was the order of
battle wlsich mod prevailed among the nations of the theu -
known world. The Carthaginians, the Syrians, the Ptrvpti-
ans, adojjteJ its ufe. ^Ve lind the generals of Milhri dates
employed it agaiiill Sylla, and the barbarous Helvetii and.
Germans in their contells with Juiii s Ca;far. But the dif-
ficulty of preferving the neceffary unifen and order in fo large
and numerous a body ; and the want of a fecond line to fup-
port it when obliged to give way, were glaring defeiSs in its
difpofition, and it was therefore eventually fcirced to give
place to the more convenient and feientific arrangement of
the Roman legion.

A Roman legion arranged in order of battle, confided of
thirty manipuli, of various drength according to the clhib-
lifliment of the legion. Suppofing it of 5CC0 men, each
m.inipulus ( ftlie Hadati and Principes was compofed of 140
foldiers ; — thofe of the Triarii only of 60 : the renin int of
the troops were Velites, or light armed. J-.ivy, in dtferihing
the war with the Latins, gives the following accoui t of the
ordonnance of ttie legion. The Hadati, drawn up in fepa-
rate manipiili, (ormed the firll line. The Principes, chit fly
old experienced foldiers, were placed behind the former, but
with intervals between their companies fufficiently wide to
receive the Hadati in cafe they diouid be obliged to retreat.
The Triarii, all veterans, who befides the diort fword com-
mon to all the legionaries, were armed with long pikes,
compofed the thi;d line ; their intervals being fo extended
as to enable them to receive both the Principes and Hadati
within them without any diforder, and dill facing the enemy.
If therefore the Hadati found themfelves unable to fudain tlie
charge, they retired gently within the Principes, and joining
with them, renewed the combat. If thefe proved too weak -
for refiftance, both retired amidd the Triarii, where rallying,
they formed a new line, and charged with more vigour thaa

ever.

BAT

BAT

evff. If again defeated, the battle was loft : the Romans
had no further refourcc. Livy, lib. viii, — Macchiavel, art.
di Guer. lib. iii. ch. i.

Thefc fucceflive retreats are no where mentioned, except in
I-ivy as above Hated ; and prejudiced as we are in favour of
the military fcience of the Romans, we find it difficult to
conceive the practicability of their execution. Livy has, in
faft, much miifaken the intention of the difpofition in
quincunx of the ancient legion. Its fole detign was to enable
the army to form with facility in that order of battle which
the fituati on of the ene.my, or nature of the (ground, might
render moil applicable. At the moment which preceded
the charge, the manipuli of the ftcondliue, marching briUcly
up into the intervals of the Ha'.lati, formed a continued
front, ten filjsin depth, and equal to that of tl'.e enemy. The
Triarii remained as a corps de refcrve. It was thus, as we
(hall incontellibly prove in our account of tliofe actions, that
the Roman infantry v.'ere arranged at the Trcl':a and at
Cann.t. It was thv.s, with fome httle variation, that they
fought at Zama. Neither was it unufual with tlieni to dif-
pofc their manipuli according to the principles of the column,
as in the battle of Tunis, and that b^rtween Scipio and Af-
drubnl the fon of G fco, in Spain. Where there was but little
to fear from the impetus of the enemy, the intervals of the
Hallati v.-ere filled up by the Ve!i' es ; the Principes remain-
ing at their pods in a fecond line ; but, oppofcd to the clofe
and heavy oider of the Macedonian phalanx, a dircillly differ-
ent difpolition was obferved. Tiie manipuli of each line, pre-
ferving thtrir intervals, and adling asf.parate corps, haraflcd
the enemy by defultory attacks, obliged them to abandon
their ur.ited order, in which fituation only they were invin-
cible, and penetrating the phalanx in every direftion, obtained
an eafy triumph. Guiichardt, Memoires Militaire?, ch. iv.

As to the Velites, and in later times the archers and fiing-
ers, they were not drawn up in this regular manner ; but
difpcftd of tither before the front cf the Hallati, or fcat-
tered up and down among the void fpaces of the firft line,
or finally, placed in two bodies on the wings. Thefe always
began the battle, Ikirraifhing in flying parties with the fore-
mod troops of the enemy. If they were repulfed, which
was iffually the cafe, they leilback to the flanks of the army,
or retired through the iiitervals into the rear. When they
retreated, the Hailati advanced to the charge. The auxi-
liarj' forces generally ccmpofed the two points of the battle,
and covered the whole body of the Roman infantry'. As to
the cavalr)', it was pofttd on tlie wings, fighting fometimes
on foot as well as 0:1 hoi fcback ; and here we find fome rea-
fon to arraign the judgment of the Romans, who never
allotted aporportion of more than 300 cavalry to each legion
whatever might be the nature of that country which was the
theatre of the war. They made no diflerence between the
plains of Lombardy and the mountains of Liguria ; and in
the Alps maintained the fa.mt number of fquadrons, as in the
fertile valleys of Apulia.

But the order of battle in quincunx was in procefs of time
abandoned by the Romans. Tiie taftics of Gcfar widely
d;ffer from thofe of Scipio and iEmilius Paulus; and tl:e
march and order obferved by Mctelhis in his Numidian war
againil Jugurtha, tranfm.itced to us by Sallull, arc the lad
traces we find in hillory of the difpcfitioa which proved fo
fatal to Hannibal, to Philip, and to Perfcns. The mani-
p'di with intenals ; the three lines of Hallati, Principes, and
Triarii, differing in arms and in numbers, difappear, and a-
bout the age of Marius, the legion afTumes a new form,
Inltead of tnirty companies, we then find it divided into ten
cohorts, equivalent to our battalions, fince they each con-
fiitcd of from £vs to fix liundrcd men, drawn up in a finglo

line, with a depth of eight or fometimes nine in file. The
legions ofVefpafian, according to Jofephus, were drawn up
fix deep. This laft arrangement continued to be obferved
without alteration during the fiourirairgages of Rome ; but
as we advance nearer to modern times, we perceive their mi-
litary art decline in its perfeftion, in proportion to the
decay of their greatnefs. Under Leo and Mauritius it is a*
difficult to recognize the taftics, as the empire of the Cxfars.
The difficulty of afccrtaining the period of thefe fucceflive
alterations has deterred thafe authors who have been molt
capable from undertaking the office ; and finding it eafier to
fuppofe that Livy and Plutarch have furnifhed us with fuffi-
cient information on the fubjeft, they have concuiTtd with
thofe writers to raiflead and perplex us. Salluft. bell. Jug,
— C^far. — Jofeph. dc bell. Jud. — Guifchardt, prel. difc.

For further obfervations on the difcipline and conftitution
of the Roman infantry, fee the article Legion.

For a long fucceffion of barbarous ages, we find nothing
to intereft us in militaiy taftics. Imitating in a rude degree
the order of battle pointed out to them by their anceftors,
the wellern nations from the fifth to the fifteenth century,
fought in large bodies, divided into an indefinite number of
lines or wards, in every one of which the ir:fantry, infe-
rior in rtrength and in importance of fcrvice, compofed
the centre, flanked by the heavy armed cavaliy, who always
decided the fate of battles. It is in vain to fcarch for mili-
tary fcience in thefe periods, and we lliall therefore pafs them
over with all poilible rapidity.

The introduction of artilleiy and fire arms neceffarily in.
trcduced an alteration in this fyflem. The cavalr\' ceafed to
be the arbiters of fucccfs, and declined rapidly in their import-
ance. The deftruclive effeft of the newly invented engines
rendered it im.poflible to avoid m.aking a material change \n
the order of the battalions. Their depth %va3 gradually
decreafed. The method of engaging in wards was abolifhed,
as expofing numbers of troops to be facriticed without occa-
fion ; and two lines with a corps de rcferve were in time
thought quite fufficient for the purpofe of aftion. The front
of the army was proportionally extended, and embraced a
greater extent of country. The adN^antages of ground, be-
fore judged in comparifon trivial, were now eagerly fought
after. Generals bccam.e from necefiity tadicians, and by
little and little, continually im.proving, fom.etimes flowly,
fometimes with rapidity, the military' art affumed the face it
wears in our times ; under the aufpices progreffively of a
Guftavus, a Conde, an Eugene, a Marfhal Saxe, and a
Frederic the Great, wbofe names will never be forgotten by
the lateil potlerity.

Under the articles Column and Line, to which they of
right belong, we Ihall altem.pt to illuftrate and compare the
French and Pruffian fyftem.s of the order of battle as now
pradliftd by both thefe nations ; and accompany them with
inllances fiora among the number which have of late years
fallen under our infpeftion.

Battle, in a Naval lenfe, denotes an engagement be-
tween two fleets, fquadrons, or even fingle fliips. See En-
gagement. The ancients had divers forms of fea-battles ;
as the h.alf-moon, circle, and forceps. In all thefe, not
only the 'hips engaged each other, and by their beaks and
prows, and Camctimcs their flerns, endeatoured to dafh in
pieces, or overfet and fink each other, but the ioldiers alfo
annoyed the enemy with darts and flings, and, on their
nearer approach, with fwords and fpears, boarding each other
by laying bridges between the fliips.

By way of preparation, they took down their fails, and
lowered their mails, and fccured whatever might expofe them
to the wind, choofii:g rather to be governed by their oars.

D Z B.VTTLE,

BAT

BATTts, Lint of . See Line.

Battle, Square. See Square BATTAtrou.

Battle, yltln'mJir by. Sec Attainder..

Battle royal, in Cocl-fi^hling, denotes a fi^Iit between
tliree, five, or feven cocks all together ; fo as that the cock,
which llanilo longed gets the day.

Battle-axe, an ancient military weapon, which, at dif-
ferent periodt, formed a principal part of the ofTenfive
armour.

Homer never afcribes this weapon to any but the barba-
rians, for the battle-axe waa not uftd in war by the politer
nations. Eiift.Ttliius tells us, it was the favourite weapon of
the Amazons. The only itiftance where Homer has placed
it ill the hands of a warrior occurs in the thirteenth book of
t'le Iliad, when Pifander fights Meneltus : it is there called
Afi/7), and is dcfcnbtd with Cn^jular minutenefs-
— i I) uir' acTTiJo; (l\no xaXnv

Maxfv, liif!;*!. 1. 6ll.

The TlfcXiici/;, mentioned in the fifteenth book, 1. 710, was
perhaps not very different :

A^^' 01 yt^-,xi^jit ij-oc^EMi, nra 9vjLU>y (;^orr(;

Something of this kind, it feems, was in ufe among the Bac-
trian!<, when they attended Xerxes' expedition : bcfide bows
and arrows, we are told they were armed with a fort of
hatchet, called Sagaris: (Herodotus, Polyiniiia Ixiv.) The
JLycians had axes and daggers: (Ibid, xcii.) and the Egyp-
tians huge battle-axes.

At the rita;e of the Roman capitol, by the Gauls uiidcr
Brennus, we find one of the moll dillingnilhed warriors armed
with a battle-axe (Pint. Camilhis) : and Ammianus Marcel-
linus, many centuries afterwards, defcribing a body of
Gauls, furnifliis them all with battle axes and fwords.
From Tacitus, it ftiould feem the ancient Germans had
clubs, but no fuch weapons as thofc we are fpcaking of : and
the only inllance in his writings whercy^caWj- occurs as an
implement of combat, is where the Olhonians are particularly
defcribed as ftriking on tlie helmets of their antagonifts with
their axes. (Taciti Plift. II. xlii.) In (hort, it was even
then never ufed but amon<T the Roman auxiliaries.

The introdinSlion of the battle-axe into this country has
been frequently attriljuted to the Danes ; but proofs of its
earlier ufe among us are not wanting, and there are inftances
known where it has been found even among the fcpulchres
of the ancient Britons. Mr. Rooke, in the ArcliKologia of
the Antiquary Society (vol. x. p. 1 13.) has defcribed a frag-
ment of an ancient battle-axe found among fome Druidical
remains in a barrow at Afpatria in Cumberland, June i 789.
And in the fame volum.e(pl. xl.)are twortprefentationsof the
old Galwegian bill, or battle-axe, found in a mofs near Ter-
reagles, the feat of Marmaduke Maxwell Conl\ablc, Efq; of
Nethdale in Ireland. Oilurs have been found among the
barrows on the downs of Willlhire, and in the north of
Scotland.

That it was ufed in the early Saxon times, we liave the au-
thority of fcveral manuferipts of the ninth Century ; and the
Frencli writers have recorded a particular inllance of its ufe
in France, fo far back as the year 510. Clovis, they fay,
bribed the miniAers and captains of Raguacharius to deliver
up both him and his brother : and wlicn the prifoners were
brought before him, he firtl reproached them for fuffering
thei.Tfelvcs to be chained, and then difpatched them with his
hattle-axe. See Gre^t- Turon. 1. ii. c. 42.

Tne battle-axe, however, was more ufed by the Danes than
any ctiicr of the Northern nations : and they were, in courfe,
more expert with it. At the battle of Stamford, Ocl. 24,

BAT

1066, between Harold king of Enghnd, and Harold
Harfager of Norway, when the Norwegians were obliged
to retire, and the Englifli begun to purfue tliem with great
eagerncfs, a total flop was put to their purfuit for fcveral
hours by the dcfperale boldntfs of a finglc Norwegian, who
defended the pafs of Stamford-bridge with his battle-axe :
he killed more than forty of lire Englilh, and was himfclf (lain
only by ftratagem. (Hen. Hunt. \. vii. p. 211.) The battle-
axe principally in ufe among the Anglo-Saxons appears to
have been \.]\t- bipeimis, or double edged axe ; x\\i yjfarma is
fuppofed to have been the bipcnnis with a longer handle or
halbert : and t\\c pole-axe, with an edge on one fide, and a
fiiarp point on the other, probably came in with the Normans.

During the middle period of our hillory we read but little
of this weapon, though the VVtlfh infantry at the battle of
Agincourt, 1415, found it particularly ferviceable in dil-
patching thofe whom the archers had wounded with their
arrows. One of the laft inftances of its cfieftual fervice was
at the battle of Tewkfbury, during the quarrel of the Rofes,
when the Duke of Somerfct clave Lord Wenlock's head.

Toward the fixteenth century it feems to have been gra-
dually difufed, though one inllance occurs where a piilol
placed in its handle befpeaks a wilh in the warriors of that
period to im.prove its ufe. (See Arms.) It was perhaps moll
ferviceable when our Knights were completely cafed in ar-
mour ; and has fincc degenerated into the halbert or
pailifan.

BATTLEMENTS, in the Military Jrt, indentures, or
notches in the top of a wall, parapet, or other building, in
fomiof emhrafures, for the fake of looking through them, &c.
much afFcAed in the old fortification.

BATTOCHES, or Battogues. See Battacks.

BATTOLOGY, from /S^tk-, bat/us, babbler, and ?,:>i;,
I fpeah, in Grammar a multiplying of words without occa-
fion, or a needlcfs and fuperfluous repetition of the fame
words, or things.

BATTONI, or BATONI, Pompeio, in Biography,
an eminent Italian painter of the Florentine fchool, was bom
at Lucca in 1708. He was the fon of a goldfmith, and
brought up to that bufinefs ; but difcovering a ftrong pre-
dilection for painting, he was fupported in the Roman
fchool by a fubfcription ; and at Rome he employed himfelf
in ftudying the antique, and copying the works of Raphael,
and likewife in fonning a ilyle of his own, from a diligent
obfcrvation of nature. Having diftinguillied himfclf both as
a dcfigner and a colourirt, he was engaged in the exccutioa
of many important works, and painted altar-pieces and other
pictures for various churches in Rome, Milan, Brefcia,
Lucca, Parma, Meflina, and other cities ; as well as hiftory-
pieces for private pcrfons. One of his moll admired works,
is a holy family, purchafed for a large fum by the grand
duke of Rnffia. Battoni, however, acquired his principal
fame as a portrait painter. Bcfides three popes, he painted
fcveral of the Imperial families of Auftria and Ri^flia. In
recompence for a pifture, which commemorated the inter-
view of the emperor Jofeph w ith his brother at Rome in
1770, he received fcveral magnificent prefents ; and he, with
all his male iflue, was ennobled by the emperor. By the
beautiful daughter of the furveyor of the Farnefe palace,
whom he married in early life, he l;ad fcveral children ; and
two of his daughters were highly celebrated for their tallc and
proficiency in mufic. As to his charader, he was fimple
and modcll, finccre, friendly, and charitable ; much attached
to religion, and very adiduous in the cxercife of his pra-
feflion. He ftldom appeared in public, preferring a retired
life, partly on account of the defers of his education, and
partly by reafon of the awkwardnefs of his fig'.:re, which ap-
I proached

BAT

preached to dtformity. Asa painter, he acqiiued eminence
by the native force ot his genius; and he had no livj.l but
Mengs, who furpafied him in knowledge and learning, whilft
he was inferior to liim in natural talents. Battoni, having com-
pleted his 79th year, died in 1787. Filkington. Biog. Dift.
BATTOON, or Batoon. See Baston.
BATTORY, a name given by the Hans Towni to their
niagazines or faftories abroad : the chief of which are thofe
at Archangel, Novogorod, Berghcm, Lifbon, Venice, ajid
Antwerp.

BATTOW, in Geography, a village on the weft coaft of
Africa, S.E. from Cape Cavalloo, on the weft fide of a
fmall river oppofite to Zeno, or Svvino, on the eaft fide.
About half a league eaft, are two rocks lying under water,
and the breakers over them are feen at fea at the diftance
of a league, and ferve to point out the Cape and Road.
N. lat. 5= ; W. long. 8° 30'.

BATTRE LA Mesure, Fr.to beat time, in iT/i^r. There
are various ways of marking the meafure and accents in mufic :
by dividing each bar into 2, 3, or 4 equal parts with the
motion of the hand, the foot, a ialon, or a roll of paper. In
common time of 2 minims or 2 crotchets in a bar, called
biruiry meafure, the hand is merely moved down and up. In
time of 4 crotchets in a bar, the French frequently mark
each portion of it, by beating the hand down to the firft crot-
chet, moving it to the left for the 2d, to the right for the
3d, and lifting it up for the lafl. In triple time, or ternary
meafure of 3 minims, 3 crotchets, or 3 quavers, it is ufually
beaten, 2 down and one up, or the ift down, the 2d to the
left, and the 3d up.

The beating time is of great antiquity. The ancient
Greeks had various ways of regulating the accents of forg,
and fteps of the dance. See Rhythm and Greek Music.
The Italians often beat the two Crll portions of a bar, and
Eft the hand up for the reft, botli in common and triple time.
At the Opera, concert-fpiritual, and even at private con-
certs (formerly) there was a perfon at Paris, armed with a
truncheon [laton de Mefure) like a general, whom RoulTeau,
in his Dictionary, ridicules, and fays that he had been very
aptly called the Bucheron, or wood-cutter ; though w-hen
he wrote his mulical articles for th.e Encyckpedie, the Italians
and other nations, ftill had a C'jr'ijla to regulate the meafure
in the numerous bands employed in their churches when
there was a gran Funz'ione in celebration of fome faint or
holy time. But it was in England, at the Commemoration
of Handel in Weftminfter-abbey, that, in the moft numerous
band that ever was afllinbled in modern times, a Coryphjeus
was firft difpenfed with. See Timf, Measure, Arsis &
Thesis, Bar, Accent, & Battuta.

BATTUS, Lieven, in Biography, was born at Ghent,
about the year 1540; but his father being obliged to remove
to Roftock, on account of the troubles about religion, when
he was only ten years old, he was put under the beft mafters
that place could afford, and he fo well piofited by the in-
ftruftion he received, that in 1559 he was.appointed teacher
in mathematics. In this office he continued until the year
1565, when the country being at once afflifled with war and
the plague, he went firft to Padua, and then to Venice,
wliere he was admitted doftor in medicine. Returning to
Roftock, he praftifcd medicine with fo much fuccefs and
reputation, that he was appointed profefTor in that fcience,
in which poft he died, April 1591. Some fmall medical
trafts, left by him in manufcript, were publilhtd in the Mif-
CtUanea of Henry Suretius, at Fra:ikf. 161 1, 8vo. His
fon, Conrad Baltus, following in the fteps of his father, re-
luming from his travels, took the degree cf doftor 111 medi-
•ine at Bafle, in 1604, but falling down ftairs, at his brother's

BAT

houfe at Roftock, foon after his return there, he receiTed
a wound in his groin, from a knife he had in his pocket,
which occafioned his death. He alfo left fome fliort effayi
on medical fubjefts, which were publifhed with his father's,
in the Mifcellanea.

Battus, Charles, a Flemifii writer of fome emi-
nence, who flourifiied about the end of the 16th century,
publilhed in 1598, a tranflation of the works of Guillemsau,
into his own language, folio, Dordretch, and in 1615, the
works of Ambrofe Para, folio, Amfterdam, with numerous
plates engraved on wood ; alfo a manual for furgeons, with
a treatife on wounds of the head, from Hippocrates, i»mo.
Haller. Bib. Chirurg. Eloy. Dift. Hift.

T3attus, an order of penitents at Avignon, and in
Provence, whofe piety carries them to extrcife fevere difci-
piine upon themfelves, both in public and private.

BATTUSZANI, in Geography, atown of European Tur-
key, in the province of Moldavia, 44 miles N.N.W of JafTy.
BATTUTA, Ital. a bar in Mufc, or thofe portions of
a mufical compofition, where the time is beaten, or marked,
with the hand or foot. The Crufca diftionar-y defines bat-
tuta ; quella niifura di tempo che da il maeftro della mufica,
in batlendo a' cantori. Varchi, who died in 1566, and who
is quoted in the Crufca as authority for the ufe of this term,
fays ; quanta noia, e faftidio n' apportino coloro agli occhi,
e agli orecchi, i quale che non ballano a tempo, o non can-
tano a battuia. What pain and uneafy fcafations do thofe
give us, who neither dance nor fing in time!

Amendue parlarinoinrimc, canzoni, e altre fpezie di dire
con mifura di piede, e di tempo fiUabitati. Both pronounced
in rhyme, fongs, and other fpecies of poetry, in raeafured
feet, and poetical numbers. This paftage is cited from a
MS. of 1400.

It is not eafy to imagine how mufic, in many parts, could ,
be compofed in /core, without bars or vertical lines drawn
through them all, whence the term /core was derived ; r.or
what kind of bars could contain the quantity of a maxima^
equal to eight femibreves, unlfefs we fuppofe that femibreves
were fung or played as quick as quavers aix now. See Pimi,
Accent, Arsis, and Measure.

The moft ancient kind of time-table that has occurred in
the courfe of our rcfearches, confifted of only four feveral
kinds of mufical characters.

The Maxima

equal to
2 Longs

4 Breves

I

A

1

D

D

D

n

8 Semibreves O O O C O O O

Amorg Italian muficians we frequently find the words
a haltuta, which import in time or meafure, after recitative or
an " ad libitum." Accordingly, a in the Italian mufical
languai;e, when it precedes a fnbftantive, has the power of /n.

BATU-PURUDAN, fludus lapidei {Valent.) in Natural
jy^'oQ', one of the fynonymes of Madrepora Labyrin-
th ica. Gmel.

BATUA, Butua, Biilhor, or Buthoue, in j^neient Gca-
graphy, a town of Dalmatia, now Bldoa, which fee.

Batc^A,

B A V

Baiva, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, in the
empire of Monomatapa, extending from tlie mountains of
tiio Moon to the- river Magnico, wtiofc pi ince is a vaflal of the
emperor. It is famous for its gold mines.

BATUDA, a method of fiftiing mc-.tioncd in fome M'ul-
r.li ylje IVriters, whtnin tlie fi(h are driven by beating the
water with poles, till flocking into o::e place, tluy are the
loo:ier caught.

BATUECAS, LOS, in Gmgraphy, a people of Spain,
i:i the kingdom of Leon, and dioctle of Coria, iiihnbitiiig a
valley called " the valley of the Batuec.is" encompaffjd by
mountains that are almoft inacccfiible, between Salamanca
to the north, Coria to the foulh, the river Tormez to the
call, and the rock of France to the weft. Thel'e people are
fuppofed to be the remains of the a;icitnt Goths, who took
refuge in this valley among high moimtnins in their elciipe
from the Moors. Others fay, that their anceftors were an-
cient Spaniards or Iberians, who retired h:thcr at the litre of
the inval-on of the Goths. They arc diftinguinud by their
barbarifm and rullicity to fuch a degree, that the Spaniards
proverbially denominate an uncivilized perfon, one who comes
from the valley of Batuecas.

B.^TURIN, a town of the Ukraine, on the river Defna,
belonging tothe Ruflians, and fituate in thediftriil of Nef-
chin, which forms a part of LefTer RiifTiii. It was dellroyed
by the Ri-.tTians in 1708 j but the caftle has been twice re-
built, and the town in fome degree repaired.

BATUS, in Entomology., a fpecies of CKRAMnvx, fri nd in
India and South America. The thorax is wrinkled a::d fpi-
iious : wing-cafes bidentated : Antennae long, with hooked
prickles. Linn. This is Capricornus niger. Muf. Pelrop.

B.-\TUSABER, in Gi'O^ra/./;;', the capital of the kingdom
ofYobor, in the fouthern extremity of the peninfula it Ma-
lacca, fituated about 6 leagues from the fca, on the river
Yohoror Jor, in a marfliy fituation, fo that its f:i;all wooden
lioufesare raifed upon poles about 8 feet from the grourd.

BATZ, or Batxes, in Commerce, a copper coin mixed
with fome fdvcr, and current at different rates, according to
the quantity of alloy, in many parts o£ Germany and Swit-
zerland.

B. AV. See Character.

BAVANY, or Bowanv, in Gtogniply, a river of Hin-
dooilan, which runs into the Cavery, 7 miles norih of Er-
road in Coimbetore : N. lat. 11° 25'. E. long. 77" 50'.

BAVARIA, Circle of, called Bjyern by the Germans,
one of the circles of Germany, derives its name from the
duchy of Bavaria, which is the moll confiderable part of it,
and is bounded on the eaft by Auftria and Bohemia, on the
fouth by Carinthia and Tyrol, on the welt by Suabia and
Franconia, and on the north by the Upper Palatinate, which,
if coniidered as belonging to it, verges towards Upper Sax-
ony. The dominions of the elector of Bavaria and the Pa-
latinate, for thefe eleftorates arc united, are computed to
contain 16,176 fquare miles, and 1,934,000 inhabitants.
Hocck eftimates Bavaria at 1,339,900, and the Palatinate
01305,000. See Pai-atinatf. Bufching dilbibutcs the
20 dates of the circle of Bavaria into ecckfialHc and
laic. To the former he refers the archbifhopric of Saltz-
burg, the bilr.oprics of Freifingen, Ratiibon, a:id Patfau, to-
gether with the prioiy of Berchtolfgadcn, and the abbies of
t)t. Emeran, Lower and Upper Munftcr, all which three lie
in the city of Ratilbon. The latter are compofed of the elec-
torate of Bavaria, the duchies of Neuburg and Sul/.bach,
the landgravate of Leuchtenberg, the princely county of
Sternllein, together with the counties of Ilaag and Orten-
burg, and alfo the lordfhips of Ehrenfels, Sulzburg, and
Pyrbaum, Hohenwaldcck, Brcitcneck, and the imperial city

B A V

of Ratifbon, Of this circle, the eleclor of Bavaria, and
the archbifliop of Saltzburg, are joitit fummoniiig princes.
The diets, though ufually lield at Ratifbon, are fometimes
fummoned to Walferburg, Landlhut, and Muldorf. When
the militai7 force of the empire, in time of peace, was fettled
in 1681, at 40,000 men, the number required to be fur-
nifhed by this circle was 800 cavalry, and 1494 infantry ;
and towards the 300,000 florins granted in 1707, it paid
18,252 florins, 9 kruitzers. The elector of Bavaria is the
military commander of the forces of the circle.

Bavaria is part of the RluttiaVindclicia and Noricum of the
ancients, and is fuppoled to have derived its name from the
Bon, a warlike people, that migrated from Gallia Ceitica,
croffed the Rhine, and firft fettled in Bohemia. About the
time of the emperor Auguftus, they v/ere expelled the coun-
try by the Marcomanni, and removed into Noricum ; and
their fettlement was called " Bojer" or " Bayerland ;" in
Latin, " B(>jaria,"or" Bajoaria," w'lence, in prccefs of time,
was formed Bavaria. In the 6th century, whc-n the empire
of the Franks was divided among the four fons of Clovis,
Bavaria became fubjcft to the dominion of the Auftrafian
kings, and was governed by dukes. In the 9th century,
princes of the Francic family affumed the (tyle of kings of
Bavaria, while Lieutpold in 889, was the fnll duke ; and his
progeny extend to the prefcnt day, though interrupted in
946, when, Berthold dying without children, the emperor
Otho gave Bavaria to his brother Henry of Saxony. In
107 1, Welph, fon of Azo of Eftc, became duke of Bavaria,
which, in I 138, pafT^d to the houfe of Auftria ; but in 11 54,
it reverted to the lu.ufe of Welph, in the perfon of Henry
the Lion. In 11 So, it finally retin-ned to the iirfl: family,
by the fuccelTion of Otho of Witllebach, a dcfcendant of
Arnulph, fecond duke of Bavarii, A. D. 907. After the
family had been unjuftly depiived for more than two
centuries, the Palatinate and Bavaria have recently been in-
habited by a branch of the fannily of Deux Ports, the fon
of the eleClor being now nominal duke of Deux Ponts.

Bavaria, Duchy or F.kilorate of, comprehends the greater
part of the circle, and is divided into Upper and Lower Ba-
varia, and the Upper Palatinate. The length from north to
fouth is fomewhat interrupted, but may be about 150 Bri-
tifh miles, aod the breadth about 120. The duchy is
bounded on the north by Bohemia and the Upper Palati-
nate ; on the eaft by Auilria, and the bifliopries of Saltz-
burg and Paftau ; on the well by the duchy of Neihurg,
the marquifate of Bwrgau, and the biftiopric of Auglburg ;
and on the fouth by the county of Tyrol, and the bifhopric
of Brixen. Upper Bavaria is, for the moll part, mountain-
ous, cold, and barren, producing little corn and lefs wine ; but
it is covered with forcils, interfperfcd with large and fmall
lakes, and abounds in cattL', wild fowl, game, baths, medi-
cinal fprings, and fait works. It is alfo enriched with mines
of lilver and copper, lead and iron. It has alfo many quar-
ries of marble. Lower Bavaria, being much more level, is
more fertile, and produces plcTity of grain, pafturage, and
fruit. The mountains of Upper Bavaria may be confidered
as branches of the Alps. The chief rivers of this duchy are
the Danube, the Ifer, the Inn, the Lech, the Nub, the
Atmuhl, and the Regen. Its Luge inland lakes are 16,
and its fmaller ones i6o. Render, in h-b " Tour through
Germ.any,'' (Vol. II. p. 29c) reckons 33 cities, belides Mu-
nich the capital, 80 market towns, 8coo villages and ham-
lets, 39,949 taxable farms, 12,000 folitary houfes, 6000
uninhabited fatm-houfes, 180,000 hearths, 3,050 churches,
548 chapels, 908 pirilhes, 12 collegiate foundations, and 142
convents. Upper Bavaria is divided into two governments
or regencies; that of Munich, and that of Dmkhaufen. The

principal

B A V

principal towns of the former are Muiiicli, PfaflTenhaufen,
Abenfperg, Ing-olftadt, Dona-vert, Friedberg, Landeberg,
Weilheim, Tolz, WafTerbura:, Traunftein, and Reicheiihall.
Thofe of the latter, are Burkhaufen, Oetting, Trufburg,
Braunan, Uttendoi f, Friburg, Ritrd, and Scharding. Lower
Bavaria is alfo divided into two governments ; that of Land-
fhiit, comprehending, befidts other towns, Landfhut, CEr-
ding, Dingelfing, Teifbach, Hals, Roltenburg, Mofburg,
and Ofterhofen ; and that of Straiibing, the chief places of
which are Strav.bing, Pogen, Chnm, Kclheim, Stadt-am-
Hoff, and Deckendorf. The ftates of the duchy confiil
of the clergy, nobility, and burgefR's, of which a committee
afferr.blts at Munich whenever it may be neceflary : but be-
fore the acceffion of the houfe of Deux Fonts, the admini-
ftration had become the moll lethargic of any in Germany i
and on this account the political importance of Bavaria has,
in fome meafure, declined ; and in the dangerous »fO!]fli£l
that has fubfilled, and may ftill fnbfill between France and
Au!!ria, it may be difE:uk for this power to preferve a
fhadow of independence. By t'.ie hfth lecret article of the
treaty of Carr.po Formio, Odtober 17, 1797, the French re-
public e-gagcs to tmoloy its infl'jr;:ce, tint his majcfty the
emperor fhail receive the archbi(hoj;'ic of Saltz'ourg, and that
part of the circle of Bavaria whicii ;j..i between the archbi-
ihopric ol Sa!tzburg,the river Inn, Saiza, and Tyrol ; includ-
ing the town of Waflcrburg, on the right bank of the Inn,
with an anondilfemerit of 3CC0 toifc .

The eftablifhed religion of Bavaria /: the Roman catholic ;
and no other is even tolerated : and tlu.5 tiie fpirit of induftry
is very materially checked and reftrained. The clergy, both
fecular and regular, are vei-y rich ; but the peafants are
wretched in th; extreme, their chief fubfiftcnce arifing from
the herds of fwine that are fed on acornj and crabs in the
woods and foreih. The number of inhabitants in this duchy
is eiliraated at jcoo. and the regular militai^ force at 1 2,000.
Th" principal manufaftures of the countrj-.are thofe of coarfe
woollen cioth, filk and woolle'i fluffs, velvet, tapellry, ftock-
ings, clocks, and watches. The principal exports arc wheat,
cattle, wood, fait, and iron. Befides the mines of filver and
copper near Piidcnmais, in the bailliage of Viechtach, and
of le?.d at Reichenthal, the chief mineral riches of Bavaria
confiil in the fait fprings at Traunilein, which pervade moun-
tahT! -jffabne earth, lik;: thofe at Hallcin, in tiie a'chhifhop-
ric of Saltzburg, and occupy matiy people in produtlive in-
duflry. There are other fprings at Reichenthal. Thefe
latter fpring"; are 20 in number ; but fait is only rr.ade from
4 of them : fur which purpofe part of the water proceeding
from them is conveyed by pipes to the cauldrons at Traun-
fteiri, which is abo'.;t 3 leagues di.tant. The fait annually
made from thefe fprings amounts to 250,000 quiritals.

The title of the elector is " By the grace of God, duke of
Upper and Lower Bavaria, as aifu of the Upper Palatinate ;
Pfalfgrave of the R'!;iae, arch-fftward of tjie holy Roman
empire, and tlcdor and landgrave of Leuchtenberg." He
has 5 hereditary officers, viz. a mall.'r of the houfhold, a
fteward, marfhal, cup bearer, and huntfman. The B-iva-
rian order of St. George was revived in 1729, by the cle£tor
Albert. Tlie knights of th^: order are ft\kd " defenders
of the immaculate conception of t!ie bleficd Virgin Mary/'
and are required to produce uriquettionable prooii of the no-
bility of their anceflry for 8 generations in both lines. The
elector is grand miiler ; and its cnlign is a crofs, enamelled
blue, with a St. George in the middle ; 0.1 the reverfe of
which is the name of the rcllorer of the order in a cypher
furmounted with the eleftoral cap, ar.d bearing at the 4
angles the letters I. V. P. F. which fignify " juitus velul

B A V

palma florcbit," i. e. the righteous fhall flourifh like a palm-
tree. The crofs is woru pendent to a broad fky blue ribbon,
with a black and white border. The elector has the fifth feat in
the eleftoral college, and fevcral votes at the diets, both of
the empire and the circle, in the colleges of the princes and
counts. His ordniary revenue, including the tolls on all
the veflels which pafs up and down the Danube, and other
navigable rivers, with that which arifes from the monopoly
of corn, fait, beer, tobacco, and mines, together with his own
domain, is fuppofed, by fome, to amount to 700,occl. per
ann. Bufching and baron Reifbach eflimate it at 8oo,oocl.
Render at 1,031,2501. and otl-.ers at !,i66,6ocl.

The Bavarians are little diftinguifhed in literature ; but
they are a vigorous race, adapted to the fatigues of war^
They have, however, an yniverfity at Ingoliladt, and an
Academy of Sciences at Munich. Baron Reifbach (Trav. I.
1 07) gives a very unfavourable account of their corporeal form
and general difpofition and character. The characleriflic of a
Bavarian, he fays, is a very round head, a little broad chin, a
large belly, and a pale complexion ; fo that many of them ap-
pear like caricatures of men ! They have large fat bellies, fhort
clubbed feet, narrow fiioulders, a thick round head, and
(liort necks ; and they are heavy and awkward in their car-
riage. But the women are, in general, extremely beauti-
ful, well fhap -d, of clear tranfparent complexions, and much,
more Uvely and graceful in their gcflures than the men. The
chief ornament of the men is a long broad waillcoat, ftrangeiy
embroidered, from which their bieeches hang low and loofe.
The women difguife themfelves with itays in the fliape of a
funnel, covering the breail and fhoulders, and hiding the
whole neck. He fays, that no pen can defcribe the ridicu-
lous mixture of debauchery and devotion, which is exhibited
every day ; and he adds, that the propenfity to fealling, in-
dolence, and beggary, which prevails in Bavaria, is coun-
tenanced and fandlioued by the example of the priefls. In-
dolence, he fays, is the prevailing cnaraCter of the Bavari-
ans : and Bavaria well dcferves the character given of it by
an officer of Gafcony, of being the grcateft brothel in the
world. "With their indolence, intemperance, and devotion,
they unite, accorcing to his account, a certain ferocity of
temper, which often occafions quarrels, mutual abufe, and
fcenes of blood. The Bavarian peafant, fays this writer,
is gruff, fat, dirty, lazy, drunken, and undifcipiined ; but he
is brave, oEconomical, patriotic, and fuch a flave to his
word, that when it has once been given, it is never violated.
Confiderable benefiti however, has been derived from the
laudable plans for deflrcying mendicity and encouraging in-
duilry, propofed and carried into clfeCl at Munich by-
count Rumford. See Munich.

By the plan of indemnities, agreed upon between the Firft
Co;;ful of France and the emperor of Ruffia, in purfuance of
the 7th articleof the treaty of Luhe\THe, it was agreed to pro-
pofe that the indemnities to the archduke, grand duke, fhould
be for Tufcany, and its dependencies, the archbifhopric of
Saltzburg, the provoftfhip of Berchtolfgaden, the biniopric or
Trent, that of Brixen, and part of that of Paffau, lituate
beyond the Iltz ard the Inn, on the fide of Auftria, except
the fubuvbs of Pallau, with a radius of 500 toifes, and the ab-
beys, chapters, and convents, fituate i:i the abovementiontd
diocefcs. Thefe principalities were to be taken out of the-
circle of Bavaria, and incorporated in the circle of Auflria,
aid their eccletiaflical jurildiftions, both metropolitan and
diocefan, were to be alfo feparated by the limits of the two
circles ; Muhldorf to be united to Bavaria, and its equiva-
lei.t in revenue takv.n from thofe of Freifmgen. To the eleftor
Palatine of Bavaria were to be afligned, for the duchy of

'Dcus.-

B A U

©eux-rnnt», the duchy of Juliers, the palatinate of the
Jlhinc, the marquifate of Bcrg-op-zoom, the feis;nory of Ra-
iic:i(leiM, and others fitiiatc in Belgium and Alface ; the bi-
Ihoprics of Pnflau, with the refervation <.f the part of the
archduke ; of Waltzbo.srgh with tlie refervations herciu
after mentioned ; of Bamberg, of Aughiled, of Freifin<;en,
and of A'\r{hct\jTgh ; tlie provoftfhip <.f Kcrr.ptcn ; the im-
perial cities of Rothcnbourgli, V/ciuJ'^bourgh, Windfheim,
iSithweinfort, Goch(heim, Sciinefelt, Allthoufen, Kempten,
Kau(beureo,Memmingen,DinkcIfbuhl,Nordinfren,Ulm,Bo(r-
fingen, Buchom, Waugcn, Leutkirch, Ravenfbourgh, and
Alfclifiiaufen ; the abbeys of St. Uhic, Itfce, Wengcn,
Sotflingen, Ekhingen, tJrfberg, Rochenbourgh, Wthcu-
Jiaufen, Ottobeuren, and Kaifcrtheim.

Ba7aria, Palailiiau of. S,e Upper Palatinate.

BAVAY, Paul, t.^nathii De, in Bk^rajhy, born
at Bruflels in 17G4, applied hiinfelf early, and exclufively,
to the lludy of chemiftry, in which his father had walled a
confiderablc patrimony. At length, in 1735, he went to
Lovain, where, at the end of two years, he was admitted
■Uoftor in Medicine. He now returned to BrulTels, and ac-
•quired fo much reputation by his fucccfsin his praftice, that,
in 1746, when the French were in polTcffion of the city, he
V3S made phyfician to the military Kofpital there. In 1749,
the French having evacuated BrulTels, he was appointed De-
inonllrator in Anatomy, but being oppofed by the principal
phyficians, and his practice condemned, probably on account
of ilia profeffiiig to cure fome difeafes by a noftrum of his in-
vention, he went to Dendcrmoud, where he continued for
fome time. Returning again to Bruffcls, he died there,
Feb. 20, 1 768. His works are, " Petit Recucil D'Obferva-
tions en medecine fur les vertus dc la confection toniquc, re-
folutiveet diuretique," BruxcUes 1753, i2mo. " Methodc
courte, aifee, pcu couteufe, utile aux raedecins, et abfolunient
neccflaire au public indigent pour le guerifon des plufieurs
maladies." Bruxelles, 1759, izmo. The principal ingredi-
ents in his medicine, are faid to be fquills and Florentine
orris. Eloy. Did. Hifl.

Bavay, in Gtjgraphy, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the North, and chief place of a canton in the di-
flrift of le Qiiefnoy. It was formerly a conCderable town,
but is now reduced to the condition of a village. N. lat.
50= 25'. E. long. 3° 45'.

BAUBEE, a term ufed in Scotland for a halfpenny.
'Johufon.

BAUBIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, 1 \ league
from Paris.

BAUBIS, in Zoology, a French name of a race of run-
ning dogs, called ch'iens Normans, or dogs of Noimandy.

BAUBULA, in Gropraphy, a river of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Arragon, which runs into the Xalon, about a league
•below Calataiud.

BAUCIDIAS, in /Incient Geography, an ifland of Greece,
in the Saronic gulf. Pliny.

BAUCONICA, a town of the Vangionc?, in Gallia
Belgica, 9 miles from Mogontiacum, and 1 1 from Borbi-
tomgum ; fuppofed to be Oppenhelm, which fee.

BAUD, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton in the diilritl
of Pontivy, 3 \ leagues fouth of Poiuivy.

BAUDANVILLER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meurtc, and chief place of a canton in the di-
ftrict of Blamont, \\ league fouth of Blamont.

BAUDEKIN. See Baldachin.

BAUDELOT, CiiARLus-CytSAR, in Biography, was
born at Paris in 1648, and ftudied firft at Beauvais, and
then at Paris. He was, againft hia inclination, bred to the

B A U

law, and pleaded as connfcllur of the parliament of Pari*
for fome time with fuccefs. But he afterwards devoted hira-
felf to the ftudy of antiquities. Having had an opportunity,
in a journey to Dijon, to vilit the libraries and cabinets of
the place, he began to make a coUcftion of bcoks and me-
dals ; and he was thus led to write a book " On the Uti-
lity of Travelling," 2 vols. i2mo, 1686, the fubject of
which was infcriptions, medals, ilatues, bas rchefs, and other
relics of antiquity. It pafled through fevcral tditior.s in
French, and was tmnflatcd into Englilh. This work intro-
duced him into an acquaintance with the mod celebrated an-
tiquaries of Europe, and waj the means of l-.is admifTion into
the academy of Ricoverati at Padua. In ITCJ, he was
made a member of the academy of Belles Lettrcs ; and he
had the charge of the valuable cabinet of the dr.chcfs of Or-
leans. He was the author of fevcral diflertations on fub-
jeCts qf Medallic hiftory and antiquities : and he is faid to
have compofed the firft travels of Paul Lucas. He died in
1722, with the charafter of a mild, modelt, and benevolent
man. Nouv. Did. Hill.

BAUD ERON,Br ICE, born at Charol!es,about the middle
of the l6th century, diilinguidied himfelf by his knowledge
in pharmacy, to which he applied with fuch fuccefs, that a
Pharmacopaia, publifhed by him in 1588, became the (landard
book for many years in France. It was founded on the
Pharm. Lyonenfis, and of Du Boys, with the obferva-
tions of Cataianus on diililled waters. Philemon Holland
tranflated it into Latin, and publirtied it in London, in folio,
1639, and at the Hague in 1640. It has been fince many
times repriiited, both in French and Latin. He alfo pub-
lifhed " Praxis de fcbribus, et de fymptomatibus in morbis in-
ternis," 4to, i620,Pari3. In the preface to this book, he fays,
he is now 80 years of age. He died three years after, 1623.
His fon, Gratian Bauderon, who was brought tip to the
fame profelTion as his father, died in 1615, aged 35 years.
HaUer Bib. Med. prad. Eloy. Dift. Hilt.

BAUDIER, Michael, hiftoriographer of Fiance un-
der Lewis XIII, was born of a noble family in Languedoc
He was the author of many works, containing valuable in-
formation, coUeiSted with greater induftry than tafle or genius.
The principal are " A general Hiftory of the feiaglio and
court of the grand Signior," 8vo, Paris, 1633 ; " A gene-
ral Hiftory of the religion of the Turks, with the life of
their prophet Mahomet, and the 4 firft caliphs," S:c. 8vo.
1636; " A Hiftory of the Adminiftration of Card, d' Am-
boife, minifter of Hate under Louis XII ;" Paris, 1634,
4to; " Hiftory of Marfhal de Thoiras," Paris, 1 644, fol. and
1666, 2 vols. l2mo. He left in MS. a hillory of Marga-
ret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI. of England, which is
faid to have been tranflated and publifhed as an original
work in England. Baudier was attached to the polite
arts, and made a coUeftion of medals and curiofities, fuel*
as his fortune would allow. The time of his death is nut
known. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

BAUDIUS, Dominic, a learned philologift, wa«
born in 1561, at Lille, in Flanders, and retired with his pa-
rents, who were of the reformed religion, from the perfecu-
tion of the duke of Alva, to Aix-la-Chapclle. After hav-
ing ftudied at Leyden, Geneva, Ghent, and ether places,
he fettled at Leyden, where he applied with affiduity to
the ftudy of jurifprudence, and was made dodtor pf laws in
1585. He vifitcd England, and then travelkd into France,
where he obtai:icd fcveral diftinguifhed patrons, and refidcd
for 10 years. In 1602, he was nominated pnieffor of elo-
quence at Leyden, and he alfo delivered lectures in hiftory
and jurifprudence. In 161 1, the States made him joint hi-
ftoriographer with MeurCus, and as fuch he wrote in po-

liftied

B A U

Vihti Latin, a " Hiftory of the Tnice." He alfo acquired
great reputation, both as a poet and profe-writer in that
language. Towards the clofe of liis lite, he incurred the
dilplealure of prince Maurice, by his harangues in favour of
eace ; and he offended many perfons by his political and re-
igious fentiments, as w«ll as by his moral conduft, which
was not fuch as to fecure refpeft. His poems indicate an
irritable temper, and abound with claflical abufe and defa-
mation ; and particularly agaiiift the enemies of Scaliger.
Moreover, he was boaftful, vain, importunate, and felfiih :
and his licentioufnefs, both with regard to wine and women,
involved him in much difgrace. He died at Leyden in
1613. His poems, which maniftft gravity and fonouroufnefs
of didlion and elevation of fcntim.ent, were firll colletled and
printed in 1587 ; and a more complete colledtion was printed
at Leyden in 1607, and reprinted at Amfterdam, and other
places. The " Letters" of Baudius, publllhed after his
death, are more cfteemed for their ftyie, than his poems.
He alfo pnblidied " Harangues," and fome other pieces,
all in Latin. Gen. Diet.

BAUDOBRICUM, or Baudobrica, in indent Geo-
graphy, a place of Gallia Belgica, upon the banlis of the
Rhine, fouth of Conflueiites. The machines of war, called
Balillx, were under the conduft of a prefeft refiding in this
place ; and the head-quarters of the general were at Mogon-
tiacuiTi, or Mayence. — Baudolrka was alfo another place of
Belgica Pnma, north-eail of Augufta Trevirorum, now Bop-
fart..

BAUDOUIN, Francis, in Latin Bald'X'tr.us, in Bio-
graphy, an eminent civilian and man of letters, was born at
Arras in 1520, ihidied at Louvain, and in his youth refided
at the court of Charles V. At Geneva he became intimate
■with Calvin, and embraced the reformed religion. In France
lie conformed to the religion of the country, and taught the
law at Bourges from 1538 to 154^. In Germany he de-
livered leftures at Strafburg, Heidelberg, and other places,
avowing himfelf a protcftant ; but by joining CafTander in a
projeft for bringing about a coalition of religions, he excited
the lafting difpleafurc of Calvin and Beza, and others of the
reformed party. He enjoyed the favour of cardinal Lorrain,
the inveterate enemy of the Calvinifts, and is fuppofed to
have induced Antony, the weak king of Navarre, to aban-
don them. By that prince he was patronized, and ap-
pointed his delegate at the council of Trent. Upon the
death of Antony in 1562, he was invited to Douay rfnd Be-
fan(;on, and finally fettled at Paris, where his reputation,
acquired by feveral learned works which he had pubhfhed,
rendered his leftures popular among perfons of the firll dif-
tinftion. The duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III, widied
to engage his pen in the julliiication of the maffacre of St.
Bartholomew's ; but to this prince he delivered his fenti-
ments like an honell man, and was fo much eilccmed by him
that he appointed him one of his counfellors of ftate. AVhilll
he was preparing to follow Henry to Polaiid, he wa^ leized
with a fever, which terminated his life at the college of
Arras in Paris in I57_'!. fie was dillinguiflied by his exten-
five knowledge, admirable memory, and perfuafive eloquence.
Notwith Handing the juil reproach which he incurred by
his vcrfatility in religion, fo that he was opprobrioufly deno-
minated an " Hermaphrodite," he appears to have been a
man of moderate and tolerating principles, and whilft he con-
demned the feverities exercifed agaiuft the Proteftants in the
Low Countries, he alfo cenfured the unjuftifiable zeal of
Calvin in the perfecution of Servetus. His I^atin flyle was
pure and elegant, and he left feveral works on the civil law,
and alfo in ecclefiallical hilloi-y and controverfy, which have
been much efleemed. Gen. Did. Nouv. \j\b.. Hill.
Vol. IV.

B A U

BAUDRAND, Michael Antont, a celebrated
geographer, was bom at Paris in 1633. When he had
finifhed his ftudies, he accompanied cardinal Antonio Bar-
bcrini as his fecretary to Rome ; and upon his return to
France, he was employed in rcvifing Ferrarius's Geograpbi-
cal Diftionary, which he enlarged by one half, and publifhed
at Paris in 1671, fol. By his travels in Germany, and his
vifit to England, he was furnifhed with a variety of obferva-
tions that were ufeful to him in tht compilation of hii geo-
graphy. Upon his return to France in 1677, he compofed
his Geographical Dictionary in Latin, intitlcd " Geographia
ordiiie hterarum difpofita ;" Paris 16S2, 2 vols. fol. Aftera-
journey to Rome in 1691, he applied himfelf at Paris to the
completion of his French Geographical Dictionar)-, which he
was prevented from publifhing by his death in the year 1700.
This work was publilhed at Paris in 1705, in folio, but it is
faid to be a corruption rather than a tranflation of the Latin
Diftionar)', printed in 1682. Gen. Dift.

BAUDROYE, in Ichthydogy, the name of the angler, or
fifiingfrog (LoPHlusPisCATORius)in Camper ath Pari/. &c.

BAUGE, in Commerce, a drugget manufaftured in Bur-
gundy, with thread, fpun thick, and coarfe wool. _ ' _

Bauge, ill Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a dillrift, in the department of the Mayne and Loire,
ieated on the river Coefnon, containing about 4000 inhabi-
tants; 6 leagues E.N.E. from Angers. N. lat. 47° 31'.
E. long. 0° 10'.

Bauge, a town of Brcffe in France, pleafantly fituated on
a fruitful hill. N. lat. 46^ 40'. E. long. 4° 54'.

BAUERWITZ, or Paurwitz, a town of Silefia,
in the province of Jagerndorf, on the river Zinna, 10 miles
N. W. from Ratibor. The neighbsurhood is a rich corn
country.

BAUHIN, John, in Biography, born at Amiens in
151 1, was early fent by his fatiier to learn the praftice of
medicine and furgery, under an uncle ol the fame name at Paris.
Here he had opportunity of hearing the leflures of Fcrne-
lius and Sylvius, and of feeing the praftice of Tagault,
then in high reputation. Under thefe celebrated mailers he
made fuch progrefs, that wdien only feventeen years of age,
he was taken into the fervice of Catherine Q_ueen of Navarre,
and made her phyfician. Reading about this time the tran-
flation of the New Teftament into Latin by Erafmus, and
becoming thence a profelyte to the reformed religion, to
avoid perfecution he came to England, but at the end of
twelve months, being affured of proteftion, he returned to
Paris. Here, however, he was fo3ii laid hold of, accufed of
herefy, and committed to prif n, whence, at the end of
eighteen months, he only efcaped with his life, through the
iiiterceffion of his patronefs, queen Catherine. Removing
from Paris, he went to Antwerp, wiiere for fome time he
taught and praclifed medicine and furgery ; but the perfecu-
tion againfl'the favourers of the new doctrines commencing
there, he fled with his family to Bafle. Here he was at firS
employed by Frobenius, the famed printer, in correfting the
pvefs, until after giving the neccffary proofs of his profi-
ciency in medicir :, he was admitted to praftice, and foon
acquired confiderable celebrity, and in 1580, was made dean
of the faculty. He died in 1582, aged 71 years. The only-
work left by him, is " Quefliones trcs medicse, totidemque
conclufiones ;" print -d at Bafle, in IJ58, fol. : probably
an academical exercife. Athense Bauricse.

Bauhin, John, fon of the former, bom at Lyons, in
1 54 1, fhewing early a difpofition to the ftudy of botany, after
going through the preliminaiy exercifes, was fent by his
father, when only twenty years of age, to accompany the
celebrated Gefner in hia excurfions over tlie greater part

£ of

B A U

of France, Germany, Italy and SwifTcrland. In diin jour-
ney he coUctled a prodigious number of plants, which fi<rmeJ
ll'.e bafis of his principal work, the " Ililloria Pbiitarum,"
which he even tlien had in Contemplation, as appears by \n»
C'>rrefpondence with Gefner, carried on long after his return,
but which was not pubiiflicd until fcveral ycnrs after his
death. Having aecompliihed the principal ohj-j.'l of h!s
travels, he tint fettled at Bade, where in 1566 he was
elcfted profclTor in rhetcric. Some time after he rcmnvtd to
Yverdun, and at length, on the invitation of the duke of
Wirtemberg, to whom he was made principal phyfician, he
went to Montbelliard, where he continued to ilUJc tlie re-
Kiaining forty years of his life. Though botiiny engaged the
g tater part of his time and attention, yet lie was not tm-
minJful of other parts of natural biftory, as appears by his
account of the medicinal properties of the principal mineral
waters of E'jrope, pzrticnlarly of the waters at Boll, in the
principality of U'jrtcmberg, wriu.cn ?.t the command of the
du'ts, to which he has added defcriptions of th-jfe com-
plaints in which mineral waters are mifchievous ; and his
" Hifloria memorabilis Inporurn sbquot [•abidorum, qui circa
ann'.uil 1590, npud Monpelgartum, mnltorum damr.o, pub-
lice graffiti funt," p>:bh(i.ed at M rtbrllinrd, 1591, 8vo.
He dud in 1613, aged 72 years. Ilis corrtfponJtnce with
Gefncr, principally on bjtanical fi-bjeils, with his booic
•' De plar tis a divir, fanftifve nomcn habertib-js," was publidi-
ed by liisbrotherGafp:ird,atBafle,8vo, ij9i,parvu!iil:biilum,
Hailerfays, ct quafi fpecimcn fecuturi operis. In 1593, he
publiilied at Moi;tbclli?.id aifo, in 8vo, " Dc plantisabfinthii
nomen habcntibus." The prodromns of his great work was
publiihcd at Yverdun, in one volume 410. in 1619, under the
names of J. Buuhin and Henry Chcrler, his brother-in-
law, who had contributed to its ■perfection. In tiiis fpeci-
mcn, Hailerfays, you fee the rudiments of a natural claffi-
fcation of plants. The " Hiiloria plantarum nova, et ahfolu-
tiffirra, cum audorum conftr.fu et dilTenfu, ciica tas," upon
which the author had bellowed above fo:ty years' labour,
was at length publiilied at Yverdun in ifijo and 1651, in
three volumes in folio, under the care of Dr. Chabre. Not-
wi'.hilanding the numerous errors in this book, many of
"which Haller fays fhould be imputed to the editor, w!io
w?.s but indifferently qualified for the tafk he had under-
taken, it is a noble and valuable work, and defervedly places
the author in the fiift rank among the inr.provers of botany.
Haller's Bib. Botan. Gen. Biog.

Bauhin, Gas?ard, born at Baile in 1560, twenty years
later than his brother John, having the advantnc;e of
hij brother's experience to guide him in his inquiries,
made proportionally early advances in knowledge. After
paffing through the neceffary preliminary [Indies, under Fa-
bricius ab Aquapendente, Sev. Pina:as, and other celebrated
anatoraiils at Padua, Montpcllier, and Paris, and liavino-
eoUedted in his travels a large number of plants, many of
them unnoticed by his brother, he returned to Bafle in 1580,
and was admitted doclorin medicine. In 1582, he was made
Greek profelFor, and in 1558, profefTor of anatomy and bo-
tany, of which he is called in his epitaph the Phceuix.
He was afterwards made profeflbr of the practice of medicine,
archiater, or principal phyfician to tlie city of Bafle, dean
of the faculty of medicine, and reftor of the univerfity,
which dillinguifhed honours lie continued to hold to the
time of his death, which happened in 1634.

Indefatigable iu his attention to the duties ofhisfeveral
offices, he difcharged them with fuch regularity as to fe-
curc to him the affeition of his pupils, wlio materially affitled
him in coUtfting plants, neceffary in completing his botani-
cal works, to which alfo his correfpondcnts ia different
parts of Europe largely contributed.

B A U

Kutwitliftanding the mimher and variety of his oflicet,
much of his time nuiil have been employed in conipolii-.g and
preparing for the prefs his numerous pi'.blications on ana-
tomy and botany ; and though great additions and irnprove-
mtnts have been made in our knowledge in thofc fciencej
fince his time, many of our autlun's works are dill confulted,
and IkIJ in eilin-.ation. A few of the titles to his principal
works follow : for the relV, fee the Bib. Anat. and Bot. of
Haller. " Franc. Rouffetti 1. de jiartu ca;fareo, e Gallico in.
Latinum tranf." 410. 1586, Bade. Two years afttj- he rt pub-
lirtieJ this work with an appendix, coniairiing additional cafvs
of women who are faid to have undergone the operation and
recovered ; to which is alfo added a dcfcription of the valve
of the colon, of which he claimed the difcovery. " Thea»
trum Anatomicum, infinitis locis audum, Francof." i62r,
4to. including feveral fmaller works on anatomy, pubiiflicd
bv him before at various times. " Vivx imagines partiuin
corporis humaui a:neisformis expreffa;, ex theatro anatomico
Cafp. Bauhini defuniptse ;" Balle 1620. The r:gurts are
principally from V'cfilius and Enilachius : fome are proper
to the author. In this work r.llo are contained otiier difco-
vcriis in anatomy made by the author. " Deherniaphrodi-
tornm monllrofurimique partium natv.ra," Opcnheim, 1618,
8vo. In I J98, he pubhihed " Matthioli opera, qua: extant
omnia," fol. Franc, in which tiiere arc many plants, Haller
fays, not before dcfcribcd. " Pinax tlieatri botanici, feu
Index in Theophrafti Diofcorldis, Piinii, et botanicorum
qui a feculo icripferant opera," &c. Balilcce 1623, 4to. a
work extremely ufcful to perfons confulting the older bota-
nical writers. " Catalogus plantarum circa B.:fdeam naf-
centium," Bafil. 1622, Svo ; the largefl catalogue extant,
Haller fays, of plants growing in a fingle di(lri(^t.

BauhiN, John Gaspard, fon ot the former, bom
March I 2th 1606, after being well inllnifted in the Latin
and Greek languages, and initiated in the knowledge of bo-
tany, anatomy, and other branches of medicine under his
father, went to Paris in 1624, where he continued two years,
attending the fchools of the mod celebrated mafters there.
He afterwards vifited England, Leydcn, Padua, and various
other places ; the fame of his anccilors procuring hiri an tafy
introduttion, wherever he went, to the mod diilingui(hcd
perfons. Returning to Bade in 1628, he was made doftor
in medicine, and two years after profcffor in anatomy and
botany, which ofRces he held for thirty years. In 1660,
he was made profeiior in the pradice of medicine, and was
feveral limes appointed dean of the faculty, and redtorof the
univerfity. He died July 14. 1685.

Notwithflanding the numerous iionours conferred upon
him, he does not appear to have contributed much to the
improvement of thefcicncc he pvofcfied, having only left three
differtations of little note or value. " De pcile, de morbo-
rum differe!Uiis et caufis, ct de Epilepfia."

BAUHINIA, fo named by Plumicr in honour of the
two famous botanifts, John and Cafpar Bauhin, in Bo/any.
Lin. gen. 51 1. Reich. 554. Schreb, 697. Plum. 13. Jnff. 351.
Clafs and order, ihcaniiria moim^yiiia. Nat. Old. /omentuceie r
kj;uniinala' Juff. Gen. Char. Cul. perianth oblong, gaping
longitudinally on the lower fide, reclining on the other, gaping
alfo live ways at the bafe, with live cohering leaflets above,
deciduous. Cor. petals five, oblong, waved, with attenu-
ated reflected tops, expanding ; the lower ones a little larger,
the upper ones more dillant, ail with claws placed on the
calyx. Sltim. filaments 10, declining, (horter than the co-
rolla; the tenth mueh the longell ; anthers ovate, alway: on
the tenth, felJ.om on the reft. Pi/L germ oblong, littiiio; oa
a pedicel; (lyle filiform, declining; ftigma obtufe, riling.
Per. legume long, fubrolumnar, one-celled. Seei/j many,
loundilb, comprcfTtd, placed according to the length of the

legume.

T5 A U

If^feme. EiT. Char. Cal. five-ckft, deciduoiij. Pet. expanJ-
iiig, oblong, with claws, the upper one more dillant, all in-
fcrted into the calyx. Legume. Species. i. B.JianJens,
•limbing mountain ebony. Folium lingux, Rumph. Amb.
^. t. I. Clematitis Indica, Ray Suppl. 328. n. 1 3 Sc 14.
Kaga-mu-valli, Rheed. Mai. 8. 57. t. 30, 31. " Stem cir-
vhiferous." Riling with n^any {lender ftalks, wliich put
out tendrils and fallen themfclves to the neighbouring trees ;
leaves alternate, heart-lliapiid, on long foot Ualks, fix inches
long, three and a half broad in the niiddlt, deeply cirt irito
two-pointed lobes, each liaving three prominent longitudinal
libs ; flowers at firll wiiitiH), turning to a yellowifli colour ;
fruit (lender and flat, containing fix or eight fiat bony feeds,
black with a filvcry border. A native of both Indies, not
producing flowers in England. The feeds were fcnt to Mr.
Miller from Campeachy, probably before the year 1 752. — 2.
B. aculeala, prickly, llalkcd mountain E. " ilem prickly."
An eretl inelegant fhrub, abo^it a man's height ; trunk and
branches prickly, leaves roundiih, with two roundifli blunt
lobes ; cloven to one-third of their depth, fmootli with nine
nerves ; petiole thicker and callous at both ends, from the
bafe of which proceeds on each fide a (harp (hort prickle,
dilHlling when young ncclareous drops ; flowers large, white,
ard having an unplealanl fcent ; riling, in Jamaica, to the
height of fixteen or eighteen feet, and plentitul there and in
the other fugar iOands of America ; the flowers are fucceed-
cd by pods, about three inches long, containing two or three
fwelling feeds ; the pods are glutinous, and thefe, as well as
the bruifed leaves, have a ftrong balfamic fcent ; called in
America the Indian favin-tree, from its llrong odour, which
foraewhat refemblesthe common favin. It is frequent about
Carthagena in woods; cnltivated by Mr. Miller in 1752. —
3. B. divarkala, dwarf mountain E. "leaves fmooth, lobes
divaricated, acute, two-nerved ; petals lanceolate." A low
(hrub, feldom rTing more than five or fix feet high, dividing
into feveral branches ; corolla, white, and flowers in a fimple
upright raceme; having an agreeable fcent, appearing dur-
ing the greatell part of fummtr, and exliibiting one of the
chief beauties of the hot-houfe : the pods are taper, about
four inches long, and contain four or five d.;rk-colourtd feeds.
A natiye of the north fide of Jamaica, where it grows plen-
tifully ; cultivated by R. J. Lord Petre, before 1 742 ; flower-
ing from June to September. — 4. ^. un^nhi'.a, "leaves ovate,
lobes parallel," differing from the others in its more oblor.g
leaves, entire at the bafe, cloven to the middle into two
llraight parallel lobes, and having nine nerves. The calyx is
long, llreaked, and of a grey colour; the petals are fubulate,
ftamens alternately (hortcr ; legume veiT long, pendulous. It
rifes to the height of twenty feet, with a fmooth ilem, dividing
into many fmall branches, terminated by loofe bunches of
wliite flowers, which are fucceeded by veiy long, narrow,
compreded pods, each including eight or ten feeds. A native
of America ; the feeds were received by Mr. Miller from Cam-
peachy. — 5. B. vuriegaia, variegated mountain E. Arbor
S. Thomx, Zanon. Hift. 26. t. 15. Chovanna-Mandaru ;
1. Rheed. Mai. 1. 57. t. 32. " Calyxes one-leafed, burfting ;
petals fcffile, ovate ; lobes of the leaves ovate obtufe." It riles
with a llrong ilem, upwards of twenty feet high, dividing
into many ftrong branches ; flowers large, in loofe panicles,
at the extremity of the branches, of a purplifli red colour,
marked with white, and the bottom yellow- ; pods about fix
inches long, and J of an inch broad, each containing three
or four compreded feeds. Grov.ing naturally in both Indies,
and introduced here by Mr. Bentick in 1 690. — fi. Yi. purpurea,
purple mountain E. Chovanna-Mandaru ; 2. Rheed Mai. I.
59. t. 33. " Leaves fubcordate, two parted, nninded, tu-
iiientofc underneath." A tall tree, differing from tke fore-

B A 17

going in having larger leaves, more deeply cut, and more
contrafted on the fides ; the calyx is yellowifh green, and
red ; the corolla of a very red purple, and one petal out of
the five llreaked with white on the claw within and without;
all lanceolate and dillant ; legumes larger than thofe of any
other fort, being one and half or two fpans long, and aa
inch broad. A native of the Eall Indies, where it flov.'er»
through the year. Introduced here in 1778. — 7. B. tomen-
tofa, downy mountain E. Mandani Maderafpatenfe. Pluk.
Aim. 240. t. 44. f. 6. Canfchena-pou, Rheed. Mai. 1.63.
1.35. " Leaves cordate, lobes femi-orbiculate tomentofe."
This gi jws to the height of two fathoms, with a trunk nearly
fix inches in diameter, and divides into many branches i
leaves fmallcr than thofe of the foregoing, rounded, clovea
half way, feven-ncn'cd and blunt, with rounded lobes ; hav-
ing a ftrong fcent if rubbed during the night, when the lobe*
are clapped together ; the calyx of tlie flowers green and
bell-(haped, the corolla yellowifh white ; one of the pctali
having a duflty red purple fpot at t!;e claw; ftamens yellow,
ifli white ; flowers without fmell. A native of tlie Ead
Indies. Cultivated, fays Ray, by Coir.pton biiTiop of Lon-
don, in 1607 — 8. B. acumir.ata, fliarp-leaved mountain E.
Velutta-Mandaru, Rheed. Mai. i. 61 . t. 34. " Leaves ovate,
lobes acuminate femi-ovate." Thisrifes to a man's height.
With a trunk as thick as his arm ; leaves more deeply cut,
longer, contrafled in.toacufp or point towards the end, nine-
nerved, lefs divaricated; flowers bell-(hapcd, pure white, with-
out fceat ; petals rounded and blunt ; ftamens white ; legumes
fmallcr than in the others, being four or five inches long, aa
inch broad, fmooth, with a round broad back. A native
of the Eaft Indies-. 9. B. emar^ina/a, " ftera prickly, leave*
cordate with round lobes, ton.entofe underneath ;" feldom
rifing more tiiau ten feet high, dividing into many branches,
armed with faort crooked fpines ; leaves alternate, heart-
(hap;d, with two roundifli lobes; flowers two or three toge-
ther at the extremity of the branches, large, of a dirty
white colour, and fucceeded by flat pods, each containing
two or three feeds. — 10. B. rotunJiihi, " ilem prickly, leave*
fubcordate, two-parted, rounded, flowers fcattered ;" rifing
twenty feet high, with a llrong upright ftem, fending out
branches towards the top, armed with fpines in pairs, ftrong
and crooked ; leaves like the former ; flowers large ana
white, fucceeded by long flat pods, narrow, and eac'u incltid-
ing five or fix feeds. This and the preceding are natives of
Carthagena in New Spain. — 1 1. B. aur'stn, long-eared moun-
tain E. " Leaves fubtranfverfe at the bafe, lobes lanceo-
late, porrecled, three-nerved ; petals. lanceolate." Culti-
vated by I^Ir. Miller, in 1756, and flowering in September.
— 12. V>. porreSa, Imcoth bioadleaved mountainE. " Ltavei
cordate, lobes porrcdled, acute, three-nerved, petals lanceo-
late." A tree rifing about fifteen feet high, with fevei-al
ftraight trunks, thick as a man's kg, covered with a whitiiTi
bark, dividing into mariy branches and twigs ; leaves three
inches long and two broad, yellowlfh-green, fmooth, with
feven or more ribs, and fome tranfycrle ; the petioles an
inch long ; the fioweri at the cnd= cf the twigs, on pe-
dicels half an inch long ; petals long, red-white varie-
gated or ftriatcd ; ftamens long and white ; legumes five or fix
inches long, brown. Growiiiv on the hills in Jamaica. The
wood very hard, and veined with black, wlicnce the name
of ebony. CuHivated by Mr. Miller, in 1739, and flower-
ing in July. — 13. B. .an'\ihi, white-leaved mountain E.
" Leaves cordate, pu! tfeent underneath, lobes ovate, ob-
tufe ; calyxes attenuated Ujiwatds and elongated." A na-
tive of the Eaft Indies, introduced by Dr. P. RulTel in
1777; flowering in May and June. There are mjny
•ther fpccic* boUi from the Eaft and Welt Indies, not

E 2 yet

B A U

B A'U

yet fufficientlf determined. The whole genui needs far-
ther invclligation.

Propagation. — All tliefe plants, being natives of hot coun-
tries, will not thrive in England out of ihe bark-llove.
They are propagated by feeds, procured from their native
countries, whicli (liould be brought over in their pods.
Thefc mud be fown in pots filled with light frefh eartli, and
plunged into a moderate hotbed of tanner's bark ; and if the
feeds be good, they will come up in fix weeks, and in a month
after they (hould be carefully (haken out of the feed pot,
without injuring their roots, and each of them planted in
a fcparate fmall pot tilled with light loamy earth, and plunged
again into the hot-bed, rtiading them till they liavc taken
frefli root, and then admitting frefh air to them every day in
warm weather. In autumn they mull be placed in the bark-
ftove, and treated like other tender exotics, giving them but
little water in winter. As thcfe plants frequently flower in
winter, they defervea place in the Hove. Martyn's Miller's

uia.

BAVINS, in JVar, faggots, made of birch, heath, or
other fort of brufh-wood, that is both quickly fued and
tough, 2-i or 3 feet long, with the brufli-cnds all laid one
way, and the other ends tied with two bands. Tiiey are
dipped and fprinkltd with fulphur, like reeds, excepting only
that the brufli-ends only are dipped, and (hould be clofed to-
gether before they are fprinkled, to keep them more clofe, in
order to give a tlronger fire, and to keep the branches from
breaking off in fhiftingand liandling them. See Fascines.
B.-^ULA, in Ancient Geography, a diflrift of Italy in
Campania, between Baia; and the Lucrine lake, formed, ac-
cording to Tacitus, by the fea ; and the feat of many coun-
try houfes.

BAULA3, in G:ojraphy, a town of Syria, 50 miles eaft
of Damafcus.

BAULEM's Kill, a weftern \Tater of Hudfon's river, 8*
miles beluw Albany.

BAULOT, or BEAULIEU, James, in Biography, of
mean and obfcure parentage, was born in the province of
Burgundy, in 1651. Becoming acquainted wiili Pauloni,
an Italian itinerant lithotomift, he travelled with him, as an
afTiftant, for Tome years ; but having at length, from obferya-
tion, acquired the art of cutting for the Hone, and of curing
ruptures, he f.-paratcd from him, and foon became celebrated
for his fkill in both thufe arts. Though illiterate, and totally
unacquainted v.i;h anatomy, yet he is faid to have confider-
ably improved on the method of operating ufed by his maf-
ter ; and even to have approached very near the mode now fol-
lowed by the moft celebrated furgeons. Following tlie lleps
of Pauloni, he vifited in turn all the principal cities on the
continent. In 1G97, he went to Paris, where he at firft
operated with hiccefs, but failing in fome cafes, he went to
Geneva, Aix-Ia-Chapel!e, and Aiu(lerd-un : in each of vl.ich
places he was much rcforted to ; for having both improved
his inftruments, and his mode of ufing them, he was now
generally fuccefsful. He next went to Strafburg, where he
cut fuccefsfully a great number of patients, then to Venice,
Padua, and Rome, evciy where acquiring additional fame
and reputation. He was of a fingular difpufition, and wore
a fort of monkifh habit, whence he became generally known
by the title of Friar James. He at length fettled in a vil-
lage near Befanjon, where he died, 1720, being f:xty-ninc
years of age. In gratitude for the numerous cures he had
performed at Amllerdam, the magiftvacy of that city caufed
his portr;iit to be engraved, and a medal to be llruck, bearing
for imprefs his bufl. HallerBib. Cliirurg. Gen. Biog. Did.
BAULTE, in Geography, a river of Pruffia, which runs
into the Frifch HafF, a little below Frauenbiirg.

BAUM, in Botany. See Melissa.

Baom, B.ijlard. See Melittis.

Baum, Aiotucca. See MoLuccELLA.

Bacm, Moldavian zni^Turley. See Dracocfpiialum,

BAUM A, in Ancient Giography, a town of Ethiopia near
Egypt. Pliny.

BAUM^E, an ancient town of Afia, in Mefopotamia,
fealcd, according to Ptolemy, on the Euphrates.

BAUM AN, a remarkable cave in Loner Saxony, about i3
miles from Goflar; which has a narrow entrance, but within
is fpacious, and has many winding paths. The peafant*
travcrfe it in fearch of bones, which they fell for unicorn's
horns. Some fay that it extends as far as Goflar ; and fl<ele-
lons have been found in it, fuppofed to be thofe of men who
have been loft in its devious windings.

BAUM.\NNIANA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Pha-
1, .EN A (7c//7/v.r) that inhabits Autlria. The anterior wings
are yellow, with two ferruginous anallomifing bands bor-
dered with filver: pollerior one interrupted. Fahricius.

BAUME, Anthony, in Biography, chemilt and apo-
thecaiy, born at Senlis, February 26th, 1728. Applying'
carlv and diligently to the fludy of chemiflry and pharmacy,
he was fooVi dillingullhed for his fnperior attainments in thofe
arts. In 1752 he was received into the company of apothe-
caries at Paris, and in 1773 made a member of tlie Royal
Academy of Sciences. He was alio feveral years lefturer ill
chemiflry, an office he tilled with diflinguil'icd credit to
hi.mfelf, and advantage to his pupils. In 1757 lie publilhed,
in conjunclion with doftor Macqucr, " Plan d'un Couis do
Chymie experimentale et raifonnee, avec un diiconrs hifto-
rique lur la Chymie ;" 8vo. Paris. " Elemens de Pharmacie
theoiique ct pratique;" Paris 1762, 8vo. " Manuel de
Chymie, ou expofedes operations," &c. Paris, 1763, 8vo.
Thefe two works have paffed through feveral editions. He
alfo publiihed " Memoircs fur les Argilles, ou reciierches et
experiences chymiqucs ct phyfiques fur la nature des terre&j,
les plus propres a I'agriculture, et fur les moyens de lertilifer
celles qui font ileriles," Paris, 8vo. 1770, which was v.cU
received. Eloy Ditl. Hift.

Baume, St. in Geography, a mountain of France in the
department of Var, between Aix, Marfeillts, and Toulon,
It is much frequented from a fupcrflitious notion that Mary
M.Tgdalen died in this place.

Baume Bay. See Balsam Bay.

BAUMER,JoHN^V^ILHAM, m BiograpBy, a German na-
turalifl and phylician, was born at Rhtweilerin 1719, ftudied
philofophy and medicine at Jena and Halle, and after having
been fettled as a clergyman, in 1743, at Krauthcim, returned
to Halle to fludy medicine, and in 1 7.1.S, took the degree
of dodtor in that fcience. He afterwards became firll pro-
feffor of medicine at Erfurt, where he died Augiift 4, 1788.
His principal works are " Natural Hiilnry of the Mmeral
Kingdom, particularly in regard to Tliuringia. Gotha, 1763,
1764, 2 vols. 8vo. " Hi'loria Naturalis lapidum pretioforum
on-.nium," &c. Frankfort, 1771, 8vo. " Fiindamenta politijE
medics," &c. " Frankfort and Lipf. 1777, Svo. " Fuii-
damenta Geographix et Hydrographix Subterranesc." Gif,
1779, Svo. and " Hilloria Naturalis Regni Mineralogici,
ad naturx duclutn tradita." 1780, 8vo. Gen. Biog.

"BAUMES, Les Dames, or Baumes Les Nones, in
Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a diflriA
in the department of Doubs, on the river Doubs, 5 leagues
N. E. of Befan^on, and Sj N. of Pontailier. It derives its
origin from an abbey of canoneffes, which is faid to have
been founded in the 5th century, by St. Romain, abbot of
Condat. Others aifert that it was founded in the 7th cen-
tury. About 5 miles from this town is fhewn a remarkable
8 cavern.

B A U

B A U

eavenii in which, after defcending 300 pacei, is found the
rate of a grotto, twice as large as that of a city. The p;rotto
is ^5 paces deep, and fio wide, and covered with a kind of
Taulted roof, from which water continually drops. In this
grotto is a fmall brook, that is faid to be frozen in fum-
mer and not in winter. When the pealants ohfervs a rr.ift.
rifmg from this cavern, they predict rain on the follow-
ing day.

BAUMGANS, in Ornithology, the name of the bemacle
goofe ; Akas Bernicla, in Fnfch H'lj). Birds.

BAUMGARTEN, Alex'andep. Gottlieb, in Bio-
graphy, an eminent philofophical writer, wa"! born at Berlin
in 1 7 14, and educated at Halle. Here he nillinguilhed liim-
felf by his private lectures in philofophy ; and after having
officiated for fome time as extr?.ordlnar)' profetTor he was in-
vited in 1740 to be profeffor of philofophy at Frankfort on
the Oder. His c.^nllitution, b-,:ing natin.uiy feeble, was much
impaired before the year i 75 1 by clofe application to ftudy,
and his infirmities were aggravated by the lofs of a great part
of his property, during the bombardment of the fortrefs of
Caftriii, whither he had fled for {helter. In 1760, his health
beii"' in fome degree reftorcd, he refumed his labours with
rew ardour; but in 1762 he was carried off by a ftroke of
the apoplexy ; having ellabhfhed the character of an acute
and found philofopher, who united to an exten five acquaint-
ance with the fciences, a diltinguiflied accuracy of judgment,
and an agreeable chearfulnefs of temper. His principal
works are " Melophyfica ;" Halle, 173Q, 1743, Svo. pub-
lifhed in German by Meyer, with many alterations, ar.d re-
pnblilhed by profeffor Eberhard : " Ethica Philofophica ;"
Halle, 1740, 1751, 8vo. " TEfthetica." Frankf. in Oder.
1750, 175S, Svo. and " Initia Philofophiae Pra<SticK Primas;"
Frankf. 1 760, Svo. Gen. Biog.

Baumgarten, Siegmund jacol, brother of the above,
was born in 1706 at Wclminlladt on the Ohra, and having
itudicd at Halle became profeffor of theology. He died in
1757, leaving numerous '.writings on theological fubjects, and
many tranflationn of French and EngUlh works into German.
Gen. Biog.

Baumgarten, in Geo-rraphy, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria, 6 miles weft of Feltfbnrg.

Baumgarten', a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim, 3 miles weft of Poiitzka.

BAUMHOLDER, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Rhine, and duchy of D^ux Fonts, 10 miles weft of
Lautercck, and 25 nortli of Deux Fonts.

BAUMSWALDT, a foreft of Pruffia, on the borders
cf Lithuania, about 10 leagues long and 7 wide.

BAUNACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of Fran-
conia, and bifnopric of Bamberg, near the river Mayne ;
7 miles north of Bamberg. This is alfo the name of a canton
of Swabia, fo called from the river Baunach, which runs into
tlie Mayne.

BAVOSA, in Icbihyolo^y, a name given by the Italians
to a fpecies of Ray, called by modern naturaliils Raja Oxy-
rinchus, which fee.

BAVO TA, Pacavita, in ^iicinit Geography, a town of
Italy in Japvgia.

BAUR, BAWR, orBOUWER, John William, in
Biography, an em.inent painter of landfcapes and architecture,
was born at Straiburg in 1610. After having been thedifci-
ple of Frederick Brendel, he went to Rome for improvement ;
but though he pofleffed great genius and a fertile im.agination,
and refided for a confiderable time in and about Naples and
Rome, where he devoted hinifelf entirely to architedture and
landfcapes, he retained the German tafte in all his figures,
and neglected the lludy of nature or the antiq^uc ; fo that he

never arrived at a grandeur of defign. However his pencil
was light, bis compofition good, and his general exprefiion
beautiful, though his figures were fomewhat heavy. His
paintings in water-colours on vellum are held in theiiigheft
eftimation. For the duke of Bracciano, at v/hofe court he
relided for feveral years, he finilhed fome charming ptrfpcc-
tive views of gardens, with ftatues and fountains, and a num-
ber of elegant buildings, with many figures, coaches, cattle,
and horftmen ; and he generally diilinguiflied people of dif-
ferent nations by their appropriate drefs. This artill alfo en-
graved a great number of plates from his own defigns. His
engravings from the Metamorphofes of Ovid are generally
preferred to the reft. They are ilightly etched, and re-^
touched with the gnivir. The figures are fmall, and incor-
reftly drawn. The back grounds are dark and heavy, and
the trees are deftitute of that hghtnefs and freedom, which
would render the effect agreeable. His pieces of arcliitcc-
ture are well executed, and the perfpeftive finely prefervcd.
In his ftyle of engraving he feems, in fome degree, to have
imitated Callot, and the nerrtr he approaches it, the better
are his productions. Tlie Metamorphofes confift of 150
middling-fized plates. Baur died at Vienna in 1640. Piik-
ington and Strutt.

BAUR AC, an ancient name for nitre, but in fome places
ufed in a reftraineJ fenfe, as not fignifying every thing that
was called by that name, but only one of two diiferent falt»
that were confufedly called nitre.

The Arabians give the name baurach to tincar or lineal,
which when refined is called borax, but when it is rough, in
little cryftalhne mafTes like the fmall cryftals of fa! gem, mixed
with earth or other impurities, it is always dittinguilhed by
the nameof //nf<(/. Neumann, p. 227. See Natros.

BAURINKEL, in Geography, a town of Germany, iii
the circle of Weltphaha, and county of Lingen, 6 miles N. E.
of Lingen.

BAUSCH, Leonard, in Biography, a phyGcIan of
Schwtinfurd in Franconia, acquired confiderable rep'.itation
by his commentaries on the works of Hippocrates, pnbliftied
1594, folio, at Madrid. His fon, John Laurence Baufch,
born at Schweinfurd, September 30th 1605, after the ufual
fchool education at home, vifited the principal feminaries i:i
Germany, France, and Italy, and was made dodtor iii me-
dicine at Altdorf in 1630. He had the merit of forming s
fociety of phyficians, in 1652, who met at ftated periods,
and communicated fuch obfcrvations in philofophy and me-
dicine as occurred in their praftice, and feem.ed deferving of
being preferved. This, in time, gave birth to the Academia
Nature Curioforum, of which he was the firft prefident, and
in 1671 they began to pubhdi their memoirs, under the title
of " MifccUanta Curiofa, Medico-Phyfica, Academia: Na-
turiE Ci.'.oforum," 4to. The fociety ftill continue their
meetings, and have pnbliftied near feventy volumes of tha
Mifcellanv. Haller Bib. Med. Praft. Eloy. Did. Hift.

BAUSCHWITZ, in Geography, a town of Sikfia, in
the principality of Neyfze, 8 miles E. tJ. E. of Neyfze.

BAUiSi\, or Bautko, a town of Courland, ieated on
the rive- Mufa, on the frontiers of .Poland. It was taken
by the Swedes, under Guftavus Adolphus, in 1625, and by
the RuiTians under Czar Peter, in 1705, after a bloody bat-
tle between the Ruffians and Swedes. N. lat. 56° 30'. E.
long. 24'' 4Ji/.

BAUTSCH, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Prerau,
18 miles N. of Prerau.

BAUTZEN, or Budiszin, the capital of Upper Lu-
fatia, in Germany, fituate in the circle of Budifzin, on the
river Spree, fubject to the elector of Saxony, and fortified
by a citadel, called the Caftle of Ortenburg, ftanding on a

high

B A \V

13 A W

high rocV, and fcparated from the town Viy a ditch anil ram-
p.Mts. Tliis citadel was founded before tl.c town, wliicli had
it^ rrfi; in tlic 9th century. This town had formerly a con-
fiderablc manufacture of linen, hats, ftockings, and gloves,
and atfo of glazed leather, cloth, fiiltian, a:c. It has fre-
quently fiid'erid much from firo. It was taken by the Pruf-
lians in 1757 ; and after their retreat, taken ponKTion of by
the citize:!S. The Lutherans and Catholics are allowed the
free cxercife of their religion. N. lat. 51*^ 10'. E. long.
.4° 42'.

BAUX, Les, or Baulx, in Latin Bahiiim, a town of
Trance, in the department of the months of tlie Rlione,
and chief place of a canton in the dillricl of Tavafcon,
feated on a hill havii.g a (Irong caille, formerly an indepen-
dent barony, and afterwards a marquifatc. N. lat. 43'' 42'.
E. long. 5° o'.

Baux IJlanii, a nsme given by captain Marchand to a
final! illand of the Paciiic ocean ; being one of the group
called Her^cll's iflands near tlic Marquelas, and denominated
by Hergtd, S\r Henry Martin's IJlnnd ; which fee.

BAWD, a pcrlon who keeps a place of prollitution, or
makes a trade of debauchmg women, and procuring or con-
ducing criminal intrigues. Some think the word is derived
from the old French baiide, bold or impmliriil ; tliough Ver-
llcgan has a conjefture which would carry it higlicr, viz.
from bal/jf, anciently written ba</i: In which fenfe, bawd ori-
ginally imported no mire than bath-holder, as if bagnios had
anciently been the chief fcencs of fuch prollitution. The
Romans had their male as well as female bawds ; the former
denominated Lnoncs and pro<i'^o^i, among us pamlcrs ; the
latter, Liit.

By a law of Corllantinc, bawds were to be puniflied by
pouring melted lead down their throats.

BAWDER, in Gfo^ruphy, a river of England, which
runs into the Tees, about 3 miles N. N. W. of Barnard-
caftle in the coi'.ntv of Durham.

BAWD-MONEY, in Botouy. See .^Ethvsa Meum.
BAWDSEY Havf.n, in d-o^rajt/jy, a fmall bay or an-
choring place near the fouth point of the coaft of Suffolk,
foraied by th.e ocean, and the mouth of the fmall river Dc-
beii, about a league to the call of Languard fort.

BAWDY-HousE, a houfe of ill-farne, to which lewd
perfons of both fexes refort for the pvuj)ofe of licentious
and criminal indulgence. Houfcs of tliis kind, under the
dcnominalioii of brothels and Hews, are licenfcd in fome
countries ; and in England they were privileged by patent,
regulated by Itatute, and tolerated as a neceffary drain for
corruption, from the reign of Henry 11. to the hill year of
Henry VIII. when t!iey were fuppreflcd by found of trum-
pet ; and their fuppriffion was perhaps attended with
greater folcmnity than that of the convents. Tleir fup-
preffion, however, failed to extirpate lewdnefs ; and Lati-
mer (Sermons, p. 43.), wliofc fermons are replete with a
barbarous eloquence, inveighs bitterly at its fubfequent pre-
valence. In 1 650, the repeated aft of keeping a brotiicl, and
alfo of committing fornication, was, upon a I'econd co;;vi.'i:on,
made felony without benefit of clergy. L'ut at the rcllora-
tion, vyhen hypocrify deviated into the extreme of hccntiouf-
liefs, it was not thought proper to renew a law of fuch un-
fafhionable rigour. The keeping of a bawdy-houfe is co"-.
niz:i'.)!c by the temporal law, as a common nuifance, not
only becaufe it endangers the public peace by drawing to-
gether diffolute and debauched perfons, aiid proniotin<T
quarrels, but becaufe it tends to corrupt the manners of the
people by an open profeffion of iewdnefs. (3 Inft. 205.
I Hawk. P. C. c. 74.) Thofe who keep bawdy-lioufcs arc
puoilhed with fine aad imprifonmciit, and alfo fuch infamous

ptinift-.ment, as pillory, &c. as the cotirt fliall inflidt ; and
a lodger, who keeps oniy a fingle room for the ufc of
bawdry, is indiftablc for keeping a bawd} -houfe. (i Salk.
382.) Perfons rcforting to a bav.dy-houle are punifliable ;
and they may be bound to tluir good behaviour. Cut if a
pcrfon be indldl.d for keeping or frequenting a bawdy-houfe,
it mull be exprefiily alleged to be fuch a houle, and that the
party knew it, and not by fufpicion only. (Poph. 208.) A
man may be indicted for keeping bad women in his own
houfe. (i. Hawk. P. C. c. 61. 5. 2.) A condable, upon
information that a man and woman are gone to a lewd
houfe, or abuut to commit fornication or adalteiy, may, if
he finds them together, carry them before a julUce of
peace without any v.'anant, aiid the juflice may bind them
ov^r to the ftflioiis. (Dalt. 214.) Conllablcs may cntLr
bawdy-houfes, call others to their affillancc, and arreft the
ofrenders for a breach of the peace. In London, they
may carry them to prifon ; and by the cullom of the city,
whores and bav.ds may be carted. (3 lull. 2oC») By Hat.
25 Geo. II. c. 3C. made perpetual by flat. 28 Geo. II.
c. 19. if two inhabitants, paying fcot and lot, fliall give no-
tice to a conllable of any perlon keeping a bawdy-houfe,
the conlloble Hiall go with tlie.ii before a juiUce of peace,
and fliall, upon the oath of fuch inhabitants, that they be-
lieve the contents of fuch notice to be tiiie, and theii- enter-
ing into a recognizance of 20I. each, to give material evi-
dence of the ofience, enter into a recognizance of 30I. to
prolecute with cfTcCt fuch perfon for Inch offence at the
next ielTions. The conllable fliall be paid his rcafonablc ex-
pences by the overfeers of the poor, afcertainable by two
jullices ; and upon conviclion of the offender, the overfcirs
ftiali pay thj two inhabitants lol. each. A conllable, nc-
gleding his duty, forteits 2ol. Any ptrfon appearing as
mailer or miilrtls, or as having the care or management of
any bawdy-houfe, fliall be deemed the keeper of it, and lia-
ble to be puniflied as fuch. A wife may be indicted and fet
in the pillory tc/V/i her hufband, for keeping a brothel ; for
this is an olicnce refpefting the domeftic aconomy and go-
veniment of the houfe, in which the wiie lias a principal
fliare ; and it is fuch an offence as the law picfumcs to be
genet ally condudtd by the intrigues of the female fex.
I Hauk. P.C. 2, 3.

BAWLING, among Htiiitcrs, is fpokcn of tiie dog^,
when they are too bufy before they find the fcent good.

BAWN, or Bak, derived from the Tcutonick buivm, to
co..lhuct and fecurc with branches of trees, in y'nti'^nily, an
area enclofcd with thick ditclies of earth fquare or circuh.r,
impaled with wooden lliikes or the branches of trees, ai.d
lunouncied with a deep trench. This was called in Irifli
tiahigeau, a word of Celtic origin. Numerous remains of
inch fortrefles are found not only in various parts of Ireland,
but alfo in Britain, Germany, Sweden, and almoft every
country of Europe. The Irilh gave great trouble to the
Englifli for many centuries by fortifying pafils between tl:^
bogs and mountains in this manner, fo that it was a tedious
work to cut through tiiem, a;.d make the roads pafl'able.
Tills vvas czW^d p'li/iiiiig a pafs, from the Franco-Gallic v.ord
f)/a/fer, which, like biiiven, fignifies to entwine ; and it con-
lilled in fecuring the top of the vallum with flicks interlaced
with branches. Before the Englifli invafion, each family of
the Irilh is fuppofed by Mr. Ledwich. to have hvcd in a mud
cabin furrourded by a bcu'n. The Englifli introduced ealUes,
in which they v/ei't imitated by the natives. In couife of
tim.e, laivn came to fignify an inclofure witli a wall, inllead
of plaflitrd Hakes ; and we find queen Elizabeth and James I.
requiring thofc to whom grants were made, to conlliudl
callics with Liizun:, or courts round them, for the prottdtioa
2 of

B A X

•f fTicir families and tenants. Wlien tlie grant wa? not vtry
ctiiifidcTablc, a ba.vii with n horJ'e witliii; it \v:\s fnfticicnt.
Of tiis latter kind was NnmUlr-n's baivii, in the county of
Ar:naT;h, wli'ch is tr.e:itit)ned in Dean Swift's works, and
wiiich now gives name to a village in tlit^t county. This
was bu'lt of lime and Hone, eiglity feet fquare, with two
round towers for fliiiikers, and two ftories hisrh, vaulted,
the wall itfelf being thirteen feet high. Within the bawn
was a !;oufe of lime and ilonc, thirty-iix feet long and
twenty feet brond. Farther particulars may be found in
Ledwich's Antiquities of Ireland, p. i88 — 196.

BAWOROW, in Geop-aphy, a town of Red RufTia,
in the p ilatinate of Ltvnberg, 64 miles eaft of Lemberg.

IjAWT, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak-
Agcmi, 80 miles north of Ifpahan.

BAWTRY, a market-town in the weft riding of York-
fhire, and UDon the conlines of Nottinghamfhire, in Eng-
land, is feated on the high road to Scotland, and confitts
principaUy of one broad Ifrecl, well furnifhed with inns,
ft is 9 miles from Doncafter, and 152 north from London.
The river Idle induces a confiderable trade from Deibyfhire,
of mill and grinti-ftones, as well as of lead and iron ware
from Shetlielil, which are conveyed hence to Hull and other
parts of tiie country. The market is held on Wcdntfday
and Saturday ; and the town has alfo three annual fairs,
its houfes are 174, inhabited by 798 performs. N. lat. 53°
27'. W. long. i".

BAXA Terra, or Barrer Bay, lies on the weft coaft
of Africa, 4 leagues fouch of the rivtr Oro, which is in
N. lat. 23^ 30'. It is large, and has in feveral places good
anchorage, efpecially on its northern fide.

BAXAS Bahia, lies on the coaft of Brafil, in South
America, 30 leagues E. and E. by S. from the fand bank of
Tortugas, OTi Turtle harbonr. It has good anchorage, hard
ground, and deep water ; and it is well fh^ltered by a land-
bank from the north wind, and by the land from all other
winds.

Baxas, Das, Pnnta, denoting a cape of fhoals, is a low
point, iz leagues from the former, and 18 from Tor-
tugas.

BAXEADORE, Cape, is fituated in the idand of Lu-
conia or INTanila, in N. lat. l8''44'. E. long. 120" 35'.

BAXIOS, Abaxos, or Abajfes, are two clullers of
rocks on the fouth-caft fide of the ifland of Ceylon, called
the Great and the Little Baflfes. The former is in N. lat.
6° 10'. E. long. 81" 50' ; and the latter in N. lat. 6° 2j'.
E. long. 82° 10'.

BAXOS de Abrolhos. See Abrolhos.
Baxos de Baalu'ia. See Adrojos.

Baxos de la Candz-lana, a Ihoal or reef of rocks, in the
Pacific ocean, fo called by Mendana in 1567, and lying,
by M. IHeuriei's calculation, near S. lat. 6\° . and E. long,
from Paris 157^^.

Baxos, Cape, or Lotu Cape, is the eaft point of the en-
trance into the river Seftos, on the coaft of Africa. It lies
weft of both cape Formofa and Palmas idand, 2 leagues di-
ftant from the latter. On the call of this cape are feveral
dasgerous rocks, fome of which are under water, and (hould
therefore be carefully avoided by the trading fliips that na-
vigate in ttiefe paits.

Baxos Cal>e, lies alfo on the coaft of Africa, caftward
of the river Volla, 2 leagues from the Quatre Montes, or
hills fo c lUed that are dole together.

BxVXTER, Richard, ia Biography, an eminent divine
am >ng the non-conformifts of England, was born at Row.
ton, a fmall village in the county of Salop, in 1615. His
father wras a fmall freeholder of exemplary tharadtcr, who.

B A X

though belonging to the eftabliflu-d ciiurcb, was charged
with puritanilin on account of his religious demeanour.
Under liis inllruftion ai-d example, liaxter manitellcd early
indications of that contemplative and pious difpofition for
which he was afterwards fo diftinguilhed. In his youth he
enjoyed few advantages for education ; the fchoolmafters
whom he attended being men of little learning and loofe
morals. But under the tuition of Mr. Wickltead, cliaplain
to the council at Ludlow, he had accels to an excellent li-
brary, of which he availed himfelf idiout a year and a half very
m'jch to h:s iniprove:^.^!!. At this tune his views were d'redled
to tlie piofcfrion of a m.iniller. liowever, 111 1633, Mr. Wick-
ftead prevailed upon him to relinquilh this object, and to feek
his fortune at court. Accordingly he was recommeiidi.d to fir
Hen. Herbert, mailer of the rcvtls ; but difguftcd wiili the
mode of living which this lituation prefentcd to him, he
foo-i retired into the country, and relumed his pur^ofe of
profccuting his fUidies for the miniftr)-. Being appointed
malUr of the free fchool at Dudley, his health declined ;
and under the imprcflion produced by thi im.mediate pro-
fpeft of diffolution, and by the peru(al of feveral praftical
treatifes, he acquired tiiat deep and fettled fenfe of religion
which formed the ruling and perhiantnt principle of his fu-
ture life. Being more than ever determined to engage in
the minifterial office, and having at this time no fcruples
againft conformity to the church of Englan:i, he was or-
dained in 16^8; though he afterwards condemned his pre-
cipitance in complying witli the laws of fubicription without
due examination ; and he frequently preached at Dudley and
in the neighbouring villages, much to the fatisfaflion ot thofe
who heard him. He objected, however, to fome of the ce-
remonies of the church, and he foon began to entertain
doubts concerning the lawfulnefs of conformity. What led
him ai'd feveral others to ftudy the cafe of epifcopacy, and
to think unfavourably of the tilabliihment, was tlie impofi-
tion of the " et Ccetcra" oath, which exprcffcd an univtrl'al
approbation of the do(^trine and difcipline of the church of
England, and a determination never to attempt any altera-
tion in its government. Mr. Baxter demurred agaiidt taking
this oath ; and though he would have fubmitted to the ec-
clefiaftical jurifdidtion that was actually ellablifhed, he could
not conicicntiouliy declare his approbation of it, and his
determination to fupporl it to the extent' v.- hich this oath
required. In 1640, he was invited by the principal inhabi-
tants of Kidderniinfter to refide with them as a preacher;
and this place became the fcene of his minifterial fervices for
about fixteen years. Such, indeed, was the fucccfs which at-
tended them, that lie was eminently ufeful in reforming the
morals of the diflblule, and in proraoling in the town and
its neighbourhood a ftrict regard to religion. About two
years after his fettkmv-.it at Kidderniinfter, the civil war
commenced ; and on this occafion he took part with the
parliament, aiid recommended the protcftation prefcribed
by it, to the people. He was thus 1 educed to the neceffity
of leaving this town, and of repeatedly changing his refi-
dence, till at length he fettled at Cove i try, where he preached '
rerrularly once a week both to the foldiers of the garriion and
to the people of the town. After the battle of Nafeby, he be-
came chaplain to the regiment of colonel Whalley, and at-
tended it at feveral fieges, though he was never prefent in
any engagement ; fo that the ftoiy of his having killed a
man in cold blood, and robbed him of a medal, was an un-
founded and fcandalotu fabrication. During thefe times of
confiif'on, Mr. Baxter was a zealous friend to regular go-
vernment both in church and ftate ; and it is faid that he
lotk great pains to rtprefs the feftaries. The accidental
circiunftacce of a profufe bleeding at the nofe, which re-
duced

B i\ X

B A X

ducfd him to a ftate of jricat lanijiior, was tlic ocfnfion of clumber ; and by tluis depriving himijotli of focil find flrfp,

Ills being feparatcd from llie army in 16^";, and of prevent- at length efi'cftcd their purpofe, thoufch they were not em-

ing tliat fervice^to his country, which m'ght liavc been ex- powered to break open doors, and ttjok hitn away to tlie

peeled from a pcrfou of his principles and moderation, tieffions-houfe, where he wa3 bound in the penalty of 400 1.

However, he refilled to the iitmoft of his power, the mea- to keep tXe pence, and he was brought up twice afterwards,

fares of thofe who afterwards tifurped the government of though he kept his bed during the greateft part of the

the kingdom ; he oppolcd taking the covenant, preached time. In 1685, he was committed to prifon by a warrant

agaiiift the engagement, and difl'uadcd the foldiers from from lord chief-jnlliee Jeffries, for his paraphrafe on the

iigliiing againll tlie Scots troops who came into the king- New Tcilamcnt, which wa? charged with being hollile to

dom with Charles II.; and therefore the charge alleged epifcojiaey, and brought to trial for fedition. In the courfe

againft him, of his having been a trumpeter of rebellion, is of this trial, he was treated with all the bnital infolence

altogether without foundation. When Cn>mwell aflun.cd and tyranny, to the e::ercife of which that ruffian of the

the fiipreme power, he boldly and openly declared, that he law, Jeffries, was accullomed ; reviled by, his judge in

difliktd his ufurpation ; and in a private confcrt'nce, exprefsly the groflfeft terms, and prevented from obtaining the full

told him, that in his opinion the ancient monarchy was a defence of liis council ; and at lait found guilty on the

bleffuig. To that form of governnr.ent Baxter always avowed moll frivolous grounds, and fentenced to pay 500 marks,

his attachment ; and in a fermon preached before the par- to lie in pril'on till he paid it, and to be hou::d to his

liament on the 30th of April ifific, the day preceding that
on which they voted the king's return, he maintained, that
loyalty to their prince was a thing edential to all true pro-
tellants of whatever perfiiafion. About the fame time he
preached a thsnkfgiving fennoii at St. Paul's, on occafion of
the fuccefs of general Mo::k ; and this circumilanee refutes

good behaviour for feven years. From this heavy penalty
however, after a contincmcnt of fevcral month?, he ivas
rcleafcd, in 1686, by king JamcS, and allowed to remain in
I^ondon, notwithllanding tlie provifions ot the Oxiord aft.
From thb time he lived in a retired manner, neither inter-
fering in the concerns of his party, nor taking any part m

the charge, oi his having difl'uaded his excellency from con- thofe addrelTcs wh'ch fome of his brethren piefenled to

curring in, or bringing about that change. Janus II. on liis irdu'gence. He peil'iiled, however, in the

After the reiloration, Baxter was made one of the king's performance of his miniilcrial duties, till iiicreafing weaknefs

chaplains, and was always treated by him with peculiar re- confined him to his chamber. The dole of his lite corre-

fpcrt. To his majelly he fpoke with the fame freedom fponded to the uniform tenor of it ; the approaches of dif-

which he had ufcd with the proteftor Cromwell. He Rrongly folution were regarded by him with pious reilgnation ; and

reprefented the great importance of tolerating thofe pious he died, with the liHnquillity and hope appropriate to his

men who entertained doubts conccining the cereinonies and exemplary chara6lcr, on the ?th of IXceirbcr 1 69 1,

difcipllne of the church ; and he oblerved, tiiat the late Urged by extreine pain to wi!li for a releafc, he checked

ufurpers had fo well underilood their own intereft, that himfelf by laving, " It is not fit for me to prelcrihe ; Vvhere

they had found the way of doing good to be the moil ef- thou wilt, when thon wilt, and how thou wilt." To one

fcdtual means to promote it ; and therefore he befought the who aflced him in his fieknefs how he did, he replied, " Al-

king that "he would never lufFer himfelf to be tempted to moll well." In 1662, Mr. Baxter married the daughter of

iKido the good which Cromwell or any other had done, be- Francis Charlton, Eiq. a dillinguilhed magillrate of the

caufe they were ufurpers that did it ;" and en the contrary, county of iialop ; a wi.man of great piety, w ho entered tho-

" that he would rather outgo them in doing good." At roughly into his views concerning religion, and cordially ap-

thc Savoy conference he was one of the commiirioners, and
was employed in compiling the reformed liturgy. Having
declined the preferment of the bilhopric of Hereford, which
was offered him, he wifhed to retire to his friends at Kidder-
minfler, and to officiate among them in the lum.ble (lation
of a curate, but was not permitted. Difappointed with
regard to the objeft cf his wifliis, he preached for fome
time occafionally in I^ondon ; but the act againll conven-

proved all the facrificts which he made from a confcientious
regard to duty. She accompanied him in prifon, and fub-
mitted without repining to all the hiirdflilps confequtnt upon
the perfecution wliicli Le lulfered. . She died 10 years before
him.

" Richard Baxter was a man, wliofe whole foul was en-
gaged ill his profefiion. Ardent piety towards God, and
•.ieal for the bell interef.s of his fellow creatures, were the

tides obliged him to retire iirft to AfloUj and then to Tot- aftive fprings of his condntt ; and few men have ever de-

tcridge. During the perfecution of the nou-conformifls, he voted more time and labour to thofe objetts. he j)afrcd a

preached, as opportunity ofTeied, and the ftate of the life of much contention and obloquy ; but at this cool di-

times allowed, citlier more openly or more privately ; and he fiance, no candid enquirer can millake his true chaiafler.

vas fomelimes 3 fufferer for his zeal, and lometimes uiimo- His early fludies in divinity were not, perhaps, the bell

lefttd. A !";er the indulgence of 1672, he chiefiy nfided in adapted to form a theologian. They confilled ciiiefly of the

London, and exercifcd his miniflry, either occafionally or Ichoolmcn and metaphvlicians of a dark age, and gave him

flatedly, but not without interruption and molcllation. To
the fuficrings attendant on his profcfTion were added the in-
firmitico of a feeble cor.llitution and frequent bodily difor-
ders, together with the lofs of the greatell part of his for-
tune in confequence of the fliutting up of the exchequer in
1671, and by the penalties inflicted upon him for the cxer-
cife of his minillry ; but he bore all tliefe evils with fuigular

a tiirn to fubtletics of diitiiittion, which made h;m fland
apart in fome theoretical points from all his contemporaries.
Yet in praftieal religion, the devotional warmth of his tem-
per alliid him to the pious of all denominations, and infpired
him with an enlargement of mind, which let him above the
di.Terences refultiug from petty controverlits. He was a
moil voluminous writer, and his works are fufficient to make

fortitude and p.iticnce. In 16S.)., he was treattd with pe- a library of thcmfelves. Above 145 dillinct treatifes of his

culiar feverity. Although he was lo ill as not to be able to compolition have been reckoned up ; of which 4 were fo-

ftand, a warrant was granted againll him in order to his being lios, 73 quartos, and 49 octavos, belides feveral others of a

bound to his good behaviour; and the conllablcs, who were fmaller lize. They comprife bodies of theology, pradtical

entrnlled with its execution, watched him fo inceffantly, and theoretical, belides a vail number of trafts on particular

that they prevented his palljiig from his lludy to his bed- topics." liis p'radlical works have been collefted together

in

B A X

B A X

in 4 vols, in folio. His income, it is faid, which was not
great, was increafed by the profit wliich he made of his
writings, for which he fonictimes received 60 or Sol. a year
of the bookfellers. But this money he feems to have em-
ployed in charitable purpofes. Of his numerous works fome
of the principal were his " Mttliodus Theologis," printed
in Latin in 1 674, folio ; his Englilh body of practical divi-
nity, publifhed m 1673, folio, under the title of " The
Chriilian Direftory, &c. ;" " Gildas Salvianus, or the Re-
formed Pallor," 8vo. (656, much efteemed by many di-
vines; " Univerfal Concord," 1 2mo. 1658, giving an ac-
count of the terms upon which all Chriftian churches
may hold communion ; " Reafons for the Chriftian Re-
ligion," 1667 ; " Catholic Theology," fol. 1675, intended
to reconcile the differences between the Arminians and
the Calvinilh ; "A Treatife of Epifcopacy," 4to. 16S1 ;
" A Treatife of Univerfal Redemption," 8vo. 1694.
The mod popular of his prattioal pieces were his " Saints
Everlalli-.ig Reft," and his " Call to the Unconverted,"
of which latter 20,000 were fold in one year, and it was
tranflated into all the European languages, and into the
Indian tongue. To thofe which we nave enumerated, we
may add his " Reformed Liturgy," his " Poor Man's
Family Book," his " Dying Thoughts," and his " Para-
phrafe on the New Teftamtnt." The firft book he pub-
li(hed was his " Aphorifms of Jnftification" and the " Co-
venants," printed in 1649 ; and the laft in his life-time,
" The Certainty of the World of Spirits," printed in 1691 ;
fo that he was an author 42 years. One of his works is
" A Narrative of his own Life and Times ; " which, though
a rhapfody," fays Mr. Grangci", " compoied in the manner
of a diary, contains a great variety of memorable things,
and is itfelf, as far as it goes, a iiiftoiy of non-conformity."
Mr. Baxter was diftinguifhed not ordy as a pi-actical, but alfo
as a controverfial writer ; and under this latter charafter, he
particularly oppofed the Antinomians. Few perfons have
fuffered more rancorous abufe than Mr. Baxter ; and few
have been more highly refpedlcd both by his cotemporaries
and pofterity. Among his friends and admirers we may
reckon fome of the molt diftinguiflied characlers of the age
in whieh he lived, of whom many were members of the ella.
blifhment, fuch as chief juftict Hale, fir John Maynard, Dr.
Barrou', bhhop Wilkins, bifliop Patrick, and bifhop Bur-
net. The great c!iief jnftice Hale honoured him with an in-
timate friendfliip, gave a high encomium of his piety and
learning to all the judges, and when he was in prifon, on
the Oxford act, left him a legacy in bis will, and feveral
large books, in his own hand-writing, on the matter of
their converfations. Dr. Barrow has teilifled concerning his
works, that " his praitical writings were never meided, liis
controverfial feldom confuted." Bidiop ^Vilkias afiirms,
" that he has cultivated every fiibjeft which he has handled ;"
and he ufed to fay of him, " tiiat if he had lived in the
primitive times, he had been one of the fathers of the
church. Bilhop Burnet's teftimony is fomewiiat qualifi-;d.
*' Baxter," fays he, " was a man of great piety, and, if he
had not meddled in too many things, would have been
efteemed one of the learned men of the age. He had a
very moving and pathetical way of writing, and was his
whole life long a man of great zeal and much fimphcity ;
but was moil unhappily fubtle and metaphyfical in every
thing." Baxter was one of the laft divines, whole name has
diftinguifhed a particular denomination or defcription of
perfons. See Baxterians. Calamy's Life of Baxter.
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Baxter, Willlim, an eminent philologift and antiqua-
rian, was the nephew and heir oJ Richard Ba;:ter, and
Vet. IV.

bom of parents in mean circuir.ftances a}; Llanlugany, an
cbfcurc village of Shropfhire, in 1650. He derived hi?
pedigree, hke a true Cambro-Briton, through a long fcrie»
of anceftors from John Baxter, who, in the reign of Plenry
VI., fettled at Shrcwibury ; and he fticws, that the nam<i
Baxter lignifies originally a baker, in Saxon " Basccfttr,"
and that it was given to that family, becaufe thev were
bakers to the ancient princes of Wales, in which poft, ac-
cording to the cuflom of the ancient Celtcs and Grstks,
the noblcft perfons were employed.

In his infancy and youth, his education v/as fo much
neglefted, that when he was fcnt to Harrow fehool in
Middk'fex at the age of 18, he knew n<-,t oi:e letter, nor
imderftood one word of any language but Wcllh. But
fuch were hi» talents and apphcation, that he fcon became
diftinguiflied by his exteidive knowledge. In 1679 he
publiftied a Latin gra.T.mar, entitled " De Analogia, feu
arte Latinse lingua: commentariohis," &c. i2mo. Thus
qualified for the profclTion of a fchoolmaller, to which he
devoted himfelf, he employed the greatcfl part of his hfc
in this occupation. For fome years he kept a boarding
Ichool at Tottenham High-crofs in Middlefcx ; and he
was aftewards elected mafter of the Mercers' fehool in
London. Having acquired great celebrity as a fcholar,
and in the profeeution of antiquarian refearchcs, and dif-
tinguifhed, perhaps, more by his learning than his judg-
ment, he died in 1723. In 1695 he piibliraed a new aiid
correft edition of " Anacreon," wit;, notes, which was re-
printed with confidcrable additions and improvements in
1 7 10. His abufe of Tanaquil Faber, a former editor of
Anacreon, was amply retorted upon himfelf by J. Corne-
lius de Pauw, in his 4to. edition of the fa.me poet, pub-
liihed at Utrecht in 1732, who held his comments in great
contempt. His edition of" Horace," printed in 1701, and
reprinted with improvements in 1725, has obtained a more
lalling reputation. Dr. Harwood pronounces this the bell
edition ever publifhed, and the learned Gefner has teftified
his approbation of it, by making it the ground-work of his
excellent edition. Bentley, famed for the fcverity of his
criticifms, in fpeaking of it, calls Baxter " Vir reconditoe
eruditionis." In 17 19 Baxter publiflied his didionary of
Britith antiquities, under the title of " Glolfarium Antiqui-
tatum Britannicarum five fyllabus ctymologicus antiqui-
tatum veteris Britannire atque Ibtrnia;, temporibus Roman-
orum," 8vo. By his Ikill in the Britifli or Welfh tongue,
and by means of etymology, he profeffcs to correft Cam-
den, and to add about 200 names of ancient places and
rivers omitted in his Britannia ; of this work, a fecond
edition was publiflied, after the author's deceafe, in 1733.
His glofiary of Roman antiquities, proceeding no farther
than the letter A, was pnblilhed in 1726 by Mr. Mofes
Williams, under the title of " Reliquix BaxterianE, &c."
and republifhed in 1731, with the title " Gloffarium Anti-
qnitatum Romanorum, 5;c." Lond. Svo. Baxter alfo
wrote four letters on fubjetts of antiquity, inferted in the
firll volume of the " Archxlogia." He left behind him
notes on Perfius and Juvenal, and was the tranflator of
fome of Plutarch's fives «« done into Englifli" by feveral
hands. Biog. Brit.

Baxter, Atulreiu, an ingenious metaphyfician and phi-
lofophcr, was the fon of a merchant at Aberdeen, and born
there in 1686 or 1687. He was educated in King's col-
lege in that city, and afterwards undertook the care of
private pupils, fome of whom were perfons of rank and
fortune. About the year 1730, he publilhed in 4to. his
celebrated work, entitled, " An Enquiry into the Nature
of the Human Soul ; wherein the Immaieriahty of the

F Soul

B A X

Soul is evinced, from the principles of Rcafon and Philo-
fophy." This work, which was reprintid in 2 vols. Bvo.
in 1737 and in 1745, was much applauded by fevcral pei'-
fons of eminence, and particularly by bifhop Warburton,
who, in his " Divine Legation," fpeaks of it as containing
"the jufteft and precifell notions of God and the Soul,"
and " as one of the mod finifhcd of the kind, that the pre-
fent times, greatly advanced in true philofophy, have pro-
duced." Of the author's ftntinients, fee fome account under
the articles Dream, Soul, and Vis lueriij. In 1741
Mr. Baxter went abroad with one of his pupib, and fettled
for fome time at Utrecht, where he became acquainted
with feveral literary perfons, and whence he made feveral
excurfions into Flanders, France, and Germany. l^pon
his return to Scotland in 1747, he relidcd till his death at
Whittingham, in the fliire of Fall Lothian. His work,
entitled " Matho, five Cofniotheoria Puerilis," was drawn
up for the ufe of his pupils, and firll printed in Latin, arid
afterwards greatly enlarged, and publifhtd in EngMh, in
3 vols. 8vo. The fccond edition of this work was
publithed in 1745, and the third in 2 vols. izmo. in
1765. The dtfign of this work was to deduce the prin-
ciples of natural reliuion from the phenomena of the ma-
terial world. A millakc in the ailronomical theory, which
the author did not hvc to redify, as he had intended, had
difgufted fome readers ; and therefore, in the third edition,
the conference that was chiefly affefted by that error, was
fupprelFed, and the vacancy fupplied by another. In 17,0
the author pnbhllied " an Appendix to the firll part of his
Enquiry into the Nature of the Soul," vindicating it from
fome objedions, which was dedicated to Mr. Wilkes, with
whom he formed an intimate acquaintance abroad. In this
year Mr. Baxter, after having endured great fufferings
from the "-out, and a complication of diforders, with exem-
plary patience, clofed his life about the fixty-third year of
his age. He left behind him feveral unfiniihed MSB. on
philofophical fubjefts, and one in a complete ftate, con-
cerning the controverfy between the Englilh and foreign phi-
loiophers on the fubjeft of the force «f bodies moving in
free fpaces, which however was never publifhed.

Mr. Baxter's learning and talents are fufficiently dif-
played in his writing?. His application was fuch, that he
iometimes fat up whole nights reading and writing : and
yet his difpofition was cheerful and fociable. In conver-
fation he was modetl and uiiaffuming ; and in the difcharge
of the focial and relative duties of life, his conduft was ex-
emplary. His mind was poffened with the mod reveren-
tial fentiments of the Deity, and the general tenor of his
life was conformable to the rules of virtue. He was econo-
mical without parfimony. Such was his ditintereftednefs,
that he declined confiderable offers of preferment, which
he might have obtained if he had taken orders in the church
of England. His knowled;^e of the modern langnages
was extenlive ; fo that he could write and fpeak in French,
German, Dutch, Italian, and Spanifh. By his wife, whom
he married in 1724, and who furvived him ten years, he
had one fon and three daughters. Biog. Brit.

BAXTERIANS, in Eahftajlical Hi/lory, derive their
appellation from Mr. Richard Baxter, a nonconformift
minifter ; of whom we have already given an account. His
theological fyftem has been called Baxterianifm ; and thofc,
who embrace his fentiments in divinity, are called Baxterians.
The Baxterians have endeavoured to ftrike into a middle
path between Calvinifm and Arminianifm ; and to unite
both thefe fchemes. They profefs to believe in the doc-
trines of eleftion, effeftual calling, and other tenets of Cal-
vinifm J and confequently, fuppofe, that a certain numbtr,

BAY

determined upon in the divine counfels, will infallibly be
favcd. This they think neceifary to fecure the ends of
Chrill's interpofition. But then, on the other hand, they
rejcifl the doftrinc of reprobation, and admit that our
blcfied Lord, in a certain fenfe, died for all ; and that fuch
a portion of grace is allotted to every man, as renders it
his own fault, if he doth not attain to eternal happinefs. If
he improves the common grace given to all mankind, this
will be followed by that fpecial grace which will terminate
in his final acceptance and falvation. Whether the Baxte-
rians are of opinion, that any befides the eleft, will aHually
make fuch a right ufe of common grace as to obtain tiie other,
and, at length, come to heaven, we cannot affiiredly fay,
there may pofTibly be a difference of opinion'upon the fub-
jeft, as they approach nearer to Calvinifm or to Arminianifm.
Mr. Baxter appears, likewife, to have modelled the doftriEics
of juftification, and the pcrfeverance of the faints, in a man-
ner which was not agreeable to the rigid Calvinills. Some
foreign divines in the 17th century Itruck nearly into the
fame path ; and, particularly, in France, M. le Blanc, Mr.
Cameron, and the celebrated Monf. Amyrault. For a con-
fiderable time the non conformill clei'gy in England were di-
vided into fearcely any but two doflrinal parties, the Calvi-
ni'ls and the Baxterians. Of late the Baxterians have been
lefs numerous. However, they are ftill a confiderable body;
and feveral perfons are fond of the name as a creditable one^
who probably go farther than Mr-. Baxter did. The name,
however, like other theological diftinftions, will probably,
in a courfe of time, fink into difiife, till it is either wholly
forgotten, or preferved merely in the records of hillory»
Biog. Brit. Art. Baxter.

BAY, in Botany. See Laurus.

Bay, Loblolly. See Gorgonia.

Bay, Rofc. SeeNERiuM.

Bay, Diuarf Rofe, and Mounla'm Rofi. See Rhodo-

DENDRUM.

Bay, Swtet Floiucring. See Magnolia.

Bay Plum. See Psidium.

Bay, in iSw/'/iZ/Vy, denotes any kind of opening In walls ; as
a door, window, or even chimney.

Bay zuindpivs are the fame with what we otherwife call
low •v.'indo'ws.

Bay, ill Geography, denotes a little gulf, or an arm of the
fea, ilietching up into the land ; being larger in the middle
within, than at its entrance, which is called the mouth of the
bay. The largell and moft remarkable bays arc thofe of Bif-
cay. Bengal, Hudlon's, Panama, &c.

Bay ol yli/ Sa'ntfs. See All Saints.

Bay of ^«/o/;j.'/. SeeANTONGiL.

Bay, Baffin's. See Baffin.

Bay of Cancak. SeeCANCALE.

Bay, Cheqiiilan. See Chequitan.

Bay of Chefapeal. See Chesapeak.

Bay of Fires hes on the eail coal! of New South Wales
or New Holland, in the Pacific ocean, to the north of St.
Patrick's Head. The north point of the bay is called Edyf-
tone, and the fouth point St. Helen's. A fmall rocky illand
is near the middle of its entrance, on each fide of which is an
open paffage.

Bay of FnJIj lV,iter, lies fouth of Afcenfion bay in the
north part of the gulf of Mexico. N. lat. 30^. W. long. 93°.

Bay of Funrly. See Fundy.

Bay of Good Fortune, lies on the north coaft of Chaleur
bay, which is a large bay of the gulf of St. Lawrence, and
on the north call coaft of Nova Scotia in North America.

Bay, Hudjon's. See Hudson's.

Bay of Inkts^ a bay on the fouth eaft coaft of New Hol-
land,

B A Y

BAY

land, between cape Palmerllon and cape Townflicnd.
S. lat. 21° 30'. to 22° 30'. W.Ioiig. 209° 36'. to 210° 40'.
Bay oi JJlands lies on the coaft of Nova Scotia, on the
continent of North America, about 6 leagues fouth-well
from cape St. Mary.

Bay ai I [lands is a!fo a bay on the northern ifland of New
Zealand in the fouth Pacific ocean, lying on the north-eaft
coaft between cape Brett and cape Pococke. This bay is
large and deep, and has many fmall idands in it. The bed
entrance into the bay is on the weft fide ; within it are feveral
lefier bays. S. lat. 35° 12'. E. long. I'j.x^ 57'.

Bay o{ IJlands is alfo a bay on the fouth coaft of the ftraits
of Magellan, to\yards the wcftern entrance, W. by N. from
Upright bay, and E. by S. from the bay of Difappoint-
tnent. A clufter of fmall ifiands lies in the entrance, and in
the eaft part of the bay : but the*beft entrance is betweeir
the wefternmoft of the two idands oft^ the point of cape Up-
right, and a fmall ifland farther weft, where a ftiip may have
fafe paftage, and anchor in 20 fathoms-in foft mud, near the
weft coalt of the cape, in S. lat. 53° 9'. W. long. 75° 32'.

Bay of I[lcs is an extenlive bay of the gulf of St. Law-
rence, on the weft coaft of Newfoundland, about 8 or 9
leagues to the S. W. from la Belle bay, and \.\ox 15 leagues
to N. N. E. from Porta port. The centre of the bay lies ia
about N.lat. 49° 5'. W.long. 58'' 15'.

Bay of IJles is alfo a bay fituate towards the weft end of
the north coaft of South Georgia ifland, in the fouth Atlan-
tic ocean.

Bay of Si. Louts, lies on the Lftbrador coaft, and has
cape St. Louis on the north, and cape Charles on the fouth.
It has many fmall iflands ; the largeft of which is Battle
ifland, in the mouth of the bay. The middle of the bay is
in N. lat. 52" 23'. W. long. 55° 23'.

Bay, di Roche Fende lies on the weft fide of Lake Cham-
plain, and the ftate of New York, 17 miles above Crown-point.
Bay of Rocks is a fpacious bay of the Arabian fea, which
forms a part of the Indian ocean, and lies on the fouth-eaft
coaft of Arabia, with good anchorage for fliips.

Bay oi Seven Ifiands lies W. N. W. from Moifie river, and
about 18 leagues to N. N. E. from Trinity point, on the
north ftiore of the gulf of St. Lawrence.
Bay oi Shoals. See Baxa.s Bahia.

Bay of St. Spirit, is a large bay of the Indian ocean, on
the fouth-eaft coaft of Africa, on the north of the ifland and
cape of Unhafa. It is fufficiently fpacious to receive a fleet
of ftiips, and is fo called from the river St. Spirit, or Manica,
which falls into this bay.

Bay, among Farmers, is that part of the barn where the
mow is placed.

Bay, in Hydraulics, fignifies a pen, or pond-head, made
up a great height, to keep in a ftore of water for driving the
wheels of a forge or furnace of an iron-mill, by the ftrcam
that comes thence through a paflage, or flood-gate, called
the pen-Jloch.

Bay colour, in Manege. The word bay is formed from the
Latin taius, or badius, and that from the Greek /S«io,-, a palm.
branch, fo that badius or bay properly denotes color phieniceus.
Hence alfo, among the ancients, thofe now called bay horfcs,
were denominated equi palmali.

The bay is the moft ufual colour among horfes. It is a
flrong and perhaps invariable charafter in this colour to be
attended with a black mane and tail, which the chefnut or any
other colour that approaches it never is. The bay is alfo
moft frequently attended with black legs and feet up to
the knees and hocks : the feet, however, are often varying
to the white in horfes of this colour, which is not with us
efteemed fo bandfome as when entirely black. There aix

feveral kinds of bays, .ts light bay, dark bay, brown bay,
golden bay, d:ippled bay, &c.

Bay a tnirroir, the fame as dappi.e i/rv.
Bay, among Sport/men, is applied to ftags, boars, foxes.
Sec. and alfo to dogs when they turn head againft one ano-
ther. Thus when a ftag has been fo long puvfued, that he
is almcft cxhaufted, he turns round, and facing the liounds,
defends himfelf with his antlers, and keeps the hounds at
bay, till the fportfmen come up, draw off the dogs and fare
his life. When a ftag takes yi/V, that is, takes to the v.-ater,
he will defend himfelf, and keep the hounds for a long time
at bay, provided that he fathoms the lake or river fo well as
to keep the hounds fwimming, without going out of his own
depth, but if he is obliged to fwim at the time, he is up or
_quite tired, and being furrounded by the dogs, he is inevi-
tably drowned. In fox hunting, when the fox is fuppofed
to have entered the earth, the place of his retreat is foon
difcovered by the terriers, " laying well at him," provided
he has not turned in the earth ; but if he has, the terrier and
the fox are face to face, and are both baying, or keeping
each other at bay ; and the conteft terminates with digging
out the fox.

V>AY /alt. See Salt.

Bay yard, is a denomination fometimes ufed promifcuoufly
with luoollen yarn. 10 and II W. III. c. lO. 5 G. II,
c. 21. See Yarn, &c.

BAYA, in Geography. See Baia, and Bayja.
Bay A, low, marftiy land on the Gold coaft of Africa, with-
out any towns or people near the fliore ; 4 leagues W. S. W.
from the river Volta, and 8 leagues E. and E. N. E. from
Ningo ground.

Baya, in Ornithology, Indian grofljeak, or Loxia Indica, is
rather larger than a fparrow, with yellow brown plumao-et
a ycllowifli head and feet, a light-coloured breaft, and a
conic beak, very thick in proportion to his body. This
bird is very common in Hindoftan ; and is defcribed as fur-
prifingly fenfible, faithful, and docile ; never voluntarily de-
feating the place where its young are hatched, not averfe from
the fociety of mankind, and eafily taught to perch on the
hand of his mafter. In a ftate of nature the baya builds his
neft on the higlieft tree which he can find ; generally on the
palmyra or Indian fig-tree, preferring that which overhangs
a well or rivalct, forming it of grafs in the fliape of a large
bottle, fufpending it on the bi anches fo as to be firm and yet
to rock with the wind, and placing it with its entrance
downwards, to fecure it from birds of prey. This bird is
taught with eafe to fetch a piece of paper, or any fmall thing
which his mafter wants. If a ring be dropped into a deep
well, and a fignal given to the bird, he will fly down with
aftonifliing celerity, and bring it up to his mafter with ap-
parent exultation ; and it is confidently aflerted, that if a
houfe or any other place be fliewn to him once or twice, he
will carry a note thither immediately, on obferving a proper
fignal. They are alfo trained by the youthful libertines of
Benares to pluck off the pieces of gold called ticas, placed by
way of ornament between the eye-brows of their miftrefles,
which they bring in triumph to their lovers. The baya's
natural food is grafshoppers and other infefts ; but it fub-
fills, when tame, on pulfe macerated in water. The female
lays many beautiful eggs, refembling Lrge pearls: their white,
when boiled, is tranfparent, and the flavour of them is esqui-
fitely delicate. Afiatic Refearches, vol. ii. p. 109.

BAYAGARAS, in Geography, a town on the ifland of
St. Domingo.

BA YAMO, called alfo St- Salvador, a town in the eaftern
part of the ifland of Cuba, having the town of Almo to the
weft, and St. Barbara to the fouth. It lies on the eaft flde

fz of

BAY

of Eilero river, about 20 miles from tlic fca ; and it pves
name to a channel, that runs between tlic numerom Iniall
iflands and rocks, called " Jardin de la Reyna, or Queen's
gardens," on the north-well, and the ihoals and rocks that
hue the coall on the fouth-eall fide of it, from the bold
point called Cabo de Cruz.

BAYARD, or Uaiard. in fome 0!J MVihrs, is an ap-
pellative for a horfe. Hence the phrafes, blind bayard, ba-
yard's watering, bayard's green, ixc.

BAYDER, in C.vgrnpky, a fmall town of the Crimea
or Taurida, which give's name to the delightful valley, called
by the natives the " Tauric Arcadia," the " Crimean
Ttmpe," &c. which ii watered by two gentle murmuring
Urcams. It is of an oval form, about 20 miles long, and
fiirroundcd by high mountains, covered with beautitul woods,
intermixed with odoriferous flortering fluubs. It contains
:i num'ier of Tartar villages, romantically iituated and inha-
bited by the families of fliephcrds and hulbandnien.
V>.\\orf.tCtipe, Stc Bajador.

BAYEN, Peter, in Biography, a French chtmift, was
born at Chalons in 1725. In 1749, he ferved under Chaias
in pharmacy. He gave analyfts of the mineral waters of
France ; and he wrote memoirs on marbles, ferptiitine ilones,
porphyries, granites, jafpers, fchilb, and iron Ipar. He
doubted the exillcnce of the phlogifton of Stahl ; and by
operating on mercurial precipitates, he found that what are
called metaUic oxides owe their Hate, when obtained by cal-
cining metals, to the abforption of one of the conllituent in-
gredients of atmofpheric air. This chemill alfo difcovered
the fu'.Tiinating property of metals, when mixed with a very
little fulphur ; and he fliewcd thcit tin was not necedarily
contaminated by arfenic ; that what is ufcd by potters con-
tains copper and antimony, by which it is rendered hard ;
zinc, by which it is whitened ; bifmuth, by which it is ren-
dered fonorous; and lead, in order to diminifh the price.
Bayen died at the age of 72 years. Mem. de I'Inllitut. Na-
tional, &c. vol. ii.

BAYER, Gottlieb Siegfried, a celebrated philolo-
gift, was born at Konigfberg, in PruiTia, in 1694, and (lu-
died, chiefly, the languages, tirll in his native city, and after-
wards at Dantzig, Btilin, and Lcipfic ; at which latter
place he took the dejjree of mailer of arts in 1717. On his
return to Konigfb.r^ in the following year, he was appointed
librarian of the public librar)'. In 1726 he removed to Pe-
teriburgh, became profeffor of the Greek and Roman anti-
quities in the Academy of Sciences, and acquired an exten-
five knowledge of the Chinefe and other Afiatic languages.
In 1730 he was chofen member of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin ; and in 17JI invited to be profeffor of eloquence
at Halle; wliich I.e was not allowed to accept, but continued
in Ruffia with a confidcrable iiicreafe of falary. He died at
Peteriburgh in 17.58. His numerous differtations on differ-
ent fubjeijls are inKrted in Lilicnthal's " Scltft. Hiftor. oc
Liter," the " Ada Eruoitorum," and the " Comment.
Acad. Petropol." Sec. ^is " Mufeum Sinicum," pub-
hihedin 1732, in 2 vols. Svo. is a work of great learning and
ingenuity. Gen. Biog.

BAYER, John, a German ailronomer, fiourifhcd at the
clofe of the i6tii and coiiimence:nent of the 17th centuries ;
but the time and place of his birth are not afccrtained.
Some have fuppofcd that he was the grandfather of the fub-
jecl of the preceding article, and that he was born at Augf-
hurg. It was at Auglburg, however, that he publiihed, in
1603, his excellent and ufefil work, cntitLd " Uranome-
tna." This is a large celeftial atlas, confiding of folio
charts of all the conftcUations, with a nomenclature, col-
Jetted from all the tables of allronomy, ancient and reodern,

7

B A Y

mproved by his ownufeful invention of denoting the (lars in
each conllellation by Greek letters, in alpliabetical order ac-
cording to tile magnitude of each. The liars are thus aa
eafily dillinguifiied as if each of them had an appropriate
name; and the utihty of this mode of claffificalioii has been
fo much approved, that it h.as been retained, fince Bayer's
time, ill all the athffes, catalogues, and ctlelUal globes
through the fcientific world. This valuable work was gra-
dually improved and augmented by the author liimfelf. In
the year 1627 Julius Schiller, a civilian, piojtiled by the
fujjgellion of Bayer, and publilhed his Uranographia, under
the title of " Calum .Stellatum Chrillianum;" in which he
iijeftcd the heathen names, charafters, ;uid ligures of the
conflellations, and inferted in their Head others taken from
the fcriptures. Accordingly he placed the twelve apolUes
in the zodiac ; and he deduced the fouthern conllellations
from the Old Tcllament, and the northern ones from the
New Tellamer.t. This innovation, however, tended to em-
barrafs a.'lronomers, and was never adopted. The ancient
names were therefore reftored in the later editions of the
Uranometria of 1654 and 1661. MontucUi, Hill, des Math.
torn. ii. p. 333. See Catalogue.

BAYERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Franconia, and principality of Bayrtuth,
feated on the Rednitz, with a tribunal of jullice and a large
fynagogue ; 4 miles north of Erlang.

BAYETTE, in Ichlhyology, a French name of the fpe-
cies of Sllurus obferved by Sonnini in the Nile, and figured
pi. 27 of his " Voyag€'en Egypte." It is the fame kind
which Forfl<;il calls Silurus bajad. It grows to a large fize,
but its fledi is not much ellecmed.

BAYEUX, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diilricl, in the department of Calvados. Be-
fore the revolution it was the capital of Beflin, in tl:e pro-
vince of Normandy, the feat of a governor and the fee of a
bidiop, vvhofe dioctfe included 61 1 pariihes. The cathedral
is much admired. The number of inhabitants is computed
at 8000, and the principal commerce is leather. It is feated
on the river Aure, about 4 miles from the fea. N. lat.
49° 16' 30". W. long, o" 42' yi".

The celebrated tapeftry of Bayeux, which Hill exids, and
is publicly exhibited at dated periods in the cathedral of the
city, is a very curious monument of the flate of t!»e art cf
embroidering at the time of the Norman conqueft. It is a
web of linen, nearly two feet in breadth, and 442 in length,
embroidered with the hillory of that memorable expedition,
from the emban"y of Harold to the Norman court in io6y,
till his death in the following year. The fcenes of tiiis bufy
period are fucccfiively exhibited, and confift of many hundred
figures of men, horfes, beads, birds, trees, houfes, caftles,
and churches, with infcriptions over them explanatory of
their meaning and hiftory. This work is underilood to- have
been performed under the 'direelion of Matilda, confort to
William I. and was not improbably executed by the hands of
Englidi women, whofe fuperiority in performances of this kind
was then univerfally acknowledged. The entire contents of
this tapeilry are reprefented in a feries of engravings, whicli
may be fetn in Montfaucon, torn. 1 & 2 ; and Ducarel,
Anglo-Norman Antiquities, App. No. i.

BAYF, or Bait, Lazare De, in Biography, was the
fon of a gentleman of Anjou, and having iludied under Bu-
dx'us and others, he purfued the profefGon of the law at Paris ;
and afterwards travelled into Italy, and learned Greek under
Mufurus, a Candiot, at Rome. Upon his return he devoted
himfelf to literature, and retired to his own ellate at Anjou.
In 1531 he was fent by Francis I. as ambaffador to Venice;
in 1539116 was deputed on public bulincfs to Germany; and

after

BAY

after his return was mads mafter of requefis, and liad alfo
the abbacies of Grenetiere and Charroux. Tlie precife time
of his birth and death is unknown. As a writer he feems to
have been the firll who introduced the Greek ti^agedy anionii
his countryx.en, by his tranflations of the " Elcftra," of
Sophocles, and the " Hecuba," of Euripides, into French
verfe. He was alfo the author of two learned treatifes, " De
re vtftiaria, et de vafculis," Bafil, 1526, 4to. and " De re
Navaii," Par. 1536, 4to. ; and he trar.flatcd fome Lives of
Plutarch. Moreri.

Bayf, John Anthony. See BiiF.

BAYJA, Baja or Baia, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis, not far from the frontiers
of the Alj^erine?, is fuppofcd to be the ancient '• Vacca"
of Salluil, the " Oppidum Vagenfe" of Piiny, and the
" BAFA" of Plutarch ; and it is at this day, as it was formerly,
a place of great trade, being the chief mart of the whole
ki.igdom, particularly for corn, which is fupplied in fuch
abundance by the plains of Bufdera, along the banks of the
Mejerda, that the Tun;fian5 fay proverbially concerning it,
that if there was another fuch town for plenty of com, it
would become as common and cheap as fand. It has alfo
every fummer a public fair, to which the mod diftant Arabian
tribe? refort with their flocks, their manufa&urts, and their
families. However, the inhabitants, fubjeft to the oppreffive
exaiSior.s of government, and the frequent incurfions of the
Arabs, who are numerous and powerful in its vicinity, are
extremely poor, and a great part of their ground remains
uncultivated. It is feated on tlie declivity of a hill in the
road to Conftantina, about 10 leagues from the northern
coaft, and 36 W. S. W. from Tunis ; and has the conveni-
ence of being well watered. On the furamit of the hill is a
citadel of no great ftrength. The walls, which are raifed
out of the materials of the old Roman Vacca, are ftill entire
and have fome ancient infcriptions. N. lat. 36^ 42'. E.
long. 9" 25'. Shaw's Travels, p. 92.

BAYLE, Peter, in Biography, an eminent critic and
philofopher, was the fon of a proteftant miniller at Carla,
in the county of Foix in France, where he was born in 1647.
\VTiil;l he purfued his lludies, firll under his father, and
afterwards in the protellant academy at Puylaurens, whither
he was fent in 1666, his application was fo intenfe and un-
intermitting as to injure his health. His reading was very
extenfive ; but his favourite authors were Plutarch and
Montagne. From Puylaurens he removed in 1669 to the
univeriity of Touloufe, with the hope of enjoying fuperior
advantages for improvement, and of making more rapid pro-
grefs. Here he attended the philofophical leAures that
were read in tb.e college of the Jefuits ; and his difputes
with a popifh prieft, who lodged in the fame hovife with
him, ferved to increafe the fcruples which he had already
begun to entertain againll the proteftant religion, and at
length to induce him to avow himfelf a Roman cathohc.
This change of opinion, which feemed to be on his part
the refult of inquiry and of convidion, although produced
by arguments which maturer examination would difcover
to be inadequate, manifefted an ingenuity of mind. How-
ever, it fo grieved and offended his father, that he withdrew
from him the neccffary means of fubfiftence. In thefe def-
titute circumflances, he wasgencroufly relieved by the bifliop
of Rieux, who mull unqueilionably have been gratified by
the accefiion of fuch a convert. Upon further inquiiy
Bayle found, that he had been too precipitate in abandon-
ing his religion ; and he therefore determined to leave Tou-
loufe after having continued there about eighteen months,
and to renounce the errors into which he had been betrayed.
Having made his abjuration in the prefence of his eldeft

DAY

brother and fome other minillers, he immediately fet out
for Geneva, in order to profecute his ftudies. Here he
foon found reafon for rclir.quifning the phi'ofophy of Arif-
totle, to which he had been zealouily attached, and to adopt
that of Defcartc?. His reputation introduced him to
an acquaintance with feveral pcrfons of eminence at Geneva,
and particularly with Mr. James Bafnage ; between whom
and Bayle an intimate fritndihip fubfiflcd as long as they
botii hved. At this time Bayle acquired the means of fup-
port by private tuifon ; but diffatiified with this mode of
life, which did not fuit the independence of his fpirit, nor
correfpond to his dcfire of further improvement, he wifiied
to exchange it for fome fituation better adapted to his
genius and views. After a few years employed in this
way, an opportunity offered for gratifying his wiilies. In
the fpring of 1675 ''^^ removed to Paris, and undertook the
tuition of MelTrs. d; Bcringhen, brothers to a counftUor in
the parliament of Paris. From this city, however, to
which his wilhes had bein directed, he foon removed, at
the defire of his friend Mr. Bafnage, in order to offer him-
felf as a candidate for the vacant profefforlhip of philofophy
in the proteftant univerfity of Sedan. His views were fa-
voured by Mr. Jurieu, the profefTor of divinity, who favoured
Bayle, partly becaufe he was anxious to exclude another
candidate. Bayle evinced a decided fuptriority to the
other competitors in a public difputation, and having fe-
cured his eledion, began his leftures, Nov. ii, 1675. B7
the affiduity with which he difcharged the duties of his
public cifice, and by the amiable temper which he manifefted
in private hfe, he gained great reputation, and many friends,
at Sedan ; and he devoted his hours of leifure to compofi-
tions of the critical kind, which habituated hira to that
accuracy and depth of reafoning, that afterwards confti-
tuted his diilinguifhing excellence. The firll work, which
he committed to the prefs, was his Obfervations on the
comet that made its appearance in December 1680; the-
firfl edition of which was printed at Rotterdam in 16.S2,
without a name, and under the affumed character of a
Roman catholic, under the title of " Lettre a M. L. A. D.
C. doiSleur de Sorbonnc," ccc. and Cologne was the pre-
tended place of publication. In this treatifc, afterwards
called " Penfees fur la Comete," &c. many delicate quef-
tions are difcufTed, rtlative to fuppofcd miracles wrought,
and prefages given among the heathen?, to the companfoa
of the milchiefs of atheii'm with thofe of idolatry, and to
other points which afforded a range to the author's fpirit
of free enquiry. In i^lSl the univerfity of Sedan was fup-
preffed by an arbitrary edict of Lewis XIV. ; and Mr,
Bayle, deprived of his profeflbrfhip, was reduced to lh<»'
neceffity of feeking fome new employment. At this lime,
the magitlrates of Rotterdam eftabUllied a " Schola lUuf-
tris;" and Bayle was appointed profeiTor of philofophy
and hiilory ; and at his recommendation Jurieu was en-
gaged as profeffor of divinity. In December 1681, Bayle
entered on his new office. In the next year he publiihed
a criticifm on Maimbourg's " Hiilory of Caivinifni," in the
form of letters, under the title of " Critique Generate de
I'Hifloire du Calvinifme de M. Mainibourg." This work,
written in a lively manner, and with a vein of raillery, was
read with picafure by perfons of the reformed religion, and
it was particularly agreeable to the prince of Conde, who
was no friend to Maimbourg. Although it was pubhcly
condemned at Paris, it became popular in Holland, and a
new edition of it, with cnlargem.tnts, wasfpeedily publilhed.
Jurieu had alio publilhed a refutation of Maimbourg ; but
being much lefs popular than Baylc's, the author began to
regard his brother profeffor with a confiderable degree of

jealoafy.

BAY

jealoufy. In 1684 Mr. Bayle was induced, by tlie freedom
ol the prifi ill Holland, to print fcvcral controvcrfial works,
that were fcnt liim from France ; and particularly " A col-
Itdlion of fonie curious pieces r^.-lative to the philofophy
of Defcartcs," with a preface, giving an acconut of thefe
pieces, and containinpj fome refleftions on the inq'nlitorial
power exercifed in France over books on fcientilic topics.
In this year he bcga;i his momhly litcraiy journal, entitled
" NouvtUes de la Rcpubliqne des I.ettres," which was
written in a manner that fervtd not only to fupport, but to
increafe the reputation which lie had already fvained. About
this time he declined an ofler of the profefTorOiip of p'.-lo-
fophy at Franekcr, though it was propofcd very much to
augment the falary which he received at Rotterdam. His
•' Nouvclles Lcttres do I'Autcur de la Critique generalc de
I'Hiftoire du Calviiiifiuc de M. Maimbourg," which was a
continuation or fecni.d part of his former work, and
printed iu 1685, excited much Icfs attention than the firil.
Having given an opinion in favour of M. Malebranche in
his account of Aniauld's book v. ritten againll him, he was
engaged in a difputc with the latter; and in 16S6 he had
a corrcfpondence with Chriftina, queen of Sweden, con-
cerning a letter of her majefty's, which he had mentioned
in his journal, and which condemned the perfecution fuf-
fcrcd by the proteftants in France. This letter, he had
faid, was " tiie remainder of the Pioteftant religion in her."
This exprefPion had given fome flight olTence to the
queen, and Bayle addreffed to her a letter of apology.
In an ample rej'ly the queen declared her fatisfaftion with
liis excufes ; and add-i, " I will lay a penance upon you,
which is, that for the future you fend me all the curious
books, in French, Latin, or Italian, upon all kinds of fci-
ences and all forts of fubjefts, piovided they be worth read-
ing." Her majefty made no exception of romances or fa-
tires, and particularly requelled books of chcmiilry, and
the author's journal. Bayle was much affefted by the re-
vocation of the edi(f^ of Nantes, and the cruelties exercifed
againft the protcftants in France for the purpofe of inducing
them to abjure their religion. Upon this conduft he made
fome juft and pointed refleftions in his journal ; and in 1686,
he publifhed a pamphlet, entitled, '' Ce que c'eil que la
France toute Catholiquc fous le regne de Louis Ic grand,"
or, a charadler of Fiance, become entirely catholic under
Louis the great. It was publiflied without his name ; and
contained very fevcre cenfurcs on the treatment which
the proteftants received, as well as on the iniquity and
folly of all attempts to procure convcrfion by force. This
was foou followed by his famous work, intitkd, " Commen-
tarie Philofophique, &c. ;" or, a Philofophical Commentary
en the v.-ords " Compel them to come in." This work was
an elaborate defence of toleration, which formed the firft
part of it ; and in the fecond the author anfwers all the ob-
jeftions againft it. It was followed in the next year by a
third part, containing a confutation of St. Auguftin's apo-
logy for perfecution. The free fentiments expreffcd in this
work gave offence to Jurieu ; and though he was ignorant
of the author, who had taken pains to conceal his name, he
wrote a treatife againft it. Bayle's health was fo much im-
paired by the application devoted to the compofition of his
commentary, and probably alfo by the vexation occafioned
by his controvcrfy rthiting to queen Chriftina, that he found
it ncceffary to dilcontinue his literary journal, in the condudl
of which he had obtained numerous tcft.monies of approba-
tion, not only fiom pnvate perfons, but from fevcral focie-
ties of learned men, and particularly from the French Aca-
demy and the Royal Society of England. His fituation alfo
at Rotterdam became unpleafant to him, on account of

8

BAT

the quarrelfome difpofition of Jurieu and fome othercircutri-
ftances ; and he wilhcd to leave it : but difappoiiited in his
views of a removal to Berlin, he was under a nectfiity of
continuing at Rotterdam. In 16S8, Bayle publiftied a
fourth part of his philofophical commentary, in which he
examined and confuted the perfecuting principles main-
tained by Jurieu in his two treatifes intilled " Vrai Syfteme dc
I'Eghfc," and " Droits des deux Souverains." Another
circnmftancc alfo occurred which ferved to widen the breach
between them. Jurieu, in his interpretation of fome of the
fcripture prophecies, had prefagcd the approaching triumph
of the proteftants in France, and he had publiftied fome free
opinions, with a view of preparing the people for this great re-
volution, on the right of fubjeftsto refift by force of arms the
tyranny of fovcreigns over their confciences. Among other
books that were written iu order to counteradt the elfeft of
Jurieu's publication, the mod remarkable was a treatife, in-
titled, " Avis aux Refugicz," or Important Advice to the
Refugees, conccniing their approaching return into France,
and printed in 1690. The author perfonated a catholic.
and his name was concealed ; but Jurieu, attributing it to
Bayle, was mucli incenfed, and took occafion to attack hi»
religious and political character, publicly accufed him before
the magiftratcs of Rotterdam, and attempted to get him
difmiffed from his profedbrftiip. Bayle made a finrittd de-
fence, and his caufe was efponfed by Icveral able writers.
The magiftrates condufted themfelves with impartiality and
moderation ; and the difpute fubfideil. Although Mr. Bayle
denied his having been the author of the above mentioned
treatife, there is reafon to believe that the fufpicions and
charges of Jurieu and others were not unfounded. Bayle
had been accullomed to write under fiftitious characters, and
on oppofite fides of the fame queftion ; and this is a circum-
ftance which has been alleged, and not without reafon,
againft his charadler. BefiJes, it is not unlikely that na-
tional prejudice and early attachment might have induced
him to vindicate the rights and inteiefts of the French mo-
narchy. However this be, he was afterwards fufpefted of
being concerned in an intrigue to bring about a feparatc
peace between France and the United States ; and king
William, dreading the confcquences of this projedl of peace,
gave orders to the magiftrates of Rotterdam to deprive him
of his profeftbrftiip and of his penfion. This event took
place in November 1693 ; and Mr. Bayle, declining offers
that were made him ot entering into new engagements,
lived in retirement.

The projeft of his " Critical Diftionary" had been an-
nounced in 1690; and in 1692, his plan, under the title of
" Projet et Fragmens d'un Didtionaire Critique ;" but as it
was difapproved by the public, he commenced the work, as
it has fiiice appeared, on a new plan. Accordingly the firft
volume appeared in Auguft 1695. Such was the favour-
able expectation entertained concerning this work, that the
duke of Shrewfbury, an Englifti nobleman, diftinguiflied by
his talents as well as by his high rank and employments, ex-
preficd a \vi(h to have it dedicated to him, and by means of
Mr. Bafnage offered Bayle 200 guineas as an acknowledg-
ment for this diftinction. Mr. Bayle declined the off^er, and
maintained his independence. The fecond volume, which
completed the firft edition, though it has fiiice appeared iu
a more enlarged form, was printed in 1697 ; and the fale of
the whole was uncommonly rapid and extcnfive. Whilfl;
Bayle profeficd to fupply the numerous defefts of Moreri's
diftionary, and to correft its errors, it feems to have been
his real purpofe " to make his diftionar)' a kind of common
place for all the critical and philofophical knowledge, all
the curious information as to fadf, and all the fubtlety of

argu.

BAY

BAY

argumentation he had fpent his Vii-i in acquirinn;." The text
is concil'e ; but the notes, which contain much valuable in-
formation, are fpun out to a tircfomc and uninterefting
length. This didtionary, generally fo well received, and
containing a variety of unexceptionable matter, difplayed
freedoms of fcvenil kinds, both as to lentiment and ditlion,
which were not liii^ly to efcape cenfure. Jurieu, the avowed
and implacable antagoniil of Bayle, attacked it from the
prefs, and endeavoured to procure its condemnation from
the ecclelialb'cal afTemblies. The confiflory of the Walloon
church of Rotterdam contented itfelf with the detail of fe-
vcral objections againft particular articles, for which indeed
no fatisfaiilory apology can be offered ; but fatisiied with
Mr. Bayle's promife of amendment in a fecond edition, they
proceeded no further. In 1702, Mr. Bayle pubhfhed a fe-
cond edition, with many additions. In the following year
he wrote a volume entitled, " Reponfe aux Qnellions d'un
Provincial," containing an entertaining and inltruftive vari-
ety of liii^orical, critical, and hternry obfcrvations, to which
he added a fecond and third volume in 170J, and a fourth in
1706. In 1704, he publiihed " A Vindication of his
Thoughts on Comets," which involved him in utw difpntes,
particularly v^'ith the ingenious and learned Le Clerc. With
his fame his adverfaries multiplied ; and attempts were made
to prejudice lord Sunderland, the Enghih minilter of ftate,
againil him, and to procure his e.xclufion from the United
States, as a man who was not only an enemy to religion, but
chargeable with trealon againft the government. The ilorm,
however, was diverted by the influence of lord Shaftelhury. He
was offered atthis time a liberal provifion and hofpitable refuge
by feveral perfons of diftintf ion in England ; but he declined
all thefe generous propofals. The decline of his health made
him averfe from changing his htuation ; and towards the
clofe of the year 1706, he was reduced by a pulmonaiy
diforder, which was hereditary, to a very weak ftate. The
approaches of death were regarded by him with philofo-
phical firmnefs, nor did he intermit his literaiy labours to
the lall period of his life. In the morning of December
28, 1706, when his landlady entered his chamber, he aiked
her in a faint voice if his tire was kindled, and immediately
expired ; having attained the age of fomewhat more tlian
59 years.

By his panegyrifts, Mr. BayU's talents, learning, and
powers of reafoning have been undnly extolled ; by his ad-
verfaries they have been no Icfs unjuftly degraded. M. le
Clerc, who belongs to tlie latter clals, and whofe judgment
is evidently biaflcd by prejudice, has not allowed him the
merit to which he is unqueltionably entitled. He reprefents
him as fo ignorant of geometry, that, according to his own
confefTion, he could never underiland the demonftration of
Euclid's tirll problem, and as hiving written in the latter
period of his life againil the evidence of mathematical de-
monftration. As a reafoner, he fays, he had no fettled prin-
ciples, and he argued only with a defign to puzzle the un-
learned readers. His arguments, he adds, contain much
more froth and empty words than found reafoning. He
was unacquainted with the books written in England upon
experimental philoiophy, and undcrftood only a little of the
philofophy of Des Cartes. He had perufed only a few
tranflations of EngHfli books upon metaphyfical fubjefts.
His knowledge of divinity was Jerived from his catechifm,
from fermons, or from a few French books. In ecclefiafti-
cal antiquity, and in that of Greece and Rome, he was in-
differently (killed ; law and phyfic were to him hidden trea-
fures ; and his knowledge of modern hiftory was partial and
imperfect. He had coUefted with great labour a thoufand
literary trifles and inconfiderable circumftances ; and though
he wrote in a very agreeable manner, it was only when he

was not in a pafTicn. R?iurin fays of him, that he was one
of thofe extraordinary men, v.'hofe oppofite qualities leave
room to doubt whether we ought to look upon him as the
bed or the worft of men. On the one hand, he was a great
philofopher, knowing how to diftinguifli truth from falfe-
hood, and perceiving at one view all the confequences of a
principle and their conneftion ; and on the other hand, a
great fophift, confounding truth with falfehood, and deduc-
ing falfe inferences from his affumed principles. On the one
hand, a mail of learning and knov/ledge, who had read all
that can be read, and remem.bered all that can be remem-
bered ; and on the other, ignorant, or feigning ignorance,
with regard to the moft common uibjciits, propofuig diffi-
culties which have been a thoufand times f;)lved, and urging
objections which a (chool-boy conld nut make without blufti-
ing. On the one hand, attacking the moll eminent men,
opening a large field for their labours, and giving them a
great deal of trouble to vai.q'.'.ifti him ; and on the other,
ufing the worft authors, to wliom he was lavifli of his praifes,
and difgracing his works by fuch names (meaning probably
Brantome and Rabelais) as a learned mouth never pronounced.
On the one hand, free, at leaft in appearance, from all the
pafiions which are inconfiftent with the fpirit of Chriftianity,
grave in his difcourfes, temperate in his diet, auftere in his
manner of hving ; and on the other, employing all the
ftrength of his genius to overthrow the foundations of mo-
ral virtue, and attackiag as much as lay in his power, chaf-
tity, modcfty, and all the Chriftiau virtues. On the one
hand, appealing to the throne of the moft fevere orthodoxy,
going to the pureft fpiings, and borrowing his arguments
from the leaft fufpefted writers ; and on the other, following
the paths of heretics, propofmg again the objedlions of the
ancient herefiarchs, lending them new arms, and collettino-
together in one age all the errors of pall ages. The elo-
quent preacher clufes this detail with the following benevo-
lent wilhes : " May that man, who had been endowed with
fo many talents, be acqultted^before God of the ill ufe he
made of them ! May that Jcfus, v/hom he fo often attacked,
have expiated his fins!"

Voltaire, fpjaking of his Critical Ditlionary, fays, " It
is the firft work of the kind in which a man may learn to
tliink." He cenfnres, however, thofe articles which con-
tain only a detail of minute fails, as unworthy either of
Bayle, an intelligent reader, or pofterity. " In placing
him," adds this author, " among the writers who do ho-
nour to the age of Louis XIV. although a refugee in Hol-
land, I only conform to the decree of the parliament of
Touloufe ; which, wlien it declared his will valid in France,
notwithftanding the rigour of the laws, exprefsly faid, " that
fuch a man could not be confidered as a foreigner." " With-
out a country, or a patron, or a prejudice," fays Gibbon in his
" Mifcellaneous Works," Bayle claimed the liberty, and
fubhrted by the labours of his pen. The inequality of his
voluminous works is explained and excuftd by his alternately
writing for himfelf, for the bookfellers, and for pofterity ; and
if a fevere critic would reduce him to a fingle folio, that relic,
hke the books of the Sibyl, would become ftill more valua-
ble. The ancient paradox of Plutarch, continues this writ-
er, that atheilm is lefs pernicious than fuperftition, acquires
a tenfold vigour when it is adorned with the colours of his
wit, and pointed with the acutenefs of his logic. His " Cri-
tical Dictionary" is a vaft repofitory of fafts and opinions,
and he balances the falfe religions in his fceptical fcales, till
the oppofite quantities, adopting the language of algebra,
annihilate each other. The wonderful power which he fo
boldly exercifed of aflembhng doubts and objections had
tempted him jocofely to alFume the title of the vtf'.Xr.y.^i'M
Ziv;, the cloud-compcU'w^ Jove ; and in a converfation witli

tlie

BAY

tlie injfenious abbe, nfterwards cardinal, de Pollfjnac, he
freely difclofcd his uiiiverlal Pyrrhonifiii. " I am truly (faid
Haylc) a protcftaiit, for I protcH iiidifferciuly againil all
fyrtcms and all ftfts."

Upon the whole we may obfer\'e, that in private life Mr.
Baylc was fobcr and temperate, modell and iinafruming,
dilinterefted and fincTe. As a writer, his fentimcnts were
fluctuating and fceptical, and he is not luijnftly placed at the
head of modern fceptics. Althoiip;h he often takes pleafnre
in propagating his doubts, and pcrplcxin;^ his readers with
a contrariety of opinions, yet he frcqncntly combats hurttiil
prejudice and unwarrantable dogmatifni. In many articles
of his Diflionary, it does not appear to what count ly, ftft,
or perfuafion he belongs ; and this circr.mftance has been re-
garded by fome perfons as conlUtuting a qualification for
historical difcuffion. rov the pruriency of his ideas, for his
iiotorio'-is want of delicacy, and for his difpofition to intro-
duce offenfive topics, his mod partial advocates will find it
difficult to devife an apology. Tiie pernicious tendency of
his fceptical fyftcm, with regard to religion and focicty, is
well expofed by lord Lyttleton in his " Dialogues of the
Dead," Dial. 24. Works, vol. ii. p. 315. "You have en-
deavoured," fays tljis excellent writer, perfonatiiig Locke,
" and with fome degree of fnccefs, to (liake thofe founda-
tions, on which the whole moral world, and the great fabric
of focial happinefs, entirely reft ; how could you, as a phi-
lofopher, in the fober hours of refleiElion, anlwcr for this to
yourconfcicnce, even fuppofmg you had doubts of the truth
of a fyftem, which gives to virtue its fwecteft hope, to impeni-
tent vice its greatcft fears, and to tnic penitence its bcft con-
lolations; which reftrains even the leaft approaches to guilt, and
yet makes thofe allowances for the infirmities of our nature,
which the ftoic pride denied to it, but which its real imper-
fetlion, and the goodnefs of its infinitely benevolent Creator,
fo evidently require .'" As to his ftyle of writing, it is na-
tural and lively, but not always correft, and inclining to
prolixity j and his manner is rather fatiricnl and humourous,
than inflammatory. The beft editions of his Dictionary are
thofe of 1720 and 1740. The EngHfh tranfiation of Mr.
dc Maizeaux is reckoned a good one. A new and accurate
tranfiation of Bajle's diftionary is incorporated in the " Ge-
neral Dictionary, Hiftorical and Critital," with rcfleftions
on fuch paffagcs of Mr. Baylc, as fetm to favour fcepti-
cifm and the Manichce fyllem. Maizeaux's Life of Bavle.
Gen. Diel. Gen. Uiog.

Bayle, Francis, many years proftlTor in medicine and
philofophy at Touloufe, and author of numerous Lamed
and ingenious works, died September 24th, 1709, aged 87
years. The moll elleemed of his productions are, " De
Menftruis Mulierum," " Sympathia parlium coiporis hu-
mani cum utcro, ufu laffis ad tabidos, &c." Tolof. 1670,
4to. He attributes the menftrua! flux to a fermentation oc-
curring periodically in the mucous finufes in the uterus,
diftcnding and opening their mouths, which collapfe and
clofe as foon as the fermentation fubfides ; a notion as philofo-
phical as the periodical plethora of Friend. " Diflcrtationes
phyfics fcx," Tolof. 1677, i2mo. The third diffcrtation
is on phyllognomy, in which ihe autlior had faith, as well
as in the power of the imagination of the mother, in marking
and mutilating the foetus in utcro. " Difcours fur I'expe-
ricnce et la raifon," Pans, 1(^75, i2mo. He here afferts
the fuperiority of experience over theory- in medicine. " Hif-
toire d'un enfant qui a demeure 25 ans dans Ic ventre de fa
mere," Tolof. 1678, i2mo. The fcetus was found uncor-
rupted, furroundcd by a firm cruft or ihcU. For the titles
of the remainder of this author's works, which were col-
lefted and publifhed in four volumes, 410. in the year 1 70 1,
U Touloufe, fee Hall. Bib. Anat. & Eloy's Did. Hill.

BAY

B.VYLli, In Fort'ificalion, the fpace outfide the ditch of
our ancient fortrefles, commonly lurrpunded by flrong pal-
lifades, and fometimes by a low embattled wall.

Bayly, Lewis, in Biography, an Englilli bifhop in the
reign of James I., was born at Carmarthen, in South
Wales, and educated at Oxford. Being an eminent preacher,
he was appointed one of the king's chaplains, and promoted
to the fee of Bangor in 1 616. In 162 1 he was committed
to the Fleet, probably on account of his concern in prince
Henry's matcli with the Infanta of Spain He died in 1632,
and was buried in the church of Bangor. This prelate was the
author of a famous piece called " The PraifUcc of Piety,"
which has been fo popular, that the edition of 1734 was tlie
59th. It was tranllated into Wclfh and alio into French 111
1733; ^"^ * complaint was alleged againft it, that the com-
mon people regarded its authority as equal to that of the
Bible. Biog. Brit.

BAYN'A, in Geugraphy, a town of Hungary, in the Bo-
dok dill rift, the inhabitants of which are principally farmers
and hnfoandmen.

EAYNES, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Bayeux, 3I leagues W.S.W. of Baycux.

BAYNET, a town and bay on the fouth fide of the
ifland of St. Domingo, 4? leagues from Petit Guave, oa
the north (ide of the ifland, and about 8 leagues well of
Jackmel. N. lat. 18° 17'.

BAYON, a town of France, in the department of the
Meurtc, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift of Luiie-
ville, feated on the Mofelle. N. lat. 48^ 30'. E. long. 14'*
42'.

BAYONA, a fea-port town of Spain in Gallicia, fuuated
in a fmall gulf, near the mouth of the Minho, with a con-
venient harbour. The coall near it abounds with excellent
fifli ; and the land, «-atered by many fprings, is fertile.
N. lat. 42° 15'. W. long. 9° 30'.

Bavona Bay and JJlamls, lie on the fouth part of the
great bay of Vigo, and to the caft of cape Paflelis, on the
weft coaft of Spain, in the Atlantic ocean. The bay form*
the harbour of the town of Bnyoi.a. The two iflands are fitu-
ated a little to the weft of north from the town. They
were ar.ciently calUd " Infulx Deorum," or the ifles of the
Gods. A large rock, with many fmall ones about it, lies
at the fouth end of Bavona iflands.

BAYONET, in the iMililnry jlrl, fignifies a (hort broad
dagger, ufed by all modern armies, fince the fword has been
laid afide, as a neceffary appendage to the infantry. The
origin of the term is not corredlly known ; but is moll pro-
bably derived from having been firft manufadlured at the
city of Bayonne, or originally invented by an engineer of
that place.

Bayonets were formerly made with a round handle,
adapted to the bore of a firelock, fo as to be fixed there
after the ioldier had difchargtd his piece. They arc now
conftrufted with iron handles and rings which go over the
muzzle of the firelock, and are fcrewed faft ; thus enabling
the foldier to fire and load with his bayonet iixed, and ready
to aft, if necefl"ary, againft horfc. I'his is particularly of
fervice to dragoons and fulileers, after they have expended
all their powder and ball.

The ufe of the bayonet fattened on the muzzle of the
firelock was a great improvement, firft introduced by the
French, and to whicfi, according to tiic chevalier de Folard
(Comm.fur Polyb. vol.i. p. 135. edit. Paris, 1727), they
owed in a great meafure their vidtories obtained in the war
of 1689. To its negledt in the next war, the fame writer
attributes moft of the lolTes they fuftained. It is to marfhal
Catinat, the French are indebted for the great fuperiority

they

BAY

B A Z

they poffcfs in the management of this weapon. Daring
greater part of the feventeenth centurj-, one half of a bat-
talion was armed with pikes, the other carried mufquets ;
but the feeble effetl of thefe lall, and the frequent milung
fire from the aukward ufe of matchlocks, fuggclled the im-
provement of Hrclocks with bayonets, which unite the two
arms in the moll efFcftual manner.

The battle of Marfaglia, in 1693, was the firll occafion
on which Catiuat put this improvement in praftice, againft
the Spaniards and Savoyards. The French infantry marched
boldly up to the enemy, received their hrc, and without re-
turning a fliot, charged furioufly with their bayonets. The
flangliter was horrible, and the rout of the allies complete.
The fame method was adopted by mavihal Tallard at the
battle of Spires in 1703 ; and by the due de Vendome at
the battle of Calcinato in Italy, in 1705. On both occafions
fncc'.fs was the fame as in the formerinilances. Of late thebay-
onet has come into very general ufe ; and battles ot importance
have been gained by it without the difcharge of a mufquet.
The late knig of Pruffia, although he relied greatly on the
running fire which lie taugi;t his troops to practife with
fuch terrible effect, yet highly recommended the charge
with the bayonet as the moll effectual means of throwing a
wavering enemy into irreparable difjrder.

B-.:t t!ie French, whofe natural genius fetms particularly
adapted to the ufe of this weapon, have not only invented,
but have alfo employed it with the moft aflonilhing fucccfs.
In the laft war, the favourite mnxim of their generals, inftead
of lolingtime by cannonading and firing on the enemy with
mufquttry, has been to bring the ilfue of the affair as early
as poluble to the point of the bayonet. The battles of
Jemappe, Haguena\i, and Ettingen, in particular, not to
mention many others, were alnioll exclufivtly gained by it ;
and the Spaniards, throughout the dreadtul coiitcfts between
their own and the French forces, at the concUifion of the
campaign of 1794, were uniformly defeated by the ufe of
the bayonet alone.

BAYONNE, in Geography, a pleafant fea-port town, on
the we'.lern coail of France, in a corner of the bay of Bif-
cay. It is fituated in the dillritl of Uilaritz, and depart-
ment of the lower Pyrenees, at the conflux of the rivers
Adour and Nive, about a league from the fta, with a good
harbour, and having a narrow and dangerous entrance. The
Adour divides the fuburb from the citadel, and through the
town itfelf flows the river Nive. A wooden drawbridge,
which admits veficis to pafs, connects the fuburb with the
town. The ilyle of the buildings at Bayonne is principally
v5p:ini(h, with balconies at every windo>v, and arcades be-
fore the houfcs. From the " place de la Libertc", which
is furro\mded by very neat houies, and appears very gay, a
•gate lead^ to a pleafant promenade on the Adour. The
trade of this town is very confiderable, on account of its vi-
cinity to Spain, and of the great quantity of wines which
are brought hithtr from the adjicent country,, and which
the Dutch have been accullomed to take in cj:c sange for
fpices and other commodities. Mafts are alfo brought from
the Pyrenees by meiins of the Nive, the Gave of Oieron,
and the Adour, to Bayonne, whence they are fiiipped to
Brell, and other ports. The com.mon people generally fpeak
the old bXcayan or bafque langi:age. At Bayonne, and in
the neighbouring country, the young women arc very beau-
tiful, combiiiijig with a tall fleuiler ihape great fymmetry of
features, a fajr complexion, and black lively eyes. Before
the revolution, Bayonne was the fee of abi'hop, f;ffragan of
Auch. In 1784, It was declared a free port. N. lat. 43'
29' 2 l". W. long. 1° 30' G".

BAYS, in Canimerce, a kind of coarfe, tjpen, woollen
ftidf, having a long knap ; foraetimcs frized on one fide, and
Vol. IV.

fomctimes not frized, according to the ufes for which it is

intended.

This ftulT is without wale, being wrought on a loom with
two treddles like flannel. — It is chiefly manufaftured about
Colcheilcr, and Becking in Efiex ; and in Flanders, about
Lifle and Tournay, &c.

This manufadlure was firft brought into England, toge-
ther with that of fays, ferges, &c. by the Flemings, who
fled hither from the perfecution of the duke of Alva, about
the fifth year of the reign of queen Elizabeth, and had after-
wards peculiar privileges granted them by the 12 Car. II.
in 1660. The exportation of bays was formerly much
more confiderable than it is now, as the French raanufaftu-
rers have learned to imitate them, and have fet up manufac-
tures of their own at Nifmes, Montpelier, Sec. However
a confiderable quantity of bays is fl.ill exported to Spain,
Portugal, and Italy. Their chief ufe is for the religious,
ar.d for linings in the army ; the looking-glafs makers alfo
uie them behind their glaflcs, to prcferve the tin or quick-
fiiver ; and the cafe makers to hne their cafes.

The br;-aJlh of bays is commonly a yard and half, yard
and three quarters, or two yards; by forty-two, or forty-
eight in length : thofe of a yard and three quarters are moft
proper for the Spanifh trade.

Bays, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diflridl
of Mayenne, 3§ leagues E.S.E. of Mayenne.

BAZA, or Bazat, in Camimrce, fine fpun cotton, which
comes from Jenifalcm, whence it is alfo called Jerufalemcotton.
BAZA, in Geography, a townof Germany, in the duchy
of Carniola, 7 miles S.S.W. of Feldes.

Baza, or Baga, a town of Spain, in the province of Gra-
nada, between Guadix and Huefcar, fuppofcd to be the an-
cient Bafti. N.lat.37°3i'. W. long. 2" 31'.

BAZADOIS, a dillrift of the province of Guyenne, be-
fore the revolution, fituated between Agenois, Condomois,
and Guyenne. The foil is fandy and unproduclive. The
capital is Bazas.

BAZAR, or Basar, iu Commerce, a denomination among
the Turks and Perfians, given to a kind of exchanges or
places where their fineft fluffs and other wares are fold.
They are a'fo called bezejlins.

Tiie word bazar fecms of Arabic, or rather of Perfian and
TurkilTi origin, where it denotes yi/f, or exchange of goods.
Some of the eaflern bazars arc open, like the market-
places in Europe, and ferve for the fame ufes, more particu-
larly for the fale of the more bulky and lefs valuable commo-
dities. Others are covered with lofty ceilings, or even dows
pierced to give light ; and it is in thefe the jewellers, go!d-
fm.iths, and other dealers in the richer wares, have their fliops.
The bazar or inaidan of Ifpahan is one of th,^ finefl places
in a!l Perfia, and even furpafTes all the exciiangcs in Europe ;
yet, notwithflanding its magnificence, it is excelled by the
bazar of Taurls, whch is the largeft that is known, having fe-
vera! times held thirty thoufar.d ;nen ranged ui order of battle.
At Conflantinople there are the old and the nev.- bazar,
which arc large, fquare buildings, covered with domes, and
f.illained by arthts and pilaiters ; the former chicly for
arms, harnesTjs, and the iilie ; the latter for goldfmiths,
jewellers, furriers, and all forts of manufaflures. For an
account of the bazars of Aleppo, fee Aleppo.

Bazar, or Brizaur, a town of Hiidooflan, 20 miles N.E.
of Attock, fcated near the Indi'S, Nilab or Sinde river. > .
lar. ^3*45'. E. long. 71° 18'.

BAZARUTO, or BecicA //7..Wj-, lie off the South-eaft
coail of Africa, in the Indian ocean, oppofite to Asuca bay.
S. lat. 21° 55'. E. long. 34° 30'.

BAZAS,, a city of France, and principal place of a dif-

G tnci.

B A Z

B F. A

trift, in the department of the Girondc, before the revolu-
tion the capital of Bnzadois, and fee of a bi(hop. It is
feated on a rock, and the number of inhabitants is com-
puted nt ;coo. N. 1st. 44" 26'. W. long, o" 30'.

BAZEILLE, St., a town of France, in the department
of the Lot and Garonne, in the diftrid of Marmande, i
IcajTije N. W. of Nfarmande.

B.A.ZC".EMDGES, in Ntiluml Hi/Ion, the name of a
fubftancc uf .d by the Turks, and other tafterii nations, in
their fear! -t dyincj : they mix it for this purpofe with co-
chineal and tartar, the proportions being two ounces of
the bazrjend'^es to one ounce of cochineal.

The bav.^endges fcem to be no other than the horns of
the turpentine tree in the eallrrn parts of the world ; and
it is not only in Syria that they are found, but Ciiina alfo
affords them! M;iny things of this kind were lent over
to M. GeofTroy at Pans from China, as the fubftancts
ufed in the fcarlct dying of that country, and they all
proved wholly the fame with the Synaii and Turkifh baz-
"•endges, and with the common turpentine horns. The
fentilij or mallic tree is alfo freciuently found produciiig
many horns, of a like kind with theft, and of the fame
origin, all being owing to the piiaroiis, which make their
way into the leaves, and breed their young there. Reau-
mur's Hift. of Inftfts, vol.vi. p. 37.

BAZIEGE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment oftlie upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton,
in tlie dillria of Villefranche, 4 leagues S.E. of Touloufe.

BAZIN, NiccoLAS, in Biography, a French phyfician
and correfponding Member of the academy of Sciences at
Paris, graduated at Strafbourg, where he afterwards reiid-
ed, and acquired confiderable reputation as a practitioner
in medicine, though his attention was principally turned to
the ftudv of natural hiftot^, which he enriched with the
following valuable produftioi •". " Obfcrvations fur les plan-
tes, et fur leur analogic avcc les infeftes." Strafbourg, 1741,
8vo. He believed that plants refpired, and that the juices
abforbtd by them for tiiclr nouri(hment were digelled, or
concofled in the root, prior to their diftribntion. " Hif-
toire des Abcilles," 2 vol. izmo. Paris, 1744. " Lettre au
fujet des animaux, appelles polypes," i 745, i2nio. He died
in March 1754. Hall. Bib. Bot. Eloy. Dia. Hill.

BAZIRA, in Ancient Geography, now Bijore, a dlllrift
of a territory adjoining to the country of the Affaceni, or
Affacani, correfponding to the prefent Sewad or Sowhad, be-
tween the rivers Bijore and Penjekorehin Hindooftan. When
Alexander had taken Maflaga, the capital of the Affaceni,
by alfault, he fummoned Bazira, the capital of the next ad-
iacent territory ; and the modern dillridt of Bijore prefcnts
itftlf in a pofition that anfwers mod unequivocally to that
of Bazira ; and the fmiilarity of their names is no Itfs ftrik-
ing. See Bijore.

BAZIRGION, a town of Perfia, iu the province of
I^ariftan, 57 miles ead of Lar.

BAZltJM, a promontory of Egypt, on the weftein coad
of the Red Sea. Ptolemy.

BAZOCHE, or Basocht, in Law, formerly a royal
kind of juiifdifftion excrciftd among the clerks of the palais,
er courts of jullice at Paris. It was adminiftered in the
name and by the authority of the king of Bazocke, roi <!e la
Ba^uche, by virtue of an ancient grant of the kings of France;
the elder among the clerks were the officers ; and he who pre-
fided was the chancellor. This court only took cognizance
of caufes anu)ng the clerks, or between clerks and artificers
for goods bought, or work done. The freedom they txereifed
with regard to private characters in their inquifition and re-
monllrances, occafumed fcvtral arrets to rtlham their power,
and prohibit theii- holding picas withoat leave.

A coUeflion of ftatwtes, ordonnancs, regulations, moni!.
ment?, and prerogatives of the kingdom of Bazoche, wa*
publilhed at Paris in 1654, 8vo.

Bazoche, Ea, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eure and Loire, and chief place of a ca;:ton,
in the dillricl of Nogent le Rotron, 5 miles S.E. of Authon.
BAZOCHES, a town of France, in the departmint o?
the Orne, ar.d elrtf place of a canton, in the diltridl of Ar-
gcntan, 9 miles IJJ.W. of Argentan. — Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton^
in the dillrift of Neuvillc-Aux-Bois, 6 miles N.of Neuville. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Aifnc, and
chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Soiffons, 4 leagues
E. of Soiffons.

BAZOGE, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Sarte, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrid of
le Mans, fix miles N. of le Mans.

BAZOUGERS, a town of Fr»nce, in the department
of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the ditlnd
of Laval, 2\ leagues S. E. of I^aval.

BAZOUGES la Perousf, a town of France, in the
department of the Ille and Vilaine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dlllrift of Dol, 3^ leagues S. S. E. of Dol.

BDELLIUM, $^:\>Mj, an aromatic gimi, brought from
the I^evant, of iome ufe, both as a medicine and a perfume.
The word is fuppofed to have been formed of the Hcbrcwr
n'^T^, hilolla.'h, which the Englifli tranijators render by
the appellation bdellium. It is alfo written bedellitim, bedello,
plellium, pclaliium, mcgalium, and telimim.

There is much uncertainty concerning both the plant and
the place of its produftion, which is fuppofed to be in Afri-
ca. We find mention of the name both among the anciert
naturalKls, and in Scripture ; but it is doubtful whether any
of thefe be the fame with the modern kind. As for the
Scripture bdellium, we know very little of it. Mofes def-
cribcs manna as of the colour of bdellium ; and Jofephus ex-
plains the paifage, b^- faying it is the gum of a tree refembling
the olive tree ; and that the manna wherewith the Jews were
fed in the defart refemblcd tliis drug. — But Scaliger and
others fet afide this explication, and own they do not know
what the bdellium mentioned in Scripture is.

The bdellium of the moderns is a gum refin in irregular
brittle maffes, of a deep brown when broken, interfperfed
with more tranfparent parts ; and mixed with fmall twi"-s
and other accidental impurities. its external appearance
a good deal refcmbles myrrh. The fmell of this cnm-ri-
fin is fomewhdt fragrant, and its tafle foniewhat bluer and
pungent. It grows foft and tenacious when chewed. It
burns with eaie, giving a fragrant fmoke and a crackling
noife. It is partly foluble in alcohol, and partly in wa-
ter, or completely (the impurities excepted) in diluted
fpirit. By Neuman's experiments only about ore fixth
is pure relin. The watery fokitioii is lea-green, the fpi-
rltuous red. DlfliUed with water it impregnates the liw
Cjuid with its flavotir, but it does not yield any fenii-
ble q '.antity of effential oil, when only a iroderate quan-
tity IS ufed.

BdeUium was formerly employed as a flimulating remedy,
chiefly for external application, and is lUU retained in fome
of the warm plafters of the Paris difpenfatorie: . It is entirely
difufed here, and fcldom to be ften in the (hops. It re-

Ihops

fembles myrrh in its properties, but let's in degre.', and
very defervcdly neglecled. Murray. Lewis, Li Grange
Elem. de Pharm.

BEACH Fork, in Geography, a branch of Salt river,
which rifes in Nelfon county, Kentucky, in America. On
this river is found a fine clay, which it is thought might
be manufaclured into good porcelain.

BEACHy.

B £ A

B E A

BEACHY-HEAD, is a hold promontoty wLicli projei^s
iiito the Englifh channel on the SufTcx coaft, between
Haftin""S and Shoreham. Tnis commanding headland
confiils of alternate ftrata of chalk and flint ; thou<Th
the latter is only feen in thin layers or veins. " It is elleem-
ed," fays Camden, " the highcll cliff of all the foiith coaft
of Enoland ;" and on its fouth fide is a lar^te femicircular
intrenchment. It is divided into feven cliffs, and fo called
by feamen. The coafl; round this head is very dangerous in
ftormy weather, particularly when the wind fets in from
S. S. E. or S.W. From this promontory to Arundel, the
country along the coaft rifes into high hills, which are known
bv the nztme of South-downs, and celebrated for their Ihecp
walks. Beachy-head is memorable for the defeat of the
Englilh and Dutch fleets near it by a fuperior force of the
French, June 30th 1690. N. lat. 50" 44' 30". E. long, o''
l9'4o". See Eastbourne.

Beachy-head, lies alfo on the eaflern coaft of South
America, in Patagonia, about S.S.W.from Port Jidian, and
N.N.E. from cape Fairwtather. S. lat. 50° 2 i'. ^\'■. long.

BEACON, a fignal for the better fecuring the king-
dom againft foreign ins-afion.

Different methods have been taken in different coun-
tries, both anciently and of later ages, to conv.-y the no-
tice of any impending danger to diftant places with the
greatcft expeditijjn. But no kind of flgnals has more gc-
ucrally prevailed than that of fires in tlie night. That
this was pradifed among the Jews we learn from the fa-
cred writers. Hence the prophet Ifaiah, in allufion to
that cullom, threatens them that they fliould be left " as
a Beacon upon the top of a mountain, and as an enfigu
OB a hill." (chap. XXK. 17.) And in the like manner Je-
remiah alarms them by faying, " Set up a fign of fire
in Bcth-haccerem, for evil appeareth out of the north, and
great deftrudion ;" (chap. vi. i.) And as to other coun-
tries, Ariftotle (de Mundo) informs us, that thefe fignals
were fo difpofed on tov.'ers through all the territories of
the king of Perfia, that in the fpace of twenty-four hours
he could receive advice at Sufa and Ecbatana, his two
capital cities, of any commotions or diftuibances that
might be laifed in the moft diftant parts of his dominions. But
the Greeks, as Tiiucydides relates, made ufe of torches
for fignals, which by a different management ferved either
to ^ive notice of tlie approach of an enemy or the arrival
of a friend to ths'r affiftance. For as the fclioliaft fays,
in the former cafe '• the torches were fliook by thofe
wjio held them, and in the latter they were kept lltady."
(lib. xi. c. xciv. lib. iii. c. xxii.) Among the Greeks they
were called CfUy.rm ; and their ufe is particularly defcribed
in tlie Agamemnon of VEfchylus. The like cullom of
nodurnal fires obtained alfo among the Roman?, as ap-
pears from Cicero, where fpeaking of the mifconducl of
Verres, when governor of Sicily, he fays, " Non enim
ficut antea confuetudo erat predonum advcntum fignifica-
b.it ignis e fpecula fublatus ; fed flamma ex ipfs) incen-
dio naviuni, ec calamitatem acccptam et periculnm veliqu-
um nuntiabat : (lib. v. in Verrem, ^91.) Wherefore fignals
of this fort are called by Pliny " ignes proenuntiativi" (N.it.
Hift.lib. xi. § 73.) which he diftingnilhes from tlie P!iari, or
lifht houfcs that were placed upon the coafts for the direc-
tion of fiiips ; the latter of which wereconftant, but the for-
mer only occafional.

Eliablidud fignals were repeated, fays Charnock, in his
" Marine Architecture", by meaiis of beacons or light-
houfes erected in proper pofitions, from mountain to moun-
tain, through a chain of ftations, which are laid to have com-
reaiidcd an extent of more than 500 milca ; fo that even the

inhabitants of Co-.iftantinople v^ere capable of being in&rta-
ed, within the f.-.oit fpace of a few hours, of any motions
that might be attempted by their Saracen enemies in Tar-

fu5.

In our own cour.try, the name of beacon is derived from
the A'lglo-Saxon Inr.ian, to (hew by Cgn or beckon. It
was iifuallv placed upon a hi^;h ground, and fametimes on a
tumulus. From Lord Coke wc learn (Fourth Infl.it. c.xxv.
p. 1*^4-) that bef'jre the reign of Edward the third, bcaco- s
v.-ere but ftacks of wood fet up on high places, v.-hich were
fired when the coming of an enem.y was defcried ; but in
his reign pitched boxes were fet up inttcad of them. fi>
time of danger a watch was kept at them, and horfemea
called hobbelars were llatioued by mofl of them to give no-
tice of an cnem.y's a'^proach.

Beacons are alfu marks and figns ercfled on the coafls,
for the guidance and prefervation of mariners at fea by night
as well as by day. The erection of beacons, light houles,
and fca-marks, both for alarming the country in cafe of tiie
approach of an enemy, and for the dircftion and fafety of
(hips, is a branch of the royal prerogative. For this pur-
pofe the king hath the exclufive power, by commiffion un-
der his great feal, to caiife them to be erefted in fit and
convenient places, as well as upon the lands of the fubjedt as
upon the demefnes of the crown ; which power is ufually
vefted by letters patent in the office of lord high adm.iral.

Neverthelefs it mull be underftood that the power of
erecting beacons was occafionally given to individuals, and
limited by grants from the crown, wheiic;, or for fotr.e at-
chievements performed in times of danger, the beacon is wcra
as a creft in the arms of feveral families, as Belknap, Bulier,
Mountford, Sudley, and Shelly of Mithell Grove, one or
two of whom obtained efpecial grants which empowered
them to ereft and maintain beacons at their own expence.

The care of thefe when ereded by the crown, was com-
mitted to one or more of the adjacent liundreds ; and the
money due or payable for their maintenance, called beconagi-
um, was levied by the Sheriff of the county upon each hun-
dred. { Archxologia, vol. i. parti. Hutchin's, Hift. of
Dorfet, vol. i. p.lix. Camd. Brit. Edit. 1609. p. 196.)

By flat. 8 Ehz. c. 13. the corporation of the Trinity
houfe are empowered to fet up any beacons or fea-mark»
wherever they fliall think them neceffary : and if the owner
of the land or any other perfon fliall deftroy them, or fliall
take down any fteeple, tree, or other known fea mark, he
fliall forfeit 100/. or in cafe of inability to pay it, ffiall be
ipfo fade outlawed.

BEACONAGE, money paid towards the maintenance
of a beacon. A fuit for beaconage of a beacon (landing on
a rock in the fea may be brought in the court of admiralty,
the admiral having an original jurifdidion over beacons.
I Sid. 15'^.

BEACON Hill, in Geography. See Harwich.

BEACONSFIELD, a fmall m.arket town of Bucking-
hamlhire, in England, at the diftance of 23 miles N. W.
from London. The town is built on high ground, whence
fome antiquaries have inferred, that it derived its name from
a beacon formerly occupying this fpot. The fubftratura on
which it ttands is chiefly gravel, and the houfes are built
with flints or brick, there being no ftone quarries in this
part of the county. Beaconsfield has little claim to popi:-
lar attention, there being no particular hiftorical events or
antiquities attached to it. Here are a fmall weekly market
on Wediiefdays, and two annual fairs. Seated on the great
public road between London and Oxford, it derives fome
advantages from travellers ; but it has been particularly
noted in the literary annals ot this country, by the con-
ti^ucusrctidcncei of Edmund Waller the post, aadjidmund

G 2 Burke

B E A

Bi'rke the politician, both of whom pofTelTed eftates n;rir
lUacor.sfieM, and the memories of both are commemorated
by iiifcriptioiis at the parifli church. iSec Waller, and

Tl'RKE.

About three miles eaft of Bcaconsfield is BuIJlroJe, a feat
oT the duke of Portland. Thi"! ducal rclidciice was for-
merly in the pofilfRon of the BuHlrode family, but rcvi'rtiiig
to the crown, was <;iven by king William III. to William
]5cntinck, v. ho h.iJ long been the conftant attcrdant and
f.iithful fervant of ihat monarch, and who wascreatui by him
carl of Portland in 1689. From hii:i it defccr.dtd to tlie
prifent nobleman, who has made confiderable additions and
i nprovemcnts to the lioufe and grounds. The former is a
large iiTCgular brick building, fcattd on a high knoll, in the
centre of a fine park which abounds witii vcneishle tices,
and is diverlified with that variety of furfiicc, which conlli-
tu'.ts tlie foundation of the pifturtfque. This park contains
about 800 acres, and in the eallern part of it is a large cir-
cular entrenchment enclofing an area of twenty acres. See
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. i8ri.

BEAD, Bagl'f.tte, Yr. in Archile^un, a little round
moulding, the diminutive, or rather the vul;>;ar name of af-
tragal. This moulding is generally found in the cornices
of antique buildings, where it is uniformly carved with orna-
ments, fomelimes in the fliape of a ilring of beads, fome-
tmes a twilled ribbon or a rope. See P/o/tr XXI. of y/;--
ch'itcdure. Plain beads are vei7 much ufed in modern join-
ers' and plaillerers' work, as the mouldings of doors, liiut-
ters, lltirtings, iinpofls, and cornices.

Bead, in /IJfaying, the fmall lump or mafs of pure metal
feparated from \\\& J'curie, and feen diftinct and pure in the
middle of the coppel while in the lire.

Thus, in fcparating filvcr fiom its ore by mcars of lead,
the filver remains in form of a bead, when the lead, that had
before affillcd in the operation, is reduced to fcoritc. In
this procefs, the bead of filvcr mull be taken out of the
coppel as foon as it is feen pure and fine, left growing cold, it
(hould be conglutiuated to the coppel or litharge. This
bead, when rightly made, is always porous underneath.
Cramer.

Beads are more particularly ufed among us for a fort
of glafs necklace, made in imitation of the colour and
figure of pearl.

Beads are alfo ufed in fpeaking of thole glafs globules
vended to the favages on the coall of Africa, thus denomi-
nated, becaufe they are (Irung together for the convenience
of traffic.

The common black glafs of which beads are made for
necklaces, &c. is coloured with mangancfe only ; one part
of maiiganefe is fiifficient to give a black colour to near
twenty of glafs. Lewis's Comm. Phil. p. 422. See Ar-
tificial Pearls.

Beads, in a religious fenfe. See Chaplet.

'Br.AD-Ro!/, among the Romifli pricfts, a lift or catalogue
of fuch perfons, for the rtll of whole fouls they are obliged
to rehearfe a certain number of prayers, &c. which are told
by means of their beads.

Jiu AD- Afaiers, called by the French pntcrnnjincrs, are
thofe employed in the making, ftringi:ig, and felling of
beads. At Paris there are three companies of paternof-
triers, or bead-mahers ; one who make them of glafs or cryf-
tal ; another in wood and horn ; and a third in amber, coral,
jet, &c.

Bead Prn->f, or Doullt Proof, terms ufed by our diftillers,
to exprefs that fort of proof of the ftandard ftrength of
fpirituous liquors, which confifts in their having, when (haken
in a phial, or poured from on high into a glafs, a crown of
bubbles, which Hand on the furface foine lime after. This

B E A

is efteemed a proof that tlie fpirit confifts of equal parts of
reditied fpirits and piilegm.

Tiiii is a fallacious rule as to the degree of ftrength in
the liquor; becaufe any thing that will increafe the tena-
city ol the fpirit, will give it this proof thougli it be under
the due ftrength. Our malt diltilleis f]>oil the greater part
of lluir goods, bv leaving loo much of the Uinkiiig oil of
the nidt 111 their fiiirit, in order to give it this piocf, when
fotr.cwhat under the ftandard ftrength. But this is a great
deceit on the purchaftrs of malt fpirits, as thry have them
by this means not only weaker than they ought to be, but
ftinking with an oil,- which they are not eafily cleared of
aftirwr.rels.

On the other hand, the dealers in brandy, who ufually
have the art of fopliifticating it to a great nicety, are in
the ri;i,iit when they buy it by the ftroiigeft bead proof, as
the grand mark of the bell ; for being a proof of the brandy
rontaiiiinp a large quantity of its oil, it is, at the fame time,
a token of its high flavour, and of its being capable of bear-
ing a very Luge addition of the common fpirits of our own
produce, without betrayiiig their flavour or lofing its own.

We value the French brandy for the quantity of this
cfTeiitial oil of the grape which it contains, and that with
good reafon^ as it is with us principally ufed for drinking
as an agreeably flavoured cordial : but the French them-
felves, when they want it for any curious purpofer, are as
careful in the reclification of it, and take as much pains to
cle.ir it irom this oil, as we do to free our malt fpirit from
that uaufeous and foetid oil, which it originally contains.

No judgment can be formed of brandies by the bead
proof as to their mixed or adulterated, or their pure Hate,
farther than that they arc likely to be moll pure when they
have the greatcll proportion of this oil, in regard to mix-
tures of other fpirits. There are m,iny occafions where
we want fpirit, merely as fpirit, and where any oil, whether
fweet or ftiiiking, inuft be equally improper. Shaw's EIL
on Diftillery.

Bead Tree, in Botany. See Melia.

BEADLE or Bedell, Beddlus, fignifies a meffenger
or apparitor of a court, who cites men to appear and an-
fwer in the court to what is alledgcd againll them.

Beadle is alfo ufed for an officer in univerfities, whofe
place it is to walk before the mafters at ail public procef-
iions, &c. with a mace. The office of church and parilh
beadles is well known.

Spelman, VclTius, and Somner, derive bcaiUe from the
Saxon lidel, a public crier ; in which fenfe biftiops, in fome
ancient Saxon manufcripts, are called beadles of God, Dei
bcdc/li. The tranfiator of the Saxon New Tellament ren-
ders cxaHor by bidele ; and the word is ufed in the fame
fenfe in the laws of Scotland.

Beadle nf the For.-Jl, is an officer, that warns all the
courts of the forefts, and executes procefs, makes all pro-
clamations, &c. 4 Tnft. 313.

BEAGLE, in Zoology- See CANisFAMiLiARis,and Doo.

Beagl.rs are of diveis kinds ; as the fouthern beagle, fomc-
thing lefs and ftr.^rtcr, but thicker than tl>.e deep-mouthed
hound ; the fleet northern, or cat beagle, fmall, and of a finer
fhape than the fouthern, and a harder runner. From
the two, by crofting the ftrains, is bred a third fort held
preferable to either.

To thefe may be added a ftill fmaller fort of beagles
fcarce bigger than lap-dogs, which make pretty diverfion
in hunting the coney, or even fmall hare in dry weather :
but otherwife unferviceable, by reafon of their fize. Bea-
gles, both rough and fmooth, have their admirers among
fportfmen : their tongues are mufical, and they go fafter
than th'; foutl'ern ho.inds j they run fo clofe to the ground.

B E A

B E A

as to enjoy t!ie fcent better t!ian ta^lsr dogs, ffpfcially
wlien t'l.e atmofphere is low. In an iriclofed country thty
are faid to do bed, as they are good at trailing or default,
and for hedge-rows ; hut they require a clever hunlfnnan,
for out of ei'(hty couple in the held, during a winter's
fport, fcarccly four couple are to be depended upon. Of the
two forts, the wircliaiied, as having good fhouldtrs and
being well tilletted, are preferred. Smooth -haired btaj)les
are comnrinly deep hung, thick-lipped, with large uolliils,
but often fo loft and bad quartered, as to be ihoulder-iliook
and crippled the iirft fealon thiy hunt ; among them are
frequently ieen crooked legs, like the B.ithturnfpit ; and af;er
two hours running m;uiy of them are diiabled. Their form
and fliape fnfli^iently denote them not defigned fur hard
exercile. Danitl's Rural Sports, voi.i. p. 378.

BEAK, Rof/rtim, in Ornifho/oj^y, the bill of a bird ;
from the form and llruflure of which, Linn;pii3 divides this
whole family or general clafs of animals into lix orders. See
Bird, and Ornithology.

Beak, in Archilifclure, a little fillet left on the edge of
a larmier, v/hich forms a caiinl, and makes a kind of pen-
dant chin, anfwering to what V:truvius calk the mentiim.

Beak, or B^iik-Head of a Ship, is that part without the
(hip before the for;caftle, which is faftened to the ftem.
End is fupported by the main knee : this is ufually carved
and painted, and, bclides its ufe, makes the becoming part,
or grace of a fliip.

The beak was anciently made of wood, but fortified with
brais, and faflened to the prow, fervlng to annoy the
enemies' vefTels. Its invention is attributed to Pif^us, an
Italian. The firft beaks were made long and h'gh ; but
afterwards a Corinthian, named Arillo, contrived to make
them thort and ftrong, and placed fo low as to pierce the
enemies' vefiels under water. By the help of thefe, great
havoc was made by the Syracufans in the Atiienian fleet.
Pott. Archosol. lib.iii. c. 17.

BuAK was alfo ufed for one of the ancient battaha, or
forms of ranging an army for battle, pirtieularly ufed by
the Macedonians.

Beak is alfo applied to the flcndcr crooked prominences
of divers bodies, bearing forae analogy or refemblance to the
beaks of bird-?.

In this fenfe we meet with beaks of fhoes, roflra calceorum,
for long peaked toes, in ufe of old. Dn Cange.

Among Farriers beak denotes a little horfe-lhoe, turned
\;p, and faflened in upon the forepart of the hoof.

It is ufed to keep the (lioes faft, and not liable to be
flruck off by the horfe, when by reafon of any itch, or
being much difturbed by the flies in hot weather, he Itamps
his feet violently on the ground.

BEAKED, Becqiic, in Heraldry, is ufed when the beak
or bill of a fowl is of a different tincture from the body.

In this cafe, they fay beaked and membered of fuch a
tinfture.

BEARING, in Coch-FiglSt'w.g., expreffts the fighting of
thefe birds with their bills, or holding with the bill, and
ftriking with the heels.

BEAL, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which runs
into the Shannon near Afl<eaton, in the county of Lime-
rick.

BEALE, Mary, in Biography, a female portrait pain-
ter in the reign of king Charles II., was the daughter of
Mr. Cradock, minifler of Walton upon Thames, and was
born in Suffolk in 1632. Although fhe was not inllruCted in
the rudiments of painting by fir Peter I-ely, as fome have
fuppofed, (he diligently copied the works of that great
mailer, as well as thofe of Vandyke. She painted ia oil,

vater-colours, and crayons ; and by copying fome piftiirea-
of Italian maders, improved her taiie a:id pencil, and
acquired mi;ch of their air and Hyle, which appear in her
portraits. Slie was little inferior to any of her contempo-
raries with rtfpefl to colouring, (Irength, force, or life ;.
and (he worked with a great body of colours. Her per-
formances were held in high eflimatinn by fir Peter Lcly.
Amiable in her condudf, and afliduous in her profelTion, (he
was very much encouraged and employed, both by the
clergy and by feveral perfons of rank, whofe portraits (he
painted. It appears, that in one year (he received for
pictures 429I., and that (V-e and her hufband devcttd about
two (liillings in the pound of their income to charitable
purpofes. In the MSS. of Mr. Oldys, Mrs. Beale is cele-
brated for her poetry as well as her painting. She died
Dec. 28, 1697 ; and left two fons, Charles and Bartholo-
mew, both of whom txercifed the att of painting ; but the
1 itter relinquifhed painting, and iludied phyfic under Dr.
Sydenham, and practif^d at Coventry, where he and his
fatlier died. AValpolc's Anecdotes of Painting, vol. iii.
Biog. Brit. Pilkington.

BEALNABRUCH, in Geogmfhy, the name of a river in
the county of Galway, prcvinceofConnaught, Ireland, which
rifes in Joyces country near the Killeries, north of the moun-
tain of Beannebcola or the twelve pins, and flows through
a mountainous country into Lough Corrib, near the bafe of
the (hipendous Ben Levagh. The valley through which it
runs is pretty well peopled. A great error is committed in
Roque's and all the old maps, in reprefenting this river as-
fluu'uig into Roundfione bay, and affording a lecond outlet-
to Loi'.gh Corrib, inftead of carrying into it a large fnpply
of water. Dr. Beaufort's Map and Memoirs.

BEALSBURG, a fmall town of America in Nelfon
county, Kentucky, on the eaft bank of Rolling fork, con-
taining twenty houfes, and alfo a tobacco warehoufe ; 15
miles W. S.W. from Bairdllown, and 890 from Philadelphia.
N. lat 37° 42'. W. long. 85'-' 50'.

BEALT. See Bu'ilth.

BEAM, in ArchiteSure, is any piece of timber of a reftan-
gular feftion of equal depth and ihicknefs throughout its
length, applied in an horizontal pofition in vari. us fituatious
in a building, for the purpofe of refilling fome drain either
in a longitudinal or tranfverfe direfiion, fuch as to prevent
the ral'ters of roofs from pufhing out adjacent walls upon
which they reft, or to fuflain a fuperincumbent part of a wall
indead of an arch. This word, however, is not much ufed
technically, and only in combination with other words, wdiicli
denote its pofition or ufe. "When ?. beam is placed at the
biittom cf a pair of rafters it is called "a Tie-b.am;" but if
placed in a hiirher fituation it is called " a Collar-beam."
When a beam is placed over piers of mafonry or wooden
polls to fupport a fuperincumbent wall, it is called a " bread-
fummer," or " fummer-beam." When a beam is placed
acrofs a floor to fupport the ends of joills and ihorten their
bearings, it is called a " girder," or girding-beam." Sec
Cap.pentrv.

Some of the bed authors have confidered the force or
flirength cf beams, and brought their nfidance to a precife
calculation ; particularly M. V'arignon and M. Parent. See
Strength of Timber.

Beam of a Plough, in Agriculture, a name given by our
farmers to the great timber of the plough, in which all tl«;
other parts of the plough-tail are fixed.

This is ufually made of a(h, and is ftraight, and eight feet
long in the common plough : but in the four-coultered
pi;>ugh, it is ten feet long, and its upper part arched. I'he
head of this beam Lies on the p How of the plough, and is-

raifed.

B E A

B E A

Yaifed higher, or fiink lower, as that pillow is elevated or
dcpreflid by being flippt-d along the cioiv-llavc;. Near the
middle, it lias an iron collar, which receives the tow-chain
from the box, and the hriille-chain from the (lake or gallows
of the plough is fixed in it a little below the collar. Some
inches below thi;, there is a hole, which lets through the
coulter ; and below that there are two other fmall ones,
through which tin- heads of the retches pafs. Thefe are the
irons which fupport the flieat, and with it the Ihare. Far-
ther backward Hill is a larger perforation, through which
the body of the (lieat pafles ; and behind that, very near the
extremity, is another hole through which the piece called
the hinder-Oieat p-ilTes. See Plough.

Beams of a /hip, are the large, main, crofs timbers,
■ftrctching from fide to fide, whicli hold the fides of a fliip
from falling togetiier, and which alfo fupport the decks and
orlops of the Oiip.

The main beam is tliat next the main mad ; and from it
they are reckoned h\ Jirji,feconil, and ihlrd Itdm. The great
beam of all is calKd the midjli'ip beam.

There arc ufually twenty -four beams on the lower deck of
a fhip of 74 guns, and on the other decks additional ones in
proportion, as the fhip lengthens above.

Beam, on the, in Sed-Lan^uage, denotes any diftance from
the fliip on a line with the beams, or at right angles with
the keel. Any objtft that lies call or weft, when the fliip
fteers northward, is faid to be on the (larboard or larboard
beam.

BuAM, hrfure the, fignifies an arch of thehorixon compre-
hended between the line of the beam, and that point of the
compafs which (lie ftems. See Abaft.

Be AM, on the Weather, fignifies on the weather fide of the
fliip.

Beam, Camher. See Camber-beam.

^iht^ of an anehoi: See Anchor.

Beam of a ia/anee, is that piece of iron or wood, fome-
what bigger toward the middle than at the ends, where there
are holes through which run the ropes or ftrings which hold
the fcales : the beam is divided into two equal parts, by a
needle placed over it perpendicularly : and the centre of
motion mud be placed a little '.b'ove the centre of gravity,
that the beam m.iy reft exaflly in an horizontal pofition.
See Balanct.

Beam, or Roller, among IFe^ivers, is a long and thick
woikIcu cylinder placed lengthways on the back part of
the loom of thofe who work with the (luittle. The
threads of the warp, of linen or woollen cloth, ferges, or
other woollen llnfTs, rue rolled upon the beam, and innoUed
as the work goes on. That cylinder on which the ftuff is
rolled as it is wcaved is alfo calhd the beam or roller, and is
placed on the fore |)art of the loom.

Beam, in Heraldry, is ufcd to exprefs the main horn of a
hart or buck.

Beam, among Hunters, denotes the main ftem of a deer's
kead ; or that part which bears the antlers, royals, and tops;
the little ftreaks of which aie called circles.

Beam is alfo ufeJ for a fiery meteor in the fhape of a pil-
lar; and for a ray of the fun.

Vif.kvi compaffe]. See CoM PASSES.

Beam fathers, in Falconry, the longeft: feathers of a
hawk's wing.

Beam^///;;;^, in Budding, the filli[ig up the vacant fpace
between the rifing plate and roof, with Hones, or bneks,
laid between the rafters on the ralfing plate, and plaillered on
with loom ; this is fiequent where the garrets arc not par-
geted, or plaillered.

Beam /r<f. Sec CRAT^tct's y'/r/d.

BEAMINSTER. See Behinster.

BEAN, in Botany. See ViciA Faia.

Bean, fiba. The medicinal and dietetic qualities of beam
are faid to be nutritive, but flatulent : the pods yield a wa-
ter held good againft the gripes in chihiren. Some have nfcd
the horlc bean as a fnecedaneum to coffee ; which in princi-
ples it much refeinbles ; only that it contains but half the
quantity of oil. Mr. Boyle has feveral experimejits of bear.a
treated pneumatically to fliew the great plenty of air they
afford, on which their flatulency depends. Tliis air, which
beans contain in a fixed Hate, is extricated during their di-
geftion in the llomach, in greater quantity than can be again
abfoibed ; and upon that account thefe, and other Icguniina,
have been at all times noted for occafioning flatulency, and
fometimcs colic pains. The cxpanficn of beans in growijig,
Mr. Boyle alio found fo confidernblc that it would raife a
plug clogged with above a hundred pounds weight. Boyle's
Woiks abr. toni. i. p. 2S5. torn. li. p. 615, &c.

Beans with proper management make one of the fineft of
all baits for fifli. The method of preparing them for this
purpofe is this : take a new earthen pot glazed on tlie in-
iide ; boil fome beans in it, fnppofc a quarter of a peck :
they mull be boiled in river water, and ftiould be previouny
fteeped in fome warm water for fix or fcven hours. When
they are about half boiled, put in three or four ounces
of honey, and two or three grains of mufli : let them
boil a little on, then take them off the fire, and ufe them
in this manner : feek out a clean place, where there
arc no weeds, that the fifh may fee and take the beans at the
bottom of the water. Throw in fome beans at five or fix
in the morning, and in the evening for fome days. Thi*
will draw them together, and they may be taken in a cafting
net in great numbers.

The ancients made ufe of beans in gathering the vote*
of the people, and for the cledion of magillratej. A
white bean fi^nified alifolution, and a black one con-
demnation. Beans had a myfterious ufe in the lemuralia
and parentdlia ; where the mafter of the family, after wafii-
ing, was to throw a fort of llaek beans over his head,
flill repcsting the words, " 1 redeem myfelf and family by
thefe beiuis." Ovid gives a lively defcription of the whole
ceremony in his Falli, lib. v. vcr. 4'?5. Abftinence from
beans is faid to have been enjoined ijy Pythagoras, for wh'ch
prohibition various reafons have been alfigncd. Some have
fuppofed that it was intended to rellrain his difciples from
intermeddling in tria's and verdifts which were decided by
throwing beans into an urn. Others founding their opinion
on the double fenfe of the word y.vu-y.o:, which fignifie4
both a bean and the common tefticle, explain it by ablla'n-
ing from venery. Clemens Alexandrinus grounds the ab-
ftinence from beans on their tendency to render wi'men bar-
ren ; which properly is confirmed by Th.eophrallus, vvl;o
extends the fame cffeft even to plants. Cicero fuggefts
another reafon; viz. that bea\!s are very injurious to mental
tranquility. Henee Amphiaraus is faid to have forborne the
ufe of beans, before Pythagoras, that he might be betterprc-
pared for divining by dreams. The Egyptian priells held
it a crime to looii at beans, judging the very fight unclean.
'Vhe Jlanun dia'is was not permitted even to mention the
name. Lucian introduces the fame philofopher in hi 11, fay-
ing, that to eat bean ;, and to eat our father's head, were
equal crimes. After all, both the ginuiiienefs of the pre-
cept, and the reality of any fuch ..bllinence among the an-
cient Pythagoreans have been difpnted. Some attiibi'te the
precept to Empedoeles, a dileiplc of Pvthagoras. Aiiiiox-
eijus, an ancient writer cited by A. Geliius, (1, iv. c. 11.)
introduces Pyth:'jj;oras fiiying, that lie eat more frequeiuly

of

B E A

B E A

•f beans tlianof any ether pulfc, on account of tlicir gentle
loofe:iiiig the belly. Accordingly he is laid to have per-
n.itted the ufe of them, becaut'c he belitvtd thtm to be
wholcfome, but his difciples have forb'ddcn them, becaufe
they thought them, as Hippocrates alio did, productive of
flatulency, and otherwife prejudicial to ht-alth. Thus, a pro-
hibition, which was at firll a civil regulation, or falutary
advice, allumed the authority of a facrcd law.
Bean, B;g. See Menyanthes.
BEAN-M^tT. See Zygophvllum.

Bean-<:9(/, in Navigal'wn, a fmall fidiing vefrd or pilot
boat, iifcd bv the Portuguefe, which rigs with one mail,
fimi'ar to the Tartan ; which fee.

Bi-AK-^our, in y^nliquily, called by the Romans lovun-
tum, was of fome repute among the ancient ladies as a cof-
metic, wherewith to fmooth the fl<in, and take away wrinkles.
BeaNj/7)', in Natural BiJIoiy, the name given by authors
to a very beautiful fly, of a very beautiful purple colour,
frequently found on ^can-flowers. It is produced from the
worm or maggot called by authors m'ula.

Bean, in Agr'tculturc, a fort of pulfe, of which there are
feveval kinds : but thofe bed adapted to field culture are
the fmall forts, fuch as the common hnrfc-bean, and the i'lck-
bt-an. The large forts, or garden-beans, as the Wind/or,
Juong-pod, and Mazagon, have alfo been occafionally em-
ployed in the field, with fuccefs, in fome of the fouthern
dillrias.

Beans conftantly prefer a flrong moift f-)ll, and on fuch,
where proper culture is given, they moHly afTurd an abun-
dant produce. Tick-beans are iuppofcd by lome farmers to
be more produftive tlian horfe beans ; but the latter grow
liifrher in the Hem, and produce a more llagnattd (late of
the air, or fmother the land more, confeqiiently are the molt
fuitable for the ftronger forts of foil.

The author of the Agricultural Survey of Middicfo: ob-
fcrves, that beans are a crop which thrive well in almoil any
foil that is rather (Irong, fuch as mcdium-loaras, iandy-loams,
clayey-loams, and chalky-loams ; on clay, marl, chalk, and
fuch like cool fubfoils. And the author of the Synopfis of
Iluihnndrv remarks that the proper time for planting beans
is towards the latter eruJ of January, or early in the follow-
ing month ; though this bufincfs may be continued to ad-
vantage till the middle or latter end of March, if the weather
tad prevented their being got in at an earlier feafon ; but in
general it is beft to embrace the firll opportunity of fowing
them after Candlemns, as they often mifcarry if the fcafon
be procraftinated beyond that time, efpecially if a dry fum-
mer fhould fucceed. In pnrchafing beans for feed, care
(hould be taken to choofe fuch as are hard and bright, with-
cut being (hrivelled in their appearance.

Mr. Doiialdfon, in his view of the prefent (late of huf-
bandry obferves, that the ordinary mode of preparing land
for a crop of beans, is to give one ploughing only, which is
generally performed in the fpring, immediately before the
feed is fown.

Beans are for the moft part fown broad-caft, either on the
ftubble, before ploughing, or on the new tunied-up furrows.
Sometimes beans are fown or planted in the bottcnn of every
fecond or third furrow, and afterwards horfe and hand hoed.
In a few diftricts they are fown with a drill-machine, and at
fuch diftances in the rows as to leave fufficient Ipace, either
for hand-hoeing, when that only is intended, or for horfe
and hand hoeing, when it is puipofed that both thefe opera-
tions fhould be performed. It will at once appear obvious,
he thinks, that either of thefe lafl-mentioned methods is
preferable to fowing the feeds broad-caft, as a better oppor-
tunity is not only afforded of cleaning the ground properlyi
3

but a more abundant return, and a produce of fuperior qua-
lity infured.

The fpring feed time in general commences with the fow-
ing of beans. In the fouthera diftrifts, they are fown in
ordinary feafons fo early as the middle or towards the end
of February ; and in the northern parts of Scotland fo late
as the beginning of April. The moi'.th of March may, how-
ever, as has been obferved, be coafidered as the general bean
feed teafon.

The firll of the above writers thinks, that on land which
is inclined to moillure the preparation for this crop fhould be
as ;<.'ilows : Early in autumn lay on the manure, and imme-
diately plough the land into ridglets of two feet fix inches
wide ; in which llate let it lie until the feafon for planting,
when the feed may be dibbled in, one row of beans into the
middle of each ridglet, at the dillance of about three inches
from bean to bean. They fhould be immediately covered ;
which may be done by children, with a garden rake or hoe,
or, fhould the furface of the land be dry and crumbly, a horfe
and a bufh harrow would do as well. In moft places, he ob-
ferves, it is advifeable to fet a boy with a rattle to frighten
away the rooks until the beans have attained fome growth.
The diflar.ce between the rows will not prevent the crop
from completely covering the ground, efpecially if the land
was manured for them, as they will branch out fideways,
three or four ftout Hems from each root. They fhould be-
early planted, in order to their getting fufEcient root-hold
of the land, and procuring fftade againil the hot weath.er fets
in. It is alfo fome fecurity againfl the Hack dolpl'in, which
is the greateft enemy the bean is ever attacked by. They
require a foil that can fcldom be worked without damage
during the winter and fpring ; confequentlyit ought to be
manured and gathered into one bout ridges in the autumn.
The fhape of thefe ridges keeps the land more dry through
the winter than any other, and prevents exceflive rains fronx
wafliing away the manure, whicli had been previoufly folded
by the plough into the centre of fuch ridges ; in which ftatc
it fliould He, as has been already obferved, until the feafon
for fowing ; when the land thus prepared will be fo dr)' as
to admit of dibbling every fair day •,. which fecures to the
farmer t!:e advantage of dioofing his feafon. He dunged,
he fays, about ten acres in September 1793, ^""^ ploughed
the land into ridges of two feet and a half wide, burying the
dung in the middle of them. The land lay dry through the
winter, and he dibbled one row of beans into the middle of
each ridge during the firft week of February 1794. My
neighbours, fays he, on a fimilar foil, who ploughed into flat
ridges of about fifteen feet wide, could not get their feed in
till March. The enfuing fummer was uncommonly dry :
my beans being fo unufually wide apart, admitted the plough
and hoe to work as freely between the rows as a flubboni
foil would allow. The plants tillered or branched till they
completely covered the intervals, and the field appeared a*
completely cropped as though it had been fown broad-caft.
When my neighbour's plants, fays he, were beginning to
pod, mine were iialf fet. The whole were alike attacked
by the black-fly, which reduced their crops to a bufhel or
two per acre, while I had twenty.

Mr. Young, however, remarks in the Survey of Suffolk,
that it is there uncommon to give more than one earth for
beans, and generally improper, as they love a whole firm fur-
row, and never thrive better than on a layer.

There are many different methods, Mr. Bannifter fays, of
raifing crops of beans. In fome counties they fow this pulfe
by broad-caft, which is by no means an eligible way, fince
much of the feed will be left above ground, and a great part
of that which, is covered by the harrow will cot be covered

ti>

B E A

to a proper depth ; and many other objeftions miglit, he
thinks, be urged againll this method of fowing beans at
random, of which it is not one of the k-all, that fiich iire-
gular fown crops are in great danger of being injured by
\vc;ds, vh:eh cannot fo cafily be extricated when the beans
are fown at random as when they are planted regularly in
drills.

In fome diftri(?\s, as Middlcfex, Surrey, 8cc. the method
is, to plant thispnlfe in rows ftricken out by a line, by which
a great faving is made in the article of feed, a circumftance
which is thought to compenfate for the extraordinary charge
of this mode of hvi(h;indry ; and thiu far it may be fairly ac-
knowledged, that the method of planting beans by the dib-
ble is greatly to be preferred to tliat of fowing the feed at
random. The o^conomy of this agricultural procefs he thus
explains : the rows are marked out one foot afunder, and the
feed planted in holes made two inches apart ; the lines are
llretched acrofs the lands, which are formed about fix feet
over, fo that when one row is planted, the fticl^s to vhieh
the line is fallcned are moved by a regular meafureniciit to
the dillance required, and the fame method puriiicd till the
field is completed. The ufual price for this work is Qd. p^v
peck, and the allowance two bufhels per acre. Gre;;t con-
fidence miiUnecelTarily be repofed in t!it. people who tranfaft
the bufinefs of planting beans by the dibble, who, if inclined
to fraud, have it in their power to deceive their tinploycr by
throwing great part of the feed into the hedge, from which
their daily profits are confiderably ei-hnnced, their own la-
bour fpared, and every difcovery effeilu,:!ly precluded, till
the appearance of the crop, when the fiiquent chafms in the
rows will give fufficient indications of the fraud ; and by
this time perliaps t!ie villainous authors of the mifchicf may
have efcaped aH poffibility of detection, by having conveyed
themfelves from the fccne of their iniquity. Such is the
method of planting beans by the dibMer ; but the neateft and
inofl; expeditious way of fowing this pulfe, tfpecially the field
bean, is, he obferves, that purfucd by the Kentifli farmers. The
ufual courfe in that county, is to plough up the oat or barley
grattcns, which are dcfigned forbeans,foon after the wheat fea-
lon is fiaiflied, in which candition the fallows are to lie till to-
wards Candlemas, or later, as the (late of the weather, or the
fai-mer'soccafion may require, and then to ftrikeoutthefurrows.

About eleven furrows to a row's breadth is the ufual
width of fetting out the rows, though fome prefer a wider
fpace, whilll others ftrike them (lill narrower ; and this dif-
ference in the width of the rows is the caufc why the farmers
vary fo effentially in rtfpect to the quantity of feed to be
fown on the fame given fpace of ground ; for, v.diilft fome
will content themfelves with an allowance of two bufheli per
acre, others will throw a fack of beans upon the fame
compafs of land. When the furrows are (truck at ihe dif-
tance mentioned before, two buflicls and a half cf middle-
fized tick-beans are fuffijient to feed an acre, and on good
land (for if the ground be not cither rich in itfelf, or ren-
dered fertile by art, it is of little confequence to attempt the
cultivation of this crop,) a perfon, in his opinion, (lands a
much fairer chance for a crop when the. beans are thinly
planted, than when a more liberal quantity of feed is allowed;
for, when beans (land fo very thick in the rows, they never
pod fo ki.dly as when the llalks are Icfs crowded; and al-
though the crop of hauhn may be more abundant, the in-
creafe will lot be adequate to the large bulk of ftraw.

In Suffolk, according to Mr. Young, beans have been
dibbled by fome a row on every (lag ; by others, on every
other (lag. He has found it more advantageous to plant in
chillers four or five beans in every hole ; and eight or nine
i.iches from iio-e to hole, which admits of much better hoe-

4

B E A

ing than when more thickly fct. Dibbling, fays he, is the
bell and moil cffeftive method of cultivating beans. In tlie
Svnopfis of Hnfbandry it is further obferved, that in Kent
fome people make ufe of a drill plough at bean feed time ;
but as thefe pulfe, tfpecially the larger ticks, are very une-
qual in fize, thty cannot be let out of the hopper with fuf-
ficient regularity ; for by this inequality in fize, many yards
of ground in the length of a furrow will be left vacai.t from
the cafual obflruc5lion of a large bean, and when this is re-
moved, numbers of a fmaller fize crowd to the chafm, and
(hoot out of the hopper for a confiderablc Ip'Jce, till another
large bean intervenes to obllruCl the paffage, and thus the
crop makes a very unfightly appearance in the ro\A'S, and at
the time of harveit is very unequal ; the injury in large Rthls
being not inconfiderable : for, in thofe parts of the furrows,
where no beans had been fown, an increafe cannot be ex-
pected ; and thofc which are huddled together by a quart
or more in a fpot, will, from the thicknefs of their growth,
in courfe come to little. Some farmers are fo nice as to pick
and cull their fi.ed before it goes into the hopper, in order
to render the beans more even, and prevent the injury above
mentioned ; but this is a very tedious pradlice, and after ail,
he believes, very fcldom anfvvcrsthe expence. The bell me-
thod of fowing this crop, according to this writer, is from
an indrument called a box, which is held by a man who fol-
lows the (biking plough, and who, by (liaking the box filled
W'itli beans, drops them willi regularity in the furrow, keep-
ing even pace with it ; fo that by two men, and two or three
horfes to the llriking plough, a man to box, and a boy and
two horfes to harrow down the ground after the plough,
three acres may be finilhed o(f in a day, and the whole con-
duced with reguhiritv. ,

The writer of the Agricultural Survey of Middleftx
thinks that beans (houid be manured for, and kept perfedtly
clean while growing, by ploughing, horfc or hand-hoeing,
and hand-weeding ; and that where th.cy are fo managed,
t!iey are an excellent preparation for either wheat or cats.
They have a tap root, and hfnce they are more likely to
fucceed after crops that have fibrous roots ; though he never
heard that they would net grow after any crop. They are
generally fown after wheat, barley, or oats ; and ought, as
has been already obferved, to be planted on ridglets, efpeci-
ally on wet thin-(l<inntd foils.

In the Synopfis of Hu(bandry it is recommended as a
good method to roll and harrow beans in the latter end of
March. By the roll, fays this writer, the clods are broken
fo as to afford frefii uourifiiment to the roots ; and the har-
rows following this operation pulverize and Icofen the fur-
face, which had been flattened atid baked dov.m by the rains
in the preceding month, by whiv:h the beans T.re co'.ifidcrably
alTilled in the future progi'efs cf their growt'^. Soon after
this the crop (liould he tdge-lioed, and afterwards braked ;
which method of braking is a piece of hulbandry peculiar to
the county of Kent, and in every refpetl claims the prefer-
ence to that of hoein'.!; the whole fpace between the rows ; not
only becanfethe braking is performed at an inferior expence,
but it is likewifc more elScacio'js, as wcil for extirjjaling the
weeds that may have fprnng up between the rows, as in
furthering the advances of the beans in growth, bv loofeninc
the foil, and conveying frelh earth to the (Ulks. This ope-
ration of braking may be continued at the ir^terval of three
weeks or a month, fron the beginning of May till the crop
becomes in. bloom. AVlien it is propofed to earth up the
beans, this may be elTecled with great facility by fixing a
fmall block of wood on the ^r'lg of the brake ; the manner
of doing which is fd:i:iliar to every Kentifh ploughman ; and
according to the diameter of this block, tl)e earth may be

fhrown

B E A

thrown to ilitTerent heights on the bean llalks, as they ad-
vance ill growth.

In dry fiimrr.ers, when eafterlv w iiuls prevail, beans are very
apt to be ftricken with the dolphin fiy, an infedl which in
a very fliort fpaceof time will dellroy the produce of a whole
field. In thi;; cafe it has been found very beneficial to take
off the tops with the fcythe, as the dolphin generally effecis
its firll lodgment in the upper part of the llalk. Where
this piilfe is fown broad-call, there remains no other way of
cleanfing the field, than by cutting up the weeds with a hook,
or by turning in a flock of flieep in May, where the grourid
is Yen' toul, as this animal will devour the weeds, at.d leave
the beans muouched. From this very partial method of
wee*ling, it may fairly be concluded little benefit can ac-
crue, and that the gralten will be abundantly ftnckcd with
weeds at harveft, and the ground be totally unfit for fowing
with wheat : and, indeed, the praftice of fowing bean grat-
tens with wheat i^ never attempted in thofe countries where
this method of fowing beans at random prevails ; and here,
therefore, the bean and pea grattcns generally come In courfe
the next year for a fallow. This is a pradtice that cannot
be recommended.

It is remarked in the Survey of Middlefex, that beans are
feldom ripe enough to cut till the latter end of Augull, and
the proper time is when the kitis are turning black, about
ten days before they would begin to open at the ends.
Though in fome parts of the field the kids may not be fo
black as in others, this Ihould not prevent their being cut ;
for they will ripen and harden after that is done, by fetting
the (heaves upright, and leaving them in the field for a week
or ten days. If they are cut long before they are ripe, they
will (lirink and flirivel ; and if too ripe, they will (hed con-
fiderably ; though there is much lefs danger in reaping them
too early, than in letting them Hand too long. Thofe that
are over-ripe (hould be cut with the dew on them, and car-
ried to the barn in the fame Hate ; the green parts of the
crop being cut in the middle of the day. When the inten-
tion is to fow wheat or tares after beans, they ought to be
fct up fo as to occupy as little fpace as pofllble, that the
vacant ground may be immediately prepared for the next
crop. The writer of the Synopfis of Hufhandry afierts,
that after a growing fummer, and on land which is in good
heart, there will be many gieen pods when the crop is upon
the whole fit for the hook ; for the llalks having run to a
^reat length, and beuig very replete with moiilure, the up-
per part of the leaves, pods, and llalks, will appear to be
in a growing ilate king after the pods on the lower part
of the ilalk are fully ripened. To wait the ripening of
thefe upper pods would i;e very ill-judged, as by this de-
lay great part of the crop would be loft, from the fliedding
of thofe which were already come to maturity. The beii
method, therefore, is to cut the beans when the major
part have ripened, and by fuffering the fhocks to remain
fome time in the field, the upper part of the llalks will be
fulEcieutly withersd, fo as to prevent any ill efTtCts from
their humidiiy, when laid in the barn or Hack ; nor will the
beans from thofe unripened pods be of any injury to the
famplc. At harved time, the lame author informs us, that
in Kent thofe beans which were fown broaj-cail are mown
with a fcythe, and carried loofe into the barn ; a practice
which is fraught with many inconveniencies ; but that in
Middlefex, where the beans are planted in rows with a dib-
bler, as before mentionedj the Intervals are carefully eleanfed
during their growth by means of the hoe ; and to this pur-
pofe the farmers are under the neccnity of employing a num-
ber of hands ; the Kentifh method of cleaning the intervals
bv the brake not having vet been introduced into that countv;
'Vol, IV.

B E A

fince tlie whole ground between the rows mud be flat-hoed.
At harvell, the llalks are cut with a hook, bound into
flieaves, and fet up four together ; and as a fubditute for
ftrings, it is ufual to fow the headlands with peafe, the haulm
of which anfwers the pnrpofe of bands to tie up the (heaves.
The Kentifh mode of hufbandry is greatly to be preferred,
he thinks, to that of the Middlefex farmers, as is evident
from the confideration of the comparative difadvantages
which attend a crop raiftd and managed according to the
latter metho'l, with the fuperior benefits of the former. Al
feed-time the planting by a dibbler is infinitely more tedious
and expenfive than that of dropping the feed into the fur-
row after the fti iking plough ; and in the courfe of hulban-
dry required to cleanfe the intervals, the fevcral flat-hoeings
caufe a far heavier charge than what attends the braking
and edge-hoeing ; and after all, the ground is not fo well
prepared for a wheat feafon at Michaelmas, a method of
hulbandrj- generally piirfued by the Middlefex farmers. One
reafcm may be afiigned, he fays, why the Kentilh hufbandry
has not yet been adopted by the Middlefex f^irmers ; and
this is from the nature of the land in that oounty, which in
many parts is a deep heavy clay, fo that on thefe adlielive
fuils the ftvin^p/ot'gh is generally ufcd, and the ground di-
vided into partitions, or (as they are termed) lands, to guard
againft the contingency of a wet feafon. But ftirely, fays
he, this foil might be worked with a turn-rtil-foot plough,
and by proper drains be fecured from tiie ill effecls of a
moiil time ; and the field being thus laid on a level, the
rows might eafily be flruck out, and the fubfequent brakings
be executed to advantage during the lumm.er, as ufual with
the Kentifii farmers. It is added, that in thofe parts of
Kent where the round tilth hulhandry is purfued, the far-
mere are particularly attentive to the feveral operations of-
hocing and braking the ground during tnc growth of the
beans ; for, as the land in that county is of a nature fo fer-
tile as not to require the intervention of a fummer fallow,
they fpare no pains in the cultivation of their bean and pea
grounds, in order to render it as clean and well pulverized
as poffible by means of the hoe and brake, fo that this latter
inilrumcnt is fcarcely ever out of th.e field, from the begin-
ning of May till the time when the beans are advanced t»
that height, as to obllruift the working of it ; by which the
ground becomes fo intimately divided, that every particle of
foil in the iuterfpace is expofcd to the beneficial influence
of tlie fun and air, and at harvell fcarcely a weed is percep-
tible throughout the crop. In order to dtflroy what few
weeds may remain in the rows, and to give that part of the
ground its due Ihare of pulverization, and to cleanfe it from
the bean haulm, a plough is fet to work foon after harvtft
to fpuddle the gratten ; and for this purpofe a plate of iron
is fixed acrofs the Ihare at about four or five inches from the
point, and the fame axle-tree and wheels are made ufe of
that were before employed for ftriking out the furrows ; and
with this plough and two horles three acres of ground may
be fpuddled in a day, by fctting the fliare point in the inter-
val, fo that the iron or fin may embrace a row on each fide ;
and when the whole field is thus fpuddled, the harrows and
roller are to fueceeJ, by which the haulm and weeds will be
completely extricated at a trifling charge, and the ground be
laid ill readintfs for ploughing the feed furrows, at which
time thofe beans or peafe which may have been fhed will
have vegetated, and are deflroyed by the plough ; fo that
the farmer may, from this mode of hu'Tjandry, be not left
confidtut of growing a clean famplc of wheat, than if his
ground had been fummer fallowed.

On thin, chalky, or gravelly ground?, notwithftandinj

what has j«ft been urged of the good effect* oi fpuddling, he

H * obfervet

B E A

obfffTf* tVat it would perhaps be more pn^dent to omit iliat
work, lift it mipht contribi-ttf tnwarik looftnini; the foil be-
yond a due medium ; for on tlicfe foils the chief nim fliould
be to rlofc them as much as poffible, that at wheat fted-
tiine the furfacc may be pcrfcftly tight ; and therefore to
roll and harrow the bean and pea irround on fucli foils, in
order to rid the field of the haulm, Soe. and when it has lain
fome lime, to plough the feed furrows, are the whole proctfs
iieced'ar)' to prepare it fur the fntcceding crop of wheat :
and this (hows, he thinks, the nectlTity of fowing with this
j!;rjin or with peafc that pan of the farm which is moll free
from weeds, and in the beil heart; rot only that thefe pulfe,
both of them (efpceially beans) require to be fown on good
land, and on fuch as has been improved by art, but likewife
that the prattens may be fo perfectly clean, as not to require
the operation of fpuddling. In Kent, they cut tlicir beans
with a hook, and bind them into (heaves wiih rope-yarns.
Thefe (heaves are fet up in (hocks of various forms, either
five on each lide, in the manner of wheat (hocks, or in a
circular form, four (heaves to the (hock. The expence of
cutting, bindinjj-, and fctting up is from 4s. to 6s. or 7s.
per acre, according to the degree of goodnefs in the crop.
Some farmers, in fuch years when the hops have failed,
cut up the bind, and referve it as a fubftitute for rope yarns
to tie their bean (lieaves. But though this practice may at
firft fight hear the appearance of frugality, it will be found
eventually to he the moft expenfivc ; as the cutting the hop-
vines at that feafon will be apt to caufe thc;n to bleed,
to the infinite prejudice of the (locks ) and thus the future
crops may be hazarded by a premature removal of the bind-
ing thofe years when, from tlie failure of the hops, it (liould
feem to be of no further ufe. Mr. Marfliall, hov/cvcr, re-
commends the pulling beans in preference to cutting ; for,
he fays, the benefit the foil receives will more than pay for
the extra labour in clearing. Another advantage aridng
from their being pulled, is the ilubbornnefs of the roots
keeping the mow open, and admitting a circulation of air.
And he fays in another place, that by experience he found
pulling up by hand far preferable to cutting with lickles ;
as they may be pulled up not only much fader, but much
cleaner from weeds and grafs than when cut, befides leaving
the land in a (late greatly fupcrior. The wade is alfo lefs,
fo much fo as to lofe fcarcely a bean ; and the bean ftalks
are immediately ready to bind and fet up ; and by the roots
lifting them from the ground, the air acquires a free circula-
tion. The work is alto eafier to the labourer, who (lands more
upright, and the power required is much lefs, efpecially in dry
weather. By ftriking the roots of each handful againft the
foot, the mould is almoft wholly difengaged from the fibres.
The foil in the drills, inllead of being bound by the roots,
and encumbered by the (lubble, is left as h.iofe as a garden, and
the furface free from obdruftions ; and if thoroughly hoed, is
as lit as a fallow to be fowed with wheat on one ploughing.

Beans are every where an uncertain crop, confequently
the average produce difficult to eftimate. In Kent, Mr.
Young thinks, they probably exceed four quarters ; but
in Sud'olk he (hould not ellimate them at more than
three : yet five or fix are not uncommon. According to
Mr. Donaldfon, a crop of beans, taking the idand at large,
may be fuppofed to vary from fixteen to forty buditls ; but
that a good average crop cannot be reckoned to exceed
twenty. And in Middlefex, Mr. Middletou tells us, that
bean crops vary from ten to eighty buihcls per acre. They
are rendered a very precarious crop by the ravages of my-
riads of finall black infcdls of the fame fpecies. The lady-
I'irds are fuppofed either to generate or feed on them, as
they are obfcrved to be much among ihcm. Mr. Foot fays,

B K A

the arerage produce is from three and a half to fotir quar«
tcrs per acre.

It is afTcrted, by the author of the Synopfis of Hudiandry,
that bean draw, if well harveded, form« a very hearty and
nutritious diet for cattle in the winter-time ; and that both
oxen and horfts, when not worked, will thrive on it. Sheep
are alfo very fond of browfing on the pods ; and the ravingt
are very nutritious manger meat for horfts. But in Mlddlc-
ftx the draw is generally employed in bedding the farmer'*
horfes and other cattle, and in littering the farm yards»
where it is picked over by young dock ; though fometimes
a load is fold for 20s. or 25s. delivered in. Wlien the
bean-di-aw and the ca-v'mg-chaff are made ufe of as a fodder
for cattle, they diould always be newly threflied, as in that
date they are much more nutritious than when they have
been kept fome length of time.

Crops of this kind are for the mod part applied to the
purpofe of feeding horfes, hogs, and other domedic ani-
mals. Ill the county of Middlefex all a^e given to horfes,
except whxt are preferved for feed, and fuch as are podded
while green, and fent to the London markets. When pigs
are fed with bca;;5, it is obfcrved that the meat becomes fo
hard as to make very ordinary pork, but good bacon. It is
alfo fuppofed that the mealmen grind many horfe-beans among
wheat, to be manufartured into bread. And Dr. Darwin
remarks in his Phytologia, th?t a drike or bu(hcl of oats
weighs perhaps forty pounds, and a drikc or bu(hel of peas
and beans fixty pounds ; and that as the (kin of peas and
beans is much lefs in quantity than that of oats, he fuppofes
there may be at lead (ifteen pounds of flour more in a llrike
of peas and beans than in a drike of oats. There is alfo
reafon to believe, he fays, that the flour of beans is more
nutritive than that of oats, as appears in the fattening of
hogs ; whence, according to the refpeftive prices of thefe
two articles, he fufpefts that peas and beans generally
fupply a cheaper provender fot horfes than oats, as well as
for other domedic animals. But as the flour of peas and
beans is more oily, he believes, than that of oats, it may in
general be fomewhat more difficult of digeftion ; hence,
when a horfe has taken a domach full of peafe and beans
alone, he will be lefs aftive for an hour or two, as his
drength will be more employed in the digedion of them,
than when he has taken a domach fi:!l of oats. Hence it
may be found advifable to mix the bran of wheat with the
peans and beans, a food of lefs nutriment but of eafier di-
gedion ; or to let the horfes eat before or after them the
coar("e tudccks of four grafs, which remain in moid padures
in the winter ; or ladly, to mi.^: finely cut llraw with
them.

Bran, in Gardening. See Vici.l.

Bean-Goc/?. See Anas.

Bean, Ignai'ms's. See Icnatius'j- ^fjw.

Bean, Kidney, or French, in Botany. See PHASECLUSi

Bean, Kidney, Tree. Sec Glvcink.

BiAN, ]\Ialaeen, ihc anacaidium orientale, is a fruit of a
fhining black colour, of the fliape of a heart flattened, with
a very thick pedicle occupying almod the whole bafis. For
the charafters of the plant that produces it, fee Avicennia
Tomenlofa ; and for its quahties, fee Anacardium.

Bk AN, Mohicea, a name given by fir Robert Sibbald in
his Prodromus, and by Mr. Wallace in his defcription of the
Orkney iflands to a fort of fiuit frequently cad on (hore in
the north-wed iflands of Scotland, efpecially on the coads
mod ex'pofcd to the waves of the great ocean. They- arc
called by fome Orkney beans, and are not the produce of
that ifland, or indeed of any other part of Europe, but of
America. Sir Hans Sloane procured four fpecies of them

little

B E A

B E A

little iniiired by the fea, and found on examination that
three of them were the common produce of the ifland of Ja-
maica ; where he had himfelf gathered them, and defcribed
them in his catalogue and hiftory.

The fiift fort was a kind of kidney bean, and the plant
which produces it is defcribed by fir Hans under the name
of the great perennial kidney bean, with a great crooked-
lobe. It is alfo figured in the Ilortus Malabaricus by the
name of per'tm iakuvali, and lir Robert Sibbald alfo calls it
ntix Indica ex quj pyxhla pro pulvcre Jlernufaiio parnnt. This
is a native of the Kail and Well Indies, and is fometimes
found thrown on fliore in the county of Ken^ in Ireland,
and in fome othT places. A fecond kind of fruit thrown
on (hore in the Orkneys, is a very common fruit in Jamaica,
known there by the name of the horfe-eye btan ; it has
this name from its refen.bhng the eye of fome large animal,
by reafon of a Inliis or welt which farrounds it. This is de-
fcribed by many authors, and among the reft by fir Hans
Sloane, in his catalogue of Jamaica plants ; and is foimd in
many other of the hotter parts, both of the Ea!l and Well
Indies. A third kind of fruit found on thefe ftiores, is that
called by the people ot Jamaica the a(h-coloured nickar nut ;
it has this name from its colour, and from its being perfectly
round, of the fhape of a nickar, or marble, fuch as boys play
with. This is alfo common in the Eaft and Weft Indies. A
fourth kind is alfo a Jamaica fruit, with the hiftory of which
we are not yet well acquainted ; nobody has fecn it growing,
but the fruit itfelf is preferved in many of the collections of
the curious, and has been figured and defcribed by Clufius
and others under the name of a round exotic fruit rigid with
four rifing nerves.

Thefe are the principal kinds of fruits thus tolTtd on fliorc
with us ; but how the produfts of Jamaica, or other parts
of America, (hould be brought to the (horts of Scotland
and Ireland, feems difficult to determine on any certain
foundation. It is eafy to conceive, that when they grow by
the fides of rivers, they may fall off from the trees into
them, and be thence conveyed into the fea. It is hkewife
eafy to fee, that when they are thus floating on the furface
of the fea, they may be carried about by the winds and
currents to a confiderable diftancc ; but their motion this
way muft naturally be ftopped by the main continent of
America, and they muft be forced through the gulf of Flo-
rida, or the canal of Bahama, going thence conftantly eaft,
and into the north American fea. This is eafily conceived
by a fimilar faft which happens ever)- day ; which is', that a
kind of fea lentil, called fargajo, which grows very plenti-
fully on the rocks about Jamaica, is waftied off from thence,
and carried by the winds and currents, which for the moft
part go impetuoufly the fame way, toward the coaft of Flo-
rida, and thence into the North American ocean, and is
there found floating on the furface. Thus far it is eafv to
trace our fruits from their native foil : but how after this
they fhould be forwarded to us is unaccountable, unlefs we
fuppofe, that as (hips when they go fouth expedt a trade
cafterly wind, and when they come north expeft and gene-
rally find a wefterly wind, for at Icaft two parts in three of
the year ; fo thefe fruits being brought north by the current
from the gulf of Florida, are put into the way of thefe weft-
erly winds, and by them conveyed to the coafts of Scotland
and Ireland. Philofoph.Tranfad. N° 222. p. 300.

By the fame means that thefe beans came to Scotland, it
is reafonab'e to believe that the fame winds and currents
brought from America thofe feveral things towards the
Azores and Porto Santo, which are recorded by Ferdinand
Columbus in the life of his father ; which gave this bold ad-
•»enturer the iirft nation that there was fuch a place as Ame-

rica. Among the things he mentions as walhed afhore in
tliis manner, was a piece of wood very ingenioufly wrought,
but evidently without the help of iron tools. This was taken
up by a Portuguefe pilot, four hundred and fifty leagues
from fliore, off cape St. Vincent, after a w'eft wind which
had blown violently for many days : after this fuch another
piece of wood v/as taken up on the fliore of Porto Santo,
after fuch another long and violent weft wind. Large
canes, vaftly fuperior to any of the growth of the then known
parts of the world, were alfo found thrown on the fame
iliores, and the fruits of pines v.hich did not grow in any-
known part of the world ; and finally the bodies of two
men appearing to be of a different nation from any of the
known people, and two of the canoes, were driven on fhorc
on the ifland Flores, one of the Azores. All thefe things
having been found only afrcr ftrong and continued weft
winds, it appeared very evident, that there muft be land
fomewhere to the weft, where fruits and men were to be
found ; and that thefe men had no knowledge of our arts,
by their want of iron. From thefe con'icdtural conclufions
fprung the greateft difcovery of modern times.

Bean Staih. The aftics of bean ftalks make good and
clear glafs.

Beam Tree, Erythrina. See Corallodendron.
Beam Tree, binding. See Mimosa.
Bean Trefoil. See ANAcyRis, andCvTisus.
Bean is alfo ufed by fome Anatom'ifls to denote the glans
of the penis, on account of its figure and refemblauce to that
pulfe.

Bean is alfo improperly ufed for a weight, containing the
third part of a fcruple.

BEANA, in /Indent Geography, a town of Ada, placed
by Ptolemy in Babylonia.

BEAR, in /tftranomy, a name given to two conftellations
called the Greater and the Lejfer Bear, or Urfa major and
minor.

The pole ftar is faid to be in the tail of the Lejer Bear ;
this ftar is never above two degrees diftant from the north
pole of the world. See Ursa.

Bear, or Bere, in Agriculture, is a fpecies of barley
cultivated in Scotland and Ireland, and the northern parts of
England. It yields a large return, but is not efteemed f«
good for malting as the common barley.
Bear, in Zoology. See Ursus.
Bear, Ant. See Tapir, and Ant-eater.
Bear, Polar. vSee Polar i*Var.

Bbar, Sand, is fuppofed to be a variety of the badger,
or Ursus Meles, and the fame animal which naturalifts have
defcribed under the na.r.c of the " fow-badger." Its colour
is a yellowifli white ; its eyes are fmall, and its head thicker
than that of the common badger ; its legs are fliort, and on
each foot are four toes, armed with fharp white claws. It
is almoft without hair, very fenfiblo of cold, and burrows
in the ground. Bewicke's Quadrupeds, p. 284.
Bear, Sea. See St.A.-Bear.

Bear's Fhjh was much efteemed by the ancients : even
at this day the paw of a bear faked and fmoaked is ferved
up at the tables of princes.

Bear's ficfli is reckoned one of the greateft rarities among
the Chinefe ; infomucli that, as Du-Ha!de informs us, the
emperor will fend fifty or a hundred leagues into Tartary,
to procure them for a great entertainment. The fleflj is
reckoned fuch a dainty among the inhabitants of Kamt-
fchatka, that thev feldom eat it alone, but ufually invite a
number of guefts to partake of the dehcious repaft. The iii-
teftines alfo, when cltanl'td and properly fcraped, are worn by
the fair fex as malks to guard their faces from the fun-beams,
H z which

B E A

which bemg reflcfted from the fnow, are generally found to
blacken the (kin ; by which means the Kamtfliadalc ladies
preferve a fine complexion. The Riifllans of Kamtdiatka
make window-pants of ihcfe inteftines, which are as clear
and tranfparent as thofe made of Mufcovy glafs. Of the
ihouldcr blades of the bear are made fickUs for cutting
grafs ; and the heads and the haunches are hung np by the
Kamtfhadalcs, as ornaments or trophies, on the trees about
their dwellings.

Bfar'j GrM/i; is efteemed by fome a fovcreign remedy
againft cold diforders, efpecially rheumatifms. Some have
alfo employed it with fuccefs in the gout, and againft tu-
mors and ulcers. To be good, it mull be newly melted,
greyifh, glutinous, of a ftrong difagreeable fmell, and a mo-
derate confillcncc. That which is too white is adulterated
with common tallow. It is now much ufid by hair-drefTers,
and is faid to be of fcrvice in thickening the hair, and for
ether purpofes.

The inhabitants of Kamtfhatka hold in high eflimation
the fat of the bear, as a very favoury and wholefome nou-
rifhment ; and when melted, and thus rendered fluid, it fup-
pHes the ufe of oil.

Bear'j Siin makes a fur in great cfteem, and on which
depends a confiderable article of commerce, being ufed in
houfings, on coach-boxes, &c. In fome countries, cloaths
are made of it, more efpecially bags wherein to keep the
feet warm in fcverc colds. Of the fliins of bears-cubs are
made gloves, muffs, and the like. It is ufed in Rufha for
beds, covertures, caps, gloves, and collars for their fledge-
dogs. Thofe who traverfe the ice for the capture of marine
animals make their flioc-foles of bears' flcin, which prevents
the danger of flipping. Alight black bear Ikin is one of
the moll comfortable and collly articles of the winter ward-
robe of a man of fafhion at Peterfliurg or Mofeow ; and
even the fmall white hand of a bc-lle is llipt into the large
bear muff which covers the half of her elegant fhape. The
exportation of bear-fl<ins forms a vciy confiderable article of
Ruflian eomnierco, independently of thofe that are ufed for
home confumptio-.i.

Bear GnrJin, a place where bears and other beads are
expofed as a public fpcftacle to be baited. See Baiting.

Bear, hunting and killing of the. The bear is in a variety of
refpefts fo ufeful an animal in Rudia and northern coun-
tries, that the inhabitants have devifed feveral ingenious me-
tliods of taking and dellroying them. The moll ufual way
of killing this animal is with tire-arms, and fpears or darts.
The Laplanders knock them down with clubs, as they can
cafily overtake them in running with their fnow-flioes ; but
they are generally firft fhot, and then difpatelied with fpears.
In fome parts of Siberia, the hunters er;ft a fcaifold of fe-
veral balks laid on one another, which falling down, cruflies
the bear, on his flipping upon the trap placed under it.
Another method is to dig pits, in which is hxed a fmooth,
folid, and very fliarp-pointed poll, which rifes about a foot
above the bottom. The pit is carefullv covertd with fods,
and acrofs the track of the bear is ftrctched a thin rope with
an elaftic bug bear. As foon as the bear touches the rope,
the wooden bug-bear ftarts loofe ; and the feared animal, en-
deavouring to fave himfelf by flight, falls with violence
into the pit, and is killed by the pointed poft. If he efcape
this fnare, at a fmall dillance, perhaps, feveral caltrops (fee
Caltrop) and other iriftrumc-iits of annoyance await him,
amongfl which a fimilar terrific log is erefted, and where the
perfecuttd bcall, the more he llrives to get free, fixes him-
felf more firmly to the fpot at which the blood-thiilly hunter
lies in ambufli for him. The Koriaks find out a crooked tree,
which is grown up in the form of a gibbet, and at the

B E A

bent fummit of it they attach a noofe, with a bait fufpendcd
to it. The hungry bear, thus allured, eagerly cUmbs up
the tree, and on his moving the branch, the noofe draws to-
gether, and the animal remains fufpended to the tree. But
the method adopted by the inhabitants of the mountainous
parts of Siberia to make this ferocious animal kill himfelf is
more fingular and ingenious. They fallen a very heavy block
to a rope, terminating at the other end with a loop. Tiiis is
laid near a lleep precipice on the path which the bear ufually
takes. On having his neck in Uie noofe, and finding that he
cannot proceed on account of the clog, he takes it up in a
rage, and to free himfelf from it, throws it down the precipice,
which of courfe pulls him after it, and he is commonly killed
by the fall. Should this accidentally not be the cafe, he
drags the block again up the acclivity, and renews his ef-
forts, till with incrcafing fury he either finks to the giound,
or kills himfelf by a dccifive plunge.

The white or polar bear (Ursus Maritimus) lives on the
coaft of the Frozen ocean, and in fome of the eallerii and
northern iflcs, where the chace of him is a collateral occu-
pation of the mariners who vifit thefe coails for the capture
of the morfe. Black bears are fo numerous in Kamtfliatka,
that they are feen roaming about the plains in troops, and
mull long fince have been exterminated, if tliey were not
here more tame and gentle than in any other part of the
world. In fpring, they defcend from the mountains where
they have wintered, to the mouths of the rivers for catching
fifli, which fwarm in all the ftreams of that peninfula. If
the fifh are plentiful, they eat only the heads ; and when
they find nets laid in any place, they dcxteroufly drag them
out of the water, and empty them of the fifh. Towards au-
tumn, when the firti go up the rivers, they advance with
them gradually to the mountains. Wlien a Kamtfliadalfe
efpies a bear, he endeavours to conciliate his friendfhip at a
dillance, accompanying his gefturcs by courteous words.
Indeed they are fo familiar, that the women and girls, when
they are gathering roots and herbs, or turf for fuel, are ne-
ver diilurbed in thtir employment, even in the midft of a
whole drove of bears ; and if one of thtfe animals comes up
to one of them, it is merely to take fomething out of their
hands. They have never been known to attack a man, ex-
c<pt when they are rouftd from their fleep, and they feldom
turn upon the markfmen whether they be hit or not. Not-
with.flanding this gentlenefs of the bear, its utility renders it
a valuable object of prey. When the hunter and the bear
meet, the co-.iteil is generally bloody, but it generally termi-
nates to the advantage of the artful huntfman. Armed with
fpears and ehibs, the Kamtfhiidale goes in qucft of the peaces
fulbear in his calm retreat, who, thinking only of his defence,
takes thefaggotsbroughtby his purluer,and choaks withthem
the entrance into his den. The mouth of the cavern being
clofed, the hunter bores a hole through the top, and then
with the greateft fecurity fpears his defencelcfs foe. Tooke's
\'iew of Ruflia, vol. ii. p. 442, &c.

Dr. Barton, in his " Fragments of the Natural Hiftory of
Pennfylvania," informs us, that the bears migrate in great
numbers, every autumn, acrofs the Mifiilippi, proceeding
fouth, perhaps to the mountains of New Mexico, in fearch
of a milder climate. In tlie fpring they return again by the
fame route. This migration of the bears is particularly ob»
fen'ed at Manchar, on the Miffifippi.

Bear hading, to (hew tricks, is an ancient prafticc,
which we find prohibited in the canons of the church. Du-
Cange.

Bear wards, urfarii, were a kind of fervants in great
families among the Romans, who had the care of breediBg
and feeding thofe animals. Pitifc. Lex. Ant. torn. ii.

p. 1 1 10.

B E A

B E A

». TIIO. Our nobility had formerly of5cers of this kind.
The annual falary of one of them belonging to the fifth earl
of Northumberland was twenty fliillings. Northumb. Houfe-
hold Book.

BEAR-Triie, in Geography, one of the tribes into which
the American Indians of the Six-Nations are diilributed.
See Six-Natioks.

Bear, Order of the, was a military order in Swiflerland,
ereded by the emperor Frederic II. in IZ13, by way of ac
knowledgment for the fervice the Swifj had done him, and
in favour of the abbey of St. Gal. To the collar of the or-
der, which was a gold chain interlaced with a chaplet of oak-
leaves, hung a medal of gold, on which was reprefented a
bear raifcd on an eminence of earth ; or a bear fable on a
ground vert.

BEAR-ferrv, in Botany, See Arbutl'S.

TtiAi.-bind. See Convolvulus.

"EitA?.'! breech. See Acanthus.

EearV ears. See Primula Auricula.

BearV ears fan'icle. See Verbascum.

Bear'j_/</»/. See Helleborus.

Y>t. Kv^-a-hand, a naval tenn, fynonymous with make hade,
or difpatch. See Bearing.

Bear'j Bay, in Geography, or Little Port, lies at the eaft
end of Anticolli ifland, at the mouth of the river St. Law-
rence, in North America.

BearV Bay, or IVhite Bear Buy, is a very deep bay on
the fouth coall of the ifland of Newfoundland, towards its
weft end.

Bear'j- Cape, the fouth-eaft point of St. John's iOand, near
Nova Scotia, in North America. N. lat. 45'' 53'. W. long.
62=40'.

Bear Cove, lies on the eaft: fide of the fouth-eaftern cor-
ner of the ifland of Newfoundland, at the head of which is
the fettlement of Formofe. It is a good fifhing-place for
boats. Reneau's rocks are fituated between Bear-Cove and
Frefti-water bay on the fouth, 32 miles northerly from cape
Race.

Bear Greet, a water of TennelTee river. See Occo-

CHAPPO.

Bear'.; Grafs Greet, a fmall creek on the eaftern fide of
Ohio river, north of the town of Louifville, in Kentucky,
and near it. A canal is propofed to be cut from this creek
to the rapids of the Ohio, which would render the naviga-
tion of this river fafe and cafy. The country on the fide of
this creek, between Salt river and Kentucky river, is rich
and beautiful.

Bear Ifland, an ifland near the entrance of Bantry bay,
in the county of Cork, Ireland. It is about fix miles long,
and is ver)- coarfe, mountainous, and rugj-ed, but is of great
sfe in defending this noble bay from the fury of the fouth-
weft winds, fo that veficls within the ifland mav ride fecure.
N. lat. 51^ 35'. W. long. 9° 45'. The whole 'bay was for-
merly called B.arbuvcn ; but this name is now confined to
that part between the ifland and the peninfula of Bear, on
which is the fmall town of Caftleton. Smith's Cork. Beau-
fort. .See Bantrv.

Bear, and Bantry, the name of a barony in the wcftern
part of the county of Cork, Ireland, which is very moun-
tainous, and with the adjoining parts of Carbery and Muf-
kcrry, is the pooreft and Icaft improved part of the county.

Bear, North, a fmall ifland in St. James's bay, Hudfon's
bay. N. lat. 54° 40'. W. long. 80''. — .Another fmall ifland
in the fame bay is called South Bear. N. lat. 54° 35'. W.
long. 80°.

Bear, or Cherry, Ifland, lies on the coaft of Greenland.
K.lat. 74° 28'. E. long. 17° 58'.

Bear Late, Great, is fituated in the north-weft part of
North America, near the Arctic circle, in N.lat. 65°, and
W. long. 121° ; and a river flows from it in a W.N.W.
courfe, called Great Bear river, which runs into Mackenzie's
river.

Bear Late, Blact, lies in New South Wales, north-weft
from Cumberland huufe. N. lat. 53° 30'. W. long. 107^^30'.

Bear Late, ll^hite, lies due weft from another fmall lake
called Bear lake, both in N. lat. 48^ 15' ; and the former in
W. long. 98^ 30'. Thefc lakes are faid to give rife to the
river Miflifippi.

Bears, IVhhe, Point of, the eaft point of St. Peter's ri-
ver, on the coaft of Labrador, in North America, fo called
from the great number of bears that were feen there. N.
lat.jiS'5'. W. long. 55° 30'.

Bear'j- Port, one of the ports on the coaft of Nova
Scotia, in North America, between port and cape de I'
Heve to the north-eaft, and cape Sable, the fouth-weft
point of Nova Scotia.

Bear River, a river of the north-weft part of North Ame-
rica, which runs into the Unjigah, or Peace river, in N. lat.
56" 12'. W. long. 119° 28'.'

Great Bear River. See Bear Late.

Bear Rods, Neiu, are fituated about fouth by weft from
the extreme weft point of the ifland of Jamaica. N. lat. iG^
20'. W.long. 78^55'.

Bear Sound, or Barfund, lies on the weft coaft of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 62'^ 20'. W. long. 49°.

Bear Town, a town of America, in Caroline county,
Maryland, about 7 miles north of Greenfburg, and about
15 fouth-eaft from Cheftcr-town.

Bear,/o, denotes to bring forth young, or to produce fruit.

BEARALSTON, in Geography. See Beeralston.

BEARD, John, in Biography, an energetic Engliflt
finger, and an excellent a<ftor, was brought up in the king's
chapel. He knew as much of mufic as was ntccffary to fing
a Angle part at fight, and with a voice that was more power-
ful than fweet, he became the moll ufeful and favourite
Criger of his time, on the ftage, at Ranelagh, at all concerts;
and in Handel's oratorios, he had always a capital part ; be-
ing by his knowledge of mufic the moft fteady fupport of the
chorufes, not only of Handel, but in the odts of Green and
Boyce. Having married for his fecord wife a daughter of
Rich, the patentee of Covent-garden theatre, upon the death
of his father-in-law, he became manager of that play-houfe,
and difcontinied all public finging ; which a deafncfs that
had been long encreafiiig rendered necefiary. His firft m.ar-
riage was with a lady of quality, a fifter of the late Earl of
V.'algrave, to whom he was a very indulgent and tender huf-
band ; and he proved hiinfeltto be a man of honour and prin-
ciple in every tranfaclion of his life. There were fo much in-
telligence and humour in his afting.and finging comic parts
on the ftage, and Scots and Irifti ballads in private, as wlU
compenfated for deficiencies of voice. He was cloi;rly united
by friendfliip to Dr. Boyce, in the performance of whofe
mufic he manifcfted a zeal and even a partiality which were
not difcoverable lor that of any other compoler. He died
in 1791.

Beard, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Nievre, and chief place of a canton in the ditlria
of Decize, on the Loire ; 10 miles S. E. of Nevers.

Beard, in Phyfwlogy, the hair growing on the chin, and
adjacent parts of the face ; chiefly of adults and males.

Various have been and i^ill are the ceremonies and cuftonw
of different nations with regard to the beard : Kingfon aftuves
us, that a confiderable branch of the religion of the Tartars
confifts in the management of their beards ; and that they

v>'aged

B E A

wa,Tetl a long »r.d bloody war ivith tlic Po: fiaiis, anil Jeclaicd
tlH-m iiifidela, though, in other refpffts, of the fame faith
with themfelws, merely becaufe tluy would not cut tlieir
whin<cr3 after the mode or rite of the Tartars, 'i'lie iSpar-
tans from the age of 20 years, fuffcred their hair ar.d beards
to grow : the hair being deemed an ornament, which became
the free man and warrior. A Spartan being once aflied why
lie wore fo long a beard, replied, " Since it is grown white
it incefTantly reminds me not to dilhonour my old age."
Ncverthelefs, as they were accuftomed to obedience, even in
things the mod indifferent, the cphori, when they entered
on office, proclaimed, by found of trumpet, a decree, com-
manding the people to fliave their upper lips, and tolubmit
to the laws. Tlie Egyptian priells (liaved the head, cliin,
and whole body. Accordingly, moR of the Egyptian figures
are without beard. However, Herodotus informs us, that
in time of calamity, tliey fiifTercd their beard and hair to
grow. The Adyrians liad long beards ; and Chiyfollom
•bferves, that the kings of Perfia had their beards woven or
matted together witli gold thread ; and fome of the fii ll
kings of France had, in the fame manner, their beards matted
and knotted with gold. The Africans wore long beard , as
may be feen on the medals of Juba. The Greeks, if tradition
may be credited, wore long beards from their heroic times.
Cedrenu> informs us, that at Conllantinople, in the therma; of
Zcuxippus, there was a (latue of Homer with a long beard.

Athenxus, from Chrylippus, obferves, that tlie Greeks
always wore their beards till the time of Alexander ; and
that the firft who cut it at Athens ever after bore the addi-
tion of Ko^j-r,:,Jbaven, on medals. Plutarch adds, that Alex-
ander commanded the Macedonians to be lliavcn, lead the
length of their beards fliould give a handle to their enemies:
however this be, we find Philip, his father, as well as Amyn-
tas and Archelaus, his predeeenbrs, rcprefented on medals
without beards. The Greeks continued to (have the beard
till the time of Juftinian, under whofe empire long beards
came again intotafhion, and fo continued till Conllantinople
was taken by the Turks. The Greek philofophers dillin-
guiflied themfelves from the vulgar by their long beards.
According to Laertius (I. vi.) Antillher.es was the firll of the
philofophers who luffered his beard to grow. This cuftom,
however, among the philofophers, was not invariable, for the
fcholiaft of Arillophanes (Nub. i 20.) pretends, that the an-
cient philofophers (haved their beards. The Roman philo-
sophers affefted to preferve the fame diftindive charafters of
the mantle and long beard.

Thus Horace defcribes them :

" Tempore quo me

Solatus juflit fapientem pafcere bavbam."

Sermon. 1. ii. fat. iii. v. -^4.
Aulus GtUius and Lucian exprefs tlicmfelves in a fimilar
manner. Perfius feems to have been fo convinced of the
teard's being the fymbol of wlfdom that he thought he could
not beftow a greater encomium on Socrates than calling him
•' Magillrum barbatum." The Sicilians, and the Etrufcans
adopted the cuftoms of the Greeks. The latter exhibited
all their deities with a beard, except Vulcan, but on the me-
dals of the former their kings appear without a beard.

The Romans for a long time wore beards and long hair.
Cicero, in his oration for Ccelius, (c. 14.) mentions the
•' barba horrida, quam in ftatuis antiquis & imaginibus vi-
demus." Liv. (v. 51.) fpcakiiig of the fenators, who re-
mained in Rome, after the entrance of the Gauls, fays that
they wore a very long beard : " barbam, ut turn omnibus
promiila erat." Scipio Africanus appeared with a long beard
111 his interview with Mafiniffa. Hence Ovid calls the an-
Cifut Romans " iotonil ;" thus.

B E A

*' Hoc »ptid iiitonfos nomen habcbat aros." Fait, ii.aft
Juvenal alio (Sat. xvi.) Jelcribis them in the fame manner :
" Et credam dignum barba, dignumque capillis
Maiorum."

Piiny obfer\-es, that the Romans did not begin to fhave
till the year of Rome 454, when P. Ticiuius brought over
a number of barbers from Sicily ; he adds, that Scipio Af-
ricanus was the firll who introduced the mode of (having
every day. The philofophers, however, retained the beard ;
and the military men wore it fliort and frizzled, as we fee it up.
on the triumphal archs, and other monunr.ents. In time of
grief and aifliclion they fuffertd their beard and hair to grow,
as was the cafe with M. Livius in his retirement from Rome,
and with Augullus after the defeat of Varus. The Greeks,
on the co:!trary, in time of grlet,cul their hair and (haved their
beards, (Seneca Benef. v. 6.) which was alfo the cullom
among fome barbarian nations. Accordingly, the cultoni of
letting the beard grow is a token of mourning in fome coun-
tries, and of fliaving it in otiieis. The iirll fourteen Romau
emperors (haved, till the time of theemperor Adrian, who re-
tained the mode of wearing tlie beard. Plutarch tells us he
did it to hide the fears in his face.

Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius wore a beard under
the characlcr of philofophers. Tiie fucced'ors of Juiliniau
relumed the habit of wearing beard:, and the latter Greek
emperors had them of an extraordinaiy length. The ancient
Britons in the time of Cxfar (haved the reft of the body,
except the head and upper lip : " Capillosac barbam radcre
praeter caput, et labrum fuperius." Bell. Gall. I. v. c. 14.
Diodorus Siculus and Tacitus inform us, that the ancient
Germans lliaved the beard, except that on the upper lips ;
and, among the Catti, a nation of Germany, a young man
was not allowed to (have or cut his hair till he liad (lain an
enemy. Tac. de Mem. Germ. 31. Among the Jews it was
reckoned ignominious to (liave a perfon's beard. 2 Sam. x. 4.
Strabo relates, that the Indian philofophers, the (rym-
nofophills, took great pains to attrati the veneration of
tile people by the length of their beards. The Goths
and Franks wore only a mnllache, called by Plutarch
fivrazx, and by the Latins " criHa." While the Gauls were
under their fovereignty, rone but the nobles and Chriftian
pricils were allowed to wear long beards. When the
Franks made themfelves mailers of Gaul, they affumcd the
fame authority as the Romans ; the bondfmen were exprefsly
ordered to fiiave their chins ; and this law continued in force
till the entire abolition of fervitude in France. In the time
of the firft race of kings, a long beard was a (ign of nobility
and freedom ; and the kings were emulous to have the largell
beards. Eginard, fecretary to Charlemagne, fpeaking^ to
the laft kings of the firft race, fays, they came to the alfem-
blies in the field of Mars in a carriage drawn by oxen, and
fat on the throne with their hair dilhevelled, and a very
long beard.

It is not eafy to fix with precifion the time when the
beard was firft fliaven among the young Romans. It was
fometimes when the toga virilis was affumcd, according
to Suetonius (Callg. 10.) Macrobius (Somn. Scl^. i. 6.)
fays, it was about the age of 2 l. Augullus did not (liave be-
fore the age of 25. Hence young men with a long down, or
" lanugo," upon the chin, were called " juvenes barbatuli,"
or " bene baibati." The firft growth of the beard was
confecratcd to fome god, ufually to the Lares. Ntro con-
fecrated his in a golden box, fet with pearls, tt> Jupiter Ca-
pitoliuus. The day on whicli the young men, among the
Greeks and Romans, firft ftiaved the beard, was a feftival ; vifits
of ceremony were paid them ; and they received prefents from
their friends. To this purpofe, Juvenal fays, Sat. iiL i H6.

"lUe

B E A

" Ille mctit bai-bam, crincm hie deponit araati ;
" Plena doiiiiis li'nis genialibus."
Slaves, among t'as Romans, wore their beard and hair long;
whtii manumitted t'uty fhaved the head in the temple of Fe-
ronia, and put on a cap, or " pileus," as a badge of Hbtrty.
Thofe who cicap-.d from fhipwreck, fhaved their heads ; and
pcrfons acquitted of a capital crime, cut their hair and (haved,
and went to the capitol to return thanks to Jupiter.

Perfons of quality had their children fhaved the firfl time
by others of the fame, or greater quality, who by this means
became godfathers, or adoptive fathers of the children. An-
cientlv, indeed, a perftm became god-fathtr of the child by
barely touching liis beard; thus hillorians relate, that one of
the articles of the treaty between Alaric and Clovis was, that
Aiaric fhould touch the beard of Clovis to become his god-
father.

As to ecclefiaflics, the difcipline has been very different
on the anic'e of beards : fometimes they have been enjoined
to wear them, from a notion of too much effeminacy in (hav-
ing, and that a long beard was more fiiilable to the ecclefi-
afiic gravity ; and fometimes again they were forbid .it, as
imagining pride to lurk beneath a venerable beard. The
Greek and Romifh churches have long difputed together
about thtir beards ; fince the time of their fcparatiun, the
Romanift s feem to have given more into the practice of fliav-
ing, by way of oppofition to the Greeks ; and have even made
fome exprefs conllitutions " de radendis barbis." The
Greeks, on the contrary, efpoufe veiy zealoufly the caufe
of long beardi, and are extremely fcandalized at the beard-
Icfs images of faints in the Roman churches.

By the flatutes of fome monafteries, it appears, that the
lav-monks were to let their beards grow, and the priefts
among them to fhave ; and that the beards of all that were
received into the monatleries were bleffed with a great deal of
ceremony ; and there are ftill extant the prayers iifed in the
folemnity of confecrating the beard to God, when an eccle-
fiaftic was fhaven.

Le Comte obferves, that the Chinefe affeft long beards ex-
travagantly; but nature hasbalked them, and only given them
verj' little ones, which, however, they cultivate with great
care : the Europeans are flrangely envied by them on this
account.

The Ruffians wore their beards till within thefe few years,
when the czar Peter enjoined them all to fhave ; but, not-
••withftanding his injunclion, he was obliged to keep on foot
a number of officers to cutoff by violence the beards of fuch as
would not otherwife part with them. For enforcing his
regulation, which was violently oppofed, he laid a tax on
long beards, and r-^ny fr.bmitted to it rather than part with
their beard, which was univerfally held to be an ornament
to the pcrfon. Superftitious Rufiians even thought it to be
an external charafteriftic of the orthodox faith ; and thofe
who were too poor, or too parfimoniouf, to pay the tax for
retaining the beard, religioufly preferved the beard that was
fliom off, and had it depofited in the coffin with them on
their deceafe, that they might prefent it to St. Nicholas,
on his refuling to admit them, as beardlefs chrillians, into
the kingdom of heaven. As a proof of the high eflimation
in which the beard was held in Ruffia in early times, it is a
law in the Novgorodian code, that whoever plucks hair from
another's beard fhall be mulcted four times as much as for
cutting off a finger.

In the 1 oth century, king Robert of France, the rival of
Charles the fimple, was not mc re famous for his exploits than
for his long white beard, which he fufFcred to hang down on
the outfide of his cuirafs, to encourage the troops in battle,
and to rally them when defeated. Upon the death of the

6 E A

great Henry IV. of France, wlio was fucceeded by a beard-
lefs youth, the beard was profcribed. Louis XIII. afcend
cd the throne of his glorious anceflor witi.out a beard ; and
his courtiers immediately reduced thtir beards to whifl-ccrs,
and a fmall tuft of hair und.-r the lower lip. The duke of
Sully, ho'.vever, though he encountered rid cule, would never
adopt this effeminate cuflom. Whifkers continued in fafhion
in the commenccmeiit of the reign of Louis XIV. who, aj
well as his courtiers, were proud of wearing them ; fo that
thcv were the ornament of Turenne, Conde, Colbert, Cor-
neille, Moliere, &c.

In Spain, Philip V. afcendtd the throne with a fhaved
chin ; and the courtiers imitated the prince, and their ex-
ample was followed by the people. The change, however,
produced lamentations and murmur. Hence arofe the
Spanifh proverb, denoting, " Since we have loft our beards,
we Lave lofl our fouls." The Portuguefe, whofe national
character is much the fame, have imitated them in this re-
fpeft. Accordingly we read, that in the reign of Catherine,
queen of Portugal, when the brave John dc Callro had taken
the caiile of Diu in India, he was under the necefTity of
borrowing from the inhabitants of Goa a thoufand pifloles
for the maintenance of his fleet ; and that as a fecurity for
the loan, he fent them one of his whiflters, telling them '• all
the gold in the world cannot eqiral the value of this n-tional
ornament of my valour ; and I depofit it in your hands as a
fecurity for the money." The inhabitants of Goa, it is faid,
generoufly returned both the money and his whi/lcers.

We have already obferved, that the ancient Britons, in
the tim.e of Casfar, fhaved the body, except the head and the
upper lip ; the hair of which they, as well as the Gauls, al-
lowed to grow to a very inconvenient length. The Anglo-
Saxons, on their an-ival in Britain, and for a conCderable
time after, allowed their beaads to grow, as well as their
near neighbours the Longobards, to whom in every refpeft
they bore a near rcfemblance. After the introduftiou of
Chriftianity, their clergy were obliged to fhave their beards, in
obedience to the laws, ar.d in imitation of all the wefteni
churches. This diflinclion between the clergy and the laity
fubfilled for fome time ; and a writer of the feventh century
coinplains, that the manners of the clergy were fo corrupted,
that they could not be diftinguiflied from the laity by their ac-
tions, but only by their want of beards. By degrees the
Englifh laity began to imitate the clergy fo far as to fhave all
their bea.ds except their upper lips, on each of which they
left a lock of hair ; by which they were dilHnguiflied from
the French and Normans, who fhaved their whole beards.
The Normans had as great an averCon to beards as th.ey had
a fondnefs for long hair. Among thera, to allow the beard
to grow, was an indication of the deepeft diftrefs and mifery.
They not only fhaved their beard-^ thtmfeivts, but when they
had authority, they obliged others to imitate their example.
It is mentioned bv fome of our ancient hitloi ians, as one of
the moft wanton acls of tyranny in Wilham the Conqueror,
that he compelled the Englifli, who had been accuftomed to
allow the hair of their upper lips to grow, to fhaVe their
whole beards. This was fo difagrecable to fome of that peo-
ple, that they chofe rather to abandon their country than
refign their whifliers. In the fourteenth century long beards
were in fafhion, and continued to the fixtecnth centur)' ; fo
that in the reign of Mary I. the beards of bifhop Gard'.ner
and cardinal Pole, appear in their portraits to be of a mofl
uncommon fize. The lawyers, however, had a regulation
impofed upon this important feature. Towards the clofe of
the t'lxteenth centur)', the beard was much leffened, and gradu-
ally dwindled into muftachios or whifkers : and in procefs of
time the praftice of fhaving the whole face became univerfal.
2 ^ Among

B E A

Among the Turks, it is more infamous fm «ny one to
have hilt beard cut off, than among un to he p-.ihlickly whipt,
or bi-aiidid uiih a hot iron. They who fcrve in the fcragho
hive ihcir htards (haven as a token of fervjtude; and when
they arc fet at hbcrty, they permit it to jjrow. With them
and the Perliaiis the beard is a mark of aulliorlty and hber-
ty ; and the want of miillachios and bearda dil'ci inilnates fiaves
and xvomrn. Hence, it is faid, arifes the uiifavourablc idea
wh.ich they form on the firll lifrlit of an European. There
are many in that country who would prefer death to this
kind of punifhnieiit. The Aiiibi make the prefervalion of
the heard a capital article of religion, liecaufe Mahomet never
cut his. Tlie Moots of Africa hold by their beards while
they fwcar, in order to give validity to their oath, which
after this formality they rarely violate.

The Turkiih wives kil's their hulbaiids beard:;, and children
their fathers, as often as they come to falute them. The men
klfs one another's beards reciprocally on both fides, when they
iahitc one another in the llrects, or come off from a journey.

I'he Jews wear a beard on the chin, but not on the upper lip
or cheeks. Mofes forbids thein to cut ofl" entirely tlie angle
or extremity of their beard; that is to imitate the Egyptian
fafliion, who left only a fmall tuft at the extremity of the chin ;
whence the Jews to this day fuffer a little fillet of hair to grow
from the lower end of their ears to their chins, where, as well
r.n as their lower lips, their beards form a pretty long bunch.
In time of mourning the Jews neg!e6ted to trim their beards,
that is, to cut off wlial was fuperRnous on the upper hps and
cheeks. In time of great affliition they alfo plucked ofl the
hair of their beards.

It has been advanced by feveral hiftorians and travel-
lers, that the Indians of America dilTcred from other males
of the human fpecies in the want ot one very chnrafteriftic
mark of the ftx, viz. that of a heard. From this general
obfervation, the Efquimaux have been excepted ; and hence
it has been fuppofed, that they had an origin different from
tl at of the other natives of America. Mr. Caufland, after
ten years refidcnce at Niagara, in the midft of the Six Na-
tions, with frequent opportunities of feeing other nations of
Indians, afHrms, that they do not dltTer from the reft of men
in this particular more than one European dilfers from ano-
ther ; and as this iuiperftftion has been attributed to the In-
dians of North America, equally with thole of the reft of
the continent, he inclines to think, that the aflertion is as
void of foundation in one region as it is in the other. All the
Indians of North America, fays this writer, except a very
fmall number, who, from living among white people, have
adopted their cullorn, pluck out the hairs of the beard ; and
a they addicl themfelvcs to this praftlce from its firll ap-
pearance, it may be fuppofed, that to a fuperficial obferver,
their facts will feem fmooth and beardlefs. As farther proois
that they have beards, le alleges that all of them have an
inflrument which they ufe for plucking out the hairs ;
ihat when they negledt this for fome time, hairs fprout up,
and are feen upon the chin and face ; that many Indians
allow tufts of hair to grow upon their chins or upper lip ;
and that feveral of the Mohocks, Dcla wares, and others,
■who live among white people, fometimes (have with razors,
ard fometimes pluck their beards out. Accordingly, colonel
Bi.tltr afGrms, th.u the men of the Six-Nation Indians have
all beards naturally, which is alfo the cafe with refpeft to
all other nations of North America, which he has had an
opportunity of feeing; but that it is the general prafticeof the
Indians to pluck out the beard by the roots from its earliell
appearance ; and hence their faces appear fmooth. The
lame fatl is confirmed by Captain Brent. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixsxvi. p. 229. Sec, 7

B £ A

Be.vrd, ttmhil'wg the, with unguents, Is an ancient pra£\!ce
both among the Jews and Romans, and iliU continues in ufe
among the Turks ; where one of the principal ceremonies
ohfcrved in ferious vifits, is to throw fweet fcented water 011
the beard of the vifitant, and to perfume it alttrwards with
aloes wood, which ll'.cks to this moilture, and gives it an
agreeable fmell, &c. '

In AT'uliUe aj^e HYilcrs we meet with adientare larlam,
ufed for ihoking and combing it to render it foft and
flexible.

The Turks, when they cotnb their beards, hold a hand-
kerchief on their knees, and gather very carefully the hairs
that fall ; and when they have got together a certain quan-
tity, they fold them up in a paper, and carry them to the
place where they bury the dead.

EiARD, phirhhi^ the, was pradifcd to Cynics by way of
contempt. The Stoics, as well as Cynics, affcded to bein-
fenfible to injury, and their patience was tried by this prac-
tice. Socrates was not exempt from this fpecies of infult
atid perfccution, as we are informed by Diogenes Laertius.
Horace fays to a perfon of this defeription ;

" Vellunt tibi barbam

Lafcivi pueri." Sermon. Sat. 3, 133.

And Perfius (Sat.i. 133.)

" Si Cynico barbam petulans Nonaria vellat."
The fame fntyrill reprcfents Jupiter as ofl'cring his beard to
be plucked by Dionyfius the tyrant :

" Idcirco ftolidam prxbet tibi vellere barbam
Jupiter."

Some autliors alfo fptak of vwrlga^iii^ the heard, larlam
hypothecare. Du-Cange.

Beard, touching the, was an adion anciently ufed by fup-
plicants, and by thofe who made vows. An inftance of thij
is found in Homer (II. K. 454.): and Pliny (ii. 45.) fays,
that the ancient Greeks had a cullom of touching the chin
of a perfon, whofe compa.Tion they wilhed to excite ; the
chin being fubllituted for the beard. Inllanccs of a fingidar
kind occur in the Oreftes and Hecuba of Euripides. To
touch any one's beard, or cut off a fmall part of it, was, .
among the ancient French, the m.oll facred pledge of pro-
teition and confidence. For a long time all letters, iffuing;
from the fovtreign, had, for greater fatisfaftion, thiec hairs
of his beard in the feal. A charter of 1121, If ill extant,
concludes with the following woids ; "Quod ut ratum et
rtabile perfeveret in polltrum, pra:fcntis fcripto figlUi itiei ro-
bur appofui cum tribus pilis barbae meae."

BiiARl), barl.a fulfil, was an artificial one. In a general
court of Catalonia, held in 1351, it is exprefsly enjoined,
" Ne quis barbam falfam feu fic\am audcat deferre vel fabri-
care." Du-Cange.

Hottonrjn has given an elegant dialogue dc barba, fij-ft
printed by Plantin in 1586.

Beard, or undtr-bcnrd, called alfo chuck, of a horfe, is
that part under the lower mandib'e on the outfide, aiid above
the chin, which bears the curb ot the bridle.

BRAr.D, old-man's, in Bolmiy. See Clematis.

Beard of a Co:iiet, denotes the rays which the corret
emit_9 towards that part of the heavens to which its proper
motion feenis to direft it. Thus, the beard of the comet is
dirtinguillied from the tad, which is nnderftood of the rays
emitted towards that part from which its motion feems to
carry it. It is called beard from fome fancied relemblance
it bears to the beard of a man ; or becaufe it ib piojeAed
before the comet.

Beard, in Conchology, the byffus of \\\t pinna, the nnifcle^
&c. an affemblage of thr.nds or hairs of a ilout texture that.
iiangs from the body of the animal, and by nv:ans of vt-hich'

u

B E A

B E A

it faftens itfelf to Hones, or any otlier heavy fubftancc ; tlie Bearfrs are more particularly ufed for thofe who ccrry

hairs of the beard terminating in a fpungy fubftaiice, that the dead to their graves.

adheres very tenacioufly to the fmoothtlt fiirfaces. The In a fenfe fomewhat different from this, we alfo fay *< II.

thread of this kind of byfTus is fometimcs woven as an ohjcft bearers, &c.

of curiofity into gloves, ilockings, &c. and in point of dura- The ancients had peculiar orders or officers of bearers,

bility at leall, cannot be inferior to any other material that called by the Greeks Koiriolai ; by the Romann, hH'icarii.

could be employed for tint p;irpofe. Some notice is taken
of this among ancient writers, who fpeak 6f it as a kind of
filk. See Silk.

BEARDED, barhahis, denotes a perfon or thing with a
beard, or fume refcmblance thereof.

In Middli Age Writers, this is fometimes exprelfed by
maliharb'ts, q. d. larba in niaVis feii gems.

The faces on ancitnt Greek and Rimian medals are gene-
rally bearded. Some are denominated pogonal'i, as having
long beards, e. gr. the Parthian kin;;s. Others have only a
lanugo about the chin, as the Seleucid family. Adrian was
the riift of the Roman emperors who noiiriflied his beard :

The •vefpillones, or bjjuli, were a lower fort of bearers, ap-
pointed for perfons of inferior rank.

BrAHFRs, in Horticulture, denote the ft uit branches, ov
fuch as bear fruit.

The bearers, or bearing branches of an apple-tree, and
the like, dre found to be rougher, ai.d fuller of afptrities in
their ba: k, than the other branches.

BE.\f.tRS, \n H:ra!:lry, fee SUPPORTERS.

Beartr, Crojs, fee Cross.

Bearehs, in Laiu, denote fuch as bear down and op-
prefs others, and are faid to be the fame with maintainers.
By ftat. 4 Edw. HI. c. 1 1, jullices of aflize (hall enquire of.

hence all imperial medals before him are btardlefs ; after hear, and determine maintainer?, bearers, and confpirators.&c
' ' ' BEAR-HAVEN, in Geography, a commodious harlsour

formed by the ifland of Bear, near the mouth of Bantry bay
in the county of Cork, Ireland, into which fhips of war and
merchantmen often put for {belter ; but t!;e adjoining village
of Caftlctowii affords them few refources, and no accommo-
dation. Bc-iufort's iWemoir.

BEARING, in Geography, and Navigation, the fitua-
tion of one place from another, with regard to the points of
thecompafa; or the arc of the hori/on, that lies between
t!ie meridian of a pl.ice and a line palli.ii; from that place to

him, bearded.

The medals of gods, and heroe";, in vigorous youth, re-
prefent them beardlefs, except Jupiter, and a few others.

The Romans paid their worfliip to a bearded Venus, !■''?.
n.'ri barbat.T, fuppofed to have been of both fexes ; a ftatue
of whom was alfo found in the ifle of Cyprus. The reafon
of reprefenting the goddefs of beauty with a beard is vari-
oufly gueffcd at by the learned.

Bfarded 'women have been all obferved to want the men-
ftrual difcharge ; a d feveral inllances are given by Hippo-

crates, and other phyficlans, of grown women, efpecially !»™'thcr ; or the angle which a line drawn through the two
• • ■ ~ ■ ■ - ... places makes with the meridiai;s of each.

In other words, the bearing of an obiciTi in navigation,
is the rhumb on which it is feen ; and the bearing of one
place from another is reckoned by the name o*" the rhumb
palling through thofe two places. In every figure relating
to any cafe of plain failing, the bearing of the line not pro.

widows, in whom, the mcnfes being flopped, beards appear
ed. Eufebius Nieurembergius mentions a woman, who had
a beard reaching to her navel. Bartholin fpeaks of a bearded
woman at Copenhagen, who partly, in virtue thereof, palled
for an hermaphrodite.

Beardfd brothers, fralres larlatl, in EeehJ^.iJlira! Writers,

are thofe otherwifc called /ra/w convcifi in "the order of needing from the centre of the circle or horizon, is found by
~ " " ■ .... drawing a line parallel to it from the centre and towards the

fame quarter.

To find the bearing of a-iy two places, e. g. cape Clear,
and the ifland of Saint Michael's, one of the Azores, by the
plain chart ; lay a ruler by tiie two places, take the neareft dif-
tance between the centre of the compafs, and the edge of the
ruler; and in this pofition. Hide one point of the compaffes
along the ruler, and the other point will run along the point of
the compafs, flievving the bearing, which in this cafe is S. W.
that is, St. Michael's lies to the S. W. of cape Clear, or cape
Clear to the N. E. of St. Michael's. See Sailing.

To .♦iiid the bearing of any two given places on the globe ;

lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude

over both places, the beginning, or o", being on one

of a cornice, the piers and blockings under the joints of a of them, and obferve, while the quadrant lies in this pofition,

„.u. L L 1 1 vhaf rhumb of the neareft tiy, or compafs, runs moftly pa-

rallel to the edge of the quadrant, and that rhumb fhewi
the bearing fought, nearly.

The bearings of places on the ground arc ufually deter.
mined from the magnetic needle : in the managing of thefc

Grammont and the Cidercians. They took this denomina
tion becaufe they were allowed to wear their beards con-
trary to the rule of the profelfed monks.

Bearded hujh, among Fhrijls, a huf.c which is hairy on
the edges, as is that of the rofe, S:c.

BEARDING, in Carpentry, denotes diminifliing any piece
of timber from a given line on its furface, to make the thick-
nefs lefs on the edge.

Bearding o/"/-F6o/, \nt\\Q Manufa&ares.- See Wool.

BEARDSTOWN, in Geography. See Bairdstown.

BEARER, in Architecture, any fubfidiar)' or interme-
diate fnpport in aid of the principal fupports, as the fmall
joills or brackets which bear a gutter or the covering board

ground floor ; or the joifts, Sec. which bear any thing inde
pendent of or unconnected with the building, as the bearers
of a cillern, of a vat, of a platform.

Bearers, ,5-f,^jnto, in Miihlle /ige Writers, are fometimes
ufed for a child's gofTips, becaufe they hold the infant in

their arms, and prcfent him to the priells in the ceremony lies the principal pa°t of furveying ; fmce the^be'aring and

of b.aptifm. Du-Cange. diftance of a fecond point from the iirft being found\ the

Bearers of a biU of excLir.gc, denote the perfons in place of that fecond is determined; or the bearings of a third

whofe hands it is, and in favour of whom the laft order or point from two others, whole dillance from each other it

indorfement was made. See Bill o/Exch ange. known, being found, the place of the third is determined :

When a bill is faid to be payable to bearer, it is underfVood inftrumentally we mean ; for to calculate trigonoir.etricslly,

to be payable to hiin who firft ofl^rs himfelf after it be- there muit be more data. Mr. Collins gives the folution of

comes due. To be paid a bill of this kind, there needs a problem in the Philofophioal Tranfaftions, where the dif-

neither order nor transfer ; yet it is good to know to whom tances of three objects on the fame plane being given, and

It IS paid. the bearings from a fourth place iu the fame plane ob-

B r A

B E A

fervfd, the Hiflances from the place of obfcrvation to the
refpcftive objcfts are required. See SuRvtYiNC.

Bfaring, in the Sra /,nn^ua:;e Wlieii a (liip fails to-
wards the (hore, (he is faij to />etir In '■.uilh the latid. — Whert
a (hip that was to windward, comes under another fliip's fteni,
and lo gives her the wind, flic is faid to bear undrr her lee. —
If a Ihip fails into a harbour with the wind large, or before
the wind, file is faid to Lear in ifilh the harbour, &c.

In conding tliey fay, bear up the helm, that is, let the
fhip go more large before the wind —hear up round, that is,
let the ihip go between her two fheets, dircdly before the
wind — bear a hand, i. e. make hafte.

They aifo fay a.fliip bears ■viXmw, having two flender a
quarter, (he will fink too deep into the water with an over
light freight, aud therefore can carry but a fmall quantity of
goods.

'Bf.A.f. fail ■well, to, is faid of a fhip when (lie is a (liff-
guided fhip, and will not couch down on a lide, with a great
deal of fail.

When a (hip is faid to bear out her ordnance, it is meant,
that her ordnance lita to high, and (he will go fo upright,
that in reafonable fjgluing weather, (he will he able to keep
oat her lower tier, and not be forced to (hut in her ports.

A fliip is faid to overbear another, when it is able, in a
great gale of wind, to carry out more fails, viz. a top-fail
more, or the like.

Bearing o/f \i alfo ufed by Seamen generally in bufinefs
belonging to (hipping, for thrujl off.

Thus, in hoiiling any thing into the fhip, if it hath hold
by any part of the lliip or ordnance, or the like, they fay,
bear it off from the fhip' s ftdc. — So if they would have the
breech or mouth of a piece of ordnance, or the like, put
from one, they fay, bear off or bear about the breech.

Bearing up, or bearing atvay, is improperly ufed to de-
note the aft of changing the courfe of a lliip, in order to
make her fail before the wind, after (he had failed fome time
with a fide wind or clofe-hauled.

Bearing alfo exprcffes the fituation of any diltant ob-
jeft, ellimated from fome part of the (hip, according to her
pofilion. In this fenfe, the objeft muft be cither a-head, a-
Itern, on the beam, before the beam, abaft the beam, on the lee
or weather bow, and on the lee or weather quarters.

Bearing of a piece of timber, in Carpentry, denotes the
fpace either between the two fixed extremes thereof, when it
has no other fiipport ; which is called bearing at length : or
between one extreme, and a poft, brick wall, or the like,
trimmed up between the ends to (horten its bearing.

Joiils are not to bear above ten feet length ; nor fingle
rafters more than nine feet. 19 Car. II. c. 3.

Bearing of an arch or vault, denotes the effort which
the (loncs make to burd open the piers, or piedroits.

This amounts to the fame with what the French call
fouffee.

Bearings, in Heraldry, a term ufed to exprefs a coat of
arms, or the figures of armories, by which the nobility and
gentry are dillinguiffted from the vulgar, and from one ano-
ther. See Arms.

Bearing of an organ pipe, denotes an error or variation

from the jull lound it ou£;ht to yield. See Temperature.

Bearing ^<i;;ij, in Mid'wifery. The pains in labour or

child birth are faid to be bearing pains, when they force the

child downward.

Bearing do'wn of the ivomb, -jagiua or anus. When
the uterus defcends from the upper part of the pelvis, and
prefies upon or paffes through the os externum, it is called
a bearing down (procidentia) of the womb. In this cafe
the uterus is included in a duphcature of the vagina, to the

upper part of which it is attached. Women who are trau-
bled with the whiles (iluor albub) or who have borne chil-
dren, particularly if the pcrinanim was injured, or torn, at
the time of the birth of any of them, are moil fubjcA to
this complaint. It manifeils itfelf at full by a fenfe oT
dragging or bearing down of the part ; fome time after,
tliere is a difficulty in making water, the uterus lying on,
and covering the meatus urinarius. In thij tlage ot the
complaint, on pafTing a finger into the vagina, it meets the
OS uteri, immediately on getting through the os externum.
If not now remedied, the uterus continues defcending, until it
frees the os externum, and hangs down between the thighs ;
and if ftill negleftcd, the jjart protruded goes 011 increafing,
from the fize of a nut to that of a large pear, and in fome
cafes the uterus, covered with the vagina, has been found
hanging down beyond the middle of ihe.thighs, and of the fize
of the body of a Florence flaflc. When a fold of the vagina
only defcends, and paffes through the os externum, it is called
a bearing down (procidentia) of the vagina. A fimilar in-
difpofition affefts the reftum, a fold of the gut being forced
through the fphinifler ani, whenever the fsces are voided.
This complaint is particularly incident to weakly children,
though adults are not unfrequently affefted with it. As in
all thefe cafes there is a relaxed tone of the fibres, the cure
is to be effected by the exhibition of fuch things as ftiength-
en and incrcafe the tone and elafticity of them, by the peru-
vian bark and chalybeats, the ufe ot the cold batli, exercife,
air, aftringent applications to the parts, as decoftions of oak
bark, pomgranale fliells, bailauftine flowers, red rofe leaves,
&c. to which a portion of red port wine is to be added, and
the medicine fo prepared is to be injefted into the vagina
or reftum, and compreffes foaked in it, applied to the part*
externally, taking care in tlie mean while that the body be
kept moderately open. When the womb is the part bearing
down, in addition to thefe remedies, after returning the womb
to its proper fituation, a pefl'ary is to be introduced into the
vagina and woni there to prevent its defcending again. See
Pessary ; fee alfo Procidentia Uteri, Fagina, et /Ini.

Bearing c/iiTOj-, Timong cock-Jighti-rs, denote the foremod
toes, on which the bird goes ; and if they be hurt or gra-
velled, he cannot fight.

Bearing of a flag, is ufed in rcfpeft of the ftate of his
head, or the croches which he beais on his horns.

If you be allied what a (lag bears, you arc only to reckon
the croches, and never to exprefs an odd number : as, if l>e
have four croches on his near-horn, and five on his far, you
muft fay he bears ten ; a falfe right on his near horn : if
but four on the near horn, and fix on the far horn, you
may fay he bears twelve j a double falfe right on the near
horn.

BEARN Stone, fee Phosphorus.
Bearn, in Geography, was a province of France, before
the revolution, at the foot of the Pyrenees, about 16 leagues
long and 1 2 broad ; bounded on the ea(l by Bigorre, on
the north by Armagnac, Turfan, and Chalolfe, on the weft
by Dax, a part of Soule, and lower Navarre, and on the
fouth by the Pyrenees. The plain country is very fertile,
producing flax and Indian corn, and the mountains are co-
vered with fir-trees, and within them are mines of copper,
lead, and iron, and the lefTcr hills are planted with vines,
which yield good wine. The Spaniards are fupplied frona
hence withliorfes andcattle,andalfo with linen, of which there
is in this province a confiderable manufadlory. The princi-
pal rivers which bear the name of Gaves, are the Gave-Beai-
nais, and the Gave d' Oleron. Bearn forms now the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenees ; and its capital is Pau.
BEAST, in Zoology, an appellatiom given to all fouj;.

footed

B E A

footed animals, fit for food, labour, or fport, SccBrcte,
and ZooLOGv.

Authors make tliis difference between " beads of the fo-
reft" and "of chafe," that the firll are " filveftres tantuiii,"
the latter " campeflres tantum." " Bealts of the foreft"
make their abode all the day time in the great coverts and
fccret places of the woods ; and in the night feafon thev re-
pair into the lavvas, meadows, paflures, and pleafant tecd-
ing-places : whence their denomination " fdvcftrc-s," q. d.
beatls of the wood.

" Beads of the chafe" refide all the day time in the fields,
and on the mountains afar oti, to prevent furprifc ; but
on night's approach, they feed, as the rt ft, in meadows,
&c. whence their appellation " campeftres," q. d. beads
of the field.

In our Statute books, "beads of chafe" are five ; the
buck, dee, fox, martin, and roe. " Beads of the fored,"
called beads of venery, are the buck, hind, boar, and wolf :
and "beads and fowls of the warren" are, the hare, coney,
pheafant, and partridge. See Game.

No other, according to Manwood, are accounted beads
or fowls of warren, than hares, coneys, pheafants, and par-
tridges. Lord Coke is of another opinion, dlftinguidiing
beads of th; warren, from fowls of the warren. Under the
former he includes hares, coneys, and roes : the latter he
divides iv.toji/ve/lrts, campe/Ires, and aquatiks. To the fird
belong the pheafant, woodcock, &c. to the fecond the par-
tridge, quail, rail, &c. to the third the mallard, hern, Sec.
Coke on Littleton, p. 233.

Beast of burden is underftood of all quadrapeds employed
in carrying goods on their backs. To this clafs belong
elephants, dromedaries, camels, horfes, mules, afles, and the
fticep of Mexico and Peru.

Beast, in Games of Chance, a game at cards, played thus ;
the bed cards are the king, queen, &c. of which are formed
three heaps, denominated the king, the play, and the troilet.
Three, four, or five may play ; and to every one are dealt
five cards. Before the play every one ftakes to the three
heaps. He that wins mod tricks takes up the heap called
the play : he that has the king takes up the heap, fo caDed ;
and he that has three of any fort, as three fours, three fives,
three fixes, &c. takes up the troikt heap.

Beast at ombre is where the player or perfon that under-
takes the game, lofes it to the other two ; the penaUy of
which is a forfeiture equal to the ftake played for.

BEASTAN, in Geography, a town of Peifia, in the pro-
Vnce of Segedan, 80 miles S. W. of Kin.

Beasts, rother, feeRoTHER.

BEAT, in Fencing, denotes a blow or ftroke given with
the fvvord. There are two kinds of beats, ttie fird perform-
ed with the foible of a man's fvvord on the foible of his ad-
rerfary's, which in the fchools is commonly called baterie,
from the French batre, and is chiefly ufed in a purfuit, to
make an open upon the adverfary. The fecond and bed
kind of beat is performed with the fort of a man's fvvord
upon the foible of his aJverfai'y's, not with a fpring, as in
binding, but with a jerk, or dry beat ; and is therefore moll
proper for the parades without or within the fv\'ord, becaufe
ot the rebound a man's fword has thereby iVom his adver-
fary's, whereby he procures to himfeif the better and I'urer
opportunity of rilpoftlng.

Beat, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton,
in the didrid of St. Gaudens^ on tlie Garonne. Ail the
houfes arc built of marble, the neighbourhood fiipplying no
other materials. It is feated between two mountains, clnfe
to the town on each fide. N. lat. 42*^ 50'. W. long, i'' C

BE A

Beat, St., mountaiaf of, are mountains of Swiffcrland
in the canton of Berne, near the lake Thun ; the rocks of
which are calcareous and rugged, and containing in a few
places broken pctrifadions. Some of thefe rocks arc per-
pendicular, and even impending, and are marked at different
elevations with furrows, occafioned by the v.aters of the lake,
which in former periods was probably fcvcral hundred feet
above its preient level.

Beat, in Horology. See Beats.

Beat, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to beat the dud,
when, at each ftroke or motion, he does not take in ground
or way enough with his fore-legs. He is more particularly
faid to beat the duft at terra a terra, when he does not
take in ground enough with his fhoulder-;, making his
ftrokes or m.otions too (hort, as if he made them all in
one place. He beats the duft at curvets, when he does
them too precipitantly and too low. He beats upon a
walk, when he walks too fiiort, and thus rides but Uttle
ground, whether it be in ftraight lines, rouuds, or paffings.

Beat upon the hand, fee Chack.

Beat of the Drum, in the Military Art, is differently per-
formed, according to the purpofes defigned by it. Notice
is hereby given of any fudden change ; foldiers are fummoned
to repair to their arms and quarters ; and the various move-
ments before and after, and during the engagement, arc de-
noted by different beats of the drum.

The chief beats or beatings on the drum arc, the general,
the ajembly, the chamade, the march, the reveille, the retreai,
Sec. Sec Drum.

Beat, in Mnfic, is a grace marked thus : " or thusX-
Its effeft is jud the contrary of a tranfient fhake in ra-
pid movements, where it can neither be prepared nor turn-

ed. It confift« merely of three not«

tranfient fhakes :

explained.

BE ATA, in Church Hiflory. Si:e Mass of the Beat:

Bfata, Cape, is at the foutn point of the illand of St.
Domingo or Hifpanrola. N, lat. 17" 42'. W. long. 72'' 2'.

Beata I/land, is about 14 leagues S.W. by W. from the
cape.

BEIATER is applied, in Matters of Commerce, to divers
forts of workmen, whofe bufinefs is to hammer or flatten
certain matter?, particularly metals. In this fenfe wc meet
with plafler-leatcr, cement-beater, mortar-beater. Sec.

Bkatfrs, gold, are artifans, who, by beating gold and
filver with a hammer on a marble, in moulds of vellum and
bullocks guts, reduce them to thin leaves fit for gilding or
filveri'ig of copper, iron, fteel, wood, Sec.

Gold-beaters differ from flatters of gold and filver, as the
former l>iing their metals into Icavci by the hammer ;
whereas the latter only flatten it by preffmg it through a
mill, preparatory to beating. See Goi.x>-bealirg.

There are alfo tin-beaters Employed in tTie looking-glafs
trade, whofe bufinefs it is to beat tin on large blocks of mar-
ble, till it be reduced to thin leaves, fit to be applied vrith
qiiickfilver behind lookniggl.ffes. See Foliating.

Beater is alfo ufed for an inilrumcnt wherewith to gra-
vel walks and alleys in gardens even. It is a piece of wood
half a yard long, fix inc'^es thick, and eight or nine bro: d,
having a handle fixed obliquely in the middle.

I 2 BEATIA,

B E A'

BE ATI A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Bztica, fouth-caft of Caftulo, and near k.

BEATIFIC Vision. See Visiom.

BEATIFICATION, in El^ariaty, a term ufed by pro-
fetTor Boze to denote an eleftrical e\penment, by which he
incircled the head of a pcrfon llrongly cledrilicd, and (land

' , B E A

ficiently beaten, they roll them up, and beat them over as
before.

Bt-ating hemp is a puiiifhment inflifted on loofe and difor-
derly pcrlons.

BtATiNC, in Booi-Bini/in^, denotes the knocking a book
in quires on a marble block, with a heavy broad-faced ham-
jug on a large cake of pitch, with a luminous j^lory, refembling mcr, after folding, and before binding or flitching. On
that with which painters ornament the heads of faints. The the beating of it properly, the elegance and excellence of
fecret of this experiment, which occafioned many frultlefs the binding, and the eafy opening of the book principally
and expenfive trials to the firil elcftricians in Europe, con- depend.

fitted in the ufe of a fnit of armour decked with Reel, in Beatino, in the Pafi.-r Works, fignifies the beating of
various figures ; and the glory was produced by rays iffuing paper on a Hone with a heavy hammer with a large fmooth
from the edges of the helmet. head and Ihort handle, in order to render it more fmooth

BEATiFiCATios,in the Romi(hC/!w6A, theaftby which and uniform, and tit for writing.

the pope declares a perfm happv after death. Bkating ihe Wind, was a piaaice in ufe in the ancient

Bcatilication differs from canonization ; in the former, the method of trial by combat. If either of the combatant^

pope does not ad as a judge in determining the ftate of the did not appear in the field at the time appointed, the other

beatified, but only gnmts a priUlegc to certain ptrfons to was to beat the wind, or to make f<) many flourilhes with

honour him by a particular religious w irfhip, without incur-
ring the penalty of fuuerititious worfhippevs ; but in canoni-
zation, the pope fpeaks as a judge, and determines " ex ca-
thfJra" upon the llate of the canonized.

Beatification was introduced when it was thought pro-
per to delay the canonization of faints, for the greater af-
furaacc of the truth ajid mauifcltation of the rigorous fleps
taken in the procedure.

The ceremony of beatification is a previous one to that board tacks. Sec 1'ackinc

his weapon ; by which he was intitled to all the advantages
of a conqueror. Do Cange.

Bi; atisg the Hands or Feet, by way of praife or appro-
bation. See Applause.

Beating 'Time, in Mufic. See Battrf. la Mesure.

Beating, in Navi^^ation, the operation of making a pro-
grefs at fca againil the wind, in a zigzag line or traverfe,
bv fteering alternately cloie-hauled on the larboard and ftar-

of canonization ; and cannot be performed till 50 years
after the death of the p'irfou thus honoured. On this occa-
fuin, certificates or attellations of the charadcr and miracles
of the perfon for whom this honour is intended, are produced
and examined by the congregation of rites. An advocate,
called by the people the devil's advocate, is employed to

Beating, Drubbing, or Stnpes, make one of the mod
ancient as well as univerfal Ip.'cies of punifhmcnt. Amonjr
the Romans it obtained, under the denomination of ver-
bcrarc, fujtigan; Jli:geUarr, pulfire, is'e. In the Eall it
ilill prevails under the name of bajloiiado.

Some diffinguifh between pidjalkn and •verbcratinn, as if

contell the claims of the candidate ; and it is the bnfinefs of the latter imported a beating with pain, the former without ;

an advocate, engaged on the other fide, to obviate and re-
fute the cavils of the advcrfai-)'. As foon as the faint's claim
is conlirmed, he is admitted into all the privileges of beati-
fication by the pope's decree. His relics, if any fuch are
found, become henceforth entitled to the veneration of all
good Chriftians ; his images are crowned with rays, and a
particular office is fet apart for him ; and tlie day of his be-
atification is diftinguiilied by the grant of indulgences and
remiffion of fins.

It is remarkable, that particular orders of monks affiime
to themfelvcs the power of beatification. Thus Oftavia
Melchiorica was beatilicd with extraordinary ceremonies by
the Dominicans, for a legacy of 7000 dollars to the order.

BEATING, amon^; Sport/men, denotes the noife which
hares make in Ruaing-lmu.

The hare is laid to beat, the hat-t to bell, 5cc.
Beating, Pulsation, in MediAne, is applied to the
recipr.ical agitation or palpitation of the heart and pulfe.
See Pulsation.

Beatihg of tLe ffeari. See Palpitation.

Beating f/as,or Hemp, is an operation in the drcfTing of but of Ister days rellrained to the pope,
rhefe matters, contrived to render them more foft and It appears to have been fometimes alfo given to lay-
pliant, men.

When hemp has been fwingled a fecond time, and the BEATON, Beton, or Bethunf, T). w id, in B/ogrtiphy,
hurds laid by, they take the llrikes, and dividing them, into primate of Scotland, and cardinal of Rome, was dcicended
dozens and half dozens, make them up into large thick rolls, from a family originally of France, and the nephew of areh-
which being broached on long ftrikes, are fet in the chim- bifhop James Beaton, his predeceifor in the primacy. He
ney corner to dry ; after wliich they lay them in a round was born in 1494; and having palled through the ordinary
trough made for the purpofe, and there with beetles, beat difcipline of the fchools, and of the univerlity of St. An-
them well, till they handle, both without and within, as drew's, he was fent to France by his uncle, for the comple-
pliant as pofiible, without any hardncfs or roughnefs to be tion of his education. In the univerfity of Paris he ap-
felt : that done, they tuke them from the trough, open and plied with diligence to the ftudy of the civil and canon
divide l\i£ fthkcfi as before, and if any be found uot luf- laws, and alfo of divisity, ia order to qualify himfelf for tfie

fervice

but this diilinclion is not always obferved.

Beating, in t!ie Enghih Z^tf. See Battfry.

Beating in the Flunks, a diltemper to which black cattle
are fubjedl, and is an indication of a great inflammation in
the bowels.

Beating, in Kujbandry. See Bup.ning of Land.

BEATITUDL, imports the fupreme good, or the
his;hell degree of happinefs human nature is fufceptible
of. '

In wl'.ich f'enfe, it amounts to the fame with what we
otherwile called bhjpdnefs and fovrreign felicity ; by the
Greeks called su^Ki/^onfc ; and by the L.'dlmifiiminum boniini,
beatilitdo, and be.iti/cis.

Beatitude, among Divines, denotes the beatific vifion,
or the fruitiim of God in a future life to all eternity.

Beatitude is alfo iifcd in fpeaking of the t/nfes con-
tained in Chriil's fermon on the mount, whereby he pro-
nounces i/e/fd the poor in fpirit, thofe that n:ourn, the
meek, &c.

Beatitude was alfo a tide anciently given to all bifliops ;

B E A

fervict of the clniicli. At the proper age, he entered into
holy orders ; but, notwithitanding his clerical characler, lie
was employed in fevetal affairs of importance by John duke
of Albany, regent of Scotland, and appointed refident at the
court of France in 1519. In 1523 his uncle, being promoted
to the archbidiopric of St. Andrew'-;, refigned the rich
abbacy of Arbroath in his favour, and having obtained from
the pi'pe a difpenfation for holding it two years without
taking the habit, he returned to Scotland in 1525, and took
his feat in parliament as abbot. Having ingratiated him-
feif with the young king, whom he had ferved in France
during his minority, he was promoted in 1528 to the high
office of lord privy-feal. In this capacity he obtained the
king's confidence ; av.d in 1533 he was entriiffed with an
important comraifTion which required his return to France,
where he was eminently inftrumental in maintaining the at-
tachment of Jamei to the French intereit, and where he
was employed in negoclating feveral important concerns be-
tween the t'vo courts, and in dtmandinff for his maftcr,
Magd.ilen, the king's daughter, in marriage. During his
ftay at the French cau:t, he gained the efteem of king'
Francis I. to firch a degree, that he granted him feveral
fingular favours ; inverting him, in 1537, with all the privi-
leges of a native of France, and conferring upon him, in
the fame year, the valuable bilhopric of M-repoix. King
James having cfpoufed the princefs Magdalen at Paris in
1537, the abbot of Arbroath accompanied them to Scotland ;
and after her death, in the fame year, he was deputed to
negociate a fceond maniage for the king with Mary,
daughter of the duke of Guife, whom he condufted to Scot-
land in 1538, where their nuptials were celebrated at St.
Andrew's. In this year he was advanced by pope Paul III.,
who widied to attach the clergy of Scotland and England
to the fee of Rome, to the dignity of cardinal. T^pon the
death of his uncle foon after, he fucceeded to the primacy,
and exercifed the fingular powers with which he was invefted,
in evincing his attachment to the religion and intereils of
Rome, in conducting a very fevere inquilition into heretical
doftrines, and in caufingprofecutions to be in.lituted againft
feveral perfons, of whom fome were men of family and dif-
tinftion. It is faid, that he had prefented to the king a
roll of 560 of the chief nobility and barons, as fufpetlcd of
herefy, and if the king's death had not prevented the exs-
tution of his fanguinary purpoFes, thefe, and perhaps many
more, muft have fallen facrifices to his perfccuting power,
which his majefly did not feem difpofed to controul.
At the infligatioa of the cardinal, Janie<= undertook
the invafiou of England, and at Solway Mofs the royal
army. was totally defeated in 1542; but this unexpefted
difaller proved fatal to the king, and he died foon after-
wards. The cardinal was the only perfon of authority who
was prefent with him in his laft moments ; aiid he is accufcd
of having forged a will, in which the king appointed him,
together with three other noblemen, to the regency of the
kingdom, during the minority of queen Mary. This faft is
contidered as unquellionable Uy the generaUty of m;'dern,
?.;j well as the riiore early hiflorians. But the Englifh in-
tereft. prevailed, and the eart of Arran was declared to be
regent. Upon this cardinal Beaton was apprehended and
confined ; but in a little while, he contrived ijy his political
abihty and influence not only to be hberated, but to be ap-
pointed high-chancellor of the kingdom. The comm'fTiou
of legate " a latere," which he foon afterwards obtained
from the court of Rome, empowered him to proceed ia
bis favourite defign of extirpating heretics. In the execu-
tion of this defign, he caufed feveral perfons to be condemned
and executed ; and among the relt, Mr. George Wiihart,
the moft famous protcftaiit preacher in Scotland, who was

B E A

burnt at St. Andrew's in 1646 ; the cardinal himfelf, a? it
has been afferted on the authority of Buchanan, being
feated at a window as a fpeftator of the tragedy. This
execution produced great difcontcnt and murmur amongft
the adherents of the proteftant religion ; and as the forms
of law had not been duly regarded, they meditated a re-
venge. The cardinal, himfelf, however, apprehended no
danger ; and fo prevalent was his intrrefl at this time, that
the earl of Crawford was gratified by marrying his cldefl
fon to the cardinal's natural daughter ; for notwithftand-
ing his profefllon and high rank in the church, Beaton,
without difguife, kept a concubine, by whom he had feve-
ral children. In lefs than three months after the death of
Wifhart, the event which this good man denounced, and as
fome have faid, without fufficient reafons, predicted, hap-
pened to the cardinal. A confpiracy was formed againft
his life by fome perfons whom he had difobligcd ; and they,
accompanied by a fmall numljer of attendants, furprifed the
calUeof St. Andrew's, in which the cardinal lodged, ru-Tied
into his chamber, and difpatched him with their fword?.
One of the confpirators, James Melville, exprefsly imputed
his revenge to the cardinal's perftcution of Wifhart. This
event happened in the latter end of May 1646, and proved
fatal to the ancient religion, and to the French intereft in
Scotland.

Beaton's charafter is fufficiently marked in the hiftory of
his life. Pofleffed of talents, which qualified him for the high
rank to which his ambition afpircd, and which he occu-
pied both in the church and the ftate, he efpoufed arid
promoted the intereft of Rome, as the moft effeSual me-
thod of fecuring his advancement. Dr. Robertfon, in-
deed, afcribes his fupport of the Ron.ifh fuperftition and
his enmity to the reformers, merely to political motives;
but there is reafon to hnagine, more efpecially whe:i ive
confidcr the period in which he lived, that a real bigotry
in favour of popery might blend itfelf with the principles
and views of ambition and policy. It is certain, however,
that his ambition was unbounded, that he was haughty and
violent in his temper, that his infolence was carried to the
higheft pitch, and that his charafter, upon the whole, was
extremely deteftable. His violence, as a perfccutor, muit
ever caufe his memory to be held in abhorrerice, by thofe who
have any feelings of humanity, or any regard tor religions
liberty. He appears to have had little learning, being pre-
vented from acquiring it by his early and continued appli-
cation to public bufinefs ; and his morals were unbecoming
his ftation. Biog. Brit. Robertfoa's Hilt, of Scotland,
vol. i. p. 97, S:c.

BEATORUM, I>!sul.i, in Anc'utit Geography, a name
given to one of the Oafes (See Oasis) of Africa, called an
ijlandi becaufe it was furrounded with land, like an iiland ir.
the fea, and denominated " infula Eeatorum," becaufe, ac-
cording to Strabo, it abounded with w:.tcr, wine, and othc:
neceffaries of life, though encompafled by vaft fandy dcfert;-.
Some have fnppofcd that this Oafis was a di'.lricl of the
" Oafit.'e nomi," abut feven days journey well of I'litbes.
Others fuppofc that it was fituated in the " Regio Ammo-
niaca," and that it was the fite of the temple of Ammon,
which was amply fuppl'.ed with fountains and vegetation,
and afforded a very pleafant liabitation. Ulpian fa\s, that
it was a place of baniftiment for real or pretended criminals,
whence, as it was fiurounded by fand, there was no proba-
bility of efcape.

BEATS, mHor^logy, are tlie audible ftrokes which a tooth
of tlve lalt wheel in a clock or watch movement makes
aguinft its pallet, to maintain the vibration of a pendulum,
or ofcillation of a balance. The interval between two fuc-
ceflive beats, in a clock or watch with au ordinary tfcape-

mciic,

B E A

wtnl, is equal to one vibration or ofciUation, but is not
exactly contemporary' villi it, becaufe the latter is counted
as commencing at one of tlic extremities of its arc ; where-
as the former begins at fnch other degree of it, as the
nature of the elcapement determines : u vibration here im-
plies either one direit or one retrograde paiTage through the
whole arc of a pendulum, and an ofciUation one dire£l or
Ol^e retrograde motion of a balance through its whole arc.
Hence, in a common clock or watch, the words beat, vi-
bration, and ofciUation, are fynonimous terms, when ap.
plied as the meafure of the fmallcft fubdivifion of time ;
there being a llroke of the lall wheel at fonic part of every
nbration or olcillation : but in thofe aftronomical and marine
Imic-pieces which have detached efcapements, there is but
one beat in two vibrations or ofcillations, the alternate ftroke
of the piece which unlocks the detent being ufually filent ;
in thcfe machines, therefore, the beato an. Ilower by one
luih than in ordinary oneb, notwithllanding the movements,
or mtciianilm ot wheels and pinions, may be the fame in
both, and the vibrations or ofcillations fimilar. In any horo-
logical machine, the number of vibrations or ofcillations
which it makes in an hour, is the value of its train, which
may be thus determined, viz. " Divide double the produA
of all the wheels, by the exaCl produd of all the pinions,
and the quotient will be the train univerfally ;" the great
wheel and its pinion, however, being ufcd only to regulate
tlie period of going after winding up, and to communicate
motion, are left out of the calculation. The reafon why
the produdl of all the wheels is required to be doubled, is,
that one tooth of the lall wheel docs not completely efcape
Its pallet in lets than two fucccflive vibrations or ofcillations
iu any efcapement. The beats of a pocket watch arc a very
convenient meafure of fmall portions of time, and might be
applied to many uftful purpofts with advantage, particu-
laijy if they were each an exaft fradlion, fuch as J or
-J- of the fecond, which they might as cafily be as other-
wife. (Vid. Nicholfon's Journal, vol. iii. p. 49 — and 189.
and vol. v. p. 46, 4to. Series.) In the bed time pieces or
chronometers for determining the longitude, this circnm-
ftancc is attended to, and the trains are ufually either 14,400
or 18,000, namely, either four or five ofcillations; i.e.
either two, or two and a half beats per fecond, by reafon of
their efcapements being detached. If the fame attention
were paid to the trains of common pocket watches, the
frequency of their bents would fit them for nice obfervations
in fome of the departments of philofophy, and give them,
m this refptft, a preference even over more accurate inftru-
nients with Icfs frequent beats : but at prefent, the only at-
tention that is paid by the makers to the value of the train
of a common watch is, that, for a fmall balance, it nlay be a
quick one, and tor a large balance a flow one ; or, in other
word;, that tlie momentum of the balance fhall not be too
Jmich controlled by the maintaining power, which necef-
lai y provifion might be equally attended to, if the beat were
made an exaft fraftional portion of a fecond. In any watch
the whole train or vibrations in an hour divided by 3600,
the feconds in an lu)nr, will give the vibrations per fecond
of that watch. See Clock-Movement, Dfad-Beat,
EscAPKMrsT, See.

BrATs, in Mufic, are certain pulfations of two conti-
nued founds, as in an organ, that arc out of time, oc-
calioned by wairing vibrations that prevent coincidence
in any two concords. Tliis phenomenon, which was firil
difcovered by M. Sauveur, has not only been defcribed by
Dr. Smith in his "Harmonics" but made the foundation of a
l5-ftem of temperament. " In tuning mufical inllruments,
(fays he, Sed.IV. Prop. X.) efpecialty organs, it is a
known thing, that while a confonancc is imperfect, it i: not

B E A

fmooth and uniform as when perfect, but interrupted with
very fenfible undulations or kills ; which, while the two
founda continue at the fame pitch, fuccced one another in
equal times, and in longer-and longer times, while either of
the founds approaches gradually to a perfect confonancc with
the other ; till at lafl the undulations vaniih, and have a
fmouth, uniform, confonancc."

Thcfe beats, the fame author obfcrvcs, are of ufe in
tuning an organ to any defired degree of exaitnefs.

The work of Dr. Smith, though excellent, is far too
profound for the perfons moil in want of it : the organ and
harpfichord tuners are feldom mathematicians, and to com-
prehend tlie doclrines laid down in this book, would re-
quire as much fcience as Newton's " Principia".

Tl'.e beats of two dilTonant organ pipes, rcfenille the
beating of the pulfe to the touch : and, like the human
pulfe in a fever, the more dilfonant are the founds, the
quicker they beat, and the flower as they become better in
tune ; till at length they are loft in the coincident vibrations
of the two founds. See Viiiration, Temperamtnt, and
Tun IN o.

BEATTIE, James, L. L.D., \i\ Biography, a celebrated
moral pliilofopher and poet, was born about 1735, in
the county of Kincardine, in North-Britain. His father
was in a llation of life no higher than that of a little farmer,
a clafs of men fubjcft to much hardfhip and indigence in
Scotland. He was, however, poflcfl^td with that laudable
fpirit which fo frequently in that country raifts native
genius from obfcurity ; and he befl;owed upon his fon a lite-
rary education, firft in the parochial fchool of his neighbour-
hood, and then in the college of New Aberdeen. The
youth was aflifted in his progrefs through the lludies of the
latter, by one of thofe fmall exhibitions which have been
annexed to it fsr the encouragement of learning ; and it
is fuppofed that he fupported himfelf in the intei-vals of the
fefiions by teaching at a countiy fchool. For fome con-
fiderable portion of his early life, it is known that he afted
as a fchoolmafter at Alloa and in Kincardinefliire. At length
he removed to Aberdeen, and engaged as afllftant to the
mafter of the principal grammar fchool, whofe daughter he
married.

The talent which firft made him known to the world
was that of poetry, which he had cultivated from his youth.
In 1760, he publiflied a volume of " Original Poems and
Tranflations," which in 1765 was followed by " The
Judgment of Paris." Thcfe performances were charaflerifed
by richnefs and elegance of language and melody of verfifi-
cation ; but rather denoted a refined tafte in povtry, than
a powerful and inventive genius. They probably brought
the author into notice at the place of his refidtnce, but
feem to have excited little attention among readers in gene-
ra!.

One of the fi-uits of his rifing reputation was to obtain for
himthepatronageof theearlof Errol,whorcfidedin the neigh-
bourhood of Aberdeen. Befides other benefits, the influence
of this nobleman acquired for Mr. Beattie the honourable
fituation of profcflor of moral philofophy and logic in the
marifchal college of Aberdeen. In this capacity he next
appeared before the public as the author of a pliilofophical
work, entitled " An Efliiy on the Nature and Immutability
of Truth, in Oppofition to Sophiftry and Scepticifm," 8vo.
1760. The progrefs made about this time by Mr. Hume's
principles, efpecially ainong his countrymen, could not fail
of exciting alarm among the friends of revealed religion.
How long Beattie had ranked among thcfe, does not clearly
appear. An admired poem of his, " The Hermit," in its
firll form ftrongly exprefles that doubt of a future exif.
tence which could not be baniflied from heathen philofo.
I phy.

B E A

B E A

pTiy ; and m a poem hereafter to be mentioned, he warmly
coniriatulatcs himfcif on having efcapcd " From Pyrrho's
maze and Epicurus' fty." There is a vein of acrimony
and exafperation in all his allufions to the fceptical philofo-
phy, which renders not improbable the report of a perfo-
nal offence received by him from Hume ; though there is
no r;afon to doubt that when he UTote his bock, he was
\-ery fincerely impreflcd with the danger of the tenets he
oppofed, and that he ever after remained zealoufly attached
to the caufe of revelation. The author in this work is re-
garded as a philofophical difciple of Dr. Reid, admitting
an inftinftive principle of the perception of truth, and
founding it upon that faculty of common fetij'e, which afts in
a fimilar manner upoa all, or a great majority, of mankind.
As he wrote with more eloquence and a more popular
manner than Dr. Reid, his performance was much read,
and gained him a number of ver)' refpeClable friends and
admirers. It is allowed, that he has fuccefsfully detected
many of the lophifms of Hume, and has brought together
many ingenious and ufeful thoughts on this fubjeft ; but
the foundation of its philofophy has by fome, efpecially by
Dr. Pricllley, been treated as (hallow and fuperficial : and he
has been cenfured for the arrogance which he has difplayed
towards thofe of oppofite opinions, and for the readinefs
vith which he has inrputed to them conRquences fubver-
five of moral-ty. Indeed, many parts of his book favour
more of the rhetorician than the philofopher. Thefe de-
fedls, however, did not render lefs acceptable an attempt
from a layman to ferve the caule of religion ; and among
the friends Beattie acquired on the occafion, were lords
Mansfield and Lyttcltoc, bifliops Hurd and Porteus, Dr.
Johnfon, and Mrs. Montague. The influence of lord
Mansfield obtained for him a penflon of zool. from his
majefty's privy-purfe.

In the following year, 1 77 1, his fame as a poet was ex-
tended throughout the kingdom by the publication of the
firft part of « The Minllrel." The fubjeft of this piece,
is the feigned birth and education of a poet. The term
rnhjirel is not very liapplly applied to the charafter def-
cribcd ; nor are the famed " Gothic days" in which he is
placed to be recognized in real hillcr\- : but there is great
beauty in the delineation of the native poetical difpofition
sffigned to him, and in the invention of circumftances by
which it is nourifhed. The ftanza is that of Spenfer,
which is managed with Angular dexterity, and made to
produce a melody of verfification fcarcely exceeded in the
range of EnglilTi poetry-. The fecond part of this poem,
which appeared in 1774, contains the maturer education of
the yoimg bard, and enlightens his mind with the leflbns
of hiftory, philofophy, and fcience. There are many fine
ftrains in this part, which, howevtr, deviates from the
original conception ; and the work is left 3 fragment,
probably becaufe its plan was found to involve unavoidable
incongruities. The " Minftrel," whatever be its defects, is
probably the performance on which Beattie's future fame will
chiefly depend ; and it may be regarded as having taken
fccure poflcflion of a place amid the moll approved poetry

in the lan^uaire.
- -
Mr. Beattie vifited London in 1 77 1, and was received

v.'ith great cordiality by his admirers. The degree of
L.L.D. was conferred upon him by his college at Aber-
deen not long afterwards, and he repeated his London
journey in 1773. A new edition in 410. of the " Eflay
on Truth" was publifhed in 1777, by a private fubfcription
among his friends, conducted on the moil liberal principles,
and to the volume were added three effays on fubjefts ap-
pertaining to polite literature, which had been read before

a private fociety at Aberdeen, In the Eflay on Tiuth,
fon'.e corrections were made, and fome harfh rcfiei'tion*
were foftencd and modified. The other pieces difplayed
much refined tafte, found judgment, and acquaintance with
the befl authors, ancient and modem.

Dr. Beattie, in 1783, publifhed a quarto volume confiil-
ing of " Diifertations, Moral and Critical." Thefe are de-
tached effays on varicjus fubjefts, which formed a part oi a
courfe of leflures read by the author in his profeffional capa-
city. Many ufeful and curious topics are difcuffed in them,
without any pretenfions to extraordinary fubtlety and acute-
ncfs, but in a mode calculated to improve the heart as well as
the underftanding. The work is not free from fomewhat
of the warm and dogmatical manner which charaflerifes
the Effay on Truth ; and though not unwortViy of the
writer's fame, it appears to have made little addition to it.
The applaufe given by the bifhop of London to a flvctch
of nianufcript lectures to young perfons on the evidence of
Chriftianity, ir.duced Dr. Beattie to draw up and pubhth
in 1786, a work entitled " Evidences of the Chrif^ian Re-
ligion, briefly and plainly dated," 2 vols. 8vo. This was
efteemed a plain, elegant, and popular view of the fubjeft,
well calculated for its intended purpofe. It w?.s the lalt
publication of the author, whofe time was much occupied
with the dutiesof his ftation,and with focial'and domeflic con-
cerns; of which oneof the deareft to his heart was the education
of his eldeft Ion, James Hay Beattie, a youth of very ex-
traordinary endowments and uncommon moral excellence.
He was fo fuccefsfully trained by his father, as to be made
his afliftant in the profefforial chair at the age of nineteen ;
and he was become the moll intimate friend and beloved
companion of his revered parent, when he fell into a declire,
which carried him off in 1790, at the age of 22. Dr.
Beattie had fortitude enough to be the editor cf a fraall
volume of the youtli's compofitions, in verfe and profe,
to which he prefixed a memoir on his life and charafter,
highly interefling and unalfeftedly pathetic. This griev-
ous lofs was followed in 1796 by that of hir. younger fon,
Montague Beattie, in his eighteenth year. The unhappy-
father was unable, with all his refources, to bear up under
this accumulated forrow. The latter years of his life were
a blank of exiilence, which terminated at Aberdeen, on
Augufl 18, 1803, in the 68th year of his age. Dr.
Beattie was amiable zixA exemplary in every department of
private life, and fulfilled the duties of his public ftation ia
fuch a manner as to confer honour and credit upon the
univerlity of which he was a profcfTor. He was a fellow
of the Roval Society of Edinburgh.

BEATL'S Rhfnan'us, a learned man of the i6th cen-
tury, whofe father Anthony Bilde, affumed the name of
Rhenanus from Rheinach, the place of his bir'h, was born
at Schletftad in Alface, in 1485. He purfued his fludies
at Paris and Stra(burg, and from thence proceeded to Bafil,
where, in 1514, he formed an intimate acquaintance with
Erafmus, and applied to the Greek language under J. Conon
of Nuremberg, and became a correelor of the prefs to the
celebrated Frobenius. At the age of 35 he returned to
Schlf tftad. He fii 11 piiblifiied the two books of the " Hif-
tory of Velleius Paterculus," and firft caufed the works of
Tertullian to be printed from two MSS. which he bor-
rowed from two monalteries in Germany. His notes to
Tertullian were ceufured by the Spanifh inquifition, and
placed in the Index of prohibited books, becaufe they con-
tained fome free reflections on the fenfuality of the clergy
in his time. Rhenanus was a man of extcnfive learning,
particularly in the Greek language, church hillory, and tl<€
antiquities of Germany. Scaliger fays, that he contributed

greatly-

B E A

greatly to revive ancient literature, and Scioppvus bears
very honourable toftimony to his talents as a critic. To-
vards the clofc of his life he was artliftcd with a diabetes,
and obtaining no relief from the baths of IJaden in SwilTer-
land, he died at Strafburg in 1 547. He was no lefs dif-
tinguilhed by his integrity and modefty, and his mild and
conciliating temper, than by his great learning. He pro-
fefTed great regard for Luther, and detellcd the tyranny
which the clergy txeroifed at that period ; but he never
openly declared in favour either of Lutl'.er or of any other
reformer. Although he was no lefs difpleaftd than Eraf-
mus with the errors that had blended tliemfclves with re-
ligion, he was an enemy to fchlfm, and wilhed, by prudent
reformation, to preferve the unity of the Cliriftian Qhurch.
Of his works, written in I-atin, which were numerous, we
fliall only mention his " Obftrvations on Piuiy's Natural
Hillory," his " Notes on Livy," his " Preface and Anno-
tations to Tacitus," his " Epidle pretix.cd to lirafmua's
edition of the Works of Origen," his " Pnface to the Works
of Erafmus," and his" Origiues Gothicx:" to which we may
add his beil work, entitled" De rei)us Germanire libri trcs,"
printed at Ulm in i^^xj,^, with the annt^tations of James
Otto. Jortin's Life of Erafmus. Gen. Biog.

BEAU, Chari.f.s Lf, was born at Paris in 1701, and
became profeffor of rhetoric in the colv-ge dts Grafllns,
then profclTor in the college-royal, fecretary to the duke of
Orleans, and perpetual lecrctary and peniionary of the
academy of infcriptions. Like Kollui, he united the charms
of eloquence will) profound erudition, and was no lefs, th.in
this eminent profclFor, beloved by his pupils. His moft
confiderable work was his " Hillory of the Lower Empire,"
in French, 22 voU. I2mt)., which is written in a correft and
elegant ftylc. He alfo wrote fevend learned dilTertations
in the " Pvlemoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres," and
fome " Hiftorical Eulogies," on the academicians. His
private characler was amiable, and he was much tfleemcd
for his worth and generofity. He died at Paris in 1778-
His younger brothf, Johk Lewis Le Bhai;, was profeilor
of rhetoric in the college des Gir.lTins, and member of
the academy. He publidied a difcourfcon the condition of
fortune moil fuitable to a man of letters ; and an edition
of "Homer, Greek and Latin," 2 vols. 1746, and of
"Cicero's Orations," 3 vols. 1750; both with notes.
Nouv. Dic^. Hift.

Beau Port, in Geography, a fpacious and commodious

'harbour on the S. E. part of the Falkland iflands, capable

of accommodating a large fleet of (liips m perfett fafety. It

is almolt furro.jnded by tlie land, has good anchorage, and

fufficient depth of water.

BEAUBASSIN Bay. See Chignfcto.
Beaubassin Bay, is alfo a bay on the fouth coaft of the
ftrait of Maghellan, at the S. E. angle of the ftrait, where
it extends to tlic W. It is nearly oppofite to Wallis's har-
bour on the north coaft, is a fpacious bay, and has an open
entrance.

BEAUCAIRE, a town of France, and principal place
of a dillriel; in the department of the Gard, on the rlgiit
fcank of the Rhone, oppofite to Tarafcon, with whicti it
hiis a communication by a bridge of boats. This town cur-
ries on a confiderable commerce in wool, filk, ilufls, fpices,
drugs, leather, cotton, &c. ; and it has an annual fair
which lads for fix days. The part of the Rhine is well
conftrufted. The principal building is the collegiate church.
N. lat. 43° 48'. E. long. 4° 30'.

Beavcaire de Pfguilon, Francis, in Biography, a
polite fcholar of the fixteenth century, was dcfcended from
au ancient family of the Bourbonnois, and born in 15x4.

B E A

In confcqnence of his literary reputation, be was appointed
preceptor to cardinal Lorrain, the fecond fon of the firft
duke of Guife, and attended him to Rome. On his re-
turn, he was promoted to the bilhopric of M'etz, and at-
tended his patron to the council of Trent, where he diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his eloquence. He waj likeuife of
fmgular fervice in refcuing the fathers of the council from
the perplexity occafioned by different opinions concerning
marriage ; for he drew up a decree, framed in terms fo
ambiguous as to be accommodated to the variety of opi-
nions that were held, and- by the d'fferent fenfcs in which
it might be interpreted to fatisfy all parties. However, he
gave offence to the votaries of the papal power by main-
taining the independence of the tpifcopal order, and his opi-
nion on this point was difavowcd by the cardinal of Lorrpin.
In 1568 he refignrd his bidiopric to Lewis, cardinal of
Lorrain, and retired to his caftlt of La Chrtte in the Bour-
bonnois. Here he employed himfelf in compofing a " Hif-
tory of his own Times," which was written in Latin, and
comprifed the events from the year 1462 to 15'^7. This
work was difcontinucd about three y.ears before his death,
which happened in 1591. It remained in MS. for fcveitil
years, the author having declined tl.e publication of it for
fear of giving offence ; but being found in his library by
Philip Dinct, he printed it at Lyons in 1625, in folio. It
is deemed a well-written, and upon the whole, a faithful
hillory ; though too favourable to the houfe of Guife, and
very hoilila to the Hugonot party. Beaucaire, fome time
after he had taken polfefiion of his fee, engaged in a con-
troverfy with the Calvinilts upon the future ftate of /hil-
dvcn dying unborn. Gen. Ditl.

BEAUCF.or Beausse, 'mGeography,th( name given be«
fore the revolution to a country of France, part of Orlear.nois,
now the department of Lure and Loii-e, which was fo fertile in
every part, as to be called the granar)- of France. Its
capital was Chartres.

BEAUCHENES Tslamd. in Orography, a fmall idand
to the S. of Falkland iflands, m S. lat. 53°, and W. long,
about vS'^ 30'.

BEAUCHASTEL, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardeche, zi leagues S.S.W. of Valence.

BEAUCHIEF Abiiey, in Geography, was fituatcd in
a pleafant valley, on the north fide of Derbyfhire, in Eng-
land, within a fhort diflance of the town of Sheffield. This
celebrated religious houle was founded by Robert Fitz-Ra-
nu'ph, lord of Alfrcton, between the years 1 172 and 1 176,
for regular canons of the premonftratenfiau order. Since the
diffohition of moiiafteries, 26th of Henry VIII. this abbey
has continued to crumble by the decay of time, and only a
part of the chapel remains to mark the charafter of this
once proud pile. See Peggt's Hiftory of Beauchief Ab-
bey. 4to.

BEAUDUN, a town of France, in the department of
the Var, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of Bar-
jols ; 12 miles N. E. from Barjols.

BEAVER, in Zoology, the Englil'h name of Castor
Fiber, L'mnaiis, wiiich fee. Pennant calls Sorex Mos-
C HAT us of Pallas, the Long iwfi-il heavir^

Beaver, Bever, and in Latni Fiber, Cajlor & Cajloriust
John", in Biography, a benedittine monk, in Weftminllcr
Abbey, flourillicd about the beginniiig of the 14th century.
He is reprefented as a perfon of ingenuity and indullry, and a
great mafter of the hillory and antiquities of England, to
the ftudy of which he particularly devoted himfelf. He
wrote, " a Chronicle of the Britilli and En;Tll(h Affairs,"
from the coming in of Brute to his own time, w Inch remains in
Ms. in the Cottonian library ; and alfo a book " De Rebus
7 Caeuobii

B E A

Cmiobii Weftmoranicnfis." He is commended by Lclaiid
and Bale, and cited with lefpeft hy Stow in his Suney of
London and Weilminrcr. Biog. Biit.

Beaver Creek, in Gcop-aphy, a creek of North America,
which runs into lake Erie, at the call end, about 7 miles
S. E. from Fort Erie.

Beaver Creek, Big, falls into the Allegany river, after
having received feveral branches from the north-call, about
28 miles N. W. from Pittlbarg. It rifes in the fouth, luns
north about 6 miles, thence 12 more north-eaft to the Salt
Lick town ; then by the Mahoning town and Salt Springs,
34 miles fouth-callcrly to the Ki(li-ku(h town, from which
to its month are 22 miles fouthcrly. Its whole courfe is
about 74 miles.

Beaver. Dam, a to'.vnfliip in Pennfylvania, on the well
fide of Sufquchannah river,

Beaver. Eeiter, in Zoology. See Glutton.

Beaver IJland, in Geography, an ifland in the lake Michi-
gan. N. lat. 45° 26'. W. long. 85° 2c'.

Beaver Indians, nations of North America, fituate north
of Slave lake, in N. lat. about 63^, and W. long, about
120°.

Beaver Kill, is a foutli-eaft arm of the Popachton branch
of the Delaware. Its month is i-jl miles call from the
Cook Houfe, and 24! N. W. from Kufhichtun Falls.

Beavhr Lctke, a lake of North Am.erica, forming a part of
the Saflvafhawin liver, in N. l-.t. 54^ 40'. W. long. 102° 50'.
To the north of it at a little diftancc is the fource of Churchill
river ; to the fouth is Cn'.r.berland-houfe ; and rot far from
it are a number of houfes belonging to the Hudfon's bay
CoThpany.

Beaver River, a river of North America, which rifes in
a lake called Beaver lake and the adjoining hills, in about
N. lat. 54° 40'. W. long. 111° 15', and difcharges itfelf
into la Cros lake, in N. lat. ^^° 15'. and W. long. 108° 30'.

Beaver-rat, in Zoology. See Mus Coypus.

Beaver ^;'n, the fur or fkin of an amphibious animal
called the cn/hr, or beaver, fometimes found in France, Ger-
many, and Poland, but moil abundantly in the province of
Canada in North America, and the uninhabited wilds of Si-
beria. The ficin of the beaver ha:; hair of two kinds : the
lower hairs immediately next to the ikin are (hort, impli-
cated together, and as fine as down ; the upper grow more
fparingly , and are thicker and longer. The latter Is of little
value ; but the flix or down is wrought into hats, flockings,
and caps.

" The beaver's fli.ic

Gives kindliell warmth to weak enervate limbs,
When the pale blood flow rifes through the veins."

Dyer's Fleece.

The merchants diflinguifh three kind' of callor, though
all equally the ficins of the lame animal ; thefe are ne-zu cajlor,
dry cajlor, znUi fat cajlor. The neiv cajlor, called alfo ivintcr
cjflor, and Mijcovite cajlcr, bccaufe ordinarily referved to
fend into Mufcovy, is that taken in the winter huntings.
This is the bell, and mod eileemed for rich furs, as having
loil none of its hair by moulting. In the year 1 794 the im-
portation of beaver Ikins into the port of St. Petersburg
amounted to th.c value of 332,350 rubles ; a circumftanee,
which, as Mr. 'i'ooke obferves, ought to be a matter of con-
cern to every true Ruffian, as it naturally Jlrikes us with fur-
prile, that a country fo richly (locked with wild animals of
tvery kind (hould be dependent on foreign induftry in this
clafs of its necefiaries. Dry cajlor, or lean Cijior, is the re-
falt of the fummer huntings, when- the bead is moulted,
and ha.- loll part of its hair ; this bei:'g much inferior to the
former, is little ufcd in furs, but moiilv in hats. F.il cajlor,

\ OL. IV.

B E A

ufually called old-ccal, or co-?x-lenvtr, is that wiiich has con-
tradtcd a certain fat, unfluous humour, Ly fweat txhakd
from the bodies of the favages, who have wcrn it fcr fr nc
time ; this, though better than the diy, is ytt only ufcd
for hats.

Its chief ufc is in the compofition of hats, furs, S:c. Ec-
fidts this, in 1669, an attempt was made to employ it in
other merchandizes ; accordingly, a manufactory was fettled
in the Fauxbourg S. Antoine near Paris, where they made
cloths, flannels, ilockings, &c. of cajlor, with a mixture of
wool. The manufadlure flourifhed for a while, but foon de-
cayed, it being found by experience that the ilufTs lofl their
dye when wet, and that when dry again they were hailh and
ftiff as felts.

After the hair is cut off the lldn to be ufed in hats, the
pelt or ri<!n itfelf is ufcd in vari )us works, viz. for the cover-
ing of mails and trunks, in flippers, &c.

Beaver is chiefly imported by the Hudfon's-bay company,
from the northern parts of America, where the animal
abounds. Beaver fliins are alfj procured in confiderable
abundance on the wellern eoafts of North America. See
Fur.

Beaver's Tcivn, in Geography, lies bewteen Margaret's
creek, an upper N. Vv''. branch of Mu&ingum river, and the
north branch of that river; at the head of which north branch
there is only a mile's portage to Cayahoga river. Beavcr'i
town is diftant about 85 miles N. W. from Pittfburg.

BEAUFET. See Buffet.

BEAUFORT, Henry, in Biography, cardinal and bi-
fliop of Winchefter, was the natural fon,. legitimated by par-
liament, of John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swineford, who
afterwards became hi.s third wife. Having been educated at
Oxford and Aix la Chapelle, he was advanced, at an early
period of his life, to high ilations both in the church and
the ftate. In 1397 he became bi.Tiop of Lincoln, in 1599
chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford, and dean of Wells,
in 1404 lord high chancellor of England, and in 1405 bifliop
of Winchefter. During the reigns of his brother, Heuiy IV.
and of his nephew, Henry V. he does not feem to have pof-
feffed much political importance : but he lived in great fplen-
dour, and acquired immenfe wealth, fo that he was able to
lend Heni-y V. 20,ocol. to aid his expedition into France,
and thus to divert him from his defign of attacking the re-
venues of the church. Upon the death of Henry V. he was
appointed one of the guardians of his fon Henry VI. during
his minority ; and in 1424 he was again made lord chancellor
of England. In 1425, the difTcnfions that fubfiftcd betweeu
him and the protestor, Humphry duke of Glouceiler, roll-
to fueh a height, that Beaufort thought it necefiary to ap-
peal to his nephew, the duke of Bedford, then regent of
France, and to requell his prefence for bringing about au
accommodation. Upon the arrival of the regent an aflcmbly
of the nobility was convened at St. Alhan's ; but their in-
terpofition proving incffcilual, the decifion of the conteft
was referred to tlie parliament held at Lcicefter in 1426.
The duke of Glouceiler produced fix aiticles of accufatiou
againft the bilhop, of which he was acquitted ; and the difpu-
tants being enjoined to cultivate mutual friendlliip, departed
with outward appearances of perfecl amity. The regent,
however, in order to gratify his brother, the protedor, took
away the great fe?.l fr^m the biOiop. In 1428 the duke of
Bedford retmned to France, and was accoinpanied by Beau-
fort to Calais, where he was invefted with the dignity of
cardinal, with the title of St. Eufebius, conferred upon him
by pope Martin V. He was alfo honoured by the fame pope
with the charuclcr of legate ; but on his return to England,
he was forbidden the cxercifc of it by royal proclamation.
K ■ ' At

B E A

As he was likewife appointed the pope's Icfjate in Germany,
and general of the cniladc againft the Huffites, or heretics of
Bohemia, he obtained from parHamcnt the grant of a fum
of money, and a body of forces, for the more fuccefsful exe-
cution of his of&ce. Having embarked with his troops for
France, he was obhged, for fome time, with reluctance on
his own part, to employ them under the duke of Bedford ;
and he then proceeded with them to Bohemia, where he re-
mained for fonie months, till he was recalled by the pope.
In 1430 he accompanied king Henry into France, under the
title of the king's " principal counfcllor," and performed
the ceremony of crowning the young monarch in the church
of Notre Dame, at Paris. The honours, however, which
he received during his abfence, were, in his etlimation, an
inadequate conipenfation for the mortification rclulting from
the duke of Cilouceller's fuccefsful attempts for humbling
his pride, and rtllraining hi=; power. He not only procured
an order of council, prohibiting any of the king's fubjefts
from accompanying the cardinal, if he (hould leave the king
without liis permiirion ; but he attempted to deprive him of
his bifliopric, as inconfitlent with tlie dignity of a cardinal.
On his return, and for his more tffeftual fecurity againft thefe
hoftile attempts, he obtained, by the interceilion of the
houfe of commons, letters of pardon for all offences com-
mitted by him contrary to the ftatute of " provifors," and
other adls of " prxmunire." This pardon was renewed five
years after, viz. in 1437, for all crimes whatfoever. Not-
withftanding thefe precautions, the duke of Glouceder, in
1442, drew up fourteen articles of impeachment againlt him,
and prefented them with his own hands to the king, who
referred the matter to his council. The examination of thefe
articles was attended with fuch delay, that the protettor
dropped the profecution, and the cardinal efcaped. The
caufe of the proteftor's inveterate enmity againft the cardi-
nal is faid to liave been the part which lie had taken in infti-
gating certain perfons to accufe and perfecute his dutchefs
for treafon, witchcraft, and other notorious crimes.

Cardinal Beaufort died in 1447, about a month after the
duke of Glouceftcr, in vvhofe minder, it is fuppofcd, he was
concerned. The remorft and horror occalioned by the re-
fleflion on this event, in the near approaciies of his own
death, were " more," fays Hume, " tlian could naturally
be expected from a man hardened, during the courfe of a
long life, in falfehood and politics ;" and they are exhibited
in very imprelTive charafters in the reprefentation of his laft
fcene, by Sliakefpeare, in the laft fcene of the third act of
the " Second Part of King Henry VI."

" If thou be'cft dcatli, I'll give thee England's treafuie,
Enough to purchafe fuch another illaiid,
So thou wilt let me live, and feel no pain."
Again,

" Bring me unto my trial when you will.

Dy'd he not in his bed .•' where (hould he die ?
Can I make men live, whether they will or no ?

Oh ! torture me no more: I will cnufels

Alive again ? Then, (hew me where he is ;
I'll give a thoufand pounds to look upon him —
He hath no eyes, the dufthath bUndcd them :
Comb down his hair ; look ! look ! it (lands upright,
Like lime-twigs fet to catch my winged foul.
Give me fome drink, and bid th' apothecary
Bring the ftrong poifon that I bought of him."
The cardinal was buried at Winchefter. He died rich,
and left large fums for pious and charitable pnrpofes, in
various parts of tlie kingdom : and he ordered iccoomaffes
to be faid for his foul. Haughty and turbilent, and fond
ef pomp and power, he 19 allowed to have been a faithful

B E A

and able fervant of the crown. Mr. Hume deferibes him as a
prelate of great capacity and experience, but of an intriguing
and dangerous charafter. Hume's Hift. vol. iii. p. 13J.
173. Biog. Brit.

Beaufort, Margaret, diftinguifhed by her muniiicent
encouragement of literature, was the daughter of John
Beaulort, duke of Sonierfet, and grandfon of John of Gaunt ;
(he was born at Bletflioe, in Bedfordlhire, in 1441. Her
firft hu(band was Edmund earl of llichmond, by whom flic
had one ion, Henry VII. king of England. Her ftcond
hufhand was Sir Henry Stafford, fecond fon of Henry duke
of Buckingham ; and her third, Thomas lord Stanley, after-
wards earl of Derby, by neither of whom (he had any iflue.
Waving all pretenhons to the crown in favour of her fon,
(lie devoted her life to exerciies of piety and charity, and
derived her chief pleafure from relieving the indigent and
diftreffed. Slie kept conftantly in her houfe twelve poor
people, whom (he lodged, fed, and clothed. She extended
her patronage to the Itudents of both univerfities, and to
men of learning throughout England. In 1502 (he inftitut-
cd two perpetual public Icflures in divinity, one at Oxford,
and the other at Cambridge, which ftiU fiibfift under the
name of Margaret profefForfhips. At Cambridge (he eftab-
lifhed a perpetual public preacher, wliofe duty it fhould be
to preach, at leail, fix fermons every year, at certain churches
in the diocefes of London, Ely, and Lincoln ; and (he alfa
founded a perpetual chantry at Winbourn minfter, in Dorfet-
(liire, for teaching grammar. But her noblell inftitutions
were the colleges of Chrift and St. John in Cambridge, the
former founded in 1505, for one mailer, twelve fellows, and
forty-feven fcholars, and the latter in ijcS, for a mafter
and fifty fellows and fcholars, which being begun juft before
her death, was finifhed by her executors. It is, therefore,
with juftice, that Gray has made this lady the principal objett
of his eulogy, in his ode on the inftallatiori of the duke of
Grafton as chancellor of Cambridge.

" Foremoft, and leaning from her golden cloud,

The venerable Margaret fee !
It Welcome, my noble for," fhe cries aloud,

" To this, thy kindred train, and me :
•' Pleafed in thy lineaments we trace

" A Tudor's fire, and a Beaufort's grace."

Her piety and devotion were no lefs exemplary, though
partaking in a great degree of the fuperftition of the times,
than her charity. She died in June 1509, and was interred
in the chapel of her fon Henry VII. in Weftminfter Abbey.
She is the reputed author of the tranflation of two devotional
pieces from the French, and ;ilfo of rules and orders for the
prudence and attire of noble ladies at funerals. Biog. Brit.

Beaufort, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Maycnne and Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dilbicl of Bauge. The caille of Besufort gives
the t:tle of duke to the noble family of Somcrfet, lineally
defcended from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafler, and the
houfe of Lanealler obtained this callle from Blanche of
Artois, qnetn of Navarre, wife to Edmund Crouchback,
fccond (on of king Henry III., and firft earl of Laiicafter.
N. lat. 47° 26'. W. long. 0° 3'.

Beaufort, a town of France in tlie department of the
Drome, 2 leagues N. E. of Creft.

Beaufort, a town of Italy in Savoy, on the river Oron,
30 miles E. N. E. of Chambery. N. lat. 45° 40'. E. long.
6" 48'.

Beaufort, a diftrift of the lower country of South Ca-
rolina, lying on the fea-coaft, between Combahee and Sa-
vannah rivers. It is 69 miles long and 37 broad, and divided
into four pariflies, containing iS,753inhabitants,ofwhom only

434''»

B E A

4^46 are wliites. The northern part of this diftrift aboundi
with large forefts of cyprefs ; but the lands are fit for railing
rice, indigo, &c. It fends twelve reprcfentatives and four
feiiatorsto thelegiflature of the llate. The amount of taxes
is ^,0221. 2s. I id. fterhng.

I5bAUF0RT is the chief town of the above-mentioned dif-
triift, fituated in the ifland of Port Royal, at the mouth of
Coofawhatchie river. It is a plealant though fniall town,
having fixty houfes, and about 200 inhabitants, dillinguifticd
by their hofpitality and pohtenefs. It has a fine harbour,
and is likely to become a confiderable town. Its fituation is
healthy, and it is diftant about 73 miles S. W. from Charlef-
ton. N.ht. 32°26'. W.long. 8o°55'.

BrAUfORT, a fea-port town of North Carolina, in the
connty of Carteret, and dii^ricf of Newbern, on the N. E.
fide of Core found. It contains about 20 lujufes, a cou:t-
houfe, and gaol; and the county-courts are held here. It
is dillant 55 miles S. E. from Newbern, and about 27 from
Cape Look-out. N. lat. 34° 47'. W. long. 77= 20'.

Beaufort Iflar.d. See Port-Roval.

BEAUGENCV, or Baugencv, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftrift in the department of the Loiret,
feated on the I^oire, over which is a bridge of 2 2 arches,
and trading in wine and brandy ; 4 J leagues S.W. from Or-
leans. N. lat. 47° 48'. E. long. i°46'.

BEAUJEU, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict
of Villefranche, fituate at the foot of a mountain on the Ar-
diere, formerly the capital of the Beaujolois ; 4 leagues
N.N.W. of Viiltfranchc, and 7 E.N.E. of Roanne. N.
lat. 46^ 10'. E. long. 4" 40'.

BEALTJOLOIS, a fmall but fertile province of France
before the revolution, now forming part of the department
of Ifcre, 10 leagues long, and S wide, fituated between the
I.vonnois, Burgundy, the Saone, and Loire.

BEAULIEU, a pleafant village in the New Foreft,
Hampdiire, is diiHnguifned in the monadic hiftor)- of Eng-
land, for a large abbey, which was founded and endowed here
by king John, in 1204, for monks of the Ciftcrcian order.
The remains of this abbey are now confiderable ; and the
walls, which formerly inclofed an area of nearly twenty
acres, are moftly Handing. The abbot's houfe, now called
the Palace, has been fitted up and much modernized by the
predecefTor of the late duke of Montagu. This abbey pof-
feffed the privilege ci ftincliiary., and confequently gave re-
ception and protection to many villains and felons. Among
others, Perkin Warbeck, in the year 1498, having raifed the
fiegc of Exeter, and retired with his army to Taunton, fled
by night to this monaftery, where he and feveral of his com-
panions regiftered themfelves fanftuary-men. Henrj- VII.
was prevailed on from feizing him by force, but offered his
life, if he would furrender himfelf. This he complied v.ith,
and was brought to London, where he was confined in the
Tov.-er, and afterwards hung at Tybur.n for feditious prac-
tices. Rapin's England, vol. i. Tour round Southampton,
l2mo.

Beauliev, a town of France, in the department of the
Correze, and chief place of a canton in the diftriftof Brive,
on the Dordogne, 17 miles iouth-eail of Brive. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire,
feated on the Indre, oppofite Loches, and containing about
1500 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loiret, 4 leagues S. E. of Gien.

BEAULiEuyid/j- /a Roci/e, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vendee, and chief place of a canton in the
diftrift of Sables d'Olonne, 4I leagues N.N.E. of Sables
d'Olanne.

B E A

BEAULON, a town of France, in the department of the
111 and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict
of Redon, 4 leagues S.W. of Rennes.

BEAULY, h the name of a river in Invernefbfliire, Scot-
land. It is formed by the junftion of three fmall llreams,
which concentrate near Erklcfs caftle, whence the united
waters flow eailerly, and after forrr.iHg the falls of Kilmo-
rack and other fine cafcades, they are difcharged into an
arm of the fea. The frith, or mouth of the river, is fix miles
in length and two in breadth. The banks of this river are
richly diverfified with fome fine natural woods, a;:d various
combinations of bold rocky fcenery. At one place, the ri-
ver divides, forming the httle ifland of Agaifn, whicli is &i
an oval figur;, about one mile and a iia'f in circumference,
and rifes gradually about 100 feet above the level of the wa-
ter. The Bcauly is noted f ir ito falmon finery, whofe rents
have lately produced fix hundred a:!d thirty-one pounds per
annum.

BEAUMAN'S, or Bauman's, fjZrnJs, a clulter of
three iflaiids, fo called from the name of the csptain who
difcovered tliem, part of Roggewtin's archipelago, fituated
in the great Equinoctiai or Pacific ocean, in about S. lat. 12"
W. long. 155^ 10'. The difcovery of thefe iflands hr.s been
afcribed by feveral geographers to Roggewein ; and he
named them, in 1721, Beauman's illands. His own words
are thefe : " we difcovered three ilhmds at the fame time in
the 1 2th degree of latitude, of a very agreeable appearance ;
we found them Hocked with fine fruit-trees, herbs, vegeta-
bles, and plants of every defcription. The iflanders, who
came to meet our veffels, offered us all forts of fi:h, cocoa-
nuts, bananas, and other excellent fruit. Thefe iflands muil
be well-peopled, the beach being on our arrival covered
with many thoufands of men and wom.en, th^ greater part
of the former carrying bows and arrows. All the inhabit-
ants are white, and only differ from Europeans by fome of
them being much fun-burnt. They feemed good kind of
people, lively and gay in converfation, kind and humane to-
wards each other, and nothing of the favage in their man-
ners. Their bodies were not painted like thofe we had be-
fore feen ; they were clothed from the waitl to the ancle
with fringes of filken fluff artfully wrought ; their heads
were covered with hats of the fame kind, very fiae and
broad, to protecl them from the heat of the fun. Some of
thefe iflands were ten, fourteen, and even twenty miles in
circumference. We called them Beauman's iflands, from the
name of the captain of the fhip Tinhoven, who firfl: faw
them. It muft be confeffed (adds the author), that this is
the mod civihzed and honeft; nation we have met with in the
iflands of the South fea. All the coads of thefe iflands
have good anchorage, in from 13 to 20 fathoms water."
Sec the extraft from the hifforical account of Roggewein'*
voyage, written in French, in 1739, by a German of Meck-
lenburgh, who was on board Roggewein's fleet, in La Pe-
roufe's Voyage round the World, vol. ii. p. 192. Eno-. ed.
The other clufl;ers of iflands of Roggewein's archipelago,
marked in the hydrogi-aphical charts annexed to Marchand's
Voynge, are Roggewein and Groning, fituated a little to the
north of Beauman's iflands, and nearly in the fame longitude.
Som.e have fuppoled Beauman's iflands to be the fame with
fhofe which Bougainville has called " Navi^^ator's iflands ;"
but neither the hiilorvof the inhabitants, nor the geographical
pofition of the iflands, warrant this fuppofition.

BEAUMARCHEZ, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gers, 7 leagues weft; of Auch. N. lat. 43*
35'. W. long. 0° r.

BEALTM.\RIS, or Bfaumarsh, the principal and

countf town of the ifle of Anglcfea, North Waks, is fitu-

K 2 ated

E r A

B E A

atf J on the weftevn biiik of the river Mciiai, which forms
a tine fpaciouj bay cppofile the town. The callle, inti-
ni.itely c .nneCted witK tlie early hillory and foundation of
this town, owes its origin to Edward I. who, having ereft-
cd two magnificent fortrciTcs at Caernarvon and Conway,
deemed it neceifary t) raifc another at this place, for the
purpofe of enforcing obedience and fubjedion among the
conquered Britons of AngUfea. The foundation of this
ftrudure was laid in 1275, in a place called Bonover Marlh,
which afterwards adumed the compound French terms beau,
fmr, and marair, marjli. The favourable fituation of the
calUe enabled the engineers to make fuch a folTe or ditch
wund it, as might be conftantly filled with water from the
bay, and a canal was alfo cut between the river and caftlc,
that fmall vtflels might cany their freightage immediately to
the walls of the hitter. This fortrefs being complete, the
royal founder appointed fir William Pickmore, a Gafcon, the
firil governor, who was alfo nominated captain of the town.
The fame perfon (one inllance excepted) was always ap-
pointed to thefe two offices ; and his annual falary was forty
pounds as conllable, and twelve pounds three fliiUings and
four-pence as captain. The callle and town were guarded
by 24 foldiers, at four-pence a day each. Other perfons
had proportionable pay, yet from every man's falary a cer-
tain fum was deduced monthly towards the payment of iti-
nerant preachers and teachers, and for letters and intelli-
gence. The ca(l!e becoming very burtlicnfome to the peo-
ple, occafioncd many contentions between the inhabitants of
the town and thofe of the foitrcfs. Battles fometimes en-
fued. One of them, called the black fray, happened on a
market-day, in the time of Henry VI. and it produced
great flaughter. The hillory of thefe fortrefFes prcfents a
continued feries of opprefTion and irritation ; and it feemed
a grand policy of the Englilh governors to exclude the
WcHh from thofe llrong holds, and their dependent towns,
■which they had wrelted from the fuhjugated Cambrians. By
a rental of the borough property of Beaumaris, taken even
fo late as 1608, there appear onlv fcven Wclfh names, and
one burgage in the tenure of a Wclfhman. The caftle was
given by Hcnryl V.to Percy, earl of Northumberland, for life;
and Richard III. granted the conftablefhip and captainfliip
of the caiHe and town to fir Richard Huddlellone, knight.
From the time of fir Rowland VilleviUc, alias Brittayne, tl;e
reputed bafe fon of Henry VII., and conftable of the caftle,
the garrifon was withdi-awn till 1642, when Tiiomas Chea-
dle, then conllable, repleninicd it with men and ammunition.
It was then held for Charles I. whofe throne was in danger.
The gentlemen of this town and ifland being warm partifans
for the monarchy, determined to oppofe the parliamentary
forces wliich had alfcmblcd at Conway, and had deputed five
commiffiuners to manage their bufinefs. The iflar.ders re-
iufing to furrtndcr on fummoiis, were invaded by about 1500
men, hoi fe and foot, whole fuperior difcipline and courage
fooa routed and co;iquercd the royalifts. On the 2d of
October 1648, the town and caftle furrendcrtd to general
Mytton : colonels Bulkdey and Whitcly were madeprilon-
«rs ; ftnd the inhabitants agre;-d to pay to their conquerors
70C0I. within fourteen days. The caftle is now the property
of the crown. It Hands in the grounds of lord Bulkelcy, at-
tached to the eaft crd of the town, and covers a confiderable
fpace of ground. Thongh partly in ruins, yet its outer walls,
feveral tiiwcrt, and many parts remain, to charafteiife its di-
menfions a-d architertun-. It is fiirioundtd by a foffe, with
ail entrance to the tall between two embattled round and
fqu.re towers. Witliln thcle is tbc principal body of the
caiUe, which is nearly of a fqnarc form, having a round
tower at cacli angle, and inolher ia tku centre of eacU facs.

1

The area !s an irregular oftagon, about 37 yards from nortS
to fouth, and 60 from call to weft. In the middle of the north
fide is the hall, twenty yards long and twelve wide. What
was formerly the porter's lodge is now ufed as the bridewell.
A gallery of comnninication extended round the buildings
of the inner court ; and in dilFerent receifes of this were
fquare holes, which feemed to have opened into dungeons
beneath. The two caftern towers ferved alfo as dungeons,
the defcent to which was dark and narrow. On the caftern
fide of the caftle was a fmall chapel, fome of which remains.

The town of Beaumaris is not very ancie'nt; nor do we find
any particular records of it previous to the ereftion of the caf'
tie, foon after w hieh it afTumed fome confequence, and Edward
I. furrounded it with a wall, made it a corporation, and endow-
ed it with certain privileges. In the 27th of Henry VIII.
Anglefea, with eleven other counties of Wales, were imprl-
viltged and fummoned to fend members to parliament, but
no return was made from this county till the 33d of Henry
VIII. when Newboro'.igh, now ti poor decayed village, fent
one member. Since the 2d of Edward VI. Beaumaris has
been regularly reprefented by one member, and the right of
voting was vefted, in 1729, in a mayor, tv.-o bailiffs, and
twenty-one capital burgefTes. Though this town has not an
extenfive trade, yet it has a cuftom lioufe for the cafual re-
ception of goods, a large town hall with afl'emVjly room, »
free fchool, alms-houfc, and a liandfome church or chapel
with a lofty fquare tower. The free fchool and alms-houfe
were founded by David Hughes ; the firft in 1603, and the
latter in 16 13. Here are a weekly market on Saturday, and
four annual fairs. It is fituated 59 miles W. by N. from Chef-
ter, and 252 N.W.of London. N.lat.53° 14'. W.long.4° 15'..

The Bjy of Beaumaris forms a fine expanfe of water be-
fore the town, and (hips can rid^ fafe at anchor in fix or
feven fathom water, even when the tide is out. From thiS'
to the oppofite ihore at Abcr is a diftance of about fous.
miles, yet the channel at low water does not occupy above
one mile. The remainder is a uniform bed of fand, called
Traeth-Telavan, or the Levan fands. Thefe, the Wellh
fnppofe, were anciently quite free from water, and formed'
a habitable part of Carnarvonftiire ; which Mr. Pennant ad-
mits, and endeavours to prove, by ftiowing that the f^a has
made great encroachments at Abergcley, and tliat feveral
bodies and roots of oak trees have been found in a traft of'
hard loam at a coniiderable diftance from the prefent Ihores..
• About one mile from Beaumaris ftand fome ftiattered re-
mains of Lhnfaes, which Camden called " a famous reli-
gious houfe in limes paft," and belonged " to the friars mi-
nors, unto whom the kings of England fliewed thcmfelvea
very bountiful patrons, as well in regard of the friar's holi-
nefs, as alfo becaufc (that I may fpeak out of the public re^
cords of the kingdom ) were buried a daughter of king John,
a fon of a king of the Danes, the bodies aifo of the lord
Clifford, and other knights and fquires, who in the time of the
noble and renowned '-.ings of England were (lain in the wars
againft the Wel(h." This monaftery, credted by IJcwelvii
ap Jorwerlh, was confecrated, in 1 240, by Howel, bifhop of
Bangor ; and in a few years afterwards burnt in the infi:r-
reftion of Madoc. At the diffolution, Henry VIII. fold
the convent a:.'d its polfeflions to one of his courtiers. The
family of Whyte (now cxtincl) afterwards became poffefTed
of it, and built a refpeiftable houfe, which has fince been
enlarged, modernized, and the grounds much improved. It
is now one of the feats of fir Robert Williams, Bart. Near
this place a fevere battle was fought, in 819, between the
Welih and the Saxons under their leader Egbert, who had
invaded the idand, and given it then, for the firft time, the
name of Anglc-fca. Tlie Saxons at firft proved vidoricus,

but

B E A

B E A

But were ftrongly oppofed by Mcrfyn Fr^'cti, the WelHi
piince, who after fome fevcrc battles expelled the invaders
from this illand.

Two miles north of Friars are t!ie remains of the priory
of Pinmon, confifting of little more than the ruinous refec-
tory and part of the church. This priory for Benediftine
monks was endowed, if not founded, by prince Llewelyn ap
Jorwerth before 1 22 1.

Near Penmon is a av// furronnded with a wall and ftone
feats, having two doors or entrances. Tliis was a facred,
baptifmal, or holy well. About a qnarterof a mile diftant
is an ancient crofs, fix feet high, the fhaft of which is cun-
oufly ornamented with fculpturcd checquered work. At
the diilance of about one mile from the fhore is 7'nis Stiricl,
or Seiriol's iflaiid, now called Prieft-holme. This was once
appendant to the monaftery of Penmon ; and the remains c<f
a fquare tower ftill msrk. its religions appropriation. This
ifland is fometimes called Puffin iiland, from its being much
frequented by birds of that name. From the beginning of
April to the beginning of Auguft, immenfe numbers of thefe
and other fcH-fovvl refort to this fpot. To the well of Prieft-
Iiolme are three fmaller illands, called Ynis Llygod, or the
Ivloufe idards.

In the channel which waters thefe iflands, the large oyfters
called the Penmon are taken by the dredge, and great quan-
tities are pickled, packed in fraail ca&s, and fent to differ-
ent parto of the kuigdom.

Baron-hill, the feat of lord Bulkcley, is finely featcd on
an eminence overlooking the town, callle, &c. The ori-
ginal manfion of this t:imily in Wales was Court maivr,
in Caftle-ftreet, Beaumaris. The prefent manfion was built
by fir Richaid Biilkeley, for prince Henry, foa of James 1.
The houfe has fince been enlarged and greatly improved
by its prefent pofTellor, under the direction of Mr. S. Wyatt.
The grounds of this domain are fmgularlv fim and beautiful,
and the various profpctls of fea, mountain, and fylvan fce-
nery, are highly grand and interefting.

About feven miles fouthwell of Beaumaris is PLis-NeivyilJ
an elegant modern manfion, built in a callcllated ftyle, be-
longing to the earl of Uxbridge. The houfe is large, com-
modious, and handlome, and the ancient woods around it
give it a venerable charafter. Clofc behind the houfe are
two Cromlechs, the largcft of which has been long defig-
nated by the name of " Cromlech of Mona." See Crom-
lech. See an interelling pocin called "Beaumaris Bay," with
notes ; " A Tour round North Wales," by the Rev. W.
Bingley ; and " Mr. Pennant's Tours in North Wales."

BEAU-MASS. See Mass.

BEAUME Cave. See Baume.

BEAUMEILLE, Laurent-Angliviel de la, in
Biovral>hy, a modern Fr^-nch writer, was born in 1727, at
Vallcraugues, in the diocefe of AUais. Plaving been invited
to Denmark to undertake a proftlTorfhip of French Belles
Lettres, he ope-.'ed his courfe bv a " Difcourfe," printed in
1751. But the clmate b.ing too fevere for his conflitution,
he quitted Denmark with a penlion and the title of counfel-
lor. In his return by way of Berlin, he wiihed to form an
acquaintance with Voltaire, of whofe writings he was a paf-
Conate admirer ; but their irritable difpolit'ions produced a
quarrel, which admitted of no reconciliation, and which pro-
duced perfonalities equal'y difreputable to both. On his ar-
rival at Paris, in 1753, ^'^ pubhcation, entitled " Mes Pen-
fees," cauled hiin to be confined in the Baftiie ; and foon
after his liberation he was committed to the fame prifon on
account of his " Memoirs of Maintenon." After his fecond
liberation, he retired into the country ; but in 1772, he was
called back to Paris to occupy the port of king's librarian,

from which death removed him in confequence of a difordcr
of his bread, in November 1773. The principal of hij
works are " A Defence of the Spirit of Laws ;" "Mes Pen-
fees," a fatirical work ; "Mem. of Mad. Maintenon," 6
vols. l2mo. foon followed by 9 voU. of her " Letters ;"
" Letters to M.de Voltaire," 1761, l2mo.i;pon the perufal
of which Voltaire acknowledged, " the ra:eal his a great
deal of wit ;" " Thoughts of Seneca," Latin ziid French ;
and " Commentary on the Henriade," 1775, ^ ^'"^*- ^^°* ^-^
left fome MSS. He is faid to have been of an open and
frank temper, but lially, captious, and addicted to fatire.
Nouv. Did. Hift.

BEAUMENIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Bernay ; 2 leagues S.S.E. of Bemav.

BEAUMETZ-LES-LOGES, a town of Fi-ante, in
the department of the Straits of Calais, and chief place of
a canton, in the diilricl of Arras ; 2 leagues S.W. of Ar-
ras.

BEAUMONT, Elie de, in Biography, was bora at
Charenton, in Normandv, in 1732, and admitted an advocate
in 1732, in which profeffion he did not fucceed for want of
voice. Upon his retirement from the bar, he became a wntcr,
and addrefled a variety of eloquent pieces to the magiflrates
and to the public. His memoir in behalf of the unfortunate
Calas family produced a permanent effeft. This was fucceeded
by many others, no lefs interefting and pathetic. Beaumont's
imagination was lively, but like other perfons of the fame
caft, he was liable to dejeftion. He was lord of Caen, in
Normandy, where he inftituted an interefting feftival, called
" Fete des bons gens," or the good folks' feaft. He died
at Paris, in 1785.

The wife of the preceding, Madame Elie dv Beau-
mont, was born at Caen in 173c, and i, known with repu-
tation by her " Letters of the Marquis de Rofelle," i2mo.
a novel, which exhibits a faithful picture of the manners and
charafters of the courtiers of the day, and of their fvco-
phants and dependants. In fociety (lie was beloved and re-
Ipedled by reafon of the amiablenefs of her difpofition, t!;e
polite eafe of her manners, the fouadnefs of her underftand-
ing, and the extent of her knowledge. She died at Paris in
1783. Nouv. Diet. Hift.

Beaumont, Francis, an eminent dramatic poet, was the
fon of Francis Beaumont, one of the judges of the common
pleas, and born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicellerftiire, an ancient
feat of the fa-tiily, in 15S5 or 1586. He was educated at
CambriJge, and afterwards admitted a ftudent in the Inner
Temple, where his devotion to the Mufes diverted his atten-
tion from the ftudy of the law. Beaumont and Fletcher
were fo intimately conne£ted, and wrote fo much in concert,
that it is difficult at this diftauceof time to afticrnto each his
appropriate part in tlie numerous compolitions, tragic and
comic, which have been publilhed under their common
names. Tradition reports, and probably with truth, that
Beaumont was peculiarly diftinguidied by judgment, which
was commo:ily employed in correfting and retrenching the
fuperfluities of Fletcher's wit. It appears, however, from
an examination of Beaumont's diftincl produftions, and par-
ticularly his little Mafque of the Inner Temple and Gray's
Inn, and alfo a poem entitled the " Hermaphrodite," that
he was by no means dcftitute of poetic imagination and in-
vention, and that his verfilication is elegant and harmonious.
Beaumont was efteemed fo accurate a judge of plays, that
Ben Joiilon, who exprcfied his afFeflionate regard for him
in a copy of verfes, fubmitted all his writings to his cenfure,
and is thought to have availed himfelf of his judgment in
correcting, if not in contriving, all his plots. He died be-
fore

B E A

fore he had attained the age of 30 years, in March, 161 J ;
and left a daiightci, who was in ponelTion of feveral poems
of her father's writings, but they were all loll at fea in a voya;f e
from Ireland, where (he had lived for foinc time in the
duke of Ormond's family. Befidcs tlie plays in vvliith he
was jointly concerned with Mr. Fletcher (for an accomit of
which fee r'LKTCMER), he wrote the dramatic piece above
mentioned, entitled, " A Mnfijnc, S:c." " A Poetical Kpif-
tle to Ben Joiifon," " Verfes to his Friend Mailer John
Fletcher upon his Faithful Shepherdtls," and other poems,
printed together in 165^, Svo. The elder brother of the
preceding, fir John Leaumont, was dillinguilhcd by his
poetical talents, and was the anthor of feveral pieces which
had confiderable merit. A volume of his mifctllaneons
poems was publillied bv his fon in 1629. Gen. Dift. 13iog.
Brit.

Beaumont, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in
the dirtrifl of Pont I'Eveqiie, 6 leagues E.N.E. of Caen.
— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Cote
d'Or, and clilef place of a canton, in the diilrict of Is-fur-
Tille, 16 miles N.E. of Dijon. — Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Channel, and chief phce of a can-
ton, in the dillriit of Clitrburg, 8 miles wed of Clierburg.
— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Pny de
Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Cler-
mont-Ferrand, 2 miles fouth of Clermont. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Seine and Oife, and cliicf
place of a canton, in the dillriol of Pontoife, on the Oife,
33 miles north of ]'aris. — Alfo, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diltricl of Belvez, 3; leagues weft of Ijelve/,. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Sarte, and chief
place of a canton, in the dillrift of I"rcnay-le-Vicomte, 5
leagues N.E. of Le Mans.

Beaumont en Argontu; a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the .A.rdcnMes, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftricl of Sedan, 3^ leagues S.S.E. of Sedan.

TSf-.w: ■sio\T-Les-Forgcs, a town of France, in the depart,
ment of the Nycvre, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
flrid of La Charite, on the Nycvre, 13 miles north of Nevers.

Beaumont on Galinois, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marnc, and chief place of a
canton, in the dillrid of Nemours, 4. leagues S.W. of Ne-
mours.

Beaumont ^i- Loma'^rt, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dillrift of Grenade, 5 leagues NAV, of Grenade.

Beaumont Le Ro^er, a town of France, in the deixut-
meut of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ftricfi of Bcrnay, 25 leagues eaft of Bernay. N. lat. 49^ 5'.
E. long. 0° 41'.

Beaumont fur Vejle, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ftrict of Reims, feated on the Vefle, 8 miles S.E. of Keinis.

BEAUNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayncand Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dillriil
of Bange, 3 leagues call of Angers, and 3 weft of Bauge.
— Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a dillridt,
in the department of the Cote d'Or, 7 leagues fouth of
Dijon. N. lat. 47°. E. long. 4" 50'. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Loiret, and chief place
of a canton, in the dillrict of Bois-Commun, I league nortii
of Bois-Commun.

BEAU-PLEADER, or Bew-Pleadfr, in Law, a
•writ on the ftatuteof Marlbridge, 52 Hen. IIL c. 11. where-
by it is provided, that no fine Ihall be taken of any man in

B E A

any court \ot fan-plcLul'mg, i. e. for not pleading aptly and to
the purpofe. And beau-pleader is as well in refpeft of vi-
cious pleadings, as of the fair-pleading, by way of amend-
ment. 2 lull. 122.

BE.\UPRE', in Geography, an idand in the Pacific
ocean, fo called after the name of Beaupre, engineer-geo-
grapher to the expedition fitted out for fearch of La Peroufe,
lying welt of the New Hcbride;-., in S. lat. 20° 14', E. long,
ifii ~' 27'. It is very low, and about 1500 toifes long.

BEAUPREAU, a town of France, in the depaitment,
of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift of St. Florent, 3 leagues S. of St. Florent.

BEAUQJLJESNE, a town of France, in the department
of the Soninie, and chief place of a canton, in the dill rift of
Doulens, 2 leagues S.E. of Donlens.

BEAUREGARD, a town of France, in tlie depart-
ment of the Dordogne, 4 leagues fouth of Pcrigueux. —
Alfo, a tov.'n of France, in the department of Pny de Dome,
3 leagues eall of Clermont-Fenand. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the depnnment of Lot, 5 leagues E.S.E. of
Cahors.

BE.VUREPAIR, a town of France, in the department
of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillricl of Louhans, 2 1 leagues eaft of Louhans.

BEAUREPAI'RE"', a town of Fiance, in the depart-
ment of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
lliift of Vienne, 3 leagues S.E. of Vienne.

BEAITRIEUX, a town of France, in the department
of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in t!ie dilhicl of
Lacm, 3j leagues N.W. of Reims.

BEAUSdi^RE, Isaac de, in Biography, a learned
French Calvinill miniller, was born at Niort in Swifferland,
in 1659, and dcfcended from a family of Provence, origi-
nally named Boffart, and changed into Beanfobrc on their
retreat into Sv.'ifferland from the maflacre ot St. liartho-
lomew's. H.-.ving completed his education at the protellant
college of Saumur, he declined the profeflion of the law, in
which he was tempted to engage by flattering prnfpefts,
and determined to devote himfelt to the Chriilian niiiiiflry.
Accordingly he was ordained at the age of 22 years, and
ferved a church in France lor 3 or 4 years ; but when his
pi ice of worfhip was (hut up, his zeal prompted him to
break the king's feal, which v>'as affixed to the doors ; and
on this account being condemned to an " amende honora-
ble," he left his country, and took refuge in Holland.
Under the patronage of the princefs of Orange, he was ap-
pointed chaplain to her daughter, the princefs of Anhalt
Defliin ; and in 16S6, fettled at Deffau, where he had lei-
furc to piolecute his iludies. In 1693, he pnblifiicd the
firll refnlt of his theological acquifitions, under the title of
" A Defence of the Reformsd," which was very favourably
received by his partv. In 1^)94, he obtained a very advan-
t.igeons fetlleineni among the French refugees at Berlin,
wliich was the place of his refideiice for the remainder of his
life. Here he lultaincd feveral offices of dil^inftioii among
his brethren, and dilcharged the duties connefted with them
in a manner honourable to himfelf and fatisfaftory to them.
At the fame time he was affiducnis in his application to his
iludies, and thus acquired that extenfive erudition, for which
he was fo eminent. Tne firft work which he undertook,
and which occupied many years of his lift, was " A Hiftory
of the Reformation." This work, which he left in manu-
fcript for the pref':, was publilhed at Berlin in 2 vols, large
8vo. in 1784, 1785, under the title of " Hilloire de la Re-
formation, on Origin ct Progres du Lutheranifme dans P
I'impire, 6lc." i. e. A Hillory of the Reformation, or an
Account of the Origin and Progrefs of Lutheranifm in the
8 Empire,

B E A

B E A

Empire, and in the States where the Confeflion of A'jufhurg
was received, from the year 1517 to 1530. AUhough the
origin and progrefs of L'itheranifm be t!ie principal objects
of this work, in the difciiflion of wliich the author has
availed himfelf of the materials contained in the excellent
hiftory of Seckendorff, it contains alfo details and illuftra-
tions of feveral politico-eccleliallical tranfaftions, that are
not to be found in Seckendorff, or in anv other writer known
to us. It alfo comprehends very curious and ample details re-
lative to the progrefs of the reformation in France and Swif-
ferland, and the characters, learning, and writing; of thofe
who Hood foremoft in maintaining or oppofing the doftrines
and remonftrances of the reformers. Bea\ilobre was alfo
employed with his colleague the learned I' Enfant by the
court of Berlin in a French verfion of the New Tcftament.
Tliis work, of which St. Paul's epilUes fell to the ihare of
Beaufobre, was publifhed in 1718, in 2 vols. 410. with an
ample preface and notes, and was well received. Beaufobre
was one of the principal members of the new fociety, deno-
minated " Anonymous," and contributed leveral pieces to
the " Bibliotheque Germanique," of which journal he was
the direAor as long as he lived. His papers are " A Dif-
fertation on the Adamites of Bohemia ;" " A Difiertation
on the ftatue of Paneades ;" " On the Virgin Queen of Po-
land ;" and " Converfations on Images." But the moll elabo-
rate and efteemed of his works is his " Hillory of Mani-
cheans and of Manichcifm," in 2 vols. 4I0. French ; the firrt,
publifhed at Amderdam, in 1734, and the fccond, after his
death, in 1 739, to which is annexed a pollhumous differtation
fur les Nazarenes, Laufanne, 1745. '^'^ '^^ charafter of
this work, very generally applauded by the learned for the
extent of its erudition and the fingularity of its candour,
■ we fhall fubjoin the following teftimonies. The celebrated
hiftorian Gibbon fays of it (Hift. Decl. &c. vol. viii. p. 260,
note) : " This is a treafure of ancient philofophy and the-
ology. The learned hitlorian fpins with incomparable art
the fyftemstic thread of opinijn, and transforms himlelf by
turns into the perfon of a faint, a fage. or an heretic. Yet
his refinement 13 fometimes excellive : he betrays an amiable
partiality in favour of the weaker fide, and while he guards
ag:\in(l calumny, he does not allow Infficicnt fcope for fnper-
ftiti 111 and fanaticilm." The candid and impartial Lardner
(\\'orks, vol. iii. p-539.)> after acknowledging his obliga-
tioi .s to Beaufobre, from whom however he occafionally
differs, fays of this work, that " it contains not only a la-
boured hillor>' of the Manichees, but likewife ievcral enter-
taining and ufeful digrcffions concerning the opinions of the
heatheti philofophers, and the moll early Chrillian fecls ;"
and he clofes v.ith exprefFnig a wilh, " that fome learned
man might have iuflicient leifure and encouragement to give
us a handfome edition of it in Englilh." " As for me,"
fays Beaufobre himfelf (Hifl. Man. t. ii. p. 730.) " whom
heaven has preferved from the fpiiit of the church, who
knew no greater good than freedom of thought, nor any
more delightful employment than the fearch of truth, nor
rn-enter pleafure than that of finding and fpeaking it, I have
iludicd ecclefiailical hiilory with as little prejudice as pof-
fible."

In the compcfition of his fermons, Beaufobre employed
much time and care, and they contained much original matter,
moral and theological, and a fund of the molt itriking ora-
tory. His talents for preaching, and his powers for conveifa-
tion, continued unimpaired to his fcventy-ninth year. He was
eminently a polilhed fcholar, and adorned a perfon, natu-
rally agreeable and prepoffefling, with all the acquired graces
of good company. The qualities of his heart were no lefs
diftinguifhed than the faculties of his underltandiiig. He

was kind, generous, chearful, and difinteredcd, always ready
to perform adls of friendHiip, and dctelling ever)* degree of
malevolence and flandcr. He enjoyed life without interrup-
tion from the weaknefl'cs of advanced age to his 80th year,
and died on June 5th, 1738. Beaufobre was twice mamed,
and left children by both wives, of whom Chailcs Lewis
was pallor of a church in Berlin, and made himfelf known
by fonie learned works ; and Leopold was colonel of a regi-
ment in the Ruffian ftr.ice. Four volumes of pollhumous
fermons were r.-intcd at Laufanne, in 1755. Mem. fur la
Vic, &c. de Beaufobre, prefixed to the fecond volume of his
Hill, du Maniclieifni.

BEAUSSET, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the \'ar, and chief place of a canton, in
the di'.hict of Toulon, 7 miles N. W. of Toulon.

BEAUTY, in a general and popular fenfe, denotes that
quality, oraffemblage and union of qualities in the objefts of
our perception, vihether they be material, intciledtual, or
moral, which we contem.plate with emotions of complacence
and pleafure ; and it is referred by many writers to a prin-
ciple or faculty, called by feme an " internal fenfe," and
by others " talte." (See thefe articles.) In a more flricl
and philofophical fenfe, beauty may denote that fentiment
or feeling which is excited in the mind by objefts of percep-
tion, that are adapted to infpire love, or fdme fimilar paiuon,
or to give pleafure.

The word Beauty, according to Dr. Hutchefon, (En-
quiry concerning Beauty, Sec. p. 7.) fignifies the idea raifed
in us ; and a fenfe of beauty denotes our power of receiving
this idea, which he denominates an internal fenfe. This
in-jeiiious writer confiders beauty as original or abfolute, and
comparative or relative. By the former, however, he doe»
not underftand any quahty fuppofed to exifl in the object,
which fiiould of itfelf be beautiful, without relation to anr
mind which perceives it ; for beauty, he fays, hke other
names of fenhble ideas, properly denotes the perception of
fome mind ; and, therefore, by abfolute beauty he means
only that beauty which we perceive in objects without com-
pariioii to any thing external, of which the objeft is fup-
pofed to be an imitation or picture ; fuch as that beauty per-
ceived from the works of nature, artificial form?, figures, and
theorems. Whereas comparative or relative beauty is that
which we perceive in objects, commonly confidcred as imi-
tations or refemblances of fomething elfe. The general
fource of our ideas of beauty, according to this writer, is
uniformity amidft variety ; and what we call beautiful in ob-
jefls feems to be in a compound ratio of uniformity and va-
riety, fo that where the uniformity of bodies is equal, the
beauty is as the variety, and vice verfa. This pofition he
illuflrates by a number of examples deduced from different
figures, from the works of nature, fiom the inward flruflurc
and outward form of animals, and the proportion of their
parts to each other, from the harmony of found, from theo-
rems or univerfal truths, and from the works of art. Rela-
tive beauty is founded, as he conceives, on a conformity, or a
kind of unity between the original and the copy; and for
obtaining this fort of beauty it is not neceffary that there
fliould be any beauty in the original ; for an exatt imitation
may flill be beautiful, though the original is altogether def-
tltute of beauty. A fenfe of beauty from uniformity amidft
variety is, in his opinion, univerfally prevalent among man-
kmd ; and for the truth of the facfl, he appeals to experience.
The fame ingenious writer deduces all our ideas of virtue
from an implanted fenfe, called " Moral fenfe ;" (which fee) ;
and he defcnbcs moral good and evil by the effects accom-
panying the perception of them.

Dr. Price, in his inquiry into the origin of our ideas of

beauty

B E A

bcriuty and d^rorniitv of a£\ions, '(rce " Revi-cw of ths prln-
c-ipal Qiicllions in Moral?," ch. i. and ii.) diilingiiilhts be-
tween mir perception of right and wrong, and our percep-
tion of beauty and deformity, in confidering the aftioi;s of
moral agents. He obftrves that, in contemplating fuch ac-
tions, we !nvc both a perception of tlie nnJcrftanding and a
feeling of the I'.cart ; and lliat the latter, or th.e cffeils in us
accompanying our moral perce;:tions, depend on two caufes;
partly on the politivc conlUtution of our natures, but princi-
pillv on tlie elTcnlial congruity or incongruity between iro-
ral ideas and our inttlleCfUial faculties. " Placet fuapte na-
tun-virtni," Seneca. " Etiamfi a nuUo laudelur, natura
«-ll laudabile." Tnlly. He apprelienda, that the abovj-men-
tioned author was led to derive all our ideas of virtue from an
i:nplanted fcnfe, in confeqnence of not duly coni:dcring the
difference between the " hoiielhim," and " pulehrum," the
" -%v.«i-.v," and " xaX«," of aclions ; or of not carefully dif-
tinifuifliing between the difcernment of the mind and ih.e
fcniations attending it in cur moral perceptions. With him
the yd^/it-.uL- cf an aAion is the fan-.e with \\.i, gratefitlncfs to
the obfcrver ; and wrong, the contrary. ' But what, fays
this writer, cnn be more evident, than tiiat right and plcafure,
tvrong and piuti, are as diiTerent as a caiife and its ef'ed ;
what is tindnjlo il and what is felt; ahfoh.itf truth, and its
c?rifallnejs to the mind. Mr. Balguy indeed (fee his
"Trails on the Foundation of Moral Goodnefs, p. 6i.")
ir, of opinion, that all beauty, whether natural or m.oral, is
a fpecies of abfolute truth ; as refuking frc:n, or confiding
in, tlie nccefl'ary relations and congruities of ideas. As to
rioral benutv, fays Dr. Price, one would think, that the
author iull cited mnll mean, though his meaning is not very
intelligible, that it denotes a real quality of certain aflionj.
But the word b.auty feems always to refer to the reception
of pleafure ; and therefore the beauty of an action, or cha-
racter, mull fignify its being fuch as pleafes us, or having an
aptnefs to pleale when perceived. Nor can it be jufl to con-
ceive more in the aftion itfelf, or to affirm more of it, than
this nplnrfs, or that objeflive goodnefs or reftitude on which
it depends. Beauty and lovclinefs arc fynur.ymous ; but an
oh]t.&. JiI/'-/ovf/y can only mean an object, by its nature, fitted
to en:;age lo^.-. It may be added, that the epithets beauti-
ful and amiable are, in Cv)mmon language, confined to adlions
and characters that plcafe us highly, from the peculiar de-
gree of moral worth and beauty apprehended in them. All
virtuous actions mull be pleafing: to an intelligent obferver ;
but they do not all pleafe to tiie degree neceifary to entide
them to ihefe epithets, as they are generally applied. Thefe
obfervations are applicable, as Dr. Price thinks, with a little
variation, to natural beauty ; the general fcnle of which, ac-
ccrdinsr to Dr. Hutchefon, is uniformity aniidfl variety.
if we alk, why this pleafes .' The proper anfvver is, that by
its nature it is adapted to pleafe. Tliere feems, as Dr. P.
obferves, no more occafion in this cafe to have recouifeto an
iniplant;.d f;;iile than in the former. Regular objtdls contri-
bute towards produeiuf,' the complacency of our minds, and
the preference we give thtm, beeaufe they are more ealily
viewed and con:iprehended by the mind ; beeaufe order and
fymmetry give objefts their liability and ftrength, and fub-
ferviency to any valuable purpole ; and beeaufe regularity
and order evidence art and dcfign. Brutes are incapable of
the pleafures of beauty, beeaufe they proceed from a com-
pai ifon of objects, and a difcernment of analogy, defign, and
proportion, to which their faculties do not reach.

To Dr. Hutchefon's theory of beauty, which afcribes it
to uniformity amidll variety, it has been objected, that,
though it accounts in a fatisfaClory manner for the beauty of
niany fijurtf, yet when we endeavour to apply this principle

B E A

to beautiful objcfls of fome other kind, as to colour or
motion, it will be found irrelative. And even in external
figured objeifls, it is not juft, that their beauty is in propor-
tion to their mi.-.ture of variety with uniforn ity, as many
are highly beautiful and pleafe us much, which have no va-
riety at all, and ethers which pofTefs variety to a degree of
intiieacy. With refpeiSl to the opinion, that natural beauty
is a real qualitv of objects, it may be cbferved, that it feems
impofiible for any one to conceive the objects themfclves to
poff.fs more than a particular order of parts, and certain
powers, or an aflinity to our perceptive faculties, thence
arifing ; and if we call this beauty, then it is an abfolnte
inherent quality of certain objedls, and equally exifting,
whether our mind difccrns it or not. However, order and
rjgularity are, more properiv, the caufes of beauty than
bLa':ty itielf.

Beauty, fays anoth.er ingcniotis writer, (fee Reid's Effay
on the Intelleftiia! Powers of Man, ch. iv.) is found in thinus
fo various and fo very different in nature, that it is difficult
to fay, wherein it confills, or what can be common to all
tilt obj-'Cls in which it is foi;nd. Of the objtfts of fenfc
we find beauty in colour, in faund, in form, in motion.
There are beauties of fpcech, and beauties of thought ;
beauties in the arts, and in the fcicnces ; beauties in acliions,
in affections, and in charadlers. In things fo different, and fo
unlike, is there any quality, the fame in all, which we may
call by the name ol beauty ? Why then fliould things fo
diiTercnt be called by the fame name ? Tiiey pleafe, and
are denominated beautiful, not in virtue of any one quality
common to them all, buf by means of feveral difTcreiit prin-
ciples in human nature. The agreeable emotion, excited
by them, and called beauty, is produced by different caufes.
However, though tliere be nothing common in the things
themfelves, yet the kinds of beauty, which feem to be as
various as the objects to which it is afcribed, mull have fome
co;:-!mon relation to us, or to fomethuig elfe, which leads us
to give them the fame name. All the objedls we call beau-
tiful, agree in two things, which (eem to concur in our
fenfe of beauty. Firft, when they are perceived, or even
imagined, they produce a certain agreeable emotion or feeling
in the mind ; and, fecondly, this agreeable emotion is ac-
companied with an opinion or belief of their having fome
perfection or excellence belonging to them. Whether the
pleafu-'e we feel in contemplating beautiful objedls may have
any neceffary conneftion with the belief of their excellence,
or whether that pleafure be conjoined with thi-- belief, merely
by the good pleafufe of our Maker, Dr. Rcid does not de-
termine. BeautiUil objtCls excite an emotion of a foothing
and enlivening kind, that fweetens the temper, allays angry
paflions, and promotes every benevolent affection, and dif-
pofes to other agreeable emotions, fuch as thofe of love,
hope, and joy. " There is nothing," fays Mr. Addifon,
" that makes its way more direftly to the foul than beauty,
which immediately diffufes a fecret fatisfa£lion and com-
placence through the im;^gination, and gives a finifliing to
any thing that is great and uncommon. The very firft dif-
covery of it (Irikts the mind with an inward joy, and fpreads
a chearfulnefs and delight through all its faculties." This
agreeable emotion, produced by beautiful objefls, is accom-
panied with an opinion or judgment of fome perfeftion or
excellence of thofe objeCls, adapted by its nature !or pro
ducing that emotion ; and this, according to Dr. Ileid, is a
fecond ingredient in our fenfc of beauty. To ailert, fays
this writer, that there is in reality no beauty in thofe ohjedls,
in wiiich all men perceive beauty, is to attribute to man fal-
lacious fenfes ; and thus to think difrefpett fully of the An-
thor of our being ; who has diffufed over all the works of

nature

B E A

B E A

nature a profufion of beauties, which ar« lieal, and not fan-
ciful, and thoufaiiJs of which our faculties are too dull to
perceive. This author diftinguiflies our d<;termination,i with
regard to the beauty of objefts into two kinds, viz. inftinc-
tive and rational. In the former cafe, objefts ilrike us at
once, and appear beautiful at firll fight, without any reflec-
tion, and without our being able to fay why we call them
beautiful, or being able to fpecify any perfcclion which
jullifies our judgment. Whereas our rationaljudgment of
l)eauty is grounded on fome agreeable quality ot the objedl,
which is dillinclly conceived, and may be Ipccilied. Beauty
itfelf may be dillinguiflied into original, and derived. It is
natural and agreeable to the drain of human fentiments and
of human language, fays Dr. Reid, that in many cafes the
beauty which originally and properly exills in the things
fignified, fliould be transferred to the fign ; that which is in
the caufe to the efFeft ; that which is in the end to the
means ; and that which is in the agent to the inftrument.
E. G. The beauty of good breeding is not originally in the
external behaviour in which it conlifts ; it is derived from
the quahtics of mind, which it expreffes; and though there
may be good breeding without the amiable qualities of mind,
its beauty is ilill derived from what it naturally exprcfles.
Good breeding is the pifturc ; thefe agreeable qualities are
the original ; and it is the beauty of the original that is re-
fiefted to oiu- fenfes by the piflure.

As to the ufe of the term beauty, fome have extended it
fo as to include every thing that pleafes a good tafte ; and
others have reftrifted it to the objefts of fight, when they
are either feen, remembered, or imagined. But the latter
fenfe is much too limited, as there are beauties of various
kinds, that are not objefts of fight, fnch as thofe of mufic,
compofition, charafler, afFeclions, and aftions ; and as per-
fons may be competent judges of feveral forts of beauty, who
are deprived of the faculty of fight. It may be obfervcd,
that as the proper objeft of admiration is grandeur, beauty
is the proper objedl of love and efteem : and this conneftiou
of beauty with real perfcftion was a capital doctrine of the
Socratic fchool. It is often afcribed to Socrates in the dia-
logues of Plato and of Xenophon. We may, therefore, jullly
afcribe beauty to thofe qualities that are the natural objefts
of love and kind affeflion : of this kind are thofe moral vir-
tues, which in a peculiar manner conftitute a lovely charafler,
fuch as innocence, gentlenefs, condefcenfion, humanity, na-
tural affeftion, public fpirit, and the whole train of the foft
and gentle virtues : qualities w hich are amiable from their
very nature, and on account of their intrinfic worth. There
are alfo many intelleftual talents, which excite our love and
efteem of thofe whopoflefs them, fuch are knowledge, good
fenfe, wit, humour, chearfulnefs, good tafte, excellence in
any of the fine arts, eloquence in dramatic aftion, and alio
excellence in every art of peace or war that it ufeful to fo-
ciety. There are likewife talents oraccompliQiments, which
we refer to the body, that have an original beauty and come-
linefs ; fuch as health, ftrengtli, and agility, the ufual at-
tendants of youtli, fl<ill in bodily exercife, and llcill in the me-
chanic arts. Dr. Reid is of opinion, that beauty originally
dwells in the moral and intelleftual perfeftions of mind, and
in its aftive powers, and that from this, as the fountain, all
the beauty which we perceive in the vifible world is derived.
This was the opinion of the ancient philolophers above
named ; and it has been adopted by lord Shaftfbury and Dr.
Akenfide among the moderns.

" Mind, mind alone! bear witncfs earth and heav'n,
The living fountains in itftlf contains
Of beauteous and fublime. Here, hand in hand,
Sit paramount the graces. Here, enthren'd,

Vol. IV.

Celeftial Venus, with divineft airs,
InvitcB the foul to never- failing joy." Akenside.

But neither mind, nor any one of its qualities or powers, is
an immediate objeft of perception to man. Thefe are per-
ceived through the medium of material objefts, on which
their fignaturcs are impreffcd. The figns of thefe qualities
are immediately perceived by the fenfes, and by them re-
fleftcd to the undcrftanding : and we are apt to attribute to
the fign tlie beauty whicti is properly and originally in the
thing fignified. Thus, the Invifible Creator hath (lamped
on his works fignaturcs of his divine wifdom, power, and be-
nignity, which are vifible to all men. The works of men in
fcicnce, in the arts of tafte, and in the mechanical arts, bear
the fignaturcs of thofe qualities of mind, which were em-
ployed in their produftion. Their external behaviour or
conduft in life expreffes the good or bad qualities of their
minds. In every fpecies of animals we perceive by vifible
figns their inftinfts, appetites, afFeflions, or fagacity ; and
even in the inanimate world, there are many things analo-
gous to the qualities of mind ; fo that there is hardly any
thing belonging to mind, which may not be reprefented by
images taken from the objefts of fenfe ; and, on the other
hand, every objeft of fenfe is beautiful, by borrowing attire
from attributes of the mind. Thus, the beauties of mind,
though invifible in themfelves, are perceived in the objefts of
fenfe, on which their beauty is impreffed. Thus alfo, in
thofe qualities of fenfible objefts to which we afcribe beauty,
we difcover in them fome relation to mind, and the greateft
in thofe that are moft beautiful. The qualities of inanimate
matter, in which we perceive beauty, are iound, colour, form,
and motion. The firft being an objeft of hearing ; and the
other three of fight. Thefe feveral qualities are particularly
illuftrated by Dr. Reid, with a view of evincing the beauty
that refpeftively belongs to them. Every beauty in the
vegetable creation, of which we form any rational judgment,
expreffes fome perfeftion in the objeft, or fome wife contriv-
ance in the author. In the animal kingdom we perceive i"u-
perior beauties, refulting from life, lenfe, aftivity, various
inftinfts and affeftions, and in many cafes, great fagacity ;
which are attributes of mind, and pofiefs an original beauty.
In their manner of life we obferve, that they poffefs powers,
outward form, and inward ftrufture, exaftly adapted to it;
and the more perfeftly any individual is fitted for its end and
manner of life, the greater is its beauty. But of all the ob-
jefts of fenfe, the moft ftriking and attraftive beauty is per-
ceived in the human fpecies, and particularly in the fairfex.
In the following well known paffage of Milton, this great
poet derives the beauty of the firft pair in paradife from thofe
cxpreffions of moral andintelleftual qualities, which appeared
in their outward form and demeanour.

" Two of far nobler fhape, ereft and tall.
Godlike ereft ! with native honour clad.
In naked majefty, feem'd lords of all,
And worthy feem'd, for in their looks divine.
The image of their glorious Maker, (hone
Truth, wifdom, fanftitude fevere, and pure :
Severe, but in true filial freedom plac'd,
W^hence true authority in man ; though both
Not equal, as their fex not equal feem'd,
For contemplation he, and valour form'd.
For foftnefs fhe, and fweet attraftive grace."
The author of " Crito," or " a Dialogue on Beauty,"
confidered in its reference to the human fpecies, and particu-
larly to the female fex, afcribed to the author of " Polyme-
tis," and re-publifhed by Dodfley, in his coUeftion of " Fu-
gative Pieces," reduces this fpecies of beauty to the four
heads of colour, form, expreflion, and grace : the t\yo former

L of

B E A

B E A

of which may be called the body, and the two latter, the
foul of beauty. As for the beauty of colour, if we allow
for affociations and prepolTeflions arifing from difference of
climate and peculiarity of conftitution, that have great in-
fluence on the internal fenfc, as well as on thofc fenfes that
are external, and confequently on the judgment, it feems to
depend, according to the common eftimate of mankind, on
that quality, as it expred'es perfect health and llvelinefs, and
in the fair fcx, foftnefs and delicacy ; nor can any thing be
called dcfor.T.ity but what indicates difeafe and decline.
Tlie beauty of colour, therefore, is derived from the perfec-
tion which it expreffes. " Venuftas et pulchritudo corporis
fccerni non poteil a valetudine." Cicero. The moil beauti-
- iuiform or proportion of parts, according to this author, is
that which indicates delicacy and foftnefs in the fair fcx ;
and in the male, either llrengthoragihty ; fo that the beau-
ty of form lies altogether in expreflion. With regard to ex-
frejjion, he obfcrves, that tliis has greater power than either
colour or form ; and that it is only the exprelHon of the
tender and kind pafiions that gives beauty ; that all the
cruel and unkind ones add to deformity ; and that, on their
account, good nature may very properly be faid to be the
bell feature, even in the finell face. Modelly, fenfibility,
and fweetnefs, blended together, fo as either to enhven or
correal each other, give almoll as much attratlion as the
paflions are capable of adding to a very pretty face. It is
owing to this force of pleafingnefs, which attends all the
kinder pafTions, fays this author, that lovers not only feem,
but really are, more beautiful to each other than to the reft
of the world ; and in their mutual prefence and intercourfc
there is, as a French writer has well expreded it, a foul upon
their countenances, which does not appear when they are
abfent from one another, or even in company that lays a
rcllraint upon their features. The laft and nobleft part of
beauty is grace, which this author thinks to be incapable of
an accurate definition (fee Gr.ice.) All the ingredients
of beauty, enumerated and defcribed bv this ingenious au-
thor, terminate in expreflion : they exprefs either fome per-
tedlion of the body, as a part of the man, and an inilrument
of the mind, or fome amiable quality or attribute of the
mind itielf.

Dr. Blair (Leftures vol. i. p. loi, &c.), in his enume-
ration of the feparate principles of beauty, in each of
thofe clalTcs of objefts, which mod remarkably exhibit
it, begins with colour, as affording the limpleft inftance
of beauty. With refpedl to this he obferves, that neither
variety, nor uniformity, nor any other principle which he
knows, can be afligned as the foundation of beauty ; and
that it can be referred to no other caufe but the ftrufture of
the eye, which determines us to receive certain modifications
of the rays of light with more pleafure than others. As this
organ varies in dilfercnt perfons, they have their different re-
fpeftive favourite colours. In feme cafes, he thinks it pro-
bable, that afTociation of ideas has influence on the pleafure
which we receive from colour. Green, for inftance, may
appear more beautiful, by being conneftcd in our ideas with
rurtd profpeils and fcenes ; white, with innocence; blue, with
the fercnity of the fky. Independently of fuch affociations,
thofe colours, chofen for beauty, are, generally, delicate
rather than glaring. Figure opens to us forms of beauty
more complex and divcrfified. Under this head, regula-
rity is firft noticed as a fource of beauty. Thus a circle, a
Jquare, a triangle, or a hexagon, pleafe the eye, by their
regularity, as beautiful figures. But regularity is not the
fole, or the chief foundation of beauty in figure. On the
contrary, a certain graceful variety is found to be a much
Hio.-e powerful principle of beauty. Regularity, according

to this autl-.or, exprefTes beauty chiefly, if not folely, on ac-
count of its fuggcfting the idea of litnefs, propriety, and
ufe, which have always a greater conneftion with orderly and
proportioned forms, than with thofe which appear not con-
flruded according to any certain rule. Nature, the moft
graceful artift, hath, in all her ornamental works, purfued
variety witii an apparent negle(El of regularity, ^ir. Ho-
garth, in his " Analyfis of Beauty," publiflied about the
year 1753, enumerates, ^* elements of beauty,^/H^r, variety,
uniformity, fmplicity, intricacy, and quantity ; and he obferves,
that figures bounded by curve lines are, in general, more
beautiful than thofe bounded by ftraight lines and angles.
The beauty of figure principally depends, in his opinion,
upon two lines which he has feledled. One of them is the
" waving line," fomewhat in the form of the letter S : and
this he calls the " line of beauty," which is found in fhells,
flowers, and fuch other ornamental works of nature, and is
alfo common in the figures dcfigned by painters and fculp-
tors, for the purpofe of decoration. Tlie other line, which
he calls the " line of grace," is the former waving curve,
twifted round fome folid body, a:id exhiliited in twifted
pillars and twilled horns, and in the curling worm of a com-
mon jack. Variety plainly appears, in the inftanccs which
he mentions, to be fo material a principle of beauty, that
he defines the art of drawing pleafing forms to be the art of
varying well ; and, according to him, the curve line, which
is fo much the favourite of painters, derives its chief advan-
tage from its perpetual bending and variation from the ftiff
regularity of the ftraight line. Motion, fays Dr. Blair, fur-
nilhes another fource of beauty, diftintt from figure ; being of
itfelf pleafing, fo that bodies in motion are, " cajteris pari-
bus," preferred to thofe at reft. But the quality of beau-
tiful belongs to gentle motion, fuch as that of a bird gliding
through the air, and that of a imooth running ilream. In ge-
neral, motion in a ftraight line is lefs beautiful than that in an
undulating direClion ; and motion upwards is aifo commonly
more agreeable than motion downwards. The eafy curling
motion of flame and fmoI»e is an objeft fingularly pleafing,
and exhibits an inftance of Mr. Hogarth's waving line of
beauty. This artift obferves, that, as all the common and
necetfary motions for the bufinefs of life are performed in
ftraight or plain lines, all the graceful and ornamental move-
ments are made in waving lines. Dr. Beattie, in his " Dif-
fertations Moral and Critical," has introduced, in his digref-
iion on beauty, fome ingenious remarks on this fubjeft..
After obferving that cuftom has a perpetual influence in de-
termining our notions of beauty, he proceeds to prove, that
from aftociations founded on habit, many, or perhaps moft
of thofe pleafing emotions are derived, wliich accompany the
perception of what in things vifihle is called beauty. With
regard to the beauty or aukwardnefs of motion, he obferves,
that the one will be found to pleafe, and the other to dif-
pleafe, chiefly on account of certain' agreeable ideas fuijgeft-
ed by the former, and of certain dilagteeable ones affociated
with the latter. Motions, that imply eafe, whh fuch an
arrangement and proportion of parts in the moving objeCl, as
may give rcafon to expedl its continuance without injury,
are generally pleafing, at leaft in animals, efpecially whcEi
they betoken a fort of perfeftion fuited to the nature of the
animal. But motions, that betray infirmity, unwieldinefs,
imperfeftion, or the appearance of danger, cannot be called
beautiful, becaufe they convey unpleafing ideas. Thcfe ob-
fervations are illuft rated by a variety of appofite inilances. Ci^
cero (de Off. 1. i. § 36.) blames every motion that alters the
countenance, quickens the breath, or betrays any difcompo-
fure. Rouffeau obferves, tliat in running, a woman is delli-
tute of that grace which attends her on other occafions.

Perhpfs,

B E A

B E A

Perhaps, fays Beattie, the jutting out of her elbows, tlie
natural efTeA of lier endeavouring with lifted hands to ftcure
the molt delicate part of the human frame, may give to her
motion the appearance of timidity and conftraint. Or, per-
haps, (he may fail in this exercife, merely becaufe, according
to our manners, Cat cannot be much accuftomcd to it. See
Dancing.

It is not eafy to convey, in fo few words, fo many charm-
ing ideas of beauty, in its feveral vanetits of colour, fliape,
attitude, and motion, as Gray has combined in the follou'-
ing image:

" Slow melting {trains their queen's approach declare;
Where'er fhe turns the graces homage pay :
With arms fublime that float upon the air.
In gliding (late (lie wins her eafy way :
O'er her warm check, and rifing bofom move
The bloo-m of young defire, and purple light of love."
But to return from this digreffion. Dr. Bklr obferves, that
though colour, figure, and motion, be feparate principles of
beauty; yet in many beautiful objefts they all meet, and render
the beauty both greater, and more complex. Thus, in flowers,
trees, animals, we are entertained at once with the delicacy of
the colour, with the gracefulnefs of figure, and fometimes
alfo with the motion of the objeft. Perhaps, the moft com-
plete afltmblage of beautiful objefts is prefented by a rich
natural landfcape, compofed of a fufReient variety of objc-fts;
tields in verdure, fcattcred trees and flowers, running water,
animals grazing ; to which may be added fome produftions
of art, which fuit fnch a fcene, as a bridge with arches over
a river, fmoke rifing from cottages in the midft of trees, and
the diftant view of a fine building, feen bv the rifing fun.

The beauty of the human countenance is more complex
than any which has yet been confidered. It includes the
beauty of colour, arifing from the delicate fhades of the com-
plexion ; and the beauty of figure, arifing from the lines
which form the different features of the face. But its chief
beauty depends upon a myfterious expreffion which it con-
veys of the qualities of the mind ; of good fenfe, or good
humour ; of Iprightlinefs, candour, benevolence, fcnfibility, or
other amiable difpofitions.

Another diftinft fpecies of beauty arifes from defign or
art, or from the perception of means being adapted to an
end ; or the parts of any thing being well fitted to anfwer
the defign of the whole. This is altogether different from
the perception of beauty produced by colour, figure, variety,
or any of the caufes already mentioned. This fenfe of beauty
in fitnefs and delign, has an extenfive influence over many
of our ideas. It is the foundation of the beauty which we
difcover in the proportion of doors, window5, arches, pillars,
and all the orders of architecture. We Ihall here obfcrve,
that Mr. Perrault dillinguifhes two kinds of beauty in archi-
tefture. The one he calls " pofitive," and " convincing,"
fuch as the richnefs of the materials, grandeur of the flruc-
ture, neatnefs of the workmanfhip, fymmetry, Sec; the other
he calls " arbitrary," which depends on the will, and which
would admit of having their proportions changed without
deformity. Thefe only pleafe by the connection or afTocin-
tion of their ideas with others of a different kind, which
pleafe of themfelves : they owe their beauty to that pre-
pofTeffion of the mind, by which a thing, whofe value we do
know, infinuates an ellecm for others which we do not know,
riius, he obferves, there are many things in architecture,
which reafon and good fenfe would judge deformed, which,
however, cuftom has not only made tolerable, but even
beautiful, by their being always joined with other beauties
that are pofitive. Being at firll pleafed with \iewing them in
company, and merely on that account, we at length become
pleafed with them alone ; and thus we frequently become

fond of faults, and fall in love with deformity. Our fenfe of
fitnefs and defign holds fo high a rank among our percep-
tions as to regulate, in a great degree, our other ideas of
beauty. In an epic poem, a hi!lory, an oration, or any
work of genius, we always require, as in other works, a fit-
nefs, or adjuilment of means, to the end which the author
is fuppofed to have in view.

Beauty, as it is applied to writing or difcourfe, denotes
all that pleafes, either in ftyle or fentiment, from whatever
principle that pleafure flows ; and a beautiful poem or ora-
tion means, in common language, no other than a good one,
or one well compofed. Beauty, befides this indefinite fenfe
of it, is alfo ufed to fignify a certain grace and amenity in
the turn either of ilyle or fentiment, for which fome authors
have been peculiarly dillinguifhed. In this fenfe it denotes
a manner, neither remarkably fublime, nor vehemently
pafiionate, nor uncommonly fparkling; but fuch as excites in
the reader an emotion of the gentle placid kind, fimilar to
what is excited by the contemplation of beautiful objefts in
natiu-e, which diffufes over the imagination an agreeable and
pleafing fcrenlty. Addifon was eminently a writer of this
chara<^Ler ; and it belongs alfo to Fenelon, the author of the
Adventures of Telemachus. Virgil, among the ancients, is
diflinguiilied, in his general manner, by beauty and grace,
rather than fublimitv. Among orators, Cicero has more cf
the beautiful thin Demoflhenes, whofe genius led him v.holly
tov.'ards vehemence and ilrength.

The ingenious Mr. Burke, in his " Philofophical Inquiry
into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful,"
excludes from the number of real caufes of beauty, the pro-
portion of parts, fitnefs, or that idea of utility which confifts
in a part's being well adapted to anfwer its end, and alfo
perfection; and he obferves (p. 210,) that beauty is, forthe
greater part, fome quality in bodies, afting mechanically
upon the human mind by the intervention of the fenfes. The
quahties of beauty, as they are merely fenfible qualities,
which he enumerates, are the following : they fhould be
comparatively fniall, fmooth, various in the direftion of their
conftituent parts ; thefe parts fhould not he angular, but
melted, as it were, into each other ; they fhould be of a deli-
cate frame, without any remarkable appearance of ftrength ;
the colours fliould be clear and bright, but not very ftrong
and glaring; and any glaring colour that is introduced fliould
be diverfified with others. Thefe are the feven properties
upon which, according to this author, beauty depends ; pro-
perties that operate by nature, and are lefs liable to be al-
tered by caprice, or confounded by a diverfity of tafles, than
any others. The phyfiognomv alfo, fays Mr. Burke, has a
confiderable fhare in beauty, efpecially in that of our own
fpecies. The manners give a certain determination to the
countenance, which being obferved to correfpond pretty re-
gularly with them, is capable of joining the effefts of certain
agreeable qualities of the mind to thofe of the body. So
that to form a finifhed human beauty, and to give it its full
influence, the face inufl be expreffive of fuch gentle and ami-
able qualities as correfpond with the foftnefs, fmoothneA,
and delicacy of the outward form. For Mr. Burke's mode
of illuflrating and confirming his theory of beauty, the reader
is referred to his work above cited.

Dr. Sayers, in his " Difquifitions, metaphyfical and lite-
rary," 8vo. 1793, has given a new analyfis of beauty, con-
ducted on the principles whiclv were applied by Dr. Prieilley
in his " Lectures on Oratory and Criticifm," and by Mr.
AUifon in his " EfFays on Tafte,'" to the explanation of the
intelleftual pleafures, namely the dodrines of the Hartleyan
fchool. His argument, furamed up in a few words, is as
follows : that individual of a clafs of objefts isjultly to be
cftee/ned more beautiful than the reft, with the whole of

L 3 which.

B E A

tvtiich, or with its component parts (whfn properly under,
ftooil), the greater luiniber of the exccllcricits ot its clifs
are univciTallv aflociatcd. The fame may be aderted of any
fpecics of objcdts, whtii compared « ith any other fpecies of
its kind ; and that objecl may be jiilUy ellcemcd a " (landard
of beauty," with the whole appear ince, or witli the compo-
nent parts of which (when properly nndcrftood), all the ex-
cellencies of its kind are " univerfallv" affociated.

Beautv, \i\ \\\it Arts of Defign. Whatever of beauty or
perfeftion btcomes an objcA of contemplation to our minds,
whether it be purely mental or perceived throujrh the medium
of ourfenfes, mud be derived from the btautful and perfeft
itfelf, and may be traced back towards its Divine fource.
However diverfified, it proceeds from this fource, and dir. ds
us where to fcek the principles and pei-feclion of all fcience
and art, of all things metaphyfical, phyfical, and moral,
which by their mutual conneftion and harmony declare their
common relation and origin ; therefore what is called beauty
in the arts of painting and fculpture mult be fought for in its
principles, metaphyfical, phyfical, and moral. In this re-
fearch wc (liould do well to take thofe philofophers for our
guides, who were the oracles of Greece, in the times when
painting and fculpture attained their highell excellence. In
the dialogue between Socrates and the fculptor Clito. (Xeno-
phon's Memorabilia,) Socrates concludes " that llatuary
mud reprcfent the aftions of the foul by form." And in the
former part of the fame dialogue Parrhaiias and Socrates
agree, that the good and evil qualities of the foul may be
reprcfented in the llgures of man by painting. Plato, in his
dialogues, reafons to the fame purpofe, and declares that the
good and beautiful are one.

Arillotle (DeMor. 1. iv. c. 7. t. iii. p. 49. DePoet. c.7.
t. ii. p. 658.) obferves, that beauty is order in grandeur.
Order fuppofes fymmeti-y, fitnefs, and harmony ; and in
grandeur are compriled fiinplicity, unity, and majefty. How-
ever, in his catalogue of virtues and their families, as well as
of the oppofitc vices and their families, Ariftotle concurs with
Plato in acknowledging the relation between beauty and good-
iitfs, evil and deformity. Indeed, it has been one of the great
obje£ls of philofophy, through all the ancient fchools, to trace
and demonilrate not only the likenefs but the identity of
beauty and goodncfs. Among the Platonifts and the Py-
thagoreans, malignity was abandoned, goodnefs or the julb,
and intellett or wifdom cultivated, becaufe by this means,
man is elevated to a nearer approach to the divinity.
Fortitude and temperance were the virtues of the (loics and
early epicureans, becaufe the one raifes man above common
fears and wants, and the other gives him better health and
enjoyment of his faculties. Thefe conclufions are convincing,
and their illuflrations may be drawn in great abundance from
the hiflory and condition of the human race. Does any one
fupply the wants of his fellow creatures, and raife them from
dillrefs to a ftate of comfort ? In performing thefe and fucli
good acls his cxprefTion is fo tender, and his manner fo gentle,
that all prefcnt fympathlze in his feelings, and love the be-
nefaftor. If any one (hews a magnanimous contempt of
danger in a good caufe, or manfully refills the temptation to
an evil aft, in fo doing his features and manner exprefs dig-
nity and fortitude, which infpire the beholders with awe and
refpeft. We look with delight on the florid complexion of
a perfon in high health, but with concern and difguft at a
pallid colour and flaccid ikin, becaufe they are figns of dif-
eafe and decay. We are picafed to fee a ftout and well made
perfon, becaufe fuch a figure befpeaks great ftrcngth and
agility. We are likev.'ife pleafed to fee a more flender figure of
agreeable and harmonious proportions, becaufe in it fufficient
Arengthis united with varied elegance of attitude. Hence, aa
alnaoll every circumftance of ourexiftence funiilhes examples

B E A

to the fame purpofe,might we not define the beauty of the hu-
man perfon in the following termn ? " Goodnefs, or vii tue and
wifdom, in a human form bell fuited to their expreihons and
exertions." It would be as abfurd as prefuniptuous for us to
attempt entering the councils of Infinite Wifdom to difcovcr
why the figure of man was made inch as it is and no other.
We might as well inquire why fuch a particular number of
worlds were made in or out of our fy (Icm fubjeft to fuch laws
of gravity, motion, and revolution ? But taking man as he is,
whether we confider tlic (acuities of his foul, the component
parts of hisbody,or the combined operations of both, the mind
is overwhelmed with the (hipendous and wonderful llruftureof
the parts, and the harmony, beauty, and utility of I'lc whole.

Whilft we are confidering beauty in the works of painting
and fculpture, it will be proper to remember that the word
by which the Greeks cxprefFcd this quality was KAA^O^,
fair, handfome, beautiful, which applied extenfively to almoft
any being or thing giving pleafure in confequence of its
goodnefs. According, therefore, to this ule of the term, we
Ihall inveftigate human beauty in both ffxes, and their feveral
diiluiftions of cha'artcr. The human figure is wonderfully
fuited to its various offices and employments, as well in its
internal flruftur'i as in its outward form. The mechanical
powei s, the geometrical figures, the motion and weight of
fluids, and the operations of chemiftry, are continually en-
gaged in its fupport and renewal ; uniting an accumulation
of force with a fimpiicity of operation truly wonderful,
and contributing in their efFcdls and appearances to the
beauty of the outward form, which in the prefent inquiry is
to be the objeft of attention. The head contains the brain,
which fends neves to all parts of the body and limbs, and
tlic organs of four feiifes ; this is the fuperior member of the
figure, and f om its elevated (lation, by means of the under-
(landing and will, direfts and determines the adts of all the
inferior parts. The body, which contains in its cavity thofe
parts which iupply the animal funftions, is alio a center from
which, and upon which, the five extremities aft. The arms
are fupporttd on the body in a manner moH fa\'ourable to
all exertions ot llrength, and with their hands are fo formed,
tliat thefe exertions may be alfo employed in the mod diffi-
cult and curious labours. The legs llrongly fupport the
fuperftrufture ; when clofed refembliiig two pillars, when
extended, like the tiiangular arch, and when nectfiary,
fwiftly conveying the perlon from place to place. It is pro-
per to mike thelc general remarks, becaufe, as we proceed,
we fhall find how dillinguifliing ah ingredient utility is in the
compofition of beauty. After this flight view of the advan-
tageous complication of powers and fimplicity of operation
in the human form, let us confider its beautiful cffcft, ani-
mated by goodnefs, and informed by wifdom ; and as what
has been faid in this part of the article relates to the arts of
defign, we fliall produce illullrations from the antique fculp-
ture and painting The ancients afligned the firll clafs of

beauty to the fuperior divinities, the fecoiid to heroes, and
the third to fauns. Other divinities and genii feem to have
partaken more or lefs of thefe clafTes. Mere portraits cannot
be enumerated in either, becaufe they are but faithful repre-
fentations of ordinary nature. Of the fuperior gods, the
Saturnian family pofiefs the rank of fublimity in the KaAo;
or beautiful. In the fine head of Jupiter (lately in the pope's
mufeum, now in the national gallery at Paris,) the hair rifes
from the forehead, and defcends in abuiidant flowing locks
on each fide of his face and neck to the fhoulders ; his fore-
head is mufmlar, expreflive of great itrength ; his nofe and
cheeks are correfpondent ; his eyes and mouth exprefs bene-
volence ; his wife and ferious brow, his placid countenance,
and full beard, inlpire reverence and awe. His figure is the
might'ujl of tjie fuperior gods. His right arm moderately
5 raifed

B E A

B E A

rtiifed ivitli liis thuijJerboIt, or leaning on liis fccptrc, pre-
fints the habitual aft of governing tirj ur.ivfile. Winkel-
rian has judicioufly remarked, that th'j Greek fcnlptors prc-
icrved the family refemblance ::: ll'e Saturnian race, with as
much exaftuefs as if they had been real portraits ; therefore
Jupiter's brothers llronjly partake of the fame charadtcr,
excepting that Neptune's countenance is morefevcrc and his
hair more ditturbed. Pluto's hair hanging over his forehead
gives a gloomy call to his countenance, which is increafed
by his more open and ftaring eyes. Winkelman has ob-
ferved, that fomething of the lion may be traced in the nofe,
forehead, and hair of Jupiter, which ac'ds might and mar^na-
nimity to the benevolence, wifdom, and awful majcdy of his
charadicr. In the youthful beauty of Apollo, Bacchus, and
Mercury, the fame benevolence and wifdom are exprelTed,
modified by their peculiar chara<fteriilics and offices. Apollo

is light and ilrong in his make ; Bacchus more foft and luxu-
rious, and Mercury more athletic. The peculiarity of Her-
cules is magnanimity and unconquerable llrength. The
heroes have a more fimplc charafter throughout, approach-
ing nearer to common nature. The fauns may be placed
in the lowcil clais of beauty expreffed in the human figure.
Although their perfons are youthful, and rather handfome,
their proportions are fhorter than thofe of the clafTes above-
mentioned ; and fometimes their m.ufcles are turgid and
tendinous, accommodated to their fylvan habits and adivity ;
their rounded faces have a portion of ruftic good nature ;
but their united eye-brows, eyes placed diagonally to the
nofe, fmall hollowed nofes, and grinning mouths, exprcfs
fome mixture of favage, ftrvile, and milchievous diipofitions.
The moil engaging and captivating fpecies of beauty exills
in the female fex ; and was reprefented in perfection by the
Greeks in their fuperior clafTes of ftatues. The large eye
and full under lip of Juno, give an air of haughtinefs to her
countenance ; her limbs are round and her figure is majellic.
Minerva's figure partakes of Juno's majeily ; but her face is
not fo full, awd has an exprefiion of abilrafted wifdom.
Venus is reprelcnted as an affcmblage of female charms ;
her form is delicate, perfect, and elegant in the higheft de-
gree ; her motion graceful, and her countenance cxprefTive
of love and fweetncfs.

The beautiful he^ds of antiquity are oval in the front
view ; in profile, the low forehead and nofe form nearly
one flraight line ; the lips are rather full and the chin
rounded. Juno has the largcfl eye of the goddeffes, according
to Homer's epithet of " Ox-eyed ;" the neck is rounded like
a column ; the cheft is high and expanded ; in the male fub-
jeft tlie abdomen is flat ; and, as Winkelman remarks, " fuch
as it appears after found fleep and gooddigcflion j" the arms,
dtfcending from full flionldcrs, arc tapered downwards to
the wrift with a very gentle flattened hollow towards the
inner elbow, to diilmguifli the bend of the arm ; the back
of the hand is one mafs ; the fingers rather long and tapered,
with knuckles indicated in a manner al.noll imperceptible ;
the lower limb tapers more fenfibly than the arm, becaufe
the thigh is larger in its commencement ; the knee-pan
in youthSul ftatues is nearly oval ; and the inner fide of
the tibia, or principal bone of the kg, is perceptibly m.arked
by a curve cf about 30 degrees ; the great toe is large, and
divided by a confiderable fpace from the lefler toes which
are llraight, and not bent over each other like fuch as have
been confined in fhoes.

In the female form, the limbs are more round and deli-
cate : the knuckles of the hand and foot are exprefled by
flight dunples ; the fingers are more tapered ; and their
outline determined by a long curve, a little reverfed towards
the end. The principal difftrence of relative p/oportions

is, (hat the female figure fhould be about one face fhortef
than the male ; each having eight heads in height. The
female figure is alfo narrower in the fhoulders and loins,
and fome what broader from the os pubis to the extremities
of the nates. The Greeks reprefented the goddeffcS with
virgin bofoms. Winkelman, in his " Monument! inediti,"
has treated largely on the beauty of the antique ftatues.
Profeffor Camper, in his " Principles of Defign," has alfo
given excellent obfervations and rules on the beauty and
proportions of the human head and figure, abfolute as
well as comparative. For his account of beauty, as exhi-
bited in ancient fculpture and engravings, fee his treatife,
entitled " Verhandeling over het natuurlyk verfhilder wezen-
llnkken," &c. or, on the natural difference of features in
perfons of various countries and ages, publifhed by his fon,
at Utrecht, 1792, ^to. In his differtation on the beauty
of forms, fubjoincd to his " Leclures," publifhed bv his
fon at the fame place and in the fame year, entitled " Ro-
den Voeringen," &c. it is his objett to prove, that no par-
ticular form can, abltraclcdly confidered, contUtute beauty;
that the real bafis of beauty confi:fs in the means being
adapted to the end ; and that, exclufively of this, our ideas
are influenced by cuftoms, national prejudices, implicit con-
fidence in the talle and opinions of others, &c.

Proportion is an eflential quality of beauty in the huma«
form ; and ftriking coincidences are afforded in its relatiou
to perfect geometrical figures, and the harmony of founds
and numbers. A man, ftanding upright, can ilretch out
his arms to a length equal to his height ; confequently his
figure may be included in a fquare ; by itretching the arms
not fo much, and the legs a little, the figure may be con-
tained in a circle, whofe centre is the top of the os pubis.
The ancients divided the height of the human figure into
eight heads, and the face into three parts ; five of thefe parts
are the breadth of the loins ; three parts, or nofes, meafure
the upper part of the thigh ; two, the calf of the leg, and
one, the ankle. A well proportioned figure meafures three
equal parts from the top of the Ihoulder to the fpine of the
ilium next the refius abdominis ; from thence to the top of
the knee-pan ; and from thence to the bottom of the inner
ankle.

The term grace, as a quality of beauty, however it may
haife puzzled the moderns in its definition and application,
was clearly underllood by the ancients. The graces or
gratias of the Romans were the charities of the Greeks.
XAPIS, is grace, beautv, fairnefs, endearing, agreeable, ele-
gant ; and the groupes, gems, &c. are comments which
are fatisfaftory and convincing. The graces are three
beautiful fillers, whofe innocence is their only garment, em-
bracing each other in the gentletl manner. The Greek
Chrillians have preferved the ancient fignification of this
word in its application to all thofe endearing duties which
preferve happinefs to, and beftow it on others ; nor is it
furprifing, tiiat thefe charaClerillics are given to women,
becaufe' all the milder and endearing virtues are ftiU more
amiable in the female fex. If by grace, the fuccefTion and
variation of undulating lines be intended, it is feen moil pcr-
feftly in an elegant female figure moving flowly. It is remark-
able, that man, of all creatures, prefents the moft perfeft view
of his figure in front. Quadrupeds, birds, and fillies, are bed
feen in profile, and we look on the backs of reptiles and in-
feiils. It is neceffary, to the moll advantageous appearance
of man, that we (hould contemplate the alTeiflions of his
heart, snl operations of his reafon continually beaming in
his countenance ; the waving lines of his body, moving on
the centre of gravity, and varied curves and angles formed
by his limbs, perfect the whole of his figure, with an union

of

B E A

of fjcultit;': mental ami bodily, which remii'.ds u» that " GaJ
crcatid Man in his own ImaKC."

The various heads toiiciicJ upon in l\\^ Inttcr part of this
arlielc, will he treated of in the fereral articles of Paintisg
and Scun'TURE.

We cannot forbear fnbjoining the rcfleftinn with which Mr.
Thomfon, (a late writer on the fubjed of hcanty) clofes his
detail of the various beauties of the f.malc furm. " If we
(hould fee a perfon employ hinifclf with a fledge hammer to
dafli the enchanting form of the Venus dc Mcdicis to pieces,
break her lovely hmb^ and deface her b.-auteous features, we
fliould not hetitate a moment to pronounce him a favage
barbarian, witliont tafte, feeling, or fentiment, though his
frenzy was employed only on a fcnfelefs piece of ftone ; what
then mufl we think of the diabolical favage, who exercifes
the wortl of all cruelties (becaufe the moft lading and affedU
ing both to body and mind,) on the moft bcautifd and
amiable of all creatures on this fide heaven ? — made ex-
prefsly for his happinefs, folace, and delight, by firll cor-
tupling and betraying her, and then baftly abandoning her
to pcrilh wiih want, pain, wrctchedneis, and mifery."
The fentiments of mankind, with regard to female beauty,
have been very various in different ages and nations ; and it
is not pofTiblc to ellabliili a llandard which (hall compre-
hend all, without difcriniination ; among the ancients, a
fniall forehead and joined tyc-brows v\-cre charming features
in a female countenance ; and, in Perfia, large joined eye-
brows are highly cftcemed. In fome Indian countries,
black teeth and white hair are necefiary ingredients in the
character of a beauty ; and in the Marian iflands, it is a
capital ohjefl with ladies to blacken their teeth with herbs,
and to bleach their hair with certain liquors. Beauty, in
China and Japan, is compofed of a large countenance,
fmall, and half-concealed eyes, a broad nofe, minute feet,
ond a prominent belly. Some Indians of America and
Alia, comprefs the heads of their children between two
wooden planks, with a view to enlarge and beautify the
face ; others comprefs them laterally, others deprefs the
crown only, and others mike the head as round as poffible.
Every nation has ideas of beauty peculiar to itfclf ; and
almoll every individual has his own notions and tafte con-
cerning this quality. The empire of beauty, however,
amidft thefe difcordant ideas, with refpeft to the qualities
in which it confills, has been very generally acknowledged,
and particularly in all civilized countries ; and when it is
united with other accomplilliments that tend to render
fem.ilcs amiable, it contributes in no fmall degree to give
them importance and influence, to polifli the manners of
fociety, and to contribute to its order and happinefs.

BEAUVAIS, Bellovacum, and Cjesaromacus, in
Geography, a city of France, and capital of the department
of tlie 0:fe, feated on the Therin ; and, before the revolu-
tion, the capital of the Beauvaifis, and the fee of a bifhop.
Tne architedure of the cathedral has been much admired,
hefides which it has fever.il collegiate and parifli churchrs.
The manufafturc of the city is a beautiful tapiftry, which
has fupplied a confiderable branch of trade. It has alfo
produced great quantities of fergc and woollen cloth. This
city was unfuccefsfuUy befieged by the Englifh in 1443,
and by the duke of Burgundy in 1472, at the head of
80,000 men. On the latter occafion, the women difplayed
fmgular CDUrage under the conduit of Jane de Hatchett,
whofc portrait is prcfervcd in the town-houfe ; and in com-
memoration of their brave defence, the women form the firft
rank of a proceflion, obferved annually on the loth of July.
K. lat. 49'" 26'. E. long. 2° 15'.

BEAUVAISIS, a fmall fertile diftrift of France, bor-

B E C

dercd on the north by Picardy, on the wcH hy VexinNor-
niand, on the fouth by Vexin- Francois, and un t!ie eaft by
Senhs ; now forming a part of the department of Ojfe. See
Bf.auvais.

BEAUVAL, a town cf France, in the department of
the Somnx, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Doulens, one league S. of Doulens.

BEAUVERAY, a little town of France, in the diftrift
called, before t!ie revolution, Autunois, in the dopartmciit
of the Saone and Loire, feated at the foot of a mountain,
and fuppofi.d by fome to be the ancient B'lliraflc.

BEAUVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in
the dittrid of Valence, 3^ leagues N. of Valence. N. lat.
44° 17'. E. long. 0° 47'.

BEAUVOIR, a town of France, in the departmen^^of
Vendee, a chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Challans,
2\ leagues N. W of Challans. — Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Ifere, and diftri6-l of St. Marcelin,
5 leagues S. W. of Grenobl-.

Beauvoir fur Niort, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftricl of Niort, 2' leagues S. of Niort.

BEAUVOISIN, Pont dp, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillric\ of La Tour du Pin, on the borders of Savoy, I i
miles W. of Chambery. It is feated on the fmall river
Guier le Vif, which runs through it, and divides it into
two parts.

BEAUZAT, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhone and Loire, \\ league S.W. of Moniftrol.

BEAUZE'E, a town of France, in the department of
the Meufc, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Verdun, 4! leagues S. S. ^V. of Verdun.

BEAUZELEY De Levevou, St. a town of France,
in the deparment of Aveiron, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillriiil of Milluuid, 2 leagues N. AV. of Milhaud.

BEBE', a large village of Egypt, on the weft fide of
the Nile, diftant about 3 leagues from Benifouef ; the re-
fidence of a kiafehef, and the fite of a mofque, and a con-
vent of Copts.

BEBELINGUEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Wurtemberg, feated on a lake from which proceeds the
river Worm. N. lat. 48'' 45'. E. long. 9° 8'.

BEBENHAUSEN, a convent in the diftrift of Wur-
temberg, called Schonluck, at a fmall diftance N. E. of
Tubingen ; the manor of which contains 9 paridies. In
this convent is an academy, where Undents are qualified for
admiffion into tlie leminary at Tubingen.

BEBENOWA, a town of Poland, in the Palatinate of
Braclaw, 14 miles S. E. of Braclaw.

BEBERACI, in Ancient Geography, Kalotinich, a lake
of Mefopotamia, between mount bingara, and the river
Chaboras.

BEBRE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Loire, oppolite to Bourbon Lancy.

BEBRYCES, in ylncient Geography, the firft inhabitants
of Bithynia. The origin of thefe people, and the reafon
of their name, are uncertain. A people of this appella-
tion, mentioned by Silins Italicus, (l.iii. v. 420.) inhabited
that part of Gallia Narboneiifis, which was fitnated be-
tween Spain and tlic Volcx, or near the Pyrenees, and from
them called Bebricia.

BEC, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eure, g leagues AV.S. W. of Rouen.

BEC Crespin, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Seine, 3 leagues eaft from Havre.

BECA-

B E C

B E C

BECABUNGA, Bro&klime, in Botany, See Vero-
nica.

BECAH, or Be.<ah, a Jewifh coin, being half a fhekel.
In Br. Arbuthnot's tfble of reductions, the bekah amounts
to 13 -g-ji/. ; in Dr. Prideaux's computation to is. 6d.

Every Ifraehte paid a hundred bekahs a head every year
for the fuDport of the temple. Calmet.

BECALMING, in the Sea Language, is when any thing
keeps the wind ofFor away from the vcflel.

Thus one fhip i« faid to becalm anoth.er, when fhe comes
up with her on the weather-fide : the like is faid of the
fhore, when it keeps the wind away. A (hip is likcwife
faid to be becalmed, when there is no wind ftirring.

I5ECANER, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, feated
on tl'e Ganges, nearly ealt of Dehli.

B£CARDE, in Ornithology, a name under which Buf-
fon defcrib -s fome birds of the Linnaean genus Lanius :
as for example, his hecarde is lanius cnyantu Gmel. and
becardc a •oentre jaune, lanius fulphuratus of the fame au-
thor.

BE'CASSE, Be'c ASSISE, a generical term in BufTon's
Nat. Hift. for fome birds of the Scolopax genus, in the
Linnaean fyftem.

BE'CASSEAU o« Cul-blanc, is alfo a name given by
Buffon to the tringa ochropus of Linnseus.

BECCA, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a name
given to a fine kind of refm collected from the turpentine
and maftich-trees of Greece and Syria, and mixed together
for ufe. It was much efteemed formerly, and not only
ufed in the country where it was produced, but carried in
great quantities to Mecca, and other parts of the Turkifh
dominions, where it was valued at a very great rate.

BECCABUNG^, in Entomology, a fpecies of CuR-
CULIO, of a black colour; wing-cafes rufous; entirely
bordered with black. Fabricius. In fize and appearance it
refembles curcuUo ceraji ; inhabits Sweden ; feeds on the
beccnhun'^a.

BECCADELLI, Antonio, in Biogmphy, called An-
tiny of Palermo, from the place of his birth ; was born in
1374, lludied the law at Bologna, and entered into the fer-
vice of the duke of Milan, who allowed him an honourable
penfion. He alfo became profelTor of belles lettres and
rhetoric in the univerfity of Pavia, and, in 1432, was ho-
noured by the emperor Sigifmund, with the poetic laurel.
When Alphonfo kin-r of Naples left Milnn in 1435, he
took Antonio with him to his court ; and from this time,
he became the infeparable companion of this prince, who
conferred upon him many honours and gifts, and intruiled
him with many important commiflion?. I-.i 145 1 he was
deputed to folicit of the Hate of Venice, the fuppofed arm-
bones of the hiftorian Livy, which he obtained. Such in-
deed, was his veneration for Livy, that he is faid to have
fold a farm in order to purchafe a copy of Livy, written
by the hand of Poggio the Florentine. After the death
of Alphonfo, Antonio became the ftcretary and counfellor
of his fon and lucceiTor Ferdin:;nd. He died at Naples in
147 1 ; leaving behind him ample teftiraonials of his talents
as a Latin writer, both in profe and verfe. For his work
" De Diesis et faftis Alfonfi regis Arragonum," he re-
ceived the recompence of a thoufand gold crowns ; which
work has been frequently reprinted, with additions. A
collection of live books of his cpiftles, two harangues, and
fome vcrfes, was printed at Venice in 1453. His " Her-
maphroditus," which was a coUeflion of Ihort poems in two
books, excited by its obfocnity loud clamours againil its
a.ithor; and was publicly burnt in feveral cities of Italy,
together with the ^.Titer's own eCigy. Gen. Biog.

Beccadelli, Ludovico, was bom of a noble family at
Bologna in 1502, ftudied at Padua, and accompanied car-
dinal Pole in his legation to Spain. He affifted at the coun •
cil of Trent, and was delegated by the papal court to
Venice and Augfburg. In recompence of his f£r\ices, he
was promoted to the archbilhopric of Ragufa ; but being
appointed in 1563 to fuperintend the education of the fon
of Cofmo I., grand duke of Tufcany, and expecting the
archbifhopnc of Pifa, he renounced that of Ragufa. His
expeftations, however, were difappointed ; and he was
obliged to content himfelf with the provollfhip of the cathe-
dral of Prato, in which office he died in 1572. He was
reckoned eminent as a man of letters, and wrote in Latin
the lives of the cardinals Bembo and Pole, and in Italian
a life of Petrarch, efteemed more correft than any other.
Nouv. Diet. Hift.

BECCAFICO Canapino, in Ornithology, a name of
motacilla curruca, in Olina.

Beccafico, and Becfque, are alfo names given by Olina
and Buffon to motacilla Jicedula. Linn.

BECCAFUMI, DoMENico, in Biography, called Mica-
rino and Mecherino, was the fon of a peafant near Sienna,
whofe name was Pacio, born in 14*4, and employed by his
father in keeping (heep. Bcccafumi, a citizen of Sienna,
whofe name he alTumed, being prepoffefled with a favour-
able opinion of his talents by obfer\ing figures which he
drew, with his ftick upon the fand, whilft he was furrounded
by his flock, took him under his patronage, and placed him
under the inftruftion of a painter, called Cavanna ; and
after having been, as fome fay, the difciple of Pietro Peru-
gino, or according to others, after having been employed
in copying the pictures of this artift, he went to Rome, and
made further improvement by ftudying the works of Ra-
phael and Michael Angclo. After two years he returned
to Sienna, and finifhed feveral pieces, not only in oil, but
in diftemper and frefco, which gained him great reputation.
But he was chiefly admired for his performance on the
pavement of the great church, which he wrought by com-
bining ftones of ditTere.it colours, with pitch poured in holes
for the dark fhades, in fuch a manner as the light and
ftadow of the object required. This kind of performance
is faid to have been invented by one Duccio of Sienna in
1356; but it was brought to perfection by Beccafumi.
He had a fine invention ; his tafte was elegant ; his ex-
pru-ffion good ; and his colouring beautiful. He was alfo
an excellent engraver on wood and metal, and alfo a founder.
His ufual mark on his plates is a B divided in the middle by
a horizontal line. This artift died at Genoa in 1549.
Piikington and Strutt.

BECCARIA, Cesar Bonesasa, marquis of, an emi-
nent Italian writer, was born about the year 1720. To t!;e
ftudy of philofophy he was attached from his infancy, and
he availed himfelf of the light and intelleftual freedom,
v/hich about his time found their way into Italy from
France, England, ard otlier countries. At Naples, Geno-
vefi taugiit the Italians how to think, and Bcccaria diftin-
guifhed him by the title of " his learned and venerable maf-
ter." At Milan alfo count Firmian was a diftinguiflied
patron of literature and fcience, and a promoter of every
reform, that had philanthropy for its bafis. With fuch
enlightened men Bcccaria cj-opei-ated by writing in 1767
his fa-nous work, " On Crimes and Punifhments," which
had an extenfive fpread, and produced a great change in the
prevailing, ideas on thefe fiibjccls. Voltaire, in his commen-
taries on this v.ork, fays, that this (hort treatifc is in morals
what a fimple drug would be in medicine, which (liould be
adequate to the cure of every tilfcafe to which the human

body.

B E C

body is liable. As the principlcj of government indiieclly
I'upportcJ ill this work were hollilc to abfoliite power, they
incurred the charge of fubvcrtiiig the Icgilimatc fourcis
of authority ; and the marquis owed his protection to the
influence of count Firmian. Having efcaped the danger
that threatened him, he diverted liis attention from fpcc.i-
lations of this nature to nictapliyfical fiJijeCls. Bcfides
fome papers, contributed to a periodical work, entilkd
" The Coftce-Houfe," he publilhed " Difquifitions on tlse
Nature of Stylf,'' maintainini:j that by nature all men pof-
fcfs an equal degree of genius tor poetry and elocution, and
by the obfervance of proper rules all would be able to \vrite
equally well. Beccavia was much attached to men ol let-
ters, a patron to thofe who needed encouragement, and a
cordial friend. He was ciiarged, however, with venality in
the exercife of an office of magillracy which he held ; and
hence his enemies compared him to had Bacon, witli relpecl
both to abilities and corruption. He died November 1794.
Month. Mag. 1798. Gen.Biog.

Bf.ccaria, Giamdattista, an eminent philofopher of
the eighteenth centuiy, and a monk of the Ecoles-Pies, wos
a native of Mendovi in Piedmont, and became profcflor ot
philofophy and mathematics, iirfl at Palermo, and then ;\t
ilonie. His ellahliihed reputation occafioned his removal
to Turni, where he occupied the chair of experimental phi-
lofophy. lu confcquence of his appointment to the office
of preceptor to the princes of Sardinia, he was introduced
to the Sardinian court; but ntithir this employment, nor the
honour conneAed witli it, diverted him from the indefatigable
profecution of his ilndies ; and the pecuniary advantages
liiat refulttd from the appointment were princip?dy devo-
ted to the increafc of his library and the improvement ot his
j)hilofopliical apparatus. Amidft the variety of his philo-
fophical purfuits, his attention was particularly engaged by
experiments and inveftigations in eleftricity; and in this
department of fcience he acquired fingular reputation. For
an account of his principal difcoveries and obfervations,
fee Atmosphere, and Electricity. His chief works
on this fubjed were " Dell' Elettricifmo Artiilciale et Na-
turale," Turin, 1753, A-^^- i "^ which an Englith tranfla-
tion was puhlifhed, in 1776, 410. and " Lettere dell' Elet-
tricifmo," Bologn. 1758, fol. He alfo publilhed effays
•' On the caufe of Storms and Tcmpells," " On the Meri-
dian of Turin," and on other phyfical and aftronomical fub-
jefts. Father Beccaria, no lefs refpe£tablc for his virtues than
his knowledge, died at Turin in an advanced age, May 22,
1781. Nouv. Did. Hift.

Beccaria, James Bartholomew, born at Bononia,
in 1682, received the early part of his education among the
Jefuits. Turning his mind to the ftudy of natural philofo-
phy, he foon became diftinguiilied for the variety and depth
of his knowledge in phylics, and in mathematics, of which
he was made public profetTor, and, in conjunftion with
Morgagni, and other celebrated charailers at Bononia,
affilled in forming an academy there for teaching mathe-
matics, natural hillory, chemillry, anatomy, and medicine.
He lirll gave lectures in natural hillory, and in 1712, was
appointed to the chair of medicine, which he alfo now prac-
tifed with great fuccefs. On the death of Valfalva, he was
made prefident of the inftitution, and in that polt, intro-
duced many ufeful regulations for the government of the
academy, wiiich are lUU continued. He v^-as a frequent
correfpondent with, the Royal Society of London, of which
he was made aii honorary member. Among other commu-
nications fr,)m Beccaria, which appear in the Pliilofophical
Tranfaclions, are his " Obfervations on the Weather," " On
the Ignis Fatuus," and " On the power fome peifons have

B E C

ewjoytd of fiipporting life for a great length of time, with-
out food." This was afterwards publilhed at Padua, under
the title of " De jejuniis longis DilTertatio," fo!. 1748. He
died Jan. 1766, being 84 years of age. Among his pubh-
cations arc " Ditfeitatio Meteorologica Medica, in qua
aeris temperies et morbi Bononix grafl'antes annis, 1729, et
fequcnti, delcribuntur." " De quamplurimis piiofphoris
nunc primam deteftis, Commentarius," Bonon, 4I0. 174^^.
" Scriptura Medico-legalis," 1749. For the titles of liis
other eompofitions, and of numerous unedited pieces, fe:
Gen. Biog. and Hal. Bib. Anat.

BECCLES, in Geography, is a market and corporate
town of Suffolk, in England, fituated on the noi them bor-
der of that county joining to Norfolk. It is fifteen miles
S.W. of Yarmouth, and 108 N. E. from London. Though
not a borough tovvif, Beccles has its corporation, conlilliiig
of a portreeve, and thirty-fix other perfons, who are dillin-
guifhed by the names of ttuelves, and tiuenly-fours. From
the twelves, the officer called portreeve is annually elefted.
Tlie town confillsof feveral flreets, which concentrate in a
fpacious area, wiiere the markets are held every Saturday.
Here are a large handfome church, whofe tower is detached
from it, and the ruins of another called Ingate church, which
was for.-rerly the parifh church. The church-yard, from its
elevated fituation, commands many fine and extended views
of the adjacent country, and the mcandrings of the river
Waveney which adjoins this ccmeteiy. Here are a town-hall
and goal ; the former is a fubllanlial building where the
quarter fefiions are held ; and the latter has been lately
much enlarged and improved conformably to the Howar-
dian plan. A public grammar fchool was founded here in
1712, l)y Dr. Fauconberg, who endowed it with certain
lands for the maintenance of a clergyman, and to qualify
youth for the uiiiveriity. Sir John Leman, knight, alfo
founded a free Englifh fchool in 1631, for the education of
forty-eight boys ; alfo for a mailer and ulher, who are ap-
pointed by trullecs, being part of the corporation. On the
north-wefl fide of the town is a very large common field,
containing nearly 1600 acres, where the inhabitants are al-
lowed, under certain rellridlions, to turn a number of horfes
and cattle. Beccles futiered by a dellruftive fire, which
happened on the 29th of November, 1586, when more than
80 houfes were confumed, with property calculated at
20,03ol. value. It is rather a fingular circunillance, that nei-
ther mail, nor turnpike roads, communicate with this town :
though it was fome time fince propofed at a public meeting
to carry the turnpike road to Yarmouth through this place ;
but the prdpofition was negatived by a conliderable majo-
rity of the inhabitants. Here are three annual fairs. The
number of houfes in the townfliip is 601 ; of inhabitants
27S8, of which 1245 are males, and 1543 are females. In
the vicinity of this town are the following, befides other gen-
tlemens feats. i?rt'ufnjn^/ja?n //a//, fir Edmund Bacon, bart.

— Langley Part, fir Thomas Beauchamp Proftor, bart

Benacre Hall, fir Thomas Gooch, bart. — Solterly Hall, MileJ
Barne, efq.

BEC-D'OISEAU, in Zoology, the name lately given by
French naturalifls to that mofl lingular Auflralafian animal
Platypus analinus of Vivarium naturae ; and Duck-billed pla-
typus oi "Dr. Shaw. It is alfo called 0;-«i//io;7j;Wjaj'/>ara(/o*aj-,,
by M. Blumenback of Goettingen. See Platypus.

BECEDE, La, in Geography, a fmall town of France on
the Aude, and chief place of a canton in the dillrift of
Caftelnaudary, i^ league north of Caftelnaudary.

BECF-AAL, in Ichthyology, a French name of the
Eledrical eel, anguille eleclrique.

BECHAN, in Geography, a river of North Wales,

which

B E C

EEC

■which runs into the Severn, 3 nniks W. S.W. of Mont-
gomery.

BECHER, John Joachim, in B'logMphy, an indiiRrioiis
and fuccefsfiil cultivator and improver of chcmiflry, and an
ingenious mechanift, was bom at Spires in 1645. After p.^ifi-
ing through the ufual prehminary Ihidies, he was made profef-
for of medicine at Mentz, and foon alter phyficiau to the elec-
tor there, and to the eledor of Bavaria. Acquiring confider'
yble repiitati()n in thefe honourable polls, he was called to Vieii-
ra by the emperor Leopold, where, befides attending to his
medical duties, he was inftrum.ental in forming a chamber of
commsrce, and in improving their manufaftures. He isalfo
fr.td to have projected the plan of an Eaft India company
there. But getting into difputes with fome of the officers
about the court, he loft his influence, and was obliged to
!?ave \'ienna. He then went to Mayenne, Munich, and
\\'urt7,burg. From Wurtzburg he was driven away, Hailer
fays, on being detected d\(l'ccting an human body, Vv'ith the
view piobably of profecuting fome chemical experiments on
fome of the humours, as he did not cuUivate anatomy. At
Haerlem, where he now went, he invented a machine for
throwing filk ; and, as he tells us in his " La folic fage, et
la folie fagtrfle," printed at Francfort 1682, made fome im-
crovementin the ait of printing ; in what it confilled, is net
however known. In the mean while he was not unmindful
of the principal objeft of his ihidies, the advancement of the
knowledge of chtmiftry, as appears bv a rapid fucceflion of
publications on that fubjeft. Getting again involved in dif-
putes with fome princ'pal perfons at Haerlem, and compelled
to quit that place, he came to Loudon, where he died in
1683. That he was of a turbulent and reftlefs difpofition is
evident by his frequent migrations, and by his conilantly
lofinT the favour and proteftion of his patrons, whom he had
made his debtors by his abilities and fervices. Bccher gave
a new turn to chemiftry, which he employed in analyfing
and finding o'jt the principles of natural bodies, and thence
laid the foundation of the great improvements that have been
made in that art. But he was fond of mylteries, and em-
ployed no fmall part of his time and labour in his attempts
to trarfmute metals. That he thought this practicable, ap-
pears by his " Expcrlmeiitum chymicum novum, quo arti-
ticialis ct inllantanea metallorum genei-atio et tranfmutatio
ad oculum demonltratur ;" and his " Thefes chymica;,
veritatem et poffibihtatem traufmutationis metallorum in
aurum evincentes :" but he was confcious of having done
more in the art than had ever been done before, and therefore
probably thought hardly any thing impoflible. He had
a projeci for an ir.iiverial language, by which all men might
make themfelves intelligible to each other : " Cliarafter pro
iiotitia linguarum univerfali." On this fi.hjecl he publiflied,
in 166 1, a Latin folio ; and as he was the lirll pcrfon who
gave a complete treatife on this art, fir.ce known under the
name of pafigraphv, he may therelore be confidercd as the
■inventor. [St:e l/niver/tii Ch ar acter, and Pasigraph v.)
His principal works are his " Phyfica fubterranea," wliieli
has palftd through fevcral editions; " Inilitutiones chy-
■micK," Mogunt. 4to. 1662 ; " Pariiaffus mcdicinahs," Ulm.
1663, fill. For the titles of the reft of his works, fee Eloy's
Diet. Hift.

BRCHERF, Got,, in Geo^raphv, a lake of Caramania in
■ Afif.tic Turkey, 40 miles W. of Co^iii.

£ EC'HERELE, a town of France, Vi the department of
the Illc and Villaine, and chief place of a canton in the
dillrift of ^Tontfol•t, 3 Icacrues N. of Montfort.

BECHHOFEN, a fmail market town of Germany, m
the principality of Onolzbacli, fcaud on tiie iiver Wicict,
and having s fmail caftlc.

Vol, IV.

BECHICS, formed of the Greek ^y"-, Qry^-, a covih, i«
the MitUria lilcuica, medicines proper for relieving cougln.
but thcfe being of various kinds, the general term may mif-
Icad, and is therefore improper.

Ekchic Pills. See Pills.

BECHIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, and capital
of a circle of the fame name. It is feated on tlie river Luir-
nice, and its citadel lies on a fteep rock. The circle was
mifcrably ravaged and laid wafte in the 30 years' war, and the
town was taken and burnt by general Bcquoi iu i6iy.
N.lat. 49'^ 14'. E. long. 15° 12'.

BECHTOLSHEIM, a market town of Swabia, in the
Rhcnifh circle of nobility, belonging to four co-heirs, two of
whom are Roman Catholics, and two Lutherans.

BECK, a little river or brook, called alfo rivulet or rill.

According to Verftegan, the original word is behe, which
properly imports a fmall ftream of water ilfuiiig from fome
bourn or Ipring.

Hence, hell-bechs , little brooks fo called, on account of
their ghafthncfs and depth, or rather from their being co-
vered, or much concealed. See Hell.

Bech is chiefly uftd among us in the compofition of names
of places originally iituate on rivultts ; hence W elbeck,
Bournbeck, &c.

The Germans ufe heck in the fame manner.

Beck, David, in Bin^niphy, an eminent portrait painter,
was born at Amheim in Guelderland in 162 1, and became
a difciple of Vandyck, from whom he acqifired a fine man-
ner of pencilling, and that fweet ftyle of colouring in which.
this mailer excelled, together with that rapidity of execution
for which he was fo famou?. He was appointed portrait
painter to Chrittina queen of Sweden ; and by her recom-
mendation, moft of the iUuftrious perfons in Europe fat to
him for their pictures. In his perfon and behaviour he was
handfome, agreeable, and pohte ; and though he was much
favoured by his royal miftrefs, he wiftted to vifit his friend*
in Holland, veiy .'nuch againft the queen's inclination ; but
as ho foon after died in Holland, at the early age of 35, it
was fufpeiSted that he was poifoned. As he travelled through-
Germany, he was hiddenly taken ill at an inn, where lie
lodo-ed, and the iilnefs terminated in his apparent death, fu
that he was laid out as a corpfe. His valets, who attended,
regretted the event, and as they fat by his bed-!ide, relieved
their forrow by drinking freely. One of them, in a ftate of
intoxication, fuggefted, that their mafterwas fond of a glafs
while he was alive, and propofed to teftify their gratitude by
giving him a glafs, though he were dead. Accordingly, they
raifed his head, and endeavoured to put fome liquor into his
mouth. Upon tliis B-ck opened his eyes, and the fervant
compelled him to fwallow what remained in the glafs. The
painter revived, and, by due attention, not only efcaped inter.
ment, but perfectly recovered. In teftimony of his nurit as
an arlift, he received from different princes nine gold chains,
and fcveral medals of gold of a large fize. Pilkington.

BECKEM, or Bkckum. in Geography, a fmall town of
Germany, in the circle of Wtftphali^ and biihopric of Mun-
fter, feated on the Werfe, 17 miles S. S. E. of j.Iunfter. In
1734 it was almoft wholly confumed by iire.

BECKER, Daniel, in Bio^^r.jphy, was born atDantzicla,
in December 1594. He took his degree of doctor in medi-
cine at Konigfj. rg, and « as made profelTor of medicine there,
and rtttor of" the uiiverfity Becker was author of various
medical wcrks, but that which principaliv contributed to pi c-
fcrve his name, is his " Dc cultrivoro PrufTiaco, obfervati/>
et curatio lingularis," or the ey.traordinary cure of the Pnif-
fian knifc-fwallo.vtr ; firil pablilhcd in 163?!, and fi nee fre-
quently reprinted. Thii lubj-'cl of the liiflory u a young
M m.an.

B E C

body is liable. As the principles of goTernment indiieaiy
tupportcd in tliis work were hollile to abfolute power, tliey
incurred the charge of fiibvorting tlic legitimate foiircis
of authority ; and the marquis owed Iiis proteetion to the
influence of count Tirniian. Having cfcaped tiie danger
that threatened him, he diverted liis attention from fpeci-
lations of this nature to nictapliyfical fi«bjee\s. Befides
fome papers, contributed to a periodical work, entitled
" The Codee-Houfe," he publifhed " Difquilillons on the
Nature of Style," maintaininij that by nature all men pof-
fcfs an equal degree of genius for poetry and elocution, and
by the obfervance of proper rules all would be able to write
equally well. Beeca-'ia was much attached to men ol kt-
ters, a patron to thofe who needed encouragement, and a
cordial friend. He was cliarged, however, with venality in
the exercife of an office of magillracy wliich he held ; and
hence his enemies compared him to lurd Bacon, with refpcct
both to abilities and corruption. He died November 1794.
Montli. Mag. 1798. Gen.Biog.

BixcARiA, GiAMBATTisTA, an eminent pliilofophcr of
the eighteenth centuiy, and a monk of the Ecoles-Pies, w ns
a native of Mcndovi in Piedmont, and became profclFor of
philofophy and mathematics, firll at Palermo, and then at

Rome. His ellahliihed reputation occafioned his removal
to Turm, where he occupied the chair of experimental phi-
lofopiiy. lu confcquence of his appointment to the office
of preceptor to the princes of Sardinia, he was introduced
to the Sardinian court; but neither this employment, nortlve
honour connected with it, diverted him from the indefatigable
profccntion of his Ihidies ; and the pecuniary advantages
that refulttd from the appointment were principr'ily devo-
ted to the increafc of his library and the improvement of his
philofophical apparatus. AmiJil the variety of his philo-
fophical purfuits, his attention was particularly engaged by
experiments an J inveftigalions in eledlricity; and in this
department of fcience he acquired Angular reputation. For
an account of his principal difcoveries and obfervations,
fee Atmospheke, and Electricity. His chief works
on this fubjed were " Dell' Elettricifmo Artificiale et Na-
turale," Turin, 1753, 410.; of which an Engliih tranfla-
tion was publifhed, in 1776, 410. and " Lettere dell' Elet-
tricifmo," Bologn. 175^^, fol. He alfo publifhed efTays
•< On the caufe of Storms and Tempefts," " On the Meri-
dian of Turin," and on other pliyfical and allronomical fub-

etls. Father Beccaria, no lefs refpeflable for his virtues than
is knowledge, died at Turin in an advanced age, May 22,
Nouv. Diet. Hift.

i'

Beccaria, James Bartholomew, born at Bononia,
in 1682, received the early part of his education among tlie
Jcfuits. Turning his mind to the tludy of natural philofo-
phy, he foon became diftinguilhed for the variety and depth
of hij knowledge in phyfics, and in mathematics, of which
he was made public profeflbr, and, in conjunftion with
Morgagni, and other ci-lebrated characters at Bononia,
affilted in forming an academy tliere for teaching mathe-
matics, natural hillory, chemillry, anatomy, and medicine.
He firll gave le£lures in natural hiftory, and in 1712, was
appointed to the chair of medicine, which he alfo now prac-
tifed with great fuccefs. On the death of Valfalva, he was
luade prefident of the inllitution, and in that poll, intro-
duced many ufeful regulations for the government of the
academy, wliich arc Hill continued. He was a frequent
correfpondent with, the Royal Society of London, of which
he was made an honorary member. Among other commu-
nications from Beccaria, which appear in the Philofophical
Tranfaclions, are his " Obfervations on the Weather," " On
the Ignis Fatuus," and " On the power fome perfons have

B E C

enjoyed of fiipporting life for a great length of time, with-
oat food." I'liis was afterwards publilhed at Padua, under
the title of " De jejuniis longis DifTertatio," fu!. I 748. He
died Jan. 1766, being 84 years of age. Among his publi-
cations are " DifTeiiatio Meteorologica Medica, in qua
acns tem))crics et morbi Bononix graflantes annis, 1729, et
fequenti, defcribuntur." " De quamplurimis phofphoris
nunc primum detedtis, Commentarius," Bonon, 4to. 1744.
" Scriptura Medico-legalis," 1749. For the titles of his
other conipofitions, and of numerous unedited pieces, fe:
Gen. Biog. and Hal. Bib. Anat.

BECCLES, in Geognifhy, is a market and corporate
town of Suffolk, in England, fituated on the northern bor-
der of that county joining to Norfolk. It is fifteen miles
S. W. of Yarmouth, and 108 N.E. from London. Though
not a borough towit, Beccles has its corporation, confiftiiig
of a portreeve, and thirty-fix other perfons, who arc dlftin-
guifhed by the names of twelves, and tivenly-fours. From
the twelves, the officer called portreeve is annually elefted.
The town confillsof feveral llrtets, which concentrate in a
fpacious area, where the markets are held every Saturday.
Here are a large handfome church, whofe tower is detached
from it, and the ruins of another called Ingate church, which
wa;> fonrerly the parifli church. The church-yard, from its
elevated fituation, commands many tine and extended views
of the adjacent country, and the meandrings of the river
Waveney which adjoins this cemetery. Here are a town-hall
and goal ; the former is a fubllantial building where the
quarter feffions arc held ; and the latter has been lately
much enlarged and improved conformably to the Howar-
dian plan. A public grammar fchool was founded here in
1 7 12, by Dr. Fauconberg, who endowed it with certain
landi for the maintenance of a clergyman, and to qualify
youth for the univerfity. Sir John Iceman, knight, alio
founded a free Englilh fchool in 163 1, for the education of
forty-eight boys ; alfo for a niafter and uflier, who are ap-
pointed by trullees, being part of the corporation. On the
north-weft fide of the town is a very large common field,
containing nearly 1600 acres, where tlie inhabitants are al-
lowed, under certain rellriiflions, to turn a number of horfes
and cattle. Beccles fuffered by a deilrudlive fire, which
happened on the 29th of November, 1586, when more than
80 houfes were confumed, with property calculated at
20,oool. value. It is rather a fingular circumftance, that nei-
ther mail, nor turnpike roads, communicate with this town :
though it was fome time fince propofed at a public meeting
to carry the turnpike road to Yarmouth through this place ;
but the prdpofition was negatived by a confiderable majo-
rity of the inhabitants. Here are three annual fairs. The
number of iioufes in the townfhip is 601 ; of inhabitants
2788, of which 1245 ^'"'^ males, and 1543 are females. In
the vicinity of this town are the following, befides other gen-
tlcmens feats. Raveniri^ham Hall, fir Edmund Bacon, bart.

— Larigley Parh, fir Thomas Beauchanip Proftor, bart

Benacre Hall, fir Thomas Gooch, bart. — Solterly Hall, Miles
Barne, efq.

BEC-D'OISEAU, in Zoology, the name lately given by
French naturalills to that moll lingular Auftralafian animal
Platypus anatinus of Vivarium naturse ; and Duck-billed pla-
typus oi Dr. Shaw. It is alfo called Oriutborh'inchus paradoxus,
by M. Blumenback of Gocttingen. See Platypus.

BECEDE, La, in Geography, a fniall town of France on
the Aude, and chief place of a canton in the diftridl of
Caltelnaudary, i| league north of Caftelnaudary.

BECF-AAL, m Ichthyology, a French name of the
Ele8rlcal eel, anguille eledlrique.

BECHAN, in Geography, a river of North Wales,

which

B E C

■wliich runs into the Severn, 3 miles W. S.W. of Mont-
go rrcr)'.

BECHER, John Joachim, in Bio^i-fiphy, an iiiduflrions
and fuccefsfiil cultis'ator and improver of cliemiflry, and an
inirenious mtclianift, was bom at Spires in 1645. -^^fter p.ifT-
ing through the ufnal preHminary 11 tidies, he was made profef-
for of medicine at Mentz, and foou alter phyficinn to the elec-
tor there, and to the elector of Bavaria. Acquiring conlidcr-
able rep'jtation in thefe honourablepoils, he was calitd to Vien-
ra by the emperor Leopold, where, befides attending to his
medical duties, he was inftrumental in forming a chamber of
commerce, and in improving their manufaftures. He isalfo
faid to have projefted the plan of an Eafl India company
there. But getting into difputes with fome of the officers
about the court, he loft his influence, and was obliged to
leave Vienna. He then went to Mayenne, Munich, and
XVurtzburg. From Wurtzburg he was driven away, Hailer
fays, on being detected dilkcting an human body, with the
view probably of profecuting fome chemical experiments on
fome of the humours, as he did not cu'tivate anatomy. At
Hatrlem, where he now went, he invented a machine for
throwing filk ; and, as he tells us in his " La folic fage, et
la folie fagclTe," printed at Francfort 1682, made fome im-
provement in the art of printing ; in what it confilted, is not
however known. In the mean while he was not unmindful
of the principal objeft of his itudies, the advancement of the
knowledge of chtmillry, as appears bv a rapid fucceffion of
publications on that fubjeft. Getting again involved in dif-
putes with fome principal perfons at Hacrlem, and compelled
to quit that place, he came to London, where he died in
1683. That he was of a turbulent and relllefs difpofition is
evident by his frequent migrations, and by his conllantly
lofing the favour and protection of his patrons, whom he had
made his debtors by his abilities and fervices. Bccher gave
a new turn to chemiftry, which he employed in analyfing
and finding out the principles of natural bodies, and thence
laid the foundation of the great improvements that have been
made in that art. But he was fond of mylleries, and em-
ployed no fmall part of his time and labour in his attempts
to trarfmute metals. That he thought this practicable, ap-
pears by his " Expcrimentum chymicum novum, quo arti-
■ficialis et inftantanea metallorum generetio et tranfmutatio
ad oculum demonltratur ;"' and his " Thefes chymics,
veritatem et pofiibilitatem traiilmutationis metallorum in
aurum evincentes :" but he was confcious of having done
more in the art than had ever been done before, and therefore
probably thought hardly any thing impofiiblc. He had
a proj.-ct Tor an univerial language, by which all men migiit
make themfclves intelligible to each other : " Cl'.arafter pro
notitia linguarum imiveriali." On this fi hjecl he publidied,
hi 1 66 1, a Latin folio ; and as he was the iirll ptrfon who
gave a complete treatife on this art, fir.ce known under the
name of pHfigraphv, he may therefore be coniidered as the
inventor. (See Umverfal Character, and Pasigraphy.)
His principal works are his " Phyhca fuhterranea," which
has paiftd throni;h fcvcral editions; " Inilitutiones chy-
rr>icts," Mogunt. 4to. 1662 ; " Panialfns medicinalis," Ulm.
1663, fol. For the titles of the relt of his works, fee Eloy's
Diet. Hilt.

BECHERE GoL, in Geography, a lake of Caramania in
Ari?.tio Turkey, 40 miles W. ot Co^ni.

£ECHERELE, atown of Fiance, ij the department of
the lUe and Villaine, and chief place of a canton in the
dillriift of ^Tontfol•t, 3 leagues N. of Montfort.

BECHHOFEN, a fmall market town of Germany, in
the principality cf Oaolzbach, ftated on the liver Wiefct,
and having a fmall calllc.

Vol. IV.

B E C

BECHICS, formed of the Greek /Sr|, B'y®; a nv^h, i»
the ALi.'cria Jllai'ica, medicines proper for relieving coughi,
but ihele being of various kinds, the geueral term may mif-
Icad, and is therefore improper.

Br.cmc Pil/s. See Pills.

BECHIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, and capital
of a circle cf the fame name. It is featcd on the river Lun-
nice, and its citadel lies on a ftecp rotk. The circle was
miferably ravaged and laid waftc in the 30 years' war, and the
town was taken and burnt by general Bequoi iu 1619,
N.lat. 49^ 14'. E. long. 15=' 12'.

BECHTOLSHEIM, a market town of Swabia, in the
Rhcnifh circle of nobility, belonging to four co-heirs, two ot"
whom are Roman Catholics, and two Lutherans.

BECK, a little river or brook, called alfo rivulet or rill.

According to Verftegan, the original word is beke, which
properly imports a fmall ftream of water ilfuing from forae
bourn or fpring.

Hence, hell-heels, little brooks fo called, on account of
their ghalHinefs and deptii, or rather from their being co-
vered, or much concealed. See Hell.

Beck is chiefly uftd among us in the compofition of name*
of places originally iituate on rivuUts ; hence \\ elbeck,
Bournbeck, &c.

The Germans ufe leek in the fame manner.

Beck, David, in Biography, an eminent portrait painter,
was born at Amheini in Guelderland in 162 1, and became
a difciple of Vandyck, from whom he acqiftred a fine man-
ner of penciUing, and that fweet ftyls of colouring in which
tills mailer excelled, together with that rapidity of execution
for which he was fo famou?. He was appointed portrait
painter to Chriltina queen of Sweden ; and by her recom-
mendation, moft of the illullrious perfons in Europe fat to
him for their pictures. In his perfon and behaviour he was
handfome, agreeable, and pohte ; and though he was much
favoured by his royal miftrefs, he wilhed to vifit his friend*
in Holland, veiy much againft the queen's inclination ; but
as he foon after died in Holland, at the early age of 35, it
was fufpeited that he was poifoiied. As he travelled through.
Germany, he was inddenly taken ill at an irn, where he
lodged, and the iilnefs terminated in his apparent death, fo
that he was laid out as a corpfe. His valets, who attended,
regretted the event, and as they fat by his bed-lide, relieved
their forrow by drinking freely. One of them, in a ftate of
intoxication, fviggelled, that their mafl:erwas fond of a glafs
while he was alive, and propofed to teflify their gratitude by
giving him a glafs, though he were dead. Accordingly, they
raifed his head, and endeavoured to put fome liquor into his
mouth. Upon this B.-ck opened his eyes, and the fervant
compelled him to fwaliow what remained in the glals. The
painter revived, and, by due attention, not only efcaped inter,
ment, but perfectly recovered. In teftimony of his rurit as
an artift, he received from different princes nine gold chains,
and feveral medals of gold of a large fize. Pilkington.

BECKEM, or Beckum, in Geography, a fmall town of
Germanv, in the circle of Wcftphali^ and biihopric of Mnn-
ftcr, featcd on the AVerfe, I 7 miles S. S. E. of Munfter. Iu
I7?4 it was almoil wholly confumed by fire.

BECKER, Daniel, in Biography, was born atDantzicli,
in December i ,94. He took his degree cf dodtor in medi-
cine at Konigfj^rg, and w as made profelTor of medicine there,
and rector a\ the us iverlity. Becker was author of various
medical works, but that which principally contributed to prc-
fci-ve his name, is his " Dc cultrivoro Pruniaco, ohfervatio
ct curatlc) fingularis," or the extraordinary cure of the PiTif-
fran knifc-fwallov.-tr ; ftril pablilhcd in l^^*^, and fince fre-
quently rcpihittd. Thii lubj.'ct of the hillory i; a young
M man.

EEC

man, acreJ n years, who endeavoured to excite vomitinj; by
introducing the handle of a knife, ten inches long, into the
trfonhagus ; the knife (lippinji from his lingers, dropped into
his lloinach, where it continued, occafioning much pain, about
fix week'*. No probable means of rcheving him, or of ob-
tainin-T the difcharge of the knife occurring, it was deter-
mined, by his medical attendants, to make an inciiion
through the integuments of the abdomen into the ftomach,
and to extraft the knife through the wound. The operation
was perfonned, the knife taken out, and the patient recovered
in a few davs. The author relates fcveral other cafes of per-
fons who had received wounds, penetrating into the ftomach.
In fome, the wouids were completely healed ; in others, the
edges of the wounds becoming callous, left filliiljus openings
into the ftomach, through which t!ie food paffed, imlefs when
covered with a comprefs. This work was tranllated into
Engliib, and publilhed in 4to. by Dan. Lakin, in 1642, under
the title of " A miraculous cure of tlie Pruftlan fwallow
knife." Lakin added other cafes of wounds penetrating
into the ftomach, wliich terminated in the fa ne ways, as
thofe related by Becker. To botli the Latin and Englilh
editions engravings of the fubjeft are added. He died the
14th of Odobcr 1 65 J. For the titles of his other works,
none of which are of much eftimation ; See Hailer's Bib.
Chirurg. ct Anatom. His fon Daniel, who was educated
undei his father, after vifiting the principal fchools on the
continent of Europe, was made dodtor of medicine at Straf-
bourg, in the year 1652 ; returning to Konigfbcrg, he was
appomted profcflbr in ordinary, and foon after phyfician to
the eleftor of Brandenburg. He died fuddcnly Feb. 6th
1C70, and was fucceeded in his honours by his fon Daniel
Chriftopher, but they neither of them left any works dcfcrv-
ing notice.

Becker, Balthasar. See Bekker.

BECKET, Thomas, 1:1 Biography, an Englilh prelate,
famou3 as the occafion of much political contention during
his life, and as the object of much luperllitious veneration
after his death, was born in London in 1 1 19, and profecuted
his ftudies at Oxford, Paris, Bologna, and Auxerre. Da-
ring the interval of his refidence at Paris and Bologna, he
was introduced to Theobald archbilhop of Canterbury, who
being captivated with his graceful and winning addrcfs, gave
him two livings in Kent, and obtained for him two prebends
in the cathedrals of London and Lincoln. As at this time he
was only in deacon's orders, he probably held ihefe benefices
by the pope's difpenfation, which his patron might ealily
have procured. After his return from Auxeire, where he
compleated his ftudies, particularly in the civil and canon
laws, he was employed by the archbilbop as his agent to the
pope, in order to folicit the relloralion of the legantine pow-
ers to the fee of Canterbury. Having conducted this nego-
tiation with dexterity and fuccefs, he was deputed on ano-
ther important commiffion, the object of wi»ich was to ob-
tain from the pope thofe prohibitory letters againft the co-
ronation of prince Euftace, by which that delign was de-
feated. Upon his return to England from this fucccfsful
embalTy, the archbiftiop conferred upon him feveral new fa-
vours, appointing him provoft of Beverley and dean of Haft-
ings, with the right of retaining his other benefices, and j'lft
before the death of Stephen, invelling him with the archdea-
conry of Canterbury-. Immediately upon the acccfiion of
Henry II. to the throne, in 1 158, he was appointed chan-
cellor of England, at the requcll of his patron, who thought
no dignity or trull above his merit. The chancellor of
England, at this time, had no diftinct court of judicature in
which he prefidcd ; but he acted together with the jufticiary
and Other great officers, in matters of the revenue, at the e.\.
8

EEC

chequer, and fometimes in the counties upon circuits. The
great feal being in his cuftody, he fupervifed and ftaled the
writs and precepts that iftued in proceedings pending in
the king's court, and in the exchequer. He alio fiipcrvifed
all charters which were to be fealed with that feal. In the
council his rank was very high ; and he had the principal
direction and conduct of all foreign affairs, performing moll
of that bulliiefs which is now done by the fecittaries of
Hate. Such was t!ic office to which Bcckct was raifed ;
but the favour of h'S rnafter made him greater than even
the power of that office, great as it was in itfelf. In this
ftation he paid his co.nt fo fuccefstully to liis royal mailer,
not only by his dexterity in bufiiiel's, but alio by his fplendid
manner of living and agreeable convcrfation, that lie became
his greatell favourite, and his chief companion in his amufe-
ments. Employments and trufts of all kinds were heaped
upon him without mealure or propriety. Befides the office
of chancellor, and a fcandalous number of eccL-fiaftical bcne-
tices, he had royal calUcs and forts committi.d to his cuftody,
the temporalities of vacant prelacies, and the clchcats of
great baronies belonging to the crown. Thefe revenues he
expended without account or controul ; and Henry repoftd
in him fuch a degree of confidence, that he fetmed alinoll
to (hare the throne with the fovereign. It muft indeed be
allowed that Beckct poflfelfed in a pre-eminent degree all thff
qualities that could moll powerfully engage the alieCtions of
a prince, who had ajudgment capable ot difccrning, and a
heart formed to love extraordinary merit, but a temper that
required fome delicacy of addrcfs in tlK:fe who appioacheil
him very nearly, and that yielded moll to thofe friends
whofc charafter appeared moll congenial to his own. The
perfon of Becket was graceful and his countenance pleafing ;
his wit was lively and facetious, his judgment acute, iiis elo-
quence flowing and fweet, and his memory capacious and
ready on all occifions. The time he had puffed in that
fchool of the moll exquilite policy, the court of Rome, had
greatly improved and rehned his ur.derllanding. Nor was
his capacity limited to the fphere of bulinels. He made
himfelf the king's perpetual companion in moft of his plea-
fures, and confukcd his tafte fo naturally, and with fo much
eafe, that in paying his court he feemed only to indulge his
own inclinations. He occalionally laid afide the cccleliafti-
cal habit and chiradter. In an expedition with the king to
France, he affumed the militaiy profeffioii, headed a body of
men in his own pay, and commAnded at various ficges. In his
manners there was a certain inexpi effible grace, derived from
nature and improved by art, which rendered his virtues more
amiable, and even his vices agreeable. Thus his profufenefs
and ollentation appeared like generofity and grcatncfs of
fpirit ; nor indeed was he dellitute of thefe qualities, though
he canicd them far beyond proper bounds. His expence
was enormous, and Henry would have been jealous of it,
as intended to acquire too much popularity, if lie had not
been perfuaded, by the addrcfs of Becket, that all his mag-
niliccnce in which the fon of a private citizen rurpaffed even
the greatell and moll opulent earls, was only deligiied to do
honour to his bountiful mailer, whofe creature he was, and
upon whom his whole fortune muil abfohitely depend. Yet
amidll the luxury in which he lived for I'cveral years, and all
the temptations of a court where gallantry reigned, he was,
if the writers of his hfe may be credited, conltantly tempe-
rate and invincibly chafte.

At the time of the death of archbilhop Theobald, Becket 's
patron, the king, was in Normandy ; but as foon as he heard
of it, he refolved to raife his chancellor to the primacy, in
hopes by his means of governing the church in tranquil-
lity. This advauccment however was retarded for about a

year

i

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year ty the oppofition of the emprefs Maud, the king's mo-
ther, and of the clergy and bifhops of England. But Hen-
ry's rL-fohition was fixed, and his fondnefs for his favourite
overcame all remonftrancts ; fo that Beckct, being tirft or-
dained prieft, was confecrattd at Canterbury, June 6, 1 162.
As foon as Becket found himfelf firmly feated in the archi-
cpifcopal chair of Canterbury, lie fuddenly changed his whole
mode of life, and from being the gayelt and moll luxurious
courtier, he became the moll aullere and fulemn monk.
Without the king's previous knowledge of his intention, and
vei7 much to his fuipnfe and dilTatii>fa;tion, lie i\"figncd the
office of chancellor. Before the king's return to England in
1 16^, he had received fo many complaints of the ftventies of
the new primate, that he became fenfible, when it was too
late, that he h*ad made a wrong choice. In his interview
with Beckct at Southampton, it was obferved by the whole
court that his affection was cooled ; and he foon after
manifelled his diffatisfaction with the conduct of the primate,
by obliging him, much againll his inclination, to relign
the archdeaconry of Canterbury. In 1163, Becket at-
tended a council, fummoned at Tours by pope Alex-
ander III., where he v/as treated by the pope and car-
dinals with particular refpeA ; and where, it is probable, he
was animated by the pope in his defign of becoming the cham-
pion of the liberties of the church, and the immunities of the
clergy. It is, however, certain, that foon after his return lie
began to profecute this delign without his former referve ;
and the zeal which he manifelled produced an open breach
between him and his fovereign. Henry was determined to
be the fovereign of all his fubjefts, clergy as well as laity ;
to oblige them to obey his laws, or to anlwer for their difo-
bcdience in his courts of juftice. Becket, on the other hand,
maintained, that the clergy were fubjeftonly to the laws of the
church, and were to be judged only in fpiritual courts, and to
punilhed only by ecclellalhcal cenfures. In order to bring
this queftion to a fpeedy ilTue, which the licentioufnefsof the
olergy, and the atrocious crimes committed by fomeof them
at this time, rendered abfolutely neceffary, a council of the
clergy and nobility was fummoned at Weftminllcr ; and at
this council the king required that the archbifhop and other
bifliops would confent to deliver to his officers a clerk, who
was degraded for any crime, in order to his being punilh-
ed for it according to the laws of the land. This re-
queft was reafonable ; but the primate's influence refilled
the demand ; aad the council broke up in confufion. Al-
though Becket folemnly promifed and fwore, in the words
of truth, and without referve, to obey the laws and cuf-
toms, commonly called the "conllitutions of Clarendon,"
which reduced ecclefialHcsof all denominations to a due fub-
jeftion to the laws of their country, and rellricled the immuni-
ties of the clergy; he foon began to exhibit figns of repentance,
by extraordinary adls of mortification, and by difcontinuing
the performance of the facred offices of his function ; and he
obtained from the pope a bull, releafing him from the
obligation of his oath, and enjoining him to refume the
duties of his facred office. Fearful however of the king's
indignation, he determined to retire privately out of the
kingdom ; but being prevented from making his efcape by
contrary winds, he returned to Canterbury ; and aftcr-
tvards waited upon the king at Woodllock, to fipphcate
forgivenefs for attempting to leave the kingdom without
his permiffion. The king received him without any other
expreffion of difpleafure, befides afliing him, " if he had left
England becaufc he thought it too little to contain them
both?" This interview was foon fucceededby frelh aggref-
fions on the part of Becket, which induced the king to ium-
mon a parliament at Northampton, OiSt. 17, 11641 which

EEC

unanimoufiy found the primate guilty of contumacy, in re-
fufing to attend the king's court when he was fummoned,
and fentenced him to forfeit all his goods and chattels. He
was alfo required to rcftore a fum of 50c/. which the king
had lent to him, when he was chancellor, and to render an
account of 250,000 matks, which he had received from va-
cant benefices. Thefe demands were of fo ferious a na-
ture, that, though he appealed to the pope, many of Ivis
cpifcopal brethren deferted him through fear, and urged
him to refign lis office, afluring him that if he did not
he would be tried for perjury and high treafon. The ba-
rons llkewife became loud and vehement in their claaiours
againll him, fo that Becket thought it mod prudent to leave
the kingdom. Accordingly he left Northampton at mid-
night, accompanied only by two rronks, and travelling on
foot and by night, he arrived at Lincoln, ^nd from thence
he palled by water to a folitary ifiand, where he remain-
ed till an opportunity offered of paffing over to Flanders.
Some fay that he travelled to Sandwich, and hi'ed a filh-
iiig boat to convey him to Boulogne. However that be,
he retired to the monaftery of Saint Bertin. Upon his
retreat, the king confifcated the revenues of the archbi-
fhopric, and fent ambalTadors to the king of France, and
the carl of Flanders, dilTuading thefe princes from afford-
ing Becket flielter in their dominions. The ambafladors
met with a cold reception at the French court at Com-
peigne, and were told by Lewis, who was a fuperftitious
bigot, and a great admirer of Becket, that he would pro-
tect the perfecuted prelate with all his power. They then
proceeded to Sen?, where the pope rcfided, who aftei admit-
ting them to an audience, and confulling his cardinals, in-
formed them, that no anfwer could be given to their peti-
tion till the archbilhop had been heard. Becket, as foon as
he was allured of the favour and proteftion of the king of
France, paid him a vifit at SoilTons, where he was affeftion-
ately received, and urged to accept an order on the royal
treafuiy for evei-y thing he needed during his flay in France.
From SoilTons he proceeded with a numerous retinue for
Sens, which he entered in a kind of triumph, and here the
pope treated him with the greattll refpefl and kindnefs.
At a folemn council of all the cardinals and prelates, he was
feated at the pope's right hand, and allowed to keep his feat
while he explained his caufe. Having produced, in the
courfe of an artful fpeech, a copy of the conllitutions of
Clarendon, fcvcral of which were direftly calculated toabridge
the power of the pope and cardinals, the whole alTeiKbly ex-
preffed their abhorrence of them in the ftrongeft terms, and
at the fame time paffing the highell encomiums on the arch-
bilhop, declared that his caufe was the caufe of God and the
church, and that he ought to be fupportcd. Becket, with
a view of farther ingratiating himfelf with the pope, refigned
his archbhhopric into his hands, wrhich, however, the pope,
with the advice of his cardinals, immediately reftored to
him, appointing him a refidence in the abbey of Pontigny in
Burgundy.

When the ambalTadors returned to England, and made
their report, Henry was highly offended both with the pope
and the archbilhop ; and in token of his refentment prohi-
bited the payment of peter-pence, and commanded ail clerks
who prefumed to appeal to the pope to be imprifoned. Ht
alfo commanded all the goods and revenues of the archbi-
fhop, and of all the clergy who adhered to him, to be fciz-
ed ; and proceeded to confifcate the eftates, and to banifh
the perfons of all the primate's friends, retainers, and rela-
tions, to the number of about 400. Becket, during his
refidence at Pontigny, employed himfelf in exercifes of
devotion, and alfo in writing expofiulatory letters to the

M 2 king

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king and bifhop-s of England, in iffuing excommunications
agaiiift fcvcral ofiicers of tlie crown, and in threat-.ning tvcn
to excoinmiinicHltf the king himfclf. Notwithllanding a
fpiritf J remotitliancc addrtfled to Bccktt by the En^iilh
prelates, he ptrliHid in his piirpofe ; and communicated it
to the pope in a Ictttr, which rcprefented Hciu y as a cruel,
impious, unrcU-nting perfcculur, who had tried and con-
demned Chiiil at Northampton, in his pcrfon. Henry was
much alarmed ; and calUd a council of his barons and pie-
htes at CM'ion in Tonraiiie, to coniicitr what was to be
done for preventing his excommunication, or for guarding
agiinft its confefiutnccs. After along deliberation, it was
thought the mill exptdient to appeal to the pope. In th.e
mean while Henry fent orders to England to guard the fca-
coarts, and to lake other meafuics of precaution. AUnough
C;cket was prevented by the intcrpofition of the king of
France from executing his deligi. of excommunicating Henry,
he excommunicated his minillcrs and chief confidents, and de-
clared the impious conftitutions of Clarendon null and void,
abfolvtd all the bifliops of England from the -.inlcuvful oath
they had taken to obey them, and excommnnicated ?ll per-
fons who paid any regard to them. Upon thefc prefump-
tuous proceedings Henry threatened to expel all the monks
of the Cillercian order from his dominions, if they any longer
entertained his enemy the avchbilhop of Canterbury at Pon-
tigny ; upon which he removed to Sens about Martinmas
A.D. 1166, where an honorable afylum was provided for
him by the king of France. The pertinacity of Bcoket
rendered ineffectual for a long time all the eft'ortS of the Eng-
li(h prcfates, of the pope, and of the king of France, for
terminating the contention between him and the king of
England. At length, however, all preliminaries for a rtcon-
ciliation being adjulled by the papal nuncios, the archhilhop
wai condncltd in great ftate to an audience of his fovcreign,
nly 22. A.D. 1 170, in a meadow near Fretville, where the
"rench and Englilh courts, with a prodigious multitude of
people of all ranks, were alTembled. The conduft of the
king on this occafion was fingularly condefcending ; but
Bccket's lofty and refentfid temper was fo little imprcflcd by
it, that he returned Henry's civiUty and condcfccnfion with
complaints and remoniti-am-es. After a promife extorted
from the king to repair all tlie injuries which had been done
to the church, t!ie archbidiop dilmountcd in order to throw
himfelf at his feet ; but Henry prevented him, and Hooped
fo low as to hold his rtirrup, and alTiH him in re mounting.
This reconciliation, however, was far from being cordial, on
the part either of Henry or Bicket, and it was not hkcly to
be permanent. AVhilft the archbifhop was waiting at Whit-
fanj, a fea-port in Flanders, prcvioufly to his return to Eng-
land, he fent over three bulls, one for fiifpending the arch-
billiop of York, who had been employed in crowning the
joung king, and two for excommunicating the bilhops of
London and Salifhury, who had affilUd at this ceremony.
This conduft, v/hich was inexcufable at the moment when
he prttci.ded to return in peace, excited againll him univer-
fal indignation, and eventually proved the caufe of his ruin.
On his reaching the Englilh Ihore, attempts were made to
prevent his landing, and he was infnltcd by fome pcrfons in
arms, who commanded him in a threatening tone to .nbfolve
the cxcofnnuunicated bilhops. In his way to Canterbury he
was accompanied by a great multitude of peiple, and enter-
ed the city in a kuid of triumph amidit the acclam.ations of
his attendants. Soon after his arrival, application v/as made
to him for abfolving the bilhops whom he had l;fpetided and
excommunicated ; and the young king, who concurred in
t'le appluration, and who had ifTued an order for this piirpofe,
4ica« much. incc|ifcd at his refuLl, maic cfpcciully as die

{

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ctnfures which he had inflifted on tliofe prelates who had'
affiled at his coro: ation fecmed to call in queftion its vali-
dity. In his progrefs from Cantcrbsvy to Woodftock, where
the young king relided, he was attended on his approach to
Lcn'don by prodigious crowds of people, and conduittd to his
lodgings in Southwark with loud acclamations ; in return
for which he fcattcrtd among the populace both money
and epifcopal benediflions. Here his vanity was mortified
by a mefTagc from the young king, forbidding him to
proceed any fui ther, or to enter any roy ;il town or caftl-, and
commarding him to return im.mediately to Canterbury,
and to confine himfelf within the precinfts of hU chinch.
After his return to this city, he found himfelf defertcd by
many of his friends, and received vcpoitr. of the infults they
fuifcred, and the depredations that were committed upon
his ciiates, fo that lie indulged gloomy apprihenfi.ms, and
faid to one of his chief confidents, " that he was now con-
vinccd this quarrel would not end without blood, but that
he was determined to die for the liberties of the church."
When the excommunicnted prelates arrived in Normandy,
and implored the prottftion of the king from the difgrace
and ruin with which they were threatened by the prinate,
the indignation of Henry was roufed, and in the moment of
intemperate paffion, he exclaimed, " ihall this fellow, who
came to court on a lame horfe, with all his eftate in a wal-
let behind him, tramp)e upon his king, the royal fam.ily, and
the whole kingdom ? Will none of all thole lazy cowardly
knights, whom I maintain, deliver me from this turbulent
prie'.l; :" This pnflionate exclamation made too deep an im-
preflion on thofe who heard it ; and particularly on four bo-
rons, who formed a refolution, either to terrify the archbi-
fliop into fubmiffion, or to ptithim to death. Accordingly,
having concerted their plan, they fet out for Canterbury by
different routes and arrived at a caftle about 6 miles from
the city on the iSth of December, A.D. 1 170; and on
the following day tliey proceeded to the city, and getting
admilnon into the archbilhop's apartment, they told Iwrn,
that tt'.ey were fent by the king with a command that he
fliould abfolve the prelates, and others whom he had ex-
communicated, and then go to Winchefttr, and make latif-
fadlion to the young king, whom he had endeavoured to de-
throne. Becket, after a violent altercation, in the courle of
which hints were given that his life was in danger if he did,
not comply, perfiiled in his refufal. Upon the departure
of the barons, one of them charged his fervants not to let
him flee ; to which Becket, who overheard them, replied with
great vehemence ; " flee ! I will never flee from any m.an.
living. I am not come to flee, but to defy the rage of im-
pious aff;iflins." Th.e barons, with their accomplices, finding
their threats ineffeftual, pnt cm their coats of mail ; and
taking each a fword in his right hand, and an ax in his left,,
returned to the palace, but found the gate fluit. When
they were preparing to break it open, Robert de Broc con-
dui^ted them up a back ftair-cafe, and let them in through a
window. A cry then arofe, " rhey are armed I thev are
armed I" on v.hich the clergy hurried the archbifhop almoft
by force into the church, hoping that the facrcdncfs of the
place would proteft him frcim violence. They would alfo
have flvut the door ; but he exclaimed " begone, vc cowards :
I charge you on your obcdier.ce, do not !hut the door.
What, make a caflle of a church !" The confpirators hav-
ing fearched the palace, came to the church, and one of
them exclaim.ing " Where is that traitor '. where is the arch-
bidiop?" Becket advanced boldly, and replied, " here I am,
an arclibifliop, but ' no traitor 1 — I am ready to fuffcr in the
name of him who redeemed me with h:S blood. God for-
l»;d shat> I foould fly for fear of ycur fwords, or recede
i. from

EEC

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from judice." They orce more connmanded him to tr,ke off
ihe excommunication and fiifpei-finn of the biP.iops. He re-
plied " no falisfaciion has yet been made ; nor viill I abfolve
iheir." "Then," faid they, " thou fiialt inftantly die ac-
Lordiiijr to thy defcrt." " I am ready to die," reolicd
I'ecket, "that the church may obtain hlierty and peace in
my blood. But in the name of God, I forbid you to hint
any of my people." They now rufned upon him, and en-
deavoured to dr?.jj him out of the church, with an intention,
as they themfclvcs afterwards declared, to carrv him in bonds
to the king, or if they could not do that to kill him
in a lefs facred place. But as he clung faft to one of
the pillars of the choir, they could not free him from
thence. During the ftruggle, he fhook William de
Ti-acy fo roughly, that he almoil threw him down ; and as
Reginald Fitzurfe prcffcd harder upon him than any of the
others, he thruft him away, and called him " pimp." This
opprobrious language more enraged that violent man ; he
lifted up his fword againft the head of Becket, who, bowing
li'.s neck, and joining his hands together, in a pofture of
prayer, recommended his own foul, ard the caufe of the
church, to God, and to the faints of that cathedral. But
Edward Grime, one of the monks of Canterbury, intcrpof-
ing his ai-m to ward off the blow, it was almoft cut off ; and
the archbifhop alfo was v/oundcd in the crown of his head.
He ftood a fecond ftroke, which likewife fell on his head,
in the fame devout pofture, without a motion, word, or
groan ; but after receiving a third, he fell proftrate on his
face ; and all the accomplices preffing now to a (hare in the
murder, a piece of his (Iculi was llruck off by one of them ;
upon which another fcoopcd out the brains of the dead arch-
bifiiop with the point of a fword, and fcattered them over the
pavement of the church.

Thus was afiafTmated in the 53d year of his age, and 9th
of his pontificate, A.D. 1 170. Dec. 29, Thomas Becket ;-^
" a man," fays lord Lyttelton, " of fcreat talents, of ele-
vated thoughts, and of invincible courage ; but of a mofl
violent and turbulent fpirit ; exceffively pafTionate, haughty,
and vain-glorious ; in his refolutions inflexible, in his refent-
ments implacable. It cannot be denied that he was guilty
of a wilful and premeditated perjury ; that he oppofed the
neceffary courfe of public jullice, and afted in defiance of
the laws of his country, laws which he had mod folemnly
acknowLdged and confirmed ; nor is it lefs evident, that
during the heat of this difpute, he was in the higheft degree
ungrateful to a very kind mafter, whofe confidence in him
had been boundlefs, and who from a private condition had
advanced him to be the fecond man in his kingdom. On
what motives he afled can be certainly judged of by Him
alone, to luhom all hearts are open. He might be milled by
the prejudices of a bigotted age, ai d think he was doing an
acceptable fervice to God, in contending, even to death, for
the utmoll excels of ecch-fialtical and papal authority. Yet
the ftrength of his undcrftanding, his converfation in courts
and camps, among perfons whofe notions were more free
and enlarged, the different colour of his former life, and the
fuddennefs of the change which feemed to be wrought in
him upon his elefticu to Canterbury, would make one fuf-
peft, as many did in the times wherein he lived, that he only
became the champion of the church from an ambitious de-
fire of fh^ring its power ; a power more independent on the
favour of the king, and therefore more agreeable to the
haughtincfs of his mind, than that which he had enjoyed as
miai'der of the crown. And this fufpicion is Increafed by
the marks of cunning and falfenefs wliich are evidently feen
in his conduA on fome occafions. Neither is it impofTible,
that when firil he afRumed his new charadcr, he might. adl

th? part of a zealot, merely or principally f.om motive, of
arrogance and ambition ; yet afterwards, being engaged and
inflamed by the conteft, work hinnfelf up into a real en-
thuliafm. The continual praifes of thofc with whom he
aiSeJ, the honours done him in his exile by all the clergy
of France, and the vanity which appears fo predominant in
his mind, may have conduced to operate futh a charge. He
certainly (hewed in the latttr part of his life a fpirit as fer-
vent as the warracfl enthufiall's ; fuch a fpirit indeed as
conftitutes heroifm, when it exerts Itfclf in a caufe beneficial
to mankind. Had he defended th.e eftabUfned laws of his
countr)', and the fundamental rules of civil juflice, with as
much zeal and intrepidity as he oppofed them, he would
have dcferved to be ranked with thofe great men, whofe
virtues make or.eeafily forget the alloy of fome natural imper-
feftions ; but unhappily his good qualities were fo mifapplied,
that they became no l<-fs hurtful to the public weal of the
kingdom, than the worft of his vices." Mr. Hume clofcs
his account of the afTaSnation of Bo-cket with the following
concife (Itetch of his charaiter. He was " a prelate of the
moll lofty, intrepid, and inflexible fpirit, who was able to
cover to the world, and probably to himftlf, the enterprifes
of pnde and ambition under the difguife of fanAity and of
zeal for the intereffs of piety and rehgion. An extraordi-
nary perfonage, truly, if he had been allowed to remsin in
his firfl flation, and had direfted the vehemence of his cha-
radler to the fupport of law andjuftice; intlcad of being
engaged, by the prejudices of the times, to facrifice all pri-
vate duties and all public connections to ties which he ima-
gined or reprefentcd as fuperior to evei-y civil or political
confideration. But no man, who enters into the genius of
that age, can reafonably doubt of this prelate's fincerity."
Another judicious hiflorian (Dr. Henry) fays of Becket:
" He was evidently a man of very great abilities, particu-
larly of confummate cunning, undaunted courage, and in-
vincible conftancy in the profecution of his defigns. But
his fchem.es were of a moft pernicious tendency, to emanci-
pate the minifters of religion from the rcftraints of law, and
to fubjeft his king and country to a foreign power. He
was vain, obftinate, and implacable ; as little affefted by
the entreaties of his friends, as by the threats of his enemies.
His ingratitude to his royal m.afler admits of no excufe, and
hath fixed an indelible fiain upon his charaAer. Though
his murderers were highly criminal, his death was very fea-
fonable, and probably prevented much milchief and con-
fufion."

The refpeft paid to the memon- of Becket, after hi- death,
was extravagant beyond all bounds, and rem.oins on record as
an evidence of the fuperflition and credulity which prevailed
at the period in which it occurred. The king of England,
to whofe commands it was generally imputed, ^vasreprtfentcd
as " that horrible perfecutor of God, who exceeded Nero in
cruelty, Julian in perfidy, and Judas in treachery ;" and
the pope was loudly called upon by the kings of France and
many prelates to draw the fword of St. Peter, and to infli£l
feme exquifite punifliment upon him. But none e.xprcffcd
greater grief and horror at this deed than Henrj- himfclf,
who broke out into the loudeil lamentations, refufed to fee
any company, or admit of any confolation for three days.
He alfo difpatched an embaffy to Rome to vindicate himfelf
from the imputation of having been the caufe of it. All
divine offices were fufpended for nearly a year in the church
where it had happened ; ar.d the church itfelf was, by order
of the pope, re-confecrat(d. In 1173, Becket was canon-
ized by a bull of pope Ahxander ; and a particular colled
was appointed to be ufed in all the churches of the province
of Canterburv, for expiating the guilt of his murder. In

the

B K C

the followinpf year, Icing Henr)-, on his retnrn to England,
went to Canterbury, where lie did penance, and unckr-
went a voluntary difciphne, walking barefoot to his tomb,
proftrating himfelf before it, and fubmitting to be fcoiirgcd
by the monks, pafiing all tlie day and night without any
rctVe(hment, kneeling on the bare ftones, and bellowing
great benefadions on the church of Canterbury, as a
teftimony of his regret for the murder. His virtues were
the fubjefts of cndlefs panegyric, and the miracles, ope-
rated by his relics, were more numerous, more nonfenli-
cal, and more impudently attefted, fays Hume, than thofe
which ever filled the Ugtnd of any confclTor or m^rtjr.
Gervafe of Canterbur)- informs us, that two large volumes
of them were prcfcrved ill that church. In 1221, his body
was taken up, in the prefence of king Henry HI. and a vafl
concourfe of the nobility and others, and dtpofited in a rich
ftlriue crtftcd nt the expence of archbilhop Stiplien Larg-
ton. This (hriiie was enriched with prcfcnts from all parts
of Chiiftendom ; pilgrimages were performed to it for ob-
taining the martyred prelate's intcrceflion with heaven ; and
it has been computed that, in cne year, above 100,000 pil-
grims arrived in Canterbur)', for the purjiofc of paying their
devotions at this tomb. " It is indeed," fays Hume, " a
mortifying refledion to thofe wlui are aftuated by the love
of fame, (o juftly denominated the lall iiiiirmity of noble
minds, that the wifell legillator and moll exalted genius that
ever reformed or enlightened the world, can nev.r cxpeft
fuch tributes of praife as are lavilhcd on the memor)' of a

J)rctcnded faint, whofe whole conduft was probably, to the
aft degree, odious or contemptible, and whofe indudiy was
entirely devoted to the purfuits of objefts pernicious to
mankind." Lyttelton's Hiil. Henrj' II. vol. ii. p. 321,
&c. vol. iv. p. 361, &c. 8vo. Hume's Hill, of England,
vol. i. p. 447, &c. 8vo. Henry's Hift. of Great Britain,
vol. v. p. 340, Src. 8vo.

BECKET, William, fon of Ifaac Becket, a furgeon
of fome eminence at Abingdon, in Btrklhire, under whom
he received his education, was born in the year 1684. At
a proper age, he was fent to London, and was for foxe
years pupil to Mr. Jof. Bateman, furgeon to St. Thomas's
hofpital in Southwark. That he was diligent in cultivating
his profeffion, appears by the early fpecimens he gave of the
refult of what he had feen in praftice : for in 1 707, he pub-
hfhed a cnllcftion of chirurgical obfervations, containing re-
lations of fome curious cafrs that had fallen under his notice;
and in 1712, " New Difcovcries in the Cure of Cancers ;"
and foon after, a recital of the cafe of Dr. James Keil, the
celebrated phyfician and mathematician, who died of a can-
cer in his mouth. Becket had been accufed of mifmanaging
this cafe, and therefore publidicd the account in vindication
of his prafticc. In his New Difcovcries, he preten.-^s to have
been frequently fucccfsful in removing cancerous tumours,
by means of a digeflive, the iranner of preparintr which he
does not however difclofe. In a fubfequent edition of this
\v.)rk, he g'ves the defcription of a medicine, which had
been ufed fuccefsfuUy, it was faid, in eradicating cancers
by the family of the Paincs of Northampton. It confills of
yellow arfenic and hole armenic, mixed to the confiiler.ce of
a pafte with the pulp of an apple. It is called the red
cauftic. A fimilar preparation has been fincc ufed by Plun-
ket and others. In 1721, he publiflicd two Ltters addrefTed
to fir Hans Sloane, in which he refutes the current opinion
of the efficacy of the royal touch in curing the evil, which
was perhaps preparatory to his being eleclcd fellow of the
Royal Society. About this time he publifh^-d propofals
for printing an account of the lives and writings of the moft
cmiacnt BritiHi vrriters in medicine, in i vols. Svo. which he

B E C

did not however complete. Dr. Milward, who had formed a
fimilar defign, is faid to have purchafed what nianufcripts
were left by him on this fubjeft, of his executors ; but nei-
ther did he carry his intention into execution. It is proba-
ble that, while making this ftarch after ancient Britidi writ-
ers, Becket met with accounts of the difeafe called a brenn-
iuiT, and conceiving that to be a fymptom of the venereal
difeaie, he was induced to publifh liis three differtations on
the antiquity of that complaint, which was known, he fays,
before the difcovery of the AVeft Indies by Columbus.
Tliefe were firll printed in the Philofophical Tranfadlions.
Becket died at Abingdon in 173"!. His works were col-
le£led togellier, and publifhed in 9 vols. 8vo. in 1740, by '
the noted Mr. Edmund Curl.

BECKET, Isaac, a mczzotinto engraver of fome emi-
nence, was born in Kent in 1653, was originally an appren-
tice to a callico-printcr, and obtained the tetiet of fcrapii g
mczzotinto from one Loyd, a print-fcller, with whom he
lived for fome time. He afterwards conncded himfelf with
an engraver in mezzotinto, with wliom he had been acquaint
ed at an earlier period of his hfe, and who aililled him, as he
drew better and m.ore expcditioufly than hinilclf. His mez-
zotintos are often clear and well fcraped ; but his middle
tints are not fiifficicntly diilinguifhed, fo that his fliadows
appear flat and heavy. One of his bell prints is engraved on
a middliiig-fiztd upright jilate, reprefenting Adrian Bever-
laiid drawing from a llatuc, and having in the back ground
monuments, pyramids, and feveral relics of antiquity. The
time of his dtath is not known. Strutt.

Becket, St. Thomas, Brotherhood of , in Commerce, a
name given to the moll ancient company of Englllh mer-
chants of which hillory furniflies any record, which was efla-
blifiicd about tiie end of the i3th century, and thus called in
honour of Becket. The dclign of this company was to ex-
port the woollen cloth, which about that time began to be
manufaduved in confiderablc quantities in England ; and as
that manufadure increaled, the trade of the brotherhood
alfo increafed. Henry IV. A. D. 1406, incorporated this
fociety by a charter, regulating their government and their
privileges. By this charter, any merchant of England or
Ireland, who defired it, was to be admitted into the com-
pany on paying a fmall fine. As this fociety was compofcd
of the native fubjeds of the kings of England, it was fa-
voured both by government and by the people, made gradual
encroachments on the trade of the merchants of the ftaple,
and at length ruined that company. Anderf. Comm. vol. i.
p. 233, 260, &c. See Staple.

Becket, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Berk-
(liire county, Maffiichufetts, containing 75 1 inhabitants, 10
miles ea!l of Stockbridge, and 130 weft from Bofton.

BECKETS, in the Marine, fignify large hooks, or cir-
cular wreaths of rope, or wooden brackets, ufed to confine
ropes, tackles, oars, or fpars, in a convenient place, till they
arc wanted. And lo put the tachs and facets in the bcclets, is
to liang up the weather-main and fore-ftieet, and the lee-
main and fore-tack, to a little knot and eye- becket on the
fore-maft, main, and fore-fhrouds, when tlie fliip is clofc-
hauled, to prevent them from hanging in the water. Some
beckets have an eye fpliced in one end, and a fmall walnut-
knot crowned at the other, and fome have both ends fpliced
togetlier like a wre-ath. The noofe made at the breaft of a
block, to make faft the Handing part of a fall-to, is alfo
called a becket.

BECKINGTON, Thomas, in Biography, an Englilh
prelate of the 15th century, was born in the parifti of Beck-
ington, in Somerfctftiire, towards the clofe of the 14th
century, educated at Wykeham's fchool, near Winchefter,

and

BED

and finidicd his (Indies at New College, Oxford, of which he
\v33 admitted feOoiv in 1408. After feveral eccleliallical
prtrferments he became dean of the arches about the year
1429, and vi-as employed by a fynod held in St. Paul's
church, London, ii copjun^iion with two other peifor.s, to
draw up a form of law, by which the profecution of the
Wickhffites, or Lollards, was to be ooiiducled. Wliilft he
was tutor to king Henry VI. he wrote a book, preferved in
manufcript in the Cottonian library, in which he (Irenuoufly
aflerted, in oppafition to the Sahqce law, the ri^ht of the
kings of En:;land to the crown of F.-ance ; and then gaining
the fpecial favour and patronage of that prince, he was made
fecretary of (Ute, keeper of the great feal, and bifiiop of
Bath and Wells, to which he was confecrated in 1443. He
is reprefcnted as having been well (killed in polite learning and
hillory, and very converfant in tlie holy fcriptnres ; as a
good preacher, and as a generous patron of ingenious and
leanied men, fo that he was called the Maecenas of his age. His
works of munificence and charity were numerous. He finilhed
Lincoln college in Oxford ; procured an endowment for
New College, in 1440 ; laid out a confiderable fum of money
in repairing houfes belonging to his Ire ; and erected the
weft fide of the cloill-rs at Wells, and alio a conduit in the
market place of that city. He died at Wells, in 1465. A large
collection of his letters is preferved in the hbrar^' at Lambeth ;
and a volume of fermons and fomc other treatifes are afcribed
to him. Biog. Brit.

BECMARE, in Entomology, a genus of infects eftablifh-
ed by Geoflfroy. See Rhisomacer.

BECOUYA, in Geography. See Bekia.
BECSANGIL, a name fometimes given to a province
of Afia, which is a part of Anatolia, b.iunded on the north
by the Black fea, on the well by the fea of Marmora and
the Archipelago, on the fouth by Natoha proper, and on
the eaft by the province of BoUi. The capital is Burfa.

BECTIVE, in the county of Meath, Ireland, where
are confiderable ruins of an abbey which belonss^ed to the
Cifterc'ans. It was founded by Murchard O'Melachhn,
king of Meath, in 1146; and being richly endowed, the
abbot had a place among the peers in the alTemblies of par-
liament, and wore a mitre. The cloifters with a tower are
almoll entire. It was pleafantly fituated on the banks of the
Boyne, over which river there was a bridge ; and at preftnt
a little village, caW^ABrcllve-bndge-end, has two fairs annually.
It is 3 miles from Trim, and about 24 from Dubhn. Mo-
nallic Hibern. Ware's Antiquities.

BECTASSE, a feft among the Turks denominated
from their founder Beftafh, preacher to fultan Ainurath.

All the Janizaries belongirig to the Porte ;;re of the reli-
gion of Beftade, and are faid to have derived their origin
from the founder of this fciit. Their habit is white ; on
their heads they wear white caps of feveral pieces, with tur-
bans of wool twifled rope-fafhion. They obferve conftantly
the hour ot prayer, which they perform in their own aflem-
blies, and they make frequent declarations of the unity of
God.

BED, a place prepared to ftretch and compofe the body
on, for reft and fleep ; made chiefly of feathers inclofcd in a
ticken cafe. Of beds there are feveral forts : as a feather-
bed, a down-bed, a ftanding-bed, a fettee-bcd, a tent-bed,
a truckle-bed, &c.

In the firft and ruder ages of mankind, it was the uni-
verfal pradlice to fleep upon the fliins of beaits. This was
the cullom among the Greeks and Romans, and alfo among
the Celtic nations, and ancient Britons. This cuilom pre-
vailed till modern times among the common people in
fome parts of Germany. Thefe feins, fome of which

BED

are worn in the day, were fpread at night on the floors of
their apartments. In procefj of time, thefe fliins were
changed for loofe ruflies and heath, and afterwards for
ftraw. PJiny (1. viii. c. 48. 1. xvi. c. 36.) lays, that the
beds of the Ro:i:an gentry were gcneialiy filled with fea-
thers, and thofe of the inns with the foft down of reeds.
Straw was ufed, even in the royal chambers of England, fo
late as the clofe of the 13LJ1 century. Beds, filled with
chaff, heath, or ftraw, are ufed by the common pei;;L in
many parts cf Great Britain ar.d Ireland, and alfo in France
and Italy at this day. Beds were for a long time laid upon
the ground ; till at length the cuftom of railing the beds on

ncr of difpoling them, vary among different ranks, and in
different nations. By the Englilh ftatutes, no beds are to
be fold, except filled with one fort of ftuifing only ; e. gr.
feather beds with only dry pulled feathers ; and down beds
with clean down alone. No fcaldcd feathers are to be mixed
with the former ; nor fen down with the latter, on pain of
forfeiture; the mixtuie of fuch things being conceived as
contagious for man's body to lie on. Stat. 1 1 Hen. VII. c. 19.
Alfo bed quilts, mattraffes, and cufhions ftuffed with
horfe-hair, ftn-down, goats' hair, and neats' hair, which are
drcfftd in lime ; and which the heat of man's body will caufe
to exhale, and yield a noxious fmcll, whereby many of the
king's fubjefts have been deilroycd, are prohibited by the
fame ftatute.

The ancient Romans had various kinds of beds for re-
pofe ; as their lecluj cubL-ularis, or chamber-Led, whereon they
flept ; their table-bed, or IcP.ui difcubitorlus, whereon they
eat (for they always ate lying, or in a recumbent pofture),
there being ufually three perfons to one bed, whereof the
middle place was accounted the moft honourable, as well as
the middle bed. See Triclinium. Thefe beds were un-
known before the fecond Punic war : the Romans, till then,
fat down to. eat on plain wooden benches, in imitation of the
heroes of Homer ; or as Varro expreffes it, after the manner
of the Lacedaemonians and Cretans. An innovation in this
praftice is afcribed to Scipio Africanus, who brought from
Carthage fome of thofe little beds, called " Punicani," or
" Archaici," which were of wood, very low, ftuffed only
with hay or ftraw, and covered with the rtvins of ftjeep or
goats, " haedinis ptllibus ftrati." Thefe beds in rcfpeit of
delicacy differed little from the wooden benches ; but when
the cuilom of bathing prevailed, the praftice of refting
themfelves more commodiouily by lying along than by fit-
ting down, was adopted. As for the ladies, it did not feetn
at firft confitlent with their modefty to adopt the mode of
lying ; accordingly they kept to the old cuftom all the time
of the commonwealth ; but, from the firft Csefars, they ate
on their beds. As to the youth, who did not yet put on
the toga "virUh, they were long kept to the ancient difcipline.
When they were admitted to table, they only fat on the
edge of the beds of their neareft relations. Never, fays Sue-
tonius, did the young Cxfars, Caius and Lucius, eat at the
table of Auguftus ; but they were fet " in imo loco," or,
as Tacitus expreffes it, " ad lecli fulcra." From the greateft
fimplicity, the Romans, by degrees, carried their dining beds
to the moft furprifing magnificence. Pliny affnres us, it was
no new thing to fee them covered over with plates of filver,
adorned with the fofteft mats, and the richeft counterpanes.
Hift. Nat. lib. xxxiii. cap. 11. Lampridius, fpeaking of
Heliogabalus, fays, that he had beds of !■ lid iilver ; and
Pompey, in his third triumph, introduced beds of gold.
They had alfo their UHus lucubratorlus, on which tb?y ftudied;

and

BED

«n(3 a hHui funclris, or tmorliiaiis, on which the dead were
carried to tlic pile. Sci- li'Ni ral.
Wi.n of Slate. Sco Paraok.

V,vn 'of J'lfticf, J-'<t <lf J»fli'-f, in ihe French Lnius, de-
noted a throne on which the kiiirr ufed to be feated m parlia-
ment. In this fenfe, lie was laid (o hold his /// de juftice,
when he went to the parliament of Paris, and held a folerpn
feillon. under a hij;!i canopy ercfted for the piiipole. The
htd of jmlice was only lieid on affairs relating to t!ie llatc ;
on wliiJi occalioii, all'the officers of the parhamcnt appeared
in red rohes ; at other times tliey wore black ones. Several
antliors have treated exprcily on the ceremonies of the bed
of jnlHce.

Bfd of a great Gun, is a piece of plank laid within the
cheeks of the carriage, on the middle tranfum, for the breech
of the gun to rell on.

Bed, or S'.ool of a MortM; is a folid piece of oak, in
form of a parellepipcd, bicr>;er or lefs, according to the di-
menlioiisof the mortar, hollowed a little in the middle to
receive the breech and half the trunnions. On the fides ot
the bed are fixed the cheeks or brackets by four bolts of
iron.

In rtiips, when the decks lie too low from the ports, io
that the caniages of the pieces, with the trucks, cannot
mount the ordnance hifhcieiitly, but thr.t they lie too near
the gunwale ; the method is to make a falfe deck for fo
much as the piece will require for her traverfing to raife it
liigher ; and this they call a led.

Bfd, in Cunleiiiiig., a fmall elevated plot or compartment
of ground, of three, four, or more feet in breadth, wh'ch
is ukful in the culture of mar.y forts of plants, efpecially
thofe of the fmaller kinds. It is always an eligible piadlice
to fovv and prick out different forts of fmall plants on beds
liaving narrow alleys between them, for the greater conveni-
ence of weeding, watering, gathering, &c. as by this means
fuch operations can be performed without trampling on the
crops. Thus the ground intended for afparagus and llraw-
berries fliould be divided into four feet wide beds, with
eighteen inches or two feet alleys between them. Onions
are likewife cultivated to the bell advantage on four feet
wide beds, having ten or twelve inch alleys ; the different
forts of lettuce and endive fhoiild alfo be fown and tranf-
planted into fcparate beds occalionally ; and alio various
forts of fmall plants, which can be more conveniently culti-
vated on beds, or in borders of funilar widths. Early ra-
dilhes are generally fown on beds, or fimilar compartments,
as being more convenient for the purpofes of covering them
oecafionally in frolly nights, and for weeding, thinning, v.'a-
tenng, and gathering them.

All forts of plants that are particularly intended for
tranfplantation, fliould be fown in beds or narrow borders,
fo as to admit of (landing to weed, water, and draw the
plants, with nit trending j'pon them ; and for the fame rea-
fon, all plants neceifary to be pricked out previoufly to their
final tranfplanting, (hould alfo be pr.t out on fuch beds ; as
celery, cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. Aromatic and
medicinal hfrbs of all forts (hould alfo, for the greateft part,
bedifpofed in beds with twelve or fifteen inch alleys between,
or at leall in borders of funilar widths ; particularly mint,
thyme, favory, marjoram, fage, hyffop, balm, pcnry-royal,
tanfey, t'trragon, feverfew, rue, Z<.c. as this method of bed-
ding ail forts of fmall plants is not only more commodious
for performing the neceflV.n.- operations without injuring the
plants, but has an air of uniformity which is conllantly to
be obferved in garden work.

The moll nroper dimenfions for beds of this fort, as has
hecn obfcivcd, is four feet or lour feet and a half -in width,

BED

the length at pleafure, with intervening fliallow alleys of
from nine, twelve, or fifteen inches to two feet width, ac-
cording to the different forts of plants, fo that a pevfon iu
the alleys may calily reach half aciofs them to do the necef-
faiy woik without trampling the planls down, or treadin^v
the furface of the ground hard.

Where flower gardens are wanted to be diflinfl from the
general pleal'uic ground, the fpaees ihould be divided into
regular parallel beds, of three or four feet in width, witli
ei'Tliteeu inches or two feet wide alleys, efpecially wIku
chiefly intended for the curious forts of bulbous-rooted flow-
ers, fiieh as tulips, hyacinths, rauuncuhifcs, anemones, and
other choice forts, where, by being depolited together in bed;-,
having intervening alleys, they admit of paifmg between
them, to perform, the ucceffary bufinefs of culture more ea-
fily, as well as to view the plants when in flower. Many
forts likewife appear to greater advantage in this way.

The beds in tliefe cafes, ihould be neatly edged with
box or thrift. See Euging.

The grounds of nurferies intended for raifing all forts of
flowers from feeds, flips, cuttings, patting of roots, &c.
fliould alio be divided into beds of three or four feet in
width. And in large nurferies for trees, the ground intended
for the reception of cuttings of moft forts of hardy trees and
flirubs, fliould alfo be generally divided into three or four
feet beds, having twelve or fifteen inch alleys between
them.

Beds in common fliould only be raifed a very little higher
than the alleys, unlefs in cafes of too much flagnant iiioif-
ture, three or four inches higher than the level of the alley
is moftly fuflicient ; for when raifed conliderably, the alleys
affume the appearance of trenches, and have a difagrecable
efl'ecl.

The earth of all forts of beds fliould be well broken down,
and laid as even as poffible in digging them over, being af-
terwards raked into neat order on the furface.

B:ih for raifing melons, muflirooms, and the like, arc
commonly denominated r'ulges.

Bkds, in fpeaking of hops, denote the floors whereon
they are fpread to dry.

Bi'U of Corn, is a heap, flat at top, three or four feet
high; otherwife called a couch.

]i\iD-n/^cnfe, a name given by the Arab yljlrononiers to a
fixed liar of the firll magnitude in the right flioulder of
Orion. Bcd-nlgenfe is ol a ruddy colour, by which it is
ealily diilinguiflicd.

Bt!), in I\I,ifoiiry, denotes a courfe or range of ftoncs.

BiiD, yohit of the, is the mortar between two ftones
placed over each other.

Bed, in Sea Lan^uiigc, a flat, thick piece of timber laid
under the quarters of caflis, containing any liquid, and
flowed in the fliip's hold.

Bkd of a River, the bottom of the channel in which
the llrcam flows.

Beds, in fpeaking of minerals and foffils, fignify certain
fl;rata, or layers of matter, difpofed over each other.

Bros, in the Keiu Hufhandry, denote thsT fpaces occu-
piM by the rows of corn, in contradiftin'iion from the open
fpaces between them, which are called alleys.

BEDALACH, in the JlLiter'ia Mcd'ica, a name given
by fome wt iters to the gum bdellium ; but particularly to
that kind of it v.'hieh was brought from Arabia, and was
ot a yellowifli colour, like wax.

BED-CHAMBER.— LonA or Gentlemen of ihe DrD-
ChAmbf.r, are perfons of the firft rank, fourteen in num-
ber, whofe office ufed to be, each in his turn, to attend a
week in the king's bed-chamber, lying by the king on a

pallet-

BED

BED

pallet-bed all niglit, and to wait on the king wlien he ents
in private. Their i'lilary is loool. per annum. Tlie fird of
llicfe is called groom of the Stole. There are alfo twelve
grooms of the bed-chamber.

BED-MOULDING, in ArchhePMre, is a term ufcd by
workmen to exprcls thofe members of a cornice which lie
below the corona. A bed-moulding ufually confills of thefe
four members, an ogee, a lill, a large boultine, and another
lift under the coronet,

BED A, or Bcnv. diftinguidied b}- the epithet Venera-
He, in Biogriiphy, a learned monk of the eighth century, and
one of the belt writers of his time, was born in the neigh-
bourhood of Wcremoutb, in the bifliopric of Durham, in
672 or 673. At the age of fuven years he was brought to
the monallery of St. Peter, founded near the place of his
nativity about two years after he was born ; and the care of
his education was entrufted with abbot Benedict, his fnc-
ctflur Ceoltrid, and John of Beverly, for twelve years. En-
dowed witli an excellent genius, and dilUnguifiitd bv afii-
duous application, his progrefs in various branehei of learn-
ing, during this period, was very confidcrable. At the
clofe of it, or when he had attained the age of 19 rears, he
was ordained a deacon by the lall mentioned preceptor, then
bifhop rf Hexham, and aftei wards archbifliop of York.
About this time he fecms to have removed from the monaf-
tcry of St. Peter's at Weremouth, where he was educated, to
that of St. Paul's at Jarrow, near the mouth of the river
Tyne, founded, as the former had been, by the abbot Be-
nedift. Here he was employed in the profecution of his
own ihidies, and in aiding thofc of others who reforted to
this monaftery for inftruclion. His whole life, which he
fpcnt in this retreat, was devoted, as he himfclf informs us,
to the exercifes of devotion in the church, and to thofe of
teaching, reading, and writing. At the age of -^o, A.D.
702, be was ordained priell by the fame perfon from whom
he had received deacon's orders. Although he lived in re-
tirement, the fame of his learning and character foou fpread
over Europe ; fo that pope Sergius addrefied a lett^-T to abbot
Ceolfrid, in which he urged him to fend Btdc to Rome. The
death of the pope, which probably happened loon after this
letter was written, prevented Bede from leaving his own
country ; nor indeed does it appear, w ith fufficient evidence,
that he ever quitted Northumberland, though fome have faid
that he viiked the univerfity founded at Grantcheflt r or Cam-
bridge, and tliis faft they allege as a proof of the antiquity
of this univeriitv. Within the walls of the monaftery, in
vhich he chofc to refide, he was indefatigable in the acqui-
sition of knowledge, and in the communication of it to
others. It appears from his numerous works on a variety
of fubjefts, that his knowledge comprehended every kind of
literature and feience tliat was known at the period in which
he lived ; and from other collateral evidence of unqueftion-
able authority, that he was juilly entitled to the appellations
of " the wife Saxon," and of "Venerable Bede," conferred
on him by bis contemporaries, and uniformly retained by
pofterity. From his never having accepted any prctcrmeut
above the humble rank of an. unbeneficed pritft, we may in-
fer his fingular moderation ; his letter, addreftcd to his inti-
mate friend, the learned Egbert, arehbiihop of York, and
containing excellent advice, the refidt of long experience,
evinces the purity of his morals and the liberality of his feu-
timents ; and as he was never canonized as a fa'nt, and the
legends of the time record no miracle performed by him, we
may reafinably conclude, that enthufiafm and the Ipirit of
his order formed no part of his character. He appears in-
deed, as one of his biographers fnms up hi^ account of him,
" to have poflefted the rare aflociation of learning with mo.
Vol. IV.

defty, of devotion with liberality, and of high reputation 5Jt th«
church with voluntary and honourable poverty."

The largeft and moft popular of Bede's works is hfs hif-
tor\ of the church, intitied, " EccIefiafticE Hiftorisc Gen-
tis Anglorum libri quirque," and firft publidied in 7;^!, the
year to which he continued his hiftory of Chriftianity fronv
its firft introduflion into Britain. In coUefting materiah
for this hiftory, he confulted feveral chronicles of tlie Eng-
lifli kings before his time ; he kept up a correfpondencc ui
the feveral kingdoms of the heptarchy, and he had recourfc
to various records and archives preferved in feveral monafte-
ries ; and his hillory has been regarded as containing the
moft authentic and comprchenfive account of the early ftate
of Chriftianity in this country. The famous Milton, indeed,
has objefted to this hiftory, tliat it is deficient viith regard
to the civil affairs of the country, which are mentioned very
curforily, and which form rather a calendar of dares, thait
a regular hiftory ; but if it be dulv confidered, that his ob-
jecl was the ftate of the church, and not the fecular tranf-
aflions of the geriod which his hiftory comprehends, this ob-
jeftion muft appear to be urtjed againft it without fufficient
rcafun. Milton himlclf confcfted, that he travelled with
much worfc guides after he parted with Beda. Th.e charge
that has been alleged againft him, of partiality to the Saxons
in preference to the Britons, fecms to be Itfs exceptionable.
But the chief objeftion to which his hillory is liable, is the
diffufe account which he introduced of legendary miracle?
and of other trivial and ablurd circumftances, extrad^ed
without fufficient dilcrimination and with apparent credulity
from the chronicles to which he had accefs ; and yet, when
we recoUeft the period in which he lived, and confider, that
the principal tranlaclions of the church upon record coufifted
of fuch fooleries and impoftures, we may admit fome apo-
logy for a writer who wiftitd to approve himfelf a faithful
hiilorian. Without adverting to the cenfures of M. du Pin,
which extend to the ftyle and fubicfts of Bede's works in
general, and which arc amply ftated and fatisfactorily obvi-
ated in the Eiog. Brit, it may not be improper to mention
the objcClion urged by father Pezron againft the chronology
of Btde. This lather, who has taken great pains, after
Ifaac Voffius and father Morin, to fupport the chronology
of the Septuagint, infomis us, that Bede was the firft who
endeavoured, in the weftern church, to maintain the ftiorter
chronology of the Hebrew text ; and archbifhop Uftier, in
his " Sacred Chrotiology," obferves, that Bede was confi-
dered as an heretic on account of this innovation. However,
his compiitation was afterwards received, and fcarcely any-
other was admitted in the weft till the three learned men
abovt'-mentiontd appeared in defence of the contrary opinion.
If Bede, therefore, was fingular in being an advocate for
the Hebrew chronology, this Angularity afi^ords evidence of
his learning, penetration, and good fenfe. Tlie author's
ecelefiailical hiftory is written in ealy, though not very ele-
gant Eatin ; and as to the faults in his ftyle, which fome,
and particularly Du Pin, have cenfured, they will not ap.
pear to be very great, if compared with contemporary
writers ; and to compare him wilh others is certainly urjuft.
Of the Latin original of this Hiftory there have been feveral
editions with notes and commentaries ; particularly at Ant-
werp in 1550, at Heidelberg in 1587, at Cologne in
1601, at Cambridge in 1644, at Paris in i68t, and at Cam-
bridge in 1722. A Saxon verfion attributed to king -Vl,
fred, with learned notes by Abraliam Wiieeloc, was printed
at Cambridge in 1644; 3"*^ -"^ Englidi traiifiation by Dr.
Stapleton was printed at Antwerp in 1 joj. The dcfign of
the latter tranflatiun %vas to fupport the popifti rehgion, and
of courfe il is not deemed verv faithful ; but the hiftory of
N ' Btde,

BED

Bede, even as he lias given it in Englifti, might in many
pafTagcs be fhcwn to be far enough from favouring the doc-
trines of the church of Rome.

The lad hterary labour of venerable Bede, was "A Tranf-
lation of the Gofpel of St. John into the Saxon Language,"
which he coTipleted with difficulty on the day and hour of
his death, which happened on the 2C)th of May, A.U. 735.
The diforder of whicli he died was an allhma ; and lie bore
the pain that attended it with exemplary fortitude and pa-
tience, difcharging the duties of his office, and profecuting
the works in wliich he was engaged, and which lie wifhed
to finilh, with unabated affiduity. During many fiecjilel;
nights, he h faid to have fung piaifes to Alniijjhty God ;
and in the profpeil of dl(F.>lmion, he did not difumble iiis
apprehcnfions of it, though he cxprefled the utmofl confi-
dence in the divine mercy, and was able, on a review of his
condu£\, to declare ferioufly that he iiad fo lived, as not to
be afhamcd to die. During an acl of devoticm, and whilft
he was pronouncing the lad word of it, he expired. It
would be cafy to cite a great number of teftimonies to the
extent of Bedc's harnin^, as well .'^ to the eSccelUnce of his
charadcr. William of Malmediui-y, after giving hlni an ex-
traordinary character, tells us, " that it was much more
eafy to admire him in thought, than to do him jufticc in cx-
prelfion." Bale afTures us, that he was fo well n<illed in the
writings of Pagan authors, that he had fcarcely an equal
in that age, and that he learned natural philofophy and ma-
thematics from the pureil iources, the Greek and L^lin au-
thors themfclves. Pits fays, that he was fo well vcrfed in
all the branches of learning, that Europe fcarcely ever pro-
duced a greater fcholar in all refpefls ; that even, while he
was living, his writings were of fueh authority, that it was
ordered by a council held in England, and approved after-
wards by the catholic church, that they (hould be publicly
read in the churches ; that from his earlieft years, he was re-
markable for his piety and love of learning, alternating with-
out interruption his prayers and his iludies ; and that his in-
tenfe application furnidied him with a complete knowledge
of poetry, rhetoric, natural philofophy, metaphyfics, adro-
nomy, arithmetic, mufic, geometry, cofmography, chrono-
logy, hidory, and the whole circle of the liberal arts, and
all parts of mathematics, philofophy, and divinitv. Camden
reprefents him as the fingular light of onr England ; and
many tedimonies in his favour may be found in the works of
our hidorians and antiquarians, fuch as lloUinflied, Stowe,
Speed, Selden, fir Henry Spelman, SliUingfleet, Mabillon,
Warton, &c.

Bcddts the Hidory, the trandation of St. John's gofpel,
and the letter to E;4bert, already mentioned, there are a
great many works, both piibl'llied and in mamifcript, that
have been attributed to Bede ; fome of whirl., however,
are of dubious genuinenefs. They are enumerated in the
Biographia Britannica, Cave's Hid. Lit. and in the appendix
to the fourth volume of Henry's Hittory. They coinpofe a
very milcellaneous coUeclioii of verfioiis and commentaries
upon feveral books of the Old and New Tedament, of le-
gends, and theological dlfTertations ; among which are fome
of greater value on the fcripture chronology, and many ele-
mentary compilatior.Sj for the ufe of his fcholars, on the fub-
jeAs of arithmetic, grammar, rhetoric, adronomy, mufic,
and natural philofophy. The fird general cdlleAion of his
works appeared at Paris, in 1544, in 3 vols, folio ; and again
in 1J44, at the fame place, in 8 vols. ; at Bafil, in the fame
fize and number of volumes, in 1 563, reprinted at Cologne,
in j6i2, and at the fame place in i688. Several of Bede's
works have been feparatcly printed ; and thofe treatifes,
which are mentioned in hie own catalogue of his works, an-

BED

nexed to hft ecclefiaftical hidory, were publidied by the
learned and indudnous Mr. Wharton, from three nianu-
fcripta in the archiepifeopal palace at Lambeth, London,
1693, 4to. Cave's Hid. Lit. vol. i. p. 612, Sec. Henry's
Hid. vol. iv. p. 26, &c. Walton's Hid. Poetry, vol. i. did". 2.
Biog. Brit. Gen. Did.

It is from the EcrhfmJIical Hj/lory of this worthy monk,
that we know any thing" concerning mufic in our country
during the feventh and eighth centuries, the mod barbarous
period of its annals. In his account of thecor.vcrfion of the
Saxons to Cliridianity, he fpeaks o'i Ihan'n-s ani rJL-lujahs be-
inp- I'una in thcGrcgorian manner, according to the Roman
ritual, when bilhop Stiilingfltet thinks that the goodnefs of
the mufic was the principal iiicitcment to tlie reception of
the mafs by the Saxons.

Bede was himfelf an able mufician, and is fuppofed to
have been the author of a ftiort mulical traft, " Dc Mufica
Theoriea, et Pracliea feu Menfurata." Of tlie two parts of
this treatife afcribed to Bode, the fird mny have been written
by him ; the fecond, however, is manifedly the work of a
much more modem author ; for we find in it, not only the
mention of mulic in two or three diiTtrent parts, under the
name of difcant, but of indrumeiits never mentioned in
writers cotemporary with Bede ; fuch as the organ, iKok,
alola, iyc. A notation too of much later times appears
here, in which tlie /o«j;, the /'irve, Ttv.d /cmiL/rih; are uied,
and thefe upon Jivir lines and fpaccs, with equivalent reds and
paufes. The word modus is alfo ufed for tim/ in the fenfe to
which the term mood was applied after it ceafed to mean key.
Upon the whole it feems as if this lad part of the traft at-
tributed to Bede, was written about the twelfth century ;
that is, between the time of Guido and John de Muris.

Bede, however, informs us that, in 680, John, precen-
tor of St. Peter's in Rome, was fent over by pope Aga-
tho to indruft t!ie monks of Weremouth in the art of
finging, and particularly to acquaint them with the manner
of performing the feilival fcrvices throughout the year, ac-
cording to th.it whicli was pradiifed at Rome. And fuch was
the reputation of his dtill, that " the maders of mufic from
all the other monaderies of the north came to hear him ;
and prevailed on him to open fchools for teaching mufic in
other places of the kingdom of Northumberland."

And it is from Bede's information that we have any
knowledge of the focial and domedic finging to the harp in
the Saxon language, upon our iiland, at tb.e beginning of
the eighth century ; which is amply detailed in bifliop Per-
cy'.'', ediiy on tlie aucient Englidi miudrels. Reliques of
Ancient Poetry.

Beda, or Bede, Noel, a doftor of divinity in the uni-
verfity of Paris, was a native of Picardy, and flouriflied in
the beginniiig of the fixteenth century. His temper waa
violent and impetuous, and he was a great enemy to every
kind of innovation and riiform. Erafmus and Fabcr Stapu-
lenfis, who were great promoters of literature, were the ob-
je£ls of his vehement attack. Againd the fcriptiiral para-
phrafes of the fin-mer he wrote a book, in which Erafmus de-
tefted many mifnprefentations and calumnies; and yet fuch
was his influence among his brethren, that he induced the
faculty of divinity to cenfure the works of his antagonift.
In his oppofition to the defign of Francis I. for obliging the
Sorbonne to concur with the other univerfities of France
in giving a favourable opinion concerning liie divorce of
Henry VIII. of England, he afted a more judifiable part ;
but he injured his charafter, and ruined his caufe, by his paf-
fionatc and turbulent behaviour, and involved himfelf in the
crime of perjury. After having made the amende honorable,
by publicly acknowledging thai he had fpoken againd truth

and

BED

and the king, before the church of Notre Dame, he was
committed to prifon in 1535, and afterwards fentenced to
be banifhed to the abbey of mount St. Michael, where he
died in the year 1537. He was a fnrions perfecutnr of the
proteftants, and one of tlie chief promoters of the puuilh-
ment of Lewis de Berguin, the proteftant martyr. His La-
tin works were a treatife " De unica Magdalena," againft
Faber, Paris, 15 19 ; "Two books againil Faber's Commen-
taries and Erafmiis's Paraphraies," Paris, 1526; " An Apo-
logy againll the fecret Ijiitlierans," Paris; and "An Apo-
logy for the daughters and grand -children of St. Anne,"
againll Faber. His works in French were " A Reilitution
of the Benediction of the Pafchal taper," and " A Con-
fefiion of Faith." Gen. Dift. Nouv. Did. Hill.

Beda, a facred book of the religion and law of the
Brahmins of Hindootlan, called alfo Vedam and Vicdam,
which fee; fee alfo Brachmans, and Shastah.

BEDALE, in Geo^^niphj, a market town of England.
It is fituated in that divifion of the north riding of York-
(hire called Richmondlhire, at the dillance of 6 miles from
North Allerton, and 273 miles north of London. Seattd
on the bank of a fniall river, it enjoys a pleafant and fertile
fitHution ; but being at fome dillance from any public road,
its principal trade is derived from a weekly market and five
annual lairs. Tlicfe are abundantly fupplied with horfes ;
the buying and fclhng of whicli are the chief bufintfs of many
perfons in this part of Yorklhire. The reftory of this town
is very valuable ; and th; church, which is a large handfome
ftruc^ure, contains fome ancient monuments, one of which
commemorates Brian Fit7. Alan, the lad male heir of that
family. A Roman road palTcd through this town to Bar-
nard callle, &c. ; and iome Roman encampments are remain-
ing on the high grounds between this town and Ripon.
Here is a charity fchool ; and the townfhip contains 226
houfes, with 1005 inhabitants.

BEDANG, a commentary on the Beda of the Brahmins
of Hindoollan, called alfo Shajier or Shajlah; which fee.

BEDARRIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Hcrault, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrift of Beziers, fcated on the Oi-be, jj leagues
north of Beziers. The inhabitants carry on a manufafture of
druggets and other woollen ftuffs. N. lat. 43^ 27'. E. long.

BEDAS, Bedahs, orVADDAHS, a name given to a fpe-
cies of favages, who occupy a fmall diftrift in the northern
part of the ifland of Ceylon, and who fecm to be (fays Buffon)
of a peculiar race. The fpot which they inhabit is entirely
covered with wood, where they conceal themfelves in fueh
a manner, that it is difficult to difcovcr them. Their com-
plexion is fair, and fometimes red, like that of the Euro-
peans. Their language has no analogy to that of any of
the other Indian languages. They have no villages or houfes,
and hold no intercourfe with the rell of mankind. Their
arms are bows and arrows, with which they kill a number of
boars, flags, and other animals. They never drtfs their
meat, but feafon it with honey, of which they have great
abundance. The wildell of thefe woodland wanderers re-
cognize no authority, except that of their own chiefs ; but
others, without formally acknowledging the fovereignty of
the king, funiifh him with ivory, wax, and deer. Such of
them as llvirt the European territories, barter their articles
with the Cinglefe for the fimple things which their mode of
life requires. To prevent themfelves from being furprifed or
made prifoners, while carrying on this traffic, the method
they employ is curious : when they (land in need of cloth,
iron, knives, or any other articles of fmith's work, they
approach by night fomc town or village, and depofit, in a

BED

place where it is likely to be immediately difcovered, a cer-
tain quantity of their goods, along with a talipot leaf cx-
prcfhve of what they want in return. On a following night
they repair again to the fame place, and generally find their
expcfted reward awaiting them. For although they are ca-
fily fdtisfied, and readily allow the advantage to the perfo^i
with whom they deal, yet if their requells arc treated vith
negleft, they will not fail to watch their opportunity of
doing him a mifchief. The Cinglefe, as tliey can afterwards
difpole of the articles afforded by the Bedahs, find the traffic
profitable ; and in fome parts frequently go into the woodo,
carrying with them articles of barter. This trade, however,
can only be carried on in the manner already dtfcribed ; for
no native of the vvoi.ds can be more afraid of approaching a
llranger than the Bedahs. Few will venture even to convtrle
with otiier natives ; but the wilder clafs, known by the name
of " Ramba-Vaddah^," are more feldom feen even by ftealtli
than the n-.oll timid of the wild animals. The origin of thii
fmall tribe, who live in detached families, is tinknown,
Thefe Bedas, as well as the Chacrelas of Java, who are both
fair and few in number, appear (fays BufTon) to be of Eu-
ropean extraction ; and he conjectures, that fome European
men and women have been formerly left on thcle iflands by
fliipwreck orotherwife, and that, for fear of being maltreated
by the native?, they and their dcleendants confined themfelvcj
to the woody and mountainous parts of their country, where
they retain a favage lite. Sec Ceylon.

BEDA.SPES, in Ancient Geography, the name given by
Ptolemy to the Hydafpes, or modern Behut, a river of Hin-
doollan. See Hydaspes, andBtHUT.

BEDAT, Le, in Geography, a river of France, wluch
runs into tlie AUier, near Montferand.

BEDBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and eleftoratc of Cologne, feated on the
Erfft, 14 miles weft of Cologne. N. lat. 51*. E. long.
6^ 20'.

BEDDING, /fi^cr/a, in refpecl of horfes and other cattle,
denotes flraw or httcr fpread under them to lie on.

Bedding, in fpcaking of a roe, is ufed by fportfmen for
the lodging of that beafl. A roe is faid to bed ; a hart to
harbour ; a fox to kennel.

BEDE Point, in Geography, the eaflern cape at the
mouth of Cook's river, on the north-weft coafl of North
America.

BEDEA, Badeah, or Baideah, the name of a valley
near the Red fea, which, according to Niebuhr, is 6 Ger-
man miles from Suez, and where the fea (Bruce fays) i»
fomething lefs than 4 leagues broad, by 50 feet deep.
This valley ends in a pafs between two confiderable moun-
tains, called Gewoube on the fouth, and Jibbel Attakah on
the north ; and opens into the low ftripe of country which
runs along the Red fea. The mouth of this valley, opening-
to the flat country and the fea, was called " Pihahiroth ;"
and through this valley it has been fuppofed that the Ifraelites
made their paffage from the purfuing army of Pharaoh to
the Red fea ; and it is added, that they encamped in the bay
which terminated this valley, at Pihahiroth, oppofite to Ba al-
Zephon (which fee), betwixt Migdol and that fea. In
thefe circumllanccs, fays Dr. Shaw, the Egyptians might
well imagine, that the IfraeUtcs could have no poflible
way of efcape ; inafmuch as the mountains of Gewoube
would flop their flight or progrefs towards the fouth, as
thofe of Attakah would prevent their paffing towards the
land of the Philiflines : the Red fea likewife lay before them
to the eatl ; whilft Pharaoh clofed up the valley behind
them, with his chariots and horfemen. This valley, adds
Dr. Shaw, is called " Tiah Beni Ifrael," i.e. the road of
N 2 the

BED

BED

the Ifraelites, from a tradition, that is ftill kept up by the
Arabs, of their having pafTid through it. It is alio called
" Baidcah," he fays, from the m-ut and unlieard-of miracle,
that was wrouirht near it, by dividing the Red fia, and de-
Aroying in it Pharaoh, his chariots, and horfcmen. Bruce
obfcrve:., that Dr. Shaw, by intci-preting " Badeah" as the
" valley of the miracle," forces an etymology, becaufe there
was yet no miracle wrought, nor was there ever any in the
valley. But " Badeah," he fays, means " barren," and
" ttninhabited ;" fuch a-s we may imagine a valley between
ftony mountains, a deftrt valley. 'J'o his tranllation of
" Jlbbcl Attakah," as the " mountain of deliverance,"
Bruce objefts, that fo far were the Ifiaclitcs from being de-
livered, on their arrival at this mountain, that they were then
in the greateft diftrefs and danger. Attakah means, accord-
ing to this traveller, to " arrive," or " come up with ;"
either becaufe they arrived within fight of the Red lea ; or
it might more probably derive its name from the arrival of
Pharaoh, or his coming in fight of the Ifraelites, when en-
camped between Migdol and the Red lea. .Shaw's Travels,
p. 3C2. Brucc's Travels in Abyrfinia, vol.i. p. 232, &c.

A late writer obl'erves, that this hypolhefis of the padage
of the IlVaelites at Bedea, has been given up by our bell
modern critics ; and the " Sinus Heroopolitunus," or gulf
of Suez, pitched upon as the fcene of aftion. The idea was
firft fuggefted bv Le Clcrc, and fincc adopted and defended
bv Michaelis, Niebuhr, and almollall the Gorman comment-
ators. Mr. Biyant, however (Obf. on the Plagues of F.gypt,
p. S7^-^) ftill contends for Bedea, and calls the arguments of
Kiebuhr prejudices and mifconccptions. The writer, to
whom we now refer, who excludes from this event every
thinf that was miraculous, contends for the pafs at Sue/,
or not far from Suez, wliere, he fays, at tliis day there are
(hallows fordable at low water, and which might, in former
times, have been frequently dry. Geddes's Critical Remarks,
\ol.i. p.22j. See Suez.

BEDEC, a town of France, in the department of the
TUe and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrifl
of Montfort, one league N. of Montfort.

BEDEGUAR, in the Miiifna MetUcii, the name of a fun-
gus, orgall, growing upon the rofe jdant (rolafilvellris), which
belongs to the clals of altringents, as it is poneiTed of and
celebrated for its aftringent power ; but it has hardly yet got
a place in our difptnfatories, and we are (]\iitc unacquainted
with its powers. CuUen's Mat. Med. vol. ii. \i. 7,G.

BEDEL, or Bedf.o, B(iy, in Cro^raphy, lits in the gulf of
the river of St. Lawrence, on the fouth-welt coal! of the
liland of St. John's, in North America, and is fituated S. by
E. from Esrmont bay, on the fame coaft of the ifland.

BEDELL, William, in Bii/^ruphy, an eminent prelate
of the Englifti church in Ireland, was born at Black Notley
in EfTeic in 1570; and being defigned for the church, was
educated at Emanuel college in the univerfity of Cambridge.
Having been chofen fellow of his college in 1593, and taken
his degree of bachelor of divinity in 151)9, he removed to
.St. Edmundfburv in Suffolk, where he continued in high
eflimation fir his attention to the duties of his profeflion till
he accompanied fir Henrv Wofton to Venice, as his chap-
lain. Here he became intimately acquainted with father
Pavil Sarpi, who taught him the Italian language, into which
he tranflated the Englifh common prayer book ; and in re-
turn for the favour conferred upon him by father Paul, he
drew up an Englidi grammar for his ufe, and allirttd him in
his ftudic!, Durintj his ftay at Venice, he availed himfelf of
the affiftance of Rabbi I^eo, in acquiring the knowledge of
the Hebrew language, and of Rabbinical learning ; and by
his means he had an opportunity of purchafing a very fair

MS. of the Old Teilament, which cod, it is faid, its weight
in fdver, and which he prefented to Emanuel college. He
alio formed an acquaintance with Antonio de Douiinis, arch-
bifhop of Spalato, and comm\inicatcd to him feveral correc-
tions of his book " De Republica Ecclefiallica," afterwards
printed in London. Upon his leaving Venice, after a re-
iidence of eight years, he received from lather Paul, as token'v
of his elleem and friendlhip, his piclure, and feveral valuable
books, together with a MS. copy of his famous hillory of
the council of Trent, his hillorics of the Interdiel and In-
quifitioii, and a colleftion ot letters. At Edrntinddniry,
where he fettled upon lii» return to England, he emploved
himfelf in tranflating the hillories oi the Interdidt and Inqui-
fiti()n,and the two lall books of the hillory of the council of
Trent into Latin, the two firft having been tranflated by fir
Adam Newton. In 1615, Bedell was prclented by fir John
Jermyn to the living of Horingflieath, in the fee of Nor-
wich ; but having Icruples about paying the fees of induc-
tion, which he regarded as a ipccies ot liniony, he declined
acccptini> it ; however, he was alterwards admitted without
fees, and lived in this parifli for twelve years unnoticed. To
fuch a degree, fiidetd, was he difregardcd, tliat when Diodati,
a famous divine of Geneva, came to England, he difcovtrcd
his jilace of abode by mere accident. Bedell was introduced
by Diodati to Morton bifhop ot Durham, as the efteemed
friend of fatlicr Paul, and was treated bv him with peculiar
refpeft. In his oblcure retreat he evinced his talents by the
publication of fome letters which had pafRd between hint
and James Wadelworth, formcilv his fellow-collegian, but
fince become a convert to popery, and a penfioner of the in-
quifition at Seville, concerning the authority of the churtb
of Rome. Thefe lelteis were dedicated, to king Charles L
then prince of Wales, in 1624. In this work there was a
paflage which juilified rcfillance to tyrannical princes.
Whilll the author lived, the paflage efcapcd auiniadverlion ;
before the trcatife was iei>riiitcd in iC'^';, in order to be bound
up with bidiop Ijurnet's life of Bedell, it could not obtai'rf
the licence of fir Roger I'Eftrange, till fome words were in-
troduced which made the patTage appear like a reference to
arguments that were ufed by others. In 1627^, Bedell was.
elefted provolt of Trinity college, Dublin, which he was con-
flraincd to accept by the king's fpecial command. Upon
his return to England, for the purpofe of taking over his
family, he had ferious thoughts of refigning his poll ; but he
was perluaded to retain it by an encouraging letter from the
primate, l^lher. He then engaged in the difcharge of the
duties of his ftation with vi?-our and adtivitv, and was emi-
nently ufcful in compofing divifions among the fellows, ella-
blifluiig dilcipline, and promoting religion by weekly fcrmons
on the chnreli catechilm, which he formed into learned lec-
tures of divinity and morals. I-n this cmplovm.ent he con-
tinued about two years, when, by the intcrett of fir Thomas
Jermyn, and tlie application ofbifliop Laud, lie was advanced
to tlie ices of Kilmore and Ardagh. He was confecratcd at
Drogheda in September 1629, being then in the 59th year
of his age. In this new ilation he had to encounter many
difficulties ; but he determined to adopt plans of reformation,'
and to correct the abufes and diforders that had prevailed to
a very great det;ree in his dioceie. In order to fecurc fuc-
cefs in his laudable deugn, and the more efiettually to abolifh
pluralities, he fet an example of moderation by fcparatinr
the fee of Ardagh from that of Kilmore, though he had been
at a confiderable expence in recovering fome of its revenues ;
thefe fees, however, have been fince re-united, and have fo
continued. After the compromife if a difpute, which had
occurred between him and lord Wentworth, afterwards lord
Strafford, who was appointed lord deputy of Irelaud in 1633,

I

BED

em account of his having fubfcribed a petition addrefTed to
him for the redreis of certain grievances, Bedell proceeded
without interruption in his epifcopa! duties and reforms. In
the exercife of his epifcopal functions, he adhered ftritUy to
the rubric ; but in cafes that depended on his own determi-
nation, he appeared to be jealous of all approaches to fuper-
ftition. He was extremely affiduous in preachinor, catechif-
inor, and emplovinj all means for diflTcminating religious
knowledge; and thoug'i he never perfcciited the papills, he
was the moil formidable opponent they had in Irpland. He
converted fevcral of their clergy by argument ; and laboured
to bring over the natives by difperiing among them the fcrip-
tures, with popular tracts in their own language, and by
caufing the common-prayer in Irl!h to be read t-very Sunday
in his own cathedral. Bilhop Bedell fecms to have confidered
the theological differences that fubfifted among Proteftants
in his time as of little moment ; and it was his vvifh to pro-
mote the well-intended projeA of Mr. Drury for efFefting a
reconciliation between the (Z^alvinifts and Lutherans.

The character of bifhop Bedell was held in fuch high efti-
mation among the Irilh.that when the rebellion broke out in
1641, the mod barbarous of them were known to declare,
that he would be the laft Engliflunan whom they would ex-
pel the country-. His houfe in the county of Cavan was an
unmoleiled aiylnm for many Proteftants who were driven
from their own habitations; and he treated them with hofpi-
tality and kindnefs, exhorting them at the fame time by
prayers and religious difcourfes, to prepare for the diftrtfs
that threatened them. His declared refolution not to difmifs
thefe refugees from his houfe, and to ftiare the fate that
awaited them, occafioned his being removed, with his two
fons and fon-in-law, to a ruinous caflle in the midll of a lake,
where they fuffered much from the feverity of the weather.
The bifhop and his fons were inceffant in preaching and
praying with their diftrelTed companions ; and their piety in-
spired the bigotted and rude Irilh who guarded them with
fuch refpeft, that they never difturbed their devotions. At
length thev were removed from this place to the houfe of
an Iriih miniller, and a convert to proteflantifm, where tlic
bifhop was feized with a fever, which terminated his life,
February 7, 1641-2, in the 7 ill year of his age. At the
fokmnity of his interment, the Irifh attended with great de-
cency, and fired a volley over his grave ; exclaiming in La-
tin, " Requiefcat in pace ultimas Anglorum ! ^lay the
the lad of the Englifh reft in peace !" And a popifli priefl
who attended on the occafion, is faid to have paid him a
tribute of refpect and veneration, in the following wifh ;
" O fit anima mca cum Bcdello ! May my foul be with that
of Bedell!"

The charafler of Bedell, delineated by Mr. Clogv, who
refided in his family, and recorded in bifliop Burnet's
life of this prelate, appears to have been in a very eminent
degree exemplary and amiable; fo that in the moft appro-
priate fenfe of the term.s, he was a primitive and apoftolical
bifhop. His venerable and fimple afpe(i\ and habit ; lus in-
defatigable zeal in difcharging his duty through all the viciffi-
tudes of his life ; his profound and \mafre<'led learning, dif-
playcd however in various ways, and tr.T ifefled on a particu-
lar occafion at the table of the earl of StratTord. which pro-
duced the witticifm of the orimate archbiihop Ufher, after
the bifhop had continued l"ng filent. accoidi-ig to his ufual
manner, " Broach him, and vou will fi d good liquor in
him;" his charity and hofpita' ty, exhibited in the fupply
afforded bv him to many p>or Iiifh fami'ies, fome of whom
he entertain'd at C'r tmas at his oa-:> table, and •■ the fea-
fonable relief which ht ptrfecuted proteftants obtaiaedin his
houfe ; his detachment from worldly intereft, of which an

BED

inftance, feltcleJ from many more, has been given in the
feparation of the fees of Kilmore and Ardagh ; his integrity
and honour, and his pious refignation under all the evils of
life, in the obfcurity of his humbler ftation, and amid the
perfecutions which he fulfered after the attainment of a
higher rank ; — all thefe qualities, which have been amply
ilhiftrated in the memoirs of iiis life, exalted his charafter to
the higheft degree of profcffional excellence. His bequefts
at his death correfponded to the uniform tenor of his life ;
for out of his very limited fortune he allottedfome legacy to
every place to which he had any relation. He thus obtained
the efteem of the moft bitter enemies of his faith and country,
while he hved, and he has alfo fecurcd the veneration of
pofterity, and left a model for the imitation of all his fuc-
cefTors. He ftudied and wrote much on the controvcrfy be-
tween the papifts and proteftants, and he had compofed a
large treatife in anfwer to the two qneftions, addrefFcd by the
former to the latter with a kind of triumph ; " Where was
your religion before Luther? and. What became of your an-
cellors who died in popery ?" But this treatife, which the
bifhop intended to have printed, together with many other
MSS., were loft in the confiifion of the times. His Hebrew
M.S. Bible was prefcrved, and is now repolited in Emauuel
college, Cambridge, to which the author bequeathed it.

As bifhop Bedell objefted to burial in churches, partly
becaufe it indicated fuperftition and pride, and partly becaufc
the putrid effluvia of dead bodies annoyed the living, he
gave orders tor burying his wife in the leaft frequented part
of the church-yard of Kilmore, and direfted by his will that
he fnould be placed near her. By his wife, who was of the
ancient and honourable family of L'Eftrange, he had one
daughter and three fons, of whom two funived him ; one pro-
vided for by a fmall benefice of 80I. a year, befides the en-
tailed ertate of tlie family in EfTex, and the other by a fmall
eflate of 60I. a year, the only purchafe made by the father.
Biog. Brit.

BEDENGIAN, in Botany, a name given by Avicenna
and Scrapicn to the pomn amor'is, or love-apples, a fort of
fruit ufed in food by the Italians, and fome other nations,
and feeming to be tlie third kind of thejlrychn'js, or frjlanum,
menlioned by Theophraftus. That author firft defcribes
two kinds of this plant, the one of which occafioned fleepy
diforders, and the other threw people who eat ot it into mad-
nefs. After thefe, which he properly accounts poilonous
kinds, he mentions a third, which was cultivated in gar-
dens, for the fake of the fruit, which, he fays, is large and
efculent. This is certainly the fame with bedengian, or poma
atr.or'is.

BEDER, in Ancient Geography. See Bedr..
Beder, in Geography, a fortified city of Hindooftan, in the
territory of the Nizam, about 80 road miles N. W. of Hvdra-
bad; was formerly the capital of a confiderable kingdom,
and is now celtbrated for the number and magnificence of
its pagodas. N. lat. 18'. E. long. 78°.

BEDFORD, Arthur, in Biography, was the fon of
R'chard Bedford, and was born at Tiddenham in Glouctfter-
fhire 1 66?. Having received the rudiments of learning from
his father, he was, in 1684, at the age of fixteeii, admitted
a commoner of Brazen Nofe college, Oxford, where he ac-
quired fome reputation as an orientalill. In 1688 he received
holy orders from tlie bifhop of Gloucefter. About this time
he removed to Briftol, where the mayor and corporation pre-
fented him to the vijarage of Temple church. At Briftol
he ftaid a few years, devoting a great portion of his time to
tlie feconding Mr. Collier's attack upon the ftage ; he was
involved indeed, in a very bnlk controveriy with fcveral of
the grcateft wits and ableft writers of the age, but acquitted

himklf

BED

himfelf with fo much force and vivacity, as aflually to pro-
duce both repentance and amendment, and was a great caufc
of that decorum \\hich has for the moll part been obfervcd
by the modern writers of dramatic poetry. From Br:tlol he
went to a fmall living in Somcrfctihire, where he employed
himfelf in a work on fcripturc chronology, which, in confc-
quence of fir I. Newton's labour, he afterwards relinquilTicd
for a time, and was engaged to afiill in correding an Arabic
vcrl'ioH of tlie Pulter and New Tellament, for the benefit of
the poor Chrillinns in Afia. In 17 19, he communicated his
thoughts to Dr. Charlet, in regard to the foundation of a
Syriac profciTurfliip at Oxford. The letter which contained
them is a moll excellent produftion, and is printed at lrnG;th
in Mr. Ellis's Hiftory of Shorcditch, where he became chap-
lain to Artec's hofpital, in 1724. About 1730, he renewed
bis attack upon the ilagc, particularly directed againil a new
playhonfe in Goodman's fields, where Garrick made his firil
appearance. From this period, to the time of his death, we
know few particulars of confequonce ; but the 15th ot Sep-
teptember 1745, clofed a life that had been very ufelul.
Befides many fingle Icrmons, and his tn'.c^s upon tiie play-
houfe, his chief publications were, " The Temple of Mu-
fic;" 1706, 8vo. " The abule of Mulic ;" 1711, 8vo.
" Eflay on finging David's Plalms ;'' 1708. " Aiiimad-
verfions on Sir Ifaac Newton's Chronology ;" 1728, 8vo.
" Scripture Chronology ;" 1730, fol. " 'I'he Doftrine of
Jullification by Faith, in Nine Quellions and Aniwers ;"
174r, 8vo: and " Hora; Matiiematicse vacux ;" 1743, Svo.

BtDFORD, in Ci-ogrophv, the county town of Bedlord-
fhirc in England, is feated on the banks of the river Oule,
nearly in the centre of the county, at the diHaneeof 51 miles
N.W. from I^ondon. It is a place of fome antiquity, and
was called by the Saxons Bcdan-ford, or Bedician Forda,
fignifying the fortrcfs on the ford. At the time of OfTa, that
powerful king of the Mercians, Bedford was probably of
fome note, as this monarch direAedhis corpfe tobe interred in
a fmall chapel here, which, being feated on the river Oufe,
was carried away by the floods during an inundation. In
the year 572, a pitched battle was fought here between
Cuthwolf the Saxon, and the Britons ; when the latter were
defeated, and obliged to dthver up feveral of their towns to
the haughty conqueror. Duriiig the Danilh wars, this town
fuffercd materially by the ravages of thefe plundering marau-
ders; but in the year 911, they were fcvcrely beaten, and
driven from this neighbourhood. A (Irong Norman callle
■was erefted here by Pagan de Beauchnmp, the third baron of
Bedford, who fortified it with a deep intrenchment and lofty
wall. " While it Hood," fays Camden, " there was no ftorm
of civil war which did not burll upon it." King Stephen
laid fiege to, and conquered this calUe ; and, according to
Camden, flaughtered the inhabitants ; but other hillorians
aflcrt that he granted them honourable terms. During the
contells between king John and his barons, it was feized by
the latter, but reconquered again by the forces under Fulco
de Brent, to whom it was given by the king as a reward for
his fervices. This rebellious villain occafioncd his own de-
Ilruftion with that of the callle, by oppofing Henry III.
who laid fiege to the fortrtfs, and after a coatell: of fixtv
days, made himfelf mailer of this " nurfery of fedition."
De Brent wa« fent to London and imprifoned, but his bro-
ther and twenty-four other knights were executed on the
fpot. (For an account of this fiege, fee Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. i. p. 6.) l"he enibankmints of the
caflle form a parallelogram ; fome of which may be eafily
traced ; but the walk are entirely rnfed to the ground.

"l\\x. go'..irnment of the town i.> vcHcd in a mayor, recorder,
deputy -rtcorderjan indefinite number of aldermen, two bailiffs,

BED

and thirteen common councilmen. The bailiffs are lords of
tiie manor, and have the right offifliing in Oufe for an extent
of nine miles each v.ay from Bedford. Henry 1 1 1, granted the
ioroHj/j to the burgcfi'es for 40I. yearly: Edward I. feized it
for the crown rents, wliich the burgefles had ncgletled to dif-
charge. The lad renewal of their charter was in the reign of
James II. when the mayor and aldermen were removed from
their refpcclive offices by a royal mandate, for not elefting
two burgcffes to ferve in parliament. The members were in
conlVqueuce chofen by his majelly's minillers. I'he right of
elcflion is now vdled i:i the burgeffes, freemen, r.nd inhabitant
houl'eholders not receiving aim?, amounting to nearly 1400.

This town is feated in a ftrtilc tracl of land, called the
vile of Bedford, wluch accompanies the Oule, and produces
abundant crops of wheat, barley, turnips, &c. The land on
the north fide of the river is a flrong clay, that on the luuth
fide is imuch lighter, ytt vely produdlivc, and its natural
fcrtilitv is much increafcd by the overflowing waters of the
Oufe. Tliis river flows through, and divides tlie town, which
is cor.nefltd by a llrong old Hone bridge. On the centre of
tliib Hood the old town gaol, which was taken down about
thitty-three years fince. The river was made navigable to
Lynn in Norfolk, by aCl of parliament. Bedford contains five
dilliudl parilhes, aiid an equal number of churches, two of
which are on the fouth fide of the river, and tliree on the
north fide. Of thefe St. Paul's is the princi|)sl tor fize and
architeflure, having a handfome odlagonal Itone fpire. It
was collegiate btfore the conquell. Here are four meeting-
houfes, appropriated to different religious feds, befides one
for the Methodills, and another for.MoravIans. To the latter
is attached a dwcUing-houic for maiden ladies of this fedl,
called the fingle fillers' houfe.

This town isdillinguinied by many charitable endowments.
The holpital of St. John is fuppoftd to have been founded in
9S0 by Robert Deparis, who was the firll mailer. It now
confills of a mailer who is reclor of St. John's, and ten poor
men. St. Leonard's hofpital was built and endowed towards
the end of the reign of Edward I. The hofpital of Grey Friars
was founded in the reign of the fucceeding monarch by the
lady Mabilia de Paterlhall, who was buried in thccemeterv'.
Mr. Thomas Chrilly repaired the old town-hall, founded an
hofpital for eight poor people, and endowed a charity fchool
for forty children. But the moll confiderable chaiity of this
town,and one whofe augmented revenues have been allonifh-
ingly great, wasbcqueathed hy Sir lF'^!'iamHarpiir,\v]icSc name
and benevolence it perpetuates. This gentleman was a na-
tive of Bedford, and made lord mayor of London in 156 1.
He pnrchafed for 180I. thirteen acres and one rood of land
lying in the parifliof St. Andrew, Hoiborn, London. This,
with his dwclling-houfe in Bedford, he gave to the corpo-
ration of that town, for the endowment of a fchool and for
apportioning young women of the town upon marriage.
The annual rent of the above land was only 4CI. at firil; in
166S it was leafed fi-r forty-one years at the annual rent of
99I. A reverfionary leale was granted for a further term of
fifty-one years at the increafed rent of 150I. A number of
flreets, rows, and courts, were then built on the leafed ground,
and the annual rent is now 4000I. which in three or four
years is expccled to increafe at leail another thoufand. In
confequenceof this almoll unparalleled augmentation of reve-
nue, the trullees have applied to parhamentfor two different
a(fls, to extend the objefts of the charity, and regulate the
apphcation of the receipts. The fchool endowed by it is
fituated near St. Paul's church, having over the door a ftatue
in white marble of the founder, and a Latin infcription be-
neath. Befides the above charities a hoiij'e 0/ Inditjlry has
lately been opened for the reception of all the poor of the

five

BED

BED

five confolidated pariiT-.^s. A new town gaol has lately
been erefted, and a county gaol is juft finiilied ; towards the
completion of v.-hich the b.te Mr. Whitbread left a legacy
of 500I. This town contains Soc houfcs and 394.8 inhabi-
tants.

Bedford was made a dukedom by Henry the fifth, who
conftituted John Plantagenct, third fon of Henry the fourth,
the firll duke. After being enjoyed by a Nevil, and a de Hat-
fitld, it was befiowed on Jolin RulTcl, in whole family it
ftill continues. SecRussEL.

At Elftow, abo\il one mile from Bedford, was an abbey
of benediftine nuns, founded by Judith, niece to the con-
queror. At the difibli'.tion its revenues were valued at
284.1. I2S. II Jd. TJ!e church of Elilow is a very line an-
cient building, with, a detached tower. This place gave birth
to JohnBunyanin the year 162S. His allegory of the Pil-
grin;'^ Progrefj was written di:; ing confinement in the county
gaol. See BuNYAs. Bauties of England andWales, vol. i.

Bedford, a townfhip of America, in HilKhorough cour.ty.
New Hamplhire, incorporated in 1750, and containing Sgti
inhabitants. It lies on the well bank of Merrimack river,
j6 miles weft of Portfmouth.

Bedford, a townlliip in Middlefex county, MafTachu-
fetts, containing 523 inhabitants, 13 miles northerly from
Bofton.

Bedford, A^e-u, a flouridiing town of Briftol county, in
Maflachufetts, containing 3313 inhabitants, lying at the
head of navigation on Accufhnet river, 5S miles fouthward
of Bofton. 'N. lat. 40° 41'. W. long. 70° 52'.

Bedford, a townlhip of Weft Chefter connty, in the
flate of New York, containing 2470 inhabitants, including
3S flaves. It lies contiguous to Connecticut, 12 miles N.
from Long Ifland found, and 35 from the city of New
York. In the cenfus of 179^', it appeared to have 302
eleftors.

Bedford, a town on the weft end of Long Ifland in New
York, 4 miles N. W. from Jamaica bay, and 6 E. from the
city of New York.

Bedford, a village near the Georgia fide of Savannah
river, 4 miles above Angufta.

Bedford, a county of Pennfy'.vania, lying on Juniatta
river, and having part of the ftate of Maryland on the foi.th,
and Huntingdon county north and north-eaft. It contains
13,124 inhabitants, including 46 (laves ; half of its lands is
fettled, and it is divided into nine to-.vnftiips. Bedford, the
chief town of this connty, lie; on the louth fide of Rayllown
branch of the lame river, 25 miles E. of Berlin, and 210
W. of Philadelphia. It is regularly laid out, and has a ftor.e
gaol, and a market-houfe, court-houfe, and record-office
built of brick. It was incoroorated in 1795. N. lat. 40°.
W. long. 7§°5o'.

Bedford, a county of Virginia, is feparated from that of
Amherft on the north by James river, and has Caftipbell on
the eaft, Botetourt on the weft, and Franklin county on the
fouth. It is 34 miles long, 25 broad, and contains 10,531
inhabitants, including 2,754 (laves. Its foil is good, and it
is agreeably diverfified with hills and vallies. In fome parts
chalk and g^pfum have been difcovered. The chief town
is New London.

Bedford's 3<2y. See Torrikgton lay.

Bedford, CaJ>.', is more than 80 leagues E. by N. from
the weft entrance of Baffin's ftraits, and the S. E. point of
James's ifland ; its latitude is more than 68°, and it forms
one of the weftern limits of Davis's ftraits.

Bedford, Cape, is alfo the extreme north eaft point of
the coaft of New Holland, opening to the fouth-weft into
Endeavour river, in S. lat. 15" 18'. E. long. 145° 15'. The

fea to the eaft and n^rth is aJmoft ever)- where full of (h3als
and reefs.

Bedford Level, is the name given to a large traft of
fenny, boggy land in England, which remained a iteril wafte
for many ages. It was calculated to contain 400,000 acres,
diftributed through the feveral counties of Cambridge, Hunt-
ingdon, Northampton, Lincoln, Noifolk, and" Suffolk.
The chief part of this extenfive tract appears, from the va-
rious phenomena noticed by difl'erent authors, to have been
formerly a dry and cultivated land; but either from injudicious
embankments, v/hich prevented ilie waters fro.-n the uplands
iftuing at their proper outlets, or from fudden and violent
convulfions of nature, it was reduced to the ftate of a morafs;
where the waters, ftagnating and becoming putrid, filled the
air with noxious exhalations ; and not only dcftroved the
health of the inhabitants, but likewife impeded their en-
deavours to obtain the neccfTaiies of life ; the connti-y being
alnioft rendered impaffable even to boats, by the f^dge, reeds,
and (lime with which it was covered. The name given to it
originated with Francis earl of Bedford, who havins) large pof-
fcflionsinthe f.-ns, moftly granted him by Henry the eighth,
upon the diffolution of monafterics, engaged, in conjunc-
tion with thirteen other gentlemen, to drain the whole upon
the condition of having 95,000 acres in the refult of luceefsful
accomplilhment. Thefe terms were acceded to by the com-
miliioners and the country at large, and in 1 634 the king
granted thefe adventurers a charter of incorporation. In the
courfe of three years and a half this Herculean tafk was
completed to the fatisfaction of the commiffioners, who,
with the king's fnrveyor, fet out the allotted land to the
corporation. Above ico,oool. was expended upon this
■work. The knig, and fome perfons devoted to his interelt,.
afterwards oppofed the right of the earl of Bedford, and dif-
poiTeffed him of his property. Other perfons engaged in
the concern, but the civil wars breaking out fruftrated all
their fchcmes, and in 1649, William earl of Bedford, the
heir and fucccdorof Francs, wasreilored by the convention-
parliament, to all the rights of his father. A new aft was
obtained to repair the decayed works, and extenfive opera-
tions v.'ere adopted. In 1 65 3 the level was adjudged to be
fully drained, and after the adventurers had expended
400,000!. more, the 95,000 acres were confirmed to them-
In 1697 the Bedford level was divided into three diftriCts,
called north, middle, and foiith, having one furveyor for each
of the former, and two for the latter. This diftribution, in-
tended for its better government, proved a caufe of cdnfidtr-
able oppofition and contention, and it was many years be-
fore the whole was fettled in a fvftematic and equitable man-
ner. To purfue the hiftory of thofe litigations, charters,
and laws, originating in, and made for this great concern,
would lead us into a nairative too extenfive for the limits of
our work : we muil therefore refer thofe perfons, defirous of
further information, to the " Beauties of England and
Wales," vol. ii. and to a work recently publifhed, entitled
" An Hiftorieal Account of the Bedford Level," with the
laws, &:c. relating to the fame, 8vo.

That this vaft traft was at fome former period dry habit-
able land, is evident from the quantity of trees and variou*
other natural and artificial fubftances that have been dug from
different depths in various parts of it. Dugdale, in his " Hif-
tory of Embanking," ftates that many oak, fir, and other
trees, were found in draining the ifle of Axholm. Thefe were
at the depths of three, four, and five feet from the furface,
lying clofe to the roots, which were in firm earth below the
moor. The bodies or boles of the trees appeared to have
been burnt afunder (not cut down with faws or axes) as
the ends of them being coa/ed do manifeft. The oaks were

lying

BED

lying in multitudes, and of an extraordinary C\te, being five
yards in compafs, and lixteen yards long ; and fome fmaller
of a great length, with a great quantity of acoiiis and fmall
nuts near them." Other authors relate fimilarfafts: and Mr.
Klftob, in his " Hiitorical Account of the Bedford Level,"
Hates that in the year 1764 many roots of trees. Handing as
the trees had grown, were found near Bolton in Lincoln-
ftiirc at the depth of eighteen feet below the thin paihiragc
furface, Tacitus, in his life of Agricola, relates, that " the
Britons complained of their hands and bod:e.i biing worn
out and confumed by tlie Romans, in cLuriiig the zi'ooJs -JlW^
fmbanLing the fens." This fentence feems particularly ap-
plicable to the forementioncd circunillances, and alludes to
the period when fome great operations of this nature were
exailed from the crfluved Britons. The emperor Severus
IS laid to have been the hrll who interfered the fens with
caufeways : one of which is dclcribed by DugJaie as ex-
tending about 24 miles from Denver in Norfolk to Peter-
borough. It was conipofed of gravel three feet m depth and
fixty feet wide, and about fis-e feet beneath the furtaee. In
1635 fome workmen dilcovered, at eight feet b-.low tl'.e
bottom of ^Vilbech river, a fccond llony bottom, with leven
boats lying in it covered with iilt ; and at Whittlefea, on
digging eight feet beneath the fiuface, a perfeA loil \»a.s
found with fwathsof giafs on it ; as they lay when lirfl mowed.
Near Boflon, at the depth of fixteen leet, were difeovered a
fmith's forge, with nianv ot his tool*, fome horfc iTincs, and
other iron articles. Various other things have been found
at different times, and in diderent places, all tending to prove
the extraordinaiy effecls that nature has produced here in
one of her revolutions. The caufe and time ot this event are
not recorded. Henry of Huntingdon, who wrote in the
time of king Stephen, defcrlbes this part of the country as
then " very plealaiit and agreeable to the eye, watered by
manv riverr. which run through it, diverfilied with many large
and fmall lakes, and adorned with many woods and illands."
William of Malmlbury, living in the firft year of Hem y II.
dcfcribes this dillrict in glowing colours, as " a very para-
dife ; for that in plcafue and delight it refembled heaven
itfelf ; the very marches abounding in trees, whole length
without knots do emulate tlie liars. There is not any ivajle
place in it ; for in fome parts thereof there arc apple trees ;
in others vines, which either fpread upon the grounds, or i-un
along the poles." From thefetellimonies it appears that the
great inundation of the fens mull have occnred after the time
of the Litter hillorian. The iirll attempt at draining them
was in the reign of Edward I. ; fince which time numerous
fchemcs have been propoied, and tried to render this large
tracl of country fublervient to agriculture.

BtOFORDSHiRE, One of the inland counties of England,
bounded on the north by Huntingdonfliire and Northamp-
tonlhire, on the well by Bnckinghamfhne, on the louth by
Henfordlhire, and on the eaft by part of the latter, and
Cambridgcfliire. Its limits arc very nrcguiar and artificial,
having only two fhort fpaces of the Oufe as natur^d boundaries
on the call and weft.

This part of the kingdom, with the diiliifts now called
Hertfordihire and Buckinchamlhire, were inhabited at the
time of the Roman invafion, by a tribe of Britons called
Cattieuchlani, whofe chict or govenior fciffivellaunus, was
chofen by unanimous content to lead them againrt the arro-
gant, invading Ca-far. In the year 310 the emperor Con-
ftantine divided this illand into five Roman provinces, when
Bedtcrd'hire was included in the third divifioii, called Flavia
Cifarienfis. At the etlabhlhrncnt of the Mercian kingdom
■t was made part of that government, and continued lo till
the year 827, when, with the other divifions of the ifland, it

BED

became fubiecl to the weft Saxons under Egbert. Alfred
having fubdivided his kingdom into fhires, hundreds, and
tythings, and marked the limits and name of each divifion,
this was called Bedefordfcire, fmce contrafted to its prefent
name. Its length is computed at 35 miles, and breadth at
20. It contains an area of about 260,000 acres, which arc
divided into nine hundreds, containing ten market towns, 124
parilhes, 58 vicarages, 550 villages, about i2,coo houfes, aiid
nearly 64,000 inhabitants.

The face of the country, though not charafterifed by high
hills and deep vallies, is confiderably diverfified with fome
inei]ualities ot furface, and on the louthern fide is a range of
chalk hills. Beneath thefe is an extenfive tract of cold, flenl
land. The wellcrn lide of the county is mollly fandy and
flat, yet from the improvements adopted and recommended
by the duke of Bedford, lord Odory, &c. the greatell part
is appropriated to fome fpecies of agriculture. On the nortli
and north-ealt the foil is a deep loam, famous from the flcill
employed in its cultivation, tor producing large crops of corn,
particularly barley. A large proportion of the land in this
county had long continued in open or common fields, but w ith-
in the lall five or fix years great quantities have been ineloltd,
and farther inclofures are intended. The chief emplovment fur
the lower clailes of pcrions in this county ariies from agricul-
ture, making of lace, and the manufacturing of llraw hats.
In riie two latter, numbers of women and children are con-
Itanlly occupied, and from them derive a hare fubfillence.
There is no Inch thing as Ijne lace made in the coxmtv, and
\.\\e fuller's earth pits are all in BuckinLrhamihire. Bedford-
fliire is watered by the rivers Oule and Ivel, and fome fmaller
ilreams. The former enters the county on the weftcrii lide,
and after a devious courie tlirough manv fine meadows, pafTes
through the town of Bedlord, where it becomes navigable.
Flowing callward it leaves the county at St. Neot's, on the
confines of Huntingdonfiiirc. (See OusE ). l"hc river Ivel
riles in Hertfordihire, and pafTiiig Baldock and Bigglcfwade,
falls into the Oufe a little above Tempsford.

Bedfordlhire is in the Ni)rfolk circuit, in the province of
Canterbury, and bifhopric of Lincoln. It is crolled bv two
Roman roads, the Watlingftreet and the Ichnild-way, and
contains fome encampments attributed to tliat people : one
at Sandv near Potton, called Saleiur, arxi another near
Dunllable, called Maiden-bower, fuppofed to be the magio-
vinum of Antoninus. The duke of Bedford has a magnificent
feat at Woobarn Abbey in this county. Luton Hoo, the
marquis of Bute's ; Ampthill Park, lord OfTorv's ; and
Wrell-houfe, lady Lucas's, are veiy fine feats in the county.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i.

BEUIRUM, or Bedeiros, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Africa, in the interior of Libya. Ptolemy.

BEDKA, in Gco^^raphy. a town of European Turkey, in
the Sangiakfliip of Belgrade, leated on the Kolubra.

BEDNORE, or BiDDANORE, a fine province of Hin-
doollan, lying north-welt of the Myfore countn', and deriv-
ing its name from Bednore, the capital. Hydcr Ally took
polTeiTion of this province about the year 1763 ; and it was
afterwards comprehended within the dominions of his fon
Tippoo Sultan, who llyled himfelf regent of Mvfori', and
who retained it till the time of his death in 1 799, when,
after the capture of Seringapatam by the Britifh troops, his
dominions were diltvibuted among the conquerors. Part of
Biddanore was afligned to the Mahrattas ; the fons and rela-
tions of Tippoo were removed into the Carnatic ; and a de-
feendant of the ancient rajahs of Myfore, about five yearr.
old, was placed upon the tlirone, under certain conditions.

Bfdnork, a city ot Hindooilan, and capital of the fore-
mentioned province. N. lat. 13" 47'. E. long. 75"^ 7'.

8 BliDNORr,

I

BED

BED

Bjdnore, Ranny, a tov\-n of HindoHan, fcated on tlie
Toombuddra river, in the territory belonging, by the treaty
of 1792, to the Mahrattas. N. lat. 14" 35'. E. long.

75° 42'-

BEDOWEENS or Bedouins, in Arabic Bedoua'i, form-
ed of bid, defert, or country without habitations, a denomi-
nation given to a wandering tribe of Arabs, who retain the
cuftomsand manners of tlieir anceftors, the" Arabes Scenitae,"
and who are faid to be dei'^ended from Ithmael. Tliey
originate from tlie deferts of Arabia, where they Uve in tents,
and are feparated into diltinct tribes, fubjeft to their fcheiks,
who direft and fuperintend in every tranfaftion ; and they
have migrated with their flocks and herds into Egypt and
.Syria, and other countries both cf Afia and Africa, inhabit-
ing the vaft deferts which extend from tlie confines of Perfia
to Morocco. They felerl thofe fpots which afford them
fprings and pallures, and they are in the llricleft fenie a race
of rovers or wanderers, without any permanent abode.

Altliough they are divided into independent communities,
or tribes, not unfrequently hollilc to each other, they may
Itill be confidered as forming one nation. The refemblance
of their language is a manifeil token of this relationfl-.ip.
The only difference that exills between them is, that the
African tribes are of a lefs ancient origin, being poftcrior to
the conqueft of tliele countries by the caliphs or fucctHors
of Mahomet ; while the tribes of the deferts of Arabia, pro-
peily fo called, have dtfcended by an uninterrupted fuecef-
fion from the remotell: ages.

The Arabs, fays M. Volnev. feem to be efpecially con-
demned to a wandering hfe, by the veiy nature of their de-
ferts. To paint to himfelf thefe deferts, the reader mud
imagine a fky alraoft pei-pctually inflamed, and without clouds,
immenfe and boundlcfs plains, without houff;s, trees, rivulets,
or hills, where the eye frequently meets nothing but an ex-
tenlive and uniform horizon like the fea, though in fome
places the ground is uneven and ftony. Almoft invariably
naked on every fide, the earth prefents nothing but a few
wild plants thinly fcattered, and thickets, whofe folitude is
rarely dillurbed but by antelopes, hares, locnfts, and rats.
8uch is the nature of nearly the whole country, which ex-
tends 600 leagues in length, and 300 in breadth, and
ftretches from Aleppo to the Arabian fea, and from Egypt
to the Perfian gulf. The foil, however, varies coni'iderably
in different places ; and this variety in the qualities of the
foil is produftive of fome minute differences in the condi-
tion of the Bedoweens. In the more (lerlle countries, or
thofe which produce few plants, the tribes arc feeble and very
diftant ; which is the cafe in the d.feil of Suez, that of the
Red Sea, and the interior of the Great Dticrt, called the
Najd. Where the foil is more fruitful, as between Damafcus
and the Euplirates, the tribes are more numerous and lefs
diftant from each other ; and in the cultivable diftrifts, fuch
as the pachalics of Aleppo, the Hauran, and the neighbour-
hood of Gaza, the camps are frequent and contiguous.
In the former cafe the Bedoweens are merely paftori, and
fubfilt only on the produce of their herds, and on a few dates
and fleih-nieal, which they eat, either frefh, or diied in the
Inn and reduced to a powder. In the latter they fow fome
land, and add cheefe, barlev, and even rice to their flefli and
milk. Such is the fitnation in which nature has placed the
Bedoweens, to render them a race of men equally fingular
in their phyfical and mm al character. This fingularity is fo
llriking, that even thtir neighbours, the Syrians, regard
them as extraoidinary beings ; cfpecially tliofc tribes which
dwell in the depths of the deferts, fuch as thofe of Anaza,
Kaibar, Tai, and others, whicli never approach the town's.
In general, the Bedoween$ are fmall, meagre, and tawny ;

V.JL.IV.

more fo, however, in the heart of the defert, than on the
frontiers of the cultivated country ; but they are always of a
darker complexion than the neighbouring peafants. They
alfo differ among themfelves in the fame camp : the fcheiks,
that is, the rich, and their attendants, were always taller,
and more corpulent than the common clafs. Some of them
are more than five feet five or fix inches high ; though in
general they do not exceed five feet two inches. This dif.
ference can only be attributed to their food, with which the
former are more abundantly fupphed than the latter. The
Bedoweens of the lower clafs live in a flate of habitual
wretchednefs and famine : and it is an undoubted faft, that
the quantity of food confumed by each of them docs not
exceed fix ounces 1 day. This abitinence is moft remarkable
among the tribes of the Najd and the Hedjaz. Six or feven
dates ioaked in melted butter, a litle frefh milk, or curds,
fervc a man a whole day, and he thinks himf;lf happy when
he can add a fmall quantity of coarfe flour, or a little bail
of rice. Meat is referved for the greatell feftivals, and they
never kill a kid but for a marriage or a funeral. A few
wealthy and generous fcheiks only can kill young camels,
and eat baked nee with their victuals. In times of dearth
the vulgar, half famifhed, eat locufts, rats, lizards, and fer-
pents, which they broil on briars.

It has been already obferved, that the Bedoween Arabs
are divided into tribes, which canftitute fo many diflinft na-
tions. Each of thefe tribes appropriates to itfelf a certain
traft of land, and is collefted in one or more camps, which
are difpcrfed through the country, ar.d which make a fuc-
cefiive progrefs over the whole, in proportion as it is ex-
haufted by the cattle. Such is the law among them, that
if a tribe, or any of its fubjefts, enter upon a foreign
territory, they are treated as enemies and robbers, and a war
cnfues. Moreover, as all the tnbes have affinities to each
other by alliances of blood or treaties, leagues are formed
which render thefe wars more or lefs general. As foon as
the offence is made known, they mount their horfes, and feek
the enemy ; when they meet, they enter into a parley, and
the difpute is frequently compromifed ; if not, they attack
either in fmall bodies, or man to man. They encounter
each other at fuU fpeed with fixed lances, which they fome-
times dart, nptwithflanding their length, at the flying ene-
my ; the vidory is rarely contefted ; it is decided by the
firfl (hock, and the vanquifhcd fly off at full gallop over the
naked plain of the defert. The tribe which has been de-
feated flrikes its tents, removes by forced marches to a dif-
tance, and feeks an afylum among its allies. The enemy,
fatisfied with their fuccels, drive their herds further on, and
the fugitives fjon after return to their former fituation. Dif-
fenfions, however, arc often perpetuated by the llaughter
that is made on thefe occafions ; and they have eftablifh-
ed laws among themfelves, that the blood of every man
who is flain muft be avenged by that of his murderer. This
vengeance is called " Tar," or retaliation ; and the right of
exadling it devolves on the nearcil of kin to the deceafed.
If any one neglefts to feek his retaliation, he is for ever dif-
graced. He therefore watches every opportunity of re-
venge. If his enemy perilhes in any other wav, he feeks
fatisfaction by inflicting vengeance on the neareft relation.
Thefe animofities are tranfmitted. as it were, by inheritance,
from father to children, and never ceaie but by the extinc-
tion of one of tlie families, uiilefs they agree to facrificc the
criminal, or purchafe the blood for a ftated price, in money
orin flocks. Such beingthc condition of focicty, mofl of the
tribes hve in an habitual (late of war ; and thiscircumHance,
together v.ith their mode of life, renders the Bedoweens a
military people, though they ha\-e n-.ade no gteat progrefs

O JQ

BED

in war as an art. Their camps arc formed in a kind of irre-
gular circle, compofed of a fingle row of tents, with greater
or lefs intervals. Thefe tents, made of goat's or camel's
hair, are black or brown, or llriped black and wliite, and
thus differ from diofc of the Turkmans, which are white.
They arc llrclchud on tliree or four pickets, only five or fix
ftct high, which gives them a very flat appearance ; fa that
at a diihmcc one of thefe camps appears like a number of
black fpots. To the colour of tlitfc tents, fays Dr. Shaw,
there is a beautiful allufion, (Cant. i. y.) "I am black, but
comely like the tents of Kcdar." For notliiiig, adds this
writer, can afford a more delightful profpett than a large ex-
tcnfive plain, in its verdure, or even fcorchcd up by the fun-
beams, with thefe moveable habitations, fituated in circles
upon them. Tiiefe tents are the fame with what the ancients
called "Mapaliii," (Sil. Ital. 1. xvii. 90. Lucan. 1. iv. 684.)
and are reprefented by Sallull, (Bell. Jug. §. 21.) as refem-
bling the bottom of a (hip turned upfido down. The length of
thefe tents is mucli greater than their breadth ; andtlieyare
entirely open on one of their long fides, that is Iheltcred from
the wind, and on that wliich is expofed they are clofcd.
The tent of the fcheik is in fome of their encampments dif-
tingui(hcd from the others merely by a large plume of black
oflrich feathers placed upon its top. Eacii tent, inhabited
by a family, is divided by a curtain into two apartments, one
of which is appropriated to the women. In thefe tents the
Bedowcens, when they take their reft, lie ftretched out upon
the ground, without bed, mattrefs, or pillow; wrapping them-
felves in their hykes or blankets, and lying upon a mat or
carpet, in any part of them, where they can find room.
A number of thefe tents, from 3 to 300, are arranged
in a circle, and called Douwar. The empty fpace wittiin
the large circle ferves to told their cattle evei-y evening. As
the fhade of trees is very agreeable in torrid regions, the Be-
dowcens in the defert take pains in felefling fhaded fituations
for their encampments: but thofe ot Egvpt encamp on fpots
deftitute of trees ; and when any happen to be there, it is no
confideration with them in the pitchingof their tents. They
never have any entrenchments, their only advanced guards
and patroles are dogs : their horfes remain faddltd and ready
for being mounted on the firll alarm ; but being utter
ftrangers to all order and difcipline, thefe camps, always open
to furprife, afford no defence in cafe of an attack. Acci-
dents, therefore, frequently happen, and cuttle are carried
off every day. The tribes which live in the vicinity of the
Turks, are Kill more accuftomed to alarms and attacks; for
thefe ftrangers arrogating to themfelvcs, in right of conquefl,
the property of the whole country, treat the Arabs as rebel
vaffals, or as turbulent and dangerous enemies ; and on this
principle they never ceafc towage fecrct or open war againll
them. The Arabs, on their fide, regarding the Turks as
ufurpers and treacherous enemies, watch every opportunity
to do them injury. On the llightcll alarm, the Arabs, con-
founding the innocent -with the guilty, cut their harvells,
carry off their flocks, and interrupt their communication
and commerce. Thefe depredations produce a mifunder-
ftanding between the Bsdoweens and the inhabitants of the
cultivated country, which renders them mutual enemies.
Such is the external fituation of the Arabs.

As to their internal conllitution, each tribe is compofed
of one or more principal families, the members of which
have the title of fcheiks, that is, chiefs or lords. One of thefe
fcheiks has the fupreme command over the others. He is
the general of their little army, and fomctimes affumes the
title of " Emir," v.-hich fignifits commander and prince.
The more relations, children, or allies he has, the greater is
bis influence, To thefe he adds other adherents, whom he

BED

attaches to himfelf by fupplying their wants. Befi jes, a rum-
berof fmall families, who, not being ftrong enough to maintain
their own independence, and needing alliances and protec-
tion, range themfelves under the banner ot this chief. Such
an union is called " Kabila," or tribe. Thefe tiibes are
dillinguiihed by tlie names of their refpeftive chiefs, or by
that of the ruling family ; and when they fpcak of any of
the individuals tiiat compofe them, tliey call them the " chil-
dren" of fuch a chief; as, e. g. " Beni Temin," " Oulad
Tai," the ciuldreu of Temin and of Tai.

The fcheiks and their fubjccts are born to the life of (hep-
herds and foUheis. The more confiderable tribes rear many-
camels, which thc-y cither fell to their neighbours, or employ
i[i the carriage of goods, or in their military expeditions.
The fmaller tribes keep flocks of flieep. Among thofe tribes
which apply to agriculture, the fcheiks live always in tents,
and they leave the culture of their ground to their ful)jetts,
whofc habitations are wretched tents. Tlic peculiar dillinc-
tions which charafterife their different tribes refult from their
different modes of living. The genuine Arabs diidain huf-
bandry, as an empioyment by which they would be degraded.
They maintain no domellic animals but (heep and camels, ex-
cept, perhaps, horfes. Thofe tribes which are of a pure
Arab race, live on the tiefll of their buffaloes, cows and
horfes, and on the produce of fome little ploughing. The
former tribes, difting\iifhcd as noble, by their poffeffion of
lands, are denominated " Abu el Abaar :" and the fecond
" Moxdan," which are eftecmed a middle clafs, between
genuine Arabs and peafants. Thefe are fometimes mentioned
contemptuoufly, becaufe they keep buffaloes and cows. The
" Morcdan," tranfport their dwellings from one country to
another, as palturage faili ; fo that a village fprings up fud-
denly in a fituation where, on a preceding day, was not to.
be fcen a fingle te[it. The genuine Bedoweens, living always
in the open air, have a very acute fmell; and the tctid ex-
halations produced by cities are one caufe of their dnlike of
them. So acute is tlieir fmell, that, according to Niebuhr,
if they are carried to tlie fpot from which a camel has ftray-
ed, they will follow the animal by fmcUing its track, and
dillinguifh the traces of its footffeps from thole of other ani-
mals that have paffed tlie fame way. Thofe Arabs, who-
wander in the defert, will fubfill five days without drinking,
and dlfcover a pit of water by examining the foil and plants in
its e.'.virons. Like other people that lead an erratic lite, they
are addidfed to robbeiy, and of courfe are formidable ene-
mies to thofe who traverfc the defcrts ; but tiiey never mur-
der thofe whom they rob, unlcfs travtllers in their own de-
fence fliould chance to kill a Bedowcen, in which cafe the
others are eager to revenge his death. Upon all other oc-
cafioiis they aft in a manner confident with their natural,
hofpitality. Of their hofpitality Niebuhr has recorded feve-
ral very pleafing inllajices. The pillaging of the caravans,
he fays, is not always owing merely to their propenfity for
robbing, but their expeditions for this purpofe are commonly
confideredby themfelves as lawful hollilities againil enemies,
wlio would defraud the natives of theii' dues, or againll rival
tribes, who have undertaken to proteft thofe illegal traders.

The government of the Bedoweens is at once republican,,
ariftocratical, and even defpotic. It is republican, as the
people have great influence, and nothing can be tranfafted
without a majority : it is ariftocratical, becaufe the families
of the fcheiks poffefs fome of the prerogatives whicli every
where accompany power; and it is defpotic, becaufe the
principal fcheik has an indefinite, and almoft abfolute autho-
rity, which he may abufe ; though the ftate of the tribes
confines this abufe witliin very narrow limits ; for if he
ftiould kill an Arab, it would be alnioll impoffible for him to
8 cfcape

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e'fcape punifhment, and the law of retaliation would b? in
force. His fiibjefts, haraflTed bj fcverity, would abandon
him, and join another tribe ; his own relation? would depofe
him, and advance themfelves to his ftation. The dignity of
fcheik is hereditary, but not confined to the order of pri-
mogenitnre ; the petty fcheiks, who form the hereditary nobi-
lity, chufe the grand fcheik out of the reigning family, with-
out conlidering his immediate relation to his predeceffor.
I>ittle or no revenue is paid to the grand fcheik. In faft,
the principal fcheik in eveiy tribe defrays the charges of all
vlio arrive at or leave the camp. His rank fubjefts him to
great expence by the entertainment of his allies, and of the
principal men, who affemble to deliberate concerning en-
campments and removals, peace and v,-ar, and the litigations
between individuals. To thcfe he mull give coffee, bread
baked on the alhes, rice, and fometimes roalkd kid or ca-
mel. In a word, he mull keep open table. On hisgenero-
fity depend his credit and his power. To provide for thefe
expenccs, the Icbeik has nothing but his herds, a few fpots of
cultivated ground, the profits ot his plunder, and the tribute
he levies on tlic high roads, the total of which is very iiicon-
fiderable. The moll powerful fcheiks among the Etdo-
wecns, though fometines denominated princes and lords,
may be compared ti. fubllantial farmers, whole fimplicity
they rcfemble in their drefs, as well as in their domellic life
and manners. A fcheik, who has the command of 500
horfe, does not dildain to faddle and bridle his own, nor
to give him his barley and chopped llraw. In his tent, his
wife makes the coffee, kneads the dough, and fuperintends
the dreffing of the vicluals. His daughters and kinfwomen
wafh the linen, and go with pitchers on their heads, and
veils over their faces, to draw water from the fountain.
Thefe manners agree precifely with the dcfcription= in Ho-
mer, and the hiilory of Abraham in the book of Gene-
fis.

The fimplicity, or rather poverty of the lower clafs of
the Bedowtens, correfponds to that of their chiefs. The
whole wealth of a family coufills of moveables, of which
. the following is a pretty exaft inventor)'. A few male
and female camels, fome goats and poultry, a mare with
her bridle and faddle, a tent, a lance 16 feet long, a
crooked fabre, a rnfty muflcet, will' a flint or matchlock,
a pipe, a portable mill, a pot for cooking, a leathern
bucket, a fmall coffee-roaflrr, a ftraw mat, which ferves
equally for a feat, a tabic, and a bed, fome clothes, which
are put np in leather bugs hung up in their tents, a
mantle of black woollen, and a few glafs or filver rings
■which the women wear upon their legs and arms. But
the principal and moll important article in the pofleflion
of a Bedoween is his mare, which ferres in making his
excurfions againll hollile tribes, or feeking plunder in the
country or on the highways. The mare is preferred to
the horfe, becaufe, as Volnev, Chenier, and others fay,
(he does not neigh, is more docitt, and yields milk, which
occafionally fatistits the thirft, and even the hun^^er of her
mafler.

The Bedoweens of the defert preferve their butter in a
leathern bag ; and their water in goat (Icins. Their health
confills of a hole made in the ground, and laid with Hones ;
inflead of an oven they ufe an iron plate in preparing
their bread, which is raade into fmall cakes. In their
excurfions, they carry with them a fupply of meal, and
their other provifions are dates, milk, checfe, and honey.
They are drefled much like thsir brethren in Egypt, ex-
cept that they wear fhocs of undrefled leather, and of a
peculiar fhape ; and that many of them walk bart-footcJ
ever the fcorching fand, which renders their Skin at length

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infenfible. Their women appear Icfs (hy and fcnipulons
than the other femaL-s of the ea(l, converfe more freely
with (Irangers, and expofe themfelves with their faces un-
veiled.

The arts of the Arabs, whofe wants are few, confix in
weaving their clumfy tents, and in making mats and but-
ter. Their whole commerce only extends to the exchang-
ing of camels, kids, ftallions, and milk, for arms, cloth-
ing, a little rice or cotton, and moiiey, which they bury.
They are totally ignoiant of all fcience, and have not
even any idea of afirononiy, geometry, or medicine. Thty
have not a fmgle book ; and nothing is fo uncommon
among the fcheiks as to know how to read. Their whole
literature confills in reciting tales and hiRorics, in the
manner of the Arabian Nights Entertainments. For fuch
florics they liave a peculiar paffion ; and in the evening they
feat themfelves on the ground, at the door of their tents,
or u-idcr cover, if it be cold, and there, ranged in a circle,
lound a fmall fire cf dung, with thfir pipes in their mouths
and their legs croffed, after indulging for fome time filent
meditation, they amufe themfelves with the recital of tales
of this kind. They have hkeivife, befides their love-ftories,
their love-fongs, which have in them more nature and fenti-
ment than thofe of the Turks and the inhabitants of the
towns.

It has been obfervcd, that the Bedoweens, though their con-
dition in the depths of the defert rcfembl^s, in many refpedla,
that of the favages of America, have not the fame ferocity.
So that, accuftomed to endure hunger, they have never been
addiftedto the pvaftice of eating human ficlh ; and their man-
ners are in general much morefociable and mild. Volney attri-
butes this difference of manners to the difference of their fitua-
t ion. The American favages have been induced by the nature of
their country' to become hunters rather than fliepherds ; and
their habits have contributed to produce and cherifh a fero-
city of charafter. But the Bedoweens, v^hofe naked plains,
without water or forells, are dellitute of fifh or game, and
poffcffmg the camel, have been determined to a padoral life,
and hence they have acquired manners which have influenced
their whole charafter. Finding at hand a light, but con-
(lant and fuiScient nourifhment, they have acquired the ha-
bit of frugality. Content with the milk of the camel and
dates, they have not defired flclh ; they have (hed no blood ;
their hand's are not accullomed to (laughter ; nor their ears
to the cries of fuffcring creatures, and they have prefei-vcd a
fenfible and humane heart. Neverthckfs, when the Arab
(hepherd became acquainted with the ufe of the horfe, his
mcde of life was conudcrably changed. The facility of
paffmg over extenfive trafts of country rendered him a wan-
derer. He became greedy from want, and a robber from
greedinefs : and fuch is his prefent charatler. A plunderer
rather than a warrior, the Arab poffcffts no fanguinary cou-
rage ; he attacks only to defpoil ; and if he meets with re-
fillancc, never thinks a fniall booty is to be put in competition
with his life. To irritate him, you mud (hed his blood ;
and then he is found to be as obilinate in his vengeance as
he was cautious in avoiding danger. The fpirit of rapine,
with which the Arabs have been often reproached, is excr-
cifed only towards reputed enemies, and is accordingly
founded on the acknowledged laws of almoft all nations.
Among themfelves they arc remarkable for a good faith, a
difinterelledncfs, and a generofity, which would do honour
to the moll civilized people. What can be more noble than
the right of afylum fo refpedled among all the tribes ? A
ftranger, nay even an enemy, touches the tent of the Bedo-
ween, andirom that indant his perfon becomes inviolable. It
would be reckoned a difgraceful meannefs, an indelible ilmme,
O z u>

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to fatisfy even a juft vcnj^eancc at the expenccof liofpitality.
Has the Bedoween coiifcnted to cat br-ad and fait with his
gucft, nothing can induce him to betray him. The power
of the fukan himfelf would not be able to force a refugee
from the pro^eAion of a tribe but by its total extcrniination.
The Bedoween, fo rapacious without his camp, has no foon-
er fet his foot within it, than he becomes liberal and gene-
rous. What little he polTefTes he is even ready to divide ;
and when he takes his repafl, he feats himfelf at the door of

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been fubdued by any conqueror ; but thofe who have fettled
near towns, and fertile provinces, are reduced, in fome mea-
fure, to a Hate of dependence on the fovereigns of thofe pro-
vinces. Such are the Arabs, in the different parts of the
Ottoman empire ; fome of whom pay a rent or tribute for
the towns or pafhirages which they occupy ; and others
frequent the banks of the Euphrates only in one feafon of
the year and in wir.ter return to the defert. Thefe laft
acknowledge no dependence on the Porte, neither are.

his tent, in order to invite paffengers ; and this aft of gene- properly fpcaking, fubjee\ to the Turks ; but the po i<^e "l
rous hofpitality he regards as a matter of duty; and of the latter occalions frequent, but neither long nor bioody,
courfe he himfelf takes the fame liberty with others. So far wars among the Bedov. cens. W heiiever the i urks mteriere
does this reciprocal generofity prevail, that one would ima-
gine the Arabs poITcired all their goods in common. Never-
thelcfs, they are no Ilrangers to property ; but without that
felfiftinefs which the increafe of the imaginary wants of lux-
ury has given it among polilhed nations. Among the Arabs
there exift a kind of equality in the partition of property,
ind a variety of conditions, which have appeared, fays Vol-
oey, to the wifell legiflators as the perfeclion of human po-
licy. From this Hate of things, it becomes diiScult ior
their fcheiks to form a faction for enflaving and impoveridiing
the body of the nation. Each individual, capable of (v.p-
plying all his wants, is better able to preferve his character
and independence ; and private property becomes at once
the foundation and bulwark of public liberty. This liberty
extends even to matters of religion. WhiHl the Arabs of
the towns crouch under the double yoke of political and re-
ligious defpotifm, thofe of the defert, or the Bedoweens,
live in a flate of perfeft freedom from both. On the fron-
tiers of the Turks, indeed, the Bedoweens from policy preferve
the appearance of Mahometanifm ; but fo relaxed is their ob-
fervance of its ceremonies, and fo little fervour has their devo-
tion, that they are generally confidered as infidels, who have
neither law nor prophets. They fcruple not to fay, tliat the
religion of Mahomet was not made for them ; for, they add,
" how (hall we make ablutions, who have no water ? How
can we bellow alms, who are not rich ? Why (hould we fall
in the Ramadan, fince the whole year with us is one continued
fall? And what necefilty is there for us to make the pilgrimage
to Mecca, if God be prefent every where ?" In (hort, every
man afts and thiyk^ as he pleafes ; and the moil perfedl to-
leration is eilablifiicd among them. Volney obferves, that
there are few poli{hed nations, whofe morality is, in general,
fomueh tobtelleemed as that of the Bedoween Arabs. If this
be the faifl, we may reafonably afcribe it to a variety ofcircum-
llances altogether independent of that fingularity which he
mentions in conncclion with it, and which lerve to eoiintcraft
its etfeAs. Among thefe B;doweens, as well as the Turk-
mans and Curds, religion is the freefl from exterior forms,
infomuch that no man has ever feen among thcle claffes
of people either priefts, temples, or regukr worlhip. We
can fcarcely imagine, that even M. Volney himfelf, though
we are not unapprised of his mode of thinking on the
fubjeft of religion, would prefume to afcribe the excellence
of the morality of thefe tribes to their total want or dif-
ufe of all the outward means of producing and maintain-
ing it ; but he would probably fuggefl the inefTicacy,
in a moral view, of thole forms and modes of worlhip
which are eftablifhed and prailifed among the Mahometans.
The manners of thefe people are preferved pure and tira-
ple, and fuch as are defcribed in their ancient hiftories,
as Sonnini obferves, by the abfcnce of luxury and fac-
titious pleafures, bringing immorality in their train, which
have made no attempt to fix their abode on the parched
.and barren fands occupied by the Bedoweens.
The Bedoweens, who live i» tents in the defert, have never

in their quarrels, all the tribes combine to repuli'e the com-
mon enemy of the whole nation. Every grand fcheik con-
fiders himfelf as abfolute lord of his .whole tcnitory, and
accordingly exafts the fame duties upon goods carried
through his dominio-s as are levied by other princes.
The Europeans, therefore, are wrong in fuppofing the fumt
paid by travellers to the grand fcheiks to be merely a ran-
fom to redeem them from pillage. The Turks, who tend
caravans through the defert to Mecca, have fubmittcd to
the payment of thefe duties, paying a certain fum annually
to the tribes who live near the road to Mecca ; and thefe
in return keep the wells op^n, permit the palTage of mer-
chandife, and efcort the caravans. If the Bedoweens fome-
times pillage thefe caravans, the haughty perfidious conduti
of the Turkilh officers is always the firli caufe of fuch hof-
tilities. The tribes of Bedoweens on the confines of the
defert, are thofe who have preferved the national chara£ler
in its greatell purity, and who have maintained their liberty
unimpaired. Of thefe, that denominated " Beni Klialed" is
one of the mod powerful, on account of its conquells and
wealth, and the number of other tribes fubjeft to it. It has
advanced from the defert of Nedsjed to the fea, and con-
quered the countr)' of Lachfa. That of the tribe of " Kiab"
inhabits north from the Perfian gulf, and rarely encamps.
Thefe have poflellionsin the province of Chufillaii in Pertia,
in which province there are five different confiderable tribes
of independent Bedoweens. Thofe of the tribe " Beni Lam,"
inhabiting between Koine and Bagdad, upon the banks of
tlie Tigris, receive duties upon goods carried from Bafibra
to Bagdad, and fometimes pillage caravans. The " Monte-
fidfi," or " Moutefik," are the mofl powerful tribe north
from the defert, with refpefi to extent of territory and nuin-
ber of fubaltern tribes, ackni;wledging their authority.
They polTefs all the country on both fides of the Euphrates,
from Korne to Ardje. The Arabs of this tribe often
plunder travellers paffing between Helle and Baflbra, and
are frequently challifed by the pacha of Bagdad, who de-
pofcs their fcheik, and fubllitutes another in his room. This
tribe derives its appellation from one Montefik, who came
from Hedjaz, and was defcended from a family, illullrious
bef(jre the days of Mahomet. All thefe tribes, that live on
the confines of the defert, are genuine Arabs, who breed
(heep and camels, and live in tents, Tliis, however, is the
cafe with rcfpedl to the reigning tribes ; though fome of
the fubaltern ones have loft their nobility, by intermixing
the praQice of agriculture with the habits of pailoral life.

The rich plains of Mefopotamia and AfTyria, which were
once cultivated by a populous nation, and watertd by fur-
prifing efforts of human indullry, are now inhabited, or
rather ravaged, by wandering Arabs. The lands between
the Tigris and the Euphrates are occupied by tribes prac-
tifing agriculture, or " Mosedan." All travellers complain
of the robberies of the Bedoweens of Aifyria. The reftlefs
and thievilh difpolition of thefe people feems to increafe
the farther tliey recede ffona their native deferts, and to ap-
proach

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proach the country inhabited by the plundering Curds and
Turkmans. The pachas of Syria are as much interetttd
in guarding againft the depredations of the wandering Arabs,
as the Turkiih governors on the Perfian frontier. As it is
of great confequence to tiie cities of Aleppo and Damafcus
(which fee) that their caravans travelling to Bagdad or Baf-
fora (hould be fuffered to pafs in fafety tlirough the defcrt,
the pachas, in order to protect them from infult and pillage,
artfullv venture to employ one tiibe of Arabs againft the
reft ; and with this view they give the title of Emir to the
inoft powerful fcheik in the neighbourhood. To him they
pay an annual fum, or the produce of a certain number of
villages, for guiding the caravans, for keeping the other
Arabs in awe, and for levying the dues from thofc' who feed
their cattle o\t the pacha's grounds. The moft powerful
tribe near Aleppo, is denominated " Mauali," befides
which, there are many other tribes, amounting to twenty, or
more, who pay a trifling fum to the Emir for liberty to hire
out or fell their camels, and to feed their cattle through
the country. Other tribes pay a tax for the privilege of
gathering fait in the " Defert of Salt." In the vicinity of
Damafcus there arc numerous tribes, one of which, named
" Abu Salibe," it is faid, confifts folely of Chrii^ians. The
greatcft tvibs in the defert of Syria is that calLd " Anrefe,"
which is fpread into Nedsjed, and reckoned the moft nume-
rous tribe in the heart of Arabia. The caravans of Turk-
iili pil""rim3 pay the Bedoweens of this tribe a confiderable
duty for their free pailage through the country ; when dif-
fatisfled, tliev plunder the caravans, and they often make
war on the pacha of Damafcus. The Bedoweens, who
occupy thofe countries, that are ufually comprehended
under the appellation of " Arabia Petroea," or the defcrts
that lie between Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, properly fo
called, are diftributed into feveral tribes which wander
among drv fands and rocks, ieeking fome few interfperf-
ed fpots, that afford fcanty food tor their cattle. The
Arabs of Paleftine feem to be poor neglected hordes, who
inhabit that barren and difmal country ; and the pilgrims
that vifit the Holy Land have given exaggerated relations
of the moleftations and injury which they have fuffered from
thena.

Of the Bedoweens, there are feveral tiibes, who arrive
every year in Egypt after the inundation, from the heart
of Africa, to profit by the fertility of the country, and
who in the fpring retire into the depths of the defert.
Others of thefe are ftationary in Egypt, where they farm
lands, which they fow, and annually change. All of them
obftrve among themfelvcs ftated limits, which they never pafs,
on pain of war. They all lead nearly the fame kind of life,
and havt the fame manners and cuftoms. Ignorant and
poor, they pveferve an original charafter diftinft from fur-
rounding nations. Pacific in their camp, they are cvery
where alfo in an habitual ftate of war. Some of thefe, dif-
perfed in families, inhabit the rocks, caverns, ruins, and fe-
queilcred places where there is water ; others, united in
tribes, encamp under low and fmoaky tents, and pafs their
lives in perpetual journeyings, fometimcs in the defert, fome-
times on the banks of rivers ; having no other attachment
to the foil, than v.-hat arifes from their own lafety, or the
fubiifteuce of their flocks. The huftiandmen, whom they
pillage, hate them ; the travellers whom they defpoil, fpeak
ill of them ; and the Turks, who dread them, endeavour to
divide and comipt them. It is calculated that the different
tribes of them in Egypt might form a body of 30,000
horfemen ; but thefe are fo difperfed and difunited, that
they are only confidcred as robbers and vagabonds. The
young women, among the Bedoweens 01 Egypt might be

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reckoned not deftitute of beauty, fays Sonnini ; though
they have a tav.ny hue, and indelible compartments, not
eafily reconcilable to the eyes of an European, which they
painfully mark on the lower part of the face, with a needle
and a black dye. The men are, in general, very handfom.e.
A fimple and uniform mode of life, uninjured by excefs,
prolongs their exiftence to the period fixed by nature. They
live to be very old, and at an advanced age, they are remark.
able for their truly venerable and patriarchal phvfiognomy.
Titofe, however, whoare wandering, predator), and wretch-
ed, arcfor the moft part of a flender make and m.ean appear-
ance. Some of the Egyptian Bedoweens have among them
a tradition, that their anceftors were Europeans and Chrif.
tians, one of whofe (hips having been wrecked on the coaft of
Egypt, the crew had been plundered, and reduced to the
neccffity of living in the defert. The only remnant they
have of the fuppofed Chriftianity of their forefathers is the
fign of the crofs, which they traced with their fingers upon
the fand. In the plans that have been adopted in Egvpt,
under Ah Bey, for preventing robbei^ and eftablilhing pub-
lic tranquillity, the extermination of the Bedoweens has
been a principal objcft. Several hordes fell viclims to the
poliey of the governor ; and whole tribes retired into the
defert. However, the people of Egypt, far from approving
thofe means of protefting their property, murmured aloud
at the fcarcity of camels, ftieep, and other animals, with
which the Bedoweens had been accuftomed to fupply them
in great abundance, though it was their practice to fteal the
property which they had fold. It has fince appeared, that
the profperity of Egypt is intimately connected with the
preftrvation of the Bedoweens.

To the above accounts of the Bedoweens, extracted from
modern travellers, wc fliall fubjoin the defcription given of
their anceftors above 1 800 years ago by Diodorus Siculus,
1. xix.

" The wandering Arabs dwell in the open coimtr)-,
without any roof. They themfelvcs call their country a
folitude. They do not chufc for their abode places abound-
ing in rivers and fountains, left that allurement alone ftiould
draw enemies into their neighbourhood. Their law or
their cuftom forbids them to fow corn, to plant fruit-trees,
to make ufe of wine, or to inhabit houfes. li; who fhould
violate thefe ufages would be puniftied infallibly with death,
becaufe they are perniaded, that whoever is capable of fub-
jedting himfelf to fiich conveniences, would foon fubmit to
mafters in order to prelerve th;m. Some lead their camels
to graze, fome their fhcep. The Iatt.:r are the wealthieft ;
for, befides the advantages they derive from their flocks,
they go to fell in the fea-ports frankincenfe, myirh, and
other precious aromatics, which they have received in ex-
change from the inhabitants of Arabia Felix. Extremely
jealous of their liberty, at the news of the approach of an
army, they take refuge in the depth of the deferts, the
extent of which fenes them as a rampart. The enemy,
in faft, perceiving no water, could not dare to traverfe
them, whilft the Arabs, being furniihed with it by means of
veffels concealed in the earth, with which they are ac-
quainted, are in no danger of this want. The whole foil
being compofed of clayey and foft earth, they find means
to dig deep and vail cifterns, of a fquare form, each fide
of which is the length of an acre. Having filled them
with rain-water, tiiey clofe up the entrance, which they
make uniform with the neighbouring ground, leaving fon:e
imperceptible token, known only to themfelves. They ac-
cullom their flocks to drmk only once in three days, fo
that when they are obliged to fly acrofs thefe parched
fands, they may be habitudt<.d to fupport thinl. As for

them>

BED

BEE

t'nemfclves, t^cy live on flcdi and milk, and common and
ordinary fruits. They liavc in their fields tlie tre? which
bears pt'pper j and a jjreat dtal of wild honey, wliich they
drink with watt-r. There are other Arabs who cultivate
the earth. Thfv arc trilnUary, like the Syrians, and refera-
ble them in other refpcft", except that they do not dwell
in houfes. Siuh arc prett)- nearly the manners of this
people." Volney's Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. i.
Niebuhr's Travels through Arabia, &c. vol. ii. p. 158 —
183. Sonnini's Travj.ls in Upper and Lower Egypt,
p. 303. 317 — 322. 390. Savary'a Letters in Egypt, vol.ii.
p. 274, &c. See AR.'tniA.

BEDR, or Bediifr Hot'NKiNE, in Ginp-iihy, a place
of Arabia, io miles from Medina, and 40 from Mecca,
lying in the higli road of the caravan of Egypt. The fer-
tile vale of Bedr is rendered famous by ihe battle fought
between Mahomet and the Kortiih of Mecca, in the fccond
year of the Hegira, A. D. 623. In tiiis vale Mahomet
was infomied by his fcouts of the caravan- that approached
on one fide, and of the Koreifh, confiiling of 100 liorfe,
and 8jo foot, who advanced on the otlier. After a fliort
debate, the holy prophet facrificed the profpeA of wealth
to the purfuit of glory and revenge ; and a flight intrench-
ment was formed to cover his troops, and a ftrcam of
frcfh water that glided through the valley. " O Gnd,"
he exclaimed, as the Koreifh defcended from the hills,
" O God, if tlv:fe are deflroyed, by whom wilt thou be
worihipped on the earth ? Courage, my cliildrcn, clofe your
ranks; difcharge your arrows, and the day is your own."
At thefe words he placed himfelf, vs'ith Abubcker, on a
throne or pulpit, and inilantly demanded the fuccour of
Gabriel and 50so angels. His eye was fixed on the field
ef battle ; the Mu'Tulmans fainted and were prefled : in
that decifive moment the prophet ftarted from his throne,
mounted his horfe, and cait a handful of fand into the air :
" Let their faces be covered with confufion." Both armies
heard the thunder of his voice ; their fancy beheld t!ie
angelic warriors ; the Korcifa trembled and fled ; fcventy
of the braved were flain ; and fcventy ciiptivcs adorned the
firft viftory of the faithful. The dead bodies of the Ko-
reifli were dcfpoiled and infultcd ; tv.'o of the moil ob-
r.oxious prifoners were puniflied with death ; and the ran-
fom of the others, 4000 drams of filver, compenfated in
fome degree the efcape of the caravan. Hcrbelot. Bib.
Orient, p. 180. Gibbon's Hill, vol.ix. p. 300.

BEDRIACUM, in ylndent Gci^mJ>/jy, a village of Ifdy,
fituate, according to Tacitus, between Verona and Cre-
mona, or about 16 miles from the cor.iluence of the Adda
and Po. Chivier places it between Cremona and Mantua,
and fuppofcs it to have been the prefent Caneto, a large
village on the left of the Oglio. M. d'Anville thinks that
it was the place now called Cividale on the right fide of
that river. It is famous for two battles fought within a
mouth by Romans againft Romans, A. D. 69 ; in the firfl
of which the emperor Galba was defeated by Otho, and
in the fecond Otho was defeated by ViteUius.

BEDRIEGER, Groote Bedrieger, in IchihyrAogy,
a name given by fome to the fparui injidiator of Pallas and
Gmelin. Vide Ruy'ch, thcatr. isjc.

BEDRIP, or Bedrepf, or Bederape, the cuflomary
fervice whicii inferior tenants anciently paid their lord, by
cutting down his corn, or doing other work in the field.
The word is formed from the Saxon b'uidon, to pray, and
repe, to reap, or cut corn.

BEDROLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, iu Arra-
goBj 8 leagues from Sangueia.

BEDSTRAW, in 5o/,7ny. See Galium.

BEDUSTA, in ylncieiit G.v^rsph, the ancient Hindoo
name of the river Hydafpts, or the modern Be hut.

BEDWIN, Great, in Geography, is an ancient borough
town fituated on the eaftern fide of the county of Wilts, in
England ; at the dillance of 70 miles weft of I>ondon,
and 17 miles north fi'om Salifhui-y. It is an ancient bo-
rough by prefcriplion, and fcnt members to all the parlia-
ments of Ed\s'ard the fiill. During fome parts of tiie fub-
fcqucnt reigns, it intermitted fciidlng ; but from the 9th
of Henry V., two members have conllantly rcprefented
the borough. Thefe are eledted by about eighty perfons
who poffefs freeholds, or inhabit ancient burgage houfcf.
The town is governed by a port-reve, afiillcd by a bailiff,
and fome inferior officers, all of whom arc chofen by the
former. Bedwin had formerly a market on Tuefday, but
this has been dileonlinucd for fome years, iu coufcquence
of its proximity to the larger market town cf Miirlbonnigh.

Dr. Stukely and fome other antiquaries have given tu
this place the htmours of a Roman llation, and a Saxon
city; but there is little proof or probability, th.at it was ever
the former. There are fome enlrenchmente remaining on a
hill foulh of the town, where it is faid Ciffa ereited a caillc,
and where he feated liimftlf as viceroy of Wiltlhire and
Berkfliire. Towards the end of the feventh century, a
fevere and dcftrurtive battle was fought near this town, l)e-
tween Wulfhere, king of Mercia, and ^.fcuin, a powerful
Saxon nobleman, when, as Mr. Turner in his Anglo-Saxon
Hiftory, charafterilllcally obferves, " mutual dellrucliou
was more confpiciunis, than the decifion" of the battle.

The church of Bedwin is a large ancient ilrudfure,
built moflly with flints, and fliaped iu the form of a crofs.
Among the monuments it contains, is one to fir John Sey-
mour, who was father of the proteftor, and of the unfor-
tunate lady Jane Seymour. According to the tradition of
the neighbourhood, this lady was married to the tyrannic
monarch at a place called Wolf-hall near Bedwin, where fir
John Seymour then refided.

Here are two annual fairs. The parifli contains 3iC>
lioufes, and 1632 inhabitants, moll of whom are employed
in agriculture. The famous Oxonian phyfician. Dr. Thomas
Willis, was born here.

About two miles wefl of the town is Tottenham park, a
feat of the earl of Aylcfhury. The houfe was built by the
celebrated eail of Burlington, on the lite of an ancient pa-
lace belonging to the marquis of Hertford, who was after-
wards created duke of Somerfet. Tottenham-park is part
of the foreft of Savernake, which is the only private forefl
in England independently belonging to a fubjeft. It is a
large traft of wild ground, prsfufely wooded, and containing
much fine old oak timber.

BEE, Apis, in Natural Hi/lory., a genus of the Hyme-
nopterous order, in the Linnxan claflification of infefts ;
in Phyfioh^t, and in Hufcandry, more commonly exprcfTive
of the common honey-bee {jpis miU'ificri), although likewife
applicable to the various other fpccies of honey-bees ; and
in a ilill more general fenfe to thofc which do not, as
well as thofe which do, produce honey ; thofe which live in
focicties, as well as thofe which lead a life of folitude, or in-
dependence from their kindred kinds ; all which have a cer-
tain appearance and call of charaiter, which, in the common
acceptation of the woid, claim the dillinclivc epithet of bee,
or honty-hee, humble bee, ludd bee, iSfc,

The bee, or apis tribe, is charaflerifed in the Linnsean
fyftem as having, in common with other hymenopterous in-
fecls, four membranaceous wings, and the female being

armed

BEE

Brmeci with a fting. This 'genus comprehends an aTnazin»
number of ditlindt fpecies, many of which are clearly afcor-
tained ; fome are doubtful ; and many, if we inav be allowed
to realoii by analogy, are nio!l lik>.-ly yet unknown. Upon the
whole, there are fcarctly any gentra of infecls that compre-
hend a greater number or variety of fpecies than the tipcs.
The majority of thufe correftly known have been already
enumerated under the article Apis, to which the reader is
requefted to refer. Tlie principal lubdivifions, or natnral f:i-
milies of the genus under which thty have been defcribed by
Linnaeus, and by various writers before and fince the time of
that naturalift, will be alfo found there. Defcending from
the minutiae of critical inquiry into the complicated charac-
ters of thofe fubdivifions, it rells with lis in this place to
fpeak of the apes in another point of view : — as a race of
animals highly entei-taiuing, for their manners, habits, and
inftinClivc properties, to the naturalift ; important to thececo-
riomift in rural life ; and familiar tJ every one by the trivial
appellation of " a bee."

Under this head, the common honey, or domefticated bee,
demands the iirft confideration, as it will ftrve to elucidate
the peculiarities of the whole tribe, at lead fo far as they
are of material conftquence in the corcerns of human life.
By the indilcriminate term of the common honey-bee, we
comprehend what are individually named the que^n hee, or
female ; male bee, or drone ; and ivorLl:!^ bee, or nciite''.
The natural hiftor)' of the common bee has been more fully
and impartially confidered than that of any other creature
of the infecl tribe ; with the 'exception of tl;c filk-woim,
and the coccus employed in dyeing, there appears to be none
more deferving of the regard paid to it. As an objeft of
advantage, the honey-bee has been deemed, by the common
confent of mankind in all ages, of fufficient confequence to
be particularly attended to. We are not to forget the occa •
fional recurrence of claflic writers of antiquity to the bee :
the paftoral poets celebrate its praife ; nor was the cultivation
of this ufeful creature overlooked even by the carliell Bri-
tons, of whom we poffefs any record. Its prefervation and
its culture were recognized in their laws ; the bee itfelf was
confidered as a mofl ferviceable domcftic, and the honey one
of the greateft delicacies the bounty of heaven had granted
them. In modern days, the importance of the bee has fuf-
fered a very fenfible diminution in this country : llill it is cul-
tivated, and with advantage, by the thrifty agriculturaliil.
But in the w'armer regions of Europe, Inch as the fonth of
France, Italy, and the neighbouring parts of Aha, its cul-
tivation is attended with more fuccefs than with us ; the cli-
mate of thofe countries, mild, invigorating, and abundantly
producftive of luxuriant vegetation, is perfeClly congenial
with the nature of the bee ; there it requires but little care
from the hand of culture, and amply repays that little be-
flovved with the fpontaneous produce of its mdufliy.

Whilft we are fpeaking on this particular topic, it will not
be thought fuperfluous to advert to a few remarks that have
lately fallen from the pen of M. Latrcille, an ingenious
French naturahft, in an introdnflory difcourfe to the fludy
of bees publifhed lall year in Paris. " Da:is !a grande ferie
des animaux appelcs infefles (fays that writer), il n'-n eft
pas dont I'hiftoire prclente une aufii grande richeffe de faits,
et une audi prodigieufe fecondite de merveilles, que celle des
abeilles. Sous les rapports de I'induftrie, ces iafeftes font
le chef d'ccuvrc de la toute-puilTance du Crcateur ; et 1'
homme lui-meme, fi fier de fes dons naturels, eft, en quelque
forte, humilie a la vue de I'interieur d'une ruche. Ccffons
de nous extafier fur la cabane finguliere du caftor, fur la con-
ilruiScion ingenieufe du nid de quelques oifeaux ; tout cela
ell oublit, lorfqu'on volt ks travaux Je I'abeille. Quoi !

BEE

tin animal, qui echappe prcfque a la vue, dont I'organifa'tion,
comparee avec celie des etres des claflcs fuperieures, cil fi
i.mparfaite, fe reunit en focicte pour fonder une ville, s'y
gouverner par des loix invariables, y viv/e dans une liarm.onie
que ni uae popuhition excefUve, ni ladiverfite d'humeurset des
caraciertsdei individus qui la compofent, ne fauroient altercr!
CHioi f uneinfefte fi vil en apparence, travaillera fans reliiche
pour rafrenibler atonies par atomes, les materiaux de fon ha-
bitraion, les petriia, Its faijonnera avec tant d'art, clevera cea
fupcrbes edifices, dont I'architccture a etc le fujet dcs^mcdita-
tions des plus granues geometres, recoltera avec tant de peine
cettc liqueur li agreable, cette efpece de nedar connu fous
le nom de miel ; et votre ame ue feroit pas ravie d'etonne-
ment ! vous ne fericz pas en contcniDlation ! L'abeille n'l
pas feulement des droits a votre admiration, elle en a aufli
fur votre coiur. Si elle travaille avtc tant de zele, c'efl
moins pour la convcrfation de fa frcle exiflence, que pour
celle de fes femblables, pour la profperite de I'etat." In pur-
luing this lotty ftrain of con-rnent, we are Itfs inclined to
admit the accuracy of his rtafoning, than the energy of diftion
with which it is advanced. The philofophy of his argu-
ments is loit in eniphalis ; and that which requires co^lnefs
to difarm us of prejudices, is placed in a moft flattering and
glowing light, more likely to miflead than to inform. We
may reply to nearly all that he has faid in this refpeft, in
the precife words of the late Mr. John Hunter, who, after
a patient invelligation of the bee, its operations, and mode
of lite, has given his opinion, in the Philofophicai Tranfac-
tions, upon this point, to the following efFed. — "From thefe
animals forming colonies, and from a vaft variety of effedls
being produced, and with a degree of attention and'nicety that
feem even to vie with man ; man, not being in the leail jea-
lous, has wiil.ed to bellow on them more than they poftefs,
viz. a realoning faculty ; while cveij aftion is only inllinc-
tive, and what they cannot avoid or alter, except from ne-
cefllty, not from fancy. They have been fuppoled to be le-
gidators, even niathematicia:.s : indeed, on a luperficial view,
there ia fome fhew ol reafon for fuch fuppofitions ; but peo-
ple have gone much farther, and have filled up from their
own imagination every blank, but in fo unnatural a way,
that one reads it as if it were the defcription of a monller."
The prevailing feuliments of this latter writer precifely cor-
rcfpoiicing with thofe of a well-known morahzing poet, may
be Hill more elegantly enforced : —

**■«**** 'pjjg cejlni of bees

* * thefe, for ever, though a monarch reign.

Their feparate cells and properties maintain.

Mark what unvaried laws preferve each ftate ;

Laws wife as nature, and as iix'd as fate."

Pope,
To a certain extent this opinion is inadmiffible. The uner-
ring laws by which the bees are governed, imply rather the
inllinftive compliance of the creature to the appointed ordi-
nance of the Creator, than the refult of any reafoning fa-
culty. We are " to look through nature, up to nature's
God." We admire, we are wrapt in aftonilhment at the
wonderful order preferved amidft fuch a vaft fociety of con-
temptible animals : their feill is worthy of our contempla-
tion, their induftry of our imitation ; but when we hear of
the prudence, the fagacity, or wildom of a bee, compared,
nay analvfed, by the lame criterion as the ftupendous powers
of iutelleft in man, the wild conjectures of the enthufiaftic
obferver fink into contempt beneath the calm reflection of
the mind, and beneath tiie pen of crjticifm. Much as we are
amufed with the perfection of its works, with the prevaihng
order, the pohcy, and afiiduitics of the bee, in its fecial

mode

BEE

BEE

moJc of lite, we cannot perceive tlie benefit likely to refiilt
to the arcliitetl, the geometrician, or the ilatefman, by
making thefe the fubjedts of their contemplation.

Tims far we have proceeded only in a general manner ; in
dcfceiiding to partic\ilars, the fubjcft before us naturally
divides itlelf into a variety of diftinil branches, under every
one of which it is neceitary the Bke fliould be confidered.
The line of difcrimination is to be iirll drawn between
thofe which herd in focieties, <iiid are moft conducive to the
interefl. of mankind : thofe which, livinp; in focieties, are
rather injurious than of utility ; and thofe which are foli-
tary, and of couife, like the latter, live in a ftatc of wild-
nefs. Bees of the firtt: defcription confift only of a few
fpccies ; the fpccies of wild aiTociatcd bees are rather more
numerous; but the far greater number are folitary.

While we are fpeaking of thoie included in the tirtl clafs,
our attention again reverts with much propriety to the com-
mon bee, between which, and the other forts of honey-bees,
the line of parallel is lo intimately connefttd, that they can-
not eafily, and need not necefiarily be regarded feparateiy.
Of the common bee we are to contider the queen bee, male
bee, and working bee ; their ftrufture and anatomy ; their
economy, generation, prefervation, and varieties ; the
other analogous Ipccics productive of honey ; the general
habits of thofe bees which live in focieties ; and of thofe
which are of a folitary difpofition. The architeBure of
Bees, fo far as it relates to the common honev-bee, will
fall under notice in the article Hosty-CoMB ;• — Colonies ai
Bees, tmder Hive and Hiving ; — \\\t. ftvatm'mg oi Bees,
their Wax and Hone v, under their reipeftive articles.

Bees, Sexej of. There are in every hive or colony three
forts of bees, which Linnseus calls regina (faemina), fuci
(mares), and operariae (fpadones). The tirll is the queen, or
female ; the lecond the drones, or males ; and the laft the
luork'mg bees, or neuters. The q\i£en is larger than the
others ; (he !:i armed with a fting, and has thirteen joints in
the antenna, including the radicle ; thofe of the male have
one joint more in the antennae ; the eyes in this fcx are large,
and it is deititute of a lling : the working bees are armed
ivilh a powerful lling. and liave fifteen joints in the antcnnsc.
And here it will be proper to obferve, that lh;r circumftance
of the antennx in the female and neuter bee, containing the
fame number of articulations, were not obfcrved till lately.
J.innsus tells us the anteiin.e of the female has ten joints,
the male eleven, and the w orking bee fifteen ; the difcovery
to the contrary is due to Mr. Kirby, who, to ufe his own
language, fays : " In every one of thefe alTertions, with
due deference to a name fo great be it fpoken, Linnxus is
niillaken."

Bees, StruSure and Anatomy of . There is nothing parti,
cularly ftriking in the ftrudure of the bee. In their form
they vary in different fpecies, and in different fexes, but ge-
nerally fpeaking they are uniformly bulky animals, having
the head large, the eyes oval and confpicuous, the thorax
broad and thick, as well as the body, and moft are com-
monly covered with hair or down ; the fcxcs diftinguifhable
by the number of articulations in the antenna: (being one
more in thofe of the male than the female), and the mouth
furnifhed with ftrong inflntmenta cllaria. The jaws and lip
of the apis mellifica arc membranaceous at the tip, the for-
mer bidtntated ; as in other bees, the jaws open to the
right and left, and ferve to carry out of the hives any thing
that incommodes them. To thofo which have no iling, the
teeth of thefe jaws are of eifential fervice in their wars
with fuch as poffefs that formidable weapon ; and it is be-
bevedj but on what foundation is uncertain, that the wounds
inflicled by means of thefe teeth inevitably prove mortal to

7

the other, or flinging bees, when they bite. The tongue
in different kinds of bees is very different in fhnpe. It iias
been obfcrved, that in the more induftrious fpecies, this in-
ftrument, when ftrttched out, is Ihorter than in the others :
be this as it may, the tongue of the common honey-bee is
long, infleftcd, and extremely pliant ; by means of this, the
bee not only procures iticlt neceffary fubfillence, but it is
alfo employed by the animal to collect the honey, which
we appropriate to ourfclves. The parts of which the torgue
confifts in different bees are not unifomily diftinguiflied by
the fame terms in the works of entomological writers. Pro-
bofcis is that by which Mr. Kirby, after the example of
Linna:us, when defining the Apis genus, calls the tongue,
together with all the machinery that belongs to it, inclulive
of the (heath or vagina. This is more fully illuftrated ia
his diffeftions of the probofcis of the male, the female,
and the neuter of the common honey bee, wherein the ftruc-
ture of this inftrument, and the feveral parts of which it
confifts, are correftly difcriminated. It may not be altoge-
ther irrelevant to our purpofe to follow this agreeable writer,
ia fome degree, v.'hilft explaining the ftrudlure of the pro-
bofcis or tongue. This part of the bee is faid to confift of
feven pieces ; Mr. Kirby fpeaks of more, viz. the fulcrum,
tubus, valvuls, cardo, lora, palpi exteriores, palpi intcri-
ores, laciniae exteriores, lacinia? interiores, and lingua. Th.e
fulcrum is that part upon which the tube is feated, and has
been noticed both by Swamnierdam and Reaumur ; the lat-
ter of whom calls it le pivot. Tubus is that pnrt called by
Fabriciiis the bafe of the tongue, and by Swamnierdam and
others the fheath of the tongue, including the bale of that
organ j and in a certain meafure anfwering the fame purpofe
as thevalvulae. The latter, or •valvuls, form the exterior ffieath
of the tongue. As to the cardo, cardines i tervene between
the valvule and the lora, and feem to ptrfoim the office of
hinges. Reaumur mentions thefe as " tilets tendineux par
les quels les tiges font attachees a leurs appnis." Lora are ib
named by Mr. Kirby from their ufe, which feems to be to
let out or pull in the probofcis, being thofe parts '.vhich
Reaum.ur calls " les leviers ;" when the probofcis is extend-
ed, the angle on which the fulcrum of the tube fits, is ob-
fcrved to point towards the breaft, but when retradted, its
pofition changes, and it points towards the mouth. Pal-
pi exicnores are organs noticed in the rude {Icctch of
the probofcis of the hive bee by Swammcrdam, who does
not, however, fpeak of them. In this kind they are fmall,
and confifting only of a fingle joint, efcaped the obferva-
tion of Reaumur ; in fome bees they are large, and con-
tain from one to fix joints. Palfi interiores are thofe
parts of the probofcis which Reaumur dillinguifiies by the
term " barbes ;" in the common bee, thefe confift only of
two articulations ; in other fpecies they are known to con-
tain a greater number. De Geer calls thefe little organs,
" les petit barbilloiis." Lacinia exteriores are to be met with
in almoll every family of the apis genus. Lacinia inltriores
are peculiar to the apis, and embrace and defend the tongue
where it enters the tube ; thefe are called by Suammerdam
the third pair of joints of the probofcis ; Reaumur mentions
them as " pieces qui embrailent tt fortifient la tronipc. ;"
Latreille, in his Komada family, names them " foies late-
rales." Lingua, or the true tongue, called fometimcs by
De Geer " le levre infericur,'' or inferior lip, is occafionally
mentioned by I'abricius under the term of labium, or lip.
Roemer, in a work entitled " Genera Infeitorum, &c."
lays down the character of ap's thus : — " Jaws dentated,
with an infleited probofcis, with two bivalve fhells, in which
the tongue is included." Latveilic, in a work recently pub-
lifhed, divides the apis genus iuto two families : the firft,

correlponding

BEE

correfpondin^ with the mcl'itta of Kiiby, has thcfe charac-
ters ; " Machoires et lanjjiie tres alongces, deiix ou trois
fois plus lotifriies que la tcte, dirigees en avaiit dans I'iiiac-
tion, et dont la bafe rsfort infcrieurement de la cavite ou
elles font logees. Partie faillant de la langue evafee, a trois
divifions pins courte que la gaine : celle-ci longue et cylin-
d:ique." The two Fabrician genera, hyUtis and andirim,
are arranged under this family ; the tongue in hyUus is
thus dcfcribed, " langue large ; divifions du milieu cchan-
cree, dentelee, ciliee." In andnna, " langue oblonguc ;
divifion au milieu en point renfendue." La gaine, or (heath
of the tongue, is not invariably cylindrical in this divilioii
[mel'ilta') of apes ; it is fometimcs conical.

In the family uhich includts the true apes of Kirby, the
tongue is thus defcribed by Latreille : " langne tres pro-
longee, etroile, liiieaire prelque, cylindrique, un peu coria-
cee, a papilks vers I'extrJmitc, flechie aJa fortied^ la gaine."
Nomada, upis, and eucera of Latreille are included under
this head. His nomada is thus characterifcd ilill further :
" langue d'une piece avec deux tres petites foies laterales."
^p!s, " langue de trois pieces (organes de la nutrition phjs
pctits dans les males)." Eucera, " langue de cinq pieces."
We have deemed it requifite to be thus minute in following
the obfervations of Kirby, Latreille, and others, who have
diflecled and examined the ftrufture of the probofcis in dif-
ferent bees, with the aid of microfcopic glaflcs, for the pur-
pofe of fliewing tlie fallacy of the commonly received opi-
nion, that in all bees the ftruclure of this organ mufi be the
fame. For inllance, we fee that in one family the tongue
is very long, more than twice or thrice the length of the
head, with the extremity opening into three divifions, the
whole of which is contained within a (heath of a cylindric?!
form ; in others this part is conical. Kome have a large
tongue, with the middle divifion ol it floping, j;igged, and
ciliated, and the end truncated ; again, others have an ob-
long tongue, the middle piece of which is cleft or lacerated
at tile tip. In many, the tongue is very long, ftraight or
linear, almoft cylindrical and papillous at the extremity ;
while the tongue in others confills of a fingle piece, having
two lateral laciiiix of a imall fize ; and fometimes, on the
contrary, the tongue is formed of five pieces ; in the hyLcus,
andrena, and nomada famihes, the tongue is thrce-clcft, in
apis five-cleft, and in eucera feven-cleft.

In the formation of the probafeis, the pnrpofe for which
nature has defigned this curious inllrnment is very apparent.
That of the common bee has been exam.ined with attention.
Firil, the (lieath or external parts are obferved to protedl
and llrengthen the organs of nutrition which they contain ;
the valves of the (heath are difpofed on each fide of the
tongue in pairs; with the tongue itielf, which is pervious, the
bee extrafts and gathers the neclareons juices from flowers,
which are (hortly after converted into honey. The two pieces
of the exterior iheath are horny or membranaceous ; tliofe
of the inner (heath are placed higher above the bafe than
the exterior ones. The probofcis is partly membranaceous,
and partly of a griftly nature, and has the louver part formed
in fuch a manner that it is capable of confiderable dillenfion,
by means of which the internal cavity may be prodigioufly
enlarged, ^nd rendered capacious enough to receive a great
quantity of native honey. V/hen the probofcis is (hut up,
and inaftive, it is very much flattened, and broader than it
is thick. The lower and membranaceous parts of the trunk
at the bafe have no hairs upon them, but are covered with
little tranfparent protuberances that are placed in regular
order, and at equal dillances from each other ; thefe are
fuppofed to be glandules, and may have a confiderable fliare
in changing or preparing the honey that is fwallowcd or

Vol. IV.

BEE

taken up by the probofcis^" Down the middle of the pru-
bofcis there is a tube of a much harder nature than th.e fidci,
which becomes rather tapering towardsthe apex, where the
probofcis is very thick fet with fmall hairs, which may ^
lerve to keep it" in a proper fituation when in ufe.

I'he probofcis is not cylindrical, but rather a Itind of
convex blade, terminating to all appearance in a point ; and
the (heaths are fo contrived as to cover little more than the
upper part of it. Thcfe exterior (lieaths lap over eacii other
on tlie upper part, fo that the ontfide of the probofcis is
protcclecl by a very ftron^ double cafe ; a coveiing tliat was
unneccflary for tl'.c under part, bccaufe, when this inftruraent
is in ufe, the (heaths are cpened, but when inactive, it is fo
folded, that the under part is protefted by the body of the
bee. Within the exterior (heath, and mar the bottom, are
two levers, which are fixed to the end of the probofcis, and
by the motion of which it is raifcd or lowered. If a bee is
attentively obferved when it aliglits upon a full blown flow-
er, the activity and addrefs with which it employs this ap-
paratus will prove highly entertaining. The tongue is fnil
protruded, then lengthened, then (hortencd, and continually
kept in m.otion, bending and turning in every poSlble direc-
tion to adapt itfelf to the form of the flower.

Thejl'tng of //j^ Bee is a curious weapon, adapted to the
induftnous habits of its life, which cxpofe it to a multitudv;
of dangers. It is truly an inftrument in every manner calcu-
lated lor ofFeniive or defenfive operations in the annoyance
of its enemies. The wound which the bee infliits with its
fling is fevere, to its little antagonills it oftentimes proves
mortal, becaufe it not only (Irikes deeply into their bodies,
but conveys at the fame time a powerful poifon into tl;e
wound which it occafions. In the queen, or female bee,
the fting is longer as well as (louterlhan in the working bee,
and is bent a little under the belly. The female and the
working bee are thofe only which are furnifned with a fting ;
for the male, as before cbfer\-ed, has none. The fting in
both is put in motion by means of certain mufcles attached
to its biife, and contained within the abdomen, where alio
the glands for the fecretion of the poifon is concealed. This
internal apparatus for the preparation of the poifon has been
niifconceived : every writer, except the late Mr. Hunter,
confiders it as a fingle receptacle ; whereas it appears, from
the obfervations of that judicious anatomift, to confift not
of one, but of two fmall duds, although thofe two feem to
unite into one : thefe are lituated in the region of the abdo-
men among the air vedcls, and when preffed, injeft into the
paffage of the fting the poifonons fluid drop by drop. The
fting is apparently tliick and folid at the bafe, and at the ex-
tremity remarkably acute ; fuch is its appearance to the com-
mon obferver : but ftriclly (peaking, this is nothing m.ore than
tile (heath or calc in which the genuine fting is contained ; the
latter is an appaiatus confifting of two extremely (lender beard-
ed darts, each of which has five or fix recurved teeth or
barbs placed near their extremity, or, according to Derhara,
they amount to eight recurved teeth on each dart. The
(heath is of an horny fubftance, round at the bafe, and on
the fides grooved, ending in a fnarp point, and has an open-
ing near the tip, through which the two bearded darts arc
protruded beyond the flieath, when the bee is in tiie aft of
(tinging. When tlie two barbed darts, of v/hich the true
fting confifts, are united, tliey eafily enter the flcfli, and
then opening a little, become for a moment moft fecurely
fixed by means of the teeth with which they are befel.
Some fay one cf thefe daits is rather longer than the other,
and fixes its beards, or teeth, firft ; and the other inftantly
following, they penetrate alternately deeper and deeper,
holding thenifclves tirmlv in the flefh with their beards,

P v>\

BEE

till tlic whole fting is buried in the wound, and the poifon
iiijeded. When once the bee' has completely transfixed its
lling into the flelh, the acrid caullic liquor, called the poi-
fon, h prcfTed from the ghnds in which it is fecrcted, and
pafiing down the channels of the darts, difcharges its malig-
nant contents into the wound, occalioning an acute pain and
fwcUinjr of the part, the inflammation of which continues
not unfrtquently for fevcral days after. Dr. Hunter, bemg
dtfiroui of afcertaining the force of this poifonous fluid,
dipped needles into it, with which he pricked the back of
his hand ; the liico experiment he tried on the fame part
with needles that were not dipped into it, and found that
the punclures occafioncd by the former grew fore and in-
flamed, while the others did not.

But if the wound «hic!i thj bee inflifts bepair/ul to thofe
who receive it, to the bee it is attended often with more fc-
rious harm, for it inevitably proves fatal, if by any acci-
dent the fting is broken off in the ad of inflifting it. When
the creature ftrikes its fting deep into the flefli, and the per-
fon ftarts, and difconipofes the bee before it can difengage
itfelf, the fting is almoft certain of being broken off, and
left (licking in the wound. On the contrary, if he has pa-
tience to ftand qui't, the bee will bring the twoflender darts
clofe together, and withdraw the whole, in which cafe the
wound is always lefs painful. A wafp is not fo liable to
leave its fting in the wound as a bee ; the beards of the
darts being (hortcr, and the infeft more nimble and vigo-
rous in its operations. When the bee means to fting, it
flies about the object of its anger very quickly, and by the
Telocity of its motion?, feems to evade being ftruck or at-
tacked to advantage, while preparing for the affault. The
found emitted at this time is alfo peculiar, and to thofe ac-
cuftomed to bees is perfettly well underftood. " The dan-
ger of being ftung by bees (it has been faid^, may be in a
great meafure prevented by a quiet compofed behaviour. A
thoufand bees will fly and buzz about a perfon without
hurting him, if he will but ftand ftill and forbear difturbing
them, even when near his face ; in which cafe he may ob-
ferve them for hours together without danger ; but if he
molcfts or beats them away, he ufually fuffcrs for it. In the
" Edinburgh Medical Commentaries" it has been affirmed,
that a perfon is in perfeit fafety in the midft of myriads of
bees, if he were to keep his mouth carefully fliut, and
breathe gently through the noftrils only ; the human breath,
it would fcem, being peculiarly ofPenfive to their delicate
organs : and merely with this precaution, it is faid, tlie hives
may be turned up, and even part of the comb cut out,
while the bees are at work.

Reaumur made ufe of no other remedy for the fting of
the bee than to bathe the part affected with cold water, a
remedy which in moft cafes will allay the pain and inflamma-
tion only during the time of its application. Oil of olives,
or fwrcet almonds, applied to it alleviates the pain. Lom-
bard, a late French writer, in his " Manuel ncceffaire au
▼illagcois pour foigner les abeiiles," prefcribes a better re-
medy. He recommends that the wound be preffcd, to cleanfe
k as much as polfible from the venomous flnid, and then
rubbed with alkali, or with a little diluted quick li;ne, by
means of which the properties of the poifon will be neutra-
lized ; the wounded part, after the apphcation of this re-
medy, muft be well wathed with cold water, when both the
pain and fwcUing will be found to have received confiderablc
relief.

Bees, Voice of . The bee is capable of emitting either
by the mouth or motion of the wings, a variety of founds,
exprelTive of its anger, fear, contentment, and other paffions ;
a cifcumftaacc hitherto but very flightly regarded by thofe

BEE

writers who have, in other rcfpefls, entered moft minutely
into the hiftory of tins animal. Mr. Hunter, in his paper
on the honey-bee, inferted in the Philofophical Tranfadions,
fays a few words on this fubjeft. Bees, lie tells us, may be
faid to have a voice ; or at leaft, that they are able to form
feveral dillinft founds. They give a found when flying,
which they can vary according to cireumttnnccs. One ac-
culloMicd to bees can immediately tell when a bee intends
to make au attack by the found, moft likely of th.e wings,
but that is not certain ; it may iffue from the mouth. The
bees may be feen ftanding at the door of their hive, with
the belly rather raifcd, and moving their wings, by which
means a noife is occafioncd. But they produce a noife in-
dependent of that made by the wings ; for if a bee be
fmeared all over with honey, fo as to caufe the wings to
adhere together, the bee will ,bc perceived to make a fhrill
and peevifti found while the wings remain motionlefs. To
afcertain this matter with a ftill greater degree of accuracy,
Mr. Hunter held a bee by the leg with a pair of pincers,
and very clearly obfcrved that the creature made the fame
peevifli noife while the winijs were perfectly ftill. After
tliis, he even cut the wings off, wher^the poor bee continued
to make t!ie fame noife as before. He immerfcd the bee in
water, but it did not then produce any noife, till it was
much teafed, when the fame found was heard as in the former
inftance : during this experiment, he could obferve the
water, or rather the furface of contact of the water with
the air, vibrating at the orifice of an air-hole fituatcd at the
root of the wing. The fame writer remarks, that the bees,
or foine kinds of them at leaft, make a noife the evening
before they fwarm, which is a kind of ring or found refem-
bling that of a fmall trumpet ; and by comparing it with
the notes of the piano -forte, it feemed to be the fame with
the lower ^of the treble. — When the bees return from their
daily excurfions in the fields, to their hives at evening,
loaded with farina and honey, they are well known to fing
or hum a foft melodious tone cxpreflive of their content-
ment. Entomologifts are well aware that the found emit-
ted by the bee is fufceptible of certain modulations. Some
of thefe proceed undoubtedly from the motion of the wings,
and vai-y in tone as they are moved with greater or lefs
velocity, juft as we obferve in other infcfts furnifhed with
tranfparent v.'ings ; and in fome degree throughout the
whole of the infeft race, with the exception of thofe which
have very fmall v.ings, or are entirely dtftitute of them.
From the obfervation of Mr. Hunter on the emilfion of air
from the lateral trachea, or air veffel in the fide, it would
fecm, that a certain found may be caufed by means of thefe
little organs : the remark of this anatomift defervcs more
confideration than he appeared to be himfelf perfuadcd of,
Cnce we knov/ that the fmging of the c'tcads, a noify tribe
of infe£ls, proceeds not from the mouth, but from two
lateral openings, one en each fide of the abdomen ; ihe
found being produced by means cf a moft fingular internal
organization, and tranfmitted through thofe openings at
the pleafurc of the creature. It is not unlikely, that many
infects may be furniftied with lateral organs for the purpofe
of making a certain noife, although not exaftly of the fame
ftrulture in the cicada, and certainly upon a much fmaller
fcale. That a bee emits a found from the mouth, is alfo
believed. A gentleman within our knowledge, who has
made the manners of bees his particular ftudy, can with the
utmoft facility declare the fex of any bee that may chance
to pafs near him, by attending only to the motion and found
emitted by it vvhilil in flight.

Bees, yige of. Writers are not agreed as to the duration
of the term of life in the honey-bee. Among the ancients

it

BEE

It was thouglit to extend to nine or ten jnn. Virgil and
Pliny limit it to fevcn. Soir.e fuppofe tliat they are annual;
others, that they live many years, but thehtteriJca is almoil
esplcded at this time. On the other hand, alrhough they
may be confidercd as annual, a few of the females certainly
live through the wi:iter, and lay the foundation for a new
fociety in the enfuing fummer. In the month of Augull, Mr.
Hunter imagines the queen, or queens, to be impregnated
by the males, ai^d as the males do not provide for thenifelves,
they become burdenfom.c to the working bees, and arc there-
fore deftroyed as ujflefs, and thrown out of the hives.
When the bees fet about the bufinefs of providii^g their
winter ftorc, every oneration ceafcs, excepting that of col-
lefting honey and bee-bread for the future fubfiltence of
the colony. At this particular crifis, it would feem as if
the males were confcious of their approaching danger, for
they do not rcll as before on the mouth cf the hive either
when going in or coming out ; aftivity is apparent in all their
aAions. But this avails them Httle, nor does it avert,
though it may protraft, their fate, for a (hort time ; they
are commonly attacked by the labouring bees, one, two, or
three together, and feeming to be incapable of making any
refiftance, or anxious to avoid the conte'l, attempt only to
enfure their fafety by hallening out of the way of their
cruel enemies as fpcedily as poffible. The labourers do not
fting the males, Mr. Hurler tells us, but only pinch, tor-
ment, and pull them about, as if to wear them out, and
haften, by Xuch violent treatment, the death of thefe hap-
Itfs creatures, who woulil die naturally in the fpace of a lit-
tle time afteE.

Bees, Economy of. When wc fpeak in a familiar manner
J cf the economy of bees, fuch as the fecreting of wax, the
conftioifling of honey combs, ranging the fields and gardens
to colleft farina and nciSlarious juices for the preparation of
wax and honey ; attending, nurturing, and feeding the
maggots or larvae, covenngin the chrylalifes or pupa;, &c.
the labouring bee alone is meant, for the females and the
males are only implicated in the common concern, fo far as
relates to the wellgovernment of the colony, and generation
of the future brood. Among thofe who have minutely
treated on this fubjecl, (the economy of bees), many have
related very wonderful and incredible circumllances ; the
moral virtues (as it has well been faid) have all, at one time
or other, been attributed to the bees. They have been
celebrated for their prudence, induftry, mutual affeclion,
unity, loyalty to their lovereign queen, public fpint, fobriety,
and cleanlinefs. The fagacity of bees in forefeeing rain, or
cold has been often mentioned ; this is not very queftionable ;
/or a (hort time, at leaft, before we are fenfible of the altera-
tion in the ftate cf the weather, their conduft proves that they
are not ignorant of it. Mr. Hunter frequently -obferved
their return home in great numbers before rain or cold
was coming on, without being able to perceive himfclf, till
fome time after, the change in the temperature of the at-
mofphere. Bees require a confiderable degree of heat ; the'
' eggs mud. be kept warm, and neither the larvae nor chryfa-
lifcs, it is afierted, will Hve in cold of 60° or 70°. " Bees
(fays one writer) feem to be warned of the appearance
of bad weather, by fome particular feehng. It fometimes
happens, even when they arc very alTiduous and bufy, that
they on a fudden c^-afe from their work ; not a fingle one
ftirs out ; and thofe that are abroad hurry home in fuch
prodigious crouds, that the doors of their habitations are
too fmall to admit them. On this occafion, look up to the
flcy, and you will foon difcover fome of thofe black clouds
which denote-impcnding rain. Whether they fee the clouds
gatheriiig for it, as fome imagine, or whether (as is rnucli

BEE

mofe probable) they feel fome other effecls of it upon their
bodies, is not yet determined ; but it is alleged, that no
bee is ever caught even in what we call a fudden (liower,
unlefs it have been at a veiy great dlftance from the hive,
or have been injured by fome accident, or been iickly, and
unable to fly fo fail as the reft. Cold is a great enemy to
them. To defend themfcKes againft its efftCls during a
hard winter, they croud toother in the middle of the hive,
, and\_buzz about, and thereby excite a warmth that is oftea
perceptible by laying the hand upon the glafs window of
the hive. They feem to underftand one another by the
motion of their wings : when the queen wants to quit the
hive, (he gives a little buzz ; and all the others iraajeiiately
follow her example, and retire along with her."

Altliough many of the accounts that have been given of
the bee are fabulous, an intimate acquaintance with them
in their domellic operations, has funiifhtd many real fails
that are as furprifing as tiiofe which are apparently, or per-
haps wholly, groundlefs. It is not to be difputed, that at
certain time«, when they think th.eir florcs likely to fall
Ihort, they make no fcruple to kill and throw out of the
hives their own offspring ; the larvae and young b?es of the
male or drone kind, fcarcely extricated from thei'' pupa ftate,
have been carried away and left to peridi. They may be
juft in fom.e refptfts in their own kingdom, and to thofe
who are to be confidered as their fellow fubjefls, but they
rob and plunder ftrangers whenever they have power and
opportunity ; and they have frequently battles in commir-
ting depredations on neighbouring colonics and hives, or in
repelling the aggrcffions of other invaders, in their own de-
fence, which always terminate fatally to many of their
number. This '.idced does not often happen, except early
in the fpring, or late in autumn, when honey is fcarce in
their hives, and there are eo flowers abroad to furnifh them
with more. In this cafe, when they liave ranged the fields
without fuccefs, they endeavour to lupply themf^Ivcs at the
hazard of their lives, from the ftores of other bees. How-
ever, in all thefe conflidts, if the queen of either hive that
happens to be engaged is killed, the battle ceafea, and both
parties unite under the furvivor.

The induftry and activity of bees in their domcftic la-
bours, afford a very inftruCtivc and amufing fpe£lac!e ; ail
are bufily engaged in their fcveral depaitments. While
fome are employed in gathering honey and wax, others re-
pair the rotten combs ; others carry out the dead, and
cleanfe the filth ; others keep guard, placing therafclves in
five or fix files eight or ten deep upon the floor of the hives,
fo that all the bees when they enter u•^x^ pafs between
them ; fome are even faid to fcrve for bridges or ladders
for others to pafs over ; and when they are tired with la-
bour, they recruit themfelves with reft. For this purpofc,
they fonn larger or fmaller clufters in the following manner ;
each bee with its two fore-legs lays hold of the hinder legs
of the bee that is next above it, and thus a chain is formed
by the fucccffivc application of one to another, and the
firft bee fupports the v.eight of all the reft to the bottom of
the chain. The larger clufters arc only a multitude of
thefe chains, of which there are fometimes an hundred to-
gether. The bees, it is faid, never lay hold of any part
of one another, except the legs. In this way, they likewife
guard themfelves from the etFefts of cold, and continue for
feveral weeks together in a ftate of torpidity.

Bees, we are told, when they begin to work in their
hives, divide themfelves into four companies ; one of which
roves in the fields in fearch of farina for the wax ; another
is employed in laying out the bottoms and partitions of the
cells i a third ia making the infide fmooth from the angles

P 2 and

B E E

and comers ; and the fourth in coUefting and briiHring food
for the fupport of the reft, or in relig/ing thofc wlio return
heavily laden. Neither of thefe four companies is kept
conilantly to one employment ; they often change the
talks affigned them : thofe that have been at work, tor ex-
ample, in the conf'ruflion of the cells, are permitted to go
abroad, and thoft- which have been in the fields already,
are allowed to take their places in the hive. Tiiey are
believed, and not without reafon, to have certain figns, by
means of wliicli they underiland each other, and one Itriking
inllance is adduced in proof of this : when any one of the
bees is in want of food, the creature bends down its trimk
to the bee from whom it is expefted, the latter immediptely
opens its ho'KV-bag, and lets fome drops of honey fall into
the mouth of the other, which is at that time obferved open
to receive it. Many other circumftances miijht be likewife
mentioned, were they neci.(rary to confirm this idea. Tlicfe
particulars relate ahiioft exclufively to the operations of the
neuter, or laboming bee ; the males anfwering no other
pnrpofe than finiply that of males in their fexual capacity ;
and the queen or female breeder only attending to the dif-
charge of her more important duties, the laying of eggs,
and influencing, by her prefcnce, the working bees, to per-
levere in their rcfpeflive labours.

Bee, Geiicrahon of. Thefe infects begin to breed in the
upper part of the hive, in the cells adjoining to thofe which
are filled with honey, and they defcend gradually into the
lower parts, as the flowers which furnidi them with wax
increafe in plenty. The cells defigned for the working
bees, are commonly half an inch deep ; thofe for the drones,
three quarters of an inch ; and thofe intended to contain
the honey only, ilill deeper. The queen bee is generally
concealed in the moft fecret part of the hive, and is never
vifible, except when (lie happens to lay her eggs in fuch
combs as are cxpofed to fight. \Vlien fhe does appear,
Ihe is always attended by ten or a dozen of the common
fort, who form a kind of retinue, to follow and guard her
wherever (lie goes. Before (he lays her eggs, fhe examines
the cells where file dcfigns to lay tliem ; and if (he finds
they contain neither honey, wax, nor embi-)-o, file introduces
the poll erior part of her body into the cell, and fixes to the
bottom of it a fniall white egg, which is compofed of a thm
membrane, filled with a whiti(h liquor. In this manner
(he proceeds on, t:ll ihe fills as many cells as fhe has eggs
to lay, which aie generally many thoufands. Sometimes
more than one egg has been dtpofited in the fame cell ;
when this is the cafe, the working bees remove the fuper-
numerary eggs, and leave only one in each cell. On the
lirll or fecond day after the eggs are lodged in the cells,
the drone bee is fuppofed by many to injedt a fmall quan-
tity of whitidi liquid, which in about the courfc of a day is
abforbed by the egg. On the third or fourth day is pro-
duced a maggot, v.hicli, when it is grown fo as to touch
the oppofite angle of the cell, coils iticlf up in the (hape
of a femicirele, and floats in a certain liquid whereby it is
nouriflied, and enlarged in its dimenfions : this liquid is of
a whitifli colour, of the thicknefs of cream, and of an in-
fipid talle, like flour and water. The origin and qualities
of this Uquid, are not correiStly explained : fome have fup-
pofed that it confifts of fome generative matter injefted by
the male or drone bee into each cell, in order to give fecun-
dity to the egg : a more probable opinion is, that it is the
fame with what feveral writers call the bee-bread ; and that
it is a mixture of water with the juices of plants and flow-
ers, collected merely for the nutrition of the young while
they are in a weak and helplefs Hate. Whatever may be
the nature of this aliment, it is certain the bees are very
iaduilrious in fupplying the worms with it. The larva, or

BEE

mat:got, is fed by the working bees for about eight or ten
days, till one end touches the other in the form of a ring,
and when it begins to find iticlf uneafy in its lirll poft\n-e, it
ceafes to eat, and begins to unroll itfclf, thrulling the head
forwards towards the mouth of the cell, 'i he attendant bets,
ob(ervin:r thefe fvmptoms of approaching traiisformalioii,
defill from their labours in carrying food, and employ thcrr.-
felves in falUning U])thetop of thecell witli a lid ofwaxfi;rmid
ill concentric circles, and by their natuial heat affift in
cherifliiiig the brood, andhallening the birth. In this (late,
the larva extends itfelf at full length, and prepares a kind
of (ilky covering, %vhich forms a complete lining for the
cell, and affords a convenient receptacle for the transform-
ation of the larva to the pi:pa Hate. Some naturaliils fup-
pofe, that as each cell is dtllined to the fncctflive breeding
of feveral larvx, the whole wcb, which is compofed of many
ctufts or doubles, is, in reality, a colteclion of as many
webs as there have been larvre. M. Maraldi apprehends,
that this lining is formed of the (kin of the larva, tlirown
oft at its entrance into the nymph or pupa Rate ; but it is
urged by othei's, that if the cells are opened when recently
covered by the bees, the larva within «ill be found in its
own form, and detefted in the aft of fpinning its wcb ; and
by means of glafles, it will be found compofed of fine threads,
regularly woven together, like thole of other (pinning animals.
In the fpace of eighteen or twenty days, the whol- pro-
cefs of transformation is finilhed, and tlic bee endeavours to
difcharge itfelt from confinement, by forcing an aperture
with its jaws through the covering of the cell ; the pad'ag'-
is gradually dilated ; io that one of the maxills or jawo
appears firll ; then the head, and afterwards the whole
body ; this is ufually the work ot three hours, and fome-
times of half a day. The bee, aiter it has difengaged it-
ftlf, (lands on the iurface of the comb, till it has acquired
its natural complexion, and full maturity and flrength, fo as
to become fit for labour. The reft of the bees gather
round it in this (late, congratulate its birth, and otfer it
honey out of their own mouths. The exuvix, and fcat-
tered pieces of wax which are left in the cell, are removed by
the working bees ; and the cavity is no fooner cleanfcd, and
fit for new fecundation, but the queen dtpofits another egg
in it ; infomuch, that M. Maraldi fays, he has ften five bees
produced in the fame cdl, in the fpace of three months. The
young btes, it is (aid, are eafily diftiiiguiftied from the
others by their colour : they are grey, inftcad of the yellow
brown of the common bees, the reafon of which is, that
tluir body is black, and the hairs that grow upon it are white ;
from the mixture of thefe that are feen together, refults a
grey ; but this colour forms itfclf into brov.'ni(h by de-
grees ; the rings of the body becoming more brown, and
the hairs yellower.

Reaumur fuppofed, before the time of Linnaeus, the queen
bee to be the only female in the hive, and confequently, the
mother of the next generation : that the drones are the
malts by which (he is fecundated ; and that the working
bees, or thofe which colleit wax on the flowers, that
knead it, and form the combs and cells, and afterwards fill
them with honey, are the neuters.

Kchirach, in his " Killoire Naturelle de la Reine dcs
Abeilles, &c" publiihed m 1772, has advanced a different
opinion upon this fubjeft. He fuppofes, that all the com-
mon, or honey bees, arc females in difguife, in which the
organs that ditUnguiih the lex, and particularly the ovaria,
are obhteratcd, or at leaft from their extreme minutenefs,
have efcaped the obfervcr's eye ; that cvei-y one of thefe
bees, in the earlier period of cxiftence, is capable of becom-
ing a queen bee, if the whole community (hould think pro-
per to uurl'e it in a particular manner, and raife it to that

rank j

BEE

BEE

rank ; in fliort, tliat the queen bee lays only two kinds of
ecrgs, thole which are to produce the drones, and thofe
from which the working bees are to proceed. This author
made his expei'iments not only in the fpring months, but
even as kite as November. He cut oiT from an old hive a
piece of the brood comb, taking care that it contained
larva= (or luorms as they are termed ) -which had been hatched
about three days. This he fixed in an empty hive, toge-
ther with a piece of honey-comb for food to his bees, and
t'r.en introduced a number of common bees into the hive.
As foon as the bees found themfelves deprived of ttieir
queen, and liberty, a drcadiul iiproar took place, whicb lafted
twenty-four hours. On the c^iTation of this tun-.ult, they
betook themfelves to work, firll proceeding to conllrutt a
royal cell, and then tnking the proper meafures for feeding
and hatching the brood inclofed within them ; fometimes, even
on the fecond dav, the foundations of one or more royal
cells were to be perceived, whicli proved a certain indica-
tion that they had elefted one of the inclofed larvse to the
fovereignty.

The final refult of thefe experiments feemed to be, that
the colony of working bees being thus fhut up with a piece
of brood comb, not only hatch, but at the end of eighteen
or twenty days, produce from thence one or two queens,
which, it was fuppofed, proceeded from the iarvos of the
common working bee, and which had been converted by
the colony into a queen, merely bccaufe they wanted one.
— From thefe, and other experiments repeated, Mr. Schi-
rach concluded, that all the common workirig bees muft
be originally of the fcmiale fex ; although, if they are not
^ fed, lodged, and brought up in a particular manner while
in the larva ftate, their organs are not developed ; and that
it is this circumftance attending the bringing up of the
queen, that allov/s the full cxtcnfion in the feniale organs
in the firft inftance, and produced afterwards that difference
in her fize and afpefl, fo diiTiT.iIar to that of the working
bee.

Mr. Debraw, an ingenious apothecary of Cambridge,
made many experimental remarks on bees, which are in-
ferted in the Philofophical Tranfaitions for 1776. He
profcffes to have detctted the impregnation of tlie eggs by
the males, as well as to have difcovered the difference in fize
among the drones or males, of which Maraldi and Reaumur,
befides fome others, had conceived there might be two dif-
tinft kinds. M'-. Dcbraw fays, he watched the glafs hives
with indefatigable attention from the moment the bees
(among which he took care there fhould be a large number
of drones) were put into them, to the time of the queen's
laying her eggs, which generally happens the fourth or
fifth day. He obferved, that on the firil or fecond days,
(always before the third) from the time the eggs are placed
in the cells, a great number of bees faftening themfelves to
one another, hvmg dov/n in the form of a curtain from
the top to the bottom of the hive. They had done the
fame at the time the queen bee depofited her eggs, an
operation which feems contrived on purpofe to conceal
"frhat is tranfafting ; however, through fome parts of the
veil he was enabled to fee fome of the bees inferting the pof-
terior part of their bodies, each into a cell, but continuing
there only a (hort time. When t!iey had retired, it was
eafy to difcover a whitifh liquor left in the angle of the
bafis of each cell which contained an cg^. Lri a day or
two this liquor was abforbed into the embryo, which on the
fourth day affumes its larva ftate, and is attended by the
working bees, who bring it a little honey for nourifhment,
and continue to feed it for the fpace of eight or ten days
after its birth. When the bees find that the larva has at-
taiacd its full fize, they defift from bringing any more food,

knowing that the larva has no more occafion for it while in
that ftate ; but they have ftill another fervicc,to btftow
upon it, in which tliey never fail to perform their duty :
this is to (hut up the top of the ftiell in which the larva is en.
clofed ; for eight days longer it remains within the cell
after being thus immured, during which time a fiirtlier
change takes place ; the larva, which was before idle, begins
to work as foon as the bees commence their operation of clof-
ing up the cell ; while the latter are employed in m.aking
the covering of wax, the larva is at work within the cell,
which it lines with a fine filk. The larva thus concealed,
voids its excrements, quits its fl;in, and affumes the pupa
form ; at the end of fom.e days, the young bee acquires fuf-
ficient ftrength to quit the covering of the pupa, tear
through the waxen enclofure of its cell, and proceed from
thence a perfctl winged infeiSt.

To prove ft'.ll further that the eggs are fecundated by the
males, and that their prefence is ncceffary at the time of
breeding, Mr. Debraw made the following experiments : he
left in the hive the queen, with only the common or work-
ing bees, witliout any drones, to fee whether the eggs fhe
laid would be prolific : for this purpofe, he took a fwarm,
and (hook all the bees into a tub of water, leaving them
there till they were quite fenfelefs, by which means he was
able to difcover the drones without any fear of being ftung
by the others : he then reftored the queen and workino-
bees to their former ftate, by fpreading them on a brown
paper in the fun, after which he placed them in a glafs
hive, and they began very foon to work as ufual. The
queen laid eggs, which to his great furprife were impreg-
nated ; for he imagined he had feparatedall the drones, or
males, and therefore orsitted watching them. At the end
of twenty days, he found fevcral of the eggs had, in the ufual
courfe of changes, produced bees, while fome had withered
away and others were covered with honey. Hence he
inferred that fome of the males had efcaped his notice,
and impregnated part of the eggs. To convince him-
felf of th.is, he took away all the brood comb that was
in the hive, in order to compel the bees to provide a frefh
quantity, being determined to watch narrowly their motions
after the new eggs fhould be laid in the cells. On the fe-
cond day after the eggs were placed in the cells, he perceived
the fame operation that was mentioned before, namely, that
of the bees hanging down in the form of a curtain, while
others thruft their pofterior end of the body into the hive.
He broke off a piece of the comb in which were two of
thefe infefts, and found in neither of them any fting ; (a cir-
cumftance peculiar to the drones) ; upon diiTcdion, with the
afliliance of a microfcope, he difcovered the four cylindrical
bodies which contain the glutinous liquor, of a whitifti co-
lour, as obferved by Maraldi in the large drones. He was
therefore now under the necefilty of repeating his experi-
ments, after deftroying the males, and even thofe which
might be fufpefled to be fuch.

He once more immerfed the fame bees in water, and when
they appeared to be in a fenfelefs ftate, he gently prcffcd
every one, in order to dittinguifh thofe arn'ed with a fting
from thofe which had none, and which of courfe he fup-
pofed to be males. He replaced the fame fwarm in a glaf=!
hive, where they immediately applied themfelves again to the
work of making cells, and on the fourth and fifth day, very-
early in the morning, he had the pleaiure to fee the queen
bee depofit her eggs in thofe cells ; he continued watching
moll part of the cnfuing days, but could difcover nothing of
what he had feen be'^ore.

The eggs, after the fourth day, were found in the fame
ftate as on the firft day, except that fome of them were
covered with honey. A fingular event happened next day

about

BEE

about noon ; all the bees left llicir hive, and were fcen at-
tempting to get into a neighbouring one, on the ftool of
which the queen bee was found dtad, being, no doubt, fla;n
in an engaf^cment. This event Mr. Debraw fiippofcs to
have arifcu "from the defire of the bees to perpetuate their
fpccios, to the concurrence of which the males were neccffsi-y,
and that this confidcration alone induced them to defert their
habitation where no males where left, and to fix their reiidence
in a new one, where there was a (lock of them.

To be more fully fatisfied in this refpeft, Mr. Debraw
took the brood comb which had been impregnated, and di-
vided it into two parts ; one of which he placed under a bell
glafs with honey-comb, for the food of the bees, taking
care to leave a queen, but no drones among the bees con-
fined in it ; the other piece of bread-comb, he placed in an-
other bell glafs with a few drones, a queen, and propor-
tionable number of common bees. The refult was, th;it in
the piece put into the firft glafs there was no impregivation,
the eggs remaining in the fame ftate as they were when lirft
placed'^in it, and on giving the bees their liberty on the
feventh day they all flew away ; whereas in the other glafs,
whicli contained the fccond piece of hrood-comb, the very
day after the bees had been put into it,^ the eggs were im-
pregnated by the drones, and the bfts did not fhew the Icaft
incUnation to abandon their new habitation when the glafs
was left open to allow them to efcapc.

Such are briefly the different opinions ofthofe experienced
obfervers of the bee, Reaumur, Maraldi, Schirach, and De-
braw, whofe feveral ideas founded, as it mult appear, upon
the moll laborious, indefatigable, ai^d miimte invcjligation,
have met with tnany advocates. On a fubject of this mtercft
we ought net to aifume any opinion hallily, or in an affair fo
myfterious, obtrude our own withort a confidcrable degree of
caution. Some writers of no mean celebrity have treated,
fmce the time of thefe obfervers, upon the fame topic,
whofe remarks deferve to be impartially cowfidered. To the
foreo-oing obfervations, and fome others made by Sehiraeh
in p"articular, the late Mr. Hunter has replied, in a paper
written by him exprelsly on bees, and inferted in the Phi-
lofophieal Tranfattions for 1792, of which we are to avail
ourfelves. The experiments performed by Sehiraeh, Mr.
Hunter is dlfpofed to think inaccurate, and the refult in-
ferred from them- of courfe u.uvoithy of credit : how far the
arguments of the latter are likely to refute the obfervations
of Sehiraeh, remains to be decided, wlien we have confidcred
them in his own words. The criticifms of this anatomiil
are introdiiced to notice, in fpeaking of the queen bee.
" The queen bee, as fne is termed, (fays Mr. Hunter) has
excited more curiufity than ail the others, although much
more belongs to tlic labourers. From the number ot thefe,
and from their expofing themfelves, they have their hiflory
much better made out ; but as there is only one quten, and
Jhe fcarcely ever feen, it being only the efieft of her labour
we can com.e at, an opportuviity has been givciAto the inge-
nuity ofconjcfmre, and more has been faid than can well be
proved. She is allowed to be bred in the common way,
only there is a peculiar cell for her in her firil ftage, and
Reaumur fsys, " her food is different when in the maggot
ftate ;" but there is probably but one queen, avid that the
whole mi^ht not depend on one life, it is aflkrted that the
labourers Inve a power of forming a common maggot into a
queen. If authors had given this as an opinion only, we
might have pafled it over as improbable, but they have en-
deavoured to prove it by experiments, which require to be
examined ; and for that purpofe I fliall give what they fay
on that head, with my remarks upon it."

Abllradls from Sehiraeh. — " In twelve wooden boxes

BEE

were placed twflve pieces of the comb; in each box wa« fluit
up a handful of working bees. Knowing that when bees
are forming a queen, they fliould be co'-if.ncd, the boxes were
kept ftiut for two days. When examined at the end of that
period," (fix boxes only were opened) " in all of them
royal cells were begun, one, two, or three in each, all of
thefe containing a maggot four days old. In four days, the
other fix boxes were opened, and royal cells were found in
each, containing maggots five days old, furrounded by a large
provifion of jelly, and one of thefe maggots, examined in the
microfcope, in every refpeft refembltd a working bee."

" This experiment was repeated, and the maggots fele£led
to be made queens were three days old ; ?.nd in fcventcen
days there were found in twelve boxes fifteen lively hand-
fome queens. Thefe experiments were made in May, and
the bees were allowed to work great part of the fummer.
The bees were examined one by one, but no drone could be
difcovered, and yet the queens were impregnated, and laid
their eggs." [Here is a wonder! queens laying eggs,
(which we mufi: fuppofe Mr. Sehiraeh meant we (hould be-
lieve) and they hatched without the influence of the male.]
" The above experiment vvas repeated witii pieces of comb,
containing eggs only, in fix box^s, but no preparation was
mace towards producing a queen."

" The experiment of producing a queen bee from a mag-
got was repeated every month of the year, even in Novem-
ber."

" A maggot of three days old was procured from a friend
enclofed in an ordinaiy cell, and Ihut up with a piece of
comb containing eggs and maggots. That, three days old,
was formed into a queen, and all the other maggots and eggs
were dellroyed."

" In above a hundred experiments a queen bee has been
formed from maggots three days old [The working bees, as
all females, although the ovaria is too fmall for examination,"
&c. VidePhih Tranf.]

Mr. Hunter next proceeds to fpeak of another author who
repeated the experiments of Sehiraeh. " Wilhelmi (he"fays)
obferves that a queen cell, which is made while the bees are
fliut up, is formed by breaking down three common cells
into one, when the fides are repaired." — " A young queen
was put into a hive which had been previoufly afcertained to
contain no drones, and whofe queen was removed, and yet
the youngk queen laid eggs. [Probable.] In repeating
Mr. Schirach's experiment, he (hut up four pieces of comb
with one maggot in each : after two days the maggc ts were
all dead, and the bees had defifted from labour. [There is
no myllery in this : but did they hatch ?] — " A piece of
comb, from whicii all the eggs and maggots had been re-
moved, was fiiut up with fome honey, and a ctrtain number
of workeis : in a ihort time they became very bufy, and
upon the evening of the fecond day 300 eggs were found in
the cells. [This would fiiow that labourers can be changed
into queens at will, and that neither they nor their eggs re-
quire to be impregnated ; if this was the cafe, there would
be no occauon for all the pufli in making a queen or a male.]
He repeated this experiment with the fame rtfuit, and the
bees were left to themltlves: they placed the q'jeen maggots
in the queen cells newly conllrucied, and others in male cells,
the reft were left U!;d!fturbed. He again took two pieces of
comb, which contained neither eggs nor maggots, and (hut
them up with a certain number of workers, and carried the
box into a ftove ; next evening one of the pieces of comb con-
tained feveral eggs, and the beginning of a royal cell was
empty."

i3cfides thefe (hort obfervations contained in the brackets,
Mr. Hunter tells us he has his doubts refpccling the whole

of

BEE

of thefc experiments of Schirach, &c. from feveral circum-
ftanccs that occurrcdiii the courfe of his experiments. The
three following facls appear, in his mind, much agiind their
probability. Firil, a Cummer's evening in England is com-
monly too cold for fo fmall a parcel of bees to he lively, fo
as to fet about new operations ; they get lo benumbed that
they could hardly recover in the day, and he fufpeils, where
thefe experiments were made, it alfo was too cold ; and in-
deed fome even are faid to have been tried in this country.
Secondly, if the weather {liould be fo warm as to prevent this
effeft, then they are fo relllefs that they commonly dellroy
themfelves, or weary themfelves out; at lead, after a few days
conimement we find them n-.cRly dead ; and, thirdly, the ac-
count rriven of the formation of a royal cell, without mention-
ing the above inconvenience, which is natural to t:ie experi-
ment, leads him to fufpect the whole to be fabricated. To
obviate the firll obieclion, which he found from experiment
would prevent any fiiccefs that m.ight otherwife arife, he put
parcels of bees with their comb, in which were eggs and mag-
gots, (and in fome trials chr)-falifes befides) ijito a warmer
place, fuch as a glafs frame over tan, the furtace of which
was covered with mould to prevent the ill effects of the un-
wholefome effluvia arifing from it; but from knov.ing that
the maggot was fed with bee-bread, or farina, he took
care to introduce a cell or two with this fubllance, and aifo
the flowers of plants that produce a great deal of farina, to-
gether with fome honey for the old bees. In this manner
his bees were preferved from the cold, and alfo provided with
neceffaries ; but after being contined for feveral day?, upon
opening the doors of the hive, thofe which remained alive
came to the door-way, walked and flew about, but gradually
left it, and on examining the combs, &c. he found the mag-
gots dead, and nothing like an operation going on. He
chofe to have fome chryfalifes in the comb, fuppofing that
if the bees died or flew away, thofe newly hatched afterwards
from thofe chryfalifes, which would happen in a few days,
not knowing where to go, might ftay and take care of the
maggots that would be hatched from the eggs; but to his
furprife he found on opening the box that neither the eggs
hatched; nor the chryfalifes came forth, all died ; from which
he began to fufpeft that the prefence of the bees was necef-
fary for both. " The queen, the mother of all, (he con-
tludes with faying) iu whatever manner produced, is a true
female, and different from the labourers and the male." He
defcribes the difference between the female and the male, ob-
ferves that he believes a liive has only one queen ; and men-
tions Riem, who afferts that there are fupernumerary queens,
which he has feen killed both by the labourers and the males.
With due refpeft to the memory of fo great a man, we had
expefted better reafoning, and a more copious and extenfive
invefUgation of this myflerious affair, from the pen of Mr. John
Hunter. After following him through his various remarks,
we are almofl at a perfeft lofs to conceive their tendency.
He fets forward with exprefGng his doubts as to the accu-
racy of Schirach's experiments, who had, it feems, endea-
voured to prove, that a queen bee might ba reared from the
humble condition of the larva of a common worker : the
fuggeflion meets his ridicule, a ftrong vein of which is ap-
parent throughout his notes; r.nd in the true fpirit of critical
analyfis, he proceeds to examine the experiments by which
this fuggeflion has been fupported. Some few inadvertencies
of expreffion in the llateraent of particulars, are mentioned
by him, and after relating two or three unfatisfaftory experi-
ments, made in order to invalidate the obfervations of Schi-
rach, he tells us, that " the queen bee, the mother of all, in
whatever manner produced, is a true female," an inference
fo logical, that no one would be inclined, we may prefume,

8

BEE

to difpute it ; but furely it could require no matter of argu-
ment, nor criticifm, norferies of experiments, to prove, that
the mother of all mull be a female ; nay ilill lefs was it in-
cumbent to fupport, by the ufe of many words, that this
female was produced in fome manner or another; this is ap-
parent enough ; we need not be therefore folicitous to en-
quire whetlier (he is produced, but to know in what manner
that production is accomplifhed ; and here we are left in un-
certainty. If Mr. Hunter was convinced, that the obfsrva-
tions of Schirach were erroneous, he could not, we appre-
hend, be ignorant of the manner in which (lie is produced ;
or, if he was, he muft have been unauthorifed to cenfjrc
Schirach. In a word, it ought to be acknowledged in can-
dour, between the two parties, that we had expected, in the
outfet, Mr. Hunter would have fairly controverted the ar-
guments of his opponent, but in the conclufion perceive, too
evidently, that he is content to cantradiif them onlv.

But the experiments of Schirach have been found in many
refpecls ccnfiitep.t with the dileoverics of later naturalills ;
experience has proved that in inatiy points he is correft. It
is almofl enough to fav ihst they are in part confirmed by
Huber. The iattcr writer, after profeifing his opinion, that
there are no fuch creatures as miiies orneuteis in the focicty
of bees, endeavours to (hew that the working bees are all
originally of the female fex ; and that each is confcquently
provided with an ovaria, or womb, which neither Swam-
nierdam, Reaumur, and perhaps no other before him, had
ever feen, although they had conjeftured it mufl be fo. He
cites in proof of the pofition that they mull be femalcrs, the
difcovery of Schirach ; who, although he bad not detected
the ovaries, had feen the larvse of the working bees con-
verted into queens, when the neceflities of the ftate required
it ; a faft of which Huber had been occafionally himfelf a
witnefs. Huber is perfuaded, that however ilrange it may
appear, it depends entirely on the manner in which the
larva is treated while remaining in the comb, whether the in-
dividual will become a perfeft female, fitted for the purpofe
of perpetuating the race, the mother of the future fwarm,
and of being inverted with the powers of fovereignty ; or
be doomed to a life of labour as a common working bee.
If the larva be intended for the latter condition, the egg is
lodged within the confines of a narrow cell ; which, when
the larva hatched from it attains a certain (ize, efFeflually
prevents the diflenfion of thofe organs of the ovaria that are
neceffary to the .great purpofe of rendering the creature
piohfic in the lad ftage of being. Thus it happens, that
unlefs the lirva be allowed fufiicient room for thefe organs
to expand, they continue to be crippled, comprefTed, and
afterwards incapable of that expanfion which is abiohitely
requifite in impregnation. Hence we perceive the motives
for that efpecial care which the working bees bedow on the
enlargement of the cells of thofe larva: which any fortuitous
accident may induce them to adopt for the female parent
of the future brood. If the larva of a working bee is to
be converted into a proUfic female, the cell in which it has
been lodged is broken into and made more capacious than
before : this permits the creature to attain its full and pro-
per Cze ; the ovaria, no longer ftraitened by the compref-
fion of its cell, affumes a new and more expanfive form ;
and when the infeft comes forth in the winged date, the
fexual organs are found to have acquired that degree of
maturity which can alone render it capable of fullilling
the ordinary functions for which they were defigned. There
is alfo another caufe to which the barrennefs of the working
bee is attributed, the quantity of aliment which it receives ia
the larva form. At this time the creature is pent up within
it» narrow cell, and is allowed only a certain portion of the

pafte

BEE

pafte deftincJ iar food ; the queens, on the contrary, are
more liberally ("upportcd ; tlicy arc clierilhcd with the iilnioll
care, and ibi-ir growth is promoted by every nitariS poflible.
There arc fonietimcs ftvcral worms, or at any rate two or
tliree reared in every comb for q;'.'-ens ; and for the recep-
tion of which, if the royal chambers had not been before
conllrufted, feveral common cells are broken down to effeA
an enlargement fuitable for the purpofe. Tliefe larvo; aie
fupplied wiih what is called by f )me t!ie royal jelly, the
powtrfu! properties of which arc fometimcs obferved to ope-
rate on the larvse of the common workers ; for when it hap-
pens (hat the eggs and worms of fuch, contained within the
cells adjacent to the royal chambers, receive by aceidei.t a
qiianlity of this jelly, we are told they produce prolific
working bees, althongh fnch are very rarely obferved ; but
tlie reafon of wiiieh is obvious : the queen bees are no foon-
cr hatched than they attack thefe prcilific workers without
mercy, and deftroy t,hcm. The fame fate, as is well known,
attends all the queen bees, with the exception of the queen
bee elecl, who mull fupport her claim in the firll inftaiice
by conquering and dcihoying her rivals, who would afpiie
to the fame honours.

There have been many very ftrange conceits indulged re-
fpectmg the impregnation of the eggs of bees by the drones,
or male bees. An;ong th.e ancients, as well as the moderns,
it was, and is itiU believed, that tlie eggs are fecundated
like thofe of fiihes by the males diffufuig a prolific fluid
over them, correfponding with the milt in the finny tribe.
Butler, Swammerdam, Maraldi, 5cc. carried matters to a
much higher pitch of extravagance ; they imagined even
that it was fufficient for the female to be for fome fliort time
in the company of the males to become fruitful, conceiving
that the fumes flie would imbibe from them would vivify the
eggs within her womb, Reaumur thought he difcovered the
union of the drone with the female, as in moll other ani-
mals ; his obfervations are not however completely fatisfac-
tory on this head, although his conjefture has received at
length the fanetion of indubitable authority. The difeove-
ries of Huber prove him to have been in the right. Huber,
diffenting from the abfurd conceptions of fome preceding
writers, aflirms that the intimate alhilance of the male is re-
quired in this affair. He tells us, that the eggs are impreg-
nated by tiic male, while in the ovaria of the female bees ;
and gives as a reafon why this connexion of the fexes has not
been obferved before, that it never takes place within the hive.
Forthis purpofe, the bees refort into the fields, firft the female
cfcapes from the hive upon a certain fignal, and the fwarm
^ immediately follows. If in the firll flight the female
be not impregnated by fome one of the male attendants, ftie
returns to the hive, and takes a feeond flight precifely in the
fame manner, but does not afterwards return without being
fecundated. Huber fuppofes that this fingle confumniation
of its defire is fufficient to vivify all the eggs fhe may lay for
the fpace of two years after, or even of thofe laid by her
during life, which mull amount to many millions, fince flie
lays four or five thoufaml at once, or even ten thoufand in a
month. But the male, who contributes his alfillauce to give
life to this numerous brood, has never the plenfure of feeing
his pofterity, for he dies in the accomplilhinent of the duty
impofed on him by nature; the fexiuil organs remaining too
firmly fixed in the body of the female to be withdrawn, he
is deprived of them in his fepaiation from her, and left
to periih milerably.

One of the moll perfuafive arguments in favour of Hu-
ber's idea refpefting the working-bees being originally of
the female fex, and not neuters, as is almoll univerfally hx-
lieved, may be drawn from the recent difcovery of Mr.

7

BEE

Kirby> who found that the antenna: in both the fe:;iale and
the neuter contain the fame number of joints. While we
tacitly admitted the afiertion of Linnaeus, that there were
no lefs than five articulations more in the antennx of the
neuter than the female bee, it required no fmall fhare of
credulity to bclieva that fuch an aftonifliing difference in the
formation of thefe organs could be produced by the mere
effect of feeding the creature inider the larva form in one
particular manner inftead of anolh.er ; but this niiftakc being
afcertained, removes one difficulty moil certainly, namely, tl e
impolTibilily of the working bee having been transformed
into a q\ieen, if it does not go very far to prove the fait it-
felf. There are, it mull be owned, however, fome other
objeClions of a fmular nature, which dill remain to be re-
moved. Mr. Kirby, than whom we know no firmer advo-
cate for the opinion of the working bees being llrid'y neu-
tral from their origin, does not appejr to liave been aware,
when he eorredlcd this nuilatcment of I.inr.xus, that his re-
mark would tend, in o:.e material point, to fupport an idea
fo contrary to that which he entertains himfclf in this
refpeft.

Mr. Wildman, who, from his conflant habit of rearing
bees, was pcrfedlly converfant with their attachment to the
female, or queen bee, relates one curious particular ; the
manner in which he cotdd caufe a fwarm of bees to follow
him, and alight in my particular fpot he might think pro-
per. " Long experience," fays this writer, " has taught me,
that as foou as I turn up the hive, and give it fome taps on the
fides and bottom, the queen immediately appears to know the
caufe of this alarm, but foon retires again am.onghcr people.
Being aceullomed to fee her fo often, I readily perceive her'
at firll glance ; and long pradtice has enabled me to feize her
inftantly with a tendernefs that does not in the leaft endanger
herperfon : this is of the utmoil importance; for the leall in-
jury done to her brings imtnediate deftrudtion to the hive, if
you have not a fpare queen to put in her place, as I have too
often experienced in my firll attempts. When poffefied of
her, I can, without iniury to her, or exciting that degree
of refentment that may tempt her to fling me, flip her into
my other hand, and returniiig the hive to its place, hold her
there, till the bees, m.ifTing her, are all on wing, and in the
utmotl confufion. When the bees are thus dillreifed, 1
place the queen wherever I would have the bees to fettle.
The moment a few of them difcover her, they give no-
tice to thofe near them, and thofe to the red ; the know-
ledge of which foon becomes fo general, that in a few
minutes they all colleft theaifelves round her, and are fo
happv in having recovered this fole fupport of their date, that
they will long remain quiet in their fituation. Nav, the
fccnt of her body is fo attraftive to them, that the flighted
touch of her along any place or fnbdance, will attach the
bees to it, ani induce them "to take any path flie takes."

Bees, Pnfervaticn of. The prefervation of thefe induf-
trious and ufetul creatures deferves every confideration. This
depends chiefly on fupplying them with a fuUicient quantity
of food, guarding them from their enemies, and defpoiling
them of the produce of their hhour without dellroying
them. Bcfides the attention which Ihould be beftow^d upo:i
the neceffities of bees, in the choice of an eligible fituation
for the Apiarv, it may be iicccffary to feed them towards
the clofe of autumn, in the winter, or in the fpring, when
they have confumed their winter Ihick. This flionid be done,
efpce-ially in cloudy, milly weather, when th;y go abroad
but little, and when feveral days of bad v/cather immediately
follow their fwarming. Mr. Thorley dircfls, that no hive
fliould be kept which does not weigh tweuiv pounds ; and
that the fupply Hiould be given in quantities of honey,

which

BEE

which is their proper food, not lefs than a pound and a
half or two pounds at a time. The honey fliould befiift
dihited with water, or fiiiaU beer, and then poured into an
empty comb. A drone comb is the ftrongell: and bed for
the purpofe ; and in the evening, when the bees are quiet,
the iiive fliould be gently raifed on one fide, and the comb
put under it, the contents of which will be conveyed away
the next day into the feveral magazines.

Reaumur recom.mends a plats of liquid honey unmixed
with water, crofied with ftraws, and covered wich a paper
full of holes, through which the bees will fuck the honey
without daubing themfclves. But care (hould be taken that
the hive be well guarded from robbers, whenever it is pro-
vided with a frefii fupply. The winter quarters of the bees
fliould hkewife be well fecured, both againft the weather
and the enemies that would annoy them. Mild winters, as
well as fevere cold, are injurious ; funfliine in winter tempts
them to go abroad, and expofes them to the fatal effeSs of
fudden changes either of cold or rain. Bees are moil likely
to furvive in cold winters, becaufe they are then in a torpid
ftate, and require very little nourifliment, provided the api-
ary be well fecured from the keen effects of northerly and
cafterly winds ; whereas a fmall degree cf wanntli enlivens
them, when they too often confum.e their winter flock, and
are left deftitute of food in a wet unfavourable fpring.
\\Tien bees arc chilled with cold, and to all appearance

*dying with cold, and the clutters of them are broken, fo
that they drop down in the hive, they may be recovered
oftentimes by the means of heat. Some have advifcd the
application of hot or warm aflies to be laid about the hives,
or fprinkled over the clufl;ers of bees which lie feemingly
dead at the bottom of the hive. A fufficient warmth may
be given them by putting them into an handkerchief, and
breathing upon theci, or by laying them before a fire. This
precaution fliould be taken immediately when the fymptoms
of difeafe are fliewn, otherwife their vitals may be impaired,
and the bees be irrecoverably loft. Reaumur made many at-
tempts to preferve the bees from the ill effects of cold in the
winter without removing the hives out of the places where
they ftand in the fummer. With this view, he covered feme of
the hives with ftraw, by means of fticks fixed round them,
and reaching a few inches above the top ; but the moft
fuccefsful method he found to be that of preferving them
in large tubs, with earth or hay, contriving at the fame
time to convey air to them through a fquare tube of wood
two inches in width, and half an inch in depth, which
paflcd through the fide of the tub, and was of fuch a length
as to reach the mouth of the hive, projecting at the fame
time three or four inches beyond the fides of the tub. Since
the time of Rcaum.ur, many ingenious contrivances have
been devifed to obviate this, and otl^r objeflions againfl: the
hives that were formerly in ufe. A new kind of hive, con-
trived by M. Huber of Geneva, feems to have obtained ce-
lebrity upon the continent at this time. There are alfo others
conftrufted by Paiteau, Maflac, Boisjugan, Blangy, Saint
de Foy, Ravenal, &c. well deferving the attention of the
farmer. The agricultural committee in Paris has been re-
cently engaged in the examination of the beft, moft econo-
mical, and advantageous kinds of hives, when M. Lombard,
a gardener near that city, prefented one for their infpeftion
on a plan entirely new, under the name of " ruche -AUa-
gcoife," the contrivance of which was very much approved.
For the fakt of preferving the bees, due attention lliould
be paid" to the fituation in which the hives are placed : they
ought to be ftationed in gardens ttored with fweet-fcented
plants, fruit trees, and the like. The hives fliould not be
placed too near to thefe, becaufe they harbour vermin inju-

' nous to the bees, and ftill more, weeds muft not be allowed
Vol. IV.

BEE

to fluurifl) clofc to tl'.c hives, fince they uourilli others far
more detrimental to the bees than the fonner.

It is no unufual circumflance for one colony of bees to
attack and plunder tK-; hive of arother. This' happens
chiefly in the fpring and autumn. The moft efiedua! way
to guard agaiiift their incurfions, is to leffen the entrance
into the hive, fo as to leave room for only two or three bee?
to pafs a-breaft, or to ftop up the hives that are attacked,
till the rovers difappear ; or if flrangers have gained admit-
tance, the proper inhabitants of the hive may be roufed to
fclf-defence by diihirbing them with a bunch of i'inking
madder fattened to the end of a fmall ftick, which will iii-
ftaiitly raife tiieir refentment, and make them feizc upon the
robbers. This is indeed needlefs while the queen of the hive
attacked is fafe.

Bees, Enemies of. In the domcftic ftate the bee ha«
many enemies ; but in a ftate of nature thefe are far more
numerous. While in the apiary, wafps and Lomtts arc
among the moft formidaLle of thofe enemies ; they will of-
ten contrive to enter the hive, and build their nefls in it, and
harafs the bees without mercy, till they leave their habita-
tion, unlefs proper care be taken to prevent fuch encroach-
ments. The fox is a dangerous enemy in the winter, as he
is able to make a pafTage into the hive, and devour the ho-
ney. Rats are equally injurious ; the houfe and field-mice
fliould alfo be guarded againft, by diminifliing the entrance
into the hive, as the cold com.es on, when the bees become
lefs able to defend tliemfelves. The hives may be placed in
fuch a manner that it will be impoiTibk for the mice to reach
them. Birds are bitter enemies to the bees ; the fparrow,
houfe -lark, and fwallows in particular. Toads and frogs will
place themfelves at the entrance of the hive, and devour
many. Spiders will expand their fnares near the hive, and
entrap numbers. The fpecies aranea caL'ma Hes in ambufn
for the bees in the corolla of flowers, and faftens upon thtm
when they come to fip the nectareous fluids: Ants of ai-
moft ever)- kind penetrate into the hive, attack the young
brood, and plunder the combs of the honey. The ftink of
certain fpecies of ants is fo offenfive to bees, that they will
quit their hives to avoid it, or if they remain, become fickly.
Some larvce, or caterpillars, are likewife exceedingly injurious
to the bees, the honey, the comb, and hive. Phalxra inel-
lomella, or honey moth, too frequently fecures its refidence
iu the hive, and depofits its eggs ; which hatching produces
a larva of a pale flcfli colour, that fubfifts entirely on the
honey. The eggs of another phal^r.a, the wax moth, P.
cerelLi, give birtli to far more deftructive larvx than the for-
mer : for thefe no fooner burft from the eggs, than their ope-
rations commence ; they attack the comb, which they per-
forate in a variety of intricate paffages, burrowing and feed-
ing as they pioceed, till they reach the bottom of the cells in
which the bees are lodged ; here they remain in fecurity, and
not uncommonly compel the colony of bees to leave their refi-
dence. Theold combs are thofe that are generally infefted by
this creature. Athird fort oiinot\\,phal£nafociel!a, breeds liur-
wife in the honey-combs of foint bees. Hives of bees that
have fwarmed more than once, and fuch alfo as contain but
little honey, are moft expofed to the depredations of thtfe
infefts ; for the haif-exiiaufted combs fes-ve to flicker them,
and the fcanty ftore of h.oney or wax fupplies them at lealt
with food to the detriment of the coiony. B^es are fubjeft
alio to a peculiar fpecies of psdicuhts, called the bce-loufe.
Hives of bees that have fwarmed more than once, and fuck
as contain but little honey, are moft expofed to thofe
troublefom.e vermin. The hives in this cafe fliould be clean-
ed at the farthtft once every week, and the rtools on which
they ftand every morning, for the latter are hkely to har-
bour the krvK and moths, or other infcAs, as well as the

Q yvc

BEE

BEE

hive. But thefe obnoxious creatures cannot be entirely ex-
tirpated without taking away the infeftcd hive, removing
ttie bees, and cleanlinfj it, before it is reftored to the former
liation. The liee of bees are of a flcnder fhape, or filiform,
and of a ferrii;jinous colour, and may be dci^royi. J by ilrew-
iiig tobacco over the bees. In a wild ilate the common ho-
ney-bee inhabits the cavities of hollow trees, vvliere they
are unavoidably expofed to a prodigious hod of enemies,
flpecially field and wood-mice of every defcription, rats,
i>:id birds. Of tlie bird tribe in particular, lome fpecics are
fiippofed to feed exclufivdy on bees, fuch as the honey-
buzzard {faJco apivonis), the European bee-eater {mtrops
(iplqjlcr), Sec. woodpeckers, the kingfifher, and many others:
th.ey do not feed, indeed, exclufively on them, as is ima-
gined, but they are formidable enemies to the bees in a wild
(late. The animals and birds which prey upon exotic ho-
ney-bees are numerous likewife ; of this kind we might in-
ftance the various fpecies of ant-eattrs {myrmecopha^^.s), the
black bear [urfus arSos), the honey cuckow [cucu/us indica-
tor), peacocks, &c.

Bees, Maladies of. In the fpring the bees are fubjeft to
a kind of dyfcntery, which proves often fatal. The mat-
ter which they void at this time, when fo affefted, inftead
of being of a reddifh yellow colour, is of a muddy black,
and has an intolerable fmell. Columella fuppofed this an-
nual diltemper to be occafioned by the bees extrafting too
freely the juices from the bloflbms of the fpurge and elm
trees, or, as others believe, from the lime tree. There are
writers who, dilTenting from this opinion, attribute it to
the quantity of new honey, of which they are known to eat
to excefsat thatfeafon of the year. Again, others imagine
that it is caufed only by their long (lay. in the hive during
the winter, when they are conftrained to feed on tlie coarfe
wax, if their honey fails to afford them a fufficient quantity
of food. Madame Vicat, in the " Memoires, &c." of the
Berne Society for 1764, afcribes this diftcmper to the honey,
which the cold has candied in the hive during winter. The
true caufe of this diilempcr feems to be unknown ; but it
is certainly contagious and very dellruftive. A good reme-
dy for it was long unknown. Ariftomachus recommends the
removal of the vitiated combs. For the recovery of the bees
affeclcd with this dillemper, a new remedy has been adopted
upon the continent : they prepare a fyrup compofed with an
equal quantity of good wine and fugar, which is adminiftercd
to the bees in every hive, either by pouring it into the cells,
fw placing it within the hive in a faucer, or any other (liaU
lovv veficl ; this has been found an excellent reftorative.

About the end of the fpring, another diforder fometimes
makes its appearance, which Du CarnedeBlangy calls a "ver-
tige," or vertigo. This is fuppofed to be occafioned by the ve-
nomous properties of certain plants on which they feed. The
fymptoms are manifelled by a dizzy manner of flight, by their
involuntary llartings, falls, and other geftures, in attempt-
ing to perform their ufual operations, or in approaching the
hive, and by the lafiitude that fucceeds thefe fymptoms.
This diltemper has been hitherto found incurable.

Bees are liable to a third diftcmper, the fymptoms of
which are a fwelling at the extremity of the antennse, which
becomes alfo much inflamed, and of a yellow colour; the head
affuming {hortly after the fame tint, the bees lofe their vivacity,
and languilh till they die, unlefs a proper remedy be applied.
In France, they give tliem Spanilhwine for this diforder.

There is Hill another diftemper which fometimes makes its
appearance among bees, for which the continental agricultu-
rahlls adminifter Spanifh wine, as in the former cafes. This
is a kind of peftilence by which many bees are cut off. It
happens when the queen bee has placed the eggs carclefsly
ia the comb, fo that the larvs perilh in the cells, or that

they are killed by the cold, or bad management in noiiriHi'iig
and feeding them ; wlien numbers die, and infcdl the rcll.
The only attention requiiite in this cafe is to take away the
infefted combs, fcent the hive with the perfume of aromatic
plants, and give them tlie wine to lip, as above mentioned, in
order to (Irengthen and rcftore them from their ficknefs.

For the methods of preferving bees in hives and boxei, and
for collcfling the produce of their labour, fee Hive, Honey,
and Wax.

Honey-Bees, Varieties and Species of. The cultlvption
of tlie common honey-bee, in the wanner countries of Eu-
rope, being an objeft of the utmoft confequence to the-far-
mer, every means that ingenuity could devife to improve
the breed and management of thefe profitable creatures have
been adopted, and with fuccefs. They diftinguifh three
kinds or varieties of the common bee [apis mellifica). Tlie
firfl is large, and of a deep brown colour ; the fecond is
fmallerand blackifli; thofeof the third fort called " the little
Flemings," or " little Hollanders," are much fnidller than
either, and of a fine glofiy yellow colour. It is the latter
that is very generally cultivated on the continent at this time.
Apis mellifica is an European infeft. Mr. Hunter fuppofes
it an inhabitant of Afia and Africa alfo ; its appearance in
America may be accounted for on the prefumption that it
was originally introduced there from Europe, and in the
courfe of time has become completely habituated to tliatv
climate. It is faid to have been originally peculiar to the
continent of Europe, but this will admit of doubt. In
thofe parts of Afia and Africa nearcft to the fouth of Eu-
rope, they cultivate the fame kind as ourfclves. There are
fome other fpecies of bees domefticated like the common
bee with us, in different parts of the world ; and others
again, whofe wax and honey are fought after by the na-
tives, who do not care to take the charge and trouble of
domefticating them. In Cayenne and Surinam, the fpecies
called by Olivier amahhea, is an abundant and mod profitable
creature. This little bee is of a black colour, with white
wings and long pollerior feet. They build their neft, in
the ihape of a bag -pipe, upon the tops of the highefl trees.
The honey is very fweet and agreeable, and thin, and of a
reddifh colour. From the latter the Indians extratl a fpiri-
tuous liquor, of which they are paflionately fond ; of the
wax they make candles. This is fuppofed to be the fmall
black innoxious wood-bee of Barrere, which is called ouano in
Cayenne. M. Latreille mentions this fpecies, and alfo ano-
ther, which he calls " I'abeille fociale" {apis fociedis),-a.ri^or.g
his " apiares domeftiques," an infeft rather fmaller than the
common honey-bee {meUifica), that is found in India. Spe-
cimens of it, he tells us, were received at the mufeum of
natural hiftory in Paris, among a colleftion of other infefts
from Bengal. If we are not millaken in the fpecies, the
fame kind was likewife introduced into the cabinets of the
curious in this country, about twelve months fince by Mr.
Fichtell, who found it to be very commonly cultivated by
the inhabitants in the vicinity of Bengal.

Wn.D Bees. Except thofe fpecies of the bee tribe which
are fubfervient to the purpofcs of human life, mankind has
fhewn a manifeil degree of inattention to this curious race of
creatures. Some few naturalifts have regarded them as ob-
jedls of amufement : and what the common obfervcr is con-
tent to name a wild bee, without further inquiry, is difcrimi-
natcd by them as forming many diftinft families ; each of
which have their peculiar manners and mode of lift, and dif-
play a greater or Icfs proportion of economy, fkill, indullry,
&c. by no means unworthy of being more minutely attended
to. Of the wild bees there are certain natural families, whofe
diftinftive charafters, in a fcientific point of view, have been
defcribed already ; they are diftinguifhed alfo by their man-
ners

1

BEE

nets of lifL", the Formation of tlieir neRs, and many otlici' par-
ticulars. Some are called leaf-cutters, others wood-picrccrs,
mafons, earth-diggers, &c. correfponding with what the
French call " abeilles coupeufes, abeilles pierce-bois, abeilles
ma^onnes, abeilles qui creufent la terre, Sic. Under each of
thefe families many fpecies are arranged by entomologifts.
A fimilar mode of nidiiication (it has been well remarked)
may be, and indeed very often is the charafteriftic of a fa-
mily, or rather that of a fpecies ; thus the cells of the diffe-
rent fpecies of bombanitrices are compofed of fimilar mate-
rials, and rcfemble each other in form ; and the various ge-
nuine fpecies of the genus Vespa {IVaJ'p) conftruft cells,
for the moll part, of the fame figure, and employ the fame
kind of inaterials, according to Reaumur ; the mode of ni-
diiication, therefore, (hould never be aflunied as charaiiteriftic
of a fpecies, but after the moil mature confidcfation, and the
clofeft inveftigation of its hillory ; for it generally happens
that thofe infeits which agree together in habit, and be-
long to the fame natural divifions or fubdivifions of a ge-
nus, are connedled likewife by their mode of life.

Of the leaf-cutters there are feveral fpecies ; thefe are
fo named becaufe they cut the leaves of trees, chiefly thofe
of the rofe, into pieces of a convenient llze to compofe their
little cells, in whicli the eggs of the future brood aredepofited.
This defcription of bees is injurious ; the female perforates
the folid timber of trees in a furprifing manner in order to
place her egg; (which are carefully wrapped up in thcle cy-
lindrical pellets, if they may be fo termed, of leaves), within
the cavity. The hollow or pipe which fhe bores for their
reception is ufually about the thicknefs of a fmall finger, but
the depth is vei-y various, being from a few inches to a foot
or more ; the whole cavity is filled with thofe little pellets,
each of which contains an egg, with a provifion of honey
for the larva when hatched ; fo nicely are thefe pellets formed
that they precifely fit the cavity in diameter, and are placed
one above the other from the opening to the very bottom of
the cavity. Apis centuncularis is one of the fpecies belong-
ing to this natural family. There are others which belong
to it likewife, that conftrudl their cells in the fame manner,
of leaves, but place them in cylindrical cavities in the eaith,
inilead of timber. Some line or envelop their nidus with
the downy fubftance collefted from the woolly leaves of parr
ticular plants ; the tapeflry bee employs the tender petals of
the rofe to hue its cells, &c. The mafon bees are alfo fin-
gular for the mode of nidification which they adopt. Reau-
mur has entered at length into its hillory, a brief account of
which mnft clofe our general remarks upon the fubjeft for
the prefent, fince thefe mull be again repeated when fpeak-
ing of the refpeftive fpecies, or of the families to which thofe
habits are peculiar. — " The female of thefe bees (for the
males, like the drones of the hive -bee, do not work, and
thefe infefts have only two fexes) undertakes the whole la-
bour of the building, and is at the fame time both architect
and mafon. Her firfl Hep is to fix upon an angle, flieltered
by any projeftion, on the fouth fide of a ftoae wall. Some-
times (he contents herfelf with a more expofed part of the
lurface, where the ftone happens to be uneven, and fit for her
purpofe. Having chofen a fpot proper to receive the foun-
dations of the future manfions of her offspring, her next
care is to provide materials. As her houfe is to be built en-
tirely of a kind of mortar, the bafis of which mull be fand ;
fte is very curious in her choice of it, felefting it grain by
grain, from fuch as cor.tains feme mixture of earth. To
ihorten her labour, before ihe tranfports it for ufe, by means
of a kind of faliva, which is very vifcid, file glues as many
grains as fhe can carry into a httle mafs, about the fize of a
Imall fhot. Taking this up with her maxillx, (he conveys
it to the fpot flie has fised upon for the fcite of her «aftle.

BEE

A circular plane, compofed of many of thefe little maffi^s,
forms the bafis on wluL-h it is to becredled ; it contains from
three to eight cells, which are fimilar to each other in their
form, arid equal in dimenfions. Each cell is about an inch
in length, and fix lines in diameter; and, before its ori-
fice is clofed, in form refembles a thimble. When its walk
are raifed to a fufficicnt height, our little mafon lays up
in it a ftore of pollen feafoncd with honey, for the fulle-
nance of its future inhabitants ; fometimes the proportion
of honey is fo great that this provifion is entirely hquid.
This bufinefs fettled, (he depofits her egg, finiflies and co-
vers in the cell, and then proceeds to the ered'tion of a
fecond, which fhe furniflies and finiflies m the fame man-
ner, and fo on with refpeft to the whole neft. Thefe
cells are not placed in a line, or any regular order ; fome
are parallel with the wall, others are perpendicular to it,
and others are inclined to it at different angles ; this oc-
cafions fome empty fpaces between the cells, which this
laborious architedt fills up with the fame kind of cement,
and then bellows on the whole group a common covering,
made with coarfer grains of fand ; fo that at length the
neft becomes a mafs of mortar, very hard, and not eaCly
penetrated, even by the blade of a knife ; its form is more
or lefs oblong ; its colour depends on the colour of the
fand employed in its conftruftion." — Another fpecies fornrs
its nidus, with earth intermixed with chalk, upon ftonc
walls ; and a third for the fake of greater fecurity prefers tha
hollows and cavities in the ftone itfelffor this purpofe.

Bees, Wild Honev, Hunting of. In the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, No. 376, Mr. Dudley fpeaks of a method of
hunting bees in order to difcover the fpot in which their
netts are fecreted, as praftifed fome years ago in the woods
of New England in America. It confifts merely in catching
a bee, then letting it fly, and duly obferving the way to
which it direfts its courfe : this points out to the hunter the
dire£lion in which the neft is to be fought after. To find
the diftance, he takes an ofF-fet of an hundred perches, and
then lets fly another bee, but which muft be of the fame neft;
and it is afterted, that the angle or point where thefe two
courfes interfeft, is the fpot in which the neft is concealed.
Bees, Sirarming of. See Swarm.
Bees, IFritsrs on. Many authors h:ive written on bees.
Among the ancients, Ariftomachus is faid to have ftudied
them fixty years. Phillifcus retired into a defert wood, that
he might have the opportunity of obferving them to better
advantage ; Ariftotle made a great number of curious obferva-
tions on this infeft, which Virgil has put into Latin verfe :
they have been enlarged and confirmed by Pliny and others.
Theophraftus has a fragment ftill extant, nt,-i jju'm-xv, ccnceitf
ing liees ; or as entitled in Laertius, Ilrfi /xs^i-C;-, of honey.

Among the moderns, the number of writers who have
treated on bees is very great, a few only of which it will
be expedled in this place to mention. Prince Frederic Cefi,
inftitutor of the Roman Academy of Sciences, wrote ex-
prefsly on bees, as did alio Swammerdam, Maraldi, and Reau-
mur, each of whom have treated minutely of them. Schi-
rach is a diftinguilhcd writer on this fubjeft. Hattorff de-
ferves notice. Among the Englifli, Butler, Gurnay, Mills,
Levets, Thorley, Southern, Remnant, Rufden, Warder,
White, Wildman, Debraw, Hunter, and others, have pub-
lillied difcourfeson the management of bees, &c. Writers,
who have treated fcientifically of the fpecies in their entomo-
logical works, are fuch as Linnxus, Fabricius, GeoflVoy,
SchjEiTcr, Villicrs, Poda, Rcefel, De Geer, Fourcroy, Do.
novan, Coquebert, Sec. A monographia of b;es has lately-
appeared in this country by Kiiby, and another in France
about the fame time by Latreille. Nor fliould we omit to
mention feveral works of reputation on this fubjeit that have
Q_2 beea

BEE

BEE

been publi(1>ed on the continent within the laft few years :
of this defcription are the work of Hiibcr of G>.'neva ; " Le
Memoire de Bernard fur rEdiication des Abtilles ;" " Le
cours d' Agriculture," by Rozier; " Abrc-gc de I'Hiftoire
des Infcftcs pour fervir a I'Hiftoire Naturelle des Abcilles,"
by Bazin Gilles Aucfuftin, firll publiflitd in 1747; " Le
Manuel NecefTaire au Villagcois pour foigncr Ics Abcilles,"
by Lombard; and the works of Derthaud, Duchet, Ducarne,
Blangy, Delia Rocca, Sic.

Bre, in yljlronomy. See Apis.

Bee is alfo ufed figuratively to denote fweetnefs, indufliy,
S:c. Thus Xenophon is called the Attic bee, on account of the
great fweetnefs of his ftyle. Antoniusgot the denonfiination
inelifla,or bee, on account of his coUeiSion of common places.

Leo Allatius gave the appellation oi apes urlaiiit to the il-
luftrious men at Rome, from the year 163010 the year 1 652.

BEE-HrJ, in Ornithology. See Trochilus minimus;
the bee humming bird, or U plus petit O'lfeau mouche of But-
fon. Some refer this name likewife to Trochilus Bicolor of
Gmclin, the dlilrioi Ferm. Surin. N. 2.

Bee, Bind-. See jEthiops.

Bee bloch. See Blocks.

BEE-io.x:«. See Hive.

'Kv.^s-bread. See Bee Bread, Farina, and V>^t. fiipra.

BEE-fa/cr, in Ornithology. See Falco Apivorus, Honey
Buzzard.

itfc-Jlonver, or Orchys, in Botany. See Ophrys.

BEE-^/uf, a foft unftuous matter employed by bees to ce-
ment the combs to the hives, and to clofe up the cells.

BEE-i/i)f. See Hive.

'BEE-htimMe, humming lee, wild bee, fynonynious with the
Bourdon family of bees, adopted by French writers.

3Ef.-humb/e,J!y. See BoMiiYLiuS.

Bee, Order of, wasinftitiitedat Sceaux in Frarce, for men
and women, in 1703, by Louife, wife of Louis of Bourbon.
The enfign is a medal of gold, bearing on one fide the portrait
of the foundrefs, and on the other a bee, with this motto,
" Je fuis petite, mais mes pictures font profondes."

BEE-roc/fj, in Geography, lie on the coaft of France, a little
to the weft of North from the point of St. Maloes. Tliey are
called the Great and Littk Bee ; the latter of which is weft
of the other, and li , s N. W. from the town about a gnn-fliot.
On each of the bee-rocks is a little houfe. Ships may fail
•within a cable's length of the outermoft or Little Bee, and an-
chor on the foulh of it in 5 or 6 fathoms at low-water, when
Bore tower, on the fouth of St. Maloes, is a little eaft of the
fmall tower on the point to the fouth of the town.

BEECH-tref, in Botany. See Fagus.

Beech gnUs, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a fpecies of
galls or protuberances found on the beech-tree, and fciving
for the lodgment of infecls.

Thefc galls are found on the leaves of the beech, and are
fomttimcs only one upon a leaf, fometimes more ; they always
grow from the fame point, owing, no doubt, to the fly's
having laid fo many eggs in the fame fpot.

Thefe galls are of an oblong figure, and fomewhat flatted.
They refcmble the ftone of a plum in fliape, and are fo hard
that they are not to be broken between the fingers ; their
fubftance feems of the fame nature with that of a nut (liell.
In each gall there is only one cavity, inhabited by a white
worm, which in time paifes through the nymph ftate into
that of the fly, to which it owed its origin.

BEECH-m^, the fruit of the beech-tree. It fattens hogs
and deer, and has fometimes fupplied men inftead of bread.
Chios is laid to have endured a memorable fiege by means of it.

Beech, Oil of, Hiiik de Faine, the fruit of this tree, the
beech-maft, is an oily farinaceous nut highly nutritious to
hogs, poultry, and other animals, and hke the other fruits

of this defcription, maybe made to yield a very large quantity
of pure oil by prefTure. This oil has long been prepared in
feveral diftridls in the fouth of France. An intereiting ac-
count of this manufacture is pubhlhed in the Journal de Phy-
iique for 1781, by Mr. Verdicr.

The tafte of the beech-maft is mild, unftuou'?, and fome-
what aftringent. About the month of Oclober it falls fpon-
taneoufly from the tree, and is coUedled in this and the fuc-
ceeding month. When gathered and picked it is flowly
dried in the ftiadc, or with the heat of a very gentle flove ;
after which it is at any time fit to be prelfed for the oil. The
very fineft oil is made with thebeft nuts picked out by hand,
but for the larger quantity the niaft is fifted and winnowed
like corn. It is then ground by a machine iimilar to a ftamping
mill, formed of upright beams of wood alternately rifing and
falling, let on motion by a large wheel, and when the fiuit
gets too dry in the mill a little water is added. When ground
fufiieiently fine, it is wrapped up in a coarfe hair cloth once
doubled, and fubmitted to the fame kind of prefs which is
employed for colefeed, and other oils.

The beech oil when well made, and from the beft felefted
fruit, is equal to the beft olive oil, and with this advantage,
that it will keep much longer ; olive oil beginning to grow/
rancid in about a year and a hall, whereas the other improves
by keeping, to the fixth or eighth year. It is fit for ufe a
month after it is made. To obtain the fineft oil, befides the
perteAion of the fruit, it is neceflary that the working of the
mill in which it is ground, (hould be very moderate, fo as
not to overheat it.

The water ufed to give the fruit a proper confiftence in
grinding, mixes with the oil when prefied, fo that it requires
fome weeks repofe to allow them to feparate. In general
the oil Hands about three months to clarify, after which it
is drawn off clear from the water and dregs, and packed up
either in bottles or in very clofe calks. The general yield of
oil is about ten pounds from 4' buftiels, Paris meafure.

The ufes to wliich it is applied are all thofe of the common
fixed vegetable oil. The beft forts are equally grateful for
the table as the beft olive oil. The' inferior, are ufed for
lamps, for preparing leather, and other purpofes of economy
and manufafture.

The cakes that remain after the oil is preflcd out are par-
ticularly ufeful in the fabrication of the oil from nuts, as this lat-
ter fruit is not alone of a proper confiftence for the prefs, but
mull be mix^-d with fome more folid fubftance to make it
work well. Befides this, the cakes of beech-maft are pro-
per fcr fattening anir.ials, or make a very good fuel.

An attempt was made in the beginning of the laft centuiy
to introduce the preparation of beech-maft oil in this coun-
try. The poet and fptculator, Aaron Hill, obtained a pa-
tent for this manufiictuie, and went to fome expence in efta-
blifhing it in England about the year 17 14. It would ap-
pear from a letter of his to tlie earl of Chefterneld (in the
Harleian CoUetlion, and infertcd in the Monthly Magazine
for 180^, p. 339,) that he had formed veiy fanguine hopes
of the fuccefs of this plan. However he was obliged foon
to abandon it, probably in part from a want of a proper fup-
ply of the fruit, and certainly in a confiderable degree from
the very limited ufe of oil as an article of food in this country.

BEEF, in DomcJUe Economy, the flefti of black cattle
prepared for food. The flefii of the Ins ax ox hind, fays Dr.
Cullen (Mat. Med. vol.i.p. 369,315 the moft denfe of all the
quadrupeds ; and how far that denfity goes in preventing fo-
lubility, we have an inftance in the bull, whofe flefti is feldom
chofen as a part of our diet. The flelh of the female fex is
of a more foluble nature, and fnfficiently fit for nouriftiment;
but we commonly prefer the callrated ox, in which the fat
is better mixed, and as more alkalefcent, the flelh is more

fapidj

BEE

fapid; and, iinlefs it be from a very eld animal, k fifenerally
to be preferred. The chief difference of aliment in the ox
kind is that which appears between the old and younij. This
author obferves, that beef, though of a more firm texture,"
and lefs foliible than mutton, is equally alkalefcent, perfpir-
able and nutritious. See Food.

Beef-eater, in Ornitholoyy, the Englifh name o{ Btiphaga
Afrcana, a bird found on the banks of the rivers in Senegal,
and the only fpecics of the genus known. See Buphaga.

BEEF-j/7an^, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coail of
America, in the fouth-eaft angle of the bay of Camptachy,
the weft end of which is wafhed by the ealtwa'-d opening of
St. Peter and Paul river. It lies clofe to Tricfte ifland, is
7 leagues long, and from 3 to 4 broad, and has a fine fandy
bay, where (hips mav ride in 7 or 8 fathoms and be well
ftieltered. N.lat. 18^ 30'. W.long. 91" 30'.

'S>i.ZT -ifland is alfo one of the fmaller Virgin iflands in the
Weft Indies, fituate between Dog ifland on the weft, and Tor-
tola on the eaft, in Sir Francis Drake's bay. It is about five
miles long, and one broad. N.lat. 1 3" 23'. W.long. 63^ 2'.

BEEKMAN, a confiderable townfliip of America in
Duchefs county. New York, containing 3,597 inhabitants,
including 106 flaves. In the State cenfus of 1796, there
appear to be 502 eleftors in this townihip.

BEELE, in Mining, an inftrument ufed by the work-
men to break and pick out the ore from the rocks in which
it lies. This inftrument is called by the tinmen in Coruwai! a
" tubber." It is an iron inftrument of eight or ten pounds
weight, made fliarp, and fteeled at both ends, and having a
hole in the middle, where the handle is fixed in. When the
ore lies in hard rocks, this inftrument wears out fo faft , that
it muft have new points made to it every fortnight. The
miners who dig up the ore in the mines, are, from the ufe
of this inftrument, called beele-men ; and thole who attend
them, and whofe bufinefs it is to take up the matter the
others loofen or break up, are, from their inftrument, which
is a broad and hollow iron fiiovel, or a wooden one, with a
very ftrong iron lip, called the " (hovellers." In Cornwall,
when the ore lies in a hard bed, they allow two flioveilers to
three beele-men ; and when it lies in a foft and earthy mat-
ter, two beelemen and three fhovellers are the proportion.
Phil. Tranf. N= 69. p. 2104.

BEELIKE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and duchy of Weftphalia, 4 miles
weft of Rhuden, and 10 E.N.E. of Arenlberg.

BEELZEBUB, or Baalzebub, i.e. ihs lord of a J!y,
in Ancient Mythology, was a god of the Philiftines, and had
a temple and oracle at Ekron. (2 Kings, i, 2.) From
this paflage it appears, that the name was not given to this
objeit of idolatrous worlhip by way of contempt ; becaufe
it was ufed by Ahaziah at the very time when he was ac-
knowledging his divinity, and delirous of conlulting him con-
cerning his recovery. This is farther evident, from the
meaning of the appellation and the rcafon of its being given.
Hiftory informs us, that thofe who lived in hot climates,
and where the foil was moift, which was the cafe with the
Ekronites, who bordered upon the fea, were exceedingly in-
fefted with flies ; add thefe infefts were thought to occa-
fion contagious diftempers. Pliny (N. H. 1.x. C.2S. § 40.)
mentions a people who ftopped a pellilence which had been
thus occafioned by facrificing to the " fly-hunting god."
It feems not improbable that forae imagined cure of this
kind, or a general perfuafion of his power of driving away
flies from the places they frequented, might be the reafon
why the god of Ekron was called Beelzebub. For it was
cuftomary with the Heathens, to call their gods by the
name of thofe infects from which tiiey were believed to de--
liver their worfhippers, The " god of flies," MwaJnj, asd

BEE

the " fly-hunter," Mm«-/fc;, were titles afcribed to Jupiter
as well as to Hercules. Indeed, fome of the Greek fathers
thought, that this " fly-god" was worfliipped under the
form of a fly : and it is obferved by Mr. Young (On Ido-
latry, vol. ii. p. 91,92.) that it was cuftomary with the
Heathens to veprcfent their gods by fome creatures that
were facred to them. However, the foppofed power of
this god over that noxious infect, the fly, feems to be the
moft probable reafon of the name of Beelzebub. Beel-
zebub, therefore, being a title of honour, and as fuch ap--
plicd by his worfhippers to the god of Ekron, there is no
realon for doubting, that it was in ufe aniong the Phil;f-
tines, as well as among the Jews. (Bochart, vol. ii. p. ?^,
&c. Op. vol. iii. p. 500. S=lden de Diis. Syr. Syntag.^ii.
c. 6. p. 227. cd. Amft. 1680.) Among th.e Jews, the ap-
pellation Beelzebub, notwithilanding its feemiug meannefi,
could not be ufed as a ter.11 of derifion. For th^ Jews
had learned of the heathens to regard a power of drivin-r
away flies, as a divine prerogative ; endeavouring to pcr-
.fuade men, that the temple of Jerufalem, though fo many
facrifices were daily offered there, never had a fly upon it ;
thus copying, rather than deriding, what the heathens fa-
bled concerning fome of their temples, into which, accord-
ing to Pliny, Solinus, and others, no fly could enter. It
has been faid, indeed, that the Gre^k word ufed in the New
Teftament, is not " Beelzebub," but " Beelzebul," which
fignifies the " lord of a dunghill ;" and hence it has been
inferred, that this name could not have been ufed by the Hea-
thens ; but muft have been given by the Jews in derifion. Jerom,
however, not underftandiyig the common reading, changedBs-x-
^!;3aA into BcEXfsSirjS; and this fubftitution has been approved by
feveral critics, has beenadoptedin thevulgate,andthence trans-
ferred into Luther'i tranflation. In the ancient languages it w.s
not uncommon to change b into / (fee letter B ;) and, on this
fuppofition, the Greek word wil agree v.ith the Hebrew,
(2 Kings, i, 2). But if Beelzebul be ufed as a different
name from Beelzebub, there will be no reafon for fjppofing
that it was ufed by the Jews as an expreffion of contempt.
Tlie Hebrew word *7T2*' zebel, properly fignifies "an
habitation," and as Stociiius obferves, is applied to the hea-
vens, the maniion of the deity. In this fenfe it will agree
with the title of Beelfemin, or Beelfamen, " the lord of hea-
ven," which theEkronites, andother Phoenicians, gave to their
fupreme numen. Whether, therefore, Beelzebub and Beel-
zebul be diff"erent names, or the fame name with different
terniinations, they defcribe the pcrfon Avhom the Keatheiis
regarded as their chief deity.

Beelzebub, in the New Teftament, (Matt. sii. 24. Mark,
iii. 22.) is called af;j(;m ■zm la,ifiQ;ix'i, the prince of dcm.O!:^
(prince of the devils, Engl. Tranf.) ; and it has been com-
monly apprehended, that demons and their prince are the
fame fpirits as the devil and his angels. Satan and Beel-
zebub, fay thofe that adopt this opinion, (See Doddridge
on Matt. xii. 25. Fam. EJcpof. vol. i. p. 391, note _;■. and
Pegge's Anfwer to Sykes) are names for tiie fame pcrfon ;
for when Chrift was reproached with calling out demons
by the aCGflance of the prince of demons, he replied, " How-
can Satan caft out Satan ? (Matt. xii. 26. Mark, iii. 23.
Luke, xi. 18.) Now if Satan, who is confidered as the
fame perfon v/ith the devil (Rev. ix. 12. Matt. iv. 1. com-
pared with Mark, i. 12.), was the prince of thofe demon?/
who were caft out by Chrift ; then demons are the fame
fpirits as the devil's angels. And on this fuppofition, there
can be no other difference between demons and the devil than
that which fubfifts between a prince and his fubjctts, who
both partake of one common nature, though the prince, as
prefiding over the reft, hath a peculiar name of his own.
Dr. Lardner (Cafe of Demoniacs, p. 42. Works, vol. i.

p.448.)

B EE

-p. 44S.) admits, that the djvil, wlio is fuppofa! tu be the
chiet or prir.ce of the falltu angels, ia ofti^n called Satan
«nd B-elzebub. Mr. Fanner is of opitiion (Elfay on the
Demoniacs of the N. T. p. 16.) that it doth not follow from
the above-cited paflage, that the devil is ever called Beel-
zebub. The term " Satan," lie Aiys, is not appropriated to
one particular perfon or fplrit, but lignifies " an advcrlary" or
or)ponent, in general. The Jews called every demon by
•this name, and ufcd it in the plural number ; and the words
of our Saviour, " How can Satan call out Satan," taken in
their (Incleil fenfe, imply that there were fevcral Satans :
fo that our Lord might only mean, " that it was uurea-
fiinable to fuppofe that o-.ie demon would cad out another."
Or if you underlland him to the following purpofe : " were
Beelzebub, whom you regard as the chief of the p':!Ming
demons, to expel himfelf, which would in effeft be the cafe
were he to exp 1 his agents and inllrumcnts, he would a£t
againll his own intereft, and defeat his own fchemes ;" it
will not follow, that Beelzebub was eonhdered as the fame
perfon with the devil. There feems to be no reference to
tiie latter. He and Beelzebub might be regarded as two
dillinft perfons ; and yet each be called " Satan," an adver-
fary, or opponent. " If Beel/cbub and his demons were,
in our Saviour's time, conceived to be the very fame perfons
as the devil and his angels, is it not very furprifiiig," fays
this author, " that the New Tcilament, in its original lan-
guage, fliould always fpeak of the difeafed perfons under
confideration as pofl'cffed by a " demon" or " demons,"
and never by " the devil" or " devils I" a word, as all muft
allow, that is never there applied to evil fpirits in the plural
number, whatever its ufe may be in the fuigular. He
adds, " inafmuch as Chrill is here replying to the Pharifees,
and reafoning with them on their own principles, he cannot
be fuppofed to fpeak of a different order of beings from
what they did. Satan, therefore, muft be equivalent to
demon, in the fenfe in which demon was ufed by them."
See Demon. " Should it then appear," fays Mr.Jarmer,
" that by demons and their prince they underftood human
fpirits, it will from hence follow, that Chrift cannot be
fpeaking of fpirits of a celeftial origin." If by the devil, we
are to underlland a fallen angel, this writer thinks that he
could not be the fame with Beelzebub. The Jews, in their
ancient writings, were not accuftomed to call the devil by
this name, but by that of Afmodxus, or Saraael ; as Bo-
chart, (Open vol. iii. p. 501.) Selden, (ubi fupra, p. 231-)
and others allow. Beelzebub, in the eftimation of the Pha-
rifees, was the prince of the " poffefling demons," and there-
fore, as Mr. Farmer fuppofes, he was, in their eftimation, a
human fpirit ; and in proof of this he alleges the teftimony
of Jofephus(DeBell.Jud. 1. vii. c. 6. ^3). Bcfides, Beel-
zebub was, as we have already ftated, a heathen deity ; ex-
prefsly denominated in the Old Teftament, the god of Ek-
ron ; and reprefented by the Pharifees under the fame title
and charafter as the heathens themfelves afcribed to their
gods. " If Beelzebub," fubjoins Mr. Farmer, " was a hea-
then demon, or deity, he was no other than a deified human
fpirit ; for fuch were all the heathen demons, who were the
more immediate objeels of the ptiblic cftablilhed wordiip ;
and thofe in particular to whom divination and oracles were
afcribed. And if the prince of demons was of human ex-
traft, no doubt his fubjefts were fo hkewlfe.

BEELZEBUL, in Entomology, a fpecies of Scarab;eus
that inhabits America. On the thorax is a triple promi-
nence ; and three horns on the head, the middle one larger
than the others. Fabricius.

Beelzebul, in Zoology, a fpecies of Simia that inha-
bits South America ; and is tailed, bearded, and black ;
tail prehenCle ; tip, with the feet, brown. Linnseus. This

BEE

appears to be the guarlla of Marcgrave ; hvwl'wg laLcon of
Bancroft ; preach.r monkey of Pen:;ant ; and I'ouarhic of
Buffon. It is faid to be about the iize of a fox, of a black
colour, and the hair of its fhr long, gloffy, and remarkably
fmooth. This is a fierce animal, and inhabits the woods of
Brafil, and Guiana, in vail numbers ; wanders in large fl^-eks
in the night time, and howls hideoufly. Dr. Shaw obferves
that this howling faculty is owing to the conformation of
the OS hyoide-s, or throat bone, which is dilated into a bot-
tlc-ftiapcd cavity. Marcgrave, in fpeaking of the guariba,
acquai;it3 us, thnt one fometimcs mounts the top of a branch,
and aiTemblcs a multitude below ; he then fets up a howl
fo loud and horrible, that a perfon at a diftance v/ould ima-
gine that a hundred joined in the cry ; after a certain fpace,
he gives a fignal with his hand, when the whole aflembly
join in chorus, but on another fignal, a fudden filence pre-
vails, and then the orator finifties his harangue. Virey calls
this animal Beelzebut, retaining however at the fame time
the name I'onnrine under which it is defcribcd by Buffon.

BEEMAH, in Ctography, a river of Hindollan, which
is a principal branch of the Kiftnah, joining it near Edghir,
rifes in the mountains, on the north of Poonah, probably not
far from the fources of the Godavery, and paftcs within 30
miles of the eaft fide of Poonah, where it is named Bewrah,
as well as Beemah. It forms the eaftcrn boundary of Vifia-
pour, and pafles about So or 82 geographical miles to the
weft of Golcouda, crofiing the road from it to Ralicotte.
The Beemah, according to Mr. Orme, poffefTes virtues fimi-
lar to thofe cf the rivers efteemed facred by the Hindoos ;
that is, ablutions performed in its ftream have a religious
efficacy fuperior to thofe performed in ordinary ftreams.
Rennell's Memoir, p. 244, &c.

BEEMEN,or Sheemen, in AJlronomy, feven ftars of the
fourth magnitude, following each other, in the fourth flexure
of the conftellation Eridanus.

BEEMSTER, in Geogr<^hv, a large drained lake or
niarfti of North Holland. It was formerly a lake, covering
a great extent of country, which, by the induftry of the
Hollanders, vi'ho, by means of various canals, have drained the
waters, is converted into an excellent pafture ground. It
has neither towns nor villages, but a great number of houfes,
which arc difperfed along the fides of the canals and roads.

BEEN, in Mujic, the name of an Indian fretted inftiu-
ment of the guittar kind. The finger-board is 2 1 |ths in .
ches long. A little beyond each end of the finger-board
are two gourds, and beyond thefe are the pegs and tail-piece
which hold the wires. The whole length of the inftrumcnt
is three feet feven inches. The firft gourd is fixed at ten
inches from the top, and the fccond at about two feet i i-J.
The gourds arc very large, about fourteen inches diameter,
and have a round piece cut out of the bottom, about five
inches diameter. The finger-board is about two inches
wide. The wires are feven in number, and confift of two
fteel ones, very clofe together, in the right fide ; four brafs
ones on the finger-board ; and one brafs one on the left fide.
They are tuned in the following manner.

5 n •« ^ «> Vi •-

T. O •

o £

O 3

•S.SP

C

>2 S 2

(3

i

3

:m2

1

The

BEE

BEE

T!-.e great fiiigularity of this inflrument is the height of
^he frets ; that nearefl the nut is one inch -g., and that
;rt the other txtreniity ahout Jths of an inch, and the de-
crcafe is prtlty gradual. By tliis means the fint^er never
touches the finger-board itfelf. The frets are fixed on with
V ax by the performer himfelf, which he does entirely by
ear.

The frets are nineteen in number. On the wires R and S,
wTiich are thofe principally ufed, there is an extent of two
oAaves, a whole note with all the half notes complete in the
firft odave, but the g t^, and b b wanting in the fecond.
The performer's apology for this was, that he could eafily
get thofe notes by prefling the (Iring a little hard upon the
frets_/")JJ; and i^'b;, which is very true from the height of the
frets ; but he afferted that this was no defeft in his parti-
cular inftrumcnt, but that all beens wxre made fo. The
wires TU are fcldom ufed, except open.

The been is held over the left (houlder, the upper gourd
refting 0:1 that (houlder, and the lower one on the right
knee.

The frets are flopped with the left-hand ; the firll and
fecond fingers are principally ufed. The little finger of
this hand is fometimes uL-d to llrike the note V. The
third finger is feldom ufed, the hand (hifting up and down
the finger-board with great rapidity. The fingers of the
right hand are ufed to ftrike the firings of this hand ; the
third finger is never ufed. The two firll finjrers ilrike the

n ■

wires on the finger-board, and the little finger Ilrikes the
two wires. The two firft fingers of this hand are defended
by a piece of wire put on the tops of them in the manner
of a thimble : when the performer plays flrong, this caufes a
very jarring difagreeable found ; whereas, when he plays
foftly, the tone of the inilrument is remarkably pleafing.

The llyle of mufic on this inilrument is in g'cneral that of
great execution. Icould hardly ever difcovtr, fays Mr.Fowke,
any regular air or fubjedl. The mufic feems to confift of a
number of detached paffages, fomc very regular in their afcent
and defcent : and thofe th.it arc played foftly, are mod of
them both uncommon and pleafing. Afiatic Refearches,
vol. i. p. 295, &:c. See P/tiUsol ALi/ic.

BEER, a fpirituous hqnor, made from any farinaceous
grain ; but generally from barley. Accordingly, it is a
liquor of very ancient and general ufe. See Ale.

The word is Saxon, formed from the German bier, of the
Latin b'were.

Several authors have maintained, that there was no malt
liquor known by the appellation of beer, as dillinguiilied
from the ancient liquor called ale, till the ufe of hops was
introduced. See Hops. However, we find, bv a ilatute
of the twelfth parliament of the 23d year of king James HI.
of Scotland, (c. 88.) that it was enafted, that no perfons
fliould mix wine or " beer," under pain oF death. Befides
this inftancc, occurring in 1482, many others might be
produced confuting the vulgar tradition, that beer, as a li-
quor, dilliiidl from a1e, was not known in England till the
reign of Henry VHI. In the year 1492, we find a licence
from king Henry VH. to a Fleming (c!teJ in the 12th tome
of the " F(rdera," p. 471.) for exporting fifty tons of ale,
called "beer" or " bere ;" and in the fame year one of the
king's attendants into France was a beer-brewer of Green-
wich in Kent. Although it may probably be true, that
beer, brewed with hops, was not knovvn in England till
after this time ; yet other materials were ufed, before hops
were known, for making the liquor that was called " beer,"
fuch as wormwood, and other plant?, which fervcd inllead
of hops, for prcferving malt-liquo'-, either bv lea or land.

6

Beer is made from malt by extraflioH with water and fer-
mentation. With this view, a'qua;;tity of malt, freed from its
germ?, and fufScicnt forone intendedbrewingjiscoarfclybruif-
ed by grinding, and in the mafh-tub, firll well mixed with
fomc cold, then fcaldcd with hot water drawn upon it from
the boiler. It is afterwards ftrongly and uniformly llirred.
When the whole mafs has flood quii-tly f,-r a certain time,
the extraft (ma(h), or fweet-wovt, is brought into the
boiler; and the malt remaining in the tub is once more ex-
trailed by infufion with hot wp.ter. This fecond extraft,
treated in like manner, is added to the firft, and both are
boiled together. This clear decoftion is now drawn off,
and called boiled wort. To make the beer more fit for
digeftion, and at the fame time to deprive it of its too
great and unpleafant fweetnefs, the wort is mixed with 3
decodlion of hops, or clfe thefe are boiled with it. After
which it ought to be quickly cooled, to prevent its tranfition
into acetous fermentation, which would enfue, if it were
kept too long in a high tcmper.iture. On this account, the
wort is transferred into the cooler ; where it is expoftd with
a large furface to cold air, and from this to the fermenting
tub, that by addition|of a fufficient portion of recent yeall it
may begin to ferment. When this fermentation has pro-
ceeded to a due degree, and the yeaft ceafes to rife, the
beer is conveyed into caflis, placed in cool cellars, where it
finifhes its fermentation, and where it is well kept and pre-
ferved under the name of " barrelled beer," with the pre-
caution of occaiionally filling up the vacancy caufed in the
vefTels by evaporation. Or, the beer is bottled before it
has done fermenting ; and the bottles are flopped a little
before the fermentation is completely over. By fo doing,
the bottled beer is rendered fpsrkling. In this flate it
frequently burfts the bottles, by the difengagement of the
carbonic acid gas which it contains ; and it itiongly froths,
like champaign, when brought into contaft with air on being
poured into another Vfffel. Gren's Chymiftry, vol. ii. p. 63..
For the proccfs of brewing, particularly according to tae
Englilh mode ; fee Brewing.

Beer, well prepared, fhould be limpid and clear, pofTefs a
due quantity of fpirit, excite no difagreeable fwcet tafle,
and contain no difengaged acid. By thefe properties, it is
a fpecies of vinous beverage, and is dillinguifiied from wine,
in the ftricl fenfe, and other liquors of that kind, by the
much greater quantity of mucilaginous m.atter which it has
received by extradlion from the melted grains ; but which
alio renders it more nounfhi"g. " Brown beer" derives its co-
lour from malt llrongly roafied in the kiin, and its bitterifli
tafte from the hops. " Pale beer" is brewed from malt
dried in the air, or but flightly roafied, with but little or no
hops at all.

Tacitus, in fpeaking of the ancient Germans, as alfo Diof-
corides, Galen, &c. condemn beer, as prtjudicial to the
head, nerves, and membranous parts, as occafioning a more
lading and more uncafy drunkennefs than wine, and as pro-
moting a fuppreffion of urine, and fometimes a leprofy.

McfT. Perrault, Rainffant, and others, defend the mo-
dern beer : urging, that the hops ufed w^ith us, and which
the ancients were llrangers to, having a faci.lty of purifying
the blood, and removing obilrutlions, fcrve as a correftive,
and free our drink from the inconveniences objetled to that
of the ancients. For the qualities of beer, fee M-^lt-Li-
yv'OR.

In New England they make beer from maife, or even the
bread made thereof. Some phyficians recommend beer
made of cats and birch-water, as preferable, io nephritic

cafes.

BEE

BEE

cafes, to that made of barley. Phll.Tranf. N'gy. p. 6135.
N=i38.

Mr. Park, in the account of his travels through Africa,
informs us, tiiat the negroes make excellent beer of one
fpecies of their corn, by malting the feeds nearly in the
fame man'iier as barley is malted in England ; and lie fays,
that tiie beer, thus made, was to his talte equal to the bell
ilrong beer he had ever tailed in his native country.

Sour or decayed beer may be reilored divers ways ; as
by fait made of the alius of barley-ilraw, put into the vef-
fel, and ilirred ; or by three or four handfuls of beech-aflies
thrown into tiie vclfel, and ftirred ; or, where the liquor is
not very four, by a little put into a bag, without llirring ;
chalk calcined, oyller-!lK-ll?, egg-llKlls burnt, fea-diells,
crabs eves, alkalized coral, &c. do the fame, as they imbibe
tiic acidity, and unite with it into a fweetnefs. Beer, it is
faid, nriy be kept from turning four in fummer by hanging
into the veflcl a bag containing a new-laid egg, pricked lull
of little pin-holes, fome laurel-berries, and a few barley-
grains ; or by a nev.'-hid egg and walnut-tree leaves. I-.au-
rcl berries alone, their flvin being peeled off, will keep beer
from deadnefs ; and the throwing lixcd air into it will re-
llore it. Glauber commends his fal mirabile and fixed nitre,
put into a linen bag, and hung on the top of the cade, lo as
to reach the liquor, not only for recovering four beer, but
for preferving and llrengthening it. See Ale.

Beer tailing of the caflc, may be freed from it, by putting
a handful of wheat in a bag, and hanging it to the veflcl.
Tlie grounds of beer form a very rich manure.
Beer-Po^/. See Z.ythocala.

Bker, Eiigtr, is ufcd by caUico-priiitcrs, chemids, lapi-
daries, fcarlet-dyers, vinegar merchants, white-lead-men, S:e.
Yjv.i^-MeiifHie. See Measure.
ViLY,^.- Vinegar. See Vinegar.
Beer-//'(!w«, in Geography. See Bear-Haven.
BEERING, Behring, or Bering, Viti's, in B'logra-
fijjy, an eminent navigator, was a native of Denmark, and
born towards the conclufion of the 17th century. After
having made two voyages to India, he entered in 1704, as a
lieutenant in the Ruffian navy, in which he afterwards rofe
to the rank of captain and commodore. In purfuance of a
plan conceived by Peter I., and communicated on his death-
bed to Becring, for making difcoveries in that tempeftuous
fea which lies between Ivamtfcluitka and America, this adven-
turous navigator fct fail in 1728, accompanied by Ticherikof,
from the mouth of the Kamtlchatka river, with a view of
afcertaining whether the two continents of Afia and Ame-
rica were feparated, according to the inftrudlions prepared
by Peter 1. on his death-bed for this purpofe. Coafting
along the eaftcrn (liore of Siberia, he arrived at the latitude
of 67° 18', but made no difcoveiy of the oppofite continent.
In 1729, foon after his return, he failed again in profecution
of the fame dclign, but without fuccefs. A third expedi-
tion was planned in 1741, and the conduft of it was entruft-
ed with Bccring and Tfcherikof, who encountered many dif-
afters, and paved the way to all the important difcovcries
afterwards made by the Ruffians. Two veffels, named the
St. Peter, and St. Paul, were deftined for this enterprife : the
former was commanded by Capt. Beering, and had on board 76
perfons, including officers, and the latter by Capt. Tfcherikof,
accompanied by Delile, profefforof Aftronomy, and the fame
number of mariners. From the bay of Awatfcha, which
they left on the 4th of June, they proceeded northwards ;
and the vetTels parted in a llorm, and never more faw one
another during the voyage. Beering- Iteered in a fouthern
dircftion from the 50th to the 46th degree of latitude m
7

fearch of Tfcherikof, but finding the fearch to be fruitlefs,
he direcled his courfe eaftwards, &nd at the end of fix weeks
from the time of firll failing, defcried land in the latitude of
51/ ai\d fome minutes, and in the longitude of 40'^ from
Awatfcha. On the 20th of July they anchored among
fome iflunds, on one of which they landed ; but they neg-
ledf d to accomplilh the main objctl of their mifiion, which
was the difeovei7 of the American coall, which afterwards
appeared to be fo near their prefent llation. This, however,
feems to have been owing to the dilcontent and infubordina-
tion that prevailed among the crew and officers of the
fliip. Having obferved fevtral ifiands in the courfe of their
voyage, the\ iX length, viz. on the 5th of November, found
theml"elvts,as they apprehended, on the coalt of Kamtfchatka,
near the bay of Awatfcha ; but the land v.diich they per-
ceived proved to be an ifland, on which the (liip was wreck-
ed, and where the commander, and feveral of the crew, died
foon after their landing, ot the fcurvy, famine, and fatigue.
Stellcr, who accompanied Beering, and wrote a journal of
the voyage, obfirves, in jullice to the commodore, that he
exuted himfelf to the utmoil ot his ability in executing the
delign of his million, but that he was himfelf confcious of
his unfitnefs for the arduous talk on account of his age
and irrefolution. His temper was too mild for the go-
vernment of a diforderly crew : and his deference to his
officers led them to prefume on their own importance, and to
dcfpife hisauthority.Worn out at lall with hunger, thirft, cold,
weakucfj, and anxiety, the oedeiiiatous tumours in his feet,
from which he had long fuffered, increafed by the fevc-
rity of the weather, and a mortification of the belly tak-
ing place, he breathed his laft on the 8th of December ;
and was buried between his adjutant commifTary and two
gienadiers. " On our departure from the iHand," fays
Steller, " we erefted over the grave a wooden crofs to
fer\'e as a monument, and at the fame time to be a
tellimonv of our having taken poffeflion of the country."
Steller ailedges leveral arguments to prove that Beering dif-
covered the continent of America, at cape St. Elias, lying,
according to his eilimation, in N. lat. 58" 28', and in longi-
tude from Fcno 236" ; and that the coail touched at by
Tfcherikof w?s Gtuated in lat. 56°. long. 241°. The coafts,
fays Steller, were bold, projefting chains of high mountains,
fome of which were covered with fnow, and their fides cloth- !
ed from the bottom to the top with large trafts of thick and
fine wood. Steller went on fiiore and obferved feveral fpe-
cies of birds not known in Siberia, and one in particular, dcf-
cribed by Catefby under the name of the blue jay, peculiar
to North America. The foil was different from that of j
Kamtfchatka, and of the neighbouring ifiaiids, and he found j
feveral plants which botanills deem pecidiar to America.
Befides, it has been alledged that they mull at leall have ap-
proached very near that continent ; as the natives of the ^,
idaiids on which they touched, prefented to them the " calu- .,
met" or pipe of peace, which is a fymbol of friendlhip uni- j|
verfal among the people of North America, and an ufage of «
arbitrary inllitntion peculiar to them. Soon after the re- 1
turn of Becring's crew from the ifland, where he was fiiipr'^
wrecked and died, the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka ventured :j
over to that ifland, to which the fia-otters and other fea-ani-J
nials were accuftomed to refort in great numbers. Sttller's; |
Journal apud Pallas. Coxe's Ruffian Difcovcries, p. 20.'-^
p. 277, &c. Tooke's View of the Ruffian Empire, vol. i.V
p. ij6. vol. iii. p. 40. p. 499. See Asia, and tlic following'-i
articles, Beering's i^.«, &c. ,i

Beerisg's Bafm, in Geography, a name given in honour of^i
commodore Beering, to that part of the North Pacific Oceanfl;

compre*'.

1

BEE

comprehendinn; about 1200 leagues in circuit, wnich is formed
by tlie Arc'.iipelago, called the Aleutian or Aleoutfl-tie iflands,
with the north-weft coaft of America, and the north-eaft coail
of Afia, and which communicates towards the fouth with the
great Boreal ocean by as many ftraits as the iflands form chan-
nels between them, and towards the north, under the 66th pa-
rallel, with the Ardlic Frozen ocean, by Beering's Straits
alone. See Aleutian.

Beering's, or Behring's Bay, a bay on the north-weft
coaft of America, fituated between cape Suckling and cape
Fair-wealher, and fo called in honour of commodore Beer-
ing', who, in 1741, difcovercd this bay, and anchored in it.
The extreme poip.ts of this bay, in Vancouver's chart, arc
port Manby and port Turner ; cape Phipps lies to the fouth
of it, and port Mulgrave, formed by iflands, and affording a
convenic:;t anchoring place fecure from all winds, is fituated
■within the bay. In this part of the bay Beering is fuppofed
to have anchored. Beering's mount, St. Ehas, lies at a fmall
diftance to the north of this bay. Mr. Dixon called it
Admiralty bay. La Peroufe defcribes it under the denomi •
iiation of Behring's river. According to captain Cook, the
opening of this bay was in N. lat. 59" 18' ; and La Percufe
makes it 59° 20'. Cook's longitude was 220° 19' E. or i_^9^
41' W. 142° rW. from the Meridian of Paris. La Pe-
roufe fixes his longitude at 142° 2', making only a difference
of 1' from that of Cook. Vancouver, who reconnoitred
this coaft more accurately than capt. Cook had an opportu-
rity of doing, as he paffed it at fome diftancefrom the Ihore,
places it further to the north and weft, its opening being
about 59° 32', and E. long. 220° 35'.

Beering'j- IJland, an ifland in the north Pacific ocean
on the north eaft of Kamtfchatka, which fome have con-
fidered as one of the groups called the Aleutian ifles, (fee
Aleutian) and others have feparated from it. This
ifland was difcovered by Beering in 1741. This adventu-
rous navigator having been for fome time in a ftate of
indifpofition and decay, was unable to concern himfelf about
the manag'iment of his fliip, and his crew were generally
attacked by the feurvy, and in a fickly, enfeebled condi-
tion. Purfuing their navigation, they were at length driven
by the winds and feas on this ifland, with the pofition of
which, with regard to the two continents, they were un-
acquainted, and here the ftiip was call away. On the 8th
of December, Beering died on this ifland, which has very
properly affumed the name of the firft navigator who
ventured into thefe ftas, and who difcovercd the weft con-
tinent of America, in a latitude wliich, before him, no
known voyager had attained. In the following year, the
furviving crew contrived, with great trouble, to conftrucl
a boat, which conveyed them to Kamtfchatka. 'J'his
ifland is fituated between the north latitude of <^'^'' and
56° and E. long. 167" 20', about 50 leagues from the
coaft of Kamtfchatka. It is 165 vcrfts in length, and of
various breadths, the greateft breadth being 23 verfts ; and it
confifts of a range of bold cliffs and hills, which, fepara-
ted by feveral very narrow vallies, lying north and fouth,
feem to rile from the fea like a fingle rock. The higheft
of thefe mountains are elevated perpendicularly, not above
a thoufand fatiicms, covered with a yellow clay, and much
riven by ftorms and weather. The mountains confirt of
granite, thofe rows excepted that ftand neareft the fea,
which are commonly of fand-ftone, and form, not unfre-
quently, ftore walls, th:.t are very fteep. In thefe moun-
tains, tliere are niany-c.iverns. In the year 1741, three
fmart ftiocks of earthquakes were perceived in this ifland ;
the fea about it is not covered with ice, and the cold is
in general moderate, although there are m.cuntains on
v/hich the fnow never diffoivcs. Neither thunder nor the
Vol. IV.

BEE

aurora borealis has been obferved here. The ifland has
fprings of excellent water, and beautiful cataracts. Of
animals there are only ice foxes, feals, fea-bcars, iea-tions,
fea-cows, &c. No wood grows upon this iiland ; but fe-
veral kinds of plants are found upon it. It is uiiinliabit-
ed. The fliips which have been accuftomed to navigate
thefe feas have frequently wintered on this ifland, in order
to procure a ftock of faked provifious from the fea-cows
and other amphibious animals, tiiat are fouud here in great
abundance. Tookc's View of the RufTian Empire', vol. i.
■p. 156, &c. Marchand's Voyage, vol. i. Introd. p. 33.

Beering'j- Stra'Us, feparate Afia from America, being
bounded on the American fide by t?ape Prince of Wales,
in N. lat. 65° 50'. E. long. 191° 50', and on the fide of Afia
by the eaft cape in N. lat. 66° 6' and E. long. 190° 22'.
The breadth of this ftrait is about 13 leagues, or near
40 miles. Its depth is from 12 to 30 fathoms. It was
difcovered firft by Beering, and afterwards by captain Cook.
Beering, in his voyage ofryiS, is faid to have proceeded
as far north as 67-' iS', and therefore muft have reached
a latitude more northerly by about a degree and a quarter
than that of the moil eaftern part of the old continent.
He had, therefore, entered the Frozen ocean, and muft
have adually paffed this ftrait, probably in the ufual fogs r
of the climate, without difcovering land to the eaft ; how-
ever, our great navigator, captain Cook, gave the name of
the Danifli adventurer to thefe ftraits, when with his ufual
accuracy he afterwards explored them. To the north of thefe
ftraits the Afiatic fliore leads rapidly to the weft ward ;
but the American proceeds nearly in a northern direftion,
till, at the dillance of about 4 or 5 degrees, the conti-
nents are joined by folid and impenetrable bonds cf ice.
The fea from the fouth of thefe ftraits to the crefcent
of ifles between Afia and America, is very (hallow, and
deepens from thefe ftraits till foundings are loft in the Pa-
ciiic ocean, fouth of thefe ifles. Between them and the
ftraits there is laid to be an increafe from 12 to 54 fa-
thoms, excepting off cape Thaddeus, where the channel is
of greater depth. From this, and other circumftances, it
has been thought not improbable that a fcparation of
the continents may have taken place in fome unknown
period, at thefe ftraits, and that the whole fpace from the
ifles to that fmall opening might once have been dry land ;
and that the fury of the watery element, actuated by that
of fire, might have fubveited and overwhelmed the tradt,
and left the iflands as volcanic remains of this great eixp-
tion. The famous Japanefe map places fome iflands ap-
parently within thefe liraits, denominated " Ya Zue," or
the kingdom of the dwarfs. Hence it has been imagined,
that America was not unknown to the Japanefe, and that
they had, as Kocmpfer and Charlevoix have fuggefted, made
voyages of difcovery ; and according to the laft writer,
that they had aft ually wintered upon the continent, ivherc
probably meeting with the Eiquimuux, they might, in com-
pariton with'themfelves, juiUy diltiiiguifh them by the name
of dwarfs. See Asia.

BEERO, a Moorilb kingdom of Africa, lying to the
north of Bambara, and north-weii cf a Foulaii ftatc, calL-el
Maffina. Its capital is Walet, Ctuate, according to Mr.
Park's information, about 240 geographical n iles to the call
of Benowm. In Rennel's map of North Africa, Walet is in
N. lat. 15" 45', and W. long. 2° 45'. The kingdom of
Beeroo borders on Sahara, or the Great Defert.

BEEROTH, in AnchrJ Geography, a city of the CI-
deonites, afterwards of the tribe of Benjamin, Jofn, ix. 17.
According to Eufcbius, it was diftant 7 miles from Jerurakin,
in the way towards Nicopolis.

Beeroth, of the children of Jaakan, was aftation of the
R IfraeJitOs

BEE

Ifraelitcs (Deut. x. 6.), placed by Eufebius lo miles from
the city of Pctra.

BEER-SHEBA, cillcd alfo Bfrsabe and Barsheba,
a city given by Jofhim to tlie tribe of Jiidali, and afterwards
transferred to Simeon. Jodi. xv. 28. It derived its name
from y^ty-TJ^^ heer-Jlcln, the well of an oath, from the
well on which Abraham and Ifaac ratified their alliance by
an oath with Abimelech. [t was dillnnt foiith from He-
bron 20 miles, and had a Roman garrifon in the time of
Eufebius and Jerom. The limits of the Holy Land are often
exprefLJ in Scripture by the terms " from Dan to Beer-fhe-
bi" (2 Sam. xvii. 11. &c.) ; Dan being the northern and
Beer-lheba the fonthern extremities of the land. It is now
a poor village, adjoining a large, fandy, barren dcfart, altoge-
ther uninhabited, except towards the fea-coalt.

BEES, in Naval Architecliire, denote pieces of elm-plank
bolted to the outer ends of bowfprits.

BEESENSTADT, in Gio^raphy, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Mansfeld, 6
miles eaft of Eitzlehen.

BEES.HEAD, St. a cape of England in the weftern
extremity of the county of Cumberland, in the Irifh fea,
about 10 leagues E. by N. from the Illc of Man, and 2 S.
of Whitehaven. It has a liglit-houfe, and is a noted promon-
tory for fea-fowl. N. lat. 54° 31'. W. long. 30° 43'.

BEESHEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Well-
plialia, and county of Lingen, 7 miles S. S. E. of Lingen.

BEESKOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up-
per Saxony and Uckermark of Brandenburg, and capital of
a lordfhip, to which it gives name, feated on the Spree ;
16 miles S. W. of Frankfort on the Oder, and 34 E. S. E.
of Berlin. A cloth manufafture is carried on in this
town.

BEES-WAX. See Wav.

BEESTINGS, or Breastings, denote the fineft milk
taken from a cow after calving.

The beeftings are of a thick confidence and yellow colour,
feemingly impregnated with fulphur. Dr. Morgan imagines
them peculiarly fitted and intended by nature to cleaafe the
young animal from the recrements gathered in its llomach
and inteftines during its long habitation in ulero. The hke
quality and virtues he fuppofes in women's firft milk after
delivery ; and hence infers the neceffity of the mother's fuck-
ling her own child, rather than committing it to a nurfe,
whofe firll milk is gone.

BEET, in Botany. See Beta.

Beet, hare's, Ida leponna, a name given by fome of the
•!d Latin writers to a fmall green plant of an acrid tafte.
BEET-^a/l-infia. See GAl.L-in/e{!.

BEETLE, in Entomology, a common Englifh name for
all infefts that are furniftied with fhelly-wing-eafcs : thofe
which have them divided by a llraight future arc properly
beetles, and belong to the coleoptera order ; but the blattse,
or cock-roaches, are alfo called beetles, though the future is
oblique, or in other words one wing-cafe croffes the other ;
and therefore it belongs to the hemipteva order. See Cole-
optera. The fcarabsei are beetles in the ftrifteft fenfe of
the word.

Beetles, luater, is likewife a common name for mofl in-

fefts that have wing-cafes, and inhabit the water, including

the dytifci, and fome other aquatic infefts, that are truly

' beetles, with fuch as aretiot of the lame order, fuch as the

nepx, notone£tae, &c. See Hemiptera.

Beetle, in a Mechanical Senfe, denotes a large wooden
inflrument, formed after the manner of the mallet, having
each face bound with a ftrong iron hoop, to keep it from
fpreading, and ufed for driving piles, ftakes, palifades, wedges,
and the lil^e.

BEG

In this fenfe, the word is corruptly written in fome places
b'^ytk. Skinner derives it from the Englilh beating. For
the military ufe, beetles, called alfo Hampers, are thick
round pieces of wood, a foot and a half long, and eight or
ten inches in diameter, having a handle of about four feet
long. Their life is for beating or fettling tlie, earth of a pa-
rapet, or about palifades ; which is done by lilting up the
beetle a foot or two, and letting it fall with its own weight.
The name beetle is alfo given to the paviour's rammer, or in-

II rument wherewith the Itones are beaten down, and fallcned.

BEEVES, a general name for oxen.

BI'U'"ARIA, in Botany. See Bejaria.

r)EI"ORT, in Geography, a town of France, and princi-
pal place of a dillrift, in the department of the Upper Riiine,
ceded to France by the houfc of Aullria in the year 1648,
at the treaty of Wcflphalia. It was fortified by Vaiiban.

III this town fevtral forges are employed in the manufadture
of iron. N. lat. 47^ 9'. E. long, b'^ 46'.

BEFROI, Grand Bi'FROi, and Petit Befroi, in Or-
nithology, the names of tlie two fpecies of Turdl's, called
t'mn'uns and Tmcatits by Gmelin, in Buffon's Hift. Birds.

BEG, or Bey, in the TurLiJh Gwivrnmeni. See Bey.

BEG, Lough, in Geography, or the Little Lough, in the
province of Ulller, Ireland, a fmall lake into whicli the waters
from Lough Neagh again expand, after a courfe of about a
mile, through a very narrow channel. The form of Lough-
bcg, its iflands, fome wooded points of land with intervcninfj
lawns and rocks, a magnificent rotunda at Ballyfcullen, and
the beautiful lightnefs of Toome-bridge, produce the molt
happy effeft. It is fituated between the counties of Armagh
and Londonderry.

BEGA, or BEGEYN, Cornelius, in Biography, a
painter and engraver, was burn at Hatrlcm in 1620, and be-
came the difciple of Adrain Oftade, whofe manner he imi-
tated, and by whofe inftruftionshe profited, fo as to acquire
confiderable reputation as a painter. But contrafting habits
of diffipatinn and licentioufnefs, he was difowned by his
father, and rcfcnting the indignity, he affumed the name of
Bega inflcad of Begeyn, which was that of his family. He
had a fine pencil, and a delicate mode of handling his colours,
fo as to give them a neat and tranfparent appearance ; and
his performances arc fo much clleenied in the Low Countries
as to be placed among the works of the bell ai tills. He alfo
etched feveral drolleries, and a fet of 34 prints, rcprefenting
ale-honfe fceiies, &c. His death, which happened in 1664,
was occafioned by the plague, whish he caught from a fa-
vourite female, to whom he was fo llrongly attached that he
vifited her, againft the lemonlliaiiccs of his friends and phy-
licians, to the lail moments of her life ; and he outlived her
only a few days. Pilkington and Strutt.

Bega, or Vega, in Geography, 3. river of Germany, which
runs into the Werra, 4 miles N. W. of Lemgo, in the circle
of Wertphalia.

BEGANNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Deferta, in the neighbourhood of Mefopotamia. Ptolemy.

BEGAR-MEE, or Baghermi, in Geography, fuppofcd
to be the " Begama" of EdriC, and the " Gorham" of D*
Anville, an extenfive kingdom of Africa, fituate S. E. of
Bornou, at the diftance of about 20 days' travelling, or al-
lowing, with major Rennell, 15 miles for a day's journey, 300
miles, and feparated from it by feveral fmall deferts. The
extent, according to Browne's Travels in Africa, p. 468, is
from E. to W. 12 days, and from N. to S. 15 days, allow-
ing 12 1 geographical miles per day. The inhabitants are
rigid Mahometans, and though perfeftly black in their com-
plexions, are not of the Negro call. Beyond this kingdom to
the eaft, (fee Proceedings of the Affociation for promoting
the difcovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, p. 155) are
6 feveral

BEG

feveral tiibes of Negroes, idolaters in tlieir religion, favage in
their manners, and accullomed, it is faid, to feed on human
fl r/li. They are called the Kardee, the Serrowah, the Show-
V ih, the Battah, and the Mulgai. Thefe nations, the Be-
garmeefe, who fight on horfeback, and are great warriors,
annually ins-ade ; and when they have taken as many prifoncrs
2 3 opportunity affords, or their purpofe may require, they
drive the captives like cattle to Begarmee. It is faid, that
if any of them, matured by age, or exhaufted by fatigue,
happen to linger in their pace, one of the horfemen feizes on
the oldell, and cutting off his arm, ufes it as a club to drive
on the rell. From Begarmee they are fent to Bornou,
v/here they are fold at a low price ; and from thence many
of tUcm are conveyed to Fezzan, where they generally em-
brace the Muffulman faith, and are afterwards exported by
the way of Tripoli to different parts of the Levant. Begar-
mee, the capital of the kingdom, hes in N. lat. 15°. E. long.
26^ 30'. according to Renneli's Map ; but according to
Browne, N. lat. 16° 40'. E. long. 22° 25'.

BEGARRA, a town of Spain in New Catlile, 4 leagues
from Alcarez.

E'EGEMDER, a province of AbylTmia, north eaft of
Tigre, bordering upon Angot, and fcparated froin Amhara,
which runs parallel to it on the fouth, by the river Bafhilo.
Both thefe provinces are bounded by the river Nile on the
weft. The greateft length of Begemder is- about I So miles,
and il5 breadth 60; and it comprehends " L.afta," a moun-
tainous province, fometimes depending upon Begemder,
and often in rebellion. The inhabitairts are efleemed the bed
foldiers ill Abyflinia, being men of great ftrength and fta-
ture, but cruel and uncivilized ; fo that they are called, in
common converfation and writing, the peafants, or barbarians
of Lafta. They pay to the king 1000 ounces of gold.

Several fmall provinces are now difmembered from Be-
gemder, fuch as Foggora, a fmall flripe of land reaching
fouth and north about 35 miles between Enifras and Dara,
and about I 2 miles broad from eaft to weft, from the moun-
tains of Begemder to the lake Tzana. On the north end of
this are two fmall governments, Dreeda and Karoota, the
only territoi-y in Abyffinia that produces wine ; the mer-
chants trade to Caffd and Narea, in the country of the
Galla.

Begemder is the ftrength of Abyflinia in liorfemcn. It is
faid that, vv-ith Lafta, it can bring out 45,000 men ; but this
account Bruce thinksto be mucli exaggerated. Itiswell flock-
ed with cattle of every kind, that are very beautiful. The
mountains are full of iron mines ; they are not fo fteep and
rocky as in other provinces, if we except Lafta, and abound
in all forte of wild fowl and game. The fouth end of the
province near Nefas Mufa is cut into prodigious gullies, ap-
parently by floods, of which no hiftory remains. It is tlie
great barrier againll the encroachments of the Galla, who
have made many attempts to obtain a frttlement here, but
without fnccefs ; and they have loft whole tribes in thefe in-
tfTeiSual efforts. Begemder is a province of fuch confe-
quenee to the ftate, rtacliing fo near the metropolis, and re-
(fularly fupplying it with all forts of provifions, that none
but noblemen ji rank, family, and charafter, able to main-
tain ti large number of troops always on foot, and in good
order, are trufted with its government. It lies in about N.
lat. I r 45'. and from 37° 30'. to 38'' 30'. E. long.

BEGER, Laurence, in Bi'j^rafi/jy, a German anti-
quarian, was the fon of a taimer at Heidelberg, and born
in 1653. At the requeft of his father he full lludied theo-
logy, and afterwards gratified his own inclination by the
ilndy of the law. Devoting hinifelf to clafllcal hccrature and
antiquities, he acquired inch reputation that, in 1677, he
was appointed librarian and keeper of the cabinet of antiqui-

BEG

tits by Charles Lewis, cleftor Palatine ; and he retained the
fame office under Frederick William, elector of Branden-
burg, to whom the cabinet was transferred in i68j. He
was a member of the Society of Berlin from its inftilution,
and died there in 1705. He was the author of various learn-
ed works. His " Confideralions on Maniage, by Daph-
nasus Arcuarius," was written in German, as a defence of
polygamy, to gratify the eledlor Palatine, who wifhed to
marry another lady, to whom he was attached, whilft his
wife was living. He afterwards gratified the fon by coin-
pofmg a refutation of this work, which was never printed.
The principal of his other works, which relate to hiftory and
antiquities, are " Thcfaunis ex Thefauro Palatine SeleAus,"
1 68 J, fol. ; " Thefaurus Reg. eledif. Brandenburgius Sclecs-
tus," 3 vols. fol. ; " Regum et Imperutcr. Roman. Nu-
mifmata," 1700, fob; "DeNummisCretenfium ferpentiferis,"
1702, fob; " I^ucernK Vetcrum fepulchrales," 1702; "Nu-
mifmata Pontif. Roman, aliorumque rariora," 1703, fob;
" Meleagrides et iEtolia," 1696, 4to. ; " Cranx infuJa Laco-
nica," 1696, 4to.; " Bellum et Excidium Trojanum iUull."
1699, 4to. Moreri.

Laurentius Begcr, the nephew of this famous antiquarian,
was an engraver of fome eminence at Berlin, about the year
1700.

Beger, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the -country
of Seville, 14 leagues from Medina Sidonia.

BEGGA, in Enlomology, a fpecies of /V;i;/:fna, (Bombyx)
with white wings, having a black rib. This kind inhabits
Surinam. The body is white ; antennx and legs yellow,black
at the tips. Fabricius, Gmelin, &c.

BEGGAR. Beggars pretending to be blind, lame, &c.
found begging in the ftreets, are to be removed by the con-
ftables ; and refufing to be removed, fhall be whipped, &c. ftat.
12. Anne ; and our ftatutes have been formerly fo ftrift for
punifliing of beggars, that in the reign of king Henry VIII.
a law was cnaftcd, that fturdy beggars convifted of a fecond
offence flrould be executed as felons. But this ftatute was
afterwards repealed. See Rogue and Vag.ibqnd.

BEGGING Order. See Mendicant.

BEGHARDI, Beguardi, or Begghardi, in Ecclc^
ffijTical Hiftory, called alfo in Italy ii^ochi, and in France
beguins, derive their name from the old German word bcggen,
Lggeren, which fignifies " to feek any thing with zeal and
importunity." Accordingly, perfons of this defcription were
called Begbardi, whence probably the Englidi word beggar
is derived; and Begutta; denoted female beggars. This was
a general appellation, and given to no lefs than thirty fefts
or orders, that fprung up in the thirteenth century, which'
differed widely from each other in their opinions, their dif-
cipline, and manner of living. It was at firft indifcrimitiatcly
applied to all perfons who embraced, with refignation and
free choice, the horrors of abfolute poverty ; tiegging their
daily bread from door to door, and renouncing all their
worldly poffeffions and occupations. It was afterwards re-
ftrifted to thofe who diltinguifhed themfclves by an extraor-
dinary appearance of devotion, and was ufcd much in the
fame fenfe with the terra Mdhodift among us. Thefe per-
fons formed a fort of intermediate order between the monks
and citizens, refcmbling the former in their manner of liv-
ing, without affuming their name, or contrafting their obli-
gations. They were divided into two clafies, which derivtd
their different denominations ol pcrfcci and imperfed from the
different degrees of aufteritv that they difcovered in tlieir
manner of living. The p>:rfrcl lived upon alms, abftaintd
from wedlock, and had no fixed habitations. Tiie imprrjtcl
conformed to the cuftoms of the reft of tlieir fellow-citizcns
in thefe refpetls. The name was at firft honourable, but by
degrees it funk into reproach, being adopted by many, who,
R 2 under

EEC

BEG

nnder the maili of religion, concealed the mod abominable
prir.oiples, and committed the moft enormous crines.

'The Beghards of OwVinany, deprived of the protedVion of
the emperor Lewis, fiifVcred extreme mifery under Charles
IV. who was advanced, by the iiitereft of the pope, to the
imperial throne in 1345. Dcfirous of gratifying the -defii'cs
of the court of Rome, he fupported by his edicts and by
his arms the papal incjiiifitors, and allowed them to appre-
hend and put to death all thofe that were deemed enemies ;
and among others the Beghards were viftims to their perfe-
cuting power. The emperor himfcif, wlio refided at Lucca
in Italy, not only approved thcfe violent mcafiires, but ifiucd
out in 1369 fcvere cdids, commanding all the German
princes to extirpate out of their dominions the Beghards and
Beguines, or, as he himfclf interpreted the name, " the vo-
luntary beggars," as enemies of the church and of the Ro-
man empire, and to affift the inquifitors in their proceedings
againll them. By another edift, publiHied not long atter,
he gave the houfcs of the Beghards to the tribunal of the
inquifition, ordering them to be converted into prifons for
heretics ; and at the fame time ordered all the clTefts of
the Beguines to be publicly fold, and the profits arifia:^ from
them to be equally divided between the inquifitors, the magi-
ftrates, and the poor of thofe towns and cities where fuch
fale flioiild be made. The Beghards, being reduced to
great llraits by this and other mandates of the emperor, and
by the confbitutions of the popes, fought a refuge in thofe
provinces of SwilTerland that border upon the Rhine, and
alfo in Holland, Brabant, and Pomerania. But the edifts
and mandates of the emperor, together with the papal bulls
and inquilitors, followed them wherever they went, and
diftrefled them in their mod dillant retreats, fo that, during
the reign of Charles IV., the greateil part of Germany
( SwiiTerland, and thofe provinces that are contiguous to it,
excepted), was thoroughly purged of the Beghards, or rebel-
lious Francifcans, both perfeiSl and imperfeft.

The Beghards of Flanders are a denomination by which
certain unmarried perfons, both bachelors and wfdowers, are
diflinguilhed, who firmed themfelves into communities of
the fame kind with thofe of the female Beguines, referving
to themfelves the liberty of returning to their former me-
thod of life. The firft focicty of thofe Beghards was efta-
bliihed at Antwei-p in the year 122?, and continues flill ;
though the brethren of which it is compofed have long fince
departed from their primitive rule of difciphne and manners.
This firll ellabiilhment was fucceeded by many others in
Germany, France, Holland, and Flanders. Thefe frater-
nities long enjoyed the toleration of the Roman pontiffs ;
but moil of tlie convents are now either demoliflied or con-
verted to other ufes. See Brethre!) of the Free Spirit,
Fratricelli, and Tertiaris. Mofheim's Eccl. Hilt.
voi.iii. p. 86. 8vo. 1758.

BEGTA, in Geography. See Bayjau.
" BEG IS, in Jiicient Geography, a town of lUyria, which
trelonged to the Trailians. Steph. Byz.

BEGKAWE, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of BrcHav,-, 3 miles wed of Melnik.

BEGLAISEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Cnramania, 8 miles north of Kirfhehr.

BEGLERBEG, a Tarkifli title for the chief governor
of a province, who has under Mm kvexAbeysorfangiacs,
that in, fubgovemors. The word is alfo written " beylerbey,"
" iKglerbey," " bcghelerbeghi," and " beylerbcL'." It is
compounded of "begler," lords; the plural of "beg," lord,
with the word "beg," fnbjoiiied ; importing as much as
ierd of lords.

The next to the vifier O'zcm, or the firfl vifier, are the
beglerbcgs in Turkey, who, according to Rycaut, may be

compared to archdukoi in fome other countries, being the
next minifters below the prime vifier, and having under their
jurifdiftion many fangiacs, or provinces, and their begs, agas,
&c. To cvciy bcglerheg the grand fignior gives three en-
figns or ftaves, trimmed with a horfe-tail, to dilHnguilh
them from the bafhaws, who have but two, and from firr.ple
begs, oj-.fangiac-begs, who have but or.e. Sec Bashaw.

The province or governm.ent of a beglerbeg is cal'ed "bcg-
lerbeglik," or begherbcglik." Thefe are of two forts ; the
firll called " bafile bcglerbeglik," which has a certain rent
affigned out ot the cities, countries, and fignories allotted to
the principality ; the fecond called " fdianai begkrbeglik,"
for maintenance of which is annexed a certain falary or vent,
collecled by the grand fignior'n officers with the treafure of
the empire. The beglerbegs of the firft fort are in number
twenty-two, viz. thole of Anatolia, C.raniania, Di:ir!'e!;ir,
Damafcus, Aleppo, Tripoli, Trebizond, Biida, Tem.eiwar,
&c. The beglerbegs ot the fecond fort are in number fix,
viz. thofe of Cairo, Babylon, &c. Five of the beglerbegs
have the titles of vifiers, viz. thofe of Anatolia, Babylon,
Cairo, Romania, and Buda. The begltrbegs appear with
great (late, and a large retinue, efpecially in the camp, be-
ing obliged to bring a foldier for every five thoufand afpers
rent which they enjov.

The bLglerbegs of Romania brought ten thoufand effecflive
men into the field.

Beglerbeg is alfo a title given to the chief governors of
provinces in the Perlian empire, having the command over
all kans, fultins, &c. in their refpec\ive dillridls.

BEGON, Michael, m Bi-jgraphy, was born of a good
family at Blois, in 163S. After having occupied fome law
offices in his native province, he was introduced by his kinf-
man, the marquis de Seignelai, into the marine department,
and became fucceffively intendant of Havre, of the French
colonies in America, and of the gallies. In 1688, he removed
to Rochefort, and pofTefTed the intendance of that poll till his
death, which happened in 1710. His leifure hours were af-
fiduonfly devoted to the cultivation of literature, and he was
owner of a valuable library, which was free of public accefs.
In moft of his books was written " Michaelis Begon et ami-
corum," i. e. the property of Begon and his friends ; and
when he was once cautioned by his librarian againll lending
his books for fear of lofing them, he replied, " 1 would ra-
ther lofe them, than feem to dillrull any honefl man." His
cabinet was richly llored with medn'is, antiques, prints, and
various curiolities, collefted from all parts of the world.
Having procured engravings of feveral eminent Frenchmen
of the feventeenth century, he collefted memoirs of their
lives, which furnilhed materials for Perrault's "Hommes II-
lullres." Of his botanical refearches in the American colo-
nies father Plumier availed himfclf in his publication. Nouv.
Dia. Hid.

BEGONIA, fo named by Plumier after Monf. Begon,
in Botany. Lin. gen. n. 1156. Schreb. 1442. Dryander ia
Linn. Trarif. I. 158. Gffirtn. fruft. t. 31. Juff. gen. 436.
Clals and order, monoceia polyandria. Nat. Ord. holoraccr.
Jncertte, Jud". Gen. Char. * Male flowers. Ccd. none. Cor,
petals four (in B. odopelala fix to nine), of which two oppo-
fite ones are larger, commonly roundilh (in B. ferruginea all
nearly equal, oblong.) Stam. filaments numerous (15 to
100), inferted into the receptacle, very fliort, fometimes
united at the bafe ; anthers oblong, ereft. * Female flow-
ers. Cal. none. Cor. petals in mod fpecies five, in fome
fix, in others perhaps four, commonly unequal. Pifl. germ
inferior, three-fided, in very many winged ; ftyles in moll
three, bifid ; lligmas fix. Per. capfule in mod three-cor-
ntred, js-inged, three-celledi opening at the bafe by the
wings ; fome are two-celled, and othsrs perhaps one-celled.

Edent.

BEG

EfTer.t. Char. Male. Ca!. none. Cor. many-pctalltd. SLim.
nuir.cious. Female. Cal. r.onc. Cor, many-petal'.ed, fu-
perior. Cap/, winged, many-feeded.

Species, I. B. iiiiida. Di^and. in Linn. Tranf. i. lyg.
Ait. Hort. Keiv. 3. 352. B. obliqua, L'Herit. Stirp. Nov.
I. 95. t.46. B. minor, Jacq. Colkft. 1. 128. n. 3. B.
purpurea, Swartz. Prodr. 86. " Shrubby, erc£l ; leavts very
finooth, unequally cordate, cbfcurcly tijothed ; largefl wing
of the capl'ule roundifli." This elegant flirub, which is
now a common ornament to our hot-houfes, was introd;:ced
herein 1777 by William Brown, M. D. A native of Ja-
maica ; flowering here from May to December. - 2. B. i/o-
plcra. Dryand. iibi fupra. Smith ic. ined. 2. t. 43. " Cau-
lefcent ; leaves fmooth, femicordate, obfcurely toothed ;
wings of the capfule almoil equal, parallel." A native of
Java, where it was cbferved by Thouin. 3. B. rcniform'ts.
Dryand. " Caulefcent ; leaves kidney-fiiaped, angular,
toothed ; the largeft wing of the capfule acute-angled, the
others parallel, very fm.all." A native of Brafil, near Rio
de Janeiro, in fliady clcfls of rocks ; obferved there by fir
Jofeph Banks. 4. B. cnnhna. Dryander. L'Herit. Stirp.
Nov. I. 97. t. 47. " Caulefcent; leaves cordate, acumi-
nate,- ferrate, the largeft wing of the capfule fickle-fhaped,
the reft obliterated." A native of Madagafcar, on ftones
and rocks by brooks, collefled there by J. G. Bruguitre,
M. D. who confidets the appendices to the leaves, refembl-
ing the galls on lime-tree leaves, or the tails in ermine, as be-
longing to the leaves themfelves, and not occafioned by
punctures of infctls. 5. B. crniata. Dryander. " Caulef-
cent ; leaves unequally cordate, roundilh, obtufe, crenate-
toothed ; capfules two-celled. A native of the Eaft Indies,
in the iiland Salfette, and near fort Viftor)-, on walls and
rocks. Found there by Ant. Pantaleon Hove. 6. B. lenui-
folia. Dryander. " Caulefcent ; leaves unequally cordate,
ovate, acute-angular, obfcurely toothed ; capfules two-
celled." A native of Pulo Pontangh, or Prince's ifland,
near Java. Found there by fir Jofeph Banks. 7. B. fur-
ruginea. Dryander. Smith. Linn. Supp. 419. Lamarck En-
cycl. I. 395. n.9. Jacq. Coll. i. 128. n. i. "Caulrfccnt;
leaves unequally cordate, toothed ; petals of the male flow-
er oblong, nearly equal." Diftinguiflied from the other
fpecics hitherto known by the long and narrow petals of the
male flowers, all of the fame breadth, and very little differ-
ing in length. Gathered in New Canada by Mutis. 8. B.
"randis. Dryander. B. obliqua. Thuub. Jap. 231. Ksempf.
ic. feleft. t. 20. Sjukaido. ij^empf. Amocn. 888. "Caulef-
cent ; leaves unequally cordate, angular, ferrate ; wings of
the capfule a little unequal." This and the next fpecies
have by far the largeft leaves of any in the genus ; but in
this the flowers are twice as large as in macrophylla. A na-
tive of Japan. 9. Y>. macrophylla. Diyander. Lamsrck En-
cycl. I. 394. n. 6. B. grandtfolia. Jacq. Collect.-^ i . 128.
n. 2. B. purpurea et nivea maxima, folio aurito. Plum. ic.
34. t. 45. f. I. " Two feet high, entirely fmooth; female
flowers dve-petalled." A native of the ifiands in the Weft
Indies. 10. Tj. acut'ifolia. Dr)'ander. Jacq. Colleft. !. 128.
n. 4. Sloan. Jam. t. 127. f. i, 2. " Caulefcent ; leaves fe-
micordate, angular, toothed ; the largeft wing of the cap-
fule obtufe-angled, the others acute-angled." A native of
Jamaica, obferved there by fir H. Sloane, and fince by Maf-
ion. II. Z. acuminata. Dryander. "Caulefcent; leaves
hifpid, femicordate, acuminate, unequally toothed ; the
largeft wing of the capfule obtufe-angled ; the others acute-
angled. A native of Jamaica, on the blue mountains ;
uitroduced into Kew garden in 1790. 12. B. liumilis.
Dryander. Ait. Ho;-t. Kew, " Caulefcent, upright ; leaves
hifpid, femicordate, doubly ferrate ; wings of the capfule
louiidtd, a little unequal.'* A native of the ifland of

BEG

Trinidad in the Eaft Indies ; found there by Alex. A'nJer.
fon. SuppafcX on its firft introduction to Mr. Lee's garden
at Hammerfmith, in 1788, to be annua!; it was then very-
low, and was called humilis ; but it has fince ftnod over the
wi-ter, and grown much taller. 13. B. hirfuta- Dryander.
Aubl. Guian. 913. t. 34S. Lamarck. Encycl. i. 393. n. 3..
Jacq. Collect, i. 129. n.8. -<' Caulefcent; leaves' hifpid,
femicordate, doubly ferrate ; the largeft wing of the capftde
obtufe-angled, the others parallel and vcr)' fn^all." Ob-
ferved by M. F. Aublet, on the rocks of Guiana, t^j;. B,.
urUci:. Dryander. Linn. Supp. 420. Lamarck Encycl.
I. 394. n.8. Jacq. CoUeft. I. 129. n. 7. B. urticn:fulia.
Smith, ic. ined. 2. t. ^5. "Caulefcent, radicant ; leaves
hifpid on both fides, unequally ovate, doubly ferrate ; cap-
fules three-hori.ed at thebafe." Gathered by Muiis in New-
Granada. 15. Y}.fcan:le!ts. Dryander. Sw'aitz. Prodr. 86.
B. glabra. Aubl. G'lian. 916. Lamarck Encycl. i. 394.
n.4. Jacq. Collect, i. 129. n. 5. " Scandcnt; ra-ixant ;
leaves ovate-roundiili, obfcurely toothed ; the largeft win"
of the capfule obtufe-angled, the others parallel and vcrv
fmall." Perennial : a native of Guiana, the ifle of France,
and Jamaica. 16. B. tuLcrofa. Dryander. Lamarck Encycl.
Empetrum acetofum. Rumph. Amb. 5, 457. t. 169. f. 2,
" Creeping ; leaves unequally cordate, angular, toothed ;.
wings of the capfule parallel." A native of Amboina. the
Molucca ifiands, and Celebes. 17. B. roluntlifolia. Dry-
ander. Lamarck. B. obliqua Linn. Spec. 1498. B. rofeo
flore, folio oibiculari. Tournef. Inft. 660. Plum. Cat. Amer..
20. ic. 33. t. 45. " Creeping ; leaves reniform,^ roundilh,
crenate." A nati->e of South America, on rocks and trees;
found there by Plumier. 18. B. nana. Dryander. L'He-
rit. Stirp. Nov. I. 99. t.48. " Stemlefs ; leaves lanceolate ;
fcape with about two flowers." A native of Madagafcar,
on rocks and trunks of trees ; found by Bruguiere. 19.
B. tenera. Dryander. Falkea tenera. Koenig. " Stemlefs ;
leaves unequally cordate ; flowers umbelled." A native of
Ceylon, found there by Koenig. 20. B. d'lplera. Dryander.
B. capenfis. Linn. Supp. 420. Jacq. CoD. i. 130. n.9.
Linn. Mant. 502. "Stemlefs; leaves unequally cordate;,
peduncles dichotomous ; one wing of the capfule very large,
another narrow, and the third obfcure." A native of the
ifland of Joanna, in fliady places, by the fides of mountains J
found there by Koenig. 21. Y>. cclopetala. Drj-ander. L''
Heril. Stirp.Nov. I. 101. " Stemlefs ; leaves cordate, five-
lobed; peduncles dichotomous." Fon:id on the mountains,
of Lima by Dombey, who fent the feeds to the Paris gar-
den, where it has grown fome years, but not flowered.
22. B. malalar'ica. Dryander. Lamarck. Jacq. Colleft,,
Rheed. Malab. 9. 167. t. 86. "Stems herbaceous; pe-'
duncles axillary, fliort, fubtriflorous ; fruits berried." A
native of Malabar. 23. B. repcns. Dryander. Lamarck.
B. obliqua y. Linn. Spec. 1498. Plum. Amer. 20. 10.34..
t. 45. f. 2. " Stems creeping, rooting at the joints ; leave.<^.
one-eared ; peduncles axillar)-, long, many-flowered." A
native of St. Domingo. Mr. Dr)ander denominates the two
lail obfcure fpecies; and has added alfo fome others.

The whole plant in the Begonias- i-s flcfliy ; the ftem in
moil of the fpecies is herbaceous, but fome are ftemltfs.
The leaves are petioled, in the caulefcent fpecies alternate*
At the bafe of the petioles is a pair of ftipules. The pe-
duncles in the greater part arc dichotomous ; and in the cau-
lefcent fpecies, axillary. They are natives of Afia and Ame--
rica within the tropics. Three fpecies have been found oii
the ifiands near the coal! of Africa, but none on that conti-
nent. To Mr. Drj-ander botanifts are principally indebted
for their knowledge of this genus. Linn. Tranf. vol. i. p.i59.

Propagation ami Culture. Thefe plants increafe readily by

cuttings ; and if kept in the bark-itove prove highly oma-

1 mental^

BEG

tr.jniil, being m>!^:li tiileenied, both {or the beauty of tlie
ftoivcrsi, and tlie (ingularity of thi leaves. Wlare a baik.-
Aove is '.vantiiij;;, they will do very wvU over the flue ot the
diT ftove. Mavtyn'a Miller's Diet.

BEGRAS, in Gco^r,7>)hy, a town of AQutic Turkey, in
Syria, at the foot of the Black mountain, between Alex-
andretta and Antioch.

BEG UK, AcHiLLKs William, in Biography, born in
the diftricl of Orleans, was admitted doclor in medicine by
the univcrfity of Paris the ^Oth of September 1 760. He
is kno.vn pnncipally by his tranllatioiis into French of Dr.
\V'hytt'sTreatife on Nervous Affcdlions; Dr. Monroe's Ob-
fervations on the Difeafei of the Army ; Baron Stork's Ef-
fays on the virtues of hemlock, the thorn-apple, henbane, and
other poifonous vegetables; and Baron Van Swieten's account
of the ufe of the cwrofivc fnblimate in curing the venereal diU
eafe. Hisoriijiiial coinpol'itions are "LeConfcrvateurde la
Sante," et " Etreniics falutaires," both publilhed in i2mo. in
I "6^; the idea of which feems to have been borrowed from
Tiifol's "Avis an Peuple fur fa Sante," of which he publifhed
an editi(ni at Paris, 1762, in 2 vols. izmo. Eloy. DiA. Hill.

BEGUINS, in EcrLfiaftical Hiftory, 'A'cre, as well as the
Beghards, a kind of half-monks, called Tertiaries, who at-
tached themfclves to the genuine followers of St. Francis.
In Italy they were denominated " Bi/.ochi," and " Bocafo-
ti ;" in France, " Beguins ," and in Germany, " Beghards,"
or "Beguards," which lall was the denomination by which
thev were commonly known in almoll all places. It we ex-
cept their fordid habit, and certain obfervances and maxims
which they followed in conftquence of theinjunflions of the
famous faint now mentioned, they lived after the manner of
other men, and were therefore confidered in no other light
than as feculars and laymen. Sec Beghards, and Tkr-

riARIES.

We mud not confound, fays Moflieim, thefe Beguins and
BeTnines, who derived their origin from an auftere branch
of the Francifcan order, with the German and Belgic Be-
guines, who crept out of their obfcurity in the 13th century,
and multiplied prodigioudy in a very fliort fpace of time.
Their origin was of an earlier date than this century ; but
they now acquired a name, and made a iioife in the world.
It appears from authentic and unexceptionable records, that,
fo early as the i ith and 12th centuries, there had been fe-
veral focieties of Beguines cllablinied in Holland and Flan-
ders. However, the only convent of Beguines that cxilled
before the 13th century, was that ot Vilvorden, in Brabant,
where they were fettled, as appears by public ads, in the
years 1065, 1129, and 1151. Their primitive ellablinimcnt
■was undoubtedly the refult of virtuous difpoiitions and up-
right intentions. A certain number of pious women, both vir-
gins and widows, in order to maintain their integrity, and prc-
ferve their principles from the contagion of a vicious and cor-
rupt age, formed themfclves into focieties, each of which had
a fixed place of refidence, and was under the infpefliou and
government of a female head. Here they divided their
time between excrcifes of devotion, and works of honell in-
dullry, referving to themfclves the liberty of entering into
the Hate of matrimony, as alfo of quitting the convent,
whenever they thought proper. And as all thufe among
the female fex, who make extraordinary proftfTions of piety
and devotion, were diilinguhhed by the title of Beguines,
i. e. perfons who were uncommonly " afiiduous in prayer,"
as the name imports (fee Blghards) ; that title was given
to the women now mentioned. All the Beghards and Be-
guines that yet remain in Flanders and Holland, where their
convents have almoil tiiitirely ckanged their primitive form,
affirm unanimoudy, that both their name and inllitution de-
rive their origin from St. Uegghe, duchefs of Brabant,

B E H

and daughter of Pepin, mayor of the palace to the king of
Auilrafia, who lived in the fevcnth century. This lady,
therefore, they confider as their patronefs, and honour her
as a kind of tutelary divinity with the deepeft fcntimcnts ot
veneration and rcfpecl. Thofe, on the other hand, who are
no well v.ilhers to the caiife of the Beguines, deduce their
origin from Lambert de Bcgue, a priell and native of I-.iegr,
wlio lived in the twelfth century, and was much elleemcd on
account of his eminent piety.

The firiv. fociety of this kind, of which record remains,
was formed at Nivellc in Brabant, in the year 1226; or,
according to other hiilorians, in 1207 ; and was followed by
fo many iiilHtutions of a like nature in France, Germany,
Holland, and Flanders, that, towards the middle of tlic
thirteenth century, there was fcarcely a city of any note that
had not its " beguinage," or vineyard, as it was fometimcs
called in conformity to the ftyleofthe "Song of Songs." All
thefe female focieties were not governed by the fame laws ;
but in the greatell part of them, the hours that were not de-
voted to prayer, meditation, or other religious exerciles,
were employed in weaving, embroidering, and other manual
labours of various kinds. The poor, lick, and difabled Be-
guines were fupported by the pious liberality of fuch opulent
perfons as were friends to the order. In the 14th century
thtfe focieties were more numerous in various parts ot Ger-
many ; but, adopting fome of the extravagant opinions of the
" Myilic Brethren and Silters of the Free Spirit," they
lliared with them in the perfecution which they fulTered.
The " Clementina," or conllitution of the council of Vienne,
A. D. 131 1, again 11 the Beguines, gave rife to a perfecution
of thefe perfons, which lalled till the rctormation by Luther,
and ruined the caufe of the Beguines and Beghards in many
places. From this Clementina, many took occafion to mo-
lell the Beguines in their houfes, to feize and deltroy their
goods, to oiler them many other infnlts, and to involve alfo
the Beghards in the like perfecution. In the year 1324,
however, they obtained fome relief by a fpeeial conllitution
of the Ivoman pontiff, John XXII. in which he explained
the Clementina, and ordered that the goods, chattels, ha-
bitations, and focieties of the innocent Beguines fliould be
prcfervtd from every kind of violence and infult ; and this
example of clemency and moderation was afterwards followed
by other popes. The Beguines, on the other hand, in hopes
of difappointing the malice of their enemies, and avoiding
their fiiares, embraced, in many places, the third rule of St.
Francis, and of the Auguftines. But this meafure was un-
availing ; for from this time they were oppreffed in feveral
provinces by the magillrates, the clergy, and the monks, who
call a greedy eye on their treafures, and were extremely
eager to divide the fpoil. MoHieim's Eccl. Hill. vol. iii.

P- 23-' 377'. "^c-

Cummunities of Beguines, or Beguinages, fllll fubfiil in
Holland, Flanders, and Germany. In Bruflels, there is a
lingular part of it, which is in fa£l a little town, inelofed
by a wall and ditch, and divided into ilrects. It is called
the Beguinage. The number of Beguines is near a thou-
fand, governed by matrons, and under the fpiritual direflion
of the bifliop of Antwerp. There are alfo Beguinages at
Amilerdam, Antwerp, and Malines.

BEGZAM, in Cco'p\iphy,d. town of Africa, in the coun-
try of Agadez, iouth of Agad or Agades, the capital of the
country, and at a greater dillance fouthot Afouda, and will
of the defert of Jazr. N. lat. 19° 28'. E. long. 12'^ 50'.

BEHAIRAT-EL-MARDJ, or LaL- of the McaJo-w,
a morafs of Syria, about 3 leagues from Damafcus to the
fouth-eall, into which flow the rivulets that fertilize the gar-
dens in the neighbourhood of the city. See Damascus.

BEHAM, H.\NS, or John Stu.iLD, in Blo^rophy, an

eminen

B E H

eminent engraver, flouriflsed about the year 1540. Like

Henry AIJegre\er ar.d Albert Durer, whofe works were

the lources from which he derived liis greateft improvf-

nicnt, he engraved in wood, and alio on copper, and etched

foir.e few plates. He was alio a painter of reputation, and

celebrated by the poets of that age under the name of Bo-

hemus. He was a man of good genius, and diilinguiQieJ

by fertility of invention. But the Gothic talle which pre-
vailed in Germany in his time, is too apparent in all his

vork?. His br;tlier Bartolomeo Btham ilouridicd as an

engraver about the fame time. He is faid to have iludied

under Marc Antonio Raimondi, whofe manner he imitated.

His chief rtfidence was at Rome, where he died. Strutt. for the' means of undertaking a great exped 111°; towards°Ji„
BEHAMBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in fouth-weft. In the profccntion of this undertaking lie dif-

the archduchy of Anftria, 3 miles eaft of Steyr. covered that part of America, which is now called Brjzl,

BEHAMKIRCHER, a town of Germany, in the arch- and failed to the llraits ot ^Iagellan, or t-o the country of

duchy of Aultria, 6 miles foutheaft of St. Polten. fome favage tribes, whom he called Patagonians, becaufe

BEHAVIOUR, Good, in Laiu. See Good Jbeanng. the extremities of their bodies were covered with a fkin more
BEHBEHAN, a town of Periia, in the province of Ears, like a bear's paws than human hands ai-d feet. One of the
BEHDUROO, a country of Hindoilan, in the northern records, preferved in the archives of Nuremberg, and con-
parts of ^Lahore, near the ^Imaus mountains, where one taining this fad, affirms, that " Martin Belem, traveding

B E H

of the duchy of Burgnndv and Flanders ; and having in-
formed her of iiis dcli^ns, he procured a veflel, in which he
difcovered the idand of Fayal ui 1460. Here he eftabhfhed
a colony of Flemings, whole del'cendants are faid ftill to exift
in the Azores, which for fome time were ca'.'ed the " Flemifh
iflands." For the proof of this fact M. Otto nfcrs to the
records of Nuremberg, and to the ttft.mony of Wagenfeil,
one of the moll learned men of t!ie laft century, in his " Uni-
verfiil Hillory and Geography." Having obtained a grant
of Fayal from the regent Ifabella, ar.d after having refidcd
there 20 years, Beheni applied, in 14S4, eight years before
the expedition of Columbus, to John II. 'king of Portngal,

branch of the river Rauvee fprings

BEHEADING, a capital punifliment, wherein the
head is fevered from the body by the Itroke of an ax,
fword, or other cutting inftrument

the Atlantic ocean for feveral years, examined the American
iflands, and difcovered the ftiait, which bears the name of
Magellan, before either Chriflopher Columbus or Magellan
failed thofe feas ; and even mathematically delineated, on a

Beheading was a military punifhment among the Romans, geographical chart, for the king of Lufitania, tlie fituation
known by the name of decollat'w. Among them the head of the coaft, around every part of that famous and renowned
was laid on a c'lppus, or blocl*, placed in a pit dug for the ftrait." This alTertion is fupported by Behem'sown letters,
purpofe ; in the army, without the vallum ; in the city, written in German, and preferved in the fame arcliives ;
without the walls, at a place near \!at porta decumana. Pre- which letters are dated in i486. The difcovery of Behera
paratory to the ftrokc, the criminal was tied to a ftake, and is alfo noticed by contemporary writers. In the chronicle
whipped with rods. In the eariy ages the blow was given of Hartman Schedl, or Herman Schedel, entitled " Chro-
with an ax ; but in after-times with a fword, which was nicon Mundl," and of which a German tranflation was pub-
thought the more reputable manner of dying. The execu- lifted at Nurembeig in 1493, we have the following palfage
tion was but clumfily performed in the firll times ; but after- to this purpofe : " In the year 1485, John II., king of For-
wards they grew more expert, and took the head off clean tugal, a man of a magnanimous fpiric, furnifhed fome gallies
with one circular ilroke. with provifions, and fent them to the fouthward beyond the

In England and France, beheading is the punifhment of ftraits of Gibraltar. He gave the command of his fquadron

nobles ; being reputed not to derogate from nobihty, as to James Canus, a Portuguefe, and Martin Behem, a Ger-

hanging does. man of Nuremberg in Upper Germany, defcended of the

Beheading is part of the punilhment of high treafon, af- family of Bonna, a man very well acquainted with the fitua-

fcfting the king's perfon or government. The king may, tion of the globe, bleifed with a conftitution able to bear the

and often does, difcharge all the punifhment, except beh£ad- fatigues of the fea, and who, by actual experiments and long

In Scotland they do not behead with an ax, as in Eng- ocean, and having eroded the equator," got Into the other
land ; nor with a fword, as in Holland and formerly in France lu mifphere, where facing to the eaft ward, their (hadows pro-
where they now ufe the guillotine ; but with an edged inllru- jefted to the fouth and right hand. Thus, by their induilry,
ment called the maiden. they may be faid to have opened to us another world hitherto

BEHEM, Beheim,Behen,Boehm, Martin, in5/5frfl- unknown, and for many years attempted by none but the
phy, fuppofcd to be the fame with Martin Behenira, to whom Genoefe, and by them in vain. Having fmllhed this cruife
GarcilalTo de la Vega afcribes the firft difcovery of America, in the fpace of 26 months, they returned to Portugal, with
was a famous geographer and navigator of the ijlh centur)'. the lofs of many of their feamcn, by the violence of the
The chriltian name, fays M. Otto, [uH infra) is the fame climate." This palfage was cited by the pubhfhers of the
■with that of Garcilafib, and the fyllables " ira" he conceives, works of .lEneas Sylvius, afterwards pcpe Pius II. Two
were added to his name in confequence of his receiving the years before the expedition of Columbus, Petrus Matseus,
honour of knighthood from John II, king of Portugal, a writer on the canon law, remarks, that " the firft Chriltian
Behem was born of a noble family, of which fome branches voyages to the newly difcovered illands became frequent, un-
ftiU remain at Nuremberg, an imperial city in the circle of der tlie reign of Henry, fon of John king of Lufitania. Af-
Franconia. Addifted from his infancy to the ftudy ot geo- ter his death, Alphonfus V. profecuted the defign ; and
graphy, aftronomy, and navigation, and having enjoyed the John, who fucceeded him, followed the plan of Alphonfus,
advantage of Rcgiomontanus'sinftruftion, he entertained the by the affiftance of Martin Boehm, a very experienced navi-
thought, at more mature age, of tlie poffibihty of the ex- gator ; fo that, in a Ihort time, the name of Lufitania became
iilence of the antipodes, and of a weftern continent. Under famous over the whole world." Cellarius alfo fays exprefsly,
the influence of this imagination, he paid a vifit, in 1459, to «* Bcehm did not think it enough to fur^ey the ifland of
Ifabella, daughter of John I, king of Portugal, and regent Fayal, which he firft difcovered, or the other adjacent iflands

which.

B E H

B E H

which the Liifitauians call Azores, and we, after the example
of Bochm's companions, call Flemilh iflands, but advanced
ilill farther and farther foutli, until he arrived at the remotefl
llrait, beyond which Ferdinand Mapjellan, following his
tracl, afterwards failed, and called it after his own name."
Magellan, it is fald, faw a chart of the coait of America,
drawn by Behem, and preferved in the archives of Nurein-
bcrj!;, and hence conceived the projeft of following the i'eps
of this great navit;ator. Riccioli, in his Geog. Reform.
1. iii. p. 90, fays, "Ciuiilophcr Cohimbus never thought of
an expedition to the Weil Indies, until fome time before,
while in the iflrmd of iVIadcira, where, amufmg himlelf in
forming aad delineating geographical charts, ho obtained in-
formation from Martin Bochm, or, as the Spaniiirds fay, from
Ah;honfus Sanchez de Huelva, a pilot, whp, by mere chance,
had fallen in with the ifland afterwards calk-d Dominica."
In another. place he fays, " Let Bochm and Columbus have
each their praife ; they were both excellent navigators ; but
Columbus would never have thought of his expedition to
America, had not Bochm gone there before him. His
name is not fo much celebrated as that of Columbus, Ame-
ricus, or Magellan, although he is fuperior to them all."
Martin Behem, in confideration of his great fervices to the
crown of Portugal, was knighted by king John in 1485, in
the prefence of his whole court. In 1492, the chevalier Be-
hem, crowned with honours and riches, undertook a journey
to Nuremberg, to vilit his native country and his family ;
and there he made a terredrial globe of curious conftruftion,
which is flill preferved in the library of that city. On this
globe is marked the traiSl of his difcoveries, under the appel-
lation of the weilcrn lands; and from their fituation it can-
not be doubted, that they are the prefent crafts of Brazil,
and the environs of the llraits of Magellan. This globe was
made in the fame year when Columbus fet out on his ex-
pedition ; and hence it is inferred, that Behem could not
have profited by the obfervations of this navigator. After
having performed feveral other interelling voyages, the che-
valier Behem died at l>ifbon in July 1506, univerfally re-
gretted, and leaving behind him no other work befides the
globe already mentioned, which was conlhufted from the
■writings of I'toleiny, Pliny, Strabo, and efpecially from the
account of Mark Paul the Venetian, a celfbrated traveller
of the 13th century, and of John Mandcville, an Englidi-
iiian, who, about the middle of the 14th century, publiflied
an account of a journey of 33 )-carsin Africa and Alia. He
has alfo added the important difcoveries made by himfelf on
the coafts of Africa and .'\merica.

Dr. Robertfon treats the hiftory of Behem as a fiftion of
•fome German authors, who were inclined to attribute to one
of their countrymen a difcoverv which has produced fo great
a revolution in the commerce of Europe. Nevertlieltfs, he
acknowledges with Herrera, that Behem had fettled in the
id-and of Fayal ; that he v.'as the intimate friend of Colum-
bus, and that Magellan had a globe made bv Behem, by the
help of which he undertook his voyage to the fouth fea.
He alfo relates, -that in 1492 this geogr^her vifitedhis family
at Nuremberg, and left there a map drawn by hiinfclf,
a copy of which was procurtd for him by Dr. Rcinhold Fof-
ter, and which, in his opinion, partakes of the imperfei'tion
of the cofmographical knowledge of the 15th century ; as he
found in it, under the name of the ifland of iSt.. Brandon,
land which appears to be the prefent coaft of Guiana, and
•which lies in the fame latitude with the cape Vcrd illes ; and
he conceives that this is an imaginary ifland, which has been
admitted into fome ancient maps, on no better authority
than the legend of the Irifli St. Brandon or Brendan, whofe
Ilory is fo childilhly fabulous as to be unworthy of any no-

tice. He adds, that hardly any one place is laid down in
its true fituation. M. Otto thinks that Dr. Robertfon
furniflies, in his own hiftory, means of refuting his ob-
jcftions againft the truth of Behcm's hiftory. This learned
hiftorian allows, that Behem was very intimate with Colum-
"bus, that he was. the greateft geographer of his time, and
that he had been the difciple of the celebrated John Muller
or Regiomontanus ; that he had difcovered, in 1483, the
kiiigdom of Congo on th;. coaft of Africa ; that he con-
Rrucled a globe, ufed by Magellan ; that he drew a map at
Nuremberg, containing the particulars of his difcoveries ; and
that he placed in this chart land, which is found to be in the
latitude of Guiana. Whilft Dr. Robertfon aflerts, without
any proof, that this land was but a fabulous ifland, we may
fuppofe, fays M. Otto, upon the fame foundation, that the
chevalier Behem, engaged in an expedition to the kingdom
of Congo, was driven by the winds to Fernam.bouc, and
from thence by the currents, »ery common in thefe latitudes,
towards the coaft of Guiana ; and that he took for an ifland
the firft land which he difcovered. The courfe which Chrif-
tophcr Columbus afterwards fteered, makes this fuppofition
ftill more probable ; for if he knew only of the coaii of Bra-
zil, which they believe to have been difcovered by Behem,
he would have laid his courfe rather to the fouthweft. The
expedition took place in 1483 ; it is then poflible that, at his
returning, Behem propofed a voyage to the coafts of Brazil
and Patagonia, and that he requefted tlie afDftance of his
fovereign, which has been already mentioned. " It is cer-
tain," fays M. Otto, " that we cannot have too much de-
ference for the opinion of fo eminent a writer as Robertfon,
but this learned man not having it; in his power to confult
the German pieces in the original, which we have quoted,
we may be allowed to form a different opinion, without be-
ing too prefumptuous." For a farther difcuflion of this
fubjeft, fee M. Otto's Memoir on the difcovery of America,
in the Tranfadlious of the American Society at Philadelphia,
vol. ii. p. 263, &c. Robertfon's Hift. of America, vol. i.
p. 371, &c.

BEHEME, or Ramsey, Sand, in Geography. See
Ramsey.

BEHEMOTH, in Zoology, a huge animal mentioned in
Scripture, concerning which interpreters are much divided.
The ftrength of this creature, his manner of life, and fome
other particulars, we find admiriibly pourtrayed in the forty-
firft chapter of the book of Job, and from that defeription
fome have thought it could apply only to the elephant, but
it certainly more fully agrees with the hippopotamus, or river
horfe ; and this is now pretty generally beheved to be the
animal in queftion. Bochart, Franzius, and others, who
have endeavoured to afcertain all the animals mentioned in
the Old Teftament, entertain this opinion. See Hippopo-
tamus and Mammoth.

BEHEN,in Botany. See Centaup.ea and Cucubalus.

BEJ-IERUS, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the Ara-
bian Irak, 20 miles N.N.E. of Bagdat.

BEHIRE, in Geography, a lake of Lower Egypt, 7
leagues in conr.pafs, near Aboukir. This is alfo the name
of a diftricl called Bahira, which fee.

BEHIU, a town of Egypt, near the Nile, 17 miles S.
of Abu Girge.

BEHKER, orBHAKOR, a diftrift of India, in the fouth-
ern part of the country of Moultan, confined chiefly to the
eaft fide of the Indus. This is alfo the name of a town,
which is the capital of the country to which it gives nanie,
about 2!5 geogriphical miles diftant from Moultaii to t!ie
fouth, and fuppoled in the Ayin Acbaree to be the ancient
Manfurah. N. lat. 27° 12'. E long. 70° i'.

BEHLULIA,

B E H

B E II

BEHLULIA, a town of Syria, 40 miles i'ouiL w>.'ft of
Ak-ppo.

BEHMEN, or Boehm, Jacob, in Biography, commonly
called by his admirers, tlie " German Theofophill," was
born of poor parents at a village near Gorlitz, in Upper Lu-
fatla, in 1575. Having been taught to read and write, at
the age of 10 years, he was apprenticed to a (hoe-maker, or
taylor, and in 1594 became a mailer and was married. Al-
though he never entirely forfook his occupation, his eccentric
genius f-on earned him " ultra crepidam," beyond his laft.
Engaging in thofe theological controverfies, which weie
fpreading in his time through Germany, among the lower
claflcs of the people, he was much perplexed concerning
many articles of faith, and prayed earneftly for divine illu-
mination. In this ftate of mind he fell into a trance or tx-
tncy in 1600, which laded for Icven days, and afforded him
an intuitive vifion of God. Soon afterwards he had a fecond
extacy, in which he found himfelf furrounded on a fudden
with celelHal irradiations, his ipirit being carried to the inmoll
world of nature, and enabled topenetrate through the external
forms, lineaments, and colours of bodies, into the recefs of
their effences. In a third vifion of the fame kind, other
more fublime mylleries were revealed to him, concerning the
origin of nature, and the formation of all things, and even
concerni{ig divine principles and intelligent natures. Thefe
wonderful communications he committed to writing in 161 2;
and publilhed a book, entitled " Aurora," the principles
and llyle of which are fo myllerlons and obfcure, that it is
not eafy.to underlland or explain them. Indeed the author
himfelf declares that the mylleries of this book are incom-
prehenfible to flefli and blood, and that though the words
be read, their meaning will lie concealed, till Ihe reader has
by prayer obtanicd illumination from that heavenly fpirit,
which is in God, and in all nature, and from which all things'
proceed. Gregorius Richter, a clergyman of Gorlitz, hav-
ing feen this work, reproved the author from the pulpit, and
procured an order from the fenate of the city for fuppreding
It ; and Behmcn was required to difcontinue his attempts fur
enlightening the world by his writings. Behmen acquiefced,
and refrained from writing for 7 years. A copy of the
work, however, found its way to th.e prefs at Amllerdam,
in 1619; and in the fame year he wrote another book on
the three principles, to which in the courfe of a few years
he added feveral others. In 1624 he travelled to Drefden,
where he v/as examined by a body of divines, and difmiffed
without ccnfure. He died in the fame year, after having
received the facrament from the hands of Elias Dietrich, and
was honourably interred at Gorlitz. His other works are
" Of the Three-fold Life of Man ;" " Anfwer to the
Forty C^ieftions of the Soul ;" " Of the Incarnation of
Chrill, his Sufferings, Death, and Rcfurrection ;" " A Book
on the Six Points ;" " On Celeftial and Terreftria! Mylle-
ries ;" " De .Scriptura Rerum;" " On the Four Complex-
ions ;" " On True Repentance ;" " On True Refignation ;"
" On the Second Birth ;" " Myfterium Magnum ;" " On
the Eirfl Book of Mofes ;" " On Spiritual Life," &c.
Thefe treatifcs appeared ieparately, and were afterwards col-
lected and printed together. The bell edition is faid to be
that in i2mo. publifned in German, at Amllerdam, in 1682.
An Englilh edition of his works was given by Mr. William
Law, in 2 vols. 410.

In Jacob Behmen, a warm imagination, united with a
gloomy temper, produced that kind of enthuliafm, which in
its paroxyfms dillurbs the natural faculties of perception and
underllanding, and produces a preternatural agitation of tl;e
nervous I'yllem, during which the mind is tilled with wild and
wondei ful conceptions, which pafs for viiions and revelations.
Every page of his works, and even the hieroglyphic figures

Vol. IV,

prefixed to his v/orks, manifeft a difordered imagination,
and it is in vain to attempt to derive his " Theofophia,"
from any other fonrce ; unlefs we incline to admit his own
account, in which he boafts that he was neither indebted to
human learning, nor was to be ranked among o-dinary phi-
lofophers. He fays that he wrote " not from an external
view of nature, but from the diftates of the fpirit ; and that
what he delivered concerning the nature of things, and con-
cerning the works and creatures of God, had been laid open
before his mind by God himfelf." The conceptions of this
enthufiail, fufficiently obfcure in themfelves, are often ren-
dered more obfcure by being clothed under allegorical fym-
bols, derived from the chemical art. As hi frequently ufes
the fame terms with Paracelfus, he was probably converfant
with his writings. He alio appears to have acquired fome
knowledge of the doiflrine of Robert Fludd, a native of
England, and the Roiicrufians, which was propagated in
Germany with great oflentation during the 17th centurj-.
However he feems, upon the whole, to have followed no
other guides than his own inventive genius and enthufiaftic
imagination ; and every attempt which has been made by his
follovvei's to explain his fyftem has been only raifing a frefh
ignis fatuus, to lead the bewildered traveller farther allray.
Among other tenets, equally inexplicable, this myllic makes
God the effence of effences, and he fuppofes a long feries of
fpiritual natures, and even matter itfelf to have flowed from
the fountain of the divine nature. Upon thefe fubjedls Lis
language rcfembles that of the Jewilh cabbala. The whole
Divine Trinity, he fays, fpreading forth bodily forms, pro-
duces an image of itfelf, " as a God in miniature." If any-
one name the heavens, the earth, the flars, the elements, and
whatever is beneath or above the heavens, he herein names
the whole deity, who, by a power proceeding from himfelf,
thus makes his own effence corporeal. There is a great dark-
nefs, he fays, among the flars, where the devil holds his
principality ; all arts and fciences flow from the fiderial
fpirit of this world ; the feven hberal arts proceed from feven
fpirits of nature; and all human things are compofed of the
four full properties, bitter, four, heal, and pain. The divine
grace, fays this chimerical writer, operates by the fame rules,
and follows the fame methods that the divine Providence ob-
ferves in the natural world; and the minds of men are purged
from their vices and corruptionj in the fame way that metals
arc purged from their drofs ; and this maxim was the prin-
ciple of his fire-theology. But it is needlcls to give any far-
ther account of a fyllem wliich exhibits a motley mixture of
chemical terms, crude vifions, and myflic jargon. The
elements of Behmen's theology may be colledled from his
" Aurora," and his treatife "on three principles."

Some have bellowed high praifes on this enthufiafl, on ac-
count of the wifdom which they pretend is contained in his
writings, and alfo of his piety, integrity, and fincere love of
truth and virtue. Others haveaccufed him of the moll dan-
gerous errors, and have written volumes in oppofition to his
doftrines. Amongll the moll eminent of his followers and
admirers, we may reckon John Lewis, Giftthiel, John An-
gelus, Werdenhagcn, Abraham Franckei.berg, who wrote
his life, Theodore Tfchetch, a Silefian nobleman, Paul Ftl-
genhaver, Quirinus Kuhlman, who wss burnt at Mofcow in
1684, Tohn Jaoob Zinimermann, and our vilionary countr)--
man William Law, author of " Chrillian Perfeftion."
Among Behmen's numerous fi>llowers, no one rendered him-
felf-more confpicuous than John Pordage, a phyfician and-
naturalill, and member of the " Philadclphian Society," who
pretended to divine revelation, and declared that he was thu?
convinced of the truth of Behmen's dodlrines. He publilhed
a book entitled " Divine and True Metaphyiics," with
other Cmilax works in favour of Behmen's opinions, which

S ■ being

B E H

being foon fpread throughout Germany, became, togellivM-
with his other writings, tlie Ilandard books of all enthuliafts.
To the clafs of hii advcil'arics we may refer Gilbert Ifchefchi-
us, who publiihed an admonition againll his; works in 1643,
which was anfwered by Tlchctfeli, Gerrard Antagnofrus,
who refuted Tfchetfch, and wlio endeavoured to (hew that
Echmcu entertained the fame opinions as the Manich^eans
and Gnoftics; Tobias VVagiur, and Dr. Henry More, who
wrote a treatife againll Behmcnifm, entitled " Cenlura Phi-
lofophi* Teutonics," piinted in his works, p. $20. Some
perfons have attempted to prove from Behmcn's writings,
that he did not acknowledge a deity ; and particularly Von
Mulltr, in a work entitled " The Fanatic Atheift." Bruck-
er's HiR. Phil, by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 494, 5jc. Molhcim's
Eccl. Hilt. vol. V. p. ^40, &c.

BEHMENISTS.'or Bof.hmists, in Euhfi[llical Hi/-
tfiiy, the denomination of a clafs of myilic philofophers, who
were the followers of Jacob Behmen, commonly called the
Teutonic philofopher. See the preceding article.

BEHN, Aphara, in Btrgr^jphy, a writer of novels and
plays, was dtfcended of a good family of the name of John-
fon'iii Canterbury, and born in the reign of king Charles I.
Her father died at fea in a voyage for Surinam, of which he
was appointed lieutenant governor by the intcrcfl of lord
Wiiloughby, to whom he was related; but his daughter,
with the reft of the family, arrived thither. Here (lie became
ac-juainted w itli the Uory and perfun of the American prince
Oroonoko, whofe adventures (he defcribed in a novel under
this title. After her return to England (lie married Mr.
Behn, a merchant in London, of Dutch cxtracl'on. Dur-
ing the Dutch war in the reign of Charles H. (he was em-
ployed for gaining intelligence on the continent, and with
this view (he refided at Antwerp. By her intnigues, it is
faid, fhe difcovered the dcfign, formed by the Dutch, of
failing up the river Thames, and burning the Engli(h (liips
in their harbours ; but her intelligence was flighted by the
Enghfh court, to which it was imparted. On her returu
to England (lie narrowly efcaped (liipwrcck. Her future
hfe was devoted to pleafirre and poetry ; and by writing ihe
gained a fublii'lencc. With a good perfon, and dilHnguiihtd
talents for convcrfation, (lie formed an intimate acquaintar.ce
with feveral poets a;.d wits of her time, as well as men of
pleafurc. Her comp iitions, in verfe and piofe, were nu-
merous; and (lie pubiilhtd three volumes of mifcellaneous
poems, feventeen plavs, and a cnlleiftion of hiilories and
novels, befides I'ome tranflaticns and letters. She borrowed
mvicU from other writers, and the merit, that was properly
her own, conliiled in a f.uert tafy Ityle, occafionally glow-
ing with the ardour rf lovt, v.hcn this Uibieft was the topic,
and in feme fprig'-.tiy thoughts and facility of invention.
Manv of her plays fucceeded on the itage, at a period when
jjrofi indecency of plot and ianguaj^-e was no impediment to
their reception. Her poetical appellation was Ailrea ; and
her dramatic compoutions are chaiaderifed by Mr. Pope iu
the following lines :

" The ftage how loofely docs Aftrca tre?,d,
Who fairly puts all charaftcrs to bed."

None of her dramatic pieces are now adied; her pot tr)-
has been long forgotten ; but her novels, which were once
popular, are now occalloi.ally read. Her death, which was
hallencd by an injudicious phyGcian, happened in 1689,
when (he was between the a£;e of 40 and 50 ; and the v/as
buried in the cloifters of WeftmiuAcr Abbey. Biog. Brit.
Gen. Dia.

EEHNESE, or B.^hnasaa, in Geography, a town of
Egypt, 10 milts north of Abu Girge.

BEHRENSj C0NR.4D, Behthold, in Biography, was

B E I

bom at Hilderfhcini, in Lower Saxony, Augud zCih. i6Ga.
After pafTing through the ufual courfe of lludies in the
claffics and philofophy, in his own country, and refiding
for fome time at Straiburg and Leyden, he took the degree
of Dotlor in Medicine at Helmftadt, was made phyfician lo
the army of the duke of Brunfwick, and in 171 2 to the
court of Brunfwick Lu.cnhurg, and member of the Aca-
demy Natura; Curioforuni, to the Memoirs of which he was
a confiderable contributor. His principal works arc, " De
ConlUtntione Artis MedicK," Helinth 1691, 8\o. " Medl-
cus Lcgalis," 1696, Svo. publidied in Gtrman. In this
he treats of the duties and ofhce of phyficians, furgeons, apo-
thecanes and niidwives, of alchemy, of magnctifm applK'<l
to medicine, and of the caules of fudden dcatli, on which he
has fome judicious obfeivations. " Selefta Dietetica, five de
rcfta ad lanitatem viveiidi ratione traftatus," Fiancf. 1710,
4to. He died Oclober 4th 1738. His ("on Rodolph Auguf-
tus Behreas, wiio fucceeded to iiis honours and praft ice, pub-
liihed " De Felicitate Medicornm Audta in ttiris I'jiunvi-
cenfibus," 1747, 4to. occuiioned by fome additional privi-
leges accorded to the phyficians there. In this work he
takes occafion to comment on, and refute the opinion of Mid-
dleton, as to the fei-vile condition of phyficians among the
Romans.

BEHUT, called alio Butuii, Ihylum, or Chelum, in
Geography, a river of Hindollan, is the wellcriimod of the
five rivers that water the Paiijab ; and its general courfe is
eaft, and nearly parallel to that of the Attock, but it is of a
lei's bulk. This is the famous Hydafpes of Alexander, on
the banks of which he was oppofcd by Porus, a powerful
monarch of the country, at the head of a numerous army.
By the Ayin Acbarte, it is faid to be anciently called Be-
dufta. The Behut ilfues from the fpring of Wair, orWair
Naig, in the fouth-eaft pait of Caihinere, and after a north-
well courie through that valley, enters the mountains at Ba-
rchmooleh. During this fliort courfe it receives abundance
of rivulets and llreams from fome large lakes, and becomes
navigable at a few miles below its remotell fpring. After
entering the mourtains it purfues the direftion of the Pan-
jab by a very crooked cour(c, being pent up in a deep wind-
ing valley, whilll eicaping from the wide bafe of the Cafh-
niciiau mountains, and rulhing with fucli rapidity and violence
that even tlie llouteil elephant cannot preferve his footing
in it. It emerges from the mountains in the diftricl of Puck-
holi, and is afterwards joined by two fmall but celebrated
rivers named Kiikcngonga and Nainfook. After this it tra-
verfes the ttnitoiy of the Ghickcrs, Hill holding its courfe
through a hilly cotintiy, until it crofles the upper or great
rosd leading from Lahore to Attock, where the hilly trail
is confined to the wellern bank. Here llood, not long fince,
a city of the name of Ihylum, which communicated its name
to the river, during the remaining pait of its courfe; and
hence it is as commonly named lliylum as Beluit. From
Ihylum it purines its courfe along the eaftern borders of the
Joud mountains, and unites with the Chunaub at about 50
geographical milts above Moultan ; lofing its name in that of
the Chunaub, as lieretofore it loft its name of Hydafpes in
that of Acefines, the ancient name of the Chunaub. The
interval between the Behut and the Indus, in the wideft part,
is about 94 geographical miles. Pliny allows only 120 Ro-
man miles between the Indus and the Hydafpes. Rennell's
Mem. p. 99. Robertfon's India, p. 18.

BEIA, Pax Jllia, an ancient city of Portugal, in the
province of Alentejo, near a lake of the fame name. It is
mentioned by Pliny, Ptolemy, and Antoninus. Several
Roman coins and infcriptions have been found near this place.
Its fiiuation is on a gentle hill in a fertile country rich in
turn, audit is farrounded with walls and gates; and it is the

fee

B E I

fee of a bifhop, a corregidor, and a governor. It was taken
from the Moors in 1 1G2. N. lat. 37' 58'. W. long. 7" 20'.

BEJA, a large extent of country in Abyflinia, lying be-
tween the northern tropic and the mountains of Abyffinia,
reaching from Mafuah along the coad of the Red Sea to
Suakem ; then turning wellvvard, and continuing in that
direftion, with the Nile on the fouth, the tropic on the
north, to the dtferts of Selima, and the confines of Libya
on the well. See Abyssinia.

Beja of Tunis. See Bay-jah.

BEJAD, a village of Egypt, oppofite to Bcnifuiicf,
partly inhabited by Copts.

BEJAPOUR, or VisiAPOUR., a confidcrable city of
Hindollan, and once the capital of a large kingdom of the
fame name. It is now in the handj of the Poonah Mnhrat-
tas ; diftant 234 miles from Bombay, from Calcutta by the
Circars, 1183, and by Aurungabad 1216, from Delhi 916,
from Hydrabad 269, from Madras 534, from Poonah 136,
from Seringapatam 405, from Benares 876, and from Agia
825 miles. N. lat. 17^ 28'. E. long. 75° 27'.

BEJAR, afmall town of Spain in the province of Edre-
madura, feated in the midft of a pleafant valley between high
mountains, whofe tops are continually covered with fiiow.
It is famous tor its baths, and in its vicinity is a lake, which
is faid to prefage bad weather by an uuufual agitation. It
was raifed into a duchy in 144S.

Bejar dc Melena, or Bcjer, a town of Spain, in Andalufia,
near the ftraits of Gibraltar, 8 leagues fouth oi Cadiz.

BEJARIA, fo called by Mutis, in honour of Bcjar, a
Spanilb botanift, in Botany. Liu. Gen. Reich, n. 64S.
Schreb. 811. Jufl". 159. CXdiii znd ovAtr, doiiecanJiia mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. h'lcorncs. Rhododc-ndra, Jufl". Gen. Char.
Cal. perianth one leafed, gibbous downwards, fubventricofc,
feven-cleft ; divifions fubequal, ovate, acute, converging,
fmall ; the outer ones broader, permanent. Cor. petals fcven,
oblong, broader above, obtufc, patulous, inferted into the
receptacle. Stum, filaments fourteen, fubulatc, rather Ihorter
than the corolla, alternately lefs ; anther oblong, incum-
bent. Pi/l. germ fuperior ; ftyle columnar, middle-fixed,
permanent; lligma thickith, fcven-ftriated. Per. berry juice-
lefs, feven-cornered, depreflcd, umbilicate, feven-ccUcd. Seeds
numerous, columnar-oblong, imbricate.

Eflent. Char. Ca/. feven-cleft. Petals feven. Stam. four-
teen. Berry feven-ccllcd, many feeded.

Species, I. Tj. ir/Iuans. Mutis Amer. i. t. 7. "Leaves
lanceolate, flowers in racemes." A (hrub twelve feet high,
with roundilb fpreading branches. A native of Mexico.
Found in New Granada by Mutis, 2. B. refinnfa. Mutis
Amer. i. t. 8. " Leaves ovate, flowers heaped." A tree
with piohferous branches, and an irregular, tender, fubpu-
befcentbark; corolla purple, very refmousorvifcid. Found
in New Grenada by Mutis. Thefe have a peculiar bitter
flavour, and are allied to the rhododendrum. The name
■WciS erroneoufly made" Befaria" by Linnrens.

BEIBENIjE SlelU, in Allroifjitf;, a name given by fiime
aftronomers to the pnacipal fixed liars in each conftellatiun.

The appellation is more particularly given to the ftars of
the fir!l magnitude, othcrwife called the hearts, cordn, of the
feveral conittllations ; though fome would dillinguirti be-
tv<een cordd, and he'ileKiis JlUiC, reflraining the former to
ftais only of the firll magnitude, and extending the latter
to feveral of the fecond, or even third.

Hermes has a treatife exprefs Dc Stellis Bcibcnlis, pub-
liihcd by junftinus, in hisSpcculum AIlrologicum,and nlfo in
hii commentaries upon Jo. de Sacrobofco's book De Sphjcra.

BEICHI^INGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony, mid country of Thuringia,
6 miles S. W. of Wlehe. N. lat. ji° 20'. E. long. 1 1° jc'.'

B E I

BELLA, a town of Italy, in Piedmont. N.Iat.45' z'.
E.long. 7-45'.

BEILAM, a town of Syria, S. E. of Scandcroon or
Alexandretta. N. lat. 36° 26'. E. long. 36=" 31'.

BEILNGRIES, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Franconia, and bifhopric of Aichlladt, at the condux of
the Attmnhl, and the Soulz, 16 miles north of Ingolftadt.

BEILSTEIN, a fmall town and citadel of Germany,
in the Rhenish circle, and capital of a iordlhip to which it
gives name, comprifing about fifty villages, in the princi-
pahty of Naflau Dillcnburg ; j miles fouth of Diiienburg.
Tlie lordfliip belongs to tiie princely houfe of Naffau-Orangc
Dietz, M'hich enjoys, in confcquence of it, a feat and voice ut
the diets of the ckdoral Rhcnifh circle. N, lat. ^0° 31'.
E. long. 8' ri. — Alfo, a fmall town of Germany, in the
duchy oF Wiirtemberg. In 11^93, it w'as buna by the
Fiench. Its diitrift cornprehcr.d? leveral villages.

BKILUL, a to-.wi of Abyflima, lituate on the Red Sea
north of Affab. N. lat. 14". E. long. 41" 58'.

BEINA, a river of Norway, in the government of
Chrillianja, which nms mto the lake of Sperdillon ; and
ferves for exporting timber.

BEIN.'\C, a town of France, in the department of
Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diitrift of Brive,
8 miles fouth of Tulle.

BEIN.\SCHI, Giovanni Battista, in Biography.
an hiftorical painter, was born in Piedmont in 1634, and
lludied at Rorr.e under Pictro del Po, and as fome fay, waa
afterwards a difciple of Lanfnnc. He died in 1688. Bei-
nafchi was an admirable defigner, of a lively invention, and
not only expeditious, but correft. As an acknowledg-
ment of his merit, he received the honour of knighthood.

BEIXASCO, in Geography, a town of Piedmont, 45
miles S.S.W. of Turin.

BEINDGHURA, a town of Hindoftan, in the dlf-
trift of Ber.capour, part of the territory of the Mahrattas,
N. lat. ij' 15'. E. long. 75° 11'.

BEING, in MetaphyfiCi, includes not only whatfoever
aftnally is, but whatlbever can be. It is the finl and moll
obvious, the moft fimple and natural conception that we
can frame of any thing which wc fee, hear, feel, or know.
It is in fome fenfe comprehended in all our other concep-
tions of tilings, and is therefore the m.oft general or univerfal
of all our ideas. By the afl'eclions of being, are meant all pow-
ers, properties, accidents, relations, paflions, difpofitions, in-
ternal qualities, external adjunflrs, confiderations, conditions,
or circum'lances whatfoever ; or, in a word, all thofe modes
which belong to things, either as they are in themfelves, or
as they ilaud in relation to other things, or as they are repre-
fented or modified by our ideas and conceptions. The
various kinds of beings have been referred by writers on this
fubjeCt into three diftinft claflTes ; and they have been con-
fidered as either fubllances or modes, finite or infinite, and
natural, artificial, or moral. For the two former claffes,
fee Substance, Mode, Finite, and Infinite. Natural
beings are all thofe things tiiat have a real and proper exif-
tence in the univerfe, and are conudered as formed and or-
dained by God the creator ; fuch are bodies, fpirits, men,
bealts, trees, fruit, countenance, fenfe, reafon, fire, air, light,
ic. Artificial beings are made by the coKtrivance or ope-
rations of men, whetlitr they areola more corporeal nature,
fuch as houfes, windows, piclures, llatues, arms, garments,
writing, mulic, and the various utenfils of life ; or whether
they relate more to intcUeclual matters, as words, fciences,
rules, arguments, propofitions, verfe, profe, &c. Moral
beings are thofe which belong to the conduifl and govern-
ment of intelligent crsatures, or creatures endowed with
uuderRanding and volition, confidered as lying under obli-

S 2 gations

B E I

gations to particular aftions or abflireuces : but tliefe con-
fidfied as moral are oiily modal ; fuch are law, dut)', vir-
tue, vice, fin, righteonfni.f?, judgment, condemnation, re-
ward, puniflimcnt. Thefe dilUnftions however ni'ght, per-
haps, be more properly referved to the fcparatt clafTcs of
different ideas than different beings. Beioc; is tlic fubjf-A
of Ontology. See Ontology. See alfo Essence aiid
Existence.

BEINHEIM, in Ceo^^raph'j, a town of Geruiany, in the
circle of Swabia, fcated on the weft fide of the Rhine, aud
belonging to the marquifate of Baden ; 6 leagues N.N.E.
of Strafburg.

BEINIGKEMEN, a town of Lithuania, iz miles north
of Pilkailen.

BEIRA, a large and fertile province of Portugal, bound-
ed on the north by the province of Entre Ducro a Minlio,
from which it is feparated by the river D'jcro or Douro,
and by Tralos Monies; on the wcil by the ocean and part
of Efiremadura ; on the fouth by another part of tliat
province and by the Tagns ; and on the eaft by the Spanifh
Eltremadura, and the kingdom of I^eon. It is divided into
Upper and Lower Bcira ; the former being the northern
part, and lying on the fea-coa(l ; the latter lying towards
Spain and Eilremadura. Its extent from ealt to weft is
generally computed at betwixt 33 and 36 Portugutfe miles ;
and from north to fouth about as many. It was erefled
into a principality by John V. in honour of his grandlon,
the tldell fon of the prince of Brafil. It products wheat,
r)-e, and millet ; and, in fevcral parts, excellent wine and oil
in fuch abundance, that confiderable quantities of eac!i are
exported. Btira ccmprehends eight jurifdidtions, and its
principal cities and towns are Coimbra, Lamego, Guarda,
Vifeu, Miranda do Corvo, Tentugal, Aveiro, Ovar, Pinhel,
Almeida, Francofo, Mcda, Caftello Branco, Penamacor, and
Covilhaa ; the four firll are epitcopal cities. The militia
of this province confifl of eight regiments, each regiment
including about 1000 men.

BEIRAGUR, a town of Hindoftan, on the weft of
Boad, and near the Mahanuddy river, noted in the Ayin
Acbaree, as having a diamond mine in its neighbourhood.

BEIRAM. See Bairam.

BEIRUT. See Bairout and Berytus.

BEISCH, Joachim Francis, in Biography, a painter
of landfcapes and battles, was born at Raveirfturg, in Swa-
bia, in 1665 ; and having received the firft rudiiii;:nts of the
art of painting from his fat'ner, who employed himfelf in this
way for his amufement, he became a good artifl by the force
cf his own genius and by affiduous praflice. He was en-
caged at the court of Munich, and painted the battles
fought in Hungary by the cleftor Maximilian Emanuel.
During the abft;nce of the emperor on fome of his expedi-
tions, Beifch vifited Italy, and there, with a view to his
further improvement, ftuditd and copied the famous models
to which he had acccfs. Before his journey to Italy, his
manner was true, bu; too dark ; his fecond had more clear-
nefs and more trath ; and his laft was more clear, but more
weak. The fcenes of his landfcapes are agreeably pifturefque ;
his touch is light, tender, and full of fpirit ; and his ilyle of
compofition frequently refenibled that of Gafpar Pouflin, or
Salvator Rofa. He died in 1748. Pilkington.

BEISHEHIA, or Bishehri, in Geography, a town of
Afiatic Turkey, in Cai-amania, feated near a lake. N. lat.
37° 45'- E. long. 32° 1 1'.

BEISSKER, in Ichthyology. See Beyssker, orBEYZ-
KER, and CoBiTis Fossilis. Linn.

BEISSONS,in Geography, a place of Africa, in the king-
dom of Tunis, fituate between Taberfoke and Dugga, at which
there ^re four.d fome antique remains and iufcriptionc.

6

B E I

BETSTEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natait-
gen, 2C1 miles Ibuth of Konigfberg.

BEIT Abufarra, a town of Arabia, 24 miles N.N.E.
of Wadeij.

Beit el AJham, a town of Arabia, 24 miles S. W. of
Sanaa.

Beit Elam, a town of Syriai fouth of Antakia. N. lat.
36-' 5'. E.long. 36° 32'.

Beit el Fakih, a cit) of Arab'a, in the country of Yemen,
fituatcd on a plain, which though far from being naturally
fertile, is induftrioufly cultivated. The houfes, many of
which aie of ftonc, are feparated from one another ; and
the cicy has a citadel, which is thought of the utmoll im-
portance in a country where armies are deftitute of artilleiy.
The town is much moleHed by a fpecies of ants, called by
tlie Aiabs, " Ard." Beit el Fakih is not very ancient :
thougli it has exiftcd for fome centuries. It owes its origin
to a faint, called " Achmed iba Miifa" from whom it has
derived its name ; Beit el Fakih denoting the " houfe or
dwelling of the fage." Near the city is (liewn the ton^b of
the faint, upon a fandy hill, where a fine mofqne has been
erctfed, and where fevcral devout perfons have built cottages
round the tomb. When the harbour of Ghalefka was
choaked up, the inhabitants of that city, for the convenience
of tracie, removed their cfTedls to the vicinity of this tomb,
and fettled about it. When it became a confiderable city,
the lord of the territory erected a citadel for its defence, in
the place where water had been found. This city is very
favounibly fituated for trade ; being only half a day's jourii.
ney from the hills in which coffee grows, and but a few
days' journey from the harbours of Loheia, Hodeida, and
Mocha, from which this commodity is exported. This
trade brings hither merchants from Egypt, Syria, Barhary,
Perfia, Habbefch, India, and often from Europe. Beit el
Fakih is the refidence of a Dola, whofe jurifdiction exttnds
over a large diftrift. Nicbuhr mentions a lingular inllance,
which occurred at this place, and which flrikingly indicates
the coolncfs of temper and tirmnefs of mind, that diltinguifli
the Arab charafter. The fouthern end of a houfe caught
fire ; and as the wind blew llrong from the fouth, a gri.at
part of the city was foon burnt do^vn. The inhabitant,^,
however, retained their ufual tranquillity. No cries nor
complaints were heard in the ilreets ; and when the people
were addreffed with expreffions of coi:dolence, upon their
misfortune, they calmly replied, " It is the will of God."
N. lat. 14° 31'. E. long. 43° 12'. Niebuhr's Trav. vol. i.
p. 311.

Beit el Kadi, a town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen,
34 miles north of Chamir.

Beit el Knum, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 2.). miles
fouth-eaft of Sanaa.

Beit Elm Safan, a town of Arabia in Yemen, 28 miles-
S.S.E. of Saade.

Beit Ebn Altri, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 38 miles
N. of Chamir.

Bkit £lii Nafr, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 34 miles-
N. of Chamir.

Beit Rodsjc, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 24 miles S.E.
of Sanaa.

Beit // Tola, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 28 miles S.
of Saade.

Beit Ehn Shemfhar, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 28
miles E. of Abu-Anfch.

Beit El Weil, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 3 miles N.
of Denn.

BEITH, a town of Scotland, in the diftrift of Cunning-
ham, and county of Ayr. It is feated on a fmali eminence,
and the ilreets pretty re^larly laid, out, A linen manu-

faftory

<

B E K

B E K

faftory gives employment to many of its inhabitants, and BEKES, a town of Upper Hungary, on the ri-.-er Koros,
others are occupied la making filk-gaufe and cotton. Some which gives name to the Gtpenfchaft.
conliderable man'jFadurers rchde in the to-.rn, and though it BEKI, Beg, or Beye, a river of Hu:

is faid to have conlilled of only a few nhabitants at the com-
mencement of the lall century, yet the population now
amounts to about I^*oo. The parifh, extendnig about five
miles in length, by four in breadth, coniifts pri;:cipally of
arable land ; but fome farms, with others at Dunlop, are
appropriated to the dairy iyllem, and have long been fa-
mous for a particular checfe callrd \.\\e Dunhp cheefe. With-
in the bounda: y of the parilh is a fmall loch, containing abun

gary, which run*
into the Temes, near Tcmefwar.

BEIvIA, Bkcouva, or BoQUio, a fmall Biitifh ifland
of the Wefl Indies, about 12 leagues in compafs, and con-
taining 3,700 acres--, being the leall of the Grenadilles, called
by the French, " Little Martinico ;" 35 miles N. E. of
Grenada, and G^ leagues from Barbadoes. It has a fafe
harbour, called " Admiralty-bay," but no frefli water ; and
is principally vifited by the inhabitants of Grenada and St.

dance of fifh, and near it is plenty of peat mof--. Coal is Vincent's for the puipofe of catching turtle. The foil pro
found in many places ; freeftone is abundant, and the lime- duces wild cotton, and plenty of water-melons. This illand

is dep'M.di-rit on the govenunent of St. Vincent.

BEKIER, a namegivenby marineistoAboukir, wliichfee.

BE KING, a V.wn of France, in the department of the
Mofelie, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrici of Sar-
Louis, 0:1 the SaiTe, 5 miles N.N.W. of Sar- Louis.

BEKKER, or Becker, Balthasar, in Biography,
a famous Dutch divine of the 17th century, was born in
1634, at Warthuifen, a village in the province of Gronin-
gen, and purfued his ftudics firft in the univerfity of Gro-
ningen, and afterwards at Frantker, where he became rector

(lone quarries are almoil inexhauftible. In the latter fub
ftance are frequently found various pttrifaCtions of fhelis, and
other marine exuvia ; alfo many other fdiceoi;s p.lrifaAions
of woods, moflcs, &c. The population of the parifli and
town in I7()2, was 2872. Sinclair's Statiftical Account of
Scotland,

BEITHAR, Ben', in lilography, a learned Arabian bota-
nift, calEd yifchad, tlie botaniil, from his (Icill in the fciciice
of plants, was born in Spain ; and after viiiting Africa, tra-
velled into the Levant, Afia, and even as far as the Indies

to improve his knowledge. After his return, he was patro- of the Latin fchool. In 1665, he took his degree of doctor
niied by Saladin at Cairo, and died in 1248. He wrote of divinity at Franeker, and in the following year he was
" A General Hillon,- of Simples, or of Plants, arranged in chofen one of the miuillers of that city. In 1670, he pub-
alphabetical order ;" in which he gives the Greek, Arabic, lillied a catechifm, intended for perfons of mature age, m
and vernacular names, with the defcriptions of each, and which he maintained fome opinions concerning the right of
particularly, in a more detailed manner, thofe not defcribcd Chrillian congregations to chufe their own minilters, and
by Diofcorides and Pliny. Beithar's work is extant in tiie concerning the antiquity and ufefulnefs of blfhops, archbi-
Parifian, Efcurial, and other libraries. Herbelot. Pulteney's ihops, &c. and in which he Lntroduced fome fuggellions that
Hid. and Biog. Sketches, &c. vol.i. p. 19. implied his doubt of the eternity of hell torments, as incon-

BEITSTADT, in Geography, a lake in the northern fillent with the divine goodncfs, which gave offence to feve-
part of Norway. ral divines, and which incurred a profccution before the cc-

BEIUCO, in Botany. See Hippocratea. elefinftical aflemblies. This catechifm, however, was ap-

BEjWARA, called alio Hrjhairpcur, in Geography, a proved and commended by feveral learned proleffors ; and it
town of Hindoftan, in the country of Lah-ore, about 3 appears that the autlior had not, at the time of its publica-
journies or 36 cofies from Sirhind, i6coires N.E. of Jallind- tion, adopted thofe ientiments which involved him In future
har, and about 25 geographical miles north of Rahoon, and difficulties. In 1679, he was elecled minifler at Amfter-
about 30 fuch miles from Kurepour. dam; and in 16S3, he publiflied his " Inquiry concerning

BEIZA, or Beziath, a Hebrew word, fignifying an Comets," in which he concurred with Mr. Bayle in main-
fgg, in Jewiih Antiquity, a certain meafure in ufe among the taining that they are not preiages of any evil. By this work,
Jews ; tliey fay that the bciza contains the fixth part of a as well as his " Expoiition upon Daniel," he gained great
log. reputation ; but having attached himfclf irom an early period

The beiza is alfo a fort of gold coin common among tiie of his life to the Cartelian phiiofophy, lie adopted Dcicaries's
Perilans ; it weighs forty drachmas, and from this word, definition of fpirit, and he was hence led to deny all ihofe
not from the city of Byzantium, the bezant was formed, operations of the devil and other infernal agents upon man-
A bezaut is worth two dinars, and every dinar twenty or kind, which are related in the fcriptures. His argument, as
five and twenty drachmas. it is briefly itated by Dr. Maclaine, the trandator of Mo-

BEK, David, in Biography. See Bf.cic. ihcim's hillory, is as follows: " The effence of mind is

BEKAA, in Geography, a valley of Syria, anciently cal- thought, and the eflcnce of matter is exttufion. Now,
kd Cocle-Syria, or the hollow Syria, feparatcs the chain fince tliere is n^ fort of conformity or connexion between a
of mounlaiiis denominated by the ancients Anti-Libanus, thought and exteniioii, mind cannot act upon matter, unkls
from the Libanus of the Druzes and Maronites, and by thefe two iubllancts be united as foul and body are in man ;
being the depofitory of the water of the mountains that and therefore no leparate fpirits, either good or evil, can
enclofe it, is rendered one of the moll fertile dillrifts of all ail upon mankind. Such acting is miraculous ; and mi;-acles
Syria ; but the heat of the fun, the rays of which are con- can be performed by God alone. It follows of tonftquencc,
centrated by the mountams, is in fummer not inferior to that that tlic fcripture accounts of the a<5lions and operations of
of Egypt. The air, however, which 1^ peipetually refrelhed gu-jd and evil fpirits mull be undcrftood in an allegorical
by the north wind and by the agitation of the waters, is not lenfe." To this argument it is replied, that by proving too
unhealthy. Before the earthquake of 1759, this whole much, it proves nothing at all : for if the want ol a connexion
country was covered with villages and plantations of the or conformity between thought and extcnfioii rciidcis iriiiid
Motoualis ; but the d;'.huction occafioneJ bv this terrible incapable of ailing upon matter, it is hard to fee how their
ealainiiy, and the fubfcquent wars with the Turks, have union Ihould remove this incapixity, fince tiic want of con-
occafioned a general deiolation. In. this vale is fituated the foimity and connexion remains notwithftandlng this union.
famous Balbec. Befides, according to this reafoniiig, the fupremc being can-

BEKAVA, or Bekawa, a fmall town of Poland, in the not ail upon material beings : and it is in vain that bekker
palatinate of Lublin. maintains the aSraiative by having recourfe to a miracle ;

lor.

BEL

for this would imply, that the whole courfs of nature was
a feries of miracles, or in other words, that there are no mi-
racles at all. T!ic author fuggeiled doubts couccnuiig
the agency of the devil in feveral of his fermons ; and he
alleged, that feveral were afcribed to the devil, in which
this evil fpirit had no concern. He was at length, viz. in
1691, perluaded to publifli his fyftem at large, in an elabo-
rate work, entitled, " Tlie World Be\vi:ched-" This
work is divided into fonr books. The firfl contains an ac-
count of the opinions of the ancient and modern heathens
concerning gods and demons, or fpirits. In the fecond
book the author examines all the pall'ages of the Holy Scrip-
ture, which mention eitlier angels or the devil, and endea-
vours to make them agree with his opinion, that the devil
has not the leall power in this world, and to fliew that thole
pafTages, which afcribc feveral actions to good as well as
bad fpirits, or angels, mud be explained in an allegorical
manner. Accordingly, he denies that our firft parents were
tempted by the devil ; alleging that this temptation is af-
cribed to the devil, only becaule it does not agree with the
goodnefs of God, though Mofes does not mention the
devil, and that 'Av: puniflrment mentioned by Mofes doth
not fuit the devil, but only the ferptnt. He alfo urges fe-
veral objcftions agninll the literal fcnfe of our Saviour's
temptation ; and he maintains that thofe potfeffed with evil
fpirits, which our Lord call out, were merely fick or
lunatic perfons whom he cured, and in whofe ficknefs the
devil had no concern. (See Demoniac.) Bekker's work,
though his fyftcm was not new, occafioned great commotion
not only in all tlic United Provinces, but in various parts ot
Germany. The author, perfifting in his opmions, was pub-
licly depofed from his palloral charge m 1692 ; but the ina-
gillrates of Amfterdam continued his falaiy till Iris deatl.,
which happened in 1^198. Bekker not only retained his opi-
nions after his depofition, but (Irenuoufly defended tiiem
againft a multitude of adverfaries as long as lie lived. He
was a man of a warm imagination, of an active mind, and
of a firm refoliite temper. His charafter was irreproachable ;
and he avowed to the lall his full conviction of the truth
of the Chrillian religion. In his delences he exhibited a
moderation wliich he did not experience from his antago-
nirts. A fatlrical medal was llruck at his depofition,
which exhibited the devil, in the liabit of a minilter, rid-
ing upon an afs, and holding a banner in his hand, as a
token of the victory which he had gained in the lynods.
His opinions found feveral advocates ; and he became the
head of a feft which was called after his name. Gen. Diet.
Mofheim's Eccl. Hill. vol. 5. p. 632.

BEKKERANISM, or Bskkeriasmsm, in Ecclefiiijlical
Hiflory, the fyftem or fentiments of Balth. Bekker, who
denied that fpirits can a£l or operate on bodies. See the
preceding article.

BEL, Matthias, in Bk^mphy, a learned hidorian of
Hungary, was born at Orfowa, in 1684 ; and after iludying
divinity at the univerfity of Halle, he became firft, viz. in
1708, redlor of the evangelical fchool at Neufohl, and in
1714, reftor of the fchool at Prelhurg. In 1719, he was
chofen preacher by the German evangelical congregation in
that city, and died lenior miniller in 1749. His two moil
valuable works are his " Apparatus ad hilioriam Hungaria;,"
aad his " Notitia Hungarix Novx." The latter work was
held in fuch high ellimation, that it procured for him from
the emperor Charles VI. the appointment of imperial hillorio-
grapher, and the honour of being admitted into the royal
academy of fciences at Berlin, and alfo into that of Pc-
terlburgh. Pope Clement XII. alfo teititied his approba-
tion of it by conlerring on the author his portrait and eight
gold m«dals. The emperor, upon rece ving the fecond vo-

7

BE L

lume of the work, raifedhim to the rank of nobility, but thi's
circumftancc Bel ftudioufly concealed. Among his other
works are " Prodromus Hungarire antiquse et novas." Norib.
1723, fol.; "Notitia Hungarix novK hillorio-geographica,"
Vienna;, j 735-1 742, 4 vols. fol. ; " Apparatus ad Hiftorip.m
HungarijE, live Collectio Mifcella Monumcntorum, &c. dec.
I S: 2," I'ofon, 173J-46, fol. He alfo tranflated into the
Bohemian language the Bible, and fome other books.

Be'-, Charles Andrew, Ion of the former, was born
at Preiburg in 17 17, and ftudied at Jena and Altdorf. In
1741, he became eKtraorJmary profcfhir of philofophy at
Leiplic ; and in 1756, he was appointed public profelTor of
poetry, and librarian to the univerfity, with the rank of
counicllor of ilate- He died fuddenly in 17S2. Among
his writings are " De vera origine ct cpocha Hunnorum,
Ararum, Hungaror.m, in Pannonia," Lipf. 1757, 4to.
After tlie death of Menek, he was employed as editor of
the Acta Eruditorura, and of the Leipiic literary gazette,
which he condudtcd from the year 1754 to 178 1.

Bel, John-James, was born at Bourdeaux, in 169?,
and having purfued his ftudies with great aifiduity in the
college of the fathers of tiie oratory, and made diftin-
guifned acquirements in belles lettres, and alio in meta-
phyfics and morals; he was admitted counfellor of parliament
in 1720. After feveral vifits to Paris, he finally fettled at
Bourdeaux; and in 1737, he was chofen director of the
academy : but the excels of his application to a variety of
fcientific and literarj' purfiiits haftciied his death in 1738.
To the academy of Bourdeaux he left the houfe in which
it holds its fittings, and his valuable library. Befides feveral
profelTional works, M. Bel pubhlhed " An Apology for Mr.
Houdart di la Motte," 1724, 8vo. which is an ironical cri-
ticifm on the viforks of t!.at author, and particularly his tra-
gedies ; " An Examination of the tragedy of Romulus, by
la Motte ;" " A Differtation on the Abbe Dubos's opinion
concerning the preference to be given to the perceptions of
taile above reafoning, iu judging of works of genius ;"
" Letters containing Obfervations on Voltaire's tragedy of
Mariamne ;" all which are inlerted, together with fome
other papers of M. Bel, in " Memoirs of Literature and
Hiflory," colhdted by father des Moiety, of the oratory.
He was alfo the author of the " Neolcgical Dictionary,"
augmented by the abbe des Fontaines, and intended to ex-
pole the new words and afftdted phrafeology of feveral mo-
dern writers. Nouv. Didt. Hiflor.

BiL, in Botany, the name of a plant, and alfo of its fruit,
called by fome the cucumis capparis, or caper-cucumber.
Avicenna has given the moil copious account of this plant,
which is imperfectly defcribcd by others ; and he fays, tliat
the fruit, which refemblcd a caper, was ufed in medicine,
and refembled ginger in the fiery heat of its talle.

Bel, St. in Geogniphy, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Riione and Loire, on the Brevenn ; 3I leagues
well of Lyons.

Bel, in Mythology. See Belus.

Bel and the Dragon, Hiflory of, in Biblical Hiflory, an
apocryphal part of the book of Daniel, which, although it
was annexed to this book, and formed the I4tli and laft
chapter of it, was uniformly rejcfled by the Jews, and made
no part of their canon of icripture. It occurs neither in the
Hebrew or Chaldcc text, nor in the Greek vcrfion of the
Septuagint, but was taken out of the Greek verfion of The-
odotion. Afrieanus, Euftbius, and ApoUinarius, have re-
jected the narration, not only as uncanonical, but alio as
fabulous ; and Jerom alfo concurs in their opinion. Origen
maintains the truth of the hillory contained in the 13th (fee
Susanna), and 14th chapters, againil Afrieanus, but docs
not affert it to be canonical. This hillory is alfo cited, as part

BEL

BEL

of the prophecy of Daniel, by Irenxus, Clernen? Alex.,
Tertiillian, Origcn, Cyprian, DiJymus, Hilary, Bafil, Gre-
goiy Nazianzen, Amhrcfe, and Augiiftin. Sulpitius Stve-
lus, and the author of the Synnpfis of St. AthaiiaP.us, ail'o
mention thel'e Killories as part of the facred text ; and Ruf-
finus upbraids Jcroni tor havinir cut ofl from Daniel t!ie tbrir
of the three children, the hiflory of Sufanna, and that of
Bsl and the Dragon. Againll the truth of this latter hiilo-
xy, allowing it to be apocryphal, it has been alleged, that
the ancient title of the LXX. attributed it to Habakkuk,
and that Daniel mentioned in this hillory was a pritft ; and
that therefore he mufl have been another Daniel to whom
this hillory belongs. To this argument it has been replied,
that the charafter of priell is not given to Daniel in the ver-
fioD of Theodotion, and that the verfion attributed falfclv to
the LXX. io not exact. Agai".ll the hiftory of the Dragon
it has been urged that Habakkuk, who lived in the time of
Manaiie3, was dead when it is luppofed that he wrote thefe
things, and v.aa caught up by the fpirit to caiTy provifion to
the prophet Daniel. To this o'njeiftion it is anfwertd, that
there w-ere two Habakkuks ; one, who was the prophet in
the time of ManafTe";, and of the tribe of Simeon ; and ano-
ther, mentioned in this paflage of Daniel, of the tribe of Levi.
Againft this hi-lory it has alfo been objected, that it relates
the confinement of Daniel in the lion's den to have lalled
fix days, whereas in chap. vi. v. 22 it is faid, that he had
been confined only one night. The advocates of the hiltoiy
reply, that he was twice call into the lion's den; under Da-
rius, becaufe he prayed to God Sgainil the king's command-
ment ; and under Cyrus, on account of the dragon. Du-
pin's Canon, b. i. c. 3. § 21. See Apocrypha, and Da-

MIEL.

BELA, in Geography, a prettv large town of Upper
Hungary, feated in a delight lul plain, not far from the river
Popper, but much reduced by frequent fires.

BsLA, or Beyla, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Sennaar, near the river Rhad, or Rahad, between Deader
a'.id Teawa, in the route from Sennaar to Gondar.

Bela-Benya, i.e. " the white mine," Di'n, formerly
Fcjor-Benya, a mean town of Lower Hungary, in the Schem-
nitz diftritt, and gepanichatt of Hont, whofe mines being
cxhaufted, the inhabitants applied themielves to tillage.

BELABRE, a town of France, in the department of
the LTdre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftricl of
Le Elanc en Beny, 2 leagues fouth-eaft of Le Blanc, and Sf
(outh-weft of Chateauroux. N. kt. 46° 33'. E. long. l"^ 3'.

BELALCA>;AN, a town of Spain, in the province of
Andaluiia, on tiie frontiers of Ellremadura, 9 leagues from
Cordova .

BELAN. See Below.

EELANCE Island, in Geography, one of the fmall
iilets or rocks which lie between the ifland of Ufnant and
St. Mntthew's point, at the entrance into the Brtft harbour.

BELASAMA, formed from bd-ij-.ima, the mouth of a
nver, in Ancient Geography, the name given by Ptolemv to
the bay near Liverpool, at the mouth of the river Merfey.

BEL AS I, in Geography, a town of Germany in the Ty-
rolefe, 8 miles weit of Bolzano.

BELATUCADRUS, or Belatucardus, the name
of an ancient Eritifh idol, recorded in feveralold infcriptions,
and fuppofed by Selden (de Diis Syris) and Vofiius (de Orig.
& Prog. Idol. 1. 2. c. 17.) to be the fame with Belenus,
which fee. Bilitop Lyttelton and profeflbr Ward fuppofed
him to have been a local deity (fee Archreologia, vol. i.
p. 308.) with a fpccial reference to Apollo, who was wor-
ihipped, as they obftrvc, by the Druids. Mr. Pegge, (Id.
vol. !ii. art. 14.) contends, that it is highly abuird to look

out for any other deity in Belatucardus, 'uLt the gad Mars-
This irigenious antiquary acknowledges, that he was a
local deity, peculiar in this ifland to the Brigai.tc3, but at
the fame time aflerts, that he was equivalent to Mars,
and that he was inverted with the fame powers as that gnd,
and that he had not the Icall concern with Apollo, or a.ny
relation to him. The opinion of Mr. Pegge is approved and
confirmed by Mr. Gough. (Id. vol. x.) We may add, that
it is rendered unqucftionable by the infcription recorded by
Muratori (Infcript. Thcf. 43. i.) which is as follows:
"Deo Marti, Belatucadro."

BELAY, on board of Ship, fignifies the fame as fatten.
Thus they fay, belay the fheet or tack, that is, fallen it to
the kevel, by winding it feveral times round a laft, &c.

BELAY E, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilridl of Laiizerte, one league fouth-eaft of Puy I'Eveqiie.

BELAYING-Cleats, in Naval Language, are pieces
of v.-ood, which have two arms, or horns, and are nailed
thro.igh the middle to the mafts, or elfewhere, for the pur-
pofe oi belaying ropes to them.

Belayixg-Pins, are turned wooden pins, with a fnoul-
der near the middle ; the fmall end is driven through the
rough tree rails, or racks of thin plank made on pi'.rpoft.
Their ufe i? for belaying ropes to them. Iron belaying pir.s
are round, taper from the middle to each end, and are
driven in the rails, or racks, to belay the ropes to, by taking
feveral crofs turns about them.

jjELBA, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the coaft
of the Mediterranean, 19 miles eall of Tir.eh.

BELBEIS, a town of Egypt, about 35 miles north-
talt of Cairo, and 45 north-welt of Suez. N, lat. 30' 22'.
E. lon^-.3l'55'.

BEL BE K, a river of the Crimea, which falls into the
Euxine.

BELBINA, in Ancient Geography, an idancj of Greece,
in the Saroiiic gulf, near the promontory of Sanium, and
oppofite to the Scyllosan promontory; mentioned by Pliny,
Strabo, S;c. — Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Laconia,
near which was a temple of Minerva.

BELBO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which rifes
about 2 miles tail of Ceva, and runs into the Tanaro, fix
miles S.W. of Alexandria.

BELBUCH, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, in Pomerania, one mile N.E. of New Treptow.

Belbuch, and Zejmehuch, in Mythology, were regardedl
among the Vandals as the good and evil genii. The forajcr
iiified the white god, and the latter the black gcd. They
were objefts of divine honours.

BELCA, in Ancient Geography, a place of ancient Gaul,
between Brivodbrum and Genabum, where was an ampiii-
thcatre.

BELCAIRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aude, and chiif place of a canton, in the
dillria of Quillan, 3* leagues S. W. of (^uillau.

BELCANIA, a town of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in the
greater Armenia.

BELCASTRO, a fmall epifcopal city of Naples, in the
province of Calabria Llti-a ; 10 miles N. E. of St. Seve-
rina.

BELCHER, a townfhip of America, in the county of
Hampihire, and ftate of Maffachufctts, containing 1485 in-
habitants, who fubfilt chiefly by farming.

BELCHERS, a clufter of ifiands in Hudfon's bay.
N. lat. 56=^ 10'. W. long. 80^ 33'.

BELCHIER, John, in Biography, a furgeon of emi-
nence in London, was bom at Kingllon on the Thames in

1706.

BEL

£706. After receiving a clafiical educalion at Eton, he
btcaine pupil to Mr. Chcleldcn, by whom he was much
cileemej. In 1756, he was eleflcJ lurgeon to Guy's hof- •
pitnl, aiid foon after fellow of the Royal Society. The
following year, he fent to the fociety the cafe of a woman
who died of a dropfy of the ovarium, attended with fome
Temavkable circumllances, and foon after, an account of the
cafe of a man whofe arm had been torn off at the fliouldcr,
by one of the ropes of a mill. The circumftance moft de-
riving attention in this cafe was, that only a Imall quantity
of blood was loll by the accident, which Belchicr very pro-
perly attributed to the great dillcnfion the arteries had fuf-
faincd before the limb was fcparated from the body. The
man recovered. His next, and lad communication to the
fociety, was the rcf\ilt of a feries of experiments and obfcr-
vations on the efieft produced on animals, by mixing mad-
der with their food. After continuing this diet for a few
days, on killing the animals the bones were found to be
tinged with the madder, but on fullering fome of them, that
had been fo fed, to live a few days longer, the colour indu-
ced by the madder became dilute and pale, and at length
totally difappeared ; a proof, it was obferved, that the bones
are well fupplied with abforbents, as well as with blood vef-
ftls. See Philofophical Tranfa£lions, Nos. 423, 442, and
449. Bclchier died in 1785, in the 80th year of his age,
liaviiig for feveral years previoufly retired from bulintls, and
was buried in the chapel of Guy's liofpital, to which he
had been a zealous friend and patron. Gen. Biog. Diil.
BELCHING. See Ructation.

BELCHITE, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain, in
the country of Arragon, feated in a fruitful foil, on the
river Almonazir; 8 leagues fouth from Saragoffa. N. lat.
41" 19'. W. long. 0° 30'.

BEIXIANA, in yiitcieni Geography, a town of Afia, in
AfTyria. Ptolemy.

BELDEK, in Geography, a town of Hungary, 15
miles fouth of Zatmor.

BELUIRAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Caraniania, 28 miles fouth of Cogni.

BELEBEV, or Belebeief, a town of Ruflia, in the
government of Ufii,on the rivulet falling into the Diema, 60
miles fouth-wcll of Ufa. N. lat. 54^. E. long. 54° 14'. Tiiis
is alio the name of one of the nine dillricts, comprehended
by the province of Ufa,

BELEKIS, a town of Sclavonia, loniiles north-well of
Belgrade.

BELEM, a town of Portugal, in the province of Ellre-
madura, or in the vicinity of Lilhon, on the north fide of
the Tagus, in which are a confidcrable monatlery and a rov-
al palace. In its magnilicent church, which fuddtnly funk
in 1756, many kings and princes of the blood have been
interred. Below Belem is a fquare tower called " Torre de
Belem," fortified with cannon, which no vclfel mull pafs
till it has been vifited. Near this tow«r, which is near a
league well from the city of Lifbon, in N. lat. 38° 40'. W.
long. 9° 40'. are feveral batteries, and a fmall irregular fort,
commonly called San Giao, built on a rocky point, and cover-
ing the entrance of the harbour, and oppofite to it is another
tower called " tone vclha," or old tower, ftrcngthcned by
a few cannon and foldicrs.

Belem, a town of North America, in the country of New
Navarre, 180 miles noilh-well of Cinaloa.

Belem, Belli.m, or Belm, a town and dillricl of Ger-
many, in the circle of Wellphalia, bifliopric of Ofnabruck,
and prefedlurate of Iburg ; 3 miles eall of Ofnabruck.

Belem, or P;^RA, a fea-poit town of South America, in
the country of Brazil, feated at th« north head of the river

BEL

Guama, which falls into the river of the Amazons. See
Para.

Belem Cipe, a high deep point, on the coaft of Galhcia,
in Spain, about N.N.E. from cape Finiflerre, between which
\i the projeding point of cape de Torianc, bearing foiith-
vvcll four leagues from Belem. The principal rock of tliis
rugged point, appearing like a black tower, is called tiie
Monk, or Munich.

BELEMNITA, in Natural H'iftory, a fpecies of Nau-
TiLus, in the tejiacea order of -vi^rnhs, with an uiiitorin,
fmootli, conic, and acute fhcU, frequent among the foffils of
Europe. .See the next article.

BELEMNITE, or Tmunderstone, Pfe'dfe'in, Domier-
J!ei>i, Germ. Belemn'ite, Pierre de foiidre, Dadyle, Fr. />.-•
lemnlla. Lapis I.yncurius, Idaus DaClyhis, Lapis Cerautiitis,
Lat.

The belemnlte is a foffil, which has obtained its name from
the Greek Bi?,^;, an arrow, on account of its rtfembiance to
an arrow-head. Its lengthened conical or fpindle (haped
figure fuggclled a likcnefs to the finger, hence the name
daftylus. The ignorant fuperftition of fome of the ancients
attributed the origin of this fubllaiice to tlie congealed urine
of the Lynx, on account of its lliong fmell when pounded or
fcraped; by others it was fuppofed to be one of the materials
of the thunderbolt, and it has derived names from both thcfe
circumllances.

The form of the bclemnite is generally intermediate be-
tween a long cylinder and a very acute-angled cone ; the apex
is a plain rounded point ; the bale is fomewhat concave : at a
dillance between the bafe and apex, varying in length from
one-third to one-llxth of the whole, the diameter of this foffil
begins to increafe towards the bafe in a confiderably greater
ratio than it did from the apex: the moft correft idea, there-
fore, of its figure, will be formed by imagining a truncated
cone terminated by another much longer and more acute-
angled, rounded off at the extremity inllead of coming to a
{liarp point. It is by no means common, however, to tind
beleninites thus perfeft, being for the moft part broken off
at one extremity, and not untrequcntly at both. Confider-
able variations are cbftrved in the form of this foffil : it is
fometimcs expanded and fomewhat flattened at the extremity,
or is nearly cylindrical, orenlargcd and rounded off attheapex,
fo as to releiuble a club. In the flattened varieties a longitu-
dinal furrow ou each fide is occalionally obferved. The colour
of the belemnite is generally brownifh yellow, witli a tranf-
parency refembling alabafter. It ufually confiils of calcare-
ous fpar, mingled however with animal matter; for when ex-
pofcd to a red heat it gives out an odour like burnt horn :
fometinies it occurs converted into flint, at other times is
found filled with pyrites, or even, according to Volkmann,
(Silefia Siibterran. § 155-) with galena.

If a longitudinal feftion is made of a perfedl belemnite, it
will appear to be compofed, like a cow's horn, of a number of
elongated conical lamellae inferted one into the other, covering
a core or alveolus, alio of a conical ihape, but extending
never more than a third of the length from the bafe towards
the apex. A crofs fraAure of this fofUl beyond the alveolus
exhibits a number of rays converging from the circumference
towards the centre, and as many concentric circles as there
are conical lamellte.

The alveolus of the belemnite is a conical body, divided
tranfverfel) |iiito cells by bony parietes refembling watch glaffes ;
the centre of each ot which, according to Piatt, Rolliuis,
Sage, &c. is perforated to receive a tube or hphunculus,
which paffes from the apex to the bafe of the alveolus, and
thus communicates with all the cells, in the fame manner as
is obfervable in the nautilus, the ammonite, and orthocera-

litc :

BEL

tite : it is remarkable, however, that Deluc { Journal de
Iliyliq. vol. hi. p. 360.) altogether denies the exillciice of
this perforation. Every paries in the alveolus fei-ves as the
bafe of a conoidal lamina ; the number of thefe laft, there-
fore, is equal to that of the cells of the alveolus.

It often happens that the alveolus of the belemnite is found
detached from the other part of the foffiii and in tliis ftate it
has been confidered as a peculiar fpecies of orthoceratite ;
while the conoidal cale, deprived of this charafteriftic part,
has been fuppofed to be a mere Ualaftite, or a petrified tooth
of the grampus, or a fpine of a fpecies of echinus, or even of
vegetable origin.

M.Deluc, denying the perforation of the alveolus, confiders
the belemnite as a bone belonging to an unknown aninial
analogous to the fepia, or cuttle-fifh, apparently, however,
without much reafon.

The belemnite has never been met with but in a fuflil ilate ;
it occurs not unfrequently in marble, limcltone, and chalk
ilrata, together with other marine remains ; and detached
fragments are often found in the gravel beds that cover or
adjoin thtfe Ilrata.

The fmeft Englilh fpecimens have been procured from the
chalk pits of Oxfordlhire ; the quarries of Meudon near Paris
contain^ many perfedl and beautiful varieties ; but the largcll
fpecies come from the Margraviate of Anipach in Pruflia.
Philof. Tranf. for i 764. Jonrn. de Pliyllque, vols. li. lii. liii.
Sehroter's Lithologilches real und Verballenkon, &c. vol. i.

BELENUS, or Bel in us, in Mythology, a name whicFi
the Gauls gave to the fun, which they alio cA\t:^M'tthra ; and
as feme fuppofe the fame with the Bual of Scripture, and
the Beliis of the AlTyrians.

Belenus, latinized by the Roman authors, according to
Toland, (ulji infra) from " Beal" or " Bealan", was under-
ftood by the Gauls and their colonies to denote the fun ; and
according to J. Capitolinus (Maximin. c.22), and Herodian
(1. 8. c. ^), he was the fame deity with the Apollo of the
Greeks and Romans. He was attually denominated Apollo
in the infcriptions found at Aquileia, where he was honoured
with a peculiar worHiip, under the figure of a young man
vithout beard, with rays about his head, and an open wide
mouth for uttering oracles. TertuUian (Apolog. c. 23),
informs us, that Belenus was the idol-deity of the Norici,
and among the Illyrians, Vopifeus fays (Aurelian apud init.)
his forms and ornaments were the fame with thofe of the
Mithra of the Orientals. The fun, indeed, feems to have
been the moll ancient and univerial objedl of idolatrous wor-
fhip ; inlomr.ch that perhaps tliere never was any nation of
idolaters which did not pay fome kind of homage to this
glorious luminary. Accordingly, he was worfliipped by the
Gauls and ancient Britons with great devotion under the va-
rious appellations of Bel, Belinus, Apollo, Graunius,&c. names
winch in their language were expreflive of the nature and
propel ties of that viiiblc fountain of light and heat. 'l"o this
jllultrious worfhip, thofe finnous circles of Hones, called cairns,
or earns, of which there are not a few ilill remaining, feem to
have been chiefly dedicated ; where the Dryids kept the fa-
crtd fire, the fyuibol of this divinity, and from whence, as
they were feated on eminences, they had a full view of the
heavenly bodies. The firll day of May was, in the Dniidical
litesof worfhip, a great annual feftival in honour of Belenus^
or the lun. On this day prodigious fires were kindled in all
their facred places, ar.d on the tops of ail their cairns, and
many facrifices were offered to that glorious luminary, which
now began to fliine upon them with great warmth and luflre.
Of this felUval there are IHU fome vefliges remaining, both
in Ireland and in the highlands of Scotland, where the firlt
of May, is called " Belttin," i. e. the fire of Bel or Behnus.

Vol. IV.

BEL

Two fuch fires, fays Toland, were' kindled near on? ano-
ther on May-eve in every village of the nation, as well
throughout Gaul, as in Britain, Ireland, and the adjoin-
ing leffer iflands, between which fires the men and bcafts
to be facrificed were to pafs ; from whence came the pro-
verb " between Bel's two fires," ineaning a ptrfon in a
great ftrait, not knowing how to extricate himfelf. One
ot the fires was on the cairn ; the other on the ground.
On the eve of the firfl day of November there were alfo
fuch fires kindled, accompanied with facrifices and feailing.
All the people of the country on this eve extinguiPiied their
own fires entirely ; and every mafter of a family was reli-
gioufly obliged to take a portion of the confecrated fire
home, and to kindle the fire anew in his houfe, which for the
enfuiug year was to be profjierous. The Celtic nations alio
kindled other fires on Midfummcr eve, which are ftill con-
tinued, fays Toland, by the Roman catliolics cf Ireland,
making them in all their grounds, and carrying flaminc;
brands about their corn-fields. This is done hkewife in
France, and in fome of the Scottifli ifles. Thefe Midfum-
mcr fires and facrifices were intended for obtaining a bleu-
ing on the fruits of the earth, now ready for gathering ;
as thofe of the firft of May, that they might profperoiifly
grow ; and thofe of the laft of Oftober were a thankfgiv-
ing for finifhing their harveft. But in all of them regard
was had to the leveral degrees of increafe and decreafe
in the heat of the fun. Toland's Hift. Druids in his
\Vorks, vol. i. p. 69, &c. Henry's Hiih vol. i. p. 156,
&c.

BELERIUM, (Diod.Sic. I. v. c.22,) or Bcler.um.
(Ptolem. 1. ii. c. 3,) called alfo by Ptolemy " Antiveflxum"
in ylih-ii-nt Geography, is tlse promontory formed by the
mofl weflern point of Britain, now known by the name
of " Land's End."

BEI^ESTA, or Bflestat, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Aude, and chief place
of a canton, in the dillrift of Qnillan, 10 miles well of
Q^iillan.

BELETTE, in Zodogy, a name under which Buffbn
defcribcs the common weefel, vmjlelhi iflrca of Gmelin.

BELEZ, in Geography, a town of South Americ, in
Terra Fiima, and province of New Grenada. — Alfo, a
river of Spain, which runs into the Mediterranean, between
Barcelona and Tarragona.

BELFAST, a confiderable town of Ifeland, in the county
of Antrim, and province of Ulfter, fituate at the mouth of the
river Lagan, which feparates it from the county of Down.
The town, t>:cept a fmall portion of it, is not elevated more
than fix feet above high water mark at fpring tides. Belfafl
lough, or the bay of Carrickfergus, into which the Lagan
flows, is a fpacious xftuary, a great part of which is left
dry every tide, which is the cafe likewife with Straiigford
lough, another great xllnary, the neartfl extremity of which
is diilant about b> miles S. E. Between Bclfaft and Lough
Neagh, which is about 12 miles weft of it, there is a chain of
mountains, tlie highefl of which, called Devis, is about
1580 feet high. The roots of thefe mountains extend to the
neighbourhood of the town. Mr. Arthur Young found tliem
to confiflof verv good loam to their fuinmits, and complains
of their being neglefted. As tillage, however, is improving
in that neighbourhood, it may be fuppolcd that there is no
longer caiifc for fuch comjilaint. There was formerly a caftic
at Ijelfaft, which fcems to have been a poft of importance,
as it was twice taken and dellroyed by the carl of Kildare,
lord deputy, in 1503 and 15 12. After the complete reduc-
tion of Ireland at the beginning of the 17th century, Belfaft
became the property of Sir Arthur Chichefter, afterwards

T lord

BEL

lord deputy, and baron of Btlfaft, wlio exerted liimfclf in the
fL-ttltmciit of Ulik-r. Through his influence it \vs3 made a
borough, and lent two members to the Irilh parliament ; and
an Eughdi gentleman, who travelled through part of Ireland
in 1^135, and wlicfe manulcript journal is in the poiknion ot
general Vallanccy, mentions that lord Chichefter had a ftately
palace at Belfali, which was the glory and beauty of the
to\-u, and which was his chief refidencc. Through the in-
fluence of tliio noMtnian, the cu'lom-houfc was removed
from Carrickfcrgus to Btlfall by the earl of Strafford i:i
1638, for which a coinpeiifation of 2000I. was paid to the
corporation of Carrickfergus. In 164S, Belfall was taken
polfeffion of by colonel (alttrwards the celebrated general)
Monk, for tlie parliament of England. So late as 1726,
when Doatc's Natural Hillory of Ireland was re-piibli(hcd
bv Dr. Molyneux, it was a fmall place of little confeqiience.
But fuuated in the centre of a populous and indullrious
country, it has fuice become one of the moll intcreiUng ob-
jeds in Ireland to the political economill. The town is
woll-built, molUy of brick, and the flreets are broad and
ftraiglit. Tlie bridge over the Lagan is 2560 feet long,
with 21 arches; it was built about the time of the revolu-
tion, at the joint expence of the counties of Antrim and
Down, and coll l2,oool. Eighteen of the arches are in the
former, and three ia the latter county. With regard to fize
it is the fifth, and with refpe£l to commerce, is generally
reckoned the third town in Ireland, being next to Dublin
and Cork. VtfTcls of 200 tons half loaded ufed to come to
the quay, there bi-ing about t?n feet water at ipring tides ;
but now the water at the quays is from nine totliirteen feet
deep according to the time of die mocn, having been deepened
by the exertions of the ballad corporation. Vefltls which
cannot come to the quays lie two miles and a half below the
town, where there is verv good anchorage. The Well India
trade was confiderable before the late war, and has revived
fuice the reftoration of peace. The trade in pork and butter
has increafed very much of late years ; and alfo the American
trade. The export of linen both to England and America
is very confiderable. In 1773, the grofs cullom, according
to Mr. Young, amounted only to 64,8001. including thetx-
cife upon tobacco and foreign Ipirits. In 1797, it amounted
to 87.0 1 61. 63. zd. In the following year it decreafed on
account of the dilhirbed (late of the country, but it has fince
gradually rifcn ; and in the year endirg 5lh April 1802,
a.mouiited 10246,800!. 9s. 4'd. The excife of Belfall in 1796,
was only 9097!. 13s. Svd. but previous to the lloppage of
the diftilleries it had rifen to 22,1651. 3s. 6d. exclufive of
Carrickfergiis and Templepatrick, which walks are included
in the famedillrift. T!ie duty on licences in I So i, amounted
to 4309I. Though the increafe, an in other places, mufl be
partly attributed to the increafe of duties, yet the exteniio 1
of trad-' mud alfo have been confiderable. The population
of Belfad was taken at different periods by a gentleman who
filled the office of high conllable ; but not officially. In
1782, the number of inhabitants appeared to be 13,105, and
in 1791, 18320, exclufive of 1,208 in Ballymacarret, the
fuburbs on the Down fide of the river Lagan. There were,
in I "9!, 695 looms, of which 522 were employed in the
cotton manufafture, 129 in that of cambrick and linen, 28
of failcloth, and 16 of llockiiigs. There are alfo manufac-
tories of glafs, fugar, and earthen ware. The public build-
ings are not many ; the hnen-hall is large and commodious, and
there is a good alTembly-room over the Exchange. There is
a barrack which contains about 8co men. The church is a
handfome flrudture, but is too fmall for the parifh. Other
places of worthip are, four Prefbyterian mceting-houfes, one
Seceding, and one Methodift mecting-hovife, and one Roman

BEL

Catholic chapel. The charitable inftitutions are, a poor-houfe
and infirmary, which maintains and clothes 3000! various ages,
and is conducted on the fame plan as the Dublin houfe of induf-
try ; a fever-hofpital. adifpenfary,a lying-in hofpital,a charity-
fchool forboardinggir!s,aday-fcho')l for boys and girls,a Sun-
day-fchool,and a fchool of indullry for the blind; none of them
very extenfive, but fullicitntly fo for fucli an indullrious coun-
try. It is probable that the tlamburgh plan, defcribed by Mr.
Voght, from which fuch unfpeakable benefit has been de-
rived, woidd fucceed better in Belfall than in any other tov\'n
of Ireland, and from the public fpirit and active difpofition
of the iuliabitants, it would, without doubt, be well attended
to. In fuch a town as Belfall, many commercial inilitutions
ini^'ht be expecled ; and we accordingly find a chamber of
commerce, a ballatl office corporation, two infurance offices,
&c. There are alfo a library fociety, under the title of the
Belfajl Society for Promoting Ktwwk.'ge: and a literary fc-
ciety, lately ellablifhed on a plan fimilar to that of other fo-
cieties for philofophical and literary purpoics. An academy
for the education of the higher clals in this town, was found-
ed by the inhabitants in 1786, and has been hitherto under
the care of a prefbyterian miiuller, but the advantages of it
are not confined to any fe£l. Belfall is fituated 80 miles
north of Dublin, and fends one m.ember to the imperial le-
giflature. W. long, f 49'. N. lat. j.}." 43'. Variation
W. Auguft 8th, 17P9, 11" 15' P.M. 26" 20' Arthur
Young's Tour. Dr. Beaufort's Memoir, &c. &c.

Belfast, a townfhip and bay of America, in Hancock
county, and dillrift of iVIaine, both fituate in the Waldo Pa-
tent, at the mouth of Penobfcot river, and on its wcfl;ern fide,
38 miles N. E. by E. from Hallowell, and 246 N. E. from
Boilon. The town contains 245 inhabitants. The bay,
on the north-wellern part of which the town fland-:, runs
up into the land bv three fhort arms. In the middle of
it lies Ificborough ifiand, which forms two channels lead-
ing to the mouth of Penobfcot river.

BELFORD, a market tow^n of Northumberland, Eng-
land, is feated on the great poll road from London to
Edinburgh, at the dillance of 322 miles from the former.
This town, though fmall, is particularly neat, and its houfes
are ranged on the ridge of a hill, which commands a
view of the north fea. The church was built in 1 700 ;
near it are the ruins of an old chapel, and at a "fliort dif-
tance are the fofs and vallum of an ancient encampment.
Here are a weekly market on Tucfdays, and two annual
fairs. The number of houfes in the townfliip is 161, and
ot inhabitants 902.

About four miles eafl from Belford, is Bamborough caf-
tle, the origin of which is attributed to king Ida, who be-
gan his reign about the year 559. The prefent remains
arc confiderable, and appear to be wholly the relics of
Norman architecture, though our hiftorians are decidedly
of opinion that they occupy the fite of a Saxon fortrefs
or palace. This was befieged in the year 642, by Penda,
the Pagan king of the Mercians, but without fuccefs. In
the year 710, king Ofred, en the death of Alfred his fa-
ther, fought refuge here, with Brithric, his tutor or guar-
dian, and after a gallant defence, repulfed Edulph and his
partizans. In the re'gn of Egbert, this caille was made
the prifon of Keuulph, bifhop of Lindisfarm, who was con-
fined here from 750 to 780. In many fubfequent pe-
riods, it was the fcene of repeated fieges, and fuffered
fucceflively by the Danes, by the Normans, and by the
Yorkifts.

BELFORTE, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Parma,
19 miles S.S.W. of Parma.

BULFRY, Belfredus, is ufed by military writers of
8 the

BEL

the middle age for a fort of towr, erefled by beficgers
to overlook and command tlie place beiiegcd.

They were all called lerfrcili, herefrcili, vcrfreilt, and bfl-
frag'ia. Their llrufture and ufe are defcribed in verfe by
a poet of thofe days.

Belfry originally denoted a high tower, whereon centi-
iiels were placed to watch the avenues of a place, and pre-
vent furpri/e from parties of the enemies, or to give no-
tice of fires by ringing a bell. Du-Carige.

In the cities of Flanders, wh.ere there is no belfry on
pnrpofe, the tower of the chief church ferves the fame end.
The word belfry is compounded of tlie Teiit(.iiic " bell"
and " freid," p:ace, becaiife the bells were hung for pre-
ferving the peace.

Bel FRY, is alfo ufed for that part of a ileeple wherein
the bells were hung. This is fometimes called by mic'-
dle-afred writers campanile, clocaria, and tr}jlegum. Du-
C-iiige. This is fometimes ufed in Heraldry as a crelh

Belfry, is more particularly ufed for the timber-work,
which fullains the bells in a lleeplc ; or that wooden ftruiture,
to wlirch the bells in cliurch-ileeples are fattened.

Belfry, Great, in Ornithology, the alarum thru(h of La-
tham, and turdus tinniens of Gmelin, Ic grand befroi of Buf-
fon, is fo called by this latter naturalill, from the fingular
found which it makes in the evenings and m.ornings, and
which refembles the din of an alarum bell. Thefucceflion of
founds is as rapid as the quick ftrokes of a bell, and conti-
nues about an hour. See Turdus TiNNitNs. The " fmall
belfr)'," is the fpeckled thvulh of Latiiam, and Turdus Li-
NEATUS of Gmehn, which fee.

BELG^, in /Incient Geography, were ScTthiansor Goths,
who, advancing from Alia, drove the Cinibri or northern
Celts before them ; and at a long period preceding the Chrif-
tian ■SV3. feized on the north-well part of Gaul, where tliey ac-
quired the provincial denomination of Belgss ; and from them
the country which they inhabited obtained the name of Bel-
gic Gaul. Writers are not agreed as to the etymology of
this appellation. As they were a fierce, contentious, and
warlike people, and dlfpofed to domineer over all their neigh-
bours, according to the character which Cxfar (Comment.
1. ii. c. 4,) has given of them, fome have fuppofed that they
were called " Belgx" on thnt account ; the word " Belga"
in the old Teutonic fignifying "fierce" and " quafrelfame."
Others have fuggtiled, that the term " Belgx" is fyiiony-
nious with the Celtic " Beligheis," and that it fignifier. perfons
who inhabited the high or northern part. Others again have de-
rived Belgre from " Belgen"or " Velgen," iignifying ftranger.
Some time after their fettlemtnt in Gaul, but at an unknown
period, they penetrated into Britain ; and accordingly when
Ccefar firft explored this ifland, he informs us (1. v. c. lo.)
that the primitive inhabitants were driven into the interior
parts, while the regions on the fouth-eaft vreve peopled by
Belgic colonies. The Belgs may, therefore, be juftly re-
garded as the chief anceftors of the Englifii nation. On the
continent, the Belgx having taken poffelTion of part of Gaul,
End being naturally a ferocious people, waged frequent wars
with the Germans ; io that thefe two nations continued i.i
a ftate of hodilitv and friendfhip, fomet'.mes invading each
other's territories, and at other times afTilling each other
againft the Romans. In the time of Caefar, the Btlgae,
alarmed at the fuecefs of the Romans in their expeditions
againll the Germans, formed a grand alliance with the Cel-
tes, Germans, and Gauls, in order to drive them farther from
their neighbourhood. C^far, according to his ulual manner,
found means to fow fiich diffenfions among them, that many
of thefe allies fubmitted to him ; however, the Nervii, Attre-
bates, and Veromandui, Hood firm, and though at length de-
feated, it was one of the dearell viftorics which Cxfar

B E L

had ever obtained ; and, in confcquence of this defeat, the
whole Fcigic nation was compelled to fubn.it to the Romjn
yoke. The Belgae of Britain were feated to the call of the
Durotr gcs, on tlie fatne coaft, and inliabited the coii::tie8
now called Hampdiire, Wiltfiiire, and Somerfetfhirc. When
Caefar invaded Britain, fome part of this countrv- was pofTefT-
ed by the Segontinci, whofe chief town was' VVinchefter,
called by the Britons " Caer-frgucnt," from the nnme cf
thefe, its ancient inhabitants. Vy.-X thefe people fcem. to hav"?
been foon after fubdued by and incorporated with the Btlgcc,
as they are never afterwards mentioned. As to tlic firit
iutrouuaion of the Bdgs into Britain, hifl or)- is fileiit ; but
with refpcA to fome few of the latcfl colonics who fettled
liere not very long before the Roman invafio!!, and who in-
habited the fouth parts of Britain, Cxf„r informs u;, (1. v.
c. IO.) " that the fca-coall of Britain is peopled with Bel-
gians, drawn thither by the love of war and plunder."
"Thefe lail (he fays) paflirig over from diffcretit parts, and
fettling in the ccu-Ury, ftiil retain the names of the fcveral
ttates from, wlience they were defcended." The lateft of
thefe Belgic colonies came into Britain only a few years be-
fore Cx-far's invafion. This colony was conducted by Divi-
tiacus, king of the Sueffioiies, one of the moil powerful of
the Belgic nations in Ga'il ; and having obtained a footing
on the Biitilh coaft, he continued to reign over the Be)-
gx in this illand, as well as over his ancient fubjcfts on
the continent. In his continental territories, he was fuc-
ceeded by Galba, and in his Britifh dominions by another
of his fons, perhaps Segonax, who attempted to deftroy
Cxfar's fleet. Although the Segontiaci fubmitted to Cr-
far, we have no account of the fubmiflion of the Btlgs
to that conqueror. The honour of fubdulng that Britilh
nation was referred to Vefpafian, ivho, landing ar, army
in thefe parts, A. D. 49, fought 32 battles, took more
than 20 towns, fubdued two very powei ful nations, one of
which was the Belgi, and the ill; of Wight. After this
time, the country of the Belgx was much frequented by
the Romans, who made in it many excellent military ways,
and built feveral beautiful towns, which are mentioned by
both Ptolemy and Antoninus. The mod remarkable of
thefe towns were Venta Belgarum, Winchefter, famous for
the imperial weavery which was there eftablifhed, and Aqux
Solis, Bath, even then renowned for its warm and falutary
fprings. The country of the Belgx was included in the
Roman province, called Flavia Casfarienfis, and govern-
ed by the prefident of that province, and his inferior ofE-
cers, Henry's Hift. vol. i. p. 246, &c.

BELGARD, or Belgrad, in Geography, a town of
Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and chief place
of a circle to which it gives name, in the duchy of Po-
merania, feated on the Perfante, and noted for its market
for horfes. It wn« a place of fome diilinftion as early as
the nth century, for its ftrengtli and for the number and
valour of its inhabitants ; but it has fuffered much by fire
and by war ; particularly by the 30 years' war. By the
treaty of Weftphalia, it devolved to the houfe of Branden-
burgh. It has a callle and a provoftfhip, and is the feat
of a royal bailliage. N. lat. 54" ic'. E. long. 16' 51'.

BELGERN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up-
per Saxony, and margravi:;te of Meifien, feated on the river
Elbe, 36 miles N. W. of Drefden, and 24 N. W. of Meif-
fen.

BELGERS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro*
vince of Caramania, 78 miles weft of Cogni.

BELGEVAN, a town of Afia, in Tartar)*, in the
kingdom of Bucharia, and province of Catland.

BELGICA, in Conchalogy, a fpecies of Sabella, very

brieily defciibed by Gmehn, as having a conic (hell " tefta

T 2 conica>"

BEL

conica;" and is faid to be found on the fliore? of Hol-
land Obf. This is fjppofed by ionr.i to be the fabcUa

granulnta of Linnaeuo, and tiibitorniis of Pennant ; but it
is by no means certain that «vcn tlic two hilt arc of the
fame fprcies : we think they are not ; and it may admit
of equal doubt wiiethtr either of tlitm be the Ipecics
Gmclin defcribes as belpjica. The lail mentioned autiior
fcemstobe under no fmall difficulty in this relpedt liimfell,
for lie entirely omits taking the llighlell notice of either
as fpecies, or even amongll his fynonyms. Sabella tobi-
formis of Pennant is undoubtedly dillerent from fabella bcU
gica of Gmclin, according to Klein and Martini, to which
he refers. Vide Donov. Brit. .Shells, p'-l.^^.

Belgica, in Orniiholo^y, a fpecies of Scolopax, with
a very llraight bill, black at the tip: head, neck, and
breait; ferruginous: abdomen white ; back, wings, tail, and
kgs black. No/.tm. ncdtrl Vogel. t. 27. A native of Hol-
land, and feeds on worms, &c.

Bklgica Gallia, in ^Indent Geography, one of Casfar's
three divifions of Gaul, or Gallia, the other two being Aquita-
nia, and Ccltica, orGallia propria. Gallia Belgica was bounded
by the ocean to the north, by the Seqnani (Seine) and Matrona
(Marne) to the weft, by the Rhine to the eaft, and to the
iouth by various limits, at dilferent times. Cifar appro-
priated the Seqnani and the Helvetii to that part of Gallia
Celtica which was afterwards called " Lugdunenfis." But
Augullus, when he made a new partition of the provinces,
transferred the Sequani and Helvetii to Gallia Belgica,
According to the diftribution of Ptolemy, Gallia compre-
hended four parts, viz, Aquitania, Lugdunenfis, Belgica,
and Narbonnenfis. See Gallia. Mentelle, in the Ency-
clopedic Methodiquc, divides Gallia Belgica into Belgica
prima, comprehending the Treviri, Mediomatrici, Verdun-
enfes, and Leuci ; and Belgica fecunda, including the Kervii,
Morini, Ambiani, Bellovaci, Silvanedes, Vadicafles, Suef-
fiones, Veromandui, Attrebates, Remi, and Catalauni. The
capital of the Treveri, viz. Augulla or Treveri, was the
metiepohs of Belgica prima. Belgica fecunda contained a
great number of cities, and comprehended Lorraine and
Champagne ; whilft Belgica prima contained a portion of
tiie ifle of France, Picardy, and Artois. Belgic Gaul com-
prehended thofe provinces of the Netherlands now called
the Bclglc provinces, wliich were formerly fubjeft to the
lioufe of Auilria, but which have been recently annexed to
the French dominions. See Nl thlrlands.

Belgica, Balchuyfen, a village of Gallia Belgica, in the
country of the Ubii, between the rivers Rhone and Roer,
8 miles from Marcomagum, according to the itinerary of
Antonin, in Germania fecunda, or Liferior, fouth-well of
Colonia Agiippina.

BELGINUM, BiNGEN, or Baldenau, a place of Ger-
mania prima, or Superior, a province of Gaul, at fome dil-
tance to the call of Augulla Trevirorum.

BELGIUM, a canton of Gallia Belgica, from which it
is diflinguifhcd by Cwfar (1. v. c. 24,) as a part from the
whole ; to this canton he afligns tlie Bellovaci, to whom
Hirtius (1. viii. c. 46 and 47,) adds the Attrebates. And
as the Ambiani were fcated between the Bellovaci, and Attre-
bates, ihefe alfo mull be included in Belgium, which mull
liave extended to the fea. Thefe three people, fays Cellarius,
were the proper and genuine Belgae, all the relk being adven-
titious, or foreigners. See Ambiani, Atrebatii, and
Bellovaci.

BELGIUS, a river of Africa in Libya. Hefychins.

BELGN.tA, a town of Arabia Deferta. Ptolemy.

BELGOROD, in Geography. See Bielgorod, and
Akerman.

BELGRADE, Alba Gr/xcorum, a town of Euro-

BEL

pean Turkey, the capital of Servia, feated on the fide of a
hill, at the conflux of the Save and the Danube. It waj
formerly a very ilrong place, but is now deftitute of for-
tifications, and it was accounted the barrier and key of
I f ungary, to w hich it was lirll annexed by the emperor
Sigifmuud.

The number of inhabitants is now fuppofed to amount
to about 25,000. 'i'he i'uburbs are cxtenlive, and it has
a great refort of 'J'tirkifli, Jewilh, Greek, Hniigaiian,
Armenian, .'Vuflrian, and Sclavonian merchants. Tlie ilreets,
in which the ciiief trade is c.irried on, are covered with
wood, as a Iheltcr from the lun and rain ; the ihops are
fmall, and the commodities that aie fold are conveyed out
of a window, as the buyers never enter them ; the richelt
merchandize is cxpofed to fale in two baxars that crol's
each other ; and there are two exchanges conilrncted with
ftone, and fupportcd by pillars. There are likewife at
Belgrade a caravanfcra, or public inn, and a college for
young lludents. Its fituation near the rivers renders it
convenient for commerce ; and as the Danube falls into
the Black fea, and affords a paflage to Vicuna, trade is
' ealily extended to diftant countries, fo that Belgrade is a
Ilaple town in thefe parts. The Armenians and Jews are
employed as faftors ; the former have a church, and the
latter a fynagogue in this place. In the environs of Bel-
grade are fevtral fmall villages near one another, and almoll
all of them inhabited by Greeks. The fields prefent fonic
degree of culture ; and the whole adjacent country affords
fine duller or ftalk-fruked oaks (quercus racemofa, Lamarck)
whole wood is very hard and very fit for Ihip-building. Some
few vineyards and gardens are to be fcen in the vicinity of
Belgrade. The aquedufts, conllrucled by the emperors of
the eall for conveying water to Conllantinople, attraft adnii-
ration. See Acju/tDUCT. N.lat. 45° 10'. E. long. 21"
12'.

The poireffion of Belgrade has been repeatedly difputed be-
tween the Aullrians and Turks. In 1 52 1, it was taken by
the Turks, after having been attacked in vain by Amurath
II. in the preceding century, but recovered by the Imperial
army in 1688. In 1690, it fell again under the Turkilh yoke,
from which the Aullrians unfuecefsfuUy attempted to regain
it in 1693. By the treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, tiie Turks
remained in poffeilion of it ; but in 1716, it was bcfieged by
prince Eugene, and after a fevere contell it was compelled
to furrender to the Imperial arms.

Belgrade is chiefly famous in the hiflory of military ope-
rations on account of the battle fought in its vicinity in tlie
year 1717, the refult of which was the lall great viftory ob-
tained under the aufpices of the celebrated prince Eugene,
and which decided the event of the war then depending be-
tween the German and Ottoman empires.

The Turks, notwithftandlng the lolles they had fullained
during the campaign of 17 16, determined to make the moll
vigorous efforts for the prefervatlon of their Hungarian ac-
quilitions. The Imperialllls were equally defirous of ter-
minating the war by fome important aclion. Prince Eu-
gene, having concentrated tlie Aullrian forces in the bannat,
on the 15th of June effcfted the paffige of the Danube in
boats with 30,000 of his troops without the lofs of a man,
in pretence of fome TurkiQi corps llationcd on the fouthera
bank, who, without attempting an oppolition, threw them-
felves into Belgrade. A bridge of boats was immediate-
ly conllrufted for the paffage of the rell of the army,
the horfe, and artillery, and by the 19th of the fame
month, Belgrade was completely invcfted.

The lirll care of prince Eugene, who forefaw that the
Turks would venture a battle to relieve the place> was to
fortify his camp iii fuch a manner as might enable him to

cope

I

BEL

BEL

eapf \v!t!i an army much fuperior in number to his own,
He accordingly began to call uplines of circumvallatiou and
contravallution, tlrengthening them with entrenchments, re-
doubts, and other fiL-ld works of the nectffary defcriotion.
Within ihcfe lines the army encamped to the fouth of Bel-
grade ; its front towards the open country, its left refting
upon the Danube ; its right extending towards the Save.
A bridge of boats was thrown acrofs the latter river, and,
as well as tliat already conftrutted on the Danube, fccu-ed
by ftrong tetes tfe Jiont. The line of contravailation, looking
towards Scmedria, confifted of a ditch, fixtcen feet wide, of
proportii-.nable depth, and defended by a (Irong parapet. The
proper openings were left for the troops to ilFue andform inor-
der of battle witho'.'.t confufion, coveredin frontby vaveli ;s and
redans ; and upon the right, a Isrg: ^cr/je, or redoubt, was
ereiled for the parpofe of corrmanding a hollow ground,
wliic!> the Turks might otherwile have found ferviceable in
their approaches. The field pieces of all the different bat-
talions, planted at regular dilfances along the front of the
contravailation, fecuvtd it from any fudden infult. As, how-
ever, the army was not fufRciently numerous to occupy the
whole extent of ground between the two rivers, crofs en-
trenchments were formed, connecting the principal lines on
the right and left, and flill preferving a communication with
the different bridges.

As the Turkifli garrifon confifted of between twenty and
thirty thoufand regular troops, and had alio a ftrong flotilla
on the Danube, prince Eugene found it abfolutely neceffary
to maintain two flying camps ; one of feveral thoufand men
at Semlin, to keep up a communication with Petcrwaradin,
from whence the Imperialiils derived their fupplies of pro-
vlfions, under Count de Hauben ; and another of five batta-
hons and fome cavalry to cover the head of the bridge over
the Danube. Four ihips of war proteiled the navigation
of that river, and watched the motions of the Turkifh flotilla.
But a violent ftorm which happened on the 1 3th of July, had
nearly rendered abortive the projects of the befiegcrs. The
bridges of the Danube and Save were broken by the force
of the tcmpeft. Several vciTcls, dttached from the reft,
were carried floating at random down the ftream, and the
I'urks took advantage of this accident to make a fally acrofs
the Save, and attack the redoubt which covered the liead
of the bridge. The gallant defence of a captain and 64
men, who alone garriloned the poft, preferved it, together
with that parti of the bridge which remained on the north
fide of the river, from falling into the hands of the enemy.
To prevent fuch forties in future, the camp of Semlin was
ilrongly reinforced, and the command entrufttd to count
Martigny. More ferious operations commenced ; and du-
ring the night of the iSth, trenches we're opened againft
Belgrade to the north of the Save by 1,200 pioneers, cover-
ed by a large detachment under general Marfigli. The Turks,
however, the following morning, opened a dreadful fire upon
them from all tiie batteries of the place, the flotilla on
the Danube, and the illands in that river, and making a
foitie with 4000 men in boats, aftaulted fo furioufly
the guaid of the trenches, that if prince Eugene had not
animated the troops by his pcrf'jin.l prefence and bravery,
in repulfing the attack, a total defeat miift haveeiifued. As
it was, general Marfigli, with twenty other officers of note,
and 400 ioldiers, perifhed in this affair. It became necef-
fary to augment the guard of tlie trenches to nine batta-
lions, and coiiftrufl new lines. In fix days a complete chain
of works was elhibliftied from the bridge along the Save to
its influx with the Daiuihe, and from thence afcending the
courfe of the latter river to the camp of Semlin, defended
■with redaubts, and well provided with artillery ; iufomucli,

that from the moment of their completion, the garrifon at-
tempted no farther fallics.

On the Z3-d of July, the cannonade and bombardment
commenced from all the Auftrian batteries, with dreadful
efFe£l, and by the 30th, Belgrade refembled, towards the
water, a heap of ruins. But the excellent ftate of their
fortifications on the fide of the beficging camp, and expecta-
tions of approaching fuccours, animated the garrifon to main-
tain a nioft vigorous refilfaiice. Their expeftations were
not delufive. Tiie grand vizier, having drained the Turkifh
province:! of fo'diers to complete his army, had already began
his march, and on the 28th his advanced parties appeared
in fight, and began to flcirmifli with the Auftrian out-pofts.
The iiur.iber of thefe marauders daily increafed, and on the
laft of July, tlie vizir with his whole army arrived in prefence
of the Imperialifts. But inftead of attacking prince Eugene
as the latter expefted, he encamped upon the heights above
the Auftrian camp with all his forces, fupporting his right
flank by the Danube, and llretching his left towards the
Save. The following days were fpent in preparing batteries,
throwing up entrenchments, and making approaches againft
the works of the Imperialifts, as if they had literally been a
town befieged. Eugene found himfelf compelled, by this
mode of attack, to adopt new difpofitions. He inftituted
additional arlillery on his own lines, defended all the ave-
nues with chcvaux de frize, mined the ground before the
jlecJie already mentioned, and called in part of his troops
from the oppofite bank of the Save. Neverthelefs, the
Turks, purfuing their projefted plan of operations, pufhed
their approaches in fpite of the dreadful havock which the
Auftrian bombs and grenades incefTantly made among them
to within mulket Ihot of the contravailation. Their army
amounted to upwards of 200,000 men. Their works were
mounted with 140 pieces of cannon and mortars. The gar-
rifon, who now fullained fome refpite from tne fire of the
Auftrian batteries, direfted their own upon the tents of the
befiegers, and thus fituated, between two hoftilc arnucs, who
from their iituation commanded more or lefs ever)- part of
his pofition, Eugene found himfelf enfiladed by the fire of
upwards of 250 pieces of artillery. His fituation became
every day more precarious. The dyfentery, which for the
laft month had done great mifchief in his camp, now raged
to fuch a degree that hundreds were buried in a day. A
mortality prevailed among the horfcs, in confequence of
which half of the K:avalry were difmounttd ; and an army
\shieh, at the opening of the campaign, amounted to above
8o,coo men, could not now mufter60jOOO efteftive. Though
no immediate fearcity of provifions or ammunition was
experienced, yet the difappointment of the expeftations
prince Eugene had conceived, that the Turks would be
obliged to retire for want of provifions, obliged him to de-
termine without delay on fome decifive meafure ; cfpecially
as the vizier hnd occupied an eminence adjoining the Save,
with a confiderable body of troops, and might, by fending
10 or 30,000 men acrofs the ri^er, have rendered a re-
treat, in cafe of defeat, impracticable to the Auflrians,
Under thefe civcun-.ftances, it was refolved, in a general
council of war held on the r5th of Augnft, to be before-
hand with the enemy, by making a decifive attack on tlieir
camp. The detachmciita beyond the Save were imme-
diately called ill, except about 1,400 foot, and 300 horfe.
Seven regiments of cavalry and ten battalions, with all
the difmcunted horfe and dragoous, wire left in the lines
to ob;^: ve the garrifon. Eleven regiments of cavalry, com-
mandi-d by field marfhal count Palfi, and general count
Merci, compofcd two lines on the right, and marched out
before midnight. The left wing, confifting of 12 regi-
ments

3 E L

BEL

menl.'v, mnrclicd out a\ the fame time, commaniltd by j^cne- r.icnt clearing up, difcovcicd to priiice Eugene the difoaC

v;-.! Mon'.ecuciili and Martigiiy. The infantry, uirUt prince tion of both armies, and his own perilous lituaf.on. 'I'iic

Alexander of Wirtcmberg, in chief, was drawn up in the advance of tlie fccond line prevented his total defeat. The

centre-, the firfl line of 22 battalions, condufted by count prince of Bcvcrn, who coniniandtd it, marched up to the

Maxim'ilian of Slarcmberg, and count Harrach ; the fecond, Turks, whofc fuccefs had thrown them into diforder, and

of 18 battalions, Ly the prince of Bcvern. The corps dereferve, charged with fiich fury, tiiat the infidels, unable to fullaiu

with which m^rfhal Scckendorf remained in the lines, ready the fhock, fled in dil'order, and were pmfued up to their

to aSt as occafioii (liould require, was compofcd of nine bat- very trenches, leaving the fpace where they had been dc-

talioni. The efTcotive forc<- of the two lines, on v.-hom the fcated covered with their dead. This fuccefs gave a new

fuccefs of the day in a great mtafure depended, did not tun; to affairs. No time was loft in fiUing up the interval

amount to more tl'.an 40,000 men ; yet, notvvithftanding this that had been fo unwarily lelt, and in lorming the two

immcnfe i;-feriority, the confidence of the foldievs in their wings of the Imperialills for a new eflort. The impatience

commander was fuch, that they received the orders to pre-
pare for action with the grenteft cher.rfnlnefs, and march-
td out, as if infpired with a certainty of victory.

At one in the mon:ing the Imperialills, favuiu-ed by a
thick fog, quitted their trenches : the right advancing to-
wards ihc Jak; which was affigned as its point of forma-
tion, and the left over the open ground adjoining the Da-
nube. Two hours were fpent in making the neceir:'.ry pre

of the foldiers to engage piognofticated fuccefs. The rijiht
began the att;iek ; carried with irrefiilible impetuofity the
batteries whofe \'nx they had hitherto fulhiined, and turned
the cannon againft tlie entrenchments which protedlcd the
Turkifncamp. The left experienced more oppofilion. Tlie
enemy had tlieir principal forces on that fide, and thefe, re-
inforced by feveral corps w'lom the fixceis of count Palfi had
driven from the right, conftitutcd animmenfe fuperiority. The
raratorv movements ; but the fog, which had hitherto janizaries deiei ded themfelvcs with great bravery, and repul-
favoured the Imperialills, increafed to fuch a degree fed the Aullrians in their firtl attack ; but thefe rallying, re-
as to become produSive of ferious inconvenience. The turned to the charge, beat the Turks from their outermolt
right win"-, mifnng its way, Humbled, inftcad of the feche, entrenchment, and pufliing their advantage, advr.nced regu-
iipon one of the Turkifh advanced works. The furprife la'ly up to the fecond, without firing a muflcet till they
was equal (Ui both fides ; but a difcharge which immediately came within ten paces of the enemy. This work was car-
opened upon the Auftrian cavalry from the guard of the ried in lefs time than the firft : the Turkirti entrenchments
trenches, fpread the alarm throughout the whol". of the were forcid one after another, as well as lever?.! coupures
jjrand vizier's army. His troops hafiily rufhed from every with vvl.ich their camp was defended ; and notwiihftanding
part of the camo towards the fcene of action, and in a few rcfiftauce was attempted at each of them, and the Auftrians
ininutes count Palfi became hotly engaged. The Aullrians, experienced every where a terrible fire, yet the courage and
formed in a hurry, and their battalion-t, through fear of conduft of prince Eugene furmountcd every obfiacle, and
lofing the fupport of the cavalry, inclining fiicccffively to obliged victory, after a ftruggle of fix hours, to declare in
the right flank, a wide vacancy was left in the centre, and his favour. The iaft ferious Hand made by the infidels, was
afforded the Turks an advantage of which they did not at a grand battery mounted with 18 pieces of c-annon, and
fail to profit. Meantime, the combat, onee engaged on the defended by 20,000 janizaries, fullained by lo,cco fpahis,
right, quickly commenced on the oppofite flank. I'lir.ce the bravell troops in the Turkifh army. It was ueceffary
Eugene had intended to begin the attack with both wings to halt and form tlie troops anew for this perilous attempt ;
at the fame time ; but convinced by the heavy firing he but when the word to charge was given, they rufiicd for-
heard towards the Save, that Palii had already began the ward with an impetus nothing was capable of refilling. The
battle, he was himfclf obliged to come to blows, before the Imperial grenadiers, in defiance of the fire from the battery,
battalion; of his left wing were completely formed. It was bore down all oppofition, mounted through the embrafures,
now between four and five o'clock in the morning. The and drove the Turks from their guns ; while the rell of the
fog continued fo thick as to prevent the combatants from army made fuch (laughter, that the bodies of the flain rofe in
discerning each other till they arrived almoft clofe to the heaps round the redoubt. The routed forces, driven on all
riuzzlcs of their adverfarles pieces ; and owing to this ob- fides from their entrenchmentf, retired into the plain, as if
fcurity feveral imall detachments of AuPLrians, whom a defire to form once more for the defence of their camp ; but ob-
to fignalize themfelves carried unawares into the thickeft of ferving the Imperialills, after having gained the heights,
the enemy, were entirely cut off. The affailants nevcrthe- advancing towards them in good order, they betook them-
lefs gained ground. As the darknefs obliged them to march felves to flight in every direction, leaving their camp, bag-
with their firelocks always prefentcd, the fire they poured gage, and ammunition, at the mercy of the conquerors. Tlie
in, the moment they perceived their enemies, was fo cloft, viiElory was complete by 9 o'clock in the morning. The
veil dire&ed, and did fuch prodigious execution, that the plunder of the infidels' camp, which refemblcd a large city,
Turkifh battalions, as they advanced in fucceffion, were was given to the foldiers.

broken, difmnyed, and precipitated headlong into their This battle, fought on the i6th of Auguft 17 17, coft the
trenches, where the bayonet and fubre made dreadful ha- Turks lo,coo of their bell troops killed in the action, and
voc among them. The cavalry were not equally fuccefs- 3,000 in the purfuit. About 5,000 were wounded, and
fill ; the broken nature of the ground obliged them to per- nearly the fame number made prifoners. In the Turkifh
form frequent evolutions in order to find fome paffages of camp and lines were found 131 pieces of brafs cannon, 30
tafieraccefo, and the Turks, who lined the trenches, galled mortars, and an immenfe quantity of powder, bullets, bombs,
them with fevere and inceffant firings. The centre of the and grenadocs. There were alfo taken 52 colours, 9 liorfe-
enemy's army too, finding nothing to oppofe them, threw tails, and other military trophies. The lofs on the German
fcveial battalions into the void fpace between the flanks of fide, by rea£;>n of the fog, was not in proportion to the length
the Impcrialifls, and completely intercepting all communi- of the fight. Their killed amounted to nearly 3,000 men,
cation, opened a heavy fire to right and left upon the divi- among vviiom were the generals count Hanben and Dalberg ;
ded forces. The battle, under the prefent circumflances, and about 4,500 were wounded. Of the latter, however,
fccmed irrecoverably loft, but .the fog, at this critical mo- only about 2,000 recovered. In confequencc of this great

viftory,

BEL

▼I(ftory, Belgrade furrendered on the iglh ; the ganifon Rill
confiding of more than 25,000 men, being allowed to march
out with all their cfFefts. Its fortifications towards the land
were in a moll excellent ftate, and more than 400 pieces of
cannon and mortars found on the works in the arfenals, and
on board the flotilla on the Danube.

Belgrade, which the peace of Paffarowitz left in pof-
feflion of the Aullrians, was unfuccefsfully attacked by the
Turks in 1739 ; but by the treaty concluded that year under
the mediation of France, was reflored to the Porte. Its
fortifications were, however, previcnfly demolifhed. In 17S9,
it was befiegcd (Sept. 12.) by an Aullrian army under i;iar-
(hal Laudohn, who in his approaches made ufe of the old
lines of circumvallation conitrii<fted by prince Eugene, and
which the Turks, from an unaccountable negligence, had
ncglcfted to fill up. The marflial, afiilted by a numerous
and well-ferved train of artillery, proceeded with fnch rapi-
dity in his attack";, that after all the fuburbs and outworks
had been carried fword in hand, the garrilon, apprehenfive
of a ftorm, furrendered (Oct. 8.) upon honourable terms.
Immenfe ilorcs, with about 300 pieces of artilkry, were
found in the place. Belgrade was, howcvei-, anew given up
to the Turks in 1791, at the peace of Sidova, fince which
time it has continued quietly in their polTenion.

Belgrade, a townlhip of America, in the county of
Lincoln and dillrift of Maine, incorporated in 1796; for-
merly called Wafhington-plantation. It lies weft of Sid-
ney, and between Androfcoggin and Kennebeck rivers.

BELGRADO, a town of the Venetian dates of Italy, in
Friuli, fituate near the river Tagliamento. N. lit. 46^.
E. long. 13° 51'.

BELHAVEN, the former name of Alexandria, in Fair-
fax county, Virginia. See Alexandria.

BELIA, in Entomnln^y, a fpecies of PArn.io, with en-
tire white wings ; the lower ones yellow, and flightiy faf-
ciated with grey beneath. A native of Barbary. Fiibri-
cius.

Belia, in Ancient Geography-, a town of Hifpania Tarra-
gonenfis, is the counti-y ot the Pledetani (Ptol.), eaft of
Bilbilis, and nearlv fouth-eali ot CEfar-Augulta (D'Anville^ ;
now Bdch'te, which fee.

BEEIAL, for'i-.ed of 'S^, «.?;;, noth'mg, andSyV denot-
ing in Hiph'l, to profit, q.d. unprofitable; in Scripture Hif-
tor'/, iigniiies a wicked, worthlefs perfon, who is rtfolvtd to
endure no fubjeclion. Thus the inhabitants of Gibeah,
who abufed the Levite's wife, are ftigmatifed by the name
of Behal. (Judges, xix. 22.) Hcplmi and Pliineas, Eli's
fons, are called fons of Belial (i Sara. ii. 12.) on account
of the feveral crimes they had committed, and their inde-
corous behnviour in the temple of the Lord. Sometimes,
fays Calmet, the name Belial is ufcd to denote the devil.
To this p'lrpofe, he cites 2 Cor. vi. 15. where the apoftle
Paul fays, " What concord hath Chrift with Belial ?" wlience
it appear?, as he fuppofes, that in the apoiUe's time, the
Jews, under the name of Belial, commonly underftood the
devil in the places where this term occurs in the Old Teita-
ment. Others are of opinion, that the heathen demons
might be called " Behal," either becaufe they were of no
ufe, or becaufe fo much wickednefs entered into the idea
which the Pagans entertained of them. However, it has
been fuggefted, that there may be no reference to the hea-
then gods at all, whether they were deified ghofts or not ;
the word Behal being often applied to living men ; and it
being the general defign of the apoftle in this place to dif-
fuade Chrillians from fuffering themfelves to be drawn into
any thing criminal by the heathens. Grot, in loc. Far-
mer's Demoniacs, p. 201.

BEL

The learned Bryant (Analyfis Anc. M)-lhoI. vohii. p. irj'?.)
confiders Belial as the title of the chief Syrian god, called
Bel and Baal, and rendered by the Greeks 'ROm^, beliar.
Hence, Clemens Alex. (l.v. p. 680.) inftead of faying,
what agreement can there be i)etwecn Chrift and Belial,
fays, Ti; Ji o-t);x?^i'vr,<7i; xi''^ '^5''' ^'^-''-i- This Belial, or Be-
liar, was the fame as Belorus and Ofiris, who were wor-
(hipped under the fymhul of a ferpent. Hence Hefychius
e.xplaii>s the term Beliar by a ferpent.

BELIAS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, wliich
fprung in Uavana, and difcharged itfclf into the Euphrates,
Ammian. Marcell.

BELICA, an epifcopal town of the Gauls, in the fifth
LugdiineiifF,

BELICENA, a town of Spain, in Grenada, 11 leagues-
from Grenada,

BELICI, a river of Sicily, which empties itfelf into the
fca near Bigini, in the Val de Mazara. It refembles (fays
Swinburne, vol. iii. p. 374.) ihe Mole in Surr)' in fize and
colour ; and winds vei-y agreeably between high banks over-
grown with elms, willows, and tamarifks. The vale on both
fides is wide and well laid out in corn-fields, and pallure*
crowded with horfes and horned cattle.

BELIDA. See Bleeda.

BELIDES, in Antiquity. See Danaides.

BELIDOR, Bernard Forest de, in Biography, a
French mathematician and engineer, was born in Catalonia,
about the year 1698, and became profeffor-royal at the ar-
tillery fchool of la Fere, and provincial commiflary of artil-
lery. Bv various exploits, he firft difcovered that the pro-
portion of gun-powder in the loading of cannon might be
reduced to two-thirds of the quantity, without lelTening in
effeft ; but as he communicated this economical idea to car-
dinal Fleur)-, without previouflv confulting the giand-mafter
of artillery, he loll both his places. Upon this tl:e prince
of Cunti took him to Italy, and by his patronage, Bchdor
was again brought into notice at court. ManTial Bclleifle,
the war-miniller, appointed him infpeftor of artilleiy, and
allotted to him apartments at the arlenal of Paris, in which
he died, Sept. 8, 1761. Belidor was cholen an affociate
of the academy of fciences in I ;5i ; ar.d was tlie author of
frveral ufeful works on civil and military architeclure, hy-
draulics, fortification, and engineering : viz. " Sommaire
d'un cours d' Architect ure Mihtaire, civile et hydraulique,"
1720, i2mo. ; " Nouveau cours de Mathematiques, 6cc."
1725, 4tc. ; "La Science des Ingenieurs," 1729, 410.;
" Le Bombardier Francois," 1734, 4to. ; " Architefture
Hydraulique," 1737 — 1761, 4 vols. 4to. ; " Di&ionnaire
portatif de I'Ingenicur," 8vo. ; and " Traite des Fortifica-
tions," 4 vol=. 4to. Several of his pieces are alfo infeited
in the memoirs of the academy of fciences for the years
'737' '75°' *753' ^""^ ^Tj^'* Nouv. Dift. Hiftor. Hut-
ton's Math. Did.

BELIEF, in its general and natural fenfc, denotes a per-
fuafion,or a ftrongaflent of the mind to the truth ofsnyprc-
pofition. In which fenfe, belief has no relation to any parti-
cular kind of means or arguments, but may be produced by
any means whatever. — Thus we are faid to believe our fenfts,
to believe our reafon, to believe a witnefs, &c. And hence,
in rhetoric, all forts of proofs, from whatever topics dedu-
ced, are called wirsi;, becaufe apt to produce belief, or per-
fuafion touching the matter in hand.

Belief, in its more reftrained r.nd technical fenfe, inven-
ted by the fchoolmen, denotes that kind of afient which is
grounded only on the authority or tcftimony of fome per-

foa

BEL

fon -or pei-fona, afTtfrting or atteftir.g the truth of any matter
propofed. Ill thii) fenfc belief (lands oppofed to knowledge
and Iciencc. \V^c do not fay we believe that fiio«' i« white, or
that the wiiole is equal to its parts ; but we fee and know
them to be fo : that the three angles of a triangle are equal to
tv.'O right angles, or that all motion is naturally reftilincar,
are not faid to be things credible, but fcientilical ; and the
ComprehenUon of fuch truths ii not belief, but fcience.
But when a thing propounded to us is neither apparent to
our fenfe, nor evident to our underftandiiig ; neither cer-
tainly to be collected from any clear and neceffary conneftiou
with the caufe from whence it proceeds, iior with the effefts
which it naturally produces ; nor is taken up upon any
real arguments, or relation thereof to other acknowledged
truths : and yet, notwiihftandiiig, appears as true, not by a
manifcftation, but by an attellation of the truth, and moves
us to alfent, not of itfelf, but in virtue of a teftimony given
to it — this is faid to be properly credible : and an alfent to
this is the proper notion of belief or faith.

A judicious writer (Price's Review of the principal quef-
tions in Morals, p. 15^) is of opinion, that all the general
grounds of belief or alfent, may be comprehended under the
three following heads: viz. ift. Immediate confciouliieis
(which fee), or feeling ; whence we acquire the knowledge of
our own exillence, and of the feveral operations, pafiions, and
fenfations of our own minds ; and to this head may be re-
ferred the information we derive from our powers of recol-
lection and memory ; 2dly, Intuition (which fee) ; and to
this we owe our belief of all fclf-evident truths, our ideas of
the general, abllraft afftdlions and relations of things, our
moral ideas, and whatfoever elfe wedifcover, without making
ufe of any procefs of rcafoning ; and 3dly, Argumentation or
Induftion. See thefe articles. See alfo Assent and
Taith.

BELIENE, in Gcip-aphy, a village of Egypt, d'pending
on the grand fchcik, and agreeably lituated between two
canals ; 12 miles fouth of Girge.

BELIEVERS, in Ecckjiajlkal H'ljlory, an appellation
given towards the clofe of tlie firll century to thole Chrii-
■ tians who had been admitted into the church by baptilm,
and inllrufted in all the myfteries of religion : they had
alfo accefs to all the parts of divine wordiip, and were autho-
rilcd to vote in the ccclefialUcal alfemblies. They were
thus called in contradillindtion to the catechumens, wlio had
not been baptized, and were debarred from thefe privileges.
BELILLA, in Botany. See Muss;enda.
BELIM, in Geography. See Belem and Para.
BELINA, a town of European Turkey, in Bofnia,
about midway between Banjaluka and Belgrade.

BELION, a name given to a river of I^ufitani'a, called
slfo Limias, I-inixus, Lethe, and the river Oblivion, in An-
cient Geography, was the boundary of the expedition of Deci-
mus Brutus. His foldiers, when they arrived at this river,
refufed, from motives of fuperllition, to crots it ; upon
^vhich he fnatched an enfign out of the hand of the bearer,
and parted over, by which his army was encouraged to fol-
low (Livy). He was the firll Roman who ever proceeded
fo far, and ventured to crofs. The appellation, according to
Strabo, took its rife from a fedition that occurred in a mili-
tary expedition between the Celtici and 'I'urduli after crof-
fing this river, in which the general v\as flain, fo that they
remained difperfed there ; and from this circum dance it
was called the river of I^ethe, or Oblivion. (Cellarius.) It is
now called " El IJmn," and runs wellward into the Atlan-
tic, to the fouth of the Minho.
BELISAME. SeeBtLASAMA.

BEL

BELISAMA, or Belizana, in Myihohsy, a ratne gi-
ven by -tlie Gauls to their Minerva, or to the goddefs who
was the inventrtfs of the arts. She was reprefcnted with a
helmet adorned with a plume, clothed in a tunic, without
lleeves, and covered with a mantle called " peplum." Her
attitude, with her head loaning on her right hand, was that
of a perfon in a profound reverie. Human vidims were
facriliced on her altars.

BELISARIUS, in Bhgraphy, l4ie Africarms of New
Rome, was born, and probably educated, among the Thracian
peafants ; and advanced from the humble llation of one of
the private guards of JuIHnian, then general ol the Roman
forces, and afterwards emperor, in which he had ferved with
valour and repul-ilion, to diitinguilhed military command.
I'lider the new title of General of tiie Eall, he encountered
the Perllan army near the fortrefs of Dara, on the confines
of Perfia, with a much inferior force, both as to the number
and quality of his troops, and obtained a decifive vittorj'.
In the next camjjaign, A.D. 530, he hallened from Dara
to the relief of Syria, which was invaded by the Periians ;
and though he was defeated in an engagement which the
impatience of his troops had precipitated, he faved his army
from the eonfequcnces of their own ralhnefs, and the vitlory
of the Perlian commander was fo dearly purchaled, that it
was foon followed by peace. Belilarius, on his return to
Conllantinople, rendered effcntial fervice to the emperor
Jullinian, by quelling a dangerous fedition. In 533, the
fupreme command of the ileet and army, deRincd tor the
African war, was delegated to Belifarius, with an unlimited
power of acting according to his own dilcretion, as if the
emperor hiinfelf were prefent. After a voyage of three
months, in which he had repeated opportunities of txer-
ciling his talents as a comm,ander, he dilembarked his troops
on the African coall. Immediately upon their landing an in-
itance of pillage occurred, which gave him occafion for in-
culcating* the maxims of juilice, moderation, and genuine
policy. " When I firll accepted the commifiion of fubdu-
ing Africa, I depended much lefs" faid the general, " on the
numbers, or even the bravery of my troops, than upon the
friendly difpofition of the natives, and their immortal ha-
tred to the Vandals. You alone can deprive me of this
hope ; if you continue to extort by rapine, what might be
purchafed for a little money, fuch ads of violence will re-
concile thefe implacable enemies, and unite them in a jult
and holy league againit the invaders of their country." His
exhortations, accompanied by rigid dilcipline, produced the
moft falutary effect. The inhabitants, iiiftead of delerting
their lioufes. or hiding their corn, lupplicd the Romans with
a fair and liberal market ; the civil officers of the province
continued to exercife their funtfions in the name of Julli-
nian ; and the clergy, from motives of confcience and in-
terell, affiduoully laboured to promote the caufe of a catho-
lic emperor. In his progrcfs towards Carthage, he defeat-
ed, with great flaughter, the formidable army collected by
GeliiVier, and entruiled to the conduft of his brother and
nephew, and reduced the king himftlt to the iieceiiity of
feeking his fafety by a precipitate fliglit.

Belifarius, having taken pufl'enion ot the city, rellorcd,
with incredible difpatch, its walls and ditches, which the heed-
lefsnefs and indolence of the Vandals iuid lulfered to de-
cay. The defeat of Zano, the brothir of Gelimer, a:ul
the pufillanimous flight of the king himlelf, terminated the
conquell of Africa in the manner already related under the
article Africa, which fee. Belifarius, on his return to Con-
llantinople in 534, obtained a fplendid triumph, and was
created fole conlul for the cnfuing year. I'he day of his
inauguration rcfembled the pomp of a fecond triumph ; his
6 curule

BEL

cunilc cliair was borne aloft on the flioulJers of captive Van-
dals ; and the fpoils of war, golj cups, and rich girdles,
were profufely fcattered among the populace. His moit
diftinguirtied recompenee, however, confifted in the faithful
execution of a treaty, for which he had pledged his honour
to the king of the Vandals, who received from the emperor
an ample ellate in the province of Galatia, whither he re-
tired with his family and friends to a life of peace, of af-
fluence, and perhaps of content.

The next objeft to which the attention of Belifarius was
direfted was tl;at of terminating the dominions of the Ollro-
goths in Italy. With this view he invaded Sicily A. D.
535, and having laid fiege to Palermo, which was foon re-
duced, and which was the only place where he met with
any rdillnnce, he foon after entered Syracufe in triumph!'
In the fpring of the following year he was diverted from
the profecution of his defigns by a dangerous revolt of the
African forces, which demanded iiis prefence at Carthage.
By an eafy vidory he would have rellored the peace of
Africa; if he had not been hallily recalled to Sicily, for
the purpofe of appealing a fcdition which had broken out
in his own camp. Having etfefted this objed, and fuffi-
ciently garrifoiied Palermo and Svracufe, he embarked
his troops at Mcffina, A. D. 537, and landed them, without
rcfillance, on the oppoiitc (hores of Rhegium. From
Rhegium to Naples, his fleet and army, almoll always in
view of each other, advanced near 300 miles along the fea-
coall ; and he received the fubmifiion of the inhabitants of
the feveral countries of Bnittium, Lucania, and Campa-
nia, through which he pafl'ed. The capture of Naples, to
which he laid fiege both by fea and land, was for fome time
'delayed ; and he had reconciled himfelf to the difgrace of
abandoning it, that he might march, before the winter
feafon, againll Rome and the Gothic king. But in the
moment of anxious fufpenfe a ftratagem occurred of intro-
ducing, by means of the dry channel of an aqueduft, a file
of armed foldiers into the heart of the city, who gained ad-
mittance to their companions, by whom the walls were
-fcaled on all fides and the gates burll open. Belifarius, hav-
ing fucceeded in this enterprife, rellrained the cruelty and fa-
crilege of the Huns ; and, for this purpofe, he appeared alone
in the ftreets and churches of Naples, and exerted himfelf in
moderating the calamities of the inhabitants. " The gold
and filver," he repeatedly exclaimed, " are the juft rewards of
your valour. But fpare the inhabitants ; they are Chrif-
tians, they are fupplicants, they are now your fellow fub-
jeds. Rellore the children to their parents, the wives to
their hufbands ; and fhew them, by your generofity, of what
friends they have obllinately deprived themfelves." The
city was thus faved by the virtue and authority of the con-
queror. From Naples, Belifarius proceeded to Rome ;
which, on his approach, was evacuated by the Gothic gar-
rifon, and which, after fixty years' fervitude, was delivered
from the yoke of the Barbarians, and furrendered, without
•oppofition, Dec. jo, A. U. 536. The Gothic chief, who
was himfelf a trophy of the vidtory, was fent with the keys of
Rome to the throne of the emperor Juilinian. In the follow-
d-.ig fpring Vitiges, who had been eleded by the Goths as the
fucceflbr of the feeble and depoled Theodatus, coUefted
■an army of 150,000 men, and attempted to recover the
capital. On the approach of the Barbarians, Belifarius fal-
lied forth to lurvcy their camp ; but being furrounded by
the enemy, he extricated himfelf by Angular exertions of
ftrength and valour. When the whole army of the Goths,
having paffed the Tiber, formed the fiege of the city, which
was continued above a year, before their final departure,
Belifarius, aided by his wife Antonina, his conilant com-

Vou IV

BEL

panion m every expedition, made many efforts for the re.
lief of its dillrcffed inhabitants, and for rcpulfing the befie-
gers, which at length, in concurrence with a force fent by
the emperor, were crowned with fuccefs ; fo that Rome
was >-efcued from the hollile attacks of the Gothic army,
which raifed the fiege, and, after attempting the recovery
of Rimini, took llielter within the walls of Ravenna. Upon
the arrival of an armv from Conilantinople, under the com-
mand of Narfes, a diifenfion arofe between the two generals,
whofe refpedivc authority was not accurately defined ; but
Belifarius was appointed, by the emperor's fpecial coininil-
fion, to the fupreme command. He incurred, however,
confiderable odium by the hatty execution of Conftantine,
governor of Spoleto, who had committed an atl of robbery ;
and in ccmfequcnce of this mcafure, the two armies fepara-
ted, and Narfes was exhorted by the leaders of the diicon-
tented faftion to alfume an independent and fupreme com-
mand. Belifarius, by his prudence and perfeverance, re-
gained his reputation and influence, and procured the recal
of Narfes, and the eftablithmcnt of military fubordination.
In the interval of difcord, the Goths, aided by the Franks,
captured Milan, with circumftances of aggravated cruelty.
In 1539, the deftruftion of Milan was fucceeded by the in-
vafion of Theodcbert of Aullrafia, the mod powerful and
warlike of the Merovingian kings, who, bcfides the fuccour
which he afforded to the Goths, invaded the plains of Italy
with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and marked his way
by ruin and flaughter. The clamours of his conquering
army, diminiflied by famine and difeafe, at length induced
Theodcbert to lillen with refpedl to the mild exhortations of
Belifarius ; who, as foon as he was delivered from his foreign
and domeftic enemies, ferioufly employed his forces in the
final reduction of Italy. Having reduced Olimo and Fxfu-
lae, he proceeded to invert; Ravenna ; and whillt he was en-
gaged in the blockade of this city, he received from Juili-
nian a treaty of peace, which he had adually figned without
deigning to alk his counfcl and concurrence. By tliis dif-
graceful and precarious treaty, Italy and the Gotliic trea-
fure were divided, and the provinces beyond the Po were
left with the legal title to Vitiges. Behfarius rejefted the
treaty of partition, and declared his firm refolution of lead-
ing Vitiges in chains to the feet of Juilinian. Upon this
the Goths retired with doubt and difmay, and perceiving
their own diftrefled and perilous ftate, offered their arms, their
treafures, and the fortifications of Ravenna to Behfarius, if
he would difclaim the authority of a mafter, accept their
choice, and affume, as he had deferved, the kingdom of
Italy. The Roman general, feeming to acquiefce in their
propofal, ftipulated the furrender of Ravenna at an appointed
day; and in December 1539, he entered the city without
oppofition, fecured the royal treafures, and placed Vitiges
under a guard in the royal palace. The fubmiflion of the
capital was followed by that of the towns and villages ia
Italy ; and the independent Goths, who ftiU remained in
arms at Pavia and Verona, were ambitious only to become
the fubjefts of Belifarius. But his inflexible loyalty rejefted,
except as the fubilituteof Juilinian, their oaths of allegiance ;
nor was he off'ended by the reproach of their deputies, that
he rather chofe to be a flave than a king. Juilinian, lillen-
ing to the fuggellions of envy and jcaloufy, recalled Beli-
farius ; who obeyed the fummons, and departed for Conilan-
tinople, carrying with him the treafures of Ravenna, and
the perfons of Vitiges, his wife, and chief nobles. The em-
peror received him with feeming cordiality, but without
granting him the well-earned honours of a fecond triumph.
Belifarius, however, was the objed of univerfal admiration
and applaufe among the people ; aud by the number ot lol-
U diers

BEL

diers in his private pay, and the attachment of the army,
■whufe afTcftion he fecured by his jullice and libcrahty, he
mJKiit well be reckoned the fecond perfon in the empire.
To the hufbandmeu he was endeared by the peace and plenty
which they enjoyed under tlie (hadovv of his (landard. Such
had been tlic rigid dil'ciphne of his camp, tliat the country,
initead of being injured by the march of the Roman armies,
had been enriched by them ; and not fo much as an apple
was gathered from a tree, nor could a path be traced in the
corn fields. As to his perfonal conduft, he was fober and
chafte to fuch a Jc^^ree, that, in the licence of a military
life, none could bonll that they had feen him intoxicated
with wine, and that he was never fufpeftcd of violating the
laws of conjugal fidelity. '-The fpeftator and hillorian of
his exploits," liiys Gibbou, " has obferved, that amidll the
perils of war, he was daring without ralhiiefs, prjdent with-
out fear, (low or rapid according to the exigencies of the
moment ; that in the deepeft diftrefs he was animated by
real or apparent hope ; but that he was modtft and humble
in the moft profperous fortune. By thefe virtues he equalled
or excelled the ancient mafters of the military art. Vittory,
by fca and land, attended his arms. He fubdued Africa,
Italy, and the adjacent iflands ; led away captives the fuc-
ceffors of Genferic ai.d Theodoric ; filled Conftantinople with
the fpoils of their palncet. ; and in the fpace of fix years re-
covered half the provinces of the wcfiern empire. In his
fame and merit, in wealth and power, he remained, with-
out a rival, the firft of the Roman fubjcds ; the voice of
envy could only magnify his dangerous importance ; and the
emperor might applaud his own difcerning fpirit, which had
difcovered and raifed the genius of Belifarius." Neverthe-
Icfs, the fame, and even the virtue of Belifarius, were pol-
luted by the luft and cruelty of his wife Antonina. This
profligate woman was the daughttr of a theatrical proftitute;
and in the various fituations of tiie fortune of her parents,
(he became the companion, the enemy, the fervant, and the
favourite of the emprefs Theodora. Before h.er marriage
with Belifarius, ihe had one hufband and many lovers ; and
after their connubial union, (lie contrived to gratify her licen-
tious paffions, and to impofe on the credulity of her hufband,
whom Ihedilhonoured, and whom by her influence iheinlligat-
ed to tranfactions that fix an indcliljle ftain on his memory.

When Syria was invaded by CholVoes king of Perfia, in
the year 540, and Antioch, its rich capital, deftroyed, Be-
lifarius, the conqueror of Italy, v.-as appointed to the defence
of the call. Accordingly, in the year 541, he encamped
beyond the Euphrates, witliin fix miles of Nifibis, in order
to reftrain the progrefs of the Perfian monarch on the
coaft of the Eixine. Having fucceeded, without the fup-
port which he had reafon to experdt, in forcing Chofroes to
return with lofs and precipitation, he was recalled, at the
clofe of the campaign, to Conftantinop'e, by an ungrateful
court; but the dangers of the enfuing fpring reftored his
confidence and command ; and the hero, almoft alone, was
difpatchcd with the fpeed of poil-horfes, to repel by his
name and prefence the invafion of Syria. On the hanks of
the Euphrates his firm attitude reftraintd Chofroes from ad-
vancing towards Palettine, and compelled him to repafs the
river: thus accomplifhing his purpofe by a fafe and bloodlefs
viftory, more glorious than his Afncan and Gothic triumphs,
in which neither fortune, nor the valour of his foldiers, can
fubtraft any part of the general's renown. But the danger
threatened to Italy by the rapid conquefts of Totila, who
had been advanced to the Gothic throne, required the pre-
fence of Belifarius ; and accordingly he was again recalled
from the eafl, and in 544, he arrived at the port of Ravenna,
with an inconfiderable number of ill-provided recruits. Thus

BEL

fuppoited, he was unable to impede the progrefs of Totila,
and to prevent his laying ficge even to Rome. When the
city was reduced to extreme dillrefs by the want of provifions,
the fupply of which had been long obftitifted by the be-
fieging army, Belifarius made a bold attempt for its relief.
But his enterprife for this purpofe having failed, Rome was
obliged to fubmit to the Gothic yoke ; and Belifarius could
only prevail by his interpolition to prevent its threatened de-
ftruftion. Totiln, having dcmohflied its walls, and removed
moil of its inhabitants, marched into the fouth of Italy ;
upon which Belifarius took pofltffior! of it, and haftily forti-
fied himfelf within its circuit ; fo that he was able thrice to
rtpulfc the Gothic army which Totila brought againft it.
But whilll he was engaged in its defence, he was command-
ed by the emperor to leave a fufficient garrifon at Rom.e,
and to tranfport himfelf into.Lucania, in order to fupprcls a
revolt wliich had taken place in that province. In this war-
fare he was bafely vanquilhe d by the delay, difobedience, and
cowardice of his officers ; and having repoled in his winter-
quarters at Crotona, he was obliged by the rapid march of
the Goths to make his efcape to the coaft of Sicily. At
length Antonina, who had been fent to Conftantinople to
folicit fnccours, obtained, after the death of the emprefs, per-
miflion for Belifarius to return. Accordingly, after failing
to deliver Italy from the Goths, and wandering like a fugi-
tive along the coaft, without daring to march into the coun-
try, or to accept the bold and repeated challenge of Toti-
la, he was recalled in September 548. The fublcqnent luc-
cefs of Narfes in recovering Italy, threw a (hade over the
military reputation of Belifarius ; though about 10 years
afterwards he dilUngulflied himfelf by laving the capital
' from an incurfion of the Bulgarians, who had advanced to
its long walls, about 40 miles from the city, and occafioned
an univerfal alarm. Tiie enemy were put to flight by the
niihtai^ veteran at the bead of a tumultuary band ; though
it was neceffary to purchafc their return into their own
country by a heavy ranfom. This was the laft exploit of
Belilarius ; and his remaining days were doomed to misfor-
tune and dif Jrace. The jealoufy of the emperor, increafing
with his years, led him to fufpedf Belifarius of being con-
cerned in a coufpiracy againlt his crown and Ins hfe ; and
the veteran general, after forty years' fervice, and on incom-
petent tellin.ony, was judged guilty, Dec. 5, A.D. 567.
His life, indeed, was fpartd, but his fortimes were fequef-
tered, and he v.'as guarded for feveral months, as a prifoncr,
in his own houfe. At length, July 19, A. D. 564, his
innocence was acknowledged; his freedom and honour were
reftored ; and death, which might be haftened by refent-
ment and grief, removed him from the world about eight
nionths after his dehverance, March 13, A.D. ^d^. " The
name of Belifarius," fays Gibbon, " can never die ; but in-
ftead of the funeral, the monuments, the ftatues, fo juftly
due to his memory, I only read, that his treafures, the
fpoils of the Goths aud Vandals, were immediately confif-
cnted by the emperor. Some decent portion, howeve-r, was
referved for the ufe of his widow ; and as Antonina had
much to repent, (he devoted the lall remains of her hfe and
fortune to the foundation of a convent. Such is the fimple
and genuine narrative of the fall of Belifarius and the ingra-
titude of Jnftinian. That he was deprived of his eyes, and
reduced by envy to beg his bread, Give a penny to Belifarius
the general, is a fiftion of later times, which has obtained
credit, or rather favour, as a (Irange example of the vicifTi-
tudes of fortune."

The fource of this idle fable may be derived from a mifcel-
laneous work of the twelfth century, the Chiliads of John
Tietzes, 3 monk, who relates the blindnefs and beggary of

Belifarius

BEL

Beliurius in fen vulgar or political verfes. (ViJ. Corp. Poet.
GrjEC. torn. ii. p. 31 1.)

BAitrxftii o^oXvi co\'. Till j-pasTtiXalu

This moral or romantic tale was imported into Italy with
the language and manufcripts of Greece ; repeated before
the end of the fifteenth century by Crinitus, Potilanus, and
Volaterranus ; attacked by Alicat for the honour of the law,
and defended by Baronius for the honour of the church.
Yet Tzetzes himfelf had read in other chronicles, that Bcli-
farius did not lofe his fight, and that he recovered his fame
and fortunes. Gibbon's Hift. Decl. and Fall of the Rom.
Emp. vol. vii.

The ftatue in the villa Borghefe, at Rome, in a fitting
pofture, with an open hand fupplicating alms, is commonly
attributed to Bclifarius ; but it may be afcribed with greater
propriety to Auguftus, reprefented under the character of a
menSicant, propitiating the anger of Nemeiis. Suetonius (in
Aug. c.gi.) informs us, that on a certain day every year, he
humbled himfelf to the condition of a beggar, extending- his
open hand, and foliciting alms from the people. Winkcl-
mann. tom. iii. p. 266.

BELISSO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
near Aiigufta Afturica. Itin. Antonin.

BELITANI, a people of Spain, according to Pliny.

BELITZ, in Geogriiphy, a town of Germany, in a pre-
fefturate of tlie fame name, in the circle of Zauch, and
country of Middle-Mark of Brandenburg, feated on the ri-
ver Nieptlitz, or Bclitz, which has repeatedly fuffered from
fire. It is defended by old ramparts and ditches, and has a
manufafture of cloth ; 28 miles fouth-well of Berlin, and
12 fouth-well of Potzdam.

BELITZY,a town and diftrift of the Ruffian em,pire,in the
government of Mohilef,fcated on a rivulet falling into the Sofh.

BELKANI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia, 14 miles north of Satalia.

BELKIN, a town of Egypt, 4; miles fouth-wtfl of
Damietta, and 54 fouth-weft of Cairo.

BELKOVA, a river of Rnfiia, in the government of
Arcjiangel, which runs into the Frozen fta. N. lat. 68° 30'.
E.long.s8°34'.

BELL, a popular machine, ranked by muficians among
the number of mufical inllruments of percudion. The mu-
fic of bells is altogether melody ; but the pleafure arifing
from it confifts in the variety of interchanges, and the va-
rious fiicccflions and general predominance of the confo-
nances in the founds produced.

The parts of a bell are the body or barrel, the clipper
within fide, and the car or cannon, whereby it is hung to a
large beam of wood. — Its ulual matter is a kind of com-
pound metal, called Lll-inettil. The thicknefs of its edges
h ufually -rV of the diameter, and its height twelve times its
thicknefs. The bell-founders have a diapafon, or bell-fcale,
with which they meafere the fi^e, thicknefs, weight, and
tone of their bells. For the method of caftvi'.g bells, fee

FoUNDERY .

The found of a bell arifes from a vibratory motion of the
parts thereof, much like that of a mufical chord. Tlie llroke
■«f the clapper, it is evident, muil change the figure of the
beil, and of round make it oval; but the metal having a
great degree of elallicity, that part which the llroke drove
fartheft from the centre will fly back again, and this even
fumewhat nearer to the centre than before ; fo that the two
pviints, which before were the extremes of the l^niger diame-
ter, now become thofe of the (horter. Thus, the circum-
ference of the bell undergoes alternate change i of figure,

BEL

and by means thereof gives that tremulous motion to the air,
in which found confifts.

M. Perrault maintains, that the found of the fame bell or
chord, is a compound of the found of the feveral parts
thereof; fo that where the parts are homogeneous, and the
dimenfions of the figure uniform, tl.ere is fuch a perfect mi:c-
ture of all thefe founds, as conftitutes one uniform, fmooth,
even found: and the contrary circumflances produce harfh-
iiefs. This he proves from the bell's differing in tune accord-
ing to the part you ftrike ; and yet ftrike it any where, there
is a motion of all the parts. He therefore confidcrs bells as
compofed of an infinite number of rings ; which, according
to their different dimenfion-, liave different tones, as chords
of different lengths have ; and when (Iruck, the vibrations of
the parts immediately ftruck determine the tone ; being fup-
porttd by a fufiicient number of confanant tones in the other
parts. Mr. Hawkfbee, and others, have found by experimf lit,
that the found of a bell ftruck under water, is a fourth deeper
than in the air: though Meifennus fays, it is of the fame
pitch in both elements. This writer has treated largely of
thediiferent metals of which bells are formed, of theirfigure,
rrafiicude, and degrees of pondercfity, as they rtfpecl each
other in a given feries.

Bells are obferved to be heard .farther, placed on plain?,
than on hills ; and Hill farther, in valleys, than on plains :
the reafon of which it will not be diiiicult to afilgn. if it be
confidered, that the higher the fonorous body is, the rarer is
its medium : confequenlly the lefs impulfe it receives, and the
iefs proper vehicle it has to convey it to a diflance. There i«
a curious obfei-vation in a paper ot M. Reaumur's in the Me-
moirs of the Paris Academy, relating to the ihape moft. pro-
per for bells, to give them the loudtfl and cleareft found.
He obferves, that as pots, and other veir>:ls more imisedi-
ately neceffary for the fcrvice of life, were doubtlcfs made
before bells, it probably happened, that the obfen-ing thefe
veffeh to have a found when ftruck, gave occafion to making
bells, intended only for lound, in that form : but that it
does not appear thit this is the moft eligible figure ; for lead,
a metal which is, in its common ftate, not at all fonorous,
yet becomes greatly fo on being caft into a particular form,
and that very different from the common fhape of bells. In
melting lead for the comm.on occafions of carting in fmall
quantities, it is ufually done in an iron ladle; and as the
whole is feldom poured out, the remainder, which falls to
the bottom of the ladle, cools into a mafs of the fliape of
that bottom. This is conftqijently a fegment of a fphere,
thickeft in the middle, and thinner towards the edges : nor
is the ladle any neceffary part of the operation, fince if a
mafs of lead be caft in that form in a mould of earth or
fand, in any of thefe cafes it is found to be very fonorous.
Now, if this (liape alone can give found to a metal which in
other forms is perfectly mute, how much more muft it ue-
cclfarily give it to other metals naturally fonorous in what.
ever form. It fhould feem that bells would much better per-
foraa their office in this than any other form, and that it
muft particularly be a thing of great advantage to the i'mail
bells of comn^oii houfe -clocks, which are required to have a
llnill note, and vet are not allowed any great fize. M.
Reaumur very judicioully obfei"ves, that if our fore-tathers
had opportunities of being acquainted with the found of
metals in this fhape, we ihould probably have had all our
i>tlls at prefcnt of this form. Mtm. Acad. Par. 1721^.

With regard to the origin of bells, thofe of a fmall fize
are verj' ancient ; but thofe uf a large bulk, hung in towers
and hung by ropes, were introduced at a much later period.
Among the Jews, it was ordained by Mofes, that the lower
part ot the blue robe, which was worn by the high priefl in
U 2 religious

BEL

rr'i>^ioHS ceremonies, fiiDuld be adoint-d wiih pomfs;rnnatc3
and f^oLi bells iiitcDiiixcd at equal diHanct"!. (See Exodus,
xxviii. ^3, 34.) 'Ilie kings of PcrHa arc (aid lo have had
the hem of their robes adorned, like tliat of the Jiwifh high-
priells, with poTiiegranatts and gold bells. The Arabian
priutcflcs wear on their legs lar^c hollow gold rings, filled
with fmall flints, which found like bells, when they walk ;
and thcfe, with fimilar appiiitenances, give notice that the
miflrefs of the hoiife is paffing, fo that the fervants of the
tamily may behave with refpeft, and flrangeia may retire to
avoid feeing the perfon who advances. Calmcc fiippofea,
that it was with feme fuch delign of giving notice that the
Jiigh ptiell was palling, that he wore little hells at the hem
of his robe ; and it was alfo a kind of p\iblic notice that he
was about to enter into the fanftuar)'. In the court of the
king of Perfia, no one entered the apartments without fome
warning ; and thus the high prieft, when he entered the
fanftuary, delired permiflion to enter by the found of his
bells, and in fo doing he efcaped the punifhment of death
annexed to an indecent intrnllon. Tlie prophet Zachary
(ch. xiv. 20.) fpeaks of bells of the horfcs, which were pro-
bably hung to the bridles or foreheads of war-horfes, that
they might thus be accuftomed to noife. Calmet.

Among the Greeks, thofe who went the nightly watch
roundi in camps or garrifons, carried with them a little bell,
which they rang at each centry-box to keep the foldiers ap-
pointed to watch awake. A bell-man alfo walked in fune-
ral pioccdions, at a dillance before the corpfe, not only to
keep off tlie crowd, but to advertife the flamen dialis to
keep out of the way, lead he Ihould be polluted by the
light, or by the funeral mufic. The prieft of Proferpine at
Athens, called " hierophantus," rung a bell to call the peo-
ple to facrifice. The hour of bathing, at Rome, was an.
nounced by the found of a bell, and hence it has been fup-
pofed they were ufed to mark the hours of derotion, and
fummon people to church. Servants in the houfes of great
men were called up in a morning by the found of bells. Zo-
naras informs us, that bells were hung with whips on the
triumphal chariots of their viftorious generals, in order to
remind them that they were ftill amenable to public juflice.
Bells were affixed to the necks of criminals going to exe-
cution, to warn perfons to avoid fo ill an omen as the
fight of the executioner or condemned criminal, who was
devoted and about to be facrificed to the " dii manes." To
this fuperftition fome perfons have attributed the cuftom in
England of ringing parifh bells, while a malefaftor is on his
way to the gallows ; though others have generally fuppofed
it was intended as a fignal to all who heard it, admonifh-
ing them to pray for the pafTmg foul. Phxdrus mentions
bells annexed to the necks of brutes : " Celfa cervice emi-
nens, clarumque, coUo ja6tans tintinnabulum." Taking
thefe belb away was conftrued by the civil law to be theft ;
and if the beaft was thus lofl, the perfon who took away
the bells was to make fatisfaftion. Shoep had them tied
about their necks, to frighten away wolves, or rather by
way. of amulet, or to direct (hepherds where to find their
flocks ; and fmce the praftice of bletSng them has been in-
troduced, they have been thought to preferve animals from
»pidemical diforders.

The ufes of bells are fummed up in the Latin didich :
•• Laudo Deum verum, plebem voco, congrego clerum,
DefunAos ploro, peftem fugo, fella decoro."
To the fame purpofe is the following infcription on bells,
mentioned by Weevcr, in his " Funeral Monuments,"
{.122.

" Funera plango, fiilgura frango, fabbata pango,
Eitcitg koto:, 4iffipo vtatot, pace cruentosr"

BEL

The fir(^ bells are faid to have been made about the year
400, at Nola, in Campania, whereof St. Paulinas was inade
bidiop in 409 ; at kail it is alTcrted, he was the firll who
hronght them into ufe in the church. Before his time
Chriltians tiiade ufe of rattles, "facra ligna," to call the
congregation together; no bells being allowed by govern-
ment to a profcribed fed. Hence, it is added, they had
their Latin names, NoU, iirll ufcd by Qninftilian, and
Campiirid', a term w^hich was adopted in the tim.e of St. Je-
rom. But others fay, they take thefe names, not from
their being invented in Campania, but becaufe it was here
the manner of hanging and balancing them in fleeples, now
in ufe, was firft praclifed ; at leaft, that they were hung or:
the model of a fort of balance invented or ufcd in Campania.
For in Latin writers we find CampanaJlaUra, laxz.j}ed-jard ;
and in the Greek xc^^Tan^stv, lor ponderart, to weigh. At
firll they were called _/7(;/7/J ; and hence are derived a toe-
fa'ml, or torfin.

Polydore Virgil afcribes the invention of church bells to
pope .Sabinian, St. Gregory's fucceflbr ; but this is a mil-
take ; for St. Jerom, contemporary with Paulinus, makes
mention of one. Pope Sabinian did not invent bells ; but
he was the firll who appointed the canonical hours to be
diftinguiflied by them.

We even find mention made of bells in Ovid, Tibullus,
Martial, Statins, Manilius, and the Greek authors, under
the appellations of tinllnnabula, s.nd fmnJing Irafs. Sueto-
nius, Dion, Strabo, Polybius, Jofephus, and others, men-
tion them under the names oi ptiafus, tinUnnabulum, aramen-
tiim, crotahim, fgmim, &c. But thefe appear to have been
no more than baubles, and not like the huge bells in ufe
among us.

Hieronymus Magius, who has a treatife on bells (written
when in chains in Turkey, and which is accounted very re-
markable, purely from his memory, without the affiftance of
any books), makes large bells a modern invention. Indeed,
we do not hear of any before the fixth century, when they
were applied to eccleliaftical purpofes in fome of the monaf-
tic focieties of Caledonia, as they were in thofe of Northum-
bria before the conclufion of the 1 7th century ; and they feem
to have been ufed from the firft ereftion of parifh churches
in this kingdom. In 1610, vi-e are told, Lupus, bifhop of
Orleans, being at Sens, then befieged by the army of Clotha-
rius, frighted away the beliegers by ringing the bells of St.
Stephen's. The firft large bells in England are mentioned by
Bede, towards the latter end of that century, or about the
year 670. They feem to have been pretty common in the
year 816. Ingulphus mentions that Turketulus, abbot of
Croyland, who died about the year S70, gave a great bell,
to the church of that abbey, which he named Guthlac,
and afterwards fix others, all which rang together : and not.
long after this time, Kinfcus, archbifhop of York, built a
tower of flone to the church of St. John at Beverly, and
placed in it two great bells, and at the fame time provided
that other churches in his diocefe fhould be furnifhed with.,
bells. J. Stubbz. Ad. Pont. Ebor. fol. 1700. Mention is
alfo made by St. Aldhelm, and WilHam of Malmefbury, of
bells given bv St. Dunllan to the churches in the wefl. See
Spelm. GlofT. voc. Campana ; and Bingham's Ant. Chrill.
Church, book viii. ch. vii. j ij.

The Greeks are -ifually faid to have been unacquainted
with bells till the i..nth century, or about the year 865,
when their conftrudion was firll taught them by a Ve-
netian.

Indeed it is not true, that the ufe of bells was entirely
unknown in the ancient caftern churches, and that they
called the people to church, as at prcfent, with wooden

mall»tS5

BEL

mallets. Leo Allatius, in his DifTertation on the Greek tem-
ples, proves the coiUraiy from feveral ancient writers. Itis his
opinion that bells firll beij^an to be difiifed among them,
after the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks ; who,
it feems, prohibited them, left their found fhould diilurb the
repofe of fouls, which, according to them, wandered in the
air. He adds, that they Hill retain the ufe of bellj in places
remote from the intercourfe of the Turks ; particularly,
very ancient ones in mount Athos. F. Simon thinks the
Turks rather prohibited the Chrillians the ufe uf bells out
of political than religious reafuns ; inafmuch as the ringing
of bells might ferve as a iignal for the execution of revolts,
&c. The city of Bourdeaux was deprived of its bells for
rebellion ; and when it was offered to have them reftored,
the people refufed it, after having tailed the eafe and con-
veniencv of being freed " from the conftant din and jangling
of bells'."

Matthew Paris obferves, that anciently the ufe of bells
was prohibited in the time of mourning ; though, at prefent,
they make one of the principal ceremonies of mourning.
Mabillon adds, that it was an ancient cultom to ring the
bells for perfons about to expire, to advertife the people to
pray for them ; whence our pafling-bells. The paffing-bell
anciently ferved two purpofes : one of which was engaging
the prayers of all good people for departing fouls ; and the
other was, driving away the evil fpirits which haunted the
bed and houfe, and which were ready to feize their prey, or
to terrify and moleft the foul in its palfage ; but by the
ringing of this bell, it is faid they were kept at a dillance.
To this circumftance we may probably afcribe the high price
demanded for tolling the largell bell of the church ; which
being louder, and heard at a greater di'' ince, might keep
thefe evil fpirits more remote, and alfo procure for the dying
man a greater number of prayers.

Lobineau obferves, that the cuftom of ringing bells at
the approach of thunder is of fome antiquity ; but that
the defign was not fo much to ftiake the air, and fo dif-
fipate the thunder, as to call the people to church, to pray
that the parifli might be preferved from mifchief by it.

Whatever occafion fome catholics may have given for the
reproach, that they attribute to bells the power of driving
away demons, and difpelling ftorms ; it is certain the ancient
canons of the church only afcribe this power very remotely
to bells. Their meaning feems to be this : Satan fears and
flies from the bells, becaufe he knows that bells fummoned
good people to church to pray, and he dreads their prayers.
It was therefore to prayer, occafioned by the ringing of bells,
and not to the bells, that fuch good eftefts were afcribed.

The cuftom of chriftening or bleffing bells is very ancient.
The charge of baptizing bells, alleged by proteftants againft
the Roman catholics, has been denied by the latter ; but
they allow that they blefs bells with certain ceremonies as
they do all other church utenfils ; and that one of the cere-
monies is the giving of a name to the bell, ii» order to
diftinguilh it from others, or in honour of fome faint. It
feems reafonable, therefore, to acquit them of the blame of
protlituting baptifm in this cafe, and to charge them merely
with confecration and benediftion. Before bells were hung,
they were waftied, croffed, blcffed, and named by the bifliop.
This is what fome proteftants have called baptizing of them }
but others fay, it might be denominated the luftration of
them, refembling the luftration of tru pets among the Ro-
mans. Cardinal Bona obferves (Rer. Liturg. 1. ii, c. 22.),
that the name of fome faint is given to a bell at the time of
its confecration, that the people may think themfelves fum-
moned to divine fervice by the voice of the faint whofe name
tfec bell bears. Some fay that this cuftom was introduced

I

BEL

by pope John XIIT. who occupied the pontifical chair from
965 to 972, and who firft confecrated a bell in the Lateran
church, and gave it the name of John th^ Baptift. But it
is evidently of an older Handing ; there beir.g an c.\piefi
prohibition of the praftice in a capitular of Charlemagne
in 789 : " ut clocae non baptizentur." S^e Hofpiiiian df
Origine Tcmplurum, p. 113. where there is a particular
account of all the ridiculous ceremonii-s practifed about
bells. See Dr. Franklin's Obfervations on confecrated
Bells, and the Form in confecrating them. Experiments,
Obfervations, kc. p. 487. ed. 1769.

Nankin, a city of Cliina, was anciently famous for the
largenefs of its bells ; but their enormous weitrht having
brought down the tower in which they were hung, the
whole building fell to ruin, and the bells have ever fmce been
difregarded. One of thefe bells is near twelve Englifli feet
high, the diameter feven and a half, and its circumference
twenty-three ; its figure almoft cyhndric, except for a fwel-
ling in the middle, and the thicknefs of the metal about the
edges, feven inches. From the dimcnfions of tliis bell, its
weight is computed at 50,000 pounds, which is more than.-,
double the weight of that at Erfurt, faid by father Kircher
to be the greateil bell in the world. Thefe bells were cafi:
by the firft emperor of the preceding dynafty, above three
hundred years ago. They have each their name, the hanger
tchoul, the eater che, the fleeper chmi, the willjf. Father-
le Compte adds, that there are feven ether bells in Pckin,
call in the reign of Youlo, each of which weighs 1 20,000
pounds. But the founds even of their biggcll bells are very
poor; being llruck with a wooden iuftead of an iron:
clapper.

The Egyptians have none but wooden bells, except one
brought by the Franks into the monafterv- of St. Anthony.

In the churches of RufTia their bells arc numerous, and
diftinguilhed by their enormous fize. They are hung, par-
ticularly at Mofcow, in belfreys or fteeples detached from
the churches, with gilt or filver cupolas or croffes ; and
they do not fwing like our bells, but are fixed immoveably
to the beams, and rung by a rope tied to the clapper, and
pulled fideways. One of thefe bells in the btifrey of St.
Jvan's church at Mofcow, weighs 127,836 Englifli pound?...
It has always been etteemed a meritorious aft of religion to
prefent a church with bells, and the piety of the donor has-
been eftimated by their magnitude. According to this mod;;
of eftimation, Boris Godnnof, who gave a bell of 288,000
pounds to the cathedral of Mofcow, was the moft pious fo-
vereign of Ruflia, until he was furpaffed by the emprefs
Anne, at whofe expence a bell was caft, weighing 432,000
pounds, which exceeds in fize every bell in the known world.
Its dimenfions, as afcertained by Mr. Cox (Travels in Ruf-
fia, vol. i. p. 322.), are as follow: the height is 19 feet,
the circumference at the bottom 6t, feet i i inches, and its
greateft thicknefs 23 inches. The beam to which this vaft
machine was faftened, being accidentally burnt by a fire in
1737, the bell fell down, and a fragment was broken off
towards the bottom, which left an aperture large enough to
admit two perfons a-breall without ftooping, .

The ringing or ftriking of the bells, though it forms no
part of divine worlhip, as fome writers have all'erted, fcrves,
however, by the number of ftrokes, to inform any perfon
without the church what part of the religious fervice is be-
ginning within it. Thus, feveral ftrokes are ftruck juft
before the mafs ; and this is called " blagoveft," i. e. the
agreeable found, as a fummons to the prailss of God. Be- .
fore the commencement of the liturgy, it founds three ; and
in the middle of it, a few ftrokes are given to the btU, to let
the people without know tjiiat the hymn to the holy virgin is

ROW.

B E L

now beginning to be fiuig. All pcrfon>, on heari.'.g this,
throw alide their work, bow, and crofs thtmiclves, repeating
iileiitly the verfe then linj^ing in the ch\nch. In the fame
Bianner is regulated the iluted nnmber ot llrokes at tlie feve-
ral periods of the vefpors and the matins. On fume ho-
lidays they are founded through the whole day. Tooke's
Hilt, of Ruffia, vol. i. p. 128.

The fame writer alfo informs us, that rinfjing the bells,
on church and court holidays, is a Ipecies of excrcife of
which the RulTians are very fond : but they produce nothing
like harmony from them. The fole excellency confifts in
ftriking the clapper the ofteneft.

For further particulars relating to bells, fee Changes in
a given number of bells, Tint inn alogi A, Carillons,
and Ring.

Bell Bay, in Gengrnphy, a harbour on the fouth-wed
coaft of Eaft Greenland, to the north of Horn Sound.

Bell Sound, is tituatcd on the weft coail of Spitzbcrgen,
in the Icy fea. N. lat. 77° 12'. E. long. 12" 40'.
Bell, bearing tin. See Racing.
Bells, founiicry of. See Founuerv.
Bell, diving. See Diving.

Bells, dedrical, are ufed in a variety of entertaining ex-
periments by cltftricians. The ajjparatus, which is origi-
nally of German invention, conlifts of three fniall bells luf-
pended from a narrow plate of metal {Plate, Ekcfricity,)
the two oiitermoil by chains, and that in the middle, fiom
which a chain pafTes to the floor, by a filkcn llring. Two
fmall nobs of brafs are alfo hung by filken firings, one on
each fide of the bell in the middle, wiiich ferve for clappers.
When this apparatus is conneAed with an eleaiitied oon-
dudW, the outermoft bells fufpended by the chains will be
charged, attratl the clappers, and be ftiufk by them. The
clappers becoming clertritied likewife, will be repelled by
thefe bells, and attracted by the middle bell ; and-difcharge
themfelves upon it by means of the chain extending to the
floor. After this, they will be again attraCled by the outer-
mod bells, and thus, by linking the bells alternately, occa-
fion a ringing, wliich may be continued at pleafure. Flalhes
of light will be fcen in tlie dark between the bells and the
clappers ; and if the elc&rification be ilrong, the difcharge
will be made witliout actual contatt, and the ringing will
ceafe. An apparatus of this kind, connecled with one of
the condudors that are crefted for fecuiing buildings from
lightning, will ferve to give notice ot the approach and paf-
fage of an eleftrical cloud.

Bell-jj/ij/}, in Chemijhy, a convenient velTel for many che-
mical operations, particularly upon gafeous bodies. It has
the advantage of not being eafily overthrown, and is readily
man:(geable by the knob of glafs at the top. When ufed it
is always inverted or Handing with the open end downwarde.
See Plate! in Chi-mijlry.

Chemical bells art a fort of receptacles chiefly ufed in pre-
paring the oil or fpirit of fulphur, tor gathering and con-
denfiiig fumes into a liquor.

Bell, in Building, is ufed to denote the body of the Co-
rinthian and Compofite capital, by reafoii of its refemblance
to the figure of a bell inverted. In this fcnfc, bell is the fame
with what we otherwife call ■j'^/tand tambour, fomctimes alfo
corbeil. The naked of the bell is alw ays to be even and per-
pendicular with the bottom of the flutings of the column.
Vit.vhjlo'wer, in Botany. See Campanula.
Bells, hair, \a Botany. See Hyacinth.
TitLL-metal, an important alloy, compofed principally of
copper and zinc. See Copper.

Viii.'L-animal, in Zoology, a name given by fome of the
early writers on microfcopical difcovencs, to creatures of the

7

BEL

Hydra genus. The bodies of thefe animals are flwpcd like
bells, and they have very long and flender tails, by which
they faften themfelves to the roots of httle plants. They_
are ufually found in great nurtibers together, in a fort of
clufters or bunches ; ajid all of the fame bunch have always
the fame motion, very frequently coatrafting themfelves, and
afterwards expanding all together to the, full length of their
tails. They ufually contract inllantaneoufly ; but are more
flow in the expanding themfelves again. Baker's Microf.
p. 90. See Hvdra.

BtLL-m«yf/'«.r, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the plant called hamia mofchata, and mofch-fced.
V>)ii.i.'pepper. See Capsicum,

V>^\,i.-polype, in Zoology, is the name applied to one parti-
cular fpccies, the extremities of whofe branches refemble
bells, and which is now called Vorticella Umbcllaria.

VitLi^-tveed, an Englifh name ufed by fome authors for the
jACfA-nigra, or common kiiap-weed, called alfo by many
Englifh writers Matfdon.

15ELLA, Stefano de la, in Bicgraphy, an eminent
engraver, was born at Florence in 1610, and after having
been for fome time employed in the bufinefs of his father,
who wasa goldfmith, applied to the i^udy of engraving, and
became the difciple of Canta Gallina. At firll he i'jitatcd
the manner of Callot, who had been a difciple of the fame
mailer ; but acquiring a facility in handling the point, he
adopted a manner of his own, which is faid to have fur-
pafled, in freedom and fpirit, that of Caliot. At Paris,
whither he removed in 1642, he formed an acquaintance with
Ifrael Silvellre, and was much employed by Henriete, the
uncle of Silveftre. Upon his return to Florence, he obtain-
ed a peniion from the grand duke, and was appointed to
inftruct the prince Col'inus, his fon, in the art of defigu.
But being habitually fubjed to violent pains in the head,
they at length terminated liis life in 1664. The free and
mallerly etchings of this excellent artifl are well known ; and
his ditlinguifhing excellence contitls in the freedom of his
point, and the hghtnefs and elegance of his figures. He
drew correctly, and with great talte ; and his works difplay
much genius and great fertility of invention. Their ilightnefs
is compenfated by their fire and animation. He is faid to have
engraved 1400 plates; among which are, " Six Views of
Livourne ;" feveral fets of " Shipping ;" " A Holy Fami-
ly ;" feveral " Madonas ;" a " View of Pont-neuf" at
Paris ;" " St. Proiper,"' a fcarce print ; five fmall ovals, in
which is reprefented " Death carrying away perfons of vari-
ous ages ;" •' Death mounted on the fteltton of a horfe ;"
" ParnafTus ;" and the " Rock," both fcarce ; " Animals;"
" Beggars ;" and various fets of " Hunting ;" " Shipping;"
" Landfcapes ;" " Ornaments," ccc. Strutt.

Bella Polla, or Terra Polla, in Geography, a fmall
high ifland, rciembling two iflands with lofty round hills,
10 leagues N. E. by N. from cape Angelo, and 4 leagues
N. N. W. from Gi ava ifland ; fituate on the cc.alt of the Morta
in the Archipelago.

Bella, in Entomology, a fpecies of Phal^ena {bombyx,)
found in North America, 'i he wings, are vcUow, with fix
rows of black dots : pullerior wings red, with black tips-
Linn, Muf. Lud. Ulr.

BELLAC, in Geography, a town of France, and princi-
pal place of a diftrift, in the department of the Upper Vi-
enae, ftated on the Vircon. It derives its name from an old
fortified caftle, erefted in the lOth century, and contains
about 2500 inhabitants. N.lat.46°7'. E. long. 0° 57'.

BELLADAC, a town of Afia, in the province of Diar-
bekir, 45 miles weft of Rabba.

BELLADONNA lily, in Botany. See Amaryllis.

BELLADO.NNil,

BEL

BEti-ADOSMA, a name given by the Italians to the JeaJly
nighljl-ia.lc, becaiile the ladies make a coicietic of the jnice,
or diilillcd water, winch they ulc to make their cunipicxion
fair and white. Ray.

Others derive the name from the intoxicating quahty of
this plant: " <^iiod infonmis pulchras oficndat virguies fcmi-
nafque." Bod. Comment, m Thcophraft. 1078. See
Atropa.

Belladonna, in Entomology ; PiJpil'io Cardui, is defcrib-
cd under this name in the Fatiiia Suvcica. Linn. i. n. 778.

BELLAIRE, in Geography, a poft town of Amcr.ca,
near the centre of Harford county in Maryland, and the
chief town of the county. It contains a court-houfe aijd
gaol, and has but tew inhabitants. Dillant from Hariord
6 miles, N. W. 22 N. E. frL.m Baltimore, and 1)6 W. S. W.
from Philadelphia.

BE LLANO, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe, 17 miles
north of Como. It m lituated at the foot of a lofty precipice ;
rent from top to bottom by a chalm, through which a furii;us
torrent forces its way. A bridge is thrown acrofs the chafm,
from which the fpectator looks down into a deep gulf, and an
aqueduct is conducted along the fteep f:des of the rock.

BELLARGUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio
(Pleb. rur.) defcribed by Efper; and is Pap'ilw Adonh,
Gmel, &c.

BELLARMIN, Robert, in Biography, a cardinal of
Rome, and one of the mod famous controverlial writers of his
time, was born at Monte Pulciano, a town of Tufcany, in
1542, and entered into the tocicty of the Jefuits in 1560.
He was ordained pricll by Janftnius in i5'^9, and in the fol-
lowing year advanced to the theological chair in the univerfi-
ty of Louvain. Having rem.aincd leven years in the Low
Countries, he returned to Italy, and in 1576, began to read
leftures at Rome on controverfial fubjefts; and having been
honoured by three fucceffive popes with important commif-
Cons, he was, in 15^8, nominated to the cardinalate by Cle-
ment VIII. with this diiUnguiftiiig eulogium ; " We choofe
him becaufe the church of God dees not poffcfs his equal in
learnmg." In 1602, he was created archbiihop of Capua ;
and it is fuppofcd he would have been raifed to the papal
chair, if he had not been a jefuit. In about four years he
refigned his archbifhopric, upon being recalled to Rome by
pope Paul 111. and here he continued his ftrvices to the
church, till the year 1621, when he retired from the Vati-
can to a houfe of his order, in which he died. the fame year,
at the age of 79. When he was vilited in his laft illntfs by
pope Gregory XV. he expreffed his profound veneration for
the pontiff, as Chrift's vicar on earth, by faluting him on his
entrance with the words of the centurion to Chriil : " Lord,
I am not worthy that thou (houldcft come under my roof."
On the day of his funeral it was neceffary to keep off the po-
pulace by a mihtary guard, as they preflcd on, either to touch
his body or to procure fome rchc of his garments, as if he
had been a faii.t.

Bellarmjn was a very flrenuous defender of the catholic re-
ligion againft the reformers ; and for fome years his arguments
were felecied by prolc.lant divines as fpecial objeiEls of refu-
tatior. His famous work is "A Body of Controverfy,"
written in Latin, and frequently reprinted; of which the bed
edition is that of Prague in 1721, 4 vols, folio. The ftyle
of this work, without pretending to purity or elegance, is
perfpicuous, precife, and free from fcholallic barbarifm.
His manner is diilincl and m.ethodical ; and his ftatements of
the opinions and objeftions of his adverfaries are fo fair and
fo forcible, that it has been queftioned by fome of his own
party, whether his works were not likely to do more harm

BEL

than good. In his proofs and refutations, however, he is
very copious ; and difpla) 3 an extent of learnmg m fcriptural
cnticifin, in the commentaries of fathers and councils, and
in the doArine and practice of the church in all ages, becom-
ing a controverlialiil,whodetermines every point by authority,
and not by reafoning. With refpeCt to the doctrines of prt-
dcftination and efficacious grace, he is more an Ajgullinian
than a Jefuit ; nor dots he adopt that lax morality which
was inculcated by fome of his own order, Befides this prin-
cipal work, he wrote " A Commentary on the Pfalras ;"
*' Sermons j" «' A Treatife on Eccleliaftical Hilfories ;"
" A Treatife on the Temporal Authority of the Pope,"
againft Barclay ; " The Groans of the Dove ;" " On the
Oliligations of Bilhops ;" and " A Hebrew Grammar."
Some of his works, and particularly his book on the tern-
poral authority of the pope, raifed adverfaries againil him in
h:s own communion, whilll his declaration of the right of the
pontiffs to dcpofe princes, caufed it to be condemned by the
parliament of Paris; his alfcnion of the indireft power of the
popes in temporal matters, fo offended the court of Rome,
that Sixtus V. cauftd it to be infcribed in the Index of the
Inquifition. Some Protcftants, by excefs of zeal, injured
their own caufe ; they circulated unfounded and malignant
calumnies againil his morals, &c. Jofeph Scaliger has even
afferted, that he did not believe a word of the doftrines he
defended ; whereas it is moil probable that he inclined to
fuptrftition in faith, and to fcrupuloiity in practice. At hi^
death he bequeathed one half of his foul to the Virgin Mary,
and the other half to Jefus Chrifl ; and, it is faid, that he
Would not allow the vermin that infelled his body to be mo-
Iclltd ; under the plea, that thefe animals had no other pa»
radife than their preftnt exiilence, of which it was cruel to
deprive thtni. His right to canonization was ftror.gly
urged ; and the popes were prevented from allowing his
claim merely by the fear of giving offence to thofe fovereigns
whole temporal rights he had oppofed. Gen. Di6l. Nouv.
Did. Hilt. Mofheim. Eccl. Hill. vol. iv. p. 221, &c.

BELLAS, in Geography, a fmall town of Portugal, \n
Eilreniadura, containmg about 1240 inhabitants.

BELLATOR, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex
(Spinofus). It is brown above, beneath yello\\aih : antennae
black annulated with white. Gmelin. A native of Cayenne.
This is Coreus Bellator of Fabricius.

BELLATRIX, in Ajironomy, a ruddy, glittering ftar of
the fecond magnitude, in the left llioulder of Orion.

It takes its name from lellum, as being anciently fuppofed
to have great influence in kindling wars, and forming war-
riors.

BELLAY, William du, in Biography, a French ge-
neral, fignahzed himfclf in the fervice of Francis I. by his
valour as an officer, and by his talents as a negotiator. Ke
was affiduous and fucctfsful in his efforts for inducing fome
of the uni\ crllties of France to pronounce judgment in favour
of the divorce of king Henry VIII. from his queen Catharine ;
and he was employed in feveral embaflies to Germany for the
purpofe of conciliating the princes of the Proteilairt league,
and evading their objcdions againil the king his mailer's fe-
verity in punilhing heretics. Bellay was eminently dif-
tinguifhed for his addrefs in penetrating, by his fpies and in-
trigues, into the defigns of the enemy ; and he fucceeded in
Piedmont, whither he was fent in quality of viceroy, in tak-
ing feveral towns from the Imperiahfls. Being defirous of
communicating in perfon fome important intelligence to the
king, and being very infirm, he ordered a Utter for his con-
veyance ; but having pafTed the mountains of Tarara, betwixt
Lyons and Roan, he was under anecelfity of flopping at St,

Zaphorin

BEL

BEL

Zaphorin, where he died January loth 154'^. He was
buried in the church of Mans, and a noble inoimment was
ereftcd to his memory. He was the author of fevcral works ;
of which the principal was " TheHiftory of his own Times,"
in Latin and French, which he divided into ogdoades, or
different parts, each conl'ifting of eight book?. Of this
work fome few fragments only remain, preferved by his bro-
ther Martin Du Bellay, in his" Memoirs from 1513 to 1543."
They are written in a fimple and lively manner, but are
fomewhat partial in favour of Francis I.

Bellay was one of the firll French writers who expreffed
a doubt of the miraculous fafts recorded of Joan of Arc.
Gen. Dic5\.

Bei.i.av, John du, a cardinal, younger brother of the
preceding, was born in 1492 ; and having made confiderable
prolicicncy in literature, was highly elleemed by Francis I.
By him lie was employed in fevcral embalTies, particularly in
negociating a reconciliation betwcn Henry VIII. of Eng-
land and the fee of Rome ; and he was advanced by him to
ftveral confiderable preferments. Bi;llay, in the bufmefs of
kintr Henry, vifited the pope at Rome, where he continued,
and in ly^J, he was made cardinal by Paul III. Asfoon as
he received intelligence of the hoftile defigns of Charles V. he
returned to France, and refilled that prince's invafion of
Provence in 153'^, as the lieutenant-general of Francis, with
as much military vigour as prudence, and he exerted himfelf
in putting the metropolis, and other places in Picardy and
Champagne in a formidable ftate of defence. After the death
of Francis I. his credit declined by the intrigues of the car-
din;d of Lorraine, and retiring to Rome, he refigned his pre-
Jerments in F" ranee, and was made bilhop of Oftia. He was
j'o much refpecled by his brother cardinals, that they had
thoughts of raiting him to the pontificate, when he died in
1560 at Rome, aged 6S years. Bellay was dillinguifhed as
a patron of literature ; and by his advice, in concurrence
with that of Budseus, Francis I. founded the royal college
in 1529. He was an elegant writer, both in Latin and in
French. In the Latin language he wrote fome harangues,
2nd an apology for Francis I. and in the latter three books
of poems, confifting of elegies, odes, and epigrams, pub-
lifhed by R. Stephens, in 1546. Gen. Dift.

Bellay, foachm du, a French poet, was born at Lire
in Anjou, about the year 1524; and srrndft various domeftic
misfortunes, which marked his earlier years, he direfted his
attention to the ftudy of the ancient and modern poets. At
length his own performances in verfe made him known at
court, and he became the dehght of Francis I. Henry II.
and Margaret queen of Navarre. He was charafterifed by
the appellation of the " Frencii Ovid," which feemed to
liave not improperly been bellowed upon him, on account,
partly, of the fweetnefs and facility of his mufe, and partly
of the licentioufnefs of fome of his piecef. In the fonnet he
particularly excelled, and a rank has been afligned to him as a
poet next to that of Ronfard. He followed his relation the
cardinal to Rome ; and on returning with him to France as
his agent, he loll his favour in confcquence of charges of ir-
religion and immorality that were alleged againft him. But
another relation, who was biiliop of Paris, gave him a ca-
noni-y in his church in IJ55, and he had the profpeft of
further preferment ; but was carried off by an apoplexy,
January i, 1561. His French poems were publilhed in 1561,
and his Latin ones in 1569. Nouv. Di61. Hill.

BELLE uE NuiT, in Botany, a name which the French
give to the flower of the Jalap.

BtLLF. hay, in Geography, a harbour on the N. E. part of
•«he great bay, called Fortune bay, on the fouth coaft of the

idand of Xewfoundland, in the Atlantic ocean. Alfo, ano-
ther bay im the N. W. fide of the fame ifland, 6 or 8 leagues
N. W. from the bar of lilts, and about as much S. W.
from the finall bay of Higournajhet.

Bf.lle Dune, La, ov Handfome Toiun, a long projedl-
ing barren point, on the fouth fide of Chaleur bay in North
America, about 8 leagues N. N. W. of Nipifiguit, where
temporary cod and herring filheries are carried on by dif-
ferent people; no trade being ellabliflied at the place.

Belle ijle, DellciJle-cn-Mer, or Bellijli, an ifland in the bay
of Bii'cay, near the W. coaft of France ; about 9 miles long,
and from 2 to 4 broad, funounded by fteep rocks, which,
together with the fortifications, render the conqueil of it
difTicult. It was taken by 'he Englifh in 1 761, but reflored
at the peace in 1763. The foil is various, rocky, with fait
marfhes, and fome fertile grounds. Belides Palais, the ca-
pital, it contains three other fmall towns, and about twenty
villages. N. Int. 47' 17' 30". W. long. 3° 6' 30" — Alfo, a
fmall ifland of France, in the river Loire, in the department
of the Mayenne, half a league weft of St. Mathurin. — Alfo,
an ifland on the eail fide of ihe northern part of Newfound-
land, call of Canada-head between 50° 42'. and 50° 50'.
N. lat. and between 55° 39'. and 55' 46'. W. long. — Alfo,
an ifland of North America, at the mouth of the flraits of
this name, between the country of the Efquimaux, or New
Britain, and the north end of Newfoundland. The ifland
is about 7 leagues in circuit, and lies 16 miles from the
nearell land on the coaft of Labrador, or New Britain. On
the north-well fide it has a harbour for fifhing veffels, or
fmall craft, called " Lark harbour;" and, on the E. point,
it has another fmall harbour or cove, which will admit fhal-
lops. The narrow channel betwixt Newfoundland and
the coaft of Labrador, called the " Straits of Belle Ifle,"
receive feveral rivers from the coaft of Labrador. Thefe
ftraits lead into the gulf of St. Lawrence from the N. E.
and are diftant 5 leagues N. from Newfoundland. The
north point of the ifland is in N. lat. 51° 57'. and the fouth
point in N. lat. 5 1 "48'. and W. long. 55° 40'. — Alfo, an ifland
of Ireland in lough Erne, in the county of Fermanagh, 6
miles S. E. of Enniflcillen.

Belle ijle en Terre, a town of France, in the department
of the Northern coaft, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri(fl of Guingamp. Seated on an ifland in the river
Guer ; 3 leagues weft of Guingamp,

Belle /)/(;;nf, a valley of Piedmont, in the Alps, fituatc
partly in the county of Nice, partly in the county of Tenda,
a few miles N. W. of Saorgio.

Belleforest, Francis du, in Biography, was born at a
village called Sarzan, in the province of Guienne in IJ30,
and after an early education in the court of Navarre, was
fent to ftudy the law at Touloufe. But employing himfelf
in writing panegyrics in bad verfes, on all the nobleffc in and
about Touloufe, by whom he was rewarded with praife aiKi
entertainment, he removed to the capital ; and by attention
and induftry attained to fome reputation in the reigns of
CharleslX. and Henry III. fo that he gained the poft of hif-
toriographer-royal, which he afterwards loft for want of pay-
ing due regard to faft in his produftions. He is faid to have
compofed more than 50 works on different fubjefts, during
a life of 53 years, as he died at Paris in 1583. It is related
of him, that there was neither tongue nor fcience which he
did not profane. His moft fertile topic was hiftory ; and he
puWilhcd compilations of " Tragical Hiftories;" and "Won-
derful Hiftories." The only two works worth recording are,
" The Hiftory of the nine Kings of l" ranee, of the Name of
Charles," foUo.; and *' The Annals of general Hiftory of

France,"

BEL

France," Par. 1600, 2 vols, folio, in which laft work are
feveral curious fads, intermixed with fables, and therefore
having no authority. Gen. Dift. Nouv. DicL Hift.

BELLEGARDE, John-Baptist Morvandf., ufually
called the " A.bbc," was born of a family of rank, in the
diocefe of Nantes, in 1648, and entered into the fociety of
the Jefuits. His tafte and ftyle were formed by father Bou-
hours, under whom he ranked as a difciple. Attached to
the principles of Defcartes, which were oppoftd by them,
he abandoned the fociety of Jefuits, after continuing in it
16 or 17 years, and taking priefl's orders ; and entered into
the world, preaching occafionaliy with applaufc, but devot-
ing himfelf chiefly to the profefilon of an author. Under
this cliarafler he wrote many books, and fupportcd hirafelf
chiefly by the profits accruing from them, diftributing to
the poor every thing that exceeded a bare maintenance.
Some time before his death he dellfted from his literary la-
bours, fold his books, and retired to the community of St.
Francis de Sales at Paris, eilabliflied for the fupport of poor
priefts, and here he died in 1754. liis voluminous publica-
tions confifl; chiefly of tranflations from the works of St.
John Chryfollom, St. Bafil, St. Gregory Nazianzus, St.
Ambrofe, Thomas a Kempis, &c. and alfo from Ovid, Vir-
gil, and other profane writers. His llyle is pure and ele-
gant ; but he often mifl.akes the fenfe of his author, cfpecial-
ly of the Greek fathers. The fubjecls of his original works
aie, in general, morals, and matters of talte. Thofe that
have been mod favourably received are, " Reflections on Ri-
dicule;" " Refleftions on what m:iy pleafe and difpleafe in
the commerce of the world ;" and " RefleClions on Elegance
and Politenefs of Style." Tliefe, and feme other pieces, form
a colleftion of 14 fmall volumes. Nouv. Did. Hift.

Bellegarde, in Geography, a fortified town of France,
in the department of the Aveiron; it was taken by the Spa-
niards in 1674, and retaken the following year by marlhal
Schomberg. After the peace of Nimcguen, Louis XIV.
built a regular fortrefs with five baftions to defend the Py-
renees ; 5 leagues S. of Perpignan. — Alfo, a town of France
in the department of the Loiret, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of Bois-Commun, 3 miles fouth-eaft of
Bois-Commun. — Alio, a town of France in the department
of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of
AubufTon ; 2 leat^ues eaft of Aubuffon.

BELLELAY, a fmall town or village of Germany, in
the circle of the Upper Rhine, and bifliopric of Bale, with
a rich abbey of Benediftines. It is diftant about 20 miles
from Porentru, in a folitary but unpleafant fituation, fur-
rounded by mountains and fheltered by forefts. In this
place is inilituted a military academy for young nobihty and
gentrv.

BELLEM. See Belem.

BELLEN, a town of Swifllrland, in the canton of
Schweitz ; 9 miles N. E. of Zug.

BELLENAVE, a town of France, in the department
of the Alher, and chief place of a canton in the diitricl of
Ganr.at , 3 leagues N. W. of Gannat.

BELLENCOMBRE, a town of France in the depart-
ment of the I^ower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrict of Neufchatel; 3 leagues weft of Neufchatel, and
5 S. S. E. of Dieppe.

BELLENDEN, William, {BcUc,:Anu.':,'L^i.) m Bio-
graphy, a man of extenfive reading and refined tafte, was
born in Scotland, and flouriflied in t!ie beginning of the 17th
centui-y. He was profeffor of the Belles L-ettres in the uni-
verf'ty of Paris in 1602, and continued for a confiderable
time in that capital, even after he wa.-s made mafter of the
pleas or requells to king James I. of England, At Paris he

Vol. IV.

BEL

publilhed, in 160S, his "Cicero Princcps,"' containing a
body of extrafts from Cicero's writings, relative to the
maxims of monarchical government, and the duties of a
prince. This work he dedicated to Henry, prince of Wales,
and he prefixed to it a treatife " Dc ProcelTu ct Scriptori-
bns Rei politicae," in which there is a ricli vein of mafculine
ienfe and tervent piety. The origin of our errors in religion,
a-id of our defcfts in policy and morals, is trcced out with
confiderable accuracy and learning. But ivhile the author
condemns the monftrous tenets of ancient idolatry, and the
grofs corruptions of philofophy, he beftows many julL en-
comiums on the wifdom and the patriotifm of fome ancient
legiflators. In 161 2, the author pubiiftied a work fimilar to
the former, under the title of <' Cicero Conful, Senator Sc-
natufque Romanus ;" on the nature of the confular ofHce,
and the conftitution of the Roman fenate. Encouraged by
the reception given by the pubhc to thcfe works, he con-
ceived the plan of a third work, " De Statu prifci Orbis,"
which was to contain a hiftory of the projeftsof government
and philofophy from the Antediluvian times to their \-arious
degrees of improvement under the Hebrews, Greeks, and
Romans. This work was dedicated to Charles, prince of
Scotland and Wales ; but when he had proceeded fo far us
to print a few copies of this work, in the year 1615, it wa»
fuggefted to him, that his three treatifes, " De Statu Prin-
cipis ;" " De Statu Reipublicse;" and " De Statu Orbis,"
being on fimilar and connefted fubjefts, might be united ia
one work ; accordingly they were repubhfhed in this foiTn
under the title of " Bellendenus de Statu," in i6r6. Bel-
lenden afterwards projefted a more extenfive work " De Tri-
bus Luminibus Romanorum," in which Seneca and Pliny
were to be joined to Cicero : but death prevented the exe-
cution of his whole plan. He was an elegant writer, and a
man of extenfive knowledge and found judgment. His La-
tin ftyle is formed upon that of Cicero ; and he embraces
every opportunity of interweaving the moft choice and pro-
per phrafeology from the Roman orator, even whilft he is
expreding his owij fentiments, fo that it is not always eafy
to diftinguifti fentences cited from Cicero from his. own
language. The book " De Statu," was reprinted in Lon-
don in 1787, 8vo. by an anonymous editor (fuppofed to be
the learned Dr. Parr) with a Latin preface by the editor,
relating to the politics and public characters of that period,
and beautiful engravinsrs of Mr. Burke, lord North, and
Mr. Fox, to v.hom the three treatifes are refpedtively dedi-
cated. To prefcrve the memory of every compofition which
flowed from the pen of Bellendenus, the editor has inferted
an epithalainiura on the marriage of Charles I. and a " pane-
gyricum carmen" on the cmbafly to Spain. Thefe vcrlts
were found in the Britifti Mufeum.

The editor owns his firm conviftion that Dr. Middletor,
in his celebrated hiftory of Cicero, was much indebtetl to
the writings of Bellendenus, although he has never men-
tioned his name. Pref. to Bellendenus de Statu. Monthly
Review, vol. Ixxv'. p. 491, &c. vol. Ixxvii. p. 504, Sec.

BELLEREAU, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Meurte, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitrict of Pont-a-Moufl'on ; 2 leagues S.E. of Pont-a-
Mouflop.

BELLEROPHON, in Fabulous Hiftory, the fon ofGlau-
cus, king of Ephyi'ax or Corinth, was contemporary w;:h
Jafon. Under a charge of homicide, as fome fay, on his ov. a
brother, he was forced to retire to the court of Pi stus, kin t
of Argos, where he was accufed by Sthenoba;a, or as Homir
fays, Antaea, the wife of Praetus, of an attempt upon her
chalHty. For this infult Prxtus fent him to Jobates, his
father-in law, king of Lycia, with private inftrucUons to put

X him

BEL

BEL

him to deatb. Jobates demurring aq;ainft tlie execution of
thffc orders, employed him in fevtral dangerous expeditions
againll the Solyni', and againft the Amazons, from which
he returned vidonouj. Having thus ingratiated himlelf
with Jobates, he obtained his dangliter in marriage, and a
fettlement in a fertile part of Lycia, where he reigned and
brought up his family. From Homer's account, which re-
prefents him as " hated by the gods, and wandering in the
Aleiau plain, a prey to melancholy, and avoiding all com-
merce with men," he feems to have become infane, and to
have died in that Rate. To his various exploits Homer and
' other writers have annexed tlie ftory of his killing the triform
mo'ifter called the Chim;era, by the afTillance of the Hyiaig
liorfe Pegafus, granted him by Minerva and trained for his
ufe. Of the numerous conjetlures that have been offered
for the explication of this fable, we fliall only mention that of
Bochart, (Phaleg. I. i. c. 6.) wlio fnggelts, that in his ex-
pedition againil; the Solymi, he overcame them, and alfo
their tliree god^, which they painted on their enfigns, in the
fcvcral forms of a lion, a goat, and a dragon ; and which he
probably joined together on his own, in memory of his con.
quell ; and this gave birth to the fable of his killing the
n>onfter Chimasra. Homer. Iliad, vi. Anc. Univ. Hill.
■»o!. V. p. 97, &c.

IsELLES LETTRES, confidered as fynonymous with
polite ritera/iire, however vaguely and indefinitely thefe tenns
have been often ufed, properly comprehend thofe fnbjcits
that relate to man as a being endowed with fenfes of taftc
and imagination, which were intended to embcUifli his mind,
and to fupply him with rational and ufelul entertainment.
In this reltriCled fenfe they include the origin, ftruflure, and
various kinds of language, or grammar, univerfal and parti-
cular, criticifm, rhetoric in its whole extent of compofition,
llyle, and elocution ; hiftory, in its feveral departments, an-
cient and modern, general and Ipecial, and all the different
kinds of poetry. In the diftribution of the Lyceum of Arts,
effablilhed at Paris in 1792, the belles lettres comprehend
general grammar, languages, rhetoric, geograpliy, hiftory,
antiquities, and numifmatography ; whereas, thofe parts of
learning that are of a more grave, fublime, or abffrufe kind,
and that are more immediately the objeds of the underftand-
tng, fuch as logic, metaphyfics, ethics, and the various
branches of the mathematics and natural philofophy, are
iifually referred, by way of diftindtion, to the clafs of fcien-
ccs. Thisdiftinftion, however, is not rigidly obferved, even
by Rollin and others, who profeffedly treat of the belles let-
tre?. In their confined and appropriate meaning, they open
a field of inveftigation peculiar to thenifelves. Their pro-
vince comprehends every thing that relates to beauty, har-
mony, grandeur, and elegance ; every thing that can foothe
the mind, gratify the fancy, or move the affeflions. They
prefent human nature under a different afpeft froin that
which it affumes, when viewed by other fciences. They
bring to light various fprings of aftion, which, without
their aid, might havepaffed unobferved ; and which, though
of a delicate nature, frequently exert a powerful influence
on feveral departments of human life. Such ftudies have
a!fo this peculiar advantage, that they exercife our reafon
without fatiguing it. They lead to enquiries acute, but
not painful ; profound, but not dry or abftrufe. They ftrew
fiowers in the path of fcience ; and while they keep the
mind bent, in fome degree, and aftive, they reUeve it at the
fame time from that more toilfome labour to which it muff
fubmit in the acquifition of neccffary erudition, or the invef-
tigation of abftraft truth. Befidcs, the ftudy of polite li-
terature furnidies an agreeable amufemeut for thofe intervals
of leifure which occur in every man's life ; and thus pre-

vents his being a burden to himfelf, or recurring to the indul-
gence of pernicious paffions, and the purhiit of licentious
pleafures. The fatisfaftions which this iludy iuiparls, oc-
cupy a kind of middle ftation between thofe of nitre fenfe
and thofe of pure intelleft : they refrelh tlie mind after the
tolls of intcllcd, and the labour.-, of abftratt (ludy ; and they
gradually raife it above the attachments of fenfe, and pre-
pare it for the enioyments of virtue. Of thole, whofe muidii
in early life incline to polite literature, good hopes may be
entertained, as this liberal and elegant turn is favourable to
many virtues ; whereas, to be cntirtly void of rclilh for elo-
quence, poetry, or any of the fine arts, is an unpromifing
fyniptom of youth, and furnillu-s fufpicions of their being-
prone to low gratifications, or deflined to drudge in the more
vulgar and illiberal purfuits of lite. A cultivated tafte in-
creafes fenfibility to all the tender and humane paffions, by
giving them frequent exercife, while it tends to weaken the
more violent and fierce emotions :

" — - — Ingenuas didicifie fideliter artes,

EmoUit mores, nee finit tile fero?."
" Thefe polifli'd arts have humaniz-d mankind,

Soften'd the rude, and calm'd the 'ooiU'rous mind."
The elevated fentiments, and high examples which poetry,
eloquence, and hiftory, are often bringing under our view,
naturally tend to uourifh in oin- minds public fpirit, the love
of glory, contempt of external fortune, and the admiration
of what is truly illuftrious and great. Although it ftiould
not be laid that the improvement of tafte and virtue are the
fame, or that they may be always expefled to co-exift in
an equal degree ; yet it muft be allowed, that the exercife
of tatle is, in its native tendency, moral and purifying. From
reading the moft admired produftions of genius, in poetry
or in profe, almoft every one rifes with fome good impreffions
left on his mind ; and though thefe may not always be du-
rable, they are at leall to be ranked among the means of dif-
pofing the heart to virtue. Indeed, without poffefling the
virtuous affeftions in a ffrong degree, no man can attain
eminence in the fublime parts of eloquence. He muft feel
what a good man feels, if he expcAs greatly to move, or to
intertft mankind. They are the ardent fentiments of ho-
nour, virtue, magnanimity, and public fpirit, that only
can kindle that fire of genius, and call up into the mind thofe
high ideas, which attradl the admiration of ages ; and if this
fpirit be necefiary to prod-uce the moft diftinguiftied efforts
of eloquence, it muft be necefiary alfo to our rehfliing them
with proper tafte and feeling. Blair's Ledures on Rheto-
ric, and Belles Lettres, vol. i. left. i. RoUin's Method of
Treating and Studying the Belles Lettres, vol. i. p. 3, &c.
M. de Rofcnftein's Oration, delivered before the Swedifli
Academy, tranflated by N. G. Agander.

BELLESME, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a dlftrift, in the department of the Orne, con-
taining about 2,500 inhabitants, and diftant 3 leagues fouth
from Mortagne.

BELLEVSEVRE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrid of Louhans, 4I leagues dillant N. N. E. from
Louhans.

BELLEVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of Paris, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of St.
Denis, half a league eaft of Paris. — Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftridl of Villefranche, 2} leagues north of
VlUcfranche — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
Vendee, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of La
Roche-fur- Yon, one league north of La Roche.

BELLEVOIS, in Blograjihy, a painter of fea-pieces,

known

BEL

BEL

known through all parts of Europe as a good painter, died
in 1684. His fubjefts are views of havens, fea-ports, fliorcs,
calms, and ftorms at fea ; but in his calms he Ihews his pe-
cuHar excellence. His touch is li^'ht, and his colouring clear,
the perfpedlive of his fea-ports and buildings is true, and
has an agreeable eft'eA ; his flcies are generally bright, and
judiciouDy managed, and his colouring is tranfparent. His
figures are indifferent, and without mucli exprcfTion. His
pictures occur in public fales, and fome of his bcft ftyle fetch
a tolerable price. Pilkington.

BELLEY, Lat. Bklica, in Geography, a town of
France, and principal place of a diftrift, in the department
of the Ain, before the revolution the capital of Le Bugey,
and fee| of a bifliop, feated among hills and fmall eminences,
about 2 miles from the Rhone, and twelve miles eaft of I^yons.
N. lat. 45" 45'. E. long, s" 35'-

BELLGROVE, a town of America, in Bergen county,
New Jerfey, on the road to Albany, within half a mile of
the line that feparates New York from New Jerfey, v\hich
extends from Delaware river to that of Hudfon ; diflant
24 miles N. by W. from the city of New York.

BELLI, in Moilern HUhry, the name of a focicty or feft
among the Negroes of Africa, in the interior kingdoms of
Sierra Leona, which is properly a fchool or feminary for the
education of children, renewable every 25th year by order of
the king, who is vilitor or fuperior of the college. Here the
young men learn to dance, fight, fiih, hiun, and above all, to
chant a certain hymn, which, in the language of the college,
they call " bellidong," or the praifes of belli : thefe fongs
confift only of a repetition of the fame lewd expreflions, en-
forced by the molt indecent and lafcivious potturef. When
a young negro is become an adept in this pra6tice, he is ad-
mitted a fellow of the college, deemed to be qualified for all
employments, temporal and fpiritual, and entitled to a num-
ber of important privileges.

BELLICA colunma, in jlnUqiiili/, a column near the tem-
ple of Bellona, from which the confuls or feciales caft javelins
towards the enemy's country, by way of declaration of war.

BELLICOSUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex,
{oi/ongus,) that inhabits Africa. It is of a brown colour:
poflerior thighs arched and dentated ; and four fpines on the
abdomen. Fabricius. Gmelin.

BELLICULI or Bellirici Marlni, among NaturnTiJls,
denote a fpecies of fea-fhells of an umbilical figure, fometimcs
of a white colour, fpotted with yellow ; and fomctimes of a
vellow, ftreaked with black lines, after the fnail fa(hion.

BELLIDIASTRUM, in 7?o/<7Hj.. See DoRONicuM.

BELLIDIOIDES. See Chrysanthemum.

BELLIEVRE, Pompone Da, in Biography, chancel-
lor of France, was born at Lyons in 1529, iludied at Tou-
loufe and Padua, and in 1575, became fuperintendant of the
finances, and in 1579 prefident of the parliament of Paris.
Having been employed in feveral important embailies by
Charles IX. and Henry III. and IV. he was created chan-
cellor by the latter in 1599, as a recompence for his Icrvices
at the peace of Vervin. In the execution of his office he
was enlightened, inflexible, inclined to aufterity, and, by the
warmth of his temper, to occafional precipitance. He was
diftinguillied by his learning and eloquence, as well as by his
talents for bufinefs. In 1604, he loll the feals, but con-
tinued in the pods of chancellor and prefident of the coun-
cil ; however, he ufed to fay, regretting his lofs, " that a
rlancellor without the feals was a body without foul." He
died in 1607 ; and fcveral eulogies were bellowed on his
memory, in honour of the regard which he always teftified
to learning and its profeflors. I'he graiidfon of the foriner

was diftinguilhed, in the reigns of Lo\u XIV. and XV. by
his legal and diplomatic t:4lcnts; and was founder of the ge-
neral hofpital at Pari". Nouv. Diet. Hift.

BELLIMO, in Modern Hi/lory, a mode of trial, or i
kind of purgation, pradtifed by the Negroes in the irteriov
countries of Africa, when perfons arc accufed of murder ui
theft, and confiiling of a compofition of certain hcrh.; or
barks of trees, which they oblige the accufed to hold in uis
hand, under a full perfuafion, that, if he Le guilty, blifters
will immediately rife upon the (Ivin. Sometimes the bellisio
confifts in obliging the accufed to fwallow a large glafs of a
liquor conipoled from the bark of the neno and quoni trees,
wliieh the negroes believe to be virulently poifonou'.. The
innocent immediately rejeft it by vomit; but the guilty fliew
a froth about the mouth, and are accordingly judged worthy
of death.

BELLING of hops, denotes their opening and expandin''
to their cultomary Ihape, fuppofed to bear fome relation to
that of a bell. Plops blow towards the end of July, and bell
the latter end of Augull or the beginning of September.

BELLINGHAM, in Geography, a fmall town of Nor-
thumberland, England. It has a market 0n Tuefday, one
fair annually, and is 300 miles north of London. In 1780,
this town was nearly confuined by fire, and its houfes now
only amount to 70, and inhabitants to 337. About four
miles to the fouth is the village of Wark, where are the keep
and fome ruins of an ancient callle.

BcLLiNGHAM, a fmall farm.ing townfliip of America, in
Norfolk county, Madachufetts, containing 735 inhabitants,
20 miles N. from Providence, and 34 S. from Bofton.

BELLINI, Laurence, in Biography, a learned and in-
genious phyfician, was born at Florence, in 1643. He had
the advantage of being educated under Manchetti, Rtdi, ai:d
Borelli, and profited fo well by their inltruftions, that hs
was made profeflor in mathematics and philofophy at Pifa,
when he was only twenty years of age. He was alfo no
mean proficient in oratory, poetry, and mufic, but propofing
to praflife medicine, he was foon advanced to the chair of
profeffor in anatomy, a poll he continued to fill with repu-
tation for near thirty years. He was one of the principal
fupporters of the medico-mathematic fchool, who attempted
to explain the funftions of the body, the caufes of difeafcs,
and the operations of medicines on mechanical principles.
In this he was followed by Archibald Pitcairne, who read
his works at the fchools in Edinburgh during the life-time
of Bellini, and dedicated one of his own works to him.
When he was fifty years of age, he was called to Florence,
by Cofino III. who appointed him his phyfician, and about
the fame lime, on the recommendation of Lancifi, he was
made honorary, or confidting phyfician to pope Clement XI.
but having more imagination than judgment, and endeavour-
ing to fquare his praftice to his theory, he was generally
unfuccelsfiil in liis treatment of dileafcs, and thus loon for-
feited the favour, Haller fays, both of his prince and the
public. lu his anatomical rcfcarchts he was more i^ucceOfal,
as lie was the firll wiio accurately defcribed the nervous pa-
pilke of the tougue, and difcovered them to be the orgap. of
tafte, of which he gave an account in his " Gulhis Organum
noviflinte L^'preheiifum ;" Bonon, 1665, i6to. ; and he had
before, viz. in 1662, pubh{lieJ " De Struciura Reuuin,"
Florent. 410. which had bedi well received, as containing
additional iuformation on the anatomy of that organ. Thele
works have been frequently reprinted, though now, from
the groat improvements that have been made in anatomy,
but little noticed. In ifiSj. he publiihed " De Urinis et
Pulfibus ;" " De MiiTioue Sangumis;"' " De Morbis Ca-

X 2 n:tu

BEL

pitis ft PeAoi-iH ;" bviing, in faA, diftinft treatifcs on thofe
fubjert?, 4to. Bo^ion. This is a work of much refearch
n::d obf^rvation, though often obfcurc and too thLOrctica'.
It was much celebrated in its time ; and Dotihaavf , wl.o pub-
liihed nn edif.on of it in 1717, accompanied it with a com-
mendatoiy preface. For the titles of the remainder of Bel-
lini's produc"\io:is, fee Haller's Bib. Med. ct Anatom.- He
died in 170^.. Gen. Biog.

Bellini, Gentile, a painter of hilloiy and portrait,
was born at Venice in 142 1, and inftrufted by his father Gia-
cotr.o, who was himfelf an arlill in the art of paintin;^, both
in di.lempcr and in oil. He was employed by the doge to
paint the hall of the great council, and he executed feveral
cinfiderable works for others of the nobility. His reputa-
tion reaching to the Ottoman courtj he was invited by Ma-
homet n. to C'onftantinople, where he was honourably en-
tertained, and employed in painting the portrait of the em-
peror, and in various other performances. It is laid, however,
that the emperor ordered the head of a flave to be cut off in
the prefence of Bellini, in order to convince him of the incor-
rettnefs of a pidure which he had painted, of the decollation
of St.John the Baptift ; but the light affefted his mind to fueh
a degree, that he was never eafy till he obtained leave to re-
turn to his own country. Mahomet, before his departure,
put a gold chain about his neck, and difmiiTedhim with lit-
ters of recommendation to the fcnate of Venice, which pro-
cured for him a penfion for life, and an admiffion into the
order of St. Mark. Vafari mentions a fea-fiifht, painted by
this mafter, which had extraordinaiy merit. He died in
1501. Pillcington.

Bellini, Giovanni, the brother of the former, was born
at Venice in 1422, and furpaffed both his father and brother
in every branch of painting. He is accounted the founder
of the Venetian fchool, by introducing the practice of paint-
ing in oil, which had been communicated to his father by
Domenico and Andrea del Caftagno, as fome fay ; or which,
according to De Piles, he obtained from Antonio of Meffi-
n?. : and by teaching his fcholars to paint after nature, the
fchool of Giovanni produced two memorable difeiples, Titian,
and Giorgione, who brought the art of colouring to its
higheft perfeftion ; and Giovanni hirafelf, by obferving
the works of thefe famous artifts, improved his ov.-n manner
very conCderably ; fo tliat in his latter pictures the colom-iug
is much better, and the airs of his heads are noble, although
his dcfign is fomewhat gothic, and his attitudes not well
chofen. He died in 1512. Pilkington.

BELLING, St. in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Polefino di Rovi^no, 10 miles W.S.W. of Ilovigno.

BELLINZONE, or Bellenz, one of the Itahan bailli-
agesof SivilTerland, on the eaft fide of the river Tefino, north
of the lake Maggiore, or lake of Locarno, and on the con-
fines of the Miianefe, which, together with the two bailliages
of Riviera or Polefi, and Val di Blenzo, Bregno or Brenna,
comprehend I to fqnare geographical miles, and 33,000 in-
habitants, and before the French revolution belonged to the
cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden. In the 15th
century, this country belonged to the counts of Sax, who
fold it in 1422 to the original cantons ; but Philip Maria,
duke of Milan, oppofing this fale or exchange, exerted him-
felf to prevent from fsUing into their hands a town like
Bellinzone, fo important from its fituation and natural
ftrength, to check their inroads and cover his dominions.
Having therefore taken polTefTion of it by force of arms,^ a
body of 8000 Swifs palTed the Alps. The force of both
nations met ; the Italians were led on by Carmagnola ; a
bloody battle enfued, of which both fides ckimed the viilory :

6

BEL

but the Swifs retired with a fiandard taken from the encmv,
and they n maincd mailers of the town. In 1500, however,
the three cantons obtained what they 'ong contended for; the
inhabitants of Bel'inzone, vexed by the frequent changes in
the Miianefe, fubmitted to them. The French, when they iiad
conquered t^e duchy, in vain reclaimed it; the Swifs retained
poU'efiion ; andthe feven Italian hailliagcs, and thisamongftthe
reil, were formally ceded to them by Maximilian Sforza, in
gratitude for their having reinlLited him in the ducal feat.
It was likewife n-.ade an article of the perpetual peace con«
eluded between Francis I. king of France, aed the cantons.
The bailiff remains in office two years; he is nominated al-
ternately by the three cantons, and is generally removed
from Riviera the pooreft, to Bellinzone, the mod lucrative of
the three governments. An appeal lies from his decilion to
the fyndicate, and from that court to the three cantons : in
ecclefiallical affairs, the inhabitants are cognizable to the
blfhop of Como, excepting three parifiics. The inhabitants
are catholics ; and moll of the natives underiland Itahan,
but the language is a corrupt German. After the French
revolution, Bellinzone, according to the divifion of i 798,
became a diftinft department or canton, including the bail-
liages of Bellinzone, Riviera, and Val Leventina, of which
the chief town was Bellinzone. By the conllitution of i Soi,
the Italian bailhages formed the i 7th department or canton
of Swilferland, and was empowered to lend five reprefenta-
tlves to the diet. The riches of this dillricl cmifiil in its
paflures and cattle ; the deficiency of corn is fupplicd by the
Miianefe ; and the plain nu'ar Bellinzone produces good
wine.

Bellinzone, or Bellinz, Lat, Bi'ilio, BUiiioiia, Bel-
t'lona, or Btrinzona, the capital of the above bailiiage or de-
partment, is a beautiful town, fituate at the foot of mount
Cenero, on a delightful plain on the eaif iide of the Teiino,
a little below its junition with the Moefa or Mufa, and about
55 Britifli miles above the northern extremity of the lake
Maggiore. The town is encircled with ancient walls and
battlements in good repair ; on the right are feen the majef-
tic ruins of an ancient caftle, and on the left, feparately em.
bofomed in trees, are the caftles of the bailitTs of the three
regent cantons, Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden. The
interior of Bellinzone is far from correfpundlng with its ex-
ternal beauty and fituation ; the ftreets being narrow, and
tlie houfes ill built. It is, however, rich in fine churches,
dedicated to St. Peter, St. Stephen, St. Blaife, and St.
Rock ; and it has numerous convents of Auguftines, Urfii-
lines, and Recollefts. There is alfo a convent, ur leminary,
called the " Relidcnce," lately founded for the education of
youth. The valley that lies between this town and the lake
is level, and laid wafte by numerous torrents : the road runs
along the fides of the hills through continued vineyards
bounded on the weft, and alfo on the eaft, by ridges which
are clothed to their fummits with woods of chcfnuts and wal-
nut trees, half concealing frequent fpirts and numerous ham.-
lets. N. lat. 46^ 4'. E. long. 8° 43'.

BELLIS, formed from bcUus, pretty or handfome, Eng.
Jaify, Yr. paquerettc, in Boliiriy. Lin. gen. n. 962. Reicii.
1042. Schreb. 1300. Tournef. 280. Juft". 1S3. Gxrtiu
t. 168. Clafs and order, fynj;encfia polysomia fuper/lua. Nat.
Ord. Compojtla D'ljco'ides. Corymhiftrs. Juff. Gen. Char.
Cat. common, hemifpheric, upright ; leaflets ten to twenty
in a double row, lanceolate, equal. Cor. compound radiate ;
coroUules hermaphrodite, tubular, numerous in the diflc ; fe-
male ligulate, more in number than the leaves of the calyx
in the ray : — proper of the hermaphrodite funnel-form, fivc-
cleft ; of the female ligulate, lanceolate, fcarcely threc-

toothtd.

BEL

tootlied. S/am. of the hermaphrodite filaments five, capil-
lary, very fhort ; anthers cylindric, tubular. Pi/?, germ
ovate; of the hermaphrodite, ftyle fimple, lligma emarginate;
of the female, (lyle filiform ; lligmas two, patulous. Per.
none. Cii!yx unchanged. Seeds folitary, obovate, comprelTed;
down none. Rer, naked, conical.

Eff. Char. Cti/. hemifpheric, with equal fcales. Seeds
ovate, with no down. Rec. naked, conical.

Species, i. B.perennis, perennial or common daify. Lin.
Spec. 1248. Hudf. Angl. 370. Wither. Arr. 733. Hull.
1S4. Relh. ^20. Slbth. 256. Abbot. 184. Curt. Lond.
fafc. I. 62. "Fl. Dan.t.503. Mor. Hirt. f. 6. t. 8. f. 29.
Petiv. Brit. t. 19. f. 2. Ger. 510. 4. Park. Theat. 530.
II. Raii Hift. 349. 2. Smith. 372. B. fylveftris minor.
RaiiSyn. 184. Ger. en'. 636. Fuchf. Hift. 1 4-. B. mi-
nor. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 263. Primula veris. Trag. Hift.
161. /9. B. hortenfis, double or garden daify. Mill. Diift.
p. 3. Curtis Magaz. t. 22S. Raii Hift, 350. n. 4. y. B.
fiftulofa, cjv.illed daify. c. B. proiifcra, proliferous or hen
and chicken daify. " Scape naked." The common daify
is futSciently diftinguilhed by its creeping, ramofe, and long
fibred root ; by its radical, depreffed, obovate, crenate, and
pilofe leaves ; by its erect, fimple, fingle-flowcred, round,
and naked fcapes ; by its beautiful flower, with a conic,
golden dilk, and white, or more frequently reddilh ray ; by
its hnear-obovate, plane, emarginate, very numerous, patent
flofcule rays ; by its comprefTcd, hairy feeds ; and by its co-
nic, acute, punftated, concave receptacle. Smith. Flor.
Brit. V. 2. 898. A native of moft parts of Europe in mea-
dows and paftures ; flowering almoft all the year, and ftiut-
ting up clofe every night and in wet weather. The tafte of
the leaves is fomewhat acrid, but in fome countries ufed as
a pot-herb. The roots have a penetrating pungency. It
is ungrateful to cattle, and even to geefc. It occupies a
large fhare of pafture lands, to the exclulion of grafs and
profitable herbs. It has been much recommended forfrefh
wounds externally, and againft inflammatory diforders in-
ternally ; but it is now totally out of ufe. The varieties
of the garden daify are double-white, red, white, and red-
ftriped, variegated, fcarlet and pied ; double quilled, or
with fiftular florets ; double coc!».'s-cotnb fhaped, white
red and fpeckled ; proliferous, childing or hen and chicken
iJaify. 2. ^. annua, annual daify. Lin. Spec. 1 249. Syft.
770. " Stem fomewhat leafy." A low annual plant, fel-
dom rifing more than three inches high, with an upright
ftalk having leaves on the lower part, and its upper part
naked, fupporting a fingle flo.ver like that of the common
daify, but imaller. A native of Sicily, Spain, about Mont-
pellier, Verona, and Nice. Cultivated in i 759 by Miller.

Propagation and Culture, lire garden daifies flower in
April and May, and make a pretty variety when intermixed
with plants of the fame growth ; they fliould be planted in
a ftiady border ard a loamy foil without dung, on which
they may be preferved without varying, provided the roots
are trai-fplanted, and parted every autumn. They fhould be
kept clean from weeds. They were formerly planted for edg-
ings to borders; but for this purpofe they are unfit, becaufe,
when fully expofed to the fun, they frequently die in large
patches. Mr. Curtis, however, thinks they appear to moft ad-
vantage as edgings to borders, as they ferve to enliven them,
and to add gi'eatly to the gaiety of thegarden. Herecommends
the roots to be taken up in the laft week of September, or the
firll in Oiilober, to be divided into fingle plants, and to be
planted three inches apart in a trench, Ipreading out the fi-
bres, and prefiing the earth clofely round them, as they will
•thus not be fubjeft to be drawn out of the ground by worms.
Such edgings lliould be replanted every autumn j olherwife

BEL

they will fpread too wide. Martyn's Miller's Dlft. Ac-
cording to Mr. Curtis, the plants that remain undilturbed in
the fame fpot, will recur to their natural ftate, and become
fingle ; but Mr. Miller fays that he never obferved them to
do fo.

Bellis. See Anthemis, Aster, Athan-asia, Bel-
LiuM, Calendula, Chrysanthemum, Cotula, Do-

RON'ICUM, EclIPTA, OsMlTES, and SAPONARl.i.

Bellis major. See Chp.ysanthemum.

Bellis aeruka. See Globularia.

Bellis, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of Hydra, re-
fembling the calyx of a flower, warted ; tentacula retraftile,
and variegated. This is aP.lnia bellis of Solander and EUis ;
and is found on the coaft of Cornwall.

Bellis, a fpecies of Vorticella, of a fimple hemifphe-
rical form, with a contractile margin. Miill. Hift. Verm.
Found in ftagnant ditch water; fumewhatrefembles the flower
of a daify, but fmall, yellowifti ; peduncle long, pellucid,
very thin, bitid at the end ; moves with a rotatory motion.

BELLI SLE, in Geography. See Belle IJle.

BELLIUM, in Botany. Lin. gen. Reich, n. 1043.
Sclireb. 1301. Jufl". 182. CXiih znd. livAer, fyngene/ia poly-
gam'ia fupcrjlua. Nat. Ord. Compojits DiJcoide£. Corymhiferx.
Jufl". Gen. Char. Cnl. common fimple, with very many,
equal, boat-fhaped leaflets. Cor. compound radiated ; in
the ray female ten or twelve ; in the difl< hermaphrodite very
many ; — proper of the hermaphrodite funnel-fhaped, quadri-
fid, ereft ; of the females elliptic, emarginate, ligulate.
Statu, in the hermaphrodite filaments four, (hort; anther cy-
lindric. P'ljl. in the hermaphrodite germ turbinate ; ftyle
filiform; ftigma bifid, oblong; in the females germ tur-
binate ; ftyle very (hort ; ftigma bifid, minute. Per. none.
Calyx unchanged. Seeds turbinate ; crown chaff"y, eight-
leaved, rounded ; down with eight fimple awns. Rcc. naked,
conic. Olf. Different from Bellis and Pedis, on account of
the down and five-cleft coroUules. *

Efl". Char. Cal. with equal leaflets. Seeds conic, with a
chafl^y eight-leaved crown, and awned down. Recept. naked.

Species, i. B. htUidioides . Lin. Syft. 770. B. droferrefo-
lia. Gouan. illuft. 69. 2. B. annua minima. Triumf. Obf.
t. 82. B. maritima min. &c. Bocc. Muf. 149. t. 167.
" Sca]>es naked, filiform." This has the habit of a daify,
but ditf^ers elTentially from it in having a down to the feed.
A native of Italy, about Rome, and in the ifland of Ma-
jorca. 2. B. rihv.i.'um. Linn. Syft. 770. Pedis minuta.
Linn. Spec. 1250. Schreb. Ac;^. Upf. "Nov. i. 84. t. 5. f. 2.
Bellis cretica fontana omnium minima. Tournef. cor. 37.
Vaill. Aa. 547. " Stem leafy." One of the minuteft of
plants ; ftem capillary, an inch long ; the whole plant finooth
and afcending ; examined with a glafs it appears to have
hairs fcattercd over it. A native of the Levant. Intro-
duced in 1722 by M. Richard.

BELLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and pi-ovince of Bafilicata ; 2 miles S.S.E. of
Muro.

BELLOI, Peter Laurence Bi-yrette du, in Bio-
graphy, a French dramatic writer, was born at St. Flour, in
Auvergne, in 1727, and educated for the bar at Paris.
But quitting the profelfion fur which he was defigncd, he
left his Country, and went to Ruflia in the capacity of an
aftor. After having exercifed his literary talents in the
coinpofition of various fugitive pieces, he returned to Paris
in 175S, and brought on the ftage, firft his "Titus," and
next his " Zelniiire." But his tragedy of the " Siege of
Calais," exhibited in 1765, was the moft popular, and coii-
trib'.:ted in the greatell degree to eftablifh liis reputation.
For this performance ^he king prefentcd him with a gold

medal

BEL

• cnodal and a coiifiderable pecuniary reward ; and the magi-
(I rates of the town font him the freedom of the town in a
paid box, and placed liis portrait in the liall amonjj their
j)rincipal bcnefaclors. Voltaire alfo wrote a complimentary
icltci- to the author, though after Belloi's death he retraded
hi» piaifef. This piece was fucceeded by his "Bayard,"
'• Peter the Cniel," and " Gabrielle de Vergy." But the
failure of the fecond of thefe liallcned his death in i 75 j, to
the r.'jjret ot numerous friends, who were attached to him
by the goodiu-fs of his heart. As a dramatic writer his di-
llinjfuilhiiif; excellence confilkd in his knowledge of lla;^e
ciTcilt, and of the method of producing it by new and un-
common lituations ; but in purfuing thefe he quitted the true
!Uid natural pathetic, and aided in degrading the modern
theatre. His verfification is often netrligent, and his llyle
hard iiiid inflated. Mr. Gaillard of the French academy,
publillied a colltClion of his works in 6 vols. [h-o. 1779, with
a life of the author prefixed. Nouv. Didt. liiil.

BELI.ON, or Belland, in Mi'Hidnr, a diftcmper very
common iu Derbvlhne and other counties, where they fmclt
lead ore, to which !)ealls, and even poultry, as well as men,
are fubjett ; and for this reafon a certain fpace round the
fmelting-houfes is called bellon-ground, where it is dangerous
for any animal to feed. This diforder i? attended with lan-
guors, weaknels, and mtolerahle pains, fenlation of gripings
in the belly, and generally colbvenefs. It frequently proves
fatal.

The method of cure which has been found mod fuccclT-
ful in this ditlemper, is, to give rrmior, or cryftals of tar-
tar, in fmall dofes, anj to repeat them frequently, as two or
three times a day.

BELLONA, in Mytkohgy, the goddcfs of war, filler or
wife to Mars.

Hyginus (fub. 274.) fays, that Bellona wasthe inventrefs
of the needle, called iu Greek SOMn, and hence her name
has been fanirifully derived. Others, with greater probabi-
lity, deduce it « Mr'o, wai ; and Bryant (Anal. Anc. My-
ihol. vol. i. p. 45.) fuppofes it to be formed from Bcl-on, a
compound of Bel, Bal, or Baal, the oiiginal Babylonifli ti-
tle appropriated to the fun. This goddcfs was of a favage
dilpofition, and delighted in fiaughter and blood ; and (he
was not only repreftnted as the attendant of Mars, who pre-
pared his chariot and horfes for war, but as taking pleafure
in fharing his dangers. She is commonly reprefented in an
attitude exprellive of fni-y and diftratlion, her hair being
compoled of fnakes clotted with gore, and her garments
ftaincd with blood. She is generally exliibited driving the
chariot of Mars, with a bloody whip in her hand, and fome-
timcs as holding a lighted torch or brand, and at other times
a trumpet. Btllo-ia had a tenlple at Rome, near the Porta
Carmentalis, in which the fenate gave audience to ambafTa-
dors ; and before it llood the pillar or column of war, againft
which a lance was thrown whenever war was declared. She was
alfo wor(hipped at two places called Coniana, one of which
was in Cappaducia, and the other in the kingdom of Pon-
tU3 ; and Camden obfeives, that in the time of Severns, there
was a temple of Bellona in the city of York. Poets and
artilU have often confounded Bellona with Pallas.

Bellona, in Entomci/ojv. Under this name Cramer de-
{cnhti pi'.pilio brujfjlis of Fabricius. The ipecies htlionu of
Fabricius and Gmelin is a native of North America, has dcn-
tated fulvous wings, fpotted with black ; pollenor ones, be-
neath filvcry at the tip, with fix ocellar fulvous fpots. A
variety of it & is figured by Cramer under the trivial name
of hf^ejii).

BELLONARII, in jlniiquiiy, priefts of Bellona, the
"oddefs of war and battles.

BEL

The Bellonarii cut and mangled their bodies with knives
and daggers in a cruel manner, to pacify the deity. In this
they are fingular, that they offered their own blood, not
that of other creatures, in facritice. In the fury and enthufi-
afm with which they were fcized on thefe occafions, they
ran about raging, uttering prophecies, and foretelling blood
and (laughter, devallations of cities, revolutions of ftate, and
the like ; whence Martial calls them " tuiba enthcata Bel-
lona." Ladant. Inft. lib.i. cap. i. Lucian. hb. i. Tertul.
Apol. cap. 9. Minut. Felix, p. 298. In after-times they
feem to have abated much of their zeal and tranfport, and to
have turned the whole into a kind of farce, contenting them-
felves with making figns and appearances of cutting and
wounds. Lampridius tells us, the emperor Commodus, out
of a fpirit of cruelty, turned the farce again into a tragedy,
obliging them aAually to cut and m.ingle their bodies.
Lamp, in Comir.od. cap. 9.

The Bellonarii celebrated fea{l> on the eve of the nones of
June, and the ninth of the calends of April, on which occa-
sion they chewed a plant called Belbnaria, which produced
a kind of fury, and difpofed them to mangle their bodies in
the manlier which charafterifed thefe feartf.

B£LLONL\, fo called by Plumier, after the name of M.
Bellon, a phyfician of Caen, in Botany. Lin. gen. 226.
Reich. 242. Schreb. 29S. Plum. 31. Juff. 2CO. Clafs and
Order, penlandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rub'taces. JufT.
Gen. Char. Gnl. perianth, one-leafed, fuperior, femiquin-
quetid, permanent ; divilions lanceolate, acute. Cor. mono-
petalous, whctl-(liaped ; tube very iliort ; border flat, femi-
quinquetid, obtule, large. Slum, filaments five, fubulate,
ereft, very fhort ; anthers ered, converging, fiiort. P'ljl.
germ inferior ; ftyle fubulate, ftraight, longer than the lla-
niens ; ftigma acute. Per. caplule turbinate-ovate, wrapped
up in the calyx, and beaked with its converging divilions,
one-celled. Seeds numerous, roundiffi, fmall.

E(r. Char. Cor. wheel-fhaped. Capf. one-celled, inferior
many-feeded, beaked with the calyx.

Species, j. V>. afpera. Lin. Spec. 244. Plum. gen. 19
ic. 47. Swartz. Piodrom. 42. 2. Obf. 69. " Leaves ovate-
ferrate, flowers coi^mbed terminating." A fhrub ten or
twelve feet high, from which ilFue many lateral branches.
This fpecies is faid to reft wholly upon the authority of
Plumier. Mr. Miller fays, that it is very common in feveral
of the warm iflands of America, whence he has received the
feeds. 2.T>.Jpino/ii. Swartz. Prodr. 42. "Thorny; leaves
ovate, angular, tooth-ferrate, peduncles axillary, one-flower-
ed."

Propagalion and Culhire. It is propagated by feeds,
which fhould be fown early in the fpring, in a pot filled
witli light fre{h earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tan-
ner's bark, and frequently watered. When the plants are
come up half an inch high, they (hould be tranfplanted
into pots iillcd with light frcfli earth, and plunged again
into the hot-bed, watered and (haded till they have taken
root ; then air (liould be admitted to them every day in
warm weather, and they fhould be frequently watered.
When the plants have iilled thefe pots with their roots, they
(hould be carefully (haken out of them, and fheir roots
trimmed, and put into larger pots tilled with light frcfli earth,
and put into the hot-bed again. In warm weather frcfh
air (hould be admitted to them every day ; but in autumn
they muft be plunged into the bark-llove, and treated Uke
other tender exotic plants. Thefe plants will fometimes
flower in the fecond year, but thty raidy produce good
feeds in this climate. Neverthclefs, they may be propagated
by cuttings iu the fummer months, provided they are plant-
ed in light earth on a moderate hot-bed, and carefully

watered

BEL

watered and fliaded till they have taken root. Tlicy mud
be conftaiitly kept in the (love, and have a large (hare of (rec
air in warm weather ; but if they are fet abroad, the) will
not thrive in this climate. Martyn's Miller's Dift.

BELLORI, John PtTca, in Biography, a celebrated
antiqi!ar)', was a native of Rome, and deiived from his
uncle Francis Angeloni, under whofe care he was placed,
his tafte for antiquities. He was appointed by Chriftina,
queen of Sweden, the keeper of her library and cabinet of
ciiriofities ; and by pope Clement X. antiquary of Rome.
He died in i6y6, above 80 years of age. His valuable cabi-
net was afterwards annexed to that of the king of Pruflia
at Berlin. Of his various works, relating to his favourite
purfnits, the principal are the following : viz. •' Nctse in
Numifmata, turn EphefiK turn aliarum urbium, apibus infic;-
niu," 1658, 4to. ; "Fragmenta Vcftigii veteris Romas^'
1673, fol. ; " La Colonna Trajana," fol. ; " Le Pitture
Antiche del Sepolcro de' Nafonii," 1680, fol. ; " Le Anti-
che lucerni fepolcrali iigurate," 1691, fol.; " Gli antichi
fepolcti, overo Maufolei Romani & Etrufchi," 1699, fol. ;
" Veteres Arcus Auguftorum," 1690, fol. ; " Vite de Pit-
tori, Scultori, et Architelli Moderni," 1692, 4to. ; " Ima-
gines vetenim Philofophorum," 1685, fo!. Several ireatifes
of this author are inferted in the 7th volume of Gronovius's
Greek Antiquities. He alfo reprinted, in 1CS5, with large
additions, Angeloni's " Hiftoria Augufta," iliuftrated by
Medals. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

BELLOSTE, Augustin, a fur^eon of eminence in his
time, inventor of a m.ercurial compofition, called after his
time, •' Bcllofte's pill," by which he is fuppofed to have ac-
quired a coniiderable fortune. After pradtifmg feveral years
at Paris, where he was born in 1654, and as an army fur-
geon, he was invited to Sardinia, and made principal furgecn
to the queen's mother, and continued to refide at Turin
to the time of his death, which happened July 15th, 173c.
The work by which he is principally known, is his " Chi-
rurgien de I'Hofpital," publiihed 1695. It has paficd
through numei-ous editions, and been tranflated into all the
European languages. In 1725, he publifhed a continua-
tion of it, under the title of " La fuite du Chirurgien de
I'Hofpital." Amor.g other ufeful obfers-ations, he recom-
mends piercing carious bones, with the view of accelerating
exfohation, a praftice advifed by Celfu?, though long difcon-
tinued. He reproves the cuftom of frequently removing tiie
dreflings of wounds, as tending to retard the cure. The work
has much merit, though now little noticed, being fuperfeded
by later pubhcations. Haller Bib. Med. Pract. et Chir.

BELLOTTI, Pietro, a painter of hiilory and portrait,
was born at Venice, in 1625, and learned the art of colour-
ing from Michael Forabofco, whofe difciple he was. As
a portrait painter, he attained the firft rank, but was lefs
eminent in the compofition of his hiftorical fubjecls. In
the imitation of nature he was peculiarly happy ; the colour-
ing of his portraits appears to be real flefh, and the variety in
the airs of his heads is inconceivable ; in all his attitudes there
is much grace, and the difpofition of his figures is natural
and becoming. He died in 1700. Pilkington.

BELLOVACI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
comprifed in the nation of the Belgas, and feated fouth of
the Ambiani. Their countr)- was particularly diftinguifhed
by the name of Belgium, and correfponded to the modem
Beauvais ; their chief city was called by the Latins Cxfaro-
magus ; and Csfar fpeaks with commendation of their va-
lour and their raimber.

BELLOWING, among Sport/men, is ufed for the noife
which roes make in rutting-time.

BELLOWS, a machine ufed to give a brilk agitation

BEL

to the air, hy enlargioir and contrafling its capacity, ar.d
thus expiring and infpiring the air by turn'.

This machine is ufed in chambers and kitchens, in forges,
furnaces, and foundericf, for blowing up the fire ; and it is
annexed to oi-gans and other pneumatic in!humenls, in or-
der to fupply them with a due degree of air. They are
conftruSed of various f)rms, and furniftivd with different
kinds of apparatus for giving them motion, and for dif-
charging their air, according to the purpofes which they
are intended to ferve. However, they arc in general com-
pofed of two flat boards, fometimes of an oval and fome-
timcs of a triangular figure ; between thefe boards are
placed two or more hoops, bent fo as to fuit their figute ;
on the edges of the boards is nailed a piece of leather,
broad in tlie middle and narrow at the ends, which unite
them together, and it is alfo affixed to the hoops of the
boards, that the leather may the more eafily open and fold
again ; to the undermoil board is fattened a pipe of iron,
brafs, or copper ; and within is a valve, which covers the
holes in the under board fo as to keep in the air. Strabo
infonris us (Gcog. 1. viii. vol. i. p. 464.), from an old hifto-
rian, that Anacharfis, the Scythian philofopher, who lived
in the time of Solon, about 6co years before Chrill, invented
the bellows, as well as the anchor and potter's wheel ; but
this account is very doubtful, as Pliny, Seneca, Diogenes
Laertius, and Suidas, who likewife fpeak of the inventions
afcribed to that philofopher, mention only the two laft, and
not the bellows. It appears, however, that they were known
in ancient times to the Greeks ; and Virgil mentions them
in the following pafTage (Georg. iv. 170) :

" Alii taurinis foUibus auras

Accipiunt, redduntque."

Upon which it may be remarked, that bull's leather is unfit
for bellows, and ox and cow's leather only can be ufed for
that purpofe ; but accuracy, in the defcription of a mecha-
nical engine, is not to be expefted in a poet. In more mo-
dern times, wooden bellows have been introduced in metal-
lurgic operations, inftcad of thofe of leather. The latter
require careful management ; the repairs of them are cx-
penfive ; and they fcld&m laft more than fix or feven years.
\Vhen thin leather is erriployed, it fuffers a great deal of air
to efcape through it ; ar.d this evil muft be guarded againik
by continually befmearing it with train oil, or other fat iub-
ftances ; and this is even neceffai-y when thick leather is
ufed, to prevent it from cracking in the folds. Whenever
they are repaired, it is ncceffary again to foften the leather
with oil,.and this occafions a cor-.iiderablc lofs of time. To
obviate thefe, and fimilar inconveniences, and w ith a view to
fomc peculiar advantages, wooden bellows have been inven-
ted in modem times, of which -wc ihall give fome account in
the fequel of this article. In the oldetl fmclting-houfcs,
the bellows were moved by a handle, like thofe of the fmith's
forge, or by the prefTure of the foot upon a treadle, or by
other means, requiring the ftrength of men. But fince the
force of water has been employed to move them, the quan-
tity of ore run down has not only been far greater, but the
feparation of the metal more complete ; infomuch, that
great part of the iron now prepared at fome confiderable
works, particularly in the county of Gloucefter, has been
no other than what had been left in the flags of cinders, for ■
want of fufficient force of air.

The aftion and effeft of bellows of every kind, whether
leathern or wooden, wrought by water or men, depend on
this, that the air which enters them, and which they con-
tain when raifed, is again comprefied into a narrower fpace
when they are clofed. And as- the air, hke ail other fluids,
flows to that place where it meets the leaft refiftance, it muil

uf

BEL

of confcqucncc fly oat of the pipe or aperture with a velocity
propoitio::ul to the foice by which it is comprclTcd, and
mull therefore blow ftrongcr or weaker, as the velocity
with which the top and bottom of the bellows meet is
greater or leffcr. The blail alfo will la(l in proportion to
the quantity of air that was drawn into t!ie bellows through
the valvc or wind-clap.

Tiie adion of bellows bears a near afTmity to that of the
longs ; and what we call blowing in the latter, affords a per-
tinent illulliatioii of what is called refpiring in the former.
Accordingly, bellows have been employed in relloring fuf-
pendtd animation ; and Dr. Hooke fonnd.by renewing the
interrupted adion of the lungs by blowing air into them, by
cutting away the ribs and diaphragm, and pericardium, S:c.
and laying the tliorax of a dog bare, and having cut off the
afpeia artcria below the epiglottis, ai\d bound it on the nofe
of a bellows, that as he blowed the dog recovered, and as he
ceaftd, became convulfive : and thus the animal remained al-
ternately alive and dead aljove the fpace of an hour. See the
rcethods of recovering fufpended animation, under the arti-
cle Drowning.

The bellows of fmiths and founders, whether fingle or
double, are wrought by means of a rocker, with a ftring or
chain faftened to it, and pulled by the workman. The bel-
lows-pipe is fitted into that of the tevvel. One of the boards
is fixed, fo as not to play at all. By drawing down the
luindle of the rocker, the moveable board rifes, and by means
of a weight on the top of the upper board, finks again.

The bellows of the Chinefe fmiths is of a very iimple kind,
and is compofed of a fquare pipe of wood ABCDE [Plate
XIII. Piuumatksyfg. 107.^ with a fquare board G, which
exaiftly fits it, moved by the handle FG. At the farther
end is the blalt p'pe HK, and on each fide of it a valve in
the end of the fquare pipe, opening inwards. The pifton
u fuffieiently tight for tlieir purpofes without any leathering.
The bellows of forges and furnaces of mines ufually re-
ceive their motion from the whetls of a water-mill, or in our
large furnaces they are worked by a fteam-engine. Others,
as the btUows of enamellers, are wrought by means of one
or more ilcps or treadles under the workman's feet.

The bellows of an organ are fix feet long, and four broad ;
each having an aperture of four inches, that the valve may
play eafy. There fhould likewife be a valve at the nofe of
the bellows, that one may not take the air from the other.
To blow an organ of fixteen feet, there are required four
pair of theft bellows.

The bellows of organs are wrought by a man called the
blower ; and, in fmall organs, by the foot of the player. See
Organ.

The method of conftruftlag wooden bellows for the pur-
pofes of metallurgy, was an important and ufeful invention,
for which we are indebted to the Germans. This is ex-
prefsly affirmed by Grignon in his " Meiiioires fur I'art de
fabriq'uer le fcr," Paris, 1775 ; and in the time of Becher,
they were to be found in Germany, but not in England.
GenlTanne, iu his " Traite de la fonte des mines parle feu du
charbon de teric," Paris 1770, erroneoufly afcribes the in-
vention to tlie Swifs ; being probably led into this error
in confequence of a Swifs hiving firll made known thefe
bellows in Prance. The name of the real inventor, how-
ever, has not been afccrtained. From a catalogue of ma-
chines given to the magillrates of Nuremberg in 1550, by
an artili, called Hans Lobfingcr, Doppelmayer concludes,
that he underllood the art of making fmall and large bel-
lows without leather, and entirely of wood, wliieh could
be ufed in fmelting-houfes and for organs, and likewife cop-
per bellows, that always vmillcd a like degree of wiuJ. As

BEL

I.obfingcr made organs, Becknian (Hift. Inventions, vol. i.
p. 109.) fuggetls, tiiat this invention might occur to him ;
but he has not been able to learn in what it aftually con-
filled, or whether it might not die with him. Agricola,
who died in 1555, m.akes no mention of wooden bellows.
Samuel Reyhcr, formerly profeffor at Kiel, in the improved
edition of his differta'ion on air, printed there in i66g, re-
printed with additions at Hamburgh, in 1725, and entitled
" De Pneumatica, five de Acre et Aerometria," informs
us, that " about 80 years ago a new kind of bellows, which
ought to be called the pneumatic chefts, was invented in the
village of Schmalebuche, in the principality of Cobourg, in
Franconia," by two brothers, Martin and Nicholas Schel-
horn, who were millers in that village. Thefe brothers
kept the invention fecret, but not fo concealed as to elude
conjedturc. Reyher rejates, how he himfelf formed an idea
of it. Schhiter, who has given a complete defcription and
figure of thefe bellows in his "Unterricht von Hiitten-Wer-
ken," Brunfwick, 1738, fol. afcribes the invention of them
to abidiop of Bamberg ; and according to his account, they
were employed fo early as the year 1620, in the foreft of
Hartz, to which they were firll brought by fome perfons
from Bamberg. " \Vhat Calvor fays (according to Beck-
man, ubi fupra) refpetling the introduiiion of thefe bellows
into the forell of Hartz, is much more probable ; that in
1 62 1 Lewis Pfannenfchmid, from Thuringia, fettled at Oft-
feld near Goflar, and begun to make wooden bellows. The
bellows-makers of that place confpired therefore againft him,
and fwore they would put him to death ; but he was pro-
tedled by the government. Pie would difclofe his art to no
one but his fon, who, as well as his grandfon, a few years
ago had the making of all the bellows in the foreft." From
Germany, the art of making thefe bellows was introduced
into fome parts of Fiance, and into Swedei:, and became
general through various parts of Europe. This kind of
bellows confills of two boxes placed upon one another ;
the uppermoll of which may be moved up and down upon
the lower one, in the lame manner as the hd of a fnuff-box,
which has a hinge, moves up and down, when it is opened or
fluit : but the fides of .the uppermoil box are fo broad as to
contain the lower one between them, when it is raifed to its
utmoft extent. Both boxes are bound together, at the
fmallell end, where the pipe is, by a (Irong iron bolt. It
may be readily comprehended, thrit when both boxes fit
each other exaftly, and the upper one is raifcd over the un-
der one, which is at reft, the fpace contained by both will
be enlarged ; and confequently more air will rufli in throuo-h
the valve in the bottom of the lower one ; and when the
upper box is again forced down, this air will be expelled
through the pipe. The only difficulty is to prevent the air,
which forces its way in, from efcaping any where elfe than
through the pipe ; for it is not to be cxpefted, that the
boxes will fit each other fo clofely as entirely to prevent the
air fiom making its way between them. This difHculty,
however, is obviated by the following fimple and ingenio'is
method. On the inner fides of the uppermoil box there
are placed moveable flips of wood, which, by means of metal
fprings, are prelled to the fides of the other box, and fill up
the fpace between them. As thefe long flips of wood mi^ht
not be fuffieiently pliable to fufTer thenifclves to be prcfled
clofc enough ; and as, though planed perfectly ftraight at
firft, they would, in time, become warped in various direc-
tions, incifions are made in them acrofs their whole length,
at the dillance of from 15 to 18 inches from each other, fi>
as to leave only a fmall fpace in their thicknefs, by which
mens they ;i(_qui:c fufiicient pliability to be every where
prelTed clofe enougii to the fides, "This defcription may be

iiluf.

BEL

illuftrated by a Rgure, (fee Plate XIII. Pneuma.'h-SyJ^^. lo?-.)
in which tlie out:r box ABCPFE has its top and two
fides flat or ftraight, and the end BAEf formed into an
Evchcd or cyHndrical furface, of wliich the h!ne FP at the
other end is the axis. This box ii open below, and receives
within it the iliallow box KHGNiML fj-rr, 109.) which
exaaly iilla it. The line FP of the one coincides with FP
of the other, and along this line is a fct of hinges on which
the upper box turns, as it rifes and finks. The lower box
is falleiied to a frame fixed in the ground. A pipe OQ^ pro-
ceeds from the end of it, and terminates at the furnace, in
a fm?.ll pipe called the " tewer," or " tuyere." This lower
box is open above, and has in its bottom two large valves
V,V, opening inwards. (See^ir. 110.) The condnfiting pipe
is fometiracs furnifticd with a valve opening outwards, to
prevent burning coals from being fucked into the bellowp,
when the upper box is drawn up. Tjje joint along PF is
made tight by thin leather nniled along it. The fides and
ends of the fixed box are made to fit the fides and curved end
of the upper box, lo that this lall can be railed and lowered
round the joint FP without fenfible friftion, and yet with-
out fuffering much air to efcape ; but as this would not be
fui^icitntly air-ti^ht by reafon of the (hrniking and warping
of the wood, a further contrivance is adopted. A (lender
lath of wood, divided into feveral joints, and covered on the
outer edge with very folt leather, is laid along the upper
edges of the fides and ends of the lower box. This lath is
fo broad, that when its inner edge is even with the infide of
the box, its outer edge projects about an inch. It is kept
in this pofition by a number of fteel wires, which are driven
into the bottom of the box, and Hand up, touching the fides,
as reprefented in Jig. 1 1 1, where a i c are the wires, and e
the lath, prcjefting over the outfide of the box. By this
contrivance, the laths are prelTcd clofe to the fides and
curved end of the moveable box, and the fpring wires yield to
all their inequalities. A bar of wood RS fjig. 108.) is fixed
to the uppjr board, by which it is either railed by machinery,
to fink again by its own weight, having an additional load on
it, or it is forced downward by a crank or wiper of the ma-
chinery, and afterwards raifed. The operation, in this cafe,
is exaftly fimilar to that of blowing with the chamber bel-
lows. When the board is lifted up, the air enters by the
valves V,V, f^. no.) and is expelled at the pipe OQj by de-
preffing the boards. Thcfe bellows are made ot a very great
lize, AD ([fig.ioS.) being 16 feet, AB 5 feet, and the circular
end alfo 5 tect. The rife, however, is but about 3 or 3-!- ftet.
They expel at each ftroke about 90 cubic feet of air, and
make about 8 ilrokes per minute. The advantages of thefe
wooden bellows are very confiderable. When they are
made of clean fir wood without knots, they wilt lad 30 or
40 years, and even longer, though continually kept in aftion
46 or 48 weeks every year. Some have faid, that, when pro-
perly made, they will lad a century. The effeft produced
by them is ftronger, as well as more uniform, and can be
moderated according to circumflances. They are worked
alfo with greater facility. The flips of wood on their fides
are apt to be damaged ; but they can foon and eafily be
repaired. Every three or four months, however, the outer
fides only of the inner box, and the bolt which keeps the *
bo-xcs together, mull be fmeared with oil. If we calculate
the price of fuch bellows, and the yearly expcnce, they will,
according to Grignon's account (ubi fupra) be only a fifth
part of thofe of the old leather bellows. They have, in-
deed, their defefts, though they are kfs expenfive and more
durable than thofe qf leather ; for it is fcnrcely pofTible to
make the jundlures fo tight as to allow no exit to the com-
prefl'ed air, and the friftion mull neceflarily be very great,
iome, therefore, have had recQurie to wutcr, for performing
Vol. IV.

BEL

the office of the lower board of the bellows. A bellows oa
this principle is defcribed by Mr. Treiwald, engineer to liij
Svvedifh m<ijefty, in the Pnilofophical Trufaciions, under
the name of a " water-bellowsr." Of bellows of wood wc
have one preferved in the repofitory of the Royal Society ;
and Dr. Plot defcribcs another, that was ufed at the copper-
works at EllaRon in Staffordiliire. Nat. Hill. Staff, ch.iv.ij 18.
Such are tlie bellows in general ufe on the continent. In this
kirgdom, a dilierent, and a preferable form is adopted ; for
an account of which, and other contrivances for animating
the large fires of Turnaces, &c. fee Blowing Machine.
See alfo Furnace.

Bellows, ^/>of//9/i/;/V, fo called by the inventor M. Gorcr,
phyfician to the militarj- hofpital at Neufbrifack, and denot-
ing " reflorcr of refpiration," an inllrument ufed for infla-
ting the lungs. It is defcribed in the " Journal de Medi-
cine" for June 1789 ; and confifts of a double pair of bel-
lows BCLM {P/iite XIU. Piinimalks,fo. 112.) the two
dificrent parts of which have no communication with each
other. In the lower fide BM is an aperture A for a valve,
conftrufted on the principles of thofe of Mr. Nairnc's air-
pump. It confills of a rim of copper, clofed at one end
by a plate of the fame metal, in which plate are feven fmall
holes placed at equal diftances. This plate is covered with
a piece of filk coated with eladic gum, in wliich are fix
tranfverfe incifions of two or three lines in length. Each.
incifion is fo made as to be fituated between two of the
holes, and at an equal diftance from each, as reprefented at D,
(Jli;. 113). The filk mull be made very fecure, by a thread
palfing feveral times round the rim. It is obvious, that a
ftream of air applied to that fide of the plate which is op-
pofite the filk, will pafs through the holes, and, lifting up
the filk, efcape through the incifions. On the contrary, a
flream of air applied to the other fide will prefs the filk
upon the plate, and thus clofe the holes, fo that it will be
impofiible for it to pafs through them. This valve opens
internally, fo as to admit the air from without. At B is
another valve, upon the fame conftruftion, but opening in
a contmi-y direftion, thus permitting the air to efcape out
of the lower part into the tube EF, but preventing its en-
trance. At C is another valve, opening internally to ad-
mit the air from the tube EF ; and at D there is a fourth,
opening externally to difcharge tlie air from the upper part.
The flexible tube EF, fcrevved on at the end CB, being in-
troduced into one of the noftrils, whilfl the mouth and the
other nollril are clofed by an afiiflant, if we feparate the
two handles L, M, which were clofe together at the intro-
dutlion of the tube, it is evident, that the air in the lungs
will rufli into the upper part through the valve C, whilft
the external air will fill the lower part through the valve A.
The two handles being again brought into contafl, the at-
mofpheric air will be forced into the lungs through the valve
B, and at the fame time the air in the upper part will be
difcharged at the valve D. Thus, by the alternate play of
the double bellows, the lungs will be alternately filled and
emptied as in refpiration. In ufing the inllrument, care
(hould be taken not to be too violent ; as the more per-
feftly the natural motion of refpiration is imitated, the better.
To prevent any fubllances from without injuring the valvtl
A, D, (fg. 112.) the rim is made with a fcrcw B, (Jig. 114.')
in order to receive a cap A, A, (fg. 114.) full of (mail
holes. This fcrew has alfo another ufe. if dephlogidi-
cated air be preferred, a bladder filled with it Cfig.HS-)
may, by means of the fcrew A, be fadened to the valve A,
(fig. 1 1 2.) ; and to prevent wade, as this air may ferve feve-
ral times, a flexible tube may be fcrewed in the valve D,
(fig. 112.) communicating with the bladdtr by means of
the opening d, (fg. 115). Tlius it may be employed a«

Y often

BEL

often as the operator tlilnks proper. There is a haiidk K
to tlie partition in the middle, in order that, if it be at any
time neceflary to ufe either of the divifions aluiie, the other
may be confined from aftinjT. c, t, (fg.iiG.) rtprcfent
tlie two valves to be apphed at the end of the inftrumcnt
CB, (f.~. 112.); and (fg. 1 17.) is a feftiori of the end CB,
ftieuiiijr the valves i'.\ their proper place?. It is proper to
add, tiiat the capacity of the inllnimcnt flioidd be propor-
tioned to the quantity of air received into the lungs by in-
fpiration,' which Dr. Goodwin has afcertained to be twelve
cubical inches, or fomewhat more. Each divifion of the
inllramcnt, therefore, fliould be capable of containing that
quantity. (.Sec Analytical Review, vol. iv. p. 437) Roul-
Lind prefentcd, and dcfcrlbed at a meeting of the Lyceum
of Arts at Paris, in 1797, the model of a pair of bellows,
conilruAed on this plan, intended to reflarc life to perfons
drowned and in a fwoon, by drawing out the vitiated air
ftated in their lungs, and replacing it with ordinary air, or
even with oxygenc, or vital air, if neceflfary : at the fame
time producing the motion of the lungs, independently of
the concurrence of the patient, to the very inftant when his
ilrength fhall return. The experiment was fubmitted to
public infpeftion ; a bladder being made up to reprefent
the lungs.

Bellows, Bone, ^trjilrps? o!-"»oi, occur in Herodotus for
thofe applied by the Scythians to the genitals of mares, in
order to diftend the uterus, and, by this comprefTion, make
them yield a greater quantity of milk.

Bellows, Hejfian, a contrivance for dri\-ing air into a
mine for the refpiration of the miners. This was improved
by M. Papin, who changed its cylindrical into a fpiral form ;
and with this, by working it only with his foot, he could
produce a wind to raife a weight of two pounds.

Bellows, Hydroflatic. See Hydrostatic.

Bellows, or Trumpcl-Jijh, m-fchlhyology, a name given
by Ray, Willughby, &c. to the fpecies of Centriscus,
ScOLOP.^x. Omelin.

Bellows Rods, in Gco!;rnphy, rocks that lie in the At-
lantic, near the weilcoaft of Ireland, and county of Galway.
N. lat. 53° ly'. W. long. 10° 4'.

BELLS, CanlerLiiry, and Covcn/ry, in Botany. See
Campanula.

Bells, Nair. See Hyacinthus.

Bells Mil/, in Geography, a fettlement in North Caro-
lina, near the Moravian ftltlements, at the fource of Deep
river, the north-wellernmoll branch of the north -well branch
of Cape Fear, and about 50 miles weft of HillPjorough.

Bells, in Heraldry, are reprefented as round, when fixed
to the legs of a hawk ; in which cafe the hawk is faid to be

BELLl^jE, in Zoology, a name of the fixth order of
animals in the Linnacan fyllem, including the genera of the
iqiiiis, or hcrj'e, the hippojwtamus, the tapir, and fur. Thefe
have obtufe truncated fore teeth, and hoofed feet.

BELLUCCI, Antonio, in Biography, a painter of por-
trait and hiftory, was born at Venice in 1654, and manifcft-
ing an early inclination to painting, became the difciple of
Dominico Dtfinico, from whofe inftruftions he acquired a
good manner of handling and colouring, an elegant tafte of
hiftojacal compofition, and an expertnefs in painting por-
traits with grace and refemblance. Having cllabhfhed, by
a variety of performances, his reputation for invention, ele-
gance and fpirit, he was invited by the emperor Jofcph to
his court, and appointed his principal painter. But after
remaining fome years at Vienna, he entered into the fervice
of the prince Palatine, in which he long lived, much ref-
pefted for his perfonal accompliftiments as well as for his
excellence in his profefiion. Pilkington.

BEL

BELLUDGE, in Geography, a tribe of Arabg, inhabit-
ing that part of Perfia, which lies on the coaft of the entrance
info the Perfwu gulf, between Minau and cape Jaflce. They
are mafters of kveral veflcls, and carry on a confiderable
trade with Baffora, and even venture as far as the coalls of
India. Thefe Arabs are Sunnites; and unity of religious
fentiments has occafioned their joining the party of the Af-
ghans in the late revolutions of "Perfia. Some geographers re-
prefent thefe BiiUudges as inhabiting all along tiie Pcrliaii
coail to the mouth of the Indus, and have dcfcribcd them
as a warlike people addifted to piracy. Niebuhr is not able
to afcertain whether they are to be confidered as indepen-
dent, or as tributary to Perfia. He thinks it probable, how-
ever, that they acknowledge no fovereign authority but that
of their own fcheiks.

BELLUGA, in Ichthyology. See Beluga.

BEI-LULA Bos, a name given by Paulus Jovius to
that fpecies of Raja' called by the old Greek and Latin
writers bos marinus ; the fame kind which Linnaeus, :aid other
later naturalifts, name fpccitlcally Oxyrixchus.

BEU^UNESE, in Geography, a fmall mountainous ter-
ritory of Italy, but rich in iron mines, forms a part of the
marquifate of Trevifo, and belongs to the republic of Ve-
nice. It is bounded on the north by the Cadorin and part
of Friuli, on the eaft by a large foreft, which feparates it
from Friuli, on the fouth by the Trevilan and Feltrin, and
on the well by the bifhopric of Trent.

BELLUNO, the capital of the Bellunefe, and fee of a
bifiiop, fulTr.agan of the archbifhop of Uaina, feated on the
Piava, betvi'cen the town Cadore and Trevifo ; 43 miles N.
of Venice, and 48 E. of Trent. N. lat. 46° ic'. E. long
12^ ij'-

BELLY, in a general fenfe, denotes the whole abdomen,
or that region of the body contained between the feptum
tranfverfum, the hypochondria, znd pul'es.

Belly is alfo ufed, in a more confined fenfe, for the in-
teflines alone, as containing the fices. In this fenfe we fpeak
of the loofenefs 01' collivenefs of the belly, &c.

Belly is alfo fomelimes uled for a pregnant woman. la
this fenfe we are to underlland the phrafe among Civil Law-
yers, to put the belly in pofTtfrion of an eflate.

Belly, is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the bodies of animals ; is
fynonymous with abdomen, and may be feparately confidered.
It is varioudy charaftevifed, according tc their food and ha-
bit?. In thofe which feed on vegetables, it is in general ca-
pacious, and hanging low ; in the carnivorous, light, and
drawn up at the flanks. In a horfe, a barrel-fnaped or cy-
lindrical belly is moft admired ; if hanging low, he is faid
to be cow-beUied ; if too much contrac'ted, he is faid to be
tucked up at the flanks. Grafs, too much water, broken
wind, and in mares the gravid uterus, occafion the belly to
relax and become pendulous ; dry food, as oats, beans, and
hay, &c. and alfo acute pain, contraft the volume of the
belly. The flow moving ruminant animals, as oxen, &c.
have the belly the moft capacious and pendulous of all qua-
drupeds. This increafed volume of the inteftines and fto-
mach appears to be defigned for the pr.rpofe of enlargino-
the furface for digcftion and chylification, and exlrafting
more completely all the liutritious particles, fo that a lefler
quantity of food will fuffice : 'iiis circumftance is particu-
larly remarkable in the (lieep, which can fatten on the Ihort-
eft giafs, and almoft barren gkbe.

In the abdomen of the horfe, and other graminivorous qua-
drupeds, whilft its vaft furface expofes it more to be adlcd
upon by changes of weather, as cold, rain, wind, &c. than .
in the carnivorous animals, fo it has appeared to us to be
alfo provided with a tlunner and lefs fatty membrane, or me-

lentery

BEL

fentery, to cover the intcftines from tlieir influence. Hence
appears to be a caufe for the frequent iiidigcillons in thefe
animals, often fpeedily terminating in death, to which their
capacity alfo greatly contributes by receiving too large a quan-
tity of food at once. See the article Gripes of Horfts.

The abdomen of the horfe and ox, and other quadrupeds
of this dcfcription, from its vaft fize, hang's below the pa-
tella or knee, which occafions the thifh of the horfe to be
jnoftly overlooked or taken for fome other part ; the patella
or ilifie being the real termination of the thigh in thefe
animals.

In the horfe, the volume of the abdomen is formed by the
vaft magnitude and length of the inteftincs, and ajingle fto-
mach not very large ; in the cow, on the contrary, the fwel-
ling bulk of the abdonien is occafioned hy four large fto-
machs, and the inteftinal canal is prrportionably fmall and
fliort. The fheep with four ftomachs pcflefTes alfo a vaft
length of inteftine.

Bellv of a 3'Iufcle,\n ^r.nlomy, Aciotes the body thereof,
as contradiftingui(hed from the two extremities, or tendons.
From the conditions of this, mufcles are divided into mono-
gaftric, or fingle-bellied ; and digallric, or double-btllied.
Phil. Ti-a.'.f. N^ 258.

Lower will have all the mufcles to be digaftric, or double-
beUied ; in which he is feconded by Hoffman and others.

BELLY-a'A-TyW, a name given in America to a fpeciesof
the Jatropha.

Belly, Dragon's, venter draconis, is ufed by fome Jljlro-
nonars to denote the point in a planet's orbit, wherein it has
its greatell latitude, or is fartheft diAant from the ecliptic ;
more frequently called its hmit.

BELMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrict of Roanne, 14 miles ncrth-eaft of Ro-
anne. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of St.
Afrique, containing about 3000 inhabitants, 9 leagues eaft
of Alby.

BELMONTE, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na-
ples, and province of Calabria citra, having a caftle on an
eminence near the fea, 11 miles W.S.W. of Cofenza. N.
lat. 39° 20'. E. long. 16" 50'. — Aifo, a fmall town of Por-
tugal, in the province of Beira, and juriidiclion of Correi-
930 de Caftello Branco, containing about 1 140 inhabitants,
two churches, and a diftrict of two parifhes.

BELO, or Belon, in Ancient Geography. See B;e-

LON.

BELOAR, a name given by fome to a ftone, otherwife
called WiDURis.

BELOMANCY, Belomantia, a kind of divination by
ineans of arrows, praftifed in the Eaft, but chiefly among
the Arabians, among whom it continued till Mahometanifm
prevailed, which abfolutely forbids it. The word is of
Greek origin ; compounded of /SsAo;, arroiv, and fj.y.;riiy.,
dlflnatlon. Beloraancy has been performed in different ways;
one was, to mark a parcel of arrows, and put eleven, or
more of thsm, into a bag ; thefe were afterwards drawn out ;
and according as they were marked, or not, they judged of
future events. Thefe arrows rtfem.bled thofe with wl-.ich
they call lots, being without heads or feathers, and were
kept in the temple of fome idol, in whofe prefence they
were confulted. Seven fuch arrows were kept in the tem-
ple of Mecca. Another wav was to have three arrows,
upon one of which was written, " My lord hath commanded
me ;" on another, " My lord hath forbidden me ;" and upon
the third, nothing at all. Thefe were put into a quiver,
out 01 which tliev drew one of the three ;;t random ; if it

BEL

happened to be that with the firft infcription, the thing they
confulted about was to be done ; if it chanced to be that
with the fecond infcription, it was let alone ; and if it proved
to be that without infcription, they drew over again. Thefe
divining arrows were generally confulted before any thing of
moment was undertaken ; as v\-hen a man was about to many,
or to go a journey, or the like.

Belomancy is an ancient practice, and probably that which
Ezekiel mentions, chap. xxi. ver. 21. At leaft St. Jerom
underftands it fo, and obferves, that the praftice was fre-
quent among the Affyrians and Babylonians. Something
hke it is alfo m.entioned in Hofea, chap. iv. only that ftaves
are there mentioned iuftead of arrows, which is ratiicr rhab-
domancy than belomancy. Grotius, as well as Jtrom,
confounds the two together, and fhews that they pre-
vailed much among the Magi, Cha!da;ans, and Scythians,
whence they paffed to the Sclavonians, and thence to the
Germans, who, as Tacitus obferves, made ufe of belo-
mancv.

BLLON, Peter, m Biography, born in the province of
Maine about the year 15 18, was an induftriousand ingenious
naturalift, efteemed for his learning and talents by Henry
II. and Charles IX. of France, and patronifed by the cardi-
nal de Tournon, at whofe expence he travelled over Italy
and Greece, a great part of Germany, France, England,
Paleftine, and Egypt, collefting and examining ever\' where
the plants, animals, and minerals properto the places through
which he journeyed. On his return, he pubiiflied, in fuccef-
fion, the refults of his obfervations and inquiries. The prin-
cipal of his works are, " Les Obfervations de plufieurs fin-
gularites, et chofes memorables trouvces en Grece, en Afie,
Judee, Egypte, Arable, &c." Paris, 1553, 4to. ; an ex-
cellent work, Haller favs, and the firft of the kind that had
been publifhed from adtual obfervation ; no one before him
having travelled fo extenfively for the purpofe of improving
natural hiftor)-. It has been frequently reprinted, and a La-
tin verfion of it given by Clufius, in 1589. " De arboribus
coniferis, refiniferis, aliifqae nonnuliis fempiterr.a fronde vi-
rentibus, &c." Paris, 155S. The defcriptions are in ge-
neral juft ; the engravings indifferent. He had feen the true
cedar of Lebanon. He alfo gave a treatife " On the Me-
thod of embalming praftifed by the ancients ;" " On the
Defefts in Agriculture ;" " 0:i the Management of Gar-
dens," and recommends the introduction of many foreign treei
into them, pointing out thofe moll congenial to the climate
of France ;" " On Birds ;" and " On Filhes ; with their
figures. More he had done ; but he was ftabbed by a rob-
ber in 1563, being only about 45 years of age. Haller.
Bib. Botan.

BELONE, in Ichlhyohgy, a fpecies of Esox, having both
jav.'s long and fubulate. Linn. This is acus p'jc'ts of Salvian;
aetts vulgaris, Ray; and fea-piie, or gar-jijh, oi X.\ii Enghlh.
It is fometimes called alfo the fea-need/e.

The fea-pike inh;ibits all great fcas, and was kr.o\«n both
to the Greeks and Romans. It keeps in deep water part
of the year, and vihts our coafts in immenfe ihoals in the
beginning of the fummer, juil before the mackerel make
their appearance. The length of this lifti is ufually from a
foot and a half to three feet ; but if the relation of Renard
may be depended upon, they are found of the length of
eight feet in the eaftern parts of the world. A fi(h of this
fpecies has been taken in the Mediterranean, on the
coaft of Lifbon, weighing fourteen pounds. In fome coun-
tries the filhery for the fea-pike is very conliderable ; in Eng-
land they are not inuch efteemed, although the flefh is fcarcc-
ly inferior to that of the mackerel. The bone of the back,
when the fifli is boiled, is of a bright green colour, from
Y 2 which

BEL

vhich many people conclmlc, though vfry uiijuftly, that it
cannot he a whulefomc food.

All the upper part of the back and head of thi'; fidi is of
n beautiful green colour ; fides and belly filvery. The num-
ber of rays in the dorfal fin are about fixteen ; peftoral thir-
teen ; ventral eight ; anal twcnty-tu-o ; and in the tail twen-
ty-two; but thcfe are liable to vary in number, as in other
fiflies.

BELOW, or BEi.as, in Geography, a river of England,
which runs into the Eden, 2 miles north of Kirkby Stephen,
in the county of Weftmoreland.

r.ELOZERO. See DiELO-0/.F.Ro.
BELPBERG, a mountain of SwiiTerland, about 7 or S
miles from Bern, being part of the chain of the Alps ; the
ftrata of which are full of dilferent fpeeies of chamites, ollra-
citcs, globofites, fplenites, itronibites, and other fimilar
pctrifaftions.

BELPECH, a town of France, in the department of the
Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrict of Callel-
naudary, 3 J miles fouthvvellof Caftclnaudary. N. lat. 43°
12'. E. long. 1° 39'.

BELPRE, a poll town and fmall fettlcment of Ame-
rica, in the territory north-weft of the Ohio, on the north-
well bank of Ohio river, between the Hockliocking and Muf-
kingum rivers, and oppofite the mouth of the little Kanlia-
way ; about 14 miles below Marietta, and 480 miles S.W.
by W. from Philadelphia.

BELSHAZZAR, in Scripture Hi/tory. See Baby-
lonia.

BELSINUM, in Jncknt Geography, a town of Hifpania
Tarragonenfisj in the country of the Cclliberians. Pto-
lemy.

BELSUNCE, Henrv-Francis-Xavier DE, in Blc
graphs, denominated, by way of honourable dillinrtion, '|the
good biihop of Marfeilles," was the fon of the marquis of
Belfunce, a nobleman of Gulenne. After quitting the
fociety of the Jefuits, into which he firft entered, he was in
1709 nominated to the bilhopric of Marfeilles ; where he di-
jlinguhhed himfelf by his fortitude and charity, during the
dreadful plague which afflicled that city in 1720 and 1721.
Such was the effefl produced by his attention and liberality
on occafion of this calamity, fuch the attachment cemented
between him and his dioccfans, by their gratitude and his
uwn fympathy, that he declined accepting the bilhopric of
Laon, to which are annexed a peerage and a dukedom,
which was offered to him by the king in 1723. He died in
1755. Nouv. Dift. Hill.

BELT, Baltheus, and among the ancient and middle
age writers, zrina, cinguluni, reminkulnm, rinca, or ringat and
baUrellus, in Armour, a kind of military girdle, in which a
fword or fome other weapon is commonly hung.

That the belt, or girdle, formed a material part of the
Hebrew armour, may be gathered from the expreffions fo
frequently repeated in the facred fcriptures. The Almighty
girding himfelf, imported not only his giving notable difplays
of power, but his re"adinefs to aft ; and his girding others
exprelfed the ability he had bellowed upon them to perform
magnificent exploits.

The belts of the Hebrew foldiers, with which they girded
on their arms, went not about their (hpulders but their loins,
and were fuppofed to ftrengthen them. (See Nch.iv. 18.
Ezck. xxiii. 1;.) They were generally valuable, cfpecially
thofe of commanders, and were fometimes given as rev/ards
to foldiers. Jonathan prefented his to David ( 1 Sam. xviii. 4.);
and Joab tells the perfon, who had feen Abfalom hanging
from the tree, that if he had fmitten him to the ground,
be would have given him ten Ihekcls of filver and a girdle.

6

BEL

The Greeks calk-d it fi^vi, or ^i-vk, and they thought it
fo elFeiitisl to a warrior, that ^i'jvt/5v»i became a general term
for clothing themfelves in armour. Whence Agamcmon is
defcribed by Homer

and which no doubt occafioned Paufanias to fuppofe that
I'-.'^Yt had a reference to the whole armour. So Herodotus,
relating the flight of Xerxes to Athens, dcfcribcs him, when
arrived at Abdera, and believing himlelf free from danger,
?v-j;>v m ^iv>i», to have difarmed himflf. (Urania, cxx.)

Amono- the Greeks, the belt was worn very differently
from the manner already defcribed, and reached even to the
thigh, whence Homer's hero, (OdyfT. x.)

and Virgil's .^neas (1.x. 1. 86.)

ocyus enle:

fem

Eripit a femore."

Foot foldiers, we are told, wore their fwords on the left;
horlemen, on the right fide. Jofephus, defcribing the down-
f^l of Jerufalem (1. iii.), exprefsly mentions horfemcn with
their fwords on the right. But whether this was conllantly
the cafe, or frequently varied, as Lipfius has obferved of the
Roman fword, cannot eafily be determined.

Herodotus, mentioning the military habits of the Pcrfians,
favs, they had daggers fufpendcd to the right thigh by a
bek.

Beger has given a bud of Scipio, copied by Montfaucon
(vol. IV. pi. vi. f. 4.), which has an embroidered belt hang,
ing from the rii.;ht ; while a foldier on the arch of Conftan-
tine is reprefented in fcale armour, with a belt fufpended
from the left Ihoulder. Montfaucon, vol. iv. pi. xx. f. 2.

In our own country, like thofe of ancient times, it was
frequently ornamented in the richtil llyle ; and it ii worthy
oi ibfcrvation, that in fome of the moll magnificent iliumi-
nations of our ancient manufcripts, even in the fame pidlure,
the fword is reprefented as indifcrimlnatcly belted on the
right fide or the left. In later ages, the belt was given to
a perfon when he was raifed to knigl-.thood ; whence it has
alio been uied as a badge of the knightly order.

Belt is alfo a denomination applied to a fort of bandages
in ivfe among furgeons, &c. Thus we meet with qiiickfilver
belts, ufed for the itch. A later writer dcfcribes a belt for
keeping the belly tight, and difcharging the water in the
operation of tapping. Medic. EIT. Edinb. torn. i. p. 218.

Belt, or Beltis, in EcckfiaJVuul Writers of the MidiUc
Age, denotes a fort of firing ot beads.

Belt is alfo a frequent difcafe in flieep, cured by cutting
their tails off, and laying the fore bare ; then calling mould
on it, and applyiiig tar and gooft-greafe.

BEL-TEIN, in Mythology, a fuperllitious cuftom, for-
merly obferved in Scotland and Ireland ; and according to
Dr. Ledwich, on the authority of ^Vormius, in Scandinavia.
Dr. O'Brien, in his Irilh Dielionai-)', explains it igv.is Beii
Dei AJiatici ; and mentions, that on the firll of May the
Druids were ufed to light large fires on the fummits of hills,
into which they drove four-footed beads, ufing at the fame
time certain ceremonies, to expiate the fins of the people.
This pagan ceremony of lighting thefe fires in honour of
Belus, or the fun, gave its name to the month of May,
which is called Deal-tine, and May-day la Bealtinc. On this
day all the inhabitants of Ireland quenched their fires, and
kindled them again out of fome part of the facred fire. That
celebrated Irilh antiquarian, general Vallancey, infers from
the name of this cufi;om, that it was derived from the Ptrfian-
Scythians, or Phcenicians, by whom the fun was -vorlhip-
ped under the fame name of Belus, or Bel, and on the tops
of hills alfo, as appears from tlie high places mentioned in

fcripture.

BEL

fcriptlire. In Gaul alio ttic-re are traces of tlie fame fup.
pofed d^ity being worfliipprd under the name ]'iclin\is. The
Irifli rtill preferve the cullom ; and to this day, in mnny
places, fires arc lighted on the firft of May in t!ie miiking
yards, which the men, women, and children pafs through
-or leap over, and the cattle are driven throU);h the flames of
the burning ftrau'. In the wellern ides of Scotland, Mr.
Martin found a like ceremony called by the fame name; and
Mr. Pennant thus particularly defcribes it. "It is a kind
of rural facrifice, performed by tlu- herdfmen of every village
on the firft of May. Tliey cut a fquare trench on the
ground, leaving a turf in the middle ; on that they make a
fire of wood, on wnich they drefs a large candle of eggs,
butter, oatmeal, and milk ; and bring, befidcs the ingxedi-
ents of the caudle, plenty of beer and whilkey; for each of
the company mull contribute fomeiliing. The rites begin
with fpilling fome of the caudle on the ground by way of
libation : on that every one takes a cake of oatmeal, upon
which aie raiftd nine fquare knobs, each dedicated to fome
particular being, the fuppofed prefervcr of their flocks and
herds, or to fome particular animal, the real deftroyer of
^m. Each ptrfon then turn-j his face to ths fire, breaks
^ a knob, and flinging it over his (lioulder, fays, TUs I
give to thii', prej'cri<e thou my horfes ; this to thee, prefewe
thou my Jlxep ; and fo on. After that, they ufe the fame
ceremony to the noxious animals : This I gi-je to thee, 0 fox!
Jpare thou my hmls ; this to thee, 0 hooJed croiv ! this to thee,
O eagle ! When the ceremony is over, they dine on the cau-
dle ; and after the fcaft is finifhed, what is left is hid by two
perfons deputed for the pnrpofe ; but on the next Sunday
they rcaflemble, and finifli the reliques of the firft entertain-
ment." That fire v.'as adored in Ireland, is fufficiently
proved from this celebrated feftival, independently of other
circumftanccs ; but whether it can be urged in proof of the
colonization of Ireland by the fouthern Scythians or Per-
fians, is not equally clear. Dr. Ledwlch fays, that fire was
adored by the Ctltcs and Northern Scythians, and mentions
from Wormius the manner of kindling it. On the other
liand, the name bears a ftriking refemblance to that of the
Afiatic deity ; and the early naval expeditions of the Phcenici-
ans render itshaving beencomniunicatcd by themlefs improba-
ble. The writer of this article hss not, however, yet met with
any account of a fimilar practice am.ongft tlie nations in the
fouth of Afia, or with any attempt to explain the name
from thofe languages which are undoubtedly of Celtic oii-
gin. The circumftance, indeed, of all languages having had
one coramou fource, leflens the force of thofe arguments
which are derived from a refemblance in words denoting the
fame thing ; and yet great ftrcis is laid on fuch refemblance
in the arguments fur the Perfian colonization of Ireland.
Colleftanea de rebus Hibernicis paHim. Pennant's Tour in
Scotland, vol. iii. O'Brien's Irifh^Didlionary. Ledwich's
Antiquities of Ireland. See Belinus.

Belts, Fnfcis, in AJlronomy, two zones or girdles fur-
rounding Jupiter's body, more lucid than the reft, and ter-
minated by parallel lines ; being fometimes brrader, and
foni'Ctimcs narrower, nor conftantly taking '.'.p the fame places
in his dilk. Dark fpots have been frequently oblerved on
Jupiter's belts. Caltini has alfo difcovered a permanent one
in the moft northern part of the moft fouthern belt : by
this he has determined the length of Jupiter's day, that is,
the time of his revolution on his axis, which is finillied in
nine hours and fifty-fix minutes. Phil. Tranf. N° lo. and
vol. Ixiii. parti. N'^ii. p. 73. Some aftronomers take the
belts to be feas, which alternately cover and leave bare
large countries of the planet ; and that tlie Ipots are gulfs
in thofe feas, perhaps as big as our ocean; and foiuetiiTies

BEL

full, fometimes dry. M. Azout rather imagined the fpots
to be protuberances of the belts. Hiit. Acad. Sc. 170S.
1692. Phil. Tranf. N" 34. I. 15. But other aftronomers
take the fpots, which are tranfparent and moveable, for
the fhadows of Jupiter's fatellites. The belts of Jupiter were
fi;ft obferved, and defcribcd by Huygens in his Syft. Satnr-
riin. p. 7. See Jupitfr.

Cafllni alfo fpeaks of belts of Saturn ; being three dark,
ftraight, parallel bands, or fafcix, on the difl< of that planet.
Saturn's bdts do not appear to be inherent on his globe, as
thofe of Jupiter's are ; but rather to be large dark rings at
a dillance from the planet, and furrounding his body. Some
imagine them to be clouds in his atmofphere. The middlc-
moft feems to be the fhadow of Saturn's ring. Hift. Acad.
Sc. 1 7 15. See Saturn.

Belts, in Ciography and A'avigation, denote certain ftraita
near the Sound, tiirough which (hips pafs from the Bahic to
the German ocean. They belong to the king of Denmark,
who exafts a toll, varying in its amount, and in fome circum-
ftances attending the colleftion of it, from all fhips that pafs
through them, as well as the Sound. (See Sound.) Thev are
divided into tlie greater and the /-Jir. The greater belt forms a '
communication between the Scaggerack or Cattegat fea and
the Bahic, feparatmg the iflands of Zealand and Funen. The
lejfer or little belt forms a communication between the Catte-
gat and Baltic, and feparates the ille of Funen from tiie
continent. The pafl'age from Aflena to Arroe Sound, in
the duchy of Slefwick, acrofs tlie little belt, is 9 miles.

BELTURBET, a market and poft town of Ireland,
in the county of Cavan, fituate on the river Erne, 8i
Irifli miles north-weft of Dublin. It has a navigation
through Lough Erne to Bcllech, within three miles of
Ballyftiannon, where it is interrupted by confiderable falls.
The navigation from Lough Erne is open to the town,
with water enough in winter, and by reducing a few flat*
might be made completely fo in all fcafons. No place in-
deed can be better fituated for trade or for improvement ;
the beautiful expanfion of water and pifturefque views are
highly engaging, and the land is a found limeftone. Yet
the market is indifferently fupplied, which may in great
meafuie be attributed to the cuftoms being taken in kind,
without any lawful ftandard or meafure, fo that it is more
advantageous for the buyers and fellers to go to other mark-
ets. Thefe cuftoms are individual property, and fet for
tool, per annum.

The town was regularly divided into compartments,
termed homerteadj ; each of which contains iG fquare
yards, to which is annexed a proportionate quantity of
bog. Every houftiolder has alfo a right to graze on an
extenfive common belonging to the town, which was given
by the I.anefljorough family, to which it iormeily belonged,
and which feems to have fpared no cxpence for its improve-
ment. Another grant of two hundred acres has become the
property of the burgeftes, who divided it, and have tranf-
mitted it down in their refpcftive families. Tliere are fome
neat houfes, efpecially thofe lately ereiSed on the part now be-
longing to lord Farnham ; but in general they are mean and
thatched. There are an excellent flonr-mill, a brewery, di-
ftillery, and malt-houfes in the town ; and fome yarn is
brought to market, but no webs. Cultivation is improved
in the neighbourhood ; but is yet vny defective. The ma-
nures ufed are aflic?, marl, and dung ; though there is good
limeftone, and much of the foil confills of deep clays which
could be fo well reclaimed with lime, yet this is never uftd,
but fent by the lake to the county of Fennanagh. In the
church-yard is the veftiire of a great fortification, inclofing
an exteufive plot of ground, the ballions and faliant angles

BEL

of which are yet perFeft ; they were admirably planned and
of great itrtngtli. Bcltuibct was a borough lov/ii, and,
previous to th<r union, fent two members to parhament.

BELTZ, or Belz, a palatinate of that part of Pol.r.id
which was formerly called Little, or Red Ruffia, and wliich
included three dillnas, viz. Bu!lc, Horodla, and Hrabowiec.
Its capital, bearinp^ the fame name, is a large town, feated
among marrties in the confines of Voliiynia. N. lat. 50° 15'.
E. long. 23° 50'. _

Beltz, a town of Croatia, 12 miles S. S. W. of » a-
rafdin.

BELVEDERE, or BiitviDERE, a town of European
Turkey, and capital of a province of the fame name, in the
Morea, which province lies on the wc(l'-rn coaft, and is tlic
richell and moil fertile in the Morca. From this province the
railins called " Belvederes," derive their name. The tgwn lies
20milesfouthofChiar.n/.a. N. lat. 58° 5'. E. long, az" o".

BELVEDERE, \a ylrMudurc: Set BtLviDKRE.

BELVEZ, a town of France, and pnncipal place of a
diftridi, in the department of t'.ie Dordogne, <;* leagues
S. S. E. of Perigueux. N. lat. 44' 46. E. long, o^ 54'.

BELUGA, "in Zoology, the name of Delphinus Luu-
CM in Pennant's Qiiadnipeds.

Bell CA Jloiic, in A'.V;//-.?/ Ni/hiy, the name of a calculus
or ftone, found in the beluga filh. This ilone is found in filh
of both fexes, but moll frequently in the male ; and in thofe
of all ages and ii^e.'^. It occurs, however, but fcldom ;
whence it is inferred, that thefe Hones are no natural part
of the fifli, but mere morbid concretions like the bezoar
ftones in the animals which produce them, or like the
flone in human bladd.-rs. It is of various (hapes and fizes ;
but its moll ufual tigure is either globular or oval, it is of
a ytUowifh-white colour, and of a fmooth and naturally po-
liflied furface, and in fize it is between a pigeon's egg and that
of a goofe. It is ufually compad, ponderous, and folid,
not friable, but requiring a ftrong blow to break it ; how-
ever, it yields eafly to the faw, which defaces its internal
ftrudture, that is naturally very elegant and regular. It con-
fills of feveral concentric coats, adliering lirmly'to one ano-
ther, and formed about a nucleus, which generally appears
to be fome heterogeneous fnbilance. It differs from all other
Hones of the fame kind in its radiated ilriifture, as it is com-
pofed of a number of regular and even llri-.e proceeding from
the centre to the cireuinferer.ce, and reprefenting, both in
colour and form, the flakes of the " terra foliata tartan,"
or the ftriated fpiculs of antimony. If the flone be fcrapcd
to powder and fprinkled upon a hot iron, it gives a faint
urinous fmell, and calcines into alight, iufipid, greyilh earth.
The people about the Volga hold it in high ellimation, and
afcribe to it great virtues. They fay, it promotes dchvery;
and they give it in cafes of the Hone, and diforders of the
urinary parts, in dofes of from 10 grains to a dram. Phil.
Tranf. vol. xliv. p. 2. n. 4.

BELVIDERE, or Belvedere, in y//r/j/Vf iVwrf . This word
meaning beaut'ifu! -vu-w is ufed in Italy, to denote thofe edifices
built for the purpofe cf enjoying a fine profpeft ; thefe are of
tivo kinds, cither detached buildings, or little cupolas (or, to
life the txpriffive Englilh term, look-ouls,) raifed on the tops of
houfeswhichterniinate chcm ornamentally, and where one may
enjoy the freflincfs of the evening and the beauties of nature.
Almoft all the houfes in Rome hnve belvederes of the laft
kind, the others generally belong to the palaces and pleafure
grounds of the great. The moll celebrated and remarkable
of all is the Belvedere of the Vatican. This large edifice
was originally built by Bramante, detached from the ponti-
fical palace, to which it has fince been united by two long
galleries. It commands the view of the rich champaign,

BEL

which furrounds the town on this fide ; the chain of the Apcn-
nines forms the raa'^niif; ent dillance of the pielure, while the
foreground is occupied by the city itfelf, which is feen in its
whole extent. It is fromthence that one may fay with Martial:
" Hinc feptem dominos videre montes
Et totum licet eftimare Romam."

Belvederes arecom:ron in France; they are generally fingle
faloons open to the air, or enclofed with doors and windows.
They are, however, fimetimes compofed of various apart-
ments, veftibules, faloons, cabinets, &c. fuch is the Belve-
dere in the menagerie of Seaux. When, however, thefe
buildino'S are at a confiderablc diftance from the manfion,
and contain feveral apartments for the purpofe of entertain-
ment, they are called Tr'tcir.ons.

In England, though the name of Belvedere is not ufed, it
may be properly applied to many of our garden-buildings.
The old inanfions were very co.nmonly gloomy both in fitua-
tion and in conftruftion, but they generally poffefled a fum-
mtr-hoiip, which was built in an elevated and agreeable part
of the garden, where in the moil: genial m.onths of the year
the family might enjoy the air, the profpecl, and the focial
pleafures, without the ceremony of the drawing-room. In our
modern villas the beauties of fitnation are confulted, and every
idea of gloom is baniflied by the long windows, the fafh-
doors, and the wide extended lawn ; the fubftantial fummer-
houfe is, therefore, unneceffary ; but of the temples, cottages,
objects which adorn the modern grounds, while fome are
merely the ornaments of the landfcape, others very exa£lly
anfwer the defcription of the Belvedere.

Belvidere, or Beh'ederi-,\n Botany, See Scoparia.

Belvidere, in Geography, a new townlhip of America,
in Franklin county, and Hate of Vermont. — Alio, a village
in New Jerfey, in the Suffex county, on the Delaware river,
and at the mouth of Pequeft river, 1 1 miles above Eallon,
in Pennfylvania.

BELVIS, a fmall town of Spain, in Eflremadura, with a
callle, feated between two mountains.

BELULCUM, a furgical inllrument of various figures,
contrived for extrafting darts, arrows, or the like, from
wounds. Hence alfo the denomination bdulcum ; quafi to

BELUNUM, in ^.nc'ieiit Geography, a town of Italy in
Rhsstia, and the country of the Veneti, now Behnto.

BELUR, in Geography, the genera! name given to the
Alpine region, which divides the fouthern parts of the an-
cient iScythia, or Great Bucharia, from Little Bucharia,
lying in about N. lat. 37°. and E. long. 71°. between Kot-
lan to the north, and Kilan to the fouth, and Badakflian iu
Great Bucharia on the weft, and Balfiltan, or Little Thi-
bet, on the fouth-eall. Strahlenherg has introduced a town
of the fame name into his map, but its exillence is dubious.
Rennel places it at the foot of the mountain, in N. lat. 37°.
and E. long. 71°. He has alfo marked a lake near it, from
whence flows the Amu, which, after its junclion with feveral
others, proceeds to Badakflian.

Belur Tag, denoting, in the Mungl language, " the
dark or cloudy mountains," part of that ridge of mountains
which, in a nearly meridional courfe, terminates Great Bucha-
ria on the eail, and divides it from Little Bucharia. Thefe
mountains are covered with perpetual fnow. They form a
chain, fuppofed to be the ancient Imaus, which proceeds
nearly north and fouth, and is continued by the mountains
of Alakor Alak Oola, on the north of Little Bucharia, which
join the Bogdo, and ow tiie fonth is more intimately con-
nected with the Hindooh Koh than with the northern
ridges of Thibet. Thofe who live at the foot of thefe moun-
ta'ns gather a great quantity of gold and filver dull; in the

fpring,

BEL

B E M

fpring, which is brought down by torrents when the fnow
melts.

Belus, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, that inha-
bits Surinam. The v. jugs are greeni.h; inner margin of the
pofterior pair rather pale ; beneath brown, with red lunar
marks. Fabricius and Jablonficy.

Belus, iu Andsnt Geography, a town of Spain, fituate
near the columns cf Hercules. Steph. Byz. This was pro-
bably the fame with Belo or Belon.

Belus, now Kardanah, a river of Phcsnicia, which flowed
at the diftanceof two ftadia fuuth from Ptolemais. It had its
fource in mount Carmel, about 4 miles to the call of the
Kifhon, i:i the lake called by Pliny Cendevia. The fand
of this river ard its vicinity was peculiarly excellent, ac-
cording to Strabo, for the manufafture of glafs ; and here,
according to Pliny, the manufaclure of glafs was firft dif-
covered.

Belus, in Ancient H'ljlory and Mythology, is fuppofcd by
fome to have been the Pul of fcripture ; and the founder of
the AfTyrian monarchy ; and they add, that he left his king-
dom to his fon Ninus, or Tiglath-Pilefer, who caufed him
to be worfliipped after his der.th, and erected to his honour
the famous tower of Babel, or Belus, in the city of Babylon.
Others conceive Belus to have been the Nimrod of Scripture,
?nd more ancient than the AfTyrian kingdom. (Sec Assy-
ria and Babylon). The tower of Belus was afterwards
ufed by the Chaldeans as an aftrouomical obfcrvatory ; and
it is faid, that Belus himfelf promoted the ftudy of ailrono-
my, in order to encourage that faith in ailrologlcal predic-
tions, which he knew how to apply to pohtical purpofes.
Hence, as Belus was honoured with a place among the di-
vinities, fome have traced the origin of thofe fables that are
found concerning him in the Grecian mythology, to tliis cir-
cumftance.

Belus, confidered as the founder of the AlTyrian and Ba-
bylonian empires, became the principal objcft of veneration
and worfaip among the later Babylonians, Pho?nicians, and
others, over whom the defcendants of his family extended
the dom.inion he had founded. Accordingly, a temple was
erected to him in the city of Babylon, and alfo a tower ;
though it is not improbable, that the honour of this temple
and tower was meant to be divided between him and the
true God. This building (fee Babylon) confided of eight
towers raifed above one another ; and in the apartments
was placed a magnificent bed, with a golden table near it,
but Without any image ; nor v.-as any perfon fuffered to lie
here in the night, except a particular woman, who, as the
priefls reported, was preferred by the god to all others. In
this place, according to their accou"t, he ufed to come and
rtpofe himfelf ; fo that they muft have regarded him as the
fupreme god, who either could not be reprefented, or not
bear the prefumotion in them of attempting his refemblance.
Beneath this there was another temple, in which was a gi-
gantic image of Jupiter or Belus, made of folid gold, with a
table and a throne of the fame metal. This Jupiter, fup-
pofed to be the great Pul, or Belus, by being placed below
the grrat and fupreme god, feems to have implied, that Be-
lus, or Pul, divided the empire of the univerfe with him, and
that as the former was the god of heaven, the other was at
lead delegated god on earth, and invefted with all power by
the immediate appointment of the invifible ruler of all things.
Some have fuppofed, that the Babylonians, by their fuperior
deity, meant the fun, which was undoubtedly a very ancient
and a very general object of worfliip ; and the appellation
Belus itfelf might be fynonymous with that of Baal, which
denoted god or lord. (See Baal.) In the Babylonian
temple there were alfo two altars, one of gold, of a moderate

7

fr/e, and another much larger : on the former were fscrificcd
mne but fucking victims, and on the other none but thofe
that were full grown. The former feemcd to have been de-
voted to the fupreme god ; and the other to his fubordinatc,
Jupiter. They had alfo facrifices that were offered to both.
Upon the whole, it feerr:s not improbable, that by I'l, Baa!,
or Bc-lus, the Babylonians underftocd either the fun or their
deified founder Pul ; but whether they trancfoi-med him info
the fun, or kept the worfirp of this luminar)-, and that of
their hero difliuft, fo as never to confound them together,
is a queftion not eaiily decided. For a defcription of the
temple of Belus, fee Herodotus, lib. i. fee alfo Babylon.

BELUTTA, in Botany. See Celosia and Crinum.

BELY BoGUE, in Mythology. &e.s BelyJiocvt.

BELZICA, in Geogniphy, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Lublin, 14 miles S. W. of Lublin.

BEi^ZIG, a town of Germany, in the circle of LTpper
Saxonv, and eleclorateof Saxony, feated on the Welfe; 30
miles E. of Magdeburg. The prefefturate of which this
is the chief town bears the fame name.

BEMA, /SnrxK, in Antiquity, denotes a flep or pace.

The bema made a kind of itinerary mtafure am.ong the
Greeks, whofe length was equivalent to one cubit, a^d two
thirds, or ten palms.

Wlience alfo the term /3r,u.«Ti^E»», to meafure a road.

Bema, in Ecckjiajlical Writers, denotes the altar-part, or
fanftuary, in the ancient churches. In which fenfe, bema
made the third or innerm.ofl part of the church, anfwering
to the chancel among us.

Bema was alfo ufed for thebifhop's chair, feat, or throne,
placed in the fanftuary. It was called btraa, from tlie fteps
by which it was to be afcended.

Bema was alfo ufed for the reader's deflt.

This in the Greek church was denominated jSr/^a '/wrm,
in the Latin church ambo.

Bema is more peculiarly ufed for the Manichees' altar,
which was in a different place from that of the cathohcs.

Bema was alfo a denomination given by this fer!t; to the
anniverfary of the day when Mnnes was killed, which with
them was a folemn feart, and a day of rejoicing.

One of the chief ceremonies of the fcaft confided in fet-
ting out and adorning their bema, or altar, with great mag-
nificence.

BEMBEA, or Bembi, in Geography, a province of the
kingdom of Angola in Africa, which is divided into Higher
and Lower, extending on one fide along the fea, and on the
other dividing the kingdom of Angola from the other foreign
ftates on the fouth. The country is populous:, and abounds
with large and fniall cattle, with the fat of which the inha-
bitants anoint their heads and bodies ; and they alfo clothe
themfelve-, with the hides, coarfely dreffcd. They are ad-
dicted to the fame idolatrous fuperititions with other parts of
the kingdom, but fpeak a quite different language. The
great river Lutano, or San Francifco, waters and fcrtih/es
mod part of this province ; but fwarms with crocodiles, fea-
hcrfes, and mondrous ferpents, which not onlydedroy much
of its fid), but do great mifchief to the adjacent grounds.

BEMBER, a town of Hindodan, in the dlreA road
from Lahore to Cadimere ; at the diftance of 33 Acbaree
coffes (each cofs being 4757 yards,) on a bearing of
N. a httle W. from Lahore. N. lat. 33°. E. long.

73° ^o'-

BEMBEX, in Entomalngy, one of the Fabrician genera

of PiEZATA, and forming, in the Linnxan fyftem, a feftion

in the Vespa genus; they are diftinguifhed by having the

tongue inflefted, and five cleft ; lip advanced, mouth invol-

ved. See V£spa. _ ,„„

BEMBO,

E E M

T5EMB0, Peter, CjrSux, in J3i>!;rjphy, an eminent re-
ftiMcr of literature-, was tht: Ion of Bernnrdo Bembo, a Vene-
tian nobleman, and bov:i at Venice in 147c. Having ftudied
L-itin and polite literature, in his early youth, under Urticio,
he went to Mcflina ir. 1492, to ^urfuc the ftudy of the Greek
language, under Conllantine Laicaris. At Padua, whither he
removed in 1495, lie received inllnidions in philofophy from
Nicholas Leonico Tomco. Upon his father's fettlement
at Fenara in 149S, he had an opportunity of forming an
intimate fViendlhip with Leoniceno, Tebaldeo, Sadoleto,
and Hercules Strozzi, and he foon aftcnvarjs began to dif-
tinguiih himfelfas a writer. His " Azolani," winch were
Uifcourlej on love, written in the Italian language, and fo
named from the calUc of Az.oli, whore they were compofed,
became very popular throughout Italy. At this time he
was alio one of the principal ornaments of the academy,
f.ninded by Aldus Ma'nutius in his native city. In 1512 he
viiited Rome, and was well received by pope Julius II. and
by his fiicceffor I..eo X. he was appointed fecretaiy, with an
ample falary. Although, in conformity to the licentioufnefs
of the papal court at this time, he kept a millrefs, by whom
he had three children, he difeharged the duties of his office
to the pope's fatisfaftion, and was employed by him in va-
rious important embalTies. In 1520, he removed to Padua,
for the recovery of his health, where, upon the death of the
pope, he tixed his refidence, paffing a tranquil life in the pro-
fccution of his iludies, and in the convcrfation of men of
letters. To his houfe, which was richly furnifhed with books
and MSS. a feledl collection of medals and antiquities, and
a botanical garden, men of fcience reforted as to a literary
academy. In 1 539, he was nominated to the dignity of car-
dinal by pope Paul III. which with fome reluctance he ac-
cepted, and he then removed to Rome. He was previoufly
ordained pried ; and, it is faid, that he altogether changed his
mode of life, and ftduloudy devoted himfclf to the duties of
his ecclcfiaftical functions. Altliougli he was nominated to the
bilhopric of Gubbio in 1541, and in 1544 tranflated to that
of Bergamo, he refidcd at Rome, and was much honoured
by the pope, as well as refpefted by perfons of the firft cha-
radcr in the court. He died Jan. 18, 1547, and was buried
in the Dominican church, called St. Maria Alia Minerva.
As a writer of Italian verfe, cardinal Bembo formed himfelf
upon the model of Petrarch, and contributed to reform and
polifli the poetry of his own coimtry. His profe compofi-
tions are written with elegance and purity of expredion, but
without any dillinguidiing traces of genius. In his Latin
llyle, he was " Ciceronian," to the extreme of affeftation ;
and on this account he was cenfurcd and ridiculed for apply-
ing the terms " heros" to^Chrill, and " dea" to the Virgin
Mary i and for ufuig " perfuafio" for faith, and for denot-
ing Leo's eleftion by " deorum immortalium beneCciis."
Like many others of the Itahan literati of that age, he feems
to have thought hghtly of his religious creed ; and to have
been more afraid of tranfgreffing with regard to his Latinity
tlian with refpeft to the decorum which religion required.
To this purpofe, he diffuaded a friend from reading St. Paul's
epiftlcs, left he fliould injure his llyle ; and it is laid that he
would never read the briefs or breviary for fear of corrupt-
ing his own Latinity. Neverthelefs his own epillles have
been charged with grofs faults, and even folecifms. Some
compofitions of his early days were licentious and obfcene.
His " Hiftory of Venice," written in claflical Latin, in 12
books, was undertaken in 1530, by the order of the council
often, and is more admired for elegance of diftion than for
profundity and accuracy. His principal works are, " Epif-
toli, nomine Leonis pout. Max. lib. xvi." Venet. 1536 ;
«' Epilt. Familiarum," lib. vi. Venet. ijji ; " Le Rime,"

B E M

compvehending his poetical verfes, '.i one volume, Rnin. and
Venet. 1548; " Le Profe," held in high cftimation by the
Italians, in allufion to which Apollolo Zeno fays, that
" Bembo was the firft who explained to his countrymen the
mechanifm and conftruaion of their native language." " Hif-
toria llerum Venetarum, lib, xii." Venet. 1551. All his
works, both in Itahan and Latin, were collefted and pub-
hllied in 4 vols. fol. Venice, 1729. Gen. Dift. Gen. Biog.
BEMBRIDGE Point, in Geography, lies at the eaftern
extremity of the ide of Vv'ight, in N. lat. 50° 40' 15". and
W. lono-. I " 4' 45", and is well known to feamen as a ledge
that runs more than two miles into the fea, E. N. E.
, BEM-CURINI, in i?9/a;y'. See Josticia.

BEMELS, in Geography, a town of the Netherlands, in
the duchy of Luxemburg, feated on the call lide of the Mo-
fellc : 2 miles N. E. of Graven Macheren.

BEMICARY Point and Bav, are litr.ate between Dry
and M'lk river, about N. 'W. by W. from the pitch of Port-
land, the foutherii extremity of the iflaiid of Jamaica. The
point or eaftern limit of the bay is in N. lat. 1 7° '^'^' . and W.
long 77° 17'.

BEMILUCIUS, in Mythology, a furname of Jupiter, re-
prefented young and beardlefs.

BEMINSTER, or Bf.aminster, in Geography, a town
of confiderable antiquity in the county of Dorfet, England.
It is feated on the fmall river Birt, which rifes near the town,
and running fouthward falls into the Britiili channel at Brid-
port harbour. This manor, and two others connefted with
it, belong to two of the prebends of Sahlbuiy cathedral.
Though of remote origin, Beminfter does not contain any
particular objeft of antiquity, and its chapel, a handfome
large pile of building, is dependent on the parifli church
of Netherbury, which is nearly two miles diftant. The town
is large and refpeftable, having many manufacturers fettled
in it, and moft of its inhabitants employed in making fail-
cloth, locks, copper goods, leather, &c. ; and fome of thefe
trades are greatly facilitated by the water of the river Birt,
and the machinery operated on by it. Beminfter has fuS^ered
repeatedly and materially by fire, and the deftrutlive fword
of civil war. Thefe two were united on the 14th of April
1644, when prince Maurice was quartered in the town, but
forced to quit it on that day, as the enemy had fired it in
five places. From the report of a perfon who vifited it foon
after, we are informed it was " the pityfulleft fpetlacle that
man can behold, hardly a houfe left not confumed by fire.
There were fevenfcore and four dwtlling-houfes, bcfides
barns and ftables burnt," and the lofs fuftained was eftimated
at above twenty-one thoufand pounds. The inhabitants
foon afterwards received from the parliament 2000I. with
which, and other funis, they rebuilt the town ; but in June
1 664, it was again confumed, when the lofs amounted to
nearly io,oool. In March 17S1, another fire occured here,
and in a few hours upwards of fifty dwelling-houfes, with
feveral barns, ftables, outbuildings, &c. were reduced to
ruins. In fpite of thefe calamitous events, Beminfter is now
a populous and flourilliing town, conllfting of 337 houfes,
and 2140 inhabitants. Its principal public buildings are the
chapel, a free-fchool, an alms-houfe, and a tnarket-houfe.
The nrft ttands on high ground at the fout'nern fide of the
town, and confifts o^a body, two ailes, a chancel, a chantrv,
and a high tower. On the weftern front of the latter are
fome emblematical ftatues in niches. Within the chapel are
fome handfome monuments to the Strodes, and other families.
The free-fchool was founded by Mrs. Frances Tucker, ir.
1684, for the education of twenty of the pocreft boys of
the town. The Rev. Samuel Hood, father of the lords
Hood and Bridport, was maftcr of this fdiool in J 777.

The

BEN

The alms-lioufe was built and amply endowed by Sir Juhn
Strode of Paniham, knt.

In this town are one annual fair, a weekly market on
Thurfday, and two annual public Tales for cattle, cheefe, &c.

About one mile fouth of B;miiifter is Parnham, an ancient
manfion belonging to Sir William Oylander, bart. At Eaft-
AxnoUer, in this neighbourhood, is a hill of the fame name,
whence iiTue three fprings, which are the fources of the
rivers Axe, Birl, and Simene. Hutchins's Hiftory of Dor-
fetfhire, vol. i.

BEMMEL, William Va\, in BiogrnpLv, a painter of
hndfcapes, was born at Utrecht in 1630, and after having
been a difciple of Herman Sachtleven, vifited Rome for the
improvement of his tafte and knowledge. His colouring is
lively and natural, but fometimes inclining too much to green ;
his figures, fuch as boats, barges, and other vefiels, intro-
duced on the rivers or llationed near the banks, are well dc-
ligned, and touched with fpirit. The lights and Ihadows of
his landfcapes are diftributed with fingular (l<ill, and his (Icies
are ufually clear, warm, and natural. He died in 1703. Pilk-
ington.

BEMNASIR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province rf Kerman ; 140 miles S. E. of Sirgian.

BE^fOL, Fr. B-molle, //<;/. in Gimdo's Scale of
Miifc, implies B flat, the 4th of the key of F natural, and
the moUe hexachord.

In early times of counterpoint, before tranfpofed kevs were
ufed, i. e. keys difterent from the authentic and plagal
modes, (fee Ecclesiastical Modes), the 4th of a ma-
jor key, defcendiiig, and 6th of a minor key, were under-
llood to be flat, and the 7th, afcending, fliarp, w itliout be-
ing marked. And though two of the modes are in tlic ktv
of D minor, and two in F major, all which require one flat at
the clef, and two in E minor, and two in G major, each
requiring a (harp at the clef, they were left to the divination
of the finger, without charadtcrs of indication. See Hexa-
chord and Mode.

The Abbe Feyton, in fpeaking of thefe mvfteries, mud
be allowed to have exercifed fcience and ingenuity, yet, it
is to be feared, that the young ftudent will be more puzzled
and perplexed than enlightened by his fubtilities in this
article.

BEM-PosTA, in Geography, a fmall town of Portugal
in the province of Tras-los-Montes, containing about 400
inhabitants.

BEN, Been, or Behen, Oil of, is a fine inodorous and
jnfipid fixed oil, procured from the Ben nut, (Glans Unguen-
tarius, Balanos Murepfiki) the fruit of the Guilandina
Blor'inga.

The oil of Ben is prepared in the Levant, in Egypt, Svria,
and alio in Italy, by txprtflion of the nut. GtofFroy gives
the quantity of oil procured to be 30! ounces from about 8
pcninds of the nut. The o\\ is valuable on account of its
great purity, and freedom fi-om fmell andtaite; hence it may
be kept for a long time witliout altering, or becoming in any
degree rancid and acrimonious. On this account it is not
difpofed to become diying, like fo many of the other fixed
oil?. It is uicd very largely in perfumery as a bafis or ve-
hicle into which the art of the perfumer is able to infufe the
fine fragrant fcent of various delicate flowers, that do not
of themlclves retain a fufficient bafis in which to fix their
fcent. Thus a great proportion of the oily eflences of the
ftiops are only perfumed oil of ben, and the fcenting matter
(which is probably a very minute quantity of eflential oil)
may be again fcpaiated from the oil of ben, bv means of al-
cohol. The method of preparing this perfumed oil we have
defcribed under the article Aroma.

Tlie unaltcrability of this oil would render it the moll va-
VOL. IV.

BEN

luable fubftance for cerates or liniments in pharmacy, were
it lufficicntly common. It is aftually employed for this pur-
pofe in many parts of Italy.

Ben Dubh, in Geography, a mountain of Ireland, fitvate
partly in King's county, and partly in the county of Tip-
perary ; 16 miles weft: of Kilkenny.

Ben Cruachnn, a fohtary mountain of Scotland, in Ar-
gylefhire, the elevation of which is 3300 feet above the fea.

Ben Levagh, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of
Galway ; 4 miles S. W. of Rofs,

Ben Lames, Ben Lcdy, Bin Lomonif, Ben More, Ben
Verlich. See Grampian Hills.

Ben h'evis, or Benevie, a mountain of Scotlandin the
Highlands, reckoned to be the higheft mountain in Great Bn-
tain, being eftimatcd at 4370 feet above the level of the fea,
and yet not much above the quarter of the height of Mount
Blanc. It is fituated in the parifh of Kilmalie, Inverncff-
fliire. This extraordinary mountain has never been fuffi-
ciently inveftigated by any mineralogifl ; but Mr. Williams
fays, that it confifts molily of porphyry "of a reddifli caft,
in which the pale rofe, the blueifh, and yellowifli white co-
lours are finely blended, and fliadcd through the body of
the fl;one." Many fpecimens of green porphyry are alfn
intermixed, with angular fpecks of white quartz. A red
granite alio prevails, which contains a vein of lead ore
impregnated witii filver. On the north-ea!\ fide this moun-
tain prefents a precipice nearly perpendicular, and of a
prodigmus height, being by fome accounts 1 500 feet. The
view from the i'ummit is gra:id, exhibiting mofl. of the well-
ern iflands, froni the paps of Jura to the hills of CuUen in
Skey; 011 the eaft it extends to Ben Lawres in Pcrthlhire,
and tlie river Ncfs ; and the extent of view is r.'.jout 80
miles. The fuperior half of the mountain is almoll defl:itute
of vegetation. The fummit is flat, with a gentle acclivitv.
Snow remains in the crevices throughout the year ; but
here are no glaciers, nor other magnificent Alpine features.
Drumalban, the " Dorfum Britannia, "^ of the old wiiter.,
feems to be Ben Nevis, with the high defert moor of Ra-
naal, extending 20 miles to the eaft of that mountain. To
the north-weft of Ben-nevis is the lonj; mountain of Coi-ria-
rok, near fort Auguitus, over which a military road has been
formed in a zigzag direftion. Near the foot of this moun-
tain arifes the rapid river Spey, and various other ftreams,
all running to the weft. Sinclair's Account of Scotland,
vol. viii. Williams's Natural Hiftory of the Mineral King-
dom.

Ben IVev'is, a mountain of Scotland in the Highlands, oa
the weft of Rofsfliire, eftimated at 3720 feet in height.

Several other mountains of Scotland are diftinguiflied by
the appellation B.:i, in conjunAion with foir.e other word.

BENABARRI, or Benavarri, a valley, and a place
of the fame name, feated among the Pyrenees in the province
of Aragon, in Spain, on the frontiers, of Catalonia. N. lat.
41° 55 ■. E^ long. o°4o'.

BENAC, a town ot France, in the department of the Ille
and V'illaine, and chief place of a canton in the diilrirt of
Redon ; 84 leagues S. of Rennes.

BEN-A1>I, a populous town of Egypt, between Mon-
falat and Affiiit, or Sic.;;t. Thefe three places, with Girgc,
conllitute the chief marts of the trade of Upper Egypt.

BEN A MEN IL, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurtc, and chief ))lace of a canton in the diftriel
of LnneviJle ; ii leagues eail of Luiieville.

BENARES, a foubah or province of Hindoftan, bounded
on the nortli and norlh-weft by Oude, on the eaft by Bahar,
and on the fouth and weft by Allahabad. Thisdiftrift is
about i2omiles long, and 100 broad; and contains, wit li itsde-
jicndencies, 12,761 Iquart Britiflt miles ; its foil is fertile, and
Z the

BEN

tTie country populous. The Zemindary of Benares, which
includes alfo the circars of Gazypour and Chunar, conllilut-
ed a part of the dominions of Oude, until the year 1775,
when its tribute or quit-rent of 24 lacks, fince incrcafed to
4c, was transferred to the Englilh, on occafion of the cef-
fion of the province to the India Company. Tiiis Zemin-
dary, lately in the hands of Chcet Sinfj, occupies t!iL principal
part of tlie fpace between Eahar and Oude, fo that only a
I'inall part of the territory of the latter touches Bahar on the
ni)rtli-\veft. In 1 786 tht clear revenue of Benares amounted
to 380,0001. Alrnofb in every village of this province,
which is in a vciy profpcrous (late, a pcrfon is employed in
teaching the vouth to road and write ; and they have a lin-
gular method (if teachinjj reading and writing at the fame
time. The boys are colltclcd upon a fmootli flat of fand,
and with a iingtr or a fmall reed form the letters there,
wiiith they pronounce at the fame time. As often as the
fpace before each fcliolar is filled up with writing, it is ef-
faced, and prepared for a new lefTon : thus the expcnce of
pens, ink, paper, and even a houfe is avoided. The educa-
tion at Benares is chiefly inilituted for the Brahmins.

Benares, the chief city of the foremcntioned dillrift, is
very rich, and the mull completely built of aay. It occu-
pies the north bsjik of the Ganges, and is diftant from Cal-
cutta by the road, about 460 miles, and by Moorfhcdabad
565 miles. Its ancient name was Kali ; but there are no
notices concerning it in the works of the ancient geogra-
phers. If it had exiilfd during the time of the Syrian am-
bafTadors, Pliny would have noticed it, as he has done Me-
thora or Matura, and Clifobara, which lay near the Jumn.ih
river. This city is .about fix miles long and four wide ; and
may be viewed in its utmoll extent from the tops of the Mi-
narets of the mofque, erefted by Aurungzcbe on the foun-
dation of an ancient Hindoo temple, and lately repaired by
Mr. Hallings. It abounds in coftly (Iruftures ; but Mr.
Forfler, in his " Journey from Bengal to England," fays,
that the irregular and comprefled manner which has been
invariably adopted in forming the ftreets, deftroys the effeft
which fymmetry and arrangement would have bellowed on a
city, entitled, from its valuable buildings, to a preference of
any capital, feen by him in India ; and it is alfo very in-
jurious to the falubrity of the town. At Benares the num-
ber of Europeans is very fmall ; a judge, regift^er, colleftor,
with a few civil fervants, conftitute the vvhole of the com-
pany's ellabhlhment there ; and a few private merchants aiid
planters make up the whole fociety. Of natives, however,
the number is great ; and many of the bankers are the prin-
cipal creditors of the India company, and pofTefs immenfe
fcriunes. The poor in Benares are (till more numerous, ow-
ing to the crowd of pilgrims, who come from all parts
to vifit fo facred a place. Mr. Hodges, in his " Travels
in India," informs us, that in examining one of the tem-
ples of Benares, he was furprized to find moft of the orna-
mental parts of Grecian architefture in a building erefted
on the plains of Hindoflan. Benares has been from time im-
memorial the Athens of India, the refidcnce of the iVioil
leamtd Brahmins, and the feat both of fcienee and literature.
Here, it is probable, whatever remains of the ancient aftro-
nomical knowledge and difcoverie§ of the Brahmins is ftill
preferved. M. Bernier (Voy. ii. p. 148.) faw, in the year
1668, a large hall in this city filled with the works of the
Indian philofophers, phyCcians, and potts. Sir Robert
Chambers has defcribed the obfervatory at Benares, which he
vifited in 1772. (See Observatory). He has more
lately difcovered in this city the " Surja Siddhanta," on the
principles of which the whole Indian aflronomy is founded.
Several confiderable txtrads of this work have been tvanflat-

BEN

ed by Samuel Davis, Efq. to whom this valuable work was
communicated. It is compofed in the Sanfkreet language,
and profefles to be a divine revelation, communicated to
mankind more than two millions of years ago, tov.ards the
clofe of the Sutty or Satya Jogue, the firll of the four fa-
bulous ages, into which the Hindoo niythologiUs divide the
period during which they fuppofe the world to ha\e exilled.
It appears froru what is already known of this book, that
independently of the fiftlon and romance which are blended
in the account of its origin, it contains a very rational and
elaborate fyllem of allroiiomical calculation, and feveral rules
and tables, for tlie calculation of eclipfes, S:c. which feem
very much to favour the liypothefis adopted by M. Bailly,
Dr. Robertfon, and others, that afcribes a very high anti-
quity to the allronomy of the Brahmins. In the rules con-
tained ill this work is included a fyllem ot trigonometry,
founded on certain geometrical Ineorems, with which,
though unknown to Ptolemy and the Greek geometricians,
modern mathematicians are well acquainted. For an ac-
count of the ailronomical computations of the Hindoos, by-
Samuel Davis, Efq. fee Afiatic Refearches, vol. ii p. 225,
&c. 8vo. and for remarks on the allronomy of the Brahmins,
and for an account of the principles on which the Hindoo
fyllem of trigonometry is founded, by profefTor Playfair, fee
Edinb. Tranl. vol. ii. p. 135. It appears, however, from an
elaborate diflertation on the antiquity of the Suiya Siddhanta,
by Mr. J. Bentley, publiflied in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. vi.
p. 540, &e. that the fyllem, lo eagerly applauded and re-
ferred by the above-mentioned writers to fuch remote anti-
quity, cannot be of a greater age than 731 years; or that
it was compofed about A. D. 1068.

Notwithftanding the fcienee and literature that have been
cultivated by the Brahmins at Benares, we difcover traces
of fuperftiticn, and even of inhumanity, in fome of their cuf-
toms, which, it is hoped, the interference of the court of
juftice, eftablidied there in 1783, will gradually reftrain and
reform. As the perfon of a Brahmin is inviolate, no atone-
m^'nt can expiate the crime of occafioning his death. Hence
originated a praftice, which was formerly frequent at Be-
nares, and which in its elTefts approaches the neareft to our
caption, or aneft. The Brahmin, who adopts this expedi-,
ent, in order to procure redrefs, proceeds, armed with a
dagger or poifon, to the door of his adverfary's houfe ;
where he deliberately fets himftlf down, and threatens to com-
mit fuicide, if the oflender (hould attempt to pafs or moleft
him. He falls with inflexible rigour, to v;hich the other
party hkewife fubmits, and perfeveres in his rtfulution until
Idtisfaftion is obtained. This praftice, called iitting in
" Dherna," is not confined to the male Brahmins only ; for
an inllance occurred at Benares in 1789, of a widow's re-
curring to this expedient, in order to obtain, in a litigation
with her brother-in-law, that juilice, which neither the
award of arbitration nor the decifion of the court had grant-
ed her. Both failed pertinacioufly during thirteen days,
when, worn out with hunger, her antagonift at laft yielded
the contell. Another inftance occurred in 1794. An inha-
bitant of a dllhift in the province of Benares fat in Dherna
before the houfe of fome Rajepoots, for the purpofe of ob-
taining the payment of " Birt," or a charitable fubfiflence,
to which he had a claim ; and in this fituation deilroyed
himfell by fwallowing poifon. Some of the relations of the
deceafed retained his corpfe for two days before the houfe of
the Rajepoots, who were thus compelled to forego taking
fuftenance, in order to induce them to fettle the Birt on the
heirs of the deceafed Brahmin. This praftice is not fpe-
cifically pointed out by the fliafler, but depends merely on
the fanftioB of ufage. Another praftice of the Brahmins,

equally

BEN

equally fingiilar, and more cruel, is called erefting a " Koor."
Having conftrucled a circular pile of wood, and placed upon
it a cow, or an old woman, they prepare to confume the
wholetogether. The objeft of this praftice is to intimidate
the officers of government, or others, from urging importu-
nate demands, or levying grievous exaclions, as the effecl of
the facritice is fiippofed to involve in great guilt the perfon
whofe conduft obliges the conftruftor of the Koor to adopt
this expedient. The only cafe of fctting up a Koor, that
occurred for many years, happened near Benares in 1788 ;
bat the facritice was prevented by the timely interpofition of
authority. There are a fewinflances of ilill more atrocious
afts, by which the Brahmins feek to repel injuries, or to
wreak their feeble vengeance ; as by murdering, with mutual
conlent, their ncarelt and moft beloved relations, fiom a
perfiiafion that horror of the deed will redound on the head
of their oppreflbr. Sir John Shore («i/ in/ni) relates three
(hocking cafes of that nature, which, fo late as the years
1791 and 1793, came under his cognizance in the province
of Benares. It further appears by Sir John Shore's report,
that a whole tribe of Hindoos, denominated " Rajekoomars,"
and refident on the frontiers of Juanpore, a diftrift of the
province of Benares, adjoining to the country of Oude, have
been long accuftomed to the lavage praftice of cauCng mo-
thers to ftarve to death their female offspring ; and that the
only reafon affigned for this inhuman cuftom was the great
expence of procuring fuitable matches for their daughters, if
they fuffered them to grow up. Meafures have been taken
and rigidly enforced for abolifhing this barbarous praftice,
to which, however, there are fome few exceptions ; as cer-
tain families among the Rajekoomars allow, at leait, one fe-
male child to be reared, and one village furnifhes a complete
exception to the general cuftom. Among the fupcrftitions
prevailing in the province of Benares, we may mention the
following circumftance relating to the fugar-cane. If any
of the old cane remains unemployed in the new plantation,
the proprietor repairs to the fpot previoufly to the 25th of
Jeyte, or nth of June, and having facrificed to Nagbele,
the tutelar deity of that plant, he carefully fets fire to the
whole ; it being firmly believed by the " ryots," orhuiband-
men, that if a fingle cane (hould flower after that terra, it
■would portend the moft dreadful calamities to themfelvea and
their families. We fhall here add, that faith in charms,
amulets, forcery, fafcination, and aftrology, ftill prevails in
the eaft. See Soontaars. Afiatic Refearches, vol. iv.
p. 329, &c. 8vo. The Hindoo obfervatory at Benares is
fituated in N. lat 25° 18' 36". E. long. 83° 10'.

BEN A RU, a tov/n of Perfia, in the province of Fariftan>
108 miles S. S. E. of Schiras.

BENARVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Seine, 5 leagues N. E. of Montivilliers.

BENASCHI, John Baptist, in Biography, a painter
and engraver, was born in Piedmont, A. D. 1C36, and be-
came a difciple of Fictro del Po. He imitated the works of
Lanfranchi fo fuccefsfuUy, that his piftures have been mif-
taken for the performances of that matter. He is reprefent-
ed as a man of great genius, and the freedom and facility,
which appear in his pidlures, are highly commended. He
died at Rome in 1690. He etched for his amufement " A
holy family," from Dominicus Ccrini, his intimate friend.
Strutt.

BENATKY, orBENATEK, in Geography, a fmall town
of Bohemia, with a citadel, in the circle of Boleflaw, feated
on the Ifler, 22 miles N. E. of Prague.

BENAVARRI, See Benabarri.

BENAVENTE> a town of Spain, in the country of Leon>

BEN

feated on the Efla, and containing about 4000 inhabitanti ;
13 leagues S. of Leon.

BENAVIDIO, Marcus Mantua Benavidius, in
Biography, A. celebrated civilian, was born at Padua in 1490,
and taught the civil and canon law in his native city for 60
years, with high reputation. He there received the honour
of knighthood, viz. from the emperors Charles V. and Ferdi-
nand I. and from pope Pius IV. He died in 1582, and
was the author of feveral works in his own profefilon ; among
which are " Colleftanea fuper jus Caefareum ;" " Obferva-
tionum Lecalium," hb. x. and " De Illullribus Jurifcon-
fultis." M-.reri.

BENBECULA, in Gtography, is the name of one of thofe
ifiands of Scotland called the Hebrides. It lies between the
ides of N. and S. Ui'.l, from the laft of which it is feparated
by a narrow channel, nearly dry at low water. This ifland
is rather flat, and meafures only about nine miles in tranfverfe
diameter. Its foil is fandy and barren ; but the quantity of
fca weedconilantly driven on fhore, is appropriated to melio-
rate fome portions of the land. In one p^.rt of the ifland is
an ancient fort called Elvine Nean Ruarie, and feveral ftone
monuments are found in different parts of it. It has a har-
bour for fmall fifliing vefFcls, and feveral frefli water lakes,
ftored with fifli and fowl.

BENFBRICK, a mountain of Scotland, in tlie county of
Perth ; 12 miles N. N.W. of Crieff.

BENBAl^BEN, mountains of Ireland, in the county of
Sligo; 7 miles N. of Sligo.

BENCH. See Banc, Bank, &c.

Bench, Amicable. See Amicable.

Bench, King's. See Court of King's Bench.

BsttCH, free. See pREE-fenfi.

Bench ijland, in Geography, lies within the fouth-eaft
point of what is called South-eaft; bay, in the fouthern part
of New Zealand.

BENCH'a.'/V/oTy. See Widow.

BENCHERS, in the Inns of Court, the fenior members
of the houfe, who have the government and dircftion thereof;
and out of whom is yearly chofen a treafurer, S:c.

BENCOOLEN, in Geography, a fea-port town and fort
on the fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra, where the
Englifli have a fettlemcnt and a failory. This is one of the
four Englifli prefidentfiu'ps, or governments, to which all the
other fa&ories are fubordinate ; the other three are Madras,
Bengal, and Bombay. Bencoolen, which is about 2 mile*
rn compafs, is known .it lea by a high flender mountain,
called the " Sugar Loaf," and rifing 20 miles beyond it in
the country. Before tlje town lies an ifland, within which
the fliips ufually ride, and with this, the point of SiUebar,
extending 2 or 3 leagues fouthward of it, forms a large and
commodious bay. A convenient river on its north-well fide
brings the pepper, of which the trade of the town chiefly
confills, from the inland country : but it is fliipped with in-
convenience, on account of a dangerous bar at tlie mouth of
the river. It is principally inhabited by natives, who build
their houfcs on pillars of bamboo wood. The Englifli, Por-
tuguefe, and Chinefe, have each a fcparate quarter. The
adjacent country is mountainous and woody, and there are
many volcanos in the ifland. Aa tbe town ftands upon a
morafs, the air is loaded with vapours, and the mountains
are covered with thick clouds, that produce lightning,
thunder, and rain. The climate of Bencoolen has proved
more fickly and fatal than that of any of the other Britifti
fettlements, not only to the Englifli, but to all who have
been accuftomed to live in a pure air. In 1763, upon the
ceflion of Manilla to the Spaniards, and the reftoration 0/
Bencoolen to the Englifli, many Chinefe merchants, with

Z 2 iheii

BEN

thtir families, quitted Manilla in order to fettle under
the Englifn govcnimcnt at this place; but tl:eairof this
country proved fi> fatal, tliat nioft of thofe Cliinefe and
their families died foon after their arrival. Many Englilli
have alfo fallen a facrlfice to the iiitcmpcratnre of this climate;
and, indeed, few of them furvived until they built a fort on
a dry cltvuted fituation, at the dillance of about 3 miles
from the town. Tliis is called " Fort Marlborough," where,
durinjr the rage of ficknefs at Bencoolen, the garrifon is
fometimcs very healthv. Tame buffaloes may here be liad
in great plenty; but fi(h and poultry are fcarce and dear.
The foil is a fertile clay, producing high grafs ; but near the
fea it is a morafs. N. lat. 3° 49' 3". E. long. 102°. See
Sumatra.

BEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan,
100 miles N. E. of Schiras.

15 F N D Dixtfr, in Hcrali/rv. The bend was a fafh wora acrofs
the {houlJer from the Italian la benda ; it is one of the nine or-
dinaries in heraldiy, and occupies one-third part of the el-
cutcheou when charged, and one-fifth when plain ; it confills
of two equal lines drawn diagonally from the dexter chief to
the finiller bafe of the fliield. This ordinary hath marc fubdivi-
fions or dimi:mtivts than any of the others, viz. the bendlet,
gortier, cottifc, and ribbon, none of which diminutives can
properly be charged.

Bfxd Sini/ler, denoteslines drawn diagonally from the finif-
ter chief, to the dexter bafe of the fliield ; it hath not the fame
diminutives as thofe of the bend dexter; but according to fome
heraldic writers, is fubdividcd into a fcrafe, or fearf, which is
in breadth half that of the bend finiller; and a batton, or fif-
fure, as Upton and Holme call it, containing half the breadth
of the fcarf. Here, however, arifes an objeftion to the
admitting the batton to be a diminutive of the bend fmiller,
or as any part of one of the ordinaries. According to many
years prafticc, the batton doth not toucli the extremities of
the fliield, nor the extremities of the quarter where the pa-
ternal arms are placed, as all the ordinaries and their dimi-
nutives conftantly do ; but on the contrary, is couped, that
is, cut (hort, and fo borne as a mark of illegitimacy, and not
as an ordinary or charge, or any part of tlie coat : for, al-
though fnme inilanccs are to be met with of ancient arms,
where a batton finiller is pa (Ted from the fmifter chief to the
dexter bale, over all ; and others, where it paiTes from cor-
ner to corner, over the paternal quarter, and not over the
other quarters ; yet, in every one of thofe inflances, the bat-
ton is ufed as a mark of baftardy, and not either as an ordi-
nary or charge. Hence, therefore, we may fairly conclude,
that the batton is not to be deemed as any part diminutive
of the bend, but as a mark of illegitimacy ; which mark or
batton when granted by princes to their illegitimate chil-
dren, may be of metal or fur, or both ; but, wheTi granted
to any under their degree, mull be of colour only.
BENDA, in ylrciiudiire. See Fascia.
Benra, Fr.irfc;s, in liio^ruphy, concert-mafter to the late
Frederick II. king of Prudia, from the year 173S to the
time of his death. He was one of the moll touching and
exprolfn-e players on the violin in Europe, during the
la!l century. He was a native of Alt Benatkv in Bohemia
1709, and a chorifter at Prague and Drcfden, till lie lo!l his
treble voice. Tliere is a very natural and amuliug life of
this excellent muiician, compofed from his oa-ii materials, by
M. Hiller of Lcipfig ; but as we have no room for Itories of
mere amufemtiit, we mull adhere to matters of fact.

It was not, tdl he was difmilfed as a finger, that he feri-
oully applied to the fiddle to procure him a fubfillence ; but
he kne* not when or under what matter ; but remembered
that, as I'ooa as he was able, he joined a company of lLrol!in'»

BEN

[ews, in plaving danceci about the country ; in which, how-
ever, there was a bhnd Hebrew of the name of Lobe!, who,
in his way, was an extraordinary player. He drew a gooil
tone from his inllrumcut, and compofed his own pieces,
which were wild, but pretty : fome of his dances went up
to A ill ab'ilhno ; however, he played them with the utnioll
purity and ncatncfs.

The performance of this man excited in Benda fo much
emulation, that he redoubled iiis diligence in trying to
equal him ; and not to be inferior in any part of his trade,
he compofed dances for his own hand, which were far from
eafy. He often fpeaki of his obligations to the old Jew
for llimulating him to excel on the violin.

It has often excited our wonder, that in the principal capi-
tals of Europe, wherever there is a fynagogue, we generally
found a vocal performer or two, who fnng in the Italian
manner, and in exquilite talle, though the rell of the fmging
in the fervice of religion, was to the lafl degree incoherent,
rude, and barbarous. Where it was acquired, or by what
kind d3:mon thi:i tafte was infpired exclulivcly, is not eafy
to conjeftuie ; but fo it was at Paris, Amllerdam, Milan,
Venice, Rome, and Naples ; and we have had inftances at
home of exquilite Hebrew fiuging in our own countiy.

After various adventures, our young violinift entered into
the band of count Uhlefeld at Vienna, with whom he had
frequently the advantage of hearing the famous Francifchello,
who taught the count, and of playing trios with this great
muficiau and his fcholar.

Francifchello was the moll exquifite performer on the
bafe-viol of his time. Geminiani related of him, that in ac-
companving Nicolini, at Rome, in a cantata compofed by
Aleffaiidro Scarlatti, for the violoncello, the author, who
was at the harpfichord, would not believe that a mortal
could play fo divinely ; but faid, that it was an angel w-ho
had affumed the figure of Francifchello ; fo far did his per-
formance furpafs all that Scarlatti had conceived in com-
poling the cantata, or imagined poffible for man to exprefs.

At length, Benda was invited by Quantz, the German
flute mailer to the late Frederick II. king of Pruflia, during
the time when he was only prince of Pruffia, and relided at
Ruppin, before his acceffion to the throne.

It was by llealth, that this prince indulged his paffion for
mufic, during the life of liis father, the late king, who had
forbidden him, not only to fludy and pradlife mufic, but to
hear it. M. Qiiantz told us afterwards, that it was the late
queen-mother, who at this time encouraged the prince in his
favourite amufement, and who engaged mulicians for his
fervice ; but lo neceffaiy was fecrecy in all thefe negociations,
that if the king his father had difcovered that he was dif-
obeyed, all thefe fons of Apollo would have incurred the
danger of being hanged. The prince frequently took occa-
fion to meet his muficians a hunting, and had his concerts
either in a foreft or cavern.

Benda ftill, in 1772, led the king of Pruflia's band at the
opera, and at his concerts ; and could boall of having had
the honour of accompanying his majefty, during the 40
years which he had been in his fervice, in near 50,000 dif-
ferent concerts. What an excellent economiil of time
mull his late Pruffian majelty have been ; who, though his
own minitter, could fpare two hours every day, when he was
not in the field, for mufic !

^Vheu we heard the admirable Benda perform, it was
an excellent compufition of his own, which he played rcnyir-
(iino ; his hand, he laid, wanted force fufficient to play with-
out. The gout had long enfeebled his fingers, and age,
perhap5. Hill more. There were, however, fine remains of
a great hand, though he was probably always more remark-
able

BEN

?blc for feeling than force. His ftyle was fo truly canlc.llh,
tl'.at fcarce a palTage could be found in his compolitions,
which it would not have been in the power of the
human voice to fing ; and when lie was at his beil, he was
fo very affediiig a player, fo truly pathetic in an adagio, that
feveral able protcfTors declartd that he frequently drew tears
from them in performii-^; one. How he acquired this ftyle
of writing and playing, may be of feme ufc to mulical Un-
dents to trace and dtvelope. His ftyle was not that of
Tartiui, Somis, Veracini, nor that cf the head of any one
fchool or mulkal feci, of which we iiave the lead knowledjre :
it was his own, and formtd from tliat mcd;! which fhould
be ever ftudied by all inllrumental n.-rformcv;. ^ood fntg'ni-^.

BENDALA, in Geogn^ply, a town of Africa, lying be-
tween the confines of Dar-fur and Wara, the o.-ipital of Ber-
goo. It is inhabited by the flaves of the fultan of Bergoo.
The people are idolaters.

BENDALI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man, 140 miks S. of Sircrian.

BENDARMA LANKA, a town of Hindoftan, in the
circar of Rajamundry, fituate between the brar.clies of the
river Bain, at their outlet into the ocean, 50 imles S. of
Rajamundry, 50 N. E. of Mafulipatam, and 358 miles N.E.
of Madras. N. lat. 16" 30'. E. long. 82° 30'.

BENDEIRG, a mountain of Scotland, in the county
of Perth, 7 miles N. of Blair Athol.

BENDER, formerly called Tixhie, and denoting in the
Turkiih language " a pafs," a fortified town of European
Turkey, in Beflarabia, feated on the Dniefter. It is cele-
trated as the place of retreat and refidence of Charles XII.
of Sweden, when he put himfclf under the protcftion of
the Turks, after being defeated by the Ruffians at the
battle of Pultowa in 1709 ; but upon refufing to leave their
temtory, he was attacked, taken prifoner, anr' removed to
Adrianoplc, where, after a year's confinement, he returned
fecretly to his own dominions. It was belie-red by the
Ruffians in 1770, and after a refiftance of nearly three
months, furrendered to Panin, the Ruffian general ; and the
capture of this fortrefs was fucceeded by the fubmiffion of
the Tartars of Budziak and Otchakof to the Ruffian fceptrc.
The Cege which Bender, in 1770, fuftaincd from the Ruf-
fians was remarkable, on account of the defperate defence
made by the garrifon, the carnage which attended its reduc-
tion, and the adoption on the part of the befitgers, of that
dreadful inftrumcnt of modern warfare, the globe of com-
prtflion. The Ruffian army, commanded by count Panin,
opened their trenches on both fides of the river, the 30th July,
after which, a furious cannonade and bombardment were
begun from all quarters, and vij;orouny retunieu trom the
town. The garrifon and inhabitants defended themfelves,
with the utmoil bravery : in fixteen days they made feven
forties, with little advantage, but great lofs on both fides,
and held out for more than two months with ur.abated cou-
rage, even when the defeat of the main army by the Ruffian
general Romanzow feemed to deprive them of ever)' hope
of relief. The befiegers in the mean time pufhed foi-ward their
mines (See Mine) v.-ith induftry, particularly one of an
improved conftruftion lately invented by a French engineer,
and which has been fince denominated the globe of com-
preffion. In this labyrinth of mines, interwoven and in-
clofed one within another, it was maintained, that a certain
quantity of gunpowder would caufe a greater explofion,
and throw up a greater portion of earth than in any other
method. The globe of compreffion being brought to per-
fection, was charged with the amazing quantity of l6,ooolb.
of powder, and the garrrifon continuing obllinately to refufe
every propofal of furrcndcr, count Panin prepared for a

BEN

general aflault to take place on the night of the 27th of
Sept. The firing of the mine was to be the fiina! of attack,
and it was hoped, that befides ruining the outworks, it might
make a breach in fonie of the principal wall.; of the town, and
bury the defenders in the ruins. The Ruffians themfelves
were apprehenfive of the confequcnces, as it was net cafy to
define how far the effects of fuch an enormous niafs of powder
might extend, and tlie troops deftiised to make the aflhult in
that quarter were ilationed at a confiderab'.e dillaixe. In iaft,
the globe of compreffion, which was blown up at 10 o'clock
at night, with a moil hoirible concuffion, fliook the v.hole
adjacent country, and, amidll the alloiii(hment and confufion
excited by this dreadful phenomenon, the attack began in
three pLices with great fury. Nothing could rellrain the
impetuofity of tl'.e Ruffian foldiers, who pufhed forward at
the main point of affimlt. The double ditches before the
glacis were pafFed and filled up ; the double row of palli-
fadocs before the covered way dcftroyed ; the main ditch
fvirrmurted, and all the outworks canied in fucceffion. The
hody of the place could not oppofe an effectual refiilance
to enemies who had already overcome fuch difficulties : the
Ruffians got over the waUs in every quarter, and a new and
dreadiiil conttil commenced in the dark, as well among
the fortifications, as in the ftreets, lanes, and palTages, and
from the houtes. The defperate refillance of the garrifon
and inhabitants, obliged the Ruffians to fet fire to the town,
which they did in feveral places at the fame time, but the
conteit neverthelefs continurd, amidft the ruins and the
blazing houfes, for the whole of the night, nor feemed
decided, but by the almoft total extermination of the Turks.
At eight in the morning, the ftrafkier, with moil of thofe
that furvived, retired to the citadel, which the flames had
already reached. A feledl body of 1500 cavalry and 500
infantry, attempting to cut their way through the befiegers,
were fdrrounded and cut off to a man. As for the feraikier,
after demanding in vnin an honourable capitulation, the fury
of the flames, which had now reached every part of the
citadel, obliged him to furrcnder with his followers, as pri-
foners of war. The fire raged for three days, and could not
be reftrained till it had conlumed the whole city. The to-
tal number of prifoners, including the inhabitants of all ages,
amounted to 11,749, °^ whom 5,554 were janifaries and
fpahis, with their commanders, befides the ferailcier and two
bafhas. The refidue of a population of 30,000 fouls, of
whom one half were foldiers, perillied in the llorm. The
Ruffians found in the place a vail quantity of arms, bombs,
grenades, gun-powder, and other military llores, befides
above 200 pieces of brafs cannon, and 85 mortars. They
alfo took 4 horfe-tails, 14 batons of command, and 40 pair
of colours.

Bender, hardly recovered from this blow, was again taken,
but not till after a long fiege, by pnnce Potemkin, in Novem-
ber 1789. It was, however, rellored to Turkey by the
fubfequeut treaty of peace in 1792. Bender is reckon-
ed to contain between 10 and 12,000 inhabitants; and its
governor is a bafhaw. It is diftant loo miles \V. of Otcha-
kof or Oczakow, and as many miles S. E. of Jaffy. N. lat.
47^ E. long. 29° 20'.

BENDER.-.^ia/^. See Gombroon.

BENDER-fonj^o. See Congo.

BENDER-iJi-fcn, a town of Perua, in the province of Far-
fiilan, on the north coailof the Perlian gulf; 130 miles W.
of Schiras.

Bender du Set; a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man, 160 miles S. of Sirgian.

Bender. Ibrakim, a town of Perfia, at the mouth of the
river Ibrahim, in the Perfian gulf.

Bender

BEN

Benber M,>fin,or Be,r,ar.M.ifin, the capUal oF a kinp;-
f^om of the fame name in the fouthcrn part of t'.-e idand of
Borneo, pofTctl^ng a good harbour, formed by tlie river Benjar,
flowing from the centre of the country ahnoft due fouth. 6.
lat. 2" 40'. E. long. 113=^ 50'. , a f

Bender Rkhtr, a town of Perfia, on the north coalt ot
the Ptrfian gulf, in the province of Faififtan ; 160 miles
S.S.W. of Scliiras.

Bender Ri-I:. a city of Perfia, in the proviiKe of Ker-
man. on the north-eafl coaft of the Pcrfian gulf. It is en-
compaffed with walls in an indifferent ftate, and lies north
from Abufchffhr or BiiHieer. The petty Hate, of which
this is the capital, comprehends feveral other placf s m Ker-
mefir, which render its fovcreign in fome mcafiMe dependent
upon Kerim Khan. The Arabs of this principality are
chiefly addiAed to a fea-faring life ; the Perfians inhabiting
its back parts arc huniandmeti. The reigning family of
Bender Rigk is of the Arabian tribe of Beni Saab, and pro-
ceeds originallv from Oman ; but the grandfather of one
ofits princes, having become a Schiitc, and married a Perfian
lady, tnis family is'uo longer reckoned by the Arabs among
their genuine nobility. A late reigning prince of Bender
Rigk, Mir Mahenna, was notorious through the country
for his vices and cruelties, as one of the moll execrable ty-
rants that ever exilled. He caufed his fervants to murder
his father in his own prefence, becaufe the old man had a
predileaion for his eldeil Ion. He killed his mother, be-
caufe (he reproached him for his crimes. He caufed his
brother, and iixteen other relations, to be affafiinated, that
he might eftablilh himfelf in the undifturbed pdifenion of
the throne. He drowned two of his fillers, becaufe a
neighbouring prince had afked one of them in marriage. He
expofes all the children that happen to be born to him. In
1765, this deteftable monftcr was under the aq;e of thirty
years. After having been twice captured by Kerim Khan,
he recovered his liberty, and immediately upon his return
to his own dominions began to pillage the caravans which
travelled between Schiras and Abufchaehr, and to praftife
piracy. Kerim Khan laid unfuccefsful fiege to his capital ;
and when he fent in 1765, to demand payment of the tribute
due for his pofTeffions in Kermefir, Mir Mahenna mal-treat-
ed the officer deputed for this puipofe, and caufed his beard
to be fliaven. Upon which Kerim Khan fent againft him a
powerful army, which conquered Bender Rigk and all its ter-
ritories. Mir Mahenna, however, hadprevioufly retired with
all his troops, and fome of his fubjefts, into a defart ide called
Khoueri, where he waited till the Perfian army retired
from his country. As foon as they were gone, he left the
idand, expelled the garrifon from Bender Rigk, and regained
pofTenion of his dominions. The tyrant had abandoned
himfelf to drunkennefs ; and had begun to exercife fuch
cruelties upon his troops, that he cut off the nofes and ears
of fome of the principal officers ; and yet fo attached to
him were his foldiers, that, in the period of his exile, he
took the ifle of Karek from the Dutch. Bender Rigk is
dlftant 132 miles W. S. W. from Schiras. N. lat. 29° 26'.
E, long. 51° 20'.

BENDIDIA, ^syJ.Jiia, in Antlquily, folemn feafts held by
the Athenians on the twcnty-firll day of the month Thar-
gelion, in honour of the goddefs Diana. The word is form-
ed of /S?vJi{, a denomination of Diana, according to Strabo,
or of the moon, according to Suidas, which amounts to the
fame. The bendidia were held in the Pirxus, and bore
fome rcfcmblance to the bacchanalia.

BENDING, in a general fenfe, denotes the reduftion of
a ftraight body into a curve, or giving it a crooked form. M.
Bernouilii has a difcourfc on the bending of fprings, or

BEN

elaftic bodies. (See Si-rin-g.) M. Amontons gives feveral
experiments concerning the bending of ropes. (See Rope.)
The friftion of a rope'bent, or wound round an immoveable
cvllnder, is fufficient, withatery fmall power, to fuftain very
great weights. Mem. Acad. Sc. 1703. 1705. 1699. Divers
methods have been contrived for bending timber, in order
to fiipplv crooked planks, and pieces for building fliips.
M. Dalefme ingcnioufly enough propofed to have the young
trees bent, while growing in the foreft. The method of
bending planks by a fand-heat, now ufed in the king's yards
at Deptford, was invented by captain Cumberland. Phil.
Tranf. N'^371. p. 75.

The bending of boards, and other pieces of timber for
curved works in joilitry, is efFedled by holding them to the
fire, then giving them the figure required, and keeping thejn
in this figure by tools for the pui-pofe.

A method has been lately invented and praftifed for
bending pieces of timber, fo as to make the wheels of car-
riages without joints. See Whbels.

The ufe of fteaming wood for the purpofe of bending it
is evidently to fupple it, fo as to make it capable of being
brought the more cafily into the form required, as well as to
adapt it for retaining that form, after the prefTure by which
it was originally reduced to that figure has been lemoved
By means of fteaming, heat and moifture are applied to it.
If it has already moillure enough, as in the cafe of green
wood, heating in any other way, without the application of
fteam, may be fufficient ; or the effeil may be produced by
heating and wetting at the fame time. Thefe modes of
fuppling by heat and moifture, have been pradtifed from
time immemorial in Ruflia, and applied to wheels, and fome
other forts of wood-work. In England thefe, or fimilar
modes, have been applied for a long time jn the dock-yards,
and alfo, under a patent granted to Meffrf. Jacob and Viny,
but now expired, in the conftruftion of wheels ; and by
Mr. Bevan, under a patent ftill in force, to circular wooden
fafhes, foffits, fan-lights, door-mouldings, and hand-rails for
ftairs ; and, without patent, by cabinet and chair-makers in
general. Wlien the thicknefs required, compared with the
fharpnefs of the curvature, is fuch as to render it imprafti-
cable to bend the piece entire, it may be divided for this
purpofe into different thickneffes, in the manner propofed
by Mr. Samuel Benthani, under a patent obtained in 1793,
for methods of working wood, metals, ftc. with very little,
if any, lofs of flrength ; and if the ftrata are connefted by
proper faftenings, with a degree of ftrength far fuperior to
what a piece of the fame dimenfions would pofiefs, if grain-
cut. In this mode, curvature may be given to the wood-
work of all forts of engines, and of carriages of all forts ; to
all timbers defigned for receiving a curved fhape and em-
ployed in buildi.igs ; and to any of the timbers, that may be
ufed in the conltniftion of boats or veflels, not excepting fhips
of the largeft clafs. Thus, it is faid, a very confiderable
faving with refptdl to quantity and value might be obtained,
whilft at the fame time the ftrength would be augmented.

In the operation of bending, care fhould be taken that
as faft as you force any piece to adapt itfelf to the curvature
of the mould to which you are bending it, you apply a-
prcffure, by means of fcrews or wedges, &c. to that part,
and along the whole piece, particularly at its fliarpeft con-
vexities ; fo that the piece may not only be kept to its pro-
per curvature, but the exterior fibres be prevented from
flarting out. In forming fhip-ribs of all fhapes and fizes,
fo as to fuperfede the ule of crooked-grown timber, where
that which is ftraight would be cheaper, Mr. Bcntham pro-
pofes to ufe one or other of the two following methods,
which, he fays, would effedually anfwer the purpofe. Firft,

having

BEN

having formed a mould or block to the iliape of the rib in
queftion, comprchend:ng the whole of its extent from top
to top-fide, that is, on both fides of the keel, bend the com-
ponent parts of the rib, according to the fhape of the block,
and fallen them together ; then, to confine the wliole rib in
its curvature, apply Hays or crols-bars, in thofe parts wliere
the form would be moft apt to change, and to convey the
rib, together with its Hays, till it lias been fufficiently con-
fined to its curvature, by the connexion given to it with
the planks, beams, and other parts of the (hip. Or, fecondly,
you may form the fhell of the Mp firll, without timbers,
beginning to build as it were by the planks, ufing only a
fet of temporary moulds or falfe ribs, to determine the
pofition of, and give a temporary fupport to, the planks.
When this is done, inftrt the timbers afterwards, preffing
and binding the component parts fucctffivtly into their
places and removing the falfe ribs, in proportion as tlie real
ones are put together and fcciired. Or, thirdly, initead of
the falfe nbs, you may infcrt a fufficient number of real ribs,
put together as in the firll method ; and then proceed
with the planks ar.d the reil of the ribs, as in the fecond
method. As to bending, it may, in ihis cafe, be performed
with or without the afliilance of fteaming, and with or
without the ufe of the expedient of dividing into thick-
neffes according as the degree of curvature muy require. In
clinker-work built boats, the ribs have been fometimes in-
ferted by bending them to the planks, but this is only done
in boats of the flighted clafs. See Ship.

Bending, in the Sea Language, denotes faflening one rope
to another, or to different objects, and fafteiiing a fa-l to its
yard. — They f^y, bend the cable, when it is to be made fall
to the ring of the anchor. — To bend tivo cables, fignifies to
tie them together with a knot, which though lefs furc than
fplicing, is fooncrdone. To unbend the cable, is to loufcn it
from the ring of the anchor ; which is done when a fhip is
defigned to be long at fea. To bend a main fail, is to make
it fatt to its proper yard or flay. ;

BENDLET, in Heraldry, is the firfftiiminutive of the
bend, and pofTtfTes one half of the breadth of the bend.

BENDOAN, in Giography, a fmall ifland, 5 leagues
S. W. from cape St. Martin's, on the coafl of Spain, in the
Mediterranean, which lies to the fouth of weft from Yvica
ifland. It is north-call from Altea, and forms the limit of
the bay of Calp, or Carpi, of which the mount fo called is
the fouth-weft hmit.

BENDORAN, a mountain of Scotland, in the county
of Argyle.

BENDORF, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and county of Sayn, and in a prefccturate of the
fame name, feated not far from the Rhine, into which tlie
river Sayn empties itfelf at this place. It is inhabited by
Roman catholics and Lutherans, each of whom enjoy the
public exercife of ^hcir religion ; 5 miles N. of Coblentz.

Bendorf Road, lies on the weft coaft of Ireland, and
is the eafternmoft of the roads between Ballyfhannon and
the ifland of Murry, or EnifmuiTy, as Bundat is the more
weftern. In both, Ihips may ride with fafety.

BENDS, in a fhip, are the fame with wailes, or ivala,
which are the outerraoft timbers of a fhip, on which men fet
their feet in climbing up.

They are reckoned from the water, the Jirjl, fecond, and
third bend : they help much to ftrengthen the fhip, and have
the beams, knees, and foothooks bolted into them.

Bends denote alfo the fmall ropes ufed to confine the
clinch of a cable. For a common orfhect bend, pafs the end
of a rope through the bight of another rope, then round
and uaderaeath the Handing part ; but, to prevent its jamb-

8

BEN

ing, pafs it round again under the ftanding part. The fheet of
a fail has the endpaffed up through the clue, then round the
clue, and underneath the Handing part. The rope of a buoy
is pafFed as a fheet, and has the end ftoppcd. Bends of a
cable-clinch are paffcd as a feizing. For a carrick bend, lay
the end of a rope, or hawfer, acrofs its Handing part ; then
take the end of another rope, or hawfer, and lay it under the
firft ftanding pat, at the ciofs, and over the end ; iheo
tlirougli the bight, under t!ie ftanding part ; then over its
own flanding part, a-d u:.dcrneath the bight again : it is
often ufed in halle to form a greater length, or to warp or
tow with. For n ffherman's bend, take a round turn with
the end of a rope, or hawfer, through the ring of an anchor,
&c. and a half hitch through both parts, and another half
hitch round the ftanding part ; then Hep the end. Ha'-jjfrr
beud'\s a hitch, with a throat and end feizing made on one
end, and the end of another hawfer reeved through the bight,
and hitched v/ith a throat and end feizing. Temporary bend
is commonly made to reeve through large blocks, thus : lay
three fathoms of the end of two hawfers together, and put
on a round feizing in the middle ; then reverie the ends to
each ftanding par!, and put on a tliroal feizing between each
end and the middle, and a round feizing on each end.
See Plate of Ship-Rigging.

Bend-ways, or in Bend, in Heraldry, is fuch charges as
are placed fo as to occupy that part of the efcutcheon to
which tiie bend is allotted ; or fuch as are placed obliquely,
rtfcmblmg a bend.

BENU V, a term ufed in Heraldry, when the efcutcheon
is divided bendways into an equal number of partitions : the
field may be bendy of eight, ten, twelve, or more.
^iz/vj'-Bendy. See Barry.
Ccu«i-r/-BENDV. See Counter.
Pa/y-BENDY. See Paly.
BENE. See D-^ Bene Effe.

Bene, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the principality
of Piedmont, and diftnil of Mondovi, defended by an an-
cient caftle, and containing about 4C00 inhabitants ; 28 miles
fouth of Turin.

BENE APED, in the Sea Language, is faid of a (hip,
when the water does not flow high enough to bring her off
tiie ground, out of the dock, or over the bar.

BEMECARLO, Besecalon, or Benicardo, \a Geo.
graphy, lies north-weft from Penifcola point, on the coaft of
Valentia, in Spain, in the Mediterranean, feated on a bay to
the north-eaft of the gulf of Valentia. It has no good roadj
fo that Ihios ufually he at Penifcola.

BENEDETTO, in Biography. See Castiglione.
Benedetto, St., a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mantua, 15 miles S.S.E. of Mantua. — Alfo, a town of
Italy, in the marquifate of Gorzegno, 12 miles tall of
Bene.

BENEDICITE, in Ecchfiajlical Hijiory, is a name given
to the hymn, or fong of the tliree children in the fiery fur-
nace ; by reafon of its beginning with the words, " benedi-
cite omnia opera Dominum." The ufe of the bentdicite is
ver>- ancient ; it appearing to have been fung in all the Chrif-
tian churches as early as St. Chryfoftom's time.

BENEDICT, St. m Biography, founder of the monaf-
tic order of Benediclins, was born in the province of Nur-
fia, in Italy, about the year 480. After having been edu-
cated at Rome, he retired, at the age of fourteen, to Sub-
laco, about 40 miles from that city, where he fecluded him-
felf from the world in a cavern for feveral years, till at length
he was difcovered bv the monks of a neighbouring monaf-
ter)-, and chofen for their abbot. Diflatisfied, however,
with their manners, he >vithdr«w from their fociety to hit

folittide^

BEN

fulitude, and by means of the multitude of perfons tliataffo-
ciated with him, lie was enabled to build twelve monafteries,
and to place in each of them twelve monks. In 528 or
529, he retired to Monte Cafiino, and having cut down
the grove facred to Apollo, built a monallery, and founded
hib order. Being fummoned to the council at Rome by pope
Bonifjcc II. he was carried, by his own defire, at the ap-
proach of death, into the oratoiy of St. John the Baptill,
where, during his attention to the fervice, he expired, in the
vear 542 or 543, according to Cave, or, according to others,
in 547. His extraordinai-v miracles are recorded in the

BEN

ments. Soon after liis return he was feizcd with a paify ;
and at length clofed his life in a truly Chriftian and exem-
plary manner, in the year 690, and was buried in his mo-
nallery of Weremo\ith. He wrote fome works on monaftic
difcipline and the church ritual. He was a celebrated finger ;
and in one of his expeditions to Rome, brought with him
a ct.antor, who introduced the Roman method of iinging
mafs. Biog. Brit.

Benedict, abbot of Peterbcrougli, in the twelfth cen-
tury, was educated at Oxford, and became a monk in the
monallery of Canterbury, and afterwards prior. By the

" Dialogues" of St. Oregon- the Great ; and by the church influence of Henry II. he was elected abbot of Peterboroupjh

of Rome, he is honoured as a faint. The only genume
work of St. Benedict, according to Dupin, is the " Regula
Monachorum ;" but other works have been afcribcd to him,
and they are pnblilhed together in the 9th volume of the
•' Bibllotheca Patrum." Cave's Hill. Lit. t. i. p. 512- U"'-
pin. Eccl. Hitl. voi.iii. p. 44.

Benedict, abbot of Aniane in Languedoc, was born in
-51, and educated at the court of king Pepin. Having
ferved this prince and his fucccffor Charlemagne, he retired

m 1 177. He affi'.led at the coronation of Richard III. in
1 189, and was advanced to be keeper of the great feal iu
1191. But drath deprived him of this dignity in 1 193.
BiQiop Nicliolfou fays, that he died in 1200. Befides his
" Life and Miracles of Archbidiop Beckct," charafterifed
ty Lt'lund as an elegant performance, but treated by Bale
as a mere heap of lies and forgeries, he compofcd a " Hif-
tory of Henry II. and Richard I. from 1 170 to 1 192," which,
fays Dr. Henry, hath been much and juilly elleemed by

to a monaftcrv in Languedoc, where he dillinguilhcd himfelf many of our greateil antiquaries, as containing one of the

by his mortiiieations. He afterwards built a hermitage on bed accounts of the tranfatiions of thofe times. A beauti

the rivulet called Anian, which in procefs of time became a ful edition of this work was puLlithcd at Oxford, in 2 vols

confiderable monalleiy. Lewis the Meek employed this
monk in reforming the monatleries, firll in Aquitaine, and
afterwards through the whole kingdom of France, and in
redoring, by new and fahitary laws, the monallic difcipline
which had been neglefled and fallen into decay. In 8 17, he
prefided in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and fnbjected.

by Mr. Hearne, A. D. 1735. Henry's Hift. vol. vi,

P- '43-

Benedict, Alexander, one of the early cultivators

and reftorcrs of anatomy, was born at Verona, about the

middle of the 14th centun'. After travelling over various

parts of Greece, he returned to Italy, and was appointed

by the authority of the emperor, all the monks to the rule teacher of anatomy at Padua, where his lectures were nume-

of Benedict of Monte CalTnio, prefcribed to them all one rovilly attended. In 1497, he publifhed " Anatomicen, five

uniform mode of living, and thus united the various orders hriloriam corporis humani." The firll edition was dedicated

into one general body or fociety. Hence he was regarded to the emperor Maximilian, with w horn he appears to have

as the fecond father of the weftern monks. He died in 82 I. been in great favour. It is principally copied from Galen,

His collection of rules for the eaflern and wellern monks, but with fome obfervations from his own practice. He is

iiititted, " Codex Pvegularum," and his concordance of mo
iiadic rules, and alio a collection of homilies of the fathers,
were publiflied by Holllcnius at Rome. This abbot has
been beatilied by the church of Rome. Moreri. Molheim's
liccl. Hift. vol. li. p. 310.

Bin EDICT, Biscop, an Englifh abbot of the feventh
ctnturv, was bom of a noble family ainonjr the Entrlilh
Saxons, and in the 25th year of his age devoted himfelf
wholly to religion. Accordingly, 111653, he took a jour-
ney, in order to acquaint himfelf with the ecclefiallical dif-
cipline, and on his return he laboured to eftablifh it in Bri-
tain. Upon his return from a fecond journey to Rome, in
the courfe of which he received the tonfnre, he aflumed the
government of the ir.onaftery of CanterbuiT, to which he
had been elected darinc: his abfence. After a third journey

the firll, Halltr fays, that defcribed the concretions called
galltlones. The language uled by Benedidt, is much purer
than is found in any of the earlier anatomical writers. " De
omnium a vertice ad plantam morboruni fignis, caufis, &c."
fol. T500, taken principally from Galen, Paulus JEgin. &
Oribafius, whofe works he appears to have reaJ in their
own language. Healfo wrote, " De Pellilentia," " De Me-
dici Officio," and other fmaller pieces. The whole of his
works were collected, and pabliflaed under the title of
" Opera Omnia," fol. Venet. 1533. Haller. Bib. Anat.
Eloy. Diet. Hift.

Benedict, a name alTumed by feveral of the popes. The
firft of this name, called by the Greeks Bnnofus, was advanced
to the pontifical chair in 574, at the period when the Lom
bards overran Italy, and fixed their feat in it under Alboin ;

to Rome, whence he brought back a large collection of va- and he is faid to have died after four years, in confequence
hiable books, he reforted to the court of Egfrid, king of of the grief occafioned by their ravages. BeneiM II. was

Northumberland, who had fucceeded Ofwy. On a traCt of
land, given to him by that prince, he erected a monallery,
which, from its fituation on the river Were, was called
«' \yeremonth ;" in which he is faid to have placed 300 Be-
nedictin monks. The clupch of this convent was built of
ftone by artificers fetched from France, in 674 ; and both
the church and convent were dedicated to St. Peter. From
a fourth excurfion to Rome, in 678, he returned laden with
books, relics of the apolHes and martyrs, images, and pic

ele£ted in 683, and diftinguillied by his learning and virtues.
He died in 685, and obtained the honour of canonization.
Benaltd III. was advanced to the pontificate in 'i^'^, and by
the firmncfs of the Roman clergy, fupported on the papal
throne in oppofition to Anaftalni'-, v.hich he occupied with
mildnefs, piety, and charity. In his time, Ethelwolf, king
of the well Saxons, vifited Rome with his fon Alfred. Two
epiftles of this pope are extant. BcneiUcl IV. was raifed to
the papal chair about the year 900; ar.d died with a good

*T?" ,J" ^^'"' ''^ '^"''' another monaflery on the banks character in 903. Btuedla V. was ek-aed pope in 064,

of the Tyiic, four miles from Ncwcaille, called " Girwy,"
or " Jarron," and dedicated to St. Paul. Soon after ibis
eftablifliment, he took a fifth journey to Rome, and came
back enriched with a further fupply of e\;clefiallical orna-

7

and although he was a man of extraordinary learning and
fanctity, he was lliipped of the pontifical and priellly dig-
nity by the authority of the emperor Otho, and fentenccd
to exile ; upon whii^ he retired to Hamburgh, where he

died

BEN

died in 9CJ or 966. BeneiU^Vl. was elevated to the papacy
in 972 ; and being feized by a faftion u-hich attacked the
T^ntcran palace, he was imprifoned in the caille of St. An-
gch), where he was either itrangled or familhed in 97 1, Be-
tiei/iil VII. wa^ elected in 975, and after a prudent govern-
ment of nine years, died in 984. Buneii'ia VIII. was made
pope in 1012, but difplaced by Gregory an anti-pope, and
afterwards refti -ed. Under his pontificate Henq-, kin^ of
Germany, marched to Rome ; and Benedict crowned him
emperor under the title of Henry II., and his queen Cune-
gunda, emprefs.^ In 1016, this pope, collecting his depend-
ents, defeated tl.e Sarace::si who made a defctnt at Luna in
Tufcany, and put them all to the fword. He alfo waged
war with the Greeks, w!io ravaged Puglia. In 10 19, the
emperor bellowed on him and his fucceffors the newly erefted
lee of Bamberg. He died, after having approved himfelf a
great friend to the monks, and zealous for the order and dif-
cipline of the church, in 1024. Benedicf IX. fucceeded his
U!!cle John XIX. in 1033, in his iSthyear; was expelled
from his fee on account of his vices, but reftored by the em-
peror Conrad ; and after a life of various expulfions and re-
llorstions, fold or refigned the pontificate in 1045. ^^ ^'^'
fumed it, however, occafionally under fucceeding pontifi-
cates, and finiihed his fcandalous career in 10J4. BenediH
X. was elected to the popedom by a party in 105S, and after
holding the fee nine months and twenty days, depofed
and excommunicated. Bencd'id XI. was the fon of a (hep-
herd, or of a notary, at Trevigi, in the ftate of Venice, be-
came a fchoolmailer, general of the Dominicans, and cardi-
nal bifhop, firft of Sabina, and aftenvards of Ollia, and fuc-
ceeded pope Boniface VIII. in 1303. He exerted himfelf
by various tfForts for the good of the church, but death ter-
minated his labours on the ninth month of his pontificate,
A. D. 1304. This pope conducted himfelf with moderation,
and behaved with fingular iclpcft to his mother and relations ;
but would not fuifer any interference on their part in pubhc
affairs. He wrote commentaries on the books of Job, the
Pfalms, St. Matthew, and the Revelations, as well as a ri-
tual, and fome fermons. B^neil'tli XII. was the fon of a miller
in the county of Foix, and after feveral fubordinate ecclefi-
allical promotions, was advanced to the papal fee in 1334.
He was (kilful in law and theology, and diilinguiflied by his
probity, but little verfed in politics. Wifhing to reftore the
apoftoiic fee to Italy, but obliged by the circumitances of
the times to remain at Avignon, he laid the foundation of a
magnificent and (Irongly fortified palace, which, however, he
did not live to finifli. He obferved a laudable caution in the
creation of cardinals, and the appointment of benefices ; and
he exercifed fingular felf-denial with rcfpeCt to his own rela-
tions, obferving, that " James Founder (his family name)
has relations, but pope Benedict none." As he was induf-
trious and aftive in reftoring difciphne and morals among leve-
ral religious orders that were become corrupt, he incurred the
ill-will and calumny of the monks. During his efforts for
reconciling the kings of England and France, he was feized
with an illnefs, which terminated his hfe in 1342. Among his
printed works are his " Decretum de animabus feparatis,"
and his " Conftitutions for the reforms of \'arious religious
orders." He left alfo fermons for the chief feltivals of the
year, commentaries on the Pfalms, letters, and poems.
Benedict XIII. was of a noble family, being the eldefl fon of
the duke of Gravina, in the kingdom of Naples, and bom
at Rome in 1649. Again ft the views and wifhes of his fa-
mily, he took the habit of the Dominican order in 1667,
and applied viith diligence to the ftudies and duties of his
office, preferring the humble life of a monk to that of a
fuperior ftation. However, by the alliance of his family with
Vol, IV.

BEN

that of the pope Clement X. he was promoted, againf? fifs
inclination, to the cardinalate in 1 672 ; and after feveral fuc-
ceflive advancements to different fees, in which he maintained
the character of an exemplary pallor, he was eleifted to the
papacy in [724, and conftrained to accept it againfl his
own remonlli-ancs. In the exercife of his office, he laboured
inceffantly m reprefling the luxury of the pontifical court,'
and in correcting the licentioufnefs of the clergy ; but he
was thwarted in his projects by the Jefuits, on account of
his attachment to the Dominican doftrine concerning grace
and predellination, which lefs refembled theirs than that of
the Janfenifls. His well-meant attempt to unite all Chrif-
tian faints in one church and faith, manifefted a greater de-
gree of charity, than of difcemmeut and knowledge of the
world. Avoiding all the pomp connefted with his high fta-
tion, and reltridtiiig the expences of his own table to 6d. per
day, in the dilufe of wine and animal food, he lived in the
Vatican like a monk in his cloiller. Neverthelefs, the doors
of his palace were always open to the poor, and he was ever
ready to hear their complaints, and to the vtmoft of his
power to relieve their dillrefs. Divelling himfelf of all the
marks of fovereignty, and wifhing even to difmifs his guards,
he frequently went out in the evening in the raoft private
manner, for the purpofe of \-ifiting the fick. He clofed his
pontificate of fix years, in 1 740, at the age of 80 years.
His fermons, poems, and other writings, together with his
bulls, were publifhcd at Rome in 3 vols. fol. in 172S. Be-
mdid XIV. was defcended of the noble family of Lamber-
tini, at Bologna, and born in that city in 1675. -^ftsr feve'-
ral previous promotions, he received a cardinal's hat in 1728;
and from the archbifhopric of Bologna, to which he was no-
minated by Clement XII. in 1731, he was advanced in 1740
to the papal fee. PoflTefTing a gaiety of temper, united with
profound learning, an elegant talle, hberal fentiments, and
great goodnefs of heart, he was fingiilarly amiable ; and as
he diminifhed the number of feltivals, abolifhed idle cere-
monies, and manifelled a diflike of fuperftitious practices and
pious frauds, he was calumniated by fome of his enemies as
a " protedant pope." As a munificent patron of hterature,
he founded academies at Rome, bcftowed benefaftions on
that of Bologna, correfponded with, and rewarded learned
men at home and abroad, caufed a meridian line to be drawn,
reared from the duft the celebrated Egyptian obelifli, called
that of Sefollris, and adorned Rome with various other mo-
numents of antiquity. Fond of the pleafures of hterary
retirement, and of occafionally enjoying the mirth of the
lower claffes, his averfion to bufinels was invincible, and he
frequently lamented the drudgery and fatigue of his official
fituation. Attached to life, he dreaded the t'ymptoms of
diffolution ; and, as it were, confiding in the prayers of
the Jefuits for his life, he would not confent to fign the
bull for the reform of their order in Portugal, till he was
abfolutely given over. On the king of Portugal he conferred
the title of " his moft faithful majefty." He governed the
church with great mildnefs, ar.d manifelled on all occafioni
a ftrong dtfire of conciliating thofe differences with regard
to dodtrine by which it w?s divided. After a pontificate of
28 years, he died in I'fo, at the age of 83 ye.rs. Hi»
works have been publifhed at Rome in 12 vols, ••o.; and
they difplay a greater degree of profefGonal knowlfijeand
of apphcation, than his levity and facetious difpofition would
lead one to expeft. Bower's Hift. of the Popes. Mofheim'j
Eccl. Hift. Nouv. Dia. Hift.

Benedict, St. in Geography, a town of Hungary,
feated on the Gran, with a fortified caiUe ; 30 miles north
of Gran.

Benedict, a town of America, in Charles county, Ma-
A a r)land.

BEN

ryland, on Patuxeiit river ; oppofite Mackall's ferry ; 30
miks fouth-eall from the Federal city.

BENEDICTINS, orBENEDicriN Order^ in Ecchfiqfti-
€al Hi/lory, is an order of monks, who profefs to follow
the rule of St. Beiicdift, whieh he formed only for the Ce-
nobites, or for thofe who live in a monallery under the di-
reftioii of an abbot.

Having giren indruftions as to the qualifications and duty
of the abbot, he proceeds to recommend to the monks obe-
dience, filencc, and humility ; to note the hours for divine
fervice by day and night, as well as the order and manner of
_pcvforming it ; and to fp«eify the pnnifhments that were to
tc infliAcd on offenders. Tlicfe punilhments were to be ex-
cnmnuiniration, or a leparation from the fellowfliip of the
brethren, at table or at prayers ; the challifemciit ol the
friore diforderly with rods ; and cxpnlfion from the monaf-*
tery. He further Hates the mode of their admilfion, the
drefs they were to wear, and the labour in which they were
to be employed. From his rule, which is Hill extant, wc
learn that it was not his intention to impofe it upon all the
monadic focieties ; for he exprefsly excludes the anachorcts,
who, having learned the exercifes of a nionaftic life in a
convent, retired feparately into deferts, the Sarabaites, who
live two or three together in a cell, and the Gyrovagi, who
removed from one monallery to another without fixing any-
where. It was his puvpufe to form an order, whole dif-
cipline (hould be milder, their cftablifliment more folid, and
their maimers more regular, than thofe of other monallic bo-
dies ; and whofe members, during the courfe of a holy and
peaceful life, were to divide their time between prayer,
reading, the education of youth, and other pious and learned
labours. However, in procefs of time, the followers of this
celebrated ecclefiallic degenerated very lamentably from the
pietv of their founder, and lofl fight of the duties of their
ilation, and the great end of their ellablifliment. Having
acquired immenfe riches from the devout liberality of the
benevolent, they funk into luxury, intemperance, and floth,
abandoned themfclves to all forts of vices, extended their
zeal and attention to worldly affairs, took part in political
eabals and court faftions, made a vail augmentation of fuper-
fluous rites and ceremonies in their order, to bhiid the
multitude, and fupply the place of their expiring virtue ;
and among other meritorious enterpriies, laboured moft ar-
dently to fwell the arrogance, by enlarging the power and
authority of the Roman pontiff.

This new order made a very rapid progrefs in the vvctl,
snd, in a (hort interval of time, arrived at the mod flonrifliing
Hate. In Gaul, its intereft's wtre promoted by Maurus ;
in Sicily and Sardinia, by Plaeidus ; in England, by Au-
gullin and Mellitus ; in Italy, and other countries, by Gre-
gory- the Great, who liiinfelf is reported to have been for
fonie time a member of this fociety ; and in Germany it was
afterwards received by the inflrnmentality of Boniface.
Tliis fudden and amazing progrefs of the new order was
aferibed by the Benediclins to the wifdom and fandlity
of their difc'pline, and to the miracles wrought by tlieir
founder and his followers. But upon a more attentive view,
the impartial ohferver will be convinced, that the proteftion
of the lloman pontiffs, to tlie advancement of whofe gran-
diur and authority the Benediclins were mod fcrvilely de-
voted, contributed much more to the ludre and influence of
their order than any circumllanccs, nay, than all other con-
fidcrations united together.

Tile Benediilins are thofe properly called monachl, monh;
the other orders are better denominated friers, or rdipoiis.
In the canon law, the Benedidins are called Blach Monks;
brin^ diilinguiihcd from the other orders by the colour of

BEN

their habit, and not by the name of their patriarcli St. Bene-
dic^t. Among us they were formerly alfo denominated
Black Friers. The Benediftins wear a loofe black gown,
with large wide (leeves, and a capuche on their heads, end-
ing in a point behind. The lid of laints of the Bcnedidlin
order is very ample ; but they are accufed by B:ironiu3,
and many other writers, of putting many in the lift who
were never of the order. For fix hundred years after the
erection of the Benedidtin order, mod of the European
monks were followers of this rule : whatever other nanres
they went by, Carthufians, Ciilercians, Grandimontenfes,
Premonftr;itenlcs, Chiniaes, &c. they were but different
brandies of the Benedictins, till about the year 1220, when
the Dominicans and Francifcaiis took new rules. Hofpinian
reckons no Icfsthan twenty-three religious orders that fprang
from this one. According to the Benediclin computation,
there have been o* this order 24 popes, 200 cardinals, 7000
archbifhops, ij,ooo bifliops, 15,700 abbots, 4000 faints,
40,000 confeffors, above 3000 msrtyrs and apollles, who have
converted 30 provinces to the Chridian faith, befides em-
perors, kings, &c. This order has produced a great num-
ber of eminent writers and learned men.

The Benedidins, though but one order, ar» divided into
feveral congregations, whieh have their peculiar cudoms and
obfervanccs different from the red. Each of tliefe is fub-
divided into provinces, which have their general chapters.
This order is faid to have been brought into England about
the year 596. The Engliih congregation, which had fub-
fided from the time of the miffion of St. Audio, was de-
droyed under Henry VTII. and by degrees reduced to one
fingle man, father Buckley ; who, in 1607, procured a re-
eftablifhment of tlie congregation, at Doway, in the Ne-
therlands, where it dill fublills in a kind of dependency on
that of St.Valladohd in Spain. At the genei'al chapters they
chufe provincials, witli their affidants, for each of the pro-
vinces of Canterbuiy and York, who have jurifdiftion over
the miffionaries employed tliercin. They are governed by a
prefident-geiieral, and tliree defitiitors, chofen eveiy three
years. At their admiflion they make a fourth vow, vi/.
that they will go to the miffion in England, and return when
their fuperiors think fit.

BiiNF-DicTiN Nuns, are religious women, who embrace the
lule of St. Benedict.

BENEDICTION, in a general fenf?, the aft of bleffing^
or giving pialfc to God, or returning thanks for his favours.
Hence alfo benedidlion is dill applied to the aft of faying
grace before or after meals. Neither the ancient Jews, nor
Ciiriftians, ever eat without a diort prayer. 'ilie Jews
are obliged to rehearfe a hundred benedidtions per day; of
whieh, eighty are to be fpoken in the morning. Vitring.
de Synag. Vet. lib. iii. Rabbi Neheniiah Barueli, in 168^!,
puljlidud a difeourfe on the manner wherein the facerdotal
bcnediition is to be pronounced. In the fynagogue of Fcr-
rara, it is rattier fung than fpoken. Among the ancient
Jews, as well as Chrlftians, benidiftions were attended with-
the inipofition of liands ; and Chridians, in procefs of time,,
addtd the fign of the crofs, wliich was made with the fame
hand, elevated or extended. Hence, in the Romldi church,
bcnedlftion was ufed to denote the fign of the crofs,.
made by a bidiop or prelate, from an idea that it con-
ferred fome grace on the people. The cullom of receiv-
ing bcnediftion by bowing the head before tlie bidiops, is
very ancient, and was fo univerfal, tliat emperors tlicm--
felves did not decline tjiis mark of fubmiflion. Under thpv
name bcnedidlion the Hebrews alfo frequently underdand,
the prefents which friends make to one another, in all pro-
bability becaufe tliey are generally attended with bleffings

aM

BEN

and compliments, both from thoft: who give and thofe wlio
reci.ive tliem.

Benediction, Nupilcl, the external ceremony p^'rformed
hj the pried in the office of matrimony. Tlie nrptial bene-
diction is not ciTential to, but tlie conilrmation of a maniajre
in tl'.e civil law.

BenIiDiction, leal'ic, bentSd'io hnilicn, is the v'wt'icum
given to dying perfons. The pope bigins all his bulls with
this form : " Salutein et apoftolicam bcnediiiiioncm."

Benediction, regular, that conferred by abbots on their
monks, or by a fenior monk on a junior.

Benediction E /'/•/Wr/, to be deprived of benediftion,
was a kind of punilhincnt inflicted on monks, whereby, when
the reft received the abbot's bltfling, the offenders were dif-
niiffed without it.

Benediction is alfo ufed for an ecclcfiallical ceremony,
whereby a thing is rendered facred or venerable. In this
fenfe bcnediflion differs from confecration, as in the latter
unftion is applied, which is not in th.e former. Thus the
chalice is coiifecrated, and the pix bleffed, as the former,
rot the latter, is anointed ; though in tlie common ufigc
thcfe two words are' applied promifcuoully. The fpirit of
piety, or rather of fupcrllition, has introduced into the
Komifli church benedicilions for almoft evtry thing. We
read of forms of beneciftions for wax-c?.ndles, f()r boiigiis,
for afhes, fur church-veflch:, and ornaments ; for flags or en-
figno, arms, firft-fniits, houfes, (hips, pafchal eggs, c!/ii:i/m,
or the hair-cloth of penitents, church-yards, horlec, mules,
&c. which are fprinkled with holy water.

Benediction of ylrms, w-as a fort of public confecration
of the weapons and enfigns, before the entering on a war,
by a formula of word.;, and circraoiiics appointed for that
purpofe.

BENEDICTIONALIS Liber, an ancient church book,
containing the forms of the divers forts of benediftions given
by bifhops, priefls, &c. Such was the benediflionalis liber
of Gregory the Great, defcribed by Lambecius.

BENEDICTUM, an epithet formerly given to lenient
or gentle operating mtdxines, more cfpeciaily rhubarb. In
this fenfe we find, in fume difpcnfatory writers, bcnediclum
Idsalkjum ufed for lenitive cleftary. Though in others, Le-
tifilicta liixiit'ivc), or x\it Hrffld Lisaliv:', denotes another eafy
purge, made up of turbith, diagrydium, fpurgcs, hermo-
daftyls, anife-feeds, fenncl-leed', fal gemmae, and honey.
Schroder alfo gives the appellr.tion aqna hcsud'icla to his eme-
tic ; and Mynfieht dees tiie fame to his ajua frpyHi, or wa-
ter of wild thyme. Some have called the pliilofopher's
ftone lapis bcnetllclus.

BeNEDICTUM ViNUM. SccVlNUM.

BENEDICTUS C.\rduus. See Thistle.

BENEDITTO Sacco. See S.\n Benito.

BENEFACA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia, lo leagues from Valencia.

BENEFICE, Benkficil'M, in the Feudal S'Jem, is a
term apphed to thofe portions of land which the kings and
chieftains bellowed on th.cir adherents. As long as tliey had
no fixed property in land, they could only beflow an horfe,
a iuit of armour, or fueh lijce rccompences, on thofe wlioiu
pence or war were attached to their perfons, and devoted to
their fervite. But upon their fetthag in the countrie'S which
they coiiquered, and wiien the value of property came to
be tinderllood among them, they conferred upon their fol-
lowers the more fubllantial recompence of land. According-
ly tlie term benefice was ttie primitive name, and moll liir.i'le
form of the feudal polfcffions. Thefe grants were called
" bcnelicia," btcaufe tliey were gratuitous donations ; and
they were alfo called "honorcs," bceaufe they wcic regarded

BEN

a? marks of diftin£lion. What were the fei-viec3 originally
exaftcd in return for tUcfe " beiieficia," cannot be deter-
mined with abfolnte precilion ; btcaufe there ate no record.'
fo ancient. M. de Monttfiiuieu (Sp. of Laws, b.iii. c. \
& l6.) confiders thefe "benefieia" a;; ficfs, which originally
fubjtfted thofe who held them, to military tenure. M. dc
Mably (Obferv. fur I'Hiftoire de I'rance, i. 356.) conttntls,
tliat fuch as held them were at lirft fubjeclcd to no oth<*i
fervice than what was incumbent on every free man. But
when it is confidered, tliat allodial property fubjeclcd thofe
who poffeffed it to ferve the cojjimunity, it is reafonablc t»
conclude, that "benefieia" fubjee^ed fuch as held them to
perfonal fervice and fidelity to him from whom they receiveet
thcfe lands. I'liey were granted originaliy only during
pleafure. (See Montefq. ubi fupra, and Du-Cange voc.
Belief eium and Faidum.) But the pofkffion of beneiices did
not continue long in tins ftate. A precarious tenure during
pleafure was not fufficlent to fatisfy thofe who held it, aid
to attach them to ijieir fuperior lord ; and, therefore, tliey
foon obtained the confirmation of their benefices during life.
(Du-Cange Gloff. voc. Bemfeiiim-) Aftcrthis it was cafy
to obtain or extort charters rendering •' benelicia" heredi-
tary, firll in the dired line, then in ilie collateral, and at
laft in the female line. Leg. Longeb. hb. iii. tit. viii. Dti-
Cange.

It is -not eafy to afccrtain the preeife period whc.i each of
thefe changes took place. M. de Mably (ubi fupiM, torn. i.
p. 103 — 160. 429.) conjeftures, with fome probability, that
Charles Martel lirll introduced the practice of granting "be-
nefieia" for life ; and that Louis le Debonnaiic was among
the firll who rerdcred them hereditary. Mabillon, however,
(De Re Diplomatica, 1. vi. p. 353.) has publiflied a placi-
tiim of Louis le Debonnaire, A. D. ^Go, by which it ap-
pears, that he ftill continued to grant fome '' benefieia"
only during life. And in 889, Odo, king of France.
granted lands to Ricaliodo " fideli fuo jure beneficiario et
frucliiario," during his own life ; and if he flrould die, and
a fon were born to him, that right was to continue during
the life of his fon. Tliis was an intermediate (lep between
ficfs merely dur'ng Hfe, ar.el fiefs hereditary to peipctnity.
While " benefieia" continued under their firll form, and
were held only duiing pleafure, he who giantcd them not
only exercifed the " dominium," or prerogative of fuperior
lord, but he retained the property, giving his vaffal only
thc ufufiudl. But under the latter form, when they became
hereditary, although feudal lawyers continued to define a
" benelicium" agieeably to its original nature, the property
was in efTtiEl taken out of the hands of the fuperior lord,
an<l lodged in thofe of the vaffal. At length the word
" feudum" came to be fubllituted in the room of " beneli-
cium ;" but Muratori obferves (Antiq. Med. yEvi, v. i.
p. 594), that no inllance of this kind occurs in any au-
thentic charter previous to the eleventh centurj- : and
Dr. Roaertfon (Hill. Ch. v. vol. i. p. 269) informs us,
that a charter of king Robeit of France, A. D. icoS,
is the earliefl deed in which he has met with the word
" feudum."

BeneuCE, Relief ch:ti:, in Jn Ecdtfiafiital fcrfc, a churcli
endowed witli a revenue for the performance of divine fer-
vice ; or the revenue ilfclf, alligued lu an tcclefiaftital pci-
fon for life, in return for his performing the fervice of the
church.

All cluirch preferments, except biil'.oprics, arc called It-
nefces ; but they nuill be given for life, not for years, or at
will : and all benefices are, by the canoniils, lonutiinc*
called digmtie-. But we now urdinanly dillinguiili between
benefice and dignity, by appKing the word cTjn/Vj' to bifhop-
A a 2 titSj

BEN

rjc?, (kanries, .arclideaconrics, and prebends ; and benefice
to psifonages, ncaragts, and doiiativLS.

There is an obvious reference in the term benL-fice to the
feudal lyftem, wliich was incorporated in all the gfoverjinients
of Europ«. As the lands of ail private proprietors were
holden of the prince, and becaufe lliey were originally gra-
tuitous donations, denominated " heiufic'ta," thepopjalT'.imed
the privilege of a feudal lord, and claimed the authority of
diftribiitinj; the prefernierts of the church at pleafure, which
commenced firll in Italy, and grainaily extended itielf
to Entjland ; and hence the care of the fouls of a pari(h
came to be called a benefice. Blackftone's Comm. vol. iv.
p. 106.

Hence, doiibtlefs, came the term benefice to be applied
to church livings ; for, befide that the ecclcrialtics held for
life like the foldiers, the riches of the church arofe from the
beneficence of princes.

In ail Chnllian churches, the benefices of the clergy are
a fort of freeholds, which they enjoy, not during pleafure,
but during life or good behaviour. If they held them by
a more prcc;uious tenure, and were liable to be turned out
upon every flight difobligation either of the fovereign or of
his minillers, it would perhaps be impoffible for them to
maintain their authority with the people, who would then
cont'der them as mercenary dependents upon the court, in
the iincerity of whofeinftruclions they could no longer have
any confidence.

As to the origin of ecclefiaftical benefices, it is hard to
determine when the revenues of the church were firft divided:
it is certain that, till the fourth centuiy, all the revenues were
in the hands of the bilhops, who dilhibuted them by their
economy ; they confifted principally in alms, and voluntary
contributions. As the ch\irch came to have lands, parts
thereof were affigned for the fubfiftence of the clerks, and
called benefices ; of which we find fome traces in the fifth
and fixth century : but then there does not appear to have
been any certain partition, nor any precife quota allotted to
each particular ; but the allotments were abfolutely difcre-
tional till about the twelfth century.

At firft, each was contented with a fingle benefice, but
pluralities were by degrees introduced on pretence of equity:
for a fingle benefice being fometimes fcarce thought a com-
petency, the prieft was allowed two ; as his quality or
occafions increaftd, fo the number of benefices that were to
fupport him were increafed too. Hence fome, aff'efting to
equal princes in quality, pretend to revenues anfvverable
to it.

The canonifts diftinguilh three ways of vacating a bene-
fice, viz. de jure, tie fado, and l>y the fentence of a judge. A
ben'fice is vacated "dejure," when the perfon enjoying it
is gti.lty of certain crimes, expreffed in laws, as herefy,
fimony, &c. A benefice is vacated " de fafto," as well
as " de jure," by the natural death, or the refignation of
the incumbent : which refignation may be either exprefs or
tacit ; as when he engages in a ftate, &c. inconfiftent with
it ; as among the Romauifts, by marrying, entering a reli-
gious order, or the like. A benefice becomes vacant " by
the fentence of a judge," by way of punilhment for certain
crimes, as concubinage, perjury, forcery, &c. SeeDEGR.i-

DATION.

Benefices are divided by the canonifts into Jimpk anA/acer-
dotal. In the firtl there is no obligation but to read prayers,
fing, &c. : fuch are canonries, chaplainfhips, chantries, &c.
The fecond are charged with the cure of fouls, or the direc-
tion and guidance of confciences •. fuch are the vicarages,
re^ories, &c.

The Romauifts, again, diftinguifh benefices into regular

BEN

znifecular. Regular or titulur benefices are thofe held by a
reliijious, or a regular, who has made profcfliou of fome re-
ligious order : fuch are abbeys, priories conventual, &c. Or
rather, regular benefice is that which cannot be confei red 011
any but a religious ; either by its foundation, by the inllitu-
tion of fome fuperior, or by prefcription. For prefcription,
forty years poileffion by a religious makes the benefice regu-
lar. Si-rular benefices are thofe which are only to be given
to fecular priefto, i. e. to fuch as live in the world, and are
not engaged in any nionailic order. All benefices are re-
puted fecular, till the contrary is made appear. Tr.ey are
called " fecular benefices," becaufe held by Icculars ; of
which kind are almoll all cures. Some benefices, regular in
themfelves, have been fecularifcd by the pope's bull.

^Benefice in commeuJam, is that, the direction and
management whereof, upon a vacancy, is given or recom-
mended to an ecclefialtic for a certain time, till it may be
conveniently provided for. See Commen'DAM.

Benefice, Pofeffion of a. See Possession.

BENEFlCTARIl, in Roman Antiquity, denote foldiers
who attended the chief officers of the army, being exempted
from other duty. Beneficiarii were alio ioldiers dtlcharged
from the military ferviee or duty, and provided with " bene-
ficia" to fubfill on. Tiiefe were probably the fame with the
former, and both might be comprifed in the iamt definition.
They were old experienced foldiers, who having ferved out
their legal time, or received a difcharge, as a particular
mark of honour, were invited again to the ferviee, wiiere they
were held in great elleem, exempted from all militaiy drudg-
ery, and appointed to guard the Ibr.dard, &c. Theie,
when thi'.s recalled to ieivice, were alfo denominated evo-
cati ; and before their recall, enicriti.

Beneficiarii was alfo ufed for thofe raifed to a higher
rank by the favour of the tribunes, or other maglllrates.
The word '' beneficiarius" frequently occurs in the Roman
infcriptions found in Britain, where confulis is always joined
with it ; but befides heneftciarius confulis, we find in Gruter
bcnejinarius trihuni, pretoris, legati, pr^fedi, proconfuh, Sic.

BENEFICIARY, in a general feufe, fomething that re-
lates to benefices.

Bkneficiarv, lenefcinrius, is mere particularly ufed for a
beneficed perfon, or him who receives and enjoys one or
more benefices.

Beneficiary is more particularly ufed among Roman
IVrilers, for a perfon exempt from public offices. In which
fenfe, beneficiarii ftand contradillinguiihed from ttnniitipa.
It alfo denotes, in Middle Age U'riters, a feudatory or vafial ;
and it is alfo ufed for a clerk or officer, who kept the ac-
count of the iencficia, and made the writings neccfliuy
for it. The fame denomination was likewifc given to the
officers who collcfted the rents and duties belonging to the
ffcus.

BENEFICIO. See Deprivation a Bevefcio.

Beneficio, Sujpeii/io a. See Suspension.

B E N e F I c I o prima cccleftaflico halendo. See Pr i M 0.

BENEFIELD, Sebastian, in Biography, an eminent
Englifh divine, was born at Prellonbury, in (jloucefierfiiire,
in 1559, and educated at the univerfity of Oxford, where
he occupied the chair of Margaret profeflbr of divinity for
14 years with great reputation. Towards the clofe of his-,
life he retired to his reftoiy of Meyfey-Hampton, near
Fairford, in his native county, and there died in 1630.
Dr. Bcnefield was fo eminent a fcholar, difputant and divme,
and particularly fo well verfed in the fathers and fchoolmen,
that he had not his equal in the univerfity. In his theological
opinions he was a rigid Calvinift ; and in his general con-
duct he was remarkable for ftridlnefs of life and fincci;ity.
6 His

BEN

His works, confilling of commentaries on the iR, 2d, and
3d chapters of Amos, fermons and Icclures in divinity, are
now fiuik into oblivion.

BENEFIT, is ufed for a privilege granted to fome per-
fon, as of an immunity, or the like.

Benefit of CLrgy. Ste Clergv.

BENENAIM, Benenath, Benenasch, or Benenat,
ill /yironomy, the outermoft liar, of the fccond magnitude,
in the tail of the Urfa major.

This i-i fometimcs alfo called alaliolh.

BENENCASA, Count, a Venetian nobleman, born in
1745, not mnre diftingiiifhed by his birth than talents, talle,
and knowledge in literature, is conicllcd, by M. Laborde, in
his " Eifai fur la Mufique," in 4 vols. ^to. puLliditd at Paris
in 17S0, to have furnilTied I'.im with the chief part of his in-
formation concerning the poets, compofers, muficians, and
authors of' Italy ; and for enriching his refcarches. M.
Laborde acknowledges with gratitude his obligations. See
vol. iii. of'-' EfTai fur la iSIuf." where there art many articles
concerning Italian compofers and fingers with which count
Benencafa has funiifhed the editor, that breathe the true
fpirit of taile, fenfibility, and knowledge. Tl-.is acknow-
ledgement had efcaped us in the fir.'l perufal of M. Laberdc's
work ; but we always thought the articles concernins: the
Itahan compofers and fingers in this work, of a diiicrent
colour from the rcll of the book : more hberal, more eii-
thufiallic for genius and talents, and a tafte more difcrinii-
iiative and refined, than either that of M. Laborde, or his
guide, the Abbe Roufl'er.

When the account of the commemoration of Handtl was
writing, the editor being very defiroiis to know what judi-
cious foreigners thought of tliofe exhibitions, particidarly
Italians, accuftomed to good mufic in their churches, as well
as theatres, he applied to count Benencafa, who was then in
London, and had been prefent at the performance or the
Meifiah in Wtftminfter-abbey, for informati .n concerning
the comparative grandeur and excellence of the band, with
any other which he had heard, or of which hiftoiy rr fa-
Uition had preferved the ir.emory in bis own country. As
they had not time for a f;i!l difcuffion of the fubjeft, when
it was firft propofed, v'f.'n 'ooce, fignor Benencafa was fo
obliging as to honour him with his opinion in a letter,
which, before his departure from England, he entreated his
permiffion to publiili, and it will not only ferve as an honour-
able record of this ftupendous exhibition, but muft have
been the more flattering to the projeftors of tlie plan, as the
count is an excellent judge of rautic ; having heard, read,
meditated, and written on the fubjeft, with a degree of
feeling and intelligence, that is equally honourable to him-
felf and the art. For this letter, fee the commemoration of
Handel, p. 115.

BENEPLACITO, Ital. a mufical term, implying at
plealure ; equivalent to ad libitum, al fiio placers ; which
fee.

BENERMOID, in Gi-r/j-rc/^/^v, a mountain of Scotland,
in the county of Sutherland.

BENESCHAU, a town of Silefia, in the province of
Oppau, 8 miles caft of Troppau.

BENESSOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaur-
zim, in which fairs are held.

Ben ES sow, Benfen, Pciijhi, or Panzen, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Leutmeritz, 6 miles S. S. W. of
Kamnitz ; famous for the manufaiSlure of the bell paper
that is made in Bohemia.

BENET, a town of France, in the department of Vendee,
and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of Foutcnay le
Cointt, 35 leagues fouth-caft of Fontenay.

BEN'

Benet Cape, a bay, lying on the fouth Hdeofthe weflem
peninfula of the ifland of St. Domingo, and foiTning with the
line to Petit Goave on the north fide, the narrowell part or
ifthmus. N. lat. 18° 20'. W. long. 72° 47'. The cape is
the well point of the bay, and cape Jacquemcl the eaft
point, nearly call and weft from each other.

BENETTO, a river in the ifland of Ceylon, 2 miles
fouth from Baibtrain ifland, having on the fouth fide a
fmr.ll fort upon a hill, under which is a good road in 15 fa-
thoms.

BENEVEN, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of
Invernefs, 21 miles call of Fort William. See V>i.s Nev'u.

BENEVENTE, a town of France, in the department
of the Crcufe, and chief place of i canton, in the dillrict of
Bourgantuf; 10 miles N.N W of Bourganeuf. — Alfo, a
town of Spain, in the province of Leon, fcated on the river
Efla. N. lat. 42" 4'. W. long. 5' 5'.

BENEVENTO, a chy of Italy, in the kingdom of Na-
ples, in a duchy of the lame name, comprehending, befides
the city, a dillrift of fome miles. This capital of the Prin-
cipatro Ultra, or principality of Benevento, and fee of an*
archbilhop belonging to the pope, is fituated at the point of
a hill, between two narrow vaUies, in one of which runs tHe
river Sabato, and in the other the Calore, near the confluence
of ihefe two ftreams. N lat. 41'' 6'. E. long. 14'^ 57'.

One of the entrances into the city, is througli the arch
of ^I'rajan, now called the " Porta Aurea," which is in tole-
rable prefervation, and one of the moit magnificent remains
of Roman grandeur out of Rome. The architecture and
fi:lpcure are both fuigularly beautiful. This elegant mo-
nument was erected in the year of Chrift 114, about the
commencement of the Parthian war, and after the fuhmiffion
o*^ Decebaius had entitled Trajan to the name of Dacicus.
The order is compofite ; the materials, white marble ; the
height, 60 palms ; length, 375 ; and depth, 24. It con-
fills of a fingle arch, the fpace of which is 20 palms, and
the height 35. On each fide of it, two fluted columns,
upon a joint pedeilal, fupport an entablement and an attic.
The intercolumniations and frize are covered with baflb-re-
lievos, reprefer.ting the battles and triumph of the Dacian
war. In the attic is the infcription. As the fixth year of
Trajan's confulate,"markedon this arch, is alfo to be leen on
all the military columns erefted by him along his new road to
Brundufium, it is probable, the arch was built to commemot-
rate fo beneficial an undertaking. No city in Italy, Rome
excepted, can boait of fo many remains of ancient fculpture,
as are to be found in Benevento. Scarcely a wall is built
of any thing but altars, tombs, columns, and remains of en-
tablatures. The moll confiderable are in the upper town,
fuppofcd by Swinburne (Travels in the two Sicilies, vol. ii.
p. 336.) to be the fite of the old one.

Tiic cathedral is a clumfy edifice, in a ftyle of Gothic, or
rather Lombard, architedlure. This church, dedicated to
the Virgin Mary, was built in the fixth century, enlarged in
the eleventh, and altered confiderably in the thirteenth, when
archbifiiop Roger adorned it with a new front. In the
court Hands a fmall Egyptian obtlill-:, of red granite, crowded
with hicroglvphics. In the adjoining fquarc, area fountain,
and a very indifferent llatue of Benedid XIII., long arch-
bifliop of Benevento.

The writers of the Bencdiftine hiHory fix its origin in the
years immediately fucceeding the Trojan war, and claim
Diomed, the Etolian chief, as its founder. Others ailign it
to the Samnites, who made it one of their chief towns,
whithtrthcy frequently reforted for refuge, when worfted by
the Romans. In their time, its name was " Maleventnm,"
of uncertain etomology, but after the conqucft of Samnium,

changed.

BEN

changed by the Romans into " Bencvcntum," in order to
introduce tlulr colony und»r fortunate aiifpices. Near tbu
place, in the 479th yjar of Rome, Pyrrhiis was doKattd by
Curiiis Dentatus. In tlie war againll Hannibal, I'cncven-
tum lignalized its attachment to Rome, by liberal tenders of
fncconr, and by real fervices. Its reception of Gracchus
after his d;;fcatof Hanno, is extolled by Livy, and from the
gratitude of the fenate, many folid advantages accrued to
the Beneventines. However, it Ihared the devaltations of
the Roman tmpire, attending the irruption of the northern-
nations. When the Lombards invaded Italy, they fixed
the feat of their empire at I'avia, ar.d fcnt a detachment to
take poffefTion of the fouthern provinces. In 571, Zotto
was appointed duke of Benevento, as a feudatory to the
king of Lombardy, and fetms to have confined his govern-
ment to the city alone, from which he occafionally fallied
forth to feek for booty. Tlie fecond dnke, called Arechis,
conquered alinoft the whole country that now conllitutes
the kingd )m of Naple?. Upon the fall of Dcfiderius, lalt
king of the Lombard?, the Hate of Benevsnto was not mate-
rially affcrted. Arechis the fecond kept pofTeirion, and
availing himfelf of this favourable conjimdnre, aflerted his
independence ; threw off all feudal fubmiflion ; aflumed
the title of prince ; and coined money with his own image
upon it ; a prerogative cxerciled by none of his predeccllors,
as dukes of Benevento. Afterwards, when Radelchis and
Siconnlph afplred to the principality, each of them invitid
the Saracens to his aid. For llie termination of thefe fatal
dilfenfions, the dominions of thcfe competitors were divided
into two diflinft fovereignties. In 851, R^adelchis reigned
as prince at Benevento ; and his adverfary fixed his court,
with the fame title at Salerno. From this treaty of par-
tition, the ruin of the Lombards became inevitable; and the
erection of Capua into a third principality was another def-
truftive operation. From this time the inroads of the Sara-
tens, and the attacks of the eaftcrn and wcftern emperorj,
together with anarc'.iy and animolity at home, reduced the
Lom.bards to fuch wretchednefs, that they were able to
make a very feeble refiUance to the Norman arms. Bene-
vento, however, was chiefly governed by its own dukes and
fovereigns, till in the year 1053, the emperor Henry III.
transferred it conditionally to pope Leo IX. From tiie
year 1054, to this day, the Roman fee, with fome fhort in-
terruptions of pod'eiTion, has exerciled temporal dominion
over this city. In a plain near the city a bloody battle was
lou[;ht in 1266, when Charles of Anjou defeated ai'.el killed
Mainfroy, his compf titorforthe lovereigiity ot the two Sicilies.
In !7o;5, this city iuflered greatly from an earthquake.
BENEVIS. See Ben A'««.

BENEVOLENCE, in EllAcs, denotes a hearty dcfire of
the good of mankind, evidencing itfi If, as ability and oppor-
tunity offer, in the chearful and diligent pratfice of whatever
may promote the well-being of all. Some have traced the
origin of this afTeition in lelf-love : others again in fome
" inllinct" or determination of our nature, antecedent to ail
rtafon from intereil, which influences us to the love of others,
and they have accordingly made it the foundation of univertV.l
" virtue ;" others afcribe it to th.e intelligent conllltutiou of
human nature, and obferve, that it arifes not from inllinct,
but from the natures and neccflity of things. Hutchefon's
Iiiquii7 concerning Moral Good and Evil, p. 140, &c.
Price's Review, Jcc. chap. iii.

Benevolencf. of GotI, in Theology, denotes his difpoli-
t;on to do good and to communicate happinefs. This per-
fection of the deity has been referred to the clafs of moral
attributes. (Sec -AxTRinuThs.) For the illuihation and
},r«of.of divine benevolence ; Jee.GooDNEss.

BEN

BENEroiENCE is ufed,both in our Ststiitrs and Chiyn'icUt,
for a voluntary gratuity given by the fnbjefls to their love-
reign, to which each pcrlon contributes in proportion to his
eitate. Stow (Annals, p. 701 ) fays, that it grew from tl;«
day of Edward IV. It may be found alfo Anno 1 1,
Henry VII. c. 10. yielded to that prince in regard of iiis
great expcnces in war, and othcrv.ife, (12 Rep. 19.) But
as benevolences had been extorted under many fueceediag
princes, v^'ithout a real and voluntary confent, it was made
an article in the petition of right, (3 Car. I.) that no inati
fliall be compelled to yield any gift, loan, or benevolence, i5ec.
without common confent by acl nl parliament.

Neverthclefs, by aft of parliament, (13 Car. 2. C.4.) it
was given to his maj'-ily icing Charles II. with a provilo
that it fhould not be drawn into future example. It was,
therefore, declared by the ilatute I W. & M.^lh 2. c. 2.
that levying money for or to the ufe of the crown, by pre-
tence of prerogative, without grant of parliament ; or for
long.r time, or in other maimer, than the fame is or (ball
be granted, is illegal. See Am and 1'ax.

In this fenfe, benevolence amounts to much the fame with
what in other nations is called " fubfidium charitativum,"
given fometimes by tenants to their lords, by the clergy to
their bilhops, &c. — In France it is called /';-(r_f{//, excepting
that this latter is reflrained to the aft of the clergy.

BENEVOLENT JfnH'wm, in Ethia. See Affec-
tion.

BENEVOI.ENTIA R^^^is BahnJa, in La-.c, the form
of puichafing the king's pardon and favour, in ancient fines
and fubmiflions, to be rellored to eitate, title, or place. Pa-
roch. Antu[. p. 72.

BENEVOLI, Orazio, in i?%;-«/>/i_)', maeftro di cape'I*
to the pope in 1650, and extremely applauded by his con-
temporaries for poliphonic compofitione. Antonio Liberatr,
his dilciple, in a letter which he publilhed at Rome in I6!^4,
in which he charatterifes all the eminent contrapuntifts of
that Ichool, fpeaklng of Benevoli, fays : that he furpafltd
all the mailers of his time in writing for four and even fix
choirs, in which, by the conftruftion and order of the parts,
the imitations of beautiful pafLiges, inverted fugue?, double
counterpoint, new contrivances, ligatures, preparations and
refolutions of difcord?, the texture, connedtion, and fluidity
of the whole, which, hke a river, cnjc'tt enndo ; in fl-.ort, with
the wonderful richnefs and beauty of his harmony, he fo
completely vanquilhed envy herfelf, as to obtain the ap-
plaufe of great matters, while he excited no ether wi(h
i.i the reft, than to imitate his powers in the management
of eccleliallical harmony ; by uniting numerous chorufes,
without dulneff, confufion, cr breach of ruK-. He was
many years maeftro di capella of the Bafilica of St. Peter
at Rome, and compofed his famous mafs for fix choirs of
four parts each, for that cathed: al, on the ccffation of the
plague. It was performed by a band of more than 200
fingers, arranged in different cii-cles of the duomo, the fixth
choir occupying the fumniit of the cupola. Befides this
mala in 24 parts, thei'e is extant a motet by the fame au-
thor, for twelve fopranos, or treble voices of equal ex-
tent. There can be little melody in any of thefe multi-
plied parts ; but to make them move at all, without viola-
tion ot rule, requires great meditation and experience- No
author of poliphonic compofitions, perhaps, ever equalled
Benevoli in this kind of fcience, except the Netherlander,
Ok.;nhem, the mailer of Jufqnin, ar.d our countrymen Tal-
lis and Bull, of wh(jfe faculties and invincible patici>ce in
fuch atchievements, there will be further occafion to fpcak
clfewherc. The eH'eCt of fuch multiplied parts can fo feU
pom be tried, that it feems an experiment which never can
7 be

BEN

be fairly made, and is only amufing to tlie imagination. If
there had been more frequent rehearfals of the mifcrer; in
eight real parts by Leo, which Anfaiii had performed
in 1781 at the Pantheon by more than forty voices, it may
be fuppofed, from fuch movements as were correftly ex-
ecuted, that the effect of the whole would have been
wonderful ! but Leo lived in a more polifhed age, and
was gifted, not only with patience, but with tafte and
genius.

BENFE', in Geography, a fmall idand of Africa, on the
river Sierra Leona, where the Engli(h liad formerly a faftory
and a fmall fort, which was taken by the French in 1 704,
and razed to the ground.

BENFIELD, or Benfei.den, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftricl, in the department of the Lower
Rhine, fcated on tlie 111 ; 4^ leagues fouth of Strafourg.
N.Iat, 48° tx'. E. long. 7° 45'.

, BENFIOL, a mountain of Scotland, in the ifland of
Coll.

BENG, a name gi',-en among the Mahomedans to the
leaves of hemp formtd into pills or conferve ; the ufe of
■wliich, as well as opium, the more rigid Muffulmen efttem to
be unlawful, though not mentioned in the Koran, becaufe
they intoxicate ai.d dillurb the underftandmg, as wine does,
and in a more extraordinary manner. Thefe drugs, however,
arc row commonly taken in the Eail ; but thofe who are
■ addicted to them are generally regarded as debauchees.

BENGAL, in Geography, the mod eaftern province of
the empire of Hindoilan, lying on each fide of the G.inges,
and bounded by Afam, Bootan, and Bahar on the north, by
Bahar, Berar, and Oriffk on the weft, by Oriifa and the bay
of Bengal on the fouth, and by the mountains that feparate
it from Caffay, Aracan, and the Birman dominions on the cad
and fouth-eaft. It ext-.nds from about 2 i" 30', to about 26°
40' N. lat. ; and from about 86", to about 92° 30' E. long,
but its boundaries are not accurately afctrt?.incd. About
50 miles beyond TacriaguUy, which is the termination of a
ftupendous range of mountains, that accompanies the courfe
of the Ganges from the weft, thefc mo'intains begin to form
the norLhern boundaiy of Bengal on the we'tern fide of the
Ganges ; and from hence another range of mountains ftiikes
from the fouth, but in a curve fivtlling wtftward, wliich termi-
nates within fight of the fea, about 30 miles from Ballafore.
To the nortli thofe mountains divide Benga' from the fouthern
divifion of Bahar ; and to the fouth they fcem to be the na-
tural reparation of Bengal from OrifTa. Eaftward the pro-
vince of Bengal extends as far as Rangamatty, a tov\ n be-
longing to the kin^ of Afam, and feated on the river Bur-
rampooter. The fea-coafl of Bengal, between the mouth of
the river Hoogly and that of the Ganges, extends from eall
to weft 180 miles; and the whole is a dreary inhofpitable
fhore, which fands and whirlpools render inacceffible to fliips
of burden. For fevcral miles within land the country is in-
terfecled by numerous channels, through wliich both rivers
difembogue themfelves, by many mouths, into the ocean ;
and the iflands formed by thefe channels are covered with
thickets, and occupied chiefly by beafts of prey. According
to Acbar's divifion, Bengal is one of the eleven foiibahs, or
provinces, of Hindoftan proper ; and its government ex-
tended to Cattack or Cnttack, and along the river Maha-
nuddy, as the foubah of OiifTa appears not to have been
formed at that time. The Biitifli nation polfefs, in full
fovereignty, the whole foubah of Bengal, the great ?ft part of
Bahar, and certain diftricls of Oriifa, comprth-iidiDg 149,217
fqnare Britidi miles, and, with the aJd'tion of Benares,
1 62, coo fquare miles, or 30,000 more than are contained in
Great Britain and Ireland; and the number of inhabitauts

BEN

has been eftimated at nearly eleven millions. But by fume
later computations tiie number has been found to be murh
more confiderable. From iiclual furveys in different dillrias,
in wliich the land occupied in tillage has been diftingui(ln.d,
from that occupied by water or warte, and for which latter
an allowance has been made of one-fourth of the whole fur-
face, it appears, that the uncultivated land in Bengal amounts
to about 31,331,499 acres; and that thefe cultivated acres
require 5,265,432 tenants: adding to thefe the artificers and
manufa(Jturers, in the proportion of about \ i to 40, we fhall
have 6,718,514 heads of famihes, at five perfons each;
whence the whole num.ber of inhabitants will be 33,590,770.
By other efti mates the population has been computed at more
than 30 millions. If to thefe be added about i8 or 20
millions for the population of the Britifh pofTcffions in the
Myfore and Carnatic, tVie dominions of the Eaft India Cc.t.-
pany, will contain a number amounting, probably, to not
lefs tlian 50 millions. With a due encouragement of induf-
try, the prefent population is thought fufficient to bring into
tillage the whole of the wafte lands of Bengal and Bahar.
The country of Bengal, independent of Bahar and Oriffa,
is fomewhat larger than Great Britain. Tlie revenue of
Bengal is rated in the Ay in Acharee, towards the clofe of
the l6tli century, at 149* lacks of rupees ; under Aurung-
zcbe it is ftatcd by Mr. Frafer, in his " Life of Nidir
Shah," at 131 lacks; in Sujah Cawn's nabobflvp, A.D.
1727, it amounted to 1425 lacks; in 1778 to 197 lacks,
net revenue. The total revenue of Bengal, Baliar, Oriffa,
and Benares, belonging to Great Britain, together with
the fubfidy from the nabob of Oude, is computed bv Mr.
Rcnnell at 4,210,000!. fterling ; the expence of collection,
military and civil charges, &c. amounts to 2,540,001.;
whence he infers that the clear revenue is 1,670,0001. Tiie
natural fituation of Bengal is fingularly happy with refpeil
to fecurity from the attacks of foreign enemies. On the
north and eaft it has no warlike neighbours ; but it is
guarded by a formidable barrier of mountains, rivers, or ex-
tenlive waftes, towards thofe quarters, if fuch an enemy fhould
ftart up. On the fouth is a fea-coaft guarded by fhallows
and impenetrable woods, and with only one port, and even
that of difficult accefs, in an extent of 300 miles. It is only
on the weft that any enemy is to be apprehended ; and even
there the natural barrier is ilrong ; and with its population
and refources, aided by the ufual proportion of Ericiili
troops, in addition to the Sepoy cllablilliment, Bengal might
bid defiance to all that part of Hindoftan, which might be
d.ipoied to become its enemy.

The Englifh eftabliihed a commercial intercourfe with this
country at an early period ; and the Engllfli Eaft India com-
pany (reeCoMP.VNv) made afcttkraenton the river Ganges,
in tlie kingdom of Bengal, probably in the formerpart of the
17th century. Their hrll factory in that kingdom \rns at
the town of Hoogly, on arivtr of the fame r?.m.e, about 26
miles above Calcutta. About the year 16S9, the company,
for their greater convenience, removed to Calcutta, on the
fame river, where they built the fort, named Fort WiUiam,
which they ftill poffefs. Their fort and garrifon were de-
figned for the proteflion of their vefiels that came down from
Eatna, laden with piece-goods, raw fiik, and faltpetre, which
were the principal ft:iple commodities of Bengal; otlierwife
the rajas, whofe dominions lay on that river, and who were
either tributaries to, or powerful governors under, the Mo-
gul, were apt to niake, and fometimes did adually make, ar-
bitrary demands cf duties for pafiing that way. However,
it was in the reign 01 Feiokfere, grtat-grandfon of Aiirung.
zcbe, who was depoied in 1717, that the Englifh Eail India
company obiauicd the famous " lii man," or grant, by whieh

their

BEN

■their goods of fxport or import were exempted from duties or
culloms; and this wa.-i reirarded as the cor.'pmy's commer-
ced charter in India, while they ftood in r.ecd ol proleaion
fri)m the princes of tiie country. In the years 1742 and 1743,
Benunl was invaded by I)oth the Mahratta Hates, with annas
conlilUng, as it is faid.'of So,O0O horfcmcn each ; nor did they
depart out of t'le provinces until the year 1744, when they had
eollcacd a vallmafjof plunder, and hadctlablilhed the claimof
the " Chout," or a fourth part of the net revenues of the pro-
vinces, as this proportion was called in the language of Hin-
dolhn. In 175^, the Ikrar Malirattas oblanied poffcfiion
of the province of OrilTa, partly by conq\iell and partly by
ctfTion from Alivcrdy,the nabob of Bengal; and their proxi-
mity to Bengal, from which they were feparated only bv a
flialiow river, afforded them frequent opportunities of phia-
deri"g its frontier provinces: and it was not till the year
1761, when Coflim Ally, nabob of Bengal, ceded the pro-
vinces of Burdwan and Midnapour to the Enolifli, that the
Mahrattas ceafed to plunder them. In I 756, Aliverdy Cawn,
nabob of Bengal, was fucceeded by his grandfon Surajah
Dowlah, who, pretending to be irritated at the conduct of
the Englidi within his dominions, and really jealous of the
rifing power of Europeans in general, in other parts of India,
determined to expel the Enghlh from Bengal, and accord-
ingly took their fort at Calcutta, tlie chief Britifli fcttlemcnt
ill the province, upon which their trade depended, and com-
pelled thole among them, who were not made prifoners,
to retire, and others he caufed to perilb by confining them in
a fmall chamber called the " black-hole" of Calcutta. In
the following year, however, an armament from Madras, un-
der admiral Watfon and colonel Clive, not only recovered
Calcutta, but brought the nabob to terms. With a view to
permanent fecurity for the future, they negotiated with Jaffier
Ally Cawn, an omrah in high trull and favour with the
nabob ; and he engaged, on condition of their aflilling him
in his views towards the throne, to be their future ally and
confederate. The famous battle of Plaffey, fought in June
1757, and in which Jaffier aided the accomplifhment of
their widies, by remaining neuter, laid the foundation of the
future power of the Britilli nation, not only in Bengal, but in
Hindollan. From that time they became the arbiters of
the fucceflion of the nabobfliip of Bengal, which fpeedily led
to the poffefiion of the powers of government ; for CofTun
Ally, who had been placed in the room of Jaffier, difliking
his fituation, refolved at all even's to hazard a change. This
brougiit on a war, which terminated in the expulfion of
Coflim, and left the Bengal provinces in the pofTcflion of
the Englifh, who reftored Jaffier to the naboblhip. Lord
Chve, affuming the government of Bengal in 1 765, feized the
opportunity, afforded by the recent death of nabob Jaffier
Ally, of taking poflenion of the Bengal provinces ; and ob-
tained from the nominal Mogul, Shah Aulum, a grant of the
duanny, or adminilkration of the revenues of Bengal, Bahar,
and Orilfa ; on condition of paying the Mogul 26 lacks of
rupees (260,0001.) per annum. Thus a territoiy producing
at that time at lealt a million ilerling per annum, after every
expence was defrayed, and containing at lead ten millions of
inhabitants, was gained to the company, on the fide of Ben-
gal ; together with the northern circars, valued at near half a
million more, and for which a grant was alfo obtained. The
Bengal provinces, which have been in our aftual poffeffion
from the year 1765, have, during that whole period, enjoyed
a greater (liare of tranquillity than any other part of India ;
or indeed, than thofe provinces had ever experienced fince
the days of Aurungzebe. Previous to the ellablilhment of
our influence, invafions were frequent, particularly by the
Mahrattasj and one province or other was ever in rebellion ;

BEN

owinjT to a want of energy in the ruling power, an ill-paid
and mutinous army, and an excefs of delegated power.

The government of Bengal, and its extenfive dependencies,
was firli veiled in a iTovenior-gcneral and a fupreme council,
confitling of a prelident.and eleven counfellors ; but in 1773,
thefe we're rellriaed to four, w'ith Warren Hailings, the go-
vernor-general, who were to direft all affairs, civil and mili-
tary, in the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Oriffa ; and to
control the inferior governments of Madras on (he eail, and
Bombay on the well, with Bencoolen, in the illand of .Su-
matra. The court of judicature conlills of a chief juitice,'
and three other judges, with civil, criminal, naval, and eccle-
fiaiUcal jurifJitlion. The Hindoos are governed by their
own huvs, nor would it be eafy, if prafticable, to extinguilh
the influence of the Brahmins, or totally to aboiifh the calls,
to whatever degree they may countenance and maintain fana-
tieifm and fupeiilition. The military eftabliniment in Ben-
gal is always refpeftable, but varies according to the fituation
of affairs. Tlie Britiih troops arc fupported by the fcpoys,
a native militia, who are accullomed to have numerous idle
followers, fo that the effective men fcldom coniUtute more
than a quarter of the nominal army. A force of 20,000
Britifli foldiers might probably encouncer and vanquifli
200,000 blacks or Hindoos. The decifive battle of Plaffey,
wliich fecured to us the poffeffion of thefe opulent provinces,
was gained with an army of about 3000 men, of whom 900
only were Europeans; and at the battle ol Buxar, in 1764,
the whole number of combatants on the fide of the Britifli
did not exceed 7000, and of thefe 1200 only might be
Europeans.

The climate of Bengal, is reckoned by Dr. I.ind, in his
" Effay on difeafes incident to Europeans in hot climates,
Sec." the motl infalubrious and fatal to Europeans of any of
the Britifli fettlements in India, that of Bencoolen excepted.
This is owing partly to the heat of the air, and more efpe-
cially to that of the land wind, which, paffing over a tradl
of country much heated by the feafon, and confilling in
various diilricts of extenfive fandy deferts, becomes fo hot
and fuffocating that it can fcarcely be endured. Thefe hot
winds, occafionally loaded with land, are fo pernicious, par-
ticularly to pcrfons expofed to them whillt fleeping, that
they produce a kind of paralytic diflemper, called the " bar-
biers," which is attended with a total lofs of the ufe of the
limbs, and for which no relief can be obtained but by re-
moving to fome other clim.at?. But the unheakhinefs of
this climate is principally owing to the inundations of its
rivers, and to its level or flat furface, fo that the waters ftag-
nate ; and of courfe when, in the month of Oftober, the
llagnated waters begin to be exhaled by the heat of the fun,
the air is greatly polluted by the vapours that arife from the
flime and mud that are call by the rivers, and by the putre-
fadlion of dead fifli, and other animals. Although the falu-
brity of the climate of Bengal has been confidcrably improved
by clearing the country of trees and jungle, by canals, and
by draining the marthes, yet fogs are at this time common,
very thick and very unhealthy ; and cxccffive fogs alfo pre-
vail at other fcafons, and they often occur in the months
of January and February. In Bengal, the hot, or dry
feafon, begins with March, and continues to the end of
May, the thermometer fometimes rifing to 110°; and this
intenfe heat is occafionally interrupted by violent thunder-
ftorms from the north-well. The rainy feafon continues
from June to September or Oftober ; but the three lall
months of the year are generally pleafant. The cold feafon
commences in November, and lafts till the beginning of Fe-
bruary; northerly winds are then prevalent, and the mornings,
efpecially before fun-rife, are cold. It is alfo frequently very

foggy.

BEN

foTgy, but about ? «r 9 o'clock, when tlie fun begins to h:
powerful, the thick mill is diffipated. For the remainder of
the day the (Ivy is pcrfeAly clear, fo that no clouds appear in
the air for fereraldays together. In the montlis of Septem-
ber and Oclober difeafes rage, and chiefly attack thofe tiiat
are lately arrived ; but here, as in all other places, ficknefs is
more frequent and fatal in fome years than in others. The
moft prevalent diilempers are fevers, of the remitting or inter-
mitting kind ; for though fometimes they may continue for
feveral days witliout any perceptible reniiiTion, yet they have
in general a great tendency to it, and are commonly accom-
panied with violent paroxyfms of rigours or Ihiveiing'., and
with difcharges of bile upwards and downwards. If the
feafon be very fickly, fome arc feized with a malignant fever,
of which they foon die. The body is covered vith blotches
of a livid colour, and the corpfe in a few hours becomes quite
black and corrupted. At this time flaxes prevail, which
may be called bilious, or putrid, the better to diilinguifti them
from others, which are accompanied with an inflammation of
the bowels. In all thefe difeafes at Bengal, the lancet is
cautiondy to be ufed. The mode of treating fevers and bi-
lious complaints being now well underftood, they are lefs
alarming and fatal. Dr. Lind fays it is a common obfer-
vation, both at Bengal and Bencoolen, that the moon or tides
have a remarkable influence on intermitting fevers ; and he
informs us, on the teflimony of a gentleman of undoubted
veracity, and of great knowledge in medicine, that at Bengal
he could foretel the precife time when the patient would ex-
pire ; it being generally about the hour of low water. From
thefe, and other obfervations, the doftor deduces an ufeful
hint, which is, to take dofes of bark at the full and change
of the moon, as being the feafons moll liable to an attack or
relapfe in thefe intermitting fevers.

Although the rainy feafon does not commence in the flat
countries of Bengal till the latter end of the month of June,
the Ganges and other rivers begin to fwcU in the mountains
of Thibet early in April, and by the latter end of that month,
■when the rain-water has reached Bengal, the rivers rife here.
This circumfl;ance is accounted for partly by the melting of
the fnow on the mountains, but principally, as Mr. Rennell
obferves, by the vaft coUeftion of vapours wafted from the
fea by the foutherly or fouth-well monfoon, and fuddenly
flopped by the lofty ridge of mountains that runs from eail
to weft through Thibet. Hence it appears, that the rainy
feafon muft commence fooner in places that lie near the
mountains than in thofe that are more remote. In Bengal
the rivers rife by flow degrees ; the increafe being only about
an inch per day for the firll fortnight. It then gradually
augments to two and three inches, before any quantity of
ram falls in the flat countries ; and when the rain becomes
general, the mean increafe is about five inches per day. By
the latter end of July, all the lower parts of Bengal, con-
tiguous to the Ganges and Burrampooter, are overflowed,
and form an inundation more than 100 miles wide ; nothing
appearing but villages and trees, excepting, very rarely, the
top of an elevated fpot, the artificial mound of fomedefertcd
village, appearing like an ifland. The inundations in Bengal
are as much occafioned by the rain that falls there, as by the
waters of the Ganges ; in proof of which it is alleged, that
the lands in general are overflowed to a confiderable height
long before the bed of the river is filled. It ought to be
obferved, that the ground adjacent to the bank of the river,
to the extent of fome miles, is higher than that which is at
a greater diilance ; and thus it ferves to feparate the waters
ofthe inundation from thofe of the river, until it overflows.
This high ground is, in fome feafons, covered a foot or more ;
but the height of the inundation within varies, of courfe, ac-

Vol, IV.

BEN

cording to the irregularities of the ground ; and is in fom?
places 12 feet. When the inundation becomes general, the
river appears, as well by the grafs and reeds on its batiks, at
by its rapid and muddy ftream ; for the water of the inunda-
tion acquires a blackiih hue, by remaining long ilagnant
among grafs and (jther vegetables ; nor does it ever lofe this
tinge, which fliews the predominancy of the rain water over
that of the river ; and the flow rate of the motion of the
inundation, which does not exceed half a mile per hour, indi-
cates the remarkable fiatnefs of the country.

In order to guard thofe tracls of land, which, by the na-
ture of their culture and produftions, and by the lovenefs of
their Ctuation, would be injured by too long an inundation,
dikes or dams are raifed at an enormous expence, extending
in the whole of their length to more than a thoufand Englifh
miles. Some of thefe are at the bafe equal to the thicknef*
of an ordinai-y rampart, and yet, on account of the want of
tenacity in the foil of which they are compofed, they are
often found incff^eclual, a«d need frequent repairs. One par-
ticular branch of the Ganges, navigable only during the
rainy feafon, and then equal to tlie Thames at Chelfca, is
conducled between two of thefe dykes, through an interval
of 70 miles ; and when it is full, the paffengers in the boati .
look down, as from an eminence, on the adjacent counti-y.
During the fwoln ftate of the river, the tide becomes inca-
pable of counteracting the ftream, and in a great mcafure of
ebbing and flowing, except near the fea. At fuch a feafou,
a ftrong wind, that blows up the river for any continuance,
fwells the waters two feet above their ordinary level ; and fuck
accidents have occafioned the lofs of whole crops of rice.
This rice is of a particular kind, for the growth of its ftalk
keeps pace with the increafe of the flood at ordinary times,
but is deftroyed by too fudden a rife of the water. The
harveft is often reaped in boats. There is alfo a kind of
grafs which overtops the flood in the fame manner, and at 3
fmall diftance has the appearance of a field of the richeft ver-
dure. Mr. Rennell informs us, that in the year 1763, a
tragical event happened at Luckipour, about 50 miles from
the fea, by a ftrong gale of wind, confpiring with a high
fpring-tide, at a feafon when the periodical flood was within
1 5 foot of its higheft pitch. The waters then rofe 6 feet
above the ordinary level. On this occafion the inhabitant*
of a confiderable dillrift, with their houies and cattle, were
totally fwept away ; and the calamity was aggravated by
its happening in a part of the country which fcafcely pro-
duces a fingle tree, to which a drowning man might efcape.
Thefe inundations are traverfed by every kind of embarka-
tion ; fuch as are bound upwards taking advantage of a
direil courfe and llill water, at a feafon when every ftream
ruihes like a torrent. The wind too, which at this feafon
blows regularly from the fouth-eaft, although in the gulf or
bay of Bengal the monfoon blows from the S. S. W. and
S.W., favours their progrefs in the eaftem and northern
parts of Bengal, where it blows from the S.E. or E.S.E. ;
fo that a voyage which would take up nine or ten days by
the courfe ofthe river, when confined within its banks, may
be performed in fix days. Hufljandiy find grazing are at
this time both fufpended ; and the peafant traverfcs in hi«
boat thofe fields which, in another feafou, he was ufed to.
plough ; happy, however, that the elevated fite of the river-
banks places within his reach the herbage which they afford ;
without which his cattle muft periOi. Towards the middle
of Auguft, the inundation begins to fubfide ; for though
great quantities of rain fall in the flat countries in Auguft
and September, yet, by a partial ceflation of the rains in the
mountains, the fupplies fail that aret'ceflary to keep up the
inundation. However, the decreafe 0^ the ioundaticw doet
> S b Rot

BEN

Bot alNvays k«ep pace with -.hat of the river, on account of
the height oi the banks ; but after the beginiung ot October,
wlien the rain has nearly ccafed, the remaining mundaUon goes
off quickly by evaporation; and the lands are lett highly
manured, and in a Rate fit for receiving the feed, after the
fimple operation of ploir^'hing. For an account ot tUe
" bore," to which the rivers of Bengal arc fubject ; lee the

article Bonr. • ,-,ri u

From the time of the change of the monfoon in Ottober,
to the middle of March, the rivers are in a tranquil Hate ;
and then the " north-weacrs" begin in the eallcrn parts of
Benjal, and later as we advance welUrards; and they may be
cxpetted once in three or four days, until the commencement
of the rainv feafon. Thefe " not th-wefter?," fo called from
the quarter in which they ufually originate, are the molt
formidable enemies to the inland navigation of Bengal. They
are fudden and violent fqualls of wind, and, though they are
of no long duration, thev arc often attended with fatal effeas,
and have'caufed whole lleets of trading boats to fink almoft
juftantaneoufly. They are more frequent ii. the eallern than
in the wellern part of Bengal ; and happen oftener towards
the ciofe of the day than at any other time. For fomc hours
before they arrive, they arc indicated by the riling and fingu-
lar appearance of the clouds ; and thus the traveller is warned
to feek (helter. But in the great rivers they are truly for-
midable ; more efpecially about the latter end of May, and
beginning of June, when the rivers are much increafed in
width. After the commencement of the rainy feafon, which

BEN

funiinies the inhabitants of the mountains of Caflimere, and
of the elevated plains of ITiibet, with both rice and wheat, ir»
return for their (hawls, gold, and muflc. Upon the failure
of their crop of rice, a grievous famine enfues. Of this many-
melancholy inftances have occurred, both in Bengal and in
other parts of India. One of the moft deplorable of this
kind occurred in the year 1770. On this occafion, the nabob,
atid great men of the country, dillributed rice gratis to the
poor ; but when their own (locks began to fail, they with-
drew their donations, and Calcutta was crowded with mul-
titudes of perfons who came thither to folicit relief. But
the whole (lock being expended, the famine prevailed, and
many thoufands fell down as vitlims to hunger in the ftreets
and fields ; fo that their bodies, mangled by dogs and vul-
tures, corrupted the air, and feemed to threaten a plague.
Many perfons were employed daily, on the company's ac-
count, in throwing dead carcafes into the river, fo that the
waters were contaminated, and the fifh could not be eaten
without danger. Hogs, ducks, andgeefe, fed chiefly on the
dead bodies ; and the only meat v,hich could be procured
was mutton, which, on account of the dryntfs of the feafon,
was fo fmall, that a quarter of it would fcarcely weigh a pound
and a half. This dreadful famine was occaliontd by a pre-
ternatural drought, which caufed both the great harvell of
1769, and the little one of 1770 to fail. As a prefervative
from the miferies attending a dry feafon, and as a fource of
fnpply of water for domellic purpofes, the inhabited part of
the country is furnilhed with numerous reiervoirs of an ob-

fiUing of the creeks and inlets, as the river increafes, and, on
the other hand, the bad weather is of longer continuance,
than during the feafon of the " north-wefters." The inland
navigation of Bengal is performed with fafety, with refpect
to tlie weather, during the long interval between the end of
the rainy feafon, and the beginning of the " north-wefters."
At this latter feafon pecuUar attention and care are neceffary.
For an account of the boats that are ufed in this inland navi-
gation ; fee BuDGE-ROW.

Bengal is a low flat country, fertilized by numerous rivers
and ftrcams, and intcrfperfcd with a few ranges of hills. The
triangle formed by the Coffimbazar and Hoogly rivers to the
weft, by the Ganges to the eaft, and by the fea-coaft to the
foiith, as well as a large trad on each hand to the north of
this Delta (fee DeltaI, is as level as the lower Egypt.
Such parts of this extcnilve plain as are not watered by the
Ganges or its branches, are fertilized by many other ftreams
from the mountains; and for the fpacc of three months,
when the fun is moftly vertical, heavy rains fall every day.
The periodical rains and intcnfe heats produce a luxuriance
of vegetation, almoft unknown to any other countiy in the
globe; and therefore Auruugzebe emphatically denominated
'De:^:'al " the paradifc of nations;" and it has been pecu-
liarly ilyled " the paradife of India." The foil is a ftratum
of black vegetable mould, rich and loamy, extending to the
depth of fix feet, and in fome places fourteen, and even twenty
feet, lying on a deep fand, and interfperled with (liells and
rotten wood, which indicate the land to have be n overflowed,
and to have been formed by materials depoiitec jy the rivers.
It is eafily cultivated without manure, and bad harvcfts fel-
dom occur. In this country they have two harvefts ; one in
April, called the " little harveft," which confifts of the
fmaller grain ; and the fecond, called the " grand harveft,"
is only of rii:c. The cluef grain is rice, on which the natives
chiefl) fubful, and whic'i is exported from hence into other
countries. Bengal produces alio very good wheat ; and it

inhabitants, during the dry months, a fupply of water of 3
better quality and appearance than that of the Ganges,
which is always thick and muddy. In thefe tanks is bred
a fort of fifti, in talle refembling our carp. Among the other
vegetable produftions of Bengal, the moft important of
which are tobacco, fugar, indigo, cotton, mulberry, and
poppy, we may enumerate the banian tree, the cocoa-nut
palm, which fupplies a manufacture of cordage, called
"coir" (fee Coir), guavas, plantains, pomelos, potatoes,
lime trees, and orange trees. They have alfo the pifang,
or banana ; the furi tree, which affords, by incifion of
the ftem, a clear and fweet juice, of an intoxicating quality,
and when turned four is ufed as vinegai ; and the mango
tree, the fruit of which is preferred to all others in the
country, except very fine pine-apples, and which is much
ufed in the hot months. Mr. Ive- (Voyage from India to
England, &c. 410. 1773) mentions a beautiful tree, called
" chulta," which has a flower that is at firft a hard green
ball, on footftalks about four inches long. When this
opens, the calyx appears to be compofed of five round, thick,
and iuccnltnt leaves, and the corolla of the fame number of
fine beautiful white petals. After one day the corolla fallj^
off, and the ball clofes again ; of thefe there is a fucceflion
for leveral months. In the walks of Bengal they have a tall
tree, called the " tatoon ;" and near Calcutta a fpreading
tree, called the " rufla," making a fine appearance when in
full bloom. In their gardens they cultivate moft of the
vegetables that are natives of other climates, and fit for
culinary purpofes. Among the animals of Bengal, we might
mention the elephant, tiger, wild buffaloes, jackals, dogs,
fnakes, fcorpions, occ. : and a kind of birds, named " ar-
gill," or " hurgill," a Ipecies of Ardea, which are very
large and ravenous, and held in great veneration by the
Brahmins. Game, poultry, filh, and water-fowl of all kinds,
are very plentiful in Bengal. The horfes ufed by the Euro-
peans in this province arc either of Peifian or Arabian ex-

tradioDi

BEN

tra(^ion, and confequently fell at a liigh price. Tlie native
horfe of Bengal is thin, ill-fliaped, and contemptible, and
even in its belt ftiape never equals the Welfh or Highland
poney, cither in figure or ufefulnefs. The cattle piincipally
ufed for the team in Bengal are bullocks ; and the moft com-
mon vehicle among the peafants is a hacktry, which fee.
But Bengal is more defective in its breed of cattle than moll
other parts of India. The fize of its flieep is fmall ; their
figure lank and thin ; and the colour of three-fourths of a flock
is black or dark grey. The quality of a fleece of wool in this
countiyis vvorfe, if poffible, than its colour ; as it is remark-
ably harlh, thin, and hairy.

The inland commerce of Bengal is very confiderable ; and
it is carried on by means of thofe rivers and canals that in-
terfett the country', and along the banks of which are many
towns and villages, with pleafant fields of aralile and pafture
Jand, which diverlifies the face ot the country, and renders it
very beautiful. Some of the canals, formed either by the
hands of men, or by the operations of nature, are wide and
deep enough to be navigated by large fliips. One of the
molt confiderable of thefe is the " Haze," or " Hare"
channel, that runs ftraight through the countiy into the arm
of the river that flow's by Dacca. The chief articles of com-
merce which the country yields are filk, muflin, callicoes,
cotton, and other piece-goods ; opium, faltpetre, gum-lac,
and indigo. Rice, wheat, &c. can only be reckoned cafual
branches of trade. Bengal has an inland trade with Thibet,
which it fupplies with cottons, befides fome wine and cloths
of European manufacture, receiving in exchange muflc and
rhubarb ; and a much more extenfive commerce with Aj^ra,
Delhi, and their adjacent provinces, in fait, fugar, opium,
(ilk, filk-ftuffs, and an immenfe quantity of cottons and muf-
lins. The maritime trade of Bengal, managed by the natives
of the countr)-, has been divided into two branches, viz.
that of Cattack by means of its port Balafore with the Mal-
dives, whither they tranfmit rice, coarfe cottons, and fine filk
fluffs, and where they receive in exchange cowries, ufed for
money at Bengal, and fold to the Europeans. The inha-
bitants of Cattack alfo carrj' on a confiderable trade with the
country of Afam, which they fupply with fait in great
quantities, receiving in payment a fmall quantity of gold and
filver, ivory, muflc, eagle-wood, gum-lac, and a large quan-
tity of filk. A more confiderable branch of trade, which
the Europeans carry on with the reft of India, is that of
opium, which is cultivated at Patna. The Dutch fend rice
and fugar to the coaft of Coromandel, for which they are
ufually paid in fpecie. They have alfo formerlv fupplied
Ceylon with rice, Malabar with cottons, and Surat with
filk ; whence they brouglit back cotton, ufually employed in
the coarfe manufacture of Bengal. Some Ihip^ laden with
rice, gum-lac, and cotton-ftuff^s, are fent to Baflbra ; and
return with dried fruits, rofe-water, and gold. The rich
merchandife carried to Arabia is paid for entirely in gold and
filver.

The articles that are difpofed of to advantage in Bengal,
are all kinds of fpices, japan copper, iandal wood, and fa-
pan wood, and alfo tin, lead, ptvvter, and other European
commodities of various kinds. See East India Company,
and Calcutta.

Bengal is peopled by various nations, but the principal are
the Moguls, or Moors, and the Gentoos, Hindoos, or Ben-
galefe, and both the Bengalefe and Moors have each a dif-
■linft language.

The Moguls, or Moors, are defcerdants of thofe who be-
ween two and three centuries ago reduced this kingdom, and
the whole empire of Hindoftan, undertheir dominion. They
■were originally natives of Tartary. They nearly refemble the

B.E N

Europeans in traits and features; but differ more or lef»
from them in colour. The Moguls are olive, though, in the
Indian hnguage, Mogul fignifies white. The women are
very handfome, and much ufe bathing ; like the men, they
are of an olive colour, and different in form from the women
of Europe. Their legs and thighs are long, and their bodies
fliort. According to Thevenot, the Mogul women are chafte,
very fruitful, and bring forth with fo much eafe, that they
frequently walk the ftreets the very next day after delivery.
Stavorinus fays, that their morals are infamoufly bad, and
that they are addicted to the moft unnatural vices. The
Moguls are more courageous tlian the Bengalefe ; and their
" Sipahis" fonn good foldiers, when they are trained and
commanded by European officers. Their religion is that of
Mahomet; and confequently they hold in abhorrence the
idolatry] of the Gentoos.

The Bengalefe, who are much more numerous than the
Moors, do not differ much from the Europeans in ftature ;
their colour is dark-brown ; the complexion of fome of them
approaches to yellow ; their hair black and uncurled : and they
are generally handlome and well made. They are indolent, laf-
civious, and pufiUanimous ; and nothing but hunger or thirft
roufes their aftivity. Some of them, however, are intelligent
and ingenious ; and though moft of them are poor, fome of
their banyans,or merchants, are veiy wealthy, and very expert
in matters of trade. Their women are faid to be uncommonly
wanton and intriguing ; proftitution is not thought by them a
dilgrace ; and they have licenfed places, in which the law al-
lows them, under a certain aficflfment, to diftribute their fa-
vours. Their artificers in gold and filver are very ingenious,
and imitate any model that is fet before them with great ex«
aftnels. Europeans are often furprifed to obferve the per-
feftion to which they have arrived in thofe branches of
fpinning cotton, and of repairing muOins that are torn, and
in almoft all the handicraft operations in which they are em-
ployed. The common people go almoft naked. They
wear nothing but a piece of linen, wrapped round the waift,
and pafted between the legs. Thofe of a higher rank have
a drtfsof white cotton, which doubles over before as high as
the flioulders, and is fallened with ftrings round the middle,
and which hangs down to their feet. Moft of them fhave
their heads, and eradicate the hair from all parts of the body.
Rich people wear turbands, and many of them wear fmall
ear-rings. The diefs of the women confifts of a piece of
cotton cloth thrown over the (houlders, under which they
wear a kind of coat and drawers. Thofe who can afford it
adorn their hair with gold bodkins, and their aiTns, legs, and
toes with gold and filver rings and bands, and alfo their ears
and the cartilage of the nofe. The inferior women wear
fimilar ornaments, made of a fort of cowries, and called
" chanclos." Their heads are bare, and their hair turned
up, and faftened at the back of the head. Rice is the chief
article of their food, the remainder of which confifts of vege-
tables and milk. They eat no fifli, flefli of animals, nor
any thing that has had life. Their beverage is pure water.

Botli the Moors and Bengalefe are fondof theamuferaent of
dancing ; and for this purpofe they emplov young women,
who are trained up from their infancy to this diverfion, and
who are richly decorated whenever they arc engaged to per-
form. Dancing is accompanied with mufic, both vocal and
inftrumental. For an account of the other inhabitants of
Bengal, fee Gentoos and Hindoos. See alfo Brah*
MiNS and Faquirs. Befides thefe, fevei-al of the eallern
nations, Perfians, Armenians, and others, refort to Bengal,
allured by the advantageous trade which they are enabled
to purfue there.

Four Eufopeaa nations have eftablilhed thsmMves in Ben-
Bb 2 gal

BEN

gal for the purpofe of commerce, viz. the En^liHi, the
Dutch, the French, and the Danes. The Engh(h are the
principal, and their cliief fettlement is at Calcutta, the pre-
fent capital of the country. (See Calcutta.) liuro-
peans lead, in Bengal, a very eafy life. The men, who are
almoft all in the fervice of the company, devote a part of the
morning to bufinefs, and perfons of fortune keep in daily
employment a black writer, for which he receives 20 or 2J
rupees per month. They fpend tin: remainder of their time
in perfonal improvement or recreation. BeCdcs the black
writers, mod Europeans have alfo one or two banyans, who
note down all payments and receipts, and who adjiill all pe-
cuniary matters in buying and fcllinp;. Mooriih domelllcs
are kept for the menial fervices of the honfe, and " peons,"
to run before the palankeens, and to carry an umbrella, Or
parafol, over the l.ead of their mailer, when he goes out ; and
ever)- houfe has likcwife a porter, whofe fole occupation is
to anlwer the door ; and one or two fcts of " bcrras," or pa-
lankeen bearers, together with a " harry maid," or " mata-
rani," who carries out the dirt ; and a great number of
flaves, both male and female.

The current coins in Bengal, and in the whole extent
of Hindoftan, are gold and filvcr rupees ; which fee. See
alfo MoTiuR. Copper coin is not feen in Bengal. For
change thty make ufe of cowries, 80 of which make a
" poni," and 60 or 6^ ponis, according to the fcarcity or
plenty of cowries in the country, make a rupee. However,
there is great variation in the value of cowries in Bengal,
Weights are calculated by the Sar, anfwcring nearly to two
pounds avoirdupoife, of which 40 make a maund ; which
fee. The meafjres of length are cobidos, and gefs or gofs,
wWch fee. Diftances between places are meafurcd by cofs.
^ee Coss. The vcflels ufed for inland navigation are burs,
budgerows, and pulwhas, which fee. The general convey-
ance of paflengers by land is on a fort of litters, called palan-
keens, which fee. For an account of the manners and euf-
toms of the inhabitants of Bengal, and various other parti-
culars ; fee Calcutta, HiNnosTAu, and India. See
sJfo Gentoos, Hindoos, and Brahmins.

Bengal, iay of, is a lai-ge gulf in the Indian ocean, be-
tween the two peninfulas of India ; bounded on the north by
the coal! of the province of Bengal, on the eaft by the king-
doms of Aracan, Pegu, Siam, the peninfula of Malacca, or
Malaya, and part of the ifland of Sumatra; on the fouth by
the great Indian ocean, and on the weft by the coafts of
Oriffa, Coromandcl, and the ifland of Ceylon. The Ganges
and feveral other rivers, difcharge tbemi'elves into this gulf ;
it contains many iflands ; and it abounds with bays, harbours,
and port towns. Its widcfl extent is about 86 leagues, and
its length about 72 leagues. In a more confined view it may
be faid to begin at cape Palmiras.

Bengai, Zanjujjf c/", or Bf.ngalese, is derived from
the Shanfcrit (which fee), and diftinft from the Perfian,
Moors, and Hindoftantiic, which are fpoken in feveral parts
of this province, and each of which has its peculiar depart-
ment in the bufinefs of the country'. Its alphabet, like that
of the Shanfcrit, confids of 50 letters, of the form, found,
and arrangement of which Halhed has given a very particu-
lar and detailed account in his " Grammar of the Bengal
Language," printed at Hoogly in Bengal in 1778. The
only impediments in acquiring the knowledge of this lan-
guage are the great number of letters in its alphabet, the in-
tricate variety of their combinations, and the difGculty of pro-
nunciation ; but the grammatical part is fimple, though dif-
fufe, and complete without being complex. Its rules are
plain, and its anomalies few. The vowels are diftributed
into long and Ihort, the latter of which are often omitted in

BEN

writing', and they arc invariably fubjoined to the confonant
with which they are uttered, and never precede them. As
every confonant, therefore, inherentlypofleffes the Ihort vowel
on which its utterance depends, it is plain that no two confo-
nants could have been joined together, and fucceffively pro-
nounced in the fame fyllable, but that a vowel muft neceffarily
have intervened. In order to remedy this inconvenience, a
fctofdiftind charaiters was invented, called " P.holaas," or
adjunfts. Thefe are certain fubordinate and fubfidiaiy
figures, eleven in number, that may be attached to each of
the confonants in the alphabet refpeClively, and thus provide
againft the too frequent recurrence of the internal vowel.
Exclufively of thefe " P,holaas," almoft any two or three
confonants may be blended together, for fupplying the
omifTion of the internal vowel. The compound letters
may be foiTned by placing one letter immediately under
another ; or by blending two letters together, fo as by
their union to make one charafter ; or by making the
firft of tlie two confonants much fmaller than the other
letters, which latter mode is the molt common. The
genders of this language are three, and the terminations
ufually diftinguifhing the mafculine are aa, and thofe of the
feminine are ee ; but it is not neceffary that every noun com-
prehending fex (hoiild be diilinguifhed by a particular termi-
nation, or mode of formation, cxprefsly to denote its gender^
The Bengalefe has four cafes befides the vocative, and in
this rtfpeft it is much inferior to the Shanfcrit, which com-
prehends eight different cafes. The Bengal nouns have
neither dual nor plural numbers; and the fame form of noun
ferves for the iingular or plural. In compofitionsof this lan-
guage, though the firft and fecond perfons occur very fre-
quently, the ufe of the pronoun of the third is very rare ; and
in order to avoid the application of the words he and they,
the names of perfons are repeated in a manner that is very
tirefome and difgufting. The fecond perfon is always ranked
before the firft, and the third before the fecond. The per-
fonal pronouns have feven cafes, which are very irregularly
varied. The indefinite pronouns are all aptotes in Bengalefe,
as they are in Latin and Greek. The Shanfcrit, which
is the parent of the Bengalefe, as well as the Arabic,
Greek, and Latin verbs, are furnilhed with a fet of inflec-
tions and terminations, fo comprehenlive and fo complete,
that by their mere form they can exprefs all the diftindions
both of perfon and time. By their root they denote a par-
ticular aft, and by their intieftion they exprefs the time when
it takes place, and the number of the agents ; and thus their
feparatc qualities are perfeftly united. Every Shanfcrit
verb has a form equivalent to the middle voice of the Greek,
ufed through all the tenfes with a refleftive fenfe, and the
former is the moft extenfive of the two in its ufe and ofSce ;
becaufe in Greek the refleftive can only be adopted intranfi-
tively when the aftion of the verb defcends to no extraneous
fubjeft ; but in Shanfcrit, the verb is at the fame time both
reciprocal and tranfitive. Neither the Shanfcrit, nor the
Bengalefe, nor the Hindoftannic, have any word correfpond-
ing to the fenfe of the verb / have, and therefore the idea is
always expreffed by e/l mihi ; and of courfe there is no
auxiliary form in the Bengalefe verb anfwering to I have
•written, but the fenfe is conveyed by another mode. As the
verb fubftantive to be in all languages is defeftive and irregular,
it is called in Shanfcrit a " femi-verb ;" and it is obferved, by
the ingenious writer above cited, that the prefent tenfe of this
verb, both in Greek and Latin, and alfo in the Perfian, ap-
pears evidently to be derived from the Shanfcrit. In the
Bengalefe, this verb has only two diftinftions of time, the
prefent andthe paft; and the terminations of the feveral perfons
of thefe ferve as a model forthofe of the fame tenfe in all other
6. v?rbs.

BEN

verbs refpec^ivel)'. The Bena;alefe verbs may be didrihnted
into three claffes, which are diftiiiguillicJ by their pemiltimate
idler. The fiinple and moil common form has an open con-
finant im iiediately preceding the final letter uf the infinitive.
The fecond is compofed of thofe word.i whofe final letter h
preceded by another vou-el or open confonant going before
it. The third confills entirely of caufals, derived from verbs
of the firil; and fecond con'f'.igation. The Greek verbs in fxt
are formed cxaftly upon t!ie fame principle with tiic Shanfcrit
conjugations, even in the minutcft particular ; of which in-
ftances occur in many verbs, which foi'm from a root a new
verb by adding the fyllable mi, and doubling the firft confo-
rant. In forming the pad tenfe, the Shanfcrit applies a
fyllabic augm.ent, like the Greek ; and the future is charac-
terikd by a letter analogous to that of the fame teufe in the
Greek, omitting the reduplicatio : of the firll confonant.
Nor, indeed, is the reduplication of the firft confonant always
applied to tiie prefent tehfcsof the Shanfcrit, any more than
to thofe of the Greek. It is obferved, that the natural fim-
plicity and elegance of many of the Afiatic languages are
very much debated and conupted by the continual abufe of
auxiliary verbs ; and this inconvenience has evidently affefted
the Pcrfian, the Hindoftan, and the Bengal idioms. The
infinitives of verbs, in the Shanfcrit and Bengalcfe, are al-
ways ufed as fubftantive nouns ; and a iimilar mode of fig-
nification often occurs in the Greek In the Shanfcrit lan-
guage, as well as in the Greek, certain forms of infinitives
and of participles comprehend time ; and there are alfo other
branches of the verb that feem to refemble the gerunds and
fupines of the Latin. All the terms which ferve to qualify,
to dillinguifh, or to augment, either " fubftance" or "adion,"
are clatftd by the Shanfcrit grammarians under one head ;
and the word ufed to cxprtfs it literally fignifies increafe or
addition. According to their arrangement, a fimple fentence
conflfts of three members, viz. the agent, the aftion, and the
fubjeft : which, in a grammatical fenfe, are reduced to two,
viz. the noun and the verb. They ufe a particular word for
fpecifying fuch terms as amplify the noun, which imports
quahty, and correfponds to our adjeftives or epithets. Such
as arc applied to denote relation or connexion, are expreffed
by another term, which may be tranflated " prepofition."
The fimple adjeftives in Bengalefe have no variation of gender,
cafe, or number; neither is the adjeftive fubjecl to infleftion,
but the fign of the cafe is confined to the fubftantive, with
which it agrees ; and its form is confined to the Angular
number, even when joined to a plural noun. But thofe de-
rivativeattributes, which are alternately adjeftivfs and concrete
nouns, generally preferve the diftindlions of gender, which
they all poffefs in the Shanfcrit. Prepofitions are fubftitutcs
for cafes, which could not have been extended to the number
neceflary for expreffing all the feveral relations and predica-
ments in which a noun may be found, without oecafioning
too much embarraffment in the form of a declenfion ; thefe
in the Greek language are too few, and hence refults great
inconvenience. The Latin, which is lefs polilhed than the
Greek, bears a nearer refembiance to the Shanfcrit, in words,
inflcftions, and terminations.

The Bengalefe method of computation, among the mer-
chants, for the largeft fums is by " fours ;" derived pro-
bably from the original mode of numbering by the fingers.

To this day the Bengalefe reckon by the joints of their
fingers, beginning with the lower joint of the little finger,
and proceeding to the thumb, the value of which is alfo in-
cluded as a joint; and thus the whole hand contains 15.
From this method of performing numeration on the joints,
arifes that well known cuilom among the Indian merchants
of fettling all' matters of purcbafe and fale by joining their

BEN

hands beneatTi a cloth, and then touching the different joint's,
as they would increafe or diminish their demand. See Ba-
nians.

It is a peculiarity in the Bengalefe computation, that the
ninth numeral of every ferits of ten is not fpecified bv the
term of nine, in the ccmmoa order of progrefiiun, but takes
its appellation from the feries immediately above it , as
twenty-nine is not expreffed in our manner, or by what we
fliould conceive to be its proper denomination, but by a term
denoting one lefs tiian thirty.

The Shanfcrit language, befides other advantages, has a
great variety in the m de of arrangement ; and the words
are fo compafted together, that every fentence appears like
one complete word. When two or more words com^ toge-
ther " in regimine," the lail of them only hr\s tlie termination
of a cafe ; the others are known by their pufition ; and the
whole fentence, fo connedled, forms but one compound word,
wlilcli is called a " foot."

For further particulars relating to the language of
Bengal, its grammatical conftrudlion, and the method of
acquiring it, we muft refer to Rallied, ubi fupra.

The verfts of the Bengalefe are regulated by accent, and
by the number of lyllables in a line ; no regard whatever
being paid to quantity, but as it coincides with accent.
Their poems, like thofe of the Arabians and Perfians, are in
rhyme ; and the Bengal poets have many rules for contradt-
ing fuch words as are too Long, and for extending thofe that are
too {hort, for their metre. The Bengal meafures are alto-
gether borrowed from the Shanfcrit, and may be divided
into three fpecies ; viz. heroic, lyric, and elegiac.

In mufic, the Bengalefe always ufe the minor key, and their
gamut proceeds by the very fmalleil intervals of the chromatic
fcale. They have no idea of counterpoint, and always play
or fing in unifon or oftaves.

The natives of Bengal write with a flender and tough
reed, very common in all the eaft, which they (hape almoft
like an European pen. They write with the hand clofed, in
which they hold the pen as the Chinefe do their writing-pen-
cil, prefling it againll the ball of the thumb with the tip of
the middle finger. The nib or point of the pen is turned
downwards towards the wrift ; while the thumb pointing up-
wards, and lying- on the pen with its whole length, keeps it
firm againfl the middle joint of the fore-finger. As they
have neither chairs nor tables, they fit upon their heels, or
fometimes on their hams, whilft they are writing ; and their
left hand, held open, ferves as a de(l< on which to lay the paper
on which they write, which is kept in its place by the thumb.

BENGALENSIS, in Conchology, a fpecies of Venus, de-
fcribedby Lifter. The ftiell is orbicular, fomewhat equila-
teral, with thick perpendicular ftrias ; and the beaks turned
back. Inhabits Bengal.

Bengalemsis, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Vultur,
found in Bengal. It is of a brown colour, with the head and
fore part of the neck bare of feathers, and pale chefnut; bill
lead colour, black at the tip. Latham. Gmelin.

Bengalensis, a fpecies of Otis, called by G.£dwards
the Indian Bujlard. The colour is black ; fpace round the
eyes brown ; back, rump, and tail, fhining brown. Gmelin.
Inhabits Bengal, and is ^out twenty-three inches in length.
Brifon calls this Pluviahs Benghaltnfis major; and Buffbn,
Churge on outarde m.oyenne des Indes. The beak and legs
are whitilh, tail ftreaked, and fpotted with black. Edwarda
copied this bird from a drawing, and it does not appear that
a fpecimen of it is known in any cabinet.

Bengalens.'s, a fpecies of Rallus, of a white colour^
with the head and neck black ; wings and back greenifli,
primary quill feathers fpotted with red. Gmelic, This is

the

BEN

the Bengal water-rail of Albin; Totanus Benghakrf.suf Bnf-
fon ; and Chevalier vert of Biiffon. The bill, uiJes, and
legs are yellow ; crown, area of the eyes, lower part of the
back and body beneath white, temples and throat black
brown ; primary quill feathers purple, fecondanes green ;
tail purple, with fulvous fpots. ^ ,,. , „ , • u

BENGALLA, in Geography, a city of Hiiidoftan, which
txifted during the early part of the 17th centuiT, near the
caitern mouth of the Ganges, but of which no traces now
remain. ,

BENGASI, or Berniche, a fca-port town on thecoa.t
of Africa, in the Mediterranean. The merchants of this
place ufually join the caravan from Cairo at Augela in their
way to Mourzouk, the capital of Fezxan, and import
tobacco, manufaaured for chcving, and Inuff, and fundry
^vares fabricated in Turkey. N.lat. 32" lo'. E. long. 20 .
This town is faid to be the ancient Berenice, built by Pto-
lemy Philadelphi'.s. .

BENGEVAI, a town of Perfia, 111 the province oi be-
gellan, 75 milcslouth of Zareng.

BENGHUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Cabul ; ^2 miles nortii of Cabul.

BENGLO, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of
Perth, the higheft point of which is faid to be 3724 tect
above the level of tlie fea; 5 miles N. E. of Blair Athol.

BENGO, or Benga, a province of the kingdom of An-
gola ill Africa, ikuate along the river of its name, but more
commonly known by that of Zenxa. It has the fea on the
weft, and the province of Mofcche on the eaft. The Portu-
g.iefc have cultivated large trads of land in this province,
which now abounds with maize and manioc root, with which
they make their bread. It produces alfo plenty of banana
and bacova trees. It is divided into fcveral diftricts, of which
the chiefs are natives, though tributary to Portugal The
inhabitants are ChrilHans, and have eight churches.

BENGORE Head, a cape of Ireland, on the north
coaft of the county of Antrim, lo miles N. E. of Coieraine.
N.lat. 55" 15'. W. long. 6° 19'.

BENGUELA, a province of Angola in Africa, retain-
inir the name of a kingdom, bounded on the call by the river
Rimba, or Cumani, on the north by the Coanza, and Culogi,
at about 10° 51' S. kt. and reaching wtftward quite to cape
Negro, according to the generality of geograpliers. But
M. de Lille extends it no farther north than old iienguela, in
0° 54'. and, according to him, it is bounded on the eail by
the Giaga Cafangi, or Giagan chief, and on the fouth he
places tU province ot Ohila, between the Hottentots and Ben-
gutlas, wiiich trad is moftly inhabited by fuch favage nations
as the Caffres and Giagas. Benguela was formerly governed
by its own kings ; and moil parts of the kingdom were fer-
tile and populous ; but it fuffcred fo much from the iiicur-
fions of the Giagas, and its wars with neighbouring Hates,
that, witu the proleaioi wf the Portugucfe, they have not
been able to recover th^ir importance. Its valuable pro-
ductions are fimilar to thole of Angola and Congo ; and from
the humidity of the foil they have two fruit fcafons in the
year. It fuinifhci likewife a confidcrable quantity of fait,
thou:;h of inferior quality to that of ChilTama. The Zim-
bi?, whofe Ihells are current as money through feveral parts
of Africa, are caught upon its coait, and pafs in payment
titlier by weight or meafure. 'J'he countr;-, being mollly
n-.c-uiitaincus, fwarm» with wild bcffts, fuch as rhinocc-
yofes, tlephai.ts, and wild mules. The lu^ns, tigers, cro-
codiles, and other carniverous animals, dellroy great num-
bers of their cattle. Thiir f.-itile plaini towards the fea-fide
formerly produced numcroiis he:d3 of cattle, both fmall and
great, but they are now become very fcarce. The air of the

BEN

country is fo unwliolefom.e as to affe£l its produce, and taint
even its waters. Few Europeans have, therefore, ventured
to vifit it, fo that it remahis in a great degree unknown.
The chief towns are Old Benguela, St. Philip, or New Ben-
guela, Mankikondo, and Kafchil. The commerce of flavei
is fo prevalent in this province, that the natives will fell their
relations or children from mere wantonntfs.

B ENGL- NLA, OW, a town of Africa, in a province fo called,
fouth of a bay of the fame name, near the Atlantic ocean.
The town is fcated on a high mountain, where large beeves,
(heep, poultr)', and other provifions, have been fold in great
plenty, together with elepliant's teeth ; all which the inhabi-
tants have bartered for inuikets, and otlier fire-arms. S. lat.
11° 5'. E. long. II'' 30'.

Benguela, New, or St. Philip, a town in the pro-
vince of Benguela, fcated on the fouth of a large bay,
about 1 leagues long and i broad, called by the Portu-
guefe " Bahias-das-\ accas," where they have a fcttlement
and a fort, with a fraall garrifon. S. kt. 12"^ 8'. E. long.
12° 20'.

BENHADAD, or the Son of Adad, in Scripture Hif-
tory, the name of fevcial kings of Syria. Benhadad 1. was
the fon of Tabrimon, and began his reign about the year
940 B. C. He was induced by coftly prelents to afiift Afa,
king of Judah, againlt Baalha, king of Ifrael, whom he
obliged to return to the fuccour of his own countr)-, and
to abandon Ramah, which he had undertaken to fortify.
I Kings, XV. 18, &c. Benhadad II. was the fon of the pre-
ccdincr, and his acccfGon to the throne ot Syria is ilated to
have taken place about the year goi B.C. In his war
againlt Ahab, king of Ifrael, he was totally defeated ; and
in the following year, renewing his attack upon the Ifraelites,
in the plain of Aphek, he loll a great part of his army, and
was reduced to the neceflity of fubmitting to the mercy of
Ahab, by whom he was treated kindly, and allowed to re-
turn peaceably into his own countr)'. In a new war for the
recovery of Ramoth-Gilead, the poffefllon of which was re-
tained by Benhadad, Ahab, joined by Jeholhapliat, king
of Judah, marched againft the Syrians, and a battle enfued,
in which Naaman was the general of the Syrian army, and
Ahab loft his life. Benhadad having afterwards laid fiege
to Samaria, and failing in his attempts to reduce it, fell fick,
and fent Hazael his miniftcr, to the prophet Elifha, with
prefents, in order to coniult him concerning the iiTue of his
diforder. Hazael, on his return to Damafcus, informed
Benhadad that his health would be reilored ; but Elifha
having predicted that Hazael would fucceed to the throne
of Ifrael, the miniller accomphllied the prtdiiSlion by ftifling
Benhadad with a wet towel. Benhadad was reckoned a
great prince, who contributed to advance the glory of his
country, and his memory received divine honours in Syria.
I and 2 Kings. Jofephus Ant. 1. viii. and ix. Benhadiidlll.
fucceeded his father Hazael on the throne of Syria, in the
year 836 B. C. After having been feveral times defeated by
Joalli, king of Ifrael, he was expelled from all his father'?
conqucfts. 2 Kings. Jof. Ant. 1. ix.

BEN-HINNON, or Geh-hinnon, the valley of the
children of Hinnon, lay in the foulh-eaft fubuibs of Jerufa-
1cm. See Gehenna.

BENI, Paul, m Biography, a learned writer, was born
in Candia, about the year 1552, and educated at Eugubio
in the duchy of Uibino. In early life he entered among the
jefuits, but afterviards quitted them. He was for fome
time profeflo- of theology at the college of Sapienza at
Rome ; of philofophy, at Perugia ; and of rhetoric and
belles lettres, in the univerfity of Padua, from IJ99 to the
time of his death in 1625. He was more lively than judi-
cious :

BEN

clous ; fond of maintaining Angular opinions, and mucli en-
gaged in literary controverfies. He attacked the diftionary
of La Crufca, in a work entitled " Anti-Crufca, &c." and
defended Taflbiwhom, witli Ariollo, he preferred to Horace
and Virgil. He alfo wrote on the pallor-lido of Gnarini.
All thefe works were written in Italian. The mod coufider-
able of his Latin produftions are, " Commentaries on the
poetry and rhetoric of Ariftotle," Venice, fol. 1625 ; " A
poetic and rhetoric, extracted from the works of Plato ;"
" Commentaries on the fix firft hooks of Virgil, and on Sal-
luft;" " Difpiit. de an:;al. Eccl. Card. Baronii ;" and " De
Hilloria Scribenda," hb. iv. Ven. 161 1, 4to. AH his works
were printed at Venice, in 5 vols. fol. Gtn. Diil. Noiiv.
Dia. Hift.

BENI ^mmer, in Geography, a dillritl of the wertern
province of Algiers, about N. lat. 7,^^ 45'. E. long.
0° 50'.

Ben I Ara-zid, one of the eighteen provinces into which
the Turks divided Algiers, fo c.iUcd from its capital.

Beni AJfer, a town of Upper Egypt, on the call fide of
the Nile ; 2 miles north of Afna, or Efneh.

Beni Hnjfan, a town of Egypt, on the eaft fide of the
Nile, remarkable for its grottoes, dug Iji the mountains,
which were formerly temples ; 6 miles north of Achmou-
nain.

Beni Hajfen, called by Leo Africanus, Habat, a province
of Morocco, bounded to the north by the river Slamora,
and extending fouth to that of Sarrat ; 4 leagues from Ra-
bat, to the eaft, are the provinces of Fez and Tcdla, and
to the weft the ocean. This province is very extenfive, rich,
and commercial ; and produces wool of a very excellent
quality.

Beni Jehle, a town of Eg^pt, on the weft, fide of the Nile,
12 miles fouth of Achmouiiain.

Beni Hemijah, and Btni Hcuiah, two dlllrifts of the
weftem province of Algiers, bordering on the Mediterranean,
about N. lat. 36° 30'. and E. long. 2° 12'.

Beni j7/^a/-, mountains of Algiers, lying about 20 miles
fouth ot Bujeyah, or Bugia, and extending a conCderable
way along the coaft, both in length and width, being parts
of the little Atlas. They are llecp and rugged, and fur-
nifh a great number of itreams. They abound with fruit-
trees, eipecially wahiuts and figs, and produce plenty of
barley, with which the inhabitants feed their numerous heids.
The people are warHke, and have a chief of their own ; and
among them are excellent archers ; and the whole ridge hath
feveral villages, inhabited by the tribe or people whole name
it bears.

Beni Maran, a town of Egypt, 9 miles louth of Ach-
mounain.

Beni Menajfer, a diftrift of the wcftern province of Al-
giers, ..bout N. lat. 36' 30'. and E. long, z'^ 42'.

Beni Mezzab, a diftrift of the eaftern province of Al-
giers, betsveen 32° and 33" N. lat. and from 7" to 7" 30' E,
long. This diftrift is deftitute of water, except that which
they draw from wells.

Beni Midi, a diftrift of the weftern pronnce of Algiers,
N. lat. 35° 30'. E. long. 2° 12'.

Beni MiJ'ur, a town of Egypt, on the weft fide of the
Nile. 3 miles fouth of Abu Girge.

Beni Moknmltl il Kifur, a town of Egypt, weft of the
Nile, and o miles fouth of Abu Giige.

Beni PuiJIoid, a town of the weftern province of Algiers,
north of the river Shelliff and near it. N. lat. 36° 16'. E.
long. 2° 19'.

Beni Shelir, a town of Egypt ; 6miles N. W. of Manfelout.

Beni Suual, and Beni Snoufe, two adjoining diftrifts of

8

BEN

the weftern province of Algiers, on the confines of the Tell,
about 35° N. lat. and between o and 1° E. long.

Beni Zeneje!, anciently Hi-rftdilan'', a diftrift of the wef-
tern province of Algiers to the north of the Montes Chalco-
lygii, and eaft of the river Malva, or Muilooiah, about 34'
54' N. lat. and o^ 30' W. long.

Beni Ztrivall, a branch of mount Atlas, in the weftem
province of Algiers.

BENJA, a river on the coaft of Africa, 3 leagues E. N. E.
from Ampenie, and E. from Comn-.enda.

BENJAMIN, in Biography, the youngeft fon of Jacob by
Rachel, and one of the twelve patriarchs of Ifrael. He was
the objcftof his father's pecilhar affeftion, and reluftaitiv per-
mitted to accompany his brethr..n to Egypt, when his return
with them was made by Jofcph the condition of their receiv-
ing a fupply of corn. Jofeph, wl.o was his only brother by
both parents, treated him kindly, and contri\ei a pretext
for detaining him in Egypt, but he afterwards, when he dif-
olofed liimfclf, permitted him to return to his aged father.
The tribe of Benjamin, which formed part of Judea, properly
fo called, lay between the tribes cf Judali and Jofeph, contigu-
ous to Samaria on the north, to Judah on the fouth, and to
Dan on the wcit, which laft parted it from the Mediten-aneau.
It had not many cities and towns, but this defect was fup-
plied by its poffefling the moft confiderable, and the metro-
polls ot all, the celebrated city of Jerufalem. The other
cities were Jericho, Gibeon, Bethel, Gibeah, Hai, Gilgal,
Anathoth, Nebo ; to which may be added the two noted
villages of Bethany and Ge'.hfemane. This tribe was at
length almoft exterminated by the others, in revenge of the
violence offered to tlie concubine of a Levite, in the city of
Gibeah. Genefia, Joftiua, Judges.

Benjamin of Tudela, a city of Navarre, a Jewifh rabbi,
flouriflicd in the 12th century. Poireffed of a fuperftitious
veneration for the law of Mcfes, and folicitous to vifit his
countrymen in the eaft, whom he hoped to find in fuch a
ftate of power and opulence as might redound to the honour
of his feft,he fetout from Spain in the year j 1 60, and travelling
by land to Conftantinople, proceeded through the countries
to the north of the Euxine and Cafpian feas, as far as Chi-
nefe Tartary. From thence he took his route towards the
fouth, and atter traverfing various provinces of the farther
India, he embarked on the Indian ocean, vifited feveral of
its iflands, and returned, at the end of 13 years, bv the way
of Egypt, to Europe, with much information concerning a
large dillrift of the globe, altogether unknown at that time
to the weftern world. He died in i 173, not long after his
return from his travels. His " Itinerary" contains a nar-
ration of his travels, intermixed with many fabulous accounts,
that ferve to raife the credit of his nation. Cafpar Oudin,
however, (Comment, de Script. Ecclel. torn. ii. col. 1524.
Lipf. 1722.) reprefents him as a man of fagacity and judg-
ment, and well Ik Hied in the facred laws; and fays that his
obfervations and accounts have been found upoa examina-
tion to be generally exaft, and that the author was remark-
able for his love of truth. The tirft edition of the Itinerary
appeared at Conftantinople in 1543, with a tranllation from
the Hebrew into Latin, by Benedift Arias Montanus ; and
it was printed by Plantin, at Antwerp, in 1575, 8vo. It
was afterwards tranftated by the emperor Conilantine, and
his verfion was printed at Leydcn, by Elzevir, in 1633,
8vo. A French tranllation of it was publifhed by John Philip
Baiatier, in 1 734, 2 vols. 8vo. Kobenfon's Araericaj
vol. i. p. 45. Gen. Dift.

Benj.4Min Tree, in Botany. See Laurus,
Benjamin, in Pharmacy. See Benzo'n.
BENJAR rh<«r, in Qeo^raphy. See BENDERMAssfw.

BENI

BEN

CENIBOURD, a mountain of tlic HigWands of Scot-
lami, probably higher than Caringorm, wliich is 4060 feet.

I5ENICARLOS, a town of Spain, in Valencia, cele-
brated for the wine made ia its neighbourhood ; 3 miles
north of Penhifcola,

BENIDORME, Maun/ and dipt, lie about b. b.W.
from cape St. Martin, on the fouth point of Altca bay, pro-
jecting eaftward from the town, which gives it name; to the
fouth of which ia the ifland Bcnidorme, 2 miles ofT ; at the
north-caft end of Alicant bay, on the eail coall of Spam, in
the Mediterranean.

BENIFAJO, a town of Spain in Valencia ; 5 leagues
from Valencia.

BENILET, a town of Afia, in the Arabian Irak. ; 145
miles N. W. of Baffora.

BENIMERINI, the denomination of an African dynafty,
which fucceeded that of the Almohedes, which fee.

BENIN, an extenfive kingdom of weft Africa, compre-
hending the (lave coall, bounded on the well by Guinea pro-
per, or, more particularly, the Gold coaft ; on the north by
Gago, Nigritia, and a chain of mountains ; on the call by
Mujaac and Makoko, and part of Congo, with the Ethiopia
ocean, on the fouth, where it extends about one degree be-
vond the eqninoftial line. It is commonly divided into three
parts, viz. Whydah and Ardah, containing the Slave coaft,
and Benin proper, which has the fame boundaries with the
former on the north, call, and fouth, and is terminated on
the well by part of the gulf of Guiiiea and the Slave coaft.
its extent from weft to eaft is about 600 miles, but from
north to fouth it is not afcertained. From the river Lagos,
where it commences, its coaft forms a g\df or bight,
ending at cape Lopez, in which are the trading places, or
villages, feated on fevcral rivers, of Benin, Bonny, Old and
New Calabar, Camaron, and Gabon. Benin is watered by
fevcral ftreams, of which fome are confiderable rivers. To-
wards the fea-coaft the laud is low and marfliy, and of courfe
the climate unhealthy ; but at a greater diftance from the
fea the land rifes, and the air is more pure. In fome diftrids
of the country, water ii fo fcarce, that often travellers are
fupplied with it for money by officers, to whofe department
it belong?. The rivers teem with crocodiles, fea-horfes, a
particular fpecies of torpedo, and various kinds of excellent
ijfh. The country abounds with elephants, tigers, leopards,
wild boars, afTes, civet and mountain-cats, horfes, hares,
and hairy (heep ; and among its birds the principal are paro-
quets, pigeons, partridges, ftorks, and ollriches. The foil
is generally fertile, and produces a great variety of trees and
plants, fuch as orange, lemon, and cotton trees. The pep-
per of this countiy is not fo plentiful nor fo good as that of
the Eaft Indies. The native negroes are in general mild
and good humoured, civil to ftrangers, and yet referved,
eafily wrought upon by gentle means, but inflexible and re-
folute in rcfifting harfh treatment. In the conduct of buli-
nefs they are expert; but attached to their ancient cuftoms
and' manners, which renders them flow and tedious in their
negotiations. Honeft and faithful in their dealings, they
fcldom or ever difappoint the confidence that is repofed in
them. Their trade is carried on by a kind of brokers, called
mercadors, or fiadors, who treat with ftrangers about all
merchandize ; but all their contracts arc made with great
fecrecy, through fear of exciting the jealoufy or avarice of
their governors; and the richeft perfons exhibit the appear-
ance of poverty, in order to efcapc the rapacious hands of
their fupcriors.

The population of Benin is diftributed into three clafles
•f perfons. The firft is compofed of three perfons, called
great lords, who attend the king, and prcfent petitions to

BEN

him. Such 15 the influence of thcfe, that the fupi-eme go.
vcrnment may be faid to be lodged with them. The next
claf3 conlifts of thofe petty princes called " ares de roe," or
ftreet kings, of whom fome prefide over the commerce,
others over the flaves; fome over military affairs, and otheri
over every thing pertaining to cattle and the fruits ot the
earth. Out of thie clafs are chofcn the viceroys and gover-
nors of provinces, who are refponhble to the three great lords,
to whoie recommendation thty owe their appointment.
Each of them is prefented by the king with a ftring of coral
as a badge of office, which he is obliged always to wear
about his neck, under the penalty of degradation, and even
death. The third order confift of the fiadors, the merca-
dors, or merchants ; the fulladers, or pleaders, and the vcil-
les, or elders, all of whom are refpcftivcly diftinguidied by
fome peculiar mode of wearing the coral chain. Thelowcft
clafs is formed by the plebeians, who are generally indolent
and poor. The whole burden of labour, futh as tilling the
ground, fpiniiing cotton, weaving cloth, and even cleaning
the ftreets, is devolved upon the women. The chief work-
men are fmiths, carpenters, and leather-drefTers ; but in every
occupation of this kind they are extremely ankward and art-
lefs. The common diet of the natives is beef, mutton, or
fowls, and their bread is made of yams, beaten into a fort
of cake. The meaner perfons fubfiil on fmoked or dried fidi,
and bread made of yams, bananas and beans, mixed toge-
ther. The drink of the poor is water, and that of the richer,
water mixed with European brandy. The king, and per-
fons of rank, fupport a certain number of poor, felefted
from the blind, lame, and infirm ; the lazy, who will not
labour, are luffered to ftarve; and by this excellent police,
not a beggar or vagrant is to be feen. The natives of Benin
are diftinguiftied by their liberality ; but in the exercife of
it they are extravagantly vain and oflentatious. The drefs
of the natives is neat and ornamental ; that of the rich, in
which they appear in public, confifting of white callico, or
cotton drawers, covered with another fine piece of callico
plaited in the middle, and bound under a fcarf, the ends of
which are adorned with a handfome lace or fringe. Tiie
upper part of the body is mollly naked. The ladies of bet-
ter fafhion wear fine callico, beautifully chequered with vari-
ous colour?. The face and upper part of the body is covered
with a thin veil, and the neck adorned with a ftring and
chain of coral. Upon their arms and legs they wear bright
copper or iron bracelets, meanly wrought. T)]C perfons of
the women are not difagreeable. The children go naked till
the age of ten or twelve years ; their whole drefs, before this
period, confifting of a few ftrings of coral tied round the
waift. The men neither curl nor adorn their hair; but thty
form part of it into locks, to which they fufpend a bunch
of coral. The women drefs their hair with great art in a
variety of forms, and occaiionally apply to It a kind of nut-
oil, which deftroys its black colour, and in time changes it
into green or yellow.

The men marry as many women as their circumftanccs
allow ; but they have fcarcely any nuptial ceremonies. Jea-
loufy is very prevalent, and adultery is feverely punifh-d; but
the violation of the marriage-bed is lefs known in Benin than
in any other country. Male infants, as foon as they are born,
are prefented to the king, as rightfully belonging to him ;
but the females, being deemed the property of the father,
are left wholly to his care and difpoial. Both male and fe-
rnale children are circuracifcd, v.'hen they are about a fort-
night old ; and they are marked over their bodies with vari-
ous incifions, that expref? certain figures. In fome parts of
Benin twin births are reckoned a happy omen ; but at Aerbo,
they are reputed a bad omen, and both the twins and thoir

mother

BEN

iv.other are put to death. I'he inhabitants of Benin arc Irfs
afraiJ of death than the other natives of the fame coaft.
tiuch is their attiichmeiit to their own countiy, that thofe
who die in other provinces are pref::rved for years, till they
can be conveyed for burial to their native foil- On occafions
of mo'irniiijT, wliich is ufuaily limited to 14 or 15 davs,
fome lliave their hair, others their beard, a^d others but
half of either. The laft obfcquies of their kings are per-
formed with fome verye>:traordinai-)- ceremonies. When the
lonib-ftone is bid, they crown it with a banquet of the mod
delicRte wines and (weetmeats, of which a!i are allowed to
part:ike ; and the mob, intoxicated with liqno'-, are guilty
of the wildcft excefies and dots. Th.ofe who obftrufl them,
as men, women, children, and even b'ute animals, are piit
to death ; and having cut off their heads, they carry them to
the royal Icpulchre, and throv/ thtm in as otfering-s to the
deceafcd king, together with all the deaths and effects of
thofe whom they have facriliced to his manes. Neverthe-
lefs, amidft thefe barbarous euiloms, the kingdom of Benin
is governed by laws, which breathe nothing but humanity,
and fympathy for uiisfortune and diflrefs.

As t'j the religion of this country-, it is a ftrange mixture
of good ftnfe and ablurdity. With fome jnit notions of a
Supreme Being they blend many abliird and idolatrous cere-
tiK nies. The " I'ctiiTo" is worfhipped here, as well as in
all the other countries on the wellern coail: of Africa. To
every evil they give the name of devil, and v.'ori-!-,ip him from
fear, and to prevent his doing them injury ; and thev honour
both God the Creator, and the evil fpirit, bvfacrifices and
olTerings. They are believers in apparitio'.:s ; and they con-
ceive that the gholls of their deceafed anceftors walk on the
earth, and occationally appear to them in their deep to warn
them of their danger, which they endeavour to elude by fa-
crifices. All their houfes are full of idols, and they have
particular huts or temples for the refidence of their gods.
Their priefts alfo are numerous ; and the grand, or high
priefl: of Loebo, a town feated at the month of the river
Formofa, is particularly famous for his flcill in magic, and is
never approached without the moft profound veneration and
awe. Befidcs their fabbath, a day of rtpofe which occurs
every fifth day, they have many other days appropiiated to
religious purpofcs. At fome of their fellivals, they facrifice
not only a great variety of brutes, but likewife a number of
human viftims, who are ufuaily condemned criminal?, re-
ferved for this purpofe. They have one annual feail in com-
memoration of their aticeftors; but their greate:' feltival is
that called the coral feall, on which day ?.lone the king ap-
pears to his people in great pomp, attended by 6co of liis
women. Wine and provillons are diftributtd on this occa-
fion among the people, and the day ends in gluttony, drukcn-
nefs, and riot.

The government of Benin is defpotic. The empire is
divided into a great number of petty roralties, all of which
are fubjeft to the king of Benin, whofe authority is abfolute,
and commands the moil blind and lervile obedience. The
reigning monarch,- when he apprehends his diifolution to
be approaching, commands one of his fons to fill the throne,
with an injunction, under pain of death, not to reveal the
fecret till after his death. When this happens, the de.lined
fovereign is removed to the town of Olcebo, a few miles
from Benin, the capital, where he remains for fome time to
be inllrufted in the art of government, and the duties of a
king. Upon his return, his firll care, for feciiring liis fu-
ture tranquillity, is to murder his brother?, and thus to re-
move every rival to the crown. The royal revenues are very
confiderable ; to thefe every governor contributes a large
fum ; and the inferior officers pay their taxes in cattle, fowls.

Vol. IV.

BEN

cloth, and other commodities. Certain duties art alfo laid
upon foreign trade ; befidcs the annual taxes paid to the go-
vernor for the privilege of commerce, a fi^cthof which be-
longs to the king. It is faid that the fovereign of Benin is
fo powerful a prince, that, in one day, he can afiemble an
army of 20,cco m.en, and in a few dajs more 100,000. His
troop?, however, are dc/titute of courage and conduft, and
ohfcrve neither order nor difcipline ; and, indeed, are merely
a cowardly tumultuous rabble, which leave him expofcd M
I lie incurfions of pirates and robbers, that are fuffered to
pillage and deftroy, and fomctimes to advance even to the
cap:tal. The arms ufed by them are fvvords, poiiiards, ja-
velins, bows, and poifoned arrows.

The capital of this kingdom is Benin. The other princi-
pal tawns, or rather villages, are Bododo, Arcbo, Agatton,
Awerri, and Meiberg.

All the llavts purchafed on this part of the African coaft,
except a tribe dillinguifhed by the name of " Mocoes," are
called in the Weft Indies " Eboes," probably from Arebo,
on the river Benin, 'in language they differ both from the
Gold coaft Negroes, and thofe of Whydah, and m fome re-
Ipeils from each other ; and in complexion they are muck
more yellow than the others ; but their colour is a fickly hue,
and tlieir eyes appear as if fuffufed with bile, even when they
are in perfect health. Thefe Eboes appear, in general, to be
the loweft and the moft wretched of all the nations of Africa.
The rreat objection to them as (laves is, their conftitutional
timidity, and defpondency of mind ; which lead them very
frequently to feek, in a voluntar)- death, a refuge from their
own me!ancl;o!y reflections. They require, therefore, the
g:entleft and mildeft treatment to reconcile them to their fitna-
tion ; but if their confidence be once gained, they manifell
as great fidelity, affection, and gratitude, as can reafonablr
be expected from men in a ftate of fiavery. The females tif
this nation are better labourers than the men, probably froni
having been more hardly treated in Africa. Thefe Eboes,
notwithftanding the dcprefilon and timidity which they ma-
nifcft, on their lirft arrival in tlie Weft Indies, and which
give them an air of foftnefs and fubmifnjr, forming a link-
ing contrail to the frank and fearlel's temper of the Koroman-
tyn Negroes, are in reahty more favage than the people of
the Gold coaft ; infomuch, that many tribes among them,
and efpecia'dy the Mocos tribe, have been accuftomed to the
ftiGcking practice of feeding on human flefti. In their religi-
ous worfn!p,they adore certain reptiles, of which the guana,
a fpecics of l:/ard, is in the liigheft eftimation, and in the wor-
lliip of this animal, it is faid, thst th.cy offer human facrifices.
Mod. Un.Hift.vol. xiii. p. 272, &c. Edwards' Hift. Weft
lad. vol. ii. p. 75.

BtNiN,acity oi Airica.and capitalof the kingdom above
defcrlbed. It is pleafmtly feated on the river Benin, or For-
mofa, about 69 miles fro.m Agaiton, at the mouth of the river,
and is faid to be 4 n'.ilcs in circumference, aud to contain ^o
long, broad, ar.d ftraight ftreets of low houfes. The ilrccts are
adorned with a variety of '.hops filled w-ith European wares,
as well as the commodities ot the countiy, fuch as cattle,
cotton, and elephants' teeth. In their markets they expofe
to fale, for food, dog«, of which the Negroes are fond ; and
alfo roaH ed monkies, apes, and baboons. Bats, rats, lizards
dried in tlie fun, palm-wine, and fruit, form the moll luxu-
rious entertainment, and lland always expofed to fale in tlie
ftreets. As the country affords no ilone, the houfes arc built
with mud and clay, covered with reeds or ftraw ; and they
are feparated from one another by chafms and ruins, that
indicate its decay. Tiie entrance into the city io bv a ^ate
of wood, which is defended by a bailion of mud and earth :
apd it is furrounded by a deep ditch 40 feet wide. A guard

C c is

BEN

is ftationed at this gate to receive the tolls, duties, and im-
polts colltfted from the merchandize. None but natives are
permitted to live in the city ; and of thefe fomc are wealthy,
and cp.rry on an cxtenfive trade, which is committed to tluir
wives, who fjo to all the circumjacent villages, and trafTick
in all forts of merchandize, and who arc obliged to bring the
greateft part of their gains to their hulbands. A principal
part of tile city is occupied by the royal palace, which is
more dilHnguirn.-d bv the extent of its dimenlions tlian by the
commoJioiUncls or elegance of the ftrnclure. All the male
ilavtsin this town arc foreigners ; for the inhabitants cannot
lie lold for flavcs, and only bear the name of the king's
flavcs. This is one of the European marts for the purchafe
of llavtf. N. lat. 6^ lo'. E.long. f 6'.

Benin, River of, called by Juan Alfonfo de Aveiro, a
Portugueic, who is laid to have firft difcovercd the coun-
try, Formofa, on account of the verdure and beauty of its
banks ; a conliderable river of Africa, in the kingdom of Be-
nin. It divides itfclf into feveral bra:ichts ; and has fome
towns or villages on its banks, in which Europeans, and par-
ticularly the Dutch, carry on a commerce. Notvvithllanding
the beauty of its adjacent fccnery, the air is noxious and
peililential on account of the vapours exhaled by the fun's
heat from its mardiy banks ; and it is much infcfted by the
molquito flies. 'J''he entrance iitto this river is in N. lat. 6°
38', and E. long. 4° 47'.

BENISH Days, among the Egyptians, a term for three
days of the week, which are dayo of lefs ceremony in reli-
gion than the other four, and have their name from the
benijh, a garment of common ufe, not of ceremony. In
Cairo, on Sundays, Tuefdays, and Tliurfdays, (luy go to the
balhaw's divan ; and thefe arc the general days of Dulinefs.
Fridays they ftay at home, and go to their mofques at noon ;
but though this is their day of devotion, they never abftain
from bulinefs. The three other days of the week are the
benidi days, in which they throw olT all bulinefs and cere-
mony, and go to their little fummer-houfes in the country.

BENISOUEF, in Geography., a town of Egypt, on the
well fide of the Nile. According to Savary, it is half a
league in circumference ; and Sonnini fays, that of all the
places fituatcd along the Nile, from Cairo, or for the fpace
of more than 30 leagues, this is the largeft, as well as the
mod affluent. The houfes are only cottages of brick and
earth, coarfcly conftrufted ; but the lofty minarets, vying in
hSight with the furroundingdate-trecs, anddifcovered through
their higheft branches, prefent an agreeable objeft to the
view. A manufacture of coarle carpets renders this a com-
mercial town ; and the adjacent plains are fertile and pro-
duftive, fo that the people who cultivate them appear lefs
diftreffed and wretched than thofe who live near the capi-
tal. Benifouef is the refidence of a bey, or, in his abfence,
of \ kiafchef, who levies with an armed force his arbitrary
tributes Over againll Benifouef Hands the village of
" Baiad," partly inhabited by Copts ; and on the fame fide
of the river, and at the dillance of 3 leagues, is " Bcbt," a
large village, the refidence of a kiafchef, wluire are a mofq'ic
ana a convent of Copts. Benifouef lies in N. lat. 29"^ 14'.
E. long. 30° 5S'.

BENI TO, St. a fmall idand of the north Pacific ocean,
on the north-weft coaft of America, furiounded with rocks
and iflets. N. lat. 27=" 41'. E. long. 244" 3S'.

Benito, Si. or Suliennct, a river of Benin, in Africa,
that difcharges itfclf 7 leagues S.by W. fiom the bight of
Biafra, and on the fouth fide of the river Campo, into the
gulf of Guinea. On the north fide of this river Hands a
great hill, called the Havburn. N. lat. 1° 45'. E. Ion"'.
8° 10'.

BEN

BENIVIENI, GiROLAMo, in Biography, ^^as bom at
Florence, in 1452, and contributed, under the aufpices of
I^orenzo de Medici, to reclaim the Italian poetry from its
mean and trivial ftate, and to renew the fiyle and manner of
Dante and Petrarch. The principal topic of Beniviem was
divine love, which he clothed with the lentiments of Plato-
nifm, and thus obfcuved the poetical beauties of his works
by myllicirm. He was efteemed on account of his integrity
and virtue, and employed by Pico, prince of Mirandola, as
his almoner. He died at Florence in 15^' 2, and was buried
in the fame tomb with his friend Pico. His works were
printed at Florence in 1500, and again with additions in
1519. Nouv. Did. Hift.

BENLAWERS, in Geography, a lofty mountain, being,
the chief fummit of the Grampian chain, near Kenmore, ia
Perthfliire, Scotland. One of its fidcb rifes from the banks
of the Tay, and afTuniing a conical (liape, elevates its fum-
mit about 4015 feet above the level of the Tea.

BENLOJA, in Ichthyohjgy, tlie name by which the
Swedes call the common Ileal:, cyprinns alburmts of Linnjeus.
BENLOMOND, in Geography, a mountain of Scotland,
fituated in the parifn of Buchannan, in Dumbartonfhire.
Though not fo lofty asBennevis orBenlawers,yet its infulated.
fitnation with refpedl to the neighbouring hills, and broad lake
of Loch Lomond fpreading at its bafe, give it great magnitude
and grandeur. It is computed to be 3260 feet above the
level of the fea, and 3240 from the furface of the lake. The
form it afFumes nearly refembks a truncated cone, and its
fides, particularly towards the lake, are finely mantled with
natural woods. Its north fide is exceedingly ftecp, but on
the fouth-weft it may be eafily afcendtd. On the north-eaft
fide is the fource of tlie river Forth, which, like moft moun-
tain dreams, foon becomes a rapid river, and is alternately
feen expanding into a lake, or darting over fome craggy pre-
cipices. Benlomond is mollly compofed of granite, inter-
fperfed with large mafics of quart/, and near the bafe are
large itrata of micaceous fchilhis, fome of which is alfo
found at the top of the mountain. Sinclair's Staciftical Ac-
count of Scotland.

BENNA, in BrUiJh Antiquily, a kind of carriage, which
was ufed for travelling rather than for war. It contained
two or more perfons, who were called " Combennones,"
from their fitting together in this macliine. The name was
probably derived from the Britidi word " Ben," or pen,
which figiiifitrs head, or shief ; and thtfe carriages might,
perhaps, have got this appellation from the high rank of
the perfons who ufed them.

BEMNAVENNA, or Bans'Avanto, in Ancient Geogro'
phy, a town of Britain in the itinerary of Antonine, placed
by Camden, Gale, and Stukely, at Weedoii, a village fix
miles weft of Northampton, but by Mr. Horlley, for reafons
which he has Hated, and which fcem to be fatisfadlory, at
or near Daventry.

BENNECKSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and county of Klettenberg, 22 miles
S.S.W. of Halberlladt.

BENNECUM, in Geography, a town of Guelderland, 2
miles north of Wageningeu.

BENNET, Christopher, \r\ Blograj>hy, was born at
Raynton, in Somerfetlhire, about the year 1617. After the
ufual fchool education, he was entered at Lincoln college,
Oxford, in the year 1632, where he proceeded bachelor, an J
then niafter of arts, but feems to have acquired his knowledge
of medicnie at Leyden, or foine other univcrfity, where he
took his degree of dodor. He then came to London, was
admitted fellow of the college of phyficians, and appears to
have had a confidcrable (hare of reputation and pradice. In

1696,

BEN

1696, lie publiflied " Theatrum tabidorum, feu pbthifcos,
atfophiae, et heftics, xenodochium," Svo. London: a work
of learning and ingenuity, but abllrufe and theoretical. He
made a number of curious experiments to difcovcr the qua-
lities of the blood in phthilical patients. He had feen dif-
eafcs of the breall, he fays, relieved by difcharges from the
legs ; and on th.e other hand, plithifical complaints occali-
oned by fuppreffing haemorrhage from the nollrils. He ob-
ferves, that conlumption not unfreqiiently occurs in Eng-
land, unattended with afftftionsof tlie lungs. The work has
been tranflated into moft of the modern languages, and
pafTed thr;ing'ii numerous editions, tliough now almoft for-
gotten. He alfo republillied, with obfervations, Ivloufct's
treatife, called " Health's Improvemtnt." He died tabid,
in Ap:'il 1655, ^"'i probably had been induced to employ
fo much of his time and labour in acquiring a kiiowledgt of
the difeafe from isis own fulftrings. Hallcr. Bil>. Med. Pradl.
Benset, Henry, earl of Arlington, an eminent Itatef-
man, and favourite miuiller of king Charles H. was born of
a good family in the county of MiJdlefcx, in 161S, edu-
cated at Chrift-church college, in tlie univerfity of O;;ford,
where he diftiiiguilhed himfelf by his appliu-ation, and by his
turn for Englilh poetry ; and upon the king'* coming to
Oxford, at the breaking out of the civil war, entered him-
felf into his fervice, both as a volunteer in the royal army, and
as privste fecretary to lord Digby, fccretary of Hate. Upon
the failure of the royal caule, he went over to the continent,
and became fecretary to the duke of York, and pofiefled the
full conlidence and efteem of the royal family. In 165S, he
received the honour of knighthood from Cliarles H. and was
fent by him in the quality of his rainiflcr to the court of Ma-
drid. Soon alter the king's reftoration, fir Henry Bennet was
recalled from Madrid, and in 1662, promoted to the office
of fecretary of ftate. In 1664, he was created baron of Ar-
lington, and at that time was confidered as the king's chief
minifter and favoured lervant. He is fuppofcd to have been
at the head of the party who procured the fall of the chan-
cellor Clarendon. The conduifl of foreign affairs was chiefly
CHtrufted to him, and he had a great fliare in the firft
Dutch war. About this time \\k introduced Mr. (after-
wards fir) Wm. Temple, into public employment. He formed '
one of the principal charafters in the miniftry of that period,
diilinguilhed by the appellation of the enla/. From the
coUeftion of letters, publifhed by John Dalrymple, it ap-
pears, that lord Arlington was one of the commiffioners,
who, in 1670, concluded and figntd at Dover, with Monf.
Colbert, the French ambaffador, a fecret league between
Charles II. of England, and Lewis XIV. of France ; by
which Charles agreed to declare himfelf a Roman catholic,
and to engage in a war for the deftruilion ot the United
Provinces. By one article of this treaty it was ftipulated,
that his mcft Chriftian majefty was to furnilh the king of
England, before he declared himfelf a catholic, with the
fum of 2OO,00ol. Iterling. In conuderation probably of
this fervice, however reproachful to thofe who conduced it,
and degrading to the king their mafter, and as a recompence
for other miniiterial duties, lord Arlington was raifed, in
1672, to the dignity of earl of Arlington, and vifcount Thet-
ford, and decorated with the order of the gaiter. In 1 674,
his conduct, and that of his colleagues in office, fell under
the fufpicion of the commons ; and an impeachment was
moved againft him, which he efcaped by a fmall majority.
In that year he exchanged the office of fecretary of ftate for
the lefs refponfiblc, and merely honorary one, of lord cham-
berlain : and foon after he was deputed, with two other com-
miflioners, on bufinefs of importance to the prince of Orange;
but not Succeeding in the condutt of it, his inteieft at court

BEN

declined. Tliis was partly owing to his alTjacd zeal againft
popery, though he had been always regarded as a fecret
friend to the popifli party, and wa=i in reality a convert to
that religion. He retained, however, in outward appear-
ance, the favour of the king ; and after the acctfiion of
James II. who had no afFection for Iwm, he retained the of-
fice of chamberlain. He died in July, iCi'j, having pre-
vloufly, on his death-bed, as it is faid, reconciled himftlf to
the church of Rome. By his wife, who v.as daug'itcr of
Lewis de Nadau, lord of Beverwaert in Holland, he^left one
daughter, married to the earl of Eufton, afterwards duke-
of Grafton, natural fon of Charles 11.

" The character of lord Arlingt.m fcems to have been
that of a thorough coiirtier ; accommodating, eafy, artful,
with the habits of pu.()-c bufinefs, rather than cxtenfive abi-
lities, and the moderation of timidity rather than the le-
ilraint of principle. He jsad liule kiiowkdge of the Eng-
lifii ccnftitution, and Icfs regard to it ; but iie wanted firui-
ncis and refolution to take the lead in arhilrarj- meafures.
His public letters, wlun fecretar)-, were publiflied in I7ai,
2 vols. 8vo." Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Bennet, Thomas, an eminent divine of the church of
England, was born in the city of Salifbury in 1673, a:.d
fent for completing liis education to St. John's college, Cam-
bridge, in the beginning of the year 16S8. Before he had
attained the age -of 21 years, he took the degrees of bache-
lor and mailer of arti ; and he was cholen fellow of his col-
lege. In 1^95, he wrote a copy of Hebrew verfes on the
death of qiieeu Mary, printed in the Canibiidge collecHon
of verles on that occafion. In 1699, he entered into the
controvcrfy between tlie church and the difTenters, and pub-
hllied " An Anfwer to the dlilentero' pleas for feparation, or
an abridgement of the London cafes." In the year 1 700,
he was prefented to the reclory of St. James's at Cokheftcr,
where he became a very popular preaclier. During his re-
fidence in this place, be publiflied "A Confutation of Po-
pery," feveral trafts of controverfy with the diflenters on the
fubjed of •' Schifm," and alfo " A Confutation of Quaker-
ifm." He alfo publilhed " A Paraphrafe, with Annotations
upon the book of Common Prayer," with two letters relat-
ing to the fame fubjeft ; and " The Rights of the Clergy of
the Chriftian Church." About the year 171 1, he took the
degree of dodor in divinity. As his popularity declined at
Colchefter, and his falary, which partly depended on volun-
taiy fuofcriptions, was reduced from 300I. to 6cl. a year, he
determined to remove to London, and accordingly accepted
the office of deputy chaplain to Cbelfea hofpital ; and this
appointment was fucceeded by the two lefturefhips of St.
Olave's, Southwark, and St. Lawrence Jury. Before his re-
moval to London in 171 6, he publiflied, in 1714, an Svo.
treatife, intitkd " Directions for Rudying ;" and in the fol-
lowing year, his " Eflay on the thirty-nine articles of Reli-
gion, &c. and the cafe of fubfcription to the articles con-
fidered in point of law, hiftory, and confcience, with a pre-
fatory epiille to Anthony Collins, Efq.'' fuppofed to be
the author of " Prieftcraft in Perfedllon," publiflied in Lon-
don in 1709. In 1716, he publiflied a pamphlet, entitled
" The Nonjurors' feparation from tlie church of Erv^Iand
examined, and found to be fchifmatical on thtir own princi-
ples," and a fermon on " The Cafe of the Refc-uied Epif-
copal Churches in Great Poland, and Pohflt Pruilla." Souii
after, he was prefented by the dean and chapter of St. Paul's
to the vicarage of St. Giles, Cripplegate, which aflbrded him
a hbcral income, amounting, after leveral deductions, to 400I.
a year. For this preferment he was indebted to tlie private
interference and recommendation of bifiiop Iloadly. ..(Vfter
hi« fettlement in this parifli, in 1717, his tranquillity was
C c 2 inter-

reeo
P

BEN

iteiruptcJ by fomc law-fuits in wliith he was engaged for
leoveriiig dues that bclon^ijed to the chuich. However, be
, ubli(hai, in the fa:iic year "A Spital Sermon;" and in
1718, "A Difcourfe of the ever-bl::'(rcd Trinity in Unity,
with an examination of Dr. Chuke's Scripture Doclrine of
the Trinity." From tliis lime the haralfcd ilale of hi-; mind,
and the weight of parochial duties, prevented his undertaking
any new work, except "An Hebrew Grammar," p\:blilhtd
.It London, in 1716, 8vo. and intended fin- the iif; of fuch
as want to h-arn Hebrew witlio\it tiic :'.(Iiitance of a maftcr.
He died at London of an apopKxy, in the 56lh year of hi-;
ao-c, on tiie i;ih of October 1728, and was buried in his
own chureli. Dr. Benntt, though a man of itrong paffi-.ns,
and not altogether exempt from the charge of hanghtintfp,
was dillliiguilh:-d byhispi-;ty and integrity, by the diligence
and zeal with wliieh he devoted himfelf to tlic ftudies and
duties of his profelTion, and by his extenlive learning, more
cfpccially by tiis flcill in the oriental and other learned lan-
guage?. As an acute reafoner and accurate lextuary, he had
few equal--. His talents for controverfial writing, which
perhap-; he indulged to excefs, gave him a decided advantage,
particularly in his ditpntes witli diDTcnters, over incompetent
antagonills ; but on fome occaiions they led h:m to recur to
di(lin£tions and rcHnements, which would not always bear
examination, and which laid him open to the attacks of his
adverfarie?. Several of his -Kritingj, as they related to tem-
porary controverfies, have been configned to obhvion. Thofe
which have excited attention in modern times, are his " Dif-
courfe of the Trinity." and iiis " Cafe of Subfcription to
the Articles of the Church of England." His explication
of the Trinity has b^en charged with inclining to that hete-
rodoxy which he wiihed to avoid, and which, without
doubt, he tincerely -abhorred : and his defence of fubfcrip-
tion has undergone fome fevere ftrlftures by the acute and
learned author of the " Confeflional." It redounds much
to the honour both of Dr. Bennet and bi(hop Hoadly, v. hen
we confider the difparlty of their opinions, that the latter
contributed to the preferment of tiie form.cr. Gen. Did.
Biog. Brit.

Ben MET, fferi, \n Botany. See Geum.

BENNFA"EN.'\GH, in Geography, a large mountain in
the northern part of the county of Londonderry, province
of Ulfter, Ireland, about 8 miles well of Coleraine.

BEN-NEVIS. See l!>f.ti-Nevls.

BENNI, in Ichthyology, a name given by Bofc after Son-
r.ini, to the fpecies of Cyprinus which inhabits the river
Nile, and is deicribed by Forikal under the fpecific name of
hyr.ni. See Bynni.

BENNINGTON, in GfO^niphv, a county of America,
ia thefouth-wed corner of Vermont, boinided by Windliam
county on the eaft, the (late of New York on tlie weif , Rut-
land county on the north, and the (late of Maffaehufetts
on the fouth. It contains 19 townlhips, of which Bennington
and Mancheftcr are the chief. It has 12,254 inhabitants,
including 16 flavcs. The mountains abound with iron ore,
which employs already a furnace and two forges.

Bennington, the (hire town of the above- county, and
the principal town in Vermont, including in the compaA
part of the town about 160 houfes, is htuated near the foot
of the Green mountain, near the font!i.weft corner of the
Uate, 24 miles eailcrly from the jundtion of Hudfon and
Mohawk rivtr=, and about 52 miles frum the fouth end of
lake Champlain, at the confluence of the eaft and fouth bays ;
55 miles from Rutland, 202 north-eaderly from New York,
and 300 in the fame dircftion from Philadelphia. N. lat.
42° 42'. W. long. 74° 10'. It has a number of elegant
houfes, and is a flourjfliing town, cojitaining 2400 inhabit-

BEN

ants. Its ;''jbllc buildings are a congregational church, a
court-houfe, and gaol. It is the oldeil town in the ilatt,
liaving been firft fettled in 1764. Within the townlhip i;i
mount Anthony, which rifes to a great height in a conical
forT. Tiio defeat of the Biitilh in two battles fought near
this town, in 1777, contributed in a great inealurc to the
fubfequent furrender of general Burgoyne's army.

BENNISCH, a town of Silelia, in the principality of
Jagerndorf.

BENOIST, St. a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the dillnc^ of
Glen ; 6 leagues louth-eaft of Oi leans.

Benoist, St. (/u Sauh, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in tlie
diftriil of Argenton ; 3I leagues S.S.W. of Argenton.
N. lat. 46^ 27'. E. long, r 17'.

Bknoist, &r. de Seyfu-u, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in t!;c
diKritI of Bclley, i| le-ague fouth-well of Belley.

BENOIT, or BtNEDiCTVS, Renalus, in Biography, a
fan-ious doftor of the Sorbonue, and curate of St. Eultathius
at Paris, was born at Sevenieres near Angers ; and being a
fccret favourer of the proteffant religion, he publifhcd, for
the benefit of the people, a French trauilation of the Bible,
which had been made by the reformed minlllers of Geneva ;
but as foon as it was publiflicd, it was condemned. Benoit
was appointed by Henry IIL in 1587, regius profeffor of
divinity in the college of Navarre at Paris ; and fome time
before the death of this prince, he publiihed a book, entitled
" 'I'he Catholic Apology," the defign of which was to fhew
that the proteilant religion, profeffcd by Heniy, was no juft
reafon for depriving him of his riglit of fuccejlion to the
crown of France. This was followed, in 1590, by a defence
of the fame book. Benoit afterwards affilted at the aifem.
hly in which Henry IV. abjured the reformed religion ; and
he was promoted by the king, in 1597, to the bifhopric of
Troves in Champagne ; but he was io obnoxious to the pope,
on account of his trarllation of the B;ble, his favour to the
protellants, and his ftrenuous aJertion of the liberties of the
Galilean church, that he could never obtain his bull, to be
inllalled : however, he retained the temporalities till the
year 1604, when he refigned the bilhopric. He died at
Paris in 1608. He was the author of feveral treatifes,
which are now not worth mentioning. Gen. Did.

Benoit, Elias, a learned French proteltant minifler,
was born at Paris in 1640. After the revocation of the
edift of Nantes, he fought refuge in Holland, and became
pallor in the church at Delft, where he died in 172S. He
was patient, timid, fubmilTive, and laborious, and in his do-
meflic conneAion he found ample occafion for th.e exercife of
the virtues that dUlinguifhed his charader. Of his wife he
gives the following account : " I married a wife poflcfled of
all the faults that could torment a peaceable hufband ; cove-
tous, pert, peevifh, and capricious ; by her unwearied fpirit
of ccntradidion, flie plagued, in every poffible way, her
wretched mate for the fpace of 47 years." His only relief
was inceflant fludy, the fruits of which were the following
publications, written in French, viz. " A Hiftory of and
Apology for tiie Retreat of the Pallors on account of the
Ptrfecution in France," 12mo. 1688; "A Hiftory of the
edid of Nantes," 5 vols. 410. Delft. 1693 > ^^^ " Mifcel-
laneous Remarks, critical and hiftorical, on Toland's two
DifTertations," 8vo. 1712. Nouv. Did. Hlft.

Benoit, Father, a learned Maronite, whofe Arabic
name was Amlarach, was bom at Gufta, in Phoenicia, of a
noble family, in 1663. Having ftudied from the age of nine
years to twenty-two, in the Maronite college at Rome, he

returned

BEN

returned to th« eaft, and was ordained prreft by the Maro-
nite patriarch of Anlioc'h, and from thence he was fent to
Roms, in order to tranfaft fame affairs relating to the church
at Antioc'o. PriviouHy to his propofcd return, he was in-
vited to riorence by tiie grand duUe Cofmo III. where he
was employed in arranging the types which Ferdinand de
Mcdicis liad caufed to be to'jnded for printing books in the
oriental languages. Under liis infpcftiou feveral eaftt-rn ma-
nufcripts were printed. Ccfmo, in order to retain Benoit in
bis fervlce, appointed him Hebrew profefT^r at the univerlity
of Pifa, where he acquired great reputation for his charac-
ter and learning among the literati of Italy. At t!ie age of
44, he entered into the fociety of Jefuits, and was employed
by Clement XI. as one of the corredlors of the editions of
the Greek, fathers ; and on the foiicitation of cardinal Qni-
rini, whom he had aflllled in his ftudies, he published, at an
advanced age, an edition of " Ephrem Synis ;" the two firft
volumes of which, begnn in 17^0, were, after twelve years'
labour, given to the public; but in 17.^2, whilft he was
profecuting the third, and after he had advanced throu<jh
one half of it, he was carried off by a fcvere illnefs in his
80th year. This volume was completed by AiTi-manni, in
1743. Benoit alfo tranflated part of the Greek Menology,
and wrote fome diflertations relating to the works of Ephrem
.Syrus. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

BENON, in Geography, a town of France, in the depatt-
ment of the Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftricl of Rochcfort ; jJ- leagues N. N. E. from
llochcfort.

BENOU, a town of Arabia, i 10 miles fouth-eaft from
Ei-Catif.

BEXOWN, the capital of Lulamar, an interior king-
dom of Africa, placed by Rennell in N. lat. 15° 6'. \V.

long. 6° 58'. Sec LuDAM.AR.

BENRAD, a town of Germany, in the circle of Well-
phalia, and duchy of Berg ; 7 miles S.S.E. of DufTeldorp.

BENSEN. SeeBESEssow.

BENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and duchy of Berg ; 7 miles call of Mulheim.

BENSERADE, Isaac de, in Biography, a celebrated
French poet, was born at Lions, near Roan, in Normandy,
in 161 2. The vivacity of his genius, and the pleafantry of
his converfation, were well calculated to fecure his reception
at court, and to promote \\H advancement under the patron-
age of cardinals de Richelieu avid Mjzan'n, who provided
for him in a liberal manner by gifts and penlions. Tlie poe-
try in which he excelled was that of the gallant and fatirical
kind, compofed for the court-ballets, before operas came
into vogue ; and in thefe he ingenioufly adapted to the per-
fonages of antiquity the known charafters and adventures
of tbofe who reprefented their parts in fiction. His fuccefs
in this way induced him to make an attempt for turning all
Ovid's Metamorphofesinto rondeaus; but this work, though
favoured by the king, and fet off bv all the ornaments of
engraving, was ridiculed from its firft appearance. As he
aimed at point and conceit, the prevalence of a better tafte
in the age of Lewis XIV. funk him into negleft. In 1674,
he was chofen a member of the French academy. Towards
the clofe of his hfe, he abandoned the court, and' retired to
Gentilly, where he embellifhed his houfe and gardens with a
variety of ornaments that indicated hispoeticil genius. He
was much afflitted with the ftone, the excruciating pain of
which he is faid to have endured with fortitude and refigna-
tion. His later years were confecrated to works of piety
and devotion ; and he tranflated almoll ail the Pfalms. He
died in 1691 ; and after his death his works were printed in
two volumes. Geo. Did. Nouv> Did. Hift.

BEN

BENSHAU3EN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Franconia, and county of Henneburg ; 7
miles fuuth-eaft of Smalkalden.

BENSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the L'pper Rhine, and archbilhopric of M^yence ; 20 miles
north of Heidelberg.

BENSON, (iEoRGE, in Bto<;raphy, a diffenting divide of
confiderable reputation for biblical learning, was born at Great
Salkeld in Cumberland, on the lit of September 1699. When
he had finilhtd tiis preparatory lludies, he completed his educa-
tion for the miuilby at the univerfity of Glafgow. At
Abingdon in Berkflure, where he firit fettled as pallor in the
year 1723, he continued for about feven years; and bdides a
fedulous attention to the duties of hisofiicc, he emplovcd his
time in a critical ftudy of the facred writirgs. His firft
work, publifhed during his refidence in this town, wa.> "A
Defence of the Reafonablencfs of Prayer," accompanied
with a tranflation of a difcourfe of Maximus Tyrius, on the
fame fubject, together wuh rem.^rks upon it. A new edi-
tion of this, and ot his piece on prcdeitination, was pubhlTied
in 1737, under the title of " Two Letters to a Friend, &c."
In 1729, he left Abingdon, and removed to the charge of
a congregation in Southwark, with which he continued for
eleven years. In 1731, he pubhlhc ! " A Paraplirafe and
Notes on St. Paul's Epiftle to Philemon," in imitation of
the manner of Mr. Locke ; and to tliis he added " An Ap-
pendix, (liewing that St. Paul cculd neither be an enthufiaft
nor an impoftor, and coafcquentlv the Chnftian religion muit
be, as he has reprefented it, heavenly and divine." This
argument was afterwards illullrated and improved in the moft
mallcrly manner by lord Lyttelton. This work, being fa-
vourably received by the public, was fucceeded by Para-
phrafes and Notes, after the fame manner, on the two epiftles
to the TheiTalonians, the firft and fe-condepiiUes of Timothy,
and the epiille to Titus ; together with diflertations on feve-
ral important fubjecls, particularly on infpiration. In 1735,
he publifhed, in three thin volumes, 4to. " The Hiftory of
the firft planting of theChriftian religion, taken from the A£ts
of the Apollles, and their Epiftles, &c." A fecond edition
of this work, commonly bound up in one large volume,
was publifhed in 1756. In 1740, Mr. Benfon was chofen
paftorof the congregation of protellant difTcnters, in Crouched
Friars, London, in the room of Dr. Harris ; and in this
connexion, with the learned and candid Dr. Lardner as his
affiftant for fome years, he continued till his death, which
happened on the 6th of April, 1762. In 1743, he pub-
liihed his treatife " On the Reafonablenefs of t.'ie Chnftian
Religion, as dehvered in the Scriptures;" and in coiifidera-
tion of his great abilities and learning, the univerfity of
Aberdeen conferred upon him the degree of doctor in dig-
nity. Dr. Benfon, having finifhed thofe epiftles of St. Paul,
on which he intended to write Paraphrafes and Notes, pro-
ceeded to explain, after tlie fame manner, the feven catho-
lic epiftles, viz. that of St. James, the two epiftles of St.
Peter, that of St. Jude, and the three epiftles ot St. John.
A volume of mifcellaaeous fermons, in 1747, was the laft of
his public works. His pofthumous writings, edited by Dr.
Amory, appeared two years after his death, containing a
life of Chrill, and other theological eflayf . The labours of Dr.
Benfon in facred literature met with a very favourable recep-
tion in foreign countries, as well as in Great Britain and
Ireland, from the truly inquifitive and learned, and intro-
duced him to a friendly acquaintance and correfpondcnce
with many perfons, eminent for their literature and rank in
the eftabliihcd church, as well as among the difl'tnter.-. Of
tliefc we m.av enumerate fir Peter King, lord chancellor of
England ; lord Barringtoa ; archbiftiop Herring ; bifhops

Houdly,

BEN

HoaJly, Butler, and Conybeare; Dr.Leland, and Dv. Diichal
' of Ireland; Dr. [onathaii Miiyhewof New England; profcflor
Micliaelis of Gottingen ; Dr. \Vi(h;irt of Ediiilniri^h ; Dr.
Watts of London ; Dr. Taylor of Norwich ; and Mr. Bourn
of Birmingham. His coninitntarics and notes on the cpif-
tles are dekrvcjly held iu high cllimation. Tiie learned
John David Miclnelis, one of the profefforn in the univcrllty
of Gottingen, propofed tranflatint; them into Litin, and in
1746, pnblillied his p.iraphrafe on the epidlc of St. James,
with additional notes. S jvcral of his other trafts were tranf-
Inted into German by M. Bamber;.;ir, a protellant divi'ic at
Berlin. As a zealous friend to religious toleration and free
inquiry, and with a view of vindicalinj^ and recommending
them, he publilhed a defence of .Srrvctiis, anit"an account of
archbilhop La',:d'sperfeci:tion of Dr. I^cir>hton. T>\og. Brit.

Benson, in Ceot;raphy, the north-weftirnmoil tovvnfliipof
Rutb.nd coi:nty, in tlie ftatc of Vermont, North America,
is fituatcd on the tail fide of lake Cluimplain, 57 miles
N.N.W. of Bennington, and has 658 inhabitant,^.

BENTAVEO, in Oniithoht^y, the French name of that
fpccits of SifRiKF., called Latiius pitangiiii, by. Linnaeus.

BENTENDORF Jkpi,it7,a, in Geo^^niphy, a town of
Hnncjarv, 4 miles north-eail of Rofcnbcrg.

BENT-GRASS, in 5o/^ttr. SecAcRosTis.

BENTHAM, James, in Bh-^rnpby, was born at Ely in
1708, and educated for the church at Trinity college, Cam-
bridge. After having held in fucceffion feveral livings in the
counties of Cambridge and Norfolk, he obtained, in i 779, a
prebendal ftall in the church of Ely, where he had an oppor-
tunity of cultivating his natural tallc for church architetlure
and antiquities. The refult of his obfervation and refearch was
publilhed under the title of " The Hiftory and Antiquities of
the conventual and cathedral church of I'Lly, from the foun-
dation of the monallery, A. D. 675, to the year 1771,
iltulbated with copper-plates," Cambr. 1771, 410. The
introduftion to thi5 work contains an account of Saxon,
Norman, and Gothic architefture, and has been frequently
cited as authority by later writers on ihefe fubjeds. The
grand repair of this church, entrnfted to the fuperintendance
of Mr. Bciitham, afforded him an opportunity of invefti-
gating the principles upon which edilices of this kind were
conftrufted, and fuggefted to him the idea of a general hif-
tory of ancient architefture in this kingdom ; and for this
purpofe he occafionally employed himfelf in collefling ma-
tenals almoft to the clofe of his life. He alfo interefted
himfelf in the improvement of his native county, by plan-
ning turnpike roads, and propofing the drainage and in-
clofure of parts of the Ely Fens ; and fome of his fchemes
were beneficially executed. In fuch ufeful occupations, and
the faithful difcharge of his profeiTional duties, he pro-
trafted his life, by a conrfe of temperance which his na-
turally tender conftitution required, to his 86th year.
He died Nov. 17, 1794. Gen. Biog.

BENTHEIM, in Geogmphy, a county of Germany, in
the circle of Wellphalia, about 40 miles long, and from 12
to 15 broad. It is furrounded by the province of Ovcryf-
fel and the bifhopric of Munilcr, and abounds with wood,
quarries of (lone, game, and vtnifon. The chief part of
this territory is di'tributed into fertile covn-ficlds andbeauti-
ful meadows, which feed a great number of (heep and cattle ;
furnifliing the inhabitants with an ample fupply of the necef-
faries of life, and enabling them to make profitable export?.
The principal river is the Vcchte, which traverfes the
whole countiy. It is inhabited by Lutherans, Calvinilh,
and Roman catholics ; and its traffic confifls in linen, thread,
wool, yarn, llone, wood, cattle, and honey. Its towns are
Benthcim, Schuttorff, Nortli-hom, and Nienhus. In 1753,

BEN

count Frederic Charles Philip, mortgaged this county to tlie
hoiife of Hanover, for an an advance of money. The count
of Bentheim or Benthein, has a feat and voice in the college
of the Wcllp'aalian courts of the empire, and at the diets of
the circle.

Benthkim, a town of Germany, and capital of the above
county, is feated partly on an eminence, and partly on a
river of the fame name. It contains Tine Calvinitl, and one
Roman Catholic church. The cadle or palace ftands on a
hicrh rock north of the town, and is furrounded with towers.
Benthcim is diftant 26 miles N.N.W. from Munfttr. N.lat.
52° 21'. E. lontr. 7" i'.

BENTHOORN, a town of Holland, 6 miles S.S.E. of
Leyden.

BENTHULUD, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Fez, at the foot of mount Atlas.

BENTHUYSEN, a town of Holland ; 6 miles fouth of
Ij:-vdep.

BENTINCK, William, earl of Portland, in Bi«^j-fphy,
a favourite miniller of king William III, was born iu Holland,
and defccrded from an ancient and noble family in the pro-
vince of Guelderland. He accompanied the prince ot Orange
to England in 1670, as gentleman of his bedchamber; and
when the prince became ftadtholder, he was promoted to
the command of the favourite regiment of Dutch guards.
In 1675, ^^ manifcfted his attachment to this prince, by
deeping in the fame bed with him when he had the fmall
pox, in confequence of medical advice ; and by thus cxpof-
ing himfelf to the infection of a diftemper with which he
was actually fcized, he laid the prince under an obligation, of
which he was never unmindful. He took an active part in the
preparations for the revolution of 1688, and in the progrefs
of that event ; and upon the prince of Orange's acceiTiun to
the throne, he received many marks of royal favour. Suf-
taining feveral high offices near the king's perfon, he was
naturalized, and in 1689, he was advanced to the rank of an
Englifh nobleman, with the title of baron of Cirencefter,
vifcount Woodftock, and earl of Portland. In the following
year, he afted as envoy to king William at the grand congrefs
held at the Hague. The royal favour, however, by which
he was diftinguilhed, and particularly the grant of feveral
lorddiips in Denbighdiire, which were part of the demefnes
of the principality of Wales, occafioned, in 1695, a warm op-
pofition in the houfe of commons ; but though this grant
was revoked, in conf^'quence of an addrefs to the king, the
tail was rtcompenfed by other liberal grants from the crown,
which conftitute a great part of the prefeiit ample podef-
fions of the family. This nobleman attended king William
in his campaigns in Ireland and flanders, and didinguidicd
himfelf, as a military officer, on various occafions. After
the conclufion of the peace of Ryfwick, in the negociation
of which he had a principal concern, he was nominated em-
badador-extraordinary to the court of France, where he re-
ceived the highell didinftions. On occafion of a jealoufy,
excited by the royal favour to a young Dutchman, named
Keppcl, afterwards earl of Albemarle, the earl of Portland
refigned his pods in the king's houftiold, and withdrew
from affairs of date ; but he dill retained fome portion of
the king's efteem and confidence, and was entrudtd with the
adminirtration of Scotland, and with the negociation of the
famous treaty for the fucccffion to the crown of Spain, cal-
led the " partition-treaty," which was afterwards the fub-
jeft of an impeachment of the earl by the houfe of commons.
The king's death, in 1 701, terminated the earl of Portland's
public life, and all hodilities againd him. Of the attachment
of his royal mafter, however, he had the mod fatisfadory
evidence ; when, on his death-bed, with his lad words he

inquired

BEN

inquired for him, and on his approach, laid hold of his hand
and prcffed it to his heart. The clofe of the earl's life was
fpent in retirement at Bnlflrode, where he employed himfelf
in acls of charity, and in the improvement of his line gardens.
He died Nov. 23, 1709, in the 6l(l year of his aj;c, and was
buried in Wcltminller Abbey. He left children of both
fexc'i by his two wives, Anne, dau^rhter of fir Edward Vil-
liers, and Jane, daughter of fir John Temple.

His temper was, like that of his royal malter, grave, fe-
date, and inclined to referve ; and his demeanour fomewhat
lofty, without pride. Althoujrh he was an object of jealoufy
and enmity, thefe were more national and politic il than per-
fonal ; and his general character was that of an able and up-
right ftatefnian, conn;6ted with private virtue. Eio<j. Brit.

BENTIVOGLIO, Guiuo, Cardinal, was born of a
noble family at Ferrara in 1579; and after having iludied
at Padua with great reputation, he returned, in 1597, to his
own country, where he difplayed niucii dexterity in recon-
ciling his brother, the marquis Hippolito, v,'ith cardi:ial Al-
dobi-andini, the general of the church, andin conchiding peace
between the pope and Ccefar. Having finiflied thefe tran-
faftions, he was appointed by pope Clement VI II. his pri-
vate chamberlain, and allowed to complete his ftudies at
Padua. He then fettled at Rome, and by his prudence
and integrity acquired general f !leem. After having perform-
ed, from 1607 to 1619, the office of nnncio in Flanders, and
alfo in France till the year 1 62 i , he was raifed to the dignity
of cardinal by pope Paul V. He was alfo appointed by
L.evi'is XIII. proteftor of the French nation in Rome ;
which office he declined on becoming bifhop of Terracina
in 1641. On the death of Urban VIII. in 1644, he was
thought to be the moft proper pcrfon for the honour of fuc-
ceeding him ; but when he entered the conclave, in the hot-
ted and moft unhealthy feafon of the year, he was feized
with a fever, which terminated in his death on the 7th of
September, at the age of 65. The principal ot his works,
which are held in high cftimation, are his " Hi'.lory of the
Civil Wars in Flanders," written in Italian, and lirft pnblilhed
at Cologne in 1634, and fince tranflated into foreign lan-
guages ; " Memoirs" of himfelf, an " Account of Flan-
ders," and a collection of " Letters," reckoned tlie moft
approved fpecimens of epiftolary writing in the Italian lan-
guage. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

Bentivoglio, in Gevgmphy, a fmall town and fortified
palace of Italy, in the ttates of the church ; 10 miles north
of Bologna.

BENTLEY, Richard, in Bivyrnjjhv, a very eminent
critic, was born at Oulton, near V/;!keficId in Yorkfnire,
on the 27th of January 1661-2, and after receiving the
rudiments of claffical learning at the free fchool of V/ake-
field, was entered in his 15th year at St. John's college, Cam-
bridge. In 1681, he left the univerfity, and became a
fchool-mafter at Spalding. From this fituntion he was foon
removed to be preceptor to the fon of Dr. Stilling fleet,
dean of St. Paul's, who appointed him to be his domtftic
chaplain. In February 1691-2, he publiilied his firft work,
which was a Latin epillle to Dr. Mill, containing " Critical
Obfervations on Malkla's Chronicon ;" and about the fame
time he had the honour of being felefted as the nrft perfon
to preach Boyle's ledure, founded for the vindication of
natural and revealed religion. The fubjeft of the eight
difcourfes, which he dehvered on this occafion, and which
were afterwards publiflied and tranflated into moft of the
modern languages of Europe, was the folly of athtilm, or
the confutation of this abfurd and joylefs fyftem from the
faculties of the foul, from the ftrudlure and origin of human
bodies, and the origin and frame of the world itfelf. Whilil

BEN

he carried on this leftnre, he maintained aphilofophical cor-
refpondence with fir Ifaac Newton, whofe friendfhip he
ardently cultivated, nor did he write any thing on this oc-
cafion without this illuftrious philofopher's approbation.
In 1692, he was inftalled bv bifliop Stillingflcct a prebend
of Worcefter ; and in the following year he was appointed
keeper of t!ie royal library at St. James's. In 1696, he was
admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity ; and he deliver-
ed a difcourfe on the day of t!ie public commencement
from I Pet. iii. 15. It is faid, that he was foon after ad-
mitted, " ad eundem," in tSe univerfity of Oxford. His
" Annotations on C.iUiinachus," were inferted in an edition
of t!;at poet, publifhed in 1697, by Grxvius ; and in tlie
fame year Dr. Bentley hmiR-lf publiflied, at the end of Wot-
ton's Reflections o-m Ancient and Modern leaniing, liLs
" Difiertations on the Epiftles of Themiftocles, Socrates,
Euripides, Phalaris, and the fables of iEfop." This pub-
lication was fuccseded by a literary controverfy, which en-
gaged at the time a great degree of public attention. The
immediate fubjeft of this controverly was the genuinenefs
of the epiftles of Phalaris. In order to give our readers
fome notion of its rife, progrtfs, and iilue, we (hall de-
tail the following particulars. Soon after Dr. Bentley uas
made royal librarian, the honourable Mr. Boyle, who was
about to publilh an edition of the fuppofed epiftles of Pha-
laris, applied, by means of a bookldlcr in London, to Dr.
Bentley, for the ufe of a MS. in the king's libriry, which,
after much folicitation and delay, was at length obt lined ;
but before the collation could be completed, and indeed,
about fix days after the manufcript had been delivered, it
was redemanded by Dr. Bentley, with many flighting and dif-
paraging exprefiions, both of Mr. Boyle, and the work.
This conduft, Mr. Boyle, in the preface to his edition of
Phalaris, publicly relented ; and in return, Dr. Bentley, ia
the above-mentioned difiertalion, endeavoured to evince the
fpurioufncfs of the epiftles that had been publiftied, adding
fome refleftions on Mr. Boyle's edition and verfion. In

1698, Mr. Boyle retorted, with effufions of wit and perfonal
abufe, in a treatife entitled " Dr. Benlley's Dilfertation on
the epiftles of Phalaris, and the fables of jEfop examined,"
and commonly known by the title of " Bnyle againft Bent-
ley," a fecond edition of which was publiihed in 1742. In

1699, Bentley recriminated in the lame ftyle, in a piece
ufually denomip.ated " Bentley againft Boyle," reprinted
in 1777, by Meffrs. Bowyer and Nichols, with feveral notes
and obfervations, collected from, or communicated by,
biihops Wiirburtoa and Lowth, Mr. Upton, Mr. W.Clarke,
Mr. Markland, Dr. Salter, Dr. Owen, and Mr. Toup.
Among the v^-ks and critics, who united as auxiliaries of
Boyle, were Swift, Pope, Garth, and Middleton ; and it
miift be allowed, that they proceeded with an unwarrantable
feverity in attacking the moral charafter and literary ac-
quirements of their adverfary. Bentley, however, though
unaided, fuftaincd the conteft with unyielding firmnefs, and
in the event with fuU fuccefs, fo far as the authenticity of the
epiftles afcribed to Phalaris is concerned. Since prejudice and
palhon have fubfided, it has been very generally acknowledged
that Bentley had not only the evident advantage with re-
fpeft to learning and argument, but that he is little, if at all,
inferior to his antagonift in point of wit and fmartnefs. The
reputation of Dr. Bentley, during the .progrefs of this lite-
rary fquabble, was not very materially affected ; for before
its complete termination, he was prefented by the crown,
in 1700, with the honourable and lucrative office of niafter
of Trinity college, Cambridge ; and in the following year
collated archdeacon of Ely. In the former ftation, he in-
troduced refornij and curtailed falaries, and thus incurred

the

B F. N

the ill will of fome of tlie fcnior irtmbers of the collegi; ;
but as hi appeared to iv.'.ve cxcrciftd an undue authority,
a:-.d to have corfultcd liis own advantage more than the
public, a charge was exliibited againll him in 1709, by the
vice-iiia!ler, thirty of the fcnior fellows, and other mem-
bers of the college, for peculation, bre:iLh of the ftatutes,
and other ac\s of mal-adniiuiilration. The charj^e was prc-
fcnted to the bilhop of Ely, as vifitor of the collrfje. But
Dr. Beiilley contended, that the crown was the vifitor ; and
upon thii a law-fuit commenced, w'liich was not terminated
till the year 17^1, when the crown alTerted its vifitoriil
power, hut declined interfering in the prefent inlhince. It
appeared afterwards, that, upon the whole, the charges
againft the mailer were well founded.

In 1710, Dr. Bcivdey puhlilhed at Aniflerdam his criti-
cal annotations on the two firll comedies of Arillophane;. ;
and, ab.nit the fame time, at Rheip.T;, his emendations of
the fragments of McMianiler and Philemon, under the feigned
name of " PhiUleutherus Lipfienfis." Tliis latter was un-
dertaken with the view of difparaging a fimilar performance
of Le Cltrc, and thus by degrading his literary charafter in
the ])nblic elUmation, to fet alide a fcheme, which was then
in atjitation, for inviting him to England, by the offer of
fome confukrable church preferment. In the year 171 1,
lie puhliihed his long cxpefted and mncli commended edition
of " Horace." This correft and elegant edition of Horac ',
which was piononuccd by Dr. Hare to be the cimipleateifc
work produe.cd by Ciititilm fiucc the relloration of learning,
was printed in 410. and dedicated to the earl of Oxford.
It was luccecded, in 1 7 1 3, by fome excellent remarks on Col-
lins's diicourfe ot free-thinking, publilhed under the former
name of " Philelcutherus Lipfienlis," and dedicated to Dr.
Hare. In 1716, Dr. Bentley was appointed rtglus profeiTor
of divinity; and in the f:\me year he circulated propofals for
a new edition of the Greek Tellameiit, with St. Jtrom's
latin verfior. Tlicfe propofals were the lubjcft of fevere
animadverfion by Dr. Middleton, who proteffcd a ferious
conviillion, that Dr. Bentley had neither talents nor mate-
rials proper for the work, and that religion was much more
likely to receive detriment than fervice from it. Several
pamphlets were publidied on the occafion ; and it is much to
be regretted, that a work of fiich importance to facred litera-
ture and biblical criticifm was abandoned. The completion
of this noble undertaking was the principal employment of
the latter part of Dr. Bentley's life. In the profeeution of
it he had collected and collated all the MSS. of Europe
to which accefs could be obtained; and for this purpofe,
his nephew, Thomas Bentley, L.L.D. well knoun in the
republic of letters, had travdlcd througli Europe at his
tmcle's exptncc ; the whole was completed for publication ;
but when he determined not to let it appear during his own
life, the fuin of 2C00I., which he had received in part of the
I'lbfcriptions, was returned to the fiibfcribcrs. A ciicum-
Ilance occurred in 1717,' which materially affected the doc-
tor's reputation, and which was attended, at leall for a time,
with detrimental confequences to hiinfelf. Upon the creation,
by royal mandate, of feveral doClors in divinity, Dr. Bentley
demanded from each of them, betides the cullomary per-
<-|uinte, an extraordinary fee of four guineas. In this de-
mand they acquiefced, on condition that the money (houid
be reilored, if it fliould nppearthat Dr. Bentley had no right
to enforce it. Dr. Middleton, however, fome time after,
obtained a decree for the repayment of the money ; and in
confequence of this decree, Dr. Bentley wa>' arrelled, and ap-
peared by his proftor before the court ot the vice-chancellor.
On this occafion, the beadle tellified on oath, that Dr. Bent-
ley had declared, " I will not be concluded by what the

BEN

vice-cliancellor and two or three of his friends (hall detertnine
over a bottle ;" and for this exprefTion he was fufpended by
the vice-chancellor, without a citation or hearing, from all his
degrees, and afterwards by the caput deprived of all lr.3 privi-
leges and honours, as wtllas degrees, in the univernty. Dr.
Bentley appealed to the king, and after fucceifive references
to the council and to a committee of council, and to the
court of king's bench, ?r.d many delays, the univeriity re-
ceived a mandamus in February 171^, which reverfcd all
their proceedings, and required a rell oration of Dr. Bentley
to all degrees, honours, &c. of which he had been deprived.
In I 726, he publifhcdan edition of "Terence and Pluedrus;"
and in I'V' the laR of his works, which was his edition r.f
•' Milton's Paradife Loft ;" and which made no addition to
hi.-, reputation, though it has beenfaid thnt many of his cor-
rctlioiis of that poet have been unreafonaLly objefted to by
bidiops Pearce and Newton. This work was undertaken at
the requell of queen Caroline. Dr. Bentley died on the
14th of July 1742, in the Sill year of his age, aad was
buried in the chapel of Trinity college. When we confider
the unquellionable abilities and erudition of Dr. Bentley,
it may excite fome degree of furprife, that his literary cha-
rafter lliould have been held in much higher ellim;uion by
foreigners, than by his own countrymen. This may be
partly owing to that pride, petulance, and irritability of
temper, with which he, in common uith many others
who have excelled in verbal criticim, feems to have been
chargeable ; to the pcrfonal difputcs in which he was en-
gaged ; and to the political difl'erences that difquieted tlie
period in which he lived. But, perhaps, it arofe principally
from his having, in the clafsof his adverfaries, the poets and
wits of the age, and from their having made liim the objccl
of their I'atire and ridicule. Tlie afperity of Mr. Pope, who
attacked him in the charailcr of Anllarchus (works, vol. iii.
p. 207 — 211.) has, however, been afcribed to perfonal rc-
fentment. WhiUl they were both together at dinner with
bilbop Atterliury, Dr. Bentley was queftioned as to his
opinion of the Englifh Homer ; and, after fome demur,
being urged to fpeak out, he faid " the verfes are good
verfes, but the work is not Homer ; it is Spondanus."
Another circumftance, which contributed to degrade Dr.
Bentley in the ellimation of fome of his contemporaries was
that love of money, which he feems to have unduly indulged,
and which involved him in difputcs, that were dilhonourable
to him. As to the charge of fcepticifm, with refpedl to
revelation, alleged againft him by Mr. Whillon, it does not
appear to have been well founded. Dr. Salttr defcribes
him as having been a very amiable and pleafant man in pri-
vate life, and as poirefPing much good nature, though he has
been otherwife reprefented. Agaiall the difparaging judg-
ment of the learned bidiop Lowth, who allows him to rank
only among grammatical and verbal critics, may he con-
trailed the ciicoiuium of Dr. Samuel Clarke, eminently dif-
tinguiilied by his literature and critical difcer:;ment, who,
in the preface to his edition of Cxfar's Commentaries, fpeaks
of him as " vir in hujuimodi rebus pcritia plane incredibili
et criticos omnes longc longeque judicio et fagacitate ante-
cellens." The judgment of poiterity, inore impartial than
tl'.at of his contemporaries, has allowed Dr. Bentley's pro-
found fliill in the idiom of the Latin and Greek languages ;
and though, as a verbal critic, many of his emendations are
unfaniJtioncd by the authority of ancient MSS. they fie-
qucntly approve themfelvcs as juft and reafonable, and are
regarded as real improvements. It muft be acknowledge*!,
however, that thofe corrections of ancient and modern au-.
thors, which depend uprm mere conjeflure, and which fug-
gett wh.it miijht, or ought to Jiave been written, rather than
2 what

BEN

what they 3.?luaIIy did write, extend the province of crilicifin
beyond its jull limit", ; and vvhilll they afford fcopc for the
unwarrantable exercife of fancy or iudgment, they Ihonld
be very cautioiifly admitted. In this way doAor Bentlcy
is faid to have incurred the charge of temerity and pre-
fumpiion. The fon of Dr. Bentley, who was called after
his own name, was a pjentleman of acknowledged ingenuity,
tafte and learning, and known as the author of feveral publica-
tions, and particularly of a tragedy, entitled " Philodamus,"
publithed by Duddey in 1767, and eiletmed by the late
eminent poet Mr. Gray, as one of the moil capital poems
in the Englifli language. His youngell daughter married
a grandfon of the learned Dr. Cumberland, bifliop of Peter-
borough, whoft famous book " De Legibus Naturx" Dr.
Bentley is faid to have corrected upon a vilk to his foii-in-
law, who was bifhop of Kilmore in Ireland. The fon of
this bifliop, Richard Cumberland, efq. is well known by his
ingenious writings, and efpecialiy by his julUy applauded
dramatic pieces. Biog. Brit.

BENVORLICH, in Geography, a mountain of Scotland,
in the county of Perth ; 3300 feet high. See Grampian
Mountain.

BENY, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid. of
Caen, 2^ leagues N.N.W. of Caen.

Benv, Le, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in tlie dillricl of
Vire, 7i leagues S. W. of Caen.

Beny, a fmall town of Hungary, in the county of Zemp-
ling, leated on the river Bodrog, and noted for its excellent
wine, not inferior to Tokay.

BENYOWSKY, Mauritius Augustus, Count de,
in Biography, magnate of the kingdoms of Hungary and
Poland, a fing\ilar adventurer, was born at Verbowa, in the
country of Nittria, in Hungary, in the year 1 74 1, and edu-
cated for military fervice, to which he devoted himfelf from
his youth. Being wronged in his paternal inheritance by
liis family, he feized by force the caftle which was his
father's relidence ; in confequence of which he was de-
prived of his whole property by a decree of the chancery at
Vienna, and was obliged to fly for refuge into Poland. Here
nc engaged, in 1767, in the confpiracy againlt. king Stani-
flaus, and in the courfe of this irregnlar fervice he was taken
prifoner, firft in 176S, and afterwards in 1769, by the Ruf-
fians, who treated him with feverity, becaule he had violated
his parole, and becaufe he was forming plans for the libera-
tion of himfelf and his companions. The Ruffians con-
veyed him to Cafan, where he was allowed to live at large,
under the notice of the gairifon, as a ihite-piifoner ; but
here his entcrprifiug diipofition recommended him to a party,
which was then forming a confpiracy againft the Ruffian
government, in the execution of which he was invited to
aflfociate. But the plot being difcovcred, he was exiled to
Siberia ; and after a tedious journey and voyage of twelve
months, during which the count made fome unfuccelsful
efforts for efcaping, he arrived on the 2d of December 1770,
at Kamtfchatlka, and was conduced to the town called
Bolioretzkoy Ollrog, or Bolcheretflv, where he and his com-
panions in exile were informed that they mull provide for
themielves, and v.'here they were furniflied for this purpofe
with the neceffary arms and implements. Diffatisfied with
this prefcribed mode of favatje life, the count loon began
to concert meaiures with his fellow-prifoners for their efcape ;
and in the mean lime, he improved his circumftanccs by
opening a fchool, in which he educated the ion and three
daughters of the governor, M. Nilow, or Nilloff, and by his
knowledge of the game of chefs, at which he played with

Vol. IV.

B E N

fome meichants, on bohalf of the Hcttman of the Coffackj,
who allowed him a certain proportion of the fums which he
won. Having gained the confidence of the governor and
the afftftions of Aphanafia, one of his daughter.^, he pro-
ctrcded in maturing and accomplifiiing his plan of liberation ;
but before its execution, the iecret was difcoverid, and the
force of the fettlement was employed in reducir.g the iiial-
contents. In the conflifl on this occafion, the governor
was killed ; but the exiles at laft fucceeded, fccured a vcffel,
and, accompanied by Aphanalia, who chofe to follow the
count, took their final leave of Kair.tfchatfl<a. Their whole
number, including the exiles, women, and the fnip's crew,
amounted to 96 perfons. After enduring many naval hard-
fhips at tea, the veffel arrived at Japan ; and on the 14th of
Auguft 177 1, he anchored on the ifland of Ufraay Ligon,
which he places in N. lat. 2y°, and which muff confcquently
lie between Japan and the ifland of Lekeio. This ifland,
according to his account, is abfolutely independent both of
China and Japan ; its inhabitants are mild, virtuous, and in
a high ftate of civilization ; and they are faid to have been
converted to Chrifl^ianity by a Portuguefe miffionary Jefuit,
Ignatio Sa'is, who arrrived in the ifland in 1749. Upon quit-
ting this ifland, whither he promifed to return, he failed for
Formofa, and arrived there on the 27th of Auguft; but meet-
ing with an oppofition on his landing, he made a great flaugh-
tcr among tlie natives. At length he opened, by means of a
Spaniard, who relided on the ifland, a more friendly inter-
courfe with the inhabitants of another canton, and aflifted
Huapo, their prince, in a war againft one of his neighbours.
After altay of about fixteen days on this ifland, he departed
and ileered for Macao, in the harbour of Canton, in China.
Here his female companion, Aphanafia Nilow, died. Dur-
ing his ftay in this place, he made fome attempts for pro-
curing leave to go to Canton ; but when thefe proved in-
effedlual, he determined to fail for Europe. Accordingly,
in his way thither, he arrived at the ifle of France, March
i6th 1772, and having touched at the ifle of Madagafcar,
he landed in France in July, and was well received by the
French rainiftry.

Of the propofals made to the miniflers of France by this
adventurer, we have no documents ; but he feems to have
been regarded by them as a fit perfon to be employed in
eftabhrtiing a fettlement in the ifland of Madagafcar. With
this view they turniflied him witli a body of troops, in 1773 ;
and in his way thither he touched at the ifle ol France, in
order to folicit the co-operation of the chiefs of that ifland,
J.ealoufy, and the dread of a rival fettlement, prevented his
obtaining their concurrence ; and therefore, after fome de-
lay, he proceeded to Madagafcar, and landed there in
Februaiy, 1774; forming his fettlement at the bottom of
the bay of Antongill, at the mouth of the river Fingballe.
The count made little progrefs in accomplilhing the objedt
of his miffion, although he expended on account of the
French government a fum amounting to 50,000!. and
therefore, towards the end of the year 1776, commillioners
were deputed to examine the ftate of the fettlement, and to
convey the count to France. In the mean time, this entcr-
prifing adventurer had contrived to raife himftlf to confe-
quence in the ifland by a curious ftratagem. The Samba-
rives, conftituting one of the diftinft iiatior.s of Madagafcar,
had been formerly governed by a chief, whofe name was
Ramini ; and as he had left only one daughter, who had
been taken prifoner and fold to foreigners, his family was
fuppofed to be extinft. Of this circumftance the count
artfully availed himfelf ; and obtaining the tcftimony of an
old negroe woman whom he had brought with him from the
ifle of France, who declared that (he knew him to be the
Dd fos

BEK

{on of Rami-.ii's dauc^hter, htr own companiiiii in navei-y,
he fiicceeJ«l m his views of being publicly acknowledged as
the heir of Ramini. Under this charadter he was veiled
with fovereignty, formed alllanc;:''* with other tribes, made
war and peace, and received fiibmiffions from the vanqiiiflitd.
Bnt as his European refources were with-hclJ, he renounced
the fcrvicc of France, and ptrfuaded his fuhjeds to permit
him to return to Europe, f>n- the pnrpofe of forming an
alliance with France, or fomc otiier power, and for making
commercial arrangements with a vi^w to the improvement
of a fettlement on the ifland. Accordin^^ly, he departed
for Europe in November 1776, on board a brig which he
iiad freighted to the cape of Good tl ipr. With tliis event
his own narrative terminates. Among his ftate papers,
however, we find his propofal to the king of Great Britain,
dated Dec. 25, 1783 ; of which the preliminary article is
his being acknowledged fovereign of the iiland of Madagaf-
car ; under which charafter he offers terms for an ofFenfive
and defenlive alliance with this country. But it appears,
from a declaration prefixed to this paper, that he had pre-
vioufly applied, probably with finiilar views, to the emperor
of Germany. The application to the Britifli minillry, if it
was ever made, and if it was ever the fuhjeft of difeiinion,
as fome have alTcrtcd, was not attended with fuccefs. The
count, therefore, determined to return to M.idagafcar with
fuch fupplies as he coulJ obtain from individuals ; and having
procui-ed goods and merchandize in London to the amount
of 4000I. and finding it difficult to get the flag of any Euro-
pean power to fail beyond the cape of Good Hope, he de-
parted for Mnrj-lnnd in America, in April 17S4. A ref-
peflable commercial houfe engaged in his undertaking,
ai'.d fupplied him with a vefTel and goods to a conliderable
amount. In this veflTel he failed for Madagafcar ; and after
cfcapingthe hazard of fhipwreck on the lee fliore of Ame-
rica, and doubling the cape of Good Hope, he touched at
Sofalo, and on the 7th of July 17S5, anchored in Antangara
bay, 10 leagues S.W. of cape St. Seballian, in Madagafcar,
■where the cargo was landed. Under an apprehenfion that
the count had been cut off by the natives, the party on
hoard the fliip fet fail for the ifland of Joanna, ajid at Oibo,
on the oppollte continent, fold the (hip. The count head-
ing a body of natives, commenced hoftilities againfl .the
French by fcizing their (lore-houfe at Angoutzi. Here he
began to build a town after the manner of the country, and
from thence he detached 100 men to feize their failory at
Foul Point, who defilled on feeing a frigate at anchor. In
confequence of thcfe tranfaftions, M. de Soullac, governor
of the ifle of France, feni a fhip with fixty regulars, who
landed, and attacked the count on the 23d of May 17S6,
in a redoubt which he had conftrufted, mounting two can-
non, and in which he, with two Europeans, and thirty natives,
xvaited their approach. The blacks fled, and Benyowfty,.
receiving a ball in his breatt, fell behind t)ie parapet, whence
he was dragged by the hair, and foon expired.

Whilll none can queftion the ability and bravery of
count Benyowlky, the principles of his conduct are not eafily
afcertained. His enemies rcprefent him as a tyrant and a
robber ; and his friends, on the contrary, exhibit him as
dirtinguifhed by a noble, humane, and generous difpofition.
Mr. Nicholfon, the editor of his " Memoirs and Travels,"
who had all the letters and documents before him, dcchres,
that he has " not yet ftcn any thing againft the count,
which will not bear two interpretations, or which has not
been written by men who contraditl each other, and had an
interell in traducing him." " His condnft in Madagafcar,"
fays Wad'.lrom, in his " Eflay on Colonization," deferves no
fmall portion of admiration, and even of rcfpeft j and, all

BEN

things duly confidercd, I fee no reafon, why a monximert
might not be erefted to his memory, infciibed "Macnis Ta-
nks ExciDiT Ausis." A very difl"erent charafteris given of
him byM. de Lelleps, in his " Travels in Kamtfchatflca ;"
who reprefents him as perfidious and cruel, and by the Abbe
Rochon, in his " Voyage a Madagafcar, &c." who fays,
" that he aimed at the conqueft of Madagafcar by fire and
fword, and treated the natives with fuch cruelty, that he
was called bv no other name by them than the "- Wicked
White." Memoirs and Travels of count Benyowlky,
written by himfelf. 2 vols. .].to. 1 790.

BENZELIUS, Eric, a learned Swedidi divine, was born
in 1(542, in Wellro-Gothland, and educated under the pa-
tronage of a rich uncle at Upfal. He watf firll preceptor
to the funs of the count de la Gardie, chancellor of Sweden ;
and having completed their education, he travelled through
various parts of Europe, cultivating an acquai.itance with the
learned, and confulting the principal libraries. Upon his
return to Lfpfal in 1665, he was appointed profeflbr of hif-
tory and morality in the univerfity, and afterwards promoted
to the theological chair, and to a feat in the conlillor)-. In
1675, he was made dotlor in theology ; in 1677, bidiop of ■
Strengnes, and, in 1700, archbifliop of Upfal, occupying alfo
the vice-chancellorfliip of the univerfity. He died in 1 709;
and was the author of feveral differtations on the lives of the
patriarchs, and other parts of ecclefiaftical hillory. He
wrote alfo various theological works, and tranflated the
whole Bible into the Swedidi language. Moreri.

Benzllius, Eric, fon of the former, was born at Upfal
in 1673, where he began and compltted his lludies. Having
travelled into Germany, England, and France, he returned
to Upfal in ) 702, and was appointed librarian to the uni-
verfity, an office which he held for 22 years. In 1724, he
was nominated pvofeffor of divinity ; and afterwards fuccef-
fively created biihop of Gotheborg, Lindkioping, and arcfi-
bifhop of Upfal. He died in 1743. Benzelius undertook,
in conjunftion with other learned men, a review, as well of
all hooks pubhftied in Sweden, or by Swedes abroad, as of
thofe works printed in other co\mtries, which had any rela-
tion to this kingdom. This publication, containing, befides
reviews, fome few original atls, was denominated " Afta*
Literaria Suecios," and condudled for 10 years on this plan
by a fociety of gentlemen, who afterv.-ards formed the royal
fociety of Upfal. See Society.

BENZIE Island, in Geography., lies on a river of the
fame name, within Sierra Leone, on t!ie coalt of Africa.

BENZOE, in Botany. See Crotona.

BENZOIN. See Laurus.

Benzoin, Bnjamin Gum, and Benzoic ^chl, in Chemjflry
and Pharmacy.

Tne gum benzoin or benzoe, by fome called alfo Jfrt
Diik'is, is a very fragrant refin, procuied from a large tree
f)und in many parts of the Eaft Indies, Sumatra, Arabia,
Perfia, &c. See Styrax Benzoe.

The refill is brought in large brittle mafTes of a light yel-
loA', interfperfed with white nodules, wliich laft are confi-
dercd as the fined, and called by fome Biiizoe j'lmygcLiloides.
Ttie fmell of benzoin is cxttemtly fragrant, efpecially when
rubbed or heated : it has fcarccly any tade, except previoufly
dilfolved in fpirit of wine, which it does with eafe, into a
yellowilh tinftnre. On adding water to this tinflure, the
refin again feparates into a white pulverulent mafs, which has
received the fingular name of Lac Firglnah, and alfo Ma-
gi/Ieiy of Benzoin. When gently dried, it forms a white pow-
der, formerly in great requcll as a cofmetic. It is at leafl
innocent, and its fcent is one of the mod; agreeable. But
the moft linking ing.redient of this refin is the

Benzole

BEN

Benzoic Add, w'licli is of fufilcient importance to require
being dcfcribed more at large. If benzoin is rjeiitly heated a
Lttle above the degree of boiling water, it melis into an adhe-
five mafs, and at the fame time fends out a very copious,
denfo, white fume, of an extremely fragrant, diffulive, pene-
trating fmell, and fo acrid as irrefiftibly to excite coughing
and tears in thofe who are in any degree expofed to it. Th.is
fume foon condenfts on the firft cool body, and then appears
in the form of very beautiful fpicular cryftals, which gra-
dually colIe£l into a bulky feathery mafs, extremely light,
and of remarkable elegance and luftre. This cryiialline ii;afs
is the benzoic acid, a-id its acid property is prowd bv red-
dening litmus, neutralizing alkalies, and forming with
them peculiar falts ; in modei-n chemical nomenclature Cdlitd
JBenzoats. After the greater part of the acid has rifen by
fublimation, or before it, if the heat be at all increafed, a
thin yellowifh oil rifcs fliglitly tmpvreumatic, but ftrongly
imbued with the fragrance of the refui. On further heating,
an acidulous liquor comes over, together with a thick buty-
raceous matter; ftill, however, containing fome of thecrvllal-
lizable acid, which is not totally expelled till the end of the
procefs.

This acid is readily foluble in alcohol, and in hot frate"-,
but fo fparingly in cold water, that a hot faturated folution
will depofit in crvilals almoft its faline contents by cooling.

Several methods have been devifed for obtaining the ben-
zoic acid. The oldeft and moft expeditious is by fimple
fublimation. To perform any quantities of it, put ben-
zoin in an earthen pipkin ; apply to the veffcl a large cone of
clean white paper, palled down to the edges of the pot, and
fet it over an extremely flow charcoal, or other fire, juft fuf-
ficient to melt the benzoin. The acid will rile and cryftallize
upon the infide of the paper cone. However, as in tliis me-
thod the vapour has hardly room to ooncrcte, inftead of the
paper cone, another vefiel inverted over th^t which contains
the refin, and with a fmall hole drilled through its b.-.ttom,
maybe fubftituted; and when full, it may be gently (haken,
to detach the acid, and again apphed. From nine to twelve
drachms may be thus obtained from fixteen ounces of benzoin.
The remaining refin is ftill very aromatic, and fliould not be
loft.
^ ■ Another method has been recommended by Scheele, who
in his excellent praftical obfervations upon this fait, has
treated it with that precifion and ingenuity which fo emi-
nently diftinguilh this chemift in every fubjeft, of greater or
lefs importance and difficulty, which he has illullrated by his
labours.

He obferves, that befides fublimation, the acid may be ex-
trafted by lixiviation, and with the advantage of obtaining
it free from any admixture ot oil, which is apt to impair its
vhitenefs and luftre. If benzoin is boiled with water, and
the folution ftraiued while hot, and fufiered to cool, moft of
the acid taken up by the hot water depofits when cold, and
may then be collected pure. This method, iiowever, is im-
perfect ; for as the water does notmix with and divide the gum,
this lad foon foftens, and finks down, clofcly adhering to the
bottomof the veffei, and does not allow of the water eaCly to
penetrate it. Hence the folution takes place only at the fur-
face of the benzoin.

The fame chemiil boiled powdered chalk and benzoin in
water, and filtrated the liquor. No cryftals were now depo-
fited on cooling, for the scid had diiTolved part of the chalk
into a bcnzoat of lime, which, being ver)' foluMe, remained in
the liquor. But on adding fome drops of vitriolic acid, the
benzoic acid was again feparated from the lime, and fell to
the bottom in a powdery form. Subllituting alkali for the
chalk, the fame tifeci took place, and the betjzoic acid, as

BEN

before, was precipiluted by the vitriolic. Cut this methofl
was ftill attended with the inconvenience of the benzoin con-
creting together, which floated on the furface during tlie
boiling. But on fubftituting quick lime this iuconveuieace
was avoided ; and it is tlierelore in tiie following method that
the benzoic acid may be procured the moft copicufly and the
pureft. Upon four ounces of unflacked hnie pour t'.relvc
ounces of water, and after the ebullition is over, add fis
pounds more of water; then put a pound of benzoin, liiiely
powdered, into a tin pan; pour on it at firft about fix ounces of
the above lime water; mix them well together, and then fuc-
ccillvtly the reft of the lime water. By this method the
refin will lie prevented from running together into one mafa.
Boil the mixture for half an hour, with conftant ftirrirg, then
let !t ftand, and pour off the clear liquor. On the remainder
in the pan, pour more lima water, and proceed as before,
adding the clear liquor to that firft obtained, and aifo filter
the rcfidue, to exhauft the liquor, which is now a weak folu-
tion of benzoic acid, with the lime of the hme water. Boil
down this liquor (which is of a light yellow) to two pounds,
and ftrain. WTien cold, add to the liquor muriatic acid gra-
dually, which will produce a white crj ftalline depofition, and
continue to add the acid till the liquor is fuperfaturated, and
taftes lourifh. The ftrongcr acid thus unites with the hme,
and the benzoic acid, now free, being of itfelf fcarccly foluble
in cold water, falls down as a white coagulum, which fliould
be waftied with miore cold water, and genth- dried. To give
it a cry ftaliine appearance, diffblve it in boiling water, filter it
through a cloth, and by cooling it will feparate in the form
of fpicular cryftals, but with fome lofs of the acid.

The above proctfs of Scheele's m.ay however be a little
(liortened, it the lime in fubftance be mixed with the lime
water, previous to the addition of the benzoin ; for by this
method the folution may be at once made more concentrated,
and lefs of the liquid will fuffice, fo that much of the eva-
poration will be laved. Any of the ilronger acids will dif-
piace the benzoic irom lime, but the muriatic is the moll
convenient.

Scheele obtained from 12 to 14 drachms of the concrete
acid from a pound of benzoin by this procefs.

The benzoic acid, when pure, is quite white; for if yellow,
it is mixed with a Imall portion of the oil of the refin.
Though cryftallized, it is confidtrably clafljc, and difficult to
be reduced to powder. Its tafte is ftiarp, pungent, and
acidulous. It reddens tinfture of litmus. Wlien cold, it is
without fmell, but on applying heat it fends forth the pecu-
liar grateful odour by which it is charaftenzed. Heated by
itfelf, it chiefly fublimes, but a part is decompofed, giving an
acid phlegm, much oil, and carburetted hydrogen gas. It il
not alterable in the air, and does not evaporate by keeping
in a moderate temperature. Cold water diffolves only about
-J.I3 of its weight, but boiling water -J^^ ; and hence the co-
pious cryftallization from a hot water folution. It unites
readily to moft of the alkalies and earths fonning benzoats,
the properties of which have been but httle examined.

The benzoat of lime is almoft the only C?It of this kind
found native. It is contained in the urine of fome animab,
particularly the herbivorous quadrupeds, and is aicertained
by adding to this fecretion fome muriatic acid, by which the
benzoic acid is made perceptible.

Vv^ith potafli this acid forms a readily cryftallizable fait,
decompofable, like the reft of the benzoats, by a ftrongacid.

Moft of the metaUic oxyds are diflblved by this acid, but
not the pure metals.

Mr. Hermbftadt, in a feries of experiments on the aifWon of

nitrous acid on the benzoic, found that the latter regularly

alTuraed in tlte procefs a fmell like tHat of water didiliedover

D d e bittar

B E R

bitter almonds, but on the whole, this acid is but with diffi-
ci-'ty altertd in its nature by the nitrous. Dillilling the
nitro-benzoic acid with pure alcohol, he obtaiVied ethereal
liquor, part of which was nitrous ether, but the remainder ap-
peared, by the fmel! of almonds, to be a dulcified, or ctliercal
benzoic acid. But thefe experiments require to be repeated
with accuracy, as the powerful operation of the nitric acid
on vegetable matter, though highly inllruftive, is often not a
little embarrafrmpf.

Several other fubftances, bcfides the refin of benzoin, con-
tain more or Icfs of this acid. Tiie balfam of Peru, and of
Styrax, appear to owe to this acid much of thtir fragrant
f'licll. Ambergris, vanilla, and fome of the aromatic barks,
and even urine, contain a fmall quantity of it. When uncom-
bined with an alkaline or earthy bafe, it is generally known
by a pungent fragrant fniell,and denfe white lmoke,on apply-
ing a heatlefs than is neccfiary to burn or decompofe the fub-
Itance with which it is united. When kept down by an al-
kali or an earth (as in the cafe of urine), it is feparatcd bv a
Urongacid. It has been fuppofed, with probability, that the
fragrant fccnt is not proper to the aci<l, but is owing to the
prelence of a portion of refill or effentlal oil, combined with
It fo intimately as to be infcparable by any means hitherto
known, without entire deeompofitioiis of the acid ; and
hence too may be explained the very weak affinity of this
acid for ail bnfes, which is generally fuperior to no acid but
the carbonic.

Gum benzoin is almoft difufed in medicine, though ftill re-
tained in a few preparations of the I.oiidon and Edinburgh
pharmacopoeias. The compound tinfture Tinflura Benzocs
Compqfita, formerly Balfamum Traiimaticum, contains gum
benzoin, balfam of Tolu, and aloes ; and the benzoic acid
enters into the Edinburgli Tiru^ura Opii AMtnonlata, and in
fome other compounds of foreign difpenfarics.

The fragrance of this rcfin has caufed it to be ufed in
fumigations of various kinds. Where the objctl is merely
to produce a penetrating agreeable fcent, it may be of con-
fiderable ufe ; but as a corredive of foul or contagious air, its
powers are very fmall, by no means comparable to thofe of
the mineral acid vapours, while the irritation which it gives to
the lungs is more intolerable. Scheele's EfTays. Fourcroy.
Hermblladt in J. Phyf. torn. 34, &c.

BEOLIPA Gulf, in Geography, bcs on the call fide
of the Urait of Dardanelles, near the opening into the fea of
Mamiora.

BEORI Animal {La'e'l . /tmer.), in Zoology, the Tapir
jimirkantis of Gmelin, &c.

BEOSTER Island, in Geography, one of the Shetland
illands, between which and Green iflaiid, at the north end
of Brafia, or Brafy found, is a good channel, that runs out
into the fea.

BEOTIA, Cape, lies within the ifland of Negropont, to
the north of Corinth, on the north fide of the peninfula,
ftretching fouth-eaft from Covinth.

BEQUIA, afmall iflandof the Weft Indies, dependent on
the government of St. Vincent, and containing 3,700 acres
It is chiefly valuable from the commodioufne^ of its fine
harbour, called " AdmiraUy bay."

BER, a diilrift of SwifFerland, in the government of jElen
and canton of Bern, comprehending two parochial villages.
• Ber. See Berbice.

BERABZAN, a long lake in New North Wales, lying
N. and S. and running gradually from its north end, till it
mixes with the waters of Schecharas lake, at the foulh end,
and where thefe waters form Seal river, which empties into
Hudfon's bay, at Churchill fort. The north end of Berabzan
liei in about 60° 30' N. lat. and 93° 50' W. long.

BER

BER^^.A, in Jtnc'tevi Geography. See BerceA.

BERAMS, in Commerce, a coarfe cloth, made altogether
of cotton thread, which is brought from the Eaft Indies,
and particularly from Surat.

BERAMUN, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
Nile ; 3 miles north call of Manfora.

BERARDI, Angelo, in Biography, an Italian writer
on mufic, who publifhed at Bologna a coi.fiderable number
of mufical trafts, between the years 1681 and 1693, which,
with a large portion of pedantry and common-place informa-
tion, contain much cunons and ufeful knowledge. Their
titles are : " Ragionamenli Muficali, Mu'.ical Dillevtations;"
" Document! Armonici, Harmonical Documents ;" " Mif-
cellaiiea Muficale, a Mulical Mifccllany;" " Orcani Muficali,
Dialo, Mufical Arcana, a Dialogue ;" and the " Perche
Muficale, Mufical Definitions." If the whole had been
comprefl'ed, methodiled, and digeftcd into a iiiigle treatile,
and all the mufical information difperfcd through tliefe
fcveral trafts arranged in a regular and gradual order, a more
ufeful and practical didaftic work might have been produced,
than Italy feems to have furniflied during the 17th century.

BERAR, in Geography, a fonbah, or kingJom of Hni-
doftan, bounded on the liorth by Allahabad and Malwa ; on
the weft by Candeifh and Anicdiiagur ; on the fouth by
Tellingana and Golconda ; and on the eaft by Onfl'a. It
contains 13 cirear?, divided into 42 pergunnahs. The
wcilern parts of this province were reduced by Acbar; and
its revenue under Aurungzebe, as ftated by Mr. Frafer, in
his " I.,ife of Nadir Shah," amounted to 1532 lacks of ru-
pees. The principal part of this province is poflefl'ed by the
Berar or Nagpour rajah ; and the remainder is held by the
Nizam, or fonbah of the Deccan, who pays to the rajah a
" chout," or fourth part of its clear revenues. The interior
parts of Berar are lels known than moft other countries in
Hindoftan ; but it is thought to be neither populous uor
rich. Its prefent capital is Nagpour, about midway between
Bengal and Bombay. Th^s province produces wheat, rice,
poppies, and many forts of legumes. In the fouthern
part is found the deer, which yields the Bezoar ftone ; and
the ftitep of this province differ from the common fpecies,
their neck being lengthened, their tail ver)' fliort, their ears
long, and their wool not curled.

BERASTEGUE, a mountain of Spain, in the province
of Guipufcoa, 3 leagues from Tolofa.

BERAULT, Nicholas, in Latin Beraldus, in Biogra-
phy, one of the learned men of ihe fixteenth century, was
either a native of Orleans, or for a long time refident in this
place, where he was profeffor of the civil law. He was
tutor to admiral de Coligni ; and well acquainted with Eraf-
mus, who, in his " Ciceronianus," fpeaks with commenda-
tion of his eafy and flowing elocution, and who, in 1522, de-
dicated to him his trcatife, " De Confcribendis Epiftolis."
Among the Latin works of Berauld, were "A Grasco- Latin
Diftionary," Paris, 1521 ; an " Oration on the Peace of
Cambray," Paris, 1528; another " On ancient and modem
jurifprudence," Lyons, 1533 ; and " A Dialogue on the
faculty of fpeaking extempore ;" Lyons, 1534. He alfo
wrote paraphrafes on the Politics and Qiconomics of Ari-
ftollc, and notes on the Rufticus of Politian. His comment*
on the Natural Hittory of Pliny, though not mentioned by
Hardouin, are much commended by Eiafmus. He was
erteemed for his integrity, and greatly regarded by Poncher,
archbifliop of Sens, a prelate diftinguilhed in France by his
patronage of Hterature.

BERAUN, in Geography, a royal borough of Bohemia,
in a circle of the fame name. The chief produce of the
circle is wood and corn, ai)d in fome parts are found mines oi

iron.

B E R

iron. The town is feated on the river Mies or Miza ; 14
miles S.W. of Prague. N. lat. 50° 2'. E. long. 14° 25'.

BERBECZ, a river of European Tiukey, which runs
into the Rirlet, near Tecuczi, in the province of Moldavia.

BERBEGAL, a town of Spain, in Aragon, 3 leagues
from Balbaitro.

BERBERES. See Brebes,

BER.BERINA, in Entomoln?y, a fpecies of Tipula,
with footy, inounbent wings, having the bafe, and marginal
fpot white. Schrarck. This infcft has the thorax and
abdomen red ; it feeds on the berberry, and forms fmall
llrumous excrefcences on the branches.

Berberina, in Natural Hi/lory, a fpecies of Vorti-
CELLA, of a fimple oval form, with a branched rigid ftem,
and white granuhitions. Gmclin, This is VorticcUa com-
pofita, floribus ovalibus muticis, llirpe ramofa, of Linn. Syft.
Nat. edit. 12. It is alfo Brachionus berberiformis, of Pal-
las ; and Pfeiidopolypns beritormis, of Roefel. Found in
frelh water in Europe; ufually in clullers.

BERBERIS, Bat-ba-ry, or Pipperiilge Bujb, in Botany,
Lin. gen. n. 442. Schreb. 595. Reich. 476. JufT. 286.
Gaertn. t. 242. Tournef. 385. Smith. 181. Clafs and Or-
der, Hexandrta Mnnogynta. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth fix-
leaved, patulous ; leaflets ovate, with a narrower bafe, con-
cave, alternately fmaller, coloured, deciduous. Cor. petals
fix, roundhh, concave, ereft-expanding, fcarcely larger than
the calyx: neftary, two fmall, roundilh, coloured bodies, faf-
tened to the bafe of each petal. Stam. filaments fix, eredl, com-
prefled, obtufe ; anthers two, faftened on each fide to the
top of the filaments. P//?. germ cyhndric, the length of the
ftamens ; (lylc, none: ftigma, orbiculate, broader than the
germ, furrounded with a fharp edge. Per. ben-y cylindrlc,
obtufe, umbilicatcd with a point, one-celled. Seedt two,
oblong, cylindric, obtufe. B. cretka has three feeds-
Reich.

Efi". Char. Cal. fix-Icaved: pel. fix, with two glands at
the claws ; Jiyle none; lerry two-feeded.

Species, i. B. vulgaris, common barberry ; B. dume-
torum. Ray, Syn. 469. Spina acida or oxycantha. Ger.
em. 1325. /5. B. valacea, purple-fruited barberry. 7. B.
canddenfis, Canada barberry. " Peduncles racemed, fpines
triple." A (hrub rifing to the height of 8 or 10 feet; with
ftems upright and branched, fmooth and flightly grooved,
brittle, with a large white pith, and covered with a whitilh
or afh-coloured bark, yellow on the infide : ftcms and
branches are armed with fharp thorns, commonly growing
by threes ; firft leaves obovate, ferrate cihate, not jointed;
ftem-leaves alternate ; fecondary leaves in pairs, oblong and
ferrate, with fmaller leaves concealed between the lowermoil
leaves and the thorns : flowers towards the ends of the
branches in pendulous racemes, with a bracle to each pedicel;
corolla yellow, petals frequently ferrate about the edge, and
at the bafe of each are two orange-coloured dots, which are
probably the neftaries : anthers roundifh, yellow; ftigma,
greenilh ; berries at firll green, and when ripe, changing to a
fine red colour ; feeds, two, rarely three, fallened at bottom
to a minute tubercle, oblong, fmooth, of a pale teftaceous co-
lour, and hard ; the feed-lobes of an elliptic form. A native
of the eaftern countries, and now of moll parts of Europe in
woods, coppices, and hedges ; in England, chiefly in a chalky
foil, as particularly about Saffron-Walden in Effex. The
flowers appear in May and June, and the fruit ripens in Sep-
tember. Miller mentions three varieties of this fhrub, viz. B.
fine nucleo ; Bauh. pin. 454, 2. or without flone, occafioned
by the age of the plant ; B. with white fruit, having leaves
of a lighter green colour, and the bark whiter than the com-
mon fort: and B. orientalis procerior frudu nigro luavifiirao,

BE R

Tournef. cor. difTeringf only in the cqlourand flavour cf the
fruit, fie makes the Canada barberry a dillinft fpecies, ar.d
fays, that the leaves are much broader and fhorter than ihofe
of the common fort, and that the fruit is black when ripe.
It has been long ago obferved by Linnxus, that when bees
in fearch of honey touch the filaments of this ftirub, the an-
thers approximate to the fligma, and explode the pollen.
This irritability is fo remarkable, that if the filaments arc
touched near the bafe with the point of a pin, a fuddcn con-
traftion is produced, and this may be repeated fevcral times.
Dr. Smith, w!io has made this property the fubjtcl of particu-
lar examination, obferves(SeePhil.Tranf. vol, Ixxviii. p. 158,)
that neither the outfide of the filament, nor the anther has
any irritabihty ; and that the fpring of the ftamens is owing
to an high degree of irritability in the fide of the filament
next the germ, by which, when touched, it contracts, that
fide becoming fhorter than the other, and confequently the
filament being bent towards the germ. After irritation, the
ftamens will return to their original place, and on being
again touched, they will contraft as tafily as before. Tiie pur-
poCe which this curiotis contrivance of nature is defigned to
anfwer is evident. When the ftamina ftand in their original
pofition, their anthers are effcclually fheltcred from rain by
the concavity of the petals. Thus they probably remain till
fome infeft, in order to extraft honey from the bafe of the
flower, thrulls ilfelf between their filaments, and almoll
unavoidably touches them in the moll irritable part ; ia
this way the impregnation of the germen is performed ; and
as it is chiefly in fine funny weather that inftfts are on the
wing, the pollen is alfo in fuch weather mofl fit for the pur-
pole of impregnation. Another peculiarity afcribed to this
fhrub is, that ears of corn growing near it conflantly prove
abortive, and that it extends this llerile influer.ce over them
to the dillance of 3 or 400 hundred yards acrofs a field.
Duhamel long fince looked upon the mildewing power of
barberry as totally void of foundation, and M. Brouflbnet
affured Dr. Smith, from his own obfervations, that the opi-
nion, though very prevalent, was altogether groundlefs. .
Young's Annals, vol. vii. p. 188. Eng. Bot. p. 4y. Wither-
ing's Bot. Arrang. vol. ii. p. 351,

The leaves of barberry are gratefully acid ; the flowers ate
offenfive to the fmell when near ; but at a proper diftance their
odour is extremely agreeable. The berries are fo acid that
birds will not cat them. The barberry, however, is cultivated
for the fake of thefe, which are pickled and ufed forgarnifhing
difhes ; and being boiled with fugar,they form an agreeable rob
or jelly ; they are ufed alfo as a dry fweet-meat, and in fugar-
plumbs or comfits. They are moderately reftringent, and are
faid to be of great ufe in bilious fluxes, and in all cafes where
heat, acrimony, and putridity of the humours prevail. On the
authority of Profper Alpinus (Med. Egypt. 1. iv. c. i.J we
are informed, that the Egyptians employ them in peftilential
fevers and fluxes with great fuccefs; and Simon PauUi re-
lates, that he was cured of a mahgnant fever, accompanied
with a bilious diarrhrea, by ufing thefe berries according to
the Egyptian practice ; that is, macerating the fruit tor a
day and a night in twelve times its quantity of water; with
the addition of a little fennel feed ; and then ftraining and
fweetening the liquor, and ufing it as a common drink. Dr.
Woodville obfcrves, (Med. Bot. vol. iv. p. 62.) that thefe
berries are well calculated to allay heat and thnll, and to
correft a putrid tendency in the fluids ; but that in this
refpe£l they feem to poCTefs no peculiar advantage over moft
of the other acid fruits; hence the colleges of London and
Edinburgh have expunged this fruit from the Materia Me-
dica, and retained only that of the currant. The bark is
faid to be purgative, and Ray experienced its good eifeCls

take a

B E R

tal<en as a decoftion in tlic jaundice. The roots boiled in
lyc dye wood yellow. In Poland tticydyc leather of a moll
beautiful yellow with the bark of the root: and the inner
bark of the ftem dyes linen of a fine yellow, with the afiift-
ance of alum. \Vitheiin^, uli fupni. Kinc, flxeep, and
goats, are faid to cat this (hrnb, and horfes and fwine to re-
fufe it.

2. B. cretica, Cretan, or box-leaved barberry ; Lvoium
Creticum, Alp. Exot. 21. t. 20. Fon. hal. 137. " Pedun-
cles fubumbclkd, fpines triple." A (lirub that never rifes
more than 3 or 4 ftet high in Enrjand, where the flowers
are not fucceedcd by fruit. A native of the ifland of Candia,
or Crete, and alfo of Japan. Cultivated, in 1759, by Mr.
Miller; flowering in April and May. 3. V>. ilicifolia, holm-
leaved barberry. Lin. Syft. 34.3. Suppl. 210. "Leaves
obovate, ferrate-fpinbiis, pediceb elon^jated cymofc, fpines
digitate." Found in the Terra del Fuego by Sparrman,
where the inhabitants ufed the wood for bows, on ae-
count of its great tlalUcity. 4. H.^liiricir, Siberian bar-
berry. Lin. Syll. 343. Murr. in com. got. 17*^4. 37.
t. 6. Pall, it 2. 737, t. P. f. 2. " Peduncles one-flowered,
folitary, nodding, fpines palmate." A fmall (hrnb, fcarce-
ly a fpan in height. A native of Siberia, where it was ob-
ferved by Pallas.

Pr'jpiigat'ion and Cii!lurc. Tiie conunon fort is generally
propagated by fuckers ; but as the plants thus propagated
lend out fuckers in greater abundance than thole which are
propagated by layers, the latter method rtiouldbe prtfeiTed.
The bell time for laying down the branches is autumn, and
the young flloots of the fame year are the bell ; which will
be well rooted by the next autumn, when they may be taken
off and planted where they are to remain. When this plant
is cultivated for its fruit, it fliould be planted fingle, and not
in hedges ; and the fuckers taken away eveiy autumn, and
all the grofs flioots pruned out ; by this method the fruit
will be fairer and more abundant. A few of thefe flirubs
■will make an agreeable variety in wildernefles or plantations
of fhrubs ; and the fruit will be food for birds; but they
fhould not be planted in too great quantities, or near walks
that are much frequented, becaufe their flowers emit a veiy
flrong difagreeable odour. The Canada fort may be propa-
gated in the fame way as the common fort, and is equally
hardy. Thebox-kaved fort, whicli is now very rare in Eng-
land, may be propagated by laying down the branches in
the fame m.anner as the firll ; but the young plants fliould
be fet in pots, or flieltered under a frame m the winter ; and
when they have acqmred (Irength, they may be turned out
of the pots, and planted in a warm fituation. Martyn's
Miller's Bot.

BE RBI, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the Ivory
coaft, N. E of gape Palmas. N. lat. 4° 3c'. \\\ long.

5° 34'-

BERBICE, the feat of a colony of Gniana In South
America, formerly belonging to the Dutch, on a river of the
fame name, about 25 leagues N. W. by W. i N. diftant
from Surinam, which runs from N. to S. and difcharges
itfelf into the Atlantic ocean. Tlic coalt on each fide of
the river forms a bay at its entrance, nearly a mile broad,
in the middle of whicli is a fmall iiland, called " Crab illand."
Oppofite to tliis illand, on the callern fhore, is a fort, with
feveral pieces of artiliery, and fomc foHicrs; but the channel
on the other fide, which is navigable for (hips of any bur-
den, is undefended, and covered by the illand from the guns
on the oppofite fliore. Without the entrance of the river is a
bar, which, at high tide, hasfeldom more than 16 feet of water;
but within the water is of fufficieiit denth, and the river is
navigable for fliipa of hurdca 200 miles from its mouth.

B E R

The plantations are fituated on each fide of the river, and
extend nearly 300 miles fiom its entrance at fort Nallaa,
which was formerly the feat of government, and contiguous
to which were the public ofHces and houfes of the civil and
military officers, about 1 00 miles from the^ mouth of the
river. But the feat of government is now fixed at a point
of land on the eallcrn fhore of Berbice, about a mile from
its entrance, which is formed between Berbice and the river
Conya, which tliere difcharges itfelf into the former. This
is a narrow, but deep river, running from ionth to north,
but diverging fomewhat eallerly from Berbice. On the fides
of tliis river are feveral plantations, which form a part of the
colony of Berbice. The produce of thefe planuaioiis con-
lills cliiefly of fugar, coffee, cotton, and cocoa, and other aii-
ticles, fucli as are furniflied by Surinam. Bancroft's Nijt.
Hill, of Guiana, p. 3J0, &c. The colony of Berbice fur-
rendered to the Britilh arms in September XK03. The river
Berbice difcharges itfelf into the Atlantic in N. lat. 6'^ 30'.
and W. long. 57" 20'.

BERBUDA. See Barbuda.

BERBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in the duchy
of I^uxemburg; 12 miles N E. of Luxemburg.

BERCAD, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Brac-
law. near the Bog ; 52 miles S. S. E. of Braclaw.

BERCARIA, Berqueria, or Berkeria, in Middle
^ge IVriters, denotes a Iheep-fold, Iheep-cote, flieep pen,
or other inclofure, for the fafe keeping of a flock of
(heep.

The word is abbreviated ixom herl'uar'ia ; oi berlex, de-
torted from ivrvex. Hence alfo a fliepherd was denominated
bcrLkaniis, and berquarius .

BERCHEM, or Berghem, Nicholas, in Biography,
an eminent painter of landfcapes and cattle, was born at
Haerkm in 1624, and formed for the praftice of his art un-
der fome of the bell mailers of his time. In his manner of
painting he waseafy and expeditious, and though he feleftcd
a very great variety and beauty of fites for his landfcapes, he
executed them with a fui-prifir.g degree of neatnefs and truth.
He potrefled a clear and ilrong judgment, and a facility in
exprefTing his ideas ; and therefore, in the lower kind of
fubjefts to which he directed his attention, his choice of
nature was judicious, and he gave to every fubjcit as much
beauty and elegance as it would admit. The leafing of his
trees is exqnifitely and freely touched : his fliies are clear; and
his clouds float lightly, as if fupported by air. The dif-
tinguifhing characters of the pictures of Berchem are the
breadth and jull dillnbution of the lights ; the grandeur of
his maffes of light and ihadow ; the natural eale and finipli-
city in the attitudes of his figures ; the jull degradation of
his dillances ; the brilliancy and harmony, as well as tranf-
parency, of his colouring ; the correCtnels and true perfpcc-
tive of his detign ; and the elegance of his compofition^ He
painted every part of his fubjecls fo well, as tu render it dilii-
cult to determine in which he excelled moll; his trees, build-
ings, water, rocks, hills, cattle, and figures, being all equal-
ly admirable. One of the moll capital pictures of this
niafler was painted for the principal inagiftiate of Dort, in
whofe family it is prefervcd ; it exhibits the profpect of a
mountainous country, enriched with a great variety of flieep,
oxen, goats, and ligiUvS, excellently pencilled, and moll
beautifully coloured. Berchem was indefatigable, partly
from his love of labour, and partly to gratify the avaricious
diipoiition of his wife, who never allowed him to relax; and
he painted, in the fummer months, from four in the morn-
ing till day light failed : in confequence of this clofe appli-
cation, his "piClnres were very numerous ; and yet at this
day they are rarely to be purcuafed, and always afl'ord a

very

B E R

very high price. T5erchem died in 16^!^ We have ftveral
etchings by this mailer, that are executed in a line, bold,
riallerly ftyle ; and from thefe John VilTcher feems to have
formed that adaiiruble llyle in which he engras'ed the copies
from Berchem's piclures. Pilkington and Strutt.

Bfrchem, in Geography, a town of Brabant; 4 miles
S. '\"v', of Raveftcin.

Berchem, or Bergen, a town of Germany, in the circle
of V/eftrjhalia, and duchy of JuHers ; 9 miles call of Juliers.

BlZRCHEROIT, or Bekkcoits, in Commerce, a weight
uffd at Archangel, and in all the Ruffian dominions. It is
equal to about 364 pounds Englifh avoirdupois.

BERCHET, Peter, in Biography, an hiftorical painter,
was born in France, in 1659, and placed, at the age of 15,
under the care of La Fofle, fo that in 3 years he was qua-
lified to be employed in the royal palaces. In 168 1, he came
over to England, and worked under Rambour, a French
painter of architecture. Berchet painted the ceiling in the
chapel of Trinity college, Oxford, the ftaircafe at the
duke of Schomberg's houfe in London, and the fummer-
houle at Ranclagh. His drawings in the Academy were
much approved. Towards the clofe of life he only painted
'fmall hillorical pieces, the fubjefts of which were taken from
fabulous hiftory ; and his lall performance was a Bacchana-
lian pifture, to which he afrixtd his name the day before he
died, in the year 1721. He occafionally amufcd himfelf
with the point. Pilkington and Strutt.

BERCHING, in Geography, a fmall town of Germany, in
the biihopi'ic of Eichllett, or Aiehlladt, feated on the river
Sulz.

BERCHORIUS, Bercheur, Peter, in Biography,
a learned divide and voluminous writer of the 14th century,
was born at the village of St. Pierre du Chemin, 3 leagues
from Poiftiers in France, and was conllituted grammatical
preceptor to the novices of the Bencdiiline monaftery at
Clugni, in the year 1340. He died prior of the Benedict
convent of St. Eloi at Paris, probably at an advanced age,
in the year 1362, as we learn from his epitaph in that mo-
naftery. Berchorius was one of thofe writers, who affected
to interpret alkgorically, not only texts of Scripture, but
alfo poetical fables and profane hiftories, which they arbi-
trarily applied to the explication or contirmation of the myf-
teries of Chriftianity. His three grand printed works are,
•' Reduftorium iSlorale fiiper totam Bibliam," in 26 books,
fnft printed Argentorat. 1473, fol. and containing all the
incidents and (lories in the Bible, reducedinto allegories:
" Repertorium, or Rediiftorium, Morale," in 14 books,
which is a dictionary of things, perfons, and places, all which
are fuppofed to be myftical, and are therefore e;:plained in
their moral and practical fenfe ; and " Diftionarnim ]VIo-
rale," in two parts, and feeming to be principally deligned
as a moral repertory for ftudents in theology. Thefe pieces
were all printed at a very early period; and a folio edition
of them was printed, in 3 volumes, at Venice, in 1583.
Berchorius was alfo the author of a comment on a profody,
called " DoftrinaleMttricum," which was ufed as a fchool-
book in France. Glafiius, in his " Philologia Sacra," writ-
ten about the year 1623, and of which a third edition was
printed at Francof. and Hamb. in 1653, afcribcs to this
author the famous work entitled " Gefta Romanorum ;"
the writer of which has for a long time remained unknown
to the moft diligent enquirers into Gothic literature. The
learned Mr. Thomas Warton concurs in this opinion, and
thinks it amply confirmed by the general coincidence of the
plan, manner, method, and extculion between the " Gefta
Romanorum," and the three works of Berchorius above-
rnentloned. He fuppofes it was writtes about the; year 1 340,

B E R

with a view of rendering the exercifcs cf his fcholars, in the
monatlery at Chigni, in Latimly, more agreeable and eafy,
by means of an entertaining Latin ilory-boek, capable
of being readily applied to Icffonj of religion. This piece
operated pov/erfuUy on the general body cf our old poetry,
and alforded a variety of inventions, not only to Chaucer,
Gower, and Lydgatc, but to their dillant fucctfibrs. It
was firft printed in the Gothic letter without date, and as it
is fuppofed, before or about the year I473,in folio ; and con-
tains i$i cliapters. The fecond edition was printed in the
fame or following year at Louvain, in 4to, and contains 181
chapters. Another edition was printed in folio, in ijfi^.
At the commencement of typography in England, a tranf-
lation of it in Engliih was printed by Wynkin de Worde,
and it was afterwards frequently reprinted. This work is
compiled fiom the obfolete Latin chronicles of the later
Roman, or rather German ftory, heightened by romantic
inventions, from legends of the faints, oriental apologues,
and many of the Shorter fictitious narratives, which came
into Europe with the Arabian literature, and were familiar
in the ages of ignorance and imagination. The claffics arc
fometimes cited for authorities ; but thefe are of the lower
order, fuch as Valerius Maximus, Macrobius, Aulus Gel-
lius, Seneca, Pliny, and Boethins. To every tale is fub-
joined a moralifation, reducing it into a Chriflian or moral
leffon. Walton's Hilt. Eng. Poetry, vol. iii.

BERCHTOLDSDORF, or Petersdorf, m Geogra-
phy, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Aullria, 6
miles fouth-wcft of Vienna.

BERCHTOLSGADEN, or Bergtolsgades, a pro-
voltfnip and principahty of Germany, in the circle of Bava-
ria, environed by the archbifhopric of Saltzburg, but exempt
from the jurifdidtion of that fee. It is wholly mountainous,
and contains two towns and a few villages, and alfo feveral
lakes. At Bergtolfgaden, as v/ell as at Hallein, in the prin-
cipality of Salf/burg, fait is found in its fofide llate. In
order to obtain it, large cavities, or chambers, are dug in
the mines, and filled with frefh water. Some of thefe are
fo large that the water muil ftand in them during two years
before it is futnciently impregnated with fait ; in others, this
procefs does not require more than a few weeks. When the
water is fatuiated, it is carried through the mountain by
pipes into a lefervoir, whence it is conveyed to the caul-
drons. Of thefe there are four at Hallein, and two at Berg-
tolfgaden, which are not above four leagues diftant from
each other. The fait annually made at the former of thefe
places, amounts to 400,000 quintals, and at the ktter to
160,000. Count Razoumowlki fuppofes (Hilt. et. Mem. de
la Scciete des Sciences Phyfiques de Laufanne, vol. iii. for
[787and 1788), that the mines at Hallein, and thofe at Berg-
tolfgaden, are parts of the fame bank of fiilt, which, in his
opinion, is a continuation of that at Gmund in Auftria,
about 8 leagues from Hallein ; and the iiTegularity of the
fliata feems to indicate that the connexion betweeu the two
mines rauft have been broken by fom.e violent convulfion.

BERCKEL, a town of Holland, 5 miles eaft of Delft.
— Alfo, a river of Germany, which rifes in the bilhopric of
Munfter, and runs into the LTcl at Zutphen.

BERCKSENBROECK, a town of Holland, 6 miles
north of Rotterdam.

BERD, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Oby,
near Berlkoi.

BERDA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of SpARtJS, that inha-
bits the Red fca. It is of a whitilh grey; lateral fcaks marked
in the Jiiiddle with a fingle tranfverfe brown band ; dorfal
fpines recumbent. Forik. Fn. -Arab. The body of this
fifli is oval : back gibbous, with pale bands j beneath white;
7, fcale»

B E R

Toalcs bi-oa^J, rounded, entire. The crown is naked, con-
vex, Hoping ; irij white ; noilrils large, Hiitar, with a conic
cirrus ; four loii^, conic, lubiilate, incifive teeth ; grinders
numerous, hemifpherical, thofe bcliind largcft ; upper lip
loni;, protraflilc ; gill-covers entire ; lateral line nearefl the
back ; fins brown, pectoral ones tranfparent and lanceolate ;
tail two-lobed. Gmelln.

Bf.rda, Cape, or Berdinskaya, in Geography, the cad
point of a lari^e bay of the fea of Azoph ; cape Wifarionova,
or Besfarionova, being the well point. Several rivers empty
themfelves into this bay. N.lat.46° 42'. E. long. 56° 24'.

BF.RDAA, a town of Alia, in Armenia, 160 miles eall
«f Erivan.

BERDANIEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Caramania ; 32 miles north of Alameh.

BERDASCIilR. SccBarsir.

BERDASH, in ylntiquUy, was a name formerly ufcd in
England for a certain kind of neck-drefs ; and hence a pei-
fon who made or fold fuch neckcloths was called a bcrdajher,
from which is derived our word halerdaftier.

BERDICZOW, in Geography, a decayed town of Po-
land, in the palatinate of Volhynia, 14S miles E.S.E. of
Lucko, and 324 S. W. of Warfaw.

BERDIN, or Berlin, in Conchology, the name by
■which the limpet, or pap-(hells, patella of Linn, is known on
the coafl of Normandy. It is alfo called in fome places her-
nacle, or hernicle.

BERDOA, in Geography, a province of Africa, in the
eallern divifion of the great defert or Sahara, conftituting
one of the Oafes or fertile iflands, which forms a part of
that extcnfive defert that feparates Egypt from Fezzan, and
contains the wandering tribe of Lebeta or Levata. It is
fituated to the north-eall of Agadez, and has Kuar or Kawar
to the fouth and eaft, to the north Augela, and the de-
fert of Baica, and to the well Fezzan. It extends north-
ward from N. ht. 25°, and lies between 20^ and 25° E.
long. ; but its cxaCl boundaries are not afcertained. Berdoa,
its capital, lies north of the mountains of Tibefti ; and, ac-
cording to Rennell's map, is placed in N. lat. 26^^ 32'. E.
lo:ig. 2t°35'.

BERE-ALSTON, though only a fmall inconfiderable
hamlet, in the parifh of Bcro-Fenis, Devonfliire, has the
privilege of returning two members to the Enghlh parlia-
ment. The right of elcclion is vefted in thofe pcrfons who
pofiefs land in the borough, and pay three-pence acknow-
ledgment to the lord of the manor, who varies the number
of eleAors at pleafure, by granting burgage tenures to his
own partisans only. The firft return of members for this
borough was in the 27th of Eliziheth. In the vicinity of
this place are fcveral lead mines ; but none of them produce
much ore, though in the time of Edward I. they were not
only very rich in this metal, but yielded a great quantity of
iilver. It is faid that 1 600 weight of the latter was obtained
in the courfe of three years.

BERECYNTHUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio,
with entire wings, black above, with a yellow marginal
band ; fix ocellar fpots on the underfide of the pollerior
pair. Fabricius. This is papilio berecynthia of Cramer, is
of a large fize, and inhabits Surinam.

BERECYNTIA, in ylndait Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Phrygia. Steph. Byz.

Berecyntia Regio, a country of Afia, towards the river
Sangar. Steph. Bvz.

^ BERECYNTIUS TraSui, a canton of Afia Minor, in
Caria. Pliny.

BERECYNTUS, a mountain of Afia Minor, in Phr)--
gia, confccratcd to the mother of the gods.

B E R

BERECZINA,in Geography, a river of Lithuania, whick
rifes in the palatinate of Vilna, and runs into the Nieraen,
16 miles north-eaft of Novogrodek.

BEREFIORD, a trading place and port of the ifland of
Iceland.

BEREGRA, or Bf.retra, in yJncient Geography, a
town of Italy, iu Picenum, at a fmall dittance north from
Interamna.

BEREGSZAZ, in Geography, a town of Hungary, 24
miles north of Zatmar. It gives name to a county, and
derives its appellation from a Saxon colony eftabliflied there.;
but its prefent inhabitants are Hungaiians.

BEREIA, a town of Africa, north of Sierra Leone,
at a fmall dillance from the coall. N. lat. 8" 58'. W. long.
12° 28'.

BEREILLY, or Barei.lv, a city of Hindoftan ; ia
the capital of Rohilcund, which was added to the dominions
of Oude in 1774. It lies about half way between Lucknow
and Delhi. N. lat. 28=^ 27'. E. long. 79" 45'. See Ba-

RELLY.

BERELOS, a lake of Egypt, between Damietta and
Rofetta ; about 32 miles long and ten broad in the middle,
but gradually contracting towards each end. It has within
it feveral illands — Alfo, a town of Egypt, 30 miles well
of Damietta.

BEREN, an ifland of Afia, 40 leagues weft from Corgo
ifland in the gulf of Baflbra.

Beren, or BiERON, a town of Silefia, in the province of
Ratibor ; 34 miles eaft of Ratibor.

BERENBORG, called alfo Joan Main ifland, an ifland
in the north feas, near the coaft of Eaft or Old Greenland.
N. lat. 71° 10'. W. long. 9° 19'.

BERENGARIAN.S, in Ecckfiajlkal Hijlory, a religious
feft, adhering to the opinions of Berengarius, who, in the
latter part of the eleventh century, a confiderablc time be-
fore Luther, oppofed the doftrine of tranfubftantiation, and
the real prcfence, ftrenuoufly maintained by Lanfranc and
Anfelm. See Berenger.

He is farther charged by the Romanifts with decrying
marriage, and maintaining the common ufe of all fort, of
women, and afferting baptifm of no effeCl.

His followers were divided on the head of the eucharift :
though they all agreed, that the bread and wine were not
eflentially changed, yet fome allowed, that the body and
blood of Chrift were contained iu them, though concealed
under an impanation : others denied any change at all, and
refolved the whole into figure ; others again allowed a
change in part ; and others an entire change, with this re-
ftridion, t'lat to thofe who prefentcd themfelves unworthily
it was changxd back again.

MabiUon has an exprefs differtation on the manifold con-
demnations of Berengarius, his retraftations, relapfes, and
repentance.

BERENGER, James, in Biography, a native of Carpi,
in Modena, irom whence he took his name, being much
more known by the name of Carpus, than by that of his
family, Berengarius ; one of the reftorers and improvers of
anatomy, was born about the cud of the fifteenth century.
He was initiated into the knowledge of furgcry by his father,
who pradifed that art, and had for his inftruclor in lan-
guages and philofophy, the celebrated Albertus Minuthis.
At a proper age he went to Bologna, and afterwards to Pa-
dua, where he filled for fome time the office of profeflbr of
anatomy. Returning in 15 18 to Bologna, he' was there
raifed to the fame office, which he continued to fill until
about the year 1525. While teaching here, he is faid to
have difieclcd upwards of an hundred human bodies: a
6 prodigious

B E R

prodigious number for the time, when the prejudice agair.ft
handling or diilurbing the dead was fo ftrong. To that cir-
cun-.ftance, aided by his known antipathy to the Spaniards,
perhaps may be attributed the ftory of his having diffeded
two of the natives of that countiy aUve, with the view of fee-
ing the motion of the bowels, and of his being on that ac-
count obliged to fly his country. A fimilar ftory had been
told of Herophilus, and was afterwards told of VefaHus. That
this, however, had been done by fomc anatomifts, or that
he was accufed of it, feems probable by his fpeaking of
fuch a practice in his commentary on the works of Mun-
dinus, with difguft and horror. He is with more reafon faid
10 have offended the minflters of religion by the levity a;id
indecency of his converfation on the fubjecl of his diffections,
and by the profligacy of his hft ; and on that account to
have been obliged to quit Bononia.

By his numerous dilleftions, he was enabled to correct
many erroneous opinions as to the ftrufture of the interior
pans of the body, which prevailed to his time, and thence
to pave the way for the further improvements made by Vefa-
lius, his immediate fucceffor. If he was not the inventor,
as Douglas calls him, he was one of the firll who ufed mer-
curial frittions in curing the venereal difeafe, by which he is
faid to have acquired a large fortune, which he left, at his
death, to the duke of Ferrara, to whofe territory he retired,
and where he dii-.l, about the year 1527. His works are,
" Commentaria, cum ampliffimis additionibus, fupra anato-
miam Mundini, cum textu ejus in priilinum nitorem re-
dafto," Bononia, 1521,410., containing, befides numerous
correftions of Mundinus, a prodigious number of anato-
mical facls, which bear abundant teftimwiy to his diligence
and ingenuity. " Ea omnia enarrare, qux retie videt (Hal-
ler fays), infinitum foret ;" and further on, " Invenio apud
hunc virum, tellimonium in-efragabile pro antiquo more, quo
cardinales teftes pontificis, nuper eledti, contredlarunt."
There are feveral rude engravings of the mufcles of the ab-
domen, and of other parts, in this volume. " IfagogK bre-
ves, perlucids et uberrimx in anatomiam humani corporis ad
fuoi-um fcholafticorum preces in lucem edits," Bonon. 1522,
4to. alfo with plates. Both thefe works have paflcd through
numerous editions. In 1 664, it was publilhcd in London,
with the title, " A Defcription of the Body of Man, being
a praftical Anatomy." He alfo publilhcd, in 1 5 1 8, 410.
Venet, " De Cranii Fraftura." Douglas. Bib. Anat.
Haller. Biblioth. Chirurg.

Berengeh, Berengarius, an eminent logician and
controverfialift, was a native of Tours in the eleventh
century, and having ftudied under Fulbert at Chartres,
he returned to Tours, where he was made principal of
the fchool of St. Martin, and treafurer of the church. From
Tours he removed to Angers, and became archdeacon of
that city. Diftinguifhed by his acute and fubtil genius, by
his extenfive learning, and by his pecuhar talents for contro-
verfy, as well as by the exemplary fanftity of his life and
manners, he was held in very high eftimation. At length,
however, he found reafon to deviate from the doftrines of
the church concerning the eucharift ; and in 1 045, he began
to maintain pubhcly the dotlrine of Scotus, in oppofition
to the opinions of Radbert ; and he periilled in teaching
that the bread and wine were not changed into the body and
blood of Chrill in the eucharift, but preferved their natural
and eflential qualities, and were merely figures and external
fymbols of the body and blood of our Saviour. Although
the church of Rome had not, in this century, adopted any
fettled and decided opinion concerning the nature and manner
©f Chrift'sprefence in the eucharift, the doftrine of Berenger
was not only oppofed by feveral doiSors in France and Gtr-
Vol. IV.

B E 11

many, but attacked with peculiar vehemence and fun,- by
the Roman pontiff Leo IX. who, in 1050, convened two
councils, one at Rome, and the other at Vercelli, in which
it was folemnly condemned ; and the book of Sccf.ss, from
which it was deduced, was committed to the flames. The
council of Paris, fummoned in the fame year by Henrj- I.,
concurred in its condemnation, and menaced Berenger, and
his numerous adherents, with all forts of evils, both fpiritual
and temporal. The herefiarch was deprived by Henry of all
his revenues ; but he continued for fjme time afterwards firm
and reiolutc in i.is adherence to the doftrine he had embraced,
and enjoyed unmolefted tranquilhty. The prevalence of his
dodtriue, notwithftanding the oppofition with which it en-
countered from the writings of its antagonifts, and particu-
larly from thofe of Anfclm and Lanfranc, arclibirfiops of
Canterbuiy, alarmed the church ; and two councils were
fummoned by Vidlor II. at Tours, in 1054, to exan>iiie
anew this dangerous doftrine. In one of thefe councils,
Hildebrand, afterwards pope Gregory VII. appeared as the
pope's legate, and took the lead in oppofing this new he-
refy. Berenger, who was prefent, was at length overpow-
ered by threats, and not only abandoned his opinions, but
folemnly abjured them, and made his peace with tiic church.
1 his abj'.'. ration, hovi-ever, was only an acl of timidity and
diflimulation ; for he foon after taui;ht the opinions he had
formerly profeflfed, though the dread of danger rendered hini
more circumfpei5l and cautious. As foon as Berenger's per-
fidy was announced to Nicholas II., the cxafperated pontifl"
fummoned him to Rome in 1 058, and in a council held there
the following year, he was fo terrified, that he declared hi»
readinefs to embrace and adhere to the doftrines which that
venerable affembly fiiould think proper to enjoin. Accord-
ingly, Humbert was employed by the pope and council to
draw up a confclTion of faith, which Berenger publicly
figned, and to which, by a folemn oath, he avowed his adhe-
rence. As foon as Berenger returned to France, and found
himfelf countenanced and protefted by his ancient patrons,
he exprefli;d his deteftation of the doftrines which he had
been obhged to profels at Rome, abjured them folemnly both
in his difcourfes and writings, and zealoufly inculcated his
former opinion. Pope Alexander II. attempted by footh-
ing and friendly expollulations to regain the apoftate ; but
his remonftrances were ineffcftual ; the controverfy was
prolonged for many years, and the followers of Berenger
continually increafed. As foon as Hildebrand was advanced
to the papal chair, he undertook to terminate the contro-
verfy j and with this view required Berenger, in 1078, to
repair to Rome. Towards the conclufion of this year, a
council was held in this city, and Berenger was permitted
to draw up a new confcffion of his faith, and to renounce
that which had been compofed by Humbert, and approved
by Nicholas II. and a Roman council. On this occafion
the perfecuted prelate made a declaration, confirmed by an
oath, that he would for the future adhere to the following
propofition : viz. " that the bread laid on the altar became,
after confecration, the true body of Chrift, which was born
of the Virgin, fuffered on the crofs, and now fits at the
right hand of the father ; and that the wine placed upon
the altar became, after confecration, the true blood whicB
flowed from the fide of Chriil." This declaration fatislied
the pontiff^, but was thought by the enemies of Berenger
to be too vague and equivocal. Gregory yielded to their
clamours; and at a council held at Rome, in 1079, a new
confcflSon of faith was drawn up, to which Berenger, after
reading and fubfcribing it, declared his affent by a folemn
oath. This confeffion cxprelfed his belief, " that the bread
and wine were, by the myfterious influence of the holy
E e prayer,

B E R

prarfii", and die words of ourrcdetmer, fubftantially changed
into the triir, proper, and vivifying body auti blood of Jefiis
Chrift ;" and this was followed by a folemn declaration,
" that the bread and wine, after confecrat'on, were converted
into the real body and blood of Chrill, not only in quality
of external fi^ns and facramental reprefentations, but in their
efPential properties, and in fubilantial reality." Gregory
difmiflcd him with the mod honourable tellimonies of his
friendlliip and liberality, and he returned to liis own coun-
try. B'.it Bi;renifcr, not conceiving himftlf bound by this
(Icclanition, publicly retrafttd the fentiments which he
had folemly avowed at Rome, and even compofed an clabo-
rate refutation of the docTxrine to which he had been com-
pelled to profcfs his affer.t. Gregory, who feems not to
have approved the lad confefTion impofed upon Berenger,
when appealed to, declined interfering, and took r<o meafurcs
tor moitlling him. From this time, i3erenger obforvcd a pro-
found iilcnee amidil the clamours of his incenfed adverfanes,
and made no reply to their bitter and repeated inveAlves.
At length, decaying with age, overpowered by the oppofi-
tion with which he had inceffantly ftruggled, and probably
deprelTed with the reprraches of his own mind for the pnfil-
lanimons and diflionell part he had acled, he abandoned all
his worldly concerns, and retired to the Hie of St. Cofme, in
the neighbourhood of Tours, where, in a courfe of peniten-
tial and pinus exercifes, he pafTed the fhort remainder of his
life ; and in loS8, he was releafed by death. On the minds
of the people, he left behind him a deep impreffion of his
extraordinary fanflity ; and an annual fervice is llill performed
for him in the church of St. Martin at Tours. His unftcady
conduct was unqueftionably very difgraceful to him ; and
there is reafon to believe that it embittered the reflections of
his retirement and clofing fcene. It is therefore a queflion
of little importance, whether he abandoned his original opi-
nion before his death, as the Roman catholic writers main-
tain, or whether he adhered to it in the laft period of his
life, as the protcftants, with greater probability, have af-
ferted. All his works, which were numerous, have been
loll ; except two letters, his three proftffions of faith, and
part of his treatife againft one of them. Cave's Hift. Lit.
torn, ii. p. 130. Mofheim'b Eccl. Hill. vol. ii. p. 559, Sec.
BERENICE, or Bernicf, a Jewifh queen, the dav.gh-
ter of Agrlppa the elder, and filler of Agrippa the younger,
kings of Judia. She was born about the year of Chrill
28, and at the age of 16 married her uncle Herod, king of
Chalcis. After her hufband's death, A. D. 48, (he was
fufpefted of having criminal intercourfe with her brother
Agrippa ; and in order to remove fufpicions, and to filence
rumours of this kind, (he confented to many Polemon, king
of Pontus and part of Cilicia, on condition of his embrac-
ing Judaifm. She lived with him, however, but a little
while, and returned to her brother, with whom fhe lived on
terms of intimacy, which fubjefted her to reproach. Juve-
nal refers to this inceftuous connexion (iat. vi. v. 155) :

" Deinde Adamas notiffimns, et Berenices

In digito fatlus pretiofior ; hunc dedit olim
Barbarus : incetla: dedit hunc Agrippa forori."
When Agrippa heard the difcourfe of St. Paul before
Feftus at Caefarea of Paleftine, Berenice was prtfent with
him. After the commencement of the Jewifh war in 67,
when Agrippa was driven from Jerufalem by the feditious
people, (lie remained for fome time after him, and interceded
for the Jews with the Roman governor Florus, by whom fhe
was treated with great difrcfpeft. She afterwards accom-
panied Agrippa to the army of Vcfpafian in Syria ; and
contrived, by coftly prcfents, to engage the good will of that
avaricious emperor as long as be lived. Her beayty aod 3d-

B E R

drefs had alfo captivated Tittis ; and on the death of Vefpa-
fian fhe follov/ed him to Rome. The emperor was nuich
attached to her, and difpofcd to make her his, quien ; but in
deference to the fentiments of the Roman peo])le, who dif-
likcd the idea of a foreign queen, and who well knew that
her cliaradlcr was not irreproachable, he dilmilfcd her, and
fent her awav to her own country. What became of her
afttrv.-ards hiftory does not inform us. Jof. Antiq. 1. xix.
XX. De Bell. Jud. l.ii. Tacit. Hill. l.ii. Cievicr. Gen. DA.
Berenice, was likewife the name of fcvcral Egyptian
and eattern queens. One of them, the wife of Ptolc:riy
Euergctes, king of Egypt, under an apprehenfion of the
danger to which he would be expoftd in his expedition to
Syria, made a vow to confecrate her hair, which was her
chief ornament, in cafe of his fafe return. When the prince
returned, not only in fafety, but crowned with glory and
fiiccefs, (he immediately cut off her hair, and dedicated it
to the gods in the temple which Ptolemy Philadelphus had
built in honour of his beloved Arfinoe, under the name of the
Zephyrian Venus, on the promontory of Zephyrium in Cy-
prus ; but this hair being loll by the negligence ot the priefls,
Ptolemy was enraged, and threatened to punifh them. Upoa
which Conon of Samos, a flattering courtier, as well as
fl'iilful mathematician, with a view to appcafe the king's
anger, and to conciliate his favour, affirmed, that the queen's
locks had been conveyed to heaven, and pointed out ftven
flars near the tail of the lion, which till that time had not
belonged to any conftcllation, declaring that they were the
oueen'a hair. Several other aflronomeis confirmed the afle-
veration of Conon ; and hence " Coma Berenices," or Be-
renice's hair, became one of the conllcllations.

Callimachus, who lived at that time, and had been a great
favourite of Philadelphus, wrote a hymn on the hair of Be-
renice, which was afterwards tranflated by Catullus, whofe
verfion is extant among his other performances. Berenice,
according to Plutarch (In Qiissll. Gi:sc.)and Stephanus By-
zantinus (verb. B=;Oia), was formed from "t^jTOx/i, a bearer of
victory, by the Macedonians, who exchanged Ph into B.

Berenice, in EtUomology, the nam.e under which Cramer
{igUKs papi/io erippus of Fabricius and Gniclin.

Berenice, in jlitcient Geography, the name of feveral
cities, of which Orttlius reckons nine. The principal are
as follow: viz. a town of Thrace: — another of AGa Minor
in Cdicia : — another of Afia, called PcUa in Ccelo-Syria;
all three mentioned by Stephanus Byzantinus: — another
of Africa in Cyrenaica, near the mouth of the river La-
thon, or Lethon, where it difcharges itfelf into the bay of
Syrtis, anciently called Hefperis, and Hefperides, now Be-
renice: near this town was fituated the garden of Hefperides,
ai:d a wood flill marks its pofition, in a country dellitute of
trees: — another, a maritime town of Arabia Pctrsea, fituated
at the extremity of the Arabian gulf, or Red fea, the pro-
montory of Heroopolis, and that of Strobilus, according to
Pompoiiius Mela; it is mentioned by Jofephus, in his account
of Solomon's fleet, who fays, it was not far from the city
of iElana, and that it was formerly called AlTingaber, or
Eziongaber, in which pofition of it M. d'Anville acquiefces :
— another,a famous town of Egypt, fonamed from the mother
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who founded it on the weflem fide
of the Red fea, and nearly under the tropic, about 450 miles
below Suez, in order to avoid the flow and dangerous naviga.
tion of the upper part of the Red fea ; this city foon became
the ftaple of the trade with India. From Berenice the goods
were tranfported by land, to Coptos, a city three miles dif-
tant from the Nile, but which had a communication with
that river by a navigable canal, of which there are flill foma
reinaine, and thence carried down the ftream of the Nile,

and.

B E R

and its canals, to Alexandria. The dillance bctv.-een Be-
renice and Coptos, according to Pliny (Nat. Hill. I. vi.
c. 29.)confirmcd by the itinerary' of Antonine, and approved
by M. d'AnviUe, was 258 Roman miles; and the road lay
through the defert of Thebais, almoft entirely deflitute of
water. But the attention of a powerful monarch made pro-
rifion for fupplying this want, by fearching for fprings, and
wherever thtfe were found he built inns, or more properly,
in the eaftern ftyle, (^aravanferas, for the accommodation of
merchants. See Strabo. Geog. 1. xvii. p. 1 157. D. 1169.
In this channel the intercOurfe between the eaft and welt
continued to be carried on during 250 years, as long as
Egypt remained an independent kingdom. Berenice con-
tinued to be the port of out-fit for the Roman Eaft India
trade, in thetime of Pliny (A. D. 79.) who details, in hii 6th
book, the account of the navigation to India, and who in-
formsus, thatit coft 50 millions of fefterces, orabout 440,000!,
every year. From Berenice it was reckoned 30 days' navi-
gation down the Red fea to Oceiis (Gella) juft within the
ilrait of Babelmandel. From Oceiis to Muziris, the firlh
port of merchandize in India, was 40 days' fail : fo that
as they left Beiemce about Midfummer, they might arrive
in India in the latter end of Augnft, when the violence or
the S. W. monfoou was abated, and the coalting navigation
fafe and cafy, Thefe voyages were firll made by coalling
ah)ng the Arabian fhorc, to t!ie promontory Syagrus (now
cape Rafalgate, ) and thei'.ce along the coall of Perfia, either
dirtdlly to Pattala (now Tatta,) at the head of the lower
Delta of the Indies, or to fome other emporium on the wc!t
cna'l of India. Afterwards, a fhorter and fafer courfe was
difcovered ; and from cape Rafalgate vefllls failed in a direcl
courfe to Zizerus, which, according to major Rennell, was
a port on the northern part of the Malabar coaft. In a fub-
fcqnent period, a direft courfe was purfued from the outlet
of the Rt-d fea to Muziris. It has not been accurately nfcer-
tained, what were the other ports in India which the mer-
chants from Berenice frequented, when that trade was firft
opened ; but it is probable, that as their vedels were of
fnall burden, and kept near the coaft, their voyages were
eircumfcribed within vtiy narrow limits, and that under the
Ptolemies, no confiderable progrefs was made in the difcovery
of India. Rennell's Mem. Introd. p. 35 — 37. Robert-
fon's Hill. Difq. concerning India, p. 46, occ. — Another
Berenice was a town of Africa, on the Red fea, fituate more
to the louth than the preceding, in the country of the Tro-
glodytes, at the entrance of the Red fea, near the ftrait of
Babel Mandel, known by the epithet of " Epidiris:" — ano-
ther, denominated by Pliny (1. vi. c. 29.) " Pancl;ryfos,"
from the gold dug in its vicinity ; and by Strabo, xk??- IxjSxf,
jiixta Sains, on the fame coaft ; transferred by Hardouin to
Arabia Felix, but mentioned by Strabo and Pliny in con-
neftion with the country of the Troglodytes.

BERENICE'S Hair, in Afironomy. See Berekice
al'yve, and Coma Berenices.

BERENTHA, \\\/lnaentGeooraphy,-!i{m?i\\x.o\\v\ of Pelo-
ponnefus in Arcadia, mentioned by Stcp.Byz. and Paufanias.

BERENTHEATE, a fmall river of Peloponnefus in
Arcadia, that difcharged itfelf into the Alpheus. Paufanias.

BERENTZ, in Geograpl<y,^ town andcaftle of Hungary;
2'j miles N. N. E. of Prelburg.

BERES, in Andent Geography, a town of Thrace. Steph.
Byz.

BERESKY, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Braclaw ; 40 miles S. E. of Braclaw.

BERESNA, or Beresin, a diftrift and town of Tcher-
nigof in Ruffia, fituated on the Uefna, 24 milej E.N.E. of
Tchernigof.

B E R

BERESOF, or Beresow, a diftrifl of the province of
Tobolflc in Ruffia, in the country of the Samoiedes, fitu-
ated on the river SofTva, which falls into the Oby; and
bounded to the north by theftiaits of Waygats ; on the
eaft by the Ural mountains ; on the fouth by the river
Konda, and a large bay of the Frozen ocean, which runs into
the land towards the fouth, and feparatcs near the 66th de-
gree of north latitude, into two parts, one of which is called
the Oblkaia Guba, or bay of Oby, and the other Tazowf-
kaia Guba, or the bay of Tazow. Into the former the
river Oby empties itfelf, and into the latter the Taz; and
from thefe two rivers the bays derive their names. Th4i
diftria was added to the Ruffian empire by the czar Gabriel,
in 1530, long before the other parts of Siberia were con-
quered. The town of Berefof is fituated on the weft fide of
the river Oby, 372 miles N. N. W. of Toboldc. N. !at.
64°. E. long. 6f 14'. This diftria is famous for its gold
mines, in the mineral mountains of Ural, opened in 1754,
and affording annually 3, 4, 5, or 6, and in later years 7 or
8 pood of gold. From the commencement of the work, in
1754, tin the year 1788, during an interval of 34 years, the
quantity of about 120 pood has been generally gained, which,
eftimated in value, amounts to about 1,193,000 rubles, and
after deducting the cofts, to above 480,000 net profit.
Taking the gold and filver here obtained, according to its
ftandard in coinage, and balancing it with the expences
paid in copper money, according to its true value, a profit
accrues of nearly 800,000 rubles. Tooke's \'iew of Ruffia,
vi)l. iii. p. 256.

Beresof, is alfo a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Olonetz. N. lat. 64^ 15'. E. long. 30^ 34'.

BERETELSKO, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Volhynia ; 24 miles S. S. W. of Lucko.

BERETHALOM, or Birthelem, a fpaciuus town of
Tranfylvania, in the diftrid of Weinland, which is the re-
fidence of the Proteftant bifliop. The church is feated on a
high rock, and its vicinity produces good wine.

BERETZHAUSEN, a town of Germany, feated on
the Laber, in the circle of Bavaria, a^d principality of Ne%i-
burg; 12 miles W. N. \V. of Ratift^on.

BEREWTCHA, or Berewica, in our Old Writers, de-
notes a village or hamlet belonging to fome tov/n or manor,
lituate at a diftance from it.

The word frequently occurs in Doomfday-book : IJix
ftmt berewichiE cjufdein manerii.

BEREZA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Kiof; 30 miles W. of Bial-.cerkiew. — Alfo, a
town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Polefia, and terri-
tory of Brztik ; 56 miles E.N.E. of Brzelk. In this place
the Carthufians have a convent.

BEREZEC, a tov,-n of Little or Red Ruffia, in the pa-
latinate of Chelin ; 22 miles eaft of Chclm.

BEREZEN, a river which runs into the Black fea ; za
miles weft of Oczakow,

BEREZENE, a townof Poland, in the palatifiate of Vol-
hynia. N. lat. 51'' 45'. E.long. 25° 30'.

BEREZElMvA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Saratof, on the weft fide of the Volga; 124 miles S. of
Saratof.

BEREZINA, or Bere7.ysa, a river of Lithuania, which
rifes in the palatinate of Polotflc, and runs into the Druec,
in N. lat. 52° 18'. E. long. 30" 55'. This river has been
erroneoufly laid down, by fome modern geographers, as form-
ing the new boundary between Ruffia and Poland.

Berez IN A,a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Minfk,
near the fource of the river of the lame name ; 44 miles N. E.
ofMinfiv. N. lat. 54" 28'. E.long. 28" 39'.

E e 2 BERE-

B E R

BEREZINSKOT, a town of Siberia, on the north fide
of the Irti(h ; 40 miles E. of Tobolfk.

BEREZNA, a town of Ruffia, in the diftrift of Kargapol,

featcd on the rivtr Onei,'a. N. lat. 62° 18'. E. long.3«" 5'.

BEREZNE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-

bynia, near the river Siucz. N. lat. 5 i" 10'. E. long. 26° 52'.

BEREZNIKI, a to'.vn of Lithuania, in the palatinate

uf Troki ; 40 miles N. N. W. of Troki.

BEREZOF. See Beresof.

BEREZOVOI, a fortrtfs of Afiatic Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Orenburjr, on the Uvcliia, 240 miles eaft of
Ufa, and 6S S. E. of Tchcliabinfk.

BEREZOVSKOI, a fortrefs of Afiatic Ruflia, in the
government of Orenburg, on the Ural, 140 miles E.N.E.
of Orenburg.

BER-FISCH, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Ger-
mans to the common perch.

BERG, Matthvs Van-den, in Biography, a painter of
portrait and hillory, was born at Ypres in 1615, and, as one
of the difcipks of Rubens, he obtained fome dillinftion.
In his drawina; he was correft, and being affiduous in dc-
iigning after the life, and after the bed models, piftures of
his own invention are uncommon ; although excellent copies
after the finiihed piftures of his mailer are numerous. He
died in 1687. Pilkin^ton.

BtRG, in Geography, a duchy of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, cilL-d 'in Latin " Ducatiis Montenfis," berg
and mons being fynonymoiis, and denoting mountain or hill,
is bounded on the well and fouth by the archbifliopric of
Cologn, from which it is feparated by the Rhine ; on the
north by the duchy of Cleves ; and on the cad by Naflau-
Siegen, the duchy of Weftphalia, and the county of Mark.
It is about 72 miles long, and fr;im 10 to 26 in breadth.
The country, which upTu tlie whole is mountainous, is,
neverthclefs, along the Rhine flat, very fertile, and produces
com in abundance j on the hills the inhabitants cultivate
vines, and the higher trafls are covered with extenfive
forefts; and the vallies afford excellent padure. In this
duchy there are mines of lead, iro:;, and coal ; its principal
manufafturcs art fwords, knives, and other articles of iron
audfteel; and alfo thofe of cloth, ribbands, and handker-
chiefs. The principal rivers are the Rhine, which flowc
to the e^il of this co;;ntry, the Wippcr, tiie Sieg, and
Ruhr. Its capital is Durfeldorf ; and its other principal
towns are Elberfcld, Gemark, Lennep, Rattingen, and So-
lingen. Hoeck computes the number of inhabitants to be
261,504. Render (Tour, vol. ii. p. 294.) fays, that this
duchy contains 9 cities, 8 market towns, 35,942 hearths,
202 churches, 44,646 Calvinills, 36,807 Lutherans, and
1,300 Jews: and he adds, that this duchy, and that of
Juliers, contain a number of manufafturcrs, who are com-
puted to be about 15^,000. The duchy of Berg belonged
to the eledor palatine ; but in the year 1795, it was en-
tirely over-run by the French. Sec Juliers.
Bf.rg. See IJERGUEf.

Berg Rcichinjlc'in, or Knfchperjk't Hory, a royal town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Prachalitz, fcated on a mountam,
iu which are mines of filvpr, 20 miles Wed of Prachalitx.

BERG A, a town of Norway, 60 miles E.N.E. of Chrif-
liana. N.lat. 59° 50'. E. long. 9° 38'. — Alfo, a fmall town
of Spain, in Catalonia, featcd on the river Llobregat. —
Alfo, a town of Germany, in the circle of Neuiladt, and
prefe'flurate of Weyda, fcated on the Elder, 5 miles Weft
ofWevda.

BERGAMASCO, or Bergamo, a country of Italy,
being part of Lombardy, and belonging to the ilates of
Vtnice, is boiir.ded on the north by the Vahehne, oa the

B E R

eaftbv the Brei'ciano, on the fouth by the Cremafco, and on
the weft by the Milancfe. It extends about 36 league$
from north to fouth, and 30 from eaft to weft. Towards
the north it is mountainous and uncultivated, but the vici-
nity of Bergamo, its capital, is fertile. Some of its vaUies
produce wine and oil ; others are barren. In tlie mountains
are mines of iron, and quannes of marble and of ftones. The
inhabitants are inclined to corpulency, and are fubjecl to
the goitre ; neverthclefs, they are indullrious, and intelligent
in commerce, and carry on a confiderable traffic in iron,
wool, carpets, and tapeftiy, wlrcli they manufadure ; cattle,
marble, and mill-lloiies. Their language is a very corrupt
Italian. Berganiafco now belongs to the Cifalpine repubhc.
BERGAMO, James Philip ue, in Biography, an Au-
gudin monk, was born at Bergamo in 1434, and wrote a
" Clnonicle" in Latin, from the creation of the world, to
tKe year 1503, and " Treatife of Ilhiftrious Women." He
died at the place of his nativity in 15 18. Gen. Dift.

Bergamo, anciently Bergcmum, in Geography, a fortified
city of Italy, and capital of Bcrgainafco, is feated on feveral
hills, at the bottum of which are fome handfome fuburbs.
Between the city and the ftrong cadle on the mountain, is a
fubteiTaneous communication. Bergamo is the fee of a
bilhop, fuffragan of Milan, and contains 13 parifh churches,
12 convents for men, 10 for women, and about 30,000 in-
habitant!. The old church of mingled Gothic and Gre-
cian architedure, contains feveral valuable pidures, and de-
ferves notice. It is a place of confiderable trade, and has
a large fair on St. Bartholomew's day, which is reforted to
by a great number of merchants from other parts of Italy,
Germany, and Swifferland. The principal articles of com-
merce are wool and filk ; and the ferges andtapeftry of this
place have been celebrated. Their filks equal thofe of
Turin. The inhabitants are diligent and active, and by
their indudry, render fertile the fandy environs of the town.
Bergamo is 25 miles N. E. of Milan, and 26 N. W. of
Brelcia. N. lat. 45° 42'. E. long, c/ 38'.

Bergamo, a name given by the Turks to the ancient
Pergamus.

BERGAMOT, in Botany, cedrat or hergamrA citron-tree,
the Citrus mella-rofa of Lamarck, and a variety of the
Citrus medica of Linnaeus. It is didinguifiied from the
common citron-tree by its leaf, which has the odour of the
rofc, by its fruit, which is red, and by the pidil of its flower,
which is fhort. The fruit has a fine tafte and fmell ; and its
effcntiiil oil is in high tfteem as a perfume.

Br. RGAMOr, Oil, or EJJeiice of, is a fragrant effential oil
procured from the outer rind of the bergamot orange, and
prepared in a very large quantity for the table and perfumery
in the fouth of France, and cfpecially in Italy and Sicily.
There are feveral other fpecies of oranges ufed for this pur-
pofe, but the bergamot is edeemed the mod fragrant.

As the oil exids pure and ready fonned in the orange
peel, being fimply depofitcd in fmall cells, the extradion is
very eafy. There are two methods of procuring it, either
by didillaticn, as with all other eflential oils, (for which, fee
the article Oil Ef-ntial) or by exprelTion. The latter is
in fome rcfped the bed, as the oil is not liable to be altered
by heat. Seftini relates, that in Sicily, a vad quantity of
the oil is procured fimply by fquetzing the peel in the hand,
and holding a fmall piece of fponge to the furface, which
imbibes the oil as fad as it flows out ; when the fponge is
full, its contents are prefled out into a veffel in which the
oil is coUcded. It is not eafy to imagine a more indolent
and inartificial method : but in Italy, and the fouth of
France, the orange peels are fird torn to pieces on a fmall
machine ftuck over with nails, with the points projeding,

like

B E R

like a carding mill, wlieieby they are entirely torn to pieces,
from which much of their oil flows out on the fmaU mill, and
is conduded away by a channel cut for the piirpofe. leadincr
to a large bottle, where it is collected. After this, the peel,
now in a pulpy ftate, is ftrongly compreifed between two
plates of glafs, and the remainder of the oil is forced out.
This laft being mixed with the other parts of the pulp, is at
firll turbid, but gets clear by rcpofc.

Thcfe expr.fTcd effential oils, or as they hare fometimes
been diftinguifhed by the term ejjences, are more fragrant
than the oils prepared by dillillation, but being mixed with
a little m\icilagc, they are fomewhat thicker, and do not
keep quite fo long as the diftillcd. The Sicilian method of
preparing tlie efl'ence by hand, though attended with great
wafte of materials, certainly affords a purer oil, than where
a mill and prefs are ufed.

If the pulp, remaining after prefTure, is mixed with fpirit
of wine and dillilled, an addition of water to the diltilled
fpirit feparates an additional quantity of the oil, and kaves
the liquor highly flavoured with its exquifite fcent.

Beaume obtained two ounces of the oil by diftillation,
from two pounds of the peel of lemons, and probably the
bergamot is yielded in fomewhat fimilar proportion. Beaume.
Murray. — Encycl. Arts. & Met. tom.vii.

There is likewife a kind of fnuiT of the fame name, which
is only clean tobacco, with a little of the elfence rubbed intoit.

Bergamot, in Commerce, is alfo the denomination of a
coarfe tapeftiy, manufa&ured with flocks of filks, wool, cot-
ton, hemp, ox, cow, or goats hair, and fuppofed to be in-
vented by the people of Bergam.o in Italy.

BERGANDER, in Ornithology, a name by whicli fome
have called xSxq. Jlihldrale or burrough duck, a very beautiful
fpecies of duck, common on the Lancafliire, and fome other
coafts of England ; but not in much elleem for eating.
This is anas tardona of Linnasus, which fee.

BERGARA, in Geography. See Vergura.

BERGASE, a town of Romania, in European Turkey,
feated on the Earifla. N. lat. 41° 21'. E. long. 27° 24'.

BERGBIETHEIM, a large market town of France,
in the department of the Lower Rhine, and diflrict of
Dachflein.

BERGEN, DiRK Vanden, in Biography, was born at
Haerlem, and was reckoned one of the bed difciples of
Adrian Vandervelde. His colouring is more glowing than
that of hio niatler ; but his cattle, and other objeds, are lefs
corie6tly drawn. He fpent fome time in England ; but
not fucceeding, returned to his own country, and for want
of economy, died poor in 16S9. Pilkington.

Bergen, Charles Augustus de, fon of George Ber-
een, proftiTor of medicine in the univerfity of Frankfort
on the Oder, was born Aug. 11, 1714. After being
initiated by his father into the knowledge of anatomy and
medicine, he was fent to Ltyden, where he ftudied under
Boerhaave and Albinus, and thence, to complete his educa-
tion, to Pari?, and to Strafburg. In 1734, being thought
qualified to affift his father, he recalled liim to Frankfort,
where he was made doftor, and the year following, profeflbr
in medicine. On the death of his father in 1738, he was
promoted to the chairs of proftffor of anatomy and botany.
With what zeal and ability he filled thofe oflices, his nume-
rous, learned, and ingenious diflertations on thofe fubjecls
evince. In 1744, he was appointed to fucceed Gcelichcs
as reader in theraupeutics and pathology, which pofl he
filled to the time of his death, Odlober 7, 1760.

His works, confifting chiefly of academical differtations,
were coUefted by Haller, and pubhihed with his " Thcfes
Anatomies:." The titles of a few of them follow. For the
remainder, fee Bib. Anat. et Botan. Haller. " De nervo

B E R

intercoilaii," 1731 ;

" Icon nova ventriculonim Cerebri,"
1734 ; " Mcthodus Cranii Offa differendi, et machine hunc
in finem conftniftrE per figuras, lignoinc'fas, dclineatio," 1741;
" Flora Francofurtuna, facili modo claborata, &c." 1750.

Berg FN, cr B^rghjn, in Latin Berga, in Geography, the
capital of Norway, and of the province of Bergcnhuys, was
founded in the year 1 069 or 1070. It is a fe.i-port town,
feated in the middle of a valley, and forming a kind of femi-
circle round ? fmall gnlf of the fea, called by the inhabitants
Waag. On the land fide it is defended by high mor.ntains,
conilantly overhung with clouds, which defcend upon the
town in frequent rains ; and towards the fea by fev.-ral for-
tifications. All the churches and puVilic edifices, as well as
many of the dwelling houfes, are built of (lone. The moll
remarkable buildinjis are the caflle, and the cathedral fchool,
founded in 1554. This city carries on a large trade in all
kinds of fiih, fifh oil, tallow, tar, hides, and timber, which are
brought from the northern parts of the kingdom, and ex-
ported from hence. The returns confift chiefly in corn and
foreign commodities. Bergen was formerly connected with
the Hans towns, and enjoyed the privilege of coining til!
the year 1575. The origin of its commerce was owii.g to
the merchants of the Hanfeatic league ; fifty-eight (lorc-
houfcs are (lill to be feen on the quays, which were eila-
blifhed by thofe merchants for the convenience of their ex-
portation of fifh. They had alfo a particular court here, tlic
dccifions of which tended to exclude the native inhab.tants
from all fhare'in the trade ; but they were at length entirely
expelled, chiefly by the vigour of a bailiff, Walkeiidorf".
This city, being chiefly conllrucled of wood, has been fub-
jcft to frequent conflagrations, as in 1428, wlien eleven
pariOi churches were entirely confiimed, and alfo in 14-2,
1623, 1640, 1702, 1756, and 1771, on which laft cccafion,
the flames, it is faid, were vifible in the ifles of Shetland, or
at lealf, the red refleclion in the Iky. It has now only
four parilh churches, three Danilh, and one German, to-
gether with fome private chapels. The population is com-
puted at 19 or 20,000. The harbour is reckoned one of
the befl in Europe. Bergen poffefles a very laudable inili-
tution for the encouragement of the ufeful arts. N. lat.
60° 23'. E. long. 5° 33'.

Bergen, Berghen, or Bergenhuys, the moft weflerly
province of Norway, fituate between Aggcrhuus ^nd the
northern ocean. It is about fixty leagues long, and 7 wide.
Its capital is Bergen. This province, or diocefe, is very
populous, and is remarkable for having 7 marble quarries.
It includes 7 vogteys or diflrids, and the fame number of
provoflfliips. The vogteys are Haardanger, Sundhard-Lehn,
Nord-hord Lehn, Sogn, or Sygna-Filke, Sundiiord, Nord-
fiord, and Sundmor.

Berges, a county of America, in New Jei-fey, on Hud-
fon river, lies oppofite to New York on the eail, and was
firft planted by the Dutch from New York. It is a moun-
tainous country, and its extent is about 30 miles long a!;d
25 broad ; forming part of the eallern and northern extre-
mities of the flate, and at its north-v.-eftern extremity meet-
ing the north-eaflern part of Sufilx county. Berj,>-en con-
tains 6 townfliips, the chief of which are Bergen and Hac-
kinfack, and 12,601 inhabitants, including 2501 flavts.
Here arc 7 Dutch Calvinilt churches, and z of Dutch Lu-
therans.

Bergen is the fliire town of the above county, and lies
furrounded by water, except on the nortli. It is fcparated
by the Hudton river, from New York, at the diflance of
3 miles ; on the fouth, a ULnow channel lies between it
and Staten ifland ; and on the weft, it has Hackinfack river.
The inhabitants are chiefly defctndauts of the Dutch fet-

tlcrs.

Bergen,

B E R

Y^ZKCi^iNeci, is the fouthcin extremity of the aboJe town-

fiiip.

Dergin, a town of GermanVi in tlie circle of the Upper
Rhine, and principality of Hanaii Mun/.L-nbcrjj. The en-
virons produce excellent wine. — Alfo, a tjiwii of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxonyi and capital of the ifle of
Rngen ; its ancient name was Gora. It is fituatcd in the
cent re c^( the idand, where are held the tribunals of Swedidi
PnnKranla. N. lat. 54.° 28'. E. long. 13° 40'.

Bergen on the Dumnif, a town of Germany, in Lower Sax-
onv, and principality of Zell, 12 miles S. W. of Daimeberg.
BERGENHUYS. See Bergls, /uj>ra.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a fea-port town of Dutch Bra-
ba'it, featcd on an eminence, in the middle of a morafs, near
the eallern fhorc of Zoom, at its jnndion with the Scheldt.
Jt was lirll Inrromidcd by a wail in 1287,' by the firil lord of
the town, and eredled into a marquifate by the emperor
Charles V. in 1533. The church, wliich is a beautiful ilruc-
ture, was made collegiate in 1442. The houfes arc well
built, and the market place? and fqnarcs handfome and fpa-
cious. It has a good trail of land under its jurifdittion,
with feveral villages, and lome iflands in the Scheldt. This
place, naturally llrong on account of the moraflt-s that fecure
it, was regulaily fortified in 1629, and eileemed nearly im-
pieiTuable. The fortifications are reckoned the mailer-piece
of that great engineer Coehorn. It was uniuccefstully be-
fugcd by the prince of Parma in 1588, and alfo by the mar-
quis of Spinola in 1622. In 1746, the marechal Saxe de-
puted count Lowendahl to lay fiege to it with 36,000 men ;
and after perfevering attacks, and a vigorous, obftinate de-
fence, in which many lives were lott, it was furrtndered to
the French, who became mailers of the whole navigation of
the Scheldt. At the peace of Aix-la-ChapcUe, it was ref-
torcd to the Dutch. It is diftant 18 miles N.N.W. from
Antwerp. N. lat. 51" 30' E. long. 4° 15'.

BERGENTE, in Ornithology, one of the names oi anas
m,irili7. (Scaup. Duck.) Blocb, bffch derberl naturf. ^c-

BERGERA, fo called from Chiiil. Job. Berger, profcf-
forat Kicl,in ^'y/(7nv- Auth. D. Konig. Lin. gen. Schreb.
n. 7 1 8. Clafs and Order, decandria monogyiiia. Gen. Ciiar. Cal.
perianth, five-parted, very fniall, acute, fpreading, peimanent.
Cor. petals five, oblong, bluntifh, fpreading. Slam, filaments
ten, five alternately fiiorter ; anthers round. Piji. germ
roundifli, fupcrior ; (lyle filiform, club-(haped ; ftigma tur-
binate, fliining, with tranfverfc grooves. Pir. berry fubglo-
bular, one-ceiled. Seeds two.

EIT. Char. Old. five-parted. Pet. five ; Icrry fubglobular,
one-cellid, with tivo feeds.

Species, i. M. Koenigii. Lin. MantilT. 563. A leafy tree,
with the bark of alder. A native of the Eall Indies.
Marty n.

BERGERAC, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diilrift, in the department of the Dordogne ;
beautifully fituatc in an extenfive plain on the Dordogne,
which divides it into two towns, called " St. Martin," and
" St. Magdelaine." It is a rich, commercial, and populous
town, containing about 8540 inhabitants. In the canton are
14,140. The territorial extent comprehends 175 kiliome-
lies, and the number of the communes is 12. Before the
revocation of the edift of Nantes, it is faid there were 40,000
Protellants in this town and neighbourhood. N.lat. 44" 51'.
E. long. 0° 37'.

BERGFINK, in Ornithology, the name of fringiUa monli-
Jringilla, in the Hitt. Birds. Frifch,fandcr nfitiirf.'^c.

BERGGANS, (Kolbe) the mountain goole, anas mon-
lana. Ginelin.

BERGGIEFZHUBEL, or Berg Gieshubf.l, in Geo-
graphy, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony,

6

B E R

and margraviate of Meiflen, near which are warm medicinal
fpriugs, 6 miles foulh of Pirna.

BERGH, or Berghland, an ifland in the Indian fea,
north of Naffau ifland, and Ibuth-wcil of the illand of Su-
matra. S. lat. 2^ 50'. E. long. ioo\

BERGHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and county of Waldcck.and by thenew French
diil'ribution, the chief place of a canton, in the department of
Rotr, containing 469 inhabitants, and the popuLition ol the
canton is eitimated at 10,365 ; 4 miles S. E. of \V'aldtck.

BERGHEM, in Biography. See Berchem.

BERGHIRI, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the pro-
vince of Kurdillan, 70 miles S. E. of Betlis.

BERGHMOT, or Bergmote, vulgarly barraote, form-
ed from the Saxon lerg, mons ; and mote, conventus, aJJ'emlly,
or tnceting. See Barghmote.

BERGLAX, in Ichthyology, one of the fynonyraous
jizmes of corpyhirna riipe/lris. Strom. Sondm.

BERGIA", fo called from P. J. Bergius, M.D. profef-
for of natural hillory at Stockholm, in Botany. Lin. gen.
Reich, p. 631. Schreb. 791. Jul!". 301. Clafs and Order,
decandria pentngvnia. Nat. Ord. Succuleiitit. Caryophylks, Jufl.
Gen. Char. Cal. perianth, five-parted, Ipreadnig ; leaflets
lanceolate, permanent. Cor. jietals five, oblong, Ipreading,
the length of the calyx. Stam. filaments ten, bridle-fliapcd,
of middling length ; antliers roundifli. PiJl. germ roundini,
fuperior ; ilyles five, very flioit, approximating; itigmas
fimple, permanent. Per. capfule finiple, fubglobular, mucro-
nate, with five little fvvellings, five-celled, five-valvtd ; valves
ovate, flat, opening along the furrows, permanent, Ipreading
very widely. Seeds numerous, minute.

Efl". Char. Cal. five-parted ; Pet. five ; Capf. one, glo-
bular, with fwcllings, five-celled, five-valved ; valves refem-
bling petals ; Seeds very many.

Species, I. Yi. capenfts. Lin. Syft. 431. Reich. 2. 386.
Suppl. 243. Mant. 241. Pola-tsjira, Rheed. Mai. 9. 153.
t. 78. " Leaves lanceolate, or elliptic, flowers in whorls."
This has the ilature of Ammonia. A native of Tranqucbar,
in the Eail Indies, and therefore mifnam.cd Capcnf.s. The
valves of the capfule, continuing after it is ripe, form a kind
of five-petalled whetl-fliaped flower. 2. Y>. glomerata. Lin.
Syll. 431. Supp!. 243. " Leaves obovate, crenulato,
flowers glomerate." Found at tlie cape of Good Hope
by Bergius. Marty n.

BERGIER, Nicholas, in Biography, was born at
Rheims in 1557, and became profeflor of the univerfity in
his native city, where he was educated for the law, and be-
came fyndic. Under this charafter he vifited Paris, and
there formed an intimate friendfliip with Peirefc, and du Piiy,
by whom he was induced to execute a work which he had
projefled on the high roads of the empire. M. de Bellievre
took him to his houfe, and procured for him a penfion, with
the brevet of hifl.oriographer. He died in 1623. The
principal of his woiksare his " Hiftoire des grand chemins de
I'Empire Romain," firft printed in 1622, 4to. and reprinted,
with notes, at Bruflels, in 2 vols. 410. in 1729. This valu-
able work was tranflated into Latin by Henninius, and is
included in the I oth volume of Grxvius's Roman Antiquities.
Bergier alfo wrote in French " A flvetch of the Hiflory and
Antiquities of Rheims, with curious remarks concerning
the eilablifliment of the people, and the foundation of the
towns of France," 4to. 1635.

BERGIMUS, in Ancient Mythology, a deity peculiar to
the inhabitants of Brefcia, in Italy, wliere he had a temple,
and an order of priefts. Grutcr, Muratori, and Spon, have re-
corded many infcriptions relating to this deity. It is thought,
that he was the god of the mountains, becaufe Lerg, in Cel-
tic, fignifies a mountain.

BERG-

B E R

BERGMANN, Torbern, in Biography, profefrorof che-
iniftr)' at Uufal, was born at Catheiineberg, ia Weft Goth-
land, March 20th 1735; and after having liniflied the Firft
coiirfe of his education, entered at the univeriity of Upfal.
His application, particult'.rly to the ftudy of n-.athcmatics and
nat\iral philofophy, was fo intenfe, tjiat his lifahh was endan-
gered ; and as thefe fcienccs afford no peculiar profpeft of emo-
lument, a relation, who had the charge of him, difcouraged his
profecution of them, and rendered it neceffaiy for him to con-
ceal the- books which siiillcd hi;n in his favourite ftudies.
At the clofe of a year hii heakh was fo much impaired, that
the reftoration of it required an intermiffion of his application,
and a courfe cf excrcife, v»hich obliged him to return to his
family. H'.s hours of relaxation were, however, occupied in
the ftudy of botany and entomology, and his difcoveries in
the laft of thefe fcienccs were communicated to Linnsus.
As foon as his health was re-eftablifhed, he returned to the
univcrfity, with ample permifTion to purfue thofe ftudies which
were moft agreeable to hia inclination. Befides mathematics
<!ud natural philofophy, he direfted his attention to natural
biftor^-, under the patronage of Linnsus ; and began with a
memoir on the nature of the fubftance found in certain
waters, and called coccus aquaticus, which he found to be
the egg of a leech, including 10 or 12 young. This was
followed by other memoirs on the hiftory of infefts which
attack fruit-trees, and the means of preventing their ravages;
and he propofed a method of ciaffing th.ie infects from the
form of the larva, in which ftate the deilruftion of noxious
infedf s is moft efFential. About this tim.e, the famous Svvedifti
naturalift teftified his ellcem of Bergmann's charadler and
talents, by giving his name to a new fpecies of infefts. In
1761, Bergmann was appointed profeftbr of mathematics
and natural philofophy in the univcrfity of Upfal ; and both
before and after this time he enriched the volumes of the
Swedifii afts with feveral papers on pliilofophical fubjefts.
Kis paper, containing " t\. Review of the feveral explana-
tions which Natural Philofophers have given of the Rain-
bow," was pubiiftied in 1759; and in 1760, he pubhfhcd
fome thojghts " On the origin of thofe meteors, which are
not iccoTipanied by any fenfible found or explofion," and
alfo " On the opinions held by Philofophers relating to the
Twilight," to which is prefixed an account of Mairan's
" Anticrepnfculum," or tl'.at of the horizon oppofite to the
fun. In 1761, and in 1762, profeftbr Bcrgmann wrote on
the fubjeft of eleftricity, in confequcnce ol acorrefpondcnce
with Mr. Wilfon ; and particularly on the eleftrical quality
of Iceland Ci yftal, and double refrafting fpar. H:s remarks
on the tenthredo, or faw-fly, ftiewing how to diiliiiguifti be-
tween the caterpillars of this infect and thofe of the butterfly
and moth, and c'ifcoverin g the feet in the latter to be never more
than 1 5, and thofe of the tenthredo aUvays exceeding that num-
ber, were pubhfned in 1763 ; and the lame year produced the
unlatisfaftory rcfult of forr.e eleflrical experiments, made with
filk of various colours. In i 764, the proiefior wrote a paper
to afcertain, from a number of obfcrvations, the height in the
atmofphere at which the aurora bortalis exifts (fee Aurora
Borealis) ; and in 1765 and 1766, he wrcte again on elec-
trical fubjefts ; and principally on the property and laws of
elcftricity in the tourmalin, which had been relerred to his
examination by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stock-
holm. At this time it does not appear that the fubjeft of
chemiftry had em.ployt.d much of Mr. Bergmann's attention;
however, in 1767, on the refignation of Wal erius, he was
chofen to fucceed him as profeftbr of chemiftry and metal-
lurgy. This appointment was much cppofcd by the party
of the former profeftbr, united wiiu others who envied
Bergmann's rifing merit ; and the:r oppofition was fupported
by fome fevtre criticifms on two pap'.rs, which the prokflbr

B E R

publifiied at this time, relating to the depuration of alum;-
in which he recommends the ufe of argillaceous earth, and
propofes tobaico-pipe clay, inftead of alkali, to free it from
the vitriol. But the prince royal of Sweden, who aftenvards-
fncceedcd to the throne, and who was then chancellor of the
univcrfity of Upfal, determined the difpute, and fixed him in
the profeffor's chair. With enlarged views of the praftical
importance and utility of chemiilry, of what had already been
performed in this department of fcieice by preceding authors,
and of what yet remained to be done, Bergmann profecutcd
his chemical rcfearches, and by a combination of expcritnental
analyfis with mathematicsl reafoning, he extended and im-
proved this fcience by a variety of valuable difcoveries and
obfcrvations. In order to purfae his experiments and en-
quiries with the greater facility, and to communicate the re-
fult with advantage to his pupils, he formed, near his labo-
ratory, a cabinet, in which al! the miijj-ral fubftances were
ranged in order, together with the produfts of thofe experi-
ments which had afcertaintd their compofition. Another
colieftion exhibited all the minerals of Sweden, arranged ac-
cording to the places where they are found. In a third, were
exhibited models- of the various machines and apparatus by
means of which thefe fubftances were converted into ufeful
articles, which articles were placed near the materials from
which thty were formed. From this fyftematical airange-
ment Bcrgmann derived peculiar advantage in his profeflion
as a teacher. While he excelled as a profeftbr of chemiftry
and mineralogy, and devoted much of his time to this occu-
pation, he was aftively and inceftantly employed in makinjj
difcoveries which have placed him in the firft rank of philo-
fophical chemifts. He examined tne carbonic acid, difco-
vured by Black, and denominated fixed air, in its feveral pro-
perties and habitudes. Nickel, manganefe, the magnefian
earth, and barytes, which were newly difcovered fubftances,
were particularly inveftigated by Bergmann, and afforded
materials for regular and perfpicuous treatifcs. The acid
obtained from fugar, and many other vegetables, by the ab-
ftrartion of the nitric acid, and thofe acids which are ob-
tained from arfenicj molybdena, fluor fpar, and tungften,
were difcovered either by Iri ; felf or fome of his difciples ;
and to him we are indebted for leading the way in the invefti-
gation of their properties, and for afcertaining many intereft-
ing phenomena attending their comibinations. From, him we
learn, that iron contains a number of foreign admixtures,
chiefly of a m.ctaUic nature, and that the three ftates of crude
iron, and malleable iron, and ft.eel, principally depend upon
the greater or lefs abundance cf carbon. In his analyfis of
waters, he added, to the re-agents before ufcd, other fub-
ftances more effeftual, and whilft he evinced the imperfec-
tion of this method, he rendered it much more accurate.
He alfo afcertained the quantities of produfts, without fepa-
rating them from all their combinations ; and in this way he
inters the quantity of metal from the weight of precipitate it
affords, by tl'.e addition of an alkali, or fome other known
fiibftance, from tables founded on former experiments. He
likewife analyfed the precious ftones, known by the name of
gems, anddevifed peculiar methods for feparating them into
the known earths in determinable proportions. Profeftbr
Bergmann evinced the nectffity and utility of performing
dccimaliic operations in the humid way, or by an analyfis, in
which liquid folvents are ufed ; and he alfo exhibited the ad-
vantages of the proccfs by fire, applied to materials in minute
portions, by means of the blow-pipe, either upon a piece of
charcoal, or in a fpoon of pure filver- This mode of exa-
mining mineral fubftance?, united with that of the habitudes
which they exhibit, with a tew fimple le-agents, facilitated
the ctaftificatiorr of them, according to their chemical pro-
perties ; a method adopted by this ingenious cheinift, witli,

out

B E R

out the excliifion or difparagement of tliat method of invefti-
eation which ngaiJs the txtenial charaftcr. This appears
from his (liort eflay on the forms of cryllals. The fubjcc\
of tleftive attradlioii? engaged the particular attention of pro-
ftffor Bergmann ; and he engaged in the laborious undertak-
ing of improving and extending tiie tables of Geoffroy, for
which he perceived that, according to his views, no iefs than
30,000 experiments would be nccenary. He therefore,
under an apprchenfion that his life would not allow the com-
pletion of his plan, contented liinifclf with publilhing,
what appeared to him to be an imperfeft work, though it
was otherwife regarded by the fcicnlific world. His table
of fimple affinities is the firft that exhibits the hws of affini-
ties as they are obfervcd in the dry way ; and in his fcheme
it is feen at once whether the operation takes place in the
luimid or dry way ; what are the fubltanccs prefented to each
other; their compv-nt parts and proportions ; the nume-
rical expreflions of their attractions ; what new compo'inds
take place ; and whether they fall down, or fnblime, or re-
main in folution, and which of them are thus refpcdtively
affcfted. (See Affinity.) In this work, as well as in his
work on metallic precipitates, Bergmann, not apprifed of
tliofe cflleAs of oxygen, which have been developed in later
times, conllders the exilleuce of phlogifton, or a common
principle of inflammability, as an acknowledged truth. He
alfo admits of the matter of heat as a fclt-exiltenr inde-
pendent principle, and feems not to have apprehended that it
may be a dillinft modification. Accordingly, thefe two
principles enter into many of his explanations of fafts ; but
iu all thofe explanations, the matter is arranged with fuch
order and perfpicuity, that it is extremely eafy to fubftitute
the abforption of oxygen inllead of the extrication of phlo-
gifton, and the contrary cffcft wherever the latter imaginary
principle, as it is now thought to be, is abforbed. The life
of profefTor Bergmann, like that of other ftudious and fcien-
tific men, admits ot little variety. Attentive to the duties of
his profefTion, he relided conllantly at Upfal, and had the
honour to be eleflcd redlor of the univerfity, which in his
time was divided into two parties, of theologians and civilians
on one fide, and of natural philofophers on the other, be-
tween whom Bergmann maintained peace and equality. The
king of PrutTia wilhtd to engage the profefTor of Upfal to
become a member of his academy, and to remove to Berlin ;
but attached to his office, though exhaufted by it, and in a
declining ilate of health, which might have been relieved by
a warmer climate, an<l under obligations of gratitude to
Gullavus, king of Sweden, who had been hisbenefaflor, and
who had honoured him with the order of Vafa, he declined
the propofal, and remained at Upfal. The difciples of liis
fchool, of whom the celebrated Scheele fuftained a very
diflinguifhed rank and charaftcr, refledled honour on their
mafter, who never failed to encourage their refearches, and
to mention their difcovtries in terms of approbation and
refpeft. How much lir Torbern Bergmann was eUcemed
whilll he lived, in every part of Europe, it is needlefs to
fay ; and of his works it is fufficient to obferve, that, not-
withllanding the rapid improvements which have taken place
fince his time in chemical feience, they will long remain re-
pofitories of fafts and reafoning, to which every philofopher
muft recur. When it is confidered that he began this pur-
fuit rather at a late period of life, and that he made his various
difcoveries in the courfe of 17 year?, and that he died before
he attained his yoth year, his death will be regretted as a
premature event, by which fociety fuftained a very confider-
abk lofs. He died on the 8th of July 17X4, at the baths of
Medwi in Sweden. His works were very numerous ; the
principal of them are as follows : viz. " Opufeula phyfica
«t chemica, pleraque feorfim antea edita jam ab audorc col-
7

B E R

lefta, revlfa et aufta j" publiffied in Latin in 3 vols. 8vo, in
'779' J7^o> '7^3. and trandated by Dr. GuUcn of Dublin,
in 2 vols. 8vo. with illurtrations and notes by the trandator.
" Mcditationes de fyllemate foffilium uaturali;" printed in the
4th volume of the Tranfaftions at Upfal for 1784, and
tranflated into Enghih in 178S, in 8vo. ; " Phyfick
Beflvrifnung ocfoer Jordklotet," or phyfical defcription of
the earth, in 2 vols, in which he has given lucubrations on
the llrudture and form of the earth ; " Efl'ay on the uftful-
nefs of Chemil'ry," publiflied in Swedifh in 1779, and tranf-
lated into Englifii in 1783, 8vo.; two academical diffi;rtations
on the origin and progrefs of chemiftry, intitled " Dc
Primordiis Chemix," in 1777, and " Chemire Progrefliis a
medio Sxc. vii. ad medium Skc. xvii." in 1782; and " Scia-
graphia Minerali;;," or outlines of Mineralogy, firft printed
in 1782, at Eeipfic and DcfTau, and tranflated into French
by M. Mengez, and into Englifli by Dr. Withering in 17 J3,
8vo. Eloge of Bergmann, inferted in the Atts of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris for 1784. Coxc's Travels in
Sweden, &c. vol. iv. p. 228, &c. Gen. Biog.

BERGMANNiA,in Entomology, a fpecies of Phal.t~na
(Torlri"), with pale yellow wing.s, fpotted with briglit yel-
low ; fafcix whitifli, and the tniid bilid ; found in the gar-
dens of Germany and northerly parts of Europe.

BERGOO, in Geography, a dillrift of Abyffinia, fituatc
north of Darfur, and fouth of Bornou, between 15" and 19"
of N. lat. and between about 24° and 27° 31', E. long. Its
capital is Wara, in N. lat. iy° 30'. E. long. 25° 30'. Bergoo
is laid to be 15 days or (allowing i2| geographical miles per
day), 187I geographical miles in extent, from E. to W. and
from N. to S. 20 days, or 250 miles. Within about a
day's journey of Wara, are faid to be eight large mountains,
the inhabitants of each of which ufe a diilinft language.
They are Mahometans, zealoudy attached to the faith; and
readthe Korandaily. Theyare faid tobe brave, and furnilh the
armies of the fultan of Bergoo with recruits as often as they
are required. They make war by fudden incurfions, traverf-
ing and laying wafte a large fpace in a (horttime. On thefe
occai'ions they leave their women behind, and are therefore
better adapted to military operations than the people of
Darfur, who never march without a hoft of female attendants.
The people of Bergoo fcldom make " felatea," i.e. an ex-
pedition to procure flaves by force. Some of the idolatrous
nations, dependent upon Bergoo, are re prefented as conduft-
ing their wars in a very formidable manner. The combatants
never retreat ; and the women behind light a fire, in which
they heat the heads of the fpears, and exchange them for
fuch as are cooled in the combat. They alfo ufe poifoned
weapons. Mr. Browne informs us, that in a remote part of
the pagan country, from which flaves are brought, the in-
habitants eat the fle(h of prifoners taken in war. They are
alfo habituated to ftrip off the fl<in of the hands and faces of
their flaughtered foes, which, after undergoing fome prepara-
tion, is worn as an emblem of triumph. Their arms, which
are a fpear and a javelin, are formed of iron, wrought by
themfelvcs. Thefe they make red hot, and flick the point
in a tree, where they leave them till the juice is dried ; and in
this manner, according to report, they acquire amoft deadly
poifon. Browne's Travels in Africa, p. 310. 46S.

BERGSNYLTRA, in Ichthyology, the name under
which LinnEus mentions Lolrus fuillui of Fn. Suec. in It.
Wgoth. 179.

IJEUGSPERLING, in Ornithology, the name oi Fringilla
montana in Frifch. birds.

BERGSTADT, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Olmutz, 18 miles north of Olmutz.

BERGSTRASS, a long traft or tongue of land, on the
fide of the Rhine, between Heidelberg and Darmftadt. It

contains

B E R

fonta'ns a few fmall places, as Benflieim, Oppenhcim, and
Wciulieim. It has in it a highway, commanding profpecls
of wide extent. The bed part of this continued chain of
hills, is from Heidelberg to BenOieim, where it is about 8
leagues long and 4 broad. On the right hand it is covered
with woods near the top, and nearer the plain with vineyards.
The level road is planted with rows of walnut trees, and on
each fide are fields and meadows that are very fertile. The
walnut trees of Bcrgllrafs and the Odemwald, yield a con-
derable profit to the country by the wood and the fruit ; and
the wine produced there h an inexhaudible fource of fupply to
the inhabitants. In one year they have exported 40,000 rough
made walnut tree mulket ftocks, from thefe parts to Saxony.
From the nuts they mike an excellent oil, which ferves the
common people inltead of butter, and the inferior fort is ufed
for lamps. The almond trade, of which great quantities grow
along the Bergilrafs, is very confidcrable. The warmth of
the climate, and goodnefs of the foil in the Bergilrafs, are
fuch, that after rye-liarveft the land may be fown a fecond
time with fpelt, buck-wheat, or oats, which are always
reaped the fame year.

BERGUES, or Berg, orBERouEs St. Finox, 3. town of
France, and principal place ef a diftrift, in the department of
the North ; fo called from St. Vinox, a Flemilh lord, who
lived here. It is feated on the river Colme, at the union of
feveral canals, which pafsto Dunkirk, Gravelines, St. Omer,
Furnes, fee, and contains tv.-o parifhes. Berg was the lad
town of Weil Flanders which held out for the Dutch in the
l6th century. It was taken by the French in 1658, and
confirmed to them by the peace of the Pyrenees, in the fol-
lowing year. Since that time it has been fortified by new
works, and the country round it may be laid under water by
means of flulces ; I { league fouth of Dunkirk. It contains
5085 inhabitants, and in the canton are 14,026. The ter-
ritorial extent comprehends 130 kiliometres, and 13 com-
munes. N. lat. 50" 57'. E. long. 2° 35'.

BERGUN, a fmall town of SwilTerland, in the country of
the Grifons, near a river which flows from a lake of the
fame name, and difcharges itfelf into the Albula. It lies be-
tween the Albula and the Inn, about 6 miles from the latter,
and 1 2 miles from the former. N.lat. 46°3 1'. E.long. 3"^ 55'.

BERGWERBEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, 2 miles north of Weiflenftls.

BERGWERK, a town of Hungary, 13 miles weil of
Stcinam.

BERG-2ABERN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, and duchy of Deux Fonts, feated on the
Erlbach, 30 miles fouth-eaft of Deux Fonts. By the new
arrangement of the French, it is the chief place of a canton
in the department of the Lower R-hine, containing 1947 in-
habitants. The canton has 9,005 ; its extent is 150 kilio-
metres, and the number of communes is 15. N. lat. 49° 7'.
E. Wg. 7- 54'.

BtRIA, Berie, Berry, in Mlddk j^ge JVntcrs, denotes
a large open field ; and the cities and towns of England,
which end with that word, are built in plain and open places,
and do not derive their names from boroughs, as fir Henry
Spelman imagines. That the word " berie," which has been
confounded with " bury,'' and " borough," is a flat wide
campaign, is proved from fufiicient authorities, by the learned
Du Frtlne, who obfervcs, that *' Beria Sti. Edmundi," men-
tioned by Matt. Paris, fub ann. 1 1 74, is not to be taken for
the town, but for the adjoining plain. Befides, many flat
wide meads, and other open grounds, are called by the
names of " beries," and " berry-fields ;" thus the fpacious
meadow between Oxford and liley was in the reign of king
Athelflan called " Eery ;" and the largeft. pafiure ground in
Qiiarendnn in the county of Buckingham is known by the

Vol. IV.

B E R

name of " Beryfield." And though thefe meads hare been
interpreted demefne, or manor meadows, yet they were in
reality any fiat or open meadows, that lay adjoining to any
vill or farm. (Cowcl.) Hence alfo " berras alTariare" Cg-
nifies to dry or plough up heaths and downs ; and hence our
warrens are called " coney-berries."

BERIBERIA, or Beriberi, in Medicine, a barbarous
name, employed to denote a fpecies of palfy, frequent in the
Eafl Indies. It is tailed by fome Britirti authors, v.ho have
written on the difeafcs of hot climates, the barbiers. Accord-
ing to Bontiua, it comes on with great wearinefs, trembling,
numbnefs, and peculiar tingling feni'ation of the limbs, fo that
the patient is rendered incapable of walking, orotherwife ufing
them. The upper as well as lower limbs are often alfcfted.
Sometimes it is accompanied vsith a faultering of fpeech. It»
attack is generally fudden. Thofe whom it afflidls are chiefly
the lower clafs of people, who imprudently get chilled after
being heated, by drinking cold water ; but more efpecially
by fleeping in the night air, after great fatigue or intoxication.
The remedies againfl this obftinate complaint are ftrong
friftions, aromatic fomentations, warm-bathing, and fudorific
decoftions. According to Bontius, the mod efiicaciouj
topical application is a fpecie: of naphtha, or petroleum,
from Sumatra, ufed as a liniment. The natives of India
(fays Dr. Lind) have a method of putting the patient into
a hole dug into the ground, and covering him with fand up
to his neck ; tliis is done in the middle of the day, and he re-
mains there as long as he can bear the heat of the fand, which
is confiderable. Camphire, and a dccoftion of Guaic wood,
have fometimcs produced a good efftCt ; alfo the exprefied
bitter oil of the mergoofe, an Indian plant. But notwith-
ftanding the ufeoflhe mod powerful nervous medicines, the
patient generally continues paralytic for fome months, unlef«
he is removed into another air.

On the Malabar coafi (continues the lad mentioned author)
this dileafe is mod violent and frequent, and attacks both
natives and drangers, cfpecially in the months of December,
January, February, and March. During thefe month?, the
land winds blow every morning about fun-rife, from the
neighbouring mountains, with remarkable coolnefs ; and fuch
as, being tempted by the ferenity of the feafon, fltep txpofcd
to thefe winds, are often fuddenly feized with a very painful
fenfation in the periodeum of the arms and legs. In perfonj
of a good conditution, this pain abates as the day advances,
and as the air becomes warmer ; but in others it continues for
a confiderable time, attended with a weaknefs of the knees,
and uneafy fenfations in the calves of the legs and foles of tl.c
feet, efpecially on any attempt to walk. This is fcnrcely ever
cured by medicine, till after the Ikifting of the monfoon, un-
lefs the patients can be moved to the coad of Coromandel, or
to any place to the eaftward of the Balagat mountains, where,
by the change of air, they quickly recover. See B 'ntius de
Med.Indorum ; and Lind on Difeafes incidental to Europeaas
in Hot Climates.

BERICARIA. SeeBERCARiA.

BERIEZEN, in Geography. Sec BeresinA.

BERIGAN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers,
and capital of the country of Beni-Mezzab. N. lat. 32° 15''
E.long. z° 59'.

BERINBAL, a town of Egypt, on the well branch of the
Nile, 7 miles S.E. of Rofetta.

BERING, in Biography and Geography. See Beerinc.

BERINGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Wedphaha, and bifhopric of Liege, 1 8 miles N. W.
of Maedricht.

BERINGOU. SeeBEERiNG'j^a/i</.

BERINSCHUL, a rocky ifland in the Mcdiftrranean,
near the coad of Algiers.

Ff BERI3A.

B E R

BERISA, a town of Africa, in KafTina, weft of tl'.e to'vn
of Kalfiua, fe;ilcd on tlie river Neel Abecd, or Guin. N. lat.
16'^ 4?'. E. long. 9" 10'.

BKRITH, a fimple mentioned in Scripture, ufcd for
cieanlini; or talcing out fpots. ji'reni. chap. ii. ver. 22.
Some will have it to be tlic kali, or fuit-wort, from the alhcs
of which foap is made ; and in our verfion it is rendered /a;/';
Others, after Kudbcck, make it to be the dye of the purple fifh.

BERKA, in Gio^raphy, i town of Germany, in the ciicle
ot Upper Saxony, and principality of Weimar, on the Ilm ;
(i miles S.S.W. of Weimar. — Alfo, a town of Germanyi in
the fame circle, and principahty of Eilciibach, on the Werra,
9 miles W. of Eifenbach.

BERKA, or Berku. Sec Barracoo.

BERKASZESTI, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Moldavia, on the Berbccz, j6 miles N.W. of
Galatz.

BERKELEy, Dr. Gforge, in Biography, the learned
and ing^euious biihop of Cloyne in Ireland, was born March
12, l6i>4., at Kiicrin, near Thomallown, in the county ot
Kilkenny ; and having received his preparatory education
at Killcenny fchool, undtr Dr. Hinton, was admitted at the
a}ie of fifteen, a penfioner of Trinity collcg^c, Dublin, of
which he became a fellow, June 9, 1707. In this year he
publilhed his lirft literary cifay, written before he was 20
years of age, entitled " Arithmetica abfque Algebra aut
Euclide demonftrata," and evincing his talents for thofe fub-
tile metaphyfical lludies, by which he was afterwards fo
eminently dillinguifhed. In 1 709 was publiihed his " Theory
of Vifion," being the firfl attempt that \»'as ever made to
diftinguilfi the immediate and natural objefts of our fenfes
from the conclufions which we have been accuftomed from
infancy to draw from them, and to trace the boundary that
divides them. For this purpofe he (licws, that although
habit hath connefted the ideas of fight and touch, fo that
they arc called by the fame names, they have originally no fuch
councttion; inlomuch that a perfon horn blind, and fuddenly
made to fee, would, at firlf, be unable to tell how any objeft
that affefted his fight would affect his touch, and from light
could not derive any ideas of diftance or external fpace, but
would imagine that all the objefts he faw were in his eye,
or rather in his mind. In proof of this affertion, the cafe of
u young man born blmd, and couched at the age of 14, by
Mr. Chefelden, mentioned at the clofe of his anatomy, has
bvcn adduced. Tiiis work was fucceeded in the following
year by the " Principles of Human Knowledge," in which
Berkeley controverted Mr. Locke's account ot abdrafl ideas
and ge:;eral names, and attempted to prove, that the com-
monly received notir>n of the cxillence of matter is falfe, and
j^conriftent with itfelf ; that thofe things which are called
ftnfible material objcfis arc not external, but e>;ift in the
mmd, and are merely imprefilons made upon our minds by
the immediate att of God, according to certain rules, term-
ed laws of nature, from which, in the ordinary courfe of his
government, he never deviates ; and that the fteady adherence
of the Supreme Spirit to thefe rules 13 what conftitutes the
rfuhty of things to his creatures, and fo effedUially diftin-
guifiits the ideas perceived by fenfe fr'nn fuch as are the
work of the mind itfelf, or of dreams, that there is no more
danger of confounding them together on this hypotheils
than on the common fuppofition of matter. See Abstrac-
•. ION, Body, Existesce, and Matter.

lo the year 17 12, Berkeley's attention was direfted, by
'ixe. perufal of Locke's " two Trcatifes of Government,' to
the doiflrine of paffive obedience ; ifi fupp&rt of which he
printed tlie fubitance of three common-puxes or fermons,
ijelivered in the college chapel, la coufe-j.tr.cc of this pub-

B E R

lication,he was reprefented as a Jacobite, and prevented from
obtaining fome piefcrment in tlie church of Ireland, fo wliich
he had been recommended ; but the unfavourable impreffion
that had been thus made on the mind of the prince of \Valc's,
afterwards G^-orge II., was removed by Mr. Molyneur.,
who took occafion of introducing Berkeley to queen Caro-
line. In I7i2,he publifhcd, in London, a farther defence
of his fyrtem of immaterialifm, in " Three Dialogues be-
tween Hylas and Plnlonous." Such was the reputatior*
which he had now acquired by his writings, for acutenefs
of parts, and a beautiful imagination, that his company was
courted even by thoie who did not embrace his opinions ;
and he was introduced to the acquaintance of perfons of
rank and learning, by two gentlemen of oppofite principles.
Sir Richard Steele, and Dr. Swift. For the former, he
wrote feveral papers in the " Guardian," and at his houfc
formed an intimacy with Mr. Pope, which lafted during his
whole life. Dean Swift alfo introduced himtoLord Berke-
ley of Stratton, and to other valuable acquaintance ; and
procured for him the appointment of chaplain and lecretary to
the earl of Peterborough, w^ho being appointed ambaflador to
the king of Sicily, and to the other Italian Hates, took Berke-
ley with him, in November 1 7 1 3. On his return to England,
in 17 14, he found that his hopes of prelerment had expired
with the fall of queen Anne's miniftry ; and he therefore
accepted the offer of accompanying the fon of Dr. A(he,
bifhop of Clogher, in a tour through Europe. At Paris he
vifited the illullrious father Malebranche, whom he found
in his cell, cooking, in a fmall pipkin, a medicine for an in-
flammation of the lungs, with which he was afflifted ; and as
they engaged in a converfation on Berkeley's fyftem, Male-
branche, in the heat of difputation, raifed his voice fo high^
and indulged the natural impetuofity of his temper to fuch
a degree, that he brought on an increafe of his diforderj^
which carried him off a few days after, viz. Oftober 13,
1715. During four years' abfence from England, Mr.
Berkeley not only profecuted, what is ufually called by tra-
vellers, the grand tour, but he vifited Apulia, Calabria, and
Sicily. The materials he colletled, with a view to the na-
tural hlftory of the latter country, were unfortunately loft in
his pafTage to Naples ; and this circumftance is the more to
be regretted, as he has given to the world fatisfaftory fpeci-
mens of his talent for lively dcfcription, in his letters to Mr..
Pope and Dr. Arbuthnot. At Lyons, in his way home, he
drew up a curious traft, " De Motu," which he fent to the
royal academy of fcicnces at Paris, and which he committed
to the prefs foon after his arrival in London, in 1721. The
difaflrous South Sea fcheme of 1720, engaged his attention
at this time, and he wrote " an Eftay towards preventing
the ruin of Great Britain," wliich was printed at London,
in 1721. By his travels, his natural politenefs, and his talents
for converfation were fo m.uch improved, that he found eafy
accefs to the beft company ; and he was introduced by Mr.
Pope to lord Burlington, who conceived for him a very high
efteem on account of his diflinguiflied tafte and fiiill inarchi-
tefture, which had been the objeft of his particular ftudy
in Italy. By this nobleman he was recommended to the
duke of Grafton, lord lieutenant of Ireland, and accom-
panied liim thither in 1721. Having been elefted fenior fel-
low of his college, in 1 71 7, he now took the degrees of ba-
chelor and doftor in divinity. By the death of Mrs. Van-
homrigh, the celebrated " Vaneffa," to whom he was in-
troduced by Dean Swift, in 1713, and who altered, her pur-
pofe of making the dean her heir, in confeqnence of dif-
coverir.g his connexion with " Stella," Dr. Berkeley became
pofltfled of half her property, amounting to about 4COCI.
a.'.d in the difcharge of his office, as one of her executors,

committed

B E R

committed to tlie flames feveral letters that had palTtd in
correfpondence between her and the dean, not, as he declare?,
becaufe there was any thinjj criminal in them, but becaufe
he obferved a warmth in the lady's ftyle, which dehcacy re-
quired him to conceal from the public.

On the i8th of May 1724, Dr. Berkeley refignedhis fcl-
lowfhip, and was promoted by his p.itron to the deanery of
Derry, worth l loo\. per annum. Having forfome time con-
ceived the benevolent prajed of converting the favage Ame-
ricans to Chriilianity, by means of a college to be ertfted in
the Summer iflanJs, otherwife called the ifles of Bermuda,
he publilhcd a propofal for this purp.ie at London, in 1725,
and offered to refign his own opulent picferment, and to de-
dicate the remainder of liis life to theinlhudlion of youth in
America, on the moderate fubfilK'nce of lool. a year. Such
was the influence of his dillinguiflied example, that three
junior fellows of Trinity college, Dublin, concurred with
him in his delign, and propoftd to exchange, for a fettlement
in the Atlantic ocean, at 40I. per annun:, all their flattering
profpefts in their own country. The propofal was enforced
on the attention of the minillrv, not merely by confidera-
tions of national honour and a regard to the canfe of Chrif-
tianity, but by the immediate advantage likely to accrue
from it to the government. Having, by diligent rtfearch,
eftimated the value of the lands in the ifland of St. Cln-iltu-
pher's, ceded to Great Britani by France at the treaty of
Utrecht, he propofed to difpofe of them for the public ufe,
8nd thus to railc a luni of money, part of which was to be
applied to the eflablilTiment of his college. The fcheme was
communicated by the intervention of the abbe Gualtieri, or
Altieri, to king George I. and by the royal command in-
troduced into the houfe of commons by Sir Robert W'alpole.
A charter was granted by his majefly for eretting a college,
by the name of St. Paul's college in Bermuda, which was to
■coafift of a prefident and nine fellow-', who were obliged to
maintain and educate Indian children at the rate ot ic\. per
■annum for each. The firft prefident. Dr. George Berkeley,
and the firil three fellows named in the charter, thofe iunior
fellows of Dublin college abovenientioned, were hcenfcd to
hold their preferments in thefe kingdoms till the expiration
of one year and a half after their arrival at Bermuda. The
commons, in 1726, voted an addrefs to his majefty, praying a
grant of fuch a fum to effeft the above purpofe out of the
lands of St. ChriRopher's, already mentioned, as his majelly
might think proper. The fum of io,oool. was furniflied by
the minifter, and feveral private fubfcriptions were immedi-
ately raifed for promoting fo pious an undertaking. Tlie
dean, having, in 1728, married the eldeft daughter of the
right honourable John Forrt;er, efq. fpeaker of the Irifli
houfe of commons, prepared to fet fail for Rhode ifland, in
the execution of his fcheme., and took with him a pretty
large fum of money of his own property, and a colledtion of
books for the ufe of his intended hbrary. Upon his arrival
at Newport in Rhode ifland, he contrafted for the purchafe
of lands on the adjoining continent, and fully expefted that
the purchafe money would, according to grant, be immedi-
ately paid. His expedtations, however, were difappointed;
and after various excufes he was at length informed by bifhop
Giblon, at that time bifliop of London, in whofe diocefe the
whole Weft Indies is included, that on application to Sir
Robert Walpole, he received the following honeft anfwer :
" If you put this qu(ift;ion to me>" fays Sir Robert, " as a
minifter, I mufl, and can aflure you, that the money fliall,
moll undoubtedly, be paid as foon as fuits with public con-
venience ; but if you aik me as a friend, whether dean Ber-
keley fliould continue in America, cxpefting the payment
of io,oool. 1 advife him, by aU means, to return bom€ to Eu-

B E R

rope, and to give up his prefent expeditions." Accord-
ingly, the dean, after having expended a great part of his
private fortune, and more than feven y-tars of his life in the
profecntion of a laudable fcheme, returned to Europe. Be-
fore he left R'lode-ifland, he diftributed the books Ije had
brought with him among the clergy of that province, and
upon his arrival in London, imm.ediatcly returned all the
private fubfcriptions that had been advanced for the fupport
of his undertaking. In 1732, he puhliflied the " Mhiute
Philofopher," a work confilling of a teries of dialogues, on
the model of Plato, in which he purfues the free-thinker
through the various charaflers of atheift, hbertine, enthu-
fiaft, (corner, critic, metaphyfician, f?taliil, and fceptic, and
employs feveral new arguments from his own fyftem. O'
the company, which at this time attended the philofophicai
converfations that were carried en m the prefence of queen
Caroline, according to a praftice which h.id commenced when
(he was princefs of Wales, fome of the princijial pcrfons were
doftors Clarke, Hoadly, Berkeley, and Sherlock. The debates
that occurred weie chiefly condufted by Clarke and Berkeley;
and Hoadly adhered to the former, as Sherlock did to the
latter. Hoadly affefted to coniider the philofophy of Berke-
ley, and his Bermuda project, as the reveries of a vifionary.
Sherlock, on the other baud, efponfed his caufe ; and on
the publication of t!:e " Minute Philofopher," prefented i
copy of it to the quien, and left it to her majefty to deter-
mine, whether fuch a work could have been the produftion
of a difordercd nnderftanding. The queen honoured Berke-
ley with admitting him to freq'ient vifns, and took plea-
fure in his converfation on fubjefts rehiting to Ami rica ; and
upon a vacancy in the nth deanery of Down in Ireland, pro-
cured it for him. But as lord BurHngton liad neglefled to
give proper notice of the royal intention to the duke of
Dorfct, then lord-lieutenant of Irehnd, and to obtain his
concurrence, the duke was offended, and the appointment
was not urged any farther. Upon this, her majelly declared,
that lince they would not fatter Dr. Berkeley to be a
" dean," in Ireland, he fhould be a " biftiop ;" and accord-
ingly, upon a vacancy in the fee of C'loyne, in 173^, he was
promoted by letters patent to that bifliopric. In confe-
quence of this appointment, he refided continually at Cloyne,
and devoted his time and attention to the faithful difchargc
of all epifcopal duties. He revived in his diocefe the ufeful
office of rural dean, vifited often parochially, and confirmed
in feveral parts of his fee. In the profecation of his ftudies,
however, his diligence was unabated ; and about this time
he engaged in a controverfy with the mathematicians of Great
Britain and Ireland, on the fubjeiSl of Fluxions. He was
led to it by the following occurrences : Mr. Addifon having
vilited Dr. Garth in his laft illnefs, addreflcd him ferioufly
on the neceffity of preparing for his approaching diffolution;
but the doftor replied, •' Surely, Addifon, I have good
rcafon not to believe thofe trifles hnce my friend Dr. Halley,
who has dealt fo mulih in demonftration, has affured me,
that the doftrines of Chriilianity are incomprchenfible, and
the religion itfelf an impofture." This converfation being
reported by Addifon to the bilhop, he took up arms againll
this redoubtable dealer in demonftration, and addrefled to
him " the Analyft," with a view of flicwing, that myfterit?
in faith were uiijuftly objefted to by mathematicians, who
admitted much greater myfterie=, and ev'cn faliehoods in
fcience, of which he endeavoured to prove that the doctrine
effluxions furniihcd an eminent example. SeeFtoxioN.
In the courfc of the controverfy on this iubject, the bifliop, in
1 7 \i, publiflicd a reply to Philalethes, fnppoicd to be by Dr.
Jurin, entitled " A Defence of Frce-liiiiiking in Mathema-
tics." From this controverfy, he diverted liis thoughts tn
Ff 2 lubjeas

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fubif.!\s of more apparent utility; and printed, in ty^i ^'"s
" Queiie'," for the gooj of Irdand; in 1756, liis " Dif-
coiirfe addreffcd to Magiftratts;" and in 1750, his " Maxims
Concerning Palriotifm ;" all of which evince his knowledge
of mankind, and his zeal for the fervite of true religion, and
of his country. In 1745, during the Scots' rebellion, he
addrelTcd a " Letter to the Roman Catholics" of his dioceft;
and in 1749, another to the clergy of that perfuafion in
Ireland, under tlie title of " a Word to the Wife," which
was fo well received by tlicni, that tliey returned him their
public thanks with cxprcffions of marked cllcem and re-
fped, which dcfcribe him as " the good man, the polite
gentleman, and the true patriot." That he difcovertd this
chariitter in a very eminent degree, was very generally ac-
knowledged; and particularly by lord Chellcrneld, who as
foon as he was advanced to the government of Ireland, in
1745, offered him the fee of Cloglier, then vacant, and the
\^]\xe of which was double that of Cloync. This offer the
biihop, moderate in his views, diiinterelted in his fupport ot
fOTtrnment, and particularly attached to his cullomary
place of refidence at C'loyne, and to the connections and
duties attending it, refpettfully declined. Towards the clofe
of his life he laboured under a nervous colic, the effect of
his fcdcntary courfe of living, in which he found coni'ider-
able relief from the ufe of tar-water; and he therefore
communicated his thoughts on this celebrated medicine to
the public in a treatifc, entitled " Siris, a Chain of Philo-
fophical Reflexions and Enquiries concerning the Virtues of
Tar-water," printed a fecond time in i 747, and followed in
1752, by " Farther Thoughts on Tav-water," which was
his laft performance.

In 1752, he removcdjwith his lady and family, to Oxford,
for the purpofe of fuperintending the education of one of his
fons, who was admitted a lludent at Chrlftchurch college, in
thatuniverfity : butfeiifible ina high degree of the impropriety
of non-refidence, he endeavoured tirll to procure an exchange
of his high preferment for fome canonry or headfhip at Ox-
ford; and failing of fuccefs, he afterwardp, by a letter to the
fccrctary of (late, requefled permifTion to reiign his bifhopric,
worth at that time not Icfs than 14C0I. /rr annum. When
the petition for this purpofe was prefented to his majclty,
he declared he (hould die a bifhop in fpite of himfelf, and
gave him full liberty to refide wherever he pleafed. Before
he left Cloync, he llgned aleafe of the demefne lands in that
neighbourhood, renewable yearly at the rate of 200I. and
direded this fum to be annually diilributed, until his return,
among poor houfe-keepers of Cloyne, Youghall, and Ag-
hadda. At Oxford, he was highly refpecled by the mem-
bers of the univerGty ; but his refidence among them was of
no long duration. On Sunday evening, January 14th, 175J,
whilft he was furrounded by his family, and his lady was
reading to him one of Dr. Sherlock's fermons, he was fud-
denly feized with a difordcr, called the pally of the heart,
and inllantly expired. His remains^were interred at Chrift-
church Oxford, and a marble monun;ent was ere£ted to his
memory by his widow, with a Latin infcription, drawn up
by Dr. Markham, head-maftcr of Weftminiter fchool, and
now archbifhop of York. In this infcription he is faid to have
been born in 1679, ^""^ ^'^ ^S*^ '° ^'^ 73 > whereas his bro-
ther, who furnifhed the particulars of his hfe, ftates the year
of his birth to have been 1684, and of courfe he died at the
age of 69.

The perfon of bifhop Berkeley was handfome, his coun-
tenance exprefTive and benign, and his conftitution rebuff,
till it was impaired by his fedentary hfc. At Cloyne he con-
ftantly rofe between three and four in the morning ; and
often fpent the greater part of the day in ftudy ; hisi favourite

B E R

author, from whom many of his notions were boirowcd, was
Plato. The enthuliafm of his private chnrafter, which was
fingularlv excellent and air.iable, entered into his literary
one : and it was manifefted m his public works, as well as
in his life and convcrfation. Few pcrfons were ever held,
by tliofe who knew his worth, in higher eilimation than bi-
fhop Berkeley. When biihop Attci-bury was introduced to
him, he lifted up his hands in aftonithmcnt, and exclaimed,
" So much underftanding, fo much knowledge, fo much
innocence, and fuch humility, I did not think had been
the portion of any but Angels, till I faw this gentleman."
This teftimony ferves to remove the air of hyperbole ,irora
the well-known line of his friend Mr. Pope : —

" To Berkeley every virtue under heaven."
In matters of fpeculation, his natural ardour might, pof-
fibly, have led him to imbibe fome notions that are more
fanciful than jufL It has been faid, that towards the clofe
of his life, he began to doubt the folidity of metapliylical
fpeculations, and that he therefore turned his thoughts to
the more beneficial ftudics of politics and medicine. He has
been charged by fome conhderable pcrfons, and particularly
by bifhop Hoadly, with coiTupting the native flmplicily of
religion, by blending with it the lubtilty and obicurity of
nietaphyfics ; and Mr. Hume afferts, that his writings fornj
the befl leffons of fcepticifm which are to be found either
among the ancient or modern philofophers, Bayle not ex-
cepted ; that " all his arguments," againft Sceptics, as well
as againft Atheifts and Free-thinkers, fays Hume, " though
otherwife intended, are, in reahty, merely fceptical, appear
{rQWilMii, that iae\ admit of no anfiuer, and produce no convidion."
That his knowledge extended to the minutefl objefts, and
included the arts and bufinefs of common life, is tcftilied by
Dr. BlackwtU, in his " Court of Augullus." The induftry
of his refcarch, and the acutentfs of his obfervations, compre-
hend not only the mechanic arts, but the various departments
of trade, agriculture, and navigation; and that he poficffed.
poetical talents in a cnutiderable degree, is evident from the
animated letters that are found in the colleftion of Pope's
Works, and alfo from feveral compofitions in verfe, particu-
larly the beautiful flanzas written on the profpeft of realiz-
ing his noble fcheme rtlatii/g to Bermuda. The claffical
romance, entitled " The Adventures of Signior Gaudentio
di Lucca," has generally been attributed to him.

Beiides the wruings already mentioned, biffiop Berkeley
publifhed, at Dublin, in 1735, a fmall pamphlet relating to
the dottrine of fluxions, entitled " Realons for not reply-
ing to Mr. Walton's full Anfwer," &c. His fmaller pieces
were colle£led and printed under his infpciition 'at Dublin in
1752, under the title of " Mifcellanies." " The works of
George Berkely, D. D. late bifhop of Cloyne; to which is
added an account of his life, and -feveral letters, fee." were
publiihed in 2 vols. 4to. in 1784. Biog. Brit.

BERKENHOUT, John, fon of a refpettable merchant
of Leeds in Yorkfhire, but originally from Holland, was bora
about the year 1730. Being intended by his father for mer-
chandize, after receiving a fchool education at Leeds, he was
fent to Germany, to acquire a knowledge of that language.
Paying a vifit to the baron de Bielfeldt, a relation of his
father, refiding at Berlin, he was, through the influence of
that nobleman, firfl made a cadet, and, in progreffion, aa
enfign, and afterwards a captain in the Pruflian army ; but
on the breaking out of a war between England and France,
he obtained his difmiffion from the Pruflian fervice, and was
preferred to the command of a company here. On the re-
turn of peace, in 1762, he went to Edinburgh, where he
commenced ftudent in medicine, and after a ftioit refidence
there, he removed to Leyden, and in the year 1 7 65, took his

degree

B E R

dcfjref of doftor in that faculty. The tliefis he wrote on
this occa'.io:! is intitled, " Dificrtrtio meilica inaugiiralis de
podagra," and is dedicated to l:is relation the baron tie Bicl-
fvldt. On his return to England, lie fettled at Iilewortli,
near the Tliame; ; and foon alter publiilied hfs " Pharma-
copccia medica," which has been fo much approved, as to pais
through Icveral editions. But he feems to have been of too
aftive a diipofuion to remain long in the pradice of medicine,
jn which he never made much progrcfs. In 1778, he was
appointed by ^^overnment one of the comm'fDoncrs who were
fent to A.T.erica with a view of icttling die differer.ces be-
tween that country and England, and was the o;ily one of
them that was permitted to go to Philadelphia, where tiie
congrefs was fitting. Here he remained ionie time, but
fnfpefted at length by the congrefs, and perhaps not without
reason, of carrying on a fecret corrcfpondence wicli fome of
the Arr.ericans, who difapprovcd of their proceedings, he
was firft fent to piifon, but was foc.n releafed, and then fent
to his brother commiflloners at New York. On his return to
England, he received a penfioa from government for the
fervices he had endeavoured to render his country ; on which,
and his own fortune, he hved as a private gentleman to the
time of his death, wh.ich happened on the 3d of Apnl
1791.

Dw Berktnhout was author of various works, befides thofe
mentioned above. In 1770, he publidied " OutHnes of the
Natural Hillory of Great Britain and Ireland ;" a ufeful
manual for lludsnts in that line. In 17S8, " Firft lines of
the theory and practice of philofophical chemii'ry ;" which
be dedicated to Mr. Eden (lord Auckland), who had been one
of the commifiloners with him to America. He alfo «Tote
•' An Eflay on the bite of a rrad dog ;" " An Anfwer to
Dr. Cadogan's Efiay on the gout;" "A Pretace to the
tranilation of Fomme's treatiie on liylleric difeafcs." He was
aifo the author of " Lucubrations on ways and means," from
which the idea of feveral of our prefent taxes is faid to be
taken ; and of " A Tranflation ot count Teffins' letters to
the late king of Sweden." New Biog. Diet.

BERKER's Creek, Arian, in Geography, a fand which
{hoots Oil from the land towards the fea, to the fouth of
Blenk, or the fouth fand-hill, on the coalt of Holland. It
is fituated on the fouth of the Land Deep channel into the
Texel, the coaft trending nearly N. and S. from the
Maes to the Texcl.

BERKHAMPSTEAD, a market town of Hertford-
(hire, England, is fituated in a fertile country, on the
fouthern bank of the fmall river Bulberne, at the diilance
of 26 miles N. W. of London. This town and its vici-
nity have been the feat of war, and noted by hiftorians
as the property and relidence of f>.me of the Saxon kings,
and other diftingiriihed charafters of that nation. After the
Norman conquell it was poffeffed by lome princes of the
blood, ard dukes of Cornwall. On the north fide of the
town are the embankments, and other remains, of a confider-
able caille, which Cam.den fuppofed was built by Robert
Moreton carl of Cornwall, who was brother to the con-
queror, and enjoyed the manor, &c. from him. At this
place the conqueror had an interview with the Englifh no-
bility, after his fuccefsful battle againft Harold. The caftle
raifed by earl Moreton, was demoliflled in his fon's time,
who was accufcd of rebellion, and the town and manor
forfeited to the crown. Henry II. granted the inhabi-
tants many privileges, among which was the liberty of fell-
ing their ^oods free of tolls and duties, either in this coun-
try or in Normandy, Aquitain, or Anjou. In Domefday-
boo.k we fiud fifty-two burgefies named in this town, whofe
merchandize was chiefly wool, which wae maauiadiiii ed into

6

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cloth on tho continent. Hei:ry II. kept his court herr,
as appears from a grant ditfd at this place, conferring-
the church of Havering in EITcx on the monks of St. Bcr-
nard dc Monte lovis, to provide firing for the poor. King
John, in the 7th year of his reign, granted tljis caftle and
honour to Geoffrey Fitzpeers earl of Eflex ; but two years
after his dea'h, thefe places were again in the king's hands.
The dauphin of France, in concert with the barons, bcficgcd
this fortrcfs, which was bravely defended. The befieged
made two fuccefsful fallies, and held out until the king fent.
thcni orders to furrendcr. Previoufly to the fecond year of-
Henry 111. the markets were held here on a Sunday, but
in that year they were changed for Monday, which is ft^ilL
the market day. This calllc and lordftiip continued for a
long period in the potTcfiion of the earls and dukes of Corn-
wall, and was repeatedly the fcene of ».ndezvou3 and baronial
contention. The caille was furrounded by a fofs and vallum,
inclofing about four acres of ground, and the keep, or citadel,,
was placed on the north fide of it : upon the dilapidation of
its walls, a large houfe was conftrucfed with the materials,
which was pofFeffcd in the rebellion by colonel Axttl.

The town is much reduced from its former confequence,-
and confifts of one long ftreet, having St. Leonard's hofpitaL
at one end, and St. James's at the other. The church, de-
dicated to St. Peter, is a large handfome pile of building,
and has feveral fmall chaptls, or oratories, included within
its walls ; alfo fome curious old monuments. Here u aa
alms-houfe for fix poor widows, who are jointly allowed 50I.
a year towards their maintenance. The town has alfo a chari-
ty-fchool and a free grammar fchool; the latter of which was
endowed by king Edward VI. for 144 boys, and provided
with a malter and uflier. Befides thefe charitable founda-
tions, here is another alms-houfe, which was endowed by
Jolin Layer and his wife, with a legacy of 130CI. Berkhamp-
ftead gives the title of marquis to the duke of Cumberland.
The chief trade of the place confifts in the turning of bowls,
of fiiovels, fpoons, and other articles, made of beech wood.
Here are three annual fairs, and a ftatute fair for the hiring
of fervants, &c. The houfes in the parilh are 338, and the
inhabitants amount to 1690. This town is called Berk-
hampftead St. Peter's, in contradiftindtion to another parifli
a little to the north of it, which was formerly feparated
from this, and called Nortlichurch, or Berkhamftead St.
Mary's. Salmon's Hiftory of Hertfordftiive, Sec.

BERKI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Natolia, near the river Caifter ; 36 miles E. of Smyrna. N.
lat. 38° 2^' E. long. 25° 39'.

BERKLEY, a county of Virginia in North America, lies
weft of the Blue ridge, north of Frederick county, and le-
parated from the llate of Mar)-land, on the north and eaft
by Potowmack river. This fertile county, about 40 miles
long and 20 broad, has 16,781 free inhabitants, and 2932
fiaves. Its chief town is Martinfburg.

Berkley, the name of a county and town in Charlefton
diftrid, fouth Carolina, lying near Aftiley and Cooper
rivers. In the cenfus of 1791, it was called St. John's
parilh, in Berkley county, and contained 752 free perfonf,
and 5170 flaves.

Berkley, a townlhip of Briftol county in MafiachufcttSj
containing 850 inhabitants ; 50 miles S. of Boilon.

Berkley, or Berkeley, an ancient town of Gloucefter-
ftiire, England, is dillinguiftied in the annals of this country
for its maffy baronial caftle, and the popular events that have
occurred within its walls. The town is Icarcely ever noticed in
the page of hiftory, wliilft the caftle is repeatedly mentioned,
and referred to from the Norman conquell to the difaftrons
warfare in the feventeenth century. In fome old records

this

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tliis place is called Berchelai, ar.d is diflinguilhed by tlie ap-
pellation of borough, though it dots not appear ever to have
lent members lo parliament. Formerly the great public
road from Britlol lo Glouceller, and from the weftern to tlie
northern counties, IpalTed through the town, and coiifc-
quently gave it fomc advantages ; but this road is now con-
ducted through Newport, and fome other places, to the eaft
of the town. This circumllancc, with the powerful attrac-
tions of Glouceller and Briftol, have coTilpirtd to reduce tlie
lize and confequence of this place, which at prefent confifts
of one ftreet only. The river Avon fliirts the fouthern fide ot
the town, and is navigable to tlie Severn for veffels of 40 or
^o tons. Thcfe mull; wait for high tide, which flows round
tlie calUe gardens, and extends a lliort diilance above them.
'I'liis part of the county is diiUnguiilKd by its fine pallure
land, llie rich cluefe made in itb dairies, and the golden and
JLondon-pippin cyder, obtained from its orchards. Tiie clicefe
moftly made here is diltini,'uifhed by the double name of Glou-
celler, the bed of which is bought up by the Loudon fnclors,
at high prices. (See Cheese.) The town is one of the
live ancient boroughs of this county, which fubfifted in the
time ot Edward I. and though deprived of mod of its an-
cient privileges, yet a mayor is annually elcdted.

The manor of Berkley is one of the largefl in England,
and was ta.-ied in the Doinefday book at 160 hides, and 29+
p!ough-till<iges and a half. It was poffefled, immediately
after the Norman coiiqucft, by Roger de Berkeley, who
came into England with the Conqueror, and was rewarded
by him with thio manor. It has continued in this noble fami-
ly without interruption to the prefent time, and is now enjoy-
ed by Frederick Augullus, the fifth earl of Berkeley, who is
the twcnty-lirft in defcent from Harding the Dane.

The caille of Berkeley is one of the mofl perfeft of the
Englith baronial tdltices, and has fufl'ered Icfs by the fconvge
of war and injudicious alteration, than any other Englifh
caille belonging to a fubjc(ft. Some parts of tlie original
llrutlure are ftill perfect, and are intertiling examples of the
firll Norman architecture, which was employed in conftruft-
ing the baronial calllcf. The fitc of this building occupies
an area of ground whofe outline is nearly circular. It rifes
from a valley on the louth and eall, and its other fides are
jjiiarded by embattled walls, towers, and fortified gates.
The great entrance gate opens into a bafe court, having the
keep on the left, and the domel'ic apartments on the right,
and in front. The keep, whole wall^ are lofty and maffive,
refembles the form ot a Roman D, and is flanked by three
femicircnlar towers, belides that in which the great Hone
ftairs are contained. This is fqnare, and has a fmall dark
room near the top, where Edward II. was fecretly murdered
by the machinations of the bilhop of Hereford, who invented
and diretted the execrable deed.

The elegant and energetic poet. Gray, notices this event
in the following exprtffive terms : —
" Mark the year, and mark the night,
When Severn ftiall re-echo with afFnght,
The fhricks of death through Berkeley's roof to ring.
Shrieks of an agonizing king."
The hall, chapel, and moll of the apartments, are fitted up
and prcfervcd nearly in their ancient ftyle, and in fome of
them are feveral curious relics of antiquity. Among them
are many fine old hillorical portraits, and the fopha, chairs,
and beditead, which belonged to the cabin of the ciicumnavi-
gator Sir Francis Drake- The hall, which is 43 feet by 33, was
built in the reign of Edward III. and has a fine old raftered
roof, with a gallery at one end for the accommodation of
minllrels, in " days of yore." Leland mentions feveral parks
and chaces, as connefted with this caille at the time he

7

B E R

viCted it ; but all, except two, have been converted to the
more ufeful purpofe of farming. One of theie, called Whit-
ley-park, which is inclofed with a wall feven miles in cir-
cumference, Hill remains, and contains much fire foreft-
timbtr.

At Purton near this caflle, 'the prefent earl of Berkeley has
made a decoy pool, which is the only one in this county,
and where a great number of wild-ducks are annually netted.
The celebrated Dr. Jenner, the great promoter of the vac-
cine inoculation, was born in this parilh.

To the north of the caille is the parifh church, which is
a large handfome flnifture, and contains feveral handfome
and ancient monuments to the Berkeley family. The tower
is a modern building, and conftrufled at a fmall diilance
from the church.

Ill this townfiiip are 09 luiufes, and 658 inhabitants. In
the hundred of Berkeley there appear to be, by the late po-
pulation act, 3450 inhabited houfea, 9,148 males, 10,074
females, 3968 perfons employed chiefly in agriculture, 6151
employed in trade, manufadturc?, and handicraft, and the
whole number of perfons amounts to 19,222. Rudgc's Hif-
tory of Glouceftcrfhiro. Rudder's Hiilory "of ditto.

Berkley's t'oinf, lies on the north fide of lord Egmont'a
ifland, or New Gucriifey, the principal of the groupe called
Q^neen Charlotte's ifiandf, in S. lat. 10^40'. E. long, about
164" id'.

Bepklev Soiir^, io called from captain Berkley, who
vlfited It in 1787 ; an inlet, or bay, on the N. W. coait of
North America, being the entrance into the fuppofed flrait
of juan de Fuca, terminated on the fouth by cape Flattery,
and on the north by the fouthern part of Quadra, or Van-
couver's ifland ; about 1° 51' fouth-calt of Nootka found.
N. lat. 48° 30'. E. long. 235° 35'.

BERKS, a county of Penniylvania in North America,
has Northampton county on the N. E. Northumberland on
the N. W. part of Lu/ern on the N. Dauphin and Lan-
cafter on tlie S. W. and Chefter and Montgomery on the
S. E. It is watered by Schuylkill river, and is 53 miles
long, and near 29 broad, and contains 1,030,400 acres.
Iron and coal, which are plentiful, fupply feveral iron works.
The noriJieni parts are rough and hilly. Berks contains
30,179 ir.habitar.ts, of whom 6^ are (laves. It has 29
townlliips, of « inch Reading is the chief.

BERKSHIRE, a county of the ilalc of Maffachufetts,
is bounded on the N. by the (late of Vermont, on the S. by
that of Connefticut ; on the E. by Hamplhire county, and
on the W, by the ftate of New York. It runs through the
whole extent of the ilate from N. to S. and contains 26
townfhips; and the number of inhabitants is 30,291. White
and coloured marble is found in feveral towns, in the rough
and hilly parts of this county.

Berkshire, a newly fettled townfiiip of Franklin county
in the ftate of Vermont.

Berkshire, an inland county of England. Previous to,
and at the period of the Roman invafion of Britain, this part
of the ifland was inhabited by three Britifli tribes, refpec-
tively termed Attebrates, Bibroces, or Rhemi, and Segon-
tiaci. The firfl occupied the weltern part of the county,
from the river Lodden on the fonth-eafl, to the Thames oa
the north-well ; whilll the fecond pofielfed the fouth-eaftem
part of the county ; and the Segontiaci inhabited the remain-
ing part on the fouthern lide. When Conllantine divided
this country into Roman provinces (in 310,1 Berklhire wa«
included in the firfl divifion, called Britannia Prima. During
the Saxon Heptarchy, it conflituted part of the kingdom of
the weft Saxons which commenced about A. D. 519, and
continued till A.D. 828, when WeiTex became the only

foveieignty.

B E R

foveicignt)-, and its monavch, E^jbert, gave the whole counti^
the name of England. Alfred, granjfon to Egbert, and a
native of Wantage in this county, proceeding on tlie plan
of his grandfather, more firmly cemented the kin<;doms
which Egbert had united, divided the whole into hundreds,
tithing?, paiiihcs, S:.c. and gave this diviiion the name of
Berrocihire, vi-hich was afterwards contracted and fo£te:i«d
into Berklhire.

This county is bounded by the fliires of Oxford and Buck-
ingham on the north, having the river Thames running the
whole courfe ; on the eaft by Surry ; on the fouth by
Hair.prtiirc, and on the weft by Wiltfhirc. In the elHma-
tion of itsfize authors are at variance, but the moft accurate
ftatement gives its length from E. to N. W. at 48 miles,
and its breadth, in the widcft part, at 25 milts ; though a
narrow part near the centre is little more than 6 miles acmfs.
It contains about 530,000 acres of land, and is locally divid-
ed into twenty hundreds, containing 12 market tov^ns, 140
parilhes, 62 vicarages, about 670 villages and hamlets,
21,195 houfes, and 109,515 inhabitants. A range of chalk
hills entering this county from Oxfordfliire, crofTes it in a
wefterly direftion, and forms the fouthern boundary of the
vale of White Horfe. Independent of this range of hills,
the county is characlerized by gentle eminences and valleys;
having much rich fertile land, and abounding with pidtu-
refque and beautiful fcenery. Though almoll every kind of
grain is cultivated in the county, yet that of barley is raifed
in greater quantities than either of the other fpecies, and
when made into malt, is chiefly fent to London. Many
large dairy farms are found in the White Horfe vale.
Berkfhire is well ftocked with timber, particularly oak and
beech in the wellern part, and alfo with numerous decidu-
ous and exotic trees in Windfor foreil and park, and in the
various ornamental plantations fcattered through the county.
The open commons and uncultivated fields of Berkfhire are
fuppolcd to conftilute nearly half the county. Of thelej
Windfor-foreft, Maidenhead-thicket, Tylehurft heath, Wick-
ham-heath, and the numerous commons and raarfhes, that are
found in almoll e\ery pariih, contain above 40,000 acrts.
The county derives but little advantage from manufactures,
there being only a few clothiers eftabhfhed in the weftern
part of it, and fome pin-makers, &c. at Reading. On the
banks of the river Kennet, in the vicinity of Newbur\-, are
fome large beds of peat, which fumithes the poor with fuel,
and the farmer with afhes to n^.tliorate his land.

The principal nvers of Berklhire are the Thames, the
Kennet, the Lamborn, the Ock, and the Lodden. The
rirll, though it ferves to irrigate arid fcrtihze a great part of
this county, does not llnftly belong to it, being the natural
boundary line between this and the counties of Oxford and
Buckingham. It enters Berkfhire almoft one mile fouth of
Lechladf, and in its progrefs ea'lviard waters the feveral
towns of Abingdon, Wallingford, Henley, Maidenhead,
Windfor, &t. and liaving received the tributary waters of
various ftreams, leaves the county near Runnymead.

The Kennet enters the county on its weilem fide at
Hungerford, and paiTes through a narrow boggy valley to
Newbury. Flowing eaftward, in nearly a diredt line, it runs
through the county town of Reading, and foon afterwards
unites with the Thames.

The Lamborn, a tributary flream to the foimer river,
riles near a town of its own name, and after a courfe of about
II miles, fall' into the Kennet at Newbur>'. This nver has
been defcribed as a phenomenon, by many topographical
writers, fome of whom have affertcd that its current is more
powerful and copious in funimer than in winter. To ac-
count for this fingular occurrence, they have had recourfe
to various hypoihefes, but had they viuted the place, and

B E R

there made inqniries, they would have found, that the river
has no remarkable characterillic different to others, wLofe
courfe is through a fiiort tradt of flat country.

The Ock rifts in the vale of White Horfe, near Kuigfton-
Lifle, and flowing eulhvard, receives feveral other llreams
before it reaches the town of Abingdon, near which it unites
with the Thames.

The Lodden enters the fouthern fide of the county cear
Swallowhcld, and running directly north, forms the wettera
boundary to Windfor forell, and falls into the Thames near
Wargrave.

Berkfhire is in the diocefe of Salifhury, and included ia
the Oxford circuit. It fends nine members to parliament:
two of whom are returned tor the county, and two for each
of the towns of Reading, WaUingford, and New Windfor.
The other member is eledled for the borough of Abingdor;,
The Lent aflizes, and the Epiphany county feflions, are con-
ftantiy held at Reading ; the Eafter feflions at Newbur}- -,
the Summer affizes at Abingdon ; and the Michaelmas lei-
fions alternately at the latter town, and at Reading.

Among the objefts of antiquity in thiscounty, is the cele-
brated White Horfe ; which the moil learned antiquaries
refer to Saxon origin ; and Mr. Wife, who has pubUihed
two quarto pamphltts on the fubjecl, endeavours to prove
that it was defigned by Alfred, to commemorate a victory-
obtained by the Saxons over the Danes. It was formed on
the fide of a chalk hill, by the fimple procefs of cutting off
all the green turf within a certain hne, which refembled the
(hape of a horfe. This trophy is now nearly obliterated by
the grafs growing on its furface. Near the White Horle i^
a very large encampment, called Uffingdon-caftle, and about
one mile wellward of the latter is a Druidical monument,
named Wayland-Smith. It is a large cromlech on a barrow,
with fjveral fmaller ilones, which were formerly placed in a
circle round it. Another Druidical rehc is to be found at
Park-place in this county. This was brought from the ifle
of Jerfey, and all its ilones were placed here in the exadt
poiition, and relative fituation in which they were originally
found. See Henley.

Befides feveral ancient encampments of different fizes and
fliapes, this county had two Roman ftations, which are
named in Antoninus's Itinerary "Spinis," and "Calleva," and
are found in the thirteenth Iter of that work. In the feventh
Iter is another llation, named Pontibus, or Pontis, which anti-
quaries agree in tixing near the eaftern border of the county.
The Roman Wathng-llreet pifled acrofs the northern corner
of Berkfhire, entering it near Walhngfoid, and leavin j it on
the north-weftern lide. Reading is the county town of Berk-
fhire, and the callle of Windfor its greateil or nament. Cam-
den's Britannia. Coates's Hiltory of Reading. Horlley's
Britannia Romana. Beauties of England and Wales.

BERKUSSA, a town of Croatia, on the river Kulpa,
1 1 miles v.-efl of Petreuta.

BERLAI, a town of Croatia, on the river Korana, 8
miles fouth of Sluin.

BERLAMONT, a town of France, in the department
of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the diftric^ of
le Quefnoy, 2I leagues E.S.E. of le Qviefnoy. It contains
1579 inhabitants, and thofe of the canton amount to 5,794.
Thi teri'itory includes 150 kiliomctres, and 14 communes.

BERLASREUT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, 12 miles N. of PafTau.

BERLEBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, 56 miles E. of Cologn.

BERLEUX, a town of France, in the department ot
the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrict of
Pcronne, 3 miles S. W. of Peronne.

BERLIN, a city of Germany, in the circle of Upper

Saxony,

B E R

Snxony, and capital of the ckftorate of Brandenburg, and
of the whole Pruffian dominions, is fituatal on the banks ot
the river Spree, and lias been reckoned one of the moll
beautiful cities in Europe, as it is one of the largcll and
moft populous in Germany. Its extent is about 4* miles
in length, from the Muhlenthor on the fouth-eaft, to the
Oi-anien-burgerthor on the north-well ; and about 3 miles
broad from the Bcrnaverthor, on the north-eaft, to the Potf-
damerthor on the fouth-wcll : but within this extenlive in-
clofure there are many gardens and corn fields. The
arcets are difpofed with great regularity, and are of a con-
venient breadth. In the new town they are perftftly (Iraight.
rrcdcriek ftrcet is reckoned ii Englifh miles in length ;
and others, which interfedl this at right angles, are a mile,
«r a miL- and a half long. Some have affertcd that it covers
as much ground as Paris ; but though this be not tn:e, and
it be allowed to occupy more than half the extent of the
tapital of France, its number of inhabitants is much fmaller
in proportion. The number of houfes has bten vnrioufl/
eftimated. Rcifljeck computes them at 6coo ; count Hert/.-
bcrg Hates the number of buildings public and private, as
amounting in 1790, to 6725 ; and according to Hot-ck, the
number of lioufcs is 6950. The number of inhabitants,
;iccording to the lowtil ilatemcnt, is 140,000 ; Hoeck
computes them at 142,099; and Hertzberg at 150,803,
being, at an average, more than 22 inhabitants to each houfe.
There are a few very magnilicerst buildings in this town ;
and the rell are nezt' houfes, built according to a plan pre-
fcribed by the late and. prefent king, who have diredled
their particular attention to the external decorations of the
city, either of a fine white free-Hone, or of bricks covered
with a thin coating of plaller, painted with a light colour,
and geneiallv one, or at mofl two ftories high. The fitua-
tion of the city, in a barren fandy plain, cxpoffs it very
much to duil, which, in dry windy weather, is not only in-
convenient to the eves and lungs of the inhabitants, and in-
jurious to their health, but detrimental to the beauty of
the buildings, which exhibit a foiled and (liabby appearance.
The finilhirig of the houfes within by no means torrcfponds
with their external elegance ; the rooms are in a ruinous
condition, the furniture covered with dull and dirt, and the
variety of ptrfons of the meaneft condition who inhabit
them, altogether incongruous to their outward magnifi-
cence and decoration. In thcfe handfome houfes, foldiers
are quartered even on the ground floor, in rooms looking out
to the ilreet ; and the lowell mechanics occupy the difierent
ftories. The principal edifices are the king's royal palace,
and that of the prince royal. The former is a magnificent
<lruc\urc of free-ftone, begun by Frederick I. in 1699 ; but
as it has been con ilru£led at different periods, and by feveral
archile(^U, its fronts are not exadlly regular. It confilts of
four Holies, with large apartments, fine cielings, and fuperb
furniture. The ftate chambers are decorated with capital
paintings and rich tapeftry, and furnillitd with tables,
(land?, lullres, chandeliers, looking-glafs frames, fcreens,
couches, &c. of folid filver. The library, though a mean
apartment, is well fumifhed with books ; among which is
a coUcilioii of 500 Bibles in difi"ereiit languages and editions,
particularly the Bible ufed by our Charles I. when he was
beheaded, prefented as a kind of relic by Dr. Juxon to the
cleAor of Brandenburg, and alio the firfl Bible printed in
America, and one of 1450, the firft printed in the German
language ; and alfo a koran, in a charadler fo fmall, and en
■A paper fo thin, as to form only 1^ inch in bulk. The arfe-
nal is 3 noble (Irufture, forming a fpacious quadrangle, and
containing arms, ranged in excellent order, for 20o,oco men.
Over the principal gate is a portrait of the elcdor, William

B E R

the Great, in a large model of gilt brafs ; and the four car-
dinal virtues, of a gigantic fize, are placed on pedellals on
each fide of the portico, and feem to look towards the pic-
ture. The foldiero of the garrifon arr.ount to about 30.000.
The royal llablcs are very magniricent, adjoining to which
are grand apartments for the mailer of the horic, and his in-
ferior officers ; and in the rooms over the ftable?, may be
fecn the rich accoutrements of the horfe on which Frederick
1. rode, when lie made his pubhc entry ; all the ornaments of
the bridles, the breall-leather and crupp;'r, as well as the
bits and llirrups, being of gold, adorned wiih brilliants. The
opera-houfe is a beautiful ftructure, and on the front bears
this infcription, " Frcdericusrex, Apollini et Mufis." The
king allows the free cxercife of religion : and, accordingly, in
Bcrhn are 25 churches, 14 of which. are Lutheran, 10 Cnl-
vinift, and one Roman Catholic, which is the moil elegant
in the city. The churches are decorated with Mercuries,
Apollos, Minervas, and Cupids, " which might lead a ftran-
gtrto fufpsdl," fays Dr. Moore, "that the Chriflian religion
was exploded from the Pruffian dominions, and old Jupiter
and his family reilored to their ancient honours." Inflesd
of faints and crucifixes, fays the fame vi-riter, Frederick III.
propofed to adorn the church of Berlin with the portraits
of men who have been ufeful to the ftate ; thofc of the
marlhals Schwerin, Keith, Winterfield, and fome others,
were aftually placed in the great Lutheran church before
his death. We may alfo reckon among the public build-
ings and eftablifliments of Berlin, the academy of fciences,
(See Academy), another of arts and painting, an anatomi-
cal college, 5 gymnafin, 2 public librarier, and many excel-
lent and important fabrics and manufaftures of filk, woollen
Huffs, and Hoekings, cotton, linen, lace, porcelain, &c. which
fupply it with a very confiderable and advantag^'ous trade,
to the profpcrlty of which, the unlimited toleration granted
to Roman Catholics, Lutheran?, CalvinlHs, and Jew?, has
very much contributed. In Berlin, there are feveral large
fquares, in one of which is an equeftrian llatue of marflial
Schwerin, holding the enfign with which he advanced at
the famous battle of Prague, and which he feized from one
of his officers when his troops were giving way, exclaiming,
" Let all, but cowards, follow me." On the new bridge
over the Spree, Hands alfo an equcHrian ftatue of William the
Great, which is highly cfteemed as a piece of fine workmau-
{hlp ; the man and horfe in one piece, call at the fame time,
and the Hatue weighs 3,000 quintals. Ttie fuburbs arc
adorned with the magnificent garden of count Reuffen,
the beautiful houfe and garden called Mombijon, the houfe
and garden of Belvldere, and the Hately hofpltal of Invalids,
for the maintenance of about a thoufand officers and foldiers.
In the new CalvinlH church of Old Coin, is the burying
place of the royal family. At Berlin there are many pub-
lic walks and gardens. The principal walk is that in the
park, on the fouth fide of the Spree, which is upwards of
three miles in circuit, and reforted to by the inhabitants of
the city in great crowds on a Sunday ; and here they are
provided with every kind of refreftiment, and indulged with
any fort of asaufement. The moft fafhionable walk in the
city, is that which lies in the middle of one of the fireets.
Before the houfes at Berlin, on each fide, is a caufe-way, and
between thefe two caufc-ways, are fine gravel walks planted
with lime-trees. Under thefe are pitched tents, in which are
fold ice, lemonade, and other refrelhments. In the fummer,
the bands of mubc belonging to the regiments prattife in
this walk. In all the private houfes a very rigid economy
is obferved ; the chief article of cxpence is that which per-
tains to the drefs of the ladies, who deny themfelves common
indulgences, for the fake of powder and millinery. The

ladie*

B E R

'ladit! of the C(3'j:-t !iave mucli of t'le aii- of Fiencli women.
There are fome kinds of irregularities tliat prevail to a
great degree in this city. Public courtezans are more nu-
merous liere thaa in any tov/n of Europe, in proportion to
the number of its inhabitants. They appear openly at the
windows, beckon to paflengers as they walk in the Itreets,
and ply for employment in any way they pleafe, without
dillurbance from the magillrate. Citizens and manufac-
turers of the better kind live altogether among thofe of their
own rank ; and without affetting the manneis of the cour-
tiers, or looping tj the mean debauchery of the common-
alty, maintain the decency, plainnef?, and honclly of the
German charafler. Jcaloufy is held in equal contempt and
deteftation by the inhabitants of Berlin, and fcandai is very
Jittle known. The environs of this city are rem.irki'.bly plea-
far.t, being interfperfed with villages, vineyards, canals, plca-
fure-hourej:, and gardens. Among the pab.ces in the neigh-
bourhood belonging to the royal family, Sciionhaufcn and
Charlottenburg are the mo!t worthy of notice. The for-
mer is fituated about two miles from Berli.:, on the Panko,
which fupplies the pond in the fumptuous garden of this
palace with v.-ater. Charlottenburg alfo, one of tlie royal
or electoral palaces, feated on the river vSpree, was only a
fmall village, till the elcftrefs, confort to Frederick I. being
plcafed with its iituation, began to build in it, and after her
t^eath the works were earned on by the tleftor, who gave
it its name in commemoration of his wife Sophia Charlotte.
This palace is one of the moil conHderable tlruduresin Gcr-
niany, and is adorned with a mo!f beautiful garden.

Berlin is divided into five wards, called Berlin proper. Coin
on theSpree, Frederick'sWerder, Dorotheenlladt, and Frcde-
rickftadt. The proper Berliivwas founded in the lathcentury,
by fome coloniils invited thither from the Netherlands, and
the vicinity of the Rhine, under the margrave Albert, the
15car. The fubuibs of this town are frequently called
Konigftadt, and by others divided into three viertels, or quar-
tersi Berlin proper is feparated by a principal arm of the
Spree from Coin, over which are four bridges, three of
timber, and one of fton^, called the Pontncuf. Coin
was probably built about the fame time as Berlin ; and it is
formed into a kind of ifland by two branches of the Spree,
which environ it. New Coin is now a confiderable part of
the old town of Coin, from v>-hich it is feparated by the
Spree. The fuburbs of Coin were inclofed in 1736, within
the outer wall. The Frederickfwerder was built by the
eleftor Frederick William, on a fwampy werder, or ifland.
This ward is feparated by a rampart and ditch from the
Dorotheenftadt, or Neuftadt, founded by the elector Frede-
rick William, and named after his confort, Dorothy. This
new town is the moll beautiful part of Berlin, and it is
chiefly inhabited by the French. In a ilreet of this town
is the walk above mentioned. Frederickfl.adt, founded by
the elector Frederick III. immediately on his acccffion to
the government, communicates with the new town and the
Werder, and is the pleafantell ward in the whole city ; the
ftreets being fpacious, llraight, and planted with lime- trees.
Behind this is eretted a new ward, which ranges to the end
of the new town, w-here many of the nobility have built pa-
laces. In the fuburbs, the houfes are generally of timber,
but fo wl\ plallered, that they feem to be of Hone, and
the ftreets are broad and ftraight. From this town there
is a free communication, by means of canals, between the
Spree and the Oder, and the Spree and the Elbe. Berlin
lies in N. lat. 52° 32' 30". E. long. 13^ 26' 15". The
annual average of temperature of Berlin for fifteen years,
from 1769,10 17S2, was, according to Mr. Beguelin's ob-
fervations, 49° ; nor could he find that the temperature de-

VOL. IV.

B E R

creaf:s. The Baltic, within 120 miles N. of it, tempers the
north winds, fays Kirwan (See his Eilimate of the tem-
perature of dilTerent latitudes, p. 7 1 .) and to this is owing tlie
moderate temperature which it enjoys. Tiie influeuc° of
the vicinity of the Baltic mull be allowed, when it is con-
fidered, that the temperature of Berlin is higher than that
of Drefden, Altenburgh, or Gotha, whofe latitude is cne
degree lower, but more dillant from th- Baltic. Rcifocck's
Travels, vol. iii. Moore's Travels through France, &.C.
vol. ii.

Berlin, a neat and flnurifliing town of America, in
York county, and ftate of Peni.fyTvanla, containing about
100 houfes. It is rcgulariy laid our, or, the S. W.'fide of
Conewago creek, 13 miles wcilerly of York town, anj 101
weft of Philadelphia. N. lat. 39^ 56'.— Alfo, a town.a:!]) in
Orange county, Vermont, on Dog river, a brar.ch of Onion
river trom the foutli, which laft feparatts Berlin from Mont-
pclier on the N.N.W. Berlin contains 1 34 inhabitants, and

is about 94 miles north-eaiteily from Bennington Alfo. a

townflipni Haitford comity, Conneaicut, 12 miles S.S.W.
from Hartford, 42 N.W. from New Lor.don, and 26 N.N.E.
from New Haven.— Alfo, a townfnip in Worccftcr countv,
Malfachufetts, containing 512 inhabitants, 34 miles Vf'. froin
Bofton, and 1 5 N. E. from Worcefter. Hops have been cul-
tivated here, and promife to be a valuable article of hulbandr)-.
— Alfo, a townfliip of Somtrfet county, formerly in that of
Bedford, Pennfylvania, which lies on a branch of Stonty creek,
a fouth water of Conemaugh river on the wtft fide of the
Alleghany mountain ; 25 miles W. from Bedford ; 23 N. W.
from Fort Cumbcriand, in Virginia, and 200 W. from Phi-
ladelphia. Stoiie creek, the cliief fource of Kiikeminjtas
river, rifes N.N.E. cf Berlin. N. lat. 39' 54'.

Berlin, a fort of vehicle, of the chariot kind ; taking
its name from the city of Berlin, in Germany : though fome
attribute the invention of it to the Italians, and derive the
word from herUna, the name given by them to a fort of ftao-e,
whereon perfons are e.xpofed to public ftiame. In proof of
its having derived its origin, as well as its name, from Berlin,
it is alleged, that Philip de Chiefe, a native of Piedmont,
and dcfccnded from the Italian family of Chiefa, was a colo-
nel and quarter-mafter in the fervice of Frederick William,
elector ct Brandenburg, and that he was much efteemed
by the eleclor on account of his fliill in architedlure. Being
once fent to France on his mafter's bufinefs, he caufed to
be conllrucled, for the convenien-;.; of this journey, a car-
riage capable of containing two perfons ; which in France,
and every where elfe, was much approved, and called a ber-
line. This Philip de Chiefe died at Beriin in 1673. — Beck-
man's Hill, of Inventions, vol. i, p. 130. '

The beriin is a very convenient mach.ine to travel in, be-
ing lighter, and lefs apt to be overturned, than a chariot.
The body of it is hung high, on ftiafts, by leathern braces ;
there being a kind of ftiiTup, or footftool, for the coiive-
niency of getting into it : inftead of fide windows, fome
have fcreens to let down in bad weather, and draw up in
good weather.

Berlin, in Natural Hiflory. See Berdin.
BERLINCHEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, ia
the circle of Upper Saxony, and New Mark of Branden-
burg, So miles E.N.E. from Beriin, and 36 N.N.E. from
Kuftrin.

BERLINECZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw, 52 miles W. from Braclaw.

BERLOCH, a town of Bohemia, in ihe circle of Czaz-
lau, 9 miles N. E. from Czazlau.

BERME, in Forujuat'ion, a fmall fpace of ground, fo'.:r
or five feet wide, left without the rampart, between its foot

G g and

B E R

and the fide of the moat, to receive tl.e eartli that roUi
down from the nmpart, and prevent its failing into, and
lining up the moat.

This is alfo called iifieie, rela'is, relniile, pns dc foitres, fore-
land, ^c. . ,T J 1
• Sometimes, for greater fcciirity, the berme is pahfadocd.

BERMEJO, m Geosi\ipl<y, the name of an illand and
port on the S. W. coall of South America, in about 2
degrees N. a Uttle W. from Lima. It is four leagues dif-
tant from Mengon on the nortli, and 6 from Guarmey port
on the fouth. The illand is a fmall white iflantl, in the
middle of which is a bay : the land from hence to Mengon
is hiCTM, and aboimds with hillocks, having large fpots of
white" fand. It has a good harbour, and line frefh water at
a fmall diftance from the fhore ; and the harbour is known
at fea by a laige high hill with a cleft in it, which runs
down fouthward to the fea-fide ; on the nonh it is very

ftccp. r r. •

BERMEO, or Vermeo, a fea-port town of Spain, in
the province of Bifcny, near cape Machicaca, 5 leagues N.W.
of Bilbao.

BERMUDA HUNDRED, or City Point, is a port
of entry, and poll town of America, in Cliefterfield county,
Virginia, featcd on the point of the peninfula formed by the
confluence of the Appamattox with James river, 36 miles wef-
terly from WiUiamfliurg, 64 from Point Comfort, in Chefa-
peakbay, ai'd3i5 S.W.by S. from Philadelphia. City Point,
from which it is named, lies on the fouthern bank of James
River, 4 miles S.S.W. from this town. The town has about
40 houfes, including fome warehoufcs. It trades chiefly
with the Weft Indies, and the different ftates. City Point,
in Jamts River, lies in N.lat. 37° 16'. W.long. 77° 31' 30".

BERMUDAS, or SoMERs' Islands, vulgarly called
Summer IJljnds, a clufter of fmall and rocky iflands, forming
the figure of a (hepherd'; crook, and amounting in number
to about 400 ; fituated in the Alantic, and diftant from
the coaft of Carolina about !00 leagues. N. lat. 32° 35'.
W.long. ^3° 28'.

They derived their firft name from John Bermudas, a
Spaniard, who difcovered them in 1527; and their fecond
appellation they owe to fir George Somers, who was fhip-
wrccked on thefe rocks in his palTage to Virginia in 1609,
and lived there 9 months. But he and his companions,
having built a fhip of cedar wood, failed from thence to
Virginia. Sir George Somers, it is faid, was driven a fe-
cond time on thefe iflands, and died there. But his compa-
nions, returning to England, made fo favourable a report
cf their beauty and fertility, that the Virginia company,
who, as the firft difcoverers, claimed the property, fold them
to about 120 perfons, to whom king James I. granted a
charter. Accordingly, in 1612, they planted the iargeft of
them, viz. St. George's ifle, with 160 perfons, and in 1619,
fcut thither 500 perfons more ; upon which they inflitiited
an aflembly, with a governor and council. It is faid, that
thcv are much incommoded by want of frefh water, and by
the'ftorms, thunder, &r. to which they are fubjeft. Shake-
fpear has thercfure jnftly dcfcribed them as ever " vexed"
with ftorms ; but the poet Waller, who refided there for
fome time, on being condemned for a plot againft the par-
liament in 1643, reprefents them as enjoying a perpetual
fpring. In 1725, the benevolent bifhop Berkeley propofed
to ercft a college in thefe iflands for the converfion of the
favage Americans. See Berkeley.

This group of iflands is faid to confirt of about 400 : but the
erreaternumberfeemtobemere iflets androcks, notof fufficient
importance to have received a name. From the chart by Eem-
prierciiu 797, itflioul»ife«mthat thelargeftiiland, called " Ber-

B E R

nv.ida," refemWes a hook, the great found fronting the north.
The length is about 35 geographical miles, and the breadth
between" one and two. The other iflands which have re-
ceived names arc St. George's, St. David's, and Sommc-rfef.
The iflaiid of >St. George's lies eaftward of the main lard,
and has a capital town of the fame name, containing about
500 houfes. Contiguous to this is St. David's, which lupplics
the town with provifions. The air is healthy, and a conti-
nual fpiing prevails ; fo that moft of the produftions of the
Weft Indies might probably be cultivated in thefe iflands.
The houfes are built of a foft ftone, which is fawn like
timber, and feemingly refembling that of Bath ; and the
ftone is much ufed in the Weft Indies for filtrating water.

With regard to the fuppofed fertihty and produAivenefs
of thefe iflands, it appears, from the anfwers of governor
Brown to the inquiries of the privy council of England,
that they contain from i 2 to 13 thoufand acres of very poor
land, of which gparts into are eitheruncultivated, or referved
in woods tor a fupply of timber towards building fmall fliips,
floops, and fliallops, for fale, this being the principal occu-
pation of the inii?.bitants ; and the veff-ls which they furnifh,
being built of cedar, are light, buoyant, and unexpenfivc.
Of the land in cultivation, no part was appropriated to any
other purpofc than that of railing Indian corn, and cfculent
roots and vegetables, of which a confiderable fupply is fent
to the Weft Indies, until the year 1785, when the growth
of cotton was attempted, but without much iuccefs ; there
not being at prefent more than 200 acres applied to this
fpecies of culture. The number of white people of all ages
in Bermudas, is 5462, and of black, 4919. The Bermu-
dians are generally feafaring men, and the negroes are ex-
pert mariners. In the war between Great Britain and
America, there were at one time between 15 and 20 priva-
teers fitted out from hence, which were manned by negroe
flaves, who behaved irreproachably ; and fuch is the ftate of
flavery in thefe iflands, and fo much are the negroes attached
to their mafters, that fuch as were captured always returned
when it was in their power. Some part of the trade of the
Bermudians, coiififts in carrying the fait which they fetch
from Turks ifland to America, where they fell it for pro-
vifions, or for cafh. Thefe iflands are frequented by whale-
fifhers. The government is conduced by agovemor named
by the Britifh crown, a council, and a general alTembly :
the religion is that of the church of England. There are
9 churches under the care of 3 clergymen ; and one Pref-
byterian church. The women of thefe iflands are faid to
be handfome, and both feses are fond of drefs. Edwards's
Hift. of Weft. Ind. vol. i. p. 470.

Bermudas Cedar, in Botany. See Juniperus.

BERMUDIANA. See Sisyrinchium.

BERN, in Geography, was, before the French revolution,
one of the thirteen cantons of Swiffcrland, bounded on the
eaft by the cantons of Uri, Undcrwakien, Lucern, and the
county of Baden ; on the north by the Auftiian foteft-towns
and the cantons of Bafle and Soleure ; on the weft by the
canton of Soleure, the county of Bienne, and a part of
France; and on the fouth by the lake cf Geneva, the Valais,
and the duchy of Savoy. In the year 1352, Bern acceded
to the Helvetic confederacy ; and poffeffed fuch power, even
at that early period, as to obtain the fecond rank among the
Swifs cantons. Since the acquifition of the Pays de Vaud,
the domains of this canton formed nearly the third part of
Swiflerland, and about the fourth of the aftual population.
It contained 3^*40 fquare miles ; its population was eftimated
^^ 374>oo3 peifons, and its contingents amounted to 2000.
At the introduftion of the reformation in 1528, govern-
ment acquired a large ir.creafe of revenue by fecularizing the

ecckflailical

B E R

cccUTiatlical pofrtillons. At the fame period tlie whole can-
ton followed the example of the capitr.l ; and the reformed
religion was permraiently eftabiilhed. This cnnton was di-
vided into two' great portions ; the Pays de \'aud, and the
German dilfrid. The Pays de Vaud liaviug been conquered
from the houfe of Savoy, and the Genran diftrid from the
States of the Empire, jnftice was adminillcred, and taxes
regulated in each by peculiar laws and cuftoms. Each of
thefe divifions had its ircafurer and chamber of appe?.! rtfi-
dent in the capital ; the chamber of appeal belonging to the
Pays de Vaud judged in the laft rcfort ; but the inhabitants
of the Gerraan diilricl were allowed to appeal to the fove-
leign council.

The fovercign power of this canton refided in the great
council of two himdred, which, when complete, confiiled of
299 members chofen from the citizens, from whom they were
confidered as derivi:!g their power, and as afiing by depu-
tation. The authority with which they were inveftcd, was
in fome refpefls the moll uncontrouled of any among the
ariftocratical ilates of Swiflcrland. The great council of
Bern, lince the year 1682, when it was declared the fove-
reign, was reftrained by no conftitutional check, like fome
of the others. As a general aiTembly of the citizens was
never convened on any occafiun, the executive powers of
government were delegated by this fovereign council to the
fcnate, chofen by themfelves from their own body ; the former
ordinarily alTembled three times a week, and extraordinarily
upon particiilar occafions ; die fenate, every day. Sundays
and feftivals excepted. The fenate, comprifing the two
avoyers, or chiefs of the republic, was compafedof 27 mem-
bers ; and from this leleft body were taken the principal
magiftrates. On a vacancy in the fenate, 26 balb, 3 of
which were golden, were put into a box, and drawn by fe-
vei-al members; and thofe who drew the three golden balls,
nominated three elccxors out of their body. In the fame
manner, fevcn members were chofen from the great council,
who alfo nominated feven electors out of their own body.
Thefe ten eleftors fixed on a certain number of candidates,
not exceeding ten nor lefs than fix ; and fuch among thefe
candidates as had the feweft votes in the fovereign council,
retired till their number was reduced to four ; then four
balls, two golden and two filver, were drawn by the four
remaining candidates ; the two who drew the former were
put in nomination, and he who had the greateft number of
fuffrages in the fovereign council was chofen. But the can-
didate, in order to be ehgible, muft have been a member of
the great council ten years, and muft be either a married
man or a widower. The greateft excellence of this mode of
eleftion confifted, as Mr. Planta obferves, in jnaking the
chance of lots apply chiefly to the electors, and not to
thofe who might pretend to the fucccflion, by which the
dangerous effefts of cabal were in a great meafiue obviated,
and yet a fair profpeft of fuccefs was given to the meri-
torious, while thofe wholly unqualified could entertain little
hopes of being preferred. The felefted candidates drew lots
only in one ftage of the proceeding ; and this when their
number being reduced to only four, an even chance was
given to thofe few to whom eminent qualifications had fe-
cured the marked approbation of their fellow-citizens ; and
when fortune proved unfavourable in one inllance, repeated
opportunities would occur, in which, unlefs Ihe proved un-
gularly unpropitious, the defired objedi would be ultimately
obtained.

The great council was generally filled up every ten years ;
as within that period tliere was ufuplly a deficiency ot 80
members to complete the whole number of 299. When
this deficiency occurred, and not before, a new tleclion was

B E R

propofed ; nor could it be deferred when there was a defici-
ency of '100. The time of eleftion being determined by
vote, each avoyer nominated two of the new members ; e-ach
fcizenier, and each member of the fenate, one ; and two or
three other officers of ftate enjoyed the fame privilege.
Some few perfons claimed, by virtue of their office, a right
of being clefted, which was generally allowed. Thefe le-
veral nominations and pretei fions generally amounted, on th.c
whole, to about 50 ; the remaining vacancies were fupplicd
by tlu; fuffrages of the fenate, and the feizeniers. Thefe
fcizeniers were fixteen members of the great council, drawn
yearly from the abbayes or tribes ; and the candidates were
generally taken from thofe who had exercifed the office of bai-
liffs, and were elected by lot. They were inverted with an au-
thority fimilar to that of the Roman cenfors ; and in cafe of
mal-adminirtration, might remove any member from the great
council or fenate, though they have fcldom exercifed this
power. The principal magillrates were two avoyers, two
treafurers, and four bannerets ; each chofen by a majority ot
voices in the fovereign council, and yearly confirmed in their
refpeftive offices. The avoyers held their ports for life ;
the treafurers, fix years ; and the bannerets, four. The two
treafurers, one for the Pays de Vaud, and the other for the
German diftriiS, formed, in conjunftion vrith the four ban-
nerets, an economical cham.ber or council of finance, which
palTed the accounts of the bailiffs, and received the revenues
from thofe who were accountable to the government. The
four bannerets, the ex-avoyer, 'who was tiic firft fenator in
rank, and prefident of the fecret ccurcil, the fenior treafu-
rer, and two members of the fenate, compoled a committee
or fecret council, in which all ftate affairs, requiring fecrecy,
were difcufled.

Although the form of this conftitution was ariftocratical,
and the fenate pofTeffed a vei7 confiderable influence, yet it
did not enjoy (fays Mr. Coxe) that almoft exclufive autho-
rity which exiits in many ariftocratical governments. For,
by feveral wife and well obferved regulations, the fovereign
council, although it delegated the moft important concerns
of government to the fenate, yet aiTembled at ifated times,
and fuperintendcd the adminiftration of public affairs. Mr.
Buriie atferts, that the republic of Berne was one of the
happiert, moft profperous, and beft governed countries on
earth.

The canton of Bern, by its old conftitution, was divided
into a certain number of diftricts, called baiUiages (fee Bail-
liage), over which bailiffs were chofen from the fovereign
council. Thefe were the moft profitable pofts in the
difpofal of government, and very eagerly purlued. They
were formerly nominated by the bannerets, but the mode of
el.'ftion v.-as altered iu 1712, and they were chofen by lot.
The bailiffs were reprefentatives of the fovereign power in
their refpeclive diftricts ; whofe bufinefs it was to enforce the
editts of government, to collect the pubhc revenues, to act
as iuttices of the peace, and to be judges in civil and crimi-
nal caufes, except where there was any local jurildietion.
In civil cafes, be)ond a certain value, an appeal lay to the
courts of Bern : in criminal aftairs, the procefs underwent a
revifion in the fenate, and was referred to the criminal cham-
ber, which inflifted puniihnients for fmall mifdemeanours ;
but in capital cafes, the fentence was to be confirmed by
the fenate, and by the fovereign council, if the delinquent
was a citizen of Bern. The bailiff delivered his accounts to
the economical chamber, to wliich court an appeal lay in
cafe of exaction on h's part, or on tiie part of his officers.
The profits of the baififf's office arofe from the produce of
the demefnes, of the tithes, certain duties paid to govern-
ment in the refp«Ctive bailliagcs, and from the fines impcfed
G g i f«rr

B E R

B E It

plreJ to the cxpfnccs of the govermeiit, were derived prin-
cipally from the public demefnes appropriated at the time of
the reformation ; the tithes, fequellered at the fame period,
and afligiitd to the maintenance of the clergy, public ftmi-
.eimr" 'Kovernor* knd judirc in his own diftrid, and having a nnries, and charitable inftitutlons ; quit-rcnts, mid monopoly
na-nifrcent chateau for" his accommodation, not only pof- of fait and gunpowder ; produce of the polt-cfuce ; culloms
e'(f d irreat po'.ver, but in the courfe of his adminillration, and tolls ; duty v.n wme iT.ported into the capital ; and hnei
^^ "^ — impofed for mifdemeanors ; alio a tax on the alienation or

for criminal offences. In fome parts of the German divifion,
the bailiff became entitled, upon the death of every peafant,
to a determinate part of the inheritance, which proved in fonie
fituations an opprcfiive tax upon the family. The bailiff,
h
rv _

,.(f;.d great p' , _- -

which lafled !•>: years, was able to live with proper magmh-
cence, and to lay up two or three thoufand pounds without
extortion or unbecoming parfimony.

In Bern, the militia was fo well regulated, that govern-
ment was able to affemble a very confiderable body of men
an a moment's warning. To this purpofe, every male at
the age of 16 was enrolled, and about a third of the whole
imnibt-r was formed into particular regiments, compofed of
fiifilcLrs and electionaries ; the former being bachelors, and
the latter m.arried men. Every perfon thus enrolled was
obliged to provide, al his own expence, an uniform, a muf-
quet, and a certain quantity of powder and ball •, and no
peafant was allowed to marry, unlcfs he produced his uni-
form and arms. Every year a certahi number of officers,
called land-m.ijors, were deputed by the council of war, to
infpeft the arms, to complete the regiments, and to exercife
the militia. The regiments were, befides tliis annual review,
occalionally cxercifed by veteran foldiers appointed for that
purpofe. Befidc the arms in the arfenal of Bern, a certain
quantity is alfo provided in the arfenal of each bnilliage, fuf-
ficient for the militia of that diftricl, and likewife a lum of
money amoimting to three mouths' pay, which is appropri-
ated to the eledionarics in cafe of adual fervice. The dra-
goons were chofen from the fubllantial farmers, each of
whom provided his horfe and accoutrements. In time of
peace, the avoyer out of ofliee was prefident of the council
of war ; but during wis, a general in chief was nominated
for the forces of the republic. A certain number of regi-
ments being thus always ready, fignal; are fixed on the
lii'rheft part of each bailhage, for afiemhling the militia at a
partieidar place in each dillrift, where they receive orders
for marching. As the page of hillory does not exhibit a
greater curiofity than what was called the '• exterior Hate"
at Bern, we fliall here fubjoiii a brief account of it. It was
a model of the fovercigu council, and compofed of thofe
burghers who had not attained the age requihte for entering
into that council. It had a great council, a fcnate, two avoy-
trs, treafurcrs, bannerets, and feizeniers ; all of whom were
chofen in the ufual'manntr, and with the accullomed cere-
monies. The poll of avoyer in this mimic legiflative com-
munity was folicited with great afliduity, and fometimes ob-
tained at a confiderable expence, as the fuccefsfid candi-
date was always admitted into the great couicil without any
farther recommendation. This body poffcilcd 66 bailliages,
confilling of feveral ruined calUes difpcifed throughout the
country, among which Hapfburg was the principal. It had
alfo its common treafure, and its debts ; difFeiing in this
latter refpcft from the actual government of Bern, which
was not only free from debts, but poffeired of a very confi-
derable fund in referve. Great honours were paid to this
imgidar infti'.ution, as it was in fart a kind of pchtical fe-
minary for the youth of the canton, who were likely to ar-
rive in fome future period at the highell offices in the ilate.
Its badge, or coat of arms, which was an ape fitting on a
lobfter, and viewing itfelf in a mirror, was no bad emblem
of its mock confequence.

The revenues of Bern, out of which were paid the fala-
ries of the principal magillrates, which were extremely mo-
derate, the reigning avoyer being allowed 400I., each of the
fenators 150I., and the banneret z.jol., and which were ap-

landcd property in the French diftridt ; the interell of mo-
ney accumulated from a regular progreffiou (;f favings, of
which nearly 500,000!. were lodged in the Englifli funds.
The whole revenue has been ilated by the bed authorities as
not exceeding 300,000 crowns, which were always more
than fuflicicnt to fupply the expenditure, and to conflrudl
and fuppott the magnificent public works. A large treafure
was always referved in a vault of the capital for fudden
emergencies, and the care of this vault cntrulled to the prin-
cipal magillrates, each of whom had a feparate key, and
without their concurrence, and a fpecial order from the fo-
vereign council, the door could not be opened. 'I'he amount
of this treafure could not be accurately afcertained, but it
mull have been very confiderable, as not lefs than i6o,oool.
flerling was depofited in the mountains of Hadi and Ober-
land. The pillage of this treafure was one of the principal
objeftsof the French direttory, to defray the expenccs of their
armament againll Egypt. In the plunder of Bern, it is faid
that the French did not acquire lels than 400,0001. in fpecie.
When the dirtftory of France determined to revolutionize
Swifferland, it direfted its whole force againll the canton of
Bern, on the conquefl or fubmiffion of which the reduflion
of the country at large depended. Its hollihties were pre-
ceded, in 1797, by requiring Bern, and the other Hclvetie
cantons, to difmifs the Britifh miniiler, who withdrew, and
voluntarily announced the termination of his embaffy in a
dignified note addrefl'ed to the rulers of Bern. France,
having accompliihed the firll part cf its plan, which was that
of dividing the confederate Hates, proceeded to the attain-
ment of their fecond object, which was the fubjcdtion cf
Bern. With this view they fecured the pades vvliich f?r
cilitated the invafion of the Bernefe territory, by feizlng
the Ergucl and the town of Bienne. The fubfequent atr
ttr.ipt to detach the Pays de Vaud from Berne, and to ere£l
it into a republic, under the aufpices of France, was equally
fuceefsful, from the pufiUanimity and infatuation of the
Bernefe government. Bern, after fome feeble and inefFeftual
remonltrances, relinquilhed its claims on the Pays de Vaud,
and made overtures of conciliation to the French direftory,
and to Mengaud, their agent, in Swiiililand. But thefe
degrading meafures ferved only to haften the fall of the re-
public. At length, after foine fruitlefs negotiations, they
had recourfe to arms ; and the forces of Soleure and Friburgbi,
ranged themfelvts under the (landard of Bern ; and the chief
C(nnmand was entrufted to general d'Erlach, a member cf
the fovereign council, who was a veteran difiinguifhed for
military Hiill and undaunted courage. The combined forces
of Bern, Solcure, and Friburgh, amounted at this time to
25,000 men, and extended from the northern frontierc of the
ciuton of Soleure beyond Friburgh; occupied the llrong poli-
t'on of Vailly, between the lakes of Morat and Neufchatcl,
and pulhed their advanced corps as far as the vallies of Or.-
mond, towards the fouth-eailern extremity of the lake of
Geneva. By this pofition they covered the towns of Sor
leure, Bern, and Friburg, and prevented all communication
between the two French armies, in the Pays de Vaud, and
the bifiiopric of Bade. Erlach, having arranged his plan
of olftnfive operations in a maflerly manner, was confident
of fuccefs, and bis troops were eager for the combat. In
i- this-

B E R

tliis ftate of proparation, and whilft he was employed in dif-
tributing his inlliaftions previoiillv to an engagement, he
received orders from Bern, which revoked the powers with
whicli he had been intruded, and coKimanded hini to fufpend
hoftilities, as a negotiation was opened with the commander
in chief of the French forces, general Bnnie. He immedi-
ately repaired to Bern, and there found the fatal afcendancy
of the French party. DiiTatisfied with Brunc's ultimatum,
the magiilrates ilTued their orders to general Erlach to renew
his plan of attack. But itill timid and wavering, they re-
newed their negotiations, which feemed merely to fubjeiSt
them to frefli inlult. In the mean while a fpirit of difaffec-
tion was fpread among the troops, which Erlac-ii, by his fea-
fonable interpofition, fuppreffed ; and they again prepared
for attacking the enemy. But no fooner was the order
itfued to this pnrpofe, tlian it was again revoked, and a new
conference was opened with the French general. Thefecoatra-
diftory orders roufcd the indignation of the troops, ardent
for an engagement ; and they withdrew all confidence from
their officers, whom they regarded as accomplices in the
deftruition of their country ; and many of them indignantly
quitted their ftandards. I'he army of Bern, thus difpirited
by counter-orders, pretended negotiations, and the gradual
advances of the enemy from one advantageous poit to ano-
ther, and reduced to the number of 14,000 men, determined,
however, under the command of their valiant leader Erlach,
to make a final effort for expiring liberty, and to encounter
40,000 veterans, flufhed with conquell, and in a high (late
of difcipline. After four defperate engagements, Erlach
refifted a fifth affault under the walls of Bern, nor did he
finally abandon the contell, till his little army, diminiftied
to 7000 men, had loft 2OCO of their number, and the troops
of the two French generals, Brune and Schawembourg, were
on the point of unitiiig, while the capital was unprepared
for a fiege. Bern furrendcrcd to the firft fu.r.mons of gene-
ral Brune, and a tree of liberty was planted in his prefencc.
Erlach, having wonderfully efcaped from the repeated af-
faults of the enemy, was hallening towards the mountains of
Oberland, with hopes of collecting his fcatteved forces for
another effort ; but being recognized upon the high road
between Bern and Thun by fom.e llraggling foldiers, he was
feized, boun.d, and placed in a cart, in order to be conveyed
to the capital ; but another defperate band aflaukcd him,
and, amidll reproaches and execrations, mafTacred him with
their bayonets and hatchets. The fnbjugation of Bern
fpeedily decided the fate of Swifferland. Upon the diffolu-
tion of the Helvetic confederacy, in 1 79S, Geneva, Mnl-
haufen, Bienne, and the biihopric of Baile, were annexed
to France ; the remainder of the country, except the Gri-
fons, was modelled into a republic, one and indivifibie, di-
vided into 18 departments, and governed by a fenate, a great
council, and five diretlors, who firft affemblcd at Aran, and
were afterwards transferred to Lucern. By the conllitution
now eftablilhed, Bern, including the central and weilern
part of the ancient canton, with the diftricl of Schwartzen-
burgh, was made one of the 18 departments, and Bern was
its capital. According to this diilribution, the canton of
Bern is bounded on the north by that of Soleure, on the
call by that of Lucern, on the fouth by that of Oberland,
and on the weft by that of Sarine and Brole. Daring the
campaigi) of 1799, part of Swifferland experienced a mo-
mentary deliverance ; but from the unfortunate rnifunder-
ftanding between the courts of Peterfburg and Vienna, the
direftorial government was re- eftablilhed. This was fuc-
ceeded by a provifional government, whicli was firft feated
at Lucern, and on the progrefs of the Auftrians in 1799,
removed to Bern. When peace was eftabliflied with the
emperor by the treaty of Luneville, the French ambalTador

B E R

tranfmitted the plan of a new conftitution ; according te
which, Swifferland, including the Grifons, was divided into
17 cantons. Accordingly, by this conftitution of 1801, Bern,
in its former extent, except the Pays de Vaud and Argovie,
was the firft of the 17 departments, or cantons, and the num-
ber of its reprefentatives deputed to the diet was nine. The
whole body coniifted of 77 members, chofen by the repre-
fentatives of eacli diftrift, and affembled at Bern, to organife
the new conftitution. Ti.e legillative authority was vetted
in the fenate, compoftd of two landammans and twenty-
three counfellors. The executive power was lodged in a
little council of four fenators, in which each of thelandam-
mans prefided in turn. The landamman in ofiice was to re-
ceive a falary of 50,000 French livrcs, and the other lan-
damman and four counfellors 10,000 each. The falaries of
the fenators were not to exceed 6cco livrcs. Each canto.T
was governed by a prefect, nominated by the landamman,
and was provided with its interior adminiftration, which ap-
proved or rejedted the projedls of laws prefented by the
fenate. By the conditions of eligibility, univerfal fuffrage
was abolifhed ; and no perfon admitted to any public office,
unlefs he was proprietor of land, or exercifed an ir^depend-
ent profeffion, and paid a contribution to the public bur-
dens, the amount of which was regulated by each canfon.
A counter-revolution afterwards took place, by which the
diet was diftolved, and the provifional government eftablilhed
as it exifted before the 29th of May 1801. But the fate
of Swifterland is not yet decided. For a further account
of the alterations that have taken place from this period
in the conftitution and government of the Swifs cantons,
fee Helvetia. Coxe's Travels, vol. i. & ii. Planta's
Hift. of the Helvetic Confederacy, vol. ii.

The canton of Bern is fertile and well cultivated ; the
plains produce corn and fruit ; and the Alpine eminences
afford excellent pafture, whsch fupports herds of cattle and
flocks of (heep, from whole milk tliey make butter and
cheefe. The inhabitants of the diilricl of Saneniand ia
this canton, are principally herdfmen and flicplicrds, whc^
hold a middle rank between that of cidtivators and wander-
ing Tartars or Arabians. Each family changes its habita-
tion five or fix times in a year; and every "week it is cuf-
tomary to meet the fatlier of his hou.Tiold, v/ith his wife and
children, and preceding them, herds, a checfc, keltic, and
fome wooden utenfils, travcUing, like an ancient palriarch,
in fearch of a new refiJence. The country abounds with
cots and honles, moft of which are conftructcd of wood,.
and in fuch a manner as to be eafily taken to pieces and re-
moved for the convenience of their migration. In fome of
the vallies, the meadows are fometimes twice mowed, and.
thus fed. The mountain herbage for the cattle continues,
ten or twenty weeks, accordir^g to its height and fituation.
When their winter forage is finilhed, they remove to the
loweft parts of the mountains, and having confumed their
whole flock, prfjceed with their flocks towards the fummits^
Their progrcis is regular and inajeftic. The moft beautiful
cow of the herd, adorned with a magnificent collar and bell,
takes the lead; accompanied by the mafter of the family.
Then follow his attendants, with the rtfl of the flocks.
Shepherds and cattle are all bedecked with gai lands of
flowers ; and every part refounds with the jingling of bells,
lowing of cows, and cheerful notes of the herdlmen. The
fmallcr flocks bring up the rear, and the proceffion is clofed
with the wife and children. Towards the end of Augult
they again dcfcend toward the lower parts, pailure the lalt'
grafs in the vallies, and at laft retire to their warm retreats
in the vale, to wait the return of fpring and the fame pleaf-
ing migration. In this part of the country no attention is
paid to the culture of the meadow land j for though they

CQlltri^te

B E R

contrive to water their meadows without any fixed niles,
and dung them in winter, they never drain thole that arc
niarfny, and water is left to ftagnate on the fides of flopes
and declivities. In the cold vallies, where in April tlie fnow
remains at the depth of fome feet, they frequently ftiew
mould on its furface, which foon melts it, and thus various
gardens are cultivated in the midft of large trafts of fnow.
Potatoes have been lately planted, and are become a favour-
ite food of the people, and in many cafes have been fublli-
tuted for bread inllcad of coi-n. The Alpine l>ean, ground
into flour, ferves the fame pui-pnfe ; whillt its leaves fupply
fodder for the flieep, and its ilalk litter for tiie pens. Since
the introduclion of the commerce of cheefe, the cultivation
of corn has been annually decreafing. Some few fpots of
ground are, houever, fown with wheat and barley, and
others witli hemp and flax, whicii are very thriving. The
operations of the dairy render them negligent in the culture
of fruit-trees ; nevertlulefs, plum, cherry, pear, and apple-
trees, are fcattered here and there, but are nowhere collefted
into an orchard. In the German parts of Sanenland, they
boil cheiTies with cloves and cinnamons into a kind of pafte,
whicli is preferved good for thirty years. Mixed with a few
grains of mullard-leed, and other fpices, they ufe it as a
f.veet muftard ; and beaten together with fpices and juniper
berries, tiiey allow it to ferment, ard drink it as a red beer.
For want of fome regulation about their woods, whole forefts
are cut for palings to inelofe their meadows, which loon be-
come rotten, and ufelefs even for fuel. Madder irrows in this
dillriifl wild and high. The moll beautiful and moll fertile
fpots of the canton of Berne are on the lidts of the lakes
of Geneva and Neufchatel, where grow the moll excellent
fruits, and where are made the moll valuable wines. In this
canton are found a variety of coloured earths and clays,
fome of which are ufed for pottery, and Hones of different
forts, plaller of Paris, cryllal, fait fprings, coal, fulphur,
mines of iron, copper, lead, and lilvey, and medicinal baths.
Tiiey count in this canton 39 towns, great and fmall, and
1300 villages. The rivers that water it, are the Aar, the
Emmat, the Wigger, the Rcr.fz. the Limniat, the Sanen,
and the Kandcl. Tiie principal lak ; is that of Geneva ; be>-
lidcs which there are thofe of Neufchatel, Biel, Murat, or
Murten, Tluin, Brientz, and Halwyl, all which abound in
iilh. The i)art of the chain of the Alp^ feen from Rem, is
dillingnilhed by the different names of Wetterhorn, Schreck-
honi, Finiler Aar-horn, Viefeherhorn, Exterior and Inte-
rior Eger, Eungfrace horn, Gletcher horn, Ebenelhih,
Mittaghorn, Briethom, I/auterbrunen, Blumlis Alp, and
Neifs; and it forms an arHphitheatre, gradually riling from
tlie environs of the city to elevatL-d peaks, covered with eter-
nal fnow, and hitherto inaeccfflble. The Jungfrau, or Vir-
gin, is one of the higliell and moll beautiful mountains in
llie canton of Bern.

The following table exhibits the height of the principal
Alps in this canton. Eng. Feet

Finlterariiorn, . . . ij.,11')

Jangfrauhorn,

Mouch,

Schreckliorn,

F.iger,

W ttterhorn,

AU Els,

Frau,

Doldenhorn,

Niefen,

Morgenberghorn,

Hohgant,

Stockhorn,

13,510

1 3 •.^97
13,086
12,217
12,194

12,153

12,039

7,829

7,290

r,ji8

B E R

The prevailing language is the German ; but the people .
of faihioii I'peak either French or ItaUan ; and the commoH
people in the Pays de Vaud, and in thofe parts that border
on France and Italy, ufe a corrupt French or Italian, or a
jargon, foumled on both. The caabliilied religion is Calvi-
nifm; and the minillers are divided into deaneries and claflcs,
and hold yearly chapters or fynods. They are more inde-
pendent of tlie civil power than in the other cantons, and
are forbidden 10 interf.re in matters of ftate. The nobility
of Bern are accufed of an extraordinary degree of pride aiul
flatelinels, and affeft to keep the citizens and pcrlbns of
lower rank at a great diftance. As the whole power of go-
vernment, and all the lionourable offices of Hate, are in their
hands, they are not permitted to engage in trade ; and with-
out the places and pcnfiors which they enjoy, they mull be
poor and wretched. The lucrative offices being thus in the
liands of the nobility, it might be imagined that people of
the middle and lower ranks are indigent and opprelltd. This,
however, is by no means the cafe ; for the citizens, i. e. the
merchants and trades-people, feem in general to enjoy all the
comforts and conveniences of life ; and the peafantiy is un-
commonly wealthy throughout the whole canton of Bern.
They poifefs the privilege of bearing arms, and form a very
rcfpielable body of military, that have been ufually attached
to the exilling government, and particularly favoured by it.
The manufafturer, in this refpefl, lefs docile than the pea-
fant, is lefs regarded j and the government of Bern has
been charged with difcouraging, or at leall not zealoufly
promoting, manufaftures and commerce. Mr. Coxe informs
us, that, in his firll vilit to SvvifTerland, he found the people
of Bern much lefs informed, and more indifferent about the
encouragement of literature, than thofe of the other can-
tons ; their academical lludies being principally direifled to
thofe branches of knowledge that fitted them for the church ;
and the fociety for the encouragement of agriculture, which
was almofl the only effablillifnent tending to promote the arts
ajid fciences, obtained little countenance from government.
However, in his fecond journey, after an interval of about ten
years, viz. in 1786, he fays, that the government, roi*fed from
its former lethargy, Jiad begun to perceive that it is the in-
tereft of every wife ftate to elleem and proteft the fciences ;
and that the magiftrates had lately purchafed and appro-
priated at Bern a large manfion for the public library, in-
creafed the coUedlion of books, and procured from England
an exteniive apparatus for experimental philofophy. A lite-
rary fociety had alfo been inftituted for the promotion of
phyfics, and natural hiftory in general, and that of Swiffer-
land in particular, In January 1788, this fociety confifted
of ten members rcfident at Bern, of whom feveral poffefltd,
and others were forming, coUeftions agreeable to the plan
of the inllitutlon. A regular correfpondence was alfo ella-
bliflied in various parts of Europe ; and the members have
been difpofed to fatisfy the inquiries of foreign naturalills
relating to the natural hillory of this country. The prin-
cipal articles of exportation from this canton are horfes,
cheefe, linen cloth, coarfe cloth and canvas made of hemp,
cloth of cotton, and woollen fluffs. It is faid that 10,000
pieces of hnen have been fent annually from this canton ;
tiic principal part of which has been conveyed to Lyons. At
Bern they have manufaftures of filk, chiefly fluffs, and co-
loured llockings,. In the wellern part of the mountains,
the principal employment is clock-making, and the policing
of talfe ftones.

Bern, a city of Swifferland, and capital of the canton of
that name above defcribed, derives its name, as it has been
faid, from a " bear," which was found there when its foun-
dations y,ai laidj " berne" in German fignifying bears;

a;id

B E R

and accordingly, it bears this animal in its aniT!, and a'.attys
maintains one. It was built by Berchtold tlie 5th,_ duke of
Z^ringen, and was, from its foundatiin, an imperial city.
Upon his death in I3l8, the emperor Frederic II. cor^ferrtd
upon the inhabitants confiderable privileges, and compiled a
code, which forms the bafis of their prefent civil law. The
liberty which this city enjoyed, attracted many perfons from
the adjacent count:-y, who found a fure afylum from the op-
prefllon of the nobles. Although Bern, from its foundation,
was engaged in perpetual wars with its neighbours, and for
fome time with the houfe of Aulhia, yet it continued to
aggrandife itfelf by degrees, and confidcrably enlarged its
territory.

This is a regular well-built town, with fome air of
magnificence. The principal ftreets are broad and long,
not llralght, but gently curved ; the houfes are built of a
greyifh ftonc upon arcades, and are modly uniform, and of
the fame height. On each fulc are piazzas, with a wall
raifed four feet above the level of the ftreet, which are very
commodious in wet weather. A dream of the Aar runs in
a clear current, and along a ftone channel, through the mid-
dle of the llreets, which furnidics feveral fountains not lefs
ornamental to the place than bene'icial to the inhabitants.
The river Aar almoil furrounds the town ; winding its courfe
over a rocky bed much below the level of the dreets, and
forming by its deep and craggy banks a kind of natural
rampart. The dream that paffes through the town ferves
to keep the ftreets always clean ; for which purpofe crimi-
nals are alfo employed in removing rubbidi, both from the
ftreets and public walks. The more atrocious delinquents
are chained to waggons, while thofe who are condemned
for fmaller crimes, are employed in fweeping the light rub-
bi(h into the rivulet, and throwing the heavier into the carts
or waggons, which their more culpable companions are
obliged to pudi or draw along. Thefe wretches have col-
lars of iron round their necks, ^'ith a projefting handle in
the form of a hook to each, by which on the flighted of-
fence or mutiny, they may be feized, and are entirely at the
command of the guard, whofe duty it is to fee them perform
their work. People of both fexes are condemned to this
labour for months, years, or life, according to the nature
of their crimes. The public buildings at Bern, as the hof-
pital, the granary, the guard-houfe, the arfenal, and the
churches, are magnificent, and announce the riches and
grandeur of the republic. The cathedral is a noble pile of
Gothic architefture. Handing upon a platform raifed from
the bed of the river, and commanding a mod extenfive
view. The arfenal contains arms for 60,000 men, and a
confiderable quantity of cannon, which is cad in the town.
The Bernefe value themfelves on the trophies contained in it,
as well as upon the quantity, good condition, and orderly
•arrangement of the arms. Here is exhibited the ftatue of
William Tell, who, with an arrow, is faid to have druck off
the apple pL-iced upon his fon's head by the governor Grif-
ler, and by that means faved his life, which occafioned the
beginning of the Swifs republic. The granary always con-
tains a large provifion of corn, fupplied in confequence of
particular treaties by France and Holland. The charitable
ini^itutions in this town are numerous, and well regulated.
The holpitals are in general large, clean, and airv ; and in
the alms-houfc for the reception of 50 poor citizens, is a
curious edablidiment fimilar to one at Bade, which provides
for the reception of didrefled travellers, who are accommo-
dated with a meal and lodging at night, and each receives
fixpence on their departure ; if fick or wounded, they are
maintained till their recovery. The houfe of corredion is

B E R

conduced partly on the plan of the benevolent Mr. How-
ard, and in confequcnce of his fuggc'lion. The dellnqaer.li;
are feparated and didriS'jted in two houfes ; one c?llcd the
houfe of correcliou for greater crimes, and the other the
houle of labour fjr mifdemeanors. The prifoners aie alfo
difcriminated by the appellations of «' blown" and "blue,"
from the colour of their clothes ; the former being appro-
priated to the houfe of correction, and the latter to the
houfe of labour. The men and wonv.-n occupy ftparatc
apartments ; and both are conllantly employed in cleaning
the dreets, and other fervile occupations, and at other times
in learning to n.adand write, and in acquiring the knowledge
of various trades, which may enable them to gain a mainte-
nance when their time of confinement expires. By thefe
means the expence of tlie eilablilhment is nearly fup;)orted,
and an honed liv.-lihood ad'iired to thofe who would other-
wife prove ufelefi or pernicious members of lociety. There
are four tables, at which the refpeftive feats are made of
didinction appropriated to good behaviour, and a larger or
lefTer ihare is didributed to each in proportion to their in-
dudry. After earning their food, the prifoners in the houfe
of labour receive 10 per cent., thofe in tlie houfe of cor-
reftion 8 per cent., for their extra-work. The torture at
Bern is now formally abohdied, by a public aft of govern-
ment ; and judice is wifely and impartially adminidered.
The folemnity ufed in pafdng cnpital fentencc on a criminal
deferves to be mentioned. When the trial is finidied, the
prifoner is informed of his condemnation by the " grand
fautier," or lieutenant of the police, and attended by two
clergymen to prepare him for death. On the day appointed
for execution, a large fcaftold, covered with a black canopy,
is condrufted in the middle of the principal ftreet. Tiie
avoyer, with a fceptre in his hand, is feated on an elevated
kind of throne between two fenators, and attended by the
chancellor and lieutenant of the police, holding an iron
itick, called " the rod of blood," all habited in their offi-
cial robes. The criminal, being brought to the foot of
the fcaffold, without chains, receives the fentence of con-
demnation, which is read aloud by the chancellor, at the
clofe of which the avoyer commands the executioner to ap-
proach, who indantly binds the arms of the culprit, and
leads him away to the place of execution.

The public libraiy ii a fmall, but wellchofen coUefl^cn,
containing 20,000 volumes, to which additions have been
made by purchafe, and by the liberality of private contribu-
tors ; to this belong alio a few antiques, a cabinet of Swifs
coins and medals, fome curious manufcripts, particularly of
the thirteenth century, confiding of feveral fongs and ro-
mances of the Troubadours, written in that and the pre-
ceding ages, and fome other curiofities. The fniall figure
of the pried pouring wine between the horns of a bull, is
merely valuable, becaufe it illudratcs apafl'age of Virgil, and
has been mentioned by Addilon.

To the account of the pubhc buildings of Bern, we may add
that of an elegant edifice, built by the voluntary fubfcription
of the nobility, funnfhed with accominodatiors for many pub-
lic amufements, fuch as balls, concerts, and theatrical en-
tertainments, wliich latter are feldom permitted in this city.
The walk by the great churcfi was formerly the only public
walk, and ncuch admired on account of the vie\y irom it,
and the peculiarity of its fituation ; being on one fide on a
level witli tlie dreets, and on the other Utr-e hundred feet
of perpendicular height above them. Befides tiiis, there is
now another walk on a high bank on the fide l 1 the Aar,
and at fon.e dillance from the to»\n This wolk •s.'inguiarly
magniliceut, commands a view of the river, the town of

Bern

B E R

■Born, the country- about it, and the glnclcrs of Su ifferland.
The adjacent country is richly cultivaitd, and agrecablv di-
vcrfificd with hills, lawns, wood, and water; the river flows
rapidly below, and an abrupt chain of rugged and inow-
capt Alps bounds tlie diftant hori/on.

The pop\dation of Bern is climated at about 13,000 ; the
focietv is extremely afrreeable ; and foreigners arc received
with great eafe and politenefs. The men do not meet m se-
parate focicties; and the women are the life and ornament
of their daily aOemblies, which begin about four or five m
ths afternoon, and continue till eight, when the parties
ufiially retire to their ixfpeclive houfes. The inhabitants
are particularly fond c^f dancing, which of courfe is a frc-
q.icnt arr:uf-:mjnt ; and this diverfion cominences at the early
hour of five in the afternoon, on account of a ftandmg order
of Government, which prohibits their continuance after de-
\c^. There is but little trade in the capita'. Some few ma-
uufaclures, chiefly of linen and filk, have been eftabhnied ;
but they are carried on only by thofe who liave no prclpeft
of being admitted into the 'foveixign council, and who would
think themfelvss degraded by commerc--. But as offices of
the Hate, thofe of the bailliagcs excepted, are neither nu-
introus nor very profitable, many enter, as their fole refource,
into foreign armie=. As for the peafants, who hue aequued
opulence either by manufaanrcs or commerce, they feldom
quit their ftation, b'.:t retain the habits acquired m early
life, and, however wealthy, never give their daughters in
marriage to any but perfons of their own dcfcnption. Of
the burghers of Bern, thofe only are qualified for the ma-
llracy'and government of the city, who are the defcend-
ants of fueh as were made burghers before the year
1635 ; and, befides, they inuft not be under 30 years of age,
and mud be enrolled in one of the twelve companies. 1 he
Britilh envoy to the Swifs cantons ufually relides at Bern.
N. lat. 46° 55'. E. long. 7° 20'. Coxe's Travels, vol. ii.
Moore's View of Society, &c. in France, Switzerland, &c.
BER-a-Mad'lne, in J^ricullun; the name of an engine for
rooting up trees, invented by Peter Sommer, a native of Bern
in Swiffcrland. Tiiis machine, of which theie is a model in
the machine- room of the Society for the encouragement of
Arts, is reprefented in Plate III. 4gncu!lure ; and con-
fifts of three parts, the beam, the ram, and the lever. The
beam ABC (N° i.) of which only one fide is feen in the
figure, is compofed of two Rout planks of oak, three inches

g

thick at leaft, and feparated by two tianfverfe pieces of the
fame wood, at A and C, about three inches thick. Theie
planks are bored through with correfponding holes, as repre-
fented in the figure, to receive iron pins, upon which t!ie lever
acls between the two fides of the beam, and which is (hifttu
liigher and higher as the tree is raifed, or rather pufhed out of
its place. The fides are well fecured at the top and bottom
by ftrong iron hoops. The iron pins on which the kvcr reds
fhouldbe an inch and a quarter, and the holes through which
they pafs, an inch and a half, in diameter. The pofition of
thefe holes is fuflicienlly indicated by the figure. The foot
of the beam, when the machine is in aftioii, is fecured by flakes
reprefented at G, driven into the earth. The ram D, which
is made of oak, elm, or fome other ilrong wood, is capped
with three ftrong iron fpikes, reprefented at/, which take fail
hold of the tree.° This ram is fix or eight inches fquare ;
and a flit is cut lengthwife through the middle of it, from its
lower end at K to the-iirll ferule a, in order to allow room
for the chain gh to play round the pulley K, which fhould be
four inches thick, and nine inches in diameter. This ram is
raifed by means of the chain gh, which fhould be about ten
feet long, with links four inches and jhree quarters in length,
and an inch thick. One end of this chain is faflened to the

B E R

top of the beam at C, while the other, after palling through
the lower part of the ram, and over the pulley K, terminates
in a ring or link, reprefented N^ 3, liie two cars mn of wliich
ferve to keep it in a true pofition between the two planks cf
the beam. In this ring the hook 1' 1.=; infcrted. The hook
is reprefented in profile N^ 2, where F is the part that takes
hold of the ring. But it muil be obfcrvcd, that the parts of
this machine, reprefented in N'-" 2, 3, are drawn on a fcaje
twice as large as the whole engine. The hook F, N° 2,
fliould be made of very' tough iron, as v>\ ;; as the hai.dle D,
and the arch Ec. This handle fhouid be two inches thick
at rs, where it joins to the l.ook, and tiie thicknel's gradually
leffens by degrees np to the arch, which need not be more
than half an inch tliick. On each fide of the pin k, is a
femicircular notch, x, y, which reds alternately on the pins
when the machine is worked. The hole D, and the arch Er,
ferve to fix a long lever of wood EF, N° i, by means of two
iron pins ; and by this contrivance the lever is either raifed
or dcprefled at pleafure, in order to render the working of
the machine eafy in whatever part of the beam the lever
may be placed ; for without this coutiivance the extremity
of the lever EF, would, when the handle is near the top of
the ber>m, be much higher tlian men Handing upon the ground
could reach. It muil however be remembered, tliat the lever
is often fhorter.ed by th:s contrivance, and confequently its
power Icfiencd.

The machine is worked in the foUo^ving manner : It is
placed againll a tree, in the manner reprefentt-d in the figure,
fo that the iron fpikes at/ may have hold of tiie tree, and the
erd of the beam A be fnpported by flakes reprefented at G.
Tlie iron handle N'' 2, is placed in the opening between the
two planks of the beam, and the wooden lever fixed to it, by
means of the iron pins already mentioned. The hook F takes
bold of the chain, and one oi the iron pins is thruft into the
outer row of holes, by which means the outer notch x will
rell on the pin, which will be now the centre of motion ; and
the end of the lever E, N° i, being prefTed downwards, the
other notch y, N^ 2, will be raifed, and at the fame time the
chain, and confequently the ram. The other iron pin is now
to be thruft into the hole in the inner row, next above that
which was before the centre of motion, and the end of the
lever E elevated or puflred upwards, the latter pin on which
the notch y refts now becoming the centre of motion. By
this alternate motion of the lever, and fhifiing the pins, the
chain is di-awn upwards over the pulley K, and confequently

the whole force of the engine exerted againll the tree. There
it a fmall wheel at L, in order to IcfTen the fridlion of that
part of the machine.

From this account the reader will very cafily perceive that
the machine is nothing more than afingle pulley compounded
with a lever of the firfl and fecond order. It mull, however,
be remembered, that as the pufh of the engine is given in an
oblique direfkion, it will exert a greater or lefTer force againll
the horizontal roots of the tree in proportion to the angle
formed by the machine with the plane of the horizon ; and
that the angle of 45"^ is the maximum, or that when tiic ma-
chine will exert its greatell force againll the horizontal roots
of the tree.

BERNABEI, ERC0LE,in Mijlcal B'lography, the fcholar
and fuccefTor of Bcnevoh at St. Peter's, and inllruftor of the
abate Stclfani, may be ranked among the greatcfl mailers of
harmony, in the ancient ecclefiallical ilylc, of the 17th cen-
tury. This compofer being invited by the elector of Bavaria
to Munich, about the year 1650, entered into the fervice of
that court, where he continued the rell of his life. His
fun, Guifeppe Ant. Barnabei, after following his father'*
fteps in the iludy of ecclefiallical harmony, furpaiTed him

confiderably

B E R

«}nfidei-ably in melody and modulation, as he lived long
enough to fee a great relaxation in the rigour of ancient
rules. There is a canon by this conipofer in the firft volume
of Paolucci, page ij8, and an excellent A^nus Dei, in
P.Martini Sagg.diContrap.il. 127, extracted from his
mafs, for four voices, intitled, " Laudate cum lititia, qui
fuiftis in trillitia." After fucceeding his father as maellro
di capclla to the ekftor of Bavaria, by whom he was honoured
v<ith the title of confeiilcr aulique, and publifhing feveral
compofitions for the church, replete with muficai fcience of
the lirft clafs, he hved till the year 1732, extending his exill-
cncc to the great age of eighty -nine.

Thefe mailers, with ma:iy other good harmoniJls, in the
ftyle of the 17th century, fupplied the churches of Italy
wHth innumerable compolltions, in which the chief merit con-
fided in pure harmony, and the contrivance of canon, fugue,
and imitation on fimple and often infipid fubjecls ; but to
thefe excellencies the beft moderns have added melody, a more
varied modulation, and not only an attention to long and
(liort fyllables, but to the exprcffion of words. In the 15th
centur}' almoft every mafs was compofed upon the fubjcft of
fome well-known fong or ballad ; but thefe aii-s being
plalmodic, and a little more lively or varied than canto fermo,
admitted of no greater variety of modulation than the ancient
chants of the church, upon fragments of which, during the
1 6th and part of the 17th centuries, it was thought nectiTary
to conllrucl the chief part of choral mufic. Though the
prefent ftudents in counterpoint at Naples, and other parts
of Italy, iliil exerc'.fe thtmftivcs in harmonizing canto fermo,
the writing mafles or motets on the fubjefts of thefe chants
is feldom done but in pure pedantry, aid to give an air of an-
tiquity to dr\- and fancilefs compofitions.

The church ftyle of compofition was, however, much
altered during the 17th century, not only by the imitation
of dramatic mufic, and thenntrodudlion of inftruments, but
by writing in tranfpofcd keys, and fupplying the deficiencies
in the fcales, which too Uriel an adherence to the fpecies of
oftave, and modes of the church, had occafioned. Indeed,
before this time, there was no deciiion of keys, either in facred
or feeular muGc, according to our prefent rules of beginning
and ending upon the chord major or minor, of the key note, or
of fome determinate note in the fcale.. The prohibitions were
fo numerous in the writings of the old theorifts, that if the
moil regular modem compofitions were tried byfuch rules as
fubfifted at the beginning of the 17th century, they would
appear extremely licentiou?. No part was to be extended
above or below the ftafi, or five regular linei, on which it was
written ; the combination of chords was never to be broken
by moving to an unrtlative harmony ; and the intervals of
the iharp feventh, the tritonus, or /harp fourth, falfe fifth,
fharp fecond, and ever the major fixth, were prohibited. In-
deed, an excellent compofition might now be produced,
merely from ancient difailowances.

BERNACCHI, Antonio, an eminent opera finger, who
firil arrived in England in 1716, as fecond man, while Nico^
lini was the firft. Btrnacchi's voice feems to have been
feeble and defeftive, but he fupphed the defeds of nature by
fo much art, that his performance was always much more ad-
mired by profefTors than by the public in general. He ftaid
here at this time but one year, after which he went back to
Italy; but returned in 17Z9. After quitting the ftagc,
Bernacchi eftabiiihed a fchool for finging at Bologna, where
he had himfeif been educated, under the celebrated Piftoc-
chi, and wlitre he formed feveral admirable Ichoiars, who ren-
dered his name and fchool famous. He came to England a
fecond time in 1729, but he was now paft his meridian ; his
voice was never good, but noiv little was left, except a re-
fined tafte, and an aitilicial manner of finging, which only

Vol. IV.

B E R

profenbrs, and a few of the m.oft intelligent part of an
audience, could fee! or comprehend. After he quitted the
ftage, he retired tft Bologna, where he formed fo many gr«t
vocal performers by his inftruftions, that to have bien of
Bernacchi's fchool was almoft fuincient to cftabuili the repu-
tation of a yonng finger.

BERNADA, or Bernalua, in Geography, a town of
Italy, in the kingdom ot Naples, aud province of Calabria
Ultra, 5 mile? wcft of St. Severira.

BERNAGORE.a town of Hindoften. in the country of
Bengal, on the taftcni bank of the Ganges, !0 or 12
ic igues below Cliinfurah, and 5 milts N.W. of Moorfnedabad.
The coarfeft forts of blue handkerchiefs are made here. It
is famous on account of the great number of ladies of plea-
fure, who refide there, and who pay a monthly rcccgnilioa
to the fifcal of Chinfurah, for the free rxtrcife of their pro-
feflion. It belonged t<j the Dutch ; but was taken by the
Britifh f )rces in October, 1803.

BERNAL, a hill on the weft coaft of New Mexico, near
the coaft, and 4 leagues W.S.W. of the b\:ruing mounlaia
of San Salvador. N. lat. about 13°, W. long, about 93'='.

BERNARD, in Biography, abbot of Clairvaux, and a
faint of the Romilh church, was born of a noble laraiiy at
Fontauie in Burgundy, in IC91, and educated at the church
of Chatillon, where he manifelled at an early period an ardent
fpirit of devotion. At the age of 23, he, and ^o of his com-
panions, entered into the abbey of Citeaux, lately founded by
St. Robert. Here he acquired fuch reputation, that, within
two years, viz. A.D. 1 1 1 5, he was deputed, with a colony of
monks, to found the abbey of Clairvaux in the dioccfe of
Langres, of which he was created the firft abbot, and where
he continued, without feeking or accepting any higher pre-
ferment. In a fliort time he found himlelf at the head of 7C0
novices ; and, by his eloquence ai:d zeal, Clairvaux became
a ftminary of the moft diftinguifhed reputation, fo that,, dur-
ing the life of the founder, it produced one pope, fix car-
dinals, and thirty prelates. In this retreat the influence of
Bernard was greater than if he had occupied the throne of
St. Peter ; he was confulted as an oracle ; his ceiifures were
regarded with awe in the rcmoteft parts of Europe ; and the
Ciftercians, by his example, became fo powerful, that he hved
to fee the eftablifhment of }6o convents, which acknow-
ledged him as their head. Having exerted himfeif in re-
ftonng peace to the church, which had been interrupted by
the fchifm that had happened between the years 1 131 and 1 13S,
he engaged in combating the fuppofed herefy of Abelard, who
had propagated fome opinions that were thought to militate
againll the doftrines of the church, and fuccecded in procur-
ing his condemnation by the council of Sens, in 1140. He
alfo refuted the errors of Peter de Bruys (fee Petrobrus-
siASs) ; combated the fanaticifm of the Apostolics ; re-
filled the monk Raoul, who recommended the extermination
of the Jews ; contended- againft the followers of Arnold of
Brefcia ; and caufed Oilbcrt de la Porrie, and Eon dc I'Etrile,
to be condemned by the council of Rheims, in 1148. But
his influence was much more fignally exerted in promoting
the fecond crnlade againft the Saracens. In this romantic
expedition, he engaged, by his eloquence, Lewis VII. of
France, with his principal nobles, and tlie emperor Conrad ;
and he boafts, that from Conftance to Cologne, he emptied
cities and cailles of their inhabitants, and verified the predic-
tion of only one man being left to fevcn women. Miracles of
vanous kinds were reported to have attended his million, and
he obtained the appellation of " Thaumaturgiil," or wonder-
worker of the Weil. The tnterprife which he had entnifted
with Conrad and Lewis, proved unfortunate ; and the abbot
who had predicted their lucccfs, incurred a variety of cen-
fures and reproaches on account of the calamities which he had
H h bcea

B E R

lecn inftruinental in bringing upon Europe. \ie attributed
Its failure to tlie fins of the croifes, which had hindered the
accoiiipliftiment of his prophecies. How far he was aifcdled
hy tlie difcomfiturc and general dillrefs in which this expe-
dition terminated, or by the accufations he fuflercd, it is im-
poflible to fay. However, it is certain that ho did not long
fnrvive that difallrous event ; for he died at ClairvuuK, la
1153, in the 63d year of his age.

I'"ew men poITefll-d a more e.\tcnfive and uncontroulable
command over the minds of men than St. Bernard : and his
influence was wholly owing to his perfonal qiialifications.
But though he had an abfolute command by his eloquence
and writings, he feems to have been more an enthufiall than
a politician, and to have wanted worldly wifdom to diredland
manage the various engines which he put into motion.
With good intentions he blended pafilon and prejudice, and
the love of po\Ver. He was, without doubt, a man of dillin-
guilhed piety, as well as integrity ; and, confidering the thne
jn which he lived, an elegant and learned fcholar. Erafmus
gives the following charafter of him : " Chriftiane doftus, et
fanftc facundus, ct pie feflivus." As a writer, he was copious ;
his llyle was charafterized by force, vivacity, elevation, and
Iweetnefs ; and his imagination furnilhed him with figures of
comparifon and Itrong antithefes in great variety and abun-
dance ! fo that he has been regarded as the lall of the fathers
formed upon the models of St. Ambrofe and St. Auguftin.
The bed edition of Bernard's works is that of the learned
Benediftine Mabillon, in z vols. fol. firft printed at Paris in
1666, 1667, and reprinted in 1690 and 17 19. A Latin im-
prcflion of this edition was made at Venice, in 6 vols. fol.
Cave's Hift. Lit. ii. p. 186, Gen. Did. Nouv. Dia. Hift.
Mofheim's Eccl. Hill. vol. iii. p. 66.

Bernard of Mcvthon, the founder of a religious com-
munity, was born in the Genevois, in 903, and defcended from
one of the mod illullrious houfes of Savoy. Having dedi-
cated himfelf to the ecclcfiaftical profeflion, he retired to
Aofta, a fmall town at the foot of the Alps, and became arch-
deacon of its church. Here he employed himfelf in miffions
among the unconverted Pagans, who inhabited the mountains,
and profelyted them to Chriftianity. Having witneffcd the
hardfliips and dangers encountered by the Trench and German
pilgrims, in their paflage to Rome over the Alps, which
Hannibal had anciently traverftd with Angular fortitude and
perfeverance, this benevolent monk founded two mnnafteries
or hofpitia, for their relief, on Mont-joux, called from him
" Great and Little .St. Bernard." Thefe were peopled with
canons-regnlar of St. Auguftin, and Bernard himfelf became
their firft provoft. He obtained feveral important privileges
for his eftabliftiment from fucceflive popes, and it acquired
great popularity and large pofTeffions. Bernard died at
Novara, at the age of 85, and was canonized by the Romilh
church. His inftitution has undergone a variety of vicifli-
:udea, and loft great part of its riches ; but it ftill fubfifts, and
is eminently ufeful. There are ordinarily between twenty
and thirty monks belonging to the convent ; eight of whom
are ufnally difperfed among the Alpine parifh churches,
under their patronage ; and ten or twelve conftantly refide,
being fuch as, from their age and health, are able to bear the
keen atmofphere of the mountain. The few others, who can
no longer bear it, are permitted to refide with the aged
provolt of the whole, in a houfe belonging to the convent,
and fituated at Martigny below. The monks of the moun-
tain are induftrioufly employed in the profccution of their
jjrivate ttudies, in the inftruclion of their novices, in the
education of ionie fcholars who are fent to board and lodge
with them, and in managing the temporal economy of the
wLoie. They have a pnor, the deputy of the provoft, and
go.cruor of the convfnt in his abfeiicc ; a facriftan, who takes

B E R

care of their chapels ; a cellarer, ferving ae puiveyor, comp.
troUcr of the kitchen, and managing all the exterior concerns
of the monaftery ; a clavandeer, who keeps the keys, and
difpenfes the reqnifite articles to the monks and to the tra-
vcllers ; and an infirmier, who takes care of the fick in the
apartment appropriated to them. The cellarer keeps twenty
horfei conftantly employed during the fnmmer in fetching
the magazines of flour, bread, cheefe, liquors, and dried
fruits, for themfelves and their guefts ; and forage for the
milch cows and fatting cattle, during winter._ Their fire-
wood, of which they expend a great quantity, is brought to
them on the backs of mules, from the dift:uice of four leagues,
and by a ftecp path, that is pafTable only for fix months in
the whole year. Before the winter fets in, they fend down
their horfes for the feafon to a farm which they have on the
northern fide of the Rhone. To a fympatliifing and com-
paffionate mind it is peculiarly pleafing to obferve the foli«
citude of thefe amiable monks on fuch days as the pals is moft
frequented, in perfonally receiving, warming, and recovering
travellers, that are exhaufted by their excefs of fatigue, or in-
difpofed from the feverity of the air. With equal attention
they relieve both their own countrymen, and foreigners. They
make no diftinclion of ftate, fex, or religion ; and afli no
queftions concerning the country or the creed of the wretched.
In winter and in fpring, their folicitude has a larger range of
attention and aftivity. From that very time nearly, in which
Hannibal conducled an army over Great St. Bernard, and at
which the Romans reckoned the general winter of Italy to
commence, from the ift of November, through the winter, to
the ! ft of May, a trufty Alpine fervant, who, as an Alpine, is
denominated a Maronnier, and one or two dogs of an extra-
ordinary fize accompanying him, are conftantly engaged in
going to meet travellers a confiderable way down the defcent
towards the Vallais. Thefe dogs poffefs an inftinft, and re-
ceive a training, which fit them to be peculiarly ufeful in their
employment. They point out the road to the guide and the
travellers, through fogs, tempefts, and fnows ; they have alfo
the fagacity to difcover travellers that have loft their way,
that have fallen amidft the drifts of fnovi', and that are lying
upon them, wearied and exhaufted. The monks themfelves
often accompany the guide, and aid him in adminiftering ne-
ceflary rehef. Apprized of the benumbing and ftupefying
effeift of extreme cold, they roufe the fleeping travellers, and
exert themfelves in a variety of ways in prelerving and reco-
vering them from approaching or apparent death ; and in
doing this, they expofe themfelves to great danger. In order
to avoid the numbuefs occailoned by the cold, they carry with
them fliort thick ftaffs, armed at the ends with iron, and with
thefe they continually ftrike their hands and feet. About
three miles below the convent, on the read of Hannibal's
afcent, they have built a fmall vaulted room, called the hof-
pital, which is intended for the cafual refrefhment of travel-
lers benumbed, and unable to reach the convent. The trufty
Maronnier vifits it frequently, in order to meet the traveller ;
but principally at the approach of night, and on his return
leaves bread, cheefe, and wine. On extraordinary occafions,
when a ftorm fiibfides, he fallies forth to this building, with
his ftock of wine and meat, and afhfts all whom he fitids
diftrefted. The monks themfelves are often feen on the tops
of their rocks, watching opportunities for the exercife of
their humanity. When the fnow juft fallen is deep on the
ground, they employ themfelves in making roads through it,
and thus by timely vigilance prevent many fatal accidents.
But notwithftanding all their charitable efforts, fcarcely a
winter paffes in which fome traveller is not brought to the
convent with his limbs benumbed and frozen. The traveller
is fometimes overwhelmed at once, and plunged into the body
of deiccnding fnow. When he is not very deep, the dogs
I difcover

B E R

difcover him by the fcent> and when they fail, the monks
engage in the lahorious office. They range upon the fnow,
and found it with long poles: and they have thus refcued
many from imminent danger of being loft. Nouv. Did. Hift.
Sauflure Voy. des Alpes, vol. ii. Whitaker on the Courfe of
Hannibal over the Alps, &c. 1794. See Bernari>, in
Geography.

Bernard, Andrew, a Latin fcholar, andfuccefUvely poet-
laureat to Henry VII. and Henry VIII., was a native of
Thouloufe, and an A'.iguftin monk. He was nnt only the
king's poet-laureat, as it is fuppofed, but his hi!loriogi-apher,
and preceptor in gramrriar to prince Arthur. He obtained
many ecclcfiaftical prefermcnf: in England. The pieces
vhich he wrote under the chavafter oF Doet43uieat, are in
Latin. Thefe are " An Addref:, to Henrj-Vill. for the
moft aiifpicious beginning of th.e loth year of his reign,"
with an " Epithalamiutn 011 the marriage of Francis, the
dauphin of France, with the king's daughter ;" "Anew
year's gift," for the year 1515; and '' Venes," viiihincr
profperity to liis majcfty's ijtii year. He has left fome
Latin hynir.s ; and many of hisprofe pieces in Latin, written
as hiftoriogapher to both monarchs, are extaut. Warton's
Htft. Eng. Poetry, vol. ii. p. rjz.

Bernard, Edward, a learned Englidiaftronomerand lin-
guift, was born at Perry St. Paul, near Towcefter, in North-
amptonlhire, in 1638, and educated at Merchant-Taylors'
fchool in London, whence he was removed, in 1655, to
St. John's college in Oxford. Here he applied himftlf with
the utmoft diligence to the Ibidy of hiftory, philology, and
philofophy ; and acquired an accurate knowledge, not only
of the Greek and Latin languages, but of Hebrew, Syriac,
Arabic, and Coptic : he alfo direfted his attention to the
mathematics, which he ftudied under the ceLbratcd Dr.
Wallis. Having taken feveral academical degrees at Oxford,
and engaged the efteem of all who knew him, by his diftin-
guithed talents and learning, and no Itfs amiable temper, he
removed in 1668 to Leyden, with a view of examining feveral
oriental MSS., and particularly the Arabic verfion of the
three loft Greek books of Apollonius Pergsus's conic fec-
tions, brought from the eaft by James Golius. Thefe books
he tranfcribed, with an intention of publiftiing them at Ox-
ford, but his defign was never executed. Upon his return
to Oxford, he refumed his ftudies with frefti vigour, and by
his collation of the moft valuable MSS. in the Bodleian
librar)', the refult of which he was always ready to commu-
nicate, he was engaged in a very extenfive correfpondence
with learned men of moft countries. About the year 1669, he
was recommended by the famous Dr. (afterwards fir Chrifto-
pher) Wren, Savilian profeflor of aftronomy at Oxford, to
be his deputy, and he luccceded this eminent profeflor. on his
refignation in 1673. He had been previoufly inducted to
the reftory of Cheame in Sarr^', and appointed chaplain to
Dr. Mews, bilhop of Bath and Wells. A fcheme having
been propofed in the univerfitv of Oxford, which was chiefly
promoted and encouraged by bilhop Fell, for collefting and
publi(hing all the ancient mathematicians, Bernard, who firll
formed the projeft, affiduoufly engaged in accomphfliing it,
by colleding all the old books and MSS. in the public hbra-
ries, and drawing up a fynopfis of their contents. He alfo
printed, at his own expence, as a fpecimen ot this nobie de-
fign, a few fheets of Euclid in foho, contaming the Greek
text and a Latin verfion, with Proclus's commentary in Greek
and Latin, and learned Icholia and corcllarits. With, a view
of promoting the ftudy of allronomy, he aifo undertook an
edition of the " Parva Syntaxis Alexandnua," or " MiJt^o,-
A-=GyofiO;-," of which there is an account in the " Veterum
Mathematicorum .Synopfis," and in which, befides Euclid,
are contained the fmall treatifes of Theodulius, Autolycus,

B E R

Menelaus, Arillavchus and Hypficles ; but this was ncvfi-
publi(hcd. In 1676, he was fent to France by king Charles II.
as tutor to his two natural fons, by the dnchcfs of Cleveland ;
but his dilpofition and habits not being adapted to this fitua-
tion, he returned, after a year's abfence, to his ftudioos retire-
ment at Oxford. During his ftay at Paris, however, lie cul-
tivated an acquaintance with feveral learned perfon;, collated
various ancient and valuable MSS., and bought many fcarce
and curious books for his own library. At Oxford lie pur-
fiied his ftudies with renewed alacrity'; and befides mathema-
tics, to which he applied according to thedutyof his profefibr-
ftiip, he devoted himfelf from inclination to the profecution
of hiftoiy, chronology, and antiquiries. At this time he un-
dtrtook a new edition of Jofephus, which he never completed.
In 1683, he vifited Holland, for the purpoie of attending the
fa'e of Nicholas Heinfius's library, where hepurchafed many
valuable books ; and on this occafion he renewed, or con-
tracted an acquaintance with feveral perfons of eminent learn-
ing. As he experienced many civilities from the Dutch,
and found that in Holland he .Qiould enjoy favourable oppor-
tunities for making great improvement in oriental leaniing,
he feemed much inclined to fettle at Leyden; but difap-
po:nted in his expeftation of being chofen proiefTor of the
oriental tongues in that univcrfity, he returned to Oxford.
In 1684, he took his degree of doftor in divinity ; and in
1 69 1, he u-as prefented to the rich rectory of BrightwcU in
Berklhire, which being at the diftance of about 9 miles from
Oxford, allowed of his occafional refidence in this city.
Soon after he rciigned his profeftorlhip of aftrononiy, which
had been for fome time irkfome and unpleafant to him, in
favour of Dr. David Gregory, profcfTor of mathematics at
Edinburgh. Ih 1692, he fuperintendtd the preparation of
a catalogue of the ^ISS. in the libraries of Great Britain and
Ireland, and in fome foreign libraries ; and in the following
year he married an agreeable lady in the bloom of youth, with
whom he lived very happily. In 1696, he attended the fale
of Gohiis's MSS. in Holland ; and not long after his return
fell into a conllitutional dechne, of which he died in January
1697; and he was interred in St. Jolin's college chapel.
His widow ereded a monument of white marble, in the middle
of which there is carved the figure of a " heart," ciicum-
fcribed, according to his own direftion, by thefe words ;
" Habemus Cor Bernardi." The publications of Dr. Ber-
nard, were fome aftronomical papers in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions, N' 158. p. 567. N° 163. p. 72 t. and N" 164.
p. 747 ; •' A Treatife on the ancient weights and mea-
furcs," firft printed at the end of Dr. Pococke's Commentary
on Hofea, and afterwards reprinted in Latin, with great ad-
ditions and alterations, Oxon. 16^8, yvo. ; " Priv.ite Devo-
tions, &c." Oxford, 1689, 1 2mo. " Oibis eru.*'iti literatura,
a characlere Samaritico deduda," in a large Iheet of engrav-
ing, exhibiting at one view the alphabets of many nations,
together with the abbreviations ufcd by the Grtcks, phy-
licians, mathematicians, and chemifts ; " Etymologi(.um
Britannicum," Oxon. 1689, printed at the end of Dr.
Hickes's Grammatica Anglo-Saxonica, &c. ; " ChronologiE
SamaritansE Synoplis," publilhed in the " Ada Eruditorum
Lipfienfia," April, 1691. Ke was alfo the author of fome
notes and commentaries, printed in editions cf learned works.
He likewife aflilled feveral learned perfons in their editions
of books, and collated MSS. for them. Among his papers
were found many MSS. of his own cotnpofition, with very
large coUedions ; which, together with feveral of his books,
v/ere purchafed by the curators of the Bodleian librar)". The
reft of hib books were fold by audion. Of his great anJ ex-
tenfive learning, his works are a lufficieut evidence. L'r.
Smith, his biographer, reprefents him as a man of a ir.cck,
mild, and conciliating dilpofition, averfe from contelts of
H h 2 every

B E R

every kind, modeft in delivering his own opinions on difputed
fubjcfts, candid in his judgment of other men's performances,
fteadily attached to the ellabhflied church, and at the fame
time liberal in his fcntiments with regard to diflcnters of all
denominations, and dellrous of peace and union. His piety
was fincere and unafteCted ; and his devotions, both public
and private, were regular and exemplary. The learned
Huetius, in his " Comm. de rebus fuis," bears this concife
but very honourable teftimony to his memory • " Kdwardus
Bernardus Anglus, qiicm pauci hac itate equipar.ibant cru-
ditionis hiude, modellia vero pcne nulii ;" i. e. i'.dward Ijcr-
card, an Engli(hnian, whom few in this age equalled in
ciudition, in mo.lefty fcarcely any. Biog. Brit. Gen. DicL
Berx.ard, J.vmks, was born in 1658, at Nioi\s in Dau-
phinc, tludied at Geneva, and became paftor.of the church
in his native province. But being driven from France by
perfecution, he fought refuge firll at Geneva, then at Lau-
fanne. and afterwards in Holland, where he was employed as
a penfionary nvniller at Gouda. In 1705, he ^^as cholen
paflor of the AV'alloon church at Leyden, and foon after was
appointed profelTor of philofophy and mathematics in that
univerfity, and received a dodor's degree. He clofed his life
of literary labour in 1718. He was the author of fevcral po-
litical and hidorical works ; in 1690, he undertook the con-
tinuation of Bayle's " Nouvclles de la republique des lettrcs,"
which he continued till 1710, and refuming it in 17 16, con-
tinued it t U his death. He alfo wrote a great part of the 20ih
to the 25th vols, of Le Clerc's " I'ibliatheque Univerfelle ;"
and a " Supplement to Moreri's Diftionary," in I vol. fol.
Amll. 1 7 14. He alio publiflied feveral theological and hillo-
lical trcatifes, in the compofition of which he has difplayed
more learning and indullry than genius and ikill. Nouv. Did..
H.ft.

Bernard, Peter-Joseph, a Frencli poet, was the fon of
a fcnlptor at Grenoble, and born in 1708. Having been
educated in the college of the Jcfuits at Lyons, where he made
rapid progrefs in literature, he rambled to Paris in purfuit of
pleafure and liberty, and for two years employed bimfelf as
clerk to a notary ; but here he publiflied fome light poems
which attracted notice, and in 1734 he was taken to the cam-
paign in Italy by the marquis de Pezay, and acquitted him-
felf with honour at the battles of Parma and Guailalla. The
commander in chief, the marlhal de Coigne, plcafed with his
talents, appointed him his fecretary, and procured him the
poft of fecretary-general to the dragoons. He continued
with the marlhal till his death in 1 751^1. He afterwards lived
in the circle of falhion and pleal'ure at Paris, till the year 1 7 7 1 ,
when the lofs of his memory reduced him to a mere Hate of
vegetation, in which he continued till his death in 1776.
His works are all in the eafy, elegant, and voluptuous kind.
His firll performances confitl of anacreontics and fongs, in
(hort and playful meafurcs, from which he obtained the ap-
pellation of " le gentil Bernard." He afterwards wrote
the opera of " Cailor and PoUnx," and a ballet called " Lea
Surprifes de I'amour," His principal poem is " L'art
d'aimer," in three cantos, in which are leveral tender paflaies,
but in point ol llyle negligently written. Hi? poetical tale
inritled " Phroline et Mclldore," h of fimilar charadter.
A colkftion of his works has been publiflied, and the foUow-
ing lines of Voltaire are prefixed :

" Les trois Bernards."
•• Dans cc pays trois Bernards font connus ; —

L'uu til ce faint, aTibitieux reclus ;

Prcchcur adroit, fabricateur d'oracles ;

J..'autre Bernard eft Penfant de Plutus,

Bien plus grand faint, faifant plus grand* miracles ;

Et le troifieme tft. I'enfant de Phebus,

Gcatil Bernard, dont la mufe feconde

B E R

Doit faire eticor les delices du monde,.
Quand de premiers on ne parlera plus."
The fccond, " Bernard" above mentioned is " Samuel," the
famous financier under Lewis XIV., called the LucuUus of
the age. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

Bernard of Brvjjds, a painter of animals and hunting.
pieces, in which hee.Kcelled, by giving to his wild animals 3
Itrongand fpirited exprcflion. He was patronifcd by Mar-
garet, countefs of the N'ctheriands, for whom he defigned
fubjechfortapeftry,and in the ferviceoftlieemperorCharlesV.
he painted hunting-pieces, in wiiich he introduced the po.--
traits of the emperor and of all his attendants. In a plfturc
of the kill judgment, he covered the pannel with leaf-gold, her
fore ht; Liid on his colours, and thus preJirved them from
changing, and gave to his tints a heightened IwUre. This
method is faid to have produced a happy efiecl, particularly
in the fl<y. He died in 1540; the time of his birth is not
known. Piikington.

Bernard, Solomon, an ingenious engraver, was a native
of France, and refided chiefly at Lyons. He worked chiefly
for the bookfellers, and his engravings were deligned with
fpirit, and executed in a clear, neat ftyle. He appears by
his work-, to be a man of great genius, and fertile invention.
His moil elleemed performance is a fet of prints for tlie Bible.
He flouriflied from 1550 to 1580. Strutt..

BtRNARi), Francis, dodlorin medicine, was principal phy,-
fulan to king James II., and in confiderable praftice. He
left a large collection of fcarcc and valuable books, which was
fold, in 1698, the year after his death, for 1600I. His
brother Charles, who was furgeon to the princefs Anne, and
who had the fame paflion for coUeAing books, left alfo a
curioun libraiy, which was fold by audlion in 1711. The
" Speccio della Beftia triomfante," by Jordano Bruno, aa
Italian atheift, which was in this collection, was fold, as we
learn from the Spectator, N° 389, for 30I. This book was
printed, Ames fays, in England in 1584, by Thomas Vanr.
troUier. An Englirti edition of it was printed in 1.7 1'..
New Gen. Biog. Did.

Bernard, Christopher. Thisfurgeon, who lived in the
beginning of the i?th century, is only known as the author
of two books, very popular in their lime, though now in
little requefl. " The prelent flate of furgery, with fome re-
ma'ks on the abufes committed in it," London, 410. 1703.
" The crafts and frauds of phyfic exploded, difcoveiing
the low prices of the belt medicines," 8vo. 1 703. Haller.
Bib. Med.

Bernard, 6'/. in GcograpJiy, a town of Gci-many, in the
archduchy of Aullria, 2 miles N.W. of Horn.. — Alfo, an
ifland of North Awerica, in the lake of Nicaragua..

BhrnarDj fouth end of a fmall fimd between SouOiwoId
and Leoftofl, on the coall of Suffolk, the north end of which
is called " Newcomb," about a mile from the fliore, within
which imall veflcls may pafs in good weather and a full fea.

Bernard River, a river on the weft coall of FrancCj
which falls into the bay within the ifland of Belleifle.

Bbrnard'j Bay, lies on the N.W. fide of the gulf o£
Mexico. The paflage into it, between feveral iflands, is
called Pafco de Cavallo. N. lat. 28° 30'. W.long. 96° 16'.

Bernard, Great St., a mountain which is a branch of the
Alps (the Alpes Pennine of ancient writers), that feparates
the Lower Valais from Savoy, and particularly from the
dnchy of Aoila, in the principallty-of Piedmont, and from
which flows into the former country the river Drance, and
into the latter, the Doire. On the fummit of this mountain
is the monaftery of St. Bernard (fee Bernard), fuppofed to
be 8oc6 feet above the level of the Mediterranean. N. lat..
45° 48'. E. long. 7" 2'.. It was by this track that Hanni-
bal is luppofed to h?ive conducted the Carthaginian army into.
* Italy 5

B E R

Italy ; and it was in the fame direflion that Bonaparte, the
conful of France, led his aimy of refene over the Alps,
previoufly to the battle of Marengo, in the year iSoc.

Bernard, Litlle St., a part of the Alps (anciently Alpcs
Grals), feparating the duchy of Aolla from Savoy, and lying
to the fouth-weft of the former. Over this lies a road into
Savoy, and upon it is a monaftery or hofpitium for the con-
venience of travellers.

Bernard the Hermit, ia Entomology, the name by whfch
Cancer bernhardus is very conjmonly known. This creature
isalfo called the hermit crab ; a name indifcriminattly applied
to all the paralitical fpecies of the ca;icer genus ; or, in other
•words, to all thofe which having no (htrlly covering to protect
the body, inhabit the rtiells of whtlks, or othw teltaceou3
animals. See Pagarus Fabr.

BERNARDI, Steffano, \n B'wgrapJjy, was a learned
theorill in Mtific,^^ well ascompofer of inafl'es and madr:gal3
of a moll elaborate and correA kind. He floundicd from
1611 to about i634,andiii 1623 was maeftro di cappeila of
the Duomo, at Verona.. He publifhed a didadtic work,
called " Porta Rluiicale," the Hrft part of which appeared
at Verona, 1615, in quarto ; and, as an elementary trait, it
has the merit ot cleaniefs and brevity.

BERNAPJDIA, in Brjjr,y. See Adelia.

BERNARDIN, in Bwgraphy, a Romilh faint, dcnomi-
rated of Sienna, was born at Maffa, in Tutpany in 1380, ac-
cording to Mr. Warton, but in 1383, according to M. Du
Pin. After Undying at Sienna, he entered into the confra-
ternity of the holpitallcrs of la Scala, and dillinguidied him-
fclf by his attendance on thofe who were afflidted with the
plague. In 1404 or 1405, he became a member of the Fran-
cifcan order, and afterwards an eminent preacher. Befides
the natural and acquired talents which he pofTclfed, the poiver
of working miracles was alcribed to him both during his
life and after his death. He villted Jerufalem under the cha-
racter of commiffary of the Holy L?.nd, and after his return
vifittd ftveral cities of Italy, where ho preached with great
applaufe. Being accufcd to pope Martin V. for maintaining
fome erroneous opinions, he explained himfelf to the fatisfac-
tion of the pontiff, and was abfolved. Such were his humi-
lity and felf-denial that he refuted feveral biihoprics, and con-
tented himftif with the office of viear-general of the obferv-
ance of St. Francis in Italy, and as fuch, reformed, or newly
founded 300 monaileries. He died at Aquila ui Abruzzo in
1444, and was canonized in 1450 by pope Nicholas V. He
left feveral works, which were printedat Venice in 1591, 4 vols.
410.; and at Paris in 1636, 2 vols. fol. They coniill of reli-
gious treatifes, fermons, commentaries on the Apocalypfe, 5:c.
Dn Pin. Gen. Dicl;.

Bernardin., or Bernhardin, in Geography, a mountain of
Swifferland, being part of the Alps, feparating the dillridt of
Rheinwalden from the vaUies of Calanca and Mafox. In this
mountain fprings the river Mufa, which flows down the Val
Mafox,and forms ajunction with the Tefino,above Bellinzone.
BERNARDINS, or Bernarditks, in Ecchfiajlical
Hyiory, the name of a rehgious order, differing ver)' little from
the Ciiltrcians. They derived their name and order from
St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, who was conlidered as the
fecond parent and founder of the Ciftercians. (See Ber-
HARD.) Their ufua' habit is a white gown, with a black
fcapulary ; but when they oiBciate, they put on a large white
coul with great fleeves, and a iiood of the fame colour.

BERNARDO, St. in Geography, an itland, or rather
group of illands in the South Tea, called St. Bernardo of Men-
dana, and fuppofed by M. Fleurieu, in his " Difcovcries of
the French in 1768 and 1769, &c." to be Mr. Byron's " Ifles
of Danger." Mendana fays, that St. Bernardo is in S. lat.
\o° 30', and 1400 (Spanilh) leagues from Lima, i. e. allowing

B E R

Li.Tia to be In W, long. 77' 50', and 1400 leagues in the lati-
tude of 10' 30' to make 81^ 30' of longitude, the longitude
of St. Bernardo will be about 159'' 20'. But the fituation of
St. Bernardo may be more accurately determined from that
of the Marquclas, placed by Capt. Cook, in his fecond
voyage, in W. long. 139° 9': for Figneroa fays, that Men-
dana failed well 403 (Spanifti) leagues from t'lie Marqutfas,
before he made St. Bernardo ; and 400 Spa;:iih leagues in the
lat. of 10'', making 23° l 3' difference of longitude; if this be
added to 139' 9', weihallhave 162^ 22' W. for the longitude
of St. Bernardo. Com. Byron places the Iflaiids of Danger
in S. lat. 10° 58', and VV. l<,ng. 169° 53' ; but Mr. Wafes,
who collated and pabhflied tlie allronomical obfcrvations
which were made ii. Hawkcf^vorth's VL.yageS for the Board
of LongitTjdf', reduces this longitude to 165' fg' W., exceed-
it^g that of Mendana only by 3'- 37'. Mr. Fleurieu joins M.
Piiigie (fee " Memoire furle Tranllt de Venus," Paris, 1767,
p. 5 I . ) in thinking ttiat tliis idand is not the fame with that
which Quiros faw, and called St. Bernardo, in 1605; but Mr.
Dalrymple thinks that they are the fame ; and it is probable
that Qj.iircxs thought fo ; for in enumerating his oivn difcoverita
to Philip II. of Spain, in the memorial which heprefented to
that monarch (fee " Dalrympk's coUedion," vol. i. p. 145.)
he omitted this ifland, whence it may be inferred, that he
thought it to be a dilcovery which belonged to another perfon,

Bernardo, St. deTarijah, a town of South America,
and principal of the dilhitt of Ciiicas, or Tarijah.

BERNARDSTOWN, a townfhip in Somerfet county,
Kew Jerfey, America, containing 2377 inhabitants, including
93 flnvea. — A'fo, a towiiihip in Hampfliire county, Mafia-
chufetts, containing 691 inhabitants; dillant 110 miles W-
frum Bofton.

BER-NASCONI, Andrea, in Biography, bom at Ve-
rona, but who refided chiefly at Venice, was a pleafing and
graceful compofer. H: flouriflied at the fame time as Haffe,
and though inferior to him in force and refcurces, it is faid
that Fauftina, the wife of HalTe, iifed to prefer the melodies
of Bernafconi. He refided long at Munich, in the ferviceof
the eleftor of Bavaria, where he died about the middle of the
17th centuiy.

BiRNAScosi, La Signora, daughter of the compofcr of
that name, arrived in England 1778, as firli: woman at our
lyric theatre, when Pacchioretti .nppearcd there for the llrft
time. She had gained confiderable reputation as an afirefs
at Vienna, in the part of Eurydice, when flie fnng with Mil-
hco in Gluek's Orfeo, which had fuch great futccfs from its
novelty of llyle, that afcribing p-irt of this fuccefs to the Ber-
nafconi's vocal powers, we expeded more than we foundi
And little is to be faid of her as^ a performer, except that (he
had a neat and elegant manner of finging, though with a voice
that was feeble, anJ in decay..

BERN AU, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the arch-
duchy of Auftria, 5 miles louth of Wels. — Alfo, a town of
Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and middle mark of
Brandenburg, furrounded with walls, ramparts, and ditches,
containing three churches ; the principal commerce of which
is beer, of which large quantities are brewed m this town ; 14
miles N.N.E. of Beriin.

BERNAVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftricl of Dourlens, 2 \ leagues fouth- weft of Dourlens. The
population of this town confills of 984, and that of the can-
ton of 9944 perfons. The territDrial extent contains 185
kiliometres ; and 27 communes.

BERNAY, a town of France, and principal place of a
diilrift, in the department of the Eure ; 7! leagues well of
Evreux. Its population amounts to 6142, and that of the
canton to 14,957 perfons. Its cstent in kilionietres is 187',

and.

B E R

iiid it contains 2i communes. N. lat. 49" 6*. E. long.
<j' 50'.

BERNBURG, in Latin, Bimlurgum, Araopolh, and Ur-
fopolis, a town of Germany, in the i;iick of Upper Saxony,
the capital of Anlialt Bernburg, ami the icfidence of the
prince, featcd on the Sala. It is divided into the Old and
New Town, whieh had each its own magiUracy, till they were
united in 1560; hcfides which, there is a third part, called
" VordenhurtT," fcated on a hill on the other lidc of the Sala,
under a diilinct inajjiftracy. The church in this part fenx-s
for the callle and the court. The calUe is one of the moll
ancient and moll celebrated fortrclfes in the principality of
Anhak; 20milcs wal of Deflau. N. lat. 5 1° 55'. E. long.

BERNCASTEL, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, and electorate of Treves, and chief place
of a canton in the dillrid of Treves, and department of the
Sane, fexted on the Mofelle, and owin;;; its privileges to the
emperor Rodolphus 1. ; 8 miles E. N. E. of Treves. Its po-
pulation includes I26j(, and that of the canton 11,718 per-
foiis. It contains 34 communes. N. lat. 50' i'. E. long.
i," 36'-

BERNE, a townfliip of America, in Albany county, New
Yoik. According to tiie Hate cenlus of 1796, there appear
to be 4'' 7 eleftors.

BERNECK, a town of Germany, in the circle of Fran-
conia, and principality of Bayreuth.

BERNECOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte, and ciiief place of a canton in the dillridlof
Pont-a-MoulTon, 3 leagues S.W. of Pont-a-MoufTon.

BERNERA, or Berneray, one of the weftcrn iflands
of Scotland, lo only about four miles in length, and one and
a half in breadth. The foil of it is fandy, but when well
nianurtd proves extremely fertile, and produces fome fine
corn and clover paflures. It has a frelhwater lake, called
Lochbrnis, which has fonie fmall iflands, and abounds with
eels. Thefe are frequently caught in great numbers by the
inhabitants, wlio rcfort in the night, with lights, to a fmall
rivulet, where the eels are found going towards the fea.
They are often caught twilled together in heaps. The tides
of the fea often produce very lingular eftefts round this ifland.
In their ordinary courfe the flood runs eatl in the Frith,
where Berrcra lies, and the ebb runs well ; the fea ebbing
and flowing regularly for four days before, and as long after
the full and change of the moon. The fpring tides com-
monly rife to the height of 14 feet perpendicular, and the
others prooortionably ; but for tour days bifore and after
the quarter moons, there is a lingular variation ; at ihofe
times the tide runs ea.lward f>»r twelve hours lucceffively,
from mne o'clock in the morning till nine at niglit, when the
cirrent ti'ns, and runs weilward for the twelve following
hours^. Thus tlie reciprocations continue ; one flood and
ebb running ta.lward, and another weilward, till within four
davs of the full and change of t!ie moon, when they refume
ttieir ordinary courfe, running tail during the fix hours of
flood, and weit dining the iix liours of ebb. There is ano-
ther phenomenon in tliefe tides equally remarkable. Between
the vernal a^nl autumnal equiniixcs, the tides about the quar-
ter moons run all day to the eall, and all night to the well ;
and during the other fix months, their courfe is revcrfed,
being weilward in the day, and eallward in the night. The
number of inhabitants in Bernera and the ifle of Pabbay,
which lies between the former and Harris, was 494 in the
year 1792. W. long. 7^ 3a'. N. lat. 67^ 45'. The Rev.
Mr. M'Lcod's Account in Sir I. Sinclair's .Statiflical Hifto-
ry of Scotland. — Alfo, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Invcriiefs, in which are barracks; 52 miles K. W. of
Fort AViliirtTr..

BE R

BERNESSO, a town of Piedmont, in ihcdiftiiiflof Coni}
4i miles W.N.W. of Coni.

BERNEVILLE,a town of France, in the department of
the Sti-aits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridt
of Arras, 4 miles S.W. of Arras.

BERNEUT Bay, lies at the point of Qiiibcron, on the
coall of France.

BERNEX,atown of Savoy, 2} milesN.N.E.oFSt. Julien.

BERNHARDUS, m Entomohgy, a fpccies of Cancer,

with heart-fnaped, muriated hand-claws ; that on the right

fide largeft. Inhabits whelks, 8tc. common on moll iea-

fliorcs. See Bernard tie Hurviit.

BERNHARTS, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the archduchy of Aullria, 7 miles E.S.E. ot Feldfburg.

BERNI, or Bermia, Francis, in Bwyi-aphy, an Ita-
lian poet, was a delceudant of a noble but indigent family of
Bibiena, in Tufcany, and born at Campovecchio, about the
dole of the i5Ch century. He palfcd the firft 19 years
of hio life in poverty at Florence ; and though he was after-
wards patronized by cardinal Bernardo of Bibiena, Angelo,
and Giberti,lii(hopsof Verona, his loveof unreftrained liberty,
and inclination to pleafure and raillery, prevented his deriving
any permanent advantage from their patronage. At Rome,
however, he was greatly elleemed by the literati, and was
one of the moll illullrious members of the famous academy
" Dc Vignajuoli." At length, he retired to Florence, and
fublill!d on a canonry in the cathedral, under the protedlion
of cardinal Hippolito dc' Medici, and duke Alexander. It
has been faid, that he was taken off by poifon, becaufe, in
a quarrel between thefe two princes, he refufcd to comply
with the defire of one of them, who requclled him to ad-
miniiler poifon to the other. The aera of his death, as well
as the truth of this ftory, are uncertain : it has been fixed by
fome to the year 1536; but others have fuppofed that he
lived to a later periods Mr. Rofcoc, in his " Life of Lorenzo
de Medici," fays, that he cultivated a branch of poetry (a
kind of burlefque) with fu much fuccels, that it has from
him obtained the name of " Bernefcae." The charafterif-
tic of this fpccies of poetry is an extreme fimphcity, which
the Italians denominate '' ideotifmo." The moll extrava-
gant fentiments, the mod fevere llrokes of fatire, are ex-
prelfed in a manner fo natural and ealy, that the author
himfclf feems fcarcely to be confcious of the effeft of his
own work. Perhaps the only indication, fays Mr. Rofcoe,
of a fimilar talle in this country, appears in the writings of the
facetious Peter Pindar. Berni, though he feems to have
blotted and correcled much, has neverthelefs not been fuf-
ficiently careful in expunging licentious images, and free
equivoque ; and his wit is often mere buflfoonery. One ot
his principal peformances, was the recompofiiion of Boiardo's
" Orlando Inamorato," which he has rendered much more
pure and poetical. The bed edition of it is that of Venice,
in 154J. His other poems were collefled and publilhed,
with tliofe of other burlefque writers, in 1548, in 2 vols.
8vo. and reprinted at London in 172 1 and 1724, after
the edition of Venice. Berni was a caullic fatiriil, and the
avowed enemy of Peter Arttin, whole life lie wrote in a
llrain of bitter inveftivc. He excelled in Latin poetry, and
imitated the llyle of Catullus with fuccefs. Gen. Biog.

BERNICIA, in ^W/j/X GfooTfl/i/iv, one of the kingdoms
of the Saxon heptarchy. Although the Saxons, foon after
the landing of Hengill, had been planted in Northumber-
land, their progrcfs was flow in overcoming the obllinate re-
fillance with which they were oppofed, and none of their
princes for a long time ali'umed the appellation of king. At
lafl, in 547, Ida, a Saxon prince of great valour, who claimed
a defccnt, as did all the other princes of that nation, from
Woden, brought over a reinforcement from Germany in

50

B E R

50 lliips, which arrived at Flamborough, and enabled the
Nc-Tthuinbriaiis to carry on th-jir conqutits over the Britons.
He entirely fubdued the country, now called Northumber-
land, the bilhopric of Durham, as well as the counties of
the Merfe and the three Lotliians, or the whole e;tftern coatl
of the ancient Roman province of Valentia ; and afTurn-, d
the crown under the title of king of Bernicis. About the
fame time, Mlh, another Saxon prince, having conquered
Lancafliire, and the greater part of Yorkfliire, or all the
country between the Humber and the Tyne, founded ano-
ther little ftate in thefe parts, which was called the king-
dom of " Deira," or " Deiri." Thefe two kingdoms were
united, not long after, in the perfon of Ethelfrid, grandfon
of Ida, who married Acca, the daughter of j3illa ; and ex-
pelling her brother Edwin, cttablidied one of the moll power-
ful of the Saxon kingdoms, by the title of NortliumLcrlandt
which fee. See alfo Heptarchy.

BERNICLE, in Conchology. See BarHacle.

BERNICLE, \i\ Oinithulogy. See Barn Ac le ^otyJ.

BERNIER, Francis, in Biography, called the Mogul,
from his long refidence in the court of that prince, was born
at Angers in France, about the year 1630. After receiv-
ing a liberal education, and taking his degree of doftor in
medicine at Montpclier, he went, in 1654, to Paleftine,
and thence to Egypt. At Cairo he refided about twelve
months, and having examined the pyramids, and every thing
there deferving attention, he embarked at Suez for the king-
dom of the Mogul, and was engaged by Aurengzcbe as his
phyfician, in which office he continued, attending that
prince in his expeditions for the fpace of 12 yearp. De-
firous at length of revifiting his native country, and obtain-
ing leave of the Mogul, he returned to France in 1670. He
now employed himfelf in digefting and arranging the obferva-
tions he had made in his travels, and pubUfhed in fucceffion,
in French, the hiftory of the lail revolution of the ftates of
the great Mogul, a letter on the ftate of Hindoftan, and
memoirs and particular obfervation"^. Thefe were colledled
and publirtied together, in 1 699, at Amfterdam, under the
title of " Voyages de Franfois Bcrnicr, contenant la Defcrip-
tion desetatsdu grand Mogul, del'Hindouftan, du royanme
de Kachemire, &c." 2 vols. i2mo. Theyare efteemed the moil
perfeiEl account of thofe countries extant. Captive princes
here, fays he, deftined to die, v.-ere compelled to take daily a
preparation of poppy, which kept them in a contlant ftate ef
drowfinefs, until life was gradually and quietly extinguiihed.

Totheabftemiouslife of the Indians,he attributes their free-
dom from gout, ftone, catarrh, and quartan fever. Even the
lues venereal is here, he fays, lefs mahgnant than in Europe.

He alfo pubUftied an abridgment of the philofcphy of
Gaflendi, and other trafts, contained in various periodical
publications. In 1685, he came to England, and after a
fhort refidence here, returned to Paris, where he died, Sept.
22,1688. Haller. Bib. Med. New Gen. Biog. Did.

Bernier, John, born at Blois, received the degree of
doftor in medicine at Montpelier, in 1647. Not fucceeding
in his praflice, and finding perfons whom he efteemed lefs
qualified, in full employment, his writings are filled with
fatyrical refledlions on his more fortunate brethren. His
principal work is, " Eflais de Medicine, ou il eft traite de
I'Hiftoire de Medicine, etdes Medicines, &c." Pans, 1689,
410. to which he added a fupplemcnt in 1695. He alfo
publifhed " Hiftoirede Blois;" which is not much efteemed.
Alfo, " Antimenagiana, [des Refleftions, Penfees, Bens
Mots, et Anecdotes," which he figns by thename of Poppin-
court, and a critique on the works of Rabelais, whom he
feverely cenfures. Eloy. Di£l. Hill.

BtRNiER, Njcholat, an eminent French mufician, was

B E R

born at Mantes-fur-Stinf, and became mufic-maflcr of the
holy chapel at Pari?, and afterwards of tlie chapel royal.
He was much efteemed and patronized by the duke of Or-
leans, who fubmittcd his own con-pofitions to his judgment.
By his five books of cantatas, for one and two voices, with
the words in part by Roufl'tau and Fuf(.li',r, he acqviired
great reputation. He alfo publiihed " Lcs Nuits dcs
Sceaux," and a number of motets, which are ftill : dmired.
He died in 1734. Nonv. Di£l. Hill.

BERNIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the liere, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftiitt of Grenoble, 8 miles north of Grenoble.

BERNINI, John Lawrlnce, in BkgrapLy, a cele-
brated fculptor and architeft, was the fon of a fculptor, and
born at Naples, in 1598. At a very early age, he manifeft-
cd the inclination of his genius ; fur upon the removal of
his family to Rome, whta he had attained only the ;ipe of
10 years, he (hut himfelf up from morning till night in the
Vatican, for the purpole ot copyiig the mailer pieces which
it contained. Having about this period wrought a head in
marble, that excited great admiration, he was fcnt for by pope
Paul V. who dcliied him to flcetch with a pen the head of
St. Paul, in his prtfence; upon which the young artift
defigned it fo well, that the pontiff recommended him to the
care of cardinal Matlci Bhiberini, as one who might become
the Micliael Angclo of his age. Stimulated by the en-
couragement he had received, his application was indefati-
gable, and his perfeverance invincible. To this purpofe, it
is related concerning him, that after having finuhed with
much attention and afliduity a bull of Scipio Borghefe, the
pope's nephew, he difcovered a dcfedl of the marble in the
forehead. Upon this he immediately procured another
block, and in the interval of 15 nights he executed another
to his fatisfaclion. When the firll was exhibited to Borghefe,
he could not avoid manifefting his chagrin ; but he was
agreeably furprifed when the Iccond was expofed to his
view. Both theie are prcfcrved in the villa Borghefe. Among
the productions of his youth, we may mention his ftatues of
St. Laurence, and of iEneas carrying oft his father at the
fiege of Troy ; and more particularly his David and Goliah,
which fome lin' e reckoned among his bell works. His gri;;:p
of Apollo and Daphne, cut from a fingle block of marble,
and the fecond not more than half a foot from the firft, exe-
cuted fur cardinal Borghefe, at the age of 18 years, lias been
regarded as the chef d'oeuvre of ftulpture. It is faid, that
when Bernini faw thefe performances ot his youtli 4c years
afterwards, he lamented the little improvement be had
made in fculpturc during this long courft of years. In the
pontificate of Gregory XV. Bernini was created a knight of
the order of Chrift ; whence he has been commonly diftin-
gailhed by the appellation of the '" Chevaiitr Bernini." Up-
on the acceffion of his patron Barbenni to the por.t'.hcal
chair, under the title of Urban VIII. Bernini was engaged
in executinr; the projefls which he had lonned for the tm-
beUiihrrient of Rome. The decoration ol the plate called
the " Confcflion," in St. Peter's, employed him for 9 year?,
and for this exercife of his art he was liberally rewarded.
He alfo conllrudled a fountain, difplaying the richncfs cfhis
invention, in the pia27a d'Efpagna ; decorated the great
niches of the pillars, which'fiipport the dorr.c of St. Peter's ;
and conftuifted a grand maufolenm for the pope, which is
one cf the finell ornaments of that cathedr.-'.l. So much did
this pope intereft himfelf in the \Ntlfare of Bernin-, that he
urged him to marry ; accordingly, in 1639, he commenced a
matrimonial union, which lafted 35 years, and produced a
numerous family. Bernini's reputation was not confined to
Rome ; but Charles I. of England, hearing of his fame, fent

over

B E R

over a fine piAure of Vandyke, from whicli he made tkree buds
of the king in difFcreiit al'ptdts, vvhicli gave great latisfac-
tion, and were munificently rewarded. A bnft of the queen
was intended, but on account of the troubles which occurred
in England, was never executed. Bernini was invited to
Paris by Lewis XIII. jull before the death of Urban VIII.,
and allured by very lucrative propofals; but the pope, upon
being confulted, faid, " that he was made for Rome, and
Rome for him ;" and this determined his Hay, The grand
fountain of the piazza Navoiia, conilruiled under the por.ti-
ficate of Innocent X. is reckoned among his mailer-pieces.
The fine portico of St. Peter's was creifled by this artill, un-
der the pontificate of Alexander VII. and about this time
queen Chriftina vifitcd Rome, and treated him with lingu-
lar refpccl. In 1664, he was confulted by Lewis XIV. of
France, in confequence of the recominendatioa of Colbert,
concerning the improvement of the Louvre ; and :it the age
of 68 years yielded to an urgent invitation to vifil Paris for
this pnrpofe. In his journey thither, he was honoured in
various places through which he palfed, by the moil refpeA-
ful attention; and after his arnval, he began with making a
bull of the king, and while he was iketchlng his portrait,
turned back his curls for a better difcovery of his forehead,
obferving at tlie fame timff, with the politenefs of a courtier,
*' that he was a king who might freely fliew his face to the
whole world." This, it is faid, gave rife to a French fa-
Ihion, denominated " frifure a la Bernin." His defigu for
the completion of the Louvre was not executed. He re-
turned to Rome before winter, and as an acknowledgment
of his obligations, for the civility and munificence with which
he was treated by Lewis, formed a coloffal equeflriau llatue,
reprefenting the king as fupported by a rock. Upon its
removal to Paris, Girarden changed it, on account of its
want of fufficient refemblance to the monarch, into a Curtius
leaping into the fiery gulf. Among the remaining works
in which he employed himfclf, the mod confiderable was tlie
tomb of Alexander V'll. in St. Peter's. Whilfl; he was re-
pairing the old chancery palace, by order of Innocent XI.
lie was feized with a fever, which terminated in an apoplexy,
that cloftd his life in 1680, in the 8 2d year of his age. His
funeral proccfiion to the church of St. Maria Maggiore was
attcndrd by all the nobility of Rome.

The genius of Bernini was fingtdarly fertile and com-
prchcnfive ; and on a medal llruck in honour of him by
Lewis XIV. he is charafterizcd as " fingularis in fingulis, in
omnibus unicus," i. e. fingular in each, fole in all. Several
of his pi&ureE, painted for his amufement, aniidd his other
occupations, and fufScienlly indicating his talents in this de-
partment of the arts, are preferved in the I'lortntiue gallery,
and the Barberini and Chigi palaces. In architeftiire he dif-
played a fine taile and rich imagination, though he is faid to
have departed trom the rules ar.d proportions obferved by
the ancients. But he owed his higlieil and mod didinguifh-
ing reputation to fculpture. D'Argenville, however, ob-
fcrvcs, in his " Vies des Architeftes ct des Sculpteurs,"
that, whild he wrought marble with a furpri.Gng fnpplenefs,
admirable tade, and fingular graces, he often devipted from
truth, and was much of a mannerid ; that he abandoned the
iimple drapery of the Grecian ftatuaries ; and that he enve-
loped his figures with fuch an aflemblage of .folds and doub-
lings astodifgnife and partly conceal them by the flutter and
feeming agitation of their drefs. Some of his fingle buils, or
portraits alter nature, are much admired, and are faid to re-
lain the whole fpirit and charafler of the original. His St.
Therefa in ecdafy is thought to furpafs all )iis other works
for cxprcffion. His/jwn talents he edimated with modedy ;
but by ail enthuijaftic attachment to his art, and unwearied

B E R

affiduity in the exercifeof it, he arrived at that eminence for
which he was didmguiflied, and multiplied his works to fuch
a degree as to occafion its being faid, that poderity would
he apt to fuppol'e as many Berninis as Herculcfes. En-
cyclop, Beaux Arts, t. ii. p. I. p. 282. Gen, Biog.

BERNINO, in Geography, a mountain of Swiderland,
being a branch of the Rhctian Alps, about z6 miles N. E. of
Chiavenna.

BERNO, in Bisgraphy, abbot of Richenon, in the diocefe
of Condance, flouridied about the year 1008, and is cele-
brated as a poet, rhetorician, muficinn, philofopher, and
divine. Of his works, the principal are his treatifes " Dc
Inftrumcntis Muficalibus;" " De Menfura Monochordij"
and " De Mufica feu Tonis ;" containing a fummary of the
dodlrines of Boethius, an explanation of the ecclcfiadical
tones, intermixed with pious exhortations, and the applica-
tion of the mufic to rehgious purpofes. His learning and
piety recommended him to the fpecial favour of the emperor
Herrry II, and his endeavours to promote literature were fo
much encouraged, that his abbey of Richenon was as famous
in his time as thofe of St. Gal, or Cluni, then the moil
celebrated in Fi-anee. He died in 1048, and was buried iu
the church of his monafteiy.

BERNON, in Geography, a tovi'n of France, in the de-
partment of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Ervy ; 4 miles S. E. of Ervy.

BERNOUILLI, Jamf.s, in i?/'ofray)/ij', a celebrated ma-
thematician, was born at Bafil, December 27, 1654. His fa-
ther, who was a man of rank and learning, intended him for
the piofefllon of a minider, and paid great attention to his
education. Having pafled through the ufual courfe of pre-
paratory dudies, and taken his degrees in the univerfity of
Bafil, he applied, in deference to his father's widies, to divi-
nity ; but his inclination leading him to mathematics, he
made great proficiency in geometry, without any collateral
aflidanee either of teachers or of book;;, from the ufe of
which his father rigoro'idy redrained him. In refei'ence to
this redraint, he took for his device Phaeton driving the
chariot of the fun, with this motto, " Invito patre fidei-a
verfo," i, e. I traverfe the dais igainil my father's inclina-
tion. Notwithdanding the difadvantagcs under which he
laboured, he made fuch progrefs in mathematical dudies, that
he was able, before the age of 18 years, to folve a difficult
proVrlem in chronology, or to find the year of the Julian
pei-iod, when the year of the cycle of the fun, the golden
inimbcr, and the indidlion, are given. In 1676, lie began his
travels, and at Geneva taught a blind girl to write ; and at
Bourdeaux compofed univerfal gnomonic tables. Upon his
return to his own country, in 16S0, he der'ived great plea-
fui-e from th. penifal of Maibranche's " Search after Truth,"
and Defcartes's philofophy : and predifled the return of a
comet, of which he gave an account, in a fhort ti'eatife writ-
ten iu his own language. He foon afterwards travelled into
Holland, Flanders, and England ; and having completed
his peregrinations, he fettled at Bafil, in 1682, and com-
menced a coiufe of public experiments in natural philofophy
and mathematics. In this year he publifhed, at Amder-
dam, in Latin, his " Eflny of a New Sydem of Comets, in
order to calculate their Motions and to foretel their Appear-
ances," 8vo. and in the following year, at the fame place,
his " Didertations upon the Weight of the Air ;" Lat. 8vo.
In i68^, he accepted the profeirordiip of mathematics at
Heidelberg, and devoting himfelf to the alTiduous iludy of
thefe fcicnces, he took occafion about this time to invedigatc
the analytical fydem of Leibnitz, contained in fome eflays
on the " Calculus differentialis," or " Infinimens petits ;"
publiflicd in the " Ada Eruditorum ;" the extent and

beauty

B E R

btanty of wliich lie admired, the principles of which he de-
veloped, and the utility of which he difcavered, and promot-
ed to Aich a degree, that this great philofopher, whiltl he
claimed the hon-ur of the original invention, acknowledged
tlirit J. Dernouilli and his brother had a grcv.t fhare in the
advantage whicli the public derived from it, and that no
perfon had made a greater ufe of this invention than they,
and the marquis de I'Hofpital. In 1687, he was unanimoully
chofcn to fiicceed Peter Megerlin, as profefTor of mathema-
tics at Bafil, and he difeharged the duties of his office with
fr.ch rep itation, that he greatly contributed to the credit of
t'ne univerfity, and to the increafe of the number of lludents.
]n 1699, he was elefted a foreign member of the academy
of fciences at Paris, and in I 701, of the academy of Berlin.
Tlie me- ' oirs of both thefe focicties were enriched by many
of his coinmunications. Several of his pieces were alfo pub-
lilTied in the Afta Eruditorum, and the Journal des Scavans.
The gout, brought on by unremitting application, produced
a fever, which terminated his life, Auguft 16, 1 705, in the
5 [ft year of his age.' He ordered a logarithmic fpiral to be
engraved on his tomb, with this motto, " Eadem miitata
refnrgo," I rife the fame, though changed. He was mar-
ried at the age of 30; and left one fon and a daughter. By
the exercife of extraordinary powers of invention, and per-
fevering application, he made many valuable difcoverics,
which improved the method of anah fis, the dodrine of in-
finite fcries, and the higher department of mathematical in-
veitigation ; fuch as the qindrature of the parabola, and the
jreometry of curve lines, of fpirals, cycloids and epicycloids.
His works, with their relpective titles, are enumerated in the
General Dictionary, to which we refer ; and they were col-'
lefted and p\iblifhed in 2 vols. 4to. at Geneva, in 1744.
The " Ars conjeftandi," or the art of forming probable
conjcflures concerning events that depend on chance, in
which he was engaged at the time of his death, and which
is not included in the above collettion, was printed at Balil,
in 1713, 4to. To this is added a treatife concerning infinite
feries. An extract from this valuable treatife, containing the
beft demonftration that has yet been given of Sir Ifaac New-
ton's famous binomial theorem, in the firll and fimpleft cafe
of it, or that of the integral and affirmative powers of the
binomial quantity a + i, left by its great inventor without a
demonftration, is included in the 3d volume of the " Scri-
ptores Logarithmici," for which we are indebted to baron
Maferes.

Bernouilli, John, the brother of the preceding, and
no lefs celebrated as a mathematician, was born at Bafil,
July 27, 1667. At the age of 15, he commenced the ftudy
of philofophy, and foon after he was fent to Neufehatel to
learn the French language, and the principles of commerce ;
but preferring intellcftualpurfuits to a mercantile profeffion,
he returned home at the clofe of the year, for the profecu-
tion of his ftudies, and received the degree of doflor in phi-
lofophy in 1685. Inftructed by his elder brother in the firtl
rudiments of mathematics, he afterwards, viz. in 1684, when
he was only 17 years of age, concurred with him in invcf-
tigating and explaining the principl' -■: of Leibnitz's differen-
tial calculus. He alfo was one of the three mathematicians,
the two others being Huygens and Leibnitz, who folved the
problem of the catenary curve, propofed by his brother
James. In 1690, he fet out on his travels ; and in the pro-
grefs of them communicated the difcoveries of the new ana-
lyfis to Daniel le Clerc, and Fatio de Duillier, at Geneva,
and to the marquis de I'Hofpital at Paris. On his return to
own country, in 1692, he commenced a correfpondence
with Leibnitv;, which latted during the life of the latter.
Having declined the profefTordiip of niath?matics at
• Vol. IV.

B E R

"Wolfcnbuttle, which was offered him in 1693, he nndcr-
took, in 1695, ■* courfe of philofophical experiments at
Groningen, and was furniftied by the curators of the univer-
(ity with the neceilaiy apparatus. About this tim.e he dif-
covered, what has been called the mercurial phofphorus, oc-
cafioncd, as it is now known, by the fnflion of mercury
againft glafs, in a partial vacuum ; for which Frederic I.
king of Pruflia, honoured him with a gold medal, and with
the rank of member of the academy of fcicncts at Berlin.
He w;: alfo a member of the royal fociety of London, and
of other learned bodies. He fucceeded his brother James at
Bafil, in 17OJ, on which occafion he delivered a difcourfe,
" De Fatis Novi Analyfeos, ct GeometriE Sublimis," and
continued till his death in this fituation, though he was foli-
cited to remove to Leyden, Padua, and Groningen. He
collefted his works in 1743, and printed tliem at Laufanne,
in 4 vols. 410. His correfpondence was extenfive, and he
was much engaged in a controverfy with the Englifh ma-
thematicians concerning the invention of fluxions ; in another
with Renau, concerning the manoeuvring of (hips; and iit
another on mathematical fubjefts, with Jurin, Brook Taylor,
Keil, Pemberton, Herman, a: d Riccati. In 1730, he
gained a prize of the academy of fciences for a memoir on the
elliptic figure of the planets, and the motion of tl eir aphelia;
and in 1734, Ije received the half prize, jointly witH his
fon Daniel, from the fame academy, for a memoir on the
phyfical caufe of the inclination of the planetaiy orbits.
Bernouilli died January I, 1748, in the 8 1 ft year of hi*
age, and left four daughters and five fons, three of whom
were mathemattcians. Fontenelle's Eloges. Moreri.

Bernouilli, John, fon of the preceding, was bom at
Bafil, January 17, 1695, ^"'^ '^'^'^ "^^ Pcteriburgh, July 26,
1726. He was licentiate of law, profefTor ot law at Berne;
afterwards profefibr of Mathematics at Pelerfburgh, and
member of the inftitute of Bologna.

Bernouilli, Nicholas, nephew of the two preceding,
profefFor of mathematics at Padua, afterwards of logic, and
then of law at Bafil, member of the academy of fciences and
belles Icttres at Berlin, and alfo of the royal fociety of
I-,ondon, and of the inftitute at Bologna, was horn at Bafil,
Oftober 10, 1687, and died there, November 29, 1759.

Bernouilli, Danifx, M.D. fon of John Bernouilli, was
born at Groninger, Feb. 9, 1700. Prefen-ing mathemati-
cal to commercial purfuits, he pafied the earlier part of his
life in Italy, and at the age of 24, declined the prefidency of
an academy about to be eftabliflied at Genoa, and in the fol-
lowing year accepted an iavitation to Peterfburgh, where
he fpent feveral years. On his return to Bafil, in 1733, he
was fucceffively profeflor of anatomy and botany, and of na-
tural and experimental philofophy ; and had the honour of
being s member of the academies of Peterfburgh, Paris, and
Berlin, and of the rcyal fociety of London. In 1724, he
publilhcd his " Exercitationes Mathematics;" and, in 1738,
his " Hydronamica." Many otiier pieces have been pub-
hfiied in the memoirs of the academy of fciences at Paris,
and in thofe of other focieties. He gained and divided ten
prizes from the Parifian academy ; and on the divifion of the
prize refpcdting the inclination of the planetai-y orbits, his
father expreifed diffatisfaftion ; more efpecially as Daniel
had embraced the Newtonian philofophy in preference to
that of Defcartes, to which he himfelf maintained h:s at-
tachment as long as he lived. In 1740, he divided the prize
on the tides with Euler and Maclaurin. At Bafd he was
much refpefted, not only as a man of diftingui(l;eil talents,
but for his fimple and modeft manners. Although he paid
external refpeft to the rehgion of his country, he was
charged by his paftors with an exceflivc freedom of opinion,

I i which

B E R

wliicli he incautioufly divulged. At the age of So, he re-
tained his mental powers in their full vigour ; but from this
time they bcjan to decay. He died March 17, 1782.
Nouv. Dia. HilL

Bernouilli, John, L. L. D. brother of the preceding,
was born at Beifil, I^Iay 18, 1710, and died there, July 17,
1790. He wa"! prot'cffor of eloquence, and afterwards of
matliematics at Balil, and member of the academies ot Pans
and Berlin.

Bernouilli, James, licentiate of law, member of the
phyfical fociety at Bafil, and correfpondciit of t!ie royal
academy of fcicnces at Turin, was the fon of John Ber-
nouiUi lall mentioned, and born at Bafd, Oilober 17, 1759.
His natural talents, for which he was dillinguifhed at
an early period, were improved by long ailiduous appli-
cation. On his return from Neufchatel, whither he was
fent to ftudy the French language, he was admitted to
the degree of mafter of arts, and devoted himlelf to the
fludy of the law. In 1780, he made the tour of feveral
rantoni of SwifTcrland, of which an account was publiflied
in the third volume of the colleAion of travels, publiihcd at
Berlin by John liernouilii. The ihidy of the law, however,
did not divert his hereditary inclination for the mathematics;
and in thefc fciences he made fuch rapid progrefs, that in
1780, he was thought qualified to fupply tlie place of his
uncle, whofe age and infirmities rendered him iucapiible of
continuing his leAures on experimental philofophy, though
he did not fiicceed him in tiie vacant chair of ])rofefl"or after
his death. He had alio experienced a fimilar difappoiiitment
in his views with regard to the chair ot eloquence in 17^0;
on which occafion he publiflied his " Thcfes on the Su-
blime." After thcfc difappointments, he determined to in-
dulge his talle for travelling, and accepted the office of fe-
cretary to count de Breuner, minifter of the imperial court
of Vienna to the republic of V'enice. He ilill retained his
attachment to the mathematical fciences, of which he exhi-
bited proofs to the public in the memoirs of the royal aca-
demy of fciences and belles lettrcs at Berlin, and in thofe
of the royal fociety of Turin ; and as he widied to occupy
a ilation in which he might make life of the knowledge he
had acquired, he was reconmiended by his countryman Mr.
Fufs to the princefs of Dafhkof; and by her intiuence he
was elecled adj'if.ct in the acidemy at Peterlluirgli, with a
falaiy of Ooo rubles, and the promife of being promoted in
the courfe of a year. Accordmgly, he quitted Venice in
1786, and removed to Peterlbuvgh. Here he applied with
unintcriritting activity to phyhcal m:itliematics, and was
•oon honourid with th^' title of ordinary academician. In
the iiittr>-al of about 2 years, he prefented eight memoirs,
which wen; infcrtcd in the fix n'A. volumes of the " Nova
Adta AcademiiT: Scientiarum Inperialis Petiopolitan;c ;"
which dilplay fivigular acutencfs in analytical calculations.
In I78lf, he was appointed one of the prnfefibrs, who in-
Jbuft the imperial corps of nobte land cadets, and to the
office of teactiiug algebra to the two SrR clalTes he devoted
himi'elf v.'ith great zeal and affidjity. In 1789, he married
the yoangeil daughter of Mr. John Albert Euler ; but be-
ing always of a weak and delicate conllitution, he was feixed
with a fit of the apoplexy wtiillt he v.'as bathing, on the 3d
of July in the fame year, which fpcedily terminated his lift-, in
the 29th year tf hi.- age, very much to the regret of thofe
who know and valued him on account of hi* fcientific talents,
and mode!i, amibble difpofition. Befides a variety of ma-
thematical and philoiophical pieces, v/hich were publilhed in
♦he •' Nova Aiia, &c." " Rozier's Tournal;" "Mem. de
I'Acad. Roy ale, de Berlin, Ann. 1781;" " Men. des
Correfp. de I'Acisd. P.oyaie de Turin, Ann. 1784, 17S5;"

B E R

«' Nova Ada Helvetica, torn, i." and " Leipfick Magaz.&c.
Parti, 1786;" and fome diltinft trcatifes ; he alio tranf-
lated " Merian's Philofophieal Memoirs," from the French
into German, 2 vols. Nova Adta Acad. Sclent. Imper.
Petropol. vol. X.

BERNOVITZKOE, in Geography, a town of Rudia,
in the gorernment of Sinolenlko ; 40 miles north of Smoleiiflc.
BERNSTADT, a town of Silefia, in the principaUty of
Oels, on the river Weyda.

BERNSTEIN, a 'town of Germany, i^i the circle of
Upper Saxonv, and new mark of Brandenburg ; 4 miles
N. E. of Berllnchen.— Alfo, a town and caftle of Germany
in the circle of Bavaria ; 2 miles W. S. W. of Gravenau.

BERNSTORF, John Hartwig Ernest, Count
Von, in liiograjt/jy, an eminent llatefman, wasj born at
Hanover, May 13, 1712, and poffefled dllUnguKhed talents,
which were cultivated by ftudy at the high fchool of Tubin-
gen, which he entered in 1727, and by travelhng through
various parts of Europe, under the learned Keyfler. Upon
paying a vifit to Denmark, Bernftorf was taken into the
icrvice of Chrillian VI. and employed in affairs of Hate from
the year 1732 till the year 1737. In 1742, he was envoy
to the diet of that year, and to the court of the emperor
Charles VII. and from the year 1744 to 1750, he was am-
baffador to France. In November 17^6, he received the
chamberlain's key ; in June 1746, he was made a knight of
the order of Dannebrog ; and in Oftober 1749. he was ap-
pointed a privy-counfcllor. After his recal from France,
in 1750, he formed an intimacy with the prince of Wales
at Hanover, who widied him to employ his talents in his
fervice ; but bv the death of the prince, in 1751, he was
releafed from his engagements ; and upon this event he was-
immediately introduced into the privy-council, and entered
on the (dhce of miniller for foreign affairs, and firll fecretary
of the German chancery, and in 1752, was adm.itted into,
the order of the elephant. To Bernltorf were owing the
conduCl and execution of thofe beneficial meafures which
dillinguiihed the reign of Frederick V. Upon a plan fug-
gefled by him, was ellablKlied, in 1753, the hofpital in Co-
penhagen, for the education of poor boys; and he was ap-
pointed prelideut and governor of this patriotic and ufeful
inditu'tion, to which he gave a donation of 4000 rix-doUars.
]n 1754, he advlled the crown to purchafe from the Eafl-
India company all their poffeflions, privileges, and merchan-
di/e ; and by this acl he promoted the profperity of the
Danith Weft India iflands, which had fuffered from the ex-
chifive right of the company. He alfo dillinguiflied himfelf
by his activity and zeal in promoting the manufaft ures of the
kingdom, which the king eiitruiled to his management in
1752, and he thus contributed to encieafe the population,,
and to excite a fpirit of indullry and emulation. He con-
curred in the dcfigns that were formed for the abolition of
flavery in Denmark, by the extimflion of commons, and by
freeing the farmers from the burthen of perfonal fervice.
He was alfo one of the firfl perfons in Denmark who coun-
terafted the general prejudice againft inoculation for the
fniall-pox, and v.-ho cudeavoured to reconcile the people to-
the pradice. Bernllorf was likewife indefatigable in his ex-
ertions for promoting the inftruftion of the poor ; and he
projefted a fund for the encouragement and recoiiipence of-
meritorious, but poor, fchoolmafters ; nor was he lefs foli-
cltous to extend the benefits of education, fo as to furnilh a
fupply of co:npetent teachers, for which purpofe he propofed
to ciiablifh a feminary at Altona, in connection with the
orphan-houfe of that city ; but adverfe circumllaiices pre-
vented the completion of his defign. He alfo dillniguilhed
huTifelf by the pi-otedion which he afforded to fcieiice, and
7 to-

B E R

to men of letters. With this vievv, having Keen one of the
firft who difcovered the beauties of the " MefTiah," he in-
vited the young author, Klopftock, who then ixfided in
Swifferland, to Denmark, and for feveral years enttrtaiiied
him in his own houfe. By his influence, Oeder was ap-
pointed profeffbr of botany ; a botanical garden was efta-
bhfhed, and the profefTor was fent on a tour through the
Danifh provinces, the refult of which was the " Flora Da-
nica," pubhfhed at the king's cxpence. Crarr.er, Mallet,
Schlcger, and Bafedow, were alfo much ii:dcbted to his pa-
tronage. To Bernflorf Dcnmail- owes the cftablifhment of
two ufeful focieties ; one, the focitty of the Danifli language
and fine atts, founded in 1760; and the other, tiie royal
agricultural and economical fociety, eftablillied in 1769, of
which the count himlelf was prefident. To him it was prin-
cipally owing, that a fociety of learned men were fent, in
1761, to travel in Arabia and the call, at the king's ex-
pence, for the purpofe of making ufeful difcoverics. In
confeqiience of the important fervices which he rendered, in
various ways, to his lovereign and the ftate, he was created,
in 1767, a Danifli count ; and he was the only niii.ifter who
had the honour of attending the king, in 1 7^.8, on his tour
to England. After their return, however, the count was
obliged to refign all his employments, in January 1770, and
the king, in acknowledgment of his part fervices, fettled on
him an annual penfion of 6000 rix-doUars. On this oc-
cafion he found it neceflTary to leave a country to which he
had devoted the fervice of 38 years of his life ; and, accom-
panied by his countefs and Mr. Kloprtock, he repaired, in
October 1771, to Hamburgh, where he fpent the winter.
Here he fpent his time in focial interco\u-fe with his friends,
but in the beginning of the year 1772, fome rheumatic affec-
tions, under which he had laboured for ieveral years, re-
turned with an alarming violence, and terminated in a
threatening fever. This fever was fucceeded by a fit of
apoplexy, which carried him off in a few minutes, on the
18th of Februar}'. His remains were interred, without
pomp, agreeably to the inftruftions of his will, at the church
of Siebeneichen, on one of his paternal eilates. Two me-
dals were afterwards llruck in honour of kim, bv two focie-
ties of patriots. Bernftorf poflliTed a retentive mem.or}-,
great penetration, and a found judgment. Learned and ae-
compliflied himfelf, he was the liberal patron of literature and
the arts. He was well acquainted with the Italian, French,
and Englifli languages ; intimately converfant with the laws
of nations in general, and attached to 'the rights of man-
kind ; well informed in the ancient and modern hiftoiy of
different dates ; and not uninterelled in the concerns of re-
ligion and tlie church. He correfpondcd with many learned
men of different countries, and colletted a valuable library
of feleft books. His political meaiures were founded on
truth and jullice ; in hij tranfactiuns with foreign ilates he
was upright and hncere ; and he combined, with a vigilant
attention to the privileges of tlie crown, a conllant regard to
the rights and liberty of the fubject. Gen. Biog.

Bernstorf, Asdrkw Peter, Count Von, the nephew
of the former, was born at Gartow In Lunenburg, Augullz?,
173J, and at an early period acquired the knowledge of
ancient and modern hillory, as well as of geography, mathe-
matics, natural hiilory, and the ancient languages. His
ftudies were completed at Gottingen. Several of his juve-
nile years were fpent in travelling through England, Sivifler-
land, France, and Italy. Having occupied, after his re-
turn, fome fubordinate ftations, he was made a member of
the privy-council in 1769; but foon difmiffed along with
his uncle. Towards the end of the year 1772, after the
fall of Struenfec, he was recalled ; ;uid about the clofc of

B E R

the followiiig year, he obtained the foreign departmerit, and
was at the fame time appointed ininifter of ftate, and direc-
tor of the German chancery ; and he was employed in nego-
tiating with Ruffia the exchange of the Gottorf part of
Holftein for Oldenburg and Delraenhorft. In 1776, he was
made a knight of the order of the elephant ; and in 1780,
during the American war, when an order was ifTued by the
Britlfli government for intercepting all vefTels belonging to
neutral powers, laden with naval ilores, and bound to any
of the enemy's ports, he had an opportunity of exercifing
his diplomatic talents ; and in a note fubm.itted by him to
the courts of the belligerent powers, the Baltic was declared
a mare claufum ; and it was further ftated, that the king of
Denmark had determined not to grant a paffage through
the Sound to armed fliips belonging to the powers at war.
It was alfo added, that the other northern powers had
adopted and profcffed the fame fyftem. In a fubfequent
note, tranfmitted to the three belligerent powers, England,
France, and Spain, Bernftorf expreffed himfelf in the fol-
lowing terms : " An independi'nt and neutral power never
lofcs, by others being at war, the rights which it had before
that v/ar, fince peace exifts for it with all the belligerent
powers without its having to receive or follow the laws of
any of them. It is authorifed to carry on trade, contraband
excepted, in all places, where it would have a right to d»
fo, if peace exilled throughout all Europe, as it actually
exills in regard to it." Soon after, Denmark and Iluffia
entered into a treaty for the protection of their trade, ta
which Sweden, PrulTia, and other itates acceded ; and the
refult was that league formed againil Great Britain, known
under the title of the " armed neutrality." Towards the
end of the-year 1780, Bernftorf refigned all his employ-
ments, and retired to his eftates in Meckl-.-nburg, where he
refided till 1784, when he was recalled, and refumed his di-
plomatic funtlions ; arid to his exercife of thtfe, Denmark
owed the prefervation of peace, when hoililities broke out
between Sweden and Rufiia in 17S8. In 1791, Bern-
ftorf interpofed his mediation when the Britifh mmiftry were
preparing to afiill the Turks againlt the Ruffians, to reftorc
and promote tranquilUty. In confequence of the French re-
volution, his Danilh majefty was invited by the courts of
PrulTia and Vienna to join in the treaty which had been con-
cluded between them. To this propofal Bernftorf replied,
in 1792, with confiderable addrefs J and in 1793, ^vhcn his
Britam.ic majefty's envoy extraordinary at Copenhagen pre-
fented a note to that court, in confequence of the plan con-
certed by the allied powers for blockading the ports of
France, Bernftorf returned an anfwcr, which was alluded to
by the marquis of Landfdown in the houfe of lords, Feb-
ruary 17, 1794, in the following terms: *' The reply of
count Bernftorf to our rem.onftranccs was one of the boldell,
wifeft, and moft honourable replies I have ever read. It is a
ftate paper which fliould be kept as a model by everj- cabinet
of Europe." The condiitt of Bernftorf was higiilv latisfac-
toiy to his fellow-citizens ; various inftitulions were dil-
tinguiilied by his name ; and medals were ftruck to perpe-
tuate the remembrance of his ferv'ces. At length, he fell a
vidlim to the gout, to which he had been fubject for many
years, and which baffled all remedies, on the ziil of July,
1797 ; and his remains were interred with great pomp, and
amidft numerous attendants, v,-ho lamented the lofs of him,
in Frederic's church at Chriftianfhaven.

His figure was agreeable, and liis manners were engaging,
his dilpofuion lively, and his eloquence natural. In bufineis
he was aftive and indefatigable; in converfation communi-
cative and concifc ; averfc from flattery, and yet refpeflful
in his behaviour j fparing ot' profeflions and promifes and
I i i punclual

B E R

ptinftual in performing them ; prudent in hia plans, and
lii-m and zv.'aloiis in ext-culing them. His memory was tena-
cious, his bcn!T(Jincc txtt;nlivc, his reverence of the Deity
unfeigned, and his attachmui.t to the Chridian religion un-
wavering. Gen. Biog.

BERNUS, in Geography, a mountain of European Tur-
key ill Macedonia ; 10 miles S. E. of Saloniki.

BEllNY, a town of France, 2 leagues fonth of Paris.

BEROALDO, Philip the Elihr, in Biography, was
born at Bologna in 1453, and at the age of 19, became pro-
feiTor of the belles k-ttres in his native city. He alfo read
Icclnres at Parma, Milan, and Paris, and at the latter place,
or, as fome fuppofe, Perugia, he held a public fchool of
eloquence. But, recalled by his countrymen, he renewed
his fcholadic labours at Bologna with fuch reputation, that
he had 6co hearers at a time. To the iludy of polite litera-
ture, he added thofe of philofophy, medicine, and jurifpru-
dencc ; and he alfo engaged in public employments affigned
to him by his country. His difpolition was convivial, and
his condutl not exempt from the charge of hcentioufnefs,
before his marriage in 1498. By his good humour he cf-
caped or conciliated literary conleils, and maintained an un-
interrupted intercourfe with the greatell number ot learned
perfons of the age in which he lived. He died in 1505.
His commentaries and notes extended to all the Latin writers
of eminence ; and are more diilinguilTied by their erudition,
than their elegant ta'le and found criticifm. With the more
obfcure authors of antiquity, he was particularly convcrfant,
and he took pleafure in reviving the ufe of words that were
barbarous or ohfolete. Befides his commentary on the
" Golden Afs of Apuleius," printed in 1 501, and affording
a fpecimen of his manner, he pubhihed a great number of
his own orations, letters, poems, and other worki, of which
a collection was printed at Balil in 1513. Moll of his ob-
fcrvations on authors are contained in Grutcr's Thefuurus
Criticus. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

Beroaldo, Philip, the Younger^ nephew of the former,
was a native of Bologna, and profelfor of belles lettrcs in
the univcrfity of that city, and afterwards at the Sapienza
in Rome. In 1516, he was appointed librarian of the Vati-
can by Leo X., but about two years after, before he took re-
gular poffeffion of the office, with its e.-'.ioluments, he died, at
the age of about 40 years. His Latin poems, by which he
acquired great reputation, are publilhed with thofe of his
\inclc, to which they are prefixed, in th-i tirft volume of the
" Delicix Poetarum Italorum." A colletlion of his ele-
gies and epigrams, in 3 books, was publiihed at Rome in
1530. His Latin verfion of an oration of Ifocrates, and notes
on the full five books of the Annals of Tacitus, were pub-
lifhed by order of Leo X. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

BE ROE, in Entomology, the name affigned by Cramer,
to the fpecies of Papilio Europa of Fabricius and Gme-
lin.

Beroe, in Natural Htjlory, the name of a fpeciea, Medusa
{Pilius) in Aft. Helv. Beroe with an oftagonal body, and
very long tentacula, Gronovius. — Beroe is alfo the name
under which meJufa infundiLulum (Miill. and Fabr.) is figured
and defcribed in Brown's Hill. Jam. — Linna:us, in the
tenth edition of his " Syftema Naturx," calls it medufa
beroe, and in the twelfth, vohox (Beroe) ovatus, angulis ci-
I'tatls novem.

Beroe, in Mythology, one of the nymphs, who, accord-
ing to Virgil, was companion to Cyrene, the mother of
Ariftaeus. Beroe was alfo the name of the nutfe of
Semele.

BERCEA, Berrhoba, or Ber>ea, in Ancient Geography,
Ccra-veruiy a large and populous city of Macedonia) fouth-

6

B E R

well of JEga: or Edeffa, north-weft of Pella, and eail of Cyrr-
hns, at the foot of mount Bermius. Under the Greek Chrif.
tian empires, it became the fee of a bifliop. This was the
city to which Paul and Silas fled from Theffalonica, where
they found a fynagogue of Jews and prolclytcs, who are
commended fcv their unprejudiced and impartial inveiliga-
tiuu of divine ttuth, and where, in confcquence ol this dif.
pofition, they gained many converts to ChriiHaiiiiy. At'ts,
xvii. The medals of this city are bronze, gold, and lilver.
— Alfo, a town of Syria, between Antioch and Hierapolis,
which fome have fuppofed to be the modern Aleppo, an-
ciently called Chalep. (See Aleppo.) In the colleftion
of Dr. Huntei", there was a bronze medal of this city, with
a legend and a dolphin twiftcd about a trident. At this
city there were ilruck Imperial Greek medals iu honour of
Trajan, Antoninus, and Adrian.

BEROLHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Franconia, and ])rincipality of Anfpach, feated
on the Altmuhl, with 2 churches, 5 miles weft of Weificn-
burg.

BEROI^INENSIS, in Entomology, z. fpecies of Cantha-
Ris, of a black colour: bale of the antcnnx, and wing-
cafes yellowifli ; tip of the laft black ; legs ferruginous,
Heibft.

Berolinexsis, a fpecies of Curculio that inhabits
Europe. It is whitifti, varied beneath ; thorax rugofe,
black, fides variegated ; on the wing-cafes, two undulated
black bands. Herbft.

Berolinensis, a fpecies of Cryptocephalus, {Crlo-
ceris) found in the vicinity of Berlia. The head and thorax
are Icarlet and gloffy ; wing-cafts granulated, black ; eyes of
the fame colour ; legs fulvous. Herbft.

BEROSUS, in Biography, a famous ancient hiftorian,
was a native of Babylon, and prieft of the temple of Belu5,
and flouriflied about the time of Alexander. Tatian in-
forms us, that he dedicated his work to Antiochus Theos,
the third king after Alexander. While the Macedonians
were maftcrs of Babvlon, he learned of thcui the Greek lan-
guage, and pafling from Babylon to Greece, fettled in the
iilnnd of Cos, arid there opened a fchool, in which he taught
allronomy and aftrology. Irom Cos he removed to Athens,
where he acquired fuch reputation by his aftrological pre-
dictions, that the Athenians erefted to him a ftatue in their
gym:;afium, with a golden tongue. (Vitruvius, lib. ix. c.7.)
The ancients cite three books of his hiftory of the Chal-
dasans of Babylon, of which Jofephus, Alexander Polyhiftor,
and Eufebius, have preferved fome fragments, that are ufe-
ful in forming the feries of Babylonian kings. Jofephus
fays, that he agreed with Mofes in his accounts of the deluge,
the fall of man, and the ark, in which the rtftorer of man-
kind was faved ; and adds, that he mentions the defcendants
of Noah and their rcfpeftive ages, to Nabulaffer, king of
Babylon ; and that, relating the adions of that prince, he
fpcaks of the taking and burning of Jerufalem by his fon
Nebuchadonofor, on which occafion, fays he, the Jews were
carried captives to Babylon, whence enfucd the defola-
tion of that city for 70 years, till the time of Cyrus. He
is quoted by Pliny, Tatian, Clement of Alexander, Tertul-
lian, Vitruvius, and Eufebius ; whence we may infer, that
lie was efteemed a writer of authority. In the feries he
gives us of the ten kings, whom he fuppofes to have reigned
at Babylon before the flood, then- are fome fmall variations
in the authors who have tranfcril cd that hiftorian. Thefe
ten fucceffions exaftly anfwer to the ten generations from the
creation to the flood : the firft king, by name Olorus or
Alones, has been fuppofed by fome to be the fame \yith.
Adi;m, by others Nimrod, as Xifuthrus, the laft in ti>c feries,

plainly

B E R

plainly appears to be Noah. Pliny (H. N. I.vj. c. 55. 1. vli.
c. 31 and 37.) iiitorms us, that his book coinained the allro-
jiomical obfervatlonsi of 4S0 years, commencing from the
Rra of Nabonaffar. Aniiius, a monk of Viterbo, publifhed
a work under the name of this hiilorian, full of fables, which
obtained foaie credit among the learned, bnt was foon re-
cognized to be a forgery. Berofus is faid to liave had a
daughter who uttered predictions kl:e himfcif, and became
tlic Cumaan fibyl. Briicker's Hith Phil, by Enfield, vol. i.
p. 34. Bryant's Analyfis, vol.iii. p. 25, Sec. Fabricius,
Bib, GrEC. vol. xiv, p. 17^.

Berosus, in Anc'urt Geography, a mountain of theTauric
Cherfonefus, fouth of mount Trapezu?. This chain of
mountains comprehends, according to M. PcylTonnel, the
mountains now called " Tehadir-dagi," the higheft of the
whole peninfula, and thofe of " Balyklava," and "Cabarta."

EEROTH. Ste Bieroth.

BEROTHAjor Beroth, a city fituated on the northern
frontiers of Paleftine ; fuppofed to be the fame with " Bero-
thai," one of the cities of Hadadezer, which David took,
and in which he found much brafs. (2 Sam. viii. 8.) Ac-
cording to fome, this was Beroe of Syria, according to
ethers, Berytus of Phenicia, or the fame that is mentioned
by Ezekiel (ch. .\lvii. 16.) between Hethalon and Emefa.

BERQUET, in Commerce, a weight of 173 pounds, by
which hemp and other goods are fold in Ruffia.

BERQUIN, Louis de, in Biography, was born in Ar-
tois abo\it 1490, and was much elteemed at the court of
I'laiice, where he obtained the title of king's counfellor.
Although he does not appear to have left the Catholic
church, or joined the Lutherajis, he followed the example
of Eiahnus, in declaiming againll the ignorance and fupcr-
iUtion of the clergy. Having incurred the charge of herefy
by his publications, which were chiefly books of Erafmus,
and extratls from his works and thofe of others, with his
own notes, he was twice profecuted ; b'.it in the firll inilance
acquitted, and in the fecund condemned, unlefs he retraced
his errors, and gave fatisfaclion, to be burnt. His fpirit was
refolute, and he demurred againll fubmiffion ; his judges,
however, defirous of faving him, deferred the execution of
the fentencc ; and upon the return of Francis I. from Spain,
he was fet at liberty. But Berquin, though diiluadcd trom
it by Erafmus, publicly accufed his enemies, Noel, Beda,
and others, of irreligion ; and upon a third profecution, he
was fentericed to make a public recantation, and to fuller
perpetual imprifonment. Refufing to acquiefce in this fen-
tence, becaufe it implied an acknowledgment on his part,
that his fentiments were erroneous, he was condemned as an
cbflinate heretic, and accordingly ilrangled on the Grevc,
a public place near the Seine, appropriated to bonfires and
the execution of criminals, and afterwards burnt. He
fufFered death with great conftancy in April 1529; and
thougli the monk who attended him intimated that he dif-
covered fome figns of abjuration at the ilake, Erafmus af-
cribes the fuggeftion to the fraud and falfchood ufually
praftifed on iuch cccalions. Berquin was a perlon of great
abihtifs, invincible fortitude, and irreproachable charafter.
Gen. Di'ft. Jortin's Life of Erafmus, vol. ii. p. 476 — 478.

BERRA. See Beria.

BERRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrid of Aix, fituated at the mouth of a river,
running into the lake of Martigues, called " the lake of
Berre," in an unhealthy climate. It was formerly one of
the Ilrongefl: towns of Provence. It was taken after a long
fiege, in 1591, by Charles Em.aiiuel, duke of Savoy, during
the wars of the league ; and when the reft of the province

B E R

ftibmitted to Henry IV., he could not drive the Savoyards
from Berre, till it was given up in 1598, in confequence of
the peace of Vervais ; 4^ leagues S.W. of Aix. The popu-
lation of the town is eftimated at 1800, and of the canton at
6769 perfons. The territory comprehends 257I kcliome-
tres, and fix communes,

BERREA, in Ancient Geography, Bra, a town of Bul-
garia, 10 or 12 leagues from Philippopohs, upon the river
Braefa.

BERRETINI, Peter, commonly called Pltro da Cor-
tona, in B'i'jgraphy, an eminent painter of hifl ,ry and knd-
fcape, was born at Cortona, in Tufcany, in 1596 ; and ac-
quired the firft rudiments of his art under Andrea Commodi,
and Baccio Ciarpi. At Rome, whither he went in his
youth, he lludied the antiques, in the works of Raphael, Buo-
naroti, and Polidoro, with fuch diligence, that he attained
to great excellence as an artift. At this early period, he
was patronized and employed by the marquis Sacchetti ; and
in his palace, he painted the " rape of the Sabines," and the
" battle of Alexander," which were much admired for in-
vention, difpofition, elevation of thought, and an excellent
tone of colour, and deemed to be equal to the performances
of the beft mafters. His fame was completely eftabUfhed
at Rome, by the faloon of the Barberini palace, and by
feveral works in the Vatican, and in fome of the principal
churches of the city. For further improvement, he travelled
through Lombardy and Venice ; and returning by way of
Florence, he was employed by the grand duke Ferdinand II.
in decorating fome rooms in the Pitti palace, with piftures
of virtuous and hei'oic aftions from ancient hiftory. At
Rome, where he afterwards refided, he adorned the gallery
of the palace of Innocent X. on the piazza Navona, with
various fubjefts from the ^neid : and as an architeft, in
which profefiion he excelled, he gave defigns for a number
of churches, palaces, chapels and monuments. To the
church of St. Martina, which was of his own conftruftion, lie
left a large fum for the eredlion of a grand altar-piece of
bronze, and of his own maufoleum. Pope Alexander VII.
was fo well fatisfied with the portico he built for the church
of Peace, that he made him a knight of the golden fpur,
and gave him a rich crofs, appendant to a gold cham. lu
his more affluent and more humble condition, Bcrretini dif-
played the fame equanimity, and uniformly maintained a
refpeftable charaifler. The gout, to which he was fubjeft,
difabled him, towaids the clofe of life, from undertaking
any great works, and at length confined him to his bed.
He died at Rome in 1669. " As an artift, his charafler
was richnefs of invention, with grace, beauty, and facihty
of execution. His difpofitions are fine, his management of
lights good, and his ornaments and back-grounds charming ;
but his drawing is incorreft, his figures defective in expref-
fion, and too much alike. His frefco paintings were un-
commonly brilliant and clear. He fucceeded better in great
compofitions than in fmall. An Italian writer has faid of him,
that " he had fire in his colours, vehemence in his hands,
and fury in his pencil." Befides his capital works in the
palazzo Sacchietti, the Barberini palace, and the palazzo Pitti
at Florence, there is, in the palace of the king of Sardinia
at Turin, a fmall fl<etch reprefenting the " Annunciation of
the Virgin," which is touched with exquifite flcill and fpirit,
and in the palace of the prince dclla Torre, at Naples,
there is an incomparable pifture of the " Flight into Eg\'pt."
The defign is corredl ; the heads are wonderfully graceful ;
the compofition is extremely fine, and the colouring is ex-
cellent. Many of his works have been engraved by the beft
artiftf. D'Argenville Vies des Peintres. Pilkington.

BERRETONI, Nicolo, an hillorical painttr, was bom ■

at

B E R

at'Maccrata in 1617, and under Carlo Maratti, whofe dif-
ciple he was, he ilmiied defif^ii and colouring for fome years,
and became fo diftinguiflied as a painter, that he excited
the jealoufy and envy even of liis mailer. His early works,
after he quitted tlie fchool of Maratti, were in the llyle and
talle of Guido ; a circumllance, which of itfelf, higldy re-
commends them. He died in i68z. Pilkington.

BERRHCEA, in jinciait Geography. See Bi roea.

Berrhof.a, a town of Thrace, between Nicopohs of
Moclia, and Phihppopohs of Thrace. Auimianus Marcelhnus
fpeaks of it as a large city.

BERRIMAN, William, in Biography, a learned Eii-
glifli divine, was born in I,ondon in 1688, and from Mer-
chant Taylors' fchool was removed, at the age of 18, to
Oriel college, Oxford, where he profecuted his (Indies with
j^reat afliduity and fuccefs. With a view to the critical
examination of the fcripture^, he combined witli flcill, in the
Greek tongue, the ftudy of the Hebrew, together with the
Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic ; and in explaining the facred
writings, he had recourfe to the rules of grammar, criticifm,
logic, and the analogy of faith. Tlic articles of doftriiie
and difcipline, whicli he deduced from the fcriptures, he
traced through the primitive church, and confirmed by the
evidence of the fathers, and the decifions of the more gene-
rally received councils. After he left the univeri'ity, where
he was graduated M. A. in 171 1, he ierved two churches
in I^ondon. His firft appearance in print, was on occafion
of the Trinitarian controverl'y, in 17 19, when he publiflied
•' A feafonable Review of Mr. Whiilon's Account of Pri-
mitive Doxologies," which was followed in the fame year
by " A fecond Review." Thefe performances recommended
him to the patronage of Dr. Robinfon, biihop of London,
who, befides conferring upon him a living in the city, and
appointing him his chaplain, left him at his death the fifth
part of his large and valuable library. In 1 722, he accu-
mulated, at Oxford, the degrees of bachelor and dotlor in
divinity. In the years 1723 and 1724, he was appointed
to preach lady Moyer's lecture in defence of the commonly
received doftrine of the Trinity, and his eight fermons,
delivered on this occafion, were publifhed, in 1725, under
the title of " An Hiftorical Account of the Trinitarian
Controverfy." In confequence of this fervice, he was elefted,
in 1727, a fellow of Eton college. His " Hillorical Ac-
count" contained fome obl'ervations relating to miracles, and
drew upon him the animadverlions of Dr. Conyers Middle-
ton ; in anfwer to which, he puljliflicd, in 173 i, " A De-
fence of fome paflages 111 the Hiftorical Account." By his
*' Brief Remarks on Mr.Chandler's Introduftion to the Hif-
tory of the Inquifition," printed in 1733, and followed by
a " Review of the Remarks," he incuired the charge of
favouring the principles of intolerance, and in this contro-
verfy he incurred the fevere llriclures of that acute and
learned nonconfonnift. His next publication was his courfe
of fermons at Boyle's lefturc, preached in the years 1730,
1 731, and 1732, and given to the world in 2 vols. 8vo. in
1733. In this work he Hates the evidence of our religion
from the O. T. ; vindicates the Chrillian interpretation of
the ancient prophecies ; and points out the hiftorical chain
and conucttion of thelc prophecies. In the preface, he af-
ferts the authority ot Mofes, as an infpired hiftorian and law-
giver. Befides the writing); already ciuimerated. Dr. Beni-
ntian printed a number of occafional fermons. He departed
this life at his houfe in I^ondon, on the 5th of February
'749 — jOj i" tli*^ "^id year of his age, and in his funeral
fermon, preached by Mr. Ridley, a great charafter is given
of him, both as a minillcr of his parilh, and as a private
■Chriiliun. His piety was unaffecled and fincere ; and his

B E R

benevolence extenfive. In the year of his dcceafe, two
volumes of his fermons were publilhcd in »vo., under the
title of " Chriftian Doftrines and Duties explained and re-
commended ;" and in 176?, 19 fermons appeared in one
volume, under the fame title. " With refpcd to Dr. Ber-
riman's praftical difcourfes, it is allowed that they are
grave, weighty, and ufeful, and well fitted to promote
pious and virtuous dilpofitions ; but when he treats on the
power, lights, and dignity of the priefthood, or on doclrines
which have been greatly difputed, difterent opinions will be
formed, according to the diffLirnt fentiments of his readers."
Biog. Brit.

BERRY, Bacca, a grain, fruit, or feed, produced by
fevcral herbs, trees, and (hrubs, thence called " bacciferous,"
for the confervation and reproduclion of their kind. Some
define berries as a fruit fmaller than apples, growing in
bunches, but not fo thick or clofe as grapes. Others, a loft,
flefhy, fucculcnt fruit, having Hones or kernels within them.
Such are the fruits of laurels, olives, currants, and the like.
'l"he berry, or bacca, in a fti ift fenfe, denotes a pulpy pericar-
dium without valves, in which the feeds arc naked. Sec
Bacca.

Berries are of various fizes, forms, properties, and ufes,
according to the plants whereon they grow. — Some are
ufed in medicine, as juniper-berries, buckthorn-berries, &c.
— Others in dying, as French or yellow berries, Sec. The
yellow berry-wadr may be thus prepared : take a pound of
the French berries, and put them to a gallon of water, with
half an ounce of alum ; boil them an liour in a pewter veffel,
and filter off the fluid ; put them again into the boiler, and eva-
porate the fluid till the colour appear of the required llrength,

V)\Lv.K\ -Bearing AlJir. See RhamnX/S Frangula.

Berry, yhignon. See Avignon.

Berrv, ylle. See Ale.

Berry, in Geography, a province of France, before th«
revolution, now comprehended under the departments of
Indre and Cher, of which Bourges was the capital ; bound-
ed on the north by Orleannois, on the fouth by Bonrbonnois
and Marche, on the eaft: by Nivernois, and on the weft by
Poitoii. Berry was divided into the Upper and the Lower,
and extended about 90 miles from north to iouth, and 73
from eafl; to well ; it is watered by feveral rivers, as the
Loire, Creufe, Cher, Indre, &c. enjoys a temperate air ; is
fertile in corn, fruit, wine, hemp, flax, and pafturage ;
and contains leveral ftone quarries, and fome mines of filver,
iron, and ochre. Befides the trade in wine, carried on at
Bourges, the principal commerce of this province confills in
fat cattle fmt to Paris, and the great number of Iheep,
which produce fine wool, manufactured in this and other
parts of the kingdom. In Berry there are two kinds of
manufaftures ; one for cloths and ferges, and the other for
knit and wove ilockings.

Berry Haven, lies about a mile fouth of the entrance
into Donnegal haven, on the weft coaft of Ireland, and 5
miles N.N.E. from the haven of Ballyftiannon.

Berry Head, a noted promontory on the foutk coaft of
Devon, being the fouth-weft limit of Torbay, and running
far out fouth into the lea. Off this head, out of the
way of the entrance into the bay, is a rock, called Berry-
rock.

Berry's IJIands, a fmall clufttr of iflands on the north-
well point of the great Bahama bank, in the channel of
Providence. N. lat. 25° 30'. W. long. 75^ 40'.

BERSABA, in Aticitnt Geography. See Beer-Sheba.

BERSABORA, a large, ftrong, and populous town of
Pcrl»a.

BER.

B E R

BERSARII, Jn Writers of the Mullk Jge, a kind of
hunters, or fporlfmen, who purfued wild beads in forcfts and
chafes. The word fcems derivtd from the barbarous Latin
ba-fare, " to flioot with a bow." On which principle it
(liould properly denote archers only, or bowmen. Or it
might be derived from lerfn, the " fence or pales of a park."
In which view, it Ihoiild primarily import thofe who hunt
or poach in parks or torefts.

Hincmar fpeaks of a kind of inferior officers in the court
of Charlemagne, under the denomination uf lerfarii, vellrarii,
and be-verarii. Spelman takes the firll to denote thofe who
hunted the wolf ; the fecond, thofe who had the fuperin-
tendency of the hounds for that ufe ; and the third, thofe
who hunted the beaver.

BERSCHETZ, or Berscheszh, in Geography, a little
town of Carniola, feated on a high rock near the Adriatic
fea, and containing a fmall harbour. In this place is pro-
duced a thick and fweet wine, of a black red colour.

BERSELLO, or Brisello, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Modena, feated on the I'o. It was taken by
the imperial troops under prince Eugene in 1702, and
by the French under the duke of Vendome in the follow-
ing year. The emperor Otlso died here, after his defeat
by the army of Vitelliu?. The town is fmall, but fortified;
27 miles north-well of Moden?.. N. lat. 44° ^^'. E. long.
10° 30'.

BERSHEK, a mountain of Perfia, on the north-weft
fide of the lake of Zurra, noted for a fire-temple, the re-
fort of the Guebres.

BERSIMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Jilefopotamia, feated on the left bank of the Euphrates,
fouth-weft of Niccphorium.

BERSKOl, in Geography, a town of Siberia, 20 miles
north-eaft of KoHvan.

BERSTADTj a fmall town of Moravia, in the circle
of Olmutz.

BERT. See Br:t.

BERTAUT, John, in Biography, an early French poet
of reputation, was born either at Caen, or at Conde, in
Perche, in 1J52 ; and being known at court by his wit, was
appointed firll almoner to Catherine de Medicis, private fe-
cretary and reader to Henry III. and was much efteemed
by Kenry IV, in whofe converuon he was eminently inllru-
mental. In 1594, he was made abbot of Aulnai, and, in
i6c6, bilhop of Seez. After hi? advancement to this fee.
Lis conduit was irreproachable, though fome blame attached
to him, becaufc, inltead of lupprefTuig the free poems of his
vouth, he pubiilhed them with the pious pieces of his ad-
\anced age. He died in 161 1. As a poet, he is ftated to
have been more natural and clear than Ronfard, more forci-
ble than Defportes, and more ingenious and polilhed than
either of his contemporaries. Some of his ftanzas are faid
to poliefs the eafe and elegance cf a more refined period.
His fondnefs for point, with which his pieces abound, he
feems to have derived from his attachment to Seneca. His
" Poetic Works" were printed in 1620, Paris, 8vo. He
left aUb a translation of lome books of St.Ambrofe, contro-
verfial tracts, fcrmons, and a funeral oration for Henry IV.
Nouv. Diet. Hitt. Gen. Biog.

BERTH, in Seit Language. .See Birth.

BERTHEAU, Charles, in Biography, an eminent
Frencti protellant divine, was born at Montpelicr, in 1660,
and after having lludied philofophy and divinity, partly in
France, and partly in Holland, was admitted a minilltr in
the fynod of Vigan in 16S1. His iiril fcttlement was as
pallor to the church at Montpelier, whence he removed to
be iiiiniller of the churcfe at Paris, which met at CharentjJn.

B E R

Upon the revocation of the cdici of Nantes, lie came over
to England, and in 1686, was chofen one of the minillcrs
of the Walloon church in Threadnecdle-ftreet, London, in
which capacity he officiated, with very general applaufe, for
44 years. He died, much regretted, in December 1732.
He was diftinguifhed by found judgment, by a retentive me-
mory, fo that he is faid never to have forgotten any thing
which he had fcen, read, or heard, by his accurate and cx-
tenfive acquaintance with ecclcfiaftical hillory, and by his elo-
quence as a preacher. Two volumes of his fermons have been
printed in French ; the firll in 171 2, and the fecond at Am-
fterdam, where the former was reprinted, in 1730. Gen. Dicl.

BERTHEAUME Point, m Geography, the well limit
of the bay fo called, about li league eall from St. Mat-
thew's point, without the entrance into the road of Breil.
Within the point, on the weft fide of the bay, are the caiUe
and rock of Bertheaume.

BERTHEVIN, St., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayeune, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillricl of Laval, ^ of a league weft of Laval.

BERTHING, in the Sea Language, denotes the raifing'
or bringing up of fiiip-lides. Thus they fay, a clinckerhatu
her fides berthed up before any beam is put into her.

BERTHOLZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the archduchv of Auftria, 5 miles W.N.W. of Zwelt.

BERTHONCELLES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ftrift of Bellefme, 13 miles north-call of Bellefme.

BERTI, John-Laurence, in Biography, an Auguftiri
monk, was born in 1696 at Seravezza, a village in Tulcany,
and upon being called to Rome bv his fuperiors, was ap-
pointed affiftant general of his order in Italy, and prefect
of the angelic library. In a great work, entitled " De
Difciplinis Theologicis," printed at Rome, in 8 vols. 4to.
he appears to have adopted the fentiments of St. Augullin,
which involved him in a controvcrfy with the Jefuits, and
caufed him to be denounced to pope Benedict XIV. as adif-
ciple of Baius and Janfenius. Againll this charge he de-
fended himfelf in a learned apology, comprehending 2 vols.
4to. He afterwards compofed in Latin an " Ecclcfiaftical
Hillory," in 7 vols. 4to., which was afterwards abridged in
one volume, 8vo. In this work he reprefents the pope as
.fupreme monarch and arbiter of all kingdoms and empires.
He alfo wrote many other works, fome of which are Italian
poems, all of which were publiflied together at Venice in
folio. He was invited by Francis I. grand-duke of Tufcany,
to Pifa, and received a confiderable penfion, with a pro-
feiforfhip m the univerfity, under the title of " Imperial
theologiil," and here he died, in 1766, much lamented by
his colleagues. Nouv. Dict.-Hift.

BERTIE, in Geography, a maritime county of Ame-
rica, in North Carolina, and Edenton diflrid, having for
its fouth boundary the Roanoke, and on the eall Albe-
marle found. In this county is fituated the ancient Indian
tower of Tufcarora. It contains 12,606 pcrfons, of whom
5141 are flaves.

BERTI ERA, in Botany, Aen-Des its name from M; Ber.
tier of France, and was fo called in honour of him, by M. .
Aublet. Lin. gen. Schreb. n. 3041 Aubl. 69. Jufl". 200.
Clafs and order, pentanilria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Conl'jrtu,
Lin. ; Rubiiices, JulT.. Gen. Char. Calyx, perianth turbinate,
live-toothed.. Cor. one petallcd ; tube Ihort ; mouth villofcj
border five-cleft ; clefts ovate, acute, fpreading. Stam. fila-
ments five, very (hort, inferted into the tube beneath the
orifice ; anthers linear, eretl. Pijl. germ roundifh, inferior,
crowned by a gland ; ftyle filiform ; ftigraa two-plaited.
Per. berry globofe, crowned by the teeth of the calyx,.

two—

B E R

two-ccHcd. Sitifs very many, roundirti, affixed to the difle-
piment.

Eir. Char. diL turbinate, five-toothed. Cor. tube flioit,
with a villofe mouth ; iarj globofc, inferior, two-celled,
many-feedcd.

Species, i. B. gubnen/is. Aublet. Guian. 180. t. ^9.
Tliis is a fhrub fix or feveii feet high, and the tiiiekiich of
the human arm ; branches oppofite, knotty, tomentofe ;
leaves oppofite, ovate, acuminate, and tomentofe underneath ;
petioles (hort, convex beneath, channelled above ; ftipules
ftem-clafpinj^, two lobcd ; flowers in terminating racemes ;
corolla white. Found by Aublet in the wood ot Aroura,
in Guiana, flowering and fruiting in the month of June.
Martyn.

BERTIN, Nicholas, in Biography, an hiftorical painter,
■was born at Paris in 1667 ; and after ftu'^ying under fome
of the principal artifts, and gaining, at the age of 18 years,
the prize of merit in the academy, was fent to Rome for
further improvement, where he acquired a good tafte for
eompofition, and in Lombardy he completed his knowledge
of colouring. Some time after his return to Paris, he was
made academician in 1703, and profeflbr in 1705. His
drawing was corrcft ; his invention ready in all forts of fub-
jects ; and he painted in a llrong, plenfing, and finiflied ftyle.
He was much employed by Lewis XIV.; and his perform-
ances were valued and fought after by foreigners. He ex-
celled more in fmall works than great ones ; and from this
circumdance, and fome others, he was referred only to the
fecond rank of artifts. Among his moft confiderable per-
formances we mav reckon the cieling rt the chateau of Plef-
■fis St. Pierre, the fubjeft of which was the adoration of the
Magi, and an hiftorical eompofition, reprefenting the bap-
tifm of the eunuch of the queen of Candacc, by St. Philip.
His temper was referved, and he was much addifted to reli-
gion. He died at Paris in 1736. Pilkington. Gen. Biog.

BERTIN, Joseph, Exupere, was born at Tremblay,
in the department of Rennes, June 28th 1712. Hav-
ing gone through the ufual courfe of ftudy, in anatomy,
phvfiology, and theraupeutics, he was created dotlor in
medicine at Paris, in 1 740. The following year he pub-
lifhed " Non datur imaginationis maternx in fcetum ac-
tio," combating an opinion, which had long prevailed, that
the imagination of the mother had the power of mark-
ing and disfiguring the fatus in utero. His next produdtion,
which is much commended by Hallcr, is a treatife on " Of-
teology," in 4 vols. l2mo. The bones of the head are
defcribed more exactly and minutely, Haller fays, than in
any other work extant. About the fame time, he had a long,
but not very interefting difpute, with Monf. Ferrein, on the
formation ol the voice. In the 3'ear 1764, he joined Meflrs.
L,e Bas, Petit, and others, in defending the caufe of Ma-
dame Rennc, who had been delivered of a male child ten
months and twenty days after the deceafe of her hufband,
and who wiflied to get the child acknowledged as his. Ber-
lin, with his coadjutors, endeavoured to eftablilb as a prin-
ciple, that there is no fixed term for the birth of the child,
and that, according as the conltitution of the parents was
more or lefs vigorous, a greater or kfs portion of time might
be required for the perfection of the fcctus. A child might
be ripe, and fit for the birth, they maintained, at the end
of the feventh month, if the parties enjoyed great ftrerglh
of Gonllitution ; or in an oppofite (late of them, it might
require ten, eleven, twelve, or more months, to fit it for ex-
clufion. This doflrine was attempted to be ellabliflied by
recurring to a great number of cafes and obfervations,
and to the decifions of the courts, of which they produced
feveral, legitimating children, fuppofed to have been born in

B E R

tbe eleventli or twelfth month after conception. Recourfe
was alfo had to the liillories of monftrous births, to (he\v
the aberr:ition9 of nature. Thefe arguments and cafes were
ably and juJiciuufly oppofed by M. Louis. The cafes ad-
duced by his antagonilh were fliewn to be defeftive in evi-
dence, and though he admitted that the time of geftation in
women, as well as in animnls, might be protrntled for a few
days, yet he much doubted wlu-ther, in any inftance, it had
been extended to the end of the tenth month, or at the moft
to more than two or three days beyond that term. In fup-
port of this opinion, he cited the authority of fome of the
ablefl philofophers, phyficians, and la«7crs ; andthccocrt,
according to this determination, declared the child to be il-
legitimate. Though the court in this decifioa were proba-
bly influenced by the peculiar circumilances of the cafe, the
hufband being 76 years of age at the time of his death, and
for the lafl month in fuch a Hate as to be incapable of per-
forming the conjugal rites, yet the arguments and authori-
ties adduced by M. Louis, mull have had great weight with
them, and well deferve to be had recourfe to in deciding on
general principles, what is the I'.tmoft term to which a wo-
man may cany a living child. M. Bertin w.i.r author of fe-
veral differtations, principally on anatomical fuhjects, which
were publifiied in tlie Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, and other phllofopiiical and medical journals and
tranfaftions ; the titles aad accounts of which are given by
Haller, in his Bib. Anatom.

BERTINORO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
flate of the church, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Ra-
venna ; feated on a hill, and defended by a citadel, 15 miles
fouth of Ravenna.

BERTIUS, Peter, in Biography, an eminent geogra-
pher, was born at Bcrveren, a village in Flanders, in 1565,
and acquired the knowledge of the learned languages in Eng-
land. Having travelled through Germany, and other coun-
tries, he fettled at I^eyden, where he became profeffor of
philofuphy ; but after occup}ing this poft for 26 years, he
was expelled for joining the Arminian party. Upon his ex-
pulfion, he migrated to Paris, where he abjured the proteft-
ant religion in 1620, and was made cofmographer to the
king, and profeffor-royal extraordinary of mathematics.
Hediedin 1629. His principal works are " Theatn;ni Geo-
graphi;e Veteris," Amft. 2 vols. fol. 1618, 1619; which
is a colleftion of the works of almoft all the ancient geo-
graphers, illullrated by notes, and efteemed a valuable pub-
lication ; " Introduftio in univerfam Geographiam ;" " Com-
ment. Rerum Germanic, lib. iii." Amft. i2nio. 1635, con-
taining a good defcription of Germany, and a map of the
empire of Charlemagne ; " Notitia Epifcopatuum Gallioe,"
Par. iol. 1625 ; " De Aggeribus et Pontibus," Par. Svo.
1629. The works above enumerated are held in high elli-
mation by geographers. We may add " Illuftr. Virorum
Epill. Select, fuperiori fa^culo fcript. vel a Belgis vel ad Bel-
gas," 8vo. 1617. Bertius alfo wrote feveral pieces in the
controverfy between the Gomarifts and Arminians, and pub-
Ijlbed difcourfes on various occafions. Nouv. liift. Hilh

BERTON Ro AD, \n Geography, lies within Dalkcy ifland,
at the fouth point of the entrance into Dublin bay, Ireland.

BERTONA, Bertonia, Berthona, Barton, or
BtRTOM, properly denotes that part of a country farm
where the barns and other inferior offices ftand, and wherein
the cattle are foddered, and other bufinefs is managed.
Berlon is alio ufed to fignify a farm, as diltinft from a ma-
nor. Du-Cange. In fome parts of the well of England,
they call a great farm a bertori, and a fmall one a living.
Hence alfo iertonarii was anciently ufed for thofe we \iovr
call farmers, or tenants of bertons.

BERTON-

B E R

"BtRTONCOURT, in Geography, a town of France,
yii the department of the MoR-lk, and chief place of a can-
ton, in tht dillrift of Rouray, lo miles north-taft of Mctz.

BERTRAM, Cornelius BonAventurt:, in R^oTa-
j>liy, a learned orientalift.'was born at Thouars, in Poitou,
in 1531, and became profefTor of Hebrew at Geneva, and
afterwards at Laufaunc, where he died in 1 594. His
vvorks are " A Differtation on the Republic of the He-
■brews," 8vo. Geneva, 1580, and Leyd. 1641 ; "A Re-
\'ifion of the French Bible of Geneva," Gen. 158S, which
is more correct and liberal than the other, and is ufed by the
Calvinilts at the prtfent time ; " A new edition of Pagniii's
Treafnre of the Sacred Tongue ;" " Parallel of the Hebrew
and Syriac Languages ;" and " Lucubrationes Frankenda-
lenfes," Frank. 1586. He contributed alfo to the edition
of Mercerus's comment on the book of Job. Gen. Diet.
Nouv. Diet. Hilh

BERTRAND, Gabriel, a furgeon of eminence at
Paris, publifhed, in 1610, in 8vo. " A Refutation of the
Errors contained in Gnillemeau's defcription of the mufcles
of the human body," which is much commmended by
Portal ; alfo " I,es Vcrites Anatomiqnes et Chirurgicales
des Organes de la Refpiration, et des artificieux moycns dont
la nature fe fert pour la preparatitm de I'air," Paris, 1629,
J 2mo. He had obferved pus formed in the cheft to be ab-
sorbed and conveyed out of the body with the urine. Hal-
ler. Bib. Anatom.

Bertrand, John Baptist, born at Antigues, July 12th
1670, was member of the academy at Marfeilles, where he
alfo praftifed medicine with reputation and fuccefs. He pub-
lifhed " An Hiflorical Account of the Plague," which defo-
lated that city in the year 17 19, of which he was witnefs ;
alfo " Letters adJrcfied to ^L Deidier on the caufes of mnf-
cular motion ;" and " Differtations on the effecls of fea air."
He died September 10, 1752, aged 82 years. Eloy. Did.
Hiftcrr.

Bertrand de Commlnjes , Sf. in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftrift of St. Gaudens. Before
the revolution it was the fee of the bilhop of Comminges ; di-
ftant 3 miles louth-weft of St. Gaudens. Its population is
eftimated at ^139, and that of the canton at 8165 perfons.
Its territory comprehends 1374 kiliometies, and 18 com-
munes.

BERTRx\NDI, Amprose, in Biography., a celebrated
anatomill and fnrgeon of Turin, where he was born, Oflobcr
8, 1733. She will'.;: early marks of an uncommon genius and ta-
lents for his pn-iilfion, he was lent by liis fovereign to Paris,
and afterwards to Loudon, to acquire a knowledge of the im-
provements making in thefe places. At London, he was for
■frx months under the direction of Mr. Bromiield, then at the
'head of his profefTion. Having employed three years in his
travels, in 17^4 he ret urned to Turin, where he was preferred
to the offices ot profedor extraordinary, and principal fur-
geon to the king. In 1748, he publilhed, in 8vo. " DiiTer-
tationes duse aiiatomict, de hepnte, et de oculo," which
Wave confiderable merit. But his principal work was pub-
liflied at Nice in 1763, 8vo. under the title of " Trattato
dtlla operazioni di chirurgia," in which he has defcribtd the
manner of performing the principal operations in furgcry.
The work was tranflated into French by M, Sober, and pub-
liftied at Paris, in 1769, with engravings. He died in 1765,
in the 43d year of his age. Hall. Bib. Chii. Elov. DiA.
Mlft.

BERTROMONTIER, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltrict of St. Die, 4 miles eail of St. Die.

BF.RVA, a dillnd of Africa, iu the fuulhcrn part of the
Vol. IV.

B E R

conntnr called " Kiaferak" by the Arabians, and by us
" Cafrnria." See Brata.

BERVAN, a town of Afia, in Tartary, in the kingdom
of Thibet, near thi lake Bervan, which lake is faid to be
40 leagues long and between 30 and 34 broad.

BERVIE*or iNVERniRviE, in Geography, a royal burgh
in the c lunty of Kincardine, Scotland, N. lat. 56" 44'. W,
long. 2° 4'. It is featcd on the eaftern coaft, at the mouth
of the river Bervie, called Beri'ie ba\\ which forms a fmall
harbour for fidiing-bo'.ts. This town was conftituted a
royal burgh in 1342, by charter from king David, who,
being at fea, was forced in here by ftrefs of weather, and
kindly received and entertained by the inhabitants. The
place where he landed h Hill called craig David. In 1595,
James VI. renewed the charter, with all its foimer privileges
and immunities. This town has loft nearly the whole of its
trade and commerce, and many of its houfes are fallen to
decay. Moll of the fifliermen who frequented this port, arc
removed to Gourdon, a village about 2 miles fouth, where
they enjoy a more eligible utuation. Frefli water has lately
been brought into the town by means of p:pes, and a mw
bridge has been recently tluown acrofs the river Bervie.
The population of the borough is about 607 perfons.

BERVINE, a river of the Netherlands, which paffes by
Dalem, and runs into the Meufe, near Vifet.

BERVISCH, in Ichlhyology, the name by which the
Hollanders call the lump-fi(h ; cydop'erus lumpus of Linna:us.

BERULLE, Peter de, in B'ngraphy, cardinal and
founder of the congregation of the fathers of the orator)- in
France, was born at Seriily ntarTniyes, in 1575, and edu-
cated with a view to the ec-clcfiaftieal profeflion, firll among
the Jefuits, and afterwards in tht univeriity ot Paris, where he
was dillinguifhed by his proficiency in literature, and by the
amiablenels of his difpolition. Such were hi=; attainments in
doftrinal and controverfial divinity, that he bore a principal
part in the conference at Fontainblrau, in 1600, between
cardinal du Perron on behalf of the cathohes, and dn Plel-
fis Mornay on the fide of the proteftants. At this time he
was almoner to king Henry IV. ; and in 1604, he was em-
ployed in bringing over a colony of Cannelites from .Spain,
and fettling them at Paris ; of this order he was conftituted
fuperior-general. The firft foundations of the congreg-ation
of the orator)- of Jefus were laid by him in 161 1, and from
this inllitution he derived the greatell honour. See Ora-
tory. After the death of Henry IV., Bcrulle was chief of
the council of the queen mother, Mary ol Medicis, and
he took an active part in promoting conciliator)- meafurcs
between the contending parties during the minority of
Lewis Xlir. In 1624, he was deputed on a commilTion to
Rome, to folieit a difpenfatiou for the maniage of the prin-
ccfs Heniictta Maria, to Charles I. of England ; he was ap-
pointed her confciTor, and accompanied her to take polfeffion
of the throne. But as he ftrenuoully and inflexibly main-
tained her rtipuiated rights, he contributed in fome mealure
to the mlfchief that rcfulted from this impolitic union, and
at length incurred the reproach of a difmidal. The duke
of Buckingham, as he fays, complained of him to the king
of having confpired againft \\\f life and fortune. On his re-
turn to France, he was aftive in urging the proceedings
a^ainlt the Calvinifts at Rochelle. Having refufed fevcral
rich benefices and bilhoprics, he was nominated cardinal by
Urban VIII., Without his knowledge, in 1627 ; but he con-
tinued his abitcmious and mortified mode of living ; and at
length, exhaultfd by his.lnbours and auileritics, he died
during the cel-.bration of mafs. Oft. 2, 1629. His nume-
rous pieces in controverfial theology were collcftcd and pub-
lilhed in one volume folio, in 1644, and have fince appealed
in two other editions. Gen. Dift.

K k BERUS,

B E R

BERUS, in Gfography, a town of France, jn the dc-
partmcnt of the Moftlle, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrj(ft of Sar-Louis, 4 miles S.S..W. of Sar-Louis.

BeRUS, in Zoology. Col:iler lenis is tlie common Euro-
pean viper. Linna:us, who, in dcfcribiiig the amphibia fa--
pinta, conceived .it quite fnfRcient to dillinguifc all the ipe-
cits of the fevtrnl genera included in that order, by the num-
ber of abdominal fcuta, or plates on the belly, and the fcales
on the tail, Hates them at 146 — 39. Fu. Succ. Amoen.
Acad. &c. The opinion entertained in this refpeft by that
eminent naturalill, we perceive from later obfervations on
the fpecies he defcribes, was not perfeftly correft. This is
exemplified for inllance in the common viper, ki which both
the abdominal plates and caudal fcales are liable to vary in
point of number ; one writer fpeaks of the viper havinjr 148

42, Weigel, &c. ; another (Scopoli) mentions 177 — 68,

&c. Notwithllanding therefore the example of Linnaeus to
the contrary, we cannot but approve of characters taken ra-
ther from the various marks, fpotfl, and other fti iking par-
ticulars in the general appearance of the fpecies in this order,
as LinntEushas done himfelfin the reptile tribe. Dr. Shaw
f'-ems alfo to prefer the latter, confidering the number of
plates on the belly, and fealts on the tail, in a fecondary
point of view. He thus defcribes the common viper : Co-
luber cinereus, maculis capitis biloba, vitta dorfali atra den-
tato repanda. Cinereous viper, with a bilobatc fpot, and a
black flexuous zigzag bend down the back.

Gmelin, in the Syftcma Naturs, has four varieties of co-
luber berus ; namely, (/3.) a native of India, in which the
fpots along the back are roundith and confluent, fo as to
form almoft one continued ftripe ; thofe fpots near the tail
are difpofed tranfverfely. In the ifland of St. Eui^ace, ano-
ther variety (y.) is alfo found, of a fubrufous colour, with
the head variegated, and the neck (lender. (J.) This inha-
bits India, and is diftinguilhed by having the arch of the
occiput, or hind head, intercepting a white fpot. The
fourth fort (e.) has an aggregated fpot of many parts on
the head; and is a native of the Celebes. Figures of all thefe
varieties of coluber lerus are to be found in the magnificent
work of Scba.

The common viper of Europe and northern Afia \i the
fame as that found in this country. With us, the viper fcl-
dom exceeds the length of eighteen inches or two feet.
Pennant tells us, he once faw a female viper almoll three
feet in length, obferving at the fame time, that the females
are ufuallv one third larger than the males. The colour,
generally fpeaking, is of a filvery greyifti, or tawny brown,
paler or more vivid in different individuals, and fomelimcs
blackifh all over ; but in all thefe varieties the fpots are
pretty nearly the fame, the back being marked with a
chain or feries of rhomboidal fpnts connefted with each
other, and forming one continued indented ftripe from the
liead to the extremity of the tail. A feries of dark or dufl<y
fpots extends likewife along each fide of the body ; other
fpots appear again on the belly, which in mod fpecimens is
atmod entirely black, and finely gloffed with purple. The
fituation of the fangs proves the viper to be one of the poi-
fonous kinds of ferpents; they are fituated on each fide of
the fore-part of the upper jaw, and are commonly two in
number, with a few finuller ones near them. Petiver de-
fcribes a black viper, vipera ylnglica nigrans, which is thought
to be nothing more than a dark variety of the common
kind, berus. This, however, is not certain, and we lliould
heQtate in admitting it as a variety only, fince Linnxus con-
Adered it, from the defcription whicii Petiver has given, as
the coluler pnjler of his Fauna Sutcica. For a further ac*
count of cohtber berus, fee Viper,

B E R

BERWICK, North, in Geography, a royal borougli of
Eaft Lothian, in the county of Haddington, in Scotland.
This town is of very remote antiquity, and has been a fcene of
confiderable manufafture and commerce, but is now reduced
to poverty, its harbour being in rujns, and a lew cargoes of
grain are the only exports from its quay. Its original char-
ter was loit or dettroyed, and James VI. granted it a new
one, under whicli it lias fince been governed. The parilh ex-
tends about three miles along the fca-coaft, and confilts wholly
of arable land, except a fine conical hill called North Bervjick
Law. This riles immediately above the town, and forms a
confpicuous landmark to the i^ilors who navigate the frith of
Forth. The ancient caftle of Tamtallan ftands about two
miles from this town, and is elevated on a high rock, three
of whofe fides are laved by the furge of the fea, and the
fourth guarded by a deep foffc and drawbridge. See Bass.
N. lat. 56=* 40'. W. long. 2°. _

Berwick, commonly called Berw'ichvpon-T'weed, is a
large refpedlable town, fituated between England and Scot-
land. From its having been a frontier garrifon town, long
before the glorious xra of the union, and from its fituation
on the fiiore of the ocean and on the bank of an unforda-
fjle river, it was confidered, when in pofftfTion of the Eng-
lifh, as a key to England, and when in pofTcfiion of the
Scots, as a key to their own country. Tliis peculiarity of
fituation rendered it a fcene of repeated fiege and devaiiation.
Berwick is pleafantly fituated on the northern bank of the
river Tweed, within half a mile of the German ocean ; 336
miles north-weft from London; and 54 miles fouth-eaft from
Edinburgh. N.lat.55°48'. W. long. 1° 45'. The ground,
on which the town itands, rifes gently from the river, and
from its fouthern afpcft, is rendered cheerful by the fun.
Its circumference, within the prefent walls, is about one mile
and three quarters, but the circumference of the old walls
extended two miles two hundred and eighty-two yards. The
town of Berwick is mentioned as a place of ftrength in the
reign of Olbert, one of the lail kings of Northumberland, who
died in the beginningof the ninth century. It was fuccefiively
conquered and poffelTed by the Saxons and Danes, until the
Scottidi king Gregory, who was cotemporary with Al-
fred the Great, took it by afiault. It continued part of the
Scotch dominions till about the year 1098, when it was.
given by Edgar to the fee of Durham, but was again reftoreJ
to the Scots. During the repeated wars between England
and Scotland, this town and its caftle were frequently taken
and retaken by the armies of each kingdom, and in each-
direful conflift fufFercd materially. In one of thefe, between
Alexander of Scotland and John of England, the greater
part was dcftroyed by the latter, who made it a practice
to confume the houfe every morning in which he had lodged
the preceding night. On the 2d of Auguft 1291, the ilates
of England and Scotland, with Edward I., aflembled at
Berwick, to fettle the claims of Robert Bruce and John Ba«-
liol to the Scottifti crown, when the latter was appointed on
the 1 7th of the following November. During thefe reigns
Berwick was bcfieged and conquered by Edward I. ; and the
conflict was fo great, that Matthew of Weftminfter ftate&
the lofs of the Scots to amount to 60,000 perfons. An
Enghlh parliament was fummoned here in 1296, when the
Scotch nobility paid homage to king Edward. In the fol-
lowing reign, Robert Bruce coUetted an army of 30,000.
combatants, with which he entirely routed and difcomfited
Edward II. and his army near Stirling caftle. This battle»
commencing on Midi'ummer day, 13 14, continued feveraL
days, and it is acknowledged by moil authors, that the
Englilh futfered more in this conteft than in any other fince
tfie time of William the conqueror. It was in this battle

that

B E R

tl>at the privy feal was loft ; and Edwai-d ifTued a prockma-
lioii from Berwick, informing his fubjefts of the circum-
llance. Berwick was afterwards a fcene of great reveh-y
and rejoicings. The marriage of Joan, fifter to Edward III.,
with David of Scotland, was performed at this place with
great pomp and oftentatioiis folemnity. In fpite of this fa-
mily alliance, the two kingdoms foon returned to their for-
mer hollilities, and Berwick became the feat of many bat-
tles and deftruftive lieges. It was feveral times afterwards
in the pofTefllon of each countrj-, and never rclinquillied by
either without a vigorous and oblUnate refiflance. In the
reign of Richard III. of England, and James III, of Scot-
land, commiflioners were appointed by e:ich crown to afccr-
tain the limits of Berwick ; and it was agreed, that the
ground in difputc fliouki remain uncultivated, unbuilt, and
uninhabited. But in 1502, this agreement was annulled by
another, which llipulated that the town and cadle fliould be
" prcierved in perpetual peace, fricnddiip, league, and con-
federacy." In the fame year was folemnixcd the marriage of
Margaret, elde'.l daughter of tlenry VII., with James IV.
king of Scotland ; but this circumftance did not terminate
the jealoufics and aniniofities between the two kingdoms, as
Edward VI. marched to Berwick witli a large force, v.'hich
was augmented by a fleet uf 3.). (hips, ^o tranipons, and a
galley. T hefe lay encamped here for lome time, and were
dellined to invade Scotland. Tliis monarch, and Mary
queen of Scotland, by treaty, made Berwick a county town,
and declared it independent of both ftates. Queen Elizabeth
fortified and inveded it with a ftrong and expenfive military
tllablifhment, conlllting of 980 men, whofe annual falaries
amounted to 12,734!. 19s. 2d. All this was abrogated,
and the place rendered peaceable by James VI. of Scotland,
who was proclaimed at Berwick, in the year 1603, king of
England, France, and Ireland. The union of the two king-
doms, in 1707, terminated the long feries of hoftilities,
which had proved fo delbuftive to tlie commerce, popula-
tion and agriculture of the borders, and to this place in
particular.

Berwick, though originally a Scots town, was erefted
into an Englilh borough, at a very early period, and its laft
charter was granted by James I. ; under which the burgefTes
claim their various privileges, immunities, &c. as well as
fome large territorial pofleffions and domains. It has an ex-
empt jurifdiftion, and is independent of the adjoining coun-
ties of Durham and Northumberland, yet it is not a county
in itfelf. Since the miion, it has been partly fubjcft to the
Englifh laws, but is locally regulated by its own code.
The town is governed by a mayor, recorder, four baihfts,
and an indefinite number of aldermen. The hril is annually
elefted, and receives tool, during his mayoralty. Two
members of parliament are returned from this town, and tlie
rumber of eledlors amounts to nearly one thoufand, though
not more than feven hundred have been known "to vote at
one eieflion. Several manufaftures are eilablifhed here ; the
pnncipal of which are for making of damaik and diaper,
lacking, fail-cloth, cotton and muflins, ftockings, carpets,
felts, liat8, boots, flioes ; bcfides feveral others connefted
with the fliipping. The coalling trade and foreign com-
merce of Berwick are very confiderable, though about llxty
years fince, only two fmall velTels of fifty tons each were
employed between this place and London. Now about 40
velVcls belong to this port, whofe principal lading confills of
falmon and eggs. The firll are moftly caught in the river
Tweed, whofe fifherles afford a great revenue to the propri-
etors, and give employ to about 300 men. The falmon
filhing continues from the loth of January till the icth of
October, daring which time above .j 0,000 kit* of thefc fifh,

B E R

bcfides i vart quantity of falmon trout, have been fent to
London. The latter are often conveyed alive in the holds
of the vefRls. About 80 boats are employed on the Tweed {
and the ycariy rentals of all the fifiiing waters amount to nearly
lo.oool. The article of eggs is alfo a curious and lucrative
branch of trade : they are brought to this town in carts and
panniers from all parts of the adjoining country, and moflly
bartered for grocery goods. From the loth of October
1797 to the 10th of Oftober 1798, 5254 chefts of eggs
were font hence to London. The vail increafe of trade at
this port may be eftimated from the cuftom-houfe revenue,
which has rifcn in the laft 20 years from loool. to 6000I. a
year.

It was the univerfal praftice, till within thefe few years,
to boil all the lalmon before it was packed up in the kits;
but in 1788, a new mode was adopted, and has continued
ever fince. This confilU in packing it with ice, which
being wanted in great q'.iantities, induced the merchants to
canllruA feveral ice-houfes near the town. In the year
179H, the two companies of Berwick laid in 7600 cart loads,
which coft them about 450I. There are 32 falmon coopers
in this town. Four modes of catching falmon arc praftifed
here ; the fweep, the ftill, the bobb, and the hanging nets.
(See S.it.MOS.) Befides the falmon-fifliery, the herring and
lobfter fifliery employs feveral hands. The latter are caught
cruives, which are three feet in length and one and a half in
height. Tiiefe have a hole at each end, where the lobfters
are tempted to enter for the inclofed baits.

The Public Builclhigs are the governor's houfe, the bar-
racks, the ordnance-houle, the main-guard, the town-hall,
refervoir, church, vicar's houfe, and the bridge; all thefe
are conftruded with ftone, and the two firft were built in
1719. The town hall is a handfome building of three {lo»
ries, with an ornamental tower and fpire at one end. It was
built from the defigns of Jofeph Dodds, and finiilied in
1754. The church was built, in 1652, under the direftion
of colonel George Fenwicke ; but it has neither tower nor
bells : thefe are annexed to the town hall. The bridge over
the Tweed is conilru6ted with fine hewn ftone, and has fif-
teen Ipacious arches. It extends ii'^4 feet in length, and
17 in width, and was finifhed building Oftober 12, 16^4,
after a period of 24 years, 4 m.onths, and 4 days, from the
commencement.

Here are a charity fchool, and fix frec-fchools, alfo a cuf-
tom-houfe and excilc-office. Berwick is ftill furrounded with
fortified walls, which are mounted with 54 guns. It has
four principal gates, and has a complete garrifon eftablilh-
ment, to which Holy ifland is an appendage. Among the
antiquities of the town, are the remains of its ancient callle,
and a pentagonal bell tower near it, a fquare fort in Magda-
lane fields, entrenchments on the top ot Hallydown hill, and
an old pier called qneen Elizabeth's pier.

Here is one weekly market on Saturdays, and one annual
fair ; but the corporation has tftabliflied three annual mark-
ets, called High markets, for the hiring of fervants, and
felling of horfes, cattle, &c. Fuller's liillory of Berwick-
upon-Tweed, 8vo. 1799.

Berwick, or /ll'boijlo'wtt, a Jieiit town of America, in
York countv, Pennfylvania, at the head of Concwago
creek, 103 miles W. by S. of Philadelphia, 13 miles \V.
of York, and 26 miles S.S.W. of Harrift)urg. This town
is regularly laid out, and contains about Ico houfcs, and 3
German Lutheran, and Calviniil church.' N. lat. 39° 54'.

Berwick, or Nfiu Bertuicl, a fmall town of Northum-
berland county in Pennfylvania, on the nailh-wcftcrn fide of
the ealt branch of Snfquehannah river, oppofite Ncfcopeck
falls and Nefcopcck creek, 32! miles r.orth-eaft from Nor-
K k » thuinberland

B E R

thumberland and Sunbury, at the jiinftion of the call with
the weft branch of the Si'.fqufhsnnah, and i6o noilh-well
of Philadelphia. N. iat. 41° 3'.

Berwick, a townihlp t.f York county, and di'liift of
Maine, containing 3^94 inhabitants. It lias an incorporated
acadenn-, and lies on the tal} fid^ of Salmon l':ill river, 7
miles N. W. of York, and 86 E, by N. from Boilon.

BERWlCKSHiRK, a county of Scotland, famous in
the liiftoncal annals of Britain for the many d^ fperate bat-
tles fouglit bi.tween the Engliih and Scots within its boun-
daiies. This county formerly conftitutcd about halt ot the
CLildom of Dunbr.r or March, and is generally called by the
country people Alerfe. It is nominally divided into three
dillrias, rcfpeaivcly cilled Lauderdale, Lammcrniuir, and
M.'rfe, or Marih. The latter comprehends tlu mott beau-
tiful fubdivilicn, ?nd follows the courfe of the Tweed, Irom
the foot of tlie Elden Irl's to within a few miles of Berwick.
Lauderdale is the valley which accompanies the river
Leader, or Lauder, whole waters are celebrated in Scottifli
fon'T. J^ammermuir comprehends the ridge of hills, which
f'.parates this county from eall Lothian, and is ctiieAy ap-
propriated to the feeding of iheep and black cattle. This
county is bounded on the nortli by Haddingtonlhire, on the
eail by the German ocean, on the foutii by the river Tweed,
which divides it from Northumberland in England, and on
the well by the counties of Roxbnry, Peebles, and Mid-
lothian. Its length iseilimatedat 32 miles, and breadth at
17 miles. It is divided into 32 parccliial dillrifts ; and be-
fides the royal borough of Lauder, has the towns of Green-
law, Dunfe, Coldllream, Coldiiigham, Ayton, and Eye-
mouth, within its limits. The chief rivers of the county are
the Tweed, the. Leader, the Eye, the Whiteadder, and
the Bhickadder. 'The Hate of agriculture in this county is
highly improved within the lall twenty years ; and many
parts that were then uncultivated, are now inclofed and ren-
dered profitable to the landlord and the hul'oandman. By
way of agricultural pre-eminence, this county is often called
the Norfolk of Scotland. Many farms now let at 300L
and 400I. per annum, which at no very diftant period were
fcarccly dcfcrving of notice. This increaCe of profpetity
enables the county to export from the ports of Berwick and
Eyemouth " above 80,000 bolls of vicUial annually ;" and
nearly llie fame quantity is conveyed to the markets of
Ediuburgii, Dalkeith, Haddington, and Dunbar. The mi-
nerals of this diilrlct hitherto difcovered are few, and thefe
not very valuable. Coal is found in fmall quantities near
Eyemouth.; frceltone is abundant; anri rock and Hull mail
aie found in ditltrent place?. Copper has been obtained in
the vicinity of Lauder ; and fome few years pill a mine of
the fame ore was difcovered in the pariih of iionkle. A
fmall quantity of iron Hone is found in the pari(l\ of Mor-
dington. The rocks, which compofe the Lammennuir hills,
lire moftly fchillus, with alternate llrata of fandllone. At
Eyemouth ic^ a rock ol Puddingilone, v;hich is found to con-
tain fragments of porphyry, granite, and, limeltone.. In the
parifh of Chirnfide, is a fpecits of gypfum, vihich is advan-
tageouily ufed to manure certain lands. Near Duiifc is a
celebrated mineral fpring, which is much refortcd to. Its
vifatcr, fomewliat fimilar to that ot Tunbridge wells, con-
tains iron diffolved in fi.xed air, with a little fea fait and bit-
tern ; and its effetis prove rather diuretic and corr<;borant..
Among the gentlemen's manfionsof the county, thofeot Hir-
fel, the feat of the carl of Home, and of Mai chmoul, the feat
of the earl of Marchmont, are the moil confiderable ; though
there are fome other hardfome manfions. Befidcs the calUe
and fortifications of Berwick, there are feveral otlicis in dif-
ferent parts of the county, particularly at Lauder, Cock-

B E R

hurt! path, Home, and Chapel on Beach. There were alfo
fevtn nuuueiRS, two hofpitals, and one Dominican convent.
Among the eminent natives of this county, the following
names occur: James Tliomfon, the poet; John Scott, or
Duns Scotus, who was born at Dunie. Of the fame place,
was John Brown, author of the Brunonian iylUm of phyhc ;
Thomas the Rhymer, or fir Thomas Lermont, is dillin-
gu'dud in the hiltory of metrical romance. The real land-
rent of this county is ellimattd at ii!5,8col. fterling. Home's
Agricultural Report of Beiwickdiire. Sir John Sinclair's
Statiftical Account of Scotland. Fuller's liiliory of Ber-
wick.

BERWIN, or Berouin, a confiderable range of moun-
tains, which palTes through parts of the counties of Mont-
gomery, Merioneth, and Denbigh, in North Wales. The
prolpe'ft from different fpots on the fummit of this ridge
llrikes the mind with awful allonifhment. " Niiture," lays
lord Lyttelton (Works, vol. lii. p. 337-), " is in all her
mijcfty there; but it is the mnjelty of a tyrant frowning
over the ruins and dcfolation of a cour.try.. The enormous-
mountains, or rather rocks, of Mcrionethfliire, inclofed us all
around. There is not upon thefe mountains a tree, or flirub,
or blade of grafs ; nor did we fee any marks of habitations
or culture in the whole place. Between them is a folitude
fit fur defpair to inhabit ; whereas all we had feen before in..
Wales, feemed to infpire the meditations of love."

BERY, Blria, or Berie, was anciently the name of
the vill or lite of the habitation of a nobleman, or of a
dwelling or manfion-houfe, being the chief of a manor;
formed of the Saxon " bcorg," which denotes a hill or caf-
tle ; for noblemen's feats were formerly catlles, fituate on
hills, of which there are ftill fome remains. It was anciently-
taken for a fanftuar^'. See BERi.t.

BERYL, or BEarLi-, fif^vXTw;, yiquamarine of Siberia,^
Berill, Germ.; Emerauile, vert hhudlre, Hauy ; Jilex fma--
ragdus beryllus, W^erner.

The colour of the beiyll is a bluirti green, palling into -
mountain apple, or afparigus green, and honey yellow oa
one fide, and light (l;y blue on the other. It is almoft al-
ways found cryltallized in reftangular fix-lided prifms, fome-
times truncated on the edges and angles ; the fides of the
prifm are occalionally alternately broad and narrow, and
fometimes convex, which gives the whole cryllal a cylindric
form. It is not unfrtqucnt for the prifms to have the ap-
pearance of having been broken acrofs and imperfeftly ce--
menteil together. Sometimes, inllead of having plane fur-
faces at their extremiticF,. they are convex or concave, like
articulated bafake?. The fize of the cryllals varies confider-
ably, the fmallcll being always the longell in proportion to 1
their diair.cter ; lome are of Ro greater magnitude than a
hair, while other? have been found a foot long and three or
four inches in diameter.. The b:tryll has many points of.
refciiiblancf witli the emerald ;, and m particular thecryftals-
of both are divifihle parallel to the fidss and extremities of a
regular hexahedral prifni ; on which account M. Hauy has.
comprehended them both under- one fpecies.

The bcryll is externally fhining, or little-fhining, with a
vitreous luilrc. Its parallel fraitnre is minute-conchoidal ;.
the crofs fracture is completely conchoidal. It is generally
traiifparent, but fometimes is only femi-tranfparent ortranf-
lucid. It is lufficiently hard to fcratch quartz, though with,
fome difficulty. Specific gravity of the iiglit blue variety
2.67 ; of the blucilh green 2.75; of the' mountain green

2.65 _

This mineral appears to have been firft; analyfed by Vau-
quehn, and afterwards by Rofe and Schaub, with the fol-
lowing refullb :

SileXj.

B E R

B E R

Vau.

R.

-S.

Sllcx,

fi9

6y.5

66,5

Alumine,

'3

H

16.75

Glucine,

i6

H

15

Lime,

o.c

Oxyd of iron, i

I

I

99.5 98.5 99.25

In a comnion fire the bcrvll undergoes fcarcelv any chanrre
of colour, but it lofes its tranfpareiiry, and flies to pieces.
At a more intenle lie;it it becomes opaque and milk white,
but Oiows no figns of f'iilo:i ; by the iifll'lance. however, of
oxygen gas, it melts without much difficulty. Borax is a
pcrfcft Hux for it.

The beryll is found i:i Dpouria, iinon the borders of China,
near Ncrtlciiinll;, -alio in the granitic ridge between the n-
vtrs Onon and Ononliorfa. It is found in rivers^ accompany-
ing rock-ci-ylhd, uidurated clay, m'e:i, fluov, wolfram, and
arienical pyrites.

The beryll, when cut and polillied, has a ronfulerable
luftre ; but it» colour is for the moft part but indifiercnt. It
is ranked among the gtms, but its value is trifling when com-
pared with the ruby, fapphire, topa?, &c. H:'.\!y. Ejn-
merling. Widenmaun.

Beryll, Orienlul. See Co r u n D u M -

Beryll, Brnfilian. See Tourmalin.

Beryll, Beryllus, is alio a name given to a kind of
cryftal looking-glafs^ fuperilitiouny conftcrated to the pur-
pofes of conjuring and divination. Hence alfo the term
h€)-yllij}ica, uled for the mylterioas art of feeing future or di-
ftant events in fuch glaffes.

BERVLLINA, in Enlomologv, a fpecies of CwRVsrs,
found in Europe. The head is greenifli blue ; thorax blue,
greenilh in front, behind bidentated ; abdomen green, change-
p.ble to rufous and blue ; legs blue, v;ith tellaceous dots..
Linniu"!, &c.

BERYLLINUS, a fpeciea of Cimex (Splnofis) ; tho-
rax obtufcly Ipined,. and dentated on the fides ; tipi of the
fpines and bilid (hitld of the head greenifli blue. Linn.

BERYLLUS, in Bw^r,7phy, a learned and pious bifhop-
of Bollra, or Bozrah,, in Arabia, flouriflied about the year
2.30, and taught that Clirill had no proper fubfillence or
divinity dillinil from that of llie fatlier, before his birth of
Mary ; or that Chrift did not exill before Mai-y, but that a
fpirit iffuing from God himlelf, and' therefi>re fnperior to all
human fouls, as being a portion of the divine nature, wa.s
united to him at the time of his birth. Many conferences
were held with I'eryllus on this opinion ; and at la!l it was
fo complttcly refuted by Origen, and fo much to the
fatisfatiion of Beryllus hinifelf, that he gave up the caule,
and returned into the bofom of the church. The afts of
thefe conferences, were long prefcrved, and the dialogue be-
tween Origen and Beryllus was extant in the time of Jerom.
Eufcbius alfo refers to them. Ecel. Hill. 1. vi. c. 33.
Cave's Hill. Lit. vol, i. p. 12;. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. vol.i.
p. 306.

BiiRYLLus, m En.'omoiogy, a fpecies of Ciy. ex [Roliin-
ihttis), that inhabits India. It is of the middle (v/.i: ; pale;
Iiorder of the thorax orange ; wing-cafes with a ferruginous
Ipot, and marginal black lines. Fabricius.

BERVTIS, in Amtatl Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in the Troade. Steph. Byz.

BERYTUS, B.-iiROUT, Berout, or Beirut, a town
of Phcenicia, fituaced about 24 miles fouth of Byhhis.
Stephanus Byz. fays, that it was fo called on accotint of its
waters. Others deduce its name from Beroe, as it was
£s,metimes called by the poets, who was a nymph of the

ocean, and tl\e r.r.rfe of Semele. Bryant fupjjofei it to }u\e
been derived from Baris, Barit, or Barith, the ancient name
of the ark, but properly fignifving a covenant ; and that it
was the city of the ark, where the Canaanite or Phoenician
deity Baal-Berith hud a temple, and where the rites of his
worlhip were performed. This city is not much inferior to
Byblus in antiquity, fince it is laid to have exifted in the
t'nie of Cronus. The kings of E'j;vpt had pofleflTion of it ;
but when Antiochus the Great fubdued this province, it be-
came fubicft to the kings of Syria, and remainid under the
fuccelfors of this prince till the time of Diodotus, denomi-
nated "Tiyphor,," who entirely deltroyed it about 140
years before the Cliriftian asra. The Romans, after the con.,
qucil of Syria, rebuilt it near the fpot where the ancient
city had ftood. Agrippa, the graudlon of Herod tlie Great,
decorat-ed it at an immtnfe expence with a theatre and amphi-
theatre, baths, and porticoes, and ctlablilhcd in it magnifi-
cent games, mentioned by JofcpKus in his '* Antiquities."
It was in this city that Herod the Great, by permiflion of
Augullus, held an aflemlil'v which condemnt-d to death his
fons Alexander and Ariflobuin?, under the falle accufation
of Antipater, their eldell brother, for having confpired
againil the life of their fiuher. Titus, the fon of Vefpafian,
came to Berytus, after the capture of Jerufalem, to cele-
brate the feafl of the birth of his fatlier ; according to Jo-
feplius " De Bello." Berytus enjoyed the privilege of the
•" jus Italicum," according to a law of the Oigell. Pliny
(H.- N. 1. V. c. 20.) and Jolephus (De Bell. Jud.) informs us,
tliat it was a Roman colony. Under tne Roman emperors,
Berytus was no lefs famous for the lludy of the law in the
eaft, than Rome was in the weft ; and hence it was ftyled by
the emperor Juftinian " the m.nther and nurfe of the laws."
The civil law was taught here in Greek, as it was at Rome
ill Latin. It is not certainly known by whom the academy
was founded ; but that it flourifhcd long before the reign of
the emperor Dioclefian, is manitell from a decree of that
prince. According to Htineccius (Jur. Rom. Hill. p. 351
— 356.), the fplendour of this fehool nwy be computed to
have lalled from the third to the middle of the fixth century ; ■
and its inltltution has been afcribcd to Alexander Severus.
From this academy the two famous civilians Doiotheus and '
Anatotius were called by Juftinian, that they, in concur-
rence with others, might be employed in comparing the Di-
gefts ; and that prince would allow of no other academies,
but tliofe of Rome, Berytus, and Conilantinople, to ex-
plain the I'aws. This city was overthrown by an earthquake
in the ?5th year of Juftinian, A. D. 551, July 9 ; and as
the fchools of Berytus were filled with the riling fpiriti of the
age,manv youths were probably loft on thisdilaftrousoccafion,
who might have hved to be the icourges or guardians of their
country. The metals of this city are bronze, gold, and
filver. After it became a Roman colony, its medals had a
legend. Col. Fel. Ber. i.e. " Colonia fclix Berytus,"'
and were ftruek in honour of Cxfar, Anguftus, Tibetius, ■
Claudius, and other Rnmau emperors. For the prefeut Rate;
ofBei7lus, fee Bairout. The fubnrbs are ahnoft as large
as the city itfelf, confilliug of gardens, with a houfe for the
owner in each ; and theft, iuterl'perfed amang the numeroui
fruit-trees, particularly olives and figs, which this fertile foil
fupports, give the whole a picturelqiie and bcautifal appear-
ance. European veffels, in the fiimmer, anchor near a fmall
point of land, which runs into tlie fea before the city, and
is called " Beirut point ;" but in the winter, they call anchor
to the north, in a kind of gulf, which is fiieltered from
the north and eaft^wjnd by the mountain, and is faid to be
very ferene. The ftaple commodity of the country is raw
filk, which iscarriid to Cairo, Damafcus, and Aleppo, and

part

B E S

_j)aTt of tt to Eurorpc. They alfo fabricate a kird of jars
and j\:gs of earlhcii ware, which, from the peculiar luiture
of the clay in the adjiicent coii'.itry, are highly eftetmed,
and carried to all parts of the coaih Brown's Travels in
Africa, p. 377.

Berytus, a town of Arabia, formerly called Diofpolis.
Stcph. By7..

BEllZl'-TIN, ill Geography, a town of Hungary, in
the dillritY of Gomor, not far from the river Sajo, and tor-
meriy noted as the refidence of many noble families.

BERZETTO, a town and abbey of Italy, in the duchy
of Parma.

BERZOWITZ, a town of Hungary, 12 miles N.N.E.
of'Leutl'ch.

BES, or Bessis, an ancient Roman weiglit, containing
two thirds of the as, that is, eight iincitt. Sec As.

The bes orijrinally weighed two aflTcs ; whence the origin
of the word quafi Linus as. Though Sealiger conjeclures it
to have been formed from ilius ; as helium from duellum, or
bonum from iluonum. Bes was alio a linear ineafure of the an-
cient Romans. Bes was alfo a mi.af\irc of capacity.

Bes was alio ufed in the menfuration of lands, to denote
two thirds of Sijugerum, or acre. See Measure.

Bes was alfo a money of account, and a current coin
among the ancient Romans. • See Coin, and Money.

BESA, in rlncient Geography, an ancient city of the The-
baidc Lpon the Nile, confecrated to a god of that name, but
formed into a new city by Adrian, who built a temple in it
in honour of Autinous, and called it Ant'inoe or Anl'mop'A'u ;
which fee.

Besa, in Mythology, a deity belonging to the city of
Abydub in the Thebaide, mentioned by Ammianus Maicel-
linus in his Hiftorj', lib. xix. The mode of confulting the
oracle of this deity was by writing the lubje£^s of inquiry
on fealed bilkti, which the priefts carried into the fanftuary
of the god, and to which they brought back the anfwcrs.
Ifaac Cafaubon has fuggeftcd, in confequence of a paffage
occurring in the Bibliotheca of Photius (Cod. 279.), that this
deity was adored at Anllnoe, or Aniinopolis ; which fee.

BESAILE, or Besayle, Fr. denoting the father of
the grandfather, in the Common Law, a writ that lies where
the great-grandfather or great-grandmother was feifed the
day that he or flie died, of any lan<ls or tenements in fee-fim-
ple ; and after his or her death, a ftranger entered the fame
day \ipon him or her, and keeps out the heir.

BESALU, in Geogriphy, a town of Spain, in Catalo-
nia, at the foot of the Pyrenees, ereftcd by pope Benedirt
Vni. into an archbifhopric, but foon after fuppreffed ; 7
leagues from the Mediterranean, and 5 north from Gerona.

BESAN5ON, a city of France, and before the revolu-
tion the fee of an archbilhop, and capital now of Franche
Compte, of the department of the Doubs. This city is
Surrounded by mountains, and featcd on the river Doubs,
which divides it into the upp^r and lower town, joined by a
handfome bridj;c. Of the former, nothing remains except
the caille, or citadel, which is a long fquarc built on a fharp
rock, and comnianciing the city, which is defended by a wall
flanked with eight towers like baftlono. The latter has three
long and handfome llreets, which are adorned with houfes
built of free ftone, and covered with flate ; chiefly about the
fquare called " Battan," which is ornamented with a foun-
tain, whqix: water proceeds from the flatue of Bacchus.
The metropolitan cimrch is built at the bottom of St. Ste-
phen's hill, and is a handfome ftruflure, with a high tower
Ueeple. In the middle of the choir is the great altar, on
which they expofe at certain times, relics in filVer (hrines
enriched with gold and jewels. Near the church of Notre

BES

Darac is a triumphal arch, ereded in honour of trie empf«
ror Aurelian, on wiiich are leen fcveval mutiUited figures of
men and animals. This ferves as a gate to the cloillcr of
St. John the Great. The great hofp;tal of the order of
St. Efprit, lor foundlings, is a Itruclure worthy of notice.
The prifon is remarkable for its excellent economy, and the
humane attention paid to its unhappy occupier.s. The tovvn-
houfc Is a large edifice with four wings, having in its front
the ftatue of Charles V. in bronze, with a globe in one hand,
and a fword in the other. The imperial eagle i.s raifed over
a large bafon, and fpouts out water by both its beaks. The
governor's palace is magniticent ; and beyond it is a fountain,
adorned with the figure of a naked woman difcharging wa-
ter at her nipple.s. Under the Romans, this was one of
the mod magnificent places which they had in Gaul, and
many remains of their fuperb buildings are yet vilible. After
the death of Julian, it was ahnoft dellroyed by the Germans,
and a fecond time by Attila. It afterwards became an im-
perial city, till the time of Lewis XIV., who, in 1674, made
liini'.'clf mailer of it, repaired its fortifications, and united it
to France. The univerhty of this ci'y is an ancient and
celebrated foundation ; and in the year 1752 a hterary and
military fociety was inflituted in this place. It contains 3
parldies ; and the number of inhabitants, which was formerly
cflimated at 40,000, is now fuppofcd to be reduced to
30,000. The canton of noith Belain,on is laid to contain
15,618, and that of foulh Befan^on 16,662 perfons. The
territorial extent of Beian9on comprtliends 97^ kiliometrc.-^ ;
the former canton includes 3, and the latter 4 communes. N.
lat. 47° 13' 45". E. long. 6° 2' 40".

About 20 miles from Belan^on, near the abbey of " Grace
Dieu," there isanatural ice-cellar, in a very romantic fituation.
On the highellpartof a mountain, covered with a thick grove
of lofty trees, is the opening of the cavern, which refeiiibles by
its depth, faid to be above 220 feet, and by the folemn gloom
of the furrounding wood, what poets have feigned of the de-
fcent into the infernal regions. The cavern itfclf is 60 feet
in length and height, and 40 in breadth ; the bottom is co-
vered with ice, of which vail pyramids rife from it, while
others appear fufpended from the arched roof, with their
points oppofite to thofe of the former. Within the cave is a
hole or well, always full of water, and never frozen ; and, at
the entrance, fome mould, which feems to have been accident-
ally thrown there, and adorned with primrofes and other
wild flowers. The ice, which in the cavern appears of a
beautiful azure, is, when feen by day-light, remarkably white.
From this natural repofitory, the ice-houfes in Befan^on are
fupplied, when the winters are too mild to freeze water in the
open air. This cavern has been the fubjecf of repeated iiivef-
tigation, the refult of which may be feen in the •' Memoirs of
the Academy," for 1712 and 1726.

BESANT, or Bezant, Bizant, or Byzant, a fort of
coin, ilruck at Byzantium, in the time of the Chrillian empe-
rors, and well known in England, and indeed all over Europe,
for fonie ages before the Norman conquell. Few coins
ever had a longer or more univerfal currency than thefe
befants or byzantincs; having been current from the verv be-
ginning to the end of the eaftern empire, not only in all its
provinces, but alfo in all thofe countries which had been pro-
vinces of the weltern empire, and amongll others in Britain.
With us gold and hlver befants were received in payments.
But thougli they are frequently mentioned by all the hifto-
rians of the crufades, they are rarely fpoken of by ours.
Neither are they named in Domcfday book, nor in the public
afts of Henry I. or Stephen, nor in the lall will of king
Henry II. However, fome mention is made of them in pri-
vate deeds and kaft;s, and aUo in the Exchequer rolls under
•2 value.

B E S

Henry II. The gold befant was pure, or twenty-four carats
fine; but writers are not generally agreed with relpeft to its
value. Out of the Greek pound of g.jld, which was the fame
with our Tower pound, 72 byzantincs were coined, each
weighing 73 troy grains, and worth 40 Saxon pennies, 8
Saxon (hillings, and 9 Shillings and four pence halfpenny of
our prefent money. (Henry's Hift. vol. iv. p. 275.) The
fdver befant, in the 12th century, was rated at two (hillings
Englifh. (Lyttelton's Hift. of Henry 11. vol. i. p.411.)
Hence the gold offered by the king at the altar, on feft;ivals,
is lliU called befant, or bifant. Thirteen bcfants, or bi-
fantins, were preftnted at the mafs at the coronation of
the kings of France. Henry II. had that number coined on
purpofe.

Bfsants, in Heraldry. See Bezants.

BESARABA, in Geography, a towni of European
Turkey, in the province of Bulgaria, 48 miles north of
Ternova.

BESBICUS, in Anchnt Geography, a fmall ifland of the
Propontis, now the feaof Marraora, fituate between Cyzicum
and the mouth of the Rhyndacus. This, according to Pliny
(N. H. l.ii. c. 8.), is one of thofe iflaiids which, being firft.
joined to the continent, were feparatcd from it by the violence
of the fea, or by earthquakes.

BESBOROUGH, in Geography, an ifland in Norton
found, on the weft coaft of North America. N. lat. 64° 10'.
W.long. 161° 15'.

BESBRE, a river of France, in Nivernois.

BESERGHENLU,atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Caramania ; 24 miles north of Akferai.

BESHARRAI, a village of Syria, fituate among the
mountains in the pachalic of Tripoli, on the road to the
Cedars, and diftant from them 3 leagues, which is frequented
by the Europeans, and where the miffionaries have a houfe.
During the winter, many of the inhabitants leave their houfes
under the fnow, with iome perfon to guard them, and remove
to the fea-coaft.

BESHETZK, or Bezetzk, a diftrift in the government
of Tver in the Ruflian empire, fituate on the Mologa. N. lat.
58* 30'. E. long. 34° 44'.

BESIEGERS, and Besieged, in the Military Art, de-
note thofe who lay fiege to a fortified place, and thofe who
defend it. See Siege.

BESISHEIM, in Geography. See Bessigdeim.

BESILLUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain in
Bsetica.

BESISTAN, or Berstein, a name given to thofe places
at Conflantinople, Adrianople, and fome other towns in the
dominions of the Grand Seignior, where the merchants have
their (hops, and expofe their goods to fale. A particular be-
fiilan belongs to each clafs of merchants and workmen.
Thefe befiftans are commonly large galleries vaulted over,
whofe gates are fhut every night. The wardens, or keepers,
will fometimes be anfwerable for the merchandife, on being
paid a moderate perquifite for each (hop. See Bazar.

BESLER, JEROM, in Biography, born at Nuremberg,
Sept. 29th 1566, and created doftor in medicine at Bade in
1592, was in fuch reputation for his learning, and ability in
his profcffion, that he was feven times appointed dean of
the college at Nuremberg, and infpeftor of the medicines
ufed by the apothecaries there. He died November 1632.

Be SLER, Basil, brother to Jerom, was born at Nuremberg
in 1 56 1, where he fettled as an apothecary. Applying to
the ftudy of botany, he foon became confpicuous in that
branch of natural hi llory. In 1613, he piiblilhed " Hortus
eyftettenfis, five diligens et acctuata omnium plantarum ex
»arii3 orbis terrse partibus, fingulari ftudiio colledarum, (jux ia

B E S

celeberrlmis viridariis arcem epifcopalem ibidem cingentibus>
hoc tempore confpiciuntur, dthneatio, et ad viviim repre-
fentatio," Nuremb. 1613, in 4 vols. Atlas folio. The moft
fplendid botanical work, Hallcr fays, that had then appeared.
The plates, 356 in number, and dtlineatmg 1533 plants vrere
engraved at the expence of Conrad, bi(hc-p of the diocefe.
The work is unequal in its execution, as befideo the errors
committed in the defcription of many of the plants, fome of
the delineations are (Iftitious, taken from fancy, or from the
rude accounts of ignorant travellers. But the far greater
part of them are correctly drawn, and beautifully executed.
As Bafil was ignorant of the I^atin language, his brother
Jerom furnifhed the preface. He alfo publifned " Fafciculus
rariorum, et adfpefta dignorum varii generis, q'lse ceri incidi
curavit," Norib. 16 16, 410. Max. co:itaining fome marine
plants and fruits ; alfo, " Icones florum et htrbarum, &c."
fol. 1622. It is a continuation of tlie hortus eyftettenfis,
which have been feveral times reprinted. The time of his
death is not known. Haller. Bib. Bot.

Beslkr,MichaelRupert, fon of Baril,wasborn in 1 607.
Having paffed fome years at Altdorf, where he was admitted
doftor in medicine, he returned to Nuremberg, and was ad-
vanced to the fame offices that had been enjoyed by his uncle.
In 1631, he publifhed, in 4to. " De fanguine fecunc^um et
pra:ter naturam ;" and in 1 640, folio, " Admiranda: fabricae
humanas mulicbris partium generationi potilTimum infervien-
tium, et foetus fidehs quinque tabuhs hattenus nunquam vifa
delineatio." The work is ingenious, but the plates, which
are copied from Fabricius, are ill executed. This work was
followed, in 1642, by " Gazophylacium rerum naturahum
ex regno vegetabili, animali et minerali de promptarum fidelis
reprefentatio," fol. and the fame year, by " Obfcrvatio me-
dica fingularis, mulieris tres filios enixre," 4to.

BESLERIA, in Botany, fo named by Plumier after Bafil
Beflcr, an apothecary at Nuremberg, editor, with the affill-
ance of Jungermann, of a fumptuous work, entitled " Hortua-
eyftettenfis," 1613. Lin. gen. n. 755. Reich. 813. Schreb.
1012. Plum. 5. Jacq. Amcr. 187. JulT. 121. Gaertn. t. 52.
Clafs and Order, dielynamia angtofperm'ta. Nat. OrA. perfonatx.
Schrophular'i£ ,}\\{[. Gen. Char. 6W. perianth one-leafed, five-
parted, acuminate, erett, loofe, with rcflefted tops. Cor.
monopctalous, ringent ; tube the length of the calyx, roundilh,
gibbous on one fide at the bafe, and at the lop ; border five-
cleft, divifions roundifh, the lowermoft largeft, and the twO'
upper lefs div-ded. Stam. filaments four, within the tube of
the corolla, of which two are a little fhorter ; anthers oblong,
twin, hanging down on each fide. P//?. germ globular,
fitting on a giandulous body, which embraces it, and is per-
manent, cordate where the corolla is gibbous ; ftvle fnbu!ate>
ereft ; ftigma bifid, obtufc. Per. berry fubglobular, one-
celled ; partition, two oppofite femi-ovate laminas, not co-
hering. G. Seetls, numerous, round, very fmall, neftling, fixed
to the inner furface of the berry.

Eff. Char. Cal. five-parted ; lerry fubglobular, many,
feeded.

Species, 1. B. meUtl'ifolla. " Peduncles brandling; leaves
ovate." It has a fmooth, woody, jointed flalk ; with two-
ovate nerved leaves oppofite at each joint, v/hich are crenate
at their edges ; the flowers proceeding from the wings of the
leaves upon fhort branching footftalks, each fullaining fix or
eight flowers. A native of South America. 2.YS.lutea.
Eriphia, Brown, Jam. 270. /3. B. &c. (1. luteo, major. Plum,
gen. 29. " Peduncles f'mp'e, crowded ; leaves lanceolate."
Rifing with a hgneuus item, fix or feven feet high, divided
towards the top into many irregular branches, with fpear-
(liaped ferrate leaves, having many tranfverfe veins ; the
flowers iffuing at the wings of the leaves in large clufters, each

B E S

on a iVparatcfrtot-ftalk, and fmall, tubiilous, of a pale yellow
wlour. A iiativd of Martliiico, Jamaica, &c. 3. B. crlJLitJ.
" Pediiiiclc:i firr.ple, folitaiy ; calyxes fenate-cielled." A
{hnibby plant, dintrtnt in its habit from \.\m foiegoin;^, clinib-
mcr up trees, and adhering to them by roots ifuiiig Irom the
joints ; tlie twigs ronnd, hirfute, and long ; the leaves ovate,
aeiite, ferrate, hirfute, wrinkled, veined, pelioled, oppolite,
two inches long ; peduncles one-flovvertd, axillary, bent
down, alnioft as long as tlie leaves ; calyx bright fcarlet ; co-
rolla yellow; llamens proceeding from a common men.branc,
fattened to the tube ot the corolla, and cleft longitudmally at
its gibbous part. Before the difpcrfion ot the pollen, the fila-
ments are upright ; afterwards interwoven as in Martyni.i. .A
yellow confpicuous gland embraces the germ. A native
of Martinico, in moill mountainous woods. 4. B. l/ivalvis.
" Calvxes bivalve, torn." Stem herbaceous, long, creeping,
hsiry, round ; leaves oppofite, petiolcd, veined, hairy, nerved,
a hand's breadth long ; peduncles lateral, oppofite, (liorter
than the Itaves, two from each axil, one-flowered ; berry oval,
with a hard two-celled nucleus ; refembling the third fpccies
in ihe leaves and calyx, but very different in the fruit, and in
wanting the five leaved perianth. Ob(erved at Surinam by
Dahlberg. 5. B. bijlora. Cyrtandra biflora, Forft. gen. 3.
n. I. " Peduncles two-flowered; involucre caducous, in-
flated ; leaves ovate, quite entire." A native uf the ifland
of Otaheitc. 6. B. cyiiiofa. " Peduncles cymed ; pedicels
with little bratles ; leaves ovate, crenate." A native of the
ifland of Tanna.

Propagation and Culture. Tliefe plants grow naturally in
the warm parts of America. The Iceds (hould be fown on a
hot-bed early in the fpring, and the plants, when half an inch
high, tranfplanted each into a Imall pot filled w"ith liglit frcfti
earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's bark, watered
and Ihadcd till tliey have taken root; afterwards according to
the warmth of the Icafon, and of the bed in which they are
placed. When the plants have filled thefe fmall pots with
their roots, they iTiould be fliaken out, and their roots trimmed
and put into large pots filled with light fieOi earth, and
pJunged again into the hot -bed, where they (hould have much
air in warm weather, and be fre-quentiy watered. Thus
mansged, the plants will thrive in fummer, but in winter they
mull be removed into the ftove, and often, but fparingly,
watered. In tlie fecond year thefe plants will flower ; they
fomctimes perfeiA their feeds in this country ; but as they
will not live in the open air, thty muff be conllar»tl-y prfferved
in the (love. Martyn.

BESONS RocKr, in Geography, are two fmall rocks off
the weilern point of Cornwall, bearing W.S.A'v'. from cape
Cornwall, and N.N.E. from the Long ihips. tJhips may fail
within them without danger.

BliSORCH, in Commerce, a coin of tin, or of fome alloyed
iretal, current at Ormus, at the rate of about Jj parts of a
farthing ilerling.

BESOS, or Betulus, in Gcographv, a river of Spain in
Catalonia, which runs into the fea not tar from Barcelona

BESSAPA R A, in j-lucient Geography, a town of Thrace,
fituate I 2 miles from Philippopolis.

BESS All A, a town of Alia in AtTyria, fcated near the
Tigris. Ptolemy.

BESSARABIA, Budziac, or Boopjak, in Geography,
is a fmall country of Turkey in Europe, lituate between' tlie
north branch of the Danube and the river Dneiller, and
bounded on the well by Moldavia, on the fouth by the Da-
nube, on the call by the Black fea, and on the north by Ruf-
fja. It was anciently the country of the Getre and Peuciiii ;
but it is now inhabited by the independent Tartars, of whom
ferae have fixed habitatioos in their villages, and others lead a

B E S

kind of wandering life, fuhlilling on the flcHi of their oxtn
and horfes, and on the milk of mares, and the cheefe which
is made of it. In their religion, manners, and cullcms, they
refemble the Grim Tartars. When an army is fent to attack
them, they retire into inaeceffible mountains, on the coall of
the Black fea, whence it is inipoffible to expel them, on ac-
count of the moialles and defiles. The chief towns are Ben-
der, Akerinan, Kilia, and Ifmail. This country, and alfo
Walachia, on which it borders towards the fouth-e.iil, contain
fome lakes of -confidciable extent, as thole round Ifmail, and
that to the eall of SurzR, which commuiricates with the Da-
nube, and forms a part of that river.

BESSARION, Cardinal, in Biography, was born at
Trebifond in 1 395, and educated atConftantinople, under fome
of the mod learned Greeks of that period. In the courfe of
his education, he adopted the principles of ike Platonic philo-
fophy, and was more confirmed in them by the lectures of
George Gemilhis Pletlio, on whom he attended in the Morea.
Thefe principles he combined with his iytlem of Chriilian
theology. Having taken the religious habit of St. Balil, he
was foon advanced to the bithopric of Nicjea, and employed
by the Greek church to attend on their behalf at the council
held under pope Eugeniiis IV. finl at Ferrara, and afterwards
at Tlorence, in 1439 ; with a view of efletling an union be-
tween die Latin and Gr<ek churches. But he incurred the
dilpleafure of the Greeks by inclining to the party of the La-
tins, and propofing an union of the two nations, to the prcju-
d-ice of the former, who were required unequivocally to declare
that the Rom^.n pontiff was the fupreme head oi the univcrlal
church. BefTarion became unpopular in his own country,
nor could he venture to revifit Conflantinojtle ; but remain-
ing at Rome, and fublcribingthe articles of tSie Latin church,
he was recomptnfed, in 14-^91 by a cardinal's hat, and he was
alfo created titular patriarch of Conftantinople. Having
perfefted himfelf in an acquaintance with tlie Latin language,
he was from this time employed by the popes in feveral con-
cerns of moment. Nicholas V. after naiiiing him to the
hifliopric, lirlf of Sabina, and afterward? of Frafcati, fent
him as legate to Bologna, where he refided from the year
1450 to 1455, and contributed to revive and incrcafe the
reputation of the uni'-erl^ty. Upon the tieath of Nicholas,
the cardinals had an intention ot advancing him to the papal
fee ; but when they waited upon him with this view, they
were prevented from feeing him by one of his attendants, who
would not allow him to be dillurbed in his fludies; upon
which BefTarion, when he was infonned of the faii, faid to
him, " Perot, thy incivility has coll thee a hat, awd me the
tiara." Beffarion was employed by tltc popes Calixtus III.
»nd Pius II. in iieg«ciating the wiihed-for iciigue againft the
Turks, and deputed for this pui-pofe to Alphonlo, king of
Naples, and the emperor Frederic-. Duiing the pontitieiite
of Paul II. he hved at Rome, and diflinguifhed hiinlelf in the
promotion of literature, by opening an academy in his palace
tor the Uudy of pliilofophy, and for gaining a critical know-
kdge ot the Greek and I^atin languages : nor was he lefs
liberal and aftive in encouraging every other branch of fcicnce,
by countenancing with his prefence and patronage thofe ai-
femblies that were fieqiicnted by the Greeks and Italians for
the purpole of mental improvement. His library, which con-
tained many Greek MSS., is faid to have coil him 30,000
crowns ; and this he pi efentcd, in 1468, to the republ.c of
Venice, where it became the chief foundation of the library
of St. Mark. Having received from pope Sixtus IV. the
appointment of legate to France for the purpole of reconcil-
ing king Lewis XI. and the duke of Burgundy, he paid his
firll vifit to the duke, and thus offended Lewis to fueh a de-
gree, that he treated hi.n with rudenefs, and difinifled hiai

3 without

B E S

without entering on the bufinefs for which he was deputed.
This kind of reception affefted him fo much, that on his re-
turn he fell fjck al Turin, and died ?t Ravenna in 1472. He
XK-ds regarded as a perfon of unparalleled genius and erudi.
lion ; and he was the author of many works, both in Greek
and Latin, feme of which were printed, and others left in MS.
The chief of thefe was hii defence of Plato, againit George
qf Trebifond, in a treatife entitled, " In calumniatorcm Pla-
tonis, lib. iv.," firft printed without a date at Rome in 1470,
and re-editcd at Venice in 1503 and 1516, folio. In this
publication he examines Plato's opinions, particularly with
regard to morals, and fliews that they approach much nearer
to the doctrines of Chrillianity tlian thofe of Aridollc.
Others of his printed works are letters, orations, and tr:\i:(la-
tionsof Xenophon's Memorabilia, the metaphyficof Arillotle,
:ind that, falfely afcribed to Tijeophrallus. According to
Urucker, thefe ti-anflations are very obfcure ; but Huet com-
mends Ceffhrionas the model of allgood tranflators. Brucker's
Hift. Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 407. Fabr. Bib. Grx-c.
1. V. c.43. ^9. torn. 10. p. 401.

BESSARIONOVA Cape, in Geography, is the weft point
of a bay in the fea of Azof, of which the call point is cape
Berdinflcaya. N. lat. 46° 35'. E. long. 36" 46'.

BESSA-STADER, or Basse-sted, a place of Iceland,
(N. lat. 64° 6'.) the rclidence of the king's prefecl. In
this place is a woollen manufatlory, with a fulling mill be-
longing to it.

BESSAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Alher, and chief place of a canton in the dittridl of Mouhns,
8 miles fouth of Moulins.

BESSE, JoKN,in Jj'w^raphy, of PeyrufCe, in the Rouergue,
was educated under M. Chirac, at Montpellicr, whole theory
of fermentation he adopted. He then went to Paris, where
he publill'.ed, in 1702, " Rtchcrches analytiques fur la
ftrufture du corps humain," 8vo. He derives all the
funAions of the body, and even the formation of the foetus,
from a due mixture of acid and alkali. He does not allow
the imagination of the mother to have the pov.-er of marking
or disfiguring the foetus in utero. The following year he
was created doftor of phyfic by the faculty at Paris, and
foon after was made phyfician to the queen dowager of Spnin.
In 1723, he pubiifhed " Ltttre critique, contre I'idee gene-
rale de I'cEConomie animale, et les oblervations fur la petite
verole," in i2mo. In this work, the firlt part of which was
written to oppofc the principles laid, down by Helvetius, he
gives an account of a malignant fpccies of fmall-pox, whicli
raged in the year 1716, and fpeaks of the benelit accruing
in thefe cafes from bleeding, and adminifteriiig purges, on the
attack of the fecondary fever, a doctrine approved by Drs.
Mead and Friend. He commends tlie diffection of dead bo-
dies, v.;ith the view of difcovering the caufes of d;fe:!fts, which
he frequently pradifed, and mentions his having found 13
calculi in the gall-bladder of a perfon who died of jaundice.
For other fmaller pieces by this writer, fee Haiiei's Bib.
Med. Piad. He died, we are told, at Paris, at an advanced

Besse, in Commerce, a PerCan cooper coin, in value i{d
fterling.

Besse, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftricl in the department of the Puy de Dome, 6 leagues
fouth of Clermont. The town contains 1913, and the canton
11,016 perfons. Its extent comprehends 44^ kiiiometres
and 12 commuoes. N. lat. 4.5" 31'. E. long. 2^ 52'. — Alfo,
a town of Fiance, in the depart.nient of the Var, and chief
place of a canton in the difuict of Brignols, 6 miles S.E. of
Brignols. The town includes 1578, and the canton 8i65pcr-
fons. The territory coiitains 3 '.72 kiiiometres and 7 com-
munes.— Alfd, a town pf Frauce, in the depaittnenl of the

Vol. IV.

B E S

Sartc, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift of St. Ca-
lais, on the river Braye, y miles fouth of St. Cslais.

BESSENAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift
of Camp-de-Lyun, 4 leagues well of Lyons.

BESSENBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and archbiihopric of Mentz ; 6 miles eail of
Afchaffenburg.

BESSERNE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, 2 miles S.E. of
Veyeroc.

BESS I, in yfncierit Geography, a people who inhabited a
diftriift of Thrace, near mount fixmus, called Be^cj. They
lived in huts, and maintained themfelvec by plundering their
neighbours. They were tlie moll favage and inhuman of alt
the Thraeians, according to the account given of them by St.
Jerom, Paulinus of Nola, Eutropius, and Ovid. Their chief
city, Ulcudama, is now known bj- the name of Adrianople.
Tliey lived under their own kings, undiflurbed by the neigh-
bouring princes, till the confulate of M. Licinius LueuUus
and C. Caffius Varus. Lucullus invaded their country ; after
a fignal viftory took pofl'effion of it, and fubjefted the
whole nation to the Roman laws. The Romans after-
wards allowed them to live under their own kings : but Pifo,
while he governed Macedon as proconful, having tveacheroufly
feized Rabocentus, whom Strabo calls prince of the BefO,
caufed him to be publicly beheaded ; and this affront fo eic-
afperated the whole nation, that they flaook off the Ro-
man yoke ; however, they were vanquiflied in a conCderable
battle by Oftavius, the father of Augullus. During the civil
wars of Rome, they again attempted to recover their liberty,
but were fubdutd by the famous M. Bmtus, junior. In the
reign of Auguilus, one Vologefcs, a native of the country
and prieft: of Bacchus, having, under pretence of religion,
affembled a numerous body of people, made hiir.felf mailer of
the whole country, and, entermg the Cherfonefus, committed
mod dreadful ravages ; but was at laft overcome by L. Pifo,
who obliged the favage inhabitar.ts to lay down their arms,
and fubmit to fuch cor.ditions as he was plisied to impofe.
From this time the Belli continued fubjeft to the Romans,
without making any further attempts to reco»er their ancient
liberty. Eutrop. 1. ii. Orof. I. iv. c. 3. Flor. L iv. c. 12.
Sueton. in Oclav. Dio Cafl". 1. xlvii.

BESSIERES, in Geigraphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Garonne, y leagues N.E. of Touloufe.
BESSIGBEIM, a town of Germany, in the ciicle of
Svvabia, and duchy of \Vurtemberg, near the conflux of the
Ens and Necker, 8 miles fouth of the Heilbron, and 13 neith
of Stuttgart. The diftricl of the fame name is a good wine
country.

BESSIN, the name, before the revolution, of a fmall
country of France, in Lower Normandy, near the fea-coaft.

BESSINES, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the dillricl of
Bellac, filuate in a deep, narrow, rocky valley, 6 leagues north
of Limoges. Tne town contains 2511, and the canton 9352
perfons. Itsterriton- includes iSokiiiometres, and 7Communcs,
BESSIS. See'BEs.

Bessis Ccntffimit, denotes two thirds of centefimalintereft,
or ufury at eignt per cent.

BESSOXIE, La, in Geogrnfthy, a town of France, in the
department of the Tarn, and chief place ot a canton in tlie
diltridl of Caftres, 3 leagues N.N.E. of Caftres.

BESSY BELL, a mountain of Ireland, in the county
of Tyrone, I o miles fouth ot Sti-abane.

BESTAAD, a town of Norway, 36 miles N.N.E. of
Drontheim.

BESTAGNO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont-
lenat, on the Bovmida, 1 8 miles esift of Alba.

LI BEST AIL,

BET

pofadifla. Park. par. 489. Tumep-rootedredbeet. ^.IB.lutel
maior. Bauli, pin. 1 18. Rail hift. 204. 11.5, — fyriaca.
Park, theatr. 752. n. 3. Ytllow-rooted beet. e. B. pallide
virens major. Dauh. pin. 118. Green-leaved red beet.
" Flowers heaped ; leafletsof the calyx toothed at thebaic."*
This fpecies has large, thick, fucculeiit leaves, generally of
a dark red or purple colour. Tlie roots are large and deep
red, on whicli their goodnefs depends ; for the larger they
grow, the more tender they will be, and the deeper their
co!o\ir, the more are they eileemed. A native of the fea-
coail of the fouthern parts of Europe. The variety a. has
the leaves ihorter than in the white beet, more or lefs red,
and fometimes fo dark, as to be called black beet ; it* root
white. /3. has leaves large and red, as is the whole of the
plant, as well root as llalk, and flowers full of a purple juice,
tending to rednefs ; the midribs of the leaves are very broad
and thick, like the cabbage leaf, and equal in goodnefs when
boiled. Gerard fays, that it grew with him in 1596, to
the height of eight cubits, and brought forth its rough
feeds very plentifully. Thefe, though taken from a plant
of one colour, produce plants of many and variable colours.
•y. Stem higher than the common red beet ; root thick,
within and without of a high blood colour. J. Leaves paler
than thofe of the white beet, of a greeni(h yellow colour ;
the root of a fine high yellow, fweet and well-tailed. All

__ _ _ thefe are mere feminal varieties. The beet is fubjeft to

who were Roman citizens; though it was the legal right of change, and to degenerate, at leaft in our chmate. It has
fuch to be exempt from it. been fuppofed, that the B. cida is not fpecifically different

The fecond kind of beftiarii, Seneca obferves, confiftcd of from the -vuli^aris, and that both are derived from the mart-

BET

BESTAIL, or Bestial, in Ancient Statutes, is ufed for
all kinds of cattle. 4 Edw. III. c. 3. It has been appro-
priated more aixiently particularly to thofe that were pur-
veyed for the king's provifion.

BESTARCHA, a dignity in the courts of the emperors^
of Conftantinoplc, fuppofed to anfwer to that of the mqflcr of
the ivaifirobe among us.

The word bellarcha feenis to have been termed from 'v?Jlar-
cT>a, by a change of the v into b.

BESTERTZE. See Bistrit:.

BESTIARII, among \.\\c ^ /Incunt Romans, thofe who
were hired to combat with bealb, or thofe who were expofed
to them, by fentencc of law. , r n.

Wit ufually dilUngiufti two kii.d^ of bcitiani : the hrlt
were thofe condemned to the beads ; cither as being enemies
taken prifoners, or as being flaves, and guilty of fome enor-
mous crime. — Thefe were all expofed naked, and without de-
fence, to the beafts ; nor did it aught avail to conquer and kill
the bead, frefh ones being continually let looi'e on them, till
they were dead. But it I'eldom happened that two were re-
quired for the fame man ; on the contrary, one beafl fre-
quently difpatched feveral men. Cicero mentions a lion,
which alone difpatched two hundred beftiarii. — Thofe who
fucceeded the iirll were called E^isJpoi, and the laft f(7-;i^alM ;
among the Romans, merid'iani.

The Chriftians were beftiarii of this kind, even fome of them

young men, who, to become expert in managing their arms,
fought fometimes againft beafts, and fometimes againft one
another; andof bravoes, who, to (hew their courage and dex-
terity, expofed themfelves to this dangerous combat. Au-
gullus encouraged this praftice in young men of the firft:
rank ; Nero expofed hinifclf to it ; and it was for the kilhng
beads in the amphitheatre, that Commodus acquired the title

of the Roman Hercules.

Vigencre to thefe adds two kinds of beftiarii more : the firft

were thofe who made a trade of it, and fought for money ;

the fecond was where feveral beftiarii, armed, were let loofe

at once, againft a number ot beafts.

BESTOROZIN, or Beszermeny, in Geography, a town

of Hungary, 8 miles N.N.W. of Debreciin

tima, cultivated on a rich foil, in fouthern climes. The beet
is faid to be prejudicial to the ftomach, and to yield little
nouriftiment. Taken in quantity, it tends to loofen the belly.
The juice of the root and leaves is faid to be a powerful
errhine, and to occafion a copious difcharge of mucus, with-
out provoking fneezing. A good fugar may be obtained from
the juice of the frefh roots. This fpecies was cultivated in
1656 by Mr. JohnTradefcant, jun. z. B, dcla, white gar-
den beet. B.hortenfis. Mill. Did. n.
Lin. Spec. 322. B. alba. Gcr. 251
n. 1. Raii hift. 204. B. communis alba.
B. alba vel pallefcens, quse cicla ofGc.

B. communis viridis /jufi/. " Flowers three-fold ; leaflets
of the calyx unarmed at the bafe." The root of this fort

2. B. vulgaris, ^, ti.

n. 1. emac. 318.

Park, par 489. i.
Bauli. pin. 1 18. and

BESTRITZA, or Bistricra, a large town of Lower feldom grows larger than a man's thumb; the ftalks grow
>Iungary, on the Wag, with a caftle facing it, feated on a high ereft, and have oblong, fpear-thaped leaves growing clofe to
rock on the oppofite i'lde of the river. the ftalk ; the fpikes of flowers are axillary, long, and have

BETA, deriving its name from the form of the letter
R'Tse, whicii it has when fwellcd with feed, in Botany. Lin.
gen. 310. Reich. 338. Schreb. 436. Tourn. 286. Gx-rtn.
t.75. JufT. 85. Clafs and Order, ^i.7;/a«(/r/a ^//f_vn"J. Nat.
Ord. Holoracea. Atriplices, JufT. Gen. Char. CV. perianth
ilve-lcaved, concave, permanent ; diviiions ovate-oblong,

narrow leaves placed between the flowers ; the lower leaves
are thick and fucculent, and their footftalks broad ; and for
the fake of thefe it is cultivated. A large variety of this
has been lately introduced from abroad, under the titles of
" Racine de difette," " Root of Scarcity," and " Mangel
Wurzel." The ancients called the white beet Ckla, or ra-

obtufe. Cor. none. Stam. filaments five, fubulate, oppofite, ther Skia, by contraftion from Sicula, Sicilian beet ; as we

call the Savoy-cabbage, Savoys. Mr. Miller mentions three
varieties of thi?:, viz. the white, the green, and the Swifs or
chard beet ; by the laft of which he probably intended the
fame as the modern " Mangel Wurzel." He fays that
they vary from one to another in culture, but that they
never alter to the firft or the third. 3. B. maritima, fea-
beet. Lin. fpec. 322. fyft. 262. Reich. 623. Hudf. 108.
Wither. 277. Eng. Bot. t. 285. Smith. Flor. Brit. 1 15.
B. fylveftris maritima. Baub. pin. 1 18. Park, theatr. 750. 2.
Raii fyn. 157. hift. 204. Ger. emac. 318. 2. Sea-Beet.
Pet. H. Brit. t. 8. f. 9. " Flowers double or twin ; ftalks
decumbent ; leaflets of the calyx even, not toothed." It
differs from the others, according to Linnsus, in flowering
the firft year ; in having oblique or vertical leaves ; and in
the leaflets of the calyx being equal, not toothed ; accord.

ing

to the leaves of the calyx, and of the fame length with them ;
anthers roundifti. /"//?. germ, in a manner below the recep-
tacle ; ftyles two, very flwrt, ereft ; ftigmas acute. Per.
capfule within the bottom of the calyx, one-celled, decidu-
ous. Sicd fingle, kidney-form, comprcficd, involved in the
calyx.

Eff. Char. Ca!, five-leaved. Cor. none. Seed kidney-form,
within the fubftance of the bafe of the calyx.

Species, 1. B. lu.'^aris, red garden beet. Varieties a. B.
rubra vulgaris, Bauh. pin. 1 18. Raii hift. 204. n. 2. Ger.
emac. 318. n. 2. Park, theatr. 751. f. 3. Common red
beet. j9. B. rubra major. Bauh. pin. 1 18. Blackw. t. 235.
Ger. 251. n. 3. emac. 392. B. italica. Park. par. 49c.
Raii hift. 205. Great red beet. y. B. rubra, radice rapx,
Bauh. pin- Ii3. Raii hift. 204. n. 4.— romana rubra, ra-
7

BET

in^ to Ray, in having a perennial root. This is probably
the original parent of all the garden beets. A native of
Holland and Great Britain, on the fea-coaft, and in fait
marfhes : it is alfo found plentifully about Nottingham. It
is perennial, and flowers in Augull. 4 B./<;/u/iz, fpreading
beet. Ait. hort. kew. i. 315. " Flowers heaped ; all
the leaves linear-lanceolate ; branches divaricated. " Stem
(hort, hardly a foot high, very branching ; branches long,
divaricate ; calycine leaflets at the bafe, but not toothed."
Flowers in Auguft. A native of the iPiand of Madeira. In-
troduced in 1788. Martyn.

Beta, in Garddning, comprehends feveral different ufeful
efculent roots and cuhnary herbs of the hardy kind, as the
B. cicla, or common culinary beet, which has a fmall, ob-
long, white root, producing from its crown many large,
oblong, fucculent leaves, on broad footllalks, and erecl
branching feed ; ftems two or three feet high, garniihed
with clofe-fetting leaves, and long fpikes of greenifli flowers,
which are fucceedcd by plenty of ripe feed in autumn.
The varieties of which are the common grein-kaved bat ;
large white beet ; chard, or great Szvlfs beet, having very
broad leaves, with thick foot-llalks and ribs. Thefe often
vary from one to the other, the feed of one frequently pro-
ducing fome of each fort, though by proper care in favi.;g
it, the difference may be preferved.

The B. major, or great German beet, commonly called mangel
<wurzel, has a large, long, reddifli, or fometimes whitifli-red
root ; and very large, oblong, thick, fucculent leaves.
The varieties of which are — the dark -green leaved — light
green-leaved — red-veined leaved. This fpecies has been
very much recommended, on account of its va(l growth
and great utility both in its root and leaves ; expe-
rience has, however, fiiewn the former to have little
claim to efteem for domeftic ufes, as it is of an infipid
and unpalatable tafte ; but the leaves being large and fuc-
culent, are good to ufe occafionally, in the manner of com-
mon beet, and particularly to boil as fpinach, or put into
foups ; and the (lalks and midrib of the leaf to be ttewed
and eaten as afparagus. Dr. Lettfom, who took much
pains to introduce the mangel wurzel. informs us, that on
his own land, which was not favourable to its growth, the
roots, upon an average, weighed full ten pounds ; and if the
leaves were calculated at half that weight, the whole pro-
duct would be fifteen pounds of nutritious ahment, upon
every fquare of iS inches.

The B. rubra, or red beet, has a large, red, eatable
root, crowned by many large, oblong, reddi(h-dark-pur-
ple leaves ; and when it fhoots, fends up ereft ftalks
and branches, terminated by long fpikes, of flowers and feed.
The varieties of which are common red beet, with a large,
longifh, dark-red root ; turnep-rooted red beet, with a Ihort,
large, dark-red root ; with a red root and green leaves ;
with a yellow root ; but the firll of thcie varieties is moftly
preferred for general culture, though tiie fecond is equally
good, but the root is not of fo good a fliapc as that of the
former ; the other two are not proper to k;ultivate for a
crop.

Methods of Culture of the common Beet. h.\\ the varieties
are propagated by feed fowu annually in the Ipring, in Fe-
bruary, March, or April, in the places where rlie plants are
to remain, in order to attain proper growth ior uft in-fum-
merand autumn. They will continue till ipni^g, when they
(hoot for feed. If the fowing be neglefted in the fpring,
fome feed may occafionally be fown m lummer, any time
till the beginning of Auguil, m a moilt lituation, but the
fpring is the moU eligible fcafon for obtaining a good crop.
They may be f'>Ar. in any ••ominon ioil, aHowing ;fa<:h lort a

BET

feparate plat or bed. The ground (hould be dug one fpadc
deep in the ufual way ; the feed then either fown broad-
caft on the furface, and raked in ; or, as it is a large feed,
(hallow drills may be drawn, at the di:\ance of fix inches for the
common green and white varieties, butalmoft double that for
the large white and chard beet, fowing the feeds thinly, and
raking the earth over them, about an inch deep ; then trim-
ming the furface fmooth. The plants come up in about a
month, and when they have leaves an inch or two broad,
they flrould be hoed, to thin and deftroy weeds, cutting out
the common green and white forts to about fix inches dif.
tance ; but the chard beet fhonld be allowed ten or twelve
inches room every way, that their large fucculent leaves may
have full foope to fpread. Tliey are commonly in perfeftion
in June and July, and it is neceflar)- to obferve, in gathering
them, to take the large outward leaves, the others coming
in for ufe in their turn, an abundant fucceffive fupply rifing
from the root. A fuccefllon crop mud be raifed every year
from feed in the fpring, &c. for although the fame crop
might be occafionally continued two years, by cutting down
the feed-ftems of the year-old plants, according as they ad-
vance in fpring and lummer ; the roots abiding, produce a
fupply of leaves, but which are much inferior in fubftancc to
thofe of the«nnually-raifed feedhng plants; it is better, there-
fore, to fow every year, in order to have a good produftion.
The large white and great chard beet are in much edeem,
for the ftalks and ribs of the large leaves, being divefted
of the leafy part and peeled, are great improveri of
foup, and ufeful alio for dewing, and to be dreflfed and eaten
like afparagus, and the leaves themfelves are fine pot-herbs ;
for all which ufes, the feveral varieties of this fpecie* may,
as has been feen, be obtained almoft the year round.

7he Mange! H'urzel Beet. This fort has generally been
reckoned a variety of the B. cicla ; but fome botanifts have
made it a diftiril fpecies, uuder the title of B. alli/fima. Ic
is raifed from feed fown annually in the fpring, the fame at
the other forts, in any open Ctuation, but ihould generally be
fown thinner, dther is drills one or two feet afunder, or
broad-caft on the general furface, and raked in ; and when
the plants are come up one, two, or three inches in growth,
they (hould be thinned to a proportionable diftance, to give
room for the full expanfion of their large leaves. Some,
however, advife tranfplanting, when the young plants are
of two or tliree inches growth, fetting them in rows one er
two feet afunder ; this feems, however, unneceflarj' ; efpe-
cially, as they have long, downright, tap roots, which gene-
rally are the moll fucccfsful when they remain where fown ;
the method may, however, be praftifed occafionally by way of
experiment. The plants generally continue to produce leaves
the greateft part of the year, and the roots attain perfeiElion
for ufe in autumn and winter, till fpring ; but when it is re-
quired to have a principal crop of full-Czed roots, fome
(hould be allotted for that purpofe, without cutting or
gathering the leaves. This fort is valued molt generally
for its leaves, for which it principally merits culture in the
gardens ; as we cannot much recommend the roue, which,
although it grows very large, fometimes of feveral pounds
Wiighi, is greatly inferior in ufe, both to the red beet, and that
of mod others of our efculent roots, for any domcitic purpofef.
It is fometimes diefled in the manner of carrot? and parfneps,
&c. (liced, and fervcJ up with butter, but is generally of a
niawkifh, unpalatable relifli.

Til*: leaves, tiowever, which, if the plants have large fcope
of room, grow twelve or fifteen inches broad or more, and
of proportionable length, are exceedingly good, when yor.ng,
to ute as the common white an»l green beet ; and the young,
thick, flefliy ftalks, di^eiled of the leafy parr, peeled or
L 1 2 r^Hiped,

BET

fcraped, then bnilcil and fcrvcil up with butter, are tender
and agreeably tailed ; alfo the k-aves to boil occaiionally as
fpiincli and other fmall greens ; and of which the root is
remarkably proJudive in quick growtii, to afford frequent
fuccetTional gatherings all lumnier and autumn, either cut-
ting them off ciofe, or gathering only the larger outward
ones, as in either method they foon (hoot up again in plen-
tifid fiiccedion.

The Red Beet. This is raifed from feed fown annually in
March or April, in the place where the plants are to remain,
being c;>refiil to procure that of the bell dark red fort. Jt
■flionld be allowed a light, rich, deep foil, in an open ex-
pofure. The market gardeners often fow this fort thinly
amou'T their crops of onions, carrots, &c. that are to be
drawn off while young ; fo that when thefe are gone, the
beet commences a full crop.

" It is, however, a better practice to fow the principal
crop feparate. The ground (hou1d be dug one fpade deep
at lead, and well broken, the feed fown dircftly, which may
cither be broad-caft on the furface, or raked well into the
ground ; or, as oblerved of the fn'll fort, in drills drawn an
inch deep, and at the dillance of ten or twelve inches; or you
may dot or prick it, as is often pradliled, with a bhiut dibber,
in lines at the above dillance, making the holes an inch deep,
and eight or ten afunder in the rows, dropping two or three
feeds in each hole, though only one good plant ihould be
left in each place. In May or June, when the plants have
leaves an inch or two broad, tiicy require thinning and
cleaning from weeds, which may be performed either by
liand-weeding or fmall hoeing ; tlie latter is the moll expe-
ditious for large crops, and it looiens the fnrface of the
earth, to the great advantage of the young plants ; care-
fully eradicate all weeds, and tjiin tlie plants to ten or
twelve inches dillance. Some of the roots will be tit to take
up for ufe about the end of Augiill, though they will not
attain full perfedliou until October. In November, a quan-
tity of the roots fhould be taken up, their tops trimmed off,
not too clofe, and then laid in fand or dry earth, under
fhelter, to be ready for winter ufe.

This iort of beet is highly valued for its large red root,
which in the common variety, often grows twelve or fifteen
inches long, and three or four inches thick or more ; but
that of the turnep-rooted fort is much fliorter, and generally
thicker, and of equal goodnels in every relpert for ufe ; and
in both of which, thofe that are of the largeft growth and
darkeil red colour, are the moll valuable : thefe roots being
tender, fwcet, and palatable, are boileci, diced, and eaten
cold, &c. are alio lliccd and fcraped in iallads, both as an
eatable ingredient, and by way of garnifli ; (lices of the root
are alio in requell not only as garnith to dilhes, but as a
pickle : the other varieties are never cultivated for any prin-
cipal crop.

Saving of Seed. In order to fave feed from any of the
varieties, either mark fome of the bell plants in fpring, to
be left to run up, or tranfplant fome of them in February ur
March into a convenient place, to have (hclter from winds ;
they Ihoot up llalks in May ; in June they mult be mp-
ported with llakes ; and the feed will ripen in September.

That a great quantity of fugar might be obtained from
white beet, has been long known. The famous chemifl
Margraaf made fome experiments, half a century ago (pub-
lifhed in the year 1747) for determining the quantity of
fugar contained in various European plants. He found that
the white beet produced a much greater quantity than any
of the other plants. The beet has of late been much culti-
vated, particularly in Germany, with a view to the fugar that
is obtained from the root. M. Achard of Berlin, firft in-

B E T

troduccd this f\'.ljjei\ into general notice, and recommended
that the fugar Ihould be procured by boiling the beet -roots,
when taken out of the earth ; that they be lliced when cold ;
that afterwards the faccharine juice be prelfed out ; and
that it be filtered, evapcn-ated, and, after evaporation, the
fugar be procured by cryilallization and preilure. lie Ims
publiflied his method at full length, in " Ausfnluliohe Ikleli-
reiburg," Berlin 1799, Hvo. He lays much llrcfj on the
mode of culture, and oblcrves, that crude lugar can be pro-
dueed at about three pence a pound. His peculiar mode
of culture conlilts ciiiefly in planting the feeds at a certain
dillance from each other, and in not traufplanting the roots.
M. Achard reckons three varieties of the beet^root ; but he
prefers that which lir.s the Ikin of a redd'.ih colour, and
the fleOi white. Tlie kinds ot beets which have been nfed
for this purpofe, arc varieties of the B. vulgarii. Mr. John
Taylor of Leipiig has given a particular account of the
method of cultivating the common beet, and of pieparing
fugar from its root, in a letter addieifed to his father, the
fecretary of the focictv for the Encouragement of Arts, &c.
and publiihed in the 181I1 volume of their Tranfaftious.
He obfcrves, that the foil fliould be a good black earth,
not too moid ; and that it (huuld be prepared, like that
deligucd for cabbage^, by dunging it in autumn with (hort
rotten dung, and ploughing it, and by turning it again in
Ipring, and ploughing it a third time to a greater depth than
before. After the third ploughing, fays M. Achard, it
fliould be carefully harrowed, to render it fmooth and even,
and to bleak all the lumps of earth which may happen to
be in it. The feeds are ufually placed at the dillance of
from 12 to 18 inches from one another, from 9 to 12 inches
according to M. Achard, and at the depth of one inch in
the earth. One feed is laid in each hole, and immediately
covered with earth. In four or five weeks time the gronnd
mull be weeded, and afterwards hoed. Some prefertranfplant-
ing the roots, to fowing the feed in the ground where the
plants are intended to remain. M. Achanl forbids all tranf-
]ilanling ; and one of his reafons for this prohibition is, that
the lower part or points of the roots are liable to be thus
broken oft, which part, he fays, gives more fugar than the
upper part. After they have been fome time in the ground,
the earth fliould be loofened with a hoe, and the weeds def-
troyed. The method invented by piofelfor Gottling for
feparatiug the fugar from the beet-roots, is eafily practicable,
and adapted to this country. It is as follows : — He recom— '
mends tlie taking of the beet-roots out of the ground from
the middle of September to the middle of October, that tiie
wiathcr may be favourable for drying them, which (houkl
be done carefully, lell, as M. Achard obferves, they fliould
be damaged, and any of the juice which oozes out be loll ;
and wafhiug them as fpeedily as pofTible from the earth that
adheics to ihem, and cutting off their final! fibres as well as
inch part of the root as had rifeii, whilll they were growing,
above the furface of the earth. The roots are afterwards
wiped with a cloth, and laid upon a dry floor ; the heads are
cut off and given to the cattle ; and the roots are fliced
lengthways, abng the middle, each half being cut again
into flices, and loofely hung, not too near each other, left
they fhould fpoil, on llrong thread, fufpended on nails, in
an airy chamber or place fecurc from the rain. In the courfe
of two or three weeks, with proper attention, they will be
fufficiently dry for the extraftiim of their fugar. If the
drying fcafon is far advanced, or a froft expefted, the beet-
roots fliould notbeexpofed to the outward air; they Ihould
be dried in the kitchen or warm rooms, cither on Uiings or
netted frames, refembling the flakes ufed in Yorkfliire for
drj'ing oat-cakes J ox they may be dried in ftove-rooms by

6 artificial

BET

artificial heat, taking care to prevent their bcin^r fmoaked
or burnt. If an opport'.itiity does not occur for flicino- the
roots iinmediatcly after bcuifr taken out of the earth, they
fhould be placed in cellars, and covrred with ftravv, or put
into holes jir dry fandy earth, and preferved till tliey are
wanted.

M. Achard fays, that after the roots are wadied and
cleaned, they Ihould be (llccd by means of a machine, or
ground in a fort of mill, confuting of a cvlinder firnilhed
with points, like a rafp, which turns round in a box. The
roots are put in this box, and prefled, by means of a weight,
againfl the cylinder, which, upon being turned round, foon
reduces them to a kind of pulp. When the beet- roots arc
dry, they are ready for the extraftion of their fugar. For this
purpofe, three wooden tub-, wide, but not deep, made of
oak, a(h, or willow, fhonld be provided, or, for funily ufe,
earthen mugs. Near the bottom of the tubs, cocks or fpig-
goti fliould be fixed, and the tubs fliould be placed in a
cool fituation of about 52° of I'alirenhcit, upon a ftiilage
near each other, and at fuch a height from the ground, that
inialler veffels may itand below them for iceeiving tlie
liquor when drawn off, and clear water {hould be at hand
io as to be pumped into the higher veffels. When the beet-
roots, thoroughly dried, have been fiftcd, fo as to be free
from the dull and loofe fibres, one of the hiuher tubs Hiould
be half filled with them, and clear cold water poured upon
them, about one-third in heigiit above the roots. In this
ilate they ihould remain for about three hours, llirring them
at different times with a wooden paddle. At the end of
this time, the fame number of clean dri.d roots (hould be
put into the fecond tub ; and the fweet liquor drawn from
the firll tub into the veffel under it, (hould be poured upon
the roots in the fecond ; and the (irll tub fliould be lupplied
v'fh frefh water hi fuch quantity as jull to cover the roots,
a:id the ti>bs ihould remain three houis more, and the roots
be repeatedly llirred, as before. The liquor wliieh had
been poured from the full tub to the fecond, will be now much
abfovbed by the roots in the latter tub. After (landing
again for three hours, the fweet liqour from the fecond tub
mud be drawn off, which, if the roots were of the red and
white fort, will be of an agreeable red colour. It mUil
then be paffed through a fieve, or filtered through a flanne!,
and thus be rendered fit for boiling down for fugar. After
th'S, draw the liquor from the firll tub, pour it on the fe-
cond, and put into the firll tub more fre(h water, and let it
ftjnd three hours longer. Then put into the third tub the
ufual q'.iantity of ch-y roots, and pour on them the liquor
drawn from t!ie fecond tub ; remove the liquor from the
firll to the fecond ; and the roots in the firll tub being now
deprived of their faccharine matter, may be ufed for feeding
hogs or cattle. After three hours more, the liquor (hould
be drawn from the third tub and filtered as before, and
then boiled down for fugar. Then draw off the liquor of
the fecond veffel, and pour it into the third ; add frefli water
to the fecond vcffel, and let it remain three hours more, the
roots being oceafionally llirred. During this time, cleaiiie
out the firfl tub, and add frefh roots, as before. After
three hours, draw the liquor fro:n the third tub, and pour
it upon the fielh roots in the firll ; then draw the liquor
from the fecond tub, and pour it on the third. The roots of
the fecond tub will be now cxhaulled, and may be given to
the cattle. After three hours, draw off the liquor from the
firll tub, filter it, and it will be ready for boiling down. On
the contents of the firft, pour the liquor of the third, and put
frefh water ia the third tub ; let it remain three hours, and
llirred as ufual ; during which time clean out the fecond
tub, and let the roots be given to the cattle. In the ftxoiid

BET

tub, place aga!- frefh roots ; and proceed by extrafting the
faccharine matter, as before ; and continue the opcratior,
till all the dried roots hav'^ been tins freed from their fugar.
By this management, the liquor becomes more charged
with faccharine rr.atter, than when the ju'cc is preffed out:
of the roots, and a confiderable quantity of fuel is fpartd.
The roots from which the liquor has been extraifted will
have fwelled much in the operation, and have loll their
fweetncfs ; their farinaceous refiduum will, however, afford
good food for cattle. Whenever there is a lufficient quan-
tity of dried roots ready, the procefs of extracting the fac-
charine liquor fhould be continued day and night, as it is
not proper to let the liquor remain longer than three, or at
moft four hours, before you boil it, Ie!l a diffolution of tlie
mucilaginous particles of the roots (hould take place. It it
be not convenient to boil down all the faccharine hquor ac
once to a (late of cryllallization, yet it (hould be daily
boiled down to the confillence of a fyriip, in order to pre-
vent its fermentation. In boiling the liquor, the fcum that;
aiifes fhould be carefully taken off.

The procefs of boiling, cryftallizing, &c. the beet fugars
is as follows. Firll boil the extra6ted faccharine liquors
down to the confillence of a fyrup ;■ then put it into a cop-
per, of which one-third at leall is empty, and let it boil
away by a moderate fire, until a phial, which holds one
ounce of water, will contain eleven drams of the fynip, or
until the fyrup porirs fomewhat broad from the ladle. The
fcum or froth fliotild be taken off as it arifes. When the
fyrup is anived at the (late above mentioned, by gentle
boiling, the fire mull be removed from underneath the cop-
per, and the fvrup gradually run through a clean woollen
cloth, placed over a wooden or Hone veffel. The fvrup
mud not cool too much before this filtration, or clfe it
becomes ropy. When the filtered lyrup is fomewhat cool,,
it Ihould be laded into flialk)w wooden or Hone veffels, to
cryllalh/e ; for this purpofe, (liallow earthen veffels, fuch
as are ufed to produce cream, or veflels made of tin, arc
proper. Thefe veffels, filled with fvrup, mull be placed in
a room heated to about 68" of Fatiicnheit, and care mull
be taken to keep them free from flies and dull. If the
fvrup has been of a proper confillence, cryflals will foon be-
gin to form at the bottom of the velhls ; and in an interval
of 18 or 2 I days the cryflalli/ation will be completed. The
mafs muil then be put into a flrong linen fack, wcUfecured,
and placed under a prefs, to fquceze out the liquid from the
fugar which remains in the bag. The liquid matter may be
fet to cryllallize a fecond or third time, and will yield fugar
of a coarfcr qualify. A cheefe-prefs, or long lever, will ferve
for the purpofe of pre(rure. The fugar firll obtained, may
be rendered purer by mixing with it a fmall quantity of clear
fpring water, and placing it again under the prefs ; the
coloured fyrup will then run out, and leave the fugar in the
bag in a much purer ftate than before-. By repeating the
operation, it is fo far improved, that, when dritd and rubbed,
it becomes a fine white powder fugar. The feparated fyrups
Ihould be again carefully boiled, and more fugar will be ob-
tained from them by cryflallizatioii. If the fugar procured
by the firll preffure be diffolved in as much clear water as
will form a fvrup, and placed again in a warm room to cryf-
tallize, it will yield a much purer and harder fugar : the
' fyrup may then be feparated without preffure from the fugar,
merely by inclining the veffel, and allowing the fyrup to run
off from the cryflals. All the fyrups thus prepared, are fit
for family ufe, and are much fuptrior in tatle to thofe pre-
pared from the preffure of the raw or boiled roots. The
remaining tliick fvrups may be ufed as treacle or m.olaffes,
and will ferve to diltil forrum or fpirits. From the experitnents

of

BET

of profeflbr Lampadius of Freybsrg, near Drefden, it ap-
pears, that beet-roots contain water, fibrous matter, fugar,
mucilage, glair, ftarch, colouring matter, fcented matter, and
a bitter fubilancc. The water is in the proportion of from
one-half to two-thirds of the weight of the roots ; the
fibrous matter of the roots differs, and it is confiderably more
in poor than in rich land ; the faccharine particles vary from
two to five per cent. ; the mucilage is from three to five per
cent. ; and the glair, or matter refembling white of egg, is
about one per cent. ; the ftarch is in very fmall quantity,
being only about two or three ounces in a hundred weight ;
the colouring matter undergoes feveral changes by expo-
fure to the air, as yellowifh, brown and red, and may be
precipitated by acetite of lead ; the fcented matter is vola-
tile, rifing in diftillation of the root with water, combining
clofely with fpiiita of wine, and occafioning a peculiar con-
tra<flion in the organs of tafte. By boiUng the beet-roots,
the fmell and tafte are very much leffeued. The bitter fub-
hance is foluble in water, and remains behind in the firft
fyrup after the cryftallization of the fugar. From other
experiments of the fame profelTor, it appears, that iiolbs.
of beet-roots, the beta cicla of Linnsus, or white Englifii
beet, wafhed. peeled, cleaned, and then grated, gave a mafs
which weighed 87 pounds ; out of which were prefled 41 J
pounds of juice, which was boiled with 20t ounces of char-
coal powder. This, when filtered and evaporated down
until cryllalhzed, produced full five pounds of a brownifti
yellow-grained fugar, and alfo five ounces of brown fyrup.
The above brown fugar, after being diffolved in fix pounds
of lime-water, mixed with one pound of blood, then boiled,
filtered, and afterwards evaporated, yielded four pounds 5 1
ounces of purified brown fugar, and 6| ounces of fyrup. The
four pounds 5! ounces of fugar, thus prepared, were again
dilTolved in fix pounds of lime-water, mixed with one pound
of milk, and then boiled for a quarter of an hour ; during
the boiUng, a fmall quantity of white wine vinegar, and a
little more milk, were added ; the faccharine matter was
filtered, and treated as before ; the produA was four pounds
of well-grained white powder fugar. The refiduum after
preffure, the brown fynips of the two firft procefies, and
the remains of the filtrations, weighed, when colleded, 40
pounds ; they were mixed with one quart of yeaft, and 80
quarts of water, heated to 112° of Fahrenheit's, and after
fermenting 48 hours, were diftilled. They furnilhed, at the
firll diftillation, 15 quarts of weak fpirit, which, on a fecond
diftillation, gave eight quarts of a better i from which, when
re£lified, were produced 3 J quarts of fpirits refembling rum.
From the refult of this ferics of experiments it appeared,
that after paying the farmer for the roots, and difcharging
all incidental txpences whatever, a profit was yielded of nearly
cent, per cent, on valuing the four pounds of white powder
fugar at one fliilling per pound, and the three quarts and a
half of rum at one fhiUing per quart. The produce of beet-
roots and their quality for yielding fugar, have, however,
been variable ; and of courfe the profit accruing from them.
From M. Achard's acco\mt we learn, that 24 meafures of
roots, each of which weighs about 90 pounds, (in all 2160
pounds) and cofts about 6d Engli(h, produce 100 pounds
of raw fugar ; that is, 20 pounds of roots produce nearly
one pound of fugar. One hundred pounds of raw fugar
give 55 pounds of refined fugar, and 25 pounds of molafies.
Another ftatement informs us, that 14 pounds of raw fugar
pave I J pound of lump-fugar, i| pound of white powder
fugar, and I g of darker-coloured powder fugar, and eight
pounds of brown fyrup ; from which more fugar might
have been obtanied. It is computed, in M. Achard's ac-
count, that a Gtvuian fquare mile of land, (tliat is, 16 fquare

BET

miles, Englifh), properly cultivated, would produce white
beet fufficient to furnifti the whole Pruflian dominions with
fugar.

BETANCOS, Betanzos, or Bitanze, in Geography,
a town of Spain, in Galicia, 3 leagues from Corunna, 9
from Compoftella, and 7 from Ferrol. It has a good har-
bour in the mouth of the river Maudeo. N. lat. 43° 15'.
W. long. 7= 56'.

BETEL, in Botany, an Indian plant, in great ufe and
eileem throughout the Eail, wtiere it makes a confiderable
article of commerce. See Piper.

The betel bears Tome rcfemblance to the pepper-tree. It
grows like ivy, and twifts round other trees. Its leaves are
long and fliarp-pointed, but broad towards the ftalk, and of
a pale green colour. They are like thofe of ivy, only fofter,
and full of red juice, which, among the Orientals, is repu-
ted of wonderful virtue for fortifying the teeth, and render-
ing the breath fweet. The Indians arc continually chew-
ing thefe leaves, which renders their lips fo red, and teeth
black, a colour by them vaftly preferred to the whitenefs
affefted by the Europeans.

The confumption of betel leaves is incredible ; no body,
rich or poor, being without their box of betel, which they
prefent to each other by way of civility, as we do fnuff. In
many places they chew the areca nut, either alone or niixt
with the betel leaf and lime, and the leaves of this plant are
fometimes chewed alone ; but they are too fiiarp, and
ufually injure the teeth, and it is not uncommon to find
men of 25 wholly toothlefs in this part of the world, merely
from their having chew.ed this plant to an excefiive degree.
The prepared betel is a veiy common prefent among the
poorer fort ; and on taking leave of a friend, it is al-
ways the cuftom to make him a prefent of a purfe of the
leaves prepared for ufe. When the poorer fort are to ap-
pear before the rich, they always chew a large quantity of
betel, to give them a fweet breath ; and the women, on
certain occaflons, never fail to take largely of it as a pro-
vocative. On all vifits, the company is regaled with pre-
pared betel. The principal time of ufing it is after dinner,
at which time, they fay, it prevents ficknefsat the ftomach ;
and they never abftain from it, except on the folemn occa-
fions of the funerals of their relations, and their days of
falling. Moderately ufed, it is faid to ftrengthen the gums,
corroborate the heart and ftomach, difcufs flatulencies,
purge both the ftomach and brain, and prevent the fcurvy.
If chewed after breakfaft, it makes the breath fweet for
the whole day. The Portuguefe women are as fond of
the betel as the Indians themfelve?, and cannot live a day
without it. It is faid, however, that few Europeans caa
accuftom themfelves to the ufe of it. On many occafions
it produces ficknefs, and fometimes intoxication, of no long
continuance. The Chinefe alfo ufe the leaves of betel,
covered with quick lime, and wrapped round the nut areca,
which in ftiape much refembles a nutmeg. They chew
thefe leaves continually, and pretend that they ftrengthen
the gums, comfort the brain, expel bile, nouriih the glands
of the throat, and ferve as a prefervative againft the afthma ;
a difeafe, which, from the heat of the climate, is very com-
mon in the fouthern provinces. They carry betel and
areca (fee Areca) in boxes, and prefent it when they meet
one another.

BETELGEULE, or Bedeigaezk, In /{jlronom\,
a fixed ftar of the firll magnitude in Orion's hiiid
Ihoulder.

BETES KOE, in Geography, ■3. town of Siberia, on the
weft, fide of the Irtifti, 230 miles 8.F.. of ToboKk.

BETH»

BET

BETH, in Literary Hi/lory, makes the title of a multi-
tude of books in tlie Hebrew language ; e. gr. " beth
avoth," or, the houfc of the fathers} " beth Elohim," or,
the houfe of God j " beth Ifratl," or, the houfc of Ifrael,
&c.

BETHABARA, i.e. the houfe of pnjfage, in /Indent
Geography, is fiippofed by many to be the place to which
men paflcd over Jordan, over againfl Jericho, at the com-
mon ford of this river where the Ifraelites paffcd it under
Jofiiua. Ch. iii. 16. Lightfoot refers it to the paflage at
Gcythopolis, out of the precindls of Judsa, where the Jews
dwelt among the Syro-Gnecians, over againll Galilee.
Cellarius places it between thtfe two, obferving that there
were many pafiages over Jordan. At this place, beyosid
Jordan, John is faid to have baptized. Chap. i. 28. Origen
found, as he tells us, in almoli all his MSS. or, if we may
judge from what follows, in every one of them, without ex-
ception, this verfe thus written, " Thefe things were done
in Bethany beyond Jordan, where John was baptizing."
But he rcjefts this reading for the following reafon : " As I
have been in that country, in order to trace the footfteps of
Chriil and his apolHes, I am peiTuaded that we ought not
to read Bethany in this palfage, but Bethabara. For
Bethany, as the evangelift himftlf relates, was the birth-
place of Lazarus, Martha, and Mary, and only 15 ftadia
from Jerufalem ; but the Jordan was at leall, to fpeak in
round numbers, 190 ftadia from that city. Nor is there any
city whatfoever of the name of Bethany near to that river.
But there is a city of the name of Bethabara on the banks of
the Jordan, where, it is faid, John baptized." To this
alteration it has been objefled, that Origen grounds the
reading, which he has fubftituted for Bethany, on no other
authority than the relation of fiich pcrfons as conduA travel-
lers to the places in Palcfline, which arc mentioned in the
facred writings. Thefe perfons either had no inclination to
conducl Origen to the Bethany, which lay on the other fide
of the Jordan, as the journey might have been attended with
danger, on account of the tribes of wandering Arabs, who
rflfell that country ; or they were wholly ignorant of the
place. Not to lofe, therefore, their profits aiifing from ccn-
dufting ftrangers, they (hewed Bethabara to Origen, as the
place where John baptized, and the learned father was cre-
dulous enough to believe them. Befides, if the text itfclf
be examined, Origen's objeftions to the coramcn reading
will vanilh. He fays, that Bethany lay near to Jerufalem,
'^nd therefore at a diftance from the Jordan. But it may be
aiked, whether there was not more than one city of that
name, and whether we muft neceffarily fuppofe, that the
city in queftion was the place vrhere Lazarus refided. It
appears, even from the exprefiion ufed by St. John, that,
whether we read Bethany, or Bethabara, there was more
than one city of the name, which he mentioned. St. John
mentions a circumftance by way of diilinguilhing it, and when
he fpeaks of Bethany beyond Jordan, we are led to fuppofe,
that there were two cities of that name, and that the city
which he meant was different from that which was fituate
on the mount of Olives. But Origen fays, that there was
no town of the name of Bethany on any part of the Jordan.
To this it might be replied, that Origen hardly vifited all the
towns on the bank of the Jordan, as he probably took the
route pointed out by his guides, or that the wars between
the Jews and the Romans had fo dtfolatcd, or altered the
face of the country, that many towns might have exifted in
the time of John the baptift, of which no traces remained in
the days of Origen. But this mode of reply is ncedlefs, be-
caufe the evangelift ufes a very indeterminate exprefEon,
when he fays, that the place, where John baptized, was on

BET

the other fide of the Jordan ; an exprefTion which by no
means implies that the town lay on the banks of that river :
for It might have been fituated either on the Jabbok, or on
fome other ftream confiderably to the eailward, where John
had a fuflicient fupply of water for the purpofe of baptizing.
The alteration, therefore, made by Origen, and which upon
hio authority, and that of Chr) foftom and Epiphanius, is
introduced into our copies, was wholly without foundation.
See Michaclis's Introd. to the N. T. by Marfh, vol. ii.
p. 400.

Bethabara, in Geography, the firft fettlement of the
Moravians ni America, in the lands of Wachovia, in North
Carolina, begun in 1753, 6 miles N. of Salem, fituate on
the wed fide of Graffy creek, which unites with the Gar-
gales, and feveral others, and fulls into the Yadkin, and
containing a church of the United Brethren, and about 50
dwelling houfes.

BETH-ACHARA, or Beth-haccerim, (Jer. vi. i.)
i.e. houfe of the ■vineyard, a city feated on an eminence, be-
tween Jerufalem and Tckoa. See Nehem. iii. 14.

BETHAGLA, or Beth-hagla, a town of the tribe
of Benjamin, (Jofli. xviii. 21.) on the northern boundary of
the tribe of Judah. In the time of Jerome and Eufcbius
there was a village in this fituation of the name of Agla,
dillant 10 miles from Ekutheropolis, towards Gaza.

BETHA-GABRIS, now Bait-Djierim, a village of
Syria, about ^ of a league to the fouth of El-Tell ; fituated
between Jerufalem and Afcalon.

BETH-ANATH, houfe of a fong, of an anfwer, or cf
qffliaion, a city of Naphtali. Joflt. xix. 38.

BETHANO, Cape, in Geography, lies on the coaft cf
Chinan, or Quinam, off which is Pulo, or Illand Canton,
which is about 9 or 10 miles from the coaft. N. lat. 16'.
E. long. 108° 30'.

BETHANY, in Ancient Geography, a village at the foot
of the mount of Olives, eaft of Jerufalem, in the way to Je-
richo. It took its name from a part of ground fo called
from " Athene," which fignifies the dates of palm-trees,
which grew there plentifully. The town of Betliany, where
I^izarusand his fifters dwelt (John xi. 1.) and where he was
raifed from the dead, was 15 furlongs, or about 2 miles dif-
tant from Jerufalem, (John xi. 18.); but thediftriit, or tra£t
of ground, that bore that name, reached within 8 furlongs
from jerufalem, it being only a fabbath-day's journey from
it(Johnxxiv. 50. Acts i. 12.); and then commenced the
tradl called " flethphage," from the " phagi," i. e. the
green figs which grow upon it, extending fo near to Jerufa-
lem, that the outermoft ftreet within the walls was called by
that name. A cliarge of fclf-contradi£lion has been alledged
againft the evangelill Luke, from the pafiage above cited.
In the Gofpel he tells us, that Jefus afcended into heaven
from Bethany, and in the AAsof the Apoftles, of which he
is the reputed author, he informs us, that he afcended from
Mount Olivet. This charge is founded on an ignorance of
ancient geography, or mull proceed from an imwarrantable
prejudice agamft Chriftianity ; bccaufe Bethany, as we have
above obferved, was not only the name of a town, but of a
diftrifl of Mount Ohvet adjoining to the town. See Beth-
Adaka.

Bethany, or Betbania, in Geography, a Moravian fettle-
ment and poft town of America, in the lands of Wachovia,
in North Carolina, begun in 1760, 9 milts N. W. of Salem ;
containing about 60 houfes and a church.

BETH-ARABAH, in Ancient Geography, a city of
Judah (Jofh. xv. 6.), afterwards given to Benjamin (jolb,
xviii. 22.)

BETHARAMPHTHA, a town of Galilee, on the right

buak

BET

l.ank of the Jordan, on the weftern fide of the lake Gentic-
Tircth, at the influx of the Jordan into that lake. I.ight-
foot places it on the kft bank of the Jordan lu Persea. It
was fortified and ornamented by Herod the tetrarch, and
called " Julias," in honour of Jnha, the daughter of Au-
cuftus, and wife of Tiberius. See Bethsaida.
• BETHARAN, or Bfthara-, a town of the Pti-xa be-
yond Jordan, calkdalfo, by the Syrians " Betharair.phtha,"
nnd by Herod " I.ibias,"or" Livias"in honour of Livia.the
wife of Auguftus. Jofcphus calls il Julias, and confounds it
with the Betharamphtha of the preceding: article: but it lay
more to the foivth, nearly, according to Ptolemy, in the fame
Lititude with Jerufalem, in the vicinity of tlie Ueao fea, and
of the mountains Aharim, Nebo, and Pilgah, and of the
citv Hedibon.

BETH AV EN, tin- houfe of imqmty, a name given to
«' Bethel" by way of derilion, after the introduction of
idolatry into i't by Jeroboam. (Hofea iv. 15. x. 5 ). BelL-
aven was alfo the name of a dillinft town r.ear Bethel, and
fouth-eall of it, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin. Jofh.
vii. 2. xviii. 12. I Sam. xiii. 5.

BETH-BASI, a city of Judah, fortified by the two
Maccabees, Simon and Jonathan. I Maccab. ix. 62. 64.

BETH-DAGON, a city of Afher (Jo(h, xix. 27.)—
Alfo, a city of Judah (Jofli. xv. 51.) fo called, becaufe it
had probably a temple of Dagon, before the Ifrachtes took
pofTelFion of it.

BETHEE, the hnufe of God, a name given to that town,
which was before called Luz, on account of Jacob's vifion.
(Gen. xxviii. 19.). They feem, however, to be diltingmft-
ed in Jolhua xvi. 2. though they were contiguous places;
and the name Luz might probably be loft in that of Bethel.
■It was a city of Samaria, on the confines of the tribes cf
Benjamin and Ephiaim. Eufebius fays, that it was 12
miles from Jerufalem in the way to Sichem. It obtained
among the prophets the name ot Bethaven, on account of its

idolatiy. , r m- l

Tiie Mahometans believe their temple of Mecca to be
founded on the ftone, on which the patriarch Jacob flept
at Bethel, and hold it in great veneration. Some have fup-
pofed that the fuperftitious refpeft manifefted by the an-
cients to their Bityli, or ftones anointed and confecrated to
great men, after their death, derived its origin from Jacob's
pouring oil on the (lone of Bethel. Sec B.tTYLOS.

BETHEL, in Geography, a fmall Moravian fcttlement
in Amei-ica, on the Swetara river, in Pennfylvania, 14 miles
from Mount Joy. — A towndiip in Dauphin county. — Alio,
a towndiip in Windfor county, Vermont, containing 473
inhabitants, N. N. W. of, and bounded by Stockbridge,
and about 67 miles N. N. eafterly of Bennington. Hence
rifes a fmaU branch of White-rivcr. — Alfo, a townftiip in
Delaware county, Pennfylvania.

BETHENCOURT, John de, in Biography, a Norman
baron, in the beginning of the 15th century, obtained a
^raiit from Henry III. of Callile, of the Canary iflands,
erefttd into a kingdom in 1344, by pope Clement VI.
Having vifited thcfe iflands in 1402, Betheiicourt returned
to them, and by affiilance from Henry, conquered them, held
them under the title of king, as a fief of the crown of Caftile,
and tranfmitted the pofl'effion of them to his family for fome
generations. His pofterity fettled in Spain. Although his
conqueil of thefe iflands was not complete, Btlhtncourt is
reckoned the firft Cliriftian who fubdued the Canary illes,
which before his time had been occafionally vifited by free-
booters. Robeilfon's Hift. Amer. vol. i. p. 54.

Bethj NcovRT, James de, phyfician at Rouen, \shere he
pradifed with much reputation, towards the end of the 15th

BET

andjthe beginning of the I'Sth centuries, is now only known by
his treatife on the venereal difcafe, publidied in the year 1527,
under the fingular title of " Nova Penittntialis Q_uadrige-
fima, nee non'Purgatoriiim, in Morbum Gallicum, feu Ve-
nereum, una cum Dialogo aquas argenti, et lign! guiaci
luAantium fuper difti morbi prelatura. Opus fruftife-
rum." Paris, 8vo. By his penitence, he means the flrict
regimen enjoined thofe who underwent the guiacum, or
fweating procefs, for the cure of the lues, and by the pur-
gStor}-,^the pains and torments endured while under the
lalivation by mercury, f>)r the fame purpofc. Though he
treatsof the method of curing by the guiacums, as well as
that of mercury, yet he manifeifly gives the preference to
the latter mode, which is laid down by him, Aftruc fays,
in a more judicious manner, than it had been by any pre-
ceding writer. He fays the difeafe was unknown to the
ancient-^, and that it made its firlt appearance, or was firll
noticed in Europe, about the year 1495. He does notcon-
fider it as imported from America, or the Weft Indies, by
the Spaniards, but as procured from caufes fimilar to thofc
that occafion the plague, and other infcCtinus difeafe?. Af
true comrr.ends the work, but it has not obtained a place in
Luifi'ius's culletlion of tieatifes ou the complaint. Aftruc
de Morb. Gall. Haller. Bib. Med.

BETHENNABRIS, in ylncunt Geography, a town of
Perxa, into which the Jews, who fle'd from Gadsra after
it was taken by Vefpafian, retired, and which was forced by
the tribune Placidus, before his complete rcduAion of Persa.
BETHER, Mountains of, are mentioned in the Song
of Sohmion, ch. viil. 14. Some fuppofe Bether to be Be-
thoron, called Betherby Eufebius, and Betliara by Jofcphus.
Bether was taken by the emperor Adrian, in the rebeUion of
Barchochebas. (See JiaRCHocnEBAS. ) Others will have it
to be Betharis, between Caelarea and Diofpohs; and others
again Bether, mentioned in the LXX ( Jof. xv. 6o.)among the
cities of Judah. Calmet fuppofes it to be Upper I'ethoron,
or Bttliora, between Dioipolis and Csefarea. Eufebius
fpeaks of Betharim near Diofpohs, and when he mentions
Bether, which was taken by Adrian, he lays, it was in the
neighbourhood of Jerulalem. Ec. Hift.l. iv. c. 6.

BETHESDA, the name of a pool at Jerufalem, of
which we have an account in the Gofpel by St. John,
ch. V. I — 7. It was called in the Greek xoXn^^nSfos. v^oliy,-
%y.-ri, and in the vulgate " Pifcina probatica," becaufe, as lome
have fuppofcd, the (heep of the facrifices, called in Greek
■xn^xlx, were wafhed in it ; or, according to others, becaufe
the blood of the facrifices ran into it. But neither of thefe
iuppofitions is fatisfactorily proved. The fheep were pro-
bably Wafhed as foon as they were bouci'ht in the adjoining
market, from which they were driven into this pool, which
always contained a fufficient quantity of water for this pur-
pofe. Tlie hitter fu])polition could not pollibly liave been
realized ; fi.':ce, in that caie, the blood muft tirft have de-
feended, and afterwards afcended to this pool, as there was a
drain ordjtch between the pool and the temple, and a bridge
over it for pafling into the temple. Hence Dr. Pococke,
who adopted the idea of the blood's running into the pool,
was obliged to feek for lower ground on the other hde of the
temple, and to place it in a fituation where it did not txiil,
as any one may fatisfy himfelf by adverting to the plan of the
temple at Jerufalem. The fituation of the Ihcep-gate, near
which this pool, or bath, ftood, was on the fouth-eaft wall of
Jerufalem, and therefore a great part of the city lay between
that and the temple, as the acurate Dr. Lightfoot has (hewn
in his " Harmony of the Evangelifts," p. 666. The appel-
lation " Bethefda" has therefore been erroneoully derived
from n"! j>>{if n'3> <fem!Js efujor.is, the fiuk-houfe,' or drain.

The

BET

Tlie etymology, therefore, of thofe who derive " Bethefda"
from n~tDn n'3' ^^^ ^°"fi of m:rcy, is much more jull and
appropriate; becaufe it exprefied the kind defign with which
this bath was conftrufted, and the falutary purpofes to
which it xvas appHtd. The hiftory informs us, that this
pool had five porches, porticoes, or cloyfters, which might
very reafoiiably have been the cafe, nrtwithltanding its
oblong figure ; one being on each hand of the entrance in
the middle of one fide, and three on the other fides. Dr.
Ijightfoot fuggefts, that the bafon itftlf might be in the
form of a pentagon, and that thefe cloyfters might corref-
pond to its five fides. Mr. Maunc-rell (Journey, p. 107.)
%cbo took a view of this pool, in 1696, informs us, that it is
120 paces long, 40 broad, and 8 deep; but without water; and
that at the well end he found fome old arches, then dammed
up, which, though only three in number, were fuppofed to
be the five porches, in which fat the lame, halt, and blind.
This pool, he adds, is contiguous, on one fide, to St. Ste-
phen's gale, and on the other to the area of the temple. In
thefe porticoes difeafed and debilitated perfons lay, " waiting
for the moving of the water ;" for at the time of a certain
fcaft, which iomc have fuppofed to be the paffover, and
others the pentecoit, or rather, according to the feafon,
i. e. occafionally, at certain intervals of time, " an angel de-
fcended into the pool, and troubled the water ; whofoever
then tirft, after the troubling of the water, ftcpped in, was
made whole of whatever difcafe he had." Some have fup-
pofed that the miraculous cure, recorded in this iiillory, was
rellriiled to the feafon of the particular fcaft mentioned in
the firil vcrfc of the chapter ; ar.d thus they account for the
filence of Philo and Jofephus with regard to this miracle.
But thofe, who imagine that thefe waters had a fanative
quahty on other ofcafions, think the filencc of thefe Jewifh
■writers to be of little importance ; as thev have omitted the
mention of other more impo'-tant occurrences in our Lord's
hiftory, which they had an opportunity of knowing ; fuch
as the variety and multitude of fignal miracles which he per-
formed in thecourfe of his minillry. The majority of wri-
ters have regarded the cures wrought at this place as a Hand-
ing m.iracle among tlie Jews, and yet they have been fur-
prifcd that Jofephus, in particular, fliould om.it to mention
a fact fo honourable to his nation. Others have, therefore,
conceived, that the miraculous healing quality of thefe waters
was a peculiar honour cunferred on the perlonal apoearance
of the Son of God upon earth. To this purpofe l)r. Dod-
dridge (in loc.) after Calvin, obferves, that God, to add the
greater luftre to his Son's miracle.-i, as well as to fhcw that his
ancient people were not entirely forgotten by him, had been
pleafed of late to perform fome fupernatural cures at this
place. With refpeft to the delcent of the angel into the
pool, nnd the efFeCl produced by his llirring the water, dif-
ferent hypothefes have been propofed. Grotius thinks, that
the angel is faid to have defcen.ded, not becaufe he was ever
feen to do fo, butbecaule the Jews were perfuaded that God
brought fuch things to pals by the miniftration ot angels ;
fo that from the violent motion of the water, and the effect
produced by it, the prefence of an angel was reafonably
fijppofcd. Dr. Hammond (in loc.) fuppofes, that the blood
of the great number of facrifices, walhed in this pool, com-
municated a falutary efficacy to the v.ater, upon its being
ftirrcd up by an angel, or meflcnger, deputed for this pur-
pofe by the high-pricft ; which iiypothefis Dr. Doddridge
reprefents to be as unphilofophical, as it is unfupported by
hillory and aiitiquity. Mr. Fleming (Chriftology, vol. i.
p. 13^11;.) in order to avoid the apparent difficulties of the
literal interpretation, rejects the latter part of the ihhd and
the whole of i\\tfwrtlj vcrfe, as a fpurious addition of fome
Vol. IV.

BET

ignorant monk in the 8th or 9th century ; becaufe that part
is wanting in the Cambridge, or Bcr.a's MS. and is written
by a later hand in the margin df that in the French king's
librar)', highly extolled by Lamy in his " Harmony." But,
this paffagt is found in all the other moft celebrated MSB.,
in the Syriac verfion, and in the other verfions of the Poly.
glott. Kufler's obfervations, relating to the genuinenefs of
this text, in the preface to his edition of Mill's New Tefta-
ment, deferve to be confidered. But with regard to the
fubjeft in difpute, it (hould be recoUecled, that the fevcnth
verfe, which none queftion, implies, that the water, after being
troubled, had a miraculous virtue, which extended only to
the firft that went in, and cured his difeafe, whatever might
be its nature. Dr. Doddridge fuggefts the following folu-
tion of this difficulty ; the greatell, as he acknowledges, that
occurs in the hiftory of the cvangehfts, and with refpeil to
which none of the numerous writers who have replied to Mr.
Woolfton had given him fatisfadion. He fuppofes thi»
pool might be remarkable for fome mineral virtue attending
the water ; and this circumftance, together with its being fo
near the temple, where a bath was fo much needed for re-
ligious purpofes, may account for the ftately clovllers erected
around it. Som.e time before this paflbver, an extraordmary
commotion had been probably oblerved in the water; and
Providence fo ordered it, that the next perfon who acciden-
tally bathed here, being under fome great diforder, experi-
enced an immediate and unexpefted cure. The like pheno-
menon, m fome other defperate cafe, was probably obferved
in a fccond commotion. Thefe commotions and cures might
happen periodically, perhaps every fabbath, for fome weeks
or months. This the Jews would naturally afcribe to fome
angelic power, as they did afterwards the voice from heaven,
(John xii. 29.) though no angel appeared. On account of
their ingratitude to Chrift for this miracle, and thofe wrought
at the former paffover, and in the intermediate fpace, this
ccleftial vifitant probably returned no more ; and therefore, it
may be obferved, that though the evangelift fpeaks of the
pool as ftill at Jerufalem, when he wrote, yet he mentions
tlie defcent of the angel, as a thing which had been, but not
as ftill continuing. This may account for the filence of Jo-
fephus, who was not born when it happened ; and whc, if
he heard the report of it, would oppole fpeculation and hy-
pothefis to fact, and recur to fome indigelled and unmean-
ing harangues on the unknown force of imagination ; or if
he fecretly fufpeCted it to be true, his dread of the mar\-el-
lous, and his fear of difgufting his Pagan readers with it,
might as well lead him to lupprefs this, as to difguife the
paifage through the Red fea, and the Divine Voice from
mount Sinai, in fo mean and foolilh a manner, as it is known
he does. Befidts, the relation which this fact bore to the
hiftoiy of Jefus, would make him peculiarly cautious io
treating upon it, as it would have been difficult to handle it
at once with decency and fafety. The ingenious and learned
bilhop Pearce, in his excellent " Vindication of Chri'.t's
Miracles," p. 68, &c. agrees with Dr. Doddndge in the
moll material circumftances of his hypothefis.

BETH-GAMUL, the boufi of the mcaned, or ef the
camel, a city of the Moabites in the tribe of Reuben. Jer.
xlviii. 23.

BETH-JESHIMOTH, the houfe of defolation, or, of
pofitinv, or, of denow'mathn, a tity of Reuben (Jolh. xiii, 20.)
aiterwards polfcncd by the Moabites. Ezek. xxv. 9.

BETH LEBAOTH, the houfe of liomjhs, a city of Si-
meon, (Jofh. xix. 6.) lometimcs called Lebaoth. Jo(h.
XV. 32.

BETHLEHEM, the houfe of head, a city of Judah,
(Jofh. xvii. 7,) generally called " Dtfthlchem of Judah,''

M m ta

BET

to diftinguith it from another of the fame name in Zebulun.
It is featcd on the declivity of a hill, 6 miles louth from Jc-
nifalcm, according to Eufcbius and Jerom, It is like-
wife called " Ephratah," (Gen. xlviii. 7. Mic.v, 2.)
This city was not very confiderable either for its extent or
riches ; but it has acquired peculiar dillinflion on account of
its having been the place of our Saviour's nativity. It was
alfo the city of David's nativity. In and near this city tra-
vellers are fliewn the place where our Saviour was born, wh:ch
is faid to have been a cave foutli of the city, and belo'igiiig
to the inn, or caravanferai, whither Jofeph and Mary retired.
Jcrom informs us, that Adrian, in order to erafc the retneni-
Lrance of the place where Clirill was born, planted over the
cave a grove of tall trees in honour of Adonis, fo that when
the feftivah of this infamous deity were celebrated, the holy
grotto ccchoed with the lamentations made in commemora-
tion of Venus's lovir. Hire is alfo feen a large church
built by St. Helena, in the form of a crofs, and fo lofty as
to command an extenfive profpecl of the adjacent country.
The roof is elevated, flat, and compofed of cedar williin,
and leaded without. The nave is fupported on both fides
by two rows of marble pillars, each made of one piece, and
H in a row, forming as it were five naves, feparated from
each other by thofe rows of pillars, on each of which is the
piclure of fome faint. Over the pillars the wall is covered
with mofaic work, on a gold ground. The marble which
formerly overlaid the walls has been removed by theTurk^ for
adorning their mofques. The three upper ends of the crofs
terminate in three femicircles, having in each an altar.
Over the chancel k a (lately cupola, covered on the outfide
with lead, and within adorned with mofaic work. Adjoin,
ing to the church is the monallcry of the Francifcans. The
gardens are defended with ftrong walls ; and through the
chapel is a paflage to a fquare cave, in which they fay the
Innocents were buried. Beyond tliis are paflages to the
tombs of St. Jtrom, St. Paula, and Euftochium, and of
F.uftbius of Cremona ; and beyond thefe is a grotto or cell,
called the fchool of St. Jerom, where he is faid to have
lodged when he tranflated the Bible. At the end of another
vault or chapel, 12 feet wide and 40 long, whofe floor is
paved and fides lined with white marble, and roof adorned
with mofaic work, now much decayed, is an arched con-
cavity, with" an altar, having over it the picture of the na-
tivity, and under it a vault, in tlie middle of which is a flar
formed of nnny coloured ftones, marking the place where
tliey fay our Saviour was born ; and near this is the mangtr
wliere they pretend he was laid, which is hewn out of a rock,
and new flagged with white marble. See Mount Calvary,
and Jkrusauem.

Bethlehem is now called Bait-el-ln/.am ; which fee. The
country in which it is fituated is happy with refpeft to foil,
air, and water. With the latter it is fnpp'icd by a low aqu'e-
riuift, or (lone channel, which formerly paffed to Jerufalem,
The " fons fignatus" is an exuberant fpring : it is received
fucctffivcly by three large citlcrns, one of ivhich is well pre-
ferved. In coming from the cifterns, ar^d at a fmq]l dillance,
is feen what is termed the " delicia^ Sidomoni^," a beautiful
rvulet, which flows murmuring down the valley, and waters
in its courfe fome gardens of excellent foil. Tlie brinks of
this brook arc adorned with a variety of herbage. The
convent at this place contains, under the fame roof, the dif.<
ftrent tenets of Latins, Armenians, and Greeks. Brown's
Travels in Africa, &c. p. 363,

We (hall here ob("erve, that no inconfiderable pains and In-
genuity have been exurcifed to reconcile the quotation of the
evangelifl Mutlliew, ch, it. 6. relating to Bethlehem, with
t!ie original text of tVit prophet Micah, ch. v.z. The dif-

BET

ficulty may be obviated, fays an ingenious writer, or at lead
the appearance of inconfillency i-emoved, by a proper trnnf.
lation of the latter text. " yiiid thou, Bcthhhan Ephratah^
art little m being among the thoufands of Judah ; for out of thee
•will come forth unto me a ruler over Ifracl. That is, ihou haft
but little honour in being among the thoufands of yiniih,
compared with that which will accrue to thee from giving
birth to the AFeJIah." Thus tlie LXX feem to have un-
derftood it. Forms of fpeech fimilar to this, a^K/'i'c tXxxirr.t
h no means the leajl for the greatejl, are not uncommon. (Sec
Homer. II. A. 277. Callim. Hym. Ui.33. Hym.Ap. 31.
Eurip. Androm.b'l. &c. This mode of interpretation \i
confirmed by Lightfoot from the Chaldee paraplirafl ; and
feems to be preferable to that of St. Jerom, or of Dr. I'o-
cocke. The former, who has been foUov/ed by fome others,
is of opinion, thiit Matthew produced the pailage in Micah
hitlorically, not as it was written by the prophet, but as it
had been propoltd by the priells to Herod, fo that they
fhould be aecufed of falfe reading, if that were the cafe. Tlie
latter in his notes on the Porta Moiis of Maimonides, thinks,
that I'J/'V) in Micah, rendered little in the Englifii traiiflation,
has the contrary (ignification to its ufual one of mean or l':lile,
viz. that of nolle or Ulnjlrwus, and for countenancing this
conjecture he cites Jer. xlviii. 4. and the Chaldee paraphrafe
upon that paffage. Grotius, Olearius, and others, have pro-
pofed that the Hebrew text and the Greek EXX verlioii
(lioiild be read and tranflated by way of interrogation. Hcb.
' ylrt thor, Bethlehem J'.phratah, the leafl among the thoufands
of Judr'} ? No: out of thee Jloall he come forth to me, dc. i.e.
I \\\\\ raife up him, &c. Greek LXX. Art thou, Bethlehem,
the houfe of Ephratah, the leajl to he among the thoufands of
'Judah? No: out of thee, &c. ITie learned birtiop Pearce
has adopted this mode of tranflation ; and in favour of it he
urge.", that the Hebrew word ■^'W, in Micah, rendered
I'ltlie, may be rendered the leajl, as it aftually is in Judges,
vi. 15. I Sam. ix. 2 J. Jerem. xlix. 26. and 1. 45. He
alio obferves, that both in the Hebrew and in the Greek of
the O. and N. Tell, it is not unufual for a fentence to be
underllood by way of interrogation, though there is no
mark placed at the beginning of the fentence, ufed in either
of the languages for a mark oi interrogation. To this pur-
pofe he refers for the Hebrew to 2 Sam. xviii. 29. 1 Kings
xxi. 7. Job. ii. 10. xli. I. Zech. viii. 6. and for the
Greek to 2 Sam. xviii. 29. Matt. xi. 3. Mark xlv. 6l.
He adds further, that when words are thus ufed interroga-
tively, there is often at the end of them an anfwer of Yes, or
No, to be fiipplied in the fcnfe, though it is not exprelTed in
the words. This is very common with thofe who write in the
Hebrew language, or with thofe, who, being tiebrews,
write in Greek. In the N. T. the word, iVb, is to be fup-
plied in i Cor. x. 19, 20. The fame mode of fpeaking is
iound in i Cor. xii. 31. A£ls viii. 31. and an inftance,
where 7'es is to be fupplicd, is to be found in j Cor. ix. 20.
From thefe remarks the learned prelate concludes, that, if
this be the cafe, an interrogation with a No to be fupplied as
an anfwer to it, is the fame as a negative not put in interro- '
gation ; or, in other words, to aflc whetlier any thing is the
leiijl, and to anfwer No, as the Elebrew text and LXX ver-
fion do, is the fame as to alhrm, that it i.r not the leaji, as
Matthew does. Either- of the above interpretations will
effcftually fuperfede the perplexity of St. Jerom, and the
objcaions of J )r. Middleton, in his " Works," vol. ii. p. 59.
See Wakefield's " New Tranflation of the Gofpel of
St. Matthew," p. 26. " Pcarce's Commentary," vol. i.
p. 10.

Bethlehem, a town of the tribe of Zebulun, (Jofh.
xix. 15.) of obfcurc and unknown fituntion.

B£THI.E)iEM»

BET

Bethlehem, in Geigrnphy, a town of the Netherlands,
in Brabant. N. lat. 51" 2'. E. long. 4° 40'.
Bethlehem. See Belem.

Bethlehem, a town of America, in Albany county,
New York, fiuitful in paftures, and affording large quanti-
ties of excil'eiit butter. By the (fate cer.fus of 1796, 388
of the inh.ibitaatj are eleftors. — A!fo,a townfliip in Berkfhire
county, MafTachufttts, containing 26 ( inhabitants. It lies
al^ont 10 n::!j- S. of E. from Stockbridge, and 130 from
Bollon, and bnders on the Tyringham and Loudon. —
Alfo, a townlliip in Hunteulon countv, New Jerfev, fituate
at the head of tlie fouth branch of RanU)n river, and con-
taining 1335 inhabitants, including 31 (lavts. — -Alfo, a town-
fhip in Litchfield county, CmineCticut, j'lining Litchfield
county on the north, and Woodbuiy on the foutli. — Alfo,
a poll town in Northampton coimtv, Pcnnf) Ivania, which is
a celebrated fettlement of the United Brethren of the Pro-
teftant epifcopal church, as thty term themfclvcs. It is
fituate on Lehigh river, a wellern branch of the Delaware,
53 miles northerly from Philadelphia, and 18 foutherly from
the Wind Gap. Tlictown (lands parrly on the bwer hanks
of the Manakes, a fine creek, which affords trout, and other
filli, in a healthfjl and pleafant fitnation, and in fnmmcr is
much frequented by ge\itry from different parti. In \'J'?'~-,
there were 60 dwelling lumfcs of Hone, well built, and 6co
inhabitants. Befides the mecting-houfe, this place has three
other public buildings, wliich are fpacious ; one for the
fingle brethren, one for the fingle fillers, and the other for
the widows. In a houfe adjoining the church is a fchoul
for females, and fince 17S7, a boarding fchool for young
ladies, under the direction of the minider of the place, who
alfo fuperintends the buys' fchool, kept in a fepaiate houfe.
Both thefe fchools are in high repute, and much frequented.
At the lower part of the town there is an hydraulic machine
of fimple conftruclion, that raifes the water from a fpring to
a refervoir, at the height of 100 feet, whence it is con-
ducted by pipes into the feveral (Ireetsof the town. In this
town are alfo a (lore, with a general affortment of goods, a
large tan-yard, a grill-mill, a fulling-mill, an oil-mill, and a
faw-mill, and on the banks of the Lehigh, a brewery. N.
lat. 40° 37'. W. long. 75° 14'.

Bethlehem, Star of,'\n Botany, Ses Orn ithog alum.
BETHLEHEMITES, or Bethlemites, in Church
Htflory, a fort of monks introduced into England in the year
1257, habited like the Dominicans, except that, on their
breatl, they wore a ftar with five rays, in memory of the ftar
or comet which appeared over Bethlehem at the nativity of
our Saviour. They were celled at Cambridge, and had only
one houfe in England.

There is alfo an order of Bethlehemites (lill fuhdding vn
Peru, who have convents at I^una ; one called of the incura-
bles, the other of our Lady of mount Carmel. Thefe Bctli-
Ichcmitcs came originally from the city of Guatimala iu
Mexico, where they were inllituted by the venerable Peter
Jolcph of Betaneur, a native of the tortii of Chafna, or Villa
Fuerte, on the idand of Tcneriff, in 1626, for the lervice of"
the poor. After his death, which happened in 1^)67, his
■longregation was approved of by a bull of Clement X. in
1672, and in 1674. Innocent XI. in 16S7, created it into
a community of regulars. Before this time it bad palTed
from Guatimala to Mexico, and from thence, in 167 1, to
Lima. In the city of St. Miguel de I'iiira, they took pof-
i'tfiion of the hofpital 01 St. Ann, in 167^, and of that of
St. Seballian,in Truxillo, in 1680. Their probity and dili-
gence in dilcharging thefe trulls induced other places to
feleft them as direclors of their hofpitals, and among the lell,
th? city of Quito, 'llie fathers of their order go bare-footed,

BET

and wear a habit^f dark brown colour, nearly refembling that
of the capuchins, whofe order they alfo u^J'^'lc, in not fhaving
their beards. On one fide of theircloak is an imageof our Lady
of Bethlehem. Every Cxth yearthey meet to choofe a general,
which ceremony isperfonned ahemately at Mexico and Lima.
Tne Bethlehen-.ites, though outwardly of great fimplicity,
pafs for the moil refined politicians ; infomuch as to be called
the quintelfence of the Carmelites and Jefuits. They are all
friars. For their almoner they choofe a fecular pritft, whom
they hire, and who has no vote in the chapter.

BEl'HLEM, Gabor, in Biography, prince of Tranfyl-
vanin, was a defcendanl of a family of rank, but vcr)- fmall
property, and attached to the reformed religion. By hit
valour he obtained the favour of Gabriel ILattori ; but hav.
ing ingratiated himfelf with the Porte, in a vifit to Conftan-
tiiiople, he obtained a forCe which enabled him to expel
Button, and ti> ellabhfli himfelf as prince or waiwode, in
1613. He was afterwards led by ambition to extend hi»
dominions, and under the advantage of an alliance with
Frederic, the elector palatine, and newly declared king
of Bohemia, he .made an irruption into Upper Hungary,
in 1619. Having reduced this countiy, he received the
fubmiirion of Lower Hungary, and in his march towards Vi-
enna he took Prefbirrg, and was acknowledged prince tf
Hungary. The afhltance which was afforded him by the
opprcifed protcflantf, induced him to ctlablilli liberty of
confcicnce throughout Hungary. At an affcmbly of the
flates, he was declared king ; bat in coiifcquence of a treaty
concluded between him and the emperor, he renounced the
title and dignity of king of Hu-.:gary, and was made in re-
turn prince of the empire, \vith the poffefTijn of two duchies
in Silclla, and ieveral ca.lles and dillritls in Hungar)-. His
redlcis difpofition however led him to violate the treaty, and,
in 1624., he overran Hungary, till he was defeated by the
imperial general, and obliged to take refuge in Caffovia.
Upon this a treaty of peace was negociated, by which he
renounced all pretenfions to Hungary, and all conneClion*
with the enemies of the houfe of Auftria, and was invefted
with feveral lordlhips in Silefia, and with authority over
Tranfylvania during life. After this period he remained
quiet ; and falling into a diopfy, died in 1629. He left
legacies both to the emperor and grand feignor. Gaber
married the daughter of John Sigifmond, eleclor of Bran-
denburgh. Mod. Univ. Hill. vol. xxvii. p. 2, ic.

BETH-MA ON, the huufe of habitation, or, of iniquity, in
Ancient Geography, a city of the Moabites, in the tribe of
Reuben. Jer. xlviii. 23.

BETH-MA RCHA BOTH. t\ie houfe of chariots, or, of
litlernefs extlncJ, a city in the tribe of Simeon.

IjE TH-MAUS, a village of Galilee, between Sephoris
and Tiberias, dillant, according to Jofephus, 4 iladia from
the latter. Lightfoot fuppofcs it to be the Beth-meon of
the Talmud.

BETH-NIMRAH, the houfe of the le^,pard, or, of rebel-
lion, or, of litlcrucfs, a city in the tribe of Cad. Numb,
xxxii. 36.

BETHO-'\NNABA, or Beth-hannabah, a town, ac-
cording to Eufebius, 4 miles call from Diolpohs. The name
prefcrves fome remains of the word Nob, where the taber-
nacle continued for fome time, in tlie reign of .Saul. I Sam.
xxi. I. Accordingto Jerom, Nob was not farfrom Diofpolis.
BETHOGLA. the houfe of the feafl or dance, the name of
two places : one fixed by Eufebius, 8 miles from Gaza ; the
other by Jerom, 2 miles from Jordan. The Bethagla of
Eufebius is probably part of the tribe of Judah. Jolh. xv. 6.
The Bcthogla of Jerom belongs to that of Benjamin. Jofh.
xviii. ^l.

M m 2 BETHOME,

BET

BETHOME, or Bethora, was otherwlfe called JuVtasy
and wao the birth-place of the prophet Joe!. The inha-
bitants of Bcthome rebelled againft Alexander Jann^us.
The town was taken, and they were feat captives to Jeru-
falem,

BETHONEA, or Beth-oanea, was fituated 15 miles
eaft from Cifarea, and was famous, according to Eulcbius
and Jerom, for its beneficial hot baths.

BETHQRON, a town of Samaria. The Scriptures
Tncnlioii two cities of this name, theZ'/'/'''' and Z-ou'it, both
belonging to the tribe of Ephraim, (Jofh. xvi. 3, 5.) and
given by this tribe to the Levites (Jofli. xxi. 22.). They
were both built by Sherali, grand-daughter of Ephraim
( I Chron. vii. 24.) and rcllored by Solomon after they had
■fallen to decay (r Kings ix. i ". 2 Chron. viii. 5). Their
dillaiice fiom one another was almott the whole breadth of
the tribe of Ephraim; the Upper hcmg in the north, and
the Lotvcr in the fouth of that tribe. The former was fitu-
ated in the road from Conilantinople to Antioch, and the
fame with iJ^/^/ron of Antoiiine's itinerary ; ov Betaro, placed
between Caefarca and Diofpolis. The latter was fcated on a
mountain, on the public roud to LydJa aadCaefarea, diilant
100 ftadia, or about 12 miles from Jerufalem ; and hence it
has been allotted by fome to the tribe of Benjamin. Jerom
fays, that Paula paiTed through both the Bethorons in her
way from Naploufe to Jerufalem. See Bither.

BETH-PALATH, or Beth-peleth, the houfe of dc-
liveranee, or of expul/ion, a city in the moll fouthern part of
the tribe of Judah, Jofh. xv. 27. Nehcm. xi. 26. This
city was furrendered to the tribe of Simeon.

BETH-PAZZEZ, the houfe of divficu, a city in the tribe
of Iffachar. Jofh. xix. 21.

BETH-PEOR, or Beth-phagor, the temple of Peer,
a city of Moab given to the tribe of Reuben, (Deut. iv. 46.)
where the idol Baal-Peor was worfhipped. Numb. xxv. 3.
It was fituated on the other fide of Jordan, oppofile to
mount Peor, or Phagor.

BETHPHAGE, a village at the foot of mount Olivtt,
between Bethany and Jerufalem, and about 15 furlongs from
the latter. Sec Bethany.

BETHSAIUA, a city of the half tribe of ManafTch,
near the defert of the fame name. It was fituated, accord-
ing to Pliny, on the eaft, or on the Arabian fhore of the lake
of Gennefareth, in Batanea, and the lower Gaulonites, ac-
cording to Jofephus, at the beginning of the mountainous
country. It was a place of filfiing, according to Bochart,
and a place of hunting, fays Dr. Lightfoot, fo called be-
caufe it ftood near Naphtali, where were many deer. Gen.
xlix. 21. It was raifed by Phihp, the brother of Herod the
tetrarch, from the rank of a village to the honour of a city,
and called Julias, in honour of the emperor's daughter. It
feems to have been different from Betharamphtha, called
alfo Bethfaida Julias. See Betharamphtha. Thislatter
Ikthfaida, which was on the weftern fhore of the lake of
Gennefareth (Mark vi. 45. viii. 22.) was, one of the cities
againfl which Chrifl denounced a woe (Matt. xi. 21.) on ac-
count of its impenitence and infidelity, after the mighty
works which he had performed in it. It was alfo the city
where three apoftles dwelt, viz. Phihp, Andrew, and Peter.
John i. 45.

BETH-SHALISHA, or Baal-salisa, a town of Pa-
leftine, in the canton of Thamna, 15 miles north of Diofpo-
lis, according to Eufebius, and fouth-eall of Antipatris.

BETHSAN, or Bethsean, a town of Samaria in the

half tribe of Manafleh, upon the borders of Galilee, on this

fide Jordan, and about half a league from it. It was the capital

cf a diftriifl of the fame name, extending to Pcrsa. In

6

BET

2 Maccabees xii. 29. it is placed 600 ftadia, or 75 miles
from Jerufalem. Jofephus fays, that it was the largell towij
of the DecapoUs, and that it was 120 ftadia, or 15 miles
from Tiberias. It was upon the walU of this city tliat the
Philillines, after the battle of Gilboa, hung the bodies of
S.^ul and Jonathan,, which were removed in the night by the
inhabitants of Jabefli-Gilead, and honourably interred, un-
der a grove of oaks near the city, (l Sam. xxxi. 10, &c.) In
proccls of time it was called Scythopolis, which name it de-
rived from the Sc)-\hians, who, in the reign of Jofiah, king
of Judah, about 635 years before Chrifi, made an irruption
into Paleiline, and left a colony at Bethfan. Steph. Byz.
and Pliny call it Nyfa. Bryant (Anal. Myth. vol. 'iii.
p. 4i5.)deduces its name Beth fan, from beth, houfe or temple,
and fan, or fhan, an ancient denomination of the fun, under
which he was worfliipped ; and he fuppofes, that he had a
temple in this c'ty, to the walls of which the body of Saul
was fallcned. Images of the fuii, under the appellation of
Zanes, were pecuhar to Sparta. This city, according to
him, was built by the Cuthite Opliitae, or Hivites, fome of
whom fettled in that part of Canaan, called Galilee. As
Ophitx, they worflfippcd the fun under the figure of a fer-
perit, and they were fuppofed to be Helladae, or offspring
of the fun. The ferpeu: tliey ilyled fan, or fhan ; but as
the Hebrew /Z'<;« ilgnified alio a tooth, the Grecians, inilead
of faying that the Sparti had their origin from the ferpent
deity, the fun, made them lake their rile from the teeth of
a ferpent.

BETH-SHEMESH, the houfe of the fun, or, offervice,
a Levitical city in the tribe of Dan, or of Judah, for it is
alTigned to the one and to the other ; diftant, according to
Eulebius, 1 o miles from Elcutheropolis, in the way to Ni-
copolis, or Emmaus. iSani. vi. 12. Jofh. xiv. 41. i Kings
iv. 5. — Alfo, a city of the tribe of Iffachar. Jofh. xix. 22.
— Alfo, a city of the tribe of Naphtali. Jofh. xix. 38.

Ju''g''- 33-

BETH-SUR, or Beth-zur, thi- houfe of the rod, or,
of the land, a city with a flrong fortrcfs, feated on a high
rock, in the tribe of Judah (Joih. xv. 38.) diilant, accord-
ing to Eufebius, 20 miles from Jerulalcm, on the road to
Hebron. It was fortified by Rehoboam, to keep the
Danites in awe. (2 Chron. xi. 7.) When it was befiegtd by
Lyfias, under Aiitiochus, the fon of Antiochus Epi-
phanes, with an army of 6c,ooo foot, and 5000 horfe, Ju-
das Maccabseus came with io,oco men to its fuccour, and
obliged Lyfias to raife the fiege, and defeated his army.
B. C. 165. 1 Maccab. iv. 28. vi. 7. Bryant derives the
name of this city from beth, temple, and fur, a name given
to the fun, under which appellation lie had temples and
worfhip.

BETH-TAPPUA, the apple or orchard houfe, a city of
Judah (Jofh. xv. 53.) faid, by Eufebius, to be the lafl city
of Paleflinc in the way to Egypt; 14 mihs from Raphia.

BETHUL, orBETHUEL, a city of Galilee, belonging
to the tribe of Simeon, (Jofli. xix. 4.) probably the fame with
Bethel'ia, reprefented by Sozomcn in Iiis hiflory, as belong-
ing to the inhabitants of Gaza, well-peopled, and adorned
with feveral temples remarkable for their flruCture and an-
tiquity ; particularly a pantheon, or temple, dedicated to
all the gods, feated on an eminence made of earth, which
commanded the whole city. Jerom, fp^aking of Bethelia,
fays, that from thence to Pelufium was a fhort journey of
five days. Among the bifhops of Paletline, we find one of
Btthelia. Reland, l.i 0.35. p. 208. This was probably
the fame with Belhulia, celebrated on account of its fiege by
Holoferncs, at which he vs-as killed by Judith. Judith,
vi. 7.

BETHUNE,

BET

BETHUNE, in Biography. See Svlly.

Beth UN E, in G^ojni^^j;, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrift, in the department of the ftraits of Calais,
feated on a rock in the little river Bietre. The number of
inhabitants in the town is eftimated at 5000, snd in the can-
ton at 15,956. Its territory contains 125 kiliometres, and
17 c.'mmunes. It formerly belonged to the counts of Flan-
ders, but being taken by Gallon, duke of Orleans, ni 1645, it
was united to France by the peace of the Pyrenees, and t'le
fortificati jns were repaired under the direction of M. V'auban.
In 1 7 10, it was captured by the allied army, under prince En-
gene and the duke of Marlborougjh, and rellorcd to France in.
1713, at the peace of Utrecht. This city and thecaftle are to-
gether of a triangular hgure; but the caftlc itfelf is an irregular
building. The houfes are mean, and the llreets are ill paved,
but it contains feveral churches and convents, and a lar 'e
handfome fquare. In the marfhy lands, near the city, ftve-
ral canals are cut for the convenience of whitening linen.
N. lat. 50° 32'. E. long. 2° 48'.

Beth ONE, a river of France in Upper Normandy, in the
county of Caux.

BETHURA, in indent Geography, a town of Afia in
AfTyrla. Ptolemy.

BETIGOI-A, in Geography, a town of Poland, in Sa-
ir.ogitia, 10 miles S. S. E. of Rofienne.

BETI(,^UA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Congo.

BETITLO, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea,
22 miles fouth of Miilllra.

BETLIS, a town of Afia in Curdiftan, fituated between
two high mountains, at a caimon (hot's diltancc from each
other ; the refidence of a bey, who is fubjedl neither to the
king uf Perfia nor the Turkifh emperor, and who commands
an army of 20,oco or 25,000 horfemen, befides infantry. It
lies on the road from Tauris to Aleppo, and the paflage' is
fo narrow, that the prince can (lop caravans whenever he
pleafes. The caftle is on an eminence between the moun-
tains, rcfembling a fugar-loaf, and fo ftetp that it can only
be afcended by witidmg round it. The people in and near
the town are (hepherds, and are ready to take up arms at
the command of their prince. It is diftant about no miles
E. of Diarbekir, and 100 N. of Moful. N. lat. 37° 2c'.
E. lone. 42"' 4c'.

BETOL.A, a town of Italy, 16 miles S. of Placenza.

EETON, xr. Arcb'iteSure. See Cements, Calcareous.

BETONICA, Betony, corrupted from Vettonica, which
is derived from the Vcttones, an ancient people of Spain, in
Botany. Lin. gen. 718. Reich. 776. Schreb. 973. Tour-
I'cf. 96. JufT. 114. Smith, Flor. Brit. 267. Clals and Or-
I'.er, didyr.amia gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Vcrlicillatj:, or L,a-
hiat£. Gen. Char. Calyx, perianth one-leafed, tubular,
cylindric, five-toothed, awned, permanent. Cor. monopeta-
I0U6, ringent ; tube bent in, cylindric ; upper lip roundifh,
entire, flat, eredl ; lower trifid ; middle divilion broader,
roundi'.li, emarginate. Stam. filaments four, fubulate, the
length of the throat ; two (horter, inclined to the upper lip ;
anthers roundilli. Pijl. germ four-parted ; llyle, form, fitn-
ation, and fizc of the Ilamens ; iligma bifid. Per. none ;
calyx foftenng the feeds in its bofom. Seeds four, ovate.

Efi^. Char. Cal. awned. Cor. upper lip afcending, flat-
lifh ; tube cylindric.

Species, I. B. officinalis, woodbetony. Lin. Spec. 8io.
Hudf. 258. With. 53c. Relh. 229. Sibth. 1S5. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 3. t.33. Fl. Dan. t. 726. Woodw. Suppl.
t. 241. Varieties,^. B. alba. Bauh. pin. 235. Hall. ;3.
Ger. 577. 2. y. B. minima alpina helvetica. Tourn. Hall. y.
Lightf. ^. Mor. f. 4. Park. 614. f. 3. Raii Hilt. 550.
«• Spike interrupted ; helmet of the corolla entire ; middle

BET

diviCon of the lower b'p emarginate ; calyxes fmoothifh."
The common wood betony has an upright Hem, a foot high
or more, not branched, or very httle in its wild ftate, hairy,
channelled, the corners rounded ; root-leaves on long pe-
tioles, oblong-heart- fhaped, obtufe, wrinkled, crenate, with
few hairs, but dotted with fmall hollow points, the edge
cihate ; ftcm-leaves fubfefGle, lanceolate, ferrate ; braftes
numerous, lanceolate, ciliate, fhorter than the calyx ; flowers
in fpikes, compofed of feveral whorls ; calyx coloured, fcffile,
almoll upright, villofe within, having long hairs between
the five long-pointed fegments ; the two upper teeth re-
curved ; corollas purple, varying to flefll and rarely white ;
tube downy, longer than the calyx, upper lip-commonly en-
tu-e, fometimes cloven at the end, lower fcalloped or cre-
nulate ; filaments villofe ; anthers blackifh. A native of
woods, heaths, and paftures, among bufhes ; perennial,
floweriiig in July and Auguft. The dried leave?, by their
rough hairs, excite fneezing ; and it has accordingly been
made an ingredient in the itemutatory powders. But Dr-
CuUen obferves, that this, as well as.marjoram, feems to be-
only ufcful, by diffufing and giving an agreeable odour to •
the other errhines. Sheep eat it, but goats refufe it. This
plant dyes wool of a very fine dark yellow colour. The
leaves and tops of the betony have an agreeable bat weak
fmell ; to the talle they difcover a flight warmth, accom.
pained with fome degree of allringency and bittemcf?. They •
yield very little eflential oil. This, like many other plants
formerly in great medical eftimation, is at this time almoft
entirely difregarded. Antonius Mufa, phyfician to the em-
peror Auguftus, filled a whole volume with an enumeratioa
of its virtues, ftating it as a remedy for no lefs than 47 dif-
orders ; and hence in Italy arofe the proverbial compliments,,
"tu hai piu di vertii che non ha betonica," i. e. you have
more virtues than betony ; and " vende la tunica e't compra
la bctomca," i. e. fell your coat and buy betony. Simon
PauUi alfo afcribes to it powers, which may be confidercd
as rather miraculous than natural, and which did not feem
to require contradiflion, from the experiments of Alllon.
Modern writers, however, do not allow the betony to pof-
fefs any confidcrable efficacy, and it is omitted in the cata-
logues of the Britiih difpenfatories. Scopoli indeed fays,
that he experienced its cephalic and corroborant efFefts;
but its fenfible qualities fhew it to be more inert than mod of
the other verticiUats. The roots and leaves are laid to be
very different in quality from the other parts of the plant ;
ar.d to be naufeous, bitter, purgative, and emetic. Both
this plant and eytbright enter into the compofition of Row-
ley's Britifli herb tobacco and fnuft. The variety |S. is not
uncommon with a white flower, in fubalpine paftures. Ge-
rard remarked it near Hampftead ; and Mr. Miller fays, that
he often found it in Kent. The fmall mountainous variety
-/ is not unfrequent with a fpike, nearly globular ; the leaves
and flowers are fmaller ; but all thefe differences are owing
to Ctuation.

2. B. o/^(Vffl/j///, oriental betony. " Spike entire, middle di-
vlfion of the lip of the corolla quite entire." The flowers are
larger, and of a lighter purple than thofe of the common fort.
It was firft difeovered by Tournefort in the Levant, and was
cultivated in Kew garden by Mr, Miller in 1739. 3. B. ah-
^fcuroj, fox-tail betony. Sideritis alopecuros. Scop. Carn.
n. 711. t. 28. Horminum alpinum luteum, bctonicae fpica.
Raii hill. 547. — minus album, &c. Bauh. pin. 239.
prodr. II, |.. " Spike kafy at the bafe, helmet of the
corolla bifid." The leaves are altogether heart-fhaped, hir-
fute, and ferrate ; the flowers fmell like elder ; the corollas
are pale yellow ; the filaments lanuginous ; and the germs
fmooth and fliining. A native of the mountains of Savoy,
Piedmont, Auilria, Carniola, SileCa, and Provence ; culti-
vated .

BET

vated, In 1 759, in Kew garden, by Mr. Miller. 4. B. Zi.r-
futa, hairy bctony. B. Alpina. Miller. Di£l. n. 3. B.
Monierii. Obf. 146. B. Alpina incana purpurea. Barr.
ic. 340. B. fo). hirfut. flor. pnrpur. ampliflimij. Ment/.
pug. zanon. t. 30. p. 46. " Spikes leafy at the bafe, hel-
met of t!ie corolla entire." Rcfcmbling the foregoing, but
more llout and hairy, with a fliorter, thicker fpike ; a native
of the Alps, ApeniiirtL"!, and Pyrenees, and cultivated in
Kew garden by Mr. Miller, in 17^9. 5. B. bcrizch-a.
" Spike with woolly calyxes, teeth (i'.iform ; leaves lanceo-
late, naked." A native of the Levant. 6. B. Jlrida,
Danilh betony. Ait. Hort. Kew. 2. 291. B. Danica.
Mi'ler. Dic>. n. 2. " Spike oblong ; helmet of tlic corolla
entire, n-.iddle divifion of the louver lip notch-waved ; calyxes
hairy." A native of Denmark, cultivated by Mr. Miller in
Kew garden, in 1759. 7. B. inran,!, hoary betony. Mill.
Did. n. 5. Ait. Hort. Kew. 2. 299. " Spike interrupted ;
helmet of the corolla bilii', middle divilion of the lower lip
notched ; tube tomtntofe bent in." A native of Italy ; cul-
tivated in Kew garden by Mr. Miller in 1759. AH the
fpecies of this genus are herbaceous, fibrous-rooted, hardy,
perennial plants. The Hems are hmple, or but little branched.
The floivers are in whorW, forming a terminating fpike.

Propagutlon aiu! Culture. All the forts may be propagated
by feeds, or parting the roots : they require a fliady iituation
and a moid iliff foil. The bell time for tranfplanting and
feparating the roots is in autumn, but the feeds {hould be
fown in the fpring upon a fliady bordtr; and they will need
no other care befides keeping them from weed', and thinning
them when they are too clofe. Martyn's Miller. Wood-
ville Med. Bot. vol. ii. p. 79. '

Betosica Aqua.'ica. See Scroph ulari A.

Betonica P.iuli. See Vhronica,

BETONIM, in A/icitiil Geo^ru/i/jy, a city of Gad, towards
the north of this tribe, bordering on Manafich. Jofli. xiii.
26.

BETO POULO, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 37-' 2'. E.long. 1^° 33'.

BETOWKY, a town of Poland, in Samogitia, 16 miles
weft of Rofienne.

BETSCHKOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau, 0 miles N.W. of Czaflau.

BETSE, or Betsetek, a town of Hungary, in the
county of Beth, feated on the Theis, near its influx into the
Danube.

BETROTHMENT, in Laiv, a mutual promife of com-
paft between two parties for a future marriage. The word
imports as much as giving one's troth ; that is, true faith,
or promife. Betrothment amounts to the fame with what is
called by civilians and canoni(lsy/io«/(;/>a, or f/^oi^/r ; fome-
times Acfpnnfat'ion ; and by the French fitingailles. Betroth-
ment is cither folemn, made in the face of the church, or pri-
vate, made before witnefTes out of the chuich. To betroth by
giving tzrrhj-, or earneil, is called, by MiHJlc Age Writers, fub-
barrare. In RufTia, the betrothing is performed with eceleh-
aftical rit.-s, generally ei.'ht days previous to the marriage,
and is indilfoluble. During this interval, the bride is only
vifited by the bridegroom, and the girls of her acquaintance,
who amufe her with fmgiiig. On the lall evening, the young
women bring the bride into the hot bath, where thev plait and
tie up her hair. Tinging at the fame time ballads defcriptive of
her future happinefs. Among the ancient Jews, the be-
trothing was performed, either by a writing, or by a piece of
Klver given to the bride, or by cohabitation and confumma-
tion. This latter engagement, according to the Rabbins,
was allowed by the law (Dent. xxiv. i.), but it has been
wifely forbidden by the ancients, on account of the abufes
<hat might happen, and for preventing clandeftine marriages.

BET

After the marriage was contrafled, the young people had
the liberty of feeing each other, which was not allowed them
before. If during this time the bride fliould trefpafs againft
that fidelity (he owed to her bridegroom, flie was treated as
an adultrefs. (Seld. Uxor. Hcb. 1. ii. c. i.) The nuns of
the Annunciada hold an annual feall, in honour of the
defponfation, or betrothment of the Virgin Maiy to Jo-
fcph.

BETTA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, 70
miles S.S.W. of Erzerum.

BETTEMBOURG, the chief place of the cantor, in
'the diftiic^ of Luxembuiv, and department of Fo'ets ; con-
taining 812 perfons : the number in the canton amounts to
10,139. The territory com.prehends 290 kiliometres, and
1 2 communes.

BETTERTON, Thomas, in Biography, a famous aftor,
the Englifli Rofciusofhis time, wastlie fou of an under cook
in the houfliold of king Charles I., born in 1(^135, and after
a tolerably liberal education, apprenticed to a bookfeller.
This bookfc-Uer, being the publiiher of lir Willi:. -.n d'Avenant,
introduced Betterton into an acquaintance with Inin, and by
this means he was brought upon the llage, under his patron-
age, about the year 1656 or 1657. After the rellora-
lion, he engaged in the company called the Duke's company,
formed in virtue of a patent gnmted to fir William d'Ave-
nant, which adled at the theatre in Lincoln's-inn fields. Bet-
terton, whofe talents had attradled notice, was fent to Paris,
by command of Charles T., that he might acquaint himfeit"
with the French llage, and contribute on his return to the
improvem.ent of the Englifh theatre. A new theatre was ac-
cordingly built for d'Avenant's company, in Doifet gardens,
and the exhibitions conduced in it were attended with great
foccefs. In 1670, Betterton married a Mr.-. Saunderfon,
who excelled as an aClrefs on the fame ftage, and who con-
tributed, in concurrence with his own exertions, to procure
for them not only a comfortable fubfillence, but fucti a lur-
plus as might have ferved to maintain them in their advanced
age. After the coalition of the two companies above men-
tioned, which took place about the year 1685 or 16S6, the
merit of Betterton fiione with unrivalled luftre ; and he ac-
quired the honour of being at the head of his profeffion.
From the account which Gibber has given of his dramatic
talents, it appears that no aftor entered with a more difcri-
minating judgment into his part, or pofltfrcd a greater com-
mand over his audience. The leading ftyle of his afting was
the grave, dignified, and forcible. His voice, perfon, and
afpett, concurred in giving more fpirit to terror than to the
fofter paffions ; and Cibber add?, in bearing ample teflimony
to his merit ; " I never heard a line in tragedy come from
Betterton, wherein my judgment, my ears, and my imagina-
tion were not fully fatisfied." His powers, however, feem
to have been rcllritled to a particular walk in tragedy ; and
Othello, Hamlet, Brutus, and Hotfpur, are enumerated
among his ftriking parts, "and in thefe the range is from
calm dignity to fiery impetuofity."

With refpeft to his private charafler, we are told that it
was, like his theatrical, manly, decent, and elevated. Having
acquired a moderate property, he embarked it, by the advice
of A friend, in a commercial projeft, in wiiieh it was loft ;
and yet that friend's daughter, when Ihe became an orphan,
was maintained by him as if ftie had been his own. In con-
fequence of fome difputes which occurred, he was compelled,
by ftage-tyranny, to quit the con-.pany, with which he had
been long engaged ; and a new play-houfe was opened bv his
efforts in Lincoln's-inn fields, in 1695. The growing infir-
mities of advanced age made it necclTary for him to withdraw
from the ftage, and to acquiefce, which he did with felf-pof-
fcffion and lerenity of mind, in the narrow cireurnftances of

2 his

BET

his declining life. In 1 709, a benefit was allowed liim 5 and

on tliis occafioi two eminent aftrefFcs, Mrs. Bracegirdle and

Mrs. Barry, who had quitted the ftage, afiifled him by their

appearance before the public, and Mr. Rowe contributed an

excellent epilogue. In April 1 7 10, he performed again at

his own benefit ; but the means to which lie had recourfe for

repelling the gout fronihis feet for this purpofe, proved fatal

to him on the 28th of that month. He was buried in Weft-

minller abbey ; and fir Richard Steele devoted a paper of

the Tatler (N'' 167.) to record the event, and to honour his

memory. His veneration for Shak-rfpearc refemblcd thst of

his great fucceffbi-, Mr. Garrick ; and, like him, he derived iiis

principal renovn from an exhibition of the characters of that

famous dramatic writer. The few pieces which Bettcrton

wrote for the ftage, owe their chief excellence to his accurate

and expreiTive knowledge of theatrical effeft. His widow,

vith whom he had lived in uninterrupted harmony, did not

furvive him more than fix months ; nor,indeed,did (he live Ion t

enough to enjoy the benefit of that penfion which was fettled

upon her by queen Anne juft before her death. We fhall

clofe this article with the relation of an anecdote recorded by

Motraye in his Travels. When Betterton was one day at

dinner with the archbifhop of Canterbury, his grace expreffed

to him his allouilliment, that the reprefentation of fables

on the ftage fhould make a greater imprcflion upon the mind

than that of truth in the fermons of tlie clergy ; to which

the aftor, having obtained leave to reply, faid " May it

pleafe your grace. It is becanfe the clergy, in reading their

fermons, pronounce them as if they were reading fables : and

we, in afting our pavts, and ufing in tltem a proper gefture,

reprefcnt them like matters of faft." l3iog. Brit.

BETTINGEN, in Geography, a town ol Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, aud county of Blankcuhtim, 3 miles
north of Geroldftein.

BETTINI, Domes ICO, in Biography, a painter, was
horn at Florence in 16.54, and ftudicd at Rome the works of
Mario da Fiori, whofe paintings he indulhioufly copied, and
whofe ftyle and manner he acquired He painted fruit,
flowers, infefts, animals, and Hill life ; his objefts were well
difpofed, and fl:ilfully grouped, and had a ftrong charafter
of truth and nature. This artill died in 170J. Pilking-
ton.

BETTON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the lUe and Villaine, and chief place of a
canton in the diftrift cf Rennes ; 1 \ league north of
Rennes.

BETTS, John, in Biography, born at Winchefter, where
he received the riidiments of his education, was elefted one
of thcfcholais of Chrift Ciiurch Oxford, in 1642. Being of
the king's party, he v.-as ejeded the houfe, in that feafon of
confufion and trouble, but permitted, after a time, to return,
and was made doctor in medicine, in 1654. Conning to
London, he was in much requeft, particularly by t^ofe of
the Romifli church, of which lie was a member. He was
alfo elefted one of the fcllo.vs of the college of phyficians ;
and on the rtftoration of king Charles II. was made one of
his phyfic^aiis. Bctts publiihed, in 1669, " De ortu ct
natura fanguiniti," which was ce.ifured by Ur. Thompfon in
his True Way of preferving the blood in its integrity. He
alfo publidied an account of the diffei^tion of Thomas Parr,
wh ) lived to the great age of 152 years and 9 months.
This account was afterwards infcrted in the works of Dr.
Harvey, who is fuppofed to have drawn it up. Wood's
Athen. Ox.

DETTYAR, in Geography, a town iC Hindoftan, and
the c.ipital rf a province, in the country (f Bahar, So miles
N.N.W, of Patna, and 124 N.E. ol ijuaaics.

BET

BETULA, Alder, and Birch, in Botany. Lin. pen.
11.1052. Reich. 1 147. Schreb. 1419. Tournef. 350. Juff.
.J.09. Gxrtn. t. 90. Clafs and Order, monoecia tetrandria.
Nat. Ord. amcntacee. Gen, Char. * MaUJlawen in a cylindric
ament. Cat. ament imbricate on every fide, loofe, cylindric,
confifting of three-flowered fcalcs, in each of which are two
very minute fcales, placed at the fides j three equal flofcules
fixed to the dilk of each fcale of the calyx. Perianth in each
one-lesfed, fmall, entire, three or four-parted ; divifions ovate,
obtufe. Co.'-. none. 5/jm. filaments to each four (or three,
or two), verv fmall; anthers twin. • Female Jlozierj in an
ament of the fame plant. Cal. ament cylindric or roundith,
imbricate ; with two-flowered fcales. Cor. none. P'ljl. germ
proper, ovate, comprcffcd, very fmall, two-feeded ; ftyles two,
fetaceous ; ftigmas fimple. Per. none ; ament under each
fide cherifhing the feeds of two florets. Seeds, folitary, ovate.
Obf. Betuln^. has the fruits in cylindric aments ; fcalcs
three-forked ; feeds with a double lateral wing, jllnus T.
has them in a roundidi ftrobile ; fcales roundiih ; feeds an-
gular, without wings.

Efl". Char. Male. Cal. one-leafed, three-cleft, three-
flowered. Cor, four-parted. Fem. Cal. one-leafed, fub-
trlfid, two flowered. Seed, with a winged membrane on each
fide.

Species, i. B. alba, common biich-tree. Lin. Spec. 1393.
Hudf. Angl. 416. Wither. 1065. Ger. 1295. Emac. 1478.
Park. 1408. Raiihift. 1410. Hunt. Evelyn. 2 18. Varieties it3.
B.peudula, wecping-bircli. y. B. albad.ilecarlica. Lin. Suppl.
416. " Leaves ovate, acuminate, ferrate." The common
birch-tree is known at firll fight by the filvery colour of its
bark, epidermis, or thin outer covcrinij of the bark ; the
fmallnefi of the leaves in comparifon with other timber-trees;
and the lightnefs and airiucfs of its whole appearance. The
branches are alternate, very flexible, covered with a reddiih
brownorruffet, and fmooth bark, generally dotted with white;
the leaves alternate, bright green, fmooth, (hining beneath;
with veins crofling like the mefhes of a net ; the petioles
about half an inch long, grooved above, and having at the
bafe ovate green glands ; the male aments or catkins, which
have their fcales tipped with brown, appear in autumn at the
ends of the twigs, abide in winter, and unfold ti:eir flowers,
when the female catkins appear in fprlng at the ends of the
(hotter branches, on pedicels near a quarter of an inch long ;
the bloffoni is tgg-fhaped, concave, and green ; the cerms,
two or more, are compreffed ; ami the ftyles and Itigmas arc
reddilh. A native of Europe, from Lapland to the fjbalpine
parts of Italy; andof Afia, chiefly in mount.ainous fituatici.s ;
found with r.s in woods and inoiil hedge;, and flowering in
April and May.

Evelyn obferves, that although the timber of birch is
the worll of any, it Iras its various ufes ; as for the farmer's
ox-yokes, for hoops, fmall fcrtws, jianicrs, brooir.=, wands,
bavin-bands and wythes for faggcU-s and formeriy for ar-
row?, bolts, and (hafts. It ferved alfo for ilvlie?, bowls,
1 .lies, and other donieftic utcnfils. In New England, he
favs, our Northern Americans made canoes, boxes, buckets,
ba'lleets, kettles, dilhes, &c. of thi.^ wood, which they curioufly
joined v.-ith thrLada made of ceJ;ir-roots ; and out of an cx-
crfcence from the bole, boiled, beaten, and dried in an oven,
they made excellent fpunk or touchwood, and balls tor play-
ing. They alfo conilruiled of it pinnaces, which they ribbed
with white cedar, and covered with large flakes of birch-
bark, fewed with threads of fpruce roots, and pitched ; to
which life it was anciently applied even in Britain. It ferved
alfo fir fuel ; birch-treea having been dug in many cf the
nieffcs of the well riding 01 Yorklliire, which bum and flame
'-.-:e fir and candl;-wjod ; and Phnv fays (N. H. 1. xvi.

c. 18.)

BET

C. i8,) tliat the Gauls exlraiJted a kind of bitumen out of
bird). The inner white cuticle and filken bark, which ftrips
oiT of itfclf almoft yearly, was anciently uiVd for \r. i-.ing
tables, before the invention of paper ; and w ith the 01:1 .vard,
thicker, and ooarfer part are covered divers hoiifes in Kufiia,
Poland, and other northern trafts, inllead of flates znJ tile;
and inASweden, the poor have even ground the bark to min-
^\e with their bread corn. From tlie accounts ol n;ore mo-
dern writers we learn, thnt the wood of birch, which Is very
white, is ufed for wonien'3 fhoe-hcels and p .'.tens, and for
packing-cafes. It is planted along with hazleto m;;kf char-
coal for forges ; and in the northern parts jf Lancafhire. and
in the vicinity of London, beloms are made with it^ tv\igs,
for honie confumption, and alio for exportation. The twigs
fmeared with birdlime are alfo ufed by the fowlers ; and m
Norway they are given to Ijorfes, when fodder is fcarce.
The bark is lerviceable in dying wool yellow, and in fixing
fugacious colours ; for which piirpofe it fhould be ufed di-)',
and trees of 18 or 20 years growth fnould be dilbarkrd at the
time when tlie fap is flowing. 'J'he Highlanders of Scotland
ufe the bark for tanning leatlier, and for making ropes ; and
they fometimes burn the outer rind inllead of candles. InNor-
vay it is dried, ground, and mixed with meal, and boiled up with
other food for Iwine, who thrive much upon it. The outer
bark, as it efcapes putrefaftion in the damped; places, is em-
ployed for covering the roofs of houfes, ufed on a layer of
turf three or four inches thick. The inner bark is applied
by the Norwegians for tanning hides, for fidiing-netf, and
for fails. With the fragments dexteroufly braided the Lap-
landersmake fhoes and bafliets, and they ufe large pieces of
it for outer garments to keep off thcraia. In Kamtfchatka,
they convert it into hats and drinking cups. The wood was
foimcrly ufed by the Scots Highlanders for their arrows, but
it is now employed by the hoop-benders and wheelwrights,
and for a variety of rullic implements. The turner ufes it for
trenchers, bowls, ladles, &c. ; and that which is of a proper
iiic ferves for gates, rails. Sec. In France it is generally ufed
for wooden {hoes. It alfo affords good fuel, and fome of the
bell charcoal ;^ and the foot is a good lamp-black for printer's
ink. 'J"lie fmall branches ferve tiie Highlanders for hurdles,
and for fide-fences to their houfes. Moxa is made of the yel-
low tungous excrefcenccs of the wood, which fometimes
fwell out from the fiflures. Tlie leaves afford good fodder
to horlcs, kine, flicep, and goats. The feeds are the fa-
vourite food of the liikin ; and the tree fupphes a variety of
infeds with food.

The vernal fap of the birch-tree pofFeffes a faccharine
quality, and has been ufed both in a fermented and unfer-
menttd flate, as a wholefume diuretic wine. It was for-
merly in great repute againfl all nephritic diforders ; but has
been difcarded from the modern praftice. Van Helmont
extols a drink prepared with this juice, daucus-fecUs and
brook-hme. Mr. Boyle fays (Work, Abr. vol. i. p. 51.
vol.iii. p. 338.), that he has feen extraordinar)' medicinal
effecls of the juice itfelf, even when otiicr remedies failed ;
and accordingly he provided himfelf with a quantity of it
every fpring. He fays, it may be eafily preferved by pour-
ing a httle oil on the top of it, or by dillillation ; but the
bed way is to impregnate it with the fumes of fulphur. The
juice has been ufed for wine, and alfo for brewing, being in
the latter cafe employed in lieu of water ; and it is laid (Phil.
Tranf. N° 46. p. 963.), that a barrel of malt will afford as
much, and as good ale, as four with common water. In
order to obtain this juice, let holes be bored in the bodies of
the larger trees, about the beginning of March, while the
fap is riling, and before the leaves flioot out, and in thefe
holes dx. foffcts of elder flicks, cleaned of their pith, placing

B E T

vcfTels under them to receive the liquor. A large tree may
be tapped in four or five places at a time ; and from feveral
trees may be drawn in this way feveral gallons of juice in a
day. If a fufiicient quantity be not obtained in the day,
what has been gained may he refervcd by bottling it up
ciofely till more be procured ; but the fooner it is boiled tlie
better. It has been obfcrved, that in the fpace of 12 or 14
days as much juice may be obtained from one tree, as will
outweigh the whole tree, body, and roots. And Evelyn,
in his " Sylva," (Hunter's edition, p. 2^^.) inform.s us, tliat
a great diflerence is found between the efficacy of that liquor
which diflils from the bole, or parts of the tree nearer the
roots, and that part which flows from the higher branches ;
the former being mere crude and watery, and the latter more
pure and refined. When the fap is obtained, boil it as long
as any fcum arifcs, and well fl<im it during the operation.
To every gallon of liquor add four pounds of fugar, and
boil it afterwards half an hour, well flcimming it ; then put
it into an open tub to cool, and when cold turn it into a
caflv. When it has done working, bung it up clof;, and
keep it three months ; then either bottle it ofl, or draw it
out of the cnllc, when it is a year old.

The birch, independently of the ufes to which its va-
rious parts have been applied, merits culture in parks and
ornamental woods for the fake of variety ; its llraight fleni,
fmooth and white bark, and neat fohage, exhibit a piftu-
rcique appearance, when properly placed here and tlicre in the
openings, fo as to fhew the foliage and hanging down of the
twigs, or with'n to difplay its filvery bark through the gloom :
and, befiiics, its fragrant fmell after rain, jul>ly entitles it to a
place in the wildcrncfs. Moreover, the birch-tree delcrves
cultivation, becaufe it will grow to advantage upon barren
land, where better trees will not tlirive. It will flourilh in
moill fpungy land, in dry gravel and fand, where the hulace
is {hallow ; and upon ground, producing only mofs, thefe
trees have fucceeded fo well, as to be fit for cutting in ten
years after planting, and to yield a confiderable profit at a
fmall expeoce. Of this fpecies there are feveral varieties. In
the variety /3, the twigs of young trees are erett,but being {len-
der and pliant, they arc apt to become pendent with age ; and
hence proceeds a variety no lefs beautiful than the weeping
w'.Uow. y, is a remarkable variety found in Dalecarlia, and
dcfciibcd as having leaves alinofl palmate, with the fegmeiits
toothed. Other varieties of a trifling nature, with flight
differences in the {hape of the leaves, are mentioned by Liii-
rius in his Flora fuecica.

2. B. ni^rn, black Virginia birch-tree. Lin. Spec. 1394.
Reich. 4. 126. Grertn. frudl. 2. 54. t. 90. Gron. Virg. 188.
146. Raii Dendr. 12. n. 2. Ait. Hort, Kew. 3. 336.
" Leaves rhomb-ovate, acute, doubly ferrate, piibefcent un-
derneath, entire at the bafc ; fcdles of the flrobiles villofe,
fegments hnear, equal." This fpecies being of foreign
growth, is propagated for wlldernefs and ornamental planta-
tions ; but as it now begins to be more common, it is to be
hoped that it will foon make a figure among our forefl trees.
It is equally hardy with our common birch, and attains to a
much greater magnitude, as it grows to upwards of 60 feet
in height. The branches are fpotttd, and more fparingly
fet on the trees than tliofe of the common fort. The leaves
have their larger ferratures more deep and remote, befides
feveral very firall, fine, crowded ones ; they are broader, grow
on long foot-flalks, and add a dignity to the appearance of
the tree. The twigs are pubefcent, and the petioles villofe.
A native of Virginia and Canada ; and introduced into Kew
gardens in 1736, by Peter Collinfon, Efq.

It is very defirable in pleafure -grounds, as it is the firft tree
m the fpring which prefcnts us with leaves, which are of a

light

BET

light and lively green. Its white bark makes a beautiful
variety, when intermixed with other trees. It is faid to be
the molt ufeful tree in North America for building both of
lioulcs and boats ; and will grow fad in any foil or iituation,
whether wet or diy ; and it may therefore be planted in
places where few other trees will thrive, and mach deferves
cultivation. There are feveral varieties of this fpecics, differ-
ing in the colour, fize of the leave?, and (hoots ; fuch as the
broad-leaved Virginian birch, the poplar-leaved Virginian
birch, the paper birch, brown birch, &c.

3. B. /«/<j, Canada birch. Lin. Spec. 1394. Reich. 4.
126. Gron. Virg. IIJ. 146. "Leaves cordate, oblong',
acuminate, ferrate." The leaves are fmooth, very finely
and fiiarply fen-ate. Tlie female catkins are ovate, feflile,
with acuminate entire fcales. This fpecies grows to more
than 60 feet in height. The liquor flowing from its wounds
is ufed by the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka without previous
fermentation ; with the wood, and alfo with the bark, which
is very light, tough, and durable, they coni^ruft (ledge; and
canoes; and they convert the latter into food by dripping it
off when^green, and cutting it into long narrow pieces, like
vermicelli, drj'ing it, and llewing it with their caviar. It
was cultivated by Mr. Miller in Kew garden in 1759. The
varieties diftcr in colour, and are diftinguifhed by tlie names
of du(l<y Canada birch, white paper birch, poplar-leaved
Canada birch, low growing Canada birch, &c.

4. B. n^miz, fmooth dwarf birch. Lin. Spec. T 394. Reich.
4.127. Hudf. Angl. 416. Wither. 2. 207. Hall. Helv.
n. 1629. Fl.Dan.t.91. Pallas RoiT. 63. t. 40. D.— G.
Fl. Lapp. t. 4. Liglitf. Scot. 575. t. 25. " Leaves orbi-
culate, crenate, or circular, fcolloped." An upright (hrub,
feldom rifing above two or three fe^t high ; with a hard,
ftifF trunk, and brown, roughifh bark, reftmbling that of the
ulmus campertris ; branches expanding, ftraight, fcattered,
tapering, woolly, fomewhat gummy at the ends ; leaves rather
broader than they are long, commonly three from each bud,
but frequently fingle and alternate, generally entire at tlie
bafe, fcollops often pointed ; catkins about half an inch long ;
(lyles purple. A native of the northern parts of Europe,
and of the Alps ; grows on mountains and wet heaths in
Scotland ; and flowers in May. Here it is planted for the
fake of variety, but is of no ufe ; however, Linnxus fays,
that it is vcr)' ferviceable in the economy of the Laplanders,
affording them in fummer, when they live on the mountains,
fuel for the fires, which they are obliged to keep conflantly
in their huts to defend them from the gnats ; and, covered
with the fkin of the rein-deer, forming their beds. The feeds
are the food of the ptarmigan, which fupplies a confiderable
part of their fuftenance. The moxa is alfo prepared from it,
which they conllder as an efficacious remedy in all painful
difeafes. The leaves, according to Linn^us, dye a finer yel-
low than that afforded bv the B. alha.

5. V). pumila, American, or hairy dwarf birch. Lin. Syfb.
849. Reich. 4. 127. Mant. 124. Jacq. Hort. 2. 122. B.
nana. Kalm. it. 2. 263. " Leaves obovate, crenate." Rc-
fembllng the foregoing. A native of North America,
and introduced into Kew garden, in 1762, by Mr. James
Gordon.

6. B. fl/n;;/, alder. Lin. Spec. T 394. Reich. 4. 127. Hudf.
Ang.416. Wither. 2. 206. Lightf. Scot. 576. Pallas roff.
C\. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 338. Alnus. Lin. Lap. 340. Hort.
Cliff. 441. Gxrtn. frucl. 2. 54. t. 90. Hall. Helv. n. 1630.
Hunt. Evelyn. 240. Ger. 1294. emac. 1477. Park. 14C9.
Raii hill. 14C9. Cam. epit. 68. Varieties, a. _j/H/;no/i?, com-
mon alder, " leaves undivided." /?. A. /aciniaU, cut-leaved
alder. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 338. 10 0. Duham. Arb.42. n. 4.
" Leaves pin natifid." " Peduncles branched ; leaves roundifli,

Vol. I\^

BET

wedge-form, very obtufe, glutinous ; axils of the veins villofe
underneath." The common alder, which appears generally as
a (hrub, fometimes grows to the height of 35 or 40 feet. The
bark is blackifh, and in old trees full of clefts ; the wood is
red and brittle ; the leaves are of a dark green colour, and
roundifh figure, crenate, fmooth, vifcid to the touch ; the
petioles grooved above and near an inch long, with lanceolate,
blunt rtipules at their bafe ; the male catkins are cylindrical,
appear in autumn, and continue to the fpring ; the females
are of a fhort conical form, hke a fmall fir cone. Many
botanifts have feparated the alder from the birch ; but Lin-
nseus, in his latter works, has joined them in the fame genus.
Gxrtner prefer\es them dillin(51, alleging that they differ not
only in the fruit, but in the flower. A native of Europe,
from Lapland to Gibraltar; and of Afia from the White fca
to mount Caucafus, in wet and boggy grounds, and on the
banks of rivers ; flowering with us in Febnary, March, and
April. The varieties of this tree are the long-leaved
American alder, the white alder, the black alder, and the
dwarf alder. The lall with a round ferrate leaf, grows
naturally on the Alps and Apennines ; u is a ver)- humble
(lirub, fcldom rifing more than a foot high, with its branches
always trailing on the ground. The firft, or long-leaved
alder from America, grows to 30 feel in height, and deferves
a place in all plantations. The branches are (lender, fmooth,
numerous, and dark brown or purple ; the leaves are long,
and free from the clamminefs of the common fnrt ; and fome-
times continue on the tree even in December, fo as to give it
the appearance of an ever-green.

The wood of the alder is valuable for piles, pumps, lluices,
and in general for all works intended to be conflantly under
water. It is faid to have been ufed under the Rialto at
Venice ; and we are told that the moraflies about Ravenna
were piled with this timber, in order to ferve as the founda-
tions of buildings. For this purpofe it has been much culti-
vated in Flanders and Holland. It ferves alfo for many do-
mellic and rural ufes, as for cart-wheels, fpinning-wheels,
milk-veffels, bowls, fpoons, fmall trays, trenchers, and other
turnery ware, troughs, handles of tools, clogs, pattens, and
wooden heels. The roots and knots furniih a beautiful
veined wood for cabinets ; and the Scots Highlanders often
make chairs of it, which are very handfome, and of the co-
lour of mahogany. The wood that has lain in bogs is black
like ebony. It is generally planted for coppice wood, to be
cut down ever)- ninth or tenth year for poles. The branches
make good charcoal.

The bark is ufed by tanners and leather-drefTerf, and alfo
by fifhermen for ftaining their nets. This and alfo the
young (hoots dye yellow, and with a little copperas a yel-
lowi(h grey, ufeful in the demi-tints and fhadows of fle(h in
tapeftr)-. The (hoots cut in March dye a cinnamon colour,
and a fine tawny, when dried and powdered. The frefh
wood yields a dye of the colour of rappee-fnuff. The cat-
kins dye green. The bark is ufed as a bafis for blacks ; an
ounce of it dried and pt)wdered, and boiled in three quarters
of a pint of water, with an equal quantity of log-wood,
with folution of copper, tin, and bifmuth, fix grains of each,
and two drops of folution of iron vitriol, will dye a flrong
deep " boue dc Paris." The leaves have been fometimes
employed in tanning leather. The Laplanders chew the
bark, and dye their leathern garments red with their faliva.
The whole tree is vci-y aftringent.

The alder ferves for hedges by the fides of ftreams and
ditches, and in all wet and moraffy foils, and keeps up the
banks ; but if it be planted in a low meadow, it is faid that
the ground about it will become boggy ; whereas, if a(h be
plai>ted, the roots of which penetrate a great way, and run
N R near

B E r

near the fi'.rface, the grouiiJ will become firm and di-y. Tl'.e
"■rowth of gvafs is not materially obllruded by the fliade of
alder. In the highlands of Scotland, near Diuidouald, Mr.
Pennant favs, the boughs cut in the fummer fpread over
the fields, and left during the winter to rot, are found to
anfwer the purpofc of a manure. In March the ground is
cleared of the undecayed part^, and then ploughed. The
ftedi gathered leaves are covered witli a glutinous liquor,
which fonic people flrew upon their floors to deilroy fleas;
the fleas entangling themfelves in the tenacious liquor, as
birds do in bird-lime. This tree affords food to many kinds
of moths, and other infefts. Horfes, cow?, goats, and
fhecp, eat it ; but fwine refufe it. The tougnes of horfes
who feed upon it are turned black ; and feme pcrfons fup-
pofe that it is not wholefome for them.

7. B. incana, hoary alder. Linn. Syft. 849. Suppl. 417.
Hall. Helv. n. 1631. Villars Daupli. 2. 790. Pallas Rofs.
64. Da Roy Harbccc. 1. 109. Gmclin. Sib. i. 171.
n. 24. 2. B. ahnu incana. Lin. Spec. 1394. Reich. 4.
127. B. viridii. Viliars Dauph. 2. 789. Alnus folio in-
cano. Bauh. pin. 428. Rail hill. 1410. A. incana et hir-
fnta. Bauh. Hill. 1. P. 2. p. 154. Varieties. u..Y>. glaura,
glaucous-leaved alder. " I>eaves glaucous beneath ; petioles
red." /3. B. angnlata, elm-leaved alder. " Leaves green be-
neath ; petioles green." " Peduncles branched ; leaves
roundiOi, elliptic, acute, pubefcent underneath ; axils of the
veins naked ; llip'.iles lanceolate." This fpecies is totally di-
llinfl from the common alder, both in the llrufture of its
parts, and its economical ufes. It never attains the fize of
that, and is commonly (hrubby ; the trunk is fcarcely
thicker than a man's arm ; the wood is white, and of a
clofer texture. A native of the Alpine and Subalpine parts
of Swilferland, Dauphinc, in eaftern Siberia, in the idands
beyond Karr.tfchatka, &c. Introduced into the Kew gar-
den, in 178c, by Mr. John Bufh. The varieties of the
hoary alder are the cut-leaved, the dwarf Alpine, the long-
kaved, and the rofe-flowcred, with petal-like braftes pro-
duced from the male catkin.

8. Y>. populiJoTia, pophr-leaved birch. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3.
336. " Leaves deltoid, drawn out to a long point, une-
qually ferrate, very fmooth ; the fcales of the (Irobiles hav-
ing roundilh fide lobes; petioles fmooth."

g. B. papyracea, paper birch. i\it. Hort. Kew. 3. 337.
" Leaves ovate, acuminate, doubly ferrate; veins hirfute un-
derneath. Both thefe lall fpecies are natives of North Ame-
rica. Cultivated in 175a by Archibald, duke of Argyle.

TO. B. excel/a, tall birch. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 337.
" Leaves ovate, acute, ferrate ; fcales of the (Irobiles having
the fide lobes rounded ; petioles pubefcent, fliortcr than the
peduncle." A native of North America, Introduced into
Kew garden, about the year 1767, by Mr. James Gordon.

11. B. oblongata, Turky alder. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3.338.
Miller. DiA. ed. 7. n. 2. A. fol. oblongo viridi. Bauh. pin.
428. Varieties, a. foliis oblongis, oblong-lcaved Turky
aider. /9. foliis ellipticis, oval-leaved Turky alder. " Pedun-
cles branched ; leaves oval, obtufifh, glutinous ; the axils of
the veins naked underneath." Common in Aullria and Hun-
gary, whence Mr. Miller received the feeds. Cultivated by
him in Kew garden in 1759.

12. ^.fdnitlala, notch-leaved alder. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3.

338. " PeduucLs branched ; leaves obovate, acute ; veins
and their axils viilofe underneath ; ilipnlcs oval, obtufe."
A native of Pennfylvania. Cultivated in Kew garden in
'759 '^y Peter Collinfon, Efq.

13. B. cr'ifpa, curled-leaved alder. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3.

339. " Peduncles branched ; leav-s ovate, acute, fomewhat
waved ; veins hairy ynderiicath ; asils naked ; llipuleb round-

BET

iHi-ovate." A native of Newfoundland and Hudfon's bay.
Introduced into Kew garden, in 1782, by the Hudfon's
bay company.

14. B. daur'ica. Pallas it. 3. 224. t. kk. f. 4. ab. fl. rofs.
do. t. 39. Gmel. Sib.T. 167. & 2. " Leaves ovate, acu-
minate, ferrate, hairy on the nerve." Scarcely diRinguidi-
able, when young, from the common birch, except by the
leaves, not growing fo tall, and the trunk not exceeding a
foot in diameter ; bark gray, cleft longitudinally, and divid-
ing into brown fcales, as if burnt ; branches more fubdivided
and upright ; leaves harder, commonly fmailer, on fhorter
petioles ; ftipules lanceolate, gray, fubpubefcent, decidu-
ous ; male catkins at the end of the twigs of the preceding
year, two or three together, larger than thofe of the common
birch ; females from the fame twigs lateral, thicker, with
larger, and more rounded fcales ; the feed larger, furrounded
by a narrower membrane ; differing from the black Ameri-
can birch by having fmailer ftipules, and leaves Itfs frequently,
and never doubly ferrate. The wood is hard, yellower than
that of the common fort, and in old trees marbled with brown
and gray towards the middle ; tougher, and therefore more
fit for cart-timber and the ufc of tlie wheelwright ; alfo em-
ployed in making charcoal. A native of Dauria.

15. B. fniikqjfa. Pallas, it. 3. App. 758. n. 133. t, kk.
f. I, 2, 3. fl. rofs. 6. 2. t. 40. A. B. C. Gmel. Sib. i. 167.
var. 3. t. 36. f. 2. " Leaves rhomboid-ovate, equally fer-
rate, fmooth." Always fhrnbby, rifing with feveral ftems
from the fame root, in boggy places not an inch thick, nor
higher than a m.an's ftature, but on mountains attaining the
thicknefs of the human arm, and growing to a much loftier
height ; much branched from top to bottom, and of a very
different habit from the common birch ; the cuticle afli-co-
loured with tranfverfe iliipes ; the wood not fo white, and
waved tranfverfely ; the twigs almoll covered with little rc-
finous dots found more or lefs in the other fpecies; buds
more copious and always alternate ; two leaves commonly
from the fame bud, fofter than thofe of the common fort,
and decaying fooner ; having three feeds to each fcale, of the
fame fize and form with thofe of the B. nana. Abundant
in marfhcs and on rocky mountains, and in the cold subal-
pine regions of eaflern Siberia, efpecially towards the lake
Baikal.

Propagation and C:tlt:ii\: The birch-tree may be cultivated
either by young plants procured Jrom the woods where they
naturally grow, or by feeds carefully gathered in autumn,
as foon as the fcales begin to open, otherwife they will drop
and be loft. As thefe feeds are final!, they iliould not be
buried above a quarter of an inch deep in the ground. Mr.
Miller recommends autumn as the beft feafon for fowing
them ; but Mr. Boutcher direfts to fpread the feeds thin on a
floor till dry, to mix them with loofe fand, and to keep them
in an airy place till the beginning of March, when they fhould
be fown on frefh light land, trenched or dug the preceding
autumn, made very loofe, raked fine, ,a:id divided into beds
three feet and a half wide. It is needlefs to throw any earth
over them ; but in dry and frofty weather, a fmall quanuty
of peafe-haulm may be thrown over them for three or four
weeks, till the feeds begin to vegetate. The ground fhould
then be kept clean, and three or four gentle waterings may
be given at noon in April, and repeated to the middle of
June in mild evenings. In the following March they may
be removed into the nurfcry, and planted in rows two feet
and a half d:ftant, and ten, or twelve, or eighteen inches
aiunder. Here they may remain two years, or, in cafes
where they make little, progrefs, three years ; cutting after
the fecond year's growth fuch as are leaft thriving or crook-
ed, clofe to the gri^und in March. Mr. Miller recommends

to

BET

to fjw the feeds in the (hade, alleging that ther will thus
thrive better than when expofed to the full fun. In all
places where are large treis, their feeds fall, and the plants
fpring up without anj' previous car^-. If thcfe wild plants
are taken \i;i without any injury to the roots, they niav be
tranfplanted irto any frronud, with little or no preparation ;
where the lar.d will admit of the plough, it will be bed pre-
pared by a crop of torn. In the fpots where they art to ftand,
it will be fufhcient to loofen the foil wiili a ipnde or mat-
tock ; and they may then be Ut into holes capable of receiv-
ing their roots, which (liouid be covered with earth, attached
clofely to them. After tliey have taken root, they requi);
no other care befide^ bcing'kept clear of weeds, whicli may
be cut down two or three times in a fummcv for the firil two
years ; and afterwards the plants will be ftrong enough to
keep t>he weeds dowr, fo that thfy can receive no injury
fr(!m them. Thefe plants may be fet any time from the
middle of Ofiober till the rniddle of March, when the grniiud
is fiee from froft ; but in dry land autumn is the beft feafon,
and for a moift foil the fpring is preferable. The diitance at
which they (hould be plaeed is fiK feet fquare, that they may
foon cover the ground, and that bv Handing clofe, they may
draw each other up ; for in fituations that arc much expofed,
if they are not pretty dole, they will not thrive well. If
the plants take kindly to the ground, they will be lit for
cutting in about ten years ; and afterwards they may be cut
every feventh or eighth year, if they are merely deiigned for
the broom-makers ; but if they are intended for hoops, they
(liould not be cut oftoner than eveiy twelfth year.

As the birch is a native of Britain, it fuits itfclf to all
forts of foils. It will thrive extremely well on barren land,
whtther it be wet or dry, fandy or ftony, marfiiy or Ijoggy.
it fows itfelf, and will come up in places where hardly any
other tree will grow. It may be cultivated at a moderate
expence ; and being eafily difpofed of to the broom-makers,
hoop-benders, turners, and for purpufcs of hufbandry, it
will yield a conliderable profit.

The fecond and third fpecies, or the American forts of
birch, may be propagated by feeds in the fame manner as
the firfl, and are equally hardy. Seeds fown in beds of
fine mould, and covered about a quarter of an inch deep,
will generally grow. They (hould be conftantiy weeded and
watered in dry weather ; and at the age of one or two years,
according to their ftrength, they Ihould be planted in rows
in the nurferv, in the nfual manner. In fuuimer, weeding
(houid be ofafcrved, and in winter, digging between the
rows ; and when they are about three or four teet high, they
will be of a good fize for being tranfplanted into the wilder-
nefs quarters. As thefe American forts grow with greater
vigour than the common fort, and thrive on the moll barren
ground, they mav be cultivated in England to great advan-
tage. The varieties of the different Ipecies may be propa-
gated by layers. For this pnrpofe a fnfficient number of
plants fhould be procured, and fet on a fpot of double dug
ground, at the diftance of three yards from each other. In
the following year, if they have made no young fhoots, they
fhould be headed to within half a foot of the ground, to form
the ilools, which vAU then fhoot vigoroudy the following
lummer ; and in aitumn. the young (hoots (hould be fplafhed
near the ftools, and the tender twigs layered near their ends.
They will then ftrike root, and become good plarts in the
lAjllou'ing autumn ; and frefh twigs will have Iprung up from
the (tools to be ready for the fame operation. The layers
(hould then be taken up, and the operation performed alrefn.
If the plants defigned for (tools, have made good (lioots the
tirft year, they need not be headed down, but Iplalhcd near
the ground, and all the young twigs layered. An immediate

BET

crop may thus be niifed ; whilft young (hoots will fpring out
in great plenty below the fpladied part, for the pnrpofe of
layering in the fucceeding year. This woik may be repeated
every autumn or winter ; when feme of the ftrongeil layers
may be planted out, if thty are immediately wanted ; wliillt
the others may be removed into the nurfery, in order tc be-
come (Ironger plants, before they arc removed to their def-
tine.d habitations. Cnttin^s alfo, if fet in a moift (liady bor-
der in the beginning of Oftober, will frequently grow;
but as this is not a fiire method, and as thefe trees are fo
eafily propagated bv lavers, it hardly deferves to be jnac
tifed.

In Sweden, the budding and leafing of the birch -tree is
con(i;lcred as a direftory for fowing barley. Set Fol.'A-

TIOM.

The fosrth and fifth fpecies, being of co ufe with us, zre
not cultivated, except in botanic gardens.

The fixth fpecies, or alder-tree, delights in a very mcifl
foil, where few other trees will thrive, and greatly improves
fuch lands. It may be propagated by layers, cuttings, or
truncheons about three feet long. The bell tim.e for planting
truncheons, which is the lefsehgible, though perhaps the Icall
expenlive ra.thod, is in Februar)- or the beginning of March.
Thefe (liould be (harpened at one end, and the ground locf-
ened v.ith an iron crow, that when they arc tlirull in, the
bark may not be torn off. They mu(t be planted at lead
two fett deep, that they may not be difturbed by ftrong
winds, and fet at the diliance of three feet. The plantations
fnould at iirft be cleared of all weeds ; and after ever)' fall,
in the following winter, the llocls ought to be looked over,
and all the weak lide-branches taken off. Ti;is will ftrengthcn
thofe which are already the llrongcil, and will enable them to
(lioot up more vigoroufly forpole;-. Many of the truncheons
will not grow ; and Hunter, in his edition of Evelyn's Srlva,
fays, that he has never feen a coppice, raifed in this wav, fo
luxuriant and beautiful, as when raifed from regular plants.
If the alder be raifed by layers, this opei-ation mull be per-
formed in Oftober, and in the following Oclober they will
have taken fufficient root for tranfplantation. They
(hould then be fet at leafl one foot and a half deep in tlie
ground, and their tops (hould be cut off to about nine inches
above the furface, which will occafion their (hooting oirt
many branches. Tlie method of railing thefe trees bv'feedd,
is praclifed abroad, and, fays Hunter, (uhi fupra) is greallv
to be commended. If thcfe trees are defigntd for coppices,
they (hould be placed at the diftance of (ix feet fqnare, oi
they may be planted at (iril a yard fquare, and at the erd o'.'
feven years, when they are felled for poles, every other (loo!
may he taken away ; and if the fr.iall lateral (lioots be taken
off in the fpring, it will very much flrengthcn the upriglit
poles, provided a few finall (hoots be left at certain didance*
upon the body to detain tlic fap for the increafe of its bulk.
In planting aldt-rs for coppices, Hunter (ubi fupra) fays, it
is much better to railc them from young trees than'from
truncheons. To obtain thefe in fufficient quantity, plant
fuckers, taken out of the meadows where the alder-tree>:
grow, on a prepared piece of ground, and afterwards head
them down for dools ; lay the (lioots in the fucceeding au-
tumn, and in twelve months they will have taken root, when
they (hould he removed and planted in row?, and in one or two
years they may be trani'plantcd where they are to rtoia'-n. It
the coppice is fituated upon bos:gy or watery ground, thev
may be removed from the nurfeiy, iiud planted three feet
afuiuler, in holer, previoudy prepared for receiving thcmJ
Here they may daud for fix or feven years, v\ht.n every other
tree fhonld be taken away, and the rett cut down for ftooh.
Every ninth or tenth v^ar will afford a fall of jhcfe trees fof

N II J

pol- 5 :

BET

pnles ; which lliould be taken off fmooth and fine, io that
the ftool may not be damaged, or hindered from produc-
ing a fre(h crop.

Thefe trees will thrive exceedingly on the fides of brook?,
and may be cut for poles every liftli or fixth year. Thty may
be alfo planted fur hedges in moiH ground, and tranied into
fuch as are very clofe and thiik, to the height of twenty
feet and upwards. The banks of rivers may be fecured by
planting truncheons very clofe, and crofs-wife. As the
leaves are large and of a deep green colour ; thefe trees, if
the beauty of aquatic plantations be regarded, fhoidd be pre-
ferred to others ufiially planted in fwampy grounds.

The feventh fpccics, or hoary alder, growing naturally
in dry fandy foils, may perhaps be cultivated with the birch,
where land is of little value, as an underwood, and may be
propagated either by layers or cuttings, as well as by feeds,
where'they can be obtained. Martyn's Miller. Hunter's
Evelyn's Silva, p. 225, 240. V/ithcring's Bot. Arr. vol. ii,
p. 206.

B P.TULA ylmerkana. See Bursfra.

BETULiE, in Entomoloi-y, a fpecies of CuRCULio, en-
tirely of a golden green colour in one fex, and blue in the
other, with a fpine on each fide of the anterior part of the
thorax of the latter. A native of Europe. Linnxus. Do-
nov. Brit. Inf. &c.

Bf.tul-€, a fpecies of Crvptocephalus, that inhabits
Berlin. The colour is black ; thorax foniewhat orbicular
and hairy ; wing-cafes browmih with obfcure ftreaks.
Herbft.

Betul*, a fpecies of Attelabus, of a black coloar,
with legs formed for leaping. Linn. Fn. Suec. This is cur-
culia sxcorliito-nigcr of Degeer.

Betul;e, a fpecies of Cimex {^Acanthia membranaceus),
that lives on the white alder in the north of Europe. The
thorax is denticulated ; head muricated ; anterior part of the
wing-cafes dilated. Linn. Degeer, &c.

Betul*:, a fpecies of Papilio [Pkb. Rur.), found in
Europe. The wings are fomewhat tailed, brown, yellowifh
beneath ; pollerior ones with two white ftreaks. Fabricius.
Donov. Brit. Inf. &c. The larva is green, with pale oblique
lines, and white on the fides ; pupa glofi^y, and ferruginous.
Feeds on the alder. The male dillinguilhed by a fulvous
fpot on the upper wings.

Betul/E, a fpecies of Tfntkredo, with the body red ;
thorax, vent, and eyes black ; wings behind brown. Linn.
Fn. Suec. This is Ur.threilo ferru^inea of Degeer. Inhabits
Europe.

Betvlje, a fpecies of Coccus, found on the white al-
der. It is round, and of a bay colour. Gmel. &c.

BETULEIUS, SixTus, in Biography, whofe true name
was Birch, was born at Memmmgen, in the year ijoo, and
obtained the reputation of an able grammarian, as well as a
good Latin poet and philofopher. He taught the belles
lettres and philofophy ; and became principal of the college
of Augfburgh, where he died June i6th 15J4. He puh-
lifhed fcveral works in profc ; and his dramatic pieces of
Jofeph, Sufannah, and Judith, have been efteemed.

BETULINUS, m Ornithology, a fpecies of Tktrao,
defcribed by Scopoli. The tail is black, varitd with tranf-
verfe rufous fpots ; rump whitifh, fafciated with black.
Scop. Ann. Latham. This is the urof(z//uj w//ior of Aldro-
vandus ; and birch grous of Latham. The body is varied
with black and rufous ; bill and legs black ; breaft greyifh ;
quill-feathers white at the tip ; eyebrows not red.

BETULUS, in Botany. See Carpinus.

BETUWE, Betaw, or Batavia, in Geography, a
traft of land, ia the duchy of Gutldcrland, in the United

B E V

Netherlands, fituated betwixt the Rhine and the Waal, and
forming part of the " Infula Batavorum," where the Bata-
vians fettled on their migration out of Germany. It has
been divided into two bailliage.s viz. the eaftern or upper,
and the wellern or lower Betuwe. The former, by a change
in the courfe of the Rhine, has been feparated from Betiuve,
and removed into the duchy of Clevc, where the fortifications
of the Schenken-Schanze, creeled in 1586, by general Mar-
tin Schenk, have been gradually wailitd away by ih: wa-
ter. The bailliage of lower IVluwe comprehends a num-
ber of villages that lie on the Rhine. SeeBAfAVi.

BETWEEN Decks, \nSea Lattguj<ie, denotes the fpace
contained between any two decks of a fiiip.

BETWHA, in Gfr^raphy, a river of Hindoftan, which
runs into the Jumnah, 45 miles fouth-ealt of Calpy. Tliis
river, from its fource fouth of Bopal, to its conflnence with
the Jumnah, defcribes a courfe of 340 miles in a nortli-
eafterly diredlion,

BETZ, the principal place of a carton, in the diflrift of
Senlis, and department of the Oil'e, containing ^52 perfons ;
the number of the canton being 95^'4. Its territory compre-
hends 222-j kiliometres, and 29 communes.

BETZALEEL, Jehudah, or l,co Pragenjis, in 5(c-
graph-,', a Jewifh doftor of Prague, in Bohemia, flourifhcd
about the middle of the i6th century, and was chief of the
Moravian academies, and judge of the nation in that country.
He left feveral learned works, among which is that entitled
" The Redemption and Eternity of Ifrael," in which he af-
furcs the Jews of the certainty of the MtlTiali's advent, and
of his fettling them in a (late of permanent proiperity.

BETZANDORFF, in Geography, a Imnll town or bo-
rough of Germany, in the old mark of Brandenburg.

liETZDORF, the principal place of a canton, in the
dillricl of Luxembourg, and department of Forets, contain-
ing 1082 inhabitants ; thofe of the canton being 8101. Its
territory comprehends 2125 kiliometres and 7 communes.

BETZKO, a town of Hungary, 18 miles weft of To-
poltzan.

BETZIRVAN, or Barsav, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Aiderbeitzan ; 100 miles ncrtii-eaft of Tauris.

BEVAGNA, the ancient il-A^uanw, a fmall town of Italy,
in the duchy of Spoleto, feated on the river Tinia, or
Timia.

BEVECUM, a town of Brabant, 8 miles fonth-caft of
Louvain. N. lat. 50°45'. E. long. 4" 50'*

BEVEL, in Mafonry, and among Jaincrs, a kind of
fquare, one leg whereof is frequently ftraight, and the other
crooked, according to the fweep of an arch or vault ; being
alfo moveable on a point, or centre, fo that it may be fet to
any angle. The make and ufe of the bevel are pretty mseh
the fame as thofe of the common fquare or mitre, except that
thefe latter are fixed ; the firft at an angle of ninety degrees,
and the fecond at forty-five ; whereas the bevel, being move-
able, may, in fome meafure, fupply the office of both, and
yet, which it is chiefly intended for, fupply the deficiencies
of both, ferving to fet off or transfer angles, either greater
or lefs than ninety or forty-five degrees-
Bricklayers have alfo a bevel, by which they cut the under
fides of the bricks of arches flraight or circular, to fuch ob-
lique angles as the arches require, and alfo for other ufes.

Bevel, Graduated, is that which has about the centre of
one of its arms a femicircle graven, and divided into 180
degrees, whofe diameter llands fquare with the fides of the
fame arm ; fo that the end of the other arm, being divided
at right angles, almoft to the centre, Ihews by its motion the
number of degrees contained in the angle to be racafured.
This is alfo called recipiangle, and pantamcter.

6 Bevel

B E V

Bhvel angle is ufcd among tlie workmen, to denote any
other angle befide thofe of ninety or forty.five degrees.

'l"hij,mple Bevel (fee Plalell. GeonuHry, fy. 35.) confids
of two rulers moveable on a common centre, like a carpen-
ter's rule, with a contrivance to keep tliem fixed, at any re-
quired angle. The centre C mull move on a very fine axis,
fo as to lie in a line with the fiducial edges CB, CD of the
rulers, and projeft as little as poffible hefoi'p them. The fidu-
cial edges of the legs reprefent the fides of any given angle,
and their interfeftion or centre C, its angular point. A pin,
fi-ved in the lower ruler, and pafling through a femicircular
groove in the irpper, ferves, by a nut A, which fcrews upon
it, to fix the rulers, or legs, when they are placed at the
dtfired angle.

The ufe of this inftrument may be illuflrated in the fol-
lowing examples :

T. Let 3 points, A, B, C, be in the circumference of a
circle, which is too large to be defcribed by a pair of com-
paffes ; and let it be required to find any other number of
points in the fame circumference. Bring the centre of the
bevel to B (Jig, 36.), the middle point of the 3 given ones
A, B, and C, and holding it there, open or (hut the inftru-
ment till the fiducial edges of the legs lie upon the other
two points, and fix them there by means of the fcrew A
(Jig. 35.) : this operation is called fett'ing the bevel to the
given points. Then removing the centre of the bevel to
any part between B and A or C, the legs being at the fame
time kept upon A and C, that centre will defcribe, or be al-
ways found in, the arc which palfes through the given points,
and will thus afctrtain as many others as may be required
between the limits of A and C. In order to find points
without thoie limits, proceed in the following manner : the
bevel being fet, bring the centre to C, and mark the dillance
CB upon the left leg ; remove the centre to B, and mark
the dillance B.\ upon the fame leg ; then placing tlie cen-
tre on A, brmg the right leg upon B, and the fird mark
will fall upon a, a point in the circumference of the circle,
parting through A, B, and C, whofe dillance from A is
equal to the dillance BC. Removing the centre of the bevel
to the point a laft found, and bringing the right leg to A,
the fecond mark will find another poii.t a" in the fame cir-
eumference, whofe diftance aa" is equal to AB. By pro-
ceeding in this manner, any number of points may be found,
whofe diftanccs on the circumference are alternately BC and
BA. In the fame manner, by making fimilar marks on the
right leg, points on the other fide, as at c' and c" are found,
whofe diltances Cc', c'c", are equal to BA, BC refpeftively.
Intermediate points between any of the above are given by
the bevel in the fame manner with thofe between the original
points.

2. Three points. A, B, and C, being given, to draw a
line from any one of them, tending to the centre of the
circle, which paflTts through tkcm all. Set the bevel to the
three given points A, B, and C (Jig- 3"-) ; lay the centre on
A, and the right leg to the point C, and the other leg will
give the tangent AG'. Draw AD perpendicular to AG'
for the line required. For BAE being =: BCA, the angle
E AC is the fuppkmcnt to the angle A I'C, or that to whicli
the bevel is let ; hence, when one leg is applied to C, and
the centre brought to A, the dircftion of the other leg mull
be in that of the tangent G'E.

3. Three points being given as before, let it be required to
draw from a fourth tiven point D, a line tending to the cen-
tre of a circle paffing through the hi ft three points. On
D (fig-S^-)' with the radius DA defcribe an arc AK ;
fet the bevel to the three given points A, B, and C, and
bring its centre, always keeping the legs on A and C, to
fall on the arc AK, as at H ; on A and H fevenilly, with

B E V

any convenient radius, ftrike two arcs, croffuig each other
at I ; and the required line T)d will pafs through the points
I and D. For a line drawn from A to H w-ill be a common
chord to the circles AHK and ABC ; and the line ID bi-
fetling it at right angles, muft pafs tlixough both their
centres.

4. Three points being given as before, together with a
fourth point, to find two other points, fuch, that a circle
pafTmg through them and the fourth point, (hall be concen-
tric to that paffing through three given points. Draw Ac
and Cc tending to the centre, by a former problem ; fet
the bevel to the three given points A, B, and C ; bring the
centre of the bevel to D, and move it upon that point till
its legs cut off equal parts AN, CQ^ of the lines Aa
and Cc ; and N and Q^will be the points required. For,
fi'ppofing lines drawn from A to C, and from N to (^ the
fegmenta ABC and NDQjvill be fimilar ones ; and confe-
quently, the angles contained in them will be equal.

y. Two lines tending to a diftant point being given, and
alfo a point in one of them; to find tivo other points (one
of which muft be in the other given hnc), fuch, that a cir-
cle paffing through thefe three points may have its centre
at the point of interfeftion of the given hues. Draw EH
fA'^-39-) at right angles to AB, and mnke FH = FE ;
fet the bevel to the angle GDO, and keeping its legs or the
points H and E, bring its centre to the hne AB, which will
give the point I.

An improved bevel is exhibited in_/V. 40. by which the
arcs of circles of any radius, without the hmits attainable
by a common pair of compafTes, may be defcribed. It
confifts of a ruler AB, compofed of two pieces rivetted
together near C, the centre or axis, and of a triangular part
CI' ED. The axis is a hollow focket fixed to the triangu-
lar part, about which another focket, fixed to the arm CB
of the ruler AB, turns. Thefe fockets are open in the
front for part of their length upwards, as reprefentcd in the
feftion at I, which fhews the point of a tracer, or pin, fitted
for Aiding in the focket. The triangular part is furniilied.
with a graduated arc DE, by which and the vernier at B,
the angle DcB may be determined to a minute. In tliis arc
is a groove, by means of which, as well as by the nut and fcrew
at B, or fome fimilar contrivance, the ruler AB may be
fixed in any required pofition. A fcale of radii is put on
the arm CB, by which the inftrument may be ftt to defcribe
arcs of given circles, not lefs than 20 inches in diameter.
In order to fet the inftrument to any given radius, the
number exprcffing it in inches on CB, is brought to cut a
fine hue drawn on CD, parallel and near to the fiducial edge
of it, and the arms are faftencd in that pofition by the fcrew
at B. Two heavy pieces of lead or brafs G, G, made in
form of the feftor of a circle, the angular parts being of
ileel, and wrought to a true upright edge, as Ihewn at H,
are ufed with tins inftrument, whofe arms are made to
bear againll thofe edges when the arcs are drawn. The
under fides of thefe ftftors are furniflied with fine lliort
points to prevent them from Aiding. The fiducial edges of
the arms CA and CD, are each divided from the centre C
into 200 equal parts. This inftrument might be furnilhed
with fmall caftors, like the pentagraph ; but little buttons,
fixed on its under fide, near A, E, and D, will enable it to
Aide with fufticient eafe.

The ufe of this inftrument may be exempUfied in the fol-
lowing problems :

I. To defcribe an arc, which fhall pafs through three
given points. — Place the teCtors G, G', with their angular
edges over the two extreme points ; apply the arms of the
bevel to them, and bring at the lame time its centre C, that
is, the point of the tracer, or pen, put into the focket, to the

third

B E V

tliirJ point, an.1 tliere fix the arm CB ; then, bringing the
tracer to the left hand feftor, (lide the bevel, keeping tl'.e
arms conftnntly be:>ri'ig agninft the two fetors, till it comes
to the rit^ht hvmd fedor, by which the requited arc will be
defcribed by the motion of its centre C. If the arc be
wanted iii fome part of the drawing without the given points,
find by cafe i. under /mAA- bccd, other points in tliofe jiavts
■ where the arc is required ; and thus a given arc may be
lenc;ti:L-\ied as far as is ncceffary.

2. To defcribe an arc of a p;ivcn radius, not lefs than
ic inches. — Fix the ann CB fo that the part of its edge,
toncfpondiiig to the given radius, always reckoned in inches,
inav lie over the fun- line drawn on CD for that ptn-pofe ;
being the centre to the point through which the arc is re-
quired to pafs, and difpofe the bevel in the direction in
which it is intended to be drawn; place the feftors G, G,
exactly to the divifions loo in each arm, and I'.nke the
arc as above defcribed.

^. The bevel being fet to flrlkc arcs of a given radius,
as in the> l>iil inftance, let it be required to draw other arcs,
whofe radii (liall have a given proportion to that of the
firft arc. Suppofe the bevel to be fet for defcribing arcs
of 50 inches radius, and it be required to draw arcs of
60 inches radius, with the bevel fo let. Say, as 50 is to
60, ft) is the conrtant number 1 30 to 120, the number on
the arms CA and CD, to which the fedors mull be placed,
in order to defcribe arcs of 60 inches radius. When it is
faid that the bevel is fet to draw arcs of a particular radius,
it is always underllood that the lectors G, G, are to be
placed at N" 100 on CA and CD, when thofe arcs are
drawn.

4. An arc ACB ^_o-. 41.) being given, let it be required to
draw other arcs concentric to it, which fliall pafs through
given points, e.g. P. Through the extremities A and B
of the gis-en arc, draw lines AB, BP, tenduig to its centre,
by cafe 3. wnAer fimple bevel. Take the neareil dillance of
the given point P from the arc, and fet it from A to P, and
froni B to P. Hold the centre of the bevel on C, any point
near the middle of the given arc, and bring its arms to pafs
tl'.roujh A and B at the fame time, and fix them there.
Place the fedtors to the points P and P, and with the bevel,
fet as before directed, draw an arc, which will pafs through
P' the given point, and be concentric to the given arc
ACB.

5. Through a given point A ff^. 42.) in the given line,
to ftrikc an arc of a given radius, and whofe centre (liall
lie in that line, produced if necclfary. Set the bevel to the
given radius, by cafe 2. Through A, at right angles to
AB, draw CD ; lay the centre of the bevel, fet as above,
on A, and the arm CA on the line AC, and draw a line
AE along the edge CD of the other arm. Divide the an-
gle DAE into two equal parts by the line AF, and place
the bevel fo that, its centre being at A, the arm CD Ihall
lie on AF ; while in this fituation, place the feftors at
N" 100 in each arm, and thtn (Irike the arc.

6. An arc being given, to find tlie length of its radius.

Place the centre of the bevel on the middle of the arc,

and open or fiint the anus till N'' 100 on CA and CD, fall
upon the arc on each fide of the centre ; the radius will be
found on CB (in inches) at that point of it, where it is cut
by the line drawn on CD. If the extent of the arc be not
equal to that between the two Nos. ico. make ufe of the
N^ yO, in which cafe the radius found on CB, will be double
of that fought ; or the arc may be lengthened by prob. i.
till it be of a f ificitnt extent to admit the two Nos. 100.
Adams's Geometrical and Graphical ElTays, by Jones,

J797-

BEVEL AND, in Geography, the name of two ifiands,

I

B E V

formed by the feparate branches of the Scheldt, belonging
to the ftate of Zealand ; the one, called North BevelancI, is
about z leagues long, and i j broad ; it is fouch of Schonen
ifland, and on the fouth iide of the channel of the call
Scheldt, that here runs into the fea ; the other, called South
Bsvf'ji'.tl, or 'Ztihl, is near 8 leagues long, and 2' wide, and
comprehends the town of Goes and feveral villages; it di-
vides the ea'it from the weft Scheldt, and the two points of
its weft end approach to the channels oppofite to the ports
of Armuyd and Flufhin^-. Both thefe illands have fufl'ered
much from inundations.

BEVELLING, in Ship Jhii'ding, the art cf hewingtimbcr
with a proper and regular curve, according to a mould which
is laid on one fide of its furface.

In order to hew any piece of timber to its proper bevel, it
will be very expedient to make one fide fair, and out of wind-
ing ; a term ufed to fignify that the fideof the timber fliould
be a plane. Now if this fide be uppermoft, and placed ho-
rizontally, or upon a level ; it is plain, if the timber is to be
hewed fquare, it may be done by a plummet and line ; but
if the timber is not hewn fquare, the line will not touch
both the upper and lower edge of the piece, or if a fq\iare
be applied to it, there will be wood wanting either at the
upper or lower fide. This is called within or without a
fquare. When the wood is deficient at the under fide, it
is called under-bevelling ; and when it is deficient in the up-
per fide, it is called flanding bevelling ; and this deficiency
will be more or lefs according to the depth of the piece : fo
that before the proper bevellings of the timbers are found,
it will be fometimes very convenient to affign the breadth of
the timber ; nay, in moil cafes, it will be abfolutely necef-
fary, efpecially afore and abaft: though the breadth of two
timbers, or the timber and room, which includes the two
timbers, and the fpace betwixt them, may be taken without
any fenfible error, as far as the fquare body goes. For as
one line reprefcnts the moulding fide of two timber.;, the
forefide of the one being fuppofed to unite with the aft fide
of the other, the two may be confidered as one entire piece
of timber. For further obfervations on this fubjedt, and
particular inflruftions with refpecl to the mode of bevelling
by ribband lines, and by water-lines, fee Murray's Treatife
on Sliip-bnilding, p. 166, &c. See Ship.

BEVENSEN, commonly called Bahmfeu, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Luncburgh-Zcli, ieated on
the Elmenau, not far from Medingen.

BEVER, a river of Germany, which runs into the Wefer
near Beverungen, in the circle of Weilphalla.

Bever Huul, a cape on the fi)uth-eaft coaft of Nova
Scctia. N. lat. 44° 42'. W. long. 62^ 20'.

BEVERA, a river of Italv, which palfes by Sofpello, in
the county of Nice, and runs into the Roia, 2 miles north
of \'inlimigli3.

BEVERAGE, in a general fenfe, fignifics ^'riwi. Hence
nedlar is faid to be the beverage of the gods. In Wiiters of
the Middle A^e, leverage, ievera^ium, or libera^iunt, denotes
money given to an artificer or other perfon, to drink, over
and above his hire or wages. Du-Cange.

BEVERGERN, in Geography, a fmall town of Germa-
ny, in the circle of Weltphalia, and bilhopric of Munlter,
lituate vA the midlt of a morafs, and having near it a fait
Ipring ; 21 miles north of Munllcr.

BEVERIDGE, William, in Biogrnphy, a learned and
pious prelate of the Englilh church, was born at Barrow in
Lcicellerfliire, in 1638, and admitted in 1653 into St. John's
college Cambridge, where he took his degrees of bachelor of
arts in 1656, of mailer of arts in i6''o, and of dodor of divi-
nity in 1679. At the univerfity he dillingulfhed himfclf by
his application to the learned languages, and particularly to

oriental

B E V

oriental literature, in wliich he fo much excelled, that at the
age of 1 8 he wrote a treatife on the excellency and life of the
oriental tongues, with a Syriac grammar. He was no lefs
diiUnguiilied at college by hi* early piety and exemplary fo-
briety and integrity. Having taken orders in 1661, lie was
collated by Dr. Sheldon, bifhop of London, to the vicarage
of Ealing in Middlefex, which he refigned in 1672, upon
being chofcn reftor of St. Peter's Cornhill, by the lord mayor
and aldermen of London. In this fituation, fuch were his
zeal and afliduity in the difcharge of the dutiis of hisofPice,
not only in the pulpit but out of it, and fueh was the fuc-
cefs that attended his labours, that he was denominated " the
great reviver and reilorer of primitive piety." His fingular
merit recommended him to the favour of hisdiocefan, biihop
Henchman, who, in 1674, collated him to one of theprei3:nds
of St. Paul's ; ar.d in j68i, bidiop Compton promoted him
to the archdeaconry of Colchefter, every parifh of which he
vifited in perfon. In 16S4, he was iiirtalled prebcndsrv of
Canterbury, and he alio became chaplain to king William and
queen Mary. Declining to accept the fee of Batli and
Wells, which was ofTcred to him in 1691, he was confecratcd,
in 1704, biiliop of St. Afaph. In lliis elevated ftatioii he
profecuted, with his accuftomed zeal and diligence, every
praflicable meafure for advancing the honour and intereft ot
religion, both among the clergy and laity ; recommending to
the former the " duty of catechiling and inftrufting the
people committed to their charge, in the principles of the
Chrillian religion, to the end that they might know what
they were to do, in order to falvation," and furnilhing them
with a plain and eafy " Expofition upon the Church Cate-
chifm." After having poflcffed this new dignity for between
three and four years, he died March, 5th, 1708, in the yilt
year of his age, and was buried in St. Paul's cathedral. He
left the greateft part of his eftate to the focieties for propa-
gating the gofpel, and for promoting Chrillian know-
ledge. Of his numerous works, thofe publilhcd by himlelf
were ; i. " De Linguarum Orientalium, prsefertim Hcbraics,
ChaldaicK,' Syriacse, Arabics, et Samaritana', pracftantia et
ufu, cum Grammatica Syriaca tribus libris tradita," Lond.
1658, 8vo. ; 2. " laftitutionum Chronologicarumlibri duo,
una cum totidem Arithmetices Chronologicce libeliis," Lond.
i66g, 4to., 1705, 4to., and 1721, Svo. ; 3. " ZtvoJiMi', five
PandecSae Canonum S. S. Apoftolorum, et Concilicrum ab
Ecclefia Gnca receptorum ; necnon Canomcarum S. S. Pa-
trum Epillolarum ; una cum Scholiis Antiquorum fingulis eo-
^unanne^;i3, et fcriptis alfis hue fpeftantibus; quorum plurima
ct Bibhothecx Bodleianae aharumque MSS. codicibus nunc
primum edita ; reliqua cum iifdem MSS. fumma tide et dili-
gentia collata, Sic," Oxon. 2 vols. fol. 1672 ; " 4. Codex
Canonum Ecclefix primitivae vindicalus et illullratus," Lond.
1679,410. (See Canons.) 5. " The Church Catechifm
explained, for the ufe of the diocefe of St. Afaph," Lond.
170^, 4to. : feveral times reprinted in a fmaller volume.
After his death, feveral of the bilhop's works, not intended
by himfelf for publication, and in various refpcfts injurious
to his memory, were publidied by his'executor. Thefe con-
fid of devotional tvafts, among which are his " Private
Tiioughts upon Religion," a great number of fermons, a
fyflem of divinity, or " Thefaurus Theologicus," an " Ex-
pofition of the 39 articles, &c." In his " Private Thoughts"
the bidiop lias incurred aniraadverfion ; particulariy v.'ith
rcfpeft to his meditation upon the Trinity, in which he un-
refcrvedly adopts the famous maxim of Tertullian, " credo,
quia impofubile ei>." The theology of bidiop Beveridge
was Calviniftical ; his cxteufive learning has been univerfally
allowed ; his devotion inclined to mytticifm ; and as a rca-
foner and writer, he has been extravagantly extolled by his
admirers and panegyrills, and no kfs feveicly ccufured by

B E V

others, forthe quaintnefb ai.J puerility of his ftylr, the fiUa-
cioufiiefs and inconclufnenefs of his rcafoning, and his avowed
oppolition to rational fci.timciits of religion. Thefe reflec-
tions, however, refult from a perufal of his podhumous writ-
ings, the publication of which has been afcribed to avarice or
want of judgment on Aie part of his executor. All h.ivc con-
curred in allowing him the praife of the Itriclcft integrity, of
finccre pitty, of exemplary charity, and of great zeal for re-
ligion. Biog. Biit. Gen. DiSl.

BEVEP.LACKE, in Geography, a tiver of Germany,
which runs into the Aland, 3 milti fouth of Seehaufcn, in
the old mark of Brandenburgh.

BEVERLAND, Adrian, in Biography, a man of
genius and learning, who prollituted his talents in the ccmpo-
iition of feveral obnoxious books, was a native of Middle-
burgh in Zealand, about the middle of the 17th century, and
fludied polite hterature under Voffius ; and for this piirpofc
he vifited Oxford in 1672. Devoting himfelf to the dudy
of the law, he became a doftor and a counfellor ; and as a
philologer, he made himltlf known to the learned world.
But the fubjeds of his felcction, both for ftudy and difcuffiotl,
were principally of the impure and loofe kind ; and of his li-
centious taile, he gave fome fpecimens in his work, entitled
" Dejure d.olatx virginitatis, lucubratio academica," Leyd.
1680, 4to. ; and in a treatife " De proftibulis veterum," ('.;u
the brothels of the ancients), part of which was inferted by
Ifaac VofTius in his comm.entary upon Catullus ; but which
he was did'uadcd by his friends from publidiing. Before
this time, viz. in 1678, he had rendered himfelf obnoxious by
his book on original fm, entitled " Peccalum originale y.%7
t^o^vi fic nuncupatum philologice problematicos elucubratum
a 'Themidisahimno, &c. ;" in which work he revived the
notion of Cornelius Agrippa, that Adam's fin confided en-
tirely in the commerce with his wife, and that original fin u
nothing but the inclination of the fexesto each other. This
book was condemned to be. burnt by the magitlrates at the
Hague, and the author was committed to prilon, whenc^he
WES not liberated without paying a pecuniar)- fine, and tak^ig
an oath, that he would never write again upon fuch fubjcits.
He then removed to Utrecht, where his debauched manners
expofed him to fredi odium, and obliged him to withdraw to
Leyden. Here he wrote a bitter fatire againft. the magillrates
and profcffors under the title of " Vox clamantisin defcrto ;"
and Et length, finding himfelf infecure in Holland, he fougiit
an afylum in England, where Ifaac VofTius is faid to havt
procured for hirn a penfion upon the ecclefiaftical revenues,
which he expended in the purchafe of fcarce books and me-
dals, and of obfcene piclnres and prints, till he was reclaimed
from his culpable mode of life by an acquaintance with the
learned and worthy Dr. Edivard Bernard. In token of his
regret on account of his pad conduft, and of the fincerity of
his reformation, he wrote a treatife " De Fornicatione ca-
vcnda admonitio, &c." pubHdicd, probably, firft at London
in 1690, with a dedicatory epiille to Dr. Bernard, and after-
wards in 1698, Svo. ; in which, notwitlidanding his pre-
tended, or real reformation, fome offenfive padages occur.
After the death of Vofiius, he fell into extreme poverty,
and into a ftatc of mental derangement ; ai.d probably focn
after the year 1712, when he wandered tlirough England,
under an appreher.lion that 200 pcrfons had confederated
together to aflaflinatc him, he died. Gen. Dift.

BEVERLEY, or Beverly, in Geography, is alarge cor-
porate, borough, and principal town in that portion of York-
Ihire called the eaft riding. It is featcd at the foot of the
woulds, on the banks of the river Hull, which is rendered na-
vigable, by means of a diort canal, up to the town. This
place appears to have been of fome note previous to the time_
of Bede, whofe preceptor, John of Beverley, archbidiop ot

York,

B E V

"Yoiki founded and erefted a monaflcry liere, to which he
rftiied, and wherein he died in 721. King AtlicUlan having
made a vow, before he proceeded againll the Scot-., inftituted
a collej^e of fecnlar canons, on hio return to this town in 930,
and alio granted tiie freemen many immunities and privileges,
which were allowed and confirmed by Henry I. and moil ot
the fucceeding monarchs to queen Eli/.abcth. By the lalt
charter, which contains the headj of thofe previoudv granted,
the government ot the town is vefted in a mayor, recorder,
jddcrmen, and other lubordinate ofTicerF. Though within
eight miles ot Hull, this town preferves great refpedtability
and commercial conftquence, from its fairs, markets, and
trade. The fedions for the eaft. riding of Yorklhire arc held
here in a handtome lull, called the Ilallgarth, which con-
tains a regifter office for deeds and wills, that relate to any
lands in this part of the co\uity. Beverley has fent two
members to parliament from the 26th of Edward I., except
a few intermiflion« in the reigns of Edward It. and III.

Here were forr.urly four churches, but only two remain ;
or^c of which is a large handfome ediiice, and is called the
Minfter. King Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth granted
certain revenues for the fupport and repairs of this edifice ;
but thofe revenues being improperly applied, a Mr. Moyftr,
M. P. for the town, procured a brief for the repair of it in
1708. His own contributions, with thofe from liis friends,
amounted to 1500!., ; which, with 800!. raifed by the brief,
were placed in tlie funds, and by the rife of the South fca
ftock, in the year 1720, he was enabled to complete the re-
paration and adornment of the church in his life-time.
King George I. not only encouraged this work by a liberal
donation of money, but gave the ilone of the diflblved monaf-
tery of St. Mary's in York towards the building; fir Mi-
chael Warton alfo gave 500I. and bequeathed 4000I. more
as a perpetual fund towards keeping it in repair. The call
window contains fome fine painted glafs ; and the fcreen be-
tween the nave and choir is much admired for its ornamental
workmanlhip. The north wall of the great crofs-aifle waff
at one period inclined from its perpendicular, but Mr. Thorn-
ton of York, invented a machine, which, by means of fcrews.
Sec. reftored it to its original pofition. The ancient fabric
was confumed by fire in September 1188. Here are feveral
monuments for the Piercys, earis of Northumberiand, who
built a private chapel in the choir.

The principal trade of Beverley confifls in making of malt,
oatmeal, and in the tanning of leather. The clothimr trade
was, at a former period, an object of much confequence here,
but at the time of Lcland it was falling fall to decay. Con-
nefted with the borough, are four large common fields, con-
taining nearly looo acres, in which every bnrgefs or freeman
is allowed to patlurc a certain number of cattle. In one of
thcle fields is a mineral fpa, which has proved ferviceable in
fome cutaneous diforders. There are i'even alms-houfes in
the town, and legacies left for creifting two more. Here
is alfo a free-fchool, whofe fcholars are allowed two fcllow-
Ihips in St. John's college Cambridge, alfo three fcholarlhips
and three exhibitions. Beverley is 183 miles north from
London. It has weekly markets on Wcdnefdays and Satur-
days ; five fairs in the year ; and five annual great maricets
for hogs, &c. This town confids of three pariflies, called St.
Martin's, St. Nicholas's, and St. Mary's ; and according to
the official population report in i8co, included 1228 houfes,
and 5401 inhabitants.

BEVERLY, John OF, in A'ofr/7/>^_v, arehbifliop of York
in the eighth century, was bom at Harpham in Northumber-
land, and having embraced the monadic life, he became after-
wards abbot of the monallery of St. Hilda. He was inftruded
in the learned languages by Theodore, archbilhop of Canter-
bury, and was jultly elleemed one of the bed fcholars of his

B E V

time. Some fay that he ftudied at Oxford, and took there
the degree of mailer of arts ; but as no degrees were then
conferred in this univtrfity, this fati has been difputtd. By
Alfred, king of Northumbcriand, to whom his merit recom-
mended him, he was advanced, in 68 j, to the fee of Haguf-
tald, or Hexham, and in 687, tranilated to that of York.
Beverley was tutor to the venerable Bede, and intimate with
Acca and other famous Saxon dottors, feveral of whom he
engaged in writing comments upon the Scriptures. In 704,
he founded a college for feeular priclls at Beverly, which, m
honour of his memory, was endowed by our kings, and par-
ticularly by Athelilane, with confiderablc immunities, fo
that it became an afylum, or fanftuary, for debtors and per-
fons fufpefted of capital crimcf. After he had governed the
fee of York 34 years, being tired with the tumults and con-
fufions of the church, he divelled himfelf of the epifcopal
charaifler, and retired to Beverly, and four years after died
in lie or/our offar.ahy, on the 7th of May 72 i ; and the day
of his death was appointed a feltival by a fynod held at Lon-
don in 1416. Bede, and other monkifh writers, afcribe to
him feveral miracles. Between three and four hundred years
after his death, liis body was taken up by Alfric, archbilhop
of York, and richly enlhrined. He was the author of feveral
homilies, and other religious pieces. Biog. Brit.

Beverly, in Geography, a towndiip, and poll-town of
America, in Eflex county, MafTachuletts, feparated from
Salem by a handfome bridge, and diftant about 20 miles ea(l
of north from Bofton, and 22 fouth-wtft from Newbury
port. It has two pariflies, containing 3290 inhabitant^-.
Thofe of the parifh next the harbour are devoted to the fifli-
ery, and the other branches of navigation. In the other part
of the town, which is chiefly agricultural, is a cotton manu-
factory, lat. N. 42° 31'. W. long. 7° 50'.

Beverly'j Manor, or Irijli traH, is a trail of land,
in Virginia, in N. lat. 38° 10', at the head of MafTnimten's
river, a weilern branch of the Shenandoah, which rifes
here by three branches, viz. Middle river, Lewis, and
Chrillian creeks, and lying between the Blue and the North
ridge.

BEV^ERN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and duchy of Brunlwick, fcated on the Wcfer, to
miles weft of Eimbtck.

BEVERON, a river of Savoy, which runs into the
Dranct, 4 miles fouth-weft of Evian.

BEVERS, Lit tle, lies to the weil of point de la Hune,
on the fouthern coaft of Newfoundland ifland, in North
America, between cape de la Hune on the call, and cape
Raye on the well, being the fouth-weft point of the ifland.

BEVERS TADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and duchy of Bremen, 24 miles north of
Bremen.

BEVERSTONE, a village of Gloucefterfiiire, England,
is fituated about two miles weft of the town of Tetbury,
and is noted for the ftatcly remains of its ancient caiUe.
This fortrefs is of uncertain foundation, but was undoubt-
edly a ftrong place prior to the conqueft. Earls Godwin,
Swane, and Harald here met under the pretence of aihfting
dward the confeiTor ?gainft the Welfh in 1048. Maurice,
lord Berkeley, or de Gaunt, fortified and repaired it, and in
1227 was prol'ecuted by the king for doing fo, without royal
permiffion. It was purchafed by Thomas lord Bcrkely
foon after the return of Edward II f. from the battle of
Poicliers. Many of the fpoils and ranfoms from that battle
were appropriated to enlarge and beautify this caftle, which
was uled as a manfion till the great rebellion, when it was
ftrengthened, and held for the king, but befieged by, and
furrendered to Col. Maflie. Great part of the caille, with a
dwelling-houfe within its walls, was foon afterwards de-

ilroytd

B E U

ftroyed by fire. It was onginally a fquaie Luildiiig, wiiii a
tower at each corner, one of which ftill remains, with frag-
ments of walls, and the greater part of a chapel. This has a
beautiful arched roof, and on the right fide of the altar is a
fhrineof tabernacle work, with a lavaratoi-y, a clofct in wiiich
is a confeffional, and over it a prilon. The moat furround-
ino- the whole, was about 200 yards in circumference. At
a fhort diftauce north of the callle is the parirti church, which
is a fmall plain building. Rudge's Hiilory of the County
of Glocefter,

BEVERUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Wertphalia, and bifliopric of Paderborn, at the conflux of
the Bever and the Wefel, near which are fprings of fall wd-
icr, 26 miles fouth-eaft of Padevbori:.

BEVERWYCK, John Van, or Bevirovicius, in Bio-
graphy, not more known and efteemed as a phyfician than as
a magiftrate, and member of the adminiftration in his
country, having attained to high honours in both thofe ca-
pacities, was born st Dordrecht in Holland, in 1594. Being
of a diftinguithed family, he had the advantage of receiving
inftruAions in claffical literature from Gerard John Voffui'--,
and afterwards of ftudying the different branches of medicine
under the ablell maRtrs in France and Italy. Returning to
his own country, he took the degree ot dottor in medicine
at Padua, about the year 1C24. His works are numerous.
Thofe moll deferving notice are, " Fpiftolica queftio, dc ter-
mino vitje fatali an mobili, cum dodtornm rcfponfis ;" 8vo.
1 634, Dord. Whether there is a fixed term, beyond which life
cannot be extended, he determines in the negative. "Montanus,
Rtfutatio argumentorum, quibus medicinx neccffitatem ini-
piirrnat ;" 8vo. 1634, Dord. : in which he anfwers the cavils
of the ficur Montagne againft phyficians, and (hews the necef-
fityof the art. "Idea Mcdicinx veterum," 8vo. 1637, Leiden.
A compendium of the praftice of medicine, taken from the
mod valuable writers on the fubjeft. " Epillolicae queftiones
cum dodtorum rcfponfis," 8vo. 1644, Rotter. A coUeclion
of letters on fubjefts pertaining to medicine, to which are
added, the Elogia of Medicine by Erafnius, Cardan, and Me-
landlhon. His works, of which Haller has given a complete
lift, were publifhed together in 4to. at Amilerdam, 1651.
They have moft of them paffcd through feveral editions. He
died Jan. 19th 1647, and was honoured with an epitaph by
his friend Heinfius. Haller Bib. Med. Gen. Biog.

Beverwyck, in Geography, a town of North Holland,
wiih a fmall harbour in the Wyckermeer, which is a con-
tinuation of the Ye, 3 leagues north of Haerlcm.

BEUF, John Lf, in Biography, a leamed and laborious
French writer, was born at Auxerre in 1687, and educated
at Paris. After his return to his native town, he was made
canon of its cathedral in 17 11, and during hisrefidence there
nequently attended the deputies of the clergy at Sens, to
aJTdt them in reforming the liturgies of that diocefe. In 1734,
lie was engaged by the archbifhop of Paris in the compofition
of the chant in the new breviary and miffalof that city ; and
from this tin".e he chiefly refided at Paris. He was admitted
an alfociate of the academy of belles lettrcs and infcriptions in
1740, and twice obtained the prize of that academy, and five
times that of the French academy at Soiffons. He was one
of the moft indefatigable, inteUigeiit, and fatisfaftory eccle-
fiaftical antiquaries of France. The catalogue of his works
from 1716 to 1741, fills 12 pages in folio in the Burgundy
library : and his fubfcquent productions for the laft 14 years
of his hfe, are nearly as numerous. His " Traite fur le
chant ecclcfiaftic" is full of curious rcfearches, and, perhaps,
the lafeil guide on the fubjeft which a mufical hiftorian of
the firft ages of the church can confult. This prodigy of
learning died in 1760.

The beft known of his numerous works, befidcs that aU
Vol. IV.

B E V

ready mentioned, are " A Colle£lion of various writingss
tending to illuftrate the hiilory of France," 2 vols. i2mo.
1738 ; " Differtations on the ecclefiallical and civil hiftory
of Paris," 3 vols. l2mo. ; " Memoir on the hiiloi-y of
Auxerre," 2 vols. 4to, 1743 > " H'ftory of the city and of
all the diocefe of Paris," 15 vols. lamo. ; more than 2co
" Memoirs," or " Hiftorical Diflertations," inferted in the
journals of the times ; and a variety of differtations printed
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions. He alfo
liberally communicattd a number of original pieces which he
found in his adiduous refearch, to learned men engaged in
different works. Nouv. Did. Hift.

Bevf, Riviere au, in Geography, a river of America, that
difcharges itfelf eaftward into Miffifippi river, in N. lat. ^9'
4', about 48 miles by the courfe of the river, above the
mouth of the Illinois, and 7 miles fouth from Riviere Oahaha.

Belt, 6'iHa'/ Z/C. SccZ^Beuf.

BEVIEUX, a village of Swifferland, in the government
of Aigle, in that part of the Valais which btlongs to the re-
pubhc of Ber.nc. Bevieux is diftant about y miles from the
fmall town of Ikx, and is famous for its fait fprings. Mr.
Coxe informs us, that he went into the mountain about 3000
feet, almoll horizontally. The gallery is 6 feet high, and 4
broad, and nicely hewn and hollowed in a black rock, veined
in fome places with white gypfum. The fait is procured from
fprings, which are found within a folid rock, perforated at a
great expence ; the richeft fource yields 28 pounds of fait
per c«nt. and the pooreft but half a pound. Near thefe
fprings are leveral warm fources, wh'ch contain a mixture of
fait, but are fo ftrongly impregnated with fulphur, as to flame
when a hghted candle is put into the pipe through which they
flow. No folid fait, except a few cubes, has been yet difco-
vered : but the mountain is replete with its particles. Rocks
of white g^-pfum, or alabafter, mixed with bluiih clay, arc
common near the fprings, in the fame manner as may be ob-
ferved in the pits of Northwich in Chefliire. After travel-
ling in this fubteiTaneous paffage near three quarters of a
mile, Mr. Coxe obferved a great wheel, 35 feet in diameter,
which raifes the brine from the depth of about 70 feet.
From this place is a fliaft 300 feet high, which is cut through
themountaintothe furface.for the purpofeof introducing frelTi
air. He noticed two rcfervoirs hollowed in the folid rock
for holding the brine ; one was 160 feet fquare, and 9 deep.
In procefs of time, the workmen pierced the rock 25 feet
deeper, and cut a galleiy 100 feet long, and they formed a
third refervoir, containing 5500 cubic feet. The brine de-
pofited in thefe refervoirs is conveyed by means of 2000
pipes, about a league to Bevieux, where the fait is extiacled.
The brine pits near Aigle contain only from two to one half
per cent, and yield annually about a third as much as thofe
of Bevieux, or about 5000 quintals. The fait is much
whiter and heavier than that of Bevieux, and confequently
bears a higher price. Thefe, which are the only fall-works
in Swifferland, fcarcely yield a net yearly profit of more than
3000I., and furniiTionly one-twelfth of the annual coniump-
lion of the canton. The remainder is procured chiefly from
France, at a moderate price, llipulated by treaty. Coxc's
Travels, vol. ii. p. 105.

BEUIL, in Geography, the chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Puget-Thcniers, and department of the mari-
time Alps, containing 468 inhabitants ; thofe of the canton
amount to 2133. Its territory' comprehends 225 kiliometres
and 6 communes.

BEV'ILE', in Heraldry, denotes a thing broken, or open-
ing like a carpenter's rule Thus he beareth argent a chief

bevile vert, by the name of Beverlu.

BEVIN, Elway, in Biography, among our ecclefiaftical

compofers in the time of James I., juftly defervcs to be

O o ranked

B E U

ranked with the mufical luminaries of tliiit reign. He was a
fcholar of T;illi5, which is difcovcrablc by his works ; but it
is not quite fo eafv to Jifcover how it could have been at the
recommendation of his mafter, who died 1585, that he was
fworn in gentleman extraordinary of the chapel royal, in 15S9,
as has been faid. His fervice in D minor, printed in Boyce's
coUeiftion, has the true ancient cad of modulation, the fer-
rutfo pretiofa upon it, which gives a dignity to its efiefts,
for which we can now hardly account. The accents, as
ufual with old mailers, are often erroneoufly placed ; but if
that impcrfei^lion be removed, or regarded with indulgence,
the compofiti;)n mull be allowed, in point of harmony and
modulation, to be admirable. And there are fome grand
cffefts produced by paufes and long notes without changing
or infringing the original meafure, that afforded us very pleai-
ing fenfations. Elway Bevin was, indeed, a man of genius ;
and it is to be lamented that more of his conipofitions hai'C
not been preferved. Befides his appointment in the chapel
royal, he was organifl of Brillol cathedral, and the mailer of
Dr. Child. But notwithftanding his abilities and great age,
lie was difmilTed from all his employments, in 1636, on being
difcovered to adhere to the Romifli communion.

In 163 1, he publilhed a work replete with harmonica! eru-
dition, entitled " A Briefe and fhort inftruclion of the art of
muficke, to teach how to make difcant of all proportions that
arc in ufe : very necefTary for all fuch as are defirous to at-
taine to knowledge in tlie art ; and may by praftice, if they
can fing, foone be able to compofe three, foure and five parts :
and alfo to compofe all forts of canons that are ufuall, by
, thefe directions of two or three parts in one, upon a plain-
fong," by Elway Bevin. thin 410. of 52 pages.

This work, however ufelefs it may be deemed now, mull
have beenof fingular fervice to young Undents in times when
canons were regard:;d as the greatell efforts of human iritcl-
left, and the folution of thefe enigmas was equally difficult
with that of the mo'l abllrufe and complicated problems in
Euclid. Micheli P>.omano publiflied a fimilar work at
Venice, 1615, and Valentini another at Rome, 1655. See
MicHEi.i, and Valentini.

BEVIO, in Geography, a fmall village of Swifferland,
feated near the Julian Alps, upon the Little Rliine, in the
high road leading to Coire. Bevio and Valmorara form one
community, governed by 1 1 magillrates ; though the num-
ber of voters, who appoint thefe magillrates, fcarcely exceeds
40. The chief is called " Miuillrale," and is confirmed
every year, for which each voter receives a florin. About
one-third of the merchandize from Como to Coire palTcs by
Bevio ; the greater part is fent by Splugen.

BEIIMTERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and biihopric of Worms, 6 miles fouth
of Worms.

BEURATH, a town of Bohemia, in the county of
Ghitz.

BEURERIA, and Beurreria, in Botany. See Calv-

CANTHUS, andEHRETlA.

BEURRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Doubs, and cliiif place of a canton in the di-
ftrift of Befan^on, 2 miles fouth of Befan^on.
/ "BEURRY, a town of France, in the department of the

Meufe, and chief place of a canton in the dillrift of Bar le
Due, I J league well of Barlc-Duc.

BEURS, William, in Biography, a painter, was born at
Dort in 1656, anddifeovering a natural genius for drawing
and dcfigning, he was placed, at the age of 18, under the
inftruftion of William Drillenburg. He painted in the (lyle
and manner of his mafter, almoil equalling him in the freedom
of bis hand, and the clearnefsof his colouring, and furpaHiut;
him in tl;e corrednefs of hia defign. Addidting himfclf to

B E W

a diffolute life, lie obtained neither the reputation nor the
wealth which his talents, diligently exercifed, might have
enabled him to acquire. He painted portraits, iandfcapes,
and flowers. Pilkington.

BEUS, in Aiic'tait Geography, a river of Macedonia, men-
tioned by Livy and Steph. F^yz., near which was a town
called B'u»i, Bene, according to tlic latter.

BEUTHEN, or NiEDER Beuthen, in Geography, a
town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and prin-
cipality of Carolath, on the Oder, containing two churches ;
3 miles S.W. of Ziegenbruek.

Beuthen, Kicdcr, a town of Silefia on the Oder, in the
duchy of Glogau. It has fullered much by war and fire;
dillant 13 miles W.N.W. from Ober Glogau, N, lat. ji"*
42'. E. long. 15° 51'.

Beuthen, Ober, a town of Silclia, formerly belonging to
the principality of Jagerndorf, but fince to the principality
of Opptln. It had anciently a produftivc mine of filver ;
diftant 40 miles E.S.E. from Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 16'. E.
long. 18° 53'.

BEUTSCHEN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Pofen, 44 miles vi'eft of Pofen.

BEUVRON, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton in the diftricl of Pont
I'Eveque, 12 miles fouth of Caen. — Alfo, a river of France,
which runs into the Loire, 2 leagues below Blois.

BEUVRY, a town of France, in tlie department of the
Straits of Calais, and chief place of a canton in the diflrift of
Bethune, half a league call of Bethune.

BEVY, among Sportfmen, is ufed to fignify a brood of
quails. Thus alfo we fay, a covey of partridges, a tilde of
phcafants, and a pack of groufe. Bevy is fometimes ufed
among forellers to exprefs a herd of deer, though it is much
lefs frequently ufed in this fenfe than in the former.

BEUZEVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Eure, and chief phce of a canton in the
dillricl of Pont-Audemer ; z\ leagues well of Pont-Au-
dtmer. It contains 2457 ptrfons, and the population of the
canton amounts to 12,254. Its territory includes 1925 kill-
omctres and 20 communes.

BEWCASTLE, a pariHi and village of Cumberland,
England, is rendered interelling to the topographer and an-
tiquary from the Roaian relics that have been difcovered
within its limits, and from the fingular obelilk in the church-
yard. This paiilh is fuppofed to have included the Roman
ilation where part of the Legio-Secunda Augulla was gar-
rifoned to guard the workmen employed in erefting the
famous Roman wall that feparated England from Scotland.
Many vefliges of ancient buildings are yet remaining ; and
numerous Roman coins, and fome iiifcribed ftones, have been
found here. The obeliflf, which has furniflitd a theme for
much differtation, contains various fculptured ornaments,
with a Roman infcription, and fome figures in baflTo-relievo.
The churcli, with the callle, arc included wltliin an intreneh-
ment. The latter, now in ruins, appears to have been of a
fquanfh form, and was battered down by the parliament's
forces in 1641. In this parilh are two fehools fupported by
lublcription, whofe mailers have about ten pounds each per
annum, with the privilege of a whittle gate. This was a pecu-
liar cuftom, formerly very common in Cumberland, and the
neighbouring counties, and now prevails in fome villages. It
is a privilege given to the mailer of applying to his pupils' pa-
rents m rotation, for provifions. Several thoufand Iheep and
black cattle are fed on the hills and wafte parifh. Hutchinfon's
Hiflory of Cumberland.

BEWDLEY, a market and borough town of Worcefter-
fhire in Engln.i:d, is plcalantly fituatcd on the banksof theriver
Severn, whofe navigable ftreamhasgivenprofperity to theplace.

2 . It

BEY

BEY

It was rormcrly inclLideil within the mardies of Wales, bnt hy fang'tals, or banners, each of wliich qualifies a bey ; and thefe

a ftatute of Henry VIII. was annexed to the county of Wor- are all commanded by the governor of the province, whom

cellcr. Leland dcfcribcs this place as remarkable for i^t:Y s^^o c?A\ beshiler-beghl, or beyler-bey,'\.c. lord cf :he lords,

the " wonderful height of the trees in the adjacent f-utft of or beys of the province.

\Vyre,"forits " beautiful lituation," and for the palace of Thefe beys are, in a great meafure, the fame that i<;n-

Tichcn-hall, which Henry \^II. built to be a place of retire- tin els formerly were in England.

nient for prince Artl'.ur. Tiie ceremony of this pnncc's
marriage in perfon, with Catharine of Arragon, by proxv,
was performed here on the 19th of May 1499. Kins
Henry VI. gave all the ftone for building the bridge acrofs
the Severn, which was erefted bv Edward IV. On the

It has already been obferved, under the article Bashaw,
that when the military ariftocracy of the Mamlouks in
Egypt was abolifhed by Sclim, luhan of the Ottomans in
1507, he ellabli{hed a form of goverr.mcnt, v hich was caU
culated to preferve all the different members of the Hate in a

middle pier of this, ftands a gatc-houfc, part of which is for condition of dependence upon himfeif. With this view, he

the corporation's pi ifon. appointed, befidcs a pacl^, a divan, or council of regency.

The town is in the paiifh of Ribbesford, where there is an compofed of the pacha and tiie chiefs of the feven military

ancient moated houfe, in which was found the maniifcript corps. At the time of this appointment it was agreed, that

copyof the life of lord Herbert of Cherbnry. Here is a chapel, the 24 governors, or beys of the provinces, (hould be chofen

which was built on'the iite of an ancitnt wood llruclure in from the Mamlouks ; and to them were entruiled the care

1748. A new fct of fliaml.les was alfoeiected in 1783; and of retraining the Arabs; fuperiiitending the coUcclion of

the town partakes of the benefits of a free grammar fchool, the tributes, and the whole civil government of the countrv •

which was founded in the latter part of queen Elizabeth's
reign ; alfo fume alms-honfr-s, and a charity fchool. The ma-
rufaftures and trades of this town were tonnerly very con-
fiderable, but they are now principally co'.ifined to tanning,
horn -work, matting, and a few other;;. Bewdley fcenis to
have been fivft. incorporated by king Edward IV. whofe char-
ter grants the freemen great privileges and immunities by fea

but their authority was purely paffive, and they v.cre to he
confidered m.ercly as tlie inilruments of the determinations
of the council. By this inilitution, which i.; ftill obferved
in fomc inllances, it was ordained, that the pr.cha (hould be
contented to (hare the power of the beys, and that the du-
ration of his authority fhould depend on their coUeftivc
will. The power of the pacha was very extenfive ; but it

andland. Thefe were confirmed by Henry VIII., and again has been gradually diminifhed, and almoft annihilated by
by James I. This charter was furrendered in the time of the intrigues and ambition of the beys. His jurifdiclioii
Ciiarles II.; but in the next reign another was granted, which was rather civil than military. He was always prelident of
on a trial in 1707, was deteiTnintd to be void. A new one the divan, which was held in the caftle wliere he rtfided.
was therefore obtained from queen Anne, but this produced But that council has, in later times, commonly affemblcd in
r i-.:_^.i-_ „l:.i. -.1 L I -^ J ■ :. r ^j^^ palace of one of the chief beys, except when a firman

or mandate is received from Coii'lantinoplc, when the bey
are fummoned to the callle to hear the commands of the
Porte. The few who attend, as foon as t!ie reading is lini-
Ihed, anfwer, ps is ufual, " Efmana wa taana," " we have
heard, and we obey ;" but on leaving the caftle, their gene-
ral voice is " Efmana wa avvfina," " we have heard, and fnall
difobey." All thefe beys had been Mamlouks, or military
flaves, who were not natives of Egypt, but imported when

fome litigation, which at length was determined in its favour,
This empowers the bailiff and 12 capital burgefies to return
one member to parhament. Here were fonncrly two weekly
markets, on Wednefdays and Saturdays; but the latter is
only continued ; which, with three fairs, annually attraft
much com.pany and trade to the town.

Bewdley is 129 miles N.W. from London. It contains
840 houfes, and 3671 inhabitants. Nafh's Hiftory of Wor-
atilerfhire.

B E WITS, in /"rt/fonr)', denotes a piece of leather to which very young from Georgia, CircafCa, and Minc^rtlia, and
a hawk's bells are fallened, and buttoned to his legs. purchafcd for 50, or not more than 100 fequins. Many of

BEX, in Geography, a fmall town of Sw itTerland, in the thefe are defcendcd from Chriftian parents, and have been
canton of Berne, about 4 miles S.S.E. of Aigle, and 5 miles flaves from their youth. Some few have been prifoners,
from the falt-works at Bevieux. (See Bevieux.) Between taken from the Aullrians and Ruffians, who have exchanged
Aigle and Bex is a pifturefque view of the caftle of St. their religion for an eilablifhmcnt. When the fupply ob-
Tryphon, on the fummit of an infulated rock in the middle tained in this way proves infufficient, or many have been
of the plain ; it is quite furrounded with wood, and rcalifes expended, black flaves from Nubia, and other interior parts
Milton's defcription of an ancient caftle, of Africa, are fubllituted in the room of the others, and if

" Bofom'd high in tufted trees." found docile, are armed and accoutred hke the reft. The

It is faid to be built of marble, and probably of a beauti- Mahometans in general, and the Egyptians in particular,
ful black fpecies in the vicinity. St. Tryphon was a treat their flaves with great kiiidnefs. At Cairo, when a
Phrygian, and is faid to have fuffered martyrdom at Nice flave is legally purchafed in the market, if he feel difcon-
in the year 251, under the perfccution of the emperor tented with his mailer, he has only to fav.

carry me to
the market," and the mafter is legally compellable to offer
him for fale. The child of a female flave, begotten by her
mafter, is " ipfo failo" free, and a flave may authorize a free
perfon to purchafe his emancipation. The Chriftian chil-
dren, bought by the beys, and the principal inhabitants
of Cairo, are educated with the fame care as their own chil-
dren, in every thing necefTary to accomplilh the charafter of a
Mahometan lord. They are inftrudlcd in every ncceiTar\'
to a lord of a banner, whom in the fame language they call exercife of agility and ftrength, and they are in general dif-
fang'iak-beg, or bey ; fangiak, which among them fignifies tinguifhed by the elegance and beauty of their pcrfons.
tanner ax Jlandard, being the badge of him who commands Some of them arc excellent fcribes ; but many can neither
in an important place of fome province, having under him read nor write. When their education is finiflicd, they pro-
a confiderable number of fpahis, or horfe. cure employments in the army ; and after emancipation,

Each province in Turkey is divided into feveo of thefe thtfe favoured flaves main the moft lively gratitude and

O o 2 afFeCtion

Dccius,

BEXUQUILLO, in the Materia Medica, a name given
to the white ipecacuanha, which the Spaniards bring from
Peru, as the Port..gucfe do the brown from Brafil.

BEY, or Beg, denotes a governor of a countiy, or town,
in thcTurkifh empire.

The Turks write the word Icgh or iei, but they pronounce
it bey : properly it fignifies lord, but it is particularly applied

BEY

affeftion to the generous mailers, to whom tlity owe their
fortunes, and both their pohtical and moral exillciice ; nor
do they ever qv)it them in the hour of danger. Thus it
often liappens, that a rr.after, v.hcn he findd any of his ilavc3
poifeired of extraordinary talents, and tried fidelity,
fpares no pains or txpcnce to raife him to a more con-
iiderablc employment than that which he himfcif occu-
pies ; and thus he at length acquires fovcreign power. In
order to attain this power, it is neceflary to be a Mamlouk,
that is, the native of a foreign country, as even the children
of ihufi.-, who rife to ofTiccs of ftate, do not enjoy the right
of fucccffion. Hence it happens, ihjt as the Ton of a bey
is not honoured with any particular confideration, the
women, perhaps, procure abortions. Ot iS beys, whole
hillory was known to Mr. Brown, only two had any chil-
dren living. Volney obfcrves, that during 550 years Mam-
louks have been in Egypt, and that not one of them has
left fubfilling ifFue ; but all their children pcrifh in the fud
or fecond defcent. Hence he infers, that thofc who are
transferred from the \icinity of mount Caucafus, to the
banks of the Nile, are incapable, by the influence of the
climate, of perpetuating their progeny. To this circum-
llance it is owing, that the Mamlouks are replaced by flaves
brought from their original country. From the time of
the ^Ioguls, this commerce has been continued on the con-
fines of the Cuban and the Phafu, m the fame manner as it is
carried on in Africa, by tlie wars among the numerous
tribes, and by the mifcry of the inhabitants, who fell their
own children for a fubfilleiice.

Dillinguilhed by favouritifm or merit, the Mamlouk be-
comes a cafhef, or kiafchef, and in time a bey. The chief
caufe of preferencearifesfrom political adherence to fomepow-
erful leader. The number of thefe beys has feldom or ever
been complete ; and the revenues of the vacant places were
probably (hared among the reft, who were aftual occupants
of their office. Each of thefe beys is nominally chofen by
thofe that remain ; but in fact appointed by one of the moll
powerful.

The " Yenk-tchery Aga," and feveral other officers, are
enumerated among the 24 beys. Befides being governors
of certain diftridts of Egypt, feveral of the beys receive
other dignities from the Porte. Such are the " Schcik-el-bel-
Icd," or governor of the city, which is an office merely
civil, unaccompanied with any military power ; the " Def-
tcrdar," or accountant general ; the " Emir tl Hadj," or
leader of the facred caravan ; and the " Emir ef Said," or
governor of the Upper Egypt ; which lall two offices are
annual. Thefe officers have alfo revenues allotted them
by the Porte, ill-dctined, and liable to much abufe. Of
the other beys, each appoints all officers and governors with-
ia his diftrift, putting into it fome Have of his own, who
is compelled to render an account of the receipts ; of
which a part is appropriated to fupport the grandeur of
hij mailer. An opulent bey may have from 600 to 1000
purfes annually ; the revenue of Murad Bey more than
double that fum. The inferior beys may have 300 purfes,
or 1 5, cool. The revenues of the beys are raifed by a land-
tax and the produce of the cuftoms, amounting together to
near two millions fterling, of which but a fmall proportion
reaches the coffers of the Porte. Every bey fits in judg-
ment on cafes of equity. Thefe pcrfonagcs arc very obfer-
vant of their refpedlive jurifdiftions ; and no bey will im-
prifon a man liberated by another. Although fometimes
too impetuous, they neverthelcfs difplay great acutenefs
and knowledge of characters. This government pofleffes at
Itafl every advantage of publicity, as every bey is a magif-
trate. But the juftice of the rulers is ever liable to the
omiiiputcnt influence of gold. Each bey appoints his caf-

BEY

hefs, or lieutenants. Thefe officers pre fide each over a town
or village, collefting the revenues, and judging fmall caufes;
but an appeal lies to the bey. The beys and the caftiefs
are, from their ignorance, conllrained to employ Copts as
accomptants in adjulling and receiving the revenues, that
duty being of an intricate nature, and requiring great local
knowledge. The authority of a calhef is as arbitrary as
that of a bey.

The beys in Egypt have been gradually acquiring an in-
creafc of authority and influence, and reducing the power of
the Ottoman Purte to a feeble and degraded Hate. To
this feveral circuiullaiices have contributed ; futh as the un-
reftraiued tiailic of fl.ive?. ; the ncgleft of the affairs of this
province on the part of the Ottoman Porte ; the extenfion
of the power of the divan, and the rellraint of that of the
pachas, and the coufeqnent uncontioulable influence of the
junizaries and Arabs. To which may be added, the change
that took place in the condition of the foldiers, by their
becoming citizens, and by the naniages they contrafted,
and the change alfo introduced into their difcipline ; and,
more cfpecially, the permiffion giantcil to the chiefs of pof-
fcffing dillinet propcUy, lands, and villages, dependent on
the Mandouk governors, whom it became nccelfary to con-
ciliate, in order to prevent their oppieliion ; and the afcend-
ancy acquired from that moment by the beys over the fol-
diers, and ineieafed by the great riches accruing from their
governments. Thefe riches they employed in multiplying
their flaves ; and, after emancipating them, advancing thera
in the army, and promoting them to various employments.
By fuch means Ibrahim, one of the kiayas or veteran colo-
nels of the janizaries, rendered himfelf, in 1746, mailer of
Egypt ; for he had fo multiplied and advanced his freedmen,
that, of the 24 beys, which fliould be their number, no lefe
than eight were of his houfliold. His influence was alfo
the more certain, as the pacha always left vacancies in the
number, in order to receive the emoluments. On the other
hand, the largefles he beftowed on the officers and foldiers
of his corps, attached them to his intereft, and Rodvan, the
moll powerful of the Arab colonels, uniting with him, cora-
pleated his power. The pacha became a phantom, and the
orders of the fultan vaniihed before tliofe of Ibrahim. At
length, about the year 1766, AH Bey gained a decided
afcendancy over his rivals, and under the titles of " Emir
Hadj," and " Scheik el Belled," rendered himfelf abfolute
mailer of the country. (SeeAbiBEY.) Mohammed Bey,
furnamed " Aboudahab," or father of gold, from the luxury
of his tent and caparilons, who fucceeded him in 1773,
during a reign of two years, difplayed nothing but the fero-
city of a robber, and the bafenefs of a traitor. Upon his
death in 1776, ^lurad, a favourite of Mohammed, was ad-
vanced to the dignity of bey ; but he had a formidable
competitor in Ibrahim, who had been a flave of Ali Bey
the Great. The two rivals, however, adopted concihatory
meafures, and entered into an agreement to divide the autho-
rity, on condition that Ibrahim fliould retain the title of
" Scheik el Belled." This union v/as a prudential meafure,
and ncceflary to their fafcty ; for flnce the death of iVli
Bey, the beys and cafliefs, who owed their promotion to his
houfe, repined at feeing all the authority transferred to a
nevv fadlion ; and after feveral intrigues and cabals, formed
a confederacy, under the denomination of the houfe of Ali
Bey. The chiefs of this confederacy were Hafl"an Bey,
formerly governor of Djedda, and Ifniael, the only remain-
ing bey of thofe created by Ibrahim Kiaya ; and they con.
dufted their plot fo well, as to oblige Murad and Ibrahim
to abandon Cairo, and retire as exiles into the Said. Thefe
exiles, being reinforced by the refugees, returned, and com-
pelled the confederates, Ifmael and Haflan, to make their

efcape

BEY

cfcapc into the Said. Ibrahim and Murad have fince
ruled Egypt, the former as '♦ Scheik el Belled," and the
latter as " Deftcr-dar," though not without mjtiialjea-
loufies and attempts to deftroy each other. They, however,
confpire together to recruit the number of the Mamlouks,
and to coUcdl treafure from all quarters. In the year 1791,
Salah Aga, a Have of Murad Bey, was deputed, from the
government of Egypt, to negociate their peace with the
Porte. He carried with him prefents of horfes, rich Huffs,
&c. He was well received, and was afterwards appointed
*' Waquil ef Sultan," i. e. agent or attorney to the fultan in
Cairo. This office was probably given him to engage him in
feconding the efforts of the court fordifuniting the beys ; but
it was inefFtftual. Thefe had formerly experienced the evils
of divifion, and were now united by common intereft, grown
rich, and well provided with flavcs. It is faid, tht no tribute
has finee that time found its way to Conftantinople. Ibrahim
and Murad are confidcred as ufnrpers by the beys of Upper
Egypt, who are favoured by the Purte. The mod power-
ful houfe is that of Ibiahim, who lias about 600 (according
to Volncy, but about 1000, favs Mr. Browne,) Mamlouks.
Next to him is Murad, who has not above 400 Mamlouks,
fays Volncy ; but according to Browne, they amounted, in
1796, to about 1 700. He was originally a (lave of Mohammed
Bey, and fucceeded in defeating and taking prifoner All Bey
the Great. He is detefted by the Porte. He is dcfcribed by
Sonnini, as handfome and martial in his appearance ; his chin
is covered with a bufhy black beard ; his thick eye-brows de-
fcribe arches of ebony over his large eyes, which fparkle with
vivacity and fire. A long fear in one of his cheeks adds to
the fierce call of his countenance. To great bravery, he joins
fmgular addrefs and e.'itraordinary flrength. He has been
known, when riding by an ox, to cut ofl' its head with one
ftroke of his fcimitar. An intrepid warrior, capable of en-
during the fevered hardfliips, an excellent horfeman, dexte-
rous and powerful in the ufe of the fabre, courageous in ad-
i.verllty, bold in entcrprife, cool in action, but terrible in on-
fet. Murad, with inllruclion, might have become a great
general. His proud deportment, and magnificent difpoil-
tion, give him the dignified appearance of a fovereign ; but
injuftice, ignorance, and cruelty, have renderedhima ferocious
tyrant. Murad, fays Mr. Browne, is one of thole beys
who can neither read nor write. Of the profufion of this
bey, Sonnini has given the following account. In his camp
were eredled immenfe tents, divided into fevcral apartments,
for the accommodation of himfelf and his principal officers.
The floors were covered with the moll beautiful carpets,
and the interior decorations confifted of the richell gold and
filver fluffs that the manufaiflories of Lyons could afford.
Nothing could equal the magnificence of his cavalry. Gold
and filver ornaments, with the choicefl embroidery on Mo-
rocco leather, glittered with a dazzing luilre in the rays of
a burning fun ; and the houfings of the faddles, trimmed
with a broad gold lace, were made of thofe handfome vel-
vets, the fmall and delicate patterns of which difplay the
elegant talle that prevails in the produftions of the manu-
fafturers of Lyons. His profufion is fupplied by his
rapacity. He is accuflomed to have from the mint daily,
for his pocket expenccs, 500 half mahbubs, and his wife
the fame. This amounts to 1500 piaftres, and is only a
fmall part of hi." difburfements. He is married to the
widow of his miller, the daughter of the celebrated Ali
Bey. Next in power to Murad, is Mohammed Bey Elti,
whole name imports that he was bought for 1000 patackes.
His mailer was Murad Bey, jufl mentioned. He is repre-
fented as quick in apprehenfion, and impetuous in aftion.
His power is great and increafing ; he has 800 Mamlouks.
Ibratiim Bey, " el Uali," a name derived from the fecond

BEY

military magif^rr.cy in the city of Cairo, is a young man
about the fame age with the lall mentioned, of a fedate,
but firm charadter, married to the daughter of the elder
Ibrahim, and attached to his interefts. He has 6 or 700
Mamlouks. Aiiib Bey, " al Zogheir," or junior, is ano-
ther powerful leader, dillinguifhcd by his fiiperior capacity,
and on all occalious coiifulted by the reft. He has not
many Mamlouks ; he is prudent and economical, and rarely
accufed of extortion. Fatmc, now the aged daughter of the
famous Ali, is held in much refpeft by all the beys. Even
Murad, her hufband, treats her with reverence. When a
bey is appointed to a government, he never fails to pay a
vifit to this old ladv, who ledlures him on his duties, and
will fay to him, " Do not pillage the people ; they were
always fpared by my father."

Of the fyftematic rapacity of the beys, the following
inllance is mentioned. Ibrahim Bey, at a fclUval occaiioned
by the marriage of his daughter to another powerful bey in
1792, invited to his houfe a famous finger, who had been
employed, during the preceding day and night, in the exer-
cife of her protefTion, and who had received confiderable
donations. She readily complied, expeSing employment,
and liberal recompence. The bey allied her " How many-
half fequins did ycu culleft yefterday .'" She replied, " about
ten thoufand." " Pay me eight thoufand then," faid the
bey, " and I will give you a note of credit on Ibrahim Jeuhari,
my fecretary." The money was paid, but the woman wa^
turned out of the houfe without receiving any fecurity
whatever ; and is faid to have died of the difappointment.
Voluey's Travels through Syria and Egypt, vol. i. Son-
iiini's Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, p. 4^4, &c,
Browne's Travels in Africa, &c. p. 47, &c. See Bashaw,
and M.iMLOUK.

Bey of Tunis, der.oles a prince, or iing thereof ; anfwering
to what at Algiers is called the tffy. He is chofen out of
the army ; each order, even the mofl inferior, having an
equal right and title to that dignity with the highefl.

In the kingdom of Algiers, each province is governed
by a bey or vice-roy ; who is appointed and removed at
pleafure by the bey ; but has a defpotic power within his
jurifdiAion ; and at the feafon for colledling the tribute
from the Arabs, is affuled by a body of troops from AJ-
giers.

The kingdom of Tunis is not divided into provinces, like
that of Algiers, and governed by provincial beys, orvice-roys;
but the whole is under the immediate infpeflion of the bey
himfelf, who collects the tribute in perfon. For this pur-
pofe, he vifits, with a flying camp, once every year, the
principal parts of it ; traverfing, in the fnmmer feafon, the
fertile country in the neighbourhood of Keff and Baijah ;
and in the winter, the feveral diftrifts betwixt Kairwaii and
the Jereed.

BEYAH, ill Geography, anciently ca?led BcypaOia, and
the Hyphafis, or Hnphitfis of Alexander, a river of Hindof-
tan, that rifes in the great chain of fnowy mountains, ex-
tending from Sirinagur, to the north of Caflimere, or the
ancient Imaus ; and after traverfing the Panjab, it joins
the Setlege at Ferofepour ; about 24 miles below the con-
flux, a reparation again takes place, and four different
flreams are formed ; the northmofl and mod confiderable
of which, recovers the name of Bcyah, and is a deep and
rapid river. The others are named Herari, Dond, and
Noorney ; and near Moultan they unite again, and bear the
name of Setlege, until both the fubftance and the rarae
are loft in the Indus, about 80 miles, or three days' failing,
by the courfe of the river, below the mouth of the Chunaub.
Rennell's Mem. p. 102.

BEYENBERG, orBiENBERC, a town of Germany, io

the

B E Z

tTie circle of Weflplialia, anJ duchy of Berg, ontheWippcr,
3 miles north of L: iinep.

BEYERLAND.an ifjand bclonfrinfr to HoH;ind, fituatcd
on the Mcufc, with a town of the fame name ; 4 kaguea
wc-ft of Doi-t.

REYERN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia,
and county of Fullenberg,fituated on the Danube, 4 leagues
from D-.illingen.

BEYHARTING, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, 24 miles E.S.E. of Munich.
BEYKE. See Beki.

BEYLA, a town and diftrift of Abyffmia, in Sennar,
about I I miles weft of Teawa, and 3 1 { m'les due fouth, in
N. lat. 31^42' 4". Between Tcawa and Beyla there is no
water. Imgededema, and a number of villages, were fnp-
plied with water from wells, and had large crops of iTidian
corn fown about their pofleiTions. But the Arabs Daveinu
have deftroyed thefe places, filled up their wells, burnt their
crops, and expofed all the inhabitants to die by famiuc.

BEYMONT, or Beywort, a town of Germany, in the
bifiiopric of Liege, 8 miles fouth of Litge.

BEYNAT, the chief place of a canton in the diftridl of
Brivc-s, and department of Correze, containing 1462 inhabi-
tants ; thofe of the canton being 548>^. The territory com-
prehends 1 •?5 kiliometres and 6 communes.

BEYS, GiLLES, in Biography, a printer at Paris, in the
l6th centun-, who firft introduced into his editions the dif-
tinfTion fuggeiled by Ramus in his grammar between _;' and v
confonants, and the vowels / and ;;. He died in 1595.

BEYSZKER, (Ge/n. Tlnerb.) in Ichthyjosy, a name of
the cobitis foffilh . Gir.elin.

BEZA, Theodore, or Theodore de Be/.e, in Bio-
graphy, an eminent divine among the firft reformers in Ge-
neva, was born of parents nobly defcended, in 15 19, at
Vezelai in Burgundy, and fent by his uncle, who was a
counfellor in the parliament of Paris, to Orleans, in 152S,
to be educated by M',-lchior Wolmar, a protcftant and an
excellent teacher. Having continued fevcn years under his
tuition, he commenced the ihidy of the law at Orleans; but
his tafte led him to the cultivation of polite literature, and
he compofed fcveral Latin poems, which were confidered by
the learned as a promifing fpecimen of his talents. After
taking a law-degree, he returned, in 1539, to Paris, where
his p.U'ents, who had intended him for the ecclcfiallical pro-
ftffion, had procured for him a valuable abbacy. Addifted
to the delights of an eafy and voluptuous life, he remained
for fome years at Paris; but under the influence of fenli-
ments imbibed in his youth from his protellant preceptor,
he determined fooncr or later to break his fetters. A mar-
riage contratled from confcientious motives rendered it ne-
ceflar)' for him to refign his benefices, and haftened in the
execution of his purpofe by the reflexions attending a fevere
illnefs, he and his female companion fled, in 1548, to Ge-
neva. In the following year he accepted the offer of a
Greek profeflorfhip at Laufsnne, in the exercife of which
he continued with reputation lor nine or ten years. Here
he read leisures in French on the New Teflament, and pub-
lilhcd fevcra! books ; one of which was a tragi-comedv, in
Trench, entitled " Abraham's Sacrifice," which paflcd
through feveral imprcffions. Having frequent opportunities
of vifiting Calvin at Geneva, he was induced by his pcrfua-
fion to Rnilh the vcrfion of the Pfalms, whicii had been be-
gun by Marot. During his refidence at Laufanne, he pub-
lilhcd a treatife, " Dc Hcreticis a Magiftratu puniendis," in
reply to a book written by Caftalio, after the execution of
Servetus ; and in this treatife he maintained a doftrine no
lefs dangerous in its tendency than inconfiftent with his
principles as a reformer and a protcftant, that it was the

B E Z

duty of the civil magiftrate to punift herefy. He alfo wrote
on pred.ilination, and the eucharlll, in oppofition to the Lu-
tlierans, ar.d others, and in a ftyle of raillery which a ma-
turer judgment and after-refltClion led him to correft. In
I ^58, he was fcledted as one of tlie deputies commifiioncd by
the p'-oteftants, to engage the German princes \n favour of
their brethrLn imprifoned at Paris, and of the perfecuted in-
habitants of the va'.lies of Piedmont. In the following year he
removed to Geneva, v/here he became theco'ltague of Calvin,
both in the church and univerfity, and where by his abilities,
learning, a::d zeal, he co-eperated with him hi advancing the
reformation. In 1561, he dil.in^uifiiedhinifclf by his eloquence
on behalf ^f the Protcftant party, at the conference of PoilTy ;
although he gave offence by his declared oppofition to the
doarine of the real prefence. Continuing in France, he
attended the prince of C^irdc- as a minifter, when the civil
war broke out, and accompanied him to the battle of Dreux.
LIpon his return to Geneva, in 1563, he wrote feytral books
in thed'ogical controveify, with an acrimony that cannot be
juftilied by perfons of moderation and candour. In 157 1,
he officiated as moderator in the national fynod of Rochclle,
and in the following year aflifted in that of Nifmes. In
1586, he held a difputation with Andreas, a Lutheran divine
of Tubingen ; and through the whole courfe of his hfe, the
party to which he belonged availed itfelf, on many occa-
fions, of his talents and reputation. Having loll his firft
wife in 1588, he foon married another. Although the in-
firmities of his advanced age required his withdrawing from
the duties of public inftrufrion, the ardour of his genius
remained to the clofe of his life, and he wrote Latin verfes
a few years before his death, which happened in Oftober
1605, after he had pafTed his 86th year. Of his fingular
natural talents and literary acquirements no doubt can be
entertained ; nor need we wonder that bigotted Catholics
fliould have calumniated him vvhilft he lived, and reviled
his memory after his death. He has indeed, by his enemies,
been unjuftlv traduced as a hypocrite, and a perfon of lax
morals ; but charges of this kind are refuted by the uniform
tenour of his life. His partial advocates, however, mult
regret that, as a difputant, he was violent, impetuous, and
dogmatical, and dehcient in candour and charity. His ju-
venile pieces, in Latin poetry, in which critics have detected
many numerous deviations from claffical purity, were firft
printed in 1548. Some of thefe, with correftions, together
with others of a more ferious caft, were printed by the
Stephenfes at Paris, in 1597, 410. under the title of
" Theod. Beza; Poemata varia." His French works are of
an inferior kind. His theological works arc numerous. Of
thefe, the moft generally read, and the moft highly efteemed,
is his " Latin verfion of the New Teftament," with critical
and theological remarks. For an account of the MS. in his
poffcftion, fee Cambridge MS. Gen. Did.

B.EZABA, in Geography, a river of Spain, which runs
into Orio, in the province of Guipufcoa.

BEZABDA, or Gozerta, G'.ziret ebn-Omar, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Afia, on the right bank of the Tigris,
fuuth-weft of Tigranocerta, in the country called Zabdi-
cana.

BEZ.ANT, reprefents, in HcrnUry, round flat pieces of
gold. They were firft borne by the foldiers of the holy
wars, being the current coin of Byzantium (the modern
Conftantinople,) with which the ftipends of the army were
difchirged, and from whence they took their name. They
are always emblazoned gold, but the foreign heralds make
them both gold and filver.

BEZANTIE, in //iraW/^', is when the field is powdered
with bezants, or when fupporters, or crefts, are ftrewed with
them. The proper heraldic term is bezantie. When a

bordure

B E Z

B E Z

bordure is charged with eight bczTiiits, that being the hmited
number, you need not cxprcfi the number, but fay, a b'jr-
durcfuble be^anUe.

BEZANTLIER, fignifies thefecond branch of the horn
of an hart or back., that ftioots from the main beam, and is
the next above the brow-antlcr.

BEZARA, in Ancient Geography-, a town of Gahlee near
the fea, fouth of Ptolcmais.

BEZDELKINO, in Gtogiaphy, a town of Siberia, 80
miles north of Balaganfkoi.

BEZDZIEZ, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc, 24 miles well of Pinfic.

BEZE', a town of France, fituate near the the fource of
a river of the fame name, in tiie department cf the Cote
d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridl of Is-fur
Tille, z\ leagues E.S.E. of it.

BEZEK, or Bezaka, in Ancient Geography, the place
where Saul reviewed his army, before he marched againit Ja-
bedi-Gilead. 1 Sam. xi. 8. Eufebius ir.entions two cities of
this name, near one another, 7 miles from Sichem, in the
way to Scythopolis.

BEZENSTEIN, or Petzensteim, in Geography, a town
of Germany, in the circle of Bavari?, and territory of Nu-
remberg, ig milrs N. E. of Nuremberg.

BEZER, \n Ancient Geography^ a citv beyond Jordan, over-
againft Jericho, in the wildernefs affigned by JVIofes to the
tribe of Reuben, intended by JoOiua to be a city of refuge,
and given to theLevites of Gerfhom's family. Dcut. iv. 43.
Jofh. XX. 8. The vulgate in Jjoth places denominates it BnJ'or.
Eufebius confounds it with Boftra of Arabia, which lay much
farther to the ealf. See Bostra,

BEZETH, a city of Paleftine, on this fide Jordan, in
the vicinity of Jerufalem, which Bacchidts furpriftd, and
the inhabitants of which he threw into a pit ; probably the
fame with Bezecath. 1 Maccab. vii. 19.

BEZETHA, or Betzet'a, a divilion or part of Jerufa-
lem, fituated on a mountain, and encompaffed with walls,
being, as Jofephus fays, a new city attached to the old one,
and called in Greek Kaij-xoXi,-, Cainopolis. It lay north of
Jeriifaltm and the temple.

BEZETZ, in Geography'. See Besketsk.

BEZHLEN, a town of Tranfylvania, 12 miles N.N.E.
of Biftriz.

BEZIERS, a city of France, and principal place of a
diflrift, in the department of the Herault, feated on the left
bank of the Orbc, not farfromthc grand canal. Etfore the
revolution, it was the refidcnce of a governor, and the fee of a
bilhop, fuffragan of Narbonne; its cathedral was Inial!, but
beautiful ; it had befidts a collegiate church, feveral reiigi-
ous houfes, two hofpitals, a college founded by the inhabi-
tants in 1599, and an academy of fciences and belles lettres.
It is furro'jndcd by a wall, flanked with old towers, and de-
cayed ba!lions. The number of inhabitants in both its fcc-
tions is efli.mated at' 14,211, and the population is fmall in
proportion to its extent. The canton of the firft feAion has
11,308, and that of the fecond 13,147 perfons. The former
canton has 9, and the latter 7 communes. The territorial
extent of both comprehends 360 kiliometrcs. The fituation
is beautiful, and it commands a view of feveral fluiccs of the
grand canal of Languedoc. In the Not. Imp. it is called
*♦ Civitas Bitcrenfium, Bhterra Sept'manorum." In the 5th
centui-y it was ravaged by the Vandals ; by the Saracens, in
720; by Charles Marte!, in 737 ; and by Simon, count Mont-
fort, in 1209; who, in the crufadeagainil the Albigenfcs, took
it by affault, and put more than 50,000 of the inhabitants to
the fword. Since this time it has not recovered its ancient
lullre. It was re-united to the crown by S. Louis, in 1247.

Its territory is fertile in corn, oil, and wine. It has alfo mi-
neral waters. N. lat. 43'"' 20' 41". E. long. 3^ 12' 35".

BEZIRA. SeeBAziRA.

BEZOAR, Bezoard, primarily denotes an antidote, or
countcr-poifon. Tiie word is formed from the Perfian/a-
aahar, which denotes the fame, /a fignifying /7ja;/7/?y and
zahar, poifon.

Bezoar, Lapis Be%oardicus, is a term applied in a gene-
ral way to various fubllanccs found in the llomach, inteitines,.
and other internal cavities of the bodies of quadrupeds.

The true bezoar, however, is a calculous concretion,
ufually formed in the ftomach of feme of thofe animals which
ruminate, or chew the cud. There are two forts of the be-
zoar ftone; one is brought from the Eall Indies, and Perfia,
and thence known under the name of 0;7c7j/:j/ bezoar. The
other kind comes from the Spanith Welt Indies, or South
America, and is called Occidental bezoar. The Oriental is
confidered by far the more valuable kind, and is exceedingly
fcarce, even in India. The larger the ilone the more highly
it is elleemed ; its price increafing, like that of the diamond,
in proportion to its fize. A ftone of one ounce has been
fold in India for 100 livres, and one of four ounces and a
quarter for 2coo livres. The price of the fmaller ftones, in
Germany, in the year 160c, was from 16 to 32 ducats the
ounce ; but it had then much declined. The larger bezoara
had no regular price, being often enormoufly dear. As
long as it retained its fancied reputation, as an antidote to
every kind of poiion, and as a cordial for the fupport of life
under the moft trying circumftances of difeafe, its price was
advanced beyond its weight in gold, and it found a high
place for many centuries among the moft coftly colledtions of
precious ftones. The lize varied from that of a pea to a
hen's egg, or even larger. Boetius relate?, that in his time
the emperor Rodolph II. poffelTtd one of the Cze of a
goofe's egg, which he ordered to be hollowed out into a
cup, whe« the nucleus was found to be a fmall mafs of herbs
ftiU ftrongly aromatic. The moll anciently known bezoar
ftones were procured from the ftomachs of goats feeding in
the mountains of Perila, and thofe from the mountain goat
were in fuch high requcft, that the emperor Shah-Abbas
(who died in 1628,) claimed all above a certain ftandard as-
a royalty, and appointed coUeClors for the purpofe. The
Oriental bezoars pafTcd th'^ough the hands of the Anr.eniaa
and Peifi:in merchant?, ar.d were formerly brought to Eu-
rope in conlidtrable quantities. In the eall, thr.fe were the
moft efteemed that were obtained from goats feeding in the
mountains, as the aromatic herbs found there were fuppoftd
to add much to the virtues of the calculus.

Authors difagree with refpeA to the animal in which the
genuine oriental bezoar is tound ; fomc attribute it to a
fpecies of goat, others to the antilope genus. Moft natu-
raliils allow this fubftance to belong to the gazelle, {Antilops
Ga%e'la, Gmel.) Aldrovandus calls this fpecies of antilope,
hircus hezoardicus ; L.\r\nxuf , capra Lezoardica ; and Pennant,
the iezoar antilope. Pallas, however, in his Spicilegia Zoolo«.
gia, gives the fame name to the Egyptian antilope, {^Anti-
lope Oryx, Gmel.) Cuvier defcribes the oriental bezoar as
being found in the inteftines of the capra sgagrus of the
Linnean fyftem, and Gmelin afcribes it to the capricome
goat. By the account of Clufius, the animal furniftiing this
concretion would feem to be larger than the goat, and more
relembiing the Nylghau. There can be little queftion but
fimilar fubftances have been occaftonally met with in each of
thefe animal?, and in feveral other fpecies.

The bezoar ftone, when genuine, varies much in its form ;
this depending upon the figure. of the nucleus, upon which
the calculous matter is depoliced, there being generally foine

fbreiga

B E Z

foreign body in the centre of the bczoar. The fubfiances
which ufiially ferve for nuclei to thefe concretions are draw,
hair, finall pebbles, nius, hard fetds, ftones of fruit, &c.
but the mod frequent nucleus of the real ori enta\ bezoar, is
the pod of a fruit, much like that of tlie Acacia -vera
£g\l>tiica: though it at firlt fight rcfembles a cajjia, or
tamarind Hone. In fome of the bezoar ftones formed on this
fruit, the outer membrane of the bean having periflied, and
the bean flKiuik in drying, there remains a vacuity between
it and the inner furface of the bezoar, fo that it rattles within
it, when fliakcn, in the manner of an utiles, or eagle Jlone.
It is of little moment what the figure or nature of the body
may be, which is to ferve the purpofe of a nucleu?, as it
cannot in the flighttd degree afTeA tiie quality of the cal-
culous fubftance which u to be coUeiSed on its furface; any
extraneous matter will fuffice for this pnrpofe, which may
happen by any accident to be long enough detained in
the llomach or intellines. The formation of bezoars ap-
pears to be effected in a manner riniilar to that obferved in the
produ£lion of the calculi of the urinary bladder of the hu-
man fubjeft. We may prefumc that the bezoar is only
formed when there is a tendency in the animal to generate
an extraordinary quantity of calculous matter ; for ii it were
otherwife, as tliat thefe fubllances were produced by any
combination of the ordinary contents ot the ilomach and
inteftinep, what animal, that is liable to fuch colledionp,
could ever be without them? whereas, on the contrary, they
are fo fcarce in the Eall Indie?, that thofe which are brought
into this country are fuppofed to be in general artificial com-
pofitions ; nay, fome have doubted if we ever meet with a
genuine oriental bezoar in this country.

The feafon of the year alfo appears to infl\ience their
produftion. Camerarius remark;-', that thele bodies begin to
form towards the month of November : and when the Pari-
fian anatomills difcovired a bezoar in the llomach of the QtiTi-
Tttoh [AnlUope Rupkiipra,) it was the month of December.

The number of bezoar ftones varies, in different animals,
from one to fix ; hence, it is faid to be cuftomary, previous
to purchafing a bezoar animal, to reckon the number of
flones it contains, which can be afcertaincd by feeling ex-
ternally, and by this the price of the animal is regulated.

V'elchius aflerts, that the Bezoar is only found in the firft
or fccond ftomachs of ruminant animal?, but the anatomifts
of the French academy ftate, that they met with it in the
third ftomach ; and others have mentioned its being fome-
timcs fituattd in the intellines.

All bezoars are made of concentric layers, or by ftratum
fuper ilratum, after the manner of the common urinary cal-
culus. This proves their formation to be gradual ; and as
tjiis mode of increafe cannot be eafily imitated, it is proba-
bly one of the beft marks for dillinguifliing the genuine be-
zoar from that which is counterfeited.

The Oriental bezoar is fmooth and glolTy on the furface,
th-; colour a dark green or olive ; on removing the outer
coat, that which hcs next it appears likcwife fmooth and
(hining; it is generally lefs than a walnut; it is moll efteemcd
for its medicinal properties, and is the only fort retained by
the London college. The Edinburgh college, in fome of
the former editions of their pharmacopoeia, direftcd both this
and the occidental bezoar, but they now feem to allow them
to be ufed promifcuoufly, retaining in their catalogue only
the name of lapii bezoar.

The imitations of this Hone have been carried to fuch per-
feftion, that as farus refpecis form, colour, or other external
charaiflers, the deception cannot well be detefted. Mr.
Neumann fuppofed thatihofe which come neareft the genuine
bezoar, are a compofition of plafter of Paris, chalk, or

B E Z

other earths ftained of the proper colour by fome vegetable
tinfture. Thofe which are palpably counterfeited, are com-
pofed chiefly of fome refinous fubllance, and may be eafily
difcovered by their Hquefying in the fire, and being foluble
in fpirits of wine ; he never could difcover any mark of an
animal nature in any of ihefe. Chemical works, by Dr.
Lewi?, p. 533, &c.

The modes of trying if bezoar be genuine arc, ift. To im-
merfe a portion of it, for fome hours, in moderately warm
water, when the water ought to remain untinged, and the
ilone undiminilhed in its weight : 2d. to apply to it a (harp
red hot iron, which it Hiould refill without frying or IhriveU
ling: the 3d. which is confidered the moft certain experi-
ment, ii to rub the bezoar over a paper which has been pre-
vioully fmeared with chalk or quicklime: if it leave a yellow
tint on the former, or a green one on the latter, there is no
doubt of its being genuine.

The occklctilal te-zoar is uneven on the furface ; of a dirty
green colour; it is heavier and more brittle than the oriental,
to which it is confidered much inferior in value ; it is of a
lool'er texture, and when fractured, the layers appear thicker,
and exhibit a number of ftriuE curioufly interwoven. It is
alfo found of a much greater fize ; fometimes being as large
as a goofc's egg.

The occidental bezoar has been found in fome of the camel
tribe, efpecially i\v: guanaeo{CameIus Huanaciu) and the Vicuna
[Camelus Vicugna,) which are inhabitants of South America.

This kind of bezoar, Mr. Neumann apprehends, is more
likely to be an animal production than the other, becaufe it
yielded, on diftillation, a fmall portion of volatile urinous
matter. Chem. Works, p. 537.

The analyfis of bezoar ftones, as related by different
chemirts, is veiy contradiftory, which has given rife to the
opinion of the fpecimens which they fubmitted to experi-
ment, being fpurious. Thofe ftones examined by Slare, as
oriental bezoar, did not diffolve in acids. Thofe which
Grew and Boyle made trial of, did, Thofe employed by
GeofTroy (in fome experiments related in the French Me-
moirs, 1710,) did not feem to be afted on by fpirits of wine,
whilft thofe fpecimens examinedby Neumann, at Berlin, almoil
entirely diffolved in fpirits. For an account of the analyfis
and chemical properties of the bezoar and fimilar fubftances ;
fee Calculus.

In the early ages, when a knowledge of difeafes was con-
fidered an occult and myllerious fciencc, rare and unknown
plants, or unufual, and what were confidered wonderful
animal pioduftions, were chiefly employed in the way of
medicines ; at this period we accordingly find the bezoar-
tic ftone poffeffed great reputation as a remedy for many dif-
eafes ; it ow^cd, no doubt, much of its fame to the fabulous
accounts which were related with refpedl to its origin.

It was not known to the Greeks. The firft pcrfon who
has mentioned it was ylven-zoar, an Arabian phyfician. He
defcribes it to be generated of the tears, or gum, of the
eyes of ftags, who, after eating fcrpents, were accuftomed to
run into the water up to the nofe, where they flood tillthtir
eyes began to ooze a humour, which colleding under their
eye-lids, gradually thickened and coagulated, and when it be-
came quite hard was thrown oft' by the animal rubbing itfelf
againft the trees. Other ftorics concerning the hiftory of
the bczoar, equally wonderful and ludicrous, were credited,
until the time of Garcias al Horto, phyfician to the Portu-
guefe viceroy of the Indies, who gave the firft true account
of the origin of this fubftance. Kempfcr afterwards gave
a defcription of it with fome new particidars.

The bezoar was firll employed to prevent the fatal con-
fequences of poifon. This is expreifcd by the very name

7 which

B E Z

B E Z

w!iich is derived from the Perfian word ladzcher, of hazchei;
antidote, or iroxa pazahar, of which pa fignifies aga'injl, and
Kahar, a po'ifon. Others derive the term bczoar from the
Perfian pazar, a goat.

It was afterwards given in vertigoes, epilepfies, palpita-
tions of the heart, jaundice, colic, and a great many otlier
difeafes ; fo that if its real virtues were anfwerable to its re-
puted ones, it was 6.ouhx\ek z panacea. Even later writers
have bellowed extraordinary commendations on it, as a fu-
dorific and alexipharmic ; but there is every reafon to doubt
its polTeffing any fuch virtues. Tt is an earthy fubllance, de-
void of tafte or I'mell. The hiilorj' of its formation proves
that it is not digellible, or otherwife aifedled by the juices
of the intellinal canal. If it can ever be employed as a me-
dicine, it (hould be on account of its abforbent qu.ality, which,
however, it appears to poffefs but in a very flight degree.
It has been adminiftered to patients in the quantity of half
a drachm, and in fome inilances a drachm has been taken,
without producing any fenfible effedt ; the dofe has been
generally Hated at a few grains, which was probably on ac-
count of its fcarcity and great price. While it retained its
medical reputation, it was faid to aft as an antidote to every
poiion, vegetable or mineral, and to the bite or fting of all poi-
lonous animals, in the dofe of about 8 grains ; but it would
equally prove a counter-poifon when taken regularly in the
quantity of two grains daily, in a glafs of wine, or efpecial-
ly of di'.HIled water of carduus benediftus. To prelerve an
youthful conftitution and vigour, an oriental's recipe is to
take twice a year (purging being prcmifed) ten grains of
btzoar daily, for five fucceflive days, with a cup of rofe-
water. Bezoartic produfliors are at prefent fo little re-
garded for their medicinal properties, that few diuggills now
think it neceflary to have them in their pofleffion.

BczoAR, Equhium, is the name given to the calculous con-
cretions occafionally met with in horfes. They appear to be
formed in the fame manner as the bezoar of the antilope or
camel genus. They grow to a confiderable fize ; have ufually
an irregular form, fomething between a compreffed fphere and
a rhomboidal figure ; when divided they exhibit the ufual
fucceffion of ftrata, of which they are compofed, but which
are not fo diftinft as in the other bezoars ; each layer is
formed of cxcentrlc ftrix, which are in many places more
evident than the divificn into ftrata; confcquently the feAion
of the bezoar gives the appearance of its having been made
of radiated, rather than concentric lavers. The furface of
the calculus bears great refemblance to a piece of poliflied
linie-ftone.

Bezoar, German, is called by fome rotr'j e^g, from the
cireumftance of its being occafionally found in the ftomachs
of cows, but the animal from which it is nioft commonly
obtained is the chamois {Antilope Riip'icapra).

The nucleus of the German bezoar ii either the hair which
the animal may have fwallowed, when licking itftlf, or the
fibres of undigefted vegetables, which are rolled into a round
fmootli ball. The quantity of calculous fubllance which is
collefted upon this ball is in general very trifling, often be-
ing merely a thin pellicle.

The bezoar which was fomid in the chamois by the Parifian
academicians, was made up of the woody fibres of the plants
the animal had eaten ; it was fmooth and bcfmenred with
nnicus on the furface ; and was broken at one end, expofing a
cavity in the centre of the ball, which had formerly, no
doubt, been occupied by fome folid fubilance, fuch as a
pebble, or ilone of fome fruit.

German bezoars have been found, according to Bartholin,
and others, in horfes and fneep, in which lall they are chiefly
compofed of wool, which thtfe animals accidentally fwallow.

VpL.IV.

From thcfe fpecies of bezoar having little, if any, calcul-
ous matter in their compofition, they have been called by
fome writers, with proJJritty, ^gagroplla ; which fee, and
Balls.

Befides what have been already defcribed, there are con-
cretions found in the gall bladder of animals, to which the
term bezoar has been applied ; thefe appear to be no other
than biliary calculi.

The Hog or Boar Bezoar, called by the Dutch Pedro
de porco, and by the Portuguefe, who firft brought it into
Europe, Pedro de vaparit, is found in the gall bag of an
Eaft India boar ; in form and magnitude it refembles a fil-
bert, though more irregidar ; it is moft commonly white,
with a tinge of green ; the furface is fmooth and fhining,
and is valued at ten times its weight in gold.

The Indians attribute extraordinary medicinal powers to
this bezoar. They call it Majlica de folio, and prefer it to
that obtained from the Gazelle ; they confider it a fovereiga
remedy for the murdoxe, a difeafc to which they are liable,
and which is not Icis dangerous than the plague in Europe.
They allow it to have great efficacy alfo in malignant fevers,
fmall-pox, and moft difeafes of women not with child, it
being fuppoftd to produce abortion in thofe who are preg-
nant, if they life it indifcreetly. When it is to be ufed as a
medicine, it is infufed in water or wine, until it has commu-
nicated a little bitternefs to it. To facilitate the infufion,
and at the fame time preferve fo precious a ftone, they ufually
inclofe it in a gold cafe, which is pierced with holes.

The Porcupine and Monkey Bezoars, are alfo the biliary
calculi of thefe animals. Tavernier aftertf, that they are not
taken from the gall bladder, but the heads of the ape and
the porcupine, which is highly improbable, and contrary to
general analyfis ; he calls them Malacca Jloiies, and fays that
they are held in fuch eilimation by the inh:ibitants of Ma-
lacca, that they never part with them, except as prefents to
ambafTadors, or the greateft princes of the eaft.

According to Neumann, fingle tlones, taken from the por-
cupine or n;onkey, have been fold tor fixty and eighty pounds
fterling.

It is not impoflible but that thofe bezoars which are formed
in the gall bladder may pofRfs fome power as medicines ;
perhaps alfo lolutions might be employed with advantage in
furgery, but their great reputation amongll the Indian*
feems to arife altogether from ignorance and luperftition.

Bezoar, bovinum, is a yellowilh ftone, found in the
gall bags of the ox. It has been ufed by miniature-painter*
in feveral cafts of yellow.

Bezoar, in Coneholngy, a fpecies of Buccinum, that
inhabits China. This IhcU is fubrotund and rugofe : ante-
rior part of the whorls lamellated : pillar perforated. Gmclin.
The colour is duty ochractous, varied with brown : within
yellow ; coarfe, decuflated with wrinkles, or ftria:; tail folid,
bent, rugoie with imbricated fcales : fpire angular with
ftraight fides : anterior part flattiih, plaited, or dcntatcd
above.

BEZOARA, or BuzwARA, in Geography, a town with a
fort in the peninfula of India, fituate on the north fide of the
Kiftna river, diftant 40, 3 geographical miles from Mafuli-
patam. N. lat. 16^ 33'. E. long. 80° 39' In the town is
a magnificent pagoda, and another ftands on an eminence
without it ; which altraft a great number of pilgrims, whofe
contributions are diftribnted in alms to the poor.

BEZOARDICS. The peculiar virtue of the bczoarbe-
ing that of refilling and expelling poifons ; the term bezoar-
die (now, however, nearly obfolete,) has come to be almoll
fynonymons with atilldote. Thus, when a bezoardic medicine
is mentioned, it implicf, with the older writers, either a
P p medicine

B E Z

medicine into which bezoar enters, or one that refembks the
bczoar in its fuppofcd power of coiuiteiading poilons, or
afterwards, fimply, a cordial. A /evv metallic preparations
have had this appellation.

BEZOARDICA Ca?r/i, Syrt. Nat. Hlrais bezoarJi-
cus, Aldr. y/iilmal iczoarlktim. Raj. Bezoiir Antelope,
Pennant, &c. ns.mcs oi xhe Antilobc Cazeila. Ginclin.

Bezoardica term, a name ufed by fume authors for a
medical earth dug in the pope's territories, and more Ire-
quentlv called terra itoicriana.

BEZOARDICUM Miniraif, or Rp.ncral Eezoar,
is a perfect oxyd of antimony, made by adding nitrous acid
to the butter of antimony, and dtfcribed under the article
Antimony.

Bezoardicum fovlalc, is a mixed oxyd of antimony and
tin, formed by fufiiig i- gethor thefe metals, dillilling vyith
corrofivc fublimatc to convert both metals of the alloy into
a butler, or muriated oxyd, and adding nitrous acid to reduce
them both to a ptrfecl limple oxyd. It is entirely difufcd.

BEZOLA, in Ichthyology, the name of a kind ot S.ilmo,
called by Gcfner, Albula caerulea, and fuppofed to be in no
rcfptct different from Sahno Lavaretus.

BEZOUT, Stkphen, in Biography, a celebrated ma-
thematician of France, was born at Nemours, March 19,
1736, O. S. and iiotwitlillanding oppofition on the part of
his father, devoted himfelf to th.e affiJuous profecution of tlie
mathematical fciences, to whieli his tallc flrongly inclined
him. In 175^, he was appointed adjundl mechanic to the
Paris academy of fciences, af.er having communicated two
memoirs on the integral calculus, and affording other proofs
of his proficiency in the miithematics ; in 1763, he was no-
minated examiner to the marine ; alTociate to the academy
in 1 76?'! ; and, in the fame year, member of the academy of
marine ad'a'rs, and examiner of the pupils of the royal corps
of artillery ; and, in 1 776, royal ccnfor. His particular at-
tention was directed to the folution of algebraic equations,
and he had t'le ho.iour of lirft difcovcring a method ol refoh--
iag a particular clafs of equations of all degrees. In this
work of invelligating the roots of fuch ecjuations, he was oc-
cafi-onally engaged from 1762 till 1779, when he publlhed
his treatife on the fubjecl. To dillinguillied talents, and ela-
borate refearches '\\\ the abllrufer parts of mathematics, Be-
zout added an affiduous difcharge of the duties of the public
ftations which he occupied, and a private charadler which
was dcfervedly cfteemed. The following anecdote furniihes
a plcafing fpecimen of liis regartl Ui jiilbce in the excrcife
of his ofiic?, and at the fame time of the benignity and con-
d,;fcenfiGn of his temper. When two at his pupils were con-
fi'.iid by the fmallpox, and incapable of attending for the
purpofc of an examination, the want of which would have de-
layed their advaiKemcnt for a whole year, he ventured,
ihouih he had never had that diforder, to vifit them in
perfon, and to-afcertain their proficitncy, by which he was
enabled to make a report in their favour. His conllitution
was at length impaired by his unremitting application, the
fatigues of his various offices, and fome pcrfonal chagrins ;
and he fell a facrifice to a malignant fever, September 27,
1783, in the 54t!i year of his age. His publications were
" A Courfe of Mathematics for the Ufe of the Marine, with
a Treatife on Navigation," 6 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1764; a
" Courfe of Mathematics for the Coi-ps of Artillery,"
4 vols. 8vo. 1770 ; " General Theory of Algebraic Equa-
tions," 4to. 1779 ; with a confidcrable number of Memoirs,
chiefly mathematical, in the volumes of the French Aca-
demy. Montuclp, Hill, des Mathem. vol. iii. p. 47. 298.
Hulton's Math. Did. Art. Bezoi't,.

BEZOZZI, Alexajjder and Jbko.m, brothers in the

B E Z

fervlce of the king of Sardinia, at Turin, the moft cele-
brated performers of their time ; the one on the hautbois,
and the other on the baffoon. Thefe kindred inllruments
were rendered famous all over Italy during the middle of the
lall century, not only by the exquifite performance, but by
the amiably fuigular charaftcr of thefe two brothers. Their
long and uninterrupted affccl^lon and refidence together, were
ai remarkable as their performance. They were brothers;
the cldeft, when we heard them in 177O, was 70,_and the
youngell 60. The i(fem velle et iiltm nolle were as perfectly in
tune as their inilruments ; fo that they had always lived to-
gether in the utmoft harmony, carrying their fimilarity of
lalle to their very drcfs, which was the lame in every parti-
cular, even to buckles and buttons. They had lived fo long-,
and in fuch a cordial manner together, that it was thought,
wheneverone of them died, the other would not long furvive
him ; which was exaftly the cafe, both dying in 1780, within
a few months of each other.

The compolitions of thefe exquifite performers generally
confided of felcdl and detached pafiagcs, yet fo highly po-
lilhed, that like apophthegms or maxims in literature, each
was not a fragment but a whole ; their pieces being in a
peculiar manner contrived to difplay the genius of their ie-
veral inllruments and powers of perforrrance. The eldeit
played the hautbois, and the youngell the baffbon ; but it
is difficult to defcrlbc their peculiarities of expreilion. Their
conipofitions, when printed, gave but an imperfect idea of
its fwettnefs and delicacy: fuch a perfect acquiefcence and
agreement together, that maiiy of the paiTages ieemed
heart-felt fighs breathed through the fame reed. No bril-
liancy of execution was aimed at ; all were notes of mean-
ing. The imitations were txaft; the melody equally divided
between the two inllruments; each yir/c, piano, crcjlendo,
tli-iiinueiu'o, and appogialura (fee all thefe terms in their
places), were oblcrved with a minute exaftnefs that could
be attained only by a long refidence and fludv together. The
eldcll brother had loll his under fro:it-tecth, and complained
of age; and it was natural to fnppofc tti;!t the performance
of each had been better ; however, to me (fays Dr. ijurney),
who heard them now, for t!ie firll time, it was delightful I If
there was any thing to lament in fo exquifite performance,
it arofe from the equal perfeclion of the ttco parts ; which
diilracled the attention, except when in dialonuf, fo much
as to render it impoffi.ble to liften to both, when both had
diffimilar ir.elodies equally plcafing.

They were born at Patnia, and had been upwards of 40 years
in the fcrvice of his Sardinian majellv, without everquittiag
Italy, (except one fliort excurfion to Paris, in 1755,) *"" ^^^^
Turin, but for that journey, and another to vifit the place
of their nativity. They were men of a fobcr, regular, and
moral charafter ; in eafy circun.ftances ; had a town and
country houfe, and in the former many good pidlurcs by the
firll mailers.

The Bezozzi fam.ily has furniflied many adinirable muii-
cians to Italy, and other parts of Europe. Gaetano Be-
zozzi, a celebrated performer on the hautbois in the king of
France's fervicr, was born at Parma, in 1727, entered into
the fervice of the king of Naples in 1736, and into that of the
king of France in 1765. We heard him perforin a concerto
at the concert fpiriltial at Paris in 1770, with great pleafure;
and thought him fuperior to all whom we had then heard 011
the hautbois, except Fifcher. His father, Jofeph Bezozzi,
had taught the celebrated brothers at Turin, Alexander
and Jerom, his brothers, to play on the hautbois and baf-
foon. « M. Bezozzi of Paris," fays Laberde, " in 1780,
had during 25 years merited and enjoyed the highell reputa-
tion, 33 well as the elleem of all who knew him. His fon
^ was

B I JE

was then lately received into the king's band, and his brother,
Anthony Bezozzi, attached to the court of the king of
Poland, had alfo a fon in the fervice of that of Dreiden,
where we heard him perform in 1772, and found him a
truly great performer. His me^a di voce, or fwell, was pro-
digious ; indeed he continued to augment the force of a tone
fo much, and fo long, that it was hardly poffible not to fear
for his lungs. His talte and ear were exceedingly delicate and
refined ; and he fcemed to pofiefs a happy and peculiar fa-
culty of tempering a continued tone to different bafes,
according to their fcveral relations : upon the whole, his
pci torir.ance was fo capital, that a hearer mud be extremely
talbdious not to receive from it a great degree of pteafure.

BEZZAf<IA, Marcplla, in Gfography, a town of Italy,
m tlie kingdom of Naples, and country of Otranlo, 10 miles
N. E. of Tarei'.to.

BHAG^'.'\GUR, a name formerly given to Hydrabad,
which fee.

BHAKOR. See Behker.

I'HARATA, a name given in the Sanikreet language to
Hindoilan.

BKATGAX, a city of Afia, in the kingdom of Nepal ;
the capital of an i » '.ependcnt kingdon-. It contains about
12,000 families, extends towards the eaft to the diftance of
five or fix days' journey, a".d borders upon another nation,
alfo indepcFident, called " Ciratas," who profefs no religion.
See Nkpai-

BHAVANT, the nan'.e of an ancient feflival, annvially
celebrated on the firll of May by the Gopas, and all otiicr
Hindoos who keep horned cattle for ufe or profit. On this
feail, they vifit gardens, ereCt a pole in the fields, and adorn
it with pendants and garland". Similar rites arc performed
by the fame clafs of people in England, where it is known
to be a relic of ancient fiipcrftition in that country. Hence
it (liould feem, fays colonel Pcarfe, that the religion of the
Eaft, and the old religion of Britain, had a llrong affinity.
Aliatic Ref. vol. ii. p. 333.

BHEERAH, a place in Hindoflan, on the eaft fide of
the Behut river, where is a pafs over it, a little to the N. of
W. from Lahore, about 1 1 minutes north of its parallel, and
diilant from it 85-1 geographical miles. N. lat. 32° 5'. E.
long. 72° ij'.

BI, orBiiA, a river of Ruffia, which, by uniting with the
Katunia, forms the river Oby.

BIA, in Conchologw a name given by the Siamefe, to a
fort of little white ihcU, brought in vatl numbers from the
Maldive iflands, and ufed throughout moil part of the Eall
Indies for fmall money. Nine of thefe are tqual to the
French denier ; they are calhd coris or cowries, and belong
to the Cvpra:a genus of I^innoeus.

BIABANA, in /Indent Gerjomphv, a town placed by
Ftolemy in the in-'rlor part of Araliia Felix.

BI ACU LE ATUS, in Icklhyology, a fpcciesof Ba l i st e s,
having two vaitral fpines. Bloch. Gmel. &c. This is p'lf-
crj cernuttit of Willughby. It inhabits India, and is of an
elona;ated form, white, cinereous above, and rough to the
touch, being covered with very (hort, hirlute, or brilUy hairs.
It is a native. of the Eaft Indies, and, from the ilrufture of
the mouth, is a voracious kind, feeding probably on
marine worms and crabs. The Dutch call it Hoorn-vifih ;
and the French, Bal'ijle a deux piqunns, in allufion to the
two ventral fpines, which conftitute the Ipecific character
ofthefilh.

BliEUM, from ,9ia, sppof.tton, in Rhetoric, denotes a kind
of counter-argument, whereby fomcthing alleged for the
advcrfary is retorted agaiiift him, and made to conclude a
different way ; for inftance, " OccidilH, quia adlljtifti inter-

B I A

fefto. — Immo quia adftiti intcrfcfto non occidi ; nam fi id
elTet, in fugara me conjeciffem," '■ You killed the perfon,
becaufe you were found ftanding by his body." ( Biicum.)
" Rather I did not kill him, becaufe I was found llandm?
by his body ; fince, in the other cafe, I (hould have fled
away."

BivT. UM, in the Grecian Laws, was an aftion brought
againtt thofe who ra\i(hed women, or ufed violence to any
man's perfon. Potter, Archxol. lib. i. c. 24.

Bi-tUM alfo denotes a kind of fahne or fea-wine, ufed by
the ancient Greeks in various diforders. It was made of
grapes gathered a little before ripe, and dried in the fun ;
then preffcd, the iuice put up in cafks, and mixed with a
large proportion of iea-water ; though Diofcorides fecms to
d.feribe it as made of grapes ftecped in fca-water, and then
prcffed. Gorr. Def. Med. p. 75.

BIAFAR, or BiAFRA, in Geograpl-:, a populous and
powerful kingdom of Africa, fituatc welt of Mtdra and eaft
and fouth tall of Benin, from which it is fcparatcd by a
chain of mountains ; and ex^t ending beyond the fourth degree
of north latitude, to the coaft of the gulf of Guiena. It has
a capiial of the fame name ; and the bay on its coall is
called the bight of Biafra. The natives of this country, the
interior of which is little kaown, are idolaters, and much ad-
dicted to magic. Tluy are faid to be zealous in their wor-
(hip, and to facrifice their children to the devil. Biafra
is alio a fmnll dillrift of Africa, extending ah)ng the fea-
coafi, S.S.E. of the liver Gambia, over-againft the iflands
of Biffagos.

BIAFORA, in the Cufoms of the Mlddk Age, a form of
ciy, or alarm to arms ; on the hearing whereof, the inhabi-
tants of towns or villages were to ifTue forth, a;id attend their
prince. The word lecms originally from Galcony ; and the
Italians even now, on a fuddcn mfurrcAion of the people,
commonly cry, J'iafora, by an ufual change of the letter B
into V.

BIAGIO, St. in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra, 3I
milts W.S.W of Nicaftro. — Alfo, a town in the fame king-
dom, in the county of Molife, 8 miles N. E. of Mohfe.

BIAJOS, the name by which the inhabitants of the
ifland ot Borneo are dillingirifhed. They are faid to offer
facrifices of fwect-fcented wood to one fupreme beneficent
deity, and thcfe fentiments of piety are accompanied by
laudable morals. See Banjermassing and Borneo.

BIALA, a part of PrufTian Silelia, in the circle of Zulz.
— Alfo, a Imall town in the duchy of I.ithuain'a, belonging
to Pruflia, featfd on the government of Johannelburg, which
obtained its privileges in 1722. — Alfo, a town and river of
Poland, which runs into the Viftula, S. W. of Cracow.
N. lat. 49° 52'. E. long. 19'' 20'.

BLVLACERKIEW, a fmall town of Poland, in the
Ukrain, featcd on the Rofs, a river of the palatinate of
Kiov, which difcharges itfclf into the Dnieper ; dillant 60
miles S.S.W. from Kiov. Here the Tartars were entirely
defeated in 7626.

BIALAGRODKO, a fmall town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Kiov, feated on the Irpian, 14 miles S. \V, of
Kiov.

BIAI>I.A, or BiALA, a town of Poland, in the palati-
nate of Brzelk or Birfetflc, 16 miles S. W. of Brzclk or Bir-
fetfl.-. N. lat. 52" 10'. E. long. 23° 25'.

BIALLISTOCK, or Biai,vstok, a n.-at and well
built town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podalaehia, ruith
of Bielfl<, in N. lat. 53° 5'. E. long. 23° 32'. The ftrtet*
are broad, and th« houles, which are in general pla'ftcrid,
fland detached at uniform dillances. The fupirior ueatncf*
Pp 2 of

B I A

of diis town is owing to the illuftrious family of Bi-anldci,
whole palace adjoins the town, and who have contributed
to orna:ntnt their place of refidence. This palace is a large
bnildi:;g, in the Italian tafle, and, on account of its magni-
ficence, gentiaUy called the Verfailles of Poland. It was
formerly only a royal hunting feat, but given by John
Cafimir, together with Balliflock, and other eltates, to Czar-
nicflci, a* general hiirhly dillinguifhed by his vidtories over
the Swedes, when Poland was nearly cru(hed by her enemies.
Ci'.arnicl1<i left one daughter, who married Braniflci, the
father of tiie late great general, and conveyed the eftate
into that family.

BIALOBOKY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lembcrj, 48 jiiiles S. W. of Lemberg.

BIANA, a town of Hindoftan, 20 leagues from Agra,
which was formerly a large city, and included Agra among
its dependencies. The town is ftill conliderable, and con-
tains many large (lone ho\ifes. It was formerly the refi-
dence of a powerful rajah ; but his principal city and fort
were fcated on the top of an adjoining hill, and the prefent
town was only a fuburb. The whole ridge of the hill is
covered with the remains of large buildings, among
which, the mod remarkable is a fort, called " Bijey-Mun-
der," containing a lofty pillar of (lone, called " Bheemlat,"
or the Tealcr or oilman's lat or flafT. This pillar is confpi-
cuous at a great diftance. The town and diftrift now be-
long to " Ramjaht Sing," the rajah of Bhirtpoor. This
place -is famous for its excellent indigo. N. lat. 26^ 20'.
E. long. 77°.

BIANCA, La, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na-
ples, and province of Calabria Ultra, 12 miles N. E. of
Bova.

BiANCA, Ital. for the note in mufic, which we denomi-
nate a minim: and the Fr. line blanche. This, thoucrh
row almoll the longeft note in ufe, three or four hundred
years ago, was the (hortell. SccTime-TablEj and Musi-
CAL Characters.

BIANCHI, Francisco, called II Fran, in Biography,
an hillorical painter, was born at Modena, and was the dif-
ciple of the celtbrated Antonio Correggio. His colourintr
was delicately fine, his attitudes graceful, and his invention
vtry grand. His works polTcfTed an ailonifliing beauty, and
are prized as highly as even thofe of Correggio. He died
in 1520. Pilkington.

BiANCHi, Plter, a painter of the Roman fchool, was
bom in Rome in 1694, and united with his talents as a
painter the accomplifhments of literature. He painted hif-
torical fubjefts, portraits, nnal and naval fcenes, animals,
plants, and flowers, in frefco, oil, and diftemper. His
reputation caufed him to be employed in painting a pi£\ure
in the church of St. Peter. He is laid to have been a fevere
judge of his own performances, and to have deftroyed many
of his works after they were finlfhed, becanfe they did not
pleafehim. He died at Rome in 1739. Encyclopedic.

BiANCHi, JoH» Baptist, born at Turin, Sept. 12th
1681, of an ancient and refpeftable family. After being
educated with the greateft care, and under the ableil mafters
at home, he was fent early to the univerfity, and made fuch
progrefs in his ftudies, that at the age of 17, he was admitted
doftor in medicine, and was foon after made phyfician to
the hofpital, a fituation for which he was peculiarly qualified ;
for being fond of anatomical purfuits, he had here opportu-
nity, from thq number of fubjefts a large eftablifhment of
that kind neceffarily furnilhed, of difiefting and examining
the human body at every .age, and labouring under every
fpecies of difeafe or deformity. He had thc'happinefs alfo
cf finding his talents properly ellimated by hii brethren,

B I A

and his labours rewarded, as he was advanced to be public
teacher of anatomy at Turin, where his fovercign built for
him, in the year 17 15, a fpacious and convenient amphi-
theatre. He alfo read leftures in philofophy, in pharmacy,
chemiftry, and on the practice of medicine. Theie honours
were not however entirely without alloy, as he had the mor-
tification to find his doftrincs cenfured by Morgaf;ni, and by
Haller, and even the exiftence of fome parts he fuppofed he
had difcovered, difputed. The principal of his works are
" Hilloria htpatica, feu de hepatis ftrudura, ufibus, et mor-
bis," 17 10, 8vo. Morgagni has publilhed fome fevere
ftriftures on this work, in his " Adverlaria Anatom.ica." It
has pafied, however, through feveral editions, and in 1725,
was republidied in 2 vols. 4to. with figures. " Duftus
lacrymaltsnovi, eorum iifus, morbi, curationes," 4to. 1715.
alfj cenfured by Morgagni. " Storia de monftro, di due
corpi," 8vo. 1749, the moft laboured and perfetl, Haller
fays, of all his works. He wrote alfo an hiilory of the
generation of man, with figures, in which he attempts to
delineate the foetus in its different ftages, but the figures,
Haller fays, are principally faftitious. Many of his differ-
tations are infertcd by Mangeti in his " Theatrum Anato-
mieum." Haller. Bib. Anat. et Chirurg, Eloy. Diet. Hift.
BiANCHi, John, born at Rimini, Jan. 3, 1693. After re-
ceiving a liberal education, he went to Bologna, where, in
1719, he was admitted doftor in medicine. Returning the
following year to Rimini, he praflifed medicine there with
fuccefs tor many years. He revived the academy of I^yuxes,
a philofophical fociety, collefting the members togetlier at
firll at his own houfe. In gratitude for this, a medal was
ftruck, with his figure on the face, and on the reverfc, a
lynx, with the motto " Linccis reftitutis." His works are
various, of which the principal are " A Treatife on the
CataracS," 410. 1720 in Italian ; «' Epiftola anatomica, ad
Jofephum Putasum," 4to. 1726. " De monilris, et rebus
monllrofis," 4to. 1749, and in I'Ji, an account of an im-
pollnnie of the right hemifphere of the brain, occafioning
paralyfis on the oppofite fide of the body. Eloy. Ditlt.
Hilh

BIANCHINI, Francis, a mathematician and philofo-
pher, was born at Vrrona, Dec. 13, 1662, and devoting him-
ielf to the church, became a doClor in theology, and diiUn-
guifhed by his unfeigned piety. But his principal celebrity
was acquired by his literary and fcicntific performances.
In early life he contributed to the eftablifliment of the aca-
demy of the " Aletofoli," or the lovers of truth, and in the
progrefs of his ftudies rendered it confiderable fervice. His
literary reputation attrafted that notice to which the rank
of his family alfo in fome meafure entitled him. Cardinal
Ottoboni, afterwards pope Alexander VIII., appointed him
his librarian ; and he was promoted firft to the dignity of
canon in the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda, and alfo
to that of St. Laurence, in Damafo. He was alfo fecretary
to the congregation for the reform of the calendar, to which
office he was nominated by pope Clement XL The fenate
created him one of the nobility of Rome, and after his death
the citizens of Verona placed his buft in their cathedral. He
died of the dropfy March 2, 1729, with a charafter diftin-
guifhed for the benevolence and candour of his manners, as
well as for his piety and univerfal learning. Fontenclle
honoured his memory with an eloge, as one of the foreign
members of the academy of fciences at Paris. His firft work
was " An Univerfal Hiftory," on a new plan, ferving to
give perfpicuity to the chronological diftribution. The
firft part of this work was publiftied in 1697, under the title
of " La Iftoria Univerfale provata con monumenti ct figu-
rata con Simboli de gli Antichi." It extends, from the

creation

B I A

creation of the world, to the deftruftion of the great AfTy-
vlaii empire, and is held in high eftimation for indiiflry of
refearch, and ingenuity of difquifition with regard to the
genuine monuments of antiquity. The fucceeding parts
Were never written. Oi occaGon of the reform of the ca-
lendar, Bianc'Mui wrote two learned and fcier.tific treatifes,
psibliilicd in 1703, and entitled " De Calendario et Cyclo
C efiris ac de canone Pafchali Sanfti Hippolyii Martyri--,
Diflertationes duae." Of his aftronomical (]<iil and labour
in tracing tlie meridian line, in the church of the Chartreux
at Rome, he publifhed an account in a difiertation " De
nummo et gnomone Clementine'." In 1727, he publifhed
" Camera ed Infcrizioni Sepolcrati di Libei-ti, Servi ed Of-
ficiali della Cafa di Augufto, &c." on occafion of the dif-
covery of a fubterraneous fepulchral building, in 1726, on
the Appian way. His obfervations on Venus, were publifhed
in 1728, under the title of " Hefperi et Phofpliori Nova
Phenomena, five Obfervationes circa Planetam Veneris."
The refults of his obfervations on the rotation of Venus,
and thepofition of its axes, though very interefUng to ailro-
nomers at the time of their publication, have not, however,
been confirmed by thofe of a later date, made by Herfchel
and Schroeter, with inftruments of much greater power
than any which were known in his time, and inferted in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions. The caufe of this difference
has not yet been afcertained, and dcferves invetligation.
(See Venus.) Bianchini was employed for eight years in
preparatoiy meafures for tracing a meridian line through the
whole extent of Italy, but his death prevented the commence-
ment of this enterprife. His edition of " Anaftafius's Lives
of the Popes," in 4 vols, folio, with notes, differtations, pre-
faces, &c. difplavs much genius and erudition ; but it is
faid to abound with typographical errors. He left an un-
edited differtation in Latin, on the three kinds of mutical
inlfruments of the ancients, which was publifhed at Rome
1742, in 4to, under the following title: " Francifci Bian-
chini Veronenfis utriufque fignaturre referendarii, & prelati
domeftici, de tribus generibus inftrumentorum muficx ve-
terum organicoe differtatio." In dividing ancient mufical
inftruments into three claifes, namely, wind inflruments,
Jtringed inilruments, and ir.ftruments of percuflion, the firft
clafs includes fiutes, trumpets, horns, the fyrinx, and hy-
drauHcon ; the fecond, the monochord, the lyra trichordis,
tetrachordum, the feven-flringed lyre, thechelys, the cithara,
pfaltry, harp, C<c. ; the third clafs comprifes the tym-
panum, cymbalum, crotalum, fy flrum, and the tintinnabalum.
Of all thefe, the author has given defcriptions and repre-
fentations well engraven on plates. Fontenellc Eloge des
Academiciens. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

B I AND RATE, in Gcogr^-iphy, a town of Piedmont, in
the Novarefe, 6 miles N. W. of Novara.

BIANDRONA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
15 miles W.S.W. of Como.

BIANOR, \n Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, nearly
ailied to P. Paris, and a native alfo of the Eall Indies.
The wings are above and beneath of the fame black colour,
with five rufous lunules on the pofterior pair. Fabricius, &c.
It may be doubted whether this is a diilinA fpecies from
Paris ; perhaps only a fe.xual difference.

BIAR, a fniall town of Valencia, in Spain, feated on a
river which runs into the Elda, on the confines of New
Caftile. It is chiefly remarkable for its honey, which is di-
ilinguifhed by its whitenefs and folidlty, unaffetted by any
change of weather ; dillant two leagues eaft of Villena.

BIARCHUS, formed from /Sic;, aimona, viJuah, and
•'-^;i'i) chief, an officer in the court of the cmperoriS of Con-

B I A

ftantinople, intnifted with the care and infpeaion of the pnV
vifions of the foldiery. The biarchus was the fame with
what the Latins call prtfeeius annona. His fundion was
called bim-chin ; by the Latins, prafeaura rei cibaria: He
belonged to t\\'; fcholia agcntium in rebus. See Agentes.

BIARMIA, in Geography, a name given by the Scandi-
navian navigators, in the Middle ages, to the whole country
between the White fea and the UraL See Permia.

BIARUM, in Botary, a name by which the people of
Egypt at this time call the root of the nilufar, ox f aha
JEgyplia, growing on the Nile.

BIAS, or BiAss, in a g:eneral fcnfe, denotes the ten-
dency or propenfity of a thing towards one fide more than
the other ; particularly the deviation of a bodv, or a plane,
from itsreaihnear courfe, or its level. See I'nclikation.
It fignifies alfo the inclination of a perfon's mind to one
thing more than to another. The word is French, biais,
which fignifies the fame.

Bias of a bowl, is a piece of lead put into one fide, to
load and make it incline towards that fide.

Bias, in Biography, one of the feven wife men of Greece,
was a native of Priene, in Ionia, and flourifhed in the reign of
Alyattes 11. king of Lydia, about 608, according to fome,
but according to Blair's tables, about 565 years before Chrift.
He was eminently diflinguifhed not only by his wifdom, but
by his generofity and public fpirit, and for thefe qualities
held m the highefl veneration by his countrymen. Alyattes
was obliged by a ilratagem of' his contrivance to raife the
fiege of his native town, when it was reduced to the utmofl
diftrefs by famine. He firil fent two fattened mules into
the enemy's camp ; and the king, obfernng with aftonifh-
ment their good condition, fent deputies into the city under
a pretence of off^ering terms of peace, but with a real inten-
tion of obferving the ftate of the town and of the people.
Bias, fufpefting their defign, ordered the granaries to be
filled with large heaps of fand, and thefe heaps to be covered
with corn ; upon which, when the deputies returned, and '
reported the plenty of provifion with which the citv was
furnifhed, the king no longer demurred, but concluded a
treaty, and raifed the fiege. As an inftance of his genero-
fity,_ it is related of him, that when fcveral young female
captives were brought from Meffene to Priene, he redeemed
them, educated them as his own daughters, and then re-
ftored them with a dowry to their parents. As an evidence
of the low eftimation in which he held the gifts of fortune,
compared with the endowments of the mind, it is faid, that
when Priene was once threatened with a fiege, and the inha-
bitants were leaving it, loaded with their moft. valuable ef-
fefts. Bias took no pains to prcfcrve any part of his pro-
perty, alleging as a reafon of his conduft to one who ex-
prefl'ed his fnrprife at it, " I carry all my tteafnres with
me." The following maxims of wifdom are afcribed to
him. " It is a proof of a weak and difordered mind to de-
fire impolTibilities." " The greattft infelicity is, not to be
able to endure misfortunes patiently." "' Great minds
alone can fupport a fudden reverfe of fortune." " The moll
pleafant ftate is to be always gaining." " Be not unmind-
ful of the miferies of others." " If you are hnndfome, do
handlome things; if deformed, fiipply the defects of nature
by your virtues." " Be flow in undertaking, but refolute
in executing." « Praife not a wortlilefs man for the fake of
his wealth." " Whatever good you do, or do all the good
you can, and afcribe the gloiy of it to the gods." " Lay
in wifdom as the ftore for your journey from youth to old
age, for it is the moft certain poffeflion." '« Many men
are dilhoneft ; theitfore love your friend with caution, for

be

B I B

lie mnr hereafter b-come your enemy." Bias i« afTortt'd in
have written more than 2000 verfcs concerning louia. Hin
death was no Icfs honourable than atl'eCliiig ; tor he expired
in the arms of a gi-andfon, while he was pleading a caiife
fur a friend. Diog. Lacrt. 1. i. 82. Val. Max. 1. iii. c. 2.
vi>. 2. Aul. Gell. 1. V. c. II. Cicer. dc Aniicit. c. 60.
Pint. Conv. vii. Arillot. Riiel. 1. ii. c. 1 3. Stobxus Serm.
2?. Brucker's Phil, by linf. vol. i. p. 136.

Bias, in Entomvh^v, a fpccies of Papilio {Pith. Rur.),
that inhabits Cayenne. The wings are entire blacTc, glofled
with blue; beneath brown, with a white pollcrior margin.
Fabricius.

BIASI, St. in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and province of I'rincIp;ito citra, 15 miles
W.N.W. of PJicaftro.

BtATHANATI, iSixix:Wi, from B'a, vi'ilmre, and
^xtuio;, ileal h ; tlie fame with fuicidts, or thofe who kill
thtrnftlves.

BIB, in Ichthyology, the Engllfli name of a lidi of the
Gadus tribe, called lujliu by Linntus.

BIHAN, in Csijgrtiphy, a town of Egypt, in Bahira,
the rtfidence of a kialcKef. Once a week, on Momlay, a
fair for camels and other cattle is held in the fields adjoin-
ing to this place.

BIBBONA, a town of Italy, in ihc duchy of Tufcany,
JO niil.s north of Areziio.

BIBBS, Bibs, or Brackets, in Kwval Arch'itedurey zr<t
made of elm plank, and bolted to the hounds of malls, as fup-
porttrs to the trcdlc trees. They a e from three to live
inches thick, and nine elevenths of the hounds in lenglh,
and in breadth fix lilteenths their length. The alter edge
is firll lined llr.iight, and the upper part Iquare from that,
and the fore part tapered by a moulding to four or fix inches
of breadth at the lower end?. The after edge is fayed on the
cheeks, and the upper part againll the under fide of the treftlc
trees on the fore fide of the mall : viz. In the middle of the
after edgf, ftt up one inch and a half, and line ftraight from
that t'. nothing at the lower end, which makes a butt in
the middle ; then place the bibbs on the mart, their thick-
nefs within the fides of the checks, and their upper parts to
the outfide of the trcftle trees ; then let one inch and a
half be raced by the lower edge of the bibbs upon the cheeks,
and the wood taken out to that depth, and the thicknefs of
the bibbs, that they may bed firm therein ; they are then
bolted edgeways through the cheeks with four bolts
driven from the fore fide a:id clenched on a ring on the
aft-fide. The bolts are to be in diameter from one inch to
iiven eighths, or three quarters in fniall fliips' malls, and
only three in number. I'he lower end of the bibb is round-
ed off to the furface of the cheek, and the edges chamfered.
BIBEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the Irak
Agcmi, 140 miles cad of Ifpahan.

BiBEN, otherwifc called Pilfcbem, and In Latin Per/enj,
or Pelin.i, a town of Carniola, leatcd in a very fertile fpot,
on a high mountain ; and the fee of a bilhop, to whofe
jurifdiftion belong two towns and eleven villages, in
which are fourteen pinilies, fuffrajan to the prelate of Gor/..
BiBER, a town or village of Germany, in the circle of
the lower Rhine, the electorate of Mcntz, and prefeclurate
of Steinheim, 5 miles E.S.E. of Francfort on the Main.
This is one of eleven villaires which arc pofTclTed in common
of a wood named the " Bibcr Mark." At Biber, all things
relating to it are managed by tlie (heriffs of the Mark ; and
before the village, under a great lime-tree, lies the flieriff's
bench, where the Mark court is fenced in, and tianfgreflbrs
are openly cited and puniflicd.

BIB

BTBF.R, in Zoology, a name given by Rldinger, he. to

the bciivcr, eajlor flcr. Linnoeus.

Biisr.R, Hknry John Francis, in Biography, vice-cha-
pel mailer to the archbifhop of Salzburg, feems to have been
the greatell pertbrmer on the violin of the 17th century,
lialtzar from Lubtc, about the middle of ihat century, had
fo allonitlied the Oxonians by his execution on the violin,
that accortling to Ant. Wood, Dr. Wilfon, thcmuficpro-
fefibr, after hearing him, lloopcd down to examine his feet,
whether they were nut cloven ; that is, " whether he was a
devil, or not, becaufe his performance was beyond the facul-
ties of man." But if we may now judge of his performance
by his compofitions that are Hill extant, it was very inferior
to that of B'wer, who publilhed in l68i, folos for a vi:jlin
and bafe, the mod difiicult and the moll fanciful of any
niufic of the fame period. One of the folos is written on
three feparate ftaves, as if a fcore for two violins and a bafe ;
but the trebles are to be played in double flops. Others
are played in different tunings of fouilhs and fifths, as for n
treble viol. A fecond work by this niufieian, intitled _/<//>;-
mim f/iero prr/aniini, conlWli of twelve fonutas in four and five
parts, to be phycd on three inllruments ; and a third, hnr.
vmnia arUficiifo arinfd, publilhed at Nuremberg, coiiiilting of
pieces in feven parts, to be played on three inllruments. In
tliis lall work he is llyled i)(7/>//;r. In knowledge of the
finger-hoarcl, doulde flops, and ufe of the bovy-, as well as
compofition, he feems to have furpalied all preceding
violiuiils.

BIBERACH, in Geography, an imperial city of Ger-
many, in the circle of Swubia, fituate in a valley, watered
by the Riefs, near the Danube. The magifliates and peo-
ple are partly protellants aiid partly catholics ; and the
church, as well as the hofpital, are common to both. Tlie
treaty of Wellphalia requires that it Ihould have as many
catholics as Lutherans in the fenate. It is governed, as to
its offices, like the city of Augiburg. It has a large manu.
failure ot fullians. The number of boufcs is eflimated at
900, of inhabitants at 6,600, and of burghers at 900. This
city is very ancient, and was known in the year 751, under
Pepin. By the plan of indemnities agreed upon by France
and Ruffia, this imperial town was conceded to the margrave
of Baden. N. lat. 48° 4'. E. long. 10'^ 2'.

BIBERSTEIN, a fmall town of Swifferland, in the
canton of Bern, feated on the north-wefl fide of the Aar.
N. lat. 47° 17'. E. long. 7° 56'.— Alio, a balUiwick, with
a caflle, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and bifliopric of
Fulda, 8 miles eafl of Fulda.

BIIjIENA, Bfrnardo Da, Cardinal, whofe proper
name was J)ovizi, or Divizio, vvas born of an obfcure fa-
mily at Bibiena, in the Cefentine, in 1470, and entered into
the fervice of the family of Lorenzo di Medici. He attached
himfelf to cardinal John, afterwards pope Leo X., whom
he accompanied in his exile and ferved with affeClion and
fidelity. At Rome he ingratiated himfelf with pope Julius
II., by whom he was employed in fome concerns of import-
ance, and by whom his fervices were approved. On the
death of Julius, he artfully pcrfuaded the cardinals, that his
mailer, though only 36 years of age, vvas not likely to live
long, and by this artifice obtained his cleftion. Leo was
not inienjible of his obligatioi;;,, and made him his firll trea-
fnrer, and in 1513, cardinal. In the direftion of the works
of the holy hoiile of Loretto, in which he was employed,
he encouraged men of liierature, and engaged the bell art-
ill?, particidarly Raphael. Leo alio deputed him as legate
to the pontifical army againll the duke of Urbino, then to
the emperor Maximilian, and afterwardo, in 1518, to Fran-
cis I.

B I B

B I B

cis T. king of France, for the piirpofe of forminsf a criifade
againft the Turks. On tliis occafion he was received with
very marked diftinftion at Paris, tliough the event of tlie
journey proved fatal to him. It has been generally funpofed,
that having a view to fucceed Leo in the papal ftc, he had
obtained the promife of Francis's fupport ; and that Leo,
being apprized of his ambition, took him off by poifon ; or
perhaps, the dilpleafnre of the pope might fo much affciSl
him as to occafion a fit of illnefs, which proved mortal in
November 152c.

Bibiena is ditlingiiifhed in the hiftory ot literature, as a
polite writer, and particularly as the author of a celebrated
comedy called " Calandr:i," This was the tirlt comedy
written in profe in the Italian language, or at lead the firit
that obtained any cotifidcrable degree of popularity ; and it
is Hill cileemed as one of the beil produftions of the age,
though the wit is not free from indelicacy, and many p:if-
fages of it are copied from Plautus. It was reprciented in
a very magnificent manner at Urbino, and afterwards at
Rome. Tiie artors were young men of rank, and tlie au-
thor is faid to have taken great pains in training the courtiers
to dramatic exercifes, which were performed under the occa-
fional infpeition of Leo, in the chasr.bers of the Vatican.
Ccp. Biog.

Bibiena, Ferdinando-Galli, a celebrated pair.ttr and
architect, was born at Bologna, in 1657; and lofing his fa-
ther when very young, was placed under the direct'on of
Carlo C'ignani, who, obferving his talle for archittfture, ob-
tained for him the inilrutlion of Paradoffo, Aldrovandini,
and Manini, the bell mailers of that period for perfpedtive
and arcliiteclure. In conicquence of the recommendation of
Cignani, he was patronized by the prince of I'arma, who
employed !i;ra in executing a varieiy of decorations, and
ftttled upon him an annual penfion. For the dukes of Par-
ma, he painted the tcenes for Hin-o, tyrant of Syracufr, in
1685 ; for ThiiLJlrls in love with Alexandra, 1693 ; for
Dtmttrio tiranno, i6f'4 ; for Erarlfii, 1700; aiid iov J rivuli
giiurofo, in 1701. Irom Parma he went to M'lan, where,
in 1704, he painted the fcenes for L'yhiazz;;Ke Corfaru, and
thence went to Vienna, and was appointed painter and ar-
chifcdt to the emperor Charles VI., by whom he was highly
honoured and rewarded. He v.-as the inventor of tbofe woii-
dcrtul and magnificent fcenes which lliil decorate many thea-
tres in Italy; and pubhllied a book of inftrnciions for em-
bel'.ilhing theatres in genera). He alfo built leveral palaces.
He was alfo an excellent machinill, and tlie fo!e inventor and
diretlor of the folemn fellival machinery exhibited for the
biith of the archduke of Aullria, celebrated at La Fnvonlu,
near Vienna.

He had a brother, Francis, of equal genius and fame,
and two fons worthy of fuch a father. It was Ferdinando
Bibiena Galli, who, quitting mythology and fantaftic forms,
gave true repreientations of nature; rapidity of change, in-
telligent dilpofiiion cf ligiit?, and above all, that great iielp
to illufion, the leaving lomcthing to the fpetlator's imagi-
nation. At length he loil his light by catarafts in his eyes,
and obtained leave to return to Italy, where be compofed
two volumes upon archilecfture for the inftruftion of young
perfons. He had feveral children, whom he educated to his
own art, and a conliderable number of fcholarp. Bibiena
die-d at Bologna, as fome fay, in 1741, and according to
others, in 1743. His eafel pitlures exhibit a noble and
elc-gant ordonnance, and an uncommonly beautiful tone of
colour. His perfpeflives have an allonifhing cffcft by judi-
cious maffes of light and fhadow ; and the veftiges of mag-
nificent buildings, which he happily introduces in his com.-
pofitions, add a cjchncfs and giandeur to all his performances.

Bibiena, in Geography, a market-town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, and diflritt of Cafentino.

BIBIG, a town of Egypt, two miles fouth of Fcium.

BIB 10, ill Entomology, one of the Fabrician genera of
Antliata, and which in the Linria:an f) Hem forms a fcc-
tlon of the MusCA genus. Fabrlcius defines the generical
eharadcr of 'B'lh'i') from the fucker, feelers, and antennse.
The fucker coniift. of three britlles and a (heath of a fingle
valve; f^ciers viryihort; antennae conneCled at the bafe,
and pointed at the tip. Ent. Syft. See Muse A.

B1B1TOR.Y Muscle. See Adductor Oru/.'.

BIBLE, a book, by way of eminence fo called, contain-
ing the Scriptures, i. e. the writings of the Old and New
Tellament ; or the whole colleftion of thofe which are re-
ceived amonir ClirilHans as of divine authority.

The word Bible comes from the Greek BioXix, or E«oai«,
ufed to denote any book ; but, bv way of eminence, applied
to the book of Scripture, which is " the bock," or " boo?:
of books," as being fuperior in excellence to all other books.
Bi^?iioy again comes from ^iZ\v, the Egyptian reed, from
which ttie ancient paper was procured. See Biblus.

The word Bible feems to be ufed in the fenfe now fpeci-
fied by Chryfoilom (In Col. K. g. torn. xi. p. 391 ) : "I
therefore exhort all of you to procure to yourfelves Biblci
(,3i-?Xia). If you have nothing elfe, take care to have the New
Tellament, particularly the Acls of the Apostles, and the
Gofpeis, for ycnir conilant inflruilors. And Jerom l3ys(In If.
c. 29. torn. iii. p. 246.% " that the Scriptures being all writ-
ten by one Spirit, are one book." Auguiline alio informs us
(Enarr. in Pf. il. n. 2. torn, iv.), " that iome cahcd all the ca-
nonical Scriptures oncbook, on account cf tlieirwondertiilhar-
mony and unity of defign throughout." It is not imprub:ib!e,
that this mode of fpeaking gradually introduced tlie generil
ufe of the word " Bible" for the whole colletlion of
the Scriptures, or the books of the Old and New Teila-
ment.

The Bible is known by various other appeilitions, as the
" Sacred Books," the" infpired Vv'ritings." " Holy Writ,"
" Sacred Text," &c. By the Jews the Bible, i. c. the Old
Tellament, k called " Mikra," that is, leclurc, or reading ;
by the Chri.iians the Bible, comprehending the Old and
New Tellament, is ufu.illy denominated " Scripture," q. d.
writing ; fomet-'mes alfo the " Book of God," the " Ca-
non," "Rule of Faith," &c. Thefe, and fimilar appellations,
are derived from the opinion that has been entertained, in
fucceiTive ages, of the divine original and authority of the
Bible, and of its importaiiee and utility as a rule of faith and
direftoty of conduil. As it contains an authentic and cou-
nefted hillory of the divine dilpenlations with regard to
mankind ; as it lays claim to divine inlpiration ; as its chief
fubjedl is religion ; and as the doClrines it teaches, and the
duties it inculcates, pertain to the conduft of men, as ratio-
nal, moral, and accountable beings, and conduce by their
natural influence, as well as by a divine conllitwtion and pro-
mife, to their pi-cfent and fnt'ire Ir.ippinefs ; the Bible de-
ferves to be held in high ellimation, and amply jullifies the
fentiments of veneration with which it has been regarded,
and the peculiar and honourable appellations bv which it has
been denominated. See the fequel of this article.

The lift of the books contained in the B.ble, is called the
canon of Scripture. See Canon. Thofe books that are con-
tained in the catalogue to which the name of canon has been
appropriated, are called canonical, by way of contradillinftion
from others called dcutero-cancnical, apocryphal, pfeudo-
apocryphal, &c., which either are not aeknowLdged as di-
vine books, or are rejedled as hcitiical and fpurious. See
Apocryphal.

The

B I B

The firft canon or catalogue of the facred books
was made by the Jews ; but the original author of it is
wot (;<tisfadlorily afcertained. It is certain, however, that
the live books of Mofes, called the Pentateuch, were col-
lected into one body within a fhort time after his death ;
{•.me Deuteronomy, whieli is, at it were, the abridgment
and recapitulation of the other four, was laid in the tabernacle
near the ark, according to tlic order which he gave to the
J>evitcs. (ch.xxxi. v. 24.) Hence it appears, that the hril
canon of the facrcd writings confided only of the live books
of Mofes ; for a further account of which, dc Penta-
TF.ucH. It docs not appear that any other books were
added to thcfe, till the divillon of the ten tribes, as the Sa-
nnritans acknowledged no others. However, after the time
of Mofes, feveral prophets, and other writers divinely in-
fpired, compofed either the hiltory of their own times, or
prophetical books and divine writings, or pfalms appropri-
ated to the praife of God. But thefe books do not fecm to
have been coUefted into one body, or comprized under one
and the fame canon, before the Babylonifh captivity. This
was not done till after their return from the captivity, about
which time the Jews had a certain number of books digefted
into a c::non, which comprehended none of thofe books that
were written fincc the time of Nehemiah. The book ot
Kcclefiailicus affords fufficientevidence, that the canon of the
facred books was completed when that trail was compofed;
for that author, in chap. xlix. having mentioned among the
famous men and facred writers, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezckiel,
adds the twelve minor prophets, who follow thole three in the
Jewifli canon ; and from this circumllance we may infer,
that the prophecies of thefe twelve were already collected
and digefted into one body. It is farther evident, that in
the time of our Saviour the canon of the holy Scriptures
■was drawn up, fince he cites the Law of Mofes, the Pro-
phet?, and the Pfalms, which are the three kinds of books
of which that canon is compofed, and which he often llyles
"the Scripture," or " the Holy Scripture." Matt. xxi. 42.
xxii. 29. xxvi. 54. John, v. 39. This fliews that they
were dillinguilhcd from others, and formed a feparate body.
The perfon who compiled this canon is generally allowed to
be Ezra. According to the invariable tradition of Jews and
Chriilians, the honour is afcribed to him of having coUefted
together and perfected a complete edition of the Holy Scrip-
tures. The original of the Pentateuch had been carefully
preferved in the fide of the ark, and had been probably in-
troduced with the ark into the temple at Jerufalem. After
having been concealed in the dangerous days of the idolatrous
kings of Judah, and particularly in tiie impious reigns of Ma-
naffeh and Amon, it was found in the days of Jofiah, the fuc-
ceeding prince, by Hilkiah the prieft, in the temple. Prideaux
fays, that during the preceding reigns, the book of the
Law was fo deftroyed and loll, that, befides this copy of it,
there was then no other to be obtained. To this purpofe
he adds, that the fui-prife manifefted by Hilkiah on the dif-
covery of it, and the grief expreffed by Jofiah when he
heard it read, plainly (hew that neither of them had feen it
before. Upon this, the pious king ordered copies to be
•written out from this original, and to be difperfed among the
people. 2 Kings, xxii. 8 — 13. 2 Clu-on. xxxiv. On the
other hand. Dr. Kcnnicott fnppofes, that long before this
time, there were feveral copies of the Law in Ifrael, during the
reparation of the ten tribes, and that there were fome copies
of it likewife among the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, par-
ticularly in the hands of the prophets, priefts, and Lcvites;
and that by the inftruflion and authority of thefe MSS., the
various fervices in the temple were regulated, during the
reigns of the good kings of Judah. He adds, that the

B I B

furprife expreHTed by Jofiah and the people, at his reading
the copy found by Hilkiah, may be accounted for by ad-
verting to the hillory of the preceding reigns, and by rccol.
ledting whafe a very idolatrous king Manaifeh had been for
^j years, and that he wanted neither power nor inclination
to dellroy the copies of the Law, if they had not been fe-
crtted by the fervants of God. The Law, after being I'n
long concealed, would be unknown almoft to all the Jews j
and thus the folemn reading of it by Jofiah would awaken
his own and the people's earnell attention ; more efpecially,
3=: the copy produced was probably the original written by
Mofes. From this time copies of the Law were extenfively
multiplied among the people ; and though within a few
years, the autograph, or original copy ot the Law, was
burnt with the city and temple by the Babylonians, yet
niaiiv copies of the Law ar.d the Prophets, and of all the
otlicr facred writings, were circulated in the hands of private
perfons, who carried them with them into their captivity.
It is certain that Daniel had a copy of the Holy .Scriptures
with him at Babylon ; for he quotes the Law, and mentions
the prophecies of Jeremiah. Dan. ix. 11. 13. ix. 2. It
appears alfo, from the fixth chapter of Ezra, and from
the ninth chapter of Nehemiah, that copies of the Law-
were difperfed among the people. It is unneceRary, there-
fore, to fuppofe, with fonie of the ancient fathers, fuch as
TeituUian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Bafil, &c. that Ezra
reilored the fcriptures by a divine revelation, after they had
been loll and deftroyed in the Babylonifti captivity. For this
opinion they had no other authority than tlie fabulous rela-
tion which occurs in the 14th chapter of the fecond apo-
cryphal book of Eldras ; a book too abfurd rur the Roman-
ills themfelves to admit into their canon. The whole which
Ezra did may be comprized in the following particulars.
He coUecled as many copies of the facred writings as he
could find, and compared them together, and out of them
all, formed one complete copy, adjuiled the various readings,
correfted the errors of tranfcribers, and, as fome fay, annexed
the " Keri chetibs," wliich are found in the margins of the
ancient MSS. He likewife made additions in feveral parts
ot the dilTerent books which appeared to be ncceflary for
the illuftration, correction, and completion of them. To
this clafs of additions, we may refer the lall chapter of Deu-
teronomy, which, as it gives an account of tlie death and
burial of Mofes, and of the fucceflion of Jofnua after him,
could not have been written by Mofes himfelf. Under the
fame head have alfo been included many other interpolations
in the Bible, which create difHcuhies that can never be folved
without allowing them ; as in Gen. xii. 6. xxii. 14. xxxvi. 3.
Exod. xvi. 35. Deut. ii. 12. iii. 11, 14. Prov. xxv. i. The
interpolations in thefe pafTages are afcribed by Prideaux to
Ezra ; and others which were afterwards added he attributes
to Simon the Juft;. Ezra alfo changed the old names of feve-
ral places that were become obfoletc, putting inilead of
them the new names by which they were at that time called ;
inftances of which occur in Gen. xiv. 4. where Dan is fubfti-
tuted for Lailh, and in feveral places in Genefis, and alfo in
Numbers, where Hebron is put for Kirjath Arba, Sic.
He likewife wrote out the whole in the Chaldee charafter,
changing for it the old Hebrew charafter, which hath fince
that time been retained only by the SamaritJins, and among
whom it is preferved even to this day. In the church of
Dominic, in Bononia, there is faid to be a copy of the He-
brew Scriptures, preferved with great care, which they pre-
tend to be the original copy written by Ezra himfelf, and
for which great fums have been occafionally borrowed by
the Bononians upon the pledge of it, and which have again
been paid for its redemption. This copy is written in a

very

B I B

very fair character upon a fort of leather, and made up in a
roll, according to the ancient manner ; but as it has the
vowel po:nts annexed, and tlie writing is frtfh and fair, with-
out any vilible decay, its antiquity is very j\ilUy denied, and
its novchy is unqucilionable. liifaop Pocock, in his Tra-
vels, vol. i. p. 23. mentions a MS. Bible, preferved at Cairo,
in Egypt, which is faid to be written by Ezra.

Dnpin fays, that Nehemiah had a great hand in compiiini'-
this canon ; for proof of which he refers to the letter to the
Jews of Jcrufalem written to the Jews of Egypt, mentioned
in the beginning of the fccond book, of Maccabees, in which, it
is faid, that Nehemiah had coUeded the books of tlie Kings,
of the Prophets, and of David. It is faid, that this canon was
then approved by the grand fanhedrnr^, the great fynagogue
or council of feventy, and pnblilhed by its antho'ity. It is,
however, fays Dupin, more apparent, that about that time
the number of the facred books was fixed among tlie Jews
by a canon, which the whole Je.vilh nation received and
followed ; fo t!\st tiicy looked no longer upon fuclt books
as facri.d and divinely infpired, which were not contained in
th;o canon. The canon of the whole Hebrew bible feems,
fays Kennicott, to have been clofed by Malachi, the latell
of the Jewilh prophets : about 50 years after Ezra had col-
lected together all t'le facred books which had been com-
pofed before and during his time. Pridtanx fuppofcs the
carion was clofed by Simon the Jud, about 150 years after
Mabchi. But, as his opinion is founded merely on a few
proper names at the end of two genealogies ( i Chron. iii.
II). & Nelu xii. Z2.), which few names might very eafily be
«dded by a tranfcriber afterwards; it is more probable, as
Kennicott thinks, that the canon was finilhed by the lall of
the prophets, about 400 years before Chrift. The books
of tlie Old Tellament having been fettled by Ezra, Nehe-
miah, Haggai, Zephaniah, and Malachi, were probably left
perfect ; completely repaired after the injuries of time during
the -captivity ; and corrected from fuch errors as n:ight have
crept in from want of care in the tranfcribers. But the
Hebrew text, thus left to pollerity, does not feem to have
continued long in the fame condition. For the celebrated
text, relative to mount Gerizim, was without doubt altered
foon after the temple upon Gerizim wa« built. And as
that corruption has been proved upon the Jews, the Jews
therefore corrupted their Pentateuch, in ;his inftance, pro-
bably between the yeais 400 and 300 before Chrift. See

PiXTATEUCH.

It is an enquiry of confiderable importance, in its relation
to the fubjeft of this article, what books were contained in
the canon of the Jews. In the arrangement of Ezra thcle
books were divided into three parts; ift. TheLaw; 2dly.
The Prophets ; and 3dly. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa,
i.e. the holy writings; which divifion our Saviour himfelf
has taken notice of (Luke xxiv. 44) ; meaning by the Pfalms
the vs'hole third part, called the Hagiographa. In confor-
jnity to this divilion, Jofephus (Contra Apion. i. 8. torn. ii.
p. 441.) diftributes the canonical books of the Jews into
three cldlTc?. The firft contains the five books of Zvloles ;
the fecond, thirteen hiilorical and prophetical books, written
from the time of the death ol Moles to Artaxerxes ; and the
third, four books of hymns and of morality ; the whole
number amounting to twenty-two. The firtl clafs compre-
hends Gencfis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutero-
nomy ; the fecond includes Joihua. Judges, P.uth, Samuel,
Kings, Chronicles, Ezra with Nehemiah, Efther, Ifaiah,
Jeremiah with Lamentations, Ezekicl, Daniel, and the 12
minor prophets ; and the third clafs contains Job, the Pfalms,
Proverbs, and Ecclefialles. It appears that the Song of So-
lomon had no place in the lill of the fucred wTitings drawn
Vot. IV.

B 1 B

cp by Jofcphu=. Others, however, have joined Ruth with
Judges, referred Job to the fecond clafs, and introduced the
Song of tiolomon into the third dais. Origen, Athaiiafius,
Hilary-, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius, and Jerom, fpcak-
ing ol the books that are allowed by the J-ws as facred and
canonical, agree in faying, that they are the fame in iiuui-
ber w.th the letters in the Hebrew a'ph-.bet, i.e. twenty-
two, and reckon particularly thofe books v.hich we have al-
ready mentioned ; with relpedt to which they all concur,
except in relation to tlie book of Ellher. All of them place
the book ot Job and the Lamentations among the Looks
contained in the canon of the Jews ; but Athai.afius and
Gregoiy Nazianz-n do not reckon the book of Ellher
among them, and diilinguilh Ruth from the book of Judges;
whereas Oiigen, Hilary, Epiplianins, and Jerom, make only
one volume of Ruth and Judges, and introduce the book of
Ellher into the number ot V.iC tweiity-two books reckoned
by the Jews as canonical. They urho diilinguifhcd Ruth
from t!ie book of Judges, ar.d the Lamentation!, from the
prop.iecy of Jeremiah, reckoned up twcnty-fjur of them.
Th.le books arc difpofed of in tiie following order : viz. jft.
The Law, coiitaiiiiiig Genefis, Exoda.*, Leviticus, Numbeio,
Deuteronomy ; 2dly. The writings of the prophet.^, divided
into the former prophets and the latter prophets; thofe of
the former being Jodiua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, and the
latter Ifaiah, Jeitmiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor pro-
phets ; 3dly. The Hagiographa, which are the Pfalms, the
1 rovtrbs. Job, the Song of Solomon, or Song of Songs, or
Canticlcb, Ruth, the L.amentations, Eccleiiaftes, Either,
Daniel, Ezra, and the Chronicles. Under the name of Ezra
is comprehended Nehemiah. However, this order hath not
alwayj been obferved among the Jews, neither is it fo now
in all places ; for in this refpcd there has been a great variety,
not only among the Jews, but alfo among the Chriftians,
Greeks as well as Latins. All thefe books were not re-
ceived into the canon of the Holy Scriptures in the time of
Ezra, for Malachi hved after him, and mention is made in
Neiiemiah of Jsddua as high pnell, and of Darius Codo-
mannus as king of IVrfia, who hved at leafl 100 years after
his time ; and in the third chapter of the firit book cf Cliro-
nicles, the genealogy of the fons of Zerubbabel is extended
to as many generations as will bring it to the time of Alex-
ander the Great, fo that this book could not have been in-
ftrted in the canon till after his time. Accordinglv, Prideaux
fuppofes, that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe-
miah, and Ellher, as well as Malachi, were added in the
time of Simon the Jult, when he conceives the canon cf the
holy Scriptures was completed. (See above).

The five books of the Law are divided into 54 fedtions,
which divifion is attributed to Ezra, and was intended tor
the u!e of their fynagogues, and for the better inltruction
of the people in the law of God. Eor every fabbath one of
thefe fedtions was read in their fynagogues. They ended the
lall fection with the lad words of Deuteronomy on the lab-
bath of the feall of the tabeniacles, and then begun a::cw
with tiie firil feCtion from tlie begmning of Genefis the next
fabbath after, and fo went round in this circle every year.
The number of thefe fections was 54, becaufe in their inter-
calated years (a month being then added), there were 54
fabbaths. On other years they reduced them to the number
of the fabbaths which were in thcle years, by joining
two fhort ones fevcral limes into one. For they held thcm-
felves obliged to have the whole law thus read over in their
fynagogues every year. Till the time of the perfecution of
Antiochus Epiphanes, they read only the Law ; but bcinir
tljcii prohibited from reading it any more, they fubllitutcd ii
the room of the 54 fedtions of the Law, 54 fettioas out of
Qjl ta-

BIB ^^^

V f i-),i. „,.^,. -.rt.M- rnntMiucd laR chapter of the fiift book of Chionkks ; the difcourfcs
the Prophets. thercadu,gofwhKhth_cyeveraftc^^^^^^^^^ 1^^ ^^^^^ ^.^^^ a Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19. the " Afts of

1

Law was read to the people firft in the Hebrew language, and
then rendered by an interpreter into the Chaldee language ;
and this was done period by period. To diftinguilh thefe
periods was an objeft of importance ; and hence arofe the
divifion into verfes, which was firll applied to the Law, and
afterwards to the Prophets and Hagiographa. The man-
ner by which thefe divifions, or verfes, are now diftinguifhed
is by the " Soph-Pafuk ;" but it is not certain that this
was the ancient method. Prideaux apprehends, that the
Ptfukini, or verfes of the Hebr.w bibles, were anciently di-
ftinguifhed in the fame manner as the " Stichi" afterwards
were in the Greek Bibles. The manner of their writing
thefe llichi at firft was to allow a line to every ftichus, and
there to end the writing, where they ended the ftichus,
leaving the reft of the line a void break. But this mode oc-
cafiouuig a wafte of parchment, on which their books were
written, and making their bulk too heavy ; in order to
avoid thefe inconveniences, they afterwards put a point at
the end of every ftichus, and continued the writing without
leaving any blank. In the Hebrew Bibles they adopted the
fame mode, and put the two points, calkd " Soph-pafuk,"
at the place where one verfe ended, and continued the writ-
ing of the next verfe in the fame line, without leaving any
void fpace. The divifion of t!ie holy Scriptures into chap-
ters is of a much later date. The Pfalms, indeed, appear to
have been always divided as they are at prtfent. Ac^s. xiii.
33, But as to the reft of the Bible, the prefent divifion
into chapters was unknown to the ancients. See Chapter
and Concordance.

Befides thofe books which were received into the canons
of the books of the Old Teftament, and thofe that have
been deemed apocryphal, there are feveral others which
are cited in the Old, and alfo in the New Teftament, which
feem tither to have been loft, or excluded by Ezra from his
canon. Of fuch books are the books "of the wars of the
Lord," cited Numb. xxi. 4. but it does not appear that in
this place any book is mentioned, " of the Covenant," of
which it is faid mention is made Exod. xxiv. 7. but evidently
referring to the laws received by Mofes from the hand of
God, related in the preceding chapters ; the ''book of the
Lord," mentioned If. xxxiv. 16. which does not feem to be
any particular book; " the book of Ja(her, or the upright,"
cited in Jofliiia. x. 13. and 2 Sam. i. iS. fuppofed by fome
to be an hiftorical book, but more probably conriltiiig of

cabees
wife,"

" the genealogy of Job," and " a fpeech of Job';
annexed to the Greek edition of the book of Job ;
" a Pfalm," affixed to the Greek edition of the Pfalms ;
" the book of Enoch," not entire, cited by feveral of tha
fathers, and regarded by them as apocryphal, and referred
to by Jude, v. 14. the book of the " AfFumption of Mofes,"
Slid his " Tcftament," placed by St. Athanafius among
the apocryphal books ; " the Afiumption, Apocalypfe, or
Secrets of Elijah," cited by Origen ; and a number of others
forged by the Jews, and fathered on the Patriarchs. Sec
New Testament.

It may not be improper to refer, in one view, the books
of the Old and New Teftaments to their proper authors.
We m.ay fuppofe then, without afcending to the region of
conjcfturc, and tracing the origin of any books, or parts of
books of the Bible to patriarchal times, that the Pentateuch
confifts of the writings of Mofes, put together, perhaps, by
Samuel, with a very few additions ; that the books of Jo-
ftiua and Judges were, in like manner, coUecled by him; and
the book of Ruth, with the firft part of the firft book of
Samuel, written by him ; that the latter part of the firll
book of Samuel, and the fecond book, were written by the
prophets who fucceeded Samuel, viz. Nathan and Gad ; that
the books of Kings and Chronicles are extrafts from the
records of the lucceeding prophets, concerning their owa
times, and from the public genealogical tables, made by
Ezra ; that the books of Ezra and Nchemiah are coUeftions
of like record?, fome written by Ezra and Nchemiah, and
fome by their predeceffbrs ; that the book of Efther was
written by fome eminent Jew, in or near the times of the
tranfadlions there recorded, perhaps Mordecai ; the book of
Job by Mofes, or a Jew of an uncertain period ; the Pfalms
by David, and other pious perfons ; the books of Proverbs
and Canticles by Solomon ; the book of Eccleliaftes by So-
lomon, or perhaps by a Jew of later times, fpeaking in his
perfon, but not with an intention to make him pafs for the
author ; the Prophecies by the prophets, whofe names they
bear ; and the books of the New Teftament by the perfons
to whom they are ufually afcribed. See New Testament.
There are many internal evidences, and in the cafe of the
New Teftament, many external evidences alfo, by which
thefe books may be known to belong to the authors here
named. Or, if there be any doubts, they are merely of a
critical nature, and do not at all afifeft the genuinenefs of

hymns and fongs; and " the books of Nathan (i Chron. the books, or not alter, at leaft materially, the arguments

xxix. 29. 2 Chron. ix. 29.) of Gad, (i Chron. xxix. 29.) that may be adduced in favour of their authenticity and au-

ofShemaiah, (2 Chron. xii. 15.) of Iddo, (2 Chron. ix. thority. It is readily allowed, that objeiflions have been

29. xii. 15. xiii. 22.) of Abijah, (2 Chron. ix. 29.) and of made to the alledged authors of feveral of thefe books.

Jehu, (2 Clnon. xx. 34.), which were memoirs compofed by Abenezra, followed by Plobbes, Pereira, Spinoza, and fome

thofe prophets, or rather prophecies, which contained a others, deny the firft five books to have been written by

part of the hiftory. The fame may be faid of the book of Mofes. F. Simon, in particular, alTcrts, that the books, as

the " Journals or Chronicles" of the kings of Jndah or we now have them, arc not the originals written by the in-

of Ifrael ; which are difTerent from the Paralipomena, or fpired penmen, but abridgments of them, made in after-

Chronicks ; the book tf " Samuel the Seer," cited in the times by a kind of college, or order, of public aftuaries, or

fcribes,

B I B

B I B

fcribes, appointed for tliat purpoff. See Pevtateuch,
and each of the books of the Bible, under its proper title.
See alfo New Testament.

The original language of the Old Teftament was, without
doubt, the old Hefcrcw, at leafl the greateft part of it ; for
all the books do not appear to have been written in the fame
language. Some chapters of Ezra and Daniel, (fee Ezra
and Daniel,) arejudged to have been conipofed in Chaldee ;
and it has been fuppofed, that other chapters of this latter
writer,and alio the apocryphal books of Maccabees, Wifdom,
Sic. were written in Greek ; Tobit and Ecclefiafticus, either
in Greek or Syriac. As for the New Teftament, it was writ-
ten in Greek, except the Gofpel of St. Mattliew, which is
thought by fome to have been compofed in Hebrew. Some
few have thought that the Gofpel of St. Mark was written
in Latin, and alfo the epiftle to the Hebrews. See the Title
of each Book, and Testament.

With regard to the ilyle of the feveral writers of the Old
and New Tellament, there is a very confiderable diverlity.
The ftyle of Paul may be eafily dillinguilhed by its pecu-
liarity from that of any other writer. A difceriiing reader
will not eafily confound the Ilyle of Luke with tiiat of either
of the evangelifts, who preceded him, Matthew or Mark ; nor
would he be in any danger of millaklng the apoflle John's
<liflion for that of any other penman of the New Teftament.
The fame difference of ftyle will be difcovered by one who
is but moderately converfant with the Hebrew, in the writers
of the Old Teftament. In this we have a greater variety
"than in the New. Some of the books are written in profe,
and fome in verfe ; and in each the differences between one
book and another are confiderable. In the book of Job, for
inftance, the charafher of the ftyle is remarkably peculiar.
What can be more diftimilar in this refpeft, though both are
excellent in their kind, than the towering flights of tiie fubhme
Ifaiah, and the plaintive ftrains of the pathetic Jeremiah ?
In the feveral books of Scripture we can fpecify the concife
ftyle and the copious, the elevated and the fimplc, the apho-
riftic and the difFufe. This diverfity in the diiilion of the
facred penmen is perfedily reconcileable with the idea of their
infpiration ; and in fpeaking on this fubjetl, we (hould duly
advert to the difference between the exprefuon and the fenti-
ment, and avoid confounding thefe two, as if they were the
fame, whereas they are widely different. The truths implied
in the fentiments are eflential, immutable, and have an intrinlic
vaUie; the words which compofe the cxprciTion are in their
nature circumftatitial, changeable, and have no other value
than what they derive from the arbitrary conventions of men.
That the Holy Spirit would guide the minds of the facred
penmen in fuch a manner as to prevent tlieir adopting terms
unfuitable to his defign, or which might obtlnift hi:; purpofe ;
Rnd that in other refpedis he would accommodate himlelf to
their manner and didiion, is both reafonable in itfclf, and
rendered unqueflionable by the works themfelvej, which
have the like charafteriftic differences of ftyle which we find
in other compofitions. Can it be accounted more ftrange
that the Holy Spirit Ihould, by the prophet Amos, addrefs
us in the ftyle of a (hepherd, and by Daniel, in that of a
courtier, than that by the one he fhould fpeak to us in He-
brew, and by the other in Chaldee ? It is as reafonable to
think that the Spirit of God would accommodate himfelf to
the phrafeolcgy and dicfion, as to the tone of voice and pro-
nunciation of thofe whom lie was pleafed to enlijhten ; for
it cannot be denied, that the pronunciation of one pcrfoii in
uttering a prophecy, might be more articulate, more audible,
and more aifeding than that of another ; and in like manner,
as one ftyle has more harmony, elegance, and perfpicuity
than a-iiothtr. Caftalio fays juftly, {Def. cont. Bezam.)

" Res diclat Spiritus, verba quidem et linguam loqueiiti atit
fcribcnti liberam permittit ; i. e. the Spirit dictates the
things, leaving the words or language free to the fpeakcr or
writer. Jerom alfo obferved a thoufand years before, (Com-
ment, in Epift. ad Gal. cap. i.) " Nee putemus in verbis
Scripturarum evangelium elTe, fed in fenfu ;" i. e. let us not
imagine that the Gofpel conlifts in the words of Scripture,
but in the fenfe. To the fame purpofe is the obfervation of
the ingenious and learned bjfhop Lowtb, (De Sacra Poeii,
Heb. Prael. xvi.) " Hoc ita facris vatibus tribuimus, ut ni'hil
derogemus Divini Spirtus afflatui ; etfi fuam iiiterea vim pro-
prix cujulque Scriptoris natuias atquc ingenio concedamus:
neque enim inftindtu divino ita concitatur vatis animus, ut
protinus obruatur hominis indoles : attolluntur et eriguntur,
nou extinguuntur aut occultantur naturalis ingenii facultates;
et quanquam Mofis, Davidis, et Ifaix, fcripta fcmpcr fpirant
quiddam tam excelfum tamque czlefte, ut plane videantur
divinitus edita, nihilo tamen minus in iis Mofem, Davidem,
Ifaiam, femper agnofcimus ;" i. e. we ihall detract nothing
from the dignity of that infpii-ation, which proceeds from
higher caufes, while we allow to the genius of each writer
his own peculiar excellence and accompliftiments. The Di-
vine Spirit by no means takes fuch an entire poffeffion of the
mind of the prophet as to fubdue or extinguilh the character
and genius of the man ; the natural powers of the mind are
in general elevated and refined ; they are neither eradicated,
nor totally obfcured ; and though the writings of Mofes, of
David, and of Ifaiah, always bear the marks of a divine
and celeftial impulfe, wc may neverthelefs plainly difcover
in them the particular characters of their refpcdlive authors.
See Inspiration.

It mull be allowed, that many circumftances concur to ren.
der the ftyle both of the New Teftament and of the Old ;
of the hiftorical books, as well as of the prophetical and ar-
gumentative, generally obfcure, and often ambiguous ; al-
though we ought not to admit the exaggerated reprefenta-
tion of father Simon, (Hift. Crit. des V. T. liv. iii. c. 2.)
with regard to the greater part of the Hebrew words, which,
he fays, are equivocal, and of courfe their figiiification al-
together uncertain. The origin of this kind of ftatement
mull be fought in the author's attachment to tradition, ra-
ther than to that kind of feepticifm with which he is charged
by Bofluet, bifhop of Meaux, and which tended to under-
mine Chriftianity itfelf. To any perfon who duly reflefts,
this father's reprefentation mull appear to be unfounded, or
beyond all bounds hyperbolical. It isnotjuil in its refer-
ence to the prophetical writings i and as to the hiftorical
books, they are, in general, remarkable for perfpicuity.
The firft quality by which the facred hillory is diftingullhcd
is fimplicity, which arifes from this property of the Hebrew
language, the verbs of .vhicli have not, like Greek and Latin,
a variety of moods andtenfes, nor do they abouiid,like the mo-
dern languages, in auxiliaries and conjunctions. This quality
very much conduces to the perfpicuity of its ftyle. Of this
fimplicity we have an example in the lirll paragraph ofGenelis,
conlillingof live, not long,vcrfes,and containing not fewer tliaii
eleven ftntences, which are Angularly fiiiiple ; the fubftan-
tivcs not being attended by adjectives, nor the verbs by ad-
verbs, without fynonyniK, or iuperlativcs, or any effort to-
wards exprcffiug tilings in a bold, emphatical, or uncom-
mon manner. In the Pentateuch, there is alfo a fimplicity
of fentimcnt, arifing from the very nature of the early and
uncultivated ftate of fuciety, about which its books are con-
verfant, and this renders the narrative, in general, extremely
clear and engaging. Befidesthe finplicity of ftruclure, and
the fimplititv of fentiment, there is another fpecies of fimpli-
city, fur which Scripture hillory is more remarkable than any
Q_q 2 other

B I B

other comporuion^ of any language. This may be denomi-
nated fimplicity of d. fign. The fubj^-a of the narrative fo
enTri.ffcs t^'.e alttntion of the writer, that he difappears, as
it were, from the view of the reader; He introducee nothing
as from himfelf ; no opinions of his own, no remarks, cen-
jr t\urcs, doubts, or inferences; no reafoning about the canfe
or the effcas of what is related. He never ir.tetriipls liis
reader with the difplay, either of his talents or his paffions :
he makes no digrefiious ; he draws no charaClers ; he fup-
pliis us merely with naked fads, from which we are left to
colka the charaaer. We oblerve no attempt to Ibine by
means of the exprcflion, compofition, or fentiments. Plain-
nefs of language is an.. , — eferred, becaufe it is the moft
nnlnral, the nioft obvious, anu i!;e bcft adapted to all capa-
cities. In this lalt fort of fingnlarity, fur which Xcnophon
among the Greeks, ai.d Cxfar among the Latins, have been
recommended, our Lord's biographers particularly excel.
With refpea to the firil fpecies of fimplicity, or that of
flruanrc, the difference of the genius of the Greek languag.;
from that of the Hebrew mull, without doubt, occafion lome
dilTerence in the manner of Matthew, Mark, Lake, and
John, from that of Mofts; but the identity of idiom Hill
occafions a ftrong refemblance between them. If Genefis,
therefore, may he jullly faid to pofTefs lhej!rjl rank for fim-
plicity of compofition in the fentences, the Gofpcls are cer-
tainly entitled lolhcJlccntJ; and John and MattI.ew have it
in a higher degree than Mark and Luke. As to the L-cond
fpecies, or fimplicity of fentiment, the change of times,
which is very great, as well as the difference of fiibjeas,
would receffarily confer the full degree of it upon the former.
But in fimplicity of objca or dcfign, the cvangelilh, of all
writers, facred and prophane, appear the foreri:olL Their
manner is indeed, in fome refpeas, peculiar and unrivalled.
If we divert our attention from the hiftorical, or narra-
tive parts of the Bible, to the writings of the poets and
irophets, we Ihall difcover the animated, elegant, and
ubhme intermi.ted, as the fubj<as fuggeft, and the occafions
require, with the fimple and perfpicuous. But for other
particulars, in reference to this fubjea, fee Style and Tes-
tament. See alfo the titles of the feveral books of the
Bible, for the dilb'iiguifhing charaaer of their writers.

Having confidered the appellations by which the Bible is
diftiiiguifhed, the books of which it confiils, the time, and
manner in which they were coUeaed, their refpeaive authors,
and the language and ftyle in which they were written, it
may not be improper to fubjoin a few obfervalions on the
genuinenefs and authenticity of the Scriptures, on their high
original a: d divine authority, and on their great importance
and utility.

It fhi uld here be confidered, that the genuinenefs of the
Scriptures proves the truth of the principal faas contained
in them ; to which puipofe we may obferve, that it is very
rare to meet with any genuine writings of the hiftorical kind,
in which the principal faas are not true, unlcfs it be in in-
ftances wbere both the motives which engaged the author to
faififv, and the eircumftances which gave fome plaufibility
to the fiaion, are apparent ; neither of which can be allcdged
in the prefent cafe with any colour of reafon. As this is rare
in genera), it is more rare, whenthe writer treats of things
that happened in his own time, and under his own cogni-
zance and direction, and communicates his hiftory to perfons
under the fame circumrtanccs ; all which may be faid iif the
wnttrs of the Scripture hillory. Befides, the great impor-
tance of the faas mentioned in the Scriptures makes it more
improbable, that the ftveral authors (hould either have at-
tempted to falfify, or have fucceedcd in fuch an attempt.
This is aik argument for the truth of the fads, which proves

I

B I B

the genuinenefs of the books at the fame time. However,
the truth of the faas is inferred more direaly from their im-
portance, if the genuinenefs of the Scriptures be previoufly
allowed. The fame obfervation may be applied to the great
number of particular circumftances of time, place, perfons,
&c. mcntii-ned in the ScriptBies, and to the harmony of
the books with themfelves, and with each other. Thefe are
arguments both for the genuinenefs of the books, and truth
of the faas dilfinaly confidered, and alfo arguments for de-
ducing the truth from the genuinenefs. Moreover, if the
books of the Old and New Tcftaments were written by the
perfons to whom they have been afcribed, i. e. if they be ge-
nuine,the moral charaaers of thefe writers afford the ilrongeft
affurance, that the faa.s aiTerted by them are true. The
fufferings which feveral of the writers underwent both in life
and ill death, in atteltalion of the faas delivered by them,
furnifh a particular argument in favour of thefe faas.
Again, the arguments here alledged for proving the truth of
the Scripture hillory from the genuinenefs of the books, are
as conclufive in refpsa of tlie miraculouj faas, as of the com-
mon ones. It may alfo be oblerved, that if we allow the
genuinenefs of the books to be a fufScient evidence of the
common faas which they record, the miraculous faas mult
alfo be allowed, from their clofe conneaiou with the others.
It is neceffary to admit both or neither. We cannot con-
ceive, that Mofes fhould have delivered the Ifraelitea from
their flavery in Egypt, or conduaed them through tha
wildernefs for forty years, at all, in fuch manner as the
common hillory reprefents, unlefs we fuppofe the miraculous
faas intermixed with it to be true alfo. In like manner, the
fame of Chrill's miracles, the multitudes which followed him,
the adherence of his difciples, thejealoufy and hatred of the
chief priefts, fcribes and pharifees, with many other faas
of a common nature, are impoOible to be accounted for, un-
lefs we allow, that he did really work miracles. And the
fame obfervations hold, in geneial, of the other parts of the
Scripture hillory. We might urge a particular argument
in favour of the miraculous part of the Scripture hillory,
that may be deduced from the reluaance of mankind to re-
ceive miraculous fads ; which would put the writers and
readers very much upon their guard, and would operate as a
flroiig check upon the publication ol a miraculous hillory at
or near the time when the miracles were faid to be performed;
and thus it would ferve as a llrong confinnation of fuch an
hillory, if its genuinenels be previonfiy granted. The con-
verle of the propofition, now ilated and explained, is alfo
true : i.e. if the principal faas mentioned in the Scnptures
be true, they mull be genuine writing?.

In connettion with the preceding propifition we may obr
ferve, that the genuinenefs of the Scriptures proves their
divine authority. Porphyry in etfea acknowledges the trutU
of this propofition, in its reference to the book of Daniel*
by being unable to devife a method of invalidating its divine
authority implied in the accomplifhmcnt of the projjhecies
which it contains, without affertmg, that tliey were written
after the event, or that they were forgeries. Many of the
other books of the O. and N. Teltamcnts have ut quelHon-
ahle evidences of the divine foreknowledge, it tliey be alyV
lowed genuine : fuch are thofe fupphed by- Mofes's pro-
pliccy concerning the captivity of the Iraelitcs, or of a Hate
not yet ereaed ; Ifaiah's concerning Cyrus; Jereniiah's con-
cerning the duration ef the Babylonilh captivits ; Cliriil's
concerning the deltruaion of Jtruialcm, and the captivity
that wa; to toUow ; St. John's concerning the great corrup-
tion of the ChriiHan church ; and Daniel's co::ceining the
fourth empire in its dechnCon ; which latl was extant in the
time of Porphyry, at leaft, that is, .Wiojf'i th? evtuts which

it

B I B

B I B

it rcprefents. The truth of the propofition might alfo be
argued from the fubhinity and cxttUcnce of tlie doclrines
contained in the Sciiptures ; in no reipcft fuiting the lup-
pofed authors, or the ages in which they lived, their educa-
tion or occupation ; f.i that, if they were the real authors,
we are under the n;ccllity of admitting ihc I'lvine affillance.
The coiivcrfc of this propolition, viz. that theDivinc authority
of the Scriptures inters their gcnnineiief-, uill be rtaJily and
unirerfally acknowledged. AiiJ there are feveral evidences for
the Divine authority of the Scriptures, which are dirccl and
immediate, and prior to the coiifidcration both of tlicir ge-
nuinenefs, and of the truth of tlic facls contained in them.
Moreover, the truth of the principal fadls contained ia the
Scriptures proves their divine authority. Such is the frame
of the human mind, that the Scripture hillory, allowed to
be true, ir.ull convince us that Chrilt, the prophets, and the
apoftles, were endued with a power greater than iuiman, and
aftcd by the authority of a Being of the highcll wildom and
goodnefs. But if n.itural religion be previoufly elhibhihcd,
thi- truth of the principal facls of the Scriptures proves their
divine authority in a more eafy and more convincing man-
»cr : for the knowledge and power manifeiled by Chrift, the
prophets, and apoltle?, and alfo their good moral charac-
ter.-', ihew them to be in an eminent manner the children, fer-
vants, and meflengtrs cf him, who is previonily acknowledged
to be infiiiite in power, knowledge, and goodnefs ; and they
actually lay claim to a divine miffion, which claim cannot be
thought a falfe one, if we admit their credentials : or, in other
words, the truth of the principal fads mentioned in the Scrip-
tures proves the divin? miffion of Chrift, the prophets, and
apotlies, that is, the divine autiiority of the Scriptures.

By fuch mode of reafoning it is (hewn, that the genuine-
nefs of the Scriptues, the truth of the principal facts con-
tained in them, and their divine authority, appear to be fo
conneitcd with each other, that any one being eftablifhed
upon independent principles, the other two may be interred
from it. On the fubject of the infpiration of tlie Scriptures j
lee Inspiration.

Another argument in proof of the genuinenefs of the
books of the Old and New Teilamtnts, and of the truth of
the principal fatts contained in them, may be deduced from
the manner in which they have been tranfmitted down from
one age to another; refembling that,in which all other genuine
books and true hillories have been conveyed down to po!le-
rity. As the writings of the Greek and Roman writers were
elleemed by thefe nations to be tranfmitted to tliem by their
ancellors in a continued fucceffion, from the times when the
rcfpettive au'.hors lived, fo have the books of tlie Old
Tellament by the Jevvilh nation, and thofe of the New by
the Chrillians ; and it is an additional evidence in the lall
cafe, that the primitive Chrillians were not a difcinft nation,
but a great multitude of people difperfed through all the na-
tions ot the Roman empire, and even extending itfclf beyond
the bounds of that empire. As the Greeks and Romans
always believed the principal facts of their hilloiical books,
fo the Jews a:^d Chrillians did more, and never feem to have
doubted of the truth ot any part of theirs. In Ihort, what-
ever can be faid of tlie tradi'.ional authority due to the Greek
and Roman writers, fomething analogous to tliis: and for the
moll part of greater wci_.iht, rray be urged for .he Jcvvilh
and Chri'.lian. Now, as ail fobcr-mindtd pcrlons ad it, the
books ufually afcribed to the Greek and Roman hiilorians,
philiilophers, &c. to be genuine, av.d the principal tadts re-
lated or alluded to -n ihcrn to be true, and that one chief
evi.ierce tor this is the general traditionary one here recited;
they ought, therefore, to pay the fame regard to the books
of the Old and New TellamciUs, fince there arc tue lanjej

or greater reafons for it. Befidcs, thefe tradition?ry evi-
dences are fufficient, and we thus obtain a re.d argument, as
well as one " ad hominem," for receiving books thus handed
down to us. For it is. not conceivabl , that whole nations
(hould either be impofed upon thcmfelvcs, or concur to de-
ceive others, by forgeries of books or of facts. Tlitfe books
and fads mull, therefore, in general, be genuine and true ;
and it is a Itrong additional evidence of this, that ail nations
mult be jealous of forgeries for the fame reafons that we are.
On the conclufivenclj of this argument, as it relates to mi-
racles ; fee Miracle.

We may proceed to obfcrve further, tluit the great im-,
portance of the hillories, precepts, promifes, threatenings,
and prophecies contained in the Scriptures, are evidences
both of their genuinenefs, and of the truth of the principal
fads mentioned in them. The hillory of the creation, fall,
deluge, longevity of the patriarchs, dilpcrlion of mankind,
callin':;C t>f Abraham, dcfcent of Jacob with his family into
ligypt, and the precepts of abllaining from blued, and of
circumcilion, were of Inch concern, either to m.ankmd in
general, or to the Ifraelites in particular, and fome ot them
of fo extraordinary a nature, as that it ■.■ould not be a matter
of indifference to the people amongil whom the account
given of them in Geiitfis was firll publifhed, whether they
received them or not. On the luppofition that this accouut
was firll publilhed amongil the Ifraelites by Mofes, and then
confirmed by cle-ar, univerfal, uninterrupted tradition, it
will be eafy to conceive, how it (hould be handed dov.n from
age to age amongil the Jews, and received by them as in-
dubitable. But (uppofing the account to be falfe, or that
there were no fuch vefliges and evidences of thefe hillories
and precepts, it will be difficult to conceive how this could
have happened, let the time of publication be what it may.
If early, the people would rcjed at once the account for want
of a clear tradition ; if late, it would be natural to inquiie ho.v
the autlior was informed of things never ktiowa before -O
others.. If the account was delivered, as having been com-
muaicated to Mofes by divine revelation, which is not very
confident with the numerous references that occur in Genclis
to the exilling velligts of the things related, his fiditious
credentials would thus be tmbarrafled, and his coiitempora-
raries would be induced very particularly to examine them.
As to other cofmogonics and theogonies current among Pa-
gans, which are evident fidions ; they furnilh no juft ob-
jeftion againft the Mofaic hidory ; becaufe thev were gene-
rally reijardtd merely as amuling fidions ; and yet they con-
cealed in figures, or cxprciltd in plain words fome triithi:,
which agree with the book of Genefis, and afford a llrong
prcfumptive evidence in favour of this book. With refpeCt
to the law of Mofes, this w?s extremely burdenfome, ex-
penfive, and fevere, particularly in its reference to the crime
of idolatry, to which mankind were then extravagantly prone ;
and it was abfurd, according to human judgment, in the ic-
(lances of prohibiting their furnifhing thcmlelves with horfes
for war, and of commanding all the males of the whole na-
tion to appear at Jerufalem three times a year. Ncverthc-
lcf», it claims a divine authority, and appeals to fads of the
moll notorious kind, and to culloms and ceremonies of the
moll peculiar nature, as the wKmorials of thtle tads. Can
we then conceive, that any nation, with fuch motives to re-
jed, and fuch I'pportunities of.deteding, the forgery of the
books of Exodus, LtvJtvciJS, Numbers, and Deuteronomy,
fhould yet receive iheui, and fubmil to this heavy yoke ?
That the Jews did. fubmit to the law of MoUs in ihcfe cir-
cim.llarce.-., js evident from the books cf the Old and New
TtiUmentSj if wa allow them the leaft truth and genuine-
nefs, or CYtitliO.n profane writers ; and from the.pitfent ob-
2 fervauce

B I B

tliat ncWitions were made by Ezra ; tliefe additions miift
liave been cither of important or trivial matters. On the
firll fuppoikion, the difficulty already ftated recurs ; and if
the important fafls are true, what polfible motive could have
induced E/.ra to make additions of no importance ? Befidc?,
if any ancient writings were extant, Ezra mud either copy
after them, which deltroys the prefent fuppofition ; or differ
from and oppofe them, which would betray him. If therd
were no fuch ancient writings, the people would be led to
enquire with regard to matters of importance, for what
rtafon Ezra was fo particular in things of which there was
i'alaTce'oecurs amonTthe Pagans, of a body of laws framed neither any memory, nor account in "writing Should it be
at once and remaining invariable ; whereas the body politic faid, that the people did not regard w-hat Ezra had thus
of the Ifra
prefeived
under many

an inllance a.... — i , „ a i, rir iiu l ii i- j

opinion which they entertained of the great importance of or all of thefe, would have been a check upon him, and a
their law. In fliort, of all the fiflions or forgeries, that can fecurity againlt hnn in matters of importance. If we fup

B I B

fc-rvance of it by the Jews fcattered through all the king-
doms of the world. Should it be faid, tliat other nations
have afcribed divine authority to their lawgivers, and fub-
mitted to very fevere laws, it may be alledged in reply, that
the pretences of lawgivers amongil the Pagans to infpiration,
and the fubmilTion of the people, may be accounted tor from
their peculiar cireumftances at the lime, without recurring
to real infpiration ; and more efpecially, if we admit the pa-
triarchal revelations related by Mofcs, and his own divine
legation; as heathen lawgivers copied after thefe, and hence
we derive a (Irong argument in their favour. Befides, no

happen among any people, the moll improbable is that of
the Jcwifh body of civil laws, and it feems to be utterly im-
polTible in the cafe of the law of Mofes.

If we furttisr examine the hiftorj' contained in the books
of Jonma, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra,
and Nehemiah, and extending from the death of Mofcs
to the re-ellabli(liment of the Jews after the Babylonilli cap-
tivity by Ezra and Nehcmiali, we fliall find a variety of im-
portant fac\s, moil of which mud be fuppofod to leave fuch
vedi^es of themfelves, either external and vifible, or internal
in the minds and memories of the people, as would verify
them if tr\ie, or caufe them to be rejected, if falfe. The
conqued of the land of Canaan, the divifion of it, and the
appointment of cities for the prieds and Levites by Jofhna ;
the frequerjt flaveries of the Ifraelites to the neighbouring
kings, and their deliverance by the judges ; the creation ot
a kingdom by Samuel; the tranflation of this kingdom from
Saul's family to David, with his conqueds ; the glory of
Solomon's kingdom ; the building of the temple ; the divi-
fion of tlie kingdom ; the idolatrous worfliip fet up at Dan
and Bellicl ; the captivity of the Ifraelites by the kings of
Ad'vria ; tlie captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar ; the
dedruftioii of their temple ; their return under Cyrus, re-
building the temple under Darius Hyllafpis, and re-eilablifli-
ment under Artaxerxes Longimanus, by Ezra and Nehe-
miah ; — thefe events are fome of them the mod glorious, and
fome of them the mod reproachful, that can happen to any
people. How can we reconcile forgeries of fuch oppofite
kinds, and efpecially as they are interwoven together by va-
rious complicated and neceflary connections, which do not ad-
mil of fcparation ? The facls, indeed, are of fucli inportancc,
notoriety, and permanency in their effecls, that no particular
perfons among the Ifraelites could firll projecl the defign of
feigning them, that their own people would not concur with
fuch a defign, and that neighbouring nations would not per-
mit the ficlion to pafs. Nothir.g but the invincible evidence
of the faftf, here alleged, couid induce a jealous nuihitude

pofe thefe books, indead of having been lorged at once, to
have been forged lucceflively, at the interval of one, two, or
three centuries after the fadls related, we fliall involve our-
felves in the fame or fimilar difficulties. Upon the whole,
then, we may conclude, that the forgery of the annals of the
Ifraelites appears to be impofllble, as well as thatot the body
of their civil laws. It is needlefs to examine the books of
Efther, Job, the Pfalms, Proverbs, Eccleliades, and Can-
tides ; and we might proceed to the Prophecies. But this
fubjeiit will be relumed under the article Prophecy. For
the importance of the fubjeCls, comprehended in the books
of the New Tcllament ; fee Testament, and Chris-
tianity.

We fliall here fiabjoin fome general evidences in atteftation
to the importance of the books of Scripture. That Jews
and Chridians have thought their facred books very highly
important, mod genuine, and true, appears from the perle-
cutions and fufferings which they have undergone on account
of their attachment to them, and becaufe they would not be
prevailed upon to iurrender them. The prelervation of the
law of Moles, probably the firll book written in any lan-
guage, whilll many others of a later date have been loll,
ihews the gre;it regard that has been paid to it ; and from
this circumdance we may infer, that this and the other books
of the Old Tcllament have been prcferved on account of
their importance, or from fome other caufe, equally evincing
their gtnuinenefs and truth. The great importance of thele
books appears alfo from the many early tranflations and pa-
raphrafcs of tliem ; and thefe tranflations and paraphrafes
leem to correct errors that are unavoidable in the lapfe of
time, and to fecnrc their integrity and purity. The hefita-
tion and difficulty with which fome few books of the New
Tedament were received into the canon, Ihew the great care
and concern of the primitive Chridians about the canon, and
the high importance of the books admitted into it ; and
afTord a drong evidence of their genuinenefs and truth. The
fame obfervat'.on is in a degree applicable to the Jewifli canon.

amongil the Ifraelites or neighbouring nations to acquicfce. Moreover, the religious hatred and animofity which fubfided

Tiiis mud be acknowledged upon the fuppofition that the
feveral books were publiflied in or near the times when the
fails that are recorded in them happened. But fuppofe all
thefe hidorical books forged by Ezra ; — the hypothcfis is
evidently impoffible. Things fo important and notorious,
fo 1 onourable and fo reproachful to the people^ for whofe
fake they were forged, would have been rejecled with the

between the Jews and Samaritans, and between feveral of the
ancient feds among the Chridians, convince us of what im-
portance they all thought their lacred books, and difpoftd
them to watch over one another with a jealous eye.

Farther, the genuinenefs of the books of the Old and New
Tedaments may be evinced from the language, dyle, and
manner of writiiie: ufed in them. The Hebrew language, in

utmoft. indignation, unlefs there were the llronged and mod which the Old Tedament was written, being the lann-uage
gei uine traces of thefe things already amongd the people, of an ancient people, who had httle intercourfe with^'their
3'hey muft therefore, in part at lead, be true. If it be faid neighbours, would not change fo faft as modern lanTua-^e*

have

B I B

have done, fiiice difTerent nations have been vanoudv blended
with one another by the exteiifion of trade, arts, and fciences ;
and yet fome changes mu!l have occurred in the interval that
elapfed between tiie time of Mofcs and tliat of Malachi.
The Bibhcal Hebrew correfponds fo exaftly to this criterion,
as to afford a confiderable argument in favour of the ge-
nuinenefs of the books of the Old Teftanient. Belldes,
thefe books have too great a diverfity of llyle to be the work
of either one Jew, or of any fet of cotemporary Jews.. If
they be forgeries, there muft have been a fucceifion of im-
poilors in different ages, who concurred in the fame iniquitous
delign. Again, the Hebrew language ceafed to be fpoken,
as a living language, foon after the time of the Babylonilh
captivity ; and it would be difficult or impoffible to forge any
thing in it, after it became a dead language. Hence it ap-
pears, tliat all the books of the Old Tellament muft be nearly
as ancient as the Babylonifii captivity ; and as they could not
all be written in the fame age, fome mult be much more an-
cient, and this would reduce us to the neceffity of fnppofing
a fueceiTion of confpiring impoftors. Moreover, there 13, as
we have already obfcrvcd, a finiplicity of ftvle, and an un-
aiTecled manner of writmg, in all the books of the Old Tttta-
ment, which is a ftrong evidence of their genuinencfs. The
flyle of the New Teftament, in particular, is not only finiple
and unaffeAed, but perfedtly adapted to the time, places, and
perfons. To which we may add, that the narrations and
precepts of both the Old and New Teftament are delivered
without hefitation ; the writers teaching as having authority ;
and this circumftance is peculiar to thofe, who unite with a
clear knowledge of what they deliver, a perfeft integrity of
heart.

Another argument for the genuinenefs and truth of the
Scriptures, isfupplied by the very great number of particular
circumllances of time, place, perfons, &c. mentioned in them.
It is needlefs to recount thefe ; but they arc incompatible
with forged and falfe accounts, which do not abound in fuch
particularities, and the want of which furnhhts a fufpicion to
their difcredit. Compare, in this refpeft, Manctho's ac-
count of the dynafties of Egypt, Ctelias's of the AfTyrian
kings, and thofe which the technical chronologers have given
of the ancient kingdoms of Greece, which are defeftive in
fuch particulars, with Thucydidcs's hiftoi-y of the Pelopon-
refian war, and Caefar's of the war in Gaul, in which they oc-
cur, and the difference will be fufficientiy apparent. Dr. Pa-
lev's admirable treatife, entitled " Horz Paulins," affords
very valuable illuftrations of this argument as it refpefts the
genuinenefs of the books of the New Teftament.

Tlie agreement of the Scriptures with hiltory, natural and
civil, is a farther proof of their genuinenefs and truth. The
hiftoi-y of the fall agrees in an eminent manner both with the
obvious fafts of labour, forrow, pain, and death, with what
we fee and feel every day, and with all our philofophical en-
quiries into the frame of the human mind, the nature of fecial
life, and the origin of evil. Natural hiftory bears a ftrong
teftimony to Mofes's account of the deh:ge. Civil hiftory
affords many evidences, which corroborate the fame account.
(See Deluge.) The Mofaic account of the confufion of
languages, of the difperfion of Noah's fons, and of the ftate
of religion in the ancient poftdiluvian world, is not only ren-
dered probable, but in a very high degree eftabliftitd, by
many collateral arguments. See Cokfusion of Lan-
guages, Dis?ERSios of Alauiind, Idolatry, Sacrifice,
&c.

The agreement of the books of the Old and New Tcfta-
ments, with thtmfclves and with each other, affords an argu-
ment both of their genuinenefs and truth. The laws of the
Ifraehtes are contained in the Pentateuch, and referred to, in

BIB

a great variety of ways, direft and indireft, in the hilloricai
books, in the Pfalms, and in the Prophecies. The hiftorical
facts alfo in the preceding books are often referred to in thofe
that fucceed, a:;d in the Pfalms and Prophecies. In like
manner, the gcfpels have the greateft; harmony with each
other, and the epiftles of St. Paul with the Acts of the
Apoftles : and, indeed, there is fcarcely any book of either
the Old or New Teftament, which may not be (hewn to refer
to many of the reft, in one way or other. For the illuftra-
tion of this argument, let us fuppofe that no more remained
of the Roman writers than Livy, Tully, and Horace, would
they not by their references to the fame fatt> and cuftoms,
by the faraenefs of ftyle in the fame writer, and difference in
the diftcrent or;es, and numberlefs other fuch like circum-
ftances of critical ccnfideration, prove themfelves, and one
another to be genuine, and the princ'pal facis related, or
alluded to, to be true ? Whoever will apply this rcafonir.g
to the prefent cafe will perceive, that the numberlefs minute,
direft, and indirect agreements and coincidences, that prefent
themfelrcs to ail diligent readers of the fcriptures, prove their
truth and genuinenefs beyond all contradiftion . See Acts,
Epistles, and Testament.

The harmony and agreement of the fevcral writers of the
Old and New Teftament appear the more remarkable,
when it is confidered that their various parts were penned
by feveral hands in very different conditions of hfe, from
the throne and fceptre down to the loweft desrree, and in
very diftant ages, through a long interval of time ; which
would naturally have led a fpirit of impofture to have
varied its fchemes, and to have adapted them to different
Rations in the world, and to the different viciflitudes of every
age. David wrote about 400 years after Slofes, and Ifaiah
about 250 after David, and Matthew more than 700 years
after Haiah. And yet thefe authors, with all the other
prophtts and apoftles, write in perfect harmony, confirming
the authority of their predeceffors, labouring to red\icc the
people to the obfervance of their inftructions, and loudly ex-
claiming againft the neglect and contempt of them, and de-
nouncing the fevereft judgments againft fuch as continued
difobedient. Confequently, as the writers of the Holy Scrip-
tures, though they ail claim a divine authority, yet write in
perfect connettion and harmony, mutually confirming the
doctrine and teftimony of each other, and concurring to efta-
blifh the veiy fame religious truths and principles, it is a
ftrong proof that they all derived their inltruftions from the
fame fountain, the wil'dom of God, and were indeed under the
direction and illumination of the fame fpirit. This leads us
to add, that the unity of defign, which appears in the dif-
penfations recorded in the Scriptures, is an argument not only
of their truth and genuinenefs, but alfo of their divine autho-
rity. In order to perceive the force of ths argument, it is
only neceffary to inquire what this defign is, and how it is
puriued by the feries ol events and divine interpofitions, re-
corded in the Scriptures. (See Dispensation.) We may
further add, that divine communications, miracles, and pro-
phecies, recorded in Scripture, are agreeable to natural reli-
gion, and even feem to be neceffary in the infancy of the
world. (See Miracle, Prophecy, and Revelation.)
It ftiould alfo be confidered, that the hiftorical evidences in
favour of the genuinenefs, truth, and divine authority of the
Scriptures, do not become Icfs fro.m age to age ; but, on the
contrary, it may rather be prefumed, that they increafe.
Since the three great concurring events of printing, the re-
formation of rehgion in thefe weftem parts, and the reftora-
tion of letters, io many more evidences and coincidences have
been difcovered in favour of the Jewilh and Chriftian hifto-
ries, as may ferve, in fonie meafurc, to fupply the want of

thofe

B T B

B I B

■ dav

,l,„fe tl,nt h.vc been loll in the preceding time. ; and a. tKi. Icd^e. holu.ef., confolalion and hope, and their confeq.Knt
.pro cmc -t of the hillorieal evidences is lik.ly to conlinne, ut, hty and T.portance n. a moral and pracl.cal v,ew, fu.lr
linpio\LiiiciiL ui V _ ^ ^ , __ and dn-ecUy dtmonflratc theivdivnie ongiral. 1 lie wonder-

fid natnre, and fuperior excellence, of the attempt made by
Chrill and his apoftles, for reforming mankind, and makii>g
tlit-ni happy in a future Hate, are evidences of their divine
authority ; which is farther illnilrated and conlirmed by the
manner in wliich tiie love of God and of our neighbour is
tausilit andinculcatt-d in the Scriptures. This may alio be
inferred from the doclrine of the neceffary fubiervicucy of
pain to pleal'.ire, and from the mutual inllrunitntality of be-
ing's to the happiuefs and milery of each other, uniolded in
tlie Scriptures. The divine autiiority of the Scriptures may
be farther deduced fi .im the fuperior wifdom of the Jewllli
nnnvof'thefe'tminentpcrfons,'aud the heinous occalional law;, confidered in a political light, and from the exqmiitc
offences chargeable upon fome of them, yet tiic impartial workmanfliip manifefted in the tabernacle and the temple,
reader ihould coididtr, wliether the prophets, apoftles, &c. The ti.ne and manner m which the bcnptnrcs were written
were not fo much fuperior, not only to mankind at an avL-ra.^e, and dchvered to the world, lurmni arguments for their
■cii to the heft men amono- the Greeks and Humans, as divine authority ; nor is the want of umverfahty in the piib-

t ere is Ln'^^t- '■<^'''"" '" '"'?'■'' '^'"^ ^'^-^ ^''''' ""'"'''' "^^ "^'^^ '
more anrl more irrefiftible to all c.uulid, ferious inquirers.

Tlie moral cliara'^ers of Clirift, the prophets, and the
apoftles, prove the truth and divine authority of the Scrip-
tures. The charaftcrs of the perfons who are faid in the
Scriptures to have had divine communications, and a divine
InilTion, are fo much fuptri;>r to the charaf:\ers that occur in
tomnion life, that we can fcarcely account for the more emi-
nent fin-rle ones, and much lefs fo for fo large a fuccLilion of
ihcTn, continued throuj,rh fo many a;res, without allowing the
divine communications and affiilance, wrtich they allege.
N Jtwithibodnig confuUrable imperfec\ions that pertained to

impious trauil ana imp^
if they had not divine authority. Befides, it fhould be r
coUeCled, that the undifguifed and impartial manner in which
tlic imperfections and faults of the eminent perfons inentioned
in Scripture arc iclatcd, furnidies a remarkable additional evi-
dence for the truth of fuch parts of the Scripture hillory in
uhich fuch relations occur, befides fuch evidences as extend

to the whole.

The excellence of the dodlrlne contained in the Scriptures

from the reception which Chrift, his forerunners and fol-
lowers, with their dcdlrines, have met within all ages.
See thcfe argnnieiits dated, ilkil'rated, and applied at large
in Hartley's Obfcrvations on man, p. 350 — 421. See alio
on the fubjecl: of this article, Prideanx's Conn. vol. ii. 475 —
497, 8vo. Dupin's Hift. of the Canon, ch. i. and ii. Ktn-
nicott's State of the printed Hebrew text of the Old Telia,
ment, difl". ii. p. ^95, &c. and DilTertatio Gcneralis, annexed

additional evidence of their authority. This ariiumtnt to the fecond volume of his Hebrew Bible. Taylor's Scheme

has great force independently of all other conlideratious.
Suppofc, for inftance, that the author of the gufpel, which
goes under the name of St. Matthew, was not known, and
that it was unfuppm ted by the writers of the primitive times ;
ytt fuch are the unaffeAed limplieity of the narrations, the

of Scripture Divinity, ch. 39, ch. 40.

The Jews, at lirll^, were very refervtd in communicating
their Scriptures to llrangers ; defpifing and fhnnniiig the Gen-
tiles, they would not difclole to them any of the treafurrs
concealed in the Bible. We may add, that the people bor-

purity of the dodrine, and the linccre piety and goodnefs of dering on the Jews, as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Arabs,

the fentiments, that it carries its own authority with it. &c. were not very curious to know the laws or hiilory of

The fame obfervation is applicable in general to all the books a people, whom in their turn they hated and defpifcd.

of the Old and New Tellaments : fo that if there was no Their lirft acquaintance with thcfe books was not till after

other book in the world befides the Bible, a man could not the feveral captivities of the Jews, when the lingularity of

reafonablv doubt of the truth of revealed religion. If all the Hebrew laws and ceremonies induced fcveral to defire 3,

other arguments were fct afide, we may conclude from this more particular knowledge of them. Jofephns (Contr.

finT-le confideration, that the authors of the books of the Apion. p. 1033.) feems furprifedto find fuch flight footfteps

Old and New Teftament, whoever they were, cannot have of the Scripture hiftoi7 interfperfed in the Egyptian, Chal-

madeafalfe claim to divine authority. The Scriptures con- daean, Pha:nician, and Grecian hillories ; and accounts for it

tain doftrines concerning God, Providence, a future ftate, the from this circumftance, that the facred books were not as ytt

duty of man, &c. far more pure and fublimc than can in any tranflated into Greek, or other languages, and confcquently

wav be accounted for from the natural powers of men, fo not known to the writers of thofe nations. The firft verfion

circumilariccd as the facred writers were. Let the reader of the Bible was that of the LXX into Greek, in the time of

confider whether it can be reafonably fuppofed, that Jewifh Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 280 years before Chrill ;

(hepherds, filhermen, &c. (hould, both before and after the though fome maintain that the whole was not then tranf-

rife of the heatlicn philofophy, fo far exceed men of the lated, but only the Pentateucli ; between which and the

greattll abilities an(l accomplilhments in other nations, by other books in the vcrlion of the LXX, critics find a great

any other means than divine communications. Indeed, no diverlity in point of ftyle and cxprefTion, as well aii of accu-

writers, from the invention of letters to the prefent times, racy. See Sfptuagint.

are equal to the penmen of the books of the Old and New Various kinds of books have been compofed on the Bible,

Teftaments in true excellence, utility, and dignity ; and this either to explain the fenfe, or make its dodrine niurc obvious,

is furely fuch an internal criterion of their divine authority, to facilitate the remembrance of it, or to eltablilh particular

as ought not to be refilled. opinions from it ; fuch as Introductions, Apparatufes, Sum-

The many and great advantages which have accrued to inaries. Manuals, Hiitories, Expolitions, Commentaries,

the world from the Patriarchal, Judaical, and Chriftian re- Harmonies, &c.

velations, prove the divine authority of the Scriptures. Tiicfe Bibles ar; dillinguiftied, according to their language, into

advantages relate partly to the knowledge, and partly to the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Chaldee, Syiiac, Arabic, Coptic,

pradlice of religion. The internal worth and excellence of &c : fome account of each, and their fcveral editions, &c. wc

.the Scriptures, as containing the beft principles of know- fhall here fubjoin.

Bibles^

B I B

B 1 B

Bibles, Hchrtw, are either nianufcn'pt or printed. The
bell manufcr}pt Bibles are thofe copied by the Jews of
Spain. Tiiofe copi'.d by the Jews of Germany are Icfs
e.'iaft, but more coininoii. The two kinds are eatiiy diftin-
guifhed from each other; the former being in beautiful
characters, lilie the Hebrew Bibles of Bomberg, Stephens,
and Plantin ; the latter in characters, like thofe of Munftcr
and Gryphius. F. Simon obferves, that the oldeft nianu-
fcript Hebrew Bibles are not above fix or fcvcn hundred
years old ; nor does rabbi Menaham, who quotes a vaft
number of them, pretend that any of them exceed fi.K hundred
years.

Dr. Kennicott, in his DilTertatio Generalis, annexed to his
Hebrew Bible, p. 21, obferves, that the mod ancient MSS.
ivere written between the years 900 and i 100 : but though
thofe that are the moll ancient are not more than 800 or 900
years old, they were tranfcnbed from others of a much more
ancient date. The MS. preferved in the Bodleian library is
nokfs than 8co years old. Another MS. not lefs ancient, is
preferved in the C-.Efarean libiary at Vienna. The fame
learned writer informs us, that almoft all the Hebrew
MSS. of the Old Tcllament, which are known at prcfent,
were written between the years 1000 and 1457 ; and hence
he infers, that all the MSS. written before the years 700 or
>foo, were deilroyed by fome decree of the JewiQi fcnate, on
account of their many differences from the copies then de-
clared genuine. This circumllance is alfo alleged by Walton
(Prolegomena, 4, 8.), as the reafon why we have fo few
copies of the age of 60c years, and why even the copies of
700 or 8co years are very rare.

The Hebrew dillinftions and denominationsof the various
parts of the Hebrew Bible, as they occur in the titles of the
ancient MSS. will be cafily underftood by the foUotting
table of diilribution.
Pentateuch,

Prophets,

Prior

Pofla

^ Jofhua
3 Ji'dges

Cethubim,

or

Hagiographa.

Pfalms
j Proverbs
1 Daniel

E/.r. Neh,

1 iamuel
I Kings

r ' rifaiah

j Major .{ Jeremiah
(.Ezckiel
rHofea, &c.
Minor < to

(_Malachi.

fRuth
I Either
5 <J Ecclefiaftcs
-Lamentations
j Solomon's Song-

I

(_ Chronicles.

Dr. Kennicott,by theindullry of his refcarch, has formed
a catalogue of the titles and places of above 440 different
MSS. of the whole, or of parts of the Hebrew Bible: a
number about three times as great as that of the Greek MSS.
of the New Teltament, which have been colktted at a vafl
expence, and collated with a truly laudable zeal. (See
Testavunt.) Of thefe MSS. 54 are preferved in the
Bodleian hbrarv at Oxford, and 13 in different colleges of
the univerfity ; 4 are repofited in the public libmry at Cam-
bridge, and 3 in different colleges ; 27 are found in the
Britiih Mufeum ; one in the Lambeth library ; and one
in the library of the Royal Society. The preceding
MSS., with 7 copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch, amount
to 1 10 copies, making 125 volumes. Other MS. copies
are prefei-ved at Alcala, or Coniplutum in Spain, Altorf
in Swabia, Amflerdam, Anhalt-Deffau, Augibiirg, Baden,

Vol. IV.

Berlin, Bemc, Bcfan^on, Bologna, Brieg in Sileda, Cain-
fong-fcu in China, Cairo in Egypt, Cefena in Italy, Copei-
hagen, Drefden, Erfurth, Florence, Furth in Franconia,
Hague, Hall, Hamburgh, Hanover, Heidelberg, Helmftadt,
HefieCaflcl, Hoba near Damafcus, leiia, Koningfberg,
Leipfic, Leyden, Lyons, Mechlin in Flanders, Milan, Mo-
dena, Nuremberg, Padua, Paris, Pckin, Rome, Schaff (.aufni
in SwifTcrland, Strafburgh, Toledo, Trevigio near Venice,
Turin, Venice, Vienna, Ulm in S.vabia, Upfal, Utrecht,
Wratiflaw, Zeibft in Saxony, and Zurich, Bcf:dcs thefe,
there are others at Fez in Africa, Theffalonic. in Greece,
and Conftantinople, Ethiopia, Malabar, and Couchin, at a
fmall diilancc fouth of Cranganore, where arc about 4000
Jews, who have a fynagogue, in which are carefully kept
their records, engraven on copper-plates, and where, it
is faid, they can fhcw their hiltory trom Nebuchadnezzar
to the prcfent time. See the fequel of this article.

The mofl ancient printed Hebrew Bibles arc thofe pub-
liflied by the Jews of Italy, efptcially of Pefaro ar.d Brcffe.
Thofe of Porti^gal, alfo, printed fome pans of the Bible at
Lifbon, before their expulfion. — ^This may be obferved ia
the general, that the bell Hebrew Bibles are thofe printed
under the infpeCtion of the Jews : there being fo many minu-
tiz to be obferved, that it is fcarcely pofiibic fcr any other
to fucceed in it.

The lirfl printed edition of the Hebrew Bible, or at leaft
of that part of it, comprehending the prior prophets, was
printed at Soncinum in i486, according to Le Long (Bib-
lioth. Sacra.) ; it contained alfo the poilerior prophets, ac-
cording to Wollius (Bib. Heb. ii. 397.) ; and it fetms to
have made a lirfl or a fecond part to the next we fhall men-
tion, or Dr. Pellet's, which isregularly the third. The edition
prefented by Dr. Pellet, in 1735, to the library of Eton
college, being that of a third part of the Hebrew Bible,
comprehending the Ccthubim or Hagiographa, was printed
at Naples in 1487. This whole edition was burnt by the
Jews, excepting this copy, which had the lingular good
fortune of efcaping the flames. It is printed on vellum, in
two folio volumes, and has many readings different from all
the other printed copies, and contrary to the Mafora, which
probably was one of the reafons for which the whole edition
was deftroyed. This edition is mentioned by Wolfius in his
" Bibhotheca Hebria," as formerly belonging to Schrasder
of Gluckfladt. The antiquity of this edition is argued from
its being printed on vellum, as was the cafe with the firll
printed books, and from its having variations in the text,
which are not found in any later edition. The fiHl edition
of the whole Hebrew Bible was printed at Soi.rinum ia
1488, and is mentioned by Le Lon;jr, who fays that it was
printed by Abrnliam, the fon of Rabbi Khaim, or Chaim.
Le Long and Wolfius affirm, that they faw an Hebrew
Bible in Svo. printed at Brefcia in 5454.

In the beginning of the i6th c^iiturj-, Dan. Bomberg
printed feveral Hebrew Bibles in folio and quarto, at Venice,
moll of which are elltemed both by the Jews and Clirilliar.s ;
the firll in 1518, (the dedication being dated in 15 17) which
is the leall exact, and generally goes by the name of Felix
Pratenfis, the pcrfon who reviitdit, and who, as Hody lays,
(p. 461.'! v.as "ex Jiidso Monachus." This edition contains
the Hebrew text, the targnm, and the commentaries of
feveral rabbins. It is not known from what particular
MSS. the Hebrew text of tliis edition was taken ; but it
agrees mofl with very late MSS. and fach as were corretled
according to the Mafora. The editor, in his dedication to
pope Leo, complains of the very corrupt Hate of the He-
brew MSS., and fpeaks of his having collated and correfted
(probably by means of the Mafora) many MSS, which were

R. r ufed

BIB

ufcd for this ci!ition. At the fame time that this edition of
the Hebrew B'ble was preparing at Venice, another edition
of e(iual fame was prepariT:g by cardinal Ximcncs, at Com-
p'utiim in Spain ; and as thcfe two capital editions were
thus in the prefs at once, neither of them could be p;intcd
from the other. But as they were both printed by men
who eitlier were, or had been Jews, (fee Woltius, torn. ii.
p. ;^^9.) from fuch MSS. as were uniformly correftcd by
the fame Mafoia, they would exhibit almoll univerfally the
f,\mc text. And that the Hebrew MSS. here nfed, had
fuffered this Maforetical calligation, is plain from the words
of Ximcnes in his dedication to pope Leo. This famous
Bible was begun in 1502, and finilhed in 1517; but not
pnblifhed till 1522, and not fold publicly, fays Michaelis,
(Left. New Tell. § 33.) till IJ24. In 1526 or 152S, the
fame Bomberg printed the folio Bible of the celebrated
Rabbi Jacob Ben Chaim, with his preface, the Maforetical
divifion?, a preface of Aben Ezra, a double Mafora, and
feveral various readings. No one who duly conliders the
preface of this editor (printed by Kennicot, Diff. vol. ii.
p. 2 29.) can poffibly doubt his having publiflied it, according
to the copies mod exaftly correAed by that Mafora, which
he profoundly reverenced. In 1549, was pnblifhed the
fecond edition of B. Chaim's Bible, with the famous pre-
face at the beginning ; and of this edition Le Long fays,
" pneftantiflima eft et omnium optima, juxta quam prsefer-
tim fequentes prodierunt." Wolfius gives it precifely the
fame charafter; but adds, that Conrade Zeltner blames
B. Chaim for being fo exceffively devoted to the Mafora.
Jn 1572, was publilhed the Royal, or Spanifh Polyglott, in
8 volumes, printed at Antwerp ; principally under the di-
reftion of Arias Montanus. It is not pretended, that the
leaft corrc£lion was made in this edition of the Hebrew text ;
nor could it be expefted from an editor who believed the per-
fection of the Hebrew text. The third edition of B. Chaim's
Bible was printed in 1618; it is the fame with the fecond, but
much more correcl. From the former editions it was, that
Buxtorf, the father, printed his rabbinical Hebrew Bible at
Bafil, in 1619 ; which, though there are many faults in it,
is more correft than any of the former. This was the fifth
edition of B. Chaim's Bible, in which the Hebrew text was
copied exaftly from B. Ciiaim's fecond edition. In 1534,
Sebaftian Munfter publilhed a Hebrew and Latin Bible, in
2 vols. fol. at Balil, with the commentaries of the Rabbins,
and fume notes ; and Elias Hutter printed a Hebrew Bible
in large letters, at Hamburgh, in 1587, fol. Robert Ste-
phens's Hebrew Bible, with the Greek verfion from the
Complutenfian edition, the I-atin vulgate, and another new
Latin verfion, commonly called Vatablus's Bible, was printed
in 154J. In 1623, appeared at Venice a new edition of the
rabbinical Bible, by Leo of Modena, a rabbin of that city,
who pretended to have correfted a great number of faults
in the former edition ; but, befides that it is much inferior
to the other Hebrew Bibles of Venice with regard to paper
and print, it has pafled through the hands of the inquifitors,
who have altered many paffages in the commentaries of the
rabbins. The rabbinical Bible of Bomberg and Buxtorf has
been fuperfeded by that of rabbi Mofes, pnblifhed at Amfter-
dam in 4 volumes folio, in 1724 — 1727. In 1641, was pub-
lilhed, in 10 folio volumes, the ParisPolyglott, which, though
it claims no merit from correfting the Hebrew text, will
ever be honoured by men of true learning, for containing
(befides the Syriac and Arabic verfions) the firfl edition ot
the Samaritan pentateuch and its verfion, printed from
MSS. brought into Europe between the years 1620 and
1630, and pubhfhed by the learned Morinus, to whom the
world is alfo indebted for many excellent remarks on the

B I B

Hebrew text, as well as on the Samaritan pentateuch. In
1657, was publiflied th.e London Polygl.itt, under tlie direc-
tion of the eminently learned Brian Valton, in vi-hich, how-
ever, the Hebrew text is printed Mc'.f iretically ; alr.oft in
an abfolute agreement with the many former editions, and
with the latell and worll MSS. Although the editor has
(hewn clearly, that the T^wifh tranfciib^'rs have made many
miftakes, and that the MSS. have ma! y true readings, where
the printed text is erroneou,-- ; ar.d though he ipeaks (Pro-
le". 4, 12.) of having fupplicd lome things which wore not
in the Venice or Baiil editions, yet the only lupplement which
he has made is reftoring the two verfes in Jofluia, which had
been arbitrarily expelled by Maforetic authority. See Poly-
glott.

As to Hebrew Bibles in 4to. that of R. Stephens, in 4
vols, Paris, 1539 — 1544, is ellcmed for the beauty of the
charafters ; but it is very incorred. Plantm alfo printed
feveral beautiful Hebrew Bibles at Antwerp : one in eight
columns, with a preface by Arius Montanus, in 1 57 I, which
far exceeds the Complutenfian in paper and print, and con-
tents ; this is called the Royal Bible, Bibl'u Regij, btcaufe
it was printed at the expence of Philip II. of Spain : ano-
ther at Geneva, in 1619 ; befides many more of different
fizes, with and without points. Manafl'eh Ben Ifi-ael,
a learned Portuguefe Jew, publiflied two editions of the
Hebrew Bible at Amfterdam ; the one in 410. in 1G35, who
tells us in the preface, that he had altered a few letters ; and
where the moft correfted copies differed, he took refuge in
grammar rules and the Mafora ; the other in Svo. in 1639 :
the firft has two columns, and for that rcafon is commodi-
ous for the reader. It is printed with points, in an elegant
tvpe, and has the Keri and Chetib in the margin. The
8vo. edition has vowel points and accents, and the marginal
notes. In 1639, R. Jac. Lombrofo publifhed a new edition
in 4to. at Venice, with fmall literal notes at the bottom of
each page, where he explains the Hebrew words by Spanifh
words. This Bible is much efteemed by the Jews at Con-
ilantinople : in the text they have dillinguilhed between
words where the point kamets is to be read with a kamets-
■tiiluph, that in, by 0, and not an a.

Of all the editions of the Hebrew Bible in Svo. the moft
beautiful and coned are the two of Jo. Athias, a Jew of
Amrterdam. The firft, of 16O1, is the beft paper, which,
notwithllanding its being correfted according to ancient
MSS. is certainly (fo far as letters and words are concerned)
agreeable only to thelateft, as the other printed copies were
before it : but that of 1667, is the moft exaft. This was
publifhed by Leufden, who tells the reader, " Tibi damus
Biblia, imprcifa per Athiam, quibus correftiora nunquam
fol afpexit." And yet, though the fun never faw fo much
implicit obedience paid to the Mafora before, the Rabbins
afTure us, in their prefatory recommendation, that fomc
whole words were here correfted " ex Mafora & a Mafore-
tieis, qui fepem legis fecerunt." This fupremely Maforeti-
cal edition appeared to their high mightintffcs the States-
general, fo particularly meritorious, that Athias, the typogra-
pher, was prefented with a chain of gold, and a gold medal
pendant. But it is fomewhat extraordinary, that a Jew
fhould thus be rewarded for an edition, in which Leufden
(though a Chriftian) confefTes, that he permitted the Latin
contents, here added in the margin, to explain away fome
of the prophecies relating to the Melliah. Le Long, in loc.

I.eufden's laft edition of Athias, was followed in 1705,
by Vander Hooght's very elegant edition. No correftions
can be expefted from this editor, who confidered every
letter in his book, hov.foeverit was introduced, as abfolutely
genuine, and maintained the Mafora to be infallible.

After

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B I B

After Athias, three Hebraizing proteftants engaged in
revifing and publifhing the Hebrew Bible ; viz. Clodiu?,
Jablonflci, and Opitius. — Clodius's edition ivas publiftied
at Frankfort in 1677, ■" 4-^°- ^' '^* bottom of the page
it has the various readings of the former editions ; but the
author does not appear fufficiently verfed in the accenting,
efpecially in the poetical books ; befides, as it was not pub-
lidied under his eye, many faults have crept in. That of
Daniel Erneft Jablonfl<i in 1699, '" 4'°- ^t Berlin, is very
beautiful as to letter and print : but, though the editor
pretends he made ufe of the editions of Athias and Clodius,
fome critics find it fcarcely in any thing different from the
4.to. edition of Bomberg. For this man of eminent learning
it was referved to lay the foundation for a reformation of
the printed Hebrew text. This he has done in the preface,
by making feveral excellent obfervations on the nature of
the prefcnt Hebrew MSS. ; with the proper marks of their

;„Livj^;:7, ::d the ^reat ^lv::.::j:; tc b: d.;v..d from them.

He has fatisfaclorily (liewn, that the Jewifh tranfcribers have
committed many millakes ; that the Keris are various reau-
ings arifing from the miftakes of tranfcribers ; that the
older MSS. have them in the text, but the later in the mar-
gin ; and confequently, that the Mafora, which confiders
the Keii as in the margin, mud be founded on the later
copies ; that one of the Hebrew MSS. at Berlin contains
fome thoufands of various readings, and that the other old
Hebrew MSS. have numerous differences from the printed
text ; and that thefe old MSS. have fuffercd many altera-
tions from the late correfting Maforets. He alfo ftates the
poflibility of procuring, by due zeal and exertion, very an-
cient MSS. from fuch of the Jews as have been fettled for
many ages in China, Ethiopia, Conilantinople, TiieiTalonica,
and other diftant parts of the world. Jablon(l<i is the fiift
author, who, after announcing the aftual exiftence of many
various readings in the Hebrew MSS., has recommended
both an accurate examination of thofe MSS, new known,
and a diligent fearch after others, at prefent unknown,
through the feveral quarters of the world. To him, there-
fore, belongs the honour of having planned the noble fcheme
for corre&ing the many corruptions of the printed Hebrew
text of the Old Tedament ; and yet not daring to praftife
v.-hat he recommends, he republilhed the Hebrew text al-
moft the fame as it was adjulled maforetically in Leufden's
edition of 1667. His corrections have been confined almoft
entirely to the vowel-points and accents. The edition of
Opitius was publidied in 410. at Kcil, in 1709 ; the charac-
ter is large and good, but the paper bad : it is done with
a great deal of care ; but the editor made ufe of no manu-
fcripts but thofe of the German libraries ; neglefting the
French ones, which is an omiffion common to all three,
Opitius copied irom Leufdr:n's Athia.s, though, he fuys, he
collated feveral MSS. in Berlin, and other places ; but he
idolized the Mafora, and held all readings incoufiftent with
it, however recommended by any MSS., in fovereign con-
temnt. Hence it follows, that if this edition was conform-
able to the late MSS, as regulated by the Mafora, the fame
Maforctic influence mufl have regulated the very early copy,
printed at Brefcia, in 1494 ; becaufe that edition is'recom-
mended by Opitius, Wolf. Beb. Heb. ii. p. 365. The
three lall mentioned editions have this advantage, however,
that befides the divifions uled by the Jews, b!)th general
and particular, into parajlcs and pefuhim, they have alfo
thofe of the Chriftians, or of the Latin Bibles, into chapters
and verfes ; the kcrt k^'tib, or various readings, Latin fumma-
ries, &c. which made them of confiderable ufe with refpecl
to the Latia editions, and the concordances. See Chap-
ters.

The little Bible of R, Stephens, in iCto. is very much
prized for the beauty of the charafter. It was printed in
7 vols, at Paris, in 1544 — 1546. Care, however, muft be
taken ; there being another edition of Geneva, exceedingly
like it excepting that the print is worfe, and the text lefs
correfl. To thefe may be added fome other Hebrew Bibles
without points, in 8vo. and 24to, which are much coveted
by the Jews ; not that they are more exaft, but more port-
able than the reft ; and are ufed in their fynagogues and
fchools : of thefe there are two beautiful editions, the one
of Plantin, in 8vo. with two columns, and the other in 2410.
reprinted by Raphalengius at Leyden, in 1610. There is
alfo an edition of them by Laurens at Amfterdam, in 163 i,
in a larger charafter ; and another in i2mo. at Frankfort,
in 1 694, full of faults, with a preface of M. Leufden at the
head of it.

In 1720, an Hebrew Bible was publifhed at Hall, by the
learned profeflbr John Henry Michaelii ; being the firft edi-
tion, which contained any variouj readings, coUefted from
Hebrew MSS, by a Chriftian editor. The text is taken
from Jabionfivi's edition, with fome few emendations. There
were collated for this Bible moft of the beft printed edi-
tions, and alfo five Hebrew MSS. belonging to the library
at Erfurth. The propriety of felefting various readings
from Hebrew MSS. and ancient vcrfions, is fet forth in the
preface ; and the editor has inferted here and there fome
variations of words and letters ; but the variations, chiefly
noted, relate to the minutis of criticitm, conlliling only in
points and aecents.

Charles Francis Houbigant, oiie of ilic fainers cf tnc
oratory at Paris, publifhed an elegant edition of the Hebrew
Bible at Paris, in 1753, contained in four volumes, folio.
The text is that of Vander Hooght, without points, to
which he has added marginal notes, correcting that text by the
Samaritan pentateuch, Hebrew MSS. and ancient verfions ;
and alfo a new Latin verfion, made by himfelf, exprefTive
of fuch a text as his critical emendations appeared to iuftify
and recommend. This celebrated edition, (fays Dr. Ivenni-
cott, than whom there could not be a more competent judge)
feems to proceed upon fo juft a plan, as to its main princi-
ples, and to be executed (in the general) with fo much (kill
and judgment, as to claim for its worthy author the applaufe
of all the friends of rehgion and learning. He exprefTes, how-
ever, a wifh, that the author had fpared fome ofhisboldercriti-
cifnio, when they are unfupported by MSS., parallel places,
or ancient verfions ; efpecially, where the propofed emenda-
tions are notclearly and ftrongly recomraendedby the context.
Some learned men have vvilhed, that, inftead of infertirg
only a few feleft various readings from the Hebrew MSS.,
all the various readings had been noted by the author after
each chapter. But the labour of fuch a work would have
been immenfe ; and we have great reafon to be fatisfitd with
what the learned and induftrious editor has attually done.
It has, indeed, been objeded by Dr. Hodges, in his preface
to the work entitled " The Chriilian Plan," that Houbi-
gant intended to alter the Hebrew text, to make it conform-
able to the Vulgate ; whereas, it was the editor's profefTed
intention to fet afide the Vulgate, as being faulty, and not
anfwering his purpofe, and to publilh a new Latin verfion
of his own. F. Houbigant obtained from the pope two
gold medals, in teflimony of his approbation of this edition.
Dr. Kennicott, after almoft twenty years' laborious collation
of 694 copies, manufcript and printed, of which about
630 are MSS. either of the whole, or of particular parts of the
Bible, and nine years more fpent in examining the H.:l.icw
MSS., and recommending a collation of thtm, publiihid,
in 1776, the firft volume of hi» Hebrew Bible, in folio ;

R r 2 entitled

B I B

entitled " Vttiis Te(\am«ntum Hebralcum, cum varils Lec-
tionibiis." The ftcond volume, with the general differta-
tion, was publilhed in 1780. The text is that of" Eyerard
Van der Hooght, in 1705, already mentioned, which is very
corre>ftiy printed, with the funilar Hebrew letters, remark-
ably (harp and well defined ; riilTerini^ from it only in the
difpofition of the poetical p;irts, which Dr. Kennieott has
printed in hcmillichs, into which they naturally divide them-
fclves ; however, the words follow one another in the lan.e
order as they do in the edition of Van der Hooght ; fo that
any perfon may read thefe paflages as profe, if he is fo in-
clined } or may divide the hcmillichs difl'ercntly, according
to his own judgment. This edition is printed on an ex-
cellent type ; the Samaritan text, according to the copy in
the London Polyglott, is exhibited in a column parallel
with tiie Hebrew text ; thofe parts of it oidy being intro-
duced, in whicli it differs from the Hebrew: and the reft
of the Samaritan column being left blank, fo that the eye
perceives at once, with tlie utmoft eafc, the variations of the
Hebrew and Samaritan texts. The numerous variations, both
of the Samaritan manufcripts from the printed copy of the
Samaritan text, and of the Hebrew manufcripts from the
printed text of Van der Hooght, arc placed feparately at
the bottom of the page, and marked with numbers referring
to the copies from which they are taken.

We fliall fubjoin to this articleabritf account of therife and
progrefs of that highly in terefting and meritorious undertaking,
for the completion of which we are indebted to the indefatiga-
ble indullry and perfeverance of the late Dr. Kennieott. A
very general opinion feemed to have prevailed among learned
men, till about the middle of the laft century, in favour of the
integrity of the Hebrew text : and Dr. Kennieott iugenu-
oufly conftfles, that he was mifled by the common error.
The Rabbins boldly afferted, and the Chrifliaus implicitly
believed, that the Hebrew text was free from error, and that
in all the M3S. of it, no inftance of any various reading of
importance could be produced. The firlt perfon, who feems
to have combated this notion in the way of a regular attack,
was Ludovicus Capellus. From the differences he obferved
between the Hebrew text and the verfion of the LXX, and
between the Hebrew pcutateucb and the Samaritan penta-
teucli, from the palpable and maniteil corruptions, which he
thought he faw in the text itfeif, and from the many reafons
which indi'.ced him to fuppofe that the vowel points and
the Mafora were both a modern and an uftlefs invention, he
was led to qiieftion the general integrity of the text ; and
his enemies allowed, that in his attack upon it, lie difcovered
much learning and ingenuity. Still, however, he acquicfced
and admitted the unitormity of the MSS. But the matter
was not brought to the tet^ of an aftual collation ot any
number of MSS. and verfions, and little was done, till Dr.
Keunicott's attention was dlreftcd in 1748, by the late
learned Dr. Lowth, bifhop of London, to an examination of
2 Sam. xxiii. 8. This circumftance convinced him of his
former error, and he vi'as ioon fatisfied that the Hebrew
text was far t'rom being perfeft, and that it was impoillble
to undcrdand this fingle verfe, without allowing that there
were in it four corruptions. Keunicott's expianati£)n of this
verfe having been approved by Dr. Lowth, he vv?ji requefted
to examine the fubfequent parts of the fame chapter ; which
was likewife performed, and the whole was publilhed in 1 753.
He proceeded to examine two parallel chapters in the lull
tiook of Cliror.icles, and the fecond book of Samuel, and
found an OT-riiilion in the former of no lefs than 3.J. ITcbrcw
words. Although fuch great corruptions were proved from
the printed lext itfeif, and from the anc'cnt verfions, yet it
had iiol at tliat time been fufpctlcd, that there were now

B I B

extant any Hebrew MSS. which would at all anill fn cor.
reding the faulty palTages of the Old Tcftamcnt. In the
feque', however, this was found to be aftually tlie cafe, for
Dr. Kennieott, on examining fomc of the Hebrew MSS,
in the Bodleian library, found that they contained, in the
chapters above cited, feveral of the readings which he had
recommended as genuine, before he had iiifpeAed thefe
MSS. A dilcovery fo important to facred literature being
tlius begun in 1753, and extended to 70 Hebrew and Sama-
ritan MSS. in Oxhjrd, it was foon much improved by con-
fulting a number of others at Cambridge, and in Loudon,
The inquiry was promoted by means ot a catalogue of all
the other Hebrew and Samaritan MSS. which were then
known to exift in dilfercnt parts of the worl:!, publifliej
bv Dr. Kennieott in 1760, in a fecond diflertatiou ou the
Hebrew text. In this work he endeavoured to produce a
general convittior, as to the certainty of the Hebrew printed
copies being much corrupted, and the great adiJuta.'.-*-:i*.
be derived trom MSS., by funufliing many various rcadingj,
oi confcquence, which are the true ones ; and by confirming
the ancient verfion in a multitude of inllances of little mo-
ment in themfelves, and therefore not likely to have origi-
nated from defign. It was alfo proved, that the Samaritan
Pentateuch was of great importance ; that its MSS. would
ferve to corredl a variety of typographical errors, which
difgraced the two printed editions ; and tha.t the Samaritan
copies were frequently confirmed even by the Hebrew MSS.
In confequence of thefe interelling difcoveries. Dr. Ken-
nieott was folicited by the late archbifliop Seeker, and many
other learned perfons, and by feveral focieties of literary men,,
particularly by the uiiiverlity of Oxford, to whofe counte-
nance andeucouragement the undertaking was recommended
by the late Dr. Hunt, profeffor of Hebrew and Arabic in
that uuiverfity, to undertake a collation of all the Hebrew
and Samaritan MSS. in our own country. Dilcouraged at
firll by the profpeft of fo arduous an undertaking, he at laft,
in 1760, CDnfeiited to engage in it. Of his progrcfs, and
the circumftances that attended it, we have a detailed account
in the " DifTertatio Geiieralis," publiflied with the fecond
volume of his Bible. Having propofed ten years as the
time which, he thought, would be necefTary for collating the
Hebrew and Samaritan MSi*-., he was enabled by his lingu-
lar afFiduity to fulfil his own ex Deflations and thofe of the
public. Patronir-ed by his Majeily, and by a great number
of liberal friends and weli-wifhers to the uudertakino-, both-
at home and in foreig.n countries, in the lilt of v\-hom are no
fewer than feven crowned heads, feveral princes, cardinals,,
archbilhopf, and bifliops, befides univerlities, publiclibrarics,
and many of the moil eminent literati in various parts of
Europe ; Dr. Kennieott inllituted various and cxtenfive in-
quiries after MSS. at Conllantinople, Warfaw, Venice,
Bologna, Mantua, Pavia, Genoa, Lilhc^n, Geneva, Utrecht,
Erfurt, Berlin, Stockholm, and Hamburgii. I'he numerous
Hebrew MSS. of the latter place were collated by the ceL--
brated Reimarus, who not only concuired in, but applauded
the undertaking. In the profeculion of this work, it was-
difcovered, that the printed editions oi the Hebrew Bible,
which had been fuppofed to agree, and on the agreement of
which the notion of the integrity of that text had been
founded, very much differed from one another; and particu-
larly,^ that the oli/j'/ editions agreed moll with the oldcft and
but MSS., and the mor/ern editions with the latefl and worit
MSS. As one proof of this, it i, aliedged, that the variations
in the firft edition (in I48i().fu)'n Vander Hooght (in 1705)
amount to twelve thoofand. In the year 1767, Dr. Ken-
nieott derived great advantage from his own examination o£
the Paris MSS., both Hebrew and ijamaritan, and from

Dr.

\

i

B I B

B I B

!Dr. Gill's collation of all the palTages quoted in tlie Talmud.
An Hebrew MS., which once belonged to a fynagogue at
[erufalem, was at this time piirchafed by his Britannic ma-
iefty ; and our au-thor himfelf, lioping to obtain other trea^
fures from the Ealt, fent to Canton, and had nearly fuc-
ceedtd in procjring a MS. from the Jews at Cai-fong-fu, in
the province of Honan. But though he failed in China,
lie fucceeded i''-i America^and procured a complete Hebrew
MS. from a Jew at New York. During the tenth and iaft
year of this collation, eight Danifh MSS. w-.re fent to Ox-
ford for the author's own examination, as were alfo fix others
from Toledo, by Dr. Bayer. Collations of other MSS.
were furnilhed, at the fame time, from Silefia, Cologne,
Strafburg, Kcnigfburgh, Upfal, Lcyden, and Ireland. The
indefatigable author, having thus collected materials for his
noble undertaking, an undertaking no Icfs honourable to
his country than to himfelf, proceeded to digell the varia-
tions, with which he was furnilhed, under their feveral
books, chapters, and verfes. During this operation, he
formed a plan for a more complete fcrutiny of the btft MSS.
through Europe, by fending fome wcll-qualitied perfon to
re-examine the MSS. already collated, and to examine the
rift in p«5FajfO" of ^rtrrrcr inoment, and where fuccefs fcemed
at all probable. Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Bruns, a learned
German, was felefted for this embaffy ; and he was honoured
with letters from the fecretaries of Itate here, to all our foreign
ambalfadois, as well as from th-- rulers of the two fyna-
gogues in London. Tiie places in which he thus examined
MSS., during a tour of three years, were Paris, Louvain,
Cologne, Mentz, Worms, Manheim, Nuremburgh, Augf-
burgh, Stutgard, Carlfruhe, Straiburgh, Bafle, Zuric, Berne,
Geneva, Turin, Catale, VeruUi, Milan, Genua, Leghorn,
Sienna, Rome, Florence, Bologna, Cefena, Modena, Reggio,
Parma, Mantua, Padua, Venice, Udinc, Goritia, Gradifca,
Triefte, Vienna, Drtfden, Leipiic, Erfurt, Jena, Deflau,
Berlin, Hamburgli, Helmftadt, CafTcl, .'\mllerdam, Utrecht,
Leyden, and the Hague.

The variations contained in nearly 700 bundles of papers,
being at lall digellcd, including the eollettions made by
Dr. Bruns ; and the whole, when put together, being cor-
refted by the original collations, and then fairly tranfcribtd
into 30 folio volumes, the work was put to the prefs in 1773 ;
and botli volumes (as ve have already laid), with the geae-
ral diflertation, were iiiiillied in July 1780.

In order to evince the neceffity as well as the utility of this
work. Dr. Kennicott has prefcnted us with a furprihng de-
tail of teftlmonies, which exhibit the opinions both of the
Jews and Chriflians, as to the Hebrew text, from the earlieil
times down to the prefent. The Jewiflj tclHmonies are ar-
ranged under five dilUnft periods, viz. from the time of
Malachi, about 420 years liefore the birth of Chrill, to the
commencement of the Chrillian sra ; from Chrill to the year
500 after Chrift ; from the year 500 after Clirift to the year
1000; from this year to the invention of printing, about
1450 ; and from the invention of printing to the year i 780-
The firft Jewifh tellimonics arc thofe of Jofephus and Philo,
who fpeak of the Greek verfion as perfeftly agreeing with
the Hebrew text in their time ; whereas Dr. Kennicott
afferts the corruption of the Hebrew text before the time of
thefe Jews, and alfo the vei-y great importance of the Greek
verfion. For the Pentateuch of this verfion being made
about 280 years before Chrift, and the other books being
alfo tranflated into Greek about 100 years before Chrift (as
is inferred from the prologue to Ecclefiafticus), this verfion
mull have had many true readings, where the Hebrew was
afterwards corrupted. Although in Pf. xvi. ic. the word
for " thy holy one," which is now plural in the text of

every copy exprefTed maforetically, yet in the Greek verfion
it is fingular, which is the cafe in no lefs than 180 copies,
agrecablv to the quotations of St. Peter and St. Paul. And
becaule the argument of thefe apoftles urged upon the Jews,
jull after the refurrcction of Chrift, depends on this word's
being truly fingular. Dr. Kennicott confiders this various
reading as of greater moment than any other which was ever
drawn forth from MSS. He obfcrves, that as the Greek
verfion thus h .'ps to prove the Hebrew text corrupted when
it (/i/prs from it, fo where the Hebrew text is corrupted,
and that verfion agrees, it provt-s the corruption to be older
tlian tlie verfion, unlefs the verfion lias fince been aliimilated
to the Hebrew. Such very early corruptions occur, as he
conceives, in Dent. x. 6. Gtn. xi. 32. and Gen. xxxvi.
31, — 43. The third inftance contains 13 verfes, which, not
being written by Mofes, were probably inierted from I Chro-
nicles,!.43 — 54- ni fome MS. of Gentlis, into the margin, and
thence taken into the text. This interpolation is fo old as to
be found in all the vcrfions, and iikewile in the Samaritan text.
In the firlt inftance, many words are omitted in the Hebrew
text, and in all the verfions, which are prtferved only in the
Samaritan text. In the fccond inftance, the number 145
is corrupted into 205 in the Hebrew text, and in all the
verfions, and it is right only in the Samaritan text. Dr.
Kennicott afterwards fpecifies two great corruptions : one,
where the Greek verfion has been afhinilated to the Hebrew,
by addition ; and another, in which the Syriac verfion has
been thus accommodated, by change. The firft relates to
20 verfes, probably interpolated in i Sam. xvii. ; and the
fecond, to the word for lody altered to the word for ears,
in Pfalm xl. 7. ; on which word, body, the argument is
grounded, in the icth chapter of the epiftle to the Hebrews:
and a very old Syriac MS. in the royal library of Paris,
tranflated i '^■n the Hebrew, has preferved the true word
for body ; and another has proved, that the Jews have al-
tered their ancient copies, wilfully, from the Hebrew text
and Greek verfion of Ifaiah, xix. 18, refpefling the temple
at Hehopolis ; and alfo from their turning Moles into Ma-
nafFcs, in Judges xviii. 30. Many other inftances occur in-
the period now under confideration.

In the interval between the birth of our Saviour and the
year 500, Dr. Kennicott remarks, that though the prefent
Mafora feparates our tenth commandment into two, agree*
able to the divifion now made by the Roman Catholics ; yet
the unity of this commandmtnt, as made by Proteilants, is
exprefcly confirmed by Philo and Jofephus ; and the Ma-
forctic mark of feparation (at Exodus xx. 17.) isabfent from.
at leaft 234 Hebrew copies Jofephus is farther cited, as
confirming the ancient chronology in the Greek verfion
againft that now in the Hebrew text ; and likewife, as hav-
ing a number much more credible as to the gold and filver
left by David. The fame hifiorian alfo confirms^ the read,
ing in the epiftle to the Hebrews, chap. vii. 4. from Genefis
xiv. 20. He confirms, too, the Syriac verfion, and the
edition of Sixtns, reading four in 2 Sam. xv. 7., and the
Vatican MS. reading four in i Sam. xvii. 4. And though
the later Jews have taken Daniel out of their prophetical
books, yet Jofephus calls him a prophet, in the ftrongeft.
terms. It appears further under this period, that the He-
brew MSS. differed at the time of the compofition of the
Talmud ; and that fome of the true readings may ftill be
found in this work. This faft is confirmed by feveral in-
ftances, and particularly by Pfalm xvi.

Under the third period Dr. Kennicott coufiders the fubjeft
of the Ker't, which fee. This period alfo includes acoUeiition
of 216 variations between the oriental and occidental MSS,
Proofs of differences are likewife deduced from the old Jewiih

books,

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B I B

I

books. Rabbotli, PirkeElic7.fr, and Cozr. Saadlas, who again 'renewed in 1635 by ManalTeh Ben 'Ifrael. Thefe

floiiriftied about the year 1000, is alfo referred to as having read
diftereiitly from the' printed text ; and Hai, about the fame
period, is (hewn to have followed thofe MSS., which were
defeftive in Jodiua, chap, x.ti., where two whole verfcs, ab-
lolutely necelTarv, thougli expelled by the Mafora, have
been found in 149 Hebrew oopies. At the end of this pe-
riod, Dr, Kennicott introduces the Arabic verlion, generally
alcribed to R. Saadias, which has hitherto been reputed
0:dy ftcondary, as if it liad been always taken from the
Greek a!l,the Syriac ; whereas, it is honoured with the title
of a primLy verlion in feveral places ; becaufe it is found to
ai?ret with the Hebrew MSS. where both Greek and Syriac
dilfer from it. Tliis Arabic verfion has fome very impor-
tant readings, particularly in preferving that word which
exprtfles the caufe of God's anger agaiiift Balaam, Numb,
xxii. 2 J. It is alfo important where it is only fecondary ;
becaufo it helps to determine the true reading of the Greek
veriion, where the Greek MSS. are now at variance ; as in
Pfalm xviii. 14. Ixvii'. 9. Micah v. i. and 2cchariah xiii. -.
To the clofe of this period, Dr. Kennicott refers the two
oldcll and bed Hebrew MSS. now extant, one at Oxford,
and the other at Vienna. Of the Bodleian MS., fuppofed
to be 800 years old, he obferves, that it contains about
14,000 variations In the pentatcuch of this MS. the Greek
verfion is confirmed by 109 various readings ; the Syriac,
by 98 ; the Ara'jic, by 82 ; the Vulgate, by 88 ; and the
Chaldee paiaphrafe, by 42. It alfo agrees with the Samari-
tan test, agair.ll the Hebrew, in 700 inltances. This, it
is added, is the only one which has preferved a word of great
importance for underftanding, 2 Sam. xxiii. 3, — 7. ; which
word is confirmed by the Greek verfion, and recovers to us
a prophecy of the Meffiah.

The fourth period, from 1 000 to 1450, is introduced
with an obfervation, that the oldeft Hebrew MS. which has
a certain date (1106), though containing only 9120 verfes,
has above 6coo variations. Tlie teftimonies of Aben-Ezra,
Jarchi, Maimonides, and Kimchi, who all flourilhcd be-
tween I [50 and 1250, belong to this period. After taking
notice of feveral true readings preferved by thefe four Rab-
bies. Dr. Kennicott introduces Meir Hallevi, who died in
1244, with his pathetic lamentation over the many varia-
tions in the Htbrew MSS.

Under the fifth and lall period, from 1450 to 17S0, in-
cluding the printed Hebrew text, Dr. Kennicott takes par-
ticular notice of the five firil editions of different parts, and
of the firft edition of the whole together. He adds, that
the Pfalms, as firll printed in 1477, contain about 600 va-
riations ; and that the Hebrew Bible, as firft printed in
14S8, contains above 12,000. Thefe, and fome other very
early editions, agree with the older MSS. much more than
the editions after the year 1500, but ftill more than that by
Jacob Ben Cliaim, in 1526, which has been in general the
llandard down to tiie prefent time. About the year 1500,
began the fuperftitious regard for the Mafora ; and fuch
MSS. as had been maforeticatly conefted, were preferred
for tlie editions of Cardinal Ximenes and Felix Pratcnfis.
But the Mafora being highly venerated by Ben Chaim, he
chofe for his text fuch MSS. as had the Mafora moft per-
feft ; which MSS. were the latefl and the worft : and yet,
unfortunately, tiiis text became the general ftandaid fcr the
Antwerp, Paris, and London Polyglotts, as well as for other
editions of lefs note afterwards. The Jews have not, how-

tellimonies are concluded with the Mantuan edition, called
Minchath Shai, in which are about 20CO various readings,
collected from MSS. and early editions, by Solomon Me-
norzi, in the laft century : 'but it was not printed till 1744-
So that, at the time when Chriftians were generally infilling
on the perfection of the Hebrew text, the Jews were la-
bouring to correA it, and lamenting its great imperfeflion
in the following terms: " Quis reftituet decus ? Quis ejiciet
raphanos et Ipinas ? Horror confredit me : quum viderem
multitudinem variantium, quae ceciderunt in libros ! Editores
eunt oblcurati, neque ijx eil cis ; neque eft qui quacrit cefla-
tionem hujus diverfitatis ! Ecce nos p.'.'pantes tanquam cscci,
in obfcuritate diverfitatum 1 Deusauteiat tenebras noftras !"
On examining the teftimonies of Chriftian writers with
regard to the ftate of the Hebrew text. Dr. Kennicott be-
gins with the Evangehfts and Apoftles ; and here he adverts
to the q'lotations made in the New Teftameiit from the Old:
on which fubjeft, fee Quotation. It appears, by unquef-
tionable evidence, that the Old T':itament ha> been cor-
rupted, in many inl^.mces ; and that a juft coireftion of the
Hebrew text, grounded on the authorities of Hebrew MSS.,
the Samaritan pentateuch, and the ancient verlions, vn\l, in
many places, reftore to the Old Tellament that harmony
with the New which it has long wanted. Inftances occur
in Gen. ii. 24. : Pfalm xvi. xxxiv. 22. compared with Juhn
xix. 36, 37, and xl. compared with Hubrews x. ; Jeremiah
xxxi. compared with Hebrews viii. ; Amos i>:. compared
with Adls XV. : Ifaiah vii. 14. hii. Plalm Ixviii. 19. Hof.
xiii. 14. Amos v. 26. Dent, xxxii. y. and Habakkuk ii. 4.
Many arguments are adduced by Dr. Kennicntt to (hew,
that the Jews have corrupted the chronology, from the crea-
tion to Abraham, either by fubtrafting or by adding 1300
years ; and this great corruption is not in the Greek ver-
fion, but in the Hebrew text ; and that it was introduced in
the fecoud century. As it was a very ancient tradition, that
the Mefliah was to come in the fixth chihad, becaufe he was
to come in " the laft days," (founded on a myllical apphca-
tion of the fix days' creation), it was contrived to ftiorten
the age of the world from about 5500 to 376c, and thence
to prove that Jefus could not be the Meffiah, becaufe at the
a»ra of his birth the time for the advent of the Meffiah was
not yet come. The time of this grand corruption is fhewn
to have between the years 175 and 200. The old Italic
verfion, made from the Greek about the year 100, is ad-
duced to confirm fome ancient readings of the Greek ver-
fion, particularly as to the more extended chronology.
Dr. Kennicott, after various pertinent quotations from Ig-
natius, Juftin Martyr, and Irenseus, refers more particularly
to TertuUian, witli a view of proving that, in his time, the
palTage in Ifaiah llii. 4. exprelfed the fcnfe afcribed to it in
the 8th chapter of St. Matthew, where the Evangclift quotes
it as foretelling, that " the Meffiah lliould heal bodily di-
feafes." The Hebrew words, it is (hewn, admit this fenfe :
TertuUian fo expreffes them ; and fo did the old Greek
verfion, which has been ftrangely altered in this place,
out of oppofition to the gofpel. Origen is cited, as afford-
ing many iuterefting particulars, with regard to the dif-
ferences in the Hebrew copies, and the true readings of the
Greek verfions ; and Eufebius, Theophilus Antiochenus,
Ephraim Syrus, Jerom, Epiphanius, Auguftin, and Sul-
picius Severus, are quoted to the fame pui-pofe. The
firft period of the Chriftian writers terminates with the

ever, been fatisfied with the correftnefs of Chaim's edition, oldeft MSS. of the Greek verfion, particularly the Vati-
For Rabbi Lonzano was afterwards encouraged to vifit can and Alexandrian MSS. written about the year 400,
many countries, and to collate ten MSS. in order to render which fee. Dr. Kennicott proceeds to the period that e-
thc text more perfedt ; and yet this complaint of errors was lapfed between the years 500 and 1000, and avails himfelf

of

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of the Syriac verfions (fee Syriac) for introducing fome
ufeful obfervations on feveral pafiages, particularly Pfalm xl.
6, 7, 9, and 2 Kings viii. 16. ; in which lall paflage three
ivords are now inttrpolatcd in the Hebrew text, which,
though they are alfo tound in the Vatican and Alexandrian
MSS., are not in the Complutenfian and Aldine editions; nor
are they in an ancient MS. of Kings, nor in fome of the
bcft MSS. and earliell editions of the Vulgate. See Vul-
gate. From the year loco to 1450, the teftimonics of
Chritiians are ver)- few. Yet foon after the Jews fled from
tlie Eail into Europe, in 1040, the Hebrew language was
ftudied by feveral Chriftians, particularly by Lanfranc and
Anfelm, Grofthead and Roger Bacon ; and this lad learned
man, with his Franciiean brethren at Oxford, bought many
Hebrew MSS. when the Jews were expelled from England
in 1289. In the 13th centur\-, Raymund Martini accufed
the Jews of corrupting the Hebrew text ; and he fpeaks of
MSS. dilTering in Zech. xii. 10., with refpefk to which
Dr. Kennicott obferves, that forty copies have here the
reading expreffcd in John xix. ^7. Dr Kennicott alfo cites
Nic. Lyranus, Radulphus Armachanus, Tollatus, Perez de
Valentia, and Marfilius Ficinus.

Under the lad period, from 1450 to 1780, Zuinglius
takes the lead ; and he extols the Greek verfion, and re-
marks the corrupt addition of Jer. chap. lii. Luther is alfo
mentioned ; and Bibliander is celebrated on account of his
excellent criticifm on Ezekiel xiii. 21. As it is very im-
probable that the news of the capture of Jerufalem fhould
be nearly eighteen months in reaching Babylon, it will be
fatisfaftory to know, on the authority of the Syriac verfion
and eight Hebrew MSS., that this period was not more
than fix months. Ha\nng defcribed the editions of Sixtus and
Clement, Dr. Kennicott obferves, that the prefent Englilh
verfion frequently expreffes, not what the tranflators found in
their Hebrew text, but what they tiiought (hould have been
there ; and that the 14th pfalm, inferted in the liturgy of
the Church of England, contains three verfes not found at
prefent in the Hebrew text of that pfalm, but which are
probably genuine. We have already mentioned Capellus's
opinion on this fubjccl ; and yet, though he proved the
corruDtion of the Hebrew text by every argument, except
that of MSS., Buxtorf, the fon, following his father, who
afiertcd the abfolute agreement of all the ancient MSS., af-
firmed that no Hebrew MS. in the world contained any
various reading wiiich agreed with either of the ancient ver-
fjons. It is needlefs to recite the opinions of Mede, Mori-
uus, Beveridge, Walton, Hammond, Bochart, Huetius,
Pocock, Le Clerc, &c. on this fubjecl. We fliall here
only obferve, with Dr. Kennicott, that Jablonfl<i was the
firft editor of an Hebrew bible who fpoke of any Hebrew
MSS. ; and he names four, by the help of which he made
a few correftions. Neverthclefs, he omitted the two necef-
fary verfes in Jofhua, chap. 21., though Dr. Kennicott has
ellablifhed them, in confcquence of the examination of 149
copies. Opitius declares that he, in his edition, obeyed tlie
Mafora, in defiance of all the MSS. and editions of the
world united. Vitringa has fhewn, according to Dr. Ken-
nicott, how a miilake m one MS. may afterwards have been
introduced into many, from the praftice of corredling many
MSS. by one as their ftandard. The conjeftural emenda-
tion made by this eminent biblical critic, in 2 Chron. xxvi.
r., is confirmed by fifty copies ; and his reading of Ifaiah
xix. 18. is eftablifhed by the Talmud and fixteen Hebrew
copies. J. H. Michaehs, although he p ■bliflied fome va-
nous readings, omitted many variations of great moment,
probably from an undue deference to the advocates of the
integrity of the Hebrew text. Among thele advocates we.

may reckon Wolfiu?, who maintained that midakes might
exill in fome MS. copies, but not in all ; becaufe fome one
MS., or fome one edition, always had the true reading.
Carpzovius contended, that the Hebrew ti.xt has defcended
to us in the fame ftate of purity in v.hich it was firft found ;
not indeed in all the copivt, but in thofe of the better fort ;
nor in thefe feparately, but in luch altogether : and he
thought it needlels to collccl thefe from every quarter of
the world, becaufe, in his opinion, thofc which are near at
hand will be fufficicnt : a conceffion which abolidies his
former doftrine. 'l"he learned Halict, in his Notes on the
Holy Scriptures, publifhed in 1729, alledges; as a reafon
why the quotations in the New Ttllament differ from thofe
of the Old, that the Hebrew copies have been altered fince
the days of the apoftles. Bidiop Hare, with whofe tefti-
monies Dr. Kennicott concludes his catalogue of Chriftian
writers, contends earneftly for admitting the corruption of the
Hebrew text. He rejcfts the titles of many of the pfalms,,
as not given by the authors of thefe pfalms. He condemns
the praflice of varnilhing over, inftead of correcting, the
corrupted readings ; and he laments that Hebrew MSS., the
chief fupport of criticifm, were wanting.

Dr. Kennicott clofes his account of his laudable under-
taking, with evincing the great ufe to be derived from the
Hebrew MSS. and ancient verfions, for amending the
printed Hebrew text ; and with exhorting perfons in power
to render fuch correftions fubfervient to the public good,
by procuring a more correft and a more intelUgible Englifii
tranflation, or rather a revifal of the prefent Englifh tranf-
lation of the Old Tcftament. Thefe MSS., he fays»
ftrongly confirm the ar.cient verfions, and enable us to
afcend to the times of Jerom, of the Apoftles, and even o£
Ptolemy Philadclphus : and he adds, it now remains to be
feen in what kingdom or country, through Europe, will be
manifefted the greater zeal, for correfting the modem tranl^
lations of the Old Teftament.

The work of which, for the gratification of our readers,
and with a view of recording and tranfmitting the honour
of our country, where it was undertaken, and of the age in
which we five, we have given a copious account, will ap-
pear in its pre-eminent importance and utility, whenever it
(hall be apphed to the defirable purpofe of aiding a public
and authoritative new tranfiation of the Bible, or, at leaft^
an effeftual revifion of the common verfion. In the tranf-
lation of particular books of Scripture, by Bifliops Lowtlv
and Newcome, and by others of inferior rank in the church,
&c. we obferve the advantage refulting from Dr. Kenni-
cott's labours ; but their full benefit can only be enjoyed,
when the tranflation is complete, and authoritatively intro-
duced into common ufe. It has contributed eminently to
the honour of the king of Sweden, that he has been the
firft prince in Europe who has ilfued his royal commands
for executing a purpofe of this kind : and Dr. Kennicott
thinks, it would be criminal to fappofe that Great Britain,
which has enjoyed fuch diftinguifhcd bleflings of Providence^
will be backward in fo pious a defign. No perfons, what-
ever be their rank either in the church or ftate, can more
laudably teftify their veneration for the Holy Scriptures,
and their concern for the information and benefit of the
world, than by adopting and accomplifhing a meafure of
this kind. It would ferve alfo to obviate many objedions
againll the taith and authority of divine revelation. It has
been urged by Lord Bolingbroke, and by other writers on
the fide of fcepticifm or infidelity, " that if the Scriptures
had been from God, they would always have been preferved
in their primitive purity." In oppofition to fuggeftions of
this kind, Dr. Kenuicott Ihews, that neither the wifdom nor.

the

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thi goo'.Incfs of the Supreme Being can b< jutlly impeacUcd,
from the f\ippolitii)n tliat many errors have crept into the
prefent text ; bccaiife the nioil important matters are llill
fecure and certain, and men have always been able to de-
rive from the Bible a rule both of faith and praftice. For
the ilhidration of this p<jlltion, he appeals to the ancient
churches, both Greek and Italian, and the modern churches
of both I'roteft'.nti and Roman Catholics; flnce, among;tl
all thefe, their facred books tau^jht them " «Uattl'.ey mud
do to be faved ;" though they contained many errors, f.'ie
torrcttion of which was very dcfirable. Indeed, the inte-
grity of the facred books could not have been prcferved
without a '• miracle," perp:lual as to time and univerfal as
to place, which wciUl confequently be a greater miracle
than any in the Biblej neverthelefs, as many corruptions,
in tranfcripts made from tranfcripts, ever fince the year 400
before Clirill, were unavoidable, it is happy that fevcral
verfions, made 1 500 or 2000 years r.^o, will corrcA fome
of thefe corruptions ; and that the Hebrew MSS. llill ex-
tant, will correcl others. Upon the whole, it is of great
importance, that the effeft of thefe oorreflions ihould appear
in its whole extent, and asfpeedily as poflible, not only to
Chrirtians in particular, but to the world in ^encrr.l.

The learned Dr. J.(hn Bernard Roffi, profefl'or of divinity
and the oriental languages in the Royal Academy of Parma,
undertook to make a collection of the various readings of
the Old Ttllamcnt, in imitation of that of Oxford -, and for
this purpofe he examined, by himfelf, or his friends, 1 470
MSS. or printed copies. Of foreign MSS. 210, which had
"been omitted by Dr. Kennicott, were collated in the moll
important paffjges ; and of ancient editions, either in his
own poffefnon, or to which he had accels, the number a-
mountcd to 2SS, of which 230 are fuch as had not been
collated by Dr. Kennicott. M. de Rofll announced his de-
fign in a traft, entitl.d, " Apparatus Hebrxo-Biblicus,"
and piiblirtied at Parma in 1782, 8vo. ; and he propofed to
comprize the relult of his labours in 4 vols. 410. The firil
volume was publilhed at Parma in 1784, under the title of
" Varix Lediones Veteris Teftamenti, &c." or the various
readings -of the Old Tcllament, drawn from an immenfe
number of MSS. and printed editions, compared with the
Samaritan text and the ancient verfions, and examined and
appreciated by the mod accurate rules and principles of
' facred criticifm. This volume contains the '• Prolegomena,"
and a clavis of the books of Gentfis, Exodus, and Leviticus-
In the introduftion we have fcveral curious critical difcuflions,
from which we learn that this coUetlion afcertains, as Dr. Ken-
nicott's valuable and judicious labours had before done, inftead
of invalidating, the integrity of the facred text in matters of
the greatell importance ; as all the MSS. notwithllanding the
divcrfity of their dates, and of the jilaces where tliey were
tranfcribed, agree with refpe"l to that which conilitutes the
proper etTence and fubllance of divine revelation, namely,
its dodrines, moral precepts, and hillorical relations. M.
Rofli charges the variations not merely on the copyids, but
on the ignorance and temerity of the critics, who have, in
all ages, been too ambitions of diftating to their authors,
and who, inftead of correcting tlie pretended en-ors of others,
frequently fubftitute in their place real errijrs of their own.
This author is of opinion, that the common reading of an
ancient text ought never to be changed but bv the authority
of MSS. ; and if there be any exceptions to this general
rule, they are very rare : and the conjeftural alterations of
critics fhould be thrown into the notes. M. Rofll, how-
ever, obfcrves, that we muft not confound the alterations
introduced into the facred text by the injuries of time, the
negligence of tranfcribers, or the boldnefis of critics, with

3 *

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thofe which have been made by public authoiity. TIic
facred writers of ancient times left, as he fays, their records
to other writers, who wcKe often their difciples, as alfo to
pviblic fcribes, and to magiftrates, who revifed them. In
this revifion, whicl; was ext-cuted either by facred authors,
or by the public authority of the fynagogue, corrections
and JCtven.chments were made, wiure th.v were judged ne-
cefTary, 'This, M. de Roffi thinks, appears evident from
^the prcfent ftatc of the facred writings ; and in co;)firmatioa
of his opinion, he quotes the Syriac Interpreter, who, in a
note placed at the end of the peutateuch, fays, that this
work was compofed by Mofes, but was afterwar.ls digelled
and finid-ied by Jufhua. He alio conjectures, that Mofes
him.felf made ufe of ancient records, both in his hiftory of
the creation, and in th-it of the deluge. He think? that the
frequent repetitions and anachronifuis, which are difceruible
in t!ie book of Genefis, ouglit rath.er to be attributed to a
writer anterior to Mofes, than to fcribes in aiter-times ;
or to the eonfufion of the ancient records then.lelves, as
fome have imagined. This opinion was propofed and main-
tained with lingular ingenuity and erudition, before the
time of Rofli, in a French work piibl.lhed at Bruflels in
175'^, and entitled, " Conjectures concerning the original
memoirs, which Mofer. appears to ha^c made ufe of m
compoling the book of Geiielis, together with remarks de-
figned to confirm or iilultrate the feveral conitfturcs."
The revifion, fays Rofll, which Ezra made of the facred
writings, with the affillance of MSS. and according to the
rules of criticifm, both on his own authority as a facred
writer, and that of the council of which he was a member,
did not annul the MSS. that were anterior to liis time,
either in the hands of the Samaritans, or in thofe of the
Jews, from which thofe of the Cuthites or Samaritans had
been taken, or in the hands of the Egyptians, or in thofe
of the Babylonian Jews, who did not return to the holy
land. The edition of Ezra remained entire till the dellruc-
tion of Jeriilalem ; but it underwent feveral alterations be-
fore the time of the Maforites, whofc critical labours or at-
tempts, with a view of fecuring the facred code againib
future injuries, are well known. Yet, notvi-ithftanding thefe
attempts and labours, fome faults, which were anterior to
their time, llill remained ; and others, though of little con-
fcqiience, afterwards crept into the facred text. The only
fourccs from which we can derive warrantable correftions
of thefe faults are, according to this author, the MSS., the
ancient editions, the Samaritan text, the ancient verfions,
Uie parallel places, the analogy of llie text or of the hillory,
the tellimonies of ancient writers, critical conjedlnres, ar.d
the Malora, which De Rofll treats with more relpeft than
Dr. Kennicott, of whom he complanis on that account.
He fubioins many learned and judicious obfervations on the
various fources, from which materials are to be derived for
the neccflary corrections. As to the MSS. he lays down rules
for afcertaining their age, of which tlie moH obvious is the
date ; and in order to undcritand their dates, he takes notice
of the various methods of computing time employed bv the
Jews, and the different xras from which they reckon.
When the dates are wanting, it becomes difficult to afcer-
tain the time of a MS., if it be anterior to the thirteenth
century. Thofe which are anterior to the twelfth ce.tury
are very rare ; and the author minutely indicates the marks
that dillinguiili them. The rarity of the ancient Hebrew
MSS. has bten occafioned by the Jewifh cullom of depofit-
ing their books and phylacteries in public places, from
whence, to make place for others, they have been taken and
buried in wells, or under ground, where they foon rot.
Tliofe ot a very remote antiquity, which arc no longer ex-
tant,

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tnnt, are often reftored, in pirtj bv copies which ftil! fub-
filL Witli regard to ancient editions, De Rofli diftin-
guidies th;! Maforetic from thofe editionj without the Ma-
I'ora, which are anterior to the year 1525, whtn the rab-
binical Bible of Jacob Ben Chaim was publilhed. Of 242
which he has collefted, he reckons 30 which beior^ to the
fifteenth centuiy, and above 60 which are anterior to the
firll Maforttic Bible. The ancient verlions enumerated by
the author are the Greek, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, and Per-
fian ; and annong thefe, the Greek ver^iijn of the Penta-
teuch, yet unpublilhed, which is in the library of St. Mark
at Venice, and which he fuppofes to have be -n icade in the
twelftii or thirteenth century, by an HcUer.ilV, from the
Hebrew of Ezra C" of Paleiline ; and not as the Septuagint,
from the Egyptian or Ilraelitifh text. The differences that
are found in thefe verfions muft not be confidcred as various
readings ; fince manj^ of thefe diverfities are to be attri-
buted, fays De Roffi, to the tranflators themfelves, who
have fometimcs taken great liberties with the original text,
by altering it in their verfions. For other particulars, we
refer the learned reader to the work itftlf. The fecond
volume was publifhed at Parma, in 1 785, and contains the
books of Numbers, Deuteronomy, Jofhua, Judges, Samuel,
and Kings. The third comprehends Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Eze-
kiel, the twelve IcfTer prophets, with the Song of Solomon,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclcfiaftcs, and Efther. And in the
fourth, or laft, are the Pfalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Chronicles. ParniK, 17S6. The high price
of Kennicott's and De Rofli's very valuable works, induced
M. Breitkopf to employ Dr. Doederlein and Profeflbr
MeifTner, to collect the moll interefting various readings
from the above works, and to print them under the text of
his new edition of Reineccius's bible, printed at Leiplic in
1725, and again in 1739, under the title of '■ Bibha He-
braica, olim a Chriftiano Reineccio edita, nunc denuo, cum
viriis Icctionibus, ex ingenti codicum copia, a B. Kenni-
cotto & J. B. de Roffi collatonim," Lipfis, 8vo, 1793.

Bibles, Greek. The moft ancient Greek verfion is the
Septuagint : for an account of which, the manner in which
it was found, the collation of its MSS., and other circum-
ftances relating to it, fee Septuagint ; fee alfo Alex-
andrian, and Vatican. The number of editions of the
Bible in Greek is very conliderable ; but they may be all
reduced to three or four principal ones, namely, that of
Complutum or Alcala de Henares, that of Venice, that of
Rom.e, and that of Oxford. The firlt or Complutenfian
edition was undertaken by the divines of Complutum, under
the dircttion and at the cxpence of Cardinal Ximenes, and
hnilhed in 15 14, but not allowed bv Leo to be publiiOicd
till 1520 ; nor were the copies of it di'lributed to the world
at large before the year 1522. It was inferted in the Polr-
glott Bible, ufuaily called the "Complutenfun Bible." In
this edition the Greek of the LXX. is f?.id to be altered in
many places, in order to accommodate it to the Hebrew
text, and to the Vulgate. For a more particular account
of it, fee CoMPLUTENsiAN', and Polvglott. It has
been reprinted in the Polyglott Bible of Antwerp, called
" BiblJa Regia," by Arias Montanus, in 1572 ; in that of
the Commelines, commonly called " Vatablus's I'^ible," in
1599; and in De Jay's Polyglott of P.tris, in 164J. See
Polyglott.

The fecond Greek Bible is that of Venice, formed from
many ancient copies by Andrea Afulanus, and printed by
Aldus Manutius in 1518, and hence called the " Aldine
edition." This edition approaches nearly to the Roman,
and is faid to be purer than the Complutenlian. Mafius
fays of it, that it is a copy of the fimple interpretation of
Vol. IV.

the ancient LXX. ; but not pure, nor free from all intei-
mixture of the words of Theodotion. U-lier obferves, that
it fomefimes deviates from the LXX. and adopts the read-
ings of Aquila ; and that various glolTes have crept into it.
From this Aldine edition all the German cooiesliave been
derived, which generally adopt the words of it, Jjut differ,
from it in the order of the books, chapters, and fome verfes.
The apocr}-phal books are printed feparately after tlie reft.
This edition was reprinted, with the Coir.plutennan Latin
verfion, in 1520, by And. Cratandriis ; anc^ again, in IJ50,
by Rich. Brylingerus ; at Strafburg, in IJ25; at Ham-
burgh, in 1596 ; 2t Frankfort, by the Wecheliani, in 1597 ;
and in other phices, with fome alterations, to bring it nearer
to the Hebrew. The moft. commodious is that of Frank-
fort, in which are publifhed, from the Complutenfian edi-
tion, the four laft chapters of Exodus, and a great part of
the 24th chapter of the Proverbs. There are alfo added
little Scholia, wliich flieiv the different interpretations of
the old Greek tranflation. The author of this collection
has not annexed his name, but it is commonly afciibed ta
Francis Junius.

The third Greek Bible is that of Rome, or the Vatican
(fee Vatican), formed from the Vatican copy by cardinal
CarafFa, and other karne'a perfons, who were employed in
this work for nine years, by the order and under the auf-
pices of Pope Sixtus \. It was printed at Rome in 1587,
with the Greek Scholia, colleAed from the MSS. in the
Roman libraries. It was afterwards printed in Latin, with
learned and ufefnl notes, by Flamiuius Nobihu', at Rome,
in 1588. The Greek edition, with the Latin annexed, the
diftinction of verfes, according to the Vulgate, the Greek
Scholia, and the Notes of Nobilius, was printed at Paris,
in 1628, by J. Morin, priell of the Oratory. In forming
this edition, Carafa made ufe of feveral ancient MSS. be-
fides the Vatican, and particularly one procured from the
library of Cardinal Bcffarion, written in large letters, and
another from Magna Graecia, agreeing with the Vatican ;
and Carafa profefles that it was his delign, not to accommo-
date this edition to the Latin Vulgate, or the Hebrew,
but to the ancient LXX. Not with Handing fome few tri-
vial objeftions, tl.is edition has been extolled for its purity,
its freedom from any material corruptions, and its fuperi-
ority to all other editions. From this all the Englifh edi-
tions have been derived. The Greek edition of Rome, or
as Grabe fays in his Prolegomena, that of Paris, has been
printed in the Polyglott Bible of London, in 1657 ; to
which Walton has added, at bottom, the various readings
of the Aldine and Complutenfian editions, and of the Ale;<-
andrian MS., as well as of Marcliialanus's and Card. Bar-
berini's. It was printed at London, in 1653, inSvo^ viwh
fome deviations with regard to the order of the books, the
number of the pfalms, Sec. ; at Cambridge, in 3 vols,
l2mo., with a preface by the learned Pearfon, in 1665 ;
at Amilerdam, with the fame preface, in 1683, by Leuf-
den, 8vo. ; and at Leipfic, in 1697, 8vo. with the Greek
Scholia of the Roman edition, the parallel places and va-
rious readings, and a preface by J. Frickius of IHm. An-
other Greek Bible was publifhed at Fianequer, in 1709, by
Lambert Bos, who profeffes to adhere to the Roman edi-
tion of the Vatican copy, and to fubjoin at the bottom of
the p^ige, befides the Scholia of the Roman edition, all the
various readings he could find, together with fragments of-,
the verfions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion.
Breitingcr, however, obferves, that Bos, inilead of ailher-
ing to the Roman edition, has followed that of Paiis by
Morinus, or the text in Walton's polyglott. This edition
of Bos has been long the common text-book of bibiical
S f fchoJar.-,

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fcliolars, who cannot eafily purchafe the Romtin edition ;
although it is far from being a coneft copy of its proto
type.

The fourth Greek Bible is that done from the Alex-
andrian MS., begun at Oxford by Dr. Grabe, in 1707.
An edition of a fimilar kind had been undertaken by Patri-
cius Junius, or Patrick Young, who proceeded no farther
than the 17th chapter of the book of Numbers, and alfo
propofcd by Voiiius, but not undertaken. In Grabe's
edition, the Alexandrian manufcript is not printed fuch ai
it is, but fuch as it was thought it rtiould be ; i. e. it is al-
tered wherever there appeared any fault of the copyilts, or
any word inferted from any particular dialcft. This fome
think an excellence, but others a fault ; urging.^ that the
manufcript (hould have been given abfolutcly and entirely
of itfelf, and all conjeftures, as to the readinfrs, Hiould liave
been thrown into the notes. For the plan of this work, and
the mode of its execution, we refer to the author's Prolego-
mena. A valuable edition of this work, eiaichcd with va-
rious readings from the Vatican copy, and other nianulcripts,
and ilhiflrated by critical difiertations, was pubhfhed by
Jof. jac. Breitinger, in 4 vols, 4to., in 1730. Tigur.
Helvet. A coUeftion of the MSS, of the mod ancient
Creek verfion of the Septuagint h..s, within thefe few years
paft, been undertaken by Dr. Holmei, canon of Chrill-
church, Oxford ; and the firll volume was publifhed at Ox-
ford in 1798, folio ; for an account of which, fee Septua-
cis-T. Walton's Prolegomena. IX. Grabe's Prolegom.
Hodii de Bibliorura Textibus originalibus, &c. p. 638, &c.
Fabr. Bib. Grcec. I. ili. c. xi. § 6. Tom. II. p. 324, &c.
See Septuagint, and Testament.

Bibles, Latin, how numerous foever, may be all re-
duced to three clalTcs ; the ancient Vulgate, called alfo *' the
old Italic," or " Vulgar Latin," (fee Italic Verfion),
trandatcd from the Greek Septuagint, for the ufe of the
Latins, foon after their convcrfion to Chriftianity : which
verfion was allowed to be fuperior to all the reft, being, as
St. Auftin calls it, " tenacior verborum cum perfpicuitate
fentcntis" : which verfion being corrupted, Jerom, between
the years 370 and 3S0, made a new Latin verfion from the
Hexaplar Greek ; the modern Vulgate, the greatell part of
v^'hich is done from the Hebrew text ; and the new Latin
tranjlatiom, done alfo from the Hebrew text in the fixteenth
century. We have nothing remaining of the ancient Vul-
gate, ufed in the primitive times in the Wcfteru churches,
but the Pfalms, Wifdom, and Ecclefiaftes. Nobilius has
endeavoured to retrieve it from the works of the ancient
Latin fathers ; but it was impoHi'ile to do it exaftly, be-
caufe moft of the fathers did not keep clofe to it in their
citations.

As to the modern Vulgate, there are numerous editions
very different from each other. Cardinal Ximenes has in-
ferted one in the Bible of Complutum, corrcfted and altered
in many places. R. Stephens, and the doftors of Louvain,
have taken great pains in correcting the modern Vulgate.
See Vulgate.

The bed edition of Stephens's Latin Bible is that of 1540,
reprinted in 1 545, in which are added, on the margin, the
various readings of feveral Latin manuferipts, which he had
confultcd. The doiftors of Ijouvain revifcd the modern
Vulgate after R. Stephens ; and added the various readings
of feveral Latin manuferipts. The bed of the Louvain edi-
tions are thofe, at the end of which are added the critical
notes of Francis Lucas of Bruges.

AU thefe reformations of the Latin Bible were made be-
fore the time of pope Sixtus V. and Clement VIII. fmce
which people have not dared to make any alterations, cx-
7

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ccpting in comments, and feparate notes. Sixtus V. who
was advanced to the papal fee iu 15 85, although the Latin
Bible of Gregory Xlll. was declared to have been rcdored
to its primitive integrity, formed, by the aflillance of learned
pcrfons, another edition ; and iHu^d a bull in 15S9, re-
iolviug and declaring that this was to be deemed, v\Mthout
duubt or controvei'fy, that which was acknowledged as
authentic by the council of Trent, and to be maintained a3
true, legitimate, authentic, and unqueftionable ; forbidding
the alteration, addition, or fubtradtion of the leall tittle of
it, and declaring fuch a mutilated edition delUtute of credit
or authority. Ncverthelefs, after the death of Sixtus V.
tliis edition was fupprelfed by fucceeding popes, as inac-
curate and imperfeft. A new edition was undertaken by
pope Gregory XIV. and completed and announced by Cle-
ment VHI. in 1592, which, though different from that of
SixtUo, and tvcn repugnant to it, is received as authentic,
under the name of Sixtus V. ; and it is now the ftandarj
throughout all the Romiih churches. That pontiff made
two reformations ; but it is the hi ft of them that is followed.
See Vulgate. From this the Bibles of Plantin were
doHe, and from thofe of Plantin all the reil ; fo that the
common Bibles have none of the after-correttions of the
fame Clement VIII. It is a heavy charge that lies on the
editions of pope Clement, viz. that tliey have fome new
texts added, and many old ones altered, to countenance
and confirm what they call the Catholic dodtrinc ; wituefs
that celebrated paffage of St. John, tres funi, &c. Mr.
lames, an Ei'ghfli protellant, has coUeCled above 2000 ar-
ticles, fome of which are indeed of no great confequence,
in which Clement's edition differs from that of Sixtus.
Clement has adhered more clofely to the Hebrew text ; and
his edition, fays Dupin, is much more corredl: than that of
Sixtus. He adds, though th: vulgar verfion be not alto-
gether free from errors and defeAs, it muft neverthelefs be
confeffed that the council of Trent had fufficient reafon to
prefer this before all the other Latin verfions, as Theodore
Beza, P. Fagius, L. de Dicu, Cafaubon, Grotius, Walton,
and fome other protcftaiits, have allowed. This verfion
was the moft ancient of all that were extant at the time of
this council ; the greater part of it was done by Jerom, a
very exact and faithful interpreter. It had been ufcd for
many ages in the Latin church : it was written in a fimple
and natural ftyle, and yet occafionally heightened by noble
expreffions ; and upon the whole, fays Dupin, it was the
bell and moft perfect verfion.

There is a great number of Latin Bibles of the third
clafs, comprehending the verlions from the originals of the
facred books made within three hundred years. The firft is
that of Sanflus Pagninus, a Dominican, under the pa-
tronage of pope Leo X. printed at Lyons, in 410. in 152S,
authorlfed by tvv'o letters of pope Adrian VI. and pope
Clement VIL prefixed to it, the former dated in 1523, and
the latter in 1526, and much elleemed by the Jews. He
employed 25 years in the execution of this work, and fi-
nilhed it before the year 1518. This the author improved
in a fccond edition. In 1542, there w.is a beautiful edition
of the fame at Lyons, in folio, with feho/ia, pubHrtied un--
der the name of Michael Villanovanus, i. e. Michael Ser-
vetus, author of the fcholia. Thofe of Zurich have like-.
wife publiftied an edition of Pagninus's Bible in 4to. And
R. Stephens reprinted it in folio, with the Vulgate, in
1557, pretending to give it more correA than the former
editions. There is alfo another edition in 1586, in four
columns, under the name of Vatahlui : and we find it a-
gain in the Hamburgh edition of the Bible in four lan-
guages.

Id

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In the number of Latin Bibles is alfo ufually ranked the
verCion of the fame Pagiiinus corrected, or rather rendered
lltjral, by Arias Montanm ; which correftion being approved
of by the doclors of Louvain, &c. was inferted in the Poly-
glott Bible of Phih'p 11. asd fince in that of London. The
chief aim of Montanus h;iS been to tranflate the Hebrew
words by the fame number of Latin ones ; fo tliat he has ac-
commodated his whole trai.flation to the moft fcrupulous
rules of grammar, withotit duly adverting to his latinity ;
and therefore this verfion may be confidcred rather as a
grammatical commentary than a ti"ue verfion, and adapted to
inftruft young beginners in the Hebrew, rather tlian to be read
feparately. There have been various editions of this in folio,
quarto, and oftavo ; to which have been add^d the Hebrew
text of the Old Teftament, and the Greek of the New. The
bed of them all is the firft, which is in folio, 1571. The
tranflation of Thomas Malvenda, a Spanifli Dominican, is
more grammatical and barbarous than that of Montar.us, and
not much efteenicd.

Since the Reformation, there have been feveral Latin ver-
fions of the Bible from the original Hebrew by Proteftants.
The moft eftecmed are thofe of Munfter, Leo Juda, Callalio,
and Trtmellius : the three laft of which have been reprinted
various times. Munfter publifliedhis verfion at Bafil in 1534,
which he afterwards revifed ; he publifhed a correct edition
in 1546. Without rigidly adhering to the grammatical fig-
nification of the words, like Pagninus and Montanus, he has
given a more free and intelligible verfion ; but by not devi-
ating from the fenfe of the Hebrew text, he has retained
fomeo'f itsidiotifms. He has alfo availed himfclf of the com-
mentariesof thebeftRabbins. Huetius gives him thecharafler
of a tranflator well verfcd in the Hebrew language, whofe
llvle is very exaftand confoiTnable to the original. Caftalio's
fine Latin pleafcs moft people ; but there are fome v/ho think
it too much alTecled, and deftitute of that noble fimplicity
and natural grandeur, and of that intxpixfTible ensrgy of
ftyle, belonging to the originals, and fome other verfions :
the beft edition of it is that in 1573. Leo Juda's verfion,
altered a little by the divines of Salamanca, was added to
the ancient Latin edition, as publiftied by R. Stephens, with
notes, under the name of " Vatablus's Bible," in 1545. It
was printed at Zurich in 1543, and is -more elegantly written
than Munfter's, but fonietimes recedes too far from the lite-
ral fenfe. It was condemned by the Parifian divines, but
printed, with fomealterations, by the Spanifli divines of Sala-
manca. That of Junius and Tremellius is preferred, efpeci-
ally by the Calvinifts, and has undergone a great number of
editions. It poflcfres much more of the true natural fimpli-
city. The chief Hebraifms are preferved, and the whole is
exadlly conformable to the Hebrew text, without the leaft ob-
fcutity or barbarity. Neverlhelefs, it is not without defects :
relative pronouns are introduced, without attention to the
Hebrew text, and they are charged with adding fome words
to exprefs their own fenfe.

We may add a fourth clafs of Latin Bibles, comprehend-
ing the Vulgnte edition, corrected from the originals. The
Bible of Ifidorus Clarlu^ is of this number : that author, rot
being contented with reftoriiig the ancient Latin copy, has
correlated the tranflator in a great number of places, which
he thouglit ill rendered, fo as to make them conformable to
the Hebrew text. Although he corrected above 8000 paf-
fages, he has omitted tome to avoid giving offence to the
catholics, by making too many alterations in the vulgar ver-
fion. Some proteftants have followed the fame method, and,
among others, Andrew and Luke Ofiander, who have each
publiftied a new edition of the " Vulgate," connected from
the originals, acconling to the Hebrew text. They have
inferted their emendations in a character different from the

text of the vulgar verfion, inftead of throwing them into
the margin, and thus they have occafioned fome confufion.

Bibles, Orienla!. At the head of the Oriental vtriiou*
of the Bible, muft be placed the Samaritan, as being the
moft ancient of all, though neither its age nor author hav-
been yet afcertained, and admitting no more for Scripture
but the Pentateuch, or five books of Mofes. This tranfla-
tion is made from the Samaritan Hebrew text, which is a
little different from the Hebrew text of the Jews. This ver-
fion has never been printed alone ; nor any where but in the
Polyglotts of London and Paris. See Pentateuch, and
Samaritans.

Bibles, Chahlcc, are only the glotfes or expofitions made
by the Jews in the time when they fpake the Chaldee tongue.
Thtfe they call by the name of Targumim, or parnphrafei,
as not being any ftrict verfions of the Scripture. They have
been inferted entire in the large Hebrew Bibles of Vei:ice and
Bafil ; but are read more commodioufly in the Polyglott,
being there attended with a Latin tranflation. See Chaldee
Paraphrase.

Bibles, Syr'iac. There are extant two verfions of the
Old Teftament in the Syriac language ; one from the Sep-
tuagint, which is ancient, and made probably about the
time of Conftantine ; the other, called antiqua l^f ftmplex,
made from the Hebrew, as fome fuppofe, about the time of
the apoftles. This verfion is printed in the Polyglotts of
London and Paris.

In the year 1555, Widmanftadius printed the whole New
Teftament in Syriac, at Vienna, in a beautiful charafter.
After him there were feveral other editions ; and it was in-
ferted in the Bible of Philip II. with a Latin tranflation.
The beft edition of the Syriac New Teftament is unqueftion-
ably that of Leyden, publiftied by Schaaf in 1708, and re-
printed, much improved, at Leyden, in 1717. Anew Sy-
riac and Arabic Teftament was printed at Rome, in 1703,
by the Propaganda, for the ufe of the Maronite Chriftians
in Syria. Gabriel Sionita alio pubhihed a beautiful Syriac
edition of the Pfalms, at Parij, in 1525, with a Latin inter-
pretation. See Syriac Verfion.

Bibles, Arabic. Although the Chriftian religion was
preached in Arabia, as well as in other countries of the Eaft,
at an early period, it never was the eftablifhed religion of
the countr)-, as in Syria and in Egypt ; for even the temple
of Mecca was a heathen temple till the time of Mahomet.
A tranflation of the Bible into Arabic was therefore wholly
unneceflary before the conquefts of the Saracens, when the
Arabic became the vernacular language of Chriftian coun-
tries. Hiftorical evidence on this fubject extends no further
than the tenth century, when Rabbi Saadias Gaon publifhed
an Arabic verfion of the Pentateuch ; and if conjecture may
be allowed (fays Marfli, in his edition of Michaelis's Intro-
duftion, vol. iii. p. 599. )> ^"^ ■^''y fuppofe that moft of the
Arabic verfions were made during the period that elapfed
between the couqi;efts of the Saracens in the 7th century,
and the crufades in the nth, efpecially about the middle of
this period, when tlie Syriac and the Coptic, though they
had ccafed to be lixinc; languages, were Itill underftood by
men of education ; and Arabic hterature, under the patron-
age of Almamon and his fucceilbrs, arrived at its higheft
pitch. The age in which the Arabic printed verfion, or ver-
fions of the New Teftament, wete written, is wholly unde-
cided, for we have no Knowledge of the MSS. from which
the Roman edition of the four Go'"pels (mentioned below)
was printed ; and all that we know of the MSS. ufed by
Gabriel Sionita in his edition of the Paris Polyglott, and by
Lrpenius in his edition of the Arabic New Teftament, is,
that the former ufid a MS. brought from Aleppo, and writ-
ten in Lgyp; in the 14th centurj , and the latter a ir.anu-
S f 2 feripl

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fcript lii-oiiglit from E?;ypt, in which the gofjxls were writ-
ten in tlie 13th, and the Afts, EpilUcs, and Revelation in
the I4lh cciiluiy. But we are left wholly in the dark with
refpodt to tlie ccntuiy in wliich the verlions themftlvcs were
made. Tiie Arabic verfions may be divided into fourclaffes;
viz. thofe taken immediately from, the Syrinc, from the Cop-
tic, from the Greek, and from tlie Latin. That various
Arabic verfions have been made from the Latin in modern
times by oriental monks refiding at Rome, who, being in-
ftrucled by the Romiili clergy to regard the Vnlgate as the
ftandard by which all other verlions (hould be regulated, pro-
pofed eflentiaily to fcrve their brethren in the Eaft, by tranf-
lating it into their native language, is evident from what is
related by profcflbr Adler in his Biblical and Critical Journey
to Rome, p. 178 ; and an Arabic verfion of this kind was ac-
tually pubiiflitd at Rome, in 1752, by Raphael Tnki, bifliop
of Arfan. As for thofe verfunis which are written in parallel
columns with the Syriac and Coptic, of which copies exill in
the royal library at Paris, it is reafonable to fuppofe that
they were not made from the Greek, but immediately from
the ancient verlions with which they are connefted, as the
means of underltanding them, after the languages in which
they were written had ccafed to be fpoken. For the fame
reafon, thofe annexed to the Greek text were probably taken
immediately from the Greek ; but of thefe Greek Arabic
MSS. only one has been difcovered, namely, that in the
univeriity library at Leyden. Walton (Prolegomena, p. 96.)
fays, th:it there are two kinds of Arabic verfions in ufe
among the eaftern Chriftians ; one called the Syriac, and
the other the Egyptian, from the countries in which they
are ufed. Both thefe verfions, according to Aug. Juftinian,
bifliop of Nebo, were traiiflated from the Greek. In the
year 15 16, Aug. Juflinian printed at Genoa an Arabic ver-
lion of the Pfaltcr, with the Hebrew text and Chaldee para-
phrafe, adding Latin interpretations, which, lie fays, were
taken from the Syrian or Antiochian verfion. There are alfo
Arabic verfions of the whole Scriptures in the Polyglotts of
London and Paris, faid by Juflinian to be taken from the E-
gyptian or Alexandrian verfions; and we havean edition of the
Old Teftament entire, printed at Rome in 1671, by order
of the congregation ile propaganda Jide ; but it is of little
efteem, as having been altered agreeably to the Vulgate edi-
tion. The Arabic Bibles among us are not the fame with thofe
ufcd by the Chriftians in the Eait. Some learned men take
the Arabic verfion of the Old Teftament, printed in the Po-
lyglotts, to be, at leaft in the main, that of Saadias, who
died in the year 942, and who tranflated the whole Old Tef-
tament from the Hebrew into the Arabic, exprcffirg the
Arabic in Hebrew charafters. Their reafon is, that Aben
E-zra, a great antagonift of Saadias, quotes fome paftages
of his verfion, wliich are the fame with thofe in the Arabic
verfion of the Polyglotts; yet others are of opinion that Saa-
dias's verfion is not extant. For though the whole Hebrew
Bible was thus tranflated by him, the Pentateuch only has
been, as yet, publiflied from his verfion. The other books,
now in Arabic, in the Paris and London Polyglotts, were
tranflated at different times by different authors ; partly from
the Greek, and partly from the Syriac verfions ; and few
]iarts, if any, excepting the Pentateuch, were tranflated
from the Hebrew text. The Arabic verfion is the lateft of
all the ancient verfions of the Old Teftament ; however, that
part of it which has been tranflated from the Hebrew, will
aflid in dttcfting fome corruptions that have crept into
(he Hebrew text finoe, and thofe parts that are made
(rom the ancient verfions will affilV in eftabliftiing the true
readings of thofe verfions. In 1622, Erpenius printed
an Arabic Pentateu-jh, called alfo the Pentateuch of
ilatritania, as being made by the Jews of Barbary, and

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fur their ufe. This verfion is very literal, and elleemed
very exadl. The four evangclifts have alfo been pub-
liflied in Arabic, without and with a Latin verfion, at
Rome, in 159 1, foli.'. The Latin tranflation is printed
under each line of the Arabic trxt, and is taken from the
Vulgate, though the Latin text is in fome meafure altered,
fi) as to make it correfpond to the Arabic. In a reprtienta-
tion of the baptifm of Chrift, annexed to it, the rite appears
to be performed, not according to the oriental cuftom of
immerfion, but according to the northern pn'dice of afper-
fion ; for our Saviour is placed, not in Jordan, but at the
brink of the river, with his feet oniy immerfed, while John
the Baptift, kneeling on a rock, pours water on his head.
The MS. from which this editio princcps of the Arabic gof-
pels is taken, is wholly unknovvn. Michaclis obferves, that
upon comparing it with the catechifin of the Drufes,
the paffages there quoted from the gofpels coincide with this
edition ; whence he infers that this verfion muft have been
long and generally known in Afia. But from this coinci-
dence no other inferer.ce can be juftly drawn, except that
the Arabic verfion of the gofpels, printed at Rome in 1 59 1,
was made before the I Ith century ; for to that age the origin
of the Drufes is refen-ed. Erpenius obferves, in the preface
to his Arabic New Teftament, that this edition bears a great
refemblance to the MS. from which he printed the four gof-
pels, except the firft thirteen chapters of St. Matthew.
The verfion, fays Michaelis, was certainly taken from the
Greek : but father Simon (Hift. Crit. des Verfions du N. T.
ch. 1 8.) fays, that upon comparing the Arabic verfion of
the four gofpels printed at Rome, and afterwards reprinted
in the Polyglotts, with an Arabic tranflation of the Coptic
verfion, he found them diflimilar ; but that on comparing it
with an Arabic tranflation of the Syriac verfion, he perceived
a great refemblance. Hence he concluded, that it was taken,
not from the Greek, but from the Syiiac text. This verfion
has been fince reprinted in the Polyglotts of London and Pa-
ris, with fome little alteration of Gabriel Sionita. This
Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite by birth, from the neighbour-
hood of I^ibanus, and one of the principal editors of the
Paris Polyglott, relates, that he made ufe of a mannfcript
written in Egypt in the 14th century ; but he feems to have
been unacquainted both with the name of the author, and
with the age in which he lived. Le Long relates, that it was
brought immediately from Aleppo to Paris. From this
MS. the Arabic verfion of the Afts and of the Epiftles
was taken, which was firft in the Paris, and reprinted
with additions in the London Polyglott. But this verfion
of the Afts and Epiftles can lay no claim to high antiquity ;
and though it was probably not taken from the Sjriac, yet
it is not certain whether it was taken from the Greek or the
Coptic. Erpenius publiflied an Arabic New Teftament
entire, as he found it in his nianufcript copy, at Leyden, in
1616, from a manufcript written in the Upper Egypt, in
1342. From two dates, which Erpenius feems to have con-
founded, it is probable, that the manufcript ufed by him was
a compound of two different manufcripts, one written in the
13th, and the other in the 14th century ; and this is very
confiftent with the opinion, that the gofpels in this manu-
fcript were tranflated either from the Coptic or from the
Greek, and the Afts and Epiftles from the Syriac.

There are fome other Arabic verfions of late date mentioned
by Walton in his Prolegomena ; particularly a verfion of the
Pfalms preferved in Sion College, London, and another of
the prophets at Oxford ; neither of which has been publiflied.
The Englilh fociety for promoting Chriftian knowledge
publiflied, in 1727, an Arabic New Teftament, for the ufe
of the Chriftians in Afia. Ten thoufand copies were printed,
but none fold in Europe, fo that this edition is very fcarce.

Two

BIB

Two copies are preferved at Cambridge, one in the univer-
fity library, and another in the library of St. John's college.
The text is taken fronn the Polyglotts ; but the editor Solo-
man Negri, by order of the focitty, altered it in thofe paf-
fages which vary from the reading of our prefent Greek text.
The editor, fays Michaelis, has taken the liberty of inferting
I John V. 7. without cautioning the reader that it was not
taken from any MS.

An Arabic Bible is faid to have been printed at Bukareft,
in 1700, and the gofpels at Aleppo, in 1706. Of thefe, as
well as of the complete editions of the Arabic verfioii, a de-
fcription is given in Le Long's Bibl. Sacr. ed Mafch. P. ii.
vol. i. p. no — 137. For an account of the MSS. of the
Arabic veriion of the N. T. preferved in the different libra-
ries of Europe, fee Boerner's edition of Le Long's Bibl.
Sacr. P. i. p. 234 — 240. or vol. I. p. 120 — 122. Paris ed.
1723 ; Uri's Catalogue, N^ 22 — 34 of the Arabic MSS. ;
and Note 1 1 to ^ 3. cb. vii. in Marfh's edition of Michaelis's
Introduftion to the N. T. In the univerlitv librarv are two
Arabic manufcripts of the gofpels, which formerly belonged
to Cyrillus Lucaris.

Bibles, Copl'ic. There are feveral manufcript copies of
the Coptic Bible in fome of the great libraries, cfpccially in
the library of Paris. The Coptic verfion of the New Tef-
tameut mud be regarded as a principal verfion of confide-
rable antiquity, becaufe it has given birth to feveral otlitrs
in the Arabic language ; for fince Egypt was invaded by
the Saracens, who extirpated the old language, the Egyp-
tians have generally annexed to the Coptic N. T. an Arabic
trandation, which has alrr.oll fuperfeded the original. Nie-
bulir, in his Defcription of Arabia (p. 86.'', relates, that
though the gofpels are ftill read in the Coptic verfion in the
public fervice, it is not underftood even by the priefts ; and
that immediately after the leffons have been read in Coptic,
the fame are read in Arabic, which is the prefent language
both of the Upper and the Lower Egypt. Thomas Mar-
fhall had once intended to print the Coptic verfion, and had
even prepared the four gofpels for the prefs, but he died be-
fore they were printed. Upon which the publication was
referved for Dr. D. Wilkiiis, a native of Memel in Pruffia,
who, after having ftudied the Coptic, made a journey to
Amfterdam with this view ; but induced by feveral advanta-
geous circumllances, he removed to Oxford, where his Cop-
tic New Tellament was printed in 1716, at the expence of
the imiverfity. Befides. a long preface, he added a Latin
tranflation of the Coptic text, which Jablonfl<i and La
Croze have criticifed with fome feverity. It is faid, how-
ever, that Wiikins took great pains to prefent the world
with a faithful copy, and that his endeavours were not un-
fuccefsful. He alfo printed the Pentateuch, with a Latin
tranflation, in 1731. Since his time a great variety of MSS.
have been collated ; and if Woide had undertaken the tafk,
a more complete edition of the Coptic verfion might have
been expefted. The title of Wilkias's edition is " Novum
Tellamentum jEgyptiuin vulgo Copticum, ex MSS. Bod-
leianis defcriplit, cum Vaticanious et Parifienfibus contulit,
et in Latinum fermonem convertit, David Wiikins, Ecele-
fix Anglicanx Prefoyter," Oxon 1 7 16, 410. Maj. Mont-
faucon, in his Paljeographia Grsca (1. iv. c. 7. p. 31.), fays,
that the Coptic MSS. which remain, are not very ancient,
and that he has not feen any older than 500 years. Wiikins,
in his preface, fupports the antiquity of the Coptic verfion by
feveral arguments, the chief of which is drawn from Anto-
rius, who began to lead an afcetic life about the year 271, and
who, though an Egyptian, and ignorant of Greek, read the
New Tellament. To the fame purpofe Woidc (p. 97. of his
Ilflay, mentioned below ) maintains, that the Egyptian verfion
ufed by Antonius in the third century, was written in Coptic,

B I B

becaufe he aiSually read an Egyptian verfion of the Bible, and
as he underftood only the dialeft of his own country, he con-
cludes that the Coptic verfion exilled before the middle of the
third century. Ludovicus Pickius, or Louis Picqtics, w!;o
was acquainted with the Copt'c language, refers this verfion
to the fifth century. See Mill's Prolegomena, § 1509.

The readings of the Coptic have a linking affinity with
thofe of the Latin verfion, and fometimts v.ith thofe of the
Codex Cantabrigienfis. The ftory of the adultcrtfa is fou:;d
in fome copies, and omitted in others ; but i Juiiii v. 7. is
omitted in all. Wetftcin has alfo obferved, that the Coptic
New Tellament has a very gieat fimilarity to the quotations
of Origen, Eufebius, Cyril, and to the Alexandrine ma-
nufcripts. The bell accounts of tlie Coptic verfion are given
in Simon's Hilloire Critique des Verfions du Nouveau Tella-
ment, ed. 16. ; in the Preface to Wilkins's edition of the
Coptic New Tcftament ; in Le Long's Bibl. Sacr. ed.
Mafch. P. ii. vol. i. § 10. ; and particularly by the learned
Woide, in a German eflay printed in 1778, in vol. iii. of the
K elifthe Beytrage, p. l — 100. See Coptic.

BiBLK s, Sakidic. The Sahidic verfion of the Old and
New Tellament, or that of Upper Egypt, exifled only till
of late in MS. ; but in 1778, the learned Woide pubhfhed
prnpofals for an edition of feveral fragments of this verfion,
comprehending about a third part of the New Tellament,
under the following title, " Fragmenta Novi Teilam.enti
juxta interpretationem dialcdli fuperioris iEgypti, quae The-
baidica feu Sahidica appellatur, MSS.Oxonienfibus defcripta
qn^ Latine reddet, et fimul etiam de antiquitate et variis
leftionibus hujus interpretationis differet, C. G. Woide."
The learned editor lived to continue the work fo far as to
print the fragments of St. Luke's gofpel, and to prepare for
the prefs the manufcript of the fragments of St. John's gof-
pel, but he died in May J780. After his deceafe, the de-
legates of the Clarendon prefs entrulted the completion of
the work to Dr. Ford ; and under his care it made its ap-
pearance, entitled, " Fragmenta Novi Teftamenti, e verfione
Egyptiacp. Dialefti Thebaidicae, SahidicK, feu fuperioris
Egypti," Oxon. large folio. In an elaborate differtatioa
prefixed to this work. Dr. Woide treats of the Coptic verfion
of the Old Tellament ; of the Sahidic verfion of the Old
Tcftament ; and of the original texts from which thofe ver-
fions were made. In his opinion both the verfions were
made from the Greek ; they cxprcfs the phrafes of the
verfion of the LXX. ; and moft of the addifons, omiflions,
and tranfpofitions, which diilinguilh the LXX. from the
Hebrew, are difcoverable in both the Coptic and the Sa-
hidic verfion. In a fecond fettion the author treats of the
Coptic verfion of the New Tcftament, and Wilkins's edition
of it ; of the Sahidic verfion of the New Teftament ; and of
the antiquity of the verfions of the Old and New Teftament in
both dialetls. And in a third feclion. Dr. Woide gives an ac-
count of the verfions, in both dialedls, of the apocryphal
books of the Old and New Teftament. From his obierva-
tions and account, we mav conclude, that the Coptic and
^ahidlc are dillincl and independent verfions ; that the Cop-
tic inclines more to the Alexandrian or Weftern edition, than
the Sahidic ; that no remarkable coincidence is to be found
between the Coptic or Sahidic verfion and the Vulgate ; and .
that we have no reafon to fulpecl the former to have been al-
tered or made to conform to the latter; and that the age of
the Sahidic verfion is not yet afcertnined. Dr. Woide fup-
pofes, that it was made in the fecond century ; and in proof
of this opinion, he alleges three arguments. The firft argu-
ment, deduced from the ufe made of an Egyptian verfion by
St. Anthony, who is faid by St. Athanafius to have been
ignorant of the Greek language, and yet to have conftantly ,
read the Scripture, has been mentioned under the preceding

article.

B I B

article. H;s feconj argiimmt is deduccil from a Saliidic
MS. wliich 13 probably of tlic focoiid centuiy, and which
contains various pafTas^fS both of the Old and New Tella-
nients, coincidinir with fome of the fragments of the Sahidic
veiTions. His third arjjiimcnt is founded on an apparent
coincidence of fome paftages in the fragments, with a manii-
fcr'pt containing two books of the fubrication of the Gnof-
tics, and evidentlj- written in the fccond century. It ap-
pears thi.n, if no objeftions can be n ade to thefe argument:;,
that proofs may be alleged of a higher antiquity in favour of
the bahidic verfion than can be produced in favor.r of any
other verfion of the New Tellament ; and it muft ot courfe
be of the greateft importance in the criticifm of the Greek
Teftamtnt. At the fame time it mult be acknowledged,
that the oldcft hillorical evidence for the high antiquity of
an Egyptian verfion u that ot Epiphanius and Theodoret ;
the former quoted by Semler in his " Apparatus ad Novi
Tcflamenti intcrpretationem," p. 64. ; the latter by Wil-
kins, in the " Prolegomena" to his Coptic New Tcftament,
p. 6. From an examination of the various readings furnifhed
by the above-mentioned fragments, it appears, that the (lory
of the aJulterefs, John, viii. i — 12. is not among them; in
the Adls of the ApolUes, ch. xx. 2S. the Sahidic verlion
coincides with thofc Greek MSS. which have xt^ioi', not S'.n;
in I Tim. iii. 16. they coincide with thofe which read O in-
ftead of 9;(>i : and l John ch. v. has the fixth and eighth
verfes ; but the feventh, which contains the tellimony of the
three heavenly witncffes, is abfent. We have an account of
the Sahidic verfion of the NewTellament in "FridericiMiin-
teri Commentatio de indole verfionis N. T. Sahidici, &c."
Hafnix, 1789, 4to. to which arc annexed fome fragments
of the New Teltament from manufcripts in the pofRflion of
cardinal Borgia. Some fragments of the Sahidic verfion of
the gofpels of St. Matthew and St. John have been like-
wife publifiied by Mingarelli in his " j^lgyptiorum codi-
cum reliquix, Venctiis in bibliotheca Naniana alTcrvatx,"
Bonor. 1785, 4to. MSS. or rather fragments of MSS. of
the Sahidic verfion of the New Ttftameiit are preferved
ill the libraries of Rome, Paris, Oxford, Berlin, and Venice.
BiiiLES, Elhiop'ic. The Ethiopians have alfo tranflated
the Bible into their language. Chryfoftom, cited by Mi-
chaelis, fays, that the Ethiopians had in his time a verlion of
the Bible ; but his evidence is unfatisfaflory. Ludolf, in
his hiftory of Ethiopia, relates, that the Scripture was
tranflated into that idiom of the Ethiopic language, which
was at that time more peculiar to the inhabitants of Tigre,
from the Greek verfion of the LXX, according to a certain
copy ufed in the church of Alexandria, which the innumera-
ble various readings that are infcrted in the Englilh Polv-
glott Bible from one of the fame copies, plainly prove. As
for tine author, ard time i.f the tvanflation, he is unable to
afcertain cither ; but thinks it moft probable that it was be-
gun at the time when the HabefUnes, or AbylTinians, were
converted, or foon after, and that it was gradually per-
fefled, Mr. Bruce, in his " Travels," vol. i. p. 490, favs,
that the Abyffinian copy of the Holy Scriptures was, in
Mr. Ludolf's opinion, tranflated by Frumentius, a bilTiop
in the 4th century, who firll preached Chrillianity in Ethio-
pia ; but Ludolf has left the matter undecided. See Hill,
of Ethiopia, p. 262. ed. 1682. Mr. Bruce himfelf inclines
to this opinion. They divide the Old Tcftarr.cnt, fays I^u-
dolf, containing 46 books, into four principal parts, and mix
the apocryphal with the canonical. Walton, (Proles, xv.
p. 100.) fayf, that Gaulmin had an ancient MS. of the
whole Ethiopic Old Tcllament, which was dcpofited in the
royal library of Sweden. Mr. Bruce informs us, (vol. i.
p. 489. ) that he brought with him a copy of the Ethiopic

BIB

verfion of the O. T. which he has depofitcd in the Britidi
Mufeum ; but it does not appear that he brought a copy of
any part of the New. Indeed he fays, (vol. i. p. 493.) that
c;.pies of the whole N. T. are in that country very fcarce ;
that, except in the churches, he had never feen a finglc MS.
which comprehended all the parts of it ; and that even the
tianfcripts of the Gofpels were in the hands only of men of
the firft dillinaion. The' Ethiopic verfion of the N._ T.
contains the whole of it, divided, according to Ludolf, into
four feparate parts, viz. the Gofpels, the Afts, the four-
teen Epiftles of St. Paul, and the ftven Catholic EpilUes.
The Apocalypfe is added as an appendix, and entitled
" Abukalamiis." Scaliger refers the Ethicpx verfion to
the time of Juilinian, at which period he dates the conver-
fion of the Abyffinians: but Walton refers it to a much
earlier period, and not far diftant from the times of .the
Apoftles. Whoever was the tranflator of it, it appears to
have been taken immediately from the Greek : from the
frequent confufion of words which found alike in the Gieek,
but which have not been confounded by any other tranflator,
and from its agreement in many of its readings with the Alex-
andrine MS. and with the quotations of Origeii. Neither of
thefe cii'cumftances can appear extraordinary, as it was na-
tural for the inhabitants of Abyflinia to procure their copies
of the Greek Teftamcnt from Egypt. The tranflation of
the Gofpels is much fuperior to that of the Epiftles. This
verfion was firft publilhed at Rome, in 1548 and 1549, un-
der the pontificate of Paul HL but the editors, who were
natives of Ethiopia, had a very imperfeft MS. of the Adfs,
the chafms of which they were obliged to fupply from the
Vulgate. To this purpofe, Ludolf obferves, that the A£ts
of the Apoftles, for the mod part, were tranflated at Rome,
out of the Latin and Greek, for want of the Ethiopic ori-
ginal. This original feems to havebeen the fource from which
our editions of the Ethiopic verfion of the N. T. have
flowed ; and it is probably preferved in the Vatican, though
it has not yet been defcribed. Walton reprinted this Ro-
man edition in the London Polyglott ; but his copy, being
in fome places illegible, the editors filled up the deficiencies
according to their own judgment, fo that the Roman edition
retains the fame value, as if no other were extant. The La-
tin tranflation was made by Dudley Loftus, and correfted
by Callcll ; but it is of little worth, and has led Mill, and
other collectors of various readings, into error. A more accu-
rate Latin tranflation of the Ethiopic verfion has been pub-
lifiied by profeflbr Bode, under the following title, "Novum
Tellamentum ex verfione Ethiopici interpretis in Bibliis poly-
glottis Anglicanis cdltum ex Ethiopici lingua in Latinum
tranflatum," Brunfvigise. 1752, 1755. 2 toms. 4to. The
bell extrafts from the Ethiopic verfion, fays Michaelis, are
and mult be uncertain, becaufe we have no accurate impref-
fion of the verfion itfelf ; however, his editor (Dr. Marfli)
obferves, that if the Ethiopic verfion was made immediately
from the Greek, and in an early age; if its readings coincide
with the quotations of Origen, and the Greek MSS. of the
Alexandrine edition, it feems to be entitled to the fame pri-
vileges, as other verfions of equal antiquity. The principal
objection applies not fo much to the verfion itfelf, as to our
printed text, which is probably incorrtA, as not being the
rcfult of a collation of different MSS. But the fame objection
may be made to the old Syriac verfion, in which, though
various MSS. have been ufed fince the original edition of
Widmanllnd, the alterations that have been made dcferve
rather the name of corruptions than of improvements. Of all
the books of the O. T. there never was anv printed, but the
Pfalms and the Song of Solomon, in the Ethiopic language
at Rome, in 1513 ; at Cologn, in 1518, and finct that time,

with

B I B

B I B

with coireiJlions and emendations, by Wulton, in the Lon-
don Polyglott. >

Bibles, ^rmcn'ian. There is a very ancient Armenian
verfion of the whole Bible, done from tlie Greek of the
IjXX, by forae of their dodlors, about the time of St.
Chryfoftom. See Armenian 'Uirfion. The firll printed
edition of the Armenian verfion was publifhed in the 17th
century by Ulcan, biihop of Erivaii ; bccaufe the Bible was
at that time become fo fcarce in Armenia, that a fingle copy
coft 1200 livres. Hence a council of Armenian bilhopa af-
fembled in 1662, ordered the Bible to be printed in Europe.
Accordingly, three diilinct editions were printed at Amfter-
dam ; the firil in 1666, containing bjl'a the O. and N. T.
in 4to. a fecond, in 166S, includinir only the N. T. in 8vo.
and a third, in 1698, in izmo. The two firft were printed
under the direftion of Ufean ; but the la!l is the moll beau-
tiful edition. A complete defcriptioii, particularly of the
firft of thcfe editions, is given in Le Long. Bib. facia, ed.
Mafch. P. II. vol. i. p. 173—176, 180. A lift of Arme-
nian MSS. of the N. T. is given in Dr. Boerner's edition of
this work, P. i. p. 280, or vol. i. p. 138, of the Paris edi-
tion of 1725 ; fee alfo vol. i, p. 76, of the Catalogus MSS.
Bib. Regise, and note 1 1 to (J 3. chap. vii. of Marfli's Mi-
chaehs. La Croze and G. Whifton have acccnfed the edi-
tor of the above-mentioned edition of having corrupted, in
fome places, the Armenian text. It is certain, however,
fays Michaelis, that i John v. 7. was not in his MS. ; for San-
dius declares, that he had feen the MS. from which the
Amfterdam edition was printed, and that it wanted that
verfe. Sandius, in the place referred to by Michaelis, fpeaks
of one ancient MS. which he had feen, in poneffion of the
bifhop of the Armenian church, and which had been collated
at Amfterdam, in which this paffage did not occur. It is
poflible, however, and even probable, that Ufcan had more
than one MS. and the words of Sandius do not imply the
contrary. Neverthclefs, we have pofitive evidence, that Ar-
menian MSS. written before the time of tlie council at Cis,
in 1307, have not this verfe. In like manner, John v. 4. is
wanting in the Armenian MS. but infcrted in Ufcan's edi-
tion ; and La Croze obftrves, that Ulcau himfelf acknow-
ledges, in his preface, that he had altered fome paffages from
the Vulgate ; not, as he candidly allows, with an intention
to deceive, but from ignorance and fuperllition.

Bible, Gi'o.'^/'a/i. The Georgian verfion was firft print-
ed at Mofcow, in 1743, fol. and a defcription of it is given
by the learned Eichorn, in his " Allgemeiiie Bibliothek,"
or Univerfal Hiftory of Biblical Literature, vol. i. p. 153 —
169. From the defcription it appears, that the Georgian
text was altered from the Slavonian, in the edition of Mof-
cow, and it would therefore be of little value in the criticifm
of the N. T. Two MSS. of the Georgian verfion of the
Gofpels are prefervcd in the Vatican. See Le Long, Bib.
Sacr. torn. i. p.140. ed. Paris, 1723.

Bibles, I'erftan. Some of the Fathers feem to fay, that
all the Scripture vvas formerly traiiflatcd into the language of
the Perfians ; but we have nothing now remaining of the
ancient verfion, which was, certainly, done from the Septua-
gint. The Perfian Pentateuch, printed in the London Poly-
glott is, without doubt, the work of Rabbi Jacob, a Perfian
Jew, furnanied Tavofus, Tavufius, or Tufius, from the city
Tus, where the Jews had a famous academy. It was tranf-
lated from the Hebrew text, for the ufe of the Jews, who
lived in Perfia, and printed in the Hebrew charafter, with
the Hebrew text, and with the verfion of Onkelos and Saa-
dias, at Conftantinople, in 1551. From the collation of this,
with other verfions, we may deduce a fatisfaftory explana-
tion of the famous prophecy of Jacob concerning the advent

of the MefTiah, unperverted by the glofTts of the Rabbins
We have likewife two Perfic verfions of the four GofpeLi, of
which the moft ancient, and tliat which is of courfe the molt
valued by the learned, is printed in the London Polyglott,
accompanied with a Latin tranflation by Dr. Sam. Clarke,
and notes by Dr. Thomas Greaves, contained in the appen-
dix. This Perfic verTioa of the four Gofpels, which is the only
part of the N. T. hitherto printed, was taken from a M.S. in
the poficflion of Dr. Pococke, and written in the year 1341, as
appears by a declaration annexed to it. A new Latin tranf-
lation has been publiHied by profeffor Bode, at Hclmftadt, in
1750, 1751, with a preface containing hiftorical and criti-
cal remarks on the Perfic verfion. Dr. Greaves has very
juftly obferved, that tlie Perfic is a tranflation of the Syriac,
for it fometimes retains even Syriac words, and fubjoins a
Perfic interpretation ; and in other places confounds the
meaning of words, that have a fimilar found only in the Sy-
riac. This is likewife probable in itfelf ; for the Chriftians,
who lived fcatttred in tiie Perfian empire, made ufe of Sy-
riac as the language of the church, and as the language of
literature ; and it was common for the Perfians to ftudy in
the fchools of Syria, efpecially at Edefl'a. The principal
ufe then of the Perfic verfion is in difcovering the falfe read-
ings that have crept, fince that period, into the Syriac. It
might be added, that the Perfic omits paffages, that are
wanting in no MS. or verfion except the Syriac ; as
Matth. xxvii. 46. Mark. vii. 34. There is another Perfic
verfion of the Gofpels, which Abraham Wheeloc began to
print in 1652, and which was finiftied after his death by
Pierfon, in 1657. It was publilhed in London, and three
MSS. were ulcd by the editors. Walton, in his "Prolego-
mena," xvi. 9. p. 102, informs us, that he knew of only
three JNISS. of the Perfic Gofpels, one in the poffeffion of
Dr. Poeocke, which he ufed, and the other two in the
libraries of Oxford and Cambridge, different from the other,
and lefs ancient. If this be the cafe, Wheeloc muft have
ufed MSS. containing diftinft verfions, and his text muft be
of a m.ixed nature, and of lefs value in that refpe£>, as well as
in point of antiquity, than that of the Polyglott. Wheeloc,
or rather Pierfon, whofe name is prefixed to the fecond title
page, was of opinion, that this Perfic verfion was made
from the Greek; but Renaudot believed it to have been
taken f.om the Syriac. Walton mentions two Perfian ver-
fions of the Pfalms, that were made in the I7thcentu:y
from the vulgar Latin.

Bibles, Gothic. It is generally faid, that Ulphilas, a
Gothic biihop, who lived in the fourth century, made a ver-
fion of the whole B'ble, for the ufe of his countrymen.
Philoftorgius (Hill. Eccles. 1. ii. c. 5.) afferts, that Ulphi-
las omitted the book of Kings, from an appreheiifion, that
the martial fpirit of his nation might be roufed by the rela-
tion of the Jewifh wars; yet this opinion has been confuted
by Knittel, in his learned commentary, § 255. Michaelis,
who was once a ftrenuous advocate for the opinion, that this
was a Frankilh verfion, has fince changed his mind, and in
the laft edition of his Int. to N. T. vol. ii. p. 130. ed.
Marlh, expreftes his convidion that it was Gothic. For an
account of the author, fee Ulphilas ; and to the account
already given of this verfion under the article Argenteus
Codex, we ftiall here fubjoin the following particulars. From
the martyrology of Nicctas, preferved by Simeon Mctaph-
raftes, it appears, that this verfion was made immediately from
the Greek. Befides, independently cf this evidence, it is
natural to conclude, that a native Cappadocian, who was
biihop of a nation in the neighbourhood of Conllantinople,
and was fent ambafiador to the Greek emperor, would tranf-
late from the original Greek, with which he was much bet-
ter

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tcr acquainted than with the Latin vevfion, from whirli fome
writers have crroneoufly fuppofed his verfion was taken.
Moreover, from a pafTage quoted by Blanchini in the " Pro-
legomena," to the fu-ll voh.ime of his, " Evangehariiim quad-
niplex," p. 8. from a MS. preferved at Brelcia, containing
tlie old Latin verfion of the Gofpels, we may infer, that
the Gothic vcrlion was known in Italy, and that a dltlinc-
tion was made between it and the Itahan. Of this inipor-

B I B

MSS. In the Gofpels it agrees with the Codex Stephani
n more frequently than with any other Greek. MS. In the
catholic epiftles it agrees, in general, with the Codex Alex-
andrliiuR, and frequently in the Revelation. In the Aft»
and in the Epilllcs of St. Paul, it agrees, in general, with the
moft ancient MSS. but fometimes with one, lometimcs with
another, yet mDll frequently with Wetlleln's Codex E. Of
the readings adopted by Griefbach in the text of his Greek

tant ve

erfion we have fev.- remains. The principal of thefe Teflament, tne Slavonian verhon has at Jeall three-foun

are contained in the C.«/r.v Argf.nteus ; which has the
four Gofpels, though not without confiderable chafms. It
was firll printed in Gothic letters, at Dort, in 1665, 4to. ;
and reprlntid at Amilerdam, in 16R4, (Michaelis); and
another edition was printed in Latin letters, at Stockholm,

Where the united evidence of ancient MSS. is againit the
common printed reading, tiic Slavonian verlion agrees with
the ancient MSS. It has not been altered fiora the Vulgate,
as fome have fuppofed, though the fad is in itfelf alm.olt in-
credible. It varies from the text of Theophylad), in as many

accompanied with the Illandilh, Swedilh, and Latin vulgate. inftancesas they agree ; and their coincidence is to be afcrib

In 1750, it was printed at Oxford, by Lye, after the cor- ed, not to an alteration from Theophylad, but to the circum-

ri-cflons and emendations of archbldiop'Benzel; and in 1752 llance, that both Theophylad and the authors of the Sla-

and 1755, ^^^ learned Ihre publiflicd two fmall efTays, under vonian verfion ufed the Greek edition. The Slavonian ver-

the title of " Ulphilas ilhillratiis," in which the erroneous fion has few or no readings peculiar to itfclf, or what the

paflagcs of the former editions are corredly printed in Latin critics call " letliones fingulares."

letters, accompanied with a Latin trandation, and notes. Bihles, Spanifi. There are two tranflations of the

V>\^i.is, Rli'fcovUc, Riijfiaih ov Slcivon'um. Tiie Ruffian Bible into this language ; one done by the Jews, from the

or Slavonian vcifion was taken from the Greek by two bro- Hebrew, and firll printed at Ferrara, in 1553, and at Am-

thers, Methodius and Cyril, natives of Theffalonica, and fterdam, in 1661; the otlier by CafPiodore Reyna, printed

apolUes of tl-.e Slavonians, who lived in the 9th century, at Bah!, in 1569. A correded edition of it was printed at

According to the account given by, Poktika, a learned per- Amllerdam, in 1602, and at Frankfort, in 1622. This

fon of Rulila, and fornarly Greek tranflator to the holy
fynod, in anfwer to inqiiiries propofcd by Michaelis, it ap-
pears, that the holy fynod ordered a complete copy of the
Bible to be taken, in 1499, which is prefervtd in the library
of that Synod; but from the fame tellimony it appears, that
MSS. of the New Tellament are extant from the nth to
the 14th century, fome on vellum, others on paper, which
are alfo preferved at Mofcow, in the library of the holy
fynod. The oldell known edition is that of Prague, pub

tranflation was made from the Hebrew, or rather from the
verfion of Pagninus, and the New Ttilament from the
Greek. There is a tranflation of the N. T. in Spanifh, done
by Francis Enzinas, and dedicated to Cliarles V. of which
there are fevei al editions ; and another different Spanifh tranf-
lation of the N. T. printed in 1596.

Bibles, Ilalimi. There are four Italian verfions : the
firll towards the clofe of the 1 3th century, by Jarnes de Vora-
gine, archbilhop of Genoa, who tranflated the whole Bible

lilbed by Francis Scorina, in 1519 ; but Poletika is not cer- into Italian, from the Vulj^ate ; which ancient verfion is quite

tain whether it contains the Bible complete. It was revifed loll ; the feeond by Brucciolus, in 1530, who tranllated the

in 1570, altered in feveial padages from an ancient MS. Bible from the Hebrew, or rather from the verfion of Pag-

written in the time of the grand duke Wladimir, given to ninus, and dedicated it to Francis I. king of France ; the

Gaiabunda, fecretaiy to tlie duchy of Lithuania, and ufed third by Malhernii, a Venetian and Bencdidine monk, ab-

n.the edition of the Bible, printed at Oilrog, in 1581, at bot of St. Michael de Lemo, tranllated from the \ulgar La

the expence of Con. Bafil, duke of Oilrog, for the common
ferviee of all Chrillians who fpoke tlie Slavonic language.
Other editions were printed at Mofcow, in 1663, 1751,
1756, 1757, and 1766, in folio, in 1759 '" large 8vo. and
in 17S3, in 4to. It was alfo printed at Kiow, in 1758,
folio; and at Suprall in Poland, in fmall folio. Acopj'ofthe
edition of 158 i, and another of that of 1663, both which are
fcarce, are preferved in the univerfUy hbrary of Gottingen.
A particular edition of the Ads of the Apoftles, and the
EpilUes, was printed in 1653. The paffage i John v. 7. is
found neither in the Oilrog edition, the ancient MSS. nor
in thulo editions of the Ads and EpilUes, which are prior
to 1653. That cf 1653 contains it ; that of 1663 has it in
the miirgln, and that of 17JI, and other modern editions,
in the text. Poletika thinks this interpolation was made in
the time of the patriarch Nicon, in 1653, ^^hen an edition
was publllhcd of the Ads and EpilUes. A very excellent
drfeription of the Slavonian verfion has been communicated
to the public by Dobrowflcy, a very learned critic, in the
«' Neue Orientalifehe Bibliothek," vol. vii. p. 153 — 167.
F'rom this work the following particulars, relating to this
verfion, are extraded, by Marlh, in his edition of Michaelis'
notes to ch. vli. § 37. The Slavonian verfion is very hte-
rally tranllated from the Greek, the Greek conllrudion be-

tin towards the end of the 15th century ; the firll edition of
which was publilhtd in 147 1 ; one of them, in 1477, revifed
by friar Martin, a Dominican ; and afterwards printed at
Venice in 1541 ; and the 4th by Diodati, aProtellant, which
is much elleemed, and has been often printed. This edition,
which was conformable to the French edition of Geneva,
was firft publiflied in 1607, and again a feeond time in 1641.
The New Teftament was tranllated by father Zachaiy, a
Dominican friar of Florence, and printed apart at Venice, in
1542. An Italian edition of the Epiillcs and Gofpels was
printed in 1583.

Bibles, French. The moil ancient tranflation of the
Bible into French is that of Guiars de Moulins, a canon
ot St. Peter d'Aire, in the diocefe of Touraine, who was
employed in tranflating the hiftorical books of the O, and
N. T. from the year 1291 tiU 1394. Of this tranJTation
there are feveral editions m the Paris library. Some hiflo-
rians affirm, that Charks V. king of France, caufed the
Bible "to be tranflated into French by Nicholas Orefrae,
fuperiorof the houfe of Navarre, and dodor of Paris. Thefe,
and fome otlicr tranflations of parts of the Bible, are extant
in MS. in the Paris library. The firll French Bible was
printed by order of Charles VIII. and dedicated to him,
and confequently before the year 1498 ; being the tranfla-

ing frequently retained where it is contrary to the genius of tion of Guiar.s de Moulins. The New Tellaraent was
the Slavonian,; and rtferabks, in general, the moft ancient printed in French by Colins, printer of Paris, in 1523. But

the

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B I B

the firH edition of the whole Bible, tranflateJ from the vul-
gar text into French, was printed, in 1530, at Antwerp, by
Martin Lempereur, with privilege from Charles V. The
firft edition of this Bible, in 1530, is in the Paris librai-y ;
find the" fecond, in 1534, which is larger, is extant in the
hbraries of St. Germain des Prez, and of St. Genevieve.
Tliefe two editions precede that of Robert Olivetan, the
firft publiflied by the Proteftants, ii; 1535. The tranllatlon
above-mentioned was printed the third time at Antwerp,
in 1540, and is preferved in the Jefuits' library of the col-
lege of Lewis le Grand. This tranflation was revifcd
by the divines of Louvain, and was the foundation of all
the French Bibles, fince publidied cither by the Catholics
or Proteilants. The firll is that of Robert Olivetan, a
liiiifmaii of Calvin, who has copied the Antwerp tranflation,
R'.id merely correfttd fuch paflTages as differed from the He-
brew text. A new edition was givtn by Calvin, which comes
rearer to the vulgar Lati:i : and of this Bible many editions
were publithcd between the years 1550 and 1561. In 1560
was publiflied a new edition of the Bible, revifed by Theo-
dore Btrza. In the following year another French tranfla-
tion of the Bible, from the Italian vcrfion of Diodati, was
publillied, and held for fome time in ellimation by the Cal-
viniits. In 158?, the Geneva tranflation was again corrtftcd,
and rendered more conformable to the Hebrew and Greek
text. This was revifcd by McfTrs. Dtfmaret?, minifters of
Groningen, and printed with notesat Amflerdam, in 16^9.
In the year 1555, Sebaftian Callalio publifhed another
French tranflation of the Bible from the Latin, the flyle
of which is affected andobfcure.

A reform.ation of the French Geneva Bible, by Renatns
Beneditl, profciTorof'divinity in the college of IN'avarrc, was
publifhed in 1566. This was condemned by a brief of Gre-
gory XIII, in 157J. A new edition was undertaken fome
time after, altogether conformable to the Latin, and free
from the errors of the Calvinifls, by the doftors of Louvain,
who followed the old Antwerp tranflation, and that of Qli-
v-jtan, which they correcl:ed: which was printed by privilege
from the king of Spain, and under the fanftion of thelicenfe
of the prcfs at Antwerp, in 1578 ; at Lyons, in 15^5 ; and
in fevcral other places. The fubRqucnt Bibles were for
fome tim.e copies of the Louvain edition, with fome correc-
tions ; fuch were that of Peter BcfTc, printed at Paris, in
1608, and that of Peter Frifon, printed at Paris, in 1620.
Corbin's Bible, printed in 1641, and approved by the doc-
tors of Poiclier?, recedes more than the rell from the Bible
of Louvain, and adheres more clofely to the literal fenfe of
the text of the vnl.rar Latin. A new edition of the verfion
of the doftors of Louvain, revifed and corredled agreeably
to the text of the ancient Vulgate, was publifhed by father
Veron, in 1647, and dedicated to the clergy of France.
The tranflation of Abbot de Marolles, is done from the
Greek text, or rather from the verfion of Erafmuf, and was
firft publifhed in 1649, ag^'" in 1653, a:id a third time in
1 655. The edition of the N. T. called the edition of Mons,
was publifhed in 1667, under the name of Jafper Migeot,
printer at Mons. Father Amelot's tranflation of the N. T.
was firfl printed at Paris, in 1666. Godeau's tranflation was
printed at Paris, in i ()68. The whole Bible was alfo tranf-
laied by Ifaac de Maitrc, of Sacy, from the Vulgate, and
partly publifhed in his life, and afterwards continued by
Peter Thomas, lord of Foffe. Du Quefnel's tranflation of
the N. T. differs little from t':.at of Mons, otherwife than by
being more conf jrmable to the vulgar Latin. Father Ben-
hours has alfo publifhed a tranflation of the N. T. and many
others have in later times tranflated either the whole or various
parts of the Bible.
Vox.. IV.

Bibles, German. Luther's tranflation of the Bible iiit<»
German, was done with the afGIlance of Melaufthon, and
others of his difciples, the Old Teflaraent from the Hebrew,
and the New from the Greek, in 1524, and the publication
of it, in feveral fucceeding editions, vei7 much contributed to
the progrefs of the reformation. This was foon followed
by a German tranflation by Jerom Emfer, a catholic, who
in his notes criticifes that of Luther ; and by another tranf-
lation, done by John of Dietenbergh, from the vulgar Latin,
in oppofition to that of Luther. Luther's edition, reformed
by the Zuinglians and Calvinifts, in various editions, was
publiflied at Newftad in 1588, and at Herborn in 1595, to
the diflatisfaction of the Lutherans. The German tranfla-
tion of Paul Eber, a Lutheran, was printed at Wittenberg
in 1564; and Gemian tranflations were alfo printed by Leon
Juda, and John Pifcator, both Calvinifts. A new tranfla-
tion in German, by Jafper Ulenberg, a Cathohc, not to men-
tion many others, was printed at Cologn in 1630, and wa»
much ufed ni Germany.

Bibles, Fkm'ijl}. The Catholics in the Netherlands had
feveral Fleniifh tranflations of the Bible in the l6th century.
One was printed in 154.8, which was tranflated by Nicholas
Van Winghe, who fays that he followed a Flemifh tranflation
printed in Holland 70 years before, i.e. long before the re-
formation. This Bible was revifed by the doctors of Lou-
vain, and printed afterwards at Antwerp in 1599, and often
fince. The Proteftants in the Low Countries had for a long
time only a tranflation made after the German Bible of
Luther, till in purfuance of an order iffued by the fynod of
Dort, in 1618, they had a new tranflation printed in 1O37,
exadtly conformable to the Hebrew text of the Old, and the
Greek of the New Ttitament. The Arminians, diffatisfied
with this, made another Dutch tranflation from the Greeks
which was printed at Amfterdam in 1680.

The northern nations, who embraced the doctrines of
Luther, have no other tranflations of the Bible beCdes theft
done in the vulgar tongue after the German of Luther.
Tlie Swedilh tranflation was made by Laurence Petri, arch-
bifhop of Upfal, a difciple of Luther, and printed at Stock-
holm in 1646. The I)anes have alfo one in their language,
pviblifhed firft in 1524, and fince revifed and reprinted in l6;3.
There is alfo a tranflation of the Bible in the Iceland tongue,
which fome pretend to be the ancient language of the Nor-
wegians or Goths: and another Finland tranflation in 1648.
The Laplanders have alfo the Pfalms, and fome other books
of the Bible, tranflated into their own language. In the
Polifh language, the Socinians have a Bible printed in 1563,
and they have hkewife a Polifh Bible in Lithuania, printed
in 1652, done from the Greek and Hebrew by Simon Budni.
Sands alfo mentions a tranflation of the New Teftament bj
Martin Czechovius, a Socinian, printed with notes in 1577.
Pope Gregor)' XIII. employed the Jefuit Vieki to make a
new tranflation of the Bible in the Poliih language, which
was printed at Cracow in 1 591), with the approbation of
Clement VIII. Tlie Bohemians iiave a Bible in their lan-
guage, with notes, printed in Germany from 1579 till 1601.
The Hungarians have a tranflation done by George Caidi, a
Jefuit, and printed at Vienna in 1626. Tliey have alfo an-
other more ancient, printed at Frankfort in 1608, and at
Oppenheim in 1612.

BiBLLS, Indian. A tranflation of the Bible into the
North AmericHn Indian language, by Elliott, was publifhed
in 4to. at Cambridge, in 16S5.

Bibles, Saxon. After the Saxon inhabitants of this
country were converted to Chriilianity, we have reafon to
believe that they foon had the wliole Bible in the charac-
ters of their own country, and that the four Gofpels in the
Tt fame

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fame bngiiafre were read in their reli;fiou3 aflemblies. The
whole fcriptiire is faid by fome to have been traiillated into
the Anglo-Saxon by Bede, about the year ^oi ; though
otiicrs contend that he only trandated the Gofpels; and others
afcribe to him only the golpvl of St. Joh:i.

We have certain books, or parts of the Bible, by feveral
other tranflators ; as, r. The Pfalms, by Adelm, bifliop of
Shireborn, contemporary with Bcde, about the year 706 ;
though by others this verfion is attributed to king Alfred,
who lived ne?r two hundred years after, and who is faid by
Mr. Fox (ubi infra) to have trandated both the Old and Ncv/
Tcllament into his native language ; and by others to have
tranflated the greatcft part of the Now Telbment : but the
authority on which thtfe affertions is founded is too precarious
to claim any great degree of confidencr. On equally uncer-
tain authority it has been faid, that the whole Bible was
tranflated into the Saxon language in the reign of Athelftan.
Bale, however, " Script. Brit." cent. 2. c. 27, cites the tefti-
Diony of Malmcfbury to this purpofe ; a;id archbiftiop Ulher
refers this to the year 930. Some bcoits of the Bible' were
tranflated by EadtVied, or Egbert, bifliop of Lindisfarne,
about the year 680, according to the conjecture of Mr. Sel-
dcn. A ceKbrated verfion of the four Gofpels in the Saxon
language, faid to be made by one Aldred, a prieft, is re-
ported to have been found in the celebrated code of bifliop
Eadfried. Adelm is faid to have written a letter to Ead-
fricd, extant in " Wharton's Audarium Hift. Dogm.
Uffcrii," p. 351 ; in which he exhorts him, for the common
benefit and ufe of all people, to put the fcriptnres into the
vulgar language, which Butler, in his book again ft the vulgar
tranllation, fays he did. And archbifhop Uiher, ia his
" Hift. Dogm." c. 5. informs us, that the Saxon tranfiation
of the Evangelills, done by Eadfried, without dillribution
of chapters, was in the poffeffion of Mr. Rob. Bowyer. In
the Cotton library is a book of the four Gofpels, faid by
Wharton, in his " Anglia Sacra," part i. p. 695, to be
written by bilhop Eadfried himfclf, and which had been
adorned with pictures, gold, and jewels, by Ethclwoldf, bi-
fliop of Winchcfter. Eadfried, or Egbert, died in 721. But
fomebaw doubted the exidence of fuch an Anglo-Saxon MS.
A verfion of the Pfalms in Anglo-Saxon was publiflied by
■Spclman in 1640. 2. The Evangeli.^s, flill extant, done
from the ancient Vulgate, before it was revifcd by St. Jerom,
bv an author unknown, and publlilied by Matth. Parker in
1571. This was printed from a MS. now in the Bodleian
library, under the direftion of archbidiop Parker, by John
Fox the martyrologiit, with the following title, " The Gof-
pels of the fowre Evangelills, tranflated in the olde Saxons'
tyme out of the Latin into the vulgare toung of the Saxons,
and now publiflied for tellimonie of the fame ;" at London,
by John Daye, 1571. This edition has a preface by John
Fox, and is dedicated to queen Elizabctii. Another edition
of this verfion was publiflied at Dort in 1665, by Dr. Thomas
Marfliall, who tells us that he could afeertain neither its au-
thor nor age. An old Saxon verfion of feveral books of the
Bible, was made by Elfric, abbot of Malmefoan-, and after-
ward?,viz. in 9^5, nrchbi fhop of Canterbury ; feveral fragments
of it were publiflied by Will. Lilly, or W. L'lfle, in 163S,
the genuir^e copy by Edm. Tluvaites, in 1699, at Oxford.

Wm. L'lfle obfervcs, on occafion of this publication, that
if that good ordinance firft enatled by God, Deut. x, 5. for
the prelervalion of the book of the law, by keeping a
copy of it in the ark, had been continued, and flandard
B.bles had been preferved in our cathedral churches, as it has
been fince appointed by king Alfred, we might now have
ftiewed the \\hole book of Gtd, or the entire Old and New
Tcflair.eiit in Sixon, which was the Englifli of thofe times,

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tranflated both by that king, and the archbifliop of Canter-
bury, Elfrk. Elfric tranflated the Pentateuch, Jofluia,
Judges, Ruth, four books of Samuel, entitled in Latin, liber
regum, a fifth book called Verba Dierum, or Chronicles, the .
Pialtcr, three books of Solomon, vi/,. Proverbs, Ecclefian.c3,
the chief of all fongs, the books cf Wildom and Ecclcfialli-
cus, the prophets Ifaiah, Jerenjiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the
tv.-elve Prophets, Ezra, Job, Tobias, Ellhtv, Judith, and
Maccabees. Hence we ir.ay conclude, with little doubt,
that the books of the New Teftament were before tranflated
into Saxon, and commonly read in that language. The Pen-
tateuch, J';fliua, and Judges, of Elfric's tranfiation, are pre-
ferved, fays Uflier, in Cotton's library ; where is alio a
Pfalter, with feveral hymns of the Old and New Tcfl;ament,
with the Apoftlcs' and Athanafian creed, with an Engliflx
interlineary tra;:flation. The book appears, by a note at the
end of it, to have been wiitten in the year 1049. The Anglo-
Saxon verfion, above-mentioned, is divided into feftions, over
each of which is placed a rubric, direcling when it fliould be
read ; and this circumftance fliews, that at this time the Holy
Scriptures were read in the public fervice of the church in a
language which the people underfl.ood. Various readings
from this verfion of the four Gofpels were firft quoted by
Mill (Prolog. § 1462.), who took them from the papers of
Marfliall. With refpecl to its antiquity, the learned are not
agreed : fome have referred it to the fixth or feventh centuiy,
fince Bede died A.D. 735, but others, more generally, to
fome part of the eighth century. For an account of the
MSS. of the Anglo-Saxon verfion, fee Le Long. Bibl.
Sacr. torn. i. p. 422, 423. ed. 1723 ; and for a complete cata-
logue of Anglo-Saxon MSS. in general, Wanlcy's Appendix
to Hlckes's Thefaurus, publiflied at Oxford in 1705, folio.
Lewis's Hift. Eng. Tranfl. of the Bible, p. 5, &c.

Bibles, Eitgiyii. The firft Englifli Bible we read of was
that tranflated by J. Wickliff'e, about the year 1370, ac-
cording to fome, and 1380, according to others; but never
printed, though there are MS. copies of it in feveral public
ar.d private libraries. The MS. of the Old Teftament,
ending with the fecond book of the Maccabees, in St. Joiin's
college Oxford, is faid to have been written by Wickliffe
himfclf. This circumftance, though exprcflfed on the top of
the leaf before Genefis, is very doubtful.' This tvanflatioa
was made from the Latin Bibles then in common ufe, not be-
caufe Wickliffe tliought the Latin to be tlie original, or of
the fame authority with the Hebrew and Greek text, but
beeaufe he did not undcrPtand thofe languages well enougli
to tranflate from them. He likewife cnofe to tranflate word
for word, as had been before done in the Anglo-Saxon tranf-
lation, without obferving the idioms of the feverallanguages,
fo that this tranflation is in fome places not very intelligible
to thofe who do not underftand Latii. Before the inven-
tion of priating, tranferipts were obtained with difficulty,
and copies were fo rare, that the price of one of Wicklilfe's
Englifli New Teftaments appear?, from tlie regiftry of Wil-.
liam Alnewick, bifhop of Norwich, in 14.29, to have been
four marks and forty pence, or 2I. 16s. 8d. This tranfla-
tion gave fuch offence, that a bill was brought into the Houfe
of Lords, 13 Ric. 11. A.D. 1390, for fupprefling it. But by
the oppofition of the duke of Lancafter, the king's uncle,
the bill was thrown out of the houfe. Wickliffe's followers
were encouraged, by this favourable circumftance, to revife
the tranflation of their mafter, or rather to make another not
fo ftrift and verbal, but more free and accommodated to the
fenfe. The MS. copies of this tranflation are more rare than
thofe of the other ; but they are found in the Bodleian
library, and in other libraries both of Oxford and Cambridge.
J. dc Trevifa, vicar of Berkley in Glouceft.erniiie, who died

about

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aSoiit the year 1393, is alio faid to have tranflated the -anole
Bible ; but if this be true, it docs not appcsr that a-y copies
of his tranflation are notv remaining. It h piobai;!?, that
Trevifa merely tranilated certain fentencts cf the Bible, that
occur in his writings, andfome of whicli are fnid to have been
painted upon the walls of the chapel in Berkley caftle.
Anuther Engliili tranflation has been crroneoufly afcribedto
Reginald Peacock, bifhop of Chicheller, A.D, 1450, in con-
fequence of his having tranfiated fome pafiages of fcripture,
cited in his works. RoUe, an hermit of Harr.pole in Yorkfhire,
who tranflated the Pfalms about the year 1 340, is fuppofed
by AVeever, in his " Funeral monuments," p. iji, to have
been the tranflator of the New Tellamciit, which tranflation
was in reality V/icklifFe's. Richard Fitz- Ralph, archbifiiop
of Armagh, is faid to have tranflated the Bible into Irifli.
He died in 1300. l)r. James, relying on a vague ritclaration
of fir Thomas More, in his account of the coni'itutions of
Arundel, alTerts, that the Bible hath been twice tranflated
into Englilh ; and that one of thefe tranfl;itiors is much more
ancient (fome hundred years) than WicklifFe's. But Lewis
lias (hewn this to be a miftake. (Hill. Fr.g. Tranf. p. 43.)
The zealots of thofe times were alarmed by thtfe Engiiih
traiiflations ; and in order to prevent their incrcafe, they
urged the necefiity of reftoring the ufe of Latm Bibles ; and
to this purpofe Chaucer r-^prefents the religious as collctting
and depofiting them in their libraries, and thus with-
drawing them trom ftcular priefts and curates, and thns
hindering them from preaching the gofpel to the peopl'*. In
1357, when fome fecular priells were fent from the diocefe
of Armagh in Ireland, to ftudy divinity at Oxford, they were
obliged foon to return, becaufc they were not able to pur-
chafe a Bible. ^neas Sylvius, afterwa-ds pope Pius II.
obfervtd in 1458, conceniing the Italian priefts, that they
did not feem to have ever fo much as read the New Tefta-
mcnt ; and Robert Stephens, fpeaking of the Sorbcni'ls,
fays, that when they are alked in what place of the New
Tellament any thing was written, they replied, that they had
read it in Jerom, or in the Dtcrpes, but what the New
Teftament was they did not know. . (See Hoav de Bibl.
Tex tib us, p. 464.) Indeed, at that time, if copies of the
Bible had been more frequent, the clergy were generally fo
ignorant as not to be able to read or underftand Lati:-. The
Latin Bibles were not only fcarce, but much coirupted by
the careleffnefs of tranfcribers, and the interference of pre-
fumptuous critics. In 1457, Wickliffe's followers were be-
come fo numerous, and copies of his Englifh tranflation of
the New Teftament fo common, that an EngHfh Bible was
fold for 20s., whereas the price of a portuile, or breviary, was
6 mark?. After the art of printing was introduced into
England, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek Bibles, and particu-
larly copies of the New Tcftamer.t, became much more com-
mon ; and accordingly a vicar of Croydon in Surry, is faid
to have exprefled himfelf to this purpofe, in a fermon
preached at Paul's crofs about this time: " We muft root
out printing, or printing will root out us."

BiBLE,TVn(/a/V. For the firll printed Englifli tranflation of
the fcriptures we are indebted to William Tindal, who, hav.
ing formed a defign of tranflating the NewTcllament from the
original Greekinto Englifh, removed to Antwerp in Flanders,
for this purpofe. Here, with the aflillance of the learned
John Fry, or Fr\-th, burnt forherefy in Smitlitield, in 1552,
and a triar, called V/iUiam Roye, who fuffertd death on the
fame account in Portugal, he tiniihed it, and in the year 1526,
it was printed either at Antwerp or Hamburgh, without a
name, in a middle fized 8%o. vohimc, and without cither
calendar, concordances in the margin, or tabic at the end.
Tiodai annexed a piflil at the clofe of it, iu which he

" defyred th?rr. that were learned to amende if ought were
found amyfle." Le Long calls this " the New Teftament
tranflated into E:;g!i(h, from the Gentian verfion of L;ither;"
but for this degradi;;g appellation he ftems to have ro other
authority btfides a llory related by one Cochlxu"! (m Ac^is
Martini Lutheri ad an. IJ26, p. 132.)' "''^h a view cf depre-
ciating Tini!ars tranflation. Ma-iy copies of this trnnfl ilicn
found their way into England ; and to prevent their difpcr-
fion among the peoole, and the more effetlually to en'^orce
the prohibition pr;b!ilhed in all the dioccfes againft reading
them. Ton ftall, bilhopof London, purchafed all the remain-
ing copies of this edition, and all which he could co!lec'\ from
private hands, and committed them to the flames at St. Paul's
crofs. The firll imoreflion of Tindal's tranflation beiyig thus
difpofed of, feveral other numerous editiors v.cre publiflied
in Holland, before the year 1530, in which Tindal teems to
have had no intereft, hv.t which found a ready fale, and thofe
which were imported into England, v^-erc ordeted to be
burned. On one of thefe occafioiis, fir Thomai More, who
was then chanceilon, and vrho concurred with thj bifhop in
the execution of this meafure, enquired cf a perfon, who
flood accufed of herefy, and to whom he promifed indemnity
on confideration of an explicit and fati -factor^' anlVer, how
Tindal fubfifted abroad, and who were the perions in London ,
tiiat abetted and fupported him ; to which inquiry the here-
tical convert replied, " It was the bifhop of London who
maintained him, by fending a fum of money to buy tip the
imprclhon of his Tellament." The chancellor fmrlrd, ad-
mitted the truth of the declaration, and fufFered the ac-
cufed ptrfon to efcape. The people formed a verj- unfavour-
able opinion of thole who ordered the word of God to be
buiTied, and concluded, that there muft bean obvious repug-
nance between the New Tellament, and the doftrines of thofe
who treated it vnih this ir.dign:ty. Tiicfe who were
fiifpecled of importing and concealing any of thefe books,
were adjudged by fir T. More to ride with their faces to the
tails of thtirhorfcs, with papers on their heads, and the New
Teflamcnts, and other books which they had difperfed, hung^
about their cloaks, and at the flandard in Cheapfide to throw
them into a fire prepared for that purpofe, and to be fined at
the king's pleafure.

When 'Tonilal's pu:chafe f.;rved onlj- to benefit Tindal,
and thofe who were employed in printing and felling fuccef-
five editions of his Tellament, and other meafures forreftrain-
ing their difperfion feeraed to have little or no effect, the pen
of the witty, eloquent, and learned Cr Thomas More, was cm-
ployed againfl the tranflator ; and tlie bifhop granted him a
licence, or faculty, dated March 7, 1527, to have and to read
the feveral books which Tindal and others pubUflied ; and at
his defire fir Thomas compofed a dialogue, written with much
humour, and defigned to expofe Tindal's tranflation, which
was publifhed in 1529. In this dialogue he alleges, among
other charges, that Tindal had miilranflated three words 01
great importance, viz. the words priefts, church, and charity;
caUing the firll feniors, the fecond congregation, and the
third love. He alfo charges him with changing commonly
the term grace into favour, confcffion into knowledging,
penance into repentance, and a contrite heart into a troubled
heart. The brihop of London had, indeed, in a fermon, de-
clared, that he had found in it no lefs than 2000 errors, or mif-
tranflations ; and fir Thomas More difcovered above icco
texts by tale, falfely tranflated. In 1530, a royal proclama-
tion was ifiued, by the advice of the prelates and clerks, and-
of the univerfities, for totally fupprefling the tranflation of
the fcripture, corrupted hy William Tindal. The proclar.ia-
tion fet forth, that it was not ncceflary to have the fcriptures
in the Engliih tongue, and in the hands of die common
Tt 2 jieople;

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people ; that itie didrlbution of tKem, as to allowing or de-
nying it, dcpciulcJ on the difcrction of their fiipeinors ; and
tliiit,"conrKli.ri''g the malignity of the time, an EiiKhih tiaiif
lotion of the Bible would rather oc.-afion the continuance, or
increafe of errors, than any benefit to their fouls. However,
the procliniation announced the king's inte:;tion, if the pre-
fent trat-.flatioii were abandoned, at a proper feafon, to provide
that the Holy Scriptures Oiould be by great, learned, and
catholic pcrfons, tranflated into the Englidi tongue, if it
(liould then fecm convenient. In the mean time, Tiiidal was
bafily employed in trandating from the Hebrew into the
Englidi the five books of Mofes, in which he wa'? a.Tiiled by
Miles Coverdale. But hij papers being loll by fiiipwreck in
his voyage to Hamburgh, where iie defigncd to print it, a
delay occurred, and it was not put to prefs till the year 1530.
It is a fmall 8vo. printed at different preffes, and with differ-
ent types. In the prcf<ice he complained, that there was not
fo much as one i in his New Teftament, if it lacked a tittle
over its luad, bnt it had been noted, and numbered to the
i 1-norant people for an herefy, who were made to believe, that
there were many thoufand licrelies in it, and that it was fo
faulty as to be incapable of amendment or corredion. In
this year he pubhihed an aiifwer to fir Thomas More's dia-
logue, containing his reafon for the changes which he had
introilueed into his trandation. The three former editions of
TinJiil's Englilh New Teilament being all fold off, the
Dutch baokfcllers printed a fourfh in this year, in a fmaller
volume and letter. In 1531, Tindal puhlillied an Enghlli
Ycrfion of the prophet Jonah, with a prologue, full of invtc-
tive againil the church of Rome. Strype fuppofes that be-
fore his death he finiflicd all the Bible but the Apocrypha,
which was tranfl^ted by Rogers ; but it fcems more probable
that he trandated only the hiftorical parts. In 1534, was
publirtied a fourth Dutch edition, or the fifth in all, of Tiu-
dal's New Teilament, in i2mo. In this fame year, Tindal
printed his own edition of the New Teilament in Englifh,
which he had diligently revifed and correfted, ; to which is
prefixed a prologue ; and at the end are the pilljlsof the Old
Teilament, clofing with the following advertifement, " Im-
printed at Antwerp, by Marten Emperour, anno M.D.
XXXIV." Another edition was publifiied this year, in
l6to. and printed in a Gtrman letter. Hall fays, in his
Chronicle, printed during the reign of Henry VIII. by
Richard Grafton, the benefaftor and friend of Tindal ;
" William Tindal tranflated the New Teftament, and firft
put it into print ; and he likewife tranflated the five books of
Mofes, Jolhua, Jndicum, Ruth, the books of Kings, and
books of Paralipomenon, Nthemiah, and the firll of Efdras,
and the prophet Jonas ; and no more of the Holy Scrip-
tures." Upon his return to Antwerp, in 1531, king Henry
VIII. and his council, contrived means to have him feized
and imprifoncd. ATter long CjaUnement he was condemned
to death by the emperor's decree in an alTembly at Augf-
burgh ; and in 1536, he was llrangltd at Vdlefort, near
Brulftls, the place of his imprifonment, after which his body
was reduced to alhes. He expired, praying repeatedly and
carneitly, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes."
Several editions of liis Teilament were printed in the year of
his death. Tindal had little or no Ikill in the Hebrew, and
therefore he probably tranflated the Old Teilament from the
Latin. The knowledge of languages was in its infancy ; nor
was our Englifh tongue arrived at that degree of improve-
ment, which it has fince attained ; it is not, therefore, furprif-
ing, that there fliould be many faults in this tranflation which
reed amendment. This, indeed, was a tallv, not for a fintjle
perfon, but requiring the concurrence of many, in circum-
ilanccs much more favourable for the execiition of it than

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thofc of an exile. Neverthelcfs, although this tranflation is
far from being perfeft, few firll tranflations, fays Dr. Geddes
(Profpeftus, p. 88.), will l.e found preferable to it. It is
allonilhing, fays this writer, hcnv httle obfolele the language
of it i?, even at this day ; and m point of perfpieuity, and
noble fimplicity, propriety of ii'iom, and purity of llyle, no
Engllfli vcrfion has yet furpalfed it.

Bible, CovcrdaL's. In 153 J the whole Bible, tranflated
into Ehglifli, was printed in folio, and dedicated to the
king by Miles Coverdale, a man greatly efte:med for piety,
knowledge of the fcriptures, and diligent preaching ; on ac-
count of which qualities king Edward VI. advanced him to
the fee of Exeter. In his dedication and preface, he obferves
to this pui-pofe, that, as to the prefect tranflation, it was
neither his labour nor his defire to have this work put into
his hand ; b\it " when others were moved by the Holy
Giioll to undertake the coil of it," he was the more bold to
engage in the execution of it. Agreeably, therefore, to de-
fire, he ftt forth this " fpecial" tranflation, not in contempt
of other men's tranflations, or by way ot reproving them, but
humbly and faithfully following his interpreters, and that un-
der correftion. Of thefe, he fa'd, he uled five different ores,
who had tranflated the fcriptures not only ir.to Latin, but
alfo into Dutch. He further declared, that he had neither
wrerted nor altered fo m'.;ch as one word for the maintenance
of any manner of feft, but had with a clear confcience purely
and faithfully tranflated out of the foregoing interpreter?,
having only before his eyes the maniftll truth of the fcrip-
ture. But becaufe fiich different tranflations, he faw, were
apt to offend weak minds, he added, that there came more
undtrllaneliug and knowledge of the fcripture by thefc
fundry tranflations, than by all the gloffes of fopliillical
doftors ; and he therefore defires, that offence might not be
taken, becaufe one tranflated " fcribe," and another "law-
yer," one " repentance," and another " penance," or
" amendment." This is the firll Engliifi Bible allowed by
royal authority; a'd alfo th.e firil tranflation of the whole
Bible printed in our language. It was called a " fpecial"
tranflation, becaufe it was different from the former Englifh
tranflations ; as Lewis has fhewn ( Hill. Eng. Tranfl. p. 98.)
by comparing it with Tindal's . It is divided into fix tomes,
adorned with wooden cuts, and furnifhed with fcripture re-
ferences in the margin. The lall page has thefe words :
" Prynted in the yeare of our Lorde M.D. XXXV. and
fynillied the fourth day of Ocrtober." Of this Bible there
was another edition in a large 4to. 1550, which was re-pnb-
lillied, with a new title, 1553 ; and thefe, according to Lewi?,
were all the editions of it. Coverdale, in this edition of the
Englifh Bible, prefixed to every book the contents of the
feveral chapters, and not to the particular chapters, which
was afterwards the cafe ; and he likewife omitted all Tin-
dal's prologues and notes. Soon after this Bible was
finilhed, in 1536, lord Cromwell, keeper of the privy-feal,
and the king's vicar-gencral and vicegerent in ecclefiaflical
matters, publiflied injunaions to the clergy by the king's
authority, the feventh of which was, that every parfon,
or proprietary of any parilli church within this realm, Ihould,
before the ill of Augull, provide a book of the whole
Bible, both in Latin and in Englifli, and lay it in the
choir, for every man that would, to look and read therein ;
and fliould difcourage no man from reading any part of
the Bible either in Latin or Enghfli, but rather comfort,
exhort, and admonifli every man, to read it, as the very
word of God, and the fpiritual food of a man's foul,
&c.

Bible, Mattheiue's, or Mattiews's. In 1537, another
edition of the EngUih Bible was printed by Grafton and

\Vhit>

B I B

Whitchurch, at Hamburgh, as fome think, or, as otheri
fuppofc, at Malbnro.v, or Marpiirg in Htfic, or Marbeck
in the duchy of Wiltcmberg, where Rigc-rs was luperiii-
tendant. It bore the na.iie of Thcmas Matthesve, and it
was fet forth w.th the kiiig's moll grac'ous Uc.nce. Mr.
Wanley is of opinion, that, to the end of the book of
Chronicles, this edition is Tindal's tranflatio-i ; and from
tiience to the end of the apocrypha, Coverdalc's : but I^ewis
(p. toy.) thinks it probable ll'.at the pr. phccy of Jonah
fliould be excepted, whicii Tindal Rniflied in his life-tia:ie,
and which is the fame in this edition, and in Coverdale's
Bible of 1535. Mr. Vv''a!!lcy alfo obiervcd, that the whole
New Teltament was Tindal's. Bale lays, Rogers tranl-
lated the Bible into Englifh, from Genefis to tiie end of
Revelation, making iile of the Htbrew, Greek, Latin,
German, and Eugli,!) (i. e. Tindal's) copies. Tliis book
contained Tindal's prologue and notes ; and, as Heylin
favs (Hift. Ref. fol. 20.), it was no other than the tranf-
lation of Tindal and Coverdile fomewliat altered. The
name of Matthewe is allowed to have been fidtilious, for
reafons of prudence ; one of which was, that the memory
of Tindal had become odious to many. It may well be ad-
mitted, that John Rogers, a learned academic, and the firlt
who was condemned to the flames in the reign of queen
Ivlary, was employed by Cranmer to fupeiintend th:s edi-
tion, and to furnilh the few emendations and additions that
were thought neceffary. This mull have been the general
perfuafiou in 1555, as the condemning fentence prcferved
by Fox (Afts, &c. vol. iii. 125.), is '■ againll Rogers,
prieft, alias called Matthew." Cranmer prefented a copy
of this book to lord Cromwell, defiring his intercelTiou with
the king for the royal llcenfe, that it might be purchaf.-d
and ufed by all. There are exant two letters (Strype's life
of Cranmer, p. ^S.) from the archbilhop, on the fubjecl
of lord Cromwell's interceffion, expreffuig warm approba-
tion and acknowledgement. " I doubt not," fays he, " but
that hereby fuch fruit of good knowledge (hall enfuc, that
it iball well appear hereafter what high and excellent fervice
you have done unto God and the king ; which fliall fo
much redound to your honour, that, befides God's reward,
you fhall obtain perpetual memory for the fame within this
realm." — " This deed you ftiall hear of at the great day,
when all things ftall be opened and made manifcft." In
the year 1538, an injunilion was publiihed by the vicar-
general of the kingdom, ordaining the clergy to provide,
before a certain fefliva!, one book of the whole Bible, of the
largeil volume in Engliih, and to fet it up in fome conveni-
ent place witliin their churches, where their pariihioners
might moH commodicjfly refort to read it. A royal de-
claration was alfo publilhed, which the curates were to read
in their fcvcral churches, informing the ptoplc, that it had
pleafed the king's majefty to permit and command the
Bible, being tratillated into tlieir mother-tcngue, to be fin-
cerely taught by them, and to be openly laid forth in every
parilh church. But the curates were very cold in this af-
fair (fays Lewis, p. 108.), and read the king's injundlions
and declarations in luch a manner, that fcarctly any body
could know or unJerlland what they read. Johnfon (Hill.
Account, &c, in bilhop Watfon's CoUedion, p. 9-}.) add?,
ttiat they alio read the word of God confufedly ; and that
tiiey bade their pariihioners, notwithftanding what they read,
which they were compelled to read, " to do as tliey did in
tinies pall, and to live as their fathers, the old fafhion being
the bed." Fox obferves (Acts, S:c. vol. ii. 516.), that
the fetting forth of this book much offended Gardiner and
bis fellow bilhops, both for the prologues, and efpecially
becaufe there was a table in the book chiefly about the

B I B

Lord's fupper, the marriage of priefls, and the mafs, which
there was fiid not to be found in fcriptnrc. Str} pe, how-
ever, fays, (Life of Cranmer, p. 64.), it was wo.-.derful to
fee with v. liat joy this bock was ri.ceived, not only among
the more learned, and th >fe who were noted lovers of the
reformation, but generally all over England, among ail the
common people ; and with what greeriintfs God's word was
read, and what refort there was to the phces appointed for
reading it. Every one that could, bought the book, and
bu'.iiy read it, or heard it read : ai,d many e!d*:rly perfons
learned to r..ad on purpofe. During a vacancy in t\e fee of
Hereford, it was vifited by Cranmer, who enjoined the
clergy to procure, by the ill of Augutt, a whole B.ble in
Latin and EiigiiTii, or, at leail, a New Tellament in tiicfe
languages ; to ftudy every day one chapter of thefe books,
conferring the Latin and Englifh together, from the be-
ginning to the end ; arfd not to difconrage any layman from
reading them, but encourage them to it, and to read them
for the reformation of their lives and knowledge of their
duty. In the courfe of the year 1538, a quarto edition of
the New Teftament, in the vulgate Litin, and Coverdale's
Englifli, bearing the name of Hollybuihe, was printed,
with the king's licence, by James Nlcolfon. Of this an-
other more correft edition was pubhihed in 1539, in 8vo.,
and dedicated to lord Cromwell. In 153S, an edition in
4tc. of the New Tcilament, in Englifli, with Erafmus's
Latin tranflation, was printed, with the king's licence, by
Redman. In this year it was rclolved to revife Matthewe'*
Bible, and to print a correct edition of it. With this view
Grafton went to France, where the workmen were more
fkilful, and the paper was both better and cheaper than in
England, and obtained permifilon from Francis I. at the
requeil of king Henry VIII. to print his Bible at Pari?..
But, notwithftanding the royal licence, the Inquifition in-
tcrpofed, and iifued an order, dated December 17, 1538,
fumnioning the French printer?, their Englifli employers,,
and Coverdale the corrector of the work, and prohibiting
them to proceed; and the impreffion, confilling of 2500
copies, was feized, confifcated, and condemned to the
flames. Some chefls, however, of thefe books, efcaped the
fire, by the avarice of the perfon who was appointed to
fuperintend the burning of tliem ; and tiie Englifh pro-
prietors, who had fled on the firll alarm, returned to Paris
as foon as it fubfided, and not only recoveredfome of thefe
copies, but brought with them to London the prefles, types,
and printers, and, refuming the work, finiflitd it in the
following year.

Bible, Cranmer's, or the Great. As foon as the papal
power was aboliihed in England, and tlie king's lapremacy
fettled by parliament in 1534, Cranmer was veiy affiduousin
promoting tranflations of the Holy Scriptures into the vulgar
tongue ; well knowing how much the progrefs of the refor-
mation depended upon this meafure. Aecoidingly, he moved
in convocation, that a petition (hould be prefented to the
king for leave to procure a new tranflation of the Bible.
This motion was vigoroutly oppofed by Gardiner, bilhop of
Wincheller, and his party : but Cranmer prevailed. The
arguments for a new tranflation, urged by Cranmer, and
enforced by queen Anne Bullen, who had then great in-
terell in the king's affettions, were fo i. . h confidered by
him, that, notwithftanding the oppofition, public and pri-
vate, on the part of Gardiner and his adherents, Henry
gave orders for fetting about it immediately. To prevent
any revocation of the order, Cranmer, whofe mind was in-
tent on introducing a free ufe of the Englifh Scriptures by
faithful and al)le trautlators. proceeded without delay to
divide an old EngUfh tranflation of the New Tellament into

Riac

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nine or ten parts, wliicli he caufed to be traiifcribcd into
papcr-buoks, and to be dillributed among the moil learned
bifhops, and otheii; ; rcquiritig that tUty would perfectly
correct tlicir rcfpcflive purtioiis, and return them to him at
a limited lime. When tha afli^^iied day came, every man
fciit his appropriate portion to Lambctli, except Stokefly,
bilhop of London. This laudable dcfi^n of the archbifhop
f.iilcd ; but the bufinefs was executed by other perfo;;s,
wlium he countenanced and encouraged, as we have already
ftfted in the preceding articles. In April 1539, (5raftun
and Whitchurch printed the Bible (called the " Grent
Bible"^ in large folio, " cum privilegio ad imprimendum
folum." A beautiful frontifpiecc, defigned by Holbcn,
and particularly dtfcribed-and exhibited in an engraving by
I^ewis, p. 122, &:c. was prefixed to it: and in the text,
thofe parts of the Latin verlion, which are not fo-nid in the
Hebrew or Greek, areinferttd in a fmaller letter ; fueh, for
inilance, as the throe veifes of the 14th pfalm, which are
the 5th, 6tl), and 7th, in the tranflation of the Englidi
lituigy, and the controverted words, i John v. 7, 8. ; and
a mark is ufcd to denote a difference of reading between the
Hebrew and Chaldee, afterwards explained in a fcparate
treatife. In this edition Matthewe's Bible was revifed, and
feveral alterations and corrections were made in the tranfla-
tion, efpecially in tlie book of Pfalms. Tindal's prologues
and notes, and the notes added by others, in the edition of
1537, were wholly omitted. Pointing hands, placed in the
margin and in the text, fliew the paffages on which Uufe notes
were to have been written. Johnfon (i;bi fupra, p. 76.)
calls this third edition of the Scriptures the Bible in the
laige or great vclumc, afcribes it to the year 1539, and
f'lppofes it to have been the fame which Grafton obtained
leave to print at Paris. He fays, that Miles Coverdale
compared the tranflation with the Hebrew, mended it in
many places, and was the chief direftor of the work.
Agreeably to this, Coverdale, in a fermon at Paul's crofs,
defended his tranflation frt)m fome flanderous reports which
were then raifcd againil it, confeffing " that he himfelf now
faw fome faults, which, if he might review the book once
again, as he had twice before, he doubted not he fhould
amend ; but for any herefv, he was fure that there was
none maintained in his tranflation." This is related by Dr.
Fulk, who was one of Coverdale's auditors. A fecond
edition of this Bible fecms to have been printed either this
or the next year, by Edward Whitchurch ; but the copy
is imperfeft, and has no date.

In the courfe of the year 1539, another Bible was printed
by John Byddell, called " Taveiner's Bible," from the name
of its conductor, Richard Taverner, who was educated at
Chrillchurch, Oxford, patronifed by lord Cromwell, and
p'-obably encouraged by him to undertake the work, on ac-
count of his i\6]\ in the Greek tongue. This is neither a
bare revifal of the E;igli(h Bible jull defcribed, nor a new
vcrGon ; but a kind of intermediate work, being a correc-
tion of what is called " Matthews's Bible," many of whofe
marginal notes are adopted, and many omitted, and others
inferted by the editors. It is dedicated to the kir.g. After
bis patron's death, Taverner was imprifoned in the Tower
for this wo k ; but he had the addrefs to reinflate himfelf in
the king's favour. Wood ( Hill, et Ant. Univ. Oxon. fol.
[674, 1. ii. p, 264.) gives a particular account of Taverner;
attribute.; his imprifonmcnt to the influence of thofe bifliops
who were addiiSed to the Romilh rebgion ; ar.d informs us,
that his verfion was read in churches by royal aithority. In
November 1539, the king, at the inteictfJion of Cranmcr,
appointed lord Cromwell to take fpecial care that no pcrfnn,
within the realm, fliould attempt to print any Englifh Bible

E I B

for five rears, but fueh as fliould be admitted by brd Crom-
well ; and afTigns this reafon for the prohibition, that the
Bible (bould be confidered and perufed in one tranflation,
in order to avoid the manifold inconveniences to which
human frailty might be fubjedl from a diverfity of tranfla-
tions, and the ill ufe that might be made of it. In the
year 1540, two privileged editio.is of the Bible, which had
been printed in the preceding year, iffued from the prefs of
Edward Whitchurch. Lewis mentions three^^othcr in-.prcf-
fions of the " Great Bible," which appeared in the courfe
of this year ; two printed by Whi'.chureh, and one by
Petyt and Redman. Cranmer wrote a preface for th.' edi-
tions of the year 1540, from which we learn the opinions
and praftice of thofe times. In May of this year, the cu-
rates and parifhioners of every paritli were required, by
royal proclamation, to provide thenifelves with the Bible of
the largell volume before the fcall of All-Saints, uv.der tlie
penalty of 40J. for every month during which they fliould
be without it. The king charged all ordinaries to enforce
the obfervance of this prnclarhation ; and he apprized the
people, that his allovv'ing them the Scriptiires in their mother-
tongue was not his duty, but an evidence of his goodnefs and
liberality to them, of wh'ich he exhorted' them' not to make
any ill ufe. In May 1541, one edition of Cranmer's Bible
was finifhed by Richard Grafton ; who, in the Ngygniher '
following, completed alfo anothei' Bible of the largell vo-
lume, which was fuperintended, at the king's command,
by Tonllal, bifhop of Durham, and Heath, bifliop of
Rocheller.

In confequence of the king's fettled judgment, " that
his fubjefts fliould be nurled in Chrill by rcadi:;g the
Scriptures," he again, on tV.e 7th of May, pubbflied a
brief, or decree, for fetting up the Bible of 'the great vo-
lume in every parifh church throughout England. How-
ever, this decree appears to have been very partially and
relnftantly obferved ; and the biihops were charged, by a
writer in 1546, with attempting "to fupprefs the Bible, un-
der pretence of preparing a verfion of it for publcation
within feven years. After the death of Croniwell in 1540,
the bifliops inclined to popery gained flrength ; and the
Englifh tranflation was reprefented to the king as very erro-
neous and heretical, and dellruftive of the harmony and
peace of the kingdom. In the convocation, afTembled in
Feb. 1542, the archbifliop, in the king's name, required the
bifhops and clergy to revile the tranflation of the New Tefla-
ment, which, for that purpofe, was divided into fourteen
parts, and portioned out to fifteen bifliops.; the Apocalypfe,
on account of its difficulty,'being afligned to two. Gardiner
clogged this bufinefs with embarrairing inllruftions ; and
Cranmer clearly perceiving the refolution of the bifhops to
defeat the propofed tranflation, procured the king's confent
to refer the matter to the two univerfities, again'.l which the
biihops protefted ; but the aichbifliop declared his purpofe
to adhere to the will of the king his mailer. With this
contell the bufinefs terminated ; and the convocation was
foon after diffolved. The Romifh party prevailed alfo in
parliament, which e::aftcd a law that condemned aiid abo-
lished Tindal's tranflation, and allowed other tranflations to
remain in force, undtrcertain reflrii^ions. After the palling
of this aft, Grafton, the king's printer, was imprifoned; nor
was he releafcd without giving a bond of 300!. neither to
print nor fell any more Englifli Bibles, till the king and the
clergy ihould agree on a tranflation. In 1544, the Penta-
teuch was printed by John Day and William Seres ; and in
1546, the king prohibited by proclamation having and read-
ing Wickliffe's, Tindal's, and Coverdale's tranflations, and
forbad the ufe of any other than what was allowed by par-
liament.

B E Z

B E Z

liament. From the hiftory of Englifh trnnflations, during
the reign of Henry VIII. \vc learn, tliat the friends to the
reformation condu£led themfelves with zeal and prudcuee in
the preat work of introducing and improving Englifh tranf-
Litions of the Bible ; that they encountered many dllHculties
from the dangerous inconftancy of a dtfpotic prince, and
from the inveterate prejudices of a ftrong Romifh party ;
and that the Englifh fcripturcs were fought after and read
with avidity by the bulk cf the people.

Upon the acccffion of Edward VI. the fevere (Int. 34. 5c
25 Henry VIII. c. I. was repealed, and a royal injunftion
was publifhed, that not only the whole Englifli Bible (hould
be placed in churches, but alfo the paraphrafe of Erafmus in
Engh(h to tl'.e end of the four Evangelifts, It was like-
wife ordered by this injunction, that every parfoii, vicar,
curate, &c. under the degree of a bachelor of divinity, (hould
poflefs the NewTellanient, both in Lnlin and Englifh, with
the paraphrafe of Erafmus upon it ; and that the bifhops,
&c. in their vifitations and fynods fhoidd examine them, how
they had profited in the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures. It
was alfo appointed, that the epiille and gofpel of the mafs
ftiould be read in Englifli ; and that on every Sunday and
hohday, one chapter of the New Teflament in Englifh fliould
be plainly and diftinftly read at matin<!, and one chapter of the
Old Teflament at even-fong. But in the year 1549, when the
book of common prayer. Sec. was finifhed, what nearly re-
fembles our prefcnt cullom was enjoined, that after reading the
Pfalras in order at morning and evening prayer, two leffons,
the firft from the 01dTefl:ament,and the fecond from the New -
Teflament, fliould be read diftinftly with a loud voice. Dur-
ing the courfe of this reign, that is, in lefs than 7 years and 6
months, eleven inipreflions of t!ie whole Engliih Bible were
publlfhedjand fix of the Englifh Nev,' Teflament ; beiides aij
Englifh tranflation of the whole New Teilament, paraphralvd
by Erafmus. The Bibles were reprinted, according to the pre-
ceding editions, whether Tindat's, Coverdale'f, Matthewe's,
Crar.mer's, or Taverner's; that is, with a different text, and
different notes. But it is doubted by the writer of the pre-
face to king James's tranflation, whether there were any
tranflation, or correClion of a tranflation, in the courfe of this
reign.

In 1562, the " Great Bible," viz. that of Coverdale's
tranflation, that had been printed in the time of Henry VIII.
and alio in the time of king Edward, was reviewed by archr
liifliop Parker, and reprinted for the ui'e of the church ; r.nd '
this was to ferve till that projt(fted by his grace was. ready
for publication. -See Bificp's Bible.

BiDLE, Gensia. Many of the principal reformers having
been driven to Geneva Curing the perfections of queen
Mary's reign, they puUifhed, in 1557, an Englifh New Tefla-
ment, prl;;tcd by Conrad Badius ; the firlt in our language
which contaitied the dillinftions of verfcs by numerical
figures, after the manner of the Greek Teflament, which
had been publiflied by Robert Stephens in 155 1. R. Ste-
phen"!, indeed, pubhihed his figures in the m.argin ; whereas
tlie Geneva editors prefixed theirs to the beginning of minute
fr.bdivifious with breaks, after our prefent manntr. When
!];;een Ehzabeth pafTcd througli London from the Tov.er to
her coronation, a pageant was erected in Chcapiide, repre-
fenting Time coming out of a cave, and leading a perfon
clothed in white filk, who rcprefented Truth, his daughter.
Truth had the Englifh Bible in her hand, on which was
written " Verbum veritatis." Truth addrcffed the queen,
and prefentcd her with the book. She kiffed it, held it in
lier hand?, laid it on her breall, greatly thanked the city for
their prefent, and added, that (he would often and diligently
uad it, l^pon a royal vifitation in 15591 the Biblfj and

Erafmus's paraphrafe, were rcftored to churches; and articles
of enquiry were exhibited whether the clergy difcouraged
any from reading any part of the fcriptures. " Minifters
were alfo enjoiiied" to read every day one chapter of the
Bible at leait ; and all who were admitted readers in the
church were daily io read one chapter at leall of the Old
Teflament, and ar.other of the New, with good advifcmerit,
to the encreafe of their knowledge."

During this year, the exiles at Geneva publifhed the book
of Pfalms in Englifh, with marginal notes, and with a dedi-
cation to the queen, dated Ecbruai-y 10. In i j6o, the whole
Bible i:i 4to. was printed at Geneva by Rowhnd Hare ;
fome of the refugees from England continuing in that city
for this purpofe. The tranflators were bifhop Coverdale,
Anthony- Gilby, William Whittingham, Chriflophcr Wood-
man, Thomas Sampfon, and Thomas Cole; to whom fome
add John Knox, John Bodleigh, and John Pullain ; all zea-
lous Calviiiiits, both in dodlrine and difcipline : but the chief
and the mofl learned of them were the three firft. Profef-
fing to obftrve the fenfe, and to adhere as m.uch as pofTible to
the words of the original, and in many places to prefcrve the
Hebrew phrafeology, after the labour and fludy of two years
andmore, day and night, they fiiiiflied tlieir tranflation, and
publifhed it ; with an epi'Ue dedicatory to the queen, and
another, by way of preface, to their brethren of England,
Scotland, andlreland. Befides the tranflation, the editors
of the Geneva Bible noted in the margin the diverfnies of
ipeech and reading, efpecially according to the Hebrew;
they infeited in the text, with another kind of letter, every
word that fecmed to be neceffary for explaining any particu-
lar fentence ; in the divifion of the verfes, they followed the
Hebrew examples, and a.'.ded the number to each verfe ;
they alfo noted the principal matters, and the arguments,
both for each book and e.-.ch chapter ; they fet over the head
of every page fon-.e remarkuble word or fentence, for helping
the memory ; they introduced brief annotations for afcer-
taniing the text, and explaining obfcure words ; they ftt
forth with figures certain places in the books of Mofcs, of
the Kings, and Ezckiel, which could not be made intelli-
gible by any other defcription ; they added maps of divers
places and countries, mei;tioned in the Old and New Tefla-
ment ; and thcv annexed two tables, one for the interpreta-
tion of Hebrew names, and the other containing all the chief
matters of the whole Bible. Of this tranflation, there were
above 30 editions in foho, 410., or 8vo., tnolliy printed by
the queen's and king's prii.ter, from the year 1560 to 1616.
Editions cf it were likewife printed at Geneva, Edinburgh,
and Amllerdain. To fome e(?itions cf the Geneva Bible,
e.g. to tliofe ^f 1599 and of 1611, is fubjoined Btza's
tranflation of the New Teflament, enpliihtd by L. Tomp-
fon. [ati RhcniiJI) Bible.) Dr. Geddes (Gen. Anfwer,
&c. p. 4.) gives an honourable tellim.ony to the Geneva
tranflation ; a:;d hefitatcs not in declaring that he thinks
it in general better than that of king Jjmes's tranflators.

Bible, Bi/hcp's. In the year 1568, the Bible, propofed
by nrchbifhop Parker three years before, was completed.
Tiiis edition, according to Le Long, was undertaken by
royal command ; and it is mentioned by Strypc, to the ho-
nour of the archbifliop, that he had refoh:'\'n to perform
what Cranmer, as oppofed by the bifliops r' his days, had
in vain endeavoured to accomplifli. In t'.is performance,
dillindt portions of the Bible, at leall 15 in number, were
allotted to felcdl men of learning and abilities, appointed, as
Fu; :• fays, by the queen's conmiiffion ; and, accordingly,
at the conclufion of each part, the edition of ij68 has the
initial letters of each man's name to the end of the lirtl
epifllcto the Corinthians ; e. g. at the end of the Pentateuch,
2 W. E.

B I B

\^'. E. for William, bilhopof Exeter, wlioff allotment ended
rl^ere; at the end of Ruth, R. M. for Richard Mcnev-
fiifis, or bifhop of St. David's, to whom pertained the
fecond allotment ; and fo of the reft. But it Hill remains
uncertain, wlio, and whether one or more, revifed the reft of
the N. T. JL'i'^ht of tlie pcrfuiis employed were bifliops ;
whence the book was called the " Bifliop's Bible," and the
" Great Enfrlifii Bible." The archbifp.op employed other
critics to compare this Bible with the original languages,
and with the former tranflalions; one of whom was Laurence,
a man famous in thofe times for his knowledge of Greek,
V hofecalligatioHS tiie bilhop's Bible followed exaftly. His
grace alfo fent inftruitions concerning the method which
his tranllators were to ohferve ; and recommended the ad-
ditioii of fome (hort marginal notes, for the ilhillration or
correftion of the text. But the particulars of thefe infti no-
tions are not known. The archbifliop, however, direfled,
reviewed, and finiftied the whole ; which was printed and
publilhed in 1568, in a large folio fr/.e, and with a beautiful
Englifh letter, on royal paper; and tmbellillied with fevcral
cats of the moft remarkable things in the O. and N. T. and
Apocrypha, maps cut in wood, and other draughts engraven
ou copper. It has many marginal references and notes, and
many ufcful tables. It has numerous inlertions between
brackets, and in a fmaller charaftcr ; which are equivalent
to the italics afterwards ufed by Jam-js's tranllators. Dr.
Geddes is of opinion, (Letter to the Bifhop of London,
p. 33.) that italic fupplemcnts were firft ufed by Arias
Montanus, who died in 159S. The feveral additions from
the vulgar Latin, inferted in the " Great Bible," are omitted ;
and verfe 7 of 1 John v, which was before diftinguiftied by
its being printed in a different letter, is here printed without
any dillindlion ; and the chapters are divided into verfes.
In the following year, 1569, it was agaiti.pubhihed in large
Rvo. for the ufe of private families. This Bible was re-
printed in 1572, in large folio, with feveral correftions and
amendments, and fevtral prolegomena ; this is called " Mat-
thew Packer's Bible." With regard to this Bible, Lewis
(p. 61.) obftrves, that the editions of it are mollly in folio
and 4to., and that he never heard but of one in 8vo. ; for
which he fuppofes this to be the reafon, that it was princi-
pally defigned for the ufe of churches. In the convocation
of the province of Canterbury, which met in April, 1571,
a canon was made, enjoiniiig the church-wardens to fee, that
the Holy Bible be in every church in the largeft volumes,
if convenient ; and it was likewil'e ordered, that every arch-
bilhop and billiop, every dean and chief relidentiary, and
every archdeacon, {hould have one of thefe Bibles in their
cathedrals and families. This tranflation was ufed in the
churches for forty years ; though the Geneva Bible was
more read in private houfes. For king James's opinion of
it, fee King jama's Bidle.

Bible, Rhiniyh. — Aix.cT the tranflation of the Bible by
the bifhops, two other private verfions had been m.ids of
the New Teftament ; the firft by Laur. Tomfon, undcr-
fccretary to fir Francis Walfingham, made from Bez.a's
Latin edition, together with the notes of Beza, publillied
in 1576, in 8vo. and afterwards in 1599, varying very little
from the Geneva Bible ; the fecom', by the papifts at
Rheims, in 1582, in 410. called the " Rhemilli Bible," or
" Rhemilh Teftament." Thefe finding it impofiible to
keep the people from having the fcriptures in the vulgar
tongue, refolvedto give a verfion of their own, as favourable
to their caufc as might be. It was printed ou a large paper,
with a fair letter and margin. One complaint againft it
was, its being tranflated from the vulgate Latin, and retain-
inu a multitude of Hcbrcvy and Greek words untranflated,

for want, as the editors cxprefs it, of proper and adequate

terms in the Englifli to render them by ; 33 the words rtcymr.f,
tunike, rational, holocaujl, prepuce, paj'chc, c^c. whence Fuller
called it, in his quaint manner, " a tranflation which needed
to be tranflated," and Fuller fays that " by all means they
laboured to fupprefs the light of truth under one pretence
or other." Tiiey added large annotation", to fliew, as they
fay, the iludious reader, in moft places pertaining to the con-
troverfies of thofe times, both the heretical corruptions, and
faUe deduftions, and alfo the apoftolic traditions, the cxpo-
fitions of the holy fathers, the decrees of the C itliolic chuich,
and moft ancient councils. Some have faid, that it was
printed in a moft coftly manner, in order to put it out of the
power of common people to purchafe it ; but if any of the
laity fecretly procured one of thefe Rhcmifh Teftaments,
he dnrft not own that he had read it, without prcvioully ob-
taining from his fuperior a licence for this purpofe. Many
of the cocies were fciz:d by the queen's fcarchers, and con-
fifcatcd; and Th. Cartwright was folicited by fecretary
Wallingham to refute it ; but, after a good progrefs made
therein, archbifliop Whitgift prohibited his farther proceed-
ings therein, as judging it im.propcr the dodtrine of the
church of England Ihould be committed to the defence of
a puritan, and appointed Dr. Ftdk in his place, who refu-
ted the Rheimiltswjth great fpiritand learning. Cartwright's
refutation was alfo afterwards publifhcd in 1 61 8, under arcfi-
liifnop Abbot, together witii the Riiemifh tranflation. This
procedure was much more agreeable to the true fpirit of
proteftantifm, than the aft of feizing and burning the
copies ; " argument being the only weapon (fays the truly ex-
cellent primate Nevvcome), which fhoidd be wielded to defend
Clirillianity, or any mode of prolefling it." Other editions
were printed at Antwerp, in 1600, and in i2mo. at the fame
place, in 1630, and at Paris, in 4to. in 1633. Within 3a
years after their New Teftament, the Romun Catholics pub-
lifhed a tranflation of the Old, at Doway, hence called the
" Doway Bible," in two 410. volumes, the former in 1609,
the other in ifiic, from the Vulgate, with annotations.
It is faid that the tranflators were Williain Allyn, after-
terwards cardinal, Gregory Martin, and Richard Briftow ;
and that the annotator was Thomas Worthington. But
foine (Le Long. 418.) afcribe the verfion of the New Tefta-
ment chiefly to William Raynold.

Bible, King James's.— !")L\\t laft Englifh Bible was that
which proceeded from the Hampton-court conference, in
1603, where many exceptions being made to the Bifhop's
Bible, king James gave order for a new one ; not as the
preface eripreffes it, tor a tranflation altogether new, nor yet
to make of a bad one a good one, but to make a good one
better, or of many good one beft. On the fecond day of
this conference, Dr. Reynold?, the fpeaker of the Puritans,
moved his majefty, that a new tranflation of the Bible might
be undertaken ; becaufe thofe which were allowed in the
reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. Were corrupt, and
fuch verfions as were extant were not anfu'crable to the
truth of the original. It has been obfcrved by learned men
with regard to the tranflators in the reign of Henry VIII.
that they followed Erafmus and Sebaftian Munfter too
clofely ; of the Geneva verfion, that it was formed too faith-
fully on the model of Bcza ; and of the BiQiop's Bible, that
it was not fufSciently exaft, but full of errors, becaufe its
conduftors departed from the Hebrew, and trod too exactly
in the foot-fieps of the Greek. In reply to Dr. Reynolds,
the king faid, that he had never yet fecn a Bible well Uanf-
latcd into Englifli ; though he confidered the Geneva trnnf-
lations as the worft. On the fuggeftion of Bancroft, bifhop
ot London, he forbad marginal notes j fome of the Geneva

notes

E I B

E I B

■ "tes having been, in his opinion, "very partial, untrue,
icdit'.ous, and favouring too much of dantrcrous and traite-
rous conceits." In 1604, the king Gonuniffioiicd fifty-foiir
learned men of the two univtrfuies, and of othtr places, to
confer together, fo that nothing Ihould jjafs without a general
content, in order to make a new and more conccl tranfla-
tion of the Bible. Such of thtfc as furvived till the com-
' mencement of the work were divided into fix cl^iflep. Ten
were to meet at Wcftininfter, and to tranflate from the Pen-
tateuch to the end of the fecond book of Kings. Eight,
afTemhled at Cambridg^e, were to finifh the reiT: of the hifto-
rxal books, and the Hagiographa. At Oxford, f-ven wtre
to undertake the four greater prophets, wiih tiic lamenta-
tions of Jeremiah, and the twelve minor propliets. The
tpiftles of St. Paul, and the remaining canou'cal epifllcF,
were allotted to another company of icven, at Wtftmir.Rcr.
Another company of cigiit, at Oxford, were to tranflate the
four gofpels, the Acts of the Apolths, and the Apocalypfe.
Laftly, another company of feven, at Cambridge, hiid afiign-
(d to them the Apocryphr, including the prayer of Manaffeh.
The king prefcribed certain rules, which the tranflators
were required carefully to obferve. The Bidiop's Bible
was to be the Itandard, from which as few deviations as pof-
lible were to be allowed ; the names of the prophet?, and
the holy writers, with the other nam.cs iu the text, were to
be retained as near as pofllble to their vulgar ufe ; the old ec-
clefiaftital words were to be retained, as the word " church,"
which was not to be tranflatcd " congregation," &:c. ; of
words admitting divers fignifications, thofe were to be retained
which had been moft commonly ufed by the moil eminent, or
moil ancient fathers, being agreeable to the propriety of the
place, a:id the analogy of faith ; the divilion of the chapters
11 as to remain with as little alteration as poffible ; no marginal
notes were to be introduced, except for the explanation of He-
brew or Greek words, which could not without circumlocution
be duly expreffed ; quotations were to be annexed in the mar-
gin, forthe purpofe of referring from one fcripture to another ;
every particular perfon of each company was to take the fame
chapter or chapters, and having feparately tranflated his
appropriate part, all were to meet, to compare what they
had done, and to agree as to that which fliould remain ; when
any part was {inilhcd by the company, it was to be referred
to the rell for their ferioiis and judicious confideration ; if
any doubt or difference occurred, it was to be fettled at a
general meeting ; with refpefl to places of fpecial obfcurity,
the opinion of learned peri'ons was to be obtained by letters
addreffed to them for this purpofe ; and ikilful perfons were
requeftcd to iranfmit any obfcivations that might be of ufe
to the company, either at Wellniinller, Cambridge, or Ox-
ford ; the ditettors in each company were to be the deans of
Weftminller and Cheller, for that place, and the king's pro-
fciTora in the Hebrew and Greek, in each univerfity : and
the following tranilations, if they agreed better with the
text than the Bifhop's Bible, were to be ufed, viy. Tln-
dal's, iVIatthewe's, Coverdale's, Whitchurch's, or the Great
Bibk, printed in ij'^gand 1540, by Whitchurch and Grat-
ton, and the Geneva Bible. The king alfo irtimated his
pleafure, that three or four of the moil eminent and grave
divines of the univerlity, alTignedby the vice-chancellor, upon
conference with the reft of the heads, ihould be overfecrs of
the tranllations, as well Hebrew as Greek. The tranlla-
tion was begun in the fpring of l6o~, and the completion
of it occupied almoft three years. When the whole was
tiniihcd, and three copies of it wtre fent to London, one
from Cambridge, it fecond from Oxford, and a third from
Weftminller, two were choien from the joint companies
which had aflembled at thofe places, to revic^v a?.d poliih it.
Vol. IV.

The tvro from the Cambridge companies were Mr. Joha
Boi?, fellow of St. John's college, and Mr. Andrew Downes,
proftfibr of Greek. Thcfe daily met their fellow-labourers
in Stationers' hail, London ; where, in nine months, tliry
completed their taflc, and received, each of them, by ti;c
week 30I. from the Company of Stationers, whereas, " be-
fore they I'.ad rcothing." The whole wa'', at lafl, reviewed
byBilfor, I»ilhop of Winchefter, and Dr.Myles Smyth, after-
wards bifhop of Gloucefter, who prefxed arguments to the
feveial bocks ; and the la'ter was ordered to write the pre-
face. This edit'on of the Bible, with the preface and a dedi-
cation to the king, was firll publiHied in London, 'n tiie
■year 161 1 ; and is commonly called " King. James's Bible."
Several editions of it wtre pnblifhed in 4to. and in Svo. ;
and particularly one by R. Barker, in 1613. In fome
editions of this Bible, betwixt 1638 and 1685, an alteration
is introduced in Acls vi. 3. where, inlkead of " f/t: may ap-
point," is inferted " ?V may appoint," which has been
charged on the Independents. But as the full Bible in
which it was obferved is that printed at Cambridge by Buck
and Daniel, in 1638, it is probably an error of the pref ,
without any dcfign to favour ary particular party. In 1663,
a beaulifnl edition of this Bible in folio, with chorographical
cuts, enffravcn by Ogilby, was printed at Cambridge, by
John Vield ; and another edition was printed in Ss-c. at
Amftcidani, in 1664, by John Canne, a leader of the Eng-
li Ih Broivnifls, with marginal notes, ihowing Scripture to
be the beil interpreter ot Scripture. The editor l)as pre-
fixed a preface; and the Apocrypha is omitted. A very I'ne
edition of tins Bible was publilhed in a large tolio, in 1701,
under the diretlion of Dr.Teniion, archbifhop of Canteibnry,
with chronological dates, and an index, by bilhop Lloyd, and
tables of fcripture meafurts by biihop Cumberland ; but this
edition abounds with typographical errors. After this tranfr
latinn, all the other verfions dropped, and fell into difufe, ex-
cept the Epiilles and Gofpels in the Common Prayer Book,
which were ilill continued, according to the Bilhop's tranf-
lation, till the alteration of the liturgy in 1661, and the Pfalms
and Hvmns, which are to this day as in the old verfion.

About the tim.e when king James refolved on a new tranf-
lation of the Bible, another trantlation was finiilied by Mr.
Ambrofe Ulher, elder brother of the learned primate of
Armagh of the fame name. It was never printed ; but is
preferved in MS. in 3 vols. 4to. in the hbrary of Trinity
college at Dublin. In 1764, Mr. Anthony Pin-ver publilhed
a new tranflation of the Bible, at London, in z vols, folio.
We have- alfo had feveral tranflations of the New Tillamer.t,
(fee Testament) and of particular books and parts of the
Old and New Tcilamcnt, the principal of whicit will be
noticed in their proper places.

Learned perlons have entertained very different opini.Mis
concerning the accuracy and value of the tranflation, made bv
order oi ki'..g James, and now in common ufe. Bilhop Nevi-
corae, the late much refpeAed primate of Ireland, has given an
abilraCl of thefe opinions. Selden recommends it as the " bell
tranflation in the world." Tht committee for religion in the
time of Cromwell, A. D. 1656, whilil they pretended to dif-
cover fome miilakcs in it, allowed it to be the " bell extant ;''
Walton in his " Prolegomena," highly commends it ; and
Poole in his " Synoplis, &c." fays, that " in this royal
veiilon occur veiy numerous fpecimens of great learning and
dull in the original languages, and of an uncommon acf-.
men and judgment." In the " Bibliotheca Literaria,"
A. D. 1723, it is obferved, that " it made its way by generi-l
confent and approbation, without the intcrpolition of auti.o-
rity to enforce it. A fure argument that it is generally
eileemed the bell we Lave ; though it has iliil many c n-
U u fide ruble

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fulerahle faults, nntl very mucli needs anotlier rcvfew." Dr.
Wills, ill his gcne'^al prelacc to trie O. T. profclTes to cor-
real it, " eitlKT where it docs not give the true Ictife of the
or'ginal, or where the true fciife is not well expieffcd," ac-
corJiiig to the modern idiom. The autlior of an " Effay for
a New Tranflatiou of the Bible, &c." 1727, after fpcaking
in praife of this verfion, recommends the attempt to give a
more exaft tranflation than any that has hitherto appeared ;
and he adds, " it were indeed to be wifliod, tliat thnfe who
are in power did employ men of true learning, and folid
piety, free from bigotry and lilind zeal, in fo noble and necef-
farya work." " Innu.ticrabie iiiflanccs," lays Blackwall in
his " Sacred Claffics," might be made (in tlie Engliih Bible)
of faulty tianflations of the divine original ; which either
weaken its fenfe, or dcbale and tarnifli the bcantv of its
language." He alfo obferves, that " a new tiandation can
give no offence to people of found judgment and confidcra-
tion ; becaufe every body, converfant in ihefe matters, and
unprejudiced, mud acknowledge, that there was Itfs occalioii
to change the old verfion into the preferit, than to change
the prcfent into a new one." — " Such an accurate and ad-
mirable tranfiation, proved and fupoorted bv found criticifm,
would quadi and filence moil of the objtdions of pert and
profane cavillers, which chiefly proceed from their want of
jiciietration and difceniinent ot the connexion of the argu-
ment, and their ignorance of the manner and phrafe, of the
divine writings. It would likewife remove the fcriiples of
many pious and confcientious Chriftians." — " A new divi-
flon of the facred books into chapters, feftions, and periods,
might be fo contrived and managed as to make a new edition
very commodious and beautiful ; which would overbidance
eU inconveniences which fupciilition and weaknefs could pre-
tend might arife from alterations, and make a viclorious and
fpeedy way to the favour and full approbation of the world."
There is hardly one chapter in the N. T., fays this author,
that is not faultily divided, in confequcnce of which, the
conneflion and meaning of particular pafTagcs are rendered
confufcd and obfcure ; whilil the ftyle is materially injured.
•' It is, with pleafure and jull veneration," he continue?,
" to the memory of our learned and judicious tranflators,
that I acknowledge their verfion in the main, to be faitliful,
clear, and folid. But no man can be fo fnperftitioufly devo-
ted to them, but muil own that a confiderable number of
paffages are weakly and imperfeflly, and not a few falfely,
rendered. And no wonder ; for fince their time there have
been great improvements in the knowlec'.ge of antiquity, and
advancements in critical learning, &c." " If ever" (favs Dr.
Waterland, Scripture Vindicated,) " a proper time fhould
come for rcvifing and correding our lall Englifh tranflation,
which, though a very good one, and upon the whole fcarce
inferior to any, yet is undoubtedlv capable of very great
improvements. &c." Doddridge, Wefley, Wynne, Pilkino-.
ton, Purver, Worfiey, Prieflley, Sec. &c. exprefs themfelves
to the fame purpofe. " 'I'o confirm and illuftrate the holy
fcriptures," fays the eminently ingenious and learned bifhop
Lowth (Vifitalion Sermon at Durham, 1758.) " to evince
their truth, to fhew their confillence, to explain their mean-
ing, to make them more generally known and lludicd, more
eafily and perfectly uiiderftood by all ; to remove tlie diffi-
cultieF, that difcouiage the honell endeavours of the un-
Icirned, and provoke the malicious cavils of the half-learned :
this is the mofl worthy"t)bje(il that can engage our attention ;
the moll important end to which our labours in the fea^ch
of truth can be dlrefted. And here I cannot but mention
that nothing would more cffeflnally conduce to this end,
than tlie exhibiting of the holy fcriptures themfelves to the
people in a more advantageous and jull light, by an accu-
6

B I B

rate revifal of our vulgar tranflation by public authority.
This h.alh often been reprefcntcd ; and, I hope, will not
always be reprefented in vain." The late archbifli>)p
Seeker delivers fimilar fentiments in his " Latin fpeech in-
tended to have been made at the opening of the Convoca-
tion in 176:, printed at the end of his charges;" London,
1769, p. 3^1^. To the fame purpofe are the declarations
of Dr. Durell, in his " Critical Remarks on Job, Sec."
Oxf. 1772. pref. p. 6. ; of bifliop Lowth, in his " Prelim.
Diff. to Ifaiah," 410. Lond. 1778, p. 69. ; of Dr. White,
in his " Revifal ol the Englifli Tranfiation of the O. T. re-
commended," Oxf. 1779, p.?. 9, &c. &c. Dr. Keimicott,
Green, and Blarney, excellent judges on this fubjeiit, have
concurred in the fame opinion, of the ncccfllty and util'ty
of cither a new tranflation or a revifal of the old one. Tlie
late Dr. Gtrddes, in his " Pr. fpeftus of a new Tranfiation
of the Holy Bible," 410. Glafg. J786, p. 2. exprefics him-
felf in the following language. " The higheft eulogiums
have been made on the tranflation of James I., both by our
own writers, and by foreigners ; and indeed, if accuracy,
fidelity, and the itrickil attention to the letter of the text,
be fuppofed to conllilute the qualities of an excellent verfion,
this, of all vcrfions, mull, in general, be accounted the mofl
excellent. Every fcntJiice, every word, every fyllable, every
letter and point, feem to havebeen weighed with theniccil ex-
atlitude, and expreffed, either in the text or the margin, with
the greateft precifion. P.'gninus himfelf is hardlymore literal;
and it was well remarked by Robertfon, above 100 years
ago, tliat it may fervt for a lexicon of the Hebrew language,
as well as for a tranfiation. It !•=, however, confefiedlv, not
wiihout its faults. Befides thofe that are common to it with
every verfion of that age, arifing from faulty original.^, and
Maforetic prepofitions ;" it has its own intrinfic ar.d pecu-
liar blemifiies, which Dr. Gtdde3 enumerates. From a fu-
pcrllitious attention to render the Hebrew and Greek into
literal Englifh, its authors adopted modes of c xprcffion which
are abhorrent from the Englifh idiom ; and perhaps from
that of all other modern tongues. There is alfo a msiiifell
want of uniformity in the mode of tranfiating, which is
owing to the variety of perfons employed. The books called
apocrypha are, in Dr. Geddes's opinion, generally tranf-
lated better than the reft of the Bible ; for wSiich one rea-
fon may be, that the tranflators of them were not ciamptd
by the fetters of the Mafora. The tranflators of this ver-
fion millook the true meaning of a great many words and
fentences by depending too much on modern lexicons, and
by paying too little attention to the ancient verfion?. For
various reafons they encumbered their verfion with a load of
ufclcfs Italics ; often without the leatl ncceflity, and almoft
always to the detriment of the text. Like other tranflators
of their day, they were too much guided by theological
fyflems, and leem, on fome occafions, to have allowed their
religious prejudices to have gotten the better of their judg-
ment. Befides, through the coiiflant fluftuation and pro-
grefs of hving languages, there are many words and plirafes,
in the vulgar verfion, now become obfolete, of which mo-
dern vvriters have felcaed a great variety. The conflruftion
alfo is lefs grammatical than the prefcnt ft:ate of our language
feems to allow; and the arrangement of the words and fen-
tences is often fuch as produces obfcurity and ambiguity.
Dr. Campbell, in his preface to " The Four Gofpels tranf-
lated ;" Dr. Sym.onds, in his " Obfervations on the Ex-
pediency of revifing the prcfent Englifli verfion of the four
Gofpels, and of the Afts of the Apoilles ;" Mr. Wakefield,
m his " Tranflation of the N. T. ;" and Mr. Ormerod, in
his " Short Specimen for an Improvement in fome parts of
the prefent Tranflation of the O. T. ;" unite in recommend-
ing

B 1 B

B I S

ipg a revifal of otir prefent trannation. Dr. Symonds, in par-
ticular, examines the grounds of an opinion, advanced by
L.owth, in his " Englifh Grammar," p. 93, and ah^o by
many others, which is, tliat the vulgar trandation of the
Bible; is the bed ftandard of the Englifh language. Dif-
tingni(hin;r betv.-een the terms one of the ftaiidards, and the
b-rfl ftandard, which are very different, he allows that the
plain and finiple turn of exprefilon, refulting from the choice
of old Englidi words, may entitle our verfiou to the former
appellation, and yet many other circumllances muft be unit-
ed toconfii-m its claim to the latter. Accordingly, he fug-
getts the following inquiries : " Are the words and phrafes,
employed by our tranflator, generally placed in tlitir pro-
per order? Are they fo arranged as to preclude all obfcurity
and ambiguity ? Do we al.vays find the antecedent to which
the relatives refer ? Hath a riglit attention been paid to the
modes and times of verbs ? And is there a due propriety ob-
ftrvcd in the ufe of particles, upon which the clearnefs of a
f ntence chiefly depends ?" The want of conformity to
t'ufe rules, or to the greater part of them, will not allow
our verfion of the Bible to lay claim to the appellation of tl'.e
Icjl ftandard of our language. Many other opinions of very
refpeftable writers, decidedly in favour of an improved ver-
fion of the Bible% might be added to thofe that are above
c:ted. Objeftions, however, have been urged againft it, by
Dr. Vicefimus Knox, in his " Effays Moral and Literary,"
and aifo by others ; and they have been examined and ob-
viated by the late primate of Ii-eland, Dr. Newcome, who
avows his opinion, that nothing would be more benefieial to
the caufe of religion, or- mor-e honourable to the reign p.id
age in which it was patronifed and executed, tlian au im-
povi-d Englldi verfion of the Scripture?.

It has been faid, that a new ver-fion of the B'ble is quite un-
receffiuy. But although our Englifli ti-andation, or any tranf-
lation extant, contains all things neceO'ary to falvation, yet in
common language a meafni'e is faid to be neceftary, when il is
liigidy expedient. Let any competent fcholar ftndy the Bible
in the original languages, and then pronounce whether our au-
tho}ized verfion is not capable of amendment and iinpiove-
ment, in numberlefs places, many of which muft be confidei-
cd as very important. If every pai^t of Scripture be intend-
ed to anfwer fome important purpofe, as it certainly is, or
it would not have been given to us, every part ought to be
put into the hands of Chiifliirns as free as pofTible fr-om ob-
ieuritv and error. Some miftakes, amorrg many that may
be deemed fmall, ar^e fo confiderable as to deprive Chrillianity
of much folid evidence, and furnilh the Sceptic with his
moft formidable weapons. Whii'l it is aciinowlcdged that
cur prefent verfion contains every thing neceffar-y to falvation,
it may be aliedgcd, that if this be a fufficient reafon for not
correfting thole faulty paffages which admit of corredlion,
it would be a fufficient reafon for throwing them out of it
altogether-. But as our heavenly Father has been pleafed to
favour his creatures with additio:!al light, it would ill become
us to permit any of this light to be obfcured, or to pretend
that it is not wanted. If, according to the conc-.irions of
fome of the ohjedlors to a new verfion, the faith and practice
ot illiterate perfons ai'e fonietimes aftefted by the prefent ver-
fion, and if, in fome inftances, its obfcui'ity would be re-
moved ; religion is a matter of fuch great concern as to de-
mand fi'om thofe who watch over its interefts, that even
thcfc defects iliould be reftified. It is dangerous to retain
aay known errors in our national verfion ; they operate dif-
ferently on different minds; nor is it eafy to eftimate their
degree or effects. The opinions and conduft not .only
ot the unlearned, but of the lear-ned themfclves, who do
not carefully examine the Scriptures, have in fact been

(Irongly influenced in matters of acknowledged import-
ance, by corrupt readings or miftrai.flationsof a very few text?.
It has again been objected, liiat a new tranflation is 211
extremely dangerous attempt ; that nothing would more im-
mediately ter.d to ftiake the bafis of the cftabiifirment ; and
that it would be imprudent to fliock the minds of fome very
devout and well-meaning people, by an innovation which
they could not help confidering as an infult on heaven.. A
meafure of this kind would tend to (hake the faith of thou-
fands, to whom it v/ere impoffible to dennonftrate the nccef-
fity of a change, or the principles on which it was conduct-
ed. Perfons of ihis clafs would lofe their veneration for the
old verfion, without acquiring fufficient confidence in the
new : and the benefits mull be great indeed, that can com-
penfate even for the remoteft pofPibility ot fuch an evil. To
this mode of objecting it has been replied, that it does not
imm.ediately affedt the m.erits of the queftion, but it arraigns
the piT-dence of introducing a corredl verfion, as a meafure
from which dangerous cfTccts, and not folid advantages, will
be apt to arife on the whole. Whatever tends, it has been
faid, to the perfedtion of an cftablifhment, would not (hake
it, but give it fplendour, ftrength, and fccurity. An ac-
curate verfion would reiledt the higheft honour on our na-
tional chur-ch, and may be ranked in an eminent degree
among thofe meafures, which would fix it on a bafis as firm
as truth, virtue, and Chrillianity. Such a work would be
as natural a fubjeft for the praife of all Protcftant countries,
as king James's Bible was for the honourable teftimonv born
to it by the fynod of Dort. It ought alfo to be recolielftcd,
that alter Coverdale's tranflation had received the fanction
of authority, the Bibles of Matthewe, Cranmer, Taveiner,
archbiihop Parker, and James 1. were all i/incvatioiis in their
day ; and yet that, conlideixd as different verfions, they pro-
duced no civil or ecclefiaftical commotion, no violent agita-
tion in the mii.ds of merr, refenibling thofe which are now
apprehended and predicted. Befides, a tranflation by au-
thority ought to fuperfedc all others from its intrinfic ex-
cellence ; and it would of courfe luperfede them by the fre-
quency, correct.nefs, and cheapnefs of its editions, a:! kinc
James's did that of Geneva, notwithftanding the pi-efcrencc
given to it by the Calvimfts. Moi-cover, it is iiard to con-
ceive, how the faith of llioufands can be ftiaken by remov.
ing ftumbling-blocks, inftead of retaining them. Abfurd
belief and corrupt practice arile from an ignorance of the
Scriptures ; not from the bcft human inducements and afTift-
ances to fearch and underftand them. It is the nature of
truth, and efpecially of divine truth, to captivate thofe who
contemplate it, in proportion as the veil is withdrawn, and
its genuine features appear. If ill-founded prejudices fhould
exilt among the people, their teachers fliould ferioufly la-
bour to remove them. Thefe prejudices are fuch, as far as
they exill, wliich might be eafily removed, or which would
notdeferve to be regarded. Befides, the public mind might
be prepared for it, and difpofed to acquicfce in it bv previ-
ous and (reque.it recomm.endations of it orr the part of ecclcfi-
aftics, who derive weight from their rank, and, which is the
higheft of ail ranks, fays a primate of Ireland, from their re-
putation. A repeated difcuflion of the topics, that involved
the neceflity, expediency, and utility of a new verfion, in dif-
courfc, in the pu'pit, ant from the prefs, and the concurrence
of the befl, the wifcft, the moft learned, and the greateft, in
the recommendation, patronage, and conduct of an amended
verfion, would give the bulk ot the communi'y as great a con-
fidence in it as they ever rcpolcd in any preceding one.

Some, indeed, may fay " Let us introduce no change ;
for we cannot tell vKhat furtlicr change may be required of
us." Had this kind of lukewarm and timid reafoning been

Uu 2

regarded,

B I B

regained, neither tlie reformation, nortlic revolution, could
Inve taken place ; and wc ilioulJ liavo been itill fubjca to
Romilli fiiperllition, and to dcfpotic power. It is certainly

B I B

comparative imperfeftions ; and yet thefe {liould be promot-
ed by the nafiral p:itrons of facred learning, and parts of the
Scriptures (lioiild be afiigntd to fuch as are belt quahfied for

not'icfs t"hrpart'of'wlfdo.n andma-nanimity to -ive up what the honourable taH. of tranflati^ng and explaining thena ; be-
is wrong, than rcfolutely to maintain what is right. caufe thefe pr.vate verfions and expohnons wdl lorm a mod

It has been further argued, that the prtfcnt tranflation
derives an advantage from its antiquity, greatly fuperior to
any which could arife fiom a correftion of its inaccuracies.
Hence it would follow, that the verfions of Tindal, Wick-
clifTe, and Jerom, rife in excellence. But no age or preferlp-
tion can authorife error ; and it is obdinacy to defend iu any
verfion, however ancient or venerable, what cannot be ration

ufeful ground-work for a revifed verlion of the whole Bible by
public authority.

After all, it will be faid by feme, who are convinced that
our prefent Bible fliould be revifed, that tins is not a propei"
time for the undertaking ; and th-,* we (hould wait till, by
the further increafe of light and ', rogrefs of improvement,
we fliall be able to carry the work to a greater degree of

ally defend-d. Although it be defirable that the grave an- perfeftion, and, if pofTible, make future rev-ifals unneceffary.
cientcilllliould prevail in an Enghditrandation of the Bible, This argument may be always urged; becauie religious
a tranHation may ncverthelefs become too antiquated ; and knowledge will encreafe, in propo. tion as human lenrnmg
in faft our own Bible retains words and forms of fuch re- improves, and as rew light is obtained from vcrlions ai:d

MSS. that are already known, and that may yet be dil-
covered, duly examined and compared. " But fhall we, in
the mean time, prolong the difficulties of the Chriftian, and
the fancied triumph of the Infidel >. The miftakes already
difcovered are well worthy of correftioii. Should others of
importance be brought to light iu the next, or fubfequenc

mote ufe, that fome of them are not underftood, even by in
telligent readers, and many of them are rather har(h and
uncouth, than venerable and majellic.

But it has been faid, that the prefent tranflation ought to
he retained in our churches, on account of its intriufic beauty
and excellence. The language, though fimple and natural,

is rich and expreffive. Even in the literal tranflation of the generation, let them alfo be correded. The ti-ue rule lu
Flalms, there are palTagcs exquifitely beautiful andirrefilUbly this cafe is, to revife as often as revifion is neceflary. To
tranfporting ; and where the fenfe is not clear nor the con- defer this longer, is an injury to religion ; to^put it off till

lofophy, has acquired fufficient ilrength to triumph over
their oppofers."

In favour of an improved verfion of the Bible, for national
ufe, it has been argued, that fuch a tranflation becomes ne-
ceffary by the unavoidable fluftuation of living languages.
The ftyle of WickclifFe's verfion, and of Tindal's, veiy widely
differs in the courfc of 14S years , and the Euglilh language
v.nqueflionably be retained by all future tranflators; but underwent alfo a great change between the publication of
" ' • ■ ■ ■ ■ -^ r Tin(j;,i'g ;B;blt and that of king James's, in an interval of 81

years. Since the year 1611, when the prefent verfion firlt

__ appeared, our language has acquired a great degree of copi-

The correfting tranflators, it will be again urged, differ oufnefs, of elegance, of accuracy, and perhaps of ftability.
amon-T themfelves. Differences mud neccffarily arife among Many words and phrafes which occur in the revifed verfion
interpreters of the Scriptures. King James's tranflators are become unintelligible to the generality of readers ; and

are found, m an equal, or partly in a fuperior degree, in our
iirfl verfion ; and mail be more or lefs found in every verfion
of the Hebrew Scriptures, that is not a mere paraphrafe.
King James's tranflators found it in their prototype ; the
d'.ftion and phrafeology they borrowed from their predecef-
fors in tranflation. What is beautiful, what is excellent,
what i^ melodious and ravifliing in the prefent verfion, fliould

is there any reafon for retaining its corruptions, its miftranf-
lations, its obfcurities, and its other acknowledged imper-
ftcHon> '

often difagreed as individuals ; and adopted in a body what
feemed to be mod agreeable to the found rules of interpreta-
tion. Let a like number of able judges decide, on the fame
principles, between biblical critics of the prefent age. But
the new tranflators recede too far from the common verfion.
This, however, in a new verfion, is not neceffary, nor would
it be proper ; whilft they recede from its errors and iinper-

many, v.-hlch are intelligible, are fo antiquated and debafed, as
to excite difguft among the ferious, and contempt and dcrilion
among libertines. Pilkington (Remarks on ftveral paffagcs
of Scripture, Camb. Svo. 1759); Purver (Tranflation of the
Bible); Dr. Symonds (Obfervations on the expediency of
revifiiig the prefent Englilh verfi(}n, &c. Camb. .).to. 17S9) ;
Dr. Wells (Pref. to Comment on the O. T.) ; Dr. Camp.

feftions ; they fliould retain its general dlAion and manner, bell (Four Gofpels tranflated from the Greek, 4to. Lond

nor ever allow themfelves to deviate from it without a fatif-
faftory reafon.

It has been further intimated, by thofe who are averfe from
a new verfion, that fuch as wilh for additional information
may have rccoutfe to thofe authors, who have explained ob-
fcure and erroneous paffagcs. But have all Chiiftiaus, who
meet with difficulties, time and ability to confult thefe

1789); and Di'. Geddes (Profpttlus) ; have feleftcd many
words and phrafes that require correction, and that admit of
obvious improvement. The ftyle of a biblical verfion is a
matter of importance; both as it invites the perufal of a
book which the Spirit of God infpired, and as it infl'.iences
the national language and tafte. Whatever merit be allow-
ed to the verfion now in ufe, with regard both to its inter-

writers ? Or if they had, is it in any refpecl decent or fit pretations as well as its ftyle, it mult be allowed that, fince

that the public Scriptures, confeffed to want affiltance,
fliould be fuffered to depend for fupport on thefe extraneous
props ? The national Bible is the great record of our reli-
gion ; it is this v.-hich the Dcill attacks, and this mull fup-
ply us with our defence.

The objectors proceed with obferving, that no tranflation,
fven of a fingle book, has yet appeared, preferable on the
whole, to the received one. Let it be confidered, however,

that the attempts of individuals neccfl'arily labour under great of the Hebrew Scriptures, have been collated by Kennicott

and

the period in which it was executed, the biblical apparatus
has been much enriched by the publications of polyglotts ;
of the Samaritan pentateuch ; of ancient and modern ver-
fions ; of lexicons, concordances, critical differtatlons, and
fermons ; books of eaftern travels ; difquifitions on the geo-
graphy, cultoms, and natural hiltory of the Eaft ; accurate
tables of chronology, coins, weights, and meafures. Many
Hebrew and Samaritan MSS. ; many early printed editions

B I B

B I B

and De Rofli ; the eatlern languages, which have fo clofe an
affinity with the Hebrew, have been induftrioullj- cultivated
at home and abroad ; the Maforctic punftuation is now
ranked among ufeful atfillances, but no longer implicitly
followed ; and tlic Hebrew text itfclf is generally allowed to
be coiTupt in many places, and therefore capable of eme:;da-
tion by the fame methods which are ufed in reftoring the in-
tegrity of all other ancient books. With fuch an acctffion
of helps, with light poured in from every part of the literary
world, with fuch important principles, and with the advance-
ment of critical (Icill to apply them, it is natural to conclude,
that m:iny miftakes and abfurdities may be removed from the
prefcnt vcrfion, and that the precifion, beauty, and empha-
fis of the originnl, may be communicated to it in various
places. The prefcnt Hate of the Hebrew text, in its refer-
ence to a new verfion of the O. T. has been already repre-
fented in the commencement of this article ; and that of
the text of the New Teftament will be the fubjetl of a
future article; See Testament.

Dr. Newcome, in his " Attempt towards an improved
verllon, &c. of the Minor Prophets," publilhed m 1785,
propofed a variety of rules for condufting a new tranflation
of the Bible. Thefe have been fince ccrreflcd and enlarged
(ubi infra) ; and in order to render this article, the fobject
of which is highly important and interelling, as complete
and as fatisfaftory to biblical readers as our limits will al-
low, we mall here fubjoin the moft material parts of them.
The learned prelate propofes, in the firft place, that apian,
refembling the regulations prefcribcd to king James's tranf-
lators, (hould be dtliberntely adjufted by a large committee
of judicious and learned men. A more felecl committee,
well acquainted with the original tongues in which the Bible
is written, fhould then be appointed by proper authority,
who (hould invite every fcholar to contribute his remarks ;
who (hould have their refpeftive parts affigncd them; and who,
after the performance of their allotted tafks, (hould amicably
unite in advancing the whole to its proper degree of perfec-
tion. Thtjirjl of his rules is, that a trandation of the Bible
(hould exprefs every word in the original by a literal, verbal,
or clofe rendering, where the Englifli idiom admits of it.
This rule admits of fome few exceptions ; but it excludes
unnecelTary deviation from the grammatical form of the ori-
ginal words ; unriecciTary paraphrafe, which enervates the
force of the original, difguifes its manner, and fometimes
fuggefls a wrong idea ; fentential renderings ; and fuch as
are defeflive. The yjfonf/ rule directs the tranflator, where
the Er.glifh idiom requires a paraphrafe, to endeavour fo to
form it as to comprehend the original word or phrafe ; and
to exprefs the fupplemental part in Italics, except where
liarlhncfj of language refults from the adoption of tliis me-
thod. The /,6;;-i/ rule recommends, in caies where a verbal
tranflation cannot thus be interwoven, the fubftitution of one
equivalent to it, and which implies the reading in the ongi-
nal ; but the idiom in the text (hould be literally rendered in
the margin. By obferving the fecond and third rules, the
utmoft fidelity to the original will be (hewn, which is the
primary duty of a biblical tranflator ; the cuftoms and man-
ners of the eailern nations will be explained ; the pecuHar ge-
nius of the original languages will be exhibited ; and the
reader unfiiilled in them will be bell enabled to interpret for
himfelf. T'ne fourth rule requires, that the language of a bib-
lical tranflation (hould be pure, or conformable to the rules of
grammar. Th.^Jifth rule directs, that propriety fliould be a
prevailing charafter in the words and phrafes of a biblical
tranflation ; that is, they (hould have the fanftion of ufe,
and the fignification given to them (hould be warranted by
the bed fpeakcrs and writers. In order to prtftrve the ve-

nerable turn of our prefent verfion, fome few exception*
may be allowed under this general rule. The ^r.'Zi rule en-
joins the tranflators to retain the Cmplicity ot the prefent
verlion ; for which purpofe they fhould exclude toreign
words, andthe pomp and elegance of modemifed diclion. The
/event!) rule inculcates perfpicuity. The eighth rule recom-
mends the fame original word, and its derivatives, according
to the different leading f.-nfes, and alfo the fame phrafe, to
be refpeciively tranflated by the fame correfpouding £r.glifh
word or phrafe ; except where a d.llinft reprefentation of a
general idea, or the nature of the Englilh language, or the
avoiding of an ambiguity, or elegance of ftyle, or harmony
of found, requires 3 dillerent mode of expreffian. In confor-
mity to this rule, it is propofed, that tranflators {hould pre-
vipfflv agree on the rendering of certain words and phrafef.
Acco'dingly, the original word " Jehovali," which exprcfTcs
the felf-cxilience of the deity, and which, fo far from being
barbarous, is a grand and magnificent term, (hould be re-
tained : — that it (hould be confidtrecl, by the help of con-
cordances, whether the fame word can always be rendered in
the fame irrmncr ; and that when an Englifli word fuits every
place, it fhould invariably be ufed : — that if the original
word cannot always ad:p.it of the fame rendering, of which
many e;< imples occur, the different renderings may be re-
duced to as few as polTible, and thofe the fitted which the
Engliih language affords : — that diflferent words, which
have the fame, or nearly the fame fenfe, (hould be diftin-
guilhed in tranflating them, when the Englilh tongue fur-
nifhes diilinft and proper terms : — and that parallel paffages
(hould be rendered in the fame words. The ninth rule re-
quires that the collocation of words (hould never be har(h
and unfuited to an Englifli ear. The tenth rule recommends
to tranflators of the Bible a fuitable degree of beauty and
elegance. This beauty, in its prevailing characler, mud be
eafy and natural, timple and fevere ; free from laboured or-
nament and artful variety of phrafe. The ftyle, hke that
of the original, mull be raifed in the poetical parts, but not
inflated, and plain in the hiftorical parts, but not abjetl.
" Let nothing," fays Dr. Symonds (ubi fupra) " be ad-
mitted into the text, which we cannot read with plcafure,
as well as with advantage." In the eleventh rule it is re-
quired, that dignitv fliould charafterize a verfion of the Bi-
ble. The oppofite extreme refults from the inlroduftiou of
debaftd and offenfive terms or phrafes ; of which fome are
degraded by familiar ufe, others are coUiquial and vulgar
Anglicifms ; and modern phrafeoiogy, as fuch, is undigni-
fied in a tranflation of the Bible. The licelfih rule prcfcribes
energy as another charadteriftic of a biblical tranflation.
This quahty is obtained, in a grer.t degree, by limplicity and
propriety in the terms that are felefted to reprefent the pe-
culiar notions conveyed by the facrcd writers, and by expref-
llng the claufes contained in the original with due concife-
nefs. The forcible llyle of the Scriptures is enfeebled by
epitiicts and paraphrafe ; nor does their majefty more difdain
the defeft of ornament, than the excefs of it. A verfion cf
the Bible will derive much force by retaining thole Hc-
braifms which the Englifli language cafily admits, or to
which an Englifli ear is now accuftomed. Obfcure Ke-
bi-aifms, fuch as weaken the fignification of the original,
and thofe which mifreprefent its meaning, (hould be
avoided. In the thirteenth rule it is recommended to conti-
nue the old ecclefiallical terms, fuch as repentance, myder)-,
eledl, prededina-ted, &c. which arc now part of our theolo-
logical language, and of which explanations perpetually oc-
cur. K\i\c fourteenth. Metaphors are, in general, to be re-
tained. By obferving this rule, the genius of a language,
and the nature and cuftoms of a counirv, will oftco appear.
1 ' Rule

B I B

B I B

T^\AitJ!ftefi!lh. Proper names Ihould remain as they are now
vvrittfii in thofe places wtiere they arc moll coneftly repre-
fcnted. Kulcfixicfiilh. The bell known ::;eogi;\piiical terms
ftiould be inlcrtcd in the text ; and th.ole of tlic original in
the mar.rin ; e. g. Syria, niarg. Aram ; Ethiopia, marg.
Ciilli. Rule /J-Ticn/ffn//'. Tiie language, feiife, and pundtu-
ation of our prcfent verfion fhould be retained, \ir.lcfs when
a fiifficicnt reafon can be alTigned for deoa:ting from them.
Rule a^htefnsh. The critical fcnfe of paltages Ihould be con-
fidertd, and not the opinions of any denoinination of Chrif-
t'aiis whatever; fo that the trandators ihould be phiiologills,
and nut controverliaiills. Rule nineteenth. PaiHiges already
admitted into the common vcrfion, but which are alL)\\\'d co
be marginal glofics, or about the autheriticity of which cri-
tics have reafon to be doubtful, Ihould be placed in the text
between brackets. Rule ttuenlielh. In t!it bcft editions of
the Hible, the poetical parts ihould be divided into lines
anfwering to the metre of the original; or I'ome other
method (hould be ufcd to diilinguilh them from profe.
But if it Ihould be thought advifable to exclude the
poetical dillribution from our Biblef, and confine it to
the prolulions of the fcholar, fome proper mark of di-
ftinclion lor metrical paufe, as the Hebrew Reuhiang or
two horizontal points placed over a word, may be ad-
mitted into the authorized imprciTionsof the Old Teftament;
or, at leall, the contents prefixed may advertife the reader
of the padagcs generally allowt-d to afFume the tone and
form of poetry. Rule t-Mcntyfrfi. Of dark pafTages, which
exhilnt no meaning as they Hand in our prefent verfion, an
intelligible rendering fliriuld be made on the principles of
found crit'.elfm. Under this head of found criticifm, New-
come includes that which is conjectural, the fober ufe of
which he frequently recommends. But it admits of doubt,
whether conjecture can ever be authorized in a tranflation
whicli is intended for general ufe ; for if it be exercifed on
flight occafions, it mull be in fome degree fupertluous ; if
on material ones, it mull ever be indecifive. The learned
prelate, however, lays down the following canons for this
kind of criticifm. Never fuppofe that the text is corrupted,
vi'ithout the moil cogent and convincing reafons. Never
liavc rccourfc to conjeftural criticifm, until every other fource
has been tried and cxhaufted. Let all correftions be confill-
cnt with the text, and with one another. Infert no corec-
tlon, however plaufible or even certain, in the text, without
warning the reader, and diftinguilhing it by a proper note.
For other inllructions, more immediately defigned for the
editor of fuch a new verfion, we refer to the author himfelf ;
as well as to his appendix, for a lift of tlie various editions of
the Bible, together with an account of the libraries public
or private, in which they are to be found. Another more
complete fill of this kind is prefixed to bifliop Wilfon's Bi-
ble. See Lewis's Trandations of the Bible, Bvo. 1739.
Johnfon's Hillorical Account of the feveral Englilh tranda-
tions of the Bible, in bilhop Watfon's Colhclion of Theo-
logical TraAs, vol. iu. p. 60 — 100. Newcome's Hillorical
View of the Englilh Biblical Tranfaftions, &c. 8vo. Dublin,
1792.

Bibles, Welch. There was a Welch tranflation of the
Bible made from the original in the time of queen Elizabeth,
in confcquence of a bill brou>;ht into the houfe of conmions
for this purpofe in 1563. The aft 5 Eliz. c. 28. recitin"-,
that in Wales the people were popUhly inclined, and ver)- i;j--
norant, put the direftion of this wwrk into the hands of the
biftops of Hereford, St. David, Bangor, Landaft, and St.
Afaph, who were to infpeft the traidlation, and take care
that iuch a number (hould be printed as would provide every
'cathedral, collegiate, and parifh-church, and chapel of eafe.

within then- refpeiSlive dioccfes, where Welch was commonly
fpoken, with one copy. It was printed in folio, in ij88.
Another verfion, which is the llandard tranflation for that
language, was printed in 1620. It is called Pan-y's Bible.
An itrpn-fTiou of this was printed in 1690, called Bidiop
Lloyd's Bible. Thefe were in folio. The firll ocilavo ini-
prefi'ion of the Welch Bible was made in 1^30.

Bibles, Ir'tfi. The New Tellarr.ent having been tranf-
lated into Iridi by William Daniel, archbifiiop of Tuam,
Bedell, who was aJvaneed to the fe:; cf Kilmore and Ar-
dagh, in 1629, firll procured the Old Ted:ament to be tranf-
lated bv one King ; but the trai.flator being igr.orant of the
original langr.ages, and having done it from the Englidi, the
bilhop himfelf revifed and compared it with the Hebrew,
the Septuagint, and the Italian verfion of Diodati. He fup-
ported Mr. Kiig to the utmoll of his ability, whilil he was
engaged in this work ; and when the tranflation vi'as finiflied,
he would have printed it in his own houfe, and at his own
charge, if the troubles in Ireland had not prevented it.
The execution of his benevolent defign was alio impeded in
confcquence of the notice that was given of it to the lord
lieutenant and the archbilhop of Canterbury, who thought
it (lifgraceful for a nation to have a Bible publi.hed, which
had been tranflated by fuch a defpic.ible perfon as King.
However, tlie tranflation efcaped the hands of the rebels,
and it was alterwards, viz. in i6Sj, printed at the expence
of the Hon. Robert Boyle.

Bibles, Gaelic. The Bible was tranflated and publidied
by the foci^.-ty in Scotland for promoting Chrilllan know-
ledge, in the Gaelic language, for the ufe of their fchools,
and of the people in the Highlands, at difl"crent periods, and
in detached poitions, as the funds of the fociety allowed.
In 1767, the New Teftament in Gaelic was publidied by it-
felf ; and in various fucccflive years, and in fcpar:iie volumes,
the feveral books of the Old Teftair.ent were publillicd. In
I 796, the firll edition of the New Tellament being exhaufted,
the fociety publidied another, confining of 20,000 copies.
And as fome of the fiift printed volumes of the Old Tefta-
ment have been fo much reduced in number, as to be infuf-
ficient to fupply the urgent demands of the Highlands in
general, and of the fociety's own fchool in particular, a new
edition of 20,000 copies has been lately undertaken (iu
1803), at an expence of 2284I. i6s. defrayed by volun-
tary fiibferiptioii. An adt of charity, higiily important and
laudable, as the perfons, for whofe accommodation it is de-
figned, amount to no lefs than 335,000 ; of whom, it is com-
puted, that 300,000 underlland no other language than the
Gaelic, or at Icaft cannot comprehend a book written, or a
continued difconrfe fpoken, in any other.

Bible-Doctors, in Ecehfmjlieal Bijlory, a denomination
by which the fchoolmen of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies were diftiiiguldied, who made the Scriptures the chief
fubjeft of their ftudics, and text of their ledtnres. However,
in the courfe of tlie thirteenth century, the holy Scriptures,
together w^th thofe who ftudied and explained them, fell
into great negleft and even contempt. The Bible- Doftors
were flighted as men of little learning or acumen ; they had
few fcl.olars, and were not allowed an apartment, or a fcr-
vant to attend them, or even a ftated time for reading
their ledures, in any of the famous univerfities of Europe.
The ilhiftrious Roger Bacon inveighed very bitterly againft
this abufe; and his excellent friend, Robert Grouthead,
bidiop (if Lincoln, wrote a pathetic letter to the regents in
theology in the univerfity of Oxford, on this fubjedt ; ear-
neftly mtieating them to lay the foundations of theological
learning in the ftudy of the Scriptures, and to devote the
morning -hours to ledures on the Old and New Tcftaments.

But

B I B

B I B

But all thefe remonftrances and exhortations had little or no
effea.

BIBLIA, or BiihiA fdraria, in a military fenfe, denotes
a machine ufed by the ancients for throwing ftones or darts.

BIBLIANDER, Theodore, in Biography, whofe true
name was B'ruchman, a learned protcllaiit divine, was born
in IJC4, at Bifchoifzell near St. Gall, in Swifferland. He
officiated as profcffor of divinity at Zurich from 1532 to
1560, when he was declared emeritus, or pail fervicc, not
becaufe he was incapable of executing his office, but be-
caufe he had advanced opinions that deviated from the ftand-
ard of orthodoxy with regard to the doiTtrine of predeftiiia-
tion. He died of the plague, at Zurich, in 1564. He was
well acquainted with the oriental languages, and publiflied,
in 1550, an edition of the Koran; the text of which,
Baylc fays, he corrected by a collation of the Arabic and
Latin copies ; and he added marginal notes, pointing out
and refuting its abfurdities. But others fay, that this edi-
tion is faulty, and difpute Bibliander's Hcill in the oriental
languages. To this ed;tion he fubjoined the lives of Maho-
met and his fuccelTors, and prefixed an apology, by way of
preface, which gave great offence by maintaining the hiwful-
ncfs and utility of a free perufal of books advtrfe to true re-
ligion. He alfo wrote feveral other books on theological
fubjefts, feme of which are printed, and others remain in
MS. in the library at Zurich. He likewife finiihed the Bi-
ble of Leo Jnd^. called the " Zurich Bible," and printed in
1543, ^"d trandaied from the Hebrew into Latin the lall 8
chapters of Eztkiel, Daniel, Job, EccleCaftes, the Canti-
cles, and the laft j.8 Pfalms. Gen. Did.

BIBLIOGRAPHL^, a branch cf arcbj:ographla, em-
ployed in the judging and perufing of ancient manufcripts,
whether written in books, paper, or parchment. The ftnfe
of it is now extended, and it fignities a uo'k intended to
give information concerning the firfl, or beil editions of
books ; and the ways of fcltcling and diftinguiftiing them
properly. In ihort, it is ufed for a notitia, or defcription of
printed books, e-ther in the order of the alphabet, of the
times when printed, or of the fnnjcc^-matters. In which
fenfe, bibliocjraphia amounts to much the fame vvith what is
otherwife called I'lliiothecn.

Literarv- journals afford alfo a kind of bibliographia.

BIBLIO.MANCY, a kind of divination performed by
means of the Bible. This amounts to much the fame with
what is otherwife called fortes h'lbi'ictt, or fortes fanciorum.
See SoRTES. It confillcd in taking paffages of Scripture
at hazard, and drawing indications thence concerning things
future , as in Auguftin's toUe el lege. It was much ufed at
the confecraiion of bidiops. F. J. Davidius, a Jefuit, has
publilhed a bibiiornancy, under the borrowed name of Ve-
rid'icus Chr'ifl'ianus.

BIBLIOMANIA, an extravagant paflion for books, to
a degree of madnefs; or a dtfire of accumulating them be-
yond all reafon and neccflity.

BIBLIO THEC.A, from /S.^Acr, bo-,l, and ^r.y.r., rep-jfi-
tory, irom tiir.fjn, I lay up, properly fignifics a hbrary, or
repofitorj' of books. See Library. It is alfo ufed for a
compilation of all that has been written on a certain fubjeil ;
or a digeftion of all the authors who have treated of it. In
this fenfe, we have hiilorical bibliothecx, as that of Diodo-
rus Siculus ; mythological bibliothecx, as that of Apollodo-
rus ; theological and lacred bibliotheca;, as thofe of Rava-
nellus, &e. It is alfo uled for a catalogue of the bocks in
a library ; fuch are the I'llliotheca Cotjfw.'iana, I'tlliotheca
CorJcJtann, llbliotheca Thuaned, I'llTwtheca B'l^non'iana, biU'io-
theca du Boifmna, &c.

L'Abbe has publifhei a bibliot'.eea oi bbliclhec^, or a ca-
talogue of the namss of thjfe who have v/r.tteu biblioUittae,

which has fince been continued and improved under ano-
ther title by Teffier, from 800 writers to the number of
no lefs than 2500. Schrammius has alfo publithed a pro-
gramma on the writers of theological bibiiothecae.

Bibliotheca is a name given to the books of the Old
and New Teftame!:t, in refpedt of their excellency, and fuf-
ficiency fur the ufes of the Chriftian life ; and it is alfo a
title given to divers journals, or periodical accounts in French
of new books.

Bibliotheca Patrum, or of the Fathers, is a colleftion
of the writings of the leffer fathers, printed in one or more
volume!. The firfl of this kind was pubhdied at Paris by
Marg. de la Eigne in 1576.

BIBLIOTHECARIAN, a library keeper, otherwile
called librarian.

The word is alfo ufed for the author of a bibliotheca, or
a catalogue of books.

In this fenfe, P. L'Abbe has given a bibliotheca, or ca-
talogue of bibliothecarians. Gcfner, Lipenius, Struvius,
Fabricius, Sec. are celebrated bibliothecanaiis.

BIBLIOTHEQUEMusiCALE. SeeMfsiCALZ-i'^r^zry.

BIBLIS, in Entomology, a fpccies of Papilio, with
black dentated wings, and a band of fanguineous fpots on
the pofterior ones. It is a native of America, and called
pap'ulo hyperia by Cramer. Gmelin. Gbf. Tais mud not
be confounded with pcpilio biblis of Cramer, which is a very
different iiifeft, and feems to be a variety of papilio penthefilea
ot Fabricius.

BiBLis Fons, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated fountain
of Ionia, fituate E.S.E. of Miletus. It is mentioned by
Paufanias and Ovid.

BIBLISTS, bibli/ljp, an appellation given by fome Romifh
writers to thofe who profcfs to adhere to Scripture alone as
the fole rule of faith, exclufive of all tradition and the fup-
pofed authority of the church. In which fenfe, all protell-
ants are, or ought to be, biblifts. Biblifts, among Chrill-
ians, anfwer nearly to Caraites or Textuaries among the Jews.
The Chriilian dotlors were divided, towards the clofe of
the twelfth centuiy, into two claffes ; viz. the biblici, and
the fchoiaftics : the former were called doclors of the facrcd
page, becaufe they explained the dodrjnes of Chriflianity in
their manner by the lacred writings; however, their reputation
declined, and the fcholaitic theology prevailed in all the Eu-
ropean colleges till the time of Luther. See BiBLE-iJoSorj.

BIBLUS, in Botany, an aquatic plant in Egypt, called
alfo papyrus; of the ikin whereof the ancient Egyptians
made their paper. See Papyrus, and Paper..

Hence alfo the Greeks gave the denomination ^ibXo; to
books m.ade of it. See Bible.

BiBLUs,in.^^«<:/V«/ Geography, a river in the ifland of Naxia.

BIBONA, a place of GaUia Aquitanica, in the route
from Burdigala to Segodum.

BIBORA River and Bav, in Geography, lie to the eaft
of Cartago bav, on the maiu laud of Honduras, about N.
lat. 14° 20'. VV. long. 83'' 45.

BIBRA, Bebra, or BiEBRA, a town of Germany, in
the circie of Upper Saxony, in Thuringia, 10 uules well of
Nann^burg, and 8 fouth of Querfurt.

BIBlvACTE, in /Inrient Geography, a citadel of the
jEdui, according to Strabo, but according to Ca:far» a for-
tified town of Gaul, the capital of which was large and po-
pulous, now defolate ; about 4 miles to the noith-well of
Autun, and called Beureft, Bevray, and Bray.

BIBRAX, BiEVRE, a town of Belgica, in Gaul, in the
country of the Rhemi, north-well of Durocortornro. This
town was attacked with great fury by the other Belgic na-
tions, becaufe it had declared for Csfar. Cxf. Bel. Gal.
1. 2. c. 7.

EIBRICH,

B I C

BIBRICH, in Geoxrapby, a town of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality of NaiTau
Saarbriick Ufingen, 3 miles S.S.W. of Wifbaden.

BIBROCI, in Ancient Cctj^raphy, an ancient people of
Britain, who are fuppofed to have occupied the fouth-eaft-
ern part of Berkfliire, from the Lodden on the weft to the
Thn-.nes on theeaft. Thtfe people undoubtedly came from
that part of Gaul, where the town Bibrax was fituated, and
their name leads us to the difcovcry of their origin, as well
as of the place of their rcfider.ce in this idand. It is not
certainly known when this colony of the Bibroci left their
native country, and fettled in Britain, though it is probable
that it was not bng before C^far's invafion, to whom, per-
haps, they were engaged to fubmit by the influence and ex-
ample of their friends and countr\-men in Gaul. As the
Bibroci were but a fmall nation, they feem to haye been
fubdued by fome of their neighbours before the invafion
of Claudius, and therefore they are no further mentioned in
hiftory. The name of the hundred of Bray, on the Thames,
near Maidenhead, is evidently derived from the name of thefe
ancient inhabitants ; as the ancient Bibracle, in France,
now bears the name of Bray.

BICALCARATUS, in Zouh^y, a fpecies of Pavo, of
a brown colour, with the head llightly crefled, and two fpurs
on eacli leg. Gmclln. This \% pavo Ch'menfis of Briffon ; /'
cbtroumtr oi BurFon ; pct':l paon ile Malacca of Sonnerat ;
pcnc'icl: pl.'tafiwt oi Edwards ; and 'ins peacock of Latham.

Thi:: fplendid bird is a native of China ; in point of lize
it lathtr exceeds the common pheafant, and has a blackifh
bill, with the bafe of the upper mandible red from the noi-
trils ; the irides are yellow ; creft fmall, though compofed of
fome pretty long feathers, and of a dull brown colour ; the
face is naked ; files of the head white ; neck brown, ftiiated
acrofs with duHiv ; upper parts of the back, fcapulars, and
wingcoverts dull brown, dotted with pale brown, and yel-
lowirti ; and near the end of each feather a rich and gloily
purple fpot, changeable to green, to blue, or gold, in dif-
ferent points of view ; lower part of the back and rump
brown, fpotted with white, and body beneath brown, ftri-
ated tranfverfely with black ; upper tail coverts longer than
the tail, and each marked with a fine purple fpot near the end,
encircled with black and orange ; legs and claws brown.
This is the dcfcription of the male. The female is one third
fmailer ; head, ntck, and upper parts brown ; head fmootli;
feathers on the upper pa.-ts marked with a dull blue
fpot, encircled with dull orange ; and the legs have no
ipurs.

BICARI, in Gengrnphy, a river of Sicily, which runs
into the Termini, 2 m.iles weft: of Selafani.

UICARINATA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Lacerta,
with cornpiefTed tail of moderate length, and carinated above;
on the back four rows of carinated fcales. This is of a grey-
i(h colour, and inhabits South America aiid India. Gmel. &c.
BICAUDALIS, in Analo'ny, an appellation given by
fome anatomiils to a mufcle of the external ear, ufnally deno-
minated the rclnrhrns, or relrahenla aiiris, which fee.

BiCAUDALis, in IcIjthyoLgy, a fpecies of Ostracion,
of a triangular form, wirh two fub-caudal foines, and ten
rays in the dorfal fin. Gmclin. There is a fu])pofed variety
of this tiPi fomJ in India, and defcribed by Artedi, in which
the liody is tntlrcly covered with fpots and tubercle?.

BICE, or BisE, among P.iin.'crs, a blue colour, prepared
from the htpis Armeiius, formerly brought from Armenia,
but now from the filver mines in Germany. Piiil. Tranf.
K' 179. p. 26. Dofiia, v. i. p. 9J. Bice is fmalt retlnced
to a tine powder by levigation See Smalt.

The word comes from the barbarous Latin ii/us, or iijliis;
and that, perhaps, from the French l'''s,grey,gri/!::s ; whence

B I C

lifus panis. Vide Du-Cange, Gloff. Lat. torn. 1. p. 5^5.
Skin. Etym. in voc.

Bice bears the bed body of all bright blues, ufed in com.-
mon work ; but is the paleft in colour. It works indiffer-
ently well ; but inclines a little to be fantly, and therefore
requires good grinding on a very hard ftone, and (liould be
waflicd before it is ufed. It lies bell near the eye of any blue
now in life, except ultramarine. Its goodiiefs lies in the bright-
nefs and coolnef". It was formerly ufed in oil, and more fre-
quently in water colours; but it is now much out of ufe. We
have alfo a green bice, made of the blue, with the addition of
orpimcnt;and feveral compofitions of indigo and verditer, with
chalk and other cheap fubftances, are fold under the name
of bice.

BICE, in the Mythology of the Hindoos, the name of one
of their Cads, proceeding from Brahma, the immediate
agent of the creation, under the fupreme power. It derives
its appellation from the belly or thighs, and denotes nourilh-
ment, and it was defined by its founder to provide the neccf-
faries of life by ngriculture and truiFic.

BICEPS, from Its and caput, in Anatomy, is a name com-
mon to feveral mufeles, which confift of two diftlnil portion?,
called heads. Tliofe which are commonly known at prtfent
by that appellation are the foUov/ing.

Bici;rs_}?.-.vor ciihilt. The longer portion, or head, of this
mufcle, arifes by a tendon from the upper part of the glenoid
cavity of the fcapula ; it then pafits through the (houldtr
joint, and dcfctnds in the groove in the upper part of the os
brachii, afterwards the flcfhy fibres begin to be attached to
it. The fhorter portion arifes tendinous and flcfhy from the
coracoiJ proct.fs of the fcapul.i, in common with the cora-
co-brae'iiialis mufcle ; a little below the" middle of the os
brachii, the heads unite and form a bulky mulcle, the fibres
of which terminate below in a ftrong roundidi tendon,
which is inftrted into a tubercle, at the upper end of tiie
radius, at that part which is next to the ulna. At the com-
mencement of the lower tendon of this mufcle, an aponeu-
rofis is fent off from it, which foon expands into the fafcia
of the fore-arm. \

The ufes of this mufcle are numerous, and the confidera-
tion of them affords a good demonllratiou of the impropriety
of denominating a mulcle from any fiiigle office which it may
ferve, as it tends to limit our ideas of its utility. The adtioii
of this mufcle tightens the fafcia of the fore arm ; it turns
t!ie hand fuplne ; it bends the joint of the elbow; it raifes
the arm towards the (hou'der ; and occafionally it brings the
bones of the d.oulder to the arm.

Biceps /?^.v5;- cruris. The long portion, or head, of this
mufcle ariles, in common v.-'th the fcmi-tcndinofus, from the
uppsr and back part of the tuberofity of the os ifchium ; the
fiiort portion aiifes from the linca afpcra on the back part of
the thigh-bone. Thefe two portions having conjoined, produce
a ftrong tendon a little above the external condyle of the os
femoris, which forms the onter ham ftring, and which is at-
tached to the upper part or head of the fibula. The chief ufe
of this mufcle is to bend the leg upon the thigh, and when it
is brought into that fituation, to turn the leg outwards.

BICESTER, in Geography, a market-town of Oxford-
fliire, England, is fituated in a valley on the banks of a
fmall river, which fails into the Charwell, at.Iflip. It is a
large refpeftable town, divided into two parts, called Market-
end, a parilh, and Kings-end, a hamlet. This place and its
vicinity have been poiTeffed by the Romans, as its name im-
plies; and many Roman coins, and other memorials of that
people, have been difcovered here and at Alceder, or Old
Cheder, at different times. The embankments at the latter
place are nearly obliterated by the plough ; but from tlie
name, and the antiquities that have been found, it fcems evi-

dently

B 1 C

tjtiitly to Iiave been a Roman (lation. " Alchefter, Al-cair,
or Cair-AIleft," fays Dr. Plott, " was a walled town that
flood in the north-eaft parts of Oxfordfhire, built, as may
be coU'C'ted from many prob-dbilitics, by Cains Alicctus, one
of the llilrfy tyrants, who, by flaying his dear friend and em-
peror Caraufius, obtained the fole gov£n:mtnt of Britain."

The Oxford canal pafles throngh Lower Rcyford, near
this town, and conveys many articles of trade to and from
it. Here art a large weekly market on Fridays, and fix fairs
annually, befides two annual n-.arts in fpnng and autumn for
the fale of fheep and cattle. The town has a well ellabliflitd
charity fchool for 30 boys ; and a charity, called the feoffees.
This is endowed with lands, of aboutizol. yearly rent, which
is applied towards the relief of decayed tradifm^n. The prin-
cipal manufattory of this town is common flippers ; and it is
fnppofed that there are more made here than in any other
town in England. Many females are employed in lace-mak-
ing. The church is a large handfom.e building, with a lofty
tower, and ornamented with many collly monuments. Here
is a handfome meeting-houfe for the diflenters. The parifh
of Market-end, and hamlet of Kings-end, contain 410 houfes
and 1 946 inhabitants. Plott's Hiltoiy of Osfoidfnire. Ca.ii-
den's Britannia.

BICHE, BicHE DE GuiANE, in Zootomy, a name affigned
by one Ererch writer (des March. Voy.) to the Brafilian
mujk of Pennant, mofchiis Atnerkanus of Gmclin. Biche
dcs Bo'is is alfo the name oi ccr-uus Mexicauus (Gmelin) in
Barrtr. Fr. equin. 151.

BICHET, a corn meafure, containing about a Paris nii-
oct, chiefly ufed in Burgundy and the Lyonnois.

BiCHET denotes alfo a certain quantity of land, as much
as may be fown by a bichet of corn.

BICHNI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Erivan, 30 miles N.N.E. of Erivan.

BICHON, in ZucJo^', the name given by Buflbn to canis
tmlitaus of Ray.

BICHONNOWY, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Mohilef, feated on the Dnieper, 32 miles
fouth of IMohilef. N.lat. 53° 2c'. E. long. 30"^ 50'. This
is one of the diflricls of the government, called alfo Staroi
Bykhof, or Biechov Starov.

BICINCTA, in Entamology, a fpccics of Apis, defcribed
Toy Schranck Iiif, Auftr. It is black and villous ; mouth and
abdomen glofTy, with two white belts on the latter. Inha-
bits Upper Aullria.

BiciNCTA, a fpecies of Vespa, of a black colour, with a
fpotted thorax, and two yellow bands on the abdomen. A
fmall infect, and inhabits the cape of Good Hope. Fabri-
cius.

BiciNCTA, a fpecies of Tenthredo, with a black body;
belts on the abdomen, vent, mouth, and (hanks yellow. A
native of Europe. Fabricius. Abdominal yellow belts
two, from which it is fpecitically named llcincla.

BiciNCTA, a fpecies of Musca [Syrphus), found in the
north of Europe. It is black ; antenna elongated ; fides,
dots, and two abdominal belts yellow. Linn. Fn. Suec.
&c.

BiciNCTA, a fpecies of Scolia, of a black colour, and
hairy ; abdomen with two yellow bands ; wings blueilh
black. A native of America. Fabr. Gmel. &c. This in-
feft h/pkex railula of Sulzer.

BICINIUM, from bis and caiio, I fmg, in Church Mtific,
the finging of two, either together or alternately. In which
fenfe. the word ftands oppofed to mni-.ody.

BICKAGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, 70 miles
S.S.W. of Drontheim.

BICKANEER, Bicaneer, or Beykaneer, a town of
Vol. IV.

Hindoftan, the capital of a circar or didrict of the fame name
in Marwar, the north divifion of Agimeie. I'his conntiy
is fandy and dcfert, and in gref.t want of water. Of this
country little is known ; it is governed by a rajah, and i::ha-
bited by Rajpoots. The town is liturted about 42 miles
weft of Nagore, and 80 W.N.W. of Agimcre. N. lat.
27° 12'. E. long. 74°.

BICKERN of an Anvil, the pike, or beak-iron.
BICLINIUM, from Lis, and iOma, bed, in ylntiquily, two
beds about a table ; or, as lome fay, rather a bed whereon
two perfons lay to eat.

BlCKERTON's Island, in Geography, a name given by
Capt. EdiA-ards, in 1791, to an ifland in the South fca, near
the Friendly iflands, called by the natives Lattai, and difco-
vered by Maurelle in 1781. It confills chiefly of a vaft
conical mountain, the fummit of which appeared to be burnt,
but the fides were covered witli trees ; and it is furrounded
with a lower border, which is very fertile, and affords fiefh
water. This ifland fupplies cocoa-nuts and bananas. S. lat.
i8''47'20". W. long. 1 74° 48'.

BICOCCA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan, near
which the French were defeated by the Imperialillsin 1552 ;
2 miles N.E. of Milan.

BICOLOR, in Couchology, a fpecies of Donax, with an
ovate flitU marked with elevated ftrix, which decuffate a few
tranfverfe ones ; rufous, with a white ray on one fide. Gualt.
Gmel. &c.

B I COLOR, a fpecies of Pinna found in the Red fca.
This kind is thin, infletled at the lateral margin ; yellowifli,
with black brown rays, and a few longitudinal ftriae.
Chemnitz. This flicll is thorny, elongated, with cur\-ed llris
at the curved margin ; the largeft end rotundated.

BicoLOR, in Entomology, a fpecies of Apis that inhabits
Denmark. The thorax villous and ferruginous; abdomen
black and immaculate. Fabricius.

BicoLoR, is alfo an Indian fpecies of Apis, of a black
colour, with tlie abdomen haii"y ; fulvous above, and fnovvy-
white beneath. Fabricius. This bears fome refemblance to
apis centuncularis, but is larger.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Attelabus found in Europe. It
is of a black colour, with the thorax and wing-cales reddifli ;
fcutel, thighs, and flianks at the bafe, and tip black. Lin-
naeus Fn. Suec.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Buprestis, with pointed wing-
cafes, of a braffy-green colour, witli a yellow fpot ; brealt
and abdomen yellow. Fabricius. Inhabits South Ame-
rica.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Cantharis, of a yellow colour,
with half of the wing-cafes blue. Tiiunberg. Inhabits the
cape of Good Hope.

BicoLoR, a fpeciesof Carabus that inhabits North Ame-
rica. It is black above, and ferruginous beneath. Fabri-
cius.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Cerambvx that inhabits Cayenne.
This is feiTUginous ; thorax with two fpines and tubercles ;
wing-cafes beyond the middle, with the abdomen black,
Fabricius.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Chrysomela, of a brafly-green
above, and violaceous beneath. Fabricius. Inhabits Alex-
andria.

Bicolor, a fpecies of Cicad.\ [Cercopi.'), of a grifeous
colour, with the upper part of the thorax fanguineous.
Linn. Muf. Leili. A native of Europe.

Bicolor, a fpecies of CRYPTOCEPHAtrs {Erotylus).
This infeA is of a black colour, and braffy above. Fabriciur.
A native of New Holland.

Bicolor, a fpecies of Curcvlio found in America.
X >i Tiii" ~

B I C

This \s of a black colour, with a rufous thorax and wing-
cales. Fabricius.

BicoLOR, a fpecics of Dermrstcs, of an oblong form
anil black colour ; beneath tcllaccous ; wing-cafi-S llriatcd.
Fabriciii*. Inhabits Germany.

BiC0L0R,a fpecics of ELATER,of a brownifh ftrn'ginoiis
colour; head and thorax brown ; wing-cafes llriatcd. In-
habits Europe. Linn. Miif. IaIIc.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Gryllus {^I.icujlii), dcfcribcd by
LinniEus. It is grifcous, apterous, with the hinder thighs
nifoud beneath.

BicoLOR, an African fpecies of Ichnki'mok, of a ferru-
ginous colour; tip of the abdomen, breall, and cud of the
upper wings blaclc. Gmelin.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of I^ampyris {PtrocLroa), of a fan-
pnineous colour.with the podcrior end viohiceous. Fabncius.
This is Ciinthar'u bkoloroi Anioen. acad. It inhabits Ame-
rica, and has the antennae flattened.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Leptura, of a pale ferruginous
colour, with the eyes, wing cafes, wing?, and upper part
of the vent black. SwcderusNov. Acl. Stockh.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Lkptura [Doiuicici) that inhabits
Europe. It is of a golden colour, with the upper part of the
thorax, and the wing-cafes green ; the latter ftriatcd with
imprelled dots ; pollerior thigiis dcntated. Gmelin, &c.

Bicoi.or, a fpecies of Lytta, of a tellaceous colour;
wing-cafes black at the tip. Geofiroy. Inhabits France.

Bicoi.or, a fpecies of Mordella, dcfcribed by Forller
(Nov. Inf.). It is of a black colour ; wing-cafes tellaceous,
with the tip and band in the middle black. Very fmall.
Inhabits England.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Nitidula found in Europe. This
infeft is ferruginous, with black wing-cales, having a ferru-
ginous band at the bafe, and a fpot of the fame colour near
the apex. Fabricius.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Phal/T.na {Bomlyx) found in
Saxony. The wings are white, with a large yellow fpot,
with black marks. Fabricius.

BicoLOR,a fpecies of Scarab.'eus, with the thorax very
flightly armed, and on the h.ead a fingle tubercle; wing-
cafes black ; abdomen rufous. Fabricius.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Silpha, of a brown colour, with
rufous legs. Linn. &c. A native of Europe.

BicOLOR, a fpecies of Sphex that inhabits New Holland.
This IS of a black colour ; head, abdomen at the tip, and
wings yellciw ; the latter brown at the tip. Gmel. This
infeft was firll dcfcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the
coUeftiin of fir Jofeph Banks, under the fpecific name li-
i'l'oralti.

BicOLOR, a fpecies of Staph ylisus, of a black colour,
with the antenna, wing-cafes, and legs ferruginous. Linn.
A native of Europe.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Tenthredo, of a blueilh black,
with the abdomen and bafe of the wings yellow ; a band of
bljck. Schranch. Inhabits Auilrii.

Bicoi.or, a fpecics of Vespa that inhabits China; and
in (ize and appearance refembles the common wafp. It is
ytUowifh : antenna: above, crown, thorax, and vent brown.
Fabricius, &c.

BiCOLOR, in Ichthyology, a fpecics of GoBius, found in
the Mediterranean fca. It is of a brown colour, with all the
lins black. Briin. pifc.

BicoLOR, in Ornithology., a fpecies of Ai.cedo, of a green
colour, and gohlen rufous beneath ; a black and white waved
band on the breall ; wings and tail fpottcd with white.
Gmelin. This bird is a native of Cayenne. BufTon calls it
Martin pechatr vert ct rouxde Cayenne; pi. enl.; and Latham

B I C

the rufrjiis and green lingfyl'er. Length eight inches : bill
black ; legs reddilli ; breall of the female not banded.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Fringilla, that inhabits the
woods of Jamaica and Bahama iflands, and is called by
Englifh writers the Bahama Jlarro'w. The head and breall
are'black ; back, wing;;, and tail, greenidi. Gmelin. The
length of this bird is four inches ; its note very mono-
tonous. J3rifron calls it Chloris Bahamciijis ; and Buffon
Verdinere.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Lanius, of a blue colour; white
beneath ; frontlet black. Linn. &c. This is Loxia Mada-
gi'.Jcarina of Linn. Sytl. Nat. edit. 12 ; Lamus Madagaf-
c,:rienjis dernleus of Brilfon ; Pie-gricfche lien de Madagafear
of BuiTon ; and B'uejhrih: of Latham. It is about l;x inches
and a half in length, and, as the fynonyir.s imply, is a native
of Madagafear.

The bill, head, margin of the quill feathers, two niiddk
ta 1 feathers, and exterior margin ot the tour next blue 5
lea's and claws black. Female, fordid white beneath.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Loxia found in the Eafl Indies.
Gmelin very briefly defciibes it as being of a fufcous colour,
and red beneath. This is Fringilla rubra minor of BrilTon ;
Bntnor of Buffon ; Little broiun huljinch of Edwards ; and
(jruiige-hreajlcd grojbeak of Latham. There is likewifc a
variety of this kind of a brownifh colour, white beneath, and
chin inclining to brownilh. About three inches and a quaitcr
in length ; bill whitifli ; legs fufcous.

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Muscicapa, of a black colour;
front, fpace round the eyes, throat, rump, fpuiious wings, band
on the greater wing-coverts, tip of the tail, and under parts
of the body, white. Gmelin. Buffon calls this Go/'cmcHc/?
a ventre hlanc de Cayenne ; and Edwards and Latham Blaek and
ivhite fy-Ciitchcr. A variety of this bird is white, except the
hind part of the head, and neck, rump, wings, and tail, bill,
and legs, which are black. The female is of an uniform
grey colour. Inhabits the moill meadows of Guiana.

BicoLOR, a fpecics of Pious, called by Latham, after
Buffon, the Enccnada ivoodpecier ; Epeiche ou pic varie de
F.ncenada, Bufton. This is varied with grey ifli and white ; head
crefted, white on the fides ; quill feathers brown, fpotted
with white. Gmelin, &c.

The length of this beautiful bird is about fix inches ; bill
lead colour ; irides white ; pUnrage brownilli-grcy and white
finely blended ; above, the colours are intermixed tranfveriely,
and beneath in a perpendicular direction ; crell on the fides
intermixed with crimfon ; fides of the head v.hite, verginor to
brown ; legs lead colour. The female has no creil, and is
entirely brown.'

BicoLOR, a fpecies of Trockilus, of a finaragdine-
goldcn colour, with the head and throat blue. Gmelin. This
IS of the middle fize, and inhabits Guadaloupe. It is Colibri
Nr. 2. of Fermin. Surin. ; Sciphir-cme ranch of Buffon ; and
Sapphire and emerald humming-bird oi Lathari^

BicoLOR, afpeciesof Turdus, of a brown colour, tinged
with green ; abdomen and vent white. This inhabits the
cape of Good Hope ; and is ten inches long. Buffon calls
it Merle brun du cap de bonne ffperance ; and Latham the
IVhite-rnmped thrujli.

BICOLORA, in Entomology, an African fpecies of
Phal^ena (Noclua). Wings yellow, with a broad brown
pollerior margin.

BICOLORATA, a fpecies of Phal.i:na (Geomelra)
with the wings blueilh and ftriated ; anterior black at
the tip, and fpotted with white. Inhabits Surinam. Crameri
&c.

BicoLORATA, a fpecies of Scarad.t.us [Melolontha)
found at the cape of Good Hope. It is glabrous green,

beneath

B I C

B I D

heneath teftaceous, legs tipped with gold. Fabricius,
&c.

BiCOLORATA, a fpecies of Phal;ena [Gmniclra) with
blueidi ftriated wings ; firft pair black at the tips, with
white fpots. A large infeft, and inhabits Surinam. Fa-
bricius.

BICORDATA, a fpecies of Cicada {Ra>mtra),v!\\.h.
b'ack vvini^-cafes, both fides, and line in the middle, with
the legs ytUow, Scopoli. Inhabits Carniola, on the nut-
tree.

BICORDATUS, in Knluml Hiftory, a fpecies of
Echinus, having the crown doubled. Leike apud Kkin,
&c.

BICORNE Os, in Aualomy, is a name which has been
given to the os hyoides.

BICORNES, from b'ls, and cnrnu, horn, in Botnrv!, plants
•whofe antherse have the appearance of two horns. Tlie term
likewife exprtfles an order of plants of the Fragmenta Me-
thodi Naturalis of Linn:?us.

BICORNIGER, in Mytholosy, an appellation of Bac-
chus, who is fometimes reprcfented with horns, as fymbols of
the rays of the fun, or of the virtue which he imparts to
wine. The Arabians gave this name to Alexander the Great,
either to exprefs his having added the eaftern to the weftern
emp're, or in allufion to medals on which he is rcpre-
fentcd with horns, under a pretence that he was the fon of
Ainmon.

BICORNIS, MuscULUS, in Anafomy, is an appellation
formerly given to thofe mufclcs ufually denominated Exten-
fores carpi radiaks ; which fee.

BicORNis, or Trtcorms polUcis manus., are terms formerly
applied to defignate the three extenfor nuifcles of the
thumb.

BicoRNis, in Entomology, a fpecies of^ScAR ab^t.us, with
two horns on the thorax ; a recurved, fingle-toothed horn on
the head, and rufous w-ingcafes. Aubert. Jablonlky. In-
habits South America ; of a middle iv/.t among the liorued
kind 'of Scarabsei.

BicoRNis, a fpecies of HisPA.with pectinated antenna;
thorax and wing-cafes brafiy-grcen ; head two- horned. In-
habits North America. Fabricius.

BicORNis, 3 fpecies of Curculio, with acutely dentated
thighs, and two teeth on the head. Fabricius. Inhabits
New Zealand, and is varied with brown and cinereous.

BicoRNis, a fpecies of Casgida that inhabits South Ame-
rica. It is of a cyaneous blue colour, with a truncated fpine
on the anterior angle of the wing-cafes. Linn. Fabr.
&c.

BicoRNMS, a fpecies of Mantis, found in South Ame-
rica, and it is faid alfo in India. The thorax is fmooth ;
head bipartite and fubulate. Linn. &c. The legs are
unarmed.

BiCORNis, a fpecies of Apis, ivith two horns in front ;
head black ; abdomen liirfute and rulous. A native of Eu-
rope. Fabricius.

BicoRNis, a fpecies of Aranea, with two horns on
the abdomen. Lepcchin.it. Found in the woods of Si-
beria.

BicORNis, in KtUitral H'l/lorv, a fpecies of Planaria,
with an ovate-lanceolate body obtufe at both ends, of a grc} i(h
afh colour, dotted with black ; and two very ihort divergent
tubes on the fure-part. Gmeliu. This is Fajc'tohi punclata
of Pallas.

BiC0RMS,a fpccic? of Act isma, found in the North fen.
This kind is hemilpherical-oval, and glabrous with two horns.
Miill. Zool. Dan.

1)1 COR PORE A figna, from Ih, and corpus, lody, in

AJlronomy, thofe figns of the zodiac which have two bodies,
or confilt of two figures. Such are gemini, or the twins ;
alfo pifces, or fagittarius, confiding of a man and a hoife.

BICOSTELLA, in Enlomology, a fpecies of Phal;eka
{Tinea) found in Europe. This is cinereous, with a brown
ilripe on the anterior wings; fetleis advanced; antennae
downy. Linn. Fabr. &c.

BICQUELY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mcuite, and chief place of a canton in the
diitricl of Toul, I -J- league fouth of Toid.

BICUCULLATA, in Bolany. See Fumaria.

BICUSPIDES, denies molares, in Anatomy, arc the two
fmall grinders, which are next the front teeth. See
Teeth.

BIDA CoLONMA, Bleeda, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy, and fituated in the in-
terior part of Mauritania Cielaiicnfis, S.W. of Iconium. See
Blceda.

BIDACHE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenees, and chief place of a canton
in the diitricl of Ullaritz, 5 leagues eaft of Bayonne. The
town contains 2,017 inhabitants, and the canton 9,706. Its
territorial extent is 2 I2i kiliometres, and it has 9 communes.
N.lat. 41° 31'. W.long. 10°.

BIDAL, or Bidale, in our Ancient Ciifloms, denotes the
invitation of friends to drink ale at fome poor man's houfe,
who, in confideratiou hereof, expecls fome contribution for
his relief. See Ale.

BIDALDI, an ancient kind of foot-foldiers mentioned by
the French hiftorians, armed with two darts.

Hence the origin of theword, which leenis to be a coniiption
for " bidardi," or " a binis dardis." They are alfo called
bidarii, hidans, bideanx, bidauts, and pitauls.

BIDASSOA, or Vidasoa, in GeograpJiy, a river which
rifes in the Pyrenees, and runs into the bay of Bilcay between
Andaye and Fontarabia, feparating France from Spain. This
river was for a longtime a i'ubjcdl of difpute between France
and Spain, each country laying an exclufive claim to it ; but in
the 15th century Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand, king
of .Spain, agreed, that it fliould be common between the two
nations, and that the duties paid by thofe who pafs from
Spain to France fliouId belong to the latter, and of thofe
who pafs the contrary way to the foimcr. Buffon obferve;,
that the inhabitants of the environs of this river have ears of
an uncommon fi^e.

BIDBlJRG, a town of the Netherlands, in the duchy
of Luxemburgh, containing two parilh churches, and a con-
vent ; 1 I leagues N.N.E. of Luxemburg.

BIDDEFORD, or Bideford, an ancient 'fea-port,
market, and borough town of Devonfliire, England, is
fituated near the fouthern coall on the eaftern and weftern
banks ot the river Torridge, which is of confiderable breadth
here, and at fpring tides rifes to the height of eighteen
feet. The greater part of the town is buil: on the declivity
of a fteep eminence, and many of the houfes being compofed
of timber, brick, cobb, or mud walls, prefent rather a poor ap-
pearance. Bideford does not appear to be noticed in the
Domefday furvey, but foon after tlie couqucft it was beftowed
with Kilhanipton in Cornv.all, on Richard de Grenaville, a
Norman knight, who accompanied the conqueror into Eng-
land, and was anceftor to the illuitrious family of tlie Graii-
villes, who for upwards of five hui.drtd years continued pro-
prietors of the loidlhip. Some of this family have greatly
iignalized themfclves in the public events of England ; and
the names of two, fir Richard GranviHe and fir Bevai Gran-
ville, are honourably noticed in the hillorical annals of this
country. This town, though defcribed as a borough in a
Xx 2 charter

B I D

charter of EJward I. and afterwards reprcftiitcd in feveral
parliaments, fcciiis to have been greatly reduced at the time
wlicn Ltland vililcd it, for he merely mentions the r:ver and
the bridge. Camden, however, fpeaks of it as " remarkable
for its popnloufnefs." At the time of the latter antiquary,
B.deford alfumcd a commercial confequtnce, and carried
on fome trade with America and Newfoundland. Queen
Elizabeth granted it a charter of incorporation, which veiled
the government in a mayor, five aldermen, feven capital b'.ir-
gcfles, a recorder, town-clerk, and two ferjeants at mace.
By this charter the inhabitants are empowered to hold a
weekly market, and three annual fairs. ."Another chai tcr was
however obtained in 1610, which confirmed the former, and
granted the townfmen fome additional powers and liberties.
The patro lage and refidence of fir Ricl:ard Granville and fir
Walter Ralei^'h proved hig'dy favourable to Lideford ; fur
after tlitfe worthy knights had difcovered Virginia and Caro-
lina, they returned to, and fettled here. In the time of the
civil wars, the inhabitants of this place declared thcmfelves
very early in favour of the parliament i but their fuccefs did
not prove equal to their zeal, for in attempting to relieve
Exeter, they experienced a fevtre and total defeat, and im-
mediately refigntd BideforJ, Barnllable, and their appen-
dages, to the royalills.

In the year 1646, Bideford was ravaged by a plague,
which appears to have been occafioned by the landing of
a cargo of Spanilh woo! : an article which at that period con-
rtituted a principal part of the trade of the town. The cre-
dulity and fuperftition that characterized the Englifli in the
feventeenth century are llrikingly exemplified byan occurrence
which happened here in 1682. Three poor females were ac-
cufed of witchcraft, and fo direft and pofitive was the evidence
adduced againft them, at feveral examinations before the
magillrates, that they were committed to Exeter gaol,
and foon afterwards tried, and executed for their alleged
crime.

About the middle of the lall ccnturj-, the export trade of
Bideford to Newfoundland was fo confiderable, that only two
other ports in the kingdom employed an equal number of
velFtls, and in the export trade only one port excelled it.
During the unwife adniinillration, and injurious wars of queen
Anne's reign, thefe commercial tranfattions materially fuf-
fered, and the French privateers obtained fo many valuable
prizes from Bideford bay, that it was emphatically termed the
Golilcn bay. The number of veffels now belonging to this
port is almoft one hundred ; thefe vary in burthen from
twenty to two hundred and fifty tons, and are chiefly em-
ployed in the conveyance of coal and culm ; in the exporta-
tion of oak bark to Ireland and Scotland ; in the herring
trade ; and in the importation of fidi from Newfoundland.
The quay is conveniently fituated near the centre of the
town, and the body of the water at high tides will bring up
veffels of 500 tons burthen. The chief manufacture of this
place is that of coarfe brown earthenware, which is made
with clay brought from Fremington near Barnftaple. The
price of this is only two fliillings and fixpence per ton. The
bridge at Bideford, built of Hone, confills of twenty-four
irregular arches, and was conllrufted about the middle of the
fourteenth ccntui7. It is 677 feet in length, and was con-
ftrufled at the expence of fir Theobald Granville, knt. and at
the inlligation of the bifliop of the diocefe, who granted indul-
gences to fuch perfons as gave money in aid of the work. The
church, a fpacions building, was eredled in the form of a
crofs about the middle of the fourteenth century. A houfe
of induihy has lately been erecled here ; and a free fchool,
and free grammar fchool are ranked among the charitable
foundations of the town. The market-place is fpacious, and

1

B I D

the town hall is a large convenient building with two prifonj
beneath it. Lu the p;'.rifh of Bideford are 606 houfcs and
29S7 inhabitants. This town is 211 miles S.W. from
London.

Tliomas Stuclev, a dcfcendant of the celebrated chaplain
to Oliver Cromwell, was a native of Bideford, and was dillin-
guidied for many eccentricities of ch-irader. Jolin Sheb-
beare M.D. an author of fome euiir.eiice, was alfo born here
in the year 1 709.

About five miles eaft of thi; town is Tawllock, the feat oV
fir Bonrchier Wrey, Bart. This place is mentioned by dif-
fen nt authors as remarkable for embracing at one view
" the bell manor, beft manhon, finell church, and richeil
reftory in the county." Bifhop's Tawton, near Tawttock,
is faid to have been the firl feat of the biihop of this diocefe-
Watkins's Hillory of Bideford. Maton's I'our through the
weftern counties. Prince's Worthies of Dcvonfliire. Beau-
ties of England and Wales^ vol.iv.

BiDDEFORD, a port of entry and poft-town of America,
in York county, and diilrict of Mayne, on the fouth-wcft fide
of Saco river, on the fea-coaft, 14 miles S.W. from Port-
land, 24 N.E. from York, and 105 from Bollou. It con-
tains 1018 inhabitants, and the county-courts arc held here
and at York. N. lat. 43° 26'. W. long. 70"^ 25'. The bay
of Biddeford lies at the mouth of the river Saco, and has
Black point for the N.E. point, and cape Porpoife for the
S.W. point.

BIDDING, is ufed for proclaiming or notifying ; alfo for
offering a price for goods put up by auilion.

Bidding «/" the Icaih, a charge or warning which tha
parifli priell gave to his parilhioners at certain Ipccial times,
to fay fo many pater-nofters, &c. on their beads.

Bifhop Burnet (Hift. Rcf. vol. ii. p. 20.) has preferved
the form, as it was in ufe before the reformation, which was
this : after the preacher had named and opened his text, he
called on the people to go to their prayers, teUing them what
tiiey were to pray for ; " Ye (hall pray (fays he) for the king,
for the pope, for the holy catholic church, &c." When this
was done, all the people faid their beads in a general filence,
and the minifter kneeled down and likewife faid his : they
were to fay a pater-noller, an ave-maria, Deus mifereatur
nollri, domine falvum fac regem, gloria patri, &C., and then
the fermon proceeded.

BIDDLE, John, in Biography, a dillinguiflied perfoa
among the Sociiiians, and reckoned the father of the Englifh
fed bearing this denomination, and lately affuming that of
Unitarian?, was born at Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucefter-
fllire, in 161; ; and after a previous grammatical education,,
in the courfe of w hich he exhibited fpecimens of his talents
and improvement, admitted, in 1632, a Undent at Mag-
dalen-Hall, in the uiiiverfity of Oxford. Here he acquired
great reputation for learning and prudence, both as a ftu-
dent and a tutor : and having taken his degrees of bache-
lor of arts in 1638, and of m.after of arts in 1641, he was,:
in this latter year, recommended by the principal perfons in
the univerfity to the raagiftrates of Glouceiler, and appointed
by them mailer of the free fchool of St. Mary de Crypt, in-
that city. In this office he completely anfwered the expec-
tations of his conllitucnts, and gave great fatisfadion to the
parents of the young perfons who were entrulled to his care-
But he did not long enjoy, without moleftatiou, the advan-
tages of this fituation ; for he was led, by a diligent iludy.
of the fcriptures, to adopt notions that were deemed hereti-
cal, concerning the Trinity, and more particularly to deny
the deity of the Holy Spirit. Failing to give fatisfaftion
to the magiftratcs, before whom he was fummoned, by his
cor.ftfllon in 1 644, he drew up a more explicit account and

defence

B I D

B I D

defence of his fentlments on this fubjedl in a traft, entitled,
" Twelve arguments, drairn out of the fcriptures, wherein
the commonly received opinion touching the deitv of the
Holy Spirit is clearly and fully refuted." A copy of this
tre^tife, which he had (hewn to fome of his friends, having
been, by the treachery of au acquaintance, delivered to the
magiftrates of the city, and to the parliament comir.ittce
then refiding there, he was committed, in December 1645,
to the common gaol. He was releafed, however, on giv-
ing fecurity for his appearance when called for. Six months
after he had obtained his liberty, he was fummcned to ap-
pear before the parliament at Weftminfter, and examined
by a committee. As he freely prorv.-fred his difoclief of the
commonly received opinion concerning the divinity of the
holy Spirit, he was committed to the ruftody of one of the
officers, and kept in that ftate of rellraint for five years.
In the mean while, his book entitled " Twelve argi-r'.ents,
&c." was publifhed, and being declared blafphemous agaiiift
the divinity of Chriil, the houfe, in 1647, ordered it to be
burnt by the common hangman. In the foHowing year,
the author, perfiiling in his opinions, and avowing his fenfe
of their importance, publiihed two other tracls of a fimilar
nature ; one entitled, " A confeffion of Jaith touching the
holy Trinity, according to the fcripture ;" and another en-
titled, " The teftimonies of Irenasus, Juftin Maityr, Ter-
tuilian," and of feveral other eaily writers, relating to the
fame fubiecl. Thefe books excited an alarm, and were the
means of procuring a fevere ordinance of parliament, iflued
in May 164^1, at the folicitation of the Aflembly of divines,
\vho atled in this inftance in a manner that entails difgrace
on their memory, and denouncing the penalty of death a-
gainft thofe who held opinions contrary to thole that were
eftabhfhed refpefting the Trinity, and fome other doflrines,
accounted blafphemies and herefies ; and fevere penalties on
thofe who differed in leffcr matters. By this infamous and
execrable decree the fate of Biddle feemed to be inevitable.
But he efcaped in confequence of a diflenfion in parliament,
fupported by a party in the army, to whofe cafe this or-
dinance would have extended. After the death of the king,
the Independents acquired influence, and introduced a kind
of general toleration, -under which Biddle was allowed to go
to StafFordfhire, where he was hofpitably received by a
juftice of the peace, who, at his death, left him a legacy.
From this retired afylum, however, he was remanded by
prefident Bradlhaw to clofer confinement, in which ftate he
continued for feveral years, under an imputation of blaf-
phemy and herefy, which deprived him of all fociety, and
reduced him to fuch lamentable indigence, that his whole
fupport for a confiderable time was a draught of milk morn-
ing and evening. The only divine who vifited him, during
this period, was Mr. Peter Gunning, afterwards bifliop of
Ely. In thefe clrcumftances he obtained temporary relief
by being employed in corredling the prefs for a Oreek Sep-
tuagint, printed in London by Roger Daniel ; and in
1651, he regained his liberty by the general atl of oblivion,
pubhlhtd bv the parliament in this year. Of this liberty he
availed himfclf, by inftituting a Sunday's leflure for reading
and expounding the fcripture, and thus propagating his
opinions. The Preftyterian miniilers were rendered tmeafy
by his zeal and fuccefs , more efpecially as they could derive
no afliftance for reftraining him from the fecular power.
Not fatisced with the opportunities he enjoyed rf diiremi-
natir.g his fentiments from the pulpit, and in the intercourfe
of private friendfhip, he had again recourfe to the prefs,
and in 1654, publiihed his "Twofuld Scripture catechifm;"
one larger and more comprehenfive, and the other more brief,
for the ufe of children. For this publication he was Ciillcd

to the bar of Cromwell's parliament, and committed to ths
Gate-houfe, where he was debarred the ufe of pen and ink,
and the acccfs of any vifitor ; and his books were alfo or-
dered to be burnt. Although a bill was brought into par-
liament for punifhing him, he obtained iiis liberty after fix
months' confinement, by due courfe of law. Some time
after, he had a difpute withabaptift teacher; in the courfe
of which he made ufe of fome exprcfiions, for which he was
thrown into Newgate, and tried for his Ufe at the next
fcffions, on the ordinance above-mentioned. On this occa-
fion couiifel was at firft denied him, bnt afterwards granted,
and the trial deferred. In the mean while Cromwell inter-
fered, and difapproving of this kind of intolerance, con-
tented himfclf at firft with detaining him in prifon ; but
afterwards, in order to filence the clamours and petitions
that were preferred againft him, banifhed him for Hfe to St.
Mar) 's calUe in the ifland of Scilly, afTigning iiim an an-
nual fubliltence of 100 crowns. In this place of exile Biddle
continued three years, applying hinifelf to clofe ftudy, and
particularly to that of the Apocalypfe. His friends at
length prevailed with Cromwell to recall him ; and in 1658,
as no charge appeared againft him, he was Hberated. He
then became paitor of an independent fociety in London,
and propagated bis opinions without moleftation, till the
fear of the preftjyterian parhament aflemblcd by Richaid
Cromwell, and the advice of his friends, i:iduced him to re-
tire into the country. On the diflblution of that parlia-
ment, he returned to his former llation. After the reftora-
tion of Charles II. he withdrew from public fervice, and
exercifed his miniftry in private aflembhes with his feleft
friends. However, in June 1662, their meeting was dif-
covered, and both he and his friends were apprehended and
committed to prifon ; and at length, by procefs of law,
each of his hearers was fined 20I. ar.d Biddle himfeif iccl. ;
and they were ordered to remain in prifon till thefe fines
were paid. The clofe confinement and foul air of a prifon,
within five weeks, brought upon him a diftemper, which
terminated his life September 2Z, 1662, in the 47th year of
his age : and thus was his death haftened by the intolerance
which perfecuted him during the greateit part of his hfe.
Mr. Biddle poflefied a confiderable degree of learning ; and
with the Scriptures he was fo converfnnt, that he could re-
peat the New Tcilament from memory, both in Englilh and
in Greek, as far as the 4th chapter of the revelation of St.
John. He poflelTed alfo, with this retentivencfs of memor)',
powers of reafoning, which eminently qualified him for dif-
feminating his peculiar opinions, and gaining piofelyte.'.
In his private character he was diftinguifhed .by his
piety and devotion, by his moderation and temperance, by
his condefcenfion and benevolence, and by his irreproachable
virtue. As he differed in fome refpeds from Socinus and .
the foreign Unitarians, his foUovvcrs were for fome time-
denominated " Bidxkllians ;" but the name did not fubfiit
after his death Biog. Brit. Toulmin's Life of Biddle,
ill LTnitarian tracts, vol. iv. 1 79 1. Neal's tl'iA. of .the Pu-
ritans, vol. ii. p. 470, 4to.

BIDDLES, in Geography, a fettlement-on a branch of
Licking river, in Bourbon countv, J^entucky, about 6 miles
N.W. from Millers on the N.E. fide of the fame branch,
and 32 miles N.N.E. from Lexington.

BIDENS, fo named from the feed being terminated with
two teeth or awns, in Botany. Lin. gen. n. 932. Reich. «.
I0I2. Schreb. .1267. Tournef. t. 262. Jufs. iSS. Dil).
Elth. 43. 47. Gsrtn. t. 167. Ceratocephalus. Vaill. Act.
Gall. 172c. f. 47i 48, 49. Clafs, fyngemfia poiygamia
xqv.alii. Nat. ord. compofitit oppofiiofolL'. Ctirymhifers, JuiT.
G.cn, Char. Calyx, common, imbricate ereft ; leaflets often

equal,

B I D

B I D

equal, oLIonfj, clianncUcd, concave. Cot; compound, uni-
form, tiitnilar ; corolluleshermaplivoditc, tubular. Proper.
onc-petalled, fuiincl-form ; border five-cleft, ereif^. Siiim,
fibmcnts five, capillaiy, very fliort ; anther cylliidric, tu-
bular. Pifl. germ oblongf ; ftyle iimple, the length of the
ftamens ; llignias two, oblong, reflex. Per. none : calyx
unchanged. Sciih fohtary, obtnfe, angular; down with
two or more awns, oblong, flraight, acute, rough-hooked
backwards. Rec. flat, chaffy ; chafTs deciduous, flattifli.
0!)f, In moll of the fpecies an expanding tive-lcaved calycle
furrounds the compound flowers. Verbcfna diiltrs from
Biikni only in having a ray. Sometimes the corolla has one
or two radial florets. Reich.

Eir. char. Cal. imbricate. Cor. fometimes but feldom with
a flofculc or two in the ray. Sad crowned with ereft,
fcabro\is awns. Rccepl. chaffy.

Species, i. B. tr'ipart'ila, trifid water-hemp-agrimony,
or bur-marvgold. Lin.fp.pl. 1165. Hudf. 355. With.
706. Hull'. 181. Relh.308. Sibth. 248. Abbot. 177.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 57. Smith. Fl. Brit. 357. l.
Verbefma fen cannabina aquatiea, flore minus pulchro,
elatior et magis frequens. Raii Synop. 187. Eupatjrium
cannabinum focmina. Ger. cm. 711. B. Conyza pa-
luflris, fol. trij)artito divifis. Loes. prn(f. 53. ic. 10.
" Leaves trifid, calyxes fomcwhat leafy, feeds erecl." Root
annual ; Hem from one to three feet hiirli, with oppofite,
reddifli branches, jjatent, leafy, obtufely quadrangular,
furrowed, and fmooth ; leaves oppofite, fmooth, deep fer-
rate, trifid or quinquefid : flowers terminating, folitary,
fomcwhat ercdl, with undivided patent leaves ; leaflets of
the calyx unequal, plane, fmooth, (Ireaked with brown ; the
flofcnks uniform, tubulofe, yellow ; feeds comprefTed, two
or three-angled, the angles backward rough, two or three
awns, terminating, fomjwhat ereft, yellow, three-cornered,
prickly backward ; t!ie chaffs of the receptacle reftmbllng
the leafl..ts of the calyx, but narrower. It is frequent in
places inundated, and on the brinks of ditches : flowers in
Augull and Seplemljer. T';is plant dyes a deep yellow ;
for which purpofe the thread or yarn mull be firll lleeped
in alum water, then dried and ftceped in a decofiion of the
plant, and afterwards boiled in the decoftion. As by a
chemical analyfis it is found to poffefs much the fame qua-
lities as verbefina acmella, it may probably have the fame
good effefts in expelling the Hone and gravel. 2. B. mi-
nima^ nodding bur-marygold. Lin. fp.pl. 1165. Reich.
3. 703. Hudf. ed. I. 310. Fl. Dim. t. 312. Abbot.
178. With. 883. 7. Curt. Lond. 3. 55. B. tripartita. /?.
Hudf. 55 J. B. Ctrnua. 7. Smith. Fl. Br. 357. Verbefina
minima. Dill, in Raii Syn. 188. t. 7. f. 2. GiiT. 167.
A pp. 66. «' Leaves lanceolate feffile ; flowers and feeds
eredi." This was firfl; marked by Dillcnius for a dilliiia
fpecies. Haller thought it to be no more than a variety of
the cernua, in which he has been followed by all o-ar Britifli
botanifts. Found in dried marlhes. 3. B. nodi/lora, fcfi'ile-
flowtred bidens. Lin. fpec. i\G^. Dill, tlth." t. 44. f. 52.
Reich. 3. 704. " Leaves oblong, quite entire, one-toothed,
ftem dichotomou;, flowers folitary, feHile." An annual
plant, riling with Hems eight or nine inches high, roundifli,
rough, with white hairs, purple at the bafe. A native of
the Eaft Indies ; cultivated at Eltiiam by Dr. Sherard, in
173Z. 4. m. tenella, Lin. Spec. 1166. Reich. 3.704.
Amoen. 6. afr. 47. " Leaves linear, peduncles capillary,
calyxes moilly four-leaved, feeds ereft five-fold." Stem
filiform, puiplilh, fubtrichotomous, fix or fevcn inches in
height. An annual, and a native of the Cape of Good
Hope. 5. B. cernua, drooping watcr-hemp-agrimony, or
bur.mar)-gold. Sp. pi. 1165. Hudf. 356- With.^oj.

Hall. 1 Si. Rclh. 309. Sibth. 248. Abbot. 177. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 3. t. 55. Fl. Dan. t. 841. Smith. Fl. Brit.
357. 2. Pet. herb. t. 20. f. 6. Raii hill. 361. n. 2. 3.
V'crbefina pulchriore flore luteo. Raii fyn. 187. Bauli.
hill. V. 2. 1074. Coreopfis bidens. Sp. pi. 12^1. Chry-
fanthemum cannabinum bidens, foliis integris. Morif. hilt.
t. 6, t. 5. f. 22. E\ipatorium cannabinum chryfanthemum.
Barrel, ic. t. 1209. Conyz.a palullris, foliis ferratis. Lo-j.
prufT. 54. t. II. "Leaves lanceolate, llem-clafping, flowers
nodding, feeds ercft." I'loot annual ; Hem from one to
two feet high or more, upright, branched, a little haiiy,
purplilh, dotted witli red, round at bottom, flriated at
top, v.'ith branches oppofite, nearly upright, leaves oppofite,
moderately connate, undivided or with dillant ferratiires,
fpreading, fm.ooth on both fides ; peduncles Hriated ; flowers
yellowifh-grecn, finally drooping, generally radiate ; calyx
confining of about feven leaves, finely ferrate at the edge,
ribbed, turning b::ek, and longer than the corolla ; with
eight corollets in the circumference, hermaphrodite like ti'e
central ones, but with the tube more tumid and depreffrt'.
In places overflowed for a long time, they change into li-
gulate neutral corollets : receptacle pyramidal, four-cor-
nered ; leeds with four awns, two of which are larger ; the
prickles pointing downwards. This flowers a niontli later
than the tr'iparUta ; nnd in this Hate has a llrong fmtl', not
very difagreeable. A native of rooft parts of Europe. Haller
obferves, that ccreopfs h'nlcns ot Linnsus diflers in no ref-
peCl from B. cernua, except in having radiate florets in the
circumference : hence Dr. Stokes concludes, that I'ukns and
coreopfis form one genus. Found at Ditchingham in Norfolk,
and Tarporley in Chefliire ; irequent in Ireland. 6. B.
froniiofa, fmooth-llalked bidens. Lin. Spec. I J 66. Gxr'n.
frud. 2. 412. Reich. 3. 704. Berkli. dilT. t. 5. f. 5.
Chryfanthemum, &:c. Mor. hill. 3. 17. f. 6. t. 5. f. 20.
" Leaves pinnate, ferrate, marked with lines, fmooth ;
feeds erect ; calyxes leafy ; Hempolifhed." The Hem riles
about three feet high, fending out many horizontal branches,
from the ends of which are produced cluHers of yellow
flowers. It grows naturally in Virginia, Maryland, and
Canada, whtre it is often a troublefoine weed. It was cnl-
tiv;.te<l by Mr. Miller in 1752. l.Hj.pUofa, hairy bidens.
Lin. Spec, i ■66. SyH. 732. Reich. 3. 705. Dill. elth.
t.43. f. 51. Thunb. jap. 307. Lour, cochin. 488. Gcertn.
frudt. 2. 412. ,S. B. Chinenfis. Agrimonia Molucca.
Rumph. Amb. 6. 38. t. 15. f. 2. " Leaves pinnate,
fomewhat hairy. Hem with bearded joints, calyxes with a
fnnple involucre, feeds diverging." A native of America,
and of Tongataboo in the South Seas. B. of China rc-
fembles the American ; but in the latter the leaflets are
united, in the former they are diilinft ; and the feeds of the
American have from two to five awns, and in the Chincfe
always four. The American fort was cultivated in 1732 by
Dr. Sherard. 8. B. b'ipinnala, hemlock-leaved bidens. Lin.
Spec. 1166. Reich. 3.705. Lour. cochinch.4S8. Chryfan-
themum. Herm. par. t. i:;3. Mor. hift. 17. n. 24. f. 6. t. 7.
f. 23. " Leaves bipinnate, gaflied, calyxes involucred, co-
rollas half-radiated, feeds diverging." An annual plant ; a
native of Virginia; cultivated in Kew garden in 1699.
Loureiro fays, it is a native of China and Cochinchina. 9.
B. mvca, fnowy bidens. Lin. Spec. 1 167. Reiclu 3. 706.
Ddl. elth. t. 47. f. 5j. Swartz obf. 296. /5. Dill, eltli. t.
47- f- S^- 3- V- l^ill- elth. t. 46. f. 54. " Leaves fimple,
cordate-ovate, acuminate, branches trichotomons, ferrate,
flowers hemifpherical, peduncles elongated." A native of
Jamaica, in elevated paHurcs, and on the fea-coaH of the
fouthern parts. Mr. Milkr fays, it grows naturally in South
Larohna, and alfo at Campeachy ; cultivated at Eltham in

17^2.

B I D

1732, by Dr. Sherard. 10. B. -jerlulHata. Lin. Spec.
1 167. Reich. 3.706. Hort. cliff. 399. 4. " Leaves ob-
long, entire, lower ones entire, upper ones oppofitc, flowers
verlici'lcd." A native of Vera Cruz in South America.
1 r. 15. /caiuieiis. Lin. Spec. 1167. Reich. 3. 706. Hort.
cliff. 399. 5. Svvartz obf. 297. Brown jam, 317. 2. B.
frutefcens. Mill. dift. n. 4. " Leaves oppolite, ovate, acu-
minate, ferrate, ftem climbing, flirubby, flowers panicled,
ovate." A native of Jamaica, on the cooler mountains, and
of Vera Cruz. Miller received it from Carthagena iu New
Spain. 12. B. biiUata, various-leaved bidens. Lin. Spec.
I 167. Reich. 3. 706. Ard. Spec. 2. 37. t. I<^. Mich. flor.
I2C. Hall. got. 383. " Leaves ovate, ferrate, lower ones
oppofite, upper ones ternate, the middle lar^^er." A native
of America ; found wild in Italy ; cultivated by jSiilier in
1759; annual. 13. B. /wyi//a. Sv-zartz prodr. no. Sloan.
jam. I. 257. Eupatorium. " Leaves oppofite, ovate-lan-
ceolate, entire, tomentofe-hirlute, ftem-climbing fiirubby,
peduncles oppofite, diverging, many-flowered." A native
of Jamaica; annual. \i^.V>. odoritta. Cavan.hifp. 9. n. 12.
t. 13. " Stem four-cornered, branching very much, leaves
connate, bipinnate, pinnules wedge-trifid, fmootli, feeds
rugged." A native of Mexico ; flowered at Madrid in
November 1791.

Moll of the fpecies are herhrccous annuals ; fonie, how-
ever, are (hrubs ; leaves generally oppofite, fome pinnate ;
flowers axillary or terminating.

Propagiillon and culture. The firft, fccond, and fifth, be-
ing common weeds in many parts of Europe, are fcklom
cultivated in our gardens, but readily propagate the.nfelves
by feeds, in wet fituations. The third, fourth, feventh, and
twelfth, raull be fown upon a moderate hot-bed in the
fpring, and afterwards treated like other hardy annual
plants, planting them into the full ground the latter end of
May. They will flower in June ; foon afterwards tlie plants
will decay. The fixth and eighth are tafily propagated by
feeds fown in the fpring, in an open fituation ; where, if
they be allowed to fcatter, the plants will come up the fol-
lov.ing fpring, and two or three of them may be planted
where they are to grow ; and after they are rooted, they
will require no farther care. Being annual plants, they de-
cay foon after the feeds are ripe. The ninth, tenth, eleventh,
thirteenth, and fourteenth fpecics are propagated alfo by
f.eds, fown on a hot-bed in the fpring ; and when the plants
are fit to remove, they nuiil be each planted into a feparate
fmall fpot, plunged into a fiefu Iiot-hed, and treated like
other tender plants from the fame hot countries. In autun-.n
they mutt be placed in the bark-ftove. Properly managed
they will moftly abide for fome years.

BiDENS. See Coreopsis, Elephantopus, Spilan-
THus, Verbesina, and Zinnia.

Bidens, in Conchology, a fpecies of Mvtilus, with a
{Iriated and flightly curved fliell, having the pofterior mar-
gin inflefted, and the hinge at the end bidentated. Gmelin.
A native of the Mediterranean, iEthiopic, Atlantic, and
Magellanic feas. The colour of this fhell under the epi-
dermis is blrck or blue, about an inch in length, and ilriated
longitudinally.

Bidens, a fpecies of Nerita, with a fmooth fiiell, and
inner lip bidentated. Linn. Muf. Lud. Ulr. Country un-
known. This fliell is black or reddifh, with obfolete Ibias,
and the fize of a pea. Sometimes it is yellow, clouded with
whitifh, with three black bands.

Bidens, m Entomology, a fpecies of Scarah.'Eus, found
in America. The head and thorax are braffy-green and
downy : wing-cafes teftaceous, gloffed with green. Fabri-
cius.

B I D

Bidens, a fpecies of Cassida, of a black colour. Wing-
cafes porreAed iu front, with an ereft fpine on the future
of each. This is of a large fize, and is an inhabitant of
Brafil.

Bidens, a fpecies of Curculio, that inhabits New Zea-
land. It is black : poilerior thighs dentated, with a fingle
fj>ine on each of the wing-cafes. Fabricius.

Bidens, a fpecies of Cerambyx [Lamia), found in
New Holland, and defcribed by Fabricius. It is grifc-
ous ; thorax acutely fpintd ; wing-cafes bidentated at the

BiDTiNS, a fpecies of Mantis, that inhabits America.
Tiie tiiorax is Icabrous ; wing-cafes green, fafciated witlt
black ; w'ings brown, deep black'in the difl<.

Bidens, a fpecies of Cimex (Sjiino/us), the thorax of
whioh is obtufely fpinous ; inner and pofterior margin, and
bidentated vent, fangnineous ; wing-cales pale. A native
of Europe. Linn, and Gmelin. There is alfo another
fpecies in this leflion, di.fcribed by Linnaeus and Gmelin,
under the nam.e of biden;. It is of an ovate fhape, and
grifeous, with the thorax acutely fpined, and the antennas
rufous. This inhabits Europe.

BiDENS, a fpecies of Sphex, of a black colour, having
the head and antenna ferruginous; four yellow fpots on the
abdomen, and two fpincs on the thorax. Gmelin. Inhabits
Mauritania. Mouth and firil joint of the antennae black ;
anterior wings pale ferruginous ; pofterior ones large, tranf-
parent, and blueilh.

Bidens, a fpecies of Vespa, of a black colour, with two
fpines on the thorax, and third fegm.ent of the abdomen,
with a yellow margin. Fabricius. It inhabits the north of
Europe.

Bidens, a fpecies of Formica, that inhabits Sunnam.
Thorax with a bidentated tubercle ; head ovate ; antenna
fcrru(7inous ; lower joint black. Fabricius. Sp. Inf.

BIDENTAL, in /Intirjuity, a place ftruck with a thunder-
bolt, and on that account confecrated to the gods, and to
Jupiter in particular, and forbidden to be trod on, and to
remove its bounds was deemed facrilege. Bidental only-
differed from putcal, as in the latter, the thunderbolt was
fupoofed to be hidden or buried with ceremony under the
ground. The fall of lightning, or a thunderbolt, on any-
place, w-as judged by the Romans an indication that Jupi-
ter demanded it for himfelf. Hence, they furrouiided it
with a wall, rail, Hakes, or even a rope ; and expiated it, by
the facnfice of a bidens, or fiieep of two years old. Feftus
reprefents the bidental as a temple, where fheep of two years
old were offered in facrlfice. But by temple, he here means
no more than a place inclofed, and confccrat'-d to the gods.
The appellation was extended to thunder itfcif, and to per-
fons deliroyed by it.

BIDENTALES, prieSs among the ancient Romans, in-
ftituted for the performance of the ceremonies of a bidental.
The bidentales conftituted a college, or decury, who had the
fervice and procuration, or interpretation of thunder and
lightning. The firft, and principal part of their office was,
the facrificing a flieep of two years old, wiiich, in their lan-
guacre, was called bidens, as having only two teeth, one on
each fide ; or rather from bidennis, ancieiilly written for bien-
nis, two years old.

BIDENTATA, in Cond<o!ogy, a fpecies of Helix,
found in the botanic garden at Strafbu;-gh, and figured by
Chemnitz. The fliell is pyramidal, fomewhat carinated,
banded, and very finely llnatcd, with a reflefted, bident-
ated lip.

BiOENTATA, in Entomol'gy, a fpecies of Apis, (Andrma.)

that

B I D

fnat inhabits America. The abdomen is brown, with five
whitifii belts ; vent biJtntatcd. Fabrlcius.

BiDESTATA, a fpecies of Phaljesa (Nodiia). This
is a native of Europe, and has brown winfjs ; ftigmate fpot
on the tirft wings, and inner margin white ; a bideutated
ftreak in the middle. Lin. Muf. Le(l<.

BiDF.-iTATA, a fpcciesof Chrysis, that inhabits Europe.
This infect is glabrous; fliining blue; thorax armed witii-
two teeth, and with the two fir II figments of the abdomen
golden. Fabricius. At the vent are three very fhort
tetth.

BIDENTATUS, a fpecies of Bostrichus, defcribed
by Fabricius, Hcrbil, &c. It is black, and tellaceous, re-
tufe at the extremity, and armed with two hooked fpines.

Bidentatvs, afpeciesof Cryp ro( ephalus [Ciioceris),
of a yellow colour : wing cafes black, ycilowilh at the tip.
Fabricius. Inhabits Africa.

BiDENTATUS, a fpccics of Cerambyx, that inhabits
South America. The thorax is flightly fpinous; wing-
cafes bidentated, rough, cinereous, and brown. Fabri-
cius.

BiDENTATL's, a fpecics of Ichneumon, that inhabits Eu-
rope. It is black, fcutel, and polleritir part of the thorax
yellow; on the latter two teeth, and the two firft; fegments
of the abdomen ferruginous. Linn. is:c. The four anterior
legs are rufous brown ; rell black ; tips white.

BiDENTATis, a fpecies of CiMtx (S/>itto/us), found in
France. This is long and brown ; fnout bent ; thorax, be-
neneath armed with two teeth on the anttrior part. Gcoi-
frcy, Gmchn.

BiuENTATUs, a fpecics of Tabanus, that inhabits Auf-
tria. This is of a ferruginous colour, with two yellow fpots
on each fide, and fcutel bidentated. Fabricius.

BIDENTES, in AR.We Jj^e IVnlas, denote two year-
lings, or (heep of the fccond vear. The wool of thefe bidentes,
or two year old (heep, being the firll fliecring, was fometimes
claimed as a heriot to the king, on the death of an abbot.
Among the ancient Romans, the word was extended farther
to any fort of beatls ufed for victuals, efpecially thofe of
that age, whence we meet withyi/rj bidentes.

BIDENTI Simi/is, in Bolanx. See SiEGESDECKr A.
BIDET, a nag, or httle horfe, formerly allowed each
trooper and dragoon, for his baggage, and other occafions.
Bidets are now difufed, on accoui;t of the expences of
ihem, and the difoiders frequently arifing from thofe who
attended on them, &c.

BIDETTO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and count i-y of Bari, the fee of a bilhop,
fuQVagan of Bari ; 1 18 miles eaft of Naples.

BIDGOST, or BiGoDSEz, a town of PiulTia, in
Pomerelia, 64 miles fouth of Danf/ick.

BlDli£I, in Antiquity, an order of magifti-ates at Sparta,
five in iriunber, whofe bufmefs it was to fuperlntend the
rphfb'u and be prcftnt at their excrcifes, wredhng?, &c.

BIDI-BIDI, in Orn/V/^o/opj', one of the fynonymous names
ot t!ie Junaica rail, rnllus ynmiiirenjis of L?.tham.

BIDJIGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindollan, in the
country of Benares, feated on the river Soane, 45 miles fouth
of Benares, and 12S S: W. of I'atna. N. lat. 24*^ 3c'.
E. long. 83"^ 26'.

BIDIN. See WiDiN.

BIDIS.in Ancient Geographjy, sow S. Giovanni de Bidin'i,
a town of Sicily, fouth- weft of Syraci;fc, and about 15 miles
from it. It is mentioned by Cicero, and alfo by Steph. Byz.
who calls it Ridos. The people who inhabited the eaftern
pirt of the in.uul, at fome dillance from Syracufe, were hence
called B'ldim.

B 1 E

LIDLOO, Godfrey, in Biography, a celcbi-ated Dutch
anatomift, born at Amfterdam, 1649, applied early to the
ftudy of furgery, which he pi-aftifed feveral years at his
native city ; hs was alfo furfr-on to the army, and at length
phyfician to William III. with whom he contiiuisd in great
favour to the time of his death, which happened in lyca.
In 1 694, he was made profefTor of anatomy and fui-ger-y at
Leydcn. He was a man of confidei-able learning, Ilaller
fav3, but moi-e attached to the plcafures of the table, than to
ftijdy, to wliich he attributes the numci-ous errors and inac-
curacies in hi;; otherwife fplendid and valuable anatomical
tables, which wei-e criticifed, perhaps, with too much fevcrity
by Ruyfch, who had been his pupil. Our countryman,
^Villiam Cowper, purchafed 300 copies of the plates, in the
life-time of Bidl,)o, and publificed them as his own, only
giving new explanations, of which our author, with reafon,
complained in his " Guhelmus Cowper citatus coram tribu-
nal," Leydcn, 1700, 4to. Befides his great anatomical
work, confining of 105 tables, with explanations, fol. 1685,
and his controverfial papers, he publilhed, " Obfcrvationes
de animalculis in hepate ovillo detedtis," 1698, 410. "_De
oculis et vifu variorum animallum," 1712, 410. " Exercita-
tiones anatomico-chirurgicas," 1 780, 4to. Thefe, with vari-
ous other differtations, were colledted, and pubbfiied in
1715, 4to. two years after his death. Hailei". Bib. Anat.
Chirurcr. ct Med. Hii nephew, Nicholas Bidloo, was phy-
fician to the great czar Peter I.

BIDON, a liquid meafure of about five quarts Englifli
meafure ; fcldom ufed except among fhip's crews.

BIDOURLE, in Geography, a river of France, which
padVs bv S. H'ppolytc, Sauve, Sommieres, &c. and runs into
thcLike'of Peraut, 3 leagues eaft of Montpellier.

BIDOUZE, a river of France, which runs into the
Adour, near the junAion of that river with the gaves of
Pace and Olcrcn.

BIDUMI, a country of Afiatic Turkey, the fouth part
of Syria, bounded on the north by Paleiline, on the weft by
Egypt, and on the eaft and fouth by Arabia ; it is nearly
defert, and has only a few fcattcred villages.

BIE, Adrian de, in Biographiy, a painter of poi-traits
and oi-namental architefture, was born at Liere, in 1594,
and after being initiated in the rudiments of his art by
Wouter Abts, became the difciple of Rodolph Schoof, a
painter of confiderablc reputation at Paris. He perfefted
himfelf at Rome, where he fpent fix years in the ftudy of the
beft mafters, and received great encouragement from per-
fons of the firft diftmdion. He fo much excelled in the
ncatnefs of his pencilling, and in the delicacy of his touch
and colouring, that he was frequently employed to paint on
jafpei-, agatt, porphyry, and other pi-ecious m-aterials. The
place and time of iiis death are not afctrtained. Pilkington.
See BvE.

BIEBER, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of the Upper Rhine, and county of Hanau Munzenberg,
1 6 miles eaft of Hanau. Near this town are a mine of copper
and filver, and fome woi"ks of iron and cobalt, in which the
latter is prepared into a beautiful fmalt.

BIEBERICH, a fmall but handfome town of Germany,
feated on the borders of the Rhine, and in the vicinity of
Mentz. It belongs to a prince of the fame name.

BIEBERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the cii'cle of
Franconia, and principality of Bayreuth.

BIEBRA, a river of Poland, which runs into the Narew,
near Wiezna, in Mafovia.

BIECZ, a town of Poland, in th.e palatinate of Cracow,
feated on the river Wafaloke, and famous for its mines of
vitrioL N. lat. 49° jC. E. long. 21° 40'.

BIEDA,

B I E

B I E

BIEDA, a town of Italy, in the (late of the church, and
provinct? of Patrimonio, lo miles W. of Sutri.

BIEDBURG, anciently BeiLi, a i'mall town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Burgundy, and duchy of Luxemburg,
which was flouiilhing till the year 1663, but foon afterwards
laid wafte bv the French.

Bl EDENKOPF, or Biedencap, a fmall town of Ger-
many, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality
of Upper H.flc, feated on the Ahills, i5 miles N. W. of
Marburg, and iormerly famous for its iron-works and foun-
ders.

BIEFVERSKOW, a diftria of Zealand, belonging to
Demr-irk, including 12 churches.

BIEKA, BiEQ_yE, BoRi(>tiEs, or Crab's ijland, one of
the Virgin ida-ids inthe Wtll Indies, about 23 miles in length,
and not 6 in breadth, where it is widcft. It is dillant about
6 miles S.S.E. fr m Porto Rico. The foil is rich, and it
has a good road on the fouth fide, called Great Harbour.
It is claimed by the Spaniards, whofe interell it is to let it
remain defolate. N. lat. 18^ 2'. W. long. 64^. See Vir-
gin [/lands.

BIEKOW, or Jezow, a town of Poland, in the palati-
nate of Lenczicz, 24 miles S. E. of Lenczicz,

BIEL, a town of Spa:n, in Arat^on, 6 leagues S. W, of
Jaca. — Alfo, a river of Spain, which joins the Ores at Exea.
tiee BiENN'E.

BIELA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czallau, 6
miles N. E. of Teutfch Brod.

BIELA, or BiELLA, 3 town of Italy, in Piedmont;
the capital of a fmall country, bounded on the north by the
Alps, on the weft by the duchy of Aofta, on the eaft by
the Vercellois and the Mafleran, and on the fouth by the
Canavez ; the town is rich and populous, containing about
7000 inhabitants, and is divided into the Upper and Lower,
and has four churches and four monalleries. It is famous
for an image of the Virgin Mar^- ; diftant 13 miles N. from
Ivrea, and 24 N. W. from Vercelli. N. lat. 45° 22'. E.
long. 8° 3'.

BIELACH, a river of Germany, in the archduchy of
Autlria, which runs into the Danube, near Melck.

BIELAIA, a river of Ruflia, which rifes in the Uralian
mountains, and after traveriing the government of Ufa, dif-
ciiarges itfelf into the Kama, on the borders of the govern-
ment of Cafan.

BIELASTENA, a town of Croatia, 10 miles north of
Bihacs-.

BIELAY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz, 4 miles S. W. of Branau.

BIELBSKOI, a town of Siberia, 40 miles fouth of
Enifeiflc.

BIELCOPOL, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiov, 4lft miles well of Bialacerkiew.

BIELEF, a town and dillrift of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tula, feated on the Occa, 50 miles W.S.W. of
Tula.

BIELEFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and county of Ravenfberg, divided by the Lut-
terbach into the old and new town, feated at tlie foot of a
mountain, and containing about 80c houfes. The inhabi-
tants are partly Lutherans, and partly Roman Catholics.
The old town has two churches, the new a convent and a
chapel. This town received municipal privileges iu 12S7,
and was formerly Hanfeatic ; it is dillant 22 miles north
from I^ippftadt.

BIELGOROD, a town formerly called SmU, and dif-
Xndi ot Ruffia, in the government of Kurfe, feated on the
Donetz ; 50 miles S.S.^\^ from Kurlk. N. lat. i;o° 55'.
E. long. 36''. This town was b".ilt in 900, bv ihc great

Vol. IV.

duke 'Wladimlr, and is an archbiThop's fee j it fubmitted ta
the arms of Potemkin, in 1 790.

BiELGCROD. See Akerman and Moscow.
BIELGRAD, a town of Croatia, 40 miles S. E. of
Bihacs.

BIELI AN, a town of Ruffian Tartary. N. lat- 43° 20'.
E. long. 66^^ 4'.

BIELICA, or BiLiziN, a town of Lithuania, in the
province of Vilna, feated on the Niemen, 10 miles fouth of
Lida. N. lat. 53^ 35'. E. long. 25° 40'.

BIELISKI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiofj
41 miles S.VV. of Kiof.

BIELITZY. See Belitzy.
BIELLA. See BiELA.

BIELLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the ditlrid of
Chaumont, 6 miles E.S.E. of Cha'jmont. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, and chief
place of a canton, in the dillridl of Oleron, 14 miles fouth
of Oleron.

BIELOI, a town and diftriift of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Smolenfko, on the fmall river Vobidia, falling into
the Mefha or Meza, which difcharges itfelf into the Duna ;
50 miles N.N. E. of Smolenfko. N. lat. 55° 40'. E. long. 34'.
— Alfo, an ifland in the Karikoi fea, about 70 miles in cir-
cumference, 20 miles from the continent of Ruffia. N. lat.
73° 40'. E. long 69° 14'.

BIELOK.-YMESKOI, a fortrefsof Ruffia, in Siberia, oa
the eaft fide ot the Irtilh, 12 miles S. E. of Semipolatnoi.

BIELO-OZERO, or White Lake, a lake of Ruffia,
in the government of Novgorod, about 50 verfts long, anil
30 broad, which receives into it feveral fmall llreams. The
only one that flows out of it, is the Shekfna, which falls into
the Volga. The water of this lake is clear, having a bot-
tom partly of clay, and partly of ftone. The clay is gene-
rally of a white colour, and in ftormy weather caufes a (Irong
white foam upon the furface of the water. From this cir-
cumllance, the lake firft obtained its name Bielo, or IVhitc.
It contains plenty of filh and crabs. N. lat. 59^ 42'. to
60° 20'. E. long. 36° 30' to 2,1° >8'.

BIELOPOLIE, a town and diftrid of Ruffia, inthe
government of Karkof, feated on a rivulet falling into the
Sum, 85 miles N.N.W of Karkof.

BEILOVITZ, a town of Crotitia, 11 miles S. W. of
Damianovitz.

BIELOVODSK, a town and diftrift of Ruffia, in the
government of Voronetz, feated on the Derkul, which falls
into the Donee, 130 miles fouth of Voronetz. N. lat
49° 42'. E. long. 39° ic'.

BIELO W, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-
hinia, 36 miles eaft of Lucko.

BIELOZERSK, a town and diftricl of Ruffia, in the
government of Novgorod, on the fouth fide of the lake Bicio-
Ozero, near the eftlux of the river Shekfna, 64 miles N. E.
of Vologda. N. lat. 59^ 40'. E. long. 37° Jo'.

BIELSA, a town of Spain, in Aragon, 6 leagues from
Ainia.

BIELSK, a town of Poland, and capital of the palatinate
of Podi.lachia, where the dietine for the diltritt is held. It
IS httle better than a miierable village, though called in the
geographical defcriptions of Poland, a large town. N. lat.
52* 4S'. K. long. 23' 28'.— Alio, a town 01 Poland, in
tae palatinate of Ploc/ko, 10 niilcs N. E. of Ploczko.

BIELTSCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chni-
dim, 16 miles nortii of Chrndini.

BIEIjUGA, in Zoology, Del^l.iitus Leucas (Cimlin) in Stel-
ler's Kaniptlchatka, &c.

BiENAISE, John, in B:i,graphy, born in 1601, at
Y y Mazcres,

B 1 E

Maxeres, a citv in France, where he pr?.aifcd f.irgery with
fiKh iuccds, ':r. to uttraa the notice of Ins iovcieign,
Lewis XIV., by whom lie was made furgeon to the army in
Flanders. He aequiied great reput.ition,_ Haller fays, by
introduc'

iiiij the future of tlic tendon, and by curing a punc-

B I E

with th<: latter in 1382 ; in confequence of which union it
became a member of the Helvetic coiJederacy. This alliance
between the cantons and tlie town of Dieiuie was paramount
to that of the fame cantons with the bilhop of Ballc : lor
the town enjoyed the right of fending deputies to every ge-
neral diet, ordinary or txtraordinaiy, a privilege not poflclK-d
by the bilhop. 1'he language of the country is a provincial
German ; but, as the territory borders on the principality
of Neufchatel, tlie inhabitants fpeak alio a corrupt Fiench.

turc of the brachial artery in a young nobleman. Ht gives
txc.lh.nt cautions, on tiking up the artery, after ampntat'iig
a limb, to avoid inchiding the nerve in the ligature. He

Dcrfornicd the paracentdis of the thorax fiicCLlsfully, and ..

ap ^s to ha^x. been a bold and expert operator, and The extent of the town and temtory of B.enne ., ellimatLd
app.ar. _.ia e Dee _ j^ ,^^„ J ;„ j^, ^^t. He at .44 Iquare geographical miles, and its population at 5,500.

' uj.lc are very active and lu-

nportant pais into the Svvifs

territories; accordingly, it was occupied by the Freneh on

to liave made confiderable improw... - — , - ^c - -.^ ,

died 168., aged 80 years. A few years after his death, or nearly 6000 perlons ; the peoj
- "■ work was publilhcd, containing duftrious. Bienne forms an imp(

viz. in 1688, a poflhumous work was p
a.i account of thefe operations, under the title of " Opera
tioiis deCliirurgie, par une mcthode courte et facile," I2mu.
Pari>. Halier Bib. Anat. Eloy. Dift. Hili.

BIENENBUTTEI., in Geography, & town of Germany,
in the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Lunen-
burg, 10 miles S.S.E. of Lunenburg.

lilENNE, A fmall dillrid of Swiflerland, lies between
a lake of the fame name and a chain of the lura mountains.
It is furrounded by the cantons of Berne and Soleure, the
bifhoprlc of Baflc'and the principality of Neufchatel. The
biihup of B:ifle is the fovereign of this little ftate, but his

the 8th of February 1798, and annexed to France as fub-
jecl to the bilhop of Bade, whole rights they afTumed in
confequence of having fcized his territories.

BiENNE, called by tlie Germans Biely the capital of tht
above dillrid, is fituated at thefoot of mount lura, andat a ht-
tlediftance from the lake of the fame name. Between the town
and the lake is a plain, which the fovereign council, by a
kind of Agrarian law, that was honourable to the legillature,
allotted, by Jiilina portions, to each burgher for his own
dillinel ufe : and it is entirely laid out in fmall kitchen gar-

power, even before the Freneh revolution, was exceedingly dens. Several manufa«ures have been eftabhnied in the
hmited • and its conllitutiou was neither a limited monarchy town, which, confidermg its fize, carrKS on a tolerable trade,
nor an independent republic, but a kind of mixed govern- The government, by adopting the hberal pohcy of conferring

ndepcndent rep
meat, partaking in fome degree of both. The bilhop of
Biiile, upon his promotion to the fee, received the homage
of the citizens and militia of the town of Bienne, with at-
tendant tokens of abfohite fubmiffioii, but at the fame tiir.e
he confirmed, in the llrongell manner, all their privileges and
franchifef.. The mayor appointed by him was his reprelen-
tative, to whom it belonged to convoke and prelide in the

the burgherlhip at an eafy rate, has contributed to increale
the population ot the town, and to extend its commerce.
N.lat. 47'^ 8'. E. long. 1° 4'.

BiENNE, lake of, lies to the north-eaftofthatof Neufchatel,
with which it isconncflcdby the Thielle, which feparatcs the
country of Neufchatel Irom the canton of Berne. It is about
y miles long, and 4 bioad ; its borders are plealing and pic-

hltle council, as the chitf court of jullice, to colleft the fnf- turefquc, as it is ikirtcd with agreeable walks and country

frages, and to declare the fcntcnce ; but without giving any houfes; and the town of Nidau forms a very beautiful object

vote himfelf. Although juHice was carried on, and executed upon its eallern IJde. Towards the foulhern extremity of

in the name of the bilhop, yet neither that prince, nor the this lake is thejfland of St. Peter, fometimes called the

mayor, had the prerogative of pardoning criminals, or of ifland of La Motte, and fometimes Roulleau's ifland, from

mitigating the fentcnce. All caufes, civil and criminal, its having been the place of Rondeau's retirement and rcfi-

were brought before the council in tlie firft inllance ; and
in more important proceedings, an appeal lay to the fovereign
council. In both cafes, each party chofe a member of the
.council to aft as his advocate, which office he difcharged
\vithout fee or recompence. The fovereign' s revenue amount-
ed only to about ;50cl. a year; nor did he poffefs the leaft

dence, when by the violence of tlie populace he was obliged
to withdraw from Moitier, where Frederic king of i-'iulha
had enfured to him proteftion. Mr. Coxe, when he vifited
this ifland, landed on the fouth fide of it, and paffed through
an agreeable meadow, Ikirted with vineyards, to a large farm-
houfe, formerly a convent, and feculariicd at the reformation.

ftiare in the adminillration. The legiflattve authority rtfided but inhabited, at the time of Mr. Coxe's vifit, by the Reward
m the great and little councils combined : the former con- of the general hofpllal at Berne, to which the ifland belongs,
filling of 40 members, and the latter, to which the executiv-; " The ifland," fays Mr. Coxe, "is about 2 miles in cir-
power belonged, being corapofed of 24 ; and it was required cumference, and richly wooded with various flirubs and trees,
that the members of each council fhould be married men. particularly with large oaks, beech, and Spanilh chefnuts.
•Both councils elected their rcfpeftive members ; and there- Its furface is gently undulating ; the fouthem (hore, cover-
fore the conftitution was altogether arillocratical. The cd with hetbage, forms a gradual Hope to the lake ; the
burgo-maller, or chief of the regency, was chofcn by the remaining borders are deep and rocky ; in a few places their
two councils, and prelided at their meeting, and retained fummits are thinly fringed with (lirubs ; in others their per-
his office during life ; but it was neceilary that he, as well pendicular fides are clothed to the water's edge with hang-
at the feveral magillrates, fhould be confirmed annually by ing woods. The views from the different parts of the ifland
the two councils. The falaries annexed to thefe potts were are beautiful and diverfified ; that to the north is the mod
fmall, and the general expeiiccs of government fo inconfider- extenfive and pleafing. It commands the lake of Bienne,
able, that the revenues of the Hate were fufficiently ample- which is of an oval form ; its cultivated borders fpotted with
This republic, though a Protellant one, under the fove- villages and catties, with the towns of Nidau and Bienne
reignty of a Catholic bilhop, enjoyed in the fulktt extent {landing on the further extremity. Agreeable walks are
the power of impofing taxes, contrafting alliances, declaring carried through the woods, and terminate at a circular pa-
war and peace; and, in Ihort, of exercifing every other aft vilion placed in the centre of the ifland. During vintage,
of abColute and independent legiflation. Its fingular confti- particularly, and on Sunday, which is the ufual day of fetti-
tution was guaranteed by Berne, Friburg, and Soleure, vity, the ifland is filled with parties, who take refrefliment at
with which the town was clofely allied, having connefted it. the farm-houfe, ttray about the woods, or dance in the cir-
fclf With the former in 1352, with the fccond m J496, and cular building, and animate thefe romantic but folitary

6 fcents."

B I E

■fcenes." " Roulteau occupied an apartment in the farm-
houfe, the only dwelling in the ifland. He lived with the
ileward and his family, who are the prefeiit inhabitants
(1785). The woman informed me, that he paid for his
board and lodgings 40 (hillings a month ; that he ufually
rofe at iix, dined with the family at twelve, and after a
■flight flipper retired to rell at nine. She added, he was ex-
tremely cheaifiil and agrei-able ; converfed with the family
with the greateit eafe and complacency, and conformed to
■ their hours and manner of living ; he amufed himfelf entirely
in wai'.ilering about the woods, and fearching for plants,
■which he iifed to explain to them with lingular fatisfadion.
RonfTcau mentions his refidence in this delightful illand with
the highell terms of rapture, and with his ufual pronenefs to
exaggeration." " I was permitted," fays he, " to remain
onlv two months in this delightful idand ; but 1 could have
puffed there two years, two centuries, ail eternity, without
futfcrlng a moment's ennui, althoiiirh my whole fociety con-
iilltd of the lleward and family, good, but phiin people. I
eilecm thofe two montlis the molt happy period of my life;
and fo happy, that I could have pafled my whole exillence
without even a momentary wilh tor another litu^ion."
Coxe's Travels in Switzerland, &c. vol. ii. p. 152, Sic.

BIENNIAL Plants, in Botany, denote inch, as the
epithet imports, that are of two years' duration. Of this
tribe there are numerous plants, which, being railed one
year from feed, generally attain perfeflion in the fame year,
or within about twelve months, (hooting up rtalks, pro-
ducing flower.^, and perfecting feeds in t!ie following fpring
or fummer; and foon after commonly pcriih, or apparently
decay and dwindle, fo that they foon die off. Biennials
are, therefore, always in their prime the iirft or fecond fum-
mer. They conlill both of efculent and flower plants.
Thofe of the former fort are the cabbage, favoy, carrot,
parfnip, beet, onion, leek, &c. ; and thofe of the latter are
the Canterbury bell, French honey-fuckle, wall-flower, Itock-
jnly-flower, fweet-william, Chinapink, common-pink, matted-
pink, carnation, fcabions, holly-hock, tree-mallow, vervain-
mallow, tree-primrofe, honefty, or moon-wort, &c.

BIENTINA, in Geography, 3 town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, on the ilde of a lake, called the " lake
of Bientina," or the " lake of SefFo ;" which lake is ahoiit
6 miles long, and 5 wide ; 12 miles eaft of Pifa, and 28
well of Florence. The territory of Bientina lies in the
middle of a marlh, in the centre of a valley, not very fpa-
ciou.'-, bounded by the high mountains of Pifa, and by
thofe of Lucca and Valdniievole, which interrupt the wind,
and prevent a renewal of air ; and it is, therefore, as one
would imagine by its fituation, peculiarly unwliolefome
and unfavourable for inhabitants. It is neverthclefs very po-
pulous, and fufliciently healthful even in fummer. The
principal canfes of this ialubrity are faid to be, the numer-
ous population, the extenfive commerce, and the extreme
attention tliat is paid to the continual difcharge of the rain-
waters, but, above all, the advantage of an abundant fpring,
which dcfcends from the hills of St. Colonibe, by means of
long aquedufts, and fupplies the inhabitants with excellent
water. 'The fituation of Bientina, therefore, dul'V examined,
Jhews how far the art of man is capable of rendering habita-
ble, and even falnbrious, places naturally pellilential.

BIENVILLE, D. T. De, M.D. in Biography, born
in France, praftifed medicine many years at the Hague, and is
only known by the following works, which bear liis name :
*' La Nymphomanie, ou Traite de la fureur uterine," Amli.
1771, 8vo. ; " Rechcrchts theoriques tt pratiques fur la
Petite verole," 1772, 8vo. " Traite des errcurs populaires,
fur la fante," La Hague, 1775, 8vo.

BIER, a kind of wooden carriage, on which the bodies

B I E

of the dead are borne to their grave. The word comes from
the French bicre, which fignities the fame. It is called in
Latin feretrum, a firendo. Among the Romans the com-
mon bier, upon which the poorer foit were carried, was
caXliA jfandapiia; that ufed for the richer fort, leclica, leciica
funthrh, fom.etimes kclus. The former was only a fort of
wooden chtll, •utl'ts area, which was burnt with the body :
the latter was enriched and gilded for pomp. It was car-
ried bare, or uncovered, when the perfon died a natural and
eafy death ; when he was much disfigured or diftorted, it
was veiled or covered over.

BiEB, is more particularly ufed for that on which the
bodies of faints are placed in the church to reft, and expofed
to the veneration of the devout. This was often enriched
with gold, filver, and precious (lones ; and furni(hed temp-
tations, in many mftanccs, to pillage.

Bl E RG, in Gengraphy, a herred, or diftricl, of the diocefe
of Funen in Denmark, including 12 churches, and feveral
noblemen's feats.

BIERLING, G.\SPAN Theophilus, in Biography,
took his degree of doftor in medicine at Padua, about the
middle of the 17th century, whence he returned to Ma«rde-
bu'ig, his native tity, where he was in confiderable eftima-
tion. He publilhed " Adverfariorum curioforum Centuria
prima," June, 1^79, 4to. He delcribes the efifefts of eat-
ing the hyofcyamus (henbane,) drowfinefs, and delirium,
which are cured, he fays, by taking the extracl of caftor,
and the effefts from the bite of a viper, cured by eating the
flcfh of one of thofe reptiles. He had the merit of recom-
mending the cool treatment, and even bleeding, in the fmall-
pox, contrary to the then generally received opinion. For
the remainder of his works, which are numerous, but in
httle eftimation ; fee Haller's Bib. Med. Elog. Did. Hill.
BIERVLIET, in Geography, a fmall town of Flanders,
on the. well fide of the Scheldt, which has been much re-
duced by frequent inundations, and the fortifications of
which were deftroyed in 1688. William Beukeljzoon, or
as others have written his name, Beukelings, who taught
the Dutch the art of curing herrings, was a native of this
place, and died here in 1397. The town is 7 leagues north
of Ghent, and 4 E. N. E. of Sluys. N. lat. 51° 25'. E.
long, f 42'.

BIESBOS, a large lake in the Merwe, between Dort
and Gertrudenburg, formed by the irruption of the bank*
or dikes.

r>lESE, a river of Germany, which rifes 8 miles fouth-
wefl from Stendal, in the Old Mark of Brandenburg, and
purfning its courfe to Seehaufen, changes its name to Aland.
BIESENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and middle Mark of Brandenburg, 20 miles
N. E. of Berhn.

BIESIUS, Nicholas, \n Biography, born at Ghent in
Flanderp, March 27, 1516, (ludieel medicine at Louvain ;
thence he went to Valencia in Spain, and afterward to Si-
enna, in Italy, where he took his degree of doclor. Re-
turning to Louvain he was advanced to the chair of profef-
for iu medicine, which he filled with credit feveral years,
expounding to his pupils, as the cullom then was, the works
of Galen. He was thence called by the emperor Maximi-
lian 1 1, to Vienna, and appointed his phyfician, which poll
he held until April 1572, ■.\hen he was fuddenly cut off by
a fit of apoplexy. His works are, " Tlieoreticie Medicina;,
libri fex," Ant. 1558, 4to. ; " In Artem medicam Ga-
leni Commentarii," 1560, Svo. ; " De Methodo Mcdi-
cinae," 1564. Svo.; " De Natura hbri quinque," 1573,
8vo. ; the two lall works have been feveral times reprinted.

BIESMES, iu Geography, a place of France, where is a
pafs acrofs the Aine, from the department of the Meufe to

Y y 2 that

B I F

that of the Marne ; 3 miles from St. Mendiold, and 12 from
Grand Pre.

lUESNIN, a tovm of Poland, in the pnlaiiiiate ot
Ploozko. N. lat. 53°. E. long. 20° 8'

BIETIGHEIM, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
WurtomheriT, at the conflux of the Ens and Mctterbach ;
10 n-iks N. of Statgartd, and 30 S. S. E. of Heidelberg.

KIEV RE, a river of Fi-ar.ce, which rifcs a little to the
fo'lth of Vcrfailles, and palfiiig towards Paris, changes its
name for that of Gobelins, on account of its water be-
ing ufcd in that inaniifadure, and foon after it joins the
Seine.

BIEUZI, a town of France, in the department of Mor-
bihat', and chief place of a canton, in the dillrid of Pontivy ;
2 leagues S. S. W. of Pontivy.

BIEZOW, or BmscHOW, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Konnlgingratz ; 3 miles ea!t of Koningiiigratz.

BIFARIA, Folia, in Botany, denote leaves that point
two wav3.

BIFASCIANA, \t\ Entomology, a fpecies of PHAL.tNA
{Toririx). The anterior wings are teftaceous ; two ob-
lique bands, fpot, and arched mark at the apex brown.
Linn. Muf. Lclk, &c. Inhabits Europe.

BIFASCIATA, in Conchology, a fpecies of Bulla, the
(hcU of which is fomewhat tapering, ereft, and white, with
two broad reddifh bands at the aperture. Lifter. Gmelin.
Native place unknown.

BiFAsciATA, a fpecies of Voluta, defcribcd by Lifter
and Martini. This (hell is thin, tranfverfely llriated, and
fltfh coloured, with two white bands and a fingle tooth on
the pillar. It is rather lefs than an inch in length ; and has
a long narrow aperture. Native country unknown.

BiFASciATA, a fpecies of Cypr^ea, of an oblong form
and purpliih, with a llraw-coloured band, and a narrower
white one, and brown border. Gmelin. Length nearly
four inches. Country unknown.

BiFASciATA, a fpecies of Nerita, of a blackith colour,
with two hoai-y bands and white tip. A native of India.
Gmelin. Chemiiit/., &c.

BiFASC^ATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Si lp ha, found in
Saxony. This is black, with two bands and a fpot at the
apex of ferruginous colour. Fabrieius. This is a fmall infect.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Cassida, that inhabits South
America. It is pale with two brown bands. Gmelin.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Coccinella, of a ferruginous
colour, with two bands and four dots of black. Fabiicins.
This infecl inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; and is Cocci-
nclliijlcxuofa of Thunberg.

BiFASi-iATA, a fpecies of Chrysomj.i.a of a large fize,
that is found in Cayenne. It is tcllaceous: wing-cafes bratfy
aiid lliining: two ipots and two bands of yellow. Fabri-
eius, &c.

I'liAsciATA, a fpecies of Cicada {Ccrcopis), of a yel-
lowilli colour, with brown wing cafes, and two vi-hite bands,
labricius. This is Cicnda fiifca, fufciis alarum bints alhis,
of Linn. Syll. Nat. XII. and Cicada trifafciata, of Degeer.
Inhabits the north of Europe.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Phal.t.na [Geometra), de-
fcribed by Liiinscus as a native of Europe. The anterior
wings are cinereous, clovidt-d, with two bands ; pofteiior
pair white.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Libellula, that inhabits
America. Tlie wings are hyaline, with a brown fpot at the
bafc, and two bands of the fame colour. Fabrieius. Obf.
This is Libellula trimaculata of Degeer ; and Lilvl/ula pul-
chtlla of Drury.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Tf.nthrf.do, that inhabits Eu-
rope. The general colour is brown ; thorax black ; mouth,

B I F

fcntel, and four fpots white : on the abdomen two interrupt-
ed yellow bands : margin of the wings and legs yellow.
Linnaeus. Muf. Lefl<.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Mutilla, that inhabits New
York. The colour is black ; upper part of the head and
thorax, and two bands on the abdomen red : wing violace-
ous-black. Swedenis. Nov, Aft. Stockh. Entirely downy
and twice the fize of M. Europra.

BiFASCiATA, a fpecies of Tipula, of a yellowifli co-
lour, with tranfparent wings palely fafciated with brown.
Schranck Inf. Auftr. Of the m\AA\-. fize, with the eyes black-

BiFASciATA, a fpecies of Musca, that inhabits South
America. It is rufous, with two golden bands on the ab-
domen. Fabricitis, &c.

BiFASCiAtA, a fpecies of Scolia, that inhabits New
York. Tills infeft is of a black colour ; two dots on the
anterior part of the thorax, fcutel, and two interrupted
bands on the abdomen ferruginous. Swederus Nov. Aft.
Stockh.

BIFASCIATUS, in Conchology, a fpecies of Conus,
figured by Born. This kind is white with angulatcd chef-
nut lines, and two orange bands: fpire rather prominent :
bafe furrounded with orange lines, and the intermediate
fpaces with teffellated fpots. Country unknown.

Bifasciatus, in Entomology, a fpecies of ScARAB.eus,
that inhabits Coromandel : on the thorax is a triple protu-
berance, with an erect horn on the head ; wing-cafes black,
with two rufous bands. Fabrieius.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Dermestes, of a black
colour, with two waved yellow bands : thorax tefftUated
with cinereous colour. Thunberg. A native of the Cape
of Good Hope.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Bostrichos, found in Si-
beria. It is of a black colour : wing-cafes yellow, with two
blueifh-black denticulated bands. Gmelin. This is Der-
inejles Lifafcintni of Lepecli. it.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Cryptocephalus, that in-
habits Africa. It is rufous, with two fpots on the thorax,
and two bands on the wing-cafes of black. Fabrieius.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Cerambyx (Prionus), found
in South America. The thorax is denticulated: body black ;
wing-cafes red, with two black bands : antenna; fhort.
Gronovius, Fabrieius, &c.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Attelaeus (Clenis), of a-
bralTy-green and downy : wing-cafes blue, with two icarlet
lines. Fabrieius. A native of Siberia.

Bifasciatus, a fpecies of Gryllus [Bulh-^cridium),
of a fufcous brown with white fpots, and two lateral ochrey-
coloured band?. Hcrlj] apiid Fuejli. Inhabits fandy places.

BlFASCIELLA,a fpecies of Phal^ena (Tinea), with
fufcous glofly wings ; with two bands of white, the hinder
one interrupted : head rufous. Fabrieius. Inhabits Den-
mark.

BIFERjE, in Botany, denote plants that flower twice a
year, or in fpring and autumn.

BIl'ERNO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which ruu9
into the Adriatic, nor far from Termini.

BIl'FA, in Middle /Ige IVriters, a machine for cafting
Hones and (larts, having a moveable counterpoife, which
turned round its yard.

BIFID Lfaf, in Botany. See Leaf.

BII'TDUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of CiMEX [ReJtt-
■vius,) of a black colour: wing-cafes with a rufous band ; an
erect bilid fpine on the fcuttl. Inhabits China, and is of a
large fize. Fabrieius. Doiiov. Inf. China.

BIFOLIUM, in Botany. See Ophrys.

BIFORIS, in Natural Jl'i/lory, a fp.xies of Echinus,
having at the bafe live furrows, and itn fltxuous radiated

lines;

B I G

lines ; and near the vent two oblong perforations. Lcjke
11 apud Klein. Its habitation miknown.

BIFORMIS, an appellation given to Bacchus, either be-
caufe he is rcprefented fomctimej as a young man, fome-
times as old ; fometinie:. with a beard, and fometimes with-
out one ; or bccaufe wine, of which he is the fymbol, ren-
ders men forrowful and frantic, or gay and pleafant.
BIFRONS, a perfon double-fronted, or two-faced.
BiFRONS is more pccuharly an appellation of Janus, wjio
was reprefented by the ancients with two faces, as being
fuppofcd to look both backw.irds and forwards : though
other reafons for it are recited by Plutarch. Sometimes lie
was painted with four faces, quadrifrons, as rcprefenting the
four feafons.

BiFRONS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Brfntus, that in-
habits Cayenne. This infcft is black, with Itriated wing.
cafes, having glabrous yellow fpots. Fabricius.

BiFRONS, a fpecies of Ichneumon, dcfcribed^ by Lin-
tixus : it is an European infeft of a black colour, with the
front white, with a black i'pot beneath the antennoe : tip of
the petiole, and two firft fegmcnts of the abdomen, with the
legs reddidi. Muf. Leflv.

BiFRONS, in Natural H'ljlnry, a fpecies of Nereis, de-
fcribed by O. Fabricius, and Miil!. as a native of the north
fea. It is dcpreifed : peduncles with a fimple fetigerous
papilla, cirrated above ; thofe in the middle alfo branched.
This creature is continually in motion; about an inch long,
and of a fulvous or browniih colour : head white : eyes four :
cirri feven : body attenuated at both ends, and confilUng of
fifty -fix joints.

BIFURCATUS, in Entomohgy, a fpecies of Cimex
(Oilongiis), that inhabits Germany. It is blackiih : abdo-
men pale yellow, and bifurcated. Scbieffer. Anttnns con-
fiil of four jointe.

BIGA, a chariot for racing, drawn by two horfes a-brca(l.
The word ought rather to be written iigx, in the plural ;
q. d. iijug'e, two horfes being joined by a jiigum, or yoke.
Bigs Hands contradillinguilhed Irom tr'igec, quadn^ic, SiC.
Big c are of very ancient itanding : all the heroes in Homer,
Heliod, Vi'-gil, 5cc. fought in them. The invention of
biga: is attributed by Pliny (N. H. vii. 56.) to the Phry-
gians ; by Ifidore, (xvii. 35.) to Cyriilenes of Sicyon, who
firft yoked two horfes together. They were firft introduced
ir.to the Olympic games in the 93d olympiad, or about the
year 408, B. C. It appears, however, that the Greek heroes
who celebrated the firft Nemxa)i games in honour of Arche-
morus, were- borne on bigx. Bigx were the chariots firft
ufcd in the Circcnfian games ; then triga, and afterwards
quadrigte. The moon, night, and the morning, are by my-
thologifts fuppofed to be carried in bigi, the fun in quad-
rigx. Statues in bigae were at firft only allowed to the gods,
then to conquerors in the Grecian games; under the Roman
emperor?, the like ftatucs, with bigae, were decreed and
granted to great and weil-deferving men, as a kind of half
tri'imph, being eretted in moft public places of the city.
Figures of bigae were alfo ftruck on their coins, and thofe
on which were a bigae, and a Janus with a double face, were
termed Bigati nummi.

Tiie drivers of bigae were called bigarii ; a marble buft of
one Floru?, a ilgarius, is ftill teen at Rome.

B1G.I, or Bignta, in H^ritcrs of the Middle and Bail arous
Age, a cart with two wheels, drawn often with one horfe.
It was more frequently called birota.

BicA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
provi'^ce of N.itolia, 16 miles S.of A-taki.

BicA, a river of North Wales, which joins the Severn in
the county of Montgomery.

BIGAMY, a double marriage, or the poflkflion of two

B I G

wives at the fame time. Among the ancient Romans, thofe
convicted of bigamy were branded with a note of igno.mir.v ;
and, in Fiance, they were anciently punilhed with death,
oce Polygamy.

Bigamy, in the Caiirm Law, is where a perfon either
manits two virgins fucccffively ; or once narries a widow.
'1 he former kind of bigamy they call nal, and the latter
interpretalive. Each of tlicfe the canoniiU account impedi-
ments to be a clerk, or to hold a biflioprick without a dif-
penfation : a point of difcipline founded on that of St. Paul,
" I..ct a bidiop be tlie hufoand of one wife," 1 Tim. chap. iii.
ver. 2. Apoft. Conft. 17, 18. By a canon of the council
of Lyons, A. D. 1274, held under pope Gregory X. fuch
were elkaiud " omni privilegio clericali nudati et coercion!
fori fecularis addicti." 6 Decretal, i. 12. This canon was
adopted and explained in England by ftat. 4Edw. I. ft. 3.
c. 5. ; and bigamy, in confcqutnce of it, became no uncom-
mon counter-plea to the claim of the benefit of clergy.
M. 4oEdw. III. 42. M. .11 Hen. IV. 11.48. M.
13 Hen. IV. 6. Staunf. P. C. 134. The cognizance of
the plea of bigamy was declared by ftat. 18 Edw. III.
ft. 3. c. 2. to belong to the court Chriftian, like that of
baitardy. But by ftat. 1 Edw. VI. c. 12, §.6. bigamy
was declared to be no longer any impediment to the claim of
clergy. See Dal. 21. Dyer, 201.

The Romanlfts make a third kind of bigamy, by interpre-
tation ; as, when a perfon in holy orders, or that has taken
on him fome monaftic order, marries. — This the bifliop can
difpenfe withal, at leaft on fome occafions.

There is alfo a kind of fpiritual bigamy j as when a per-
fon holds two incompatible benefices, v. gr. two biftiopricks,
two vicarages, two canon ries_/u3 eodem teBo, &c.

By the ecclcfiallical law of England, a fecond marriage,
while the iormer hufijand or wife is hving, is fimply void,
and a mere nullity ; neverthelefs, the legiflature has thought
it juft to make it felony, by reafon of its being fo great a
violation of the public economy and decency of a well-
ordered ftate. For the circumftances attending this crime,
and the punifhment of it, fee Polygamy.
BIGARELLA, in ^6/a/y. SeePRUNUS.
BiGARELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in th£ duchy
of Mantua, 7 miles E. N. E. of Mantua.

BIGATI, in Antiquity, a kind of ancient Roman filver
coins, on one fide whereof was reprefented a higa, or chariot
drawn by two horfes. The bigatus was properly the Ro-
man denarius, whofe imprcfiion, during tiie times of the
common-wealth, was a chariot driven by Viftory, and drawn
either by two horfes, or four, according to which it was
either denominated ligatus, or quadrigatus. Bigati therefore
were of different values, according to the fpecies of denarii,
&c. Several of thofe called confular medals are alfo ligati.
In lieu of horfes, the chariot is reprefented on fome ligati,
as drawn by two dcers, efpecially in the medals of the family
of Axfia : on thofe of the family of Crcpereia, by two h:p'
popotnmi, who draw, or rather bear Neptupe on their tails.

BIGBERRY, or Bigbury lay, in Geography, lies on
the fouth coaft of Devon, and is formed by the Bolt Tail on
the eaft, and Stoke-point on the weft, in the direftion nearly
of N. W. by W. The entrance into Plymouth found is
round Stoke point to the N. W.

BIG-BONE Creek, an American creek in Woodford
County, Kentucky, which falls into the Ohio from the eaft,
in about N. lat. 39^ 17'. W. long. 85'' 54'. It is fmall, but
has three brauches ; the rorthwcfttrr.moft interlocks with
Bank Lick creek, vihich falls into Licking river. It is
noticed on account cf the large bones and fait licks in its
vicinity.

BiG-Bo.s£ Licks lie on each fide of the above-mentioned
"J creek,

B I G

ciTcV, a Tittk- below the junction of tlie two eaftern branchw,
about 8 milf s from the mouth of the crcrk. Tliefe, and alfo
the other fait fprings, in the wcftcrn country, are called
lieh, becaufe the earth about them is furrowed up in a very
curious manner, by the buffaloes and dccr which lick the
e.irth, on account of the faline particles with which it is
impregnated. A ilrcam of brackith water runs through
thefe 'licks, the foil of which is of a foft clay. The large
bines found here, and in feveral other places near fait lick',
and in. low foft tcrounds, thought to belong to the Mam-
moth, have p^-rplexed naturahils, in tluir invelligation of the
animals to which they belong. See BoNfs /y/i/i-, and
Mammoth.

IJfGEMlNATE Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.
BIGERRA, in jimicnt Geography, a town of Spain,
which, according to Livy, was attack- d by the Carthagi-
nian', becaufe it was allied to the Romans, but it was fuc-
conrcd by Scipio. Ptolemy alfigns it to the Baftitani, in.
TarraiToneufis.

BIGERRONES, a people of Gaul, fo called by Cxfar,
aiiil denoininattd by Phny, lli^irn; and by Aufouius, Ee-
rerilarii. M. d'Anville places them at the foot ot the Py-
reiitcs, to liie welt of the Coiivepse. Their name exifts in
that of Bigorre.

BIGGAR, the name of a town and parifli of Lanarkdiire,
in ScothuKl. The parifli includes an area of lai^l, meafnring
about 6 miles, by 35 in trarfverfe diameter. The furface is
pirtly hilly, and is appropriated, in nearly equal parts, to
pallure and arable. The population of the parilli in 1790 was
<)37> but this was 161 Itfs than when a return was made 36
years anterior. From the improved (late of the roads, and of
agriculture, it was found to contain i2i6perfoiis in the year
iSoo. The town of Biggar has 389 inhabitants. Here are
three annual fairs. At the well end of the parifh are the vef-
tiges of a large tumulus, and three encampments. Tradition
fays, that a defperate battle was fought here between the Scots
tinder lir William Wallace, and the Englirti army, when the
flaughter was very great. Sir John Sinclair's Statiftical Hif-
tory of Scotland.

BIGGE, a river of Germany, which runs into the
I.enne, 3 miles north of Allendorn, in the duchy of Well-
phalia.

BlGGEIo in Zoology, ylnlUope Tragocamelus of Gmelin,
in Mandtin. it.

BIGGLE.SWADE, in Geo^^rtip/ty, is a large improving
town of Bedforddiirc, England, pleafantly fituatcd in a
fertile valley, on the eafteru bank of the river Ivel. This
has been rendered navigable to the town by aft of parlia-
ment, and confiderable quantities of coals, timber, corn, and
fume other commodities, are brought by this channeL An
cxtenfive weekly market, and four annual fairs, alfo attract
various merchandize to the town. The manor belongs to the
king, and the paridi includes, befides the town, the fmall
hamlets of Strctton and Holme. Thefe together contain a
population of 1650 perfons, who occupy 301 houfes. The
church, an ancient and Itrong edifice, was partly built in
the year 1230, and was formerly collegiate. The inhabi-
tants, being free tenants, have all equal rights in the church.
In this town are two charity-fchools ; alfo a Baptill meet-
ing-houfc ; and being fcated on a great public road, it con-
tains feveral large inns. Bigglcfvvade fuffered very materi-
ally by fire, which happened on the i6thof June 178J. In
a few hours 150 dwelling-houfts were reduced to aflies, be-
fides fome malt-houfes, corn-chambers, &c. which were
fituatcd round the market-place, near the centre of the
town. The damages fullained by this lire were eftimated at
24,0001. Since the conflagration feveral new houfes have
been credled, and the town has alTumed a more modern and

B I G

improved appearance. On the zjtli of February 1792, a
(hock of an earthquake greatly alarmed the inhabitants of
this place, and its conculiion was fo powerful as to throw
down fome old houf.-s. It tailed feveral feconds, and was
found to extend northward into Yorklhire, and towards the
fea-coall of Lincohilhire. In the manor of Stretton, at a
fliort diftance fouth-eafl; of Bigglefwade, as a carter was
ploughing the land, he difcovered a yellow earthen pot,
which was found to contain about 300 gold coins of Heury
VI. They were nearly the fi/.e of halt crown pieces each,
but being very thin did not equal the weight of a guinea.

About 4 miles weft of Bigglcfwade, are the remains of
Warden-abbey, which was formerly a very extenlive and
confiderable foundation. It was founded in 11 3 5, by W^al-
ter Efpec, for Ciilercian monks ; and at the diflolution its
revenues were valued at 3S9I. i6s. 6d. per annum. Le-
laud's Itinerary. Camden's Britannia. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. i.

BIGGS Bay, lies on the foulh fide of Jamaica, and to
the eall of north from Portland-poi:it, which is the uioll
foutherly point of the iflaiid.

BIG-HILL Crtfk, an American creek, whick runs
weft into the Kaflcafliias river, 25 miles below Beavei creek,
17 above Blind creek, and 26 northerly from the mouth of
Ka(l<aflcias.

BIGGlNSwAMP. See Santf.f. River.
BIGHT, in the Sca-fun^'tin^e, dsnotts any part of a rope,
as it is taken compading, coiled up ; or t!ie double part ot a
rope, when it is tnlded, in contradiltinftion to the cud. It
fignit'ies alfo a fmall bay between two points of land.

BIGINI, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara, 10 miles eall of Mazara.

BIG IS, in jlncient Geography, a town of Afia, placed by
Ptolemy in Drangiana.

BIGLA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Wihia, 40 miles E. N. E. of W^ilcomirz, near
a lake from which tlie river Drifiia iffues. N. lat. 55" 26'.
E. long. 20" 24'.

BIGLOBATUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cuacu-
Lio, found at the Cape of Good Hope. This is of a black
colour, with acanaliculatedfnout ; thorax globofe, very rough
with punftured dots ; wing-cafes with fcabrous dot', and
two rows ot tubercles on each fide. Sparrm. Nov. Aft.
Stoekh.

BIGLUMIS, a fpecies of Vespa, with four dots on
the fcutcl ; margin of the abdominal fegmeiits white, with
two white dots on the fecond. Gmelin. Vefpa Rupejlris
of Linn. Syft. Nat. is deemed a variety of this kind.

BIGNAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Joftclin, 3 leagues S. W. of JofTeliu.

BIGNIjin Conehology, a name under which Adanfon de-
fcribes Vohila Tringa ot Gmelin.

BIGNON, Jf.rom, in Biography, was born at Paris in
1590, and educated by his father, who was an advocate in
the parliament of Paris, and diilinguidied by his learning and
charafter. Plaving made a furprifing progrefs under hi*
father's tuition, he was placed, about the age of ten years,
near the perfon of the young prince of Condc, and about
this period publidied, '< A Dcfcriptiori of the Holy Land,"
more accurate than any extant. In 1604, he compoled for
the ufe of the young duke of Vendome, a " Treatife on
Roman Antiquities." Thefe. works were compilations; but
his work on the " Eleftion of the Popes," faid to be com-
pofed in his fourteenth year, but not publidied till 1608,
was of a more original kind, and difplayed a degree of eru-
dition that furprifcd the moll learned men of the age. Big-

non

BIG

non was regarded by Scaliger, Cafaubon, Grqtius, Pithou,
<ic Thou, Le Fcvre, and otlier ernini;iit fcholars, as a pro-
difv of literature, and his acquaintance was eagerly culti-
vated. By Henry IV., who knew his extraordinary talents
mid attainments, lie was appointed pajje of 'honour to the
dauphin, aftcn^•ards Lewis XIII.; and at court his man-
ners were diftinpfuifhed by an ealy pohtcncfs, though he un-
remittingly profecuttd his literary ftudies. His next trea-
tife was a refutation of Valdez, a Spanifli writer, who pub-
liflied a folio volume to eftablifli the precedence of the kings
of Spain over the other fovcreign^; it was entitled " On the
iixcellcnce of the Kings and Kingdom of P'rance," dedi-
cated to Henry IV. and publiftied in 1610, Svo. Upon
the death of Henry, he withdrew from court, and acquiitd
an additional reputation by a new edition of " The Formu-
laries of Marculphus," publiflicd with learned notes, in
1613. In the following year he took a journey to Italy,
where he was honourably received by pope Paul V., Father
Paul at Venice, and other perfons, who had already heard
of his fame. Upon his return he devoted himfclf to the bar,
and, in i6iO, was appointed advocate-general to the great
council; and having acquitted himfelf with credit in this office,
he was nominated by the king a counfeilor of ftate ; and, in
1626, created advocate-general to the parliament. In this
hiijh ftation he maintained the parliamentary rights with fum-
nefs and vigour,a;id manilelkd the moilardetit zeal ior juflice.
In 1641, he rcfigned this honourable office to his fon-iii law,
Stephen Briquet ; nor did he refume it till after his death in
1645. In 1642, cardinal Richelieu, though far from being
his friend, appointed him royal librarian, which his tafle for
literature induced him to accept, wliilll he declined the lu-
crative poft of fuperintendant of the finances. Queen Anne
of Aultria, during her regency, availed herlclf of his advice
on many interclling occafions, and he was employed in many
delicate negociations. Having through life maintained a
chara£ler, which was uiiiverfally refpedled and cileemed,
lie terminated his ccurfe of ufefu! fervice in the exercife of
thofe fentiments of piety by which his conduft had been
governed, in the 67th year of his age, April 7, 1656.
Amongft his papers were found fome fragments of notes on
Gregory of Tours, and of a work on the origin of the French
law, which he had not kifure to fiiiilh. The abbe I'erraiilt
has given a good account of his life, in one volume laaio.
1757. Nouv. Uia. Hia. Gen. Ditl.

BIGNONIA, fo named by Tournefort, in honour of
the abbe Bignon, Eiig. trumpet Jloiver, ox fcarkt jafmme, in
Br:!any. Lin. gen. n. 759. Reich. 817. Schreb. 1018.
I'ourn. 72. julf. 139. Gaertn. t. 52. Clafs and Order,
il'ulynamia angiofpennia. Nat. Ord. Pcrjonata. B'lgnoniir.
Juir. Gen. char. C«/. perianth one-leafed, erett, cup -form,
live-cleft. Cor. monopetalous, campanulate; tube very
fmall, the length of the calyx ; throat very long, ventricofe
beneath, oblong-campanulate ; border five-parted, the two
upper divifions reflex, loiver patulous. Stum, filaments four,
fubulate, fhorter than the corolla ; two longer than the
other two; another reflex, oblong, as it were doubled.
Pijl. germ oblong ; ftyle filiform, fituation and form of the
llamens ; ftigma capitate. Per. Silique two-celled, two-
valved ; partition membranaceous, parallel, thickened at the
futures. Setvls very many, imbricate, comprefled, membrane-
winged on both iides. ObL Cala/pa has only two perfeft
llamens, and three very fmall rudiments of ilamens, with a
five-leaved calyx. Four, however, and even all five perfeft,
have been obferved by CyriUi. The form of the filique in
this genus is indeterminate. The feeds are always winged,
though fome on one fide only.

Eft Char. Cal. five-cleft, cup-form. Cor. throat bell-

B I G

form, five-cleft, ventricofe beneath. Si/ique two-celled,.
Seeds membrane-winged.

Species, i. B, CaUilpa, common Catalpa tree. Lin. fpec.
868. Reich. 3. 155. hort. cliff. 317. i. Ait. hoit. KeW.
2- 346. DuUam. Alb. 1. 104. t. 41. Catelb. Car. i. 49..
t. 29. " Leaves fimple, cordate; ilem erect ; feeds winged
with membrane?." A deciduous tree, with an upright
ilem, covered with a fmooth brown bark, 30 or 40 feet
high ; with lateral branches, ovate leaves placed oppofite at
every joint, flowers in branching panicles towards the end of
the branches, of a dirty white colour, with a few purple
fpots, and faint ftripes of yellow on their infide, which
flo« ers are fuccetded by long taper pods not yet produced
in England. Found by Mr. Catelby growing naturally on
the back of South Carolina, brought into England about
the year 1726, and now not uncommon in our nurferies and
plantations. In our climate the leaves come out very late ;.
and t!ic tree requires a fhehered fituation. It flowers in-:
Auguft, and is known in the nurferies by its Indian name
" Catalpa." The branches dye wov>l a kind of cinnamon,
colour. Thunberg mentionathat the Japanefe lay the leaves
on parts of the body affected with pains, on a fuppofition.
that they are beneficial to the nerves ; and that a decodiion.
of the pods is fcrviceable in the afflima. 2. B. tumentoj'a.
Lin. Syll. 563. Thunb. Jap, 252. " Leaves fimple, cor-
date, tomentofe beneath; flowers axillary, panicled." A
native of Japan. 3. V>) fempevv'irens, Carohna yellowjafmine.
Lin. Spec. 869. Reich. 3.155. Gelfeminum. Park. 1465.
n. 5. Rail hifl. 1769. Catelb. Car. I. t. 53. Syriiiga.
Pluk. Aim. t. 112. f. 5. " Leaves fimple, lanceolate, Ilem
twining." Rifing with (lender (lalks, that twill thtmfelves
round the neighbouring plants, and mount to a confidcrable
height, with fingle oppofite leaves at every joint, that remain
green throughout the year ; growing naturally in South
Carolina, where it fpreads over the hedges, and, at the fea-
fon of flowering, perfuming the air to a great dillauce ; and
alfo found in fome parts oJ Virginia : called yellow jafmine,
probably from the fweet odour of its flowers. Cultivated in
1640, m Kew garden, by Parkinfon. 4. B. unguis. Lin.
Spec. 869. Reich. 3. 156. Apocyno affine. Sloan, jam. i.
268. Clematis. Plum. Amer. t. 94. Pluk. Aim. t. 163. f. 2»
" Leaves conjugate ; tendril very fhort, bowed, three-
parted." A native of the Weil Indies. 5. B. itquinoHiaUs.
Lin. Spec. 869. Reich. 3. 156. Sabb. hort. 2. t. 85.
Plwm. Spec. 5. ic. 55. f. 1. " Leaves conjugate, cirrhole ;
leaflets ovate and lanceolate ; peduncles two-flowered ; fi-
hqiies linear." Received by Mr. Millar from La Vera Cruz,
in New Spain. 6. B. pan'tculata. Lin. Spec. 869. SylL
563. Reich. 3. 156. Jacq. amer. t. 116. Picl. 91. t. 175.
Plum. Spec. 5. ic. 56. f. i. " Leaves conjugate, cirrhofe ;
leaflets cordate-ovate ; flowers racemed ; peduncles three-
flowereJ." Sent to Mr. Miller from La Vera Cruz, by Dr..
Houlloun. Obferved about Carthagena by Jacquin. 7. B.
cruclgera. Lin. Spec. 869, Rtich. 3, 157- Vir. cliff. 6c.
Hort. clilL 317. 3. Gron. virg. I. 73. 2. 95. Plum. ic. 48,
t. 58. Pfeudo-Apocynum. Mor. hill. 3. 6x2. n. 6. f. 15. t.
3.. f. 16. " Leaves conjugate, cirrhoie ; leaflets cordate;
ilem muricated :" deriving its trivial name from a fedtion of.
the ilem which reprefents a crofs. Sent to Mr. Miller from
Camptachy. 8. B. capnolata, four- leaved trumpet-flower.
Lin. Spec. 870. Syft. 563. Reich. 3. 157. Vir. cliff. 59.
Hort. cliff. 317. Bravn. ic. 33. t. 25. Duham. Arb. 1.
104. t. 40. Catefb, Car. 2. 82. Clematis. Bocc. fie. 31. t.
15,. f. 3. Zan. hift. 74. t. 2. ed. 2. 49. t. 33. Raii hill. 1329.
" Leaves conjugate, cirrhofe ; leaflets cordate-lanceolate ;
bottom-leaves fimple." Sent to Mr. Miller from Cam-
peachy. A native of Virginia and Ca:olina ; and cultivated

ia

B I G

in K<;w garden in 1730. g. B. pul/e/cent. Lin. Spec. S 70.
Reic'i. 3. 157. " Leaves conjugate, cirrhofe ; leaflits lo.--
date-ovate, pubefcent beneath." GrowiiiT naturally ji' ^'i'"
ginia, and fevcral otlier parts of America. 10. B. triphylla,
(lirec-leavcd trumpet-ttower, Lin. Spec. 870. Reich. 3.
i-CT. " Leaves ternate ; leaflets ovate, acuminate ; uem
flirubby, erec^." Sent to Mr. Miller from La Vera Cruz,
by Dr. Houlloun. 11. B. pcntaphylla, hairy tive-leaved
trumpet-flower. Lm. Sp-c. 870. Reich. 3. 158. Hnrt.
chfT. ^97. 6 " Leaves digitate ; leaflets quite entire, obo-
vate." Sent to Mr. Miller from Jamaica, by Dr. Houf-
toun ; and introduced into Kew garden before 1733. 12.
B. Lrucoxylon,{n\oo\\\ (ivc-leavedtruinpet-flower, white-wood,
or tulip-flower. Lin. Spec. 870. Reich. 3. 158. Swartz
obf. 233. Pluk. aim. t. 20c. f. 4. Brown jam. 2(7,. n. i.
Sloan, jam. 2. 62. n. 47. Raii dendr. 1 14. 2. " Ltaves
d'gitate ; leaflets quite entire, ovate, acuminate." Accord-
ing to Sir Hans Sloane, this tree is as large as any in the
ifland of Jamaica, having a large ftraight trunk covered with
a fmooth whitilli bark, and a very hard \yhite wood. Ac-
cording to Browne, it grows in a kind foil to a large fize,
and isconfideredaigood timber-wood ; but when its growth
is not luxuriant, fit only for fmaller and fubordinate imple-
ments. Its juice and tender buds arc faid to be an antidote
to the poifonous juice of the manchineel. Mr. Miller fays,
that it rifcs with an upright ftem to the height of 40 feet,
in the natural countiy of its grow th ; and that the feeds,
difperfed by the winds to neighbouring lands, fupply plants
in great plenty. Cultivated by Mr. JVIiller in Kew garden,
in 17J9; and received by him from Barbadoes under the
denomination of " white wood." 13. B. radiata, ray-leaved
trumpet-flower. Lin. Spec. 871. Reich. 3. 158. Feti.
peruv. 2. 731. t. 22. " Leaves digitate ; leaflets pinnati-
fid." Stem three inches high ; corolla pale yellow, with
red dots. A native of Peru, in very dry fand. 14. B. radi-
cans, rooting or a(h-leaved trumpet-flower. Lin. Spec. 871.
Reich. 3. r58. Hort. cliff". 317. 4. Upf. 178. Gron.virg.
73. 94. Duham. arb. i. 103. i. Sabb. hort. 2. t. 84.
Pfeudo gelfcminum I'lliquofura. Riv. mon. lOI. Pfeado-
Apocynum. Mor. hill. 3. 612. n. I. f. 15. t. 3. f. r. Park.
1679. and 3S5. n. 6. Gelfeminum hederaceum Indlcum.
Corn. can. t. IC3. Raii hilt. 1768. p. B. fraxini fol. coc-
cinco fl. minore. Catefo. car. i. t. C'^. Mill. fig. 43. t. 65.
Duham. arb. 103. 2. " Leaves pinnate ; leaflets gafhed ;
Rem with rooting joints." Stems rough, branches trailing,
falteuing by the root?, ifl"uing from their joints, to the trees
ill their natural place of growth, ani climbing to a great
height ; in Europe, where it is generally planted againll
walls, (Iriking into the mortar of the joints, fo as to fupport
the branches, and rifing to the height of 40 or 50 feet :
flowers produced at the ends of the (hoots of the fame year,
in large bunchirs, with long fwelling tubes, (haped fome-
what like a trumpet, whence the plant has the appellation of
♦' trumpet-flower ;" corolla of an orange colour, and open-
ing at the be ginning of Auguft. Cultivated in Kew garden
in ;640. The feeds of /S. were fcnt from Carolina in 1724,
by Mr. Catelby ; and fince that time many plants have been
raifed in England, by feeds feiit from tbat country. 15. B.
Jiant, branching-rtinverid trumpet-flower. Lin. Spec. 871.
Reich. 3. 159. Jacq. Amer. pit\. 9 . t. 176. Brown, jam.
264. 3. Plum. Spec. 5. ic. 54. Sloan, jam. 2. 63 n. 49.
B. frutvfeens. Mill. did. n. 3. " Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
ferrate; ikem erect, firm; flowers raccmed." An upright
Ihrub from four to eight feet in heigfht ; flowers yellow,
with red lines on the iiifide of the tube ; filiques half a foot
'long, with winged feeds. A native of all the fugariflands in
the Weft Indies, chiefly in a dq., rocky, or gravelly foil. Mr.

B I G

Miller fays, that he received this fort firft in 1729, from
La Vera Cruz, where Dr. Houftoun found it in great plenty ;
fince which .ime he obtained the feed from the ifland of Ber-
muda, 1 y the title of " candle-wood." 16. B. gram'ifiora.
l\v. Syu. 56^. Thunb. jap. 253. Kxmpf. ic. fol. z\.
" Leaves pinnate ; leaflets ovate, acuminate, fen-ate ; ilein
twining ; calyx femiquinqucfid." Stem (hrubby, climbing,
fo«r cornered ; calyx five-cornered ; corollas purple, the fize
ol a rofe : diifering from the rcidl^o.ns in having a ftem not
at all rooting, a larj,er flower, and a femiquinquefid calyx.
A native of Japan. 17. B. chelotio'uhs. Lin. Syft. 564.
Suppl. 282. Padri. Rhecd. Mai. 6. 47. t. 26. " Leaves
unequally pinnate ; leaflets ovate, quite entire, acuminate,
pubefcent ; corollas bearded, with the rudiment of a fifth
llamen." A large tree, with a whitifli afii-coloured bark ;
leaves fpreading, pciioled ; paniuie terminating: pedicels
oppofite, dichotomous ; flowers ioiitrry, from the divifions ;
calyx hoary ; border of the corolla a little aiched, lough
with hairs, red, five-cleft ; the two upper fegments yellow,
with red dots ; lower fegments rou^h with hairs, curled at
the edge, diflv waved, white, veins red, throat rough with
hairs ; the rudiment of a fifth tlanien, inf^rtedinto the tube
of the corolla, barren ; filiques Linear, flat, bent, ftreaked.
The frefli flowers, immerfcd in water, give it a pleafant
odour ; and in the Eaft Indies, of which it is a native, they
fprinkle it over the temples m a mornir.g, to correcl; the
iiagnant air. 18. B. fpathacen. Lin. Sylt. 564. Suppl.
2R3. Niir Pongelion. Rhecd. M;!L6. 53. t. 29. "Leaves
unequally pinnate ; leaflets ovate, rough with hairs ; calyx
one-leafed, fpotted ; corolla falver-fliaped." A large tree,
difl^ering in the ftiuftuie of tfie flower from the other Ipecies,
but having didynamous flamens, and a pod filled with winged
feeds. It is evidently of thi? genus. The timber is afli-
coloured, or red, fmooth, and much ufed for a variety of
utenfils in India. A native <>f Malabar, Java, and Ceylon,
in woods near waters. 19. B. peruviana. Lin. Spec. 871.
Reich. 3. 159. Hort. clih. 317. 5. " Leaves decompound;
leaflets gafiied ; ft^em with tendrils at the joints." A native
of America. 20. B. indtca, Indian trumpet-flower. Lin.
Spec. 871. Reich. 3. 159. fl. zey'. 236. Lour, cochinch.
379. Palega pajaneli. Rheed. Mai. i. p. 77. t. 43. Raii
iiilt. 1741. B. Pajaneli. kheed. 79. t. 44. Raii hill. 1741.
n. 2. '■ Leaves bipinnate ; leaflets quite entire, ovate, acu-
minate." A large tree, with afcending branches. A na-
tive of the Eaft Indies, and Cochinchina. Introduced in
1 795 by Dr. Solander. A variety occurs near Mozambique,
in Africa. 21. B. cxrulea. Lin. Spec. 872. Reich. 3.
160. Catefb. car. i. t. 42. " Leaves bipi.inate ; leaflets
lanceolate, entire." Grows natundly in the Bahama iflands,
whence Mr. Catefby fent the feeds, in 1724; and many of
the plants were raifed in the gardens near London. In the
country where it grows naturally, it rifes to the height of
20 feet. 22. B. lori^i/Jima, wave-leaved trumpet-flov^-er.
Ait. Hort. Kew. 2. 347. Jacq. Amer. 182. t. 176. f. 78.
Swartz Prodr. 91. Brown, jam. 264. 2. Plum. ic. 47. t,
57. B. Cjucrcus Lamarck Encyci. i. 417, "Leaves
fiTpIe, oblong, acuminate ; ftem ereft : feeds woolly." An
eitgant, upright tree, 40 feet high and upward?. A native
of the Well Indies; cultivated and growing luxuriai:tly in
many parts of Jamaica, efpecially in the low lands and fa-
vanniihs, where it grows to a conliderahle fize, and is con-
fidered as an excellent timber-trce. Its numerous flowers,
and flendcr filiques, add a peculiar grace to its growth. In
Jamaica it is known by the name of " French oak ;" and
in the French Well India iflands it is called '• Chene noir."
23. E. cchlnMa. Gsertn. fruft. i. 24c. t. 52. Jacq. Amer.
183. t. 176. f. 52. Aublet. Guian. j. C48, t. 263, 26^.

Swartz

B I G

B I G

Swartz prodr. 91. " Climbing ; lower leaves ternate ; up-
per bijugous, cinhofe ; fruit echinate." A' rambling fhrub
climbing to the tops of trees by its very long and numerous
branches. A native of the Well Indies, Carthagera, and
Guiana. z^.Vi. pcntandrii. Lour. Cochiiich. 379. "Leaves
bipinnatc ; ilamens five, with tvro anthers in each ; calyx
flilli-coloured, five-toothed." A middle-fized tree, with
afcending branches. A native of Cochinchina, near river?.
Loureiro has another fpecies under the name of B, longijjima,
which is a native of Cochinchina, by rivers, and which is
not the B. longtjftma of Jacquin (N^ 22.) ; agreeing, ac-
cording to Loureiro, with tl.e " ligni;m cquinum" of Rum-
phius (vol. iii. p. 73. t. 46.), or H. fp^ithacea of the younger
LinnoEus, in the length and form o{ the corolla, but not in
the fpathaceous calyx and pinr.ate leaves. But Retzius ob-
fervcs, that Rumphius's plant is not the fame with Lin-
naeus's, and it is veiy different from the " Nur-Pongelion"
of the Hortus Malabaricn=, Loureiro alfo remarks, that
the three Afiatic Ipecies which he has dtfcnbed can by no
means be adapted to the generic character formed by Lin-
r.ius from the American fpecies, except in the fruit ; and
even that is not always two-celled in the Afiatic 'fpecies.
25. B. all'iacea. Swartz prodr. 91. Aubl. guian.659. 14.
Barr. galU xquin. 23. " Leaves conjugate j leaflets el-
liptic, entire, coriaceous ; peduncles five-flowered, axillary;
calyxes entire." This plant has a (Irong fmell of garlic,
whence its trivial title, and its French name '■ Liane a
I'Ail." A native of the Weft Indian idands. and the forefts
of Cayenne and Guiana. 26. B. cajfinn'iiies. Vahl. Symb. 2.
68. Lamarck. Encycl. " Leaves fimplc, elliptic, coriace-
ous; raceme terminating." A native of Rio Janeiro, having
the appearance of an " Echites." 27. B. bijuga. Vahl.
Symb. 2. 69. " Leaves abruptly pinnate, bijugous ; leaf-
lets elHptic, quite entire," A native of Madagafcar

The Bignnnias are trees or fhrubs, inhabitants of the hot
climates, of the Eafl and Weft Indies, and eminently
beautiful. The leaves are oppofite ; in feme fpecies, un-
equally pinnate or ternate ; in others, conjugate, with a
two-leaved petiole between the leaflets, frequently furnidied
with a tendril for climbing. Flowers in panicles, large and
handfome, of various colours, red, blue, yellow, or white.
The calyx ftiould be obfervcd, whether it be fimple or double ;
the corolla, whether it be regular or irregular ; the ftament,
whether they be fertile or barren ; the fruit, whether it be
bony or capfular, in form of a filique, or ovate. There
are many fpecies, particularly from Brafil, not yet fuffi-
ciently known to admit of arrangement ui.der this genus.
B. fempervirens does not belong to this genus, fays Mr.
Martyn, but to that of lifianlhus.

Propagation and culture. Thefe are exotic trees or flirubs,
and may be raifed from feeds fown on a moderate hot-bed
in the fpring. They fhould be loon inured to the open air,
to prevent their being drawn up weak. They may be alfo
increafed by cuttings, and fome of them by layers. The
feeds of the common Catalpa tree are annually brought over
from South Carolina. The leedling plants fliould be placed
abroad in the beginning of June, in a flicltercd fituation,
till autumn, and then placed under a fummi r frame, to guard
them from the winter froft ; cxpofing then: in mild weather
to the open air. In the following fpring they ihould be
taken out of the pots, and planted in a nurfery-bed, in a
warm fituation, where they may remain two year=, and then
planted where they are to remain. This tree may be alio
propagated by cuttings, which, in the fpring, Ihould be
planted in pots', and plunged into a moderate hot-bed, iliad-
iiig them from the inid-day fun, and occafioually, but fpar-
inglv, refreftilng them with water. In about fi.'i weeks,

Vol. n.

when they have taken root, and made (hoots above, the^;
fhould have plenty of air, and accuftomed to bear being cx-
pofed to the open air ; and afterwards treated like the leed-
ling plant?. The catalpa delights in a rich moift foil, where,
in a few years, it will produce flowei-s. The plants of the
third fpecies, not beanng cold, when young, fhould ht
fliellered in winter, planted againft a warm wail, and p-o-
tefted from froft by co\erings of mats, and by tan covering
the foil about their roots. The fourth and fifth fpecie*
will live in the open air, when planted againft a wall
with a fouth afptct, and (heltered in a VC17 fevere froft. The
fixth, feventli, eighth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth forts, are
tender, and will not thrive in this country out of the bark-
ftovf. If the ninth fpecies be planted in the full ground
againft a wall, the roots fliould be covered in the autun-.n
with fome old tanners' bark, to keep out the froft in winter ;
and in very fevere froll they (hould be covered with mats.
The twelfth fort will take root from cuttings planted during
fummer in pots, or plunged into a baik-bed : it has flowered
fevci-nl years in the Clalfea garden, in Auguft. The four-
teenth fort is fo hardy as to thrive in the open air ; but the
trailing branches ftiould be fupported ; and at they fpread
much and rife to a great height, they will ferve to cover un-
fightly buildings ; and alio trained againft the ftems of trees,
they make a fine appearance when in flower. It is propa-
gated by feeds, but the young plants thus obtained will not
flower in lefs than feven or eight years ; and therefore thofe
propagated by cuttings or layers are moft efteemed, becaufc
they will flower in two or three years after planting. The
neceflar)- culture for thefe plants, after they are eftablilhed,
is to cut away all the fmall weak ftioots of the former year
in winter, and (torten the ftrong ones to the length of about
two feet ; and thus young fiioots will be obtained for
flowering in the following fummer. Thefe plants are of long
duration : fome of them remain vigorous after 60 years, and
produce plenty of flowers every feafon. The fifteenth
fpecies is propagated by feeds fnwn on a hot-bed, and by
tranfplanting the plants into fepa:-ate fmall pots, filled with
light frtfti caith, and plunged into a frefti hot-bed ; by re-
moving them in autumn into the bark-ftove, giving tliciu
but httle water during winter, and in fummer refrefliing
them with it fparingly ; and they fliould remain conttantly
in the bark-ftove, and be treated like other tender plants
from the hot countries. The third year from feed they will
flower ; but they do not produce feeds in England. The
other forts have not been cultivated in England. Martyn.

BIGORNO, in Geography, a town of Corfica.

BIGORRE, a country of France, in the province of
Guyenne before the revolution, but now forming a part of
the department of the Upper Pyrenees. Its capital was
Tarbce. It is bounded on the Y. E. by Armagnac and the
country of the four vallies, Nebouzan and Aftarac ; on
the fouth, by the Pyrenec? ; and by Beam, on the weft.
It has been fometimcs divided into the country of Ruftan,
the Plain, and the VaUie* ; and cftimated at 16 leagues m
length from north to fouth ; and in its greateft breadth at
7 league?. From its general fituation, this country might
be expefted to enjoy the fame mild climate that is experi-
enced in the neighbouring provinces, under the fame lati-
tude ; but from local circumttanecs the cafe is very different.
The Pyrenees intercept the warmth of the more fouthera
country of Spain ; while, from its elevated fituation, it ig
expofed to the chilling blafts of the north. On this account,
Bigorre is deprived of many fruits and vegetable.', fuch as
the orange and olive ; howc\cr, the laurel, fig-tree, and
myrtle, are not injured by the climate. The air of the
mojntains is cold and chilling, but that of Uie plains and
Z 7. vallies

B I G

Tallies more miM and falubrious. This country prodiicej
wood in confiderable quantities, excellent wine, rye, barley,
and miiltt ; but not much wheat. It has good pafliircs,
<jiurr!cs of n\arhlo, and medicinal fprinjrs. The mountains
of Bigorre conTift of fchift, marble, and granite. See Py-
renees. The inhabitants of this diilrift pofTefs a peculiar
and chara.fteri'iic phyfio^niMriy, in wliich they all refemble
one another : they are healthy and active, lively and chcar-
fiil, and unite impetuous courage with (Ircngth and agslity.
The impetuolity of their temper renders their languaf;c va-
pid, padionate, and full of protcllations ; and they fonie-
times firk the voice an o6tave below the natural key, that
they mav fiiddenly raife it to the (h;upeft note. Their ideas
abound with imagery ; and their gellures are quick and
violent. Thry are dilUnguifhed by their gcnerofity and
beneficence. They praftife the (ling from their infancy, and
can di-aw a how hefure- they fpeak ; and thofe pcrfons are
regarded as the moll accomplilhed, who are moll: (killed in
leaping, riding, and throwing the bar. The education of
the Bigoircfe, who are not hulbandmen, is conducted with
a view to the church ; and they boaft of many eminent per-
foris in fcience and literature.

BIGO r, a perfon fooliflily obllinate, or perverfely at-
tached to an opinion. ' The word is formed from the
German ley, and Got, or the Englilll hy-God. Camden
relates, that the Normans were ftvit c:illcd Bigots, on occa-
fion of their duke Rolio ; who receiving GifTa, daiigli-
ter of kinjT Charhs, in marriage, and with her the in-
veftiture of the duktdom, refufcci to kifs the king's foot in
token of fubi'Ction, unlefs he would hold it out for that
purpofe ; and being urged to it by thofe prefent, anfwered
baftily, " No, by God ;" whereupon the kine, turning
about, called hxm Bigot ; which name has palfed from him
to his people.

Bigot, Emeric, in Biography, an eminent pnimotcr of
literature, v/as born at Rouen in 1626; and forming an
early attachment to liter;iture, he declined all publ c bufi-
ucfs, and employed himfclf in augmenting a larire library
bequeathed to him by his father, and in corrcfpondence and
converfation with perfons of learning. Few pcrfons con-
ciliated, by the modeily of his temper, by the frienddiip
and fuavlty of his manners, and by his love of peace and en-
deavours to maintain it, a greater number of friends, who
refpefted and efteemed him. In various parts of Europe
through which he travelled, he formed conneftion« with
littrary men ; but his mod intimate friends of tiiis defcrip-
tion were Menage and Nicholas Heinfuis. Although he
Jiftinguiflicd himfelf by aiding others in their literary per-
formances, the only work he ptiblifhed in liis own name was
the- Greek text of Palladius's life of St. Chryfollom, found
in the grand duke's library at Florence, to which he an-
nexed a Latin tranflation. Having entailed his valuable
I'hrar)- on his family, in order to prevent its difperfion, he
died at Rouen in 1689. However, uotwitliilanding his
precaution, his library was publicly fold at Paris in 1706.
Gen. Dia.

- Bigot, in Italian ligonlia, in Commerce, is ufed to denote
a Venetian liqu'd mcafure, containing the !"ourth part of the
a::if'or.'i, or half the l/ool.

BIG Rock, in Geography, a large rock on the S.E.
I ank of Au Vav.c river in America ; about 3 m.iles N.E. from
its month in the M^ffifippi, and about 8 mdes S.E. from cape
St. Antonio on that river.

Bio Rock Brunch^ the north-ea'^ern head branch of
Alleghany rivir. The branch called Bijr Hole Town joins
It. and forms the Alleghany, 85 miles N-E. from, and above,
Venango fort. 8

B I G

Dig Salt Lid-, a gan-ifon in the (late of TeneiTec, near the
Salt lick, on Cumberland rivei", 115 miles from Knoxville ;
80 from S.W. point on Clinch river, 33 from Bledfoe lick,
and 68 from Nafliville.

Big Sandy River, or Toltervy, rifes near the fource of
Cumberland river, and feparating Virginia from Kentucky,
<iifcharges itfelf into the Ohio, oppotite to the French pur-
chafe of Galiopolis, in about N.lat, 38° 30'. Vancouver's and
Harmar's forts Hand on this river. On its banks are feveral
fait licks and fprings. Little Sandy is a (hort fmall river,
which falls into the Ohio, about 20 miles weft of Big
Sandy river, in the county of Mafon, Kentucky.

Bi'GUBA, a town of North Africa, feated on the river
Rio Grand.-. N.lat. i l" 15'. VV. long. 13° 35'.

BIGUTTATAi in Entomology, a fpecies of Silpha,
met with at Upfal. This is totally lerrugmous, with a pale
line and fpot on the wing-cafes. Thunberg. Nov. Ad.
Stockh.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Cassida, with a yellow thorax ;
reddilh wing-cafes; black margin, and two yellow fpots.
Fahricius. This infert inhabits Cayenne.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Coccinella, defcribcd by
Fabricius. It is rufous, with two yellow fpots. The
country is unkown. Size fmall ; thorax gloffy and black,
with the fides yellow.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Can THARis, found in gardens in
Europe. The thorax is black in the middle ; wing-cafes
fliort, black, and yellow at the tip. Linn. Fn. Suec. ' Fa-
bricius. This is Telepborus niger, fcmoribus jlavis, elytris apice
h.iicis of Degeer.

BiGUTTATA, ,a fpecies of Buprestis, with verj' entire^
linear, green wing-cafis, with a white dot; abdomen
blue, with three white dots. Fabricius, &c. Inhabits Eng-
land.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Cicada (Cereopis), of a black
colour, Ipotted with yellow ; wmg-cafes brown, with a
white marsrinal fpot. Inhabits Germanv. Fahricius.

BiGt ttata, a fpecies of Cicada {Ranatra 1 abr. ) that
is found in Europe. It is black, with a patch of fanguineous
red on each liJe of the thonx. Fabricius.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Vespa, of the fmall fize, that
inhabits China. It.is black, and Ipotted with yellow ; mar-
gin ot the fegments, and two dots of yellow on the fecond
one. Fabricius.

BiGUTTATA, a fpecies of Scolia, of a black colour,
with two tranfverfe white dots on the abdomen ; wings
bhick. A fmall fpecies, and inhabits Spain. Fabri-
cius.

BIGUTTATOR, a fpecies of Ichneumon, defcribed
by Thunberg. It is black, with two dots on the fcutel.
Found at Upfal.

BIGUTTATUS, a fpecies of Curculio, that is found
in Germany. It is black, with elevated dots on the wing-
calts ; abdomen and pollerior legs yellow. Fabricius.

BiGUTTATus, a fpecies of Cryptocephalus, of a black
colour, with the head, tip of the wingcafes, and legs yellow.
Gmelin. A native of Auftri?.

Biguttatus, a fpecies ofCARABUs, that lives under the
bark of trees in Sweden, and is defcrihed by Thunberg. The
head is roundilh and bralTy ; wing-cafes black, with' a pale
fpot at the apex.

Biguttatus, a fpecies of Dytiscus, defcribed by
IJnnxus as a native of Europe. This is black ; legs,
end of the abdomen, antcnnx, mouth, two dots between
the eyes, thorax, and wing-cafes teltaccous, the latter
fpotted with brown ; in the middle of the thorax two black
Ipots,

BlGVT-

B I J

BiGUTTATUS, a fpecies of Staphylinus, that inhabits
fome fhorcs of tiie Baltic fea. It is of a black colour, with
a fulvous fpot on each of the wing-cafes. Liuu. Fabr.
&c.

BiGLTTATUs, a fpecies ofCiM EX {RotmiiIdlut),-6.eicnhed
by Liiiureus in his Fauna Suecica, by Scopoli, occ. 'It/is
black, with all the margins white, and a white fpot on the
wing-cafes.

BIGUTTULUS, a fpecies of Gryllus [Locnjla), with
a cruciate thorax ; u ing-cafes clouded, and marked with an
oblong white fpot near tiie tip. Linn. Fn. Suec. &c. This
IS Acrydlum higutlalum of D>^;^eer. Very comm.on on fo.iie
barren lands in the north of Europe.

BIHACS, BiHAT/., BiHiTZ, or ViHiTZ, in Geography,
a. town of Croatia, frated on the river Unna, belonging to
the Turks; 60 miles fouth of Carlfladt, and 180 \ycft of
Belgrade. N. lat. 44° 42'. E. long. 16^^20'.
BIHAI, in Bolany. See Stuelitzia.
BIHAMATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of HisPA, of an
oblong, depreffcd fliape, that inhabits India. It is fpecitically
defcribed as being unnrmed, black, fpotted with red ; fliells
truncated and honked. Giiielin.

BiHAMATA, a fpecies of Formica, found in the ifland of
Joanna, having four fpines on tiie thorax, and two curved
ones on the petiole fcale. Fabricius, S:c.

BIHAR, in Geography, an ancient town of Hungary,
giving name to a dillrid, iu which are alfo Debretzen,
Great \'aradcin, &c.

BIHOR.EAU, in Ornithology, the name q{ Ardea nyffico-
rax, or Night heron, in Bufton's Hill, birds. Femelle i!e
Bihorcau of Buffoi', is ArJea grijia ; and Bihoureau de Cay-
enne of Buff, is Ardea cayennenfu of Gmelin.

BIHRI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in tlie country of
Lariffan, in the route trom llpahan to Orinus, 30 miles N.W.
of Lar.

EIJINAGUR. SeeBiSNAGUR.

EIJORE, called alfo Bejour and Bajour, the Bazira of
Alexander, a province of Hindoftaii, bounded on the louth
by Paidiawur, on the north by Kuttore, on the call by
Sewad and Beneer, which are feparated from it by the Pen-
jekoreh river, and on the well by Guznoorgul. This province,
according to the dimenfions Hated iu the Ayen Acbaree
(vol. ii. p. 192, &c. ) extends 25 cotTcs north and fouth, and
10 eall and well ; ditlant about 20 cofTes beyond the Cabul
river, and on its wcllern extreme about 30 colFcs from the
Indus. Bijore, as well as Sewad, is very mountainous, and
abounds with palTes and llrong fituations ; fo that their in-
habitants have not only held ihemfelves generally independent
of the Mogul emperors, but have occafionally made very
ferious inroads into their territories. In this province there
is at this day a tribe of Afghans, denominated Yuzuf-zyes,
which traces its origin to ce.tain perfor.s left there by Alex-
ander the Great, when he palled through this country. Both
Abul Fazil, the an'hor of the Ayen Acbaree, and Soojan
Rae, an eaftern hiltorian of good reputation, report this tra-
dition without any material alteration. The latter, indeed.

B I JL

adds, that thefe Europeans, if we may call them fo, continued
to prcferve that afcendajicy over their neighbours which their
ancellors may be fnppofed to have poflefled, when they tirll
fettled here. Although we fhould rejeti this pedigree as
fabidous, yet the bare claim aigues the belief of the natives,
for which there mull have bec-n fome foundation, that Alex-
ander not only conquered Bijore, but alio transferred that
conquell to (o-re of his own countrymen. The people of
Bijore had like'A ife an high idea of Alexander's extenlive au-
thority ; and they denominated him the " Two-horned,"
agreeably to the llriking emblem of power iu all the eaflern

languages, (Ayen Acbaree, xi. 194.) Thefe Yuziifc-zycs,
fays Mahomed Cazim, quitted their ancient habitations be-
tween Ghiziii and Candnhar, and after various u:ifnccefsf\il
attempts to obtain a fcttlement in Cab"!, at the time when
Mirza Ulug Beig,.furnamcd Cabulfc, ruled that kingdom,
finally ellablifhed thcmfelves in Sewad and Bjorc ; which at
this period were governed by a dynafly of jriiiccs (lyled
" Sultani," who derived therr linenge from Alexander the
Great. Thi; Yuzuf-zyes poffefs, in addition to Sev.ad and
Bijore, tlie traftsfituated between thofe provir.ces, ard the
livers of Cabul and Indus ; the greateft part of which is de-
fcribed as a defcrt in the Ayen .'\cbaree, but by Bernoailii
as a foreft. In the time of Acbar,_ Zine Khan was fent to
challifcthem ; and he overran their whole territory, and eyen
penetrated to the borders of Cafligar, and took the (Irong
fort of KuHial, or Gnfhal, feated on a mc)iintaih-i7 maiclies
north of B:jore. About the year 1670, Aurungzebe found
it necelfary tochadife thefe Yuzfif-zyes ; iinct which period
the return of Nadir-Shah, in 1739, again brought them into
notice. To him they appeared formidable ; but he reduced
them to fubmillion ; and il they really engaged to fnppiv hi3
army with 30,000 men, the tribe mult have increafed fince
the time of Acbar, when Bijore contniiied only 39,000
and Sewad 40,000 families. Rennell's Mem. p. 159, &e.

Bijore, the capital of the above-defcribed province,
fituated about 6 marches, or about 66 geographical miles,
from Nilab or Attock, and at 50 of the fame mile , north
a little ead from Paidiawur, and at the fayc dillance eaft
a little north from lalalabad. N. lat. 3-f° 7'. E.lo.ig.

7°° 44'- . . . "!

Bijore, the name of a river which rifesin the moimtains,
N.E. of Bijore, and palung by it, forms a junclion with the
Penjekoreh, Sewad, and Kameh, and falls into the Nilab, or
Sinde, at Attock.

BUSK, a town and dillri£l of Siberia, in the government
of Kolyvan, feated on the river Bi, or Biia, which, by
uniting with the Katunia, forms the river Oby ; 150 miles
S.S.E. of Kolyvan. N. lat. 53° 31'. E. long. 84° 14'.

BIJUGUM, Folium, in Botany, denotes a winged leaf,
bearing two pair o^ foUoIa.

BIKBULAKOVA, in Geography, a town of Rnflia, iu
the government of Ufa, on the river Ik, So miles N.E. of
Orenburg.

BIKILLAM, or Bfckalen, a fmall illand in the Red
fea, 8 leagues from the coaft of Arabia. N. lat. 16°.
E. long. 42'^ 25'.

BIKOU, a town of Poland, in the p^atinate of Braclaw,
50 miles north of Braclaw.

BILA, a river of Bohemia, which runs into the Moldaw
near Auflig.

BiLA, yf//, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitmeritz,
10 miles W.S.W. of Kamniz.

BILjENA, or BiLBANA, in Anch-:t G'rgraply, a town of
Arabia Felix. Ptolemy.

BILAN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in tlic circle
of Chrndim, 5 miles welt of Ciirudini. _

BILANCIIS Deferendis, in Luw, a wtk direfted to
a corporation, for the carrying of weights to uieh a haven,
there to weigh the wool, which perlons by our arcient laws
were licenfed to tranfport. Reg. Oiig. 270.

BILANDER, in Navigation, a fmall merchant-fliip with
two ir.afts ; dillinguidied from other velTelsofthe lame kind
by the form of the main-fail, which refcnibles a fettce-lail.
The head is bent to a yard, fimilur to. the mizcn-yard of a
(hip, and hangs to the main-mall, as a llijp's does to the
mizen-mall. This method of '"iggii'g l>as prxived incon-
venient, aud ii nov? feldom ufed, except bv the Dutch.

Zaj ' B.ILANUS,

B I L

BIT.ANITS, !n Botany, See Crat.€va.
BII.ARIUS, PoRLS. See BiLlARii Pon.
BILATERAL Cognation, denotes kinfliip, or kin-
dred, 0:1 both fides ; that of the father as wtU as molhcr.

Such is- tht relation of brothers, fillers. Bilateral ilands
contnidi;ii!iguilhed to unilateral.

BILBA, ill y/n-;.-«: Geography, 3 town of ACa, in Bab}-
loni;i. Ptoltr.iy.

BILBAO, fometimes called 5//.W, in Gn^aphy^ a port-
toivn of Spiiiii, in the province of Difcay, featcd on the banks
of the 1 iver Ybaizabal, about 6 mile-, from the fea. On tlw
Vatc!-fide is a laigefqiiaic,\veli fliaded u-ith pleafaiit walks.eK-
tending to the omletson the banks of the river, and coutain-
injj a n'lmiber of hoiifis and gardens, «hich form an a jrfeablc
ptofpcit, partieularly in failiii); i:p the river. The number of
foiilcs mthis toivn is about 800, fome of which are built on
piles ; they are fohd and lofty ; the llreets are well paved
and level ; and as they may be wafhcJ at pleafurc, Bilboa is
one of the neatell towns in Europe. The tide that flows
into the river forms a feeurc and much frequented harbour ;
and a conliderable commerce is thus carried on in iron,
wool, of which, it is fajd, 60,000 bags are annually exported
to Great Britain, France, and Holland, faffron, and chef-
nuts. Towards the clofe of the loth century, the people of
fefcay, having maintained their independence, together
with their proteffion of Chriftianity, even when the Moors
gained podefTion of the other parts of Spain, and having
about this time obtained fome advantages over them, began
to direft their attention to the manufacture of their own ex-
cellent iron, not only for their own ufe, but for the fupply of
other nations ; and their port of Bilboa began to have fhip-
ping, and to engage in foreign trade, perhaps before any
ether nation to the weft of the Mediterranean fea, at loaft in
a very confid^fsble degree. In the lad year of the 1 3th cen-
tur\-, this to^'n was refounded, or new built, by Didacus
Lopez, then prince, or lord of the province ; and as it was
the ftapie port for the iron and wool of Spain, its commerce
rapidly ir.creafed ; and it appears from Rymer's Foedera, that
in the reign of king Edward IV. A.D. 1474, the merchants
of Guipufcoa carried on, probably by the port of Bilboa, a
tonfiderable trade with England. It appears, alfo, that the
Bifcayncrs, availing theinielves of the advantage of their
(hipping and port, were concerned in the whalt-fifhery at an
earlier peri id than arv other nation of Europe, Norway ex-
cepted. The town i^ fnpphcd with fleili and poultiy, and alfo
with fiili of various kinds, and particularly with a fort of
eels in .vinttr, which arc fmall, of a pale colour, about three
inches long, and without a back bone, caught in prodigious
i^uantitics at low tide?, and in fummer with the cuttle-fifh.
"The ihambles are a Tufcan btilding, in the centre of the
town, with an open court, and a fountain in the middle, by
means of which it is kept clean, and free from oftenfive oflals
r.nd fcents. The environs abound in" gardens, which are fer-
tile in legumes and fruits. This town has five churches, and
fcveral religjojs houfes ; and in its police it has one law of a
peculiar kind, which renders ingratitude criminal, and fiib-
";ci5l to a penalty. Although the air is generally damp, the
town is remarkably healthy, and the inhabitants are robuft,
cheerful, and long-lived ; fo that the hofpital is frequently
Nvilhout a patient. The women arc capable of enduring
1.:bour as well as the men, and arc employed in unloading
the (hips, carrying burdens, and perforriiing the bufincfs of
porters. At t!>€ c'.ofe of the day tliey return to their ha-
bitations, witliout any uppearance of laffilude, dancing and
Cinging to the pipf acid tabor. Their mufic is defrayed at
the fjpence of the town ; and on holidays it is performed
't the vi>m ti a jjrea! concouife of p«'r>oi.t un^Jerthe trees
7

B I I-

in ths great fquare. The women of Bilbao, tliough con-
ftantly expt>led to the air, haNC good coraplesioiis. lively
eyes, and line black Lair, w^iich they curionfly braid, and
which they rcckoii pecuharly ornamental. Married women
wrap a white handkerchief round their heads, fo knotted as
to f.iU down in three plaits behind, and over this they wear
tlic Moiittra cap. 1 hofe who underftand their language
fav it is very loft and liarnionsous, as well as energetic.
N'. laf . 4^° T 5'. W. long. 2" 45'. See Bi sc A Y.
BILBERRY, in Bntany. See Vaccinium.
BILBlLINili Ac>u.«, in indent Geography, Alhamn,
mineral and ii:edieinal waters of Spain, 24 miles from BiU
bills, according to the itinerary of Antonine. The name
Alhama, given by the Arabians to this place, has the fame
meaning with the aqux calidx of the Latins. See Al-
hama.

BILBILIS, Bambola, a town of Hifpania Tarragonen-
fis, belonging to the Celtiberi, fouth of Turiafco ; featedon
a mountain fuiroundcd by the waters of Salo or Xalon.
BilbiUs was a municipal town, and bore the title of Augutla,
which is found on feveral medals. The poet Martial was of
this city, called by Ptolemy Btlh]s.

" Mur.icipts Augulla mihi quos Bilbilis "xcn
Monte creat, rapidis quos Salo cingit aquis."

Martial, 1. 10, epig. 103.
On moft of tl»e medals of Bilbilis, we perceive, on one fide
a head of Auguftus,and, on the other, a cavalier, arnud with

a lance and a helmet Alfo, a river of Spain, the waters of

which were famous for tempering iron ; called alfo Salo.

BILBOWS, in Sm-phrafe, a puni(hmeut aRfwering to the
flocks at land.

They confill of long bars, or bolts of iron, with fhackles
Aiding on them, and a lock at the end, ufed to confine the
feet of prifoners, in a manner fimilar to the confinement of
the hands in handcuffs. See Stocks.

BILCOCK, in Ormlho!ogy, one of the fynonymous
Engli(h names of RtiUus aqvat'tcus, or water-rail.

BILDERWERTSCHEN, in Geography, a town of
PiufTia, in the province of Lithuania, 4 miles W.N.W. of
Stalluponcn.

BILDESTON. See Bilston.

BILDGE, or Bilge of a Ship, denotes the bottom of
her floor ; or the breadth of that part which (he rells on,
when (he is a-ground.

Hence, when a fliip receives a frafture in this place, by
flriking on a rock, or otherwife, (lie is faid to be lllged, or
bulged,

BiLDCE-ZFa/fr, is that which, by reafon of the ilatnefs of
the (hip's bottom, lies on her floor, and cannot go to the
well of the pump. This water is aKvays, if the (hip does
not le;ik, of a dirty colour, and difagreeable fmell.

The Dutch, whofc (liips are often of this form, ufe a fort
of pumps, called " bildge-pumps," or, as we call them " burr-
pumps," to carry off the bildge-water.

BILE, in Phyfwlogy, isthe fluid prepared from the blood by
the hver of animals. The colour of healthy bile in the human
fubjeft is probably of a deep yellow brown. In oxen, it is fre-
quently of a yeUowifh green. In the gall bladder, it is of a
lhickifhconfiltcnce,of an unftuousfecl, or like that of mucus,
of a bitter talle, and peculiar fmell. Its fpecilic gravity is
about 1.027. 1' readily mixes with water, but will not in-
corporate with oil, yet it takes greafe out of cloths. Albumen
may be precipitated from it by alcohol and acids ; and Cadet
afcertained its proportion in 100 parts of ox bile to be about
0.52. (Cadet, Mem. Par. J 767.) If a folution of bile in
muriatic acid be concentrated by heat, a copious precipi-
tate takes place, and the folution changes its colour from a

grafs

B I L

g'afs green to a b'own. This precipitate has the proper-
tics of a refin. From lOO parts of bile, 1.87 of cryftalliztd
foda has been obtained, and fome wta probably loft in the
proccfs. Cadet alfo obtained from biie a fait of a fw^ttifh
tafte. There are other fubllaiices found in bik in fmall
quantities : Inlphurated hydrogen gas, wliich is cmitttd on
the addition of nuniatic acid ; a little muriate of finia, phof-
phate of lime, and phofphate of fuda and of iron. Of courfe
water is the vehicle for all thefe fubllances, and forms the
largcft (hare of the ingredients in the compolitijn of bile.
For an account of the fecretion of bile, fee the article L.t~
V ER, fu'i^'iians of.

Bile, in Chenil/lry. This fluid may juftly be confidered
as cqvally im|)orta:'t to the chcmill as to the piiyfiologiil ;
and accordingly it has been examined with extreme minute-
ncfs by a great number of eminent chemifts. in various coun-
tries, with a general parity of Vefult which is highly fatis-
laftory. Indeed the analylis of bile, as far as relates to the
deteftion of its leading conltituent parts, is neither very
complicated nor remarkably difficult.

Chemifts have not been able to deteft any confiderable
difierence between the bile immediately fecretcd from the
liver, and that which is found in the gall-bladder, excepting
that the latter appears on the whole to be fomewliat hU
watery, more bitter and more vifcid than the fonner. The age
of the animal m.akts a greater difference, the bile or gall of
oxen being more vifcid than that of calves. On account of
the eafe with which ox-gall is procured in confiderable quan-
tity, this has generally been feletfed for experiment ; but its
analyds docs not eiFentially differ from that of the bile of
any other animal.

Bile is a homogenous fluid, in feme animals of a deep
yellowifli brown, in others of various (hades of green, fo
vifcid as not to pour by drops ; of a peculiar faint fmell,
but not ungi-ateful when frcih, and not from a difeafcd ani-
mal ; intenfely bitter to the tafte, even when very largely
diluted with water, and fomewhat pungent. It is confi-
derably heavier than water ; its fpeciiic gravity being from
about 1.02 to 1.025, varying according to the age and
health of the animal, and probably to the time that it has
remained within the gall-bladder. "When agitated, bile
lathers hke foap water.

When bile is gently heated, an aqueous vapour arifes,
which, when condenfed, appears by the moft delicate re-
agents to be nothing but water, ftronglv impregnated how-
ever with the odorous part of this fluid, and fomewhat foetid.
Bile lofes about fcven eighths of its bulk of mere water by
this evaporation ; and the refidue gradually thickens into
the confiftence of a tenacious extracft, which, on carefully
drying, becomes a hard brittle (hining refir.-like mafs, of a
dark colour, and intenfely bitter.

li this extraft of bile be (lowly heated in a retort to de-
conjpofilion, the produfts are, a watery fluid fatid with ful-
phiiretted hydrogen gas, a brown fcetid liquor containing
ammonia, a tenacious ilinking empyreumatic oil, with more
carbonated ammonia, and a copious emifhon of carbonic acid,
and carburetted with fulphuretted hydrogen. The mafs
in the retort fweils up prodigioufly in the procefs, and leavcb
a puffy coal eafy to incinerate, the afhes of which contain a
notable quantity of carbo:'.ated foda, with fome muriated
foda, phofphat of foda and lim.e, and a little iron. Fon-
tana obtained from a pound of ox-gall 43 grains of carbonateid
ioda, ai;d 6 grains of common fait.

The reiidue, therefore, of calcined bile contains alkali in
excels ; and hence water, vvith which it has been lixiviated,
readily turns fynip of violets green. The fame tell of an

B IL

alkali is given with frefh bile, diluted with water, tfcat the

char.ge ot colour may be more apparent.

The adion of acidi on bile throws much h'glit on its con?,
polltion. Muriatic aciil, Ihong or dilute, added to bile,
immediately produces a coagulation, and, at the fame tiirc,
renders the whole liquor of a fine light green. The coa-
guhim, however, is partly redidolvcd, if the acid is con-
centrated. Examined chemically, it is found to be albu-
men, but intenfely bitter. In the clear green liquor, though
retaining the muriatic acid, the bitter tafte alfo ftronglv pre-
dominates. Evaporated (lov.ly, it dcpofits in about an hour's
time another precipitate, very green, intenfely bitter, aud
foft and tenacious hke turpentine. The clear liquor is now
ycrllowifti, and, on further evaporation, yitlds a number of
cubical crjflals of muriated foda, formed cliiefly, if not e;.-
tirel)', by the foda originally contained in the bile a:id the
acid added. As a proof that this is the cafe, if the experi-
m',;;t is made with nitrons or fulphuric acid; inftead of the
muriatic, the fait wil! be nitrated or fulphated foda. The
above decompofition is more perfeft, if bile and dilute muri*
atic acid are at lirft boiled together for a few mi:;utrs ; the
refult then is a total feparation of a dark green glutinous
bitter mafs, and a liquid now colourlefs and fcarcely bitter,
from which the muriated foda may be procured bv evapo-
ration.

This glutinous coagulum, when dry, bums like a rcfin.
Alcohol heated upon it diffolves one part, and leaves another
untouched, thus entirely feparating it into two diitinft pnnci-
ples; the inloluble, which is albumen ; and the foluble, wliich
retains the colour and tafte of bik, is totallv pivcioltated
from the fpirit by water, is highly inflammable, infoiuble in
water, and has been confidered as a fpecies of refm or con-
crefcible oil, and is termed by fome the njin of Hie. Four-
croy, however, fuppofes it to be more of the nature of aJ't-
pocire.

Alcohol alone is another important rc-agent for the ana-
lyfis of bile. When thefe two fluids arc mixed together, a
coagulum is immediately formed of a whitilh tenacious fub-
ftance, fcarcely bitter when well waftied, and exhibiting all
the properties of albumen. The lemaing liquor is green,
and contains, mixed with the alcohol, the rcfiuous, faline, and
colouring matter of the bile. Alcohol equally fcparates
albumen from bile, infpiffated by evaporation, and diffolvee
the remainder. The alcohohc fohition of bile, not previoufly
treated by an acid, differs confidcrably from that which has
undergone this treatment. In the latter cafe, as before men-
tioned, the folutioa is dccompofable by mere water, and by
evaporation is converted into a very ttfinous prodnif. In
the former cafe, the folution mixes uniformly with water,
yields by evaporation a tranfparent extraft like gu!n-arabic,
of a fweetifh tafte, a little mixed with the natur.il bitternefs
of bile, and eafiiy foluble in water. The reafoi. of this
difference is doubtlefs owing to the feparation of the foda
from the refin of bile by the oxyd in one inftance, whereas
in the other they remain united in the form of a natural foap.
Hence it is that the affufion of an acid upon the latter alco-
hohc folution decompofes it, and ftparatesan imctuous Inb-
ftance, which again diifolved in alcohol is iwii' precipitable
from this folvent by iimple water, and refembks a pure re-
finous folution.

Some chemifts have thought that they could alfo detcft
a faccharine matter in bile, but the experiments 10 this pur-
pofe are not conclufive.

The oxygenized muriatic acid gas paffcd through bile di-
luted with a hltle water, foon deftroys its yellow green colour,
and prscipitates the albumen in white floccuh; thefaponaceous

refin

3 I L

refin continues in folution without coloiii' or fiiicll ; Imt the
bittcrncfs remains. A fiiithcv quantity of this acid feparatcs
.tiic rcfiMous oil as the muriatic acid docs, but white and con-
crete. Any acid poured upon bile ahtady bleached by the
oxyn'uriatic acid, feparatcs undtuous white concrete matter
much refcmbhnjj adiponre, but the precife nature of the
change jModuced by the oxyrauriatic acid has not been pro-
perly afcertaincd.

Bile therefore may be inferred from the prefent Ilatc of
chemical analylls to contain,

1. A large proportion of water.

2. A fubitance cli fely rcfembling animal albumen.

. 7,. A peculiar relinous inllammablc matter, naturally and
intimately with

4. Soda, into a kind of foap, or faponaceous extract.

5. Some ncctral falts.

6. A fmall quantity of oxyd of iron.

Uclides thel'econllitucnts, there is a ci/lourinp; and odorant
matter, but it is not yet afcertaincd whetiier thele are proper-
ties cf any of tiie above-mentioned ingredients, or whether
they belong to a peculiar fubllance.

Some chemills have alfo fnppofed a kind of faccharine
mucilage, refembling tht fugar of milk, but the exilltnce of
this, in recent unaltered bile, is vei7 doubtfid.

Bile has been fuppnf'd to be a powerhil antlfeptic, and
its eflei'its in the animal economy have been attrllnited to
this quality, but without much foundation, llile, Itlt to it-
felf ill a moderate temperature foon becomes putrid (though
not fo fpeedily as blood); it then exhales a very fcetid odour,
but after this point it dccompofos but very (lowly, and at lall
affumes a ftrong, not very unplealant muiky (mcU. This
partial refinance to putrefaetion is probably owing to the
refinous ingredient, which lall, when leparaled by acids and
alcohol, in the way already mentioned, is abfolutely incapable
of putrefaAion. M. Cadet afl'erts, that at no time during
this proccfs is any acid generated.

'V\\t faponaceous quality of bile, which is very charafteriftic,
and is owing to the intimate union of its refin with foda,
renders it mlfeible with milk, with oil, myrrh, aloe, and
other gum-rtfins, by trituration, without curdling, or ready
decompolition. It is alfo owing to an intimate mixture
with this natural foap that the albumen which bile contains
is not coagiilable by heat ; even if an additional qua-i-
tity of albumen (white of egg for example) is mixed with
bile, heat will nut coagulate it. Hence too, alcohol only
partially feparales the albumen, uiikls an acid is previoufly
applied to cn^jage the foda, and the alc.'>holic lolutioii of the
relin retains the foda fo as to render the refin not ftparable
by mere water.

Bile, or ox-gall, is employedin various ways as a cleanfer of
wool, cloth, &c. to get out greafc fpots, t-o take off the greali-
nefs of ivory in prepaing it for receiving colours; and in
China it is mixed with fome of their varnilhcs. Gall a little
putrid may be preferved a long time from further alteration
by being boiled for a few minutes.

M. Fourcroy aflferts, that he has obtained a fubftance, re-
fembling bile in every property, by mixing blood with a third
ot water, coagulating it by heat, and fiowly evaporating the
ferum. This experiment has, however, been repeated by
others without fuccefs. See Cadet in the Mem. de I'Acad.
des Sciences, for 1767 and 1769. Van Bochante, Profeflbr
at Louvain, in the Jour, de Phyf, tom. 13. Suppl. An.
Chim. tom. 4, 5, and 6. Fourcroy Sylleme de Conn. Chim.
&c.

BiLE,in Meilic'ine, a yellowidi -green fluid, moreorlefsvifcld,
and of a bitter tafte, ft.cretcd in the liver, and conveyed from

B 1 L

that vifcu5, hythe focalledduaus communischolcdochus, into
the duodenum. It is a verj' compound iluid, being refolved
by chemical anaiyfis into a variety of ingredients ; fuch as
water, aihumcn, refin, foda, muriate of foda, phofphate of
foda, phofphate of lime and iron, befides a fweetifii matter
analogous to fugar of milk. In its general properties, it
may be fail to partake of the nature of a foap, although it
will nnt intimately mix with oil. The cyilic bile, or tliat
which is contained in the gall-bladder, poflcffes more vifci-
dity and bitternefs, (i.e. is more concentrated) than that
which flows diretlly from the biliary duels into the duode-
num, and which is termed hepatic bile.

When we fee an organ of luch magnitude as the liver, ap-
propriated to the fecrttion of the bile, we are naturally led to
infer that the fluid fo ucrcted, muil anfwcr fome ufcful pur-
pofes in the animal economy ; but refpefting the number and
kind of purpofes wliicii it anfwers, phyiiologills do not ex-
aftly agree. It may, perhaps, concur with the pancreatic
juice, to the fejjaration of the reful'e part of the alimentary
pulp (chyme) from the proper chyle ; but, as Dr. G. For-
dyce has remarked, in his treatife on the digcflion of food,
the bile docs not unite with th'- chyle itfelf, and.pafs along
with it, through the ladeals into the blood. Mixed with
the feculent matter, and colouring it, the bile feems to pre-
vent that matter from running into fermentation, by virtue of
its alkaline nature ; and perhaps, alfo, in confcqutnce of the
bitter principle which it contains, it may, in fimie degree,
refill putrefaCilion ; but its principal and moil obvious ufe is,
as a lliinulus to the intcllines, fcrving to keep up a due degree
of perillaltic a6lion, and thereby to produce a regular and
natural evacuation of their contents. Hence a dimiuifhed
fecretion, or obllruAed paflage of the bile, is always accom-
panied with coilivenefs.

From this view of the nature and compofition of the
biliary fecretion, and of its aClion upon the living body in a
Hate of health ; we proceed to the conlidtratlon of its mor-
bid conditions, which may be reduced to four heads ; viz.
X. Defc'ienry. 2. ObJJruSion. 3. Excefs. 4. V'lliat'ioii.

I. yl deficiency/ of Bile. This is known by a pale and
languid habit of body, indigeftion, flatulency, acidity, cof-
tivenefs, and pale or clay-coloured llools. It is occafioned by
a fedentary mode of life, by intemperance, and by depreffing
paflions of the mind. It occurs in chlorofis, hypochon-
driafis, and chronic hepatitis. (See what is faid of thefe
difeafes under tlieir refpeflive titles.) To vvhatfoever caufe
it may be owing, it is always attended with indigellion and
coilivenefs ; two fymptoms which (hould be elpecially atten-
ded to in the cure. A well regulated diet fhoiild be pre-
icribed, wherein fpirituous drinks, high-feafoned meats, fla-
tulent vegetables, and crude and acid fruits, Ihould be for-
bidden. Much ilrefs fliould at the fame time be laid on a
plan of regular exercife ; and the injurious effects of cold and
damp upon the gaftric and hepatic fyftems, fliould be coun-
teradtedby fuitablecloathing. Asa further aid to digeftion,
bitters and chalybeatcs (elpecially the chalybeate mineral
waters), fliould be prefcr'bed ; and coftivenefs fliould be
remedied by occafional dofes of rhubarb, neutral falts, and
aloetics ; and fome times by tlie ttronger cathartics. Aci-
dity fliould be counteracted by alkalies, among which,
foda or natron prxparatum anfwers bell. Where the dimi-
nifhed fecretion of bile has appeared to be conneAed with a
difeafcd llruclure of the liver, and particularly where fuch
a change of ilrutlure has arifen from inflammation, mercury
(Dr. Saunders obfcrves), has been found uftful, even carried
to the degree of producing a flight faHvation ; moderating
the violence, however, of its operations by plentiful dilution,

with

B I L

B I L

"pn'th gum arable, and other vejretable demulcents. In
rhefe cafes, the fame author has found a tepid bath, of
90 degrees of Fahrenheit, to produce manifeft good etfcfts.

2. OlJlniB'ion of B tie. After it is fccreted, the bile is
fometimcs prevented from pafTip.g into the duodenum. This
may happen from various caiifes ; viz. from an obliteration
of the cavities of the biliarv dufts, either by a thickening
of their coats, or by a tuberculous ftate of the hver, the
confequences of inflammation ; from prcfTurt produced by
enlargements of the neighbouring parts ; and from a too
vifcid and confident (late of the bile itfelf ; but, more than
all, from gall-flones impaftcd in the common duft. When-
ever in any of thefe ways, the biie, after being fecreted, is
hindered from pafling into the duodenum, it is either taken
into the cirtuliting fyftem by v?hat is termed regurgitation,
or by abforption ; producing great laiigour and oppreflion,
together with a yellownefs of the fiiin, and tunica conjunftiva
of the eves, &c. i. c. giving rife to jaundice. (See Gall-
Stones and Jaundice.) The tieatmeiit mull be varied,
according to the variety of conditions on which the obtlruc-
tion depends. In this place, it will be fufiicient to remark,
that fahne purgatives, mercurials, fapoimceous and alkaline
medicines, with tepid dilutioi:, and warm bathing, will be
fou;id fuited to the ma'iority of thefc cafes.

3. Excefs, or redundancy of Bile, is a morbid affeftion, of
very frequent occurrence. Among its exciting caufcs may
be mentioned intemperance of living, the fummerand autum-
nal heats of our own latitudes, and more efpecially the
high t-mpcraturcs of the tropical climates; in a word,
whatever produces a hurried circulation, or irritates the vaf-
cnlar and f^crctiiig fyftem of the liver. A redundancy of
bile makes itfelf known by " a general languor of the body,
together with naufea, foul tongue, lofs of appetite, and in-
digellion : or, by being direftcd to the inteflines, excites
a painful diarrhoea, ultimatdv tending to weaken their tone,
and diihirb their regular perillaltic motion. It generally
happens, that, during the excefs and prevalence of bile in
the iirit pafTages, fome abforption of it takes place into the
habit, fo that the flciii becomes yellow, and the urine is fen-
fibly impregnated with it. The puUe is quicker than natu-
ral, and there is a confiderable degree of thirft, with an in-
create of heal ; the ufual fymploms of fever. The body
becomes emaciated, and the general afpefl of the patient is
extremely unhealthy." It may be added, that moft of the
fevers of hot climates, whether intermittent, remittent, or
continued are accompanied by an an overflow of bile. (See
Fevers.) When the increafed fecretion of bile affetls the
flomach and bowels in fuch manner as to excite both vomit-
ing and purging to a violent degree, it gives rife to that
form of difeafe which is termed cholera ; of which a particu-
lar defcription will be found under that title ; when it pro-
duces vomiting, joined with conftipation and acute pains
about the umbilical region, the difeafe i:i termed iilious colic
(fee Colic); andlaftlv. when the evacuation of bile is frequent
and copious by ftool only, without frequent vomiting, it
con{{\ti\ti:s iiHotis diarrljiei:. (See Diarrhoea. ) It is the
remark of that judicious writer to whofe work we have more
than once referred in this account of bilious diforders, that
it is more difBcult to fupply a deficiency of bile, than to
carry off its excefs. In taft, little more is required for the
fulfilment of this laft intention, than to promote the dif-
charge of the redundant bile by gentle faline cvacuants, (for
the bile has generally of iticll a purgative tendency), and to
prevent frefh accumulations, by diluting freely with water
heated to a proper temperature. For this purpofe, the pa-
tient fhould drink every morning (accordine to the excellent
(ILrtttioiiS of Dr, Saun krs), from half a pi;it to a pint of

water, of a temperature from 90' to 114° of Fahrerhtit'*
thermometer, and ufe moderate exercife before breakfafl.
With the fame view, the Balh and Buxton waters, (pro-
vidcd their ufe be not contra-indicated by vifceral difeafe),
and the Cheltenham water alfo may be recommended. At
the fame time, a proper diet fhould be prcfcribed, confifting
of food that is eafy of digcflion, not over-ttimiilating, and
free from flatulency ; and fpirituous drinks and malt liquors
(hould be forbidden. Pallry is particularly improper. Water,
or vvine and water, will be the bed beverage. When the
bile has been fufficiently evacuated, b'tters and chaKbeates
may be given with advacitage. But where thefc complaints
are the confequsnce of refiding in the tropical regions, the
only eSeilual remedy is to remove to a temperate climate.
People, who have fuffered in thefe rtfpcdts from the heat of
climate, and to whom it is neccflary to return to this coun-
try for the recovery of their health, (hould endeavour (as
Dr. Lind has fuggefted), to arrive in the beginnin-r of fum-
mcr, as they will find the winters of Great Britain, on their
tirR arrival, too piercing and fevere for their conititutions.

4. Vitinfion of the Bile. In alm.oll all cafes wherein the
fecretion of bile exceeds the natural quantity, it is at the
fame time vitiated in its quality. Thus in bilious fevers,
bilious diarrhoeas, bilious colic, and cholera morbus, it is
often vitiated both iii colour and tafte, appearing wholly of
a pure green colour, and poffeffing a lliarpnefs or aciditv
which fets the teeth on edge, and produces a burning and
corroding f.-nfation in the llo-nach, cefophagus and fauces,
and at the lame time vio'ent twitchings in the intediual canai.
Such vitiations of the bile are common to mfents, as well as
to adults. The remedial treatment confills in evacuating
the offending bile by the means fpecilied under the preced-
ing divifion (3), and correcting its vitiated qualities by the
employment of .alkalies, and by copious dilution with aque-
ous and mucilaginous liquors. After due evacuations, the
ftomach and bowels may be protefted Irom the irritating
aftion of the remaining bile by opiate medicines. Lind,
Clark, Winterbbttom, and other writers on the difeafes of
hot climates, may be referred to for manv excellent obfer-
vations on bilious diforders ; but the bell and mod compre-
henfive treatife on this fubjeft is that of Dr. Saunders.

BILEDGIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia, 32 miles N. AV. of Eiki-Shehr.

BILEDULGERID, a country of Africa, comprehend-
ing, according to fome geographers, the fouthern part of
Algiers, together with the whole tract of land that lies in
this direction between the Atlantic ocean and Egypi, and
in this extent, including eight large tratls or provinces, viz.
Barca, Biledulgerid proper, Segelmeffa, or Sijilmiff?, Tafilet,
Tigoarin, Zeb or Zab, Darka or Darah, andTcfltl, befides
feveral inferior diih-i6ts, mentioned underthenames of Oguela,
or Augela, FalTan or Fezzan, and Gudainis or Gadamis, &c.
It was known to the ancients under the name of Numidia.
But in a more co'^tined and proper fenie, according to the'
arrangement of De Lifle, ar.d feveral modern geographers,.
Biledulgerid includes that traft of land which lies louth of-
Algiers and Tunis, and is bounded on the call by a ridge
of lofty mountains, which feparates it from Tripoli and part
of Gadamis, on the welt by the counti ies of Zab and Mezzab,
and on the fouth by the province of Verghela, or W'ergela.
Its dimenfions are not accurately afctrtamed ; but it is
fomewhat of a fquare form, luppofed to extend about 60
or 80 leagues, every way, or from about 31'' 15' to 34^^ le'.
N. lat. ; and from 5*^ 30' to 10° E. long. Some have
derived the appellation Biledulgerid from Behd el jerid, or
the "land of dates," under which denomination it is diilin-
guidicd in Rtnnell's map of North Africa ; but others, with.

Dr.

B 1 L

Dr Shaw, deduce it from Bla'id el jtrhh, en- tlic " dry coun-
try." Tlie whole province of Biledulgcrid, hordcrinyc to
the fouth on Sahara, or the Great Dcfert, is mountainous,
fandy, and barren, producing little or no fiiftenance but
dates, which riow in fiich abundance, that various parts of
it are covered with pa!m-trces bearing this fruit. Ihe
climate is hot and unhealthy ; the people arc meagre, fwarthy,
and Ihrivclled in their complexions, and their eyes are in-
flamed by the rcfledion of the fun-beams, from the white
hard foil, and by clouds of dull and fand driven by the
liigh winds at fome feafons in fuch abundance, as to bury
men and cattle under their colkftcd malTes. They are alfo
fubjett to a fcorbutic complaint, of which they can alTign
no probable caiife, but fo inveterate, that their teeth drop
out, and their bodies become loathfonie. In other refpefts
they are healthy and vigorous, and live without ficknefs or
difeafe to a great age. The plague of Barbary is fcarcely
ever heard of in this province, notwiihllanding the contiguity
of the two countries, and the frequent intercourfe of their
inhabitants. Biledulijerid, properly fo called, has few
rivers and towns. The natives of Biledulgeiid are repre-
fented as a lewd, treacherous, thievilh, and favage people,
that delight in murder, blood, and rapine. They are, in
general, a mixture of old Africans and wild Arabs ; the
former of whom lived with fome degree of regularity and
civil order, in a kind of villages compofed of a number of
little hut-s whilll the latter inhabited moveable tents, and
ranged from place to place in quell of food and plunder.
Thefc Arabs value themfelves on their fuperiority with re-
gard to birth and talents above the primitive inhabitants ;
and whiUl they are wholly independent and free, they occa-
fionally hire themfelves to fcrve in the wars of the neigh-
bouring princes, and hence arifes the chief part of their
public revenui. ; the reil purfue no other occupations befides
plundering and hunting, and particularly hunting ollriches,
the fle(h of which they drefs for food, and the feathers they
barter for corn, pulfe, and other neceflaries. The other
parts of thefe birds they ufe in their religious rites, as orna-
ments of drefi, or as pouches and knapfacks. Befides dates
and oftriches, they likewife fubfift on the fledi of goats and
camels; and for their drink, they ufe either the broth in
which the flefli is boiled, or the milk of their camels, for
they fcldoni talte water, which is not only fcarce, but
brackidi and unwholefome. For the character and manners
of thofe who inhabit that part of Bileduljjcrid, taken in its
former extent, and bordering on the Atlantic ocean ; fee

MONSKLI MINES and MoNOFARTS.

BILEFELD. See Bielkeld.

BILGE. See BiLOGE.

BILGUER, John Ulrick, in Btograp!<ii,\)om at Coire,
in the countrj- of the Griions, in Swidcrland ; after paf-
fing through the nfual courfc of education, praftifed furgery
at Berlin, where he foon acquired fiich reputation, as to en-
gage the attention of king Frederic the Great, who made
him furgeon to one of his regiments, and, m progreflion,
fiirgeon-gencral to the PrulTian army. In the courfe of an
extenfive praiflice in this poll, he had an opportunity of
obferving how very fmall a proportion of the men recovered
from fratlures, where tlie foft parts were greatly bruifed,
and the bones (liattercd, when the limb had been amputated,
which in fuch cafes was the general practice. This induced
him to try more lenient methods, wiiich he praftifed with
fuch fuccef^, as to enable him to reduce the cafes in which
amputation fhonld be declared to bt necelTary to a very
fmall number. In 1 761, he was admitted to the degree of
doftor in medicine, by the univerfity of Hall, in Saxony,
when he read for liis thtfis " De nitmbrorum amputatione

B I L

rariflime adminiftranJa, aut quafi abrogandn." This work
was tranllated into French, and highly commended by TifTot,
then in the zenith of his reputation, which gave the work
fuch credit, and fo quick a circulation, that it was foon
naturalized in every country of Europe, and its difFufion
has been attended with the mod beneficial confequences.
The methods recommended by the author for prcferving
fraftured limbs, even in cafes that have been before thought
hopetefs, fucceedcd fo often, as very much to diminilh the
frequency of the operation. He alfo publilhed at Glogau,
in 1763, " Inftrudions for Surgeons of Hofpitals," in
Gcr;nan, In this work, he further defends and illullratcs
the doctrine contained in the thefis. in cafes where amputa-
tion cannot be avoided, he advifes leaving a portion of the
integuments, a pradice now become general. There are
alfo other works publifhed by this author on the praftice of
furgei-)-, for the titles and accounts of which, fee Haller'u
Bib. Chirurg. Eloy. Did. Hill.

BILGHY, in Geography, a town of Hindoflan, in the
My fore counfy, and in that di(lri£l ceded to Britain in 1 799,
58 miles W.S.W. from Harponully, and 35 N.N.W. f;om
Bednore. N. lat. 14° 8'. E. long. 74° 50'.

BILIARY Calculi. Some of the concretions found in the
gall bladder or dufts, and which are generally of an oval form,
are compofed of a white fubftance like fpermaceti, cryftal-
li/.ed in brilliant plates or ftrise. Thefe concretions float in
water, and are inflammable. They diOTolve ii> heated alco-
hol, in oil of turpentine, and in alkalies ; in the latter cafe,
the folution has the properties of a foap.

Other biliary concretions are of a polygonal form, and
generally very numerous j they are of a brownifti colour,
and are formed of concentric layers, of a fubftance refembling
infpiffated bile.

In fome biliary concretions, there is a mixture of both
the fubftances above defcribcd.

There are alfo fometimes found in the gall bladder dark-
coloured fmall brittle concretions, which are infoluble iu
alcohol, or oil of turpentine, and which are not inflammable.
(See Gall-Stones.) For a detail of experiments relative
to Bile and thefe calculi, confult Cadet, Mem. Par. 1797.
Fourcroy, Ann. de Chimie. Gren & Vauquelon, ibid.
Ram fay in the Thefaur. Med. Edin. and Maclurg. See
Calculi, Biliary.

BiLIARII Pori, the eiccretory dafts of the liver, now
commonly termed vafa biliarla. See Liver.

BILICH, atown of Siberia, 8 miles S.E. of Vcrcholenfk.

BILIHAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irac,
100 miles S.S.W. of Amadan.

BILIKOWKN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiov, 50 miles well of Kiov.

BILIMBI, in Botany, a fpecies of the Averrhoa (fee
Averrhoa); which is carefully cultivated in the gardens
of the Eaft Indies, where it flowers throughout the vear.
The juice of the root is drank as a cure for fevers. The
leaves boiled, and made into a cataplafm with rice, are
famed in all forts of tumors, and the juice of the fruit is
ufed in almoll all external heats, dipping linen rags in it,
and applying them to the parts. It is drank, mixed with
arr«ck, to cure diarrhoeas ; and the dried leaves, mixed with
betel leaves, and given in arrack, are faid to promote delivery.
The fruit is pleafant to the tafte when fully ripe, and is
commonly eaten j when Imaller, and uuripe, it luakcs a very
pleafant pickle.

BILIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz, 14 miles well of Leitmeritz. This place has
a fine citadel, and a fpring of acid water ; and holds animal
fairs.

BILt.

B I L

BILINEATA, in Entomoh^y, a fpecie» of Leptura,
of a blackilli-brown, with two lines on the thorax, and
fcattered dots on the wing-cafes ycllowiih. Scopoli, Gme-
lin. Inhabits Carniola.

BiLiNEATA, a fpecies of Cantharis, with a yellow
thorax, with a fpot, and four brown dots ; wing-cafes yel-
low, with a fufcous line. Thuuberg, &;c. This is a native
«f the cape of Good Hope.

BiLiNEATA, a fpecies of Chrvsomela, that inhabits
Scandinavia. It is green, glofled with gold ; anterior part
of tlie thorax excavated ; and a double blue hue on the
wing-cafes. Gmelin.

BiLiNEATA, a fpecies of Phal^na [Grometm), with
yeilovvifh teflaceous wings, waved, with abroad Ihipe acrofs,
having a brown and a white margin. Linn. Fn. Suec. &c.
A very common infeft in hedges during the fummer
months ; and is called in England fometimcs the elm moth.

BiLiNEATA, a fpecies of Phryganea, of a blackifh
colour, with brown wings, and two white lines on each mar-
gin. Inhabits the north of Europe.

BILINEATUM, in Concholo^y,ii fpecies of Buccinum,
defcribed by Liller. The fhell is tranfverfcly ftriated ; fpire
obtufe ; the whorls with a fpotted band and two lines. Its
native country is unknown.

BiLiNEATUM, in Entomology, a fpecies of Phalangium,
of a pale colour, with two dorfal lines and black dots. Fa-
bricius. Inhabits Norway.

BILINEATUS, a fpecies of CuRCULio. This infed
is brown, with two white lines on the wing-cafes. Inhabits
Germany.

BiLiNEATUs, a fpecies of CraAMBYX {Prionus), with
crenated thorax, marked with two white lines ; wing-cafes
ferruginous, fpeckled with white, and bordered with yellow.
Inhabits America. Fabricius, &c.

BiLiNEATus, a fpecies ofCRVPTOCEPHALUs, of aminutc
fize, that is found in Europe. This infeft is black, with
two yellowifh lines on the wing-cafes, and ferruginous legs.
Gmelin. A native of Europe, and defcribed by Linnaeus as
^hryfomela bllimata.

BiLiNEATus, a fpecies of Ichnkumon. It is black,
with two yellow lines in front ; abdomen depreffed ; legs
red ; lips of the pofterior ones brown. Linn. Muf.
Leflc.

BiLisEATUS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Pleuronectes,
found in China. It is thin, long, above yellow, with a brown
margin ; beneath reddith-white ; entirely covered with very
fmall fcales. This is fpecifically diftinguillied by having the
lateral line double. Bloch.

BiHNEATUs, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber, of a ru-
fous colour, with two yellowifh ftripes ; la douhk-raie of
■count de Ccpede, and hil'mcated Jtiale of Dr. Shaw. This
kind, according to the former writer, mealures two feet one
inch in length, of which the tail is fix inches and a half ;
colour rufcus, jcach fcalc bordered with yellow ; and from
the back of the head are two bright golden-yellow ftripes
extending to the end of the tail ; fcales on tlie head large,
thofe on the body fmooth ; native country unknown j abdo-
minal fcuta 20J, fubcordal fcales 99.

BILINGUIS, in Lata. See Medietas Lingute.

BiLiNGUls, properly denotes a perfon who has two
tongues in his mouth ; an inllance of which is given by
Dolxus. It is alfo ufed for a perfon who fpeaks two lan-
guages.

BILIOUS Complexion. See Complexion, and Tem-
perament.

Bilious Colic. See Colic.

Bilious Z)iarr^«a. See Diarrhcea,
Vol. IV.

B I L

Bliiows Ftver. See Fiver.

BILIRIANS, in Geography, a denomination given to a
clafs of inhabitants of the fouthern pans of RuCia. la
their origin they are Sarmates, who fettled in their preftnt
habitations, and now exift under the name of Tfchuvafches.
See Bolgarians.

BILITZ, a town of Silcfia, in the principality of Tef-
chen, fcparatcd from Biala by the river of the fame name,
and at a fmaJl didaace from it. N. lat. 49^ 51'. E. long.
19° 6'.

BILIZIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Novo-
grodtk, about J 8 miles N. E. of Novogrodek. N. lat. 53*
55'. E. long, is" 45'.

BILL, in ylgrhuhure, denotes an edge-tool, of the a«
kind, with a hooked point, fitted to a handle, and ufed to
lop boughs of tress, &c. When (hort, it is called a " hand-
bill ;" when long, a " hedge-bill."

Bill, in Common Language, denotes a written or printed
paper, pofted up in fome public place, for the puipofe of
advertifing the fale of any merchandize, ftiip, &c. or the
failing of any veffel, &c.

Bill is alfo ufed among tradefmen and workmen for an
account of gooi's fold and delivered, or of work done, with
the charge annexed.

Bill, in Commerct, denotes a fccurity for money under
the hand, and fometimes fcal of the debtor, without any con-
dition or forfeiture, in cafe of non-performance. — In which
it is diflinguiflicd from a bond or obligation. See Bond.

It has been ufually defined a writing, wherein sne man is
bound to another to pay a fum of money, on a day that is
future, or prefently on demand, according to the agreement
of the parties at the time when it is drawn, and the dealings
between them.

Bill, in Law, denotes a declaration in writing, expref-
fing a wrong or grievance, which the complainant hath fuf-
fered by the party complained of; orelfe fome offence com-
mitted by him againft fome law or ftatute of the realm. This
bill is commonly addreffed to the lord chancellor, efpecially
for unconfcionable wrongs done to the complainant ; and
fometimes to others having jurifdiftion, according as the
law dircfts. It contains the faft coirplaiiied of, the damages
fullained, and the petition of procefs againft the defendant
for redrefs. This is ufed as well in criminal as in civil mat-
ters. In criminal cafes, when the grand jury upon a pre-
fentment or indiftment find the fame to be true, they indorfe
on it " billa vera ;" upon which the offender is faid to
ftand indifted of the crime, and is bound to make anfwer to
it; and if the crime touch the life of the perfon indided, it \*
then referred to the jury of life or death, \\z. the petty jury,
by whom, if he be found guilty, then he ihall ilaiid convic-
ted of the crime, and is by the judge condemned to death.

Many of the proceedings in the king's bench arc by bill ;
it is the ancient form of proceeding, and was, and yet
fhould be, filed in pavchmeut, in all fuits, not by oiiginal.
The declaration is a tranfcripl of it, or fuppofed to be. See
Amendment.

In Scots law, every fummaiy application in writing, by
way of petition to the court of feftion, is called a " bill."

YtM-i. of Appeal. See Appeal.
Bill of Attahulei-. See Attainder.
Bill, Crofs. See Cross-BUI, and Suit in Ejulty.
Bill in ei^ulty, is a kind of pttitiou addrelTcd to the lord
chancellor, with which a Init m chanceiy commences. This,
in the nature of a declaration at common law, or a libel and
allegation in the fpiritual courts, fets forth tlie circuini1ance>
of the cafe at length, " in confideration of which," ^ for thi?
is the jfual language of the bill) " and for that yotr orator
3 A i?

B I L

IS wholly without remeJy at the common law," relief is
therefore prayed at the clianccUor's hands, and alfo proccls
of fubpocna againft the defendant, to compel him to anfwer
upon oath to all the matter charged in the bill. See Suit
in Equity.

B I L I. »/ Exception to Eviihnre. SeeExCEPTiON.

Bill of Exchange, in Commerce ^nA Law, a (hort note, or
V/ritini;, ordiringthe payment of a fum of money in one place,
to fomc perfon afligned by the drawer, or remitter, in confi-
deration of the like value paid to him in another place. (See
Remittance.) Or, it is an open letter ofrequeft from one
man to another, defiring him to pay a fum of money named in
it to a third pirfon, on liis account, or to any other to whom
that third perfon (liall order it to be paid ; or it may be made
payaMe to bearer. This kind of ncgociable fecurity for
money, invented among merchants in different countries, ferves
to facilitate the remittanceof money from the one to the other,
and of courfe the coiiduft of commercial tranfaftions ; fo
that, fince its firft introdudion, it has extended itfelf to al-
moft all pecuniary ncgociations.

Bills of e.schange were unknown in the ancient Roman
commerce, as well as jurifprudence. According to the
common opinion, they are faid to have been brought into
general ufe by the Jews and Lombards, when banifhcd for
their ufury and other vices ; who found means to withdraw
their cffecis, which they had lodged in the hands of friends,
both in France and England, by fccrct letters and bills con-
ceived in (liort precife terms, like the modern bills of ex-
change, which they negociated by the affiftance of merchants
and travellers. The Jews were baniflied out of France by
Philip Auguflus, in 1143, and out of England, in 1290;
but the ufe of paper credit was introduced in the Mogul
empire in China, in 1236. It further appears, that bills of
exchange were negociated at Hamburgh, in 1188 ; and it
has been faid, that the faftion of the Gibellins, being
expelled Italy by the Guclphs, towards the clofe of the
13th century, retired to Amfterdam, and ufed the fame
means for the recovery of their eifefls in Italy as the Jews
liad done ; and hence, as fome have thought, the Dutch
merchants took the hint of negociating bills of exchange,
and foon fpread the praftice throughout Europe. The
fame GibL-lliiis are faid to be the inventors of the re-change,
or re-cxchange, on account of damages, charges, and intcreft,
when bills of exchange, which they called " poli/.zo di cam-
bio," are not paid, but returned on proteft. In 1307, bills
of exchange fccm to have been in ufe in England, though their
nature was not well underdood at a much later period ; and
the firft. reference to them in an aft of parliament, occurs in
1381, when they were forbidden to be ufed without the
king's licence. In 1394, an ordinance was ilTiKd by the
city of Barcelona, that bills of exchange fhould be accepted
within twenty-four hours after they were prcfcnted, and that
the acceptance fliu\ild be written on the back of the bill.
Moreover, in 1 404, the magiftrates of Bruges requcfted thofe
of Barcelona to ii.form them what was the common praftice,
in regard to bills of cxcliange, when the perfon who prcfcnted
•T bill raiftd money on it in an unufual manner, in the cafe of
its not being paid, and by thefe means increafed the expences
fo much, that the drav/tr would not confent to fuftaiti the
lofs. The form of the bill, fuch as is now ufed, is fcen in
the memorial, which alfo fpeaks of ufance; and it alfo ap-
pears, that firft and fecond bills were at that time drawn,
and that when bills were not accepted, it was cuftomary to
protcft them. Anderfon's Hift. Com. vol. i. Beckman'a
Hitt. of Invent, vol. iii. p. 462.

In common fpeech, a bill of exchange is frequently called
a " draught ;" but the formsr ia the mors legal, as well as

B I L

mercantile expreflion. The perfon who makes or draws
the bill is called the " drawer," and he to whom it is addreffed
is denominated the " drawee;" and when he undertakes to
pay the amount, he is called the " acceptor." The perfon
to whom it is ordered to be paid is called the " payee ;" and
if he appoint another to receive the money, this other is cal-
led the "indorfee," as the payee is, with refpeCl to him, the
"indorfer;" and any one who happens for the time to be
in pofTeffion of the bill is called the " holder" of it. The
time at which the payment is limited to be made is various,
according to the circumftances of the parties, and the dif-
tance of their refpcftive places of refidence. Sometimes the
amount is made payable at fight ; fometimes at fo many
days after fight ; at other times at a certain interval from
the date. See Usance.

Where the time of payment is limited by months, it muft
be computed by calendar, not lunar months ; and where
one month is longer than the fucceeding, it is a rule not to
go in the computation into a third. Thus on a bill dated
the 28th, 29th, 30th, or 31ft of January, and payable one
month after date, the time expires on the zSth of February,
in common years, and in the three latter cafes, in leap
year, on the 29th ; to which are to be added the " days of
grace." Where a bill is payable at fo many days after
fight, or from the date, the day of preientment, or of the
date, is excluded. Thus, where a bill payable 10 days
after fight is prefented on the firll day of a month, the lo
days expire on the nth; where it is dated the firft, and
payable 20 days after date, thefe expire on the 21ft. (Ld.
Raym 281. Stra. 829.) It is a cullom among merchants,
that a perfon to whom a bill is addrefted, (hall be allowed a
few days for payment, beyond the time mentioned in the
bill, called "days of grace." In Great Britain and Ireland,
three days are allowed ; in other places more. If the lad
of thefe three days happens to be Sunday, the bill is to be
paid on Saturday ; but thefe days of grace are not allowed
on bills payable at fight. If bills become due on Sunday, or
on fuch holidays, when the law forbids bufinefs to be done,
payment mull be demanded or proteft made for non-payment
on the preceding day.

' Bills of exchange arc either " foreign" or " inland ;" the
firft being thofe which pafs from one country to another,
and the latter fuch as pafs between parties refiding in the
lame country : and by the confent of merchants, certain cuf-
toms arc eftablilhed with regard to foreign bills, which have
been adopted as part of the law in every commercial ftate.
Inland bills of exchange do not feem to have been very fre-
quent in England before the reign of Charles II. (6 Mod. 29);
and foreign bills were much more regarded by the law thaa
inland ones, as being thought of more public concern in the
advancement of commerce. But at length the legiflature,
by two ftatutes, viz. 9 & 10 W. 3. c 17. and 3 & 4 Ann.
c. 9. has fet both forts of bills nearly on the fame footing ;
fo that what was the law and cuftom of merchants, with
regard to the one, is now, in mod refpefts, the eftabhihed
law of the country, with regard to the other.

PromifTory notes, or notes of hand, are a plain and direft
engagement in writing to pay a fum fpecified at the time limi-
ted in it, to a perfon therein named, or to his order, or to
the bearer at large. Thefe notes were at firft confidered
merely as evidence of a debt ; and it was held that a pro-
miftbry note was not affignable or indorfible, within the cuf.
torn of merchants ; and tliat if fuch a note had been indorfed
or afligned over, the perfon to whom if was fo indorfed or
afiigncd, could not maintain an aclion within the cuftom
againft the drawer of the note ; nor could even the perfon, to
whom it was in the firft inftance made payable, bring fuch
3 aftion.

B 1 L

B I L

a^^ion. (iSalk. 129, 2Ld. Rayra. 757,9.) Butatlength bankers, as arc payable on demand, for payment 00 the day
the legiHature recogmzed them and put them upon the in which they are received, if the fuuation of the parties ad-

Bills of exchange and promifTory notes, \vhich, according
to the general principles of law, are to be confidereJ only ai

fame footing with inland bills of exchange ; by ftatute 3 & 4
Ann. e.g. made perpetual by flat. 7 Ann. c. 25. §t.;
which enacts that prominbry notes, payable to order or
bearer, may be afligned and indorfed, and aftion maintained
on them, as on inland bills of exchange. By(lats.i5 Geo. III.
c. 51, and 17 Geo. III. c. 30. made perpetual by ftat.
27 Geo. III. c. t6. all negotiable notes and bills for lefs
than 20s. are declared to be null and void ; and notes or
bills between that fum and 5I. mull; be made payable within
2 1 days after date, muft particularize the name and dcfcrip-
tion of the payees, muft bear date at the time and place in
which they are made, mull be attcfted by a fubfcribing wit-
nefs, and the indorfement of them mull be attended witii
the fame ftriftnefs in all refpefts, and made before the notes
or bills become due. The omiffion of anv one of thefe re-

evidences of a fimple contraft, are however in one refpeft
regarded as fpecialties, and on the fame footing with bonds ;
for they are prefumed, unlefs the coiitraiy be (hewn by the
defendant, to have been made on a good confideration ; nor
is it incumbent on the plaintiff either to (licw a confideratioa
in his declaration, or to prove it at the trial.

Bills of exchange, and alfo notes, are atngnable or nego-
tiable without any fiction ; and every perfon to whom they
are transferred mav maintain an a£tion in his own name
againft any one, who has before him in the courfe of their
negociation rendered himfelf refponfible for the payment of
them. But the inflrumcnt, or writing, which conflitutes a

gulations and formalities vacates the fecurity, and is penal to good bill or note, muft have certain efftntial qualities. One

i-:_ .1,-. ....„_„ :. Tjin. -f „...!, , -nr of thefe is, that the bill or note fhould be for the payment of

money on/y, and not for the payment of money and the do-
ing of fome other aft. Another requifite quahty is, that
the inftrument muft cany with it a perfonal and certain
credit, given to the drawer or maker, not confined to credit
on any particular fund. But in the application of this prin-
ciple, there is a material diftinftion between bills and notes.
With regard to the former, where the fund is fuppofed to

him that utters it. Bills of exchange and promifTory notes
muft now be drav/n on ftamped paper ; and the ftamp is
proportioned under ftat. 3 I Geo. III. c. 25. 37G. III. and
41 G. III. c. 10. to the amount of the bill from fixpence to
three (hillings for fuch as are payable on demand ; and for
thofe payable after date from one fliilling to four fhilhngs. If
foreig-n bills are drawn here, the whole fet muft be ftamped ;
but bills drawn abroad are not liable to any ftamp duty.

As bills of exchange were firft introduced for the conveni- be in the hands of the drawee, the objection holds in its full
ence of commerce, it was formerly thought that they could force, not only becanfe the produflivenefs of the fund is con-
neither be drawn nor negoci:ited by any perfon who was tingent and precarious, but bccaufe the credit is not given to

not aftually a merchant ; but it has been fince decided, that
any perfon capable of binding himfelf by a contraft, may
draw or accept, or ncgociate a bill of exchange, and by ftat.
3 & 4 Ann. c. 9. be a party to a promifTory note. How-
ever, an infant cannot be fued on a bill of exchange, nor a
feme-covert, except in fuch cafes as fhe i= allowed to aft in
as a feme-fole. If a bill is drawn on two joint traders, the
acceptance of one binds the other, if it concern the joint
trade ; but it is other .vife, if the bill concern the acceptor

the per/on of the drawer ; but where the fund, on account of
which the money is payable, either is in the hands of the
drawer, or he is accountable for it, the objection will not hold,
becaufe the credit is perfonal to him, and the fund is only
the confideration of his giving the bill. With refpedl to a
note, if the drawer promife to pay out of a particular fund,
then within his power, the note will be good under the fta-
tute ; the payment does not depend on the circumftance of
the fund's proving unproduclive, or not, but there is an ob-

only, in a diftincl intercll and refpedl. On the fubjecl of ligation upon his perfonal credit ; the bare making of the

procuration with regard to bills ; fee Procuration'.

A promifTory note, when indorled, begins to refem.ble a
bill of exchange, for the indorfer of the nol;e correfponds to
the drawer of the bill ; the maker to the drawee or acceptor,
and the indorfee to the payee : and this refemblance being
fixed, the law is precifely the fame in bills of exchange and
promifTory notes. It is now a decided point of law, that

note being an acknowledgment that he has money in his
hands. Another effential quality of a good bill or note is,
that it muft be abfolutely payable at all events, and not de-
pend on any particular circumfiances which may or may not
happen in the common courfe of things. No prccife form of
words is neceffary to make a bill of exchange or a note under
the ftatute ; any order, which cannot be complied with, or

bills and notes made payable to bearer are equally transfer- promife, which cannot be performed, without the payment

of money, will make a good bill or note. As the words
" value received," have been ufually inferted in bills or notes,
fome doubt has occurred, whether they are efftntial. It is
now underftood, as a decided point, that thcfe words are not
neceffary ; for inftruments of this kind are prefumed to have
been made on a valuable confideration j and therefore words,
which import no more, cannot be effential. It has been
queried, whether it be effential to the conftitution of a bill
of exchange, that it fliould contain words which render it
negotiable, as " to order," or " to bearer;" and the point
has not yet received a judicial decifion. With regard to notes
that have not thefe words, the perfon to whom they are
made payable, may maintain an action on them, within the
ftatute, againft the maker. With regard to the acceptance
of bills of exchange. See Acceptance. Forging the ac-
ceptance of any fuch bill, or the number or principal fum of
any acco\mtable receipt, is m.ade felony byflat. 7 Gco.2. c. 22.
The mode of transferring bills and notes is different
according to the expreflions which render them negoti-
able. Such as are payable to bearer, are transferred by de-
3A2 livery;

rable with thofe payable to order ; and the transfer in both
cafes equally confers the right of aftion on the bona fide
holder. But the mode of transfer is different ; as bills
and notes payable to bearer are transferred by mere delivery,
the others by indorfement.

There are other bills and notes which differ from thofe
already defcribed, and which are fecurities for money, be-
caufe they arc confidered as money ilfelf. Thefe are " Bank-
notes," " Banker's cafh-notes," and " drafts on Bankers,"
payable on demand. Bank-notes are regarded in ordinary
tranfac^ions by common confent as cafh, and they have the
credit and currency of money to every effectual purpofe, and
feem to be as lawful a tender. (Stat. 5 W. iSc M. c. 20.
J 28. 3 Tenn Rep. 554.) Banker's cafh-notes, and
drafts on bankers, are confidered among merchants as money,
and received in payment as ready calh ; and if the party
receiving them do not, within a reaTonable time, demand
the money, he muft bear the lofs in cafe of the banker's
failure. The precife time is not abfolutely determined ;
biK it is held moft advifeable to carry fuch drafts on

B 1 L

livery ; if payable to A. B. or bearer, they arc payable to
bearer, as if A, B. were not mentioned. But to the trans-
fer of thofe payable to order, it is neccffary, in addition to
deliverv, there {hould be fomethinp;, by which the payee
may appear to exprcfs his order. This additional circum-
lb.nce is called an " indorfement." See Indorsement.

By the very aft of drawing a bill, the drawer come.s under
an implied engagement to the pavee, and to every fubfequent
holder, fairly entitled to the polfeffion, that the perfon on
whom lie draws is capable of binding himfelf by his accept-
ance ; that he is to be found at the place where he is defcribed
to be, if that defcription K- mentioned in the bill ; that if the
bill be duly prcfented to him, he will accept in writing on the
bill itfelf, according to its tenor; and that he will pay it
when it becomes due, if piefeuted in proper time for that
purpofe. In default of any of thefe particulars, the drawer
is liable to an aftion at the fuit of any of the parties before-
mentioned, on due diligence being exerciled on their parts,
not only for the payment of the original Uim mentioned in the
bill, but alfo in fome cafes for damage.;, iiitcreft, and cofts ;
and he is cq.ially anfwerable, whether the bill was drawn on
his own account, or on that of a third perfon ; for the holder
of the bill is not to be affctlL-d by the circumilanot s that may
cxid between tiie drawer and another ; the perfonal credit of
the drawer being pledged for the due honour of the bill.
If a man write his name on a blank piece of paper, and de-
liver it to another, with authority to draw on it a bill of ex-
change to any amount, at any dillance of time, he renders
himfelf liable to be called on as the drawer of any bill fo
formed by the perfon to whom he has given the authority.
If acceptance be refufed, and the bill returned, this is notice
to the drawer of the refnfal of the drawee ; and then the
period, when the debt of the former is to be confi-iered as
contrafted, is the moment when he draws the bill ; and an
atlion may be immediately commenced againll him, though
the regular time of payment, according to the tenor of the
bill, be not arrived ; for the drawee, not having given
credit, which was the ground of the contraft, what the
drawer had undertaken has not been performed. When a bill
of exchange is indorfed by the perfon to whom it was made
payable, as between the indorfer and indorfee, it is a new bill
of exchange ; as it is alfo between every fubfequent indorfer
and indorfee; the indorfer, therefore, with refpeft to all the
parties fubfequent to him, (lands in the place of the drawer,
being a collateral fecurity for the acceptance and payment
of the bill by the drawee ; his indorfcment impofes on him
the fame engagement that the drawing of the bill does on the
drawer ; and the period when that engagement attaches, is
the time of the indorfcment. Nor will any thing difcharge
the indorfer from his engagement, but the abfolutc payment
of the money ; not even a judgment recovered againft the
drawer or any previous indorfer ; neither is his engagement
difcharged by an iueffeftual execution againft the drawer, or
any prior or fubfequent indorfer. The engagement of the
drawer and indorfers depends on certain conditions to be per-
formed by the holder of the bill, and without the performance
of which he has no remedy againft them.

When the payment of the bill is limited to a certain time
after fight, the holder mull prefent it for acceptance, other-
wife the time of payment will n;ver come. Although it
bas never been directly determined, whether the holder of
a bill, payable at a certain time after date, be bound to
prefent it for acceptance immediately on receiving it, or
whether he may wait till it become due, and then prefent
it for payment ; yet in praftice it often iiappcns that a
bill ie negotiated and transferred through many bands, with-

B I L

out acceptance, and not prefented to the drawee till the time
of pavment ; and no objeftion is ever made on that ac-
count.' If, however, on th ■ holder prefenting the bill for
acceptance, this be refufed, he is bound to give legular notice
to all the preceding parties to whom he intends to rcfort for
non-payment ; and if on account of the holder's delay, any
lofs be' incurred by the failure of any of thefe parties, he
muft bear this lofs. It is alfo the duty of the holder of a
bill, whether accepted or not, to prefent it for payment
within a limited time ; otherwife the law will imply that pay-
ment has been made, and it would be prejudicial to com-
merce, if a bill might be produced to charge the draw^er at
any diftance of time, when ill accounts might be adjufted
between him and the drawee. A prcfc;.tment either for pay-
ment or acceptance nuft be made at feafonable hours, which
are the common hours of bu!;:iefs in the place where the
party, to whom the bill is prefer.ted, refides. If acceptance
or payment be refufed, or the drawee of the bill, or the
maker of the note, has become iufolvent, or has abfconded,
notice from the holder himfelf muft be given to the preced-
ing parties, and in this notice it mull be added, that the
holder does not intend to give him credit. What may
be confidered as a reafonable time, within which notice fhould
be criven, either of non-acceptance or non-payment, has been
fubjecl to much doubt and uncertainty. It was once held,
that a fortnight was a reafonable time ; but that period is
now much contrafted. With refpeft: to acceptance, it is
ufual to leave a bill for that purpofe with the drawee till
the next day ; but if he, when called upon the next day,
delay or refufe to accept according to the tenor of tlie bill,
it is now an eftablilhed rule, where the parties, to whom no-
tice is to be given, leiide at a different place from the holder
and drawee, that notice fhould be fent by the next poft ; and
the fame rule obtains in cafe of non-payment. Alfo in cafe
of the drawee of the bill, or maker of the note, having ab-
fconded, or not being found, notice of thefe circumftances,
in cafe either of non-acceptance or non-payment, muft be
fent by the firft poft. Confiderable difficulty has occurred
in eftabhfliing a general rule in this refpeft, where the party
entitled to notice refides in or near the place in which the
holder lives. The court, however, has on feveral occafions
laid it down 33 a principle, that what (hall be confidered as
a reafonable time in cafe of notice, and alfo of demand of
payment, is a queftion of law ; and this feems to have been
fully eftabli(hed, and it is undcrftood generally, that a demand
mull be made, and notice given, as foon as under all the cir-
cumftances it is poflible to do fo. As to the manner in which
notice is given, either of non-acceptance or non payment,
there is a remarkable difference between inland and foreign
bills. In the former no particular form of words is necef-
fary to entitle the holder to recover againft the drawer or
indorfers, the amount of the bill, on failure of the drawee or
acceptor ; it is fufficient if it appear that the holder means to
give no credit to the latter, but to hold the former to their
refponfibility. But in foreign bifls, other formalities are re-
quired. If the perfon to whom the bill is addrcffed, on pre-
fentment, will not accept it, the holder is to carry it to a
perfon vcfted with a public charafter, who is to go to the
drawee and demand acceptance ; and if he then refufe, the
offker is there to make a minute on the bill itfelf, confifting
of his initials, the month, the day, and the year, with his
charges for minuting. He muft afterwards draw up a folemn
declaration, that the bill has been prefented for acceptance,
which was refufed, and that the holder intends to recover all
damages which he, or the deliverer of the money to the
drawer, or any other, may fuftain on account of the non-

accept

B I L

acceptance. This minute, in coir.mon language, is termed
the " noting" of the bill ; the folemn declaration, the " pro-
teft ;" and the perfon whofe office it is to do thefe afts called
a " public notary ;"' and to his proteftation all forelu-n courts
give credit. If no fuch notary be refident in the place where
the bill is neQ;ot!ated, proteft may be n".ade by any (ubilantial
inhabitant in the prefence of two credible v.itnefTes. For the
circumftances attending this proteft, and the difference iii
this refpeft between inland and foreign bills, fee Protest.
When a bill is once accepted abfolutely, it cannot in any
cafe be revoked, and the acceptor is at all events bound,
though he hear of the drawer's having failed the next rro-
ment, even if the failure was before the acceptapce. The
acceptor may however be difcharged by an exprcfs declara-
tion of the holder, or by fomething equivalent to fuch de-
claration. But no circumftances of indulgence (hewn to the
acceptor by the holder, nor an attempt on his part to reco-
ver of the drawer, will amount to an exprefs declaration of
difcharge. Neither will any length of time fliort of the fta-
tute of limitations, nor the receipt of part of the money
from the drawer or indorfer, nor a promife by indorfement
on the bill by the drawer to pay the refidue, difcharge the
holder's remedy againft the acceptor. Although the receipt
of part from the drawer or indorfer be no difcharge to the
acceptor, yet the receipt of part from the acceptor of a bill,
or the maker of a note, is a difcharge to the drawer and in-
dorfers in the one cafe, and to the indorfers in the other, un-
lefs due notice be given of the non-payment of the refidue ;
but where due notice is given, that the bill is not duly paid,
the receipt of part of the money from an acceptor, or mak-
er, will not difcharge the drawer or indorfers ; becaufe it is
for their advantage, that as much fhould be received from
others as may be. So the receipt of part from an indorfer is
no difcharge of the drawer or preceding indorfer. If the
drawer of a note, or the acceptor of a bill, be fued by the
indorfee, and the bail pay the debt and cofts, this abfolutely
difcharges the indorfer as much as if the principal had paid
the note or bill ; and the bail cannot afterwards recover
againft the indorfer in the name of the indorfee. On the
principles of feveral cafes it has been finally fettled, that to
entitle the indorfee to recover againft the indorfer of an in-
land bill of exchange, it is not necefTary to demand the mo-
ney of the firft drawer.

By the ftat. 3 & 4 Ann, c. 9. § 7. it is enafted, that if
any perfon accept a bill of exchange for and in fatisfadtion
of any former debt or fum of money formerly due to him,
this fhall be accounted and efteemed a full and complete pay-
ment of fuch debt ; if fuch perfon, accepting any fuch bill
for his debt, do not take his due courfe to obtain payment
of it, by endeavouring to get the fame accepted and paid,
and make his proteft according to the dirciStions of the aft,
cither for non-acceptance or non-payment.

Where a privity exifts between the parties in a bill of ex-
change, an aftion of debt, or of "indebitatus afTumpfit,"
may be maintained ; but where it does not exiit, neither of
thefe aftions will lie. A privity exifts between the payee
and the drawer of a bill of exchange ; the payee and drawer
of a promifTory note ; the indorfee and his immediate in-
dorfer of either the one or the other ; and perhaps between
the drawer and acceptor of a bill ; provided that, in all
thefe cafes, a coniideration palTed refpeftively between the
parties. But no privity is fuppofed to exift between the in-
dorfee and acceptor of a bill, or the maker of a note, or be-
tween an indorfee and a remote indorfer of cither.

The a£lion which is now brought on a bill of exchange, is a
fpecial aftion on the cafe, founded on the cuftom of merchants.
This cuilom \vm not at firft recognized by the court, unlefs

B I L

it wa« fpctially fet forth ; but when this cuftom was recog-
nized by the judges as part of the law of the land, and they
declared they would take notice of it " ex officio," it became
unnecefTary to recite the cuftom at full length ; a fimple al-
legation that " the drawer, mertioning him by his name,
according to the cujlum of merchants, drew hi* bill of exchange,
&c." was fufficient. If the plaintiff, adhering to former
precedents, thought proper to recite the cuftom in general
terms, and did not bring his cafe within the cuftom fo fet
forth ; yet if by the law of merchants, as recognized by the
court, the cafe as ftated, entitled him to his acli.n, he might
recover ; and the fetting forth of the cuftom was reckoned
furplufage, and rejcfttd. Whether the drawer of a bill, or
the indorfer of a bill or of a note, receiving the bill or note
in the regular courfe of negotiation before it has become due,
can maintain an aftion on it againft the acceptor or maker,
in the charadter of indorfee, feems undecided ; but there is
a cafe which clearly (hews that a drawer or indorfer cannot
maintain an aftion in the charafter of indorfee, " where the
indorfement is after the lefufal of payment ;" becaufe
when a bill is returned unpaid, either on the drawer or in-
dorfer, its negotiability is at an end. The aftion, there-
fore, in which the drawer or indorfer, after payment of the
money in default of the acceptor, may recover, the firft
againft the acceptor, and the latter againft any of the pre-
ceding parties, muft be brought in their original capacity as
drawer or indorfer, and not as indorfee. If the drawee,
without having efiefts of the drawer, accept and duly pay
the bill without having it protefted, he may recover back
the money in aftion for money paid, laid out, and expended
to the ufe of the drawer. Inftead of bringing an aftion on
the cuftom, or on the ftatute, the plaintiff may in many cafes
ufe a bill or note only as evidence in anotlier aftion ; and if
the inftrument want fome of the requifites for making it a
good bill or note, the only ufe he can make of it is to give
it in evidence.

The holder of the bill or note may fue all the parties who
are liable to pay the money ; either at the fame time, or in
fucceflion ; and he may recover judgment againft all, if fa-
tisfaftion be not made by the payment of the money before
judgment obtained againft all ; and proceedings will not be
ftaid in any one aftion, but on payment of the debt and
cofts in that aftion, and the coils in all the others in which
he has not obtained judgment. But though he mav have
judgment againft all, ytt he can recover but one fatisfac-
tion ; and though he be paid by one, he may fue out exe-
cution for the cofts in the feveral aftions aganift the others.
To this aftion the defendant may plead the ftatute of hmiia-
tions ; and by the exprefs provifion of the ftatute of queen
Anne, all aftions on promift'ory notes m.ull be brought within
the fame time as is limited by the ftatute of James, with
rcfpeft to aftions on the cafe. And to this plea it is no good
replication, that it was on account between inercuauts, where
it appears to be for value received.

As the aftion on a bill of exchange is founded on the cuf-
tom of merchants, fo that on a promifTory note is founded on
the ftatute 3 & 4 Ann. c.9. In both cafes, however, it is
necefTary, that all thofe circumftances fhould be cxprcfsiv
flated, or clearly and inevitably implied, which, according
to the charafters of the parties to the aftioo, niuft necefTarily
concur, in order to entitle the plaintifT to recover. In flat-
ing the bill or note, regard muft be had to the legal operation
of each refpeftively. It has been decided, that liic legal
operation of a bill or of a note, payable to a tiftitious payee,
is, that it is payable to the Itanr j and therefore it i.<: pro-
per in the ftat^ient of fuch a HI!, to allege that the drawer
thereby rcqutftcd the drawee to pay fo much money to the

bearer

B I L

bearer ; and in the ftatement of fuch a note, that the maker
thereby protnifed to pay fuch a fum to tlic bearer.

As to tlie/roo/"that is necctrar)- in aftions on hills or notes,
we may obferve, that the plaintiff muft, in all cafes, prove fo
. mMch of what is necelfary to entitle him to his aftion, anil of
what mail be ftatcd in his declai'ation, as is not, from the
nature of the thing, and the fituation of the parties, ntceda-
rily admitted. In an aAion againll the acceptor, it is a ge-
neral rule that the drawer's hand-writing is admitted ; that
of the acceptor mufl of couife be proved ; and that of every
perfon, through whom the plaintiff, from the nature of the
tranfaclion, mull ncceffarily derive his title. On a bill pay-
able to bjarer, in an attion againll the acceptor, he has only
to prove the hand-writing of the acceptor himftlf ; but in
cafe of a bill payable to order, the plaiiitiff mull prove the
hand-writing of the very payee who mull be the firll indorfer.
In cafe of a transfer by delivery, the plaintiff may be called
upon to prove that he gave a good conlideration for the bill
or note, without the knowledge of its having been flolen, or
of any of the names of the blank indorfers having been
forged. In an aftion by the indorfee againft the drawer,
the fame rules obtain with refpcft to proof of tlie hand-writ-
ing of the indorfers, as in an aftion againll the acceptors.
That of the drawer himfelf muft of courfe be proved ; and
it mufl alfo be proved that tlie plaintiff has ufed due dili-
gence. From the rule, that in an aftion againll the drawer
or acceptor of a bill payable to order, there mud be proof
of the lij^nature of the payee, firil indorfer, and all thofe to
whom an indorfement has been fpecially made, arofe tlie
qucllion, which long and greatly agitated the commercial
world, on the fubjeft of indorfements in the name of " fic-
titious payees." A bill, payable to the order of a fiftitious
perfon, and indorfcd in a fictitious name, is not a novelty
among merchants and traders. But in the years 1786, 7,
and 8, two or three houfes, having conneftion in trade, and
entering into engagements far beyond their capital, under an
apprehenfion that the credit of their own names would not
be fufBcient to procure currency to their bills, adopted, to
a very extenfivc degree, a praftice which had before been
found convenient on a fmaller fcale. For a confiderable time,
whilfl money could be procured for the payment of thefe
bills by the acceptors or drawers, and they had fufhcient cre-
dit with the holder to have them renewed, the fubjecl of
thefe fiftitious indorfements was not quellioned. But when
credit failed, and a cominifTion of bankruptcy became necef-
fary, the other creditors felt it their iiiterell to refill the
claims of the holders of thefe bills, and inhfled that they
Ihould not be allowed to prove their debts, becaufe they
could not conform to the general rule of law, requiring proof
of the hand-writing of the lirfl indorfer. The chancellor,
when the queflion came before him by petition, direfted trials
at law. From the decifions in confequence of thefe trials,
the principal of which was affirmed in the Houfe of Lords,
and which have fettled that fuch bills are to be confidered as
payable to hearer", it follows, that proof of the acceptor's
hand only is fufficient to entitle the holder to recover 011 the
bill ; and in a particular cafe, where the bill was drawn by
the defendant and others on the defendant, it was determined
that a bond file holder for a valuable confideration miirht re-
coyer the amount againll the acceptor in an aclion (or fnomy
pah!, or money had and received. The tffeft of the determi-
nation of the judges in the Houfe of Lords, with refpeft to
the principal cafe above alluded to, is as follows. If a bill of
exchange be drawn in favour of a fiftitious payee, with the
knowledge as well of the acceptor as the drawer ; and the
name of fuch payee be indorfed on it by the drawer, with
the knowledge.of the acceptor, whicii fiftitious indorfement

B I L

purports to be to the drawer himfclf or his order; and then
the drawer indorfes the bill to an innocent indorfer for a va-
luable confideration, and afterwards the bill is accepted ;
but it does -lot appear that there was an intent to defraud
any particular perfon ; fuch innocent indorfee for a valuable
confideration may recover againll the acceptor, as on a bill
payable to bearer. Perhaps alfo, in fuch cafe, the innocent
indorfee might recover againil the acceptor, as on a bill pay-
able to the order of the drawee, or on a coant Hating the
fpecial circumllances. On other cafes, afterwards brought
before the Houfe of Lords on demurrers to evideflce, the
judges gave their opinion, that it was not competent to the
defendants to demur ; and that on the record, as Hated, no
judgment could be given. The whole difclofed a fyftem of
bill-negotiation to the amount of a million a year, on fifti-
tious credit, which ended in the bankruptcy of many ; but
which had at leall the good effeft of fhewing that the obli-
gations of law are not fo eafily eluded as thofe of honour and
confcicnce.

In an aftion by an indorfee againft an indorfer, it is not
neceffary to prove either the hand of the drawer or of the
acceptor, or of any indorfer before him againll whom the
aftion is brought, every indorfer being, with refpeft to fub-
fequent indorfees or holders, a new drawer. Where an aftion
is by one indorfer, who has paid the money, proof mull be
given of the payment. In an aftion by the drawer againft
the acceptor, where the bill has been paid away and returned,
it is necelfary to prove the hand-writing of the latter, de-
mand of payment by him, and refufal, the return of the bill,
and payment by the plaintiff. In an aftion on the cafe by
the acceptor againft the drawer, the plaintiff muft prove the
hand-writing of the defendant, and payment of the money
by himfelf ; or fomething equivalent, as his being in prifon
on execution. Where a bill is accepted, or a bill or note is
drawn or indorfed, by one of two or more partners, on the
partnerfliip's account, proof of the lignature of the party
accepting, drawing, or indorfing, is fufficient to bind all the
rell. When a fervant has a general authority to draw, accept,
or indorfe bills or notes, proof of his lignature is fufficient
againft the mailer ; but his authority mull be proved, as
that it was a general cuftom for him to do fo, &c. An ac-
tiou on a bill of exchange being by an executor, and upon a
debt laid to be due to teftator, it was held neceflary to prove
that the acceptance was in the life-time of the teftator.
Where the defendant fufiers judgment by default, and the
plaintiff executes a writ of inquiry, it is fuf&cient for the lat-
ter to produce the note or bill, without any proof of the de-
fendant's hand ; and on fuch judgment, a writ of inquiry
feems now to be unneceffary.

As to the different fubjefts of defence, with regard to
bills of exchange and notes, the moft ufual are thofe which
arife either from the total want of confideration, or from the
illegality of the confideration for which the bill or note was
given. See Consideration.

If a bank-bill, payable to A. B. or bearer, be loft, and
it is found by a flranger, payment to him would indemnify
the bank ; yet A. B. may have trover againft the findir,
though not againil his affignee for valuable confideration,
which creates a property. If the poffefTor of a bill acci-
dentally lofes it, he mufl caufe intimation to be made by a
notaiy public before witnefles, that the bill is loft or miflaid,
and requiring that payment be not made of the fame to any
perfon without his privity. And by ftat. 9 & loW. III. c. 17.
if any inland bill of exchange for 5I. or upwards fhall be
loft, the drawer of the bill fliall give another of the fame
tenor, fecuiity being given to indemnify him, in cafe the
bill fo luft be found again. If a biU loll by the pofleflor

fhould

B I L

B I L

/hould aftenrards come into the pofTeffjon of any perfon,
who pays a full and valuable confideration for it, without
knowledge of its having been lof;, the drawer and acceptor,
if the bill was accepted, mull pay it when due to fuch fair
poffelTor, fo that the provifions of the ftatute may, in many
cafes, be ufeltrfs to the lofer of the bill. But againft the per-
fon who finds the bill, the real owner may maintain an ac-
tion of trover. Stealing bills of exchange, notes, &c. is
felony in the fame degree as if the offender had robbed the
owner of fo much money, &c. And the forging of bills of
exchange, or notes of money, indoriements, &c. is felony,
by (tat. 2 Geo. II. c. 2j, 9 Geo. II. c. i8. See alfo ftat.
31 Geo. II. c. 22. ^.78. Blackft. Con:i. vol. ii. p. 466.
Jacob's Law Diftionar)-, by Tomlins, vol. i. art. Bill.

Bill of Indiffment. See Bill above, and Indict-
ment.

Bill of Interpleader. See Interpleader, and Suit
in Equity.

Bill of MiJuUefex, which was formerly always founded
on a "plaint" of tvefpafs quare claiij'am /regit, txtX-ertA on the
records of the court, is a kind of " capias," direftcd to the
fheriff of that county, and commanding him to take the de-
fendant, and have him before our lord the king, at Weft-
miiifter, on a dav prefixed, to anfwer to the plaintiff of a
plea of trefpafs. This bill of Middlefex mufl be ferved on
the defendant by the iheritf, if he finds him in that county ;
but if he leturns " non cil inventus," then tiiere ifTues out
a writ of " latitat" to the flierifF of another county, as
Berks ; which, in the court of king's bench, is fimilar to
the " tetlatum capias" in the common pleas, and recites the
writ of Middlefex, and the proceedings thereon ; and that
it is teftified, that the defendant " latitat et difcurrit,"
lurks and wanders about in Berks ; and therefore commands
the fheriff to take him, and have his body in court on the
day of the return. But, as in the common pleas, the " tef-
tatum capias" may be fued out upon only a fuppofed, and
not an atlual, preceding " capias ;" fo, in the king's
bench, a " latitat" is ufually fued out upon only a fup-
pofed, and not an adual, " Isill of Middlefex :" fo that, in
faft, a " latitat" may be called the firll procefs in the court
of king's bench, as the " tcftatum capias" is in the common
pleas. Yet, as in the common pleas, if the defendant lives
i.i the county wherein the aftion is laid, a common " capias"
hiffices ; fo, in the king's bench likewife, if he lives in
r.IiJdlelex, the procefs muft flill be by « bill of Middlefex"
only.

Bill, Nnvy. See Navy.

Bill, in Parliament, denotes a paper containing propofi-
tions offered to the houfes, to be paifed by them, and then
fo be prefented to the king to pals into an aft or law ; for
the mode of prefenting and condufting of which, fee Par-

LIAMENT.

Bills, Liimlaril, are inftmments of an uncommon kind
and figure, ufed in Italy and Flanders, and alfo in France ;
confining of a piece of parchment, cut to an acute angle
about an inch broad at top, and terminating in a point at
bottom ; chiefly given where private perfons are concerned
in the fitting out a fhip for any long voyage.

The manner is this : the party who is defirous to be con-
cerned in the cargo or venture, carries his money to the
merchant, who fits out the fhip, where it is entered down
in a regifter. At the fame time, the merchant writes down
on a piece of parchment, upwards of an inch broad, and
feven or eight inches long, the name of the lender, and the
fum lent, which being cut diagonal-wife, or from corner to
comer, each party retains his half. On the return of the
•veffel, the lender brings his moiety to the merchant, which

being compared with the other, he receives his dividend ac-
cordingly. Much the fame is praftifed in Holland by thofe
who lend money on pledges : the name of the borrower, and
the fum, are written on a like flip of parchment, which is
cut in two, and half given to the borrower, and the other
half ftitched to the pledge ; that, upon comparing them
together again, the bonower may receive his goods, on
paying the money ftipulated.

Bill, to note a. See Note, and Bill oi Exchange.

^ihi., to protrjl a. See Protest, and Bill oi Exchange.

Bills, bank, are notes or obligations figned on behalf of
the company of the bank, by one of their cafhiers, for value
received. See Note, znA \jI'..j, oi Exchange.

Bill of credit. See Credit.

Bill of entry, an account of goods entered at the cuf-
tom-houfc, both inward and outward ; in which are ex-
preffed, the name of the merchant importing or exporting,
the quantity, number, and mark of the goods, and place
from or to which they are imported, or to be exported.

Bill of lading, an iiiftrument figned by the mailer of a
fhip, acknowledging the receipt of a merchant's goods, and
obhging himfelt to deliver them at the place to which they
are configned, in good condition. Of fuch bills there are
ufually three : the Jir/f, kept by the merchant ; thefecond,
fent to the faftor to whom the goods are configned ; and
the third, kept by the mafter of the fhip. Sec Charter-
party.

Bills of mortality, are weekly lifts compiled by the
parifhclerks in and about London, containing the numbers
of fuch as die of each difeafe, as well as of thofe that arc
bom ever)' week. See Mortality.

Bin of parcels, an account of the particular forts and
prices of goods bought, given by the feller to the buyer.

Bill of rights. See Rights.

Bill of fale, is an inllrument or writir.g which a perfon,
wanting a fum of money, and delivering goods as a fccu-
rity to the lender, gives to him, impowering him to fell the
faid goods, in cafe the fum borrowed is not repaid, with in-
tereft, at the time appointed. See Sale.

Bill of Jlore, a licence granted at the cudom-houfe to
merchants, to carry fuch ftores and provifions as are neceffarj-
for their voyage, cultom-frce.

Bill of fuffsrance, a hceiice granted at the cuftom-houfe
to a merchant, to fuffer him to trade from one Lnglifh port
to another, vrithout paying cuftom.

Bill, or Beak, roflrum, in Ornithology, the elongated
horny proceffes or mandibles c^f birds. The form of the bill
varies fo greatly in different kinds of birds, that they afford
the moft permanent charafter by which thefe creatures may
be arranged. In the diftribution of families, Linnsus firll
notices the ftrufture of the bill, the tongue, and noftrils ;
and thefe parts conilitute almoll exclufively (with the legs)-
the diftinftion of the genera likewife. See Ornithology,
and Anatomy o/" Birds.

The phoenicopter's bill is a true hyperbola, pointed at
the end hke a fword ; and what is remarkable, the upper
bill of this bird moves in eating, the lower being fixed,
which is the contrary of what is found in all other kinds^
The wood-pecker's bill is (Irong, and (liarp enough to dig
holes, and build in the heart of the hardell timber. See
Phoenicopterus and Pic us. Phil. Traiif»N°2li, p-iJJ^

N° 350. P- 509-

In the ifland of Ferro, a fixed reward is given for the bills
of ravenous birds. All watermen are obliged to bring a
certain number yearly to the country courts, at the feall of
St. Olaus ; when they are thrown into a heap, and burnt
in triumph. Plott gives divers inllances of monflrous irre-
gularities

B I L

trul-.rit?e3 in die bills of birds ; particularly of a raven, wboCe
mandible? crofTed each other, the Wer chap tnrnmg up-
wards, a;id the upper downwards. Plott's Nat. Hii. btat-

fovd. ch. vii. § 4. , . • J r

RILL A VERA, the hill is tnif. The grand jury indorUag
a bill whcrcbv a;.y crime puuifhahle in that conrt, is pre-
fcnted to them, with the words billa i-ern, f.gnify thereby,
that the prefeiitcr has fnrninied his prelentment with pro-
bable evidence, ;ind worthy of farther confidcration ; where-
upon the pirty prefented is faid to Hand indided of the
crime, and bound to make anfwer thereto, either by cou-
fefling or traverfmg the indiftmcnt. See Bill hi Z-rtw,

BILLANCOURT, in Geography, a town of France,

4 miles S. W. from Paris. . , , , , r- in.

BILLARD, or Billet, in Ichthyology, an Enghfh
name, in fome places, for the young coal-fi(h, gadus car-
bonnrius, when a year old ; meafuring at that time from 8
to 10 or 15 inches in length. ^ ., . ...

BILLAU, in Geography, a river of Silefia, which runa into
the Nevfs, near the town of Neyfs.

BILLE', a town of France, in the department of the
Ille and Vilaine, and the chief place of a canton, in the
dillrid of Foiigeres, I i league fouth of Fougcres.

BILLEIvA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lemberg-, 10 miles call of Lemberg.

BILLERCEECK, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Wellphalia, and bilhopric of MunHer, 5 miles N.N.E.

from Coesfeld.

BILLE RICA, a towndiip in Middlefex county, Malla-
chufetts, in America, incorporated in 1655, containing 12C0
inhabitant?, lying 20 miles north of Bollon, and watered
bv Concord and Shawdieen rivers, which run noith-eafterly
into Merrimack river.

BILLERICAY, in Geography, a market-town of EfTex,
England ; is built on a fine eminence, commanding a view
of a rich vale between the town and the river Thames.
Though enjoying the advantage of a weekly market on
Tuefdavs, it is only a hamlet in the parifh of Great Bur-
ftead, the church of wliich is fituatc about one mile and a
half fouth of this place. For the accommodation of the in-
habitants, a chapel is endowed and fupportcd in the town.
Here are two annual fairs : and the wliole parifh contains
1,0 houfes, and 1472 inhabitants. Billericay is 23 miles
N.E. from London. Morant's hiftory of Effex.
BILLESDON. See Bilstos.
BILLET. See Hatborough.

Billet, or Billetti^e, in Heraldry, fignifies a figure
whofe length exceeds its breadth ; w hen the arms are charged
with feveral of them, they are then called Biilettee. The
royal arms of Naffau, prince of Orange, is Jupiter Biilettee
fbi, a lion rampnnt of the lajl. Autl-.ors differ much in regard
to the antiquity of the billet, which was evidently a piece
of wood cut in the form of a parallelogram, and retains that
name and fliape to this day.

Billet, BiUetle, in the French Cuflom.', a little fign in
form of a cafk, hung up at places wliere toll is to be paid,
to advertife paffengers and carriages, that before they ad-
vance farther, the dues are to be paid to the king, or the
lord who is charged with the care of repairing the high-
ways.

Billets for fuel, are fmall pieces of wood, which mud
be 3 feet 4 inches hmg, and 7^ in compafs, &c. Juftices
of peace ft>all enquire, by the oaths of fix men, of the allize
of billets ; ami thofe which arc under fize are forfeited to
•the poor. Stat. 43. Eliz. c. 14. 9. Ann. c. LJ. :c. Ann.
ji, 6. See Fuel. i

B I L

B11.LETS of gold, denote wedges or ingoU of gold, men-
tioned in the ftat. 27. Ed. 3. c. 27.

BILLETING of foldiers, in MiliUry Lnguttge, is the
lodging or quartering of them in the houfes of the inhabi-
tants of a place. This is done by a ticket, called a billet,
which entitles each foldier, by a£t of parliament . to candles,
vinegar, fait, ar.d eilh-r fmall beer or cydtr, not exceeding
five pints per day, gratis ; w ith the ufc of fire, and the ne-
cen"ary utenfils fur drLfiing and eating their meat.

BiLLtTiNC, among Sparlfmeii, denotes the oidure and
dung of a fox.

BILLETINS. Sec Brothers of Charily.
BILLI, James de, in Biography, a French Jefuit, was
born in Compiegne in 1602, and entered the fociety of
Jefuits in 161 9. He taught philofophy for three years,
and was a preacher for more than twenty years. He was
redfor of Chalons, Langres, and Sens ; but he isbeft known
by his mathem.^tical writings, which are as follow : " Nova
Geometrise Clavis Algebra," Paris, 1643, 4to. ; " Tabulr
Lodoicx dc doftrina eclipfeon," Dijon, 1658,410.; " Tumu-
lus Aftrologije Judiciarise," Paris, 1659, 4to. ; " Diophan-
tus Geometra," Paris, 1660, 4to.; "Opus Allronomicuiii,
&c." Dijon, j66i, 410. ; " Decours de la Comete qui a
paru Pan 1665, au mois d'Avril," Paris, 1665, 410. ;
" Crifis Adtonomica de motu Cometarujn," Dijon, 1666,
8vo. ; " Doclrinas analytics inventum novum," Touloufe,
fol. Moreri.

BILLIARDS, an ingenious kind of game played with
two fmall ivory balls, on an oblong table, covered with
green cloth, and placed exaftly level ; which balls are driven,
by fticks made on purpofe, alternately againft; each other,
with a view to pu(h the paflive ball into hazards, or holes,
on the edges and corners, according to certain laws or con-
ditions of the game.

The word comes from the French billiard, of bile, the ball
made ufe of ; and that from the Latin pila, a ball.

This game was invented by the French, and pradlifed by
the Germans, Dutch, and Italians ; and is now a favourite
diverfion among perfons of the firft rank in many parts of
England. The table on which it is played is about 1 2 feet
long, and 6 wide ; and not only covered with green cloth,
hut furrounded with cufhions to prevent the balls from roll-
ing oft", and to make them rebound. It has fix holes, nets,
or pockets, which are fixed on the four corners, and in the
middle, oppofite to each other, for receiving the balls, which,
when put into thefe holes, are called hazards. The making
of a hazard, or putting the advtrfary's ball into the hole
at the ufual game, is reckoned for two in favour of the
player.

The game is played with fticks, called maces, or with
cues. The mace is a long ftraight ftick, with a head at
the end, and is the moll powerful inftrument of the two :
the cue is a thick ftick decrcafing gradually to a point of
about half an inch in diameter : this inftrument is played
over the left hand, and fiipported by the forefinger and
thumb. This is the only inftrument in vogue abroad, and
is uftd with aftoiiifhing addrcl's by the Italians, and fome of
the Dutch ; but in England the mace is the prevailing in-
ftrument, though regarded with fome degree of contempt
by foreigners, as the ule of it does not require fo much ad-
drefs as the cue ; however, the mace is ufcdfor the pecuhar
advantage of "trailing," as it is called ; or of following the
ball with it to fuch a convenient diftance from the other ball
as to make it an eafy hazard. The feveral degrees of trail-
ing are varioully denominated by the connoilTeurs ; e. g. the
Ibove, the iweep, the long ftrokc, the trail, ajid the dead

trail

B I L

trail or turn up, all wliich fecure certain advantages to a good
player; and even the butt-end of the cue becomes very power-
ful, when it is made ufe of by a good trailer. The varieties of
this game are denominated the " white winning game," the
•< white lofing game," the " red or carambole winning
game," and the " red lofing game." The game ufually
played is the full of thefe, and 12 is the number. The rules
for this game are as follow ; i. Stnng for the lead and choice
of balls ; the perfon who does this mull ftand within the

B I L

fo as to have no chance for his ftroke, in that cafe the ftriker
and his adverfary's ball muft be placed in the fame pofuion,
as nearly as pofTible, and the ftriker muft play again. i6.
The ftriker is obliged to pafi his adverfar) 's ball, more efpt-
cially if he miflcs the ball on purpofe ; and it iiat the option
of his adverfary to oblige him to place the ball where it flood,
and play until he ha3 palTcd. 17. If the ftriker plays both
balls from his mace or cue, fo that they touch at the fame
time, it is deemed a foul ftroke ; or if the advcrfar)' difcover

limits of the corner of the table, and not place his ball beyond it, and a difpute ftiould arife, an appeal may be made to the

the ftringing nails or fpots ; the l-ad is won by him who
brings his ball neareft the cufliion. 2. If after the firft per-
fon has ftrung for the lead, the adverfary fhould make his
ball touch the other, he lofes the lead; and if the player
holes his own ball in ftri;;ging or leading, he lofes the lead.
3. If the leader follows his ball with either mace or cue be-
yond the middle hole, it is no lead ; and it is at the option
of his adverfary to make him lead again. 4. The ftriker
v.-ho plays at the lead muft ftand with both his feet within
the limits of the corner of the table, and not place his ball
beyond the ftringing nails; and his adverfary (only) is bound
to fee that he ftands and plays fair ; otherwife the ftriker
wins all the points he made by the ftroke. 5. When a
hazard has been loft in either of the corner holes, the bader
is obliged, if his adverfary require it, to lead from the end
of the table, where the hazard was loft ; but if the hazard
was loft in either of the middle holes, it is at the leader's op-
tion to lead from either end of the table. 6. If the ftriker
does not hit his adverfary's b?.ll, he lofes one point ; and if
by the faid ftroke his ball (hould go into a hole, over the
table, or on a cuftiion, he lafcs three points ; and he alfo
lofes the lead. 7. If the ftriker holes his adverfary's ball,
or forces it over the table, or on a c^fhion; or if he holes
both balls, or forces them over the table, or on a cuftii-
on ; in either cafe he lofes two points. 8. No perfon has
a right to take up his ball without permiffion from his ad-
verfary. 9. If the ftriker fliould touch or move his own
ball, without intending to make a ftroke, it is deemed an
accident ; and his adverfary, if he require it, may put the
ball back in the place where it ftood. 10. If the ftriker
force his adverfary's ball over the table, and his adverfary
fhould chance to ftop it, fo as to make it come on the table
again, the ftriker wins two points; if the ftriker ftiould force
his own ball over the table, and his adverfary ftiould chance
to ftop it fo as to make it come on the table again, the ftriker
lofes nothing by the ftroke, and has the lead ; but if the
ftriker mifles the ball and forces it over the table, and it
ihould be ftopped by his adverfary, he lofes one point, and
has the lead, if he chufes. 11. If the ftriker, in playing
from a culhion or otherwife, by touching the ball, makes
his mace or cue go over or beyond it, he lofes one point ;
and, if his adverfary require it, he may put the ball back,
and make him pafs the ball. 12. If the llrikcr, in attempt-
ing to make a ftroke, dot'n not touch his ball, it is no ftroke ;
and he muft make another trial ; but if when the balls are
near each other, the ftriker ftiould accidentally make his ball
touch the other, it is a ftroke, though not intended. 13. If
the ftriker who plays the ftroke, ftiould make his adverfary's
ball go fo near the brink of a hole, as to be judged to ftand
ftill, and afterwards fall into it, the ftriker wins nothing ;
and the ball muft be put upon the fame brink where it ftood,
for his adverfary to play from the next ftroke. 14. If the
ilriker's ball fhould ftand on the brink or edge of a hole, and
if in playing it off he (hould make the bail go in, he lofes
three point?. 15. If a ball ftiould ftand on the brink or on
the edge of a hole, and fliould fall into the hole, before or
when the ftriker has delivered his ball from the mace or cue,
Vol. IV.

company prefent ; and the marker, if required, muft go
round the table to each perfon L-parately, and a(k if he has
any bet depending, and if he underftands the game and the
difputed fubjeCl ; and if the company and marker determine
it to be a foul ftroke, it is at the adverfary's option (if not
holed) either to play at the ball, or to take the lead; but
if the adverfary doth not difcover it to be a foul ftroke, the
ftriker may reckon all the points he made by the faid ftroke,
and the marker is obliged to mark them : and no perfon has
a right to difcover to the player whether a ftroke be fair or
foul, unlefs he is afted. 18. If by a foul ftroke the ftriker
ftiould hob his adverfary's ball, he lofes the lead ; but if by
fuch aftrokehe holeshis own or both balls, or forces his own or
both over the table, or on a cufnion, he lofes two poinls. 19.
If the ftriker plays on a ball when it is running or moving, it
is deemed a foul ftroke ; and if he plays with both feet off
the ground, without leave of his adverfar)', it is a foul ftroke:
if he plays wiih a wrong ball, he lofes the lead, if his adverfary
require it. 20. If the ball ftiould be changed in a hazard, or
on a game, and it is not known by v.-hich party, the hazard
muft be played by each party with their difTtrent balls and
then changed. 21. If the ftriker plays with his adverfary's ball,
and hole, or forces the ball at which he played over the table,
Sec. it is deemed a foul ftroke. 22. If the ftriker plays with
his adverfary's ball, and holes, or forces the ball with which
he played over the table, &c. he lofes two points; and if he
miffed the ball, three point?. 23. If the ftriker plays with
his adverfary's ball and mifles it, he lofes one point ; and if
his adverfary difcovers that he hath played with the wrong
ball, he may part the balls, and take the lead if he pleafes,
24. In all thefe cafes of the Ilriker's playing with the wrong
ball (if difcovercd), his adverfaiy muft play with the ball,
at which the ftriker played throughout the hazard, or part
the balls and take the lead. 25. Whoever ftops a ball
when running with hand, ftick, or otherwife, lofes the lead,
if his adverfary does not hke the ball he has to play at the
next ftroke. 26. Whoever retains his adverfary's ftick
when playing, it is deemed foul. 27. If the ftriker ftops, or
puts his ball out of its courfe, when running towards either
of the holts, and, if adjudged by the marker and compaoy
to be going into a pocket, if he mifles the ball he lofes one
point, and if going into a hole by the fame ftroke, three
points. 28. If the ftriker ftops or puts his adverfary's ball
out of the courfe. when running towards or into a hole, or
puts it into a hole, it is deemed a foul ftroke. If the
adverfary does the fame, as in the foregoing cafes, he is fub-
jecl to the fame penalties as the ftriker. 29. He who ftiakcs
the table when the ball is running, or throws his ftick acrofs
the table, fo as to occalion any detriment to liis adverfary,
or blows on the ball when running, makes in either cafe a
foul ftroke ; and if his own ball was running towards or near
the hole, when he blows on it, he lofes two points. 30.
He who leaves the game before it is finiftied, and will not
play it out, lofes the game. 3 l . Any perfon, whilil play-
ing, may change his mace or cue; and neither party has a
right to object to either mace or cue being played within the
faid game; but when the parties agree to play mace againft
3 B cue,

B I L

cue, tlie mace-player hath no right to ufe a ewe, and vice
verfa, without leave of the advcrlaiy. 32. When a perfcii
agrees to play with the cue, he mull play every ball within .
his reach \vith its point, and if he a;j;iccs to play with the
butt of thecue, lie mud not ufe the point, without ptrmiffion ;
when the parties agree to play point and point of the c'.ie, nei-
ther has a ri^htto ufe a butt during the match, without per-
mifllon ; but they have a right to play with a long cue over a
mace, &c. and when they agree to play all points with the
fame cue, they ha'-e no right to ufe any other during the
game. 33. If it be propofcd to part the balls, the propofer,
if the adverfary agree to it, lofes the lead. 34. Two millings
do not make a hazard, unlefs the contrary is previoufly fet-
tled. 35. The betters are to abide by the players on the
determination of the hazard, or on the game ; and they have
a right to demand their money, when their game is over,
to prevent difputes. 36. The ftriker has a right to com
mand his adverfary not to ftand facing him, or near him, fo
as to annoy or moleft him in the ftioke. 37. Each perfon
is to attend to his own game, without afliing qucflions. 38.
No perfon in the room has a right to lay more than the odds
on a hazard or game ; and in quellionable cafes appeal fliould
be made to the marker, or to the table of odds hung up in
the room. 39. When four perfons play, the game is fif-
teen in number; and each party has a right to' confult
with and direft his partner in any matter refpetling the
game, &c.

The " white lofing-game" is the common winning-game,
and twelve is the number. This depends entirely upon the
defence, and the knowledge of the degree of llrength with
which each ftroke (liould be played, either to defend or
make a hazard ; for if a perfon who has a competent know-
ledge of the game fliould not have a hazard to play at, he
mull endeavour to lay his own ball in fuch a pofition, that his
adverfary may not have one to play at the next ftroke. In this
^ame, if the ilriktr miffes the ball, he lofes one, and if by the
ianie llroke his ball goes into a hole, he lofes three points ; if
he ftrikcs his advcifary's ball he lofes two points; if either or
both balls be forced over the table, or on a cufliion, nothing is
reckoned and the (Irikcr lofts the lead, but if lie miffes his
adverfaiy's ball, and forces his own over the table, S:c.helofes
one point and the lead; if either of the parties forces either or
both balls over the table, he reckons nothing, and the
ftriker lofes the leud ; if the (liiker holes his own ball, he
wins tu'o points ; if he holes both balls, he wins four points;
if he holes either ball, and forces the other over the table,
&c. he only lofes the lead. The " winning and lofiiig game"
is a combination of both games ; in which all balls that arc
put in by linking firft the adverfary's ball, reckon towards
game ; and holing both balls reckons four. At this game
and the loling, knocking over, or forcing the balls over the
cudiion, goes for nothing ; the ftriker only lofing the lead.
The " choice of balls" is choofmg each' time which ball
the player pleafes, which is without doubt a great advantage,
and is generally played againll lofuig and winning.

" Bricole," is being obliged to hit a cufliion, and make
the ball rebound or return to hit the adverfary's ball, other-
wife the player lofes a point. This is a great dlfadvantage,
and is reckoned between even players to be equal to receiving
about eight or nire points.

" Canimbolf," is a game newly introduced from France.
It is played with three balls, one being red, wiiich is neutral,
and is placed upon a fpot on a line with the ftringing nail,
{i.e. that part of th-.- table from whence the player ftrikes
his ball at lirft fetting off, and which is generally marked
with two brafs nails). Each antagonill at the lirft ftioke of
a hazard, plays from a mark which is upon a line with it at
7

B I L

the other end of the table. The chief objee^ at this game
is, for the player to hit with his "v,-n ball the two other
Isalls: which is called a caramlole, and by which the player
wins two. If he puts in the red ball he gets three, and
when he holes his adverfary's ball he gets two; fo that feven
may be made at one ftroke, by caramboling and putting in
both balls. This game refembles the lofing, depending
chiefly upon particular ftrengths, and is generally played
with the cue. Tlie game is fixteen up ; neverthelcfs it is
reckoned to be fooncr over than the common game. The
next objcft of this game, after making what we have diftin-
guilhed by the caramhok, is the haulk ; that is, making the
white ball, and bringing the player's own ball and the red
one below the ftringing nail, from whence the adverfaries be-
gin. By this means the opponent is obliged to play bricole
from the oppofite cudiion ; and it often happens that the
game is determined by this fituation.

" The Ruffian earambole," is a game that has ftill more
lately been introduced from abroad, and is played in the fol-
lowing manner : The red ball is placed as ufiud on the fpot
made for that purpofe ; but the player, when he begins, or
after having been holed, never places his ball on any particu-
lar place or fpot ; being at liberty to put it where he
pleafes. W^hen he begins to play, inftead of ftriking at the
red ball, he leads his own gently behind it, and his antago-
nift is to play at which he thinks proper ; if he plays at the
red ball and holes it, he fcores three as ufual towards the
game, which is twenty-four inftead of fixteen points ; and
the red ball is put upon the fpot again : at which he may
ftrike again, or take his choice which of the two balls to-
pufti at, always following his ftroke till both balls are off the
table. He is entitled to two points each time that he ca-
ramboles, the fame as at the other game ; but if he caram-
boles and puts his own ball into any hole, he lofes as many
as he might have got had he not holed himfelf ; for example,
if he ftrikes at the red ball, which he holes, and at the fame
time caramboles and holes himfelf, he lofes five points ; and
if he holes both balls when he caramboles, and likewife his
own, he lofes fevcn, which he would have got if he had not
holed his own ball. In other refpefts it is played like the
common earambole game.

" The Bar-hole," is fo called from the hole being barred
which the ball fhould be played for, and the player ftriking
for another hole ; when this game is played againll the com-
mon game, the advantage for the latter, between equal
players, is reckoned to be about fix.

The player at the one-hole, though it feems to thofe who
are not judges of the game to be a great difadvantage, has
in faft the beft of it ; for as all balls that go into the one
hole reckon, the player endeavours to lay his ball conftantly
before that hole, and his antagonift frequently finds it very
difficult to keep one or other ball out, particularly on the
leads, when the one player lays his ball (which he does as
often as he can) on the brink of the hole ; leading for that
pui-pofe from the oppofite end, which in reality he has no
right to do ; for the lead fliould be given from the end of
the table at which the hazard is made ; but when a perfon
happens to be a novice, this advantage is often taken.

" The four game," confifts of two partners on each fide,
as the common winning game ; who play by fuccefilon after
each hazard, or tivo points loft. The game is fifteen up ;
fo that the point or haziird is an odd number, which makes
a mils at this game of more confequence than it is at another;
being as much at four, fix, or eight, as it is at five, feven,
or nine, at the fingle game.

" Hazards," are fo called becaufe they depend entirely
upon the making of hazards, there being no account kept

of

B I L

•of any game. Any number of perfons may play by bavin?
balls that are numbered ; but the number feldom exceeds fix,
to avoid confufion. The perfon whofe ball is put in, pays
fo much to the player according to what is agreed to be
played for each hazrird ; and the perfon who niiffes, pays
half the price of a hazard to him whofe ball he played at.
The only general rule is, not to lay any ball a hazard for
the next player, which may be in a great meafure avoided,
by always playing upon the next player, and either bring-
ing him clofe to the cufliion, or putting him at a diRance
from the re(l of the balls. The table, when hazards are
played, is always paid for by the hour.

BILLIAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilrift of Nantua, 2| leagues S. E. of Nantua.

BILLICHA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia in
Mefopotamia, which rifes in the mountains of Ofroene,
fouth of EdefTa, and purfuing a fouth-eallerly courfe, dif-
charges itfelf into the Euphrates, at the town of Nice-
phorum.

13ILLIGHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the palatinate of the Rhine, 4 miles S. of Landau, and 16
S. W. of Spire.

BILLIGRATZ, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Carniola, 4 leagues N. of Laubach.

BILLINGEN, a town of the Netherlands, in the duchy
of Luxemburg, 20 miles E. of Spa.

BILLINGSGATE, a fiilr-market of London, kept
every day, and the toll of which is apj-ointcd by llat\ite.
All perfons buying fifh in this market may fell the fame in
any other market by retail, but none but fifh mongers are al-
lowed to fell it in (hops : and if any perfun fliall buy any
quantity of fifli at Billingfgate for others, or any fifiimonger
fhall engrofs in the market, they incur a penalty of 20I.
Pifh imported bv foreigners fliall be forfeited, and the veflel
&c. 10& II Wil. III. c. 24. I Geo. I. flat. 2. c. 18.
§ I. &c.

BILLINGSPORT, a place on the river Delaware, in
America, fituate 12 miles below Philadelphia, which was
fortified in the late war, for the defence of the channel, and
oppofite to which were funk frames of timber, headed with
iron fpikes, called chevaux-de-frize, in order to prevent the
Britifh (hips from paffing. After the war they were raifed
by a curious machine, invented at Philadelphia for this
purpofe.

BILLIS, in Ancient Geography, a fn-.all river of Afia Mi-
nor, on the frontiers of Paphlagonia, on the borders of which
was fcatcd the town of Teium, mentioned by Sallufl.

BILLITON, in Geography, one of the Sunda iflands in
the Indian ocean, N. E. of the lower part of Sumatra, and
E. of Banca. (See Straits of Banca) S. lat. between
2° 30'. and 3° 30'. E. long, between 107"^ 45'. and 108°
26'.

BILLOM, a town of France, and principal place of a
canton, in the diftrift of Clerm.ont, and department of Puy-
de-Dome, 4 leagn.es E. S. E. from Clermont. The town
contains 5,1 JO inhabitants, and the canton 13,711. The
territorial extent comprehends 115 kiliomctres, and 10 com-
munes. N. lat. 45° 43'. E. long. 3° 14'.

BILLON, BiLLio, in Coinage, a kind of bafe metal,
either of geld or filvcr, in whofe mixture copper predomi-
nates.

The word is French, formed according to Menage, from
the Latin l^u/Li, or tinllo, LulUon. According to M. Bout-
teroue, billon of gold is any gold beneath ftandard, or twenty-
one carats ; and billon of filver, all below ten penny-weights.
But, according to otheis, and among the reft, M. Boizard,

B I L

gold and filver beneath the ftandard, as far as twelve carats,
and fix penny-weight'', are properly bafe gold and (ilvtr,
and all under thofe billon of gold, and billon of lilver, be-
caufe copper is the prevailing metal. The writers on numif-
matic fcience appropriate the term billon to fignify metals of
copper alloyed with a very fmall quantity of (liver.

BILLS, in Geography, a rock in the Atlantic, near the
weft coaft of Ireland, 6 miles N. W. from the ifland of Clare,
and d S. S. E. from AchiU-head.

BILLY, James De, in Biography, was born in 153 J,
at Guile in Picardy, and devoting himfelf to (ludy, he en-
tered the church, in which he poficffed fome benefices. Af-
ter fnhcring confiderably in the civil wars, he retired to
Paris, and died in the honfe of his friend Gilbert Genebrard,
in 158 1. His works, both in profe and verfe, were nume-
rous ; but the mofl valuable are his Latin tranllations of the
Greek fathers: fuch are, " S. Gregorii Nazianzeni opera
omnia," fol. 1569 and 1583; " Interpretatio Latina 18
priorum libri S. Irenai adv. Hasref. capitum," fol. 1577 ;
" S. Joh. Damafceni opera," fol. 1577 ; " Ifidori Peluhotas
Epiftolse, Gr. & Lat. (3 firft books,^'fol. 1587 ;" and tranl-
lations of fome pieces of St. Chi^foltom, infertcd in the Parii
editions of his works, in 1581, .Sec. Moreri.

Billy, in Geography, a town of France in the depart-
ment of the Ailier ; 4I leagues N. E. from Gannat.

BILMA, a defert country in the north of Africa, being
a pari of the Great Defert, or Sahara, and a prolongation
of the Libyan defert to the S. W. bounded on the N.
by the Tibefti mountains, and the defert of Berdoa, on the
E. by Kawar or Kuar, on the S. by Bornou, and on the
W. by Zegzeg, Agades, Afouda, Ganat, S:c. N. lat.
about 23° to 25°. W. long, about 20'^. The fait lake of
Du.mboo, the Chelonides Palus of Ptolemy, is faid to be
fituated in the defert of Bilma.

BILOBUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of ScARAB.cus,
with two prominent lobes on the thorax ; a fimple horn on
the head, and wing-cafes (Iriatcd. Inhabits the fouth of
Europe. Fabricius.

BiLOBUs, a fpecies of Dytiscus, of an oblong-ovate
form and black ; mouth, vertical two-lobed fpot, thorax,
futural line, bale, and margin of the wing-cafes yellow.
Linn. Muf. Lefl<;.

BiLOBUs, a fpecies of CiM EX (Splnoftis), with an obtufe-
dentated thorax ; wing-cafes greyifli or reddifa ; vent with
two lobes. Linn. Muf. Leflc. A native of Europe.

Bhobus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Charadrius, called
the U'attled Plover, by Latham. It is an inhabitant of the
coail of the Malabar. The bill and legs are yellow ; frontal
(Ivin naked, and pendulous in two point-d lobes ; body above
yellowifh grey ; beneath white. Gmelin, See. The crown,
band on the tail, and quill feathers are black ; band acrofs
the eyes, greater wing-coverts, and fome of the tail feather«
at the end white. This is Pl-.ii'ier a lamleaiix of Buff. Hill.
Oif. and Pluvicr de la cote de Malabar of PI. cnl. of the
fame author. Length nine inches and a half.

BILOCULAR, in Botany, a ter.Ti applied to a cap>fuk,
having two cells.

BILOIYAR, in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in the
government of Simbirflv, on the eafl fide of the Volga, 16
miles S.E. of Simblrflc.

BILS, or BILSIUS, Louis de, of Rotterdam, in Hol-
land, in Biography, acquired much fame for a time, about
the middle of the"l7th century, for a fuppofed new method
of preferving bodies from putvefaclion, and of diffccling them
without occafioning an effufion of blood. By his method
of preparing the bodies, they were laid to preferve their
flexibiUty as well as freedom fro-a putridity for ages ; fo that
3 B 2 they

B I L

they might be difTcfled during the fiimmer, and remain un-
der the dcmonftrator's hands for \vccl<.s, months, or years,
if nccefTary, without emitting any offentive fmcU. De Bils
had the art of gaining fo mucli credit to his profcfTions, that
he is faid, by Hallcr, to have fold his fecrct to the univerfity
ot Louvain for 22000 florins. He had demanded a much
larger fum, and certainly had his preparations anfwcred the
high clogia bellowed on them by his favourers, the fecret
would have defcrvcd it. Prior to the fale he had fent one of
his bodies to the theatre at Leyden, ar which Deulliigius,
one of his warmcft admirers fays, " fed fidem fuperat omnem,
exliccatum liomuiis cadaver, recenter mortuum diccres, tanto
thi.atro digniflimum opus." De admiranda anatomc, nobili-
flimi viri L. D. Bils, p. 362. But not contented with the
fa'no, and money acquired by his fecrct, fur he fold his pre-
pared bodies at high prices, he pretended to have made dif-
covcrles in the ftruClure of the liver, and in the lymphatics,
by which he expofed himfelf to deferved contempt, it ap-
pearing that he was totally ignorant of the art of anatomy,
in which lie afTccSed to be a mafter. He is faid to have died
phlhifical from the ed'eiSls of the putrid air inhaled while
preparing liis bodies, and in a few years his preparations,
which were to iiave hilled for ages, were totally deftroy-
ed. His produftions, which were numerous, and excited
much intcrell at the time, were collected and publifhed
in 1692, in 410. luidcr the title of, " De Bils invcnta
anatomica antiqao-uova cum c'ariffimorum virorum epillo-
lis, ct tellimonii', ubi adiiotationes Joaiinis ab Hoorne,
et Pauli Barbette, refutantur, iiiterprcte Gedeone Buenio.
Amil.

BILSAH, in Geography, acity of Hindoftan, and capi-
tal of a circar in the MaKva cou.itry ; 416 miles S. W. of
Benares, 867 N. W. of Calcutta, by Gurry Mundlah, 560
N. VV. of Hydrabad, 367 S. W. of Lucknow, 249 N. \V.
of Nagpour, 140 nearly E. of Ougcin, and 496 N. E. of
Poonah. • Bilfah, which is almofl in the heart of India,
affords tobacco of the moll fragrant and delicious kind
throughout that whole region, and which is diftributed ac-
cordingly. N. lat. 23° 30'. E. long. 77° 53'.

BILSEN. a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, a:id bifhopric of Liege, chief place of a canton in the
diftritt of Maeflricht, and department of tiie Lower Mtufe,
fcated on the Demer, pofTcning the privileges of a city, but
of no great confidci-ation, 14 miles N. of Liege. The town
contains 1925 perfons, and the population of the canton in-
cludes 9388. The territory comprehends 170 kiliomctres,
and 1 5 communes.

BILsKOl, a town of Siberia, on the Bilaia, 00 miles
N. W. of Irkutflv.

BILSON, Thomas, in B'wgraphy, a karned prelate of
the En'^'hfh church, was bom at Wincheder, and educated
at Wykcham's fchool near his native city. Li 1565, he was
admitted fellow of New College, Oxford, after having ferved
I wo years of probation. He took in due conrfe his fcveral
degrees of bachelor and mafttr of art, and alfo of bachelor
and doftor of divinity ; the lail of which was conferred on
hsm in 1580. In his earlier years he was fond of poetry,
philofophy, and phyfic; but after having entered into orders,
he confined hmifelf wiu lly to divinity, and became an excel-
lent preachir. His firlt preferment was the maHerfliip of
Wincheder fchool ; and he afterwards became prebendary of
Winchefter, and at length warden of the college, in which
office he was inllrumental in prLierving the revenues of it,
when they were hkJy to have been loll by forgery. In 1585,'
he publirticd a treatife entitled «' The true Difference be-
tween Chriilian Subjertion and u:ichrillian Rebellion," de-
dicated to queen Elizabeth, and compofed for the purpofe

B I L

of confuting thofe catholic writers who attacked her right
to the throne, and to the allegiance of her fubjcfts. In thia
treatife paffages occur that are favourable to relillance in cer-
tain cafes, and which have not efcaped the cenfures of later
advocates of pafTive obedience. This was iucceedcd, in 1593,
by his " Perpetual Government of Chrill's church, &c." de-
figned to fliew, that from the Mofaic inftitution to the mo-
dern ages of Chrillianity, the church has been governed by
pallors and teachers of diff'^rent ranks, I'upcriorand fubor-
dinate, and efleemed one of the bed books in favour of epif-
copacy. In confcquence of this publication he was promoted
to the fee of Worceder in 1596, from which he was tranf-
lated in 1597 to that of Winchefter, when he was alio ap-
pointed a privy counfellor. About this time he delivered a
courfe of fermons at Paul's crofs, again ft fome of the tenets
of the Puritans, on the fubieft of redemption, and the de-
fcentof Chrift into hell, which ocafioned a controverfy with
the leaders of that fed. In the courfe of this contioverfy
the bifhop maintained the actual defcent of Chrift into hell,
or the place of the damned, an opinion which was then deemed
orthodox, but which has fince been rejedcd by the bcft cx-
pofitors of the 39 articles, and by every rational divine.
This prelate took a lead in the Hampton-court conference,
where he was diftinguidied by his learning ; and in general
he was one of the moll able advocates in favour of the church
of England. To him, in conjunftion with Dr. Smith, after-
wards bifliop of Gloucefter, was committed the care of revi-
fing and finiftiing the new verfion of the Scriptures, called
king James's Bible. He was alfo one of the delegates who
pronounced the fentence of divorce between the earl of
EflTex and his countefs. This learned bidiop, whofe life was a
courfe of inceffant labour for the public good, and whofe pri-
vate charadler uniformly correfponded with his high ftation,
died in 16 16, and was buried in Weftminfter Abbey.' Biog.
Brit.

BILSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and capital of a bailiwick, in
the duchy of Wcllphalia, featedon a mountain j 42 miles E.
of Cqlogii.

BfLSTON, a large village, orchapelrv, of StafTordlhire,
England, is remarkable for the number 'of its houfes and
inhabitants, without having the advantage of a chartered
market or fair. From its proximity to Birmingham and
Wolverhampton, and having the advntitage of a navigable
canal near it, Bilfton abounds with manufadlures, among
which tl><ife for japanned and enamelled goods arc the prin-
cipal. Furnaces for fmelting iron ore, forges and flitting
mills, moilly vwrked by fteam engines, alfo abound here.
In the vicinity of the town are feveral coal mines, which pro-
duce great quantities of that fofiil. An orange coloured
faiid is alfo abundant, and is in much requeft bv the artizans,
as a fand to call metals in. Here is a quarry of remark-
able ftones, lying horizontally in twelve ftrata, each pro-
grefTively increafuig in thicknefs from the top downwards.
The ftone is modly appropriated to the making of ciilerns,
troughs, &c. Bilfton is in the parilTi of Wolverhampton,
but IS a diftina towndiip for all parochial proceedings. There
IS a chapel of modern eredion ; alfo two mectiiig-houles,
and a free-fchool. This chapelry is witliin the exempt iurif-
dittion of the dean of Wolverhampton, and is a perpetual
curacy. Bilfton is 127 miles N. W. f^om London : it con-

*r"o 'J°lJ\°"'^''' ^"'^ 6914 inhabitants. Shaw's Hiftory
of Staff^orddiire. ■'

BiKSTON, or BiLDSTON, is a fmall manufafturing town of

Suilolk, England. The making of blue cloths, blankets,

and yarn, give employ to moft of the inhabita.ts. Here

was formerly a conliderable market on Wedneldays, but it

is

B I M

is nearly deferted, and the whole town is rrnich reduced.
Here are two ann^ial fairs. The parifh contains 121 houfes,
and 744 inhabitants.

BILUR, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by many of
the Arabian writers to age:ii, which though they often men-
tion, yet they liave no v/htre given us a defcriptiou of.
Some have imagined it the onyx, and others the beryl ; but it
appears more p.-obable to have been a fpecics of cryftal ;
probably the ptbble-cryftal of the Eafl Indies, which is con-
fiderably finer than the comnaon fprig-cryftal, and is often
fold under the name of the white fapphire; though confider-
ably inferior, both in luftre and hardnefs, to the true white
fapphire.

JBIMA, in Geography, a river of Hindoftan, fo called by
Mr. Pennant. See Beemah.

BIMACULARIS, in Entomology, 2l fpecies of PhAl;ena
(Pyra/w, Gmel.), found in Europe. The anterior wings
are grifeous brown, with two brown fpots. Linn.

BlMACULATA,m Concholugy, a fpecies of Tellina,
found in the European and American feas. This (hell is of
a lomewhat rotundatcd triangular fliape, rather broad,
fmootli, whitilh, with two fauguineous fpots witliin. It is
a fmall (hell, being ufually half an inch in length, and fonie-
times, though rarely, of a ycUovvifli colour. Linn^us, Do-
novan Brit. Shells, &c. On the Engli(hcoafts this is a fcarce
fpecies.

BiMACULATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Siupha, found
in Barbar)-. It is ovate and black ; head of the antenna,
globofe ; legs ferruginous. Gmelin. The margin of the
thorax is rather ferruginous, and the middle of each wing-
cafe is marked with a red fpot.

BiMACCLATA, a fpccics of Ch R YSOM EL A, of an oblong
fliape, and black ; wing-cafes teltaceous, with a black fpot
on each. Inhabits America. Fabricius.

BiMACULATA, 3 fpccies of Le PTURA, of a rufous Colour,
with cylindrical thorax ; wing-cafes dotted, with a fpot and
undulated ftreak of white on each. Schaeffer, &c.

BiMACULATA, a North American fpecies of Cantharis,
■with a ferruginous tbo,-2x, having a black fpot ; wing-cafes
teftaceous, with a black fpot at the tip. Fabricius.

BiMACULATA, a fpec'.cs of MoRDELL A, of a large fize, that
is found in Hungary. It is ferruginous, with the breall black ;
wing-cafes teftaceous, with a black fpot on each. Fabricius.
Mant. Inf.

BiMACULATA, a fpecies of Buprestis, that inhabits In-
dia. Tiie wings are vei-y entire, ftriated, with a red fpot ;
body browni(h, green. Linn. Fabr. S.'C.

BiMACULATA, a fpecies of Sphinx {Zygiena), o( the
middle fize, that inhabits America. The wings are above
and beneath black, with two yellow fpots on the anterior
wings. Gmel. Fabr. &c.

BiMACULATA, a fpecies of Phryg.i:nea, defcribed by
Degeer. The \vings are brown, with a double yellov/ lateral
fpot. Linn. &c.

BiMACULATA, a fpccics of TiPULA, found in Europe.
The wings are hyaline, with two brown fpots ; abdomen
fpotted, with ferruginous in the middle ; antennae feathered.
Linn. Fn. Suec. Obf. This fpecitic charaiSter is liable to
fome exception, for it is only the female which has the abdo-
men fpotted with ferruginous ; that of the male is immacu-
late.

BiMACULATA, 3 fpccies of MuscA, found in New Hoi-
land, and defcribed by Swederus, Nov. A&. Stockh. The
colour is light blue, with a whithh fpot on each fide of the
breail : abdomi.n green, and blue at the bafe.

BiMACULATA, a fpecies of Sco LI A, defcribed by Fabri-
cius. It is black, hairy, with two pale yellow fpots ; antennae

B I M

yellow. A variety of this infeft with fulvous, inftead of yel-
low fpots, is mentioned by Pelagn. Inf. Calabr. The
former inhabits North America.

BiMACULATA, z fpecies of Arasea, of a fmall fize, that
is found Ml E'lrope. The abdomen is f.ibrotund, chcfnut,
with two white fpots. Gmelin. Abdomen rather de-
pre(red.

BiMACULATA, a fpeciesof Tenthredo, of a pale colour,
with the eyes, bafe of the abdomen aoove, and two fpots on
the breall, black. Linnaeus Muf. Leflt.

BiMACULATA, in Zoo/ogy.,a{pec\ci of Lace rt A, defcribed
by Sparmann. Nov. Aft. Stockh. The tail is carinated,
toothed, and twice the length of the body ; all the toes
lobated. Inhabits the woods of St. Eudace and Pennfylvania,
living under ground, or in the hollows of trees, and depofit-
iiig its eggs in the earth. The body is blue, tinged with
green, and thickly fpotted viith black, but having two larger
than the reft on the Ihoulders, from whence it is fpccifically
named blmaculata ; on each foot are five toes.

BIMACULATUM, in Entomology, a fpecies of Pha-
LANGiuM, with the abdomen black, and two white fpots.
A native ot England and Norway. Gmelin.

BIMACULATUS, a fpecies of Scarab.eus, with three
(light tubercles on the head ; wing-cafes ftriated, with two
red fpots at the bafe. Inhabits Germany. Fabricius.

BiMACULATus, 3 fpecies of HisT ER, of a black colour,

with the poilerior end of the wing-cafes red. Linn. Fn.

Suec. Found in the dung of oxen. Th.\s\& Hillerfmelarius

of Scopoli ; and Altelabus totus niger ; elytris Uvii nonnllAl

Jlriatis ; I'efcarbot noir of GeofFroy.

BiMACULATus, a fpecles of Ccrcvlio, of a brown co-
lour ; wing-cafes dotted with cinereous ; fnout and legs
black. Inhabits Saxony ; and refembles Carfu/»o eo/on, but
is rather fmaller.

BiMACULATus, a fpecies of Cryptocephalus, of a
dudcy black, with fulvous thorax, and teftaceous wing-cafes,
with two fpots of black. Fabricius. Obf. Thk is Chryjomela
melanocephala of Schaller, &c. A native of Italy and
Saxony.

BiMACULATus, a fpecics of Carabus, of a bl.ick colour,
with a common intenupted band ; antennas and feet tefta-
ceous. Mant. p. 532. Gmel. Inhabits India. The thorax
of this infeft is yellow, or black, and fometimes fpotted in
different fpecimens.

BiMACULATus, a fpecics of Dytiscus, of a tefta-
ceous colour, with a blacki(h fpot on the wing-cafes.
Inhabits France. Size of a grain of rice. Gouar. Gmelin,
&c.

BiMACULATus, a fpccics of Gryllus [Bulla acrijium)
found in Europe, and defcribed by Herbft. The thorax
is brown, with an ochraceous lunule on each fide.

BiMACULATus, a fpecies of Ichneumon. Colour black ;
front, legs, antenna; beneath, anterior part of the thorax, two
fpots on the wings, and poilerior margin of the abdominal
fegments, except the fecond, yellow. Linn. Muf. Leftc.
Breeds in the larva of phalina fimbria. Scutel raifed behind.
Inhabits Europe.

,BiMACuLATus, is alfo a fpecies of Ichneumon, that in-
habits Auftria, and is defcribed by Schranck. It is black,
with a yellowifh fcutel ; two laft fegments of the abdomen
with a angle gypfeous fpot on each above.

BiMACULATes, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Salmo, the
body of which is comprefted, and marked with two fpots ;
anal fin with thirty-two rays. Gmehn. This is a native of
South America. Scba calls it Tctragunopicrui ; and Artedi
Coregonoiilei Amhoincnjts.

BiMACULATus, a fpecies of Labrus, found in the Me-

diterranean

B I N

ditcrranean fca. The dorfal fin is filamentous, body marked
with a brown fpot in tlie middle, and another near the tail.
Gmtl. S;c.

BIMACULOSA, in Entomology, a Tpecies of Cocci-
NtLLA, with fulvous wing- cafes, having two obfolete white
fcmilunar patclus. Hcrbit. apud Fuefsli, 5:c.

BiMAcuLOSA, a fpecies of Phal^na, that inhabits Ger-
many. Colour whitifli grey ; antijrior winps rather clouded ;
polterior ones with two black fpots. Fabricius, f^'c.

BIMATRA, in ylnchiU Geoji-n/i/.y, a town of Af:a in
Mcfopot:;mia. Ptolemy.

BIMBELE' oil faiijfe Linalte, in Ornilhology, a name
given by Buffon to a fpecies of motacilla, iince called
ny Eatliani the palm luorller, and moiucilla pahnarum by
Gmclin.

BIMEDIAL, in Miithmal'irs. When two medial lines,
as AB and EC, commcnfui-ablc only
in power, and containing a rational B C

reftanglc, are compounded ; the A | | |

whole AC (hall be irrational, with

refpeft to either of the two, and is called tijlrj} Hmedtal line.

But if two medial lines, cotnmenfurable only in power,
and containing a medial rcftajigle, be compounded, the
whole will be irrational, and is called zfaond birmdiil line.
Eutl. lib. X. prop. 38 and 31;.

BIMFNI, in Geography, one of the Bahama iflands on the
well fide of the great Bahama bank, near the gulf of Florida.
Its compafs is about twenty miles, and it has a good harbour.
N. lat. if. AV. long. 79° 3+'.

BIMPLEPATAM, or Bimlipatam, a fea-port town
of Hindollan, on the wellcrn fide of the bav of Bengal, in
the circar of Cicacole, 35 miles S.S.W. of Cicacole. N. lat.
iS'' 10'. E. long. 83° 15'.

BIMUCRONATUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Scara-
BJEUS, that inhabits Amboyna. It is teftaceous ; fiiankscf
the anterior legs large, and bearded ; fliield of the head
mucronated on both fides, and bordered with fine hairs.

BINA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Cremonefe,
10 miles N.E. from Cremona.

BINACLE, in Sea-Language. See Bittacle.

BINAG A RA, in AnSicnt Geography, a town of India, on
this fide the Ganges. Ptolemy.

BINARD Island, in Geography, a long and narrow
ifland on the north coaft of France, to the ealt of Roteneuf
point, having entrances at both the call and weft end, and
within i: a found or bay. It hes to the eall of St. Maloes,
towards Cancale.

BINAROS, or Vinaros, a town of Spain in Valencia,
on the confines of Catalonia, near the coail of the Mediter-
ranean, at the mouth of a river, which forms a fmall harbour,
with anchorage at about a cannon (hot from the town, in 6
to 9 fathoms. It is furroundcd with walls, and defended by
fome cannon ; 5 miles north of Pcnnifeola, and 20 fouth of
Tortofa.

BINARY Number, that which is compofed of two units.

Binary Arithmetic, a method of computation firil pro-
pofed by M. Leibnitz ; wherein, in lieu of the ten figures in
the common arithmetic, and the progreffion from 10 to 10,
he has only two figures, and ufes the fimple progreffion from
two to two.

Jof. Pelican, of Prague, h-,>.s more largely explained the
principh s and praaice of the binary arithmetic, in a book
entitled, " Arithmeticus perfcclus, qui tria numcrare nefcit,"
1712.

All his charaacrs ufed in this arithmetic are o and i ;
and the cipher, here, multiplics-every thing by 2, as it does
in the com.-non arithmetic by 10. Thus, i is one; 10,

100

4

10

2

I

1

r 1 1

7

B I N

two; II, three; ico, four; loi, five; no, fix; ill,

feven ; looo, eight; looi, nine; loio, ten, &c. being
founded on the fame principles with the common arithmetic.
Hence immediately appears the reafon of the celebrated
property of the duphcate geometrical proportion in whole
numbers ; viz. that one number of each degree being had,
we may thence compofe all the other whole numbers abov«
the double of the higheft degree. It being here, v. gr. as
if one (hould fay iii is the fura of 4, 2, and i,
'which property may ferve affayers to weigh all
kinds of maffes with a little weight ; and may be
ufed in coins, to give feveral values with fmall
piece?. This method of expreffing numbers once
cllablifiied, all the operations will be eafy : in mul-
tiplication particularly, there will be no need for a table, or
getting any thing by heart. The author, however, does not
recommend this method for common ufe, becaufe of the great
number of figures required to exprefs a num.ber ; adding,
that if the common progreffion were from 12 to 12, or from
16 to 16, it would be itill more expeditious: but its ufe is
in difcoveiing the properties of numbers, in conftrufting
tables, S:c. What makes the binary arithmetic the more re-
markable is that it appears to have been the fame with that
ufed 4000 years ago among the Chinefe, and left in xnigma
by Fohi, the founder of their empire, as well as of their
fciences. M. Lagny has propofed a new fyftem of loga-
rithms, on the plan of the binary arithmetic ; which he finds
(liorter, more eafv, and natural than the common ones.

Binary, a time in Mufic, confilling of two crotchets
or two minims in a bar.

BINASCO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Mi-
lanefe, 10 miles fouth of Milan.

BINATED Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.

BINCHE, in Geography, a town of the Netherlands, in
the county of Kainaut, fituated in a fertile country, on the
river Haifne ; and, according to the French diilribution, a
place and canton in the diftridl of Charleroy and depart-
ment of Jemappe. The town contains 3798 perfons, and
the population of the canton is eflimated at 13,908. The
extent of the territory comprehends 125 kiliometres and 16
communes. Binche was burned by Henry II. of France in
1554, and foon after rebuilt. In 1578, it was taken by John
duke of Aullria, and retaken in the fame year by the duke
of Alen9on. The Spaniards regained poiTenion of it, and
ceded it to France at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the
peace of Nimeguen reftored it, together with itsjurifdic^ion,
including 51 towns andvillages, to Spain. It is diftant 8
miles E.S.E. from Mons.

BIND, in Commerce, contains 10 ftrikes of eels; each
ilrike including 25.

B1ND-/KW, in Botany. See Convolvulus.

TiifiD-IVeeef, i/aci. See Tamus.

^itiO-lVeeii, rough. See Smilax.

BiND-/F;V/'. See Clematis.

BINDEN, in Geography, a town of Swifferland in the
Valais, near the river Binna. N. lat. 46° 13'. E. long. 7^ 58'.

BINDER-OozE, the weakeft kind of tan-ooze. See
Tanning.

BINDING Joists, in ArchiteBure. See Joists.

Binding, in the .//;•/ of Defence, a method of fecuring or
croffing the adverfary's iword with a prefTure, accompanied
with a fpring from the wrift. See Beating.

Unkfs a man, by fome kind of crofs, fecure, as it were, or
render his adverfary's fvvord incapable to find him during
the time of his performing a leflbn upon him, it is impoffible
for him to be certain but that he may receive from his ad-
verfary, either a fortuitous contretemps, or an exchanged

thrult,

B I N

tliniR, before the recover)' of Km body, or going off after a
tluu.t.

The great objeftion made by fome people, particularly
thofe time -catchers, againft the frequent ufe of b'trulin^, is,
that when a man, in performing it, cleaves too much to h's
adverfary's fword, he is liable to his adverfary's flipping of
him, and confequently of receiving either a plain thrult, or
one from a feint.

Binding is a term in Falconry, which implies tiring, or
when a liawk feizes.

Example.

B I N

Binding Booh. See "QooK-BinJing.

BiNDiNG-A'oto, in Miijic, imply two or more founds on the
fame line or fpace, that are linked together by a femi-circle;
and which, thoujfh written or printed twice, arc not to be
feparattd, but fuftaincd like a fingle found.

The firft of thcfe tied or binding-notes, as in preparing
difcords, is ufually ftruck on the unaccented part of a bar,
and continued on the accented part. Sec Ligature, and
Syncopation.

i

:^

=s

3:z

3-

^

J-Lj-JJ-MaS^J

tmt

-.*♦

ms:

-Jz

s^=s=

4^-

m^f^im

i

w^

"^SE

i*2i

y^gf-

m

^

$^m

£

^^E

I

±

BINETTA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and country of Bari, 4 miles W.S.W. of
Bidfctto.

BINGAZI. See Bengasi.

BINGE, a town of France, in the department of the
Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton in the dillridt of
Dijon, 10 miles call of Dijon.

BINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower
Rhine, and eleftorate of Mentz or Mayence, and by the
French arrangement, the principal place of a canton, in the
diftrlft of Mayence, and department of Mont-Tonnerre.
The town is faid to contain 2663 inhabitants, and the canton
5638. It includes 10 communes. The town is feated at
the conflux of the Nahe and Rhine. The ftone bridge over
the former is a noble flrufture, and the adjoining country is
delightful. Bingen is a very ancient town, and was once
imperial. The fortifications v,-eie deftroyed by Lewis XIV.
in 1689. A great part of the corn, which is carried into
the Rhinegau, the neighbournig palatinate, comes through
this place, which, on tlie other hand, fupplies the palatinate
with drugs, and various foreign commodities. Befides this

trafBc, it has in its vicinity very fruitful vineyard?, which
produce excellent winf. Near this town the Rhine is com-
preffed into a narrow channel, between two rocks ; about a
mile and a half below it is a kind of whirl-pool, ca'.led the
" Bingen-loch," the pafTage of which is dangerous. At a
fmall diflance is a!fo an ifland on the Rhine, denominated
" Maufthurn," or tower of rats ; from a tradition, that an
archbiihop of Mentz was there devoured by thele animals,
in the tenth century, as a judgment executed on him for his
cruelty to the poor, whom he compared to rats eating up the
fubftance of the rich. Bingen is 19 miles W. of Mentz,
30 S. of Coblentz, and 54 E. of Treves. N. lat. 49" 54'.
E. long. 7° 33'.

BINGENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, and principahty of Hefle, 16 miles N.N.E.
from Frankfort on the Mayne.

BINGHAM, Joseph, in Biography, a learned Englifh
divine, wns bom at Wakefield, in Yorkfhire, in 166S. Hav.
ing acquired the rudiments of claflical learning at a fchoid
in his native town, he was admitted in 1683, into Univer-
fity college at O.'iford, and in 1687, became fellow. Having

takea

B I N

taken his mailer's degree in i C90, lie wns foon after prefented
by Dr. Radcliffe, the celebrated phyficiaii, to the reftory' of
Headbourn-Worthy, ntarWinchcfter; a preferment, which,
though not exceeding in value lool. a year, afforded him
accefs to the valuable library at Wincheller, and enabled him
to profecute the arduous undertaking, to which, in thi» re-
tirement, he devoted much of his time and labour. Ac-
cordingly, the firft. volume of his learned work, entitled
«' Origines Eccleliafticse, or the Antiquities of the Chriftian
Church," appeared in 1708. It was completed in ten
volumes, Rvo. and contains a judicious and candid, as wtU as
ample account of the Ciiriflian clergy and churches from the
carlieft times. Btfides this work, which was th.e rcfult of
much reading and indefp.tigrble application, he publiflicd, in
1706, "The French Church's Apology for the Church
of England ; or, the Objeftions of the DifTenters aj,'ainll the
Articles, Homilies, Liturgy, and Canons of the Englidi
Church, confidered and anfwered upon the pii-ciples of the
Reformed Church of France, &c." 8vo. His avowed
dclign in this work was to reafon dilTenters " inio union
upon fuch principles as arc common to all the chur^-hcs of
the reformation." However laudable the defign, unifor-
mity of fentiment is not likely to be produced by any rca-
foning, as long as men are allowed to cxercife the right of
private judgment, and the only practicable union feems to
be that which refults from mutual forbearance and benevo-
lence. Mr. Bingham likcwife publiflicd " A Scholaftic
Hiftory of Lay-Baptifm," in two parts, 17 1 2, Svo. ; and
" A Difcourfe concerning the Mercy of God to Penitent
Sinners." All his works were collefted and pubhUied in
2 vols. fol. Lond. 1725. Notwithftanding the acknovs--
ledged learning and meritorious fervices of Mr. Bingham,
he had no other preferment befides that above-mentioned,
till the vear 17 12, when he was collated to the reflory of
Havant near Portfmouth. He died in 1723, and was
buried in tlie church-yard of Htadbo'irn-Worthy, without
any monument, of which he declared his diflike.in his laft
will. Biog. Brit.

B1NCH.1M, in Geography, a tovi-n of Nottinghamfhire, in
England, ftands nearly in the centre ot the vale of Belvoir.
It confifts principally of two llreets, running nearly parallel
to each other, with fonic fmaller ilieets branching from
them. Near the centre of the town is a fpaeious market-place,
where a weekly market is held every Thurfday ; it has alfo
three annual fairs, and a large ftatute fair yearly, for hiring
of fervants. Bingham is dated by Thoioton to be much
reduced fmce the reformation, as, previoufly to that event, it
contained three chapels, exclufive of the pariih church. The
latter was collegiate, and is ftill a large handfome ftrufture,
with a tower and fpire, fide ailes and chancel. It contains
numerous monuments, among which is a plain one infcribcd
to the memory of Robert White, a native of this place,
where he died, in 1773, at the advanced age of eighty. He
was author of an annual publication, entitled " The cosleftial
Atlas, or New Ephemeris." The reclory of Bingham is
tfleemed one of the moll valuable in the county of Nottmg-
liam, and is in the gift of lord Chellerlield, who is lord of
the manor. This town is 124 milts north from London.
It contains 220 houfes, and 1082 inhabitants.

At Aflafton, about two miles call from Bingham, arch-
bifliop Cranmer was born. About two miles north from
Bingham is EaftBridgeford, where are the remains of an
entrenchment, and where fome coins, urns, &c. have been
found. Horflcy places the Roman llatinn, Margidu'uim,
" near Eall Bridgcford," from its fituation near the fofs-
road, and fiora the agreement of dillances, between this and
8

B I N

the other ftations named in the Itinerary. Thoroton's Hif-
tory' of Nottinghamdiire.

BINGIUM, in ylnc'unl Geography, a town of Gaul, in
Germania Prima, weft of Mogcntiacura ; now Bingen, which

fee.

BINGLESTEIN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia, and biihopric of Paderborn, 3
miles fouth of Bureii.

BINGO, a fmall coimtr)- of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
pon,fituate in N. lat. about 3+° 3c'. E. long. I34'='.

BINGUM, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and county of Eaft Friefland, one mile north-well
of Ort.

BINGUT Cape and Bay, lie about E. by N. from
Al<^iers, on the coafl of Africa, in the Mediterranean. The
town of Bingut is at the bottom of tlie bay of its name,
about 12 or 13 leagues from Algiers.

BINIESZKY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wihia, 44 miles S.E. of AVilna.

BINN, b'mna, a fort 'of cheft or cupboard, wherein to
lock up bread, meat, or other provifions.

The word is alfo ufed for a place boarded up to put corn
in. The peafe and oalmeal, ul'ed at fea, are apt to fpoil in
cades. Dr. Hales propcfes to prevent this by putting them
into large binns, with falfe bottoms of hair-cloth laid on
bars, whereby fredi aiiinay be blown upwards through them,
at proper times, with fmall ventilators.

BINNA, in Jnclent Geography, a town of Affyria, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.

BINNINGER, John Nicholas, in Biography, born at
Montbeliiard, in 1628, ftudied medicine at Padua, and then
went to Baflf, where he was admitted to the degree of doc-
tor in that art in 1652. Returning to his own country, he
foon acquired fo much fame for his fl<ill in his profcffion, that
he was appointed profeiTor of medicine, and phyfician to the
family of the duke, his fovereign. He left " Obfervationum
et Curationum medicinalium, centurias quinque," Svo. 1673,
Month, containing fome curious and valuable obfcrvations.
Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Did. Hift.

BINNIGUET, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the
weft coaft of France, about a league fouth-weft of Le Con-
quet, and i weft of St. Matthew's point. N. lat. 48° 19'.
E-long. 1° 5'.

BINN-NA-BAIRD, andBivN-vA-MuiCK-DuiDw ; are
the names of two lofty mountains, in the parifh of Crathy,
Aberdeenlhire, in Scotland. Thefe eminences are conllantly
covered with fnow, and extending in the fame lidge with the
Cairngoram mountain, contain the fame fpecies of topaz,
which bears the name of Cairngoram ftones. Emeralds have
been fometimcs difcovered here ; alfo a fpecies of brov.-n fili-
ceous ilone, which bears a very fine poHfh.

BINOCLE, or Binocular Tele/cope, from hhras, dou-
hk, and octihis, eye, in Opties, that to which both the eyes
may be applied, and confequently the fame objeft be ob-
fcrvcd at the fame time by both. It confifts of two tubes,
with two fcts of glaffi;s of the fame power, and adjniled to
the fame axis ; and fome hive pretended that it reprefents
objefts much larger and clearer than a fingle or monocular
glafs. But this is perhaps only an illufion, occafioned by
the llronger impreffion, which two equal images alike illu-
minated make upon the eyes. This method of conftruiilion
was invented by father Pv.hcita, and brought into ufe by fa-
ther Cherubin of Orleans. There are alfo microfcopes of
the fame kind, but very fcldom ufed.

BINODIS, in Eniomology, a fpecies of Formica, de-
fcribed by Fabricius as a native of Egypt. It is black ;

head

B I N

head lafge afcl fufous ; with two tubercles on the pe-
tiole.

BINOMINAL, or BiNOMiAi,, from Ms, twice, and
nomen, namf, in Algtbra., a quantity confiding of two terms
or members, connected by the fign •\- plus, or — m'lntis.

Tlius a-{ b and 5 — 3 are binomials, conilfting of the fum
or difTerence of thofe quantities ; though the latter is often
called refulual, and by Euclid, apolomc.

The terms binomial and refidual are faid to have been firil
introduced by Robert Recorde. See Algebra.

The powers of a binomial are found by a continual multi-
plication of it by itfclf, as often as an unit is contained in the
index of the power required. Thofe of a refidual, a — ^, are
obtained in the fame manner, only with this diiTerence in the
refult, that the terms in which the exponent of i is an odd
number, will be negative.

If a root have three parts, as a-\-h-\-c, it is called a trino-
mial ; if more, a multinomial.

Binomial, impojillc, or imaginary, in Algchra, is ufed
for a binomial, one of the terms of which is an impoffible
or imaginary quantity : as a4: >/ —lb is an impolTible bi-
nomial.

Dr. Mafl<elyne, the aftronomer ra)'al, has given (in his
Introduction to "Taylor's 7\bles of Logarithms," p. 56.)
the fallowing method of finding any power of an impoffible
hiiio.-nial, by another fimilar binomial. The logarithms of a
and b being given, it is required to find the power of the

impoffihk binomial n + ,/ — b' whofe index is — , that is
to find (a ± ^/^^y' by another impoffible binomial ; and

the^ice the value of (,7 -f ^ — b) " + {" — \/ — l'')' '
w'.:ich is always poffible, whether a or i be the greater of
ihe two.

b
Sjiuti'jn. Put — = tana:, s. Then

(i7+-v/ — b'-J " ( = a- + l>')"' X (cof. — X. ± v/ — iin.-™- »)•
Hence (a+y'-b'] " + {a - ^—b ) ~ = (a' -j- 3=) " x 2

cof. — 2. = axfec. z," X 2 cofm. — ^ = (^Xcofec.^.) -■
n «

X 2 cofin. - 2, where the firft or fecond of thefe two lad

«
expreffions is to be ufed, according as z is an extreme or

mean arc ; or rather, becaufe— is not only the tangent of z

a

but alfo of z + 360°, z + 720°, &c. ; therefore the faftor

in the anfwer will have feveral values, viz.

2 cof. — z ; 2 cof.— (2-1-360^) ; 2 cof. - (z -\- 720'') ;

n n »

&c. ; the number of which, if ;« and n be whole numbers,

and thefraftion — be in its leall terms, will be equal to the
n

denominator n ; otherwife infinite.

By Logarithms. Put log. ^-f-10 — log. n = log. tan. z.

Then log. («+ V'~=T)"'' + {a - ^' ^T) " ) = ^

X (1. a + IO — 1. cof. z) -f 1. 2 +1. cof.— Z— 10 = —

.X (1. h + 10 — 1. fin. z) + 1. 2 -f 1. cof.— z — 10 ; where

tlie firfl or ftcond cxprcffion is to be ufed, according as z is
Vol. IV.

B I N

an extreme or mean arc. Moreover, by taking facceflively,

I. cof. -z ; 1. cof. - (z+36o'')i 1. cof. - (s+720°), &c.
V. n n

there will arife feveral diflinft anfwers to thequeftion, agree«

ably to the remark above.

Binomial furd, is ufed for a binomial, the terms of

w^hich are fnrds ; as ,^a-^,Jh, or a -\-b\ if m and n be

fractions. The term binomial furd is alfo applied to any

quantity having a rational part and a furd part, as 25-!-^

968. Euclid enumerates fix kinds of binomial lines or furds in

the loth book of his " Elements," which are exaftly fimilar

to the fix refiduals or apotomes, of which he has alfo tr.'ated

in the fame place. See Apotome. Thcfe apotomes become

binomials by merely changing the fign of the latter term from

viinits to phis, and they are as follow : lil. 3+v''5 ; 2d.

6th. v'6 + v/a-

For the extraftion of roots of binomial furds, fee New-
ton's Arithmctica Univerfalis ; St. Gravefande's Commen-
tary ; and Mac Laurin's Algebra, p. 114 — 130. SeeSfRD.

Binomial Curie, is ufed for a c>;rve, the ordinate of
which is expreffed by a binomial. Thus, if the ordinate of

X

a curve be of this form x-{-e-\-fs'^, the curve 13 called a
binomial curve. Stirling. Method. Di(T. p. 58.

Binomial Theorem, is a general algebraical exprtfnon,or
formula, by which any power or root of a quantity, confiil-
ing of two terms, is expanded into a feries.

It is alfo frequently called the Newtonian theorem, or
Newton's binomial theorem, on account of his being com-
monly confidered as the inventor of it, as he undoubtedly
was, at leall in the cafe of fractional indices, which includes
all the other particular cafes of powers, divifions, &c.

This celebrated theorem, as propofed in its '.noil general
form, may be exhibited in a manner nearly fimilar to that of
Newton, as. follows :

X:

I + —

m — 2(x\]
3" ^"

+i7:;)+:.'iz.''(i)- +

n \ a/ n zn ^ a
-I-&C. Or, ' "

a -\- x\" = a

» ^ a' 5» \ a

'-3"

&c.

Where a, x, are the two terms of the binomial, — the in-

n

dex, and A,B,C,D,&c. each preceding term, including their
figns + or — , the terms of the feries being all pofitive
when X is pofitive, and alternately poGtive and negative
when X is negative, independently however of the effect of
the coefEcients made up of m and n, which may be any num-
bers whatever, pofitive or negative.

A few eafy examples, in the extraction of roots, will be
fufHcient to ftiew the application of the theorem in all fimilar
cafes. For this purpofe, let it be required to find the

fquare root of a + b, or a + ii\'' and the cube root of a — b,

in the firft of which — = — and in the fe-
n 2

or a — b I

cond — = — .

Then7T^^ = .^[,+i(i)-^^(-^)-
\a J 2.4.6.S \a J '

&c.
3C

.+.6

And

B 1 N

..a.-r^'=«'[,-^(i)-i(i)'-ji-.

And, in the fame manner, if I, divided by the cube root
of the fquare of j ± *, be converttd into a fcrics, we (hull

2-S-7 / *

B I N

con.lroAing both figurate numbers and the coefficients of
the terms of the various powers of a binomiiil, which, lince
his time, has been often uled for thefe and other piirpofes ;
and, more than a century after, was, by Pafcal, otherwile
called the arithmetical triangk, and of which he has com-
moniy been called the inventor, though he only mentioned
fome of its additional propeities.

+

•S-7 / * \ '

5:c.

iiut thtfc feries are only commodious in calculation, in
proportion to tlieir degree of convcrgcncy. For ii N be
made to repreftnt the rank wliich any term holds in the fe-
ries anfing from llie binomial a—b being raifed to the mth
power, then that term will be to the following one as I to

t

-N+i

N

from which it is evident, that for the

terms of the fcrics to go on dccreafnig, bxm — 'ii+l, taken
pofitively, mull be always Itfs than <7N.

With refpeft to the hiftory of thij theorem, the prevail-
ing opinion, till within thefe few years, has been, that it
was not only invented by Newton, but full given by him in
that ftate of perfcftion, jn which the terms of the feries,
for any affigntd power whatever, can be found, indepen-
dently of the terms of the preceding powers ; viz. the
fccond term from the fnft, the third from the fecond,
the fourth from the third, and fo on, by a general rule.
But it has Gnce been found, that in the cafe of integral
powers, the theorem had been defcribed by Briggs, in his
" Trigonometrica Britannica," long before Newton was
born i and that, by the general law of the terms, independ-
ently of thofe of the preceding powers. For, as far as re-
gards the generation of the coefficients of the teims of one
power from thofe of the former ones, fucceffively one after
another, it was remarked by Vieta, Oughtred, and many
others ; and was not unknown to much more early writers
on arithmetic and algebra, as will be manifeft by a flight in-
fpeftion of their works, as well as the gradual advance the
property made, both in extent and perfpicuity, under the
hands of the latter authors, mofl of whom added fomethiug
more towards its pcrftdtion.

The knowledge, indeed, of this property of the coeffi-
cients of the terms of the integral powers of a binomial, is,
at lead, as old as the praftice of the extraftion of roots, of
which it is both the foundation and principle. And as the
writers on arithmetic became acquainted with the nature of
the coefficients in the higher powers, they extended the ex-
traftiou of roots accordingly, ftill making ufe of this pro-
perty. At 6rll, they appear to have been only acquainted
with the nature of the iquare, the coefficients of which are
the three terms, i, 2, 1 ; and, by their means, extrafted
the fquare roots of numbers, but went no farther. The na-
ture of the cube next prtfented itfelf, which confifts of the
coefficients, i, 3, 3, i ; and, by means of thefe, they ex-
trafted tlie cube roots of numbers, in the fame way as is
praftifed at prefent. And this was the extent of tlw;ir ex-
traftions, in the time of Lucas de Burgo, who, from 1470
to 1500, wrote feveral tra£ls on arithmetic, containing the
fubllance of what was then known of this fcience.

It was not long, however, before the nature of the coeffi-
cients of all the higher powers became known, and tables
formed for conftrufting tliem indefinitely. For, in the year
1543, Michael Stifeliuj, a German, publitlied an excellent
work on arithmetic and algebra, under the title of Arlth-
Diiika Integra, in which he gives the following table, for

15
21
28

l^
45
55
66
78

9'
105

120
136

10
20

35
56

8+
120

35
70
126
210

i65'33o

495

715

1 00 1

5365;

220
286
364
455
560
680238016188

126
252
462

792
1287
2002
3303

- 1
1820:4368

462

924

1716

3003

5005

[1716
3432
16435

, _ 6435

S008 11144012^70

123761944.8,24310124310!

In this table Stifelius obferves, that the horizontal lines
furnidi the coefficients of the terms of the correfpondent
powers of a binomial ; and teaches how to ufe them in ex-
trafting the roots of all powers whatever. The fame table
was alfo ufed, for a fimilar purpofe, by Cardan, Stevin, and
other writers on arithmetic ; and it is highly probable that
it was known much earlier than the time of Stifelius, at
leaft as far as regards the progreffions of figurate numbers,
which had been amply treated of by Nicomachus, who lived,
according to fome, before Euclid, but not till long after
him, according to others ; and whofe work on arithmetic
was publiflied at Paris iu 1538, and is fuppofed to have been
chiefly copied in the treatife on the fame fubjedt by Boethius.

The contemplation of this table has alfo, probably, been
attended wth tiie invention and extenfion of fome of our
mod curious difcoveries in mathematics, both with refpeft
to the powers of a binomial, the confequent extraftion of
roots, the dodlrine of angular feftions by Vieta, and the
differential method of Briggs, and others. For a few of the
powers or feftions being once known, the table would be
of the greatell ufe in difcovering and conftrudling the reft ;
and accordingly it appears to have been ufed, on many oc-
cafions of this kind, by Stifslius, Cardan, Stevin, Vieta,
Briggs, Oughtred, Mercator, Pafcal, &c.

But although the nature and conftruftion of this table
were thus early known, and employed in raifing powers and
extrafting roots, it was yet only by railing tlie numbers
from one another, by continual additions, and taking them
from the table, for ufe, when wanted ; till Briggs firft
pointed out the way of raifing any horizontal line in the
table, by itfelf, without any of the preceding lines ; and
thus teaching to raife the terms of any integral powers of a
binomial, independently of any other powers ; which was,
in faft, giving the fubllance of the binomial theorem in
words, but wanting the notation in fymbols.

It may, however, be fairly queflioncd, whether Briggs
knew how, even in the cafe of an integral exponent, to
exhibit the law of the formation of the coefficients, under

the form "'('"-■)• C^'-j) -. (''->-+i ) f ^^^^^

i . 2 . 3 n ' 6

his method of forming the fucccflivc coefficients amounts to

nearly

B I N

r.esrly the fame thing, yet the advancement in ar.alyfis de-
pended on the circumftance of the law which tliey obferve,
btiiig exprefied by means of a general fymbol (m) ; with-
out which, its exrenfion would never have bt-en made to
thofe cafts in which the index is negative or fradlional : fo
that Briggs, even in the cafe of integral powers, does not
appear to be fully entitled to the invention of the binomial
theorem, properly fo called.

Cut howev-r this may be, it is uiiiverfa'Iy agreed that no
0"c before I'ewton liad ever thought of extradting roots by
means of infinite fentj. He was the firll who happily dil-
covered, thit, by confidering roots as powers having frac-
tional exponents, the fame binomial feries would equally
fer.-c for ihem all, whether the inicx {hould be fraclional or
integral, or the feries finite or infinite ; and from this ex-
tenfion of the theorem, forr.e of the moft; important improve-
ments, in the higher departments of mathematics, have
ariftn ; particularly in the conllruflion of logarithms, and
the doftrine of fcri^-s in gencr^.l, which have fiiice been car-
ried to a great degree of perfection, and now form fome of
the moft curious and interefting branches of analytics.

It may alfo be farther obfervrd, with refpeft to the claim
of Newton as an origipn! inventor of this highly ufeful
theorem, that he had probably never feen the Arilhinetica
Loger'uhmica of Briggs ; for it is well known that he was
not an esteniive reader of mathematical works, depending
more on the powers of his own geiiins than upon any helps
of this kind : fo that there can be but little doubt of his
having made the difcovery himfelf, without receiving any
light from wh^t had been done by Briggs ; and that he
conceived the theorem to be new for ail powers in general,
as it was for roots and quantities with fraftional indices.

But though this appears to be the cafe with refpeft to
Newton, it is yet fnrprifing tJ^at Dr. Wallis, who was a
general reader of moft mathematical works, and who had
actually feen Briggs's Anthmetka Logarithrmca, as he men-
tions it in page 60. chap. xii. of his Algebra, ftiould not
have attended enough to this curious treatife, to know that
it contained fuch a new and excellent theorem, as it fully
appears he did not ; fince, in the S5th chapter of the above-
mentioned work, he afcribes the invention entirely to New-
ton ; and adds, that he himfelf had fought after fuch a rule,
but without luccefs. It is alfo no lefs fmgular, that John
Bernoulli, not half a centur)- fince, (hould firll difpute the
invention of this theorem with Ne«ton, and afterwards give
the difc«very of it to Pafcal, who was not born till long
after it had been taught by Briggs. (See Bernoulli's works,
vol. iv. p. 173).

Dr. Wallis's Algebra was published in the year 1685 ;
and it was here, for the firil time after Newton's difcovciy
of it, that the binomial theorem, according to his general
manner of exprcfling it, appeared in print, and was made
known to the learned world ; though Leibnitz, and pro-
bably Dr. Barrow (who was Newton's great friend and
patron in his youth), as well as fome other mathematicians
of that time, had feen it, in a letter addreflcd to Mr. Olden-
burgh, of Oclober 24th 1676, {which was given in the
Comnunium Epifolicum), foon after the laid letter was
written. But he no where tells us his manner of invcftigat-
ing it ; nor is any demouftration of it to be found, even in
the cafe where the index i^ a whole number, in any part of
his works. He fayi, indeed, in his next letter to Olden-
burgh, to be fou".d in the fame work, that the occafion of
its difcovery was as follows :

" Not long (he obferves) after I had ventured upon the
ftudy of the mathematics, wliilft I wa?; perilling the works
of the Celebrated Dr. Wallis, and coiifideiing the feries of

B I N

univcrfal roots, by the interpolation of which we exhibit the
area of the circle and hyperbola: for inftance, in this fericJ
of curves, whof'- common bafe or ax-s is x, and the r-.fpec-
tivc ordinates i~x'-.-> 1— .x'-j> \^*h r-^' r> i-x~!-»
1— *=)». &c, 1 obferved that if the areas of the alternate

curves, which are x, :t x', x - — x' -f -' x", x-^ x^ +

3 3 5 3

3 I
— x^ k', Sec, could be interpolated, we (hould by thij

means, obtain the areas of the intermediate one?, the firft of
which I — x4 2 is the area of the ciicle. In order to this it
vras evident, that in each of thtfe feries the firft term was x.

and that the fecond terms •

12 3

— a', —x', — x', ice. were in
3 3 3 3
anthmetical progreluon ; and coufequer.tly the firft three

terms of the feries to be interpolated r.iuft be x ( -x' ) ,

'-T(^)-^-?(f:')'-

" Now, for the interpolation of the reft, I confidercd that
the denominators I, 3, 5, 7, &c, were, in all of them, in
arithmetical progreflioa ; and confequently the whole diffi-
culty confifted in difcoverir.g the numeral co-fficicuts : but
thefe, in the alteniatc areas which are given, I obferved
were the fame with the figures of which the feveral afcend-
ing powers of the number ir corfift, viz. 11°, 11', 11%
n', llS &c. that is, the firft, 1 ; the fecond, I, 1 ; the
third, I, 3, I ; the fourth, i, 3, 3, I ; the fifth, I, 4, 6, 4,
I, &c.

" I applied myfelf, therefore, to difcover a fliethod by
which the firft two figures of this feries might be derived
from the reft ; and I found, that if for the fecond figure,
or numeral term, I put m, the reft of the terms would be
produced by tlie continual multiphcation of the terms of ihii

fenes, X X X ? X 2, &c.

12245

" For inftance, if the fecond term be put for 4, there

will arife 4 x

that is 6, which is the third term ;

the fourth term will be 6 X
3

-, that is 4 ; the fifth term

will be 4 X

, that is I ; a;id the fixth term will be

4 X , that is o, which (hews the feries is hire termi-

5
nated, in this cafe.

" This being found, I applied it, as 3 rule, to interpolate
the above-mentioned feries. And fince, in the feries which
expreffcs the circle, the fecond term was found to be

— ( — .V M , I therefore put n: = — , and there was produced
3 V 2 / 2

-j-— ; — X— |-— 31 or — — ^» and fo on aJ injir.iluin

or

the terms — X— ; I 1 or

2 2 V 2 /

I I /I

-7 ; -7X- I -

16 i6 4 V2

Hence I found that the area of the fegment of the circle

i_
Hi

.„„,u..-L(H-i(r')-^(H

" In the fame manrcr, the areis to be interpoLtcd of th-

other curves might be produced ; as alia t'<e area of the

3 C 2 hyperbola.

B I N

h)T)"rbola, and the reft of the alterntite curves in the fcrles
i+ir)»> r + x')i> f+s'vi' r+Pl^ &c. ; and in a fimilar
way might other feries be likewifc interpellated, and that
tven if they ftlould be taken at two or more intervalp.

" This was the way by wiiich I firil opened an entrance
into thel'e fptculations, which 1 (hould not have remem-
bered, but that, in turning over my papers, a few weeks
ago, I, by ciiance, call my eyes upon ihofe relating to this
matter.

" After I had proceeded fo far, it immediately occurred
to me that the terms i — .v'li> i - x]h 1 — x')i' l — x"\i'
tec. that is, I, i—x\ i — zx'+x*, i — ix'+$x* — x'', Sec.
might be interpolated in the fame m;nr,ier as 1 liad done ni
the cafe of the areas generated by them : and for this, there
required nothing more than to leave out the denominators, I,
3) 5> 7> &c. in the terms that exprcfslhe areas ; then the co-
elficients of the terms to be interpolated (i —x'ji> i — x'V'
or univerfally i —x'-^") will be had by the continual nuilti-

,• • r , r 1 r ■ m—l 111—2

plication or the terms ot the leries ra x X

' i 3

Sic.

" Thus, for example, l — x', = i —

I
16*

Sec. ; and i — .v

3 '

I — - .V
2

V&c.
i6

-X — —X &C.

and I— .v' 7=1

3 9

" Thus, I difcovered a general method of reducing radi-
cal quantities into infinite feries, by the binomla! theorem,
which 1 fent in my lall letter, before I obferved that the
fame thing might be obtained by the extraftion of roots.

" But after I had difcovered this method, the other way
could not long remain unkrtown ; for, in order to prove the

truth of thefe operations, I multiplied i .;' ;x^ —

—ix^ &c. by itfelf, and found the produft to be i— *•',
i6

all the terms after tlicfe ad injimlum vanifhing : in like man-

2 I C

ner l x' .v* — — .v^ &c. beinc twice multiplied into

3 9 8i

itfelf, produced i— .x". And as this was a certain proof of
the truth of thcfe eoncliifions, I was tl'.ereby naturally led
to try the converfe of it, viz. whether thcfe feries, that
were now knovv-ii to be the roots of the quantity I— .v',
mi^ht not be produced by the rule for extradtioii of roots in
arithmetic ; and, upon trial, I found it fucceed to my
widies.

" Tiiis being found, I laid afide the method of interpola-
tion, and alfumed thefe operations, as a more genuine foun-
dation to proceed upon. In the mean time, I was not
ignorant of the way of reduftion by divifion, which was fo
jnucli eafier."

From this account, as given by Newton himfelf, it ap-
pears that his difcovtry of the law for the areas, witli irra-
tional ordinates, preceded that of the law for the cxpanfion
of thofe ordinates ; although the latter, as Montucla ob-
ferves, might have been cxpcfted to precede the former, if
inventive genius always purfued the mod eafy method. But,
in tracing the progrefs of the human mind, it may generally
be obfcrved, tliat a collection of difcoveries, in any branch
of fcience, is feldom found to be a feries of regular dtduc-
tioDS ; but, on the contraiy, we often difcein therein many

B I N

anticipatlone, and fometimes even a icverfion of the natural
and logical order of ideas.

It is worth while here to remark, that Newton had made
thcfe difcoveries, as wx-ll as many others, fev^rcil years be-
fore Mercator had publifhed his " Logarithmotechnia,"
which contains a particular cafe of this theory ; but, frotil
an excefs of modelly and indifference for thcfe fruits of his
genius, he delayed making them known to the world : and,
even after the above-mentioned work hsd appeared, which
would have operated as a powerful motive with moll other
men, in exciting them, to (hare in the glory of thefe brilliant
inventions, he was ftill more confirmed in the refolution he
had taken, of net making himfcif known as an author till
he was of a more mature age. He conceived, that Mercator
having difcovered, as it was faid, the feries for the hyper-
bola, would not be long before he extended his method to
the circle, and other curves ; or, if this fhould not be don-^
by him, the invention would be readily perceived by others.
In (hort, it appears rather fingular, that as Mercator had

converted the expreffion — — into an infinite feries, by the

ordinary method of divifion, he (liould not have tried to dif-
cover the feries for ^/ i +x' by the known method of ex-
trading the fquarc root ; but this, though extremely ob-
vious, efcaped his notice : and many circnmllances, of A
fimilar kind, are to be found in the hillory of the feiences.

Newton, as has been already obfcrved, left no demonftra-
tion of this theorem ; but appear; to have form;:d it merely
from an iuduiSion of particular cafes ; and though no doubt
can be entertained of its truth, having been found to fucceed
in all the inftances in which it has bicn applied ; yet, agree-
ably to the rigour that ought to be obfervcd in the eilablidi-
ment of every malhcjnatical theory, and efpecially in a fun-
damental theorem of fuch general ufe and application, it is
neceffary that as regular and llridl a proof Ihould be given
of it as the nature of the fubjcft, and tlie Ihite of analyfis,
can aiford.

One of the firfl demonflrations of this kind that appears
to have been given, is that of James Bernoulli, which is to
be found, among feveral other curious things, in a fmall trea-
tife of his, entitled " Ars Conjeclandi," which has been very
improperly omitted in the collection of his works, publifhed by
his nephew, Nicholas Bernoulli. But this is only applied to
the cafe of integral and affirmative powers, and is nearly
the fame with that which was afterwards given by Mr. John
Stewart, in his commentary on fir Ifaac Newton's quadra-
ture of curves. It is founded on the doC?irlne of combina»
tions, and the properties of figurate numbers, which arc
there'lhewn to involve in them the generation of thefe co-
efficients ; and in the inftance before mentioned, where the
index of the binomial is a whole pohtive number, it is clearly
and fatisfaftorily explained.

Since that time, many attempts have been made to demon-,
flrale the general cafe, or that where the index of the bino-
mial is either a whole number or a fraftion, pofitive or nega-
tive ; but moll of thefe dcmonftrations having been con-
dueled, either by the method of increments, the mnhino-
mial theorem of De Moivre, or by fluxions, are com-
monly thought to be unfatisfaftory and imperfeft ; and it
(hould feeni not without reafon ; as, independently of other
objeftions, it appears contrary to the principles of fcience,
as well as to jull reafoning, to employ, in a matter purely aU
gebraical, notions and doftrines derived from, other branches,
or from an analyfis which is in fome fort tranfcendental.

For thefe reafons, feveral eminent mathematitians liave en-
deavoured to inveftigate this formula on pure analytical prin-
ciples.

B I N

Bi jr

clples, ill a more natural and oHviois way ; one of tlie firft
of thefe attempts being that of Landen, in his " Difcourfe
concerni-.ig tiie rcfidual analyfis," and the next that of E-
pinus, in tlie eighth voUimeofthe " New Ptterfbiirg Me-
moirs." But the legitimacy of the former may be objefted
to, as depending upon vanithing fracti(;ns, and other conC-
derations of too difficult and abltrail a nature to be regarded
as fuiiiciently conviiiciiig ; and the latter, tiioiigh very inge-
nious, is not Ids difficult and embarraffing ; at leaft, fuch is
the opinion of Eiiler, who having himlclf lirft given a de-
monftration of this theorem, in which, like Maclaurin, he
employed the dilTerential calculus, or metiiod of fluxions,
was afterwards led to deduce it frovi the principles of alge-
bra alone ; though he docs not appear to have been much
more fiiccefsful tlian either of the former.

S. Lhuilier of Geneva, perceiving the defe£ls and obfcurity
of thefe methods, has made a new demonftration of this for-
mula in one of the preliminary articles of his excellent work,
entitled, " Principioruni calculi differentialis ct integralis,
&c." which is purely elementary ; and abating from its
length, and a fatiguir.g detail of particulars, which the na-
ture of the fubjcct does not fecm to req'.iire, he appears to
have accomplifhed his object ; at leaft as far as the method
he adopted would allow ; for it mud be confelTed, that nei-
ther this, nor any other inveftigation, that had hitherto ap-
peared, have been attended with the fimpllcity and ilridlnefs
which could be dcfired.

The reafon of this, as Dr. Woodhoufe properly obferves,
in his " Principles of Analytical Calculation," feems to be,
that moft mathematicians appear to have fought forfome high
origin of this theorem, diilinct' from the fimple operations of
multiplication, divifion, extracting of roots, &c. : and in-
ftead of confidering the nature of the operations it was
known to comprehend, hoped to fuperfede them by deduc-
tions drawn from abilrufe and fine theories ; whereas, it is
clear, that whatever imperfedions thefe fundamental opera-
tions are attended with, are alfo attached to the binomial
theorem, which, in a certain fenfe, may be faid to be a me-
tl'.od of trial and conjedture. For, as this formula is only
meant to exprefs, in general terms, the algebraical rules
above mentioned, it cannot pofiefs a greater degree of cer-
tainty than is volTefled by the fimple operations them-
L-lves.

To avoid entering into a too prolix inveftigation of the
well known and fimple elements upon which the general for-
mula depends, it is iiiirlclent to obfervc that it is clearly ma-
nifell f.om fome of t'le firil and moft com.mon rules of alge-
bra, that whatever is the operation which the index (in) in
fl-t-.vi" diredls to be performed upon the binomial a-\-x,
whether of continued multiplication, or elevation, or of di-
vifion, or of extraftion of roots, the terms of the refulting
feries will necefiarily arife by regular and wliole pofitive pow-
ers of x; and that the two firil terms of this feries will al-
ways be a"' -}- ma'"' ' x-, fo that the entire expanfion of it
may be reprefented under the form a''' + ma''~ '.v-j-/'.v-i-y.\-^
+rx\ &c.

For, omitting the practical part of the procefs, which is
taught by the above mentioned rules, it will conllantly be
found, by performing the operations at length in the ufual
wiy, that

fi±x ' z= a" ± lux -1- «'
a±xY =; rt' + ^a'x -\- ^a'x' +.r'
<3 + .v ■• = a-';i; ^'x -j- Ca'x' ± 4(7.v' -f .-c*

<J±.v

Sec. &c.

a~-\ + a^^x ' ^ «"'' .V , S:c.
6

J "-(-2 a ^a: -1-30 "f x" -J- 4a ^ X ' , &.C.

■ . , = a~5 -J- ■, „— 4 X -4- 6a~~-x^ ± ioa~^x , Us.

&C. &C.

a±x

a±x) — at J; — a -x — — <3 i .V 3: — (J ^ -x' &C.

2

I _ 2

a'±^' z=a\±-a

3 9

fl±.v =33-1 a X a 7x + — a

-3 9 Si

&c. &c.

81

2 _i

a±.-

-' _1_ — •» I 7:1

3

■^±^a~ix+Sa-
3 9

81

20

&c.

-'f-v'&c.

■f .v-:F^«-V.v',&c.

Sec. Sec.

In all the inftances here given, it is apparent, that the
firll term of the feries, in each of them, is the fame as the
power or root of the firft term of the binomial quantity to
which it belongs ; and that the coefficient of x in the fccond
term is always had by multiplying the index of the firft term
into that term, having its index diminilhed by 1 ; and as
thefe cafes are of the fame kind with thofe that are defigned
to be exprefled, in univerfal terms, by the general formula,
it is in vain, as far as regards the two firft terms of the expan-
fion, to look for any other origin of them, than what may
be derived from thefe and fimilar operations.

Affuming, therefore, a-f.v^'" = a" + ma"" ^' +/*'+?•■<'
-{-r.vS Sec. it only remains to determine the value of the co-
efficients p, q, r, &c. and to ftiew the law of their dependence
on the index (m) of the operation by which they are pro-
duced.

For this purpofe, let m denote any number whatever, in-
teg;ral or fratlional, poiitive, or negative ; and let the co-
efficients of the 3d, 4th, 5th, Sec. terms of the mth power
of any binomial be denoted by/', q', r', &c.

Then for x, in the above form, put y-\-z, and there will

arife iz-j-j' 4-^1'" =<>-}-)• + c)°' = a-j-y + ~^'"; which are all
identical expreffions ; and when expanded accordmg to the
proper forms, mull be equal to each other.

But « +>■ +2* "■ = 'J" + »'«" ~ '( y + z) +/ 0''-l-z;-.&c.)
-\- q{y^-^^y'z, 8iC.) SiC. (omitting to fct down the higher
powers of s, which are not wanted in the demonftration) =
a'" + ma-^- ' y+py'+gfSiC. +ma''~ ' z + 2J>y^+Sqy--z, &c.

And a+y+z'^'" — a-\-y]"' +ni.a+yY'~ 'z. Sec. = J+^''
+ mz (a™- '-f OT- i.«'"- 'y+py'+q'y'ySec.) =a'"+rr,a" -'y
-^py^ + qy\ Sec. -\- ma"- 'z + ni.m- l.a^ "'yz +mp'y'z +
mq'y^z. Sec. Hence the two feries being identical, a" -{-
ma" ~'y+py''+qy' Sec. + ma"' ~'z + 2pyz-\-Jjy'z, Sec.=a"' +
ma" '"y-^■p^■'+qy' &c. +mj" ~'z +m.rr. - 1 ..'7'" ~'yz -\-mp'y'
j; -\-mq'yH', Sec. or, leaving out the terms common to each,
^px'z-^-^qy'z Sec. ^= in.m— i.a"' ~'y'z,-\-pip'y'-z. Sec.

And fincethe coefficients of the terms involving the fame
powers of the arbitrary quantities _j' and s muft be the fame.

ftiall have 2p = m.m — I .<j"

tn.m— 1
or/=

and hence />'

m— l.m — 2

Alfo 3y = lap' =:

B I O

m.m— i.m — 2

on.

or" I, or q =.

lid fo

2-3

From which it follows, that a-\'xY = oT + m.a"'~ ' x +

ni,m—\ m.m — \,m — 2 „ , ,. • r ii ,
• • .rt^-'.v' &c. univeifally,

c' +

2-3.

whatever may be the value of m, whether integral or frac-
tional, pofitive or negative, as was to be (hewn.

The demonllration here given (wliich is fimilar to that in
vol. ii. of Manning's Algebra) is founikd upon the principles
firll laid down by la Grange, in his " 'I'heorie des Fonftions
Analytiqucs;" to which admirable work the reader is referred
for farther information on this fubjed, as w^l! as for what-
ever regards the do£lrine of expanded funilions in general,
which is there treated of in a way worthy the genius of the
author.

BINOMIUS, from ih and ncrmn, name, in MiMk ylge
I'/riliis, denotes a perfon with two names.

Moll Clirillians anciently were called binomii, as having
had other names in their heathen Hate, which they changed
at their converfion. Befides, it was an ancient tullom for
parents to give names to their children immediately after they
were born,' and fometimes other diflVrent ones aitervvarJs at
their baptifm ; one of which frc((nently became a cogromcn,
or fnrname. In realitv, it was a conllant prartice to affume
a new name at baptifm, as the religious tlili do in the
Romilh church, on their reception into the monalfic llate ;
or tlie Jewilh profelytes at their circumcifion.

BINOTA TA, in Er.tomohgy, a fpccicsof Chry so\?Et,A,
found in Denmark. This is teflaceous, with the wing-cafes
ferruginous at the bafe. Gmelin.

BisOTATA, a fpecics of Cicada [IL-nlr^ich Folincen).
This infecl inhabits New Holland ; the thorax is fligiitly
armed, and produced bfhind ; abdomen fliort aiid tcllaceous;
with a black fpot at the bafe of the wing-cafes. Fabricius,
&c.

BINOTATUS, an European fpecies of Carabus, of
a black colour, with two red fpots in front of the head, and
the antennx yellow at the bafe. Fabricius.

BiNOTATiis, a fpecies of Cimex {Reduv'nis), found in
Surinam. It is black above, with a rufous dot at the apex
of each of the wing-cafcs. Fabricius.

BLNTAM. in Geography, one of the chief towns cf the
kin:;dom of Yohor or Jor. See ^TAI.ACCA.

BINTAN, one of the fmall iflands at the fouth end of the
ftraits of Malacca, and nearly north from Lingan ifland.

BINTH A, in yIncUnt Gergrup!}y, a town of Libya inte-
rior, rear the Niger, according to Ptolemy. — Alfo, a place
iu Afia, in OfrhoLne, according to the Notitia Imperii.

BINTSCHAY, in Gcj^raphy, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Boltflaw, 7 miles north-cad of Turnau.

BINWY Head, a cnpc of Ireland, on the north-weft
Coal! of the county of Mayo. N. lat. 5.}.'- :o'. W. long.

BIOBIO, or Viovio, a river of Chili, in South Ame-
rica. Its lor.rce is among the filver mines, in the moun-
tains called Sierra hel'uJii ; it receives the ftreanis of the Hue-
qutn and Tolpar, before it reaches Santa Pee, where it
firll becomes navigable, and from whence, to its mouth, for
the dillance of 33 leagues, its courfe is nearly from eaft
to will.

The new city of Mocha, peopled by inhabitants who re-
moved from Coaci-ption twelve years ago, is fit'.;ated on its
north bank, about twelve miles from the fea, and is a depot
for tiie filver from the mines of Nim'no, and for the gold
with which itis lands abound.

B I O

The mouth of this river Is in 8.^1.36*45', W.Iong.
73° 28' ; and its entrance known by two remarkable hills,
called the Teats of Biobio, which are Ctuated at the north,
betwixt it and the bay of Conception, and fervc to both 33
land-marks for navigators.

The river is ?.bout one mile acrofs at the mouth, has good
depth of water in the middle, and the tide rifes about fcven
feet and a h.ilf at the fall and change of the moon.

BIOCOIA'TjE, in the By-zantme Empire, an order of
officers appointed to prevent the violences frequently com-
mitted by the foldiers. The word is compounded of ^.-.,
vis, -yislcnce, and xiX-jv, / hiinler ; and (hould rather be writ-
ten liscolytx.

The biocolvtx appear to have been much the fame with
the French archers of the Marlhalfea. They were fuppreffed
bv the emperor Jullir.ian.

' BIOCULATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of EpheN7B!«a,
defcribed by GeofFroy, Linn-cus, fee. The wings are
white, reticiilated ; on the head two yellow tubercles. Fabr.
Inhabits wet places in Europe. The tail cf this kind is fur-
nilhcd with two hrilllcs as long as the body-

BiocULATA, in Natural ITiflory, a fptcics of Hikudo, of
an elongated form and cinereous colour, with two eyes.
Gmel. Mi;'.!. This is h'lriido fiagnalis of Linnaus. Fn.
Suec. &c. Found in wet hollows and rivukts very coin-
mou. Length of this creature is nine lines. The female
bears about forty eggs at a time, which are furroundcd by
a pellucid circle ; at firll thcfe are cinereous, afterwards
brown ; and the young, after exclufion, adhere by their taili
to the belly of the female. Gmel.

Biocui-ATVS, in Entsir.o'o^y, a fpecies of Cryptoce-
PHALUS [CrioceritJ, found at the cape of Good Hope. It
is teftacL'ous ; thorax immaculate ; on the wing-cafes two
ocellar white fpots. Fabricius.

BIOCZ, in Gc-o^raphy, 3 town of Poland, in the palati-
nate of Cracow, north of the Carp.-.thian mountains. N. lat.
49° 48'. E. long. 21^40'. . , r ,

BIOEA, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port in the fouth-
ern part of the illand of Sardinia, according to Ptolemy.

BIOOLIO, in Geography, a tov>-n of Italy, in the lordfhip
of Vtrcelli, 23 miles N.W. of Vercelli.

BIOGRAPHER, formed from the Greek /5.o?, life, and
-/fx^ij, / defcribe, an author who writes a hiilor)-, or life, of
one or more perfons. Such were Plutarch, Corn. Nepos,
J;c.

BIOGRAPHY, the art cf dcfc.-ibing or writing lives,
is a branch or fpecies of hillory more entertaining, as well as
more ufeful in many refpe£ts, than general hillory, as it re-
prefents great men more diftinftly, unincumbered with a
crowd of other ac\ors, and defcendirg into the detail of their
aftions and charafttr, their virtues and tailings, gives more
light into human nature, and leads to a more iiitim.ate ac-
quaintance with particular perfons than general hiftory allows.
A writer of lives may defcend, with propriety, to minute cir-
cumllancts and famihar incidents. From him it is expeAed
to give the private as well as the public lite of thofe whofe
ailions he records ; and it is from private life, from familiar,
dumeftic, and feemingly trivial occurrences, that we often
derive the moll accurate knowledge cf the real charr.fter.
The fuhjecis of biography are not only the lives cf public or
private perfons, who have been eminent and beneficial to the
world in their refpedlive ftat'ons, but thofe alfo of perfons no.
torious for their vice and profligacy ; which may ferve, when
jullly characlerizid, as wan.ings to others, by exhibiting
the fatal cor.fequenccs which, fooucr or later, g-.nerally fol-
low licentious practices. As for thofe, who expofed their
hves, or o'.herv.-ife employed their lime and labours for the

fervice

BIO

fen'ice of their fellow-creatures, it feems but a juft debt,
that tl'.eir memories fhould be perpetuated after them, and
that pofterity ftiould he made acquainted with their bene-
fatlors. This was no frrall incentive to virtue iu the pagaa
world ; and no one can be ignorant, on due refleftion, how
natural this paffion is to mankind in general. For this rea-
fon, as Dr. Ward prefumes (Orat. vol. ii. p. 252.), Virgil
has placed not only his heroes, but alfo the inventors of ufe-
ful arts and fciences, and other perfons of diltiuguilhed me-
rit, in the Elyfian fields, where he defcribes them (jf.r.. L vi.
V. 661.):

" Here patriots live, who, for their country's good,
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood ;
Priells of unblemiflicd lives here make abode,
And poets worthy their infpiring god ;
And learching wits of more mechanic parts,
Who grac'd tlicir age with new invented arts ;
Thofe who to worth their bouuty did extend,
And thofe who knew that bounty to 'commend :
The heads of thefe with holy fillets bound.
And all their temples were with garlands crown'd."
In the lives of public perfons, theii- public chai afters are
principally, but not folely, to be regarded. The world is
inquifitive to know the condudl of princes and other great
men, as well in private as in public : and both may be of
fervice, confidering the influence of their examples. But to
be over-inquifitive in fearching into the weakneffes and fail-
ings of the greateft or bed men, is, to fay no more of it, a
ncedlefs curiofity.

In this fpecies of writing Plutarch has no inconfiderable
merit ; and to him we are indebted for much of the know-
ledge which we polTefs concerning feveral of the mod emi-
nent perfonagcs of antiquity. His matter, however, is bet-
ter than his manner ; as he cannot lay claim to any peculiar
beauty or elegance. His judgment too, and his accuracy,
have fometimes been taxed ; but whatever may behisdefedis
of this kind, his lives of eminent men will always be confi-
dcred as a valuable treafure of inftruttion. He is remark-
able for being one of the moft humane writers of all an-
tiquity ; Itfs dazzled than many of them are, with the ex-
ploits of valour and ambition ; and fond of difplaying his
great men to us, in the more gentle lights of retirement and
private life.

It has been a matter of difpute among the learned, whe-
ther any one ought to write his own hillory. No one, it
may be faid, can be fo much mafler of the fubjeCl as the
perfon himfclf ; and befides, there are many indances, both
ancient and modem, to juftify this praftice. But, on the
other hand, it mud be owned, that it is attended with many
inconveniences, fomc of which are mentioned by Cicero :
" If," fays he (Ad Famil. 1. v. epitl. 12.) " there is any
thing commendable, perfons are obliged to fpeak of them-
felves with greater raodefty, and to omit what is blame-
able in others. Befides, what is faid is not fo foon credited,
and has lefs authority ; and after all, many will not hefitate
in cenfuring it." To the fame purpofe it is well obferved
by Pliny (1. viii. ep. 1.) : " Thofe who proclaim their own
virtues, are thought not fo much to proclaim them, becaufe
they did them, as to have done them, that they might pro-
claim them. Hence, what would appear great, if told by
another, is loft, when related by the party himfclf. For
when men cannot deny the faft, they refledl upon the vanity
of its author. ^Vherefore, if you do things not worth men-
tioning, the aftions themfelves are blamed ; and if the things
you do are commendable, you are blam.ed for mentioning
them." Thejuftice of thefe reflcftions will be allowed;
and yet, confidering how natural it is for mta to love ihem-

B I O

felv«, ar^d to be inclined in their own favour, it feems to be
a very difficult taflc for any one to write an impartial hiilory
of bis own aftions. There is fcarcely any treatife of this
kind that is more celebrated than Csefar's " Commentaries ;"
and yet Suetonius tells us (In Vit. c. 56.), that " Afinius
PoUio, who lived at that time, thought that they were writ-
tea neither with due care not integrity ; that Csefar was too
often credulous in his accounts of what was done bv other
perfons, and mifreprefcnted his own actions, either defign-
ediy, or through forgetfulnefs ; and therefore he fuppofes
he would have rcvifed and corrected them." At fome times,
however, it may without doubt be juftifiable for a perfon to
be his own hiftcrian. Plutarch mentions two cafes, in which
it is allowable for a man to commend himfclf, and to be the
publilher of liis own'merits. Thefe are, " when the doinf^
of it may be of conCdcrable advantage, either to l.imfrlf, or
to others." '-Anciently," fays Tacitus (Vit. Agric. c. 1..),
" many wrote their own lives, rather as a teftimony of their
conduft, than from pride;" remarking, "that the more vir-
tue abounds, the fooiier the reports ot it are credited." But
the ancient writers had a method of diverting the reader's
attention from thtmlelvcs, when they had occalion to record
their own aftions, and of thus rendering what they faid lefs
invidious, which was by fpeaking of themfclves in the third
perfon : thus Csefar never fays, " I did," or " I faid this or
that," but always "Cifar did," or "faid, fo and fo." Dr.
Johnfon has given an excellent paper on the fubject of bio-
graphy in the coUeftion of papers called the "Idler." Volney,
in his "Lefturcs on Hiflory," remarks, that biographv is the
only kind of hillory that is proper for young people. See
History.

Dr. Prieftley has conftrufted and pubhlhed a " Biographi-
cal Chart," which is very ufefuL to ftudents in chronologv,
hiftory, and biography. This chart, which is about three
feet in length, and two feet in breadth, reprefents the inter-
val of time between the year i2CO before the Chriftian asra
and 1 8cc after Chrift, divided by an equal fcale into centu-
ries. It contains about 2COO names of perfons the moll di-
ftinguifhcd in the annals of fame, the length of whofe lives
is here reprtfented by fines drawn in proportion to their real
duration, and terminated in fuch a manner as to corrcfpond
to the dates of their births and deaths in univerfal time.
Thefe names are diftinguilhed into feveral clafles by lines
running the whole length of the chart, the contents of each
divifion being exprefled at the end ot it. The chrorolocry
is noted in the margin on the upper fide, by the year before
and after Chrift, ard on the lower by the fame sra, and
alfo by the fucceffioa of fuch kings as were the moft di-
ftinguifhed in the whole period.

BIOLLE, L,A, in Geography, the chitf place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of ChambeiT, and department of Mont
Blanc. The population of the place is eftimated at IC38,
and of the canton at 5625 perfons ; the territorial extent
contains 92' kiiiometrcs, and 10 communes.

BIOLYCHNIUM, formed of ^.oj, /i/,, and \vxy<^., tight,
a name given By fcm.e phyficians to a fuppofed principle of
vitality inherent in the heart, or blood, and remaining t'lere
as long as Lfe continues. Of this principle, or innate heat,
different accounts have been given by different writers ; as
Gafp. Hoffman, Conrigius, &c.

Beguinus has defcribed a procefs for preparing from hu-
man blood a vital balfam under this denomination ; and J.
Ern. Burgravius has written a treatife upon it.

BION, in Biography, a native of Proconnefuf, vras con-
temporary with Pherecydes, and fluunlhed about the 59th
olympiad, or 544 years B. C. Clemens Alcxandriiius in-
forms us, that he copied the titles, and abridged the works

of

Bl O

B 1 O

t 1^ , I Ml r.-n «4ir, ■« fi.;d to !!■<%•« l.«ert the firil lli« Roman antiquities, vras born at Forli in T3?3, and irii-

.? C..,mns the M,K.f.,n, ^^ ^^^j:^ZTro. died at C.cn,o:.a'. Bcln. deputed i,, h. youth on pubHc huf-

ncfa to Milan, he there made the hrll copy of Cicero s trea

■writer of hitlory in profc.

].in war. ,

■ Btos-, the PLilif'fhcr, v.as a native of BoijUaeiies, and
!lo'ir;(hed in t!ie rsigii of Antigonus Gonatas, king of J-ia-
cedon, ard died about the lad year of the i.^th olympiad,
or the 24 1 II year B.C. He was a pcrfon of mean extrac-
tion, being the fon of a J.ac>.da:inonian harlot ; and when
■\oun->-, was fold as a {lave to an orator, who afterwards gave
him his freedom, and left him large pofrc-fiions. Thus <:n.

dowcd he went to Alliens, and devoted himfelf to the ftady ^ ,. „ . , r ii-r. lu .-v v.-

of pMlo ouhv. He was rtrll the difeiole of Crates, then of any pubhc ftat.on and profecuted h,s hterary labours idi h,s
he Cynic^, afterwards of Theodorus, and lad of all of Thco- death in 14^3- ^ His long refKlence at Ro:ne enabled him
- ' • • <^ ' - - - -■ '^•-'-" •♦■■ -•'"'-f relics or antiquity in 3 books

tile on famous orator*. At Rome he became fecretary to
pope F.usrenins IV., and ferved the three fuceeedin;^ pnpss
in the fame office. He was employed in v?.riou3 delegations
to Venice, where he had an opportunity of cultivating an
acq'.-.aintance and fienddvip with many learned ptvfons in
that republic. Debarred by his marriage from enjoying any
church preferments, and devoted to ftudy more than to the
purfuit of wealth artd h.onour, he preferred retirement to

Horace is fuppofed to allude to him in his

'■ llle Bioneis ferroonibus, et falc nigro." Epift. 2. lib. ii.
To a ereat talicer, who aiked him a favour, he faid, " If
you would have me grant it, let fome other perf.m a)k it for
yon." Being on board a Ihip belonging to pir tcs, which
was chafed by another, the pifates exclaiined, " We are un-
done, if they'difcover who vvc are;" " and I," fays Bion,
" if they difcover who I am." He ridiculed the contradic-
tion of burning the dead as if they were inftiifible, and la-
menting ihtm as if they were ftill fenfible. ricmc of his jells
were offcnfive to morals and decency ; for to ntither of thefe
did he pay much regard. Notwithftanding his avcwed irre-
ligion, he recurred, when fick, to the piadice of puerile fu-
perllitions, and f;ibmitttd to death with great reluctance.
Brucker's Hill. Phil, by Enfield, vol. i. p. 189. Gen. Dicl.
Lae-tius, lib. iv. torn. i. Ed. Meib. p. 253, &c.

BiON, a celebrated Bucolic poet, was a native of Smyrna,
and a contemporary of Ptolemy Philadilpliu?, about 280
years B.C. In Sicily or Mainia Gra:cia, where he is fup-
pofed to have fpent the laft part of his life, 'Mofchus was
his pupil ; and from the beautiful elegy of th's poet, we are

was mtitled •• Italia illulbata." All thcfe works difplay
great reading and diligent rtfearch, though they are not free
from many errorii to which his ignorance of Greek literature
mult Iiave contributed. H?.ving undertaken to write a ge-
neral hillory from the decline of the Roman empire to his
own time, he finiilied tin-ee dccads of it, and tlie lirll book
of the. fourth. He alfo wrote a book " Di Origine et Gef-
tis Venetorum," and had planned an enin-e hillory of the
Venetian republic ; but he afterwards chofe to infert the
fubliance of it in his genera! hiftory. He left feveral other
writings in MS., which it is netdlcfs to mention. His ftj'le
wants purity and elegance, and his judgment in collecting
materials was fuperior to his tafte in iiCng them. A collec-
tion of his wv.rks was pnblilhed at Bafil, in 1531, fo!.
Nouv. D^a. Hist. Gen. Biog.

BIORKO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Uuland.

BIORNEBORG, a town of Finland, on the tail Cde of
the gulf of Bothnia, featcd on a lake, 80 miles north of
Abo. N.lat. 62°6'. E.bng. 22''35'.

BIORNSE, a fmall illand af Denmark, near the fouth

led to infer, that he lolt his life in prifon, and that the per- coai't of the ifland of Fnnen.

petrators of this deed did not cfcape juft punini.ment. As a BlfiRNSTAHL, James Jonas, in Bio^rnphy, a learned

poet he was highly (.{teemed ; and his performances that are Swcdilh traveller, was born at Rolarbo in 1731, and having

extant, though iiiconli.lirablc, fe-rve as examples of the ex- lini(lii;d his edncaiion in the univerlity of Upfal, he became,

■cellence to which the Greeks had attained in fimilar compo- in 1766, tutor to the fon of baron Rudbec, with whom he

fitions. Nothing can be more fwcct and te-.der than his travelled for eight years through France, Italy, part of Ger-

" Elegy on the death of Adonis," nor any thing more ele- many, Holland, and England. At Parip', where he improved

gar.tly ingenious than his " Cupid inllruCted." The works himlcif in the oriental languages, he was elefled, in 1 770, a

of Bion are ufually printed with thofii of Mofclius ; and member of the academy of faiences, and upon the baron's

the belt editions are thofe of Paris, in 1686; of Venice, in return to S>yeden, in 177^, Biorn'tahl received orders from

1746 ; He(l<in's, at Oxford, in 1748 ; Scheir's, at Leipfic, in the king to travel at his expence through the Ottoman em-

1752 ; and Wakefield's, Lond. 1795. Gen. Diet. Gen. Biog,
BioN, M, mathematical inllniment maker to the French
Tcing, died at Paris, in 1733, at the age of 78 years, and is
known to mathematicians as the anther of two w'orks ; one,
" On the conllruction and principal ufes of mathematical in-
itruments," traiiflated into Enghlh with additions, by Mr.
Edmund Sti ne ;" and another, "On the ufe ot the Globes ;"
the filth edition of which was pnbliflied at Paris, in 1728.

pire, Syria, Egypt, and the northern part or Africa, and
in the fame year he was appointed extraordinary proteffor of
philofophy at Upfal. In the following year he commenced
his travels ; and having arrived at Conltantinople, he conti-
nued there two years, improving himfelf in the ealtern lan-
guages. In 1779, he was appointed profclfor of the oriental
languages at Lund ; but he died this year of a putrid fever
at Salonichi. The refult of his obfervations in the courfe

BIONCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in the of his travels was communicated in a ftries of letters to C-

department of the Meurthe, and the thief place of a canton,
in the dillrict of Chateau-Salins, 2 leagues W.S.W. of Cha-
tean-Salins.

BJoRKXA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Cyprinus, hav-
ing thirty five rays in the anal fin. Found in the lakes of
Sweden. Liniiius. This is Cyprhms qmiutmcmlh, pinna
aiii oiriculoram 25, of Artedi.

C. Giorwell, librarian to the king at Stockholm ; and a com-
plete col'.ect'on of them appeared at Stockholm, in 1 778, in
three volumes, Svo. under the title of "J.J. BKSrnitahrs
Bref riirande des utl'andika Refa tii utgifvaren C. C. Gibr-
vvell." A German tranllation of th:3 work was publillitd at
Stralfiind and Rollock, in 17^3. in ^w volumes, 8vo.' Tiis
principal o' jciS of Bicirnilahl's refearch was oriental MSS.,
BIONDO, Flavio, (Lat. Bhndus), m Biography, an from which he maJe many important and ufeful extiails.
antiquary and hiftorian, and one of the firft who illultratcd Cea. Biog.

BIOT

B I P

BIOT, in Geography, a to\vn of France, in the depart-
ment of the Var, and c!:ief place of a canton, in the diilric^
of Grade, 3 miles north of Antibes.

BIOTA, in Zoology, a name introduced by Dr. Hill for
the PoLY"PE genus called Hydra, by Linnxus, as it is believed
from the reproduftion or repullulation of the parts wh^n
cut off; and this name I'wta is likevvife given it on the fame
account, being derived from /3»o,-, life. See HvDiiA.

BIOTHANATI, from ,5iK, violence, and Sawl^j, death,
in fome Medical Writers, denote thofe who die a violent
death. The word is alfo written, and with more propriety,
hiathanali ; fometimes biisothartal!.

In a more particular fenfe, it denotes thofe who kill thcm-
felves, more properly called autothanali. See Suicide. In
this fenfe it is that the word is nfed both by Greek and La-
tin writers. By the ancient difciplinc of the church, they
were punifhed by denying them burial, and refufing all com-
memoration of them in the prayers and offices of the
church.

BioTH ANATi, fuppoftd by fbme to be derived from /?io,-,
iife, and 'iv.-. A:, death, and alluding to the belief of a future
life after death, was alfo a name of reproach given by the
heathens to the primitive Chiiftians, for their conftancy
and fonvardnefs to lay down their lives in martyrdom.

BiOTHANATOS is alfo ufcd in fome writers of the barba-
rous age for wicked, damnable, or accurfcd. Du-Caiige.

BIOUAC, Bivouac, or Biovac, in the Military Art,
a nightly guard performed by the whole army, when there
is an apprehenfion of danger from the enemy. The word is
formed by corruption from the German '■jueyiuacht, a double
'u.'c.lch or guard. See Guard.

BIOULLE, in Geography, a tov.-n of Fiance, in the de-
partment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ilrlft of Montauban, 3 leagues N.E. of Montauban.

BIPARTIENT, in Arithmetic, is a number that divides
another into two equal parts without a remainder. Thus 2
is a bipartient to 4, &c.

BIPARTITA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Leptura,
thiit inhabits Upper Aullria. It is of a black colour; tho-
rax ferruginous, with a longitudinal black line ; a common
ferruginous fpot on the wing-cafes.

BIPARTITE Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.

BIPARTITION, lignifies a diviCon into two equal
parts.

BIPED, in Zoologx, an animal furnifhed with only two
legs. Men and birds are bipeds. Apes occafionally walk
on their hind legs, and feem to be of this tribe, but that is
not a natural pofition for them, and they reft; upon all their
legs like other quadrupeds. The jerboas are alfo of the lat-
ter defctiption, jumping and leaping on their hind legs, but
re;ling on the fore Isgs likewife.

Plato, we are told, once defined a man to be a biped
without feathers ; and Diogenes, in order to fhcw what he
deemed the abfurdity of this definition, plucked all the fea-
thers off a cock, and placing it in the midft of the Acade-
mic fchool, exclaimed, " there is one of Plato's men!"

Biped, Bip^de, Bipes, a genus of reptiles that be-
longs to the hzard family, in the fyftem of La Ce-
pede. Thefe have, according to the charafter eilablilhed
by that author, a very long body covered with fcales ; and
the toes of the two little feet, which are placed anteriorly,
are armed with nails. La Cepede defcribes onlv one fpecies
of this genus, which he calls le cannelk ; it is a native of
Mexico, and prcferved in the mufeum at Paris. La Cepede,
it appears, was the firft writer who defcribed this creature ;
b.it Dr. Shaw noticed it afterwards in the Naiuialift's Mif-

Voi. IV.

B 1 P

cellany, urder tiic name ol lacirta luwbricoides, lumbricifona
lizard, which fee ; and a fpecimcn of it, about half the lize
oi that in the mufeum at Paris, is preferved in the Britifh
mufeum. This mull not be confounded with lacerla bipes of
Linnsus. Pallas has defcribed another kind of biped lizard,
which is called lacerla apus, but ia that the legs are very
fmall, monodaclylou?, and placed far behind : fome have al-
moft doubted whether thefe may not rather be part of the
organs of generation than legs ; and in general appearance
the creature approaches rather to the fnake than lizard tribe.
It is a nauve of t!ie fouthcrn parts of Siberia, and alfo of
Greece, and is of a ferruginous colour.

EIPENNIS, in Roman Antiquity, a two edged as, ufcd
anciently by the Amazons in fight : as alfo by the ftamcn,
to cut afunder the ropes and cordage of the enemy's vclFels.
The bipennis was a weapon chietiy of the oriental nations,
made like a double ax, or two axes joined back to back,
with a fhort handle. Some compare it to a figure of a pen,
and fuppofe it hence to have acquired the name hif.nnis ;
the tube or barrel of the pen reprefenting the handle, and
tlie point or nib the head. iSIodern writers nfually compare
It to our halbard, or partizan ; from which it differed in that
it had no point, and that its Ihaft or handle was much fhort-
er. See Halbard.

BIPES, in Zoology,,^ fpecies of Lacerta, with the
body fubequal, round, imbricated, and pv.le ; on each fcale
a browr dat ; no anterior feet ; poilerior feet v.ith two toei
unarmed. Gmelin. Anguii lipcs, with 1 00 abdominal, and
60 fubcaudal plates. Linn. Muf. Ad. Frid. A native of
South America and India. Length about fix inches ; body
cylindrical and {lender ; colour pale yellow. Biped Lizard.

BiPEs, a fpecies of Coluber, defcribed by Gmelin on
the authority of Scopoli, as an inhabitant of the Tyrolefe
waters, where it is fdid to feed on frogs and fifhes ; it has
two feet, fulvous eyes, whitiih under-jaw, elliptic, marginate,
dorfal fcales ; fides fpotted with white ; abdominal plate*
whitilli, with a brown I'pot in the middle. Gmtliu defcribes
it fpecilicaliy as having 116 plates o.t the belly, and 58 fub-
caudal fcales.

BIPINNULA, in Botany. See Arethusa.

BIPLICATA, in Conchohgy, a fpecies of Volvta,
figured by Martini only. It is of a tapering fhape, fmobth,
white fpotted with yellow, and dotted with black ; lip acute;
pillar with two plaits.

BIPUNCTARIA, in Entomology, a fpeciesof Phal.t-
na (Geometra), the anterior wings of wliich are cinereous,
undulated with brown ; a duiky band in the middle, and
two black dots. Fabricius, &c.

BIPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Apis, thatinhabitsSiberia.
This infedl is hairy and black, with two yellow belts ; the
fi.-ii with two lateral black dots. Lepechin. it. Gmel.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Ap.anea, with a black, glo-
bofe abdomen, marked with two excavated dots. Liiii:. Fn.
Suec.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Cantharis, with two black
fpots on the thorax ; wing-cafes black at the tip. Fabri-
cius. Inhabits Leiplic.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Cassida, of a yellowidi
colour, with two black dots on the wing-cafes. Ihi^ is a
native of India. Fabriciu5.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Chrysomela, defcribed by
Fabricius as a native of the cape of Good Hope. It is teila-
ceous, with a brown fpot on each of the wing-cafes.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Cicada, defcribed by Lin-
nxus. It is yellow, with tv.-o brown fpots in front; wing-
cafes white, veined w'nh yellow. A native of Europe.

3D BiPUNC-

B I P

BipUNCTATA, is alfo a fpccics of CiCAOA (Dt/wj),
found ill South America. The colour is wliitilh ; wing-
cafes deflef^ed, and grifcous, with two imprcfTcd dots on
the anterior part of the mar;rin of the thorax. Fabriciiis,

&c.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpcciesof Cocci:^F.LLA, of arcdcolour,
witlr two black dots. Linn. Fn. Suec. &c.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of FoRFicuLA, that inhabits
Italy. This is black ; hind part of the head and legs ru-
fous J a white fpot on the wing-cafes. Fabriciut. It has
eleven joints in the antennne.

BiPUsCTATA, a fpecies of Leptura, of a black colour,
anH villi-.us ; wing-cafes livid ; future, fpot in the middle,
and tip black. Inhabits Siberia.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies of NiTinuLA, of a teflaceous
colour, with five black fpots. Gmelin.

I'lPUNCTATA, a fpecies of Tenthredo, with fomevvhat
f 'taceous antennre, of nine joints ; black ; fcutel black, and
marked with two white dots. Inliabus the woods of Lufacc.

BiPUNCTATA, a fpecies (i( Vespa, with a fpotted tho-
rax ; abdomen with four yellow bands, and two dots of the
fame Colour on the tirft ftgrr.ent. Fabricius. Inhabits Ger-
many.

BIPUNCTATUM, a fpecies of OpAtrum, of a brown
colour, with f^ me what cylindrical, immarginatc thorax,
with two hollows ; two extreme joints of the antenna: di-
(lant a:!d Iarc;er Hcrbth Gmel. Sec.

BIPL'NCTATUS, a fpecies of Bruchus, that inhabits
Helvetia. It is cinereous ; wing caics brown with an ocel-
lar, black dot at the bafe of each. Fabricius.

Bi pu ^:CTATUS, a fpecies of Carabus, of a fomewhat
braify colour, with two imprefled dots on the wing-cafes.
Linn, Fn. Suec. This is defcribed by Fabricius as being
brafly, with black antennx, and pale fluinks. This inhabits
Europe.

BiPUNCTATUs, a fpccics of CiM EX [Rotuiuliilus,) of a
pale grifeous colour, with a white dot on each fide of the
fcuttl near the bafe. Linnxus. Inhabits Syria.

BipUNCTAius, a fpecies of Cr vptuceph ALUS, of a
gloffy black ; wing-cafes red with two black dots ; antennre
length of the body. Fabricius. Gmelin, &c. Chrvfanula
pun^ata. Linn. Inhabits the northern parts of Europe ; on
the Nut.

BipuNCTATUs, a fpecies of Curculio, found in Eu-
rope. This is cinereous, with a black fpot on the wing-
cafes ; fhanks vellowifli. Liniiasus. Fn. Suec.

BipUNCTATus, is likewife a fpecies of Curculio, with
the thorax fcabrous ; wing-cafes clouded, with two gloffy
black fpots near tlic apex. Lepcch. it. A native of Siberia.

BipuNCTATUs, a fpecies of Gryllus {Acr'ida. Tnixa-
Us,) of a brownilh colour; fcutel as long as the abdomen.
A native of Europe.

BiPUNCTATvs, a fpecies of Hkmorodius, found in Eu-
rope. It is variegated v.ith yellow and brown, and has two
black fpots on the w4ng?. Fabricius.

BiPiNCTATUs, a fpecies of Ichneumon, found in Eu-
rope. This infcft is black ; bafe of the antennae brov^n ;
thighs at the bafe, and face yellow, with two black marks
on the latter; abdomen, (hanks, and tips of the pollerior
feet ferniginous. Linn. Muf. Lcflc.

BipuNCTATus, 3 fpecies of Papilio {/"A^. Urh.). The
wings are entire, brown ; on both fides of the firlt pair an
oblfque band, and two dots of filvery ; at the bafe of the
poftcriorones beneath a band and (bias of ycllowifh.

BiPUNCTATus, :i fpccics of ScARAB/tus, having a
black tliorax, bordered with red ; and red wing-cafes

I

B I P

with a black fpot on each. Lepech.it. Fabricius. This
is the infeft which Pallas names ScaraLitns cocdnellohles ;
it is found in the fouthern parts of RulTia under horfe-dung.

BivuNCTATUs, in Ichthyology, a ipiecies of Cyprinus,
defcribed by Bloch. The lateral line is red, with a double
feries of black fpots ; and fixteen rays in tfie anal fin. This
kind is found in the fandy rivers of Germany.

BIPUNCTELLA, in Enlomology, a fpecies of Pha-
L-CNA [Tiuca), wings cinereous brown, with a marginal
white fpot. Fabricius.

BiPUNCi ELLA, a fpecies of Phal.cna (Tiiifn), with
fufcous wings, with a common dentated white llripe ; tho-
rax fnowy-white with two black fpots. Fabricius. This
is Tineii ech'ulla of Schmetterl.

BIPUSTULATA, a fpecies of Cantharis [Mala-
ch'ius,) of a bralfy-green colour with the apex of the wing-
cafes red. Linn. I'll. Suec Geoflroy. Thh is The/cJ>horus
■viridtccncus nithhit, of Degeer. A very common iiifedl in
moll parts of Europe.

BiPUSTi'LATA, a fpecies of Cassida, of a green co-
lour ; wing-cales with two lateral languineous fpots. In-
habits Cayenne. Linn. Fabr. &c.

BipusTULATA, a fpecies of Chrysomela, defcribed as
a Swedilh infeft by Thunberg. The wing-cafes are blaclc,
fpot at the tip, head and fides of the thorax yellow.

BiPusTULATA, a fpecies of Coccinella, of a black
colour, with red fpots, and fanguineous abdomen. Linn.
Fn. Suec.

BipusTULATA, a fpecies of Hispa, with ferrated ai»-
tennx ; black and hairy, with a rufous fpot at the bafe of
the wing-cafes. This kind inhabits Italy. Fabricius.

BiPusTULATA, a fpecies of Leptura, that inhabits Up-
ial. The wing-cafes are black, ftriated with dots, and two
tcllaceous fpots. Thunberg, &c.

BiPUSTULATA, a fpecies of Nitidula, of an ovate form,
and black colour, with a red fpot on each of the wing-cafes.
Fabricius and Gmelin. This is Silpba obloriga nigra, &c.
of Linn. Fn. Snec. and SylL Nat. Silpha, of Degeer ;
Dermejlcs, of Geoffioy ; and OJloma b'lpujluluta, of Laichart.
Inhabits Europe, and feeds on carcafes, meat, bacon, &c.

BIPUSTULATUM, a fpecies of Opatrum, that in-
habits Pomerania, and is about the fixth part of an inch in
length. Its form is narrow and elongated ; colour ferrugi-
nous ; wing-cafes flightly grooved.

BIPUSTULATUS, a fpecies of Attelabus, met
with in North America. It is black, with a rufous fpot at
the bafe of each of the wing-cafes, Fabricius.

BiPUSTULATUs, an infeft of the genus Carabus, in
Gmelin's edition of the Syjlema nalurie. This is the true Cara-
bus crux major of Ijinnxu'"-, which Fabricius mifconcciving,
defcribes as a new fpecies, in his work entitled " Species In-
feftorum," under the name oi B'lpvjlulatus. By retainmg at
the fame time the Linnasan charatter of Carabus crux major
under the proper name, he conftitutes two fpecies of the
fame infecL In the Entomologia fyjlematlca of I'abricius, this
error is continued, and Gmelin, relHng on the authority of
this writer, defcribes them alfo asdiftinCt fpcceis. See Crux
MAJOR {Carabus. )

BipusTULATUs, a fpecies of Cimex, the general colour
of which is black ; thorax fpinous ; wing-cafes livid ; and
two fearlet dots on the head. Fabricius, Gmelin, &c.
Cimex balteatus of Degeer. Inhabits South America.

BiPusTULATus, a fpeci^'s of Cryptocepiialus, de-
fc-ibed by Fabricius as being of a blaek colour, with a rufous
fpot at the tip of the wing-cafes. Obf. Tlie figure refeired
to m Schwffer Ficrzchemkr Fallkafer, u not black, but of a

light

B I R

light or azure blue, rufous at the apex of the wing-cafes ;
and the anteniis of the fame colour. It is an European in-
fedl, and inhabits the flowers of the chiyfanthemum. Gmehn
confiders it as Crytocephalm pod.r of Laichart.

BiPL'STULATUs, a fpfcies of Dermestes, that is black
and gloffy, with the head, thorax, and fpot at the bafe of
the wing. cafes red. Thunberg. This is Ips hiimeral'is of
Fabriciu;. Country unknown.

BiPUSTUL'.Tus, a fpecies of Dytiscus, defcribed by Fa-
bricius.. It is fmootii and black, with two red fpots on the
pofteriorpart of the head. This inhabits the north of Europe.

BirusTi'tATCS.afpeciesof Dytiscl'S, that inhabits Ger-
many. This kind is black ; thorax yellow, vritli two black
fpots ; wing-cafes yellow, varied with brown. Fabricius.

BiPUSTULATUS, a fmall fpecies of Elater, found in
woods in England and other parts of Europe; the colour is
black and fhining, with a red fpot at the bafe of each of the
wing-cafes. Linn. Marfh, &c. Obf. Bv miftake this infect
is thus defcribed by Gmelin, Niger nitidus, elytr'ts pnncia
bafios nlgro, with reference to the Fabrician Species Infcfto-
rum, in which the dot at the bafe of the wing-cafes is faid to
be red. This is Elater funclatus of Panzer; and Le Taupin
noir a tachc: rouges of Geoffroy.

BirusTULATus, a fpecies of Gryllus, in the feftion
lonijla, of a pale brown colour; fv/ord at the extremity of
the abdomen, and two fpots on the thorax black ; wing-cafes
yellowifn, ttfTcllated with black, and fhorter than the
wings. Qmelin, &c. This infeft is rather iefs than an inch in
length according to SchaeiTer's figure, exclufive of the snten-
nje,which are rather longer than the body. Inhabits Europe.

BiPUSTULATUS, a fpecies of Scarab-cus, of a black
colour, with a rufous fpot on each of the wing-cafes. A
native of Neiv Holland. Fabricius.

BiPUSTULATUS, a fpecies of Staphvlinus, that inha-
bits the northern parts of Europe. Colour black, with a
fenuginous dot on each of the wing-cafes. Linn.

BIQUADRATE, or. BicyjADRATic/oa;;';-, in Algebra,
and Arithmetic, is tlie next power above the cube, or the
fquare multiplied by itfclf. Thus i6 is the biquadrate, or
4th power of 2, or it is the fquare of 4, which is the fecond
power of 2 : for 2X2^=4, and 4X4=16.

BIQUADRATIC Equation, an equation raifed to the
fourth power, or where the unknown quantity of one of the
terms has four dimenfions: thus x^-\-as~'-\-hx--\-cx-\-d^^o
is a biquadratic equation. See Et^uATios.

Biquadratic parabola, in Geometry, a cur\'e hne of the
third order, having two infinite legs tending the fame way.
See Parabola.

B I lit.- ad RATIO root of any number, is the fquare root of
the fquare root of that number : thus the biquadratic root
of 81 is 3 : for the fquare root of 8 i is 9, and the fquare root
of 9 is 3 : the biquadratic root of 16 is 2.

BIQUALAR, in the Cvjhms cf the Algerir.es, a cook of
the divan. The janizaries, whom the Algerines call oldachi.',
after ferving a certain time as common foldiers, are preferred
to be biqualars, or cooks of the divan, wtiich is the fii ll Itep
towards arriving at higher preferments. Biqualars have the
care of furnifhing the officers and commanders of the Alge-
rine foldiciy with meat and drink in the camp, in gairifon,
&c. From biqualars they are made odobachis ; that is, cor-
porals of comp'mics, or comma;;ders of iquadrons.

BKyUINTILE, an afpeft of the planets, when they are
144 degrees dillant from each other. It is thus called, bc-
caufe they are diftant from one another by twice the fifth
part of the 360 degrees. See -" spect.

BIR, or BiRAiDScHtK, in Giography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey in Mefopotamia, feated on a mountain near the tall

B I R

eoaft of the Euphrates, in a very fertile country, the re-
fidence of a bey ; 100 miles S. W. of Diarbeek.

BIRABETANE, in the Botanltal Writings of the An-
cunts, a name given to 'verbena, or vervain, and to other
herbs ufed in facrifices. It is only the word hieroholane, as
altered by the yEolic manner of writing and fpeaking it.
Hierobotane is the common Greek name of vervain, and
other facrifical herbs, and it is probable that the Latin name
verbena came from the iEolic manner of fpeaking this word.
All thofe herbs, which were laid upon the altars on foleirn
occafions, fuch as making of peace, ard other folemn con-
tracts, and were to be taken up bv the contrailirg parties
as part of the ceremony, were called bv the Greeks hirrot»-
taiid, that is, facred plants, and vcrbcnz ; but as the plant
we now particularly know by the name verbena was more
frequent in ufe than any other on this occafion, it was after-
wards dirtinguifhed by that nam.e. See Verbena.

BIR-AL-CADHI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Segeftan, 80 mil- s well of Z.ireng.

BIRBOOM, a town of Hindoftan in Bengal, 56 miles
W. S. W. of Moorfhedabad, 100 N. N. W. cf Calcutta.
N.Iat. 24°. E. long. 87° 4C'.

BIRBUSC^. See Birviesca.

BIRCH, Thomas, in Biography, an Englifh hiftorical
and biographical writer of extenfive and indutlrious refearch,
was born in London, Novi'mber 23, 1705. His parents
were Qiiakers ; and he was intended for his father's trade,
which was that of a coffee mill maker; but fo ftrong was
his inchnation to literature, that he requefted leave to in-
dulge it on the condition of providing for himfclf. Accord-
ingly he became afliilant to the matter of a fchool belonging
to the Qiiakers at HemelHenipfled; and after a fimilar
employment in other fituations, he at length deferted the
profeffion of his parents, and though he had not enjoyed the
advantage of an univerfity education, took orders in the
church of England. In 1732, having been ordained deacon in
1730, and pricll in 1731, he was preferred under the pa-
tronage of lord chancellor Hardwicke, who was then attor-
ney-general, to the living of Ulting, in the county of Effex.
Some time before he took orders, he married the daughter of
a clergyman ; but fhe died within 12 months after their mar-
riage. In 1735, he was admitted into the royal fociety,
and alfo into the fociety of antiquaries ; and of the formci
fociety he became fecretary in 1752, which ofSce his de-
clining health obliged him to refign in 1765. In 1753, the
degree of doftor in divinity was conferred upon him by the
Marifchal college of Aberdeen, and in the fame year he
received the fame honour from Dr. Herring, archbiihop of
Canterbury. He was alfo a director of the fociety of anti-
quaries, and a trullee of the Britifh mufcum. His church
preferments were various, and rapid in their fuccefiion ; but
the laft of thefe was the rtclorv of Depden in ElTex, which
he held, together with the united refxorics of St. Margaret
Pattens and St. Gabriel, Fenehurch-ftrect, till Iiis death.
This melancholy event happcnt d in confequence of a fall from
his horfe betwixt London and Hamptiead, January the 19th
1766. Having, in the courfc of his hfr, gcncrouCy aflilted
his relatiors, he bequeathed his library of books and MSS.
to the Britilh mufcum, and the rcfiduc of h'S property,
amounting to little more than 5cch for the purpoie of aug-
meating the fabrics of the affiitant librarians.

Dr. Birch was diftiiigiiiihed by the fjmplicity of his man-
ners, and the friendlinefs and benevolence of his dilpohtion.
He was eminently active and zealous in promoting literarj-
and laudable undertakings of various kinds; and though he
devoted much of his time and attention to j)urfuits cf litera-
ture, he gained Itifurc by early rifing for in4u!ging himltlf

3 D 2 ik

B r R

in the pkafures of fecial intercourfe with pcrfons the mod
diftiuguifhed for their attachment to letters and fcience.
With refpcA to theological fubjeas, his fentimcnts were ra-
tional and liberal, and he was a zealous friend to religious
and civil liberty. In this refpedl his views and pi incip'es \vere
conformable to thofe of the truly excellent bithop Hoiidly.
In literary labour few perfons have been more diligent
and indefatigable tlian Dr. Birch. The firil great woik in
which he engaged was, " The General Didionary, HiHo-
rical and Critical," comprehending a new tranflation of that
of Mr. Bavle, and feveral thoufand new lives, never before
publilhtd. ' This valuable work was completed, principally
by himfelf, with the co-operation of the reverend Mr. John
Peter Bernard, Mr. John Lockman, and Mr. George Sale,
in 10 volumes, folio. The full volume appeared in 1734,
andthelall in 1741. In 1737, he pubhlhed " Profeflor
Greaves's Mifcellaneous Works," 2 vols. 8vo. ; and in
1742, " Thurloe's State Papers," in 7 vols, folio, with a
dedication to lord chancellor Haidwicke. In 1743, he
edited " Cndworth's Intelleftual Syftcni," his " Difeourfe
on the Lord's Supper," and " Two Sermons," with a life
of the writer, in 2 vols. 410. His " Life of the Hon. Robert
Boyle," 8vo. which has been fince prefixed to the 410.
edition of that eminent pliilofoplitr's works, appeared in
1744; and in the fame year lie began a feries of biogra-
phical flcctches of dillinguilhed pcrfons, defigned to accom-
pany their engraved portraits by Howbraken and Vertue.
The firll volume of this work was completed in 1747, and
the fecond in 1752. In 1747, he pubhfiied in 8vo. " An
Iriquiry into the (hare which king Charles I. had in the
Tranfadions of the Earl of Glamorgan, &c." a fad which,
however overlooked, or difputed by fome of our hiftorians,
was confirmed by the evidence adduced in this interelling
pubUcation, and has been iince further corroborated by the
Clarendon Hate papers. In 174*^, Dr. Birch was the
editor, in 2 vols. 8vo. of the " Mil^cellaneous Works of Sir
Walter Raleigh," to which is prefixed a life of the author.
His next publication was " An Hilforical View of the
Negotiations between the Courts of England, France, and
Brulfels, from the year 1592 to 16:7; extrafted chiefly
from the MS. ftate papers of fir Thomas Edmondes, and of
Anthony Bacon, eiq. ; to which is added, a relation of the
ilate of France, with the charader of Henry IV. and tlie
principal pcrfons of his C(,urt, by fir George Carew," Svo.
1749. To this volume Dr. Birch has prefixed a difeourfe
on tlie utility of deducing hillory from the original letters
and papers of the perfons who wcte the principal ailors in
public affairs, followed by a biographical account of the
three negotiations above-mentioned. Mrs. Cockburn's
*' Theological, moral, dramatic, and poetical works," 2 vols.
Rvo. with the life of that ingenious lady, were edited by
Dr. Birch in 1751 ; and he alfo publiflied an edition of
*' Spciifer's Fairy Qiieen," in 3 vols. 410. One of his moll
popular works, which was " The Life of Archbifliop
Tillotfon, compiled cliieily from his original papers and
letters," and dedicated to archbilhop Herring, in one volume,
^vo. appeared in 1752 ; and in the toUowing year he re-
vifed an edition of " Milton's Profe Works," in 2 vols. 4to.
to which is prefixed a new life of the author. In 1754, he
publilhed in 2 vols. 410. " Memoirs of the reign of Qiieen
Elizabeth, from the year 1581 till her death, &c. from the
papers of Anthony Bacon, efq. and other MSS. never
before pubhdied ;" in which, befides a tiiU difplay of the
temper and actions of the earl of EfTex, much light is thrown
on the charafters of the Cecils, Bacons, and other eminent
perfons of that period. Dr. Birch's next publication was
•' The Iliftory of the Royal Society of London, from its

B I R

firft rife ; in which the moft confidcrable pf thofe Papers
communicattd to the Society, which have hitherto not been
pubhlhed, are infcrtcd in their proper order, as a Supple-
ment to the Philofophical Tranfaaions." The two lirll
volumes of this work appeared in 1756, and the other two
volumes in 1757; and they bring down the hillory to the
end of the year 1687. This is unqueftioiiably an ufeful
book of reference, and contains many particulars which
may be of occafional fervice both to the philofoplier and
the biographer. In 1760, Dr. Birch pubhflied "Letters
between°Culonel Robert Hammond, Governor of the Ille of
Wight, and the Committee of Lords and Commons at
Derisy-lioufe, &c. concerning the King's deportment at
Hampton Court, and in the lllc of Wight," Svo. ; and he
clofed his voluminous labours with " Letters, Speeches,
Charges, Advices, Sec. of Francis Bacon, lord vifcount
St. Alban's, &c. in one volume, 8vo. Soon after his
death. Dr. Maty publilhed, " The Life of Dr. Ward,"
which he had juil lived to finifh ; and he had alfo pre-
pared for the prefs, " Hillorical Letters, written in the
reign of James I. and Charles 1." which Mr. Ayfcough
propofed to pubhih. In the hit of his printed works we
might alfo comprehend fome papers communicated to the
Royal Society, and fome accounts of books in the works of
the learned ; but befides thtfe, fuch was his unwearied af-
fiduity in colhaing every fragment pertaining to literature,
and deemed by him of importance, that he lelt behind him
24 volumes 4to. of various papers copied by himfelf from
the Lambeth library. Upon the whole, whatever may be
thought of Dr. Birch's judgment in his fekaion of materials,
of the minutenefs of his refearches, of the juftice and faga-
city of his inferences from the fads which he produces, and
of the want of elegance and animation in his ftyle, it muft be
allowed, that literature has already derived, and may yet fur-
ther derive, great benefit from his labours. Biog. Brit.

Birch tree, in Botany. See BetulA.

Birch, barh, fungus, leaves, tivigs, ivincof. See BetulA.

Birch hay, in Geography, a bay on the coall of New Al-
bion, fituate in N. lat. 48° 53' 30". E. long. 237° 33'.

I'jiRCK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Wellphalia, and duchy of Berg ; 3 miles N. E. of Sieg-
berg.

BIRD, Birds, Aves, in Ornithology. Sec Avis, and
Ornithology.

Bird, or fowl-meael grafs, in Agriculture, a fpecies of
grafs, v\hich has been lately cultivated with a particular at-
tention. It is a fine, fweet, filky grafs, with a durable ver-
dure ; throws out a great crop, and produces a large quan-
tity wf feed. One rood of ground yielded a hundred weight
of feed, and a very large load of hay. It is moft proper for
upland meadow : the feed fhould be left uncovered on the
ground.

Birds, Anatomy of. The regard which has been be-
llowed upon this tribe of animals, by different defcriptions
of mankind, renders their organization one of the moft in-
terefting branches of general anatomy. The immeiife cata-
logue of the fpecies of birds, and the variety and beauty of
their external charaders, have made them favourite objeds
of inveftigatibn with the natural hiftorian. The extraordi-
nary degree of inftind difplayed in all their habits and eco-
nomy, more efpecially in the attachment of the fexes, the
conliruaion of their nefts, the care of their young, and the
condud of their migrations, have called forth tlie admira-
tion of the philofopher and the lover of nature. The fplen-
did colouring of their plumage, the powers of melody, and
the livelinefs and docility of many fpecies, have given them
value as objeds of beauty or entertainment ; whjlft others

B I R

are as highly prized from furnifliing occupation to the
fportfman, or a delicacy to tlie epicure.

The anatomical cliaraclers of this clafs of animals, are not
lefs defcrving of attention than their ot'ier properties. In the
fcale of animated exiilence, birds can Icarccly be confidercd
inferior to mammalia ; and yet many of their functions are
exercifed upon a veiy diffmiilar plan, and alrnofl conihmtly
by organs differently conlbitutcd. it is in birds that we
perceive the firft general deviations from the fchome of orga-
nization purfued m the human fubjeft : this will be found
mod remarkably exemplified in the apparatu'i for the prepa-
ration and digellion of food, the fecretio;i of urine, the mode
of generation, and the growth and economy of the young
animal, the anatomy of the brain, the llru£ture of the eye
and ear, the mechanifm of the organs of found, and the cor.-
ftruftion of the inftruments of loco-motion.

The anatomy of birds has been much profecuted both by
the older authors and in modern times, as the means of phy-
fiological knowledge, and in aid of the fcveral purpofes for
which thefe animals arc fo much eftimated. The information,
however, communicated in this way, falls far (hort of a fyf-
tematic account of the fubjeft ; to fupply which, therefore,
much original matter is nccefTarily introduced into the pre-
fent article, more particularly in the delcriptions of the blood-
veffels, of the organs of motion, and of the minute ftruc-
turc and ufes of parts. Many errors of the older writers arc
alfo correfted ; and wherever the defcriptions of others are
followed, they have been, as far as it has been prafticable, re-
vifed by a comparifon with the recent fubjeft or authentic
preparations.
Organs concerned in the Exercise of the vital
Functions.
The Aluulh and its coiilained Paris.

In the other clafles of animals, th<rfe parts are con-
ilrufted to effeft the divifion of the food previous to its
paifage into the ftomach, but in birds the procefs of maf-
tication is either imperfeftly performed, or carried on
by a peculiar mechanifm to be afterwards defcribed.
Birds are unprovided with thofe foft and flexible parts
called lips ; tlie aperture of their mouth is made by the
prolongation of the two jaws, which are covered with a
hard and horny fubilance. Thefe are named the upper and
the lower mandlUes, and together form the leak or hill.
The bones which enter into the compofition of the bill, will
be confidered along v.ith the other parts of the fteleton.
The external or horny part is produced, like other fnnilar fnb-
ilances, from a vafcuiar and fpongy membrane, which is in-
terpofed between it and the bones ; it correfponds exactly
in (hape with the jaws, which ferve it as a mou'd.

The bill is dehgned for many different purpofes, and'con-
fequently is fubje£l to great variety in its conformation. In
the birds of prey it is Itrong, hooked, fliarp, and furniihed
with a tooth-hkc procefs on its edge, to enable them the
better to feize and lacerate their prey ; thofe birds which
fubfilt on fmail grain, are provided with (hort, pointed,
fharp.edged bills for picking up and breaking their food ;
the parrots alfo ufe their bills for dividing their meat ; in
thofe inflances, therefore, the bill may be confidercd analo-
gous to the teeth of other animals ; but it is only the inci-
fors with which it can be compared, as it is incapable both
from its thin edges, and from the nature of the articulation
of the lower jaw, of performing any thing like the grinding
motion in which properly mallication confifts.

The pifcivofous birds have commonly large and extended
bills, which become necefiary to them, in order to fecure
their prey ; thefe birds almoft always fwallow their food
without dividing it.

B I R

Swallows zn& goat-fuclers have fliort bills, but opening
very wide, fuitablc to their mode of procuring their food,
which confitls in taking flies while the bird is on the wing.

The ii'ciod-pcckers, ivry-necks, nul-katches, &c. life the bill
as an inltrument for peiforating the bark of trees, and break-
ing nuts ; for which purpofe it is conftru6ted like a wedge.

It may, in fine, be given as a general obfervation, that
the form and llruclure of the bill indicate the proper habiti
and economy of the birds ; they have therefore been al-
ways employed by naturalills as claffific dillinftions, and to
their works we refer the reader for a more detailed account
of the peculiarities obfcrved in the bills of birds.

In confequence of a particular mechanifm, arifing from
two additional bones, the upper jaw of birds is capable of
a certain degree of motion. In general this is very confaicd,
but the piu-rot tribe are able to move the upper jaw with
confiderable freedom. The bones and mufcles upon v. liich
this peculiarity depends, will be defcribed with the organs
of motion.

The cavity of the mouth is lined with a thick vafcuiar mem.-
biane, behind which are placed a great number of follicular
glands, which difcharge a mucous liquor upon tveiy part of
the furface of the mouth. They are, however, moll abun-
dant in thofe parts which fuftain moll friction, as the com-
mencement of the cefophagus, and furrounding the aperture
of the nares, in the upper and back part of the mouth.

A cuticular tunic is fpread over the glandular membrane,
which is as ufual fo foft and dehcate, that it cannot without
difficulty be detefled.

The tongue of birds can hardly be confidered an inftru-
ment of manducation ; its motions are very limited, in con-
fequence of its containing a bone which runs through its
whole length, and the lingual bone being articulated behind
with the OS hyoides, which determines the extent of its move-
ments. The only biids, in which the tongue is immediately
concerned in the divifion of the food, are \.ho{e pajferes livinf
upon feeds that are inclofed by a (hell. In fach the tongue
is employed to convey the feed between the edges of the
bill, and fecure it there until it is broken, which is not un-
like theaftion of the tongue of mammalia during mailication.

The tongue of the ivooil-pccters and -wry-necks is an organ
of curious llrufture, and enables thefe birds to transfix their
prey at fome dillance from the mouth ; the mechanifm by
which this is accomplilhed, and the bones and mufcles whicli
belong to the tongue in general, will be particularly defcribed,
with the other organs of motion. The varieties in external
form, and the llruCl:ure and integuments of the fubftance of
the tongue, will be confidered under the head of the organ
of talle.

Salivary glands have been afcribed by moft authors to
birds ; but as it would appear, without duly confidering the
ufes of thefe parts. Birds, as already obferved, do not com-
minute their food by mallication in the mouth, for which
purpofe the faliva is employed by other animals ; and the
glandular bodies, which have been defcribed as falivary, ap-
pear to yield a fluid of rather a mucous than an aqueous na-
ture. The internal furface of the mouth of birds i^ bc-
fmeared with mucus, in order to facilitate the paflage of the
food, which would not be neceflary, if the aliments were
foftened by faliva.

The reputed falivary glands of birds are fituated within
the angle formed by the anterior part of the lower jaw, and
between the ikin and the inner membrane of the mouth.
They are two in number, and appear to be compofed of
granular maffes, or follicles, clofcly connected to each other.
They difcharge their fecretion into the lower part of the
mouth, by means of fome foramina arranged on each fide of

the

B I R

the tongue. They would feem to be of the greateft fize in
proponion to the Mrd, where the food is hard and dry grain ;
they arc larger in the cotnnwn fozvl than in the gbofe.

The I'arifKin academicians obferved thtfe glands in aimed
every bird they diflTefted. In the nJli'tL-h they defcribe them
as btincj litiiatid tou;irds the pharynx ; and in the lujlard,
thcv found leveral glandular bodies.
Otjophagus.

The tube, which conveys the food into the ftomach of
birds, is not fif.iated exactly on the fore part of the
neck, but a little on the right lide. It is partially co-
vered by liie trachea, and it is connefted to all the neigh-
bouring parts by loofe cellular fuhllaiicc ; in confequencc of
which, and its inchnation to one ^\A<:, when the neck is much
bent, it does not take the fame degree of flexure, but fall? a
little off to the right iide. This effeA is bell obferved in
fonie of the birds which have long and flexible necks, as the
gralli and tunler lirils.

The form of the rcfophagus varies according to the habits
of the bird, and the nature of its food. In the rapacious
birds, and tliofc which fubfdl: on fid), it is of great capacity
throughout its whole length, generally exceeding in width
the llomach iti'elf. Tt.e mag^it^lde of the oefophagus not
onlv enables thofe birds to fwallow their prey whole, but
anf-.vers the purpofe of a repofitorv for their food, and thus
counterbalances the difad^antagcs ariling from their preca-
rious means of fubfillence.

Herons, the curmornnl, ihe fpoon-bill. Sic. will devour as
much fiih at once as will be futficieiit to fnpport them for a
confiderable time ; and an cW is often obliged to exift for
davs or weeks upon a rat or nioufe, which being fwal-
lowed, is conveyed by degrees into the ftomach, until the
whole K digeflrd.

All the pifct-uorous birds have the ccfophagus mod capa-
cious at its commencement, or next the fauces, for the more
convenient fwallorting of their prey, which is always gulped
down.

The ptiir/jn fnrnifhes a moft remarkable inftance of a dila-
tation of the fauces, in the pouch which is placed beneath
the lower jaw. This bag, if full, is very coifpicuous ex-
ternally ; but when it is empty, tho bird has the power of con-
tracting it very confiderably ; when completely diftended, it
is faid to be capable of containing ten quarts of water. The
internal part ot the pouch appears to potTefs the fame ftruc-
ture ?6 the reft of the cefopliagus ; the flein covering it ex-
ternallv, is clothed with a (horc down, fmooth and foft,
like fdk.

The ptlkan derives a double advantage from this enlarge-
ment of the fauces ; it enables it to provide a fi.'pply of food
and water for future neceflity. and to tranfport nourifhment
to its young, until they can acquire it for tliemfclves : in dif-
gorging the food for her family, the parent pretfes the bot-
tom of the fack agsinft her breaft, and thus difcharges its
contents ; from which probably arofe the abfurd fable of her
opening her breaft, and feeding her young witti her blood.

A very remarkable provilion of this kind lias been dcfcribed
;in the luf.aril, by Dr. James Douglas. In this animal there
is a D.en-ibranous bag, extending for fome way down the
-fore-part, of the neck, cap.ible of containing feven quarts of
water ; it communicates with the month by an aperture be-
neath the tongAie. See PliUe I. fg. i. in the Anatomy of
■Birds, in which -this part is reprefented, as it has been fi-
gmed in Edwards's Natural Hiftory of Birds, vol. ii. p. 73.
a the pouch, upon which a ligature is faftened near its con-
■ciexion with the mo.ith, i the trachea, and c the oefophagus.

Tlie pouch of the buftard is confined to the male bird, ac-
CPfding io moll authors ; forac have, however, afcribed it

B I R

to the female, and others have doubted its exiftence altoge-
ther. The Panfian academicians difieAed fix buftards, and
do not defcribe the throat fac, although all their fubjecls
were mall s.

The buftard is faid to ufe the pouch, as a temporary re-
fervoir of water, from which it fupplies the female during
the period of incubation, and likewife the young brood, un-
til they can move from the neft. ll has been alio occafion-
ally employed as the means of defence. Harrington relates in
his Mifcellanies, p. 555. that at Morocco, where it is ufual
to fly the hawk at the buftard, the latter has been known
to ejeft the water contained in the fack againft his alfailant,
who is not uncommonly by this means bafHcd in the purfuit.

The crrip, or craw, is a term applied to another Xpecies
of dilatation of the ccfophagus of birds.

When this enlargement is fiiigle, it is fituated upon the
right fide of the oefophagus, and placed fo low on the neck,
that a portion of the bag is accommodated in the fpace left
at the upper part of the thorax, within the fork-lhaped
bone. Its form is in general globular, but rendered fome-
what irregular, from its connexion w;th the ccfophagus,
which enters at the fuperior part, and appears again on
the middle, by which means the greater part of the crop is
formed into a cul de fac.

It is obvious, that the effeft of this ftrufture is not only
to receive a greater quantity of food than can be di^efted,
but alfo to detain it in the craw until it has fuffered fome
change.

The birds in which the craw is found of the figure jufi.
dcfcribed, feed ufually upon grain or other hard fubftances,
which req'jire to be foftened by maceration in the mucous
fccretion oi the oefophaguf. Of thefe we may mention as
inftances, the pheafants, the common fcivl, the pmtadoy the
turkey, the Indian cock, ihc pca-foojl, iic.

Fig. 2. of Piate I. in the Anatomy of Birds, exhibits the
crop of the ph:cifant, a the oefophagus above the craw, b
the fame going on to the ftomach, c the dilated part forming
the crop.

The Parifian anatomifts found the oefophagus verj- much
enlarged in the ojlrich, but fo clofe to the gizzard that
thefe two parts appeared to be confounded with each other ;
fo that it was difficult to mark the fuperior orifice of the
ventricle ; the fituation of the bag alfo was very unufual,
being lower than the gizzard, into which the entrance was
by the bottom, and thus what is commonly called the fupe-
rior orifice, was really the inferior.

It is fomcwhat remarkable, that the hujlard, which is a
graminivorous bird, and in moft refpefts refembles thole
which have crops, fhoiild be quite without this provifion,
its ccfophagus confifting of an equal and regular tube.

The parrot has a dilatation of the lower part of the cc'o-
phagus, which is commonly reckoned to be a crop, though
perhaps improperly, as the enlargement is neither fo fud-
denly produced, nor in fuch a degree, as to obftruft the
pafTage of the food into the ftomach ; the craw of the par-
rot IS only calculated, therefor*, to afford a temporary ac-
commodation to its food.

Some carnivorous birds are furnifhed with a cnw, which
only ferves the purpofe of a refervoir, as their food does
not (land in ne^d of maceration to foften it, which is fo
neceftiiry with hard and dry grain.

The moft fingular kind of crop is that found in r.he pigeon
jIfenuF. The ccfophagus in thefe birds is of great capacity,
from its very commencement, and at its lower part it fweils
out into two large facks, between which and the llomach it
fuffers a confiderable contradion. See Plate I. of the Ana-
tomy of Birds, fig- 3. a the upper portion of the oefophagus,

h, h.

B I R

f, b, the two crops, c the contrafted part of the cefo-
phagns.

In fome fpecies, as the pouting pigeon^ the oefophagus
above the crops, is of fuch great dimenfions, that the latter
are hardly difcernible ; thele birds alfo have the power of
dillending their oefophagus with air, which gives them that
grottfque appeal ance from whence they derive their name.
A capacious crop is more necefTary to the pigeon than other
birds, both becaufe its food requires long maceration, and
becaufe the young, and even, on fome occafions, the female,
draw their fubfiftence from this repofitor)-. The extraordi-
nary-change which occurs in the itrnCture of the inner mem-
brane of the crops of the pigeon, by which a milky fluid is
fecreted, for the nouriihmcnt of the young birds, will be
defcnbed in its proper place.

Although there is all the variety in the form of the
oefophagus we have defcribed, the internal ftrudure appears
to be the fame in all birds. Belidcs the external cellular
covering, by whicii it is connetled to the adjacent parts, it
pofTefTes a 'mufcular coat, an internal vafcular tunic, and a
cuticular lining. The mufcular coat coniiils of two layers
of fibrei ; in the external layer thtfe are tranfvcrfe, or more
properly circular ; the other llratum is compofed of longitu-
dinal tibres. The mufcular coat is moil Itrongly marked
at the top of the tube, where the actions of degluLition com-
mence, and upon the crops, where fupport and motion are
required. The internal coat refembles in llrufture that
which is ufually met with upon the inner parts of cavities,
with this difference that it is provided in birds with an extra-
ordinar)' number of follicular glands, wh ch pour out their
fluid through numerous foramina, r^fcmbhng pin-holes,
upon the internal furface. Thefe glands fecrtte a quantity
of mucus, which is employed in macerating the food,
while it is detained in the celophagus, or crop. This fecre-
tion is remarkably copious. Spallanzani introduced a piece
of fponge into the crop of a pigeon ; and after it had re-
mained there twelve hours, he cxpreffed from it above an
ounce of mucus, and the quantity obtained from a turkey,
amounted to feven ounces in ten hours. The follicular
glands are moll numerous at the commencement of the oefo-
phagus, and towards the termination of this tube in the llo-
mach, the inner fui-face of the craw is but fparingly fupplicd
with them. See Plate I. of the Anatomy of Birds, Jig. 2. in
which the oefophagus and crop are inverted, for the purpofe
of exhibiting the orifices of the mucous follicles, and in /%. 3.
they alfume a btau'iful and regular appearance below the
dilated parts of the oefophagus. It is very common for the
mucous glands to be affembled in a regular and marked man-
ner round the very termination of the oefophagus, as a in
Plate II. Jig. 2. of the Anatomy of Birds.

The cuticle, which inveilsthe oefophagus, is generally fo
thin and tender, that it might efcape obfervation. It is,
however, fufficiently plain in many large birds, and almoft
always vifible, upon the iniide of the crop or the other di-
lated parts, which are more expofed to friftion from extra-
neous fubftances. The infenfible lining of the oefophagus ter-
minates abruptly at the zone of gailric gland;.

It may be remarked with retpeft to the oefophagus of
birds,"that its chief pecuharities confiil in the great fize, oc-
caGonal enlargements, and number of mucous glands. Thefe
circumllances neceffarily depend upon the very lingular flruc-
ture of the ftomach, which we fhall next defcribe.
Stomach,

The organ of digeRion in birds confifts of two parts ; one
for producing the digeftive fluid ; the other the receptacle
in which the cor.verfion ot the food is effefted. The ap-
paratus for the fecretion of the gailric juice is called,

B I R

TLt Bulbils glandulofus, or the Zone of Gajlric Glands. —
This part is fituated at the termination of the oefophagus,
and appears in moll inftances to be the continuation of that
tube. It has the fame cellular and mufcular coa:s, whicli
oblcure its real ftrufture, when perceived externally, efpcci-
ally in the graminivorous birds, which have ilrong mucles
upon the oefophagus. When the outer tunics are removed,
a number of fmall glandular bodies arc expofed, arranged
with the mo.l perfect regularity, and clofcly applied to each
other. They affume an indiitindl granular appearance in
Imall birds generally, and even flill more fo in thofe which
fubiill on animal food, as the accipitrine and pifcivorous hivds;
but in the gallina, and the large graminivorous -water birds,
as theywi^n, the goof, &c. the gailric glands, when divtfted
of their coaf:, are readily difcovcred, by the naked eye, to
be fmall cylinders, or tubes, placed hori20ntally with refpcdl
to the parictes of the ftomach ; the external end is clofcand
of a round figure ; the internal extremity of the tube is
fomewhat concave, and cont?.i.iS a fmall foramen, which is
applied to a correfponding hole in the internal membrane of
the bulbus glandulofus. See Puile II. m the Anatomy of
Birds, Jg. I. « rtprefents a number of the gaftric glands,
with their external extremity expofed, by a portion of the
mufcular coat beir.g removed ; and in_/%. 2. 6 Ihews the ori-
fices of thele glnds upon the internal coat of the ilomach,
and c the cut edge of the bulbus, with the cylii.ders as they
are placed between the mufcular and ir.temal coats. The
fubjtft of both the figures is the •wildfwan.

The gailric glands commonly encncle the beginning of
the itomach as a pcrfecl and equal zone. In fome ii.ftances,
however, where they are not large, as in the rapacious and
pifcivorous birds, they are more numerous at one part of the
llomacii than another; ke P/ate lll.Jg.2. which exhibits
the ftomach of the heron, b b the gaftnc glands.

The form of the bidbus is not quite regular in the ojlrich;
the ftrutture of the glands alfo is not the fame as in other
birds : inftead of being placed in regular and dole order,
t.'icy are dilpofcd in maffes of an unequal form ai.d iize,
feparated tor fome dillance from each other. On making a
feclion of the maffts, they are found divided or interrupted,
by proceffes of ftrong white cellular fubftance ; from which
it would Icem, that they are compofed of fcveral glands,
although there is b'.:t one foramen belonging to each inafs on
the internal tunic or the bulbus. The magnitude of the ori-
fices of the gaftric glands, even exceeds the proportion to be
cxpeAcd from the lize of the bird ; being capable of receiving
the head of a Lrge pin, they Hand at the dillance of about
the J of an inch alunder, and do not open with perfcft re-
gularity upon the i:iternal fl^face of the ftomach, being
mofl croivded towards the centre, where alfo their apertures
are largell ; the internal tunic of the oftrich, from thefe cir^
cumllances, exhibits a «orm-eatei! appearance.

The gaftric glands in all birds, like other parts, which
produce an .important fecretion, are endowed with aa ex-
treme degree of vafcularitv.

Some authors have defcribed a cuticuLir coal, on. the in-
ternal furface of the bulbus glandulofus, which they have
compared to velvet on account of its foft and fpurgy tex-
ture ; it appears, however, very doubtful, whether this cover-
ing Ihould be conlidered a tunic or not; we have obfervcd
that it is readily detached, and loluble in wiiter ; it certainly
bears no refemblance to the cpidcnnis of the cefopliagus, and
ftill lefs to the fubllauce which iuvells the rcmaiuing portion •
of the ftomach, or gizzard.

No very latisfaftory experiments have yet been made up-
on the nature ol the digellive fluid of birds. When it is ex-
prtffed from the gaftric glands, which is the only mode of

obtain-

B I R

obtaining it pure, it is obferved to be of an afli or pale yel-
low colour, turbid, and of a tenacious confillencc, like mu-
cus. Spallanzani found it in feveral birds to have a bitter
and fait tallo, which he attributed to admixtrre with fomc
of the fluids contained in the inteftines ; he difcovcred alfo,
that the turbidity and the colour were produced by the exift-
cnce of a number of ycllov.- particles, too minute to be dif-
tinftly feen without the aid of the microfcope, and which
in a few hours fubfuhn^j to the bottom, left the fupernatant
liquor as tranfparent as water. He has remarked the yellow
tinge to vary in intcnl'ity, according to the Ipecies; in the
eagh, for iiulance, it is cineritious, and i:i the croiu a red-
dilh yellow colour, like the yolk of an egg.

A number of the experiments perfi-i nied by Sparanzani,
although in f^me inllances he failed, (hew that the gallric
fluid of carvivorous b'trHs will ad upon vegct:ible matters
and upon the ut!i?rhand, that graminivorous birds can digell
animal food : hut his mofl interefting and ir.iportant experi-
ment on the properties of the gallric fluid, is that made to
determine its powers of refilling the operation of cold. " On
«a very cold day in winter," he fa\ s, " 1 cxpofed a fmall
"quantity (of tlie gallric juice of tiic eagle) in a glafs, on a
«' window, along with two other glafles containing water, in
•' one of whieh was diflijlvcd a quantity of common fait, fuf-
" licient to give it a Hronp:er tallc than the gallric fluid had.
" Thethermometers fet befule the glafTes Hood at five degrees
" below o (twenty ar.d thret-fourths, Faren. ). Of the three
" liquors, the fiill that was frozen, was the common water,
" the next was the fait water, and the lall was the gallric fluid.
" When I carried tirem into my apartment, where the tempe-
"rature was three and an half dcg. above o. the firlt that
"thawed was the gallric fluid, next the brine, and lallly the
" water." The conclufion which neccflarily refults from this
experiment is, that the gallric juice of birds, and from ana-
logy, that of other animals, is capable of refilling the ef-
feiEls of cold more than common fluids, or even thofe impreg-
nated with a great quantity of fait; and therefore it may be
confidered as poflcfUiig fome degree of vitality. If this fup-
pofition be admitted, it determines the nature of the digef-
tive procefs, fo long a quellion in phyfiology.

The gallric fluid of the crow has been fubmitted to chemi-
cal examination by Scopoli, by which he difcovered that it
contained a quantity of gelatine and faponaceous fubft;ance,
fome muriate of ammonia, and phofphaLe of lime, with a
large proportion of water.

The J'tcotul part of the organ of tl'ge/lion of I'lrJs, is not
lefs Angular than the llrufture jufl^ defcribed ; it immediately
iucceeds the zone of gallric glands, and when in the natural
fituation, occupies the left region of the abdominal cavity, in
which pofition it is retained by the feveral reflexions of peri-
toneum, which conllitute the air cells. From being the part
into which the food is received in order to undergo the pro-
cefs of digellion, it has commonly received the diftinftive
appellation offlomach : but it would feem more confillent, not
only with the form of the digellive organ in fome birds, and
with its fuiiftions in other animals, to apply the term ftomach,
both to the gallric glands, and to the mufcular bag which im-
mediately receives their fecretion, and the food ; or for the
greater convenience and clearnefs of defcription, the lower
portion of the llomacli might be dillinguifhed from the
bulbus glandulofus, by the name of ventricle.

The greatcll variety exifls with refjxra to the (Irufture of
this part of the organ of digellion in birds : when it poflfeires
a certain degree of mufcubrity, it is well known under the
uzmeoixht gizzard ; and when its mufcles are fo thin as to
give it the appearance of a Ample bag, it is commonly, though
erroneoully, called a membrano-us llomach.

B 1 R

Tourcroy attempted to eflablifli two clafTes of birds, ac«
cording to the formation of their llomachs, calling the one
viyogaflrlques, and the otiier hymenogaflr'iques, but thefe
terms were only applicable to the two extremes.

Vic d'Azir has admitted three dillinclions in the ftruflurc
of the ventricle ; the firll that of the true gizzard, of which
he gives iuftances in the gal/in.-e, thcfwan, the goofe, &c. ; the
fecoi.d where the mufcles which compofe the gizzard are
not dillinCl from the other parts, nor vciy ftrongly marked,
as in the thnijh and jay ; the third is the membranous llo-
mach, as it is called, which is found iu the heron, eagle, cor-
morant, &:c. See the introdudlion to Vic d'Azir's great
Syllem of Anatomy.

Thefe dillinftions are not, however, juft ; the gradation
from the molt mufcular gizzard to the thinneil ventricle, is
regular and uninterrupted ; in order to underftand whieh,
and the other variations in llr jtture, it is neceffary that the
true g zzard, or mufcular llomach, be lirll defcribed.

The external form of this organ is ufu:illy an irregular
oval, the two ends of which are made of the great lateral or
cligajlrie mufcle.

Tiiis mulcle conftitutes the principal mafs of the gizzard ;
its attitude with refpedl to the buibus glandulofus is nblique.
The two flefhy portions are united by means of a ftrong flat
tendon, on each lide of the gizzard, which in the centre is
dillinCt from the parietes of the ventricle.

Thepoition of the llomach, which appears between the two
flefliy mallcs of the digallric mufcle, and which is croflfed by
the tendon, belongs to the cavity of the ventricle ; it is com-
pofed of flelhy fibres, pafling in feveral direftions, as may be
moll convenient for diminilhing the cavity. Many of thefe
fibres are continued into the fubftance of the digallric mufcle,
and others run in its outer margin, thus giving integrity and
connexion to thefe two portions of the ventricle. See Plate
W.fig. r. in the Anatomy of Birds, which reprefents the ex-
ternal appearance of the llomach of the 'wild fzvan, bl, the
flefliy parts of the digallric mufcle, c, the tendon connefting
them to each other, d, the parietes of the ventricle on the
fuperior part, e, the fame, inferiorly, f the margins of the
digallric mulcle, with fibres pafling along them.

The difpofition of the fibres in the interior of the digaftric
mufcle is exceedingly curious. They appear, upon a fuper-
fieial view, to be arranged in thin concentric laminx, fepa-
rated from each other by the moll delicate tendon. Thefe
layers pals to the lateral tendons on the circumference, fo
that their force is exerted upon them. See Plate III. fig. I.
which is the fcAion of the gizzard of the goofe, a a, the two
great maffes of the mufcidar fubftance, h,b, the tendons by
which they are connecled to each other. But if another
ledlion be made, parallel to the fides of the gizzard, or acrofs
the concentric layers, we have found each of thelaminje to
be divided by a great number of dehcate tendinous procefles
which form with each other fquares and triangles of various
fliapes, producing a reticulation, not unlike a honeycomb.
The extraordinary multiphcation of mufcular fafciculi, which
arifes from the lamellated and reticulated ilrutture of the
gizzard, creates a force which almoll furpafles calculation.

On laying the gizzard open by cutting through the
tendon, which is the thinnell part, it is obferved to be co-
\ered internally with a rude, callous fubftance, of a dark
brown colour ; this is thin and pliable upon the portion of
the ventricle, not inclofed by the digallric mufcle, and par-
takes of the motions of the cavity ; but when it covers tiiat
mufcle, it becomes as tough and inflexible as the hoof of a
quadruped ; two oval furfaces are feen to projeft beyond the
other parts ; they are raifed upon the interior of the thickell
portions of the digaftric mufcle, and the horny integument

wliea

B I R

* hen pafiing over them acquires nearly the thicknefi of an
eighth of an inch. Plate II. fig. 2. in the Anatomy of Birds,
fhcws the gizzard of the ivihiftvan laid open, d the divided
tendon, e the cuticular or horny covering of the gizzard,
ending decidedly at the commencement of the inteftine, and
below the z me of gaftric glands ; at the latter place the edge
is (hewn detached, // the two prominent oval fnrface?, g g
the origin of the inteftine, which being cut off fliort on the
outfide permits the light to appear through it.

The cavity of the giz/ard differs verj- much in fhape and
extent from what might be expcAcd, from the external
figure of that organ. When all foreign matters have been
expelled, the two prominent oval furfaces approach each
other, leaving only a flit between them : any thing that de-
ferves the name of a cavity, is litinted above and below the
place where the tendons crofs (fee Plate 11. Jig. 2.^, for juft
within the tendon there is not cavity fnfficient to contain the
end of a finger. See Plate [II. Jig. I. which fhewsa feclion
in which the two oval fnrfaccs are applied to each other,
leaving at either end the appearance of a round hole, by
means of which the fuperior and inferior cavities of the ven-
tricle have communication.

When the horny or infenfible lining is removed, there ap-
pears another coat to the gizzard. This is loft, fomewhat
fpongy, and endowed with vafcularity ; it is intimately united
to the mufcular fubftance of the vertricle, on one fide, and
on the other affords a furface for the adhefioQ of the homy
coat ; the connexion with which appears to depend upon the
mutual infertion of villous proceffes, too fine to be djllinftly
perceived by the naked eye.

Such is the defcription of the mufcular ventricle, or true
glzz-ard, as it exifts in thtfwari, the goofe, the Juci, the phea-
fant, and common fowl, the pintado, the turiey, and a few
others. In by far the greater number of birds, there is a
deviation from the ftruclure of the gizzard. The digaftric
mufcle is lefs powerful, its tendon is incoi-porated with the
parietes of the ventricle ; the oval, or grinding furfaces are
little or not at all diflin ^uifhable from the reft of the cavity,
which is therefore of 1 irger capacity ; and, laQly, the fub-
ftance lining the ventricle is lefs tough, thick, and hard,
aoproaching more to the nature of cuticle. It would be
endiefs to enumerate ail the different inftances of intermediate
firufture, which we and others have obferved ; fuffice it to
fay, that it exifts in almoft all thtpqfferes, or fmall birds which
fubfift upon a mixed food, fuch as gram, wonns, infefts, and
frj'ts ; alfo in mod; of the order fcanf;res, and in ma:!y of the
graUte and anfres, which are purfued as game. In all wkich
inftances the deviation from the true flructure of the gizzard
varies in degree according to the nature of the food ufed by
tlie bird ; nav, differs from this caufe in the fame individual.
Thus the gull has a ftrong mufcular ventricle, when fed upon
grain, which, if the bird be fupporttd by fiih, becomes fo
thin as to approacii the membranous ftomach.

It is remarkable, that many birds which Kve upon grain
and hard fubftances, have neither a very mufcular ventricle,
nor the horny integument verj- thick. This is the cafe with
all thejlnitbimts birds, and fome gaUina:, as the lujlaid.

Tlie llomach of the ojlii.h is capacious ; the digaftnc
mufcle is thin, confidering the fize of the bird, and the na-
* ture of its food ; and the cuticular coat is fo fcft, that it has
been aptly compared by feveral authors to flannel. The
Parifian anatoraifts defcribe the ftomach of the cajfowary
as being thinner than that of the cjlrich, and divided into
two Darts by a valvular projeclion of the ini^er coat.

When the digaftiic mufcle becomes fo thin as to form a
mere layer of fibres, in rlofe union with the other coats of.
the ftomach, and its tendons only fir.e apoiieuiofes, expnnded

Vol.. IV.

B I R

on each fide, the ventricle is termed memhrcmous ; an im-
proper appellation, inafmuch as the very fame parts e.\ift,
which belong to the powerful and maflTy gizzard, although
in a difguifed and diminiflied form, and unequal to the fame
fundions ; affording thus a curious example of the uniformity
with which nature copies her own works.

This fpecies of ftomach is almoft confined to the aceipitrine,
or rapacious birds, and thofe amongft the gralla and anferes,
which feed on fifti. The -woodpeckers alfo polTefs it, and pro-
bably it may be found in fome foreign birds, which live on
infcds and foft fruits.

The fubftance lining the membranous ftomach is much
thicker than common cuticle. It is occafionally foft, at:d
almoft of a gelatinous confiftencc, and eafily detached from
the internal coat of the ventricle.

The fliape of this kind of ftomach is iifnally a femi-cval,
or the fection of an egg. Several of iht pifcivorous birds, at
the heron, bittern, pelican, &c. have, however, a fecond
chamber, through which the food pafTes in its way, to the
inteftine. See Plate III. in the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 2.
is the ftomach of the heron ; a the lower part of the ccfo-
phagiis, appearing fmaller than it really is, .from being
thrown into folds ; b the zone of gaftric glands, diftiatllr
feen through the coats of the ftomach, in confequence of
the cavity being diftended with a tranfparent fluid, and after-
wards placed againft the light. If Spallanzani had em-
ployed the fame expedient, he conld not have denied the
exiftence of a diftinil glandular ftruclure to the heron ; c the
inferior part of the ftomach, chiefly compofcd of mufcular
fibres,^ fpreading in a radiated manner from the lateral apo-
neurofis ; d, which fupplies the place of the great tendons
of the digaftric mufcle ; e the fecond ftomach, furniftied
with circular mufcular fibres ; / the firft inteftine arifing
from the additional ventricle. The communication between
the two ftomachs is verj- ftrait in the pelican.

Having defcribed the ftrufture of the digeftive organ of
birds, it remains to confider its funflions. In thofe cafes
where the mufcular power of the ftomach is inconfiderable,
and the cuticular coat thin and foft, digeftion is carried on
in the fame way as in man and other animals, with this dif-
ference only, that the gaftric fluid is furnifiied by a diftinft
apparatus of glands, inftead of being fccreted by the whole
furface of the cavity. In the true gizzard, however,
we perceive an extraordinary departure from the common
ftrufture of the organs of digeftion. This part fupphes the
place of the teeth of other graminivorous animals. In its
mechanic powers and aclion it refembles a mill : the upper
part ferves as the receptacle for the grain ; the two inttnial
projecting oval furfaces correfpond to the mill ftones, and
the firft inteftine receives the fubftances in the ground or di-
vided ftate. The experiments made tt the acad.-my of Ci-
mento, and thofe of Reaumur, Spallanzani, and others,
fhew tht.t tlie gizzard is a machine of no ordinary powers.
Tliefe experiments confifted in compelling birds to fwailovr
liard and unyielding fubftances, and, after fome hours, ex-
amining what were the elftdls produced upon them.

V.'hen balls of glafs, or other brittle fubftances, were em-
ployed, they were fpeediiy leduccd to powder : nictals and
precious ftones were indented or abraded. Spallanzani in.
troduced into the gizzard of the turkey, and common fowl,
leaden balls, armed in one inftance Avith twelve (harp needles,
one quarter of an inch long ; and in another, fct with as
many lancet points. Upon dellroying the birds iS hours
afterwards, the needles and lanceti were found broken off,
and marks of impreffion appeared even upon tiie balls them
felves ; and, what he confidered more extraordinary, the
coats of the gizzard were perfeflly ur.Uurt. When we con-
^ li fidef

B I R

fider the immenfe (Irengtli which is obtained by the arrange-
ment of the mufciilar fibres in the gizzard, and the horny
conliftence of its inner coat, there appears notliing incredible
in thefe tfFefts. And there is Hill another circnmllance, not
before mentioned, which fully accounts for fuch extraordi-
nary powers of trituration : every mufcnlar llomach or giz-
zard contains a number of fmall ftones or pebbles ; the ii/e
of the ftones is proportioned to that of the bird. Their
number is fubjeft to vary from many accidental caufes. Two
hundred have been reckoned in a lurkey-hen, and above a
thoufand have been taken from the gizzard oi one goofe.

Spallan-.'.ani denied that thefe Hones were at all required
for the comminution of the food. He has endeavoured to
fupport his opinion by feveral experiments, which are, how-
ever, not clear or conlifUnt with each other, and in contra-
di<5tion to general obfervation ; for it is well known, that
bird'i do not thrive when they cannot obtain fmall ftones,
and that it is part of the duty of the parent to provide them
for their young, before they leave the nell. Spallanzani
acknowledges that he could not procure any bird io young,
that it had not fome ftones in its gizzard ; and therefore he
was obliged to rear pigeons and turkeys even from the (hell,
before ke was able to fucceed. Birds, fo tar from fwallow-
ing ftones from kcennefs of appetite, or in raiftake for food,
feek out and feleft tliofe moll fuitable to their purpofc,
which are almoft all bits of quartz, of an equal fize, and a
roundifti fitjure, with many fmall (liarp angles.

JLarge birds, as the Jlrulh'ious kind, the buJlariJ, Sec. are
in the habit of fwallowing coins and pitces of metal, which
neceftarily fuffcra redudion by the friftion to which they are
CKpofed ; and hence has arilen the ridiculous notion of the
o/irirh digetting iron.

We have no helitation in deciding, that the extraneous
bodies found in the gizzard are abiolutcly required for the
perfeft divifion of the food ufed by thofe birds that employ
them. In further proof of which opinion it may be men-
tioned, that they are proportioned in quantity to the degree
of mnfcularity pofrefted by the ventricle, and tlie nutritive
quality of the food ; and lh:!t thofe birds which have thin
ilomachs, and hve upon animal food, never dcfigncdly fwal-
low ftones, or othsr indigeftible fubftancej.

In order to afcertain the mode of operation of the giz-
zard in the living body, Reaumur opened feveral fowls
during the proccfs of digeftion. One iiiftance atone fhewed
any motion in the part, which confifted in alternate con-
tnftions and dilatations, fl wly and gradually performed.
Spallanzani iuftituted Ijmilar experiments upon feveral birds,
with no better fuccels, beivg feldo n able to dcteft the Icaft
motion ; and when he did perceive any, it was irregular,
partial, a'd in''.iftindi. Tnis he attributed to the violence
committed by opening the animal's body, which no doubt
caufes the motions to be lefs ftrong and regular ; but the
gizzard's exhibiting ext."rnally fo little aftion, depends upon
the difpofition of the fibres. in the interior of ^he digaitric
mufcle, which are calculated, not for performing extenfive
motions, but for exerting an immenfe concentrated force
upon whatever may come witliin their influence.

The moft fatisfa(Sory, as well as convenient mode of ex-
amini::g the aflions of the living gizzard is, to provide a
Very lean, voting birl, which has thin parietes to the ab-
domen. The lide of the belly being deprived of feathers,
all the motions of the gizzard can be both felt and feen.
We have thus afcertained them, to conCll in alternate con-
traftions of the di^aftric mufcle, and ot the intermediate
parts of the ventricle. When the mufcle afts, its figure is
not perceptibly changed, but it feels as hard as a ftone :
wpou its relaxation, the parietes of the ventricle urge their

B I R

contents again between the two grinding furfaces, when the
mufcle repeats its powerful contraftion, by which the fub-
ftances interpofed are fubmitted to a preffure hkc that of a
vice, accompanied by a flight rolling motion of tlie furfaces
upon each other. Thefe alternate attions fucceed each
other very flowly, but with regularity.

When the food and ftones roll under the pretTMre of the
digaftric mufcle, a found is heard exaftly like what is pro-
duted by the tide coming upon a ftiore, whcic there are
many loofe ftones. This occurs w-ith the fume intervals of
time, alfo, which are obferved between the flux and reflux
of the tide ; and if the ear be applied to the body of the
bird, during the time that the gizzard is in adiion, the
found of the ebbing and flowing of the tide is imitated fo
perfeftly in loudnefs, and every other refpeft, that it is
difficult to conceive it is occafioned by any other caufe.

During the time that the food is undergoing a very mi-
nute divifion, in the manner defcribed, the gaftric juice is
diftilled from the bulbus glandulofus in greater quantity
than ufual, and a more intimate mixture is formed of the
digeftive fluid and the triturated food, than could be accom-
pliflied under any other circumftances ; and therefore we
may look upon the procefs of digeftion in graminivorous
birds, as not only more complicated, but more pcrfecl than
it is in animals in general.

Intejl'mes,

Thefe are divided in birds, as in other animals, into
great and fmall, although the terms are not very appro-
priate ; there not being in general any material difference in
the magnitude of each.

Theyi;;^?// 'intejl'mes exceed the large very much in length ;
they are fituated chiefly in the anterior and right fide of the
abdomen, where they are ftriftly confined by the proccfTes
of peritoneum, Vv-hich form the air-cells. The convolutions
of the inteftines are very regular, and confift in fucccflive
doublings one fliorter than another, which give the appear-
ance, on opening the abdomen, of a coil ot rope, particu-
larly in thofe birds which have the fmall inteftines of confi-
derable length. This cfl'cft depends upon the figure of the
mefcntery, which is not compoled in quite the fame manner
as in mammalia.

The diftinftion of the fmall inteftines into duodenum, je-
junum, and ilium, is at all times to a certain degree arbi-
trary, and is ftill lefs allowable in birds. The only portion
which deferves to be diftinguiflied from the reft nf the tube,
is the firft coil ; which afcends on the right fide of the fto-
mach, including in its refleftion the pancreas, and receives
the biliary and pancreatic dufts.

The length of the inteftines is determined ufually accord-
ing to the nature of the food upon which the bird lives ; they
are tongeft in the graminivorous, and very fhort in the acci-
p'llns. Many birds, however, which ufe a mixed rood, or
even live altogether upon fifh, have the fmall inteftines of
great length ; this is the cafe with the heron, and feveral
others. The whole of the inteftines of the cormorant, ac-
cording to the Parifian anatomills, mcafured feven feet long ;
and wtiat is difficult to explain, thofe of the lii/hird?i\\A. caf-
fo-Mary, although large and graminivorous birds, were only
tour feet in length. The different cjlr'iches diflTefted by the
Academy, varied materially with refpeft to the length of the
inteftinal canal, one fubjeft meafuring fifty feet, another for-
ty-two, a third thirty-three, and a fourth twenty-nine feet.

There is very little peculiar to be noticed in the ftrufture
of the fmall inteftines. They are, as in other animals, co-
vered externally by peritoneum, have two layers of mulcular
fibres, and their internal furface is furnifhed with thofe innu-
merable line YEifcular proceles called v'lU'u The graminivo-
rous

B I R

rous birds have commonly the longefl. villi ; in the goo/e and
/'■^•an they are fingularly beautiful, floating a confiderable
way into the cavity of the inteftine. The birds of prey, and
thofe which feed on fiih, have the villi in genera! fo fniall and
indiltinft, that on a flight infpeftion, the inner furface of
the inteftine appears quite fmooth. The O'wl, however, forms
a remarkable exceplion to this obfervation in having long and
pendulous villi.

The vafcular proceffes upon the internal furface of the
fmall inteftines of the ojlrich do not polTefs the ufual villous
or hair-like form, but confill of very thin plates, or laraellx.
Thefe are Ihort, with tie edges fomewhat round, ar.d placed
not in fucceffion, but alternately one with refpect to another,
fo that each lamella ftands oppofite to the interfpace of the
two adjoining, by which means the furface of the inteftine
puts on very exattly the appearance of twilled cloth. The
ftrutlure producing this eftedl cannot be feen completely, as
may be iuppofed, without a magnifying glafs.

We have not obferved in birds any thing analogous to
thofe projeclions of the internal coat of the Imall intellines,
which in other animals are called valvuU connivenles. The
Academicians, however, relate that they found in the bvjlard
the inner tunic of the ilium folded longitudinally, in the
manner of the laft; ftomach of ruminating animals, and that
towards the extremity of this inteftine there were fome tranf-
verfe wrinkles, which fupplicd the place of the valve of the
colon.

Throughout the tradl of the inteftinal tube, we have dif-
covered fevcral clufters of mucous glands : where thefe are
fituated, the internal coat appears as if flightly ulcerated, or
not unlike a dyfenteric inteftine, infttad of that regular
dotted figure which the mucous glands commonly exhibit in
mammalia.

The great intefl'tnes, as they are called, benr no fort of pro-
portion to the fmall, in point of length : in many inftances,
even where the latter are of confiderable extent, they do not
exceed a few inche?. They only admit of divlfton into two
parts ; the ccecal appendages, and the continuation of the
tube until it terminates at the anus. The Grft correfpond
with tlie inteftinum ccccum of mammalia ; and the other
takes the place of the colon and redlum ; but which from
its extreme ftiortnefs and direft courfe to the anus, would
appear to deferve only the name of reclum.

The c<ecal appendages are fubjedl to as much variety as
perhaps any other part of the ftruclure of birds. Generally,
they are two in number; in which cafe, they arife rather ab-
ruptly from oppofite fides of the inteftinal tube, about the
place where the convolutions ceafe, and the inteftine becomes
ilraight.

It may be received as a general rule, to which, however,
there are fome ftriking exceptions, that the magnitude of the
coeca is in proportion to the mufculaiity of the ftomach ; we
accordingly meet with this organ of the greateft fize, and
the ftrongeft charafters in the gaU'm.c and oxher gramhi'fvo-
roiis bird=i, from which it will be found moll convenient firft
to take the defcription.

The cocca in thefe birds commonlv afcend for fome way
quite clofe to each fide of the inteftine, from which they
arife ; during which they are lefs than the other parts of the
inteftinal canal ; they then make a flight curve outwards,
and become fomewhat enlarged, and towards the fuperior
extremity lUey again diminifli before their termination in the
cul de fac. Thefe parts reach up in the abdomen to near the
liver, and often make a flight curve round the fpleen ; they
are connected to each other, and to the inteftine between
them, and alfo retained in their relative fituation in the ab-
domen, by refledions of peritoneum, of which fome are ana-
logous to the mefo-colon and mefo-reftum, and others con-

B I R

tribute to the formation of the air-cells. See Plate III. in

the Anatomy 'if Birds. Fig. 3. reprefents thofe parts in the
pintado, or guinea-hen ; a the laft portion of the fmad inteftine
placed Letween the two coeca, bbiht cocca, c the rectum, ddd
the peritoneum connefting thofe parts, fa procefs of perito-
neum paffing acrofs from the top of one coecum to another.
If the ccecabeflit open, it is found that_ihev communicate
with the rcftum by an aperture which is fn.aller than their
own cavity at the place ; and confequently, any fubflance
will pafs with difficulty into them from the other intcftir.es,
and likewife be obftruAed in its return.

Juft within the entrance of each ccecum., there is a cluf-
ter of m.ucous glands, which appear like two fpots of ulcera-
tion. Thefe are particularly ufeful in this fituation to fmooth
the paftage of fubftances in and out of the cccca.

The contracted parts of the cccca are in fome degree vil-
lous on the inner furface, and refemble in ftrutture the reft
of the inteftinal canal ; but the dilated parts are deprived of
villi, poflcfs very little vafcularity, appear to have few, ifanv,
mufcidar fibres, are without mucous glands, and arc little
better than fimple membranous tubes. Thefe parts contain
the exuvix of the food.

All the ufes which the cceca ferve to animals are certainly
not yet known ; and the functions of thefe organs in birds
are amongft the leaft underftood. The magnitude of their
cceca is not always in proportion to the apparent necclTity
for fuch refervoirs ; often, where they might be expected
large, they are fmall, or abfent altogether, and fometimes,
where the nature of the food would not feem to need thefe
repofitories, they are of confiderable fize. With the view of
determining their ufes, they were removed from the living
hen, and the confequence is faid to have been, that the ani-
mal would not admit any food from the crop into the giz-
zard, from which it might be inferred, that their organs
ferve other and more important purpofes in the animal
economy, than mere refervoirs of excrement ; that, how-
ever, they are employed as a foit of temporary fcwers, to
receive the undigeftcd parts of the food, is obvioufly true ;
and that in doing fo, they anfwer an ufeful purpofe, appears
to be proved, in defpite of many exceptions, by the more
numerous inftances of their bearing a decided relation to the
digeftive organs, and the quality of the food.

The fame ftrufture which has been defcribed in ihe guinea
hen, or pintado, is to be found with little variation in ail
the gaUin<s ex;cept the pigeon, and in the herbivorous anferes,
fuch as the/ii'an, ihe goofe, lye.

Daudin dcfcribes the cccca of the heath-cock {^fetrao uro-
gallus), and of the •mhite grous {lelrao lagopus), as grooved or
fluted longitudinally.

The cceca of the ojlrich are different from thofe of other
birds ; they are large where they commence, and dimimlh
gradually towards their termination ; they fuffer many con-
volutions in confequence of a longitudinal band upon the
pofteriorfide, which is only two thirds of their length ; they
are facculated, or divided into loculi, througliout their vhole
extent, by means of a valvular projection of the internal
coat, which winds in a fpiral manner, fimilar to the valve of
the coecum in' the have and rabbit in mammalia, or the raj
zndjharh kind amongft fifli.

The fpiral lamina is about five lines in breadth, but be-
comes fomewhat lefs towards the extremities of tiie coica.
This lamellated ftrutlure is continued for fome way into the
other great intiftine, and even into the fmall inteftines ; not,
however, as one fpiral valve, but in feveral tianfverle pro-
jeftions, which have a femilui.ar figure, and are placed alter-
nately, fo that one lamella is received between two others,
in the manner of the denticuli of the bivalve /hells. P/ate
III. Jig. 4. is a portion of the firft part of the great inteftine
3 E 2 or

B I R

or colon of the ejlrkh, repre fented of the natural fize and cut
aorofs to rtitw tfie fcmicirciilar lamina on the infidc.

The efFeft of this llrudiire is obvioiifly the retention of
the cxcrcmentitious part of the food for a iongc;- time in
the cceca ; which is accomplidied in other inllanccs by
the fmaUnefs of the aperture through which tlufc parts
communicate with the other intcftincs. This organ is not
limilar in the other Jliuthwus birds. Accordii'g to the
Parifian difleiftors, the cnffbivary is not provided with any
coecum. In the r^^a'arv, or (with mere propi if tyj o/?r/VZ',
of New Holland, we have found two cxcal appendages,
which opened into the re£lum by orifices not mueh larger
than pin-holes. The internal furfaces had none of the la-
minse, or valvular projeclions, but were furnillied with fine
vafeular fioccuH, fimilar to thofe of the fmall iuteflines of
the oflrich ; with this difference, that in the New Holland
bird, they are placed longitudinally, and are more loofe and
pendulous, looking fomewhat like lacerated portions or
ihreds of the inner coat of the intelline.

In by far the greater number of birds the coccal appen-
dages are too fmall to ferve any purpofc, and appear only
as ufclefs imitations of the flrufture dcfcribcd in \\\c i^ramhii-
•vorous kinds. Many, that live on a mixt food, anil whofe
flomachs are of an intermediate ftrength, amongll the larger
pajpres, tlie pica of Ivinuasus, the grall<c, and the anferes,
liaTC two cocca meafuring in length ufually about twice or
thrice the width of the inteftine from which they take their
origin. See Plate \\]. Jig. 5. which exhibits thefe parts in
the gull. Coeca of this fizc have hjrdly any cavity, ar.d
feldom receive any of the contents of the other inteftines ; in
the fmall pafferes, which feed upon feeds, as the fparroiv
anijinch tribes, the cceca bear a Hill lefs proportion to the
fize of the reft of the inteftinal canal ; kejig. 6. of F/a/e
HI. in which the cceca are reprefented as they are commonly
found in thofe birds.

In the pigeon the coccal proceffes are fo fmall, that they
efcaped the notice of fo accurate an anatomift as Severinus,
vho dtfcribed the pigeon as wanting them altogether. Fig.
7. of Plate 111. exhibits their appearance in the elove.

The carnivorous birds of all others have the coeca of the
fmallcft dimenfions ; fo much fo, in many iuftances, that
their exiftence has been often denied. Fig. 8. of Plnfe III.
is copied from the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Paris ;
it fliews the (light dilatation which was found in the l>a/el
tuzzarcl ff^lio Imli^lus, Linn.) in place of tlx; ccecal pro-
ceflcs. On the internal fide, however, this enlargement was
furniflied with a valvular membrane, by which a pouch was
formed on e£ch fide.

The owl appears a very remarkabl(Lexception to the com-
mon ftrufture of the acapitrcs, with refpeft to the formation
of the cceca, which both in figure and magnitude arc fimilar
to thofe parts in the gallinie. It is di£6cult to account for
this Angularity, unleis it be fuppofed neceffary to receive the
indigeftible parts of the animals, which this bird fwallows
cntir^.

Some of the pl/clvorous birds, as the heron, &c. have only
one ccecal procels ; it is very (hort, and in the h;roii termi-
nates in a pointed manner. See Plate III. Jig. 9.

There arc iuftances of the coccal appendages being alto-
gether wanting. They have not been found in the cajo-
KL'jry, the cormorant, the bittern {ardeajlcllaris), the parrot,
and the <wood-pecker.

That portion of the inteftinal canal which correfponds to
the colon and reftum of mammalia, as already obferved, is
very fiiort in birds. In its external charafters, it refembles
the reft of the inteftinal canal, of which it appears to be
fimply the continuation. The internal furface is provided
with villi, which, however, are not fo long and delicate as

B I R

thofe of the fmall inteftines. They are rather very minute
eminences tlan villous proceftes, efpecially towards the ter-
mination of the reftum, at which place they often aifume a
decided granular appearance. 'I'he inner furface of the rec-
turn in the Neiv Holland ojlrich, however, prefents an excep.
tioii to this obfirvation ; it is covered with fine and truly
hair-like procelfes ; in this bird alfo the internal coat of tiie
great iuteiline is flightly folded or wrinkled tranfverfely, in
a manner fomewhat fimilar to the valvuls conniventcs of the
fmall inteftines of the human fubjcft.

The termination of the reftum in birds is very ufually
called the cloaca, on account of its receiving, as a common
fink or fewer, both the excrements of the inteftines and the
urine. There is at this place a dilatation of the gut, which
is often only a flight and gradual enlargement juft within the
margin of the anus; but fonietimes it Iwells out fuddenly
iuto a pouch or fack. A remarkable example of which oc-
curs in the parrot ; fee Plate IV. in the Anatomy of Birds,
Jig. I. a the reftum, b the pouch.

The cloaca of the bijlard has been found large enough
to contain an egg. It is of an oval form ; it is fituated
about an inch from the anus, and the reftum again expe-
riences a contraftion previous to its termination in the vent.
See Jig. 2. of Plate IV. in the Anatomy of Birds ; a, the rec-
tum before it enters the pouch ; b, b, the pouch laid open to
expofe its interior ; c, the contraftion within the anus.

In the ojlrich, this ddatation is of great fize ; being capa-
ble of receiving one's two fifts, according to the report both
of the anatomifts of the French academy, and of Mr. War-
ren, who publiftied a difleftion of this bird, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaftions, fee N° 394. p. 113.

The ufe which the anal pouch anfvvers is almoft too ob-
vious to be mentioned, which is that of a temporary accom-
modation to the excrements of the bird, by which their ejec-
tion is rendered lefs frequent.

The cloaca is furnifhcd with fomewhat ftronger mufcular
fibres than the reft of the inteftine, and is invefted with a re-
fleftion of cuticle, which in the larger birds is very palpable.
Connefted with the cloaca, there is a bag, or purfe, which,
taking the nanfie of the anatomift who firft delcribed it, is
called burfa Fabricii.

The purfe of Fahriciiis is ufually of an oval or round
figure, deprelTed on the anterior and pofterior fides, and
thence always appearing empty. It i; furniftied with a nar-
row procefs, or neck, which is moft contrafted about its
middle. Its fituation is en the back part of the cloaca, to
which it is clofely connefted, being inclofed in the fame re-
fleftion of peritoneum which envelopes the reftum. When
the peritoneum is dilTefted off, it is found to be a diftinft bag
or fack, united only to the reftum by means of its neck,
which pafling obliquely in the coats of the cloaca, opens
into the inteftine by a (l;t-fliaped aperture. The internal
coat of the cloaca projefts over the opening like a pent-
houfe, and performs the office of a valve, readily allowing
the contents of the bag to pafs out, but flanding in the way
oi any regurgitation from the inteftine. See Plate IV. of
Jig. 2. and the purfe of Fabricius in the bufard, which is of
an oblong ftiape in this bird ; e, the flit by which it commu-
nicates with the cloaca.

The fize of this bag is in general fairly proportioned to
that of the bird in which it is found. In the lujlard it has
been ftated to be two inches long ; in the goof; it meafures
about an inch and a quarter in length, and half an inch in
breadth ; and in the fparrow, it is about a quarter of an
inch long, and half as broad.

The external fide of the burfa is fmooth and equal, but
the internal part is thrown into deep mgE. The folds are
di'pofed in an arborefcent form, and branch off with great

regu.

B I R

regularity from a flem which h lodged in the neck of the
bag. See P/dte lY . Jig. 3. in which tlie purfe of t}\e goi/e
is delineated, with its cavity laid open, to exhibit the folds
upon the inner furface.

When more clofely examined, the ftru£lin-e of this part is
very curious. Under the peritoneal covering, itisfurroundtd
by a very delicate expanfion of mufcle, the fibres of which
take a tranfverfe dircftion. The internal tunic of the
purfe is made of a thin pellucid membrane, and the folds
which have been dcfcribed, confiR entirely of.glandular bo-
dies, which are too minute to be diftinguilhcd with the naked
eye. By employing a lens of con?.mon magiafying powers, we
have dilcovered them to hear a great refcmblancc to the gaf-
tric glands, being, like them, little cylinders, which arc per-
forated at une extremity to give paffage to their fecreted
fluid ; indeed, the only difference which appears between
them, is, that the glands of the purfe are fhorter, being
fo much comprcffed in feme inllances, that they are nea;!y
cf an annular form. Fig. 4. of PJaie IV. exhibits a por-
tion of the burfa of the goojl; highly magnified ; a, a, the
glands compofing the folds ; />, b, the fpac:s left between
the folds, wliich confift only of the tunics of the purfe.

The fluid produced by thcfe glands, and of which the
purfe always contains a greater or lefs quantity, appears to
differ in no refpedt from common mucus. Tlie neceffity,
however, for fo ample a fupply of mucus, as thefe glands
are capable of furnilhing, does not feem very plain, efpe-
cially when it is confidered that the purfe of Fabricius is
not met with in all birds. Amongfl others, the parrot is
without it, asappears by_y?^. I. of Plate IV. in the Anato-
my of Birds ; and yet the parrot has a very large cloaca, and
might thence be fuppofed to need this glandular apparatus,
even more than many birds, admitting its ufe to be the fe-
cretion of a mucous fluid, to fheath the cloaca againft the
acrimony of the excrement and urine.

Although the functions of the purfe of Fabricius cannot
be dated with certainty, it may be conjefturcd that they are
not unimpoitant, from the delicacy of its organization, and
its being fo rarely wanting. There are a nuir.ber of black
points to be feen within the anus of the parrot, which ap-
pear like the orifices of mucous glands : may not thefe fu-
perfede the neceffity of the purfe in this bird ?

The excrements of birds have been afcertained by Vauque-
lin and others, to poffcfs an acid. This is increafed by fer-
mentation, into which feculent matters rapidly tend, and as
it proceeds, the acid gives place to ammonia, which is
evolved, towards the end of the procefs, in great abundance.
The dung of the pigeon is found to contain an acid of a pecu-
liar kind, which is increafed by the mixture of the fxces
■with water. It is from its chemical properties that the dung
of pigeons becomes fo ferviceable as a manure, and that it is
employed in the procefs of fome manufadUires, and for do-
meftic purpofes, fuch as cleanfing clothes, &c.

Vauquehn has alfo analyfed the fixed parts of the excre-
ments of fowls, which being compared with thofe of the food,
afforded fome very fingular and important refults.

For this purpofe he fed a hen for ten days upon oats, of
■which Hie confumcd during that time i i,ii 1,843 gi^'is troy
weight ; thefe contained

136,509 grains of phofphate of lime,
219,548 filica.

B I R

quantity of excrement ejefled during the tea days contained
175,529 grains of phofphate of linne, 58,494 grains of carbo-
nateoflime, and 185,266 grains of filica. The amount,
therefore, of the fixed parts difcharged from the fyftera dur-
ing this period were as follows :

374,305 grains of phofphate of lime.

5 1 1 ,9 1 1 grains of carbonate of lime,

185,266 filica.

Given out
Ttiken in

971,482
356.057

356,057.
■In the courfe of thefe ten days the hen laid four eggs ;
the fhells of which yielded 98,776 grains of phofphate of
lime, and 453,417 grains of carbonate of lime. The whole

SurpU'.s 615,425

Hence it appears, that the quantity of folid matter parted
with by the fyftem during ten days, exceeded the quantity
taken in by 615.425 grains.

The amount of the filica received was 219,548 grains.

The quantity given out was only 185,466 grains.

Deficient 34,282 grains.
Confequently there difappeared, during ten days, 34,282
grains of filica.

The quantity of phofphate of lime

taken in was - - 136,509 grains.

That given out was - - 274,305 grains,

137.796

There mufl have been formed, by digeftion in this fowl,
no lefs than 137,796 grains of phofphate of hme, as well as
511,911 grains of the carbonate of lime. It may thence be
prefumed, that hme (and perhaps phofphorus) is net a Am-
ple fubllance, but compounded of ingredients which exift in
oats, water, and air, which were the only matters that could
be introduced into the body of this fowl; as a quantity of fili-
ca had difappeared, it might be fuppofed, that it had contri-
buted to the formation of the addit'onal produfts ; but if fo,
it mufl have entered into combination with a great quantity
of fjme other fubifance. See Annal. de Chim. xxix. 16.

Notwithflanding thefe experiments were conduced by the
abieft cliemill of the age, they ought not perhaps to be af-
fented to without being repeated under every circumtlance
which could lead to the deteftion cf any error that might
pofTibly arife.

This is not only neceffary on account of the extraordi-
nary nature of the refults, which could only be produced by
a creative power in the alfimilating organs of the animal ;
but from other analogous experiments yielding refults of a
contrary kind. Dr. Fordyce, for inllance, found that a cer-
tain quantity of calcareous matter was required by biids
during the period of laying ; and if the bird was deprived of
this, the fhtll never was formed, and the bird frequently
died from the eggs not coming pr; perly fjrwaid. The me-
thod he adopted to prove this was fimple and fatisfaAory :
he took a number of canary birds, when about to lay ; fome
he inclofed, fo that they could have no accefs to any cal-
careous matter ; and to others he gave a piece of old mortar,
which they fwallowtd with avidity, and they laid their eggs
as ufual ; whilft, on the other hand, tht)fe birds he had not
furniihcd with the mortar were unable to produce eggs,
and in feveral inflances died. See Fordyce on Digellion,
p. 25 & 26.

Liver.

This vifcus is fituatcd about the middle of the common
cavity of birds. Its form, as in other animals, is much in-
fluenced by the ftiape of the parts which are immediately ad-
jacent. The left fide lies on the ftomach, the right covers

the

B I R

the intedines, and the apex of the heart is accommodated m
the middle, and wherever the hver comes into cor.taa with
thcfe parts, it receives in a degree an imprefllon of their form.
Vic d'Azir, in his great fyftcm of anatomy, fays, that
the Hver of birds is divided into only two lobes ; and Cuvier
has repeated the afl'crtion in his Tableau Elementaire de
I'Hilloire Naturtlle. The obftr\'ation, nevtrthclefs, is not
in all cafes ftriaiy true. In many birds there is a third lobe,
fituatcd at the back of the liver, between the right and left
lobes : this appears to be analogous to the lobuhis fpigelii of
the human fubjed, both from its moft ufual figure, and from
itspofition. Ste r/alelV.of ihe /inalomy o/Birds. Fi^-S-
reprefents the liver, &c. of the goofe reviewed on the pofterior
or reverfe fide ; a the right lobe reaching lower down than the
other, and exhibiting impreflionscorrelponding to the convo-
lutions of the inteftines; 6 the left lobe, with two prominent
parts,andadcprc(Iion extending alonglhe lobebetwcei; them;
c the third, or intermediate lobe. In the common fo-wl, the
left lobe is cleft on the anterior part fo deeply as almoll
to form two lobes on the left fide. The French academi-
cians allow three lobes to the liver of the cormorant; they
are all very fmali. A third lobe has been defcribtd alfo
in the pigeon by Borrichius, and in the /-Man by Bar-
tholine. The liver of the o/lric/j conlifts of four imperfecl
lobes.

There is confiderable variety in the (hape and relative fize
of the two principal lobes ; generally the right lobe much
exceeds the other in bulk, and is fomewhat longer. This
charafter of the lobes is to be fccn in the liver of the goof;
Plate IV. ^g. 5. but is more remarkable in the ca^tiwary,
and even llill more fo in the hujlarj, in which the right
lobe defcends to the bottom of the belly ; both lobes are
ftiort in the eagle, the Indian cock, the parrot, the otvl, and
many others ; and in the eagle the left lobe has the greater
bulk.

The two lobes are nearly of equal fize in the heron kind,
and both long (haped. However much the livtrs of birds
may differ in external forms, the internal ftrnClure is the
fame in all cafes, as we have proved by numerous obferva-
tions. The fecretory veffel is produced from the veins of
the neighbouring vifcera, as in mammalia, and after enter-
ing the liver by the dcprelfion or fifTurt on the lower furface,
which correfponds to thenar/,* or gates of the human liver, it
isdiftributed throughout the fubftance of the organ, and ter-
minates in the fame manner as the ■zn-zxr /o/V/f, i.e. in fine
radii, rr penicilli towards the furface of the liver.

As there is no mufcular feptum between the thorax and
abdomen of birds, tlieir liver has not the advantage of that
mode of conueclion, which is called in mammalia the coronary
ligament : it is however amply fupplied by the duplicature of
peritoneum, whic'i correfponds to the falciform ligament ;
this procefs divides the two principal lobes, paffing deeply
between them ; it is connected to the peritoneum., which
forms the air cells, in the fides and back part of the abdomen,
is incorporated with the pericardium, and joins the fternum
and the linea alba on the fore part of the abdomen, and then
becomes reflected on each fide of the common cavity, which
is thus divided almoft for its whole extent, in the fame man-
ner as the mediatlinum divides the thorax in mammalia. The
extended attachment, which is in this way procured for the
liver, renders this vifcus more fteady in its fituation than it is
in other animals, which birds require on account of the rapid
and violent motions of their bodies during the adl of flying.
As the falciform ligament goes on to the fore part of the
cavity, the margin which forms the round ligament is ne-
celTarily wanting, but the remains of the umbilical vein

B I R

may be traced running between the duplicature of the perito-

neum.

The gall-bag, or refervoir of the fecretcd fluid of the liver,
in almoll every inftance where it exiles, is fituated upon the
lower furface of the right lobe, fomewhat nearer its central
than its external edge. It is commonly received into a flight
depreffion of the liver, fo that about one half of the bag ii
brouglit into contait with that vifcus, nothing being inter-
pofed between them but the connefting cellular fubftance.
The furface of attachinent is occafionally Lis extenfive ; thus
in the eagle, lujlard, and cormorant, the bag (lands out from
the liver being only united to it by one end.

The foi-m of this bag is commonly that of an egg, or a
globe, or often foniething between thefe two figures. In a
few inftances it is elongated, as in the bujlard and cajfotuary ;
it meafured in the latter bird only one inch in diameter, al-
though it is feven inches in length.

The ftrutlure of the gall-bag appears to differ in no refpeft
from that dcfcribcd in mammalia ; its coats difcover no trace
of mufcular fibres, and its internal furface exhibits the fame
kind of reticulation or net-v.'ork which is found in the gall-
bladder of the human fubjeft. See Plate IV. and^^. 5 in
the Aitatbmy of Birds ; the letter </ indicates the gall-bag of
the goofi viewed particularly in its natural pofition ; the reti-
culated {Iruclurc is vifible on the outfide, but to bring it more
perfecftly into view the cavity is expofed by the removal of a
portion of the bag.

The bile does rot flow into the gall-bag by regurgitation
from the common dudl, but is conveyed direclly thither by
means of a particular tube dcfigncd for tliat purpofe. This
duct arifes from the right lobe,- pafTes on the fidt of the bag
which is in contaft with the liver, then becomes involved in
the coats of the cyfl, which it perforates about the dillance
of one-third from the pofterior end.

The orifice by which the duel opens into the cavity of the
bag, is very fmall, and is furrounded by a fmooth projection
of the inner membrane, which added to the obliquity of the
duft, affords the effeCl of a valve, and entirely prevents any
return ot the fluid upon the hver ; for the more the cyll
is diftended, the more preffure will be laid upon the du<S, in
its paffage.

It wotJd feem that the cyfto-hepatic duft is fituated nearly
in the fame way in all birds, where it exifts, but the prefent
defcriptio'n is taken from l\\t goofi. See Plate IV. ?.nAJig. 5.
in which e points out the termination of the duft in the gall-
bag, upon the papilla above-mentioned, and the courfe of the
duel alfo is to be indiftindlly feen behind the tunics of thecyft.
The duels which carry the bile to the inteftines, are two in
number, the hepatic and the cyjlic. The firll arifes by two
branches, generally from the right and left lobes of the liver,
and while within the fifl^ure or poi ta; of the liver, they unite to
form the trunk which proceeds to its infertion in the inteftine,
and ufually crofles the dudl of the gall-bag in its way
thither.

The cyjlic du3 comes forth abruptly from the mod pofterior
part of the gall-bag, which is not prolonged into a neck, as
in other animals. The duft makes a turn round the end of
the bag, along the fide of which it then proceeds fo clofely
applied, that upon a flight examination it might be fuppofed
to commence from that part, or even from the anterior end
of the cyft.

The cyllic and hepatic dufts never unite to form the
duftus communis, as in many animals ; but proceed di-
ftiriftly to the inteftine, into which they always enter fepa-
rately ; fometimes very near each other, and at others re-
moved to a little diftance. Two hepatic dufts have been
8 found

B I R

found in the IntTian coeh, or curajfow, whicli alfo liad a dlftinft
infertion in tlie intelline.

The part of the intcftine?. where the biliary diifts penetrate,
is commonly at the conclufion of the fird doubling or con-
volution, which occurs after the origin of the inteftine from
the ftomach ; or, in other words, it might be faid to be at
the termination of the duodenum. The bile duft of the
ojlrich is very large and enters the inttftine near the
ftomach.

As in mammalia, the paffage of the ducts through the
coats of the duodenum is fomewhat oblique, and they open
upon a papilla or prominence of the internal coat, thus
gaining the effeil of a valve, and preventing the regurgitation
of their fluid. In addition to which, tht lujlard \% djfcribed
as having a fold of the inner coat of the inteftine project-
ing over the orifices of the biliary and pancreatic duels.

Plate IV. znAJig. 5. in the jinafomy of Birds, exhibits the
origin, courfe, aud termination of the biliary duels in the
gooj'e ; f the hepatic duft, formed of two branches in the fiffure
of the liver : g the origi.i of the cyitic datt from the end of
the bag, appearing internally like a puckered hole; /!> its
courfe behi'd the hepatic dudl, beyond which it terminates
in the inteftine ; i i the firft convolution of the inteftine ; i
the porti -n from which the gizzard has been cut away ; /
the commencement ol the fecond fold of the inteftJnes, or the
beginning of the jejunum.

Both the cyftic and hepatic dufts of the gull become
{lightly enlar;red j'ift at their infertion in the inteftine, which
is produced n st fo much from a dilatation of their cavity as
a thickening ot thei' coats The more minute ftruclure and
the functions of the bile duels are in every refpecl analogous
moft probably to thofe of tiie fame parts in otiier animals.
A very curious obfcrvation has been made on this fubjedl by
Borrich'us, which deferves to be mentioned. He opened a
pigeon while yet aiive, and difcovercd in the hepatic duel a
puifatory motion, by which it was aittraately diftendcd and
emptied of its contents , the intervals between each contrac-
tion were fomewhat longer than they occur between the
fyftole and diaftole of the heart. If this had been related
by a lefs accurate anatomift than Borr'chius, one would be
led to fufpect that a blood-vcffcl had been miftaktn for the
bihary duft ; but he watched the moment that the adlion of
the heart fubfidtd, and ftill the dudl was alternately emptied
and diftended with a green fluid as before.

The gall-bag is occafionallv wanting inb'rds, and it fliould
be remarked, that this irregularity is jiot governed by any
general rules of ftruclure, as two fpccies which agree in every
other refpecl, are obferved to differ in this; nay, accord ng
to the French academicians, the gall-bag is not conttantly
found even axongft the individuals of the fame fpecies ; thus
in diflcfting fix demoifelks of Niimidia [arde.i virgo), it was
abfent in two of them, and the others had it very fmall.
Amongft ten finlados, alfo, they only met with the gall-
bag twice, and differing very much both in fize and fhape ;
and in thefe inftances where the bag was abfent the hepatic
dutt was found ver)' large.

The fpecies known to be deprived of the gall-bag, are the
oflrich, the parrot, the pigeon, the bittern, the crane, and the-
euciotu ; in fome of thefe, dilatations of the ducts have been
obferved which may be fuppofed to fupply in a degree the
office of the gall-bag, which appears from thii, as well as
other circumftances, to be fimply a refervoir for the bile, and
not an organ for working any change in the properties of
that fluid. Being, therefore, a convenient, rather than a
necetTary ftrufture, its ahfence need not be expefied to be
marked with any clear relation to the other fuaitions of the
animal economy.

B T R

No experiments have yet been inftituted with the deffg*
of procuring a chemical analyfis of the bile of birds ; it is,
moft probable, however, that thefe would d-fcover nothing
peculiar, as in fenfible properties, fuch as colour, tafte. Sec.
it perfectly refcmbles the bile of mammalia.
T/jc Pancreas

Confifts of two diftintl gland-, for the moft part, in birds.
Their common fituation is between the coil of the firft in-
teftines, to which they are very firmly bound by their peri-
toneal coat ; they have a very elongated figure, furnilhtd with
decided fides, angles, and edges, which arc irregylarly notched
or indented. Thefe clefts mark out imperfectly the original
lobules of which the glands arc compofed. They appear to
polTcfs the fame internal llruclure which is defcribed in mam-
malia, though not fo palpably as to be difcovered without
fome pains ; to a flight obfcrvation their fubftance fetms to
be a white homogeneous mafs, inftead of that congeries of
lobules, cells, blood-vefFeli, and dufl?, which really enter into
its conipofition. Each of the glands produces a principal
duct, which feparately runs in the reflection of peritoneum,
into which intelline they are inftrtcd, at a variable diftance
from each other, in the manner of the two biliar)' duels.
Their entrance is, with fcarce an exception, adjacent to that
of the bile dufts, and often fo near that one projedlion of the
internal coal of the inteftine ferves for the termination of all
the dufts.

See Plate IV. in the Anatomy of Birds, \njtg. 5. the letters
turn indicate the two pancreatic glands of xhe go-fe, a little fe-
parated from each other, and their other peritoneal connec-
tions, to exhibit .nore clearly thtir figure ; n n the dufts from
each gently curved in their paifage to the inteftine. The
pancreatic and biliary dufts are at a confiderable diftance in
the ofnich and the gull. In the firft, as already mentioned,
the hepatic dudl enters the inteftine near the ftomach ; but
the pancreatic dudl paffes as ufual into the laft portion of the
duodenum. The pancreatic duels of the gull penetrate the
duodenum at its commencement, whilft the biliary prefene
nearly the common fituation. It is not very unufual for
thefe dutls to enter the inteftine alternately, or for the two
pancreatic to pafs between the two biliary ; this may be ob-
ferved in the eagle, the heron, S;c.

Confiderable varieties have been defcribed in the number,
external figure, and magnitude, S:c. of the pancreas in dif-
ferent birds. The French academicians have reprelented it
as a fingle gland, with only one duCl in the ojlricli and cajfo-
luary. In the latter it was extremely fmall in proportion to
the fize of the bird, being only two inches long, and its duft
a line and a half in length. In the eagle it appeared to be
fingle, although in one inftance it fent forth two duiSs, and
in another three ; it was enlarged and round at the head, at
which place it was perforated by the hepatic duc^ in its way
to the inteftine. They alfo defcribe that this gland varies in
different iiidi\-idua!s of the^fame fpecies ; thus in one curajfooj
they found the pancreas double, and in another fingle. De
Graef in moll yiiu/ found three pancreatic duels, and alfo in
the pigeon, and Bartholin obferved only one pancreatic duft
in the peacock.

The Spleen

Has been defcribed as occupying different fituations by
different authors. Thus Cuvicr, and other anatomift-, have
ftated its common pofition to be the middle of the mefentery.
The French academicians found it clofely adhering to the
fide of the ventricle, in one fpecies of eagle (falco chry-
f'elos); and in another (falco halia'elos),'\l was met with under
the right lobe of the liver ; and Severinus mentions the fpieen
of the crow being fituated upon the firft inteftine. In every
bird, however, which we have examined with the view of

afccr^

B I R

mfccrtaining the fituation of the fpleen, it lias been uniformly
difcovcTffd underneath the left lobe of the liver, placed a
good deal backwards, and on the right fide of the zone of
gaftric glands. Its peritoneal connetlions to the neighbour-
jiig parts are loofe and permit it to be difplacej, when the
other vifcera are removed from their fitiiations, which cir-
cumdance may have occafioned fome difference in the ob-
fcrvations made upon the fuhjeft. The fituation we have
defcribcd is the moll convenient tor its being fi-.pplied with
bUiod, which it receives from the gadric artery, and is btfides
coiifillent with general analogy.

The figure of the fpleen is mod commonly round ; it is,
however, in iome birds, a little different in form. The mofl
ufual deviation is the oval or kidney (hape, which has been oh-
erved in the conror/7nl,lhe eagk, the pintado, the common fonvl,
&c. In the cftr'u-h it is cylindrical, and in the cajfoivary it has
been hkened'in figure to a foal fid:. In the ^u// it is much
elon5Tated,and pointed at both ends, as it is fliewn in PlaUlV .
in the Annlomy of B':rdu and /7f . f>.

The fpleen affumes rather an irregular form in \\\f: gcofe ;
it is fli"htly comprefTed and roinid oti the one fide, and flat
on the other. The outline prefented on either fide is tri-
angular, and one of the angles is prolonged as a mamillary
procefs, which is dillinguiihcd from the reft of the fpleen by
a flight cleft or fifTure. This is reprefcnted in fg. 7. of
Plate IV. of the Annlomy of BhJ.s ; a the body of the fpleen
viewed on the flat farface ; i the papilla-fliaped procefs ; f
the entrance of tl'.e fplenic artery, upon the edge ; (/the vein
penetrating the flat furfaee.

The texture of the fpleen is fo much more clofc and firm
in birds than mammalia, that one might be eafily led to
fuppofc its ftructurc was different ; but when prepared by
being injeifled with coloured fubllances, and fiibmitterf to
examination through a lens, we havedifcovered, as in matr.-
malia, the fpknic artery to terminate in numerous minute
branches, and the veins to take their rife from cells. The
only difference which exifb, is with refpeft to the magnitude
of the cells, which are extremely minute; and thence arife
the peculiar compadnefs and denfity of the fpleen of
birds.

The flrudlure of this organ being fo very fimilar to that
of the fpleen in mammalia, it is fair to conclude that their
funflions are a'fo analogous. The fituation of the vifcus in
b'rds might be confid;red, therefore, as affording an objec-
tion to that theory, which fuppofes this organ was defigned
to regulate the quantity of blood employetl by the arteries of
the liomach du^ mg the fecrction of the gaftric fluid ; for, in
birds, the fpleen receives no prefTure as occurs in mammalia
bv the introduction of food into the ftoniach, and confe-
qiiently, cainot affeft the diilribution of the blood in the
collateral arteries, more under the circumftance of a full
ftomach than an empty one. In order to put the fpleen of
birds in the fame conditions to which it is fubjecl in man and
q'ladrupeds. it flioulJ be phiced under the crop in the gra-
minivorous tribe, or between the ventricle and the ribs in the
other kinds.

Ahhough it would be often WTong to determine the ufcs
of an orofan in one clafs of animals, from the circuinftanccs in
which it may be placed in another ; yet no theory can be
confidered as well founded, unkfs it be framed in the con-
tsmplation of all the varieties of comparative ftru<3ure.
yflforhents.
One of the mofl remarkalile and inexplicable circum-
flanccs in the anatomy of birds is, that the rutritious
fluid of the intetlines, or the chy'e, is as trai^fparent as
the lymph which is taken up from, the common interllices,
cr the furfaee of the body. The abforbents of the iutcf-

B I R

tines, thfreforc, do not deferve to be called laBeaJs, an ap-
pellation they have received iu man and quadrupeds, in con-
fequence of the opacity and milky appeai-auce of their cou-
teiif:.

The difcover)' of the lymphatic fyflem in birds may be
reckoned amoiigll the modern improvements in anatomy.
Before Mr. Hunter, about the middle of the laft century,
del.jribed the abforbents of the neck, it was generally fup-
pofed that the office of thefe veffels was fulfilled in birds by
the mmute branches of veins. This opinion was rendered
the more probable as feveral able anatomiffs had fought in
vain forthofe white veffels, and their glands, which are fo eafi-
ly deteded in tire mefentcryof the fmalleft quadruped. It was
not then known, however, that the lymphatic veffels of the
intcflines were always pellucid in birds, and unprovided with
glands, and accordingly Mr. Hunter's difcovery was not ge-
nerally admitted as decifive or. the queftion, until fome years
afterwards the whole of the lymphatic fyflem had been de-
fcribed by Mr. Hewfon ; he employed for this pui-pofe a
ynur^g and vrry lean goofe, which had been recently fed,
and having fecured it upon a table, he opened the abdomen
whilll the bird was yet alive, and paffing a ligature round
its mefenteric veffels, as near to the root of the mefcntery as
pofTible, the lymphatics of this part became apparent in a
few minutes. Ttie fame method alfo was purfued to cxpofe
the abforbents of the neck. A ligature was placed round
the jugular vein at the lower part of the neck ; and to be
moi'e certain of inclofing the lym)ihatics which are near it, a
fuflicient quantity of the furrounding fubllance was included
by the ligature. In this way he fucceded in tracing the lym-
phatic fyllem, in more inllances than one, after having filled
the veffels with quickfilver. He publifiied a defc.iption of
the abforbents, lUullrated by two drawings, in the Philofo-
p'ical Tranfaftions for the year J74S, and in his Experi-
mental Inquiries into the lymphatic fyftem.

As no accounts or figures of the abforbents of birds
have been offered to the pubhc fince Mr. Hewfon's time,
we cannot do better than adopt the dcfcription, and
copy "le reprcfentation left to us by that inJ.cfatigable
anatomiil ; in doing which, we fliall tranfcribe his own
words.

" This fvflem confifls in birds, as :t does in the human
" fubjcfl, of three parts, viz. the lafteals, the lymphatic
" vsfL-ls, and their common trunk, the thoracic duct. The
" latl^-als indeed, in their llriAeft fenfe, are in bii-ds,
" the lymphatics of the inteflines, and like the other Ivm-
" phatics, carr)' only a tranfparcnt lymph ; and inftead of
" one thoracic duft there are two, which go to the two
" jugular veins. In thefe circuinftanccs, it woul.l feem,
" that birds differ from the human fuhjift, fo far at leaft:
" as I may judge from the diiTeftion of a goofe, which was
" the bird I chol'e as moft proper fi)r this inquiry, and fi'om
" which I took the following dcfcription, after previoufly
" iiijefting its lymphatic fyllem with quickfilver.

" Theladeals run from the intelliues upon the mefenteric
" veffels. Thofe of the duodenum pafs by the fide of the
" pancreas, and probably receive its lymphatics : afterwards
" they get upon the cahac artery. Whilll they are upon
" this artery they are joined by lymphatics from the hver.
" Here they form a plexus, w hich furrounds the coeliac
" arterj' : at this part they rxccive a lymphatic from the
" gizzard ; and a little farther, another from the lower
" psrt of the oefophagus (or zone of gaftric glands). Hav.
" ing now- got to the root of tlie coeliac artery, they are
" joined by the lymphatics fiom the glandular renalcs, or
" renal cnpfules ; and near the fame p^rt, by the ladeals
" from the other fmall inte.lines, which veflels accompany

7 «' the

B I R

« the mefenteric artery. Thefe laft mentioned laAeals,
" before they join thofe from the duodenum, receive froti
*' the reftum a lymphatic, which runs with the blood-vtfTcIs
•* of that gut. Into this lymphatic fome finali branches
*' from the kidneys feem to enter, which, coming from
♦' thofe glands upon the mefentery of the reftim, at Ia!l
" open into its lymphatic?. At the root of the cot-liac
«' artery, the lymphatics of the lower extremities probably
•' join thofe from the inteftines. The former," he fays, " I
*' have not yet traced to their termination, though I have
«' dillinclly feen them on the blood-veifc's of the thigh ;
«' and in one fubjecl which I injeftcd, fome veflels were
*' filled, contrary to the courfe of the lymph, from the net-
" work neir the root of tlie cocliac artery. Tliefc vcfTcls
" ran behind the cava, and down upon the aorta, near
♦' to the origin of the crural arteries ; and I prefume they
" were the trunks of thofe branches which I had fcen in the
" thigh. At the root of the coeliac artery, and upon the
«' contiguous part of the aorta, a net-work is formed by
" the lafteals and lymphatics above-defcribcd. This net-
" work confifts of three or four tranfverfe branches, which
•' make a communication between thofe which are lateral.
" In the fubjeft from which this defcription was taken
«' there were four. From this net-work arife the two
" thoracic dufls, of which one lies on each fide of the fpine,
" and runs upon the lungs obhquely up towards the jugular
«• vein, into which it opens, not indeed into the angle be-
" tween the jugular and fubclavian vein, as in the human
•' fubjeft, but into the infide of the jugular vein, nearly
•' oppofite to the angle. The thoracic dutl of the left fide
«' is joined bv a large lymphatic which runs upon 'he oefo-
'' phagus, and can be traced as far as the lower or glan-
'• dular part of that canal, from which part, or from the
" gizzard, it feems to iffue. The thoracic duiSts are joined
" bv the Ivmphatica of the neck (and probably by thofe of
" the wings), Jul where they opea into the jugular vein?.

" The lymphatics of the neck generally confift of two
" pretty large branches on each fide of the neck, accom-
" panymg the blood-veff.ls. Thofe two branches join near
" the lower part of the neck ; and the trunk is in general
" as fmall, if not fmaller, than either of the branches.
" This trunk runs clofe to the jugular vein, gets on its in-
" fide, and then opens into a lymphatic gland. From the
" oppofite fide of this gland a lymphatic comes out, which
" pours the lymph into the jugular vein. On the left fide,
•* the whole of this lymphatic joins the thoracic du&. of the
" fame fide ; but, on the right, one part of it goes into
" the infide of the jugular vein a little above the angle,
" whilft another joins the thoracic duel, and, with that
" dudl, forms a common trunk, which opens into the in-
" fide of the jugular vein, a little below the angle which
•' that vein makes with the fubclavian.

" To th's defcription it may be neceflar)' to add, that
•' though it be taken from one fubjecl, yet in three others
" of the fame fpecics, which I examined carefully, I faw
•' nothing which difagreed with it. I particularly atlenaed
" to the number of the thoracic du<£ls, fufpefting that
" poflibly in this fubject the two that I had feen might be
" only a variety, which is a clrcumftance that, as we are
" told, has occurred even in the human body. But in
" three others of this fpecies, which I likewife fuccefsfuUy
" injeded, I ftill faw two duAs ; and therefore I am in-
" clined to believe, that this is the conilant number. I
" likewife carefully attended to the veffels coming from the
" gland on the right fide ; and in the only two fubjefts in
" which the lymphatics of the neck were properly filled,
Vol. IV.

B I R

" I obfetT^ed that one part of it opened immediately into
" the vein, and the other joined the thoracic duft. In all
" the four fnbjeels I evidently faw that the thoracic duAi
" opened into the infide of t'>e jugular veins.

" This fyilcm in birds differs moH from that of quad-
" rupeds, id. In the chyle being tranfparciit and colour-
" lefs ; idly. In t'-'ere being no vifible lymphatic glands,
" neither in the courfe of the lafteals, nor in that of the
" lymphatics of the abdomen, nor near the thoracc du&s ;
" ^^h'' I'l 'hir fevc-ral parts of this fyftem in birds being
" more frequently enlarged, or varicofe, than in quadrupeds.
'' In particular, this appears to be the cafe of the vefTcU
" which conftitute the net-work at the root of the coe'iac
" artery, in that fubjeft from which the drawing was
" taken. The lacteaU are frequently enlarged in fome
" places ; fo are the thoracic duels ; and the lymphatics on
" each fide of the neck are commonly, when taken to-
" gether, larger than their trunk, which opens into the
" lymphatic gland. In one fubjeft, when, inftcad of two
" lymphatics on the left fide, 1 found only one, that vcflel
" was as large as a crow quill, whilft the lower part of it,
" which entered the gland, was much fmaller."

The figures which rxp'am the foregoing defci'ption are
to be found in Plate V. of the /Inatomy of birdr. Fig. l .
fliews the abforbents in their natural fituation, with rcfpeft
to the other parts of the body ; A, the neck ; B, B, the
clavicle divided near its middle j C, the left fubclavian
artery' ; D, D, the jugular veins ; E, E, the pulmonary-
arteries ; F, F, the two branches of the trachea ; G, G,
the lungs ; H, the aorta ; I, the cce'iac artery ; L, the
cefophagus turned to one fide ; M, M, the renal capfules ;
N, a fmall part of the liver fixed to a rib by a thread ;
O, O, O, inteftines ; P, the duodenum ; Q, the pancreas
fixed to a rib by a thread ; R, the gizzard. Fig. 2. ex-
hibits the abforbents, and their more immediate connexions
with the Veflels, in outlines : a, the laAeals or more pro-
perly lyrrphatics, which come from the duodenum ; b, the
lymphatics of the liver, N ; c, c, z plexus formed by the
above-mentioned laft.als and lymphatics, which furrounds
the coehac arter)', I ; </, a lymphatic from the gizzard ; e,
a lymphatic from, the lower part of the afophagui ; f,f, a
net-work formed by the lymphatics upon the aorta, H ;
g, g, the two thoracic dufts ; /, », the trur.ks of the lym-
phatics of the neck ; t, i, the glands through which the
lymphatic veflels of the neck pafs : that of the left fide is
oblong, and could not well be reprefented in a Figure ; /, the
thoracic duSt of the left fide, and the lymphatic veflrl of
the neck, opening together into the infide of the jugular
vein ; m, a part of the lymphatic of the right fide of the
neck, opening into the jugular vein, D ; n. the thoracic
duft of the right fide, joined by a part of the lymphatic
veflel of the right fide, and then opening into the infide of
the j\igular vein.

ffeat-t.

This organ occupies the centre of the fuperior portion of
the common cavity of birds. It is placed ufuallv in the line
of the body, as in quadrupeds ; the heart, however, is inclined
in the flighteft degree to the left fide in fome iuftances, and in
others a little to the right fide. The apex of the heart is com-
monly received between the two chief lobes of the liver,
which are hollowed out for its accommodation.

The membranous bag, which contains the heart, is formed
like the pericardium of other animals, and is reflcAed in the
common manner upon the ongin of the great veflels, and the
heart. The pericardium of birds is generally confijerably
larger than the heart, and efpecially at the lower part,
3 F which

E I R

which is often pmlonjred for fome way betwfen the lobes of
the liver. It dtfcrvtfs remark, that notwithftaiidiiig the
gfL-at lize of the pcrioardium, the air, which pcrvadc-5 almoll
all the cavities of birds, i'i not admitted into this. The Pa-
rifian academicians, it is true, obferved the pciicardiiim to
fivell wlicn they inflilcd the lim;'s and air-cells of ihe ptnta-
i!o, and tliencc conchided that the air had admilTun to the
licart, for which they a(ris;ned fome curious reafons ; inch as
the heart req^irinp comprt-nTiou and evaporation from its
furface. They appear, however, to have been equally in
error with rcfpeit to the faft and the reafoninp ; tor, in a
great number of fpecics we have examined for the purpofc,
the pericardium was uniformly found to contain a certani
quantity of water, and !iad not the lead communication with
cithtr the lungs or air-ccl!s. The Parifian anatomifts mull
have been led into this miilake by the dillenlion of the air-
cells around the pericardium.

The heart is of a longer fi Turc in birds than in other ani-
mals ; and the outline of the right iide is flightly concave,
in confequence of the parietts of the right ventricle being
relatively thin. In the ojlrtch, the heatt has been defcribcd
as nearly round ; mcafuring fix inches from the bafe to the
apex, and live inches acrols.

Birds have, like mammalia, four dillinfl cavities in the
heart, which bear the ul'ual proportions in magnitude with
refpeA to each other. The auricles however, and efpecially
the right, are commonly more mufcular than in other ani-
mals ; and the left ventricle is always much Itrongcr than the
light.

The internal furface of the auricles is very irregular, in
confequence of the Ihape and fixe of the mufcular falc.culi.
There is one very ilrong portion of mulcle, which enters in-
to the compofition of the auricular pat of both cavities,
from which other fafciculi proceed in a regular and radiated
manner, at Icall m the right auricle. See Plate V. in the
Anatomy of lii/ds. Fig. 3. Ihews the heart of the goofe, with
the auricle and ventricle of the right fide laid open, e the
principal mufcular lafciculus of the auricular portion of the
cavity pafung b:ickwards towards the left auricle ; _/ the lef-
fer fafcicul', which depart from the other as branches from a
trunk ; gg the deep foffa; which exill on each fide ol the
large fafciculus.

The blood of the vifcera and lower limbci is conveyed into
the riglit auricle by a vein correfponding to the inferior vena
cava of mammalia. There is, however, no vein llriilly ana-
logous to the fuperior cava, the veins of the right wing and
that fide of the head and neck, forma diilinft trunk, which
enters the upper part of the auricle ; while thofe of the op-
polite fide alfo produce another trunk, which paffes along
the poftcrior furface of the left auricle, to which it is elofcly
united, and opeiu into tlie right auricle belide the inferior
cava.

The anatomifts of the French academy obferved, in moft
of the birds they dilfefled, a valvular projection of the inner
membrane of the heart, over the entrance of the inferior
vena cava into the right auricle. This valve refembles in
form that of the coronary vein of the human heart, and by
its means, the orifice of the cava, which is really very large,
puts on the appearance of a narrow flit. A fimiliir valve
hangs over the entrance of the veins which return the blood
of the wings and head to the auricle. See Plate V. in the
Anatomy of Birds, fig. ■*!. aaa point out the veins, which
terminate in the right auricle with their valviJar orifices, into
«ach of which a brillle has been introduced.

The analogy between the valves of the veins entering the
right atiricle of birds, and the Eullachian valve of the human

B 1 R

heart, is very obvious, and demonllrates, as far as analogon*
llrudure can, that the latter fervcs the purpofe of a valve to
the vena cava in the human fiibjed.

There are commonlv two or tiirce orifices for the coro.
nary veins in birds, one is always larger than the reil, and
tranfmits the blood of the principal vein of the heart. They
are each provided with a (light projection of the inner mem.
brane, which afts iinpcrfedlly as a valve.

The right ventricle is of a triangular figure, and is quite
fmooth on the internal furface ; there being none of thofs
procefles of mufcle which are called carncir coliminnc.

The valve, which is p'aced at the mouth of therig'it ven-
tricle, is of a peculiar fliape and llruClure in birds. Iiidcad
of thofe thin and membranous folds, which ufually fiirround
the orifice of the ventricle, and are moved by iiitana of
their connexion with the carneas coliimnse, and which from
their figure in the human fubjedt are called the Irkufpid
valve ; there is a fingle projection of the flefii of the heart,
of a triangular figure, and nearly as thick as the parities of
the cavity in which it is contained. The triangular valve is
joined by its fuperior edge to the margin of the orifice of the
ventricL', and is united by another of its edges to the right
fide of the cavity almoil to the bottom. The third edge is
uncouneftcd, except bv a finall procefs, wliich goes off near
one of the fuperior angles to the parietes of the ventricle on
the left fide. See Plate V. in the /Inatomy of Bu-ils, fig. 3.
b the triangular valve, expofed by means of the anterior pa-
rietes of the right ventricle being cut off, a briltle is palled
under the valve ironi the auricle } ilddihe external furface
of the heart ; c the procefi connecting the floating edge of
the valve to the parietes of the ventricle, with a brillle lying'
under it.

The triangular valve, from its thieknefs and mufcularity,
would feem to operate chiefly by means of the contra£tion
of its own fibres changing its figure, and thus obltru(Slin£r
the return of the blood into the auricle. Borrlchius difcovercd
a foramen in the feptum of the heart of ihti pig:oii, large
enough to admit a brittle, by which the two ventricles had a
direct communication with each other. S^e Aft. Dan. anni I,
oblerv. 96. ; and we have obferved tlie fame foramen at
tlie upper part of the feptum of the heart of the goofe in one
inllance ; it was of fuffieient fize to receive a crow quill.
Such a communication does not appear, however, to be an
uniform or natural llrufture, as we failed to difcover it in
other geefe, and in diiTerent fpecies of birds examined for the
purpofe. Indeed, a ready communication betwe<n the ven-
tricles of an adult bird, would be inconfiftent with the mode
in which the functions of refpiratioa and circulation are car-
ried on in this clafs of animals.

The pulmonary artery is provided with three femicircular
valves, as in mammalia. It divides alfo, as uliial, into a vef-
fcl for each lung, and that of the right fide palTes under the
arch of the defcending aorta.

The blood is returned from the lungs by two pulmonary-
veins, which open very near each other into the upper and
pofterior part of the left auricle.

The mechanifin of the cavities of the left fide of the heart
more nearly refembles that which exifts in mammalia. The
films, or membranous part of the left auricle, is however very
Imall, and of an oblong (hape ; and at the place where the
pulmonary veins enter into the auricle, there appears to be a
projection ofthe internal membrane, which performs the office
of a valve to their orifices.

The valve of the left ventricle is thin and membranous,
and refembles fo much the mitral valve of the human heart,
that the fame name might with propriety be givea to it.

The

B I R

B 1 R

TTie tendinous cords, however, which are attached to the thofc which belong to the ftcrnum, and terminated in the

margins of the valve, are not moved by dillind mufcular aponeurofis which covered the lungs. Mr. Ranby difcovercd

fafciculi, or earner columnit, but proceed immediately to be eiglit mufcular fafciculi to each lung of the ojirich. See Phil,

loft in tlie fidi.-8 of the ventricle. The lower part of the Tranf. N^ 386. p. 223. We have noticed only t'Hir broad

cavity is fafciculated, alihoHa,h not fo rcmaikaLly as the in- thin flips of mufcle in the goofe, which proceed from the arti-

tcrnal fiirf.ce of the ventricle of man or quadrupeds. cu'ation of as many vertebral ribs with the fternal ; in tlic

The aortic or femicirculai' valves are to be found at the common fowl, the mufclts of the lungs do not prefent

oriyin of the !;reat arterial trunk from the I It ventiicle. the appearance of diltinct flips, as in other inltanceS) but arc

Thf above account of the mtchanifm of the heart of birds fprcad as a fingle layer upon each hmg.
(hews that this orjran is calculated to exercife its functions It is diScult to fpeak with certainty of the ufes of the

prccifely in the fame manner in thefe animals as in mammalia; pulmonary mufcles. The effect of their contraction appears

and that the pulmonary and general circulations are main- to be the tenliou of the aponturofis, and confequently the

tained by different chambers of the heart; confequently elevation of it into a flat furface which is ordinarily concave or

■tvery particle of blood is expofed to the influence of the air dcpreffcd. This would neccffanly produce feme dilatation

in the lungs, previous to its diftribution throughout the fyf- of the lungs ; and therefore thcle mufcles might be reckoned

tcm for the purpofes of nutrition, excretion, S:c. Before amomr.l the agents of infpiralion, although their operation

the dcfcription of the vcflels of general circulation is entered in this way would be very trifling.

upon, it is in order therefore to treat of the organs of rtfpi- The Parilian anatomills attributed fev<ral ufes to them ;

ration, or the they fuppofed that thefe mufcks had the power of dtprtffing

J^ungs. the anterior part of the thorax, in confequence cf their at-

Thefe bodies are fituatcd on each fide of the dorfal fpine, tachment to the moveable angle of the nbs, and their ob-

upon the fnrface of the ribs and intcrcoftal fpaces, ufuallr lique courfe upward to the fpine. If tliey be allowed to

reaching in length from the fecond rib to the laft iutercoftal perform this effect, they muft be conCdered as mufcles of cx-

fpace but one, and extending in breadth from the fpine to piratlon.

about that part of the ribs, where the proceffes are fent They imagined alfo that they caufcd, when in aftion, a

from one to the other. In the ojlnch, the lungs were found conftriction of the forair.ina through which the air is ad-

to meafure ten inches long, and three and an hr.lf broad, niittcd into the great air-celis of the thorax or upper part

of the body, and thus enabled the bird to maintain a con-
tmued diltenfion of thefe cells, in order to diminilh the
fpeciHc gravity of its body during the time it remained on
wing ; or (what the academicians thought more probable)
furnilhed the bird with a fupply of common air to carry
figure polferiorly exattly correfponds with that of the parts with it into the regions of the atmofphere, in which the
upon which they are laid. The ribs and intcrcoifal fpaces ferve air would be too thin and light for refpiration ; in the laft

and were one inch and an half in thicknels.

The lungs of birds never move from their pofition, as they
adhere to the inlide of the cheft, and are covered over by a
llrong membiane or aponeurolls.

They are fmooth and even on the anterior part ; but thci:

as a mould, of which the lungs are the perftcl calf, prefent-
ing a remarkable prt j^-ction for each depreffion between che
ribs. Thcie eminences are of courle moll ftriking next tiie
fpine ; and towards the anterior edge of the lung';, which is
*ery thiu, they are fcarccly vilible.

The lungs have two coverings ; one is fomewiiat analor
gous to the pleura, though not exactly iimilar to it in ftnic-

conjecfure, however, they fecm to have forgotten the effeft
that the temperature of the bird's body would produce ia
the rarefaftion of the air contained in the cells.

When the lungs of birds are ilripped of their coverings,
there are llill found to be a connected, uniform fublfancc,
and not reducible into lobes or lobules as in mammalia ; thejr
appear, to a fupeihcial view, folid and flefliy, but if ex-

ture, being more hke condenfed cellular fublfance. It clofe- amined more clearly, are feen to be made up of the ramifica-

ly inverts each lung, and appears to be fioculer.t on fome tions of the great blood-vcffels, the broiichiac, and very

parts of its furface, and to adliere to the parietes of the minute air-cells.

cheft. The other coat is common to both lungs; it is ex- When the brorchias enter the lungs, their chief brandies,

tended from each fide of the cheft to the dorfal fpine acrofs inftead of being regularly and equally diftributcd, pafs

tiie anterior furface of the lungs. It is connefted in a de- directly to ceitain points upon the furface of the lung,<i,

gree to the fort-part of the fpine, and inclofes at this place and there terminate in feveral foramina, which commiiricate

the trunk of tlie defcending aorta, fuffering the coeliac ar- with the great air-cell j of the body ; thefe branches alfo of

tery to pafs through it. It has no intimate union with the the broiicliii retain in their llruclure, almoll throughout

proper tunic of the lungs except at the openings of the air- their extent, fome cartilaginous rings. The ramilicatiuiLs of

cells, and armmd the entrance of the great veffcb of the tlie air tube which really fupply the fubllance of the lungs,

lungs. The texture of this coat appears to be tendinous ; are but branches of thole which go to the cells. They are

its fibres all run in the tranfverfe direction ; and in large birds comparatively fmall, and entirely coivpcfed of membi-anes.

they are evidciulv white. This aponturofis is not equally 'I'his ftrufturc accounts for the fltfliy appearance and folid

ftrong upon every part of the lungs; at the upper part, feel of the iunij.s, and explair.s why birds are able to fill

and elpeeially above where the vcflels enter, it is fo weak their air-cells witli fo much eale and rapidity.

as often to be hardly vifible. jllr- Cells.

In all birds there would appear to be fome mufcular fibres Although phyfiologifts are not agreed with refpeft to the

pafTing from the fide of the cheft upon the aponeuioiis of ufes which thefe part;- fer^-e in birds, yet as they are ini-

the lungs. 'I'hefe are very diftiuttly to be feen in the mediately connected with the lurgs, it feems moll proper

larger fptcies, in fome of which the mufcles of the lungs are to delcribe them in this place. It is one of the mofl re-

of confiderable ftrength. The anatomilis of the French markable and peculiar tircumftanccs in the anatomy of

academy obferved fix Itrong flips of mufcle on each fide of birds, that the atmofpheric air has a ready paffage to almoft

the body in the ojlrkh and cajfowary. They arofe from the every part of the interior of their bodies,

ribs which come from the fpine, near their }uncliOu with The air-cells, according to their fiiuation, may be divided

3 F z into

B I R

into tliree kinds, i. Thofe of the grezt cavity of their
body which takes the place of the thorax and nbdomen,
2. Thofe fituatcd amongft the mufcles ; and lallly, thofe in
the interior of their bones.

It lias been already dated, that the body of birds is not
divided into two parts by a tianfvcrfe mufcular partition or
diaphragm. Tliis common cavity is intcrfcAcd by a great
number of membranes, fomc of which fnnply enclole
the fevcial vifcera, but the greater number form cells,
which arc filled from openings upon the furface of the
lungs.

Thefe membranes are in moll birds extremely fine and
delicate, often fo much fo, that the vifcera are perfeflly
vifible through them ; they arc alnioft impoffible to be difTedl-
ed unlefj when kept continually iriflated, by blowing into the
trachea ; it is faid, however, that in the nfirich and cajawaiy,
they are as (Irong as a hog's bladder.

The anatomifts of the academy defcribe the heart and
liver of the oflrich as contained in one cavity, which was
unfumiflied with air, and was fcparated from the air-cells
on the lide by two longitudinal membranes, and from the
lloinaoh and inteftines below, by a tranfverfe membiane,
fituatcd like the diaphragm of mammalia, and covered on
its inferior furface by a layer of fat, of the thicknefs of a
finger ; in all the birds, however, which we have examined,
vve have found a membrane inclofing the pericardium, in the
manner of the medialHnum, and afterwards reflefted upon
the liver, and then forming two fack<!, of which one con-
tained the right lobe of the liver, and the other included
the left lobe, along with the anterior furface of the gizzard ;
and in the goofi, and fome other birds, the membranous
fack of the left fide of the liver only admitted into it the
upper half of the anterior part of the gizzard ; in general,
no air is found in the cells which enclofe the liver and the
tmterior part of the gizzard ; wc, however, once inflated
them from the trachea in the gooje, in which they had a
communication with the cells of the abdomen, by means
of three large holes ; but it is probable, that this was from
mal-conformation of the membrane.

The air cells of the great cavi'y of birds, according, to the
academicians, who take their defcription from the ojlr'ich and
the cajfotvary, are five on each fide of the body. The four
fuperior cells are immediately next the aponeurofis of the
lungs, and are fcparated from the reft of the cavity by a
ftrong membrane which defcends from the top of the thorax
upon each fide to be joined to the tranfverfe membrane which
divides the heart and liver from the llomach and inteftines.
The inferior cells are by much the largeft, and are kept
dilUnft from the inteftines by a ftrong membrane, fimilar to
the other partitions of the cavity, they come in contaft with
the aponeurofis of the lungs, only at their fuperior part,
where they receive their air. The uppermoft cell is the
fmalleft, and derives its air from an opening at the fuperior
part of the lungs. The next cell is of a fquare figure, and
is filled by means of two foramina fituated upon the exter-
nal edge of the lungs. The third cell of each fide is not a
regular fquare, being of greater extent where it joins the
lungs than at the oppofite fide ; it has but one communica-
tion witli the bronchia, which is placed upon the internal
margin of the lungs. The fourth cell is of a very irregular
elongated form, reaching down to the bones of the pelvis ;
it is lefs cxtenfive in the cajfonuary than in other birds. The
air-hole of this cell is fituated at the loweft part of the lungs.
The lull or inferior cells are long, and femewhat of an oval
ftiape ; they communicate with the moft inferior point of the
lungs.

B I R

The Parifian anatomifts defcribe all thefe cells an hem^
formed of dilliiia tunics, fo that each is a fcparate bag, in-
Head of being made by continuous and rcfleded membranes.
They rtprefent the bags to be diftinCl alfo from the great
membranous partitions of the cavity. See PlaleV. in the
yiiiiifniiiy of Birds ; fig. 4. is copied from the memoirs of the
French academy, and exhibits the air cells, &c. of the
cjlrich ; a the trachea ; b b iht two bronchia; paffing to the
lungs; ("the heart; and (/rf the liver, feen in the fuperior
divifion of the cavity ; e the tranfverfe membrane which fepa-
rates, like the diaphragm, the common cavity into two parts ;
/the ftomach ; and ^_f 5- the convolutions of the inteftine,
feen in the lower or abdominal portion of the cavity ; h hhh
the lateral partitions which inclofe the four fuperior cells ;
12^45 indicate the dift"crent cells ; the air holes are appa-
rent' in each, except the inferior or abdominal cells, which
cannot be brought into view, as they lie behind the fourth
cells.

The air-cells of birds in general do not exaftly accord
with the defcription given of the ojlnch and cajfcwciry, by
the members of the Royal Academy ; we (hall tlicrefore
proceed to give an account of what we have obfcrved on this
part of the anatomy of birds in the goofe^ duck, common fowl,
pigeon, Sic. ; and in order to make this defcription more in-
telligible, we fliall take the liberty of naming the cells ac-
cording to their fituation with refpeft to other parts, although
fome of the terms muft be adopted upon the ilrength of
analogy, as the diftinftions of thorax and abdomen do not
with ilriftnefs belong to birds.

The firft is t\ic fuperior thoracic, or jugular air cell. When
it is diftendtd with air, it becomes evident upon the outfide
of the thorax, between the two branches of the fork ; it is
large enough in the goofe to contain an apple in its anterior
part, and pofteriorly it extends on each fide of the bafis of
the heart, over the lungs. This cell contains the divifions
of the trachea into the bronchice, and the trunks and pri-
mary branches of the blood-veffels which fupply the wings
and head. A great number of membranous ftpta pafs
through it in various direftions, which ferve to conneft and
keep fteady the different vefiels, and alfo divide this cell into
feveral chambers, which, however, have all a free communi-

cation with each other. The air is tranfmitted from the
fuperior part of each lung by two openings which are placed
in the pofterior chambers of this cell. Thefe chambers do
not appear to extend fo far upon the lungs in other birds as
they do in the goofe ; it is from this cell that the air pafles
into the cells of the axilla, and under the fork-ihapcd bone,
into the deep feated cells of the neck, and to thofe about
the (houlder.

The next cells may be called the intermediate thoracic.
They are generally two in number, one to each fide ; they
lie immediately upon the lungs, and are in a degree co/ered
by the anterior thoracic cell. That of the right fide is
ufually larger than the one on the left ; the latter is particu-
larly fmall in the goofe, being almoft concealed by the two
adjoining cells, and extending under the poltcrior part of the
liver. The cell of the right fide is of an oblong fquare
figure, and is prolonged under the termination of the inferior
vena cava in the right auricle, as far as the left fide of the
bulbus glandulofus. The intermediate thoracic cells receive
their air through a large foramen, fituated upon the inner edge
of each lung, juft at the bafis of the heart. At the upper
and inner angle of thefe cells alfo there is an opening which
appears to lead to fome fmall cells under the pericardium and
cefophagus, and to communicate indireftly with the anterior
thoracic celL

The

B I R

B I R

The lalirdl thoracic cdh arc amongft the larjreft of the
body. They are of a pyramidal figure, their bafis being
applied to the intermediate thoracic cells, and their point
reaching as far down as the bones of the pelvis ; they cover
the inferior portion of the lungs, and occupy a fpace between
the ribs and the lobes of the liver. They have a very free
communication with the branches of the bronchise, at the ex-
ternal edge of the lungs.

As the intermediate thoracic cells are fmall on the left,
and large on the right fiJe, thcfe cells are larger on the left
fiJe than on the right : this diiproportion is moft obfervable
in i\\i goofe, and very trifling in the ciuct, in which the two
intermediate thoracic cells are nearly of an equal niap;nitude.

The air-cel!'5. which are found in the lower or abdominal
portion of the c.ivity of birds, are compofed of thinner mem-
branes than the others ; in fome parts they are fo tender,
th'it they are ruptured with the fligiitell: touch, from which
they beco'iie very difficult to examine.

Underneath th;- lateral thoracic cells, at thf veiy loweft
part of the lungs, on each lide of the fpine, the branches of
the bronehiae open into the cavity of the abdomen, by which
means air is conveyed dn-ri^ly mto the tv.-o great lateral ah-
dominal cells, and from thefe it would appear tliat it pafTes
into the others.

The Literal Gbdonv.nal cell of the riglit fi 'e is by much the
largf-(l in the body ; it reaches from the laft ribs to the anus,
and lies over and includes almoft all the fmall inteftines, the
renal capfule, and the kidney. It appears in the goofe to be
divided from the oppolite cell by a membrane which pafles
obliquely from the right fide of the anus to the lower part of
the gizzard.

The left lateral abdominal cell contains the inteftines of
that fide ; it is attached to the margin of the gizzard, under
which it is prolonged as far as the lungs, where it is fupplied
with air, as already mentioned.

The lateral abdominal cells tranfmit air to the inguinal
cells, and to feveral chambers formed by the moll delicate
membrane, amongft the inteftines. One of thefe being
fomewhat ftronger than the others, there was an opportu-
nity of obferving it more diftinftly. It maizes a circuit
around the right fide of the gizzard to which it is attached,
and inclofes the duodenum and pancreas ; it might thence
receive the name of the duodenal cell.

Interpofed between the parietes of the belly and the la-
teral cells there is frequently found a confiderable quantity
of tender fat ; efpecially in aquatic birds, fuch as the goofe,
&C. By this means a foft cufhion is provided for the fmall
inteftines to prefs and move upon, thus fupplying the ufe of
the omentum, which is a part not met with in birds.

The ftrufture of the air-cells of birds in general does not
appear to be the fame dcfcribed in the ojlrlch and caffbtuary
by the academicians. The membranes compofing them iu-
ilead of being diftinft bags, as they relate, refemble rather
the pleura or the peritoneum, and like them, feem to pro-
duce all the different cavities by the means of reflection. It
muft be confeiTed, however, that the membranes of the cells,
efpecially in the abdomen, are very eafily f.'parable into dif-
ferent lamina, or layers, which, it might be fuppofed, could
be ultimately refolved into diftinft facks.

It deferves to be mentioned, that each of the air-holes in
the furface of the lungs opens obliquely into the air-cells ;
there being a flight projeftion of thin membrane over tlie
aperture. The Parifian anatomifts afcribed a valvular effect
to this llrufture, which they fuppofed of great confcqnence,
as it would ferve to continue the didenfion of the air-bags,
after they were once inflated. The projection of the mem-

brane over the air-holes does not however appear to be fnfH-
cicnt to caufe any oliflruAion to the regrefs of the air from
the cells ; nor would it feem necelfary or convenient to in-
terrupt in the Icatt degree the expulfion of the air contained
in the ells.

The membranes of which the air-cells are compofed, are
refledted into the apertures of the air-holes, and are there
perforated by a great number of fmall foramina, which cor-
refpond to the termination of the ramification of the bron-
c'ii3e, through which the air has a ready pafTage. When
thefe foramina are brought into view, by diffefting of the
coverings ot the lungs, they give the anterior furface an ap-
pearance of being pricked by pins.

The air-cells which are found amongft the mufcles and
integuments of the external parts of the body, vary in
number and magnitude, according to the ftrudure and
economy of the bird. In every inltance, perhaps, the an-
terior thoracic or jugular cell is continued along with the
vcflcls and nerves into the axilla, making what may be
called an axillary cell, and in moft birds others go off from
this anteriorly under the peroral mufcle, and backwards
under the mufcles of the fcapula, fornnng/if-iS'srrt/ and _/ai-
fcapular cells. In the eagle, ha'wh,Jlorh, lark, and other high
fiying birds, thefe cells are very large, and in many of thofe
birds there ai-e itill larger cells, afcending under the integu-
ments of the neck, and paffing beneath the fliin of the in-
fide of the arm, and the back of the (houlder. In \.\\e fork
we foU':d thcfe cells large enough to admit the finger to
pafs a confiderable way dcfwn upon the infide and the back
of the wing. They are alfo large in the owl and other
birds of pi-ev.

Moft birds of flight have a number of cells placed under
the lateral mufcles of the neck. Thefe are oppofite to tlie
bodies of the cervical vertebrae, and communicate with one
another. It is from the diflerent cells about the axilla and
neck, that the bones of the fhoulder, the humerus, and the
vertebra:, receive the air which they contain.

The Inguinal and gluteal cells are filled from the great
lateral cells of the abdomen, with which they have a com-
munication, where the blood vcffels of the lower extremities
pafs out of the pelvis. The inguinal and gluteal cells fur-
round the neck of the femur ; they are in moil birds very
fmall, but in thofe which are much employed in flighty
efpecially if the thigh bones receive air, they arc larger,
extending for fome way amongft the mufcles behind the
joint. Camper obferved two air bags between the glutaei
mufcles of the gemn f/>oo/dlll (//d.'a/ira), although no air was
tranfmitted into the femur.

The fubcutaneous air-cells of the pelican are very large,
and were dcfcribed long ago by Mery,in the early Memoirs
of the Academy of Sciences of Paris.

Several means have been employed to prove that the air
is permitted to enter the cavity of the bones in birds. The
air-cells and the lungs have been inflated from the bones,
and injedion being thrown into the trachea, was found,
after diftending the air-cells, to have palled into the interior
of the bones. A ftill more dccifive experiment (although a
cruel one) is to cut the humerus acrofs in a living bird, and
introduce the extremity of the divided bone into water, in
which fome foap has bc-n diffolved, when it is perceived
that bubbles are produced by the exit of the air from the
end of the bone. This expedient not only afcertains the
exiftence of air in the bone, but fbtws that there is a mo-
tion or circulation of it, which is the effect of the adions of
infpiration and expiration.

This fubjcfthiis been very extcnfively inveftigattdby Cam-

B I R

per ; he dlfcovered the communications between the cavities
of the bones and llie air-Cvlls of the foft parts, and afct-r-
tailed in a great number of fpccics what bones were tilled
with air.

The refult of both his obfcrvations and our own tendu to
(liew, that the bones of birds are fupphed with air, accord-
ing as thty are employed in the locomotion of the ammal's
body. In birds of flight, therefore, almoll all the bones are
JioUow, and receive air ; thus in the englt Camper found the
air-cells communicatfd with the thigh bones, tliofe of the
pelvis and coxyx, all the vertebras, the (lernum, clavicles,
icapulae, and fork-lhaptd bone, and the bones of the wing.
The air was alfo admitted into the bones of the head from
the cavity of the tympanum. We have obferved the bones
in the hnwL iwAJIorilo want marrow in the fame manner as
thofe of the eaglt. Moll of the bones are hollow in the
Dzul ; but the os ftmoris is filled with marrow. T\ik f>i^con
Icind in general alfo have no air in their thigh bones, al-
though the crotvn p'l^eon has been obferved by Camper to
pofTcfs it.

IMrds even of moderate powers of flight, receive fome
air into the fternum and other bones of the trunk, and be-
tween the platc« of their cranium ; and all birds, whofe wings
are not incapable of flight, have the humcius tilled with air,
with the exception of the -.coodcori, which has been obferved
to poffefs marrow in the humerus ; but to counterbalance
this impediment to the velocity of its motion, it is provided
with pefloial mulcks dF unufiial ilrength.

Thofe birds which are unable to tranfport themfelves for
any diilance by the effort ot their wings, are deprived of air
in the humerus ; of tliefe may be inftanced all the Jlrutiiovs
kind, ihc fietit;iitn, the /''/^;;, &c. It is worthy of remark,
however, that ihc^flruthious birds, which run with great ra-
pidity, have moll of their other bones hollow ; Camper difco-
vered the air to pafs into the thigh bones and lower jaw of
the njlrich, and we have obferved that it fills not only thefe
bones, but the (lernum, the ribs, the vertebrx,and the bones
of the pelvis, in both the common ojlr'uh and that from New
Holland.

The internal furface of thofe bones which contain air have
been dcfcribed by Camper as being in fome cafes lined with
periolleum, and in others entirely deprived of it ; thus he
ftates the internal part of the femur of the eagle to be can-
cellated and furnidicd with a periolleum, upon which feveral
blood-vefTels are ramified, and the humerus of the fame bird
to be a Cmple ofilous tube, without memb'ane, velfcls, or
cancelli. It appears to ur, however, that the membranes of
which the air-cells are compofcd, are continued in every iu-
Aance into the interior of the bone, to which they may ferve,
it is true, the purpofe of a periolleum, although in llruc-
turc they are much more fine and delicate, and when tiR-fc
membranes ceafe to be vafcular, they become dry, and adhere
fo clofely to the furface ot the bone, that they are not eafily
perceived.

The internal parts of the bones of birds which are filled
with air confift of cells, like thofe of other animals; the
only didexence that can be obferved is, that the cancellated
iruAure is lefs clofc, and that the tube of the cylindrical
bodies, fuch as the humerus and femur, is larger than
ufual.

It has been alr.eady mentioned, that the bones derive their
air in general trom tliofe cells which are placed next them
amongfl the mufcles. Some, however, a e filled immediately
from the lungs, or the large internal air-cells, and the hones
of the head and ja.vs have communications with the Eutla-
chian tube, tlie cavity of the tympanum, and the linufes of the
/lofe. 2

B I R

The huir.ei-us is fupplicd with air by the axillary cell, by
means of an opening fituated at the inner and back part of
the head of the bone. See /"/.;/? VI. in the Anatumy of
Birds ; fg, I. rtprefents the fupcrior half of the humerus of
the Amn-kan turkiy [jncl.cgns) ; <r the air hole, whicli like
the air-holes of the lungs, does not open imnitdiatcly uito the
cavity of the bone, but contains a number of fmallcr fora-
mina, that .'.re produced by the canctUi, and have a diredl
comvumication with the internal part of the humtniF.

The fork-fliaped bone is hlled from the jugular air-cell,
from which alfo the fupcrior doilal, and the lowell cervical
vei tebra-, receive fome air, through feveral fmall holes Icat-
tered upon their lateral and anterior parts. The air-hole ot
the fork is placed upon the fide of its ieapnlar extremity,
next the fpinc. See Plate VI. in the Anatomy of Birdj ;
/'^•2. is the ore half of the tork-fluiptd bone of l\\c Jluri
viewed upon the infide, a the air-hole.

The clavicle appears to obtain its chief fupply of air from
the cells which are continued from the jugular au-cells
backwards upon the {lioulder joint.

The principal foramen is found on the infide of the
clavicle, where that bone is connetled to the branch of
the fork. There are btfides this, iome very minute holes
upon the outfide of the clavicle, immediately above the
(lioulder joint ; and on each fide of the Hernal extremity of
the bone, there is a hole large enough to admit a briftle.
See PlafeVl, in the Anatomy of Bhds. Fig. 3. fliewsau
internal view of the clavicle of X.\\t Jlurk ; a, the larger air
hole at the joint of the (houldtr; /, one of the fniall fora-
mina whicii opens into the cheft, containing a bridle.

The fcapula derives air alfo from the procefs of the jugu-
lar Cell behind the joint. It is tranfmlttcd through feveral
holes upon the very extremity of the bone. See_/^. 4, of
Plate W. of the Anr.lomy of B'irdi, a the air holes.

We have dilcovered the openings by which the air is con-
veyed into the (lernum, to be exceedingly nunitrous. The
principal foramina are firuated all along the middle line of
the bone, upon the internal turtace, w'hich appeal s reticu-
lated, or made of cancelli. Towards the anterior part there
is one hole much larger than any of the rell ; and in ad-
dition to thofe of the middle of the bone, there are many-
others palling into the edges of the ilernum to which the
ribs are articulated. All thefe foramina would appear to
communicate with the thoracic cells. See Plate VI. in the
Anatomy of Birds ; Jig. J. exhibits the internal furface of
the Ilernum of iXxsJiork; aaa the fmall foramina in the
middle of the bone, b the principal air-hole near the top of
the (lernum, c c c c many little foramina feen between
the ficrnal ribs which lead to the lateial parts of the
bone.

The vertebrae of the back feem to procure air immediately
frc-.n the lungs ; the foramina are numerous, and placed
along the (ides of the bodies of the vertebrae and at the
roots of their tranfverfe procefles. Tiie foramina whicli
condndl the air into the cervical vertebiiE, occur with
as little regularity ; the three ilrit have their largefl
holes upon the lidcs of their bodies, and in the reft they
are to be found within the canal of the tranfverfe pro-
cefs for lodging the vertebral artery, and along the courfe of
the fpinal canal, at lead fo they have appeared in x\\cJ}ork.
See Plate VI. in tlie Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 6. flicws one
of the cervical vertebrre of that bird, a the body of the bone,
h the fpinous procefs, c c the tranfverfe pnicelTes forming a
portion of the vertebral canal, on the inildc of which are per-
ceived feveral foramina leading into the fubltauce of the bone,
i/the tube behind the body ot the vertebra for containing the
fpinal marrow, exhibiting many fmall holes upon its inter-
nal

B t R

B I R

jial furface. The Foramina of tlie cervical vertebra Lave com
inuiiicatlo'i with tiit- lateral air-cells of tile neck.

The air-ho'.es o; tlie anterior ribs are placed upon the
ends of thefe bones, where they art joined to the iJcrnum.
Tliey arc fnpplicd from the inttrnudiate ai'd lalcial thoracic

to any one pi:rpofe, and fnfpefted they m'ght be ufeful in
giving tone and Itrength to the fong ot birds.

The oblervations of tlie acddemicians appear to us per-
fedily fatisfactorv' with leipect to theconntCtion between the
exiftence of the air-c lis, and the oihce of the lungs. They

P/jl( \ I. in tiie j4na/omy of Birds. Ji^. 5. dddd have related, that during the aft nf infpiration the ftcrnum

refer to the opening upon the denial ribs. was elevated, and the thoracic air-cells diitended at the fame

The air paiTes into the pofterio'- or verti brnl ribs by a niim- moment with the lungs, and tliat when the air was ExptUcd

bei' of foramina, fituated upon the internal furfacc of their from the lungs and thoracic ceils, by the dcprefTion of the

extremities next the fpine. Thefe foramina appear to have ftenium, one portion ot it was cxpTcd by the trachea ia the

from their fituation a direft communication with the poftc- ufual way, and the reil was urged into tlit cells of the abdo-

rior furface of the kmgs. See Plat: VI. in the j^iiatomy of men, ll e two parts of the cavity thu^ becoming alternately

Birds. Fig. 7. is a vertebral rib of the y?!;r/" leen upo'i its enlarged and diminiflied. In order to akcrtain with the

inner fide, a the procefs which articulates with the bodies more certainty the condition of the air-cells during re-

of the dorfal vcrtcbrx, b the part joined to the tranfverfe fpiration, the academiciaiis lubjcfted fcvtral large birds, fuch

proceffes, c c the feveral air-holes. as the /r/r/rv, ^0^, &c. to the experiment of having the

The air-holes of the bones of the pelvis are fo numerous, parietts of tlie belly dilfeftcd off without injuring the air-cells,
and occur with fo much irregularity, that they do not ad- while the animal was ftill alive, by whitb they had an oppor-
niit of a particular defcription. They are all lituated upon tunity of obferving, that the air-ctUs below the fternum were
the internal furface of the bones, and appear to be confined rendered teufe during the time the thorax was dim-nifhcd for
to that fpace covered by the kidnies, under which tlie air exipiration, and that as loon as tlie ilernum was railed to in-
mad infir.uate itfelf from the abdominal cells, in oidcr to creafe the capacity of the thorax, the abdominal air-bags
reach them. become fl.iccid. We have made an experiment of a fimilar

The palTrige of the air into the femur of the ea^k and kind, with the fame refult ; the abdomen of a living goofe
Jlork is through an opening upon the fore part of the vvas laid open, from which no air proceeded during infpira-
bone, juft within the proceis correfponding to the great tioii, but while the air was dilchnrged from the lungs, it paffed
trochanter. It is a round deprcnion, under the edge ot into the abdcminal cells and through the opening of the
which the anertures leading to .the cavity of the bone are belly with fo much foice as to blow out a candle. The
fituated. See. Plate W. TinA Jig. 't^. i^i iW Anatomy of Birds, neccfiity of having the cavity filled w!ih air in birds, oh-
which reprefents the femur of the eagle feen upon the ante, vioufly arifcs from the circuinllancc of tiie lungs being con-
rior fide ; a the air hole, bb the cavity of the bone laid open, fined to the pollerior part of the thorax, and confequently
exhibiting a number of olTeous procefTes, pafling in all direc- not capable of fuffering any compreffion from the contrac-
tions, dividhig the bone on the infide into many irregular tion of the cheft, but by the interpofition of lome other
cells ; thef^e are moll numerous towards the extremities of the parts.

femur, and are hardly to be feen in the centre ; c an artery
dillributing its branches to the membrane which lines tl'.e in-
ternal part of the bone. The air-hole of the femur in thefe
birds communicates with the gluteal cells.

In thc_/i'/'w//j/«/j' birds the air-holes ot the femur are placed
upon the pofterior part, and are found upon both the upper
and lover portions of the bone. See Plate VI. in the yJna-

Many have fuppofed that the air-cells were rot only
mechanically fubfervieiit to the actions of rcfpiiatiou, but
anfwered another important purpofe by collecting a quantity
of air, which in repailmg the lungs tfFcdted a further change
upon the blood, tiius noducing a fort of double refpiration ;
but the free communication wl:ich cxills between the lu"gs
and the cells, renders it probable that the air on its return

tomy of Birds. Fig.g. fhews the potterior furface of thefe- palfes direCtly by the air-holes into the branches of the

mwT oi z young qjirich ; « a dcpreiiion on the upper part of bronchiae, and, confequently, is never brought into contact

the bone, containing a number of air-holes, b the inferior with the blood. It would therefore appear that the only

depreffion with only three foramina. pait the cells oerform in the procefs of relpiration is to fup-

The air-holes of the lov/er jaw have been obferved in the ply an elallic medium, by mea.is of which the motion of the

African and New Holland oftrichcs, x\\t Jlork, the b::ceros na- fternum and ribs, equally a;:d regularly afi"ec1 every part o£

Juius z\tA luceros rhinnceros, and the croiw ; and in all thefe the lungs,

they confilt of two holes fituated upon the two extremities The air-cells making part of the mechanifra of the

of the jaw bchiid the articulation. See Plate VI. in the
Anat'jmy of Birds. Fig. 10. is the lower iaw of the cr.jtii ;
aa the two air-holes. Thefe foramina communicate by a
tube with the cavity of the car.

The air does not penetrate the bones of the head and
jaws in lualer fowls,

organs of rtfpiration, does not preclude them, from anfwcrinir
other purpofes in the animal economy, it is pi?.m to de-
monllration that the bodies of birds lofe much of their rela-
tive weiglit by containing air in tl.cir cavities, and llill more
from its admiffion into the external parts and the bones ; the
advantages of which in tranfpoiti.ig- themfclves through fo

Having deicribed th.c diftribution of air, which takes hght a medium as the air, or even ia locomotion upon a lolid.
place throughout the bodies of birds, it remains to jtiTign an furface, are too obvious to be infilled upon,
ufe to this moil carious and peculiar circum.dancc in their The air while it remains in the body, neccffarily acquires
anatomy. It has been already ftated, that the opinions of the temperature of the living bird, which renders it much
anatomifls upon this fubjeA are diiTerent. The members of lighter even than atmofpheriu air, and tlierefore it ads like
tiie French academy fuppofed that the air-cells were uecef- that contained in the fwimming bladder ot fiilits.
fa.-y to carry on the actions of refpiiation in birds. Cam- A comparifou of the llructnre cf one bird with another,
per thougiit that air was admitted into the bodies of birds proves that the quantity of air is in proportion to the ra-
for the purpofe cf dim.inilhing their gravity in relation to pidity and continuance ot the animal's motion, all other cir-
their bulk, and thus facilitate their motions ; while Mr, cumftances being the fame ; and that tiie air is diilributed
Hunter, the greatefl phyfiologill of this or any other couu- always in preference to thofe members which are mcll em-
try, felt unwilling to confine the fundlioas of the air cells ployed in locomotion, as ha? been already pciiited out.

Ife

B I R

It mlqht be ofTi-red in objeftion to tliis opinion of the ufe
of tht air-c<rlls in birds, that the bat, whicli is an animal very
rcirarkaSV- for the velocity of its flight, and its long conti-
nuance on the wing, is unfurnifhcd with any apparatus except
its lungs for containing air. The anfwcr to this, howcve--,
is ver)'cafv; the exrtnt of th- wing of the lat is fingiilarly
large for the animal, and its membranous llrudine enables it
to give impuH'e to a larger vohime of air than could be pro-
ducid by a wing compofed of feathers, even ot an equal ex-
tent ; and fu-'thrr, the p ftoral mufcles of the bat are larger in
proportion to the animal than they are found in any fpccits
of birds, even tliof.- of the higlicft flu'ht ; fo that the ilrnc-
tureof the lat, iiillead of proving any ohjeaion to the ufes
affigned to the air-cells in birds, aifords the llrongea conlirm-
ation of the theory.

Notwitlillanding the refpca which is due to ever^' phy-
fiologicai opini .n of Mr. Huntu", wc cannot perceive that
there i» the leall relation between the air-cells and the
organs of voice in birds. With a view of determining this,
wc have compared the ilrudure of diflcrent birds, and have
not found the air-cells larger in fmging birds, than others.
The nishlin^alf, fo eminent for its loud and protraded notes,
is formed, with refpcd to the air^ells, exaftly like the
common fparroiu.

Animal Heat.
Although it is not yet proved that the vital temperature
of animals is the refult of that proceis which is called rel'-
piration ; yet, as it is generally fuppoled to be fo, it would
appear moll proper to notice the animal heat of birds, im-
mediately after the dcfcriptioii of the lunirs and their ap-
pendages. It is rcinarkablt, that birds pofl'eis a hitjher
ftandard of vital temperature than all other animals. Cam-
per ft.uc» it to vary from IC4 to 107 degrees ot Fahren-
heit's fcale. Mr. Hunter found the redum of the common
fowl to be IC3, 103}, and 10+ degrees; and in a young
goofe, we obfervcd the thermometer to Hand at 103 degrees
in the reflum, ard whtn infcrted into the cavity of the
body, to rife and remain at 1:4 degrees. It is difficult
to explain either the caufc or the ncceffity of the high tem-
perature of birds. It has been accounted for by their rcf-
pi-ation being more perfed from the air paffing twice
through their lungs ; but even fuppofing this would a'tr
their degree of animal heat, the occafion docs not feeni to
exift, as birds have not that double rcfpiratioii which is
fuppoftd, as has been already (hewn.

It is to be prefumcd, that the warmth of birds may de-
pend, in a degree, upon the llrufture of their fkin, and the
nature of their coverings, which are not delignrd to admit
of much evaporation from the furface of their bodies ; bi:t
it can hardly be fuppofcd, that this, of itfclf, would be
fufficient to produce a temperature fo much higher than is
found in other animal?, and maintain it '"o uniformly and
permanently as it exifts throughout the whole clafs of
birds.

No experiments have yet been made to determine the
powers which birds poffrfs of refilling the influence of ex-
ternal temperature ; but it is to be inferred iVom analogy,
that they can fullain greater extrem.ts of both heat and cold
than ether animals, without fuffering an alteration in their
proper degree of temperatuie ; but that, at the fame time,
birds would fooneft yield to diffoiution upon any material
cha 'ge in their natural ftandard, it being found that ani-
mals generally enjoy independence of tempcratuie, in pro-
portion as it exceeds that to which they are commonly ex-
pofcd, and that the higher their natural ftandard, the more
inconvenience arifes from any alteration of it.

B I R

Blood Ve[[ch.
The organs of circulation in birds have obtained but lit
tie of the attention of comparative anatomifts. The larger
branches of the arteries and veins, which lie near fome o£
the vifcera, have alone received any defcriptiou ; and that
rather from being involved in the account of other parts,
than for their own fake. The diftribution of the blood
vclfels of birds, notwithftandiiig this, is not the Itaft intercfl-
ing part of their anatomy, as will appear from the enfuing
di-fcription, which has been taken chiefly from the fwan,
goofe, duch, Jlork, ?i\A common fo-wL in which it was found
fo much alike, that it may be prefumed the fanae arrange-
ment of the blood vtd'els prevails with little variety in all
birds.

The /Irteries
Proceed from a fingle trunk which arifes from the left
ventricle of the heart. This trunk is fo (liort, that it is
concealed by tlic other parts on the bafis of the heart, and
is only brought into view after the reflexions of the peri«
caidium, and the adjoining veffcls are detached by diflec-
tion. It is from thence, that as the parts are commonly
beheld, there appear to be three great arteries ifTiing toge-
ther from the middle of the heart, which are tiie primary
branches into which the aorta is divided. The firft branch
is to the left fide, and after it is fent ofi^, the trunk affefts
to turn over the auricle, before it gives the branch of the
right fide ; thefe two branches pafs in a curved manner
from the heart towards the axills, in the form of horns,
and each is analogous to xhtariiria Innom'mata of the human
fubjeft, fo that iiiftcad of one, there may be reckoned two
arteritr innommals in birds. After thefe branches are parttd
with, the arterial trunk is continued over the auricles, and
on reaching the back part ot the heart, becomes the dejcend-
ing ao' la.

The nrteria imiominata firfl fends off" the common trunk of
the carotid and vertebral arteries, which before its divifion
gives off one or two fmall branches ; one of thefe runs down
upon the lurgs in company with the pa- vagum, and appears
to fupply branches to the aponeurofis of the lungs, and the
air-cells at the upper part of the thorax ; the other branch,
after fupplying the lymphatic gland of the neckn\ith fcveral
fmall arteries, afcends upon the fide of the afopTiagi's, to
ivh'ch. and the in'eiior larynx, the divifions of the trach'ra,
and to the parts and Miteguments of the fide of the reck, its
branches are dillributed, a'lallomofing with the fuperior
osfophageal and tracheal arteries. This branch is often not
f.-iit ofl until the trunk divides into the vertebral and carotid,
in which cafe it comes from the latter artery. Sometimes
in the duck, the fvpra-fcapular artery, which is ulually
derived from the vcitebral, is a branch ol the common
trunk

The carotid artery, after parting from the vertebral, pro-
ceeds to the middle of the neck, and foon difappears ; being
covered by the mufcles of the anteri.r p.^it of the neck,
under which it lies hidden, and in clofe contact with its fel-
low of the other fide, to very near the head. If, during its
courfe in this fituation, it gives any branches, they are too
infignificant to be noticed.

The carotid artery emerges from between the mufcles of
the neck, at about the third or fourth vertebra from the
bead ; and after giving a branch downwards, amongft the
lateral mufcles of the neck, it runs along the outer edge
of the reftus major anticus mufcle, to behind the angle
of the jaw, where it divides into its feveral branches.

An artery firll goes off polleriorly, which pafTes a little
forwards under the branch of the os hyoides, and after fend.

ing

B I R

B I R

ing fome blood to the mufcles of the neck, make* a turn
backwards, enters the foramen in the tranfverfe procefs of
the fecond vertebra, and terminates by a Cngular anaftomo-
fis in the vertebral artery.

The next branch is analogous to the internal carotid; it
goes forward alfo under the os hyoides, ar.d paffes behind
the mufcles of the jaws clofe upon the lower part of the f!<u!l,
at which place it fends a branch upwards, which appears to
penetrate the bones on the outlide of the ear, and fupply the
organ of hearing, fend a branch into the fkull, and another
through the articulation of the jaw, to unite with the oph-
thalmic, and contribute to the plexus at the back of the
orbit. The internal carotid then enters an ofTeous canal,
which runs along the bpfis of the cranium, between the ta-
bles of the bone, and at the lower and back part of the or-
bit, the artery receives a remarkable anallomofing branch of
the internal maxillary, which almoft equals in fize the caro-
tid itfelf ; and thefc two veflsls produce by their union, one,
\>'hich palTcs almoft dir^c"lly into the cranium at the ufual
place for the entrance of the carotid artery. This vefltl
lorms within the flcuU an anallomofis fimilar to the circle of
Willis ; but tiie branch which occupies the place of the ba-
Jflary artery, is very fmall, and appears to be furnifhed en-
tirely from the anaflomofis of the carotids, and defigned
only to fupply the mcdiilla oblongata arid fpinsl marrow.
The branches of the internal carotid are thickly fpread
in an arborefcent form upon the furfaces of the brain ; lome
on the outQdc, and others on the internal fuperficies of the
ventricles, and the fifTnc between the two hemifpheres.
The carotid alfo, as ufuai, frnds off the ophthalmic artery,
which, befides fupplying the eye and the parts in the
orbit, produces feveral ii^ofculations with the branches of
the externa! carotid, which will be noticed hereafter. After
the trunk of the carotid has parted with the two branches
juft defcribed, it palTes for a little way downwards and
forwards behind the angle of the jaw, and divides at once
into different branches, correfponding to thofe of the ex-
ternal carotid in mammalia, the firll of which mi^ht be
called the afophageal or laryngeal artery. This veffel fends
a branch to the mufcles upon the horn of theos hyoides, and
then turns downwards and divides into two branches, one
to the trachea, and the other to the csfopliagus, upon the
fide of which parts they dtfcend to near the thorax, where
they inofculate with the tracheal and ociophageal branches
of the common trunk of the carotid and vertebral arteries.

The external maxillary artery dips in between the ptery-
goid mufcle, and that which is Ctuated at the back of the
lower jaw for opening the mouth ; it then palTes behind
the articular bone, and gives twigs upwards to the mufcles
of the jaws, and to the plexus at the back of the orbit : upon
emerging from behind the articular bone, it lies under the
EVgomatic procefs of the jaw, and fends an arter)' upward?,
which is diftributed to the tempoial and maffeter mufcles ;
and proceeding under tlie triangular tendon that comes
from the inferior margin of the orbit to the lower jaw, it
divides into two principal branches : one of thcfe pafits
along the Tide of the upper jaw", gives a branch upwards to
the fore part of the orbit which unites with the ophthalmic
artery, and is loft at the top of the head. This branch is
very large in birds with combs, as in conjuniflion with ihe
ophthalmic, it furniihes numerous vcfTels to thefe vafcular
parts. The artery then goes on and fupplies branches to
the fides of the kead before the orbits, and to the integu-
ments and fubftance of the upper mandible, inofculatmg
with the palatine branches of tne internal maxillary artery.
The fecond portion of the external maxillary proceeds to
the lower jaw, to which, and the lower part of the maffeter

Vol. IV.

mufcle, it is diftributed. The external raaxHlary fupplies
the place of the ten b'iral, labial, angular, nafal, and mtntat
arteries of mammalia.

The laryngeal, or pojlerior filatine artery is a little branch
of the external carotid, which is fent off pofteriorly op-
pofite to the external maxillary artery. Its branches are
exhaufted upon the back part of the fauces, the mufcles for
moving the upper jaw, and poilerior nares.

The Ungual, or fub-maxiUary artery pa.Tes under the mufcleS
which connedl the os hyoides to the lower jaw, and clofe
upon the back of the membrane of the lower part of the
mouth, it fends a branch to the ccfophagus and trachea,
fupplies the mufcles of the os hyoides, the tongue, the
lower furface of the mouth, and furnifhes the artery which
enters the fubftance of the lower jaw.

Juft at the origin of the fub-maxiUary arterj-, there is
another httle branch of the carotid, which is loft upon the
mufcles of the os hyoides.

The internal maxillary arter)' is, as ufual, the continuation
of the trunk of the external carotid ; it runs forwards be-
tween the pterygoid mufcle, and the hning of the mouth,
upon the fide of the long mufcle for moving the upper jaw,
and divides into two principal branches ; one of them
proceeds under the tendon of the long mufcle to get upon
the palate, where it forms two branches, of which one
runs along the external iide of the palate, between t!ie mem-
brane and the bone of the m.andible to the extremity of the
bill, where it becomes united to the fame branch r,f the op-
polite fide, as alfo to the rr.iddle artery of the pilate. The
other branch lies alio fuperficially under the membrane which
lines the mouth. It paffes onwards to meet its correfponding
veiTel of the oppofite fide with which it becomes aftually in-
corporated, and by their union a Cngle artery is generated,
which runs along the middle line of the palate to the end of
the mandible, where it unites with the lateral branches as al-
ready mentioned. At the junclion of the vefTel of each fide
to form the middle paktine arterv-, two branches go off,
which are loft upon the lining of the mouth, and the interior
of the organ of f.rell.

The other branch of the internal maxillary artery is re-
flefted upwards towards the orbit, below which it divides
and unites aijain forming a triangle, through which the vein
pafies ; at this place it produces a remarkable plexus of
vefftls, like the rete mirabile of the carotid artery of qua-
drupeds, which is increafed by branches from the ophthalmit:
and the palatine arteries, and from which the back part of the
organ of fmell receives its fupply of blood.

The internal maxillary artery then run^direftly "backward*
below the orbit, paffts between the radiated or fan-fl.up^d
mufcle which moves the upper jaw, and the pterviroid pro-
cefs ; and turning inwards round the bafis of the cranium
becomes incorporated with the /Wr/W carotid artery juft as it
enters the bonev canal, which condutts it to the brain.

The "vertebral artery, foon after it parts from the carotid,
fends off a branch backwaids, which pafl'cs over the neck of
the fcapula and is loft among the mufcles on the poftcrior
part of the fhoulder, inofcu'ating with the articular and
other arteries about the joint ; this branch might be called
the fiipra-fcaj ular. In the duck we have obfervcd it before
it makes the turn over the fcapula to fend an artery upward*
alon^ the mufcles of the neck.

The trunk of the vertebral artery proceeds obliquely up»
wards, and having entered the foramen in the tranfverfe pro-
cefs of the fecond cervical vertebra, gjives off a large branch
downwards, which is diftributed between the vertebra?, and
to the fpinal canal in the manner of the intercoftal arteries,
with which it anaftoiiiofcs upon arriving in the thorax.
3G The

B 1 R

The rtmain Jlt of the vertebral artery is continued Upwards
in the canal formi-d in the tranfverfc proccflos of the cervical
vcrtcbi-x, diminifhing: gradually in confequence of branches
it fends off between each vertebra to the fpinal marrow and
the mnfcles of tlie neck. Near the head, the artery is found
confiderably reduced ; and within the lall foramen in the
tranfverfe proceffcs. terminates entjrely by inofcubtion with
the rcfleaed branch of the carotid, as before noticed.

The extraordinary anaftomofc* and the plexules which are
to be obfcrved in the arteries of the head in birds are not
eafily accounted fi.r. It ftems pofTilde that they may be re-
quired in confequence of tlie great length of the neck in
thcfe animals ; il bcinpr well knowa that frcqnct-.t communi-
cation amjngft the \<:i^.h, ahhouj^h it dimiiiifiics the impe-
tus of the circ:J.ition, infures a free and uninterrupted mo-
tion of the blood.

After the common trunk of the carotid and vertebral is
detached from the artcria innominata, this veffel may atTume
the name of th-- fuh/.tvian. ^V■hile paffnig under the cla-
viel-, it fends off iome important branches : the fnil: might be
called a /'f(73ni/ flc/f/-)', it proceeds upwards upov. the inter-
nal furface of the peftoralis minimus mufcle, which it lup-
phes ; and tlicn dividing into two branches, one pafles over
the anterior edge of the clavicle, and under the peftoralis
medius, between which and the fternum it runs, detaching
its branches to the mnfcle ; the other fends firll along the
under fide of the clavicle a branch which is again fnbdivided
and dillributed to the outfide of the Ihonlder joint and to
the deltoid mufclo, in which it inofculates with the articular
arterv. The vclfel then paffes between the clavicle and the
fork-fliaped bone, and on a ligament which connefts the
head of the clavicle to that of the fcapula, and difperfcs its
branches upon the upper part of the fhoulder joint forming
anaftomofes with the neighbouring arteries.

The next branch of the fubclavian is the humeral artery ;
it arifes from the upper fide of the vtffel, and makes a (light
curve to reach its fituation on the infidc of the arm, in order
to difpenfe its branches in the manner hereafter defcribed.

The internal mammary artery is given oif juft as the fub-
clavian leaves the chell. It divides into three branches,
one ramifies upon the inner furface of the llernum ; another
upon the fternal ribs, and the intercoflal mufcles ; and the
third runs along the anterior extremities of the vertebral
ribs, fupplying the intercollal mufcles, &c.

The chief peculiarity of the arteries of the fuperior ex-
tremity in bird?, coniills in the great magnitude of the
velfcls which fupply the pecloral mufcles ; thcfe, inllead
of being ineoiifiderable branches of the axillary artery, are
the continuations of the trunk of the fubclavian, of which
the humeral is only a branch.

The great petloral or thoracic artery palTts out of the
cliell over the firll rib, and clofe to tiie llernum, and iin-
inediacely divides into two branches. One of them ramifies
in the fuperior part of the p-ftoralis major, and the otlier is
exhau.led in the lo.ver part of the mufcle, and fends off a
branch analogous to the long thoracic artery of mammaha.

The humeral artery, while within the axilla, gives a fmall
branch backwards to the mufcles, under the fc.ipula, and
upon reaching tlie infide of tlie arm produces an artery, that
foon divides into tlie articular and the profunda humeri.
The articular artery paffes round the head of the humerus,
underneath the extenfors ; its branches penetrate the deltoid
mufcle, and anallomofe with the other fmall arteries around
the joint.

The profunda humeri as ufual turns under the extenfor

. mufcles, to reach the back of tiie bone, at which place, in

birds, it feparates into two branches, of whicli oue dcfcends

B I R

upon the infide, and the other upon the outfide of the artJ-
culation of the humerus with the radius and ulna, and there
inofculate with the recurrent branches of the arteries of tha
fore arm.

After the humeral artery has fent off" the profunda, it de-
fcends along the inner edge of the biceps mufcle, detaching
fome branches to the neighbouring parts ; upon arriving at
the fold of the wing it divides into tvn branches, one of
thefe is analogous to'the ulnar artery, and the other from its
pofition deferves to be called rather the ir.teroffeous than the
radial artery.

At the place where the humeral produces the two arteries
of the fore arm a fmall branch is fent oft", which is loft upon
the fore part of the joint, and in anaftomofes with the recur-
rent cf the ulnar, and the profunda hun-.eri.

The ulnar artery is the principal divifion of the humeral ; ,
it proceeds fuperficially over the mufcles which are ana-
lai'uus to the pro.iator, fends a large recurrent branch under
the flexor ulnaris to tlie back of the joint upon which it
ramifies and forms anaftomofes with the profunda humeri.
The artery then proceeds along the inner edge of the ulnar
mufcles, to which it diftributes branches. It is afterwards
fecn pafiing over the carpal bone of the ulnar fide, and under
the annular ligament, at which place it fends off fome
branches which fpread upon the joint and inofculate with
fimilar ones of the interolfcous artery. "Very foon after the
ulnar artery gets upon the metacarpus it dips in between
the bones and re-appears upon the oppofite fide lying under
the roots of the quills, to each of which it fends an artery ;
it preftrves this fituation to the end of the metacarpal bones,
where it paffes between the Ilyle analogous to the httle finger
and the principal or fore finger, and purfues its courfe
along the edge of the latter, to the extremity of the wing,
fupplying each of the true quills with an artei-y and fending
at each joint of the finger, a crofs branch to communicate
with the anaftomofing branches on the oppofite fide.

The inlcrij/fesus artery detaches firft a branch of fome fizc
to the membrane which is fpread in the fold of the wing,,
upon which it forms fcveral ramifications. After this the
artery dips down behind the pronator ^ufcles to get into
the fpace between the ulna and radius. It here gives a
branch backwards to communicate with the others about the
joint, and proceeds in the interoffeous fpace as far as the
carpal joint, duiing which courfe tiiey become much dimi-
iiilhed ftom giving off feveral brandies which are diftributed
to the integuments and the quills placed upon the outfide
of tlie ulna. The remainder of the interoffeous artery is ex-
pended in fmall branches upon the back of the carpal jui:it,
the bartard quills, and along the radial edge of the meta-
carpus and bones of the fore finger, where it forms communi-
cations witii the crofs branches of the ulnar artery already
mentioned.

From this defcription it will be perceived, that no artery
exifts in birds (tritlly analogous to the radiil ; that there are
no palmar arches ; and t:;at the fize of the interoffeous
artery, and the courfe of the ulnar along the outfide of the
n'etacarpus are peculiarities v.-hich arife from tho neccffity of
affording a large fupply of blood to the quills during their
growth.

The (Icfccnding aorta makes a curve round the right auricle
in order to get upon the polterior furface of the heart, after
which its courfe is clofe along the fpine, in which fituation
it is bound down by cellular fubftance, and the ftrong mem-
brane or aponeurofis, which covers the lungs on their an-
terior part. The firll branches which this veffel appears to
fend off are bronchial arteries ; they arife from the fore part
of the aorta jult when it arrives upon the fpine j and having

entered

B I R

B I R

entcrtd the lungJ, their ramifications accompany thofecf the
pulmonary arteries. They appear alfo to fend branches to
the fpine, and the fpaces between the rib?.

The intercofial arteries do not take their origin from the
aorta in numerous and regular branches as in mammalia, but
confift; origir.ally of but few vefFels, which are multiplied by
anailomofes with each other, and with the arteries which come
out of the fpinal canal. An arterial plexus is thus formed
round the heads of the ribs, from which a vefTcl is fent to
each of the intercoital fpaces. Many of thcfe branches be-
fides fupplying the intcrcoftal mufclesand ribs, are continued
into the niufcies upon the outfide of the body and the integu-
ments. The anallomofis of the intcrcoftal arteries round the
ribs is very fimilar to the plexus which is produced by the
great fympathetic nerve in the fame fituation.

The aorta produces no branch which dcferves the name
of the phrenic artery, as birds do not poffefs that mufcular
feptum of the body, to which the artery of this name is dilbi-
buted in other animals.

The ceel'uic artery is a very large fingle trunk, and arifes
from the fore part of the aorta, even higher than the zone
of gallric glands. It defccnds obliquely for a fhort way and
then gives otF a bninch which foon divides into two or three
others that are fpread upon the lower part of the oefophagus,
and the fide of the zone of gaftric glands, uniting with the
other arteries of the cefophagns above, and extending down-
wards upon the po.lerlor fide of the ventricle, andanaHomof-
ing with the anterior gaftric artery. The trunk of the
cceliac now divides into two very large branches, which from
their diftribution we have chofen to call the poftcrior and the
anterior gaftric arteries.

'Y\\t pojltrior gnjlnc artery, almoft as foon as it is formed,
detaches x.heJp/en!C artery ; ar.d veiy foon after, it furnifties
from the pofterior fide of the vcftel, the ri^hl hepatic artery.
This branch p'oceeds to the right lobe of the liver, which it
enters on the fide of the hepatic duft ; after having divided
into two or three minute arteries on its way to the liver, it
fupphes the hepatic duft with a branch which accompanies
the duft to the intelline, and is there loft. The pofterior
gaftric artery then runs down upon the back of the gizzard,
and oppoiite to the origin of the firft inteftine it fends off
an artery which proceeds direftlv to one of the caica, upon
which and the fide of the next inteftine it is expended, inolcu-
lating at the end of the csecum, with branches of the mefcn-
tcric artery, which arc diftributed to the adjoining portion
of the fmall inteftine. The pofterior gaftric then furniflies a
large vefTel which runs upon the g'z'/ard and divides into two
chief branches, which penetrate the fubftanceof the digaftric
mufcle, in which thty a''e loft.

The next branch of the pofterior gaftric artciy is the^on-
treatic. It runs between the two pancreatic glands, cilpenf-
ing branches to each, and to the (luodenum. After this the
trunk of the pofterior gaftric divides into two branches which
furnifti twigs to the mufcular parietes of the ventricle, and
run along the margins of the upper and lower portions of the
digaftric mufcle, fupplying them with numerous twigs, and
anaftomofing with the ramifications of the other gailric
arteries.

The anterior ga'rJc artei'y defcendsto the angle formed by
the bulbus glandulofus and the gizzard, and there fends off
a fmall branch which fpreads upon the zone of gaftric glands,
and inofculates with the firft ramifications o( the cocliac, and
immediately afterwards it detaches a large artei-y, which runs
round the fuperior margin of the digaftric mufcle, which it
furniftie swith many twigc, and communicates freely with the
correfponding branch of the pofterior gaftric artery.

Three fmall hepatic arteries take their origin frota this

branch of the anterior gaftric, juil as it paftes over the
liighcft part of the margin of the gizzard ; thefe vef-
fels enter the fiffure in the left lobe of the liver. The
anterior gaftric artery now proceeds along the fore -part
of the gizzard, fending one or two branches into the
mufcular fubftancc, and near the tendon it terminates in
two large veiielf, one of which is diftributed upon the left
fide of the digaftric mufcle and the other paffes a httle over
the tendon and then divides into two arteries ; which pro-
duce feveral branches that difappear in the fubftance of the
gizzard, and between the digaftric mnfclcs and the parietes
of the ventricle, anaftomofing with the velfels of the pofterior
fide.

The fuperior me/enteric artery takes its origin from the fore
part of the aorta a little below the cceliac, and proceeds for
iome way without detaching any branches ; after which it
experiences the fame kind of divifion and fubdivifion that
takes place in mammalia; and the nu.rerous arteries which
are thus ultimately produced are fpent upon the fmall in-
teftines. One of the firft and largeft branches of the fuperior
mefenteric, however, is allotted to fupply one of the caeca, and
and eftablifti a communication with the inferior mefenteric,
and gaftric arteries. This branch, foon after it leaves the
trunk of the fuperior mefenteric, di\ides into two. One
defcends upon the rectum, where it meets with the inferior
mefenteric artery, with which it produces a very remarkable
anaftomofis, fimilar to the mefenteric arch in the human fub-
jei3 ; this united artery fupplies the rectum and origin of the
cKca. The fecond portion of this branch of the fuperior
mefenteric, runs in the fpace between the laft part of the
fmall inteftine, and the ccscum of one fide fending numerous
branches to each, and at the end of the csecum, communi-
cates in a palpable manner with another branch of the fupe-
rior mefenteric artery, which runs upon the adjoining part of
the fmall inteftine.

A branch arifes from the anterior part of the aorta, juft;
below the lungs ; it is defigned for the nutrition of the
organs of generation, and except in the feafon for propa-
gation, is fo fmall as to be difcovered with difficulty ; but
when the tefticles become enlarged, it is confidei-ably in-
creafcd in fize in the male bird, and much more fo in the
female, when the ovary and oviduft are developed for pro-
ducing eggs. It nearly equals the fuperior melenteric artery
during the period of laying, in which ftate we fnaU deicribc
it. It is a fingle artery like the cseliac and the mefenteric,
proceeds at a right angle from the aorta, and foon fends oiF
a branch wh.ich goes into the kidney of the left fide, to
which it gives fome twigs, and afterwards emergi:'g from the
kidney, it runs in the membrane of the onduA, upon which
it is diftributed. After this branch is detached, the artery
projeifls a little farther forwards into the cavity and divide*
into two branches, one of thefe goes to the ovaiy, in which
it ramifies, and furnifties an artery of fome fize to each of
the cytts containing the ova. The other is diftributed in
numerous branches to the membrane and fuperior parts of the
ovidinft, and inofcuiatcs with tlie other arteries of the ovi-
duct. It dcferves to be remarked, that this and ail the other
arteries which are fnrniftied to the oviduCt, have a tortuoui
or undulating courfe, in the fame manneras the v-.;HcIs of the
uterus of the human fubjeft.

There are no regular emulgcnt arteries in birds ; the kid-
nies deriving their blood from various fources, which will be
pointed out as they occur.

The inferior extremity is fupplicd with two arteries, which
have a feparate origin from the aorta. One corrrefpond*
with ihe femoral artery, and the other deferves the name of
ifchtadic artery.

3 G 2 The

B I R

The /^ mora! arfery is a fmall trunk which takes its origin
from the fide; of the aorta, oppofite to the notch in the bones
of the pelvis immediately under the lail rib. This notch is
formed into a round liole in the recent fibjefi, by a h'ga-
mcnt which is extended from it to the rib; ar.d it is through
this hole that the femoral artery makes its exit from the
pelvis; jull before it pafles out upon the thish, it fends off
a long branch which runs backwards the whole length of
the margin of the pelvis difpenfrng arteries to the abdo-
minal mufcles on one lide, and the obturator internus on
the other. This branch alfo appears to fupply one to
the oviduiS. The femora! artery, immediately after leav-
ing the pelvis, feparates into two branches ; one goes up-
wards and outwards, ramifying amongft the mufcles in
that fituation ; the other turns downwards, andisdidributed
to the flexors of the hmb, and round the joint, and lenda an
arteiy to the edge of tiie vailus internus, which can be
traced as far as the knee. The kidnics appear to derive
fome irregular inconfiderablc branches from the femoral ar-
tery while it is witliin the pelvis.

The ifchiadk artery is the principal tnink of the lower ex-
tremity, exceeding very much in iize the femoral. When
it is produced by the aoita, it appears to be the conti-
nuation of that trunk ; the remni:;ing part of the aorta be-
comes fo much and fo fuddcnly diminifhed, and fcems as it
were to proceed as a branch from the back part of the vcflTel.

The ifchiadic artery, while in the pelvi?, is concealed by
the kidnics, in which lituation it gives a branch from its
lower rule, wh.ich dindes into three others that are diflri-
buted to the fubllance of the kidnies ; one of thcfe on the
left fide is continued out of the kidney to be lofl; upon the
oviduft. The artery leaves the pelvis by the ifchiadic fora-
men, in company with the great nerve ; while within the
foramen, it gives a branch obliquely downwards under the
biceps to the mufcles lying on the pelvis ; and as it pafles
over the addudlor, it fends off another along the lower edge
of that mufcle, which is chiefly loll in the femimembranofus.
It then detaches feveral fmall brandies to the mufcles on
the outer and fore part of the thigh, fom.e of which anafto-
mofe round the j;)iat with the branches of the femoral arte-
ry. Jull as the ifchiadic arrives in the ham, it furnilhes a
Tery large branch downwards, which divides into two ; one
goes under the gaftrocnemiuj, to which and the deep feated
flexors its branches are dillributed as far as the heel ; the
other is analogous to the peroneal artery ; it goes to the out-
fide of the leg, fupplits the peroneal mufcles pofteriorly,
and pafTes along the outer edg»^ of the flexors of the toes to
the heel, above which, and behind the flexor tendon, it di-
vides, running on each lide of the heel, and forming feve-
ral articular arteries around the joint, and communicating
•with the other branch, and with the anterior tibial, and the
metatarfal branch of the plantar artery.

The articular arteries go off next from the artery in the
'ham ; the two principal ones are deep feated. One pro-
ceeds under the vailus internus to the external part of the
joint ; the other is large, and fituated upon the infide. It
■forms two veflels, one is the true articular artery, and
fpreads upon the ligaments of the joint, the other is diftri-
buted in the fubftance of the flexor of the heel, which is
placed upon the infide and fore part of the leg, and comes
out upon the edge of this mufcle to be loil in the inte-
guments.

The pojlcrior tibial artery is extremely fmall; it only fup-
plies mufcular branches to the internal head of the gaftroc.^e-
mius, and fome of the flexors of tiie toes ; it is loll on the
infide of the heel in analloinofes with the peroneal artery,
and other fmall fuperficial branches. 3

B I R

The tnink of the artery of the leg now gets upon the-
pofterior furf;ice of the tibia, and fends off through the defi-
ciency left between the tibia and fibula at the fupsrrior part,
a branch, which is dillributed to all the mufcles upon the
fore part of the leg. The artery then creeps along the back
of the bones for fome way, and paffmg between them above,
wiiere the fibula is anchylofed with the tibia, it re-appears on
the anterior part of the kg in the fituation of the anterior ti-
liiil artery ; at this- place it detaches fome very fmall branches,
which frequently divide and unite again, to produce a motl
Angular reticiilation or plexus of veflels, which clofely ad-
heres to the trunk of the artery, and is continued with it as
far as the articulation of the tibia with the metatarfal bone,
where it difappears without feeming to anfwer any ufefu! de-
fign. Tliis plexus refembles in appearance exaAly the divi-
fion of the arteries of the extremities, which has been de-
fcribed by Mr. Carlile in the tardigrade quadrupeds, but
differs from it in this circumilance, that the trunk of the
artery is prefer\^ed behind it, without fuffcring any material
diminution of its fize.

The anterior tibial artery furnifhes no branch of any im-
portance during the time it is proceeding along the fore part
of the leg. It palfes under the ftrong ligament which binds
down the tendons of the anterior mufcles of the leg, and
over the fore part of the joint on the infide ot the tendon of
the tibialis amicus ; at which place it dillributes fome
branches which inofculate with the other arteries round the
joint ; it then purfues its courfe in the groove along the an-
terior furface of the metatarfal bone, and covered by the
tendon of the fl^-xor digitorum. On coming near the foot,
it fends off an artery, which divides, behind the joint of the
internal toe, into two branches ; one goes between the in-
ternal and middle toes, ramifies upon both their joints, and
unites with the artery in the fole of the foot ; the other is
dillributed between tlie internal toe and the poUex or toe
which occupies the place of the great toe ; the main artery
now pafles to the fole of the foot through a hole in the
metatarfal bone left for the purpofe, when the original parts
of this bone were united by ofllfication. In this fituation
the artery might receive the name of the plantar. It has
fcarcely paffed through the bone, when it divides into fix
branches ; three of thefe are diftributed to the tendons and
ligaments, &c. on the outfide of the foot and the back of
the mctataiTus, anaftomoling with the defcending branches
of the peroneal artery ; tb.e fourth branch fupplies the pol-
lex, and alfo fends a branch upon the metatarfus. The re-
maining branches are defigned fur the three principal toes ;
one dips in between the internal and middle toe, unites with
the anterior branch of the metatarfal artery, and is diftri-
buted to the fides of thefe toes as far as their extremity.
The other divides, between the external and middle toe, into
two branches, which run upon the oppofite fide of each of
thcfe toes to the end.

When the feet are webbed, the digital arteries fend off
numerous branches, which, ramifying in the membrane be-
tween the toes, eilablifh a communication with each other.
The prefent defcription has been taken from birds which pof-
fefs three principal toes, and the back toe, or poUex ; but no
material difference can be expeded in thofc with a greater
number of toes.

After the trunk of the aorta has detached the ifchiadic
arteries, it is continued along ttie Ipine, fending fmall
branches analogous to the lumbar arteries, one of which
afcends upon the reftum, fupplies the place of the inferior
mejhileric, and unites with the fupcrior mefi.;-.teric, as
already mentioned. The aoita feparates above the coxy-
geal vertebre into three branches; two of thefe proceed

late-

B I R

B I R

laterally, and are diftributed to the neighbouring parts, and
to the kidnies and ovidutl ; the third branch defcends to the
very point of the tail, upon the mufcles and quills of whicli
its branches are exhaullcd.

The arterial fy'lem of birds diffVrs from that of other
animals chiefly in the frequent anallomofes, which exift more
efp^cially amongft the arteries of the head and the vifctra.
Similar communications occur between the veins, which are
even in fome inftances more fingular and unaccountable, as
will be peiceived by the following defcription, which has
been takea principally from the goofe, duck, and common
fotul.

Veins.

The venous fydem returns the blood to the heart by
means of three trunks ; two of thefe, for the convenience
of defcription, we fhall call the fubclavian veins, although
they do not correfpond in every refpecl with the veins of
this name in mammalia ; the other trunk is analogous to the
inferior vena cava.

Tht fubclavian vein is compofed of the jugular and verte-
bral, and the veins which belong to the fuperior extremity or
wing.

The vertebral vein is lodged in the fame canal with the
Tertebral artery ; it anaftomofes between the vertebrx with
the veins upon the fl'.eath of the medulla fpmahs, which are
the continuation of the linufes of the brain ; in conjunction
with thefe, therefore, the vertebral vein may be confidered
ai anfwering the purpofe of the internal jugular of mamma-
lia. It appears alfo to form at the bafis of the cranium a
free communication with the jugular vein, and to receive
by occafional branches, blood from the mufcles of the
neck.

The jugular vein is a fingle trunk in birds, and does not
admit of the dillinftion into external and internal ; it pro-
ceeds fuperficially along the fide of the neck in company with
the par vagum nerve. The vein of the right iide exceeds the
other in fize ; it is often twice as large. The jugular
vein receives feveral lateral branches from the mufcles and
integuments of the neck, the oefophagus, &c. ; one of
thefe near the head is much larger than the reft: ; it lies deep
amongft the mufcles, and appears to communicate with the
vertebral vein. There is a branch of the jugular which goes
amongft the mufcles of the tongue and of the os hyoides,
and another for the mufcles within the jaws and the integu-
ments in the back of the mouth ; thefe might be called
the lingual anA fubmaxillury veins.

The two jugular veins form a moft remarkable communi-
cation with each other immediately below the cranium, by
means of a crofs branch, generally of an equal fize with the
trunks themfelves. From each fide of the arch thus formed
there ifliies a large vefTel, which is made up of the veins
of the external part of the head ; one of thefe pafies round
the articular bene, and apparently penetrates the joint of
that bone with the lower jaw ; it appears in feveral
branches upon the fide of the cheek, and fpreading from
the ear, in the manner of the portio dura nerve of the hu-
man fubjetl, and contributes to form a plexus of veins below
the pofterior part of the orbit, fimilar to tlie arterial pkxus
already defcribed in that fituation. The principal branch of
the veins of the head pafies obliquely ruund the inter-articu-
lar bone, and below the orbit divides into feveral large vef-
fels ; one of which belongs to the back part of the palate ;
another afcends in the orbit, and unites with the ophthal-
mic vein ; and a third is dillributed to the interior of the
organ of fmell, the palate, and the external parts of the up-
per and lower jaws. Thefe branches produce plexufes along
the bafe of the orbit and the external edge of the palate,

which correfpond to thofe cf the arteries before de-
fcribed.

In all the fubjcfts we difTcfted .''or the veins we failed to
difcover any dircft communication between the jugular vein
and the finufes of the brain ; and in every inftance the ex-
ternal veins of the head appeared to be fufficieiitly large of
themfelvcs to produce the trunk of the jugular. It may
therefore be prefumed, that if any branch analogous to the
internal jugular vein pafifes through the pofterior foramen
lacerum, it is veiy inconfiderable, and incapable of tranf-
mitting the blood of the brain.

The finufes of the bruin feem to difcharge their contents
principally into fome veins, which lie in the membrane
forming the ftiealh of the fpinal canal, and thefe appear to
difpofc of their blood gradually, as they defcend in the
neck, by means of lateral communication with the vertebral
veins. The finufes, which immediately open into the fpinal
veins, are fituated upon the back of the cerebellum, and
produce by anaftomofes with each other, with the fuperior
longitudinal finus, and with others along the fides of the
brain, an union of vefiels, of a diamond fiiape.

The finufes of the brain in birds generally are irregular
in their form, and confift of flattened canals ; and not only
the finufes on the back of the cerebellum, but the fpinal
veins appear fo like extravafation, that accurate and repeat-
ed obfervations are neceflary to difcover them to be real
vefiVls.

The principal finufes, befides thofe upon the cerebellum,
are the fuperior longitudinal, and one whieh runs along the
lower edge of each hemifphere of the cerebrum ; there ap-
pears to be alfo one upon the fide of the cerebellum, cor-
relponding to the lateral finiis. All the finufes communi-
cate with each other on the back of the cerebellum as al-
ready mentioned. The fuperior longitudinal finus is con-
tmued at its anterior part ur.dcr the frontal and nafal bones,
and anaftomofes with the ophthalmic and nafal veins. There
arc other finufes in the ieveral duplicatures of the dura ma-
ter, which are too fraall to be ealily traced, or to dcferve
much regard.

The veins of the luing, or fuperior extremity, have a lefs
curious diftribution than thofe of the head. The branches
which are derived from the parts within the cheft, the muf-
cles about the fcapula, and the peftonil mufcles, accompany
the arteries of the fame parts, fo regularly that their courle
does not require defcription.

The vein lies confiderably lower in the axilla than the ar-
tery, but ftill continues to receive correfponding branches.
The trunk of the vein defcends in the courfe of the hume-
ral artery, but more fuperficially ; in this fituation it may
be called the bafiUc, or more properly the humeral., vein.
There is no vein in birds which delerves the name of the ce-
phalic ; there are branches of the humeral vein, accompany-
ing the articular and profunda arteries, and at the middle
of the humerus, a large branch of the vein enters the bone ;
there are alfo two very fmall branches which lie in clofe coa-
taii with the humeral artery, which they accompany nearly
its whole length.

The principal vein of the wing divides into two, oppofite
to the joint of the humerus with the fore arm. One of thcle
branches belongs to the fides of the radius ; it receives blood
from the mufcles and fkin on the upper part of the fore arm,
but its chief veffcls lie between the integuments of the fold
of the wing. The other branch of the humeral vein crofles
the fore arm, juft below the articulation, in company with
the nerve, and running along the inferior edge ot the ulna,
receives a branch from between the bafis of each quill, is
continued along the ligament which fudains the reft of

the

B I R

the quills to the extremity of the wing', receiving many
vei:is of the ioints from the oppofite fide of the fir.gers.
Bcfi.lcs thefc large fiiperticial veiiis of the fore arm, there ap-
pears to be one, and fomctimcs two, fmall accompany ng
veins to the nlnar and interoffcous arteries.

I'he inferior vcnti cava, before it enters the auricle, re-
ceives as ufual the hepatic veins ; thefe are numerous, ard
open into the cava, as it pafPes beh.ii.d the liver, or more fre-
quently within the fuljilance of that vifcus m the back part.
We have recko"ed in the cock two larjje and two fmall hepa-
tic veins from the right lobi, and one l;irge branch from the
left lobe, brfidts fix minute veins, wiiich came indiliercntly
fiom both !)bes.

The trjnk of the vena cava is very i^ort in the abdnnien ;
it feparates into two great branches analogous to \.\\e primary
iliac vein!, oppofite to the renal capfuhs ; thefe turn to each
Jide, and experience a very fingular dillribution. On coming
near the edge of the pelvis each of thefe two veins forms
two branches ; one of v/liich coUefls the blood of the lower
extremity, as hereafter defcribed ; the other pafTes ilraiglit
downwards unbcddtd in the fubllance of the kidney, and
admits the fevcral emulgent veins, which are very large, and
are feen to pafs for fom.e way obliquely in the kidney, before
their termination. The dtfcending branch of the ihiic alfo
receives the ovarian vein?, and when arrived at the lower end
of the kidney, divides into three branches ; one tranfmits
the blood of the n'.ufelcs of the tail and parts adjacent ; ano-
ther accompanies the ureter to the fide of the reftum, and is
diilributed abo'it the anus and parts of generation, aniwer-
ing to the hirnwrrhoidal ■veins ; the third pafTes inwards to
the middle line between tlic kidnit s, and there unite- with the
correfponding branch of the oppofite fide. The veiTel whic'i
is in this manner produced, receives all the blood of the
redum from the anus to the origin of the cosca, anallom.of-
ing below with the branches of the hxmorrhoidal veins ;
and at the upper part of the rcelum, it becomes continuous
■with the trunk of the veins of the fmall intellines, forming
the moll remarkable anaftomofis in the body, both on ac-
count of its confcqnences and the fize of the veffels by which
it is effedttd. By means of this communication, the blood
of the vifcera, and the exttmal parts of the body, flows almoll
indifferently into the vena cava and vena ports ; for the anaf-
tomofing veffels are fnfficiently large to admit the ready paf-
fage of a confiderable column of blood in proportion to
the whole mafs which circulates in the body of the bird :
for in-ilance, in \.\\e goofe, the communicating veins of the
pelvis are equal in fize to a goofe quill, and in the ojirich
and caffoiuary they are as thick as a finger. The advantage
which appears to refult from this remarkable union of veffels,
is the prevention of congetlion, or the overloading either the
heart or liver with blood, as the one organ has the power of
relieving the other. It would feem from this, as well as fe-
veral other provifions of the fame kind, that the circulation
would be more liable to obllruflion in birds than other
animals. It is difficult to fay, however, to what caufe fuch
an ttfcA ought to be afcribed. Is it from the compreiTion
fuHained by the heart'and other vifcera, by means of the
air-cells during refpiration ? Or, is the mode of progref-
fion by flight capable of impeding the motion of the
blood ?

The anaftomofis of the pelvic veins, in being the means
of conveying common venous blood into the liver, goes to
prove, that the blood of the vena portx does not require
any peculiar preparation by circuLition in the fpleen or
other vifcera, w hich has been conceived as neccffary by fome
phyfiulogills to fit it for the fecretion of bile.

The vena por'.x belongs alaioft exclulively to the right at

B I R

principal lobe of the liver. It is formed by three branches.
The fpknic ■vein is the fmalleft, and is added to the vena
porta;, juft as it penetrates the liver on the fide of the hepa-
tic dua. The next is made of two branches ; of which one
returns the blood of the pofterior gallric artery, and there-
fore may be called the pofli-rior grfiric sem ; and the other
is fnrnifhed by the pancreas and duodenum, and therefore
is the/(7ni-;-<:fl/;c vein. The third and largefl branch of the
vena ports is the mefaiteric 'vAn, which not only collefts
the blo:d from all the fmall intellines, but likewife re-
ceives the inferior mrfcntcric, cr vein of the redum, wh'ch
forms the com.munication that has been defcribed with the
pelvic veins.

The iv^ns of the left Ijhe of the liver, are furniflied in the
gcofc by thofe which accompany the anterior gaflric arteiy,
and fom.e branches from the head of the duodenum.

The r.nlerior gaflric veins produce two fn^aU trunks,
which enter at the two extremities of the fifTure, in the
concave furface cf the left lobe of the liver, as it lies upon
the edge of the gizzard ; the veins from the head of the
duodenum furnilh a fmail veflcl which pafTes backwards to
penetrate the poilerior part of the fifTure in tlie left lobe.

In the cock, the veins that the left lobe of the liver derives
from the anterior gaftric, are more numerous than in tha
goofe.

The veins of the zone of gaflric gland'', and of the lower
portion of the oefophagus, do not contribute to the fecre-
tory veffels of the liver, but proceed to tiie fuperior part
of that vifcus, to term.inate in the vena cava ; as does alfo
the umbilical vein.

The vein which returns the blood of the inferior Extre-
mitie.:, is divided in the pelvis into two brai'.ches, which
correfpond with the femoral and ifchiadic arteries ; the
one pafTes throrgh the ifchiadic foramen, and the other
through the hole upon the anterior margin- of the pelvis :
but the proportion they bear to each other in magnitude,
is the very reverie of what occurs in the arteries ; for the
anterior vein is the principal one, whilll the other is not a
very confiderable vefTel, and receives its fupply of blood
from the mufcles at the poilerior part of the joint.

The femoral vein, immediately without the pelvis, gives
branches on both fides, which receive the blood of the ex-
tenfor and adduflor mufcles at their fuperior part : the
trunk pafTes obliquel-v under the accelfory mufcle of the
flexor digicorum, and over the os temoris, Avhere it lies
fuperficially ; it then winds under the adduftor mufcles,
and gets into the ham, where it receives many mufcular
branches, and comes into company with the artery and
nerve. It here divides into the //^'a/ and ^rriinfo/ veins. The
firft is joined by fome branches from the furface of the
joint anfwering to the articular arteries ; it alfo receives
the anterior tibial vein which accompanies the artery of the
fame name. The tibial vein proceeds down the leg along
with the artery on the infide of the deep-feated flexors of
the heel : it turns over the fore part of the articulation of
the tibia with the metatarlal bone, in order to get upon the
inner fide of the metatarfus ; above the origin of the pollex,
it receives a ccnimuii'cating branch from the peroneal vein,
and immediately after, two branches from the toes : one of
them comes from the infide of the internal toe ; the other
arifes from the infide of the external and middle toes, unites
at the root cf the toes in the fole of the foot, and is joined
by a branch from the pollex, before its termination in the
internal vein of the metatarfus.

The peroneal veiu derives its principal branches, along with
thofe of the peroneal aitery, from the mufcles on the out-
fide of the leg. The trunk of the vein comes out from the

peroneal

B I R

B I R

peroneal tnufcles, and pafies fuperficiallr Over the joint at
the heel, and along the oiufide of the metatarfiis : near the
pcUex, or great toe, it fends a brarch round tlie back of the
leg, to communicate with the tibial vein ; after which, it
is continued upon the outlide of the external toe to the es-
trenr.ity, receiving anaftomofing branches frum thi tibial
vein.

Where the veins nin fuperficially upon the upper and
lower extremities, thty feem to fupply the place of the
branches of the cephalic, hcjilic, and the two faphem ; but
the analogy is loll upon the upper arm and thigh : thefe
branches forming deep-feated trunks : this confiitutes the
greateft peculiarity in the diftribution of the v;.ins ia the
extremities of birds.

KUnii'S.
Thefe organs occupy the pofterior part of the common
cavity of birds, from the lait rib to near the coxygeal ver-
tebrje ; they fill all the cavities and deprcfilons of the bones
of the pelvis ; the pofterior furface, therefore, of the kid-
nies is extremely irregular ; their rinterior part is rather
flat, and they are notched upon the external edge, which
gives ufually the appearance of their being compofed of
three lobes . but the ineqealities of the edge, feem to
arife rather from the kidnies being larger at one place than
at another, than from an original diviiion into lobes : the
prominences correfpond to the moll depreffcd parts on the
pelvis ; accordingly, the kidnies are obferved to form a
projeclion at tht upper end, where they lye on the depref-
Con of the ofTa ilia, again oppofite to the hollow on the
infide of the ifcihadic foramen, and laflly, at the lower
part of the kidney, where it fills the concavity of the
ifchium.

The kidnies have a covering of thin peritoneum, and
under this, they feem to poffefs another thin membranous
tunic, which clofcly inverts them, as well where they are
applied to the bones,~as anteriorly ; this coat alfo appears to
be reflefted into the fubftance ot the kidnies, ard to form
the cellular conneftions of the difierent parts which com-
pofe ttefe organs. According to the academicians, the
kidnies of the tormonzn/ are feparated from ilie other parts
of the lower belly, by a diftincl membrane, and inftead of
being divided into three lobes, are toothed like a cock's
comb on their gibbous part.

The texture of the kidnies is very fragile ; readily giving
way under the flighted injun-. They yield to the prcf-
fure of the finger a granular feel, as if compofed of a
number of minute bodies, eafily feparable from each other :
the furface of the kidnies, alfo, prefents the appearance of
an aggregation of fmall glands.

The trunks and larger branches of the bloodvtfkis of
the kidnies have been already defcribed. The termination
of the minute ramifications of the artery car.not be fo
clearly perceived as in mammalia. When coloured fluids
are thrown in by the artery, the whole fiibflance of the
kidney appears to equally admit the injeftion : the minute
branches of the blood-veffcls are too numerous, therefore,
to allow of a dillindl view of the figure afTum.ed by the
fecretory extremity of the artery ; but it is probable,
from the llrurture of the kidney differing in other circum-
ftances, that it is not wound into a coil, as in man and
quadrupeds.

The kidnies of bird=, in general, do not poffefs any
cavity for collecling the urine, previous to its expulCon by
the excretory dudl : each of tlie little malTcs which form
the original glands, produces a du£t ; thefe are joined by
the neighbouring ducts, and thus others are generated,
which terminate in the ureUr or common excretory du£l of

each kidney. The ureter lies upon the anterior furface of
the kidney, partially embedded in its fubilance, fo that
it is vifible along the whole gland, except at the upper
part.

The members of the academy defcribe the kidnies of the
q/lric/} as being evidently compofed of d^ftinft glands, and
that the ureter did not lie as in other birds, fuperficially,
but was concealed in the glandular fu';>ilarce ; in whic^
Ctuation it fuffcred a degree of dii t ation, fornrung as it were,
a pc'.-vb, the whole length of t!ic kidney, into which the
different excretory ducts difcharged their ccntcnls ; not,
however, from pap'.Us-, as in mammalia, but by open and
plain orifices. Mr. Ranby, in his account of the anatomy of
the ojlrtch, dates, that he found the ureters occupy their
ufual fituation on th.e nr.iddle line of the anterior furface of
the kidney ; but that the fuperior branch of the ureter was
very confpicuous, and entered the middle of the kidney,
where it formed a very large pelvis.

The dr'j(Elure of the ureters appears to be exaftly tlie
fame which thefe duels poffefs in the human fubjeft.

The courfe of the ureters, after leavuig the kidnies, is
behind the reclum, to which they become conneclcd by the
peritoneum covering the inteiliue : they proceed, for a very
little way, involved in the coats of the back of the rcflura,
and open ufually upon two httle papilla, which projeft into
the cloaca, or termination of the rectum.. The orifices of
the ureters in the cloaca, are much lefs than the width of
tubes to which they belong ; this, therefore, added to the
obliquity with v.-hich they perforate the cloaca, an-
fwcrs all the purpofes of a valve, and prevents any regurgi-
tation of the urine back upon the kidnies.

The parifian dificftors obfer\'ed in the cajfotvary and
riemoifelle oi Numiilia {ardea virgo), that the ureters became
united to the excreto'-y du£"t of the tellicle, at the lower
part of ths kidney ; the common duil produced by their
union terminated, as ufual, in the back of the cloaca.
This ftruiSure certainly does not exid in the generality of
birds.

The above defcription anticipates the obfervatior, that
birds are unprovided with any didinft reftrvoir for urine ;
analogous to the bladdn- : it is the cafe throughout the
whole clafs, without an exception, that the faeces and
urine are expelled together ; but the dilatation of the end
of the reclum or cloaca, in fome fpecies, fupplies the want
of the urinary bladder in a great degree, and renders the
ejections of both the urine and fxces lefs frequent than
they would otherwife be, by alTording a temporary accom-
modation to a confiderable quantity of oxrement. Thefe
dilatations are remarkably large in the oftr'uh, parrot, l3c.
See that part of the article which treats of the great intef-
tine of birds.

It is a matter of common obfervation, that the excre-
ments of birds are of a white colour, and appear as if they
contained fome cretaceous fubdanccs : this cffcCl is univer-
fally attributed to an admixture with the urine, which is
fiippofed to be of this colour and confidence ; it deferves to
be mentioned, however, that if the urine be expreiTed from
the kidnic ■, or examined before it has paffcd into the retlum,
it is neither white, nor of a chaiky co:.Cdcnce, but a
li.iipid aqueous fluid, which exhales an u'lnous fmell, that
is very perceptible in the larger bii-ds, from which fome .
quantity of the urine may be obtaiiied, by comprcffinnr the
kidnies. It would feem more probable, that the white
and chalky appearance of the excrements of birds, depended
Upon the quantity of calcareous m.atter contained in the
foiid parts of the faeces, than that it is derived from the
uriue. In proof of this fuppofilion, it may be remarked,

that

B I R

Oiat upon one occafion, where we fed a fowl with madder
for n difTcrciit piirpofo, the cretaceous part of the cxcrenient
loll its ufiial whitcncfs, and became of tiie pale piiilc colour
which madder is well known to communicate to calcareous

earths.

Renal Capfules.

Thcfe bodies hold the fam.- lituation in birds as in mam-
malia ; they alio ufiially poffcfs an irregularly triangular
figure. The propiirtion which they bear in fize to the
kidney, is pcrliaps kfs than generally occurs in q\iadrupals.
Ill tlie^o»/f, they are each about as large as a pea. The
colour of the renal capfules is in every inftance more or kfs
yellow. Several of the older anatomifls have defcrihed
a fingle renal capfule in fome fpecies of birds : the miilake
fccms to have arifen from their being occafionally fo clofely
applied to each other, that they appear as one body.

The renal capfules of birds do not pofTcfs any cavity or
dilated part fcir venous blood, which renders it probable
that the enlargement of the capfular vein, which has at-
tracted fo much attention in the human fubjeft, is no way
concerned with the fundion of thefe bodies.

Having difcuflld the llruflure and operations of tliofe
organs which are more immediately concerned in fupport-
ing the life of the individual, we fliall proceed to confider
thofe which are fubftrvient to the fecond order of func-
tions.
Organs employed in the Exercise op tiii; Gene-
rative Functions.
Mule parts of Generation.

The tef.icles of birds are always two in number ; they are
fituate-d on the infide of the body, high up in the loins,
upon the fuperior edge of the kidnies ; from which pofi-
tion they never defcend at any period of life, as in mammalia.
Confequeiitly, birds are not provided with zfcrotiim, or any
external pouch for the accommodation of thofe glands.
The figuie of the tellicles are moll commonly oval ; oc-
cafionally they are of an elongated form, as in the cnffoivary.
See P/.;/f VII. in the y//M/o;HV of Birds ; fg. I. Somctime'S
the tefticlcs are nearly round, aa in tlie ciirnjfoiu, and other
inftances.

The tefticles appear to receive a covering from the peri-
toneum ; but their proper tunic is remarkably ftrong,
denfe, and inclalHc.

It will always be a matter of great difficulty, to exhibit
fatisfaflorily, the intimate (Iruftiire of the ttlles of birds,
ns a fuccef'fnl injeftion from the vas deferens is nearly im-
pofiible. The feminiferous tubes are fo tender, that they
do not fuftain the leall force without being ruptured ; and
at the period when the telles are fully developed, they are
loaded with their own fecretion, a circumllar.cc highly
unfavourable to the expofition of th.e ftruAure of thcfe
organs by tlie means of ii'jeftion. The blood-veffcls of tiie
tellicle are eafily traci.d ; fome of them pafs in the ufnal
manner direftly from the back part, through the glandular
fiibllancc, to the furface, where they unite with others
wiiich fpread in an ariiorcfcent foim, under the capfules of
the telles. The great mafs of thcfe glands is evidently
made up of tubes, which are convoluted in all directions,
and are feparated into bundles or packets, by verv thin
cellular membranes. Their conneftion with the fecrctory
extremities of the )' lermatic arteries, and thtir termination
in the excretory duci, are, however, involved in obfcurity,
for the reafons ahead ,■ given.

The tellicles of birds dilfer very much in fi/e at difTertnt
feafons of the year. When tiiefe orgafis are not excrcifcd
in the ait of generation, they become reinarkalily diminidicd ;
but, during the period in which the female lays her eggs.

B I R

they acquire a bulk even beyond what might be expe£led,
from the fize of the bird to which they belong. This
fubjeft has been llrikin-ly illuftrated by Mr. Hunter, in a
fcrics of figures reprelcnting the variation of bulk which takes
place every fpring in the tefticlcs of the common fparrotu ; by
which it is fiitwn, that the tellicles of this bird are ordi-
narily about the fize of pin-heads, but, during the feafon
of propagation, ai quire ncariy the bulk of piilol balls. See
Plate Vli. in the Anatomy of Birds ; N"" l. exhibits the
telles as they exill in the month of January ; N° 2. as
they are in the middle of February ; N" 3. as they are
found in the beginning of March ; N' 4. their fize in the
latter end of March; and N°5. the bulk they alTume in
the middle of April.

The I'as deferens, or excretory du£l, arifes ufualiy from
the pollcrior part of the tellicle, and probably always
fuffers a certain degree of convolution or coihng upon it-
felf, correfpouding to the cpldydlmls, which generally
differs more or lefs in colour from the body of the gland.
In the curnjpjiu and luflard, it has been obfcrved to be
black ; in the caffaiuary yellow ; and in the eirdea vlrgo, a
green colour. The academicians reprefent the cpidydimis
of the cajfoivary as being extended for fome way above
the tellicle, and confidcrably enlarged at the top. See
Plate VII. in the Anatomy of Birds, Fig. 1. aa the two
telles ; b b the epidydimis of each fide ; c c the vafa de-
fcrentia ; dd the ureters coming from the kidney to unite
with the vafa defereiitia ; / c the cxcreto: y dufts common
to both the kidnies and the tellicles.

In the ojlrlch, the epidydimis turns up on the fide of the
tellicle ; and in the ardea I'lrgo, it is pendulous from it,
and only conneftcd by one end. The vas deferens alfo in
this bird, appears to arife from the body of the tcftis, in-
Head of the epidydimis ; and at its lower part, the du£t
unites with the ureters, in the fame way as is reprcfented in
the ca[f'jivary. In the cnjfoiuary, the epidydimis id fituated
below the tellicle, which it almoit equals in Ir/c.

In moll birds the vafa deferentia proceed to their termi-
nation, without undergoing any remarkable degree of
convolution, or experiencing any dilatation analogous to the
veficuU femlnnles ; but in the cock, thcfe dufts are compofed
of convolutions or rcfleftions of a tube from fide to fids,
which are fo clofely applied to each other, that a longitu-
dinal feftion of the dudt prefents the appearance of a leries
of cells, which feeni to communicate with each other in the
middle. Thefe become larger and more numerous towards
the lower pari of the vas deferens, and are capable of con-
taining a confidcrable quantity of fcmen. It may be prefumed,
therefore, that the cck, and other falacious birds, are pro-
vided with 'thefe receptacles of femen to enable them to
meet the exigency of frequent copulat'on ; and it is alfo
to be obferved, that thofe birds which have the vafa defe-
rentia more finiply formed, do not perform the aft of
coition fo rapidly as the gallinaceous fowl. See Plate VII.
in the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 2. exhibits the genital
organs of the common cock ; a a the tefticlcs of an oval Ihape ;
^3 the epidydimis at the pollerior part of each; cc the
vafa deferentia, one of which is cut open to expofe the
loculated appearance it prefents internally.

The/;rH;j-, in thofe birds where it has been obferved to
exi!l, is fixed upon the end of tl\e refitum, im.mediately
within the verge of the anus ; it is ufnally of a pyramidal
figure, and in its ordinary Hate is twilled hke a fcrew ; its
external tunic is derived from the intelline, and is formed into
a number of little rugae, or proceffcs, giving the edges of the
peni , in its contracted flate, a jagged or notched appear-
ance. The body of the penis ii compofed of a white llgj-

mentoua

fl

B I R

mentous fubRance, which fiipplics tlie place of tlie corpora
ea-vernofa, but does not fecm to contain any cells or cavity
internally.

There is a groove, correfpoiiding to the urethra, along
the fide of the white ligament ; it takes the fpiral ccurfe of
the penis, and in no inftance conld we difcover that it
formed a diftiiift canal, the external coat of the penis appear-
ing always to dip into the groove, fo that it was vifible ex-
ternally ; and hence it might bo faid that the urethra oihnis
is iituated upon the outfide of the penis. See P/ateVll, in
the yluntoniy of Birds, Fig. 3. reprefents thefe parts as they
are found in the gander ; a the penis, fhaped like a fcrew,
with the edges denticulated or notched by the folding of the
external coat ; bb the urethra commencing upon the left fide
of the penis, and continued upon the fame fide around the
fpire or fcrew ; and at the end of the penis the fulcus gra-
dually difappears.

The form of the ojlrich's penis is not fpiral ; it is alfo
fmooth upon the furfacv, and in fhape it has been likened to
a calf's tongue. The Parifian anatomifts deferibe it as being
compofcd of white thick membranes, and of two ftrong
hard ligamentous fubftances. They appeared to confid of
very compaft tranfverfe fibres ; one ot the membranes was
thicker than the other, and afforded a covering to the penis ;
the other enveloped immediately each of the two ligaments,
which were feparated from each other, and united about two
fingers from the extremity. One was longer than the other,
and meafured two inches. The origin of the penis was at
the cartilaginous fwelling, which is fituated at the junftion
of the bones of the pubis ; from thence it was turned down-
ward, and contained in a little pouch, which was placed at
the lower part of the cloaca, in which the penis was continued
to the anus. This fmall pouch can be diftinftly feparated
from the large bag of the cloaca, by the contraftion of the
margin of its foramen. The lefier pouch only permits the
excrements to pafs from the other occafionally, and when
it is clofed, forms a fort of flieath for the penis.

The penis of birds receives fome diftindl mufcular fafciculi
from the reftum, which are inferted into the root of the liga-
mentous body; they appear to have the power of retraft-
ing it, or rolling it into the fpiral form, and may perhaps
render it more fteady during coition.

The mufcles of the penis are large in the ojlrich. The
academicians deferibe four of them, two on each fide. The
two firft took their origin from the internal part of the os
facrum, and defctnded along the pouch of the rcftum, for
the fpace of two lines, which they penetrated near the ex-
tremity, and pafiing under the fphinfter ani, were inferted
at the bafe of the penis. The two other mufcles went from
the internal part of the os ilium towards the bottom of the
kidnies, and dcfccnded by the fides of the ureters, and alter
perforating the reftum, were attached to the Lteral parts
of the pen!P.

The penis of birds is unfurniflied with any flrufture finii-
lar to \X\i glans o\- prepuee ; from which it might be queftioned
whether it is capable of receiving any peculiar fenfations
duiing the aft of copulation. It would feem probable,
however, that the penis is the chief feat of pleafure in birds
as well as mammalia, becaufe it changes its form during
coition, and experiences a great degree of relaxation after-
wards. The penis of the drake is protruded fome inches
oiit of the anus during the performance of the venereal aft;
and after the orgafm is concluded, it is fo much relaxed,
that the animal has not the power of retraining it for fome
minutes ; in which condition the penis hangs from the anus,
and fo much refemblcs an earthworm, that the ducks mif-
take it for one, and attempt to fwallow it. It is remarkable,

Vol. IV,

B I R

however, that the greater number of birds are either ui'.pro-
vided with a penis, or have merely a rudiment of it, which
is incapable of condufting the femen into the organs of the
female.

In thofe birds which want the penis, it is very eafy to per-
ceive the manner in which the vafa deferentia term.inate :
thus, in the common cock they can be readily traced paf-
fing along the fides of the ureters to the back of the cloaca,
into which they open a little lower than the ureters upon
two papilla", which are elevated upon a ridge formed by the
internal coat of the inteftine, jull within the verge of the
anus. Thefe papillae are prominent and fharp pointed ; and
although the diifts are of fom.e fize immediately behind, the
aperture on the point of the papillx is fo extremely fmall,
that it is difcovered with difiiculty, and will fcarcely fuffer
the fined briftle to pafs through it. See PlateWl. in the
Anatomy of Birds, fg.2.; cc the two (harp papillae, upon
the points of which the vafa deferentia term.inate in the cot^.
A briftle is introdu.ced into one of them, and above them,
and nearer the centre of the inteftine are feen the orifices of
the ureters defignated by the letters d d.

As thefe birds have no means of conveying the femen
into the body of the female, a mutual everfion of the ex-
tremity of the inteftine always takes place during the copu-
lation of fowl.

The termination of the excretory dufts of the tefticlc are
difficult to difcover in moft of the birds which are furniflied
with a penis. This arifes partly from the coats of the dufts
becoming extremely thin and dehcate near the extremity,
and partly from the papillx upon which they open into the
gut being in thofe cafes fo fmalLis ver)' eafily to tfcapc ob-
fervation.

The academicians did not fuccecd in tracing the vafa
deferentia to their termination in any of the birds they dif-
fefted. They relate, however, that the penis of the rjjlrich
and cnJfo<wary had no communication with the dufts, nor did
they contain any tube in the internal part by which they
could give pafTage to the femen. In all the birds we have
examined, we could not perceive the leall appearance of a
canal in the interior part of the penis, or any means of com-
munication between it and the vafa deferentia.

In \}at gander we have been able to difcover the mode in
which the femen is difcharged from the excretory dufts.
At fomediftance behind the root of the penis there are twopa-
pillve, furrounded by a number of fmall follicular glands; they
are not fo far afunder as thofe of the coch, and fo little promi-
nent, that unlefs minutely examined, they are not diftinguifti-
able from the glandular part? of the furface of the inteftine
which lie next them, and might eafily bemiftaken for a promi-
nent edge of one of the follicles : from the point of thefe pa-
pills adutt can be traced, as m\}c\i.cock, to the back of the in-
teftine ; but furniflied with coats fo thin that it is perfectly
tranfparent. See PlateNYi. in the Anatomy of Birds, Jig. ^.
cc the fmall papillx on which the vafa deferentia terminate
in ihe gander. Some fmall follicular glands are feen around
them, and farther within the inteftine the ureters open, as
indicated by the letters dd ; at thefe points alfo there are
fome fmall mucous glands.

Mr. Hrme has defcribed the penis of the drake as pofTef-
fing a diftinft canal analogous to the urctlira of mammalia,
into which the vafa deferentia enter clofe to its origin at the
verge of the anus. He ftates the penis to meafure, when
pulled out to its full extent, fix inches long, but that when
left to itfelf it difappears within the verge of the anus, in
co'.ifcquence of the conlraftile power of the urethra. (See
Phil. Tranfaft. vol.xcii. p. 361.) The reprefentation of
the penis of the drake h copied in PLitcVll. of the Ar.atoniy
3H Hf

B I R'

ef BirJs,jK'- 4-. "•' tl>e vsrge of the fundament furrourd.-c1 by
fcatScrs ; M the urethra, or fcminal canal laid open throui^h-
out ts wlu.le extent ; cc the orificis of the vafa deferentia ;
liJ li\e exti-r'.ial tunic of the penis laid open, and from iu
elafticity thrown into ferpentine folds.

It defervcs to be mentioned, that Blafius alfo fiip-
pofcd the vnfa deferentia of the tirnie terminated in the
penis, although he fpoke doubtingly, not having aaually
traced them thither. See Anatome animalium Gerardi
Blafii. . ^ , . ,

In the gander, fiuan, cajfuwarj, and other birds which
we have examined, the channel that runs upon the ex-
ternal part of the penis fupplies the place of the urethra, r.nd
appiars ftilly competent to anfwer the purpofe of a conduit
to the fcmen, when it is introduced into the organs of the
female.

Bcfides the mucous follicles furrounding the termination
of the ureters and feminal dufls, there are fome others much
larger upon the margin of the anus, on each fide of the bafe
of the penis. In the gander we have noticed twelve of thcfe,
fix on each fide. They appear like mafies of fat lying under
the inner membrane of the intelHne. The three outer
glands have wide orifices which lead to a cavity within of
fomc fize ; they furnifli fpecimens of finiple mucous fol-
licles, a greater fize than are almoll ever met with, even
amongft the largtft animals. See Plate VII. in the Anatomy
of Birch, fig. 3. eec the large follicular glands on the margin
of the aniis of the gander ; fffihe three fmaller glands next
the penis. The anal glands are very remarkable in the
ta^ozvary.

No chemical analyfis of the femen of birds has yet been at-
tempted. The undertaking will be attended with fomc
difficulty, from the fmall quantity which can be coUcded
for jnve (ligation.

Female Parts of Generation.
There are no parts of the llrufture of birds which deviate,
more from that of mammalia, than the female organs of ge-
neration : not only their conftruftion, but their funftions,
differ fo much, that the fame names cannot be ap-
plied to each, without extending ai^alogy beyond what is
)uilifiablf. The genital organs of the female bird ftriilly
confift but of two parts, an ovary and ovarian lube ; for the
different portions of the latter, which have received the
names of uterus and vagina, perform very different funftioiis
from the fame parts in other animals.

The ovary of birds is always fingle, which is a peculiarity
of ftruflure hardly ever met with in the other claffes of ani-
mals. It is fituated OTcr the defctnding aorta, above the
kidnies. Inftcad of the ova being imbedded in a folid mafs,
as in mammalia, they are contained in membranous cyfts,
which are prolonged into peduncles, or footilalks, that are
attached to the bafis of the ovary, thus prefenting the ap-
pearance of a chiller, or bunch of fruit, from whence the
older anatomifts were in the habit of calling the ovary of
birds, the racemus vilcllurum. Before the ovary, however,
is developed, the n:diments of the eggs do not projcA be-
yond the furnace, but lie in clofc contaft with each other,
and are incloftd by the external membrane of the ovary,
fomcthing in the manner of the ova of fifh, or amphibia.
The capfnles which invell the ova e>f birds in the mature
ftate, appear therefore to be formrd by the txtenfion of the
outer membrane of the ovary, jull as the contents of a her-
nia obtain during their protnifion a covering of peritoneum.
The meii'branous bags, in which the ova are included, ad-
here to the proper tunic of the egg iX the anterior part only ;
for polleni rly thvy are quite diftindt, being prolonged into
a funnel, or tube, which forms the peduncle to each ovum.

B I R

The blood-veffcls are tranfmitted through this funnel, and
ramify in the fpace left between the capfulc and the back
part of the ovum, dillribiiting their branches in a limilar way
to the central artery of the eye upon the back of the cryf-
tallinc lens in mammalia. The capfules are extremely vaf.
cular at e-very part, except a certain porfon of the anterior
furface, which appears Hke a white ftrc-ak, or broad line.
■\Vhen the eruption of the ovum takes place, this part of
the capfule gives way, after which the cyll appears like the
cup of an acorn, when the nut has been filed. The older
anatomiib ahr.ofl univerfally believed that the capfules of
the ov.-. were imperfedl at their anterior part, and that the
while flreak was owing to the proper tunic of the ovum be-
iiig adually expofcd at this place ; they defcribe the capfule
as bein<T extended upon the ova in a manner fimilar to the in-
ternal coats of the eye, and, like thtm, terminating by a
defined line at the anterior part. The celebrated Hurvey,
however, obferved that the membrane compofing the cap-
fules was continued over the anterior part of the ovum, at
which place it became very thin. The obfervatiohs we have
made on this fubjed: confirm the aflertion of Harvey ; we
have always been able to deteCl a very fine pellucid mem-
brane extended over the white line, which has all the appear-
ance of being the continuation of the capfule. The coat
of the capfule confifts of fevcral indiflindt layers ; and it is
one of thefe only which appears to pafs over the white line.
The foparation of the tunic of the capfules into layers is
probably not an original formation, but is produced by the
increafe which takes place in the number and fize of the
blood vcflcls, and therefore the part which lies over the
white ftreak might be confidered as more nearly rtfcmbling
the membrane of the capfule as it fiill exifled. There are
many inilanccs of parts, on changing their pofition, either
acquiring or lofing vafcnlarity, and becoming fo much al-
tered in their llruflure and appearance, that ftparatcly they
could not be recognized for the fame. Tlie tunica conjunc-
tiva of the eye affords a well known example of this fort.

The portion of the capfule correfponding to the white
line, from being bereft of blood-veffels, becomes thin, is
eafily ruptured, and is incapable of fupporting any interu.il
a&ions, in confequence of injury ; we accordingly find, that
this part fuffers laceration when the ovum is flu'd, without
the leall inflammation fucceeding, or any procefs fimilar to
that which arifcs upon the rupture of the ovary in mam-
malia. There is no depofilion of new fubilance in the ca-
vity of the cyft, or ctrpus luteiim, formed. The lacciated
portions of the membrane dil'appear (probably by abforp-
tion), and the edges alTume the appearance of being cut,
the capfules become contradted a«id thickened, and remain
hollow, prefenting very exadlly the rcleniblanee of cups or
the calyces of flowers, and thence tney have been often
called the calyces.

The bafe of the ovary, in which all the pedicles of the
ova terminate, is of a peculiar texture. It is porous and
tough, and feems to be compofed of an intermixture of vef-
fels and ftrong cellular fubilance ; it adheres firmly to the
parts upon which it is placed.

The ova, during the time they remain in the ovary,
poffefs only the yolk and the cicatricula ; the whites and
the Ihell being added to them during their paffage through
the ovidud. Many of ihe blood-veffels .\ hich are diflri-
buteel brtwcen the capfule and ihc ovum, penetrate the mem-
brane ot the latter, iu order to lupply blood lor the nutri-
tion of the egg during its growth. But when the ovum
arrives at maturity, thele- bf-anciies degenerate, and difappear
entirely before tne ovum is expelled Ir.m its cyfl.

For the illuflrdtion of the Itruclure of thcfe parts, fee
6 Plate

B I R

B I R

Plate VTI. of the ytnatowy of Birds. Fig. 5. exliibits the flocculi, which give the internal part of the utenj! the ap-

genital organs of the hen during the feafon for layin-j eggs ;
at the fiipcrior part is feen the ovary, or rncemus o-vorum, or
vtltHartum. The ov^ are arranged according to their Hate
of growth. The iargell are moll external and pendent from
their footilalks ; thofc lefs advanced are clofe upon the ma-
trix or bafis of the ovary ; many of them are as yet but im-
perfeft rudiments of the ova, and appear but as white
fptcks in the matrix. The capfules of the ova, near matu

rity, difplay a very beautiful and luxuriant diftribution of far into the cavity of the tube,

pearance of being fringed or foHated.

Tiie tube again becomes diminidied in capacity, arid its
ftruclure changed, to form the portion confidered analogous
to the vagina. At the origin of this part from the oval di-
latation there are feveral anriular contrac\iona ; after which,
the canal undergoes fome degree of convolution, which is
concealed by the peritoneal coat. The internal membrane
produces longitudinal ruga, or folds, which do not projetl

blood- v^iTtls upon every part of their furface, except where
the ova are to come out ; n a point out the ftripe on the
anterior part of each capfule, which n devoid of blood vef-
feK ; b a capfule which has flud its ovum, exhibiting the
appearance of a cup or calyx.

The ovarian tube, or ovirliicl, during the feafon of laying,
fills the greater part of the lower belly ; it forms a number
of curves or convolutions fimilar to the inteftines, which,
however, are not permitted the fame latitude of motion
amongft each other, becaufe the prolongation of peritoneum,
vhich includes the oviduft, is remarkably ttrong, and is not
fo long as the pnrts it contains, and therefore the convolu-
tions are ceiled clofe tog-nher, and even fome of them are
doubled up within the ptritoneum. The difproportion be-
tween the ovidurt and pvriioneum, which invefts it, arifes
from the additional bulk the ovary acquires when its func-
tions are exercifed, whilll the peritoneum mull prrferve at
its back part its original extent, i. e. the length of the left
kidney, from the middle of which it is refiefted.

There is no decided mufcular coit belonging to the
oviduft ; there are, however, mufctslar libres between the
peritoneal and internal coats of thofe parts, which have re-
ceived the names of uttrus and vagina ; upon the former
they are tranfverfe, and upon the vagina the courfc of the
fibres appears to be longitudinal.

The internal coat of the oviduft is the mod remark-
able part of its flrufture ; and upon it chiefly depends
the diftinftions which have been made of the tube i:;to
injimdihulum, Fallopinn lube, vlerus, and •vngtna.

The infur.dibulum is the extreme part of the tube next the
ovary ; it is compofed apparently of a hngle thin mem-
brane ; the peritorieum and the internal tunic becominf
both delicately fine, and fo clofely united to each other,
at this place, that they feem to be but one. This mem-
brane is expanded beneath the ovarv in a loofe manner,
like the iolds of a garment, and is faftened by its fuperior
edge to the bafis or matrix of the ovary ; and inferiorly it
is connefled to the uterus : by which means the folds of
the membrane are always kept fpread out, ready to catch
the ova as they are difcharged from the racemus or vitella-

The oviduct finally opens into the cloaca on the left fide,
not by a fimple aperture, but the extremity of the vagina
is protruded for fome way into the cavity of the inteftine,
appearing as if a portion of the oviducl were turned infidc
out ; and to the puckered foramen thus produced, the older
anatomiils, who were always defirous of comparing the
ftrudlure of other animals with that of the human fubjeft,
gave the name of vulva. See Plate VII, in the Anatomy of
Birds, Jig. ^.-j ccc the membranous expanfion of the ovi-
AviGt, d d ha attachments to tiie ovary and the uterus, e the
aperture leading from the infundibulum to the interior of
the oviduct ; fffff the convoluted part of the oviduft,
which is fuppofcd to be analogous to the FaHopiau tube,
and a part of it laid open to Exhibit the fpiral folds of the
internal membrane; A/j the oval cavity or uterus cut open,
and a portion of it turned backward to expofe the fohated
flrufture of the internal membrane ; ii the vagina detached
in a degree from its peritoneal covering to bring it more into
view ; /: the cavity expofed, (hewing tiie longitudinal folds;
/ the projeftion of the end of the oviduft into the cloaca,
with the corrugated foramen by which it opens into the
gut ; m a portion of the reftum, left to explain the connec-
tion thcfe parts have to each other; nn the ureters, through
which a brillle is introduced.

The ufes which the fevtral parts of the oviduA of birds
ferve, are very peculiar, and can hardly be compared with
the funftions of the genital organs of other animals. When
the ovum is fhed from the viteilarium, it is but imperfectly
formed ; and in palling along that portion of the ovidudl
which has been called the Fallopian tube, it meets with an
albuminous fluid, which is fccreted in abundance from the
plicated membrane ; a certain quantity of this fluid attaches
itfelf to the ovum, and coniiitutes the whites and the chala-
zes. The egg now afl'unics an oval figure, and while ftill
foft, defcends into the dilated part of the oviduft, in which
it is detained for fome time, and obtains the calcareous co-
vering or (lifl! ; after which, the lower portion of the dud,
or the vagina, fuffers itfelf to be enlarged, and the egg is
expelled from the body of the bird. For the further hiftoiy
of the formation of the ovum, we refer the reader to the arti-

rium. The pafFage from the membranous expanfion of cle Egg. In birds, and all animals ftriftly oviparous, the

the tube into the oviduft is contrafted, and thence occurs
the iimilitude of this part to a funnel, and the application
of the term infundiLulum.

The next portion of the oviduft, or Fallopian tube, is of
conliderabie length, being feveral times coiled backwards
and forwards upon itfelf. It is very nearly of the fame
width at every part ; and the inner membrane is fingularly
foft, and forms numprous thick folds, which take an oblique

evolution of the embryo, and the growth of the fcctus, is car-
ried OH without the body of the parent, and therefore the
funftions of the organs of generations in thefc animals are
confined to the developement and perfeftion of the ovum,
wliich, as already obferved, is partly accompliflied in birds,
while the egg remains in the ovary, and partly while it tra-
rerfes the ovarian tube. It therefore feems improper to
borrow the terms applied to the organs of viviparous ani-

or fpiral courfe. The internal furface of this part of the nials in the defcription of thofe which only miniftcr to the

tube relembles very much that of the digeftive llomach in
ruminating animals.

Where the part termed the uterus commences, there is a
contraftion of the tube, to which fucceeds a dilatation of an
eval or egg fhape ; in this the internal membrane acquires

formation and fupport of the ova. The progrefs of the foe-
tus in birds ; its mode of exiftence while in the egg, and
the provifions for its fubfilltnce afterwards, will be treated
of under the head of INCl;BJ^T^ON, which fee.

It is not eafy to determine how far the male femcn is con-

more firmnefs, and inftead of the foft white fpiral plicce, veyed into the organs of birds during copulation. The older
produces an immenfe number of ftrong vafcular proceil'es or anatomiils afferted, that the two papLllie on which the vafa

3 H 2 defereutia

B I R

(Jeferentia terminate, were introduced into the orifice of the
ovidiiA within the cloaca ; and it has been obferved, that
the hen, before coition, everts the intcftinc fo much, tliat
the orifice of the vagina is vilible on the ontlideof thebody,
which would render the infcrtion of the male organ very
prafticable, cfpecially in tlicife birds which are provided
with a penis. Ttie impregnating liquor mull be tranf-
niitted as far at leall as the part in which the egg is
clothed with the (liell ; for afterwards it would be incapable
of exerting any infl-.ience upon it ; and it is probable that it
reaches the ovum even before it acquires the whites, other-
wife the ftimuhis could not be in-, mediately communicated to
the cicatrkula. Many have fuppofcd, that the ftincn pro-
duced a vapour which was propagated to the ovary ilfelt ;
but the exiftence and operation of the aura fiminalis are now
generally difbelitved.

Upon the margin of the anus of birds there is ufually ob-
ferved a projection which has been conlidered analogous to
the i/itoris. Trie academicians obfcrved, that it poflefFed ni
the femnle ojlr'uh the fame mufclcs wliich bi-longcd to the
penis. This part, from its fituation, is little expoied to agi-
tation or friction in venereal congrcfs, and from its covering,
which is the common integument of the anus, cannot be en-
dowed with peculiar or delicate fenfation. It may therefore
be looked upon as one of the examples of uniformity of plan
which are fj often difplayed in the works of nature, without
the accomphlhment of ai.y immediate or obvious effect.

The female organs of generation of bird# fuffcr even a
greater alteration than the male parts, in confequence of the
ceflation of their fur.ftions. Before and after the period of
laying, has commenced, the ovary and oviduft, which in
their developed condition are the largell of the vifcera, are
fo diminutive, that they are hardly to be feen ; the ovary
is a very fmall mafs, which appears to be compofed of an
aggregation of minute pale yellow grains; the oviduft is a
mere membranous fubftance, with fcarcely any cavity, like
a degenerated blood-veflcl ; and the aperture, which at one
period permits the egg to pafs through it, is fo nearly- obli-
terated, that it is perceived with difficulty, and is fo clofe
that it does not fuffer the fmallell inftrument, or even air,
to efcape from it into the inteilinc.

Mr. Hunter, and others, have obferved, that even the
fexual charaiters of fome feinale birds have entirely changed,
after the time they ceafed to lay. This phenomenon has
been remarked moil frequently ill xXxcpeafoivl. Several hens
of this genus have alFumed the manners and plumage of the
cock fo nearly, that their real fex could only be decided by
anatomical inipec\ion.

Organs subservient to the Performance of the
Animal Functions.

Bonci.

The oiTeous fabric of the bodies of birds conftitutes one of
the mod curious and charafteriftic parts in the anatomy
of this clafs of animals ; being in many refpeCts fo curioufly
formed, that the analogy between them and the fame organs
of other animals can fcarcely be traced.

The bones of birds have been obferved to vary in their
colour. The water birds have them of a duller white than
the other fpecies, in confequence of their abounding with
marrow. The bones which contain air, are always of the
fined colour, much exceeding in whitentfs the bones of
any quadruped : they are alfoof a harder and clofer texture.
Bccmann, in the voyage of Dampier, has obferved that the
black fowl of the ides of Capc-Vcrd, and other birds of thefe
illands, had black bones, and Daubenton reared fome hens
of this kind. The fame peculiarity has been noticed in the

1

B I R

plntaih ; but fome preparations which were preferved by-
Mr. Hunter to illuftrate this fubjea, fliew that it is the
periolleum in which the blacknefs relides.

The chemical principles of the bones of birdf, do not
differ from thofe of mammalia, except in there being a
greater proportion of the calcareous phofphat in .the long
bones, filled with air. The arrangement of the offcous
particles appears to be in layers, rather than fibres, fuccef-
fively formed, and clofcly applied to each other.

The hones of ths haul, as in the other animals with ver-
tcbrx, confill of thofe of the cranium, or brain-cafe ; and
thofe which contain the organs of fenfe, or, as they are
commonly termed, bones of the/acf.

The external form o/" //'<• <:rafl;«/« differs according to the
fpecies : a longitudinal and vertical feftion of it ufually ex-
hibits the cavity to be fomewhat of an ovular (liape, of
which tiie end next the face is rather pointed. In the owl,
the cavity of the cranium is an oval, with the axis nearly
vertical. The fame bones enter into the compofition of
the cranium in birds, as in mammalia ; but the futures
are obliterated at fo early an age in the former, that their
cranium commonly appear? as a fingle bore, and therefore,
in order to examine the bones of the head feparately, a very
young fubjeft mull be chofen.

The OS frontis is originally made of two portions : they
form the principal parts of the roof of the orbits, and a
portion of the feptum which divides one orbit from
the other. They fend down, on each fide, a pointed pro-
cefs, alinofl to the bafe of the bill. The prominences
which are feen upon the heads of the ciijjoivary, hornhill,
pintaelo, and the curajfoiu, IsSc. are attached to the os frontis,
but were originally formed by diftinft offifications, in the
fame manner as the bones on the tarfns, which ferve as the
mould for \!ai.j'purs. The cafque of the cajfjzfary's head
is filled with numerous cells : in the pintado, the texture is
more Uke that of the other bones.

The parietal bones are alfo in two pieces at one petiod,
although the diftiniflion is but rarely feen. Tiiey refem-
ble two femi-fpheres, hollowed out on the infide, to re-
ceive the brain.

The temporal bones compofe the pofterior parts of the
orbits, and exhibit a remarkable depreffion between two
projedling proceffes, for lodging the mufcles employed in the
motions of the lower jaw. The zygoina is not joined to
the temporal bone.

The occipital bone originally confifts of four portions ;
one placed fuperiorly, another below, and two laterally.
Vv^hen thefe are united, the bone has an annular figure, in-
circling the foramen magnum. The furface by which it
articulates with the firll cervical vertebrss, is a fingle fphe-
rical protuberance, which is placed upon the anterior edge
of the great foramen, and is received into a correfponding
depreffion of the atlas. The mobility of the head is much
encreafed by this m.ode of articulation.

The fphenoidal bone forms the greater part of the bafe of
the cranium, its proceffes are lefs evident in general, than in
rr.ammalia, although it furniflies a remarkable one which
proceeds anteriorly like a llilet, and receives upon its edge
the ends of the inter-articular bones, and the palatine bones
and vomer, which are each adapted to fit this procefs, and to
flip along it, as the upper jaw is moved. The fphenoid
bone wants the pteiTgoid proceiTes, thefe belonging to the
palatine bones in birds.

The internal furface of the cranium exhibits a (harp ridge,
which divides the cavity into two principal foffbe. The one
contains the hemifpheres of the cerebrum, the other, which
is fituated in the poltenor arnd inferior part of the cranium,

accom-

B I R

accommodates the two thalami nervorum opticoriim, the
cerebellum, and nitdulla obloi.^ata, &c. On the furface of
the fiiperior fofla there are two flight projc Aions, produced
by the back of the orbits, and a fmall Ipinous rid,;e along
the top of the cranium, which nnarlcs the divifioii of the
hemifpheres ; the inferior folTa difplayi a number of de-
preffions, correfponding to the feveral parts it contains.
There are alfo two irregular projections on the fide, formed
by the internal organ of hearing, and anteriorly the eminence
called t\\e fella turcica, is to be feen, with a deep round cell
for lodging the pituitary gland. The depreffions on the in-
ternal part of the cranium are deepeft in the parrot and acci-
pltrine birds.

T\iz foram'tna of ih: cranium vary in many rcfpefts from
what occurs in mammalia.

The foramina through which the olfaftory nerves are
tranfmittcd are only two in number; they proceed from a
little depreffionat theanteriorpart of thefliull, and open upon
the upper and pollerior furface of the orbit, along the fupe-
rior part of vvhicli they are continued, as a deep groove, or
rather more than a femi-canal, to the upper and back part
of the nofe, where there is another foramen or flit, formed
by the ethmoidal bone.

The optic foramina arife clofe together on the infide of the
cranium, being only feparated from each other by the thin
partition of the orbits ; this is frequently found deficient at
the pollerior part, and in that cafe the two optic foramina
are thrown into one.

The fpheno-orbitar fifl'ure does not exift in birds. The
parts which are tranfmilted through it in mammalia,
pafs by diftinft holes : fome of thefe are arranged round
the optic foramina, and one is found on the balls of the
ftuU.

The foramen rolundum s.ud foramen ovale, are fupplied by a
fuigle hole. It is feen on the line dividing the optic and
bafilar foflk.

The canalts carotideus appears to commence far back, on
the outfiJe of the cranium, and iuft as it turns up to open
upon the filla turcica, there is a fmall foramen for the tranf-
miflion of the communicating branch of the internal maxil-
lary artery.

The foramen hicerum anlerius does not exift, and the pofle-
rior foramen lacerum is fmall, and placed within and under
the external meatus auditorius.

The meatus auditorius inlernus, is a very palpable foramen
in birds.

The bones of the face in birds, although they differ ex-
tremely in form from thofe of mammalia, fl;ill preferve in
general a diftant analogy, by which they can be diftinguiftied
and compared.

The feptum of the orbits, notwithftanding its ftrufture, is
fo difliniilar, muft be confidered as analogous to the ethmoid
bone. It is united to the os frontis fuperiorly, and to the
fphenoidal bone below ; it is at beft but a lamina, or plate of
bone, fo thin that it is nearly tranfparent\ and in numerous
inftanccs is in part membranous. At the back of the organ
of fmell there is occafionally a proccfs which projefts a little
from the feptum, and then turns down forming a flit,
through which the olfaftory nerve palFcs. This procefs
may be compared to the os planum, and the feptum itfelf,
although it is not continued far into the nofe, may perhaps
be thought analogous to the nafal lamdla of the ethmoid
bone.

There is a bone ufually of a triangular fljape, which is at-
tached to the anterior, and outer angle of the os frontis.
This bone Cuvier has called the lacrymal, and others the
fuperciliary . It is in a certain degree moveable on the

B I R

os frontis. Its two pofteripr angles form the fuperciliary or
anterior edge of the orbit«. The fuptrior of them is con-
tinued farther backwards in the diurnal birds of prey than
others, giving a confidcrable prominence to the upper edge
of the orbit. In the oflrich, the fuperciliary arch is made of
a number of fmall bones, vi'hich are continued from tlic
lacrymal bone, and are diftinft from the os frontis. The
lower of the poflcrior angles of the lacrymv.l bone is pro-
longed confiderably in the duck, but much more in the
parrot, in wiiieh it goes fo far back as to join the projeftion
of the temporal bones, and thus completes the frame of the
orbit.

The remaining bones of the face either enter into thecom-
pofition ot the mandibles, or are provided for the motion of
thefe parts. The fuperior mandible is made up of the ojfa
naji, rffa maxilhria, and inter maxillaria, the vomer, the malar,
and palatine bones ; the extremity of the man-dible appears to
be formed originally by a dillindl bone, which is added, as it
were, to all the reft. The feparate parts of the mandible are
not to be diftinguiftied in the adult bird, but in young fub-
jefts they come eafily afunder.

The palatine bones are fo thin at their conneftion with the
pollerior part of the mandible, that they readily bend. At
the back part, tlicy fprcad out into two wings or the ptery-
goid procejfes, leaving a flit-(haped aperture for the pollerior
nares, in which is feen the vomer ; where the palatine bones
are joined above, there is a groove or gutter form.ed, which
receives the inferior edge of the feptum of the orbits, and on
which the palatine bones have a degree of motion when the
upper mandible is raifed.

The zygoma is one of the moft remarkable parts of the
head of birds. It is a very long delicate bone, extended in
a ftraig'.it line from the inferior and back part of the upper
mandible to the outfide of the articular bone immediately
above the articulation of the lower jaw. It is, as in mam-
malia, originally compofed of two pieces, which in large
birds are always vifible. The anterior portion has been
commonly defcribed as a procefs of the palatine bones, but
it is really produced from the part of the mandible that cor-
refponds to the os maU or jugule, as it ought, in order to be
confiftent with analogy. The junflion of the zygoma to
the articular bone, is in a degree moveable ; this, added to its
general flendernefs and flexibility, allows it to yield to all the
motions of the fuperior mandible.

There are two bones belonging to the head of birds, to
which there are none analogous in mammalia. One of thefe
has been called by Diimeril the fquare bone, but impro-
perly, as it is in no inftance exaftly fquare, and when its pro-
cefles are eminent, it is rather of a triangular form. AVe
have chofen, both from its office and fituation, to call it the
articular bone.

This bone is interpofed between the articulation of the
lower jaw, and the os temporis ; with both of thefe it pro-
duces a true joint. The articular furface it prcfeiits to the
temporal bone, is like the two condyles of the occiput of
mammalia, and between thefe the end of the bone contributes
to the formation of the cavity of the tympanum. The
articular furface next the lower jaw is made ot two irregular
eminences, placed obliquely acrcfs, forming a double pulley.
On the outfide of tliis the temporal extremity of the zygoma
is attached, and on the infide there is articulated another
flender bone, which, from its fituation, defei"\'cs to be named
the inter-articular bone. There is a procefs from the antericxr
part of the articular bone, which paffes up into the orbit,
and receives the attachments of mufclcs.

The inter-articular bone is connected by a moveable joint
to the articular. It is a fmall, ftraight, three-fldcd bone,

llighily

B I R

nightly enlarged at the extremities. It is direfled forwards
and inwards, and at the anterior extremity touclies the ■ntc''-
articular bone of the oppofite fiiie : at tliis p'ace the ends df
both are placed againll the pofterior cxtrt- mity of the pala-
tine hones, and arc liollowcd fo as to cncompafs the lower
edge of the feptiim of the orbits, along which they hdve
foir.e degree of motion, when urged forwards by the arti-
cular bones.

The effcft of thi". mechanifm is, that whenever the inferior
end of the articular hone is brought forwards, which is ac-
compliflicdin a dearnc by the opening of the lower jaw, but
ftill more by particular mufcies, to be hereafter defcrib.'d,
the inter-articular bones prtfs againft the extremity of the
palatine bones, and they communicate the impulfc to the
■whole fupcrior mandible, which being very thin at its junc-
tion with the OS frontis, fufFers itfelf to be puflied up or ele-
vated fro!n the line it commonly holds, and in this manner
the mouth of birds is dilated in part by the motion of the
upper as well as the lower jaw.

The parro/ is remarkable for having a great degree of
motion in the upper mandible ; in this bird the fuperior
mandible is at all times feparate from the frontal bone, they
being only conncdled to each other by a very flexible liga-
ment.

The i/ifrior mandible appears to be formed originally of
four pieces ; two of thcfc correfpond with the bones of the
inferior maxilla, and the others produce tlie mould on which
the lower part of the bill grows. The formation of the in-
ferior jaw, indepetuient of its conneftion witli the bill, differs
very much from that of mammalia. There are no condyles,
nor any procefs deferviiig the name of coronoid, and the
angle of the jaw is the thickeft and loweft part of it. The
articulation is made by two deprcfled furfaces placed on the
fide of a cavitv, into which the potterior pulley of the arti-
cular bone flips in the motions of the jaw.

The form of the bones of the mandibles is precifcly the
fame of the horiicy bill, with which they are covered ; ex-
cept in fome lualer birds, the bill afl"umes more or lefs of a
conic figure ; fomctimes comprefTtd, fometimes arched,
in fome cafes elongated, in others fliort, and varj'ing in the
degree of (harpnefs, ftrength, and folidity. As the
diverlity, however, which occurs in the mandibles of birds,
is an external appearance, and belongs rather to the fcience
of natural hiilory, than to comparative anatomy, it would
be improper to difcufs the fubjeft in the prtfent article.

The peculiarities of the fojfe AnA foramina of the face in
birds, depend chiefly upon the form and proportions of the
bones.

The orlitar foflx are fo large, that they appear to occupy
the greatell part of the profile of the head of birds. They
extend in the flceleton from the roof of the fliull to the pa-
late, and communicate with the pofterior part of the orL'an
of fmell. Cuvicr very aptly compares them to the impref-
fion which one would conceive might be left by pinching
the flcuU between two fingers, provided it were in a foft
ftate.

The nafal fojfx are continuous with the orbitar. They
open upwards by the two external nares, or noftrils, and
below by the pofterior nares. The feptiim nafi pro-
ceeds fo fliort a way in the nofe, that the nafal folTae make
but one cavity. The external apertures of the nares
are found in the bone, at the bafe of the convex furface of
the biU.

T\\i temporal fojpi are not crofTed by the zygoma. They
vary in depth according to the ftrength of the mufcies em-
ployed in raifing the lower jaw ; they are therefore moft
plain in the rapacious birds, and thofe with longer heavy bills.

B I R

The fphno-maxillary fifure can have no exiftence in bird*
from th. fitrure a-.d extent of their orbits; neither have they
the in'.crnid orlitar, s.nA fub-orbitar foramina, or the fpheno-
palatine canal.

The iiidfi've foramin:i are fmall and numerous in the heron,
flamingo, eagl; &c. There is but one of a moderate fize
placed near the bafe of the bill in the dud, the curajfozu, the
cormnrant, and the fpoon-bill, &c. In the cnJo'U)ary , the
foramen incifivum is fmall, and near the end of the mandible,
but in the oflrich it is of great lize. The florh has a long
flit, into which open an immenfe number of minute
holes.

The OS hyoidcs poflciTes a finjular conformation in birds.
The body of the bone is in general of a fliort round figure,
fomewhat enlarged at its pofterior extremity, at which
place it is articulated with the two cornua. Thefe rcfemble
horns exaftly, both in their fliape and dir cftion ; they are
terminated by additional pieces, which form a fort of joint
with the principal part of the b.orn, and generally confift
entirely of cartilage. To the pofterior end of the body or
middle bone of the hyoides, there is articulated a fmall lly-
loid or dagger-fliaped bone, which proceeds diredly back-
wards, and foon terminate; in a point. There is alfo a
bone articulated with the anterior extremity of the body of
the hyoides, which penetrates the fubftance of the tongue,
and partakes in a certain degree of the form of that organ :
it is commonly ter.xinated by a pointed cartilage, which is
attached to it by a moveable joint, and is continued to near
the tip of the tongue. This bone we (hould choofe to call
the lingual.

The OS hyoides and lingual bone are Angularly formed in
thofe birds which have the power of protruding their tongue
to take their food. In the ivoodpccktrs, for inftance, the car-
tilaginous extremities of the horns of the hyoides are im-
menfely long, and when the tongue is not proje<Scd, arc
lodged in a groove or furrow, which runs over the whole
head, and terminates only at the root of the bill. The lin-
gual bnne in thefe birds alfo is not cartilaginous at its extre-
mity, but is covered with a hard or horny fubftance, which
protrudes beyond the foft parts of the tongue for the di-
ftance of about the quarter of an inch, ending in a point, and
furnifhcd with a number of fharp barbs, or ipiculo;, whicii
are moveable in the pofterior direftion only ; fo that, like
the teeth of fome fifli, they fuffer the infects on which the
bird preys to be eafily perforated by the end of this inftru-
ment, but render it impolTible for them afterwards to retreat.

The vertebrK of the different regions of the fpine
of birds do not bear the fame proportion to each other
with refpcft to number that is ufual in other animals. The
cervical portion in this clafs is generally compofed of a much
greater number of vertebrse than any other divifion of the
fpine. The length of the neck is in moft birds determined
by the height of the legs. Thofe nvater birdt, however,
which procure their fubfiftence by fifhing, are provided with
long necks, and at the fame time fhort limbs, as in the cor-
morant, divers, iSc. The dorfal vertebra are ufually lefs
numerous than in quadrupeds. The vertebra: of the loins
become anchylofed with the bones of the pelvis, and with
each other at an early peiiod, and confequeutly it is difficult
to reckon them. The caudal vertebras are moft numerous
in thofe birds which make the greateft ufe of the tail, fuch
as the fivalloiv, luoodpecker, oflrich, Cfff.

The following table, which is extradled from Cuiver's
Leftures on Comparative Anatomy, exhibits the variety
which exifts with refped to the number of the vertebrx in
many fpecies.

7ABLE

B I R

B I R

TJBLE of the Number of the Vertelra in Birds,

J2 .

" M

C '

~ E

Ver. cf ihe

SPECIES.

' 'i

. --i

- C

cuccygis.

U

:--^

aj cl

>

>

>

Vulture . . -

13

7

I 1

7

Eagle ... -

'3

8

II

8

: RaW-Buzzard

'4

8

I I

7

Sparro\v-H;iwk

li

8

I I

8'

Common Buzzard -

II

7

10

8

Kite ....

12

8

1 1

8

Great Horned Owl .

13

7

12

8

Common Owl

1 1

8

II

8

Fly-Catcher

10

8

10

8

Biack-hird

II

8

lO

7

Taiiagtr ...

10

8

9

8

Crow . . . -

13

8

•3

7

Magpie ...

13

8

13

8

Jay ... -

12

7

1 1

8

Starling ...

10

8

10

9

Grofs-beak ...

10

7

12

7

Bull-finch

10

6

1 1

6

Sparrow ...

9

9

10

Gold-fincli ...

II

8

11

8

Titmoirfe ...

1 1

8

1 1

7

Lark ...

1 1

9

10

7

Red-bread

10

8

10

8

Swallow ...

1 1

8

11

9

Goat-fucker . . .

II

8

II

8

Humming Bird

12

9

9

8

Hoopoe ...

12

7

10

7

King's-fifher . . .
Wood.pecker

12

7

8

7

12

8

10

9

Toucan ...

12

8

12

more than 7

Parrot . . . .

PiLfcon .. . - .

1 1

9

1 1

8

13

7

13

7

Pe<.cock ...

14

7

12

8

Pl^eafant

13

7

15

5

Turkey ...

15

7

10

J

'Juraflbw Bird

Olb-ich

15

18

8

10

7
9

8

20

C a (To wary ...

•5

II

^9

7

Flamingo ...

18

7

12

7

Heron ...

18

7

10

7

Stork ....

19

7

1 1

8

Crane ....

19

9

12

7

Spoonbill . . -

17

7

H

8

Avofet

14

9

10

8

i^Iovtr ....

'5

8

10

7

Lapwing . . -

14

8

10

1

Woodcock ...

i8

7

13

8

Curlew ...

13

8

10

P

Oyfter-catcher

12

')

15

Rail ....

13

8

■3

8

Coot . . . -

J5

9

7

8

Jacana . . . .

•4

8

12 ■

14

'

Pel 'can

16

7

Cormorsnt ...

16

9

'4

8

Sea-fwallow . . .

14

J.'

10

8

Gull ....

1 2

8

1 1

8

Parel ....

14

8

? }

8

Swan ....

23

1 1

14

8

JZ

SPECIES.

>

V

>
10

■; 3
■ 0

; 2

>

Ver. of 'he
Cv.ccygis.

Goofe ....

'T

14

7

Barnacle ...

18

10

14

9

Duck ....

•4

8

")

8

Slicldrake

16

1 1

II

9

Scoter, or Black Diver

17

9

'4

7

Mergawfer

15

8

'3

7

Grebe - - -

'4

10

13

7

The eermcal ■vertelrdi are joined to each other by a mode
of articulation which admits of very free motion in two di.
reftions ; — laterally, and hackivards or forwards. This de.
pends \ipon the form of the a ticular furfaces of the bodies
of the vertebra, which confill of two porlionsof a cylinder
applied crofswavs with refpeiS to each other, and both a
little hollowed for their mutual accommodation. The cy-
linder on the inftrior part of the vertebrae, performs by its
revolution the motion to either fide ; and when that of the
fuperior part revolves, the neck is bent either backwards
or forwards. The cylinders at the top of the neck ad.
mit of motion forwards; but thofe of the middle and infe-
rior part of the cervical fp'ne are incapable of performing a
free motion forwards, as one contains a flight dcpreflion on
its anteror part, which receives the edge of the other.
The neck of birds, therefore, poflcffcs in the contracted
(late, or when at rell, fomewhat of the figure of an S,
which is accompanied with feveral advantages to thefe ani-
mals. They are enabled by it to throw the weight of the
neck and the head more over their centre of gravity, with,
out which fome fpccies would be unable to preferve tiieir
equdibrium ; and by combining the S like motion with
that to each fide, birds acquire a greater degree of flexi-
bility in the neck than is poffefled by other animals;
they can touch every point of their own body with the
bill, and thus fupply the want of the prehenfilc faculty
of the fuperior extremity or the tail, of which they are de-
prived by their peculiar mode of progrelfion.

Tiie furfaces of the articular proceffcs lie nearly in the di-
reftion of the bodies of the vertcbrx, but in foir.e parti have
a degree of obliquity conformable to the S like fiiape of the
neck.

The fpinous proceflcs are orilv to be obferved 'on the fu-
perior and inferior portions of the cervical fpine, where they
exift both on the anterior and polttrior parts c f the verte-
brx. In birds with long necks there is a folfa in each fide
of the poftcrior fpinous proceffes, for the attachment of
the cervical ligament, or Ugamcntiim nucha. This fubflance
is to be obferved perhaps in all birds, but is very remark-ble
in ihcjlort, fivan, caffonuiiry, and ojlr'ich. In the laft bird
it is nearly as llrong as it exilts in the larger quadrupeds : llie
fame kind of ligament is alfo interpoltd between the fpi-
nous proceffes of the dorfal vertcbrjc.

The tranfverfe proceffcs of the vertebrse of the mi 'die of
the neckfpread forwards, and fend down a ilyloid procefs of
fome length. Thefe give attachment to niufdci. and fornj
in fome birds a fort of canal on the anterior part ot the neck,
which contains the two carotid arteries. The anteri -r Ify.
loid proceffes are little obfcrvable in the rapucirm-i and ftijp-r-
ine tribes, the piirrot. l^e- ; but are ulually very maiktJ in
the long-necked birds.

The ilorfii vertebra of birds have fcarcely any motion, in

order

B I R

order tliat the tnmk of the body may not be affsded by the
motions of the wings in flight.

Tlicir fpinous procefTcs are commonly ar.chylofcd with
each otliT, which fometimes occurs alfo with rtfpeft to
the trnnfv<.He proccfies. In the cjlrich and cujoivtiry, the
proccfTts of the dorfal vertcbrK are diftindt, and poffefs a
degree <)f motion from which liowcver thefe birds cannot fuf-
fir any inconvenience, as they do not fly.

The aiiM' vcrlchra have fpinous procefTes on both the
anterior and poftcrior furfaces ; and the tranfverfe pro-
cefTes are ufually very prominent. Tiie hit bone of the
tail, is, in mod birds, of a plongh-fliare fhape for the at-
tachment of the quills. It is fmall and conic in the r.eiu,
loUand ojlrich, and cajfowary ; and in KVe peacock, it is
thin, oval, and fituated horizontally. It is wanting in a
▼aricty of the domtlHc oock found in America.

The fKimim forms one of the moft charattevidic bones
in the "ikokton of birds. It is a very broad thin bone,
covers tlio anterior part of the common cavity, like a buc-
kler, and produces from its middle line, in ever/ bird which
is capable of flying, a thin plate of bone, which refembles
very much the kctl of a fhip ; but it is moll prominent at
its anterior part. Tlie upper edge of the ftcrnum prefents
two narrow deprefiions, which receive the ends of tlic two
clavicles ; and to the mod anterior point of the keel the
fork-fliapcd bone is commonly attached. The poderior
edge is thin, and in mod fpecies, contains a fpace on each
fide, which is filled with membranes. In the acclpitres,
parrot, and mod uqualk birds, this is an oval hole ; but in
X\\e gallhi,! it is an oblong vacancy. The keel appears to be
added to the dernum, merely for the attachment of the
great peftoral mufcle. Accordingly, we find its projec-
tion is proportioned to the neccfTity there is for ufing this
mufcle during flight ; and in the ojlrkh and cajjo'iuary,
which do not employ their wings as organs of locomotion,
the keel is abfent, and the dernum is round and fmooth on
the external furface, and is very fmall in proportion to the
magnitude of thefe birds.

The r'lhi of birds have been divided, like thofe of mam-
malia, into true and falfe, or as Vic d'azir has termed them,
the Jlenw-vcrtchral and vertebra/. Tlie true ribs are made
of two pieces, which are each compofed of bone : the pof-
tcrior portion is affixed to the fpine by means of two
branches, of which one is articulated with the body, and
the other with the tranfverfe procel's of the fame dorfal
vertebra. The anterior piece is articulated by one end,
Tvitli t)ie lateral edge of the ftcrnum ; and by the other, to
the end of the vertebral portion. The ilcrnal extremities
of the ribs, being diftinft bones, deferve to be caWdJlrrnal
riir, which term we have employed in oilier parts of this
article. MoR. of the true ribs are furnidied, ab.int tl'.eir
middle, wit!i a thin offeous procefs, which proceeds ob-
liquely baclcwards from the poderior edge of one rib, and
over-laps the one next behind it, and fometimcs even goes
on to cover two ribs, as in tlie colymbus crt/lafus. The
tternal and vertebral portions of the true ribs form, at tlicir
junction, an angle which points backwards, and is very
acute in the iirtl ribs, which proves that the thorax
of birds is chiefly dilated by the anterior part of the dernum,
being carried forwards from the dorfal fpine ; at which
time, tlie moveable angles of all the ribs become very ob-
tufe. Thefe angles are fcarcely obfervable in the Jlrut/jiotis
bird'. Their ribs afTume very much the figure of thofe
of mammiiHa.

The number of the derno-vertebral ribs is liable to vary.
There are, on each fide, four in the cuckoo and the cajfowary ;
Jive 'm the cro'zv, african 'Jlrich, and Jiori j fix in the iittcm ;

B I R

feven in the eagle, the bii^tard, the oivl, the crane, and tl •
duck ; eight in the crejied grebe, and feveral other water-
fowl ; and nine in the fwan.

The -vertebral, or falfe ribs, are in mod birds placed at the
anterior part of the thorax, which is the reverfe of what \i
obferved in mammalia. When there are any of thefe ribs
fituated poderiorly, they arc only one or two pair, aiid im-
perfeftly formed ; there are two pair in the Jlrulhious birds,
which do not projeft far from the fpine.

The bones of the pehis become confolidated together at
a very early period. Their original parts are therefore very
difficult to' didinguifli. The portion correfponding to the
cs ilium bears fome refemblance to that bone in mammalia ;
but the ifchium and pubis cannot be recognifed by their
figure, and are only to be known by their relation to the
different foramina. There is a very long, flendtr bone,
originally conuefled to the ilium, on the fore-part of the
acetabulum, wliich fupplies the place of the pubis. This
bone runs parallel to the anterior pavt of the ifchium, with
whicli it is occafionally joined towards its extremity, but
never unites with the bone of the oppofite fide, except in
the oflrich, in which bird the bones of the pubis are broad
at their fympbifis, and Hand a little forwards, producmg
fomething of the appearance of the pelvis of mammalia.
The pubis unites with the ifchium in the accipitres for a con-
fiderable way, and leaves a didinft hole analogous to the
foramen ovale ; and the fpace between thefe bones pofTLiTes
in all birds, at the antenor part, the traces of this fora-
men.

The Ifchium is commonly united to the facrum and back
of the ilium, by the part which correfponds to the ifciiiadic
/j>ine ; confcquently, the ifchiadic foramen is complete in
the fl<eleton of birds. In the oflrich and cajfotuary, how-
ever, the ifchium is feparate from the facrum, and is a long,
flender dyloid bone, like the pubis. There is no tubero-
fity to the ifchium, that part being thin and extended, ex-
cept in the oflrich, where it becomes fomcwhat enlarged.
The ifchium appears to be joined to the pubis in the new.,
holland oflrich, by the intervention of another fhort
bone.

The bones of the fhoulder are very peculiar in birds ;
befides the clavicles and fcapulx, there is an additional
fingle bone, called the fork : it ufually pofTefTes the figure
of a V ; the point is attached to the moll anterior part of
the keel of the fternum, and the ends of the branches are
fecured by a ligament on tlie infide of the dorfal extremities
of the clavicles, and alfo to the poderior procefs of the
fcapulx, which is analogous to the acromion. The fork
frequently approaches more to the figure of an U than a
V. Its angle is alfo often at fome diilance from the fter-
num, to which it is bound by a ligament. In the gallime, it
terminates in a thin plate, from which a ligament is ex-
tended to the keel of the fternum. As a general obferva-
tion, it may be dated, that the fork is ftroiig and elaftic,
and its branches wide, arched, and carried forwards upon
the body, in proportion as the bird poU'effes ftrength and
rapic'ity of flight ; and accordingly, the flruthious birds,
which are incapable of this mode of progrefiion, have the
fork very imperfeAly formed. The two branches are very
fh rt, and never unite in the africcm oflrich, but are an-
chylofed with the fcapulas and clavicle. The caffwMary has
merely two little proccffes from the fide of the clavicle
which are the rudiments of tke branches of the fork. In
the new holland oflrich, there are two very fmall thin
bones, which are attached to the anterior edge of the dor-
fal end of the clavicles, by hgament ; they are direi'led
upwards towards the neck, v.'here they are fa'ftened to each

other

B I R

E I R

other by means of a ligament, and have no conneAion what-
ever with the ftemum.

The climicle is a ftraight bone in birds ; it does not lie
in a tranfverfe direction with refpcft to the trunk of the
body, but proceeds upwards and forwards towards the
lower part of the cervical fpine ; and in proportion to the
length and projedtion of the clavicle, the bird pofTefres
ftrength of wing and aflivity of flight. The clavicle at its
articulation with the fltrnnm is thin and broad ; but the
reft of the bone is of a round (hapc : it produces a procefs
from the pofterior part of its dorfal extremity, which is
united to the head of the fcapvda, and in conjunftion with
it, forms a depn-flion analogous to the glenoid cavity, al-
though not of the fame figure. The infide of the ex-
treme part of the dorfal end of the bone, is joined by liga-
ment with the branch of the fork, as already mentioned.

The clavicles ot the Jirulhiie are remarkably lliort, and
zre anchylofed with the fcapulas at leaft.

The fcitptiln are two long, plain bones, w'xxh (harp edges,
refembliiig, in a great degree, the blade of a knife ; tliey
lie parallel to the dorfal fpine, and have no proceffe':, ex-
cept the one which contributes with the clavicle to form
the cavity for lodging the head of the humerus; and a
little eminence oppofite to this, which feems analogous to
the acro7n'wn, and is joined to the end of the branch of the
fork. The fcapula:, like all tT>c other bones of the fhouldcr,
are very (hort m the Jlruihitr, not pafllng beyond the firft
two or three ribs ; although in many other birds thtfe
bones reach as far as the pelvis.

The humeri:! is a round, fniooth bone, more or lefs en-
larged, and flattened at the e-ctremities ; the furface by
which it articulates wjth the foifa in the fcapula and cla-
vicle, is at the very end of the bone, and is firmed of a
portion of a cylinder, inftead of a fphere, which is moft
fuitable to the motions of the humerus in birds, they being
almoll confined to the elevation and deprefllon of the wing.
The external tuberofity of the humerus is verj' fmall ; but
the fpine which leads from it is greatly elevated in moll
fpecies of birds. The internal tuberofity is, on the other
hand, remarkably large, and furnifhes a procefs at its upper
part, which c.irrefponds, in fonie rdpefts, with the coracoid
procefs of the fcapula in mammalia. The humerus is lo.ig,
in proportion to the other bones of the wing in the African
ojlr'ich, and takes the curvature of the bird's bodv. It is
extremely (liort and fmall, and without procefles, in the
New Holland ojlr'uh, and cajfotviiry.

The humerus is conneflvd with the bones of the fore arm
by an articular furt'^ace, fimilar to that of the Inmian fubjcft.

The niilius is ulnally a much more (lender bone than the
ulna, with wliich it is never obferved to be anchylofed.

The ulna exhibits no remarkable proceifes ; it forms a
pully on its lower end. Thefe two bones are flat in the
manchot [apteiiodjtit), and are joined by an articulation which
permits motion m ieveral directions, with two tubercles, one
above, and the other below tlie anterior edge of the lumie-
rus. The wirig of this bud, both. In its itructnre and of-
fices, refembles a fin. The ulna and radius are ncarlv of an
eqnal fize in \.\ie Jlrntbi^ ; they are butli very fmall, and
have but little motion on the humerus.

There are but two carpal bones in birds ; one is applied to
the end of the radius, and prevents the motion of the lower
part of the wing beyond the line ot the radius; the other
moves a little upon the end of the ulna, to which its form is
adapted. It has often a little procefs from its lower edge,
which is analogous to the os pU'ifnrme. The carpal bones
are obliterated in \\\t Jlruthiuus birds.

The metacarpus confills of two bones, which are united at
their fuperior part by anchylofis for fome way. At this
Vol, IV,

place there are fome eminences wliich appear like the re-
mains of the fecond row of carpal bones foldered together.
The articulation of the metacarpus with the carpus is the
fegmout of more than the half of a pulley, which is grooved
in the middle, and revolves within a correfponding furface
of the lower carpnl bone. This motion, for the convenience
of defcription, is called flexion and extenfion ; but it is in
ftnftncfs a lateral movement back upon the ulna, and ac-
companied with a degree of rotation, by which the concave
figure of the wing is loft in the very aftioii of folding it.
There is a (lyloid procefs on the upper part of the radial
fide of the m.etacai-pus, which gives attachment to a fmall
pointed bone, fupplying the place of the thumb. A fimilar
bone is aflixed to the extreme end of the fmall branch of
the metacarpus, and correfponds to the little Jinger. The
principal, or fore Jinger, which terminates the wing, is arti-
culated with the large or radinl branch of the metacarpui.
It cor.fifts of two phalanges, and the firft exhibits marks of
having been originally two bones. The two pieces of the
metacarpus are to be feen in the African oflrich, as alfo the
three fingers ; each of which is iurnilhcd with a hook, which
is covered with a horn, like a claw ; but in the New Holland
cjlrich the metacarpus is a fingle bone, and there is but one
f nger, which is alfo terminated with a claw. All the bones of
the hand are compreffed into thin plates in the manchot.

The thigh-bone of birds has nothing very peculiar in it*
fnnn ; it wants the fmall trochanter ; it is fingrlarly (hort,
in proportion to the other parts of the limb, in fuch birds as
have long legs ; it is longetl in the accipitres, and fhorteil in
fome water-birds. The femur is ftrong in all the gallinx;
and in the Jlruthiif it is of an immenfc thickntfs ; it is bent
in the cormorant and the little grebe.

Tliere is a certain portion of the ligament of the extenfor
mufcles of the leg converted very early into bone ; and this
feems in general to fupply the place of the patella ; it is not
ufually preferved in ilcelctons.

The tibia refembles in its form the fame bone in mamma-
lia. There are feveral prominent edges on the fire part of
its head for the attachment of mufcles. The lower end of
the tibia forms a pulley with a groove along the middle.
The head of the tibia is prolonged in a remarkable manner
upon the thigh, in the grebes and the diver.

The fbula is a very fmall bone, and is foon anchylofed to
the fide of the tibia.

The tarfus and metatarfus confift, in the adult bird, but
of one bone ; it exhibits, however, grooves coirefponding to
the divifions which exifted between its feveral pieces when
it was firft formed. Thefe are ftrongly marked in the long-
leg red birds, and fliew that the metatarfus contained origi-
nally as many bones as there are principal toes. There is
ufually aho a prominence on the pofterior part of the head
of the bone wliich reprefents the os calcis. The inferior ex-
tremity of the metatarfal bone produces a procefs (haped
like a pulley for the articulation with each of the principal
toes

There are three bones in the compofition of the tarfusand
metatarfus of the manchot feparate from each other in the
middle ; and therefore thefe birds are plantigrade, or walk
upon the metatarfus as well as the toes.

The extraordinary length of limb which belongs to fome
kinds, as thejlruthious and ouaJing birds, depends upon the
extent of the tibia and metatarfal bone.

The Jlork, and fome others of the gralla, which deep
ftanding on one foot, poffcls a curious mechanifm for prei
ferving the leg in a ftate of extenfion, without any, or at
leaft with little mulcular effort. There arifes from the fore
part of the head of the metatarfal bone a round eminence,
which paffes up betweca the projeftions of the pulley on the
J I anterior

I

D I R

antfrior part of tlic end of the tibia. Tliis eminence affoi'ds
a fiiflicicM d.-grce of rtlillaiice to tin- flexion of the leg to
counttraft the tffcA of the olcillatii'iis of the body, and
would prove an inf'irmoiintablc obftniclion to the motion of
the joint, if there were not a focket within the upper part
of the pulley of the tibia, to receive it v.lien tl'.c leg is in
the bent pofition. The lower edjje of the focket is promi-
nent and Iharp, and prefeins a fort of barrier to the admifTion
of the eminence, that requires a voUintary tniifcnlar txcition
of the bird to overcome, which bcinj; accomplifhed, it flips
in with fonie force like the end of a dillocated bone. Du-
nieriland Cuvier have defcribed a fi:nilar apparatus to this ni
tl>e knee of the Jloii- ; but they mull ha\e confourded, in an
unaccountable manner, the one joint w-ith the other ; for the
articulation of the femur with the bones of the leg in the
commonjlori (antea alia), certainly exhi!)its nothing pecu-
liar ill its Urufture. See Pliite VIII. in x.hc A7i:ilon:y of
Birds. Fig. I. reprefents the anterior part of the articula-
tion of the tibia with the nietatarfus in xhejiork ; a the ti-
bia, b the metatarfal bone, fr the ptoniinent edges of the
uUcy on the end of the tibia, ^/the round eminence of the
ead of the mctatarius, c the focket in the tibia, which re-
ceives the eminence during the flexion of the joint.

The bonci uf the t&es vary in number, incrcafing from the
inner to the Oitcrnal toes. Birds with four toes have the
number of the phalan;>ei in the following order, 2, 3,4,5;
ihofe with tlirte toes have them, 3, 4, 5, except the ci/fa-
<wary and the New Holland ojlnch, which have four joints to
each toe. The Afr'iam ojlrich has oidy two toes, and four
phalanges to both. Moll birds have the three principal
toes fituatcd befvre, and the poUex attached to the inner
and back part of the metatarfd bone near its extremity.
The btijlard, cnjfoivary. New Holland ojrkh, the plover, tlic
Q^er catcher, and I he long leg'^ed pluver, have but three toes ;
and the altatrofi, ptirell, av.d penguin, want the poUex. All
\\\<: fcanfjres have tlieir toes oppofcd to each other, two be-
hind and tv\0 before.

It would have r;.ndcred the defcription of tlie bones tedi-
ous and confufvd, to have given frccpient references to the
plates which rcprcfent tlum ; the reader, therefore, will
have occalion to coritemplate the relation the different fi-
gures bear to each other; and to facilitate fnch comparifon,
Cniilar Ittters are employed to indicate fnnilar parts in each
of the (kektons cliofen t^ illuftrate tiie fubjcft.

When birds tranfport themfelves from one place to ano-
ther, it is moH commonly by the aft of fl\ing ; which con-
fjils in the fucceffive elevation and dcprefnon of the wings ;
the latter motion being performed with, lo much fo^ce and
velocity, as to coniprefs a volnme of air, the re-aflion of
which is fnlRcient to impel forwards the whole body of the
bird. The various kinds of flight depend upon the different
ways of employing the wings, and the habits and oecononiy
of the individ\!al, which it is the bufuKfs of the natiiralilt to
point out. Many birds are capable of ufing other modes of
locomotion btlides flying, for which their ftructure isequally
■Well adapted ; for iuftance, lome tribes almoll conllantly in-
habit the water, and fwim with the greateft. eafc ; others
v.alk or run with the greateft rapidity ; and others tranfport
themfelves chiefly by the effort of climbing. We have,
therefore, feleCicd a (ktleton to exhibit the organs employed
in each of thefe Ipecies of locomotion. See Plate VIIl. in
the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 2. repiefents a fkeleton of the
New Holland ojlrich, which was brought into this country by
an inge:iious young furgeon, Mr. Langftaff. It feems to
partake of the ftrufture of both the cajfowary and African
cflrich, but it bears the grcateil likentfs to the latter ; and
Uxcrefo.e we lu\e called the bird an ollrich, although it

B 1 R

has hitherto been confidered by fomc naturalifts as a caflo.
wary. This flitleton affords the belt example of a niiimng
bird, which is at the fame time incapable of flight. The
ffei num and bones of the wing are fmall ; the centre of
gravity is thrown fairly between tlie leg? ; and the iiifenor
extremities are long, and of an immeufe dir])ioportionate
ihength. Fig. 3. of the fame plate exhibits the flielcton of
the larl; whrdi, as being a bird of high flight, forms a
linking contrail with fig. 2.

Plate IX. of the Anatomy of Birds, contains the fl<eleton$
of a climbing and z fwimming bird. Fig. I. is the fl<eleton
of the parrot. The body is round and contradled ; the
neck fliort, ftrong, and flexible in different diredions ; the
iltrnum and bones of the flioulder rather final! ; but its chief
charafters are the long thigh, and very fliort metatarfuf,
fiirniflicd with the climbing toes ; by which m.eans the bird
can grafp any foreign fubliar.ce, and apply the feet to any
part of its own body, after the maimer of the prehenfile
members of other animals.

Fi':;. 2. of Plate IX. fhews the ftteleton of the crejled
grebe [colymbus crflatus). The neck is much bent ; the
parts of the upper extremity rather fmall ; tl;e ribs flrong,
and reaching far back ; the fternnm long; and the body
pofleffes very ranch the form of a boat ; the hiferior extre-
*'mity lituated fai behind, and the tli'gh bone very fliort, and
the toes long and e:;pandei^ all vrhich circunitlances are
neecfl'aiy to the performance of the aftioiis of fwimming^
and diving with tacihty.

The feparate parts of the flceletons, in Plates VIII. and
IX. in the Ar.atomi of Birds, are indicated as follows.

Parti compofing the head ; a the occiput, b parietal bone^
c OS frontis, d temporal bone, e os lacrymale, or fupcrciliary
bone, f nafal bone, g fupcrior maxilla, h malar bone, i
bone of tin upper mandible, k palatine bone, / feptum of
the orbits, i;i -'.rticilar bone, » interarlicular bone, 0 zy-
goma, p inferior maxil'.a, q bone of the lower n-.andible, r
external nares, s deficiency in the feptum of the orbits
where the optic foramina open, / temporal foffa, u fpongy
bone in the organ of fmell.

Parts of :he fpiiie and trur.k ; a cervical vertebrx, b their
tranfverfe proceffes, c the ftyles which defeend on the fore-
part, d articular proceffes, e pofterior fpinous procciles, f
fpines on the anterior part uf the bodies of fome of the
vertebra', g dorfal vertebrae, h lacral vertebra;, ; vertebrae
of the tail, k the lad, or caudal bone, / os ilium, m ilcliium,
n pubis, 0 foramen ovale, p ifchiadic foramen, q vertebral,
or fdlfe ribs, r the true ribs, s the fternal portions, / inter-
cortal procefl'es, u the part of the llernum next the body, i»-
the keel, or projecting part, x deficiency at the lower part
of the tternal bone.

Parts belonging to the ivir.g ; a the fork, b the clavicle, c
the icapula,, (/ the humerus, e its inner tubtrofity, ^ the ex-
ternal tuberofity, g the Ipine for the attachment of the del-
toid and peftoral mufe-les, h the ulna, i thu radius, k the
carpal bone on the radial fide, / the ulnar carpal bone, m the
head ol the metacarpus, n the large branch, 0 the fmaller
one, p the llyle of the metacarpus, q the poUex or thumb,
r the little finger, s the principal or fore finger.

The parts of which the lower extremity cotifjls ; a the fe-
mur, h its fingle trochanter, c the tibia, d the elongation of
tlie head of the tibia which occurs in the grebe, Sic. e the
fibula, f the mctaiarlus, g the prominence at the heel,
/) the pollex, or back toe, i the principal or anterior toes.
Mufles.

When the writing of the prefent article was begun, it
was intended to give a full defcription of the mulcles of
birds ; but as the fubjeft has already extended beyond the

lengtV

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B I I^

JentTtli t!i2t was expetled, and if this were done, would ex-
ceed the bounds ufually alk'tted to a fi;igle article, we rtiall
only point out the moll ftriking pecuh'arities in the mufcular
fyftem, and correct fome errors into which other writers
have fallen in their accounts of this part of the anatomy of
birds.

Thd mufcles 'juhich move the lower jaw, do not differ ef-
fentially from thofe of mammalia. There is no marked di-
ftinclion between the maftter and temporal mufcles ; they
form one ma''s which arifcs from the temporal foffa and infe-
rior part of the orbit, paffes under the zygoma, and covers
the iide of the lower jaw from the joint to the commence-
HHiit of the bill.

There is a tendon which lies over the mufcles on the fide
of the jaws, ufually of a trianL;ular figure ; it is attached to
the inferior bony portions of the orbit, connects them to
each otiicr, and thus completes the margin of the orbit.
It is affixed to the protuberance on the outfide of the
lower jaw, near the joint, and feems to prevent the mouth
opening bevond a certain diilance.

Birds have none of the mufcles of the face, js they
have no foft parts for them to move.

The lower jaw is dcprelicd by a mufele which arifes by
two portion^, o;ie from the hollow behind the fide of the
tociput, the other from the furface behind and below the
cNtcrna! meatus auditorius ; both arc inferted upon the back
<j! the lower javv. This mufele, although lo unlike the dV-
^ajlricus, fupplies its place, and fulfils its office.

There are three mufcles for moving the upper jaw, which
are quite peculiar to birds. Thijiijl is of a radiated or fan
fliape ; it ariies from tlie feptum of the orbit, and palling
obliquely backwards, is inferted by tendon into the external
furface of the end of the inter-articular bone, juft when it
becomes joined to the articular. By pulling the pofterior
end of the inter-articular bone upwards, the oppofite end is
puihed forwards, which proJuces the elevation of the upper
jaw in the manner alrr;ady defcribed.

The fecond is a ihort thick mufele, arifing from below
tiie poiterior part of the orbit, and before the external mea-
tus auditoiius, and inferted into the inner furface of the
body of the articular bone and its anterior procefs, where
it joins the inter-articular bone ; it elevates the pofterior
end of the inter-articular bone, and thus raifes the upper jaw.

The //j;V,/ mufele is for deprcffing the fuperior jaw ; it is
of a long taper lliape, has one attachment to the infide of
the lower jaw, and then becomes affixed to the infide of the
JBter-articuIar bone, tlie internal part of the pterygoid pro-
cefs, and f-nds a fmall tendon to the integument of the pa-
late, jull where the horny covering of the mandible com-
mences. It is difficult to dillinguifn it from the pteiygoid
mufele, which appears to aid it in the depreffion ot the fu-
perior mandible.

The tongue enjoys much lefs variety of motion in birds
than in mammalia ; it is only capable of being protruded,
rctraCled, turned to each fide either direftly or obliquely,
fii^htly rotated, and depreffcd at the point. There are a
great many mufcles, however, employed in the pertormance
of thefe motions ; fome of thefe aft upon the os hyoides,
and others upon the lingual bone.

Tl»e firll is analogous x.o\}\ej}ylo hyoidetis; ariles from the
upper and back part of the lower jaw, divides into two flips;
one goes to the ilyloid bone of the os hyoides, where it
meets its fellow : the other flip paffcs to the inner part of
the middle bone or body of the hyoides ; it retracts the
tongue.

Tiie fecond correfponds to the mylo-hyo'ideus ; it is a broad
thin mufele, proceeds from the infide of llic lower jaw, ex-

cept its pr){lerior edge, which comes from the outer part of
the jaw ; it is inferted upon the concave fide of the cartila-
ginous extremity of the horn of the os hyoides, around
which it forms a mufcular (heath ; its ufe is to protrude tke
tongue.

The tiiird mufele appears to anfwer to the geniohyo'idcus ;
it comes from the fuperior edge of the lower jaw internally,
and becomes attached to its fellow on the other fide upon
the tlyloid bone of the hyoides ; protrudes the tongue a
little from the obliquity of its direftion, and feems to com-
mence the actions of deglutition by elevating the part5 in
the bottom of the mouth. We did not obferve this mufele
in the cock.

The fourth mufele of the tongue is extended from tiic
honi of the os liyoides at its root, to the ftyloid bone«
where it joins the miifcle of the oppofite fide. They ap-
proximate the honis of the hyoides, during the protrufion o£
the tongue.

The fifth is a very fmall mufele, lying along the internal
furface of the iiorn of the os hyoides ; it fends a delicate
tendon to the under furface of the lingual bone, deprcflcs
the point of tiie tongue, and if it aCts fingly, turns tilt
tongue.

The fixth is a little fliort mufele, which arifes from the
end of the middle bone of the hyoides, ar.d is affixed to the
under part of the lingual bone ; depreffes the tip of the
tongue, and raife.-> the bafe. This is a fingle mufele.

The feventh mufele lies along with its fellow upon the an-
terior furface of the fuperior larynx ; it is attached to tlie
root of the lingual bone. Its ufes are to dtprefs the bafe
of the tongue, and thus ekvate the point, and to retract the
tongue while in the mouth.

The eighth is fliort ; arifes from the junftion of all the
bones of the os hyoides on the lower furf^ice, and is in-
ferted into the upper and outer corner of the bafe of the
lingual bone. It bnngs the tongue into a ilraight line, af-
ter the other mufcles have deprefled the tip.

The ninth mufele is the lall ; it is very minute, and paffes
from the bafe of the hngual bone to the very tip of the car-
tilage ; depreffes the point of the tongue without elevating
its root.

The mufcles which protrude and retraft the tongue, arc
remarkably large in the luoodpcckers and •wrymchs.

The mufcles which mov! the head and red, are even more
complicated in birds than in other animals. Mod of them
have their attachments fo numerous and intermixed, that no
defcription can convey an adequate idea of them.

The lon^us cola begins in the thorax on the anterior fpines
of the dorfal vertL-brs ; its fafeiculi go from the anterior part
of the cervical vertebriE to the ftylcsand tranfverfe proceffes ;
and their tendons are longeil at the fuperior and inferior
part of the neck.

The reBus capitis major ar.ticus is continued from the head
as low as the fitth vtrtebrx of the cervical fpine.

On the pollerior part of the fpine there is a fma'l mufele
which feems to reprefci.t the fnpcrior part of the trapezius ;
it is extended from the tranfverle proceffes of the four firll
cervical vertebrx to the back of the occiput ; it brinjjs thq
head backwards and to one fide.

There are a great number of fafeiculi interpofed betwcca
the tranfverfe and articular proceffes at the back of the
neck. Thefe tendons pafs over fcveral vertebra; before
they are inferted on the middle of the neck, which is the
part moll bent backwards.

A mufele which has been confidered analogous to the cer-

riciilis d.fcea.iais, is the chief extenfor of the neck of birds.

It arifes fro;n the fpine of the back, oppofite to the fc-

3 I 2 coad

B I R

«ond rib, by tendon, which, on coming upon the neck, re-
ceives feven flips of mufcle, which defcend from the fpincs of
the feven inferior cervical vtrtebrx. The mufcle tlien p^o-
ceeds on the neck as a diftincl flip, and at the upper part
produces three tendons, wliich gn to the back of the arti-
cular proccfrcs of the fccond, third, and fourth cervical ver-
tebra. Thife tendons receive mufcular flips from the back
of the fpine as lo«r as the fcventh vertcbrce, or where the
other flip began to defcend. The afcerding fafciculi furiiifli
the tendons to the fifth and fixth vcrtcbrx. and to the atlas.
This mufcle is enabled, on account of its defci-ndin!; and af-
cending fafciculi, to extend the neck even while the head is
creiSed. Cuvier defcribes the mufcle fomcwhat differently
in the heron and buzzard. The above account is from the

There is a curious fliaped mufcle along the inflJe of the
preceding, which Cuvier compares to the hivcnlcr cerx'icis.
It commences by a flendcr tendon from the fpinous procefs
of the firft dorfal veitcbra, becomes flefliy at ilie lower part,
tendinous along the middle, and again flefliy near the head,
and is inferted into the occiput. Although it extcrd; the
whole length of the neck, it is fo fleuder that its tendon is
not thicker than a piece of twine or thread. It aflills in
the extenfion of the neck and elevation of the head.

The trachrlo-majlolileiis arifis in birds from the anterior
■part of the fecond, third, and fourth cervical vertebrae, and
IS inferted upon the fide of the occiput.

The comflrxus proceeds from but a few of the articular
procefl"es of the neck ; and the fphmus does not exift; in
birds.

Cuvier defcribes three red'i capitis pnjlict ; but thcfe mufcles
do not deferve to be fo called.

The firll, which he names the reSus maximus, arifes from
the fpine of the dentata, and is inferted into the fide and
back of the occiput. It brings the head backwards, and to
one fide, and rcfembles in figure and office ihe jpitnius ca-
pitis.

The fecond, or redus major pqflicus, proceeds obliquely
from the fpine of the dentata, under the preceding, to the
deprcflion on the back of the occiput.

The third, or rcdus minor, is only a few fibres mixed with
the ligamer't, which connedls the head with the fpine.

The mufcles of the bach confift of a few flefhy fibres inter-
mixed with portion of tendon, which are moftly oflltied
in full grown birds ; they lie on each fide of the dorfal
fpine, which thty tlrengthen but cannot move.

The nnfcles of the tail are diftinft, and generally large ;
fome are calculated to raife the tail, fome to deprefs it,
others to move it laterally, and others again to unfold the
quills of this pare.

The firfl is the levator coccygis of Vic d' Azir; it arifes from
the back of the facrum and the tranfverfe and fpinous pro-
Cefles of the firft caudal vertebrae, and fends diftinft tendons
to each of the fpinous procefles of the tail and the caudal
bone. There is a flefliy flip alfo accompanying the laft
tendon. This mufcle, as its name imphes, elevates the
tail.

The fecond, or ileprejfor coccyfis of Vic d'Azir, is fituated
within the pelvis, and arifes from the end of the facrum and
the ifchium, where they join ; alfo from the tranfverfe pro-
cefles of the bones of the tail. It is inferted by tendons
into the fpinous procefles of the under furface of the caudal
Tcrtcbrse, and diftributes a number of mufcular fibres in dif-
ferent diredions on the bafis of the lateral quills. This
mufcle deprcfles the tail, and appears alfo, from its attach-
ment to the hgament of the quills, to be capable ©f converg-
ing them.

B I R

The third arifes from the pofterior edge of the anterior
part of the pubis, and the te- don covering the lower part of
the belly, and is inferted on the bafe of the ligament which
fuftahis the lateral quills. When this mnfcle ;ic'ts fingly, it
brings the tail downwards and to one fide ; if, with its fel-
low, it deprefles the tail diiertly ; but at all times it tends
to fpread the quills of the tai'.

The fouitli is the motor lateralis cnccygis of Vic d'Azir, who
defcribes its origin diffcent from what we have obfervtd it
to be. It arifes fr.im the lall tranfverfe procefs of the fa-
crum and the firit of the coccyx, and it turns round to be
inferted in common with the preceding mufcle upon the root
of the ligamentous fubflance, which connedls the lateral
c'lills. It moves, when acting alone, the tail to one fide;
but combined with its fellow and other mufcles, unfolds the
quiiis of the tail in the manner of the flicks of a fan.

The fifth mufcle is in part covered by the third ; it is at-
tached to the whole of the pofterior margin of the pelvis,
except the extreme portion of the pelvis, and in the goofe
fpreads even upon the p:;rietes of the belly rcu;id the anus ;
it then proceeds to be inferted, along with the depreffor
coccygis, on the under part of the caudal or laft bone of
the tail. Its office is, with its fellow and tlie depreflbr,
to lower the tail.

The fixth is the cruro-coccygcus of Vic d'Azir ; it arifes by-
thin tendon from the inner and back part of the thigh bone,
where it is conjoined with one of the mufcles of the thigh.
It is inferted, along with the other mufcles of the tail, into
the under part of the caudal bone. This mufcle draws the
tail to one fide ; but when its aftion is combined with its
fellow, it is the moll powertul flexor or depreffor of the
tail.

The mufcles of the trunk deviate more from the ftrufture of
mammalia than the mufcles of birds do in general, and
have been but very imperfeftly deicribcd by Cuvier and
others.

The f-aleni are merely two flips of mufcle, which defcend
from the next tranfverfe procefs upon the firft and fecond ribs.

The triangularis flerni takes its origin from the fuperior
corner of the fternum and the four fuperior ribs, where they
join this bone, and is inferted into the moveable angles of
the four fuperior ribs after the firft. It comprefles the
fuperior part ot the thorax, and thus brings forwards the
lower end of the fternum ; it is, therefore, a mufcle of ex-
piration.

The abdominal mufcles confift of three layers.

The firil reprefents the obliquus externus, although its
fibres are arranged tranfverfely. It arifes from the edge of
the ilium and pubis by a very thin tendon, and from the
lower edges of the ribs, by diftinft tendinous procefles, and
is inferted into the fide and lower edge of the fternum, and
the middle line of the be'ly, to unite with the mufcle of the
oppchte fide. From this mufcle pafling over the moveable
angles of the ribs, its action influences the whole cavity of
the body ; for at the fame time that it comprefles the abdo-
men, it raifes the anterior part of the fternum, by drawing
the pofterior part backwards, and thus dilates the thorax,
and becomes a mufcle of infpiration, explaining by this means
the effeft we have already reprcfciitcd infpiration to produce
upon the abdominal air-cells.

The fecond is the obliquus afcendens ; it is made of two
portions, the one a little overlapping the other ; the anterior
is analogous to the reSus abdominis, and arifes from the pu-
bis and middle line of the belly ; the other portion arifes
from the edge of the ilium and loweft rib. The fibres of
each portion afcend in their proper direftions to be inferted
OQ the lower edge of the ilernum, aud the tendon filhng

tlie

B I R

B I R

tTie fpace between the ribs and the fternum. This miifcle,
like the preceding, dimininies the abdomen, and dilates the
anterior part of the thorax.

The third layer anfwers to the tranfverfalis aitfomir:!s. It
proceeds from the ofleous margin of the abdomen to the
middle line, where it meets its fellow. They confill of fe-
parate fafcicnli at the fuperior part ; ai;d the fibres are col-
le»!^td round a point in the centre, where the yolk pafied
into the belly of the chick.

There is a very t'lin (lip of mnfcle, which crofTes the lowed
part of the belly ; it is fituated fuperficially, and lies ovtr fe-
veral of the mufelcs of the tail. In the goo/i it arifes from
the ifchiuni, where that bone joins the pubis ; and in the
Jhiul it is Oiily attached by cellular membrane to the furface
of the mufcles of the thigh. It is inferttd, in both cafes,
on the fide of the aniis, which it feems dcligned to dilate.

We have obferved in the fo'w! two very flender fafciculi
of mufcle to defcend from the fide of the reftum, one to the
ligament fupporting the quills of the tail, the other to the
infide of the pelvis. They are both probably intended to
produce the everfion of the iiiteftine d'jring coition.

The nnifclts belonging to the -wing do not differ in their
arrangement and ftnifture from thofe of the anterior extre-
mity of mnnnmaha fo much as might be fuppofed, confider-
ing how little thele members refemblt each other in their
funftions.

The lati/Jimiis dorft arifes only from the fpines of the dor-
fal vertebrae ; it refembles, however, the mufcle of the fame
name in mammalia.

A mufcle, analogous to the inferior portion of the trape-
zius, is obferved at the (houlder. It comes from the fpi-
nous procelTes of the three laft cervical and all the dorfal
vertebrae, and is inferted into the inner and back part of the
fork and potterior edge of the fcapula. We have not
perceived the diftinftion of this mufcle into two parts on
the fhoulder, as dated by Cuvier.

The_/Jrra/uj major anlicus is only inferted into the point of
the fcapula. This mulcle has been called by Vic d'Azir,
the fubj'capular'is.

The cojlo-fcapularis of Vic d'Azir goes from the fird ribs to
the neck of the fcapula. It appears to be analogous to the
pelioralh minor of the human fubjcft.

The rhomlo'iilcs is not divifible into major and minor. It
arifes, as ufual, from the fpine, and is inferttd in the pode-
rior edge of the fcapula.

A mufcle, analogous to h-vator fcapula, arifes by three
flips from the tranfverfe procefs of the laft cervical vertebra
and the firft and fecond ribs. It is inferted into the middle
of the fcapula, which it elevates and draws backwards.
The motions of the fcapula are necedaiily very limited
from its mode of connexion with the neighbouring bones ;
and its rotation is redrained by a ligament which joins the
point of the fcapula with the dorfal fpine. It is requifite
the bones of the fhoulder fhould be kept very fteady during
fliglit.

There are three peftoral mufcles.

'Y\\Q peBoralis maximus of Vic d'Azir might be called, with
more propriety, the deprejjor al<r magnus. It arifes from the
whole of the body and heel of the ilernum, except a certain
portion ot the anterior furface occupied by the next muf-
cle over which it lies, and from the fide of the fork and the
lad ribs, and is inferted into the fpine on the outfide of the
humerus, where it is connefted by ligament with the deltoid
mufcle. The peftoralis maximus has commonly more
ftrength than all the other mufcles of the body united,
which is required to accomplidi the deprefllon of the wing
In oppolitioa to the whole weight of the bird during flight.

Th« ptBoraFts medius of Vic d'Azir might be called the
levator alx. It is affixed to the fore part of the body and
keel of the dernum, the fide of the clavicle, and the mem-
brane which fills the interfpace between that bone and the
fork. It fends its tendon over the head of the fcapula
through the pully formed by all the bones of the (hoi^lder,
to be inferted on the external tuberofity of the head of the
htimeri's. By means of the pulley it elevates the hume-
rus, and corfequently the wing ; and from occupying the
lower pnrt of the cheft, the weight is kept in the fituaiion
mod convenient for the bird during flglit.

'The peiloralis minimus of Vic d'Azir, or dcprejfor ala: mi-
nor, arifes from a portion of the dernum behind the articu-
lation of the clavicle, and from the infide of the demal ex-
tremity of the clavicle. It is inferted under the head of the
humerus ; depreffes the wing, and brings it clofe to the
body.

T\\tfubcla-vius^\s extended from the infide of the dernal
extremity of the clavicle to the adjoining part of the internal
furface of the dernum. It is impodible to conceive the
ufe of this mufcle, uulefs it be to ilrengthen the joint,
as its attachments are incapable of motion towards each
other. There are mufcles analogous, as much as the form
of the bones will perm.it, to X.\iefubfcapularis, teres major and
minor, fuprafpinalus, and infra fpinalus.

Cuvier defcribcs two little mufcles which come from
the infide of the clavicle to the head of the humerus.
We have obferved a mufcle in the foiul which appears
to correfpond to one of thefe ; it arifes from the inner
furface of the clavicle, and its joint with the dernum,
paffes over the fird rib, and is affixed to the top of the
inner tubercle of the head of the humerus. It rotates
the wing inwards, when it has been fpread in flight. The
lottrr ed/e of this mufcle, and the infide of the teres major,
produce a mod delicate tendinous cord, or fibre, which dc-
fcends on the back of the upper arm, and is lod amonglt
the ligaments of the quills below the elbow. The effeft of
this, if any, is to bring the wing nearer the body, and per-
haps fpread the quills.

The deltoides is fmall, and of two portions. One arifes
from the foik at the top of the diojlder, and fends a fmall
tendon to the aponeurotic expanfion of the fold of the wing.
This tendon, as it proce^ ds along the edge of the expanfion,
acquires exaftly the ftruCture and the elafticity of the liga-
mentum nucha ; it then becomes like common tendon,
pafies over the end of the radius, and is inferted into the
dyle of the metacarpal bone. It bends the fore arm, ex-
tends the hand, and, in confequence of the eladicity o£
the tendon, contracts the foft part of the fold of the
v^ing. This portion of the deltoid has efcaped the obferva-
tion of Cuvier and other writers, although the ftrufture of
the tendon is one of the mod extraordinary circumdances in
the anatomy of birds. The rema'ning prrcion of the deltoid
is analogous to the fame mulcle of the l.uman fubjeft, and
brings the wing upv%'ards and backwards in flight.

The mufcle which nprtftnts the bictps jlexor cubiti, takes
its origin from the end of the clavicle, where it joins the
fork ; and from the (harp tubercle of the humerus, which is
analogous to the coracoid proccfs, tlie chief part of the muf-
cle proceeds to be inferted into the infide of the neck of the
radius ; but as it dcfcends, a fmall portion goes off, and is
expanded in the fold of the wing, and attached to the outer
fide of the arm. This expat;fii)n of tendon correfponds to
the aponeurofis of the biceps mufcle of the human fubjeft ;
but indead of lying clofe to the fore arm, it is fpread out
and covered with the common integuments.

The brachialis internus is very fmall, being only attached

B I R

to the ffirc part of ilie ci.d of the humertjs between the
condvlfs.

TUvre U a fliort miifcle which arifts from the hgamert that
conjoins the cliivIcW nrd the lund of llie humerus, and :s m-
ftrtcd upon the flat txteri'al fiirfact bitwi-cn the two tnbir-
chf. It is an e'cT.Hor of tl'.e wing. It is peculiar to birds,
ar.d h^isnot ytt bren dckribed.

The {Klrtifor culiti eonfills of two portion'; : the one, called
by Vic d'rt/ir yhc tKlen/'ji- loi:gu', comes from the jnudion
of the fork and feapida ; the othtr arifes in a forked man-
ner from the polltrior furface of the humerus, and is the
txlenj'or ir.-vis.

Ihc iwcniiiviis minor of Cuvier is tlie oite-nal and lower
part of the exUnfor brei'is. It is a dilU[;d muiclc iu the
fo'wU though not in the goofc.

Althoujjh the bones of the fore arm do not admit o{ pro-
nalion iwA J'upiiial'wii, the nnii'clcs which perform thcfc mo-
tions in other animals, cxitl iu birds, ai:d anfwtr different
purpofcs.

The fiipinn/ors refemble thofe of the human fubjeft. The
longus terminates on the ilylc of the metacarpal bone, and
ftrves both to bend the arm on the humerus, and extend the
metacarpus, or lower part of the wing. T\\c fiipiiiator Ire-
vis bends the fore arm. The place of the pronator t<-res is
fupplicd by two mufcks very much like it in fhape ; they
ail as flexors of the fore arm. There is a triangular mufcle
which in I'ome degree tills the fituation of tXin pronator qua-
dralus ; it arifcs from the end of the ulna, and fends a broad
tendon over the carpns to the higln.fl feabrous furface on the
metacarpal bone. It extends the hand, or lower part of the
wing, giving it at the fame time a degree of pronation,
which the carpal joint permits, in order to render the wing
concave when it is exttnded.

The fexors and exienfors, fituatcd on the fore arm of
birds, refemble in fhape and arrangement generally thofe of
the human fubjeff, but commonly have their ufes changed,
and often even re^•crfed, in confequence of the difference
in the figure of the bones and the plan of their articu-
lations.

The mnfcle which correfponds in fituation to the extcn-
for carpi iilnnris, performs the motion which is called flex-
ion of the lower part of the wing.

There is a llrong mufcle arifmg from the external condyle
of the humerus, and implanted into the fide of the idna op-
potUe the radius, for almofl its whole length. It railes
the fore arm on the radiu";, and fecms to be the mufcle called
by Vic A' A7.\x Jlexor profundus.

The mufcle analogous to the extenfnr pollicis /ongus, has
its tendon infertcd into the ftyle of the metacarpus, and
into the Ihort abduftor. It extends the hand on the fore
arm.

The ulnar JJexor bends the parts of the wing.

TheJIcxorfublimis comes from the internal condyle, is at-
tached to the lower carpal bone, and fends a tendon to the
bafe of the firft joi.t of the principal finger, bends the hand,
but extends the finger.

T\\eJ}vxor digitorum profundus arifes from the inner furface
of the ulna ; its tendon palTes over a little pulley on the me-
tacarpal bone, and terminates on the end of the lafl joint
of the principal finger, which it extends, but bends the

The extenfor communis digitorum and indicator arife from
the external condyle and infide of the radius. They fend
tendons to the firtl and lall joints of the principal finger,
which they extend.

The fingers of birds are fumifhed with many fhort muf-
clcs ; and uotwithflanding they are very palpable, feem to

B I R

have efcaped the obfervation of Cuvier and otlier ana-
tomilb.

Thtfexor Irevis pollicis comes from the infide of the head
of the metacarpal bone to the flat furface of the bone of the
thun.b. The csltifor Irevis pollicis proceeds from the trian-
gidar furface of the metacarpus, behind the jiint, to the bafe
of the thumb. The abduSor pollicis is extended between the
flvle of the metacarpal bone and the outer edge of the bone
of the poUe::. The adduHor pdlicis is expanded between
the branch of the metacarpus and the bone of the thumb.
The abduHor, or extenfor brcvis 'ndicls, is extended all along
the radial edge of the metacarpal bone, and is fpread upon
the root of the firfl joint of the principal finger. It brings
the finger into a line with the metacarpus. The adduclor
indicis comec from the ulnar fide of the large branch of the
metacarpus to the root of the firfl joint of th.e fore fiufrer.
The abduSor minimi digiti lies along the ulnar edge of the
fmall branch of the metacarpus ; and as the little finger is
tied to the other by ligament, this mufcle produces the late-
ral flexion or abduction of both. The lafl is the inttrujfcus ;
it fills the fpate between the branches of the metacarpus,
and its tendon pafles along the back of the principal finger
to the extremity ; it btnds the firfl joint laterally, and ex-
tends the rcll of the finger.

The mifcles of the loiuer extremity are very numerous in
birds, and pofTefs ieveral peculiarities, uotwithflanding the
motions of tl.is member are fo fimple. The articulation of
the femur with the pelvis permits the thigh to move freely
forwards ^nd backwards, but does not allow it to be carried
under the body, or far outward?. The motions of all the
other joints of the inferior extremity are merely flexion and
extenfion.

In confequence of the form of the pelvis, the iliaciis, the
pfoas magnus and parvus, the obturator externus and quadra-
tus Inmborum, do not cxilt in birds. Cuvier alfo flates the
piriformis and gemini to be wanting ; but we have feeu a
little mufcle which pafTes from the projeClion above the ace-
tabulum to the trochanter, which appears to fupply the
place of the pyriformis.

The obturator inlcrnus is generally a large mufcle, and paffes
over a pulley at the fore part of the foramen ovale, where it
receives two little flips analogous to the gemini : they are in-
feited into the outer part of the trochanter.

There are three gluteal mufchs, as in quadrupeds. The
gluteus maximus is attached by a broad thin tendon to the
prominence along the dorfum of the ilium, covers the out-
fide of the thigh, and contributes to form the extenfor ten-
don on the fide of the knee. The anterior part of this muf-
cle correfponds to the tenfor "vaginie femoris. The gluteus
medins occupies its ufaal fituation. The gluteus minimus
is a maffy mufcle, fo much placed on the anterior ed:.;e of
the ilium, that Vic d'Azir confidcred it (perhaps not im-
properly) as the iliacus. It brings the thigh direftly for-
wards, and rotate? the knee inwards..

The mufcle analogous to the qua dratus femoris is large
and of a pyramidal fhape. It retradts the thigh.

The extenfor mufcles of the leg refemble thole of mam-
malia. The iwiflus internus fends its tendon to be dillinctly
attached to the head of the tiliia. The fartorius alfo is an
extenfor of the leg on the thigh.

There are three fexors of the leg : one, which, although
fingle, is, from its infertion into the back of the fibula, ana-
logous to the biceps of t'le human fnbjett ; another, on the
infide, is attached to the tendon of the extenfors of the heel,
as well as to the tibia. This mufcle might be called either
gracilis or femimcmbranofis, for it rtfembles both. I'lie third
flexor is in the middle. It comes from the ifchium ; and as

2 it

B I R

B I R

it defccnds, it receives a broad flip of nnifcic from the back
of the femur. It is iiiferted on the back of the tibia, and
tlic tendon covering the cxtenfors of tlie heel.

There is a large ranfcle on the infide of the thitrh, which
fupplics the place of the triceps. It performs adduction, but
it is alfo employed in carrying the limb backwards.

A mufcle, which Cuvier appears to reckon as the feconcl
addud.or, arife? from the back of the ifchium, and is inferted
into the middle of the femur in company with the crura-
coccygeus mufcle. It retracts the limb.

The mufcles for extending the heel, and confequently the
lower part of the leg of birds, differ in many refpefts from
the gaftrocnemn ot mammalia. The tcndo achillis is pro-
duced by three portions of mufcle ; and, after pafling over a
moveable cartilaginous pulley which is placed on the heel,
it fpreads on the fides of the metatarfal bone. The firil
portion anfes from the inner and fore part of the joint of
the knee, and is connefted for fome way with another muf-
cle, which lies on the outfide of the joint. The fecond
portion is fmall, and from the back of the internal condyle
of the femur. The tliird is a very flrong mufcle arifnig by
tendon from the outfide of the thigh bone, jull above the
condyle. Thele three heads appear to be the external gnf-
trocnemius,

Thc/o!eus is reprefented by a mufcle which arifes from
the outer part of the knee joint, from the upper part of the
tibia, and fi'om the fore part of the fibula. ■ It i« inferted
into the pulley on the heel, and fends a tendon to join that
of the fle.\or of the lirft phalanx of the toes ; and therefore
it bends the toes while it atis on the heel.

There is alto a mufcle which appears to fupply the place
of the pliinlaris. It comes from the back of the head of
the tibia, and affixes its delicate tendon to the infide of
the moveable pulley of the heel.

The tiblalu aiiticus arifes by two head.", and is inferted into
the fore part of the upper end of the metatarfal bone. It
bends the joint of the heel.

The tibialis pojiicus is not found in birds.

There is a fnort peroneal vwiitAv. which is inferted into the
outfide of the metatarfal bone. It merely bends the
joint.

The other mufcles fituated along the legs, are for the
flexion and extenfion of the toes. The extenfor longus digi-
icrum exhibits no peculiarity, except that its ttndon goes
through a hole in the end of the tibia. There is no hrg ex-
ievjur for the back toe.

The_/7i'.v rs of the toes are very complicated : they may be
diviilcd into \^i\i Jlexor fuHiinis 2,\\& Jlexor profundus. The
firlt is compofed of fcvcval portions ; two of thcie are pero-
neal mufcles, and fend their tendons to the firfl: joint of
the intern:;! toe and the fecond phal.inx of the middle toe ;
the two other portions of \.\ie Jie>:or fublirnis arife, one from
the outfide of the fibula, and the other from the back of
the joint and internal co:"d\le of the femur. The one on the
fibular fide is joined by the tendon of the accejforius femo-
rcTis f.ixorum : a mufcle, which arifts from the fpine of
the pubis', runs along the thigh, and lends its tendon
through a (heath that runs over the hgamcnt of the patella,
to arrive on the fibular fide ot the leg. The two porcions of
the flexor, after this, unite, fcparate, and unite again, and
at laft produce three tendons, of which two go to the firtt
phalanges of the intcri;al and middle toes, and the tliird to
ail the joints of the outer toe except the laif. Thole ten-
dons which pafs beyond the firft joint, are perforating as
w el as perforated.

'YW fit xor profundus arifes as two diHinft mufcles; the
one from the back of the femur, and the other from the

back of the bones of the leg. The two tendons unite on
the back of the metatarfal bone, and fend off tendons to the
lall phalanges of the toes, which perforate thofc of the flexor
fubhmis.

All the flexor tendons are inclofed in a tendinous (heath,
as they pafs along the back of the metatarfus ; and fome
of them go through the moveable cai-tilaginous pulley of
the heel, and others run in (heaths formed in the cartilage
which covers the top of the metatarfal bone.

The circumftance of tiie flexion of the toes accompany-
ing that of the other joints of the lower extremity of birds,
was long ago obferved by Borelli, and attributed by him to
the connexion the flexors of the toei have with the upper
parts of the limb, by which they are mechanically llretched
when the knee is bent. This explanation has been contro-
verted by Vic d'Ay.ir and others, who have referred the ef-
feft to the irritability of the mufcles. Tne opinion of Bo-
relli appears, notwithftanding, to be well founded ; for not
only the tendon of the acceffory flexor pafling round the
knee, but the courfe of the flexor tendons over the heel
and along the metatarfus, mull neceffarily caufe the con-
traftion of the toes, when either of thefe joints are bent ;
and if the phenomenon was not produced on mechanic prin-
ciples, it would be impoflible for birds to exhibit it dur-
ing fleep, wliich they do, or to prove the effect on the li.T.b
of a dead bird, than which nothing is more eafy. The
utility of this contrivance is great in all birds, but particu-
larly fo to tiie rapacious tribe, v.hich by this means grafp
their prey in the very aft of pouncing on it ; and it ii ilill
more neceffar)- to thofe birds which perch or rooft during
their deep, as they could not otherwife preferve their po-
fition when all their voluntary powers are fufpended.

There are fix long fmall mufcles lying on the metatarfal
bone ; they are largeft and bell marked in thofe birds which
walk moft. Two of thefe are on the poflerior furface ; one
goes to the bafe of the external toe, which it abducls ; the
other i.^ inferted into the root of the back toe, which it bendt^
On the anterior part of the metatarfus there are four mufcles :
the firfl extends the back toe ; the fecond goes to the bafe cf
the firfl toe, and abducts it ; the third is fpread on the root
of the middle toe, which it extends ; the fourth lies along
the outfide of the metatarfus, perforates the end ot tlie bone,
and \z implanted into the infide of the external toe, a:;d ad-
duds it.

Brain.

This organ exhibits fevcral deviation.^ from the flrufture oF
the brain of mammaha, which afterwards appear in a more
marked manner in the inferior claffes of animals. Accordingly,
in the fcale of exHtence, or with refpetl to fenfitive or mental
faculties, the rank of birds is clearly fixed below that of
mammalia, and above that of other animals. The rules which
have been ellablifhed to determine the degree of iDtelligcnce
pofTeffed by fpecies or individuals, according to llie piopor-
tion the brain bears to the wiiole body, or other parts of
the nervous fyllem, do not appear fo applicable in birds as
in mammalia. It is, however, very difficult to appreciate the
capacity of birds, as they ai-e fo much the flaves of inllinCt,
that it is often impolTible to difcover v\'hethcr their adions
arife from the unpiilfe of this principle, or depend upou the
recoUeftiun and affoeiation of external fenfations. The
largeft birds generally have the fmallcll proportion of brain
t.) the whole body ; and fome of t!ie fmall birds have the
proportion of brain fo great, that they would, agreeable to
the rules laid down, excell ia mental endowments man him-
felf : for i:;(la'.;ce, the brain of the canary bird is equal to
tlie one fourth of the whole body ; and in the liuman fub-
jed it is only the one-twcnty-tifth part. The diamtter o£

the

MedulU

Brain>

oblor.gaU,

'3

34

14

35

10

27

12

- 38

7

18

with the

fame coverings

B I R

the brain, in relation to the medulla oblongata, has beenaf-
ccrtaincd only in a few fpccies of birds, in which it has been
obfervcd as follows :

Falcon - -• .

Owl ...

Duck

Turkey . - -

Sparrow

The brain of birds is inrefted
which are dcfcribcd in mammalia.

The /orm of the cerebral mafs is very different from that
of the human brain, wliich chiefly arifes from the optic tha-
lamic being vifible externally. The hemifpheres arc therefore
proportionately diniinilhcd. They afruiiie the fhape of a
heart with the point turned forwards. On the lower part of
the fide of the licmifpiiere, there is a dcpreffion which corre-
fponds to the f'Ja of Sylvius, and is the only appearance of
a divilion into /oifj. Underneath the hemifpheres the ihafa-
mi nfivoriim opiicorum arc found, as two diltinft tubercle", each
equalling in magnitude a lobe or divlfion of the brain. Tliey
unite before the infundibulum, and fend off the optic nerves;
there are, therefore, fix parts, or principal eminences, of
the brain of birds, vifible externally ; the two hemifpheres,
the two thalami, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata.
There are no convolutions, or winding impreffions, on the
furface of any of thefe parts, except the cerebellum, which
is tranfverfely furrowed, but not divided into two lobes.
The medulla oblongata is round, and fmooth on the under fur-
face, being u\ifurni(lied with the eminences called pons Var-
olii, corpora pyramiilalia, and corpora olivaria.

On fLparating the hemifpheres a little, it is perceived that
they are united at their lower part, or over the third ventri-
cle. The junction is cfTefted by white medullary fubllance,
which afterwards fpreads in a radiated manner, on the furfaces
of the hemifplieres that are oppofed or applied to each other,
almoll as high as the top of the cerebrum. In reality, this
medullary union of the hemifpheres correfponds to i\\t fornix,
and can, like it, be traced to the anterior commillure in the
third ventricle ; but inftead of being connefted to the fep-
tum lucidum and lorpus callofum, as thefe parts do not exill
in birds, it fpreads on the inner furfaces of the hemifpheres,
and thus contributes to form the internal parietes of the
lateral v«ntricles.

Behind the radiated partition of the hemifplicres, and
without the third ventricle, the pojlerior commijfure prefents
itfelf, and confills ufually of more than one vvliite line con-
Beftcd together by a white fibre, like a nerve pafiing obliquely
acrofs. The vault of the canalis nuilius is alfo vilible, and
is compofed in part of a white medullary band ; and behind
this, another white cord runs acrofs, which is the fourth
pair of nerves at their origin.

The lateral ventricles are not prolonged poflenorly, nor
poffefs what is called the rcpclcd horn ; the great and lejfer
hippocampus have therefore no exillence.

The corpus Jlriutum fills the ventricle almoft entirely, pro-
jefting from the external fide of it in the fliape of a kidney.
It docs not exhibit on a fcclion regular or ilrong marked
llrix.

There are no iuiercula quaJrigemina.

The pineal gland rcfls upon a flat furface ; it is very
fmall, and invcloped in pia mater, and covered by a large
vein. The plexus choroides alfo at this place divides
into two tutts, or bunches, which pafs into the lateral
ventricles by two foramina in the back of the internal
parietes.

6

B I R

Tlie third ventricle pofTefTes its ufual fltuatlon between tl«
thalami and its flit-like fhape, and communicates with theca-
nalis medius under the poilenor commifTure, and with the in-
fundibulum behind the anterior commiffure.

The infundihulum and pituitary gland are both large in pro-
portion to the other parts.

The thalami nervorum oplicorum contain each a ventricle,
which opens into the canalis medius; therefore, there may-
be fix ventricles rccknned in the brain of birds.

The fourth ventricle exhibits no peculiarity.

There are no eminences correfponding to the corpora
candicanlhi ; Cuvier has defcribcd four round eminences be-
tween the thalami and corpora flriata, which are particularly
plain in the oflrich. Thefe are analogoui to the tubercles of
the brain of fiflief.

The olfactory nerves arife, in birdo, from the very points
of the Iiemifpheres, and often have a degree of enlargement
at their origiii, which refcmbles the olfaftory tubercles of
fifhes. There are eight other pair of cerebral nerves, which
have nothing very peculiar in their origin.

See Plate X. of the Anatnmy of Birds. Fig. i. prefents a
lateral view of the brain of the goofe abftraded from the liead;
a the hemifphere, 6 the depreflion analogous to the fiifura
Sylvii, c the optic thalamus, d the cerebellum, e the me-
dul'a oblongata, / the beginning of the medulla fpinalis, g
tiie infundibulum, h the pituitary gland. The diiTereut
nerves are indicated by nunnbers, as they arife, from i to 9.
N° I. the olfaftory nerve, N" 2. the optic, N" 3. the ocu-
lo-mufcular nerve, N° 4. the patheticus, N'-' 5. the trifacial
nerves, N°6. the nervus abducens, N'7. the feventh pair,
or auditory, N'^ 8. the eigl'.th pair, N'^ 9. the hypoglofTal
nerve.

Fig, 2. of the fame plate, fhcws the internal parts of the
brain, as they are expofcd without diffedlion, fimply by
pufiiing the hemifpheres to each fide, and drawing the ce-
rebellum a little back : aa the two hemifpheres, i the cere-
bellum, c the medulla oblongata, ee the radiated white lines
feen arifing from the jundlion of the hemifpheres, and form-
ing part of the parietes of the lateral ventricles, f the
tranfvcrfe medullary cords correfponding to the pollerior
commiffure, g the wliite baud of the root of the canalis me-
dius, h the fourth pair of nerves crofllng behind it, i the
pineal gland obfcured by the vena galeni and the plexus
choroides, h the latter paffing into the ventricle.

The third figure of the tenth plate of the Anatomy of
Birds, gives a view of the interior of the ventricles of the
thalami nervorum opticorum, and the third ventricle : a a
the hemifpheres laid down very much to each fide, by
which the white paitition is ruptured, and the third ven-
tricle brought into view, they are alfo palled forwards to
expofe the thalami ; b the cerebellum ; c the medulla oblon-
gata ; dd the two optic thalami, that on the right fide i»
cut open to ihew the ventricle and its communication with
the canalis medius ; e the traCl of the third ventricle and
canalis medius, along which a brilUe is pafTed into the fourth
ventricle ; y the anterior commilTure, which feeins to produce
the medullary radii that unite the hemifpheres.
Nerves.

The olfa8ory nerve has been already mentioned to pafs
along a canal, or groove, in the upper and inner part of the
orbit, to reach the nafal cavity; in which its dillribution
will be pointed out in defcribing the organ of fmell.

The optic nerves purfue their ordinary courfe, as in other
animals.

The dillribution of the third, fourth, dnd Jlxlh pair of
nerves, is almoft the fame as in mammalia.

The branches of the fifth pair bear great referablance to

the

B I R

B I R

the fame nerves in quadrupeds. They are diflributed to the
bill, and are therefore the nerves of the organ of touch in
birds, under which head they will be farther noticed.

The port'io dura of the feventh pair, or the facial nerve, is
fo fmali in birds, that it can hardly be difcovered. Its of-
fices are not required, in confequence of the ftrudture of the
parts of the face in thefe animals.

The poi do mollis is remarkably foft ; when it arifes from
the brain, it is a tender pulp, of a reddifh colour.

The par vaj^um, or pneumo-gaflric nerve of the eighth pair,
fometimes paffes out of the cranium in two or three fila-
ments, which afterwards rejoin. On leaving the fl<ull, this
nerve communicates with the Ungual and glofTo-pharyngeal
nerves. The par vagum, after this, paffts as a dillmdt
ftrong cord along the neck, in company with the jugular
vein, and defcending into the cheft, forms the cardiac and
puhnoiiary plexiifcs, as in mammalia. The two nerves unite
behind the heart, and proceed along the cefophagus, to
terminate in anadomofes with the great fyiiipathctic nerve.
AVe have not obfervcd the recurrent branch of the eighth
pair.

The gioffo-pharyngeal nen-e of the eighth pair makes its
exit from the cranium through the pofterior foramen lace-
rum in two filaments, which immediately unite to form a
quadrangular ganglion, which fends off a fmall nerve to the
anterior mufcles of the neck, and another branch to anafto-
mofe with the par vagum ; the nerve then defcends along
the ocfophagus, and divides into two branches, of which one
pafTcs upwards to the muftles of the os hyoides, which in-
clude it between th^m, and the other furnifhes a branch to
the hngual nerve, and afterwards is expanded upon the osfo-
phagus.

The hypoghjfal nn-vc is fmall where it partes through the
condyloid foramen of the cranium ; it crofTes and partly unites
with the par vagum, at which place it detaches a filament
towards the thorax, which feems analogous to the defcendens
noni. The trunk of the hypogloffus goes forwards under
the horn of the os hyoides, and divides into two principal
branches, which are diflributed to the tongue.

The cervical, dorfal, lumhar, and_/arr<3/ nerves, arlfe from
the medulla ipinalis exadtly as they do in quadrupeds, and
only vary in their number, which is determined by the num-
ber of vertebras belonging to each region of the fpine.

The phrenic nerve is not found in birds, in confequence of
the abfence of the diaphragm.

The intercofal, or great fympathetic iierre, is dcfcribed as
entering the cranium by the foramen lacerum pofterius. It
unites with the fifth and fixth pairs, and produces a lenticu-
lar ganglion below the fl'Cull, which communicates with the
eighth and ninth pair of nerves. The appearance of the
fympathetic nerve is, however, foon loft on the neck ; for
the cervical nerves form their anadomofes with each other in
the vertebral canal, froin which a nerve is fent out between
each vertebra to fiipply the mufcles and integuments of the
neck. Thefe nerves are remarkably large. On coming
into the thorax the great fympathetic fends a branch to the
pulmonary plexus of the par vagum ; it anaftomofcs alfo
with the brachial plexus ; and below the fecond rib, the
fympathetic commences a ferics of ganglia, which are very
confpicuous between each of the fncceeding ribs, but be-
come lefs vifible along the remaining part of the fpine.
Thefe ganglia are central points for the union of a number
of nerves. They receive filaments from each other, which
pafs over the heads of the ribs ; they communicate back-
wards with the fpinal nerves ; they detach on the ontllde
the intercoftal nerves, which are large, and befides fupply-
idg the intercollal fpaces, give branches to the mufclei and

Vol. IV.

integuments upon the fides of the body j they laftly fend off
filaments anteriorly, which anaftomofe with each other on
the fide of the dorfal fpine, and form cords, which becom.e
the fplanchnic nerves. In this manner there is produced
on each fide of the dorfal fpme a reticulation of nerves
which inclofes in its niefhes the heads of the ribs, and
has a ftriking effeft. The firft dorfal ganglion unites
with the brachial plexus and the cardiac plexus of the par
vagum.

The fplanchnic nervts, after being formed by the anterior
branches of the fympathetic, pafs to the roots of the princi-
pal arteries of the vifcera. Thofe of the celiac artery pro-
duce a plexus round the trunk of this veflel, and where the
artery is divided, there are one, two, or three enlargements,
which are ana'ogous to tht femiiunar ganglia ; and the nerves
which depart from thefe, inclofe the arteries in a reticulated
manner, and reprefc-nt ihe foJar plexus.

There are fimilar plexnfes on the other chief arteries of
the trunk, which correfpoud to the fuperior and inferi'^r me-
fenteric and »-f««/ plexufes, &c.

The nerves of the fo'ar plexus accompany the branches of
the C!cliac artery to the tbmach, fpleen, liver, and pancreas,
around which they contmue to form numerous anallomofe?,
that uiay be compared to the fiomachic, fplenic, hepatic, and
pancreatic plexnfes.

The nerves of the tuing more nearly refemble thofe of the
fuperior extremity in mammalia, than Cuvie-r has reprefented.
The brachial plexus is produced by the two lall cervical and
firft dorfal, and not, as he has ftaled, by the laft cervical
and two firft dorfal nerves. The union of thefe three
branches givts rife to three others, which are diftributcd in
the following manner : — The fiift is a very fir.e filament,
which runs down on the infide of the arm, and is loft about
the internal part of the elbow. This is analogous to the
internal cutaneous nerve. The feccnd is a large cord ; it gives
off a very large branch, which divides ii.to many others,
for the fupply of the pefloral mufcles ; it fends feveral
fmaller branches to the mufcles under the clavicle, and about
the joint, and then proceeds to the inner edge of the biceps
mufcle, along which it deicends to the fold of the arm, alter
giving fome large mufcular branchts. Before it reaches the
joint, it divides into two branches : one of which is analo-
gous to the ulnar nerve, and the other foon divides again
into nerves which are fimilar to the median and mufulo-cuta-
veous. The median dips down amongft the mulcles on the
middle of the fore arir, to which it gives branches, and af-
terwards runs along the interoffeous fpace, paffes under the
annular ligament of the carpus, and is diftributed to the ihort
mufcles of the digiti. The branch analogous to the mufeulo-
cutaneous nerve, is expanded upon the mulcles on the upper
edge of the radius.

The ulnar nerve, although it appears to be incorporated
with the median on the upper arm, can be eafily fepa-
rated from it and traced to its proper origin in the brachial
plexus. After this nerve leaves the median, it turns over
the end of the foramen to get upon the edge of the uln?.
It gives filaments to th.e mulcles in this fituation ; but its
chief branch runs down fuperficially upon the ligaments of
the quills in company with the vein, and goes ultimately to
be loft upon the ulnar edge of the hand.

The third cord furniflied by the brachial plexus, fupplies
the place of the radial ntrve. It detaches feveral filaments
to the mufcles on the infide and back of the fcapula. It
gives off alfo the articular nerve, and then winds round the
humerus between the extenfor mulcles, to which it fnrnilhes
fome large filaments. On coming to the outfide of the hu-
merus, it fends a branch between the integnaicits of the
3 K fold

B I R

foU of the wing. The nerve now turns round the neck of
the radius, beneath the nnifcles, and forms two branches; of
which one partes under the mufcles to the outer fide of the
uhia, along which it runs fuperfieially to tlie hand ; the
other branch pafles on the radial fide, but more deeply
amongll the miifc'es, goes under the annular ligament of the
carpus, proceeds between the branches of the metacarpus,
and is finally loll on the back of th<. ligiti.

Although Cuvier has given a more accurate defcription of
the ncr\e3 of the lower extremity, than of thofe of the wuig,
it nevcrthelrfs needs correftion in fcveral particulars, which
we have fupplied.

The oblnrator and femoral nerves arife from the fame
plexus which is formed by the two lall lumbar nerves,
by a communicating branch from the firlt facral pair.
The obturator nerve pafics through the upper part of the
foramen ovale, and is dillributcd to the mufcles around the
hip joint, efpccially the addudlor. The femoral nerve pafTes
out of the pelvis in company with the artery, over the upper
edge of the ilium. It divides into three branches, which
are difperied amongll the mufcles and integuments on the
anterior and inner part of the thigh. Some of thefe fila-
ments arc long, and defccnd fuperfieially for a confiderable
way upon the limb.

The ifchiailtc nerve is compofed of the five fiiperior facral
nerves ; and as foon as it departs from the plexus, even with-
in the pelvis, is eafily feparable into its primary branches.
Immediately after it pafTes through the ifchiadic foramen, it
fends filaments to the mufcles on the outer part of the thigh ;
it then proceeds under the biceps nnifcle, ah)ng the back of
the thigh, about the middle of which it becomes divided into
the tibial and the peroneal nerves.

The tibial nerve, even before it arrives in the ham, fe-
paratcs ii to fevcral branches, which pafs on each fide of the
blood-velTcls, and are chiefly diltributed to the mufcles on
the back of the leg. Two of tlicfe branche"-, however, are
differently difpofed of : the one accompanies the poftcrior ti-
bial artery down the leg, paffes over the internal part of the
pulley, and is loft in fmiU filaments, and anaftomofes with a
branch of the peroneal nerve, on the inner fide of the mcta-
tarfus ; the other branch runs down on the peroneal fide of
the leg, along the deep featid flexors of the toe?, paffes in
a (heath forn:ed for it on the outer edge of the moveable
pulley of the heel, and proceeds under the flexor tendons
along the metatarfal bone, to be dillributed to the internal
part of the two external toes.

The peroneal nerve is dirccled to the outer part of the
leg ; it dips in above the gaftrocnemii mufcles, and runs
through the fame ligamentous pulley that tranfniits the ten-
ded of the biceps mufcle ; it then detaches fome large fila-
ments to the mufcles on the anterior part of the leg, under
which it divides into two branches, which proceed clofe to-
gether, in company with the anterior tibial artery, to the
fore part of the ankle joint, at which place they feparate ;
one pafTts fuperfieially over the outer part of the joint ;
the other goes firll under the tianfverfe ligament which
binds down the tendon of the tibialis anticus mnfcle on tli'*
tibia, and then over the inner part of the joint, below which
it divides into two branches, the one is dillributed to the in-
ner fide of the mctatarfiis and the tibial fide of the pollex
and to the next toe ; the other turns towards the centre of the
metatarfal bone, and penetrates the tendon of the tibialis anti-
cus juft at its iufertion, and then rejoins the branch of the per-
oneal nerve itaccompanieddown the leg. They continue their
couife together agaiu in the anterior furrow of the meta-
tarfal bone ; and at the root of the toes, feparate once
more, and proceed to the jntcrfpaces of the tkrce anterior

B I R

toes, and each divides into two filaments, which run along
the fides of the toes to the nail.

Organs of Touch.

As the fenfe of touch is bellowed upon animals to enable
them to difcern the forms and Hates of aggregation of exter-
nal matter, it refidcs more cfpecially in the extreme parts of
their bodies, and when moll pcrfef!i, exills in fome member
which is cohftrufted for including or taking hold of extra-
neous fubllances. There is no part of the body of birds ca-
pable of conveying an accurate impreffinn of touch, but
the feet and the bills ; their upper extremities and tail being
fimply inllrumenls of motion. DiH'erent Ipecits enjoy this
in difl'eient degrees, and poffefs it more or lefs in the bill or
feet, in proportion as they employ thefe parts in the purfuit
or examination of their food ; thefe being the only occafions
on which birds exercife their funftions ot touch. TUe/ean-
fores, acdpitrcs, anA pajfcrine tribe have moll fenfiition in their
feet, while the gralU and anjlres, efpecially thofe that have
long or broad bills for feeling out their food, like the/nips,
or dui:i, polfcfs a very great fufceptibility of imprefEon in
their bills.

The organization of the feet of birds, as far as concerns
their offices as inllruments of touch, is fimilar to that of
the digitated mammalia and reptiles. The fi<in on their
lower furfaces ij endowed with more than common vafcnla-
rity, is largely fupphed with nerves, and is elevated into
thofe little regular eminences called papilla, in which the
fenfe of touch more immediately refides.

The ilrnfture, on which the fenfibility of the bill depends,
is diflerent from the preceding. It confills in the magni-
tude and dillribution of the filth pair of nerves. Thefe are
divided, as in mammalia, into three biancheF, the cphthal-
niicy the Jiiperior maxillary, and the inferior maxillary.

The ophthalmic enters the orbit by a hole befide the optic
foramen, paffes for fome way in an offeous canal before
it arrives in the nafal cavity, where it dillributes fome
branches to the fcptum and turbinata, and to the external
naris, and then goes on as two branches ; one runs in the
fubllance of the upper jnw, whicli it perforates at the end
in many filaments, to terminate under the horny integument
of the bill; tlie other paffes between the meml-rnne of the
palate and the bill, and is loll in a number of hbiils at the
apex of the bill.

The_/u/ieWor and inferior maxillary nerves come out of the
cranium by the fame hole. The fuperior, after difpenfing
branches to the mufcles in its courfe, is finally dillributed
to the lateral parts of the bill, which, if notched along the
edge, as in fome water birds, each denticnlation receives fe-
vcral filaments. The inferior maxillary delcends to the lower
jaw, which it penetrates, after fending a branch to the inte-
guments of the fide of the bill ; and running in the maxillary
canal, fends filaments to the edge of the bill, and terminates,
like the ophthalmic, on the apex of the lower mandible.

Thefe nerves are of great fize in the goofe, cluck, Isfc. in
which they render the bill a very delicate organ of touch.
See Plate X. in the .Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 4. is the fec-
tion of the head of a duck, made by dividing the organ of
fmell longitudinally, and by removing the bill and bone of
the mandible, in order to bring into view the d'llribution of
the fifth pair of nerves : a a the ophthalmic nerve coming
from the upper part of the orbit, and proceediu./ along
the feptum nafi ; b thr branch which paffes in the fubllance
of the mandible, r.> ^t loll on the point of the bill, c the
branch that nins 01. the membrane of the palate to the end
of the bill ; (^/ the luperior maxillary nerve dividing on the
membrane of the pjhte, and lending its filaments to the
denliculi on the Ude of the bill j e the inferior maxillary run-
ning

B I R

ring in the canal of the lower jaw, and fending filaments to
the denticuli on the edge of the mouth, and ending on the
point of the bill ; / the nafal branch of the ophthalmic di-
ftributed to the feptum.

External Parts, or Inltgumcnts,

T\^t feathers with which the bodies of birds are clothed,
render them lefs capable of receiving the more fimple im-
preffions of touch, than moft other animals. They alfo
ferve to defend them againft the exceffes of temperature.
The ftrudture and mode of growth of thefe fubftances are
confidered in another part of the dictionary. Sec Fea-
thers.

The cuticle of birds is remarkably thin, but refembles in
flruiflure the epidermis of mammaha. It is Ihed generally
alongr with the feathers.

The rete nmcofum is not obfervable, except in thofe parts
whieli are uncovered by feathers, and poffefs peculiar colours,
as the ceres and carundcs of the head, the feet, and bills ;
where it is of couife found to vai-y in colour as thofe
parts do.

The cutis is in moft birds extremely thin and delicate in
its texture, appearing often hice a fine fitigle lamina, inftead
of an intermixture of fibres as in mammalia. It is, how-
ever, of iome ftrength in the ivater llrds and the asciphrcs ; it
is thinned in the pajjeres. The external part of the cutis is
never pcpiHate/i, bat when it covers the under furfaces of the
toes wbich are defigned to receive the imprefiio:is of external
bodies.

The v.ufcles ofthcjk'in, in confeq'ience of the fize of the
external coveriiigs, are in general very evident, and par-
ticularly in thofe birds which move the feathers of the creft,
neck, or tail, as the hoopoes, cochaloos, herons, iyc.

The following cntaneous mufclcs arc common to all birds.
Two flefhy (lips, which arife from behind each fide of the head
behind the mcat'js auditorius, and go backwards to be Ijft
in the integuments. A iliin expanfion pf mtifcle along the
anterior and lateral parts of the neck ; it takes a longitudinal
courfe, but is connected with fome tranfverfc fibres between
the jaws ; this mufcle correfponds with the platyfma myoi-
des. There is a mufcle, arifing in a ferrated manner from
two or three of the lower ribs, and extending upwards to
the axilla and outfide of the (houlder. We have perceived,
in the goofe, a ver)- thin flip of mufcle proceeding from the
pofterior part of the branch of the pubis to the ikin on the
infide of the knee ; and Cuvier confiders the red granular
appearance under the ikin on the back of the pelvis as muf-
cular fubftance.

The functions of the fKin of birds, as an organ of abforp-
tion and excretion, appear to be verj' imperfect. The cloth-
ing of feathers alone difqualifies it in a great degree for the
performance of thefe procefies. The thinnefs and llmple or-
ganization of the fltin itfelf renders it probable that its fe-
cretory powers are but inconfiderable. It does not alfo pof-
fefs thofe various glands which are fo abundantly bellowed
upon the (liin of other animals for its prefervation and defence
againll the operation of external fubftances. Birds are,
however, provided with two peculiar glands for the pur-
pofe of furnidiing an oily fluid, to keep the feathers in order
and defend them againft the effects of nioiflure.

The oil glands are two oblong or oval-lhaped bodies, with
one end more pointed than the other, and fituated ur.d>.rthe
fliin on each fide of the fpinous procelfes of the caudal verte-
bi-x. They approach each other, and touch at their points,
which are direfted backwards, and thus produce very com-
monly between them the figure of a heart. Theyare co-
vered by a llrong denfe white tunic, and their interior ftruc-
ture cunfifts of a number of fmall tubes arranged in a radi-

B I R

ated manner around a vacancy, or canal, which runs nearly
in the middle of the gland, into which they all open and
difchargc their contents, in the fame way as the tubuli iiri-
niferi do into the pelvis of the kidney. The middle canal
leads to a papilla on the Ikin of the rump, and termmates in
a fimple foramen. It deferves remark, that the tubes towards
the circumference of the glands are fo-t and ir.diftinft, and
their contents are liquid and pale coloured ; but before their
termination, the tubes acquire more firmnefs, are a little fe-
parated into packets, their fecretion becomes an opake yellow,
and of more confiftence ; thus affording an obvious and
interefting view of the change which may be wrought upon
fccrcted fluids after their formation, while they are paffing
through their glands. The fluid produced by the glands on
the rump of birds, although of an unftiious nature, is ftill
not pure animal oil. It has more confidence, and is lefs af-
fedted by heat ; which properties it principally acquires in
the ends of the tubes, before they open into the common
duift, as already mentioned. It is, howe\-er, fufficiently
oleaginous to prevent the adhefion of moifture to the furfacc
of the feathers. When birds make ufe of it, they turn
their head round to the rump, and comprefs the glands with
the bill, when a quantity of oily matter exfudes, with which
they belmear their feathers, arranging the barbs upon their
ihafts at the fame time by means of tiie bill. Thefe glands,
as m-ght be prcfumed from their life, are particularly large
in x\\e /"Mimming birds. Sre Plated, in ih.c Anatomy of Eirdj.
Fig. 5. (hews the oil glands of the duck of their natural fize :
a a the two glands ; b b their foramina on the papilla, into
each of which a briftlc is introduced; cc the iiitegumsnts
reflected on each fide to bring the glands into view. Fig. 6.
of the fame plate is a feition of one of the oil gl?.nds fome-
what magnified ; a the canal in the centre into which the ra-
diated tubes open ; bb the external portion of the tubes ; cc th«
interior extremities more dillin£t, and of a deeper colour.
Organ of Sinell.

The fhape and fituation of the noflrils are ufed by natu-
raliils as clalufic charafters of birds; and, therefore do not
require particular confideration here. They confiil of two
flits, varying in the length and width, commonly placed on
each fide beliind the bafe of the bill. There are no mufcles
provided for dilating and contracting their aperture, as ia
mammalia.

The interior of the organ of fmell is formed by a feptum
and three turbinated bodies, over which the pituitary mem^
brane is fpread.

The fuperior turbinatum aflumes in general the fliape of a
bell ; it is formed of cartilage, and is attached to the 01
frontis and lacrymale ; it is hollow within, and divided by a
flight prominence into two apartments, which are continued
for a little way in a tubular form ; the external ends by a
blind extremity behind the middle turbinatum ; the internal
opens into the cavity of the nofe. The fuperior turbinatum
is fmall in the pafflres and galiine, fomewhat larger in the
fcanfores, increafes in bulk in the accipitres, and ftill more in
the anferes, and in the gralU it is grcatell of all. Accord-
ing to the obfervations of Scarpa, the acutenefs of fmell is
fixaftly proportioned to the magnitude of this part of the or-
gan, as it is upon it only and the feptum that the olfaftory
nerve is fpread.

Tiie middle lurbinalum has been likened by Scarpa to a cu-
curbitc. It is connedted on the external part to the cartila-
ginous pinna of the nares and the bony procefs of the upper
jaw, and inferiorly it is attached to the cartilaginous feptum
of the nofe. It is compofed of a cartilaginous lamina,
which in the goofe makes two folds and an half; but in
the gralU it is coroprefled, and forms only oae tura and an
3 K 2 halfi

B I R

half. Harwood lias dated ttiefe tnrbinata to be mfmbrwous
ill tilt" ca^'iiudry-Ani allatrop ; and Cuvier has obfencd them
to be compofcd of bone in the toucan and hornblll.

The Inferior tiirirui'tim is an ofTcous fold, continued from
the pinna of the nails, and united on the other fide to the
fe[)tum. See PLte X. in the Jmilomy of Bim's. Fig. J-
exhibits the int rior of the nafal cavity of the .fO'^/f, the fep-
tum being removed ; a the canal throiigii which the olfac-
totv nerve palTes to the nofc ; 1/ the cavity of tlie fuperior
turbinatiim ; c its internal tube ; J the external tube ; e the
middle turbinatum ; / its deep or firft windinjj ; g the fe-
coud ; hi two [)ins pafTed from the windings into the nafal
cavity; ( the inferior turbinated bone; /its junction with the
feptum ; / the cartilaginous appendix ot' the middle turbina-
tum ; III a pin introduced through the external naris ; n the
porterior naris.

T\\c piluilary membrane is fine where it inveflsthe fuperior
turbinatum, and thicker and more villous ovef the middle
one ; it is covered with pores, whicii difcharge mucus on its
furfacc. The blood veffels on the interior of the nofe are
beautifully reticulated.

The bifac-'ji-y ni-rve, as .ilready defcrlbed, arlfes fiom the
point of the hemifphere of the cerebrum, and paiies through
an ofTeous canal to the fuperior part of the nafal cavity. On
arriving theie it breaks into a great number of filaments,
feme of wliich are fprcad upon the fuperior turbinatum, and
others run about as far on the feptum nafi. See Plate X. in
x\\i Ar.ntumv of Birils, fig. i^. ^ the nerve proceeding along
the canal above the orbit ; b the appearance of the nerve on
the feptum of the duch ; and_/?^. 8. of the f.ime plate exhi-
bits a feftion of the head of the heron, a bird with an acute
fcnfe of fmell ; a the trunk of the olfadtory nerve ; b its di-
ilribution on the fuperior turbinatum, which is very large ;
c c the middle turbinatum proportionably reduced in fize ;
d inferior turbinatum ; e its conneftion with the feptum ;
f the aperture of the external naris.

Scarpa made a number of experiments with different
fpecies of birds, in order to determine their capacity for
difcerning odours. He mixed various ilrong fmelling
fubftances with their ordinary food, which in fome were
taken with indifference, but in others the repugnance to the
fcented food was fo great, that the birds perifhed rather
than eat it. He was thus enabled to form a fcale of the
different degrees of perfcclion in which birds enjoy the fenfe
of fmell, which accorded exaAly with the extent of the fur-
face allowed for the dillrlbution of the olfaftoi-y nerves.
Tiie fcale he has laid is as follows : gallin<t, pjffires, picie,
anfcres, accipitres, and grnlU.

Organ of Tajlc

The fenfe of tafte is fo imperfect in moft birds, that it
might be doubted whttiur it cxifted at all or not. The form
and motions of the tongue unfit it for being applied to the
fuperlicies of fubftances ; the glairy tenacious fluid, with
which the furfaces of their mouths are bcfmeared, is not cal-
culated for the folution of fapid bodies ; and the ftiape and
flrufturc of the paplllx of the tongue fcem to render them
neariy incapable of imprelFion ; and further it may be ob-
ferved, that birds commonly fwallow their food without ex-
amination, or a minute divilion of its parts.

The motions and internal formation of the tongue have
been already difcuffed ; it only remains, therefore, to no-
tice the figure and integuments ; but as thefe have been
defcribed by natural hiftorians in almoft every genus, it is only
iicoefTary to fpeak of them in a very general way at prcfent.

The /unn of the tongue may be commonly gueffed at from
the Ihape of the bill, with which it correfponds in a certain
degree. In tl\e gallina znA pajera it is an elongated trian-

B I R

gle, the point being turned forwards ; in tlie graU<i it is ge-
nerally of the fame figure, the triangle being however
lengthened in proportion to the bill ; the broad-billed birds,
as the/wJn, goofe, ^c. have the tongue broad and round at
the end.

The parrot has a thick round flefliy tongue, not unlike
that of mammalia.

Several birds have the tongue bifid at the point.
The African ojlrich has a broad tongue, but fo fliort, that
its exiilence has been often doubted. The New Holland
ojlrich has a very thin fmall tongue, and neariy an equilate-
ral triangle.

The papillc, or projefting points of the integument of
the tongue are very various in their fliape and arrangement.
In moft inftances the tongue is fmooth, except at its bafe,
where it is furniflied with (harp reflex papilla:, which are
commonly cartilaginous, and often covered with bone. In
many birds there are proceffes along the upper furface or the
edge of the tongue, which are inverted with a horny or of-
fcous fubftance. The vulture has cartilaginous ferrae along
the edges of the tongue. The toucans have fine horny
briftles along tlie fides, which give their tongue a rtfem.
blance to a feather.

On the lateral parts of the back of the tongue of the
Jlamiiigo, there are two rows of bony proceffes, ihaped like
hooks, with their points turned backwards.

The duch, goofe, fivan, (sfc. have, befides fharp briftles
and dcnticulations, fome rows of little ofTcous plates with
their thin edges turned toward the fauces,

Eirds have frequently liie edges of the pofterior nares,
and other prominent parts of the fauces furniftied with re-
flefted fpiculae, fimilar to thofe on the tongue ; from
which it is probable, that both are intended to affift in the
aftion of fwallowing the food, rather than to receive the
impreftlons of fapid fubftances.

The parrot is the only bird which appears to tafte its food,
and hence it pofleffes foft papilla;, of which fome are really
fungiform.

It is probable, that the humming birds pofTefs the fenfa-
tion of tafte, as their tongue is flexible and tubulated,
through which they fuck, lik; infects, their fluid aliment.
Organ of Hearing.
Birds are unprovided with the concha, or that external
projeftion of the ear which is obferved in man and quadru-
peds, for collefling the rays of found ; but to compenfate
for the want of it, fome of the internal parts of the organ
are formed upon a larger fcale. The feathers are arranged
in fome fpecies, however, around tha meatus auditorius in
fuch a way as to produce, in a degree, the effeft of the con-
cha. This is moft obfervable in the o'wls, in which alfo the
membrana tympani lies at the bottom of a cavity, which is
luied by a refleftion of the common integuments that forms
folds fomething analogous to the projectioas of the human
concha ; and in the ti'hite oivl, there is a fquare membrane,
which ferves as an operculum to the anterior part of the ca-
vity.

The frame of the membrana tympani, or the bone which
furrounds it, is more prominent in fome birds than in others;
but generally it does not projeit fufhciently to deferve the
name of a canal. Ir is imperfeft anteriorly, where the arti-
cular bone is fituated, to which the membrana tympani is in
part attached. In the ichite owl, however, the olFeous
frame of the meatus is completed by the bones of the
head alone.

The membrana tympani is always more or lefs of an
oval figure. It poffefles the fame llruilure as in mam-
malia, but is very thin ; the convex, or conic furface, is
7 external,

B I R

external, inftead of pointing iiuvai-Js, as in man and qua-
drupeds.

The cavity of the timpar.um is irregular on the internal
furface, and is widell at its outer part. Bcfidcs the ufnal
foramiia leading, to the labyrinth and Eiitlachian tube, it
contains three others, which communicate with the cells of
the bones of the cranium. Thcfe are widened into fome-
thing like canals, where the hole."! open into them. The
largeft of the foramina is in the back of the tympanum, ai.d
leads to the poilcrior cells, and communicates above the fo-
ramen magnum with the cellular canal of the other fide.
The fecond opening is placed at the anterior part oi the
tympanum, and condiurts to the cells on the lower and ante-
rior part of the cranium. The third foramen is conti'iuid
amongft the cells which furround the labyrinth. Tims the
cavities of each tympanum have a communication with the
interior of all parts of the cranium, and with each other,
from which they might be reckoned as making only one ca-
vity. The end of the articular bone alfo, where it con-
tributes to form the parietes of the tympanum, has a fora-
men, by which it derives its fupply of air. The audi-
tor\ cells of the cranium of birds are analogous to the
maftoid of the human fubjeft ; but from their extent,
multiply found much more. They are of the greateft mag-
nitude in the nndurnal birds of prey, and efpecially in the
<white oiul ; the goat fucker ( caprhnulgus) has them alfo very
large. They diminilh in the other birds, in which the poi-
teiior canals have no direft communication with each other.
They arc little obfervable in the flrutlAs ; and the parrot
appears to want them altogether, but in their place the ca-
vity of the tympanum is enlarged polleriorly.

The Eujlach'ian tube is very large in birds ; it is an ofTeous
canal, and terminates by a fmall aperture clofe to the one of
the other fide, within the filTure of the pollerior nares.

The foramina, which lead into the labyrinth, are fituated
within a foffa. They do not merit the dilUnctions of fora-
men ovale and foramen roiur.dum, being both oval, and only
feparated by a fmall bony procefs.

The qfficu'a auditus are fupplied by a fingle bone and fome
cartilaginous procefles. The officulum confills of a ilalk or
pedicle, crowned by an oval plate, which is apphcd to the
foramen that leads into the vellibule of the labyrinth. At
the other extremity it becomes extended and united to two
or three cartilaginous procefles, which form a triangle that
is attached to the membrana tympani.

The pediculated bone of the tympanum is moved by one
mufcle, which comes from the occiput behind the ear, and
penetrating the cavity, is afExed to the triangle that is con-
nefted to the membrana tympani. This mulcle is a tenfor,
and draws the membrana tympani outwards. It is counter-
afted by two fmall tendinous cords that are extended to the
internal parietes of the tympanum.

The hibyrinth of the ear of birds confifts only of the vef-
t'ibule and three femic'ircular cana!:, and the rudiment of the
cochlea.

The I'e/l'ibule is fmall in proportion to the other parts.

The canals have been termed by Scarpa, from their gra-
dation in bulk, canales major, minor, and minimus. The
largeft is moft fuperior, and has a vertical pofition. The
fmalleft is fituated horizontally. The canalis minor afceuds
upon the major, and opens into its fide. They contain cor-
refponding tubes of vafcular membrane ; and they alfo pof-
fefs the ampulla, on which the nerves are diftributed in the
fame manner as in mammalia.

The place of the cochlea is fupphed by a fliort offeous
lube, very flightly bent, and either blunt or enlarged at the
extremity. Its interior is occupied by two fmall cylinders

B I R

of fine cartilage, each a little twilled, and united at their
orirrin and termination. They proceed from the offeouj bar,
which feparates the two foramina that coriefpond to the fo-
ramen ovale and rotundum. The fulcus, which is left be-
tween the cartilages, is dilated near the point, and ac-
commodates the fame branch of the auditoi7 nerve which is
fent to the cochlea in mammalia. This nerve fpreads in fine
filaments upon the united extremity of the cartilaginous cy-
linders. The tube is divided by tlit prefence of the carti-
lages into two Icalx, which communicate with the veftibule
and the foramen rotundum.

The fruihious birds have the tube correfponding to the
cochlea, very fmall in proportion to the other parts.

The auditory mrve is received into a foffa, and there breaks
into five branches ; one is the facial, or portio dura, and the
others are fent to the femicircular canals and the tube. The .
facial nerve receives a filament from the par vagum, which
traverfes the car, and is afterwards diftributed to the palate.

Comparetti has dcfcribcd two canals leading from the laby-
rinth of birds, which correfpond with the aqueducts of the
ear of mammalia.

For the illuftration of th? organ of hearing, fee Plate X.
ill the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 9. reprefents a difleftion of
the pollerior portion of the ilcuU of the it'/j/V? onxil {Jlrix
fammea), which expofes both the parts of the tympamira
and the labyrinth ; a the membrana tympani, which is iii-
clofed in a perfedl frame of bone in this bird ; b the cavity
of the tympanum laid open on the other fide of the head ;
c the pediculated bone, or ofiiculum, in fitu ; ddd the fe-
circular canals ; e the tube analogous to the cochlea ; //
the air-cells expofed by the divifion of the cranium. Fig.
10. fnews the olTiculum and the membrana tympani ab-
ftracled from their htuation and magnified ; a a the men^-
bi-ane ; b the flat head or dilk of the oiTiculum ; c the pedi-
cle ; d the extremity which unites with the cartilages, and
forms the triangle that is connecled to the membrana tym-
pani. Fig. II. exhibits a magnified view of a difleciion of
the labyrinth of the goof, in which the membranous parts
and the diftribution of the nerves are difplayed ; a the trunk
of the auditory nerve ; b the portio dura; ccc the three
branches of the portio molHs going to the femicircular ca-
nals ; d the nerve of the cochlea running in the fulcus, and
ram.ifying on the apex of the cartilages ; e the olfeous part
of the tube analogous to the cochlea ; /the inferior cartilagi-
nous cyhnder ; g the fulcus between it and the fuperior,
which is concealed from view by the nei-ve ; h h h the three
ampuUje of the membranous femicircular canals ; / thf cana-
lis major ; k tlie canalis minor ; / its communication with tl;e
major ; m the canalis minimus ; n the hole which corrcfponds
to the foramen ovale. Fig. 12. is the cartilaginous body
removed from the offeous tube ; a the fuperior cylinder ; b
the inferior; c their junciion where they commence ; d the
cavity at the apex of tiie cyhnder* laid open ; e the nerve of.
the cochlea ; /'its cxpanlion in the cavity of the apex of the
cartilaginous body.

Organ of Sight.

The pecuharities in the ftrufture of the eyes of birds are
chiefly intended to facihtate the perception of objects through
a rare medium, and accommodate vifion to different di-
ilances.

Tlie/o/vn of the eye is admirably adapted in mod fpecies to
promote both thefe'effcfts. The anterior circle of the globe
of the eye always projects more than in other animals ;
and in many fpecies it is prolonged in a tubular form, and
in thofe cafes the cornea alfo is remarkably gibbous. The
oivl furniihes the moll flriking example of the difproportion
between Uie anterior and poflerior fpheres of the eye. The

Bin

B I R

ax
ot

is of the anterior portion being twice as great as that of the mate connexion with it. In ftructiire, however, it is per-
her. The obviou. confenucnce of this fi^nre of the globe of feftly funila, to ll.e choroidcs. The form of this part vane.
the eye is to a!lo«- room for a greater proportion of the aqne- i" different fpecies ; in gceral, .t con ifts of a membrane
ous flmd, and for the removal of the chryllalUi.elei.s fron, the folded backwards and for«-ard3 on iticlf, like the plaits of
feat of the fenfat.on, and thus produce a greater cor.vcigence a garment, and prelenting, w'hen viewed on the hde, lome-
of the rays of light, by which the animal is enabled to d.f- thing of the appearance ol the teeth of a comb ; on whicli
cem the objeds placed near it, and to fee with a weaker account, the name o( p<-chn has been applied to it. In the
light 1 and hence o'.vls, «i,ich recj^nc this fort of vifion fo frull.-ious birds, the folds of the peden are larger, and ccU
much, poffefs the Itrudure fitted to cfftd it in fo remark- Icded towards the point, givmgit a refemblaace to a purle.
able a degree. "^^^ Parifiau academicians therciore, in taking their defcnp-
TV<: fcltrotic coat of the eye in birds is thin and flexible on tion of this part from the oJJrich, called it the marfupium wi-
the poilerior part, but anteriorly its form is maintained by srum, by which name it is Hill very comnwnly known.
the intcrpofition of a number of bony plates between its The plicated membrane proceeds into the fubftance of
layers. Thefe vary from thirteen to twenty, and are ar- the vitreous humour, and ufually becomes attached to
ranged in a circle immediately behind the cornea, with tiieir the poaerior part of the capfiile of the cryftaliine lens a
edges overlappii.g eacli otlier. Thev are commonly flat thin little to one fide, /n fome i-.ilfances it does not come into
fc.iles, and nearly of a fquare figure, but become elongated immediate contad with the capfule of the lens, but ends a

tcrior fphere. The fcale's are capable cf a degree of luc- ven in the great horned oiul.
tion upon each other, v.-hich is, liowcvcr, reftraincd within The fuiidions of the plicated membrane have been often
certain limits bv the attaclimcnts of their anterior and difcnd' d, but ftlU remain involved in fome degree of doubt.
polferior edges to the fclerotic coat; and by their being Halier, and others, confider it as the medium through which
bound togrtliir with a tough ligamentous ftibllance, which the veficls are condue'ted to the cryftalli;:e hns ; but tl'.cre
feems to be the continu.aion of the fclerotic between tiic appears no reafon fir fuch a piovifion to exift in birds. Pe-
cdges that overlap each other. tit was of opinion that it abforbed the lateral rays of light,
The cornea pofielTes the fame ilrndure as in mammalia, in order that objeds placed immediately before the eye
but dilTers with refped to form. When the poilerior part might be more dillindly feen ; which is highly improbable,
of the eye is comprefled by the mufcles, the humours ai--e as the fcope of vilion is full as exteniive in birds as in other
urged forwards and dillend the cornea; which, at that animals. The bell fupported tneory on this fubjc6t is Mr.
time, becomes much more prominent in moll birds than it Home's. The plicated membrane, according to his experi-
is ever obferved in mammalia ; and under fuch circum- ments, poffefles a contradile power, and affords the means-
fiances, the eye is in a Hate for perceiving near objeds. of withdrawing the lens from the anterior part of the eye,
When the mufcles are quite relaxed, the contents of when the organ is adapted to the perception of remote ob-
thc eye-ball retire to the poflcrior part, and the cornea jeds ; thus ading in concert with the change of figure in
becomes flat, or even deprcfied : this is the condition in the cornea. Experiments, however, upo.n the operations of
which we always find the eye of a dead bird, but we the eye are fo delicate in their nature, that they are feldora
can have no opportunity of perceiving it during life. It is to be relied upon, and accordingly in different hands they
only pradifed for the purpofc of rendering objeds- vifible have afforded very different refults ; but the dodrine of the
that are placed at an extreme dillance. From the mnfeularity of the plicated membrane is almoff proved by
well known effeds of form upon refracting media, it mull its feeming neceffity for the explanation of the powers of ad-
be prelumed, that the cornea poffelTes very little, if any, aptation of the eyes to different diffances, which birds pof-
convexity, when a bird, which is foariiig in the higher re- fefs in a degree far fuperior to all other animals ; and it
gions of the air, and invifiblc to us, difcerr.s its prey upon feems fair to infer that if the accommodation of vilion de-
the earth, and dcfeends with unerring flight to the fpot, as pends upon the motion of the cornea, and the receflion cf
is curtomary with many of the r.ipacinus tribe. the lens in thofe animals which are fo eminently endowed
There are other circumftances in the anatomy of the eye with it, fimilar means are employed for the fame purpofc
of birds, which have been fuppofed to concur with the ex- in the other claffes which poffefs the faculty in a lefs degree,
traordinary variation in the figure of the cornea, in producing For the more ample dilcuffion of this fubjed, fee IMr.
its cap icity for the perception of remote objeds : thefe will Home's ledures on mufcnlar motion, publifhed in the Phi-
be mentioned in their proper place. lofophical Tranladions for the years 1794, '795> ^'^^ I79<5;
The r/.oro;</ CM/ differs in no materi'al point from that of Dr. Olbers' " De oculi mutationibus internis," Gutting,
the human fubjed. The r;7;ary yir-^^j^^j of the choroides are 1780 ;" The Effays cf Petit, Mem. de I'Acad." 1735,

Till ' ' ' ' " ~~

very Imall and fliort ; being merely ierrated ilrix.
appears to be no iapctum.

The iris is fometimes of brilliant colours, which are em-
ployed by naturalifts as diftinguiftiing fpecilic charaders of
birds. Parrots have the power of voluntarily producing a
great degree of motion in the iris. It does not appear,
however, tlrat other biids are capable of commanding the
motions of this part

Tl
oftl

p. 163. 1736, p. 166; " Obfervations on the Eyes of
Birds," by Mr. Pierce Smith, Phil. Tranf. for 1 795 ;"
and " Dr. Young's Ledure on the Mechanifm of the Eye,"
Phil. Tranf. i8oi.

The optic nerve paffes through an oblique (heath in the

back of the fclerotic coat, during which it changes from a

round to a flattened fliape, and, as fuch, enters the eye, pre-

fenting on the infide an elongated white line, inllead of a

Vcpcclen, or plicated memhrane, is the mofl Angular part round diflc, from which the retina is produced. The origin

re ftrudure of the eye of birds. It appears to grow of the plicated membrane covers the entrance of the optic

from the choroides where the optic nerve penetrates that nerve.

Qoat ; but on cloftr iiifpedion it is found to have no inti- The humours, as well as the (hape of the eye aOd the flruc

ture

B I R

B TR'

ture of its coats, indicate the peculiar vifion of birds and the
kind of mtdiiim tfiey inhabit. The aqueous humour, as al-
ready obfi'ivcd, is extremely abundant. It pofiefies confider-
able refraflive efpecially pov^■er3 in the hiijhtr rcg'ons of the
atmolphere. The cryjlalline is remarkably flat and foft, as its
offices can be fo well fiipplied by the aqneous fluid in a rare
medium. Both the form and tl^e proportions of the humours
in the eyes of all birds derive great illustration from bei::g
compared with thofc oi fjbt-s, which, in confequc-nre of their
continual refideuce in fo denfe a medium as water, have thtfe
parts formed upon a pian the very reverfc. — Their eye is
flat anteriorly; the aqueous fluid finall in quantity, and of
confiderable coniilteuce ; and the lens fphcrical and hard,
more efpecially in the centre. The cormorant has the cryf-
talline more Ipherical than other birds, from being obliged
to feek its food under the water.

The mufcUs for the motion of the eye -ball are fix in birds,
as in the hum.an fubieC^ ; the four ftraight and two oblique.
The tendons of the recti cannot be traced farther than the
circle of imbiicated bones. The operation of the ftraigi.t
mufcles, when aiftiiig together upon the figure of the eye
(which, as already oblerved, is fo ftriking in birds), depends
upon the bony fcales of the anterior part of the fcltrotic,
and the thinnefs a?id pliability of that tunic pofteriorly.
The fuperior oblique mufcle does not pafs through a
pulley.

The external eye-Ihh are chiefly clofed in birds by the ele-
vation of the lower one, although there is an orbicular
mufcle which furrounds both. The inferior eye-lid is
larger and thicker than the other, and contains internally an
oval cartilaginous plate, under which the fibres of the oibi-
cularis palpebrarum pafs. There is alfo a peculiar mufcle,
■which comes from the floor of the orbit, and afts as a dc-
prejfor of the inferior eye-lid.

The irdernal eye-lid, or memhrana n'tBltans, is a thin femi-
tranfpartnt membrane, which lies clofe to the globe of the
eye. It has a vertical pofition, and, when not employed,
is folded back by viitue of its own elafticity, and remains
concealed from view in the corner of the eye next the nofe.
It is, however, capable of being fpread over the whole of the
antciior part of the organ, by means of the combined aclion
of two curioufly contrived mufcles. One of them is of a fquare
figure, and thence called qiiadratus ; it arifes from the upper
and back part of the eye-ball, and approaciiing the optic
nerve, tcrmiiintcs abruptly in a circular edge, which con-
tains a pulley for the paflage of the tendon of the pyramida-
lis. Tliis m.iifclc ar'fes from the fide of the fclerotic next
the nofe a httle inferioiiy, and produces a fine tendon,
which runs th.rough the pulley formed in the free edge of
the quadratus, and afterwards returns in a cellular flieath on
the lower furface oi the fclerotic, and becomes attached to
the margin r-f the membrana niftitans, along which it is
continvitd for fome way, and gradually lofl:.

The /^/tT_)'«(7/_f/««(/ is fmall in moft birds. The ghmdula
harderi exilts, and is larger than the lacrymal. Cuvicr de-
fcribes it as being gererally fituated between the addnftor
and levator muicles, and as having a fingk excretory duft,
which perforates the membrana nifiitans, and dileharges
upon its inner furface a yellow tenacious fluid. Many water
birds have a hard granular body placed at the fuperior part
of the orbit, which fecms to perform the office of a lacry-
mal gland ; and although its excretory duds have not been
yet feen, it probably fur.iifhes a fluid of a peculiar nature,
forthc detrnce of the eye againit the tfleCls of the water and
other accid'ut* to which aquatic birds are expofed.

Tlie figures, wiiich ftrve to explain the organization of
the eye, are found in F/ateXl. oi \.ht Anatomy o/Birdj. Fig. I.

flicws the cornea and imbricated bony fcales oV the goofe, as
an example of the figure thcfe parts coir.nronly aflnmc ia
birds. Fi^. 2. repreknts the fame parts in the horned otul,
in which tlie cornea will be feen very prominent, and the
fcales greatly elongated, forming the fore part of the e\e
into a tube. Fig. 3. exhibits a lateral view of the cryfl:al-
hne lens and the plicated membrane in the goofe's eye ; a the
peften attached to the pofl:erior part of the lens a little to one
fide ; b the edge of the lens marked by the ciliary proceflfes;
f the anterior part, which is particularly flat in birds. Fig,
4. fliews the peften and the lens in the relative fituation
they hold in the «ye of the turkey ; a the p icrted mem-
brane ; b the lens ; c the outline of the eye ; d the optic
nerve. Fig. 5. is a feftion of the eye of the emeu ; aa the
cut edges of the fclerotic coat ; bb the edges of the cho-
roides ; c the retina ; rf the plicated membrane fornicd liki
a piufe. Fig. 6. prtfeiito the anterior part of the eye of the
cajfjnjjary, with the membrana niditans partially drawn over
it, which is fo fine a film that the parts of the eye are feen
through it. Fig. 7. is tlie pofterior view of the caj^ozuary's
eye, all the mufclcs, &c. being removed, but thofe for mov-
ing the membrana nictitans : a the mufculus quadratus ; b
the pyramidalis at its origin ; c its tendon paflhig llirough
the pulley in the edge of the quadratus ; d the tendon pro-
ceeding on the fclerotic coat.

Organ of Voics.

Until within thefe late years this part of the anatomy of
birds has been involved in obfcurity. Although feveral of the
older anatomills defcribed the (IruCiurc by which birds pro-
duce found, they were ignorant of its ufes, from being
mifled by analogy, and fappofing that this organ occupied
the fame fituation in all animals. Even fome of the defcrip-
tions of the able!): of the modern anatomills have been er-
roneous or imperfeil. The fubjeft has been moll labori-
oufly and ingenioufly invelligated by Cuvicr. He diflisfted
the organs of voice ot more tlian one hundred and fixty fpe-
cies of bird?, and pubii(licd the refult of his inquiries in two
memoirs ; the principal one will be found in the Magszin
Encyclopcdique, torn. 2, to which we would refer the
reader for numerous and minute details, that would he bur-
thenfcm.e to introduce into the prcfcnt work.

The true feat of the organ of voice in birds is at the bifurca-
tion of the trachea, and not, as geneial analogy would diftate,
at the fuperior larynx, which is iu birds littJe m.ore than a Am-
ple rima, or flit, formed, however, with fomewhat differently
(haped cartilages than belong to th.e refl: of the trachea,
and furniflicd with mufcles for opening and clofing the aper-
ture. The mechanilm of the inferiDr larynx, wliich fits it
for the prodnftion of found, depends upon the figure of its
cartilages, and the expanlion of its mcmbranou'5 parts.

The two branches of the bronchia are ccmpufed of fcmi-
rings of cartilage ; the iuterutl furfaces, or thofe oppofed
to each other, being mem.branous. The femi-rings next
the trachea are often large, and always Itfs curved than thofe
near the lungs. The conlequence of which is, that the
membranous part of the bronchix becomes expanded in pro-
portion to its diilance from the lungs, and towards the bi-
furcation ufually aflumes an oval figure, to which Cuvierhas
given the name of the tympaniform membrane.

Where the bronchia: open into the trachea, there is the
appearance internally of the reed ot a mufical iiiftrument.
This is produced by a thin and clalfic fold ol the inner mem-
brane, which projects upwards from each fide. The aper-
ture is divided into two, fomctimes by an ofTeous bar extend-
ed acrofs from before backwards, and iometimcs ncrcly by
the angle produced by the union of the two bronchis.

When the air is expelled from the iuiigs and ;;ir-cclls with

force

• tympaniform mcmbiane and the reed-(haped apertiire, or
litis, upon which the produAioii of the voice effentially

B I R

force through the bronchix, a lirely vibration is excited in

the " " ' ' ' - > -

glotti:

depends. . .

The magnitude, figure, and proportions of the inferior
arynx vary more or lefs in almoft every fpecics, which Cu-
vier has taken great pains to point out.

The trachta is commonly enlarged, at its bifurcation, by
the cxpanfion and union of its la!l cartilaginous rings, which
is dcficined to afl'ord llrergth to the voice.

In the Jan and i\iejirigin^ lirch, the lall rings of the tra-
chea are united ii:to a fiugle piece, of which the bafc is wide,
and furni(hed with two points that are joined by a tranl-
verfe olTeous bar in fuch a way, that the tracliea commu-
nicates by two openings with cuch of the bronchia;.

In the piinot, the lall rings of the trachea are united, and
form a lube a httle comprefted on the fides. The very lall
ring is almoll fquare ; it is alfo flattened before and behind,
and furiiilhed pollcriorly with two points. There is no par-
tition within. The fides of the bronchix, oppofite to each
othtr, are membranous. The firrt femi-ring is larp;e, flat,
and fi'.aped like a crefcent ; the ftcond, third, and fourth
femi-rings unite in one piece; and the fifth, fixth, and fe-
yenth are confolidated into a fimilar plate. The edges of
both, however, prcfent the marks of tlitir original parts.

In the noilurnal iiri/j of prey, the laft ring of the trachea
is divided by a bone.

In ihe fco!opas ruJlicoLi, the four lafl cartilaginous lings
of the trachea are incomplete pofteiiorly, and the tympani-
form membrane is continued up between them.

The male birds of the duel kind, and the genus mcrgus,
have the latl rings of the trachea united, and forming a car-
tilaginous or bony fack, called by authors the ampulla, or
the labyrinth. This part, in the mallard, forms two dilata-
tions ; the one on £he right is fmall, and refemblcs a trun-
cated cone, with a prominence from the bafe behind. The
left is a large veficle irregularly rounded, and produces at
the lower part a pyramidal projeAion. Its right furface is
a little flattened below, and its inferior border is indented.
The cavity is interrupted by projections, or fepta, in luch a
manner, that the air cannot pafs from the left bronchia into
the trachea, b\it through the capfule, although on the right
fide it may. The entrance to the bronchia; is provided with
a thick membrane, under which there are fome glands re-
Icmbling \.\\<z fynoviat, that fecrete a mucous fluid.

The form and internal partitions of the ampullar of the
drakts of other fpecics and the merganfers, are different in
every inllance. Their deviations are delcribed at length by
Cuvicr. See Memoire fur le larynx inferieur des oifeaux,
Magazin Encyclopedique, tom. zd.

Two fpecies of vulture (V. papa and V. aura) were ob

ferved by Cuvier to be deprived of the organ of voice, glottis.

B I R

may alfo bring the trachea forwards. Thefe were the only
mulcles obfervcd by Cuvier in the ^nlliniP, and moft of the an-
feres. It is probable, that no others are to be found alfo
in t\\eJlru!iAous birds.

The feconJ kind of mufolcs are confined to the inferior
larynx ; they are fliort, and fituated upon each fide of the
bifurcation of the trachea ; and, except in the parrot tribe,
are all conftriftors, or intended to render the tympaniform
membrane tenfe, and thus exalt the tones of voice.

In moll birds, which do not fing, there is but a fingle pair
of contlridors, one on each fide, which arifes from fome of the
lall rings of the trachea, and is inferted into fome of the
firft fcm:-rings of the bronchia. Thefe mufcles are longed
in the ti^c^urtial l/lrd.r of prey, extending from the bafe of the
trachea to the fevtnth lemi-ring. The conftriftor is attached
to the fifth femi-ring in the cuchow, the heron, and bittern.
The latter birds owe their ilrength of voice to the elafticity
of the femi-rings, and the extent of the tympaniform mem-
brane. The gocit-fucker, ling-Jifier, and pelican, have the
conftriilor miilcle affixed to the fecond femi-ring of the
bronchia ; and the woodcock, pbalarope, coots, and the plovers,
and recurvirujira, and probably all the weak billed gralU,
have it inferted into the firll femi-ring.

The larynx of Jinging birds, and fome others, is pro-
vided with five conlltitiors on each fide, which Cuvier
has named, according to their fituation and direction.

1. The anterior longitudinal conjlrt&or.

2. The p'l/lcrior longitudinal conJlriSor,

3. Tht fmall longitudinal conflridor.

4. The oblique canflri&or.

5. The tranfverfe confiriSor.

Tlicfe almoft uirrourid the bifurcation of the trachea, to
which they have all the lame attachments, as near as may
be. The two firll are inferted into the third femi-ring ; the
two next into the fecond femi-ring ; and the laft is aflixedto
the firft femi-ring, and particularly to a little cartilage that
is joined to it.

Cuvier has obfervcd the five pair of conftriftors in all the
finging birds, in thefare, in aU the pa^eres, except thefival-
loiv and goat fucker, and in the crow, raven, jay, and many
of the pie kind.

The moft complicated inftrument of voice, amongft
birds, is that of the parrot tribe. It pofTcffes three pair of
mufcles ; but one pair is intended to relax the opening of
the glottis.

The principal conflridor arifes from the laft ring but one of
the trachea, defcends almoft perpendicularly upon the lax-
ator, and then goes on to be inferted into the union of the
fifth, fixth, and feventh femi-rings of tlie bronchia. Its at-
tachment being joined to the femicircular plate, it urges the
upper part of the plate inwards, and thus contrads the

there being neither the tympaniform membrane, nor any
contraflion, or projeding elaftic parts at the entrance of the
bronchise into the trachea.

The voice of birds is modified, and the tones rendered
more acute or grave, by means of two dcfcriptions of muf-
cles. The firft are common to all fpecies, and have been
long known and delcribed. They were called by Vic

The auxiliary conjlridor occ\\\Ae?,, for a certain diftance, the
anterior part of the trachea, and fends off a tendon, which
is loft in the preceding mufcle ; its operation, therefore, is
exaftly the fame.

The laxator is placed under the two other mufcles ; it
arifes along the fide of the trachea, and expands upon the
inferior concave edge of the laft ring; in diawing which

d'Azir the inferior or external luryiigeal. They are two flelhy outwards, the mufcle enlarges the glottis.

cords, and arifc from the triangular proceffes of the fternum,
to which the fuperior ribs are joined within the cheft, and
proceed to the fide of the trachea, above the bifurcation,
along which they afccnd for its greateft length. Their ef-
feft IS to deprefs the inferior larynx, and contraft the bron-
chia, and thereby relax the tympaniform membrane, and

Sec Plate XI. in the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 8. fliews
the external appearance of the inferior larynx in the oavl ; a
the lower part of the trachea ; b the two bronchix ; c the
external laryngeal mufcles, which are common to all birds ;
(/ the conftridor. Fig. g. of the fame plate exhibits the
organ of voice in the thruflj ; a the anterior longitudinal

deepen the tone of voice, and in fome circumftances they conftridor ; b the tianfverle conftridc

partially expofed
under

B I R

B I R

under it ; e the pofterior longitudinal conftridor, detached
at one ex I remit v, and turned outwards : and Fig, (O. affords
another view of tlic fame fubjedl ; the pollerior longitudinal
conftriflor is tunird down to expofe thofe that lie behind it ; a
the little longitudinal conftriftor; b the oblique conftriftor.
Fig. 1 1, of Plate X. reprefents the anterior part of the organ
of voice in tlie parrot ; a the principal conllrictor ; b the
auxiliary one ; c the laxator : and Fig. 12. gives a lateral
view of the fame parts, which are indicated by correfpond-
ing letters.

The trachea, in feveral birds, is found to aflume Angular
forms, and to fuffer enlargements at particular places.
Thefe have long attradted the attention of naturalills.
Som.e of the bell obfervations on the fubjecl have been made
by Dr. Bloch of Berlin, and by Pallas, Silberfchlag,
Beckmanii, and Otto, who have each publifhed in the Ber-
lin Tranfattions, fee Befch. des Berl. Nat. Fr. i. ii. iii. & iv.
But by far the molt copious account of the peculiarities
of the trachea of birds, has been given by Dr. Latham in
the Linnasan Tranfattions, vol. iv. p. 90.

The deviations from the common ftrudlure of the trachea,
have been divided by Dr. Latham into two kinds. In
one the windpipe docs not alter its capacity, but pofrtlTes an
unufual Icngtli, v.liich is difpofed of either in convolutions
on the outer part of the bcdy underneath tiie integuments,
or in a cavity formed within the llernum for the pnrpofe.
The other kind of deviation confifts in dilatations occurring
either at the bifurcation of the trachea, or both there
and in the middle of the tube.

The trachea of the tvooil grom, when arrived at the crop,
takes a bend upwards for a little way, and again turns down,
and purfues its courfe to the lungs. There has been no pe-
culiarity obferved in the other birds of this genus which vi-
flt this kingdoir:.

In the marail turkey [pcr.elope vwrail), the trachea makes
a round turn on the outlide of the top of the (lernum, and
then enters tlie cheft.

In the mate parraka phcajant, the wind-pipe defcends under
the fliin more than half the length of the body, before it
returns to enter the thorax.

The guan [penelope crijlata) has the trachea ftiil longer than
the preceding. It pafles to the very bottom of the belly,
and then turns up again, before it makes the double. See
f /ale XI. in the ylnatomy of Birds, fg. 13.

The Indian cock was obferved by the academicians to have
a degree of convolution in the trachea, which varies fome-
what in different individuals.

The cujlieiu curajfoiv has the mod remarkable convolu-
tions of the trachea. It firft defcends upon the right pec-
toral mufcle to the end of the ftcrnum, where it makes a
convolution to the left, fomething in the fliape of a ring,
after which it returns to the right peftoral mufcle, and goes
over the clavicle into the thorax.

The fcmi-pahtiafed goofe of New Holland hzi an extcnfive
convolution of the trachea under the fliin. Its note is
faid to be vei-y mufical.

The ardea virgo, the 'wl/dor •whyilingfwsn, and the crane,
have the winding of the trachea accommodated in the keel
of the fternum. It is fingular that this ftrudlure does not
exift in the tame f-.uan, which in other refpedts fo much re-
fembles the wild bird. See Plate XI. in the Aiiatotny of
Birds. Fig. 14. fliews thofe parts in the tuild fivan ;
aaa the fternum cut open to expofe the cavity which
lodges the trachea ; b bb the trachea ; c c the fork ;
d d the clavicles. The above ftrufture belongs to both
fexes.

The dilatations of the trachea are confined to two genera.
Vol. IV.

anas and mergus ; and as already obferved, are only to be
met with in the male birds.

The bony enlargements at the bifurcation into the bron-
chia, which are called ampulla, or labyrinths, exift in every
fpecies of duck and merganfer. They confitt of two cells,
one in general much larger than the other. In fome inftances
the parietes of the cells are in a great meafure formed by a
membrane fpread acrofs it, like the head of a drum. There
is alfo a bony arch turned acrofs to give llrength. This is
the cafe in the fcaup duck, the pochard, tinted duck, the
fmeiu, i^c. See Plate XI. Fig. 15 is the end of the wind-
pipe of the pochard {anas ferina).

The trachea of the golden eye duck is very curious. The
labyrinth is more complicated than ufual ; and there is a fin-
gular enlargement in the middle, which is formed by carti-
laginous joints, or plaits, placed obliquely, and folding over
each other, fo that the part admits of being contraixed and
lengthened, as the motions of the neck may require.

The -oclvct duck is diftinguifhcd by two very remarkable
ofTeous enlargements, one is fituated immediately below ths
fuperior larynx, and another in the middle of the wind-pipe.
The lower part does not form the ufual ampulla, but the
bronchia: become for a little way bony canals. See Plate
XL in the Anatomy of Birds. Fig. 16. reprefents the tra-
chea of the velvet duck ; a the fuperior, or laryngeal ofleous
cell ; b the bony cavity of the middle; cc the ofltioias parts
ot the bronchiae.

The redhreafled merganfer has the middle of the tra-
chea formed like that of the goldm eye duck, only the
plaits are made of bone, and curiouflv furrowed ; indeed all
the trachea of the merganfers, as Dr. Lathr.m obferves,
confifts of little elfe than bone.

A very little comparifon of the mechanifm of wind mufi-
cal inftruments with the organs of voice in birds, will fhcvr
how nearly they are allied to each other ; and it may be ob-
ferved, that the found produced by fome of the larger birds
is exactly fimilar to the notes that proceed from a clario-
net or hautboy in the hands of an untutored mufician. The
interior glottis exaflly correfponds to the reed, and produces
the tone or fimple found. The fuperior larynx gives it utter-
ance as the holes of the inftrument ; but the itrength and
body of the note depend upon the extent and capacity of
the trachea, and the hardnefs and elafticity of its parts.
The convolution and bony cells of the wind pipe, therefore,
may be compared with the turns of a French horn, and
the divifions of a bcijfoon ; and they produce the proper ef-
fects of thefe parts in the voices of thofe birds in which
they are found.

Bird, in Aflronomy, Avis Indica. See Apus.

Bird of Phcebus, the Raven, one of the fouthern conftel-
lations. See Corvus.

Birds, m Ancient Augury. Prefcience, cr knowledge of
futurity, was fuppofed, among the ancients, a natural fa-
culty of birds, owing, perhaps, to their nearer intercoufe
with heaven, or their breathing a purer and more celeftial air
than other animals. Hence it was, that divination by birds ob-
tained among the ancient Greeks and Romans, being per-
formed by obferving, and interpreting the flight, chirping
and feedmg of divers birds. (SccAugury.) Birds, with re-
gard to augury and divination, were of divers kinds, viz,
Aves aufpicata, or felices, thofe which naturally portended
good : luch were the dove, fwan, &c. Aves inaufpicatit,
dire, ominofx, thofe which boded fome evil or milchief:
fuch were the kite, raven, crow, and owl, every where, ex-
cept at Athens. Admifftva, that which excites and encou-
rages the confulter to execute what he has in view. Arciva
or eirculiif that which forbad a tiling to be done ; otherwife
3 L called

B I R

calleil tlk'ia, claiiuilorlj, and />ro/jii!l.7M, inebra, and inh'tla.
Inaiuiiarui, that which gave omen of a fire, or other calami-
ty ; or whicli is fctn carrying a firebrand from the funeral
pile to a houfe. Ranora, that which (lays or delays an uc
tion. Siiii/lra, that on the left hand, denoted a happy or
profpcrous omen; and was alfo called y^cun^Ai, pinfpera. ylh-
tes, thofe which Rave omens by their wings and flight. Of-
cina, thofe by their finging or chirping. Pulii, by their
pecking. Pnpcta, thofe which by their flight, or perching,
gave happy omens. Infers, or incbr^-, thofe which in like
manner gave ill omens.

Bird, William, in Muf.cal B'wgrnphy. This worthy and
admirable fcholar of the profound Tallis, is fuppofed to have
been the fon of Thomas Bird, one of the gentlemen of Ed-
ward tlie fixth's chapel, in whicli he was himfelf a fingnig-
boy. By the great number of his ccclefiallical compolitions
to Latin wonU-, and the feveral portions of the Romifli ritual
which he fo frequently fct to mufic, and publilhed late in
life, he feems to have been long a zealous adherent to that
religion. He mull , however, have conformed to the church
ertablilhmtnls of queen Elizabeth's icign ; for, in 1563, he
was chofen organill of Lincoln cathedral, where he continu-
ed till 1569, when, upon the accidental death of Robert
Parfons, who was drowned at Ncwark-upon-Trent, he was
appointed gentleman of the chapel royal. Notwithitaiiding
which ofTice, he feems to have compofed the chief part of his
Choral Mufic to Latin words, and to have publiflied it in
that language, as late as the middle of the reign of king
James L

In 1575. it appears by the title-page of the " Cantiones
Sacrx," and the patent annexed to that work, that he and
Tallis were not only gentlemen of the royal chapel, but or-
ganills to her majelly queen Elizabeth. Indeed both muft;
have been great performers on the organ, to have been able
to play fuch of their pieces for that inllrument as are fliill
prefcrved ; in which the paffages, though awkward to per-
formers who are only accullomcd to modern mufic, muft
have been fuggefled by perfons that were habituated to the
complicated, and now, almolt, invincible difficulties of the
fixteenth century. And though the compofitions for keycd-
inftruments by thefe great mailers of harmony, are totally
uninipaflioned, and without grace, it is impoflible not to re-
gard their ingenuity and contrivance in the texture of the
parts, with refpeCl and wonder!

If we confider the elaborate (lyle of compofition which
prevailed, particularly in the church, dunng the time of
Bird, and that he, like his mailer Tallis, was not only am-
bitious of vanquifliing its nfual difficulties in the conftrudlion
of fugues and canons, but fought new complications, per-
plexities, and involutions in the motion and arrangement of
the parts, the following lill of his works will not only mani-
feft diligence, but fecundity.

Befides the great rtiarc he had in the " Cantiones Sacrx,"
publifhed in conjunclian with his mafter Tallis, in 1575,
when his name firll appears as an author; and without enu-
merating many admirable compofitions for the church and
chamber, (lill fubfilling, but which were never printed, or,
at leaft, not till after his deceafe, he publiflitd " Pfalms,
Sonnets, and Songs of Sadntfs and Pietie," of five parts,
1588; "Liber primus facraruin Cantionum, quinque vo-
cum," 1589; " Songs of fnndrie Natures, fome of Gravitie,
and others of Myrth, fit for all Companies and Voyces,"
1589; " Gradualia ac Cantiones Sacrx, Lib. primus et fe-
cundus," 1607 and 1610. The lafl work publilhed by him-
felf, was entitled, " Pfalms, .Songs, and Sonnets : fome
folemne, others joyful, framed to the Lite of the Words,
fit for Voyces or Viols, of three, four, five, and fi.\ partes,"

B I R

161 J. Dr Tudway's colleftion, in the Britifli Mufenm,
contains a whole fcrvice in D minor, by Bird, with refponfes,
and the anthems, " Sing joyful unto God," — " O Lord,
turn thy W'rath," — (all publifhed n thcfecond and third
volumes of Dr. Boyce's Cathedral Mufic.)— "O Lord,
make thy Servant;" " Save me, O God;" " Prevent us,
O Lord ;" " Civitas fancVi tuo," one of his Sacrarum Can-
tionum, or Sacred Songs, publiflied 1589, has been long
fung in our cathedrals to the Euglifli words, " Bow thine
ear, O Lord," and is one of the admirable pieces of har-
mony in the fecond volume of Boyce's printed colleftion.

Dr. Aldrich, who was a great admirer and colleftor of
the works of Bird, and who adapted Englifli words to m.oft
of his compofitions which have been ufed in our cathedrals,
and th.U were originally let to parts of the Romifli fervice,
in Latin, has bequeathed to Chrift Church, Oxon, beauti-
ful and correct copies of moft of his productions, in a fet of
books, fmall 4to. In this libraiy near forty of his com-
pofitions are preferved ; and in another fet, many more, with
thofe of Tallis, Tavcmer, Tye, White, Redford, both the
Mundys, Shepherd, Bull, and other contemporary Englifli
maftcrs.

Bird's pieces for the organ and virginals are almoft innu-
merable. In a magnificent folio manufcript, curioufly bound
in red morocco, formerly in Dr. Pepulch's colleclion, which
is generally known by the name of " Queen Elizabeth's
Virginal Book," there are near 70 of his compofitions.

The firft piece by Bird, in this book, and the eighth in
the colleclion, is a Fantafia, which generally implies a Fugue,
in which the fubjeft is as frequently changed as in an-
cient Choral Mufic, where new words require new accents
and intervals ; for as yet, it was not the cullom in compofing
fugues to confine a whole movement to one theme ; and
here Bird introduces five or fix, wholly ditTerent and un-
conneiEled with each other.

The fubjeft of the fecond compofition, by Bird, in the
Royal Virginal Book, is the tune of an old ballad, '• John
come kifs mt now ;" of which, with great labour and inge-
nuity, he has varied the accompaniments fixteen different
ways ; for while the treble, bafe, or fome inward part, is
always playing the original air, three other parts are moving
in fugue, or running rapid and difficult divifions. No. 52,
is another Fancie ; and 56, a Pavan, by Bird ; which im-
plied a grave majeftic dance, in common time, fimilar to the
movement of the peacock. This drain was ufually followed
by the Galhard ; which, on the contrary, was a gay and
lively dance, in triple time, but on the fame fubjefl as the
preceding Pavan. No. 58, is entitled, " The Carman's
Whillle." From No. 58 to 69, the compofitions are all by
Bird ; confiding chiefly of eld tunes, with variations; among
which is " Fortune," a plaintive and exprelTive melody, to
which the ballad, called " Titus Andronicus's Complaint,"
inferted in Reliques of ancient Englifli Poetry, vol. i.
p. 204, was originally written. It has been imagined that
the rage for variations, that is, multiplying notes, and dif-
guifing the melody of an eafy, and, generally, well-known
air, by every means that afpacca no/a, or note fpHttcr, fees
poffible, was the contagion of the lad century ; but it ap-
pears from the Virginal Book, that this fpecies of influenza,
or corruption of air, was more exccffive in the fixteenth cen-
tury, than at any other period of mufical hiftory.

Crowded and elaborate as is the harmony, and uncouth
and antiquated the melody, of all the pieces in this collec-
tion by various compofers, there is a manifeft fuperiority in
thofe of Bird over all the reft, both in texture and defign.
In a later age his genius would have expanded in works of
invention, tafte, and elegance ; but, at the period in which
I he

B I R

B I R

he (lourifhed, nothing feems to have been thought neceffary
for keyed-lnflrunieiit?, except variations to old tunes, in
which all the harmony was crowded, v\hich the fingers could
grafp, a;id all the rapid divifions of the times, which they
could execute. Even nominal fancies were without fancy,
and confined to the repetition of a few di-y and unmeaning
notes in fugue, or imitation. Invention was (o yoimg and
feeble, as to be unable to go alone ; and old chants of the
church, or tunes of the llrcet, were its leading ftrings and
guides.

Though the reformation had banidieu fnpevftition from
the land, fragments oi canto feimo, like rags ot Popery, ftiU
remained in our old ftcular tunes, and continued to liave ad-
mifrion in the new. Indeed the melodies of all the reft of
Europe had no other model than the chants of the church,
till the cultivation of the ni'ificcd drama ; whence all the
rhythm, accent, and grace of modern mullc, have manifeftly
been derived.

Befides the great number of Bird's compofuions for keyed-
inftruments, which are preferved in the Virginal Book of
queen Elizabeth, another rr.anufcriot collcftion of his pieces
Hill fubfifts, under the title of " Lady Nevil's Mufic Book."
It is a thick quarto, vi-ry fplendidly bound and gilt, with tiie
family arms beautifully emblazoned and illuminated on the tirit
page, and the initiab H N at the loweft left hand corner.
The mnllc is all written in large, hold charafters, with great
neatnefs, on four ftaved paper, of fix lines, by Jo. Bald-
wine, a finging-man at Windlor, and a celebrated copyill
of queen Elizabeth's time. The pieces contained in this
coUettioii, fixteen of which are entered in that queen's vir-
ginal b'Mjk, amount to forty-two, with variations to many of
them, of the moH laboured and difficult kind. The notes,
both white and black, are of the lozenge form, like thofe of
the printed mufic of the fame period.

^

Lady Nevil feems to have been the fcholar of Bird, who
profeffedly compofed feveral of the pieces for her ladyfhip's
ufe.

None of Bird's pieces for keyed inftruments feem to
have been printed, except eight movements in a thin folio
book of lefTons that was engraved on copper, and publifhed
in the reign of king James I. under the following title :
" Parthenia, or the Maidenhead of the Mufickc that ever was
printed for the Virginalh'. Compofed by three famous maf-
ters: William Bird, Dr. John Bull, and Orlanco Gibbons,
gentlemen of his niajellyies inoft illullrious chappel." Thefe
IclTons, though not equally dithcult with fome of thofe in
the Virginal Books of queen Elizabeth and lady Nevil, are
rather more dry and ungiaceful.

The canon, Non nobis Domin.', appears in none of his
works pubfiflitd by himfelf, or colletted by others, before
the year 1652 ; when Hilton inferted, and prefixed the name
of Bird to it, in a collection of catches, rounds, and canons.
But as no claim was laid to it by, or in favour of, any other
compofer, before or fince that time, till about the middle of
the lall century, when it was given to Paleftrina by Carlo
i^icciotti, who publiflied, in Holland, among his concertos,
a fugue in eight partSj on the fame fubjeft, there feems no
doubt remainmg ot our countryman Bird having been the
author of that pleafincf and popular compofition.

Bird died in 1623, fuiviving his mailer Tallis thirty-eight
years ; and if we iuppofe him to have been twenty in tiie
year 1563, when he was chofen organift of I.inctihi, lie
mull have been eighty at his deceafe. Peacham, in his Com-
plete Gentleman, fpeaks of him with great reverence; ''For

Motets and Muficke of piety and devotion, as well for the
honour of our nation, as the merit of the man, I preferre
above all others our Pi^cenix, Mafter William Byrd, whom in
that kind I know not whetlicr any may equall. I am furc
none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy,
who are very fparing in their commendation of ftrangcrs, in
regard of that conceipt tiny hold of themfelves. His
Cantiones Sacrae, as alio his Gradualia, are meere angelicall
and divine; and being of himfclfe naturally difpofedto gra-
vity and piety, his veine is not fo much for light madr-gals
or canzonets; yet his Virginella, and fome others in his riril
fet, cannot be mended by the fiill Italian of them all." Sc'
cond ImprcJJlon, p. loo. His pupil, Morlcy, in \\i> Inlra-
diiflwn, every profcfTor and mufical writer of his own and later
times, never mention him but with thehighcft lefpeCl. At
this remote period but little, however, can be known of his
private life, which was too lludiousand fedentar)- to have fur-
nifhed hillory, at any time, with events of general interell.
With rtfpe£t to what Ant. Wood afferts in his Fafti, that
" Bird was excellent in mathematics," it is, in his ufual way,
fnpported by no proof; and indeed mathematics have fo little
to do with praftical mufic, either in conipolition or perfoi-m-
ance, that thole mnficians, who are moft ignorant of the ratio
or philofophy of founds, feem conllantly to have arrived at
the liighelt degree of excellence in the fcleftion, combination,
and refinement of them in pradlice, by the mere alfillance of
experience, and the gift of good ears and powerful nerves.
That he was a diligent cultivator of his art appears from his
numerousworks, which aremore the produftions of meditation
and lludy, than of hafle and enthufiafm. That he was pious,
the words he felecled, and the folemnity and gravity of llyle
with which he fet them, fufficiently evince. Of his moral
character and natural difpofition, there can, perhaps, be no
teftimonies more favourable, or lefs fubjeft to fufpicion, than
thofe of rival profeffors, with whom he appears to have lived
during a long life with cordiafity and friendlhip. And, of
the goodnefs of his heart, it is, to us, no trivial proof, that
he loved, and was beloved, by his mafter, Tallis, and fcholar,
Morley ; who, from their intimate connexion with him, muft
have feen him en robe de chambre, and been fpecSators of all
the operations of temper, m the oppofite fituations of fub-
jeilion and dominion.

Indeed, the bell memorials of a profeflional man's exift-
ence are his fnrviving works ; which, from their having been
thought worthy of prefervation by poilerity, entitle him to
a niche in the Temple of Fame, among the benefactors of
mankind. The phyfician who heals the difcales, and alle-
viates the anguifli of the body, certainly merits a more coii-
fpicuous and honourable place there; but the mnfician, who
eminently fooths our forrows, and innocently diverts the
mind from its cares during health, renders his memory dear
to the grateful and refined part of mankind, in every civi-
liied nation.

Bird cherry, in Botany. See Prunus PaJus.

BiRD'sfvc. See Adonis.

BiRD'sybo/. See Ornithopus.

JjiKiLi^s foot trefoil. See Lotus.

Bird's nejl, a name ufed bv fome for the daiicus, or car-
rot ; and by others for ophrvs.

Tjh-d's ne//, j!mf>le. See Orchis.

Bird pej.per. See C .". p si c e y .

Bird's tongue. See S E st c lo.

B I R DS canary. See C A N A R V birds.

Bird of the wz/f, among Alchcmiflsy is the pliilofophical
mercury; and, in general, fubliaiations or fubllances IpJ-
rituahzed by the fepavation of their terreftrial part.

Bird, golden, the hermetic matter partly matured.

3 L 3 Bird,

B I R

Bird, gretn, the philofopher's llonc, at tlie time when
its (rrfcn colour appears.

Birds, Cyprian, aves Cypncit, oraviciiU CyprU, is a deno-
miiiiition ijivcii to a kii:U of odorous candk-;. mads of tlie
matter of trociics, and burnt for tlie fake of tlitir fumes,
ca!li-d alfo, from their ligurc, bacii/i, or J/icis.

BiKD of J/a-mes, avis, or aviniui Hcrmelka. Alchcmifts
fpeak much of tliat which flies in the night without wings.
Some will have liic avifula Hermd'ica to be an univerfal fait
prepared from dew. — It alio denotes red-lead.

Birds, decoy, arc thofe which are trained up to call and
allure oth-.rs into the fowler's nets, fnares, Hme-twigs, or
thelike. See Decoy.

Birds, Humming. See HummixG-W/-(/.
Birds, in Dnmejlic Economy, and i.. reference to their ufe
asalimeiits. See Fowl.

Bird, in. Falconry, denotes a hawk, or falcon. See Fal-
con. Nides birds, aves nidularia:, denote thofe taken while
in the neft. Ramage birds, arboraris a-ves, are thofe only ar-
rived at llrength luflicieiit to fly from branch to branch.
Hagard bird, is that which has lived at liberty, and is thence
more wild and untradable. Bird of the JiJI, is that which
having been reclaimed, returns to, and ptrclies on the hand,
without the help of a lure. Bird of lure, lignifics that which
comes to the lure, and by ihat means to the hand. Bnjlard
bird, a hawk, for inllancc, bred of a hawk and a lanier ; or
a faker, bred of a laker and a lanier. Coicard birds, thofe
which only pmfue their game for their own belly, and which
are not to be reduced to juft fport ; as ravens, kites, &c.

Bird, in Geography, the name of a fmall ifland in Dun-
mannus bay, in the county of Cork, Ireland. — Alfo, ano-
ther fmall idand in Strangford lougti, and county of Down.
—Alfo, one of the Bermudas iflands. — Alfo, a fmall ifland
in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 21 leagues W. of cape An-
guilla on the ifland of Newfoundland. N. lat. 47° ^^'. W.

l(n g. 60° 45' Alfo, an ifland in the iouthern Pacific Ocean,

difcovered by capt. Cook, in 1769, in his voyage from
Cape Horn to Otaheite, covered with verdure, and inhabit-
ed. S. lat. 17° 48'. E. long. 216" 24'. —Alfo, an ifland
in the fouthern Pacific Ocean, near the north weft coail
of the ifland of New Georgia, difcovered by capt. Cook,
in 1775. S. lat. 54°. W. long. 38° 22'. — Alfo, an ifland
of the fame ocean, difcovered in 1788, by the command-
er of the Prince of Wales, and fo called from its being
the refort of many birds. This folitary ifland, or rather
finglt rock, rifing out cf the immenfe ocean, was particu-
larly examined by Vancouver, in 1794. Its greateft ex-
tent, in a dire£lion S. 74 W. and N. 74 E. did not ex-
ceed one mile ; and its northern, eallern, and wellern extre-
mities, againil which the fea broke with great violence,
prefented a very awful appearance, rifing perpendicularly
from the ocean in lofty rugged cliffs, inaccefllble except to
its winged inhabitants; on its fouthern fide the afcent is not
fo lleep and abrupt ; and near its weftern extremity is a fmall
fandy beach, where in fine weatlier, and with a fmooth fea,
a landing might probably be efFeftcd. At this place was
the appearance of a little verdure, though it was dcllitute of
tree or flirub ; every other part was apparently without foil,
and confifted only of the naked rock. Tlie whole circum-
ference does not exeeed a league, and it is fituated in N.
lat. 23" 6'. E. long. 198° 8'. It lies from Onehow, one
of the Sandwich iflands, N. 51W. at the diftance of 39
leagues ; it is recognized by the natwes of thofe iflands under
the appellation of " Modoo Mannoo," that is, bird ifland;
and from its great dillance from all other iflands, and its
proximity to their iflands, it feeiiiS to claim fome prettn-
fione to be ranked iu the group of the Sandwich iflands ;

B I R

which fee.— Alfo, a fmall ifland near the north-eaft coaft of
New Holland, lying low and almofl: covered with birds ; 4
leagues N. W. from cape Grenville. For other iflands un-
der this denomination ; fee Aves.

Bird/o;-/, an American fort on Monongahela river 40
miles fouth of Fort Pitt.

Birds-A'cv, or Round ijland, a fmall ifland, or rock,
among the Virgin iflands, in the Well Indies ; 2 leagues S.
of St. John's ifland ; and 3 N. E. from St. Croix, or Santa
Cruz. N. lat. 17'" SS'- W. long. 64° 36'.

Birds, Mejage, aves iittenwiici.e, deiujte thofe that are
employed to convey letters or other difpatclies, either for
the f;'ke of expedition or fafety. See Carrier-pigeon
and Aleppo.

Bird, mociing, the ttirdus polyglot! us; which fee. See
alfo Mock bird.

BiRD-boll, in Heraldry, is a fmall arrow with a blunt head,
and often rcprefented in armory, with two and fometimea
three heads rounded, but in that cafe the number of heads
muft be noticed.

BiRD-call, a fmall ftick cleft at one end, in which is put
a leaf of fome plant, that ferves to counterfeit the call of
feveral birds, and to bring them to the net, fnare, &c. by
which they are taken. A laurel-leaf fitted on the bird-call
counterfeits the voice of lapwings, a leek, that of the night-
ingale, &c. See Call, and Bird-catching.

BiRD-Catciiiig, in its moft comprehenfive fenfe, denotes
the art of taking birds or wild-fowl, either for food, or for
enjoying the pleafure of their long in cages, or for preventing
the dellruftion which fome fpecies of them occafion to the
hufbandman. Some recur to it as an amufing paltime, and
others piadlife it as a profitable employment ; and with a
view to one or other of thefe objtfts, various modes of taking
birds have been adopted, and the praftice is in fume places
reduced to a kind of fyftem. One of thefe methods is de-
nominated Bat-Fowling, or, as fome term it, Ba!-folding.
For this purpofe, five or fix perfons commonly provide them-
felves with a large net, expanding, when open, to the extent
of a man's arms, and about three yards high, and tormed of
meflies fo fmall as not to allow the efcape of the fmalleit
bird. The extremities of the net are attached to two poles,
held one in each hand of the perfon who has the manage-
ment of it. With this, and a large lanthorn affixed to a
pole, the party proceeds to corn-fields, out-houfes, yew-
hedges, thatched buildings, &c. The cords of the net being
feparated to their utxoft extent, it is placed before any
fpot where birds are fuppofed to rooft, and the light being
held before the centre of the net, the afliftants in this opera-
tion beat the hedges, ricks, eaves, &c. with poles ; aad the
birds, thus alarmed, fly towards the light, upon which the
perfon who holds the net claps its poles together, and en-
clofts the birds. From the latter circumllance, the net is
called a clap-net. Sparrows, larks, thruflies, and the other
fmall birds are thus cau;^ht in great numbers in dark nights.
Another method of bat-fowling, is performed by means of a
long net drawn over the ground, followed by a perfon bear-
ing a light ; and this net, in its paflagc, enclofes and con-
fines any birds that happen to be under it. But one of the
moll ingenious and fytlematic methods of bird-catching, is
pr;iClifed principally in the vicinity of London, by perfons
who find a ready market for birds nfed as food, or who
deal in fong-birds, which, at certain feafons of the year,
change their fiiuation, and arc hence denominated birds of
flight, in the language of this art. The birds, ufiialiy taken
on fuch occafions, are wood-larks, titlarks, linnets, aberda-
viiies, gold-linchcs, and green-finches. They are princi-
pally

B I R

B I R

pally taken during what is called their flight, or while they
congregate for the purpofe of propagating their fpecics.
The wild birds bei-in to fly in the month of October, and
part of the preceding and following months ; and the
flii^ht in March is much lefs confiderable than that of
Micha^lnnas. It is to be noted alfo, that the feverai fpecies
of birds of flight do not appear exaftly at tlie fame time,
but follow one another in fucccffion. The pippet, w'lich
is a fmall fpecies of lark, inferior in its f nig to otiicr birds
of that pcnus, begins his flight, every )ear, about Michael
mas; and then the; wood-lark, linnet, gold-finch, chafiinch,
green-finch, aid other birds of flight fucceed ; all of which
are not eafiiy to be caught, or in any number?, at any other
time, particularly the pippct and the wood-lark. Thcfe birds,
during the Michaelmas and March flights, are chiefly on the
wing from day-break to noon, thou ^h there is afterwards a
fmall fli'ht from two till night ; but this is fo inconfiderable,
that the birJ-catchers always take up their nets at noon.
Another circumllance worthy of notice is, that, during their
flitting, they always fly againil the wind ; hence the
bird-catchers eagerly contend for that point ; fo that if it
be wellerly, the bird-catcher, who lays hi» nets moft to the
eait, is fure almoft of catching every thuig, provided that
his call-birds are good : a gentle wind to the fouth-weft
generally produces the belt fport. The nets ufed by the
bird-catchers are about 12 yards long, and 2+ wide ; which
are known in moil parts of England by the name of " day-
nets," or " clap-nets," but the bell are thofe that are ufed m
the neighbourho id of London. Thefe nets are fpread upon
the ground parallel to one another, and at fuch a ditlance, that
when turned over, they Ihall coincide. The remaining ap-
paratus confifts of lines fo faftened to the nets that the bird-
catcher is able, by a fudden pull, to draw the net over the
birds that may have alighted in the fpace between their
parallel fides. Thcfe birds are enticed to alight by others
ufujUy denominated " call-birds ," of which there are gene-
rally five or fix linnets, two goldfinches, two greenfinches,
one woodlark, one red-poll, a yellow hammer, a titlark, and
an aberdavine, and perhaps a bullfinch. Thefe are pkced
at fmall diilances from the nets in little cages. Befides thefe,
the bird catcher has others called " flur-birds," which are
placed within the nets, raifed upon the flur, and gently let
down at the lime the wild birds approach them. This
•'flur" is a moveable perch tq which the bird is tied, and
which the bird-catcher can raife or deprefs at pleafure, by
means of a long firing fafl;ened to it. Thefe flur-birds gene-
r-illv confill of the linnet, the goldfinch, and the greenfinch,
which art attacried to the fiur by what is called a '• brace,"
wiiich fecures the birds without injuring their plumage. This
brace is a fort of bandage, formed of a flv;nder fiikeii ftriiig,
that is fafl;ened round the body of the bird, and U'ider the
wings in fjch a manner at to prevent the bird's being hurt,
however it may flutter whea it is raifed. The call-birds
are particularly trained for the fervice to which they are
appropriated. Accordingly, the bird-catchers contrive to
improve the fong of thefe birds, by cauCng them to moult
before the ufual time. For this purpofe, they put them,
in June or July, into a clofe box, under two or three folds
of blankets, and leave their dung- in the cage to increafe
their heat ; and in this ftate they continue, being, perhaps,
examined once a week to have fre.Ti water. The air of the
cage is fo putrid, that they want httle or no food, as they
eat fcarcely any thing during the whole period of their con-
finement, which is about a month. The birds frequently
die under this operation ; and on this account the " itopped
bid," as It is called, is the more valuable. W1ien the bird hath
thus prematurely moulted, he is " in fong," while the wild

birds are " out of fong ;" and his note is louder and more
piercing than that of a wild one ; and his plumage is by this
procefs equally improved. The black and yellow in the wings
of the goldfinch, for example, become deeper and more vivid,
and acquire a very beauf.ful gh'fs, whif-h is not to be feen in
the wiid bird. The bil', which in the latter is likewifc black at
the end, becomes in the " Hopped bird" white and more taper,
as are alfo itolegs; and, in (hoit, there is as much difference be-
tween a wild and a Hopped bird, as there is between a horfe,
which is kept in bodycloths,and one at grafs. When the bird-
catcher hath laid his ets, he diipofes of his " call-birds" at
proper intervals ; and Penna: t obfenes, that a malicious joy
appear^ in thtfec il-birds, to bring the wild ones into th; fame
ftate of captivity ; and this is alfo the cafe with regard to the
decoy ducks. After they have feen or heard the approach of
the wild birds, which they obfervc long before it is perceived
by the biid-catchers, the intelligence is announced from
cage to cage, with the utmoil ecllacy and joy. The not^
by which they invite them down, is not a continued fong,
like what the bird ufcs in a chamber ; but " fliori jerks,"
as they arc calLd by the bird catchers, which are heard at
a great diftancc. So powerful is the afcendency of this
call over the wild birds, that the moment they hear it, they
alight on a fpot, within twenty yards of three or four bird-
catchers, which otherwife would never have attrafted their
notice. It alfo frequently happens, that if, by pulling the
ftring, half a flock only fhould be caught, the others who
have efcaped, will immediately return to the nets, and fliare
the fate of their companions ; and if only one bird (hould
efcape, that bird will ftiU venture into the fcene of danger,
till it be caught ; fuch is the fafcinating power which the
call-birds podefs with regard to the others. A bird, ac-
quainted with the nets, is by the bird-catchers termed a
" (liarper ;" and this bird they endeavour to drive away, as
they can have no fport, while it continues with them. Thefe
fportfmen frequently lay confiderable wagers, whofe call-bird
can "jerk" the longcil, as this circumllance determines their
fuperiority. With this view, they place them oppofite to
each other, near an inch of candle, and the bird that jerks
the oftencft, before the candle is burnt out, wins the
wager. Some birds have given 170 jerks in a quarter of aa
hour, and a lirmet has b--en known, in fuch a trial, to per-
fevere in its emulation, till it iwooned from the perch ; thus,
as Pliny (1.x. c. 29.1 fays of the nightingale, " viClamorte
fiiiit faspe vitam, fpiritu prius deficitnte qiiam cantu."

It is obfervable, that bird-catchers immediately kill the
hens of every fpecies of birds they take, as they are inca-
pable of finging, and inferior in plumage. The pippets,
likewifc, are indifcriniinately dtilroved, as the cock does
not fing well. The dead birds are commonly fold for three-
pence or four-pence a dozen. The flefh of thefe is regarded
as a dehcate acquifition ;>t the tables of the luxurious; and
yet the tafte for fmall birds is far from being fo prevalent
in England as it is in Italy, where tiiey are eaten under the
name of " beccaficos." However, t!ie luiiury of the modern
Italians will appear to be parfimony, when compared with
the extravangance of their predecelTors tlit Romans. (See
Clod'wi TEsop.) The highell price given for linging birds
in Loi don, Mr. Pennant informs us, is about fi\'e guineas ;
this funi having been paid for a chafiinch, that had a parti-
cular ard uncommon note, under which it was intended to
train oti ers, and five pounds ten (hillings have been given for
a call-biro linnet.

Mr. Pennant informs us, that when the titlarks are caught
in the be: inning of the feafon, it frequently hapoens, that
40 are tal.en witnout one female ; the cafe is the fame with
the wheatear, and probably with refpedt to other birds : and

this

B I R

tliis circumftancc confirms the obfcrvatioii of Liiinceiis, tliat
Ihe m:ilc chaffiiiclics fly by tlitrnftlve!, and the flight pre-
cedes the females ; and the fad extends to other birds. Such
binU as breed twice a year have generally in their firll brood
a maj.n ity of males, and in their fccond of ftmalef.

As the biiUlinch, though it is not properly cither a Iniguig
bird, or a bird of (light, If range being merely from hedge
to hedge, felc^ies a good price on account of its leanung to
whilUe tunes, and as it fometimes flits over the fields where
the bird-catchers lay their nets, they have often a call-bird to
enfnare it, though moll of ihem can imitate the call with
their mouths. It is a peculiarity witl\ regard to this bird,
that tlie fern lie aufwers the purpofe of a call-bird, as well as
the male, which is not to be experienced in any other bird
taken by the London bird-catcher. The nightingale, though
dilliiigii;flied as a fniging-bird, moves only from hedge to
hedge, and dois not t:ikc the periodical flights of other birds
ill t)aober and iMarcli ; and therefore it is not clalfed by
the bird-catchers among the birds of flight. The perfons
who catch thefe birds, make ufe of fmall trap-nets, with-
out call-birds, and are confidercd inferior in dignity to other
bird-catchers, who will not rank with t'.icm. The arrival of
the nightingale is expected by the trappers in the neighbour-
hood oi London, tiie firft week in April ; at firli, none
but cocks are triken, but in a few days the hens make their
appearance, generally by themfelves, though fometimes a
few malts come along with them. Tiiey are caught in a
net-trap, the bottom of which is furrouiided with a:i iron-
ring ; and the net itfelf is fomewhat larger than a cabbagc-
nct. When the trappers hear or fee them, they drew fome
frtflt mould uider the place, and bait the trap with a meal-
worm from the baker's (hop. In this way ten or twelve
nightingales have been caught in a day. Pennant's Zool.
vol. ii. Append.

Birds are caught in traps of various kinds ; and frequently
by noofes of hair--. In this way, great numbers of wheat-
ears are annually taken on the various downs of England.
Small holes are dug by the (hepherds in the ground, in each
of which is placed a noofe. Whenever a cloud obfcures the
fun, thefe timid birds feek for flwlter under a Hone, or creep
into any iioles that prefent themfelves ; and they are thus
enfnared by the noofes which faflen around their neck'.
Woodcocks and fnipes are taken likew ife by noofes of horfe-
hair placed along their paths, in marOies and moiil grounds.
Wild ducks in all their varieties are taken in vaft numbers
every winter on our coalls by means of decoys. (See
Decoy.) Gronle and partridges are taken by means of
nets, either at night when rclHng on the ground, by obferv-
ing where they alight, and when fctttd, drawing a net over
that part of the field ; or, in the day, a very lleady dog is
ufed to point at them. The attention of the birds being
thus fixed, two perfons, drawing the two extremities of a
large net, pafs it over them, and thus fecure a whole pack
ofgioule, or covey of partridges at once. Pheafants are
fometimes taken by iiigl:t,by holding flaming fulphur under
the trees on which they are obferved to perch, the lufFocat-
ing eflluvia of which make them fall fenfelefs. Mons.
Pratty informs us, that, during his travels in North America,
he look great numbers of the pafl"enger-pigeon in a fimllar
manner. For various methods of taking larks ; fee Alau-
DA. For the life of bud-lime among bird-catchers ; fee

BiRD-LlME.

In various parts of the world, peculiar modes arc adopted
for enfi aring and taking birds, fome of which, whilH they
are hazardous to thofe who prailife them, excite no incon-
fidcrable degree of furprifc, and even of anxiety, in the fpec-
tators. Thus, in the Orkney iflands, where the birds that

B I R

inhabit the rock?, aad the eggs which they depofit among
the cliffs, fupply the principrd food of many among the
poorer inhabitants, the intrepid and adventurous fowlers
c'imb rockv precipices more than fifty fathoms above the
fea, and pafs from one flielf or ledge to another, whofc
breadth is barely fuRicient for refting places to the birds,
wh.ich depolit their eggs upon them. In this hazardous
employment, the adventurers arc commonly lowered from
above by means of a rope, formed often of brittle materials,
and held by a fingle affillant. Faftened to this rope, the
intrepid peafant defcends, and fearchcs all the cavities for
eggs, fpringing from one projefling ledge to another, by
the help of a pole, whilft the affillant, upon receiving the
neccflary fignals, fhifts the rop'i from one part of the rocky
precipice to another. If the weight of the fowler and of
hii booty fliould, in thefe perilous circumftances, overpower
his adbciate above, or the craggy rock cut the rope, inevi-
table dellrudion mull aw^ait the adventurer ; for he will
either he daflicd againft the projediiig rock, or drowned in
the fubjacent fea. But the moll fingular fpecies of bird-
catching is in the holm of Nofs, which is a huge rock
fevered from the ifle of Nofs by fome unknown convulfion,
and diflant from it about i6 fathom?. The oppofite cliffs
arc ftparated by the raging fea. The adventurer, having
reached the rock in a boat, and afcended to the top of it,
fallens fevtral (lakes in the fliallow foil that is found on the
fiirface of the rock ; and finiilar Hakes are alfo attached to
the edge of the conefponding and oppofite cliff. A rope
is then fixed to the Hakes on both fides, upon which a
machine, called a cradle, is contrived to Aide ; and by the
help of a fmall parallel cord faftened in like manner, the
daring adventurer wafts himfelf over, and returns with his
booty.

In the Feroe iflands the method of bird-catching is more
extraordinary and hazardous than any which has already
been recited. The cliffs, to which the fowlers recur, are
in many cafes 200 fathoms high ; and they are traverfed
both from above and below. In the firll cafe, the fowlers
provide themfelves with a rope 80 or 100 fathoms long ;
and the adventurer fallens one end about his w-aitl and be-
tween his legs, and having recommended himfelf to the
proteftion of the Almighty, he is lowered down by fix
atfociates, who place a piece of wood in the margin of the
rock, that the rope may be prefervcd from being fretted
and broken by its fliarp edge. To his body is fallened a
fmall line which ferves for enabling him to give the necef-
faiy fignals, when he wiflies to be raifed or lowered, or
fliiftcd from one place to another. In changing his fitua-
tion, he is expofed to the hazard of injury from loofened
and falling ftones, which, falling on the head, mull inevi-
tably dellroy him, if he were not in fome degree protefted
by a ftroiig thick cap. The fowlers, by their altonifhing
dexterity, contrive to place their leet againll the front of
the precipice, and to dart themfelves fome fathoms from it,
for the purpofe of furveying the roofting places of the
birds, and projefting themfelves into the deep receffes,
where they lodge. There the fowler alights ; and difen-
gaging himfelf from the rope, which he fixes to a ftone,
colledts the booty at his leifure, attaches it to his girdle,
and when this is done, refnmes his fufpended pollure. He
will alfo, when occafions require it, fpring from the rock,
and in this attitude, by means of a fowling net, fixed to
the end of a flaff, catch the old birds which are flying to
and from their retreats. When this hazardous operation is
finifhed, he gives a fignal to his companions above, who pull
him up, and divide the booty. The feathers are prefcrved
for exportation ; the flelh is partly eaten frelh, and the

greater

B I R

p«ater part is dried lor winter's provifion. Li fowling
from below, the party have rccourfe to a boat, and when
they have arrived at the bafe of the precipice, one of the
moll intrepid of them fallens a rope about liis waill, and
being fiirnidied with a long pole, with an irDn hook at one
end, either chmbs, or is thruil up by his co;npanions, who
place a pole under him, to the next footing fpot within his
reach. By means of tiie rope he hoids up one of tlie boat's
crew ; and the reft are drawn up in the fame manner, each
of them being furniihed with his rope and fowling ftaff.
They then purfue their journey upwards, till they arrive
at the region of birds ; and they wander about the cliff in
fearch of them. They next aA in pairs ; one fallens him-
felf to the end of his affociate's rope, and, in places where
birds have nellled beneath his footing, he fulfers !:imfelf to
be lowered down, depending for fafcty on the ftrength of
his companion, by whom he is again hauled up ; but it
fometimes happens, that the perfou above is overpowered
by the weight, and in this cafe, both inevitably perilh. The
fowl is flung into the boat, which attends their operations,
for the purpofe of receiving the booty. The fowlers often
pafs feven or eight days in thio perilous occupation, and
lodge in the crannies which they find in various parts of
the precipice.

In fome remote parts of Rullia there is praftifed a Angu-
lar invention for taking great quantities of gelinottes or
grous. They choofe the mod open places in th.- birch
woods ; and there they plant long forks in the earth oppo-
fite the larger trees. On thefe for!;s is laid a horizontal
flick, gallows-wife, to which are tied fmall bundles of ears
of corn. At a fmall dillance from this part of the contri-
vance, is a kind of large funnel or inverted cone, made
with long birch twigs, thin and flexible, the lower extre-
mities of which are ftuck in the earth, very near to one
another ; but by fpreading towards the top, forms there an
opening of above a yard in diameter. In this opening is
placed a wheel made of two circles that interfeil each other,
and are furrounded with ftraiv and ears of corn. This
wheel turns on an axis fallened to the fides of the funnel in
fuch a manner, that there is room enough between the
flicks of the cone, and the circles, to admit of the wheel's
turning freely about. The birds firll perch upon the tranf-
verfe Hick near the tree ; and when they have a mind to
fall upon the corn tied to the wheel, they muft neceflarily
ftand upon one of the projefting parts of the circles of
which it is compofed. At that inflant the wlieel turns,
and the gelinotte falls, head foremoll, to the bottom of the
trap, w'hich is there fo contraftcd, that he cannot get out.
They fometimes find the machine half full of gelinottes.

The following method of netting or catching of wild
pigeons is eagerly purfued as a diverfion in difTLrtnt parts
of Italy, particularly by the inhabitants of Cava, in the
Hither Principato, and is thus dcfcribed by Mr. Swinburne.
The people " affemble in parties ; and if any flranger
chances to ftray to their rendezvous, give him a moll cordial
welcome. I am not in the leall furprifed (fays Mr. Swin-
burne), at their paflionate fondnefs for th'S Iport, as I
found it extremely bewitching, keeping the attention con-
flantly alive, and the fprings of the mind pleaflngly agitated
by expedlation ; the fituations where the toils are fpread
are incomparably beautiful, the air is pure and balfamic,
and every thing around breathes health and fatisfadlion.
When the periodical flights of (lock-doves return from the
northern and wellern parts of Europe, to gain warmer
regions for their winter abode, the fowler repairs to the
mountain, and fpreads his nets acrofs the intermediate hol-
lows, the palTes through which the birds direft their courfe,

B I R

to avoid unneceflary elevation in their flight. Thefe nets
are hung upon a row of large trees planted for the purpofe.
The branches being very thick and clofe at top, and the bore
lofty and bare, a great opening is kft below for the toils,
which reach to the ground ; and, by means of pulleys, fall
in a heap with the leall effort. Sometimes they are ex-
tended upon p lies that exceed the height of the tree;. At
a fmall dillauee is a lofty circular turrtt. like a column with
a little capital or cap, upon v.-hieh a man is ftationed to watch
the approach of the game. As he commands a free view over
all the country, and prattice has made his fight as acute as
that of the lynx, he defcries the birds at a wonderful dillance.
The doves advance with great velocity ; but the alert watch-
man is prepared for them ; and juft as they approach his
poll, hurls a ftone above them with a flmg : upon this the
whole flock, wKofe fears have birds of prey for their great
objeCl, fuppofing the Hone to be an enemy of that kind
ready to pounce them, dart down like lightning to avoid
the blow by pafTmg under the trees ; but there they rulh
into the jaws of death, by dafliing againft the net, which
inllantly drops, and fo entangles them that not one of them
can efcape the active hands of the iowler. Thefe birds are
fometimes taken by dozens at one fall, and are accounted
fine eating. The dexterity with which the flingers manage
their weapon is very remarkable ; they throw the ftone to
a great he:ght without any violent clfort, and even without
whirling the fling round before they difcharge the pellet.
In the Pyrenean mountains, where the fame diverfiun is fol-
lowed, the watchmen ufe a bow and arrow, trimmed with
the feathers of a hawk."

The following Ample but ingenious method of catching
aquatic birds is ufed in Mexico by the natives. The lakes
of the Mexican vale, as well as others of the kingdom, are
frequented by a prodigious multitude of ducks, geefe, and
other water-birds. The Mexicans leave fome empty gourds
to float upon the water, where thofe birds refort, that they
may be accuftomed to fee and approach them without fear.
The bird-catcher goes into the water fo deep as to hide his
body, and covers his head with a gourd ; the ducks come
to peck at it ; and then he pulls them by the feet under
v.-ater, and in this manner fecures as many as he pkafes.

Sir George Staunton, in his " Embaffy to China," (vol. ii.
p. 400. ) informs us, that water-fowl are taken upon the
Wee-Chaung-hoo lake in that country by a fimilar device.
Empty jars or gourds are fuffercd to float about upon the
water, that fuch objefts may become familiar to the birds.
The filherman then wades into the lake with one of thofe
empty vefTels upon his head, and walks gently towards a
bird ; and lifting up his arm, draws it down below the fur-
face of the water, without any diilurbance or giving alarm
to the reft, feveral of which he treats in the fame manner,
until he fills the bag which he had brought to hold his
prey. This contrivance is not fo fingular as it is that the
fame device Ihould have occurred in the New Continent, as
Ulloa affcrts, to the natives of Carthagena, upon the lake
Cienega de Tefias.

Birds, fjh'ing zvith, is a fingular mode of fifliing pradifed
in fome of the lakes of China, and particularly dcleribtd in
the account cf the late tmbalfy. Upon a lake near the
imperial canal were obfcrvcd thoufands of fmall boats and
rafts, conftrudled for this fingular kind of filhing. On ea:n
boat or raft were ten or twelve birds, which, at a lignal
from the owner, plunged into the water ; and it was afto-
nifhing to obferve the enormous fize of the iifli with which
they returned, grafped within their bills. Thefe birds ap-
peared to be fo well trained, that it did not require either
ring or cord about their throats, to prevent their fwallowing

anv

B I R

any portion of their prey, except what the matter was
plsafod to return to thcr.i for ciicouragcineiil and food. T'ne
boat ufed by thtfe lithermen is of a remirkable light make ;
and is often carried to t!ie lake, together witli the fiilv.ng
bird5, by the men who are there to be fiipported by it.
Tlie bird trained for this pnrpcjfe is a fp.-cics of pelican,
dtfcribed by Dr. Shaw, from a fpecimen fubmittcd to his
infpeclion, as " the brown pelican or corvorant, with white
throat, the body whitifli beneath and fpotted with brown,
the tail rounded, the iiides blue, the b:U yellow." Staun-
toii'5 cmbaffy to Chi:;a, vol, ii. p. 388.

BiRD-/''«i", avifcid fubftance, prepand various ways, and
from various materials, for the catching of birds, mice, and
other vermin.

The bird-lime ordinarily ufcd among us, is made from
hoUy-bark, boiled ten or twelve hours. When the green
coat is feparated from the other, it is covered up a fortnight
in a moill place, then pounded into a rough palle, fo that
no fibres of the wood be left, and ivadicd in a running ftream
till no motes appear, put up to ferment four or five days,
Ikimmed as often as any thing arifcs, and laid up for ufe.
To ufe it, a third part of nut oil, or any thin greafe, is
incorporated with it over the fire.

The mifletoe affords a juice, even fuperior to tiiat of the
holly ; and if a young (hoot of the common elder be cut
through, a ilringy juice will driw out in threads, and follow
the knife like bird-lime, or the juice of holly. It ftems
in this tree to be lodged, not in the bark, but in certain
veins juft within the circle of the wood. The roots of all
the hyacinths alfo afford a tough and Ilringy juice of the
fame kind, and fo do the afpliodel, the narciflus, and the
black bryony root, in a furprifing quantity.

The bird-lime brought from D.iniafcus is fuppofed to be
made of fcbeltins, tiuir kernels being frequently found in it :
but this does not endure either froll or wet. That brought
from Spain is of an ill fmell : that of the Italians is made of
the berries of mifletoe, heated, mixed with oil, as before ;
to make it bear the water, they add turpentine. It is faid,
the bark of our viburnum or wayfaring flirub makes bird-lime
as good as the bell.

Bird-lime is a fnbllancc very apt to be congealed, and
rendered unferviccable by frolls ; to prevent which it is pro-
per, at the cold fcafons, to incorporate fome petroleum with
it, before it is ufed. The method of iifing it is to make it
hot, and dip the ends of a bundle of rods in it ; then to
turn them about and play them together, till a fufficient
quantity is extended over them all. If llrinirs or cords are
to be limed, they are to be dipped into tho bird-lime, while
vei-y hot. The cords may be put L/i col^'. but the rods
fhould be warmed a little. Straws are ti ye limed while
the matter is very hot : a large bundle of them fhould be
put in at one , and worked about in it, till ihey are well
befmeared. When thus prepared, they fhould be prefei-vcd
in a leather bag, till they are ufed. When the twigs or
cords are to be put in places fnbjecl to wet, the common
bird-limc is apt to have its force loon taken away : it is ne-
ceffary, therefore, to have rtcourfe to a particular fort,
which, from its property of bearing water unhurt, is called
viater-lird-liine ; and is prepared thus : Take a pound of
ftrong and good bird-lime, wafli it thoroughly in fpring-
water, till the hardnefs is entirely removed ; and then beat
it well, tliat the water miy be feparated from it ; then dry
it well, and put it into an earthen pot ; add to it as much
capon's greale as will make it run. Then add two fpoon-
fuU cif llroiig vinegar, one fpoonful of oil, and a fmall
quantity of Venice turpentine. Let the whole boil for fome
minutes over a moderate fire, ftirring it all the time. Then

B I R

take it off; and when there is occafion to ufe it, warm it,
and cover the flicks well with it. This is the beft fort of
biidlime for fnines, and other birds that love wet pla^res.

In order to ufe the common bird lime, cut down the main
branch or boogh of any bufhy tree, whofc twigs are thick,
ftr.iight, long, and fniootli, and have neither knots nor
prickles. The willow and the birch trees will bcfl anfwer
the purpofe. Trim off all the fupcrfiioiis {hoots ; and when
the twigs are made neat and clean, let them be well covered
with the blrd-iime, willim four inches of the bottom, but
without toui-hin J the main bough from which they proceed.
Some art is necefTary to lay on the bird-lime properly ; fo
that it be neither too thick, which would give the birds a
di'.laile, and prevent their approaching it ; nor too thin,
fo that it would not hold them when they touch it. Hav-
ing prepared the bulh, let it be placed in fome dead hedge,
or among growing buflies, near the outflviits of a town, a
farmer's yard, or fuch litiution, if it be in the fpring, when
the birds rcfort to fuch places. If it be ufed in fummer, let
the bufh be fixed in the midll of a quick fet hedge, or in
groves, bv.lhes, or white thorn trees, near fields of corn,
hemp, flax, and the like ; and in the winter, near flacks of
corn, hovels, barn?, and I'uch places. When the linie-bufh
is thus planted, the fportfman m.uft fland as near it as he
can, without being difcovered, and contrive to make fuch
forts of notes as tlie birds do when they call to one another.
Bird-calls may be ufed for this purpofe ; but the moft ex-
pert method is to imitate with the voice the notes of call of
the feveral birds. Wiien a fingle bird is thus enticed to the
bufh, and faflened to it, the fportfman is to wait till, by
flruggling to releafe itfelf, it becomes more fecurely at-
taclied, and by its fluttering it has brought other birds to
the bulh ; fo that in this way feveral may be caught at once.
The time of the day for this fport is from iun-rife to 10
o'clock, and from i till fun-fet. Another mode of bringing
the birds together is by a ftale ; fuch as, a bat faflened in
fight at a dillance, or an owl, which is followed by feveral
fmall birds, which, alighting on the lime-bufli, will be en-
tangled. The Ikin of an owl fluffed, or even the image of
an owl carved on wood and painted in its natural colours,
has been fuccefsfuUy ufed for the fame purpofe.

M. Barrcra, phyfician at Perpignan, difcovered an animal
bird-lime, prepared of the bolls of a fort of caterpillars,
by putrefying them in the earth, ileeping them in water,
and then pounding and mixing them with olive oil. Fontenel.
Hill. Acad. Scienc. J 720, p. 12.

Birds, mi\;ral!on of, See Migration.
Birds' ne/h, in Cooiery, the neils of a fmnll Indian
fw?.llow, very delicately tailed, and frequently mixed among
foups. Mr. Marfden in his account of Sumatra, fir George
Staunton in his embafTy to China, and many other travellers
of more ancient and modern date, have recited feveral par-
ticulars concerning thefe edible nefls. But we have a more
minute and ample defcription of them, as well as of the
birds by which they are formed, in the ihirti volume of the
" Tranfattions of the Batavian Society in the ifland of
Java, for promoting the arts and fciences." The birds that
conflruft them are of a blackifh grey colour, fomewhat in-
clining to green, but gradually changing on the back to the
tail, and on the belly, into a moufc colour. The length of
the bird, from the bill to the tail, is about 4! inches ; and
its height, from the bill to the extremity of the middle toe,
3 J inches. The diflance from the tip of one wing to that
of the other, when extended, is IC5 inches ; the largefl
feathers of the wings are about 4 inches in length. The
head is flat ; but, on account of the thicknefs of the feathers,
appears roiyid, and large in proportion to the fizc cf the
6 reft

B I R

l-eft of the bodv. The bill is broad, tein.ir.atmg in a llarp
extremity, and iiicurvated like an awl. Its v.idth is in-
creafed by a naked piece of fkin, refembling parchment,
which, when the bill is (liut, is folded together ; but when
open, is conllderably extended, and enables the bird, while
on wing, to catch with greater ea(e the infcfts that ferve it
for food. The eyes are black and large ; the tongue is
fhaped like an arrow, and not forked ; the ears are flat,
round, naked fpots, with fmall oblong openings, and are
wholly couceal'.d under the feathers of the head ; the neck
is veiy fhort, as well as the legs and bones of the wings ;
the tliighs are wholly covered with feathers ; and the very
tender lower parts of the legs, and the feet, are covered
with a fkin like black p:ir',hment. Each foot has four toes ;
three before, and one turned backwards. The toes are fe-
parate to tlicir roots ; and the middle one, together with the
claw, is as long as the lower part of the leg. Each toe is
furnifhed with a black, fliarp, crooked claw, corfiderdbly
long, by which the biid can cafily attach itfclf to cra^s of
rocks. The tail is as loi.g as the body, together with the
neck and head : when exter.ded it has the form of a wedge,
and confifts of ten large feathers ; the four firft of which on
each fide are long, and, when the tail is clofcd, extend al-
mofl; an inch beyond the reft. The other feathers decreafe
towards the middle of the tail, and are equal to abo'it the
length of the body. The whole bird is very light and ten-
der ; ten ot them together weighed little more than zi
ounces. The Javanefe call it " lavvit ;" but thofe who live
in the mountains, " berongdagx," or " waled :" voerong,
in the Malay language, lignifying in general a bird.

There are two places in particular, near Batavia, where
thefe birds are found in great numbers. The firft, Ca-
lappa Nongal, iies about lo miles fouth of the city ; and
the other, Sampia, is fomewhat more diftant to the fouth-
veft : but both are in that range of high land extending
towards the fea, and apparently different from the large
ridge that extends over the whole ifiand. Befides thefe
there are aU'o other places in the fame diilrift, or at a greater
diftance from the coaft, which either produce a few, or are
carefully concealed by the Javanefe, to whom they are
known. The two bird mountains above-mentioned, called
by the Javanefe (2:0a) caverns, are infulated rocks, hollow
within, and pierced with numerous openings of different
fi7.es ; but fome fo fmall, that they feem to be peculiarly
adapted to the fecurity of thefe httlc animals. On the
outlide, thefe rocks are covered with various kinds of tall
trees ; and within, they confill of grey calcareous ftone and
white marble. To the fides of thefe caverns the birds affix
their fmall nefls in horizontal rows, and fo clofe as almo.1
to adhere together. They are conftrucled at different
heights, from jo to 300 feet ; and no cavity that is dry and
clean is left unoccupied ; but if the fides of the caverns be
in the lead wet or moift, the birds defert them. At day-
break thefe birds fly abroad from their hole?, with a 1 ud
fluttering noife ; and in dry weather rife inftantaneoully to
fuch a height in the atmofphere, for the purpofe of fceking
their food in dillant parts, that thuy are foon out of fight.
In the rainy feafon they never wander far from their holes,
particularly in Java, where fome rocks are fituated near the
ihore. About 4 in the afternoon thev return, and confine
thenafclves fo clofely to their retired habitations, that none
of them are feen to fly either out or in, except thofe that
are hatching. They feed upon all forts of infeCls that hover
over the ftagnated water ; and thefe, by the eafy extenCon
of their bills, they readily catch. Their moil dell ruftive
enemy is a kind ot hawk, which feizes many of them as they
itfue from their holes, and which the people frighten away
by (hooting at them. Their nells are prepared, favs this

Vol. IV.

B I R

wiiter, from l!ie fltooCTeft ivmains of the food which they
life, and not of the fcum of the fea, or of fea-plants, as
fome have afferted. On this fubjeft, however, there have
been different opinions. Kacmpfer fays, that the fubftance
with which they form their nefts is the mollufca or fea-
worm ; according to Le Poivre, fi!h-fpawn ; according to
Dalry:nple, fea-weeds ; and according to Linnsus, the ani-
mal fubllance often found on the fca-beach, and called by
fifliermen blubbers or jeilits. In proof of his opinion, this
author fuggcH^, that it is known from experience, th'.t
thofe bird?, whicli build their nells in the two rocks before-
mentioned, have never been found on the fea-coa!V, and could
not pofFibly fly thither and return again in fo few hours, on
account of the high :nter\'er.ing mountain?, and the (lormy
winds that often prevail among them. The great d fference
in the colour and valre of thefe ncfls pro-i-es, that their
goodnefs depends merely on the fuperabundance and quality
of the infefts on which they feed, and ptrhap-. on the great€4-
or lefs folitude of the place where they feek nourifkment.
T^iofe found in the territory of Calappa Nongal and Goa-
gadia are exceedingly grey, and worth one third lefs than
thofe produced in tfie territcr)' of Sampia ; and thefe latter
are not to be compared with an excellent fort which is every
year imported from Ternate and Paflier, or which is to be
found on the furro;!nding ifland:^, particularly to the eaft of
Borneo. Thefe birds occupy two months in preparing their
nefts : thev then lay their eggs (two in number), on which
they fit for 15 or 16 days. As foon as the young are
fledged, people begin to coUedl the nefls, which is regularly
done ever)- four months ; and this forms the harveft ot thofe
who are the proprietors of the rock^ The bufincfs of tak-
ing down the nells is performed by perfons accufl:omed f:om
their youth to climb thefe rocks. For this purpofe they
conftruft ladders of reeds and bamboos, by which tl-.ey
afcend to the holes ; or, if the caverns are too deep, they em-
ploy (hip-rcpes. When they h^ave dcfcendcd to the bottom
of the caverns, they place bamboos with notches in then;
againft the fides, if thefe be fufScient, in order to get up to
the nefts ; bat if they cannot thus reach them, they afcerd
the ladders, and pull down the neils with poles of bamboo
made for that purpofe. There are alfo certain holes to
which people can afcend by means of fteps made of bam-
boos ; but thefe are very few. This employment is very
dangerous : many lofe their lives in purfuing it, and more
particularly thofe who attempt to rob thefe caverns at im-
proper feafons ; for guarding againll whofe depredations,
there are fmall watch-houfes conftruclcd in their vicinity.
The mountaineers who engage in this occupation, never un-
dertake their labour till they have flaughtered or facrificed a
buffalo ; which cuftom is continually obferved by the Java-
nefe, at the commencement of any estraordinarv enlcrprize.
On fuch oocafions they mutter over a few pravers, anoint
themfelves with aromatic oil, and fumigate the holes with
odoriferous fubftan;es. At tl;e chief of thefe caverns, in
the ifland of Java, a particular protefling fem.ale deity is
worfhipped, under the name of " Raton L.aut Ridul," or
Princtls of the South Sea. She is provided with a fmall
hut, and a covered fleeping pluce, together with various
elegant articles of drefs, which no one but a piincefs mull
approach. On eveiy Friday, v.-hen the nefts are taken down,
incenfe is continually burnt ; and the body and cluthes of
every one who intends to afcend the rocks muft be expofed
to it. In order to have fight in the caverns, they ufe torches
made of the refinous gum of a large tree called "caret," and
the inner bark of the arek tree.

The gathering of the nells continue* no longer than a
month, and may be repeated three times a year. Some fay-
it 'nay be done a fourth time ; but the moll experier.ccd fay,
3 M that.

B I R

tTiat a neft, as long as it remains entire, is continually en-
lar^jcd or made thicker, until it is entirely defcrtcd by the
bird, when it lias become dry or hairy in tlic iulide.
When the nclb have bieii collcded, they require o:ily to be
dried and cleanfcd, and then they art packed in balkets and
foli to the Chiiiefe. Their price variei, and d^p^nds on
their whitcnefs and fintncfs. Some ol' thtni have a grey,
and others a rtddiili uppearancc : thole of tin; bell fort are
exceedingly fcarce. Tiuy are fold at t!ie rate of from 8oo
to 1400 rix-dollars per 125 pound'. This high price, aud
the infatiable avarice of the ChinelV, give rife to much diU
honclly and thieving, efpecially ai the Chijele make no
fcruple of bribing the watchmen v.ith money, opiiiin, and
clothc» ; nor can anyvigilance prevent this fram!. Calappa
Nongal and Sampri forintr'y belonged to t!ie Dutch Eall-
India company ; but, i.i 177S, the government refolved to
fell them by auction to the higheil bidder, and received for
them almoil ico.OOO rix dollars. Ikfidcs thefe, there are
feveral other plices of a like kind, though lefs important, in
the fame range of moimtains ; and there are alio two or
three in the high land, in the interior parts of the country,
and fevtial finall ones which are eaiefuUy concealed.
Three conliderable bird-mountains, Goa Daher, Cede, and
Nangafari, are fiUiated in the government of Saniaiang, in
Java ; and thtfe arc wafhed by the fea, which furirs its way
fo deep into the latter that hfii may be caught in it. In
thefe places the iielh are of an excellent quality ; but the
fteepnefs of the rocks, and the violence of the furf, render
it very dangerous to coUeiSl them ; and, therefore, a fuf-
pcnded apparatus of bamboos is employed for this purpofe.
The quantity of thffe nclls, coUecled annually in the iikind
of Java, amounts to 3500 pounds in weight. There are
alio bird caverns in Bantam, and tlie iflaiid of Sumatra,
in the Andaman and Nieobar iflandi, in the ifland of Bor-
neo, and alfo in Cochiu-China. The young birds are eaten
both by the Javantfe and the Europeans in India ; but it is
difficult to procure therr. They are cor.fidered as very
heating : but the uc'ls, on the other hand, when they have
been boiled to a C:my kind of foup, expofed in the night-
time to the dew, and mixed with lugar, are very cooling.
The Javanefe, therefore, ule them in viokrt fevers ; and
they are faid to be prcferibed with good fuceefs for fore
throats and hoarfenefs. This latter ule of them has pro-
bably been derived from the Chintfe, who carry on a great
trade by thefe nefts, ard eat many of them in the winter,
becaufe fore throats are then very common in the northern
part of the kingdom, in confeqncnce of the people ac-
cu.1omin.j thciTiftlves to fit very much over the tire. But
the author of the paper, from which thefe particulars arc
extracttd, was rot able to difcovcr this nourilliing and
ftre.igthe:;ing q;ia!ily tliat has been fo much extolled, though
he ufed 1 CQuiiderafJe number of thefe neitf, prepared in
T3ri"';i ways, in order to convince himfilt of the faft. He
canfed them to be examined by able cheinitls ; but nothing
more ct'uid be obUrved than that the lolution prcfented a
weak gum, with 3 difaiireeable tafte, which perhaps might
be of fo.ne ufe in flight indifpofitions of the breaO.

Thefe nefls are, therefore, a mere article of luxury to
adorn the tables (.f the rich. The Chinefe are rcn^.srkably
fond of them. After being foaked and well eka: fed, they
put them, along with a f?it capon or a duck, into an earthen
pot clofely covcre !, and fuffcr them to boil for 24 hours
over a (\o\v fire, whic'.i they c.-U " timmeii ;"' and, on ac-
count of this addition, the whole difh acquires a more luf-
«ions tafte. The trade in thefe nefts has of late much in-
crcafcd. The high and advancii g price of tliem in China
makes Batavia the principal mart of this commoditv, which
is employed, Cnce the company have furrendertd' it, very

B i R

advantageoufly by tlic inhabitants, to lefTen the prejudidal
exportation of fpecie.

The fpecies of fwallow that fornio thefe nefts is not to be
found in China. Linnaeus gives, as a diftinguifhing mark
of the iinirK/o efculcula, that it has white fpots only 011 the
feathers of the tail. But the linall bird^ in Java that con-
ftruft the nefts, have fpots neither on the tail nor on any
other place. The tail feathers are entirely of one colour,
blackilh grey above, and a little brighter below. Rumphius
fays of his capoJa imirlna, that the feathers of the tail were
fpotted, and that the bicait alfo was fpeckled black and
white. Valentin, in his dcfcription of the fmall fwallow
which couftruCls edib'e neiU,, mentions neither fpots nor
fpeckles ; and only fays, that the belly was undulated black,
and white. If thefe are to be coniidered as e!i"v:ntial differ-
ences, it will follow thai there are two kinds of thefe fwal-
lows : one with a fpeckled breaft, and white fpots on the
tail feathers ; and the other, without fpots or fpeckles. A
third kind of thefe fwallows would be thofe called " mo-
mos," or " boerongitams." Tlicfe alfo prepare their nells
of eatable fubllances ; bat on account of the number of
fmall feathers, and other impurities mij:ed with them, they
arc not fit to be ufed ; and people, therefore, endeavour, as
much as poffible, to exterminate them,, as they fpoil the
habitations of the better kinds. They are dilliuguifhed from
the others merely by being larger, and having their leg3
down to the feet covered with fmall feather,^.

Birds, pclures of, prej>ared hy means of I heir otvn feathirs..
For this purpofe, procure a thin board of deal or wainfcot,
well feafoned, that it may not warp. On this pafte white
paper, and let it dry : then get any bird which you would
wilh to reprefcnt, and draw its outline on the paper, in the
defired attitude, and in its natural fize, with the addition of
any lanJfcape or back-ground, 5:c. which you may think
bell. This outline fo drawn is afterwards to be filled up
with the feather* iVo.ii the bird, placing each feather in that
part of the drawing correfponding t*) the part of the bird
from which it was taken.. To do this, cover the outline re-
prefentation with feveral coats of llrcjng gum-water, allow-
ing it to dry between each coat, till it is of about the thick-
nefs of a fhilling. When the ground is thus prepared, take
the feathers off from the bird, beginning at the tail or points
of the wings, and work upwards towards the head. Thefe
feathers mull he prepared by clipping off all the downy part;
and the large feathers mult have the infides of their Ihafts
pared off, fo that they may lie flat. In laying tlicm oa,
hold them by a pair of fmall pliers, and, moillening the
gummed ground with water, place each feather in its na-
tural and proper fituation. Keep each feather down, by
placing upon it a fmall leaden weight, till you have another
ready to be laid on. Care mull be taken not to let the gum
pafs through the feathers, fo as to fmear them 01 to adhere
to the bottjm of the weight, and thus pull off or diforder
the pofitioti of the feathers;. When all the feathers are put
oil, cut a piece of loiind paper, and colour it to refemble
tlie eye of the biid, and then tliek it in its proper place ; but
the bed fubllitutions for this purix)f<: are fmaH eyes made of
glafs. The bill, legf, and feet, mull be drawn and coloured
from nature. When it is finifhcd a.id at'julled to your
mind, lay a (beet of piipcr npon it, and upon that a heavy
weight to piefs it down ; and after it has remained in that
polition til! it is quite dry, it may be preferved in a glaCs-fiame.
Birds, prejertint'ion of. Many methods have been ufed by
natarahlls for pi-eferving dead birds from corruption, in their
natiu-al form and colour.. Some have taken off the Ikin,
with all the featliers upon it, from the body and thighs,
leaving the tail, legs and wings, with the whole neck and
the bill, and filled it with fume foft ftuff, fueh as hay,

wool.

B I R

vool, Or flax. Mr. Kuckahn (ubi infra), and Dr. Lett-
fom (Naturalill's C'Jtnpanion, p. 12, &c.), who approve
of this method as one of the moft compleat and leaft trouble-
fome, diretl, that after opening the bird by a longitudinal
inciGon from the brtaft to the vent, feparating the flefhy
parts from the bones, and removing the entrails, eyes, brain,
and tongue, the cavities and the infidc of the flcin fliould/be
■fprinkled with the powders (as below) ; the eyes to be ni-
ferted, for which purpole wax may be ufcd, or glafs-cves of
any f'Zt^ or colour may be cheaply procured ; and the head
to be lluiT-.d with cotton or tow. When this is done, a
wire fhould be made to pafs down the throat, through one
of the noftrlls, and fixed into the breall-bone. Wires
(hould alfo be introduced through the feet up the leg3 and
thighs, and ir.ferted into tlu; fame bone ; and then the
body (hould be filled with cotton to its natural fize, and the
fkin fewed over it. The attitude (hould alfo be regarded ;
for, in V hatever pofidan the fubject is placed to dry, the
fame pofuion will be afterwards retained. The powder
■which he recommends is compofed of i lb. of corrofive
fublimate, \ lb. of prepared or burnt laltpetre, i lb. of
burnt alum, { tb. of floAers of fulphur, 5 lb. of camphor
or mufiv, I lb. of black pepper, and i lb. of tobacco ground
coarfe. The whole (hould be mixed together, and kept in
a glafi veffcl {lopp;d clofe.

This method is particularly defcribed by Mr. Kuckahn,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ix. p. 311, Sec. When the above-men-
tioned procefs is finilhed in the manner which he has mi-
nutely detailed, he adviir s to bake the birds ictetxled for
prefervation in an oven of a due degree of heat ; and he ob-
ferves, that baking is not only ufeful in fuch prefervatioas,
but will alfo be of very great fervice to old ones, as it dc-
ftroys the eggs of infetls. And it fliould be, he fays, a
conftant practice once in two or three years to bake them
over again, and to fre(k wafh the cafes with a liquid made
by diffolving o:ic pound of camphor in half a gallon of fpirit
t)f turpentine.

Others have put them into vefFcls full of fpirit of wine, or
Ilrong brandv ; againft v.hich it has been objeftcd that
fpiritunus liquors change the colours of the feathers 4 but
M. Reaumur concludes from many e.\periments, that this
objection is groundlcfs ; and he has given fevei-al minute
directions for preferving and conveying them in this way.
Others again, efpecially in countries where fpices are cheap,
have embalmed dead birdc. Reaumur obfer\es, that pow-
dered alum or lime will ferve the fame purpofe. Another
method which has been fomctimes ptaclifed, is that of dry-
ing birds for prefervation in a heated oven. It is of import-
ance, however, that dncd birds (hould be fecured in boxes
or barrels fufliciently clofed, that infed-s may not (lip in
during the voyage or journey ; and all the empty fpaccs
loft in the barrel thould be filled up with hemp, fla.x, cot-
ton, &c The fame ingenious naturalift informs us, that
quadrupeds, fi(hes, reptiles, and infects, may be preferved
in the fame manner with birds. For Reaumur's diieftions
to this purpofe, fee Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. xi. page 891,
&c.

Mr. Chaptal recommends the following method of pre-
paring all kinds of animals for cabinets, as exceedingly
limple, and fo certain in it;. cffec\ that he never found it to
fail in a lingle inllance. The matter contained in the bowels
of the animal muil be evacuated, cither by gradually prcffing
the body towards the reCluni, or by injecting iome liquid
which may remove every thing that (lauds in its wav. Af-
ter this operation, the end of the redtum (hould be lied with
a thread, and ether ihould be injedted with a proper iuftru-
ment into the body, through the mouth or bill ; and when
the bowels have been filled with it, the animal is to be hung

B I R

up by the head. One of the eyes muft then be fcooped
out, and the brain extracted ; after which the head is alfo
filled with ether, which muil be prevented from efcaping
^y P'ug5'"^g up the eye hole. On the fecond or third day
the injection of ether is to be repeated ; and this procefs is
to be contiuutd till the animal is completely dried. While
it istgrad'ially dr)ing, care muil be taken to give the body
its proper pofition ; and as f^on as it is completely defic-
cated, it may be put up witiiout further care or any other
preparation. Ether is preferable to fpirits of wine, be-
caufe, by its evaporation, it carnes with it not only its own
aqueous particles, but thofe alfo which it abforbs from the
body. Befidcs, this method neither dcftroys the form of
the animal, nor tarnidics the fplendoiir of the feathers or
hair, and is very cheap ; one ounce of ether being in gene-
ral fuffitient fur a fn;all bird. The proccfs of drving, lays
Mr. Chaptal, might perhaps be a little fiiortened by the ap-
phcation of artiticial heat. The theoiy of this procefs, as
this ingenious chemill thinks, is, that the ether, while it
evaporates, volatilifcs the moifture in the animal body, and
by thefe means etlccls a gradual deliccation, and thus re-
moves the oiJy canfe of corruption.

The method of preferving birds in Guiana, defcribed by
Bancroft (p. 184.), is as follows; The birds intended for
prefervation, and for being conveyed to the cabinets of
Europe, are depufited in a proper veffcl, and covered with
high wines, or the firll running of the dilliUation of rum.
In tliis fpirit they remain for 24 or 48 hours, or longer,
according to their Cze, till it has penetrated every part of
their bodies. When this is done, the birds are taken out,
and the leathers, which are not at all changed by this im-
raerfion, are placed fmooth and regular. They are then put
into a machine, made for the purpofe ; and the head, feet,
wings, tail, &c. are placed exactly agreeable to life. In this
pofition they are put into an oven, very moderately heated,
where the) arc (lowly dried ; and they will ever after retain
their natural pofition, without danger of putrefadion.

Birds, ^n^m^, are the nightingale, blackbird, darling,
thru(h, linnet, laik, throftle, canary bird, bullfinch, gold-
finch, &c. See Song of birds.

BIRDAMA, in jinc'unt Geography, a town of India, oa
this fide the Ganges, which, according to Ptolemy, wa«
the capital of a people called Porvari.

BIREMIS, from Hi, double, and retnut, car, in jinli-
quily, a velfcl with one or more rows of oars, ranged, as
Iome think, in two (lages over each other ; or a vefTel hav-
ing two ranks or rows of oars placed over, and afide of each
other. But the particular fabric of thefe veffels fcems far
from being a fettled point among the learned. The Roman
birem'u is the fame with what the Greeks call oucfara, and
(lands contradilUnguifhed from liiremis, quadriremis, &c.

BIRINGOCCTO, or Biringucci, Vasnuccio, in
Biography, a mathematician of Sienna, was dcfcended of a
noble lan-.ily, and flourillied about the i6th ccnturj-. Alter
having been employed by the dukes of Parma and Ferrara,
he entered iiito the fervice of the Venetians. He is faid to
have been the firll Italian author who wrote on the art of
fufing and calling metals ; particularly for the purpofe of
making cannon. His woiL, entitled, " Pirotcchiiia, f:c."
was printed ■at Venice in 1540, 410; at Bologna, in 1673,
Svo ; and at the lame place ;n 1550, 155*), and 1559, 410.
A Latin trnnflation of it appeared at Parii in 15-2, 4to; and
at Cologne, 1658, 410. A French tranllation, by Jacob Vin-
cent, was publilhed at Paris in I J56, and 1559, 4to ; and at
Rouen in 1627. As a metallurgic writer, who detailed his
own obfervations and experiments, and gave a clear and con-
nected account of the chief proctfles in metallurgy, Biringoc-
cio is highly commended by profedor Bcckmau. Gen. Biog.
3 M 2 BIRKAN,

B 1 R

BIRKAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 24 mHea
fouth of SaaJc.

BIRKENFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle ot
ilic Upper Rhine, and county -of Sponheim, the font of a
bailiwu-, including 32 villages and two iron founderics. It
was taktn by the "French in 1 79+ ; and in their new ar-
langcment, it it the principal place of a diftrift of the fame
name, in the department of Sarre. The town contains
1061, and the canton 5S92 ptrfon». This diftrift com-
prehtnds 38 communes, and its whole territorial extent in-
cindes 1615 kiliometrcs. It is fitiiated 50 miles E.N. E.
of Trevoi. and 30 N.N.W. of Deux Pouts.

BIRKENHEAD, or BtRKESHEAD, Sir John, in
B'vx^itphw a political writer of fome celebrity, was meanly
defceiidtd, and born at Northwich, in the county of Chefter,
about the year 1615. In 1632 he was entered as a fervitor
in Oriel college, Oxford, ajid afterwards became amanuenfis
to archbilhop Laud, who recommended him in 1640 to be
chofeu probationu-fellow of All-Souls' College. Wlien
Oxford became the head-quarters of king Charles I. in the
time of the civil war, Birkenhead was felefteJ as a proper
perfon to write a kind of journal in fupport of the royal
caufe ; which office he difcliarged to the fatisfaftion of his
employers, and with reputation ?nd advantage to himfclf.
Tlie king appointed him reader in moral phiiofophy ; and
this poll, more honourable than lucrative, he retained till
the year 1648, when he was expelled by the parliament
vifitors. From hence he removed to London, where he
wrote feveral poetical pieces, chiefly of a fatirical kind,
Wvelled againft the republicans in power ; and, on account
of his fteady attachment to the royal caufe, he was called
the " loyal poet," and fiifTered feveral imprifonments.
Upon the reiloi-ation of Charles II. he was rewarded for
his loyally. In i66r, he was created doftor of the civil
law, by theuniverfity of Oxford ; and about the fame time,
was returned to ferve in parliament for the borough of Wilton.
He was knighted in 1662, and fucceeded fir Richard Fan-
fhaw as mailer of requefts. The favours which he received
from the court expofed him to many fevcrc attacks from
thofe who oppofcd it ; but he was eftecmed by the learned
pcrfons of his tinie^ and eletlcd a fallow of the Royal So-
ciety ; and his memory has been tranfmitted with honour to
pollcrity by Dr)'den, Langbaiue, and Winftanley, norwith-
ilanding the reproaches of Anthony Wood. He died in
Wcllminl^er, in 1679. Biog. Brit.

• BIRKEv>TORFF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia and duchy of Juliers, one mile
nortii of Dueren.

BIRKET EL HADJIS, ox Lah of Pilgrum, a lake
of Egypt, communicating with the Nile, and fituate 10
miks E.N. E. of Cairo, near which the companies which
form the caravan 10 Mecca afiemble.

BIRKET EL KERUN, or C.'vroun, a lake of Egypt,
30 miles long and 6 broad in the middle, but of an irregular
form, and narrowing towaids each end ; 40 miles S.W. of
Cairo. See M(fris.

BIRKFIEHER, Blauer Raker, in Omithaiogy, the
jinmc of the gaiTu'.ous roller, coracias garrula in Frifch.
Av.

BIRKIN, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Bollin, one mile fouth of Altringham in the county
of Chefter.

BIRKOZOWKA, a town of Poland, m the palatinate
of K'.w, 40 miles S.E. of Bialacerkiew.

BIRI^AB, a town of Egypt, in the route from Catich
to El Arifh, 17 miles E.N.E. of Calich, and at a fmajl
diftance eall of the lake of Sebaket Bardoil, or king
Baldwin's lake.

B I R

BIRLAT, a town of European Tsrkey, feated on a
river of the fame name, in the province of Moldavia, 60
miles N.W. of Galate, and 116 S.W. of Bender.— Alio,
a river which runs into the Siret at Dubravitzn, in Mol-
davia.

BIRMAN, or BuRMAN Emp'ut, comprizes the king-
doms of Ava and Pegu, and deiives its name fiom the Bir.
mahs or Burmahs, who have been long known as a warlike
nation, in the country formerly called " India beyond
the Ganges ;" its capital being Ava or Aungwa. The
boundaries of this empire are not cafily afcertained. Bur-
mah, confidered as diiiinft from Pegu, and fometimes er-
roneoufly denominated Ava from its capital, borders on
Pegu to the r.orth, and occupies both banks of the river
Ava, as far as the frontiers of China. On the north-weft
is Meckley, and on the Weft Aracan and Roftiaan. On
the eaft it has the kingdom or country of LTpper Siam,
which begins at a fmall diftance eaftward from the city of
Ava ; a ndge of mountains feparating it from Burmah and
Pegu. But the king of Burmah is now laid to poftlfs not
only the country of Meckley, in addition to thofe of Pegu
and Burmah, but alfo the whole traft which lies on the north
of it, betw-een China, Thibet, and Afam. According to
colonel Symes, to whom we are much indebted for our
knowledge of the Birman empire, it appears to include the
fpace between the 9th and 26th degrees of north latitude,
and between the Qzd and 107th degrees of eaft longitude,
about 1050 geographical miles in length, and 600 in
breadth. Such are the afcertainable limits from the Birman
accounts ; but it is probable that their dominions ftretch
ftill farther to the north. The breadth, hovicver, often
varies, and is in many places very incoufiderable, on what
is called the eaftern peninfula. To the north this empire is
feparatcd by mountains from Afam, and further to the eaft
it borders on Thibet and China. On the weft it is divided
from the Britilh dominions in Bengal by a range of moun-
tains, and the little river Naaf; and the limit is continued
by the fea. But the fouthern and eaftern boundaries are
fomewhat obfcure. If it be extended to the ninth degree
of latitude, it muft include a confiderable portion of the
Malayan peninfula, or the province of TenafTerem, and
city of Mergui, formerly regarded as part of Siam ; and if,
on the eaft, it be extended to the 1071b degree of longitude,
it might be faid to comprehend almoft the whole of the
country called India beyond the Ganges, as far as the
mouths of the Japanefe river in Cambodia. But it does not
appear that Siam is regarded as a portion of the Birman
empire, and even in this cafe it would only extend to 103
degrees. In this ftate of uncertainty, however, we muft
fatisfy ourfelves with obferving, that this empire conftitutes
the fifth grand native power in India, lince Hin'cR^fian and
Perfia have been divided, and may probably extend its
authority over Laos and Cambodia, while it remains fe-
paratcd by deferts and ranges of lofty mountains from the
united kingdoms of Cochinchina and Tonquin.

Of the ancient ftate of the countries which now conftitute
this empire, our knowledge is very imperfedt. (See Cher-
sONEsus.) With regard to their modern hiftory. Col.
Symes obferves, that we are indebted for our firft information
principally to the Portuguefe, who made themfJvcs mafters
of Malacca early in the 16th century. Accordingly the
Portuguefe hiftorians inform us, that in the middle of this
century four powerful flates divided among them the re-
gions that lie between the fouth-eaft province of Britifti
India, Yunan in China, and the eaftern fea ; and that their
territories, befides fome intervcnhig lands belonging to petty
independent princes, extended from Caftay and Afam on the
N.W. as far to the S.E. us the ifland of Junkfeylon. Thefe

nations

.-^ji R

B I R

nations were known to Europeans by the names of Aracan,
Ava, Pegu, and Siam ; which fee refpedlively. Tiie empire
ot Ava, as it was called, is fituatcd caiKvard of Aracan, and
feparated from it by a ridge of lofty mountains. (S^e Ara-
can.) On the N.W. it is divided from the kinydom of
Caffay by the river Keen-duem ; on the nrrth it is bounded
by mountains, and petty independent principahties, that lie
contiguous to Afam ; on the north eall and. call it touches
on China and North Siatu ; and on the fouth its limits have
been fo variable, tiiat it is not eafy to define them. The
city of Prome, or Pee, leems to be the original and natural
boundary of the Birm^ i empire, though by conqueils it has
been extend.d much far'her to the fouth. Pegu is the
country fouthward of Ava, wiilch occupies the fcacoaft as
far as Martaban. (See Pegu.) The kingdom of Siam ex-
tended to the fouth as far as Juiikfeylon, call to Cambodia
and Laos, and north to Ozemce, probably the Chiamee of
Lioubere, and Yunan in Ciiiria. (See Siam.) Tlitfe
boundaries, however, may be conhdered more as the claim
than the aftual polTellion of each Uate ; whilll alternate
viclor)' and defeat have occafionally extended and contracted
their dominions. From the Portugnefe we learn, that the
Birmans, though formerly fubjecl to the king of Pegu, be-
came afterwards mailers of Ava, and cauf-ed a revolution in
Pegu about the middle of the i6th century ; extending their
kingdom from Mai-avi, probably Mergui, near Tenalferem,
to the province of Yunan in China, about Soo miles from
north to fouth, and 250 from eall to wed. The influence
of the Portuguefe, which was for feme time very confidcrable
m the Birman and Pegu countries, was fupplanted by the
Dutch ; and it appears that, in the beginning of the 17th
centur)', both the Enghfn and Dutch had obtained fettle-
ments in various parts ol the Birman dominions, which were
forfeited by the mifconducl of the latter ; fo that Europeans
of all nations were hanifhed from Ava. The Englilh, how-
ever, feveral years after this expulfion, were reinilated in
their fattories at Syriam and Ava, where they traded more
as piivate merchants tiian on the part of the India company,
in whofe fervice they were not regularly enrolled. The
fupremacy of the Birmans over the Peguers continued till
about the year 1740, when the latter, inhabiting the pro-
vinces of Dalla, Martaban, Tongo, and Prome, revolted,
and a civil v.ar enfued. In 1744, the Britifii fadory at
Syiiam was deilroyed by the contending parties. At length
the Peguers, by the affillance of fome Europeans, who traded
to their ports, gained feveral viclories over the Birmans,
particularly in the years 1750 and 1751 ; and in 1752 the ca-
pital of Ava was invefted, and tiie Birmans, after a (hort Cege,
compelled to furrenderat difcretion. The lall of a long line of
Birman kings was taken prifoner ; but two of his fons v/ere
fortunate enough to make their efcape to the Siamcfe, where
they were kindly received, and affured of fecurity and fuc-
cour. Upon this conqueil the principal inhabitants of the
country about Ava acknowledged themfelves vaffals to the
vielorious king of Pegu, and accepted the preicrlbed oath.
After fome time, Alompra, a Birman of low extraction,
wlio had been continued by the conqueror in the poflefSon
of a fmall village called Monchaboo, determined to emanci-
pate himfelf from the yoke of opprefiion. Accordingly,
having alTembltd iod followers, on whofc fidehty and courage
he could rely, he attacked a band of 50 Pegu foldiers, who had
been llationed in Moncliaboo, and put every one of them to
the fword ; and after feveral previous encounters with the
Pegu force difpatchcd againll him, he gained polfeflion of
Ava in 1753. The conteft was obftinate and bloody; but
Alompra, purfuing his conqueils, founded the town of Ran-
goon, or Dzangoon, fignifying " vicioi-y atchieved ;" and
fooa after chaftifed the people of Caffay, who had revolted

7

from the Biiman authority; In 1756 he blockaded the
town of Syriam, which yielded to his arms ; and having de-
prived the capital of any foreign aid by water, he advanced
againll the city of Pegu, invefted it in January 1757, and
in about three months took poffefiion of it. He then pro-
ceede-d to fubdne the countries to the call of the city, as far
as the Three Pagodas, which were the ancient boundary be-
tv.-een Pegu and Siam. Tavoy, which was once an inde-
pendent principality, and recognized as fuch by the Enghdi
in 1753, ''■'^ '^'^^" fince added to the Birman poiTeffions in
this qinrter. Alompra, triumphing in his fuccefs, deter-
mined to challife the Siamele, who had afforded an
afylum to his rebellious fubjf cts ; and for this purpofe he
ordered a fleet to fail to Mergui, a fea-port belonging to the
Siamefe, which foon furrendercd ; and the capture of Mergui
was followed by the conqueil of Tenalferem, The nest
objeft of Alompra was the reduction of the capital of Siam :
but whilll he was profecuting the fiege, he was feized with a
difo'der which proved fatal, and faved the Siamefe from dr-
llriiclion. Alompra, apprifed of his approaching end, gave
orders for a retreat ; when he had arrived within tv.-c days'
march of Martaban, on the 15th of May 1760, he expired,
very much to the regret and forrow of his fubjetts, who re-
garded him as their deliverer, and as a wife, powerful, and
vicfonous fovereign. By the prudence of his councils ii-:
fecured what hh valour had acquired ; he was not mora
eager for conqiieft than attentive to the improvement of his
territories, and the profperity of his people ; he iflued a
fevere edicl againll gambling, and prohibited the ufe of
fpirituous liquors throughout his dominions ; he reformed
the courts ofjullice; he abridged the power of magillrates
and forbade them to decide at their private houfes on criminal
caufes, or on property where the amount exceeded a fpecilied
fum ; every procefs of importance was decided in pubhc, and
everj- decree regiftered. His reign was Ihort but vigorous ;
and if his hfe had been prolonged, it is probable that his
countr)' "would at this day have been farther advanced in na-
tional refinement and the liberal arts. He did not lis-e to
complete his 50th year ; his perfon, flrong and well propor-
tioned, exceeded the middle lize ; and though his features were
coarfe, his complexion dark, and his countenance faturnine,
there was a dignity in his deportment that became his high
flation. Alompra, the founder of the Birman empire, was
fucceedcd by his fon Namdogee Praw, who, after fnpprefling
feveral infurreClions, died in 1764, and left an infant fon,
Momien ; whofe uncle Shen^buan, fccond fen of Alompra,
affuraed firft the regency, and afterwards the diaderr. Shem-
buan, having ufurped the roval power, diverted the national
attention from his conduct, by declaring war againll Siam ;
and two armies entered the country from the north and fouth,
which, being united, defeated the Siameie about feven or
eight days' journey from their capital. The confequencc of
this defeat was the immediate invefliture of Siam by the
Birmans ; and after a fiege of two months, the capitulation
of the city. The king having withdrawn during the progrefs
of the fiege, a Siamefe governor was appointed, who took an
oath of allegiance to the Birman monarchy, and engaged to
pay an annual tribute. The Chinefe, having planned the
lubjugation of the Birman empire, and concerted meafures
for adding the dominion of the Jcrawaddy and the fertile
plains of Ava to their empire, advanced in the beginning of
the year i 767, from the wellcrn frontiers of Yunan, with an
army of 50,000 men, to accomplilh their objedl ; but they
were met by the Birmans, and after a confiicl which lalled
three days, totally routed with very dreadful carnage. The
lives of the captives were fparcd for the benefit of the
country ; various employments were affigned them ; and they
were encouraged to marry Birican wives, and to coniJderthem-

itlvcs

B I R

felvM as natives of the comilr)-. The Siamefc. liowever,
though vaiiqurOied, remained uiifiibdued ; and the inherent
enmity tiiat fnblills between thcle two nations will probably
preveiit either fervitiide or alliance on the part of the one to
the other, unUfi they are broken by fuch repeated dcfeate
as muft nearly amount to extirpation. As <oon as it was
known that the Birmans had withdrawn into thc-irown teni-
tories, a Sianiefe prince affumed the monarchy, and m 1771
defeated tlie Birmans. The king, who had pnlillanimonfly
ibandoned his throne and people, is laid to have pi.nfhed m
the woods, probably by the dagger of the ufinper. Shem-
buan, the Birmaii fovereign, who had rebuilt ancient Ava,
the metropolis of the empire, which had fallen to ruin during
the late commotions, purfued his favourite fchenve of extend-
ing his conqucils towards the well, and having advanced
within two days' inarch of Cofpore, the capital of Cachar,
forced the raja of the province to fuljinit to his power, by
the moll uneiiuivocdl proofs of vaffalage, according lo the
cuftom of the cov.nti7. Shembuan died at Ava in 1776,
and was fuccceded by his Ion Chengnza, whofv.- tyranincal
conduA occafioned a confpiracy, at the head of which was
Shembuan Minderagce Praw, the younger brother of the de-
ccafed Shembuan, and the prefent monarch. Chcnguvta was
flain in 17H1, and fell nnlamented, as he liad hvcd dci"pifed.
Among other afts of favage cruelty, with wlnrfi he k
charged, one is his conduct towards his fccond wife, the
daughter of one of the Altawoons, or privy-connfellors, of
his court, a young woman endowed with virtue, beauty, and
i\ariou3 accomplilhments. Under the impulfc of fudden rage,
he accufed hev of infidelity, and without allowing time for
cool judgment, pronounced fentence of immediate death.
Accordingly the trembling and innocent viftim was dragged
from the palace, and inc'.ofcd in a fack of fcarlet cloth, richly
ornamented ; thusconfined, (he was put on board a boat, when
the fack being fufpended betiveen the narrow necks of two
earthen jars, the whole was funk in the deepeft part of the
rivtr Jerawaddy. Ha' aftliAed father, overwhelmed with
anguiili and deprived of all his offices, retired in dcfpair to
the city of Ch?gaing ; and waited the oppoitunity that
foon after occuned, of being avenged. Vt'hen Chenguza
was forcing his way towards the royal palace, the Attawoon
fiiatched a fabrc from Rn attendant officer, and at one ilroke
cut him through the bowels, aisd laid him breathlcfs at his
feet ; nor did any perfon offer to prevent or avenge the cruel
tyrant's death. Shembuan Minderagee withdrew the feat
.of government from Ava, ami founded a new city called
Ummerapoora ; which fee. The Birman conq^tfts having
already been extended as far as Mergui to the fouth, and
feveral of the northern provinces which formerly belonged
to Siam, having been reduced to fubjeftion and tribute,
fihembuan Minderagee, obferving the fupincnefs of the rajah
of Arracan, and the unvvaihke difpofition of his fubjtc'ts, and
allured by the ferti4ity of its foil, and its aptitude tor com-
merce, determined to invade thf country, and to annex it as
an appendage to the Birman crown. Accordingly, in I7'^3i
this conqucll was elTefted.. (See Arracam.) The Birman
arms were next diretled towards Siam. AJthotigh tlvc Bir-
mans could not retain pofTefTion of its inland parts, they main-
tained their dominion over the fea-coall ; fo that all the ports
on the weftern ihore of the peniiifula, as far as Mergui, in
N. lat. 12° 20', continued fubjeft to them. But they Hill
wilhed to obtain the ifland of Junkfeylon, which would give
them the entire dominion of the wellern coaft as far as the ter-
ritories of the Malay prince ofQ_iieedah, and not only enable
them to monopoli/.c the commerce of the peninfula, but prevent
the Siamefe from a cimmunieation with Itidia by any other
channel than that of the gulf of Siam. A fleet was fitted
<)ut in 1785 for fubduing this ifland; but the tiitei-prife

B I R

failed. The Birman monarch, mortified by the difappoint-
ment of his views, refolved as fpeedily as poffible to rtpaw
the dilgrace ; and for this purpofe he marched in the fpring
of 1786, from his capital at the head of 30,000 men, with a
train of 30 field-pieces, which army was hipported by a fleet
of 16 (hips, that blocked up the harbour of Junkfeylon.
The fovereign, fanguine in his expe6lations, had fcarcely
entered the Siamefe territories, before he was oppofed by
the king of Siam, and, after a furious engagement, com-
pletely routed. In the commencement of the enluing year,
the Siamefe invaded the viceroyalty of Marlaban, which com-
prehends within its jnrifdidion Tavoy, Mergui, and all the
Birman pofTeilions towards the fouth ; but having laid unfuc •
cefsful fiege to Tavoy, they were obliged to retreat and
abandon theentcvprife.' In 1793 overturer for peace were made
onthepirtofthe Siamefe; and they were followed by a nego-
ciation, which fpeedily terminated in the ratification of a
treaty highly favourable to the Birman interefts. By this
compaft, the Siamefe cede-d to the Birmans the weftern ma-
ritime towns as far as Mergui; tlnis yicldhig te them entire
poffeffion of the coall of Tenaiferem, and th-e two important
ports of Mergui and Tavoy ; which were acquifitions of
great moment, confidered either in a political or commercial
light. Troui this llatement it appears that the Birman em-
pire can fcarcely be computed to extend beyond the I02d
degree of longitude, and that only in the part to the north
of Siam. The Birmans are iudifputably pre-eminent among
the nations which inhabit the vail peninfula tliat feparates
the gulf of Bengal from theChinefe fea; they poffefs a terri-
tory equal in extent to the German empire ; and they are
bleflfcd with a falubrioiis climate, and a foil capable of pro-
ducing almod every article of luxury, convenience, and com-
merce, which the caft can fupply. After their treaty with
the Siamefe, they enjoyed the pleafing profpeft of a long
exemption from the miferies of war ; but their pride and rc-
fentmcnt embroiled them in fre(h troubles before they had
time to profit by the advantages of peace, and threatened to
excite againft than a foe more formidable than the Chinefc,
Arracaners, Pcgucrs, Siamefe, and Caffayers. The Birman
monarch, conceiving that the piratical banditti who infed
the Broken iflands, and commit various depredations to the
injury of trade, were protected by the Britiih flag, and that
they fought refuge in the Britiih diltiii^ls, ordered a body of
5000 men to enter the territories of the company, in order to
feize the dehnquent fugitives, and he ftationcd an army of
20,000 men at Anacan for the ptn-pofe of fupporting this
detachment. As the Birmans had made no previous appli-
<:ation for rcdrefs in a pacific way, a ft rong detachment was
formed at the prefidencv, and cntrufted to tlve conduft of
major-general Erflcine, for re(illing thisa^rgrefrion. On the
approach of the Britifh generzl, the Ririr.aii chief propofed
terms of accommodation, ftipukting for the furrender of the
fugitives as tiie bafis of the agreement. The general declined
all treaty whilii the Birmans continued on Englifh ground ;
but after a reprefcntation of the cafe made in perfon by the
Birman chief, he gave hopes, that if the Birmans peaceably
retired, the governor-general would inftitute a regular in-
■Fjiiiry 'into the grievance which was the fubjeft of complaint.
The Birman chief, profefllng his reliance on the declaration
of general Erlltine, agreed to withdra%v hts troops, and con-
duced his retreat in the moll orderly manner. The matter
was afterwards inveftigated, and the guilt of the deliiKjuentS
being fatisfaftorily proved, they were delivered over to their
own laws, by whofe fentence two out of the three that had
been accufed underwent capital p\ini(hnient. The amicable
t<;rmination of this difference afforded favourable opportunity
for acquiring a more accurate knowledge than had hitherto
been obtained, of a people, whofe fituation, extent of terri-
tory,

B r R

tory, and commercial connexions with BritilTi Tndiai rendered
a liberal intercourfe with tliem hiirhly defirable.-- The trade
between Calcutta, Madras, and Rangoon, the principal Bir-
man port, had of late years io rapidly increafed, as to become
an objctl of national importance ; more particularly on ac-
count of the teak timber, tlie produce of Ava and Pegii»
whence t^rdcittta aiul Madras draw all tlieir fupplies of wood
for lliip b'ji! iiug arui for various other purpofes. A com-
merce in iviie article lo effential, and on a general fcale fo ex-
txiifive as to r«i}uire an annual return of Indian commodities
to the amount of 20Ci,oool„ was an objeCl well worth culti-
vating'. With this view fir John Shore (now lord Tcign-
mouth) thought proper, in 1 795, to fend a formal deputation
to the Birman court. The particulars of this e.mbaffy are
dcfcribcd by Col. Symes, with whom the conduft of it was
entruiled. " The Birmanj," favs this writer " under their
prclent monarch, are certair.ly riling fail in the fcale of
oriental nations ; and it ie to be hoped, that a long refpite
from foreign wars will give them leifjire to improve their
natural advantage;. Knowledge increafes with commerce ;
and as they are not (liackled by any prejudices of cafts, re-
ftricled to liercditary occupations, or forbidden from partici-
pating with llrangers in every fecial bond, their advancement
will, in ail probability, be rapid. At preftnt, fo far from
being in a Hate of intellectual darknefs, althovigli they have
not explored the deptlis of fcience, nor reached to excellence
in the finer arts, they yet have an undeniable claim to the
character of a civililtd and well indructed people. Their
laws are wife, and pregnant with found morality ; their po-
lice is better regulated than in moll European countries ;
their natural dllpolition is friendly and hofpitable to
llrangers ; and their manners ratiier exprcllive ot manly
candour, than courteous diffimulation : the gradations of
rank, and the relpedl due to ftation, are maintained with a
fcrupulofity which never relaxes. A knowledge of letters is
fo widely diffufed that there are no mechanics, few of tike
peafantry, or even the common watennen (ufually tlK' moil
illiterate clafs), who cannot read ar.d wilte in the vulgar
tongue. Few, however, are verfcd in the more erudite
volumes of fcience, which, containing many Shanfcrit terms,
and often- written in the Pali text, are (like the Hindoo
ShalVers) above the comprehenfion of the multitude ; but
the feudal lyilrm, which cherilhes ignorance, and renders
man the property of man, (liU operates as a check to civi-
ligation and improvement. This is a bar which gradually
weakens, as tluir acquaintance with the culloms and rean-
ners of other natio;is extends: and unlefe the rage of civil
difcord be again excited, or fome foreign power impofe an
alien yoke, the Birnians bid fair to be a profperous, wealthy,
and enlightened people,"

Theprefent capital of the Birmaniempire is Ummcrapoora,
and one of its chief ports is Rangoon ; wliich fee rdpec-
tively. Its other prmeipal towns will occur rn the courfe
of this work. See Arraean, Ava, Chagaing, Martaban,
Mcrghi, Monchaboo, Mimnipoora, Pagahm, Pegu, Per-
faim, Prome, Syriam, Tcnallerem, Tavoy, i:c. The chief
ravers of this country are Iriawaddy, or the river of Ava
(fee Ava), whofe numerous mouths and dreams very amply
provide the means of inland navigation, Ktenduem, Maygue,
Pitang, and Thaluan. Its lakes are numerous ; among
which one of the principal is Tounzamahn. The higheit
range of mountains is probably that which lies on the fron-
tiers of Thibet. The other ranges pafs north and fouth,
except a fmall range running eaft and Weil, which fup-
plies the fourccs of the river of Pegu ; but their names
:ire not known, except that of Anoupec, between Ava and
Arraean. The foreils are large and numerous : and fupply
almoft every defcription of timber that is known in liin-

B I R

doftan ; and about four diys' journey to the north of th«
capital firs grow in abundance ; but the principal tree qf
thefe forefts is t!ie teak, which llouriflics in many parts of
the empire, to the north as well as to the fouth of the ca-
pital. Tilt forefts, as well as the mountains, of the interior,
and, in general, of the whole northern frontier, remain un-
explored ; and the tigers that infeft lliem, prevent their being
particularly examined.

The prelent fovereign of the Birman empire affnmes the
title of '• Boa," or emperor; and though llie form of go-
vernmeit be defpotic, ytt he is accullomed to confult a
cou';cll of aiieient nobles. There is no country of the eaft
in whicli the rjyal ellablifhment is arranged with more mi-
nute attention than in the Krman court ; it is fplendid with-
out being v/alleful, and numerous wiihout confufion. The
qu:;en and princes have the title of " Praw," which is both a
fovereign and a facerdotal appellation ; and is frequently
tiled by an inferior when addrcffing his fuperior. In the
ajjpllcation of tills term, it has been fnggelled, that there is
an obvious analogy between the Birmaiis and the ancient
Egyptians. " Plira," It is faid, was the proper name under
which tlie Egyptians (irll adored the fun, before it received
the allegoriea! appellation of Oiiris, and they conferred this
title on their kings and on their prlelU-. It has been further
CvJiijtcliired, that the title of " Pharaoh," given to fuccef-
five kings ot E^ypt, is a corruption of the word " Phraw," or
" Praw," in its original fcnfe lignifying the Tin, and applied
to the fovereign a'id prleiUiood, as the reprcfentatives on
eartli of that fplendid luminary. However this be, '' Praw"
id a princely title in the Birman empire The elder fon of
the king is denominated " Engy Teekien," or " Engy
Pr.ivv," or prince royal ; and as the crown defcends to the
male heirs in a diiedl line, the fon takes precedence of his
uncles. Next in rank to the princes of the blood royal are
the " Woongees," i. e. bearers of the great burthen, who
are the chief miniilers of Hate. Their eilahlilhed number is
four, and they conftitute the great couiuil of the nation.
They lit in the " Lotoo," or imperial hall of confultation,
every day, except the Birman fabbath ; they IfTue mandates
to the " MaywoonSf" or viceroys of the different provinces ;
they control every department of the flate, and govern the
empire in fubordination to the king, whofe will is abfolute,
and> whole power is undefined. With thefe are afTociated,
for the purpofes of deliberation, and of the execution of
public bulinefs, four other officers, called " Woondocks,"
whole authority is very inferior and limited. The views and
wiflies ot the Woongees are frequently counteracted by the
interference of the four " Attawoous/' or minillers of the
interior, who are leleiited bv tJie king to be his privy-coim-
fellors, from an opinion of th-.iir talents and uitcgrity, ard
who h%\c accefs Ui him at all times,, which is a privilege
which even the principal Woongee Joes not. enjoy. There
are fe-veral other- fiibordinate ofliccrs, by whom the affairs
of government, in its various departments, are tranfailed.
T^ncre ave alfo Woons of the queen's houfchold, and of that
of the prince-royal ; and each of the junior princes hai a
dl(ViHc\ eflablKhment. The Birman government has no
hereditary dignities or employments ; for on the dtmife of
the poffeffor, all honours and of&ces i-evcrt to the crown.
Tlie order of nobility has different degrees,. diilinguifhed by
the number of firings, or fmall chains, that compofc the
" tfaloe," or chain,, which is the b.^ge ot the order. No
ful/icet is ever honoured with a higher degree than 12 ; and
the king alone wears 24. Rank among tlie Birmans is indi-
cated by every article of uCe and of ornament ; the fliape of
the beetle-box, which is carried by an attendant after a ptr-
fon of ilillindlion wherever he goes, his ear-rings, cap of cere-
mony, liorfe -furniture, asd tvcu the metal of wl;ich his Ipit-

tlrg

B I R

ting.pot and drinking cup are made, fpccify and dillingunh
the levcral gradations of focicty ; and a pcrfon who allumes
the infignia of a degree, which is not his legitimate right, is
fiibjcd to certain penalties. The court drefs of the Birman
nobility confiib of a long robe, of flowered i.itin or velvet,
reaching to the ancles, with an open collar ai.d loofe fleeves ;
over this hangs from the lliouldersa fcarf, or flowing mantle ;
and on the luad is worn a high cap of velvet, either plain, or
of filk embroidered with flowers of gold, according to the
rank of the wearer. Ear-rings are alfo a part of male drefs;
perfons of condition ufc tubes of gold about three inches
long, and of the thicknefs of a large quill, expanding at the
end Hkc the mouth of a fpeaking-trumpet ; otlierj wear a
heavy niafs of gold, beaten into a plate, iind rolled up, which
form's a large orifice in the lobe of the ear, and by its weij);ht
drags it down to the extent fometimes of two inclies. The
rank of the females is alfo diftinguifhed by their drcf-:. The
hair, which is tied in a bunch at the top of the head, and
bound round with a fillet, has its peculiar and dircininiatmg
embroidery and ornament?. Over a fhort fnift, which
reaches to the pit of the ilomach, and is drawn tight by
ftrings, fo as to fupport the breads is a loofe jacket with
clofe flecvcs ; and round the waift is rolled a long piece of
filk or cloth, reaching to the feet, and fometimes trailing to
the ground. Wien women of condition go abroad, they
put on a filk falli, refenibling a long drawl, which croiTcS
their bofom, and is thrown over the Ihoulders, gracefully
flowing on each fide. Won:.-., in full dref^ ftaiii the palms
of their hands and their nails o; a red colour, for wiiicli they
ufe a vegetable juice, and llrew on their bofoms powder of
fandal wood, or of a bark calkJ funneka, with which fome
rub their face?. Both men and women tinge the edi^es of
their eyelids and tlitir teeth with black. Men of rank wear,
in common drefs, a tight coat with long fleeves, made of
muflin or of very fine nankeen, which is manufachired in the
country-; alfo a filk wrapper that encircles the waiil ; but
the working clafs are naked to the middle, except that in
the cold feafon they life a mantle or veil of European broad
cloth, which is highly prized.

With rer;aiJ to rdi^hm, the BiiTtians are Hindi^os, not as
votaries of Bi-alima, but fedtaries of Boodh ; which fee. The
latter contend with the former for the hononr of antiquity,
and are ur.doubtedlv far more numerouf. The Ciiigleze in
Ceylon are Boodhiiks of the purer cLifs ; and the Birmans
acknowledge that they oritjinally received their religion from
that iOand, which they call " Zthoo." It was brought, fay
the Rhahaans, firft from Zehoo to Arracan about 6co years
ajTo, and thence was introduced into Ava, and probably into
China ; for the Birmans confidently affirt, that the Chinefc are
lioodhirts. Howtver this be, it is allowed, that the bonzes
of China, like the Rhahaans of Ava, wear yellow as the
facerdotal colour, and tliat in many of their cuftoms and
ceremonies we may trace a very llriking fimilitude. What-
ever may be the antiquity of the worihip of Boodh, the ^^ide
extent of its reception is unqueilionablc. The Birmans be-
lieve in the metempfychofis, and that, after having under-
gone a certain number of tranfiiigrations, their fouls will at
laft be received into their paradife on tiie mountain of Meru,
which is the celelhal north pole of the Hindoo?, round
which they place the garden of Indra, and which they de-
fcribeas the feat of delights. The Birmans regard mercy
as the chief attribute of the deity ; and they worihip God by
extending mercy to all his creatures. Of the religious
buildings appropriate to the Birman worfliip, the temple of
Shoedagon, or Dagoung, near Rangoon, that of ,Shoc-
madoo at Pegu, and that of Syriam, are the mod confider-
able. (See Rakooon, Pegu, and SvRiAM.) Their pricds
are denominated Rhahaans ; and they have numerous kioums

B I R

or convents which differ in their (Impure from common
houfes, and much refcmble the architefture of the Chinefe.
Tiiey arc made entirely of wood ; the roof is compofed of
diflferciit ilages, fupported i)y ftroiig pillars ; the infide com-
preiiends one large hall ; tl'ie whole houfe is open at the
fides; fome of them are curioufiy carved with various fym-
bolic reprefentations of the divinity. They have no apart-
ments for the private recreation of the Rhahaans ; publicity
being the prevailing fyflem of the conduft of the Birmaiif,
who admit of no fccrets either in church or ftate. The
convents in the neig'.ibouriiood of P>^angoon are very nume-
rous ; and hence it appears that the number of Rhahaans,
and of Phonghis, prielU of an inferior order, vulgariy called
Tallapoinr, mutt be very confiderable, amounting to 1500.
I.ikc the Carmelites, they go barefooted, and have theu-
heads (haven, on which they never wear any covering. The
only colour of the garments worn by the prielUiood is
yellow ; the greatcft. part of their bodies is covered with
a long loofe cloke, that is wrapped round them ; they pro-
fefs celibacy, and abiUncncc from every fenfual gratification.
The prefcribed punilliment for a Rhahaan d^tecled in an aft
of incontinence, is expulfion and public difgrace. The de-
linquent is f'tated on an afs, and his face is daubed with
black paint interfperfed with fpots of white ; and he is thus
led through the fireets, with a drum beating before him, and
afterwards turned out of the city. But fuch inftances of
degradation rarely occur. The juniors are reftrifted from wan-
dering about licentioufly, either by day or night ; nor can any
TO abroad without permiffion from the prior of the convent.
The Rhahaans never perform any of the common funftions
of life, which would tend to divert them from the abllraft
contemplation of the divine effence. They perambulate the
town at the dawn of the morn iu order to colleft fupplics
for the day ; and thefe uiually confill of boiled rice mixed
with oil, dried and pickled fidi, fvveetmcats, fruit, &c. In
their walks they never raife their eyes from the ground, nor
do they even ftop to folicit donations, and feldom even look
at their benefactors, wlio are more detirous to beftow than
they are to receive. The Rhahaans eat only once a day,
at the hour of noon ; and their fuperfluous provifions they
dillribule among the indigent ilrangers, or the poor fcliolars,
who daily attend them to be inllrutted in letters, and taught
their religious and moral duties. The Rhahaans are never
known to take any public and aftive^part in politics or in war ;
and as the Birmans and Peguers profefs tlie fame religion,
the conquerors, whoever they were, equally refpedled the
minifters of tlieir faith. The head of the Rhahaans at Ran-
goon, or the " Seredaw," lives in a handfome monaflery
about half a mile from the town ; and values himfelf very
much on the faceidolal titles, conferred on Jiim by the pre-
fent and late king, and which he ofleutatioufly difplays
engraven on iron plates. There were formerly nunneries
of virgin priefteOTes, who, like the Rhahaans, wore yellow
garments, cut off their hair, and devoted themfelves to
chaftity and rehgion ; but thefe focieties have been long
fince abolifiied, as being injurious to the population of the ftate.
The laius of the Birmans are infeparable from their reh-
gion ; and, like the htter, of Hindoo extraftion. They
profels to have derived them from Menu, the grandfon of
Bramah, the tirll of created kings, who received the facred
principles on which they are founded by divine revelation,
and who promulgated the code. Numerous commentaries
on Menu were compofed by the Munis, or old philofophers,
whofe trearifes conditute the " Dherma Saftra," or body of
law. The code of Gentoo laws, tranflated by Mr. Halhed,
is faid to be a compilation from tiie different commentaries
on Mcuu. Thefe laws, as well as the religion of the Bir-
mans, found their v/ay into the Ava country from Arracan,

and

B I R

and came oiigiiially from Ceylon about 600 yean ago. The
Birman fyfttm of jurifprudence is replete with found mora-
lity ; and is dirtinguilhcd above any other Hindoo commentary
forperfpicuity and good fcnfe. It provides fpecifically foraU
moil every kind of crime that can be committed, and adds
an ample chapter of precedents and decifions to guide the
inexperienced in cafes of doubt and difficulty. The trial by
ordea', however, is diigraceful to this code ; but it prevails
in all countries where the Hindoo religion is profeiTed, and
is as ancient as their records. An inilance of the exercife of
this mode of trial is mentioned by Col. Symes. Two wo-
men having litigated a fmati property in a court of juftice ;
and the judges finding it difficult to decide the quellion of
right, it was agreed to refer the matter to the iffuc of an or-
deal. Tlie parties, attended by the officers of the court,
the Rliahaans, and a multitude of people, repaired to a tank,
or pond. After certain prayers and ceremonials of a puri-
fying nature, the two litigants entered the pond and waded
in it, till the water reached as high as their brealls ; they
were accompanied by two or three men, one of whom placed
them clofe to each other, and put a board on their heads,
which he preiTed down till they were both immerfcd at the
fame inilant. After continuing out of fight for about one
minute and a half, one of them, being nearly futfocated,
raifed her head, whilit the- other contijiued to fit upon her
hams at the bottom, but was immediately lifted up by the
man ; after which an officer of the court pronounced judg-
ment in her favour, and of the ecfuity of the deciliou rone
of the bye-ftanders feemed to entertain the fniallell doubt.
This practice, however, and that of imprecation, are now
lofing ground, and have of late years been difcountenanced
by the judicial courts both of India and Ava. Laws dic-
tated by religion are in general confcientioully adminillered.
The criminal jurifprudence of the Birmans is lenient in parti-
cular cafes, but rigorous in others. "Whoever is found guilty
of an undue alTumption of pov.'ei", or of any crime that in-
dicates a treafonable i:itent, is puiiifhed by the fevereft tor-
tures. The firll comniifilon of theft does not incur the pe-
nalty of death, unlefs the amount ftjlen be above 800 kiat,
or tackal, i. e. about 100!., or attended with circumilances
of atrocity, fuch as murder or mutilation. In the former
cafe, the culprit has a round mark imprinted on each cheek
by gunpowder and punftuation, and 0.1 his breafl the word
thief, with the article llolen ; for the fecond offence he is
deprived of an arm ; but the third inevitably produces capi-
tal punlfhment. Decapitation is tlie mode by which crimi-
nals fuffer, and in the performance of it the Birman execu-
tioners are exceedingly fl<ilful. The official hall of juftice,
where the members of provincial governments, and all muni-
cipal officers, are accullomed to affemble for the tranfa&ion
of public bufinefs, in various parts of the Birman empire, is
denominated Rhoom. Every man of high rank in the em-
pire is a magiilrate, and has a place of this defcription and
name contiguous to his dwelling ; but it is always on the
outfide of the inclofure of his couit-yard, and not furrounded
by any fence or railing, in order to manifeft publicity, and
(hew that it is the feat of majefty and juftice, to which all
mankind may have free accefs.

The population of the Birman dominions is not eafily af-
certained with accuracy ; but Col. Symes was informed, by
a perfon on whofe teftimony he could rely, that the number
of cities, towns, and villages in the empire amounts to Hooc,
without including the recent addition of Arracan. Suppof-
ing, therefore, each town, on an average, to contain 300
houfes, and each houfe 6 perfons, the refult will give a po-
pulation of 14,400,000. Few of the inhabitants, he fays,
live in folitary habitations, but moftly form themfclves into

Vol. IV.

B I R

fmall focietles ; fo that their dwellings thus collefted com^
pofe ttuir Ruas, or villages; and, therefore, he concludes
that if their number, including Arracan, be reckoned at 17
millions, it will not exceed the truth.

With regard to the mililary and na-val force of the Bir-
mans, we may obf>;rve, that though every man in the king-
dom is liable to military fervice, and war is deemed the melt
honourable occupation, the regular military cftablifhment is
very inconfiderabie. When an army u to be raifed, a man-
date iffues from the golden palace to all viceroys of pro-
vinces, and miougees of diftridis. requiring a certain number
of men at an appointed day ; and the levy is proportioned to
the population of the province or diftricl, eftirr.ated by the
number of its regiftered houfes. Every two, three, or four
houfes are required to furuifli one recruit, or to pay 300
tackal, or about .(.ol. or 45I., in money. This rcci.ut is
fupphed by government with arms and ammunition, but has
no pay. The families of thefe confcripts are retained in the
diftricl which they inhabit, as hoftagos for the good con-
dud of the foldier ; and in cafe of dLfcrtion, or treachery,
his wife, children, or parents are dragged forth to execution;
nay, cowardice fubjefts the family of the delinquent to ca-
pital punilhm.ent. The infantry and cavalry compofe the
regular guards of the king ; the former arc armed with muf-
kets and fabres, -:id the latter with a fpear about feven or
eight feet long, which they manage on horfcback with great
dexterity. The royal magazines are faid to contain 2o,C0O
firelocks, which are of a very indifferent kind. The mod
refpedlable part of the Birman military force is their efta-
bhfhment of wai-boats. The king can command, at a very
fhort notice, 500 of thefe veiTels, which are formed out of
the folid trunli of the teak tree, excavated partly by tire,
and partly by cutting ; the largeil of them are from 80 to
100 feet long, and 8 feet broad, and tliey cairy from 50 to
60 rowers. The prow is folid, and has a flat furface, on
whieh is mounted a piece of ordnance. Each rower is pro-
vided with a fword and a lance ; and, befides the boatmen,
there are ufually 30 foldiers, wlio are armed with mufkets.
The attack of thefe gun-boats is very impetuous ; and thofe
who conducl them advance to aftion with a war-fong, by
which they regulate the llrokes of their oais, encourage one
another, and daunt their adverfaries ; and when they grap-
ple, the aftion becomes very fevere, as thefe people poffefs
fingular courage, ftrength, a:^d ailivity. As the veffels lie
low in the water, their principal danger is that of being run
down by a larger boat ftriking on their broadfide. The
largcft of thefe war-boats, which are managed with furprif-
ing dexterity, both in advancing and retreating, as wtll as
in the time of aClion, do not draw m.ore than three feet of
water. The proper weapons of the country are the fpear,
the javelin which is thrown from the hand, the crofs-bow,
and the fabre ; the latter of which is ufed by the Birmans,
not only as an implement of war, but for various purpofct
of manual labour.

The revenue of the Birman empire arifes from one-fourth
of all produce, and of all foreign goods imported into the
country. However, as grants to princes of the blood, great
o.'5cers of ftate, and provincial governors, are made in pro-
vinces, cities, villages, and farms, the rent of which they
colleft for their ov.'u benefit, and money is feldom difburfed
from the royal coffers, the Birman fovereign pofTefles im-
raenft treafures.

The climnlc of every part of the Birman empire appears to
be dillinguiflred by its falubrity ; and the natives are healthy
and vigorous. In this refpeft they poffefs a decided pre-
eminence over the enervated natives of the Eafl ; nor are the
inhabitants of any country capable of greater bodily exer-
3 N tioni

B I R

♦ioTi^ than the Birmans. The feafons are regular, and the
extremes of heat and cold are fcldom experienced ; at Icaft,
the duration of that intcnfc heat, which immediately pre-
cedes the commencement of the rainy ftafon, is fo^ fliort,
that the iiiconrenience of it is very little felt. The lorefts,
however, like fome other woody and uncultivated parts of
India, are extremely pcftifcrous ; and an inhabitant of the
champa'gn country coniidcrs a journey thither as inevitable
deftruclion. The' wood-cutters, who are a particular clals
of men, born and bred in the hills, are faid to be unhealthy,
and feldom attain longevity. . .

The /V/ of the fonthern provinces of the Birman empire is
remarkLiSly fertile, and produces as luxuriant crops of nee as
arc to be found in the fincll parts of Bengal. Towards the
noilh the face of the counti7 is irregular and mountainous ;
but the plains and vallits, particularly near the river, are e;>
ccedingly fruitful; they vicld good wheat and the various
kinds of fmall grain which grow in Hindoftan, together
with mod of the efculcnt legumes and vegetables of India,
Sugar-canes, tobacco of a fupcrior quality, indigo, cotton,
and the difRrcr.t tropical fruits, in perfeaion, are all indi-
genous products of this country. Belides the teak-tree,
which grows in many parts of the Birmau empire, as well to
the north of Uuimerapoora, as in the fouthern country,
there is almoft everv dcfcription of timber that is known in
India. The kingdom of Ava abounds in minerals ; iix days
journey from Bamoo, which is a province near the frontiers
of China, there are mines of gold and lilver, called" Ba-
douem ;" there are alfo mints of gold, filvtr, rubies, and
fapphires, at picfcnt open on a mountain near the Keenduem,
called " Woobolootaun ;" but the moft valuable, and thofe
which produce the finell jewels, are in the vicinity of the ca-
pital, nearly oppofite to Keoum-meoum. Precious Hones
are found in fevtr.d other parts of the empire. The inferior
minerals, fuch as contain iron, tin, lead, antimony, arfenic,
fulphur, &c. occur in great abundance : amber, of a con-
fidence unufually pure and pellucid, is dug up in large quan-
tities near the river : gold likeivife is difcovered in the fandy
beds of ilreams which defeend from the mountain-:. Between
the Keenduem and the Irrawaddy, to the northward, there
is a fmall river called " Shoe Lien Kioup," or the llream of
golden fand. Although the Ava empire produces no dia-
monds and emeralds, it affords amethyfts, garnets, very
beautiful chryfolites, jafper, loadllone, and marble : the
quarries of the latter he a few miles from Ummerapoora ;
and it is equal in quality to the fiuell marble of Italy, and
admits of a polilh that renders it almoft tranfparent. The
fale of marble is prohibited ; but great quantities arc con-
fumed in the manufafture of the images of Gaudmn, which
are fabricated in the city and diftrift of Chagain ; however,
the exportation of thefc marble divinities out of the kingdom
is llriclly forbidden.

The commerce of the Birman empire is very confiderable.
An cxteniive trade is carried on between the capital and Yu-
nan in China. The principal article of expprt from Ava is
cotton, of which, it is faid, there are two kind's, one of a
brown colour, of which nankeens are made, the other white,
like the cotton of India. This commodity is tranfpoited up
the Irrawaddy in large boats as far as Bamoo, where it is bar-
tered at the common " jee," or mart, with Chinefe mer-
chants, and conveyed by the latter, pan'y by land, and
partly by water, into the Chinefe dominion'. Amber, ivo-
ry, precious ftones, beetle nut, and the edible nefts brought
from the callern arciiip<.lair<>, are alfo articles of commerce ;
in return for which the Birmans procure raw and wrought
lilks, velvets, gold leaf, prefervcs, paper, and fome utenfils
cf hardware. The commerce between the capital and the

B I R

fouthern parts of the empire is facilitated by t\\t noble river
that waters the country. Several thoufand boats are annu-
ally employed in trairfporting rice from the lower provinces
to Ummerapoora and the norihern diftrids. Salt, and giia-
pee, a kind of filh-fauce ufcd with rice, are alfo articles of
internal commerce. Articles of foreign importation are
moftly conveyed up the Irrawaddy ; and fome few are in-
troduced by way of Arracan. See Arracan. Among
the at tides of foreign trade, which have found their way into
the Birman country, nothing is held in higher ellimation
than the European glafs-ware imported into Rangoon iiom
the Britilh fettlements in India. The Birmans are fo fenli-
ble of the advantages of commerce, and fo defirous of im-
proving it, and of thus increafing population, which they
confider as much more elTential to the ilreugth of a (late than
the extent of its territory, that they have of late yeaiv tole-
rated all fcfts. Pagans and Jews, MufTulmen and Chrillians,
the difciples of Confucius^ and the worlhippers of fire,
and invited ftrangers of every nation to refurt to their
ports; and being themfelves free from thofe prejudices
of cail, which (hackle their Indian neighbours, they
have permitted foreigners to intermarry and fettle among
them. The children of ftrangers, whatever be the fed to
which they belong, born of a Birman woman, equally be-
come fubjefts of the ftate, and are entitled to the fame pro-
tcdion and privileges, as if they had fprung from a line of
Birman ancellry. To Britifh India commercial ir.tercourfe
with that part of the Birman empire called Pegu is of great
importance. This intercll involves three diftinft objects ;
that of fecuring from this quarter regular fupplies of timber
for (hip-building ; that of introducing into the country as
many of our manufactures as its conlumption may require,
and of endeavouring to explore a mart in the fouth-we[l do-
minions of China, by means of the great river Ava ; and
that of guarding with vigilance againft every incroachment
or advance, which may be made by foreign nations to divert
the trade into other channels, and to obtain a permanent
fettlement in a country fo contiguous to the capital of our
pofTeffions. The teak timber for the conftruflion of our
(hips in that part of the world is an article peculiarly inter-
efting in a political and commercial point of view. Some of
the fineft merchant (hips at Calcutta have been lately built of
this timber. Madras is alfo fupplledfrom Rangoon with timber
for all the common purpofcs of domcllic ufe ; and even Bom-
bay, although the coaft of Bombay is its piincipal ftorchoufe,
finds it worth while annually to import a large quantity of
planks from Pegu. It is alfo of importance, not only to
promote the exportation of timber from the maritime towns
of Pegu, but to difcouragc the building of (hips in the Ran-
goon river, in which the Einnans are maki g rapid progrefs.
Nafonal fecurity and commercial advantage demand peculiar
attention to both thcfe circumftancea. The imports into
Rangoon from the Britifti fettlements, in the year 1794-5,
amounted, it is faid, to more than 12 lacks of rupees, or
about 135,0001. ; and thefe confitted chiefly of coarfe piece
goods, glaf;!, hadware, and broad cloth ; and the returns
■ft-ere made almoft wholly in timber. The maritime parts of
this great empire are commodious for fliipping, and better
fituated for Indian commerce than thofe of any other power.
Great Britain pofltffes the weftern fide of tlie bay of Ben-
gal ; tite government of Ava, the eallem. From the mouth,
of the Ganges to cape Comorin, the whole range of our
continental ten-itory, there is not a fingle harbour capable of
affording fhelter to a vcflll of 500 tons burthen ; but A^va
comprehends, within her extent of coaft, three excellent
ports ; Negrais, the moil ftciire harbour in the bay ; Ran-
goon, and Mergui, eacli of which is equally convenient and
8- much

B I R

B I R

much more acceflible tlian the river of Bengal, which is the
only port in our polTcffion within the bay. The entrance
ir.to this is an intricate and dangerous channel ; but from
the harbour of Negrais a (hip launches at onee into the open
bay, and oiay work to the fouthward without any impedi-
ment bcfiJes that which i: occafioned by the monfoon. The
Birman empire po(Ti;ff.s fnch a variety of advantages refult-
iiig from fnuation, ext -nt, produce, and climate, that it
may be reckoned, arnong eaflcrn nations, fecond in impor-
tance to China alone ; whilft, from its contiguity to Briti/h
India, it i^ to us of miun greater confcqnence. To preferve
a good conefpondence a .d a good underllanding with the
court of Ava is therefore eifi-ntial to our profptritv. It is
our intereil to maintain the independence of tlie Birmans,
and to guard it from foreign encroachment ; and then the
BIrman government will be united to ours in b »nds of reci-
procal amity and coitidcnce. The refult of the embaffy of
Col. Symts, fent by our governor-general of India to the
kingdom of Ava in 1795, ha5 been the eflablifhment of this
kind of am'ty and frit'ndfh p. To the memorial prefented on
this occafion, the B rn^an monarch replied : " I, the king
immortal, whofe philanthropy is univerlal, whofe anxiety for
the benefit and welfare of all mankind never ce^^js, direft,
that all merchant (liips of the E: :g!i(h nation, who rcfort to
Birman ports, ihall pay cuftom?, charges, warehoufe hire,
fearchers, &c. agreeab'y to former ellablifhed ufage. Eng-
li(h merciiants are to b^ permitted to go to whatever part uf
the Birman dominions they think piopcr, cither to buy or
to fell, a 'd they are on no accou;'t to be ftoppt-d, molefted,
or ojjpvefTcd ; and they fnall have liberty to go to whatever
part of the Birman domi::ions they choof^, for the purpofe
of buying, fel'ing, or bartering, &c." by themfclves of their
agents ; and it is further commanded, that tiiey ihall be at li-
berty to fix a rcfident at Rangoo: , &c. and that Englilh
Ihips driven into Birman ports by ftrcfs of weather ihall be
fupplicd with all neceffarics, Stc. at the current rates of the
country ; and that the enemies of England, European as
■well as Ind an, (hall not be allowed to purchafe warlike wea-
pons, lead, and powder, which rcftriftion is extended to all
nation?."

The manufaStires of the Birmans confiil of cotton and
f;lk, faltpetre and gunpowder, various kinds of pottery,
and marble ftatues ; tlicy alfo excel in gilding, to which
purpofe the greateft pa:t of their gold is applied, and feveral
oth;r ornamental manufaftures. Their edifices and barges
are coiiilrufted with lingular oriental talle and elegance ; the
mod remarkable edifice is the Shomadoo at Pegu. Their
kloums ai^d temp'cs, which are numerous, exhibit a very
rich and fantallic kind of architefture ; and their grand hall
of audience, or Lotoo, at Ummerapoora, is as fplendid an
edifice as can be well executed in wood. Many of their
houfes are very fimple in their ftrufture, and arecrefted in a
day, or even in a few hours. The requifite materials are
bamboos, grafs for thatching, and the ground rattan. The
whole edifice is conftrutted without a fingle nail ; a row of
ftrong bamboos, from eight to ten feet high, are fixed firm
in the ground, -which form the outline, and are the fupport-
ers of the building ; fmaller bamboos are then tied horizon-
tally, by ftrips of the ground rattan, to thefe upright polls;
the walls, compofed of bamboo mats, are fallened to the
fides, with fimilar ligatures ; bamboo rafters are quickly
raifed, and a roof formed, over which thatch is fpread in
regular layers, and bound to the wood by filaments of
rattan j a floor of bamboo is next laid in the infide, ele-
vated two or three feet above the ground ; this grating is
fupported on bamboos, and covered Mfith mats and carpets.
A Uoufe of this kind, fimple and expeditious in its ftrudure,

is neverthelefs a fecurity again II very inclement weather ; and
if it fhould chance to be blown down by a tempeft, the in-
habitants might efcape without inj'iry. They have other
buildings, however, of a fuperior kind ; a:id they were for-
merly conftructed of various figures, pyramidal, triangular,
or four-fid-d, fnrrou 'd^d v/ith walls, a.;^ adorned with flow-
ers and figures carved in wood, and built with arches. But
the art of condrutting arches has been 1 ill among the Bir-
mans. From many buildnigs that now remain, it appears,
that they could formerly conftruft excellent brick arches,
both circu'ar and gothic ; but now no one in the empire can
be found fullicicntly fliilful to arch over the opening of a
window. Mafonrj- has fallen into ncgleft ; the jealonfy of
the late princes having prohibited to private individuals the
ufe of brick or Hone houfes. The Birmans have of late
years made rapid progrefs in the art of building boats and
Ihips ; and thefe may be conilrucled in the Rangoon river
for one third lefs than in the Ganges, and for nearly one
half what they would coil at Bombay. It is faid, however,
that the fhips of Pegu are not fo firmly conftruAed as tliofe
in our ports. The Birmans, like the Chinefe, have no coin;
Clver in bullion, and lead, are the current money of the
country. What foreigners call a tackal, properly kiat, is
the moil general piece of filver in circulation ; it w;;ighs ten
pennyweights ten grains and three fourths ; its fubdivifions
are the tubbee, two of which make one moo ; two moo one
math ; four math one tackal; and ico tackal amount to one
vifs. Rice is f >ld by a meafure called Tayndaung, or balket.
Weighing 16 vifs, or about 56 pounds ; and of meafurement
there are feveral fubdivifions. The average price of rice at
the capital is one tackal, rather more than half a crown, for
a balket and a half. At Rangoon and Martaban, one tackal
will purchafe four or five bail-cets. The Birman meafures of
length are a paulgaut, or inch, 18 of which compofe the
taim, or cubit. The faundaung, or royal cubit (varying ac-
cording to the will of the monarch), is equal to 22 inches ;
the dha, or bamboo, confi;ls of feven royal cubits ; 1000
dha make one Birman league, or dain, nearly equal to two
Britiih miles and two furlongs ; the league is alfo fubdivided
into tenths. The Birmans divide their time as follows. The
interval in which the finger can be raifed or depreffed, i>
called charazi ; 10 charazi make one piaan ; 6 piaan one bi»
zana, or about a minute. The day of 24 hours, commenc-
ing at noon, is divided into 8 portions, or yettee, of 3
hours each. Thefe divifions of time are afcertained by a ma-
chine refembling the hour-glafs, and fomstimes by a perfo-
rated pan placed in a tub of water. They are announced by
a llroke on an oblong drum, which is always kept near the
dwelling of the chief magiftrate of the city, town, or village ;
it is commonly raifed on an high bamboo ftage, under a
roof of mats to proteft it from the weather. Tiic Birmans,
whatever way they acquired it, have the knowledge of a fo-
lar year, confilling of 365 days, and commencing on the
18th day of April. But the common Birman year is lunar,
and of courfe 1 1 days (hortir than the folnr year ; it is di-
vided into I 2 month.s ; but the Birman lunations confift al-
ternately of 29 and 30 days, cccafioning a difference between
the Newtonian and Binnan lunar account of 8 hours and 48
minutes. In order to complete a folar revolution, they in-
tercalate in every third vear a month of 30 days ; in this third
year the firll and third months have each 30 days inilead of
29 ; they likewife fupprefs or pafs over a day, and by thefe
the number of days in three folar years amounts to IC95.
But ever)- fourth year will occafion the difference of a day
on account of our leap-year. This, and fome other defects
in their mode of computation, are fources of confufion ; in
order to remedy wliicb, their flyle, or mode of calculation,
3 N 2 has

B I R

has frequently been altered by arbitrary authority. The
manner in which the Birman month is fubdivided is pecnhar
to tlitir nation. Inllead of reckoning tlic clays progrL-ffivcly
from the commencement to the clofe of the month, tliey ad-
vance no farther than the full moon, from which '.'"iV '■^"
cede bv retrograde enumeration until the month is (inilhtd.
The Uirmin month is divided into 4 weeks of 7 days each.
The 8th day of the incitanng moon, the 15th or full moon,
the 8th of the dicreafing moon, and the lall day of the full
moon, are religioufly obfcrved by the Birmans as facred fef-
tivals. On thefe hebdominal holidays no public bufinefs is
tranfafted in the Rhoom ; mercantile dealings are fufpended ;
handicraft is forbidden ; and the llrifxly pious take no fuile-
na'ice between the riling and the fetting of the fun. The
Birman a::-a is faid to commence in our year 63S, and it is
that which is ufed by the philofophers at Siam ; and from
them, as a more polilhcd nation, it has palfed to the
Birmans.

The Birmans are very fond of poetry and mufic ; the for-
mer they call ytddoo ; when repeated by a fcholar, it flows
foft and meafured to the ear ; fometimes in fucceffivc, and
often in alternate rhymes. They have epic as well as reli-
gious poems of high celebrity, and they are fond of writ-
ing in heroic numbers the exploits of their kings and ge-
nerals.

Mufic is a fcience which is held in confiderable eftimation
throughout the Birman tmpire ; and the royal library of
Ummerapoora is faid to contain many valuable treatifes on
the art. Some of the profedional muficians difplay confiCer-
able (kill and execution, and the fofter airs are pleafing even to
an ear nnaccullomed to fuch melody. The principal inllru-
ments arc a foum, or harp, made of light wood, hollowed
and varnilhcd, refembling a canoe with a deck ; at the ex-
tremity a piece of hard wood is neatly faflened, which tapers
to the end, and rifes in a kind of curvature over the body of
the harp ; from this curvature, the ftrinj^s, ufually made of
wire, are extended to a bridge on the belly of the inftru-
ment ; it has two founding holts, one on each iide of the
bridge. The fize of the foum varies from two to five feet in
length. The turr rcfembles our viohn ; it has only three
ftrings, and is played on with a bow. It is faid to be an
original inilrument of the country. The pullaway is a com-
mon flageolet. The kyzzoup i<! a collection of cymbals,
fufpended in a bamboo frame. The patola, or guitar, is a
curious inftrument, of the form of a crocodile in miniature ;
the body is hollow, with founding holes on the back ; three
ftrings of wire extend from the (liouldcr to the tail, and are
fnpportcd on bridges at each extremity ; the llrings are tuned
by means of pegs in the tail, to which they are faUencd ; it
is played on by the finger, and is generally ufed to accom-
"jpany the voice. The boundaw is a collection of drums, of
oblong form and different fize, which are fufpended perpendi-
cularly in a Vooden frame by leathern thongs. The whole
machine in about five feet in diameter, and four feet high.
The performer ilands in the centre, and beats on the drums
with a fmall Hick. This inftrument is always introduced in
a full band, and much ufed in proceffions. The heem is
the pipe of Pan, formed of feveral reeds neatly joined and
founded by a common mouth-piece, and producing, when
flcilfuUy pl.iyed on, a veiy plaintive melody. The Birmans
are fond of finging and dancing ; and the three laft days of
the folar year are commonly devoted to mirth and fellivity.
At Pegu they h:ive a theatre, which is an open court, fplen-
didly illuminated by lamps and torches, and in which drama-
tic perfonnances are exhibited. Indeed, at all feftivals they
have dramatic entertainments, confilling of mufic, dancing,
and action, with a dialogue in recitative. The fubjed is

B I R

generally taken from the legends of their heroes, efpecially
of Rama. The beft aftors are faid to be natives of Siam ;
and in one of thefe we are told that the dialogue was fpirited
without cant, and the aftion animated without being extra-
vao-ant ; the dreffes of the principal performers were alfo
fhavy and becoming. By way of interlude between the
aCis, a clownilh bufloon entertained the audience with a re-
cital of different padages, and by grimace and frequent alte-
rations of tone and countenance, extorted iond peals of
laughter from the fpeftators. Tlie Birmans dehjjht in mi-
micking, and are very expert in the piatlice, pofl'cfling un-
common verfatility of countenance. By pantomimic looks
a:i'l i;ellures, they exhibit a mafterly dilplay of the pafiions,
m;'.king fudden ti-anfitions trom pain to plcaiure, from joy to
defpair, from rage to mildnefs, from laughter to tears, and
of varying the cxprcfTion of terror and of idiotifm, with
furprifing effe&. On the lad day of the Birman year, the
lytli of April, there is a kind of fport that is univerfally
praftifed throughout the Birman dominions, to wafh away
the impurities of the pad year, and to commence the new
year free from fcain. Women on this day are accuftomed to
throw water on every man they meet, which the men have
the privilege of returning. This paftime is condufted with,
great decorum ; and a woman who declines taking a part in
it, is coufiJered as avowing her pregnancy, and palfes with-
out molellation. At the clofe of Lent, or during the whole
feventh month, called Sadeen-guit, there are illuminations ;
every houfe has erefted by it a kind of maft, from which are
fufpended one or more lamps. In the royal palace, a py-
ramid of lamps, at lealf 150 feet high, is fupported by a.
bamboo fcaffolding. At this time the nobles from all parts
of the empire refort to court to pay their homage to the
king. During the principal days and nights of ihife fefti-
vals, there is almoil a conilant fuccefllou of wreftling, danc-
ing, mufic, proceffions, fire-works, and theatrical enter-
tainments.

The Birman alphabet confifts of 3^5 characters, having as
many diftinft founds, exclufive oi various marks and con-
tractions, that fupply tlie place of long and fhort vowels,
diphthongs, &c. like the other alphabets of the Hindoo
claf-. It has no reprcfentation of the vowel correfpondmg
with our fhort a ; this is nevtrthclcfs to be pronounced after
every fimple found or confonaut not fupplied*\v!th another
vowel, unlefs it be forbid'den by a mark of tlifion placed
over the letter, or excluded by the junftion of two or more
confonants. The Birmans write from left to right; and
though they have no diftinguilliing interval between their
words, they mark the paufcs of a fentence and the full ftops.
Their letters are diftinft, and their I)ISS. are in general very
beautiful. It has been the opinion of fome of the mod en-
lightened writers on the languages of the eall, that the
" Pali," or facred lanj^uage of the priefts of Boodh, is
nearly allied to the Shanfcrit of the Bramins. The cha-
racter in common ufe throughout Ava and Pegu is a round
Nagari, derived from the fquare Pali, or religious text ; it
is formed of circles and fegments of circles, varioufly dif-
pofed and combined, whilft the Pali, wlrich is folely applied
to purpofes of religion, is a fquare letter, chiefly confill-
ing of right angles. Their common books, like thofe of
the Hindoos in the fouthern parts of India, are compofed
of the palmyra leaf, on which the letters are engraved with
a ftylus. In their more elegant books, the Birmans write on
flieets of ivory, or on very fine white palmyra leaves. The
ivory is dained black, and the margins are ornamented with
gilding, while the charafters are enamelled or gilded. On
the palmyra leaves the charaftcrs are in general of black ena-
mel j and the ends of the leaves, and the margins, are

painted

B I R

painted x^'ith flowers in various bright colours. A hole
through both ends of etich leaf, fcrves to conneci the whole
into a volume, by means of two firings, which alfo pafs
through the two wooden boards that ferve for binding.
In the finer binding of books of this kind, the boards are
lacquered, the edges of the leaves cut fmooth and gilded,
and the title written on the upper board ; the two ends
are by a knot or jewel fecured at a little diftance from the
boards, fo as to prevent the book from faUing to piece?,
but fuSicicntly diftant to admit of the upper leaves b irg
turned back, while the lower ones are read. The more ele-
gant bojks are in general wrapped up in filk cloth, and
bound round by a garter, on which the Birmans have the
art to weave the tide of the book. In everv Kioum, or mo-
nallerv, there is a library or repofitorv of books, ufually
kept in lacquered chefts. In the royal lihraiy the number
of thefe chefts was not lefs than ico The books were re-
gularly claficd, and the contents of each chelt were written
in gold letters on the lid. Some of thefe books exhibited
very beautiful writing on thin leaves of ivory, the margins
of which v.-ere ornamented with flowers of gold, neatly ckc-
cuted. The library- contained books upon various fubjefts ;
more on divinity than any other ; but hiftory, mufic, medi-
cine, painting, and romance, had their feparate treatifes.
Col. Symes thinks it not improbable, from the chefts which
he infpetttd, that his Birman majellv may pofTefs a more nu-
merous library than any potentate from the banks of the
Danube to the borders of China. Books in the Pali text
are foraetim.es compofed of tliin ilripes of bamboo, delicately
plaited, and varnifhed over in fuch a manner as to form a
fmooth and hard furface upon a leaf of any dimenfions :
this furface'is afterwards gilded, and the facred letters are
traced upon it in black and Ciining japan. The margin is
illumined by wreaths and figures of gold, on a red, green,"
or black ground. As moft of the Birmans are taught to read
and write, they carrv with them a fheet of thick and ftrong
blackened paper, called a parawaik, or paruvek, in which
ihcy enter their accounts, copy fongs, till they can repeat
them from memory, and take memorandums of any things
thnt are curious. On thefe parawaiks the zares, or writers,
in all courts and public offices, take down the proceedings
and orders of the fuperior officers. It is about 8 feet long,
and tS inches wide, and folds up like a fan ; each fold being
ahout fix inches, and in length the whole breadth of the
flieet. I'hey write on this with a pencil of fteatites ; and
the charsAers are effaced by rubbing them over with char-
coal, and tne leaves of a fpecies of dolichcs.

In the recitation of poetn,', the language is exceedingly
melodious ; even the profe of common converfation appears
to be mcafHred, and the concluding word of each fentence is
lengthened by a mufical cadence, that marks the period to
the ear of a perfon wholly unacquainted with the meaning.

Of the cofmography and ajlronomy of the Birmans, deduced
from their moft ancient writings, the following particulars
will be fufacicnt. They conceive that the univerfe, called
logha. which fignifits fucceflive deftruftion and reproduClion,
after it had been dcftroyed by fire, water, or wind, is again,
of itfelf, reftorcd to its ancient form. The earth, they fup-
pofe to be a plane fomewhat elevated in the centre, and fur-
rounded by a chain of very lofty mountains Its diameter
is 1^203,400 juzana, each juzana being 44,800 cubits or
nearly 12 miles; its circumference is three times its diameter;
and its thicknefs 240,000 jnzana, of which one half isduft,
ai:d the other half a *^ohd rock, and the whole fupported by
a double thicknefs of water, rcfting on twice its thicknefs
of air, below which is a vacuum. Befides our earth, there
are ic,ico,ooo others, mutually touching in three points, and

B I R

forming a fix.ilar number of equilateral fpaces, which, not bs-
ing penetrated by the fun's rays, are filltd with water intenfcly
cold. In the middle of thf moft elevated part of our earth, the
Birmah writings place Mi^-nmo, the lar .jcft of all mountains,
elevated above the furface of the fca 84,000 jiizana, and de-
fcer.ding a: far below it, fupported by three feet of carbun-
cles, having its eaftem face filver, the weftern gli>.f=, the
northern gold, and the fouthern pale-coloured carbuncle, and
furrouiidcd by fcven cb-jins of hilis^ In the middle of
the ocean, oppofite to the four cardinal points of this
mountain, are placed four large iflands, the habitations ot
men and other animals ; and befides thefe the Birman writers
allow 2000 of a fm.aller fize, 500 belonging to each of the
la-ger ones. The ocean is in various parts of very different
depths. All living beings ate diftributed into three clalTes ;
generatirg beings ; thofe which art material, but do not ge-
nerate ; and immaterial beings, <>r fpirits, each of which is
fubdivided into feveraWiftincl fpecies. The Birman writ-
ings admit of tranfmigration, alleging, that in death, whe-
ther of man, beaft, or any living being, the foul perifhes
with the body, and after this diifolution, out of the fame
materials another being arifes, which, according to the good
or bad actions of the former, becomes either a man, or aa
animal, &c. and they teach, that all beings arc revolring in
thefe change?, till they become entitled by their actions to
Nieban, the moft perfect of all ftates, in which they are free
from change, mifery, death, fickncfs,^ or old age. The
Birman writings alio announce the opinion of an infinite
number of worlds in conftant fuccelHun, without beginning
and without end. Thefe writings mention ei^^ht planets,
viz. the Sun, Moon, Mercurv, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Sa-
turn, and another named Rahu, which is invilihlcr. The fun
is 50 juzana in diameter, the moon 49, Mars 12, Mercury
15, Jupiter 17, Venus 19, and Saturn 13 ; and their cir-
cumferences are triple. their refpefifve diameters. Thty fup-
pofe that the fun, moon, and ftars revolve round the great
mountain Mienmo in a circle, the plane of which is parallel
to the earth. The ftars, according to them, purfue a con-
ilant courfe, without declining to ihe north or fouth ; but
the fun, moon, and other planets have a declination ; and
the fun, in proceeding from the north to the fouth, and from
the fouth to the north, always touches the twelve conftella-
tions, which we call the twelve figns of the zodiac, and in
the fpace of one year returns to the fame place in the heavens
from which he fet out. This fame revolution is performed
by the moon in a month. The fun's motion, they fay, is
quicker than that of the moon ; and by his diurnal revolu-
tion, when he is in the fouthern ifland it is mid-day, in the
northern it is midnight, in the eaftern ifland the fun fcts, iu
the weftern it rifes. Although the fun, moon, and ftars ap-
pear to us round, we are not to fuppofe thtm to be fpheres,
but this is a fallacy of vifion. The ir:vifible planet Rahu
fervf s the purpofe of explaining eclipfes ; for being a huge
monfter, he takes the fun ar.d moon either into h's mouth or
under his chin, and thus caufes either total or partial eclipfes.
As to the heat and cold which are expeiienced at different
fcafons of the year, the Birmans fay, tliat from, the vernal
equinox to autumn, the fun is alwHVS tending to the north,
and the moon inclining to the fouth ; the feafon is then hot,
becaufe the fun's rays, which are naturally hot, then pre-
vail ; but from the autumnal equinox to the vernal, the fun
inclines to the fouth, and the moon to the north., and the
moon's rays, which are by nature cold, predominate, and
produce cold. They affign feven caufes of rain, of which
fome are phyfical, and fome luoral. Thefe aftronomical and
phvlical ideas ot the Birman writings were probably brought
from Hindoftan, to ^ethcr with their rcligien and laws ; but

for

B I R

for ii m«re particular account of them, w c fliall refer to the
Afiatic Rc(carchi.s (ubi infra).

Amonc; tlie Birmaiis there are fcveral hidories, containing
an account of ti>e lives and actions ])crformcd by the differ-
ent famlhcs of their princes ; which liiftories are very fabu-
lous, and abound with the recital of omens and prodigies.
Indeed, the Birmans are much attached to divination. No
perfon will commence the building of a honfe, a journey, or
the moll trivial undertaking, without confulting fome perlon
of fliiil, in order to find a fortunate day or hour. Friday
is a moll unlucky day, on which no hiilinefs ought to be
comT.enced. On medicine the Birmans have feveral books,
containing the defcription of 96 genera of difcafts, with va-
rious recipes for their cure. Mu.iimy is with them a favour-
ite medicine, and they arc not unaeciuainted willi the ufe of
mercury in the cure of lues venerea ; b.:t their mode of ad-
minillering it is neither certain nor fafe. Moll of their reme-
dies, however, are taken from the vegetable kingdom ; and
they are chiefly of the aromatic kind, nutmegs being one of
their moll favourite mtdieiiies. Although tluy arc well ac-
r,uainted with the plants of their country, the practice of
their phyficians is almoll altogether empirical, and they pof-
fefs certain recipes and nollnims, the efficacy of which they
extol, and which have been tranfniitted from their ancellor.^
for feveral generations. They combine with their medical
pradicc great faith in amulets and charms. In furgery,
they proceed no further than drefling wounds and fetting
bon'ts. Of late the inoculation for the fmall-pox has been
introduced into Arracan.

The Hate of a^ricii/ttire in the Birman empire is not parti-
cularly illullrated by Col. Symcs. It fiJems, however, to be
purfucd with conliderable avidity ; and the foil in many parts
is capable of coltivation, and its produdlions, which are natu-
rally numerous, admit of further improvement. The cattle
ufed in fome parts of the country fir tillage and draft are
remarkably good ; ihey put only a pair of them to the
plough, which is little different from the plough of India,
and turns up the foil very fuperlieially. In their large carts
they yoke four llout oxen, which proceed with the fpeed of
a hand- gallop, and are driven by a country-girl (landing up
in her vehicle, who manages the reins and a long whip with
cafe and dexterity. Many of the rifing grounds are planted
with indigo ; but the natives fuller the hills for the moll part
to remain uncultivated, and only plough the rich levels. I'hey
every where burn the rank grafs once a year to improve the
pallure. The I'irmans will not take much pains ; they
leave half the work to natun , which has been very bountiful
to them. In the neighbourhood of Loongliee, many Htlds
arc planted with cotton, which thrives Well ; fcfamum is alio
cultivated in this foil, and is found to raifwer better th.m
rice, which is rroll productive in low and nioill grounds.
In the fuburbs of Pagalim, there are at leall zoo mills em-
ployed in expreffmg oil from the fefamum feed. In this ope-
ration the grain is put into a deep wooden trough, and
preffed by an upright timber fixed in a frame : the force is
increafed by a long lever, on the extremity of which a man
fits and guides a bullock that moves in a circle; thus turning
and prtlTuig the feed at the fame time. The machine is fim-
ple, and yet effetlually anfwcrs the purpofe. Waggons
form a caravan for travelling from the fouthcrn country to-
wards the capital. Of thete there are fometimes as many as
18, each of which is drawn by fix bullocks, and is covered
with a tilted roof of bamboo, overlaid with painted cloth,
for throwing off the ram. They contain not only merchan-
dize, but alfo whole families, the wives, children, monkies,
cats, parroqueti, and all the worldly fubllance of the wag.

B I R

gonei-s. Each bullock has a bell under his throat. They
travel llowly, from 10 to 15 miles a day. At night they are
difpofed in a circle, and form a barrier, within which the
carriers feed their cattle, light fires, and drcfs their vidluals,
fecure from the attacks of tigers, which muc4i nifcll the lets
populous parts of the empire.

We fliall clofe this article with a brief account of the
prrfons, ilifpofition, and mannfis of the inhabitants of the
Birman emp'ire, and of fome of their fmgular aijloms. The
Birmans, in their features, bear a nearer rcfemblance to the
Cliinefe than to the natives of Hindoltan. The women, par-
ticularly in the northern part of the country, are fairer than
the Hindoo females, but lefs delicately formed ; they are,
however, well made, and in general inclined to corpulence ;
their hair is black, coarfe, and long. The men are not tall
in (lature, but a6live and athletic i tiicir appearance is youth-
ful from the prevalent cullom of pluck'rg their beards inftcad
of ufing the razor; they tattoo their thighs and arms into
various fantallic (liapes and figures, whieli in their opinion
ooerate as a charm againll the weapons of their enemies.
Neither the men nor women are fo cleanly in their pcrlons
as the Hindoos of India, among whom diurnal ablution is a
religious as well as a moral duty. Girls are taught, at an
early age, to turn their arms in a manner which makes
them appear dillorted : when the arm is extended, the elbow
is inverted, the infide of the joint being prutrud--d, and the
external part bending in\vardd. The general difpofition of
the Birmans is llrikiiigly contralled with that of the natives
of India, from whom they are feparated by a narrow range
of mountains, which in many pUces admit of an eafy inter-
courfe. Neverthelefs, the phyficil difference between the
nations could fcarcely be greater, if they had been fituated
at the oppofite extremities of the globe. The Birmans are
a lively, inquifitive race, active, irafcible, and impatient.
As the paffion of jealoufy feems to have no influence among
them, their wives and daughters are not concealed from the
fight of men ; and they are allowed as free intercourfe with
each other as the rules of European frciety admit ; but ia
other refpefts women have jull reafon to complain of their
treatment. They are confidered as very inferior and iubor-
dinate ; and even the law (lamps a degrading dilliuftion be-
tween the fexes ; the evidence of a woman not being received
as of equal weight with that of a man, and a woman not
being fuffered to afcend the Heps of a court of julliCe, but
being obliged to deliver her tedimony on the outfide of tlie
roof. The cuftom of felling their daughters, and even their
wives, to flrangers, though confined to the lowell c'affes of
fociety, and frequently the confeqnence of pecuniary embar-
raffmeut, is not regarded as fhameful, nor is the female dif-
honoured by it ; and hence it is that women furrender them-
felves tlie victims of this barbaroiKS cullom with apparent re-
fignation. But no man, who leaves the country, is per-
mitted to carry hi? temporary wife along with him. Every
attempt of this kind is watched and guarded ; and a fliip, in
which any females are conveyed away, can never return to a
Birman port but under penalty of coiififcation of the pro-
perty, and the inlllttion of a heavy fine and imprifonment on
the mailer. Men are allowed to emigrate ; but the expor-
tation of women, would, in the opinion of the Birmans, im-
poveridi the (late, by diminilhing the fources of its popula-
tion. The females, who arc reduced to the neccffity of
purfuing a coiirfe of proditution, are not at their own dif-
pofal, nor are they allowed to receive the earnings of their
unhappy profcfTton. They are flaves fold by creditors to a
licenfed pander, for debts more frequently contraflcd by
others than themfelves. According to the laws of Pegu, he,

who

B I R

B I R

who incurs a debt wliich he cannot pay, becomes the pro-
perty of the creditor, who may claim him as a fljve, and ob-
lige him to perform menial lervice until he liquiJates the
debt. His immediate relations are alfo liable to be attached ;
and innocent vomen are often dragged frora domelHc com-
fort, and are fold to the licenfed fuperintendant of the tack-
ally, who, if they poffefs attraftions, pays a high price for
them, and reimbiirfcs himftlf by the wages of their proRitxi-
tioi). On the banks of a fmall creek, between the town of
Maindu and Biifuen, is a villdsre called Mima-Sliun-Riia, or
the village of p'oftitutes, wliich is inh?.bittd altogether by
women of this defcription. liirniaii wives are faid to be in
general challe and faithful ; their fediilcus employment af-
fording no leiUire for the corrnption of their n:inds. A wo-
man of the highcft rank fcldoni fits in idlenefs at home ; her
female ferviinls, urdcr her direction and fnperinttndance,
like thofe of the Grecian dames of antiquity, ply the various
labours of the loom. Weaving is chiefly a female occupa-
tion ; and moll Birman families manufadture all the cotton
and filk that are required tor their domeftic confumption.
The women in this country manaa;e alfo the moll important
mercantile concerns of their hulbands, and attend to their
interefts in all out-door manufaftures ; they are to the great-
ell degree indnllrious, and are faid to be good mothers ;
and they therefore merit a higher rank than that which is
alligned them, and better treatment than they experience.
The Birmans, in fome refpcfts, particularly towards their
enemies and invaders, difplay the feverity of barbarians, but
in others, all the humanity and tendernefs of polifhed life.
At home they manifeft an amiable benevolence, adminilkr-
ing aid to the infirm, the aged, and the fick ; filial piety is
inculcated as a facred precept, and its duties are rchgioufly
obfervcd. A common beggar is no where to be feen ; every
individual is certain of receiving affi (lance, which, if he is
unable to procure it by his own labour, is provided for him
by others.

Among the Birmans, marriages are not contrafted till the
parties attain the age of puberty ; the contrail is purely ci-
vil ; and the ecclefiaflical jurifdiftion has no concern with it.
The law prohibits polygamy, and recognizes only one wife;
however, concubinage is admitted to an unlimited extent.
Concubines, who live in the fame houfe with the legitimate
wife, are obliged by law to perform menial fervices for her;
and when the hufband dies, they become the property of
the furvivmg widow, unlefs he Ihall have emancipated them
by a fpccitic att previous to his deceafe. When a young
man is defirous of efpoufiug a girl, his mother, or nearell fe-
male relation, firll makes the propofal in private; if the fuit
be well received, a party of his friends proceed to the houfe
of the parents of the young woman, with whom they adjuft
the dotal portion. On the morning of the bridal day, the
bridegroom fends to the maiden three loongues, or lower
garments ; three tubbeeks, or falhes ; and three pieces of
white muflin ; fuch jewels alfo, ear rings, and bracelets, as
his circumilances will admit : a feall is prepared by the pa-
rents of the bride, and formal writings are executed : the
new-married couple eat out of the fame dilh : the bridegroom
prefents the bride with fome laepack, or pickled tea, which
fhe accepts, and returns the compliment ; and thus the cere-
mony ends.

When a man dies inteftate, three-fourths of his property
go to his children born in wedlock ; and one fourth to the
widow, who is the guardian both of the property and the
children, until the latter attain the age of maturity. A Bir-
man funeral is folemnized with much religious parade and
externa! demoullration of grief ; befides the mourning rtla-
tioas, the attendants, who follow th« corpfc, which is car-

ried on a bier, are women hired for the occafion, who pre-
cede the body, and chant a dirge-like-air. The Birmans
burn their dead ; but as the ceremony of burning is cxpen-
five, the bodies of paupers are either buried or call into the
river. The mode of burning is as follows : the bier is placed
on a funeral pile fix or eight feet high, made of billets of
dried wood laid over one another, with intervals for admit-
ting a free circulation of air, fo as to increafe the flame. The
Rhahaans walk round the ode, reciting prayers to Gaiidma,
untd tlce fire reaches the body, when the whole is quickly
reduced to afhes, which' arc gathered and depofited in a
grave. Perfons of high dilliiictlon are embalmed, and tluir
bodies are prclerved in fome kioum, or religious building,
fix or eight weeks before they are committed to the funeral
pile. Honey is laid to be the principal ingredient uftd for
preferviuT- the body from putrttaftion.

As to their food, the Birmans, compared with the Indians,
are grofs and uncleanly. Although J^heir religion forbids the
(laughter of animals in general, yet they apply the interdic-
tion only to thofe that are domefticated. All game is ea-
gerly fought after, and in many places publicly fold ; rep-
tiles alfo, fuch as lizards, guanas, and fuakes, conltitute a
part of the fe.bfiilcnce of the lower clafies. They are alfo
extremely fond of vegetables.

Among the vegetable produftions of this country we
may enumerate the white fandal-tree, and the aloexylum ve-
rum, much valued for the grateful odour of tlieir fmoke ;
the teak-tree (teftonatheca) already mentioned ; the cbe-
noxylum venun, producing the true jet black ebony woed ;
the fycamore fig, Indian fig, and banyan tree ; the bigno-
nia indica, nauclea orientalis, cor)'pha feribus, one of the
loftieft of the palm-trees, and excoecaria Cochinchinenfis, re-
markable for the crimfon under-furfacc of its leave?. To the
clafs of plants nfed in medicine and the arts, we may refer
the ginger and cardamum, found wild on the fides of rivers,
and cultivated in great abundance ; the turmeric, ufed by the
natives of the coaft to tinge and flavour their rice and other
food ; the betel pepper, fagaria piperita, and 3 or 4 kinds
of capficum ; the jullicia tinftoria, yielding a beautiful
green tinge ; morinda umbellata, gamboge, and carthamus,
furnifliing yellow dyes ; the red wood of the lawfonia fpinofa,
and Cifalpina fapan, and the indigo. The bark of the ne-
rium antid)fentcricuni, called codagapala, and that of the
laurus cuiilavan, the fruit of the flrychnos nux vomica, the
cafha fiftula, the tamarind, and the croton tiglinm, the in-
ipiflated juice of the aloe, the refin of the camphor-tree>
and the oil of the ricinus, are occafionally imported from
this country for the European difpenfaries. The cinnamon
laurel, fometimes accompanied by the nutmeg, the fugar.'
cane, bamboo, and fpikenard, are found throughout the
whole country ; the laft on dry hills ; and the bamboo and
fugar cane in rich fwamps. The fweet potatoe, ipomsea tu-
berofa, mad-apple and love-apple (folanum melongena and
lycoperficon), nymphcea nelumbo, gourds, melons, water-
melons and various other efculent plants, enrich, by cultiva-
tion, this country ; and the plantain, cocoa-nut, and fago
palm, are produced more fpontaneoufly. The vine grows
wild in the forells, but its fruit is much inferior for want of
cultivation, and through cxccfs of heat, to that of the fouth
of Europe ; but this country is amply fupplied with the
mango, pine-apple, fapindus edulis, mangolteen plum, aver-
rhoa carambola, cullard-apple, papaw-fig, orange, lemon,,
and lime, and many other exquifite fruits. ' The animals of
the Birman empire correfpond with thofe of Hmdoftan.
The wild elephants of Pegu are very numerous ; and allured
by the early crops of rice, commit great devattation among
the plantations (hat are expofed to thur rarages. The king

D T R

it ihe proprietor of thufe r.uimals ; m^ one of his Bir-
null majillv's tilki i.s '•IoiJoiiIr- wliitc cUphiint, and of
all the elfpiianls in tlif woiM." 'I'lit: forcils alvuiid with
ti«-rs. Their liorfcs are linall. but handfonie and fpTited,
hardy and aftive ; and are frequently exported in timber-
fhlps bound for Madras and other parts of the coaft, where
they are difpofed of to oniliderablc advantaj^e. Their cows
are diminutive, rcfeinlilino; the breed on the conllofCoro-
niandcl ; but their buffaloes are n»>ble animals, mu.h fupenor
to thofe of India, and arc ufed for draft and agriculture ;
fome of them are of a liijht cream colour, and are almoft as
fierce as tl^'ers, who dare not niok-ll them. The ichneumon,
or rat of Pharaoh, called by the natives Chinbaii, is found in
this country ; but there is no fuch animal as the jackal in the
Ava dominions, though they are very numerous in the ad-
joining country. Among the birds, which are the fame
with thofe of other parts of India, "is one called the Hcn-
•/a, the fynibol of t!>e Binnan nation, as the eagle was ot tlie
Roman empire ; it in a fpecits of wild fowl called in India
the liraminy goufe ; but the natives of Ava do not deify this
bird.

The Birmaii'? fecm to be in potTilTion of feveral fniall idands
in the gulf of Martaban, the Magnus Sinus of antiquity,
and of others to the fouth and weft. Symes's EmbalTy
to the Kingdom of Ava, 3 >ols. 8vo. pafilm. Afiatic Re-
fearches, vol. vi. p. 163— 30S. SccArracan, Ava, and
I'eoi'.

BIRMINGHAM, is juftiy efteemed the gveateft manu-
fatluring town in England, and \vc may faftly affert, that in
the quantitv, variety, elegance, and utility of its manii-
fafl'.ired articles, it furpalTes any town in Europe. To
enable the llrancrer and foreigner to appreciate the ge-
neral character of this place, with its vaiious fubordinate
features, we will endeavour to depicl them to the fancy, in
a concife and perfpiciious narrative. Its dillinguifliiiig cha-
raftcriliic is appropriately difplayed in the following lines
by Mr. Jago, in his poem of " Edge-hill,"

" 'Tis noife, and hurry all,— the throng'd fireet,
The clofe-pil'd warehoufe, and the bufy fliop.
With nimble ftroke the tinkling hammers move ;
■WTiile flow and weighty the vail fledge defcends,
In folemii bafe refponfivc, or apart.
Or focially conjoin'd in tuneful peal. —
How the coarle metal brightens into fame,
Shap'd by their plaftic hands ! what ornament !
What various ufe ! — Nor this alone thy praife,
Thine too of graceful form, the letter'd type !
The friend of learning, and the poet's pride."
The etymology of the name of this town is not readily at-
tained, as it has been written Brumwycheham, Bromwy-
cliam, and variou! other ways ; indeed, in common conver-
fation, it is frequently pronounced Bromiugham. The
town lies near the centre of the ifland, in the north-wef-
tern extremity of the county of Warwick. It is in the
diocefc of Lich!kld and Coventry, in the deanery of Arden,
and ill the hundred of Hemlingford. The fuperficial con-
tents of theparifli are 2864 acres. In 1800 here were 16,403
lioufes, 1875 of which were uninhabited. The whole popu-
lation was 73,670, of v/hcm 34,7 16 were males, and 38,954
were females.

In the fcalc of national importance, Birmingham bears
an exalted fitnation ; without recurring to its ancient hif-
tory, the modern inhabitants have, by laudable indiiilry,
raifed it ptrhaps to the acme of manufadluriiig and com-
mercial fame. The fagacious and elegant Burke emphati-
cally pronounces Birmingham the " Toy Shop of Europe."
This defignation muft not, however, be taken in its literal

B I R

fcr.fe, as the articles of utility made in this town far exceed
thofe intended only fo;- (hew and ornament. Many of our
cities are attractive fo'.- their vencralile ruins and grand cathe-
drals, but of thofe Birmingham is dcltitute. The traveller
who delights in feeing the human race profitably employed
to their own, and their country's advantage, will difregard
the fmoke wliich fometimes envehipts the town, and difcern
thiou >h the veil the bright beams of indullry enlightning
vail piles of riches : jullico, however, will compel him to
acknowledge, that profligacy has contrived to infinuate itfelf
within too many dwellings of tha labouring claflts, pro-
ducing idlenefs, difcontcnt, drunkenntfs, and riots, of which
ftvcral inllances might be cited, exclufive of that grand con-
vullion which attend.-d the commencement of that revolu-
tion in France, which in its confequcnces has fo feverely op-
picfled this, and almoft every other nation. The Ikenild-
ilreet, one of the great Roman military roads, conifs within
a mile of Birmingham, and in Suttoir park and Coldfiekl,
four miles froin the town, it remains nearly as perfect as
if juft compL'ted ; one of the principal evidences of the
antiquity of Birmingham is, that it is contiguous to two
Roman roads, the Ikeiiild, and Shirley ftreets,

I'lie family of Birmingham were lords of this manor till
1537, at which period it is faid to have been oV;taincd by
the duke of Northumberland, through the fucccfs of a deep-
planned fcheme. Having endeavoured in vain to purchafe
it, he contrived to make Edward Birmingham appear as an
accomplice in a highway robbery, and ofteredhim his intereft
to fave a forfeited life, on condition of felling him the manor.
The manor-iioufe, which is novv called the mote, (lill remains,
though the fite has been converted into a manufaftorvi and
an apartment is fliewu where the ancient lords held their
court-leets.

The parifli of Birmingham is fmaller than any in its neigh-
bourhood. Mr. Huttoii obferves, that when Alfred found a
town, he allotted a much fmaller fpace of land to it, than
when he portioned a villag-e, obvioufly intending the former
for trade and comnierc:e, and the latter for agriculture ; this
circumftance feems to prove that AUrcAfoiDul Birmingham a
toiu/!. " The buildings occupy the fouth-eaft part of the pa-
rifli, which, with theirappendages, are about 800 acres. This
part being infufficicnt for the extraordinary increafc of the
inhabitants, flie has of late extended her buildings along
the Bromfgrove road, near the boundaries of Edgbafton,
and on the other fide planted fome of her ilreets in the
parifli of Afton."

" The fituation is elevated, and the foil one folid mafs of
dr)', rcddifli fand, through which the water defcends freely,
thus making even the cellars comfortable habitations ;" the
fame author adds facetioufly, that though metals of various
forts are found in great plenty above the furface, we know of
nothing below except fand, gravel, flone, and water. All the
richesof the place, like thofe of an empiric in laced clothes,
appear on the outfide. " There is not any natural river in the
parifli, but in the lower parts of the town are two excellent
fprings of foft water, fuitable for mod purpofes, one at the
top of Digbeth, the other Lady well ; and at the latter
place arc feven of the moft complete baths in the kingdom.
They coft 2000I. in erefting, and are ever ready for the
accommodation of hot or cold bathing, for immerfion or
amufement, with conveniency for fweating. That appro-
priated to fwimming is 18 yards by 36, fituate in the centre
of a garden, in which aie 24 private undrcffing houfes, and
the whole furrounded by a wall ten feet high."

Mr. Hutton mentions feveral inllances of longevity,

which feem to demonftrate either that the air is too pure to

be rendered unwholefome by the fmoke of the town, or that

6 fmok«

B I R

fmoJte and fteam are not fo prejudicial to Iicalth a« have
been. imagined : his iuftancL's are one ptrfoii sged lOO, a I'e-
cond 103, a third 104, and a fourth 107, four upwards of 90,
and '3 upwards of 80.

Bir;nii)gham is not a place a gentleman would chiife to
make a rdidence. Its continual noife and fmoke prevent
it f:om being d<.firable in that rcfpcct.

Many ancier.t families who once floi'.riflied at and near
Birmingham, arc mentioned by Mr. liutton to have fallen
i;:to irretrievable decay ; one inllance is vvorl'i tranfcribing.
" We have among us a family of the name of Middlemore,
of cjrcat antiquity, deducible from the coiiquell ; who held
the chief pofTelhons, and the chief offices in the county,
and who matched into the firft families in the kingdom, but
fell with the intereil of Charles ]., and are now in that low ebb
of fortune, that I have frequently, with a gloomy pleafurc,
relieved them at tliC common charity b.^ard of the town."

It appears upon record, that in 125!, Will am de Eir-
mingham, lord of the manor, procuied an additional charter
from Edwaid III. reviving lome decayed privileges, a:;d
granting others ; among the lad was that of the Whitfuntide
feir, to begin en the eve of Holy Thurfday, and to con-
tinue for four days. At the alteration of the flvle in 1752,
it was prudently changed to the Thurfday in Whitfun
week, that lets time might be loft to the injury of the
manufacturers and their workmen. The fame perfon alfo
procured another fair, to begin on the eve of St, Mi-
chael, (which is coHimoaly calit-d the Onion fair, on ac-
count of the great quantity of onions fold at the time)
both of which are at this day in great repute. The horfe
fair, which formerly was kept in Edgbafton-ftreet, was, in
1777, removed to Brick-kiln-lane ; and that for btafts, which
ufed to be in the High-lireet, into Dale-end, in 1769.

Near Birmingham, on the London roaJ, is Carap-hill,
where the army of prince Rupert were encamped, during
the fiege in 164.3. '^^^ inhabitants are accufed of dif-
loyalty by lord Clarendon, for feizi.ig the carriages which
contained the royal plate and furniture. The prince, with
2000 men, had been commanded by the king to open a
communication between Oxford and York, but the hardy
and imprudent inhabitants of this town dared to oppofe
this force, with only a company of fi ot, and a trcop of
horfe. Though they had thrown up fome flight works,
and block-Kded the llreet^, yet the king's army forced
through tfiefe trifling oblbuftions, and entered the tov/n
fword in hand. The earl of Denbigh, a royalill, was killed
in this affair, as was a clergyman vrho acted as governor for
the parliament, and who rctufed quarter. Bi;'mi:;gham had
a narrow tfeape fr"im deftruclion, for the exalperated com-
mander ordered the place to be burnt, but fome favourable
eircumdaiice confined the conflagration to a few houfes in
BuU-llreet.

The plague of i66y, was imported into the town in a
box of cK)atlis brought to the White Hart inn. Hence the
fatal poifon iaiinu-ited itielf tlirour;h the ftrcets and houfes,
deilroyig great numbers of the inhabitants, whofe bodies
foon filled the chureh-yard, and alfo an acre of land at Lady-
wood gr^en, which was afterwards called the Pell-gronnd.

Altho'.'gli fome degree of eminence attached to Birming-
ham previouOy to the reign of Charles II,, yet it is from
that period that its rapid increafe miilk be dated. Build-
ing leifes t'len became common, and numbers of houfes
arofe to accommodate the increafii.g population wh'eh affein-
bh'd, in coulcqucnce of the cultivation of the mechanical
arts.

About the year 1700, the number of ftrects in Birraing-
VoL. in.

B I R

ham r.as only 30, but now there are nearly 2Jo ; befide*,
feveral of the oldeft are confiderably improved and augment-
ed. This will, in fome meafure, aflilt the imagination in com-
prehending the amazing increafe of the town in fize, wealth,
and manufactures, during that time; and it is no prefump-
ti >n to fuppofe, that it has not yet arrived at its zenitii ;
one inftance of increafe will be fufEcient to point out
the general improvement. Between the roads to Wolver-
hampton and Dudley, there were only three houfes March
14, 1779. By that day twelve months they increafed to
55, and March 14, 1781, there were 144. The fame day
in I79r, there was an addition of 833.

Thomas Sherlock, bilhop of London, purchafed of the
ladies of the manor in 1730, land worth 400I. per annum ;
in 1 758, the income was doubled. He always refufed to
let it on building leaftf, allcdging, that his fucceffor would
be compelled to remove the rubbifh at the expiration of the
tenns ; iir Thomas Gooch, who held the land after the
above prelate, procured an acl about 1766, for letting afide
the prohibitory claufes of the bilhop's will ; immediately
let the ground, and improved the rents to 2400I. per
annum ; it appears from the books of the poor-rates, that
lefs than 5000 houfes pay the parochial dues, and more
than 8qoo houfes are exempt ; this fact denotes the prevail-
ing defcription of population.

Manufactures, lye. The extraordinary increafe in the fize,
populatioi', and profperity of Birmingham, arifes principally
from its proximity to the coal mines, from the nature of the
foil, from its canab, from the fucctfsful exertions of a few
individuals in fome mauufacluring fpcculations, and from its
being exempt from borough, and coi-porate laws and
reftriclions- To invelligate and detail the whole of thcfe
caufcs, with their eifefts, would occupy more fpace than we
can confidently appropriate. The molt prominent charafterif-
tics, however, fiiall be narrated. To the late John Taylor, efq.
a man of great induftry and ingenuity, the public are in-
debted for the gilt button, the japanned and gilt fnuff-
box, with the numerous clafs of enamels; alio the painted
fnuft-boj:, at which employ, one fervant earned 3I. los. per
week, by painting them at a farthing each. In his fhops
were weekly manufactured buttons to the amount of 800I.
exclulive ot other valuable produdlions, and eighty guineas
have been given him for a fingle toy made at his fhop. He
died in 1775, "' '^^ ^S^ °^ ^4' ^^'^'' acquiring a fortune of
200,cool. His fon is now partr.er in one of the largell pro-
vincial banking houfes in England.

The greated and moll noted manufaftory of this place,
and perhaps in Europe, is that at Soho, about two miles
from Birmingham. This is the property of Mcffrs. Boulton
and Watt, who have advanced certain pieces of mcchauifm
and productions of art to a ftate of excellence, that
have excited the a'toniihmcnt and admiration of na-
tions. The large warehoiilcs, work-lhop>, and the ele-
gant manfion of the former gentleman, cover the declivities
of a hill, which a few years back was a barren heath, tenanted
only by rabbits, and a warrener's hut ; now this once defo-
late fcene is converted into an emporium of arts and beau-
ties. Such are the wonderiul powers of human ingenuity
and indudry. In 1757, this fpot, with fome contij:uou»
land, was leafed for 99 years, to Mcflrs RiiHoT and Evans,
who erefted a houfe and a mill for rolling n-.etal, S:c. At
Lady day 1762, Mr. Boulton bought the whole, and re-
moving to it foon afterwards from Biimingham, commenced
the prefent extcnfive premifes, which were nearly completed
in 1765, at an expence of 9&ccl. He now admit-
ted a partner, Mr. Fothcrgill, into the concern, and

3 O tftablidied

B I R

eftablKTicd an exttnfive correfpondence throughout Europf.
To obtain and lupport a reputation, every tncouragement
was aftordcd to men of genius in drawinj:^, mod--!lMig, and
other branches of the arts. An imitation of or mohi in
vafes, tripods, and candeLibras, was adopted, accompanied
by fo much fkill and elegance, that univerfal approbation
followed ; this led to the manufafturc of wrougiit filver,
and an application was made to parliament in 1773, for an
allay office, to be eftablilhed at Birmingham. The poly-
(jniphic art had its origin at Soho. This method of copy-
ing pictures in oil, by a mechariical proccfs, was condndted
by !•". Eginton, who has fince executed a great number of
fine fpccimens of painting, or Gaining of glafs. The
tncauftic mode of ilaining glafs, or fixing the vivid and
fine graduating colours upon that tranfparent material, was
fuppofed to be loft, but it has been revived and brought to
great perfection by this gentleman. Since 1784, he has
executed feveral large windows for various cathedrals,
churches, and gentlemen's manfions. (See Glass-Paint-
isG.) Among the various machines, &c. invented and
conftrufted at Soho, there is one entitled to dillinguifhed
notice for its great national utility and importance. This
is the Jieam engine, which has acquired extraordinary
force and improvements by Mr. James Watt, one of the
proprietors of the Soho firm. To him the fcientific
world is much indebted for various other inventions and
improvements in mechanics. With a vigorous comprehen-
Cvcnefs of mind, he embraces every mathematical and me-
chanical fubjeft from the fimpkft to the mod complex and
profound. He procured a patent for the fteam engine in
1768, and feven years afterwards, entering into partnerfliip
with Mr. Boulton, began to conftruft thofe machines at
Soho. Since that period, they have been generally adopted
in the mines and manufactories all ovjr the kingdom. (See
Steam-Engine.) The following liil of curious and ufe-
ful articles are manufaftured at thefe work?, which, when
fully employed, give fupport to upwards of 600 labourers.
Buttons of all kinds ; polilhed fteel, and jettina fteel-tovs ;
polilhid ileel watch-chains ; patent cork-ftiews, &c. Buc-
kles and lachtts of ail forts ; plated and filver goods for the
dining and tea-table, fide-board, &c. ; medals and coins of
various Czcs and metals. The late beautiful new coinage
of copper, and alfo the re-ftamped dollars ; all come from the
Soho mint. The coining mill or engine fii ft erefled here in
1783, has been much improved fince that period, and is novsr
adapted to work eight machines at once, each of which will
ftrike from 70 to 84 pieces p<.r minute, the fize of a guinea ;
or between 4,000 and 5,000 per hour. Thus the eight
miachines will work between 30,000 and 40,000 coins in
one hour. Thefe machines are operated on by the fteam-
engine, and perform the following procefiTes : ift. rolling
the malTes of copper into fheets ; 2nd, fine rolling of the
fame cold, through cylmdrical fteel rollers; 3rd, clipping
the blank pieces of copper for the die ; 4th, (haking the
coin in bags ; 5th, ftnking both fides of the coin, and mil-
ling it, at the fame time dilplacing it, and placing another for
the fame operation. To its other properties, this ingenious
machine adds the almoft magical one of preventing fraud,
by keeping an accurate account of every coin which pafics
through it. Dr. Darwin has defcribed this fingular appa-
ratus in the following appofite poetical lines :

" Now his hard hands on Mona's refted creft,

Bofom'd in rocks, her azure ores aiTcft ;

With iron lips iiis rapid rollers fcize

The lengtliened bars in their expanfive fqueeze ;

Pefcending fcrews with poiid'rous fly-wheels wound

B I R

The tawny plates, the new medalion's round ;■
Hard dies of fteel, the cupreous circles ciamp.
And with quick f.ill, his man"y hammers ftamp.
The harp, the hly, and the lion join,
And George and Britain guard the fplendid coin."
Rolled metals oV all kind of mixtures, are prepared here;
befides pneumatical apparatus, large and portable ; alfo
copying machines, and in ihort, almoft every fort of article
for ufe or ornament.

Befides the manufaflories already named, Birmingham
contains f-vcral others, which are entit'cd to our confidera-
tion ; and although we cannot allow fpace for particulars,
yet we mull not pafs them altogether unnoticed.

Mefl'rs. Richa'.-ds's in Higli-ftreet, is ftylcd the toy-fhop of
Birmingham ; the elegance and variety of the articles are not
to be equalled, with the exception of the ftiow-room at
Soho. Mr. Clay's japan manufadory is not lei's celebrated,
particularly when it is confidered that the japan is fixed
on common brown paper. To thofe may be added Clarke
and Aftimore'smanufaift.iry of whips. Gill's gun, bayonet,
and fword manufaftory, fuppofed to be one of the beft in
the world ; and Galton's for fporting guns. Previous to
the reign of William HI. guns were moftly imported from
Holland ; but that monarch having once exprelTed fome
regret at this circumftance, and deplored the neceflity of
fending abroad for the article, Sir Richard Newdi-
gate, M. P. for Warwickfliire, being prefent, allured the
king that his conftitucnts would undertake to fupp'y the
demands of government. An order was given, and being
readily and correftly executed, Birmingham has continued
from that period to be the great and principal place of
manufafture for this deftructive weapon. See Gun.

Leather appears to have been manufaiSturcd here in great
quantities in the early periods of the hiftory of Birmingham j
but in 1795, there was but one tanner in the place.

Within the laft century, the manufadlurc of fteel into
almoft every kind of toy and ornament took its rife ; a
large ftreet bears the name of Steel-houfe-lane, from the ex-
tenfive works carried on there. Here are alfo very large
brafs works erefted on the banks of the canal, on the road
to the five-ways, near which ftand the ruins of the manfion
built by the late John Bafkerville, who made great improve-
ments in the art of printing. See Baskfrville.

Places of Amujcmcnt and Cunofty. In New-ftreet is a
mufeum, or repofitory of natural and artificial cnriofities, the
property of J. Biifet, a gentleman who has publifhed fome
ingenious poems and ufeful books. His " Magnificent
Direftory," is a novel, handfome, and ufeful work, in which
are contained elegantly engraved emblematical cards of ad-
drefs of a great number of the merchant?, manufafturers,
tradefmen, &c. throughout England.

The firft Theatre, eftabliftied at Birmingham, was fituated
in Moor-ftreet, about 1740 ; thatiu King- ftreet was erefted
1765, and enlarged 1 774; in the fame year, it was tranf-
ferred to a religious focicty, and another built in New-ftreet,
at an expence of 5660I. and managed with great fuccefs
by Mr. Yates. In 1 791, it was burnt by fume incendiaries,
who have never been difcovered ; fince that period, the
proprietors have re-built it in a very fplendid manner for
14,0001. with an affembly room and a tavern annexed to it.
Mr. Macready of Covent Garden theatre is the prefent ma-
nager, who generally prefents his audiences with the beft;
London performers during the fummer months. Concerts
and mufical paroles are held weekly during winter ; and
the fummer produces a variety of pubHc gardens, the prin-
cipal of which are Vaujdiall and Spring-gardens.

Govern-^

B I R

Government. Biitningham is governed by three afting
magiftrates ; the officers chofcn annually are the high-
bailifF, who infpefis weights and drj' meafiires, and the n:ar-
kets ; the low-baihfF, wljo fuinmons juries, and chufes all
the oilier officers ; two co;i!lable3 and one headborough ;
two high taller?, who examine the quality of beer and its
meafure ; two low tallers or meat conners, who inlpect the
meat expofed to iale, and caufe that to be dellroyed wtiich
is unfit for ufe ; two afFcirers, and two leather-fellers, whofc
offices are now only nomi.ial.

Deritend, a hairl^t of Birmingham, fends its inhabi-
tants to the court leet of that town, where all the
above officers are chofen and fworn, in the name of the
lord of the manor.

An act of pailiament paffi;d in 1752, which eftrsblifhed a
Court of Rcquefl , confilling of 72 commiffioners, three of
whom are a quorum ; they fit every Friday morning in a
room of the Red Lion inn ; the clerks attend to give judi-
cial affi'.lance, who are always profeflors of the common law,
and chofcn by the lord of the manor and the commiffioners
for life : ten cf the commiffioners are ballotted out every
otheryear, and ten others elected from among the inhabitants.
The beneficial eiTeCts of a humane fociety for the recovery
of fufpeuded animation were iirfl extended to Birmingham
in 1790. About the fame period a committee of refpectable
inhabitants was eftablilhed to watch over the common in-
terefts, under the title of the " Commercial Co.T.mittee."

In 1791, W. Viilars, efq. then high bailiiF, opened a mar-
ket for haw, i*raw, &c.

A public hbray was founded in 1779, which has flourifhed
greatly, and contains nearly io,cco volumes, fupported by
upwards of 500 fu'tiicribers. An elegant pile of building
was ereClcd in Withering-ftreet for the purpofes of the in-
llitution in 1797. A rival made its appearance in 1796,
with eveiy prolpeCt of luccefo ; befides thole, there are
medical and law libraries, and many reading focieties. Bir-
mingham contains two churches, and four chapels ; befides
ijeveral m.eeting houfts.

Churches. St. Martin's church, denominated the Old
church, was raifed previoufly to the year 1 300. It is of (lone,
and occupies the file of, oris the firft facred building belong-
ing to the place. In I (■90, it was thought neceflar)' to cafe
the church and tower with brick. The walls fupport the arms
and monuments of feveral titled and ancient families. Under
the fouth wii.dow are two of white marble, one of which is
Aippofed to have been erefted for William de Birmingham,
who was captured by the French at the fiege of BtUegard in
1297. He wears a (hort mantle, &c. and bears a (hield with
the bend loz.enge. This church was repaired and altered in
I 7S6, at an expenceof 4000I. The patronage belonged to the
family of Birmingham till 1537, fince which period it has
been DofTcfTcd by the Dudleys, the crown, the Marrows,
the Smiths, and finally the Tenants. The rectorv' was
valued in the kir^g's books J 291, at 5I. per annum, and in
i^\'^f, at 19I. 30. 6d. The income is now upwards of loooi.
and expected to be 2000 1. after the expiration of certain
leafes.

St. PhiUp'i, or the Nciv church, is a handfome pile of
building, but how Mr. Hutton or any other perfon could
fancy and fay that the lletple is erected after " the model
cf St. Paul's in London, but without its weight," is to us
inconceivable, as there is not a line of it that reminds the
fpeftator either of the dome or turrets of the metropolitan
edifice. It muft beallowed that the towerof St. Philip's finiffies
with an attic and a diminutive cupola, but there ends the
refemblance. This church is advantageoufly fituated on
an emiaence, and the fite was given by Robert Philips, efq.

B I R

It was begun by aft of parliament in 171 1, under a eommif-
fion confining of 20 of the neighbouring gentry appointed
by the bilhop of the diocefe under his epifcopal feal. In
1715, it was confecrated, and fiuifhed in 1719, at the real
coll of only 501 2I. though the eftimated value was nearly
20,ocol. This circumdance arofe from the gift of materials,
&c. The church-yard confills of four acres, and is inter-
fecled by handfome walks, (haded by trees in double and
treble rows, and is furrounded by elegant buildings. Two
thoufand perfons may be conveniently accommodated in
St. Phihp's church, which has contained nearlv 3000.
VvMham Higgs, firll rcCtor, founded a theological library
for the ufe of the neighbouring clergy, and bequeathed
200I. to augment it. The Rev. Spencer Madan eredled
a room in i 792, adjoining the parfonage, and termed it the
parochial library. The rectory is worth about 300 1. per
annum.

Si. Bartholometu' s Chtipel, capable of containing 800 per-
fons, was erected in 1749, on a fite given by John Jennens,
efq. an opulent land-holder of Birmingham. Mrs. Jennens,
through the good offices of Mrs, Weaman, added lOOOl.
and the remaining fum was received in contributions from
pious inhabitants. The chapel and tower are handfome,
and the former prefents a line north and fouth. The altar-
piece is the gift of Bafil, earl of Denbigh, and the com-
munion plate that of Mary Carlefs.

St. Mary's Chapel was ercfted in 1774; on a fpot
of ground given by Mary Weaman, whole family has the
patronage. The incumbency is valued at 200I. per
annum.

St. Paul's Chapel is a ftone building crefted in 1779, by
virtue of the fame aft which founded St. Mary's. Charles
Colmore, efq. gave t!:e ground ; a fleeple is intended,
and the eail window was decorated in 179 1, with
painted glafs, reprefenting the converfion of St. Paul,
by Francis Eginton, who received 400 guineas for the
fame.

The houfe of a celebrated phyfician of Birmingham,
Dr. A(h, was purchafed in 1789 by an attomer, who con-
verted it into an elegant chapel, at the expence of his o«ni
ruin, where he caufed the ferviceofthe church to be chanted
by a numerous choir, accompanied by an organ. Dr.
Croft, and fome other clergymen, afterwards purchafed it,
and engaged to officiate there regularly. The congregation
chiefly confifts of foldiers from the neighbouring barracks.

Dypnl'inj Meeting Houfes. Old Meeting-Jlreet received itt
name from the old meeting erefted in the reign of William
III. which was dellroyed in 1791 by the mob. The truf-
tees recovered 1390I. 7!. 5d. damages, and rebuilt the prc-
fent building, at an expence of 5000I.

The Ne-Jj Meeting built 1730, (hared the fate of its parent
in 1 79 1, and has never been rebuilt. The celebrated Dr.
Prielllty prefided over the fpiritual concerns of this place of
worlbip at the period of its dellruftion, and narrowly ef-
caped perfonal injury, or petl.aps death, from the furious
populace. He fled, and finally retired into exile, within the
llate of Pennfylvania, where he died 1804, with the fame
of an excellent philofopher and experimentalift. (See
Priestley.) The truftees having loll their licence, could
not recover damages, but the king granted his warrant
upon the treafury for 200cl,

The Union Meeting in Livery-ftreet, originally an amphi-
theatre for the exhibition of cqueftrian exercifes, beini^ un-
occupied at the period of the riots, the congregations of
the two meetings hired, and converted it into a place of
worfliip. After the rc-ercftion of the old meeting, they
feparated, refigning the Union meeting to the newr
3 O 2 meeting

B I R

meeting: a/Tcmblj-, who occupy it till tluir jilacc of woi-niip
it re built.

Carrs-Lane Meeting, a kind of chapel to the old meiting,
»vaj crcfted in 1 74^. This focicty has 800I. bcqueatlicd by
John England in 177 i, and 40I, 18s. per annum, termed
Scot's trull.

A Baptijl Meeting! in Canon-ftreet, was founded in 1738,
and has continued profperoufly to the prefent period.

The Quakers have a meeting in BuUiUrect, frequented by
a large, peaceable, and rich congiejjation ; behind it is a
fpacious burialgroi;nd. The mtthodifts arc now very
numerous; previous to 17R2, there was but one congvi ela-
tion, whofe place of wotlhip had been a theatre ; whence
they removed to a fplendid meetincr in Cherry-ftreet, erefted
at an cxpence of I2C0), John Weftlcy, their chief prieft,
preached in it for the firft time July 7, in the above year ;
three othi-rs have fince been treflcd and piuchafed in ColehiU-
ftreet, Deritend, and Newhall-ftrcet. The laft was erected
as a new Jerufalem temple, for the Swedenborgians, but in
too magniliccnt a ftyle for their revenues. The methodills
bought it, and the original pofTedbrs built a fmaller temple.
A fniall Roniiin Cntholic Chapel is fituated at Eafy-hill,
in the place of one dellroyed durin;v the dellruftive riots.
A Jcwilh fvnagogue, a baptift's mcetinir, and an independent
meeting, lady Huntingdon's meeting, ard fome other places
of worlhip, are found v.\ this town, which, like mofl m:um-
fiduring places, is dillinguilhed for its number of difTcnt-
crs of different feds,

Chariiirs. Some of the ftrcets of Birmingham are kept
jn repair by emoluments arifing from fmall eflates. William
Le-'ch, who lived in the reign of Heniy VIII. bequeathed
certain eftatcs to the town, in trull to fixteen inhabitants,
for repairing the ftreets. This perfon founded the alins-
houfcs m Ste«l-houfc lane foi* poor widows. Fentham's truft
is tool, per annum, and applied to teaching poor children
reading, and for cloathi.^g ten poor widows. The date of
the donation is 1712. Mr. Crowley gave in 1733, fix
lioufes for the fupport of a fchoul for ten girls.

The Free School was eredled on the fue of the guild of
the holy crcfs, which had an endowment or lands for the
maintenance of two priefls, worth twenty marks per annum,
givenbyThomasdeSheldon, John ColcfhiU, John Goldfmith,
and William Attdowe. In 1393, the bsiliff and inhabitants
obtaintid a patent for augmentuig the foundation, and adding
a brotlierhood, which fiourilhed tiilthc general diflolutioii, and
was then valued at 31 1. is. lod. per annum. Edward Vt.
{granted the lands belonging to the guild in 1552, at the
luit of the inhabitants to nineteen perfons, as bailiff and
governors of the fret graminar fchool of king Edward VI.,
to hold m common foccage at a rent of 20s. per annum.
Their lucceflbrs creftcd the prtfent building in 1707, which
is large and liandfon-e, has a neat towtr in the centre, and
a ftatue of Edward VI. in front. The chief maftcr's falary
is !2ol. the lecond 60I. two ulhers 40I. each for writing
and drawing, and a librarian lol. There are fevcn exhibi-
tions of 25!. per annum each for the univerfity of Oxford,
and the poff^flions are valued at 1200I. per annum.

The Blue Coat School was erctted 1724, but enlarged and
improved in 1794, at an expcnce of 25C0I. The revenues
are 1327I. and 150 boys and 40 girls receive the benefits of
the inll tntion.

The niffinlers Charity School was held at the old mc»tin<r,
but after that was deltroyed, a building was purchafed in
Park-ftrect, and has been much improved. The children"
received arc 40 boys and 20 girls.

The IVorUnufc eredted 1733, coll 1 1 73 i. a wing was added
for an infirmary 1766, and another in 1779, at an cxpcixe

B I R

of I lool. The inhabitants pay a rate of e&. in the pound,
which raifts 17,cool. per annum, and rchcl is aiiordcd to
7000 perfons. Tiiere are twelve ovcrfeers.

The General Hofl'itn! v.'?ii <^veatA 1766, and two wing*
were added 1791. It is fupported by voluntary contnbu-
tions, and many large bequells ; the phylicians generally give
their aflillance gratis.

Tiie Prifotu in Peck-lane and Deritend are difagree-
able and unwholefoine, and both are licenfed as public
houfes.

The Cj7w/ between this place and Wednelbury, was made
in cjnfequence of an ail obtained in i 767. It is twenty-
two miles in length, uniting with the Staffordlhire canal ;
ilie fliares were 140I. each, and the expeuce 70,oool. ; they
fold in 1782 for 370I. each, and in 1792 for 1170I. Sir
Thomas Gooch leafed the proprietors fix acres of land at
.171. per annum, which they converted into a wharf, and
tredled a handfome office on it. The boats are drawn by
one horfe, and are about twenty-five tons burthen. Co-ds
are little more than half the price they were before this
canal was made. Several other canals, equally beneficial,
have fince been completed, opening a communication be-
tween this town, and almolt every principal town iu the
kingdom.

'Hhf Barracks ftand on five acres of land, held by govern-
ment at one penny per yard. They were erefted in 1793
for 13,0001. and wdl accommodate 162 men.

There are three extenfive Breweries near Birmingham,
Richards's in Deritend for ale, Giles and Forrefts Vv'orftone-
lane, for ale and porter, and the Britannia, Walmer-lanc,
belonging to Clay and co.

The Riots already alluded to, conftitute an unpleafant
feature in the hiftory of this town, and whilft they
ferve to charafterize the folly and infatuation of the lower
clalfes of fociety, will, we traft, operate as a warniiig exam-
ple to the rifing generation. A few perfons anenibled at the
hotel Birmingham, July 14, 1791, to celebrate tlie anr.lver-
fary of the French revolution. A mob collctled round t'lie
liouie, broke the windows, and immediately proceeded to Dr.
Prieilley's new meeting. This, and the old meeting, were
ioon burnt to afiies, and the dodlor's houfe and furniture,
with his valuable libiary, apparatus, and MSS. fiiarcd the
fame devaftating fate. On July 15, the manfioiis of John
Ryland, efq. at Eafy-hill, and Bordefley hall, the feat of John
Taylor, efq. together with the honfe, ftock in trade, books,
furniture, &o. of Mr, Hutton, author of the " Hifiory of
Birmingham," were deftroyed. Saturday the l6th wit-
nefied the dellruflion of Mr. Hutton's houfe at Ssltley,
the rcfidences of George Humphreys, William Ruflel, and
John Taylor, efqs. The latter, Bordeflcy-hall, was occupied
by lady Carhampton, mother to the duchefs of Cumber-
land, but neither her blindncfs th-ough age, nor connection
with the king, could prevent the mandate of removiuj; her
furniture from the mob, who franticly offered to afllll :
" She was therefore, like Lot, haftened away before the
flames arofe, but not by Angels." The reverend Mr. Hob-
fon's and Mr. Harwood's houfes were next burnt •, thofe of
the Rev. Mr. Coates, Mr. Hawkes, and Thomas RulFcll,
efqs. were plundered. On Sunday the 17th, Kingfwood
mectu!^ perilhed in flames, tlic patfonage houfe, and that
of Mr. Cox, licenced for puhlio worfhip. The mob this
dayplundcred Edaballon-hail, Dr. Withenng's, and attacked
Mr. Males houlc, but hearing in the evening that a troop
of hcrfe approached, they gradually difperfed, after dellroy-
irg property to the amount of 'ecocoL To relmburfc
the fuffercrs, an aft was obtained in 179^ The war fucceed-
ing, greatly iujured Birmingham, and this cannot be more

clearly

B I R

.:ic3rly proved than by referring to the 1875 uninhabited
hoiifesiii tht year iSoo. There art two inoniiiiy papers pub-
lifliedatBirmiiigham; Aris's Birmingham Gazette, andSwin-
uey's Birmingham Chronicle, &.c. Mr. Swinr.ey alio car-
ries on a conliderable type foundcry, which is the only pro-
vincial one in the kingdom. '* This neighbourhood," fays
Mr. Hutton, " may ju;lly be deemed tiie feat of the arts,
but not the feat of the gentry. None of the nobility are near
us, except William Legge tarl of Dartmouth, at Sandweil,
four mil-js from Birmingham. The principal houfts in our
environs are thole of the late fir Charl-S Holte at AUton ;
fir Henry Goiigh Calthorpe at Edgbiillun ; George Birch,
tfq. at Handl'.vorth ; John Goiigh, efq. at Perry ; and
John Taylor, elq. r.t Bordtflcy and at Mofely, all joining
to the manor of Birmingham ; cxclufive of thefe, there
are many retreats of our hrll inhabitants, acquired by com-
mercial fuccefs." Hockley Abbtv, near Soho, is the reii-
dcnce of Mr. Rich:ird Ford, an ingenious fmith, who had
the honour of prefcnting Ids majelly with an iron carriage
made by himfclf. It is a modern curious building, with
the upper part reprefenting a ruin, and is furroundtd by
beautiful grounds and walks, interfperfed with fanciful
curiolities. The moft confiJerable feats in the vicinity of
Birmingham, are Hagley, 12 miles dillant ; Enviile, 15>
miles diftant ; and the Leafowes, 6 miles dillant. The
latter will long be preferved in the memory of every reader
of Shenftone, whofe creation it was, and whofe taile it dif-
played in an eminent degree. It now belongs to Charles
H imilton efq. who has judicioufly rellortd the ncglefted
beauties of the place. Hagley, the feat of lord Littleton,
has been particularly celebrated in the writings of Pope,
Thomfon, Hammond, and other poets. Enville, the feat of
the earl of Stamford, is a fcenc of great natural beauty. For
further particulars relating to Birmingham, its manufafto-
rics, and neighbourhood, Ice Hutton's *• Hiflor)' of Birming-
ham," 8vo. Shaw's "Hillcry of Staffordlhire,"ful. " A com-
panion to the Leafowes, Hagley, and Enville," i2mo.
BiiTet's " Poetic Survey round Birmingham," 8vo. Phil-
lip's " Hiilory of Inland Navigation," 410. &c.

BIRON, Armand, de Gontault, baron of, in Biogra-
phy, was born about the year 1524, and rofe gradually from
the condition of a page to Margaret qneen of Navarre, to
the rank of marihal of France, which he obtained from
lienry HL in 1577. After the death of this king, he was
0110 of the tirll to acknowledge Henry IV^. as lawful pof-
felTor of the crown, and ferved him with advantage at the
battles of Argues and Ivri. At the clofe of the aftion, to
the viftorious iffue of which he contiibutcd, by hts com-
mand of the referve, though he was not engas;ed, he faid
to Henry, who had much expofcd himfclf, " You, Sire,
have afted the part of Biron to day, and he has aded
yours." Under Henry 111. he occupied the pod of lieu-
tenant-general of Giiienne, m which he gained great advan-
tages over the Calviniits ; and he alfo reduced part of
Normandy to the obedience of Henry IV. To his fon,
who folicited a fmall force for the purpofc, and with the
promife of ruining the army of the dukes of Parma and
Mayenne, he replied ; " I believe you may ; but then we
ihall have nothing farther to do but to plant cabbages at
Biron." Soon after, in 1592, he loil; his life by a cannon
ball, at the ficge of Epernai. In his military ciiarafter, he
was a rigid difciplinarian, and required prompt obedience.
When an officer, whom he had commanded to burn a houfe,
defired an order to this ciTeiTl, under his own hand, Biron
inllantly difcharged him, ailedgi:tg "he would have notliing
to do with people wl:o were afraid of juftice ; and that
every foldier who dreaded 3 pen, mu!l tremble at a fwoid."

B I R

He was a polite fcholar, but of a mercenary and intemperate
difpofition. He wrote " Commentaries" ot hi? tran(rt>ltions,
which were loll. Gen Diet. Nouv. D:ft. Hiil. Mod.
Un. Hiil. vol. xxi. p. 54. &c.

Biron, Charlies de Gontault, duke of, the tided
foil of the preceding, v>'as born in 1562 ; and having ferved
under his father, he dillingui'.hed liimfelf in fcveral battles
and fieges. lienry IV, dilliiigaifhed him by tokens of for-
bearance and favour, on account of hs ianhful and adfive
fervices. He created hi-n admiral of France in 1592, mar-
fhal and governor of Burgundy in 1594, and honoured him
with erecting the barony of Biron ii.to a dukedom and
peerage. He alfo employed him in feveral important
diplomatic embaflies ; but his pnde and ambition rendered
him incapable of gratitude. Allured by flattering prof-
pcCls, he engaged with Spain and Savoy in a confpiracy
againlt his mailer; and at length his haughty conduA
caufed him to be arrefted for his treafons, tried, and con-
demned to lofe his liead ; and the fenience was executed
in the court of the baftile, July 31, 1602. He fubmitted
v/ith rekidlauce, and betrayed cowardice at the time of his
death. He was vain, arrogant, and malicious ; be ciianged
his religion twice before he attained the age of 16 years,
and manifeifcd a total want of principle and integrity.
His pafiion for gaming, reduced him, notwithllanding his
rapacity, to various difBculties ; and he was only eilimable
v.-hen he was atfively employed. Although -fhe king in-
currtd lome blame tor facrificing the life of a fcrvant who
had been eminentlv nfeful, and honoured with his peculiar
friendfliip, Biron deferved to fuffer as a traitor. Gen.
Dia. Nouv. Did. Hift. Mod. Un. Hill. vol. xxi. p. 99,
&c.

Biron, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordognc, 35 leagues fouth of Belvez. — Alfo,
an jfland in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 26 leagues well of
cape Angu lla. N. lat. 47'^ 50'. W. long 61" 5'.

BIROSTRIS, in Conchology, a fpecies of Bulla, that
inhabits Java. The flitll has two beaks, which are elon-
gated and fmooth ; margin thickened outwardly. Gmelin,
Liiler. Tills ipecies is not unlike BuHa voha, but is
fmaller, being only about the fize of a horlcbean ; and it is
alio narrower ; fmooth, whitifh, flelh-coloured ; beaks un-
equal, obliquely truncated, and one of tiiem a little afceud-
ing ; aperture nearly equal, but wideft at one end.

BIRO TA, Birotum, from tis and rata, -wheel, a kind of
vehicle denominated from the two wheels whereon it
moved. The birotn, by the conllltution of Conflantine,
was drawn by three mnlep, and carried 2CO pounds weight ;
by uhich it was dlllingullhed from the rhedu, which canied
looo pounds, and was diav.-n by eight, and in winter by
ten mules.

BIRR, in Geography, or, as it is called by aft of parlia-
ment, Paijons Toivr., the laigell poll and market town in
the King's county, Ire'and, firtiated on the livcr called the
l.'utle Brojr.a, which divides the King's county from the
county of Tippeiary, on the fouth-well. This town has
breweries, d.ililleries, malt-houfts, cloth and lerge nianu-
faftories, a bank, an excellent market, and a barrack for
two companies of foot. The callle at the wcilern extre-
mity of the town, belonging to the family of Parlons,
was bcdtged by Sarsfidd, lord Lucan, general of the
Iiiih, in the war of the revolution of 1688, and relieved by
ueneral Kirk. There is a ftatue of William, duke of Cum-
berland, Handing on a ftone pillar of tnc Doric order,
creftcd in 1747, in honour of the viflory at Culloden.
Birr is 65 miles well by fouth from Dublin, 6 fouth from
Banagher on the Shannon, and near 12 from Poitumna.

N. lat.

B I R

K. hx. 53« 4'. W. long. 7° 52'. Beaufort.— Coote's Sur^
vcv o; Kiii>;'s County.

niRRETUM, or BiRFTfM. in Jl^rllcrs of the Middit
and Loiuer Ages, a tlii>i Uh(.k cap or cover for the head,
made of hncn, fitted clofc to the head, and pointed by a
pyramid, anciently worn by pricth, foldiers, doClorf, &c.
Du-Can re. The word hirretum, fonietimcs written birrct-
ium and btrelHtn, is alfo applied to a cap ii<- coif of a jnt'pe,
or fcrieant at law. The birretum alfo ctnotes the cap
worn by the novices in the Jcfaits order, formerly of a
fquare, now a roinid figure. The birrtt was the ordinary
cover of the liead in France 500 years ago. It took its
denomination from Lirrus or blnum, the coat ancitntly nfed
by ecclcfiailics ; with which tlie cap was then of a piece,
and made part of it ; fo that the whole covered, not only
the head, but the fliouKltrs. Afterwards, when they
began to retrench the lo«er part, Hill ret:iii:ine; the upper,
it was no longer called birriis, or blnum, bnt diminutively
birrd, or bim/um,

BIRRUS, an ancient habit worn by the Chrirtians in
Africa. Tiie word is alfo written byrnis, fuppofed to be
formed from rzv'fi^i:, on account of its red colour. Some
will have the birrus an epifcopal habif. Others extend it
to all the clergy. Others, on jutlcr grounds, make it the
common coat of all the Chriftians in that quarter.

PiIRS, or BiRSH, in Geography, a river of Suiflerland,
which rnns*into the Rhine near Bafle. Near this river,
and not far from the town of Bafle, pre the hofpital and
burying jjround of St. James, famous in the hillory of
SwilTerland for a dcfpcrate combat in 144+. between tiie
Swifs and the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XI., in
which Swifs valour and intrepidity were very fignally dif-
played. Upon this occafion 15CO Swifs charged Soco of
the enemy's cavalr)- with fuch determined and well con-
dufted valour, as to drive them back ; and Uhen the enemy
received reinforcement, the Swifs renewed the afiault) and
forced them to repafs the river Birs, and join the main
body of the army. The Swifs, encouraged by this fucctTs,
and alfo exafperat-.dwith the moil fpiritetl indignation airainfl
the invaders of their country, radily attempted, agaiall the
rcmonftranccs of their officers, to force their paffage over
a hrdge guarded by a large body of the enemy ; but this
gallant elTort not fucceediiig, they threw thcmfelves into the
river, and gained the oppofite fhoro, in the f.,ce of a battery
of cauKon, that was playing againll them. But they were
now oppofcd to an army of ^o.oco men advantageoufly
pofted in an open plain. In thtfe dcfperste circumilances
they had no alternative, but to throw down their arms,
or glorioufly expire. Thiv bravely preferred death ; jco
took pofTt Dion of a fmall irtaiKl ticar the tridge, and after
Kefolut^ly defending themfelvcs to the lall extremity, were
cut to pieces. A like number forci d their way thro'igh
the ranks of vlie enrn-.y, and marched towards Bafle ; when
they were oppoftd by a large party of horfe polled to pre-
vent the inhabitants of the town from fallving forth to the
relief of their countrymen. Being now furrounded on all
fides, they threw themfelves into th? hofpital of St. Jsmes ;
and, lining the walls of the buryiag-ground, rtfified for
fome time the united afaults of the French anr:y. At
length the hofpital being fet on fire, and the cannon having
battered down the walls of the buPi'ing-ground, thcv no
longer f.ught in hop-s of vif>ory ; ' but ftill refolving to
fell the> lives as dearly as pofGblc, they continued tci de-
fend themfelves to the lall gvifp.

vEreas Sylvius (afterwards pope Pius II.) relates, axonn-
other actions of fingular val ur excited by thi6 heroic troop,
the following inftance, that defervcs to be recorded. Four

B I R

French foldiere affaulted a fingle Swifs, and having killed
and ihipped him, proceeded to infult the corpfe ; one of
his companions, incenfed at this brutal adion, feized a
battle-axe, rullied upon the four, flew two of them, and drove
the others to flight ; then flinging the dead body of his
friend upon his fhoulcers, carried it to a place of fecurity ;
and returning to the attack, fell by the hand of the enemy.
Of the whole number, only 16 efcaped from the field of bat-
tle ; and thefe, agreeably to the old Spartan difcipline,
were branded with infamy, for net having facrificed their
lives in defence of their country. Among thofe who were
dcfperately wounded and left upon the field, only 32 were
found alive. The names of many of thefe glorious consba-
tants were regiftered, and llill remain upon records. The
lofs of the enemy was great ; and they were efl^eftually pre-
vented from profecuting their defigns upon Swifferland,
and compelled to retire in a Ihattered llate into Allace. I.,ewis
hinil'elf declared, that fuch another victory would ruin his
ari-.iv. This combat may be confidercd as forming a re-
markable asra in the hillory of the Swifs ; for it gave rife
to their tieaty with Charles VII. ; being the firft alliiioca
which they contrafted with France. The Swifs llill talk
of this famous atllon \s-ith the warmeft enthnfialni ; and
the inhabitants of Bafle form parties every year, and go to
an inn fituated near the hofpital and burying-ground, in
order to commemorate, in a red wine produced from fomc
vineyards planted on the field of battle, the heroic deeds of
their countrymen, who fo glorioufly facrificed their lives.
This wine is highly prized by the Bafiieans, and called
'■ the blood of the Swif;;."

By the fide of the Birs there is a fertile plain, on which
are feveral pleafant villages ; and the extremity of the plain
is clofed by a rock, through which opens tlie celebrated
pafs called ■' Pierre Pertuis," which fee. At the bottom of
this rock, the Birs burfts from the ground in feveral
copious fprings, and turns two mills within a fev>' paces of
its principal fource.

BIRSK. See Borsk.

BIRSKA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Lena,
28 miles fouth-well of Olekminfle.

BIRSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and county of Ifcnburg, 26 miles E.N.E. of
Frankfort on the Mayne.

BIRTERBURY, or Bittfrbu. Bey, a confiderable
bay on the weft coaft of Ireland, in the county of Galvvay,
open to the Atlantic. It is capacious and well flieltered,
has good ground, and will admit the largeil Ihips, which may
ride here from four to eight fathoms water ; yet it is
probably never vifited, except by fifliermen and fmugglers.
N. lat. 53° 20'. W. long. <f 53' 30" from Greenwich.
M'Kenzie.

BIRTH, in a general fenfe. The word is of Saxon origin,

and is ufed 'o denote both the aft of coming into life, which

is ca'led child-birth, and th.e otTspring or thing born, and in

thefe fenfes we meet with it in our bell writers.

But thou art fair, and at thy biith, comipg into the world.

Shakclpear's King John.
Others hatch their eggs, aid tend the birth, (young ones)
until they are able to fhift for themfeive.s. Addifon,
Cicero fays, " Fer<c di'igunt partus fuos," beads love their
offspring.

Birth, in yJ/zV/itZ/erv, is ufed as fynonimnus to labour, or
tliepowerby wh.iehlhe fcctusis excluded from the uterus, and
in this fenfe we fan-, the birth (Iaboi:r) was eafv, expeditious,
tedious, difficult, &c. It is alfo, though not very pioperiy,
ufed by midwives, to fignify the extevr.al orifice of the va-
gina ; thus, when in labour, the head of the child begins

to

B r R

B I R

♦o dilate the external orifice, or to emergf, it is faid to be
in the birth.

BtRTH, h'nfural, when the head of the foetus prefentiiig
to the uterine orifice, the labour is completely et^eCied by
the pains, without the interference of art. See Labour,
Natural.

BrRTH, Piematun, when by any acc'de.it or derange-
ment of the lu-alth of the woman, or of the foE'us, pains are
excited, and the foetus is expelled before it has at'alned its
maturity. See Abortion, and alf; L.veour, Premature.

Birth, Prcternalnral, or acrofs, when, in laDi.ur, the
arm, (houlder, fide, breech, or any other part thin the head
of tiie foet'.is pnlenl to the uterine orifice. See Labour,
Preternaiural, and CROSS-iirll:

Birth, Laborious, when in I ibour the head of the fojtus
prefeuting, yet on account of the llraitnefs of the pelvis,
the paiiis are infufficicnt for its expulfion, whence recourfe
is necefiarily had to the alfiftance of the laver, furceps,
crochtt, &c. Set Laborious Birth, or Lab: UR.

Bi?.TH, Monjlrotis, wh^n the foctuj is deformed or mif-
haped, and has more or fewer organs than is natural. See
Monster.

Births, Seven Months, partus fcptimeftris, children born
at the end of the feventh month, or 210 days from the
time of conception, being now complete in all their mem-
bers, and having acquired a certain degree of ftrength and
firmnefs ot conllitution, are not unfrequently reared or
brought up.

Births, Eight Months, partus oflin-eftris, that is chil-
dren born at the end of the eighth month, or after complet-
ing 240 or 242 days in the womh. Thefe were fi'ppofed
by the ancients, but erroneoully, to be Icfs vivacious, and
confequently lefs likely to be preferved alive, and to grow
up to manhood, than ftven months children. This opinion,
founded on a miftaken idea of the upright poiition of the
foetus in utero during the former months of pregnancy,
and of the neceffity of its making an evohitiou, about
the end of the feventh month, to prepare it f^r the birth,
is confidered under the article Pojition of the fatus in Utero,
which fee.

For the number of births, fee Marriage ; under which
the proportion of births to marriages, of births to burials,
and of male births to females is computed. See alio Mor-
tality.

Birth, ^fter. See Placenta.

Birth is alfo ufed for a perfon's defcent ; and it is
tither high or low according to the circumllances of his
anceftry.

Birth, Berth, or Birthing, among JV^.'nen, denotes
the due diitance oblerved between (hips lying at an anciior,
or under fail. A convenient place a-board for a mcfs to
put their chefts, fleep, &c. is alfo called a birth. — There is
ufually one of thefe in (hips of war between every two guns.
And a proper place to moor a lliip in is called by the fame
name, as is alfo the ftation in which a (hip rides at anchor.
To take a good birth, is to remove to fome diftance off any
point, rock, or other thing which the feamcn would avoid
or go clear of.

Birth, Expofition of, among the Ancients, was where a
new-born infant was expofcd or caft away, and left to the
mercy of the tirll-comer, who might either take and bring
it up, or futfer it to pen(h. See Exposing of Children.

Birth, Suppofition of, partus fuppofitio, in the Civil Lav),
is a crime for which acculation may be intented by thofe
who hive intcreft therein, and is puni(hed with death, like
the crimen falft, or forgery.

BiaTH, Sjpprtjfion of, partus fuppofitio. See Abortion.

BiRTB-Z>ay, the anniverfary ret'.im of the day on which
a perfon was born. This anUvers to wliat ti.e ai.ciLnt: cal-
led yEviSXio*, genethlion, naialiiius dies, nataiuia, and, in the
miJdle age, genetalius. The ancients made much of their
rc'igion to confill in the celebration of birth-days, and
took omens from thence oi the felicity of the coming year.
We meet with birth-days of the goda, emperors, great men,
poef^, and even private perfons ; and belldes, the Lirth-day»
of cities, as Ron:e and Conllantinople, were celebrated with
great pomp by the inhabitants. Virgil's birth day was
held very Itriftly by the wit^ and potts who fucceedtd him.
Pliny (Epiih lib. hi. ep. 7.) a(fure9 us, that SiHus kept it,
with UiorL- foltmnity than he did his own.

The manner of ctlebratii.;; birth-days was by a fplendid
drefs ; wearing a fort of rings pecuhar to that day ; offeiv
ing facriSces, the men to their g.nius, of wne, fnnkin-
cenfe ; the women to Juno ; giving fuppers, and treating
thtir friends and clients ; who, in return, made thtm prefents,
wrote and fung their panegyrics,, and olfired vows and good
wilhtb for the frequent happy returns of the fame day. The
birtli-days of emperors were alfo c.Icbr.itcd with public
fports, feads, vows, and medals (Iruck on the occalioiv But
the ancients, it is to be obfervtd, had other d rts of birth-
days befides the days on which thty were bom. The day
of their adoption was always reputed as a birth-day, and
Celebrated accordin;r!y.

The empernr Adrian, we are told, obferved three birth-
days ; viz. the dav of his nativity, of his adoptioii, and of
his inauguration. (Fab. B:b. Graec. torn. xii. lib.vi. cap. 6.)
In whofe times it was held, that men were not bom only
on thofe days when they firll came into the world, but on
thofe alio when they arrived at their chief honours and
command in the commonwealth, i.gr. the confulate. Hence
that of Cicero in his oration Ad Qui'ites, afrer his return
from exile : " A parentibus id quod nectffe erat, parvus
fum procreatus, a vobis natus lum conlularis." Befides,
thofe who returned from banilhment, were alfo confidered
as being born again, renati, and ever after called the day of
their return th<ir birth-day. Thus Cicero to Atticus :
" Diemque natalem reditus meicura ii in tuis jedibus amae-
niffimis agam tecum, & cum meis." Cenfoinus has a trea-
tife De Die Natali, addrelTed to Q. Certllius j, as a complin
ment on his birth-day.

BiRTH-Z>i;jj of the Saints and Martyrs, natales fanSorum,
denote the days of their deaths.

In reality, natalit among the ancients, was not reftrained
to birth-days, but extended to all feaft-days.

Hence it is we meet with natalisfolis, natalis callcit, natalis
ecclefix, natalis reliquiorum, iifc,

BiRTH-A'n, in7"/jfo/o^^',the fame with or/^/'na//rn,whichfee.

BiKT H-ll'^ort, in Botany. See Aristolochi A.

BIRTH A, in /indent Geography, Tchrit, a town of Alia,
in Melopotamia, on the Tigris, fouth ot the confluence of the

Zabus Minor with this river Alfo, a town of Arabia

Delerta, feated on the Euphrates, according to Ptolemy.

BIRTHAMA, or Bit h aba, a town of Afia, in Affy-
ria, according to Ptolemy.

BIRTHIN, in Geo^^raphy, a river of Monmouthihire,
which runs into the Uik, near the town of Udc.

BIRU, a town of South America, in the empire of Peru,
diftant 10 leagues from Truxillo, and inhabited by about
■70 families of Spaniards, Indiars, Mulattoes, and Meftizos.
About half a league to the north of it is a rivulet, from
which are cut fcveral trenches for watering the grounds,
which of courfc are equally fertile with thofe in the vici-
nity of Trtixillo. S. lat 8° 24' 59". W. long. 69° 17'.

BIRUCKPOUR, a fortrds of Hindoftan, in Malva
3^ country^

B I S

cmirtry, and circar of Chanderee ; 55 mlK'S eaft of Chan-
dcree.

XiJRVIESCA, BrRBuscA, ofBribiesca, a mean and
wretched town of Spain, in Old Callile, 15 miles N. E. of
Burgos.

blKLTISA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the
Tcl.iniia. N. lat. 57' 35'. E. long. 95" 14'.

BIRUTCH, or BiRuiTscH, a town and diHrid of
RiiHi.i, in the government of Voronet/., feated on llie river
Sofua, which falls into the Don ; jo miles fouth of Voio-
netz.

BI RZA, or BiRZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Tioki. N. lat. 56^ E. long. 24^40'.

BI.S, in BoIlviw a name given by fome old writers to the
napelhis, or monk's-hood, and by others to tlic cicuta or
hemlock.

BIS, Lat. i-Mice. In Mufic, when a paffage which ought
to be repeated, has, througli milfake, or w fave room, been
omitted, the word his placed over fiieh pntfage, with dots at
the beginning and end, implies that the whole is to be re-
peated.

Example.

V>\%-annual, a name given by Botan'ijls to thofe plants
which ordinarily do not flower till the fecond year.

BIS A, or Iji7. A, a coin in Pegu, current there for h df a
ducat. The denomination is alio given to a kind of weight
ufed in the fame country, equivalent to two Venetian pounds
five ounce'', or to three pounds nine ounces of the fmaller
weight of that city.

BlS.^CCIO, in Geography, a town of Italy in the king-
dom of Naples, iz miles ^'.N.E. of Conza. N. lat. 41'^ 3'.
E.long. 15' 3;'.

BISACUi'A, in MiiUk /l^e IVr'iters, an ax with two
edges, or which cuts either way ; or a mifTive weapon
pointed at both ends. Walfnigham reprefents the feeiirh
bifaeuta as peculiar to the Seottifli nation. See Battle-
Jlxe.

BIS ALT jT!, in Ane'ttnt Geography, the name of a people
who inhabited a fniall country bord ring on the Sinus Stry-
monicus, in the northern part of Macedonia. Their chief
cities were Euporia, OfTa, and Callttra.

BlSAl/riDE, in Entomology, a fpfcies of Papilio
(^Daii. /"<//.) that inhabits Suriiiiim. Tlie wings ate flightly
tailed, fulvou=, bhick at the tips; beneath, two ocellar dots
on the anterior pair, and three on the pollerior ones. Ea-
bricins, &c.

BISAMRAZE, in Zoology, Sorex mojchatuj, Gmelin,
and long-w/fed beiivir of S. G. Gmelin. it. &c.

BISAMTHIER, Mofchus mojclnj^r-js, or Thibet miiji
in Gefn. Qnadr.

BISAN PHE, or R,i:distus, in Anc'tatt Ge:>~^raphf, a
town of Thrace on the confines of the Propontis, at the
bottom of a kind of gulf, and at a fmall dillaace S.W. from
Perinthe.

BISANT. See Bksant.

BiSByEA, a feaft celebrated by the MtlFapii, after the
pruning of their vines, to obtain of the gods that they miglit
grow ajain thebetrer. The word is formed from j?.^\ ufed
by fome for a -Ane.

BISCAINO, Bartolomeo, in Biography, an eminent

B I 5

artift. was born .it Genoa in 1632, and indrnaed^ in the
firll principles of painting and dclign by his father Giovanni
Bifcaino, a landfcape painter of reputation. He afterwards
perfcfted himfelf, particularly in the art of colouring, under
Valerio Caflelll. By his early death, at the age of 25 years,
the expectations of thofe who admired hi- talents and pc form-
anccs were difappoiiited. Some of his etchings are exccuttd
in a bold ftyle, refembling th<.fe of Caftiglione, but all more
finiihed. His figures are elegant, firmly compofed, and
drawn in a very mallerly manner ; he has given beauty and
characler to the heads ; and the other extremities are pecu-
liarly con eft, and marked with great fpirit. Soire of the
principal are the following : " Mofes m the ark of bul-
rufties ;" A Nativity, with angels ;" " The wife-n.en's
ollering ;" " The Circunicifion of Chrill ;" and a " Bac-
ciianalian." Strutt.

BISCARA, or Bescara, in Geography, a decayed city
of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, the capital of the
diftrift of Zaab or Zeb, belonging to the provuice of Con-
ftantine. It is the refidcnce of a Turkifti garrifon, and has
a fmall caftle, built by Plaflan, the bey of Conllar.tine, and
chiefly defended by fix fmall pieces of ordnance, and a few
unwieldy muflvcts, mounted on carriages. It is a place of
great antiquity, built by the Romans, and deflroyed by the
Arabs, who afterwards rebuilt it. It is at prefcut as uidif-
ferently peopled as it is weakly defended ; the houfes be:ng
infeftcd by fwarms of fcorpions, vipers, and poilon"us rep-
tiles, ^.nd the inhabitants being obliged to delerl the city
and retire into the coiuitry in the fuminer, when thefe noxious
animals are intolerable. The inhabitants o( this piacr, and
its adjacent dillrlcf, called " Bilcaris," lead a kind of wan-
dering life, and live in tents. Few of them e^'n be employed
in agriculture and palhirage from the nature oi the country ;
but thofe of the fnperior clals carry on fome commerce, not-
withftanding their poverty and Indigence, in negroes and
ollrich feathers. The pooreft of them migrate every year to
the city ot Algiers, and other towns of the kuigdom, and
are einployed in the meanell and moll fubordmate offices,
fuch as cleanfing of Ibiets, emptying vaults fvveeplng chim-
nies, and carrying burdens. Having in the courfe of two
or three years accumulated a capital ef from fix to ten ze-
chins, they return home, and on accovnt of the fcarclty of
coin among them, are reckoned i<mong t! e wealthy of the
land. In the capital, they conftitute a ki C of corporation,
and have even a common treafury for the pi.'rpofc of mutually
relieving one another. They are the on'iy cl ils of free
fervants, and arc highly efteemed for their fidelity. In
winter, as well as in funimer, they flecp wrapped ip in rags,
on a kmd of benches before the (hops, and others place thtm-
felves at the gates of the different roads, for the convenience
of opening them to pan"enger3. They are not only de-
fervliig of the confidence that is repofed in them, but their
difgofitlon Is placid and obliging, and their perfcvcrance in
labour is indefatigable. Thofe among them tvho are guilty
of any breach of trntt, are punilhed by their chiefs. They
are employed by the Europeans as fervants, and as they can
fpeak,_ be!:d;s the language of the country, the " lingua
Frai.cia," are found fingularly uftful. The villages which
they inhabit in their own coun'try are fmall, and remarkable
only for their meannefs and poverty. N. lat. 34° 30'.
E.long. 5° ij'. ^

BISC.\RGIS, or BissANcis, in Jtuienl Geography, a
town of Spam on the right fide of the Iberus, N.VV. of
Derti.fa.

BISCAY, in Geography, a province of Spain, called " the
lordihip of Bifcay," is, in its mod appropriate and reffrided
feofe, bounded on ihe north by the bay of Bifcay, on the

fouth

I

B I S

fouth by a chain of the Pyrenees, wliich feparate5 it from
Old Caftile and Alava, on the weft by Afturias, and on the
call by Guipiifcoa i and in ektent its length is about Ii6
miles, and breadth much lefs, the greateft breadth being 80
miles, but very unequal. In its more general and compre-
henlive fenle, Bitcay is divided into tliree parts ; viz. Bifcay,
properly fo called, Guipufcoa, and Alava ; and, accordingly,
it is boundi'd on the weft by that narrow tradl of Old Caftile
which reaches to the fea and Afturias ; parted from Old
Caftile on the fouth-eaft by the ridge of the Afturian moun-
t lins branching from tlie Pyrenees, and by the fame mountains
fr m Navarre, and by the river Cidarfo from France, on the
eaft ; and wafticd on the north fide by the Cantabrian fea,
nor.' commonly called the bay of Bifcay. The country is
for the moft part mountainous and barren ; but its vallies
produce corn fufticient for the fupply of the inhabitants, and
a (.nail quantity of flax. Apples are very plentiful, of which
is made cyder, the common beverage of the people. They
have alfo a vceak wine, called " Chacolino," which is plea-
fant, though it will not keep long, and is uftd inftead of fmall
beer. They have alfo citrons and oranges in great abun-
dance. Tlie adjacent fea fupphes excellent fifti, and the
forells yield gre.it quantities of timber for ftiipping. But
the moft valuable treafure of this country confifts of its in-
exhauftible mines of excellent iron, which is tranfported from
hence into all parts of the world. The country has been
long famous for its iron-works, and efpecially for its manu-
facture of fwords aiid knives. Some have computed the
amount of its annual manufafture of iron and fteelinto arms,
nails, iron tools, bars, &c. at 300,000 quintals. The air of
this province is mild, pure, and more temperate than that of
the other provinces of Spain ; and the inhabitants have been
diftinsruiflied by their attachment to liberty, and refiftance to
oppreffion. Their anceftors, the Cantabri, were but imper-
feftly fubdued by Augullus, and their mountains have, in
every fucceeding age, afforded them a retreat from the en-
croachments of arbitrary power. The Bifcayners are faid
to be of Celtic or Gothic extraft ; and have preferved more
of their ancient genius, laws, government, and language, than
perhaps any other people in Europe, except the Welfh,
Scots Highlanders, and wild Irilh, who are probably of the
fame origin, and whofe language much refembles the Bif-
cayan. They have always maintained a diftinguifiied repu-
tation for valour ; and the beft foldiers and failors of Spain
have been the natives of this country. They elTentially differ
from the other Spaniards in the opennefs of their temper, and
animation of their manner ; and though they are choleric
even to a proverb, and not deftitute of pride and vanity, they
are obliging, polite, and friendly. Their females are beauti-
ful, lively, and cheerful. Their drefs is neat and paftoral ;
their hair falling down their backs in long plaits, with a
handkerchief twifted round it. The moil fmgular part of
the drefs of the men is the covering of their legs, round
which they wrap a piece of coarfe grey or woollen cloth,
faftening it with many folds of tape. The three provinces
of Bifcay, Alava, and Guipufcoa, have been the afylum of
liberty and indultry, and to thefe caufes their pVofperity may
be afcribed. When the king, who is ftyled merely " lord
of Bifcay," wants a fupply either of men or money, he
announces his will to the province ; vi'hich furnifties its con-
tingency of both ; the latter being levied upon the diifcrent
cities and conmiunities, according to a certain regifter, fo
that in efteft Bi'.cay may be faid to tax itfelf. In this pro-
vince are, no bifliops. Its privileges, which are extcnfive,
it has watched over with a jealous eye. The l3ug'>age of
Bifcay is accounted aboriginal ; it is faid to be the Cantabrian,
or ancient language of iSpaiu, which was a blanch of the
Vol. IV.

B I S

Celtic, and firft gave way tp the Romanfh ; which fee. It
is fo totally diff"erent from the Caftilian, that the peafants
fcarcely underftand a fingle word of Spaiiift. The capital of
Bifcay is Dilbao, which fee. Its other "chief towns are
Orduna, Durango, Fontar.ibia, St. Scbaftian, Tolofa, and
Vittoria.

Biscay, Bay of, that part of the Atlantic which lies
north of the province of Bifcay, between the projedirg coatts
of France and Spain, and extends from cape Oitegal to
Breft. It advances fartheft to the land between Bayonne
and St. Sebaftian ; and it likewife advances confidetably
at Rochelle and Rochefort. — Alfo, a large bay on the ccaft
of Newfoundland, between cape Race and cape Pine. It
lies in the N.E. corner of Trepaftey bay, on the S.E.
part of the ifland. N. lat. 46=50'. W.long. 53° 6'.

Biscay, New, a province of Mexico in North America,
in the audience of Guadalajara, bounded on the north by
New Mexico, on the eaft by Nevi' Leon and the river Bravo,
on the foutli by Cinaloa and Culiacar, and on the weft by
Navarre, Sonora, and Haqui, on the borders of the gulf of
California. It is computed to be about 300 m:les from eaft
to weft, and 360 from rorlh to fouth. The country is
mountainous, but well watered, fruitful, and moderately tem-
perate, rich in corn, cattle, and other produflions ; and alfo
in mines of filver and lead. The original inhabitants have
four large towns in the moraffes, which are difficult of ac-
ccfs, and by means of which they avoid total fubjeflion ;
and therefore the Spaniards have built three fmnll fortified
and well inhabited towns for the defence of their filver mines.
The capital is Durango. This province lies between the
latitudes of 27° and 93° N. and between loc" and 108°
W.Inng. ^

BISCEGLIA, a town of Naples, in the province of
Bari, having the fee of a bifliop, fuflfragan of Trani ; it is
pleafantly fituated on an eminence in the midft of orchards
and villas. The walls are of ftone and very lofty ; and it
has hundreds of fubterraneous refervoirs and cifterns, cut in
the folid rock, and arched over with ftones and ftucco, in
order to colleA and preferve the rain-water, which is the
only fort with which they are fupplied in a diftrift, fo totally
deftitute of fprings. Bifceglia is 4 miles diftant from
Trani.

BISCHBURG, or BiscHOFSBL'RG, a town of Pruflia,
in the county of Ermeland, 54 miles fouth of Konigf-
berg.

BISCHEIM, a town of Germany, in the cucle of the
Upper Rhine, and coimty of Lichtenberg, on a fmall
river which runs into the Rhine, 8 miles N.E. of Straf-
burg.

BISCHOFFLACK, or Schofia Koloka, a town of
Germany, in the duchy of Carniola, 27 miles N^N.E. of
Tricfte.

BISCHOFFSHEIM, a town of Germany, feated on the
Tauber, in the circle of Franconia, but belonging to the
eleftorate of Mentz ; 64 miles fi.E. of Meiitz.

BISCHOFFSTORF.atown of Germany, in the duchy
of Stiria, 13 miles E.N.E. of Gratz.

BISCHOFSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Franconia, and bifhopric of Wur/.burg, fcatcdon the Rhom,
32 miles north of Wurzburg. — Alfo, a town of Germany,
in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and county of Hanau-
Munzenburg, 3 miles Vi'.N.W. of Hanau.

BISCHOFSTEIN, or Bi stein, a town of Pruffia,
in the county of Ermeland, 42 miles fouth of Konigf-
berg.

BISCHOFSWERD A, a town of Germany, in the circle

of Upper SuXonv, and margraviate of MeifTcn, icatcd on

3 P ai.

B I S

an idand in the river Wefenitz, the principal commerce of
which is in white thread ; it has two churches; 20 miles eall
of Drcfden.

BISCHOFSWERDER, a town of Pmni^, in the pro-
vincc of Oberland, 80 milts S.S.W. of Koni;rfterj;.

BISCMOFZELL, a town of SwifTcilaii.), in the Thur-
gaw, feated at the confluence of thi- rivers Sitter and Tluir,
1 1 miles fo'.ith of Conftance. This town has a caftle, in
which refiJi.s the bailiff of the bilhop of Conftance, who
exeicifes jurifdidion over the Catholics, and receives a moiety
of the fines. N.bt. 47" 25'. E. long. 9^ 13'.

BISCHOP, or BiSKOP, John de, in liioj^mphy, zn ex-
cellent artift, was born at the Hague in 1 646, and is much
commended as a painter; and his drawings, in which he
imitated with great exadnefs the llyle of tbe bed maOers,
are much eitctmed and fought after by the curious. But
he is moll generally known as an engraver. His works :'.rc
chiefly etchings, harinoiiizcd with the graver; and tliou^h
flight, yet free, fpiritcd, and plcafing. He gives a richr.efs to
the colour, and a roundncfs to the figures, far beyond what is
ufuallv done with the point, fo little affilKd by tlie gravt-r.
His figures are generally well drawn, more in a mannered
than a correft flyle ; but his extremities are not always well
marlicd, nor his heads equally cxprcfTive and bfautiful. His
excellence was owing chiefly to his own gen'u=, as he never
ftudied under any mailer. He worked chiefly at Amder-
dam, and died in 1686. The following piints are worthy
of notice : viz. " Chrift and the Samaritan woman," from
Annibalctaracci ; " Jofeph dillributing corn to the Egyp-
tians," from B. Breenberge ; " The Martyrdom of St. Lau-
rence," from the fame. Strutt.

Bjscmop, or BiSKOP, CoRNELiL's, a painter of portrait
and hiilory, was born at Antv/erp, fay fome, or, accordmg to
others, at Dort, in 1630, and was tiie difeiple of Ferdinand
Bnl, whofe pencil, tint of colouring, (lyle, and manner, he
rcfcmbltd, and to wliom he has been thought by forne com-
petent judges not to be inferior. He died in 1674. A
painting by this mailer, confilHng of a ftw figures by candle-
light, was To much admired by Lou'sXIV., that he p'.ir-
chafcU It at a high price, and placed it in the royal colitc-
tion. The king of Denmark alfo admitted his works among
thofe of the be!l malUrs. It is obferved, however, that
they are not worthy of that high commendation which is be-
ftowed npon the-n by the Fleir.iili writers. Pilkington.

BISCHWILER, in Gtr.graphy, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton
in the di'.lrcl of Stralburg, featcd on the Motte near the
Rhine, and defended by a caiUe, flanked with towers, and
guarded by ditches; 10 miles north of Strafburg. The
tov/n contains 3449 inhabitants, and the canton M,968.
Its territorial extent comprehends 265 kiliomctres, and 2 I
communes.

BISCIA, in Iththyologj, one of the fynonymous names
among old writers fur the pipe-fiih, tobacco-pipe-fifh, needle-
fifh, or trumpet-filh ; and fyngnalbus acu: of Linnseus and
Gmclin.

BTSCOPSVAARE, in Geography, a town of Norway,
48 miles eaft of Bergen.

BISCROMA, I'tal. for a dtmiferaiquaver, in Muftc. If

fingle, it has thre<

:c hooks 5 fe ; if

two or more, they have

ihr<e ties

See TiME-TABLI.

B I S

BISCUIT. See Bisket. , • ,

Biscuit, w ?o>.tcn, a name given to porcelain, when
baked and not glazed; and this is more or lels bc^utiUU,
according to the naf.ire of iu compolition. bee Force-
LAIS, and Pottery. r ■ r t • i.

DISCU FA, in Entomoh^y, a fpecies nt 1-ormica, wi-ti
a bidentated thorax ; and a double petiole fcalc. I'nhabits
Cayenne. FaHrlcius Spec. Inf. , ,. . . .

BISCUTELLA, formed of b\s, and the diminutive of
fcutum, th^ fruit refembling a d.nible fliield, in B;tany, Bud-
icr muprd, or hajlard Mithriilate mujlanl. Lin. gen. 808.
Rwh. 872. Schreb. 1084. JufT. 239. Ga:itn. t. 141.
Thlafpidium. Tournef. loi. Clafs and Order, tctrndy
namia fdicukf.t. Nat. 0\^.Jdu-,tnf<t, cruci/onnrs. or cru'if,-ra.
Gen. Char. Cal. perianth four leaved ; leaflets ovate, acnmi*
nate, gibbons at the b ife, coloured, deciduous. 6V. fonr-
petallcd, cruciform; petals oblong, obtufe, fprcading. Stam.
filaments fix, the len:^tn of the tube of the corolla ; two op-
p.;fite fliorter; anthers fimple. P/,'?. germ comprcfFcd, or-
biculate, emsrginate; ftyle iiinple, permanent; lligma ob-
tufe. Per. filicle erecT;, comprflTcd, flat, femibifid, with
roundilh lobes, two-celled ; partition lanceolate, ending in a
rigid llylc ; cells two valved, affixed to the partition, on its
fl:- aight margin. Seeds, folitary, roundiih, comprefTed, in the
middle of the cell. Obf. The two outer leaflets of the calyx
in fome fpecies have a tubular -concave melliferous prominent
bafe.

Etr. Char. S'dkle comprefTed, flat, rounded above, and
below two-lobed. Cnl. leaflets gibbous at the bafe.

Species, I. B. auricidata, ear-podded buckler-muflard..
Thlafpi. Bauh. pin. 107. n. 3. prodr. 49. n. 8. Raii hift,.
837. n. 4. Leucoium montanum fl. pedato. Col. ecp'ir. 2.
59. t. 61. Jondraba Barr. ic. 230. " Calyxes gibbous on
each fide with the ntftary, filicks run-iing into the llyle."
In a wild Hate this plant rifes about a foot in height, but in
gardens neariy two feet, dividing into feveral branches; the
flowers are produced at the ends of the branches in loofc
panicles, and are of a pale yellow colour. The nettarious
ffland is very large, and the calyx bagged out very much at
the bottom. A native of the fo'th of France and Italy.
Cultivated in Kew garden by Mr. J. Sutha-land in l6-;3,
and flovvering in June and July. 2. B. apula, fpear-leav^d
buckler-mufl:ard. B. d;dvm.>. Lin. fpec. 91 1. Hort. Cliff.
329.2. Upi". 185. Thialpi. Rail hiiL 837. n. 3. Cly-
peatum. Cluf hill. 2 133; Jondraba. Col. ecphr. i. 283.
t. 285. f. I. " Siliclcs fcahr JUS ; haves lanceolate, feffile,
ferrate." A native of Italy. Cultivated in 1759, by
Mr. Miller. Flowering in June and July. 3 V>. lyrata,
Thlafpi bifcutatum, &c. Bocc. fie. 45. t. 23. Rail hift.
8^7. n. 6. " S holes fcabrous ; le--ives lyrate" A native
of Spain and Sic:lv. 4. B. coroniptfolia. " Silcles fmooth ;
leaves toothed, rough with hairs." AUioni thi:'ks this a
variety of the fecond, proceedi g from a dryncfs of foil ;
for it is found in very dry barren olices in Spain, Italy, and
Germany. Oouan is of opinion that this and the fecond,
third, and fourth are one fpecies. ^. B. Idi'igata, fmooth
buckler-muftard. B. didyma. Sco;). Cdrn. n. S04. Clyptola
didyma. Crantz. Auftr. 20. Leucoium. Col ecphr. i. 283.
t. 285. f. 2. Rail hill. 836. n. 2. " Sit clcs fmooth ; leaves
lanceolate, ferrate." The whole plant is acrid ; the root
perennial, according t<> Jacqui , but, according to others,
annual. A native of Itaiy and Anftria. Fou.id at very
different heights in the mountains, with variation of ilature,
from half a foot to a f ot and a half. Flowen^g in lower
fituations in April aid May ; in lii^her ones in July and
Augull ; in ourgardens ir Ju'ie anJ [ulv. Intr duccd here
in X777 by M. Thouin. 6. &.fimpervirem, flirubb; buckler-

mullard.

B I S

B I S

mudard. Tlilafpi bifcutdlaUim, &c. Barr. ic. t. 841.
Bocc. muf. 197. t. 122. " Silicles fomewhat fcabrous ;
leaves lanceolate tomcntofe." A native of Spain. Intro-
duced into Kew garden in 1784 by MefTrs. Lee and Ken-
nedy.

Propngat'ion and Culture. Thefe are all annual plants, ex-
cept the laft, and perifh foon after they have perfe£led their
feeds. They Pjouid be fown in fpiing or autumn, upon a
border of light earth, in an open fituation, where they are to
remain. Thofe lown in autumn will come up in about three
weeks, live througli the wintt-r, ar.d flower early in the fol-
lowing fummer, and thus ;Tood feeds may be always ob-
tained ; but thofe that are fown in the fpring decay Ui bad
feafons before the feeds are ripe. The autumnal plants
flower in June, and the fpring plants in July, and their feeds
ripen in about fix week?, and if they are permitted to fcatter,
young plants will be produced without any care. They re-
quire only to be kept free from weeds, and to be thinned
where they are too clofe, leaving them eight or nine inchei
afunder. They have no great beauty to recommend them.
Martyn's Miller.

BISDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and principality of Anhalt-Cothen,
2 miles nonh of Cothen.

BISECTION. See Bissection.

BISELLIARII, or Bisblliari, in yfntiquiiy, thofe
who enjoyed the honour or privilege of the bifcUium.

The word occurs in ancient infcriptions. Cn. Plae-

TORIO VlVlRO AuGUSTALI BiSELLIARIO. GfUttr. lufcr.

p. 1099.

The honor bifeUil appears to have been much the fame with
what in France is called droit de fauteu'd ; and the bifelliarii
thofe who in public aflembliei enjoy this diftinftion of
the fauteud, while other perfons are obliged to ftand, or fit
on benches, ftools, or ordinary chairs. Scaliger, in hit
index to Gruter, millook the bifeUiarii for artificers who
made thefe feats.

BISELLIUM, from lis zndfeda, a chair, a kind of feat
or chair, larger and richer than ordinary, big enough to hold
two perfons, wherein to fit in courts, theatres, and other
public affemblies

BISEPTEMGUTTATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of
CocciNELLA, of a pale yellow colour, with fourteen white
fpots. Schaller. Co\mt-.y unknown.

BIS-ERGOT, in OmithAngy, a name given by BufTon to
the Gmelniian tetra bicalcaratus.

BISERRULA, fo named from the fruit " bifcrrato
frudlu," in Botany. Lin. Gen. 893. Reicli. 966. Schrcb.
1209. Juff. 358. Gxrtn, t. 154. Pclecinus, Tournef. 234.
Clafs and order, diadelphia decandria. Nat. Ord. Papili-
onacex or legmninofs. Gtn. Char. Cal. perianth, one-leav-
ed, tubular, eriA, femiquinquefid ; teeth fubulate, equal,
the two upper ones more remote. Cor. papihonaceous ;
banner larger, reflefted on the lidfs, afcending, roundilh ;
wings ovate-oblong, free, fhorter than the banner ; keel the
length of the wnigs, obt':fe, afctnding. Stam. filaments
diadclphous (fiinple and nine-cleft), afcending at tb.eir tips,
inclofed within the keel ; anthers fmall. Pijl. germ oblong,
comprefTed ; Itvlc tubul;ite, afcending ; ftigma fimplc. Per.
legume large, linear, flat, two-celled ; partition contrary
to the valves. Seeds verv many, kidney-form, comprefled.

EfT. Char. legurre tsvo-cclled, flat ; partition contraiy.

Species. I. 2. Pelccinui, ballard hatchct-vetch. Allra-
gal'is. Mor, hift. 2. 107. f. 2. t. 9, f. 6. Securidaca.
B^uh. Pin. 349. 3. Cluf. hilt. 2. 238> Ger. cmac. 1234.
f. 6. Psr!:. Thtat'. 10*^9. f. 5. Kaii hift. 939, n. 16. Lu-
naria radiata Robini. Bauh. hill. 2. 348. f. 2. An annual

plant, growing naturally in Italy, Sicily, Spain, and the
fouth of Fiance. Cultivated in Kcw garden in 1640.

Propagation and Culture. It is propagated by feeds, fown
in this country in autumn, on a bed of li ^ht earth, where
the plaiits will come up in about three weeks, and live well
in the open air. They (liould eit'r.er bj fown where they
are to remain, or tranfplanted when very young. After
the plants are come up, they will only require to be kept
free from weeds, and to be thinned to the diftance of a foot
from one another. They flower in June, and the feeds
ripen in September. Thty may be alfo fown in fpring, and
treated in the fame manner. Two or three of thefe plants
may be cultivated for the fake of variety, but they have not
much beauty. Martyn's Miller.

BISERT, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, fcated on a
fmall liver which runs into the Upha, in the government of
Perm, 80 miles S.S. E. of Perm.

BISERTA, or BizERTA, a fea-port town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Tunis, pleafantly filuaied upon a canal be-
twixt an extenfive lake and the fea, at the bottom of a large
gulf, about 8 miles to the fouthward of Cape Blanco. N.
lat. 37° 5'. E. long. 10'' 15'. It is about a mile in cir-
cuit, defended by feveral caltles and batteries, the principal
of which are towards the fea. Bizerta is a corruption of
the " Hippo-Diarrhytus" or " Zaritus" of the ancients ;
though the prefent inhabitants derive its name from their
own language, and fuppofe it to be the fame with " Ben-
fliertd," i, e. the offspring of a canal or rivulet. The lake
upon which Bizerta is feated has an open communication
with the fea ; and, according to an obfervation of the
younger Pliny (Ep. xxxiii. 1. 9.), is cither continually re-
ceiving a frefli ftream from the fea, or elfe difcharging one
into it ; fo that the water loll by the lake by exhalations is
foon fupplied by the fea, which in hot feafons runs into it
with a very briflc current, in order to maintain the equili-
brium, in the fame manner as is obferved between the At-
lantic ocean and the Mediterranean. The millets of this
lake are reckoned the befl; in Barbary. Great quantities of
their roes are dried and made into " Botargo," and fent
from hence to the Levant, where they are cfteemed a great
dainty. The channel of communication betwixt the lake
and the fea is the port of " Hippo-DiarrhvtAis," which ftill
receives fmall vefieis ; though it mull have been fcrmcrly the
fafeil as well as the moil benutiiul haven of this part of
Africa. There are ftill remaining the tracer of a large pier,
that was carried out into the fea, to break off the N. E.
winds ; the want of which, together with the dilinclination
of the Turks to repair it, will in a fhort time make the
haven ufclcfs, which, in any other country, wculJ be in-
ellimable. Scylax calls it only " Hippo," and Diodorui
Siculus gives It the name of " Hippouacra." By the di-
rtftion of Scipio's marches it feems to have been the rich
anonymous town mentioned by Livy (l.xxix. 2?.). If the
Turks encouraged trade and induftry it would deferve this
appellation, becaufe, bcfides fifli and fruit of all Jiinds, it
abounds with corn, pulfe, oil, cotton, and a variety of other
valuable productions. The gulph of Bizerta, the " Siaus
Hipponeiifis" of the ancients, is a beautiful fandy inlet,
nearly four leagues in breadth. As its bottom is low, it
affords a delightful profpeft, through a variety of groves
and plantations of olive trees, to a great diftarce into the
country ; but to the callward, the view is bounded by a
high rocky (hore, extending as far as cape Zibeeh. Bizerta
vi'as formerly a large town, and is faid to have contained
6000 houfes ; whereas now the town, and its dependent
villages, fcarcely contain the fame number of inhabitants.
It has, neverthelefs, two capacious prifons for flaves, a large
3 P 2 magazine

BIS

magazinf for merchandlfe, and two towers, with fomc other
out-worki to dcftnd ihe entrance of the havcii. It is well
fippli.d with frelh water from the furroimdinj; fprings, and
with j^reat vari.ty of filli from the adjacent lake. Moft of
the inhabitants are employed in the fidiing trade, which be-
gins about the end of October, and ends in the beginning
of May. The people are poor, and reckoned proud, ill-
oatured, and treacherous ; infomucli that Miilcy Hafun
Bey, one of their fovereigns, ufed to fay of iheni, that
Tieither fear nor love could keep them faithful. Bizerta has
eight villages under its government, a large plain called
" Mater," and the tcrritorj- of Choros, the " Clypca" or
" Corobis" of the ancients, which is cxtenfive, and inhabited
by a number of perfons who are poor, meanly clad, and
coarftly fed. Their drcfs confifls merely of a piece of coarfc
cloth wi-appcd round their bodies, and another, in the form
of a turban, round their heads ; and moll of them are with-
out covering cither to their feet or legs. Thofe of the poorer
clafi deep on Ikins laid on the floor; and the rich lie in
narrow couches fixed againtl the wall, about 5 or 6 feet
high, to which they afccnd by a ladder. Their choiceft.
d.iinty is their " coufcou," made of flour, eggs, and fait,
which they dry and keep through the year. They are ex-
pert horfemcn, and ride without either faddie or bridle ; nor
do they ever fhoe their horfos. They are much expofed to
the depredations and opprcflions of the neighbouring Arabs.
The Bifcitines, both of the city and country, are ver)- fu-
pcrllitioiis, and hang about their own necks, and thofe of
their horfes, a number of amulets, which are fcraps of paper
or parchment, on which ftrange charafters are infcribed, and
fewn up in a piece of leather, iilk, $ic. and thought, when
worn about their pcrfoas, to be a prefervative againft all
accidents.

BISET, Charles Emanuel, in Biography, a painter
of hiftoiy and conveifations, was born at Mechlin, in 1633 ;
and in his early productions manifelled a lively and ready in-
vention. He was dillinguilhed by the multitude of figures
which he introduced into his defigiis, and by his variety of
drapery, peculiar to every nation. At a diftance, his pic-
tures, which confillcd chiefly of balls, concerts, and gay
afrcmblies, correftly^cfigned and well-coloured, had a ftrong
tSedl ; but more nearly infpefted, they (hewed a neatnefs of
pencil, a fpir.f.d touch, and a good expreflion. Pilk-
ington.

BisET, in Orn'ilhdogy, Colimiha livia, or flock dove, in
Buffon's Hilt. Birds.

BISHOP, in Ecclcfiajllcnl H'l/lory, a prelate, or perfon
confecratcd for the fpiritual government and direftion of a
diocefe. Tlie word comes from the Saxon hsj'chop, and that
from the Greek (tio-xo-o.-, an overfeer or infpeSlor ; which
was a title tiie Athenians gave to thofe whom they fent into
the provinces fubjeft to them, to fee whether every thing
was kept in order ; and the Roman:, gave the fame title to
ihofe who were infpeCtors and vilitors of the bread and pro-
vifion. It appears from a letter of Cicero, that he liimfelf
iiad a biOiopric ; being " epifcopus Orx et Campanix."

Abilhop differs from an archbidiop in this, that an arch-
bifljop with bifliops confecrates a bifhop, as a biHiop with
priells ordains a priell ; that the archbifhop vifits a province,
as the biihop a diocefe ; that the archbifhop convocates a
provincial fynod, as the bifliop a dioccfan one ; and tliat the
archbifhop has canonical authority over all the bilhops of his
province, as the bifliop over the priells in his diocefe. It is
a long time fi'ice bilhops have been dillinguinied from mere
priells or prefhyters ; but whether tliat dillinction be of di-
vine or human right, whether it was fettled in the apoflolical
age, or introduced afterwards, is much controverted.

B I S

Thofe who are advocates for the divine right of epifcopacy,
and who trace its inftitution to the times of the apolllcs,
maintain that, in the eariiell age of the Chrillian church,
there were tliree different orders of miuiflers ai)pointed by
the apofllcs for the difcharge of the public offices of religion ;_
viz. bifhops, priells, or prefbyteis, and deacons. In proof
of this point tliey refer us to the tellimoiiy of ancient eccle-
fiallical writers, whence they deduce, as they ccmceive, the
mofl fatisfaaory evidence, that billiops were inftituted by the
apoflles, and that they continued afterwards as a diftiuft or-
der from that of priells. To this purpofe they allege, that
Irenseus, a father of the fecond century, fays (1. iii. c. 3.),
" We are able to enumerate thofe wlio by the apoftles were
made bilhops in the feveral churches, and their fucee:(rors, to
this time." He adds, " Polycarp was not only inllrudled
by the apoi'tles, and acquainted with many of thofe who faw
our Lord, but was alfo by the apoflles made billiop of the
church of Smyrna in Afia." TtrtuUian alio, a writer of the
fame centurj- (De Praefcr. adv. Hieret. p. 78.), challenges
certain ht^rctics to " exhibit the order of their bilhops, fo
fucceeiling each other from the beginning, that the firfl bi-
fhop had for his author and predecefTor fome one of the
apoftles, or of thofe apoflolical men who perfevered with the
apoftles ; for in this manner apoilolical churches aflert their
rights : thus, the church of Smyrna has Polycarp, who
was placed there by John ; the church of Rome has Cle-
ment, who was ordained by Peter ; and other churches fliew
other perfons, who, by being placed in the bifhoprics by the
apoftles, tranfmitted the apoftoiical feed." Cyprian alfo
fays (Ep. 69. ad Flor.), " that the bifhop, who is one and
prefides over the church, through the proud prcfumption of
certain perfons, is defpifcd ; and thus the man, who is ho-
noured by the fanClion of God, is judged unworthy by
men." In an epilUe afcribcd to Ignatius (Ad Antioch.
c. 7), but probably fpurious, though very ancient, it is af-
ferted, that Evodius was confeorated a bifh p by the apof-
tles. And Chnfoftom fays (Horn. 42. in Ignat.), " that
Ignatius converfed familias'ly with the apoftles, and was per-
fectly acquainted with their doctrine, and had the hands of
apoftles laid upon him." In a fragment of an epiftle of Dio-
nyfius, bifhop of Corinth in the fccond century, preferved
by Eufebius (H. E. 1. 4. c.23.), it is faid, that Dionyfius
the Areopagite, who was converted bv St. Paul, was ap-
pointed the firft bifliop of Ather.s. Eufebius and Socrates
have given us the catalogues of the bifhops of many cities,
from the times of the apoftles ; and Epiphanius (lib. 2,
Hxr. 66.) has left us a catalogue of the biihcps of Jerufa-
lem, from St. James the apofLle to Hilarlon, who was bifhop
in his time. It is further alleged, thr,t bifhop?, priefls, and
deacons, are mentioned togeth. r as three feparate orders.
Ignatius, in his Epillle tn ihe Magnefians {§ 2.), mentions
Damas as bifliop of Magnefia, BulTus and Apollonius as
prcfbyters, and Sotian as deacon, in the fame church ; and
in his epiftle to the Philadelphians (§ 7.), he fays, "Attend
to the bifliop, to the prefbytcry, and to the deacons ;" and
in his epiftle to the Tralhans (§ 2.), he fays, " Be ye fub-
](.&. to the bifliop, as to Jefus Chrift ; to th-; prefhyters, as the
apoftles of Jefus Chrift ; and to the deacons, as to minifters
of the myfteries of Jefus Chrift;" he then adds, (§ 3.),
" without thcfe tlierc is no eleft church, no congrcgatioa
of holy men." The authority of Ignatius, who lived in the
beginning of the fecond century, is confidered as dccifive.
Clement of Alexandria, in the fubfequcnt part of the fame
century, fpeaks of the three progrefEve orders of deacons,
priefts, and bifliops (Strom. 1. 6.) ; and there are feveral
early inftances of biihopf, who had been prefhyters and dea-
cons in the fame church. Irenasus was firlt.prefbyter, then

bifliop

B I S

bidiop of Lyons ; Dionyfius fiill prcftyter, tlien bidiop of
Rome ; and EUutherius, firll deacon, then biHiop of Rome;
and all thefe three lived in the fecond century, " When
your captains," fays Tertullian (De Fuga in Perf.}, " that
is to fay, the deacons, prefbyters, and bifliops fly, who (liall
teach the laity that they mull be conftant ? And upon ano-
ther occafion, fpcaking of baptifni, he fays (De Baptifm.
c. 17.), " the high-prieft, who is the bifhop, has the chief
right of adminillering it, then the preftyters and deacons,
but not without the authority of tlie bidiop." Ongen, in
many places, fpeaks of bilhops as fuperior to prcfbyiers and
deacons ; and many authors compare the bifhups, tailed by
the Greeks x^x^t^u;, and by the Latin fathers " fummi fa-
cerdotes" and " principes facerdotum," prefbyters and dea-
cons of the Chriftian church, to the high-prieft, priefts, and Le-
vites under the JewiflTdifpcnfation; and hence prefbyters after-
wards obtained the name of priells. Clement, a difcple of
the apolUe, fay? (Ep. id Cor. ^ 40 ), " To the high-prieil
are given his proper duties ; to the priefts their proper place
is affigned ; and to the Levites tljeir proper fervices are ap-
pointed ;" in whicli paflage this ancient father is fpeakin^
of the bifhop, prefbvters, and deacons of the Chriftian
church ; and Tertullian, in the paffage juft^ cited, called the
bifhop the high-prieft. Jerome, though he is fometimes re-
prefcnted as unfavourable to the caufe of tpifcopacy, is ftiil
more exprefs, and denominates (Epill. ad Evag. ) the order
of bifhups, priefts, and deacons, , an apotlolical tradition.
" To what purpofe," fays Optatus (lib. i.), " (hoiild I men-
tion deacons, who are in the third, and prefbyters, who are
in the fecoud degree of priefthood, when the veiy heads and
princes of all, cvm certain of the bifhops them.felvcs, were
content to redeem life with the lofs of heaven ?" In the
tenth canon of the council of Sardis, held A. D. 347, it is
enjoined that a perfon fhoi.ld not be rafhly and lightly ap-
pointed a bifhop, a prieft, or a deacon. It is further pleaded,
that epifcopal power was not called in queilion in the three
firft centuries ; but towards the end of the fourth century,
Aerius, an Arian, wrote againft it, and maintained that
there ought to be no order in the church fuperior to that of
prefbyters. Neverthelefs, it is alleged, that no advocate is
found for his opmion m the centuries imn ediately following ;
and that even Aerius allowed there had been bifliops in the
Chriftian church from the earlicft period. From thele feve-
ral tcftimoi.ies it is ir.ferrtd, that bifticps were appointed by
the apoftles ; that there were three dillincl orders of mini-
fters, viz. bifhops, priefts, and deacons, in the primitive
church ; and that there has been a regular fucccflion of bi-
fhops from the apoftolic age to the prcfent time ; and the
enemies of cpifcopacy are challenged to produce evidence
of the cxifter.ce of a fingle ancur.t independent church fuirly
eftabliilied, which was not governed by a bifhop. While
the apoftles lived, the churches, it is faid, were fubjeft to
their authority and government j and to this circumftance it
is owing, that little is faid concerning the diftinftion and
power of minifters, in the Acls and Epiftles ; but when the
gofpel was fpread into diilant parts, and the apoftles were
under a neccfTtty of difccntinuing their vifits, or rendering
them Icfs frequent, they found it expedient for the better
government of the Chriftians, and in order to put a ftop to
their fchifms and contentions, which brgau to make their
appearance both among the prefbyters and their congrega-
tions, to place the fuprcme authority in one perfon, who,
from the fuperintending care which he was to txcrc fe, was
called ETTicrvoTcf, abiftiop ; and this word, which was perhaps
at fint applied indiferiir.inately to all who had any fpiritual
office in the church, was now conferred on him who was its
chuf governor.

The bilhops were at firft appointed by the apoftles, and

B I S

aftenvards cliofen by the prefbyters and the congrega-
tions at large ; and in both cafes they were generally taken
from the preftjyters of the refptftive churches, except in
thofe inftances in which they were the immediate companions
of the apoftles. Accordingly Jerome, (De Ecclef. Script.)
where he is fpeaking, as it is fuppofcd, of the apoftolical times,
in which James was made biftiop of Jerulalem by the apoftles;
Timothy biftiop of Ephefus, and Titus biftiop of Crete, by
St. Paul ; and Polycarp biftiop of Smyrna, by St. John ; ob-
ferves, that " churches were governed by the common ad-
vice of preftjyters ; but when every one began to reckon
thofe whom himfelf had baptized, his own, and not Chnft's,
it was decreed in the whole world, that one, chofen out of
the preflivters, fhould be placed over the reft, to whom all
care of trie church ftiould belong, and fo the feeds of fchifm
fhould be removed." When St. Paul was at Miletus, A.D
58, and convened the elders of the church at Ephefus, no
mention is made of the biftiop ; and in his addrefs to them
he calls them "bifliops or overfeers of the flock ;" hence it
is inferred, that the word bifliop was not then the appro-
priate name of the perfon Vho held the firft office in the
church, or rather, that there was as yet no fuch perfon in .the
church at Ephefus. But in the year 64, St. Paul found it
necetfary to place Timothy in that fituation, with power to
prevent the preaching of any unfound doArine, and to ordain
andexercife authority over prefljyters, that is, with epifcopal
power ; and in his epiftle, written to him in that year, he
fpeaks exprefsly of the " office of a biftiop," and gives a Ue-
tailed account of the qualifications of a bifliop. See 1 Tim.
i. 3. V. I, 19, 22. I Tim. iii. i. We have alfo a fimilar
account in the epiftle to Titus, written in the fame year ;
and he was invefttd with the further power of rcjecling he-
retics from the churches over which he prefided. See Ti-
tus iii. 10. Hence it is concluded, that in the year 64
there was fuch an office as that of bifliop. St. Paul, ad-
drefling hi: epiftle to the Philippians, ufed the word bilhops
in the plural number, and does not mention prefbyters;
whence it is thought by Chryfoftom, Theodoret, Jerome,
and indeed by almoft all commentators, that by bifliops we
are here to underftand prtftjyters ; and it is therefore pre-
fumed, that there was then no bifliop, in the ftrift fenfe of
the appellation, at Plulippi, A. D. 62. From a comparifon
of thefe different paffages it has been conjedured, t! at Paul
began to eftabUlh epifcopacy immediately after his releafe
from his firft confinement at Rome. However, it is ac-
knowledged, that at this early period there w as not a bifliop
in every church. Neverthelefs, it is inferred from St. Paul's
epiftles, that he gave the minifters of the churches which he
founded, a certain power over their re fpeclive congregations,
and as St. Paul and the twelve apoftles afted equally under
the influence of the Holy Ghoft, it is prefumed, that they
invefted all, whom they appointed to preach the gofpel,
with a fimilar degree of power ; and thus church authority
is derived from the apoftles themfelves. This power, thus
originally given, was not limited to the primitive Jges ; it is
fuppofcd to have been tranfmitted to thofe " faithful men
who ftiall be able to teach others alfo" (2 Tim. ii. 2.), and to
remain in the church under different modifications, as etfen-
tially neceflary for the purpofes fpecified by the ap9ftle,
Ephef. iv. 13, 14.

At firft the jurifdiftion of a biftiop was confined to tfie
walls of his own city ; but afterwards, when the gofpel
made its way into towns and villages, the concerns of the
Chriftians that inhabited them, would naturally fall under
the cognizance and direftion of the biftiops of the neigh-
bouring cities; and thus diocefes wonld be gradually
formed. Sec Diocese. In procefs of time, it is fnppofed,
the affairs of the church would require the confultation and

co-ope-

B I S

co-operation cf nilTerent b'ftop? ; and tlicrefor^ as before,
one of the prcfbytci'! of a cjty was raited to he a biflK.p, and
to have authority over other prcfbyti-rs. fo one of thebifhops
of a provincf was feUaeH a- d invrllr d with certain authority
over other biiliopi, and he wjs cailed an arclibiflicp ; and
in the appointment of archb^fliops, the civil in-puvtance of
the city feems to have been ng'.rded, for wc find the me-
tropohtan bifhops were generally archbifliops, and hence
afchbilTiops were called metropolitans, Archbifliops, it has
been faid, were firll appointed in the fecoiid centniy; and
they had power to aflemble the bidiops within their relpcc-
ti%e provinces, to regulate tlie clcftion of bifliops, to confe-
crale them, to hear appeals from their dccifions, and to take
cugni/.ar.cc of their general conduct. See Archbishop
and Patriarch.

Tt is fometimes urped, that bifliops, pricfts, and deacons,
arc" now, in their office and authority, very different fom
whiit they foinnerly were ; but this, fay the advocates of
epif'opacy, is no more tl.an a ncceflary confequence of a
chan:;e ot times and circumllaucep. Tliey do not contend,
that the bifltops prielh, and deacons of EnG;land are :it pre-
fent precifely the fame tiiat bifluip'-, prtfbyters, and deacons
vcre in Afia Minor, 1700 years aj^ai. Tliey maintain, how-
ever, that there have been always bidiop!--, priefts, and dea-
cons in the Chrillian church, fuice the days of the apoHles,
woth different poweis and func\ions in different countries and
at different pi riods ; but the general principles and duties,
which have refpeftivcly charaderized thefe clerical orders,
have been cffentially the fame at all times and in all places ;
and the variations which they have undcrijone, have only
been fuch as have ever belon,jed to all perlons in public fitu-
ation«, whether civil or ccclefiaftical, and which are, indeed,
infeparable from every thin^ in which maikind are con-
cerned in this tranfiiory and fluttuating world. A learned
prelate, who flatters hinifeif that, by the tcllimonies and
arguments, of which we have above given a genenil account,
he has proved cpifcopacy to be an apoftolical inditution,
veadtly acknowledges, however, that there is no pret tpt in
the New Tellament, which cumtrands that every chnich
/hould be governed by brfliops. As it has not pleafcd the
Almighty to prefcribe any particular form of civil govern-
ment for the fecurily of tanporal comforts to his r.itional
creatures ; fo neither has he prefcnbed any particular form
of ccclefiailical policy as abfoluttly ntceflary to the attain-
ment fif eternal luippinefs. And though the Scriptures con-
tain no direftions concerning the eftaMidiment of a power by
which minilUrs are to be admitted to their facred office, yet
he conceives, that from the apollles, epifcopal ordmation
has been regularly conveyed to ns ; a!id the legidature of
this kingdom has recognized and confirmed tins power to
bifhops. Sec Ordination. Elements of Chrillian Theo-
logy, by lord biihop of Lincoln, vol. ii. p. 376 — 401.

Pcrfons, on the other hand, who do not admit of cpif-
copacy to be of apoilolic and divine mllitnlion, contend,
that the terms iirifrxoiro, and t^kt^v'Ii^o;, that is, bifhop and
prt(byt(.T, are uftd promifcuoufly ui tiie New Tellament, to
■wliieh they thjnk It neccffary to appeal, as to the fcle au-
thoritative rule of faith and praftice, and t!-at I hey denote
the fame, and not a dillinft order or office in the Chnilian
church. To this purpofe they allege the paffage already
cited, Adls XX. 17. 28. in which the fame perfons are de-
nominated prcfbyters and bidiops. Tluis alf, the name, of-
fice, and work of a biihop and prefbyter appear to be the
fame, in Titus i. 5. 7. ; and unlefs the apolUe be charged
with prguiugvery incoherently, he mull mean the fame thing
fcy elder, v. 5,, and biihop, v. 7. In like manner, prefby-
icrs arc eahcried (j Pet. v. 1, 2.) to difcharge the office of

B I S

bifliops. The word tm<rKrjvc;, it is faid, was properly flu
name of office, vv.ii ■jr^^ar^xTl^o; was a title of refpeft, bor-
rowed from the Jewifh cuilom, which was analogous to that
of other nations, of call ng not only the mcndiers of the
Sanhedrim Tr^nr^w^^-t, elders or fenators, but alfo the mem-
bers of the city ci'uncil. It l-.as been moreover nflirmed,
that not a fingle paiTage from the apollolical wiitings lias yet
been produced, in which it appears from the context, that
the two terms ir^iciSvUf,; and tTicrxoTro.; mean different offices ;
and that there is the llrongeil poliiive evidence, which
the nature of the thing can admit, that in thefe writings the
two terms uirfcni^dy mean the fame office. The apniUe
Paul, in the direftions he gave to Timothy, about the pro-
per fupply of chinches with fuitable minitlers, takes parti-
cular notice, merely, of two orders, ot'C called bilhops, and
the other deacons ; and hence, it is argued, that if by bi-
fhops be meant, what in modern flyle is fo denominated,
thofe who have the charge of many prcfbyters, it is allonifh-
ing.that In- fl-.ould not think it of importance to give any di-
reftions about the qualllications of prcfbyters, whlKl he is
particular in fpccifying the qualifications of deacons, who
•were to occupy an order allowed to be much inferior to
the other j and if he here means by bifhops only prcfbyters,
as fomc friends of cpifcopacy have fuppoftd, it is ftrange
that an office fo important as that of bifhops, if it was a dif-
ferent and fiipcrior office, fhould have been entirely over-
looked. Fiom St. Paul's addrefs to the Philippians,
ch. i. I. it is inferred, that there were but two orders
then ellablilhed, viz. bilhops, i.e. ordinary pallors or pref-
byters, and deacons. If there was a billiop in the modern
fenfe at Philippi, when the apollle wrote that letter, it
feems llrange that tlie chief perfon in the fociety fliould be
the only perfon dil regarded by the apoftle. Moreover, in
the cpillle written by Polycarp to the fame fociety, about
60 years after this time, we find mention of only thefe two
orders, the prefbytevs and the deacons ; nor is it of any con-
fequence whether we call their pallors bifhops with the apof-
tle, or preflivters with Polycarp, as both fpeak of two or-
ders only among them. In the whole book of Afts, the
Hated pallors of the churches are denominated prcfbyters ;
the colleCiion for the poor Chrillians is fent to the prcfby-
ters ; nor do we find a finale hint of any different claffes of
prcfbyters. The appellafon ecttkotoi, bifliops, occurs but
once, and in the paffage where it is applied to thole that are
denominated prcfbyters. It is urged further, tl at the im-
pofition of hands, which has been confideied by many as a
neceiTary attendant on ordination, is attributed in I Tim.
iv. 14. to the prefbytery ; Paul and Barnabas wee ordained
by certain prophets and teachers in the church of Antioch,
and not by any bifliop, of whom there is not a word in
that whole folem-^ity, prefiding in that city, Aftsxiii. 1, 2,
3 ; and it is alleged, as an acknowledged and incontcftible
taft, that prelbyters, in the church of Alexandria, ordained
even their own bifhops for more than 200 years in the ear-
liell ages of Chrillianity. It appears alto, from the firft epif-
tle of Clemens Romanus to the Corinthians, chap. xlii. that
there were two dillinft orders, viz. bifhops and deacons, ella-
blilhed by the apoflles in the church ; and by bifliops he
means the fame with thofe who, in the book of Afts, are
called ■z^talivHfoi, prcfbyters, or ordinary teachers. Since it
mull therefore be admitted, that in the New Tellament,
and alio in this work if Clement, the words Eiricrcowo; and
iriia^vls^of are, not oceafionally, but uniformly, iifed fyno-
nymoufly, the difcovery that there was not any diltinftive
appellation for fuch an oHice as that now called bifhop, is
adduced as affording a Urong prelumption, that it did not
exifl. Another tclUmony alleged to the fame purpofe is
2 that

B I S

that of Polycarp, who takes not'cf only of two orders of
mirifters in the chirch ; for in ch. v. of his epilUc to the
Plnhppia'.is, he- tnjoins tlie people to he fubjcft to their pref-
Irrte-rs and dcacoiio, as to God and Chrjft ; hence it is in-
ferred, that if tills ancient father had known of any hifjher
order in the church, fuch as was that of ahi.Tiop 'n lefsthan
150 ytars after his time, he would have hetn the principal,
it not the only -oerfon, to whom their fnbjcttion wonld have
been enjoined hy a Chriftian writer. It is obfcrved further,
that' though he fpecilks the duties and q'.ialilications of
deacons 111 ch. v., and thofe of prefbytera in ch. vi., and
through the whole of the epiftle, thofe of the people, he no
where mentions what is proper in the charafter and conduct
of a bilhop. Upon the whole, it feenis evident that Poly-
carp knew of no Cliriltian miniiler (uperior to the pref-
byters.

It has been allep^ed by the advocates of epifcopacy, that
the biftiops are the proper fucccifors of the apoftles, not in
the general charaiier of teachers, but in their fpecial func-
tion as apolU.s (lee Stillingfiect's Works, vol. i. p. 371.);
whiHt the prefbylers and deacons were merely the fneceflors
of thofe who were, in the beginning, ordained by the apof-
tles. But that the apoftles could not have any proper fuc-
ceffors has been evinced by the following conuderations.
The indifpenlible rcquilitc in the charafter of an apoftle,
which was that of having feen Jcfus Chrllt after his refur-
reiSion, dcmonftrates tliat their office could be but tempo-
rary. Befides, they were dillinguiftied by prerogatives,
which did not defcend to any aft^.r them ; of this kind were
their having received their miffion immediately from Chrift,
and not by any human ordination or appointment ; the power
of conferring miraculous gifts by impofition of hands ; and
the knowledge which they had by infpiration of the whole
doftrine of Chrift. Moreover, the objeft of their mifiion
was altogether of a di.ferent kind from that of any ordinary
paftor ; and this was to propagate the gofpel ttiroughout
the world both among Jews and Pagans, and not to take
charge of any particular flock. Further, as a full proof
that the matter was thus univerfally underftood, both in
their own age, and in the times immediattly fucceeding, no
one, on the death of an apoftle, was ever fnbftituted in his
room ; infomuch that when that lacred college was extinft,
the title became extinft with it. It is alike true alfo of the
evangelills, that their ofRce was temporary, and that their
charge extended to the whole chm-ch j and their title, like
that of an apoftle, funk with thofe who firll enjoyed it.
Such were Phdip, Timothy, TitUo, and probably Mark,
and Luke. As to the dates or poftfcripts fubjoined to the
epiftles in the common bibles, and dilllnguilhtng Timothy
and Titus by the appellation of biftiops, it is now univerfally
agreed among the learned, that they are of no authority.
They are not found in fome of our beft and moll ancient
MSS. ; and they are generally allowed to be the fpuiious
additions of fome eaftern biftiop or monk, at Icaft 5C0 years
after Chrill. It is certain, however, that in the three lirft
centuries, neither Timothy nor Titus is ft.yled I'llhop by any
writer. In the ifland of Crele, of which Titus is faid to
have been ordained the firft bilhop, there wt-re no fewer, ac-
cording to the earlieft accounts and catalogues extant, than
II bifliops. Indeed, fo little can the inftrudions given by
Paul to Timothy and Titus be made to quadrate with any
ordinary miniftry that ever obtained in the church, th't the
learned Dr. Whitby (fee his Preface to the tpiHlt to Titus)
concludes, that their's was extraordinary as well as tempo-
rary, and that they were not fucceedcd in it by a"y that
came after them. Hence it is inferred, that all the argu-
ments alleged ia favour of the diilindion bctweea bilhops

E I S

and prefbyters in the early age of the church, by Epipha-
nius and others, from fome pafta^^es in the epiftles to Timo-
thy and Titus, proceed upon the miftaken notion, that they
were properly biniops in the modern acceptation of the
term ; a notion utterly unknown- to that Chriftian ant!q"itv,
which def-rves the nan-e of primitive, and alfo incompatible
with the authentic accounts we have concerning thefe extra-
ordinary minifters, who were not made biftiops till about
500 ycai-s after their death.

Some have deduced an argument in faifour of the apofto-
lical antiquity of epifcopacy, from tlie epiitks to the feven
churches of Afia mentioned in the Apocalypft, which are
addreffed to the angtls of thefe fepaiaucly in the Angular
number. From the tirft; chapter of that book it appears,
that each epiftle is intended for the whole church or congre-
gation mentioned in the direflion or fuperfcription ; and yet
one perion, called the angel of that church, is addrcfted in
the name of the whole. Htnce fome have inferred, that the
perfon denominated angel, was an order diff'ering from that
of other hiinifters, and fuperior to it ; whilft othe'rs have
confidered the appellation as defcriptive of the whole col-
lective body. An intermediate opinion, advanced by fome
critics, is more probable. This fuppofes the necrlTity, for
the fake of order, that in their confiftoriesor congregations
one ftiould prefide, both in the offices of religion, and in
their confultations for the common good ; and that this pre-
fidtnt, or chairman, it here addreffed under the name of
angel. This interpretation affords us alfo the moft plaufible
account of the origin of the more confiderable diftinCtion,
which afterwards obtained between biftiop and prefbyter.
It was the diftinflion of one paftor in every church, marked
by the apoftle John, though not made by any who had
written before him, which led Tertullian, wliofe publication
firft appeared about a century after the apoftles, to confider
him as the inftitutor of epifcopacy. By thofe who deny the
fuperiority- of biftiops to prefbyters in the firft age of the
church, it is alkgtd, that the firft reformers and founders of
the church of England, as well as many of its moft learned
and eminent doctors, have not pretended this dift:in£tion to
be of divine, but merely of human inftitution ; not grounded
upon fcripture, but only upon the cuftom or ordinances of
this re-ahn. To this purpofe, the declaration made of the
fundions. Sec. of bilhops and priefts, and figned by more
than 37 civilians and divines, among whom were 13 biftiops,
Cranmerand others, affirms, that in the New Teftament there
is no menti.in made of any degrees or diftinftions in orders,
but only of deacons or minifters, and of priefts or biftiops.
(See Cp. Burnet's Hift. Rcf. vol. i. Append, p. 321.) Be-
fides, the book, entitled " The Inftitution of a Chriftian
Man," fubfcribed by the clergy in convocation, and con.
fi-med bv parliament, owns biftiops and preftjyters to be the
fame. Moreover, tliat the main ground of fettling epifcopal
government in this nation, was not any pretence of divine
right, but the convenience of that form of church govern-
ment to the ftate and condition of the church at the time of
the reformation, the Karned Stillingflect affirms (Irenic. c. 8.
Works, vol. ii.:j. 3^5, &c.), and proves it to be the fentimcnt
of arciibili p Craiuiier and of other reformers, in the reigns
ot Ed.vard VI. and of queen Elizabeth, fuch as archbiftiop
W-iti^ift, billi p Bridges, Loe, Hooker, Sutcliffe, Hales,
Chilliiigworth, &c. It was alfo the opinion of archbiftiop
U her, that biftiop and prtft)yter diftered only in degree and
not in order ; and that in places where biftiops could not be
P'v cured, the ordination of preft)yters was valid. See Or-
DiN.'Tii'N. " As for the notion of diftintl offices of biftiop
and preft)yter," lays biftiop Burnet, in his " Vindication of
the Church of Scotland," p. 33(4, " I confcfs it is not fo

cleac

B I S

cl«ar to me, and tlicrcfore fince I look upon the facramen-
tal aftions as the hi^^hell of facrcd peifmmanccs, I cannot
but acknowledge thole who are ennpowercd for them mull
be of tlic hi^hift office in the church."

Although, in the apollohc times, bidiops and prefbyters
were fynonymous, and co-ordinate with rcfpcft to tlieir mi-
nillerial powers, and they were ordained to thiir office by
piayer, accompanied witli i'npofition of hands ; yet a certam
priority, or prtlidentlhip, for the fake of order, or in defe-
rence either to fenjority or to diilingnifhed talents, was al-
lowed to one of their number. But he feems to have been
only a kind of moderator in their aflemblies, and to have
had no more power than that of giving a fingle vote in com-
mon with the rell of his brethren. By tliofc who adopt this
reafjiiing, aud who trace the original of the dillindl order of
bilhops, which was introduced in the fecond and third cen-
turies, to this praAice, it is allowed that pallors were from
the beginning veiled with a fuperintendency over the con-
gregation or church merely in fpiritual matters; and it is
alleged, that fome of the titles that are thus given them in
Scripture, fuch as r)-«/i!voi, r»oir»/i!>o>, guides and governors,
imply this kind of fuperintendence. But at this time feveral
things relating to the church were conduced in common by
the paflors, the deacons, and the whole congregation. To
this clafs we may refer all matters of fcandal and offence,
and alfo the elcdlion of their pallors and their deacons. Ac-
coidinglv, Clement, in the fore-cited epiltle, ch. xliv. fpeak-
ing of the pallors, ufcs this expreffion : " Thofe who were
conflituted by the apolUes, and afterwards by other eminent
men, with the confent of the whole congregation." It ap-
pears alfo, by the epillles of Cyprian, written about the
middle of tiic third centurv, that for the firll three ages
of the church, no final rcfolution was taken in any affair
of moment, without communicating it to the people, and
obtaining their approbation. In the fecond century a fet-
tled diilintlion obtained, in feveral refpefts, between the
pre'ident, chofen by a plurality of votes, and diftinguifhed
by tlie appropriate title of bilhop, which had before been
common to all the prcfbyters, and the other prefbyttrs.
Many other titles, befidco that of bifhop, which they had
all enjoyed in common, were rcftricled to him who was re-
garded as their head, fuch as t)y«^=vo,-, ■jr^otrnu s-jaloxaSsJ^o;,
ir{oi(-a;.c!»o,-, iroiu.n, and feme others. Thefe titles, inde-
pendently of the talents, virtues and fervices that attended
them, claimed refpeA and deference. The concurrence of
the prcfident thus honoured, was conlidered as a neceffary
fanftion to all ecclefiallical refolutions and mcafures ; and
by degrees every aft became valid which bore the llamp of
Lis authority. Thofe who prefided over churehes, which
were tftablilhcd in fome of the principal cities, were ho-
noured with peculiar preeminence, and to this advancement
analogy to the civil government did not a little contribute.
It is not improbable, that the church of Jcrufalem, when it
bceamc numerous, and was deprived ot the minillry of the
apoftles, w!io were gone to inftruft the other nations, was
the firll which chofe a prefident or bilhop ; nor is it lefs
probable, that the other churches followed by degrees
this example.

The firll ancient author who mentions bifhop, prelbyter,
and deacon, as three dillinft orders in the church, is, as we
have already obferved, Ignatius, who is fuppofed to have
written about the i6th year of the fecond century. But as
feveral of the epidlesafcribed to him, are fptirious, no great
ilrefs can be laid upon his authority. However, he feems,
with peculiar earneftnefs, to inculcate obedience and fubjtc-
lion to the bifhop, as well as to the prefbyters and deacons.
Mr. Dodwell accounts for his zeal in eflabhfliing the bifliop's

B I S

authority, by fiippofing that it was at that time a new thing,
totally unknown in t!ie church ; and, accordmg to this opi-
nion, he fays, that it is in vain to look for any trace of ep.f-
copal authority in the New Teftament, Ircna;us, whu is
fnppofed to have written about the middle of the fecond
century, fometimes ufes the nanr.cs bifhop and prefbyter in-
difcriminat--lv, and at other times v.'ith fome kind of dillinc-
tion ; but it 'is not eafy to determine, whether by thefe two
appellations he means the fame order, or two diflerent orders.
Ur. Pearion admits that there names are often interchanged
by this f.ithcr, and others of his time, even to the end of the
century ; but he affirms at the fame lime, th:it in regard to
their own contemporaries, the offices of individuals are ne-
ver thus confounded, infomuch that a perfon, who was in
their time a bifliop, is not cal'ed a preibyter, nor is a pref-
byter calhd a bilhop. It is allowed, that the diflinftion of
thefe orders began about this time generally to prevail,
though the diffei ence was not nearly fo confiderable as it be-
came afterwards. Another author, by whom t\w three orders
feem to be dlfcriminated, and wliofe ttlllmony is commonly
adduced in fupport of their apoftolical inft'tiition, is Pius,
bifhop of Rome, who is fuppofed to have written before the
middle of the fecond century, but after Ignatius and Poly-
carp : he ufes an exprelfion, however, which does not indi-
cate any high opinion of the fuperiority of the bifhop in his
time ; " Let the prefbyters and deacons reverence thee (the
bilhop), not as their fuperior, but as Chrilt's miniller."
Clement of Alexandria, at the clofe of the fecond century
(fee his Strom. 1. I.), Itrongly marks the dillinftion between
prefbyter and deacon ; but he feems to intimate, that the
dillinftion between bifhop and prefbyter was, even in his
days, comparatively not worthy of his notice. At this time,
however, every church had its own pallor, or bifhop, and
only one under this appellation, and every bifhop had only
one congregation or church. Sir Peter, afterwards lord, King
(ubi infra) has proved thefe afTertions by a variety of citations
f on ancient writers ; he has alfo fliewn, that a bilhop's dio-
c.fe did not exceed the bounds of a n-.odern paiifli. See Dio-
ctsE. The prefbyters, according to this writer, were the cu-
rates and affiitants of the bifliop, and though inferior to them
in degree, yet they had the fame inherent right with the bi«
fh ip3,and were equal to them in order. " A bilhop," fays this
author, " preached, baptized, and confirmed, fo did a pref-
byter ; a bilhop excommunicated, abfoivcd, and ordained,
fo did a prcfljyter ; w'hatever a bifhop did, the fame did a
prefbyter ; the particular afts of their office were the fame."
In the age of Cyprian, about the middle of the third centu-
ry, it appears that the prefljyters were confidered as veiled
with the power of conferring orders. (Cyp. Epill. 5. and
75.) In the age of Hilary, about the middle of the fourth
century, it appears, that the whole dillinftion of the epif-
copate is afcribed by him to feniority in the miniflry, with-
out either election or fpecial ordination. When the bifhop
died, the fenior colleague fucceeded of courfe. As to ordi-
nation, it was the fame in both ; and bifhop meant no more
than firll among the prefbyters, or fenior prefbyter. Jerome,
wl.o wrote about the end of the fourth and beginning of the
fifth century, fays (In Titum. 1. 5. Op. vol. x. p. 1700.)
that, among the ancients, priefts and bifhops were the
fame ; but that by degrees the care of a church was affign-
ed to one perfon, in order to prevent diffenfion. In ano-
ther place (Op. vol. vl. p. 198.) he fayis, " Let the bifhops
know, that they are above priells more by cuilom than by
the appointment of Chrilt." He alio obferves (Anecdotes,
p. 24, 54.), that at the beginning, churches were governed
by the common council of prefljyters, like an ariltocracy ;
but afterwards the fuperintendency was given to one of the
7 prefbyters,

BIS

prefliyters, who Tvas then called the bifliop, and who po.
vofiicd the church, but ftiU with the council of the prefi-.y-
ters. Dr. Hammond (Annot. Afts xi. 30.) has advanced
a lingular opinion, viz. that the apoftles inllituted only the
offices of bifliop and deacon, and that the intermediate of-
fice of prilhyter was foon afterwards introduced. But that
fuch a middle order Ihould be eiefted at once, immedi-
ately after the times of the apollles, is much more unlikely,
than that it arofe srradually out of an incovifiderable diilinc-
tion, which had obtained from the beginning.

At the clofc of the third century, the ecclefiaftical go-
•pfrnment, which very generally prevailed, was of that kind
which might ju!Hy be denominated a parochial epifcopaey.
The bidiop, wlio was properly tiie pallor, had the charge
of a fingle parilh ; aid the pMi-ifhioners affembied for t!ie
purpofes of public worfhip, and for tlie celebration of reli-
gious inllitutions, in one place, at which the bi.'hop com-
monly prcfided ; tiie biihop was affilled by prcCjytern, who
formed his council in judicial and deliberative matters, and
who performed religious funftions both public and private.
To tliefe were added deacons. See Deacon. The next
Itep wan the extenlion of the ovcrfight of onebifhop to many
congregations, wirich branched out of the original church
bv an acccffion of converts ; and in this ftage of the progrefs
of epifcopaey, the fever"l pre(l)yters had their fcparale pa-
riflies, and continued i:i fubordmation to tiie biihop, who
was aci-cnowltdged as their common head. At this period,
an order of bilhops, called cborcp'ifcopi, or rural bifiiops (f;e
Chorepiscop L s), held the middle rank between bifliops
and prefbyters, being inferior to the former, and fuperior to
the latter. This ftate of the church may be denominated
dioccfan epifcopaey.

Though bilhops, in tiie opinion of thofe whofe fenti-
ments we are now rcprefenting, were originally no other than
prefbyters ; the manner of th'^-ir ordination being the fame,
and the prefbyters difcharging every part of the oflicc of a
biihop ; no fooner was the diltinclion between them efta-
blilhed, than the bifliops began to appropriate certain func-
tions to themfelves. It appears, by the aft of the third
council of Carthage, A.D. 307, that, whereas, before, priells
had the power of affigning the time of public penance, and
of giving abfolution, as alfo of confecrating virgins, and of
making the chrifm, without the advice of the bifhop, all
thefe things were forbidden by thefe canons, and appro-
priated to the bilhops. But the principal circumftance by
which the bilhops were afterwards diltinguilhed, was the
power of confirming the baptized, when that chrifm was ap-
phed. See Confirmation. Alter the reign of Adrian,
when Jerufaleni was utterly dellroytd, and the Jews dif-
perfed, an opinion began to prevail among Chriftians, that
their minillers fuccetded to the charafters, rights, and pri-
vileges of the Jewilh priefthood ; and this was another
fource of honour and profit to the clergy. Another circum-
ftance, which contributed in no fniall degree to the progrefs
of epifcopal authority, was the conllitution of provincial
councils, Viihich infenfibly fuperfeded the importance of par-
ticular churches, and enabled the biihops by an alliance with
them to obtain a much larger (hare of executive and arbitrary
power. As foon as they became connefted by a fenfe of
their common interell, they were empowered to attack,
with united vigour, the original rights of their clergy and
people. " The prelates of the third century," fays Gibbon
(Hift. vol. ii, p. 335, Sic), " imperceptibly changed the
language of exhortation into that of command, fcattered
the feeds of future ufurpations, and fupplied, by fcripture
allegoric-s and declamatory rhetoric, their deficiency of force
and reafon. They exalted the unity and power of the

Vol. IV.

B I S

clinrch, as it was reprefented in the epifcopal office, of
which every bifhop enjoyed an equal and undivided portion.
Princes and niagiftrates, it was often repeated, might boaft
an earthly claim to a tranfitory dominion ; it was the epif-
copal authority alone, which was derived from the deity,
and extended itfelf ever this and another wo.ld. The bifhops
were the vicegerents of Chrift, th.e fuccefl'ors of the apoftles,
ai:d the myftic fubftitutes of the high priell of tiie Mofaic
law. Their exclufive privilege of conferring the facerdotal
charafter, invaded the freedom of clerical and popular elec-
tions ; and if, in the adminiftration of the churcii, they ftill
confuked the judgment of the prefbyters, or the inclination
of the people, they moll carefully inculcated the merit of
fuch a voluntary condtfcenfion. The bifhops acknowledged
the fuprtme authority wh.ich refidcd in the affcmbly of their
trclhrcn ; but in the government of his peculiar diocele,
each of them exafled from YAsiJloci, the fame implicit obe-
dience as if that favourite metaphor had been literally
jull, and aS: if the Hiepherd had been of a more exalted na-
ture tiian that of his ilieep." The fame cauf::3, which at
urll h?.d dcftroyed the equality of the prefbyters, introduced
among the bifhops a pre-eminence of rank, and fiom thence
a fuperiority of jurifdiftion. In fpiing a:id autumn, when
they met in provincial fynod, the multitude was governed
by the wifdoni and eloquence of a few ; and, befides, the
ofnce of perpetual prelidcnts in the councils of each pro-
vince, was conferred on the bilhops of the principal city ;
and thefe afpiring prelates, who foon acquired the lofty
titlis of metropolitans and primates, fecretly prepared them-
felves to ufurp over their epifcopal brethren the fame au-
thority which the bifhops had fo iately afTuwied above the
college of prefbyters. Hence gradually arofe the pre-emi-
nence which the ambition of the Roman pontiff gained over
the other provinces and churches. King's Conftitution, &c.
of the Primitive Church, ch. i. — v. Campbell's Eccl. Hift.
vol. ii. Mofli. Eccl. Hift. vol. i. p. IC4, &c. Neal's Hift.
Purit. vol. i. p. 670, Sec. 4to. Pierce's Vindication.

It is the opinion of many approved writers on this iubjeft,
among whom may be reckoned many cpifcopahans and dif-
fenters in our own country, and many learned foreigners,
that no particular form of church government was authori-
tatively prcfcribed either by our Lord or his apoftles ; but
that Chriftians were left at liberty to choofe fuch as might
be bell adapted to their circumftanccs and to the ftate of
fociety, and moft conducive to the edification and tranquillity
of the church, and of individuals in future ages. See Church,
AVhen new occafions required nev.- meafures, in a little
time the funftions of the priefthood were divided, and the
priefts diftinguifhed into degrees ; the political part of reli-
gion being affigned principally to bifliops, and the evange-
lical to the priefts, &c. or rather, as fome will have it, the
funftions of teaching and preaching were refv-rvcd to the
bifhop, and that of ordination fuperadded ; which was
their principal diftinftion, and the mark of their fovc-
rcignty in their diocefe.

By the ancient difcipline, bifliops were to be married once,
and not to put away their wives on pretence of religion ;
but a fecond marriage was a difquahfication for this order.
If they lived chafte, they were ranked as confcfTors.

Some bifliops in the middle age, on account of \iit\-: rega-
lia, or temporslities, were obliged to a military fervice
called hojiis, by which they were to lead their vaflals into
the field, and attend the king in his militaiy expeditions.
This Charlemagne excufed, and even forbade ; but the pro-
hibition was little regarded, fince we find the thing often
praftifed afterwai-ds. Du-Cange.

The eleftion of bifhops v?as anciently placed in the clergy
3CL a"**

B I S

«nd tlic people of the parilh, province, or dioeefe, or of the
cltrj;)- ar.d laity, as thty were afterwards called ; nor did any
church apply to the neighbouring bilhops to affill at the or-
dination. IrenKiis was ordained by pricfts only ; and fuch
w:is the gencr.il cuftom of the church of Ale;iandri3, till
the beginninj^ of the fourth century. Cyprian a!fo iays,
that it belonged to the people chiefly to choofc worthy
pallors, and to refufe the unwortliy. Thus Alexander was
chofcn bifliop of Jcrufalcrn, Fabianns and Cornelius of
Rome, and Cyprian of Cartlia.;e. Wiien the pei-iple had
thus elcAed a bidiop, lluy profcnted him to the neigiibour-
injj bifliops for their approbation and confent ; becaufe,
without their concurrer.t alfcnt, no bilhop could be legally
inllitutcd, or conlirmcd. This was the cafe with regard to
Alexander, alreaJy mentioned, and Sabinuf, bifhop of
Enierita in Spain. After eleftion and confirmation, the
next aft was the ordination or inftalment of the bilhop,
which was done in his own church by the neighbouring bi-
fliops, who were invited to attend on the occafion. The
atterdanec of the neighbouring bidiops, which feems to have
been at firft voluntary on both fides, became cuftomary,
and at length neceflary ; and it was an ellablilhed rule,
that the coucurrcnce of thefe wasindifpenfible, one of whom
laid liis hand on the head of the new bilTiop, when he was
recommended by prayer to the bleffing of God. In the
third century, this was always done by the metropolitan
bifliop ; or at Ijall it was never done without his conleiit or
order. The fecond council of Nice ordered tliat bilhops
ftiould be chofen by other bifliops ; but in the well, the peo-
ple prcfcrved the right of choofiiig tiieir bilhops, till after
the reign of Charlemagne and his fons ; and it was not
taken from them till the council uf Avignon, in 1050.
Bafnage Hift. Eglifes Reformees, vol. iii. p. 24.

Under the plea of tlie tumult that attended popular elec-
tions, the emperors, and other fovereigns of Europe, took
the appointment in fonie degree into their own hands ; re-
fervinj to themfelves the right of confirming thcfe cleAions,
and of granting invelliture of the temporalities, without
which corfirmation and invelliture, the tleded billiop could
neither be confecrated, nor receive anv fecular picfits. I'his
right was acknowledged in the emperor Cliarlemagr.c,
A. D. 773, by pope Adrian I. and the co<?nciI of L;itc;an,
and univerfally exerc fed by other Chriilian princts ; but
the policy of the court of Rome contrived to exclude the
la:ty from any (hare in thefe eleftions, and to confine them
wholly to the clergy ; but the mere form of eleftion ap-
peared to the people to be of little confequence, while the
crown was in pofl,.flion of an abfoiute negative, which was
almoll equivalent to a dircd right of ^nomination. Indeed,
princes a:id magiilratcs, patiiarchs and popes, have ufurped
the power cf cledir.g bifhops. The election was to be
within three months after the vacancy of the fee ; and the
perfon to be chofcn out of the clergy of that church. For-
merly the bilhop claimed a foare in the cleftion of an
archbiHiop ; but this was fct afide by the popes.

In England, during the Saxon times, the right of ap-
pointing to bilhoprics is faid to have been in the'trown, be-
caufe the rights of confirmation and invelliture were, in cf-
feft, though not in form, a right of complete donation.
But when, by length of lime, the cullom of making elec-
tions by the clergy was fully eflablilhed, the popes began
to except to the ufual method of granting thefe inveftitures,
which was "perannulum et baculum," by'the prince's deliver-
ing to the prelate a ring, and pailoral ilalF, or crolier ; pretend-
ing that this was an encroachment on the church's authority,
and an attempt by thefe fymbols to confer a I'piritual jurifdic
»ion: aadpope Gregory VII. about the clofc of the iith cen-

B I S

tury, publiHied a bull of excommunication agnirtll sll piracy
who fhonld dare to confer inveftitures, and ;dl prelates wha
fliould venture to receive them. At length, however, whta
the emperor Henry V. agreed to remove ail fufpiclon of ea-
croaehment on the Ipiritual charaaer by conferrmg invefti.
tures for the future '• per fceptrum" and not " per anmilunt
et baculum ;" and when the kings of England and Franc«
confer.tcd aUb to alter the form in their kingdoms, and re-
ceive only homage from the bilhops for their temporalities,
inllead of invclling them by the ring and crolier; the court
of Rome found it prudent to fufpcnd for a while its other
prctenfior,<;. Thisconceffion was obtained from king Henry I.
in England, by means of that obfiinate arid arrogant pre-
late arehbifliop Anfelm ; but king John, about a century
afterwiirds, in order to obtain the protection of the pope
againll his difcontented barons, was alfo prevailed upon ta
give up bv a charter, to all the monafteries aiid cathedrals iu
the kingdom, the free right of electing their prelates, w^he-
ther abbots or bilhops ; referving only to the crown the cuf-
tody of the temporalities during the vacancy ; the form ct
granting a licence to eleft, which is the original of our
conge d'tiire," on refufal whereof the eleftors might pro-
ceed without it ; and the right of approbation afterwards,
which was not to be denied without a reafonablc and lawful
caufe. This grant was exprefsly recognized and confirmed
in king John's Magna Charta, and was again ettablillied by
flat. 25 Edw. III. (I. 6. § 3. But by itat.,25 Hen. VIII.
cap. 20. the ancient right of nomination wa?, in effeiS, re-
llortd to the crown. The Eiiglilh luccefiion of proteftant
bidiops llands on this laft ground. Tiie ki'.^g being certified
of the death of a bilhop by the d-.an and chapter, and
his leave requciled to eleft another, the con^e d'e/ire, or
ufual licence, is fent to them, with a letter miffive, nomi-
nating the perfon whom he would have chofen. The elec-
tion is to be within twelve d?.ys after the receipt of it, other-
wife the king by letters patent appoints whom he pleafes ;
and the chapter, In cafe of refuling the perfon named by
the king, incurs a praemunire. The election, or nomination,
if it be of a bidiop, mull be fignilied by the king's letters
patent to the archbiftiop of the province ; if it be of an arch-
bilhop, to the other archbifhop and two bifhop?, or to four
bidiops ; requiring them to confirm, inveft, and confecratt
the perfon fo eleiiled ; which they are bound to perform im-
mediately, without any application to the fee of Rome. - If
fuch archbifhop, or bidiops, refufe to confirm, invert, and
confecrate f«ch bidiop eleft, they fhall incur all the penal-
ties of a ^r.fOTwnire. After eletlion, and its being accepted
of by the bidiop, the king grarits a mandate under the great
feal for confirmation, which the archbidiop configns to his
vicar-general, confiding moftly in a folemn citation of fuch
as have any objeftions to the bidiop eledt, a declaration of
their contumacy in notappearing, and an adminiltration of the
oaths of allegiance and fuprem.acy, of fimony, and canonical
obedience. Sentence being read by the vicar-general, the
bifliop is inttalled in the province of Canterbury by the arch-
deacon : the faft is recorded by a public notary ; and ths
bidiop is inverted with full powers to exercife ail fpiritual
jurifdiclious, though he cannot fue for his temporalities till
after confecration. Then follows the confeciation by the
archbilhop, or fome other bidiop appointed by lawful com-
midions, and two afllrtant bilhops : the ceremony of which
is much the fame as in the Romi'li church, fave that, hwlng
put on the epilcopal robe, the archbilhop a>d bi'hops lay
their hands on the new prelate's head, and conftcate tiiin
with a certain form of words. The fees of the whole pro-
cefs are faid to amount to about 600I.

The procefs of the tranfl?jtioa of a bilhop to another bi-

fhopric

B I S

(hopric only difTcn in this, that t'lere is no coiifecratian,
The ago ot a biii'op is to be a: icsft tiiirty years ; and, by
the ancient difc-iplin-, none were to be ciioitn but thofe
w'ho had pafil-d tlivpugh till the inferior orders j but, in
fome cafes of iiectfiity, tliii; was difpenfed with, and dea-
cons, nny l,nymi!i, y.erc raifcd fir falium to the epifcopal
dignity.

Tlie form of confecratinj» a bifhop is different in different
churches. Ordiuarily, at lead three bifnops arc required in
the ceremony of confecrating a bifliop : but, in fome
cafes a fingle or.e migiit fiifiice. in the Greek church,
the candidate for the epilcopate, who is aUvays an ardnman-
date or hliroinachus, i. e. an abbot or chief monk in fome
monaftery, being named to the vacant fee, and the elcilion
being copfirmed, rcpHirs, at the time appointed, to the
church where tiie coufecration is to be performed. Being
arrived, he is introduced by the pr;>to-pope and proto-
deacon to tiic aiclibilhop and bifliops, who are arranged in
proper order on a temporary theatre or platform erected in
tlie church for tlie occafion. He tiiere gives an account of
his faith ; declares foicmnly that he has ntitlier given nor pro-
tnifcd money, or any bribe-worthy fervice, lor his dignity ;
and promifjs to adhere ftcat'.ily to the traditions and canons
of the eadern church, to vitit his diocefe regularly, and to
oppufe llrenuoufly all innovations and herelies, particularly
the errors of the Latin church. This being done, the arch-
bilhop fays, " The grace of the Holy Spirit, through my
humility, exalts thee N. archimandrite or hieromnchus, be-
loved of God, to be bifhop of the cities N. N. which God
preferve." With much ceremony the billiop eliSi. is then
conducted from tKe theatre, within the rails of the holy al-
tar, where he kneels down with the other bifliops, who
hold open over his head the holy gofpel with the letters
inverted, the archbifliop faying aloud, " The divine grace,
which always hcaleth our infirmities, and fupplieth our dc-
fefts, by my hand condudleth thee N. archimandrite or hie-
romachus, beloved of God, bilhop elect of the cities of
N. N. which God preferve 1 — Let us pray therefore for
him, that the grace of the moll Holy Spirit may come upon
him." Then the priefts fay thiice, " Lord have mercy
upon us;" and while the bifhops continue to hold the gof-
pel, the archbifhop frgns the newly confecratcd bifliop tlirice
ivith the fign of the crofs, faying, " In the name of the Fa-
ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft, now and for ever,
even unto ages of ages. Amen." Tlien all the bifliops putting
their right liands on his head, the archbifliop prays that he
jmay be confirmed in the office of which they have judged him
worthy, that his priclthood may be rendered irreproachable,
and that he himfelf may be made holy and worthy to be
heard of God. After this, one of the alTifting bilhops
reads a fliori litany in a low voice, to be heard only by
thofe withm the altar, and the other bifhops make the re-
fponfes. At the end of the litany, the archbifliop, laying
his hand again upon the head of the newly confecraled
bifhop, prays in very decent and devout terms, that Chrift
will render him an imitator of himfelf, the true fhepherd ;
that he will make him a leader of the blind, a light to
thofe who walk in darknefs, and a teacher of infants ; that
he may (liine in the world, and receive at lail the great re-
ward prepared for thofe who contend boldly for the preach-
ing of the gofpel. After this the paftoral (laff is delivered
to the new bifnop, with a very propcrand fokmn exhorta-
tion from the arclil)ifhop, to feed the flock of Chrift com-
mitted to his care. King's Rites and Ceremonies of the
Greek Church.

In the Romifli church, the bifliop eleift being prefcnted
by the eidci- aiTillant to the ccnfecraticn, takes the oath :

B I S

he Is then examined as to his faith ; and after feveral prayers*
the New Tellament is drawn over his head, and lie received
the ciirifni or luidion on his he^d. The paftoral itaff,
ring, and Gofpel, are then given hini ; and after commu-
nion, the mitre is put on his head : each ceremony being
accompanied with proper prayers, &c. the coiifecratio.i ends
with Te Deum.

Tilt fe laft mentioned ceremonies are laid afide in the con-
fecration of Engl-lli bifhops. Neverthelefs, the book of
coiif-icration, compofed by the bifhops, and approved by
Edward VI. in the third ye;!r of his reign, and, two years
afterwards, confirmed by act of parliament, in which fome
of them are enjoined, is declared to be the itandard for this
purpofe by the thirty-fixth article. In queen Mary's reign
tiiii ait was repealed, and the book of common prayer, and
the book of ordination, were by name condemned. When
Elizabeth came to the throne, queen Mary's act was re-
pealed, and king Edward's prayer-book was again autho-
rized ; but the book of ordination was not exprefslv named,
becaufe it had been a part of the common prayer book ; and
therefore it was not thought neceffary to fpecify the office of
ordination any more than any other ofBce of the common
prayer book. But bifhop Bonner contended, that as the
book of ordination had been by name condemned in queen
Mai7's reign, and had not been fince revived by name, it
\va3 ftill condemned in law ; and, confequently, that all or-
dinations conferred according to that form, were illegal and
invalid. To obviate this objection, it was declared in a fub-
fequent felTion of parliament, that the office of ordination
was confidcred as part of the common prayer book ; and it
was farther declared, that all ordinations which had been
performed according to that office, were valid ; and upon
the fame principle a fimilar claufe was inferted in the 36tli
article.

The funftion of a bifhop in England may be confidered
as two-fold ; viz. v.hat belongs to his order, and what be-
longs to his Jiinft/iSion. To the efijcopal order belong the
ceremonies of dedication, confirmation, and ordination ; to
the epifcopal jurifd'iliion, by the llatute law, belong the li-
cenfing of phyficians, furgeons, and fchooimaiters, the unit-
ing fmail parifhes (though this laft privilege is now peculiar
to the bilhop of Norwich), a.Tifting the civil magiilrate in
the execution of ftatutes relating to ecclefiaftical matters,
and compelling the payment of tenths and fubfidies due
from the clergy.

By the common law, the bifhop is to certify the judges,
touching legitimate and illegitimate births and marriages ;
and by that and tlie ecclefiaftical law, he is to take care of
the probate of wills, and granting admiiiiftrations ; to col-
late to benefices, grant inltitntion on the prefentation of
other patrons, command induAion, order the collecting and
prefervnig the profits of vacant benefices for the ufe of the
fucceiTors, deferd the liberties of the church, and vifit his
diocefe once in three years. To the bilhop alio belonT fuf-
penfion, deprivation, depofition, degradation, and excom-
munication.

The bifhops of England are all barons ; barons in a three-
fold manner ; viz. feudal, in regard of lards and baronies
annexed to their biflioprics ; by icrit, as being fui>>mored
by writ to pailiament ; and .lifo by potent and creation.
When William the cot-queror thought proper to change the
fpiritual tenure of frank-almoign, or free alms, under which
the bifhops held their lands during the Saxpn gcvernment,
into the feudal or Norman tenure by barony ; their eftates
were fubjtcted to all civil charges and afFcfTments, from
which they were before exempt ; and, in right of fuccf fiion
to thole baronies, which ■xcrs unaLenablc from their ref-
3 Qj! ' pedive

B 1 S

peftire dignitici, the bifliops and abbots werf allowed their
feats in the houfe of lords. But though thefe lords fpiri-
tual are, in tiie eye of the law, a dillinft cllate from the
lords temporal, and are fo diftinguiflied in mod of our ads
of parliament, yet in praftice they are ufurJly blended toge-
ther under one name of " the lords ;" they intermix in their
votes ; and the majority of fuch intermixture joins both
ef\ates. And from this want of a feparat^ aflerr.bly, and le-
paratc negative of the prelate;, fome writers have argued
very cogently, that the lords fpiritual and temporal are now
in reality only one cflate ; which is unqueilionably true in
every effcftual fenfc, though the ancient dillindion between
them ftill nominally continues. For if a bill (liould pals
their houfe, there is no doubt of its vahdity, though every
lord fpiritual flio'.ild vote againft it, of which Selden and
fir Edward Coke give many inftances ; as, on the other
hand, judge Biaclillone prcfumes it would be equally good,
if the lords temporal pnfent were inferior to the bifhops in
number, and every one of thofe temporal lords gave his vote
to rejcft the hill ; though fir Edward Coke feems to doubt,
whether this would not be an " ordinance," rather than an
•' aft," of parliament. Bl. Com. vol.i. 156. Bifliops have
the precedence of all other barons, and fit in the upper houfe
as barons. Tliey are twenty-four in number, exclufive of
the billiop of Sodor and Man, who has no feat in the houfe
of peers, befides two arcbbifliops. Archbifhops are dillin-
guifhcd by the titles of " Grace," and " Mod reverend fa-
tiicr in God by divine Providence ;" and bilhops, by thofe
of " Lord," and " Right reverend father in God by divine
permifiion." The former are faid to be " inthroncd," and
the latter " inftalled." See Archbishop.

With refpcft to the order of precedency among one ano-
ther, the arclibifliop of Canterbury takes the lead, then the
archbifliop of York, next to him the bifhops of London, of
Durham, and of Winchefter. The other bifhops follow ac-
cording to tlie ftniority of their confccration ; excepting
only, that a bilhop being a privy counfellor, takes place after
the biihop of Durham.

Bifhops have two fpecial privileges next to regal : the
firft, tliat in their courts they fit, and pafs fentence, of
themfelves, and by their own authority ; the bifhops' cnuits
bti"'' not like other courts, but writs are fent out in their
owu name, tejie the bifhop, not in the king's name, as is
done in the king's courts : the fecond, that, like the king,
they can depute their authority to another, as their fufTra-
gar, chancellor, commiflary, &c.

Tiiey have this advantage alfo over lay-lords, that, in
■whatever Chrillian country they are, their tpifcopal degree
and dignity are acknowledged ; and they may, quatenus \i\-
fhop":, ordain, Sec.

They have feveral immunities, as from arreds, outlawrie?,
diftrefs, &c. liberty to hunt in the king's forefts -Sec. to
have ctrta'in Ivni of 'u.ine duty free, &c. Their perfons tray
rot be feized, as lay-peers may, upon contempt, but their
temporalities alone. 1 hey may qualify as many chaplains
as a duke, viz. fix. But, as they have no right to be tried
themfelves in the court of the lord high lie ward, as peers, they
ought not to be judges there. For, though they are lords
of parliament, and fit tiiere by virtue of the baronies, which
they hold " jure ecclefii;," yet they are not ennobled in
blood, and co:ifequtntIy not peers with the nobility, but
merely lords of parliament. 3 L.lt. 30, 31. Staunf.' P. C.
153. Li cafes of capital offence, the bilhops ufually with-
draw voiuntarily, but enter a pioteft, declaring their right to
ftay. It is obfervable, that in the nth chapter of the
conftitutions of Clarendon, made in parliament 1 1 Henry IL
ihey are exprcfsly excufcd, rather than excluded, from Ct-

B I S

ting or voting in trials, when they come to concern life or
limb. The determination of the houfe of lords in the earl
ofDanby'scafe, (Lords' Journ. 15 May, 1679), which hath
ever fincc been adhered to, is confonarit to thefe conftitu-
tions, «• that the lords fpiritual have a right to ilay and fit iis
court in capital cafes, till the court proceeds to the vote of
guilty, or not." This refoiiition, however, extends only
to trials in full parliament ; for to the court of the lord high
fteward, in which no vote can be given, but merely that of
guilty, or not guilty, no bifhop, as Tuch, ever wa? or could
be fu'mmoned : and' though the (latute of king William r£-
gulates the proceedings in that court, as well as in the court
of parliament, yet it never intended to new-model or alter
its conlUtution, and confequently does noc give the lords
fpiritual any right in cafes of blood which they had not be-
fore ; and their exclufion is more reafonable, becaufe having
no right to be tried in this court, as we have aheady faid,
they ought not to be judges there.

By law, the crime of epifcopicide, which a clergyman com-
mits by killing his biiliop, is petty treafon.

In Canada there is a bifhop, refidcnt at Quebec ; and
there are two bifhops in America. In Denmark they have
no archbifliop, but there are fix fuperintendents, or bilhops ;
four in Norway, and two in Iceland. The chief fee is that
of Zealand, which yields about locol. a year ; the others
are thofe of Funen, valued at 760 1., Aarhuus at 6col.,
Aaiborg at 400I., Ripan at 4C0I. ; in Norway, Chriftiana
or Aggerhuus at 400!., Chriftianfand at 600I., Bc-rghen at
4C0I., and Drontheira at 400I. The bilhoprits of Skalholt
and Holun, in Iceland, are only valued each at 150I. ; but
though far inferior in nominal value to the others, they may
be confidered, on account of the chcspnefs of living in Ice-
land, equal in real profit to the large il of the others. The
bifhop of Zealand, who is fir^ in rank, and the bifhop of
Aggerhuus, are metropolitans. They have no temporali-
ties ; keep no ecclefialtical courts ; have no catisedrals or
prebends, °ic. but are only primi inter pans, having the
rank above the inferior clergy of the province, and infpeftion
over their doitrine and manners. They are allowed two or
three parillies each. Their habit is common with that of
the other miniftcrs. In Sweden are fourteeen diocefes ; the
archbifhopric of Upfala, and the biflioprics of Lindkoeping,.
Skara, Stroengnoes, Wcefteras, Wexio, Abo, Lund, Bor-
go, Gotheborg, Calmar, Caillladt, Hermofand, and Wif-
by, or Gothland. The revenues of Upfala and Wceflreras
am.ount to about loool. a year ; and thofe of the lowed; bi-
flioprics to 300I. There are alfo three fuperintendents, who
rank as bifliops, but do not fit in the houfe ; thefc are the
firfl chaplain to the king, the reftor of St. Nicholas at
Stockholm, and the firfl chaplain of the navy. The bifhops
are bound to refidence, except during the meeting of the
diet. A confiflcry of the cler<jy of the diocefe elefts the
archhbifhop and bifliops, by prefenting them to the king for
his nomination. They have alio ecclefialtical courts, &c.

BiSHOP-«/.io/, epifcoptis abbas, was an abbot inveiled with
the epifcopal order ; of v.liich we n:ect with feveral in the
richer and more confidtrable monafterics.

Bishop, acephalous, he who is immediately futjeft to the
papal fee, without any metropolitan over him.

Bishop, boy. It was an ancient cuflom in fuch churches ■
as had cathedral fervice, tor the little chorifters, on St. Nr-
cholas' day, December the 6th, to elect one of their num-
ber to be \\\e. epifcoptis puerorum, the beam, i. c. infant, or
chorifler bifhop ; who continued to prefide over the reft,
with an imitation of all the epifcopal functions, till Inno-
cent's Day, Dec. 28, and then, after folemn proceflions
and great pageantry, he laid down his office. He waa
6 chofes

B I S

B I S

<:hofen on St. Nicliolai day, becaufe St. Nicholas was the
patron faint of children ; he having, when an infant, (hewn
fiich fingiilur piety, as the legend fays, that vvlicn he was
vX his mother's brcall, he would not fuck, on Wednefdays
and Fridays, that he might obferve the fafts of the
cliurch.

The ceremonies attending the invelliture of the ep'ifcopus
piierorum, are prefcribed by the ftatutes of the churcli of
,'^iiruin, which contain a title cle epifcopo chonJJarum ; and
alfo bv the proctflional. From thele it appears, that he
was to bear the name and (late of a bifhcp, hab't'.d, witli a
crofi^r or paltoral ftaff in his hand, and a mitre on his head.
His fellows, the reft of the children of the choir, were to
taice upon them the flyle and office of prebendaries, and
yield to the bifliop canonical obrdience ; and farther, the
fame fervice as the very biihop himfelt, with his de?.n and
preljendaries, had they been to officiate, were to have
jierformed, the very fame, mafs exccpt;'d, was done by the
chorilters and his canons upon the eve and the holiday.
The ufe of Sarum required alfo, that upon the eve of Inno-
cent's day, the chorillcr bifhop, with his fellows, Ihould go
in folemn proceihon tn the altar of the Holy Trinity, in
copes, and with burning tapers in their hands ; and that
during the proctflion, three of the boys fhould fmg certain
hymns mentioned in the rubric. The proceffion was made
through the great door at the weft end of the church, in
fuch order, that the dean and canons went foremoft, the
chaplain next, and the bifhop, with his little prebend;\ries,
lall ; agreeably to that rule in the ordering of all proceffions,
which affigns the rearward ftation to the moft honourable.
In the choir was a feat or throne for the bifhop ; and as to
the reft of the children, they were difpofed on each fide of
the choir, upon the uttermoll afcent. And fo careful was
the church to prevent any diforder which the rude curiofity
of the multitude might occafion in the celebration of this
fingular ceremony, that their ftatutes forbid all perfons what-
foever, under pain of the greater excommunication, to inter-
rupt or prefs upon the children, either in the procefilon or
during any part of the fervice direftcd by the rubric ; or
any way to hinder or interrupt them in the execution or
performance of what it concerned them to do. Farther it
appears, that this infant-bifliop did, '.o a certain limit, re-
ceive to his own ufe, rents, capons, viad other emoluments
of the church. Ip cafe the httle bifhop died within the
month, his exequies were folemnized with great pomp ; and
he was interred, like other bifnops, witli all his ornaments.
The memory of this cuftom is preferved, not only in the ri-
tual books of the cathedral church of Salifbury, but by a
monument in the fame church, with the fcpulchral effigies
of a chorifter bifhop, fuppofed to have died in the exercife
of his pontifical office, and to have been interred with the
folemcities above noted.

From what period we are to date the progrefs of tliis ri-
diculous ceremony, it is not eafy to difcover, but it feems
more than piobable that it originated with the ancient
Mysteries. In the wardrobe accompt of Edward I. pub-
iiihed by the fociety of antiquaries, we find a boy-bifliop,
DiC. 7, V290, faying vefpers before the king, in liis chapel
at Heton near Newcaftle upon Tyne, for which he, and
the boys wlio fung with him, received 40s.

This eilablifliment, but with a far greater degree of buf-
foonery, was common in the collegiate churches of France.
(See Dom. Marlot. Hiftoire de la Metropole dc Rheims,
torn. ii. p. 769.) A part of the ceremony in the church of
Noyon was, that the children of the choir fhould celebiate
the vvhjle fervice on St. Innocent's day. (Brillon. Diftion-
aire des Arrets, artic. Noyon. ed. 1727.) In a curious book,

called Voyages Liturgiquts de France (Par. 8to. 1718,
p. 33.) is this accop.nt of the fame praftice in the church of
Vieune in Dauphiny. " Le jour de Niiel apres VCpres, le
jour dc S. Etienne, et le jour de St. Jean I'Evangelifte, oa
faifoit des procefiions folennelles pour Ics diacres, Its pretres,
et les enfans de Chaeur, comme autrefois a Rouen. 11 y
avoit auffi le lendem.ain a la mefle folennite pour cux. Les
enfans dc Chseur y avoient leur Petit Eveqt-'E, qui faifoit
tout I'office, excepte a la meffe. And in the ftatutes of
the archiepifcopal cathedral of Tulles, given in the year
1497, it is faid, that during the celebration of the fcftival
of the boy-bifliop, " Mora/ilics were prefented, and ftiews
of miracks, with farces and other fports, but compatible
with decoru;n. After dinner they exhibited, without their
mafl<s, but in proper drcftes, fuch farces as they, were maf-
ters of, in different parts of the city." In England too it
appears, that the boy-bifhop, with his companions, went
about to different parts of the town ; at leaft vifited the other
religious lioufes. (See the Computus Rolls of Winchefter
College, A. 1461.). And Strype records (Ecclef. Menio-
rials, iii. 310. ch. xxxix. and p. 387. ch. i.), that when
this, among other ancient ceremonies, was reftorcd by queen
Mary, in 1556, "on St. Nicolas's even, faint Nicolas, that
is, a boy habited like a biftiop in pr.vtijicalibus, went abroad
in moft parts of London, finging after the old fafhion, and
was received with many ignorant but well difpofed people
into their houfes, and had as much good cheer as ever was
wont to be had before."

In the ftatutes of Eton college, given in 1-^41, the f*//C
copus puerorum is ordered to perform divine fervice on St.
Nicholas's day ; and in thofe of Winchefter college, 1380,
puer'h that is, the boy-bilhop, and his fellows, are permitted
on Innocent's day to execute all the facred offices in the
chapel, according to the ufe of the church of Sarum. A
fimilar claufe to tliat at Eton occurs in the ftatutes of King's
college, Cambridge ; and Mr. Warton obferves, in his hif-
tory of Poetry, that the anniverfary cuftom at Eton of
going ad mordem originated from the ancient and popular
prattice here defcribed.

In a fn;all college, for only one provoft, five fel.'ows, and
fix chorifters, founded by archbifhop Rotheram in 1481, in
the obfcure village of Rotheram, in Yorklhire, this piece
of mummery was not omitted. The founder leaves by will,
among other bequefts to the colle;^c, " a myter for the
barne-biffop of cloth of gold, with two knopps of filver,
gilt and enamelled." Hearne';, Liber Niger Scacc. Append.
674. 686.

From the paffage already quoted frcm the Voyages Li-
turgiquts de France, it appears that, at leaft in one church,
the mafs was not allowed to bt celebrated by the boy-bifhop ;
and it is alfo exprefdy prohibited in the ufe of Sarum : but
other and more frequent inftances occur where tile buffoon-
ery was carried even to this height. In a fragment of the
cellarers Compulus of Hyde abbey near Winchefter, A. D.
'397' ^"c '^''■^'^ a charge " pro cpulisyiufW celebrantjs in
fefto Sancti Nicolai ;" ard fo late even as the reign of
Htni-y VIII. we find the fame ceremony at St. Paul's.

It is furprifing that Dean Coiet, a fiiend to the purilv of
religion, and who had the good Icnfe and reiblution to cen-
fure the fuperftitions arid fopperies of popery in his public
fermons, fhould countenance tliis idle farce of the boy-bifhop
in the ftatutes of his fchool at St. Paul's, which he founded
with a view of eltablif.iirg the education of youth on a more
rational and liberal plan than had yet been known, in the
year 1512. He cxprefsly orders, that his fcholars " (hall
every Childermafs (that is Innocent's) day, come to Panli's
churche, and hear the chUile-hiJhop' s (of St. Paul's cathedral) '

fermon.

B I S

fcmon. And after be at the hycli malTe ; and cncli of
them oTcr a penr.y to il;c ch -'(If bidiop, and wit!i them the
■maificr* rtnd iiirv yors of the fcolc-."

Tliis fiagular ciOo-n wn', however, prohibited in tlie
council of 6eii8. A. D. 14^(5 : and, not fo inuch for its fn-
pcrllition as its Lvitv :;iid •.i!)fiirdity, was abrogated in thin
country by kiiijr Henry VII I. m 1542, the words of whofe
proclamation rr?y be fecn in Mr. Warton's HiHor)- of Ent;-
l!(h Poetry, vohiii. p 3:2. But queen Mary, wlio wtii
the catlioHc litiir^v rc'Vired a!i the pageaistries of popery to
•their arcient fplendour, revived tlic nmmmery before u? ;
and on Nov 13, 155.1, an cdiiSl was iiTncd by tlie bifliop of
London to ;dl the clergy of his dioccfe, to have a loy-bi/hcp
in procifr Ml,

Wc n ed hardly ad:', that on the accifTion of E'izabcth,
this fiUy mockery was fct nfide ; but Mr. Warton was in-
dined to think, that the praftice of our plays btirg acled
by the choir-boys of St. Paul's church and the chapel
royal, which co:itiniied till Cromwell's ufurpation, miiijht
be dfUiced from iIk miflrrits and moralilies wh'ch attended
the ridiculous feftival ot St. Nicolas. See the Ncrlhumber-
land Ho'jf.hold B )nk, p. 440. Drake's Eboracum, p. 481.
Warton's Hift. of Eug. Po.-try, i. 248. ii. 375. 3H9. iii. 302.
303. 32 '. Proci-fTionale Eccl. Sarum, edit. Rothom. 155J.
Dugda'c's Hill, of St. Paul's, 205, 206. Anilis Ord.
Gart. ii. 309. Knight's Life of Dean Cokt, p. 362.
Hawkin's Hi!t. of Mufic, ii. J. Strype's Ecclef. Mem. iii.
2C2. ci'i. XXV. 20J, 206. ch. xxvi. Dugd. Monall. iii. 169,

Bishop, card'mrtl, a biHiop in chief, or in cap'ile. St.
Gregory fomctim"s ufes th:- term for a proper bilhop. An-
cieatty ther.; were alfo bifhops, who by a peculiar privilige
frqm the holy fee, were ranked, and had a feat among the
cardinal^.

Bishops, cathedral, was alfo a title given to the proper
bifhops, by way of diftinftion from the chorepifcop't.

Bishops, comnifulalory, or bifliops " in commendam,"
are cardinals not of the order of bifhops, or other prelates,
wiio yet hold bilhoprics " in commendnm." The appella-
tion had its orign during the refidence of the papal lee at
Avignon, whence fcarce any cardinal, prieft, or deacon,
was created, who hrld not one, two, three, or more bifliop-
rics ii commeidan. Du-Cange.

Bishop defi^ned, eplfcopiis dcf>gnaUis, denoted a coadjutor
of a biliop, who, in virtue of his office, is to fucceed at the
incuT>bent's death.

BisH07-f/iv7, is he who has the king's nomination, with
the fanftion of the chapter ; but without confccration.

Bishops, exempt, thofe freed from the jurifdiftion of the
metropolitan, and immediately fubjeft to the fee of Rome
filone.

BisHQP of the palace, efifcopus palatii, was probably the
fame v/ith biiliop of the kin'/'s chapel, a title in the court
of Bohemia. Du Cange. It was alfo a title given thofe
bi:hops, who, by llbcn-.e of the pope dv>'elt iu palaces of
ki.ngs, to be iu readincfs for fpiritual fervice and council in
church matters.

Bishop cf the prime fee, denoted a " pri:nate," othei-wife
denominated a " feuior bifliop." See Phimate.

Bishop m partihus iiifiihliiim, he who is dignified with
the title of a bilhopric, whofe didrift or dioccfe is in the
poflinion of infidels or heretics. By the canon law, a bifli )p
in partlbiii is qualified hereby to be a coadjutor of anotl.cr
bilhop. The denomination tock its piV from the expul!i<in
of tht. biihops and clergy out of the Holy Land by the Sa-
raccns ; when flying into Italy for Ihctter, coadjutories were
giveo them for their fubfiftenc*.

B I S

Bishops, rcricrary. See P. 1: g i o !<• A r y.

Bishops, rural. See Chorepiscopus. _

Viii HOT B, fufra^an, arc coadjutors or afTiftants of dio-
csfan biihops, authorifed by commiffion from them.

Bishops, va^'ue,'thij(e without any diocefc, fometlmeR
attendant in camps, or in foreign cour.tries, for the convcr-
fiou of infidels. The like vague biihops were fomttimts
alfo granted by popes to moi'.allcries, exempt from the ju-
rlfdidioii of the diocefan, where th;y performed all the epif-
cooal fundions. Du-Cangc.

Bishop, i/nivirf.il, or catholic, is a title given to the pa-
triarch of Armenia.

Bishop of the ratlo'ic or univrrfal church, a title fome-
tlmrs alfumed by th.c popes.

Bishop of iijiopi, was a title anciently given to the pre-
lates of fo'nc of the greater an '. more honourable fe 's, as
Jcrufalem and Rom». The firil wlto had the title was
James, bilhop of Jerufalcm. SrTiie will iiav^ the appellation
to have been common to all bidiops.

Bishops, in the Lutheran Church, are thofe more ufuallf
czVinA fuperintciid.nts, which fee.

The CalviniiU allow of no other biihops befides prefbyters;
but the Lutherans make fome diftinftion, and give a fuperi-
ority or pre-eminence over the reft, of their " biihops," '* I'u-
perintcndents," or " overfeers."

Bish'jP is alfo a quality fometimes attributed to fecular
princes, in refpefl of their fuprem^cy or jurifdidlion in mat-
ters belonging to religion. See Slphemacy. In this fenfe
it is that the emperor Conftantine, in a letter to the biihops
in his dominions, calls himfelf " common bifli ip," as being
in fome refpedls general bilhop of the whole Roman
world.

Bishop of the Jeius, the head of that people in Eng-
land, chofen by ttiemfelves, to whom they fubmitted to be
judged and governed according to their law. Prideaux's
Conneft. part ii. lib. v. p. 478. This officer, whii;h fub--
filled under our Nnrman kings, and was licenfed by them,
anfvvcrcd to th- iEcH malotarchs in Babylon, and the
Alabarchs in Egypt.

Bishops at chefs, a kind of pieces, the third in rank,
below queens, but above knights, dilHnguilhed by their
cloven heads. In Latin writers of the ni'dd'e age, the bi-
ftiop is called alphinui ; and by the French k fou, \.)\efaol or
madman. See C h E s s .

Bishop'j Court. See Court.

Bishop'/ y?f, or feat, originally denoted the throne or
chair in the church where the bilhop fat. It was alfo deno-
minated Apsis.

BrsHOp'sy-r alfo denotes the city or place where the re-
fidence of the bilh p is fixed.

Every bifhop's fee was anciently calle'd " fedes apofto-
lica ;" though the appellation has lince been rcftrained to
the fee of Rome.

Anciently bifhops feem to have had a right in England to
fit as judges in the hundred and county-ccurts. In after-
times, they were forbid to lit in fecular coi^rts, and had fe-
parate courts crefted for them ; which proved an occafion
of much difpute between the two jurifdiftions. No church
tenant might be fued in any court but the bifhop's. There
are alfo traces of a feparate court of tht bifhops much ear-
lier, among our Saxon anccfloro in the eightli century. The
regard borne to the chai-adter of billiops, made them the
common arbitrator* even of fecular caufes : they had the
cognizance of dl caufes concerning 1-ands in " frank-
almoign ;" and for ccclefiaftics, were judges even in capital
caufes.

Bishop's weed, ia Botany. See Ammi.

2 BiSMap,

B I S

E I S

BisHor, Bin!, in Oi-nlthal'jgy. See Tanagra Epis-
copus.

Bishop ami his CLrh, in Geography, a cliiftcr of dansjcr-
ous rucks, near tlit^ weft coaft of South Wul.-h, at t'ae en-
trance of St.Gcorije's cha.-i'.'el, 4. miles well of St. David's.
N. iat, 51" 54'. \V. long, 5° 20'.

BisHOp'j AucUand. See Auckland.

BisHCp'o CaUld, a market and borough town of Siirop-
fliirc, in E!i_!i"d, fpr.-ads its fcattered houfes over the lule
of a conlider.ible eminence, at the bafe of which runs the
fmall river Clun, This town is an old corporation, and
made its firll return to parliament in the 27th of Elizabtth.
Previous to tliat period, it belonged to the fee of Hereford,
and derived its ramc from being one of the feats, or caftel-
latfd manfions, of tiie b:fliops. The coi-poration conlills of
a bailiff, recoider, and fifteen aldermen, who, with about
thirty other inhabitants called burgeffes, tleCl two members
for the town. Here is a large weekly market on Fridays,
which is much freqjcnted by the Weifh, as are its fix an-
nual fairs. At fomc of the latter a great quantity of Ihcep
and pigs are fold. This town was formerly under the pro-
tection of a caftle, which is entirely dellroyed. Bifliop's
caftle is 156 miles N.W. from London. It contains 241
houfes, and 1076 inhabitants.

At Snedc, about two miles and a half N.W. from Bifliop's
caftle, a prioiy of black canons was founded in the time of
Henry HI., but was foon afterwards removed to Chfrbiiry.
This place, featcd near tlie Severn, is fuppofed to have been
b'.:ilt by Ethclflcda, and was afterwards poftcfTed by the fa-
mily of the Herberts, one of whom was created lord Her-
bert of Cherbury. This gentleman wrote an account of his
own life, which has been publifhed by Horace Walpole at
Iiis private prefs at Strawberry hill. Not far from this town,
on the borders of Montgomeryfhire, is an ancient encamp-
ment called Bijljop's Aloat ; and at Clun are the remains of
an ancient caitle, near which is a camp called Bury-dilches.
About three miles hence is IValcot, the feat of lord Clivc,
who is patron of this borough. In the vicinity of Bifliop's
caftle, are three lofty Angular hills, refpeflively named
Corndon-hill, Church-Stoke-hill, and Squilfar hill. At
Moor Park is a refpeclable ancient manfion ; the grounds
are finely diverfified, and abound with fine woods.

BisHop'j IJland, a fmall rocky ifland in Mal-bay, on the
well coaft of the county of Clare, in Ireland. N. Iat. 52'
38'. \y. long. 9^ 35'. Beaufort.

BisHOP'j' Storljord, a market town of Hertfordfhire, in
E:!gland, is placed on the fide of a hill, near the wettern
borders of Efl'ex. Seated in the midft of a corn country, it
is remarkable for its number of malt houfes, and for the
quantity of malt annually made here ; this is diftinguiftied
by the name of brown malt, and is difpofed of principally to
the London brewers. It is conveyed to the metropolis in
barges, by a navigable canal, which was cut in 1779, and
which joins the river Lee, at about 14 miles diftai.ce from
this town. Before this navigation was opened, the malt,
which is now lodged here, was carried to Ware and Stan-
fted, as the neartll places for water-carriage ; but fince the
above period, Stortford has become the depot for the malt
male in this town and the neighbouring villages.

This place was evidently of fome note previous to the
conqueft, as it appears from the Domefday Survey, that the
conqueror gave the town and calUe to Maurice, bifliop of
London. From this evidence it appears, that the caftle
here, which bore the name of Waytemore, was ftanding
prior to the Norman invafion, though fome writers aifert
that it was erefted by William. It was probably repaired
and flrengtheiied by l>ira, but Mr. Salmon fetms juitiikd in

the opinion, that it was cnnftrii£ted by the Eaft Sas:on8 to
defend their borders. Tiie lands paying cafUe-guard, lie
between this place and the Erm.ine-ftrcet, one of the great
Anglo-Roman roads. The hill, or keep, on which the
caftle ftood, is aitifi', 'al, being evidently raifed with earth
brnight from fome diiiance. C)u the top was a v/cll, and a
breaftwork of Itone and mortar, A bank of earth, runs from
the fummit acrofs the moory ground to the no:th-eaft.
" Tliiscalile," fays Salmon, " inuit have been offomeconfe-
quencc in the time of king Stephen, becaufe of the great
defire GeofiVey de Magnaville had, either to be mafler of
it, or to have it pulled down ; and Maud the emprefs en-
gaged him to do one or t'other^" The iecuiity derived
trom this fortification gave origin to the town, which had
increafed to fome confequence in the time ot king John, who
created it a borough, and invefted the inhabitants with certain
corporate privileges. This monarch feized the caftle and
town from W. de St. Maria, the bifliop of London, who
was one of the three bifhops deputed to execute the pope's
interdict upon England. This period was diftinguifhed by
the al;'.rmi:)g jealoufies and animofities between the kins; and
the pope with his pnlates; and as Sa'mon cxpre-fl".;s it,
" the caftle, at Stortford, Hands yet a monument of king
John's power and revenge, and the Bifliop's lands remain a
monument of the pope's entire viftory over him." In the
time of Edward II [. the town and caftle, &c. again reverted
to the bifhop of I^ondor-, in whofe fee it ftill continues, and
who appoints a baillft" for this liberty, which includes the
town and thirteen contiguous pari files. The Bifiiop's pri-
fon was ftanding in bifhop Botiner's time, but that and aH
the other old buildings have been fiuce demoliflied.

The ftreets of the town are dilpofed in the form of a
crol , with two long ftreets interfefting each other at right
angles. Though no particular manufacture is carried on here,
yet the town is refpettable and populous ; it contains 456
houfes, and 23C5inhabitarts. Here are a very confidcrable
wetklv market tor grain, &c. on Thurfdays, and three an-
nual fairs, which are moftly appropriated to the fale of
horfcs and cattle.

The church, dedicated to St. Michael, is a large lofty
ftrutture, and, 1 ke moft buildings dedicated to that faint,
ftands on the higheft ground in the neighbourhood. There
were anciently ti'rce guilds and a chartry endowed here ;
and ia tiie choir are nine ftalls on each i:de. The interiw
of this building is decorated with a number of monuments,
fome of which are ancient. The g;eat tythts of the pariih
are in the hands of laymen. In the town are fome meeting-
houfes for diffenters, methodifts and quakers, alfo fome alms-
houfes,and a fchool-houfc. The latter was built from a fub-
fcription among the gentlemen of Herifordiliire and EfTex,
who were inftigated to this aft by Dr. Thomas Tooke. This
gentleman was zealoufiy indefatigable in promoting and
eftablifhing the foundation which has proved beneficial to
the town, and highly honourable to its founder and pa-
trons. The building ftands on arches, beneath which is a
fpace for market and ftiops. Dr. Tooke revived an arnual
fchool-feaft here, and charged his own eflate with an annual
prcfent to the preacher. He alfo gave a chalice of 20I.
value to tlie church, and was a great benetaftor to the fchocl-
library, whic'i is a very good one, and was fiiil eftabhfhed
by the Rev. Thomas Leigh, who was vicar of the church
in 1680, &c, Befides other donations to this library, it is
cultomary for every gentleman to prefent a book at the time
of leaving th'* fchool. Biihop's Storti'ord derives its com*
pound name from being the property of the bifliop of Lon-
don at an early period, and from its fituation on the banks
of the river Stort, which feparates it on the eaft from the

hamlet

an
rminin

BIS

Iwn.let of Hockerill. At a Oiort dillancc nortli of this town U
Had'r.^m parva, which is notL-a from being l!.e buna! place
of the Captls, carls of Eficx. DTr..op's Stortford is 30 miles
north of l>ondoii. Salmon's Hillory of Hcrtfoidlhiir.

Bishop's H'altham, a fmall town of Hampniire, 111 Eng-
land, derives a part of its name from having been a fait of
ihc bifliops of V.'iiichefter, Some of their palace ftiU re-
mains at a fmall dillance weft of the town, and the fcite now
belongs to the fee. Leland defcribcs it as " a right ample

d goodly maner place, moted aboute, and a praty brooke

ining hard by it. It hath been of many bilhops' build-
," The celebrated Will am of ^Vykeham, bifhop of
Wiiichefter, rcfided here doring the lall three years of his
life, and died in tliis ma:ifi<>n, A. D. 1404, in the 80th
year of his age. The hoiife was partly dcmolidicd in the
civil wars of^Chniles I. when bifhop Kyrl was in pofRflion.
Biftiop's Waltham is noted for its fchools, boih for gentle-
men and ladies. It contains lyi houfes, and 1773 inhabi-
tants, and has three an-iual fair?.

About five miles for.th of the to.vn is r/kkham, a village
rende.-ed memorable from being the birth-place of the above-
named bilhop. See V/ykkkam.

BISHOPING,in/f6;y:-,7iflAf/7j/>, isa term prob.iWy derived
from Bijhop, the name of a'horfe-dtaler, and denoting a
trick of the dealers in horfes for making them appear
younger than they arc, with a vi;v/ of impofing upon the
purchafer.

This is done by excavating the corner tooth of the inci-
fors with a fteel graver or file, and afterwards blackening
the cavity with a hot iron. Tiiis mark, or excavation, is
deemed by many the criterion of age, and th?f. the horfe is
young while this is prefcrved.

To avoid being impofed upon, the purchafer ftiould con-
fidcr the general figure, not only of the corner tooth, but
of all the incifor teeth of the upper and lower jaw, for they
all undergo a perpetual change of figure by age and
wear.

An incifor tooth of the horfe, at its firft emerging from
the jaw, has the vifible part of it flat and covered every
T^-licre with enamel ; the outfide (liarp and projcfting higher
than the infide, with a conical cavity in the middle, of various
depth in ditftient horfes, which renders it of not much value
in deciding upon the age ; in fome it is fo fhort as to be obli-
terated by the fixth year ; in oth< rs it is fo long as to be found
till nine or ten, or later ; it is, therefore, not a certain crite-
rion of age : the general figure of the tooth is more to be
depended upon in our eftimation. The lateral width of the
recent tooth, and its flatnefs, are very remarkable, and can
never be imitated ; as this wears away, the toi^h daily in-
creafes in its tranfverfe wi;Uh, that is from front to back, and
diminifhes in its lateral width, forming, as the wear ad-
vances, nearly a triangle ; thefe angles at length by age gra-
dually difappear, and the tooth prtfcnts a rounder fiirface
on its upper part, and at length the tooth becomes flattened
on the fides, and actually wider from front to back than
from fidjto fide. For it (liould be recollefttd, that the tooth
is formed in its whole extent prcvions to its appearance ex-
ternally, and that the jaw is abforbed, to allow of its wear :
the enamel, like a fhell, dcfcribing the figure and bour.dary
of the tooth, which hollow Ihell is afterwards filled up with
bone. A tranfverfe feftion, therefore, of tlie tooth, or a
feries of them at different diflances from its point, afTord
the exaft figures of the furfaces of the teeth at the various
periods of their wear, and allowing for contingencies which
occafion the teeth to be worn with more or lefs rapidity, as
in crib biters, &c. will afford the trnell criterion* of ao-e,
aad render impofition in this way impracticable.

B I S

The teeth alio thev pretend, in fome inflances, to excavate
on the infide, and to'(h:u-pen with a file : thefe bungling at-
tempts, hov.cver, in no way refemblc the natural markings
or furface of the tooth, nor could impofe upon any one
the lead experienced in obfcrving the teeth. For what we
confider the btft indications of the age of horfes, however,
we refer the reader to the article Teeth of Horfes.

BISIiOPRIC, the juriidiclion of a bilhop, or the dU
flrift witliin which it is compiifed, called alfo " diocefe,"
which fee.

There are twenty-four bifnoprics, and two archbiflioprics,
in England and Wales. To the old ones fubiilfing before
the times of the Reformation, Henry VIII. by letters pa-
tent added fix more biflioprjcs ; viz. thofe of Weftminfter,
Cheftcr, Gloceiter, Peterborough, Briftol, and Oxford^
ftat. 34 & 35 Hen. VI 11. cap. 17. Thefe fees were alf
fo'-inded in the courfe of the years 1 540, 154I, and 1542.

The fee of Weftminfter, having never had but one bifcop,
was united to that of London, and its biftiop tranflated
to Norwich, by Edward VI. in 1550. The remaining
biftioprics are comprehended under two provinces, thofe
of Canterbury and York. The province of Cantcibury
includes tlic following bilhoprics, viz. !. The bifiiopric of
London, containing Eilex, Middlefex, and part of Hert-
ford, and extending it? jurifdidion to theWeft india iflands.
2. Wineheller, compreliending Surry, Hampft^.ire, and the
ifles of Wight, Jerfey, Guernfey, and Alderney. 3. Litch-
field and Coventry, to which belong Stafford, Derby, and
part of Warwick and Shropfhire. 4. Lincoln, comprehend-
ing Lincoln, Leicefter, Huntiugd.iii, Bedford, Bucking-
ham, and part of Hertford. 5. Ely, containing Camhridgc-
ftiire. 6. Sahfbury, to which belong Wilts and Berkdiire.
7. Exeter, including Cornwall and Devon. 8. Bath and
Wells, comprehending Somerfetftiire. o, Chicheller, to
which belongs Suflex. 10. Norwich, containing Norfolk,
Suffolk, and a fmall part of Cambridge. J i. Worceller, cont-
prehending Worcefter and part of Warwxk. 12. Hercrord,
including Hereford and part of Shropftiire. 13. Rochtftcr,
to vvhicfi belongs part of Kent. 14. Oxford, including Ox-
fordftiire. 15. Peterborough, containing ^Northampton and
Rutland. 16. Glouceller, comprehending Glouceftcrfliire.
17. Briftol, to which belongs the city of Briftol, part of
Gloucefterfliire, and the county of Dorfet. 18. Landafl,
comprehending Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecknock, and
Radnor. 19. St. David's, including Pembroke, Cardigan,
and Caermarthen. 20. St. Afaph, containing the greateft
part of Flint, Denbigh, and Montgomery, and fome part
of Shropfliire. 21. Bangor, to which belong the counties
of Anglefey, Caernarvon; Merioneth, and part of Denbigh
and Montgomery. The province of York comprehends, —

22. Durham, containing Durham and Northumberland.

23. Carlifle, including great part of Cumberland and Weft-
morekind. 24. Cheiler, to which belong Cheftiire, Lan-
cafhire, Richmondfhire, which is part of York, together
with part of Cumberland and Wellmorcland. 25. Ifle of
Man. The value of thefe fe;s is not eafily afcertained, as
it is very different from that which is ftated in the king's
books. It is a certain faft, whatever may be the primary
occafion of it, that the revenues of the biflioprics are
very unequal in value, and that there is alfo a great ine-
quality in the patronage appertaining to the diflFerent fees.
Adverting to this circumftance, Dr. Watfon, the prefent
bifhcjp of Landalf, addrefled a " Letter to his Grace the
Archbifhop of Canterbury," printed in 1783, propofuig a
fcheme for rendering th'; bilhoprics more equal to each
other, with lefpeft to both income and patronage, by an-
nexing part of the eftatcs, and pan of the preferments, of

the

B I S

the richer bi(hoprics, as they became vacant, to the poorer.
The advantages, refulting from the accomph(hmeiit of this
objeft, and recited by the learned prelate, are fiich as follow :
The poorer bifhops would thus be freed from the neceffity
of holding ecclefiaftical preferments " in commendam" with
their bifhoprics ; a praftice, which bears hard upon the
rights and expeftations of the reft of the clergy ; which is
difagreeable to the bidiops themfelves ; which expofes them
to much, perhaps undeferved, obloquy ; but which certainly
had better not fubfift in the church. The bifhops would alfo
thus acquire a greater independence in the houfe of lords ;
and the meafure would contribute to reduce the influence of
the crown in that houfe. This plan would likevvife cnfure a
longer rcfidence of the bifhops in their refpeftive diocefes,
as temptations to tranflations would be thus removed, and
prelates would of courfe become more attached to their par-
ticular fituations, gain a more intimate acquaintance with
their clergy, and ferve, by their dodrine and example, to
produce the beft effeft in the condutl both of clergy and
laity. See Augmentation.

In Ireland there are i8 bifhoprics, and 4 archbiflioprics.
Under the archbidiop of Armagh, the primate, are the bi-
fhops of Meath, Kilmore and Ardagh, Dromore, Clog-
her, Raphoe, Down and Connor, and Derry. Under the
archbifliop of Dublin are Kildare, Ferns and Laughlin, and
OlTory. Under the archbifhop of Cafhel are Waterford and
Lifmore, Limerick, Killaloe, Cork and Rofs, and Cloync.
Under the archbifhop of Tuam are Elphin, Cloyne, and
Killala and Achonry. The primacy is eftimated at 8000I.
a year, Derry at 7000I., and the other bifhoprics from
4000I. to 2000I. The catholics have a hierarchy nearly
Ijmilar ; but the metropolitans and bifhops are confidered by
the proteflants as merely titular.

The ancient ecclefiaftical eftablifhment of Scotland com-
priftd two archbifhoprics, thofe of St. Andrews and Glaf-
gow, and eleven biflioprics (that of Edinburgh having been
only eilablifhed by Charles I.), which, in the order of anti-
quity, may be thus enumerated ; Galloway (St. Andrews),
Dunkeld, Moray; five founded by David I., Brechin,
Dumblane, Aberdeen, Rofs (Glafgow) ; that of Argyle,
or Lifmore, was foimded about the year 1200, becaufe the
bifhops of Dunkeld did not fpeak the Irifh tongue ; the
bifhops of Orkney and of the weilern iflands date from an
earlier period, while their fees were not fubjeft to the Scot-
tilh crown. But iince the revolution in 1688, the eccleii-
atlical government of Scotland is of the Prelbyterian form ;
and of courfe they have no biflioprics.

Bifhoprics, as well as archbiflioprics, may become void by
death, deprivation, and refignation ; but a bifhop muft re-
fign to his metropolitan. See Archbishopric.

BISI, EoNAVENTURA, in Biography, zn eminent painter
and engraver, and a monk, as fomc fay, of the order of
St. Francis, was born at Bologna, and became a difciple of
X,ucio MafTari. His chief excellence confiftcd in copying
in miniature the piftures of Corregio, Guide, Titian, and
other mafters, which he tinifhed with furprifing beauty and
elegance. Many of his works, which are highly valued, are
in the duke's gallery at Modena. He alfo amufed himfelf
by etching fome few plates from Parmegiano, Guido, &c.
One, probably from his own delign, was a " Holy Family,"
with Elizabeth and St. John, dated 1 631. He died in
1662 ; but his apje is not known. Strutt and Pilkington.

BISIGNANO, in Gragraphy, an inconliderable town of
Naples, in the province of Calabria citra, fcatcd on a hill
near the river Crati, furrounded by lofty mountains, and
defended by a !hong furtrefs. It gives the title of prince
to the lad remaining branch of the ancient houte of San S«-

Vol. IV.

B I S

yerino, and is a bifhop's fee, fufTragan of RofTano ; diftant
16 miles W. S. W. from RoiTano, and about 18 miles N.
from Cofenza. N. lat. 39° 38'. W.long. 16^ 22'.

BISK, or Bisque, in Cookery, a rich fort of broth or
foup, made of pigeons, chickens, force-meat, m.utton-gra'.-y,
and other ingredients. The word is French, formed, as
fome think, hom bifcoHa ; becaufe the Hfque, confifbng of
a diverfity of ingredients, needs feveral repeated >;octions to
bring it to perfedion. There is alfo a (hml-h'tfque, made at
a low expence, in which only half the ingredients are ufed ;
and a hifque of filh, made of carps, minced with their roes
and lobrters.

BISKET, BiSQUET, or Biscuit, tifually denotes a de-
licate kind of bread prepared by the confeftioncrs, of fine
flour, eggs, fugar, and rofe or orange water ; or of flour,
eggs, and fsgar, with anife-feeds and citron-peel ; baked in
the oven in tin or paper moulds. The word comes from the
Latin Its, tiv'ice, and the French cu'il, cotlus, q. d. baked.
We find divers forts of fucli billets, as feed-billict, fruit-
bllkct, long-biflcet, round-billcet, Naples-biflcet, fpunge-
billvet, &c.

BisKET, fea, is a fort of bread much dried, to make it
keep for the fervice of the fea. It was formerly baked
twice or oftener, and prepared I'lK months before the em-
barkation. It will hold good a whole year. To preferve
fea-bifliets from infefts. Dr. Hales advifcs to make the fumes
of burning brimftone pafs through the caflcs &1II of bread.
Bifket may be likewife preferved a long time, by keeping
it in caflcs well calked, and lined with tin.

The fliip-bifcuit is too hard for fome teeth ; and in this
cafe, it may be foftened by toafting. But ruflv is better;
for being made of good fermented bread, fliced, and baked
a fecond time, the pieces imbibe the water eafily, foften im-
mediately, and digeft more kindly, and are therefore "more
who'efome than the unfermented bifcuit. Rufl<, fays Dr.
Franklin, is the true original bifcuit, fo prepared to keep
for fea, being twice baked, as its name imports. See Frank-
lin's Maritime Obfervations, in Amer. Tranf. vol.ii. p. 322.

The ancients had their bifliet prepared after the like man-
ner, and for the like ufe as the moderns. The Greeks called
it cnoj Jiru^ov, q. d. " bread put twice to the fire." The
Romans gave it the name of "panis nfauicus," or '_' capta."
Pilny denominates it " vttus aut nanticus panis tufus atquc
iterum co6tu3." By which it appears, that after the firft
baking, they ground or pounded it down again for a fe-
cond. In fome middle-age writers, it is called " paximas,"
" paximus," and " panis paximatus."

Among t!ie Romans, we alfo meet v.!th a kind of land-
biflcet for the canp-fervice, called " buccellatuni," fomttiniei
" expeditionalis annona," which was baked much, both to
make it lighter for carriage, and lefs liable to corrupt, the
coftion being continu-d till the bread was reduced one
fourth of its former weight.

The procefs of bifl<et baking for the Britifh navy is ?.%
follows ; and it is equally iimple and ingenious. The meal,
and every other article, being fupplied with much certainty
and fimplicity, large lumps of dough, confifting merely of
flour and water, are mixed up together; and as the quan-
tity is fo immcnft, as to preclude by any common procefs a
poifibility of kneading it, d man manages, or, as ;t is termed,
rides a machine which is called a liorfe. This machine is a
long roller, apparently about four or five inches in diameter,
and about feven or eight feet in length. It has a play to a
certain extenlion, by means of a ftaple m tlie wall, to which
is infertid a kind of eye, making its aftion like the machine
by which they cut chaff for horfes. The lump of doupfh
being ph»cd exactly in the centre of a raifrd platform, the

R

man

B I S

man fits npon the end of the machine, and literally rides up
and down throughout its whole circular diredioii, till the
dou^h is equally indented ; and this is repcattd till it is hif-
fK-icntly k'.icadcd ; nt which times, by the dilTerent pofitions
of the lines, large or fmall circles are dcfciibed, according
Bs tlicy are near to or dillaiit from the wail, till you have
fairly the idea of an immenfe peniagraph. The dough in
this Hate is handed over to a fccoiid workman, who dices it
with a prodigious knife ; and it is then in a pniper ftate for
the ufc of thofe bakers who attend the oven. Thcfe are five
in number ; and their different departments are as well cal-
culated for expedition and correclnefs, as the makinsj of
pins, or the working or printing of types. On each Cde of
a la-ge table, where the dough is hid, (lands a workman ;
al a fnall table .jear the oven Hands another ; a fourth Hands
by the fide of t!ie oven, to receive the bread ; and a fifth, to
fupply the i.ccl. By this arrangement the oven is as regu-
larly filled, inj the whole cxercife performed in as exaft
time as a military evolution. The man on the further fide
of the ' .rge table moulds the dough, having previoufly
formed it i:ilo fmall pieces, till it has the appearance of
mufSns, although rather thinner, and which he does two
to 'et'i r, with each hand ; and as fall as he accomplifhes
this ijlk, h - delivers his work over to the man on the other
fide oi tl'.e table, who llamps ihcm with a docker on both

fides with a mark, on which are cut the broad W\, the let-
ters PLY, and the number of the oven in which the bifcuits
are to be baked. As he lids himfelf of this work, he throws
tlie billtets on the fmalkr table next the oven, where Hands
the third workman, whofe bufriefs is merely to feparate the
different pieces into two, and place them immediately under
the h^nd of him who fnpplies the oven, whofe work of
throwing, or rather chucking, the bread upon the peel,
muH be fo exaft, that if he looked round for a fingle mo-
ment, it is impoflible he Ihould perform it coiTeftly. The
fifth receives the biiket on the peel, and arranges it in the
oven ; in which duty he is fo ve!-y expert, that though the
different pieces are thrown at the rate of feventy in a minute,
the peel is always dlf.ngagcd in time to receive them fepa-
rately. A« the oven Hands open during the whole time of
filling it, the bifliets lirH thrown in v.ould be firft baked,
were there not foine counteraftion to fucli an inconvenience.
The remedy lies in the ingenuity of the man who forms the
pieces of dough, and who, by imperceptible degrees, pro-
portionably diminiHies their fize, till the lofs of that time,
which is taken up during the filling of the oven, has
no more c.Tcft to the difadvantage of one of tlie bifcuits
th^in to another.

So much critical exaftnefs and neat aftivity occur in the
fxercife of this labour, that it is diffi'- It to decide whe-
ther the palm of excellence is diK lo the moulder, the
ir.a.kcr, the fplittcr, the chucker, or the depofiter ; all of
them, like the wheels of a machine, feoming to be ailuattd
by the fa.ne principle. Tiie bufinefs t.: to depofit in the
oven feventy bilkels in a minute ; and this is accompliflied
with the regularity of a clock ; the clack of the peel, during
its motion in the oven, opcratrng like the pendulum.
, The bifcuits thus brked are kipt in repofitories, which
receive warmth from being placed in drying lofts over the
ovr.is, till ihey are fuHiciently dr/ to be packed into bag?,
wit i.-.ut darger of gcttr.:g nxiuhiy ; and when in fuch a
ftate, they are then packed into b-.gs of a hundred weight
each, and removed into (iorehoufes for immediate ufe.

The number ol Uane-houfcs, belonging to tlie Viflualling
Ollce at I'lymiuth, are two; each of which contains
four ovens, which are heated twenty times a day ; and in

B I S

the courfc of that time bake a fufScient quantity of breaf
for 16,000 men. The granaries are large. End well con-
Hruc\ed ; when the wheat is ground, the flour is- conveyed
into the uoper Hories of the bak:-houfe3, whence it dcfcends
through a trunk in each immediately into the hands of the
workmen.

The bake-houfe, belongi.ig to the Viftualling Ofilce at
Deptford, confills of two divifions, Snd has twelve ovens ;
each of which bakes twenty fnoots daily (Sundays excepted);
the quantity of flour ufed for each flinot is t\'o bufhels, or
112 pounds, which baked produce 102 pounds of bilk. t. Ten
pounds arc regularly allowed on each ihoot for Hirinkage, &c.
The allowance of bidcet in the navy is one pound tor each
man per dav, fo that one of the o'. ens at Deptford iurnillies-
bread daily for 2040 men.

BISLAN, in Geography, a town of Egypt on the Nile^
3 miles fouth of Damietta.

BISLEY, anciently called B':fi'hge, is a fmall market
town, and a very extenfive and populous pai-fii of Gloucef-
terlhire, in England. The pariih includes an area of 6000
acres, the furface of which is diverfified with Heep hills and
narrow valleys. On tlie fides of the former are fome inclofcd
arable lands, interfperfed with copfes ; and the latter are
molUy kept for meadow pailurage. Bifley, ChalFord, and
fome neighbouring hamlets, are chiefly inhabued by perlons.
engag-d in the woollen rr.anufaciurcs ; and many fulhiig a;.d
drefling mill.-^ are eretled on the river which runs through
this parifli. A fmall weekly market is held here on Thurf-
days, and her. are two confiderible fa rs yea- ly. The church
is a a large handfome building, and, being feated on a high
h'U, is confpicuouo f-jr many miles. Here is a Imall free
fchool, and an endowment for clothing lix widoivs yearly.
The Citniil, which unites the Thames and Severn, paffes
thr.v.igh this parifh ; and near the verge of it, at Sapperton,
enters a fubterrancous tunnel, which is cut through the
eartli to an extent of two miles and five furlongs. This
tunnel is lined with mafonry, and arched over at top, witli- ^
an inverted arch at the bottom, except at thofe places where
the folid rock reudered it unneceffary. The expence of
cutting it was ab'>iit eight guineas per cnbic yaid ; but the
plan of uniting the waters of the two grent Britilh rivers
induced the proprietors to encounter extraordinary expence
and trouble. The connection of the rivers Thames and Se-
vern, by means of this canal, and alfo with the internal
parts of tiie kingdom, by the Oxford and Coventry canab,
which lead to Birmingham, and alfo fo the coiintiea of Staf-
ford, York, CheHcr, and even to WeHmDreland, formsalineof
communication with the capital of the greateH importaEce,
and which has proved of great utility to the manufafturinj
towns through which it paifes. On the 29th of Apiil 1789,,
the adling engineer, MrfCTowcs, pafTed throughthctunnel lor
the firH time, in a veffei of thirty tons burthen ; and the ju"C>-
tion was completed, and a vefiel pafTed from the Severn into
the Thames, for the firfi time, on the 19th of November in
the fame year, in the prcfe.ice of al,M-ge conconric of people,
who came to witncfs and rejoice at the figi^t.. In 17883.
their maj^Hies went from Cheltenham, on puvpofe to view
this tunnel, which excited their furprife and admiratiorh,
more paiticularly when they learnt it had been coiidu.-ted
and completed by a private gentleman. The canal is 30
miles and 7 chains in length ; in which courfe the water is
raifed 241 feet 3 inches, and made to fall 1^0 tcct 6 inches.
In the panih are 922 houfes, ant! 4227 inhabitants. Riidge's
HiHory of the County of Giocellei. Fhilhps' Hillory of
Inland Navigation.

BISLIXGUA, doullc-longue, in Botany, a name ufed by
many authors for the jiarrow-leaved rufcm, or huicJur't

traam ,•

B I S

B I S

h -wm ; called by many others the Alexandrian bay, er
lanrus AlfKaiidne,

BISMARCK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle cf Upper Saxony, and Old Mark of Braiiden-
biirsjh ; i 2 miles weft of Stendal.

BISMEO, or Bixmea, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Aliricrs, 25 rr.iles weft from Algiers.

BISMILLAH, in the Mahonutan Cuftoms, a folemn
form, viz. in the name of the mojl merciful God, conftantly
■placed at the beginning of their books and writings in gene-
ral, as a peculiar mark or diftinguiftiing characleriftic of
their relijjion ; it being counted an impiety to omit it.
■ The Jews, for the fame purpofe, make ufe of the form,
" in the name of the Lord, or, " in the name of the great
God." Sale.

BisMiLLAH is alfo ufed among the Arabs, as a word of
invitation to eat. An Ai-ah prince will frequently fit down
to eat i 1 theftreet before hiso.vn door, and call all thatpaf?,
even b -g^ars, by this word, who do not fail to come and fit
<';o.vn ti eat with hi.-n^ for the Arabs are great levellers, and
fet ever)' body on a footing with thcmfeives. Pocock's
Egvpt, &c. p. 483.

BISMUTH, /r//''na/BW, Wallerius ; IVifmuth, or Bifmulh,
Germ. ; Bfmuth, Fr. ; Plumbum cinertum, Antimonium fcmi-
iiiiium, tin-glafs, of the older chemifts.

Bifmuth is a brittle metal, of a reddiih white colour, and
foliated fniifturc, is fufible at nearly the fame temperature
with had, foluble with cafe in nitric acid, and precipitable
from it iu the form of a white oxyd by the addition of
pure water.

§ I . Ores of Bifmulh.

So. I. Native Bfmuth. GeiHegen Wifmiilh.

Tlie colour of this mineral is lilver-white, with a (light
tinge of red, freqa»ntly exhibiting an iridefcent appearance
on its furface. It occurs very rarely in mafs, being gene-
rally di.Ttmiaated, or inverting ; it is alfo met with feathcr-
fhaped, or reticular, or in lamell£ of a reftangular or trian-
giilar :hape, either folitary, or heaped upon each other. It
exhibits a metallic luftre of conhderable brilliancy. Its
fradure is perfectly foliited, or b-oad ftriated. It is femi-
duAile, and breaks with fome difficulty into irregular, fome-
what 'liunt-edged fragments. Sp. grav. according to Kir-
wan, =:: 9.51.

Native Bifmuth is fufible at a vei-y moderate temperature,
t)ften by the htat of a common ca idle ; when expofed to
the action of the blowpipe on charcoal, it volatilizes in the
forn of a white vapour, not unfrcquently accompanied with
an arfenical fmell. It d'fTolves very ealily, and with effer-
vefcence, in cold nitric acid ; and is precipitable in the form
of a white powder, on the addition of pure water.

The only two fiibftances, with which native bifmuth is
Kable to be confounded, are the fiilphuret of bifmuth and
<i;ndritical filver ; the former of thefe, however, is not folu-
ble with cffervefcence in cold nitric acid; and the latter may
be diftinguifhed by its colour and duclility.

Bifmuth is one of the moft partially diffufed metals
iiitherto known ; and it is clucfly found native, accom-
panied with kupfernickcl, white and grey cobalt, black
blende, native filvcr, and rarely galena. Its ganguc is
quartz, calcareous fpar, or baroftlenite ; and it has hitherto
been found only in veins in primitive mountains.

It is found at joachtmiUial, in Bohemia; at Freyberg,
Annaberg, &c. in Saxony ; in Sweden, Tranfylvania, and
Biitany.

Sp. 2. Sulphuretted Bifmuth. JVifmuth ghmzt Emmerling.
ifmulk fulphure, Han"'.

The colour of thi« fabllance is between lead-grey and tin-

white ; but OB the furface it is ufually yeliowiffi or iridef-
cent. It is found either lamellar and in mafs, or difTcnii.
nated, or in fmall acicular cryftals. Its prin-.ilive figure, ac-
cording to Hauy, is that of a quadrangular prifm. Its in.
tcrnal Juftre is metallic and very brilii.'.nt ; its iraflure \i
broad or narrow ftriated, or foliated like galena. Sp. gr.
according to Kirwan, =6. i^i. It ftains the fingers in a
flight degree ; and when reduced to powder, is of a gliller-
ing black.

When expofed to the blowpipe, it melts eafily, giving
out a fulphureous odour and a blue flame, and is alraoft
entirely volatilized before it can be brought to the m.etallic
Hate. There has been no ven^ accurate analyfis m.ade of
this ore ; but from the experiments of Sage and La Peyroufe
it appears to contain about 60 per cent, of bifmuth, 36 of
fulphur, and a little iron. There is fome external rcfcm-
blance between the lamellar variety of this mineral and
galena ; but the fuperior fufibihty of the former is an eafy
and infallible charafteriftic.

Sulphuret of bifiruth is very rare ; and, where it occuif,
is always accompanying native bifmuth. It is found at
Joachimfthal, in Bohemia ; Altenberg and Johann-Georgtn-
lladt, in Saxony ; and at Baftnas, near Riddarhytla, ia
Sweden.

Sp. 3. Oxyd of Bifmuth. Bifmu'h cehre, YUrvr. Wifmuth-
ocher, Emmerling. Bifmuth o^-yde, Hauy.

This mineral is of a greenifh yellow colour, paffing int«
afh-grey, or ftraw colour. It is fometimes found in mafs,
but more commonly diifeminated or inverting. It is opaque,
and poflciks a flight degree of internal luftre. Its fradure
is fine-grained, uneven, or earthy. Sp. grav. ccnfiderable,
but has not yet been accurately afcertained. It is either
friable, or of the confiftcnce of chalk, but occafionally gives
fire with fteel, on account of the particles of quartz with,
which it is mixed.

When expofed to the aftion of the blowpipe on charcoal.
It is very eafily reducible to the metallic ftate. It is foluble
in nitric acid without effcrvefcence, and precipitable for the
mort part by the addition of water.

Oxyd of bifmuth is an extremely rare mineral. It has
hitherto only been found at Schnecberg, in Saxony, accom-
panying native bifmuth ; in the Black Foreft mines, in
Swabia ; and at Joachimfthal, in Bohemia. It is often con-
founded with the green earthy iron ore ; but may be at once
dilUnguifhed by its eafy reduction before the blowpipe.
Emmeriing, vol. ii. p. 434, &c. Wiedenmann, p. 887.
Brochant, v. 2. p. 343. Hauy, t. 4. p. 1 84. Kirwan,
vol. ii. p. 263.

§ 2. ./Iffay and Analyfis of Bifmuth Ores.

Sulphur end iron are the only fubftances that have been
as yet detefted in combination with this metal, as far a»
can be infened from very imperfect aiialyfes of the preced-
ing ores. But Klaproth, in his examination of the bifmuthic
filver ore from Shapbach (Analyt. Eff. vol. i. p. 556.),
found it to be a con.hination of lead, filver, iron, copper,
and fulphur, with bifmuth j and from the experiments of
this able chcmift is deduced the following general method
of anr.lyfing ttie ores of bifmuth.

Having reduced the ore to a tolerably fine powder, pour
upon it, in a capacious flafic, five times its weight of nitric
acid previoufly diluted with one third of water. The acid
will begin to acl immediately, without the affiftance of
heat ; nitrous gas will be difengagcd in g^'-eat quantity ; and
the iolution will affume a greenlih yellow colour. V.^hen
tlie acid has taken up as much it can, or nearly fo, pour it
off, and digeft the undiffolved refidue in a moderate heat,
with equal part* of nitric acid and water, renewing the
3 K. 3 menftruum

B I S

mfnftrunm from time to time, till all the foluble parts of
the ore are taken ..p. Add together the folut.ons and
reduce them bv gentle evaporation to about hall their duik.
(if auv cryftals ar-- depofited, add a little pure warm water
iud fu'fficient to take them up again); tl.tn pour the whole
into « large quantity of rain water, at leall twenty times
the bur< of the fohu.on. The liquor will immechately al-
fumc a milky appearance, and, by (landing a (liort time,
«-;H dcpofit a white heavy precipitate (.,), wl.uh, when
carefilly lixiviated, i. pure cxy<l of bifmuth. Add all the li-
quors together, and concentrate them by evaporation to one
half of their bulk ; then drop in a ftrong folution ot mun-
ateJ ammonia, as long as any precipitate takes pUre ; de-
cani the fupcrnatant fluid as accurately as poflible, aiid,
without walhing the precipitate, digcft it for fome tmie with
modciately ilrong nitric acid ; the undifFolved part ot the
precipitate being feparated, waflied, and dried, is pure mu-
rial of/iIvcr (i). The nitrous folution is now to bcdiUited
with a large quantity of cold water, and a precipitate of
oxyd of bilmi.th (O'will be thrown down. The dihited ni-
trous folution being mix<.d with the other liquor, the whole
muft be evaporated, till a conliderable number of cryftals are
depofited ; at this time, the addition of fulphuric acid will
occalion a white depofit ai fulphat of had [d). The re-
mainder of the folution is now to be fuperfatuiated with
caullic liquid ammonia, by which the iron will be depofited
in the (late of brown oxyd (e), and the copper will form
with the ammonia a blue folution ; this being faturated
Uightly to excefs with fulphuric acid, will depolit the cop-
per (/') upon a piece of clean iron. The itlidue of the ore
that was undilTolved by nitric acid, being weighed, and ex-
pofed to a low red heat, will give out its fulphur {g), the
quantity of which may be eftimated with confiderable accu-
racy by the lofs of weight. It is now finally to be digelled
with ten times its weight of boiling muriatic acid, by which
fome oxyd of lead will be taken up ; and this, by evapora-
tion and the addition of fulphuiic acid, may be procured in
the llate of fulphatcd lead {h). The relidue being wafhed
and dried is the llony gangue of the ore (<).
Hence the ore will be decompofed into

Oxyd of bifmuth (a) and (f),
Muriated filver (b),
Sulpliatcd lead (^/) and (A),
Oxyd of iron (c).
Metallic copper (j").
Sulphur (jf),
Stony matrix (;)
^ 3. ReduQion of Jjifmiilh ores.
The fcparation of this metal from the fubflances with
which it is found united in the mine, and the rcduclion of
it to a marketable llate, is perhaps the eiifu 11 of all the me-
tallurgical procefTes, on account of tl:e ready fufibility of
bifmuth, and it: being found for the moft part in the me-
tallic llaSe. The following were the methods praftifed in
the time of Agricola (Uc Re Mctallica, p. 349.) A round
pit, two or three feet wide, was lined with well rammed
clay and charcoal, and covered with billet wood, upon
which were laid alternate llrata of ore and wood. When
the pile was thus built to a fufTicient height, fire was applied
to the top, and the bifmuth, as the heat penetrated through
the mafs, became melted, and trickled down into the hole
beneath, where it coUefted ia an irregular mafs ; being then
withdrawn, and broken into pieces, it was remelted in iron
or earthen pots, feparated from the impurities that floated
on ite furface, and finally caft into flat cakes, or loaves, for
fale. Another method was to divide a large pine tree lon-
gitudinally, and cut out the central part uf the wood, thus

BIS

forming it into a gutter ; this being placed fomewhat in-
clined, the ore was laid in the upper end, on a bed of chips
and fmall wood, fufiicient, when fet on fire, to liquify the
bifmuth, which, flowing down, was coUeftcd in a hole or
vcffel placed at the eiul of the trough.

The fcarcity of wood has, however, put an end to thefc
rude and extravagant methods ; and the ores of bifmuth are
now reduced in a common reverberatoiy furnace, the bed of
which is lined with charcoal, whence the melted metal is re-
moved in iron ladles, and caft into maffes weighing twenty
or thirty pounds, in which ftate it is brought to market.
§ 4. Externa] CharaSers and Phyfical Properties.
Bil'muth is a white metal with a reddifh yellow tinge ; is
confidcrably hard, but brittle, exhibiting a broad foliated
fradlure ; has a bright, almoll fpecular metallic luftre; and
is fomewhat fonorous, when ilruck. Though brittle, it
may be comprelTed ver)- confiderably by judicious hammer.
ing, and therefore varies greatly in its fpeeific gravity. Ac-
cording to MufchenbroccK, its fp.gr. when frelh melted, is
= 8.716; but when laminated, is = 9-638. Bergman
fixes its gravity at 9.67 ; and other authors make it as high
as 9.8, or even 10. The lamina:, of which this metal is
compofed, have but little adhefion to each other ; hence the
primitive form of its cryftals, which is that of a regular ofta-
hcdion, may very eafily be afcertained by diffeftion. It is
fufibie at 460° Fahr., and may be poured into a paper cone
without burning it. If, after it has begun to folidify, the
fluid part is poured off, a groupe of cryftals is obtained in
cubes, or reftangular volutes. When expofed in clofe vef-
fels to a violent heat, it fubhmes and attaches itfelf to the
cooler part of the apparatus in the form of brilliant
plates.

§ 5. Oxyds of Bifmuth.
The combined aftion of air and moifture upon bifmuth,
at the ufual temperature, is very flight ; it becomes covered
with a reddifh grey fuperficial tarnifh, and afterwards ap-
pears to undergo no further change. At a melting heat, it
(hortly becomes covered with an iridefcent film, and by ex-
pofmg frefli fubllances to the air, is wholly converted into a
yellowifli blown oxyd, weighing about -j-y more than the
original metal. This oxyd melts into a yellow glafs at a
moderate red heat, and foon penetrates through the moft.
compadl earthen crucibles, though not quite fo eafily as
glais of lead does. When bifmuth is expofed to a ftrong
heat, with free acccfs of air, it burns wdth a faint blue
flame, and throws up at the fame time a copious white
oxyd, which was formerly caWdJlowers of bifmuth ; towards
the end of the proccfs the oxyd acquires fomewhat of a
yellowifh tinge, probably on account of a fmall portion of
fulphur, or other impurities. The glafs, or vitreous oxyd
of bifmuth, is a veiy ailive flux for earths and the more
difficultly fufible oxyds; on account, however, of thefuperior
cheapnefs and efficacy of lead, it is feldom ufed for this
purpofe.

§ C. Jaion of Acids on Bifmuth.
I. Concentrated fulphuric acid has no aftion on bifmuth,
except when boiling hot ; in this ftate, it is rapidly decom-
pofed, giving out fulphureous acid gas, and reducing the
metal to a white pulverulent oxyd ; by a low red heat the
decompofition is fo complete, tliat a quantity of aftual ful-
phur is volatilized. The white mpfs being waftied with a
little warm water, parts with nearly the whole of its acid,
holding a fmall portion of bifmuth in folution : this fluid,
by careful evaporation, depofits minute foft cryftalline
needles of fulphat of bifmuth, from which, by the mere
affafion of water, the metal may be feparated in the form of
white oxyd. The fulphated oxyd, produced in the firil

part

B I S

part of the procefs, is remarkably more difficult of rediiAion
than any of the pvvc oxyda of ^ 5.

2. Sulphureous acid is incapable of attacking rretallic
bifmuth, but readily combines with its oxyd, forminEr a
white iiifoluble fulphite of a fulphureous flavour, reducible
into metallic globules before the blowpipe, decompofable
with effcrvefcence by fulphuric acid, and when dillilled,
giving out its acid, a mafs of pure white oxyd remaining
behind.

3. Nitric acid afts upon bifmuth in a remarkably violent
manner. If the metal is in powder, and'the acid fomewhat
concentrated, at the inilant of their mixture, even without
the aflillancc of heat, a rapid decompofition of the acid
lakes place, accompanied with the production of nitrous
gas, azot, and fometimes of ammonia ; and the bifmuth is
converted into a white oxyd. If the acid is previoufly di-
luted with an equal weight of water, and the bifmuth is
added gradually in fmall pieces, the decompofition goes on
more quietly, the metal is diffolved in proportion as it
oxydates, and the acid may be made to take up nearly half
its weight of bifmuth. By cautioufly adding to this folution
an equal bulk of dillilled water (each portion being well
mixed with the whole mafs by ftirring, before the addition
of a fuccceding portion), a black pulverulent precipitate
takes place, w^.ich' has not yet been analyfed, but ha? been
taken tor iulphur or charcoal. If the acid made ufe of is
ftill more dilute, confifting, for example, of four parts of
water, and one of nitric acid, the black matter is not dif-
folved. Nitrat of bifmuth, when thus purititd, is clear and
colourlefs, and by gentle evaporation cryftallizcs in the form
of flattened rhomboids, or comprtffed tetrahedral prifins
terminated by three fided pyramids. This fait, when ex-
pofed to a dry air, is confiderably efflorefcent ; but in a
humid air, becomes covered with a white, fomewhat moiil
coating of oxyd. When thrown on hot coals, it detonates
feebly, giving out faint red fparks, and leaves behind a
greenifh yellow oxyd of difficult reduftion. If a crj-ftal of
nitrated bifmuth is thrown into fome pure water, it imme-
diately becomes covered with a white opaque oxyd ; but the
decompofition of this fait is more ftriking, if a folution of it
is made ufe of. For this purpofe, let a jar be nearly filled
with clear rain water, and drop into it nitrat of bifmuth as
long as any precipitation takes place, then mix the whole
by agitation, and let it ftand for an hour to fettle. The
bottom of the veffcl will now be covered with a nne heavy
powder of a dazzling white, which, when repeatedly walhed
and dried, is pure oxyd of bifmuth, formerly called itiagi/lery
ef I'ifmuth, and well known as a cofmetic under the name
of blanc de furd. This preparation, if made with pure
nitn'c acid, and well wafhed, is of a dead white ; but if a
little muriatic acid is mixed with the nitric, and the preci-
pitate is wafiied with ^ fmall portion of coLl water, it will be
in the form of minute glittering fcales with a beautiful
pearly luftre, and is then called by the French blunc de perks.
In both Hates it is extenfively employed, particularly by the
French ladies for whitening the flvin, but is fubjeft to turn
grey, brown, and even black, by any hydrogenous and ful-
phuieous vapours. This oxyd of bifmuth does not appear
to retain any nitric acid ; and its component parts are fixed
by Bergman at 77 of metal, and 23 of oxygen ; but, by the
more accurate experiments of Klaproth, its contents are af-
certained to be 81 of metal to 19 of oxygen. Nitrated bif-
muth is not, however, totally dtcompofable by water ; for
the clear fluid, that is fcparated by filtration from the oxyd,
may llili be made to yield a precipitate by a carbonated
alkali, muriatic acid, or muriated ammonia. Klaproth
found (Analyt. Eff. vol. i. p. 557- )> that 100 grains of \)\i.

B I S

muth, diffolved in nitric acid, yielded with water 88 grains
of oxyd, and 35 more were obtained from the diluted folu-
tion, by the action of muriatic acid added in drops as long
as any precipitate enfued. This oxyd is very eafily reduced
by fufion in a covered crucible, with a little nitre and
tartar.

4. Bifmuth in the metallic ftate is afted upon with diffi-
culty by muriatic acid, even when it is concentrated and
afiilfed by heat. During the digeftion, a fmall quantity of
fetid hydrogen gas is given out ; and, by flow evaporation,
fmall deliqucfcent needle-diaped cryftals are depofitcd of
muriat of bifmuth. This fait, however, may be obtained
in much greater quantity, and more eafily, by fubftituting
the oxyd of bifmuth for the pure metal. If the falina
mafs, which remains behind after evaporation to drynefs, is
dillilled in a glafs retort, nearly the whole of it comes over
at a moderate heat, and concretes into a foft white mafs,
called formerly liit'.er of Ifmuth. Butter of bifmuth, like
butter of antimony, is intenfcly cauftic to the talle, dtrhqui-
ates in a moid air, and when dropped into water, is decom-
pofed, a fine white oxyd being precipitated.

5. Liquid cxy-muriatic acid afts upon metallic bifmuth
with coiifu'embly more energy than muriatic acid does :
the metal is oxydited without the difengagement of hydro-
gen, and the ri-fulr is muriat of bifmuth. It is probable,
that hy fuhft't^itiiig tht oxyd of bifmuth for the pure metal,
oxy muriat of bifmuth might be produced: this, however, is
not as yetconfirratd by experim.ent. If bifmuth, previoufly
reduced to fine powder, is poured into oxymuriatic acid
gas, the metal is inftantly ignited and oxydated, and falls in
a fhower of fire to the bottom of the vefTcl.

6. Tindture of galls, or gallic acid, precipitates bifmuth
of a greenifh colour from its folution, as pruffiated potalk
does of a yellowifli colour.

7. There is fcarcely any thing known concerning the
other bifmuthic falts. They are formed by digefling the yel-
low oxyd in the various acids that have not been already men-
tioned, and are for the mod part but little foliible in water.
The proportions of their ingredients have not been afcer-
tained with any accuracy, nor are they applied to any ufe.

J 7. Adion of the Alkalies and Earths on Bifmuth.

The fixed alkalies have no cffctl on metallic bifmuth, but
unite both in the humid and dry way with its oxyd. Am-
monia is faid to acquire a greenifh yellow colour by digeftion
with the metal when pulverized, and certainly diffolves its
oxyd in confiderable proportion. The aftion of the earths
upon bifmuth is unknown, except that fiiex and oxyd of
bifmuth combine by fufion into a clear grecnilli yellow glafs.
§ 8. AS'ton of the Neutral Salts on Bifmuth.

None of the neutral falts in folution appear to exert any
affinity on bifmuth or its oxyds ; but, in a dry heat, many
of them are decompofed by it.

Nitre, being mixed with pulverized bifmuth, and projefled
into a red hot crucible, is decompofed with a flight deto-
nation ; the bifmuth becomes oxydated, and then unites in
part with the alkaline bafe of the nitre.

Muriat of foda, according to Pott, is in fome degree de-
compofable by metallic bifmuth. This faft, however, is not
confirmed by later chemifts ; and it is probable, that the fait,
which Pott made tife of, was not free from muriated mag-
nefia, and that the bifmuth was partly oxydated.

Muriated ammonia is totally decompofable by oxyd cf
bifmuth. On the firll impreffion of the fire, ver)- pure am-
moniacal gas is difengagtd ; and by a low red heat, the
muriated bifmuth rifes in the form of a thick white vapour,
which concretes, in the receiver and neck of the retort, into
butter of bifmuth ; if the oxyd of bilinuth is in verj' fmall

proportiou

B I S

proportion to tlic muri;.t of ammonia, tlie greater part of
tlilj fait rifca entire, but mixed with a little nuriat of
biinnith, forminir the llfmuth'ir fovicrs of j'aUammouhc of the
old chemifts. When thcfc flowers are thrown into water,
the bifmulh is dcpofitcd in the furm of a white o>;yd.

OiLvmuriat of potafh mingled with powdered bifniuth,
and projcded into a hot crucible, is dtcompofed with great
violence, and the metal is completely oxydated. A mixture
pf three parts of this fait, and one' of bifr.uth, produces a
flalh and a loud detonation, if laid on an anvil aad ftrutk
fmartly with a hammer.

§ Q. Bifmulh lu'ith comluflible BoiJits.

If one part of fulphur, and four of bifniuth, arc triturated
togtlher, and afterwards cxpofjd to a full red heat in a co-
vered crucible, a brilliant ftriatcd metallic mafs of fulphur.t
of bifmuth is obtained, fmiilar in its properties to the native
fulphuret mentioned in J I . It msy be made to cryftallize,
by allowing it to cool very (gradually, and pouring off the
fluid part as foon as the furface is crufted over. The cavity
thus formed will be found to be lined with long tetvaladral
piifms croduig each other, and occaiionally of a deep iri-
dffcent blue and red colour, forming groupes of eMquifite
beauty. The fulphuret of bifmuth is inucli lefs fufible tlian
the pure ni^t:d ; it parts witli nearly the wl-.ole of its f ;lph ir
by long roailing, and is decompofahlc by nilric acid, vvhith
dilTolves the bifmuth without touching the liilphur.

Sulphuretted liydrogen co'jverts the white oicyd of bif-
mulh into a black mafs, of which neither the properties nor
proportions have been afcertsincd.

Phofphorus has very little affinity for this m.etal. Pclle-
tier tried in vain by fcveral methodo to prepare phofpliurct of
bifmuth. In fome of his experiments, the metallic glolinle,
when red hot, gave out a faint lambent flame, but exhibited
no other proof of combination with phofphorus. Fat oils,
by the affillance of heat, difiolve the oxyd of bifmuth, and
form with it a thick tenacious plailler.

§ 10. yllloys of Bfmiilh.

Bifmuth appears to increafe remarkably the fufibility of
all the metallic compounds into which it enters ; but it is to
te lamented, that we are greatly in want of accurate expe-
riments on tliii interelling branch of enq^uiry.

I. Bifmulh and gnU. -See Gold.

Z- Bifmuth aniljiher. See Silver.

3. Bifmulh anJ iron. See Iron.

4. Bifmulh and copper. See Copper.

5. Bifmulh and lead. Equal parts of thefc two metals
tuiite eaCly by fimple fufion, forming an alloy of a brilliant
white colou', conliderably harder than lead, and, though
not duAile, more malleable than pure bifmuth. By dimi-
nifhing the proportion of bifmuth, the malleability of the
mafs is increafed, without fenfibly impairing its fufibility,
hardnefs, and ludre.

6. Bifmuth and lin. A fmall quantity of bifmuth in-
r.reafes the hardnefs and brilliancy of tin, without rendering
it lefs dudile ; hence the bell foils for glafs mirrors are
made of this alloy, as alfo are forne kinds of pewter.

Bfmuth •w'th Lad and ti.i. Fujdile metal. Plumbers' fil-
Jer. The fufibility of the alloys of'^bifmuth is in no inftance fo
reTnarkable as in that difcovered by Newton, and f hence com-
monly called Newton's fufible metal. It i^ made by melting
together eight parts of bifmuth, five of lead, and three of
tin. The maL ts very brittle, and when broken exhibits a
porcellanous appearance, with little or no hiftre ; it is fo
fufible as to become liquid when held on a piece of ftiff
paper over a eandl", without fcorching the paper ; and be-
.comcs as fluid as quickfilvcr in boiling water. If the bif-

B I -S

mutli is reduced to one pirt, the proportions of lead siid
tin Ttniaining the fame, tl-c alloy is plumbers' folder ; and
it difivrs from tlie preceding in being fomewhet lefs fufible
and confiderably malleabl.-.

7. Bifmuth and mercury. See Mercury.

8. BifKuth and iron. See Iron.

^11. Mt.lical Ufe of Bifmuth.
The magifteiy, or wl.ite oxyd, is the onlf foim of bif-
muth which is employed meiHcir.ally. It is prefcribed with
fuccefs in fpafmodic affedicris of the ftomach. Gren. Syf-
tem. Ha;:dbuch, v. iii. p. 293. Leonhardi's Macquer. art.
'Wifrauth. Fourcniy Syft. <!-s Connaiff.'Chimiqucs, vol. v.
Beaumc Chem. experimentale, vol. ii.

BISNAGUR, in Geogrc.pby, an ancient kingdom of
Hindoilan, called Narfinga, from the name of one of its ra-
jahs, or fovereigrs, was formerly the mod extentlve, power-
ful, and !ieh monarchy in the Indies, and coiiiprehended
almoll ail the countries in the peninfula foulJi of the 16th
pandlel, or the whole of the Carnatic and fome other king-
doms. Some have dillingiiidied between the kingdoms of
Bifiragur aid Narfinga, 1-ut it is not eafy to determine,
whether they were two fuecetrive, or two co-exiding king-
doms. It appears, probable, luAvevcr, that in the 16th
century I'nfr.agur included the givateft part of the p':nin-
fula. The inhabitants of this ancient eiripire, winch is fald
to have continued 800 years, were P.igans, and denoi^inated
Badagus ; and fpokc the Tamul, or Drtmul language, which
is the" fame wich the Malabaric ; but the l ad.igun was ufed
at court. According to the Portuguefe writers, the king-
dom of Charnataka liad no fovereign prince till the year
1200, and the firll was Bokii, a Ihepherd, who ilyled him-
felf rau or rajah, that is emperor ; which title has dcfcended
to his I'ucceifors. Boka, it is faid, in memoi-y of a viiEtory
which he obtained over the king of Delhi, built the
famous city of Vifianagur, corruptly calkd Bifnagur. The
crown continued in his line till it wasufurptd by Narfinga,
from whom this kingdom took its name, as it did that of
Bifnagur from the city. Tiie king of Biinagur was a
powerful prince about tlie year 1 520; and about tlie year
1565 the capital was reforted to bv merchants from all parts,
as being the greatell, if not the only mart for diamonds in
the ea(l ; and its riches were equal to its extent. At this
time it was invaded by the king of Viliapo.ir, and other
northern princes cf the Deccan ; and in 1567 the rajah, or
king, retired, with his court, firll to Penuconda, and at a
fubfequent period, or about 1597, its cxilling fovereign re-
moved to Kandegiicri, or Cliandcgheri, an inland city,
ftrong by nature and fortified by art, fo as to be deemed
impregnable. About the middle of the 17th century, this
large monarchy was again invaded and utterly deftroycd, by
Adel Shall, king of Vifiapour, who formed a league with the
king of Golconda for this purpofe. The unfortunate rajah
fled into the mountains, where he remained in 1 667. About
20 years afler, the kingdom of Bifnagur fell under the
power of the Moguls, by the conqueft which Aurungzebe
made of the kingdoms of Vifiapour and Golconda.

BisNAGUR, rather Bijinagur, fometimes written
BEEjANUGGfR, the capital of the above kingdom, is
fituated on the fiutii bank of the Toombuddra river, and
according to M. BufTy's map, diilant about 30 miles S. E.
or S. S. E. from Bancapour. Feriihta fays, that it was
founded by Belaldeo, king of the Carnatic, in 1344, and was
thus placed in order to guard the northern frontier of his
empire. See the preceding article. This city was vifited
by Ca:far Frederick in 1565, and was then a very large city ;
its circuit, ;is he fays, being 24 miles, and containing within
it a nuojiber of hills and pagodas. He reckons it 8 days*

journey.

B IS

B 1 S

journey, or about 140 geographical miles, from Coa, Its
riiins are extcnfive, itvcral nigged hills ar.o rocks being co-
vered with temples that ftifi appear beautiful ; the circuiii-
Rrer.ce fcems to be about 8 milts. N. lat, jj" 15'.
E. long. 76 ' 34'. BeejanujrfTur lies dirtdtly oppofite to
AnntU'-ooiidy, leated i^bout 2 miles iVoui the north bank of
the river Trombuddra, which is at prefcnt the principal
town of a ffnall diih-icl of the ivime name; one being the
Jagh.ire, or eilate, the other the place of reudcnce of ll-e
defcendant of t'lie ancient kiiigs cf Beejanuggiir, who, about
zi centuries ago, ruled the grcateft part, if not the wlioie,
of the pcnir.fula, under the title of the empire, or kingdom
of Canhara. Li.^utenant Emmit, an Enfjlifli officer, who
CKatnined the ruins of Bcejanuggur, traced between imxente
piles of rocks, crowned witli pagodas, fevei-al ftreets from 30
to 45 yards wide, feme of which now produce fine rice.
Gne ftrtct ( xtcncs about N. E. and S. W. half a mile, and
is about 35 yards broad, having colouRadcs of ftone on lach
fide, and a very larsre pagoda at the S. W. end, in perfect
repair. Ou the wefl fide of this fheet 13 a large mango
grove, which is bounded by the Toombuddra. Many ftreanis
flow through tliefe veins, which have been formerly employed
to fill a great number of carals. Comlapour fort is diltant
about half a mile, and (urroi:ndcd with hills through wliich
the road winds in atccnts and dcfcents, paved with large
itcnes.

BISXEE, a tO'A-n of Afia, in the country of Dcotan,
1 16 miles S. E. of Tafl'afudon, and i8b N. E. of Moorflied-
abad.

BISNOV/, or BiscHNOu, a feci among the Indian ba-
nians, or call of merchants. The banian fefl confilfs of
two lelTer ones ; that of lifnoiv, and that of fnnuviilh. The
followers of the former hold one God, whom they call
ram-ram, and allow of no lieutenant^:, or deputy-gods, as is
done by thofe of the feft famarath ; but they allow their
god a wife, and have idols, which they drefs up with gold
chains, and collars of pearl and precio\is Hones, and pay
them worfhip, by Cnging hymns in their templts, and
dancing before them to the found of flageolets and kettle-
drums.

In this feft, the wives do not burn themfelves after their
hufbands' death, as is praftlfed by thofe of the famarath
feci ; but content themfelves with a perpetual wiJow-
hood.

BISOIvIUM, DisoMUM, compounded oi Ih, twue, ar.d
the Greek s-ijU'z, bod\y cr al}:es cf a body, in /Inliqu'.lx, a
tomb for two bodies, or the alh ^ 01 two. The ancients
freqtiently buried two, three, or four bodies in the fame fe-
pulchre, difpoftd a-fide of each other; for it was held an
impiety to lay one a-top of another. Hence the fepukhres
of the primitive Ciuilfians had the words bfirini, infunii,
qiiailr'ifomi, &c. infcribed on them, to indicate the number
of bodies depofited in them. Du-Ca ige.

BISON, in Enlomology, a fpecics of Scarai/tus, with
the anterior part of the thorax oointed ; and tv.o lunated
horns on the head. Inh; bits Spain, and the fouthern parts
of France. Colour black. The female has on the anterior
margin of the thorax an elevated or cariuated edge.

Bison, in Zoology. See Bos Ferus, or V/lhl-Ox.

BISPINOSA, in EnlomologV', a fpccits of Mantis,
with a roundifh thorax, bidentated in front ; wing cafes very
ftiort, and boidcred with yellow, Fabricius.

BispiNosA, a fpecies of Cicada [Manniferet, Telt/gonia).
It is of a large llze, and mhab'ts tiie illand of Sumatra.
The colour is broivn, with a finirle fpine on each fide of the
thorax ; wings duiky, with a flrcak of black fpols. Fabvj-
cius Mantif.

BISPIKOSUS, a fpecies cf Cehambyx (Sunoeorus)
that inhabits Sou'h America. Thoiax unarmed, and
nightly tuberculated ; v.-ing-cafes bidentatfd ; joints oft
pntcnnje armed with two fpiiies ; and the body tellaccous'
Fabricius.

Eispisosus, a fp?cies of Carabus tbat inhabits Eu-
rope. This is of a black colour ; pollerior part of the
thorax truncated ; anterior fhanks with two fpines. Linn-
Lelk. r.Iuf.

BispiNosus, a fpecies of Tabanus. found about Goet-
tingen, and defcribcd by Fabricius. The colour is brown ;
abdomen ferruginous, and black at the bafe, with two fpines
on the fcutcl.

BISQUET. SeeBisKET.

BlfciSA, in Geography, a town of Servia on the Danube,
16 miles S.r E. of Orfova.

BISSACRAMENTALES, in Eccleftnjtkal Hiflory, a
de;;omination given by feme Romifh writers to proteftar.ts,
on account of their only holding two facraments, viz. bap-
tifm and the fupper.

BISSAG, in Geography, a town of Croatia, 16 miles
N. E. of Agram.

BISSAGOS, the name of a clufter of iflands and fhoals,
bjing off the well coafl of Africa, between the mouths of
the rivers Rio Grande and Cacheo, and between about
ic'"3o'and 11'' 30' N. lat. and 15^10' and 17° W. long.
The principal of thefe iflands, and that which lies neareft the
coaft is Boiilnm, or Bulam, which fee. Each of the inha-
bited iilands is governed by a chief, who affumes the title
and power of a king. All thefe petty monarchs are inde-
pendent, and frequently at war with each other, which they
carry on by means of canoes, capable of containing from
25 to 40 men, with their provifions, and alfo their arms,
which are fabres, and bows and arrows. The negroes of
thefe iflands are tall, ftrong, and healthy, though they live
only on fifli, nuts, and palin-oil ; chufing rather to fell the
rice, millet, and other produce of the earth to the Euro-
peans, than to reftrain their pafTion for trinkets and orna-
ments-. They are idolaters, and are faid to be favage in
their difpofition, not only to ilrangera, but to one another,
when they happen to quarrel, which is frequently the cafe ;
and if they are difappointed in gratifying their revenge,
they will drown, or ferocioufly ftab themfelves.

BISSAO, an illand on the weflcoaft of Africa, feparated
from the cor.tinent bva channel, which connefts two bays of
the fea, within the Biffagos iflands. between 1 1° 15' and 1 1°
39' N. lat. and 15° 11^ and 16° 30'' W. long. Both the
Pi<rtuguefe and French began to trade at an early period
with this ifland ; the former have a fort upon it, _ar!d the
latter a faftorv. The Dutch have in vain attempted to ob-
tain a fettlcment. The illand is 35 or 40 .Tiiles in circum-
ference, and r;les from the fea, of which it has an agreeable
profpeft, by an er\fy afcent to an eminence in the centre of
the ifland. Its furface is hilly, and the hills are feparated
by beautiful and fertile vales, 'sIiicH arc watered by fmall
rivulets. The whole, a few groves of palm-trees excepted,
is in a (late of cultivation, and produces, befidea oranges,
mangoes, a:id bananas, and other fruits afforded by the
warm climat-.s, wheat and maize, which grow luxuriantly,
and refemblt', by the fize to which the ftems rife, reeds or
bi:m.boo3. Their cattle are likewife of an extraordinary f'ze;
and they are amply fupplicd with both milk and wine. The
importation of iwine is prohibited, and ih.e foil does not fuit
the rearing of liorfes. The inhabitants, who are in a ftate
of alniolf pcrp; tual contelt with thoft of the neiglibnuring
iflands and coitiiient, live in cottages difperfc-d over the
illiiud, which bears no trace o£ a town, except where the
3 French

1

B I S

French snJ Portuguere have ellabliflied ihemfelvcs. The
drefs of the married women confifts of a cotton girdle, and
bracelets of glafs, coral, and copper ; but the virgins are
iltogcther naked ; and thofc of high quality mark their bo-
dies with hideous figures of fnakcs and other reptiles. The
princefs of the ifland is only dillinguifhcd from other females
by the elegance of tliefe paintings, jjnd the richntfs of her
bracelets. The drefs of the mcH of all ranks is merely a (liin
fixed before and behind to their girdle. One fingular orna-
ment is a large iron ring, upon which they ring changes
with a piece of iron, fo as to converfe as freely with their
catlanets as if they ufed the mod poliflied language. This
artificial language is ufed only by perfons of rank and
fa(hion. All the BifTaons are idolaters, but their fyllem of
religion is very confiifcd and unintelligible. 13efidcs their
chief idol, called " China," every one creates a divinity
according to his own fancy ; trees are held facred by them,
and, if they do not adore them as gods, they worrtiip them
as the rcfidence of fome divinity. Their government is
defpotic, tlie will of the emperor being the law to his
people ; at his death all his women and (laves arc facnficcd
and buried near their mailer, in order to attend him in the
other world. Although they are at almoft perpetual war
with fome of their neighbours, they have among themfclves
no civil difcord. Before the emperor rcfolves to invade
any adjacent territories, he orders the " bonbalon" to be
founded, which is the general fignal to arms, on which all
perfons in the pay of government aflemble at a fixed place,
and embark on board their canoes, each of which carries
about 30 men, and the whole fleet confifts of about 30
canoes. Before the fleet fails, they offer facrifices in great
number to their gods, which are made of wood, and the
favourable anfwer of the priefts, when they confult thef^
deities, enfures their fucetfs. When they attack any towns
or villages, they carry off the inhabitants, and every article
of value, and divide the booty between the emperor and
thofe that have been engaged. The flaves are fold to the
Europeans, except fuch as are of quality or fortune, who
are rellored to their friends on condition of their fending a
number of (laves in their room. The emperor is faid to al-
low free commercial intercourfe with all Ihangers. The
Portugucfe demoliflitd their fort on the ifland in 1 703. See
Balontis. Bijs.\gos, and Bulam.

BISSECTION, in CfOJKC/r^', the divifion of any quantity
into two equal parts, otherwifc called blparlition, which fee.
Sec alfo Division, &c.

BISSENDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of WJlphalia, and bidiopiic of Ofnabruck, 5
miles S. E. of Ofnabruck.

BISSENPOUR, a fmall diftria of Bengal in the Eaft
Indies, which is goveincd by a Biamiii fannly of the tribe
ot Rajpoots, and which has uniformly prcfcried its inde-
pendence. In this dillrlA, it is faid, the purity and equity
ot ilie pohtical fyllem of the Indians arc found unadulterated.
By the lingular fituation of thisc^nintry, its inhabitants have
been enabled to maiiitain their primitive happinefs, and the
rciitlencls of their charailer ; and thty have been fecurcd
from the danger of being conquered, or of imbruing their
hands in the blood of their fellow-creatures. Nature has
furround-d them with water, and tluy only need to open the
(luices of their rivers in order to inundate the w hole country.
The armies that have been ftiit to fubdue them have been fo
frequently drowiud, that the pIa::of enfi^viiig tlitm has been
laid afide ; ai;d the projertors have thought proper to con-
tent thtmfelves with an appearance of lubmifiluu. In Bif-
fcnpour, liberty and property are facred ; robh- rv is un-
kcuwn ; and every ftraiiger, who enters this U rritory, is

B I S

under the protcaion of the laws, which provide for his fe-
curity. The guides, to whofe conduft he is committed,
become refponfible for his perfon and effeas ; whilft he re-
mains, he is maintained and conveyed with his merchandife
at the expence of the (late, unlefs he expreffes his defire to
ftay longer than three days in the fame place ; and (hould
this be the cafe, he is obliged to Hve at his own charge. In
this ftate, it is faid, probity and houefl:y are fo prevalent,
that if any one find a puife, or any other article of value,
he hangs it upon the firll tree he finds, and informs the
neareft guard, who gives notice of it to the pubhc by beat
of drum. Out of about 330,000!. annually received at an
average by the govcrnmeiit, without injury to agriculture or
trade, what is not wanted to defray the unavoidable ex-
pences of the ftate, is laid ont in improvements. The rajah
is enabled to engage in thele hberal employments, as he pays
the Moi'uls only fuch tribute, and at luch times, as he thinks
proper.'' Raynal's Ilift. Settl. Eaft and Weft Ind. vol. i.

P- 4'5-

BI8SENPRAAG, a town of Afia in the country of

Sirinapur, fituated near the bafe of a mountain, on which

ftands the famous temple of Buddrienaat. It is a place of

fome importance, as being the lefidence of the pundits and

principal Hindoos of Buddreenaat. Here they hold thek

durbars, cxercife their laws, and the duties of their religion,

in the greateft ftate of fccurity from foreign intruders, and

can at any time feclude themfelves from the reft of the

world, by a removal of the "joalahs," or rope bridges,

which form the communication acrofs the Aluknundra.

This river receives at BilTenpraag another river, proceeding

from the eallward as large as itfclf, called " Dood Ganga,"

or the Milk river, and alio " Dhoulee." Near its junaion

with the Aluknundra, it runs between two villages, called

" Gurra" and " Nitty." The town confifts of about

800 houfes, and is a place of lome trade ; the inhabitants

are all Hindoos. Aliat. Ref. vol. vi. p. 346.

BISSET, Charles, in Biography, iludied medicine
feveral years at Edinburgh, as he informs us in his Eflay
on the medical conftitution of Great Britain, publiftied in
1762, and was then promoted to be fccond furgeon to the
hofpital in Jamaica, where he continued from 174010 1745,
when he returned to England, and purchafing a commiiTicn
in the army, he ferved as lieutenant and enjrinctr in Flanders
until the peace in 1748. He now rcfumed the praaice of
fnigcry, and fettled at Skeltun in Cleveland, Yorkftiire, and
foon after publilhed " A Treatifeon the i'curvy," 1755, 8vo.
He had before, viz. in 17^1, publilhed " An Effay on the
theory and conilruaion of fortifications." In 1 765 he ob-
tained a diploma from the univerfity of St. Andrews, con-
ftitutiiig him dodor in medicine. He died at Knayton near
Thirfl<, in May 1791, in the 75th year of his age. New
Gen. Biog. Dia.

B16SEXT1ALIS, or Bissextialis oHa, an ancient
meafure or velTcl, containing twelve ounces, or two Sex-

TARlFS.

BISSEXTILE, or Leap-year, in Chrono'.og-/, a year
confifting of 366 days, happening once each four years,
by rcafon of the addition of a day in the month of Fe-
bruary, to recover the fix hours which the fun fpends in
his courlc each year, beyond the 365 days ordinarily allowed
for it.

The day thus added, is alfo called bilTextile ; Csfar hav-
ing appointed it to be introduced by reckoning the 24th of
February twice; and as this day, in the old account, was
the fame as the fixth of the calends of ?.Iareh, which had
been long celebrated among the Romans on account of the
expulfion of Tarquin, it was called " bis f«xtas calendas

Martii ;"

B I S

B I 5

t>Tnrtii ;" and from hence we have derived the name tiiTex-
tiie.

By the (lat'Jte tie anr-) h'ljjexule, 21 Hen. III. to prevent
iTiifundcrftandins;s, the inttrcalary day, and that next before
it, are to be accounted as one day.

The aflronomers concerned in refoiining' the calendar, by
order of pc^pe Gregory XIII. in 1582, obfer\'ing, that the
I.ilTextilc in four years at'ded 44. minutes more than the
fu,i fpent in retuming to the fame point of the zodiac ; and
computing that thcle fMpernumerary minutes in 133 rears
j v.ould fcin a day ; to prevent any changes b;ing thus in-
fenfihly introduced i';to the fs-afons, direcled, that, in the
courfc of 400 years, there (hould be three bilTcxtiles re-
trenched ; fo that every centcfiimal year, which, according
I to tho Julian account, is biifextile, or le?.p-year, is a common
year in the Gregorian account, unlefs the number of cen-
turies can be divided by 4, v.ith.out a remainder. Thus
1600 end 20CO are bilTextile ; but 1700, i8co, and 1900
arc common.

The GrcJ'orian computation was received in mod foreign
countries ever fince the reforming of the calendar ; and by
aft of parliament, paiTed anno 1 751, it comm.enced in all the
dominiortS under the crown of Great Britain, in the year
following, ordering that the natural day following the
fecond of September, fhould be accounted the fourteenth ;
omitting the intermediate eleven days of the common ca-
lendar. See Calendar.

BISSINGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Swabia, and county of Pattingen W'allcrftin,
4 miles S. S. W. of Haarburg.

BISSOOLY, a principal fort of Hindoftan, lying at »r
near the entrance of the hills, 42 cofies S. E. from Jummoo.
Major Rennell places it in his map on the north bank of the
Rauvee, 6 or 7 cofles above Kullanore, or 41 § above La-
hore, or, in other words, about 1^9 geographical miles
E. 30° N. from Lahore. N. lat. 32"- 30'. E.long. 75°.

BISSOWIE, a town of Kindoftan, in the countiy of
Oude, and circar of Rohilcund, 25 miles well of Bereilly,
and %-^ E. S. E. of Delhi.

B16TAM, a fmall city of Peifia, in the province of
Comis, on the north of the Great Salt Defert, rarely
vifiU'd by tiayfllers- N.lat. 35^ 30'. E.long. 54° 30'.

BISTER, a town of Swifferland, in the Upper Vallais,
near the fouth bank of the Rhone. N.lat. 46^19'.
E.long. 7° 52'.

BISTI, a fpecies of PerCan money, valued at fixtecn or
eighteen French demers. Some reprefent the bifti as an
ancient filver coin ; others, as Chardin, make it only a
E^.oney of account, and call it dinar bifti.

BISTONES, in Ancunt Geography, the name of a people
who inhabited that part of Thrace, which was bounded on
rhe north by nwunt Rhodope, on the eaft by the Hebrus,
on the weft by the NelTus, and on the foiith by the .^gean
fea. Its capital was Tinda. Thefe people were fubdued
iirft: by the Macedonians, and at length by the Romans.
JKcrxes, according to Herodotus, travc rfed their countiy in
marching againll Greece. Hence " Biftonius tyrannus" is
»ifed by Lucan to denote Diomedes, king of Thrace, who
fed his horfcs .vilh human flefli ; and '• Biftonius turbo,"
exprcfli.ig a wind blowing from Thrace.

BISTON'IS, a lake ca the fouthcrn coaft of Thrace,
N. E. of Abdera.

BiS'I'Ol^T, or Snakeweed, in Botany. See Poly-
gonum.

lUSTORY, or BiSTOUBX, in Surgery, is a cutting in-
tlrument, formed like a Imall knife. Jt may be either
llraight Or curved, double-edged or v. ith a lingle edge, (harp
Vol. IV.

pointed, round pointed, or with a piobe point, Sec. Some-.
times it is made to (luit v.ichiii a har.dle ; at other t'lr.t? toe
blade is fixed and in-.movcable. Foi particular purpofc^,
the blade is concealed, fo as to project only at the rro-
ment when the inftr'jment is iifed by the furaecn ; oh '
which account it is culled by tl;e French h'ljiouri cache.
On fonie cccafions, it \i found convenient to tn-.ploy a
director, or a crnula, at tlie fame time we introduce
the billory : for example, when it is intended to pafi
the cutting inftrument along ?. narrow finiiR, or under the
prepuce, up to a certain fpot before we make any incifion,
(fee the articles Phvmosis, and Sinus); but wherever
there is room for the introduction of a fore-tinirer, that mode
is preferred by modern furgeons as a guide to the biftoi-y,
being m.tich more convenient and fecnre than ,iny artificial
director. The precife form of a bifiory muft be regulated
according to the nature of the operation required, and the
end to be obtained. S.-e the article Scalpel, and confulc
the engravings of chiriirgical inllrumenls attached to this
Cyclopxdia.

BIST R A, in Gcvgrcpby, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Chrudim, 6 miles S. S. E. of Politzka.

BISTRAIA, a town of Ruffian Tartary, on the weft
fide of the Donetz, 70 miles N. N. E. of Azof. — Alfo, a
river of Ruffian Tartaiy, which runs into the Donetz, 64
miles N. E. of Azof.

BISTRE, among Painters, a compofition made of t!ic
moft glolTy and highcft burnt foot, pulverized, and paffid
through a fine fieve, then baked in a little gum- water,
and made into cakes : or it is the burnt oil, extracted
from the foot of wood. It is a brown tranfparent colour,
and has much the fame effect in water painting, where
alone it is ufed, as brown pink in oil.

The beft is prepared from the foot cf dry beech wood,
by grinding it with urine or water, into a fmooth parte, and
then diluting it with more water; after the grofier f;ib-
ftance has fubfidcJ, the liquor is poured off into mother
refle', and left to fettle three or four days ; the fine matter
that remains is biftre.

That the biftre of our colour fliops has been prepared bv
a procefs of tliis kind, and not, as fome have fufpected, by
evaporating the infufion of foot to an exttaft, may be pic-
fumed, fuvs Dr. Lewis (Com. Epift. Phil. Techn. p. 340.),
both from its appearance and its qualities. He oblerves,
that different parcels of bill re difi"er confiderably in their
colour, on account, probably, of the different qualities of
the foots from whicti they were made.

In the Handmaid to the Arts, vol. i. p. 126. we have the
foilov.-ing recipe fi;r preparing it. Put the foot of dr->-
wood (of beech when it can be procured) into water, in the
proportion of 2 pounds to a gallon, and boil them half tn
hour. Then, after the fluid has Hood fomc time to fettle,
but while yet hot, pour off the clearer part from the earthy
fediment at the bottom \ and if on Itanding longer it fomi
another earthy fediment, repeat the fame method ; but this
ihould be done only while the fluid remains hot. Evnaorate
the flutd to di-ynefs ; and what remains will be good billre, it
the foot was of the proper kind. That which is good it
tranfpr.rent, when mciftened with water, and of a warni;
deep brown colour.

Inrtead of this, fomc ufe the hatches cf a pea, with a
little Indian ink, others red chaik, others black lead, &c.
See AVashixg.

BISTRIANKA, in Grognphy, a town of Ruffian
Tartary. on the fouth fide of the l)oa, ico miles E. N. E.
of Azof.

BISTRIATA, in Entomolofry, a fpecies cf Cicada (/)#.

3S" /..v^7)

B I T

/..V.7) that inhabits France. This is yellow, with two
tranfverfc bands of brown. Geoffrey.

BISTRICZ, or DisTRtTZ, in Geography, a town ot
Tranfylvania, and capital of a county, to which it gives
name, fuuate on the river Biftricz, which runs into the
.Samos, 4 miles S. W. of Kczovar. The town is 4^ ■"•'«
N. N. E. of Claiifcnbiirg, and 256 E. of Vienna. N. lat.
47° 7,7,'. E. long. 25^ 3'.

BISTRIGALIS, in Entomology, a fpccies of Phal.-f.n a
(PyralU), with cinereous wings, with two ferruginous
llreaks. and ;i black dot. Inhabits Europe. Liniixus.

BISTRIGARIA, a fpccies of Ph.\l«na (Gfrnrfra),
with cinereous wings, undulated, with two linear llreaks.
A native of Europe. Linn. &c.

BISTRIGAT.'\, a fpecics of Phal.t.na {Geomdra).
It is grifeous, with two whitilh ftreaks. Inhabits Eu-

BISTRITZA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Moldavia, on a river of the fame name, which
runs into the Siret, 6 miles S. E. of Bakeu. The town is
20 miles S. VV. of JafTy.— Alfo, a town of Walachia, 16
miles AV. S. W. of Kimnik.

BISTRIZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn,
6 miks W. S. W. of Els.

BISTROFF, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofeile, and chief place of a canton in the dillnft of Mor-
hange, 4 miles N. N. E. of Morhange.

BISTRY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz, 10 miles from Gitfchin.

BISUGA, a river of Ruffian Tartary, which runs into
the fea of Azof, 4S miles S. W. of Eiflvoi.

BISULCATUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Curculio
that inhabits Italy. This is black, with a cinereous border
all round, and two furrows on the beak. Fabricius.

BISULCUS, a fpccies of Ichneumon, of a black co-
lour, with two imprelTed lines before ; legs rufous ; fting
ihort. Linn. Muf. Lefk.

BITS, or BiTTS /or Horfes, in the Manege, zre pieces
of iron of various figure and conftruftion, which, being
placed in the horfe's mouth, fcrve, by the affiftance of the
reins, to reilrain or guide his motions.

The term hhts, or bits, is confidered by fome as originating
from the horfe's biting or champing them between the teeth
when placed in his mouth ; in the French language is ufed
a term alfo of fimilar fi^nification, les mortis, which would
ftem to corroborate the above etynioloey of it : — another
however, equally natunl, prefents itfclf in the common
word bit, or bitts, that is pieces of iron ; this apparatus being
always made of one or more pieces of this metal.

The art of bitting horfes may be faid to confid in fur-
ntfliing the mouth with the moll proper mouth-pieces, &c.
for obtaining from them an obedience to the will of the
rider, and exacting a due performance of all the movements
and reflraints wliich may be defired, or at lead which are de-
pendent upon the operation of the reins. Rightly under-
ftood, and v.ell adminiftcred, this art affords the power of
communicating to the horfe fupport and confidence, with
greater eafe and fecurity to the rider. The mifapplication
ol its rules, on the coiitrar)', or an inattention to them,
where tht: mouth is not totally infenfible, will produce pain-
ful fenfations to the horfe, with difgufl and rebellion, and to
the rider uneafmefs and perhaps danger.

It is to be lamented that the prcfumptuous opinions of
the uninformed have been too much the guide of the public
in their eftimation and choice of the proper bits for horfes,
as alfo in too many other things rcfpefting thefe ufcful
aninaals, tending ofteo to accumulate unneceflary fuffering

B I T

and mifeiY upon them. The writers on this fubjefl are few
and unfatisfadory ; we ihall, however, except Mr. Berenger,
whofe work is a noble effort to emancipate this branch of
f<:ience from barbarity and ignorance ; and from him we
(hall take occafion to make fome extrafts in the fequel of
this article. Here it will be proper to obfcrvc, that this
author, by the term bit, has dcfigniited the curbed bit
only ; but we have ventured, for the fake of purfumg amori
conneded view of the fubjed, to include in this term any
piece or pieces of metal placed in the horfe's moutli, for the
purpofes of guidance or rertraint.

In our account of the different kinds of bits, and their
cffeds, we (hall begin, for the fake of order, with the de-
fcription of a bit of the mod eafy and fimple conftrudioo
poffil)le, and then proceed to the moll complicated.

A fhort iron rod, made rather wiiltr than the mouth of
the horfe, and provided with a hook or ring at each extre-
mity fur faitening the reins to, affords us an inllance per-
haps of the greateft poffible fimplicity in the conllradion of
a bit ; and fuch a one only (lightly curved forv.'ards, to allow
more liberty for the tongue, is at prefent in general ufe for
the heavier kind of draft horfes, the bearing rein being
ufually attached to it, paffing over the hames of the
collar.

A fimilar rod to the former, broken in two pieces, and
conneded by a joint in the middle, is the next in point of
(implicity, and is in common ufe for horfes of light draft,
as in thole employed for the curricle, coach, Sec. and is at-
tached by the bearing rein to the hook of the faddle, and
this kind of bit is moftlv termed with us a bridon.

The next in point of farther comphcation of parts, and
which fcarcely can be faid to differ from the former, is the
common JiwJJle. This is provided with two crofs pieces,
which rell againft the lips or fides of the mouth ; for as the
fnnffle is intended for the faddle horfe, and the reins go to the
hands, fo the crofs pieces are ufeful in preventing the bits
from being drawn through the mouth, which precaution is
not fo neceffary where the bits are affixed to the bearing
rein. The bridon, we may obfcrve, is alfo made in general
fmaller than the fnaffle, as well as without crofs pieces.

The dillindion, however, between a bridon and fnaffle
is infignificant and of little confequcnce ; for on all occafions
cro(s pieces are the moll convenient ; and it will be eafily
fei-n that the bridon is merely an imperfeft fnaffle, poffeffing
no peculiar charaders which can form a real dillindion.

The term, alfo, when confined to this objcd is mifapplied ;
for the French, from whom we have borrowed it, by le
bridon underlland the fnaffle and its rein, in oppofition to
le bride, by which they denote the curbed bit and reins.

In war, and on other occafions, the bridon was ufed as a
leffer bridle, or bridle of referve, in cafe of the failure
of the former from any accident ; and hence the origin of
its name.

The number of parts of which the mouth-piece of the
fnaffle is compofed, may be increafed to any extent, as it
may be made with one, two, or feveral joints ; but as it is
evident thefe additions will not cffentially alt r its properties
or effeds, it would be ufelefs to purfue a diftind conlidera.
tion of them.

But the condition of the fnaffle admits of being fo altered
and changed by the variation of its figure, its fubftance, and
its furface, as to acquire new properties and effeds which
will require particular attention ; its gentlenefs or rigour will
depend almoft wholly on thefe conditions. A mouth-piece
made of two entirely ftraight pieces will be more fevere than
when thefe are fomewhat curved, as the curved bit is more apt
to embrace and include the lips between it and the bars than

the

B I T

B I T

the (Iraight one. A tliin and flender bit or fnafflc, it will be
ealily perceived, will rell with more feverity and (harpiitis
upon the bars than a thick and obtiife one ; the former,
therefore, or the fliarp bit, is employed more particulaily
for reftraining fiich horfes as are hard mouthed, and too
eagjer, while the latter is ufcd for fiich as have a proper
feeling of the bars, and efpecially for breaking in young
colts.

The furface may be varied as to roughnefs or fmoothnefs,
producing alio dilTerent effcAs. To give the greatell cafe
poffible, a large and highly polillied bit is necclTary. This
is fometimes provided with moveable rollers on the axis of
the bit, which, turning With every movement of the reins,
dirainilb the fridlion of the bits, and render them Icfs irritat-
ing. Thefe rollers, however, in reality can have but little
efFeft in the fnaffle, though of pleafant effeft in the mouth
piece of the curb ; for this rcafon, that the fnafflc being
jointed in the middle, is drawn by the reins to a flwrp angle
in the mouth, fo that thefe rollers are prefcnted to the bau
in an oblique diredion, under which polition it will be ob-
vious they can have very little or no motion, but, on the
contrary, they will tend to render the bits more fevere by
their irregulirity ; fo that a well polilhed fnaffle is in fait
preferable to one of thefe with rollers of the ordinary con-
Itruftion.

On the other hand, to give the greateft deG;ree of fcverity
to the mouth piece of the fnaffle, it is twilted while hot into
a fpiral form, and is made to prefent by this means a fliarp,
rough, and unequal furface to the jaw, being capable, ac-
cording to the degree of fharpnefs to which the edges are
wrought, of punifliing the bars and lips with greater or lefs
feverity. The different degrees of punifliment which this
kind of bit is capable of inflifting, will perhaps be found
fufficient for all the purpofcs of correftion, where recourfe
may properly be had to aciual force and punilhment. For
it fhould be always ktpt in view, tliat gentle means will pro-
duce a good mouth ; while harfhnefs and too great feverity
will tend to deftroy it altogether.

Thus far the ancients of the moft remote ages of the
world, almoft as far back as any hiftory extends, were well
acquainted with the ufe of bits. Xenophon, more than 400
years before Chrift, had dcfcribed fimilar bits as being in
common ufe in his time among the Grecian flates. He
fpcaks of a fmooth and a (harp kind of bit, the latter, if
more feverity was requilite, to be armed with points or teeth.
In its ufe, however, he enjoins the greateft ttndernefs, and
cbferves, " that when you would wilh to llacken the pace
of an eager horfe, which hurries on too fall, and to pacify
his fury, fo as to make him go more temperately, or even
oblige him to ftop, you (hould not attempt to do it at once,
and with violence, but artfully, and by degrees, gently
pulling him in, then yielding the bridle, and playing with
Lis mouth, in fuch a manner as if you intended rather to win
his confent than force his obedience." Chap. 9, jo.

Beyond the changes above defcribed, the fnafSe itfelf does
not appear to admit of any alterations worthy of notice.
It may, however, be juft obferved, that fome horfemen add
a chain to it, extending from cheek to cheek, which refting
loofely on the tongue produces irritation and flavering, and,
as they imagine, frelhens the mouth. Such a bit is known
by the name of the Rockingham fnaffle.

The reins, however, it mull be remarked, admit of fome
alterations in their difpofition, which will influence the efFcfts
of the bit on the mouth ; as whether they are carried higher
or lower. At this prefent time there is a praftice more efpe-
cially in horfes of light draft, as in thofe for carriages,
curricles, and chairs, &c. to didort and alter the beaiing

reins from their natural direclion, and to du'pofe them morr
perpendicularly and in a line with the head ; fo that inftead
of pafling ftraight from the mouth to the horfc's back, tliey
arc diredted up the fides of the face, as high nearly as the
parotid gl?.nd, or bale of the ear, where they are paffed
through a ring hanging from the head ftall, and from thence
to the hook of the faddle. The appearance is ornamental
and elegant, and the reins fo difpofed are confidered as more
forcibly elevating the head than if they proceeded to the
back in the ufual direftion.

As the difpolition of the reins, fo the figure of the bits
themfelves, and the ornamental appendages attached to
them, admit of almoft endlefs variety. The manufafturers
of thefe articles, availing themfelves of this licence, render
their bufincfs more lucrative by as frequent changes as pof-
fible. Thefe are fucccffivcly introduced as faftiionable no-
velties, till again for novelty they return to the fuapleft
praftice ; and this takes place without any alteration in the
principal circumftances of their conftruction, properties, or
ufe.

The next kind of bits in ufe for horfes is the curbed bit ;
which, as it is an inftrument of much greater complication
of parts than the fnaffl.c, fo it appears to have been of com-
paratively recent date.

In fome of the fculptured equcftrian figures of the ancients
fomething like the branches of the curb may be found ; but
in no inftance does there appear any thing refembling the
chain, which is abfolutely neceffary to its effect. Their
writings alfo appear to be filcnt on this fubjeft. It was
probably the invention of Italy or France, which for fome
centuries pall have taken the lead of the other nations of
Europe in teaching the arts of the manege. It was firft in-
troduced into the EnglKli army by a proclamation made in
the third year of king Charles I. lince which time it has
got into univerfal ufe for the army, the field, and the road,
fo that no horfcman deems himfclf perfeftly equipped with-
out it. Moft of thofe writers who have treated of it in the
laft, and in the century preceding that, and who wrote pro-
bably foon after the commencement of its ufe, have been
very profufe in their various propofals for the ftrudlure of
it, efpecially in rendering it more complicated, fevere, and
cruel ; though it is probable their clumfy figures and repre-
fentations were never imitated in aftual praftice. They
appear to have been much fatisfied with their new invention,
imagining it a fure means of reducing horfes to immediate
obedience, in fpite of every obllacle ; and true it is, it can
punifli with extreme feverity : but is fuch a mcafure moil
likely to create vice, or to overcome it \ Indeed, accord-
ing to the opinion of one of the ablell writers that has ever
confidered this fubjeft, and whofe opinion we fliall take an
opportunity of quoting m.ore fully hereafter, little or
nothing has been really gained by its adoption ; on the
contrary, the fnaffle polTefles more fimplicity, power, and
perfeftion.

.Stripped of all unnecefTary trappings, this inftrument con-
fifts of the following elTential parts : a mouth-piece with
two fide branches, or inflexible rods of iron, firmly fixed to
the former, and a chain paffing from fide to fide, behind the
chin, including the jaw ; two eyes or rings at the upper
extremity of thefe branches, ferve to faften it to the hcad-
ftall, and to ftay it in the mouth ; two other nngs at the
lower extremity of the above branches receive the reins,
paffing to the hand, or fometimes in draft horfes to the hook
of the faddle, as a bearing rein. Thefe are all the parts
really necelfary to conftitute the curb.

The bits thus formed being placed in the mouth, and the

chain paiTed round the lower jaw, the branches, it will be

38 2 readily

B I T

rcidily feen, bscome powerful levers when drawn backwards,
aclin^ upon tlie mouth-piece as a centre, and fqueczing, by
means of the cliain, whatever iiiterpofcs between it and the
mouth-piece, with a force equal to the length of lever af-
forded by the lower branch.

This force, it will be perceived, is influfnced and regu-
lated not only by the length of the lever btlow the mouth-
piece, but alfo by the greater or ItfT^-r diilancc at which the
chain is placed from it. The chain is ufvially fixed to the
eye of the check-piece, where the head-llall is faftened ; if,
therefore, this part is very long, it is evident it mull mode-
rate or countcrad the power and effect of the lower end of
the branch, and render it lefs fevere by bringing the centre
of motion nearer to the middle of the lerer.

It appears raanifeft, from the conilructlon of this inftru-
mcnt, that its whole force is exerted upon the jaw itfelf, and
that it has power to pinch the bars with cruel violence, even
to the frafture of the bone, and this with very powerful
branches has fomctimes happened. It can alfo crufli and
bruife, and totally deftroy the tender covering of the inlide
of the mouth, and the fliin beneath the jaw.

From confidering its mode of operating, it might reafoa-
aWy be doubted whether it does in reality ftop the horfe by
its power and oppofed force, as is generaiiy conceived at
prcfent, or rather by the feverity of the pain it iiiflidls ; as
(hould the horfe arm himftlf againll this, it is totally infuf-
ficient to arrell his courfe ; of which inftances occur in run-
away liorfcs eveiy day. And we lliiU ventiu-e to fuggcft,
though contrary to the general opinion, that the fuaffle,
even in this refpcfl, if tiie month h;>.s not been previoudy
liardened and fp likd by the ufe cf the curb, is the moll
powerful inllrumerit of the two.

The moulli-plece of the curb is ofiuilly provided with an
upfet or arch in the middle of it, as it would,, if perfettly
ilraight, reft on the tongue, and occalion an uiipleafant rc-
Uraint. This paffage for the tongue is often made
{b narrow and fmall by the bit makers, that one fliould ap-
prehend they fcarctly had a right idea of its ufe. From the
circumftance of its allowing a paffage for the tongue, it has
been called by fome, the liberty ; and, for the fame reafon,
by others, the porle; hence we have the povte-mouth bit,
vulgarly called an>ong the bit makers and grooms the
Ponfmaulh bit : and by a fuppofcd counter expreffion
to this term, we probably get the ll'eymouth-hiU

In draft horfcf, efpecially for the coach, it is a frequent
cuftom to have ainxcd to the upper part of the upfet fmall
rhair.s or po'.iilud drops of iron, v.'hich hanging loofe in the
mouih, and failing on the tongue, occafion the horfe to
champ the bits, and create a copix'.s flow of faliva, fo as
to llavcr tlie lips wiih its white froth ; and when this hap-
pens,, it is conUdcrjd by fome a good fign of health and
gaiety,, acd tliat the horfe is well bitted ; for, if the bits
are dilagrccable to him, he never plavs with them, or ex-
hibits any froth,, fay they. Tlicfe fmall appendages aje
termed, by the Fr;;i.eh Ls chaitidlcs, and by the Englidi
flnjrr.'^

It is farther to be obferved, rcfpefting the mouth-pisce
of the curlv that the ilraight pp.it which rells upon the.
bus ot the pvi, is termed by the French 'c canon, and by the
oM Eiiglilh v.riters^ thej.-ft'i-; and though a highly conve-
uicnt and ufeful word, it is to be regretted, it is at prcfent
out of ufe ; the French term, which is not fo cxprcffive,
having fupirfeded it. This part fhould bs well poiiilied,
and may be made of any proper figure, as that of a cylinder,
cone, oval, globular, pear-fiiapcd, kc.

It u obvious that the efTcft of the curb, as far as it rcf-

3

B I T

peas the bars, will be corre'pondent to the thicknefs or
thinncfs, fmoothnefs or roughnefs, of this part ; the larger
and broader it is, the more lurface it covers ; and thus the
prtfTure, by being diftributed over more points, becomes
Icfb felt. This enlargement, however, of the canon or jtiv:;
(hould not be carried to an excefs, by making it too heavy,
or tilling the horfe's mouth with more iron than it can con-
veniently receive, and thus cieate pain, inllead of greater

eafe. .

To render thefe irons lefs irritatmg to the mouth, and to
avoid their friftion upon the bars, the jeivesarc provided willi
loofe, moveable rollers of well polifhcd iron, which readily
turning on the axis of the bits, very coiifiderably dimiiiillr
their feverity. Thefe moveable pieces arc alfo parti-
cularly ufeful in preventing the horfe from catching and
holding tiie bit in his teeth ; as the curb, under thefe cir-
cumllances, can lliU move and aft with the fame freedom as
before.

The jeives are fometimes compofed of three or four flat-
tifh knobs, united by a joint to each other, and with a joint
to the upfet, which is intended to rendei it very fcvere ; it
is obvious, however, that fuch an alter:;tian mnft bring it-
nearer to the condition of the inaffle ; the knobs, hoivcverjr-
if they can be drawn iranfverl'cly acrofs the barsj might pro-
duce coniiderable irritation, but not fo mi;ch as they
would do if not jointed. This bit is not" unfrequtatly ufed,
and is called with us the Hi/pnn-hw..

To the curb is often fixed a ring oppofite the mouth-
piece, which, as it is direclly in a line with the axis of the
bit, has uo other effeft when the reins are affixed to it, than a-
fnaffle would have, provided witli a fimilar mouth piece. This
is termed putting " the reins to the check," and tor horfesot
light draft, whole mouths are not ruined, it is by much the
bell, as the mouth is lefs annoyed, and the horfe obeys with,
more alacrity the guidance of the hand from this point,
than from the extremity of the branches, which are parti-
cularly ill calculated for this purpofe : this kind of con-
(Irudlion is generally diilinguilhtd by the name of the Pf.'-
!iam-h\t.

In the older Englifh writers, as well as thofe on the Con<
tinent, on the fubjetl of bits, wc find an appendage dtf-
cribed, which is not at all, at prefent, in ufe ; and as it enter?
the mouth with the mouth-piece, it may, with propriety, be-
dcfcribed along with it. It cor.fiftcd of a chain exttndinjj
from branch to branch of the banquet, or cheek-piece, bcin;.j
placed rather above the mouth-piece, and parallel to it, anil
was llrctched acrofs perfettly ilraight and tight. Tins part
was called the ivater-chain, and by tlie French Treiiche-Jile :■
its ule is not very evident. Mr. Berenger takes notice of it,
and obferves " that it might be ufeful to horfes that are apt
to drink or fwallow the bits, as the expreffion is, or bury it
fo deep in their mouths, as to hinder it from having a due
and jull effeil :" from its being laid afide fo generally,, we;
preiiime it has at leall been thought ufelefs.

It is a common belief with the grooms, that a great
power refides in the upfet of the mosith-piece, and that tha
bits are more powerful as this is longer or fhorter ; nothing,
however, can be more fallacious than this reafoning. la-
the works of Laurence Reefe, alfo a French writer, we find»
in confonance with this idea, a curb^.vvithan upfet of unufuaL
length, being deflined to correct the vices •■ d'un Rouffi.i;
qui a la bouche d'une diablc ;" it will be obvious, how-
ever, on a moment's reflection, that this part, from being-
made very lofty, and coming forcibly againil the palate,
would, compel the horfe to open his mouth, when it-
would ceaie farther to adl in any way ; with more reafon,,
the fame writer propofes, on the other hand,. " pour donnet

grand

B I T

grand plaifir," to nave a bit conlh-i:£ted witli a low upfet,
and fufficitntly wide, v.ith large, cuuical, fmooth jcives for
the bars.

Of the chain. The chain is the part ninft; cfitntiaily ne-
ceflary to give efTecl to all the other parts of the curb, and
may be placed, as we have already noticed, at any given
dillance above the mouth-piece ; its operation being more
powerful, as this diftance is exceeded by the length of tha
branches. This pofition, though true as a general principle
of reafoninj, appears to be ftibjeft to the operation of other
caufes in acttial practice, which it will be neceffary to con-
fider ; for, in direft contradiclion to this is the affrrtion of
I>Ii-. Bercnger, who appears to be aliroft the only writer
who has truly invelHgated the merits of this particular ob-
jetl. He obferves, in regard to this, that the nearer the
chain, and the longer the branches, the fofter and more in-
dulgent its operation. This, on a firft view, would appear
to be in direft. variance with the rules above laid down, and
irrecoixileable to the well known laws of the operation of
the lever, and even at variance with his own preceding afler-
tions ; when, however, we remember the cxp.-rience and
praftical knowledge of him who alferts it, it deferves a more
particular confideration ; let us firlt admit the truth of the
pofition, as it feems founded on the fure te!t of actual ex-
perience, and then we (hould venture the following as the
moft natural explanatioa of it.

In proportion as the branches are longer, the more ex-
tenfive is the circuit their extrerriities perform in their
operation ; and therefore, the ha:id that guides them mull
pafs through a greater Ipace to produce t!ie fame effect :
and now, if the chain be placed very near to, or upon the
outfide of the mouth-picce, a:;d be applied not very tight
about the chin, yet, in reality, though there v/ould be an
apparent increafe of power by the kngdi of the branches,
they would have httle or no effeit, as they would arrive at
the utmoil extent to which they can be drawn, before the
chain would begin to pinch. On this account, the moll
lively efTcCls would be produced by the chain having more
fweep and extent of a£tion, and by the branches being not
quite fo long, as great length alfo adds fomething to their
flexibiuty, though not to a degree to be worth taking inta
the account. Still, however, the branches mull ever obey
the common laws of the lever, adting with force prop'.'r-
tioned to their length ; while Ihorter branches act with
greater quicknefs, and are more lively in their imprcfiion.

Tl\e chain is fallened on one fide to the eye of the ban-
quet, where the head-ttall is fallened ; on the other, to a
hook hanging from the lame part. This chain, aj it is
at prefent ufed, is compofed of iron links or rings, fo beat
or indented, as to form, when put together, one uniform
nearly flat furface ; and thefe links, by tv.iiling or r.ntwil!:.
ing, may be made to prelcnt a furlace with any degree of
roughneis to the chin.

AVhen great tendernefs is required, this chain- mav be
covered with leather or cloth ; or wliere a IHll greater deli-
cacy is defirable, the curb may be made wholly of leather,
without any chain.

The larger and thicker the rings are, provided thev are
fmooth and well polifijed, the eaiitr the cffedl of the chain.
In old Englidi, tliis chain was called the klrUe ; and hence,
by contraction, kirh ; and finally, by an eafy tranlition of the
a ihto cu, we apprehend that the modern appellation of this
inflrument is obtained.

Of the branches. The proportion which the cheek part bears
to the lower .-stremity of the branches, or rather the pofition
of the eye, to which the chain is fixed, determines the de-
gree of power of the bit upon the.principle before advanced j

BIT

that is, if ihe chain is fixed to the upper extrerrity of it, as
it utjally is to the traniverfc opening or eye of the head-
ilall. '

For the elementary view we are taking of the conflruc-
tion of the bits, it has been only coiifidtred as a ftraight,
phin lever of indeterminate length ; it is, however, in prac-
tice, often varied^ as in the army, ir is ufed of enormous
kngth, and frequently cnrvcd like the letter S, by which it
is conceived to be rendered more powerful, as well as
ornamental ; at other times the branch of the bit, with a
view of increafing its force, is carried forward with a fl.^rp
elbow, giving nearly the figure of the letter Z ; while by
others, with more reafon, to prevent the horfe from catch-
ing the bit in his mouth, it is made with an arch, or
femicircle, in the middle of the branch, like the letter C,
turned backwards for the fame purpofe ; flill, however, ia
fact, whether bent into that or any other fliape, it is the
length of the lever, and its (Irength, which alone give the
power; it is true, however, that a long curved branch,
though more powerful, will render the cfFrcl fomcwhat
fofter, 33 coming from a greater dillance, efpecially if the
branch is at all flexible and yielding, than it would by the
quick and rigid tffedl of a rtiortcr lever, made perfcftly
llraig-ht and inflexible : thefe branches may alfo be turned
or ber.t, not only backward or forward, but alfo outu-ards
and inward?. At their extremities, thofe turned outwards,
are faid to be (Irongell of any in their operation.

As to the check-piece, or banquet, as it is called by the
French, for an appropriate name is vyanting to this part in
the Enghfli language ; the eye ol the banquet, fay the
horfemen, commands and gives efficiency to the reft of the
bit ; or, in other words, decides the diitaiice of the chain from
the mouth-picce, or centre of motion ; as, however, in
fpeaking of the other parts, we have had occaficn to intro-
diice a fufBoient account of this, it will not be liceeffary
farther to give it a feparate confideration ; nor will it be
ufeful to defcribe the numerous mongrel herd of bits en.
gendered of the fnafHe and curb, which are reducible to the
properties of one or the other, or partaking of both.

The moll ufeful bit of the curbed kind, appears to be the
JVeymou:h-hit, which is at prefent in common ufe for draft
horfes of light work, as for carriages, coaches, &c. It con-
fills of a ilrong, plain mouth-piece, of uni^'orm thicknefs
throughout, without any tipfet or jeives, but is fimply
curved foivvards, to give liberty to the tongue : this kind
of conllrixtion is the fimplell perhaps that the curb admits
of.

In concluding, it remains for us to notice the proper ap>.
phcrition and adjuftment of thefe bits to the hot^c"3 mouth,
and to treat of their real effefts.

Ey the management of the head-ftall, the fnaffie b;«9
Ihould be fo adjulled as to fall h\ the middle fpace between
the tuihes and grinders, relling sjpon the bars : the mouth-
piece of the curb fho'ild alfo occupy the fame fituation ;
wl»cn, however, it is ufed alor^ with she fnsfffe, the bits of
the fnaffle (hould be placed higheft in the mcuih.

It the bits are pkced too high in the mouth, the hsrfe
carries his head aloft ; if too \o\v, he Hoops the head, and
tries to catch tiiem in his teeth..

The thicker and more flcihy, and the wider or broader
the bm-s of the hnrfe, the rougher may be the mouth-piece
for the leaner and m.ore dslicate ; corfequently, the bits
fhould be k-fs ftvere. Care (hould alfo be taken that the
mouth-piece be wel? fuited to the fize and width of the mouth,
and be not too iiafrow, as this would give pain, by fqueezing
the bars together : if, on the contrary, it is very wide, it
reds with more force en the bars, without the int'cDafition

of

B I T

of the lips, as is mod ufiially the cafe. ^Vliere the tongue
is large and prominent, the iipfet (hoiild alio be in propor-
tion, othcrvvifc the bits could not rell upon the bars, but
n-Qiild prtrfs upon the tongue.

In regard to bitting the horfe, and the confideration of its
efftds, we cannot dcfire to fee any thing more confonant to
irulh and reafoti, tiian what has been given us by Mr. Be-
rena-r, and with fome ufcful cxtrads from his valuable
ptrFormance, v.e (hall conclude this article.

Of iiltinx harfss tu'ilh th: curb. " In the beginning of an
tindertakmg, whofe aim is to fnbdue and reclaim nature,
and lliat at a time when (lie is wild, ignorant, and even
aftoiiilhcd at the alten\pts which are made upon her, it is
evident that (he mnfl not be treated but with lenity, in-
ftrucled with patience, and by fmall degrees, and that no-
thing (honld be offered that may hurt, furprize, or occa-
fion any difguft.

The horlcman, therefore, (liould not aft the part of a
tyrant, hut of a lover ; not endeavour to force htr to fub-
milhon, but drive to gain her confent and good will by
affidnity, pcrfeverance, and the gcntleft attentions ; for
what profpcft of fuccefs would rougher manners afford?
To what purpule would it be to compel a colt to go for-
ward, or turn from fear of t!ie whip or fpur, and to trot
and gallop fa freely as to fupple his hmbs, and form his
paces ; if tlie no\elty of the bit, and the unaccuftoined ref-
traint to which it fubjefts him, (liould vex and confound him,
fo as to make him not know what to do, or how to be-
lave in thefe extremes ? It cannot be cxpefted, thai he will
be guided, and go with cafe to himfclf, or pleafure to the
rider, if the inilrnment, by which he is to be condufted,
offends or gives him pain : all habits and acquirements
(liould be attained gradually, and almoil imperceptibly : ri-
gour and precipitation would ruin all ; and, inllead of form-
ing the horfe to the execution of what is required, may
plunge him into vice and rebcUi m, fo as to occalion much
trouble and lofs of time before he can be reduced.

He (hould not therefore, at lirft, be confidered as if he
was defigned to be formed to all the delicacy and cxaftnefs
of the bit ; and the horfcman (liould be content, if he will
endure it in his mouth, fo as to grow, by tittle and little, ac-
cuftomed to it, till the rellraint becomes by habit fo familiar
and eafy, that he not only is not offended, but begins even
to delight in it ; for this purpofe, great care (hould be
taken that the bit be eafy and gentle in all its parts ; that
the mouth-piece be larger than it need be ior an horfe al-
ready bitted ; that it in no wife incommodes the bars,
fqueezes the hps, or galls the tongue.

The mouth-piece, called a caimon, with a joint in the
middle, will be the moll fuitable ; the ends of it (hould be
as large and full as the fize of the mouth will permit, for
the thicker and more blunted they are, the eaficr they will
be for the horfe, and the a/>ptii Icls ilrift and fevere.

The links of the curb (hould be big, fmooth, and well
polilhed : the curb fomewhat long. The branches (liould
be exaftly even with the hue of the banquet, to make the
appui moderate and equal ; they (hould likeuife be long ;
nor does it fignify of what (liape they are, for with moil
horfcs they ought to be fo weak, as fcarccly to have any
effcA ; fo requifite it is to guard againft every thing that
may annoy or di(l,;ih the horfe in thefe firll trials. In
order to reconcile him to this new conftraint, the reins
(hould be held in both hands ; and the horfe, for fome time,
(hould only walk under the rider. Above all, upon this,
and all other occafions, a firm, a light, and diligent hand,
i> neceffary.

Such are the outlines and general principles upon which

B I T

the art of bitting horfcs is edablilhed ; which nrt, as far
as it reaches, is fure andconllant; but which, in fpite of
all tlie merits and praife of which it has fo long been in
poff'lTion, will, upon a ferious and drift trial, never, I
doubt, be found adequate to the views of a found and in-
telligent horfcman, nor capable of bringing a horfe to that
degree of fupplenefs and exaftnefs of carriage, which the
truth and perfeftion of the art require, tliele attain-
ments fecniing to have bee i referved for a more fnnple but
powerful machine, called U.eJhiiJ/le."

" To perform his bufinefs judly and gracefully, the
animal mud fird be made fupple in his fore parts, and his
head and neck fo managed, that one may be raifed, and the
other arched or bent, more or lefs to the hand to which he
is to turn. The bridle, called the bit, is fo impotent in its
endeavours to raife the head, that it even produces the op-
pofite tfl'eft ; nor from the confinement in which it keeps
the horfe, and the fmall compafs it affords for the aftion of the
rein, does it allow the rider fulficicnt room to bend him, with-
out pulling down his head, andputtinghimuponhislhoulders,
both of which are incompatible with the true and found
principles of the art. The frequent ufe of cavefons and
bridons, fully evinces the want of power in the bit to fup-
ple the horfe, or raife the fore part.

The figures and reprefentations of horfes working upon
different lelTons, may be appealed to for the confiirnation of
this affertion : the books of pall times abound with them,
efpecially that boalled work of that king of horfemen,
the duke of Newcallle, whofe horfes are all drawn with their
heads between their knees ; and yet are exhibited to the
equedrian world as dandards of truth, and models of per-
fection. The fucceffors of this duke, and of other great
maders, as imitators, are generally a blind and fervile herd,
ran headlong into the errors, and adopted the faults of their
prcdeceffors ; and aUvays made ufe of bits, without re-
flefting upon their effefts, or perceiving that they could
operate to make the horfe carry low, or to put him upon
his (houlders, while they thought that he was all the time
upon his haunches."

" If ever there was a panacea, or univerfal medicine,
the fnaffle is one, for the mouths of horfes : it fuits all, and
accommodates itfelf to all ; and either finds them good, or
very fpecdily makes them fo ; and the mouth once made,
will be aUvays faithful to the hand, let it aft with what
agent it will. This bridle can at once fubjeft the horfe
to great reftraint, or indulge it in eafe and freedom : it can
place the head exaftly as the horleman likes to have it, and
work and bend the neck and (houlders to what degree he
pleafes. He can raife the head, by holding up his hand ;
by lowering it, it can be brought down ; and if he chufes to
fix and confine it to a certain degree, he mull ufe for this,
as well as for the purpofe of bending, ciotible reins ; that is,
two on each fide, the ends of which mud be fadened in a
ftaple near the pommel of the faddle, or to the girths,
higher or lower, as the mouth, proportions of the horfe,
and his manner of going require ; and if properly meafured
and adjuded, they will form and command the horfe fo
effeftually, as, in a great degree, to palhate many imperfec-
tions of the mouth, and many faults in the mould and
figure."

" The reins thus fadened, or even one only, for the fake
of working one jaw and one fide, will operate more or lefs,
as the branches of a bit ; and the fnaffle will almod be a
bit, a bridon, a cavefon, and martingal, in one. When
the horfeman would bend the horfe, he mud pull the rein
on that fide to which he is going, and lengthen that of the
oppofite, tliflt they may not counteraft each other. No-
thing

B I T

thing will awaken a dull mouth, and bring it to life and
feeling, fo foon as this bridle. If the mouth be hard and
callous, the iron fhould be fo twilled as to have a fort of
edjje, which will fearch the lips, and when they will per-
mit, the bars alfo ; and if gently moved, or drawn from
fide to fide, keep the mouth frefh and cool. If the twilled,
or rough fnaffle, be thought too harfh, and the hand not
flvilful enough to moderate its etFtfts, a fmooth fnaffle may
be ufed ; or if a bit of linen be wrapt round the twilled
fnaffle, it will make it eafy and fmooth ; and the mouth,
once made fine and delicate, will be true to its feelings,
will obey the fnaffle, and follow the hand with as much
exadlnefs and precifion as the bit knows to demand, but
with more freedom and boldnefs that it ever can allow."

Such are the properties and merits of the fnaffle, which
lo'.ig obfervation, and not a little experience, have taught
the writer of this article ts think preferable (generally
fpeaking) to thofe of the bit ; and which he has been
therefore induced to point out and recommend with due
deference to others, but with a greater deference to truth
and juilice :

" — Dctrahcre aufus,
Hrerentem capiti multa cum laude coronam."
Berenger's Hill, and Art of Horfemanlhip, vol.ii. p. 221, &c.

Bit is alfo ufed for a little tool, fitted to a Hock or handle,
for the purpofe of boring. In this fenfe, we fay, the bit of
a piercer, an augre, or the like ; meaning that iron part of
thofe tools wherewith the holes arc bored.

The bit ufed by the block-makers, refembles the (hank
of a gimblet, from fix to twelve inches long, and from
half an inch to an inch in diameter, and has at its end either
a fcrew, a Iharp point, or edge, for the purpofe of cutting
or boring holes. The centre-bit is a bit, having in the mid-
dle of its end, a fmall fteel point, with a fiiarp edge on one
fide to cut horizontally, and a (harp tooth on the oppofite
fide to cut vertically. Holes bored with this inflrument,
are not liable to fplit. The counterfunh-l'u is a bit having
two cutting edges at the end, revcricd to each other, which
form an angle from the point. Gouge-bit is a bit fmaller
than a centre-bit, with a hollow edge at its end, like a
gouge. Nofc-lit is a bit fimilar to a gouge-bit, having a
cutting edge on one fide of the end.

Bit of a Key, is that part fitted at right angles to the
(hank of the key, wherein the wards are made. SeeLocK, &c.

Bit is alfo ufed in Commerce, for a piece of coin current
in Jamaica, and valued at 74 d.

Bits, or Bitts, in a fliip, denote a frame compofed of two
upright pieces of timber, called the pins, and a crofs-piece
fallened horizontally on the top of them ; ufed for belaying
cables and ropes to. Boivline and brace bitts are fituatcd near
the mafts ; the fore jeer, and top-fail-Jlieet bitts are fituated
in the fore-cadle, and round the fore-mad ; the main jeer,
and top-fail-Jhcet bitts tenon into the fore-niaft beam of the
quarter-deck ; the riding bitts are the largeft bitts in the (hip,
and are thofe to which the cable is bitted, when the vefl'el
rides at anchor. The cable is bitted, or confined to the bitts
by one turn under the crofs-piece, and another turn round
the bitt-htad. In this pofition, it may be either kept fixed,
or it may be veered away.

^n-Stoppers, are thofe (toppers that are ufed to check
the cable. See Stopper.

BITAZA, in yincieiit Geography, a town of Afia, in
Aria, acording to Ptolemy.

BITBOURG, in Geography, a town of the Netherlands,
in the duchy of Luxemburg before the revolution, but now
a principal place of the canton of the fame name, in the
department of Forcts, containing 1638 inhabitants; the

B I T

populatron 'of the canton confiding of 7160 perfons. Its
territorial extent includes 225 kiliometres, and 12 com-
munes. N. lat. 50° o'. E. long. 6° 43'.

BITCH, in Zoology, is the female of the canine fpecies,
in contradidindton to dog. (See Canis.) It is fometimes
ufed in a fimilar fenfe with refpeft to foxcs, the female
being termed a " bitch-fox ;" though the more common
appellation among fportfmen is a " vixen." Bitches are
fometimes fpayed, to prevent their farther propagation ; the
bed time for which operation is about after the heat is gone
off.

BITCHE, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a didricl, in the department of the Mofclle, con-
taining 2310 inhabitants ; the number of thofe in the can-
ton being 10,441. Its territorial extent is 312' kiliome-
tres, and it includes 23 communes. It is feated on a river
at the foot of the Vofges mountains, on the frontiers of
Deux Fonts. It was taken by Lewis XIV. and fortified
by Vauban ; afterwards difmantled and redored to the
duchy of Loraine. In 1740, it was again fortified. Be-
fore the revolution, it was the capital of a country-, includ-
ing 50 villages. N. lat. 49° 5'. E. long. 7° 44'.

BITCHU, or Bitsiu, a province of Nipon, in the
idands of Japan, between about 34° 30' and 35° N. lat.
and about 134° 30'. E. long.

BITCHYS, a tribe of Tartars, vifited by La Peroufc
in 1787, and defcribed by him. See Orotchys.

BITE is defined to be a folution of the continuity
of a foft part, caufed by the imprelfion of an animal's
teeth.

^n^ oi Mad-dog. See Hydrophobia.

Bite of Serpents. See Poison.

Bite o{ Raltlc-fnake. See Poison.

Bite of the 1 arantula. See Tarantism.

Bite is alfo applied, in a lefs proper fenfe, to the im-
prelfion of other (harp or pungent bodies. Thus a file is
faid to bite the metal ; aqua fortis bites, or eats into cop-
per. An anchor is alfo faid to bite, when it holds fad in
the ground.

BITERLAGH, or Bitherlage, the ancient Danilh
mihtary or camp law.

The word is compounded from lithe, mulR, and lagh, law ;
q. d. the law of mulds, or ivites.

Among the laws of the Danes, there are two peculiarly
eminent ; viz. the hird Jlraa, or court la-w ; and the bither-
lage raett, made by Canute the Greet, about the year 1035 ;
of which an edition has been given by Refcnius.

BITETO, in Geography. See Bide to..

BITHABA, in ylncienl Geography, called alfo Birthama,
a town of Afia, in AlTyria, accordinix to Ptolemy.

EITHER, a city of Judaea, called bv St. Jerom, Betho-
ron, which was the place of retreat of the iinpoftor Barcho-
chebas, fortified by him, and made the capital of his new
kingdom. It was befieged by the Romans under Julius Se-
verus, A. D. 134, and after an obdinate refillancc, com-
pelled to furrender. See Barchochebas, and Bethoron.

BITHEREMAN, a town of Phoenicia, according to
Sozomen, fituate at the extremity of the temtory of Eleu-
theropohs.

BITHIA, a town of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in
Media-

BTTHIAS, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, according
to Ptolemy. — Alfo, a river of Thrace, accord. ng to Ap-
pian.

BITHIGA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Pto-
lemy.

B1THY.£, a people of Thrace, who, according to

Steph.

E I T

Stcph. Byr. derived tlicir name from Bilhin, a foil of
Mars ; but more probably from the river Billns, or Bithias,
nKiilionvd by Appiaii, and denominated Batlr/nvus by
Ptoltrmv. J.

13n''HYI-A, a town of Greece, in the interior parts oi
Lncorii. l't;>Icniy.

DITHVNIA, a province of that part of Afia, which
was commonly ealUd Af.a Minor. It was anciently known
by the ii-mc3 of Myfia, Mygdonia, Btbiycia, and Marian-
dynia, as well as liitliynia ; and extended fr.mi Myfia on
the \vcl>, to Panhla'::onia on the eal>. It was bounded on
the well by the'iiofporus Thracius and pait of the Propon-
tis, on the fouth by tlie river Rhyndacus and mourt Olym-
pus, on the north by the Euxine fea, and on the eall by the
rvtr Parlhenius. Ptolemy enlarg<;d the extent of Bithynia,
fo as to make it comprehend fome provinces beionfjing, ac-
cordinjT to other g'Oijraphers, to Galatia and Paphlagonia.
The chief cities of Bithynia on the coaft wore Myrlea, Daf-
cylos, Ciu', and NiconieJia the metropolis. On the Bof-
povui ilood the famous city of Chalced.)n. In the Eu.sine
fea were fitiiated the city and ancient repubhc of Heraclea.
The principal i'lland cities of Bithynia wercPnila, LibyfTa,
and Nicxa or Nice. Its chief rivers w:;re the Pfilhs, Colpas,
Sai.garlns or oa;;aris, Hipias, Rhebas, and Lyons ; all dif-
charjiing themfebes into the Euxine fea between Chalcedon
and Heraclea. As Bithynia lies between 41° and 43° of
north latitude, and is watered by many rivere, it once
8bu:i!ided with all the nt-ceflavies of life. The ancients com-
pare fome of the inland provinces to the fruitful and deli-
cious vales of Ttmpc ; but at prefent it lies in a great de-
gree ne^lefted and unmanured. Bithynia was anciently in-
habited bv various nations, differinjr in their manners, cuf-
toms, andlangua;;e ; namely, the BJ;ryces, the Miiriandyni,
the Cauconcs, -the-DoUiones, and the Cimerii. TJitfc dilfer-
c«.t nations were anciently governed hv their own kings ;
Bithynia being, in tjic earliell times, divided into as many
kingdoms as nations or tribes. However, in procefs of
time, thefe petty princes were reduced by the more power-
ful Kings of Bithynia. According to Diodorus Siculus, the
JJithynians had kings from the time of Ninns ; and, accord-
ing to Appian, tliey had 49 fovereisrrs before the Romans
ulHa'ined poifcfiions-in Alk. But this high antiquity is ren-
dered doubtful by the filencc of Huiser refpecting the Bi-
thynians. Strabo (1. xii.) fpeaks of one Prufias, who reigned
in Bithynia in the lime of Croefus, die lail king of J^ydia,
by whom he wiis conquwed. From this period, the Bithy-
nians continued fnbjedt firll to the Lydians, and afterwards
to the Perfians, till the reijrn of Alexander the Great ; for we
find them mentioned by Herodotus among the many nations
t'lat attended Xerxes in his exp.dition into Greece^ While
they were fubjea to the Perlians, they fee-n. d to have Ixen
llili governed by their own princen. Under Nieomi-dts I. the
Gaulo, whom he cilied to his aJTiAance, (iril paiTed into
Afia, and obtained a fetllcinent in that part of Afia Minor,
wiiich was call.d from them Galio-Gicecia and Galatia.
The lall king of Bithynia was Nieomedes IV., who, at his
dtalli, in the year befcnt Chrill 75, heqncathel his kingdom
to the Romans, by whom it was reduced to the form of a
province.

BiTHVsiA, in Ji^oilrni Gi-ogrtif-,[<y, -foriTic one of the dif-
trids of Anatolia, and is the luarell province to Turkey in
Europe, being parted from it only by ti;e fmall llrait called
the Thraciaii Bofpliorus. Its principal cities are Prufa, Nice,
and Niconirdia.

BYTHINIARCHIA, a fen of fuperior pi-iefthood i;i
the province of Bithyni?, to which belonged the fnperinten-
dency of the facred games, and which gav<; an cxemptian to

B I T

him pofTelTed of it, called bithyniarcha, from the care of
tutoraEce.

BITHYNIITM, in ylncii-nt Gfogmphy, the ancient name
of a city of Bithynia, afterwards called CI .udioi)olis.

BITIS, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber that inhabits
Brafil. Above, this creature is cinereous, yellow, varied
with white and red, and tranfverfe brown bands; beneath,
yellowidi, with a middle row of very minute fcales. Gmel.
&c. F':pcra iilis of Laurent. Aniph.

BITON, in CoTichology, the name of the Linnsan cypr^^a
pediciiliis in Adanfon's Senegal, &c.

BiTON, in EnUimohgy, a fpecies of Papilio, fo named
by Efper. It h papilio demon of Gmelin.

BITONTO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
country of Bavi, about 8 miles from the Adriatic, the fee
of a bilhop, fuffragan of Bari. This is a tine town, con-
taining 16,000 iimabitants, of more eafy fortunes, and m.ore
polilhed manners, than thofe who dwell in tlie cities along
the coaft ; its markets are well fupplitd, and it has an air of
afilueixc. Tlie country between it and Bari, at the diftance
of 9 miles, is very much incloled ; and though ftony, fciiiie
in corn, almo-.ids, dives, wine, and fruit of all kinds. Near
this citv an obeliflc was erefled by the king of Spain, with
fome fuli'on:e infcriptiona in praife of himlelf, his father
Philip, liisfoldiers, and the count of Mortemar, who was ho-
noured v.ith the title of duke of Bitonto, for having defeated
the Aullrians on this ipot in 1734. The monument, how-
ever, v.Mch records a trivial victory, is crumbling to
ruin.

BITTACLE, or BiNACLE, a fquare box, or frame of
timber, placed in the ftecrage of a fliip, wherein the com-
pafs is placed. The word is firmed, by contraflion, from
the I'reiieh holltacle, a /mail habitation, which llgnifies the
fame.

Large vefTcls have two bittacles, a Icffer placed before the
pilot, and a greater before the fteerfman.

In the fmaller vcflcls, the bittacle is divided into three
fpaces or apartments; in large veffels into five. One for
the hour-glaf-i ; another for the lamp or hgiit ; another for
the compafs, &i:.

Great care is to be taken ir. the dXpofition, framing, &c.
of the bittacle, that it liand true, and that -it be not falleiied
together with iron nails, but with wooden pins, becaufe the
former would ai'.eft the compafs. See Compass.

.BITTENDOKF, in Gwrnphy, a town of Silcfia, in
the princip ility of Neyfze, 2 miles N. of Otmuchar.

BITTER, in S:a Language, denotes the turn of the
cable round tiie bitts.

Bitter almonds. See Almond.

Bitter apple. See Colocynthis.

Bitter™,-/ of a cable, that end whieh remains on board
roimd the bitts, when the fhip is at anchor ; th: olher part
of tl:e cable being veered.

ViMiTVv. gourd. See Colocynthis.
Bitter /i/«rf, locus amarus, a poor barren foil, by Pliny
called Icrra amara. Jive macra.

'S>mv.?. purging /alt, frd calharlicum amarum. See Epsom

iSiTT-iKfzveet, m Botany. See Solanum.
Bitter i<rtch. See Okobus.
V>\TTr.K luaters. See Water.
Bitter a'/Hc See AVisr.
Bitter wood zni afi. See (Quassia.
Bitter 'zuort. See Gentian \.

BITTERFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany,
jn the circle of Upper Saxony, aud eledorate of Saxony,

ieated

B I T

featedon theMoldau, i6 miles S. of DclTau, andiS S.S.W.
of Wittenberg.

BITTERN, BiTTOUR, in Orniiboloj^y, the Linnaean
ardeajlellarh ; which fee.

Bittern, is alfo a name given to the brine fwimming
upon the firil concreted fait in the falt-works ; this Hquor is
laded off, that the fait may be taken out of the vefiel, and is
afterwards put in again, and affords more fait, which is to
be feparated hke the reft, by lading off the liquor a fecond
time, and fo on. The bittern, according to Mr. Boyle, is
a veiy faUne, bitter, fharp, pungent liquor, which drains
off in the making of fait from fea-water ; or which remains
in the pans, after the coagulation and granulation of the
purer and more fahne part by boiling. A bittern alio runs,
or oozes, from the heaps of foffile fait at Lymington, and
Portfea in Hampfhire. Phil. Tranf. N"' 377. p. 348.

Bittern makes the bafis oi fal caihartieum ainarum, or Ep-
som-salt.

Bittern is the mother-water which remains after the cryf-
tallization of common or marine fait in fea-water, or the
water of fait fprings. It abounds with Epfom fait, or the
combination of vitriolic acid with magnefia, to which its
bitternefs is owing. It is employed in this country for
making a purging bitter fait, which proves fimilar in quality
to the fait obtained from the Epfom waters, and is com-
monly fold under its name. The ley is boiled down to a
certain pitch, then filtered and infpitfated; the dry matter is
calcined, re-dilTolved, and cryftallized. If the mother-ley
be infpiffated and diflilled with vitriohc additions, a fpirit of
fait is obtained. Neumann, p. 212.

BITTERS, in the Materia ATea'ica. The quality of bit-
ternefs (a iimple perception familiar to everyone, and which
cannot be defined) is much more frequently met with in
vegetable matter, than in any other order of natural fub-
ftances ; and in this, it moflly refides in a certain foluble
matter, with tolerably uniform chemical properties, which
has by fome been denominated litter extract. This diftinc-
tion, though not perfectly accurate, is of confiderable ufe in
pharmacy ; for whenever a bitter tafte is perceived in any
part of a vegetable, we may conclude, with much probability,
that it refides in this fpecific part of the vegetable, and cfpe-
cially that it gives certain medicinal properties, which expe-
rience has fhevvn to be in the higheil degree important.

The bitter principle is found in combination with a variety
of other aftive fubltanccs, which modify, alter, correft, or
impair its medicinal powers.

A pure, fimple bitter vegetable {of which gentian, or
quaffia are good examples), is entirely void of fmell, has
neither acerbnefs nor allringency to the tafte, nor does it ex-
cit- naufea, unkfs in excelfive quantity. The bitternefs is
readily extracled by almoft every menflruum, aqueous, as well
as fpirituous ; and in the fimple bitters, little, if any, dif-
ference, is perceived in the fenfible properties of what is ex-
tracted, whatever be the medium. The bitter extraft is not
volatile by heat : hence, in the diftillation of bitter plants that
yield an elTential oil (worm-wood, for example), the dilliiled
oil has none of this tafte, the whole remaining in the refidue.
A watery, or fpirituous infulion of a bitter plant, infpift'ated
nearly to drj-nefs, becoincs intcnfely bitter, often with
an empyreumatic, or a fomswhat altered tafte. This,
v/hen further dried, becomes folid and pulverulent. The
extract is a convenient fonn for thefe fubftances, but the
flavour is not lo acceptable to the palate as the fimple infu-
fions.

The bitter ex traifl is confidcrably antifeptic. Experiments
have proved that the putridity of animal matters is much
retarded by immtrfion ia bitter inlulions, even the watery ;
Vol. IV,

B I T

and fubftances already putrid, in fome degree, lofe their
fcctor by tliis addition. The watery infufions of bitter vege-
tables mould by long keeping, and become four. This
change takes place in fumnier, in five or fix days, when the
infufion is not very ftrong. The newly acquired acid tafte
in fome degree mafl<s the bitternefs ; but this latter quality
remains extremely long, and is hardly ever loft by fpontaneous
decompoCtion.

The effect of the fimple bitter on the human body, is gene-
rally confidered as purely Tonic. It does not raifcthe pulfe;
nor does it diredtly, or conflantly produce any change in the
fecretions or excretions of the body. Its chief and moft ob-
vious operation is to increafe the appetite, and promote the
digeftive powers ; and hence it is with reafon fuppofed, that
its virtues depend on {Simulating the fibres of the ftomach.
From this fingle effect may be derived the well known ufe
of bitters, in giving general tone and vigour to the fyftem,
in a vaft variety of cafes of debility, uiiconnedted with organic
difeafe, in checking acefcency of the llomach, heartburn,
flatulence, and other fymptoms indicating a del-ciency of
the digeftive powers, ar.d in extending its lalutary operation
through the whole of the alimentary canal, reftoring the regu-
lar and natural action of the bowels impaired by the origin;il
defect of the digeftive organ.

Bitters have been fuppofed by fome to increafe the intoxi-
cating powers of fpirituous liquors. This, however, ap-
pears to apply only to the narcotic bitters, and to be attribu-
table to the narcotic, and not the bitter principle. On the
contrary, the fakuary adtion of bitters on the digeftive
powers, is well calculated to correct the extreme and pecu-
liar debility of the liomach, induced by habitual drinking.

An anthelmintic virtue (or power of expelling worms from
the human body) has been attributed ver)' generally to all
bitters indifcriminately. There does not, however, appear to
be much foundation for this opinion, unlcfs the bitternefs be
combined with a purgative property, as in aloes, or poffibly
a narcotic. The contents of the iuteftines being aKvajs in-
tenfely bitter by the natural admixture of bile, it does not
appear probable that animals, which live and grow in fuch
a medium, can be much molefted by a fmall addition of this
principle, though from a vegetable matter.

An excelfive habit of taking bitters, may finally prove de-
trimental to the ftomach, by over-excitement, or by inducing
a kind of artificial demand for food in greater quantity than
is falutary to the general health. A remarkable example of
the danger of theie medicines, long perfifted in by perfons of
gouty habits, is afforded by the operation of the Portland
po'wder in this difeafe.

The chief combinations of the bitter principle ufed in me-
dicine 2iX& Narcotic hitters, fuch as opium, faba San&i Ignatii,
bitter almonds, and the kernels of many fruits : Aromatic
bitters, as orange-peel, cafcariUa, ai:d wormwocd : Aflringent
bitters, a very large clals, and generally combined both with
tannin and the gallic acid, of which cinchona, and many other
barks are ftriking examples : Acid and f.urgalrje bit';rs; the
fquill, colocynth, aloe, and fome other combinations of Icfi
frequency.

For medicinal ufe, the aromslic is always an ufeful addi-
tion to the bitter, and is geueraily employed.

The moft important of the animrJ bitters is the bile, the
properties of which have been mentioned under that article.
In tonic power, it clofely refembles the vegetable bitters.
Late experiments make it {'lobablc, that the Prvjfic acid, 1
very peculiar animal bitter, poilVffes properties fimiiar to ths
vegetable narcotic bitters.

A few of the mint ral, or common falir.e combinations, are

diftinguifticd by bitternefs of tafte ; but it is doubtful hovr

% T far

15 I T

far this principle modifies tluir medicinal powers. The ni-
tratcd f.lvcr is of tl.is kind, a fait cftccmcd to be a very
powerful tonic, taken internally in fmall dofes. Some ot tUc
faline combinations oftnagncfia have llie fame tallc, and it is
polTibly on this account, that the fulphat of magneha vvill
often be retained by very irritable llomachs, when other
faline medicines are reiccted. For the pharmaceutical pre-
parations of the feveral bitters, fee the rcfpctiive articles;
as Galium, Omiffui, Columlo, 'dc and that ot Butcr Extract.
DITTOUK, in Onikhol'isy- See Bittern.
BITITIJERCULATA, in /^n/oPK.%_v, a fpeciesof Cas-
sioa, of a brown colour, with a white margin ; wing-cafcs
fpolted with black, and a fingk tubercle at the bafeot each.
A native of Cayenne. I'abricius.

BITUBERCULATUS, a fpecics of Cupxulio, that
inhabits New Zealand. This is of a ferruginous colour ;
thorax length of the wing-cafcs, and dotted, with two tu-
bercles on tlie back. Fabricius.

BITUBERCULATUS, a fpecics of Cryptocephalus
{Crioccns), that inhabits Africa. It is fulvous ; wing-cafes
pale, entirely bordered with fulvous. Fabricius.

BITUMEN, Bilume, Fr. The bitumens, properly fo
called, form a fpecies of compound mineral inflammables, ot
which the following are the charaders. £. By cxpofure to
the air, and the apphcation of heat, they burn with a flame
more or lefs vivid, and leave fcarccly any refidue. l. By
dellruiflivc diilillation, they yield a liquid acid, but no am-
monia, a variable but fmall proportion of charcoal being left
behind in the retort. 3. They are either liquid, or capable
cf being rendered fo by a moderate degree of heat.

Bitumens may be divided into two families, the non-elatlic
and elaftic. To the former belong naphtha, petroleum,
mineral tar, mineral pitch, and afphaltum ; to the latter be-
lon'f mineral caoutehou, and fubcriform mineral caoutcliou.
§ I. JVoii-E/iiJlic Bitumens.
Naphtha, Bergnaphtha, Naphte, Bitumc liqu'uk blanch-
itre, is a fub(\ance of a light brown, or wine yellow
ei>lour, pcrfeflly fluid and traufparent. It is the lightcll
of all liquids its fpecifjc gravity being =0.708 to 0.732 ;
it has a ftrong penetrating bituminous fmell ; it takes
fire with great readinefs, and burns with a bluifli yel-
low flame and copious blnck fmoke, leaving no refidue. It
may be reftilied bv dillilhition with water, in the fame manner
as the eflential oils, and then becomes colourlefs, and weaker
in it5 odour. It does not combine in any conflderablc de-
gree with either water or alcohol, but unites ealily with
ether, with turpentine, with caoutehou, and the effential
oils. Wlien rubbed with the cauflic fixed alkalies, it forms
a kind of Starkey's foap. The concentrated fulphuric and
nitric acids are decompofed with vehemence upon it, con-
verting it into a folid refinous fubllance folnble in alcohol.
Even the pnre!l naphtha, when cxpofcd to the air, becomes
firil of a yellow, and then of a browniflr colour, acquires a
fomewhat vifcid confidence, and thus pafles into petroleum.
Naphtha is procured for the moll part from very copious
fpHi:gs of this fubllance at Baku on the Ihore of the Cafpian
fea, where it is burnt in lamps inllead of oil, and is ufcd me-
dicinally both externally and internally in rheumatic and other
complaints. It is alfo met with in Calabria and fome parts of
Italy.

Petroleum, or Rod-oil. Erdohl, Ste'm-ohl. Petrole.
The colour of petroleum is a blackifli or reddilh brown ; it
is fluid, though fomewhat vifcid ; it is almoft opaque, s unftu-
•us to the touch, and exhales a llrong bituminous odour ; its
talle is pungent and acid. Sp. gr. 0.847, 0.854. Petroleum
may be reftified by dilliilation with water, in which procefs,
the carbon, which thickens and colours it, is left behind in the

B I T

retort, and a colourlefs fluid comes over, pofTefTcJ of all the pro-*
perties of naphtha. When petroleum is diililled /v7-_^, there
firfl. arifcs fomc naphtha, then a watery empyreu.natic acid,
and lalUy a thick dark coloured oil, a fpungy coal remaining
in the retort. In its combinations with, and chernical aftions
on other fubllances, it perfeAly refenibles the preceding fpe-
cies. It is found wherever naphtha is, and in many other
places among flratilied mountains, in the vicinity of coal.
In England, Coalbrook dale, and Pitchford in Shropfliire,
are the principal places where petroleum is found ; at the
latter place extenfive ftrata of fandllone are faturated with
petroleum, and the naphtha, procured by dilliilation of the
Hone, is fold under the name of Betton's Brililh oil, and i>
tUeemed an aftive remedy in ftrains and rhcunwtifm.

Mineral Tar, Barbadoes Tar, Bcrgihicr, GouJron-
ni'meral. This fubllance diff"ers from the preceding only in
degree ; it is more vifcid, more opaque, of a darker colour,
and, when dillillcd, leaves a larger carbonaceous refidue. It
is found native together with petroleum, and may alfo b'3
procured by the dilliilation of coal.

Mineral Pitch, Maltha. The external chara£lers of
maltha are extremely fimilar to thofe of common pitch ;
when heated, it emits a llrong unpleafant odour. In cold
weather it may be broken, and exhibits a vitreous luflre ;
but when warm, it is foft and tenacious.

Asphaltum, Schlachiges Erdpeih, /IJphaUc. The colour
of this fubllance is black or brownifli black ; it is light and
brittle ; when broken, it difplays a conchoidal fratture and
vitreous lullre ; it has little or no odour, unlels it is nibbed
or heated. It is coni'idcrably inflammable, melts eafily, and
burns away without leaving any refidue. It is principally
found on the fliores of the Dead Sea, in Syria, and in the
ifle of Trinidad in the Well Indies.

The principal ufe of afphaltum is as an ingredient in cer-
tain varniflies, efpecially that ufed by the copptr-plate en-
gravers.

§ 1. Elitjlic B'ttunwns.

Mineral Caoutchou, Elajlichcs Erdpech, Po'ix niiiif^
rale elajlique. The colour of this fubllance varies from
yellowilh brown to olive brown and blackilh or reddilli
brown. The light coloured is often in a femifluid llatc, and
adiieres to the fingers ; the olive brown is folid and elallic ;
the blackirtr and reddiili brown are hard and little elallic.
It occurs ilalaftitical, or invcfting, or in mafl'cs. Its Ip.
grav. in the foft varieties is about = o.y, and in the liardell
and leaft. elafl:ic is = 1.2. It palFes into afphaltum.

It is partly foluble in fulphuric ether; but the refidue of
the lolution, after evaporation of the ether, is not elallic ;.
thus forming an eifential difference between the vegetable
and mineral caoutchou.

This fingular mineral has been hitherto only found in the
cavities of a lead mine, near Cailleton, in Derbylhire, called
the Odin mine, accompanied by afphaltum.

SuEERiFoRM Mineral Caoutchou. This fubllance,
when recently cut, exaftly refembles fine clofe cork in its
colour and texture ; but by expofure for a few days to the
air, it becomes of a pale reddiili brown colour. It is alfo
fometimes found friable, and paffing by decompofition into
an ochraceous powder. It has only been found in a rivulet
near the Odin mine, whence the preceding is obtained, and
appears to difl'cr from it, merely by being penetrated with
water. It occurs in nodules of various fizes, forac weighing
upwards of 1 3 pounds, the nucleus of which is very common-
ly the brown perfectly elaftic mineral caoutchou. Fourcroy
Syfl:. vol. viii. Brochant. Mineralog. vol. ii. p. 58. Diet, d'
Hill. Nat. art. Bhunies. Gren. Syft. Handbuch. vol. iii.
p. I. Hatchett on iiitmneiis jn Liuuaan Tranf.

BITURIGES,

B I V

BITURIGES CuBi, in ylncieiit Ge/fgraphy, tlie name of
8 people who occupied a confiderable part of Aquitaiiia Pii-
ina, and who had been much more powerful before Ccefar's
conquell of Gaul, than they were afterwards. Livy fays,
that, in the time of I'arquin, they commanded the whole
portion ot Gaul called Celtic. Their capital was denomi-
nated j^^'aricum, which fee. In the time of Cxfar, thefe
people loll their power, and became fuhjeit to tlie .^dui,
or at lead were reduced to the necefTity of putting them-
felves under their proteftion.

BiTURiGEs Vivlfci, a people who inhabited the fouthern
part of Aquitania Secunda, and are luppofcd to have de-
rived their origin from the Bituriges Cubi. Their capital
was Burd'igala ; which fee.

BITURIS, a town of Hifpania Tarragonenfis, in the
country of the Vafcones. Ptolemy.

BITYLA, a town of the Peloponnefus, not far from the
Melfenian gulf, S. W. of Sparta.

BITZLEER, LiwA, \x\ Biography, a celebrated Jew'ifh
rabbi, who flourifiied in Bohemia about the clofe of the fix-
teeuth century. He converfed with the emperor Rodol-
phus, and he was fo famous, that the Jews faid of him, that
all Ifrael drank of his waters, and walked by his light. He
founded the academy, called Klaufc, in 1592, which ac-
quired fuch I'epulation in his time, that it drew a vaft con-
courfe of difciples to him. He was chofen at lall fuperin-
tendant of all the fynagogues in Poland.

BIVALVE, ttvo-vcdvtd, in Couchology, bivalviE conchx,
one of the three principal fcAions, into whicli all tellaceous
animals are divided. The Linnxan genera of bivalve fhells
are mya, folen, tellina, cardium, madira, donax, venus,
fpondylus, chama, area, oftrea, anomia, mytilus, and pinna.
The arrangement of bivalves by Cuivier, Lamarck, and
other late naturalills, differs materially from that of Linn<EUS
and Gmelin. See Conchology.

Bivalve is alfo applied, in Botany, to the filiqutt, or
feed-pods, of fuch plants as open their whole length to dif-
chavge their feeds. Such are peas, beans, &c. which the
botanifts fay, have bivalve or bivalvular fdiquK.

BIVAT, in Conchology, the name given by Adanfon to
the fhell called by Limucus (Syft. Nat. edit. 10.) murexfca-
brhifculus ; and volula tancellata. Gmelin.

BlVENTER, from h'ts and venter, in Anatomy, a name
given to mufcles that have two flefliy portions, which were
called bellies, and one tendon. Such mufcles are alfo called
ei'igajlric. The term biventer has been applied to a mufcle
of the lower jaw and os hyoides, which is dclcribed under
its more common title of digqjlrlciis. Albinus alio denomi-
nates a portion of the mufculus compkxus of the neck, bi-
venter cervicis. See CoMPLExus.

BIVERI, in Geography, a lake of Sicily, near Lentini,
■which, in fummer and autumn, renders the fituation of this
town very unwholcfome. The waters of this lake, and of
the neighbouring marflies and ponds, abound with eels and
tench, of the roes of which the fifliermen make a large quan-
tity of botarga, a fpecies of caviar ; it is very fait, and has
the talle of tar, but is much rclifhed by the Sicilians.

BIVINCO, the principal place of a canton, in the de-
partment of Golo, and illand of Corfica, the population of
which confills of 1573 perfons.

BIVIO. Sec Bevio.

BIVITTATUS, in Entomohgv, a fpecies of Scarab.e-
tjs [Mclclontha), that inhabits Bralil. It is yellow and stvy
gloffy ; on the head and thorax two common ftripes, and
many abbreviated green llrix on the wing-cafes. Svvederus,
Nov. Afl. Stockh.

BiviTTATus, a fpecies of CuRCULio, found in SuTho-

B r X

mas's ifland. It is black ; wing-cafes ftriated with dots ;
marginal and dorfal interrupted ilripe of yellow. Fabricius.

BlUMBRES, from Lis, Joiibk, and iiuilra, Jhaclo-'j:, in
Geography, an appellation given to the inhabitants of the
torrid zone, becaufe at two different feafons of the year,
their Ihadows are projefted two different ways.

The biumbres are the fame with thofc otherwife denomi-
nated amphifcti.

BIUMI, Paul Jr.ROM, m Biography, born at Milan in
1663, iludied medicine at Padua, where he was admitted to
the degree of dotlor in 1685. Returning thence to Milan,
he foon acquired fo much fame for his learning and fkill in
his profelUon, that in 1699 he was made profeifor of ana-
tomy there, in which fituation he continued to the time of
his death, in 173 1. He was author of feveral works, of
which the following are moll known : " Encomiafticon
lucis, feu luc;s encomia in phyfiologicis medicina: novx fuii-
damentis e vcterum tenebris erutis, atque cultro anatomico,
autopiixque caradere confirmatis," Mcdiol. 1701, 4to.
" Scrutinio di Notomia e di Cirurgia," Milan, 1712,
8vo. Haller. Bib. Anat. ct Med. Eloy. Dirt. Hill.

BIVONA, in Geography, a town in the kingdom of Na-
ples, and province of Calabria Ultra, 10 miles N.E. of Ni-
cotera.

BIXA, in iJofany. Lin. gen. 654. Reich. 710. Schrcb.
S87. Juff. 293. Grertn. t. 61. Clafs and order, poJyandria
monogyn'ta. Nat. Ord. cohmn'ifern: ; til'iacen:, Jnff. Gen.
Char. Cal. perianth five-toothed, very fmall, obtufe, flat,
permanent. Cor. double ; outer with petals five, oblong,
equal, large, more rude ; inner with five petals like the
outer, but thinner. Siam. filaments numerous, fetaceous,
ftiorter by half than the corolla ; anthers ereft. P'[j}. germ
ovate ; llyle filiform, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma pa-
rallely bifid, compreflcd. Per. capfule ovate-cordate, com-
preficd, fenced with briftles, bivalve, gaping at the angles,
one-celled, with an inner bivalve membrane. Seeds nume-
rous, turbinate, with a truncated navel, berried. Rec. Linear,
longitudinal, faftened to the middle of the valves.

Eff. Char. Cor. ten-petalled. Cal. five-toothed. Capf.
hifpid, bivalve.

Species, i. B. OreUana, arnotto, or anotta. Lin. Spec.
730. Reich. 2. 580. Hort. Cliff. 211. Mat. Med. 135.
Girtn. frurt. i. 29Z. Brown, jam. 254. B. Oviedi, 1. 8.
c. 6. Bauh. Hill. i. 440. Ciuf. e.xot. 74. Orleana f.
Orellana. Pluk. pliyt. t. 209. f. 4. Comm. Hort. i. 6^.
t. 33. Rocu. Merian. furin. t. 44. LTrucu. Fifo 133.
Sloan, jam. 2. 52. t. 181. f. i. Pigmentaria. Rumph.
Amb. 2. 79. t. 19. Arbor Mcxiocana, fruclu caftanere,
coccifera. Bauh. pin. 419. Raii hift. 177 1. AchiotL
Hernandez. Mexic. 74. This (hrub rifes with an upright
(lem to the height of eight or ten feet, fending out many
branches at top, which form a regular head. Thefe are
garniflicd with heart-diaped leaves, ending in a point, which
have long footftalks, and come out without any order. The
flowers arc produced in loofe panicles at the end of the
branches, of a pale peach colour, having large petals. A na-
tive both of the Eall and Well Indies. Introduced here in
1690 by Mr. Bentick.

Linnreus has r.dopted the South American vernacular
name of bixa from Oviedo ; and it is known by the fame
name in Holland, Denmark, and other northern countries.
In Holland it is likevvife called Orleane ; in German, Anot-
ta, Si'c. In England this name is adopted, but its ortho-
graphy is various, as Arnotto, Arnotta, Anotta, Anato, Ano-
to, and Annoto. The French have adopted the Brafilian name,
Uruhn, or LIrucu, fpelling it Roucouyer, Roucou, or
llocurier des Indcs, The Portuguefe have alfo the fame
3 T 2 appellation

B I Z

appellation Urucn, or Urucueira. In SpaniiTi it is Anato,
or Atolle. In the Mcicican language, Achiotl. Scaligjr
calls it aibor finiiim rtgiiiidorum, becaiifc tlic MfXicans made
plans, and marked tlic boundariea of their lands on tablets,
with tlu- colour prepared from the berries. Tournefort
named it Mitella, from the rtfemblance of the capfule, when
open, to a mitre. For the preparation of the drug, and its
ufes, fee Annotto. The bark of the bixa makes good
ropes for common ufe in the Weft Indies"; and pieces ot the
wood are uftd by the Indians to procure tire by friction.

PropavMkn ami Cullurc. This plant is propagated by
feeds, m'ay be ealily cultivated, and is planted in many parts
of Jamaica, Bavb'adoes, Cayenne, &c. in rich foils, and
Ihady fituations, (liooting luxuriantly near rivulets. It is
alfo propagated with us by feeds, which are annually brought
ID great plenty from the Weft Indies. Thefe (hould be
fown in a fmail pot tilled with light rich earth, and plunged
into a hot-bed of tanner's bark, where, witii proper tempc
rature, the plants will appear in about a month ; when they
are about an inch high, they ftiould be taken out and fcpa-
rated without injuring their roots, and each planted in a pot
of light rich earth, and plunged into a freih hot-bed of tan-
ner's bark, iTiading them every day till they have taken
root ; afterwards they fhouM be treated like other plants of
the iame country, by admitting frefli air to them in propor-
tion to the warmtii of the feafon ; and when the heat of tiie
tan declines, it (liould be turned up to the bottom, and, if
neceflfary, frefh tan be added to renew the heat. The plants
mnft be refrelhed with water three times a week in fummer,
but not in great quantities, as with much wet their roots
would rot. Plants that are laifcd early in fpring, and pro-
perly managed, will be a foot and a half high in autumn,
when they (hould be removed into the bark ftove, and plunged
into the tan-bed. During tlie winter, they muft have but
little water, and while the plants are young, they fliould be
kept warm ; otherwife tliey will caft their leaves, lofe their
tops, and appear unlightly. They muft be kept con'.lantly
in the bark ftove ; fome of them rife feven or tight feet
high, with llrong ftems and large heads ; but feldom pro-
duce flowers in Europe. Martyn's Miller.

BIX.i'E, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio {Pleh. Urb.),
with roundirti, brown wings, grcenifli at the bafe, and a
milky band on the under tide of the pofterior wings. Linn.
Fabr. &c. Inhabits America.

BIZ.'^CIUM, in yincinil Geography. See Byzacium.^

BIZAM, CnAT-BiiAM, in Zoology, the French name
of the Linnxan viverra llgrina, which fee.

BIZAMO, in GeogriiphyyTi. kingdom of Abyfllnia, fituate
between the branches of the Nile, called the White and the
Blue rivers, about N. lat. 10° 15'. and between 35° and 36°
Ji. long.

BIZANTIA, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Moldavia, 40 miles fouth-wcft of I'irlah.

BIZARRE, Fr. AKixQlmg capricious, &c. a term ufed
among Florins for a particular kind of carnation, which has
its flowers ftriped or variegated with three or four colours.

BIZE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Audc, and diftrifl of Narbonne, 10 miles N. W.
of Narbonne.

BIZERTA. See Biserta.

BIZES, in Aoc'teiit Geography, a river of Eithynia, be-
tween Pli'lis and Rhebas. Aminian. Marcell.

BIZOCHI, orBisocHi, in Ecclefiajlkal Hl/iory, a feft

Beguin
name is fwnied froni bifaccus, on account of a double bud

B L A

get, or wallet, wherewith they begged their living. See .
Beghardi, andTERTiARiES.

BIZONE, in ylncietit Geography, a city of Lower Moe-
fia, 80 ftadia north of Dionyfopohs, mentioned by Pliny
(1. iv. c. 1 2 . ) as having been deftroyed by an earthqual»j.

BIZONNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of La Tour du Pin, 12 miles northweft of
Moirans.

bIZU, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco,
feated on a mountain in a fertile country, 25 leagues north
of Morocco.

BIZYA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, and
capital of the country called Aftica, at fome diftance from
the fea, N.W. of Salmydeffus.

BizvA, in Geograplyy, a town of European Turkey, ia
Romania, 50 miles eaft of Adrianople.

BLACK, fomething opake and porous, that imbibes the
greateft part of the light that falls on it, reflefts little or
none, and therefore exhibits no colour. See Blackness.

Bodies of a black colour are found more inflammable, be-
caufe the rays of light falling on them are not reflected out-
wards, but enter the body, and are often reflefted and re-
fracted within it, till they be llifled and loft. They are alfo
found lighter, creteris paribus, than white bodies, being more
porous. It may be added, that clothes dyed of this colour
wear out fafter than thofe of any other, becaufe their fub-
ftance is more penetrated and corroded by the vitriol necef-
fary to ftrike their dye, than other bodies are by the galls
and alum which fuffice for them.

I'he inflammability of black bodies, and their dlfpofition
to acquire heat, beyond thofe of other colours, are eafily
evinced. Some appeal to the experiment of a white and
black glove worn in the fame fun ; the conlequence will be,
a very fenfibly greater degree of heat in the one hand than
the other. Others allege the phenomena of burning-glaflTcs,
by which black bodies are always found to kindle fooneft :
thus, a buniing-glafs, too weak to have any vifible effcft at
all upon white paper, will readily kindle the fame paper
rubbed over with ink. Mr. Boyle gives other proofs ftill
more obvious : he to- k a large tile, and having whited over
one half of its fuperiicies, and blacked the other, expofed
it to the fun ; where having let it lie a convenient time, he
found, that whilft the whited part remained ftill cool, the
black part was grown very hot. For farther fatisfadtion,
the fame author has fometimes left on the fuiface of the tik
a part retaining its native red, and expofing all to the fun,
has found the latter to have contrafted a heat in comparifon
of the white part, but inferior to that of the black. So alio
on his expofing two pieces of filk, one white, the other
black, in the fa.ne window to the fun, he often found the
latter confiderably heated, when the former has remained
coo!. It is obfervablc Ukewife, that rooms hung with
black are not only darker, but warmer than others. Boyle's
Works abridg. torn. i. p. 144. and torn. ii. p. 36. To all
which may be added, that a virtuofo of unfufpefted cre-
dit allured Mr. Boyle, that, in a hot climate, he had, by
carefully blackening the fliells of eggs, and expofing them
to the fun, ften thsir. thereby well roa<>ed in a fliort
time.

Dr. Watfon, the prefent bifliop of LandafF, covered the
balb of a thermometer with a black coating of Indian ink,
in confcqucnce of which the mercui7 rofe ten degrees. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixiii. part i. p. 40.

Black clotiies heat more, and dry fooner in the fun,
than white clothes. Black is therefore a bad colour for
clothes in hot climates ; but a fit colour for the linings

of

B L A

oF ladies' fummer Viat9. Dr. Franklin's Experiments, Ob-
fervations, &c. 5th edit. p. 483, 5c feq. He obferves alfo,
ibid. p. 382, that a chimney painted black, when cxpofed
to the fun, will draw more ilrongly. We may add, that
black mould is a hotter foil for vegetables ; and garden-
walls, painted black, anfwer better for the ripening of wdll-
fruit, than thofe of lighter colours.

Black, in matters of drefs, is the diflinguifhing habit
of churchmen and mourners. Some will have it, that the
common people among the Romans were clothed in black ;
whence the denomination given them of turhn pullata.

Black, Josfph, m Bu/gmphy, a celebrated teacher of
chemiftry, was born at Bourdeaux, in France, in the year
1728. His father, who was a native of Belfall, in Ireland,
but of a Scotch family, carried on the wine trade at Bo'.ir-
deaux, and lived in intimacy with the famed baron Montcf-
quieu, who exprtfTcd his regret in ftrong terms on Mr.
Black's quitting Bourdeaux, when he retired from bufincfs,
as appears by feveral of his letters which are preferved by
the family. By his mother. Dr. Black was nearly related
to the wives of Dr. Adam Fergufon, and Mr. James Ruifcl,
profefforin natural philofophy at the univerfity of Edinburgh,
and owed probably much of his knowledge to the inflruc-
tion or information he obtained from them. In tbe year
1 740, his father fent him to Belfaft, that he might have the
education of a Britifh fubjeft ; and from his letters, he ap-
pears to have been fatisfied with the progrefs he made there.
In 1746, he went to Glafgovv, where he applied to the
ftudy of medicine, but particularly to chemiltry, into the
knowledge of which he was initiated by Dr. Cullen, who
then gave lectures there on that branch of fcicnce. Under
his direction he made fuch progrefs, that, in 1756, when
Dr. Cullen removed to Edinburgh, Black, who had previ-
oufly taken his degree of doi?ior, fucceeded him as profcflbr
in medicine, and leilurer in chemiftry. That he was quali-
fied to fill this office, he had (hewn by an ingenious effaj',
containing experiments to inveiligate the nature of magnefia,
quicklime, and fome other alkaline fubftanccs, recommended
as folvents of the Hone in the bladder. In the courle of
thefe experiments he demonftrated the exiftence of an aerial
fluid, which he called fixed air, the prefence of which gave
mildnefs, and its abfcnce caufticity, to alkalies and calcareous
earth ; a difcoveiy which laid the foundation of the improve-
ments fince made in our knowledge of gafes, or aerial bodies,
by Friellley, Cavendifli, Lavoifier, and other chemifts. The
elTay, containing the account of thefe experiments, was pub-
lilhed in the fecond volume of " Efi'aysphyficaLand literary,"
in 1756. The following year he further enriched his favour-
ite fcitnce with his experiments on latent heat, which is
found to ex. 11 in all bodies ; explaining in a fatisfaftory
manner the connexion of heat and fluidity, by which he fo
eftablifhed his reputation, that on Dr. Cullen's being pro-
moted from the chemical to the medical chair at Edinburgh,
in 1765, he was unanimouiiy chofen to fucceed him as pro-
feffor in chemifti-y there. His tim.e was now dedicated,
and with increafed ardour, to imparting the knowledge he
had acquired to his numerous pupils ; and as he was per/eftly
mafter of the fubjefts on which he lectured, his dotlrines
were fo clearly explained, as to be eafily underftood by his
auditors, many of whom took complete copies of his lec-
tures. By this means the knowledge of the difcoveries he
had made, became widely difiuftd, and his claim to them
fecured to him, which might otherwife have been afiigned
to thofe who improved and extended them. Having thus
laid the ground-work for the improvement of the art, he
feems to have been contented, without attempting to pulh
liis difcoveries further. Satisfied with the attention paid

B L A

him by his pupils, and the gradual extenfion of his fame»
of which he received daily proofs, he took little notice of
what Prieftley, Lavoifier, and other philofophical ciieraills,
were doing, or only noticed them when they had neg.
lected making thofe acknowledgments to him he knew to
be his due. Dr. Robifon, who had been his pupil, and
has lately publiflicd his lectures, with an account of his hfe.
attributes this apparent apathy to the ill ftate of his
health, which, for feveral years before his death, did not
permit that degree of application and ftudy, which the far-
ther extenfion of his difcoveries would have required. " The
flighteft cold," he fays (Preface to the Lectures, p. Ix.),
" the moft trifling approach to repletion, immediately af-
fefted his breafl:, occafioned feverilhnefs, and, if continued
two or three days, brought on a fpittiiig of blood. In this
fituation nothing rettored him but relaxation from thought,
and gentle exercife. The fedentary life, to which ftudy
confined liim, was maniftftly hurtful ; and he never allowed
himlelf to indulge in any intenfe thinking, or puzzhng re-
fearch, without finding thefe complaints fenfibly increafed."
Hence, though he had the honour of being elected one of
the foreign afi'ociates of the royal academy of fciences at
Paris, and member of the imperial academy at Peterftjurgh,
he fent no commur.ications to either of thofe learned focie-
ties. As he ranked high among the teachers of chemiftr)',
and his name and charafter were extended over Europe, his
pupils were numerous, and continued increafing for the
whole time he lectured, more than thirty years. In the
year 1774, he fei.t to the royal fociety in London, his ob-
fervations on the effect of boiling upon water, in difpofing
it to freeze ; and, in 1701, the Royal Society at Edinburgh
pubhftied his analyfis of the waters of fome hot fprings in
Iceland, in the third volume of their Tranfadions. In this
paper, which is drawn up with great accuracy, he treats of
the formation of the filicious ftone, which is depofited by
thefe fprings. Kis conftitution becoming more and more
feeble, from the frequent returns of his complaint, he was
firft obliged to make ufe of an affiftant in his leftures,
and at length, to give them up altogether ; the fmalleft. ex-
ertion bringing on a fit of hssmoptoe. " But he fecmed,"
Dr. Robifon fays (Preface, p. 73.), " to have his complaint
almoft under command, fo that he never allowed it to pro-
ceed far, or to occafion any diftrcffing illnefs, and fo fpun his
thread of life to the laft fibre, guarding againft illnefs by re-
ftrifting himfelf to a moderate diet, and meeting his increafing
infirmities with a proportional increafe of attention and care."
On the 26th of November 1799, and in the 71ft year of his
age, he died fuddenly, without any previous warning. Be-
ing at table, with his ufual fare before him, fome bread, a
few prunes, with m.ilk and water for his drink, having the
cup in his hand, refting on his knees, he expired fuddenly
in that pofture, the cup remaining in his hand, and his
countenance fo compofed and placid, that his fervant at firll
imagined he was fallen afleep. He was of a chearful and
fociable difpofition, and, as his mind was well flared with.
knowledge, an entertaining companion. His company was
therefore much courted ; and, as his circumftances were af-
fluent, he dedicated as much of his time to the pleafures of
fociety, as was confiftent with his avocations. He was never
married ; he therefore left the principal part of his fortune,
which is faid to have been confiderable, among the chil-
dren of his brothers and fiftcrs. Gen. Biog. Diet. LeAures
of the Elements of Chemiftry.

Black, in Heraldic Engravings, is cxprefled by crofs
lines, and in emblazoning, is termed for commonei-syi/^A-, for
peers diamoiuf, and for fovereigns and princes fisUirn.

Black, iu the Manege, A hoiic of a deep, Ihining,

and

1

B L A

and lively black is called a black-morf, or eoal-llacL Horfes
black all over are commonly reckoned dull and melancholy ;
bnt a white foot, or liar in tl.e forehead, gives t'lem a ce-
grec of fpriglillinefa. The Sp:ir,i(h goivity is faid to be belt
pleafed with thofc entirelv black.

nL\CK, blue, in the M.mufaclures ami ylrts, is the coal ot
fome kind of wood, or other vegetable matter, burnt m a
clofc heat, where the air can have no accefs : the belt lo.t
is faid to be made of vine-lblks and tendrils. The gooJ-
nefs of blue black confills in the cleanntfs and blue call ot
its black colour, and the perfeft degree of its Icv.gation.

That this preparation, which is fold in the col,)ur (hops,
Js no other than a vegetable coal, appeared from the follow-
ing experiment of Dr. Lewis. (Comm. Phd. Peehn. p. .•^5^.)
Laid on a red-hot iron, it burned and glowed like powdered
charcoal, and turned into white aPaes; which afhes, thrown
into oil of vitriol diluted with water, veiy readily difiblvtd into
a bitterilh liquor, the charaAcrillic by which the vegetable
earth is dillniguilh-d. F.iti what particular vegetable
matter this blue-black is procured, experiments, he fays,
cannot difeover : but it appears from thofe whi :h he recites,
that it may be obtained from many, aud that the choice
of the vegetable fubjed affeas rather the foftnefs or hard-
nefs, than the colour of the coal. Blue-black, perfedly
good, inav be prepared in the manner direcled for k<ory
Ulack, from the vine flalks, or tendrils, or any other
twigs of wood, of an acid tallc and tough texture ; but the
foaking in the oil, prefcribed for the ivory, mull be omitted.
The painters have hhie-blacls, broivn-blacls, &c. which
may be made by mixing pigments of the refpective colours,
with fimple black one--, in greater or lefs quantity, accord-
ini' to the (hade required. The dyers alio have different
blacks, and often d:irken other colours by (lightly pafiing
them through the black dying liquor ; but the term brown-
black is in this bulinefs unknown, brown and black being
here looked upon as oppofite to one another. In cffeCt,
the colour called brown-black is no otiur than that which
all dyed black clothes change to in wearing ; and therefore
it is no wonder that it (hould be excluded from the cata-
logue of the dyers' colours. The true or limple blacks,
mixed with white, form different fhades of grey, lighter or
darker, according as the white or black ingredient prevails
in the mixt. Tfie black pigments, fpread thin upon a
white ground, have a like effeft. Hence the painter, with
one true black pigment, can produce on white paper, or
on other white bodies, all the {hades of grey and black,
from the (lightell difcolouration of the paper up to a full
black ; and the dyer produces the fame elledt on white
wool, filk, or cloth, by continuing the fubjecls for a
fhoner or longer time in the black bath, or making the
bpth itfelf weaker or Wronger.

M. le Blon, in his " Harmony of Colours," forms black
by mixing together the three primitive coloui'S, blue, red,
and yellow ; and Mr. Callel, in Ills " Optique des coulcurs,"
publiihed in 1 7+0, fays, that this compound black has an
advantage in painting above the fimple ones, of anfwering
better for the darkening of other colours. Thus if blue, by
the addition of black, is to be darkened into a Hiie-bla:!:,
the fimple blacks, if ufed in fuffieient quantity to produce
the reqnifite deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the com-
pound blacks leave it dillinguifliable. Le Blon )ias not
mentioned the proportions of the three primitive colours
neceffary for producing black. Caflel directs 15 parts of
blue, 5 of red, and three of yellow ; and he obftrvts, that
the colours fliould be the deepcil and darkefl of their refpec-
tive kinds, and that a combination flwuld be made of
fcvcral pigments for each colour j for the greater the contrail

B L A

of heterogeneous and difcordant drugs, the more tnie and
beautiful will be the black, and the more capable of uniting
with all other colours, without fupprelTing them, and even
without making them tawney. Dr. Lewis, in his expen-
ments, has not fo far fucceeded as to obtain a perFedt black
bv mlxino- diflerent blue, red, and yellow powders; but he
procured"very dark colours, fuch as brown-blacks and grey.

blacks. r , 11 t

Black, bone, is made of the bones of bullocks, cows, &c.
well burnt and ground. To be good, it muft be foft and
friable, of a gloffy call. It is in confiderablc ufe, though
inferior in goodncfs to ivory-black.

The invention of bone, or ivory black, is attributed to
Apellcs. Plin. Hiil. Nat. lib. xxxv. cap. 5.
Black chalk. See Chalk, and Killow.
Black, charcoal. Sec Charcoal, and Crayons.
Black, curriers, fignifies a teint or dye laid on tanned
leather. Tanned leather is fo much impregnated with the
aftringent parts of oak bark, or with that matter which
ftrikes a black colour with green vitriol, that rubbing it
over three or four times with a folution of the vitriol, or
wMth a folution of iron made in vegetable acids, is fufScicnt
for ftaining it black. Of this we may be convinced by
dropping a little of the folution on the unblacked (ide of
common (hoe-leather- This operation is performed by the
currier, who, after the colouring, gives a glofs to the leather
with a folution of gum-arabic and i'lze made in vinegar.
Where the previous altringent impregnation is infufBcient to
give a due colour, and for thofe forts of leather which have
not been tanned, fome galls or other allringents are added
to the folution of iron ; and in many cafes, particularly for
the finer forts of leather, and for renewing the blacknefs,
ivory or lamp-black is ufed. A mixture of either of thefe
with llnfeed oil, makes the common oil-blacking. See
Currying.

Black, dyers, is one of the fire fimple and mother coloui-s
ufed in dying : and given differently, according to the
different quality and value of the (luffs to be dyed. Sec
Dying.

Green vitriol ftrikes a black colour with vegetable aftrin-
gcnts, and hence it is the balis of the black dye for cloth,
leather, hats, &c. And as folutions of iron with galls, &c.
produce the fame colour, a method is derived from hence
of dltlinguifhing the minuted portions of iron in mineral
waters, &c. Neumann.

The fiibllances chiefly employed for producing black
colour with vitriol are galls. When a decodlion or infufion
of the galls is dropped into a folution of the vitriol largely
diluted with water, the firll drops produce bluifli or purplilh
red clouds, which mingling with the liquor tinge it uni-
formly of their own bluifh or reddifh colour. This differ-
ence of the colour, fays Dr. Lewis (Com. Ph. Tech. p. 346.),
feems to depend on the quality of the water. With diltilled
water, or the common fpring waters, the mixture is always
blue. A minute quantity of alkaline fait previoully diffolved
in the water, or a fmall degree of putridity in it, will render the
colour of the mixture purple or reddifli. Rain-water re-
ceived f.-om the clouds, in clean glafs veffels, gives a blue,
but if it be collefted from the tops of houfcs, gives purple
with the vitriol and galls. Both the blue and purple
liquors, when more of the aftringent infufion is added,
deepen to a black, more or lefs intenfe, according to the
degree of dilution ; and if the mixture be a deep opake
black, it again becomes bluifh or purpllfti when further
diluted. If it be fuffered to ftand in this dilute ftate for
two or three days, the colouring matter fettles to the
bottom in form of a fine black mud, which, by (lightly
8 fluking

B L A

ffiaking the vend, is difFufed again throcgh tlie liquor, and
tinges it of iti former colour. Wlien the nuxture is of a full
blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or in a far lefs
degree ; for though a part of the black matter precipitates
in {landing, yet fo much remains diffolved, that the liquor
continues black. This fufpenfion of the colouring iub-
ftance in the black liquid may be attributed in part to the
gummy matter of the aftringent infufion increafing the con-
fiftencft of the watery fluid, for the feparation is retarded in
the diluted mixture by a frKall addition of gum arable. If
the mixture, either in its black or diluted Hate, be poured
into a filter, the liquor paffcs through coloured, only a part
of the black matter remaining on the paper. The filtered
liquor, on llanding for fome time, becomes turbid, and full of
fine black flakes: but being freed from thefe by a fecond
filtration, it again contracts th.e fame appearance, and thus
repeatedly, till all the colouring parts are leparated, and the
liquor has become colourlefs. The colouring matter, thus
feparated from the liquor, being drained on a filter and
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem to have
fufftred any change on being expofed to the air for upwards
of four months. When it was made red hot, it glowed and
burnt, though without flaming, and became a ruily brown
powder, which was readily attratled by a magnetic bar ;
though in its black Hate, the magnet had no action upon
it. The vitriolic acid, diluted with water, and digeftcd on
the black powder, diffolved the greateft part of it, leaving
only a very little quantity of whitifh matter. Solution of
pure fixt alkaline lalt diffolved very little of it ; the liquor
received a reddifh brown colour, and the powder became
blaekilh brown. This refiduum was attracted by the magnet
after being made red-liot, though not before ; the alkaliv.e
tinilure, paffed through a filter, and mixed with folution of
gum vitriol, ilruck a deep brownilh-black colour, nearly the
fame with that which refults from mixing with tlie vitriolic
folution an alkaline tinclure of galls. For an account of
the refult of thefe experiments, fee Lewis, iiii fupra. See
alfo Iron.

For broad-cloths, fine ratines, and druggets, &c. the
dvers ufe woad and indigo ; the goodnefs of the colour con-
fills in there not being above fix pounds of indigo to a ball
of woad, when the latter begins to caff its blue flower ; and,
in its not being heated for ufe above twice. Thus blued,
the ffuffis boiled with alum, or tartar, then maddered ; and,
lallly, the black given with galls, copperas, and fumac. To
bind it, and prevent its fmearing in ufe, the fluffs are to be
well fcoured \u the fulling mill, when white, and/kveil waflied
afterwards.

For ftufFs of lefs value, it is fufllcient they be well blued
with woad, and blacked with galls and copperas : but no
fluff can be regularly dyed from white into black, without
pafiing through the intermediate blue.

Yet there is a colour called coal hlacl, or jfefuit's Mack,
prepared of the fame ingredients as the former, and fufSeient
of itfelf without the blue dye. Here the drugs are diffolved
in water that had boiled four hours, and flood to cool till
the hand would bear it ; then the ituff is dipped in it, and
aga'in taken out fix or eight times. Some even prefer this
black to the other. This method of dying black is faid to
have been invented by the Jefuits, and to have been praftifcd
in their houfes, where they retained numbers of dyers.

I?y 23 El. c. 9. nothing of the nature of cloth fliall be
niadd.ered for a black, except it be firft grounded with woad
only, or with woad and antle [blue ind.], unlefs the madder
be put in with fumac or galls ; on pain of forfeiting the
value of the thing dyed ; provided it ihall be lawful to dye

B L A

any manner tf gall-black, and fumac-black [//a/'n blacllt
wherein no madder fnall be ufed.

Logwood (Irikes a black with chalybeate folutions and
is employed with thofe liquors for llaining wood black, as
pifture frames, Sec. With the addition of galls, it is ufed
for dying cloth and hats black. (Neumann's Works,
p. S^J.) This black colour is not permanent, though beau-
tiful, any more than the natural violet dye of the logwood.

Black may be alfo obtained by a folution of filver in
aqua fortis, when the previous matter ftained with this liquor
is expofed for fome time to the fun and air ; and alfo from
folutions of lead in acids, when the fubjecls to which thev
are applied are expofed to fulphurecus vapours, or wafhtd
over with alkahne folutions of fulphiir. Calces of lead,
melted with fulphur, form a bluifh or blackifh mafs, ufeful
in taking c.ills from n-.edals. (See Casts.) Befides, when
a folution of filver in aqua fortis is added to a folution of ful-
phur made in alkaline ley, the filver and fulphur unite and
precipitate together in the form of a black powder. Sec
Dying, and Staining.

Black, earth, is a kind of coal found in the ground,
which, well pounded, is ufed by painters in frcfco. See
Pit-CoAL, and Fresco.

There is alio a kind of black made of filver and lead, ufed
to fill up the ftrokes and cavities of things engraved.

Black, German, or Frankfurt, is made of the lees of wine
burnt, then waflied in water, and ground in mills for that
purpofe, together with ivory or peach ftones burnt. Some
fuppofe, that it is the coal of vine-twigs ; but this, fays
Dr. Lewis (Com. Phil. Techn. p. 377.), does not appear to
differ, in any great degree, from that of the fmall branches
of other kinds of trees ; but the kernels of fruits yield a coal
confiderably more foft and mellow, eauly crumbling between
the fingers into a fine meal. That the Frankfort black is
no other than a vegetable coal, appeared, from its burning
on a red-hot iron, like charcoal powder, into xvhite allies,
and from the aflies, like common vegetable allies, being plen-
tihilly difiohible by the vitriolic acid into a bitterilh liquor,
while the aflies of animal fubllances are very fparingly
affected by that acid, and form with it a compound of a
different kind of tafte.

This black makes the principal ingredient in the rolling-
prefs printers' ink, which fee. It is ordinarily brought from
FVankfort, Mentz, or Strafbourg, either in lumps or powder.
That made in France is more valued than that of Germany.

Black ^At/}. See Glass.

Black, harts, that which remains in the retort after ex-
trafting the ipirit, fait, and oil of hartfliorn. This refidue
being ground up with water, makes a' black not much in-
ferior to that of ivory.

Black, JnJiaii. See Indian Ink.!

Black, Ivory, is made of ivory burnt or charred, ordina-
rily between two crucibles well luted ; which, being thus
rendered perfcclly black, and in fcales, is ground in water,
and made into troches, or little cakes, ufed by the painters ;
as alfo by the jewellers to blacken the bottom or ground of
the collets, wherein they fet diamonds to give them their
teint or foil. Some recommend foaking the chips or {hav-
ings of ivory in hot linfeed oil, before it is charred.

There are particular machines and contrivances for burn-
ing the ivory for thefe purpofes, by which the colour is
rendered more beautiful than that of the coal which remains
in the dillillation. Neumann.

The goodnefs of ivoi-y black, which is the fineft of all the
charcoal blacks, may be perceived by its fulnefs, without a
blue call ; and by the finenefs of the powder.

Id

B L A

In tlie manuraAiirc of tliia black much impofition is
rraaif>.-d, (o ttiat what is generally fold under this name is
no other than the coal of common bones. Being applied to
coarfe pui-pofes, and fold at a low price, it is very grofsly
levigated by the hand or horfe-mills which are employed in
grinding the bonts, and fo much adulterated with charcoal
durt, which gives it a blue cart, that it is wholly exploded
from delicate nfes, and lamp-black, though inferior with
regard to the purity and clearnefs of the black colour, fub-
ftituted for it.

The following recipe is given in the Handmaid to the
Arts (vol.i. p. 140.) for preparing it in perfcftion. Take
plates, chips, or Ihavings of ivory, and foak them in hot lin-
feed oil ; or, if filings are more eallly procured, they may be
ufed moirtened with the hot oil. Put them into a vcfTel,
which will bear the fire, covering them with a fort of lid
made of clay and faiid ; which Ihould be dried, and the
cracks repaired before the vcdel be put into the fire. Let
this veffcl be placed in a tobacco-pipe maker's or potter's
furnace, or any other fuch fire ; and let it remain there
during one of their heats. When it is taken out, the ivory
will be properly burnt ; and mull be afterwards thoroughly
well levigated on the ftone with water, or to liave it per-
feiftlv good, be alfo walhed over. The ivory may be con-
veniently burnt in a calcining or fubliming furnace.

An opake deep black for water colours is made by grinding
iwor)- -black with gum-water, or with the liquor which fettles
from the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to
Hand a little. Some ufe gum water and the whites of eggs
togethei, and tliey fay, that a fmall addition of the latter
makes the mixture flow more freely from the pencil, and
improves its glofhncfs. It may be obferved, however, that
tliougli ivory-black makes the decpcll colour in water, as
well 35 in oil-painting, yet it is not on this account always
to be preferred to other black pigments. A deep jet-black
colour is feldom wanted in painting ; and in tiie lighter
fliades, whether obtained by diluting the black with white
bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the parti-
cular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great meafurc loth

Black, /ump, or Lwi Black, originally perhaps the foot
coUeCled from lamp?, is generally prepared by melting and
purifying refni or pitch in iron vcfTels ; then fetting fire to it
under a chimney, or other place made for the purpofe, lined
a-top with (hetp-i]<inp, or thick linen cloth, to receive the
vapour or fmoke, which is the black : in which manner they
prepare vail quantities of it at Paris. In England confiaer-
able quantities are prepared, particularly at the turpentine-
houfes, from the dregs and refufe parts of the refinous mat-
ters which are diere manufactured ; hut the greateft part is
brought from Germany, Sweden, and Norway. Its prepara-
tion is dcfciibed in the Swedilh Tranfadtions for 1754, ^^ a
procefs dependent on the manufaflure of common refin.
The impure refinous juice, coUefted from incifions made in
pines and iir-trees, is boiled down, with a little water, and
ftrained, whilil hot, through a bag: the dregs and pieces
of ba k, Itf: in the ftrainer, are burnt in a low oven, from
which the fmoke is conveyed, through a long pilTage, into
a fquare chasibtr, having an opening in the top, in which
is fallencd a large fack, made of flcafy or thin-woven woolly
ftuff; the foot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the
chamber, from which it is fwept out onee in two or three
days, and partly iu the fack, which is now and then gently
ftruck upon, both for fiiaking.down the foot, and for clear-
ing the iiittrllices between the threads, fo as to procure a
fufficicnt di-.-iught of air through it. The more curious
artills prepare lamp-black for the nicer purpofes.by hanging

7

B L A

a large copper pan over the flame of a lamp with a long wick,
fupplied with more oil than can be perfedlly confumed, fo as
to receive its fmoke. Soot coUcclcd in like manner from
fir and other woods, by burning fmall pieces of them flowly
under a copper pan, is of a deeper black colour than fuch.
as is obtained from the fame kinds of wood in a common
chimney, and little inferior to that of oils. The foot of
mineral bitumens, in this clofe way of burning, appears to
be of the fame quahties with thofe of woods, oils, and refins.
In fome parts of Germany, it is faid, great quantities of
good lamp-black are prepared from a fort of pit-coal.

The Toodnefs of lamp-black lies in the fulnefs of the co-
lour, and in its being free from dud or other impurities. The
lightnefs of the fubllancc furnirties the means of difcovering
any adulteration, if to a great degree ; as the bodies with
wliich lamp-black is fubjeft to be fophidicated, are all
heavier in a confiderable proportion.

This fubffance is ufed on various occafions, particularly
in the printers' ink ; for which it is mixed with oils of tur-
pentine and hiifeed, all boiled together.

It mull be obferved, that this black takes fire very readily,
and when on fire is very difficultly extinguifhed : the beft
method of putting it out is with wet linen, hay, or ftraw ;
for water alone will not do it.

A glafs tube clolely filled with lamp-black has been found
to conduct a confidcrable charge of eleftricity inftanta-
neouflv, and with fcarce any explofion. But a coating of
this fubllance, mixed with tar or oil, is a perfeft non-con-
ductor, and has proved a prefervative from lightning, by re-
pelling the electric matter from thofe parts of the mafts of
ihips which have been covered with it.

Rujfuin lamp-black is prepared from the foot of fir, and is
collected at Ochta near St. Petcrfburg, Mofcow, Archangel,
and other places, in little wooden huts, from refinous fir
wood, and the unftuous bark of birch, by means of an ap-
paratus uncommonly fimple, conCiling of pots without bot-
toms, ftt one upon another, and is fold very cheap. It is
three or four times more heavy, thick, and unCtuous, thaa
that kind of painter's black which the Germans call " kien-
rahm," and which is called in Ruflia " Holland's black."
For an account of the fpontaneous accenfion of Ruflian fir-
black, impregnated with hemp-oil, fee Spontaneous Inflam-
mation.

A mineral lamp-black may be procured from pit-coal, or
any kind of mineral or folTil coal, by preferving the blackelt
particles of the fmoke arifing from it in ignition. Mr. Wm.
Row of Newcaftle-uponTyne obtained a patent in 1798
for his method of manufacturing this kind of lamp-black.
See the fpecincation in the Repertory of the Arts, &c.
vol. X. p. 81.

Black palnl. See Paint.

Vii,ACK/an(l. See S.4ND.

^LACK/en/ing nvax. See Wax.

ELACK,yoo/, or chimney, is a poor colour ; but ready for
painting black draperies in oil. The foot blacks are in
general much fofter and of a more yielding texture than
thofe of the charcoal kind, and require much lefs grinding,
for uniting them with oily, watery, or fpirituous liquors,
into a fraooth mafs ; of fome of them a part is difToIvcd by
water, or fpirits of wine, while none of the charcoal blacks
have been found to contain any thing difToluble. This
foluble matter of foots, however, is not black like the indif-
foluble parts ; and in this particular, as well as in the colour
of the entire mafs, different forts of foot diflcr from one
another. Thus the foot of pit-coal collefted in common
chimneys, of itfclf rather greyilh black than of a full black,

being

B L A

B L A

being infufed fcparately in reftified fpirit of wine and in
water, tinged the former of a tranfparent reddifti colour, and
the latter of a paler reddifh ; while the deeper black foot of
wood gave, both to fpirit and to water, an opake dark
brown. See Soot.

Black, Spanijl:, fo called becaufe firft invented by the
Spaniards, and moft of it bought from them, is no other
than buiTit cork ufed in various works, particularly among
painters.

BhACKjIains. See Staining.
Black varniji. See Varnish.
Black •vegetable juice. See Anacardium.
Black yl3, IValtham, in Law, a name commonly dillin-
guifliing the llatute of 9 Geo. I. c. 22. becaufe it was oc-
caiioned by the devaftations committed near Waltham in
EfTex, by perfons in difguife, or with their faces llached.
By this ftatute it is enacted, that perfons hunting, armed
and difgnifed, and killing or ftealing deer, or robbing war-
rens, or ftealing fifh out of any river, &c. or any perfons
unlawfully hunting in his majefty's forefts, &c. or breaking
down the head of any fi(h-pond, or kilhng, &c. of cattle,
or cutting down trees, or fctling fire to houfe, barn, or wood,
or (hooting at any perfon, or fending letters, cither anony-
mous, or ligned with a fitlitious name, demanding money,
&c. or refcuing fuch offenders, are guilty of felony, without
benefit of clergy. This aft is made perpetual by 3 1 Geo. II.
c. 42. See farther 6 Geo. II. c. 37. and 27 Geo. II.
c. 15. Blackftone's Comm. vol. iv. p. 144. 208. 232.
244. The milder punifliment infliiftedby ftat. 16 Geo. III.
c. 30. againft deer-llcalcrs, has been thought a virtual re-
peal of the punilhment of the black ail above-recited.
Xieach's Hawk. P. C. i. c. 49. § 7.

Black bay, in Geography, a bay on the fouth-eaft coaft
of Labrador. N. lat. 51° 30'. W. long. 56° 2d'.
Black bear, in Zoologv. See Ursus Arctos.
Black-W//W darter, and ^hACK-ie//ied anhinga of La-
tham, in Ornithology, the Indian Zoology, &c. This is
P lotus melanogajler oi Gmelin.

Bi-ACK-bellied grofieai of Brown's lUuftrations, is Loxia
afra of Gmelin.

'2)1- k<:v.-beUied green humming-bird of Edwards; Black-
lellird ^meriean hamming'-bird of HzncToft ; and BhACK-bellied
humming-bird of Latham, are all the fame bird ; namely,
Trochilus hohfericevs of Linn, and Gmel.
BLACK-^crrj, in Botany. See RuBus.
Bl.ACv.-billed aiih of mod Englilh writers, in Ornithology,
is Aha pica of Linn. Syft. Nat. and Fabricius.

Bi. AC K-billed tropic bird, fo named in Latham's fynopfis,
is Phai'lon melanorlynchos of Gmelin.

BiAQK-billed 'wh'ijIUng duck of Sloane, and Brown's Ja-
maica, is called /Ina: arborea by Gmelin.

Black-^iV</. The proper acceptation of this word among
the Englilh writers of the prcfent time, is veiy clearly un-
derftood ; the Turdus merula of Linnsus and other natu-
ralifts being alone implied. The earlier oniithologifts of
this country are much lefs precife in the application of this
word : with them, birds of the fame natural order were
fometimes called black-birds, becaufe they bear a remote
refemblance to the common fpecies moft lamiharly known
lay that name, as we find, for inftance, in the two kinds of
turdns, torquatus and roleus, both of which are called,
in a general manner, black-birds, white-ringed black-birdj,
rofe-coloured black-bird.?, and the like. Thus far in-
deed there exifted a ftriking natural affinity between
the fpecies, becaufe they all belong to the fame natu-
ral order, and were, in realit)-, of the family thev caDcd
Vol. IV.

merula, which feems to have been conCdered in certain ic«
ftances fynonym.ous with black-bird. But all the early
writers did not confine themfelves to fuch minute diftinc-
tions as the generic charafter afforded : the Hack-bird
(razor-billed) of Catefby, being, for example, of a very dif-
fimilar genus to that of our common black-bird ; namely,
the crotophaga of modern writers. Again, the black-bird
(red-breafted Indian) of Willughby, is one of the oriolus ;
the black bird (red-breafted) of Edwards, belongs to the
ianagra ; and the black-bird, or Chinefe jlarling of the fame
author, is ^ gracula. Birds of the fparrow, titmoufe, and
other kinds, altogether remote from the former, were alfo
called occafionally black-birds. We may, therefore, eafily
perceive that the word black-bird was an indefinite term,
applied, for the moft part, to thofe birds whofe plumage is
of a black colour, without regard to the natural order to
which they ought to have been referred, although fome-
times employed to exprefs only that which we ftill diftin-
guiili by the name of black-bird. See Turdus Me-
rula.

Black-^ooZ- of the Exchequer, Eagle, Hellebore, Money,
Order, Star, See the feveral article?.

Black-^so/'J', a name given to thofe which treat of' ne-
cromancy, or, as feme call it, nigromancy.

The black-book of the Englifli monafteries, was a detail
of the fcandalous enormities praSifed in religious houfes,
compiled by order of the vifitors under king Henry VIII,
to blacken them, and thus haften their diffolution.

Y>\.AZii-breajled grebe of Latham, in Ornithology, is
Colymbus thomcnjis of Gmelin.

B\-.\CK.-breci/ted grofbeak of Latham, is Loxia Americana
of Gmelin.

BhACK-breq/led humming-bird of Latham, is fpoken of by
Buffon under the name of Haujfe col vert ; GmeUn calls it
Trochilus gramineus.

'E>i.ACii-breaJled Indian plover of Edwards, is a variety of
Charadrius Spinosus of Gmelin. The female of this
bird is called by Edwards the Jpur-winged plover, a name
retained by Latham for both fcxes. In Ruffel's Aleppo it
is called the lap'wing.

BhACK-brea/led thrujh. Latham defcribes Turdns cinna-
momeus of Gmelin, under this name in the iynopfis of
birds.

BhACK-ireaJled titmoufe of Latham, is Parus afcr of
Gmelin.

Y>\. AZ's.-breaJled ivood-pecier of Latham, is Piciis multi-
color of Gmelin.

Bi. AC iL-bul/inch of Albin, like Pyrrhula nigra of Briflbn,
and 5ouwvui/nwV of Buffon, is nothing mo:e than an acciden-
tal variety of the common bulfinch, or Loxia pyrrhula <j{
Latin writers. The bulfinch occurs lometimes of a white
colour, as well as black or dullcy.

BhACK-bulfnch, (Little) of Catefby and Albin, and
Black grojbeak of Latham, is Loxia nigra of Gmelin.

B\.ACti-canker, in Agriculture, a difeafe in tumip and other
crops, produced by a fpecies of caterpillar deftroying their
leaves.

It is obferved by Mr. Young, in the fecond volume of the
Annals of Agriculture, that " thefe infecls were efTeftually
dellroyed by Mr. Coke, at Holkham, in Norfolk, by turn-
ing a number of ducks among the turnips when injured by
infects. On the 16th of July, fays he, they were turned
into thirty-three acres, having water at one corner of the
field, and, in five days, they cleared the whole moft com-
pletely, marching at laft tnrough the field on the hunt,
eyeing the leaves on both fides with great care to devour

3 U eveiy

B L A

tviry on? lliey could fee, and filling tlitir crops feveral
times in the day. The ducks, after having favcd about
fixty pounds' worth oF turnips, were fcnt to thu poultry
yard." With this view, it has been fuggeftid by Mr.
Middleton in iiis " Survey of the County of" Middlefex,"
that this fort of poultry may often be kept with advantage
by the farmer.

^LACK-canoiis, in Ecclepaftkal Hyiory, a name given to
the regular canons of St. Aui^ultine, who wore a black man-
tle over their furplice, by way of dillintlion from the Pij:-
monflriilenfts.

hi-ACK-ciip of the Englirti, in Ornilhology, the Miladlla
atricapilld of Linnaeus. The fame name is given liktwifc
to the marjh tllmoufe. Pants palujlns of Linn, and the black-
headed gull. Lams alridlla of Gmelin.

Bla'ck-m/ of Ceylon^ or Ceylon bluck-cnp, the name of
Motadlla zey/otiica of Gmelin, in Brown's IlUilhatiun of
Nat. Hid.

V>LhCVi-capp:d humming-bird oi Latham, and Long-tmled
llact-cap humming-bird of Edwards and Bancroft, are Tro-
chilus polytmus of Gmelin.

'&\.^cs.-cappld tings-fijher oi 'Li.\.hvLm,ii Alcedo alracapilla
of Linn.

ViLXCvi-capped lory, the Englifli name given by Latham
to the Gmelininn pfittacus lory. This is the firll black-cap
lory of Edwards.

Bi.ACK-capp<d mjnaiin of Edwards and Latham, is Plpra
manacus of Gmelin.

BLACK-fa/ii', in Geography, lies on the eaft coaft of New-
founrlland, S. E. from cape St. Francis.

V)i.kCK.-cattk, in Agriculture, a fmall, hardy breed of cat-
tle, mollly of a black colour, occupying the high or more
mountainous dillri'Hs in the northern parts of the idand.
They are covered with a long clofe coat of hair, of much
the fame kind as the polled and long-homed breeds. They
feed readily in the rich paftures in the fouthern parts of the
kingdom, where large quantities of them are annually driven
and fed for fale in the London and other markets. Their
beef is generally of a fme grain, well marbled, and of a
good flavour ; but fometimes not fo fine and bright in its
external appearance as that of other forts of cattle,
fccing occafionally, except when made very fat, fpotted with
black, even upon the choiceft parts. From their property
of becoming quickly fat, and not being of great weight,
they feem well adapted to the low, rich, grazing diftrifts in
the fouthern counties, where the lands are liable to be
poached and injured by the heavier breeds of cattle. They
feldom weigh more than from twenty to thirty ftone each,
though fome particular ones have become confiderably
heavier. See Cattle and Live-Stock.

TiLACK-cheeied eagle, of Latham's Synopfis, in Ornithology,
is Faleo Ameriennus of Gmelin.

BhACK-eheeied thrujh of Latham, is Turdus nigerrimus of
Gmelin.

BLACK-fA;«^«if of Pennant, &c. Colymhut lehridicus of
Gmelin.

BLACK-fOfi, of Pennant, Latham, Donovan, &c. is Tetrao
tetrix of Linnaeus. The fame bird is alfo well known by the
name of bUick-^aint, or Hack-grous.

Bi-ACK-cociatoo ol Latham, and Great blaci cockatoo oi
Edwards, is called by liuffon Kwh^oes noir, and by Gmelin
fjiit.ictis aterrimui.

Black collarejfnci of Latham, is FringtUa Ahjfmica of
Gmelin.

Bl AC K-crowned bunting oi Latham, is Embcrha atricapilla
of Gmelin. j

B L A

BtACK-crowned manaiin of Latham, is Pipra atrkapi lid of
Gmelin.

BLAcyi-croiLmed oriole, the Englifh name of OWo/i/x Mexi'
canus of Linn, in Latham's " Synopfis of lilrds."

Bi-ACK-cro-:uncdplover of Ard. Zool. is Charadrius atrica-
pillus of Gmelin.

Bhkcv.-croiuued fhrikc of South America, is Lanius Ame-
riamus of Gmelm.

Bi,ACK-affwn(Y/to;af<:r of Latham, is Tiwngra melaniaeea
of Gmtlin.

]jL.\CK-Indinn cucko'U) of Edwards, is Cuculus tiiger of
Linn.

BLACK-r/wer, or fcoter, of Englifh ornithologills, is
Anas n':^ra of Linn. Fn. Succ.

Black dolphin, in Agriculture, a fmall infeft which is
frequently very dtilrudlive to bean, turnip, and fome other
crops. Where beans are attacked with thcfe infefts, the beft
remedy probal^ly is, as foon as they are firil perceived, to cut
off the tops by means of a fcythe, as they are found to make
their firll lodgments principally in thofe parts of the plants.
See Fly and Turnips.

V>i.ACK-duck of Latham and other writers, in Ornithology,
is called by Edwards the _frfii/ black duck fromHudlon's bay.
This is a very dlllinft fpecies from the black duck of Ray
and Willughby, and vehef duck of modern naturalills.
Gmelin calls it Anas pcrfpicillata.

HhACK-durk, or Great black duck of Ray and Willughby,
is the 'velvet duck of later Englifh authors, and AnasfuJ'ca of
the Linnxan Fauna Suecica.

'Sii.ACK. eagle, in Heraldry, an order of knighthood, infti-
tuted in Pruflia, by Frederic L 14th Jan. 1701. Thrf
enfign of the order is a gold crofs of eight points, ena-
melled blue ; in the centre whereof are the letters F. R.
in cypher, and in the four angles the eagle of PrufFia, ena-
melled black. On collar days, it is worn pendant to a rich
collar of gold, compofed of round pieces of gold, each ena-
melled with four cyphers of the letters F. R. ; in the centre
of the piece is fet a large diamond, and over each cypher a
regal crown, all richly chafed, intermixed with eagles dif-
played, enamelled black alternately, and holding in their
claws thunderbolts of gold.

The crofs of the order is worn, on ordinary days, pendant
to a broad, orange-coloured ribbon, acrofs the left (boulder.
The knights have embroidered on the left brealt of their
coats a ftar of filver, like that of the enfign of the order, in
the centre of which is an eagle difplayed black, holding in
his dexter claw, a chaplet of laurel, and in the other a
thunderbolt, with the motto Suum cuique round it. See
Plate ol Heraldry.

'S>\.ACV.-eagle of Willughby, in Ornithology, is I'Aigle com-
mune of BufTon, and Falco melana'ctos of Gmelin.

BLACK-fa;v, or Black-eared lynx, in Zoology, called alfo
the Peiftan lynx, and Black-eared cat, is the Sigah gujh or
Siyah gujb of Charleton, and Caracal of Buffon. Gmelin
mentions this animal under the name of Felis caracal. See
Caracal, and Sigah Gush.

BLACK-Mr/16, in Agriculture, that kind of earth or mould
which contains a large portion of carbonaceous or vege-
table matter in its compolition. Soils of this fort are capa-
ble of producing moil forts of grain and other vegetable
crops in abundance. See Soil, &c.

Bi.ACK-eunuchs, in the Cujom of Eajleru Nations, are
Ethiopians caftrated, to whom their princes commonly
commit the care of their women. See Eunuch.

BhACti-eye, in Botany, a name given to the germ in beans,
which the Romans called liilum. See Germ.

Blacr-

B L A

B L A

BttLCK-eye, hypafpha^ma, in Mcdiclm, a ruffufion of blood
on tlie tunica adnata, turning livid, occailoned by a blow.
See EccHYMOsis.

B L A c K -faced bunting of Latham , in Ornithology, is Emberlza
qutha of Gmtlin.

ViLhCK-facedJincli of the Arftic Zoology, is Fringilla cnf-
tala ot Gmeliii.

UtACK-Jaced ilns of Latham, is Tantalus rmlanopis of Gme-
Ln.

Black-/5/S, in Ichthyolo^f, the name U'.ider which Silurui
anguUlaris is defcribed in Ruflel's " Hill, of Aleppo." This
fifti has a i'lngle dorfal fin containing feventy ray?, and eight
beards at the mouth, nam'ly, two on the upper lip, four on
the lower one, and two on each fide of the mouth. There
is likewife a kind of p^Tch mentioned by Borlafe as being
found in the rivers of Cornwall, which he calls the black
fifh. Pennant fpeaks of it on the authority of that writer;
and Gmelin, after him, gives it as a Ipecies with fome doubt.
This fpecies meant by Borlafe is certainly ambiguous. See
Perca Nigra.

BLACK-/?y, in Agriculture, an infect of the beetle tribe,
that often commits great devaltation among turnip and
other crops, deftroyiag the young plants, by feeding upon
their feed-leaves the moment they are protruded and appear
above ground. Different remedies have been propofed for
the prevention of the deilruftive ravages of this mfeft on
turnips, but few of tliem have been attended with much
fuccefs. The bell method is probably that of fowing the
feed at fuch a fcafon, and under fuch circumftances, as that
its early vegetation may be quick and uninterrupted, and
thereby allow little time for the iiifcfts to feed upon the
plants, before they become in broad leaf, and capable of
refifting its injurious attacks. See Fly and Turnips.

BLACK-Jly-calcier of Latham, in Ornithology, is Mufcicapa
luzonienjis of Gmelin.

BLACK^r/y?, mountains «/". in Geography, called in Ger-
man Schwartz .vald, extend from near Neuenburg, in the
territories of Wurtemburg, fouth to the fourforeft towns on
the Rhine. The fouthern part is called the high, and the
northern the lower fcrell ; the length being about So Britifh
miles. To the eaft the Necker may be confidered as a
boundary, and the breadth may be computed at about 20
Eritilh miles. The eailern part prefents a gradual eleva-
tion, while the weftern exhibits precipitous fummits to the
inhabitants of Baden and Alface. The appellation feems
to be derived from the thick dark fortfts with which the
afcents are clothed. Befides pailurage, the inhabitants,
partly fubjeft to Aullria, and partly to Wurtemburg,
derive advantage from the refin of the pines, and the
timber, of which they make all kinds of utenfils. Some
parts are cultivated by fpreading branches of pine, covered
with fod, which, being burnt, affords an excellent manure,
that prepares the ground for four abundant harvcils. A
branch of the black mountains fpreads call from near Sulz,
on the Necker, towards the county of Oclingen, being
more than 60 miles in length. This chain is called the
Alb, and fometimes the Suabian Alps. Bufching traces
this ridge from the north-eaft, the fource of the Brcnz, to
the well of the Nerefheim, by Wifenfleig, where the moun-
tains are higheft. Thence they turn north-well to Gutten-
btrg, and weft to Neilfen, whence they pafs by Hohenzol-
lern to the Necker, then bend fouth and well between that
river and the Danube. Bulching adds, that as this ciiain
rifes infenf;bly at Konigfbrown north-eall, fo it gradually
terminates at Ebingen fouth-weft. The principal fummits
a"e in the north and well of the ridge ; and the forefts are

chiefly beech ; while the open fpaces fupply padurage for
numerous flocks of Iheep. Of thefe two extcniive ridges of
mountains, the Black foreft, and the Alb, a coiifiderabic
portion pervades the duchy of Wurtemburg ; and near Stut-
gard, the capital, are the mountains of Boyferfteig, Wein-
iteig, and Hafenfteig. The conftituent parts of thefe ex-
tcniive ridges have been little detailed ; but a great part is
calcareous, as they fupply excellent marbles. Near Fru-
denftadt, in the black mountair^s, are mines of filver and
copper.

V>LACS.-forj!ed pinguin, or penguin, lejfcr pinguin, cape pin-
guin, Sc. in Ornithology, are different Enghlh nam^^s of an
individual fpecies of Aptenod VTA in the works of Edwards,
Latham, &c. Gm.elln names this bird fpecifically demerfa.

BLA'CK-/t.v, in '/.oology. See Canis Lycaon.

Y>i.\QY^-fronted Jly-catcher of Latham, in Ornithology, is
Mufcicapa nigrifrons of Gmelin.

V>i.hCKfryers, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, a name given to
the Dominican order, called alfo Predicants and Preaching
fryers ; in France, Jaeobins,

Bi.kcv.-gam!, in Ornithology. See VthkCK-Coch.

BLACK-_fra/}, in Agriculture, a fpecies of American grafs,
glowing in meadows which border on tide-rivers, well fup-
plied alfo with frelh water ; for a mixture both of frefh and
ialt water feems to be neceffary for its prohfic vegetation.
Its feeds are fmall, like thofe of tobacco ; its colour a deep
green ; and it affords from three to four tons of hay by the
acre. This kind of grafs thrives beft on a clay or ftrong
loam ; nor is the vicinity of fait water abfolutely neceffary.
The feeds have been lately brought over into England, and
diftributed for trial in proper foils.

'&i.kZK-groPeal of Edwards, in Ornithology, and the An-
gola grojheah of Latham are the fame ; Loxia angoknfts of
Gmelin. — Ohf. The Mack grofbeak of Latham is another
bird ; Loxia nigra of Gmelin.

V>hhCK-gu:llemot of Pennant and other Englifh writers of
the prefcnt times, is the Greenland dove orfea-turtle of AJbin,
Ray, Willughby, and Colymbus grylle of Linnseus.

V>i.ACK.-hcaded bunting of Latham, is Emberiza melanoce-
phiila of Scopoli.

Blac K-headed creeper of Latham, and the Green black-cap
fly-calcher of Bancroft, are of the fame fpecies, the latter
being only a variety of the firft. Linnasus calls thi? kind
Molacillafpiza.

JjLACK-headed duck of Shaw's travels, has been fincc
named the Damialta duck by Latham, and Anas Dam'iatica
by Gmelin in the I^inn. Syil. Nat. — The variety of Anas
Lojchas, or ii'ild duck, called nigra, from having the head and
collar black, might be alfo called the black-headed duck.

BLACK-/ir-a^.W_/Kc^of Latham, is Frirgilla melanocephalaol
Gmelin.

B L A c v.-headedfy-catcher, of Arclic Zoology ; and black -cap
fy-catcher of Catelby, is the mufcicapa f if ca of Gmelin.

BhALV.-headed grojbeak of Latham, is loxia eryihromelas of
Gmelin.

Y>\.AQ% -headed gull, the Englifli name of larus rub!-
eundus. The fame bird is alfo called the pcu-'it black-cap,
ovfea erozu, by Ray and Willughby.

Bi- AC K.- headed Indian ifferus of Albin and Edwards, is
flurnus luteolus of the tenth edition of the Linn. Svft. Nat.
and oriolus melanocephalus of Gmelin.

Y>\.AZ\k.-headed nut-hatch, a variety of the coir.mon nut-
hatch found in Carolina and Jamaica. Buffon and Arft.
Zool. Sitla Europea of Gmelin.

'^\^ACV.-headed plover of Latham, is chctradrius ms.'^-
nocephaliu of Gmdin.

3U 2 Black-

B L A

T,LACK4taJttl Jbriit, a fpecies of laniat, fo called by
Latham : it is the lunius mrljnocephalus of Gmtliii.

Black and >>//<•./ hcath-co.k of Edwards, and fpotl'.d
orous of Pciipaiit and Latlnm, arc telr.io ■ amuknJIs of Ginclin.
—Obj. Tiiere is another black and fpottcd heat!i-cock
fi;^'urcd alfoby Edwards pi. 71. whicli, in the 12th edition
of the IJiinxan Sy(l. K;;t. is called Ulrao caiuia:

Black A.toh of Latham, is the ar.lza aira of Gmclin.

BiACK-ioo/itJ <wheat-eai- of Latham, is molacilla pileala of

Gmtliii. .

hhACK'/jumming-tirJ, the Linnzean ; trochilus nigcr is lo

uamed in the Synopfis of Latham.

Blac KyJt-anfl ; xhejacnnaarnula ti[:;ra of BrifTon, andpana
n'l^ra of Gmelin, bears tliis name in Latham's Synopfis.

"ViLxcv-j-Jct, OYBlemI, is a mineral, called alio t'alfc gakna
and blinde, &c.

BhACt^-Jawed 'u.'mi.'er of Latham, in Ornithology, is mo-
tacil/a nigrlroJ}ris of Gmelin.

Black i/lmJ, in Geography, an idand near the coaft of
America, belonging to the llatc of Rhode ifland. N. lat.
41=' 7'. W. lonf;. 71° 35'.

Black ijlamh, idands near the call coaft of Labrador.
N.lat. 4i°8'. W.long. 56^30'.

Black llu, or blach-glecl oi Sibbald, \ifaLo aler of Gme-
lin, and milvus niger of BrilTon. — Obf. Gmelin mentions a
black variety of falco communis under the fpecific name of
aler; it was previoufly dcfcribed by Edwards under the
came of black ha-wt or falcon.

Black land, in ylgrlculture, a name given to a fort of
foil which has a jjreyiili black calL This fort of foil, though
pale when dry, always blackens by means of rain ; and when
ploughed up at fuch times, it fticks to the plough (liare ;
and the more it is wrought, the muddier and darker-coloured
it appears. Thefc forts of land, when fomewhat rich, yet
porous, light but fufiiciently tenacious, are good both for
com and grafs ; but as they are mollly fituated in bottoms,
the wetnefs often fpoils them for corn ; but when they are
dry, they are extraordinarily fruitful, efpecially for barley ;
they alfo bear good wheat crops. When they are very rich,
they may, if a deep mould, l>e planted with liquorice, orfown
with hemp, woad, cole, or rape, madder, and other fimilar
plants, that bed fuit fuch lands ; and afterwards with corn,
when fomc of their fertility is expended. They are capable
of bearing excellent clover crops. The bell manure for
thefe foils is chalk or lime, where it can be procured.

Black lark, in Ornithology. Albin defcribes an accidental
variety of the common lark, alautta arvtnf:s, under this name,
in the third volume of his Hiltory of Birds.

Black lead,\nMineralogy,lsfc. SeeLEADandPLUMBAGO.

Black leather, in the Manufadures, is that which has
pafTed the curriers' hands, where from the ruffet as it was
left by the tanners, it is become black, by having been
fcowered and rubbed three times on the grain-fide with cop-
peras-water.

Black legs, a name given in Leicefterfhire to a difeafe
frequent among calves and fheep. It is a kind of jelly,
which fettles in their legs, and often in the neck, between
the Ikin and flefh.

Black legs, an appellation given to thofe gamblers and
(harpers who prey upon the ignorance and credulity of in-
experienced and unfufpefling perfons of property, with
whom they contrive to alTociate, and who fubfill in diffipa-
tion and luxury on the fpoils acquired by deception and
fraud, in a variety of games and fports which they frequent
for this purpofe. They are juftly denominated the peft of
civilized fociety, and fhould be fliunned by thoie who have

B L A

any concern for their property or reputation, as tlie moll
dai'j'crous and dt-ftnittive enemies.

Black iut, in Geography, lies in Weftmorland county,
Pcunfylvania, about 36 miles call of Pittfburg.

Black lory, of Latham, in Ornuhohgy, h pfttacus novel
Giiineie of Gmelin.

Black mail, in Engliflj Antiquity, a certain rate of money,
corn, cattle, or other matter, anciently paid by the inhabi-
tants of towns in Weftmorland, Cumberland, Northumber-
land, and Durham, to divers perfons inhabiting on or near
t e borders, being men of name, and allied with others in
th ife parts, known to be great robbers and fpoil-takers ;
in order to be by them treed and protected from any pillage.
Prohibited as felony by 43 El. c. 13.

The origin of this word is much contefted, yet there is
(Ti-ound to hold the word black to be here a corruption of
blank or white, and confequeniy to fignify a rent paid in
a fmall copper coin called blanks. This may receive fome
li"-ht from a plirafe ftill ufed in Picardy, where, fpeaking of
a perfon who has not a fingle halfpenny, they fay, il >i' a pas
vne blanquc ma'tlle. The term is alfo ufed for rents referved
in work, grain, or bafer money, which were called " redituS
ni({ra," in contradilHnttion to the blanch farms, " reditus
albi."

Black martin, ov fivift of the Englifh, in Ornithology, is
the hirundo apus of Latin writers.

Black monks, in Ecclefiajlical Hi/lory, a denomination given
to the Benedittins, called in Latin 7tigri monachi, or nigronto-
nachi ; fometimes ordo nigrorum, the order of blacks.

Black mountains, in Geography. See B\..\cv.-ForeJf.
This is alfo a denomination given to an exteniive ridge of
mountains in South-Wales, feparating the buundarics of the
counties of Glamorgan and Brecknock ; covered in fummer
with black cattle and (heep.

Black necked quail of Latham, in Ornithology, Ktetrao rii-
gricoUis of Gmelin.

BLACK-neckedfwan of Pernett and Latham, Hands under
the name oi anas nigricollis in the Gmelinian edition of Syft.
Nat.

^LACK-necked thrujli of Latham, is turdus nigricollis of
Gmelin.

Black nefs, in Geography, a foul point on the coaft of
France, and in the Englilh channel, four leagues W. from
Calais.

Black oats, in y/griculture, a fpecies of oats, much culti-
vated in the northern parts of England, and efteemcd a very
hearty food for horfes. See Oats.

Black oriole, of the Aritic Zoology, and Latham's Sy-
nopfis, in Ornithology, is the ideras niger of BrifTon, and orioluf
niger of Linn, and Gmel.

Black oriole {Le/fcr), the Englifh name of oriolus minor,
in Latnam's Synopfis.

Black ojirich oi Brown's lUuilrations, &c. 'm Jlruthio ca-
melus of Scopoli, Gmehn, Sec

Black parrot oi Latham, and black parrot of Madagafcar,
and of Edwards, are the fame ; the pjittacus niger of Gmelin.

BtACK/^/rf/of Latham, and great black petrel of Edwards,
ftands under the name oi procellaria ccquinodialis in Gmelin's
edition of the Linn. Syft. Nat.

Black foil warbler oi 'Laxh&m, is motacillajliiata of Gme-
lin.

Bi-kcn point, and blue point, in Geography, capes of Ame-
rica, within thofe of Elizabeth and Porpoife, in the diftrid
of Maine..

Black^9/«/, is alfo a point on the weft coaft of Africa,

between cape Cavallos, and cape Palmas. — Alio, a point

6 S. E.

B L A

B L A

S. E. from cape Chidley, the north point of the Labrador
coall. N. lat. about 59^ 20'. — Alfo, a point on the coall of
Spitfbergf'i, or Eall Greenland. N. lat. 78° 30'. E. long.
11" 10'. Variation 10° 42' W.

Black pool lies on the coaft of Lancafhire, about 2; miles
S. from Lancafter. The beach is a beautiful k-vel fand, with
fn extended fea before it. This place is frequented for fiim-
mer bathing.

'SiL\cv. procejjion, in Ecchftajlicn.t Writers, that which is
made in black habits, and with black enfigns and ornaments,
See Procession.

Anciently at Malta, there was a hlacl procejjion evciy
Friday, where the whole clergy walked with their faces
covered with a black veil.

Black rail oi Latham, in Ornithology, is the rallus niger
of Gmehn.

Black ;-a/, in Zoology, See Mus-Rattus, or Common
rat.

Black red-tail oi Latham, in Ornithology, is the motacilla
atrata of Ginelin.

Black rents. See Black mail.

Black River, in Geography, an appellation applied to
two fmall rivers, in Vermont, America ; one falling into
ConneAicut river, at Springfield, and the other running
north into lake Memphremagog. — Alfo, a river in New
York, which interlocks with Canada creek, and runs north-
v.eil into Iroquois river, navigable with boats 60 miles. —
Alfo, a long river, which rifes in Virginia, and pafles fouth-
cafterly into Nottaway river, in North Carolina.

Black River, a Britifh fettlement at the mouth of the
Tinto river, 20 leagues to the eaft of cape Honduras, the
only harbour on the coail of Ten'a Firma, from the illand
of Rattan to cape Gracias a Dios ; and for more than fixty
years it was the refuge of the logwood cutters, when the
Spaniards drove them from the forells of Eaft Yucatan.
This occafioned adventurers of different defcriptions to fet-
tle here, where the coalt is fandy, low, and fwampy ; b\it
higher up, near the rivers and lagoons, which are full of
filh, the foil is more fertile, and produces plantanes, cocoa-
trees, maize, yams, potatoes, and a variety of vegetables ;
and the paflion for drinking induced them to plant fugar-
canes. The forefts are full of deer, fwine, and game. The
fhores abouDd with turtle, and the woods with mahogany,
zebra-wood, farfaparilla, Sec; and the whole fettlement flou-
riflies fpontaneoufly without cultivation.

Black River, a river of Jamaica, which paffes through a
level country, and is the dcepell and largell in the ifiand, fo
as to admit thit-bottomed boats and canoes tor about thirty
miles.

Black Roci^. a rock in the mouth of Sb'go harbour, in
Ireland, which is covered about high water only, and has a
confpicuous tower built on it that ferves as a beacon.

Black RocH:, a rock in the bay of Galway, in Ireland,
about three miles wellward of Galway, which dries with
fpring-tide only, and requires attention in navigating that
bay. M'Kenzie.

Black Rods, rocks in the Atlantic ocean, near the weft
coaft of Ireland, about fix miles N.W. from Saddlehead, in
Achil ifle, and feven miles W. by S. from Blackfod point.
— There are rocks called by the fame name in Killibeg'sbay
and Mulroy haven, but they are Icfs objefts of attention to
the navigator. M'Kenzie.

Black Rod, a rock near the fouth coaft of Wexford, in
Ireland, about four miles W. by S. of Carnfore point,
wliich is always above water, and may be failed round with-
out danger. M'Kenzie. Boate.

Black Roet, a populous village, fituate on the rivef
Tawe, about a mile above Swanfea, in Glamorganftiire,
South Wales, where are confidtrable fraelting-houlcs, and
whence arc exported coals, &c.

Black Roei lies alfo near the cxtrf me north point of the
ifland of Antigua, between Humphrey's bay and Boon
point. N. lat. 17° 5'. W. long. 61'- 58'.
BLACK-roi^. See Gentleman-Usher of.
JiuACK-row grains, in Mineralogy, a fpecies of iron-ftone,
or ore, found in the mines about Dudley, in Stafford-
fhire.

Black Sea, in Geography. See Euxine Sea.
'BhACKjhap, in Oriental Hi/lory, the enfign or ftandard
of a race of Turkmans fettled in Armenia and Mefopota-
niia ; hence called the dynajly of the black fheep.

B l AC K^y^iWi'i; of Latham, in Ornithology, is lanlus niger oi
Gmelin.

Black Mexican Ji/iin of Latham, is fringilla catotol oi
Gmelin.

Black fhimmer of Latham, cul-'waler of Arft. Zool.,
fea cronv of Edwards, are all names of the fame bird ; the
Rynchops nigra of Gmelin.

Black fquirrel of Catefby, is ihefclurus niger of Erxlcr
ben and Gmelin.

BLACK_y?&«« and gems, according to Dr. Woodward, owe
their colour to a mixture of tin in their compofition.

Black /.'rales, a range of planks immediately above the
wales in a (hip'r. fide : they are always covered with a mix-
ture of tar and lamp-black.

'Bi- AC Kfivallotv of Latham, in Ornithology, is the hin/nJo
apus (lominicenfis of Briflbn, and hirundo nigra of Gmelin.

BLACKy^rtn. A bird of this defcription inhabits Bo-
tany Bay. Its form refembles that of the common white
fwan ; but the prevailing colour of the plumage is black,
inftead of white ; the wings are edged with white ; and the
bill is red. This fpecies is dt-fcribcd by Dr. Shaw (Nat.
Mifcell.) under the name of anas atrata. It is the black
fivan of feveral writers who have lately treated on the hif-
lory of Botany Bay.

Black tail, a beacon about 3 leagues diftant from the
Nore in the river Thames.

Black Tanager of Latham, in Ornithology, is ihe emberlza
atra of the lolh edition of the Linn. Syft. Nat., dinitanagra
atrata of Gmelin.

Black tern of modern writers, is the fcarecrciu oi \\\io\^
Englilh ornithologifts, and cl.vcnfooted gull of Willughby.
Sterna flfipes of Briinnich and Gmelin.

Y>LAcr.-tkoni, in Botany, a fpecies of the/runuj, which fee.
BLACK-//;orn, in ylgriculture, a fpecies of thorn well
known, and frequently ufed in making fences, efpecially in
expcfed fituations. It is not, however, reckoned fo good
for fences as the white-thorn, becaufe it is apt to run more
into the groui.d, and is not fo certain of gro'.ving ; but
when cut, the bufhes are much the beft, and moft lafting of
any, for dead hedges, or to mend gaps with. Cattle are
not fo apt to crop fences of this kind as thofe of the
white thorn fort. See Hedges.

"EiLACK-throated barbet of Latham, in Ornithology, is iucco
niger of Gmehn.

B ACK-lhroated bunting of the Arft. Zool. is emberlza
Americana of Gmelin.

BLACK-throated diver of Pennant and others, is the fame
bird as Edwards calls ihe fpeciled loon, and Willughby JVor-
mius's northern ducker : Colymbus ardicus of Linnsus.

V>LAC]s.-throated green f.y-catcher, of Edwards's Gleanings,
and^rft-« warbler of Latham 5 the motacilla virens of Gmelin.

Black.

B L A

"Bl nsK-tiroa/eil lantigei; of Latham, tlie laiiagra nlgi'icollis
of Ginelin.

BLACK-firMfeJ maiwiiii of Latham, the ////a nlgrkolUs
of Giiieliii.

Uti-ACK-lhroaUtl thrujb of Latham, is turdus ater of Gmelin.

Black ihroated ivnrblcr, of the Aiclic Zoology, is molacilla
Can.uUnfts, of Ginelin.

Black ii,^i-r, in Zoology. Sec Fti-is Discolor.

Black//'/;, in Mimrjlogy, a denomination given tothctin-
iirc when drcfRd, ilamp:rd,and waHied ready for the blowing-
lioufe, or to be melttd into metal. Phil. Tranf. W 69.
p. 21 10.

It is prepared into this (Inte by means of beating and
wafhing ; and when it has pafTcd tlirongh fcvcral buddies or
valhing troughs, it is taken up in form of a black powder,
hke line fand, called black-tin,

Vii Kcv.-toni gull o( Pennant, Latham, Walcot, &c., in Or--
nilhology, is the lanis crep'uhUis of 1 lawefworth and Gmelin.

Bl A CK-/W/ii7 /•(•//. The Gmclinian proceHarui mtlaml'us
is dcfcribcd under this name in Latham's Synoplis of
Birds.

Black /own, in Geography, a fettlement of 1200 free
negroes, tiectcd in 1783, about a mile from the town of
Shelburnc, in Nova Scotia.

Black i-wilc'i, \\\ Agr'icuUure, a noxioui^ weed, probably
\\\it polygonum convolvulus, which flourifhcb even in extremely
dry leafons, and is very injurious to many crops.

Black vomit, in Meilichie, a difeaft to which the in-
habitants of Spanifli North America are fubjeil, faid to be
allied to the yeliow fever of the United States, and which,
at intervals, ravages the country like a peftilence. See Fe-
ver.

Black vul.'ure of WilUighby aid Latham, in Ornil/jology,
is vuhur iiiger of Ray, Brilion, and Gmelin.

Black vulture (crejicdj of Edwards, the vullur monachus
of Gmelin.

Black luoodpicker (griatcjl), Albin. Donovan. &c., the
picus mari'ius of Linn. Fn. Suec.

Black wadd. See Wadij.

"BLACK-iwingfd parraial of Brown's Illuftrations, in Orni-
tholoy, is called by Gmelin pji Uncus melanoplcrus,

BhACK-wiugcd ihrujh of Ljthani, is turdus bambia of
Gmelin.

Black and luh'ite butcher-bird. Under this title the Lin-
nxan lanius drAia'.us is deferibed and figured by Edwards in
his Hiftory of Birds. Latham calls it the picdjhrile.

Black nnd blue creeper of Edward's Gleanings, the ceri'^ia
cyanea of Gmelin.

Blacs and violet creeper of Latham, h eerthia Brafiliaiia
of Gmelin.

Black and li-hitc crccp:r of Edwards, znA fmall blact and
•white bird of Ray and Sloane, are motacilla varia of Gme-
lin.

Black and -zvlite ling^sjijber of Edwards and Latham, is
the alcedo rudis of Gmelin.

Black and white •wagtail ai Ray, is the pied ivaglail of
Latham, mouicilla madcrafpatana of BrifTon, and motacilla
vhidcrafpalcrijis of Graelin.

Black, white, and red Indian creeper of Edwards, is the
eerlhia cruentala of Linn, and Gmcl.

Black and yello'u> creeper. Certhiafaveola of Gmelin is
llcfcribcd under this name both by Edwards and Latham.

Black and yellow daw of Brafi). Edwards under this
title dcfcribcs a variety of oriolus Pcificus, Linn.

Blacx. and white diver f/mallj of Willughby and Ed-
wards, is aica alee of Linnxus. This bird is likewifc called

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the GmnhndJove, or fca turtle, by Albin; and is kno\yn
among later writers by the name of the little auk. Pennant;
Donov. Brit. Birds, &c. , , • n t

Black and white dobchick of Edwards, is the ditjiy grde
of later writers: Coly>i,bus obfcurus of Gmelin.

Black and while duck [little) of Edwards, znd fpirit of
Ara. Zool., are anas alleola of Gmehn.

Black and while Indian falcon, the Englifh name of faico
inelanolciicus (G.mel.) in Pennant's Indian Zoology, and La-
tham's Birds.

Black and orange finch of Latham, z\\i fniall linck and_
prance bird of Sloane and Ray, is fringilla melani9era ot
Gmelin.

Black, and white fiy-catcher of Edwards's Gleanings, is
mujcicapa bicolor of Gmelin.

Black ^//(/WvVc^u// of Ray, Willughby, and Albin, is
the black-backed gull of modern oriiithologills. Linnaeui
calls it larus marinus.

Black and Hue humming-bird of Bancroft, is called by
Gmelin trochilus cyanomelas.

Black and yelhw tnanakin of Edwards, is the variety /?
of the Gmeliiiian pipra aureola.

Black and orange-coloured bird {/mall) of Ray and Sloane,

is motacilla ruticilla of Linnxus, and mvfcicapa ruticilla of

Gmelin. This is likewife the black-headed warbler of L-z-

y\\?im, /mall American red/lart of Edwzrds, aad yellow-tailed

fiy-calchcr of Edwards's Gleanings.

Black and whit'. Chine/e phea/mt of Edwards. This is
phajianus nydhemerus of Scopoli and Gmelin. It is likewifc
called the pienciiled phea/ant by Latham and other late writers.

Black and yellow /ri'i^zled /parrow of Edwards's Glean-
ings, h the /rizzled finch of Latham, and fringilla crijpa of
Gmelin.

Black and white fiarling of Willughby, hfiurnus leueome-
las of Briflbn, which Gmelin gives as a variety ot the com-
mon ftare, or fiarling, Jlurnus vulgaris of Linnxus.

Black and white Indian fiarling of Edwards. This is
fiurnus contra of Gmelin.

Black and blue tanager of Latham, is the black and blue
titmou/e of Edwards, and tanagra Mexicana of Gmelin.

Black whytlof in our Old Writers, bread of a middle
finenefs betwixt white and brown, called in fome parts ravel-
bread.

In religious houfes, it was the bread made for ordinary
guefts, and diftinguitlicd from their houfliold loaf, or panis
convcntualis, which was pure manchet, or white bi'ead.

Black-wo;/-, iron wrought by the blackfmith ; thus
called by way of oppofition to that wrought by white-
fmiths.

BLACK ALL, OrFSPRiNG, in A'o^rrt/^j',an Engliih pre-
late, was born at London, in 1654, and educated at Cathe-
rine hall, in the univerfity of Cambridge. Befides feveral
promotions in London, he was appointed one of the chap-
lains in ordinary to king William, though his principles
were adverle to the revolution government, and he refufed
for two years to take the requifite oaths to king William
and queen Mary. On the 30th of January 1699, he
preached a fermon before the houfe of commons, in which
he animadverted on a paffage in Mr. Toland's life of Milton,
v/ho, after Hating the proofs that Dr. Gauden, afterwards
billiop of Exeter, was the true author of the book entitled
" Icon Bafilike," and afcribed to Charles I., obferves, that
many fuppofilitious pieces, under the name of Chrift, his
apoftlcs, and other great perfons, were publilhed and ap-
proved in the primitive times. But as Mr. Toland, in his
Amyntor, publiftied in the fame year, avowed hi? belief of

the

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B L A

t^e geniinenefs of the books of the New Tcdairent, Mr.
Blackall clofed the difpute by the publication of a fmall
pamphlet in i2mo. entitled " Reafons for not replying to a
book lately publifhed, entitled Amyntor." In lyco, he
preached a courfe of fermons at Boyle's Lcfture, publifhed
in the firft volume of the collection of ttiofe fermons. In
1707, he was promoted to the fee of Exeter ; and in
1709, he was engaged in a controverfy with Hoadly, con-
cerning the inllitution of civil government, and the mea-
fures of fubmilTion. V.ith refpecl to thio controverfy it is
fufficient to obferve, that the bilhop dcfer:ds the higa-church,
tory principles, as they are ufually called, of the divine in-
llitution of magiftracy, and unlimited paffive obedience and
non-refiilance, which Hoadly oppofes. This prelate, whofe
private character, and (lyle of preachmg, are highly extolled
by fir William Dawes, archbifhop of York, in the preface
to his Sermons, died at Exeter, Nov. 29th 1716. His fer-
mons were coUefted and publifhed in 2 vols, folio, Lond.
1723. Gen. Dift. Bio-. Brit.

BLACKAMOOR'S'Head, in Chemljlry, confifts of a
conicil velTel, furrounded with another of a cylindrical iorm,
filled with cold water, and having a c 'ck to draw it off,
when it is become too warm. Both veffels are made of cop-
per. In the figure, one half is left open to Oiew the cone ;
the inclination of the fides of which, according to Chaptal,
is moH proper, when forming an angle of 75 degrees with
the bafe. See Plnte of Chprnijlry.

BLACKBALL Head, m Geography, a cape on the
S.W. coaft of Ireland, at the north fide of the entra'ce into
Bantry bay, in the county of Cork. N. lat. ji° 32'. W,
long. 9° 55'. M'Kenzie and Beaufort.

BLACKBURN, William, in Biography, an eminent
furveyor and architeft, was born in Soi.thwark Dec. 20
1750, and having acquired fome knowledge of his profef-
lion in the ordinary courfe of education, he was admitted a
ftudent at the Royal academy. By this academy he was
prefented, in 1773, '^"^^ 'he medal for the beft drawing of
the infide of St. Stephen's church in Wal^^rook ; and the
delivery of it by the prcfidcnt fir Jofhua Reynold« was ac-
companied by a diftinguiftied tribute of refpeft to his abili-
ties. About this time he entered into bufinefs in the place
of his nativity ; but a circumftance occurred in a few years,
which ferved to ellablilh his reputation, and to introduce
him into very general notice. In 1779 an a8 o*" parliament
was pafled for the ereflion of places of confinement, under
the denomination of "penitentiary houfes." Two edifices
of this kind were propoftd to be conflruded ; one for the
confinement and employment of 600 mal-c, and the other
for the accommodation of 300 females. The three fuper-
vifors firft authorifed by his majefty for carrying into effcA
the provifions of this ad, were John Howard efq., George
Whatley efq., and Dr. John Fothergill. The death of
Dr. Fothergill, and the refignation of Mr. Howard, diffolved
this commilFion ; and the charge was devolved, in 17S1, on
fir Gilbert Elliot, fir Charles Bunbury, and Thomas Bowd-
ler efq. The principal objeft of the plan propofcd was to
combine, in the buildings to be ercfted, folitary confinemer't,
with uf^ful labour and moral reformation. Accordingly
premiums were announced to thofe who Should produce the
beft plans. The higheft premi ;m of 100 truintas was una-
rimoufly affigned, in 1782, to M»-. B'ackburn. In confe-
quence of this diflinftion, he was appointed by the fnper-
▼Ifors to the office of architeft and furveyor of the projefted
buildings. The dtfigns of government, after feveral pre-
paratory fteps had been taken, were never accomplifhed.
However fchemes of a fimilar kind were projefted in various
parts of the country, aad the executioa of them was en>

trHlltd to Mr. Blackburn. Whilif he was biifdy employed
in the completion of various dcfigns of this iiiid, and whiKl
he was pnfecuting a journey to Scotland, for the purpofe
of ertcting a new gaol at Glafgow, he died fuddeniy, Oct.
28th 1790, at Preiton in Lancafhire ; and his remains were
removed to London, and interred in the uiirying-ground of
Bu-hill-fie!ds.

Mr. Blackburn's fivill as a draughtfman and an architeft,
was not confined to prifo is and penitentiary houfes ; but
he was occupied, as far as his time would allow, in prepar-
ing various defigns for cluiiches, houfes, villas, &c. ; and in
his drawings and defigns he always manifclhd a corredt
talle, and a thorough knowledge of the fcience to which he
was praftically devoted. His friends, and the public in
general, very jiiflly lamented, that by the corpulence to
which he was inclined frm his early youth, and the increafe
of which no ablHnence, nor any mode of regimen, would
reftrain, he was removed from a fcene of ufefulnefs and re-
putation, at fo early a period as the 40th year of his age.
As to his religious profeilion, he was a proteftaiit difTcnter
of the prefbyterian denomination ; but he combined, with an
undif/uift d and laudable avowal of his own fentiments, the
mofl liberal and candid opinion and conduft with refpect to
all who differed from him. In his natural temper he was
chearful and lively ; in his converfation agreeable, animated,
and inflruftive ; in his private character amiable and refpeil-
able ; and in all the relations and intercourfes of domellic
and focial life, tileemed ard hoT^ourcd. In 1783 he married
the daughter of Mr. Jofiiua Hobfon, an eminent builder, of
the denomination of quakers, by whom he left four
children.

Bi ACKBURN, in Geography, a town of Lancafliire, Eng-
land, is feated in a valley furrounded with hills. It confifts
of feveral ftreets, ''rregularly laid out, but intermixed with
good houfes. Befides the parifh church, here arc a newly
erefted chapel of the eftablifhment, and five places of wor-
(hip for as many different fedts of diffenters. A free-fchcol
was founded by queen Elizabeth, and the neceflitous poor
of the town are comfortably provided with a poor-houfe,
which has land attached to it for the pafturage of cattle.

The market, on Mondays, is chiefly fupplied with pro-
vifions from Prefton, Befides this, here are a fortnight
market for cattle, &c. and an annual fair. The town is
approached by four ftone bridges crofTmg the river Derwent,
whofe water, being of rather a blackifh hue, is faid, by
fome writers, to have given name to the town. Blackburn
has been noted for its manufaftures, particularly for an ar-
ticle called Blackburn-greys, which were plains of linen-warp
fhot with cotton. The profpcrity of Manchefter, and the
great influx of manufacturers to that tovfn and its neigh-
bourhood, have deprived Blackburn of its ufual trade ; yet
fome cottons, callicoes, and muflins are ftill made here, and
the fie'ds around the town are frequently covered with ma-
terials to bleach.

The church of Blackburn, previous to the reformation,
was attached to the abbey of Whalley, It is now a rectory,
pofTefled by the archbifhop of Canterbury, v.ho alfo owns
half of the town, which he lets on leafes of 2 1 years. The
parifh of Blackburn includes 24 tow/ifhips, and embraces
about half the hundred of the fame name. The land round
the town is moftly a fandy foil, and confequently unpropi.
tious to agriculture. Coal is found in the foutheri. part of
the parifh, and in great plenty at Darvien, about 4 miles
fouth of the town An alum mine was found, and much
worked here, in the time of Fuller, but from the depth of
the ftrata, and confequent expence, it was afterwards ne-
glcfted. Sir Ge^t Cokbrookj wiihing to monopolife all the

aliun

B L A

alum of the country, purchafcd this, with other mines;
but failin; in his iinjiill Ipeculations, was obliged toreliiiquidi
tlitf works at Blackburn. (Sec Alum.) Blackburn con-
tains 2^52 houfes, iiiQ^'o inhabitants, and is 211 miles
N.W. from London. Aikin's dtfcription of the country
round Manchellcr, 4to. 1 795.

Blackburn, the n.ime of a river in Scotland, cele-
br;itcd for its romantic cafcadts, for the bold and piilurcfquc
fcencry adorning its banks, and for a fmgnlar natural bridge
which llrctchcsacrofs tlic ilream, in the parilh of CalUetown.
The latter is deemed one of the grcatcft curiofities in Scot-
land. " It is 55 fett long, 10 fett wide, and the thicknefs
of the arch is 2 feet four inches of folid ilone. It is not
compofed of one entire rock, but has the appearance of
many llonts of about one foot and a half fqiiare, fet nratly
together. The bridge flopes a little downwards, and the
water lulhes under the arch, through an opening of 31 feet.
Among the cafcades, which ornament and enliven this
Ilream, is one of above 37 feet in height, and 20 feet in
width; ano.her 31 feet high, and 36 feet broad; and a
third 27 feet in height. Thefc waterfalls, combining with
the romantic character of the rocks, and the coi.ftant roar
of the daftiing dream, piefent a great number of highly
piAurefq'.;c and interelling fcents. In this wild and roman-
tic vale, nature appears in various forms, now beautiful, then
awful, fomc limes fublime, and frequently terrible." Sir
John Sinclair's (latiftical account of Scotland, vol. xvi. com-
municated by thj Rev. Mr. Arklc.

BLACKBURNE, Francis, in B'lograpLy, a clergyman
of the church of England, diftinguifhed by his firm attach-
ment to the caufe of civil and religious liberty, and by his
zealous exertions in the promotion of it, was born oi re-
fpeftable parents at Richmond, in Yorkfhire, on the 9th of
June 1705. Having purfued a courfe of claffical education,
firil at Kendal in Wcltmorland, and afterwards at the free
fchools of Hawkfluad in Lancaflilre, and of Sedbergh in
Yorklhlre, he was admitted, in May 1722, penfioner of
Catherine hall, in the univerfity of Cambridge ; where he
took the degree of batchelor of arts, and was chofen con-
duit or chaplain-fellow of the focitty ; and on this title he
was ordained deacon in March 172S. At this time he flat-
tered himfelf with the expectation of a foundation-fellowfhrp ;
but his avowal of fentiments with regard to ecclefiallicaland
civil liberty, which he had acquired by the perufal of the
writings of Locke, Hoadly, &c. rendered him obnoxious to
a majority of the fellows, who, being high royalills on the
principle of hereditary right, fet afide his juil claims as the
only qualified candidate, and precluded his eleftion, by in-
dulging Mr. Addenbrokc with an extraordinary year of
grace, and thus keeping the felluwfliip full. This difap-
pointment induced him to refign his condudlfhip, to quit the
univerfity, and to live in retirement with iiis uncle, Thomas
Comber, cfq. of Eall Newton, near Htlmfley, in Yorkfhire,
till fome church preferment might occur. His views, in-
deed, were particularly dircfted to the 'living of Rich-
mond, the place of his nativity ; to which he was inducted
upon the death of the incumbent in 1739, having previoufly
qualified himfelf for it by taking priell's orders. During
the interval of his letirement at Eaft Newton, he cafually
found fome old books that had formerly belonged to his
greatgrandfather, an Oliverian jullicc ; and by the perufal
of thefe he was led to entertain favourable fentiments of the
manners and principles of many excellent old puritans, to
admire their unalfcded and difinterefled piety, and their zeal
for the fpiritual good of mankind, and to cherifli that mode-
ration and liberality of temper, and that ardent concern for
Lberty, which dillinguilhcd his future conduft. As foon as

B^L A

he was invcfled with a parochial cure, lie devoted liimfclf
with excmplp.-y diligence to the ftudies and duties appro-
priate to his pailoral office, which he difcharged, during a
refidence among his parilhioners of 48 years, no lefs to their
fatisfaftion and improvement, than to his own honour. His
fir!l appearance as an author was in the year 5742, when he
publilhed an " Afii'/.c Sennor," preached at York. About
the fame time he wrote two p:imph!ets concerning the illegal
removal of the confidory court and its records from Richmond
to Lancafter, which, in confequence of a petition from the
mayor and corporation to the bifhop of Clitfter, were reftored.
In 1 748, he employed a young perfon, who was his curate, to
tranflate Erafmus's preface to his pavaplirafe on the gofpel of
St. Matthew ; and having written " A Preliminary Difcourfe
addiefi"ed to the Roman Catholic gentry and laity of Great
Britain," he circulated a cheap cdituni of it, recommending it
to the public, partly as an antidote agr.infl; popery, but chiefly
as an encouragement to the common people to be diligent in
reading the fcripturcs, f.r the information and improvement
of themfelves and families in Ciniftian knowledge and
Chrittian piety. It was not, however, till the year 1750,
that Mr. Blackhurne began to dillinguifli himfelf as a writer
in defence of Chiillian liberty. A work had been publiflicd
in ihepreceding year, intitled " Free aud Candid Difquifitions
relating to the Church of England." This work contained
many pertinent obfervations on exilling defects and impro-
prieties in the ellabliflitd forms of the church, and propofals
for revifiug the liturgy, and ameiiding fuch paffages as were
liable to reafonable objeftions. Mr. Blackhurne was fuf-
pefted by many, who were acquainted with his fentiments on
the fubjcft of an ecclefiallieal reform, to have had a concern
in this publication. But though he had correfponded with
the compiler and editor of it, and liad feen the greateft part
of the work in manutcript, he had neitlier written nor fug-
gelled a fingle line or word. Indeed, he difapproved tlic
liyle and fpirit of it ; and thought them by no means adapted
to the occafion, nor likely to produce eftefl. " He was ra-
ther, perhaps too much (fays his biographer), inclined to
look upon thofe who had in their hands the means and the
power of reforming the errors, defects, and abufes in the
government, forms of worfhip, faith and difcipline of the
eftablidied church, as guilty of a criminal negligence, from
which they fliould have been roufed by fharp and Ipirited
expoftulations." Neverthelefs, he thought it his duty to
repel the attacks of the adverfaries of this work ; and ac-
cordingly, he publiflied, without the knowledge of its edi-
tor, or any of his more confidential ailociates, an " Apology
for the Authors of the Free and Candid Difquifitions,"
1750. But though he engaged in this controverfy, his at-
tention was not diverted from parochial duties ; for his next
pubKcation was " A (hoit Difcourfe on the Nature, Obli-
gation, and Benefits of Family Religion," which he pub-
lilhed at his own expence, and diftributed among his parifh-
ioners. In this fame year 1750, notwithftandiiig the publi-
cation of his " Apology," he was collated to the archdea-
conry of Cleveland, and alfo to the prebend of Bilton, by
Dr. Matthew Hutton, then archbiihop of York, to whom
he had been for fome years titular chaplain. Towards the
clofe of the year 1752, he had an opportunity of perufing
the charge delivered uy Dr. Butler, biiliop of Durham, to
the clergy of his dioccfe at his primary vifitation in 1 75 1 ;
and he found in it fome d^ drines which were, in his opinion,
fo diametrically oppofite to the principles on which the pro-
teflant reformation was founded and fupported, as to deferve
being expofed and cenfuref*, in order to prevent the mifehief
which they might do under the fanCtion of his name. Ac-
cordingly, he wrote ftriduies upon them ; and, in oppofition

to

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to tlic remonflrances of a friend, who difTiiaded him from
piiblifliing; them, Icfl tli^fy might be the means of preventing
his further preferment, he committed them to the prefs under
the title of " A ferious Enquiry into the Ufe and Im.port-
nnce of external Religion, &c." This piece, which was
afterwards printed by Mr. Baron, in the 4th volume of a
colhftion of trafts, entitled, " The Pillars of Prieftcraft,
and Orthodoxy (haken," a:id afcrib^d to him as its author,
gave great offence, particularly to archbi(hop Seeker, and
])recluded all hopes of preferment in the church, if indeed
lie had indulged any fuch hopes, under epifcopal patronage.
The next fubjeft of importance, which engaged his atten-
tion, was the doftnne of an intermediate ftate. To this he
was led by an " Appendix" to Dr. Law's " Confiderations
on the Theory of Religion," which appeared in 1755,
and which inculcated the tenet of the Deep of the foul.
This opinion was attacked from feveral quarters, and parti-
cularly by Dr. Goddard, matter of Clare-hall, in a fermon
preached at St. Edmund's Buiy. Mr. Clackburne defended
his friend Dr. Law, in a publication entitled " No Proof in
ihe Scriptures of an intermediate ftate of happinefs or miferj-,
between death and the refurredtion." He alfo publifhed fe-
Teral other pieces on the fame topic; fuch as " Remarks on
Dr. Warburton's account of the fentiments of the early
Jews concerning the foul ;" and " A Review of fome paf-
fages in the laft edition of the Divine Legation of Mofes
dcmonftrated," which appeared in 1759, and may be confi-
dered as a fequel to the " Remarks." He alfo prepared a
reply to Dr. Morton, Mr. John Steffe, and Dr. Caleb Fle-
ming, who had publifhed ftriclures on Dr. Law's Appendix ;
and he purfued the difcufHon of the fubjeft more at large in
a work, firfl publiflied in 1765, and afterwards with confi-
derable additions in 1772, and entitled " A fhort hiftorical
View of the Controverfy concerning the intermediate ftate
between death and the refurreftion, with a prefatory dif-
courfe on the ufc and importance of theological controverfy."
In 1756, our author publifhed " Some Sentiments of a
country-divine concerning the Ordinance of Baptifm, &c."
occafioned by letters which pafled between bifhop Clayton
and Mr. Penn on that inftitution. Iir the correfpondence
between thefe writers, a difBculty occurs in the interpretation
of the charge given by our Lord to his apoftks. Matt.
xxviii. 19. Our Lord, it is faid, prcfcribes om prccife
form of words to be ufed in baptifm ; the apoftles appear,
from the Afts and Epiltles, to have ufed another ; and the
evangelifts Mark, Luke, and John, do not mention atiy pre-
c'lfe form whatever. Various hypothefes have been propofed
by Grotius, Limborch, Lightfoot, Whitby, Clayton, &c.
for reconcihng the praftice of the apoiUes with the precept
of Chrift. Mr. Blackburne, diffatislied with all thefe, fug-
gefts that the words in queftion contain no baptifmal form at
all ; and that we fhould rather follow the apoftolical form in
Afts, as being derived to us by the authority and example
of men, who muft be perfectly fatisfied that the foundation
they built upon was found and good. Accordingly, he pro-
pofes that we fhould read the paffage in St. Matthew thus ;
T\.o^i\i^i'i\ii dv ftaSiiTsutrals Travla xa sfivn [(SaTTi^ovls.: aflac) fi; to
cmfj-x -m m.lfo:, xxi la i/ia, xat t« ttvekjukIo,- ayio ; " Go ye there-
fore, and difciple all nations (baptizing them) into the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft."
By conftruftion and parenthefis, the command to baptize
refers to no particular form at all, and leaves us to fuppofe,
what was certainly the truth of the matter, that the apoftles
being already well acquainted with the form ufed in the bap-
tifm of Jefus, it was quite fnperflucus to enjoin it here.

In 1758, Mr. Blackburne avowed the fentiments which he
had for fome time entertained concerning fubfcription to the

Vol. IV.

B L A

liturgy and articles of the church of England, in " Remarks
on the Rev. Dr. Poweiri fermon in defence of fubfcriptions,
&c." preached in the preceding year before the univerfityof
Cambridge ; to which is prefixed " An Addrefs to the
younger lludents in both our univerfities." The fubjcft of
fubfcription had indeed for foms time engaged his attention ;
and it was not without fcruplcs that he had quahned himfelf
to hold the archdeaconry and prebend in 1753; but wlien
he had reafon to expert further advancement in the church,
he refumed the coniidei-ation of the fubjetl, and tiie refult
was a determination never to renew his fubfcription. About
this time he began to make coUeftions for his famous work
entitled " The Confcffioua!, or a full and free Enquiry into
the right, utility, and fucccfs of eftablifliing Confcfiions of
faiih and doftrine in Protellant churches." This work, in
the execution of which he was much encouraged by Dr. Ed-
mund Law, afterwards bifliop of Carlifle, lay by him in ma-
nufcript for feveral years, and was at length publifhed in
1766, 8v5). withor-t his name. It excited, as we may natu-
rally imagine, very general attention both among the parti-
zans of reform and the advocates for exitling eftablilliments.
A fecond edition appeared in 1767; and the controverfy,
which it occafioned, lafted for fome years, and produced a
great number of pubhcations. The third edition, corrected
and much enlarged, was publifhed in 1770 ; and to this edi-
tion has been added from the author's manufcript, in the late
colleAion of his works, an appendix, containing a fhort hiflory
of the confeflions eftablifhed in the church of Scotland at
different periods. For a further account of the fubjeft of
this work, and of the arguments for and againft fubfcription,
fee Subscription. Soon after the publication of the third
edition of the " Confefiional," the author was induced by
feveral of his friends to draw up and pubhth " Propofals for
an application to parliament for rehef in the matter of fub-
fcription to the liturgy and thirty-nine articles of the efta-
bUfhcd church of England, humbly fubmitted to the confi-
deration of the learned and confcientious clergy of the faid
church." An affociation was formed for this purpofe, for
the refult of which, fee Association.

It was natural to imagine, that the author of fuch a work
as the " Confeffional," written with a view of examining
and refuting the feveral pleas that had been urged in favour
of fubfcription, and which had convinced many perfons of
the infufBciency of thefe pleas, would have witlied to with-
draw himfelf from the eftablifhed church, which impofed a
fubfcription that appeared to him to be unjuftitiable ; and
accordingly, as the death of Dr. Chandler, in 1766, occa.
fioned a vacancy in the refpeiSable congregation of dif-
fenters at the Old Jewry, in London, fome individuals of
that fociety applied to Mr. Blackburne for information,
whether fuch a fituation would be agreeable to his views,
if it were offered to him. But, with the profpeft of a very
coiifiderable accefTion to his income, he declined accepting
the propofal, for reafons that were very fatisfaftor)- to thofe
who made it. The clear amount of all that he poffcffcd, as a
beneficed clergyman, never much exceeded the fum of 150I.
a-year ; whereas, if the removal that had been fuggefled to
him had taken place, his income would have been nearly
trebled. Some other circumftances alfo afterwards occurred,
which had a tendency to detach him from the eftablifhed
church. Two very refpettable clergymen, immediately con-
nefted with his own family, viz. the learned Mr. Theophilus
Lindfey, whofe excellent charafter thofe who are moft ad-
verfe to his theological opinions concur in applauding, and
his fon-iu law. Dr. Difney, no lefs efteemed by all who
know him, furrendered their preferments, becaufe they dif-
approvcd the dedrines and forms of the eftablifhed church.
3 X Mr. Black..

B L A

Mr. Blnckburne, liowever, though he agreed with his valued
relatives in many of their objcftions to liie liturgy and articles
of the church, differed from them with regard to feveral
doclrinal points of importance ; and without feeminjr to ad-
vert to his part fubfcription, in confequence of which he tlill
held his church preferments, he fatisfied hiinfdf with nfufing
any further preferment, which was adually offered to him,
becaufc he was dettrmined not to renew his fubfcription.
His continuance in the church cannot be jullly afcribed to
any felfi^ and intereftcd motives, becaufe he might have
left it with advantage, and he remained in it with a fixed
purpofc of accepting no preferment ; and he refufed veiy
coniiderable offers of this kind. But, in order to vindicate
his conDllency, he thought it right to avow his motives for
continuing miniiler in the church, while he difapprovcd
many things in her doftrine and difcipline ; and with this
view he drew up a fliort paper containing " .'\n Anfwer
to the qucflion. Why are you not a tJocinian ?" and alfo his
reafons for ofiieiating in a church, whofe form' of faith,
worfliip, and difcipline, he thought to be in many things
highly exceptionable. Thofe who wifh for fatisfaclion on
thefe points, aie referred to the Appendix annexed to the
Memoirs of his Life, p. 120. We fhall content ourfelves
with obferving, that Mr. Blackburne was a firm believer of
the prc-cxiflence of Chrift, and that he alfo maintained his
divinity, with limitations according to his own ideas, which
he believed to be founded on the Scriptures ; and with re-
gard to the general fentiments of his creed, he is faid to
nave more than once declared himftlf a moderate Calvinill.
Whatever may be the inconfillency which fomc perfons have
charged upon his conduit, he manifeftcd his efteem for the
church, not only by continuing his own connexion with it,
but by educating a fon for the clerical ofiice, though the
condition of pi.rforming any duties, or enjoying any emo-
luments in that church, v,as fubfcription, the impofition
of which he had ftrongly reprobated and condemned. On
this fubjeft, the further difcuffion of which would lead us
beyond our province as biographers, we fliall only fay, " Let
every man be fully perfuaded in his own mind ; to his own
mailer he (landeth or faileth." See Subscription.

Having been accuftomed from early life to regard the
Roman Catholics as dangerous foes to the government and
religion of his country, Mr. Blackburne, notwithftanding the
enlarged and liberal fentiments avowed by him on all other
occaftons, wrote againft them with a fevericy which the
friends of freedom have generally condemned. But an alarm
with regard to the fpread of popery, and the evils to be ap-
prehended from it, prevailed very much at the time ; and
this induced him, in I7')S, to publidi a caution .igainft it,
under the title of " Confidcrations on the prefent ilate of
t!ie controverfy between the Protcllants and Papifts of Great
Britain and Ireland, particularly on the quellion, how far
the latter are entitled to toleration upon Proteftant prin-
ciples."

During the inten-als of his other profc fiional and literary
engagements, he employed iiimfelf incollefting materials for
tlie life of Martin Luther, which he propofed to write ac-
cording to the pattern of Dr. Jortin's life of Erafmus ; but he
was diverted from accomplifhing his defign, firft liy the death
cf his friend Thom.as Hollis efq. of whom he publjflied
" Memoirs," in 2 volumes 410. in 17S0, and afterwards by
the lofs of his ftcond fon Tiiomas, in 17S2, a phyftcian of
rifng eminence in the city of Duriiam, which fo affeded him
as to render him incapable of finilhing feveral things which
he had undertaken. Soon after his eye-fight failed him, and
he was under the necefTity of employing an amanuenfis.
liis mind, however, was ftiU entcrprifing and aftivc ; nor

B L A

was he prevented by the increafing infirmities of age from
profecuting the objeft of ecclefiailical reformation, which
feems to have occupied his thoughts to the latell period of
his life, and from performing his prof, ffioual duties. Having,
in the lalt year of his life prepared a c'^argt for his 38th
annual vifitation in Cleveland, he caufed it to be delivered by
his elded fon, who Hood by him, and then took leave of his
clerical brethren with an addrefs equally pious and affection-
ate, that mud have deeply imprefled the minds of all who
heard it. At the clofe of his vifitationcircuit, he was taken
ill at the houfe of a friend, and apprehcufive of approaching
diffolution, hailened to his reftory at Richmond with all the
expedition which the ftate of his health allowed. Within a
few weeks after his return, on the morning of Auguft 7th
1787, in his 83d year, he finifiied the protrafted courfe of a
ftudious and exemplary life, with the fentiment of the
amiable Erafmus, and the benevolent Jortin, " I have had
enough of every thing in this world," and expired, as he
fat in his chair, without a groan. He left a widow, who
died Auguft 20th 1799. and four children; viz. Jane,
married to tiie Rev. Dr. Difney, now miniiler of the Unitarian
fociety in EfTex-ftreet, London ; the Rev. Francis Black-
burne, vicar of Brignal, near Greta-bridge, Vorkfliire ; Sarah^
married to the Rev. John Hall, vicar of Chew Magna, and
reftor of Dundry in Somerfetfliire; and W^illiam Blackburne,
M.D. of Cavendifh-fquare, London.

Few perfons have ever been more regular and affiduous in
the performance of profeffional duties, whether we confider
him as a parifli prieft , or as an archdeacon, than Mr. Black-
burne. Pod'efring naturally a flrong conllitution of body,,
and great firmnefs of mind, which he prelerved by tem-
perance to a very advanced period, he was capable of intenle
and continued application. He was likewife animated in the
difcharge of his clerical functions by a conviftion of their
importance, and by an ardent dciire of promoting the bcft.-
interefts of thofe with whom he was connected. In com-
pofing for many years new difcourfes, whenever he officiated,
and alfo charges for his archidiaconal vifitations, and in pre-
paring for the pixfs a variety of publications, a great part of
his time mull have been fpeut in lludy and retirement ; and
hence he is faid to have acquired the appearance of aufterity ;,
neverthelefs with liis intimate friends and affociates he was
cheerful and unrcfervcd. As a writer he was nervous and
animated; and his public difcourfes were delivered with an
unaffec\ed earndlnels, which proceeded from conviction of
the importance of religious truth and duty, and which inte-
refted and imprefled thofe who heard him.. In his contro-
verfial writings, it mull be acknowledged, and he himftlf
lamented it towards the clofe of his life, that he was
occafionally betrayed into precipitance of judgment and
afperity of language ; but it fliould be recollected, that he
contended with a hofl of adverfaries, whofe mode of attack
fometimes provoked and juftified his refcntment ; and that
his vehemence and ardour were always accompanied with a
high fenfe of integrity and honour, and a laudable folicitude
for ferving what he conceived to be the caufe of truth and
liberty. The topics of his numerous publications, the prin-
cipal of which we have above recited, were chiefly theological
or controverfial ; neverthelefs he was an occafional writer on
political liberty, and he largely contributed to a colleftion
of letters and effays on this I'ubjeft, publifhcd in 3 vols. 8vo.
1774. -^ colleftion of his " Works, theological and mifceU
laneous, including ferae pieces not before printed, with fome
account of the nfe and writings of the author, by himfelf,
com.pleted by his foT Francis Blackburne, L. L. B. and il-
luilrated by an appendix of original paper--," has this year
(1804) been publiflied iu 7 vols.. Svo. The following re-
8 fpeftful

B L A

fpcclfiil and juft tribute to his memory clofes his fon's ac-
count of his Hfe and writings : " Such was Francis Black-
bunig ; a beheverof Chriftianity, from the deepell conviction
of its truth ; a Proteftaiit on the genuine principles of the
reformation from popery ; a ftrenuous adverfary of fuperlli-
lijn and intolerance, and of every corruption of the fimpli-
city or the fpirit of the gofpel ; a zealous promoter of civil
liberty ; a clofe and perfpicacious reafoner ; a keen and
energetic writer; an attentive, benevolent, and venerable
archdeacon ; an eloquent and perfuafive preacher ; a faith-
ful paftor and exemplary guide ; of unblemifhed purity of
life, of fimple dignity of manners ; a fincere and cordial
friend ; an affectionate hufbano, and an indulgent father ;
ill (hort, a juft, humane, pious, temperate, and independent
man."

BLACKBURNIA, fo named by Forfter, in honour of
John BIac!<buriie efq. and his daughter Anne, of Orford
in Laiicalhire, in Z^^.'rtnji. L.in. gen. Schreb. n. 199. Forfter
s;cn. 6. Clafs and order, tetrnndria motiot;ynia. Gen. Char.
CuL perianth very (hort, four-toothed, inferior ; teeth fhort,
acute, horizontal. Cor. petals four, elliptic. Stam. filaments
fjur, fubulate, rather (horter than the petals ; anthers heart-
fliaped, ercfl. Pijl. g;crm conic ; llyle filiform., ereft,
length of the ftamens ; lligma fimple. Per. berry. Scr^/,
liiigle.

EIT. Char. Cd/. four-toothed ; pcf. four, elliptic ; arif/y.
I'.eart-lliapcd ; gi-'mt conic ; Jligma fimple. Per. berry, with a
iingle feed.

Species i. Y> . p'.nnala. Forft. gen. 6. t. 6. fl. Auftr. n. 53.
Ptelea pinnata. Linn, fuppl. 126. A native of Norfolk
illand ; found there in I7''4. Martyn.

BLACKBURNIjE, in Ornithology, a fpecies of MoTA-
ciLLA, drfcribcd in tlie Arftic Zoology under the name of
the blackburnian warbler. The crown is black, with a
yellow line in the middle ; band through or acrofs the ej'e
black, as are alfo the leifer wing-coverts ; greater wing-
coverts, vent, and lateral tail feathers white, the middle
cues being diiflcy black ; fides of the neck, chin, 'and
niiddle ef the belly yellow. A native of New York.

BLACKHEAD, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coaft
of Ireland, ?.t the north entrance into Belfait Lough. N. lat.
34=45'. W. long. 5- 35'.

Blackhead, a cape on the weftern coaft of Ireland, in
the county of Clare, on the fouth lide of the entrance into
CJalway bay. N. lat. 53= 7'. W. long, (f 1 1'.

Blackhead, a cape on the fouth coaft of Ireland,
within the old head of Kinfale, and on the well fide of
Kinfale harbour. N. lat. 51° 38'. W. long. 8° 30'.

Blackhead, a cape on the weft coaft of Scotland, in
the county of Wigton ; 6 miles W.S.W. of Stranraer.

Blackhead, a point of land between Falmouth liaven
and the Lizard point. — Alfo, one of the peaks between
Fermovve's harbour on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland,
and Agua fort ; bald head being the other. — Alfo, a
point on the fouth coaft of Newfoundland, weft of cape

Race, and half a league further weft from cape Pine

Alfo, a poi;it on the eaft coaft of the northern illand
of New Zealand, N.N.E. of cape Turnagain, in about ^0°
iS' ri. I AX.

BLACKING, in the Arts, fee. is fomctimcs ufed for a
faftitiouB black, as lamp-black, flioe-black, &c. A mi.-iture
of ivory or lamp-black with linfeed oil, makes the common
oil-blacking. For a Ihir.ing blacking, fmall-beer or water is
ufed inftead of oil, in the proportion of about a pint to
an ounce of the ivory-black, with the addition of half an
ounce of brown fugar, and as much gum Arabic. The
■white of an egg, fubllituted for the gum, makes the black

B L A

more fliining ; but is fuppofed to hurt the leather, and
make it apt to crack.

In 1771 a patent was granted to Mr, William Bayley for
preparing a compofition in cakes, rolls, or balls, which, with
the addition of water only, makes an excellent ftiining liquid
blacking fcr flioes, boots. Sec. The recipe for this purpofe
is as follows : take one part of the gummy juice that ifl'ucs,
in the months of June, July, and Auguft, from the ftirub
called the goat's thorn, foiir parts of river water, two parts
of neat's foot, or fome other foftening lubricating oi', tw»
parts of luperfine ivory-black, two parts of deep blue, pre-
pared from iron and copper, and four parts of brown fugar-
candy. Evaporate the water ; and, when the compofition is
of a proper confiftence, let it be formed into cakes of fuch
a fize, that each cake may make a piiit of liquid blacking.

BLACKLOCK, Thomas, in Biography, was born in
1721, at Annan in Scotland, of parents, who were natives
of Cumberland, and who occupied a liumble ftation. At
tlie age of 6 months he was deprived of his fight by the
fmall-pox ; and thus becoming incapable of any mechanical
employment, he was in the probable courfe of nature dcftined
to be a perpetual charge to his parenf;. His difpofition.
however, as he advanced towards maturity, engaged the
moll affcdlionate attention ; and the kindnefs of Ir.s father
was fuch as to imprefs his youthful mind, and to engage
exprefiions of ardent gratitude. The powers of his mind
were no Icfs diftinguifiied than the amiablenefs of his temper ;
and he improved the cafual opportunities of cultivating
them, which were afforded him by the attention of his
fatlier and friends, who read to him feveral paflages out of
Englifii author?, and particularly from the works of our
moll approved and popular poets. Thefe he heard with
avidity and delight ; and at the early period of his 1 2th year,
he began to imitate what he admired. His performances,
as he advanced towards maturity, became the fubjecls of
general converfation ; and having the misfortune to lofe his
father in his 19th year, he was invited, at the age of 2C, by
Dr. Stephenfon, phyfician at Edinburgli, to remove thitlier
and to purfue his ftudiesatthe univerfity. Notwithftanding
the perfonal difadvantagcs under which lie labouied, he
made very confiderable progrefs in the Latin, Greek, and
French languages ; but upon the breaking out of the rebel-
lion in 1745, his ftudies were interrupted, and he retired
into the country. On this occafion he was folicitcd by his
friends to publiih a faiall coUeftion of his poems at Glafgow.
When the tumult of the rebellion fubfided, he returned
to Edinburgh, aad to tlie profecution of his ftudies for 6
years more, during which period he not only perfetled him-
felf in the languages, but made confiderable progrefs in all
the fciences, and particularly in polite literature. In 1 754
he publilhed a fecoiid edition of his poem.s, much improved
ai.d enlarged ; and thus gained the patronage of JSIr, Spence,
v.lu), by an account of his life, characler, and poems, brought
him into general notice. By means of a fubfcriptioii to a
ato edition of his poems, his circumftances were rendered
eafy and comfortable ; and applying iiinifclf to the iludy of
theology, he palled the ulual trials, and was liceuffd in
1759 to be a preacher by the prefbytery of Dumfries. From
the difeharge of the duties of his oltice he derived great fa-
tisfaction and reputation. On th.- alarm of a Frencli in-
vafion in 1 761, he publilhed a diicourfe " On the right im-
provement of time ;" and in the fame year he contributed
fome poems to the firft volume of DcnaJdlon's colledtion of
original poems. In 1762 he formed a matriir.onial connec-
tion, which he regarded as the chief fource of the felicity of
his future life. About this time he was ord.iincd minifter
of Kircudbright, on the prefentation of the earl of Selkirk ;
but in cor.fcquence of fome litigations that enfued, he
3X2 thought

B L A

thought it moft expedient, within two years, to refign this
preferment, ami to retire upon a moderat*: aiiiiiiity. With
thii (lender provifion he removed in 1764 to Ediiihurgli, and
opened his houfe for the accommodation of young jjc-rf.ns
as boarders and iludents. In 1766 the marifchal college of
Aberdeen conferred upon him the degree of dortor in di-
vinity. From this time he continued to maintain his literary
chara£ler by feveral publications, which it will be fuflicient
to enumerate. Thefc were " Paracklis, or ConfoLitimis
deduced from natural and revealed religion," in two difkr-
tations, 8vo. 1767 ; '• Two Difcourfcs on the evidences and
fpirit of Chriilianity, tranfl.ited from the rrench of Mr.
James Armand," 8vo. 1768;," A Panegyric on Great
Britain," a fatirical piece, 8vo. 1773 ; " The Graham, an
heroic ballad, in four cantos," 410. 1774; " Remarks on
the nature and extent of liberty, &c. and on the julHce and
policy of the American war, occalioiied by peruling the ob-
fervations of Dr. Price on thefe fubjcfts," 8vo. 1776; and
a valuable article, communicated to the editors of the
Encyclopedia Britannica, " On the education of the
blind," I 783. A 4to edition of Dr. Blacklock's poems was
printed in 1793. This edition contains an elfay on the edu-
cation of (he blind, being a trandation of M. Haiiy's cele-
brated effay on this fubjcel ; and prefixed to it we have a
new account of the life and writings of the author by
Mr. Mackenzie, author of the Man of Feeling, S:c. Dr.
Blacklock died at the age of 70, in July 1791. With
refpedl to his talents, Mr. Hume obferves, " that he may be
regarded as a prodigy ;" and to his moral chaiaclcr he bears
this honourable telliniony, that " his modefty was equal to
the goodnefs of his difpolition, and the beauty of his
genius." In the dcprelTcd circumilances of his early life
he was fingularly contented a:id acquiefcing ; but his lofs of
fight deeply aiftcled his fenfibility, and he deplores it in
plaintive accents in one of his poems, written on occalion of
his elcape from falling into a deep well. At the fame time
he was diftrclTed by apprehenfions of finking into extreme
indigence ; however he expreffes his truft in Providence, and
his hope that the clouds which were gathering over him
would be diffipatcd. . Next to his religious principles, were
letters, converfation, and nmfic, from which he derived his
principal folace. His poetry is eafy, elegant, and hariTK -
nious ; and abounds with images, deduced from vifible
objcclj, and aptly applied. He is faid to have compofed
with rapidity, and hence it is owing that his vivacity and
animation are often indulged at tlie expence of correil-
nefsand regularity. In ft-iitiment he difplays much benevo-
lence and tendernefs of difpofition, as well as true piety and
philofophy. Spence, ubifupra. Gen. Biog.

BLACKMORE, S1.1 Richard, M.D. an indefatigable
writer, poet, and phyfician, was born at Corfliam in Wilt-
ftiire, about the year 1650. After fome years fpent at a
grammar fchool in the country, he was fent to Wedminfter
fchool, and in 1668 to Edmund-hall, Oxford. In 1676 he
took his degree of mailer of arts, and continued to rclide at
college three years after, but apparently v^ithout receiving
much benefit from his long refidenee in this feat of the mufes,
fcarcely knowing the names or fituations of places, which an
intimacy with clalTical authors mull have made familiar to
him. At fome time in. his life, probably immediately on
quitting college, he kept a fcliool, but does not feem to
have remained long in that ftation, as he foon after went to
Paris, and to other places on the continent, with a view, it is
probable, of acquiring or improving his knowledge in medi-
cine, in which faculty he took his degree of' doftor'at
Padua. Returning to England, after a ramble of eighteen
months, he came to London, and fettled at fird in Cheapfide,
where he acquired fo much reputation, that iu 16S7, he was

B L A

admitted a fellow of the college of phyfieians. In 1 697, h©
received the honour of knii;hthood from king William, ac»
compiniedwidi a prefent of a gold chain and medal, which, he
intimates, \ ere given him as a reward for fome fervicts per-
formed at the revolution. The fame year he was made phyfician
in ordinary to the king ; an office he held alterwards under his
fuccefl'or, queen Anne. He was now in the zenith of his
reputation, and having as yet but little expofed himfelf to
the fcrutiiiy of the critics by writing, his merit was piobably
rated mueh beyond its real ftandard. To his popularity as
a phyfician, and his excellent and unimpcachtd moral clia-
rafter, it was probably owing, that his firil produftion,
" Prince Arthur," an epic poem, in ten books, publilhed
a little before this time, acquired fo much celebrity as
to pafs tlirough three editions in the fpace of two years.
Encouraged by this fuccefs, in 1699 he publilhed his " King
Arthur" in twelve books, with paraphrales on the book of
Job, a'nd on other parts of fcripture; and in 1700, his " Satire
on Wit," in which he took occafion to retort the farcafius
which had been heaped with no fparing hand on his lalb
poems by Dennis, Dryden, Pope, and molt of the wits of the
time. Not deterred by their cenfures, in 1705 he publifheJ.
"Eliza," another heroic poen",in tenbooks. "This excited,"
Johnfon fays, " neither praife nor blame, but feenis to have
dropped dead born from the prefs." In 1712, appeared
" Creation," a philofophieal poem, certainly the beil of his
productions. It had the honour of being praifed by Addi-
fon, in the Speftator, and Dr. Johnfon has fince infertcdit in
his co'-lcftion of Englifh poets, with commendation much be-
yond its merit. This for a time revived its credit, and gave it
a degree of celebrity, which feems again to be declining apace.
Pleafed with the reputation procured by this poem, he foou
after produced his fourth and lall epic poem in twelve books,
intended to commemorate iheaftions of king Alfred, whofe
name it bore, but like Eliza, it excited little notice ; benevo«
lence being afhamed any longer to patronize, and malevolence
weary of infulting, fuch frigid abortions. But as if it was
to be the fate of this author to try every fpecies of writing,
and to fail in all, on the Speftator ceafing, he produced, in
conjunction with Mr. Hughes, the " Lay Monaltery ;" one
paper of which was publiflied three times in the week. This
was only continued to the 40lh number. Soon afier he gave
the world two volumes of elFays. As ihefe were intended to
promote the caufe of virtue and religion, they met with fome
favour. Befides thefe works. Dr. Blackmore wrote feveral
tradls on different branches of medicine ; on the fpleen, the
gout, the rheumatifm, the king's evil, the dropfy, the jaun-
dice, the diabetes, the plague ; and as inoculation for the
fmall-po.x was making fome piogrefs in his time, he thought
it incumbent on him to give his decided difapprobation of the
praclice. But as by this time he began to be efteemed fcarce
a better phyfician than a poet, his opinion had fortunately
very little weight with tlie public. The medical trafls are
publifhed together in an 8vo volume, but are little known or
noticed. He died on the 8th of Oftober 1729. Gen. Biog,
Johnfon's Lives of the Poets.

BLACKNESS, the quality of ;> black body ; or a co.
lour arifing from a texture ard fifjation of the fuper-
ficial parts of the body, which, as it were, ilifle, or rather
abforb, the light falhng on it, without reflcfting any, or very
little of it, to the eye. In which fenfe, blacknefs flands
direttly oppofed to whitenefs ; which confifts in fuch a
texture of parts, as indifferently reflefts all the rays thrown
upon it, of whatfoever colour they be.

Defcartes, fays Dr. Prieftley (Hift. of Vifion, p. 127 and
143, &c.), though miftaken with refpeft to the nature of
hght and colours, yet dillinguifhes juilly between black and
white, gbferving, that black fuffocates and extinguilhes the

rays

I

B L A

B L A

rays that fall upon it ; but that white refleifls them.
This, adds the hiftorian of philofophy, is thefirft dillinft ac-
count I havemet with of this fenfibie hypothefis. Mr. Boyle
alfo made feveral obfervations and experiments, which dc-
nionftrate his theory in a very fatisfaftory manner. See
Black.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Optics, flicw, that for the pro-
duftion of black colours, the corpufcles inuil be Icfs than
thofc which exhibit any other colours ; becaule, where the
fi/AS of the component particles are greater, there is too
much light reflefled to conftitute this colour : but, if they
be a little Icfs than is requifite to rcfleft the white and very
faint blue of the firft order, they will refleft fo little light,
as to appear inteulely black ; and yet may, perhaps,
refleft it varioully to and fro within them fo long, till
it happen to be itifled and loft ; by which means they
will appear black in all pofitions of the eye, without any
tranfparcncy.

And hence it appears, why fire, and putrefaftion, by
dividing the particles of fubllances, turn them black : why
fmall quantities of black fubllanccs impart their colours very
freely, and intenfelv, to other fubftances, to which they are
applied ; the minute particles of thefe, by reafon of their
very great nun-ber, eafily overfpreading the grob particles
of others. Hence alfo appears, why glafs, ground very
elaborately with fand, on a copper plate, till it be v.'ell po-
lifhed, makes the fand, together with what by rubbing is
worn off from the glafs and copper, become very black ;
and why black fubftances do, foonell of all others, become
hot in thr lun's light, and burn (which ^ffcft may proceed
partly from the multitude of refractions in a little room, and
partly from the eafy commotion of fuch very Imall particles'! :
alfo why blacks are ufuallv a little inclined towat-ds a bluifh
colour ; for that they are fo, may be feen by illuminating
white ])aper with light reflefted from black iubilances, where
the paper will ufually appear of a bluith white; and the
realon is, that black borders on the obicure blue of the tirft
ordsr of colours ; and therefore reflcfts more rays of that
colour than any other.

BLACKRIE, Alexander, in Biography, apothecary,
a native of Scotland, publifhed in 1766 a difquifition on
medicines that dlffulve the ftone, in which Dr. Chittick's
fecret is laid open, i2mo. It was reprinted in 1771, with
additions. Fie found the folvent to be the lixivium fapo-
narium, which may be given, he fays, advantai^eoufly, mixed
with lime-water, even when blood is voided with the urine.
When the bladder becomes ulcerated, wounded by the afpe-
rities of the ftone, he recommends the pareira brava and uva
urfi. When pain in the loins or pubes is violent, he gives
opium ; and he has known, he fays, perfons void ftones in
their fleep, while taking that drug. Perfons who void red
fend or gravel with their urine, are never affefted, he fays,
with the ftone. Haller. Bib. Chirurg.

BLACKS, Negroes : a people, fo called from the colour
of their Jidn. For the reafon of their colour, and the com-
merce of them, fee Negro.

Blacks, is alfo a name given to an alTociation ofdiforderly
and ill-defigning perfons, formerly herding chiefly about
Waltham in Eifex, who dellroyed deer, robbed tith-ponds,
ruined timber, &c. See Black aa.

BLACKSOD Bay, in fome old maps erroneoufly called
Black harbour, in Geography, a large bay lying between the
peninfula of the Mullet, and the main land of the county of
Mayo, Ireland, to the fouth of the ifthmus. It is well
fheltered, the ground in moft parts clean, and fufBciently
deep for large (hips ; but the ground being a hard fand, it is
not thought that it will hold well in hard gales from the weft
and fouth-weft, efpecially in the winter time. It is 25 miles

wide at its entrance, and runs about 9 miles inland, with
feveral creeks communicating with it, of which thofe within
Barnach ifle, and the point of Claggan, are the moft remark-
able. The fouth-weft point of this bay is in N. lat. 54° 6'.
W. long. 9^52' M'Kcnzie, &c.

Blacksod Point, the fouthern point of the Mullet, a
peninfula in the weftern part of the county of Mayo, Ire-
land, which forms the wellern extremity of Blackfod bay.
N. lat. 54° 6'. W. long. 9^ 52'.

BLACKSTONE, J. in Biography, apothecan,', of whom
nothing is known, but that he publiihtd in 1737, " Fafciculus
Pia;itarum, circa Harefield, fpontc ntifcentium, cum Appen-
dice ad loci naturam fpeftante," 8vo. London. Among many-
common, fome very rare plants were difcovered by the aii-
thor, and are defcribed in this volur.ie. He alfo publifhed
in 1746, " Specimen botanicum, quo plantarum plurium
Anglifc indigenarum, loci naturales ilhiftrantur," 8vo»
London, an interefting and ufefal work. Haller. Bib.
Botan.

Blackstone, William, S!R, knight and L.L.D.
a celebrated Englifh lawyer, was born in London,
July loth 1723. and received the firft rudiments of learn-
ing at the Charter-houfe, where he was admitted upon
the foundnt'onin 1735, and v, hence he was removed, in 1738,
to Pembroke college, Oxford. At fchool and in the uni-
verfity he was diftinguifhed by his application and proficiency ;
and the range of his ftudies, even at an early period, was fo
extenfive, that he is faid to have compofed a treatife on the
" Elements of Architedturc," for his own ufe at the age of
20. This treatife was never publifhed. As he made choice
of the proftffio.i of the law, he was entered of the Middle
Temp'e, and quitted Oxford in 1744 to purfue ftudies, very
different from thofe to which his tafte inclined him at the uni-
vertity. This change of his purfuits is feelinglv commemo-
rated in the " Lawyer's Farewel to the Mufe," compofed
about this time, and publiftied in the fourth volume of
Docillev's Mifcellanies. From this period he affiduoudy
applied to his profeflional ftudies, rcfiding occafionally in
chambers in the Temple, for the convenience of attending
the courts, and at otiier times in the univtrfity, to which he
was much attached. In 1743 ^^ ^'^^ elefted a fellow of
All-Sou!s college, and on the 24th of November 1746 he
was called to the bar, and comtnenced the praftice of the.
law. Dellitute ot a ready elocution, and of other talents
requifite for a popular advocate, his progrefs was flow ; and
he had kifure to difehars^e the duties of burfar, or fteward,
of All-Souls, which he did with fuch ikill and diligence, as
to improve the revenues of the college,, and to aid in com-
pleting the magnificent flrufmre of the Codi'ngton library',
A treatife which he compofed on this occafiyn is ftfll ufcful
in coiiducling the pecuniaiy concerns i;f this fociety. In
1749, he was appointed recorder of Whl!:i:r'ord in Bcrk-
fliire ; and defirous of more conftani refider.ceat Oxford, he
took in the following year the degree of doftor of laws.
About this time he publifhed an " Effay on collateral confan-
guinity ;" particularly referring to the claim made by the
kindred of the founder of All-Souls to a preference in being
elefted fellows of thatfociet). It was written, in defence
of the college, which had lately rejefted fome of thefe
claims ; but the reafoning, though fupported by great
learning and ingenuity, is deemed by fome competent
judgesinconclufive. lu 1753, Mr. Blackftone, perceiving,
after a trial of feven years, that he had no profpeft of fuc-
cefs in the courts at Weftminfler, determined to quit London,
and to retire to his fcllowfiiip at Oxford. This refolution
was eventually veiy favourable both to himfelf and the
public. As no public provifion had been made either by
the founders of the Engtilh univerfities, or at any fubfequent

period.

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peood, for teachinf; ftudents tht; lays and conilitutioii of
tlieir own country, Mr. Blackllone undertook to fuppi)' this
dtfc(5t, and op.-iicd a courfe of public Icdures upon this in-
ter(:llin.j fibjccl. Willi fuch reputation and fuccefs did
he profccutc I\i3 plan, from Michaelmas term 1753> when his
firft courfe of lectures commenced, during a fenes of fuccef-
five years, as probably to fugged the idea to Mr. Viner of
founding by hii v.ill a very liberal tdablifhmcnt in the uni-
vcrlity of Oxford for the ftudy of the common law. As
foon as the plan of Mr. Viucr's inilitution could be arranged,
Mr. B'.ackilone was vcvy properly elected, in OAober, 175' >
the firll Vineiian profefTor ; and he introduced the duties
of his new ollicc by a well-written ledure, adapted both to
the fiibjexfl and the audience, which was foon afterwards pub-
lidiod, and vhich has becQ fince prefixed to tl.e firll volume
of his Commentaries.

With his engagements as a letiurer, Mr. Blackllone
combined t'ne occafional exercife of his profeiTion as a pro-
vincial baniller ; and, in 1754, he was employed as counfel
in the great contelled eleiflion for the county of Oxford.
The fobllance of his pleadings on this occafion was publiflied
in a pamphlet entitled "ConfiJerationson Copyholders;" with
a view to the kgillative dccifion of the point controverted
at this dedion. The argument of this treatife is founded
oil feudal principles, and excludes copyholders from the right
of voting ; this right being, by his reafoning, rellriftcd to
thofe w ho have a freehold or permanent intereil in land,
which dots not belong to copyholders, whom the feudal
fyllem conlidtrs as mere vaffals, and dependent on the will
of the lord. But it has been more liberally argued by others,
that a feries of Ijgal decifions has given to this tenure all the
permanence of freehold property, and that as the reafon of
the diftiniflion betwten the two fpccies of tenure has ceafed,
the didindion itfelf ought no longer to exill. However,
in the parliamentary difcufTion of this qucftion, the technical
arguments prevailed ; and a declaratory acl was foon after-
wards paffed, in conformity to the principles advanced by
the profefTor's treatife, excluding copyholders from the ri;;ht
of fuffrage. In 1759, Blackllone publifliid, befidcs two
tracts of a local and temporary nature, a new edition of the
'■ Great Charter, and Charter of the Fored," introduced by
an hillorical preface, which evinced a coiifiJerable know-
ledge of antiquities. In the fame year, the reputation
gained by his leclures encouraged him to return to the tem-
ple, and to refume his attendance at Weftmiiiller ; where he
foon acquired profefQonal eminence, and wlure lie was em-
plpyed for a confiderable time in almoR all cafes that re-
quired great learning and deep refearch. In 1761, he was
elefted member of parliament for Hindon, and had a patent
of precedence to rank as king's counfel, having before de-
clined the office of chief jullicc of Ireland. In 1762, he
colkcled and re-publi!hed feveral of his pieces under the
title of " Law Trafts," in 2 vols. 8vo. In 1763, he was
appointed folicitor-gencral to the queen, in the cllablidiment
of her mrjtfly's houfehold, and barrilier of the Middle Tem-
ple. Having vacated his fellowiliip by his marriage, in
1761^ he was immediately afterwards appointed princinal of
N;w Iim-lnil, by lord Wellmoreland, then chancellor of
the univcrfm-. But in 1766, he refigned both this office
and his \ inerian profefTorfliip^

The firll volume of his kaures was publifhed in 1765,
under the title of " Commentaries ou the I.aus of England j"
a work which fir William Jones has charaatrized .is " the
moll correft a-id beautiful outhnethat was ever exhibited of
any huirian fcience." In the execution of this undertaking,
the author combines the humbler dutv of an expofitor wiUi
the higher charader of a philofophical writer on jurifpru-
dencc. Under the former charafter he is entitled to the

B L A

higheft praif^. The flyle is correft, perfpicuouj, and ele-
gant ; and the author has admirably contrived to counedt
amufement with inftruftion, and to render the fludy of the
law as agreeable as it is important and intereiling. Not-
withtlanding the immenfe niafs of ijiaterials of which this
coaiprehenfive work confift?, few errors have been detedlcd
in it, and it has been cited as a book of authority.

It has been objected, however, to thefe Commentaries,
excellent as they are in a variety of rcfpefts, that in th.ofe
parts of them where the author examines the reafors and
principles of law, he does not invelligate them with a truly
philofophical fpirit, and that he docs not rife above the or-
dinary level of thofe writers whn, in every country and age,
have extolled their own m.unicipal inftitution as " the vrif-
dom of ages," and " the perfeftion of reafon." In difcuf-
fing the propriety of particular laws, it is faid that " his
ingenuity is always occupied by the forms of jurifprudence ;
and intlcad of referring to public convenience and general
utility, the fole ftandard of all rational legiflatiou, he per-
petually appeab-io thofe technical arguments which are dig-
nified v^ith the title of " legal reafons." He is, in all cales,
the advocate and the apologiil of exilliiig inllitiitions ;
and it is the conflant tendency of his work to juility
whatever has been ellablilhed by antiquity, to dilcredit
the improvements of modern times, and to expofe to con-
tempt or indignation all propofals for further change. In
his political principles he has been charged with being too
much the advccate of prerogative ; and his etclcfialtical
opinions have been thought to incline towards intolerance.
Notwilhllanding the undue deference to authority, with
which this writer has been charged, there are many pafiagts
in his admirable work, in which he exprefTes a marked dif-
approbation of Handing armies and m.ilitary barrack?, and
in which he delineates the progrcfs of the influence of the
crown, and the probable ttfefls of a further incrcafe of the
national debt. Thefe paffages, however, have been attri-
buted, by fome of thofe who have animadverted on h:s Com-
mentaries, more to the fpirit of the times, than to that of
the writer. Several obnoxious paffages in the ecclefiallical
part of this work were pointed out by Dr. Furneaux and
Dr. Prieftley ; but though the author had not magnanimity
enough explicitly to acknowledge his errors, thefe paffages
were retrenched in fublequent editions. The pohtical priii-
ciples of the Commentaries were fome years afterwards, viz.
in 1776, more fcverely noticed in a treatife entitled " A
Fragment on Government," by Jeremy Bentham, elq. To
the honour of Mr. Blackllone it (hould be mentioned, that,
notwithftanding the fcvcrity of this author's criticifm, he
afterwards became acquainted with him, and hved with him
upon terms of regard and friendfliip.

Having given his opinion in parliament, on occafion of
the debates about the Middlcfex eleftion, that an expelled
member was not eligible to the fame parhament, and this
opinion appearing to contiadift the language of his Com-
mentaries, he was violently attacked for this inconfiftcncy
by the celebrated Junius and others; but, though he de-
fended himfelf with ingenuity, he inferted the cafe of ex-
pulfion in the next edition of his work, of which he had
before taken no notice, as one of the difqualifications for a
feat in parliament.

_ His diftinguidied talents and meritorious fervices entitled
him, without doubt, to the notice and rccompence of go-
vernment. Accordingly, when he declined the offer of
being folicitor-gencral, on the refignntion of Mr. Dunning,
in 1770, he was appointed immediately afterwards one of
the jullices of the common pleas, which office he held, ex-
cept for a ftiort interval, during which he accommodated
Mr. Juftice Yates by fitting as one of the jullices of the

king's

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B L A

king's bench, till his death. Towards the end of the year 1779,
a dropfical difeafe, occalioned chiefly by early application,
and by nei^kdl of exercife, made rapid advances, and termi-
nated in his death, Feb. 14th 1780, in his 56th year. In
private life, judge Blackftone was diftinguifhed for mildnefs
and benevolence, and for every domeftic and focial virtue.
In ftudiesand avocations that contributed to eftablidi his own
reputation, and to benefit both his contemporaries and pof-
terity, he was eminently affiduous ; and the intervals of ki-
fure which he enjoyed in the later period of his life were
devoted to fchemes of local improvement in the neighbour-
hood where he refided, or to great public undertakings.
The two volumes of Reports, which he left in MS. have
been publifhed fince his death, in 2 vols, folio, with a pre-
face containing memoirs of his life ; but their merit is faid
not to correfpond with the fame of the author. He alfo
left in MS. feveral fmall poetical pieces ; and his notes on
Shakefpear inferted in Mr. Malone's Supplement, (hew
how well he underftood, and how capable he was of appre-
ciating, the excellence of that author. Life prefixed to
Blackftone's Reports. Gen. Biog.

Blackstone, in Geography, a fmall river of America,
which has its fource in Ramfhorn pond, in Sutton, Mafla-
chufetts ; and, paffing through Providence, difcharges itfelf
into Narraganfet bay, at Brillol, receiving in its courfe fe-
veral tributary ftreams.

BLACKSTONIA, in Boltwy. See Chlora.

BLACflCWALL, Anthony, in Biography, a native of
Derbylhire, was admitted a fizar of Emanuel college, in the
univci-fity of Cambridge, in 1690. Having taken the degree
of M. A. in 1698, he became head-mafter of the free-fchool
at Derby, and lefturer of the paridi of All-hallows in that
town. In 1706, he excited notice by an edition of the
♦' Moral Sentences of Theognis," with a new Latin verfion,
together with notes and eme.tdations. He alfo publiflied, in
1 7 18, " An Introduftion to the Claflics," l2mo. in which
he difplays their exccticnce, gives directions for ftudying
them with advantage, and illultrates thofe rhetorical figures
by which language is elevated and adorned. In 1722, he
was appointed head-mafter of the free fchool at Market
Eofworth, in Leiccfterlhire ; and in this fituation he pre-
pared for the prefs his principal work, entitled " The Sacred
Claffics defended and illuftrated ; an eflay humbly offered
towards proving the purity, propiiety, and eloquence of
the writers of the N. T. in 2 parts, 4to." This was pub-
lifhed in 1725 ; and a fecond edition in 8vo appeared in
1727. After his death, a fecond voiuine was publifhed under
the title of " The Sacred Claffics defended and illuftrated,
the fecond and lalt volume, in 3 parts," 8vo. 1731. The
dcfigp of the author, in this elaborate and learned work, was
to vindicate the writers of the New Teftament from the
charge of barbarifm in their language, and to fliew that the
words and phrafes which they have ufed are to be found in
the moft approved claffical writers. Man)' of the obfcurities
and feeming faults he attributes to tranfpofitions and mif-
tranflations, and he urges the neceffity of a new verfion.
See Bible. This book has been highly valued by b:blical
fcholars ; and a Latin tranflation of it was publifhed at
Leipfic, in 1736, by Chriftopher Wolfius. Neverthelefs it
has been thought by feveral very competent judges to be
written with more zeal than folidity ; and Dr. George
Campbell, in his Preliminary Diflertation to his Verfion of
the four Gufpels, has attacked the fundamental ptinciple of
the work, and made feveral particular flriclures upon it.
Mr. Blackwall was eminently diftinguifiied as afchoolmafter,
and formed many good fcholars, among whom was Riciiard
Dawes, author of the Mifcellanea Critica. In his fchool he
ufed a Latin grammar compoftd by hlmfelf, and publifhed

in 1728 without his name. Sir Henry Atkins, tart., who
had been one of his fcholars, prefented him in 1726, with
the valuable reftory of Clapham, in Surry ; but he rcfigned
it in 1729, and returned to Market Bofworth, where htdieJ
in 1730.

BLACKWATER, in Geography, the name of four
rivers in England and Scotland. That of England rifes
near the middle of the county of Effex, and falls into the
mouth of the Thames, where it forms a fpacious bay called
Black water bay. Thofe of Scotland are, ift. in Bamffhire,
2d. in Berwickfhire, and 3d. in Perthftiire.

Blackwater, the name of feveral rivers in Ireland, one
of which is ver)- confiderable. This rifes in the mountains
vhich feparate the counties of Limerick and Kerry ; and,
taking a fouthern direflior, divides the latter county from
the county of Cork for about 12 miles. After paffing at
the foot of Slieve-logher mountain, from which it receives a
large fupply of water, it runs weilernly acrofs the northern
part of the county of Cork, which is about 45 Englifh
miles. In this courfe it pafTes the flourifhing towns of
Mallow and Fermoy, to the former of which it was naviga-
ble in lord Orrei^'s time, and receives the rivers Alio,.
Awbeg, and Funcheon, befides many fnialler ftreams. A
few miles below Fermoy, it enters the county of Waterford,
and continues in the fame direclion for 12 miles, when, tav.
ing paffed the ancient city of Lifmore, it bends nearly at a
right angle to the fouth at Cappoquin. At this town it be-
comes navigable, and in its courfe receiving the river Bride,
and opening into two or three fpacious loughs, it flows into
the fea a little below the town of Youghal, which is fituated
on its weftern bank. This river paffes for almoft the whole of
its courfe, which, without making any allowance for its great
windings, is about 90 Englifh miles, thiough a rich and
well-wooded country, " equally remarkable," fays Mr.
Young, " for beauty of proipeft and fertility of foil."
The banks are crowded with a number of fine feats, fome
of which, as Dromana and Lifmore caftle, may vie with
tliofe in any country, and have furniflKd artifts with beauti-
ful landfcapes. The cyder made in its neighbourhood is
held in great eftimation, being preferred to the beft im-
ported from England, and of courfe brings a very h'gh price.
The Irilh name of this river was Auniduff, or yiivln-Julh,
the black river, and alfo Avtin-more, the great river, to dif-
tinguifh it from the Aivleg, or Aiji'in leg, which runs into
it. The latter is the Mulla of the immortal Spenfcr, who
had an eftate on its banks, where he refided for a long tiine-
In his marriage of the Thames, he has mentioned the
Biackwater and feveral of its tributary ftreams, though not
with geographical accuracy, as the Alio does not rife near
Slievelogher, but has the Biackwater between it and that
mountain.

•' Swift Auniduff, which of the Englifhmaa
Is called Biackwater, and the Litfar deep.
Sad Trowis that once his people overran.
Strong Alio tumbling from Slicveloeher fteep,
And MuU.i mine, whofe waves Iwhilom taught to weep."
Spcnfer's Fairy queen, b. iv. c. 11,
— 2. Another river, called Biackwater, rifes in the county
of Tyrone, and, for the greater part of its courfe, di-
vides that county from thofe of Monaghan and Armagh.
The linen manufadlure is exterfively carried on in its neigh-
bourhood, fo that there are many bleach-greer.s. The flou-
r.fliing little towns of Aughnacloy, Caledon, Biackwater
town, Moy, &c. are on its banks ; and its n.^vigation to
Lough Neagh, into the fouth-wcilcrn angle of which it
pours its waters, has been improved at a confiderable na-
tional expence, on account of the colHeries at Drumglafs,
in the county of Tyrone. — 3. A river Biackwater rifts in!

the

B L A

(he county of Monaghan, and, havinjj paflecl tlirough Lough
Ramor, unites its waters to t'liofe ot the Bo\ne atNavan.

There arealfo fmall rivers of this name, one in tlic comity

of Longford, which joiiu the Shannon near Lantfborough,
and one in the county of Wexford, which flows into St.
George's channel at the place where Bannow fornrerly
ftood. Smith's Cork. Beaufort's Map. Holmes's Tour
in tlie South, &c.

Blackwater Town, a fmall town in tlie county of Ar-
magh, ill Ireland, on the river Blackwater, which has c li-
nen market. Dillance from Dublin 66 miles.

BLACKWELL, Thomas, in Biography, was the fon
of one of the minifters at Aberdeen, and born in that city
in the year ryoi. He was educated at the grammar fchool
and marifchal college of his native place, of which, in 1723,
he was appointed Greek profeflbr , and in this office he con-
tributed in no fmall degree to promote Greek literature, and
the ftudy of the clalfics in general. In 1735, his " En-
quiry into the Life and Writings of Homer," 8vo. was pub-
lifhed without his name; and by its popularity ferved to
ellablilh his reputation for learning and ingenuity. Of this
work, difcufiiii ;■ a variety of topics without any very ob-
vious conneiftioii. Dr. Bcntley is faid to have remarked,
" that when lie hnd gone through half, he had forgotten the
beginning ; a;iJ that when he had fmi(htd the perufal of it,
he had forgottiii the whole." It is reckoned, however, the
author's principal performance, and is both curious and en-
tertaining. His " Letters concerning Mythology," 8vo.
were pubUfhcd ni 1748 ; and they were intended to eftablifh
a regular fyllem of ancient fable, as an allegorical reprefen-
tation of the religion, law, and philofophy of early times.
The work is learned, fanciful, and defultoi-y. In this year
Dr. Blackwell was appointed principal of the Marifchal col-
lege, and allowed his office of Greek profeffor. In 17JI,
he announced to 'the public his defign of publifhing a new
edition of Plato's works ; but this defign was never exe-
cuted. The fiift volume of " Memoirs of the Court of Au-
guftus," 4to, was publifhcd in 1753 ; the fecond in 1755 ;
and the third, after the author's death, in 1764. The ob-
]cSt of this work is to exhibit, in an elegant and popular
form, the principal fads of Roman hillory, at the com-
mencement and during the period of tiic public life and reign
of Augullus. It is written with vivacity, and was at firft
well received ; but the affected cafe and familiarity of the
■ftyle, united with a confiderable degree of that pompous
kind of pedantry, which difplays not only erudition but a
knowledge of the world, has contributed to lower its' repu-
tation. This work manifclls alfo a republican fpirit, not
altogether free from party prejudice. The author's affefted
mode of writing increafcd as he advanced in years ; and
though it mud be acknowledged, that he poffeffes genius
and fancy, and had a relilh for the beauties of ancient au-
thors, he never acquired that fimplicity of talle, which leads
to the true cafe and elegance of compofition. This peculiar
ftyle and manner of compofition have been attributed to an
injudicious imitation of Inrd Shaftefbury. Some years be-
fore his death Dr. Blackwell's health declined ; and his dif-
order being of the confumptive kind, which he is thought
to have increafed by his abllemious mode of living, he was
under a necefllty of remitting his ftudies, and advifed to tia-
vel : but with this view he could proceed no farther than Edin-
burgh, where he died in 1757, the 56Lh year of his age.
His temper was fingularly mild and equable ; and he retained
his natural vivacity and chcarfulnefs through the whole pe-
riod of his illnefs, and till the hour of his death. In con-
verfation he was inllruftive and entertaining ; and he blended
2 confiderable knowledge of the world and urbanity of man-
ners with an exteufive acquaintance with ancient and modern

B L A

authors. But it was his foible, that he was apt to aflume
the appearance of uuiverfal knowledge ; and this wcaknefs
betrayed him into conveifation on philofophical and mathe-
matical fubjcfts, with which his acquaintance was very im-
perfeft. Among hrs friends and correfpondents were ma-.iy
perfons of htcrary eminence ; and it is faid, that his patrons
propofed to introduce him into the profeffordiip of modtrii
hilloiy at Cambridge, if he had not died before a vacancy
occurred. Biog. Brit.

^ Blackwell, Elizabeth, widow of Alexander Black-
well, M.D. author of " A New Method of improving cold,
wet, and clayey ground," 1741, London, 8vo. Rejedting
dung and other manures, he depended entirely on repeated
ploughing and turning the ground. He died a miferable
death in Sweden. His widow, being left in indigence,
undertook, by the advice of her friends, to publifh an ac-
count of 500 medicinal plants, to be drawn, engraved, and
the greater part of them coloured by herfclf. The plants
were furniftied by Rand and Miller, from the botanical gar-
den, belonging to the company of apothecaries, al Chelfea.
They are, in general, Haller fays, faithfully delineated. In
fome parts, however, (he has failed. Not well inftrucled in
the Linnsan fyftem, (he has not delineated the fibres or fila-
ments of the flowers with the accuracy now required. A
fhort account is annexed of the medicinal virtues of each of
the plants, fome of which are extremely rare. The firft vo-
lume of this work was firft pubhfhed in 1737, and the fe-
cond in 1739, when the whole was pubhfhed in 8 vols. fol.
under the title of " A curious Herbal, &c.;" and it is cre-
ditable to the authorefs to fay, that this bulky and expenfive
work paffed through feveral editions. The laft, which came
out in 1760, in 5 vols, folio, at Nuremburg, is furnifhed
with a preface and confiderable additions by James Trew.
After his death, in 1769, a fupplemental volume, condufted
by Ludwig, Bofc, and Boehmer, was printed in 1773.
This work has been in a great meafure fuperfeded by Dr.
Woodville's SS. Medical Botany,, in 4 vols. 4to. Haller.
Bib. Bot. Pulteney's Hift. and Biog. Sketches of the Pro-
grefs of Botany in England, vol. ii. p. 254.

BLACKWOOD, Adam, was bora at Dumferline, in
Scotland, in IJ39, and educated at Paris under Turnebu3
and Dorat. He was particularly patronized by Mary queen
of Scots ; and when he had finifhed his law ftudies at Tou-
loufe, he obtained the office of counfellor to the prefidial of
Poifticrs, which was Mary's dowry -town. In this place he
fettled and married ; and, during the imprifonment of Mary,
took fevtral jonrnies to England with a view of feiving her.
He died in 161 3. His rehgious and political f;" timents
may be deduced from the titles of his works, which were
written liotli in verfe and profe. Of thefe the principal were,
" Caroli IX. pompa funebris verfibus expreffa," Paris, 1754;
" De vinculo rcligionis et imperii, et de conjunftionum infi-
diis, religionis fuco adumbratis," 1575 ; " Adverfiis G.
Buchanani dialogum de jure regni apud Scotos, &c." Poi-
tiers, 1581 ; " Martyre de Marie Stuart, reine d'Ecoffe,"
&c. &c. His account of the execution of Mary Stuart is a
virulent inveftive againft queen Elizabeth, her parentage,
her right to the crown, her government, &c. His works
were collefted and publifhed in a 410. volume by Gabriel
Naudc, in 1644, with an eulogy of the author prefixed.
Morcri. Gen. Biog.

BLADDER, in Anatomy, is a membranous bag, ferving
as a rcfervoir for fome fecreted fluid. That which is confi-
dered as the chief receptacle of this kind, is the urinary
bladder. As the anatomy of thefe parts, in general, wiU
be defcribed with that of the organ which prepares the fluid
which they are intended to contain ; therefore, for the fake
of uniformity of method, the defcription of the urinary

bladder

B L A

bladder is given vvitli that of the kidneys snd other urinary
organs. See Kidney.

Bladder, Difcafcs of the, in Surgery. This 'vifcus
being fuppllcd with nerves, blood-vetTels, abforbents, and
iiiufcular fibres, will be ncceff;\rily liable to all the coni-
mon diforders of foft parts ; fuch as tvoutii/s, injliimmalion,
uLeratlon, gangrene, po^fy-i contradion, etilaUUion, rupture, &c.
But, belides thefe afFcciions, the bladder is fnbjett to other
morbid changes, which occur very rarely or not at all in
moll other parts of the body. It is fometimes included
among the contents of a htniiary fac. See Hern'ia. Par-
tial bags, or facculi may hkeiviie form in the coats of the
bladder, fo as to retain one or more calculous bodies gene-
rated in the uiine. Sec Calculus, Cystotomy, Litho-
tomy, and Stone. Fungous, painful, and -dangerous ex-
crefcences arife alfo on the inner furfacc of this organ, which
are frequently denominated aihccrs, and are perhaps equally
fatal in their confequences. Thefe diforders v/il', in gene-
ral, produce either a retention or a preternatural evacuation
of urine, and req\iire a peculiar plan of treatment adapted to
the diverfity of fymptoms. See Urine, Retention of, &c.
&c.

Bladders, vcfculit, m Botany, a kind of air-bags found
in fome fpecies ot fucus.

Vegetable bladders are found every where, in the flruc-
ture of the bark, the fruit, pith, and parenchyma, or pulp;
befides thofe morbid ones raifed on the furfacc of leaves by
the punfture of infefts.

IjhM>Dt?^, fzuimining. See Ai%-HaiiiLr.

Bladders, oil, in the Anatomy of Plants. See Oil-
lilaJJers.

Bladder, puceron, in Entomology. See Chermes.

Bladder-«u/, in Botany. See Staph yl^a.

BLADDER-«a/, African. See Royj-.na.

BiADDER-na/, laurel-leaved. See Holly.

BLADDERyJ'/w. See Colutea.

"BLADD^RfhapeJ, inflatus, denotes inflated or diftendcd
like a blown bladder ; fuch are the cup of the bladder
campion, and the bloffom of the fig-wort.

Bladder-_/^ou/. See Utricularia.

BLADDER-it'orf, common. See Utricularia.

BLADE, in Agriculture, a fpire of grafs, or green ftioot
of corn.

Blade, in Anatomy. See SH0ULDER-M7</(f.

Blade of an Ancb-.r, denotes that part of the arm on
which the palm is Ihut.

Blade, in Commerce, a thin flender piece of metal, either
forged by the hammer, or run and cad in moulds, to be af-
terwards (harpened to a point, edge, or the like. Sword-
blades are made by the armourers, kmfe-blades by the cut-
lers, i<.c. The Englifh and Damafcus blades are moll
eftecmed. Among the French, thofe of Vienne and Dau-
phiny have the preference. The conditions of a good blade
of a fniall fword are, that it be light and tough, apter to
bend than break. When it will itand in the bend, it is
called a poor ?iian's hlaite.

Blade of a Chi/fel, is the iron or ftecl part, as dillin-
guiflied from the wooden handle.

Blade of Miice, or cinnamon, among apothecaries, are
little flips or dices of thofe barks.

Blade of an Oar, is that part which is plunged into the
water in rowing. On the length of this do the force and
tfl'eiil of the oar, in a great meafure, depend.

Blade of a Su-w, the thin part wherei'.i the teeth are cut,
which, to be good, muft be Ihff, yet bend equally i*ito a re-
gular bow all the v.ay, without yielding more in one place
than another.

Vol. IV.

B L iE

BLAOE-m///, is that contrived for grinding i-on 'ools, ai
fcythes, reaping hooks, axes, chiffeh, and the hke, to a
bright edge.

B LADED, in PFeralJry, is a term ufed when the ftalk
or blade of any kind of grain or corn is borne of a colour
different from that of the ear or fruit : thus, argent an ear
of -wheat or b laded vert.

BLADEN, in Geography, a county of North Carolina,
in the dillrift of Wilmington ; having 5084 inhabitants, in-
cluding 1676 flaves.

BLADENSBURG, a poft town of 7\merica, in Piince
George county, Maryland, on the eatlcrn bank of the eall-
ern branch of Potowmack river, at the confluence of the
N.W. and N.E. hi-anches, 9 miles from its mouth at the
Federal city, 38 S.W. from Baltimore, and 12 N.E. from
Alexandria, in Virginia. It contains about 150 houfes.

BLADHIA, iii Botany, fo named by Thunbcrg, from
Peter John Bladh, a Swede, rcfident at Canton. Lin. gen.
Schreb. n. 370. Thunb. nov. gen. 6. fl. jap. 7. Clafs and
order, penlaiulria monogynin. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-
leafed, very fhort, permanent, live-parted ; parts ovate,
concave, fpreading, torn-fubferrate. Cor. one-petallcd,
wheel-fhaped, five-paited ; parts ovate, obtufe, fpreading.
Slam, filaments five, very (liort ; anthers heart-fhaped, acute,
converging into a cone ; (liorter than the corolla. Pij). genn
fuperior ; flyle filiform, longer than the corolla ; ftigma
fimple, acute. Per. berry globofe, crowned by the perma-
nent flyle, one-celled. Seed fingle, globofe, involved in a
membrane.

EfT. Char. Cor. wheel-flwped, deciduous. Berry contain-
ing one arilled feed.

Species, i. V>. japonica. Lin. Syll. 236. Thunb. jap. 95.
t. 18. Koempf. Amocn. 5. 776. (Qjiackitz.) " Leaves
ferrate fmooth." 2. B. -villofa. Lin. Syll. 237. Thunb.
jap. 96. t. 19. " Leaves ferrate, villofe." 3. B. crifpa.
Lin. Syft. 237. Thunb. jap. 97. Kccmpf. An'.oen. 5. 776.
2. ic. feledl. t. 7. " Leaves oblong, curled, fmooth." All
thefe are natives of Japan. Thunberg has another fpecies
among his obfcure plants, jap. p. 350. Martyn.

BLADUM, in Middle Age Writers, is taken for all forts
of Handing corn in the blade and ear. Tlie word is alfo
written hlatiim, blava, and blavium. In our old charters,
the word bladum included the whole produft of the ground,
fruit, corn, flax, grafs, &c. and whatever was oppoled to
living creatures. The word bladum was fometimes alio ap-
plied to all forts of grain or corn threfhed on the floor : tria
qnarleria frumenli, tria quarteria avenarum, Ijf unum quart:-
rium fabarum, erunt quieti de folulione prtrdiai bladi in perpe-
tuiim. But the word was more peculiarly appropriated to
bread corn, or wheat, called in French ble. Thus the
Knigits Templars are faid to have granted to fir Wido de
Meriton's wife dum fummas bladi. Rennet's Paroch. Ant.
and Du-Cange.

Hence bladarius denotes a com-monger, meal-man, or
corn-chandler ; and it is ufcd in our records for fuch a retailer
of corn. Pat. i. Ed. Ill . par. 3. ni. 13. And tladius iigni.
fics an ingroffer of corn or grain.

BLAE, in Ornithtilogy, among French writers, an African
bird of the falcon tribe defcribed by Latham under the
name of falco mehmoptcrns, whicli fee-

ELiERIA, in Botany, fo denominated from Patrick Blair,
M.D. I.ln. gen. n^i39. Reich. 145. Schreb. 1*^3. Juff, 160.
Clals and order, letrandrla vicnogytiia. Nat. Ord. Bicorncs,
Eric.f. JnO". Cien. Char. Cid. perianth four-parted ; leaf.
lets linear, erciff, a little fhorter than the corolla, perma-
nent. Cor. monopetidous, campanulate ; tube cyhndric,
the length of the calyx, pervious; border fmall, four-cleft;
3 Y diviHons

B L A

divJfions ovatf, reflex. Slam, filaments four, fctaceous, the
length of the tube, infertcd into the receptacle ; anthers ob-
long. comprefTed, crcd, obtufe, emarginace. Pi/l. germ
four-cornered, fliort ; ilyle fetaceoiis, miicli longer tlian the
corolla ; lligma obtufe. Per. capfulc obtufe, qiiadrangvi-
hr, four-celled, gaping at the angles. Seer^s, fome roundiih.
Cfy'. The anthers are tmarginate, but not horned, as in eri-
ca, allied to this.

Eff. Char. Cn/. four-parted. Cor. four-cleft. Slam, m-
fcrted into the receptacle. C.;//. four-celled, many-ftedeJ.
Species, l. B. erUoirfes, heath-leaved B. " Anthers awn-
lefs, (landing out ; calyxes four-leaved ; braftcs the length
of the c: Ij X ; leaves in fours, oblong-acerofo, hairy, imbri-
cate." This has the ftature of the common heath. Flowers
terminating, white with a tinge of purple ; corollas tubu-
lous, ereft ; anthers two-parted, fcabrous ; ilyle capillar)-,
longer than the anthers. Introduced into Kcw garden in
1774 by Mr. 1'. Maaon. 2. B. ci/iaris, ciliated B. " Flow-
ers in a head, calyxes ciliate." Rcfembling the preceding,
and readily known by its white calyxes, mod diftindly ci-
liate. 3 . B. flW/Vw/a/j, jointed-lcivcd B. Peiikca SarcocoUa.
Berg. cap. 25. " Stamens protruded, two-parted ; corollas
cyrnidric." A diftorted Ihrub, of the ftature of common
heath. Leaves in fours, prefTcd to the branches ; heads of
flowers terminatinjr, with wliitc-villofe calyxes ; cuiollas
flilh-coloured; antliers very narrow, black; differing from
the lirft in having equal llamcns, and leaves more imbri-
cated. 4. B. purpurea, purple-flowered B. " Stamens
included, two-parted ; corollas oblong, llraiglit ; flowers
terminating, aggregate ; peduncles ereft." Like the third ;
but the heads arc nodding. 5. B. pufilln, dwarf B. " Flow-
ers fcattercd ; corollas funnel-form." This has the ftature
of fm.ill heath. Branches pubefcent ; leaves in fours, rug-
ged, petioled, fcorcd underneath with a line; flowers mi.
nute, fcattercd, (horter than the leaves. 6. B. nmfcofa, mofs-
leaved B. Ait. Hort. Kew. i. 150. " Anthers awnkfs,
ahnoll ftanding out ; calyxes one-leafed, hairy ; corollas
bell-(haped, hairy in the upper part ; flowers axillary ; ilig-
mas peltate." Found at the cape of Good Hope by Mr.
F. MafTon, and introduced in 1774; floweiiiig from June to
Augull.

Propagation and Culture. Thefc are all flirubs, inhabitants
of the cape of Good Hope, require the fame treatment and
(helter with other Cape plants in the dry ftove, and may be
increafcd by cuttings, like the ericas, or heaths, which they
much refemble. Martyn.

BLTESLING, in Ornithology, one of the fynonymous
names oi \.\\c greater coot of Englilh writers, Vind fulica aler-
rima of Liniixus. Vide Gunther NeJI. uiid. Eyer. The
common coot, fulira atra of Linnaeus, is alfo named by this
author Ik'incr bUuJl'mg.

BLyESlIS, in Medicine. See Stammerin'O.

BLAGAITZKI, in Geography, a town of Croatia, 10
miles N.N.W. of Sluin.

BL.^GNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
llriit of Touloufe, on the Garonne ; 3 miles N.W. of Tou-
loufe.

BLAGOVETSCHENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the
povernment of Archangel, near the fouth-eaft coaft of the
Wliitc fca ; 70 milts S.W. of Archangel.

BLAGRAVE, John, in Biography, an Ensrlifli mathe-
matician, was born of an ancient and honourable family at
Bulmarlh court near Sunning in Berkfliire, towards the
middle or clofe of the 16th century, and educated, iirll at a
fchool in Reading, and afterwards at St. John's college,
Oxford. Before he took any degree he retired from the uiu-

B L A

verfity to his patrimonial feat at South-cote lodge, near Read-
ing, where he diligently purfued his ftudies, particularly
mathematics. His works, of which we have any account,
are " A Mathematical Jewel," (liewing the conll-jclion and
ufe of an inftrunicnt fo called, and its application to aftro-
nomy,.cofmograp!iy, geography, &c. Loud. 1585, fol. ;
" The Contlruftion and Ufe of the Familiar Staff, Src,"
performing the geometrical menf.iration of all altitudes,
Lond. 1590, 4to. ; " Ailrolabium Uranicum generale,"
containing the life of an inftrument, or aftrolabe, Lond.
I5i;6, 4to. ; and " Th.- Art of Dialling, in two parts,"
Lond. 1600, 4to. Mr. Blagravc was diilinguifhed by his
benevolence, both during his lift, and at his death. Having
never been married, he bequeathed 50!. to each of the chil-
dren of his three brothers, or their poilerity, payible at the
age of 26 ; and his bequefts in tliis way were io well ad-
julled, that near 80 of his nephews and their dtfccndan's
were thus benefited out of his leafchold eftate. He alfo be-
queathed lands for producing an annual donation of lol.
to a maid-fcrvant in the town of Reading, according to
the direftions of his will. Tliefe diredtions required, that
the church-wardens of each of the three parilhes fiiould on
Good Fiiday fend one virtuous maid, who had lived five
years with her mafter. T!ie three maids were to appear in
the town-hall before the mayor and aldermen, and to call
dice. She, whofe throw was the greatell, received the tea
pounds. The two maids who had loft were to appear the
next year, togetlier with a third added to them. Accord-
ingly each maid was to have by his will the chance of three
a;inual throws ; but if any failed in three fucceffive years, he
orders new perfons to be prefented. On the fame Good
Friday, money is diftributed to 80 widows in purfuance of
his will, who attend a fermon for which the preacher is to
receive ten (hillings. Mr. Blagravc died Aug. 9th 161 1,
and was buried in the church of St. Lawrence, Reading,
where a fumptuous monument is ereCled to his memory.
Biog. Brit.

BLAGRE, in Ormihol'jgy. Under this name Levaillant
defcribes the African fpecies of eagle called by Lathamya/tf?
blagrus, which fee.

BLAIN, a diilemper incident to bcafts, confifting in a
bladder growing on the root of the tongue againft the wind-
pipe, which at length fwelling ftops the- breatli.

It comes by great chafing and heating of the ftomach ;
whereby, as forae judge, it ftill grows and increafes by more
heat.

It is perceived by the bead's gaping, holding out his
tongue, and foaming at the mouth : to cure it, cad the beaft,
take forth his tongue, and then flitting the bladder, wa(h it
gently with vinegar and a little fait.

Blain, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diilrift in the Lower Loire. The population of
the place confifts of 1897 perfons, and of the canton of
10,274 ; its territorial extent is 342 i kiliometres, and it in-
cludes 4 communes; 18 miles N.N.W. of Nantes, and 40
S. of Rennes.

BLAINVILLE, in Biography, a learned mufician of
Paris, who propofed, in 1 751, a third mode or key, which
he called a mixed mode, becaufe it participates of the modu-
lations of the two other, or rather from its being com-
pounded of both, a mixture which the author does not re-
gard as an inconvenience, but rather as an advantage and
fource of variety both in the melody and harmony. Rouf-
feau. Dicl. de Muiique, publiflied 1768.

BlainVille, a performer on the violoncello, and mufic-
mafter at Paris, who had many fymphonies and motets per-
formed at the Concert Spirituel, in the middle of the laft;

century.

B L A

B L A

cent'.iry, without fiiccefs ; but abandoning the prcdke of
harmony or co npofit'on, in order to try his force in the
theory, in 1751, he pro.!c!ced " I/Harmonie thcorico-pr;ic-
tico ; in 1754, " L'Efprit de I'Art Mufical ;" in 1765,
" L'Hiftoire g-eiierale, critique, et pliilologique de la Mu-
fique." Thefe works are no better than his fymphonie;.
Thev are compilations without tafte, which teach nothing
new to thofe who know any thing about mnfic already ; and
not enough to tliofe who know nothing. In 1 75 1, he had
the courage to publilh as a difcover)' a pretended ne-j) vio^e,
a key different from the major and minor, which, he faid,
was neither major nor minor, but /nixed ol both. He com-
pofed a fymphony in this new mode, and had it performed
at the Concert Spirituel, which gave birth to inanv difierta-
tions and dilcufiions, &c. Laborde, Effai fur la Mufique,
torn. iii. p. 577.

" Who (hall decide, when doctors difagree '."
The neiL) mode, as it was called, was attacked by the in-
genious and fpeculative writer on mufic, M. Seric of Geneva,
and defended by Rouffeau in his Dictionary. Thirty years
after, it became the fubieift of a \ery long article in M. La-
borde's Eflai fur la Mulique, merely to attack Rouffeau for
having defended it. In this attack of the dead lion, the abbe
Roufiier was boltle-holder to his friend Laborde.

All thefe gentlemen feem utterly ignorant of the church
mufic of the 15th and i6th ceuturj', built on the ancient
ecclefiallical modes, in which notiiing was more common
in the maffes of the old mafters, than for a movement begin-
ning in A minor to end on the fifth of that key, with a rtiarp
third, which would be called now z. femi-cadcnce. The me-
lody of the feveral parts is equally in the fcale of C and A
natural, which, without accidental flats or fliarps, produces
nothing but different fpecies of oflaves in the key of C na-
tural. But calling E the key note inilead of A, it has a
peculiarity in the fecond, which, inilead of being a tone
major above the key note, is only a major femitone.

Now Dr. Pepufch, who rigidly adhered to the laws of
the ecclefiaftical modes in his " Treatiie on Harmony," fo
late as 1 731, in fpeaking of the key of E as formed of one
of the fpecies of octave in the fcale of C natural, has ex-
plained the properties of this key with only a major femi-
tone fo" its fecond, much better than Blainville, or any of
his defenders or opponents, and terminates his remarks on
this key, by faying that " it differs from all others ; for
they are introduced by the femitone major Ichiv them, btit
this is by the femitore mnj<r aba'ae it ; they by 'Ct\e-vc JeDcnth
major, but this by its fecond, which happen, to be minor ;
that is from F downwards to E. It is becaufe of this differ-
ence and peculiarity in its modtdation, which makes what is
compofed in it to be very JoL-mn, that this key is as it were
appropriated to church-muhc, and called by the Italians
tuoN'? di chi-Jii.^' p. 65.

But the doftor does not call it a new iey, for it is as old
as counterpoint ; and we fiioidd fnppofe that Blainville had
either feen Dr. Pepufch's treatifc, or found in fome old mafs
a movement that ended on the fiith, inilead of the key note,
and wifhed to pafs for an inventor. But it is plain, that all
the French gentlemen, who took a part in this controverfy,
were difputing about the denl iPor, before they had afcer-
tained its exillence. In examining the maffes of Jofquin,
Paltftrina, and the cantiones of Taliif md Bird, we find
movements of the defcription of Dr. Pepufch's tuono di chi-
efa. And in Padre ^Iartini's " Saggio di Contrepunto,"
torn. I. p. 42. he calls this mode il terzo Inono autentico, the
third authentic inode, which Blainville calls the neiv or mixed
mode ; and P. Martini even calls u ierzo tuono miilo del
quarto fiio placate, p. 44. He gives the fame natural fcale
for its intervals as Rouffeau and Blainville, EFGABCDe,

p. 51. An example of this in'ixtd mo&t is given from Pa-
Icftrina, in which no accidental fliarps are marked, though
it modulates into G major, A minur, C q, and G a fecond
time. A fharp only is given to G upon the clofe note, as
fiiarp third to the final E.

In 1756, Blainville publiHied what he called "A general,
critical, and philological Hiffor)- of Mufic ;" a work for
which the author's materials feem to have been fo fcai-ty,
that he was reduced to fill two thirds of his thin quarto vwt'i
an indigclled treatife on con-ipofition.

Blainvii-le, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of La Manchc, or the Channel, and chief phxe
of a canton, in the diftrict of Coutanccs, 5 miles wclt of
Coutances, and 13 north of Granville.

Bl.i.invili,e fur I'Eau, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Menrte, and chief place of a canton, in
the diilri£l of Luneville, 4 miles S.W. of Luneville, a-d
12 S.E. of Nancy.

BLAIR, John, in Biography, a chronologcr and geo-
grapher, v.as born in Scotland, and educated at Edinburgh.
Upon his liril arrival in England, he was ulher at a private
fchool ; an-.', firft appeared with fingular advantage before the
public bv publifniag, in i 754, a work intitled " The Chro-
nology and Hillory of the World, from the Creation to the
year ol Chriil; i'53, iiluftrated in 56 tables, of which four
are introductory, and cont:'.in the centuries prior to the firil
olympiad ; and each of the remaining 52 contains in one ex-
panded view 50 years, or half a century ; by the Rev. John
Blair, L.I>.D." This comprehenfive work, on which the
author mull have bellowed a ver)- great degree of attention
and labof.r, was pnblidied by fubfcription, and dedicated to
lord Hardwicke ; and the author acknowledges great obli-
gations to the earl of Bath. Dr. Bhir appears at this time
to have taken orders in the Englifh church; in 1755, he
was elefted fellow of the Royal Society, as he was of the
Antiquarian Society in 1761. In 1756, he publifhed a
fecond edition of his Tables ; and in 1757, he was appointed
chaplain to the princefs dowager of Wales, and mathema-
tical tutor to the duke of York. In 1761, he obtained a
prebendal ftall at Weftminller, and feveral church prefer-
ments in very quick fuccefGon. From the vicarage of Hinck-
ley, in Leicefterfhire, which he held, by difpenfation, with
the reftory of Burton Coggles, in Lincohidiire, he was pro-
moted firll to the vicarage of St. Bride's, in London, in
1771, and, in 1776, to the reftor)' of St. John the Evan-
gelill in Wellminller, with which he held that of Horton
near Colebrooke, in Bnckinghamffiire. During the years
1763 and 1764, he accompanied the duke of York in his
travels on the continent. In 1768, he publilhed an improved
edition of his " Chronological Tables," which he dedicated
to the princefs-dowager ; and to this edition he annexed 14
maps of ancient and modern geography, and prefixed a dif-
fertation on the rife and progrefs of this fcience, which was
alio printed feparately in i2mo. His death, which happened
June 24th 17S2, was probably accelerated by the ffiock that
attended the news of his brother, captain Blair's death in
the memorable fea-fight of April 12, 1782; more efpe-
cially as he then was feverely afflicled with an epidemic in-
fluenza. After his death, in 1785, his " Lednres on the
canon of the Scriptures, comprehending a differtation on
the Srptuagint verfion," were publifhed ; and a new edition
of his " Chronological Tables," extended'to the year X790,
appeared in that year. Biog. Dift.

Blair, Patrick, praftifed phyfic and furger^- at Dun-
dee, in Scotland, where he was probabl) born. He firil be-
came known in 1 7c 5, by his account of the anatomy of an
elephant, which he had the opportunity of diffcfting there.
It was pubUilied in the Pliilofophical Tranfadlions, Nos. 326

Y2

and

B L A

and 327, 111 the year 17 10. It contains an accarate de-
fcription of the probofcis and its mufcles, and confirms,
Hallcr fays, the opinioi) formerly given, that the elephant
has no gail-bladdcr. In a fiibfeqiient number ol the Tranf-
a^'tions, he gives a defcription of the olficiila auditus, ac-
companied with engravings. In the rcbeilion, in 1715'
being fi.fpeClcd, on account of his religions principles, of
hoilility to government, h(i was for a fmall time confined.
He came afterwards to London, where he re-pnbli(hed Ins
" A:i.ilomy of the Elephant," in 4to. ; and, in 1718, pub-
lirtied a volume of" Milctllaneous obfervations on the prac-
tice of phyfic, anatomy, furgery, and botany," in Svo.
This was foil >wid, in 1720, with " Botanical Effays," in
two parts, alfo Svo. with figures, in which he treats of the
fexes of plants, confirming the arguments adduced in proof
of them by found reafoning, and fome new experiments of
the manner of fecundation, of the circulation of the fap,
&c. This work ftill retains its credit among botanifts, al-
though fome of the author's opinions are abandoned.
About the fame time, he gave an account of the afheftus,
found in the county of Angus, in Scotland, printed in the
Phil.Tranf. N^ 333 ; and of the difTeftion of an emaciated
child, in which he could find no vedige of the omentum.
Id. N^ 353 ; and alfo of a boy, who lived a confiderable
time without food. Id. N'364; and in the fame number is
alfo a dilTertation on the means of difcovering the medicinal
properties of plants from their external figure. He foon
after fettled at Bofton, and pnblifhed " Pharmaco-botano-
logia," or an alphabetical and claffical diflertation on all the
Britilh indigenous and garden plants of the London Difpen-
fatory, in feven decades, 410. 1723 and 1728, introducing
fome plants, which he had firli difcovered grownng near
Bollon. The work only proceeded to the letter H. The
time of his death is not known. Haller. Bib. Anat. et Bo-
tan. Pulteney's Sketches, vol. ii. p. 134, &c.

Blair, Jamec, an epifcopalian divine, was born and
educated in Scotland, where he was ordained and beneficed ;
but meeting with fome difeouragements in that country, he
quitted his preferments, and removed to England, about the
latter end of the reign of king Charles II. Being intro-
duced to Dr. Compton, then bidiop of London, he prevailed
on him to go, about the year 1685, as a mifTionary to Vir-
ginia, where by his condud and minifterial labours he was
eminently ferviceable in promoting the caufe of religion. In
1689, he was appointed by the fame prelate as his commif-
fary for the province. Intent upon doing good in the office
with which he was entrufted, he obferved with concern,
that the want of proper feminaries for religion and learning
ob!\ru(fled every attempt for propagating the gofpel in this
colony ; and he therefore formed the benevolent defign of
erefting and endowing a college at Williamfburg, the capi-
tal of Virginia, for profetfors and ftudents in academical
learning. With this view he raifed a confiderable fum of
money by voluntary fubfcription ; and, in order the more
effeciually to accomplifli his purpofe, he came over into
England in 1693, to folicit the concurring aid of govern-
ment. King William and queen Mary very much approved
the defign, and accordingly a patent was ifrued for ereding
and endowing a college, which was to be denominated from
Its founders, " the college of William and Marj-." Mr.
Blair, who firft piojefted the fcheme, was appointed prefi-
dent of the college. (See Wii-liamsburgh.) He was
alfo reftor of Wilhamfburg and prefident of the council in
thit colony. Having faithfully and honourably difcharged
the duties of his office as prefident of the college for about
50 years, ai.d thofe of his minifterial function for above
60 years, he iuifiied his courfe of laborious and ufeful fer-

B L A

vice in the year 1743. -^'^ works, comprifing " Our Sa-
viour's divine Sermon on the Mount explained, and the
practice of it recommended, in divers fermons and difcourfes,
with a' recommendatory preface, by the Rev. Dr. Water-
land," were pnblilhed "11740, 4 vols. Svo. Watciland's Pre-
face. Burnet's Hift. of his own Times, vol. iii. p. 165. 8vo.
Blair, Hugh, a diRinguifhcd preacher and write'-, the
defeendant of an ancient fiimily of AyrlTsire, in Scotland,
and the fon of a refpeftable merchant at Edinburgh, was
born in that city, April 7th 1718. As his views were at an
early period direfted towards the church, he entered the
univerfity of his native place in 1730, and fpcnt eleven years
in the afTiduous profecution of thofe literary and fcientific
ftudies which the church of Scotland prefcribes to fuch as
profefs thcmfelves candidates for the miinlleria! office. Dur-
ing this period his application and proficiency gained re-
peated teflimonies of approbation from the profeflbrs under
whom he ftudicd. One of his performances at this time, in-
dicating- the bent of his genius towards polite literature, was
an effay ITsfi rn xxXh, or " On the Beautiful," which afforded
fuch fatisfaction to profeffbr Stevenfon, that it was appointed
to be publicly rer.d at the conclufion of the feffion. This ho-
nour, without doubt, Simulated his emulation, and proved the
earneft of his future fame. The method of ftudy, which he
commenced at college, and which he occallonally praftifed in
his maturer years, contributed in a confiderable degree to
the accuracy and extent of his knowledge. It confilled in
making abilracls of the moil important works which he read,
and in digefting them according to the train of his own
thoughts. This was the method in which he ftudicd hiftory
in particular ; and with this view, aided by fome of his
youthful aflbciates, he conilrufted a comprehenfive feries of
chronological tables, in which was infcrted every important
faft that occurred. In conformity to this plan, his learned
friend Dr. John Blair formed his valuable work already no-
ticed under his article. In 1739, Mr. Blair took his degree
of mafter of arts ; and on this occafion he printed and de-
fended, in elegant Latin, a thefis, " De Fundamentis et
Obligatione Legis Naturx." Having completed his aca-
demical courfe, he pafTed through the cullomary trials be-
fore the prefbytery of Edinburgh, and was iicenfed as a
preacher, Oftober 21ft 1741 ; and in the following year he
was prefented to the pariih of Coleflie in Fife, where he was
ordained Sept. 23d 1742. Such at this time was his efta-
blifiied reputation as an eloquent preacher, that when a va-
cancy occurred in the Canongate church of Edinburgh, he
was chofen at a conttfted eledtion to fupply it ; and accord-
ingly he returned to his native city in July 1743. I" '^'*
fituation he continued for eleven years, exhibiting fpecimens
of thofe talents for pulpit-compofitions, which have fmce ob-
tained diftinguifhed teltimonics of public approbation. In
1754, he was tranflated from the Canongate to lady Yefter's,
one of the city churches ; and in 1758, he was promoted to
the High Church of Edinburgh, the moll important ecclc-
fiaftical charge in North Britain. To this honourable rank
he was advanced at the requefl of the lords of council and
feflion, andi of other diftinguifhed perfons holding public
offices, who attend that church ; and the wifdom of their
choice was amply juftified by the prudence, abiUty, and fuc-
ccfs, with which his minifterial labours were conduttcd for
a period of more than 40 years. Previoufly to his advance-
ment to this ftation of public fervice, Mr. Blair's attention
feems to have been almoil wholly devoted to the attainment
of profclTional excellence, and to the regular difcharge of
his parochial duties. Of the produftions of his pen, we
have only two fermons, preached on particular occafions ;
fome tranflations, in verfc, of paftages of Scripture for the

pfalmody

B L A

B L A

pfalmody of the church ; and a few articles in a periodical
publication intitled the " Edinburoh Review." See Jour-
nal. From this time he enjoyed greater leifiire for direct-
ing liis views to other important literary oljjects, befides
his weekly preparations for the piilpjt ; and, accordingly,
he commenced, Dec. ii, 1799, with the approbation of
the univerilty, a leiics of lectures on compolition. Of his
quaUfications for an office of this kind, none could enter-
tain the leaft doubt ; they had been in fomt meafiire Sanc-
tioned by the univerfity of St. Andrews, which, in Jt^-.e
1757, had conferred on him the degree of doflor in divinity,
then very rarely bellowed ; and the fuccefs th^t atterded
his firll courle, afforded ample evidence of the able manner
in which it had been condufttd. The patrons of the uni-
verfity determined in the following fnmmer to inilitute a
rhetorical clafs, under the direction of D- . Blair, as a perma-
nent part of their ecclefiaftieal eftablifhmer.t ; anc on the
7th of April 1762, his majelly was gracioufly pleafed " to
creCt and endow a profefiorlhip of rhetoric and belles lettres
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, and to appoirt Dr. Blair,
in confideration of his approved qualifications, regius pio-
feflbr thereof, with a falary of 70I." The lectures which he
delivered on this occafion, were publi'^'ed in 17^3, under the
title of " Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres," vj two
volumes, 410. ; and they have heen iioce fr'.a'.ientlv rt picb-
liftied in 3 vols. 8vo. Of thefe leSurts it will be fufRcient
to obfer\e, that the general voice of the publ'C, not only in
our own country, but in other nations on the continent into
whofe languages they have been tranditcd, has proroiinced
them to be a moil judicious, el;gant, and ccppreheafive
fyftem of rules for forming the llyle, and cukiv t'pcr the
tafte of youth. By a happy and fingular union of talte and
philofop! V, the author has fupplied a great defcCt in the
fcienci" of cnticiim, and has made a valuable addition to the
polite liteiature of the prcfent age. In the courfe of this
Dictionary we ihall have frequent oceafions for re fcrring totlus
excellent work, and availing ourfelves of its nit relting ai d
ufeful contents. In 1763, Dr. Blair publifhed " A Critical
Diflertatiof on the poems of Offian," which tor beauty of lan-
guage, dc'ieacy of talle, and acutenefs of cr.tical invp(ti;^ation,
has few parallels. As it was partly by hio loiicitation, that
Mr. Macpherfon was induced to publilh his " Fragments of
Ancient Poetry," it is no wonder, th.it, independently of
the tell of critcifm, he Ihould be a zealous advocate in fa-
vour of their autnenticity and antiquity ; but, notwithftand-
ing his able defence, a degree of fcepticifm has prevailed on
this fubject.

Dr. Blair's reputation as a preacher, or rather as a com-
pofer of fcr-Tions, had been for a long time acknowledged
by thofe who had the plealure of attending on his miniftrv ;
but it was not till the year 1777, tliat he could be induced
to favour the world with a volume of the difcourfes which
had fo long furnilhed inilruction and delight to his own con-
gregation. The MS. of this volume, it is faid, was received
by the bookfeller with fome hefitation ; but it was no fooner
publiflied, than he found it his interell to engage the author
to furnifh him with oth^:■r volumes. Accordingly five vo-
lumes, in the whole, have been publilhed at different inter-
vals ; and we may ventuie to affirm, thTt, liberally as the
author was recomptnfed, no coUeftion of fermons has ever
been more piofitable to the bookfeller, or more acceptable
to the public, than Dr. Blair's. The circulation of them
was rapid and extenfive. They were tranflated into feveral
foreign languages ; and they received a royal reward. A
ptnfion of 200I. a year, iffuii g out of the exchequer in Scot-
land, was confeired, in 178c, on the author, and it was
continued without any alteration till bis death. Thefe fer-

mons, though thev poffefs various degrees of ccmiparative
excellence, and fome muff be allowed to be much fuperior
to ethers, are upon the whole models in thtir kind ; and
they will long remain as monuments of the piety, the genius,
and found ji.dgment of the author. Occupying a middle
place betv.-een the dry netaphyfical difcuffions or controver-
fiiil fpeculatiiins of one clafs of preachers, MPd the loofe in-
coherent dedamati'ms of another, they blmu the light of
argument svith the warmth of exhortation, the elegance of
compofition with ju.'.eious obfervations on human li.'^c, and
praftical knowledge wit'< impona.'.i principles of religion and
virtue. The laft volume was prepared for the prels by the
author after he had completed his eighty-fecond year, and
delivered to the pub'iihers about fix weeks before his death.
Although he left ni.iny other difcourfes in manufcript, he ex-
plicitly enjoined that they fliould be deftroyed, and thus wifely
prevented that injui-y to his reputation vihich has fometimes
been the rcfult of poilhumous publications. The author's
fame, as a preacher, depended principally, if not wholly, on
the intrinfic excellence of his difcourfes, with refpeA to
matter and compofition ; for we are informed, that his deli-
ve!-y though dillinft, ferious, and impreflive, was not re-
markably dillinguilhed by that magic charm of voice and
aftion, whieh captivates the fenfcs and imagination, and
which, in the eflimation of fuperficial hearers, conftitutes
the chief merit of a preacher. Dr. Blair, in the exercifc
of his profeflional duties, as far as they regarded the govern-
ment of the church, was fteadily attached to the caufe of
moderation. Diffident and unaccuftomed to extemporary
fpeaking, he declined interfering in ecclefiatlical politics, and
never would confent to become moderator of the general
affembly of the church of Scotland ; neverthelcfs, his opi-
nion, which was always guided by found judgment, uni-
formly commanded deference and refpeft. Whilil he was
anxious to preferve the church from a fervile corrupting de-
pendence on the civil power, on the one hand ; it was his
wilh, OB the other, to prevent a greater infufion of demo-
c^tical influence than he thought to be compatible wilh
good order, and the ellablifhed conftitution of the countrv-.
His reputation in public life was well fuftained by the
great refpeftability of his private charadler ; and he was
eminently difting.uilhed through life by the prudence, puri-
ty, and dignified propriety of h s conducl;. With a mind
free from envy, and yet not inienfible to the eftimation in
which he himfelf was held ; inflexibly upright, and yet con-
defcending to his friends, and difpofed to enjoy the pleafures
of focial intercourfe ; few men have paffed through life more
univerfaliy refpefted by thofe who knew him, more fincerely
efteemed in the circle of his acquaintance, or more tenderly
beloved by thofe who enjoyed the benefit of his private and
domcffic connexion. His wife, to whom he was married
in 174S, coi'tributcJ for almoll half a century to his felicity,
and was taken from him a few years before his death ; and
his two children, a fon and a daughter, died, the former in
infancy, and the latter in her 2 iff year. His conftitution
was naturally delicate and feeble ; but he enjoyed upon the
whole a Hate of good health ; and by habitual chearfulnefs,
temperance, and care, furvived the ulual teira of human
life. He retained his faculties to the lalt ftage ; and after a
(liort illnefs of three days, expired on the 27th of December
1800, with the compofure and hope of a Chritlian pallor ;
and his funeral fermon was preached by Dr. Finlayion, who
has annexed to the fifth volume of his Sermons a (hort ac-
count of the life and character of the author, from which
the preceding article is chiefly compiled.

Blair, in Geography. See Athol.

BLAIREAU, in Zoology, the common French name
i of

B L A

of urfui mrlet, or badger. A variety of a white colour
found in New York i. alfo called in France ilaircau bhwc-

Blaireau bimnt du C.ip dc Bonne Efp.-nmcf. Kolbe,
and after l.im Abbe d; la CaiUe, have defcribcd under this
title a little quadruped fuu:id in the interior of Africa, which
exhales a moll infupportable odour. Whether it be of the
badger kind in reality, or not, is uncertain. Sonnini be-
lieves it to be of the' civet kind, viwrra Ciipenfis ; and on
the contrary, Gmelin fuppofes it to be of the glutton kind,
perhaps a variety of urfus gulo.

BLAIRIA, m Botany. Sec Verbena.
BLAISE, St., Order of, was founded in Armenia,
about the commencement of the twelfth century. The
habit of the knights of this order was a (Icy-bhie ; and
on the bread thereof was embroidered their badge, bemg a
crojs of gold.

Blaisf. St. Bhiif and the Virpn Mary was an order ec-
chliallieal and military. The particular time of its infiitu-
tion is not abfolutcly afcertaincd ; but it is v.n- erfally agreed
that it took place foon after that of the Knights Templars.
The badce of the order wa:, a r.'d crofu on the centre of luhkb
ivas a m.'ddhion ■with the image of St. Bl.ife enamelled thereon.
W en th -• knights aflftmblcd in chapter, or fct out on any
military expedition, they wore on tli<-ir bicafl. the fame badge
embroidered on a white habit.

Blaise, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Nlanic, and chief place of a canton, in
the d.ilricl of Chauraont, 12 miles N.N.W. of Chaumont.

Alfo, a river of France, which vw ,^ into the Marne near

Larz 'jour, in the department of the Marne.

Blaise, or Bla?, St., a cape on the coaft of Weft Flo-
rida, in the gulf of Mexico. It is a promontory, wiiich fe-
parates tne bay of Apalaehe on the call from that of Penfa-
cola, forming a kind of (hepheid's crook. N. lat. 29^ 40'.
\V. long. 86".

BLAISOIS, a province of France before the revolution,
bounded on the eali by Orleannois, on the fouth by Berry,
on the weft by Touraine, and on the north by Vendomois
and Dunois. The ccpital was Blois, which fee.

BLAISON, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl
of Angers ; 8 miles S.E. of Angers.

BLAKE, Robert, in Bi'igraphy, a celebrated EngUlh
admiral, was a defcendant of an ancient family of the nan:ie
in the parifli of Spaxton and county of Somerfet, and born
at Bridgwater, in Auguft, 1589. Having received the ru-
diments of grammir learning at a free fchool in his native
town, he became a member of St. Alban'.s hall, Oxford, in
1615, and tranflatcd himlelf from thence to Wadham college,
where, in 1617, he took the degree of bachelor of arts. In
1 6 19, he loft a fellowftilp of Mcrton college, for which he
was a candidate, on account of hi.; low ftatiire ; fir Henry
Savile, the warden, paying particular refpecl to perfonal
conielinefs. Soon after the year 1C23, in which he wrote
a copy of verfes on the death of Mr. Camden, he left the
univerfity, where he had been noticed for his early rifing
and application to ftudy, and lived privately at Bridgwater.
Adopting at an eaily period republican principles, and pre-
judiced againil the ecclefiaftical eftablifhmcnt, by the fcverity
with which Dr. Laud, then bifnop of Bath and WelLs, en-
forced uniformity in his diocefe, he inclined alfo to thofe
opinions that were deemed puritanical. Accordinglv the
puritan party prevailed in procuring his return as a member
for his native town, to the parliament of 1640, but for the
Long Parliament he loll his eleAion. Upon the breaking
out of the war between the king and parliament, he declared
for the latter, and entering into military fervice, was foon
8

B L A

appointed captain of dragoons. In this capacity he exhi-
bited proofs of his talents by an obftinate defence of Brilbjl
again!! the attack of p'ince Rupert, which he was at length
oblio-ed to furrender. In 1644 he was appointed governor
of Taunton, wiiieh he had fiirprifrd and taken poffcffion of
for the parliament, and which he defended with a fmall but
wcil-difciplined g-irrii'on, di:ring a vigorous fiege by the
king's forces, till he obtained relief. 1' or this fervice the
parliament voted Bl.ke, who was then colonel, 3 prefent of
500 pounds. After the nnirdcr of the king, which he is faid
to liavt difapproved, he cordially joined the republican party,
and was reckoned, iiext to Cromwell, the ablcft and moft
fucccfsful officer in the fervice of the parliament. Without
aflVe'^ing the charafter of a politician, he thought it his duty
to ferve^h's country to the utmoft of his power, and to exe-
cute any mcafures that were adopted by the party to which
he was attached, and by the exiiling government for this
piirpofe. Early in the year 1649, he was appointed, in con-
junttion with Col. Deane and Col. Popham, to the com.mand
of the fleet ; and his firft naval expedition was direfted, in
1649, againil prince Rupert and prince Maurice, to the har-
bour of Kingfale in Ireland ; where he blocked them up for
fome time, and whence he purfued them to Lilhon, whither
they had fled for the proteftion of the king of Portugal.
^Var being declared on this account againil the Portuguefe,
Blake annoyed their trade, andtook feveral rich prizes; andhe
afterwardsproceeded, firft to Carthagena and then toMabga,
in purfuit of prince Rupert. At the latter place he burnt
and de-ftroved his whole fleet, two fliips excepted ; and in
the beginning of the year 1651, he returned with his fqua-
dron to Plymouth, where he received the thanks of the
paihament, and was appointed warden of the cinque ports.
Li the following year he was conftituted one of the admiiaU
and generals of the fleet, and employed in reducing the ifles
of Scilly and the ifland of Guernfey. Having accomplilhed
this fervice, he was elefted one of the council of ftate ; and
in 1652, promoted to the rank of fo!e admiral for nine
months, in the profpedl of a Dutch war. The States, jea-
lous of the naval power of England, determined to reduce
it by a very vigorous efi'ort. With this view they difpatchtd
Van Tromp with 45 fail of men of war into the Downs,
who was met by Blake with a much inferior force of 23
fhips, and, after a very fevere adlion, wlucli t jok place May
19th 1652, obliged to retreat. After feveral flrirmiflies
with the Dutch fliips, and the capture of many prizes, during
the progrefs of the fummer. Van Tromp appeared again in
the Downs, towards the clofe of the year, with 80 fliips, for
the purpofe of renewing his attack upon Blake. The
Englifh admiral, whofe force was much inferior, and who had
the difadvantage of an unfavourable wind, difdained however
to retreat, and engaged the enemy on the 29th of November.
Notwithltanding every poffible exertion, he loft fix fliips, and
was compelled to retreat into the Thames with his fliattered
fleet ; and Van Tromp was 1-ft in triumphant pofleffion of
tlie channel. Blake loft no fimc in repairing and recruiting
his fleet; and in February 1653, he fet fail in purfuit of liis
anta^onill. On the i8th day of the month the Engliih
admiral, with 80 fliips of war, came up off PortLind with
Van Tromp, who had 70, and a fleet of 300 merciiant-fliips
under his convoy. The engagement was fuch as feldom
occurs in the hiftory of naval combats ; it laftcd three days,
and on both fides equal valour was difplayed ; at length,
however, after a running fight up the channel, the Dutch
anchored fafely in the fands of Calais, having loll ji n.en of
war, 30 merchant-ftiips, and 1500 men who fell in the action,
whilll the Englifli loll only one fliip, but as many lives as
the enemy. In this action Blake was wounded in the thigh.

At

B L A

B L A

At tKis time Cromwell difmifled the parliament, and afTiiraed
the fupreme power ; neverthelefs, Blake and his colleagues
declared their fixed purpofe to ferve their country faithfully,
and to guard it, by every effort in their power, againft foreign
injur)- and infult. " It is not for us," faid Blake, " to mind
ftate affairs, but to keep fo-eigners from fooling us." Ac-
cordingly, when generals Monk and Deane, on the 23d day
of June, had engaged Van Tromp with a fleet of 120 men
of war, with dubious fuccefs, and with the lofs of feveral
men, among whom was Deane, Blake on the next day came
lip to their afllttance with 18 frefli (liips, and gained a yittory
fo complete, that if the Dutch had not again faved themfelves
on the fands of Calais, their whole fleet muft have been
funk or taken. After this engagement, his health being
much impaired, he took his Isat in thenewrarliament, fum-
moned by the proteflor Oliver, as a rcprefcutative of his
native town, and he was conftitutcd one of the commifTioners
of the admiralty. Cromwell indeed treated him with great
refpecl ; but he was not unapprized of the admiral's ftror.g
inclination to a commonwealth ; and he was therefore the
more difpofed to fend him, in November 1654, with a ftrong
fleet into the Mediterranean, for the purpofe of fupporting
the honours of the Englilh flag, and procuring fatisfaftion
for any injury which the Britiili merchants had fuffcred.
Whilll he lay in the road of Cadiz, he was treated with great
refpecl by the Dutch and French, and even by the Algerines.
However on the loth of March iii the following year he
appeared before Algiers, and demanded fatisfailion for the
piracies committed on the Englilh, and a releafe of all Eng-
li(h captives. He then failed to Tunis on the fame errand ;
but the dey, confiding in the ftrength of the place, treated
Blake's meffage with contempt ; " Here," faid he, " are
our caftles of Goletta and Porto Ferino, do your woril ; do
you think we fear your fleet ?" Blake, curling his whilkers,
as he was accuftomed to do when in a pafiion, confulted his
officers, and then bore into the bay with his heavy fliips ;
demolilhed the caftks, burnt all the (hipping in the haven
of Tunis, and forced the haughty and obllinate dcy to an
humble fubmiflion, and an advantageous peace. This daring
aftion fpread the fame terror of his nanie through Africa
and Aha, which had for a long time prevailed in Europe.
He alfo awed the piratical flate of Tripoly into a peace with
England, and the knights of Malta into a compofition for
the injuries which they had committed. Such was the effect
of thefe exploits on the princes and dates of Italy, that mofl
of them thought fit to pay their compliments to the pro-
teftor ; and the grand duke of Tufcany, and the free date
of Venice, in particular, fent magnificent embaffies for that
purpofe. During the war with Spain, which was carried on
with great fpiritat this time, Blake, in purfuance of the pro-
tedlor's order, exerted himfclf in ruining their maritime force
in Europe, and Montague being joined with him, on ac-
count of his declinj^ng ilate of health, blocked up for feve-
ral months a Spanilh fquadron in the bay of Cudi/, and
detached a part of their fleet to capture the Spanifli plate
fleet. Montague returned to England with the prizts ; but
Blake, whofe conftitution was broken by the dropfy and
fcurvy, ftaid behind ; and in April 1657 failed with 25 men
of war in purfuit of another plate fleet which had put into
Santa Cruz in the ifland of TeneriiTe. Upon his arrival, he
found that the governor had ufed every poflible precaution
for the defence of the harbour; 16 Spanifli (hips were dif-
pofed in a circular form within the bay, and llrongly bar-
ricadoed ; and the entrance was guarded by a caltle and 7
forts, connefted with one another, and furniflied with large
cannon. Blake fleered boldly into the bay, leaving fome of
his fliips to filence the batteries, while with the reil he at-

tacked the Spanifh veiTels. Having driven the enemy from
all their fortified pofls, he fet fire to the (hipping, which it
was impoflible for him to remove, and deftroyed the whole,
to au immenfe amount. Having accomplifhed his objeil,
the wind veered about in his favour, and brought him out
again without the lofs of a fingle fhip. This exploit has
been cenfured by fom.e cool politicians as an ail of raflinefs ;
but fuch timid reafoners (hould confider that by fuch aflsnf
valour the Britilh navy has made the world to tremble. On
this occafion the brother of the admiral was found deficient
in fome fcrvice which was expccled from him ; upon which
he was degraded from liis conunand, and fent home to his
own counti-y, though afterwards he fliarcd the fraternal re-
gard of Blake, in whofe mind genuine patriotifm abforbed
every felfilh and partial intereft. This great cntcrprife was
the laft atl of Blake's public life ; the news of i: at home
was honoured with a public thankfgiving, with a vote of
thanks to all the officers and feamen, and with a diamond
ring, of the value of 500 1. to Blake himfelf. He lived to
receive this welcome tribute of the gratitude and refpeft of
his country, to the profperity and glor)' of which he was
invariably devoted. As his end approached, he wiiTied to
return to his native land ; as he drew near, he often
anxioufly inquired for land ; but before he could fee it, he
died as he was entering Plymouth found, on board his fhip
the St. Georfi;e, Augull the 17th 1657, at the age of about
59 years. His body was embalmed, and interred with An-
gular honours in Henry the Seventh's chapel, Wellminfler ;
but after the refloration in 166 1, it was removed and interred
in St. Margaret's church yard. Blake was, with regard to
his perfon, of low flature, of a quick, lively eye, and martial
afpect ; he was Angularly brave, cool in aflion, and wife in
the difpolition of thofe defperate attacks, which men of a
colder temperament have judged rather fortunate than ex-
pedient. He loved his country, and whatever was the efia-
bliihed government, he was folicitous to do his duty; and
this duty he performed with the m.oft upright and dilin-
terefted views ; for notwithftanding the high and lucrative
polls which he occupied, and the many rich prizes which he
captured, he only added to his own original patrimony about
500 pounds. He was pious without affedlatijn, flridily juft,
and liberal to the extent of his fortune. His officers he
treated with the familiarity of friends, and he was truly a
parent to his failors. Although no epitaph or fculptured
monument records his great and good quahties, all parties
have been eager to do juflice to his memory. Dr. Bates,
phyfician to l^-ing Charles I., the proteftor Oliver, and king
Charles II., fums up his charaScr in the following words :
" He humbled the prid; of France, reduced the Portuguefe
to lubmifiion, broke the ftrength of the Dutch, and drove
their fleets out of the fea, fubdued the pirates in the Medi-
terranean, and tv.ice triumphed over the Spaniards, blame-
able only in this, that he joined himfclf with the parricides."
Lord Clarendon fays of him, that he was the firit man that
dechned the old track, and difregarded anciently eftabliflied
rules, which ferved merely to keep his fhip and his men out
of danger ; he lirft taught fhips to contemn caftles on fhore ;
he firfl infufed that courage into feamen, which made them
learn by experience what mighty things they could do if
they were rcfolved, and taught them to fight in fire as well
as upon water ; and though he hath been ver)' well imitated,
he was the firil that gave the example of that kind of naval
courage, and bold, refolute atchievements. Bifhop Burnet
mentions a ilory that is related of him, well known, but
worth again recording. Whilft he lay in the road of Ma-
laga, fome of his feamen being on fhore, met the hoft, and
treated the proceffion with negledl and indignity. One of

the

B L A

tlic Spanifli pricrts refcnteil this iiifiilt, fell upon tV.em, and
beat llicin fevtrcly. When they returned to their fliip, they
compl.iined of this iifagc ; upon whicli Diake f'Jiit to the
vijcrov, dtniandinjT the furrender of the ofiending priell.
Th- viceroy rcphtd tii?t he had no power ovor th ' pricfts ;
to which B!ake rttnntd for anf.ver, that he would net en-
qnire who liad the power to dthvtr up the priell, bitt il he
were not fcnt within three hours, lie would b\irn their town.
The viceroy fent the prieft to Blake, wlio jullificd hinifelf on
account of the petulant behaviour of the feniner. Blake
anfwered, that if complaint had been made to h.im, he would
have Mifliifted jnil pnnifhment, for he would not fufter his men
to affro.it the eiliiblifhtd religion of any plate, at wliich he
touched ; but he wilhed to have it known to the whole world,
that an En.ililh:nan was only to be punilhed by an Englifh-
nian. He then treated the prieft civilly, and fent hiin back.
When Croniuell received this intcllli{ence, he was higldy
delijjlited, and faid lie hoped that he Ihcnild make the name
of an Eni^liflnnan as great as evertliatofa Roman had been.
It is faid, that when Bhkt was cruiiing in the Mediter-
ranean, he net with a French (hip of confidcrable force, and
commanded the captaiii to come on board, no war having
been declared between the French and Enghfh. The cap-
tain, being alked whether " he was willing to lay down his
fword and yield," gallantly refufed, though in his enemy's
power. Blake, feorniiig to take the advantajfe of an artifice,
and detelling the appearance of treachery, told him, " that
he was at liberty to go back to liis Ihip, and defend it as
Ion/ as he could." The captain did fo, and after an engage-
ment of two honrs, confeded himfelf conquered, kifled his
fword, and furrendered it. Mr. Granger, fpeaking of
Blake's naval exploits, fays, " that the very temerity of his
enterprifes llruck terror into his enemies, and greatly con-
tributed to his fucctfs. He not only improved the method
of attack, but carried the naval power of Cromwell to a
greater height than had been known in any age or nation.
" Never man," fays Mr. Hume, " fo zealous for a faftion,
was fo much relpecled and elteemedby the oppofite faftions.
He was by principle an inflexible republican ; and the late
ufurpatiuns, amidll all the trull and cartffes which he re-
ceived from the ruling powers, wera thought to be very little
grateful to him. " It is ftill our duty," he faid to the
feamen, " to fight for our country, into whatever hands the
government may fall." Difmterelled, generous, liberal ;
ambitious only of true glory, dreadful only to his avowed
enemies; he foi-ms one of the mod perfeft characters of that
age, and the kail llained with thole errors and violences,
which were then fo predominant. The Protetlor ordered
him a pompous funeral at the public charge ; but the tears
of his countrymen were the moll honourable panegyric on
his memory." To the above tellimonies we fliall add
the foil- wing lines from Mr. Glover's poem, entitled
" London."

" Thy name

Was heard in thunder through th' affrighted (hores

Of pale Iberia, of fubmllnve Ganl,

And Tagus trembling to his utmoft fource.

O ! ever faithful, vigilant, and brave.

Thou bold aff^rtor of Britannia's fame.

Unconquerable Blake!"
Biog. Brit.

BLA KF.A. in Bolaiiy, fo named by Dr. Patrick Browne,
from Mr. M.rrtin Blake of Antigua, a great promoter of na-
tural knowli.d;;e, iind patron ot the doftor's natural hiftory
of Jamaica. Lin. gen. 593. Reicli. 647. Schreb. 810.
Brown, t. 35. Juir. 32S. Clafs and order, Jw/tr.inrt'rw ;n<3-
no^nia. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth of the fruit inferior, fix-

B L A

leaved ; leaflets ovate, concave, expanding, the fize of the
flower :— perianth of the flower fuperior ; margin quite
entir-e, hcKangnlar, m.embranaccous. Cor. petals fix, ovate,
expanding, eqnal. Si.im. lilaments twelve, fubvilate, ere ft ;
anthers triangular, deprefled, concatenated into a ring. PiJ}.
germ inferior, obovate, crowned with the margin of the calyx,
ilylt fubulate, the length of the flower ; ftigma acute. Per.
capfule obovate, fix-celled. Seeds very many.

Efl". Char. C<i/. inferior, fix leaved ; fuperior entire. Pet.
fix. CtJpf. fix-celled, many-feedcd.

Species, i. B. triiiervia. " Two-calycled ; leaves ncrve-
Icfs, very finely ftriated acrofs." Leaves oblong-ovatc,
petioltd, quite entire, coriaceous, oppofite ; the three nerves
undtmeath protuberant, blackifli ; flowers oppofite, folitary.
Generally rifing to the height of 10 or 14 feet ; one of the
moll beautiful produftioui of America ; at firil a chmber,
but gradually acquiring a more robull ftem, which divides
into many weak declini;ig branches, well fupplicd on all fides
with beautiful rofy bloffoms. A native of Jamaica, in cool,
moill, fiiai-!y places. 2. B. tripUtiervia. " Uncalycled ;
leaves triple- nerved." A tree growing to the height of 16
feet ; leaves oppolite, petiolcd, fix or feven inches long,
ribbed underneath, and having a nerve running along the
edge ; peduncles three-flowered ; flowers diftincl, without
any lower perianth ; upper perianth three or five-cleft, cori-
aceous, permanent ; petals about ieven ; filaments twelve or
fifteen ; anthers ovate, parallel, flattilli at the back, fhorter
than the corolla, truncated, not concatenated ; ftyle club-
fliaped ; ftigma capitate, flreaked ; fruit a roundifli, many-
celled berry, crowned with the calyx ; feeds minute ; fruit
of a yellow colour, and fapid. A native of Surinam, where
it was obferved by Dalberg ; alfo of Guiana, where it flowers
and fruits in May.

Propagation and Culture. Thefe trees have not been yet
cultivated in Europe. In the Weft Indies, the firft fpecies
thrives bcft on the fides of ponds or rivulets ; and when
planted in gardens, where its appearance is elegant, it ought
to be fupplied with fome fupports, vvhilft it continues young
and weakly.

BLAKENEY, in Geography, a harbour on the coaft of
Norfolk, between Cromer at eaft by foutli, and Wells at
weft by north nearly, diftant from the former 2 leagues, and-
from the latter 3 leagues.

BLAMONT, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift in the department of the Meurt'ne ; containing 1863
inhabitants, and the population of the canton is 10,(195.
The territory comprehends 2I2| kiliometres and 30 com-
mmics; 4^ leagues eaft of Luneville. N. lat. 48° 35'.
E. long. 6° 44'. — Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton ; containing
400 peifons, and the canton contains 35^9; the territory
comprehends i&7j kiliometres and 14 communes ; li league
north of St. Hippolyte.

BLAMPIN, Thomas, in Biography, a Benc'diftine of
St. Maur, was born at Noyon in Picardy in 1(^40, and taught
philofophy and theology in his own congregation. He is
chiefly known as editor of the works of St.Augnftin, in
which he difplaycd much critical erudition and fagacity,
and great accuracy in his collation of MSS. Befides other
preferments in the church, he was appointed in 1708 vifitor
of the pi-ovince of Burgundy, and in eonfequence of the
auftcrities exercifed in this office he died in 1710.
Morcri.

BLANC. See Bl-vsk.

Bl.anc, Frakcis Le, in Biography, diflinguiflied himfelf
by the ftudy of belles-lettres, hiftory, and medals, and was
appointed by Louis XIV. to draw up an account of the

monies

B L A

B L A

monies of France from the eftablilTiment of the monarchy.
Accordingly he publi(hcd " A Treatilc on the Monies of
France," Paris, l6(j8, 4X0. with figures ; reprinted at Am-
(lerda:;i, 4to. [692. To this is uftia'.ly annexed his diffcr-
tation, pubh(hed the preceding year, " On the coins of
Charlemagne and his fuccefToro Itruck at Rome." He was
chofen hiftorical tutor to the royal children ; but died be-
fore he entered on his office, at Vcrfaiilcs in 169S. Nouv.
Dift. Hitl.

Blanc, John- Bernard Le, Abbe, hiftoringrapher of
the public building', and member of the acailemies of La
Cmfca, and of the Arcadi at Rome, was born at Dijon in
1707, and engaging in the literary, career, wrote a trajjedy
entitled " Abenlaid," which, notwiihftat'.ding the haUiinefs
of its verfific^-tian, was at firil well received. At Paris, where
he fettl.d, he cbtaipcd iriends ^;id patrons; and in 1746
Manpertuls was empowered by the king of Prufiia to oSer
him a reiidenci-, as a man of l>;tters, at his court, winch he
declined accepting. His " Letters on the Entjhfli nation,"
in 3 vols. l2mo. 1758, are the mott known of his works,
and were occafioncd by his villt to England. The Ityle is
heavy, and the thoughts trite and vulgar, fo that they
are now little read.' He died in 1 78 1. Nouv. Diet.
Hift.

Blanc, Lewis Le, Sicur Je Bcauliai, a profcfTor of divi-
nity at Sedan in the 17th century, was born at Plefiis-Marii,
where his father was minillcr, and in the progrcf; ot his life,
of which few particulars are recorded, was dii'tiiiguilhed by
his learning and virtue. He died in 1675, at the age of 60
years and 6 months. His " Thtfes Theologies:" were col-
lefted into one volume after his death, palTtd through feveral
editions, and are highly worthy of an attentive pemial. The
firll edition wasprinted at Sedan in 4to, and two other editions
were printed in England ; the third in 1 683. He was eminent
for the perfuafive power of hi? eloquence, and dilcovered an
uncommon degree of penetration and fagacily in his writings
and negucialions. Anxious for a reconcliation and union
between the Reformed and Romifh churches, he pafled in
review many of the controverfies that divided them, and
feemed to prove, with the utmoll perfpiciiity, that fome of
them were merely difputes about words, and that the others
were of much leis conftquence than was generally imagined.
This manner of llating the differences betv.ecn the two
churches drew upon him the indignation of thofe who re-
garded all attempts to foften and modify contro' ertcd doc-
trines as dangerous and detrimental to the caufe of truth.
Among thefe we may reckon Amauld, Saurin, and Jnrieu.
On the other hand, the acutenefs and dexterity with which
he treated this delicate fubjecl, made a confulerable imprcf-
fion upon feveral perfons, and procured him difciples who en-
tertained his reconciling fentiments, but either entirely con-
cealed them, or difcovered th:m with caution, as they were
known to be difpleafiiig to the greatell part of the membtrs
of both communions. Some of Le Blanc's fern>o:iS were
printed at Sedan in 1675. Gen. Diet. art. A-n/i/Vci/. Mofn.
£ccl. Hilf, vol. v. p. 379.

Blasc, Le.vis Lt, a flcilful furgeou and hthctomiil of
Orleans, publiihcd in 1764 " A Dlfcuurfe on th^ iitihly of
Anatomy ;" and in 1768, '■ Nouvellc Mcthode d'operer des
Hernies," 8vo. He recoxm.eiids dilating the ring with the
finger, if practicable, which it ulually is, lie fays, in recent
cafes ; in thofe of long iianding, with a p?.ir of lorceps he in-
vented for the pnrpoie, inilcad of ufr.ig the knitc. This
doitrine having been oppofed by Ant. Louis, he was an-
fwered by I^e Blanc in a difTertation on t!ic fubjeiS, pubhflied
in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of tiie Academy of
Surgery. After reducing the intc.line, by his method, no
trufs is wanted, as is invariably the cafe when ihe ring is

Vol. IV.

opened by incifion. The forceps are introduced into the
ring, clofed, and open themfelvcs by the force of an elattic
fpring. He alfo wrote on the operation for the Hone, on the
method of extracti:!g fmall portions of the placenta left in
the uterus, and furtl-.er obfervations on the cure of hernia.
Thcfc papers were publilhedin die 30th, 35th, and 39th vo-
lumes of the Journal de Medicine. In 1775 he publifhed
" Precis d'operations de Chirurgie," 2 vol. 8vo. containing
the fubftance of the above, with fome additional obfervations.
Haller. Bib. Anat. de Chirurg.

BLAKC-ffrnnfjv, Fr. q. d. mhltefood, in Domeflic Economy,
is a preparation cf dilTolved illnglafs, milk, fugar, cinnamon,
&c. boiled into a thick confiftence, and garniftied for
tlic table with blanched almonds. It is coohng and
lirengihening

Blancs inarJeaux, in Eccte/lafucal Hiftory, a name origi-
naily given to the Serviles, or iervants of the Bleffed Virgin,
on account of their white cloaks; but lince applied to divers
forts of religious, who h.ave fucceiTivcly inhabited the houfe
of the Seyji'cs, and now to the Bei.'edi<Sine3 at Paris, though
habited in black.

Blanc, Mor.t, in Geography, a lofty mountain of Savoy,
in ti'.e duchy of Faucigny, being part of the ancient " Alpes
Penninsc." See Alps. This is reckoned the moft eleva-
ted mountain of the ancient continent, its height above the
level of the fea being, according to the calculations of M. de
Luc, 15,304 Er!gli(h feet; or, according to the meafuremeut
of fir George Shuckburgh, 15,662 feet. This accurate ob-
fsrver informs us (Phi!. Tranf. vol. Lxvii. p. 595), that the
height of Vefuvius, eftimated by SaufFureat 3,900 feet, placed
upon mount .ffitna, elevated, according to fir George, 10,954
feet, would not be equal to the height of Mont Blar.c, which
he luppofes to be the moll elevated point of Europe, Afia, and
Africa. This mountain, obferved from the "Colde Balme,"
and the vale of " Cham.ouny," is particularly diflinguifhed
from other mountains by a mantle of fnow, which clothes its
fummit and fides, almolt without the intervention of the lead
rock to break die glare of the "white" appearance, from
which its name is derived. Thofe who have feen it from
the valley of Aoft obferve, that on that fide it do^s not ap-
pear to be covered with a mantle of fnow, and that it ex-
ceeds the Schreckhorn in ruggedncfs and horror. See
ScHRECKHORN. Thofe who are totally unacquainted ^vith
Alpine fcenes, laysMr.Coxe, (Swiff, vol. ii. p. 5.) may, per-
haps, conceive a faint idea of this gigantic mountain, on
being informed, that the mantle of fnow, which appears to
cover its top and lides, exceeds an altitude of 4000 feet per-
pendicular, and 90C0 feet in an horizontal direction from the
dome of Goutc, to the fummit ; and that the height of the
fnow and ice, elliraated from the fouroe of the Arveron, at
the bottom of the glacier of Montanvert, to the fummit of
Mont Blanc, cannot be Icfs than 12,000 perpendicular feet,
or near three times as high as Snowdon in North Wales. The
highclt point of tiiis mountain appears like a compreffed
hemifphere, and is called from its form " La BofTe du D;o-
medaire ;" from that point it gradually finks, prcfenting a
kind of concave furfacc of fuov,', in the m.idll of which is a
fm:dl pyramid of ice ; it then rifes into a fccond hemifphtre,
called by fome" Lilde Mont Blanc," but more propei>!y by
others " Le Dome du Milieu," or the " Middle Dome ;"
thence it defcer.ds into another concave furface teriinnating
in a point, indifcriininately llyltd by tlie natives " Aiguille
dc Goutc" " Point de G.>utc," and '• Dome de Gouic ;"
from this dome it ends abruptly, and loles itfelf amid the
mountains that bound the vale ot Chamouny. Five glaciers
extend into this vale, r.nd are fcparated from one another by
forells, corn-fields, and meadows ; fo tiiat large tratls of ice
aie blended with cultivation, and perpetually fucceed each
3 Z other

B L A

other in the mod fingutar and flrikhig vicifliludc. Tlicli;
glaciers, wliith lie chiitly in the lioUows of the inoinitaiiis,
and are fome leagues in length, unite at the foot of Mont
Blanc.

Of the various attempts that have been made to reach the
fummit of Mont Blanc, the iirll was that of M. Coutcran,
and three guides of Ciiamouny, Michael Paccard, Viftor
Taflay, and Maria Coutct. On the 13th of July 177C,
they fet off from the priory, about 1 1 in the evening ; pafled
between the glaciers of Boffon and Tacona ; and after fpend-
ing above 14 hours in mounting rugged and dangerous al-
cents, and in crofTmg fevcral vallies of ice, and large plains
of fnow, found ihemi'elves on the top next to Mont Blanc.
But though at firft fight it appeared to be fcarecly a
league dillant, they foon perceived that it feemed, on account
of the clearnefs of the air, the whitenefs of the fnow, and its
great height, to be much nearer than it really was, and that
it would require at lead four hours more to reach the fummit,
even if it were praflicable. As the day was far advanced, and
the vapours near the fummit of the mountain began to gather
into clouds, they relinquifhed their enterprize ; and returned
to Chamouny, not v\ilhout perfonal danger in leaping over
chafms of ice, after a journey of 22 hours, with this fatislac-
tion, that they had approached nearer to Mont Blanc than
any former adventurers. The fumm.it which they had at-
tained, is, according to fir George Shuckburgh, more than
13,000 feet above the Mediterranean. Aft«r fome fubfe-
quent but unfuccefsful attempts, M. Bourrit, accompanied
by fix guides, departed from Bionafay, and began to " fcale
(as he terms it) the rampart" of Mont Blanc, when he fud-
denly found himfelf fo exceedingly affefted by the intenfe
cold, that he was unable to proceed. Maria Coutet, and
Francis Guidet, two of his guides, proceeded to the dome
of Goute, which is about 9400 feet in an horizontal direc-
tion from the fummit ; but the approach of night obliged
them to return. On the 4th of September 1785, Maria
Coutet and James Bahr.at advanced beyond the dome of
Goute towards the fummit, but a violent llorm of hail and
wind compelled them to abandon the enterprize. On the
13th of this month Mcffrs. SaufTure and Bourrit, attended
by twelve guides, well provided with barometers, thermo-
meters, and other nccelTary inllruments, left Bionafay, and
arrived at a hut which was conllrufted by their orders at
" Pierre Ronde," 7808 feet above the level of the fea ; and
on the next morning they purfued their journey to the dome
of Goute ; but a heavy fall of fnow prevented their progrefs.
Sauffure fays, that the mercuiy in the barometer funk l8j
inches, and that he reached an elevation of 8256 Englifh
ftet. In July 1786, James Balmat, one of fix guides of
Chamouny, being feparated from his companions, who failed
in another attempt, palled the night on a fpot above the
" Dome of Goute," elevated more than 12,000 feet above
the level of the fea. On his return, however, to Chamouny,
he was feized with a very fevere indifpofition, the effeft of
extreme fatigue, and of the intenfe cold ; but being at-
tended by Dr. Paccard, a phyfician of the place, he offered,
as an exprtflion of gratitude for his attendance, to conduft
him to the fummit of Mont Blanc. Accordingly, on the
7th of Augutt, thefe two daring adventurers fallied forth
from Chamouny, and reached the mountain of " La Ce'ite,"
which overhangs the upper part of the glacier of Boffon.
Here they paffcd the night, and at three on the next morn-
ing they purfued thtrir route over the ice, afcended the
•' Dome of Goute," paffed under the " Middle Dome," and
turning to thecail at the lall pyramid of rock, continued along
the ridge which is feen from Geneva, and which hes on the
left of the fummit. Here cold and fatigue difcouraged Dr.
Paccard ; but being animated by his companion, he deter-

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mined to advance, ftruggling with a very violent and pierc
ing wind, till at length they attained the fummit which no
one had vifited before. Here they remained about halt an
hour, when they found the cold fo intenfe, that their pro-
villon was frozen in their pockets, the ink congealed in their
inkhorns, and the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer funk
toiSi degrees. They fpeiit 15 hours in afcending; but found
great difficulty in their defcent, their fight being much de-
bilitated by the reflcftiun of the fnow. On their return to
Chamouny at eight in the morning, their faces were exco-
riated, their lips much fwclled, and Dr. Paccard was al-
moff blind. Thefe adventurers prepared the way for the
oblervations and difcoveries of future naturaliffs, and parti-
cularly of LSauffnre, whofe indefatigable zeal would not
allow him to reft, till he had reached the top of Mont Blanc,
and made tliofe cxperinienls, which have fcrved in a very
confiderable degree to elucidate the theory of the atmof-
phere.

Having arrived at Chamouny, a village at the bafe of the
mountain, M. de Sauffure was detained by continual rains for
four weeks ; after which, he fet out on the iff of Augull
1787, accompanied by a fervant and 18 guides, who carried
the philofophical inftruments and the tents, and other ap-
paratus neceffaiy for the intended experiments. Although
the dillance from the priory of Chamouny to the fummit of
the mountain is little more than two leagues, or about 6J
miles, in a llraight line, it requires neverthelefs 18 hours to
gain the fummit, on account of the difficulties of the road,
as well as the neceffary circuits. In the evening, they ar-
rived at a hut conltrufted for them on the top of the moun-
tain of " La Cote," about a mile perpendicularly above the
village. Their fecond day's journey was attended with
many difficulties, owing to the wide, deep, and irregular
chafms interfering the ice-valley on the tide of the hill,
which can only be croffed by means of bridges naturally
formed of fnow, and often very (lender ; extended, as it were,
over an abyls. In this perilous valley, they were obliged to
purfue a winding road, fo that they were three hours in
croffmg it, though in a ftraight line its breadth is not above
three-quarters of a mile. At length, however, they reached
the chain of rocks that border on the perpetual fnows
v.hich cover Mont Blanc, and then mounted, in a ferpentine
direftion, to a valley filled with fnow, and running from
north to fouth, to the foot of the higheil pinnacle. The
furface of the fnow in this valley has numerous fiffures ;
penetrating to a great depth, and coniiderably broad ; pre-
fcnting to view, by their broken fides, tb.e fucceffive hori-
zontal layers of fnow, which are annually formed. In this
fituation the guides wilhed to pafs the niglit ; but Sauffure,
obferving that the loftieft of thefe rocks is atlealt 1400 yards
perpendicularly lower than the fummit of the mountain,
vviflitd to proceed, and at length prevailed with the guides
to accompany him. At four in the afternoon, they arrived
at the fecond of the three plains of fnow, which they had to
pafs ; but as the day was far advanced, and they were appre-
henfive of expoinig tliemfelves to the "Avalanches," which
are frequently tumbling from the fummit of the mountain,
they determined to proceed no farther. Here they encamped
at the height of 93 i 2 feet above the priory of Chamouny,
or I 2,762 feet above the level of the fea. For this purpofe,
they dug a deep hole in the fnow, of fufficient width to con-
tain the whole company, and covered its top with the tent-
cloth. In this fituation the barometer had fallen to 17 inches,
10 lines ^T ; and they ail felt the eiTeds of the rarefied air.
Seven or eight hours' walk, which they had juft performed,
had not in the leaft affefted thefe robuit and hardy men ; but
they had fcarcely raifed five or fix ftiovels of fnow, in forming
their intended habitation, before they were under a aecelTity

of

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B L A

crdtTifting from labour, and of taking breath at very fhort
intervals. M. de SauflTure himfelf, though accuilomed to
the atmofphere of mountains, and finding himfelf, as he fays,
much better in it than in the air of plains, now felt exhaufted
with fatigue, only by obfcning his meteorological inllru-
nients. This uncomfortable fenfation was heightened by an
acute third, and water could not be procured, except by
melting fnow ; for the water which they had feen during
their afcent, would by this time be congealed ; and the
ftnall chaffing -didi which they had taken with them, very
flowly fupplied 20 people languifliing with thirft. From the
middle of this fuowy plain, not far below the top of Mont
Blanc, the fnow exhibited the moll dazzling brightnefs, and
formed a Angular contrail with the iky, which, in thefe ele-
vated regions, appears almoft black. No living creature was
feen here, nor the lead trace of vegetation. The moon flione
with the brightcit fplendour in the midll of a il^y as black as
ebony. Jupiter, rayed hke the fun, arofe from behind the
mountain in the eail ; and the light of thefe luminaries was
reflefted from the white plain, or rather bafon, in which
they were iltuatcd, and by their dazzling luilre, eclipfed
every ilar, except thofe of the firll and fecond magnitude.
Whilil they were compofing themfelves to Deep within their
tent, incommoded by heat and vitiated air, they were foon
alarmed by the noife of an immenfe mafs of fnow, or " Ava-
lanche," which fell from the top of the mountain, and
covered part of the flope over which they were to climb the
next day. The next morning they departed at feven for the
third and lail plain ; turning to the left in their way to the
higheil rock, which is on the eall part of the funimit, they
found the afcent in fome places fo lleep, that the guides
were obliged to hew out their footfteps with hatchets.
Their progrefs was flow, and it took them two hours to
climb a hill about 1590 feet high. Having arrived at this
laft rock, they turned to the weft, and climbed the lall afcent,
about 900 feet high, and inclining about 28 or 29 degrees.
Here the air was fo rarefied, that Sauifure could not take
15 or 16 ileps without ftopping for breath ; and at inter-
vals he found himfelf faint, fo that he was under the neceffity
of fitting down, until, with the return of relpiration, his
ftrength was revived. On his arrival to the fummit, at
1 1 o'clock, a flight vapour, fufpended in the inferior regions
of the air, prevented him from beholding the lower and
more dillant objefts ; fuch as the plains of France and Lom-
bardy ; but he had the lefs reafun for regretting this lofs,
as he was agreeably furprifed by a moll di Hindi and compre-
henfive view of all thefe elevated fummits, with the organi-
zation of which he had fo long dcfired to be acquainted.
He thought himfelf dreaming, when he faw beneath his feet
many majeitic peaks, efpecially " Aiguilles," " Le Midi,"
•' I'Argentiere," and " Le Geant," the bafes of which he
had found it fn difficult to afcend. He feized in his mind
their mutual proportion and connection, tiieir form and
llrufturc ; and a fingle glance removed doubts, and afforded
information much more fatisfai5''orily, than whole years of
previous lludy. During this time, his guides pitched his
tent, and made preparations for his experiments ; but in at-
tempting to dilpofe his inllrumeuts for this pui-pofe, he was
cbhged, almoil at every inilant, to dcfiil, and whoUv to oc-
cupy himlclf about the means of relpiration. Confideriug
that the barometer ilood at only 16 inches, 1 line, or 1".I4J
inches EngUlli, and that the air, confequently, polfclTtd
little more than half the denhty of that on the plains, it is
manifell that the deficiency was to be fupplied by more fre-
quent inlpirations. This frequency, of courfe, accelerated
the circulation of the blood, -more efpecially as the arteries,
on the furface of the body, were no longer adluated from
without by the preflvire which they ufually experience.

When M. de SauflTure remained perfeftly quiet, he only felt
rather uncomfortable, with a flight difpofition to be fick ;
but in any exertion, or when he fixed his attention for a few
fucceffive moments, and particularly when, by {looping, he
comprefled his cheft, the neceflity recurred of reiling himfelf,
and refpiring for two or three minutes. His guides alfo
experienced fimilar fenfations. They felt no appetite, and
had no inclination to take wine or brandy, having found that
llrong liquors increafed the above indifpofition ; without
doubt, by quickening the circulation of the blood. No-
thing but frefh water was coveted and relilhed, and yet both
time and exertion were required to light the fire, without
which it was impoffible to obtain any. In this fituation,
Sauffure and his companions continued 4! hours, and in their
defcent they found fewer difficulties than they expeAed.
They arrived the next morning at the valley of Chamouny,
without the leafl accident ; and as they had taken the pre-
caution to wear veils of crape, their faces were not excoriated,
nor their fight debilitated.

M.de Sauffure has given an ample detail of his obfcrvations
on the fummit of Mont Blanc, in the 4th volume of his
" Voyages dans les Alpes ;" and a tranflation of this account
by profeffor Martyn of Cambridge, forms an appendix to his
flvetch of a tour through Swifferland. We (hall here frlecl a
few particulars. We learn from this narrative, that the fummit
of the mountain is a ridge, nearly horizontal, lying eafl and
weft ; the flope at each extremity inclining from 28 to 30 de-
grees, the foLithfide between 15 and 20, and the north about
45 or 50. Tliis ridge is fo naiTow, as fcarcely to allow two
people to walk abreaft, efpecially at the weft end, where it re-
fembles the roof of a houfe ; it is wholly covered with fnow ;
nor is any bare rock to be feen within 150 yards of the top.
The furface of the fnow is fcaly, and in fome places covered
with an icy cruft, under which the fnow is dully, and without
confidence. The higheft rocks are all granites ; thofe on the
eall fide are mixed with fteatites ; thofe on the fouth and
well contain a large quantity of fchoerl, and a little lapis
corneus. Some of them, efpecially thofe on the eaft, which
are about 150 yards below the fnmmit, feem to have been
lately ihivered with lightning. M. de Sauffure faw no ani-
mal on the mountain, except two flies, a grey phalaena, and
a " Myrtillus," which he fuppofes mud have been driven
there by the wind. At the elevation of 11,393 feet above
the fea, he obferved the " Silene Acaulis," or niofs-campion,
in flower ; and dill higher, on the mod elevated rocks, the
" Lichen Sulphureus," and " Lichen Rupedris" of Hoff-
man. He has given us the height of the barometer on the
top of the mountain : viz. Aug. 3. at noon, 16 inches o line,
and -j-lj of a line, French meafnre, i. e. 16. 181 Englilh;
and Reaumur's thermometer was 2.3 below thefreezingpoint,
or 27 of Fahrenheit. M. Sennebicr, at the fame time, ob-
ferved, at Geneva, the barometer 27 inches 2 -{— ^^ lines, or
29.020 inches Lnglilh, and the thermometer 22.6 above
freezing, or 82 of Fahrenheit. From thefe data he makes
the heigiit of Mont Blanc 2218 toifes, or 14,180 Engliih
feet, according to M. de Luc's rule, and 2272 toifes, or
14,525 Eughlli feet, according to M. Trembler's. To
thefe heights 13 toifes, or 83 feet, the height of M. Senne.,
bier's room above the lake of Geneva, mull be added, to
give the height of the mountain above the level of the lake
14,263 fcct, according to M. de Luc, and 14,608 feet, ac-
cording to M. Trembley. S;r George Shuckburgh made
the height of Mont Blanc, by trigonometrical raeafurc-
meut, 14,429 feet above the lake, which is almoft the mean
between the other two. Tlie refult of the obfervaticni
made at Chamouny, co-temporary with thofe on Mont
Bhnc, agrees ftill moie nearly with fir George's nieafure-
ment. The general mean refak makes the fummit of Mont
3 Z 2 Blanc

B L A

B L A

Blanc 2450 loifes, or 15,673 Englifh feet, or nearly three imrrmnities as any other herald ; and his oHice is annexed,
EngliOl miles above the k-vcl of the fea. By M. de SaufTurc's ' ' ' " ^ •• - - •> ■' n-

experimenls with the hvgromtter, the air on the trp of
Mont Blanc coiitaiiied fix times lefs iiumidity than that of Ge-
neva, and to tlie extreme drynefs of it he attributes the burn-
ing thirll which he and his comjjaiiiiins experienced. But
the refiilt of his experiments fcems very diOerent from the
fyftem of meteorology, publiHied by M. de I. vie. See Hv-
OROMKTER. It requires iialf an hour to boil water o-i the
top of thir, mountain ; whereas 15 or 16 minutes are fufH-
cient at Geneva, and 14 or 15 by the fea-fide. Water
•boiled at 6S.993 degrees of a thermometer, which riles to
So with the barometer 27 French inches high. By experi-
ments with the eleftrometcr, M. de tJauffure found, that the
eleftric'ty of the air on the fummit of the mountain was
polltive. The wind on tiie fummit was north, and very

united, and perpetually confolidated with the office of genea*
logiil of the faid order. See Genealogist of the Bath.

BLANCA, in Geography, a fmall illand in the Wcit In-
dies, north of Marsjanta, low and uninhabited ; having fa»
vannahs of long gral's, pknty of guanas, and fome trees of
lignum vitae ; but chiefly remarkable for its turtle fifhery.
N. lat. 11° 20'. \V. long. 64° 10'.

Elanca, or Blanche, an idand in the gulf of Mexico,
near the ccait. N. lat. 25°. W. long. 62" 14'. — Alfo, a
river in the province of Chiapa, in the Audience of Mexico,
in New Spain. Its water, though clear, is laid to have a
petrifying quality.

BLANCARD, Stephen, in Bioxrnphy, was fon of
Nicholas Blancard ofLevden,by whom he was initlatid into
lilt knowledge of philofophy and medicine. At a proper

piercing ; but fouthward of the ridge, the temperature of age he went to Breda, and thence to Franeker, where he
the air was agreeable. The experiments with lime-water, took his degree of doctor in mtdicinc, about the year 1678.
and with the cauftic alkali, (Itewed tliat the nir was mixed Wc foon after find him fettled at Am.llerdam, where he dedi-

vvith atmofpheric acid, or fixed air.

Thedifficulty of refpiration, experienced by M.de Saulfuve
and his companions, has been afcribed by lome to fatigue,
and not to the rarefaftion of the air ; but his obfervations

cated his time to the prafticc of his art, but principally to
writing or compUing a great variety of anatomical and me-
dical works, of wliicli the moft valuable, Haller fays, is his
" Anatomia praAica rationalis, f. variorum cadaverum morbis

prove, that the latter was the caufe both of the difiiculty of denatoruin anatomica infpe£tio," publifhed 1688, i2mo,

breathing, and the quicknefs of the pulfe. This, indeed. But he has, even in this work, introduced many otfervationa

was fo confiderable, that the pulfe of one of the guides, taken from other wi iters, without acknowledging it. The

after continuing four hours on the fummit, was 98, of the cafes here defcribed are 200 in number, and in general, cu-

fei-vant, 112, and of M. de Sauffure himfelf, 100 in a minute ; rious and deferving notice. Geolicke, however, not only

whereas at Chamouny they were 49, 60, and 72 refpeftively.
M. de Sauffure's obfervations confute an opinion, which is
very common, with refpeft to the change of the ienies of fmel-
ling and tafte fuppofed to take place on high mountains. He
tried the experiment on different mountains, and both the tafte

accuies him of plagiarifm, and of mutilating and fpoiling the
obfervations taken from other anatomills, but he blames him
for publidiing fo many of his works in the Dutcli, his native
language, which cannot fail, in the end, he favs, of being
highly injurious to the profeflion of medicine, by enabling

and fmell of bread, wine, meat, and fruit, appeared to him and perfons to pradtiie who have not previoufly received a liberal

to his attendants not at all different. As to found becoming education. This is, however, now done pretty generally all

■weaker, this circumllancc is not to be attributed to any im- over Europe, and neccffanly at the leaft in this country, where

paired Hate of the organ of hearing, but to the rarefied air, there are fo many perfons prattifing in every branch of medi-

which both refills Icfs and vibrates lefs. Belides, on an infu- cine who are incapable of reading any other language than

lated fummit there are no echoes, nor iolidobjtcfs to repel the their own, the law here authorizing any perfons who may

found. Thefc concurring caufes rendered the founds on the chuieit topractife medicine, without examination, excepting

top of Mont Blanc remarkably feeble; the report of a dif- phyficians andiurgeons refidingin theneighbcurhood of Lon-

charged pillol being equal in ftrength only to that of a fmall don, or of the two univerfities. We fiiall only mention one

Chinefc cracker let off in a room. other of this writer's multifarious prodiidlicns, iiis " Lexicon

Soon after M. de Sauffure's expedition, Mr. Beaufoy, an Medicum," containing explanations of all the terms iifed in

Enghlh gentleman, fucceeded in an attempt to afcend Mont medicine, furgery, and anatomy, firll publifliedin 1679, 8vo.

Blanc; but it was attended with peculiar difficulty, arifing Thishaspaffed throughnumerous editions, andlately, in 1777,

from the enlargement of the chafms in the ice. An account by the care of Jac. Fred. Ifcnflam, is increafed to nearly

of this enterprife was communicated to the Royal Society, in treble its original bulk, making two large volumes, Svo.

Blancard's works were coUetled and publiihed at Lcyden,
under the title of ■' Opera omnia theorctica et pradica," in
1 vol. 4to. 1 70 1. Haller Bib. Med. Chirurg. Anat. Botan.
Eloy. Dia. Hift.

BLANCARDS, a name given to certain linen cloths
thus called, becaufe the thread ufed to weave them, has been
half-blanched or bleached before it was ufed. They are
manufaftured in Normandy, particularly in the places which

Blanc, Jlfant, gives denomination to a department
formed of Savoy. It is bounded on the north by the depart-
ments of Lemnn and of Ain ; on theeaft, by Piedmont ; on
the fontli, by Piedmont and the departments of Upper Alps
and of Ifere ; and on the weft, by thofeof Ifere and of Ain.
Its fupcrficies is about 1,254,796 fquare acres, or 640,427
heftares ; and its population about 283,106 individuals.

It it divided into four communal diftrifts, viz. Chambery, are in the dillrift, or under the jurifdiiition of Pont-Audemer,
its capital, Annecy, Moutiers, and St. Jean de Mau- Bernay, and Lifieux.
rienne. BLANCAT, St. in Geography, a tov.'n of France, in the

BL.A'i^C-eiiBeny, Le, a town of France, and principal department of the Upper Garonne, 4 leagues W. N. W. of
place of a diftrift, in the department of the Indre, contain- St. Gaudens.

ing 3850 inhabitants. The population of the canton amounts BLANCH, a cape on the French coaft, N.W. of Calais,
to 10,602 ; and its territory comprehends 3075 kiliometres almoft oppofite to Dover, on the Englifh coalL
and 10 communes ; 6 leagues W. of Argenton. Blanch, or White IJland, one of the large iflands on the

Y>i'K\iC-Courfier Herald, created by patent on the revival coaft of France, lying along the nior<: of the projefting
of the moft honourable military order of the Bath, 1725, coaft, to the N. E. of Morlaix.

" to attend the firft and principal companion of the order Blanch yirw/, or Blank y^zrw, in Law, 2i'tuhite faring
for the time b;ing." He enjoys all rights, privileges, and that is, where the rent was to be paid in filver, not in cattle.

In

B L A

In ancient times, the crown-rents were mariy times re-
ferved to be paid in " libris albis" called blanche fermes : in
vvhicb cafe the buyer was holdcn dealbare Jirmam ; viz. his
liafe money or coin, worfc than ftandard, was melted down
in tlie exchequer, and reduced to the finenofs of ilandanl
filvtr ; or inilead thereof he paid to the king i 2d. in the
pound, by way of addition. In Scotland, this kind of
fmali payment is called " blanch holding," or " rcditus
albre firmK."

BLAN'CH-Z.j'on Purfuivatit of Arms. This officer took
liis title from the arms and fupport^rs of the Mowbray's,
dukes of Norfolk (being ruby, a lion rampant, pearl).
Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, inllituted the office of
blanch-lvon purfuivant 29 Hen. VI 11. and he attended at
the funeral of qi^een Jane. EUinch-lyon was alfo a name
to an ofUcer of the crown in the reign of Edward IV.

Blanch i2c_/J Purfu'roant of Anns, was a purfjivant
created by Edward IV. and fo denominated from the dilUn-
gulihed badge of the h.oufe ol York.

Blanc n-5(7n^f//ir Purfuivant of Arms. This cfTice was
inftitutcd by Richard duke of Glouccller during the reign
of his brother Edward IV. in allufion to his badge or cogni-
zance being a white boar.

BLANCHARD, WiLLiAMjiniJ/c^rj/Z^, an advocate in
the parliament of Paris, was admitted to the bar in loy-j.,
and much employed. Notwitliftandmg his profeffional la-
bour, he found leifure fur literary refearches, and in 1687,
pifblifhed a chronological table of the ordinances of the
French kings of the third race ; which was republi(hed, with
improvements, under the title of " A Chronological Com-
pilation, containing a colleftion of the ordinances, edifts,
declarations, and letters patent of the kings of France, re-
lative to public jullice, police, and the finances, from the
year 987 to the prefent time," 2 vols. fol. 17 15. The
work abounds with accurate refearches ; and a fiipplement
to it was preparing by the author, when he died in 1724.
Moreri.

BiANCH ARD, Jaqjjes Or James, a painter of hiftory and
portrait, was born at Paris in 1600, and having been in-
ftruiled in the fii ft principles of painting in his own country,
he travelled into Italy, where he lludied for fonie time at
Rome and Venice, and acquired, from particular attention
to the works of Titian and of the Venetian fchool, diilin-
guiflied excellence in the art of colouring, fo as to have ob-
tained the flattering appellation of the " French Titian."
He was employed a confidcrable time at Turin by the dukes
of Savoy and afterwards painted feveral pieces at Lyons.
Upon his return to Paris he was much engaged, and by his de-
fcent of the Holy Spirit, and a St. Andrew kneeling, gained
high reputation. Colounngwashis peculiar excellence, and he
was diliinguifhed for his judicious management of lights and
(hades. His principal works, befidcs thofe already men-
tioned, are a gallery at the hotel de Bouillon, of fubjccls
from the heathen mythology, and the bacchanals in the
faloon of M. Morin, with fome pieces at Verfailles and
Trianon. To Blanchard is afcnbed the good tafte for
colouring which obtained in France. He is faid to have
etched feveral plates from his own compofitions. He died
at Paris in 1658, and left a fon Gabriel, who was alfo a
painter of eminence. D'Argenville. Strutt. Pllkington.

BLANCHE, in Ornithology. Sonnini defcribcs a kind
o^ tern, or hironilelle de mer, under this name, in his additions
to Bnffon's Hittory of Birds. The piumnge is entirely
wliite; with the legs and bill black. It inhabits the cape
of Good Hope, and may be placed in the Indian and
fouthern feas. Latham Ctdls this h\ri\ fienia alba.

Blanche Carte. See Carte.

Blanche-Co^, or Bl-incue-Co^V; in Ornithology, '\%i)x^

B L A

corinis cayanus of Gmelin and Latham,- in BufTon's Hiftory
of Birds. It is likewife called in the fame work ^ifay de
Cayenne, and by Latham the Cayenne jay.

BLANCHE-/^a/r, fynonymous with clGurneau des terres ma-
^cUcniques, names given in BufTon's Hillorj' of Birds to the
LlnnKan_y?«/-n.vj' mdibaris, a native of Falkland ifland.

Blanche, Fr. for a minim, in Afufic, or a white note
with a tail to it. See Musical CharaBcn, and Time-

TARLE.

BLANCHERS, a name given to mechanics employed in
bla:;ching, i. e. the art or manner of bleaching or whiten-
iii<r.

o

BLANCHET, Thomas, in Biography, a painter of
hidory, pcrfpeflive, and portrait, was born at Paris in 1617,
and firlt manifeiled a genius for fculpture ; but on account
of the weaknefs of his conftitution he was advifed to
direct his attention to painting. Accordingly, having
praclifed for fome time at Pari.s he travelled for further im-
provement into Italy. By the counfcl and affiftance of
Pouffin and Andrea Sacchi, he apphed to hiftory painting;
and on his return to Paris, he painted feveral pieces, parti-
cularly a pitlure at Notre Dame, much admired. At
Lyons, where he afterwards fettled, he became direflor of
an academical fchool. During his abfence from Paris, he
was admitted, in 1676, into the academy of painting.
Blanchet dcfigned well, and undcrftood the principles of per-
fpetlive and architefture. His compofition was rich, and
his colouring natural ; and though he was not always correft,
his deficiency in this refpeft is imputed more to the fire of
his genius and the rapidity of his execution, than to want
of fl<!U. His mafter-piece was the ceiling of the great hall in
the hotel de ville at Lyons, which was unfortunately con.
fumed by fire ; and the accident is laid to have affeftcd him
fo deeply, as nearly to have coft him his life. The niagif-
trates of Lyons rewarded him with a penfion, and with
apartments in the hotel de ville. Flis charafter was amiable,
and his converfation lively and interefting, fo that his com-
pany was much fuua;ht and valued. He died at Lyons in
1689. Some few of his pieces have been engraved. D'Ar-
genville. Pllkington.

Blanchet, in Ichthyology, the familiar French name of a
fort ot falmon that inhabits the American feas ; falmo fatens
of LinnKus.

Blanchet, in Zoology^ V Amphijbene blanchet, a kind of
amphilbxna known among the French naturalifts of the
prefent day by this name. The fpecies is defcribed as being
of a white colour, without any fpots ; the body a» confifting
of 230 annulations, and the tail of i(j : on the head are fi.K
large fcales, and about the vent eight vei7 fmall tubercles.
The length is 18 inches, exclufive of the tail, which mea-
fures an inch and an half. This is a native of South Ame-
rica, where it feeds on ants and other infeds. — Bofc, from
whom the above detad is copied, we are convinced, can mean
no other than the amphifhana alia of I^iniiaeus, when he de-
fcribcs this fpecies. The Linnaean charafter ftates ii,-. nLiin-
ber of rings on the body of this kind at 223, in whicii par-
ticular alone the two dcfcriptions feem to be at variance ;
and the inconftancy of that character is too well known to
juftify the opinion of their being dillinct, for that reafon
only.

BLANCHING, in Gardening, is the art of rendering
the leaves and ftems of various forts of plants, as endive
(cichorium), cilery (apium), &c. white, tender, and efcu-
lent. It conllfts in producing a kind of vegetable dtoility
or difeafe, by depriving them of the ftimulant effefts or
influence of light, and is acconipliflied either by earthing
them well up, or completely covering thim, when pertcCiiy
dry, by boards, tiles, or other iimilar means, as will be ■• "re

fully

B L A

B L A

f\illy explained in trcatii;g of the dilTefent plants that le-
qiiire this foix of maiiaj^enK-nt.

Blakching alfo denotes the operation of covering iron
plates with a thin coat or crull of tin. See Latten.

Blanching of copper for fale, in imitation of filver ; or
mixing blanched copper witli filvcr, or expofing the fame to
iale ; or ativ malleable compofilion or mixture of metals, or
minerals heavier than filver, and which looks, and touches,
and wears like gold, but is manifetlly worfe thaii (tandard,
is made felony, 8 and 9 ^^^ III. &c. 26.

Blamching of IV ax. See Wax.

Blanching, in Cohuige, the operation of preparing the
pieces before llriki?ig, to give them the rtquiiitc luftre and
briglitnef'.

The blanching, as now praftifed, is perfor:ned by nealing
or heating the pieces in a kind of pan or fliovel, with a wood-
firc, in manner of a reverberatorv furnact-, fo that the flame
paifes over the fhovel. The pieces being fnfHciently heated,
and cooled again, are put fucceffively to boil in two cop-
per pans, v.'herein are aqua fortis, common fait, and tartar
of Montpellier ; when they have been well-drained of this
firft water in a copper fieve, they throw faiid and freth water
over them ; and when dry, they are all v^'ell rubbed.

Tlie ancient method of blanching was, by putting the
pieces, after heating, in a large velTel of common water; and
fome ounces of aqua fortis, but in different proportions for
gold and tilver. — The method is now diluled, partly by
reafon of its expenfivencfs, and partly becaufe it diminiflies
the weight of the metal.

BLANC-JAUNE, in Ichthyology. Salmo niloficiis, of
Linnaeus, a liih of the falmon tribe found in the Nile, is
called blanc jaune by fome French authors.

BLANCKAMliRE, in Geography, a town of Brabant,
2 miles S. of Breda.

BLANCKENBERG, Blankenburg, or Blaken-
BERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony,
and county of Schwartzburg-RudoUladt, feattd on the
Rinne, 4 miles S. W. of Rudollladt.

BLANC-NEZ, in Zoology. Under this name the Lin-
njsan Slmia pelaurifla is defcribed, both in Buffon's Natural
Hillory, by M. AUamand, and Sonnini, and in the hiltory of
Au'-h, pubhlhed recently in Paris by Audcbert. The per-
vading colour of this animal is a very dark ohve ; the vifage
is black, with the exception of the nofe, a remarkable fnowy
white fpot of a triangular form being fituated on the latter,
which gives the creature a very fingular appearance. The
appellation of blanc-iie-z. or Guenon i/anc-nez, is very well ap-
plied, and might be rendered into Engli(h with much proprie-
ty, the white-nofe monkey, if that name had not been previ-
onfly affigned to another fpecies by Mr. Pennant and Dr.
Shaw. In the. Zoology ot the lall writer we are informed,
that the dillinguilhing charaAer of his white-nofe monkey
(5';';«/a nictitdnj, Liim.) is the tip of the note, which is
milk-white, while the face itfelf is black. Dr. Shaw ob-
ferves, however, fhortly after, that the white-nofe, in this
fpecies, is not abfolutely peculiar, but is found in another ;
alluding, as wt imagine, to his vaulting mo".key, which
anfwers to that defcription. The lad mentioned animal he
conliders as the Siiiiiu px-taiirj/la of Linnjcus, and ILwc-nex,
of AUamand's edition of Button's quadrupeds, as Gmelin
ftates them ; and fo far tlie countenance of the French na-
turalifts appears in favour of his opinion. But, perhaps, it
will admit of fome d lubt how far we may be authorifed in
believing ftill further with Dr. Shaw, that the Guenon
b!anc-tuz of Allamand, and Sonnini, in Buffon's Natural
Hiltory, and Cucnon a nez blanc proemmcnt of the Sup-
plement of that work, are of the fame fpecies. Dr. Shaw
thmks the llril of thefe mull be the female, and the other

the male. Virey, and likewife Audeliert, are perfuaded that
they are certainly diftinft fpecies. Gueiwn blanc-nez, they
conf'ider as the Linnaean ; Simii! petaurJ/Li, and Guenon a nea
blanc proemineni, as Simla iiidilans of the falne author.

BLANCO, in Gecgrjphy, the name of a cape of Afiica,
on thenorthcoaftofthekingdomof Tunis, called the "White
Promontory-," or, with the fame meaning by the inhabitants,
" Ras-el-abead ;" and fuppofed to be the " Promoi/torium
candidum" of Pliny ; and the " Promontorium pulchrnm"
of Livy, where Scipio lauded in his firft African expedition.
N. lat. ^57° 9'. E. long. 10° 18'. — AUb, a fmall point to
S. E. of cape Corfo, in the ifland of Corfica. — Alio, a cape
on the weftern coaft of Africa, in Negro-land; rirft difcovered
by the Portuguefe in the year 1441. N. lat. 20° 55'
30". W. long. 17° 10'. high water 9** 45'. — Alfo, a cape on
the weftern coaft of the territory of Tfchefme in Afiatic
Turkey, oppoiite to the fouthern point of the ifland of Scio.
N. lat. 38" 20'. E. long. 25° 9'. — Alfo, a cape of South
America, on the coaft of Brazil, between cape Roque on
the north, and cape St. Auguftine on the fouth. S. lat.
6° 50'. W.long. 35° 33'. — Alfo, a cape of South Am.erica,
on the eaftern coaft of Patagonia, north of port Defcado.
S. lat. 47° 20'. W. long. 64° 42'. — Alfo, the north-wefteni
point of the bay of Salinas, on the coaft of Nicaragua, N.

W. from Panama-bay. N. lat. rf 20'. W. long. 85° 48'

Alfo, a cape on the north-weft coaft of America in New
Albion, fouthward of the mouth of the river called " the
river of the weft," between cape Gregory and point St.
George, and at a further diftance between cape Foulweather
and Mendocino. N. lat. 43° 20'. W. long. 128^ 20'. — Alfo,
a promontory of Peru, in South America, on the coaft of
the South Sea, 120 miles S. W. of Guayaquil. S. lat.
3- 45'. \W. long 83°.

Blanco, an ifland on the fouth-eaftern part of the penin-
fula of Yucatan in New Spain. N. lat. 21°. W. long.
88^ j'. See Blanca.

BLANDA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Buprestis,
that inhabits South America. The wing-cafes arc attenu-
ated, ferrated, and fui rowed ; colour brafTy-green, with the
furrows coppery. Fabricius.

Blanda, a fpecies of Tenthredo, found in England.
The colour is black ; abdomen rufous in the middle ; pofte-
rior thighs marked with a white fpot. Fabricius, &c.

Blanda, \\\ ytncient Geography, a town of Hifpania Tar»
ragonenfis, mentioned by Mela, Ptolemy, and Pliny, fituate
on the coaft of the Lalctani, fouth of Garunda. — Alfo, a
town of Italy, in the country of the Brutii, according to
Pliny and Mela, but called " Elands, " by Livy, and placed
by him in Lucania.

BLANDFORD, commonly called Blamlford-forum, in
Geography, is a market town of Dorfetfhire, England. It is
feated on the eaftern banks of the Slour, and on the great poft
road from London to Exeter, Cornwall, Sec. In the Domef-
day hook no lefs than nine parcels or parifhts are included
under the name of Blencford or Blancford, of which this is the
moft conilderable, and was ftiled a borough in fome ancient
records, though it does not appear to have been reprefented
in pailiamcnt more than twice ; once in the reign of Ed-
ward I. and again during the reign of Edward III. James
the firfl granted it a charter, and made it a free borough with
certain corporate grivileges and immunities. The town is
governed by a bailiff and fix capital burgefles ; a part of
whom is invefted with the power of det- rmining fuits not
exceeding lol.

Here is a fmall manufaftor)- of ihirt and waiftcoat buttons,
and another of thread, but the principal trade of the town
depends upon its neighbourhood, and the paffage of travel-
lers. The town has been deftroycd feveral times by fire.

In

B L A

In Camden's time it was moftly burnt by accident, but was
foon rebuilt in an improved manner. The years ;676, 1713,
and I 73 I are recorded as peculiarly calamitous to this town,
and in the latter year, nearly the whole of it was deftroyed.
The church, tcnvn-hall, alms houfe, free-fchool, and ail the
houfes, but forty, were confumed. Many lives were loll,
and the diftn fling calamity was greatly augmented by the
fmall-pox, which raged in above lixty families. The com-
puted damage was valued at loo,ocol. but the diftrefs, ter-
ror, and miier)' that prevailed at the time, and rcfulted from
the direful cataftrophe, far exceed all calculation, and defy
the powers of verbal dclcription. The town has iince
been rebuilt, and its appearance much improved by fome
refpeiilaole houfes, a new church, town-hall, &c. The
latter is a neat building compofed with Portland (lone, and
conftrufted on columns of the Doric order. Within the
building is a pump which was erefted by John Ballard, who
having been a confid-.rable fafferer by the lafl fire, had this
pump conftruAed to fupply the town with water, and
thereby to prevent another fimihr difailtr. The new church,
built in the Grecian ftyle of architecture, cor.fills of a body,
t«o ailes, a chancel, and a tower. Its interior is very
neatly ornamented, and contains feveral handlome marble
monuments.

The charitable donations to Blandforii are numerous and
valuable, and are appropriated to endow an alms-houfe, to
apprentice and clothe poor boys, to ereft and fupport a
charity-fchool, two free-fchools, and for other benevolent
purpofes. Blandford is 134 miles W. S. W. from London,
and contains 408 houfes, with 2326 inhabitants : at the eaft
end of the town are the remains of a handlome old building,
called " Damory court," which has been pofleffcd by many
noble and diftinguillied perfonages.

Blandford is the birth-place of many celebrated charafters:
among whom the following are the moft dillinguifhed :
George Ryves, who was vvarden of New College, Oxford, in
1599, and Vice-chancellor, in 1601 ; Bruno Ryves, author
of the Mercurius Rullicus, a fingular book, recording many
of the events of the civil wars. He alfo affiiled in publifhing
the Polyglot Bible, was dean of Chicheller and Windfor, and
died at the latter place in 1677, aged 81 years; IVil/iam
Wdle, archbiihop of Canterbury, &c. was born ht-.-e in the
year 1657, and died at Lambeth in 1736; TIjoiiuu Creech,
the tranflator of Lucretius, and other ancient clafllc au-
thors, was born here in 1659 ; Chriflopher Pitt, another tranf-
lator, dates his birth at Blandtord, where he was buried in
1748.

About one mile fouth of Blandford-forum is Blandford St.
Mary, a village noted in the annals of literature as the biiih-place
of Browne Willis, the celebrated antiquary and topographer
(fee Willis). At the diftanceof one mile weft of this town
is Brianftone-houfe, the elegant and commodious manfion of
Edward Berkeley Porlman, efq. This houfe was eredted
from the defigas of Jamts Wyatt, who has difplayed much
judgment and tatle in the difpoiition of the apartments, the
arrangement of the ofBces, and in the two principal facades.
The river Stour winding in a broad fhect through the
grounds, with the plantations, and diftaiit icenes, combine
to render this a chaiTning and delightful refidencc. Hut-
chins's Hiliory of Dorfetlhire, fecond edition, fol. 1796.

Blandford, a townfhip of America, in Lur.enburgh
county in Mahon bay. Nova Scotia, fettled by a few fami-
lies.— Alfo, a townlhip in Hamplhire county, Maflachufets,
well of Connefticnt river; about 2J miles, S. W. of Nor-
thampton, and 116 W. of Bollon ; containing 235 houfes,
and 1416 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town in Prince George
county, Virginia, about 4 miles N. E. from Peterfburgh,
and within its jurifdittion. It contains 200 houfes, and

B L A

1200 inhabitants, and is pleafantly Htuatcd on a plain, on
the eaftern branch of Appamattox river. Here are many
large (lores, and three tobacco warchrnfes, which receive
annually 6 or 7000 hoglhcads. It is a thriving place ; and
as the marlhes in its vicinity arc drained, the air of this town,
and alfo that of Pcterflr.irgh, ?.re much meliorated.

BLANDINA, in Entomology, one of the Fabrician fpe-
cies of Papilio, in the Nymphales feiSion ; the wings of
which are dcntated, black, and marked with white fpots ;
at the bafe of the anterior pair a blue ftreak, and another
along the margin of the pollerior ones. This rare infeft in-
habits India. Vide Donov. Inf. Ind. Obf. There is ano-
ther fpccies of the Papilio genus, that bears the fame name,
that ought by no means to be confounded with the above
mentioned infed. This is alfo dcfcribed by Fabricius in his
" Entomologia Syftematica," in the ftftion '■ Satyri ;" the
wings of this kind are dentated, the colour brown, with a
rufous ocellated band ; pofterior pair beneath fufcous with a
cinereous flripe. This is paphio I'tgea of Scopoli, athiops of
Elper, and ir.eilea of- the Vienna Catalogue. It inhabits
feveral parts of Europe, but has not been hitherto difcovered
in Great Britain. The fame fpecific name again occurs in
Cramer's Papdiones, a ftrong variety of the Gmelinian/a-
pdio melietrla, being fo named by that author.

BLANDRATA, George, in Biography, a phyfician
and divine of the l6th centur)-, was born in the marquifate
of SalufTcrs in Italy, and praftifed phyfic in Poland and Tran-
fylvania; but upon his return to Italy, he was obliged by the
inquifition to fly, on account of his religious opinions, from
Pavia to Geneva, where he declared hinifclf a Catholic. Here,
however, his fcntiments, which then inclined to Arianifm, ex-
cited the fufpicions of Calvin, which obliged him firil to return
to Poland, and afterwards, in 1563, to remove to Tranfvl-
vania, where Sigifmund, at that time fovereign of the
country, appointed him his phyfician. After the death of
Sigifmund he fuftained the fame office to Stephen and
Chriftophcr Battori, and to the former when he obtained the
crown of Poland. By his credit and influence the doftrine
of Socinus, which Blandrata ftems to have now adopted,
made its way from Poland to Tranfylvania ; and it was by
his means that Faullus Socinus was brought thither from
Bafil in 1578, to fecond his arguments and efforts in coun-
teracling Francis Davides, who zcaloufly oppofed the cuf-
tom of offering up prayers and divine worfhip to Jefus
Chrifl. It is faid, that Blandrata, either through natural
levity, or under the' influence of an avaricious difpoiition,
abandoned the intereils of the Unitarians, and he is accufed
by Socinus with inclining towards the Jefults, who had
obtained credit and inlluence at the court of king Stephen.
His wealth, however, tempted his nephew to ftrangle him
in his bed, at lome period, not afcertained, between the
years 1585 and 1552; and this unfoitunate termination of
his life has been charitably interpreted, both by the ortho-
dox and heterodox, as a divine judgment. Of his charafter
as a writer the theologiih of Geneva exprefs a contemptuous
opinion ; and his condiift fcems to have been chargeable
with a degree of unlleadinefs and duplicity, which has been
partly attributed to the perfecuting fpirit of the times in
which he lived. Gen. Ditl. Molh. Eccl. Hill. vol. iv,
p. 513, 525. Toulmin's Life of Socinus, p. 6, &c.

BLANES, or Blanda, in G.'ography, a fea-port town
of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Mediterranean, 34 miles N. E.
of Barcelona. N. lat. 41° 42'. E. long. 2° 45'.

BLANGIS, or Blangv, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrift of Neufchatel. The population of the town
includes 1749 perfons, and that of the canton 12,879. The
territory comprehends 2473 kiliometers, and 31 communes:
I i 4 miles

B L A

14 liiTlv-S N. N. E. of Meiifthate!, and 20 miles E. of

]5L ANGY, a town of Fiance, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a cjnton, in tlic dillrift of Pont
I'Evcque; the place contains 771 ptrfons, and the canton
J0,9^l. T!ie extent of the territory includes 140 kilio-
nietrcs, and 23 commnnes ; S leagues E. of Caen, and It
league, S. E. of Pont I'Eveqiie. — Alfo, a tov/n of France,
in the department of the (Iraits of Calais, and chitt phice of a
canton, in thedillrirt of J.Iontreuil, 2 leagnts N.E. of tkfdin.
BLANK, or Blanc, in a general f-nfe fig li'ies vhite;
and BLANCUS, or blanca, is n-.ore p:irticu a.rly ufed for a
k'nd of wliite, or filver money, of bafe .lUoy, coined by
Henry V. in thofe parts of France then fiibject to England,
valued r.t Sd. Ilerlmg. They were forbidden by liis luccef-
for to be current in this realm, 2 Htnry VI. c. 9. In fome
ancici)t charters tlitv w^re called " foliJi blanci, or white
niilhngs."

Blank a'.fo denotes a fmall copper coin, formerly current
in France, at the rate of live daiitn; Tournois.

'I'hey had alfo great blanks or pieces of three blanks, and
others of fix in rcfpeft wliereof the fingle fort were called
little blanks; but of late they are all become only monies of
account.

Blank, or Blanl-licKet, in Lotteries, that to wliicli no
prize is allotted. The French have a game, under the de-
nomination bLwqiic, anfwering to our lottery.

Blank, in Coinage, z plate, or piece of gold, or filver, cut
and Ihaped for a coin, but not yet (lamped. See Coining.

BLANK-^nr, in Liiiu, is ufed for the fame with what \ve
call a " common bar," and is the name of a " plea in bar,"
which, in an action of trefpafs, is put in to oblige the plaintiff
to afiign the certain place where the trefpafa was committed.
2 Cro. 594.

Blanks, in judicial proceedings, certain void fpaces fome-
times left by miilake. A hhink (if fomething material be
omitted) in a declaration, abates the fame; 4 Ed. IV. 14.
20 H. VI. 18. and fuch a blank is a t;ood caufe of de-
murrer. Blanks in the imparlance-roU aided "after verdicl"
for the plaintiff. Hob. 76.

BLANK-wr/^. See Verse and Rhyme.
Blank-/io/«/. SttVoitiT -Hani.

BLANKENBERG, in Geography, a fea-port town and
fortrefs of Flanders, frtuate near the lea-coaft, between Of-
tend on the ,S. W. and Cadfand ifland to the N. E. N. lat.
51° 18'. E. long. 3° 24'. — Alfo, a fmall town of Germany,
feated on a mountain, in a preftfturate cf the fame name, in
the circle of Wtftphalia, and duchy of Berg, 20 miles S. E.
of Cologn.

BLANKENBURG, a principality of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, belonging, finccthe year 173 1, to
the reigning houfe of Brunfwick-Wolfenbuttel, for which
he holds a feat at the diet of the empire, and pays 12 rix-
doUars a month. This principality lies partly on and partly
near the Hartz mountain, and is about 20 miles long and
about 8 wide. The northern part, without the Harta, con-
fifts of very good corn-land, but that which lies on the
Hartz abounds in woods, quarries of marble and mines of
iron ore. A confiderable part of the country is watered by
the Bode. The capital town is of the lame name ; in which
are held tiie courts of judicature and the contiftory, with
the fuperintcndance of the principality. Near the town, on
an eminence, is the ducal palace. It is 7 miles dillant from
Halberlladt.

BLANKENHAYN, a fmall town in the circle of Up-
per Saxony, and principality of Alteuburg, belonging to a
lordfhip ot the fame name, which is a fief of the electorate
of Mentz, 17 miles E. S. E. of Erfurt.

B L A

BLANKENHEIM, a fmall town in Germany, and
capital of a county of the fame name, in the circle of Wclt-
phalia, and archbuliopric of Treves. The prince, rcfident
here, pays 64 florins a irontb, and 72 ru-doUars, and 545-
kreutzers to the imperial chiimber: 36 miles N. N.E. of
Treves. In the French arr=ngtmer.t, it is the principal
pljce (>f a canton in the diftiiclof Frum, and department of
S irre. The pi^p'dation of the place includes 5C0 perfons,
and the canton 303-'). Its territory compvcher.di 19 coui-
rnunes.

BLANK ENSEE, a lake of C-erm.ar.y, ia the circle of
Upper Saxony, and Lii.ldle mark of Brandenburg, 6 iniics
E. of Belitz.

BLANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany in ?. prcftc-
turate of tlie fame name, in the circle ot Wcflp'.'.^iLa, ami
county of Mark, feated on an eminence near the Rhur, 19
miles E. N. E. of Dufl'ddorp.

BLANKET, in Commcrcf, a warm woolly fort of ftufT,
light and loofe woven ; cidefiy uftd i:i, bedding. The manu-
facture of blap.kets is principally confined to Witney in Ox-
fordfhire, where it is r.dvanccd to that height, that no other
place comes near it. Some attribute a great part of tiic
excellency of the Witney blankets to the abfterfive nitrous
water of tiie river V.'indrufli, wherewith they are lcour!:<i ;
others think they rather owe it to a peculiar way of Icoic
fpinning, which the people have about that place. Be this
as it will, the place has ingrofled almoft. the whole trade of the
nation for this commodity ; infomuch that the \\ ooi fit for
it centres here, from the farthermoft parts of the kingdom.
Plott. Hill. Oxf. chap. ix. ^ 163.

Blankets are made of felt wool, i. e. wool from off flieep-
fl^ins which they divide into feveral forts.

Of the head wool, and bay wool, they make blankets of
twelve, eleven, and ten quarters broad ; of the orduiary and
middle fort, blankets of eight and feven quarters broad ;
of the belt tail wool, blankets of fix quarters broad, com-
monly called cuts, ferving for feamcn's hammocks. See

HVKES.

Blanket, tqffing hi a, a ludicrous kind of punilhment,
of which we find mention in the ancients, under the denomi-
nation fagailo. Martial defcribes it graphically enough,
" Ibis ab excuflb, miiTus ad allra, fago."

A late writer reprcfents it as one of Otho's imperial de-
lights. But this is turning the tables ; that emperor's diver-
fion, as related by Suetonius, was not to be the fubjedt, but
the agent in the affair; it being liis prattice to llroll out in
dark nights, and where he met with a helplefs, or drunken
man, to give him the diiciplineof the blanket.

BLANKOF, John Teunisz, in Biography, a Flemifh
painter, was born at Alkmaar in 1628. After having Ipcnt
fome years in receiving inflruiflion from Arcnt Ticrhng,
Peter Scheyenburg, and Cselar van Everdingen, he went to
Rome, where he diligently copied the works ot th- bed
malUrs, and was admitted into tlie fociety of Flemifli p?.ir.-
ters, called Bentvogcls, by wh.om he was dillinguifhed by
tlie appellation of Jan Maat, fignifying, in Dutch, mate or
compiiuion, and Huder which appellation he is moft gene-
rally known. His fubjefts were landfcape?, with views of
rivers, or fea-(horts, havens, or ports, which he executed
with alight, free pencil ; and in the reprefentatiors of ftorms
and calms, he particularly excelled. Ttiofe of his pitturcs
that are principally co.mmendcd, are the Italian fea-ports,
with velfeh lying before them. And his molt capital per-
formance is a view of the fea-diore, with the waves retiring
at ebb-tide ; which Houbraken defcribes as admirably beau-
tiful and natural. His imagination was lively, and his exe-
cution rapid. He died in 167a. Pilkington.

BLANQUEFORT, in Geography, a town of France,

6 iu

B L A

B L A

in the department oftheGironde, and chief place of a canton, near which, to the S. E., ilands the town of CompoftcUa, in
in the dillrid of Bourdeaux, five iniles north of Bourdeaux. the province of GaUcia, in New Spain. N. iat. 21° 20'.
The place contains 2003, and the canton 9304 inhabitants. W. long. 105° 12'. See Blaise.

The territory comprehends 272 jkihome'ref.and gcomtnunes
BLANQUILLE, in Comma-ce, a fI.^all filver coin, equi-
valent to about II !-</. fterling, current in Morocco, and on
the coafts of Barbary.

BLANZAC, in Geography, a to-.rn of France, in the
department of the Charente, an 1 chief place of a canton, in
the diftrirt of Angouleme, 4 leagues S. S. W. ofAngou-
leme. The place contains 545, and the canton 10,440 in-
habitants. Ttic territory includes 242^ kiliometres, and 20
communcf.— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Uzes, 3 miles S. S. W. of Uzes.

BLAPS, ill Ent'jmolngy, one of the Fabrician genera of
coleopterous infeft?, the palpi of which are clavated, and four
in number ; jaws ilraight and bifid ; lip membranaceous and
cleft ; and the antenna moailiform at the tip. Fabrlcius
includes in this genus fome of the ten-lrhn's of Linnaeus, fuch
as tenebri'j gages and mortijaga. Gmelin adopts the genus
only as a fubdivifion of Pimelia, in the Sylh Nat. See Pi-
MELIA.

Blas, a term, in the Helmontian philofophy, denoting
the local and alterative motion of the ftars ; from whofe
influence proceed changes of weather, feafons, ftorms, and
the like.

In imitation oi \.hh bias Jlellarum, the fame author framed
another in animals, either natural, whereby each vifcus is
framed according to the model of its particular; or volun-
tary', which is directed to motion by the will.

BLASCOa, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Gaul,
mentioned by Pliny, fituate at the mouth of the Rhone.

BLASE, St., in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auilria, 8 miles S. W. of Steyr,

•BL.'^.SENDORF, or Balasfalva, a' town of Tran-
fylvania, in the diftrift of Weiffenbourg, the refidence of the
bifliop of Walachia.

BLASIA, from Blafio Biagi, an Italian monk, in Bo-
tany. Lin. Gen. n. 1 199. Mich. Gen. t. 7. Clafs, cryplogamia
alge. Species, i. B. pufilla. Lin. Spec. 1605. Hudf.
Angl. 519. Dill. t. 31. f. 7. Fl. dan. t. 45. The
dwarf blafia grows on the fides of ditches and brooks, and

BLAPSIGONIA, compounded of /sXaTm., I hurt, and in moift fnady places in a fandy foil, in many parts of Eu

70V11, brood ox'ijfue, a kind of difeafe, or defcft in bees, when
they negleft or fail to produce young, being wholly em-
ployed in making honey.

BLARE, ill Commerce, a fmall copper coin, containing
a little mixture of filver, flruck at Bern, and valued at much
the fame with the Ratze in other places.

BLARINGHEM, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the North, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri£l of Hazebrouch, 2 leagues S. E. of St.Omer.

BLARNEY, a fmall market town of the county of
Cork, and province of Munller, Ireland, fituatcd on a river
of the fame name, about 4 miles W. of the city of Cork

rope ; with us on Hounflow-heath, and alfo near Manchef-
ter and Halifax. It flowers in the beginning of May.

BLASII ZELLA, \n Geography, a fmall town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and principality of
Gotha, feparated in 1 640 from the bailiwick of Rcinhards-
brunn, and added to that of Schwarznot-wald, and famous
for its founder)- of fire-arms ; j 6 miles S. of Gotha.

BLASIMONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
La Reole, 7 leagues E. of Blamoni, or 3^ N. of La Reole.

BLASIUS, Gerard, in Biography, fon of Leonard,
phyfician at Amfterdam, who received pupils into his houfc.

In the reign of queen Elizabeth, its caftlc was reckoned one to inftruft them in the knowledge of medicine, particularly

of the ftronge ft fortrefles in Munfter, and it has often proved ' '' ' r . • . /■ .

very troublesome to the inhabitants of Cork. It belonged

formerly to the earls of Clancarty, but at prefent is the pro-
perty of Mr. Jeffries, whole father built the town, and ella-

blifhtd feveral mnnufafturcs, of which Mr. A. Young has

given a detail in the account of his tour through Ireland.

Thefe eftablifhments, however, as ton generally happens in

like cafes, have not been fuccefsfjl, and Blarney ir not at

prefent the flouriHiing town, which Mr. Young's account

would lead us to expetf. A paper-mill, a llamping-mill, a

bleach-green, and one or two cotton manufactories Hill exill ;

and many ftockings made in the neighbourhood are fold at

the wecklv market and in Cork, but all may be confidered

as on the decline. The caitle and the grounds about it have

been coufiderably improved, and the couiitry around, a?

well as the park, is well watered. There is a llone at one

of the corners of the top of the cadle, which is fliewn to

ftrangers, on account of a faying, that any perfon who has

tilfed it is privileged to lie and flatter. The origin of this

faying, which is often referred to, and from wliich Blarney
has become a vulgar fynonimc for flattery, the writer has
not been able to difcover. In the caftle there is an original
painting of Charles 12th of Sweden, at full length, drawn
in the drefs menti mcd by Voltaire, brought over by one of
the family who had been envoy to th-:t monarch. The ad-
joining country is mollly under corn ar.d pallure ; the foil is
a yellowilh clay, and is mottlv manured with iimc-ilone, of
which there is a vein that fupplies largt quantities. Smith's
Cork. Young.

B LAS, St., a cape on the coaft of the North Pacific ocean,
Vol. 1\'.

in the anatomy of brute animals, of which he diffefted a
great variety. It was this which probably inclined Gerard
to this branch of ftudy, and gave birth to feveral of his
works; fuch as his " Zootomix, feu Anatomes variorum Ani-
malium," publifhed 1676; " Obfervata anatomica, in ho-
mme, fimia, equo, vitulo, teftudine, echino, glire, ferpentc,
ardea, variifque animalibus aliis," Lugduni, 1674, &c.

After making fome progrefs under his fatiitr, he went,
for further improvement, to Copenhagen, and at length to
Leyden, where he commenced doctor in medicine, about the
year 1646. He then returned to Amllerdam, where he ac-
quired fo much credit and reputation for his /l<ill in his pro-
ftlhon, that in 1660 he was made profeflor in medicine in
the fchools of that city, and loon after pliyfician to the
hofpital.

■ Bcfides a variety of original works, Blafius publiflied new
editions ot parts of the works of Primerofe, TIj. Bartholine,
Licetus, Bellini, Borclli, and Willis, to moll of which he
gave notes and additional obfervatlons, containing fuch dif-
coverics on the fiib;efls treated of, as had been made fince
thole works had been originally publiihed. Of his original
works, bcfides tliofe mentioned above, we Ihall notice his
" Oratio de noviter inventis," AmiL 1659, 4to. " Obferva-
tiones m.edicje rariores, accedit triphcis monllri hilloria,"
Am!f. 1667, 8vo. in fix books, containing accounts ot the
diflcction of numerous mr-rbid bodies, in one of which, the
fpleen, and in another the gall bladder, were found to be
mifplaced ; in one two ftoir.achs were found, in another
three telticles. " Anatome animalium terrdlrium variorum
volatilium, aquatihum, ferpculum, infcctorum, ovorumque
4 A. llrudui-am

B I. A

B L A

ftrufturam naturalem proponens." Amft. 1601, 410. The
greater part of this work is collccled from Severimis, Harvey,
Malpighi, Willis, Barthohne, and other writers and jour-
nals. The work has, however, its utihty, by bringing into
a fmall compafs a great number of curious faCls, and obfer-
vations, which were only before to be found by recur-
ring to a variety of publications. In a letter publiflied in
the third century of Th. Dartholine's epillles, Blafuis
claims the difcovery of the duftus fahvaris, which he fays
he firft fiiewed to Steno, then a young man. This has not,
however, prevented the difcovery from being attributed to
Steno, the du<£l taking his name. For the titles of the
reft of the works compofed or edited by Blafius, fc-c Haller.
Bib. Anat. Med. et Chiruro-. and Eloy's Did. Hift.

BLASKET Sound, in Gc-o^raj''/.'y,V\es on the wti'c coaft of
Ireland, between the Great Blalket ifland and Dnnmore-
head, on the mainland of the county of Kerry. In this found
there is ten fathom water, and in the fummer time and mo-
derate weather a velTel may ftop ofF the eall end of the Great
Blafl<et; but the ground will not hold well in blowing wea-
ther. In pafling through this found, it is necelTary to at-
tend to a pretty Itrong tide, and to a rock not far from Dun-
more point, which is covered at high water.

BLASKETS, Blasquets, or Fenhcr iflands, a clufter
of iflands on the weft coaft of the county of Kerry, Ireland,
being the moft wefternly land in the European part of the
Britilh empire. They are five in number, befides feveral
rocks, fome of which are always above water, and others are
covered by high tides. Thefe idands were given by the
earl of Defmond to the family of Ferriter, from which one
of their names is taken ; but at prefent they belong to the
earl of Cork and Orrery. The largeft called, Inn'ifmore, i.e.
the Great Ifland, and more commonly the Great Blajkct,
was vifited by Dr. Smith, who found it inhabited by five or
fix families, and fpeaks in high terms of the faiubrity of its
air. Ruins of churches, and cells or hermitages, are found
in fome of the others, but when Dr. Smith was there, they
were not inhabited. The finall rocks are frequented by fea-
f^wl, the feathers of which are coUefted by the people of
the neighbouring coaft. The hawks which are found here
are remarkably good, and were formerly in much efteem.
Amongft other fea-fowl lh.Qjlonny petrel, ( procellaria, Linn.)
is common here. The Greater Blaflcet is 9 leagues S. W.
by W. from Louphead, the north point of the Shannon,
and 5 leagues north of the Skeligs. The whole clufter lie
between 10° 17'. and 10° 31' W. longitude, and between
51° 58'. and 52° 3'. north latitude. Smith's Keiry.
M'Kenzie.

BLASPHEMY, Uafphsmia, or blafphemium, in MiMe
Age Writers, denotes fimply the blaming or condemning of
a perfon or thing. The word is Greek, /SAao-ynjuia, from
^X^XTu, /<f;/o. Among the Greeks, to hlafphcme, was to ufe
words of evil omen, or that portended fomething ill, which
the ancients were careful to avoid, fubltituting in lieu of
them other words of fofter and gentler import, fometimes the
very reverie of the proper ones.

Blasphemy is more peculiarly reftrained to evil or re-
proachful words fpokcn of the Deity. Auguftin fays,
" Jam vulgo blafphemia non accipitur nifi mala verba de
Deo dicere."

According to Lindwood, blafphemy is an injury offered
to God, by denying that which is due and belonging to
him ; or attributing to him what is not agreeable to his
nature.

By the Mofaic law, blafphemy was puniftied with death.
Levit. cl'.ap. xxiv. ver. 13 — 16. As alfo by the civil
law. Novel. 77. In Spain, Naples, France and Italy,

the pains of death are not now inflicted. In the empire,
either amputation, or death, is made the puniflnment of this
crime.

By the canon law, blafphemy was punifhcd only by a fo-
lemn penance, and by cuftom, either by a pecuniary or
corporal punifliment. By the Englifti laws, blafphemiea
againft God and rclig'on, as denying his being, or provi-
dence, and all contumelious rtproaehes of Jefjs Chrill, &c.
to which may be alfo referred all profane fcoffing at the holy
fcripture, or expofing it to contempt and ridicule, are of-
fences by the common law, and punjfhable by fine, impri-
fonment, and pillory. I Hawk. P. C. And by the llatute
law, he that denies any one of the perfons of the Trinity to
be God, or afferts there are more Gods than one, or, having
been educated in, and having made profelT.on of the Cbriftiau
religion, denies, by writing, printing, teaching, or adviled
fpeaking, Chriftianity to be true, or the holy fcriptures to
be of divine authority, for the firft offence is rendered inca-
pable of any office or place of truft ; and for the fccond, ad.
judged incapable of bringing any action, being guardian,
executor, legatee, or purchafer of lajds, and to be imprifoned
for three years without bail. 9 and 10 W. III. c. 32. To
give room, however, for repentance, if, within four months
after the firft convidlion, the delinquent will in open court
publicly renounce his error, he is difcharged for that once
from all diiabilities.

According to the law of Scotland, the punilhment of
blafphemy is death. The firft fpecies thereof confifts in
railing at or curfing God, and here the fingle aft conftitutcs
the crime. The fecond confifts in denying the exiftence of
the Supreme Being, or any of the perfons of the Trinity ;
and therein obllinately perfevering to thelaft. For reiterated
denial does not fully conftitute the crime, becaufe the flat,
of Charles II. 1661, admits of repentance before conviftioa
as a complete expiation.

This ftatute of 1661, is ratified by a ftatute of king
William, whereby the calling in queftion the exiftence of
God, or of any of the perfons of the Trinity, or the autho-
rity of Scripture, or the Divine Providence, is made
penal. For the firft offence, imprifonment till f?.tisfac-
tion given by public repentance in fack-cloth. For the
fecond, a fine of a year's valued rent of the real ellate,
and twentieth part of the perfonal eftate : and the trial
in both thefe cafes is competent to inferior judges. The
punifliment of the third offence is death, to be tried only by
the juftices.

Blasphkmy agalnjl the Holy Ghojl. Divines are not
agreed with refpeft to the nature of the crime thus denomi-
nated, Matthew, xii. 31. Mark, iii, 28,29. Luke, xii. 10.
and the grounds of the extreme guilt afcribed to it. On
this fubjeft it may be obferved in general, that from our
Saviour's expreffiou this fin appears to confift, and to be
completed, not in our thoughts, nor in our works, but in
our words. Nor, indeed, is the epithet " blafphemous,"
or any fynonymous term, ever joined in fcripture, as is com-
mon in modern ufe, with doftrines, thoughts, and opinions.
It is never applied but to words and fpceches. A " blaf-
phemous opinion," or "blafphemous doftrine," are phrafes»
which, however familiar to us, are as unfuitable to the fcrip-
ture idiom, as a " railing opinion," or " flanderous doc-
trine," is to ours. It may be alfo obferved, that this
blafphemy is not of the conitruftive kind, but direft, mani-
feft, and malignant. It is mentioned as comprehended
under the fame genus with abufe againft man, and contra-
diftinguifhed only by the objeft : and it is further explained
by being called " fpeaking againft," in both cafes. The
expreffions are, in effeiit, the fame in all the gofpek, where

it

B L A

B L A

It is mentioned, ana imply fiicli an opp<)fition as is both in.
tentional and malevolent. This could not have been the
cafe with refpc£l to all who difbclieved the miflion of
Jefus, and even deciitd his miracles ; many of whom, we
have reafon to think, were afterwards converted by the
apoftles.

The learned Grotius, in order to mollify the feverity of
the fentence denounced againll this fin, futrgefts, that what
our l^oid cxprefles abfolutely, mnft be und^rftood compara-
tively : and tliat he only dcfigned to intimate, that it i:; very
difficult to obtain the pardon of this fin, bat not that it will
admit of no forgivenefs. But our Saviour here fays ex-
prefsly of this lin, whatever it was, both negatively, that it
{hall never be forgiven, and affirmatively, that the perfon
guilty of it firall be obnoxious to eternal judgment, confirm-
ing the wh(ilc v.ith an alieveration. Dr. Waterlaud (lee his
Scrm. vol. li. N^ 9. p. 177 — 18^.) feems to incline to Gro-
tins's opinion ; alleging that a^'vraloy figniiies only exceed-
ingly difficult. Dr. fianiniond comments upon the words
with obfcrving, that tlii^ fin (liall not be pardoned, but upon
a particular repentance ; but this is true of every fin as well
as of the blafphemy againft the Holy Ghoft. Some have
made this crime confilt in final impcnitency, becaufe that is
unpardonable ; but it is not eafy to affign a reafon why this
fhould be called the fin againlt the Holy Ghofi. Others
have reprefciited it as, in its fpecific nature, a wilful and
obltinate oppofition to the truth ; others again as a mali-
cious cppofition to the truth, on the part of thofe who
know and are convinced that it is the truth ; whilll fomc
have fuppofcd it to confift in a renunciation of the truth for
fear of luffering, which made Francis Spira think that he
had committed this fin. Mr. Wakefield, in his Notes on the
Tranfiation of the Gofpel of St. Matthew, p. 17S, is of
opinion, that what is meant by the blafphemy of the Spirit
appears from the context to be perverfely refifiirg and be-
lying with contumacy, againft plain and fatisfaitory evi-
dence, the operation and interference of the holy fpirit of
God ; and he thinks, that ihofe men who rejeft the Chrif-
tian revelation, without contemplating its claims with dili-
gence, candour, and exaftnefs, upon a precipitate prclump-
tion of its f.ilfchood ; and thofe, who rtfufe their aficnt to
that degree of m.oral evidence, of which alone thefe fubjefls
are capable, and which they would think fiifficiently (atis-
faftory in other cafes, and in the ordinary occurrences of life,
are as much guilty of the fin of blafphemy in our times, as
thofe cavilling and hypocritical Pharifees were in the davs of
Chrift.

Dr. Tillotfon (vol. i. fcrm.xvii.) maintains, that this fin
of which the Pharifees were guilty coi'fifl:ed in malicioufiy
attributing the miraculous operations which Chrill performed
by the power of the Holy Gholl to the devil. This feiife is
adopted by billiop Pearce, in his Commentary on the four
Evangelifts, vol. i. p. 85. But Dr. Whitbv, with greater
probability, refers it to the difpenfation of the Holy Ghoft,
which commenced after our I^ord's rcfurrettion and afcen-
fion ; and thufe were guilty of the crime, who perfifted in
their unbelief, and blalpliemed the Holy Ghoft, reprelenting
him as an evil fpirit. The crime was unpardonable, becaule
it implied a wilful oppofition to the laft and moll powerful
evidence which God would vouchfafe to mankind, and pre-
cluded the poffibility of a recovery to faith and repentance.
Whitby's Fourth Appendix to the Gofpel of St. iSlatthew,
ill his Paraphrafe, vol.i. p. 2P9.

Of this fin, it is faid, it fhall not be forgiven, either in this
world or in that which is to come. With regard to the
meaning of this expreffion, it is obferved both by Lightfoot
(Hor. Hcb.) ."Uid by Grotius (inloc), that througha fond

imagination of the final happinefs of all the feed of Abra-
ham, the Jews fuppofed, there were fome fins that had not
been forgiven here, which would be expiated by death, and be
forgiven after it ; and that our Lord defigncd by this cx-
preffion to alTure them, that there was no forgivenefs for
thofe who Hiould be guilty of this fin, cither before or after
death, and that their expectations of forgivenefs then would
■ prove no other than a deceitful dream. Dr. "Whitby, how-
ever, has clearly ihewn.that this was uled as a proverbial ex-
preffion, and that it only fignilied, " a thing {hould never
be," when it was faid, " It (hall not be, either in this world,
or in the world to come." Others, however, among whom
we may reckon biHiop Pearce and Mr. AVakefield, have
thought that the expreffions of '• this world," and " the
world to come," denote the Jewilh and the Chriflian difpen-
fatiors. 'O aiay, and i ivy aii'v, fay thefe writers, fignity in
the New Tellament the Jevvifh age or difpenfation, which
continued till the annihilation of the Jevvilh polity, civil and
ecclefiaftical, by the dellruftion of Jerulalem under Titus;
and 0 iJ.iM.iiv Mut, or the future age, denoted the Chriftian
difpcnlation. Bilhop Pearce adds, that under the Jcwifh
law, there was no forgivenels for wilful and prefumptuous
fins; concerning which he refers to Numb. xv. 30, 31. xxxv.
31. Lev. XX. 10. and 1 Sam. ii. 25. With regard to the age to
come, or the Chriftian difpenfation, the bifhop obferves, that
m forgivenefs could be expedled forfuch finncrs as the Pha-
rifees were ; becaufe, when they blafphemed the Spirit of
God, by which Jefns wrought his miracles, they rejefted the
only means of forgivenefs, which was the merit ol his death
applied to men by faith, and which under Chriilianity was
the only facrifice that could atone for fuch a fin ; in thi»
fenfe, as things then flood with them, their fin was an un-
pardonable one. But, he adds, it is not to be concluded
from I'.ence, that, if they repented of this blafpiiemy, they
could not obtain forgivenefs. Mr. Wakefield obferves, that
the unreferved affirmation in Matt. xii. 32. muft be in-
terpreted, as well as the preceding verfe, with confidcrable
qualification. Oux K^sSno-slai, " will not be forgiven him,"
mnft fignity, fays this writer, " will not /ri7<^:'/y be forgiven— .
will not be eltecmed a common and iicM/a/ fault," agreeably to
the eaftern mode of expicffion, which conft-intly requires
fuch limitation. Accordingly he thus gives tlie general
fenfe of this verfe. " Offences of the moft heinous nature,
even reproach and injuftice againft the anoir.ted prophet of
God, may more readily find pardon, than contumacious blaf-
phemy of the Holy Spirit." This aggravated fin, the rc-
lult of obftinaey, depravity, and malice in the extreme, vi'ill
have no title to forgivenefs, even from the clemency and
mercy of the Chriftian revelation, a revelation of pardon and
peace, in the iulleft feiiie, and to the whole race of man.
.See Heb. vi. 4 — 7." Neverthelefs, " will not any fins be
pardoned on fincere repentance, and ftcdfaft purpofcs of
amendment, underthat conioling difpenfation, which breathej
nothing but reconciliation and forgivenels — no'thing but
favour, m.ercv, and peace, from God our Father, and our
Lord Jefus Chrift ?"

BL.ASQUES IsI..^^•D, in Geography, lies on the weft
coaft of Newfoundland, in about 47° 30' N. lat.

BL ASS-ENT, in Qin'uhology. The common wild duck is

calletl bv this name in the vicinity of the lake of Conftance.

liLASSENTl'2, [Frifch. av.) a name lynonymons with

antis Penelope of Linnxus, and common icigeon of F^nglilh

writers.

BLAST, flatus, in the Jlli/ildiy jirt, a fudden compreffion
of the air, caufed by the difchargeof the bullet out of a great
gun. The blaft fometimes throws down part of the cmbra-
iures of the wall.

4A 2 Bl.\st

B L A

Blast is alfo applied, in amove general ferfe, to any for-
cible ilream of wind, ov air, excited by the mouth, bellows,
or the like.

Blast, in /Igrlculture, a difeafe in grain, trees, &c. See
Blight.

Tlie fugur-cane in the Weft Indies is fubjeft to a difeafe
eallcd the blall, and faid to be occafioned by thi; aphis of
Linnxus, which is dilliiiguifhcd into two kinds, the black
and the yelkuv ; and of thefe the latter is the moft dellniflive.
It confifts of myriads of little infedls, invifiblc to the nalvcd
eye, whofe proper food is the juice of the cane, in learch of
which they wound the tender blades, and confequently de-
ftroy the vcffels. Hence the circulation being impeded, the
growth of the plant is checked, until it withers and dies in
proportion to the degree of the ravage. It is frequently
affirmed, fays Mr. Bryant Edwards (Hift. Weil Indies,
vol. ii. p. 215.) that the blaft never attacks thofe plantations
where colonies have been introduced of that wonderful little
animal, the carnivorous ant, or " formica omnivora" of
Linnifius, called in Jamaica the " raffles ant," from its being
fuppofed to have been introduced there by one Thomas
Raffles from the Havannah, about the year 1762. Thefe
minute and bufy creatures foon clear a fugar plantation of
rats ; and their natural food leems to conlill of all kinds of
infefts and animalcules.

Fire Blast. See Blight.

Blasts, among y)f;««-j-. See Damps. See Mines, and
Mining.

Blast, the term ufed at iron founderies to denote the

B L A

and limeftone, heated by finiple atmofpheric preffure to a
bright red or white heat, and the iron ilone to a melting
heat. This temperature is foon increafcd throughout the
furnace, after the blail is applied. The blowing orifices or
tuyeres of the furnace exhibit the fuel increaling in white-
ncl's, and the iron-llone rapidly diifolving before the blaft,
of a blackilh colour. At this period, the lava whicii flows
from the furnace, in confequence of the reduttion of the
ore and hme-ftone, is conliderably charged with iron, and is
of a black, blackifli brown, or greenifh brown colour.
Thefe appearances will continue for twelve, twenty-four, or
thirty-fix hours, according to the mode of treatment in
bringing forward the furnace after blowing. The tuyere (if
a bright tuyere furnace) will appear like a blaze of uncom-
monly pure light, at times very offenhve to the eye ; it foon,
however, becomes accuftomed to it, and can w itli facility
difcern the individual mafles of coke, as they are forced
away, with the rapidity of lightning, before the irrel'iflible
force of the air. The concrete ore and lime-ftone are no
longer viiible ; but a fine metallic fpray is conltantly delcend-
ing, and, forced from the fuel, precipitates itlelf to the
bottom of the furnace. The fcoria formed by the fuliou
and union of the lime-ftone, with the immetallic parts of the
ore, is carried before the blaft in a fimilar manner and form,
but eafily diltinguilhable from the fluid metal by its buoy-
ancy, want of velocity when impelled, and by its dull colour.
In this ftate, the furnace is deemed in excellent fmelting or-
der. The iron is generally revived with little lofs ; and the
colour and purity of the cinder or lava fufficiently indicate

column of air introduced into the furnace for the purpofe of the perfeftion of the feparation. When at any time the

combullion. Its velocity is occafioned by the impelling
power of the blowing machine forcing the whole contents
of the air-pump through one or two fmall apertures called
nofe-pipes ; and, according to the abfolute power of the
engine, air of various denfities will be produced, fo that
denfity and velocity are always intimately connefted, and
mutually implied.

The well known combuftibility of iron, and the indifpen-
fible neceffity of exciting combufUon by the introduftion of
large quantities of condenfed air into the furnace, in contaft
with ore in various ftates of maturity as to feparation, into
contaft with iron exifting in all the modifications of qnahty
as to carbonation, and into contaA with an immenle body
of ignited fuel, render this fubjeft the moft important in
the major fcale of our manufaftures. Unfortunately for
art, as well as for fcience, few praftical deduftions can be
brought forward to eftabhih any one theory of blafl ; one
common principle only is acknowledged, that all reduction
in the furnace is in confequence of the combuftion excited by
the column of air introduced.

To take a proper view of this interefting fubjcft, it will
be neceffary to lubmit it to the following dlvifions.

I ft. Combuftion, as excited in this particular branch of
manufafture.

2d. The nature of the fuel fubmitted to combuftion.
3d. The denfity of the air.
4th. The quantity.

5th. The properties which follow as a confequence of
denfity and quality.

ift. Combuilion in the blaft furnace confifts chiefly in the
rapid reduction of a given quantity of fohd fuel, and its ac-
companying portion of ore, in the fliortcft pofilble time.
That furnace, and tliat blaft, which can, in a given time,
reduce the greateft quantity of fuel, all things elfe being
alike, will always manufadlure the greateft quantity of iron.
In common, bef ire the introCutlion of the blaft, the furnace

brightnefs of the tuyere fails, and becomes dull white or red-
difti white, then a change is indicated ; the iron-ftone and
lime-ftone will again appear in the folid unfepaiated ftate,
and the change of colour in the cinder infallibly betokens an
irregularity in the movements of the furnace. 1 hefe appear-
ances are fo general, as fcarcely to admit of an individual ex-
ception, and are luflicient to warrant the following explanation.

Ax. the introduftion of the blaft, the interior of the
furnace at the tuyere was fimply a mixture of ignited mafles
of cokes and iron-ftone, the latter partly femifufed, but the
greateft part merely heated to a bright red heat. In the
defcent through the furnace, in contart with ignited coke,
the particles of metal in the ore may, by parting with the
oxygen, have received a difpofition to become revived. The
incrcafed temperature creates an additional tendency, by
eftablifhing a greater force of affinity betwixt the fuel and
the iron. But the metal approaching to its proper tlate,
meeting the current of blaft, is immediately fubjcft to a
partial combuftion. The portion thus oxydated conveys to
the lava, in proportion to its quantity and oxygenation, the
colour already mentioned.

As foon as the continuation of the blaft conveys a higher
temperature to the fuperior regions of the furnace, the ap-
pearance of the folid matter at the tuvere ceafcs. The fufion
and feparation of the metal from the ore are effefled in fitua-
tions more remote from the blall, or chief fonrce of decompo-
fition, in a temperature more fuited to the nature and exift-
cnceof the metal. The iron, once formed into a fluid, audits
fluidity prelcrved, its defcent to the blaft is attended" with
little or no injury to its carbonation.

To undcrfland this diftiniitly, it will be neceffary to ftate
two curious fads relative to caft-iron in a fluid ftate ; and
but for the cxiftence of thefe properties, the manufafture of
the metal in open furnaces or veflels would be totally im-
pradticable. ifl. Caft iron, while kept fluid, never decom-
pofes atmofpheric air, and never itfelf becomes oxydated.

is previoufly filled with alternate ftrata of coke, iron-ftone, 2d. The degree of carbonation paftt.d upon the, metal at tiw

moment

B L A

B L A

moment it enters into complete fiifion, continues without
diminution or augmentation throughout the whole operation
of the furnace ; or, in other words, caft iron neither receives
nor lofes carbon whilft it preferves its fluidity. The firft
fact explains the realon v/hy the iron is preferved from com-
buftion, when it defcends oppofitc to the current of blaft.
The fecond is a proof that the carbonaceous matter is con-
veyed to the iron in the furnace by a fpecies of cementation
previous to fufion ; and that nftcr this point, call iron will
not take up any addition of carbon.

To prelerve and eftablifli the relation of cementation and
fufion in the furnace cnfures uniform produfts. Combullion
in this prcfeuts us v;ith a gradation of temperature, diminilh-
ing from the tuyere upwards through thirty or forty feet of
ignited matter. The inferior temperature towards the top
ol the furnace heats the materials to rednefs ; an affinity is
here commenced betv^ixt the carbonaceous matter and the
oxygen of the ore ; the latter is gradually removed, and a
fecond affinity is iiillituted betwixt the de-oxygenated par-
ticles of metal and the carbon : this, as the ore defcends to
higher temperatures, is rapidly mcreafed, and by and by the
faturation of the coally pnnciple is complete. As the fatu-
ration of carbon always increafes the fuiibility of iron, the
metal of the furnace enters into fufion at a comparatively low
temperature, and fpeedily precipitate?, through the high tem-
peratures in the neighbourhood of the blaft, to the general
refervoir below.

It is not therefore neceflaiy to fuppofe, that the great
volume of air thrown iiito the furnace, :iiid the great tempe-
rature of courfe excited, are neceflary to ttie manufafture of
the iron, fo far as it regards quality ; this, it is more than
probable, may be injured by it, and even the economy of
the manufafture itfelf. Quantitv, however, is in general
fecured ; but this is more the effeft of mechanical reduftion,
than of any neceflary operation of the blaft upon the ore and
materials above.

The quicker the body of cokes can be reduced, which
occupy that part of the furnace between the point of fepa-
ratioii and the tuyere, the greater will be the reduftion of
the whole, and the greater the quantity of manufactured
metal. To this point the whole force of the blaft is direfted ;
here the chief part of the decompofition of the atmofpheric
air takes place ; and here the dettrutlion of the intervening
cokes is effefttd, and that always in proportion to the quan-
tity of air poured upon their highly ignited furfaces.

If we affume, with a blaft of a certain denfity, any two
points in the furnace, the one as the point of decompofition,
and the other of ftparation and fluidity of the metal, fup-
pofe the former at the tuyere, and the other at the lower end
of the boihes at A, [S^e dffcriplion of Blast furnace,) then
it muft be allowed probable, that a change taking place in the
denfity, or even in the quantity of the blaft, t'nat change will
affect not only the points themfelves,but alio their relative dif-
tances. The point of leparation may be brought nearer (and
perhaps injurioufly fo) to the level of the blaft, the elevation
of which is luppofed to remain the fame. The contrary may
with equal truth be inferred ; that if the point of leparation
is carried to a more elevated fituation by a change or incrtafe
of temperature, the ore may enter into fufion bef -re it lias
remained fufficitntly long in contaft with tiie ignited fuel,
and thereby both the quality and quantity may be injured.

2d. Since pit-coal coke became the ftaple fuel at the blaft
furnace, the denfity and quantity of air deemed neceflary to
enfure combuftion and quantity, have been yearly incrcafing.
The various qualities as to hardnefs or foftnefs, punty and
elfeft, have given rife to a multitude of opinions, which are
the moll appropiiate quantity and denfity of air for rcfpec-

tive qualities of cokes. The blaft of the furnace, in confe-
quence, has at different places varied from il to 41b. of ex-
panfive force upon the fquare inch of the air velTel. Mod
of the Englifti works are blown with air not exceeding' 2 lb.
upon the fquare inch, as being the mofl proper medium of
denfity, and beyond which the materials would be over-
blown. Enghfh coal, in general, is foft in it» fo.Tile Hate,
but rich in carbon, and free from mixture. In Scotland,
where the coal is found in denfe ftrata, and forms heavy coke,
the blaft is ufed from 2 lb. to 4 lb. per inch. Thofe who
have adopted denfe blalls declare, that quantitv of iron is
incompatible with a column of air inferior to the meafure of
their ftandard. Either the prejudice is vei'y general, or
there really muft exiil a dircft analogy between the nature
of the blail and the denfity of the coal.

The operations ef the charcoal pig manufaftory vrere
condufted with blafts of a trifling denfity, ftldom exceeding
li lb. upon the inch, and often under this. Denfe blaft,
it was believed, over-ran the furnace, moll probably by
exciting too great a temperature, and frequently had a ten-
dency to difcharge the m.atcrials from the furnace top.
There never yet have been any direft experiments made to
afcertain upon what this variety of pit-coal depends ; whe-
ther exclufively from its denfity, or from containing the car-
bonaceous matter in more purity cj- greater difengagement.
Perhaps both are neceflary to be taken into account, before
any fatisfaftory explanation can be given of the facls now
, ftated and generally admitted.

3d. The denfity of a column of air depends upon the
power of the blowing machine, and the proportion of the
area of the fleam cylinder to that of the blowing cylinder.
Tables of the powers of fteam engines, and the diameters of
cylinders requifite to condenfe air from i| lb. to 41b. upon
the circular inch, will be found under the article Blowing
Machine. It will appear evident from thefe tables, that
fteam cylinders of the fame diameter, and working at the
fame power, when employed to raife air of various denfities,
do not difcharge the fame quantity of atmofpheric air in any
given time. The larger the area of the blowing cvlinder,
the number of ftrokes being the fame, the greater will
be the quantity of air dilcharged into the furnace. The
reverfe is the cafe with blafts progreflively more denfe ; fo
thai any part of an engine's power may be employed, not
in raifing the true principle of combuftion — air, but in coii-
denfing a comparatively fmall body of air, fo as to give it
additional velocity.

To fix the point, or maximum, of the moft profitable
denfity, has hitherto been unattainable. The circumllances,
deemed intimately connefttd with coal, render it neceflarv
to accommodate the blaft to the combuftibility of the fuel :
were this not the cafe, it would be difficult to overturn the
following reafoning, and to exhibit an inllance where it
might not be found generally applicable. Combuftion in
the furnace will be excited m proportion to the quantity of
air introduced. A blowing machine, that with the fame
power of fteam cylinder threw into the furnace double the
quantity of air, though of an inferior denfitv, would reduce
a greater quantity of combuftible matter than one oppo-
fitely conftrucled ; or, in other words, cooo feet of air per
minute entering a furnace would produce greater cfTedls than
3000 feet, although the latter were comprefltd into nearly-
half the bulk of the former.

The moft planfible theory of blaft is to fix upon the low-
eft denfity at which the air can be forced into the furnace,
and then proportion the diam.eter of the air-pump to the
power of the tleam end. Suppofe that this could he eflefted
at half the denfity ufually employed, then that part of the

epgine'»

B L A

<ngine.'s power uieJ formcvly lo compvefs tKe air to 3 or
4 lb. would now be employed ia a blownng cylinder of larg-
er diameter, raifiiig per minute, or indeed per ilroke, from
ICO to 200 cubic feet of ah'. Oppofed to this there (land
two formidable objedions, refulting from the neceffity of
iilinj^ blow-pipes or nozles ot increafcd dliimeters, fiom
•-vliich to difchargc the additional quantity of air, '.iiaking up
in area what is wanting in velocity to difchargc the air in a
^iven time. The full h a re-aftion of tlic uir, fo powerful
as to iffue back from the tuyere with a vclocily little (hort of
that at which it enters. This, with uofc-p-.pes of .2, 2 1,
and from that to 3 inches, is fcarcely ftlt when the blall is
foft, and may be entirely obviated by a judicious arrange-
ment of the tuyere iron and nole-pipe ; but with pipes
from 3 to 4 and 4' inches diameter, the recoil increafes
as the fquares of the diameters ot the blowpipe,-, ;i!id even iu
denfe blafls the recoil increafes with the diamettr uf the dif-
charging pipe. It is therefore probable, that to blow with
a nolepipe 4 or 5 inches diameter, lo as to Rave no recoil, a
velocity or denlity of air would be requifite beyond any
thing yet in ufe.

Thofc who advocate for the ufe of a foft blaft, cither
upon the plea of their materials, or as being the moll advan-
tageous method of uling any given mechanical power, fre-
quently feel the full cffeAs of the recoil of a confiderable
portion of the whole blaft. But to obviate this, and to gain
the advantage of the whole air, the blowpipe is enclofed in
a moveable frame or building, which is made air-tight at-
•every call, and completely prevents the return of the fmallell
portion of it. The combulUon at thefe furnaces is carried
on with equal effecl, and the refulting produfts in iron equal
in point of quantity and quality to thofe where blalls of double
denfity are uled.

Again, at other furnaces, where a foft blad had been ori-
ginally preferred, the plan of forcing back the recoiled air,
in order to make up in quantity what was now deemed to be
deficient in denfity or velocity, has been in vain attempted.
The tuyere irons have become immediately heated, and burnt
back will, violence. The materials would not admit of the
tuyeres being raifed fufficiently high to prevent the cinder
from flowing back into the bag, which connects the large
and fmall pipes, and dellroying it. Even, in more than one
inllancC; the entii'e tuyere lide of a furnace has been loft in
endeavouri:)g to tllablilli this plan of blowing, where either
the materials would not anfwcr, or fron fome mifconception
in the mode of operating. Where a furnace works uniformly
with a dark or honey-combed tuyere, this mode of blowing
may be attended with the gre.itell fuccefs. In all new erec-
tions, however, the blaft ought to polTefs of itfelf fuffieient
velocity not only to enter the turnace, but to afcend through
the materials, without admitting of any important recoil.

The fecond objeftiou, ariling as a confequence of the
want of velocity, and of being obliged to ufe pipes of a
larger diameter to carry in the full complement of air, arifcs
from a belief that a large pipe never makes the metal of a
good quality. This dtduftion is perhaps not altogether
correct ; but it fcems highly probable, that in the ufe of a
comparatively loofeblaft, only almall portion of tlieair pafTes
, through the furnace without decompofition. The point of
feparatioQ may by this means be changed, or perhaps be
raifed too high for the prefervation of the metal, immedi-
ately previous to feparation. As the increaled temperature
prevails upwards, the affinity between the particles of metal
in the iron-llone, and t!ie carbon of the fuel, may be earlier
ellablilhed, and no ultimate evil confequence, in point of
reafoning, ought to enfue. It appears from numerous ob-
fervations, that the quantity of iron-ilone, which a given

B L A

weight of cokes fmchs, and to the metal of which is conveyed
the carbonaceous principle, is confiderably dependent upon
the diameter of the blowpipe. Suppofing the ore of equal
richiiefs, the fmaller the pipe, the greater burden will the
coke carry, and the cheaper will the iron be made per ton,
fo far as r.uiterials are concerned. On the contrary, with
large pipes, whatever the denfity of the air may be, the quar.-
tity of coals nccelTary to manufafture an equal quality of
pig iron will be incieafed, and the coft of the iron is alfo
enhanced. As an equivalent for this, however, the quantity
is confidcrably increafed with nearly the fame amount of la-
bour ; fo that it remains a queftion with the manufafturer,
whether the additional coil of coal is compenfatcd by the
extra produce of metal he is enabled to bring to market.

4lh. The quantity of air difeharged into the furnace, un-
der the appellation of blaft, depends upon the number of
ihokes or cylinders which the engine makes per minute,
and on the area and diameter of the air pump. This is in-
dependent of every confidcration of denfity and increafe of
power in the fteam cylinder, fo long as the blowing or air
cylinder remains the fame, and the engine performs the fame
difcharges ; the meafure of atmofpheric air, which enters
the furnace, will remain the fame. The rapid improvements,
which of late years have been made in the blowing machine,
have increafed the quantity from 1000 to 4000 feet per mi-
nute per furnace ; and the quantity or produce in ii-on has
been alio confuleiably increaled. We by no means, how-
ever, find that the increafed manufafture of iron has been in
the exaCl ratio of the quantity of blaft thrown into the fur-
nace. Many inftances of late years have been noticed dtir-
ing the tranfition from the old to the improved modes of
blowing, wherein the proportion has had little or no fimila-
rity.

Fifteen hundred feet of atmofpheric air in one minute was
found in moft fituations equal to the maniifafture of twenty
tons of melting iron ; in the fame fituations, 3000 feet in
the fame time has never exceeded thirty tons per week ; and
in one particular trial for two weeks, the difeharge of 60CO
feet, being the whole produce in air of tlie engine, the pro-
d'lce in iron never exceeded 36! tons. In the laft cafe, the
quality of the iron was irregular, and the quantity of cokes
for each ton of metal thus produced was conliderably in-
creafed, although the iron was of inferior carbonation.

Without recurrence to the diameter of the air cylinder,
and the particular movements of the engine, the fame fafts
have been frequently deduced from the diameters of the nofe-
pipts. We have frequently feen air ditciiarged under a pref-
fure of 2 J lb. upon each fquare inch, but with a pipe of zl
inches diameter, reduce materials, and manufacture good
melting iron to the extent of 20, 22, and 25 tons per week;
and in the fame furnace, and with the fame materials, the
air difeharged by 2 pipes, each 2\ inches, under a prelfiii-e
of 3 lb. upon each fipiare inch, the produce never exceeded
30 tons of metal of an equal quality, but more frequently 25
to 28 tons. One obfervation Itill more diredl, and made witli
a blaft of a denfity equal to 2| lb. per inch, and difcliarged
by one pipe of 2{. inches diameter, frequently manufactured
22 tons fine melting iron weekly ; another pipe was added
to the oppofite tuyere of the fame diameter, and the quantity
of metal weekly was never increafed beyond 32 tons, and
upon an average of fix months only 27 tons. Thefe are cu-
rious fads relative to the nature and effefts of blaft, and ex-
liibit the invcftigation of its principles as a matter of fingu.
lar importance in the economy of the manufaflure.

One remark was made relative to the burden of ore in the
laft ftated faft, that with the fmall pipe a given weight of
cokes fmeltcd and carbonated the metal in 3 cwt. ol iron-

ftone;

B L A

ftone ; but after the two pipes were added, the weight cf
iron-ftone, to produce an equal quahty of iron, was reduced
to 2 1, and afterwards to 2v ; producing in the firft inftance
per charge 1 1 cwt. of iron upon an average, but latterly not
above i cwt. and lolb. of i-on of equal qualities. Another
obfervation, in the fame cafe, with every attention paid as
to, velocity, quantity, and temperature of air, may be ad-
duced as of equil importance, though fomewhat different in
its mode of application.

Under a prclfure ot 2 lbs. a 3 J pipe was found upon the
average of 18 weeks to manufafture 20 : 12:0:0 tons ; a
3! inch pipe, 20 : 5. Upon an average of 11 weeks, and
a 4t pipe, 22:5:. Their refpeftive areas, and iron pro-
duced, will ilaud in oppofition thus :

3I pipe, area 10.6625 quantity of metal 20.12

l\ . . 12.25 - - - 20.5

4J - » 18.0625 - - . 22.17

It is but fair to ftate that the effects of combuftion, fo

far as it related to the reduction of a quantity of fuel, was not

in the fame unequal proportion as the quantity of metal to

the meafure of the air. The quantity of reduftion was

with the 3 J pipe equarto 25

3+ - - 31
. 4i - - 38
But the capacity of the fuel to carbonate the original quan-
tity of iron, diminifhed in nearly the fame ratio as the corn-
bullion increafed ; fo that the fame meafure by weight which
carbonated 140 lbs. of iron with the 3I pipe, was unable to
carbonate more than from 96 to 100 lb. of the fame quality
with the 4J pipe. This obfervation was made previous to
the one laft mentioned, and reafoning upon the fubjeft ltd
to the praftice detailed in that experiment. It will appear
therefore conclufive, that the fame body of blafl may, with
greater advantage and economy, be introduced through
two pipes than through one, and this for two reafons. The
reduftion is equal, and the quantity of fuel reduced, fmelts
and carbonates a larger portion of metal per charge ; but it
wiU appear from both cafes equally conclufive, that the capa-
city of the fuel to convey carbonation is in the ratio of the
fmallnefs of the pipe, or the reduction of the quantity of
air.

This is in unifon with what was dated under the parti-
cular " Combuftion ;" that a large volume of air, fo far as
it related to the in'.titution of affinity betv^een the coally
principle of the fuel, was probably more hurtful to the car-
bonation than otherwife ; but that in fo far as it hallened
the completion of the affinities, the redudlion of quantity,
and above all increafe of produce, though merely as an agent
diftroying the fuperfluous fuel, it may be conlidercd as giv-
ing the manufatturera fuperiority overhis proccfj by means,
the extent of which he never could formerly command.

Tradition has, though rather imperfeftly, conveyed to us
fome fails which our forefathers feemed to have underftood
and praflifed with better effeft than their pollerity. In ope-
rating with charcoal furnaces, and a blaft proportioned to the
fcaniy means then in ufe for the purpofe of producing forge
pigs, the whole air was conveyed into the furnace by means
of a pipe 2, or at moil 2! inches diameter; but when grey
tnttal was wanted, the fame body of air was divided and in-
troduced by two pipes, whofe joint capacity was equal to
the former.

It appears therefore an enquiry of fome importance to thofe
embarked in iron founderies, to afcertain how far tins tendency
of the fuel to increafe the carbonaceous principle proceeds in
the ratio of the diminution of the blowpipe. If general ob-
fervation confirmed the particulars here ftated, the effefts of

B L A

carbonation might be greatly increafed, and the quantity
perhaps little reduced, by introducing the fame quan-
tity of air by means of four, fix, or eight fmall pipes,
whofe conjoint areas lliould be equal to the original column
of blall.

5. From quantity and denfity of air, there may and do
refult peculiar properties of blall, which may affect the ope-
rations of the furnace, and which once fully underftood may
help to explain the fafts hitherto unaccounted for, and
which we before noticed. Fafts refulting from accurate ob-
fervation would prove an invaluable fource of information
upon this fubjedl ; and it is with regret that we can furnilh
no perfeft aerological table of the different temperatures of
air under different denfitles or degrees of compreffion. The
following, we believe, contains the only coUeilion of tem-
peratures hitherto noted ; and as it relates to only one degrea
of compreffion, the fatisfadlion it affords mull be only
partial.

TABLE of 30 obfervations made in fummer upon various
temperatures of air before and during the acl of com-
preffion, compared with the thermometer in the (hade.
The air thus afcertained, was received into a maga-
zine containing 2500 cubical feet, free from moillure
or damp entirely.

-5 S ^

•H 3 ^
4> tn iJ

i 1°

•5 0 >

c -a -

JI2

"3 5>-

\~>\

— y

0 4,

•Ml
5-0

0 to

It - f2 H

•« ■= S -5

5 i 5?

§ ?|

5^J

r- — ^

■5 a t-i

"C ^ E« <-*

"•€ -p _i c=
"« '— -^ y

III

3 *^ u

5 i ">

1 = -:

|5 «

3 1 Si

<-. S .* 3

57°

70°

73°

90°

63°

26r

It

59

6i|

75

87i

6+

23

23*

6i

71

70J

91

6i

25

29

54

68 ■

70

94

66

31

11

57

73

75

95

65*

30

29I

57

72

69

92

64

27*

28

53

70

69

96

64

34*

32

s\\

74

70

95*

62

311

33

56

68?

71

93

6i|

3oi

3'f

57

69

73

97l

65

34*

32I

56

7oi

7°i

91*

64

28i

27*

5*

68

72

88

61

28

27

54

69!

74

86

59

24^

27

51

71

71

90*

62

29I

2SI

57

73

79*

94

6+

29

30

55

69

73

93

6ii

31

311

56

72

7'l

96

65

32

3'

56

72

74

971

6G

32 i

31I

53

71

70

99

68

37

31

51

73*

70

98

69

35i

29

52

75

72

96i

C-5

33

3'*

5)

72

73

94

62

30I

32

47

73

75

94

6^

36*

31

5f

70

77

9'

5S

30f

33

49

71

75

93

61

33

32

52

74

74l

98

67

35

31

5*1

72I

74

lOI

69

39l

32

5'

73

71

I (30

74

33

26

5+

70

73

102

75

40

27

57

71

74

99i

63

_35i_

31^

Tabaf

B L A

TABLE of 30 obfervations of the fame nature made in
the winter months.

Hi

- (U >

e r- t"

t temp,
lofcd
of the

etween
and the
:etnal

3 "n '>-
a > 0

3 g >.

I, > >J

3 i

0) p

<l> tj 0

D U U C

- f^ a) '^

ill

5 " <y

2 1.=

2 2-';

2 5 .

= .0 *

0 - »'

a. S —

§:-.= ,

x: f^ rt 5

sin

■w -D j: £

i 0 s':

hP.-z',

h sa

fHci.E

h * s

HcS E i-

^^■TSZ

^ J= OJ -

36°

58° 66° 1

49"

29°

2°

20"

33

54

64

55

3°

Il-i

25

32

51

68

53

29I

Ili

2 3i

33

57

61

5°,

29

5

21

36

55

60

5'^

32

6

'9J

31

52

63

50

28

8J

22

29

50

59

48

26

8|

22

29

49

58

50

27!

II

22^

29

51

59

5^t

29

12

23

28

50

59

50*

27

III

234

30

53i

60

48

28

6J

20

33

57

61

48

3°

3

18

37

56

60

49i

3'

3

i84

28

52

62

46

25

6

21

29

5i§

59

47

24I

6{

22I

3o|

53

59

49

28

6}

21

33

55

60

53

29

9

24

3+

55

60*

5^

30

I I'-

26

32

55

62

54l

27*

ll

27

35

56

64

5S

30

9;-

25

30

50

60

53

30

13

23

27i

50

61

5°

28

111

22

28

5oi

62

49

26

94

23

29

48

58

48

25

9i

23

28

47

58

49

111

24

25

281

50

58

47^

81

21

26^

28

49

60

53

Hi

25

28

20

52

61

57

8*

24

27

3li

57

64

55

13J

26

29

29

54

63

56

15*

28

27

There can aiife no dotibt but that heat is extricateti by
comprcfTion from atmofphcric air ; and that it is further pro-
bable, that the quantity of heat diftngagud is in proportion
to its condeiifation. If, therefore, we are allowed to reafon
upon this fubjeft, we (liould thite the following as a confide-
rable approximation towards truth. It is univcrfally believed
ar.d ftlt, that combuflion in the blaft furnace in June, July,
and Angnft, is confiderably diininifhed, as a confequence of
the incrcaftd temperature of the air. The metal, in thefe
months, is frequently debafcd in point of carbonation, and
diminifhed nearly one half in point of quantity. We fhall
fiippofe that this takes place at a temperature of 100, which
has been proved to exiil imder a preffure of 21 pounds. The
reverfe of this happens in the cool fcafon of the year, and
particularlv in the winter months. The furnace then yields
the largcll quantity of iron, and in the moll profitable man-
ner. Tliis, with the fame probability, talces place at a
temptratnrt ot ^c found in the table.

It would therefore appear to refult from thefe, that two
thirds, or one half of the iron only, is manufactured at a
temperature of J 00, than in winter at 50. The difference
between thefe degrees of temperature amounts to 50, and
mod probably in combuflion afledls the operation as fenfibly

B L A

as the huT.an frame is affefted by a tranfition of temperature
equal or fimilar. It is not neceftary now to Hate the difler-
ence between fummer and the denfer air of our winter, the
circumllances of evaporation and aqueous folution ; thefe
fhall be particularly attended to in the general proccfs of
manufafluring iron. The great difference of temperature
orifing fiinply from comprefQon feems to us adequate to ex-
plain many phenomena regarding the blaft furnace. Our
knowledge, however, upon this fubjeft can only be for-
warded by a general colleftiou of fafts well afcertained,
{hewing what are the various degrees of heat made fenfible
by the comprcfTion of the blowing machine under every den-
fity ; what the difference in temperature, the denfities being
alike, when tlie air is received over water, in the air-vault,
or in the regulating cylinder. From thefe it might mod
probably refult, that the higher the denfity of the air, the
greater would be the degree of heat manifcilcd ; and it might
alfo follow, that in the ratio of this denfity, or temperature,
when the air was received over water, fo would be the eva-
poration or quantity of water fufpended in the air, and of
courfe difcharged into the furnace.

This article may be concluded by the following remarks :
— Ttiat all iron works are not alike afleited by the heat of
the fummer months. Many iron works prefervc the qua-
lity of the iron, though at the expence of fuel, and with
lofs of quantity ; but at other places no extra quantity
of fuel will compenfate, either as to quality or quantity, for
the want of cool air. Neither fituation nor denlity of blall
will explain this curious circumdance ; for with blafls of
equal denfity and quantity, works fituated not 50 feet above
the level of the fea have been found to manufacture a greater
quantity of foft iron in fummer, than at a fimilar work, not
ten miles diflant, fituated at leall 250 feet higher. At both
of thefe works the air is received over water; and no material
alteration in the ufe of that air is or can poffibly be applied.
The caufcs of this difference mufl be fought for in the na-
ture of the coal and iron-ftone ufed at both works, the in-
vefligation of which, however interefling, would prove a
mofl laborious undertaking.

Blast Furnace, a large conical or quadrangular building
ufed at iron-works for fiuelting iron-Hones and ores.
Blast Furnace, Defcriplion of.

Plate {Chcmi/lry) W. fg. I. reprefents a blall furnace, and
part of the b'owmg machine conflrutted upon what at one
time was the general plan at ii'on-works.

A, the regulating cylinder, eight feet in diameter, and
eight feet high. B, the floating piflon loaded with weights
proportioned to the power of the machine. C, the valve by
which the air is paffed from the pumping cylinder into the
regulator ; its length 26 inches, and breadth 1 1 inches. D,
the aperture by whicli the blafl is forced into the furnace.
Diameter of this range of pipes 18 inches. The wider thefe
pipes can be with convenience ufed, the lefs is the friclion, and
the more powerful are the efftfts of the blaft. E, the blow-
ing or pumping cylinder, fix feet diameter, and nine feet
high ; travel of the pifton in this cyli\ider from 5 to 7 feet
per flroke. F, the blowing pillon, and a view of one of the
valves, of whicli there art fometimes two, and fometimes
four, dillribnted over the furface of the pillon. The area
of each is proportioned to the number of valves, commonly
they are 12 — 16. G, a pile of folid ftone building, on
which the regulating cylinder refts, and to which the flanch
and ftilts of the blowing cylinder are attached. H, the
fafety valve, or cock, by the fimple turning of which the
blail may be admitted to or fliut from the furnace, and paffed
off by a collateral tube on the oppofite fide. I, the tuyere

I by

B L A

B L A

by which the blaft enters the furnace. The termination of
the tapered pipe, which approaches the tuyere, receives fmall
pipes of various diameters from two to four inches, called
r.ofe -pipes. Thefe are applied at pleafure, as the furnace
B\ay be deemed to require an alteration in the volume or
denfity of the blaft. K, the bottom of the hearth, two feet
fquare. L, the top of the hearth, two feet fix inches fquare.
KL, the height of the hearth, fix feet fix inches. L, is the
bottom of the bofhes, which here ttmiinate of the fame
fize as the top of the hearth, only the former are round, and
the latter fquare. M, the top of the bofhes, twelve feet dia-
meter, and eight feet of perpendicular height. N, the fur-
nace-top, at which the materials are introduced, or, as it is
commonly called, charged ; three feet diameter. M N, the
internal cavity of the furnace from the top of the bofhes up-
wards, 30 feet high. N K, total height of the interior of
the furnace, or working part, 44! feet. OO, the lining.
Tliis is done in the niceft manner with fine bricks, from
tweWe to fourteen inches long, three inches thick, and ta-
pered to fuit the circle of the cone. PP, a vacancy which
is left all round the outfide cff the firll lining ; three inches
broad. Tliis is fometimes filled with coke duft, but more
often with fand firmly comprefTcd. This fpace is allowed
for any expanfion which might take place, either by an in-
crcafed volume of the furnace itfelf in heating, or by the
prcfFure and weight of the materials when defcending to the
furnace bottom. QQj the fecond lining, fimilar to the
firft. The objeft of this is to guard againft the entrance of
the flame into the mafs of common building, by rents which
may take place in the firfl lining OO. R, a call-iron lintel,
on which the bottom of the arches is fupported, eight feet
and a half long, and ten inches fquare. R.S, the rife of the
tuyere arch, fourteen feet high on the outfide, and eighteen
feet wide. VV, the extremes of the hearth ten feet fquare.
This, and the bofhing ftones, are commonly made from a
coarfe-gritted fand Hone, whofe frafture preftnts large
rounded grains of quartz connefted by means of a cement
Icfs pure.

Fig. 7. reprefents the foundation of the hearth, and a full
view of the manner in which the falfe bottom is con-
ftruded.

A A, the bottom ftones of the hearth. B, a ftratum of
bedding fand. CC, pafTages by which the vapour gene-
rated from the damps is pafTed off. DD, pillars of brick.
The letters in the horizontal view of the fame figure corre-
fpond to fimijjr letters in the dotted elevation.

Fi^. 8. AA, horizontal feftion of the diameter of the
boflies ; the lining and vacancy for fluffing at M. C, view
of the top of the hearth at L.

Fig. 9. V'ertical fide feition of the hearth and bofhes,
(hewing the tymp and dam-ilones, and the tymp and dam
plates, a, the tymp-ftone ; b, the tymp-plate, which is
wedged firmly to the fide wails of the hearth ; c, dam-ftone,
which occupies the whole breadth at the bottom of the
hearth, excepting about fix inches, which, when the furnace
is at work, is filled ever)- caft with a ftrong binding fand.
This ftone is furmounted by an iron plate of a confiderable
thicknefs, and a peculiar fhape, tl ; and from this it is called
the dam-plate. The top of the dam-ftone, or rather the
notch of the dam-plate, is from four to eight inches under
the level of the tuvere-hole. The fpace under the tymp
plate, for five or fix inches down, is rammed every call full
of ftrong loamy earth, and fometimes even with fine clay.
This is called the tymp ftopping.

The fquare of the bafc of this furnace is 3S feet. The
extreme height, from the falfe bottom to the top of the
crater, meafures 55 feet.

Vol. IV.

BtAST Furnaces, ConflruSicn of.

Thefe furnaces are fometimes built of an external qua-
drangular form, entirely of fand ftone, and lined, in contaA
with the fire, of the fame materials ; fometimes they are
built conical, entirely of bricks, or with fand ftone on the
outfide, and linings of both common and fine bricks
within.

One great defideratum in the conftruclion of furnaces, is
to counteratl the effects of a powerful expanfion, which al-
ways take place, to a greater or lefs extent, after heating,
and the introduftion of the blaft, and which has frequently
proved fatal to the exiftence of the entire fabric.

In the general ilyle of building, all are agreed that the
pillars, which fupport the arches, and of courfe the whole
fabric, ought to be done in the moil fuhftantial manner.
But beyond the arches, a variety of methods has been
adopted to enfure a complete fabric, free from large open-
ings or rents after a few weeks blowing.

Some iron-mailers are of opinion, that the fame degree of
firm building, that is bcftowed upon the pillars, ought to
be continued to the top, with the addition of binders of flat
iron preffing with their edges againft the body of the building,
or with four fcrewed bars, ftill paffing through the external
building, and forming one fquare binder, if the fhape of the
furnace is quadrangular. Another fpecies of binder is ufed
for fquare piles, made of caft iron of a prodigious ftrength
and weight. The individual pieces forming this binder,
have, at their extremities, mortifes, which mutually receive
each other, with a confiderable extra fpace for the expanfion,
which is invariably experienced afterwards. Other iron-
mafters, again, prefer rearing a fuhftantial (hell of building,
and filling the interior fpace towards the linings, either with
dry bricks, or ftones loofely laid together. When the mafs
of building becomes thoroughly heated by the kindling of
the fire, and the introdudlion of the blaft, the interior of the
furnace expands confiderably, and the aftion is fuppofed to
be merely confined to the wedging together of the loofe parts
of the building. By the time that this is effefted, the ex-
panfion is fuppofed to have ceafed, and the exterior fhell of
the furnace is preftrvcd entire. Others, equally anxious to
form a perfeft building, have given an octagonal form to
that part of the furnace above the arches, that the
binding might be more happily effected. Some have
affumed this fonri, with the addition of femi-circular re-
cefTes in the fides of tlie oftagon ; their convexts being
llrongly arched to refill the powerful preluire expected from
within.

Still more determined to defy the all-powerful effcfts of
expanfion, others have hollowed furnaces from the folid rock,
forty to fifty feet high, and lined thefe immenfe perforations
with fine bricks in the ufual form.

Where fuch a variL-ty of form and of method exifts in ef-
fedting the fame purpofe, and where the inftances of expe-
riment have been very numerous, every mode of conftruction
can boaft of a folitary inftance of complete fuccef?, except-
ing in the cafe of the rock, which was only once attempted,
and which, after the introduction of the blaft, opened from
four to fix inches from top to bottom.

There are fo many circumftantes to be taken into the ac-
count, befides the mere form of the buildinj-, that unlefs thefe
are all equally guarded againft, the chances arc in favour of the
furnace opening confiderably. If the building isconftructed
of fand ftone, and if tliis material is carried from the quan-v-
as it is wanted by the workmen, an immenfe proportion of
water is thus introduced, which by a little forefight might
have been avoided. Sand ftones of common dcnilty as to
frafture, contain, when taken immediately from the quarry,
4 B from

B L A

from 8 to lo per cent, of water, and coarfer-gritted ftoiies
from 10 to 12. TakinsT the average lo per cent., then in
a furnace of equal dimeiifions to the drawing in Plate II.
Jig.6. the faiid Hone of which will weigh upwards of J200
tons, there will be introduced izo tons of moillure. This
quantity is always confiderably increafed by the portion of
water necelTaiy to reduce the lime to mortar, and trcquently
augmented by the moift ftate of the weather during
building, .

The evaporation of this immenfc body of w?ter is the
fource of all the mifchief which takes place in the fhell of
the blaft furnace; nor is it much to be wondered at, where
every precaution is not ul'ed to bring tl>c heat forward in
the moll gradual manner, prefcrvii.g the clcarnels of the
▼ents, and allowing the moiliure inftiilibly to pafa away.

In fituations where bricks can be obtained, the moifture
of the fand (lone is avoided, but the great extra quantity of
lime, which is neceffary to build with bricks, introduces
througli the medium of the mortar an almoll equal quantity
of water, as with farrti ftonc. This has been obviated in
part by ufuig foft clay in the interior of the walls ; but as
clay feldom binds to any great extent, the general pulh
of the furnace mull be trufted to good binders from
without.

In the conftruftion of all blaft furnaces, a complete vent-
age ought to be preferved by means of narrow flues, or paf-
fages proceeding horizontally from the middle of the folid
Hiell, or within two feet and a half of the interior to the
outfide. Thefe ought to be connefted with a circular chan-
nel, or gutter, of the fame dimenfions, proceeding round
the circumference of the furnace ; fo that, if any one vent
were choaked in the general expanfion, the moillure con-
dufted by it might eafily vent itfclf among the other open-
ings. The vents cannot well be too numerous ; and as they
feldom exceed four inches fquare, the building cannot be
materially weakened by them.

In addition to the horizontal channel of communication,
feme builders carry up in the main building of the furnace
four, fis, or even eight perpendicular flues, which commu-
nicate with it and the openings that proceed horizontally to
meet the external air. See Plate WW. f^^. i, 2, 3, 4.

Either of thefe methods may be confidered as juft precau-
tions to enfure the exillence of the furnace, but adopting
them in the fuUell and moft. complete manner, is not always
accompanied with fimilar fucctfs. If circumllanccs formerly
roticed concur in occafioning an extra degree of expanfion,
the preffure of the lining againft the common building of the
furnace often deranges the fyllematic order of the vents,
puflies the bncks into contact with each other, and fir.o-
ihers for a little while, though to gain more fatal elaltic ef-
fefl!^, the increafing volume of the vapour.

Ak;.r fuch a diverfity of opinion upon a fubjeft of fuch
general importance, wherein each refpeclive clals of votaries
can boall of complete fuccefs from its peculiar plan, it may
be difficult to point out one more generally attended with
good effefts than another. The following, hovvever, may
deferve the ferious confideratiou of the manufacturer of
pig-ifon.

Of whatever materials the furnace is conftruded, let them
poflefs no more moillure than is fnflicicnt for their proper
building. The thicknefs of the common building not to
exceed, at its greatell breadth, 6i, or 7 feet. In the middle
of the wall, a fpace of four or fix inches ought to be left
clear all the way to the furnace top. Into this vacuity Ihould
be introduced fmall fragments of faud-ilone, about the lize of
an egg and under. When the expanfion, preceding from the
hrc building of the interior, caufes the bricks immediately in

B L A

contail to pu(h outwards, the malFcs of fand- (lone are im-
mediately reduced in fize, and tilhng the interftices occafioned
by their former angular fliape, adiually occupy much lef»
room ; and now prefent to the flame or fire, fliould it be in-
clined to penetrate fo far, a folid verrical ft^ratum of fand,
after having fecured the expanfion of the furnace to the ex-
tent of fome inches. The effefls of the preffure are thus
diverted from the (hell of the building, and loll in the pul-
verization of the fragments of fand-ftone.

The advantages refulting from this plan may be nearly-
doubled, by ufing a double lining of fire bricks, as repre-
fentcd in Plate VIII. Jig. 3. betwixt each of which, and the
common building, a fimilar vacancy Ihould be left ; but
filled with fharp land, containing no more moillure than ferves
to compaA it into a firm body. As this moillure becomes
gradually expelled in the (low heating or annealing of the
furnace, the fand occupies lefs bulk, or, which is the fame
in effeft, is then iufceptible of a greater degree of compref-
fion when the general expanfion of the furnace comes on. It
is evident that the force is here alfo diverted againft the fand,
in place of afting immediately, with a tendency to enlarge
the circumference of the bailding.

Over and above all thefe precautions, the annealing or
drying of the furnace in a progrefGve and regular manner
ought to be carefully attended to and continued for two or
three months at leaft. Many are blown much earher, from
an anxiety to get to work, and make returns for the great
capital ncceffarily expended in thefe undertakings.

The fame variety of opinions exifts in the trade, relative to
the determined figure and dimenfions of the blaft furnace, as
fubfift, with regard to the beft mode of building. Its height
has, at different times, varied from 20 to 70 feet; and
its diameter, at the bodies, or wideft part, from 8 to
15 feet. It will be eafy to trace the fource of this
indefinite mode of conllruAion, and the uncertainty which
muft neceflarily pervade operations of fo much rilk and
importance.

At the time when charcoal of wood was the common, and
indeed, the only fuel ufed in the blaft furnace, the volume
and extent of the blaft were proportioned to the very iniper;
fc£l ftate of the blowing machinery. Long experience had
taught the manufafturer what were the proper fize and di-
menfions of his furnace. Many of them were from 12 to
18 feet high, and fome of them, where a^good water wheel
blaft exilled, reached as far as 28 feet in height.

When pitcoal was introduced into the blaft -furnace, in the
ftate of coke, to produce fimilar effefts to the charcoal of
wood, it was foon tound, that in furnaces of equal capacity
and height the ftme eft'ccls could not be produced. The
ore required to remain in coniaft with the ignited fuel for a
longer fpice of time, in order, unqueftionably, to produce, by
attenuated contatl, what was deficient in temperature, for
the latu ration of the ore with coally matter. This would
immediately fuggeft an increafe of the height of the blaft-
funiace ; and if beneficial efl"e6ts once refulted from a ftep of
this natui-e, it became a matter of difficulty to fay where the
progreflio;; of height would ftop.

Hence, in a few years, arofe furnaces of 40, 50, 60, and
70 feet in height. Of the laft dimenfions, one was erefted
in Wales. The fize of the artificial crater was fuch, that
the ftiength of the blaft was fcarcely fufficient to keep the
exiftence of flame vifible at the fuinace top. After in vain
endeavouring to ignite the immenfe body of materials con-
tained in its vaft capacity, the height of the furnace was re-
duced 30 feet by cutting a hole in its fide, narrowing tha
mouth, and throwing in the materials at the height of 40,
in place of 70 feet from the furnace bottom. This was at-
tended

B L A

tended with fuccefs, and the opertions of the furnace pro-
ceeded «nth their ufual facihtv.

After the apphcation of ileam enirines to raife and con-
denfc air, the quantity and ftrength of the blaft hecame
more a mechanical property in the hands of the niannlac-
tiirer. It was foon difcovered that an increafed volume of
air, by exciting a much higher temperature throughout the
furnace, conftituted the immediate adion of thofe affinities,
which the tall furnace accomplifhed by a long attenuated
contacl, and that iron equally carbonated and lilted for the
purpofe of melting, could be produced by 30 hours contact,
as in four days.

The confequence of thefe gradual difcoveries was a gene-
ral predilection in favour of fmall furnaces, and at prefent the
bias of the manufafturer feems inclined to thiii extreme.
Where the maximum will be found it is difficult to conjcdliire,
for the ground which the manufacturer now occupies is
materially altered from what it was when fmelting with
coke was flrft introduced. The perfedion to which the blow-
ing machine has attained, forms a ftriking contrail to the
feeble and diminifhed efFefts of the bellows in the infancy of
the trade. So far as the neceiTary affinity is increafed,
and more inftantaneoufly produced in high temperatures,
■than in thofe inferior, the manufafturer is differently
circumftanced, and commands an extent of means
unknown to him in former times. That this fup^riority
will produce equivalent effefts in the modification of the
blail-furnace, requires but little demonih-ation. Two fafts
illuftrative of this may, however, be mentioned. Caft fteel
has of late years been formed direftly from bar-iron, by a
procefs which only requires an hour or two to complete,
and with fmall quantities of matter the fame may be per-
formed in a few minutes. This is effefted by prefenting the
carbonaceous matter to the iron at a melting temperature.
In the ufual mode of cementation, bliftered fteel, by a more
attenuated contaft and inferior temperature, requires fix or
feven days to complete, what is here produced in two hours.
The difference of temperature in the two operations is
equal to 60" or 70'^ of Wedgewood. The firft operation will
be confiderably (hortened, if the caft fteel is required to
hold much carbon ; but if this requifite is ncceftary in the
bhftered fteel, the length of the cementation mull necef-
farily be protrafted. Again, a piece of malleable iron may,
by prefenting it with a proper dofe of carbon, at a high
temperature, be converted, in a few minutes, into a mafs of
the richeft carburat^d caft-iron, which, in a temperature in-
ferior, would have required feveral months.

The fame fafts will apply, in part, to the manufaflure of
pig-iron in the blaft-furnace ; but an unanimity of opinion
and aftion on this fubjeft is precluded, as well by the pre-
judices of individuals, as from circumftances arifing out of
the nature of the materials operated upon in different
places.

A furnace has lately been tried at Muirkirk in Scotland,
only eight feet diameter acrofs the boflies, in place of its
former dimenfions, which were ten feet, aad 40 feet high.
It was foon found, that with the fame volume of blaft which
was formerly applied to the ten feet furnace, very inferior
«ffe£ls were now produced. The combuilion apparently was
carried to too great an extent, and the materials,- owir.g
to this circumftance, entered into fufion before the iron had
imbibed a fufficient dofe of the coally principle from the fuel.
Another great evil which refulted from tiiis diminution of
diameter, was a friftion, or retardation of the defcent of the
materials upon the lining of the furnace. This evil was in-
creafed and the materials made more bouyant, by the ufual
TclumeiOif air elevating itfclf in a cone not much mere than

B L A

half its former area. The confequer.ces were, that th„-
whole mixture of coke, iron-ftone, and lime-ftone, would
have frequently hung for an hour together, or until the
blaft had cut all the hearth and bofties clear of materials,
a flip would have then enfued, and brought with it a large
proportion of newly introduced matter. The introduclijr;
of this into the fufing point before being properly heated, and
Jong before any affinity had been ellabiiftied betwixt the
particles of metal and the carbon of the furnace, invariably
changed the quahty of the metal, and caufed frequent
and ludden alterations from grey to white iron.

Upon the fubjeft of height and width of blaft-furnaces,
it may be finally remarked, that the average height m Bri-
tain may be taken at forty feet from the upper furface of the
hearth bottom, eleven feet diameter at the greateft width ov
bodiings, and three feet and a half for the diameter of the
tunnel-liead, or furnace-moutli.

If the proportions of height and diameter in the dimen-
fions of tiie blail-hirnace have given rile to a multiplicity of
opinions, the internal ftructure and ftiape of the cavity have
been no lefs an iiniple field for fpeculation and prejudice.
At one time this was conceived fo efTential to the fuccefs of
iron-making, that any particular furnace that had made 3
fortunate run of quantity and quahty, was copied with the
greateft accuracy of delign. 'I'he fortunate i ion -mailer in-
genioufly attributed to the mechanifm of his own conftntc-
tion the rich and fuperior harvtll he had reaped in metai,
and faw, or fancied he favv, in 'the curvature 01 a lire, or i«
the iHclination of a Hope, the tahfman of his good fortune.
By prolonging the one, or depreffing the otiier, he imme-
diately inferred that ftill fuperior effects would be produced,
and that by obtaining the perfeftion of ait in the mere fabr -
cation of ftrutlure, evei7 thing that was great and powerful
vi-ould enfue. This rage co.itinued for many years, and
gave rife to an endlefs variety of fliapes, many of which, in
their eventual fuccefs, Lad only the merit of originality tn
boaft.

In the eftabUftiment of this important and national manu-
facture, the great fluctuation of opinion as to ftrudure
feems to have been the prelude to afubfidence into app.-'oved
forms, founded^ upon general principles ; and though we
may now fmile at the indifpenfible forms which our pre-
deceffors, or even contemporaries, annexed to the blall-fur-
nace, yet thele alterations of ftiape and llruclure lay the
ftrongcft claim to our refpecl and giatitude. The path i>
now opened, and the ground already beat ; from the labours
of thofe who have already gone before us, refult the hap-
pieft effefts ; we proceed towards our objeft, free from the
interruption which inexperience always entails ; and we may
now, by the direct application of principle, perfect with faci-
lity what may ftill be deemed defidei-ata in this important
branch.

The varieties of (hape which cuftom and experiment, fronn
time to time, had annexed to the blaft-fumace, may be
claffeJ Underfour diftind kinds. P/atc\'U. and VIII. The
following defcription, characteriiing the refulting propertiei
and dimenfions in the form of each clafs, will be nectffary for
comprehending the fubject thoroughly.

P/titeVll.j!^. I. is the vertical feiftion of the blaft-fumace
cut acrofs the top of the hijlhes ; the internal (hape entirely
conical ; the extcnial figure a qiradrangalar pyramid. The
conrtruition of this furnace is truly fingular ; and from thi*
alone great advantages were expected to refult. The origi-
nality of the principle connrts in the double Iquare, or throat.
One immediately above the hearth, not repreftnted in this
figure, but fimilar to the fquare in P/ate IX. Jig. i. B : and
another half way np the cone, four feet in diameter ; fee A.
4 B z B, the

B L A

B L A

B, the top of the bodies, 1 2 feet in diameter.

C, an inferior diameter of 10 feet, previous to the forma-
tion of the throat at A.

D, the top of the fecond row of bodies, c»f tha fame dia-
meter as B.

E, the furnace mouth, or termination of the fecond cone,
four fec-t diameter, and proportioned to A.

F, funnel top for carrying off the flame occafioned by the
bJail, fo as not to interfere with the workmen in filling the
furnace.

The dimenfions, as to height, are as follow :

From B to C height .... - 12 feet

C to A ditto 6

A to D ditto ..... 6

D to E ditto - - - . . 13

Height of the hearth, and firil row of bofhings,
not fliewn in the figure, but being the fame
as^g. 1, Plate IX. meafure - - 15'

Height of the bottom floncs, packing, and

falfe bottoms. . - - . - ' 4

Total height of this furnace from the foundation 56 feet

GG, fire brick lining.

hh, fpace left for packing.

II, the common building either of fand-llone, or of
bricks.

Fig. 2. plan and feftipn of the fame furnace taken acrofs
the bofhes at B.

A AAA, fquare of the common building 29 feet upon the
fide, bound by BBBBBBBB, eight cad-iron binders ; the
number or fetts of thefe requifite, being proportioned, both
in llrength and dimenfions, to the height of the furnace. In
common, a full binder is applied every fix feet in the
height.

The concentric circles reprefent the various diameters of
the interior of the furnace, and aieconnefted each by dotted
lines, with their refpcftivc places in the elevation.

The reafoning which we believe led to the conftruiElion of
this furnace, proceeded from a firm behcf that the boihes and
throat or fquare of a blalt-furnace were of the greateH im-
portance on two accounts. Firit, becaufe they fupported
the weiglit of the materials ; and fecondly, becaufe they con-
centrated the heat. Thefe acting conjointly, permitted the
leaft pofiible quantity of materials to pafs, till they dropt
away in a Hate of femi-fufion, or complete feparation. In
furnaces, however, the cones of which were 30 feet high and
upwards, this v.'as conceived impoffihle to take place for any
length of time, to any conliderablc extent. The height and
gravitating prell'ure of the materials were more than fufficient
to counteract the mod favourable conllruftion of bofhes ; and
as this could not admit of diminution, the fufpenfion of the
materials, and the concentration of the heat mull be <?fleded
by fome other means. This, at one time, was believed to
have been completely effefted by the fcheme of an additional
fquare, and an extra fet of bolhes ; and there is little doubt
but that, by converting perpendicular to lateral preffure, the
fufpenfion of the materials was reduced at leall to one half
of its former intcnfity.

It was not doubted but that the procefs of fmelting and
feparation would commence, in part, at A ; that what ef.
caped fulion and feparation in that quarter, would he eafily
refolved below ; and that the procefs of combullion intenfely
at work in two different places at once, would greatly facili.
tate the general reduflion, and add greatly to the produce in
iron of the furnace. Thefe fangulne cxpeftalions were un-
fortunately never realized, the folitary inllance of one fnr-
mace only being conftruiled in defence of this theory, and

tKat only for a very temporary endurance, is the bed proof of
the inutility of the plan.

Fig. 3. is the elevated fefb'on of a blaft-furnace, of which
feveral were built, and from which it was at one time con-
ceived that the greateft advantages were derived. The nume.
rous minute gradations of diameter exhibited in the con.
flruftion of this furnace, were at one time held in high e(li.
mation- by many iron-makers ; and a plan of the prefent
furnace circulated from the domains of the lucky projcflor,
with as much care and confcioufnefs of rich acquifition, as
an antiquary would remove from Hercuh-ineum or Egypt,
the precious remains of antiquated obfcurity.

It will be extremely eafy to trace to its fource this par-
ticular bias to form, fo univerfally beheved in at one time,
but now configned to that oblivion which experience has
taught us it defervcd at a much earlier period.

It often happens, that when repairing or re-lining a blafl-
furnace, the manufafturer avails himfelf of the time thus ob-
tained, to overhaul and repair his engine ajid blowing ma-
chine. The former movements of the machinei^ may have
difcovered to him many errors both in movement and con-
ftruAion, which the contlant requifite motion rendered im-
practicable for him fooner to remove. In this way, con-
fiderablc improvements on the engine and blowing apparatus
are frequently made ; and when again in motion, may, by
increafing the length and number of the tlrokes in a given
time, or by conferring a higher additional working power
on the ilcani pifton, increafe at the fame time both the volume
and denfity of the blaft. If the produce of the furnace is
increafed, which it is highly probable will be the cafe, then
the fuperior effects are attributed to a few unimportant cir.
cles and lines added to the interior of the cone, the acute-
nefs and proportion of which do not furvive the blowing of
the furnace three days.

In like manner, if a work entirely new, commence opera-
tions with a greater advantage of blowing power, and with
fomething original in the fhape of the furnace, the confe-
quent effeflsol the former are indullrioufly attributed to the
fortunate conllruftion of the latter, and the grand effential
blafl is entirely overlooked,^and its next important alfociates
coal and iron-ftone.

The dimenfions of the prefent furnacfi are as follow :

Diameter of the cone at A ... 3 feet

ditto at B . - - ' 4

ditto at C . . . 8|

ditto at D . . . 5X

ditto at E . - - 10

ditto at F - - - II

ditto at G - - - 10

From G to F, the diflance in height raeafures 1 foct

Increafe of diameter . i foot

F to E, the diilance is - - 12

Diminution of diameter . 1 foot
E to D, the diltance is - . i J

Diminution of diameter 6 inches

D to C, the diftance is - - 6

Diminution of diameter - i foot
C to B, the dillance is - . 2

Diminution of diameter . 4J
B to A, the dillance is ■ . 4^

Diminution of diameter . i
Height of the hearth and bolhes not rcpre-

fentcd in the plate - - - J*

Total height of the cavity of the furnace

or place occupied by the materials - 40 feet

The former defcriptious will fuffice and apply to this

plate.

B L A

pktCi with equal propriety as to the foimer, regarding the
iinina:, packing, common builJiriE^, &c.

Fij^. 4. is a plan and feilion of the fame furnace at F in
the cli-vatiun.

The inner circles repreftnt the various diameters of the
interior of the cone, the letters in each correfpoiidiag. The
two external circles defcnbe the packing and lining ; and
the circle N exhibits the circumference of the common
building of the furnace, which, at this particular fedtion, is
26 feet ii. diameter.

PlateWH. Jig. I. is the elevation of the interior of a fur-
nace of a plain conllruftion, and at one time very prevalent at
foundcries. This falliion was deemed to poflcfs its pecu-
liar merits, and Hill maintains its form unaltered at fome iron-
works where the regular tapering cone is not yet adjnittcd.
Its inferiority, as to height, is amply made up by an enlarged
capacity anfing from its diameter.

Diameter at the mouth of the cone A - 3 feet
ditto - at - B - 1 1

ditto at the bolhes - C - 1 2

Height from C to B - - 12 feet

from B to A - - 1 +

Height of the bolhings and hearth not re-

prcfented in the figure - - II

Total height of that part of the fur-

nace occupied by the materials - 37 feet

FF, reprefents a view of the vertical method of carrying
off the moifture and fteam from the mafs of building, by
means of vents. The number of upright flues vary from tour
to eight, and have regular communications by means of hon-
zontal openings with the external air, GG. Thty are gene-
rally carried up parallel to the hning, and inchne with the
general diminution of the cone. The former, or vertical
openings, are fix inches fquare, and the horizontal commu-
nications four inches fquare.

Fig. 2. is a plan and feftion oi Jig. i. in which are repre-
fented the lining, the vacuity for packing, and eight vents
or op'.'niiigs correfponding to thofe in the elevation. The
letters in each figure concfpond, and the two dotted circles
are meant to (hew, that occafionally all the vents communicate
with eacli other by means of a horizontal gutter, or channel,
carried quite round the building. This precaution ij ufcd lell
qny of the tubes were to fill up and choak the free circulation
of the vapour, that its appropriate quantity may get eafily
difchargtd amongft the other openings.

Fig,^. is an elevated fection of a furnace, the interior
fhapc of which has now almoll become univerfal. The
Kegular and uniform defcent of the materials wliich follows,
as a confequence of the gradual enlargement of the cone,
fully jullifics the general partiality in favour of this fhape.

Diameter at the mouth, or opening A - 3 feet

Diameter at the top of the bofhcs B - 10

Tlie height from B to A - - - 31 j-

Height of the hearth and bofhes not feen in

the plate - - - - ilj-

Total height of this furnace - 43 feet

This form of furnace is not only conllrufted with a
double lining of fire bricks CCCC, and two openings for in-
troducing fand for packing biii, but has alfo an opening
Dl), from top to bottom, about the centre of the common
building. From this, in all dircftions, proceed fniall vents^
which communicate at a (hort dillancc with the open air, as
may be feen along the fides ot the building.

J'ig. 4. is a plan and fecflion of Jg. 3. cut acrofs at B*.
8

B L A

B, diameter ovtr at the bofhes 10 feet.
CCCC, the two circles of fire brick hning, as feen in the
elevation.

iiil), fpaces for receiving packing.

DD, circular vent, or general gutter, from which ramify
the horizontal openings.

Thcfe are repeated at intervals of four feet in the height,
as may be feen in the elevation. In building, DD is filled
with fragments of ioft fand-llone, which are eafily reduced
in the expanfion of the furnace, and tend, by diverting it*
real preflure, to preferve the body of the building entire.

A fimilar want of unanimity of opinion fubfifts among
iron-makers, relative to the general conffruftion of the
bofiics, their particular height, and moil beneficial range.
Some contend for flat, others for hollies more vertical, whila
others again conceive the exertions of thofe equally fuccefsful,
who adopt the mean of the two extremes. At different
places, and to every polfible range, have been atributed the
moll important confequenccs in the fubfequent procefs.

Plate IX. Jg. I . reprefents bofhes of the Heepcll conllruc-
tionl

Diameter at A - - - 10 feet

Perpendicular height from B to A - 8

Square at . - ?• - - 2^

The opinion relative to this form is, that at firfl blowing,
the bolhes are produdtive of a very proper degree of fufpen-
fion of the materials ; but as the preffure of the defcent bears
in every direction upon the under or bottom part next the
fquare at B, it becomes increafed fo much, that the weight
of the incumbent materials early begin to prefs too much
towards the bottom of the hearth, counteraft the regular
precipitation which Ihould take place, and impede theafcent
and full effeft of the blall.

Fig. 4, is a feclion of bolhes approaching to, or indeed
may be confidered as the oppofite extreme. Here the re-
verfe of the fadl attributable to N° i. takes place. The
preffure of the dcfcending material is equally diftributed
over the very flat inclination of the bofhes, and there is no
more weight deemed to be on ttie fquare at A than is equal
to a fidl column of the materials of fimilar dimenfions, left by
the diredt tendency which the llrength of the blafl to keep
them in a ftate of partial buoyancy. To counteract thefe
advantages in part, very ferious defects are here alfo imputed.
If circumllancts unite to increafe the tear and wear at A in
any uncommon ratio, either by fcouring, or from a defi-
ciency in tlie quality of the Hone or bricks, the whole of the
upper part of the hearth at B B is immediately expofed, and,,
though compofed of a fuperior quality of fand, will loon
follow the direction of the defcending current. A preffure
of materials then takes place, equal to the whole of the in-
creafed fpace, while the cffeft of the blafl to bear them up
is confiderably diminilhed by the enlargement of the original
diameter.. It will be feen from the plate tliat the weaknefs
of flat bofhes at the top is ill calculated to withfland any
accumulating preffure, and that by confining their part of
the procefs to the hearth, the latter mull loon, by a fimilar
widening^ be entirely dellroyed.

Thole who wifli to lleer clear of extremes, or profit by
the more adventurous fpirit of their neighbours, more gene-
rally adopt a mode of bofhing that occupies the mean of the
two former extremes. This is reprcfented hyjg. 3,.

Diameter of the bolhes at A - - - lo^ feet

Perpendicular height from B to A - - 5

Diameter of the fquara B. - - - 2j

In general, the boflies of blafl furnaces are made of the
fame fand Hone with the hearths, but of late fire bricks have
been introduced, with a confiderable iudicatioi* of advautags.

and

B L A

and permanency. When bricks are ufed, it is found of
utility to make the whole part of the building folid, back as
far as the external fquare of the hearth, fo that it the bofhes
fail in part as to difplace one layer of bricks, another furface,
equally fredi and entire as the former, prefcnts itfelf to the
aftion of the lire.

Fig. 2. Ground plan of the top of the ho.fhings o( fg. I.
A A and B correfpond to the fame letters in the elevation.
The dotted fquare C defcribes the form and dimenfions of
that part of the hearth immediately above the tuyere, as feen
in the elevation C C. The large dotted fquare D D is the
external lizc of the hearth, as feen alio in the elevation
DD.

Flg.^. Ground plan of the fquare and bofhings of

J'S- 4-

While we profccute the detail and hillory of theconllnic-

tion of the blaft furnace, the fame diverfity of plans formeriy
noticed comes under revievir, in every department of the erec-
tion. The importance of the hearth is admitted by every
clafs of reafoners upon this fiibjeft ; and to deviie a form
better calculated for fmclting than another, has been an ob-
jeft of general concern with the nianufaiturcr. Much as may
be deemed to depend upon its form and conllrutlion, infinitely
more benefit is derived from u proper quality of Hone, to refilt
for a given length of time the powerful effetts of a continued
and unremitting blaft. To both of thefe important dcfiderata
much of the manufafturers attention has been from time
to time diredtcd. .

The firft fmgularity that ftrikes us forcibly in the figure
of the hearth, is, that in place of being circular, hke the
upper parts of the furnace, it is conftrufted of a fquare fun-
nel-form, with angles as acute as reprefented in Plate IX.
Jig. I. This narrowing form is continued on three fides
of the fquare to the bottom of the hearth, where it generally
meafures from 22 inches to 24 inches. The top of the
hearth, at B or A, fg. I. and 4. or as it is commonly called
the fquare, is never lefs than 30 inches, nor more than 33.
The height of the hearth from E to B, Plate IX. fg. i,
7 feet, and none are made higher. From C to B, Jig. 3, 65
feet, wliich is now reckoned the moft advantageous height ;
and from C to A, fg. 4, the hearth meafures 6 feet, under
which height there are no hearths ever attempted.

The ftrufture of a hearth, properly fpeaking, confifts of
three folid fides only, the fourth, or front, is filled up by the
tymp, or key-ftone. Plate IX. fig. l. The block E is ge-
nerally in one piece, and from four to five feet long, accord-
ing to the height of the hearth. It defccnds towards
the bottom till within two feet or two feet four inches,
and then leaves an opening of fim.lar dimenfions as to
height, into the centre of the he. rt':i or funnel, as at
letter F.

As the fquare form in which the hearth is finifhcd cannot
laft a day after the blaft is introduced, and is even frequently
deftroyed in the aft of annealing, or heating, it cannot be
effentially necefiary to the making of iron. The hearths of
all furnaces whtn blown out, are entirely round, or if wafted
more upon the tuyere fides, oval. The general ufage of the
fquare muft haoc been derived from long acquired habit, or
perhaps from the conveniency of working and finilhing thofe
immenfe blocks of tlone which are ftill deemed ncceffary to
the perfeftion of a hearth. The interior of charcoal of wood
furnaces was at one time entirely fquare from top to bottom,
fo that in the progrtfs of the trade, from finelting with wood
to the ufe of pit-coal, although the general (hape of the fur-
nace has been altered, the fquare figure of the hearth has
been retained.

Whatever may have been the utility of this general pre-

7

B L A

dlleAion in favour of eftabl'died forms, the advantages
hitherto fuppofed to be derived from this fource are now by
many doubted, and all thofe nice fpeculations relative to the
precife dimenfions and figure of bodies and fquares, threatened
with total annihilation. This innovation is not confined to
figure alone, but. extends to dimenfions, and to the nature
and bulk of the material necefiary for the conftruftion of
hearths.

Fig. I. Plate X. is the feftion of a hearth and bolhings,
conftructed upon an enlarged principle as to fize.
Diameter of the bodies at A - - - 10 feet

Diameter of the hearth at B - - - 4

Diameter of the hearth at C - - - 3

Thefe enlarged dimenfions, in place of being fquare as
formerlv conftrufted, are now entirely round, excepting where
the tymp (tone forms the key to the front of the hearth, as
may be feen in Plate X. fg. 2. where the external circle A A
reprefents the diameter of the bodies, B, the termination of
them, or the top of the hearth, and the form at C, a plan
of the infitle figure of the hearth acrofs the bottom of the
hearth at C,fg. i . fam.e plate.

The difficulty of always obtaining a fand-ftone well calcu-
lated to ftand the violent effefts of the blaft, the frequent
great exptnce incurred, the immenfe lofs of time fuftained in
cutting out old and putting in new hearths, and afterwards
annealing them, has induced more matters to fpeculatc upon
the ule of bricks of ftiapes larger than the common forms,
made from good fire clay. No permanent advantage has
hitherto been derived from this fcheme, although it is
abundantly obvious, that a fuccefsful experiment of this kind
would leffen the expence of a hearth greatly, and fave at
leaft half the time now required to replace an old one.

Neither have any uncommon advantages refulted from the
hearths laid down in Plate IX. fg.6. and in Plate X.
fg. I, 2, and 3. While fome approve, more are ready to con-
demn a meafure, which has for its objeft the enlargement of
a fpace before blowing, which too fpeedily becomes fo
afterwards. There cannot, however, be any objeftion to the
circular, in place of the Iquare form, unlefs a little additional
workmandiip is fuftained as fuch. The matter refts with
experience, accompanied by accurate obfervation, to prove
the fanguine hopes of the projeftors, or falfify the prophetic
forebodings of thofe who now condemn the meafure. The
amount of our progrefs hitherto, in the making of pig iron,
is afcertained with certainty ; to affign hmits to its ultimate
bounds would be prefumption. Of one faft, however, we
may reft alfured, that the perfeftion of the fteam engine,
and the confequent command of blaft, has alone done more
for the manufafture of this article, than all thofe nice diades
of diftinftion as to furnace taken colkftivcly, which relieve
each other in a fucceflive train of minute gradation from one
extreme to the other ; to all, or to moft of which, the moft
wonderful effefts have been from time to time afcribed.

One fubjeft of confidtrable importance ftill remains to be
difcudtd, relative to the conftruftion of the blaft furnace ;
namely, the abfolnte and relative heights of the tuyeres, the
dam-ftone, and tymp.

On the fubjedt of tuyeres, the general opinion is, that
the nearer the cinder the blaft is introduced, the greater
is the effeft as to the abfolute quantity of reduftion.
But this may be produftive of conftquences more than
fufficicnt to counterbalance the doubtful advantage of acce-
lerated reduftion, either by blowing the cinder from off the
furface of the iron, and de-carbonating it, or by the cinder
ruftiing back through the blovv.pipe at any ftop of the
blowing machine, and deftroying the leather bag which con-
nefts the blowr-^ipe with the main laying pipes. This never

Lappena

B L A

B L A

happens but a confiderable portion of lime is facrificed, befides
the expenci; of the bag.

In common, the furface of the tuyere plate is laid eight
inches above the cinder, or, which is the fame tiling, above
the level of the dam-floi;e. Some blow at a dillance of
four inches, others at fix and eight, and fomc again
as high as twelve and fourteen inches. However, under
fome circiimflances, the height of the tuyere is determined
by the nature of the materials. In thefe cafes, if the
tuyere is only raifcd one inch above its proper height, the
bottom of the furnace lumps up immediately, and will invari-
ably rife in the fame progreffive manner in which the tuyere
is heightened.

Plate X. Jig. I. reprefents the relative proportions of
height betwixt the dam, tuyere, and tymp, in ordinary
cafes.

G, the dam, or notch of the dam plate, 17 inches above
the level of the bottom at H.

I, the centre of the tuyere 26I inches from the furface of
the bottom, and 9+ inches above the level of the dam.

K, the bottom of the tymp plate, 23 inches from the
bottom of the furnace, and 6 inches above the level of the
dam.

At iron-works where different opinions cxift as to the
proper or working height of the dam, very different relative
heights enfue, regarding the tymp and tuyere. The former
fhould always regulate the other two. The height of it is
feldom ufed lefs than 16 inches, nor more than 28 above the
bottom.

Confiderable advantages refult from placing the tuyere, as
to its horizontal pofition, at a judicious dillance from the
front or back wall. This is, as in the cafe of height, often
regulated by the nature of the materials. If the furnace,
owing to this circumftance, tends to work cold and languid,
behind, with a propenCty to lump at the back wall, the
blow pipe ought to be direfted as near to the extremity of
the hearth backwards as it is poffible to get in the tuyere
iron; Fig. 1^. P/att: X. letters: but where the operations
of the furnaces proceed with cafe and facility, the centre of
the tuyere fhould more generally approach the centre of the
hearth, as at b.

Of late years a new mode of blowing has been introduced,
which, from its great prevalency and good cfFefts, feems to
bid fair to come into general ufe. Furnaces till lately were
only erefted with one arch, or tuyere fide, and the blaft or
column of air introduced by means of one blow pipe ; now
nioft of the new furnaces are built with double tuyeres, with
two fets of main condudting pipes, p d the blaft. introduced
by means of two pipes in place of one.

The general cfteft-; and fuppofed properties of this mode
of blov.-ing are attended to under the article blalh

In the mean time, the proper height and diftance of the
tuyeres, and their relative pofition to each other, have been
fubjecl to endiefs difputation. Fig.^^. Plate 'K.. a and b
fhew how, in common cafes, the tuyeres are placed to each
other in their horizontal range : a is placed with its centre
three inches from the extremity or back .wall of the furnace,
and b at the dillance of nine inches from its centre. That
there (hould be a difference of diilance'in their horizontal
pofition none are inclined to difpute ; but that this (hould
take place in their vertical fituation, is by fome contended ;
while others infill that the difference ought riever to be lefs
than four inches. Fig. 6. Plats IX. ee.

Some lefs faflidious aifert, and witli many evidences of
found rcafoning on their fide, that if the blail is introduced
into the furnace, and at a proper diftance, to keep the back
wall clear, thofe nice diflinftions aS to inches go for nothing,

in a region where an inllantaneous increafe of volume mull
dcftroy all repulfion or mechanical contact. This philofo-
phical reafon is flatly denied, and the contrary minutely arid
gravely afierted, that were two pipes placed ever)- way im-
mediately oppofite to each other, the action of the oppofite
columns would retard the velocity of the air, and diroinifh
the real elevated quantity in the furnace, by locking up in
mutual oppofition a portion of their refpeclive quantities in
the laying pipes. There might be fome foundation for this
conjecture, were the refpeftive nozlcs or blow pipes brought
into aftual contaft, or iiiferted into each other ; but to thofe
who confider, that in moil furnaces there is never lefs than
four feet of diftance between nozle and oozle, and the mo ft of
the intervening fpace filled with a column of femifufed
materials, ignited to the higheft pitch of vvhitenefs, this
fuppofition will appear to reft upon very unfatisfadory
grounds.

A lefs fcrupulousclafs of obferversandrcafoners upon this
fubjcft even go the length to aifert, that the tuyeres ought
to be put in direft oppofition, and that this, fo far from being
detrimental, would be found to poffefs unqualified advan-
tages. This it is faid would refult from a certain degree of
coolnefs which the extremity of each column of air confers
upon its oppofite tuyere iron, and prcveiit the fame from
heating and burning. To whatever caufe it is attributable,
the fad ilands in many inftances unqueftioned, that not
half the tuyeres are lofi: or burnt out, with the double blaft,
that was formerly deftroyed, where the fingle blall was in
ufe.

Fig. 7. Plate X. reprefents a tuyere iron, 16 inches wide,
and iz inches high at the wide end, 18 inches long and
narrowing at the other end to 4 inches wide, and 4^ inches
in height. Fig. 6. is a plan of the under furface of the
tuyere iron. Fig. 5. reprefents the fize and dimenfions of
the tuyere plate, which when bedded receives upon its furface
the tuyere iron, fg. 7. This plate is firft laid upon a bed of
fire clay, with its narrow end towards the hearth, and in-
clined to rife a little. The tuyere is then introduced upon its
furface, height and diftance lieing attended to in the difpo-
fition of the plate, and the fpace betwixt its furface, and the
fand-ftone of the furnace, rammed very perfeftly with balls
of good fire-clay mixed with fmall fragments of fire bricks.
When about to blow, the nofe or inner end of the tuyere is
covered with a very plaftic clay, to prevent it from heating
and burning away. This is always carefully attended to, and
the blaft put off at any time to replace it. Should it be
neglefted at any time, the iron would inflame with fuch ra-
pidity, that an opening would be inftantly made, by which
the cokes and igi.ited m.atter of the furnace would be recoiled
with the greatell violence imaginable.

Fig.z. PhleXlU. Thedara-ftone. This is adually the
dam, or barrier, which prevents the fluid contents of the
furnace from advancing, and making their efcape into the
fand of the cafting houfe. It is generally made from the fame
ftone as the hearth, but is found ftill more difficult to ftand for
any length of time the aftion of the fluid iron, than the
hearth to refift the ravages of the blall.

Fig. J . dam plate. This is laid againft the dam ftone with
a bed of fire clay interpofing, and clofes the front of the
furnace. Its form is double, fo that bv turning it fcrves the
purpofe twice. It often fails, owing to the conftant current
of lava paffing over the curvature a, and deepening it, till the
iron flows over along with the cinder.

Fig. 4. the tymp plate. This embraces the under end of
the tymp ftone, and the fides of the hearth for three feet up.
The ihicknefs at bottom, called the heel, or cod, ispreferved
from the adion of tlie fire by a llrong Hopping of clay.

This

B I. A

Tliis is replaced at lead every caft, and prevents tVie flame
and heated materials of the furnace from being blown
forward.

/•/,;/? IX. jff. 4. is a ground plan of the arch pillars,
hearth, tuyeres, and vents of a Waft furnace.

A, the hearth, or particular fpot where the fluid metal is
coUcfted.

15, the dam-done.

c, the fall, or opening, by which the metal is difcharged.
After the call it is filled with fand, which foon hardens and
prefents a very clofc texture to the fluid metal within. At
the following caft it is cut carefully down, till the bar pene-
trates to the quick. A circular incifion is then made, and
the metal flows out of tlie orifice in a coiuiefted round
llream, into the runner or channel made in the fand.

dddcf, four vents or openings which communicate
with the falfe bottoms. Plate I. fg. 2. Thefe ferve to
convey the damp from the furnace bottom, and by being run
out into the external air, two in tlie front of the hearth, and
one at each tuyere, indicate by their temperature, and the
quantity of lleam or vapour which they emit, the real ftate
of the bottom below.

l) 1>, the two pillars which fupport the front arch j
they, at the fame time, ferve as abutments to one leg
of each of the tuyere arches. The arch at the front is 15 feet
wide and 15 feet high, and inclines to the centre of the fur-
nace, in tlie fan^e manner as the fide walls of the pillars
approach.

E, main or back pillar built entirely folid.
FF, vent holes (ix inches fquare, carried up from the foun-
dation, and brought forward to meet the open air every four
or five feet.

G G G G G G, tops of the pillars covered with caft
iron plates, for receiving three large caft iron lintels, 10 feet
long, and 10 inches fquare. Thefe ferve to give folidity
to the arch, and fupport the lining and bodies of the
furnace. Fi^.S, 9, difi'erent forms of tuyere pipes.
lii.AS '■-Furnacf. — Hi/lory nf its Ong'in and Prngrefs.
In detailing the progrtfiivt hillory of the blaft furnaces, it
is necedarv to premife, that in tliis country it has undergone
a revolution, of which we meet with no fimilar inftance in
other countries.

The mod natural and abimdant fuel which prefents itfelf
to mankind in their progrefs towards civilization, is that
fiu-nidied by the numerous and extenfive forells, which ge-
nerally occupy the furf;!ce of a wide and uncultivated coun-
try. Thefe, in the hidory of all nations, have been esrly
annoiiited to domedic ufes, and to the comfort of indivi-
duals. As a country became more populous, and the fpirit
of civilization increafcd, other advantages refulted from the
general ufe of wood as fuel. The amelioration of climate,
and the clearing of large trafts of land, inaking it fubfervi-
ent to the purpofes of agriculture, were not the fmallcft
benefits thus derived. As the progrefs of knowledge began
to devife and eftablifh regular manufadorics, to fupply the
wants of the thriving community, the fame fources of com-
butlion were opened to the manufacturer and the artizan.
Tiiefe, as they became fuccefsf\d, were only preludes to
other edablifhments more extenfive, more lucrative, and
entailing wants more difficult to lupply. Among others the
fmeiting of metals was no doubt ol early origin, and equally
dependent upon the woodland counties, in the immediate
neii;hbourho".d of the ores. In tliis clafs we can trace no
m^rtallurgical operation fo hodile to the exiftence of wood,
as an extenfive manufafture of iron. If this manufacture,
owing to the great and unexampled profperity of the coun-
try, iH place of remaining ftationary, or exhibiting fymptoras

B L A

of decline, arlfing from a want of confumptlon of the article,
has increafcd in capital, in extent, and riches beyond all pre-
cedent, wood, the bafc of the manipulation itfelf, depend-
ing only upon a dock rapidly declining, the exidence of
which was frequently incompatible with the views and in-
tered of the landed proprietor, mud foon have been annihi-
lated, and the art of making iron lod to the community.

In this fingular fituation was Great Britain placed from
the reign of Charles II. to the middle of the lad cen-
tury. The increafing manufactures, commerce, and gene-
ral profperity of the country called loud for an additional
fupply of articles fabricated from iron, while wood, the
foundation of the whole art, was rapidly declining in point
of quantity, without the moll didant profpeft of ever being
again renewed. Pit coal had been long before the latter
period fuggeded as a fubditute, but prejudice, intereded
views of cdablifhed capitalids, and above all, a want of com-
mand of mechanical power, had prevented any fuccefsful
operation from being cdablifhed in this new department of
iron making. No founer, however, were thefe barriers to
improvement broken through, and a change of fuel in the
blad furnace found to be attended with profitable effefts,
than the languidiing date of the trade began to revive, and
improvements fucceeded each other, with a facility new and
adonidiiiig. In fift^' years the revolution was complete,
whether the confideratiou regards the incrcafe of the nianu-
faSure, the general ufe of pit coal in the blaft furnace, or
the almoft total annihilation of the charcoal mode of making
iron.

It is uncertain at what period the manufaflure of iron
commenced in Britain. It is probable, that the working
of the tin mines of Cornwall, by the Phccnicians, would
iutrod.uGe into the country a clafs of men fl<illed in all the
then known metallic ores, capable of appreciating their true
value, by converting the riches of an unexplored country,
either to their own immediate neceffities, or to the conveni-
ences of the unflvilful inhabitants. The invailon of England
by the Danes, and their confequent edablifliment, wi old
mod likely add to the former dock of knowledge, in the
art of mining and fufing iron ores. Whatever truth there
may be in this conjefture, the faft ftands unquedioned, that
in feveral counties in England large heaps of Icoria are found,
with an accumulation of foil fufdcient to bear large trees.
Thefe have been from time immemorial called " Danes
cinders." So earlyas 1620, Dudley remarks, that large oaks
were then found in a ihite of decay upon the tops of fome
of thefe hills of fcoria. It is not, howe\er, probable, that
thefe cinders were the produft of the blad furnace. At a
period fo remote as that, wherein thefe htapsof fcoria mud
have been accumulated, the labours of the iron maker were
chiefly direftcd to the fabrication of fmall portions of malle-
able iron m foot llnjls and bloomer'ies . The art of moulding
and cading in iron was either totally unknown, or fo very
rude, as to excite no intered in favour of profecuting this
fine branch of art. If p'g or call iron was at all formed, it
was merely of the mod infufile nature, for being fpeedily
converted into malleable iron. It was not till long after-
wards, when improvements had taken place in the rude
machinery of the tjmes, and a divifion of labour feemed to
be produttive of many advantages, that dift"creiit furnaces
cxided : one for the making of pig iron, and another for
the converfion of it into malleable iron. This firll gave rife
to the blaft furnace, which, properly fpeakinjr, was an im-
provement refulting from the knowledge of the advantages
derived from a divifion of labour. After the appropriation
of the blaft furnace to the exclufive manufafturc of pig iron,
the manufaciurer would foon difcover, tliat the produdts of

hi?

B L A

his furnace were frequently different from each other. Ex-
perience and obfervation would foon enable him to decide,
from wlience this had its origin. A fmall additional quan-
tity of fuel, beyond that he formerly ufed for forge-pig-irou,
he found, would confer a degree of fufibility upon the metal
tliat immediately pointed out the piaclicabilitv of cafting it
into (liape. Moulding from thence ivould moft likely enfuc,
and become equally an appendage to the blaft furnace as was
the bar-iron forgt. As this new manufacture became fami-
liar to the proprietor, he would iramediattly find his intcrcll
in dividing the produA of his bbit furnace into ffrev meltiu'r
iron or uito forge pigs, as the t.Mgencics of his moulding
(hop, or forge required.

If credit could be given to the " Mctallum Martis" of
Dudley, in the 12th year of James, anno 1615, there were at
that period not Icfs than 3C0 blaft furnaces for fmelting iron-
ore with charcoal, each of uhicli had fuel, upon an average,
for 40 weeks per annum. The average produce in pig-iron
at each furnace of ij tons per week, or 600 tons per annum,
makes the total yearly quantity lSc,cco tons, being a greater
quantity than has ever fince been nianufatlured in Britain.

However much this qirantity may be exaggerated, yet it
is highly probable, that even at this ear'v period, the iron
bufuiels in general, and the particular opcratit)ns of the blaft
furnace, had obtained an eminent rank in the manufactures
of the country. The progrefs of agriculture, and the in-
creafe of population under the reign ot the peaceable James,
had taught the hulbandman and the proprietor the value of
cultivated fields. Tlie great confumptiou of wood for the
navy and iron-works had greatly exhaulled the principal
forells of fupply ; tracks of country became cleared, and as
the fpirit of cultivation increafed, the annual quantity of
fuel for tlie manufacturing of iron diininifhed.

It is probable that Mr. Dudley, in ellimating the quanti-
ties produced from each furnace, formed his average from
the winter and fpriiig months, when water was plcntit\il, and
he feems not to have made fufficient allowance lor the occa-
fional lloppages in fummer, during the time of cutting and
coUefting the wood for the eniuing wet fealon. If, therefore,
in place of making 600 tons yearly, the furnaces of thefe
days are fuppofed to have made each, upon an avei-agc, five
tons per week, or making a little allowance, 2<o tons
yearly, which is furcly nearer the truth, this (liU leaves
an annual amount of inanufacT:ured pig-iron equal to 7^.000
tons, which, exclufive of the operations of the forge, iorms
a very refpeftable Itaple at that early period of the liillory
of our mannfaflures.

Pit coal had been long known before this period, and
wrought at Newcaftle prior to the year 1272. Annually
vail quantities of it were exported to Holland and the Low-
Countries, for the ufe of the fmithy, and other manufactures
requiring an intenfe ai'.d continued heat. Yet in England
prejudices ran fo ftrong againft its application to the manu-
facture of call -iron, that the projectors of this original imder-
takin"- met with everv obltacle which the narrow unen-
lightened minds of the ellablifhed manufafturers could devife.

James granted feveral pate:!t3 for the exclufive right of
manufacturing iron with pit coal. None of the projcclors,
however, were fuccefbhil, till the year 1619, when Dudley
fucceeded in making coak pig-iron in a blall furnf.cc, though
only at the fparing rate o{ three tons per iL'teL At this period
many of the iron works were at a Hand for want of wood, and
thcconfeq'.ience was an adva;ice upon the price of iron: this
rendered it a lucrative bufintfsto thole manufacturers whole
fupoly of wood wqs Hill undiminiflied, and of courfe made
them holiile to any innovation, whereby the urcfcnt price of
ttovt was likely to meet with a reduction.

Vol. IV. '

B L A

This period of prejudice, fo unfavourable to innovation ia
the iron bufinefs, was followed by one more general and
m.ore calamitous for the nation : amidfl the diftrattion ccca-
fioned by civil war, neither innovation nor improvement
could be cxpedted. Patents, however, were granted to
fome during tiie common-wealth, for the exclufive manu-
facture in the new way, in one of which, it was at the time
believed, that Cromwell was a partner : thefe partly (hared
the fame fate with the fiilt inventor, and none fucceeded in
eftabhihing a manufactory either of extent or certainty. lu
1663, ''"'^ ''""i Dudley applying for his lad patent, and
fetting forth, that at one time he was capable of producing
feven tons of coak pig iron weekly, with an improved furnace
27 feet fquare, and bellows, which one man could work for
an hour without being much tired.

It was not, till impelled by neccfiity, arifing from the rajiid
decline of the annual growth of timber, that pit coal becamie
an object of univerfal eftim.ation. V.'h.cn improvements ou ma-
chinery had attained a pitch of certainty, and experience had
taught the mechanic the manifold advantages of the fteam
engine ; the adventurous manufacturer found he pofTefied
an extent of means to which he was formerly a ftrarger.
Small furnaces, fupplied with air from leathcm bellows,
blown by oxen, hoife, or human labour, became exploded,
and an increafe of fize took place, together with an increafe
of the column of blaft neceflar)' to excite combuiHon.

At this eventful era in the hiftoi7 of the blaft furnace,
when the amehorating hand of agriculture was progreffivcly
fweeping before it, what remained of the once immenfe
tracts of woodland dedicated to the fupply of the bhift fur-
nace ; when the general improvement in machinery, and
the introduction of the fteam engine threatened to give new
life and impulfe to manufactures in general, the iron-bufinefs
leemed dwindling into infiguificancy and contempt. The
demand of the country increafed for the manufadlured ar-
ticle, particularly bar-iron, while every year faw a gradual
but (leady diminution of the annual quantity. Recourfe to
foreign markets was had for a fupply of that article, of
which this country once was the greateft exporter, and the
immenfe annual importations from Rufiia and Sweden may
date their origin from that period. The flourifhing and ex-
tenfive detail of Dudley no longer exiiled, and the 300 blall
furnaces of his cay were now diminifiied to 59 in all ; the
total amount of whofe annual produce was 17350 tons, or
nearly 3^0 tons to each furnace.

LIST of the Blaft Furnaces in England and Wales im-
mediately before the introduttion of pit coal, as a fubfti-
tute for the charcoal of wood ; the particular counties in
which they were fituated ; the colleftivc quantity of iroa
manufactured in each county, and the produce of each
particular blaft furnace.

Cuuiuics. 2 5 H. Names of the Fuinacos. _ .

5=3. 5 = :

Brecon i Ynyikcdwyn - - 1

1 Lanithv - - I

-* - — I-, .;. o
2CO
.^CO

Giamors:an

2 furnaces.

I Neath
I BerfiUy

200

2CO

6co

2 turnacef.

Carried forward 4
4C

4c o

1000
Counties.

Counties. 2 "

B L A

5" Names of ihe Furnaces.

B L A

E S

Couiuies,

Carmarthen
Chefliire

Denbigh

Derby

Gloucefter

Hereford

Hampfhire
Kent

Brought forward 4
I Kidwelly - - i

? § „ i i c ?

1000

100 Stafford

Monmouth

Nottingham
Salop

I Valercydle
1 Lawtone
I Dodingtoi]

3 furnaces.

I Waddoch

1 Ruabone

2 furnaces.

1 Stavely

I Foxbrooke

I Wingworth

I Wanely

4 furnaces.

1 6co

I 600
I 500

Blabney

Elmbiidge

Flaxky

Redbrooke

Ditto

Sidney

6 furnaces.

I St, Waynarde
I Bingwood
I BJfhopwood

3 furnaces.

I New Forefl Firne

I Lamard
I Barcliiie
I Horfden
I Handberft

4 furnaces.

I Pontypool

1 Ditto

2 furnaces.
1 Kirkby

- I

- I

- I

- I

- I

Salop

Bo widen

Willy

Ditto

Leighton

Kimbrottcn

6 furnaces.

1700

300
250

150
150

200
300

600
500
700
600
200
250

55^

800

2850

I 300
I 450
I 60Q

200

100

lOQ
1 00
100.

400
500

400
400
450
200
400
250

400

9QO
200

Carried forward 37

""5 2- Names of the Fuiniices. -^^ -"-S =Ss

Brought forward 37 12150

I Bradlv - - I 400

I Winciieath . . I 600

lOOQ

JCKJ

2100

12150

2 furnaces.

I

*

=:

Worceilcr

I Bewdly

-

I

200

I H»t«d

-

I

500

_

2 furnaces..

SutTex

I Afhburnam

.

500

I Bubley

-

100

I Bread

.

100

I Robert's bridge

-

lOO

I Bcry

-

100

I Darvvilte

.

100

I Heathfields

.

100

I Crunfuple

-

100

I Lord Ptlham

.

too

I Ditto

-

100

10 furnaces.

Warwick.

I Ahon

.

I

400

I Pooliband

-

I

3 JO

2 furnaces.

York

I Band, upper.

.

2;oo

I Band, lower,

-

200

I Barnby »

-

300

1 Rolbley, upper,

-

200

I Ditto, lower.

-

200

I Chappcl

-

300

6 furnaces.

^^

Furnaces

59

1400

700-

i400>
17350

Tons. cwt. qr.

Annual average for each furnace 294 i i

By this ftatement it is evident, that the manufafture of
pig-iron had diminifhcd during one hundred to one hundred
and thirty years preceding, upwards of 50,000 tons annually.
Fortunately for the exi Hence of the trade, the application
of good going, and what, at that time, would be reckoned
powerful, fteam engines, about the year 1750,. for raifmg
and compreffing air, were introduced at fome places where
abundance of materials was found without water for turn-
ing machinery. The manufacturer now found that his
produce could be increafed by enlarging the diameter of his
ileam cylinder,or perfcfting the vacuum under the pifton j and
it was foondifcovered,. that thtfe increafed effedls alone were
requifite to the formation of pig iron, in profitable quantity
from the coke of pit coal ; nor is it to be wondered that this
fecret remained fo long a myllery. The fmall quantity of
air that was formerly requifite to ignite a charcoal furnace,
whether from the great inflammability of the fuel, or the
fmallnefs of its capacity, was conllantly before the eyes of
the manufafturer. He had more often felt the cfTcfts of
over-blowing, than under-blowing his furnace ; and it is
highly probable, that pit coal, being deemed every way

inferior,

B L A

inferior, an unufual timidity would precede any movement
that might have for its objetl the enlargement of the column
of air or the increafe of its t'enfity.

This, however, once done away, there feemed no end to
the quantity of air that a coke blaft furnace could with pro-
priety receive before any bad confequences enfued. Denfitv,
however, was found inimical to quantity, and the fame law
was at lad dilcovered to hold good regarding pit coal as
with wood, that the fofter qualities could be overblown,
while the more denfe and conipaft Ilrata remained undinii-
nifhed before a heavier b!a!l.

The celebrated foundery of Carron was begun about the
year 17C0, and as was the cuftom of the times, the opera-
tion of blowing was performed by large bellows moved by
means of a water wheel. Pit coal was the ftaple fuel iu view,
but the fcanty fupply ot air, and its uant of denfity, liJom
permitted the produce of the furnace to exceed 10 or 12 tons
weekly, and frequently, in fummer, the quantity was re-
duced even below this. The company coJlefted irnmenfe
quantities ofcliarcoal wood, and lound their blaft ni'ieh bet-
ter calculated for the operation of fmclting with it, than the
uninflammable pit coal obtained in their neighbourhood.
Experience, however, gradually unfolded means of adopting
machinery, more calculated to the nature of the coal fuel,
more powerful wheels were conftrufted, the bellows was
abandoned, and in their place large iron cylinders were in-
troduced blowing both up and down. A larger column of
air of triple or quadruple denfity was obtained, and tffefts
equivalent to thefe great improvenifnts followed at the blaft
furnaces. The fame furnaces that formerly yielded 10 and
li tons weekly, now fometimes produced 40 tons in the
fame fpace, and on the average in one year not lefs than
1500 tons of metal.

Fruni the period {1750 to 1760) that pit coal coke was
applied as a fubllitutc tor wood charcoal in the blaft furnace,
the iron trade began immediately to revive, and its pro-
grefs in England and Wales, in a period of 30 years, was
truly aftoniftiuig. The general ufe of pit coal, moft un-
queftionably, occafioned an earlier relinquiftiment of many of
the charcoal works, than would have otherwife betn the
cafe, but the colleftive manutafture had fo much increafed,
as to render this an obj. 61 of trifling importance.

The following is a correft ftatenient of the annual manu-
faiflure of pig-iron in England and Wales in the year 178S:

_ „.,_ ,. Total

Charcoal Bl.ift Furnaces.

No. oi"
Fuiiiacts.

Tons at
each.

Gloucefterfhirc

Monmouthlhire

Glamorganftiire

Carmarthenfhire

Merioneth

Shropfltire

Derbyftiire

Yorkftiire

Weftmoreland

Cumberland

Lancafhire

Saffex

4
3

3

I

I

3
I
I
I
I

3
2

650
700
600
400
400
600
300
600
400
300
700
150

each
County,

2600

2100

1800

400

400

1800

3 CO

600
400

300

2100
?oo

Total of charcoal furnaces 24

Average produce from each furnace
Former average produce

13100

Tons. cwt. qr,

545 16 2

294 1 I
251 15 I

BL A

Increafed produce per furnace, from the year 1750 to 1783,
attributable entiiely to the general improvement of machi-
nery, and the introduftion of the lleam engine, 251 Ions,
15 cwt. I qr.

About the year 1750 the annnal quantity of
charcoal pig-iron manufaftured in England
and W?les amounted to - -

In 17SS the fame wai ...

Tons.

I 3 1 oo

Dccreafe in charcoal iron betwixt i750«nd 1788 4250

attnbutable chiefly to the decreafe of wood, but
part owing to the ufe of pit coal as a fubftitute in the

Coke Pig Elail Furnaces in 1788.

No. of
Furnaces.

Shropdiire . - 21

Staffordftiire - .6

Derbyfliire - .7

Yorkftiire . - 6

Cumberland - . i

Chtftiire - - i

Glamorgan ftiire - .6

Brecknockftiire - - 2
Staffordftiire 3 new furnace* expefted

to blow fame year - 3

Tins a
each.

1 100

750
600

750
700
600

I too

800

alfo in
furnace.

Total in

each

County.

23100

4500

4«oo
4500
700
600
6600
1 600

800 2400

•53

48200

Total furnaces and coke pig-iron 1
manufaftured in 1788 - -J

An article entirely new, which though not difcovered, was
rendered a profitable and highly ufeful manufailure in the
lalt 30 years.

Average produce at each furnace 907 tons.

TorT5.
Total of charcoal iron ... '3 100

Ditto of coke pig-iron • - 48200

Total of pig-iron manufaftured in England J ,

and Wales annually - . . f ^'30°

At the fame period in Scotland there were erefted, and
in blaft:, charcoal furnaces in the weft: Highlands, viz.

No. of Tons

Goatfield
Bunawe -

Coke pig furnaces, viz.
Carron
Wilfontown, orCIeugh

Furnaces.
I

each.
700
7C0

4
2

1000
8do

Total.

700
700

4COO
1600

Total quantity of pig-iron manufac- 7 „
tured in Scotland - - j

Average produce for each furnace annu-
ally 875 tons.

Total quantity of pig-iron made in
England and Wales - 77

Annual quantity manufaftured imme-
mcdiatcly preceding the introduc
tion of pit coal for furnace fuel

Annual incteafe in 30 years

85

26

7000

61300
68300

17350
50950

The period of 1788 or 1790 may be called a new aera in

the manufncturing of pig-iron. The double power engine

of Mr. Watt had now become more general, and was

4 C 2 ywirly

B L A

yeaily finding its way into blaft furnace woil<.<. The regu-
lar and increaied effefts of this very powerful machine were
foon felt in mod of the iron eonnties. The produce of the
furnaces in metal grcatlv incrcafed as to quantity, and as
they became more profpcrous, ftimulated others to engage
in limilar undertakings. New works were yearly proicftcd,
and feveral blowing furnaces annually added to the former
lift : (o that in eight years the manufadure of pig-iron had
nearly doubled itfelf.

B L A

The following table is a curious illuftration of tbis facS.
It was drawn up as an authentic document of the returns
made from all the Mall furnace proprietors in Britain, of the
number of their furnaces, and the annual quantity of pig-iron
manufadlured at their rcfpeftive founderies. Thefe returns
were made at a time when it was in the contemplation of the
legiflature to impofe a tax upon pig-iron, and are copied from
Dr. M' Nab's letter to the chairman of the committee of the
houfe of commons upon the fubjcit of the coal trade.

NAMES of all the FURNACES in Great Britain, with the Excife Return of the Qiiantity of Pig Iron
made in 1796; the Quantities fuppofed and calculated upon; and the Returns of the Qu^antities
really made.

NAMES OF FURNACES.

Ni>. of
Funi.iccs.

Divilijn.

Ex ci re-
Ret iiin.

Siippcjfcc)
QuaiUily.

Ex.ifl Ketuin.

From whum this infor-
iiKiiion was leceived.

Apednle, ...

I

Chefter

2100

lOCO

72SI

T.S.

Silverdale,

I

Do.

2600

1200

1230

Ditto

Bear poft,

I

Cumberland

2080

J 200

240

W. R.

Dudden,

I

Do.

1664

400

325

E.K.

Newland, ...

I

Do.

700

700

700

Excife

Backbarrow,

I

Do.

700

700

769

E.K.

Dale Abbey,

I

Derby

474

474

443

A.R.

Morfey Park,

1

Do.

728

728

728

Excife

Butterlby,

I

Do.

936

936

936

Do.

Flaxley, . . -

I

Gloucefter

360

360

, 360

Do.

Foreft of Dean,

I

Do.

20

20

20

Do.

Abbey Tintern,

I

Hereford

70

70

70

not exaftly known

Billiopwood,

I

Do.

500

500

947

E. K.

Corubrook,

I

Do.

J 000

lOCO

482

W. R.

Bringwood,

I

Do.

500

500

250

Do.

Leighton, . . .

I

Do.

780

780

780

Excife

Bowling, ...

2

I^eeds

2000

2000

2000

J.H.

Wibfey Moor,

2

Do.

2000

2000

2500

Do.

Shelf, . . , -

I

Do.

lOCO

1000

1 1J.0

Do.

Birkenfhaw,

I

Do.

780

780

84.6

Do.

Renifhaw, ...

2

Lincoln

500

500

705

J.W.

Old Park,

3

Salop

11:^3^5

(^240

5952

W. R.

Horfchay,

I

Do.

492 :i

2080

'45V^

Do.

Lightmoor,

3

Do.

S946

6240

349841.

Do.

Coalbrooke Dale,

3

Do.

7175'

41^0

2659H

Do.

Madely Wood,
Jack field.

I

Do.

3777i

2080

iS56rV

Do.

2

Do.

7086

4160

J820

Do.

Benthal, ...

I

Do.

2367I

1600

'334

Do.

Willey,

1

Do.

37021

1600

1554I

Do.

Brofely,

I

Do.

'775

1400

1076'

Do.

Ketley,

3

Do.

7590

6240

50681°

Do.

Sned.bill, ...

2

Do.

4730

3400

3367!

Do.

Donnington Wood,

2

Do.

4720

4160

3323

Do.

Chellerfield,

I

Sheffield

940

940

940

Excife

I-ittle Brampton,

2

Do.

1800

1800

1560

Meffrs. S.

Winger Worth,

I

Do.

1274

1274

1274

Excife.

Stavely,

I

Do.

1000

1000

761

W. W.

Park,

I

Do.

1092

1092

^s:.

J.W.

Chapel,

I

Do.

1456

1456

1456

Excife

HornclifFc,

2

Do.

IC92

1092

712

J. W.

Eliliar,

I

Do.

800

800

950

Do.

Brelton, ...

I

Do.

250

250

250

Excife

Holmes, ...

3

Do.

6000

6000

2000

J. W.

Afhburnam,

I

Suffex

172^

'73

•73

Excife

Clydach, ...
Carried forward -

I

South Wales

1820

1820

1625

E.K.

63

107,3181

7;.9o5

61,722^

B L A

B L A

NAMES OF FURNACES.

No. oC
Furnaces.

Di\iIion.

Exrife
Reiiirn.

Suppofed
Qudniity.

E»A Return.

Frunn whum ihi^ infur-
m.ilion «,is leceived.

Erotight forA'ard,

63

1070*85

1 77'905

6l,722i^

Blandare,

I

SouthWales

1404

! 1404

1500

1 E. K.

Blar.avon, ...

?,

Do.

5460

5460

47.8

; Do.

Sir!io\ry, . . -

I

Do.

1820

1820

1930

Do.

Beaufort, ...

I

Do.

1560

1560

IC60

i Do. 1

Pei.yca, or Ebbervale,

I

Do.

1560

1560

397

Do.

H'r«-ain, ...

I

Do.

1400

1400

1050

Do.

Mclyiiicourt,

I

Do.

648

648

5°3

Do.

Enniiygedyr,

I

Do-

1352

1352

800

Do.

Caerrtlly, ...

I

Do.

600

600

69 J

Do.

Cyfartlia, ...

?,

Do.

6goo

6000

7204

R.C.

1 PI) mouth,

I

Do.

2000

2000

2200

; E. K.

P^ncarron,

2

Do.

4000

1 40C0

41C0

Do.

Dowlais, ...

3

Do.

4100

i 54CO

2800

Do;

IJanelly, ...

I

Do.

1664

1664

1560

A. R.

Dovey,

I

Mid Wales

2CO

200

150

E. K.

Ruabone, ...

I

North Wales

1560

1560

1144

\V. R.

Brymbo, ...

I

Do.

8S4

Sikia

Do.

Brymbo-gate,

0

Do.

728

None

Do.

Penyvron,

0

Do.

1498

Lead work

Do.

Pentrobn, ...

0

Do.

1560

Do

Do.

Carmarthen,

I

W. Wales

1056

1056

290

E.K.

Level, ...

I

Staffordlhire

1560

1560

1391

T. S.

Brierlv, ...

I

Do.

1300

1300

io46i

Do.

Dccpfield,

2

Do.

2600

2600

2526

Do.

Biifton,

2

Do.

2340

2340

1429

Do.

Bradley,

3

Do.

3640

3C00

1920

Do.

Grave yard,

I

Do.

1260

. i33'5

213

Do.

Dudley port,

1

Do.

IC40

1040

869

Do.

Tipton, ...

2

Do.

2080

2080

2203

Do.

Gofpel Oak,

I

Do.

1613

Do.

Neath Abbey,

2

SouthWales

3120

3120

1759

E.K.

104

167,312*

'33.965

108,993^^3

SC

3 T C H

FU R N

ACES.

NAMES OF FURNACES,

No. of

Exiife
Return.

Suppofed 1
Quintiiy.

Exa<ft Return.

From whom this "mfor-

l-urnaces.

m.ition was recei\ed.

Carron, - - - -

4

52CO

52CO

5616

T. E.

Wilfontown, - -

2

20^0

2080

A.H.

Muirkirk, ....

i

3120 1

2878

T. E.

Clyde, ....

3

3640 1

2216

Do.

Omoa, . . ...

2 1

1

Devon, ....

2 J

3000

2396

Do.

Goatfield, (Charcoal)

Bunawe, Do. ...

1 1
1 3

1600

300
600

E.K.
T.E.

'7

18,640

16,086

Manufaftured in England and Wales,

IC4

1 33^965 i

108,993

Grand Total,

-

121

152,605

125,079

Average Produce of each of the Englilh and Welfti furnaces, 1048 Tons per Annum.
Ditto of each of the Scotch Furnaces, ... 946

B L A

B L A

The demand for iron niiicles of all kinds in this country
not only coniinuid luiabntcd after the ptiiod of I79f>> but
kept incrcafiug in a greater ratio than formerly ; fo that, in
the fliort foace oi tivc years, fituations were occupied for
nearly 50 additional furnaces, or additions made to efta-
blilhed works of that extent. Betwixt 1801 and \i.'oi, it
was afcertained that the following new furnaces were either
building or adually in blaft, in England, Wales and Scot-
land.

In England and Wales.

Blowing. Cuildiiig.
. - . I o

Silvcrdale,

SnedlhiU,

Wibfey Moor,

Ketiey,

Madely Wood,

Burnet's Leafow,

Newcaftlc, Staffordfliire,

Cvf.irtha, South Wales,

Lianellv, Do.

Sirhiwy, Do.

Bcaukrt, Do,

Plymouth,

Union,

Aberdare,

T'pton, near Billion,

Bloorafield,

Longacres,

We.incfburv,

Staffo-.dihir'e,

Coleford, Gloucefterfhire,

Jack field,

Old Park,

Donnington Wood.

Deepfield, Staffordfliire,

Gornall Wood, Do.

Ericrly Hill,

BilftoP,

, near Wolverhampton,

Dudley Wood,
Billingfly, Shropfhire,
Ncwcaftle upon Tyne,

2

1

I

I

I

o

I

I

I

I

I

o

o

I

o

o

o

I

I

I

o

o

I

I

1

I

o

o

o

o

o
o
o
o
o
I
o
o
&
o
o
I

3
1
I
t
I
o
o
o
I
I
o
o
o
o
I

S
I

2

20

20

In Scotland.

Bl wing.

liuilriing.

Muiikirk, - - I

0

Glenbuck, . . i

0

Calder, - - O

2

Markinch, - - O

2

Shotts, - - 0

I

5

Total of new Blaft Furnaces 22

^5

Furnaces.

England and Wales, in 1796, lo^.
Ditto, fince that period, 40

Scotland, in 1796 - 17

Ditto, fince that period, 7

Tuni.

ioS,903
40,000

144 —

16,086
7.000

1 48,99 J

24

23,086

Grand Total in Britain,

168 making (72,079

Blowing and bulding in Great Britain ; the produce of
which fupj.'jfing them all to have gone to work at the rate
of 1000 tons per annum, from each furnace, would
amount to, from 47 furnaces, 47,000 tons.

Manufafturtd at, and previous ?
to 1796, ia

' > 121 furnaces, 125,079

168 furnaces, 172,079 tons.

The refpeftive proportions of this aflonidiing produce in pig
iron manufactured in England and Wales, aiid in Scotland,
will Hind thus :

In recapitulating the interefting fafls which will refult from
a review of the gii;antic progrefs of this irannfaCtorv, the
regular piogrtfTive quantity made at a furnace is remarkable,
or, which is the itiioc, a diminution o*^ the number of lur-
naces to perform tne fame quantity of labour.

Dudley reprefents, that in h'S day, 1620, there
exifttd, in England and Wales alone, 300 blaft
furnaces, for ttie ioie making of pig iron, to each
of thele have been afligned the yearly pro-
duce of .... 250 tons.

At a period confiderably after thi', arid before
the ufe of pit-coal was found profitable in the fur-
nace, 59 funipces produced yearly 17,350 tons of
ohaicoal iron, or each furnace average, - 294

In 1788, there Hill exillcd in England 24 char-
coal furnaces, wiiich yearly maiiufattured 13,100
tons of metal, or from each furnace, on an
average, - - - - - 545

At the fame period, in England and Wales, 53
blaft furnaces, at which coke was uftd, manufac-
tur. d yearly 48,100 tons, which upon an average
was nearly, tiom each furnace, - - 907

The fame year, in Scotland, 8 furnaces produced
7000 tons of iron, or irom tach furnace, . 875

In 1796, the number of furnaces in England
and Wales amonnted to 104, and yielded 108,993
tons of metal, which from each furnace was
equal to - - - - IO48

Tne fame year, in Scotland, i7 furnaces manu«
faft'.Med 16,086 tons of pig iion, which is from
each furnace, .... g^S

Thefe are by no means fufficient data to form an accurate
opininn of the real progrefs or improvement of our blowing
machinery in Britain. In the collection of turnacts in 1796,
a number of charcoal biafts were included, which, irom
then- general fmall produce, blowing only four, lix, or nine
months a yrar, reduces the average cnnfiderably on the
whole. It may now be fafcly aftcrted, that the average
produce in iron at pit-coal blaft furnaces in England and
Wales, is at malting iron works, - 1 200 tons

Do. at forge p.g works, - - 2000

Thi$ bears a very ftriking contraft to the early exertions
of the manufacturers in the fixteenth and feventeenth centu-
ries, and exhibits a wonderful example of the general and rapid
iniprovemtriit of machinery in the laft 50 years. With the
imp*-! v. n;ents of macliir.ery, the advancement of the manu-
fa'^rurt- ot iron in general, and particularly of coke pig iron,
has kept equal pace. Nor have we facriticed quahty to
quantity, but the reverfe ; for the melting pig iion of our
time is much more calculated for every variety of cafting,
than iron, equally faturated with the coally principle, made
with wcod charcoal.

By comparing the value of a ton of pig iron at different
perii,ai> 'or the laft 200 years, a pretty accurate opinion may
be foifl ed of the increafed price of labour at iron works,
and of the increafed value of an objedt of univerfal utility in
all our arts and manuia£lurcs.

About

B L A

B L A

About the year 1620, charcoal pig iron fold for 61. per ton.

1 7S8, ditto for melting, - 81.

1798, ditto - - 9I. los.

Coke pi? iron, when firft invented by Dudley, "J .
was fold at - - - i

In 1788, it fold for - 5 1. 10 s.

1798, ditto - - 7I. los.

1802, melting iron was - 81. 10 s.
And fmooth-faced N"^ I. fold at - - 9I. 10s.

One thing is here worthy of remark, that in a period of
170 years or.e ton of coke pig iron rofe in value only 33 s.
i.e. betwixt i620and 1^88 ; but that in the fhort period of
14 years following 1788, an advance of 4I. per ton took
place. One thing only may be offered in extenuation of this
immenfe rife, that part of it was owing to the mifunderltand-
ing that took place betwixt this country and fome of the
Baltic powers, which was no fooneradiufted than pig iron fell
in price. The ar'.icle ftill, however, maintains itfclf at 81. 10 s.
per ton, being double the rife in point of Talue in fourteen
years that took place in the one hundred and feventy pre-
ceding the commencement of that period.

To point out proper channels, whereby to account for
the annual confumption of fnch an immenfe quantity of raw
m?.Lerials, would prove a fatisfaftory lource of information.
Tlie endlefs detail into which the foundery trade has now
branched itfelf, the almoll univerfal fabrication which
it embraces, and the extenfive diffufion of the fcites of
manufaftories themfelves, preclude the poflibility of ob-
taining this with ilricl accuracy. The following ftate-
ment, however, will tend to throw fome light upon the

fubjed.

Tons.

It is reckoned, that the bar iron forges in Bri-
tain manufaftured annually from pig iron 40,000
tons of finilhed bars, which, at the rate of 35 cwt.
of pigs for every ton of iron bar produced, will ac-
count for - - - - 70,oco

Confumed yearly in the ereftion of new furnaces,
forges, machii'.ery, &c. ... j,ooo

Purchafed by the board of ordnance in the ftat«
of cannons, mortars, carronades, (liot, and
(hells, &c. on an average of 1794, 5, 6, - 10,935

Wafte in melting from the pig, boring,
&c. - - - - 1.3CO

12.235

Purchafed by the navy board in the ftate of bal-
feft, &c. - - - -

India Company's annual fupply in guns,
fliot, Iheils, carcafes, &c. - 5,CC0

Wafte melting, boring, &c. - 7C0

2,664

Merchant guns, carronades, (hot, &c. for
arming trading vcffcls, - - lo,oco-

Wafte in melting and boring, - i,oco

Ballaft for Merchantmen and India men,

1 1, coo

5,oco

Tons 1 1 1>599

For the difTerence betwixt this and the total manufafturc,
recourfe muft be had to the large exportation to Ireland, and
to the numerous and extenfive cafting founderies of London,
Liverpool, Manchefter, Birmingham, Wcrkingtor, New-
caftle, Edinburgh, Glafgow, &c. none of which melt under
2000 tons yearly, and many of them from 4 to 5000 tons of
melting pig iron.

We ihall now leave this interelUng fubjeft with fome ge-

neral obfervations upon the origin and progrefs of the pig
iron manufafture, and its early ufc in the fabrication of
caftings.

It appears from Dudley, that towards the clofe of the
reign ot queen Elizabeth, blaft furnaces had been conftruAed
of fize, and with machinery fufficient to produce upwards of
two tons of charcoal iron per day. Such great produdts
in iron were moft probably confined to fituations where there
was abundance of water, and where water-wheels and bel-
lows of a confidcrable magnitude were ufed. The more
common modes of operation were confined to furnaces of an
inferior fize, which were fupplied with air by means of
hand-bellows, excited by cattle, or the labour of men. At
the fame period England enjoyed a conflderable export trade,
arihng from her fuperior manufatlure of iron guns, mortars,
&c. As pit-coal had not been applied in any branch to the
mannfafturing of iron, it is probable, that thefe articles
would be call from the large blaft furnaces ; the flame of
wood pofTcifing but feeble cffefts compared to that of pit-
coal, would rtr.der the application of the reverberating fur-
nace, if then known, of no ufe in the cafting of guns and
mortars.

The non-application of pit-coal in every department of
the melting foundery, would greatly retard the perfeAion, or
even improvement of the art of moulding, and catling fmaller
and more general articles. The want of it, as the fmeiting
fuel in the blaft furnace, was long feverely felt by the gene-
ral backward ftate of the art of moulding and calling in this
countrv, and allowed other nations with fewer advantages
to get the ftart of us. It is highly probable, that long be-
fore the period formerly alluded to, the application of pit-
coal had been fpeculated upon, either as an auxiHary, or as
a fubttitute in evei-y branch of the iron bulinefs. Its well
known inflammability and tendency to form a cinder, and
the general decay of wood, would furnifh ample grounds
for what, to many at the time, would be confidered as idle
and vifionary ipeculations. The advantages ariiing from the
trade, as it was then fituated, had been rigidly afcertained,
and fully appreciated by the eftablilhed manufafturers. The
bulii'.cfs, in point of extent, feemed only limited by the
fupply of wood. New ereftions, for want of a proper fup-
ply of materials, became imprafticable ; thofe already en-
gaged were more anxious to preferve their fupply, however
much circumfcribed, than liften to innovation, which, by
fubftituting pit-coal for the cliarcoal of wood, would likely
give to the fpeculatift a great fuperiority in the market. It is
alfo highly probable, that many of the iron works then
eftablLTied were at a confidcrable diftance from pit-coal, the
genera! ir.troduclion of which would prove fatal to their
intereils.

In this view of the fubjeft, the adventurer with capital
had every thing to hope, the eftablifhed manufafturcr every
thing to fear, by change. Under thefe circumftances, the
difcovery, or rather the affertion of the prafticabihty of
making iron with pit-coal, was announced by Simon Sturte-
vant, efq. in the year 1612, who, upon application, was
favoured with a patent from king James, for the exclufive
manufafture of iron with pit-coal, in all its branches, for the
long period of thirty-one years. In return, the faid Simon
Sturtevant bound himfelf to publifh a faithful account c£
his difcoveries, which afterwards appeared in quarto, under
the title of his " Metallica." It ii uncertain to what caufes
his failure was at the time attributed, but in tl'c ex-cution
of his difcoveries upon a large fcale, he had foui.d d:i?.cul-
ties amounting to utter impraclicabihty ; for in the year fol-
lowing, he was obliged to make a lurrendcr of his letters of
monopoly.

The

B L A

B L A

Thi feconJ adventurer ia this unexplored path we find
to have been John R;ivetilon, tlq. who, like Sturtevant,
was fucceliful in oblaiiiiii'^ a paitnt for the new inanufaSure,
hut, like hiui alfo, was inadequate to the completion of it
upon a pvolitable feale. Ravcnion was alfo enjoined to pub-
liih his difcDveries under the title of his " Metalhca," which
was printed for Tliosnns Thorp, anno 1613. Several other
adventurers (Icpped forth, all of whom had tlie mortification
<>t refi'^niusr then- patents, without having contribv.ted to the
luccefs of t)ir-ir ardu mis undcrtaliinp.

In irtii;, l)i'di;y obtained his pate-it, anvi declared, that
allhiunrli he made only at tiie rate of three to:u p::r week,
lie made it with prudt.

This difcovery was perfefted at his father's works at IVn-
feiit, in Worcellerfliire. This gentleman's fuccefi in tiie va-
rious nianufadlurcs of iron with pit-co;,!, had united not only
all the proprietors in the charcoal iron trade, but many new
adventurers, who wiflied to fliare in the emoluments, or to ac-
quire part of the fame of the new difcovery. Their interell
was fuilicient to limit t!ie duration of Dudley's patent from
31 to 14 years. During the greatcit pirt of this period, accord-
ing to his own llatcment, he continued to make pig and bar
iron, and vari.'iis callings ; all of which he fold nmcli lower
than the charcoal manufadurers. In t!ie article of callings
he mnil have had greatly the ilart of the charcoal foun-
dcries, as t!ie quality of melting colce pie iron is farfuperior
to that of charcoal, particularly that made in this country
for the general purpoles of catling. Nor was the luperior
genius of Dudley always an objetl of paffive indifference in
tlie narrow ellimation of the new adventurers and the clla-
blilhed manufailurers. The envy occahoned by his uncom-
mon fucccfs, produced at laft a fpirit of combination, which
terminated in a hollile attack upon his devoted works. His
improved bellows, furnace, forge, S;c. all fell a prey to a
lawlefs banditti, betwixt whom and its furioufs leaders no
fhades of diftinction were vifible, but thofe of avarice, ig-
norance, and the moll contemptible prejudice.

To evade the mode of operation difcovered by Dudley,
or to introduce the making of coke pig iron with greater ad-
vantages, a new plan was adopted by captain Buck, major
Wildman, and others, in the foreft of Dean, where they
credted large air-furiiaccs, into which they introduced clay
pots refembling thofe ufed at glufs-houfes, tilled with the
neceffary preparations of ore and charcoal. The furnaces
were heated with the flame of pit-coal ; and it is pro-
bable, that by tapping the pots below, it was expected that
the feparated metal would flow out. This rude procefs of
alTaying on a large fcale, was in the end found utterly im-
practicable ; the heat was inadequate to perftdl fepara-
tion ; the pots cracked ; and, in a fhort lime, the procefa
was abandoned altogether.

The misfortunes which befel the fanguine, hut unfortu-
nate Dudley, were an irreparable lofs to the perfeftion of the
coke pig procefs. The hoilile rivalfliips he had to encoun-
ter, in conlequcnce of the new ground lie had occupied as a
raanufadiirer, together with a zealous attachment to the
royal saufe during the civil war which followed his dif-
covery, completely prevented his improvements from attain-
ing a pitch of permanency and general utdity. The re-
fufal of a new patent after the reftoration, prevented him
from again ent;ring the laborious paths of difcovery and
improvement, although it appears, that his former appli-
eation to the perfecting of this branch of manufaifture had
not been unfuccefsful, for in place of three tons of coke pig
weekly, in his. petition praying for .1. renewal of his ancient
rights, he ilates th;:t he could now manufiAure feven tons
by means of a large furnace, and an improved bellows.
I

No greater pitch of improvement took place for nearly
one hundred years after this period. The pradicabllity
of the manufa£ture wa; difcovered ; but the mode of obtain-
ing quantity, to enfnre in general a profitable return, de-
pended upon other circuml!ances than the proportioning of
the raw materials together. Had machinery received the lame
improvements in the tim.e of Dudley, it is more than proba-
ble that the rapid progrcls of the coke pig trade would have
dated its origin from that period. But this gre;;t ara in the
hiilory of our manufactures was referved for a much later
date : and in the improvements of the ileani engine, we fee
new life and exiftence conferred upon every fpecies of art
that can be made fubjcc^ to motion or mechanical con-
trol.

1j[..\st Furnace JForh, are large and expenlive buildings
for the m^iuifacturing of pig iron. An erection upon the
fmallell icile mull confill of a furnace, calling-houfe, bridge-
houfe, and blowing engine. The latter is fometimes, thougli
feldom, worked by means of a water-wheel. The moll uni-
verfal mode of blowing is by means of a fleam engine. See
Blowing Miic/:i;u:

There is no general plan laid down foi- building a blafl
fjrnace work. The lingular fituation which (liould be oc-
cupied, to itifure every conveniency, renders this dependent
upon the nature of the ground.

It is always reckoned a great advantage to place the
blowing machine at as ihort a dillance as poffible from the
furnace or furnaces, that the air may have the leall poffible
travel in the conducting pipes. V/hen this cannot be con-
veniently effedted, the diameter of the pipes ought to be
made fufficiently large to admit of the blall palfing without
any material frietion.

The ufual appendages to blaft furnaces are mines of coal,
iron-ftone, and lime-llone. And thefe foim no incon-
fiderable portion of the whole expence.

In fituations where blaft furnace building materials are
at a moderate price, and where no uncommon difKcuIty
occurs in the progrefs of the general operations, 15000!.
of funk capital may be deemed requifite for one furnace ;
and for every furnace after this, io,oool. may be added.

This great capital for many years kept the trade in the
hands of a few ; but of late, lince capitalills have become
more common, the number and extent of the blall furnace
erections have become truly allonilbing.

The following defcriptions of plates illuftrative of the
plan and arrangement of blall furnace works will co!i»ey a
tolerable idea of the nature of thefe buildings.

P/i!te XL jj.A,'/? Fiiniiiie IVorL', reprefents the ground plan
of an entire fabric, confilling of

A ileam-engine for blowing two furnacef.

2 Blaft furnaces.

2 Bridge-houfes. .

1 Catting-houfe.
■I Boiler-houfe.

2 Boilers.

I Chimney for boiler flues.

A, Engine-houfe, 40 feet long, iS feet wide.

B, Pedeftal for fleam cylinder ; 7 feet fquare at bafe, and
4 feet at top.

C, Pedeftal for blowing, or air cylinder. Bafe 10 feet
fquare, top 7 feet fquare. Thefe are generally built of folid
hewn ftone, and bedded with the greateft accuracy. From
centre to centre of the two pedcftals is 24 feet,' which is
alfo the diftance betwixt centre and centre of the fleam and
air cylinders.

D, Door or opening through the lever wall. This wall
at bottom is built 5 ! feet thick, but is occafionally reduced

in

B L A

B L A

in point of tliicknefs to 3I feet at top, 33 may be feen at the
correfponding letter in the feclion.

F, Door or opening from the engine into the boiler-houfe.
An opening above this ferves to conduct the (learn pipe
from the boiler to the fteam apparatus at the cj'linder.

E, Door or opening for carr)-ing through the blaft pipes
from the top and bottom of the air cylinder to the water re-
ceiver below.

G, The boiler-houfe, 40 feet bv 30 within the walls.
As this is excavated from the folid hill to the depth of 30
feet, it is requifite to have the walls uncommonly (Irong.
Thofe in the plan are 6 feet thick at bottom, and are reduced
at three different heights in thicknefs, as reprefented by
the interior lines.

H H, Two boiler feats for boilers, 18 feet long, 9 J feet
Kigh, and 7 feet wide.

1 I, Fire-places, 6 feet fquare.

K K, Dead-plates before the bars or grates.

I> L, Openings where the furnace doors are hung.

M M, Semi-circular openings formed beyond the dotted
line, or termination of the boiler, in which tlie flame from the
grates rifes to enter the iron flue or tube, which is placed in
the centre of the boiler.

N, Chimney, zi feet fquare within, and 50 feet in total
height ; from the bottom of the flue 42, and 8 feet from the
foundation.

O O, Coal pits for containing fmall coals for the engine's
fupply. Thefe are 8 feet by 6 at bottom, and widen
gradually as they approach the furface of the c ike yard.
The coals are there emptied from the cart into thefe receivers,
and the engine-man eafily fupplies his wants from the
fmall openings which communicate with O into the boiler-
houfe.

P P, Bridge-houfes for containing cokes, iron-ftone, and
lime-ftone, for fiUing the furnace. Meafurement within 42
by 40 feet.

Q^Q^ Doors or entrances from the coke yard into the
bridge-houfes.

R R, Openings from the bridge-houfe, which is here con-
nefted with the furnace, by means of an arch and parapet
walls. This is more fully feen in the elevation feftion P.
Along this bridge the materials are carried or wheeled into
the mouth of the furnace.

S S, Two blaft furnaces, 34 feet fquare in the bafe.

T, Cafting-houfe 1C2 feet long by 4? in width, from the
front wall or arch of the furnace, or 88 feet wide from the
front wall of the engine and bridge-houfes, and 24 feet high
in the fide walls.

W, Watei receiver for receiving and equalizing the column
of blaft. Length 40 feet, and breadth 1 8 feet.

V, The fpace in which the equivalent column of water
rifes, 3 feet wide. The exterior line denotes the inverted
iron cheft ; the interior linerj, the difFerent bafements formed
by the ftone work laid upon the cheft to prevent it from rifing
when the engine is at work.

Y, Termination of the blaft conduft pipes from the air
cylinder into the iron receiver, 2 feet 6 inches diameter.

Z, Pofition for the horizontal range of pipes to branch
off, which are meant to convey the blaft to the oppofite
tuyeres, a a, betwixt the back wall of the furnace, and the
bridge-houfe.

bb. The two tuyere fides next the water prelTiTre. From
Y proceeds a ftraight pipe along the centre line b, for con-
veying the blaft to that fide of the furnace.

c c. Front arches, under which the furnace workmen per-
form all the labour of tapping, calling, and cleaning the fur-
nace.

Vol. IV.

1} d. The fpaces inclofed within thefe dotted lines are
called pig beds. They are kept conftantly filled with fand,
and in them the operation of moulding and running the pig
metal is couftantlv performed.

Plaie XII. Bliijl Furnace worh.

Elevated feftion of the ground plan, Piati XI. through.
N F B D C E and X.

A, Iniide of the blaft engine-houfe.

B, Steam cylinder pedeftal.

C, Blowing or air cylinder pedeftal. Both of thefe are
built upon 4 or 6 inch planking, laid upon ftrong logs, which
are again fupported upon the folid ftone buildings, a a, run-
ning from the lower wall along the fide wall of the engine-
houfe, to the wall perpendicular to E. The binding down
bolts that pafs through the flanges of the cylinders are
ftrongly keyed upon the under fide of the logs, and are at
n'l times ca'.ily accefiible.

D, The lever wall and opening of communication be-
twixt the fteam and blowing end of the engine-houfe.

F, Door or opening into the calling houfe and water re-
gulators.

E, Door to the boiier houfe.

G, The boiler-houfe.

H, One of the boiler feats.

I, One of the boilers, 18 feet long, by 9 J wide, by 7 high.

K, Manhole door for entering t!ie boiler.

L, Tliorough arch in the foundation of the chimney.

M, Throat, or opening into the chimney, for the pafiage
of the flame and fmoke.

O, Coal pit for containing fuel for the engine.

P, Arched pafiage of communication betwixt the bridge-
houfe and furnace mouth. The opening in the bridge-houfe
is more diftincUy feen at R, P'.ate XI.

S, Side view of one of the blaft furnaces, as conneftcd
with its correfponding bridge-houfe.

W, Water vault, orciilcrn, for receiving the invertedcbeft.
In rocky foundations this is cut out of the rock, but in
foft ground the excavation is made and lined with well jointed
mafon work, puddled behind with clay to prevent the lols of
water.

T, Cafting-houfe and roof.

b. The tuyere arch.

c. The fow, or lintel of caft-iron, 12 inches fqi:are.

d. The orifice at which the blaii enters, called the tuyere.

e. Spring beams of the engine houft, A. Thefe are com*
pofedof two logs 14 inches fquare. The main gudgeon,
feat, and beam reft upon thefe.

f. Stay logs for the fteam cylinder.

g. Ditto, for the blowing cylinder.

Defcription of P.WXIII. Blajl Furnace Wcih.

Crofs feftion and elevation of Flute X\. through S Y S.

S S, Seftion of two blaft tiirnaces, and their fitjatioa as
connected with the blowing apparatus.

Y, The branch pipe for communicating the air to the in-
fide tuyeres of the furnace. This pipe has another
branch of communication behind, which cunnecls it to the
blaft pipes which dcfcend from the blowing cyiinder at A,
and to the double column of pipes which are carried rouiii
behind the furnace to the oppofite tuveres.

C C, View of the pipes which convey the air to the oppo-
fite tuyeres, where double bhifts are in ufe.

D, Front wall of engine abd bridge-houfes.

X, Iron cheft inverted in the water receiver, and cor-
nefted with the blaft pipes.

VV, Opening all round for the water to afcend, as it be-
comes expreficd from the cheft by the impelling force of tlie
blaft.

4 D O, iogs

B L A

0, Logs on wliich the cheft is inverted, to preferve it from
the floor of the water receiver, from 12 inches to 18 of
fpace.

Defcription of Plate XIV. Blnjl Furnace IVorh.

Ground plan of an extcnfive blall furnace foiindery, con-
.filling of four furnaces and two blaft engines. The peculiar
conftruiftion of this plan h, that only one furnace may be
erected at a time, and afterwards the whole number ; fbll
preferving that regularity and uniformity of deljgn wliich
will at any time make the blowing machinery of one part
fubfervient to the whole, in cafe ol accidents, ftoppages for
repairs, &c.

A, Engine houfc, with cylinder, pedellals, lever wall,
openings, &c.

B B, Two boiler-feats and boilers.

CC, Water regulators for the blall, which conveniently
communicates, by means of pipes, with the blowing cy-
linders, placed upon the pedeftals behind A, I.

DD, &c. Centre line of the vi'liole blall pipes. This exten-
five column may be fo arranged, as to enable the furnaces to
be blown each with two tuyeres ; and the blaft of one engine
made to pafs through the whole. The general communica-
tion is cffefted by carrying the chief column either behind
the furnaces, or, as in the plate, through the main pillar
0/ the furnace, by means of an arched opening 3 feet
wide.

E, Ground plan of the hearth, fquares, and pillars of four
blaft furnaces.

FFFF, Bridge-houfes for materials, and filling or charg-
ing the furnace.
. GGGGG, Openings into the furnace top.

H, Cafting-houfe.

1, Second blaft-engine, upon the fame plan as A. Each
of thefe two engines ought to be calculated to blow two
furnaces, and occafionally, when any thing goes wrong with
one, the blaft of the other could be eafily diftributed for a
time among all the furnaces.

BLASTED, in Antiqxul\\ fomething ftruck with a llajl.

Among the Romans, places blafted with lightning were
to be confecrated to Jupiter, under the name of b'ldentalia,
and puteal'ia. It was alio a ceremonial of religion to burn
blafted bodies in the fire.

BLASTING of J}on:s, in Jlgrirjture, the operation of
tearing afunder large ftones or rocks, which are in the way
of the plough or other inttruments employed in breaking up
ground, by means of gun-powder. The method of per-
forming this bufinefs is by boring a large hole, eight, ten,
twelve, or more inches deep, according to the nature and fize
of the ftone or rock to be blafled, by means of a chifel for the
purpofe, and then introducing a fufficient quantity of gun-
powder, and afterwards carefully ramming the hole up with
fmall fragments of ftone or other fohd materials, only
leaving a very fmall aperture, by placing a fteel pricker of
fufficient length and fuitable dimenflons, with a handle at
the top, at firft into the powder, and frequently turning it
round while the hole is ramming up. After the hole is quite
tilled, by forcing the hard materials in with a proper inftru-
ment, the pricker is withdrawn, and the aperture left by
it filled to the top with gun-powder, and then a match of
tow, ftraw, or other light inflammable material laid to it,
and fet on fire.

It is obferved by Mr. Headrick, in the fecond volume of
♦' Communications to the Board of Agriculture," that in
Older to perform this operation properly fome experience is
necclfary, and that a ik:Uul work.nan can frequently rend
iloiies into three equal pieces, without caufing the fragments
to fly about. This, he fays, depends upon the depth and

8

B L A

pofition of the bore. It is alfo remarked, that n fmall por-
tion of qnick-lime, in fine powder, is toiind to increafe the
force, and confequently to diminifli t+ie cxpi-nce of Wafting
ftones. On thefe grounds the following is off'ered as a fub-
ftitute for gun-powder, which is now become very expen-
five, though, as is freely confcftt-d, without any experience of
its effctls. Suppofing_/^. I, Plate III. {/!j^rkti!ii:re)loht a
large ftone to be blafted or rent ; « ^, a bore ftnt dov.n into it iu
the ufual manner. This bore being then well cleinicd out and
dried, is to be .filled from ito c with the pureft quick-lime, or
fuch as fvv-ells moft in flaking. That it may be perfeftly quick,
it ftiould be taken red hot from the kiln, or the fmall furnace
where it has been burnt ; being then rammed in hard with
the jumper or punch ae, the upper part of the bore is to be
crammed with rotten rock in tiie ordinary way. The pricker
being removed leaves the aperture at b ; a b, a fmall pipe of
copper, of lefs diameter than the needle or pricker, having
an orifice about the dimenfionsof the ftraw, ufed to convey the
fire down to the gun-powder, with a funnel d to receive water,
is introduced into the aperture. Perhaps a ftraw or fmall reed
ftuck in the lower part of the funnel, among tallow or bees-
wax, might fcrve the purpofe of a copper-pipe. Things being
thus prepared, pour water into the funnel d ; and if the pipe
be not too high, fo as to prevent the air from efcapijig from
the aperture, left by the pricker, it will defcend and caufe
the lime to flake in the bore <: ^. Every one knows how
irrefiftibly the pureft quick-lime attrafts water, and with
what prodigious force it expands in flaking into three or
four timts its former bulk. From thefe data it is therefore
inferred, that the flaking of lime, in fuch circumftances,
would burft or rend the ftoneyin pieces ; but the fucccfs of
fuch an experiment, it is obferved, muft depend entirely
upon ufing lime of the utmoft purity, and having it very
■hot, and perfeftly cauftic when it is put in.

It is further remarked, that if the bore c i were filled with
water, and the aperture afterwards rammed up, the water
being made to freeze by cold, would rend the ftone ; for
when water paffes from a fluid to a folid form, it expands
with irrefiftible force, tliough froll cannot be depended upon
in this climate.

BLASTOLOGY, from /9x«ro;, b^id, and ^M, I gather ;
the regular and flated pruning of vines.

BLATNA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia in the
circle of Prachalitz, near which is an inland lake, which is the
fource of the river Uflava.

BLATTA, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a purple in
the wool or filk, dyed with the liquor of the blatta.

This was otherwife denominated blatta /erica, or blalloferl-
cum ; whence alio blaltiarhis, ufed in ancient writers for a
dyer in purple.

Blatta, in Enlomcjlogy, a genus oi hymenopterous infefts,
called in England cccL-roaches, or blach beetles. The head
is inflected ; antenna; fetaceous; feelers unequal and filiform ;
wing- cafes and wings fm'ooth, the former fomewhat coria-
ceous ; thorax flattiih, orbicular, and margined ; legs formed
for running ; abdomen tenr.inating in two articulated ap-
pendages above the tail.

The blatta:, confidercd in a colleftive point of view, arc a
very troublefome race of infefts. Certain kinds, that are hap-
pily for us flill peculiar only to the hotter parts of the world,
are fo formidable both in refpeft of number and talents for
doing mifcbicf, that they are really confidered as a peft to fo-
ciety in thole countries wliich they infcft. Thefe noxious crea-
tures enter houfesand commit various deprcdationson the fur-
niture, devour provifions of every kind, tear or gnaw holes in
clothe.Sj torment the inhabitants with their bite, and otherwife
do confiderable injury. The fort of blatta moft abundant in

, England

B L A

B L A

England was orlg-inally a native of the caftern parts of the
glob , or, as feme fiippofr, of America, from whence it
was loiici fince imported into Europe, and is now coin-
p'etrly naturalized to our climate. This is the hlnrta onental'ts
of lyllematic writers. Anothtr creature of t'.is kind, blaltn
ylnier'uana, was alfo introduced with the raw fugars brought
loirie years ago to Europe from America.

All the known fpcries of cock-roaches, whether in the
larva, pupa, or pcrfeft winged Rate, fecrtte themfelv-s in the
day time, and wander about during the night in fearch of
food. In allulion to this circumftance, the ancients called
them lucifug;e, infcfts that Ihun the light. The common
cock-roach will eat almoll any fort of provifion, preferring,
however, bread, meal, fugar, and ftale meat, either of which
it is obferved to devour with the greateft eagenufs. Ex-
cept in being completely dellitute of wings and wing-cafes
the larva refembles the perfetl iiifedt, and in the pupa ftate
nothing more than the rudiments of the wings are percepti-
ble. In the dark they are remarkably attive and brific in all
th.eir motions, and on the leail difturbauce, or the return of
light, retreat again to their lurking places with timidity and
precipitation. They can fly fwiftly, but they feldom ufe
their wings for this purpofe ; even when moft clofely pur-
fucd they are known to trull rather to their legs, with which
they are able to run with no fmall celerity. The fumes of
charcoal, we are told, may be employed with fuccefs in de-
ftroying thcfe unwelcome inmates.

The following fpecies of the hlatta genus, are defcribed by
Linnxus, Fabricius, Gmclin, &c. viz. giganlcci, madcri!:,
tegypttaca, occ'ulentalh, funnamcnjjs, americana, mijlra'ajij;,
erylhocepbala, capenjis, intiica, nivea, irrorata, •vlrijis,
brcifdlenfis, pellveriana, oricrital'ts, c'tnda, picla, •vartegata,
lappon'ica, gcrmanica, riificollis, maculata, mcirg'inata, oh-
longatiu mtithiln, fufca, deujla, chlorotica, lahjftma, nterrirra,
ferfpkillaris, afiatlca, fcheffen, fylvejlr'u, pennfyl-van'ica, livi-
ffa, rufa, gnfen, mlnutifftma, aptera, pundulata, oce/lata, which
fee, refpeClively.

Blatta, according to fome writers, was alfo ufed for a
particular kind of kermes, or chermes ; or, according to
others, for " the purple-worm," by which the coccus cadi,
or cochitiearm[t& was moft likely meant. But both of thefe
acceptations are fufpicious. We kr.owthat the word blatta
was anciently ufed for a kind of moth, whole fat was reputed
excellent for the cars. This laft was called the book-worm
moth. See Book-worm.

Blatta Americava ofCatefby is oi \\\<! fi'.pha genus with
modern entomologifts. Gmelin fpeaksof ii under the hame
of S'dphii Americana.

Blatta by%ant'ina, in Phy/iology and Pharmacy, the oper-
culum, or lid of a turbinated ihcU, whufe filh yields a purple
dye.

The llatta differs from the lid of the luccwtint-or pur-
pura, in iignre ; the firft being.oblong, the latter round:
but in the (hops they are ordmaiily confounded, and fold
for erch other. The blatta byz-antiua is alfo confounded by
apothecaries with the unguis odoratus, from which it
ought to be diftinguilhcd, as belonging to another kind of
ftell-filh.

Dr. Lifter takes the blatta byzantina to have fucceeded the
unguis odoratus, and to have been brought into the fhops in
its place. In Diofcorides's time, the bell was brought from
the Red Sea, viz. the paleft and fatteft ; the blacker and It Is,
from Babylon, or the Perfian gulf: but it feems, latter times
took up with thofe found about Conllantinople ; whence
the prefent fhop-i/a.'/a had its name.

The name bialta feems- to have been given to this opercu-
lum from the colour ; as being of a dark hair-colour, as the

common Malta orienlalis, or common ro^iJ-rMf^, fo frequent
in London, is.

The blatta byrcantirn, when exhibited internally, renders
the body foluble, fuftens the fplcen, and difculTes peccant
hur-iours. When ufed externally, by way of fumigation, it
reftores epileptic patients, and women labouring under a
ftrangulation of the uterus. In other difordtrs its tffecls are
the fame with thofe of moll teftaceotis fubltaiices.

BLATTARIA, \nB'>taiiy. See Celsia, Lythrum,
PHNTAPETFs,and Verbascum.

BLATTERI^, Affinms. See Lvsimachia.

BLATTINIJS, in Entomology, a {pedes of Jlapiyl!r:;j
that inhabits Auftria ; the colour is black ; thorax broad ;
wing-cafes and the legs teftaceous and gloffy. Shranck. Inf.

BLATUM-Bi;lgium, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
montory of Britain, mentioned in Antonine's Itinerar)-, con-
cei-ning the fituation of whicii antiquarians have entertained
different opinions. Camden, Gale, Baxter, and fome others,
have fixed it at Boulnefs, on the fouth coa'.l of Solway firth,
at the end of Sevems's wall ; yet Mr. Horfley affi ^ns its fitua-
tion at Middleby in Annandale. Here, as at the moft remote
!i-nit of the province of Britain, Antonine commences his
fecond route. A military way led from Blatum-Bulgium to
Luguvallium, or Carlifle.

BLAU, in Geography, a river of Germany, in the circle
of Sw^bia, which rifes near the foot of a hill in the Blau-
topfe, as it is called, and runs into the Danube at Ulm.

BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany in the circle of
Swabia and duchy of Wirtemberg, in a fmall diftricl of the
fame name, feated on the river Blau, 7 miles W. of Ulm.

BLAUDRUSELU.S, in Zoology^ (olaft'en ill.), phoca
criflata of Erxleben and Gmelin, and hooded fenl of Pennant.

BLAUENTHAL, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony.

BL AUER-Bocx, in Zoology, one of the names given by
authors to the blue antelope, antilope Icucophica. \ ide Kolbe

VoRGEB.

BLAVET, in Biography, a celebrated performer on the
German flute, the firft, perhaps, who greatly diilinguifhed
himfelf by that inllrument after it fuperfedcd the com-
mon-flute, and became in general ufe. He was born at
Befan^on, and coming to Paris in 1723, foon acquired a
great reputation. The prince of Carignon, who knew his
merit, enhfted him in hisfervice; gave him an apartment
in his hotel, and a penfion. He was afterwards appointed
fuperintendant of the comte de Clermont's band, and re-
mained in that nobleman's fervice to the end of his life.

To his admirable talents, Blavet joined the refpeftable
virtues of focitty ; his manners and conduct were blamelefs,
his temper tranquil, and his probity fcrupulous. He mar-
ried at eighteen, and lived upwards of fifty years with his
wife in uninterrupted harmony and afftftion. We are
always glad when to great profcfTlonal abilities, fuch an
eftimable character can be joined.

Blavet's excellence on the German flute had been heard
of all over Europe, before the character of Weideman was
eftablilhed in England, or that of Q^antz in Germany.

About the end of i^C-^ he was attacked with the ftone,
which was a malady then more dangerous than it became
afterwards, by the ll<ill, experience, and fuccefs of eminent
furgeons; but determining too foon, like our poor countryman
Dr. Worgan, to fubmit to the operation, he died under
it in 17 S, leaving behind him the elteem and regret of all
who knev/ him.

Blavet, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into
th-. fea oppofite Belle Ifle. This forms a good harbour and
fpacious road.

4 D 2 BLAU-

B L E

BLAUFELCHEN,in Ickhyology,\.\\t name under which
SJmo IVartmanni of Bloch and Gmehn is defcribed by
Wartmann Befth Berl. Naturf. Fr. 3. p. 184.

BLAVIGNAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lozere, and chief place of a canton in
the diftrift of St. Chely d'Apcher; 6 miles fouth of
St. Chely.

BLAUKOEPFIGr. Rothe Amsel Frifch, one of
the fynonymous names of iiiriiiis minor; Gmel.

BLAUMEISE, in Ornhhohgy (Frifch. Hift.of Birds),
the blue titmoufe of Englifh writers, znd parus caruleus of
Linnxus.

BLAUSLUYS, in Geography, a town of Holland, 2
leagues well of Gcrtnefdenburg.

BLAUSPECHT, in Ornithology, the name of the com-
mon nut-hatch ; Jitla Europua in Frifch. Hift. of Birds.

BLAYE, Blavia, or Blavutum, in Geography, a fea-
port town of France, in the department of the Girondc, and
chief place of a diftrift of the fame name featedoniheGironde,
or Garonne, near its conflux with the Dordogne. Its citadel
is fituate on a high rock, and it is defended by a fort con-
ftrufted on an ifland in the river, which is here 1900 toifcs
wide ; and on the other fide of the river, in the countiy of
Mendoc, is another fort. AU fhips that are going up the
river to Bourdeaux, depofit their arms and cannon at Blaye,
before they pafs the river, and take them up on their return.
The town contains 358c, and the canton 13,819, inhabitants.
The territory comprehends 160 kiliometres, and 14 com-
munes. It is dillant 20 miles north from Bourdeaux.
N.lat. 45°9'. W.long. o°45'.

BLAYMARD, or Bleymard, a towm of France, in the
department of Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift of Mendc. The place contains 546, and the canton
11,802, inhabitants. Its territory comprehends 347* kilio-
metres, and II communes; 3^ leagues ealt of Mende.

BLAZE, in the Manege. See Star.

BLAZEGNIES, in Geography. See Malplaquet.

BLAZEY Bay, a bay in the Englifh channel, on the
fouth coaft of Cornwall, between Fowey and Deadman point.

BLAZING Star. See Comet.

BLAZON, or Blason, in Heraldry. To emilazonk a
term ri<rnifying the defcription of things borne in coat-ar-
mour, in fuch manner as they ought to be reprefcnted, ac-
cording to the rules of heraldry. To llazon, originally fig-
nilied the blowing or winding of an horn by the heralds,
at julls and tournaments, when they proclaimed and recorded
the atchievcments of the combatants.

BLEA, in Vegelablfs, is tliat part of a tree, which lies
immediately under the bark, and between that and the hard
wood, and' is the firil progrefs of the alteration of the bark
into wood by the natural growth and ilrergthening of the
fibres. See Botany.

While the blea remains yet loft, and retains fonnething of
the nature of bark, it may maintain a feeble vegetation ;
but when it is grown abfolutcly hard and woody, it can
contribute nothing to the growth of the tree. The ve-
getation of the young branches of trees is the moll lively
and vigorous, and the only one that goes as far as the
flowers and fruit, becaufe thefe branches are little elfe but
bark.

BLEACHING. The art of bleaching confills in re-
moving the coloured matters intermixed with vegetable and
animal fubllances in their natural Rate, or fuch as they have
fubfequently imbibed by accident, or fomc artificial procefs.
Edward Huffey Delaval, cfq. F.R.S. has fliewn, by a num-
ber of accurate experiments on the caufe of the permanent
colours of opake bodies, publilhcd in the fecond volume of

B L E

the fecond edition of the Memoirs of the Literary and
Philofophical Society of Manchefter, '< that when the co-
louring matter of plants is extrafted from them, the fohd
fibrous parts, thus diveRed of their covering, difplay that
whitenefs which is their diflinguifliing charafter. White
paper and hnen are formed of fuch fibrous vegetable matter,
which is bleached by difiblving and detaching the hetero-
geneous coloured particles." He further obferves, " it
appears that the earth, which forms the fohd fubitance of
plants, is white ; that it is feparable from the colouring matter
by feveral means ; that whenever it is either pure and unmixed,
or diffufed through tranfparent colourlefs media, it exhibits
its whitenefs, and is the only vegetable matter which is en-
dued with a refleftive power ; that the colours of vege-
tables are produced by the light reflecled from this white
matter, and tranfmittcd from thence through the coloured
coat or covering, which is formed on its furface by the co-
louring particles ; that whenever the colouring matter is
either difcharged or divided by folution into particles, too
minute to exhibit any colour, the folid earthy fubflance is
expofed to view, and difplays that whitenefs, which, as be-
fore noticed, is its dillinguilhing charafier.

He Rates that in all thofe animal matters which do exhibit
colours, the colouring particles are endued with the fame
properties, and are regulated by the fame laws, which pre-
vail in vegetable fubitances.

A reference to the original paper can only dojuRice to the
obfervations of this excellent philofophtr, confirmed by
numberlefs experiments ; but what is already faid will be
fufRcient to give an idea of the nature of the procefs of
bleaching, and that it depends on the removal of the matter
interpofed betwixt the air and this white fubllance.

The national importance of bleaching is fo great, that it
comprehends nearly the whole of the cotton and linen manu-
fatlure, and goes to an extent beyond moll other arts.

Its operation in thefe branches may be confidered under
two points; viz. ill, the feparation of extraneous fubRances
from linen and cotton, which is effefted by lleeping, ferment-
ation, or weak alkaline leys ; 2d, the feparation of the ccn-
ftituent or inherent colouring matters of thofe fubllances,
which is effefted by different modes, and by various modi-
fications of each method, as expofure to the air, light, the
ufe of alkaline leys, foap, oxygenated muriatic acid, combina-
tions of oxygenated muriatic acid with other m.attcrs, fuU
phuric acid, hepar fulphu'ris, &c.

To imprefs upon the mind the nature of the bleaching
bufinefs, it will be proper firR to deicnbe the vcRlls ufed ia
the fundry operations of Recping, boiling, bucking, wafhing,
fouring, &c. then proceed to fhew the management of each
procefs, with fome obfervations on its effedls; and, laRly, how
to make or procure the articles necelTarily employed in this
art, and the method of afcertaining the qualities of each,
adding fome obfervations on the theory of the operations.
Bleaching of goods, particularly cotton manufadlurcs.

ifl. On Steeping.
The veffels generally ufed in bleaching are made of fuch
wood as will not communicate any colour to the liquors
they are to contain, and therefore deal or fir wood is pre-
ferable to moil others. The veffels employed for Reeping the
goods when received from the loom are ufually of the form A,
fg. I. Plate I. Bleaching. The goods when received from
the weaver contain not only the natural colouring matter of
the cotton, which is of an oily nature, and which prevents
the cloth from eafily imbibing water, but alfo a fubftance
called fowins, being a paRe made of Hour and water, ufed
during the weaving, and applied with brufhes upon the
v.arp, in order to give a firmnefs to the threads by glueing

or

II

B L E

or palling together tbe loofe fibre! of the threads, and thus
allowing them to pafs more freely through the reed and
harnefs. To remove this fubflance, and to open the fibres
of the cotton, fo as to give full cffett to the fubfequent ope-
rations, it is proper to fteep the goods in a veifel of the
above form in lukewarm water, till a gentle fermentation
takes place, which will ufually be efiecled in 24 hours. The
cloth fhould then be taken out, and well wafhed in a current
of clear water, which will thus I'cparate a confiderable quan-
tity of filth without the expence of ufing alkaline leys ; and
the cloth is then ready to be boiled or bucked as may be
preferred by the bleacher.

2d, On Boiling.
For boiling, a copper vcflfel is to be preferred, and the
goods prepared, as above mentioned, by lleeping and wadi-
ing, are put into the veflel containing hot water only, or
warm alkaline ley ; a winch is placed over the vtiTel, and the
piec" goods attached to the ends of each other, are, when
put 111 motijn by th-^ handle of the winch, dragged or rolled
over it till the who'e are pafled ; the winch is then turned
with a rerrograde motion, and the cloth gradually thus re-
turned back, in order that every part of each piece may be
thoro.'.^hly imar^ niated with the liquor, which is raifed to
and kept 5t a boi'ing heat, as long as it appears to extraft
any r.olourini: t. i-rr from the cloth; the goods are then
takon out a".d w<li wafhed in water.

I'i^. I. P/afelV, fr.e-vc -; ic'iian of the boilincr pan A, of
copper, fet in brick-vork ii ; the wincti C, with its handle
D ; E, uprig Its "t wood, on which the winch turns ; F, a
cock to emo:%' the pan ; G, the fire-place ; H, the afh-hole.
1 he uU of this prccefs dfpends upon the prjperties
wh-ch aikahne falts have of uniting with the oily and re-
fi :ou6 matters whkh are either attached to or are a con-
ftituent part of vegetable fibres, and which contain their
colouring particle:, forming with them a faponaceous matter,
folubl? in water, and by that means eafily extricated from
the c;., ;h.

3d, Or. Buciing.
As this is one of the moll general operations ia bleaching,
it wil! be necelTary to defcribe it riiore particularly. Fig. 1.
Plal: 1. under the word iuciiiig, Ihews at A the form of the
bi'ciiing tub or kier, in which the goods are to be laid ; B is
an iron boiler, in which the alkaline falts, as pot-afhes or
pearl-aflies, are to be dilTolved in boiling water ; C is the fire-
pb.ce, in which a fire is conflautly kept up ; D is the afh-hole;
E, a cock through which the boiling ley is let out upon
the goods ciofely placed together in the bucking tub, A.
A fufiicient quantity of boiling ley is let into the bucking
tub, till all the goods in the tub are thoroughly impregnated
with it ; the ley liquor is then allowed to pafs by a cock
at H into an iron vcfTel placed in the ground at F, and from
thence raifed by the pump G into the iron boiler B, and
thence returned hot again upon the cloth. This operation
is continued for fcveral hours, till the ley, by the feparation
of the colouring rrr.tter in the clo^h, acquires a colour almofl
black, a very offcnfive fmell, and nearly the confillence of
molafles or treacle. The cloth is then taken out, well wafhed
from its impu ties, and, in the old modeof bleaching, it is then
laid upon the ground to be whitened by expofure to the at-
molpiiere, but. :ri the new mode of bleaching, is fubmitted to
the aftiou of cl.c -jxygenated muriatic acid, to procure a fimi-
lar (Viiircnefs. It may be proper here to notice, that the
old and new methods of bleaching are yet much the fame as
formerly, r;.ly in the fubllitution of the ufe of the oxy-
genated m'.:Nrit;c acid in thofe parts of the procefs, where a
long expoUne to the atmofphere was formerly employed after
the alkaline ievs.

B L E

The operation of bucking afts on a fimilar principle to
that of boiling, but in a much more forcible manner, as a
greater quantity of allies is added in proportion to the
water made ufe of, and more heat is received and retained in
the large bulk of cloth placed in the bucking tub, which
expands the fibres of the cotton, and admits the more power-
ful aftion of the alkali, as is eafily dcmoiittrated by obferving
the very dark colour of the alkaline leys which have been
ufed in bucking, in comparifon with thofe which have been
employed in boiling goods. To thofe perfons who wifh for
a-'ftiil and minute account of the abforption and power of
heat, we recommend a perufal of count Rumford's intereft-
ing eflays on the fuhjecl of heat.

The black alkaline ley which remains after bucking fhould
be preferved, as it will aiifwcr, after evaporating and cal-
cining, as her'.-after mentioned, to form again frefh alkaline
falts of good quality. With a view to. preferve as much
of the ley as polTible, it will be advifeable to wring it
out into a tub from the cloth or yarn, after it is bucked,
by the method fhewn in PLitelV. Jig. ;}. where RR are
two ftrong pulls, fixed firm in the ground, S T two wring,
ing hooks, upon which the cloth U is" twilled, to force out
the liquor, by vV^, a winch handle, which turns the hook
round on the poll R. The two hooks are kept at a proper
diilance from each other, one by a collar at X, the other by
an iron pin at Y, which runs through a hole in the fquare
part belonging to the hook T, which fquare has feveral holes
in it to bring this hook nearer to the hook S when re-
quired.

4th, Souring.
This procefs confiils in immerfing, for the fpace of twelve
hours, or more, the yarn or cotton in a mixture of water and
fulphuric acid (vitriolic acid), well incorporated ; the proper
flrength of which mixture is about the acidity of lemon
juice, and is ufually direfted by the tafle. The four kettle
fhould be made o.f lead, of a form which can be heated ; the
heat of the hquor fhould not be greater than the hand can
bear with eafe. This four kettle fhould be half funk within
the ground, as fhewn in PLif IV. Jig. 2. where M is a fcc-
tion of the fouring velTel ; N, the level of the ground ; O, the
brickwork ; P, the fire-place, which is a half circle, or arch,
without any grate ; II I, a fpace filled with dry afhes, be-
twixt the lower part of the four vefTcl and the brick-work,
in order to preferve the heat of the liq'ior in that part of the
velTcl below the furface of the ground ; K, a brick hearth, on
which part of the fire is made ; L. a call iron plate, bending in
the formof thefourkettle, whichis intended to pi event the fire
placed on the floor at P K, from acting upon the lead of the
four vefTel ; Q, the fpace betwixt the veffel and brick-work,
through which the fmoke goes to the chimney.

The conflruction of this apparatus is upon the fame prin-
ciple as the warm vats made ufe of by the blue dyers, the
intent not being to make the hquor boil, but to keep it at
a degree of heat which the hand can long and eafily bear.
There are no grate or bars ncceffary in this fire-place, as the
coals will bum with fufEcient rapidity without them.

The goods may be put into this acid liquor either in a
wet or dry '•ftate. The befl plan is to immerfe the goods
in the evening in the acid hquor cold, let them remain co-
vered with it all night, then in the morning make a fire
and bring the hquor to a blood heat, in which Hate ha\ ing
a winch over the veffel, fimilar to that reprefented at C,fig. i.
give the goods a few turns over it, that every part ot them
may be expofed to the adiion of the liquor. The goods
may then be lapped round the winch to drain a little, to pre«
vent an unnecefTary wafle of the acid liquor, and afterwards
carried to the wafh-wheel, or river, to be well wafhed from

the

B L E

the rcid, fo that the cloth may be perfefHy taftelcfs to the
tongue. It is a remarkable circumltaiice, that cloth may
remain immerfed a very confiderable time in a ilrong acid
liquor without rotting, but that if expofcd to the air or heat
of a ftove, if a very fmall portion of acidity remains in the
cloth, it becomes fo concentrated by heat, as to damage the
cloth immediately ; therefore too much attention cannot be
paid to this point.

The ufe of the acid liquor above-mentioned is to diiTolve
any earthy or metallic matters inhertnt in the cloth, or
which may have been communicated to it accidentally,
or which it mav have derived from the impurity of the
allcali::e lalts uled in th.e bucking or boiling.

A confiderable quantity of the acid liquor may be pre-
fervcd by palhng the goods which have been foured through
a tub of clean cold water, previous to wafhing them, and
replenllhiiig the four kettle with this acidulated liquor, rather
than water only.

5th, IVaJ/jing.
After everv operation in which acids or alkaline fubftanccs
are ufed in blc iching, it is neceffary that the goods ftould
he well waflied in clear water ; it is therefore of the greateft
confcqutnce that the water of a bleach ground Ihould be
pure, and in confiderable quantities, fuch, for inllance, as is
perfectly tranfparent, will not curdle with ioap, nor yield
anv degree of blackntfs with powdered gall nuts, or, which
is a more accurate tell, with a tintlure of galls by infulion in
fpirits of wine.

Various methods have been invented for the purpofe of
wafhing out the impurities of the articles to be bleached ;
fiich as cleanimg them in a large current of water by (baking
tliem with the hand in the llream, beating them on blocks of
wood with a flat paddle, or haiiJ-brufh, beating them on a
laiL'e fiat Hone with h)ng wooden levers, flatted underreath,
palling them over winches placed above veflels of water, or
nvers, as/^j. i. and ^. Plate II. pafling them betwixt plain
or fluted rollers, as /%. ^. and 6. putting them under fulling
tni'ls, or fulling ftocks, Zijig.'j. or within wafli-.vheels, as
Ji^: 1. av.d 2. and by many other modes, few of which are
equal, and perhaps none (uperior, to thofe of which enorav-
in.;sare here given, for doing the bufinefs firrply, effectually,
and with eaie to the workmen ; the latter point of which is
of confequence to be attended to, as it will be univerfally
found in every mechanical employment, that if the lead ad-
ditional labour or care is required from the workmen, how-
ever great the eittfts produced, prejudice or indolence will
prevent thtir doing juftice to the invention. Under thefe
circumilances, the walh-wheel reprefented in PlnteW. Jig. i,
3, 4, is the bell machine for general ufe, and the leall liable
to occafion damage to the goods. The front of the waih-
wheel reprefeiUed at A, fig. i. is fuppoled to be eight feet
diameter, exclulive of the buckets B, (hewn by dotted lines
on its periphery, which give it motion from the water falling
into them. This wheel is divided within into four pnrts or
quarters, by the Ilrong arms projefting from the fliafts D,
to the outer circle ; in each of thefe fepaiate quarters or boxes,
reprefented by dotted lines, one or more jjieces of goods
whicrt require wafliing, are put loofely folded together
through one of the holes C, of 14 inches diameter.

Fig. 2. (hews the back part ot the (aid wa(h-whecl, which
is made of (olid planks, excepting a grate offiendcr iron bars
niarked R, which encircles the wheel underneath the fepa-
ration boards or bottoms of the buckets ; the ufe of this
grating is to admit within the wheel a current of clear water
from the pipe (^ When an equal number of piece goods have
been introduced into each of the four divilions ail the wheel
by the holes, C, &c. above mentioned, a current of clear water

B L E

is permitted to run through a cock from the pipe Q, agaiuft
the grating R, which allows it to flow tieely through into
the boxes, or thofe parts of the wheel wliich contain the
goods ; a valve is then opened from the trough P, commu-
nicating with a large relervoir or ftreaiu of water, a fiifiicient
quantity of which is let into the outlide buckets from the
valve, to give the proper motion to the walh-wheel contain-
ing tlie goods. In every revolution of the wheel, the goods
in each quarter of it are thrown twice, by the fimple motion
of the wheel, with great force againll the arms which form
the tour divifions of it; viz. once in going down, and once
in rifing up. The ear can diftingu'fli by the firmr.eis of the
found when the wheel moves with proper velocity ; and a
greater or lefs quantity of water is allowed to aft ;:pon the
buckets till that is attained, which ufually is when the wheel
makes 15 or 16 revolutions in a minute. -During the \\ hole
time the wheel is in motion, the ftream ot clear water from
the pipe Q^ flows upon the goods within the wheel in every
diredtion ; and the dirty water, produced from thus wafliing
the goods, runs out of the wheels from a nuirber of holes
bored through the wood-work near the axle, and a few made
■in the front near the outer crcle of the wheel. Fig. 4.
fliews an end view of the wafh-uheel, about thirty iiicLes
wide, with the manner that the bucket-work is made

It has been found toanfwer equally well to make ufe of a
greater number of wafli wheels of a fmaller iize, as lix feet
diameter and two feet wide, of which feveral may be put
in motion at once by a large water-wheel, horfes, or a llcam
engine.

The goods, when taken out of the wafh-whcel, y.re to be
unfolded, and taken to tlie river to be llrcamcd, or may
be v."i(hed from any impurities which may ren:ain in the
folds by means of a winch N, Jig. i and 3. Plate II. where
fix pieces of cloth are rcprefeiiccd in the adion of walhing
in a large wooden back divided into fix partitions, to prevent
the pieces of goods entangling vvtli each other. Fig. i. is
a fide view of tlie operation, where the dotted lines reprtftnt
the partitions which ieparate the goods; I, a trundle wheel,
.which being put in motion by the cogs, H, of the wafli-wheel,
turns the winch on its axle, which winch may at any time
be detached from it by the handle M drawing the catch K
from the hook, as is (liewn in the top eiewjfg. 3. where alfo
is explained, at the letters OOOOOO, the manner in which
each piece of goods is kept in its proper place on the winch,
by the partiti. ns above mentiontel, and by angular flips of
wood nailed to the back and partitions.

To affill the drying of the goods after wafhing, they are
ufually paffcd betwixt two fmall rollers, commonly called
fqncezers, reprefented at Jig, 5, where G is a folid wooden
frame, containing two wooden rollers, each from 10 to 16
inches long, on an iron axis, which rollers receive a pro"j>er
prefTure by means of the two fcrews T afling on an iron bar
V, w Inch rells on the two ends of the axis of the top roller, as
fhewn by the dotted lines. In proportion as the fcrews prefs
the iron bar upon the axle of the top roller, it brings that
roller clofer in contaft with the bottom roller, and occafions
more water to be preffed out of the cloth, which is pafftd
betwixt them loofely drawn together, fomething like a rope,
and the goods therefore require lefs time in the fubitqucut
drying. In this ph^te the Iqucezcrs are connetted with the
wafli-wheel above mentioned by a fquare iron focket, which,
as IS fhewn at F, Aides occallonally upon the fquares of both
axles. Fig. 4. fliews at S the buckets of the walli-wheel, on
which the water falls to give it motion ; H, the cogs round
its axle, which work the trundle wheel I.

Fig. 6. P/ate II. fhews two views of another machine
ufed for cleanfing cotton goods, confilling of two fluted or

grooved

I

B L E

l^roovcd i-ollei!, in tlie iedlion of which a reprefeiits the fills,
or bottom timbers ; I b, the two fupports or fide pieces ; c,
one of the upright pieces in which the axles of the rollers
art placed ; dd, the two crofs pieces lo fecure the frame
\vork below; e e, the two rollers with fjrooved channels
which tit to each other ; h, one of thi; levers, which, from
a point /, fliewn by dotted lines, prefleson the round en3 of
the axle of the top roller, more or lefs, according as the
weight k is placed on the lever further from or nearer to
the axi? of the roller.

In the geometrical elevali in of the fame machine, ce (hews
a front view of the two rollers ; ^^i^, the wincli to turn it,
with a lioUow wood handle upon the iion work ; /, the axis
of the upper roller projeiling beyond the fide timber, fo as
to admit one of the levers h above mentioned to prcfs upon it.

The wet goods, by being pafTcd backwards and forwards
through thefe fluted rollers, wiiich are conilruc^ed at a much
lefs expence than wafli-whcels, are confidcrably cleanfed,
but not fo perfectly as by the wafli-wheeis above men-
tioned.

Fig. 7. Plate II. explains another mode of cleanfing
goods, and is applicable to cotton, linen, or woollen goods,
but more generally to the two laft, as, without great ciire
in its management, it is very apt to tear or damage cotton
goods. This machinery isufually termed falling flocks, or
falling hammers. N° 1. is the axle of the water-wheel, in
which are fixed tappets at 2, to raife alternately the levers
3, 4, furnifli.-d with large wooden mallets or hammer heads
C, 8, channelled at the lower part as at 8. Thefe lever ham-
mers or fallers, work from a pin fixed in the upright at 7 j
9 is a ftrong piece of timber hollowed out at 10, to receive
the goods to be clearfed ; II, a piece of timber fixed a-flant
to keep the fallers in their proper place, and direft their
motion ; 12, a chain faftened to each faller, ferving by
means of the hook 13, to fufpend the faller whilft the goods
are put in or taken out of the cavity 10.

When the goods to be cleanfed are placed in a loofe
bundle in this cavity, the hummers arc let down upon them,
and put in motion alternately by the tappets 2, in rota-
tion, which raife the levers to a certain height, and then
quitting them, the hammer heads by their great weight, fall
with great force on the goods in the cavity below them ; and
a current of clear water being admitted upon the goods irom
a cock above them, the dirty water runs out at a hole in the
bottom of the cavity. The falling of the hammers gives a
flow circular motion to the goods in the cavity, fo as to
expofe the feveral parts in rotation to the aftion of the
hammers.

Having noticed the veffels made ufe of in bleaching, and
the general nature of the feveral operations, we (hall now
proceed to mention the origin of the feveral improvements
made in this art, and their application to praiftice.

Under the operation of ftceping, we havefhewn the method
of removing the colouring matters not natural to the vege-
table, but acquired in the manufafture, and which may pro-
bably be beil done by water alone, though fometimes fome
of the old leys, which have been previoudy nfed to other
cloth, are employed to this piirpofe. After the lleeping,
and indeed after evei-y application of bleaching agents, it
fhould be laid down as a general rule, that the cloth or
goods be carefully wafhed in cold water.

In the old method of bleaching, alkalies, fuch as pearl or
pot-a(hes, were, after .lecping, applied by bucking or boil-
ing, with alternate expofure to the atmofphere.

Alkalies aftiiig fo important a part, it is necelfai-y to de-
fcribe the bleachers' mude of ufmg them, which confifts in
diffolving them in clean water, and thus forming what is

B L E

termed an alh-ley. To which the more intelligent bleacher,
if he does not make ufe of American pot-a(h, or that of a
fimilar quality, adds 3 of quicklime, whereby the a(hes are
rendered caullic, and their power materially augmented.
But in order that no inconvenience may arile from caullicity,
after mixture, the whole is allowed to fettle, arid from the
pure liquor thereof the work is afterwards fiipplied ; the
bleacher, in drawing it off, rtducin.< it by the addition of
water to the different ftrengths which the gouds may req'iire.

The ley being prepared, the bleacher proceeds to apply
it to the cloth by bucking or by boiling.

In bi'tking, the alkaline ley is put into the boikr be-
fore dtfcribed, near to and below which is the wooden vefiel
called a kier, in which the goods are looiVly and regulaily
arranged. After ttiia, a fire is put under the boiler, and
beginning whilff the ley is yet cold, it i,-; made to circulate
through the cloth in the kier, from which it runs into the
iron vcffel placed in the ground, from this it is pumped up
into the boiler, and again returned upon the cloth in the
kier; and this circulation is maintained, and the heat at the
fame time increafed, until the ley be fo far concentrated by
evaporation, as at lall to remain alni(;ll wholly in the cloth.
'1 uis is generally the operation of a day, and the cloth is
allowed afterwands to remain thus impregnated with the
concentrated ley until next morning.

In boiling in alkaline leys, the mode of which has been
before dcfcribed, tlie operation is cont'uued from one hour
to five or fix hours, but it is more tedious and lefs effectual
than bucking, where much bufincfs is to be done.

After bucking or boiling, the goods were, by the old
bleaching procefs, expofed for at Icafl a week to tlie air,
before they were again fubmitted to the a£lion of aUialine
leys, and this procefs alternately repeated many times, till
the goods were perfecily white, and the goods at lall feared
and walhed off.

To explain the old method of Ikac'nng more particularly,
we (hall add the following procefs for bleaching hnen cloth.

Steep your raw hnen cloth in a wood veiicl all night,
then change the water, and add frefh till you perceive the
water to be no hinger difcoloured by it ; rmle, wring, and
lay it on the ground, and water it if you have opportunity.
When It has thus lain on the grals three or four days, and is
dry, take hold of each piece one after the other by the fel-
vedge, and draw the cloth to you, tlill holding it in the moll
even manner you can, until you get the further end, with the
corners of which further end you tie the cloth very loofcly in
the middle of the folds, and fo lay it in the bucking tub, with
the two felvedges upwards.

Tluis proceed till you have placed as much cloth in your
tub as will cover the bottom of it, taking care not to pack.
the cloth fo clofe but that your ley may penetrate every part
equally. When you have laid tlie firfl range of cloth in yo'.:r
tub, pour upon it as much milk-warm ley as will fufficiently
foak through all parts of your cloth. Then lay another ranpe
in the fame manner upon the fir(l, and pour on more ley till
that be toaked as the other was, and continue fo to do till
your bucking tub be full of cloth.

That done, you mull begin to buck for twelve hours to-
gether, the remainder of your ley having been put in the
pan with a (low fire underneath. For the firfl five hours the
ley Ihoald not be of a boihng heat ; you mull from time to
time allow fome of the ley to run out of the pan upon the
cloth in the bucki.ig tub ; then iacreafe your fire gradually
and flowly, fo as in four hours more to bring it to a boil,
continuing to put on the ley, and diaw it off your cloth ia
fmall quantities at a time. When your ley begins to boil,
you mull let it boil on for three hours, during the whole

time

B L E

time pi:mpiiig your ley i;o to the boiler from the refervoir, into
vvhicli it Hills from the cloth, and returning it bciling hot
upon tlie clolh, lb that the hot ley may aft powerfully and
equally upon every part thereof.

After each bucking your cloth mud be laid upon the
grafs in the blcach-ficld for fome days. The bucking, and
expofure on the ground, mud be repeated about ten times
fucceffively, according to the nature of your cloth ; it (liould
then be dried up, fourtd, and wafhed well in clean water ;
if the water is rather warm, the better.

Your two firit buckings ought to be from a (Irongcauftic
ley of pot-afhes ; but afterwards you (liould abate of that
fireiigth, left it (liould injure your cloth. Mild ley, or pearl-
a(h, (liould be ufod for the latter buckings, as the cloth
becomes nearer white.

This was the management during the fummer months ;
but for four months in winter bleaching \v:;s fulpended, the
operations being periodically interrupted, and the capital of
the manufafturers or proprietors of the goods locked up.
Even during the bleaching months, their property was long in
preparing for fale ; as cotton goods, which required from
four to fix applications or repetitions of alkaline leys, con-
lumed fo many weeks in bleaching, whilll linens, which
could not be bleached by Icfs than from twelve to twenty
applications, could not be brought in a marketable (late to
the proprietor hardly in fix months.

Such was the (late of bleaching till Mr. Scheele, a Swede
and eminent chemift, difcovered tlic properties of oxygenated
muriatic acid, procured by mixing manganefe with marine
acid, in rendering vegetable matter white ; and M. Berthol-
let, the celebrated French chemift, improved tliis operation,
and aftually applied its powers in bleaching cotton goods by
interpoiiiig its aftion between the different alkaline opera-
tions inftead of the tedious expofure of the goods to an un-
certain atmofphere ; the fame effeft being produced by im-
merfion of the cloth in this acid, as by laying the goods
upon the grafs in the bleach-field, expofed to air and
light.

Difcovery of and Sanations in the Mode of procuring the
Oxygenated Muriatic Acid.

By the addition of vitriolic acid to common fait, an elaf-
tic aeriform fluid, or muriatic gas, is difengaged, from
which with water a marine acid is produced. The mineral
fubftance manganefe, or what the modern chemifts call oxyd
of manganefe, contains what was formerly denominated
vital air, pure air, or dephlogiftlcated air, but now named
oxygen. Manganefe yields oxygen, when marine acid is
added to it, and fubmitted to diftillation ; the liquor pro-
duced by the contaft of this oxygen with water, is the oxy-
genated marine or muriatic acid difcovered by Mr. Schtele,
about the year 1774, when he obferved and applied its ef-
fects in rendering eolourlefs vegetable fubilances of various
kinds, more as a matter of curiofity than ufe.

M. BerthoUet, in the year 1786, improved the procefs of
its preparation, applied its power to bleaching or deftroying
the vegetable colours natural to cloth, the refult of which
experiments he gave to the world in the year 1789 ; but,
without derogating from the merit of this excellent che-
mift, it is juliice to Hate, that, previous to any publica-
tion by M. BerthoUet, Mr, Scheele communicated to
Mr. Kirwan the properties of the dephlogiftlcated marine
acid in whitening vegetable fubftances, and Mr. Kirwan,
then refidiiig in Newman-Street, London, fuggefted to Mr.
C. Taylor, the prefent fecretary to the Society of Arts, &c.
the probalDilitv of its ufe in bleaching ; and a whole piece of
callico, in the ttale received from the loom, was, in the Ipring
of i/iiS, adualiy bleached white, printed in permaneut co-

B L E

lours, and produced in theManchefter market ready for fale,
having undergone all iheie operations in lefs than 48 hours,
by the joint efforts of Mr. Cooper, Mr. Baker, and Mr.
Tsylor, which is perhaps the firft entire piece, either in
France or England, that fully afcertained the real merits of
the new mode of bleaching, and a certainty that it might be
generally ufeful in commerce. This experiment was imme-
diately followed by the eftablifhment of a large bleaching
concern by Mr. Cooper, Mr. Baker, and Mr. Horridge, at
Raikes, near Bolton, in Lancaftiire, and before any confi-
derablc bleac'-iing work was aftually at work in France.

The ingenous Mr. Watt we believe to be the firil perfon
who fimplified the procefs of preparing the oxygenated mu-
riatic acid, by means of a mixture of common fait and man-
ganefe, previous to the addition of the vitriolic acid. Soon
afterwards the operations of the bleacher were farther facih-
tated by the fubftitution of large and commodious ftills of
lead, inftead of glafs veffels, and both thefe improvements
have fince been in general ufe.

We (hall now proceed to mark the various treatment of
the oxygenated muriatic acid when obtained, and the differ-
ent means which have been adapted to fit it for application
in bleaching.

It having been found in the earlier ftages of diftillation,
that common marine acid was produced inltead of the de-
phiogifticated or oxygenated muriatic acid ; and from the
violence of the ebullition, that manganefe itfelf was fome-
times thrown over from the ilill, M. BerthoUet had recourfe
to an intermediate velfel, containing water, to abforb the ma-
rine acid gas, and ftop other impurities which might conta-
minate the oxygenated muriatic gas in its paffage through
this veffcl to the receiver.

It will here be neceffary to difcriminate the various modes
in which the oxygenated muriatic gas has been treated, after
pafling the intermediate veffel laft mentioned.

Mr. Scheele feems generally to have operated with the acid
in the ftate of gas ; but M. BerthoUet fought to condenfe it
in water, with which he filled his receiver, or wooden veffel,
and which water he kept agitated during the diftillation, to
accelerate the folution or combination of the gas.

The oxygenated muriatic acid, tiius prepared, was drawn
from the receiver into kiers, or large wooden veffels, where
its ftrengch was regulated by the addition of water ; after
which, the goods to be bleached were immerfed therein
from fix to twelve hours, but moft frequently during the
night ; and though thefe periods may feem fhoit, they were
fufficient to allow the cloth to become more white than
could be done by as many days' expofure to the atmofphere
and a fummer's fun, and were then ready for a frefh appli-
cation of the alkahne leys.

Such was the bleaching liquor of M. BerthoUet ; but it
was found in praftice yet defeftive, as the volatility of the
gas occafioned its fpeedy feparation from the aqueous folu-
tion ; a decompofition even by light alone in glafs veffels
took place ; a rapid lofs in the ftrength of the liquor when
expofed; and much danger to the health of the workmen
from its fuffocating quality ; at the fame time, that in ex-
trafting the natural colours of the cloth, it alfo tended to
difcharge the colours dyed in the yarn, and were along with
the gray cotton an imperfeftion which precluded its ufe in
an infinite variety of Britifh manufaftures.

Similar circumftances probably led fome bleachers refident
at Javelle, in France, to add a folution of cauftic alkali to
the water in the receiver, and by this means to remedy
many of the defefts complained of.

But M. BerthoUet continued to recommend his procefs,
eonfidering fuch fubftance as impairing the bleachiag powers ;

7 an

B L E

an i3ea tliat was genei-ally maintained by the cliemUls, but
«ontradiifted by the bleachers, whofe experience taught them,
that though the acid thus combined whitened with fome-
■what lefs rapidity, yet it was not eventually in an inferior
extent ; and the advantages of preferving the colours dyed in
the yarn, compelled them to have recourfe to the expenlive
addition of pot-a(hes, in preference to M. Berthollet's
anode.

Here we (hall obferve, that, according to the doflrine of
the modern chemifts, the oxygenated muilatic acid bleaches
in confequence of yielding to the colouring matter of the
scloth that oxygen which, in the diftillation, the acid ab-
forbed from the manganefe; orj in the language of Stahl
and Becher, that the dephlogifticated marine acid abforbed
the colouring matter from the cloth, and was reftored to its
■original ftate of common marine acid, bv regaining that
yhlogifton which it had, in its preparation, yielded to the
inanganefe.

In the mixture of an alkali with the acid, we have noticed
that the bad confcqucnces arifing from its volatility have
foeen corrected, and the requifite protedlion afforded to dyed
•colours, yet Hill that its power of whiceiiing cloth was eot
•dirainifhed, nor much more time taken up by the operation ;
Tct, in part from deference to M. Berthollet's opinion, and
in part owing to the expence of the alkali, other means to
produce the effect were attempted.

One of the firil of thefc, praftifed by the bleachers of
cotton-hofe, at Nottingham, was to receive tlic dephlogifti-
cated muriatic gas into a fmall air-tight chamber, in the
upper part of which the goods wei-e fufpended from a
frame, whilft at feme diflance below was water, fometimes
impregnated with ley of pot-afli, and fomecimes with lime-
water, or water mixed with lirne^ The gas was introduced
betwixt the fluid and the goods, amongit which it afcended
find mixed ; at the fame tune, by occafionally immtrfing
the goods in the fluid below, it was fought to modify the
4i6lion of the acid. This was effefted by means of a pole,
or long lever, connefted with the frame on which the goods
wrere fufpended, the centre of which pole moved on a Iwivel
fixed in a hole in the partition, occahonally liopped with
day, and enabled a perlon to let the goods down into the
fluid, not always however without inconvenience, which oc-
■Cafioned it the name of the Bedlam Precefi,

Refpeiling the above procefs it muft. be obferved, that
the acid is much more powerful or adtive in the ftate of gas
than in any other way ; and though the occafional immerhon
of the goods into the fluid below, contcted in fome degree
^jts violent effecls, yet the dyed colours difappeared move
rapidly in this than in any other procefs, and tlie fabric
kfelf was fometimes injured.

The next procefs attempted by the bleachers, was to put
into the receiver, filled with water, a quantity of pulverized
lime, then the goods themfelves, and the whole agitated
■during the admiffion of the gas ; the confequence of wl-ich
■was, that the goods thus mixed with lime were partially
coated with it ; and this coating being unequal, the ailion
of the acid upon it v<zs irregular, leaving at the fame time
the parts uncoated to receive the whole ac^tion of the bleach-
ing powers ; hence inequality of bleaching enfucd, and an
inlurmountable difficulty in preferving the dyed colours
of the goods to be bleached.

Having noticed the imperfetlions of the two lafl proceffes,
we fhall obferve that hme-water, or a pur ■ chemical folLition
of lime in water, has been fometimes fubilituted inftead of a
■solution of alkalies in the receiver, but was not, when ufed
in that manner, found to anfwer To well as the alkahjie fo
lution.

Vol. IV,

B L E

That lime-water conld produce no valuable effeft beyond
what was derived from M. Berthollet's mode, or from Am-
ple water, muft be evident, when it is confidered that water
can diffolve no more than ^^s-'h part of its weight of lime,
a quantity wholly infignificant in neutralizing the oxygenated
muriatic acid for the purpofe of the bleacher; nor could pul-
verized hme, merely thrown into the water of the receiver,
ferve a better purpofe, fince, from its being fpecifically
heavier than the water, all beyond the quantity in chemical
folution fubfided and remained nearly ufelefs at the bottom
ot the receiver.

It has been already mentioned, in noticing the application
of alkaline leys in bleaching, that the more intelligent
bleachers, in preparing their adi-leys, made ufe of quicklime
to augment the power of the alkali, when fuch alkali was in
a mild ftate, or, in other words, combined with lixed
air, or, as it is now termed, carbonic acid ; the at-
traction of cauftic lime for the carbonic acid being ftronger
than that of adies. Hence, on cauftic lime being thrown
into mild afti-ley, the carbonic acid, by which the afhe*
Wire rendc"ed mild, abandons the alkah to combine witk
the lime, leaving the afnes in their cauftic ftate.

But, although the attraction of carbonic acid is ftronger
for lime than for alkali, the contrary is the cafe with the oxy-
genated muriatic acid, as it abandons lime to combine with
alhes, leaving the lime to precipitate.

This obfervation is made in order to guard the ignorant
bleacher from millakes, who, from having mixed lin^e witk
his afli-iey in the receiver, in the preparation of the oxygen-
ated marine acid, may fuppofe it afts in a fimilar manner ;
but not a particle of lime is acted upon by the acid, whiltl
alhes remain to combine with it ; the only effeft of the linve
there, being toabftract from the alhes any fixed air they may
contain, and fo difpofe the alkah to abforb more of the oxy-
genated muriatic acid,

Befides the proceffes above mentioned, the bleachers at-
tempted to unite the oxygenated muriatic acid with clay ; but
as the clay has fcarcely any affinity with it, the liquor thu«
made was httle, if at all, fuperior to that of M. Ber.hoilet.

Such were the attempts made from the year 1786; and
the oxygenated muriatic acid combined with pot-aih was ia
general ufc by the bleacher until 179S, when Mr. Tcnnant,
of Glafgoiv, by a well-condufted feries of experiments, formed
what may not improperly 'be called a new aera in bleaching.

Mr. Tennant, having feen fo long a period clapfe without
any material improvement in bleaching, and the alkali,
tliough an expenfive ingredient, regarded by the bleacher a*
an indifpenfible article to uiiite witii the oxygenated muria-
tic ac'd in the receiver, made fome trials with the earthg
ftrontites and barytes, and with fuccefs. Their fohibility
in water enabled iiim to combine them with a fufficient
quantity of oxygenated muriatic acid to ferve the purpofe {
but the fcarcity of ftrontites, au'l the difficulty of feparatin^
barytes from the vitriolic acid, with v/hich it is ufuallv found
in combination, rendered thefe difcoveries rather objetts of
curiofity than ufe.

Mr. Tennant had previoudy made eicperiments to combine
the oxygenated muristic acid with lime and lime-water, ia
the modes above-mentioned, but found they were not ade-
<juate to tlie purpofes intended ; the lim.e in general remain,
ing at the bottom of the receiver tuicorabincd with the gas,
which was the neceHary confequence of the lime being fpeci-
fically heavier than the water, and the gas ranch ligiiter ;
the water, by its interpofition betwixt the two fubftauces
which ought to be combined, namely the oxygenated muri-
atic gas and the hme, preventing their union. To brinj
the pulverized lime mx/i contact with tlie gas as quick^ a»
«K it

B L E

it entered the receiver, became then the oLi-,e\ of his atten-
tion ; and for this purpofe he found it was necelTary to keep
the lime floating, or diffufcd tlirough the fluid, which he
Succeeded in accoinplifliing by two diflVrcnt methods ; one
of which was by increafing the fpccilic gravity of the water
in the receiver, by the addition of common fait, and thus re-
tarding the lime from fubfiding ; tiie other mode was by
conftant agitation of the lime in the water in the receiver, to
keep the lime diffnfed through the fluid, during the time the
oxygenated muriatic gas was introduced ; and by t'lis means
he fucceeded in uniting and retaining a much greater quan-
tity of gas with the mixture, than by any method heretofore
ufed, and without the addition of any afli^s or alkaline
fub Glances.

A very material advantage was gained by this difcovery ;
Tiamely, that it uniformiy afforded fecurity to the dyed co-
lours in a fuperior degree to the alkaline ley.

It is well known, that in the alkali of commerce, fuch as
pot-afli or pearl-afli, a large and very irregular proporrum
of neutral falts is intermixed, which are foluble along with
the alkali in water, thereby fo far contaminating the ley,
that the bleacher is always uncertain what quantity of pure
and aftive alkali it contains. In bucking or boiling cotton
poods, the detriment from thefe neutral falls is not fo great,
as a repetition of the procefs may compenfate for thofe ad-
mixtures in the ley : but in the bleaching liquor formed by
the mixture of the oxygenated muriatic gas with fuch ley,
if there is a deficiency of alkali, the uucombined oxymuriatic
acid immediately attacks the dyed colours of the goods, and
difcharges them , and thus confiderable damage frequently
occurs before the real origin of the evil is afcertained and
correfted. Ti>e bleacher is kept in a conftant ftate of alarm
refpcfting the quality of the alhes he makes ufe of, befides
the great colt of their purchafe. In ufing lime for the fame
purpofe, the exptnce is a mere trifle ; what is not combined
■with the oxymuriatic acid precipitates, after the agitation
is over, leaving a pure liquor free from ail uncombined
acid.

Simple as the combination of the lime with the oxygen-
ated muriatic acid may now appear, yet it was a long time
attempted in vain ; but this, pcrhap", will not be fo much a
inatter of furprize, when we refleft that the French chemitts,
vhofe opinions were regarded generally as law by the com-
inon bleachers, and whofe treatifes on the fubj.-ck of bleach-
inof were almofl; the only nccounts publiihed, confidered
lime as no further ufeful in lleaching, than in abforbing the
carbonic acid or fixed air ufually combined vs-ith alkalies or
arties ; and thus rendering the alkaline ley more difpofed to
tjnite with the oxygenated muriatic gas, when cxpoftd to its
contaft in the receiver, to form, as it is called, the liquor de
Javelle ; or, when intended for life as a mere alkahne ley, to
render its aClion more powerful on the oily particles in the
vegetable fibre, on a fimilar principle to the formation of
foap.

An excellent treatife on the fubjeft of bleaching, in the
Englifh language, viz. " The Report on Expci-iments made
by order of the right honourable the truftees of the linen
and hempen manufaftures, to afcertain the comparative me-
rits of fpecimens of oxygenated muriatic bleaching liquids,"
publifhed at Dublin in the year 1791, in claim of a bounty
ofi^ered by the truftees, appears to convey no further know-
ledge of the ufe of lime in bleaching at that time, than in
promoting the feparation of the carb nic acid from the leys,
whether the^' were afterwards to be ufed alone, or in the
■preparation of the oxygenated muriatic acid. Mr. Rofe's
experiments in this report contain, however, much ufeful
information, which ■wc ftiall further notice.

B L E

The fimpllcity of Mr. Tcnnant's invention of retaining «
greater quantity of the oxvgeuated muriatic gas, by agitation
of a fufflciency'of lime in the water of the receiver, fliould
be no derogation to its real merit. In fubflituting lime for
pot-alh, an article, not only of foreign produce, but cxpeii.
five, he has benefited this country to an extent almolt be-
yond conception ; it having been pi'oved upon oath, that by
the ufe of Mr. Tennant's procefs, the confuniption of afhes
at a fingle blcaching-green has been reduced three thoufand
pounds iterling in value in one year. A patent for Mr. Te-
nant's invention was granted him in the year 1798 ; but, as
frequently happens in patent caufcs, on a late trial ol its va-
lidity, fome circumftances arofe, from which the jury
thought themfclves jiiftified in reverfing the patent ; %ve
have therefore, with confiderable pains, collected for the
public benefit an account of his procefs, and the moft ap-
proved mode of putting it in practice, either on a fmall or
an extenfive fcale, as will be fccu by a reference to Plale I,
of Bleaching hereafter defcribcd.

Mr. Tennant's me'hod of ufing calcareous earth for neu-
tralizing the muriatic acid gas, and forming the oxy-muriat
of lime employed in bleaching, is as follows ; viz. — fn a re-
ceiver capable of containing one hundred a'^d forty gallons
wine meafure, diflolve thirty pounds of common fait, which
appear ufeful only in giving an additional degree of fpecific
gravity to the water, and by that means making it eafier to
keep the lime to be afterwards addtd, in fulpe-ifion ; when
this fait is dilfolved, add fixty pounds of finely powdered
quicklime, and into the retort of the apparatus put thirty
pounds of powdered manganefe, mixed up with thirty pounds
of common fait, upon which pour thirty pounds of ful-
phuric acid (oil of vitriol), previoufly diluted witii its bulk
of water, and the ufual precaution of luting the veffel being
taken, proceed to difti'.lation. When the gas begins to ap-
pear, the agitation of the lime and water in the receiver
muil commence, which fliould be continued by means of a
wooden paddle or rake, or fimilar contrivance, without in-
termiflion, until the materials in the retort, after heat being
employed as ufual, will not yield any more oxygenated mu-
riatic acid gas. Then the whole Ihould be allowed to re-
main at reft for two or three hours, when the clear liquor ia
the receiver may be drawn off for ule, and mixed with water
in fuch proportions as may be found neceffary, previous to
the immefion of the goods to be bleached.

The principal point of attention in preparing this oxygen-
ated muriat of lime is, to obtain a complete dilfufion of the
lime through the mixture, or a mechanical fufpenfion of it irj
the water diiri;!g the operation, fo that every particle of the
lime may, by agitation, be expoftd to the adlion of the gas,
in (lead of merely its upptr furface, as had been formerly
pradifed. By the prefent means, the oxygenated muriatic
acid gas is abforbed with eafe, and meets with a fufficient
quantity of lime to produce a ftrong folution of oxvgenated
munat of lime, without any uncombined oxvgenated muriatic
acid ; a thing w'.iich could not be otherwife effefted. The
additionof the comm.on fait in the receiver may even be omit-
ted, without prejudice, if the agitation of the lime be well
ma aged.

Plate ^•Jig- 2. of Bleaching, (hews a longitudinal fcflion of
a method, which has been praclifed in Ireland for diftilla-
tion of the oxygenated muriatic acid, and the formation of
the oxygenated muriat of lime, a, the alh-hole ; i, the fire
under the iron pot or veffel ; c, the aperture through which
it is fupplied with coals ; d, the entrance to the afli hole,
which may bt provided with a ftopper of burnt clay, or
earthen ware, to regulate the draught of the fire, by means
cf the handle fhewu by dotted lines ; f, a caft-iron pot or

B L E

feffel, nearly filled with water, in which the leaden retort is
placed ; _/", a tripod of iron, on which the retort iinnds ; ;^g,
the leaden retort, from which the gas is to be diftilled ; h, a
tunnel of bent lead, throngh wliich the oil of vitriol (ful-
phuric acid) is to be introduced into the retort ; /, a leaden
cover, fitted and luted to the neck of the retort, having three
sperturts, viz. for the introduftion of the tunnel, the rod
of the agitator, and the tube of the condenfer; /•, the agi-
tator, formed of a rod of iron coated with lead, having
feme arms at its lower end to ftir the materials within the
retort. At the part where the rod paffes through the cover,
ft leaden collar or cap is foldered, to prevent the agitator
from dtfcending too low ; thefe two parts arc made in a co-
nical form, to fit exactly, and thus prevent the efcape of the
pas ; /, a lenden tube or pipe, of three inches bore, to con-
duel the gas into the tubulated refcrvoir; m, the leaden rc-
fcivoir, formed upon, the principle of Wolfe's apparatus ;
the tube, /, dclcends by the firft aperture, ;/;, to the bottom
of the refervoir, which is about two thirds full of water.
The fmall portion of fulphuric acid, which rifes in diftil-
lalion, unites with this water ; the oxygenated muriatic acid,
^hich traverfcs this water, paffes by the pipe, n, into
the receiver or condenfer, oo, which is a wooden veffel, in
the uiidd of which is placed an agitator, p, the arms of
which raking up the lime canfe it to combine with the gas,
in proportion as it aril'es in bubbles from the lower extremity
of the leaden pipe, n.

The projedlions of wood, qqqq, fixed to the flaves within
the tub, counteradl the rotatory motion of the arms of the
agitator, and thus afTul the combination of the gas with the
lime and water. The cover of this tub is fixed dole upon
the edge of it at r; the cover having a groove in it to unite
them tighter together ; s, a cock, to draw off the liquor,
vhen fufnciently impregnated for ufc ; t, a wooden hnr.dle
to give motion to the agitator. The joints may be luted
witli clay, to prevent the efcape of the gas.

F'i^. 3, and 4, fhew Mr. Tennant's improved machinery for
prejiaring the oxy-muriat of lime. The outline, A, (fig. 3.)
is the Hill, made of lead, of a circular form, having a
double flange at the top, which is filled with wat-.r, to
prevent the gas from efcaping in that dirtttion. B, the
leaden cover of the Hill, having a flange on the under fide,
vhith goes into the double flange of the iliU, and having a
dou' le flange on the upper fide, which is filled with water;
the inner part of this double flange confifts of a fhort tube,
which goes quite throngh the cover, opening by this mi-aiis
a communication with the ilill, and allowing the gas to efcape
through the long leaden pipe inferted into it, and from
thence into the receiver, as explained 2X fg.^, where there
is a fedion of the ttill, furnace, and receiver ; a, the Hill ; b,
an iron pan in which the liill is placed on an iron Hand ;
tiiis pan is then nearly filled with water ; c. the fire-place ; </,
the furnace door; e, the alh-hole ; yi double flange filled
with water ; _"-, the cover, with flanges on the upper fide
filled with water. D, the receiver, made of wood, and lined
with lead ; i, a double flange filled with water, the interior
pipe communicating with the infide of the receiver, and
bent horizontally as at /-, from whence the gas ilTues into
the receiver ; /, /, two (hort pipes inferted in the top of the
receiver, through which the rods of the agitators have a
free motion ; m, m, a ttopper in the top of the receiver,
clofed when the receiver is at work, hut fiifliciently large,
if removed, to admit a perfon into the inlide to repair or
clcanfe it, when necelTary ; n, n, two paddles, or agitators,
generally of a fquare torm, and of a fimilar conllruilion to
the head of a churn flatf ; 0, 0, the rods of the agitators
attached by iron pins to the lever, j, which lever has llils at

B L E

the place of jiinilion, to allow the rods to rife and fall per-
pendicularly ; f>, the fulcrum or fupport of the lever ; q,
the lever, which, by a proper motion communicated to if,
alternately raifes and depreffes the agitators in the receiver ;
>; a rod conncfting the lever q, with the lever s, which lafl
lever is put in motion by the wheel E ; /, a balance weight
placed at the other end of the lever ; the beam fuppoiting
the fulcrum of the lever being near the letter s. E, the
wheel to be put in motion by water, or in any other way,
having a crank, u, communicating by an upright fliuft with
the lever s.

It will be found that the flanges, filled with water, pre-
clude the neceffity of the application of any lute, and occa-
fion the operation to be condncltd in a cleaner, cheaper,
and more expeditious mode, than formerly employed.

To defcribe the proportions of the feveral firticles ufed ia
the procefs of bleaching, would carry us far bevond the
bounds which can be allotted in the prefent publication ; we
fhall, therefore, give the following fhort but clear account of
the mode we recommend to be praftifed, to procure the molt
perfect and durable white on cotton goods, after their being
taken from the weaver; which is, firfl:, to wet them thoroughly
in cold water ; then to allow them to lleep in cold, or luke-
warm water, from 13 to 56 hours, according as they are of
a ftrong or thin fabric ; then to wafh them well in clean
cold water ; afterwards to buck or boil them in a cauflic
alkaline ley ; then to wafii the goods well in clean water,
and afterwards immerfe them in diluted oxymuratc of lime,
and wafh them, repeating the operations of the alkaline leys,
and the oxymurinte of lime, till the goods are perfectly
white ; then to pafs the goods through the diluted l^ulphuric
acid liquor, wafliing them well afterwards ; lafllv, to pafs
them through a weak ley of pearl-alhes, or of foap, and again
through clean water, before drying and finifliing them ;
which finifliing 01 the goods confills in ftarching, blueing,
rolling, or callendering them as fafliion direfts, or the parti-
cular market for which they are intended, may require.

It is to be remarked, that the immerfion of" the goods I'a
the vitriolic fours, and alio in pcarl-afh, or foap liquor, is
neceffHry at the end of the procefs, to prevent a brov.n hue
which the cloth- that are bleached white from the oxyge-
nated muriatic acid, without fuch precaution, are apt to
revert to.

By experiments made at Rouen en cotton thread, with »
view to afcertain whether the old or new mode of blenching
was more prtjudicial to llie fabric, it was proved that the
cotton thread bleached in the new mode bore, without break-
ing, confiderably more weight than that bleached in the old
method, and was Icfs injured in texture.

In the report on experiments, made by order of th.e truf-
tees of the linen and hempen manufadtures at Dublin, in the
year 1791, with a view to afcertain the comparative merits of
feveral fpecimens of bleaching liquids feiit for their exami-
nation, the following mode of bleael.ing appeared to be the
bell tor linens, and though executed on a fmall Icale, vrill
convey the principal neccffary information.

May mil, 1791. The linen was fleepcd, in the Hate re-
ceived from the loom, into water of a iieat fufficient to bear
the hand, and left in the veflel.

May ]6th. The linen was waflitd out of the liquor, in
which a pretty ftrong fermentation was obferved to have
taken place.

May 17th. Finiflied making a mother-ley, which was
made in the following manner: three pounds and a half of
lime were llaked, and mixed with ten gallons of water ; four-
teen pounds of Dantzic jieail-afh were diflblved in fome of
this water ; then mixed the whole ; when it had fettled, it
4£ 2 was

B L E

«ns filtered through acoarfecloth, and ihe refiduiim wafficd
rcptratcdiy in four sjall'-nis of water, to obtain the whole
ftrength of the alkali ; the whole fourteen gallons being
then carefully mixed, the ley proved, by very accurate
weighing, to contain twelve ounces of cauftic alkaline fait to
the gallon. From this, a ley was made from the work, by
adding fix parts of water to one of tlie rtiother-ley ; thus each
gallon of the working ley contained one ounce, live drachms,
and forty-three grairs of cauftic alkali.

The boiler being charged with this ley, the linen, which
had been fpittle waihed, was ftceped in it cold for one hour ;
then brought up by a very gentle heat to a llmmering
boil, which was continued for three hours ; the ctoth was
then well waflied out, and left in ftecp for that night.

May iSth. Wafhed out the above linen in frefh water;
hung it on caids in the open air, watering it fcveral times
ia the day.

May 19th. Finding the cloih not fo well cleared as
could be wifhed, the boiler was again charged with one of
mother-ley, to four of water, which made the ftrength two
ounces> three drachms, twelve grains of cauftic alkali to the
jjallon. In this was boiled another piece of linen which
had been fpiclle waflicd as the others ; and after it was boiled,
it was well waflicd cut.

May 20th. Steeped the who'eof the linens for fix hours
in the liquid prepared with the oxymuriatic acid of the feve-
ral claimants ; afterwards wafhed them well out, and left
th-;m fteeping in cold water all night.

May 2 iff. Waflied out all the ybove linens, and when
cry, boiled the whole parcel as before in one of the mother-
leys, to five of water, containing two ounces of cauftic alka-
line fait to che gallon ; wafhed tiiem well out of the ley, and
left them to ileep in pure water tiil Monday morning, the
a jd iuftant.

May 24th. Steeped the linens for the fecond time in
{he oxygenated muriatic acid for fix hours ; then waflied them
out, and left them to fteep all night in cold water.

May 2 ^th. Having charged the copper with a ley made
from one ot mother-ley, to fix of water, containing one
ounce, five drachms, and forty-three grains of cauftic alka-
fine fait to the gallon, the linens were boiled in this for the
third time, with a very penile fimmering heat for three
hours ; they were then wafhed out, and left to fteep.

May 2;;th. Steeped all the linens for the third time fix
hours in oxygenated muriatic acid as before j waftied them
tint, and left them in water all night.

May 28th. Immerfed all the linens which had been
fteeped ycllcrday in the oxygenated muriatic acid, in a weak
vitriolic acid for four hours ; then waihed them out, and
left them fteeping in cold water.

May 29th. Wafhed and dried the linen cloth which had
been foured yefterday.

June lit. Boiled all the linen which had been foured in
a ftrong lather of foap.

June 2d. Soured and wafhed out all the linen which had
been boi!ed in a foap lather yefterday. This operation
finillied that experiment, in wh'.ch tlie above linens were firft
fteepcd in water ; then boiled in ca^Utic alkaline ley, and
fteeped in oxygenated muriatic acid alternately four times ;
then foured in vitriolic acid, foaped and loured again.

The above experiments were made, with various others,
by Mr. John Arbuthnotj.and Mr. John Clarke ; and on i!ie
trials of the diifcrent fpecimens of the oxygenated muriatic
acid, t!;e preference was given to that prepared by Mr.
Robert Roe, of Bir.g's End, on the principle of the javelle
Jicjuor mentioned by Mr. Barthoiles, by adding a folution
of alkali in water in the receiver. Mr. Roe'& belt prepaia-

B L E

tion, of which was made by adding thirty-eight pounds of
quicklime to Ji4lb. of pearl-afh, which made a caullicr
ley of about nine pounds weight per gallon ; he found
cauftic ley more fufceptible of imbibing the gas and retaining
it, than mild ley of equal ftrenglh.

From the different experiments made to bleach various
articles at the above time, the following inferences may
be deduced, viz. that allowing cotton or linen, when rave
from the the loom, to ferment, by fteeping in warm water a>
conliderable time before boiling the cloth in an alkaline ley,
is of confiderable fervice.

That cloth or yarn is not injured by fteeping for fix hours-
together in oxygenated muriatic acid.

That ftrong alkaline leys aufwer better than weak ones^
at the commencement of ufing the leys.

That the white colour of bleached cloth can be better
judged of wet than when dry.

That very minute attention in excluding light and air i»
not abfolutely iieceffary in bleaching with oxygenated mu-
riatic acid.

That purging or cleariiTg yarn or cloth in an alkaline Lyj,
previous to fteeping in oxygenated muriatic acid, is abfo-
lutely neceff'.ry.

That the bL-aching liquids made from oxygenated mu-
riatic acid, in which alkaline fait is blended in the compofT*
tion, require the cloth to be frequenliy fteeped in vitriolic
acid ,' and that the oxygenated inu.riatic acid made witk
water only, make more frequent boilings of the cloth in al-
kaline leys ueceffary.

That the lofs of the cloth in weight, when bleached by
the new method, is only oue fourth, but by the old method-
one third.

That fteeping in warm water is infinitely better to extradl:
the fowen and dirt from the raw cloths, than boihng them with,
foap or ley immediately as they come from tlie loom.

The liquors of the oxygenated muriatic acid, and alfo-
thofe made from the vitriolic acid, may be repeatedly ufed
without detriment, till the whole ftrength is exhauftcd.

The cloth or linen, in the acid bleaching liquors, fhould'
be moved in the liquor every hour, that every part may be
equally cleared.

It is difficult to afcertain the flrength of the leys proper
for ufe in bleaching cotton or linen, as the alkalies or afhes-
differ fo greatly in purity, and the admixture generally
found in them of neutral falts prevents the hydrometer
from being a regular tcft. The common allowance for
bleaching linens in Ireland, is ftated by Mr. Higgins, in his
ingenious memoir in the Tranfatlions of the Dublin Sociefj',.
to be for fixty gallons of water, fix pounds of barilla, or four
pounds of pot-afh at the Icaft, and moft bleachers ufe mors
than this.

To dilcover adulterated' pot-a(h, Mr. Higgins recommends
the following method. The fpecimen of afhes being firffc
weighed, is digefled for a few minutes on a fand bath, in
twice its weight of water, in a heat of about 212 d-cgrees>
and inftantly flirred. It is then removed from the land-
bath, and before it is cooled to the temperature of the at-
mofphere, it mull be filtered through paper. When all the
liquor has palTcd through the filter, a finall quantity of cold
water is gradually poured upon the faline refiduum or the
filter, in order to wa.'h through the whole of the alkalis
The undiffolved fait fulpkate of pot-afh (vitriolated tartar,)
remaining on the filter, is afterwards dried and weighed, to
afcertain the quantity.

To determine whether any common fait is fufpended in
the liquor which has been filtered, evaporate the clear folu-
tion a little 08 a fand-bath, and fet it in a cold place for 24

houre J

B L E

B L E

Sours; at the enci of wlWch time, any common fait it
contains will be found ciyltallized in regular cubes at the
bottom of the vcdel ; pour etf the clear liquor, and repeat
the procefs, till no more cubic cryftals are produced. If it
is defired to be very accurate in the analyfis, before the com-
mon fait (muriate of foda) thus procured is weighed, fome
muriatic acid may be pom;d upon it, in order to tiike up
any of the pure pot-afn which may have adhered during^ its
cryftallization. The muriatic acid, with fuch of the alkali
as it has difToWed, may be then drained off and thrown away,
and the muriate of foda dried and weighed.

The fiim of the impurities being then fubtraftcd from the
weight of the fpecimen, the quantity of the pure pot-a(h is
afcertained.

To ^ne^v whtit quantity of mere alkali is contained in
toolb. avoirdupois of feveral different alkaline falts examined
by Mr. Kirwan, we (hall add the following table, publiflied
hy him in the Iridi Tranfa ^tions, in 1789.

One hundred Pounds. M-neral AiJcali.

Cryflallized foda - yielded - ciolbs.
Sweet Barilla - - - 24

Mealy 's cunnamara kelp - - 5-4.37

Do. defulphurated by fixed air - - 4-457
Strangford kelp . _ - 1.25

Ore hundred F'ounds. Vegetable Alkali.

Dantzic pcarlafli - yielded - dj.^jlbs^

Cldike's refined a(h ~. . . 26.875

Caf.iup .... 19.3 7<5

Common raw Irifli weed-ath - 1.666

Do. flightly calcined - - 4.666

It is much to be regretted that, confidering the immenfe
qumtities of pure marine alkali which could be procured at
a cheap rate from the Eaft Indies, that fo Tittle attention
fhould be paid by the Eaft India company to an article
which would be fo profitable abrar.ch of commerce to them^
and prevent a confider^ble fum being pnid to other natior.s.-
The mineral alkali procured from the Eall Indies, is mucb
purer than what is obtained from Barilla ; and a prepara-
tion exaftly Cmilar in appearance and qviahty to the Alicant
Barilla, may be made with great advantage to the manufac.
turer, from a mi.vturt of the Eaft India mineral alkali with the
common Scotch kelp,, for the purpofes of the bleacher,- the
foap maker, or the Turkey-red dyer. To fliew the import,
ance of this objeft, the following table of the in^poits into
Great Eritaiu are annexed for feven years.

Barilla. Pot-ACies. Pearl-Afhes.

1796 86.723 cwt.. 62.829 CWt. 45.290 CWtf

1797 51.105 57-826 36.674

1798 123.990 81.4S2 60.691

1799 146.163 77-24<5 51-79-

1800 175.629. 135.400 45.161

1801 63.210 9°-5^3. 54-8J5

1802 151.796 48.054: 64.2S8
When it is confidered that 20 pounds of the mineral alkali
brought from India in a powdery ftate, as it ufually is, will,
by mere filution in water, yield icolbs.. of the cryftalliztd
foda fold in the (hops, it will be feen, that the purchafe of
the mineral alkali from the Eaft India company, will be an
objcft well defcrving the attention of the bleachers and fcap-
boilers ; and far preferable to the ufe of Spanilh kelp or
Barilla.

Mr. Kirwan, by means of muriatic acid, precipitated the
colouring matter from an alkaline ley, faturated with the
co'ouring matter of linen yam, and found it to poffefs the
following properties. When fuffered to dry for fome time
caa filter, it alTuaicd a dark green colour^ and fdtfgme'A'hat

clammy, like rnoill clay. His obfervations in the Irifh
Tranfadlions for 1789, are as follow :

*' I took, fays he, a fmall portion of it, arid added to it 60
times its weight of boiling water, but not a particle of it was
diffolved. The remainder I dried in a fand-heat ; it then
alfumcd a (hiaing black colour; became more brittle, but
internally remained of a greenilh yellow, and weighed one
ounce and a half."

" By treating eight quarts more of the faturated ley in
the fame manner, I obtained a further quantity of the
grceni(h depofic, on which I made the following experiments :

ift. Having digellcd a portion of it in rectifiL-d fpirits of
wine, it comm.unicated to it a rcddifli hue, and was, in a
great nieafure, diffolved ; but by the affufion of d;ftilled
water, the foiution became niiiky, and a white depoCt was
gradually formed ; the black matter diffolved in the fame
manner.

2d. Neither th,e green nor the black matter was foluble in
oil of turpentine or linfeed oil, by a long cor.tinued digeftion.

3d. The black matter being placed on a red hot iron,
burned with a yellow flame and black fmoke, leaving a
coaly refiduum.

4th. The green mattjr being put into the vitriolic, marine
and nitrous acids, com.municated a brov/nifh tinge to the two
former, and a greenifh to the latter, but did not feem at all
diininifhed,

" Hence, it appears,.that the matter extrafted by alkiliea
fiom hnen yarn,, is a peculiar fort of refin, different froiti
pure refins only bv its infolubility in effcntial oils, and in
this refpeft refembling lacs. I now proceded to .-xamine
the powers of the different alkalies on this fubllance, eight
grains of it being digefted in a folutio:; of cryiiallized mi-
neral alkali, faturated in the temperature of 62°, inftantly
communicated to the foiution a dark brovi'n colour ; two
ireafnres (each of which would contain eleven pennyweights
of water), did not entirely diffolve thij fubllance. Two
meafures of the mild vegetable alkali diffolved the whole."

" One meafure of cauftic mineral alkali, whofe fpecific
gravity was 1.053, diffolved nearly the wiiole, leaving only
a white refiduum."

" One mealure of cauftic vegetable alkali, whofe fpecific
gravity was 1.0.39, diffUved the whole."

" One m.eafure of liver of fulphur, whofe fpecific gravity
was 1.17c, diffolved the whole."

" One meafure of cauftic volatile alkali diffolved alfo a
portion of this matter."

The colouring matter of cotton is much more foluble in
alkali, than that of linen : hence the greater facility with
which cotton is bleached.

The theory of bleaching vegetable matter, as we have
before obfervcd to have been defcribed by Mr. Delaval,
depends on removing the colouring matters, whether natural
or accidental, which cover their folid fibrons parts, which
are the only parts endued with a rcfletlive power.

Raw cotton or linen, boiled in a a diluted foiution of
cauftic alkali, gives to the liquor a deep brown colour, and
deftroys its caufticity ; and frc(h portions of clear ley ap-
plied a fecond or third time, v.'ill produce a fimilar effeftr
but in an inferior degree. If the cotton or linen be low
plunged into the oxymuriatic acid, and allowed to remain a
ihort time, they will become white ; and if they arc th.en.
plunged into an alkaline ley, the liquor will again become
brown, and lofe its caufticity.

On faturating either the firft or laft of the alkaline fclu-
tions with an acid, a fimilar precipitate is obtained from
each, of a dark coloured matter, almoft infolubk in water,
l>ut foluble ia cauflis alkali.

IIcEce.

B L E

B L E

Hence it appsar?, that after raw cotton or linen lias been
afted upon by alkalies for two or three times, they have no
further efTsft upon it, till the cloth comes in contaft with
oxygen or pure air, cither by imnierfion in the oxygenated
muriatic acid, or by expofure to the atmofphere ; and it is
on account of the fpeedy aftion of the acid, in comparifou
with tiiat of the atniofphere, that the new mode of bleach-
ing is now generally adopted.

M. BerthoUet, and the modem chemifts fuppofc, that the
colouring matter of linen, is compofed princip;dly of carbon
and hydrogen ; and they conclude, that linen, bleached by
the oxymuriatic acid, becomes yellow, on tliis principle, that
when the oxymuriatic acid renders linen white, a quantity of
oxygen has combined with the colo\iring particles ; but that
this oxygen gradually enters into a combination with the
hydrogen, and forms water which paffes oft' ; that then the
carbon becomes predominant, and the linen, in confequence,
aflumes a yellow colour.

The old chemifts, en the principles of Stahl, wo\:IJ f;iy,
that a part of the <lephlogillieated marine acid, (oxymu-
riatic acid,) after the cloth had been acled upon by the
alkali, abforbed fucb phlogiftic colouring matter from the
cloth, as the alkali had no affinity for ; and thus became
diluted common marine acid, which has a great attracftion
to cotton or hncn, and, if expofed to a moderate heat, will
a(2; upon the texture of the cloth, and render it of a yelljw
colour.

We notice this circnmftance In two different points of
view, that the bleacher may be aware of the neceiTitv of ap-
plying, in either cafe, a weak ley of pearl-afli, ultimately
after the ufe of the muriatic acid, to prevent this yellownefs
from occurring ; and alfo that the reader may comprehend
the reafonirg of Home, and other perfons who have written
upon thefubjed of bleaching, previous to Mr. Scheele's dif-
«overy.

To recover the pure alkali from the black coloured leys
which have been ufed in bleaching, and to render them
equally proper for the fame purpofe, has been for a coniider-
able time a material objeft in the neighbourhood of Man-
cherter, and prattiled with great fueceis.

To effect this, the black or brown ftrongleys, which have
been left after bucking linen, orcottonyarn, orgoods, orfavtd
after wringingthem,is putintoan oblong flat lliallow iron pan,
made of plate-iron, rivctted together. (See Plat^ IV. Jig. 4,5.)
Under this pan a fire is made, and the old leys gradually
evaporated, till they become of a coufilleuce nearly refem-
bling tar ; the matter is then put into calks, and carried to
the reverberatory furnace, Plale IV .Jig.(>, 7. where it is laded
or poured into the cavity orbed withm the furnace ; the tire
being then made, acts powerfully on the alkaline mafs ;
gradually dries the water left amongft it ; then acts on the
colouring matter the ley has abihacled from the cloth, which
is partly diffipated in a black, ofTenfive fmoke, and partly
dellroyed by combuflion ; the calcination of the afhes is
affilled from time to time, by raknig them up with a long
iron rod, in order to expofe frelh furfaces to the flame ; the
heat is continued and increafed till the inflammable matter
amongft the alkali is diffipated, and the aflits brought to a
perfect fluid Hate; they are t!itn let out by an aperture in the
fide of the furnace, into an old iron pot put into the ground,
and when cold, broken into fmall pieces for ufe, being fre-
quently in a purer (late then when firlt imported.

Fig. 4. Plate IV. is a feftion of the evaporating pan for
the walle leys, where A reprefents a flat iron pan, of an
oblong fqnareform, ab ;ut fix inches deep, and of a fize pro-
portionate to the quantity of leys to be evaporated ; B, the
Jire -place ; C, the aih-hole ; D, the flue in which the fire

«cli under the pan ; E, the chimney for the fmoke ; F, the
brick work.

Fig. 5. Plale IV. is a bird's eye view of the fame evapora-
ting pan, which is made of plates of beaten iron rivetted
together, as (hewn in the plan ; the fire-place underneath
it is marked by dotted hues at B, and the chimney flue
at K.

Fig. 6. Plite IV. reprefents a longitudinal feftion of the
reverberatory furnace ufed in the preparation of afhes, or
lolid alkaline falls from the old leys alter evaporation, to a
proper conlillence ; a, the brick work ; b, the afh-hole ; c,
a char.i'.el, or paflage under the furnace, to admit a free
current of air ; (/, the fire-grate ; e, the fire-place ; f, the
inner part of the furnace ; g, the bed of fire-proof brick,
on which the matter is calcined ; A, the alkaline ley to be
calcined ; i, a door through which the ley is introduced by
an iron ladle into the furnace, and through which door the
matter, during calcination, is iHrred from time to time ; k,
the paffage for the fmoke, or chimney, which cliimney
fliould be from 20 to 30 feet high ; /, the upper part of the
furnace, arched like an oven ; />, the feparation wail bttweea
the fire and matter to be fluxed or calcined.

Fig. 7. Plate IV. reprefents the upper plan of the furnace,
of whieli /?;■. 6, is a feftion ; a, the outer walla; b, the
afli-hole and draught-hole ; e, the iron grate of the fire-
place ; g, the bafon in which the leys are calcined ; m, the
door tlnough which foffil coal is thrown into the fire place ;
n, an iron tube through which the adies in fufion flow out
of the furnace when lufficiently calcined ; 0, an iron pot
into which the melted allies flow, and where they are fuftered
to cool ; p, a wall of fire-brick between the fire-place and
bafon, over which wall the fire paffes ; r, the fteps leading
down to the afh-hole.

It is neceffary to remark, that all the interior part of the
reverberatoiy furnace Ihould be made of Welfli brick, or
fuch as will withftand the aftion of a ftrong fire ; the whole
building fliould be well bound ti?gether by iron bars, or
cramps. If fo conflrufted, it will lall for feveral years; and
when it then wants repair, the afhes, which will be found
accumulated in the interllices of thd brick-work, will
defray the expence of fuch repairs.

Having ftiewn the methods generally- ufed in bleaching
linen and cotton, we fliall notice a procefs lately difeovered by
Mr.W. Higgins of Dublin, forufing the fulpliuret of lime, as
a fubllitute for pot-aflt in bleacliing. The lulphuret is pre-
pared in the manner following, viz. fulphur or brimftone in
fine powder, four pounds ; lime well flaked and fifted,
twenty pounds ; water fixteen gallons ; thefe are all to be
well mixed, and boiled for about half an hour in an iron
veffel, flirring them brifldy from time to time. Soon after
the agitation of boiling is over, the folution of fulphuret of
lime clears, and may be drawn oft free from the precipitate,
which is confiderable, and which reds upon the bottom of
the boiler. Tlie liquor, in this ftate, is nearly of the colour
of finall beer, but not quite fo tranfpareut.

Sixteen gallons of watg- are afterwards to be poured upon
the remaining precipitate in the boiler, in order to feparate
the whole of the fulphuret from it ; the matter is then well
ag'tated, and muft, when fettled, be drawn off, and mixed
with the firlt liquor ; to thefe again thiriy-three gallons more
ot water may be added, which reduce the liquor to a proper
llandard for llceping the cloth.

Though either hme or fulphur, feparately, are very little
foluble in water, yet this lulphuret of bine is highly
folubie.

This preparation has been applied, in the following
jnanntr,to the bleaching of liueu iii Ireland.

The

B L E

*^e linen, as it comes from the loom, is charged with
ihe weaver's pafte or dreliTmg, to difcharge which, the linen
mull be deeped in water for about 4S honrs, and afterwards
taken oat and well wafhed ; in order to fcparate the rcfj-
noiis muter inlierent in the vegetable fibre, the linen mull
then be deeped in the cold folution of fulphuret of li;ne
(prepared as above), for about 12 or iS hours ; then taken
out and well wailied ; when dry, it is to be fleeped in the
oxymuriatc of lime, prepared by Mr. Tennant's procefs, for
12 or 14 hours, and then walhed and dried. This procefs
is to be repeated by fix alternate immerfions in each liquor,
which are fufficient to whiten the linen.

Though we mull confefs, that we have fome doubts ref-
pectinq; the application of fulphuret of lime to fupeif-de
the ufe of aihes, in bleaching goods intended to remain per-
fedlly white, yet we think it incumbent upon us to ftate,
that for goods previoully bleached for dying, it podcffts
advantages over thofe where alkalies have been ufed, and
which has been actually proved above 30 years ago, by the
practice of Mr. Peter Henry Otterfen, communicated by
him to the late Mr. John Wilion, of Ainfworth, near Man-
chefter. Mr. WUfon's memory deferves ever)' mark of refpedl
from the cotton manufaflurers of England, for his numerous
improvements m the bleaching, dying, and finilhing of cotton
goods.

For the life of private families, where the linen is dirtied
by perfpiration or greafe, it will be of great fervice towards
rendering it white, to fteep it for fome time in a clear hquor,
made by mixing one quart of quicklime in ten gallons of
water, letting the mixture Hand 24 hours, and then ufing
the clear water drawn from the. lime. After the linen has
been ileepcd in this liquor, it fhould be walhed as ufual, but
will require much lefs foap to be ufed.

Cotton goods, after bleaching, were formerly dried in the
open air, on frames or tenter rails, or on rails in covered
buildings, or in large rooms or ftoves heated for the purpofe,
all which modes were attended with great delay and dif-
advantages.

Thefe difficulties were removed in 1797 by an apparatus,
fimple in its conilruftion, eaiily managed, and of fingular ufe
in facilitating the procefs of the bleacher. For this ufeful
invention the public are indebted to John Burns, efq. of
Paii'ley.

Bv this difcovery the bleacher can ereft a drying machine,
equally ufeful at all feafons, and in all weathers, at lefs than
one-tenth of the expence of former conftruclions, for doing
bufinefs to the fame extent. There is no rifle of damage
from wind or rain, lefs chance of injury from fervants, owing
to the fimple manner in which the goods are prepared.
They receive a fine glofs during the procefs of drying, the
colour is as well preferved as if dried in the open air, and
they cannot be injured by the heat.

A contrivance fo obvioufly beneficial and complete, was
foon introduced into general praftice in the weft of Scot-
land ; and fo undoubted were the claims of the above gentle-
man to the originality of invention, that the bleachers in the
neighbourhood prefented him with a handfome donation of
filver plate, fnitably infcribed, in teftimony of their fenfc of
his merit, and as fome reward for communicating his plan to
the public.

We are more particular in noticing this circumftance, as
fome other perfons have fubfequently taken out a patent for the
fame principle, with a little variation in the conilruftion of the
machine, but which alteration has not been found to anfvver
the purpofe as expcfted. We (hall therefore now more par-
ticularly defcribe Mr. Burns's apparatus for drying.

Fig. I. Plate III. A is the boiler or fleam veficl ; B, the

B L E

ftfety valve 5 C, the hollow leaden pipe which conveys the
fleam from the boiler to the rollers ; D, a brafs cock hoi-
lowed to receive the pivot of the roller, reprefented in j^. 2.
one of which cocks is fixed to the pipe under each roller,
and by opening which the lleam is adnutted into the roller ;
E reprefents twelve rollers placed upon the cocks, one of
which, next to D, has the cloth upon it in the operation of
drying ; Fl F, the wood frame in which the machinery is
placed ; GGG, the fupporters of the leaden fleam pipe, and
of the trough HH, which trough is 15 inches broad at top,
to receive the water formed by the condenfed llcam as it drops
from the bottom of the rollers, E, and to conduft it to I, a
Imall pipe extending from the trough, H, to the funnel, K,
which funnel has its lower pipe reaching to within eight
inches of the bottom of the boiler, to prevent the fleam from
ifTuing out at its mouth, and which funnel keeps the boiler
fupplied with water to its proper height, or fhews when any
is wanted, as the fleam would arife through it if water Ihould
be wanting in the boiler.

Fig. 2. Plate III. fhews one of the rollers feparate from
the frame. It is ufually five feet long, one foot in diameter,
and made of double tinned flieet iron, and hollow in the
middle, for containing the fleam ; a is the lower pivot of the
roller, which is an open tube at the end for receiving the
fteam conveyed through it from the cock. This pivot riles
a foot within the roller, at the under part of the roller ; at d
is a (mail hole for allowing the condcr.fed lleam to drop into
the trough placed below it as above-mentioned ; b, the other
pivot or axis of the roller, which is fallcned to the top bar of
the frame by a latch, as reprefented in Jig. i. ; f , a row of
teeth fixed into a fmall flip of tinned fliect iron, foldered to
the roUer, and thereby elevated to prevent the teeth from
tearing the cloth.

Fig. 3. Plate III. a machine about three feet in height,
for the purpofe of lapping the cloth upon the rollers. A,
the box in which the cloth is firll laid ; B, the fartheil
wooden roller, over which the cloth pafTes from A, and
from thence under the wooden roller C, to the tin roller D,
on which it is lapped by turning it with the handle E ; F,
the cloth pafTmg under the roller C, to the tin roller D, on
which, when it is lapped, it is ready to be carried and placed
in the drying machine ; G, a weight hung from the projec-
tion in the frame at H, over the roller B, to keep the cloth
fufficic-ntly tight as it paffes from the box A, over that roller
to be lapped on the drj'ing roller D.

Fig. 4. Plate III. fliews another method of lapping the
cloth on the tin roller, previous to its being dried. A, a per-
pendicular frame in the front of which is placed the tin roller
B, with a handle for turning it at C ; the cloth D extendi from
the roller B over the wo i>den roller E, in a frame F to G,
where its other end is attached by a wire run acr.ifs it to
fome wrapper or linen cloth, faftened to a board H, fixed
below the roller B. L L are upright polls fixed to the
outer fide of the bottom frame KK, having wooden pegs
NN in them, on the fide nearell the tin roller B. Rails or
rods arc laid acrofs from thefe to fimilar pegs oppofite, to
prevent the cloth touching the ground when it is adjufting
in the beginning of the operation, and the number of thefe
pofts neceiTary, therefore, are in proportion to the length of
the cloth.

At the commencement of lapping the cloth on the tin
roller B, the frame F, moveable on fmall rollers II, running
in grooves on the frame KK, is drawn fo far back, that when
the cloth is fallened to the wrapper G, one half of the piece
reaches to the roller F, the other half paffed over that roller,
reaches to the tin roller B, to wiiich it is then to be fallened.
On turning the handle C, the cloth is gradually lapped round

the

E L E

Ute roller B, the moveable frame F being drawn forwaid by
the cloth ; for as the cloth is lapped on the roller B, the frame
F is drawn towards it betwixt the uprights LL, and by
means of a projeiSing wood forming an inchned plane fixed at
M, on each fide, near the top of the frame F, the rails O are
raifcd ott" the pegs NN, and carried forward on the part M
of the frame F, without impeding its progrefs to the tm
roller B, till the wrapper G, to which the cloth is faftened,
pafics over the roller, and the wire at G, which attaches it to
the cloth, is withdrawn, leaving the whole of the cloth to be
dried on the tin roller B, which roller is then taken out and
placed in the drying frame.

To afcertain the llrength of the oxygenated munatic acid
ufed by the bleachers in France, Monf. Dcferoizilles made
tife of a folution of indigo in the vitriolic acid, for which pi;r-
tjofs he takes one part of finely pulverized Guatemala indigo,
and eight parts of concentrated vitriohc acid, whicli mixture
fhould be put in a glafs veffel, and kept of a gentle heat by
Handing near the fire or in warm water all night, and repeat-
edly ftirred with a glafs rod or tube. When the folution is
complete, it is diluted with a tlionfand parts of v.-nter. One
meafure of this fohition is put into a graduated tube of glafs,
and oxygenated liquor is added, until the colour of the
indigo is completely deftroyed, and the ftrength of the
oxygerated liquor is afcertaincd by its power in difcharging
the colour.

Mr. Rofe has recommended a method which is better
adapted for general ufe ; which is, " to have fmallmeafurcs
properly proportioned to each other, and when the liquid is
itrong, to prevent wafte of the indigo liquor prepared as
above, and a tedious repetition of meafures, let a fniall mea-
fure of the liquor to be tried be put into a meafure containing
24 of the fame meafures of water (it then becomes dihited to a
twenty-fifth part) ; to a meafure of this diluted hquor add as
■many meafures of the blue left as it will difcharge, which mul-
tiplied by 2 ■;, gives its whole ftrenglh. It will be proper to
have a meafure of five for the fake of difpatch, in adding the
bine tell liquor. It is neceflary that the experimenter
fliould fit low enough to view his meafui-es horizontally, in
order that they may not be overfilled, otherwife he may be
deceived.

Great care fliould be taken in the choice of the indigo and
the vitriolic acid employed, for unlefs the indigo is of the Gna-
tim:ila kind, or bell Eall India, and the vitriolic acid highly
concentrated and pure, the colour produced will be a greenifii
brown, inilead of a bright blue.

Mr. Chaptal has employed tire oxygenated muriatic acixl
to the purpofc of bleacliing paper, both by applying it to the
rags before worked dov.m, and to the pulp or patte j he alfo
reftored the white to prints difcoloured by time, by im-
merfing them in the oxygenated muriatic acid liquor, or ex-
pofing them to the aftion of its vapour. And Icveral pa-
tents have been granted in this kingdom for bleaching pulp
or paper, amongil which Mcflrs. Clement and George Tay-
lor, of Maidftone, in Kent, have obtained one for bleaching
the pulp, by inclofing it with a liquor of oxygenated muriate
of pot-afli, in a vcil'tl refLinbling a churn, eight feet diameter
at the great end, three feet four inches diameter at the little
end, and two feet ten inches in the clear. This veflel revolves
upon an axis at each end, and the pulp, by this motion, and
projefting parts within the veflll, is conilantly expofing frerti
lurfaces to the liquor, till the whole pulp is fufficientiy
whitened.

Mr. Bigg, of Iping, in Suifex, has fince obtained a patent
■for bleaching paper, and rcftoring to whitcnefs damaged or
mildewed paper, by expofing in clofe wooden veffels paper,
in quantities of ft;; or eight Sieets together, on wooden frames

4

B L E

placed at fmall diftances from each other, to the a£llon of

oxygenated muriatic gas, and after the paper is taken out,
preflcd, and dried, previous to its being fizcd, wetting it in a
folution of alum water.

Another method he propofes, is by wetting and foakinf
the paper in oxygenated muriatic acid liquor, till it is pro-
perly bleached ; after which it fliould be well prefl'ed and
dried, and wet out in the alum water, as in the other pro.
cefs.

A patent has likewife been granted to Mr. Ellas Carpenter,
of Bermondfey, London, for a method of bleaching paper
in the water leaf or (hcet, and fizing it without drjnng ; he
ufes for this purpofe a llout deal box or cafe, which muft be
carefully clofed, and capable of confining water or fteam
within thif. The paper to be bleached is to be hung on
ilripsof glafs, about 15 inches long, placed in grooves within
the box^ about four fheets on each ttrip ; the paper is taken
for this purpofe when preffcd in the packs in its wet {late, and
when the box is filled and clofed, it is expofed to the adlion of
oxygenated muriatic gas for eight or ten hours, and when
fufficientiy bleached, fized with a prep.-nation made from
one hundred weight of pieces of flcins boiled in water and
flrained, then fourteen pounds of alum, feven pounds of white
vitriol, and one pound of gum arable addtd ; thefe ingredients
will niakc fize enough tor about 50 reams offoolfcap paper;
tlie paper when fized and prefTed, is finifhcd in the iifual way.
To prevent the noxious qualities of the gas to the workmen,
he dire&s a fohition of pot-a(h in water to be placed at the
bottom of the bleaching box, to abfi>rb the elallic vapours
which would otherwife affeft thtm on opening the box.

Mr.Tennant of Glafa^ow, fubfcquent to the patent granted
him for his bleaching liquid, has obtained a patent for pre-
paring the oxygenated muriate of lime in a dry form, by
which means blecchers may be cheaply and conveniently
fupplied v\'ith it by him, and fave much of the trouble, ex-
pence, and hazard which attend the preparation of the former
bleaching lic^uor.

To bleach filk from its natural gummy flate, whether in
fkain or manufaftured, it fhould be put into a thin linen bag,
and thrown into a vefhl of boiling water in which good
white foap lias been diifolved ; the filk fhouid boil two or
thvce hours in this liquor, and the bag of filk frequently
preffed with a ilick, and turned, fo that the gummy matter
may feparate from it, and nfe to the furface o^f the liquor,
from whence it fliould be flcimmed off, ;ind thrown away;
the bag fliould then be taken out, and if it contains filk goods,
they Ihould be well waflied in clean cold w.T.rer, to prepare
them for printing or dying ; but if the bag contains filk in the
fl'Cain, after 'it has been well wafi.ed in clean water, beaten,
and fiightly v.Tung, it may be put the fecond time into the
copper veficl, filled with cold water mixed with foap, and a
little indigo blue, if you wiih it tinged a little of the blueifh
hue.

Trie filk, when taken out of the fecond water, fhould be
wrung hard with a wooden peg, to prefs out all the liquor ;
then fliaked, to feparate the threads ; then fufpended on
poles, in a clofe room or Hove wliere fulphur is burnt, which
improves the whitenefs of the filk.

Woollen cloths or fluffs may be bleached and made white
by foap and water ; by the vapour of fulphur ; or bv chalk,
indigo, and fulphnric vapour. In the firfl: cafe, after the
fluffs have been cleaned at the fulling mill, they are again
worked in warmifli foap and water, to render t}iem whiter,
and afterwards waflied in clear water and dried ; in thia
ilate they are fit for dying any light colours.

To deftroy or remove the reddifh hue arifing from boiling
printed cottons in madder dccodions, which prevents the

j>riuted

B L E

printed colours appearing to advantaffe, the goods are
lifnally b'.nkd for fome time in bran and water, and tlien ex-
pofed to the air, by laying them on the grafs, and tiirowing
upon them clear water from time to time. Mr. Grimlhavv, in
the year 1796, obtained a patent for clearing printed goods
comi ig from the madder copptr, by uiing the grains after
brewing malt liquorb, inftead of bran ; the plan lie recom-
mends is, that the grains fliould be previoully four, and that
three or four bufhels thereof, more or lefs, according to the
colour ol the cloth, fn; uld be put into a copper of hut water,
-containing 200 gallons or upwards, and four or five pieces
of the printed cotton goods then immerfcd therein, and
worked over a wjnch backwards and forwards, for ttn
or fifteen minutes ; the pieces are then taken out of
the copper, and well w-afiied in clear water, and laid (Iraight
Mpon the ground for two or three days, till the parts which
fhould be white become clear. The fame liquor, with the
addition of a few grains, will ferve to clear other printed
goods, till the whole number wanted to be cleared, have
been completed ; a fufficient quantity of clear water being
added to replenifh what has been abforbed by the goods,
or evaporated in boiling. Alter either of the operations
above-mentioned, the inimerfion of the printed goods in
dilute oxygenated acid, will anfwcr the purpole of the e.";-
pofure to the air.

Bleaching cf Boohs-, Prints, and PjJ>er, See Books,
&c. and Bleach i>;g ; Jiipra.

Bleaching of Hair. See Hair.

Bleaching of Wax. See Was.

BLEAK, in Ichthyology, the Englifti name of Cyprinus
Alburnus, a fpecies diltinguiibed from the other Hlhes of
its genus by having twenty rays in the anal fin.

The bleak is a very abundant tlfh in many of the Englirti
rivers, and in thofe of the northern countries ot Europe in
general. The fleihis in fome elleem ; but it is chictly taken
for the fake of the beautiful filvery fcales, which artilts
make ufe of in the manufaftory of artificial pearl. The
credit of this invention is claimed by the French ; and it is
faid, that they have arrived at fuch a degree of perfeftion in
this art, that, independent of the plain filvery hue of the
beads in common, they can vary the colour to blue, green,
or any other vivid tint they may defire. The procefs is very
fliort ; the fcales are fcraped off, wafhed, and then reduced
to a tine powder ; this is diluted with viater, and introduced
into a thin bubble of glafs, where it forms an internal coat-
ing ; the cavity is then filled with wax, through which a
hole is bored, and the bead is finifted.

Gmelm fpeaks of this fpecies being from four to ten
inches in length ; but thefe do not commonly exceed fix
inches. This fifh is infellcd in the fummer-time with a crea-
ture of the vermes tribe, that hves in the intelUnes, and
which oftentimes increafes to fuch a vaft fize as to occafion
the death of the bleak. Filbcs fo infefted rife to the furface
of tlie water, where they leap and tumble about in the
greateil agonies, and in that ftate are well known to the
fiihermen by the name of mad bleaks. The white bait taken
in the Thames at Dlackwall and Greenwich, in the month
of July, is believed to be the fry of this fpecies. Vide Do-
nov. Brit. Filhes, pi. 18.

BLEB, a fmall blifter, or bubble.

Naturalills have obferved fmall purple blebs on all the
plants of the hxpn-'icum kind. Phil. Tranf. N'-^ 224. Thick
pieces of glals, fit for large optic glaflcs, are rarely to be
had without bitbs. Ibid. N° 4.

BLECHINGLEY, orBLEi CHiN'GLEY,in(7«^jfl/>,'>)', an
ancient but fmall borough town of Surrey, iuEngland; h..shad
the privilegeof returning members to parliament from time im-
memorial. The right of voting is veiled in burgage tenure;

Vol. IV.

B LE

and the lord of the miner's bailiff vi'^s the rrturning officer tiH
1723, when, by a rcfolution of the houfe of co.T.mons, he
was dtp ived of lliit oliice ; and the borou ^h iias now the
fingulanty of fendmg two members to parliament, without a
mayor, conftable, or any other legal returning ofEcer. Sir Ro-
bert Clayton is the proprietor of the bor.nigh, and has confe-
quently the power of appointing the r. prelcntat:vts. The
town occupies the fummit and fide of a hill, and commands
fome fine and extenfive profpeAs into Kent, Hamplhire, &c»
Here was formerly a callle, which is nearly obliterated, and
its fcite is overgrown with coppice wood. An alms-houfe
and fre* fchool are the only charitable foundations of lhi»
place. The church is large and handfome ; but its fpir&
was deftroyed by lightning in 1606, at which time the bells
were melted by the cledfric fire. Fuller's earth and a fpe-
cies of iron-ftone are obtained in the vicinity of this town.
Blechingley is 2 I miles fuuth from London. The town and
fuburbs within the parifli, contain 1S6 houfes, and 1344 in-
habitants.

BLECHNUM, m Botany. Lin. gen. r. 1175. Reich.
1292. Schrcb. 1627. CIjIs, cryplogamia fltces, or fernss
Gen. Char. Frurtifications difpofed in two hues, ap-
proaching to the rib of the frond, and parallel.

Species, I. B. occidentals. South x\merican B. " Fronds
pinnate ; pinnas lanceolate, oppofite, emarginate at the
bafe." This fpecies rifes by a fimple undivided ftalk to the
height of 13 or 18 inches; leaves long and nan'ow ;^ many
pinnas, with two fmall auricles at the bafe. A native of
the Weft India idands, and the continent of South America.
Introduced here about 1777. 2. Y). orient ale, Chinefe Bt
" Fronds pinnate ; pinnas linear, alternate," Frond three
feet long ; ftipe covered at the bafe before, with large grey
briiVles ; the anterior fide fcored with three longitudinal
grooves ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, feffile, fmooth, entire,
ilreaked at an acute angle, the length of the finger.
Found in China by Olbeck, and alfo in the Society ifles.
3. B. aujlrale. Cape B. " Fronds pinnate ; pinnas fub-
ieffile, cordate-lanceolate, quite entire, the loweft oppofite."
Stipes a foot long, green ; fronds entire, about the edge
rugged ; the barren ones with broader pinnas, truncate at
the bafe ; the fertile, with lanceolate pinnas, hean-lhaped
at the bafe ; having two lines of frudification, longitudinal,
and diitant both from the edge and rib. A native of the
cape of Good Hope. Introduced here, in 1774, by Mr. F.
Maffon. 4. B. virginktim, Virginian B. " Fronds pin-
nate ; pinnas multifid." Having the ftature of polypodium
filix mas or male fern ; frond fmooth ; pinnas lanceolate, feffile,
femipennatifid, acute ; divifions obtufe, quite entire. A native
of Virginia and Carolina. Cultivated, in 1774, by Dr. John
Fothergill. 5. V>,japoniaim, Japonefc B. " Frond bipin-
natiiid ; pinnules ovate, obtufe, ferrated." Stipe convex at
the back and fmooth, before flat and ftreaked ; the whole
fnionth, flsxuofe, equal ; pinnas oblong, acute, pinnatifid ;
the lower fubpetioled, the upper feffile ; differing from the
orhntaL in having an ereft frond and blunt pinnules. A na-
tive of Japan. 6. B. radicans, rooted-leaved B. " Fronds
bipinnate ; pinnas lanceolate, crenulated ; the lines of fruifli-
ficatiou interrupted." Frond rooang ; pinnas leffilc. (lightly
concurrent at the bafe, ferrate with a very fine callus, acu-
minate, more veined beneath ; the line of fruftification |is
next the nerve, but interrupted as it were by long
points. A native of Virginia and Madeira, where it was
obferved by Kanig. Introduced, in 1779, by Mr. F. Maffon.
Propagation and Culture. The lourth fpecies alo le w'U
abide the open air in Er.gland ; the firll mull be kept in the
bark llove ; the rell require only the protertio'; ot t'le dry
ftove, or confcrvatory ; they are incrcafed by parting the
roots. Martvn.

4 F BLEDSOE

B L E

BLEDSOE I^iCK, in Gfography, lies in tlie Rate of Te-
^efiee, in America, 32 miles from Big Salt Lick garnion,
'and 36 from Nafliville.

BLEEDA, or Blida, in Geo^raph'i, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Algiers, and province of Titeri, is fituate
ill the interior of the co'intry, over-agair.ft the mouth of the
Ma-Saffran, at five leagues dillance, under the fliadc of a
lidge of moun'ains, forming a part of mount Atlas. It is
about a mile in circuit, encompafied by a wall chiefly of mud
perforated by hornets, and tolerably populous, but with-
out much trade ; fome of the houfes are flat-roofed, and others
tiled ; it is well-watered, as a branch of an adjacent rivulet
may be conduced through every houfc and garden, and it
is furrounded by very fruitful gardens and plantations. As
Blecda and Medea (fee Medea) lie nearly in the fame
meridian, and are fituated at a proper dillance from the
Haniam Mereega, the Aqux Cahdae Colonia ot the ancients,
and as their modem and ancient names refemble one ano-
ther. Dr. Shaw fuppofes that we may take one for the
Bida Colonia, and the other for the Lamida of Ptolemy.
That part of mount Atlas which lies between thefe towns,
and reaches as far as mount Jurjura, is inhabited by nume-
rous clans of Kabyles ; few of which, from their rugged
fiLuation, have been made tributary to the Algerines. The
Beni Sala and Hrileel overlook Bleedii, and the rich plains of
^lettijah ; whiiil the Beni Selim and Haleefa fometimes
defcend into the pafture gror.nd, near the banks of the
Biflibelh, or river of fennel, of which a great quantity grows
on its banks. Siiaw's Travels, p. 36.

BLEEDING, or Blood-letting, in Medicine, a fpe-
cies of evacuation frequently reforted to, as a principal re-
medy in inflammatory afFeftions, fuch as pleurify, peri-
pneumony, phreniti«, quinfey, enteritis, acute rheumatifm,
&c. ; and in diforders accompanied with plethora. Inch as
mania, apoplexy, &c. See thefe difcafea feparatcly. In all
thefe cafes, the earlier this remedy is employed the better,
and efpecialiy in thofe inflammatory diforders, fuch as phre-
nitis and peripneumony, where, from the great vafcularity
of the part, the progrefs of the inflammatory aftion is ex-
tremely rap'd, and the injury done to organs fo eflential to
lite, often becomes irreparable.

Nor is the timing of this remedy the only circumftance
that requires attention. Other circumfliances of equal
moment are to be attended to ; viz. the quantity of evacuation.,
and the fuddt'itnefs tuith luhich it is effeded. The quantity
mull be regulated by the degree and feat of inrfamma-
tory action, and the age and conllitution of the patient.
The appearances of the blood, when drawn (fee Blood),
are commonly regarded as a good criterion for regulating
the repetition of the lancet, and the quantity to be taken
away each time ; but the flate of the pulle affords a much
better guide ; and venefeftion will often be found neceffary
in cafes where the buffy coat or fizy appearance of the blood
is not prefent in anv confiderable degree.

The impreflion produced upon the fyltem isver)- different,
according as the blood is drawn from a large or a fmall ori-
fice ; i.e. according as it is evacuated fuddenlv or flowly.
The former method is to be praftifed in all violent inflam-
mations of parts eflential to life ; fuch as the brain, the
lungs, the llomach, &c ; for thus the increafed ailion of
the vafcniar fyltem is fubdued ahnoll on the onlet ; a mo-
mentary deliquium is induced (u Hate the oppofite to that in
which the morbid condition conlifted), from which the mod
benelicial confequences refult.

Provided equal quantities of blood be drawn in equal
times, it matters not whether it be taken from the right or
the left arm ; in other v.-ords, fuppofing, in the cafe of p!cu-

2

B L E

lify, the feat of the pa'n and inflammation to be in the ripfii
fide, thofe fymptoms will be as fpeedily removed by taking
away in the whole thirty ounces of blood at three different
times from the left arm, as they would be, if the fame quan-
tity were taken away from the right arm, in the fame
number of times, and from orifices equal'y large ; becaufe
in both cafes there is the fame quantity abllrafted from the
whole mafs of blood, and conleqiiently from the quantity
circulating through the lungs, and their inveiling mem-
branes ; whence the general and local effeft s in both cafes
are ukimatclv the fame. Hence the futility of the doftrine
of Revulfion, about which fuch warm difputes were at
one tim.e carried on.

Hitherto we have merely hinted at the general efaJs pro-
duced upon the fyftem by blood-letting. It will now be
expefted that we fhould fpecify what they are. The firll
and mofl; obvious efieft is upon the heart and arteries. The
blood is to them a Itimulus ; confequently, by withdrawing
a quantity of that fluid from them, we withdraw a propor-
tionate quantity of ftimulus, and bring down their action fo
much nearer to their natural flandard. Tbeabforbents par-
ticipate in this change ; wlience_ a lefs impeded exhalation
takes place. At the fame time a diminution of the animal
heat fucceeds. But the cerebral fyftem and the vafcular
fyftem are fo intimately connctted, that the one cannot be
materially aiTecfled without producing a correfponding tficft
upon the other. This is proved by the deliquium and coi>-
vullions wliich fucceed to fudden and profufe hamiorrliages.
Thus it appears that the beneficial effefts of blood-letting,
in the diforders to which it is applicable, are not owing
merely to the ab!tra£lion of a quantity of the circulating
mafs, and confequent abatement of activity in the fangui-
ferous vefTels ; but alfo to the abftraftion of a quantity of
the fuperfluous Animal Heat, and to the impreflions at
the fame time made upon the lymphatic veflTels, and finally
upon th; fyftem of brain and nerves.

From this view of a remedy fo powerful and fo extenfive
in its operation, it is cafy to perceive what mifchievous and
even dangerous confequences muil refult from its abufe^
Being the moft fpeedily debilitating of all remedies, it is ob-
vious that what is termed general hlcedir.g ought never to be
reforted to, but in cafes where the pulle denotes an increafed
degree of llrength, as well as exceffive activity. It has been
from attending merely to its increafed adlivity, and the ac-
companying accumulation of heat, without a due eftimation
of the Ifrength of the pulfe, in fevers and ether diforders
fuppofed to be inflammatory, that fo much abufe has been
committed in~the employment of the lancet. See Fever ;
under wliich article, the propriety and impropriety of blood-
letting will be fully confidered, with remarks on the prac-
tice of Ferreluis, Botallus, Sydenham, Pi-ingle, and other
celebrated phyiicians, who pulhed this remedy to an extra-
vagant length.

Although ^^'nifz-fl/bleeding be only admiffible under the con-
ditionsabove mentioned, yet /t/.Wbleeding may befometimes
employed with good effedl in cafes of partial inflammatiori,
exifting in Rates of the body where vigour in the fyftem at
large is wanting ; efpecialiy when the veffch; belonging to fome
organ elTential to life, are obftrufted, overloaded, or inflamed.

Bleeding v/as formerly employed for the purpofe of pre-
•Denting plethoric and inflammatory conditions of the body.
Her.ce many of the old v.'riters recommend it to perfons in
health both in fpring and autumn, to pregnant women, S:c.;
but th.ii praftice is very properly difeontinued, and other
modes of counteracting a tendency to over-repletion are
adopted in its place ; fuch as a vegetable diet, regular exer-
cife, occalional purging, and the hke.

BlesdinGj

B L E

B L E

Bleidikg, or Blood-letting, in Surgery, is t!ie arti-
ficial extraftion of blood from an Artery or Vein, for
medicinal purpofes. The operation of cutting an artery is
named Arteriotomy ; that of opening a vein is called
Venesection, or Phlebotomy.

The inftrument iifed in this country for bleeding the hu-
man fubjeft,is denominated a Lancet ; though a phkme, or
Jle.im, was formerly employed, and is ftill very commonly
iiled by farriers in England, and even by the bed fnrgeons
ill Germany, &c. See the Plate oi Surgical Injiruments. Tiie
lancet, on thefe occafions, is ufed fingle ; but where the in-
tention is to puncture numerous fmall blood-veffcls at the
fame inftant, rather than any one confiderable vein or branch
of an arteiy, furgeons have recourie to an inftrument con-
taining many lancets, which is known by the name of Sca-
rificator.

Leeches are often applied to a part of the body requiring
the local evacuation of blood ; ;ind in this cafe, as well as in
fcarifying, the operation is termed local bleeding, in contra-
diilindlion to general blood-letting by the lancet.

Some nations, efpecially thofe which have fcnrccly emerged
from a ftate of barbarifm, arc accuftomed to draw blood by
making one or more inciiions or punctures at random, with
a knife, a Hone, a tooth, or a needle. See Acupuncture,
Phlebotomy, Arteriotomy, Leeches, and Cup-
ping.

The art of bleeding may be traced back to the remoteft
antiquity, and feems to have betn common among the
Egyptians, AfTyrians, Scythians, &c. at a time when ana-
tomy had never been cultivated. The Greeks boaft that
Podalirius, the fon of Efculapins, was the firil who prac-
tifed bleeding, foon after the fiege of Troy ; but the fact
itfelf is related by only one author (Steph. Byzan. in voce
Syrna), who lived too long afterwards to be credited impli-
citly. It is therefore much more likely, that bleeding had
been performed previoully to the time aliudcd to. Plin^',
indeed, fuppofes that phyficians fird learnt this operation
from having obferved the hippopotamus draw blood by pufii-
fng (harp reeds into its body ( Hift. Nat. lib. viii. cap. 26.) ;
but this is a very improbable thin^, as there is very little ana-
logy between the artificial opening of a vein with a lancet,
and the random wounding of an animal by friftion againft a
broken reed.

We {hall, however, not enlarge on the hiftory of this
praitice, but proceed to dclcribe the common modes of
opening a vein in feveral parts of tiie body ; after which we
fliail treat of Arteriotomy.

When v/e refolve to perform venefeflion, we muft.befides
the inilrumcuts required for that operation, have in readinefs
tine or two well-rolled blood-letting bandages, or tapes, from
four to eight feet in length, and of two fingers breadth, with
pins, or tile needles and thread. Thole bandages are, by
foreigners, reckoned the bell, which have narrow ftraps at
their ends.

In general, venefection is praiftifed at the bend of the
elbow, or upon the f(.ot. Wlien the ];atient is to be bled
at the arm, we place him, with his face towards the light,
upon a chair of a moderate height ; draw his fhirt as high
as is necefTary above the elbow; let him extend his arm to a
certain degree, but not too much ; after which, the fur-
geon, in order that the veins may become turgid by check-
ing the circulation, applies a bandage (which is often made
d" line red cloth), of the breadth of three or four lingers,
twice round the arm above the elbow, with the ends of
V'hich, after having previonfly drawn them moderately tight,
he ties a bow with a fingle knot, at the poilerior part of the
arm. Whether this bandage has been properly applied, w«

know by the circumflance, that the veins become elevated
and tumid, whilil tlie pulfation of the artery at the wrift is
diflinctly perceptible.

We then choofe a vein in the bend of the elbow, which
mull be done with caution. 'I'he upper is the cephalic vein,
and this a beginner ought, if polTible, always to choofe, as
little or no danger is to be apprehended from opening it ;
but it is very feldom to be feen or felt, and commonly is too
fmall. The median vein is mod eaiiiy feen and felt ; but
generally the tendon of the biceps mufclc is Ctuatcd under
or at the fide of it, which we mull take great care not to
punfture. The inner vein of the arm, or the bafilic (which
in the right arm is by fome terrr.ed the hepatic vein, and in
the left the fplenic), is indeed commonly very eafy to be
feen, and ftill more eafy to be felt ; fometimes, however, it
is alio very fmall, or lies fo clofe upon the artery as to
render it hazardous to open it.

Some recommend blood-letting upon the back of the hand,
although this is an inconvenient phce, and, in certain cafes,
not very fafe for the operation. But if it is to be performed,
we tie the red bandage two fingers breadth above the wrift,
round the fore-arm ; and, in order to raife the vein, let the
patient then hold his hand in warm water. The moft com-
mon vein upon tlic hand is the cephalic of the thumb, which
lies between the bones of the carpus, \suth which the thumb
and the fore-finger are joined. But the vena falvatella of
the middle finger, which lies between the two nietacaipal
bones with which the middle and the ring fingers are joined,
is at prefent but very rarely opened, and only when no
other is to be feen ; efpecially as it does not difcharge
much blood, is difficult to be tieJ, and, if cut quite through,
forms a thrombus.

In bleeding thefe vein?, the patient muft be placed in a
fomewhat oblique pofition againil the light ; fo that when
the hand is halt clofed, and laid upon the edge of the vcftel,
the fingers are directed towards the light, in order that the
inftrument may throw no (hade upon the place of the vein
where we intend to open it.

Bleeding at the foot is generally performed upon the vena
faphxna, which lies upon the firlt metatarfal bone, con-
nected with the great tee, running along it and the tarfus,
over the inner ancle. Where it lies clofe upon the ankle, it
is inconvenient to open, and we muft be very careful Icit we
cut through it and injure the perioileum, or even thrull the
fi^-am or lancet into the bone itfelf. Ifpoffible, it will be
better to open it one, two, or three fingers' breadths farther
from the ancle towards the great toe. We may alfo open a
branch far forwards, almoft clofe upon the great toe ; and
here we are reqnired often to open it with pregnant womea
who have fwelled legs.

The othrr pretty fafe vein upon the foot h the cepha?
lica p.dis, that lies between the two tendons which extend
the great and the fccond toes ; only we mull be cautious
not to injure the tendon lying befide it. The other vein*
fitnated upon the back of the foot ftiould never be opened,
but in cales of extreme nccefiily ; tor the operation is at-
tended with danger, on account of the contiguous tendons ;
befides, they do not difcharge a fufficient quantity of bloodj
and they almoft always form a thrombus, which a beginner
(hould be careful to avoid.

\Vhen we bleed at the foot, the patient ihould firft place
the limb in a pail of warm water, in order that the velTels
may be feen and felt ; and it is alio neceifary with fmall
veins to apply the red bandage, which, however, in order
that the purpofe of checking the flow of the blood may be
attained, and no inconvenience occafioned, muft be applied
in the middle of the calf, efpecially vviih Itaa peifons, ia
4 F 2 "the

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the fame manner as on the atiu ; but ihc bow and its krot
iiiiiil not he upon the tibia.

On the arm, therefore, we chooft either the cephalic or
the median vein, and, if the tendon lyirg below it Diould oc-
tanon hcfuation, the bafilic, efpecially if this lies mors
convenient and Uiperficial. When the fi'.rpjtcn, thjn,' has
bvo'jglit his eye to the proper diilance from the vein, he wtts
the point of his middle fi;:ger, prefles gently with this fingjer
upon the vein at the places where he tl'.inks he can beil open
it, and accurately marks the place with, which he was iatis-
fied in trying by the feel ; after which he fuffers the arm to
fall down again into the patient's lap.. In the fame manner
he choofes a vein npon the hand.

For blood-letting at the right foot, the patient is placed
upon a chair of a moderate height, in the moil L-p.hghtcned part
of the room, with his face directed towards the window, and
his feet imnieifed in a veffi.! filled witl; warm water, fo that
the water covers all the veins of the whole foot. When
therefore the foot is warm, and the veins fnfSciently tumid,
the furgeon lays hold of the loot with his left hand, and
places it with the middle of the io!e upon the edge of the
lelTel which is the mod remote from the body, in fnch a
manner, however, that the foot is not extended, but forms
a right angle with the kg. With the middle finger of the
right hand he examines thofe veins which lie the moll ele-
vated, and makes, according to the. rules before laid down,
a fcientific feleftion ; but he muil always firll direft his at-
tention to the vena faphxna.

The moft convenient attitude for the furgeon is when he
kneels down with one knee ; as in this pofition the eye is
near to the vein, the pofition is firm, and can be better fup-
ported for the requifue length of time. If any other vein be-
iides the faphcena be chofen, the patient is diredled to move his
toes, whilll we are examining the vein, in order that we
may feel how near a tendon may he fituated below it ; and
here the cavition fliould be obferved, not to make all the fin-
gers wet, for the warm water diminilhes the fenfe of touch,
and confequently renders it indillind. We therefore life at
firll ordy one hand, btcaufe, in cafe of a failure, or from fome
other caufc, v.c may be under the neceffity of taking alfo
tlie other foot.

The vein may be opened either longitudinally, that is to
fay, in the diredlion of its courfe, or we open it rath.er ob-
liquely or ti-anfvcrfely. The firft is the fafeft, eaficft, and
moft convenient method ; but it is admiffiblc only with large
veins, and when we forefee that during the operation they
■will not flip or twitl, as it were, out of the way of the inftru-
inent. Commonly the veins are op-ned iomewhat obliquely,
and in this manner we may generally open the veins on the
arm, and in moft cafes upon the foot. But v/hen the veins
are too fmall, there is reafon to apprehend that we may not
hit them, or that they will not ditcharge a fufficient quan-
tity of blood ; and when their fituation requires it, as is (he
cafe with the cephalic of the foot (where it lies over the
tendon that elevates the great toe), the orifice muft be made
quite tranfverfely.

When therefore we have properly examined the vein with
the moid finger, we hold the phlemc in readinefs (if we ufe
this inftrume-it); that is to (ay, we draw up the fpring,
take it in the right hand, fo that the thumb lies upon the
Aider, the fore-fine cr upon the bridge, and the middle fin-

fer upon the preffer, exaftly over its fpring, and the rmg
nger upon the round part of the bottom plate. With the
fore finger and thumb of tlie left hand, which are moi.lencd
with a little faliva, we move the iron as high up iu the
groove as we think it necelfary to make rhe orifice deep ;
and place the box (after having again elevated the arm, or

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taken the foot or hard out of the water, and fupported
them, in the manner above defcribed, upon the margin of
the vefTcl) in fuch a manner upon the fldv, that the ir.n has
exTidly the proper dircftion toward ti^e place wh.ere the ori-
fice is to b; made, and I'u.-n, by a gentle preffure with the
middle finger, let the fpring fly loole.

If a perfon fiiould he fo fat as to render bleeding imprafti-
cable, and with fuel' it is at leaft very difficult to do it on
the foot, we may in fome meafure attain ou- purpolV, if we
dire('t the patient, as he gets out of bed, to hold his foot or
hand in warm water ; after vvhich th- veins will geii.-.aliy bsj.
come fuffieiently perceptible to the tje or touch ot au ex-
pcricnctd furgeon.

But though the phleme is ufed for blood-letting, tfpecl-
ally in Germany, it is however an uiuvtria!ly acknowledged
truth, that the lancet is the I'afcll and beft ir.ftrument for the
purpofe. W^e run lefs hazard with it of doing damage, aud
the furgeon is always able, according as the circumfcances
require, to make the orifice either fmall or large. When
therefore we let blood with the lancet, we place it fo that
the handle forms a fomewhat acute angle with the bljde.
The furgeon next lays hi'ld of the limb upin which he is to
perform the ope»ation, fuppofc the right arm, with his left
hand ; and at the fame time preffes with the left thuirb upon
the vein, about two fingers' breadth below the place which
is chofen for the orifice: he then takes the lancet between
the thumb and fore finger of the ri.;ht hand, fo that fome-
thing more of the blade is uncovered than he thinks neccf-
fary to introduce. At the fame time he lets his ham! reft
upon the middle, ring, and little finger, wliicli muft be
placed as conveniently as poITible below the vein that is
to be opened. He then puflies the point of his lancet
carefully through the ilciu and integuments into the vein,
and carries the mllrument in an oblique direction a little for-
wards, till the orifice is fuffieiently large. But, during the
introduclion of the lancet, the operator muft hold the point:
as fteady and even as podible, in order that it may not pene-
trate into the fubjacent parti. S'lould he, however, not be
able to depend f.ifficiently upon the fteadinefs of his band,
he will do well to leave no more of the point of the lancet
uncovered than is to penetrate into the vein. The furgeon
having withdrawn his right hand, at the fame time re-
moves the thumb of his left hand from the vein, in order
that the bloud may flow out freely.

If the blood will not flow properly, notwithftarding the
vein has been properly hit, either the orifice is too fmall, or
fat perhaps gets into the orifice of the integuments and
ftops it. The fat is to be preikd back, by llroking with a
wet and warm fponge, or by means of au iiulrument. The
impediment, indeed, may lie in the motion of the part j
when, for example, the arm is bent obliquely, or the foot is
placed in the watt-r, the orifice of the vein may eafily be
difplaced, and fome of it be clofed by the found part of
the fkip. but, finally, the circumftance may alfo be oeca-
fioncd by the vifcid confillence of the blood. To this latter
c.tufe it is often to be attr.buted, after the firft few minutes;
on which ^cci.unt it will be proper to wipe the arm, over the
orifice of the vein, with a fponge filled with v/arm water,
and let the hand reft in a fomewhat higher fituation than
the orifice, upon a ftick, which the patient may alfo turn
round, or prefs firmly with his fingtrs.

When a fufficient quantity ot blood has flowed from the
vein (for example, in the arm'), and we are to tic it up,
we take the fpoiige, moiftened with warm water, in the
right hand, the bandage in the left, and the linen comurefs
between tiie thuTb and middle finger ot the fame hand ; we
huldagaiaft tiie vein with the fponge, and with the left hdud

remove

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rfmove tTie red bandage and hanp; it over t^e clmir, or the
fliouidcr of tliL- patient. The afTiilant takt<; away the vcfTcl
into which the nKiuJ has been received, and the operator
now with a moderate pren"u'"e dra-vs the fpon;re froiii the
vehi towards the hind in a right line with the oiilici that
has b.;en made ; and it will be proper, whilll he britirrs the
lip=i of the wound together with the thn:nb of h's left hand
from the fult-, to repeat the wiping with the fponi^e once
more, in order completely to remove the blood that may
have been left in the orifice.

When the fur^eon now fees the vein well clofed, he lays
upon it the co-npiefs, with the finders of his riirht hand,
vvhilft he draws it towards the thumb of the left hand upon
the (l<in ; and when the middle of it is upon the orifice, he
preflei it down with the fore and middle fingers of the ri:Tht
hand, and immediately changes thefe for the thumb of the left
li;t--d. With the right hand he waOies the blood from the
limb, by means of the fponge; after which, he lays the
fponge afide He then takes the bandage out of his left
ha-id, lays hold of it with the fore and middle fingc s of the
right hand at the inner part of its head, and the thumb upon
the outer, and places it upon the comprefs in fuch a man-
ner that the fingers of the left hand make way for it, whilll
the two fingers of the right hand continue the prefliiie in
their place. But, immediately after, thefe arc ag -.in changed
for the left, fore, and middle fingers, which now prefs at
the fame time upon the one turn of the bandage and the
comprefs. The right hand carries the bandage crofs-ways
round the arm, whilll file fore fingers of the two hands
always alternate, till the laft, when both ends of the ban-
dage are either fewed, tied, or pinned together.

Notvvithftanding we have given thefe very precife direc-
tions, a young furgeon will learn better by feeing the
operation performed by a fl;:lful hand, than by any verbal
inlirudlions.

Tying the vein upon the thumb is performed in the
following manner: — Preffing with the comprefs, which
here mull be pretty narrow and thick, is like that performed
on other veins ; and therefore, whilll we hold it fall upon
the wound of the vein with the two fore fingers of the left
hand, we let the bandage, (which is rolled upon one head,
an inch in breadth, four feet in length from the end to the
place where it touches the comprefs), hang about half a foot
down over the back of the hand, obliquely from the wrill
outwards; carry the head of the bandage, after preffing
it over the comprefs with two fingers of the left han ',
through between the thumb and the fore-finger, over the
palm of the hand ; and, proceeding over the back of the
hand, cover the end of the bandage : then go round the
wrill, again over the back of the hand, under the thumb,
and now round the ball of the thumb ; again over the turn
that has ju!l been made acrols the back of the h<(nd; and after
having once more earned it half round the wnft, pin both
ends together on the back of the hand. We may alfo apply
this bandage with varied turns. In a fimilar manner, with
turns round the little fingr, and circular turns round the
wrill, the band;ige is applied, when the vena falvatclla is
opened.

With the veiis of the foot, the common bandaging is
made by the Stapes, which, however, fometim.cs requires
a peculiar method, that ev ry one will cafily be able to
adapt according to circumllancts. The bandage may be
applied fomev/hat ti-ghtcr than upon the arm : however, on
account of the injurious confequences, which m;iy even be
attended with danger, the bandage mull not be drawn too
tight ; but it will be better fome hours after to examine it
again, and if neceffary, draw it fomewViat tighter. Upon

the whole, it is-to be recommended, if poflible, in all blood-
letting operations, efp.-ciaily in arteriotomy, that the fur-
geon (siould fee the p iti-nt again fome hours after; as he
may obviate leveral i'mali inconveniences, which after-,>'ards
frequently occalion unpleafant complaints.

Venefedlion is more rarely performed upon the frontal
vein, the veins under the tongue, and upon the neck. For
the frontal vein, when it requires to be opened, we apply a
bandage, or a garter or cloth, rou;id the neck, lay the mid-
dle of the bandage upon the back of the neck, carry both
extremities over the throat, and loiuid again to the back of
the neck, where an aflilant takes- one end in e?.ch hand.
This the patient may alfo perform himfelf ; only then the
middle of the bandage mull be apphed to the throat, the",
two ends carried round the neck till they meet at t«e
throat again ; there the patient holds them with both his
hands, and, according to circumllances, draws the bandage
tighter, or relaxes it, fo as ftill to retain fufficient fpace for
relpu-atlon. A ill'l more convenient mode of diilending the
veins of the neck, &c. is to pafs the bandage over the fides
of the neck, and under the oppofite arm-pits, fo as not to
prefs upon the trachea, which may impede refpiration ; then
hold the fvvelled vein down with the thumb or linger of your
left hand, a little below the part allotted for tlie operation.
The incifion is to be made, when the vein is fufEciently
tumid, with a lancet.

In order that the blood may not run down upon the face,
we prefs a card bent crooked under the orifice upon the flcin,
and thereby conduft the blood into a veflel. After a fufn-
cient quantity of blood hat been difcbarged, we remove the
bandage from the neck, when the bleeding geserally ceafes
immediately, and the orifice is fecured with llicklng plaifter,
or, if it fiiould be ncceffary, with a comprefs and Discai-
MEN bandage.

When w-e have to open a fublingual vein, we mufl pro-
mote the efflux of the b'ood, as in bleeding at the forehead,
by the application of a cloth under the arms and acrofs the
fides of the neck. The orifice is made with the lancet, and
the incifion is continued till it feems large enough. In order
more conveniently to get at it, we hold br^ck the tongue
with a wooden fork, or fpatula. We may draw a filk
thread through the wound, in order to clear it from the
blood, wliich here eafily coagulates, ■ and at the fame time
to prevent the lips of the wound from adhering together,
and confeqnentlv to obviate whatever m.ight impede the flow
of the blood. When its flow mull be Hopped, we take off
the bandage, and let the patient hold fome fpirit of wine, or
common brandy, in his mouth. If the blood flows more
copioufly, we may difpenfe with the thread, and immedi-
ately remove the bandage from the neck ; alfo, when it is to
be lloppcd, apply a little alum or agaric to the wound, and
prefs it down fur a time ; or apply Lampe's comprelfory,
defcribed in I. Val. Heinr. Koehlcr Anleitung zum Ver-
bande, &c. I^eipzig, l 796, 8vo. Tab. V I. Jig. J.

To bleed at tlie external jugular vein, the bandage is
likewife applied round tiie niek; againft the clavicle, and
upon the vein that is to be opened, a thick comprels is
placed, and the bandage drawn fomewhat together. The
thumb is placed upon the comprefs which lies upon the vein,
and the fore-finger over it, in order to fecure it and to (Iretch
the (kin ; we then take a pretty large lancet, and with it
open the vein in the ord'nary manner; only with this differ-
ence, that we mull introduce it deeper, and make the ex-
ternal orifice lager. To catch the blood, we make ufe of
a card, as in bleeding at the forehead. When a lufficier.t
quantity of blood has been drawn, we remove the bandage ;
after which, the lips of the wound generally dofe fponta-
6 neoufly.

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Bcouflj'. Bul (hould a bandage be ncceffary, tt'e may fecui'C
a compvcfs upon it by means of two circular turns round
the neck. As this baudagc, on account of the preffure
upon the trachea and vcHcIs, Ac. of the neck, is always
very troublefoir.c ; and alio the prclfurc, as it never oiull be
ilrong, is frequently infufficicnt ; we may moll conveniently
-life the inRrunwnt inveiued by Mr. Chabert for comprtfling
the veins of the neck. In want of it, we mull Kt an affillant
clofe the orifice by preilure with his finger, till the danger
of hsmorrhaijc is over.

.Some moillen the comprcfTes with br;injy, vinegar, Sec.
and thereby, on account of l!ic irrit.ilion, occafion lome in-
convenience at the orifice of the vein, in which fometimes
inflammation, a:iJ even a fuppuralion is excited. It is better
to apply the comprefs dry, or to Hick upon it a piece of
gold -heater's ikin, whereby the lips of the wound, if thsy
iiave been well brought together, arc retained in that ftate,
fo that the burlling open of the vein is more effeiilually
prevented.

Eafy and infignificant as fume young furgeons think the
operation of phlebotomy, it nevcithelefs often requires the
greatell accuracy, and is on that account one of the mod
delicate operations. To a true furgeon, thereiore, it is al-
ways of inipoi tancc, and the more fo as his honour and re-
putation are endangered by committing an error in it. Fre-
quently the faults which the patient commits during and
after the op:?ration, fuch as incautious motion of the limb
v.'hilll the operation is performing, violent exertion of it,
drawing on boots, &c. after blood-letting at the feet,- are
afcribed to the negligence or ignorance of thi furgeon. In-
afmuch alfo as no operation occurs fo frequently as this, and
as it fu very often endangers the life of a man, or at leall an
error committed may give rife to fuch danger ; the furgeon
mud well conlider the fymptonis which occur in it, and
may fnperinduce more important confequences dangerous to
health, in order that he may timely obviate or remove
them.

Sometimes there- arifes, as the mofi common bad confe-
quence of blood-letting, an inflammation of the external
integuments, and of the fubjicent cellular fubdance. Some-
times it is chronic, but little painful, fuppurates ilowly, and
produces a circumfcribed abfcefs. Sometimes it is more dif-
fufed, arid has the appearance of an erylipelatous inflamma-
tion .- fometimes it is violent and acute, and refembles a
pljlegmon. This generally occurs when the inilrument is a
bad one, and rather tears than cuts ; when the patient is of
a ver}^ irritable habit, and much difpofed to inflammation ;
when the reqnilite precautions for healing the wound by the
firft intention are negleclcd, and the arm is fuiTcred to be
m')ved ; v.hen the wound is externally rubbed, preffed, &c.
Tiie nature of this inflammation cannot be miiiaken, and it
muft be treated like a common wound.

It may fometimes happen, that when the wound of the
vein does no; foon clofe, an inflammation of the vein takes
place, which however varies with rcfpetl to its violence, its
cxtenfion, and progrefs. In a milder degree, this inflam-
mation is followetl merely by a flight fwelling of the vein,
and an adhchon of !lb hdes. A violent inflammation induces
fuppuration. The common method of treatment is the anti-
phlogillic. As the internal membrane of the veins is conti-
nued to the heart, and as inflammations in fuch membranes
fpread eafily and rapidly, where they are not prevented by
an adhcfi()7i of the fides of the vein, it is in mofl; cafes ad-
vifable to produce fuch an adhefion by the application of
external prefTure at fome diilance above the orifice. If,
as may very eafily happen, fuch an inflamed vein fliould
pafs into fupn-j:„tion, it would (it known) then be neceflary

to cut open the vein, in order to prevent the pus from mix-
ing with the circulating fluids.

When a vein has been cut entirely through, the pain 19
not greater than common, nor does the patient experience
any inconvenience whilll the blood is flowing ; but a greater
or lefs quantity of it defcends under the vein into the adi-
pofe membrane, remains there inclofed, and during the firfl.
twenty-four hours occafions a tenfion. The external orifice
of the fliin may be difplaced from the orifice of the vein,
likewife, when the orifice of the integuments is fmaller than
that of the vein ; when the patient moves the arm too much,
in confequence of which fome blood is indeed difcharged
from the wound, but more penetrates between the vein and"
the flcin into the cellular texture ; and when the operation
has been abfurdly performed where two veins anaitomofe ;
from all thefe caufes an elFufion of blood may take place, in
confequence of which the part acquires a blueifh bkck co-
lour, and fometimes an ecchymoma, fometimes a fugillation,
and at other times a thrombus is produced. Although the
appearance frequently feems to indicate greater danger than
really exills, the fpeedy application of remedies is neverthe-
lefs neceflary.

In the firfl; cafe, cataplafms, witli warm vip.egar, wine,
and other fpirituous or difcutient remedies, are ferviceable.
When fuch extravafated blond is not again taken up, or
v;heu the veffels are inadequate to its re-abforption, on ac-
count of its great quantity, an abfcefs is generally formed,
which mull be treated according to the rules of art, and the
fpirituous remedies laid afide. See Abscess. In the fu-
gillation, we mull endeavour to rem.ove the obflacles that
may impede the circulation of the blood : thefe are either
external ones, iuch as' a too tight bandage, by loofening
which the complaint is removed ; or they are internal ones,
and occafiontd by a contraclion of the veflels. In a recent
fugillation, we may combine the refolvent means above-men-
tioned with mild allringents ; and when the ilagnating blood
has been again diflfolved and removed, we at lall apply cold,
difcutient, and fpirituous remedies.

When an aponeurotic part (for example, the fafcia of the
fore-arm) is wounded, the patient fometimes experiences a
more violent pain than ufnal, cfpecially when he moves the
limb ; and this he feels prelcntly after the blood-letting
has been performed. A comprefs, moillened vvitii cold
Goulard's water &c. is of fcrvice, whilft at the fame time the
bandage is left apphed for three or four days, and the limb
kept completely at reft, and wetted many times a day witli
fuch lemedies. When this is negUiled, there very often
takes place a ferious inflammation, which muil be treated ac-
cording to the antiphiogiftic plan. Repofeofthe limb, which
is to be kept in a bent pofition, and relaxation of the inflamed
parts by means of warm emollient applications, are abfo-
lutcly neceflary. As foon as the inflammation abates, it is
proper every day to attempt moving the joints, in order to
prevent a Itiffnefs. But if the tenfion and inflammatory
iymptoms run very high, it may even be rcqiiifitc to divide
the fafcia completely.

When a nerve is injured, the patient experiences a flill
more violent pain, which extends itfelf throughout the whole
limb, and the patient is alfo apt to faint, the mufclcs of the
afl'ecled part coiitradl, and the blood fometimes does not
flow fo /reely as ufual, although the vein has been well
opened. The orifice of the vein does not become violently
inflamed, and the pain continues. In order to prevent in-
flammation and other fymptoms, a larger (juantity of blood
mull be let run out, the limb mull at leafl; for fome days be
left conpletely at reft, and we mull take care that the muf-
clcs of the part remain as much related as poflible. IMore-

ovcr*

B L E

evL*r, we mufl treat the patient antiphlog-ifticallr, prcfcribe a
fpare di.t, and alfo, it the cafe fhould require it, adniiiiiltcr
opiate's aiul laxitlves. For lefions of tlie nerves, tlie appli-
cation of warm fpirit of turpentine is corameaded ; but it
would probably be nfcful only in cafe the nerve fhould lie
above, but hardly when under, the vein. Over the oriiice
we apply feme lint and a niUd plaifttr, and over this and the
whole limb, emollient and dilciuient cataplafms, with which
anodyne remedies are mixed.

If, notwithftandiiig this treatment, the fymptoms fliould
become more violent, the lips of the wound acquire a bard-
iiefs, and become more inflamed, affefted with pain and tu-
mor, with a full and quick pulfe, blood mull be drawn by
leeches, or at another place by venefeftion. Inftead of the
warm emollient fomentations and cataplafms, which are re-
commended in fuch cales, Mr. B. Bell extoUs, from his own
experience, cooling allringent remedies. Preparations of
lead he has found moft ferviceable. The parts which fuffer
the moll may be covered alternately with cloths wetted with
a folution of faccharum Saturni, and with pledgits ipread
with ceratum Saturni. The fever mull alfo be particularly
attended to, and the above mentioned cooling treatmicnt
continued. When the pains are fo violent, that they en-
tirely deprive the patient of fleep and reft, we muft ufe an-
timony and opium ; but in order that the opium may prove
ferviceable, it is adminillered always in coi.liderable dofes.
The limb muft be alfo kept continually at reft, and in a ho-
rizontal poilure.

But frequently the firft afFeftion is ncglefted, or improper
remedies are employed, fo that opium, and all the remedies
that have been mentioned, have not the fraalleil efrecl. This
is particularly to be fuppofed, when the nerve is cut in fuch
a manner, that only a part of its fibres ilill remains entire, and
thefe are preternaturally ftretched ; in which cafe the whole
body fuffers, and the moft violent convultive affections take
place, «l)!ch indicate the moll imminent danger. The only
remedy under thefe circumftances is the divifion of the nerve
by a tranfverfe inciiion above the inflamed part, that is to fay,
higher than the orifice of the vein. As the nerve certainly
lies within the breadth of the orifice of the vein, the incifion
needs not be long, and it mull penetrate only down to the
lafcia of the fure-arm, for all its cutaneous branches always lie
on the outfide of this fafcia.

Mr. Benjamin Bell has given very extraordinary direftions
on this fubjecl, which have (moft unaccountably) been tranf-
cvibed by manv furgeons in France and Germany : he directs,
among other things, an extenfive tranfverfe incifion to be
made through the original wound, and even down to the
bone ! which Mr. Abernethy has very properly reprobated
as " dargerous and unneceffary."

When the branch of an artery has been wounded, the pa-
tient does not feel more pain than ufual ; but the furgeou
immediately concludes from the colour and fpouting of the
blood what fault he has committed. See Aneurism.

In veneftcticn, a bone may alfo be injured, chiefly w ith lean
perfons, v/ho generally have very thin veins, efpecially on the
feet ; which, though they arc very vifible, lie, however, fo
clofe upon the bones and tendons, that the inftrument pafles
through and injures the fubjacent bone. In moll cafes, this
only occafions a pain which the patient feels during the opera-
tion, and no bad confequences enfue. Frequently the fur-
geon himfelf would not know it, did he not find, on examin-
ing the inftrument, that the point is ertirely wanting, or at
leall bent round, and its edge fpoiled. This, however, ap-
plies only to the cafe where none of the iron is left in it ; but
when this happens the cafe is worfe. We may know that it
tas taken place from the cutting blade feeing wanting, or in

B L E

part broken off; from the pain which the patient feels, and
which is generally of a p'jlfating kind : from the divided
ft ream of the blood ; from the feel with the fingers, when
thty are ftroked over the orifice of the vein, and from the re-
boundmg which the furgeon feels in the fingers at thellroke.
If it is not ft-atedvery firmly, the ftream of blood generally
drives it out, if we draw the orifice gently afundcr with two
fingers. But when it is more firmly feated, we muft endea-
vour to draw it out with a fine pair of forceps as cautioufly
as pollible, that it may not break in extratling, and the point
remain flicking in the bone. When it has been fucce.''sfully
extrafted, we mull endeavour to prevent the fymptoms, fuch.
as inflammation, tumor, Sec. by moiftcning the comprefs and
the bandages with a difcuticnt lotion, and afterwards alfo
keep the bandages moiftened with fuch remedies throughout
the day. This accident is only liable to occur in ufing the
fleam.

But the breaking ofi"the blade may alfo happen with muf-
cular fubjeds, and this the furgeon can certainly in general
prevent, by always infpefting his inftruments carefully, and
providing them with good blades. The beft blades are thofe
which are very fliarp and finely polifhed, and thefe are gene-
rally very thin, and confequently moft liable to fly off. Before
we ufe any blade, efpecially a thin one, we ought always to put
it to the following teft. We fcrew the new blade into the
phleme, and let it fly two or three times without anv objeA
cppofed to it. If the blade remains as it fhould, we are thea
fomuch the more fecureagainft its flying off in bloodletting,
becaufe it has a refillance oppofcd to it. T-his precau-
tion fliould never be negletted, and the lofs of a few blades
fhould not be regarded, in order to fecure ourfe!vc3 againft
the danger to which we are expofed, if we negledl it. Thefe
obfervations and precautions will fcarcely be wanted for
Engltfi} furgeons, who have laid afide that inftrument.

Sometimes a lym.phatic veflfel is wounded ; in which cafe
the patient experiences no extraordinary pain, nor does the
furgeon forefee the injury that is ftill to arife, and confe-
quently cannot be immediately difcovercd. After the ban-
daging, the vein heals up, no inflammation is left behind, but
there daily flows out of the orifice of the Ikin a quantity of
clear pellucid lymph, which continually keeps the dreflings
\vet. This circumftance often gives the furgeon much
trouble. Here we may apply witii advantage Goulard's
falurnine water, or a folution of alum, or mere cold water.
The cure is beit completed by means of dry lint, applied daily
once or twice in the form of a tent. We may alio fpiinkle
pulverized alum, or apply a ftrong preflTure upon the vefl'el ;
and fomctimes we may ufe the lapis infernalis with advan-
tage. Mr. Jaeger, however, thinks ( Funfzig. chirurg. prakt.
Cantelen. &c. Frankf. a M. 1788, p. 3.) that the cure may
moft fpeedily be effefted by immediately promoting fup-
puration.

It may happen, that in letting blood at the arm a lym-
phatic veflel becomes inflamed ; in which cafe we feel upon
examination, a hard abforbeut veffel both above and below
the wound of the vein, which laft, however, is not yet healed,
but generally uninflanied : if the affedcd limb is ufed, the
pains become more violent, and fomctimes extend themfelves
into the axilla, where alfo the glands fwcU ; generally the
fore -arm likewife fwells and bfCom.es painful, and at lall ab-
fcefTcs take place in different parts. Befides keeping the
affefted arm at reft, we niufl cover the wound with an
emollient ointment, and apply to the hard veffeW and tumors,
cataplafms of emollient, difcutient, and anodyne remedies,
upon which they are generally difculfed. When abfcefTcs
have already been formed, they muft be opened and healed,
according to the rules of the art. See Abscess.

The

B L E

The rnoft common fvmptomconreqiientiiponblood-ktt'ng
is fainting, wnich, iiowtver, isii. mofl cafts unattended with
d'.tngfi", clptcially when it does not arife from a too copious
ev icuation of blood. It may often be prevented, by keep-
ing the patient engaged in converfallon, by letting him take
a ipoonful of vinegar, or a glal^ of cold water into his mouth
or fpriiikHng liim and wafting his hands and face with it.
But if it nevertlulrfs fiipervenes, we muH immediately place
the patient in a horizontal pofition, throw open the chamber
window, and apply ftrong ftimnlating fubflances, fuch as
volatile alkali, to his noftrils ; and when he has come to him-
felf, we may give him a ulafs of wine, provided it be not con-
tra-indicated by his ill ilate of liealth.

With perfnns who always faint whenever they are bled,
and wlio on this acccount, liowever neceffary tlie operaiion
may be for them,, always dread it, the beft method of prevent-
ing their fainting, is to lav them immediately in a liorizontal
pofition, with the head low, and at the fame time frequently
to flop the dilcharge of blood by holding the vein. This
caution is particularly to be reconimended with pregnant
women, as faintings and convulllons in them, if they continue
too long, may prove very injurious to the fcetus, or produce
abortion.

We have hitherto confined our remarks to the opening of
a Vein : it therefore now remains ior lis to defcribe the
operation of Arteriotomy, which is the artificial opening
of an Artery.

This operation was very frequently praftifcd by the an-
cients ; who, perhaps, from having incorreft ideas of the
nature of thefe blood- veffels, were not always aware of the
dangerous confequences v\-hich follow from tiiis practice, if
injudici';uny managed. Thole who are dtfirous of reading
a full account of the ancient practice in this branch of lur-
gcry,may perufe what Oribafiushrs colleded from Galen and
Antyllus; to which they may add the obfervations ot
Paulus yEgineta, and Profper Alpinus, the latter of whom
defcribes the operation as it was performed in Egypt.

The fuppofed advantages of opening an artery, rather
than a vein, are ift, that the blood flows with greater velo-
city than from a vein ; and therefore affords a larger quan-
tity in a given time : 2dly, that it prevents the accumula-
tion of blood in any local inflamation more effedlually, be-
caufe it intercepts the fluid in its pafTage towards the affedltd
.part : 3dly, that its falutary effctts more Ipeedily follow, on
this account, than from the operation of phlebotomy ; and,
'therefore, it is preferable in cafes of a very urgent nature,
fuch as apoplexy and phrenitis, arifing from the prefl'ure of
■blood upon the brain.

But thefe advantages are fpeculative, rather than practical,
for the ffjllowing reafons : ift. No turgeon who is ac-
quainted with the ferious confequences of opening a large
branch of an artery, and the difficulty of rcflraining the
effufion of blood in many inilances, will perform this opera-
tion in the fame parts of the body, and in tlic fame dauntlefs
manrer, as the ancients did. And in opening only very
fmall branches, (fuppofe of the temporal artery,) it rarely
happens that the blood flows rapidly, and never with the
fame freedom as it does from a large vein : 2dly, That we
may fom.etimes, by this means, intercept the blood as it
pafles towards an inflamed part is certain, by cutting
through the principal artery which conveys the blood ; but
(this advantage is not often obtained, bccaufe we dare not
divide any confiderable ramification, and there are always
more arterial btanches than one to fupply an impoitant or-
gan : 3dly, We admit, that in certain cafes, (in ophthalmia,
or inflammation of the eyes, for example,) the good cffecls of
blood-letting by arteriotomy near the afiefted part, is far

B L E

more ufeful than by phlebotomy, in a femote part ; but,
unfortunately, the furgoo'i cannot always evacuate a fufTi-
cient quantity of blo'd hy this means, on account of the
difficulty of tinding a fitUahle branch of an artery, which
may be eafily as well as fafely incifed.

Therefore, confiJermg all the dilidvantages of this opera-
tion, it is now very rar.ly p'atlifed, except in the temples,
vvh.-re the pulfation of a fmall branch of the artery may be
often felt with eai'e ; and there is little or no danger in at-
tempting to divide it. If we do not Incceed in our attempts,
or do not procure fo mueh blood as is requifite, the opera-
tion of phlebotomy may then be had recourfe to. It fiionld,
however, be mentioned as an undoubted faiSt, that acute
inflammations of the eyes, are more tfttftually relieved by
arteriotomy, (when it properly fucceeds,) than by opening
a vein in the arm ; and that the excretion of four ounces of
blood in this way, is as ufeful as twenty or even thirty
ounces taken from the venous fvftcm !

As arteriotomy is now fcarcely ever performed in any other
part of the body befidcs the temple, we fliall content our-
felves with defciibing this operation alone. In that fituation,
the artery lies near er.ougli upon the cranium to be com-
preflcd readily, when we wifli to flop the current of blood ;
though, in general, the blood does not flow fo freely, as to
caufe any ditficulty in relfraining it by moderate preffure.

The patient being placed in a good liglit, the operator
feels for a puUating veflel in the temple, nearly oppofite the
outer angle of the eye. When he has difcovered it, he en-
deavours to trace the dirctfion in which it runs ; and then
he places the two foremoll fingers of his left hai.d upon the
artery, leaving a fpacc of about halt an inch betu een them for
the place of the incifion. The veffel is fo fmall, in general,
that it cannot be opened by an oblique, or a longitudinal punc-
ture, as in bleeding the veins of the arm ; but muft ulually
be cut acroff, by a fingle llroke of the lancet, or fcalpel.
A lancet is not fo convenient as a fmnll knife for this pur-
pofe, becaufe its fine point is apt to be broken ; and it will
be found bell to draw the inftrument over the artery, inftcad
of endeavouring to flrike it with the point, (which Dr. But-
ter, Mr. B. Bell, and others, dirett to be done,) as in phle-
botomy. It may be convenient to make a little impreffion
with the finger-nail, or with ink, on the exaft fpot we deter-
mine upon for the incifion, lell we lofe our objeft in opera-
ting ; for a furgcon cannot alvvays enfure the divifion or
wounding of the artery on his firll attempt, efpecialiy if the
incifion be made with timidity, or helitation.

When a luiHcient quantity of blood has flowed,
(which it does by a florid and falient iiream,) we clofe the
wound ; and apply a Ion.; bandage over a very firm, thick
comprefs of linen, in which may be included a piece of coin,
or fome other hard fubftance. It is a matterof fmall import-
ance whether or no we firll ufe an adhefive plaller, except
when the bleeding is hkely to prove troublef nne : but the
differe t modes of arrelling arterial hemorrhages, are^ de-
fcribed under the articles Hemorrhage, Ligature,
Styptic, and Aneurism.

Frequently it is neceflary tliat the furgeon fliould make
himfelf acquainted with the ftateofihe blood, and often alfo
it is required of him to pafs his opinion upon it. As long
as the blood is warm and flows out of the vein, it exb.ibits a
pretty uniform red colour, and has a vifcid gluey feel ; but
when it grows cool, it coagulates into a mafs varying in co-
lour and denfity. Alter Ionic hours, there gradually exudes
from this coagulated mafs a fluid, which feparates the more
fohd parts from the fides of the veflel, fo that it fwims in it.
Thia water is called fcrum, but the coagulated red cake
is named cruor or traffamentuin.

. Good

B L E

B L E

Good venous blood, cxpofcd to the air, is of a dark red
colour : when it cools, it feparatcs a thin and altroft colour-
lefs feruin, and a thick cake, which has no criift of a dif-
ferent colour from the blood below it ; and of which the
ferura forms a proportion, amounting to between tl'.e third
part and the half. Such blood has no preternatural acri-
mony, or Hiline quality ; and in it are found all its conlli-
tuent parts in the proper proportions. From this condition
of the healthy blood, we m.ay form a judgment of its pre-
ternatural iiate, if it be materially changed.

When the blood remains fo fluid that it will not coagulate,
it indicates a deticiency of the gelatinous part, and a great
redundance of ferum. Such blood is to be found in many
fevers, efpecially in mahgnaut ones, or when the patient is
in a very debilitated condition.

If there be too much ferum in the blood, dropfy and
other fi:n lar difeafes are to be apprehended ; for fuch dif-
folvcd blood alrt-ys indicates a wtaknefs of the veffels, and
of the mufcular fibre.

When the ferum is yellow, it indicates an obftrufted flow
of tilt bile, and its regurgitation into the niafs of the cir-
culating fluids.

When the blood has much fenm and little of the red
part, the blood is overloaded with mucus, and it indicates
that a cachcftic difeafe is impending ; efpeciiiliy when the
ferum has various different colours, and the texture of the
cruor is very flender.

If the blood has its proper and fufficient rednefs and
fluidity, but at the fame time exhibits a greafy pellicle, it
indicntcj a fuperfiuity of oleaginous particles.

AVhen it feparates and yields a very compaft, tenacious,
vellow, or buffy furface, it is too thick ; and if the ferum
be at the fame time fmall in quality, it fliews a great
degree of vafcular aftion and inflammation. This is a faft
very generally admitted.

Finally, it is to be obferved, that we need not be alarmed
vhen the thicker part of the blood feems to fwim in a
milky fluid ; for it commonly happens, in drawing blood
only a few hours after a meal, when it proceeds from the
chyle, which, about this time, is imperfeftly mixed with the
blood.

We have thrown out thcfe few hints for the attention of
prafiical furgeons ; but they are by no means to be re-
garded as complete or abfolutely incontrovertible. There
is a great deal of fallacy in judgrng from the colour, and
other fenfibk qualities of the blood ; and the moderns have,
therefore, leatnt to give their opinion with diffidence. This
fubjeA is confidercd more at large in a fublequent article.
See Blood, and its properties.

Blei;disg a Horfc, a frequent operation in the Veterinary
Art, principally intended to diminifli the mafs of blood, and
thereby dellroy the too great fulncfs or over-adion of the
heart and arteries.

When this operation is intended to afFeft the general
fyflem, the evacuation is ufuaily made from the jugular
vein. For the relief of particular parts, the veffels which
belong to it, or which are adjacent to ;t, may be opened ;
as the vein running down the infide of the fore-arm is com-
mo'.'ly opened wlicn it is conceived the fhoulder is affefted :
the uectflity of this operation, on account of injuries of this
pK:t, is lefs frequent than is generally imagined : the vein
itfclf in g'uersl gives out but little blood, and is very apt to
fwell after the operation.

Aftlelions of the feet are more frequent, and we have often
opened the coronary veins with obvious good effedts ; by
punfturing with a lancet various parts of the coronary ring,

Vol. IV,

the blood flows copioufly, and at length flops of itfelf with*
out the leafl ill confequences.

The vein which encircles the coffin bone is alfo, without
much difficulty, opened in inflammations of this part ; the
blood flews freely, the artery which accompanies it being in
general opened along with it. It is neceffary, in performirg
this operation, to remove the horn covering the veffels with
a drawing knife till the blood flows in fufficient abundance.
The horn round the point of fe&ion fhould be thinned con-
fiderably, to prevent irritation, and mild relinous drefhngs
fliould afterwards be laid over the part, to exclude the air,
&c.

This operation we have heard condemned by fome, as
producing ill confequences, and a fore difficult to heal.
We have only to remark, after having frequently performed
it, we have not met with an inflance of thcfe ill effedts fol-
lowing it.

The angular veins of the eye are often opened with good
effefts in inflammations of this part, as alfo the veflels which
are feen paffing over the fclcrotic coats of the eye, and
over the duplicature of the membrana cotijtmSiva on the
infide of the eye-lids, both of which admit ofeafy fedlion with
the lancet.

The tanporal arter\- alfo prefents itfclf ver)' conveniently
for opening in the horfc ; and in inflammations of the brain,
or its coverings, or where a fudden depletion of the fyfl:em
is defired, it is productive of m.anifeft good effeft. If this
vcffel fliould bleed too freely, and apprehenfions are enter-
tained of the lofs of too much blood, it is moft eatily flopped
by prefTure, or by a deep incifion, which completely fevers
the vcffel : in this cafe iti ends foon retracting, flop the farther
effufion of blood.

The veins of the palate are conveniently fituatcd for open-
ing, by making a tranfverfe incifion in this part with a lancet,
and this is often had recourfe to in the relaxation of the palate,
termed lampers, and with apparently good effeft. Some are
deterred from the operation, by having experienced a difR-
culty in flopping the flow of blood ; a circumflance that in a
few times when we have performed this operation, has not oc-
curred to u?.

We fliall now briefly flate the mode of operating, and the
confequences which fometimes follow the opening of the
jugular vein in horfes.

It is molt ufual to bleed with the fleam, or the lancet; the
former, on account of the thicknefs of the fkiu of the horfe,
and the relillance afforded by the hair, is generally had re-
courfe to. It is alfo next to inipoffiblc to drive the blade into
the neck fo deep as to be injurious, on account of the
fliouldcr to which it is affixed; it is perhaps, on this account,
the fatcil and moil certain inftruir.tnt, efpecially in the hand
of grooms and helpers in flablts, as it cannot be much abufed.
In the llrudture of it, the back fliould be particularly at-
tended to, for in general this is too narrow, infomuch, that
the intlrument being flruck, it finks into the channel of the
vein, the prominent mufcles ^f the neck receive the flroke,
and the vein is not opened. To remedy this, which is a very
common inconvenience, the back of the fleam fhould be at
leafl three quarters of an inch broad, in which cafe the opera-
tion very rarLly fails.

The lancet ij alfo very convenient in thin .fkinned horfes,
and performs iheoperation very well. It requires, however,
on account of the relillaiice of the flsin and liair, to be ufcd
rather boldly, as to the length it is prefented with, and the
force employed, at leall when a copious flow of blood is
defired.

It is ufiial to wet the hairs over the part intended to be
4 G punftiired.

B L E

punftureJ, and tlien if they are drawn parallel to the direc-
tion of the vein, the lancet paffing between them, there is
lefs refinance than if they prcfented thcmfelves tranfverfely
to the blade, in which cafe they mud neceffarily be divided
before the incifion can talie place.

The jugular vein, after bleeding, often ulcerates, and is
attended with the mod ferious ill confequences, the mifchief
extending in both direflions along the internal fiirface of the
vein, from the point of the ineilion ; the cavity of the vein, or
its canal becomes obliterated, and the irritation occafions a
th;cktnii!g of the cellular membrane furrounding the vein,
often to fome inches in depth. This, in general, if no ex-
ternal irritation happens, fnblides gradually, and difappears
without any farther ill confequences, and the vein is totally
loll on that fide : at other times, an oozing and dilcharge of
thin lymph takes place from the injured part, and a linus
forms, running moftly againft the courfe of the vein up the
reck, which, being freely opened, foon heals without farther
inconvenience. At other times, confiderable abfceffes form,
which are opened without danger, and the thickening of the
cellular membrane gradually fubfides, and the part heals.
Again, in others, the inflammation and ulceration extend
along the courfe of the vein to the head, forming abfcelTes,
which buril and difcharge blood, and the ulceration extend-
ing to the head becomes fatal.

As prevention is often much eafier than cure, to avoid
this accident great care fhould be taken J.o ufe a clean in-
ftrumcnt, with a fmooth, keen edge, not to ftrike where the
vein has been already opened, vi'here very often is an enlarge-
ment, and the vein becomes tliinner in that part, and more
extended, not to include any thi-ig but the flvin in pinning it
up, and not to leave the pin remaining in the neck too long, to
become cankered and rully, and thus produce irritation. The
pin (hould be dipt as (hort as poflible, to prevent the horfe
rubbing it out againft the manger, S:c.

The wound will in general clofc of itfelf after a few
minutes, if all prelFure upon the vein be removed, and fuffi-
ciently firm to (lop the efcape of the blood, if the lips of the
orifice are preffed together, without any pinning, and the
horfe's head, to rerfder it more certain, IhoulJ be tied rather
high to the rack for a (hort time ; where, however, the ori-
fice is very large, or the veins very tumid, and difpofed to
bleed, pinning is the fureft pradlice.

Lancets are often made with a fpring, fuddenlv to plunge
them into the vein, and are ufefuUy and commodioufly em-
ployed for this operation, as they do it with great fuddcnnefs
and effetl, more fo than the hand or the blow of a blood-
ilick. The only objedlion is, that the inftrument, f^om the
pre(rure againft the neck required in ufing it, cannot be fo
fuddenly withdrawn as might be defirable, fo that if the
horfe plunges at the moment he might feverely cut himfelf,
which we have fcen happen. To prevent the pollibility of
fuch an occurrence, the indrument might be provided with
a fecond fpring to bring back the lancet to its (heath, or cafe,
immediately after the ftroke, which would render thisinftru.
jnent very ufeful and perfecl.

BLEEDiNcyiow l/j^ "oje. See Epistaxij.

'S>i.i.f.l>\tiG from ihe lungs. See H-'emopty sis.

Bleeding Ly menfure, is where an account is taken of tha
quantity as it Hows from the vein, in order to put a ftop
to the flux when the requifite portion is had.

Bleeding at large, where the flux is continued without
regard to the quantity, till fuch time as fome expected
elfeft is perceived. This method is fometimes ufed in cafes
of apoplexies, comata, &c.

Bleeding of a corpfe, crueniat'io catiaveris, is a phenorae-

B L E

non faJd to have frequently happened in the bodies of per^
fons murdered, which, on the touch, or even approach of
the murderer, began to bleed at the nofc, ears, and other
p^rts ; fo as formerly to he admitted in Englai.d, and tlill
allowed in fome other parts, as a fort of detection of the cri-
minal, and proof of the fadl. Phi). Tranf. N" 77. p. 301a.
But this kind of evidence derives its weight merely from
fuperrtitioii and credulity. Numerous inTlances of thefe
poilhumons hemorrhages are given by Webilcr, Lemnius,
Libavius, and efpecially Horftius, who has a difcourfe
exjjrefs on this point, under the title, " De Cruentatione
Cadaverum."

Bleeding is alfo applied, in a lefs proper fenfe, to a fiux
of fap out of the wounded veffels of plants, either fpo.i-
tancoufly at certain Icalons, or by art, and the help of in.
ciGon.

BLEGNY, Nicolas, in Biography, a bold, and, for a
time, fuccefsful adventurer in medicine, to wliich he was not
regularly educated. Dionis fays, he married a midwif-i,
which probably firft fuggefted the idea of becoming a rupture
doilor, and of contriving an elaltic bandage for th:'t con-
plaint. In 1676, he publilhed at Paris, " L'art de guerir
des hernies," i2m(). v.-hich has pan"cd through feveral edi-
tions. He ufed to cauterize the (kin of the groin with aqua
fortis, or the muriatic acid ; when the wound htaled, a firm
cicatrix was left, which contributed in preventing the further
defxnt of the gut. This remedy was invented by the prior
De Cabeveres. He relates ftveral remarkable cures per-
formed by him : . in one cafe, part of the urinary bladder had
flipped into the. ring. In 1679 ^^ publiflied, " Hiftoire
anatomique d un enfant, qui a demeure vingt cinque ans
dans le ventre de fa mere," Paris, I 2mo. The foetus was
faid to be petrified. It had acquired, from its long refidence
in the abdomen, and from the prefTure of the neighbouring
vifcera, an almoft cartilaginous hardnefs, and retained very
little of the human form. About the fame time, he com-
menced the publication of a medical Journal, under the title
of " Les nouvelles decouvertes, fur toutes les parties de la
medicine," of which one number came out every month, and
he fohcited and obtained affillance from a variety of pradti-
tiou'-rs ; he alfo contributed conlidcrably to it from his owa
ilock. His name appeared as the editor for the firil three
years, but was afterwards omitted. Bouet thouoht the
journal deferving of being tranflated into Latin, and publifhed
it at Geneva, in 410. under the title of " Zodiaci medico-
Gallici." He had before this made himfelf known by a
treatife on the venereal difeafe ; " L'Art de guerir les ma-
ladies veneriennes explique par les principes de la nature, et
de la mecanique," izmo. 2 vols. Paris. This was foon re-
publifhed, tranflated into German, Englifh, and other lan-
guages. He fays, the difeafe was known to the ancients,
and even to iMofes. It may be brought on, he thinks, by
immoderate veneiy. He objects to the ufe of aftringent in-
jeilions in the gonorrhoea, and profelTes to c\ire the lues,
equally certainly, and more fafcly, with decodions of guia-
cnm and farfjparilla, than with mercury. He had alfo pub-
hlhed, by order of his fjvereign, " Remede Anglois, pour
la guerifon des fievres," 1682, i2mo. The principal part
of this remedy was the Peruvian bark. He had now attained
to very high rank in his profefhon, having been made, in fuc-
cefTion, furgean to the queen, to Philip duke of Orieans, and,
in 16S7, one of the p'lyficians in ordinary to the king. Soon
after he undertook the management of an hofpital, for the
reception of the fickpoor at iPmcourt, but for fome immoral
praftices, encouraged in this place, a report of which was
made to the king, he was removed from all his appointments,

and

B L E

B L E

?ind confined in prifon for eight years. Releafed at length
iVom his confinement, he went and fettled at Avignon,
where he csintinued to the time of his death, about the yew
1722, being 70 years of age. Halier. Bib. Chirurg. Anat.
et Med. E'.oy Dift. Hill.

BLEICHERODE, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper SaXony, county of Hohrnftein, and
iorjfhip of Lora ; though fmall, it is populous and tliriving,
has fome manufactures, and carries on a good trade ; 20
miles north of Mnlhauien.

BLEIDENSTATT, a town, or large village of Ger-
many , in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality of
NaiTau-Saaibruck-Ufingcn, fcated on the Aar, 9 miles
N.N.W. of Mentz.

BLEISTEIN, or Pl£stai>«, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Bavaria, and principaHty of Newburg, with an an-
nexed lordfhip, a fief ot the kingdom of Bohemia ; 22 miles
E.N.E. of Ambcrg.

BLEKEDE, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower S^iony, and principality of Luntburg-Zell, feated
on the Elbfe; to which belongs a toll on the river of coniider-
able produce ; so miles E.N.E. of Luntburg.

BLEKINGEN, called by the Swedes BUhlngh, by the
Danes Bkg'ind, and by the inhabitants Blegen, a province of
Sweden, bounded on the north by Smoland, on the foutli
and eaft by the Baltic, and on the well by Scania, Schonen,
or Skone, is about 100 Enghlh miles in length, and about 26
in breadth. It is a mountainous countiy, but various parts of
it are more pleafant than any other provinces of the kingdom.
It abounds with forells of oak, beech, pine, and birch trees,
and carries on a coniidcrable trade in pot-a(h, tar, tallow,
hides, leather, beams, deal-boards, and mads. The inhabit-
ants alfo employ themfelves in fifhing and hunting. The
fl r.llow foil dees not admit of much tillage, but the paflures
afford the bell cheefe in Sweden ; the cattle, however, are of
a fmaller fize than thole of Schonen. This countrj- has
feveral lakes and fix principal rivers, which furnilh good
fahnon. Its iflands belonging to this jurifdidlion are nu-
merous, a::d the whole province contains 29 parifhcs. The
clergy are fubje6t to the fee of Lund. As to its political
divifion it confill-i o! four harads, or diftrifts, and its princi-
pal town is CarHcrona, which fee.

BLEMISH, in Horfe Healing. By this term, among the
venders of horfts. is undtrftood any appearance by which the
I'.orfe is disfigured, as broken knees, a blind eye, l<:ars of va-
rious kinds, &c. The term blemifh,. by fome, may be ex-
tended even to any unfightiy natural markings of the horfe.
Thefe bkmilhes. however, for the moll part are confidered as
in no wife of themfelves conftituting an unfoundnefs.

Blemish, a term in Hunting, ufed when the hounds, or
beagles, finding where the chace has been, make a proffer to
enter, but return.

BLEMMYES, or Blemyes, among the yjnc'tent Geo-
graphers, a fabulous fort of people, fui)pofcd without
heads ; having eyes and mouths on their breads ; faid
to have inhabited part of Ethiopia, on the borders of

Some authors inragine, that this fable had its origin in
a cuftom which prevailed amon^ this people of depreffing
their heads between their fliouMers, wliich they forced up-
wards, fo that their necks were very Ihort, and their heads
were concealed partly by thtir (boulders, and partly by their
long andtliick hair. To this purpofe it is alleged, that the
Egyptian, or bearded Bacchus, has the head funk in his
bread. Welearis fronfi Vopifcus, that fome Biemmyan cap-
tives, takea prifoner^ by Frobus, in an expedition againfl

them, about tlieyear of Chrift 278, made a very odd appear-
ance at Rome. But at this time they could not be quite
unknown at Ronie, as fome of them had appeared there be-
fore, on occafion of Aurelian's triumph. In the time of
Dioclefian, the num.ber of the Blemmyes, fcattered between
the ifland of Meroe and the Red fea, was very inconfiderahle,
their difpofition was unwarlike, and their weapons rude andin-
offeiifive ; yet, in the pubhc diforders, thefe barbarians, v>hoin
antiquity, fhocked with the deformity of their figure, had
almofl excluded from the human fpecies, prefumed to rank
themfelves among the enemies of Rome. With a view of'
oppofing to the Blemmyes a fuitable adverfary, Dioclefian,
in his attack on the rebellious Egyptians, A. D. 296, per-
fuaded the Nobatx, or people of Nubia, to remove fnm
their ancient habitations in the deferts of Lybia, and refigned
to them an estenfive but unprofitable tenitor)' above Syene,
ai;d the catarafts of the Nile, with the llipulation, that th;y
fhould ever rcfpect and guard the frontier of the empire. We
find, however, theit at a fubfequent period they fent ambaffa-
dors to the court of Conftsntine. The Blemmyes were
fubdued by Florus, the lieutenant of Marcian, A. D.

45c- ' r L ■"

Bochart derives the vrord Blemmyes from '72' ^^l'''^''-
implies a negation, and HI 2' l"'^'" > in which fenfe, the
Blemmyes Ihould have been people without brains. Sec
Strabo, 1. xvii. p. t. 172. Pomponius Mela, 1. I. c. 4. His
words, in defcribing thefe favages of Ethiopia, are curious ;
" Intra, fi credere libet, vix homines magifque femiferi ;
.figipanes, et Blemmyes, et Satyri."

BLENAU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton in the
diftriCl of loigny, containing 1065 perfons ; the number of
people in the canton amounts to 5976: the territory com-
prehends 290 kiliometres and 9 oommunes ; 2 leagues N.W.
of St. Fargeau.

BLENCH, in Law, a fort of tenure of land; as to hold
land in blench is by payment of a fugar-loaf, a couple
of capons, a beaver-hat, &c. if the fame be demanded
in the 'Yiame of blench, i. e. nomine alba jirme. See Alba

FiRMA.

BLENDE, in Mineralogy, called alfo black-jack, or
pfeudo-galena, the native fulphuret of zinc. See Zinc,
ores of.

BLTiiD-melal iron, a coarfe fort of iron from the Staffbrd-
Ihire mires, ufed for making nails and heavy ware ; in fome
places alfo for horfe-lhoes.

BLt^D-zuater, a diftemper incident to black-cattle, which
comes -feveral ways. i. From blood. 2. From the yel-
lows, which is a ringleader of all difeafes. And 3. From
the change of ground : for being hard, it is apt to breed
this evil, which if not remedied in fix days, will be pall
help.

BLENHEIM, in Geography, a village of Germany, tn
the circle of Bavaria, and principality of Newburg, 2 mile*
N.E. of Hockiledt, famous for a viftory obtained there by
the Englillt and their allies over the French and Bavarians,
Augull 13th 1 704. For an account of the battle, fee

HoCKSTEDT.

Blenheim, a new town of America, in the ftate of New
York, in Schoharie county, incorporated in 1797.

BLENNA, or Blena (Sx-.tx) in Medicine, a term ufed
by Hippocrates, and fubfequent medical writers, to denote a
plilegm or mucus excreted from the noftrils. This fort of
excretion occurs not unfrequenily in acute difeafes, and is
generallv a favourable fymptom.

BLENNIUS, in Ichthyology, a Linnaian genus of jugular
4 G 3 fillies.

B L E

B L E

fillies, tlie charaifler of which is thus dcfincii ; head doping,
fix rays in the gill-membrane ; body lanceolate ; ventral lins
of two united rays ; anal fin ditlind.

'l"he fpccies of this genus are enumerated in the Gmelinian
Syft.Nat. under two feftions, the fird comprehending thofe
having the head creiled ; the fecond, fuch as have the head
Imooth, or without a crelh Galmita, criftatus, cornntus,
ocellaris, fafciatus, gattorugine, fuperciliofus, tentacularis,
fimus, and phycis, are the creiled kinds ; the fpecies of the
fecond feftion are pholis, gunnellus, punftatus, muftelarif,
viviparus, luinpenus, raninus, murxnoides ; which fee re-
fpeclively.

Bofc propofes an arrangement very different from the pre-
ceding, fjr the fpecies included in his genus blennius. Thefe
he divides into four feftions ; the firll including le blennie
lievre {hhnnius ocellaris Linn.), and le blennie phycis, be-
caufe thefe have two dorfal fins, and filaments or appen-
dages upon the head. The fecond divlfion, comprehending
thofe with only one dorfal fin and filaments upon the head,
includes le blennie mediterraneen {gaihis niediUrrajuus Linn.),
Ic blennie gattorugine, le blennie fourcilleux, le blennie cornu,
le blennie tentacule', le blennie fnjefin {blenniiu Jimus Linn.),
le blennie coquillade (^bltiinius galc-rita Linn.), le blennie fan-
tcur (a fpecies difcovered by Commerfon in the South feas),
and le blennie pinaru [llfiinius cnjlatiis Linn.) The third and
fourth fedtion has no appendage upon the head, but are diilin-
guillied from each other by having either two dorfal fins, or
only one. Thofe with two are le blennie gadoi'de [gadvs alius
Linn.), le blennie belette, and le blennie tridatlyle. Lallly,
in the fourth feftion are le blennie pholis, le blenne bofquien
of Lacepede, le blennie ovovipare {Lleniitus viviparus Linn.),
le blennie gunel, le blennie pointille of Lacepede, le blennie
garamit, [gadus falarlas of Forflcal), le blennie lumpenc, and
le blennie torfiv.

BLENNORRHAGL'!l, in Surgn-y, is a term lately in-
troduced to exprefs the varieties of a morbid affeftion, more
generally called Gonorrhcea. This term is derived from
jSXsvv®-, mucus, and f !.f, _/?;.'o ,• and is therefore equivalent to
the Latin word Mucifluxus ; but it is dillinguiiTied from
Blennorrhea, which denotes the fymptom ufually called
Gleet. The author who has principally endeavoured to
introduce this new epithet, is Dr. Schwediauer. His clafll-
fication is as follows :
Claflis, Locales,

Ordo, Phlogofes, or Mucifluxus.

Genus, Blennorhagia. Anglis, Clap ; Germanis, Tnp-
pcr ; Gallis, Chaude-p'iffe ; Italis, Gonorrhaa.

CharaQer in Vir'ts. — Titillatio, prscipue in urethrae parte
anteriore in lacuna Morgagni fub fraenulo ; fubfequente poll
biduum aut quatriduum, phlogofi locali, cum ardore et do-
lore in mingendo ; accedente flillicidio materiei purulentx
vel puriformis ex urethra ; corpore cavernofo urethne proe-
ternaturaliter turgefcente, plerumque cum ereftionibus
niembri virilis folito frequentioribus dolorificis.

In Faminis. — Titillatio ad orificium vaginx externum ;
fubfequente poll biduum aut quatriduum dolore, rubore et
tumore pratcrnaturali, prascipue (ad rapham) prope com-
miffuram labiorum vulvae inferiorem ; accedente ardore et
dolore ejufdam partis in mingendo ; cum flillicidio materiei
puriformis ex vulva.

Gonorrhcea ■)

. virulenta I

Variat rationc ftdis.
Blennorrhagia balani
urcthralis

maligna

venerea

\ audlorum.

Miilerlafuenti
'ex glande,

ex urethra,

e vefica,

e labiis vulvs,

e vagina,

ex utero,

e naribus.

vcficalis

l.^bialis <{

vaginalis

■ iiterina

— — — nafalis

Species funt,

Blennorrhagia fyphillitica,

a. Simplex,

/3. Coniplicata, f. ulcerofa.
Blennorrhagia a manuilupratione.

ab acri externe applicato.

a flinulo interne applicato.

arthritica,

a calculo vefic«e.

a cancio uteri aut vagina:.

Sequela BlennorrhagiE eft,

Blennorrhcea. Anglis, Gleet; Germanis Nachtripper,
lue-jfiT Fins ; Gallis, Gonorrhee inijeterte.

Charader. — Stillicidium huuioris puriformis, aut muci
limpidi, ex urethra in viris, ex orlficio vaginx in fccminis,
prsternaturalis, fine libidiue aut dyfuria.
Gonorrho;a benigna "|

inveterata

!> audlorum.

Fluor albus venereus, f, malignus
Leucorrhoca venerea

Fluor albus benignus
Leucorrhoea J

Variat rationc fedis ut Blennorrhagia.
Species praftico notatu ntcefraria: funt,

In -viris ; BlennoiThoca fimplex a rclaxatione vaforum»

— — complicata .

a. Cum ulcere urethrx,
/S. Cum ulcere aut fcirrho proftatje.
In faminis : Blennorrhcea a relaxationc aut debilitate
valorum uteri aut vaginas.

• • — ex blennorrhagia prxgrelTa.

■ — ex dista laute et vita feden-

taria.

a manuftupratione

ab ulcere aut cancro uteri vel

vaginas.
Sequels Blennorrhagia; fyphilitics retropulfa funt >
Tumor tefliculorum.
Ifchuria urcthralis.
Bubo ?
Ophthalmia.
Dyfeccca.
Fluxus puriformis ex oculis.

' ex auribus.

e naribus.

Syphilis.

Genus, Gonorrhcea.

Character. — Excretio feminis aut muci proflatx prseter.
naturalis, potiffimum fine eretlione et libidine ; accedente
dolore lumborum et atrophia.
Gonorrhoea vera

Pollutio nofturna debilitans J- audlorum,

Excretio feminis involuntaria
Species funt :

Gonorrhoea a debilitate aut relaxatione vaforum.

ab ulcere aut erofione duAuum cxcretori-

onim proflatas et veficulnrum feminalium.

a nimia irritabilitate, potifilmum per ma-

I

nuftuprationem induda.

BLENNUS.

B L E

B L I

KLENNUS, in Ichlhyolo^y, a name given by Schoiifdt
to \k\t f\tignalhus typhU of Liiinceus, ^nd Jljorter pipdjijlj of
Enylirti writers.

BLENNY. See Blennius.

BLENOD, in Gcigrapljy, a town of France, in the
department of the Meurthc, and chief phice of a canton, in
the diilricfl of Toul, 5 miles fouth of Toul.

BLEONNE, a river of France, which runs into the
Durance near Mees, in the department of the Lower
Meufe.

BLERA, in ylnc'unl Geography, Gmv'ina, a fmall town
of Italy, in Apulia, eaft of Venufia. The Blera of Ptole-
my is a place in Etruria, near Tarquina.

BLE'RE', in Geogriiphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment ot the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dillriil of Tours, containing 2519 inhabitants;
the population of the canton is 13185 ; the territory com-
prehends 37ii kiliometrcs, and ij communes; 4 leagues
E.S.E. of Tours,

BLERGIES, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme, S miles S. W. of Poix.

BLESCHINO, a town of Bohem.ia, in the circle of
Konigingratz, 3 miles eaft of Konigingratz.

BLESLE, a town of France; in the department of the
Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, m the diftrift of
Brioude, feated on the Alaignon, and containing 1329 in-
habitants ; the population of the canton is 5706 ; the terri-
tory comprehends 16/2 kiliometres and 12 communes; 3I
leagues \V. of Brioude.

BLESS, Henry, in Biography, a painter of hiftory and
landfcape, was born at Bovine, near Dinant, in 1480, and,
without any inilrudion, rendered himfelf eminent in his art,
by his own genius, and a diligent ftudy of the works of Pe-
tenier, particularly by his landfcapes. His ftyle of compo-
htion, in hiitorical fubjecls, refembled the ftyle of the Fle-
niidi artitts of that age, and crowded feveral fubjefts into one
defign ; and yet hispitlures were fo delicately pencilled and
finiihcd, and his landfcapes fo agreeably varied and well exe-
cuted, that even in Italy his works were highly eileemed, and
diftinguiflied by the appellation of the owl pictures, for he
fixed an owl, as his peculiar mark, in every pifture he
painted. He died in 1550. Pilkington.

BLESSINGTON, in Geography, a market town in the
county of Wicklow, and province of Leinfter, Ireland,
which, before the union, fent two members to parUament.
It is pleafantly fituated on a rifmg ground near the Liff^y,
14 miles S.W. of Dublin ; and was founded by primate
Boyle, one of whofe defcendants, the marquis of Down-
ihire, is the prefent propri;tor. The number of inhabitants,
according to Mr. Frazer, does not exceed 400. N. lat.
53° 9' 45"- ^^'- l""g' 6" 34'. Dr. Beaufort. Frazer's Wick-
low.

BLESTIUM, or Blestio, in Jlticient Geography, a
place of Britain, in the rout from Ifca to Caleva, according
to the itinerary of Antonine, between Burrium and Arico-
nium, fuppofed by Mr. Hordey to be Monmouth. Mr.
Camden, and Drs. Gale and Stukeley, have placed this fta-
tion at Old Town, in Herefordftiire.

BLESTRISMUS, in the Ancient Phyfic, (^X>i<rJ|,.!r/xo;,
from ^-xWx, to thro-v), a term employed by medical writers
to exprcfs that reftleffnefs and toffing about of the body,
which takes place in febrile diforders.

BLETA Alba, a barbarous term employed by Para-
celfus to denote a milky appearance of the urine in fome dif-
cafes of the kidneys.

BLETTERAND, in Geography, a town of France, in

the department of Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of Lons-le-Saulnier, 6 miles N.W. of Lons-le-Saul-
nicr; containing 732 inhabitants. The population of the
canton is eftimated at 10,007; 'he territory comprehends
150 kiliometres, and 13 communes.

BLETTERIE, John Philip Rene de la, in Bio-
graphy, a diftinguiftied profcfTor of the corgrtgation of the
oratoi7, was born at Rennes ; and quitting the congrega-
tion, he removed to Paris, and obtained the rhetorical chair
in the Royal College, and a feat in the Academy of Belles
Lettres. Among his moft efteemed works may be reckoned
his " Hiftoiy of Julian the Apoftate," Paris, 1735, 174^,
I2mo. ; " Hiftory of the emperor Jovian, and a tranflation
of fome works of the emperor Julian," Paris, 1748, 2 vols.
I2mo. which Gibbon (Deck and Fall of the Rom. Emp.
vol. iv. p. 206.) charafterifes as " a work remarkably diftin-
guiflied by elegance of ftyle, critical difquilition, and religi-
ous prejudice." The abbe de la Bletterie alfo publiflied a
tranflation of the " Life of Agricola," and the " Manners
of the Gei-mans," of Tacitus, and a life of that hiftorian,
his favourite author, in 1755 ; and a tranilation o the fix
firft books of the " Annals," in 1768. The ftyle of this
work has been charged with the vulgarity of religious fecla-
rianifm ; for the author had adopted the opinions of the
quietift Qj-iefnel, and publiftied a defence of the famous ma-
dame Guyon. He died in 1772, at an advanced age, with
an excellent character for both underftanding and morals.
Nouv. Dia. Hift.

BLETUS, in the Ancient Phyfic, (/?X>ito?, from /?aX^u,
tojlr'ike.) This term is ufed by Hippocrates and other me-
dical writers to fignify a livid appearance or ecchymohs on
the fides of the cheft, as if from a blow, which fonietimes
occurs in thofe who die of pleurify. The epithet ^>,-Moi has
alfo been apphed to thofe who die fuddenly (as if ftruck by-
lightning) in acute difeafes.

BLEU, in Ichthyology, the French trivial name for the
fpecies of ftiark called by hmnxusjijua/us glaucuj.

BLEUET, in Ornithology, is the name by which the
common king's fiflier, a/ceJo ifpida, is called in Provence.

BLEU-VERT. The mersps c^ruleficns of Latham is
known among the French naturalifts by this title.

BLEW, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eure and Loire, 3 leagues S.S.W. of
Dreux.

BLEXEX, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and county of Oldenburgh, 3 miles N.N.E. of OU
denbuigh.

BLEYL, a village of Bohemia, near the town of Breg-
nitz, in the circle of Soatz, or Saaz ; famous on account
of its manufaftory for the preparation of fulphuric acid, by
fcparating it from fulphat of iron by diftillation. The ma-
nufaftory has two ftieds for this operation ; one with three
galleries, each containing 29 retorts on each fide ; the other
with two galleries, each holding on each fide 21 retorts.
In the galleries of this nianufaftory there is hkewife a diftil-
lation of aqua fortis, or nitric acid.

BLEYMARD. See Blaymard.

BLEYNE, in Farriery, a French word, now obfolete ia
the Englifli language, for zfanJ cracl; which fee.

BLEYSWELCH, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphaha, and bi'ftiopric of Paderborn, 4
miles S. of Wunnenberg.

BLEYSWICK, a town of Holland, 8 miles north of
Rotterdam.

BLIARUS, or Membriarus, in Ancient Geography, aa
ifland of the Mediterranean, near that of Thera, laid by

Slephi

B L I

B L I

Steph. By7. to have derived its name from one of the com-
panions of Cadmus.

BLIEGG, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Germans
to the rtdi we cal' tht blenk. Sec Bleak, and A lUiRNUs.
BLIESCASTF.L, in G.'ogrnphy, a town of Fr-ncc, mi
tlie department of Sarre, and chief place of a cantmi, i-i tiie
dillrlA of Sarrcbruck ; Cdntrininjr 12^8 inhabitants; the
popuiat'on of the canton inchtdts 10,084 perfons ; and the
territory has 30 commui.es.

BLIESiVA Sai.ensi, a harbour on the coafl. of Lap-
land, between the river Kola and Kildnyn itland.

BLIGH'S Cap, a name grivtn bv captain Cook, on ac-
count of its fhapc, to an ifl.ind in the fouthcrn Pacific
ocean, near Ker^uelen's land, before called by Kergiielan
*' the ifland of Rendezvous." It is a high round rock
accefPible only to birds. S. lat, 48° 29'. E. long. 68° 4 )'.

BLIGHT, in jtgricuhure, a general name for various
diftempers incident to corn and fruit-trees.

It affeits them varioiidy, the whole plant fometimesperlfli-
ing by it, and fometimes only the leaves and bloffoms,
which will be fcorched and flirivelled up, the re'l remaining
green and flourifhing. Some have fuppofed, that blights are
produced by eafterly winds, which bring vail quantities of
iiifefts' eggs along with them, from diftant places. Tliefe
being lodged upon the furface of the leaves and flo\Vers of
fruit-trees, caufe them to fhrivel up and perifh.

Mr. Knight, however, ohferves, that blights are produced
by a variety of caufes ; by infects, by an excels of heat or
cold, of drought or moillure ; for thefe neccffanly derange
and dellroy the dehcate organization of the blo'ro-ns ; but
he believes the common opmion, that they arifc from fome
latent floxious quality in the air, or from lightning, to be
totally unfounded The term blight is very frequently ufed
by the gardener and farmer, he remarks, without any definite
idea being annexed to it. If the leaves of their trees be
eaten by the caterpillar, or contracted by the aphis ; if the
bloflbms fall from the ravages of infefls, or without any ap-
parent caufe, the trees are equally bhj^iited ; and if an call
wind happen to have blown, the infctls, or at lead their
eggs, whatever be their fize, are fuppoled to have been
brought by it.

The true caufe of blights fecms to be, coTitinucd dry
eafterly winds for feveral days together, without the inter-
vention of fhowers, or any morning dew, by which the per-
fpiration in the tender bloffom is ftopped ; and if it fo hap-
pen that there is a long continuance of the fame weather,
it equally alTetts the tender leaves, whereby their colour is
changed, and they wither and decay.

The bell remedy, perhaps, is gently to wafh and fprinkle
over the tree, &c. from time to time, with common water;
and if the young Ihoots fcem to be much infeftrd, let them be
wa(hcd with a woollen cloth, fo as to clear them, il poIFible,
from this glutinous matter, that their rcfpiration and per-
fpiration may not be obftruCled. This operation ought to be
performed early in the day, that the moiifure may be exhaled
before the cold of the night comes on : nor ihould it be
done when the fun (hines very hot. Mr. Forfyth recom-
mends their being waTied well with urine and foap-fuds, as
foon as poffible after the diftafe appears.

Another caufe of bliglits in the fpring, is faid to be fharp,
hoary frolls, which aie often fucceeded by hot fup.-fhine in the
day-time. This is the mod fuddcn and certain deftroycr of
fruit that is known. The chief remedy to be depended upon
in this cafe is, that of proteclincr the fruit-trees durino- the
night-time *fith nets. This mode, where regularly and
corrcflly performed, has been found highly beneficial.

3

But, in order to cure this difeafe, fome have advifed the
burning of wet litter on the windward fide of the plaiitf, in
ordee that the fmoke of it may be carried to them by the
wind, which they fuppofe will ftifle and dellroy the in-
fctls, a-id thereby cure the mifchief. Others direCf the ufe
of tobacco-du'ft. or the wafliing of the trees with water in
v/hich tobacco-ftalks have been infufed for twelve hours,
which they fay will deftroy thofe infefts, and recover the
p'ii'.-ts. Pepper-dull, fcattered over the biolToms of fruit-
tiees. Sec. has been recommended as very ufetul in this cafe ;
and there are fome who advife the puUing off the leaves that
are affetled,

Wnat is termed the blight is frequently, however, no
more than a debility, or diftemper in trees. Mr. Forfyth
oblcrves, that " this is the cafe when trees, againll the
fame wall, and enjoying the fame advantages in every re-
fpect, differ greatly in their health and vigour, the weak
ones appearing to be continually blighted, while the others
remain in a flourifhing condition. This very great dif-
ference, in fuch circumllances, can be attributed only to the
different conllitutions of the trees, proeeeding from want of
proper nourilhment, or from fome bad qualities in the foil ;
fome dillemper in the Rock, buds, or fcions ; or from fome
m'fmanagement in the pruning. Sec. ail of which are pro-
duftivc of diftempers in trees, of which they are, with diffi-
culty, cured. Ifthe fault be in the foil, it mull, he fays, be
dug out," and frefh mould put in its place ; or, the trees mud
be taken up, and others, better adapted to the foil, planted
in their room. It will be found abfolutely neceffary ah.vays to
endeavour to fuit the particular forts of fruit to the nature of
the foil ; for it is in vain to expeft all forts of fruit to be good
in the fame foil. If the weaknefs of the tree proceed from
an in-bred diftemper, it will be advifeable to remove it at
once, and after renewing the earth, to plant another in its
place." But if the weaknefs is brought on by ill manage-
ment in the pruning, which is frequently the cafe, he would
a Ivife more attention to the method of pruning and train-

Bcfides this, " there is another fort of blight that fome-
times happens pretty late in the fpring, as in April or May,
which is very deflruftive to fruit-trees in orchards, and open
plantations, and againll whieh we know of no effectual re-
medy. This is what is called zjire-bhijl, which, in a few
hours, hath not only delboyed the fruit and leaves, but
often parts of trees ; and fometimes entire trees have been
kilkd by it." This, Mr. Forfyth obferves, " is generally
tliought to be occafioned by certain tranfparent flying va-
pours, which may fometimes take inch form, as to converote
the fun's rays in the manner of a burning-glafs, fo as to
Icorch the plants they fall upon ; and this, in a greater or
lefs degree, in proportion to their convergency. As this gene-
rally happens 111 clofe plantation;, whete the vapours from
the earth, and the perlpiration from the trecr, are pent in
for want of r free circulation of air to difperfe them, it
points out to us the only way, yet known, of guarding
againil this enemy to fruits ; namely, to make choice of a clear
liealthy fituation for kitchen-gardens, orcliards, &c. and to
plant the trees at fuch a diftance, as to give free admiffion
to the air, that it may difpel thofe vapours before they are
formed into fuch volumes as to occafion thefe 1 lalls." But
blalls may alfo be occafioned by the refleftion of the fun's
ruys from hollow clouds, whicli fometimes aft as burning
mirrors, and occafion exceffive heat. Againll this there is
no remedy yet difcovered.

Mr. Marfiiall, in tlie Pv.ural Economy of midland counties,
obferves, that it is well known that this difeafe is moft m-

jurious

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juilous to grain crops in wet L-afons ; hence, principally,
ihc icarcity and a.lvanced price ot whtat after fiich feafoni.
It is alio remar'ied to afFciil the north iide of fields, much
more than the fjiuh, and that the effeft is governed by the
flate of ripenefi ; co".f:?q'.iently, a few days of forwardnefs
may be fufliLitnt to prevent the efFeft, It is evident, that
the forward wheats are lead liable to bt blighted ; for,
having paflT.-d fome certain ftage of maturation, they become
invulnerable to the aitack of this mifchievous enemy ; at
leall, no obvious injury is incurred. It is alfo obfervable,
that no perceptible blight takes place while a dry ftafon
coiitinues. Tlie only guard a farmer has againft the
attack of this fccrct enemy, appears to be that of fowing
early.

Blight of lorn is called Smut.

BLIGNY-SUR-OUCHES, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Cote d'Or, and chief place
of a canton, in the dillrift of Beaune, 3 leagues N. W. of
Beaune, containing 1x69 inhabitants; the canton contains
6^98 ; and comprehends 265 kiliometres, and 23 com-
munes.

BLIKOOSKOI, a fmall ifland in the Frozen fea. N.
lat 71" 30'. E. !ong 125^14'.

BLIND. See Blindness.

Bli sD, Porc^ or Pu>\ denotes only a great degree of ihort-
fightednefs. Phil. Tranf. N" 37. p. 731.

Blind, is alfo ufed for occult, or imperceptible. Hence
blind rampa.t, cacum •vallum, among the ancients, was that
bcfct wit!i Iharp Hakes, concealed by grafs or leaves growing
over them.

Blind tejlimomcs, caca lejilinonia, thofe given by abfeut
perfons in writing.

Blind is alio ufed in fpeaking of bodies without aper-
tures.

Hence.

Blind 'wall, circus paries, that without windows. In a
like fcnfe we meet with iZ/'ni/chamber, c(tcum eubiculum.

Blind is alfo ufed in fpeaking of veifcls which are not
perforated. In this fenfc the chemifts fay a blind alem.bic.
A tube is fiid to be blind, v/hen it is clofed a-top. Some
anatomills alfo call the third cavity of the ear coecum, as
having no iffue ; but it is more ufuaily denominated laby-
rinth, which fee.

Blind harbour, or Murderer's lay of Tafman, in Geogra-
phy, a deep bay at the N. W. part of the fouthern ifland of
New Zealand, having two fmall iflands near the bottom of
it on the v/eft fide'; 6 leagues to the eaft of cape Farewell.

Blind, in the Military Art, fignilies, generally, every
material which fci ves to cover and proteft the befiegers from
the fire of the enemy ; as wool packs, fand-bags, earth-
badvets, &c. Blinds fometimes confill only of canvas
ftretched, fo as to intercept the view of the garrifon from
the walls. Sometimes they are planks erefted, and in this
cafe are more properly called mantlets. They are alfo oc-
cafionally conftrudcd with a number of bafleets or barrels.

More particularly taken, blinds denote wooden frames
of four pieces, cither round or flat. Two of them are fix feet
long, and pointed at the extremities ; the others, about
three or four feet in length, ierve as fpars, to fatten the two
former toajethcr. Thefe blinds are lixed upright in the
ground againft the fides of the faps, to hinder the earth
from falling in, and to fallen fafcincs upon the upper part.
They are likewife of uie in covering the faps, and fupport-
ing a roof of falcines to fecure the troops from Hones and
granadcs.

Blinds, of another fort, are commonly made of oziers,
or branches interwoven and laid acrofs between two rows of

ftakes, about the height of a roan, and four or five feet
afunder.

Blinds are of cfTential fervice at the heads of trenches, or
faps, when they arc extended in front towards the glacis ;
and when, from the fuperior elevation of the enemy's works,
he may overlook, and pour his lire in upon the befiegers.
They are alfo indifpenfable, in cafe the nature of the ground
(hould oblige the approaches to be carried on in a lliaight
direction, and the workmen and the guard to be necelTarily
expoled to the batteries of the garrifon. But in this cafe,
the fap.? can only be carried on in the night, as the lofs of
men would otherwife prove extremely fcrious.

Blind is alio fometimes ufed for Orillon.

B L 1 N D ^/-(7/;a«/o, that which does not light or take fire.

Blind_/;/;V^. See Faith.

Blind ^u/. See Coecum.

Blind ivorm. See SLOW-i£;crm.

BLINDING, a fpccies of corporal punifhment anciently
infliCted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers, and others ; and
from which the ancient Chrlllians were not exempt. Some-
times lime in vinegar, or barely fcalding vinegar, was poured
into the eyes, till their balls were confumed ; fometimes a
rope was twitted round the head till the eyes ftarted out.
Holin. Polyhill. c. 4. Lamprid. in Alex. Sev. c. 17. Va!.
Max. lib. vi. c. 5. Lattant. de Mort. Perfec. c. 36.

In the middle age, they changed total blindnefs for
a great darkneis, or diminution of fight, which they pro-
duced by holding a red hot iron diili or bafon before the eyes,
till their humours were dried, and their coats flirivelled up.

The inhabitants of the city Apollonia executed it on their
watch whom they found afleep. Democritus, according to
Plutarch, Cicero, and A. Gellius, put out his own eyes,
that he might be lefs difturbcd in his mental contemplations,
when thus treed from the diftraftion of the objects of light.
Herodot. lib. vi. c. 92. Aul. Gell. Nod. Att. hb. x.
c.71. Cicero Tufc. Qu. 5.

Blinding, olcacatio, in the Blach Art, denotes a fpecies
of necromancy, whereby a vifible body may be concealed, or
h:dden by an invifible power. See Necromancy.

Blinding of a cafemate, fignifics eretling a battery againft
it, in order to dilmount its cannon and render them ufclcfs.

BLINDNESS, in Surgery, the privation or want of
fight. This defetl may arife from 3 variety of caufes, ex-
itting either in the organ of fight, or in the circumftances
necefiary to produce vifion. See Optics, and Eye. Blind-
nefs will be complete, when the hght is wholly excluded ; or
partial, when it is admitted into the eve fo imperfeftly as to
convey only a confiifed perception of vifible objcdls. Blindnefs
may again be diftinguiihed into periodical or permanent,
tranfient or perpetual, natural or accidental, &c.; but thefe
diftinftions do not ferve to communicate any idea of the
caufes of blindnefs, which are to be (lightly mentioned in
the prcfcnt article. For a more particular account of the
caufes and remedies of blindnefs, the reader will cor.fult the
articles which give an account of the dodtrine of vifion, and
the difeafes of the eye.

The ordinary caufes of blindnefs are as follow :

1. In the eyelids and mufc/es. By a cohefion of the eve-
lids ; by an clonixation of the upper eye-lid ; by a paralytic
ftate, which difables the patient from raifing it fufficiently ;
by an irregular or defeftive aftion in the mufcles which are
attached to the eye-ball.

2. In the membranes of tl'e eye. By their opacity, fo as to
exclude the rays of light ; by their cxquifite fenfibiHty, fo as
to render vifion intolerable ; by their blood-veflels alTuming
a morbid aftion, and effufing a fluid (fuppofe pus, for ex-
ample) into any of the cavities of the eye.

I- In

B L I

,15. In ih: hr.-murs of the eye. By their defeAive quantity ;
ty the tiirbid Hate, or imperfeclly traiifparent condition, of
the iur-no'-irs ; by the lofs of any one of them, through acci-
dent or violence ; by an altered figure of the cryilalline
lens.

4. //; the brain or optic nerve. By comprelTion, producing
palfyorGuTTA Serena (which fee); by a Itate of debihty
or inertnefs in the vifnal organ, fo as to require an uncom-
monly ftrong light ; by too great fenfibility in the optic
nerve, eiiduring but a very feeble imprcffion from the hght,
and tranfmitting only a confnfed perception of vifible objecls
to the mind ; by fome unknown change in the nervous
powe'-, caufing depraved vilion, and exciting imaginary
fcenes. which no perfon can obfcrvc befides the patient
himfclf.

It Ikis been generally fuppofed, that blind perfons have not
any idea of vifible obje'fts, though they can dillinguifh them
by the touch : thus the gentleman couched by JSIr. Chcfel-
den, though he knew the colours afunder in a good light
during his blind (late ; yet when he faw them after couch-
ing, the faint ideas he had of them before, were not fufficient
f M- him to know them by afterwards. Fliil. Traiif. N" 403.

P-4+7'
It was even a confiderable time before he could remember

which was the cat and which tlie dog, though often intormed,
without feeling them. Add, that he had no idea of diftance;
but thought all the objefts he fuw touched his eyes, as wiiat
he felt did his n<in.

But a cafe is recorded by J.Ir. Ware in the Philofophical
Tranfadions (read to the fociety June nth, 1801), which
does not accord with Mr. Chefelden's obfervation on this
fubjeft. It was the cafe of a young gentleman, who (by a
furgical operation) recovered his fight when leven years of
age ; after having been deprived of it by catarails, before he
was a year old. Mr. Ware gives the following account of
the fads in queftion : " I performed the operation on the
left eve, on the 29th of December hH, in the prefencc of
Mr. Chamberlayne, F.A.S. Dr. Bradley, of Baliol college,
Os;ford, and Mr. Piatt, furgcon, in London. It is not ne-
celTary, in this place, to enter into a dcfcription of the opera-
tion. It will be fufficient to fay, that the child, during its
performance, neither uttered an exclamation, nor made the
fmalleft motion, either with his head or hands. The eye was
jiimediatcly bound up, and no inquiries made on that day
with regard to his fight. On the 30th, I found that he had
experienced a (light licknefs on the preceding evening, but
had made no complaint of pain, either in ins head or eye.
On the 31ft, as foon as I entered his chamber, the mother,
with much joy, informed me that her child could fee.
About an hour before my vifit, he was Handing near the fire,
with a h.mdkerchief tied loof,-ly over his eyes, when he told
her that under the handkerchief, which had flipped upward,
he could dilUnguifh the table by the fide of which (lie was
litting : it was about a yard and a half from him ; and he
obferved that it was covered with a green cloth (which was
really the cafe), and tl-.at it was a little farther off than he
was able to reach. No further qiiellions were alked him at
that time ; as his mother was much alarmed, lc(l the ufe
thus made of his eye might have been premature and inju-
rious. Upon examinption, I found that it was not more in-
flamed than the other eye ; and the opacity in the pupil did
not appear to be much diminidied. Dehrous, however, to
afccitain whether he was able to dillinguilh objeAs, I held
a letter before him, at the dillance of about twelve inches,
when he told me, after a (hort hefitation, that it was a piece
of paper ; that it was fquare, which he knew by its corners ;
and that it was longer in one dirctlioii than it was iu the

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other. On being defired to point to the corners, he did it
with great precifion, and readily carried his finger in the line
of its longell diameter. I then (hewed him a fmall oblong
band-box covered with red leather, which he faid was red and
fquare, and pointed at once to its four corners. After this,
I placed before him an oval filver box, which he faid had a
(hiniug appearance ; and, prefently afterwards, that it was
round, becaufe it had not corners. The obfervation, how-
ever, which appeared to me mod remarkable, was that which
related to a white (lone mug ; which he firll called a white
bafon, but, fooi^ after, rccollefting himfelf, faid it was a mug,
becaufe it had a handle. Thefe experiments did not give
him any pain ; »nd they were made in the prefence of his
mother, and of Mr. Woodford, a clerk in his majefty's trea-
fury. I held the objefis at di{rerent dillances from his eye,
and inquired very particularly if he was fcnfible of any dif-
ference in tlieir iituation ; which he always faid he was, in-
forming me, on every change, whether they were brought
nearer to, or carried further from him. I again inquired,
both of hismotlicr and himfelf, whether he had ever, before
this time, dillinguilhed by light any fort of objeft ; and I
wa-; alTured by both that he never had, on any occafion ; and
that, when he wiflied to dil'cover colours, which he could
only do when they were very (Irong, he had always been
obliged to hold the coloured objeft clofe to his eye, and a
little on one fiJe, to avoid the projection of the nofe. No
further experiments were made on that day. On the ill of
January, I found that his eye continued quits free both from
pain and inflammation, and that he felt no uneafinefs on the
approach of light. I (hewed him a table knife; which at
firll lie called a fpoon, but foon redified the millake, giving
it the right name, and dillinguilhing the blade from the
handle, by pointing to each as he was defired. He after-
wards called a yellow pocket-book by its name, taking notice
of the filver lock in the cover. 1 held my hand before him ;
which he knew, but could not at fird tell the number of my
fingers, nor dillinguilh one of them from another. I then
held up his own hand, and defired him to remark the di3er-
ence between his thumb and fingers ; after which, he readily
pointed out the diftinftions in mine alfo. Dark-coloured
and fmooth objetls, were more agreeable to him than thofe
which were bright and rough. On the 3d of January, lie
faw, from the drawing-room window, a dancing-bear in the
llreet ; and diilinguiihed a number of boys that v.-ere (land-
ing round him, noticing particularly a bundle of cloths which
one of them had on his head. On the fame evening, I placed
him before a looking-glafs, and held up his hand : after a
little time he fmilcd and faid he faw the (hadow of hlshant',
as well as that of his head. He could not then dillinguilh
his features ; but, on the fDllowlng day, his mother iiaving
again placed him before the glafs, he pointed to his eyes,
nofe, and mouth, and feemed much gratified with the

Having thlis 'lated the principal obfervations that were
made by Mailer W. I (liall now make a brief comparifon be-
tween this ilatemtnt, and that which is given in the XXXVth
volume of the Philofophical Tranfaflions, of M. Cheleldtn's
patient, who was fuppofed to be born blind, and obtained
his fight when he was between thirteen and fourteen years
old.

It fliould be obferved, that though Mailer V/. was fix
years younger than Mr. Chefelden's patient, he was renl:irk-
ably intelligent, and gave the moft diredt and fatisfaclory
anfwers to es-ery qucllion that was put to him. Both of
them, alfo, if not born blind, lol^ their fight fo very early,
that, as Mr. Chefelden exprelFes it, " they had not any re-
coUee'lion of having ever feen."

My

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"My firll remark is, that, contraiy to the experience of
Air. Chefeldcn's patient, who is dated " to liave been fo
far from making any judgment of diftance, that he thought
all objefts touched his eyes, as what he felt did his fl-cin,"
Mailer W. diilinsruifhed, as foon as he was able to fee, a
table, a yard and a half from him ; and proved that he had
fome accuracy in his idea of dillance, by faying, that it was
a little further off than his hand could reach. This obferva-
tion, fo contrary to the account we have received of Mr.
Cheiclden's patient, would have furprifed me much more
than it did, if I had not previoufiy, in fome fimil;tr inftances,
had reafon to fulpecl that children, from whom cataradts had
been extracted, had a notion of diitance the firft moment they
were enabled to fee. In the inftance particularly of a young
gentleman from Ireland, fourteen years old, from each of
whofe eyes 1 extracted a cataract, in the year 1794, '" '''^
prefence of Dr. Hamilton, pliylician to the London hofpital,
and who, before the operation, alFureJ me, as did his friends,
that he never had feen the figure of any objeft, Dr. Hamil-
ton and myfelf were much alloniaicd by the facility with
which, on the firft experiment, he took hold of my hand at
different dillances, mentioning whether it was brought
^ nearer to, or carried further from him, and conveying his
hand to nsine in a circular direftion, that Vv-e might be the
better fatisfied of the accuracy with which he did it. In
this cafe, however, and in others of a like nature, although
the patients had certainly been blind from early infancy, I
could not fatisfy myfelf that they had not, before this period,
enjoyed a fufScient degree of fight to imprefs the image of
vifible objects on their minds, and to give them ideas which
could not afterwards be entirely obliterated. In the inftance
of Mafter W. however, no fufpicion of this kind could oc-
cur; fince, in addition to the declaration of himfelf and his
mother, it was proved by the teftimony of the furgeon who
examined his eyes in the country, that the cataracls were
fully formed before he was a year old. And I beg leave to
add further, that on making inquiries of two children, be-
tween fevcn and eight years of age, now under my care, both
of whom have been blind from birth, and on vshom no ope-
ration has yet been performed, I find that the knowledge
they have of colours, limited as it is, is fnfficient to enable
them to tell whether coloured objcfts be brought nearer to,
or carried further from them ; for inftance, whether they are
at the diftance of two inches or four inches from th. ir eyes ;
nor have either of them the flighteft fufpicion, as is related
of Mr. Cheftlden's patient, that coloured objects, when held
before them, touch their eves.

But the judgment which Mafter W. formed of the different
diftances of objefts, was not the only inftance in which he
differed from Mr. CLeftlden's patient ; who, we are in-
formed, " did not know the figure of any thing, nor any
one thing from another, however different in (liape and mag-
nitude ;" for Mafter Wr knew and defcribcd a letter, not
only as white, but alfo as fquare, becaufe it had corners ; and
an oval filver box, not only as ihining, but alio as round, be-
caufe it had not corners : he hkewiie kne^v, and called by its
name, a white itone mug, on the firft day he obtained his
fight, diftinguifliing it from a bafon, becaufe it had a handle.
Thefe experiments were made in the prefence of two refpec-l-
able perfons, as well as myfelf; and they were fevcral times
repeated, to convince us that we could not be miftaken in
them. I mention the circumftance, however, with much
diffidence, being aware that the obfervations not only differ
from thofe that are related of Mr. Chefelden's patient, but
appear, on the firft ftatement, to oppofe a principle in optics,
which I believe is commonly and jullly admitted, that the
fenfes of light and feeling have no other connection than that

Vol.. IV.

which is foi-med by experience; and, therefore, that the
ideas derived from feeling can have no power to direft the
judgment, with refpeet either to the diftance or form of
vifible objecls. It fhould be rccollefted, however, that per-
fons who have catarafts in their eyes, are not, in ftrianefs of
fpeech, blind, though they are deprived of all ufeful fight.
The inftances I have adduced prove, that the knowledge they
have of colours is fufficient to give them fome idea of diftance,
even in their darktft ftate. When, therefore, their fight is
cleared by the removal of the opaque cryftalline, which in-
terceptcd the light, and the colour of objecls is thereby made
to appear ftronger, will it be difficult, or unphilofophical,
to conceive that their ideas of diftance will be ftrcngthened,
and fo far extended as to give them a knowledge, even of
the outhne and figure of thofe objeds with the colour of
which they were previoufiy acquainted ?"

The miferies of blindnefs are feelingly defcribed both by
Homer and Milton, in the following impreffive pafTages.
The venerable father of epic poetry, who is faid, in the
perfon of Demodocus the Phreacian bard, to have defcribed
his own fituation, proceeds thus :

" Tov ra-r-pi MaV sfiAiKT;, ci'Ju Y a.ya6oy te, KayJt rt,

Odyfl". 1. 0. v. 63, 64.

" Dear to the mufe, who gave his days to flow
With mighty blefiings mix'd with mighty woe.
In clouds and darknefs quench'd his vifual ray.
Yet gave him pow'r to raife the lofty lay." Pope.

In fimilar ftrains does Milton bewail his calamity, ia hi»
addrefs to light : —

" Taught by the heav'nly mufe to venture down
The dark defcent, and up to re-afcend.
Though hard and rare ; thee I revifit fafe.
And feel thy fov'reign vital lamp : but thou
Revifit'ft not thefe eyes, that roll in vain
To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn :
So thick a drop ferene hath quench'd their orbs.
Or dim fufFufion veil'd. Ytt not the more
Ceafe I to wander, where the mufes haunt
Clear fpring, or fliady grove, or funny hill,
Smit with the love of facred fong : but chief
Thee, Sion, and the flow'ry brooks beneath.
That wafti thy hallow'd feet, and warbling flow,
Nightly I vifit ; nor fometimes forget
Thofe other two, equall'd with me in fate,
So were 1 equall'd with them in renown.
Blind Thamyris and blind- Mseonides,
And Tirefias and Phineus prophets old :
Then feed on thoughts, that voluntary move
Harmonious numbers ; as the wakeful bird
Sings darkling, and in fhadieft covert hid
Tunes her nodturnal note. Thus with the year
Sealons return ; but not to me returns
Day, or the fweet approach of ev'n or morn.
Or fight of vernal bloom, or fummcr's rofe,
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine ;
But cloud inilead, and ever during dark,
Surrounds me, from the chearful wavs of men
Cut off, and for the book of knowledge fair
Prefented with an uniierfal blank
Of nature's works to me expung'd and ras'd.
And wlfdom at one entrance quite flnit out."

Paradife Loft, b. iii.

Thus alio does he deplore, in the moil affecling accents,
tht misfortune of blindnefs in his " Sanipfon Agoniftcs :"

" But chief of all,
O lofs of fight, of thee I muft comrilain !
4H

Blind

B L I

Blind among enemies, O worfe than chciiiiSj

Dungeon, or beggary, decrepid age.

Light, the prime work of God, to me is extinft,

And all her various objefts of delight

AnnuU'd, which might in part my grief have eas'd,

Inferior to the vileft nov^ become

Of man or worm. The vileft here excel me :

They creep, yet fee ; I dark in light expos'd

To daily fraud, contempt, abufe, and wrong,

Within doors, or without. Hill as a fool.

In power of others, never in my own ;

Scarce half I feem to live, dead more than half.

O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon,

Irrecoverably dark, total echpfe

Without all hope of day !

O firft created beam, and thou great word.

Let there be H^kt, and light was over all ;

Why am I thus bere<>v'd thy prime decree .'

The fiui to me is dark.

And filent, as the moon

When fhe deftrts the tvight.

Hid in her vacant interlunar cave.

Since light fo neceflary is to life,

And almoll life itfclf, if it be true

That light is in the foul,

She all in every part ; why was the fight

To fuch a tender ball as th' eye confin'd ?

So obvious, and fo eafy to be quench'd ?

And not, as feeling, throiigliout all parts difFus'd,

That {he might look at will through ev'ry pore ?

Then had I not been thus exil'd from light,

As- in the land of darknefs, yet in light

To live a life half dead, a living death :

And buried ; but yet more niiferable I

Myftlf the fepulchre, a moving grave ;

Bury'd, yet not exempt

By privilege of death and burial

From worft of other evils, pains, and wrongs,

But made hereby obnoxious more

To all the miferies of life."
The degree in which the calamity of blindnefs is felt and
lamented by thofe to v.-hom it occurs, may be alfo partly
gueffed at by the extafies into which perfons have fallen on
their recovery from it.

Mr. Boyle mentions a gentleman, who, having been
blind, and brought to fight at eighteen, was very
near going diftraftcd with the joy. See a remarkable
cafe of this kind, Tatler, N^ ^^. vol. i. Boyle's Works abr.
tom. i. p. 4.

We find various recompenfes for blindnefs, or fubftitutes
for the ufe of the eyes, in the wonderful fagacity of many
blind perfons recittd by Zahnius in his " Oculus Artifici-
alis," and others. In fome, the defeft has been fupplitd
by a mod excellent gift of remembering what they had feen ;
in others, by a delicate nofe, or the fenfe of fmellir.g ; in
others, by an exquilite touch, or a fenfe of feeling, which
they have had in fuch perfcftion, that, as it has been faid of
fome, they learned to hear with their eves ; as it may be
faid of thefe, that they taught themfelves to fee with their
hands.

Some have been enabled to perform al! forts of curious
and fubtle works in the niceft and moll dexterous manner.
Aldrovandns fpenks of a fculptor who became blind at
twenty years of age, and yet ten years after made a pcrfeft
marble ftatue of Cofmo II. de Mcdicis ; and another of
clay like Urban VIII. Bartholin tells us of a bli:id fculptor
in Denmark, who dil\ingui!hed perfedlly well, by mere

B L I

touch, not only all kinds of wood, tut all the colours ;
and F. Grimaldi gives an inftance of the like kind ; befides
the blind organill living in Paris, who is faid to have done
the fame.

The moft extraordinary of all is a blind guide, vi'ho, ac-
cording to the report of good writers, ufed to coiiduft the
merchants through the fands and defarts of Arabia. James
Bernouilli contrived a method of teaching bhnd perfons to
write. Leo Afr. Defc. Afr. lib. vi. p. 2.).6. Cafiub. Treat,
of Enthuf. chap.ii. p. 45. Fonten. Elog. des Acad. p. 1 14.

An inflance no lefs extraordinary is mentior:ed by Dr.
Bcw in the " Tranfa£lion3 of the Manchefter Society."
It is that of a perfon, whofe name is John Metcalf, a native
of the neighbourhood of Mancheller, who became blind at
fo early an age as to be altogether unconlcious of light and
its various eflefts. His employment in the younger period
of his hfe was that of a waggoner, and occalionally as a
guide in intricate roads during the ni^ht, or when the com-
mon tracks were covered with fnow. Afterwards he became
a projeftor and furveyor of high-ways in difficult and moun-
tainous parts ; and in this capacity, with the affiftance
merely of a long ftaff, he travcrles the roads, afcends preci-
pices, explnrcs valleys, and inveiligates their feveral extents,
forms, and fituations, fo as to anfwer his purpofe in the bed
manner. His plans are defigned, and his eftiniates formed,
with fuch ability and accuracy, that he has been employed
in altering moll of the roads over the Peak in Derby (hire,
particularly thofe in the vicinity of Buxton, and in conllruct-
ing a new one between Wilmflow and Congleton, fo as to
form a communication between the great London road,
without being obhged to pafs over the mountain.

Although blind perfons have occafion, in a variety of
refpeils, to deplore their infelicity, their mifery is in a con-
fiderable degree alleviated by advantages peculiar to them-
felvcF. They are capable of a more fixed and fteady attention to
the objeifls of their mental contemplation, than thole who are
diftradled by the view of a variety of external fcenes. Their
want of fight naturally leads them to avail themfelves of
their other organs of corporeal fenfation, and with this view
to cultivate and improve them as mueh as poffiblc. Ac-
cordingly they derive relief and affiflance from the quicknefs
of their hearing, the acutenefs of their fmel!, and the ft'ili-
bility of their touch, which perfons who fee are apt to dif-
regard ; and many inftances have occurred, that feem to ve-
rify the opinion of Rocheller;

" That if one fenfe fhould be fupprefs'd.
It but retires into the reft."
To this purpofe we may obferve, that Democritus is faid.
to have put out his eyes, that he might think more in-
tenfely.

Many contrivances have alfo been dcvifed by the inge-
nious for fupplying the want of fight, and for facilitating
thofe analytical or mechanical operations, which would
otherwife perplex the moft vigorous mind and tlie moft re-
tentive memory. By means of thefe they have become emi-
nent proficients in various departments of fcience. Indeed,
there are few fciences in wliich, with or witiiout mechanical
helps, the blind liave not diftirguidied themfelves. The cafe
of profeflor S;innderfon at Cambridge is well known. His
attainments and performances in the languages, and alio as
a learner and teacher in the ablharl mathematics, in philo-
fophy, and in mufic, have been truly ailonilhing ; o.nd the
account of them appears to be almoft incredible, if il were
not amply attcfted and confirmtd by many other inftances
of a fimilar kind, both in ancient and modern times. Cicero
mentions it as a fail fcarcely credible, with rcfpeft to his
maflter in philofophy, Diodotus, that " he exeixifcd himfclf

is

B L I

B L 1

in it with greater affiduity after he became blind ; and, which
he thought next to impoffible to be performed without fighti
that he profefTed geometry, and defcribed his diagrams fo ac-
curately to his fcholars, as to enable them to draw eveiy line
in us proper dircdlion."" Jcrom relates a more remarkable
inftance of Didymus in Alexandria, who, " though blind
from his infancy, and therefore ignorant of the lettei'S, ap-
peared fo great a miracle to the world, as not only to learn
logic, but geometry alfo to perfection, which feems (he
adds) the moft of any thing to require the help of lltiht."
Profeffor Saunderfon, who was deprived of his light by the
fmall pox, when he was only twelve months old, feems to
have acquired moft of his ideas by the fenfe of feeling ; and
though he could not diftinguifh colours by that fenfe,
which, after repeated trials, he faid, was pretending to im-
poffibililies, yet he was able with the greatert exaclnefs to
difcriminate the minuteft difference of rough and fmooth in
a furface, or the leait defect of polifh. In a fet of Roman
medals he could diilinguifh the genuine from the falfe,
though they had been counterfeited in fuch a manner, as to
' deceive a connoilTeur who judged of them by the eye. His
fenfe of feehng was fo acute, that he could perceive the
leall variation in the ilate of the air ; and it is faid, that in
a garden where oblervations were made on the fun, he took
notice of every cloud that interrupted the obfervation, al-
moft as juftlr asthofe who could fee it. He could tell when
any thing was held near his face, or when he paffed by a
tree at no great diftance, provided the air was calm, and
there was little or no wind : this he did by the different
pulfe of air upon his face. He pofTcffcd a fenfibihty of
hearing to fuch a degree, that he could dillingnifti even the
fifth pait of a note ; and by the quicknefs of this fenfe he
not only difcriminatcd perfons with whom he had once con-
verfed fo long as to fix in his memory the found of their
voice, but he could jv.dge of the fize of a room into which
he was introduced, and of his diftance frorli the wall ; and
if he had ever walked over a pavement in courts, piazzas,
Eic. which reflected a found, and was afterwards condufted
thither again, he could exactly tell in what part of the walk
he was placed, merely by the note which it founded. See
Saunderson.

Sculpture and painting are arts which, one would ima-
gine, are of very difficult and almofl: imprafticable attain-
ment to bhnd perfons ; and yet inftances occur, which Ihew
that they are not excluded from the pleafiug creative and
extenfive regions of fancy. We have known cafes in which
the formand features of the face have been delineated wholly
by the touch, and in which it has been moulded with the
utmoft exaftnefs. De Piles (Cours de Peint. p. 329.)
mentions a blind fculptor, who thus took the likenefs of
the duke de Bracciano in a dark cellai", and made a marble
ftatue of king Charles I. with great juftnefs and elegance.
However unaccountable it may appear to the abflracl philo-
fophers, yet nothing is more certain in faft, than that a
blind man may, by the infpiration of the mufes, or rather
by the efforts of a cultivated genius, exhibit in poetry the
moft: natural images and animated defcriptions even of vifible
objefts, without dcfervedly incurring the charge of plagia-
rifm. We need not recur to Homer and Milton for atteila-
tions to this fatt ; they had probably been long acquainted
with the vifible world before they had loft their fight ; and
their defcriptions might be animated with all the rapture
and enthufiafm which originally fired their bofomE, when
the grand and delightful objefts delineated by them were
immediately beheld. We are furniftied with inftances
in which a fimilar energy and tranfport of defcription, at
leaft in a very confiderable degree, have been exhibited by

thofe on whofe minds vifible objefts were never impreffed,
or have been entirely obliterated. Dr. Blacklock affords a
furprifinir inftance of this kind ; who, though he had loft
his fight before he was fix months old, not only made liim-
felf matter of various languages, Greek, Latin, Italian, and
French, but acquired the reputation of an excellent poet,
whofe performances abound with appropriate images and
animated defcriptions. See Blacklock.

Another inftance, which deferves being recorded, is that
of Dr. Henry Moyes in our own country, who, though
blind from his infancy, by the ardour and affiduity of his
application, and by the energy of native genius, not only
made incredible advances in mcchanieal operations, in mufic,
and in the languages, but acquired an extenfive acquaint-
ance with geometry, optics, algebra, aftronomy, chemiiiry,
and all other branches of natural philofophy. From the
account of Dr. Moyes, who occafionally read lectures on
philofophical chemifti-y at Manchefter, delivered to the
Manchefter fociety by Dr. Bew, it appears, that mechanical
exercifes were the favourite employment of his infant years ;
and that at a very early age he was fo well acquainted with
the ufe of edge-tools, as to b« able to conftruct little wind-
mills, and even a loom. By the found, and the different
voices of the perfons that were prefent, he was direfted in
his judgment of the dimenfions of the room in which they
were affembled ; and in this refpeft he determined with fuch
a degree of accuracy, as feldom to be millaken. His me-
mory was fingularly retentive ; fo that he was capable of
recognizing a perfon on his firft fpeaking, though he had
not been in company with him for two years. He deter-
mined with furprifing exaftnefs the ftature of thofe with
whom he converfed, by the direction of their voices ; and
he made tolerable conjectures concerning their difpofitions,
by the manner in which they conducted their converfation.
His eyes, though he never recolleftcd his having feen, were
not totally infenfible to intenfe light ; but the rays refrafted
through a prifm, when fufficiently vivid, produced diftin-
guiftiable effects upon them. The red produced a dilagree-
able fenfation, which he compared to the touch of a faw.
As the colours declined in violence, the harftmefs leffened,
ur'il the green afforded a fenfation that was highly pleafing
to him, and which he defcribed as conveying an idea fimilar
to that which he gained by running his hand over fmoolh
poliflied furfaces. Such furfaces, meandering ftreams, and
gentle declivities, were the figures by which he expreffed
his ideas of beauty ; rugged rocks, irregular points, and
boifterous elements, furniffied him with expreffionsfor teiror
and difguft. He excelled in the charms of converfation ;
was happy in his allufions to vifual objefts ; and difcou.-fed
on the nature, compofition, and beauty of colours, with
pertinence and precihon. This inftance, and fome othevs
which have occurred, feem to furniffi a prefumption, that
the feeling or touch of bhnd perfons mav be fo improved,
as to enable them to perceive that texture and difpofition of
coloured furfaces by which fome niys of hght are reflefted
and others abforbcd, and in this manner to diftinguifh
colours. But the fadt is ftiU undecided ; and farther trials
are neceffary, in order to fet afide high autliorities to the
contrary', and abfohitely to decide it. Dr. Reid, in his
" Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Com-
mon Senfe" (ch. vi. 4 2.), deduces evidence from acknow-
ledged fafts, as well as reafoning, in order to fhew, that
there is very little of the knowledge acquired by fight, that
may not be communicated to a man born blind. One who
never faw the light m.ay be learned and knowing in every
fcience, even in optics ; and may make difcoveries in every
branch of philofophy. He may underitand as much as
4 H 2 another

B L I

another man, not only of the order, diftanccs, and motions
of the heavenly bodies, but of the nature of light, and of
the laws of the reflection and refraftion of its rays. He
inay undcrftand diftinclly, how thofe laws produce the phe-
nomena of the rain-bow, the prifm, the camera obfcura,
and the magic lanthorn, and all tiie powers of the micro-
fcope and tthlcope, Neverthelefs, as to the appearances of
colour, a blind man mull be more at a lofs, becaufe he has no
perception tiiat rcfemSlts it ; though, by a kind ot analogy,
he may fupply even this defeft. 'i'o thofe who fee, a fcarlct
colour fignities an unknown quality in bodies, that exhibits
to the eye an appearance which they have often obferved,
and which they well kiiow ; but to a blind man, it denotes
an unknown quality that exhibits an appearance, with which
he is unacquainted. But he can conceive the eye to be va-
lioutly afieclcd by different colours, as the nofe is by differ-
ent fmells, or the ear by different founds : thus, he can
conceive fcarlet to differ from blue, as the found of a trum-
pet does from that of a drum ; or, as the fmell of an orange
diflers from that of an apple. It is impoffible to know whe-
ther fcarlet colour has the iame appearance to me which it has
to another man ; and if its appearances to diiferent perfons
differed as much as colour does from found, they might
never be able to difcover this difference. Hence it is plain,
that a blind man might talk for a long time about colours
dillindlly and pertinently ; and if you were to examine
him in the dark about the nature, compofition, and beauty
of them, he might be able to anfwer, io as not to betray
his defctt. After all, as a blind man has never had any
fenfatiou of light and colour, his knowledge concerning
them, however exteniive and accurate, mull be the refult of
previous inflruttion ; it muft depend on the force of genius,
or on the ftrength of memory ; and his language concerning
coloured objefts mull be like that of a parrot, without any
precifion of meaning, and without any correfpondlng ideas.
On this difputed fubjeft the reader may derive information
from Diderot's " Lettre fur les Aveugles a I'ufage de ceux
qui voyent," or " A Letter concerning the Blind for the
ufe of thofe who fee," in his " Works," vol. ii. ; and they
alfo may confult Chcfelden's " Anatomy," and Locke's
" Effay on the Human Underllanding."

With regard to the fcientific and practical departments of
mufic, every age has fupplied numerous inllances of blind
perfons who have attaliied to great excellence. They will
occur among the articles of mulical biography in the courfe
of this work.

Of the contrivances that have been devifed for the allift-
ance of the blind, we have already mentioned thofe of pro-
feffor Saunderfon, and of Mr. Grenville, under tlie article
Palpable Arithmetic. We fhall here fubjoin, from a
letter addreffed by Dr. Moyes to the editor of the " Ency-
clopcedia Britannica," an account of the palpable notation
generally ufed by him for twenty years, for the purpofe of
aflilling his memory in numerical computations. With this
view he made ufe of a fquare piece of mahogany, a foot
broad and an inch thick, reprefented by ABCD [Plate L
jllgebra, Jig.^.) ; he divided each of the fides AB, BC,
CD, DA, into 24 equal parts ; joined each pair of oppofite
divifions by a groove cut in the board of fufficient depth to
be felt with the finger ; and perforated the board at each in-
terfedtion with an inilrument -rV^h of an inch in diameter.
Having thus divided the furface of the board into 576 fmall
fquares, perforated at each of their angles, he fitted to the
holes in the board three fets of pegs or pins, refembling
thofe in the plate, Jigs. 4, 5, 6, in fuch a manner, that when
fixed in them they Kept their pofition, and required fonie force
to turn them round. The headof each peg belonging to the firft.

B L I

fet is a right-angled triangle, about ^Vli °^ =" '"cli chicle ;
the head of each peg beloriging to the fecond fet differs
from the former merely in havuig a Imall notch in its Hoping
fide or hypothenufe ; and the head of each peg of the third
fet is a fquare, the breadth of which Ihould be equal to the
bafe of the triangle of the other two. Thefe pegs Ihould
be kept in a cafe confilling of three boxes or cells, each
cell being allotted to a fet ; and the cafe muft be placed
clofe by the board before the connnencenient of every ope-
ration. Each fet Ihould confill of 60 or 70 pegs, at leaft
vi'hen employed in long calculations ; and when the work i^
finilhed, they fliould be colleiled from the board, and care-
fully rellored to their refpedive boxes. Vv'hen a peg of the
firfl fet is fixed into the board, it will acquire four different
values, accordi-ng to its pofition with reiptft to the calcr-
lator. When; its floping fide is turned towards the left, it
denotes unit, or the firll digit ; when turned upwards, or
from the calculator, it denotes 2, or the fecond digit ; when
turned to the right, it reprefents 3 ; and when turned down-
wards, or towards the calculator, it denotes 4. The num-
ber 5 is denoted by a peg of the fecond iet, having its floping
fide turned to the left ; 6, by the tame turned upwards ; 7,
by the fame turned to the right ; and 8, by the lame turned
diredlly down, or towards the body of the calculator. The
figure 9 is expreffed by a peg of the third fort, when its
edges are diredled to right and left; and the fame peg expreffes
the cypher o, when its edges are direfted up and down.
By thefe different pegs the relative values of the ten digits
may therefore be dillinAly expreffed with facility ; and
by a fufficient number of each fet the fleps and relult of the
longeft calculation may be clearly reprefented to the fenfe
of feeling. For an example, let it be required to exprefs
the year of the Chrifli'an osra 1788. Take a peg of the
firfl fet, and fix it in the board, with its floping fide turned
towards the left, which reprefents I ; take a peg of the
fecond fet, and fix it in the next hole in the fame groove,
proceeding as ufual from left to right, with its floping fide
turned to the right, and this expreffes 7 ; take again a peg
of the fame fet, and fix it in the next hole, with its floping
fide turned downwards, and this will reprefent 8 ; and
laflly, take another peg of the fame fet, and place it in the
next hole in the fame pofition, which will denote S ; and
thus the whole will exprefs the number required. Li order
to exprefs a vulgar fraction, the numerator is placed in the
groove immediately above, and the denominator in that im-
mediately below the groove in which the integers fland ;
and in decimal arithmetic, an empty hole in the integer
groove reprefents the comma, or decimal point. By fimilar
breaks are alfo denoted pounds, ihiUings, pence, &c.; and
by the fame expedient, the divlfor and quotient in divifion
are feparated from the dividend. " This notation," fays
the ingenious inventor, " which fupplics me completely with
co-efficients and indices in algebra and fluxions, feems much
fuperior to any of the kind hitherto made public in the
well of Europe. That invented and defcribed by Mr.
Grenville, having no lefs than ten fets of pegs, is by
much too complicated for general praflice ; and that which
we owe to the celebrated Saunderfon, is apt to puzzle
and embanafs the calculator, as the pegs reprefenting th-e
numerical digits can feldora or never be in the fame
flraight line."

It redounds very much to the honour of modern times,
that the public attention has been directed to the improve-
ment of the condition of blind perfons ; and that inititutions
have been formed in different countries for providing them
with fuitable employment, tending not only to alleviate their
calamity, but to render them ufttul. The firll regular ar.4

fyllematic

B L I

B L I

fyftematic plan for tliis purpofe was propofcd by M. Haii)'
in an " Effay on the education of the iShnd," printed at
Paris in the year 17)^6, under the patronage of the Academy
of Sciences. An Englidi tranflation of this effay is annexed
to " Dr. Blacklock's Poems," printed at Edinburgh in
179^, 4to. The object of this plan is to teach the blind
reading, by the afllllanct of books, in which the letters are
rendered palpable by their elevation above the furface of the
paper ; and by thefe means to inftrnft them, not only in the
liberal arts and fcienccs, but likewife in the principles of me-
chanical operations, fnch as fpinning, knitting, book-binding,
5:c. fo that thofe w'lo are in eafy circumftances may be capa-
ble of amufing employment, and thofe of the lower ranks of
life, and fuchas have no genius for literary improvement, may
neverthelefs, become rtfpeclable, uleful, and independent
members of fociety, in the fituation of common artifans. By
thefe palpable characters, they are taught to read, to write,
and to print ; and they are likewife inllnifted, according to
their fcveral talents and ftations, in geometry, algebra, geo-
graphy, and every branch of natural philofophy. The infti-
tution encourages and cherifhes a talle for the fine arts ; it
teaches the blind to read mufic with their fingers, as others
do with their eyes ; and it does this with fo much fuccefs,
that though they cannot at once feel the notes and perform
them upon an inllrument, yet they are capable of acquiring
any lefTon with as much exaClnefs and rapidity, as thofe who
enjoy all the advantages of fight. Of this curious and inte-
relting cflay, now before us, we fhall give fuch an account as
may ferve to gratify thofe of our readers, who are concerned
in the fupport of plans, fomewhat refembling that which it
defcnbes, in our own countr)-. The author, after Hating the
objcdl; of his plan, and obviating the fcruples of thofe who
demur againft allowing its general utility, in the two firll
chapters, proceeds, in the third chapter, to illuftrate the
method of reading, as adapted to the praftice of the blind.
This method confills, as we have already obferved, in the ufe
of typographical charadltrs, whofe elevation above the fur-
face of the paper renders them obvious to the touch, without
the intervention of fight. From the perception of typogra-
phical charafters, the tranfition is not difficult to that of
written characters; i.e. of charadlers not written with ink,
but formed by imprefRons made upon flrong paper with an
iron pen, whofe point is not ilit. The characters, thus pro-
duced, are diltinftly feparated and inverted ; and they are
marked on the fideof the paper contrai-y to that which is read,
and in fuch a manner that thepofitionand order of the letters
may appear right and in relievo, when the page is turned. The
blind may thus be able to form and decypher mufical charac-
ters, mathematical diagrams, and all the necelTary procefTes of
arithmetic and geography, as well as thofe that areprintedand
written. In the fourth chapter the author replies to feveral ob-
jeftions that are urged againft the method of reading he has
propolcd. The fifth and hxth chapters contain an account of
the art of piincing, as it is praCicifed by the blind, for their pe-
culiar ufe, and alfoas it is performed for the ufe of thofe who
fee. In the procefs of printing, the blind compofitorhas a box
for every alphabetical charafterin ufe; on the outfide of thefe
boxes are palpably marked the peculiar charafter belonging
to each ; thefe are filled with types, which he felefts and fets
as they are wanted, but in a contrary pofition to that in
which they are read. When the types have been arranged
and fixed, a page of very flrong paper is moiftened, io as 10
be capable of receiving and retaining impreffions, and laid
upon the types ; and then by the operation of the prefs, or
by the eafy ftrokes of a fmall hammer frequently repeated
over the furface, the impreffion of the type is made to rife
on the oppoCte fide of the paper; and it continues, when

dry, not only obvious to the fight but to the touch, and is not
eafily effaced. On the upper fide of the pape.' the letters
appear in their proper pofition ; and by their fenfible eleva-
tion above the common furface, the blind may eafily read
them with their fingers. The feventh cliapter explains the
method of teaching the blind to write ; which we have al-
ready noticed. The eighth chapter fhews how they are
taught arithmetic ; for this purpofe they are provided with a
board pierced with different lines of fquare holes, proper for
receiving moveable figures, and bars for feparating the differ-
ent parts of an operation. To render this board more ufe-
ful, a cafe is added, compofed of four fows of little boxes,
which contain all the figures proper for calculation, and
which are placed at the right hand of the blind perfon while
he operates. In order to obtain charafters for expreffing all
the poffible fraftions, 10 fimple denominators are caft, in the
order of the figures o, i, 2, &c. to 9 inclufively, and likewife
10 fimple numerators in the fame order, moveable, fo as to be
adapted at the head of the denominators. By means of this
combination, the blind are able to exprefs any fraflion. The
ninth chapter treats of geography ; and in tep.ching it,
M.Weiffenbourg and Mad.Paradis marked the circumference
of countries by a tenacious and vifcid matter, and covered
the different parts of their maps with a kind of fand mixed
with glafs, in various modes ; and diftinguifhed the order of
towns by grains of glafs, of a greater or lefs fize. M. Haiiy
fatisfies himfelf with marking the limits of the maps, for the
ufe of the blind, by fmall iron wire rounded ; and it is always
a difference, either in the form or fize of every part of a m.ap,
which affifts his pupils in diftinguifhing the one from the
other. For the purpofe of teaching mufic, the fubjeft of
the tenth chapter, mufical charafters are call ; and thefe are
fo numerous, as to reprefent upon paper, by elevations on its
furface, all the pofTible varieties that occur. The eleventh
chapter contains an account of the mechanic arts, in which
the blind are employed, and of the method in which they are
formed for fuch occupations. Accordingly they have been
fuccefsfully employed in Ipinning, in making pack-thread of
the thread they have fpun, in weaving girths with this pack-
thread, in making nets, in fewing, in binding books, SiC.
In the twelfth chapter we have a view of the proper mode of
inftrufting the blind, together with a parallel between their
education and that of the deaf and dumb. This operation,
it is faid, is ealy in itfelf, and requires in a matter more cou-
rage than knowledge. " By the aid," fays M. Haiiy, " of
our books in relievo, every one can teach them to read.
Upon the mufical works found in our prefs, every profeffor of
that art may give them lefibns. With an iron pen, with plates
and moveable charafters, executed according to our models,
the firil mafter in writing may teach them that art, and arith-
metic." The thirteenth chapter contains a brief account of
theelementan- books of languages, mathematics, and liirtory,
which fhould compofe the library of the blind perfon. The
effay terminates with an hillorical lummary of the rife, pro-
grefs, and aftual ftate of the intlitution for blind children.
The luccefs of this inftitution has fully anfwered the expefta-
tions of its founder, and amply compenfated the expence be-
flowed upon it by the hberal and well-difpofed. We are
happy to add, that inffitutions of a fimilar kird have been
ellabliflied in our own country ; and to render our par-
ticular tribute of rtfpeft to the founders and fupporters
of the " School for the Indigent Blind," inftituted in Lon-
don in 1799. It is now fituated in St. George's-fields, but
will fpeedily be removed to Gray's Inn-lane, as foon as the
nectlTary buildings for its accommodation areerefted. The
objeft, with a view to which this fchool was founded, is un-
queilionably one of the moll important and interelling kind

til at

B L I

that can excite compafTion, or demand encouragement. It
provides iiillruclion for the indigent bhncl, in a trade, by
which tliey may be able to provide, either wholly or in part,
for tlieir own fiibfiilence ; and thus, inilead of being alto-
gether a burden to the community, they will be of feme fer-
vice to it ; and inilead of being depreffed and cheerlefs them-
felves, under a fenfe of their total dependence, and for want
of regular employment, habits of induilry will relieve their
fpirits, and produce the mod beneficial eifecls on their ftate
and charaftcr. The children of this uiltitution, amounting
in the prefent year (1804) to 32, are completely clothed,
boarded, lodged, and inllrutled, gratis. The articles at
prefent manufaftured in the fchool are fhoemakers'-thread,
fine and coarfe thread, window fa(h-linc, and cloaths'-line (of
a peculiar conftrnclion, and made on a machine adapted to
the uie of blind perfons), by the females ; and window and
fafh-hne, cloaths'-line, hampers, and wicker baflcets, by the
males. The fuccefs that has crowned tlie efforts of the
friends of this inllitution, fince its firfl: ellablifhrnent, affords
luffieient evidence of the degree in which the ficuation and
faculties of the blind are capable of improvement ; and a
view of it in its prefent profpcrous ftate, mull be gratifying
to perfons of humane and companionate feelings. Here they
will not find the fchohrs fitting in liftlefs indolence, which is
commonly the cafe with the blind, or brooding in filence
over tlieir own defects, and their inferiority to the rell of
mankind ; but they will behold a number of individuals, of
a clafs iiitherto confidered as doomed to a life of furrow and
difcontcnt, and to be provided for merely in alms-houfes,
or by donations of charity, not lefs animated in their amufe-
ments, during the hours of recreation, and far more cheer-
fully attentive to their work in thofe of employment, than
perfons poffcfled of fight. This important and ufeful inlli-
tution is under the direftion of a prefident, eight vice-prefi-
dents, a trealurer, and a committee of 24 members. A fub-
fcription of one guinea annually, or of not lefs than 20
guineas at once, or within one year, conftitutes a m.ember.

To this article we fltall fubjoin the following direftions
given by Mr. Thickneffc, for teaching the blind to write :
" Let any common joiner make a flat board, about 14
inches long, and 12 wide; in the middle of which let a
place be funk, deep enough, when lined with cloth, to hold
only two or three flieets of fool's-cap paper, which mull
quite fill up the fpace : over this muft be fixed a very thin
falfc frame, which is to cover all but the paper, and failened
on by four little pins, fixed in the lower board : and acrofs
the lower frame, juft over the paper, mull be a little Aider,
an inch and, a half broad, to ilip dov/n into fevcral receffes
made in the upper frame, at a proper diftance for the lines,
wdiich fliould be near an inch afunder ; and this ruler, on
which the writer is to reft his fourth and little finger, mull
be made full of httle notches, at a quarter of an inch diftant
from each other; and thefe notches will inform the writer,
by his little finger dropping from notch to notch, how to
avoid running one letter into another. When he comes to
the end of the line, he muft move his Aider down to the
next groove, which may cafily be fo contrived with a fpring
to give warnins: that it is properly removed to the fecond
line, and fo on."

Blindness, in the Vstennary Art, a difeafe very fre-
quently happening to horfes. The eye of the horfe is fub-
jetl to various difeafes which may occafion hlindnefs, as the
cataract, the giiltaferena, opacity of the cornea or its cover-
ings, &c.

The diforder, however, generally inducing blindnefs among
horfes is the cataract, and the inflamation of the external parts
of the globe of the eye, which precedes the obfcuration of

B L I

the cvyftalilne, is termed blindnefs, as though the difeafe was
really confirmed ; and horfes fo afFefted are confidered as
fuch, and denominated blind, though at this period of the
difeafe the fight is only rendered imperfeft.

This deftruftive diforder, in general, commences with an
inflammation of the outer coats of the eye, as the memlrana
coiijunfUva, or cornea, or both together, and extending gra-
dually to the interior, inflames and dellroys the tranfparency
of the cryftalline, and obftrudls the admiffion of light.

Thefe attacks of imflammation not unfrequently difap-
pear for a time, or, at leaft, become much lefs diflinguilh-
able, and then return again, obferving fomethmg like
regular periods of acceflion and remiffion; and from hence
the difeafe has been termed by fome the mean blindnefs,
and thefe changes were^ confidered as under the influence
of this planet, and correfpouduig with the periods of its
change ; there are, however, other caufes more powerful
in their influence, to which thefe changes in this dilorder
mav, with more appearance of truth, be attributed, as im-
proper expofure to excelTive cold, or drafts of air ; to
a clofe, low, over-heated liable, or fudden alternations
from the one to the other ; violent exercile and fweating ;
then wafliing with cold water, leaving the hair drenched
with it ; acrid volatile falts rifing from the dung ; over-
feeding with too hot, dry, and ftimulating fo6d, and all
other caufes inducing an increafed aftion of the heart and
arteries, naturally tend to induce a recurrence of this com-
plaint.

As this difeafe is one of the moft interefting in the vete-
rinary art, and the moft neceflfary to be well underftood,
as well by profcflTional men, as by dealers and poffeflbrs of
horfes, we (hall defcribe at fome length the appearances by
which it is known to exift, and the means that have
hitherto been employed, as far as they have come to our
knowledge, for the removal of it. Thole who may defire to
be acquainted refptfting the information poflcfled by the
ancients of this complaint, and their praftices for its cure,
may be referred to the writings of Ablyrtus and Vegetius :
the latter, in his elegant work ik arte Veicrinaria, lib. 2.
cap. xvi. de fujfufwne oculoriim, has divided this diforder
into three kinds, under the Uiicojlcr.orhoriajis, protochoriafis,
hypochoriaju ; by his definitions, however, of tiiefe three
kinds, it appears that he only meant the different llages
of the formation of ihe cataraft, from the firft inflam-
mation of the eye, to the cryftalline becoming perfeclly
opake and burfting its capfule ; rnfhing to the anterior
chamber of the eye, and refting, like a white opake ball,
againft the cornea ; occafioning a total lofs of fight, and
which he compares to the yolk of an egg hurtling from
its fituation in the centre of the egg, and to which it can
never be again reduced. He confiders the caufe of this com-
plaint to be the rupture of the membrane containing the
fiijht ; by exceffive heat, or more certainly from the fatigiie
of a long journey, or the neglefted injury of the eve, from
the inattention of the mailer. His hypochuriafis, which
appears to be the firll ftage of this diforder, he fays, de-
fcends from the head, and often ftiews itfelf in one eye, and
then migrates to the other, and is attended with a flow
(if water or tears. His treatment, in this cafe, is to
bleed often from the eye-brow, or rather the eye-lids,
and from the temples ; to foment frequently with warm
water in which rue and fennel feeds have been boiled ; to
anoint the eye " cum coUyrio opopanato et opohalfamalo."
He alfo recommends applying the aClual cautery to the
temples above the veins. This author, in another chapter,
recommends, in this complaint, that yon fliould infpeft the
noftril on the fame fide with the morbid eye, and you will

' find

B L I

find a fmall opening, through which, by inferting a pipe,
yoii may fill the eye with wine, and relieve the diforder ;
a remarkable proof of the minute and accurate obfervation
of the ancients. The exillence of fuch an opening (for it
is, in reality, the opening of the lacrymal duft that is alluded
to), is not known to m'ny who profefs to praftife on the
difeafes of horfes at this day.

Abfyrt'is, a Greek writer, who lived about the reign of
Conftantine the Great, and prior to Vegetius, recommends,
in this difordcr, and which he calls vaXufxa, tb.at the ear
{hould be pierced with an awl, and a piece of white helle-
bore fliould be inferted in the perforation for its relief.

The following we venture to give as a more natural and
true defcription of the appearances of the eye, durmg the
prefence of this complaint, than what has before been ex-
hibited ; though, no doubt, fubjcft to many omiflions and
imperfeftions, which future obfervations may lead us to
reftify.

The carlieft indication of this difeafe is exhibited by the
external tranfparent parts of the ball of the eye becoming
obfcured, alTuming a blackilh glafly hue ; fometimes blue,
or brown, or a dull white, and Iheaked with blood, accord-
ing to the degree of inflammation or diftenfion of the blood-
veffils ; admitting, according to their capacity, the different
parts of the blood which are not tranfparent ; and this in-
flammation, it may be remai-ked, takes place more fre-
quently in young horfes of five or fix years old, than in
thofe of a more advanced age, and the upper half of the
cornea generally appears more obfcured than the lower ;
this, however, may be a deception, arifing merely from the
point of vifion, the obferver being placed below the eye,
and feeing direftly through the lower part, and more
obliquely through the upper. The blood-veffels alfo may
be obferved increafed in number and fize, pafGng over the
opake white furface of the fclerotica, to the cornea and
conjundlva ; for it has not, as far a-s we know, been ever
afcertained from aftual difleftion or experiment, whether it
is the cornea that is inflamed, or the conjundtiva, or both ;
nor is it abfolutely neceffary for the treatment, that this
fliould be known.

The eye and eye-lids feel hotter to the hand than ufual ;
and often times there is a depofit of a white matter refem-
bling pus, in the bottom of the anterior chamber of the eye,
which, perhaps, proceeds from the vefTels of the ciliary
fringe, or uvea, which are large in the horfe.

After this opacity of the cornea has exiftcd fome time,
the eye of itfelf, or llill more certainly if antiphlogiftic means
are ufed, returns to its natural brilliancy, and the diiorder
feems removed ; a few weeks or months may elapfe before
its return ; and if thefe remedies are had recourfe to very
early, the diforder may even be permanently removed ; it
■very frequently, however, returns, and again difappears, and
this feveral times before the inflammation of the cryftalline,
and the deftruftion of fight take place. In other fubjefts,
one uninterrupted courfe of inflammation, without any inter-
val, takes place, till the cataract is fully formed.

V-'lien this morbid proccfs begins in the cryfl:alline, the
inflammation of the exterior parts of the eye often difap-
pears, and they aflume their ufnal brightnefs, and afford us
an opportunity of diflindtly obferving the changes which
take place in the lens.

And, with refpeft to the cataraft itfelf, or this opacity
of the lens, we may remark, that the whole cryftalline (hall
affume this milky appearance at once, or a fmall fpeck
only near the centre fliall be feen, which often remains for
years, without the Icaft perceivable increafe, and without
producing blinduefs, or any fenfible detriment to the ani-

B L I

mal : again, in other cafes, no fpeck is obfervable but
whitifli lines which refleft the lisfht, ftretchin? like ravs
rom the centre ot the lens to its circumference ; and lome-
times the capfule containing it is faid to be only af-
feaed.

The cataract, as it is called, being fully formed, the com-
plete opacity of the lens being ellablifhed, and light no
longer admitted, the iris begins to lofe its properties,
nearly clofing up the opening of the pupil : from its relaxa-
tion, the whole eye becomes diminiflied, and apparently funk
in the head ; and the capfule, efpecially in draft horfes,
burfl;s, and the lens is forced from its fituation, and falls to
the anterior chamber of the eye, refembhng, as we have
before obferved, an opake white ball.

As perfcft clcarnefs and diilindnefs in all parts of the eye,
with a due contraftion of the pupils, are the moft certain
indications of its goodnefs, fo the flightell dulnefs or
opacity in the external coats, or diminution of the pupil,
fhould lead the purchafer to be cautious; for it cannot be
too often obferved, that this opacity, after it has been of
fome ilanding, is almoft certain deflruftion to the eye ; and
there are no remedies at this time known that can prevent
its fatal termination, though numerous attempts and expe-
riments have been inflituted with this view ; and the opera-
tion for the cataraft is ufelefs in the horfe ; for if it fuc-
ceeds, the vifiou is ftill fo imperfeft, that bhndnefs itfelf is
prefeiable.

Though various ufeful offices can be found for horfes that
have loft their fight ; yet it is of im.portance, for moft of
the purpofes to which they are applied, that it fliould he
preferved. We cannot recommend with too much force, the
necetfity of an early recurrence to the prefcribed remedies
for deftroying the inflammation ; for, at its very commence-
ment, it has probably only the characters of common in-
flammation, and might be entirely and effeftually fubdued
as in other parts ; but neglefted, this diforder foon affumes
its peculiar properties, arifing, perhaps, from the particular
ftrufture and funftions of the parts aflfefted, and in a fliort
time becomes perfeftly beyond the reach of any remedy ;■
for though, no doubt, there are a few infulated inftancts
where tiiis diforder has been removed, yet, as the termina-
tion of the generality of cafes is of an oppofite nature, it
would be unwarrantable to make a conclufion from fuch cafts
of the general poffibility of cure in this complaint.

Where the inflammation has not yet received the fpecific
properties above defcribed, the following remedies will fre-
quently remove it ; and in more confirmed caft-s, we fhall
mention the means that have been unfucq<tflSfully employed"
to remove it, that we may fhew the infufRcicncy of fuch
attempts, and promote farther experiment and refearch ref-
pefting it.

In the commencement of this complaint, the ufe of ab-
ftinence from heating food, or hard exercife ; expofure to
ftables of cooler temperature, and well aired, not from par-
tial drafts, but their loftinefs only ; exchifion of too much
light, or the light altogether ; diluent drinks, and pur,ra-
tives ; fuch may be employed to the general fyftem. "To
the part itfelf, wafhes of cold water, or ice and water, or
litharge water, or with a fmall portion of opium diflblved;
in it ; others think more favourably of ftimulating, or cauf-
tic waflies, as weak folutions of vitriolated zinc, very dilute
acids, and even fpirits and water.

Bliftcrs applied to the cheek, or over the maffeter muf-
cle, produce an irritation which is very fuccefsful in re-
moving this inflammation, and, in particular, the infertion of
a feton or two in the mufcular parts furrounding the eye,
care being taken that the fafcia over the mufcle is divided,

othei'wiie

B L I

othenviff there is no fiippuration ; thefe will tend, as we
have expcrienceci, powcrtuUy to carry off an attack of this
dilordcr. Firing with a hot iron has alfo been employed
with tiie fame view, on the fiirrounding flcin ; and likewife
blood-letting from the jngnlar vein, or from the tem-
poral artery, or locally from the veffels proceeding from the
inner canthus, or anterior angle of the orbit ; as alfo the
vcillls pafiing over the fcleiotic coat, which become very
mticli enlarged and vifible in this difeafe, as well as thofe
in the lining of the lids.

Mr. Coleman, the very ingenious profcffor of the vete-
rinary college, feared up the veffels of the fclerotica with a
hot iron, forming an entire circle round the ball of the eye,
at fome dillance from the cornea, to prevent all accefs of
blood to this part, and fo endeavoured, mechanically, to
put a ftop to the infl.imniation ; it was found, liowever,
infufReient to deftroy the diforder, and we believe that any
hope of relief from this mode of treatment has fince been
abandoned ; and for this reafon, perhaps, this experiment has
proved infnfiicicnt, that when communication is flopped
from the exterior vefl'els, there are others whofe trunks are
fhort of thefe, which fupply the fubliance of the cornea ;
and others again, out of our reach, on the inlide of the
cornea ; but above all, the habit in the parts to difeafe,
and the difpofition in the fyllem to generate it, are not
overcome, and the morbid tendency is not thereby de-
llroyed.

The farriers, who pra£life medicine, in treating this com-
plaint, often remove the lacrynial gland, which they call
the haw, from its fnppofcd rtfemblance to this fruit ; and
as this part partakes of the inflammation, and is much
fwelled, they miilake it for the fource of the diforder. The
removal of it, which is ealily done, by drawing it out witli
a hook, and cutting it off, occafions a copious difcharge of
blood, which, in flight attacks, relieves the eye, and en-
courages them in this prattice ; but from our own perfonal
experience we have learned, that in cafes of any duration, it
is totally inadequate to the removal of the complaint, and
the eye mult obvioufly fuffer from the lofs of a part that
is neceffary to its well-being: and means lefs injurious to
the eye may be equally well employed with as much fuccefs,
fuch as we have before pointed out.

An infufion of the polygonum hydrop'ipir injefted into the
noftril, fo as fliglitly to inflame the membranes, produces
very good effefts in this complaint.

It has been obferved, tliat in the human eye, long con-
tinued inflammations of the exterior coats rarely produce
cataraifts, as they do in the hoife; and the reafon that has
been afligned for this is, that the fame blood-veffels which
fupply the luuica coiijuniliva and cornea, alfo fupply the lens
and the humours of the eye, which they fay is not the cafe
with the human, as thefe parts are fupplied from the eye-
lids and integuments ; there is, however, in the horfe, a
fingnlar propenfity to inflammatory complaints, and to this
difpofition, perhaps, it is rather to be attributed.

In the inflammation of the cornea, which is at-
tended with a black, gloffy appearance of this part, there
is feldom any increafed difcharge of tears from the eye and
nofe ; but in the other kinds which we have before enume-
rated, tliere is, in general, a conliderable increafe of this
fecretion. When blood-ftreaks, or blotches appear, it is
probable that the veffels are ruptured, and that this blood
is really in a ilate of extravafation.

BLINK of the ice, in Sea Langiicige, denotes that bright,
white appearance produced by the ice near the horizon, and
perceptible, in approaching the ice, long before it is itfelf
i'een. This phenomenon has been often remarked by ma-

2

B L I

rlners, and is particularly itientioned in Pliipps's (lord Mul-
grave's) voyage to the North Pole, p. 70.

BLINKS, in Botany. See Montia.

Blinks, among Jncient Sporlfincn, denoted boughs broken
down from trees, and thrown in the way wlure deer are
likely to pafs, to hinder their running, or rather to mark
which way a deer runs, in order to guide the hunter.

BLINKING of Leer, in Lineolnfhire, fignilies letting
the wort fl:and for fome time in the vat, till it hath acquired
fome degree of acidity, in order to difpole it to fint-j and
be the fooner ready for drinking.

BLISSOM, among HuJhanJmen, corruptly called blojlm,
is the aft of a ram when coupling with an ewe.

BLISTER, in Pharmacy. BHflersare railed on the fur-
face of the body for medicinal purpofes, b) applying, for a
number of hours, fome of the moll aftive of the animal or
vegetable ftimulants. Of thefe, by far the moll convenient,
and that which is almoft univerfally employed, is the can-
thnris, or Spnnijh Jli, (Meloe Vejicatorius.) Thefe infedls
are found in Spain, Italy, and the fouth of Europe ; they
have a longifli body, beautifully brilliant with green and
gold. They are gathered, by fliaking the trees which
they frequent, and are killed by the vapour of fpirit of
wine buint beneath them, or by the fumes of vinegar, after
which they are dried in a ftove. In this flate they are
brought over without further preparation.

Cantharides poffcfs fo much acrimony, that in reducing
them to powder, the face fliould be covered with a maf!i,
to prerent the troublefome fneezing and excoriation of the
fauces, from the finer duft flying about. Taken internally,
in an over-dofe, they inflame the whole inte.linal canal, in a
greater or lefs degree ; and they have a peculiar tendency
to irritate the urinaiy organs. Applied to the fldn, they
firll inflame the part, but often, with fcarcely any attending
pain ; after which they produce a very copious blillcr of clear,
ycllowifli ferum beneath the cuticle, which rifes in a large
bag. This infeft appears to poffefs this velicaling property
in a much larger degree, in proportion to the pain excited,
than any other ilimulant ; and hence its peculiar utility in
producing this ferous difcharge with the leall pofiible in-
convenience to the patient. It is not exaftly known in
what part of the infeift the veficatirg property refides, or
whether it docs not equally belong to every part. It is not
eafily dedrovcd, or impaired by long keeping, if the infedt
be unbruifed, and prcferved in a dry place.

For bliileiing the ikln, the cantharides are firfl finely
powdered, and then incorporated, with fome labour,
with a finiple mixture of wax and refin melted togetlier, to
v-liich fome add a little vinegar, and allowed to grow nearly
cold before the flies are added. This is a neceffary pre-
caution, fince it is certainly known that a confiderable heat
impairs the biifteriiig property. The plaftcr, thus made,
fliould be of fuch a confillcnce, as readily to loften with a
moderate heat. When ufed, it is generally Ipread uniformly
upon leather, of the requifite fize and (hape, by the affill-
ance of an iron fpatula, warmed fcarcely more than the
hand can bear.

To increafe the effcft, fome apothecaries fprinkle the
plaller with powdered cantharides, after it is fpread on the
leather, but this is not neceffary, where the plaller itfelf
is good ; and the powder is apt, after vefication, to lodge
on the tender cutis, and produce much ntedlefs irritation.
As the bliileiing plaller adheres very loofely to the fl-iin, it
is ufeful in applying it to children, to maniacal pcrfons,
and wherever it is danger of being too foon pulled off, to
furround the blifter with a margin of ftrong adhefive
plaitei\

The

B L I

B L I

The pTaftcr of cantharides feldom fails to produce a large
liUfter, in ten or twelve hours ; but its operation continues
fomctimes longer, fo that it may be conveniently fuffered
to rtma'!n for twenty-four hours, the large cuticular bags
being punctured to let out the fluid. When the plafter is
taken off, and the ferum moftly difcharged, the bliftered
part fliould be dreOcd with fperraaceti, or fomc other
mild ointment, uulefs it be intended to keep up tlie ferous
dilchaige by ftimulating applications.

The pain produced by the aftion of cantharides varies
preatly, according to the part affected, the thicknefs of the
!kin, and the general irritability of the conftitution, and in
particular of the furfacc of the body. Mod frequently the
pain is very flight, often ?,ir;ounting to no more than a fenfe
of iieat on the part. When very acute, it is of great fervice
to remove the plalter, when it has been on about two
hours, to arioint the part with oil or cream ; and about an
hour or two after, to replace the bliftering plafter, which will
then often, proceed to veficate without much further irrita-
tion.

The operation of cantharides is much affefted by the
thicknefs of the Ikin beneatli ; and hence the fcalp refills
"vefication more than the fofter &in of the abdomen ; and
partic'.ilarlv by the heat of the body, fo that the plafter
fhoald be ftrougcr, and its confiftence fofter, when applied
to an unufualiy cold furface.

Sometimes, though rarely, the fymptoms of ftrangttry
produced by this aftive medicine, follow even its external
application.

A more active veficatory is fuppofed to be made, by add-
ing other ftimulating fubllances to the cantharides plafter.
In the Paris Pharmacoparia, euphorbium (the m.oll acrid of
all the medicinal gums) is added in equal quantity with the
cantharides: in the Edinburgii, verdigris, niuftard, and black
pepper are ufed.

It is often of advantage to keep up a difcharge from a
bliftered part for a confiderable time. It then becomes
gradually puiulent. For this pui-pofe, a milder form of
canthari'lts !■= highly ufeful, and a fofter confiftence is given
tn it. This may be done by mixing a fmall portion of the
flies in powder, with any finnple ointment ; but this is hablc
to act unequ.-.Uy, and the entire particles of the fly fome-
timcs create trouble, by lodging upon the tender cutis. To
remedy th'S, tl;e London college ufe a watery infufion of
cantharides, mixed with a. ftimulating refin ointment, melted,
and continued over a flow fire, till all the water is evaporated,
leaving a fmall portion of extractive matter of the flies,
equally difFiiftd through the ointment, and ftrongly in-
cieafing its ftimulating power.

A few other fubftances have been occafionally ufed to
produce vefication. One of thefe is the inner bark of the
3Iezercon, (Daphke ATezercum) and of another plant of the
fame ger^us, the Thhiielsa Laureola, or Spurge Laurel,
(Daphne I^aureola) both flirubby plants, well known in
gardens. The ufe of the latter (which will equally apply
to the mezereon) is thus directed in the Paris Pharmacopseia.
Small twigs ol the plant, about the fize of a pen, and
fmooth, are ftlcdted, and cut tranfverfely into portions of
the requifite length. Thefe are fteeped in milk-warm
water, or in vinegar, for about half an hour, to loofen the
bark, which is then peeled off v.'ith a pen-knife, and the wood
is thrown away. This bark is applied to the fkin to be
bliftered, prev:oufly rubbed with vinegar.

In twenty -four hours a perfect vefication is produced,
with little pain, and without the poffibility of thofe fymptoms
of ilrangurj-, which now and then attend the ufe of can-
tharides.

BLISTERED, bullalus, in Botany, is applied to the
Vol. IV.

furface of a leaf, which rifes high above the veins, fo as to
appear like blifters.

BLISTERING ofhorfes, in the VeUrhiary Art, a remedy
much in ufe for promoting the removal of a great variety
of diforders ; more efpecially, however, in reducing morbid
enlargements of bone, or morbid thickenings of any of the
fofter parts, where its utility is principally obvious.

The vefication of the fkin of the horfes is attended with
feme remarkable circumftances, in which it differs from the
human, efpecially in the greater irritability of the fldn ; for
the cuticle of the horfe is raifed by a bliiler of kfs ftrength,
than is required in raifing the human cuticle ; v^'hencc, per-
haps, it may be inferred, that its fenfation alfo is more
acute. It is probable that the fl:ins of animals covered
with hair are, in general, more irritable than naked flcinned
animals ; the fpirits of turpentine producing a moft painful
irritation, both in the horfe and the dog, when apphcd to
the fKin, but not fo in the human.

Irritants, howes-er, of the ft<in, without any bliftering, or
vefication, may be had recourfe to with very great advantage,
in the veterinary art, as they can, without injur)- to the
parts, be very frequently renewed, and with the happicft
effefts.

The mildeft applications of this dcfcription, are the
animal and vegetable oils ; as hog's-lard, and the oil ex-
preffed from linfecd, or olives : where more irritation is
thought requifite, the addition of the effentiil oil of ori-
ganum, or the fpirits of turpentine, will readily afford it.

Lard alone, rubbed on the ftvin of the horfe, we have
often oblerved to produce a fenfible irritation and increafed
warmth in the part, fo fufceptiblc is this part in thefe ani-
mals ; and may ferve as a bafis from which we may proceed
to the higher degrees of ftimulus, firing the (kin with the
actual cautery, in lines more or Icfs clofe, being the higheft;
degree of initation to which we can or ought to pro-
ceed.

That initation v.'hich is produced by the cantharides,
is, of all others, we believe, the moft ufeful in its effects.
It fhouldbe applied, mixed with lard, or olive-oil ; to which
it is ufual to add t:ie dried juice of the euphorbium ; as,
however, it is ever defnable to avoid unneceffary compli-
cation in the remedieD we prefcribe, by wliich our effects arc
rendered more certain, and the indu&ions more eafy and clear,
fo we propofed to try this medicine by itfeSf, to afcertain
its precife cffefls ; and being mixed with olive-oil, it was
applied to the flcin of the leg of the horfe : no diftinct
vefication of the part followed, but it produced a con-
iiderable heat, and formed a brown fcab, with very little dif-
cjtarge of ferum ; but, on the contrary, was particularly drr
ai)d irritating to the horfe. We have fince omitted it in the
blifter, and, v/e beUeve, without the fmalleft detriment to
its operation ; for the cantharides, when they aft properly,
and are not applied too ftrong, produce a plentiful veficaticn,
and a copious difcharge of thick ferum, almoft of the con.
fiftcnce of honey.

We have found alfo the pyro-ligneous acid, or the ac'd
obtained by the diftillation of wood, in clofe veftels, and
properly concentrated, a cutaneous irritant, of veiy ufeful
qualities. After the. fkin has been fimply wetted with it,
it flightly inflames it ; and the cuticle, after two or three
days, comes away dry, bringing with it any fonlnefs of the
(kin, for the removal of which it is moft 'particularly fervice-
able.

We have known fome, from motives of economy, omit
the cantharides in their blifter, and ufe, inftead of it, vitriolic
acid. It, in general, as far as we have feen, forms a dry,
black fcab, and is by no means fo agreeable in its effects as
the former.

+ 1 It

B L I

It is a common habit with farriers praflifing medicine,
to mix corrofive fiiblimate with their bhfter ; and, where it
may be defirable to dellroy the fliin, this niould be ufed,
biit not otherwife ; for it is no vclicatory, but a mod violent
caullic, foon dcftroying any hving matter with which it comes
in contacl ; and we have fecn, fn,m the ignorant ufe of it, the
moll deplorable efFefts.byitsbringing- ofTextenfive floughings
of the Ikin, and even penetrating to the parts bcjicath, and fo
injuring them, as ever after to render the horfc unfervice-
able.

Tliere is an effeft produced by the cantharides on the
fliin of the liorfe, which, as far as we know, has not
met with much attention ; though it is very remarkable,
and not analogous to its efl'cfts on the human Ikin: it is that
prodigious thickening of the integuments, after tiie opera-
tion of the bliller, which fometimes does not fubfide for
many weeks, being a great defightment : a bliller, therefore,
if one could be devifed not producing thefe cffccls, would
be a defirable thing in the veterinary Pharmacopeia. This
effeft, we fhould, however, remark, is not conftant.

BLITAS, IvAS, in Geography, a cluftcr of fmall iflands
in Nicaragua lake, in Spanifii North America.

BLITH. See Blyth.

BLITHE, a river of England, which runs into the
Trent, 4 miles N. E. of Litchfield.

BLITUM, from BXviTov, abj'uienclum, ft only to he thronun
away, in Bolnny. Lin. Gen. n. 14. .Schreb. iS. JufT.
86. Chenopodio-Morus, Boerh. Morocarpus, Rupp.
Eng. Elite. Fr. Blete. Clafs and Order, Mov.andna di-
gymn. Nat. Ord. Hnloraceic. AtripUces, Juff. Gen. Char.
Cal. perianth three-parted, fpreading, permanent ; div^-
fions ovate, equal, two more gaping than the other. Cor,
rone. Stam. filaments ietaceous, longer than the calyx,
within the middle divifion, ereft ; anther twin. Pill, germ
ovate, acuminate ; ilyles two, ereft, gaping, the length
of the ftamen ; ftigmas fimplc. Pec. capi'ule very thin, ra-
ther the crull of the feed, ovate, a little compreffcd, con-
tained within the calyx now become a berry. Seed fingle,
globular, comprefied, the fize of a capfule.

Elf. Char. Cal. trifiJ. Pet. none. Seed one, with a
berried calyx.

Species I. B. capitatum, berry-headed draw-berry blite,
Lin. Spec. 6. Reich. 11. Hall. helv. n, 1571. Morocar-
pus capitatus. Scop. Carn. n. 3. Atriplex. Bauh. pin. 119.
n. 7. Prodr. 5S. n. 2. Ger. emac. 326. n. 8. Park. 748.
f. 1. Mor. hill. 3. 606. f. ^. t. J2. f. II. Rail hill. 197.
B. ^, 7. " Heads fpiked terminal." An annual plant, with
kaves refembling thofe of Spinach, and ftalk rifing, in gar-
dens, about 2^ feet high ; but in a wild ilate, upright and
only about a foot high ; flowers on the upper part ifluing in
fmall heads at every joint, and terminated by a duller of the
fame ; when the flowers are pall, thefe heads fwcll to the
fize of wood-flrawben-ies, and when ripe have the fame ap-
pearance, full of a purple juice, which llains the hands, and
formerly much ufed in cookery, for colouring puddings, &c.
feed black when ripe : commonly called llrawberry blite,
ftrawbeny fpinach, or bloody fpinach, and, by fome, berry-
bearing orach. A native of Swiflcrland, the Grifons,
Auftria, the Tyrol, Spain, and Portugal ; cultivated by Par-
kinl'on, in 1633. 2. B. •vtrgatum, flender-branched llraw-
berry blite. Lin. fpec. 7. Re'ich. 12. Gniel. fib. 3. 16.
Atriplex. Bauh. pin. 1 19. n. 6. Mor. t. 32. f. 10. Raii
hifl. 197. n. 6. " Heads fcattcred, lateral." Seldom grow-
ing more than one foot high, with fmaller ka\e3 than the
former ; flowers produced from the axils, almoft the whole
length of the llalk ; fmall, and collected into little heads,
fmaller than the firll, and not fo deeply coloured, but of the
fame fltape. A native of the fouth of France, Spain; Italy,

BIO

and Tartaiy. 3. B. tatarkum. Mill. Dlft. n.-^, B. fra-
giferum maximum polyfpermum. Amm. ruth.- " Leaves
triangular, (harply toothed ; heads fimplc, lateral." Rifing
near three feet liigh ; flowers axillary, in fmall heads ; fl-uits
of the fame fliape and colour with thofe of the firll, but
fmaller; differing from it in the fliape and indentures of the
leaves ; and in having leaves placed between the fruits the
whole lengtii of the iiallc, not terminated by heads, as the
firll, but having leaves above the heads. Probably a variety
of the fecond fort. The feeds were fent to Mr. Miller by
Dr. Amman, profcflor of botany at I'eterlburgh. 4. B.
chenopodio'ules. Linn. Syll. Reich. 12. M-iiit. 170. "Heads
in whorls, juicelefs." A low plant, refembling cheiiopodium.
A native of Tartary ; now in Sweden. Probably only a
variety ; and in reality the four forts feem to be but
one.

Propagat'wn and ddlitrc. All are annual plants, which
drop tlieir feeds, that will produce plentifully the following
fpring ; or if the feeds of anyone of them be fown in March
or April, upon a bed of common earth, in an open fituation,
the plants will come up in a mouth or fix weeks, and re-
maining in the fame place, will require no other care befides
being" kept from weeds, and thinned out to the dillance of
fix or eight inches apart; and in July the plants will begiii
to fliew their berries, which will make a pretty appearance.
By many they are tranfplanted into the borders of the flower
garden, and by others planted in pots, fo as to be ready tor
removal into the court-yard, or for being placed upon low~
walls for ornament. When thefe plants are defigned to be
removed, they fliould be tranfplanted before they fiioot up
their flower-ilems, for they will not bear tranfpiantiiig after-
wards ; and when planted in pots, they mull be v,-atercd ia
dry weather ; and, as the flower-ilems advance, they fliould
be fupported by flicks. Martyn.

Blitum. See Achyranthes, Amaranthus, Che-
NopoDiuM, and Gunnera.

BLOATED ^;?/X, or herring, in our Statutes, are thofe.
which are half dried. Vide Stat. ann. 18 Car. XL c. 2.

Bloated herrings are made by ileeping them in a peculiar -
brine, and tlien hanging them in a chimney to dry.

BLOATING, in Medicine. See Leucoph legmatia,
and CEdema.

BLOCH, Mark Eleazar, in Biography, a Jewifh phy.
fician at Berlin, and a celebrated ichthyologill, was born at
Anfpach in Franconia. His parents were in a condition fo
obfcure and dellitute, that they were fcarcely able to main-
tain him during his infancy, and much lefs to procure for him.
any fuitable means of education. At the age of 19 he un-
derllood neither German nor Latin ; and as he had read only
a few Rabbinical books, he fpoks a kind of Franconiari
gibberilh, intermixed with the Jewifli jargon. About this
time, however, he was taken into the houfe of a furgeon atr>
Hamburgh, who was a Jew, and employed by him in the in-
flrudlion of his children ; and in this fitir-ition he acquired a
competent knowledge of the German language. The fav-
ings of his fcanty falary enabled him to procure affillance in
the lludy of Latin. Having alio gained fome knowledge of
furgery, he repaired to Berlin, where his relations live'd, with
a view of profecuting the rtudy of anatomy. After llruggling
with various difficulties, he was admitted as d^-ftor in the uni-
verfity of Franckfort, and returned to Berlin for the exercifc
of his profeflion. Here he became acquainted with M.,
Martini, who recommended him to be clefted a member of
the Society of the Friends of Nature. In order to promote
theobjedls of this iiiftitution, he undertook a natural hillory
of the murxna, a fifli caught, as it was fuppofed, only in the
lakes of Pomerania. He alfo began to form a cabinet of
natural hiftory ; and having made a confiderable coUeftion

of

B L O

B L O

of aquatic ammals from all parts of tlie globe, he dctemiined
to write a natural hiftoiy of fifhes ; and in this dtfign he was
encouraged and aided by obtaining pofleffion of the original
MSS. of father Plurnitr, who had made three voyages to
America, and brought with him many objefts highly intercft-
ing to the natural hiftorian. M. Bloch firll publiflied, in
German, four numbers of an " Economical Natural Hiftory
of Fi!he5, particularly thole in the ftates of Pruffia, with
figures from original drawings;" Berlin, 1781 and 17S2,
large 4to. In the following years appeared an "Economi-
cal Natural Hiftory of the Fifhes of Germany," in 3 volumes,
confifting of 108 plates, and including the three numbers al-
ready mentioned. He afterwards pubhfhed, in 9 volumes,
*' The Natural Hiftoi-y of foreign Fiflies ;" fo that his whole
•work was comprL-hended in 12 volumes, and contained 432
plates. The lall appeared in 1795. He a!fo, at his own
cxpence, procured a French tranflation of his work, by
C. Laveaux, then at Berlin, which he publiflied under the
title of " Hiftoire general et particuliere des Poiflbns," Ber-
lin, 1785^1788, in 6 vols, folio, with 216 plates. In order
to defray the cxpence of this v.'ork, his only fon, a young
man dillinguifhed by his talents, undertook a tour through
France and England for the purpofe of procuring fubfcrip-
tions ; and in the profecution of his journey died at Paris,
in 17S7. This lofs, and the embarraffment of his circum-
ftances, preyed upon the fpirits of this ingenious naturalilf,
and funk him into the deepell affliclion. However, he flill
continued to employ himfelf in his favourite work, the hiftory
of fifties, and having completed it, undertook a journey to Pa-
ris. He died at Carlfbad in Bohemia, Auguft 6th 1799. Be-
fides the above voluminous works, Mr. Bloch publifhed
many memoirs on fubiccts of natural hiftory, in the tranf-
adlions of different focieties. That on the murxna, in the
Memoirs of the Friends of Nature, has been already men-
tioned ; he alfo communicated, in the fame Memoirs, " Ob-
fervations on the regular deprefiions in vitriform ftones ;"
" On the worms in the inteftines and lungs of birds ;" "An
Eftay towards the natural hiftory "f the worms which live in
other animals ;" " On worms of the bladder ;" " Defcrip-
tion of the buftard, and fome kinds of birds found in
marflies ;" " On the oil of herrings ;" " On the vulgar opi-
nion that the organ of generatian in the ray and ihark is
double ;" " On the myxina glutinofa of Linnxus," &c.

BLOCK, Daniel, an eminent portrait-painter, was born
at Stettin in Pomerania, in 15S0, and educated for his pro-
feflion under Jacob Scherer. As a painter of portraits, he
gained great reputation, and had the honour of painting the
portraits of Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, and of Guftavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden. His merit recommended him
to the prince of Mecklenburg, in whofe fervice he was re-
taiiied for 44 years, and for whom he painted the portraits
of his whole family, at full length, as large as life, and in the
antique habit. By the agreeable manner of his colouring,
and the eafy attitudes of his figures, he obtained fo much
employment, as to enable him, before the decline of his life,
to amafs a large fortune ; of which, however," he was unfor-
tunately deprived by a plundering party, preferving, with
great difficulty, his own life. He died in 166 1. Pil-
kington.

Block, Jacob Roger, was born at Gouda, where he ac-
quired the art of painting, particularly in reference to per-
fpeftive and architecture, which he principally cultivated.
Having fpent feveral years in Italy, where he imbibed that
tafte of grandeur and elegance in his compofitions, by which
he was advanced in the public efteem above all his contem-
poraries, he returned to his own country, and was appointed
itate-painter to the archduke Leopold, whom he attended in
all his campaigns ; but whilft. he was palling a fraall rivulet,

over a bridge of planks to view the fortifications of St,
Vinox in Flanders, his horfe flipped, and he was unfor-
tunately drowned. Whilft; he lived at Gouda, he was vifited
by Reubens, who, having examined his works, tefl;ified to
his honour, that he had not feen any painter in the Nether-
lands, who could Hand in competition with him for the fab-
jefts he painted. The time of his birth and death are not
afccrtained. Pilkington.

Block, Benjamin, fon of Daniel Block, was born at
Lubeck in 1631, and, with a view of improving him.felf in
colouring and defign, refided for fome time at Rome, Venice,
and Florence. Having thus acquired a good tafte, and a
pltafing tone of colouring, he was introduced to the court of
Saxony, where he painted feveral portraits of the eleftor and
prime nobility ; and he alfo painted feveral altar-pieces for
the churches and convents of Hungary, which are much com-
mended. His capital performance is the portrait cf Kircher
the Jefuit, which, even at Rome, was exceedingly admired.
The time of his death is not afcertained. Pilkington.

Block is ufed lor a piece of marble as it comes out of the
quarry, before it has aflumed any form from the hand of a
workman.

Block, in the Mechanic Arts, a large piece of folid wood,
whereon to faften work, or to faftiion it ; ftrength and lia-
bility being the requifite properties.

In this fenfe we fay a chopping block ; a fugar-finer's
block ; a fmith's block, on which his anvil is faftened ; an
executioner's block, on which the criminal's head is laid to
be ftrnck oiF.

Block, Mounting. See Anabathra.

Bloci:, among Cutters of JVooJ, is a form made of pear-
tree, box, or other hard and clofe grained wood, free from
knots, on which they cut their figures in relievo, with knives,
chiffeh, &c. I'he like are in ule for card-making ; and from
the fame firft arofe the modern art of printing. Phil. Tranf.
N°3io. P.2J98.

Block, among Bowlers, the mark which is aimed at, being
a fmall-lized bowl laid on the green for this purpofe ; it is
called alfo \.\\cja:h.

Block, in Falconry, denotes the perch whereon a bird of
prey is kept. This is to be covered with cloth.

Block JJland, in Geography, called by the Indians
" Manilfes," lies about 21 miles S.S.W. of Newport, in
Newport county, and ftate of Rhode ifland. It was creeled
into a townfhip, named " New Shoreham," in 1672. This
illand is 46 miles in length, and its extreme breadth is 38
miles. It has 6S2 inhabitants, including 47 flaves. It is
famous for cattle and fheep, butter and cheefe ; and round its
coafts are caught confiderable quantities of cod-fi(h. The
fouthern part of it is in N. lat. 41° 8'.

Block, in Naval ArchitcSme, denotes an eight fquare, or
round part below the heeling of the main and fore top-
mafts.

Blocks are Ihort pieces laid under a maft to laife it from
the ground.

Blocks are alfo pieces of wood belonging to (hips, in
which the (hivers, or iheaves, of pulhes are placed, and v.here-
in the running ropes go. Accordingly they polfefs the pro-
perties and powers oi puUies, and they have from one to
eight (heaves. The blocks in general ufe are the fingle
block, the double block, the treble block, and the four-fold
block ; but when heavy weights or bodies are to be raifed or
moved, blocks with a greater number of (heaves are applied,
the increafing power being as two to one for every Iheave
moving with the object. See Pulley.

Blocks diftering from the common (hape are the bee-block,

tlie check-block, the long-tackle-block, the main-fneet-block,

the monkey-block, the niiie-pin-block, the rack-block, the

4 I a (hoe.

B L O

(hoe-block, the niouldcr-block, the fider-block, the fnatch-
'bloc-k, the ftrap-bound-block, the viol-block, and the warp-
ing-biock. The prmcipal parts of blocks are their (he)ls,
fhcavcs, and pins, which are of various Irzes and powers, ac-
cording to the effect which they are to pruducL". The di-
ir.enfions of the (hells, and the thickncfs and number of th.e
/heaves, are proportioned to the fize of the ropes working in
them, and the powers required. The (heaves turn abreaftof
cacli other in the (liell, on one axis or pin, or one above an-
other, on fcparate pins. Tlic (hell is made of elm or adi, and
hollowed between the cheeks, with one or more (lieave-holes
to receive the (heave or (heaves. On the ontfide of the
checks of blocks that are to be (trapped, one fcore is cut
towards tlie ends, in which part of the drap is buried ;
if they are double -ftrapped, they have two fcores. A
hole is bored through the centre to admit the pin ; which,
pafling through both (uicsof the (hell, forms the axis for the
(lieavcs. The (heave is a folid cylindrical wheel, and round
its circumference is a groove, one-third of the thicknefs of
the {lieave deep, in which the rope works. It is commonly
made of lignum vits ; but for laborious purpofes, it is coaked
}n the middle with metal, or elfe made of caft metal ; if the
flieave is iron, it is coaked with brafs, and if of brafs, w ith the
hardeft bell-metal. The hole in the centre is foinewhat larger
than the pin. The [nn is made of lignum vitx, cocus, green-
heart, which is a wood imported from the Welt Indies, or
iron, and it is the axis on which the (lieaves turn.

The proportions for linglc, double, treble, fourfold blocks
are as follow ; viz. the length is eight times the breadth of
the fheayc-hole, which is one-fixteenth of au inch more than
the thicknefs of the flieave ; and this is one-tenth more than
the diameter of the rope for which it is intended, and the dia*
meter of the (heave is five times the thicknefs. The breadth
of the block is fix times the thicknefs of the (heave, and the
thicknefs about one half the length. Flat thin blocks are
three-eighths of the length thick ; but all blocks, having
more than one (heave, arc increafed in thicknefs more than
in the above proportion by the additional number of (lieave-
holes, and middle-parts or partitions ; the thicknefs of each
partition being one-fixth lefs than the breadth of the (lieave-
hole. Thefe dimenfions are variable, according to the ufes
for which blocks are intended. Very large and four-fold
blocks are formed of feparate pieces, as the cheeks, partitions,
&c. ; and when thus made, they are denominated " made-
blocks." The (hells of blocks are firft fawed to their length,
breadth, and thicknefs; and the corners or angles are taken
o(F. The workman then gauges the fize of the (heave-hole
in the middle, one fixteenth larger than the thicknefs of the
flieave, and once the thicknefs longer than the diameter, for a
fingle-lheaved block. In blocks of two (heaves, the partition
is kept in the middle, and is one-fixth lefs than the ilieave-
hole ; each fheave-hole is gauged equally on each fide, and
fo for all blocks with a greater number of (lieaves. The
blocks are then jambed up edgeways with wedges in a clave,
and the (lieave-holes are made in this manner : the length and
breadth are firll gouged out, and holes are bored half way
tlirough the block, along the part gouged out, with an augre
of the fize of the (heave-hole ; then the fheave-hole is gouged
and bored on the oppofite fide in the fame manner, fo as to
meet the oppofite holes. Blocks from lo incius and up-
wards have one hole bored at each end, and cut through with
a chiffel ; and the wood is fawed out with a rib-faw. All
blocks have the (heave-holes cleared through by chiflfels, and
by burrs at the corners. Blocks that are lo have iron ftraps,
fliould have the ftrap fitted on before the wood is cut out of
the middle. The hole for the pin is bored through the mid-
dle of the block, one-tenth lefs than the diameter of the pin.
The outfidcs and edges of the (hell arc iipxt rounded oft by
8

B L O

the (lock-rnave, and neatly finil-ed by the fpokc-fhave. In
the royal navy, blocks are left thick upon the edges of the
cheeks; but in the nit rchant- (hips, the edges are fometimee
thinned off to a fmall fquare, and fometimes rounded off.
The fcores for the (traps are gouged out along the oulfdes
of the cheeks, and tapcrin depth from noth'iigal the pin to
half the thicknefs of the flrap at the ends of the block, for a
fingle fcore, and the fame on each fide of the pin for a double
fcore. The fcores are gouged down, acrofs the breait of
the block, to half the fize of the (^rap, in order to allow for
the fcrving. After the fcore is cut, the (heaves are fitted ;
they are one-tenth thicker than the diameter of the rope in-
tended for rniining on them, and five t:mes that thieknels in
diameter. The hole for the pin fiionld be bored through the
centre by a bitt fixed in the mandrel of a turning lathe, or
with a (lock and bitt, and rea'iied with an augre one fix-
teenth larger than the di;imeter of the pin, that it may eafily
turn ; they are then put in a lathe and turned fmooth, and
the outer circumference hollowtd one-third of its thicknefs,
that the rope may embuice it clofely. The diameter of the
pin is the thicknefs of the (licave, and is turned in a lathe, ex-
cept its head, which is left eight fquare, to prevent its turn-
ing in the block, and is driven throngh the holts in the block
and (heaves. After the (heaves are fitted, the infide of the
flieave hole, at the arfe of the block, is gouged hollow, to ad-
mit the rope, and correfpond with the flieave ; and a fmull
neat chamfer is taken oft the edges.

Blocks, Bee, are made of elm, in length feven-ninths
the length of the bee, in depth two inches tor every foot of
length, and in th.ickuefs feven-eighths of the depth. A
block of this kind is trimmed Iquare, chamfered on the out-
fide edges, and fitted with a fheave in one end ; and in the
other end is cut a hole, to be fitted with a fheave, in cafe
the other iliould fail. The (heave-hoIc is -^ths of the length of
the block, and ^Jtli the length of the (heave-hole in breadth,
and half the length of the fheave-hole within the end. Bee-
blocks are bolted to the outer ends of bowfprits, under the
bees, and the bolts ferve like the axis or pin for the (lieavcs
to work upon ; the fore-top-ma(t ftay reeves through the
fheave-hole at the fore-ma(t end of the ftarboard bee-block,
and the forc-top-maft preventer, or fpring-ftay, through the
(heave -hole at the after-end of the lai board bee-block.

Blocks, Brail, in rigging the mizen-yard, are ftrapt
together in one ftrap, and lie over the yard, and ftize toge-
ther underneath ; the throat-blocks next the cleats to the
ma(t; the middle-blocks in the middle between the throat-
block and peek ; the peek-blocks about three or four feet
within the cleats at the peek.

Blocks, Bunt-l'ine, are lafhed in rigging the lower-yarns
hke the leech-lir.e blocks in the middle bet.veen them and the
flings of the yard. Thefe, in rigging the top-fail yards,
are fpliced round the (trap of the top-fail-tye-block upon the
yard.

Block, Cat, is employed to draw the anchor up at the
cat-head. See Cat-heads.

Blocks, C/jcr/J, or half-blocks, are made of elm-plank; the
length being twice and a half the depth of the top-mail head ;
the breadth is feven-eighths of the depth of the top maft
head, and the thicknefs half that depth. The depth of each,
tenon, and thicknefs of the cheek, when the flicave-holc is
c'.;t, is each three-eighths of the whole thicknefs, fo that
the remaining two-eighths are the (heave-hole. The three
tenons are each two inches fquare, one in the middle, a:id,
one at each end ; and ti:e length of the holes is more than
the breadth of the block, by the thicknefs of the flieave.
The back of the block is divided into three parts, and one-
third on each fide is bearded down to one-third the thick-
nefs of the cheek ou each edge. Pins of iron arc made for

fallen-

I

B L O

'aflciilng t'ncm to the top-mail head, and for dir/ability
the flieave-holes are coppered. Cheek-biocks are bolted to
the th«-art-fhip fides of top-maft heads, clofe up under the
cap , the bolts ferve as the pin or axis for the flieaves to
work on ; the jib-ftay and haiiards, and fore-top-m?.ft llav?,
fail-ftay, ar;d hahards reeve through the cheek-blocks at the
fore-topmaiShead, r.nd the main-topmaft-ftay fail hahards,
av.d middlc-ftay fail-ftay, and haliards reeve through the
cheek-blc^ks, at the mahi-topmall-head.

Blocks, due-gnrnt/, ferve to draw the ch;es, or lower
corners of the courfcs up to tlie yards, and are fallened to
the clues of thofe fails. In rigginir the lower-yards, thefe
laHi through the eyes upon the yard ; the blocks hanging
underneath, four feet without the middle ckats on each
fide. See ChEW-gamet.

Bloci;- Clue-line, in rigging the sprit-fail yard, are (trap-
ped with two eyes, and are lalhed through thofe eyes round
the yard, three feet without the flings ; the lafliing to be
upon the yard. In rigging the fprit-fail top-fail yard, thcfe
blocks are ftrapped with two eyes, and are laflted i]u-ov;gh
thofe eyes round the vard, about two feet without the flings.
The clue-line blocks, in rigging the top-fail yards, are llrapt
with two ladling eyes, and lalh upon the yard three feet
v.-ithcut the flings ; the blocks hanging underneath the yard,
through which the clue-line reeves, and is fl;rapt with a
knot, and leads down upon the deck. In rigging the top-
gsllant yards, thefe blocks are ftrapt with two laihing eyes,
and lafh upon the yard three feet without the flings. The
blocks hang under the yard, through which is reeved the
clue-hne, which is ftopt with a knot. The leading-part
leads down the tr.aft, ar.d into the lower flirouds. Some
floops and Lght-rigged veflels have no clue-line blocks ; they
lou-er the yard.

Blocks, D, are lumps of onk in the fhape of the letter D,
from twelve to fixteen inches long, and eight or ten inches
wide. They are thirded and bearded on the back, and
the edges beaded. A flieave-hole is cut through the middle
fere and aft. It is bolted to the fiiip's fide, in the channels,
to reeve the hfts, &c.

Blocks. Detp-J'ea-l'me, are the fame as a wooden fnatch-
block (which fee,) only fmaller ; generally from nine to
eleven inches l<?ng.

Block, Derrick, in rigging the mizen-yard, is ftrapt with
eyes, that go round the yard, and la(h underneath, between
the flings and the outer yard-arm or peek ; the other block
is crofsfcizcd into the fl:rap, has an eye fpliced in each
end, and lies upon the mizen cap, and feizes or hangs through
the eyes under the cap, or upon the upper fide of it.

Block, Fifl}, is hung in a notch at the end of the davit,
and ferves to haul up the flukes of the anchor to the Ihip's
bow.

Blocks, Girt-Une, in rigging the fore-maft, and main and
mizen malls, arc laflied round the ma.l-head, above the flop
of the cap, one to hang on each fide. The girt-lines that
»eeve through them lead down upon deck, for hoilling the
rigging-tops, and crofs-trees, and the perfons employed to.
place the rigging over the mad-head.

Blocks, Leech-line, in rigging the lower yards, are
haflitd round the yaid, and through the eye of the ftrap, ten
feet within the cleats on each yard-arm ; the blocks hang on
the fore part of the yard.

Blocks, Lift, in rigging the lower yard?, arc fpliced
into the ftrap of the topfail-iheet blocks ; the lifts reeve
through the block in the fpan round the maft-head, between
that and the top-maft, then lead down abreaft the fhronds,
and reeve through a block faftcned to the fide, and are there
belayed. In rigging the topfail -yards, the lift-blocks are
ftrapt with an eye to the fide of the yard -arm. The lift

B L O

reeves through the lower (heave in the fifter-block in the
topmaft-flirouds, and through the block on the yard-arm.
The ftanding part hooks to a becket round the topmaft-cap,
and the leading part leads down the fide of the maft, and
belays to the dead-eyes in the lower (hrouds.

Block, Long-tackle, refembles two fingle-blccks joined
together endways, one being two-thirds Icfs than the other.
The (hell is made of a(h or elm, two-thirds longer than the
proportion for a fingle block. Thefe blocks are ufed for
tackles, and are made according to the fize of the rope, as
other fingle blocks. They are ufed in the Royal Navy and
Eaft India fervice as yard-tackles; but in the merchant fer-
vice as loading tackles.

Blocks, Made, have the (hell formed of feveral pieces of
elm-plank, fuited to the thicknefs of the cheeks, flieave-holes,
and middle parts, and are ftrongly bolted together with three
bolts at each end, driven through and clenched on a ring at
the points. Thefe blocks have (latter cheeks and more fquare
edges than other treble and fourfold blocks. Of this fcrt are
large treble and four-fold blocks, for heaving down (hips, or
other heavy purchafes. Smaller made blocks, of modern in-
vention, are formed of two pieces, joining in the middle ; the
pin working on patent rollers, let into the infide of the
cheeks, which are bolted or rivetted together at the ends.
Thefe blocks are thought too complex for the Royal Navy,
and are not fo eafily remedied in cafe of failure.

Block, Main-Jhcet, is ufed for the (heet-tackle of the
mainfail-booms of fmall vefftls, and is fingle or double ;
the (heet or fall being always belayed round the pin. The
(hell is made ofa(h oreltn, one half longer than the propor-
tion for fingle or double blocks ; the additional length is
tapered, and a hole bored through between the (heaves and
the end, to admit the ftrap ; the length of the pin is the length
of the block, and is finiiiar to a belaying pin, for which
purpofe it is fometimes ufed.

Blocks, Monkey, are fometimes ufed on the lower yards
of fmall merchant (liips, to lead (into the maft or down upon
deck) the running rigging belonging to the fails. The (hells
are made of afli or elm ; fome are only fmall fingle blocks,
attached by a ftrap and iron fv.'ivel to iron-ftraps that em-
brace and nail to the yard, the block turning to lead the
fmall running-ropes in any direclion ;-others are nearly eight-
Iquare, with a roller working in the middle, the fame as a
(heave, with a wooden faddle beneath, to fit and nail to
the yard.

Blocks, Nine-pin, are ufed to lead the running-ropes in
an horizontal diredion^ The (hells, made of a(h or elm, re-
femble the form of a nine-pin, though fiaUed on the fides ;
their lengths are generally confined to the place in which
they are fixed, and. this is for the moft part under the crofs-
picces of the fore-caftle and quarter-deck bitts. The
breadth of the block, (heave, &c. is governed by the rope,
and tapers at the ends to three-eighths of the breadth of the
middle ; the pin at each end, ferving as a vertical axis, is two-
thirds of the bignefs of the end. 1'iie thickntfs is five-eighths
of the breadth. Thefe blocks may be turned in a lathe, and
flatted afterwards with a fpoke-(have.

Block, Quarter, Ree Thici ami tliin I^lock.
Blocks, Racl, are a range of fmall fingle blocks, made
from one folid, by the fame proportions as fingle blocks,
with ends, in form of a dove's tail, for the lafliing, by which
they are (aliened athwart the bowfprit, to lead in the run-
ning ropes. They are feldom ufed.

Blocks, Shoe, are two fingle blocks, cut in a folid piece».
tranfverfely to each other. They ftrve for legs and fails of
the bunt-hues, but are feldom ufed.

Block, Shouliler, is a large fingle block, left nearly
ft^uarc at the lower end, or arfe of the block, andcutfloping

B L O

in ttie'direftion of the fheave. Shoulder-blocks are ufeJ on
the lower yard-arms, to lead in the tnpfaiUfhcets ; and, on
the topfaii-yard';, to lead in the topgallant-flieets ; and by
means of the (lionlder, are kept upright, and prevent the
flicets from jamhiiig between the block ai:d the yard : they
arc alfo ufed at the outer end of the boomkins, to lead in
the fore-tacks.

Blocks, Slfiti; arc made of nfli, fimilar to two fmgle
blocks, and are turned out of a folid piece, about twenty
inches long, one above the other ; between the blocks is a
feorc for a middle feizing : a round head is turned at each
end, and hollowed underneath, to contain the cnd-leizings ;
along the fides, through which the pins are driven, is a
groove, large enough to receive part of the topmaft-fliroud,
in which it is fci/.ed. In thefe blucks reeve the lifts, and
reef-tackle-pendents, of the topfail-y; rds.

Blocks, S/.ti-Zi/ie, in rigging the lower-yards, are ftrapt
with a fliort lafliing-eye, that feizes to the fpan of the quar-
ter-blocks underneath the yard.

Blocks, Snaic/), are proportioned by the rope, as a fm-
gle block, leaving twice the length for the fcore and lafliing ;
they taper from the fheave to the lafliing end, to half the
breadth and tliickuefs at the flieave ; one fide of the (hell is
cut acrofs above the fheave, large enough to admit the rope
or fall. In the Rnyal Navy, fnatch-blocks are iron-bound,
terminating at the fmall end with a fwivelhook, or an eye,
large enough to receive feveral turns of lafhing ; that part
of the flrap, over the notch in the fide, hfts up with a
hinge, and is confined down, when the rope is in the block,
by a fmall iron hook, or latch, that hooks in the eye of a
toggle-bolt, and that fecures the upper end of the ftrap ;
the hinged part of the llrap goes over the bolt, with a hule
in the end ; the llrap is let into the block its thicknefs, and
is confined by the pin and nails ; they are ufed for heavy
purchafes, and where a warp, or hawfer, is brought to
the capllern. Snatch-blocks, not iron-bound, have a
large hole bored through the tapering end of the (hell, for
the lafhing. They ace ufed for the main and fore fliect
blocks of fquare-rigged veffels.

Block, Spring, a new kind of block, invented by Fran-
cis Hopkinfon, efq. of Philadelphia, and defigned to alTill a
vtffel in faihng, by increafing the afting fpring of her rig-
ging. It is propofed to apply it to all fuch parts of the
'''gg'"g.a5 will admit of it with fafety and convenience, and
where its operation will be moft advantageous ; but parti-
cularly to the (heet ropes, and, if practicable, to the dead-
eyes, in lieu of what are called the chains. A (fee Pla/e of
Ship) is a block made in the ufual manner, having a ring,
or eye, B, at one end. C, is a fpiral fpring, linked at one
end to the hook DE, and at the other to the ring F, which
is to be annexed by a ftaple to the timber-head, or by fome
other means to the place where it is to be applied. The
fpring C mud be of well-tempered fteel, and proportioned
in llrength to the fervice it is to perform. Within the ca-
vity or pipe, formed by the fpiral fpring, there mud be a
chain of fuitable ftrength, called a check-chain (reprefented
feparate at G), connedcd by the hnks to the hook DE
and ring F. W.hcn tlie fpring is not in aftion, this chain is
flack ; but when the fpiral fpring is extended, by the force
of the wind, as far as it can be without danger of injury,
the check-chain muft then begin to bear, to prevent its
farther extenfion, and, if Ilrong enough, will be an etfedual
fecurity againft failure.

Fig. 2. reprcfents part of the gun-wale of a (loop, with
the fpring-blocks in aftion, one of them hooked to a ftnple
in the timber-head, and the other to the corner of the jib.

The inventor of this machine apprehends, that a vcffcl
thus fmuifhed will be lefs liable to heel ; and that (he will

B L O

receive the impulfes of the wind to Letter advantage, and
fail with a more lively and equable motion than if rigged in
the common away. Tranfaftions of the American Philo-
fophical Society, vol. III. art. 40.

Blocks, S/rnp-iounJ, are fingle blocks, with a flioulder
left on each fide, at the upper part, to admit the (trap
through, a little above the pin. Thefe blocks are ufed at
the clues of the fquare-fails, for the clue-garnets or clue-
lines, and under the yards ; the fliouider prtl'erves the ftrap
from chafing.

Block, Thicl ar.d thin, or Qunrlcr, is a double block,
with one (heave thicker than the other, and is ufed to lead
down the topfail-flieets and clue-lines. In the merchant
fervice they are ufed fuigle, thick and thin. In rigging the
lower yards, they are 111 apt with a long and (liort leg, with
a lalhing eye fpliced in the ends, and lafli to the yard within
the cleats, in the middle of the yard, the block hanging
downwards. The long leg comes up the aft-fide, and
meets the Ihort leg on tlie fore-fide, and there lafhes through
the eyes. Although thefe are ufed for the topfail-lheets,
and intended for the clue-lines, a fingle block would be
cheaper and better ; as the thin (heave is feldom ufed for
the clue-line, it being found rather to impede than to faci-
litate. Small (hips, in the merchant fervice, have a double
block lafhcd in the middle of the yard, as the quarter-block,
through which the fheets reeve, and lead down on oppofite
fides. Large fliips, in the merchant fervice, have a fingle
block ladled on each fide of the middle of the yard, and the
(heets reeve on their refpetlive fides, and lead down by the
mad. A quaiter-block, in rigging the crofsjack-yard, is
ftrapt with a double ftrap, with an eye in each of the four
ends, and is lalhed upon the yard in the middle between the
cleats.

Block, Top. See Top-Rope,

Blocks, Top-Gallant-Sheet, in rigging topfail yards, are
ftrapt with two lafhing-eyes, and lafh upon the yard, clofe
within the cluc-line-blocks on each fide.

Blocks, Topfail-Shect, in rigging the lower yards, arc
put over the yard-arms, ftrapt with an eye of the ftze of the
yard-arm.

Blocks, Tricing, for the yard-tackles, are ftrapped with
a fhort la(hir.g-eye, that feizes round the yard about one
third of the length within the arm-cleats; the blocks hanging
under the yard.

Blocks, Tye, in rigging the topfail-yards, Ia(h at the
topmad-head clofe up to the rigging, under the collar of
the day, as the lower ones ; and the blocks on the yards
ladi under the fore-part of the yard, as the lower ones, and
reeve with a double tye, in large diips, and with a fingle
tye, like the lower, in fmall ones. The ftanding-parts of
the double tyes clinch round the maft-head, t'hen reeve
through the double block upon the yard, and up again, and
reeve through the block on each fide of the mad-head.
The blocks are then fpliced in their lower ends, and
connefted by their haiiards to a fingle block, that is ftrapt
with a long ftrap, with a hock antl thimble, that hooks
to a fwivcl-eye-boh in the channel on each fide ; the leading-
part comes in through a block laflied -on each fide ; the
forcmoft ones abaft the forecallle, and the after ones on the
quarter-deck.

Block, Foyol or Viol, is a large fingle-dieaved block;
the_ length is ten times the thicknefs of the (heave-hole,
which is three-eighths more than the thicknefs of the flreave;
the thicknefs of the Iheave is one tenth more than the dia-
meter of the viol, and ihe diameter of the fheave is feven
times the thicknefs. The breadth of the block lliould be
eight times the thicknefs of the dieave, and the thicknefs
two-fevenths of the length. This block is double fcored,

the

B L O

the fheave is coakcd with brafs, and the pin is iron, and
nearly as thick as the (lieave. It is iif^;d in heaving up the
anchor. The viol palTes round the jter-capftcrn, and
through tht block, which is lafhed to the main-mall ; and
the cable is faftened in a temporary manner to the viol in
feveral places. It is fcldom ufed except in the largefl Ihips
of the Royal Navy.

Block, Warpin^^, is made of elm or adi board, fliaped
like the body of a bellows ; the fides or cheeks are 81 inches
broad in the middle, and tapered to 2 inches broad at the
ends; the back, or longed cheek, is 16 inches long, and
fths of an inch thick, with a hole bored through the upper
end to receive a leathein ftrap ; the upper cheek is i 2 inches
long, and gtlis of an inch thick, except the lovvtr end, which
is If inch thick, and forms the fheave-hole. The flieave is i^-
inch thick, and yi inches in diameter, made of lignum vits,
coaked with brais ; it is let into the cheeks one eighth of
an inch, to prevent the yarn from getting between the
iheave and the cheeks. The cheeks are faltened together
at the lower end with three fcrews and nuts ; and the pin,
which is iron, is feven inches long, dnven through the mid-
dle of the block, with a fhoulder on the upper fide, and
clinched at the point on the lower fide of the (liell ; the
upper part of the pin is tapered fmall, and a wooden handle
livettcd upon it. The cheeks have a broad chamfer round
the outer edges ; the infide edges, and infide of the block
above the flieave, are lined with thin iron neatly fcrewed on,
to prevent the block from wearing. This block is finiihed
in a neater manner than blocks in general, and is feldom
ufed but by rope-makers, to warp off the yarn into hauls
for tarring.

Blocks, Jingle, double, or trchle, in Rope-makhig, are
ftrapped with a hook and thimble, and reeved with a rope,,
called the tackle-fall, which is ufed to ilretch the yarn to its
full extent, before the prefs is put on, by a capftern, or
crab, at the lower end of the rope-walk. The fall is then
belayed, until every yarn is hove tiirough the ftrands and
brought down, fo that the rope may not exceed the circum-
feience inten.led. For other blocks, fee Bulls-i°).'<-j, Dead-
fi'Cj-, and EuPHROES. See Plates of Ships.

Blocks, Strapping of. A feventeen-inch block has a
five-inch rope ftrap, and every inch in length above or under,
to a twelve-inch block, has half an inch more or lefs fized
rope allowed for the ftrap ; a i i-inch block lias a 3-inch
ftrap; a 10 and a 9-inch block, 2i inches ; an S and 7-inch
block, 2 inches ; a 6-inch block, 1 4- inch; a 5-inch block,
I inch ; and a 4-inch block, ^ of an inch. The fcore round
iron-bou'id blocks is taken out to the fize of the iron ilrap,
fufficient to bury it, except at the pin. Iron ftraps are
from 5: of an inch to i inch in thicknefs, and nearly three
times the thicknefs in width ; the thicknefs of thefe ftionld
corrrfpond to the ftrain which they are to reiift. The cat-
block muft have a ftrong ftrap and large iron hook, which
hooks the ring of the anchor in catting. The top block
fhould have a ftout iron binding, with a ftroug ftiort hook.
Top tackle blocks have ftrong iron bindings, the upper
block with a tackle-lvook, and the lower block with a fvvivel-
hook. The fwivel, in iron-bou-.id blocks, ferves to turn it
eccafionally, in order to untwift the parts of the rope that
form the tackle, as the mechanical power is greatly reduced
thereby.

In rigging, the whole length of all the different fizes of
block-ftiapping is got upon the ftietch, and hove out tight
for worming and ferving ; it is then wormed and ferved, and
cut into ftiorter lengths, to fuit tlie different blocks. The
ftrapping of jeer-blocks is wormed, parcelled, and ferved ;
ftrapping of 4 inches diameter, and above, is wormed and
ferved ; and all under four inches is only ferved with fpun yarn ;

6

B L O

except the fprit-fail brace, bunt-line, and leech line blocks,
that are laflied under the tops, which are only ferved with
fpun-yarn over the fplice, and the tail left half a fathom iu
length. Jeer-blocks are double fcored, and the double and tre-
ble blocks are ftrapped with a double ftrap, thus : it is fpliced
together at the ends, and, when doubled, to be the fize of
the block and circumference of the yard ; it is then doubled,
and the block feized in the bght, with a long and ftiort
leg ; the fplice lying in the arfe of the block.

The fcores of all blocks are to be well-tarred, and the pin
and ftieave examined, before the ftrap is put on. The block
is fet well into the ftrap with wedges, thus : the four parts
are frapped together with rope-yarn under the block, with
a chock between, and the wedges are fet between the brcafl:
of the block and chock. Then the ftrap is r.ippered, with
a heaver, round the block ; the wedges, chock, and frap-
ping, taken away, and the block hung upon the ftake-hcad,
or poft, and the ftrap well feized together, clofe under the
block, with nine under and eight riding turns, every turn
ftrained tight round by a heaver, and croffcd each way with
two turns.

Jeer-blocks, for the maft-heads, are ftrapped with long
eyes, to receive many turns of the lafiiing ; and the block is
feized into the ftrap as before, as are all feizing blocks, in
proportion to their fizes. The ftraps are cut agreeable to
the following table.

A TABLE of the Dimenfions of Straps for Laftiing antt
Seizing Blocks.

Size of the
Blucks.

Ciicumf. of
the Straps.

Length

of the Straps.

Inciies.

Inches.

Feet.

Inches.

17

5

7

4

16

4i

6

S

15

4

6

0

14

5i

5

4

13

4

1 1

12

?A

4

6

IJ

3

4

2

10

3

3

9

9

2i

3

4

S

2i

5

0

7

2t

2

9

6

0

2

6

5

li

I

9

4

of

I

6

Blocks, ftrapped with eyes or tliimbles fpliced in the ends,
are feized tight into the bight, and tiie legs left long enough
to lafti through the eyes, round a maft, yard, &c. as the lop-
fail ciue-hnes, clue-garnets, ar.d fpritfail cluc-lincs, &c.

Blocks ftrapped with a thimble, or hook and thimble,
have the ftrap fpliced together at the ends. The block is
fixed in one bight, for the fphce to lay on the arfe of the
block, and the thimble in the other bight ; the feizing is
pat on, between the block and thimble, with eight under
and fix riding turns, according to the fiz<; of the block,
each turn ftrained tight by a heaver ; the turns double
crofted, and the end ftopt with a wall-knot crowned.

Blocks (1 rapped with double tails, are fixed in the ftrap,.
fimilar to blocks with eye-ftraps ; and thofe with a fingle
tail are Iphced in, and ferved with fpun yanroverthe fplice.

Girtline blocks are ftrapped in the houfe, and tlie girt-
lines reeved. See Elements and Practice cf Rigging, £;c..
vol. i.. '

Ei-OCKv

B L O

BLOCK-/7n//-7?;W, in Sea-Language, denotes the fitliation
of a tackle, when the effect is Uellioycd by the blocks meet-
ing together.

Block-w^-!;/, is a name fomctimes given in our laws to
logwooil. 2; Ehz. c. 9.

BLOCKADE, in the Military /Jrl, fignifies the method
adopted in cutting off all communication between a town
which it is intended to reduce by famine, and the neighbour-
ing country. It is effected by polling troops on all the paf-
fages and avenues leading to and from the place ; preventing
anv fnpplies of provifions or reinforcements from being
thrown in bv the enemy, and thus, in courfe of time, flarv-
ing the garrifon into a furrcnder. A blockade difiers from
a regidar fiege, inafmuch as there are no trenches or attacks.
Blockades are principally formed by the cavalry. The term
probably owes its origin to the German expreflion hlochus,
or lloclhatife, a hiihuark, or houfe of ivood ; or to tlie Gaulifh
biociil, a liirrifiifie ; though others derive it from the Latin
taailare, figiiifying tojlop a pcija^e.

The word is fometimes ufed in fpcnking of the com-
mencement of a fiege, when detachments are fent forward
to ftize the piincipal avenues, and occupy the ground on
which the befiegers intend to fix their quarters.

To ra'if a blockade is to force the troops, which keep the
place blocked up, from their polls.

The only method of reducing fortreiTes in the more re-
mote ages of antiquity, was by blockade. The town was
completely invefled by a wall of mafonry conftrufted around
it, and furnidicd at certain dillances with redoubts and
places of arms ; or the bcliegers contented themfelves in
furrounding it with a deep ditch and intrcnchment, well
pallifadcd, to prevent the garrifon from making forties, or
any fuccour or provifions from being introduced by the ad-
verfary without. In this fituation the invelling, army tran-
quilly waited until famine brought about what at that pe-
riod art and force were unable to accomplifli. , From hence
proceeds the extreme length of thofe lieges chiefly fpoken
of in the more early pages of profane hiftoi-y ; that of
Troy, which laded ten years ; that of Azotus, by Pfamme-
tiehus, which continued twenty-nine ; and that of Babylon,
by Cyrus, who, according to Xenophon (Cyrop. ), would
have been much longer detained before its walls, if a lucky
furprize hid not_ rendered him mailer of the place. See
Babylon.

The ancient Greeks, on forefceing that the fiege of a
fortrefs would prove a work of time, often changed it into
a blockade. They environed the town with a foffe and
rampart againft the attempts of the gai-rifon, and drew an-
other ditch round it towards the country, to oppofe fuch
troops as might advance to fuccour the place. The bcfieg-
ers eilablidied their camp between the two lines, and thus,
in procefs of time, llarved their adverfaries into a capitulation.

In the iiillsnce of the blockade of Platvea, carried on
during the third year of the Peluponnefian war, the works
condrutled by the Lacedemonians were of a more complex
nature. They confided in two walls of folid mafonry, built
at the diftance of fixteen feet from each other, of a reafon-
able thicknefs, and covered in at top by a kind of roof or
platform. The intervening fpace formed a I'uite of apait-
ments, in which the troopF, dedined to carry on the block-
ade, were lodged during the winter. Each of thefe walls
was fnrnifhed with a parapet and battlements, and, at the
dillance of every ten of thefe lad, was ereiled a turret with
a flat roof, of the breadth of the whole terrace, and capable
of making refi dance at the fame time againft an enemy from
within or without. The only method of communication be-
tween the diffeient chambers, was by travelling thefe towers.

B L O

The approach to the walls on either fide was defended
by a deep ditch, the earth of which had been ufed in con-
ftruding the rampart. During the night, guards were
kept on the ftveial towers; centinels were eitablifhed at
different pods round the whole extent of the circumvallation ;
and a corps de rcferve of three hundred men remained
always under arms, ready to march on the firft fignal where-
evcr there might be occafion for their fervices.

This is the mofl: remarkable in (lance of a blockade we
meet with in the Grecian hiftory. Notwithllanding, how-
ever, all the precautions above related, and the feeming
impradieability of flight, the i.trepid garrifon of Plstsa
found means to elude the vigilance of their bcllegers, and,
by a well concerted fortie, about one half of them effected
an efcape acrofs the formidable works of the Peloponne-
{iaiis, and reached Athens in fafety. The event is related
in a very interelling and circumftantial manner by Thucydi-
des in his fecond book. The Romans firft imitated, and
finally furpaffed the Greeks in this as well as in every other
branch of fcientific warfare. As early as the fiege of Agri-
gentum, in the firft Punic war, we find them dividing their
forces, and forming two encampments to block up the place
on both fides ; connefting thefe encampments by lines of
circumvallation, and braving within thefe defences every
effort made to relieve the town by the enemy from without.
But thefe lines were equally badlv guarded againft a fortie
with thofe of Platsa. The Carthaginian garrifon, imitat-
ing the former example, fucceeded in a like manner in forc-
ing a paiTage by night over the intrenchmcnts of the be-
fiegers. (Polyb. lib. i. c. 17.) The famous blockade of
Lilybxum, during the fame war, which iafted for nearly
ten years, is a remarkable inftance of Roman perfeverancc
in military undertakings, although, the place being open to
receiving fupplies from the fca, the affiduity of the bcficgers
was not attended with fuch complete iuccefs as it deferved.
By degrees, however, the Romans improved in the art of
reducing fortreffes by blockade. Syracufe, which the abi-
lities of Archimedes rendered impregnable by open force, had
been thus reduced by Marcellus, but for the treachery of a
townfman, which in a great mealure abridged his labour ;
and all the military fcience and manoeuvre of the formidable
Hannibal was in vain exerted f >r ti'-e prelervation of Capua,
during the twelve months the fiege lalled. (Polyb. Livy.)

The works conftruftcd by .Scipio iEmilianus for tlie rc-
duiflion of Numantia, exceeded in magnitude all which had
been raifed on any former occafion, and befides furpufling
them in llrength, embraced a much greater extent of ground,
than the intrenchmcnts of the Lacedemonians before Pla-
ta;a. Numantia was eighty-four lladia, or nearly a league
in circuit. Scipio, after having inveftcd it, drew a circle
inclofing twice the area of the circumference of the town ;
and this work being compkated, he threw up his hues of
circumvallation and contravallalioii at a reafonable diftance
from each other. Each of thefe fortifications was compofed
of a rampart eight feet thick, and ten in height, defended
by fliarp pallifadcs, and flanked with turrets at a hundred
feet ciillant from each other. We can hardly comprehend
or credit the immenfe labour of fuch a circumvallation ; but
nothing can be better attedcd than thefe fads. (Appian.
deBell. Hifp.) ^

Among the numerous exploits of Cornelius Sylla, the
blockade of Pra^nefte, during his civil war with the party of
Marius in Italy, is not to be reckoned the lead. The in-
flexible afliduity, with which it was kept up during a long
period of time, and prefcrved unbroken againfl the bloody
and almoft unintermitted attacks of feveral hoftile annies,
fuperior in number to his own, conveys the higheft idea of

his

B L O

B L O

his martial abilities. It was, however, tinder the aufpices
of Julius Csfar, that this branch of military fcience attained
itshightfl point of perfeftion among the Romans; and whe-
ther we confult the annals of ancient or modern warfare,
we find no example to equal the talents dlfplayed by that
unrivalled jreneral, in the formation of his immenfe works
before Alcfi?, and at Dyrrhachium, which have defervedly
excited the vi'onder and admiration of pollerity.

In the former inftance, he urdcrtook the ardnovis taflc of
blocking up an arr.".y of So,ooo Gauls, doubly fuperior in
number to his own forces, commanded by a general of the
greateil milltar)' knowledge. Vercingetorix, and entrenched
under the walls of a fortified city, iiruated itfelf on an al-
moll inacceffible mountain. Cxfar's line of contravallation,
extending nearly eleven miles, was compofed of a ditch
fifteen feet broad, and as many deep, defended by a ram-
part twelve feet in heignt, furnilhed with a parapet, and
fortified all round by turrets, at the regular diftance of
eighty feet. The front of the rampart, looking towards the
town, was protefted by a pallifade of fharp Hakes and boughs
of trees, interlaced, cut iharp, and pointing outwards. Be-
fore the foiTe were planted five different rows of cippi, or
large branches (harptned at the ends, fixed in trenches five
feet in depth, and fo ftrongly interwoven, as not to be re-
moved or plucked up, witln ut infinite labour. In front of
thefe were arranged eight other rows of lUia, or pits, three
feet deep, difpofed in the form of a quincunx, ftuck thick
with ftrong (harp ftakes, and covered over with bufhes to
deceive the enemy. Before thefe again were fcattered up
and down numerous ftakes of a foot in length, fattened in
the earth, and headed with barbed iron hooks, called by the
Romans Jlhnuli. Farther advanced than thefe laft, at 400
paces dillance from the rampart, Casfar drew another ditch,
twenty feet broad and deep, to keep the garrifon at a dif-
tance, and prevent them from annoying his foldiers while
employed on the contravallation. Not contented with fuch
immenfe labours, he conllrufted the like fortifications to-
wards the country, for the purpofe of fruflrating any at-
tempts the expefted Gaulifh fuccours might make for the
relief of their befieged countrymen. Between the lines, a
fpace of nearly half a mile in breadth, was difpofed the invert-
ing army, and their principal encampment was pitched in
the moft convenient fituation for communicating with every
part of the circumvaliation. Behind thefe defences did
Caefar bailie the utmoft efforts of a new army of 350,000
Gauls, fent to extricate Vercingetorix ; and, after a fcries of
the moll brilliant atchievements ever recorded, obliged the
tovn of Alefia, and the aiTny inclofcd witliin its walls, to
I'urrender at difcretion. Ccef. de Bel. Gal. lib. vii.

No Icfs famous in hiftory, though not produftive of
equal fuccefs, were the celebrated lines at Dyrrhachium,
carried over a trad of fifteen miles, and within which,
Csefar flattered himfelf, to furround, and compel to a capi-
tulation, an army exceeding his own in ftrength, and com-
manded by the great Pompey. But in this inllance the
tonqueror of Gaul had to do with Romans, and the enter-
prize proved too vaft for his ftrength. Pompey, by a fudden
and well-direfted effort, broke through the blockade, when
It was on the very point of being completed ; and had he
brilkly followed up the advantage, might, according to
Csfar's own confcffion, have converted his adverfaries' hopes
of fuccefs into total defeat. Csef. de Bel. Civ. lib. iii.

The works thrown up by Auguftus at Perufia, and the
entrenchments within, which Stilico at Fosfula enclofed, and
deftroyed an inundation of 400.000 Goths, are proofs that
in after ages the Romans retained a remembrance of the
means by which Caefar had triumphed at Alefia, and were
Vol. IV.

ftill capable of praftifing them fortlie extermination of their
numerous enemies. App. de Bel. Civ. Zozim. Profp.
Marc. Chron.

In modern warfare, there are two ways of forming
blockades. The firft, and moft firople, confiils in fortifying
and occupying different pofitions at a fmall diftance from the
place, principally upon all the highways and avenues, and
along the banks of rivers, both above and below the town.
Thefe pofts are guarded by dillinft corps of infantry and
cavalry, who take care to keep up an eafy communica-
tion with one another, and to prevent all fupplies of pro-
vilions from being conveyed into the foitrefs blockaded.
This, by degrees, reduces the garrifon to great nectfTity,
caufes them Co defert, and frequently occafions fuch mur-
murings and mutinies among the inhabitants, as to force thj
governor to a premature capitulation. Such a fpecies <^f
blockade is extremely tedious ; for it is almoft impoflible to
prevent provifions from being fometimcs introduced in linall
quantities, and reviving the courage and patience of the
befieged. But it is of advantage, after having thus for
fome time inverted a town at a diflance, to convert the
operations into a regular fiege, as the garrifon are then ge-
nerally unprovided with the materials neceffary for protra(ft*
ing tlicir defence.

The fecond kind of blockade is much clofer and nearer.
It is effefted by means of lines of circumvaliation and con-
travallation, between which the army lies encamped, and is
adopted only in particular cafes. If, for example, after the
lofs of a battle, the enemy fhould retire into a town which is
well known not to be over-abundantly fupplied with provi-
fions, and, it is prefumed, muft be obliged to furrendcr in a
few days. But as it would be the height of imprudence
in a beaten general to expofe the remains of his army to cer-
tain ruin, by fhutting them up in a place fo ill-circumftanced,
(a fault, neverthelefs, committed by marfhal Wurmfer in
1796, after the lufs of the battles of BafTano and Roveredo,
and which all the importance attached by the imperialifts
to the prefervation of Mantua can hardly excule,) this kind
of blockade is feldom put in praftice.

It is i-arely a fortrefs is reduced to furrender, by the mere
procefs of blockading ; but fieges are often greatly accele-
rated by it, on account of that fcarcity of neceftaiies, whether
for the fubfiftence or defence of the garrifon, which, in a
greater or lefs degree, is its never failing confequence.

The blocking up of towns by corps principally of cavalry,
ported in the neighbouring places of ftrength, is more con-
venient than any other method ; becaule the troops form-
ing the inveftiture, are not fo fatigued as they would be in
occupying open pofitions, and unfortified villages. In the
latter cafe, it is neceffary to be always on the alert, not only
againft the garrifon, who, by a well direfted fortie, may-
interrupt the communication, and cut off fome ot the de-
tachments ; but, againft the enemy from without, who, by
fecretly marching a ftrong force, may furprize, beat up one
of the bcfieger's quarters, and introduce a convoy, or rein-
forcement into the town. On account of thefe incon-
veniencies, it is efTentially neceffary to afccrtain the quan-
tity of provifions and ftores contained in the magazines of
a place blockaded, in order to compute how long it may
hold out, and to have an army in the field fufficiencly ftrong
to protect and cover the blockade. For, fliould the enemy
fucceedinfurprifingand cutting off one detachment, its defeat
might occifion the fucceflive deftrudion, orcaptureof all the
otheis, before they could affemble in competent force to
repulfe the coUefted attacks of an enterprizing and vigorous
adverfary. (Feuquieres, Mem. chap. l(Kxii. p. 377.)

It is chiefly, lince the conteit for the imperial fucceflion
4 K in

B L O

in I "40, that the expedient of blockaJing fortrefles of the
moll iuimidable llreiii^tti, haj been preferred to the lefs
teJions, biU.more dell ruclive plan of carrying them by a
regular fiege. In the latter cafe, every outwork belonging
to the place mnft be taken, or battered down inch by inch,
with an inirncnre lofs to tlie belitging array, and fre-
fjuently at the liazard of its being fo reduced in numbers,
as not to be capable of undertaking any aftion of moment
during the reinanider of the campaign. On the other hand,
p. blockade, well kept up, mull, foontr or later, reduce the
^arrilon to the lail extremity for want of provifions, or
ammunition. The number of troops engaged in the enter-
prize is comparatively fmall. The lofs of men, neceffarily
coniiderable in the frequent and bloody attacks on the for-
tifications of a well defended place, is entirely avoided ;
and the major part of an army is ilill at liberty to con-
tinue its advances into the heart of the enemy's country,
and to follow up a previous fuccefs, without the tedious
procefs of ilopping to reduce every ftvong hold in its way.
The inconveniences which might otherwife r^fult from leav-
ing a hoftile garrifon in tlie rear, are, in a great mealure,
obviated, if the blockade is kept up with proper alacrity
and clofenefs. The enemy within tlie town have enough
to do to attend to procuring provifions for themfelve?,
without troubling the convoys deftiaed for the main army
oftiieir befiegers ; and by this means, the operations of a
campaign, fo far from being retarded, arc frequently ac-
celerated, by having recourfe to a blockade. Had the
allied powers, inllecd of mouldering away their armies
before the walls of Mayence and Valenciennes, and after-
wards completing their ruin, by the impotent and bloody
attempts upon Dunkirk ard Maubeuge, adopted this
method during the Summer of the year 1793, tliey pof-
fjbly might have made greater impreffion on the territory
of the French republic. Had, on the contrary, the generals
Jourdan and Pichegru endeavoured, in 1794, to carry
Landrecy, V'altiicieniies, Coiide, and Luxembourg, by
regular fieges, inftead of contenting themlelves with leav-
ing thofe fortrcfles in a ftate of blockade, it is very
evident that the fucceflcs of the French, during the lat-
ter part of that memorable campaign, would have been
by no means fo rapid and important as they adually
turned out.

When the direftory formed, in 1796, the refolution of
invading Germany, their armies made no attempt to attack in
front the towns of Maiiheim, or Mayence, but proceeded to
cfTeft a palfage over the Rhine, at a diilance from thofe
places ; and, inftead of cunfuming their time, and wafting
their tlrength in long and tedioiii lieges, they advanced
rapidly into Suabia and Franc. >nia. They wifhed to be-
come matters of Ehrenbreilltein, Mayence, Manheim, and
"iiiiiplhurg, by the fame method by which, in 1794, they
had recovered the towns of Landrecy, Quefnoy, Valen-
ciennes, and Conde, and to atchieve, by a lingle manoeuvre,
that which would, in former times, have been the refult of
two or three fucceffive campaigns. Purluant to this fyftem,
they forbore to undertake any liege, and ventured to leave
fortified places at a great dillancc behind them. Their
jrenerals forefiw, that by carrying th« war away from thefe
towps, they fhoidd, by force, detach the enemy from them ;
and judged that if they could obtain and keep pofTefflon of
the country lituated beyond thefe fortreffes, they would, m
the end, fall into their hands perfectly undamaged, and
without having coft them either blood or treafure. They
propofed to acquire the fortiiied places, by making them-
felves matlcrs of tke furiounding country ; as formerly
'hefc countries were fecured by getftng poflellion of the

B L O

fortified places. Thefe had hitherto been the meanj of
conqueft ; they now meant to make them its refult. This
method, by which the French acquired fo great a number
of fortified towns in 1794, met not with the fame furcefs
in 1796; but their failure did not arife from the ftrong
places which they left behind them ; and as thefe had not
impeded the progrcfs of Jourdan and Moreau, neither were
they the caufes of their firlt difallers. If the troops of the
republic had been viftorious at Amberg, or at Wurtzburg,
the fortreffes of Ehrenbreitllein, Manheim, Mayence, and
Philiplburg, would, no doubt, have ultimately fallen, as Lux-
embonrg did in 1795. Hift. of the Camp, of 179'J, Lond.
1796, 8vo.

As a proof of the little danger attending this method of
carrying on war, we (hall only add, that the garrifons of
Philipfbourg and Mayence remained fo clofely blockaded
by a fmall part of the French forces, as not to be capable
of affording the archduke any effential afTiflance in cutting
off the retreat of the invaders, notwithftanding the rapid
and diforderly manner in which more particularly that of
Jourdan was condufted. During the fame year, Buona-
parte, although the reduction of Mantua was the principal
objeft of the campaign in Italy, did not for a moment dif-
continue his other operations in the field. Oa the con-
trary, this did not hinder him from canning his arms into
the middle flates of that beautitul country ; from laying*
Parma and Modena under contribution ; obliging the pope
and duke of Tufcany to agree to a neutrality ; forcing the
Englifh from Leghorn, and fighting the imperialills almoft
inceffantly, on every point of a very extended line, to the
deltruftiQU of no lefs than four of their armies fucceffivcly
detached againft him.

Notwithftanding the tardy proceedings of a blockade are
far from being congenial to French vivacity, yct,«where the
flrength, or peculiarly inaccelllble fituation of a fortrefs,
have precluded all hopes of fuccefs from a coup de main, they
have often had recourle to this means. That they are pof-
felTed of fufficient perfeverance on thefe occaiions, the three
blockades of Luxembourg, Mantua, and lihrenbreitftein, in
1795, 1796, and 1798, are convincing proofs.

The moit famous blockades which, during the laft cen-
tury, have diftinguilhed the military hiftory of Europe, are
the following : That of Prague by the Auftrians in 1742,
is renowned for the gallant defence made by the F'rcnch
forces under the marlhals Bellifle and Broglio, for the fpacc
of five months, during which time they were driven to the
laft necefTity for want of provilions ; and for the daring re-
treat by which the former of thefe generals preferred the
- remains of his army from falling into the hands of the
enemy. The late war lias produced fcveral remarkable
inftances. The two already mentioned of Luxembourg and
Ehrenbreitftein refleft equal honour on the befiegers, whom
no obftacle could deter from continuing, with invincible
patience, their plan of reduction ; and the gamfons, whofe
refiflance was in tlic higheft degree meritorious.

In 1796, public attention was every where engroffed by
the blockade of Mantua, which gave occafinn for the
utmoft exertion of that military talent by which the firft
conful of Francc«> has fo eminently diftinguifhed himfclf,
and for the veteran marfhal Wurmfer to add frelh laurels to
thofe he had already acquired, and draw even from his
conqueror a Mattering acknowledgment of the ability he had
difplayed in its defence. The different exploits of thefe
generals ; the entire deftruftion of four imperial armies, in
vain attempts to relieve the place ; the bloody battles of
Caftighone, Roveredo, Arcole, and Rivoli, the refult of
thofe attempts; acd the conqveft of all Italy by the

French,

B L O

French, the confequence of its fall, fccures to the blockade
of Mantua everlailing fame.

The conduft of general MafTena, when blocked up in
1800 within the walls of Genoa, may julUy be compared
with the moll glorious aftions of the war. Surrounded
on all fides by enemies ; cut off from every hope of fuccour
by land or fea, and almoft deilitute of provifions or ammuni-
tion, he maintained, for fixty days, a poft the Aullrians had
flattered tliemfelves to reduce by famine in fix ; dellroycd
immenfe numbers of them in his difl'erent attacks on their
pods ; and having defended the place to the lail extremity,
obtained a negociation (for jMafTena would not fuffer the
word capitulation to be infeited in the treaty), equally
honourable to himfelf, and advantageous to his country.
It was advantageous, inafmuch as it obliged the enemy to
divide and fcatter their forces, entangle themfelves among the
defiles of the Apennines, and, befidcs lofing a number of men
before Genoa, drew them to fuch a diilance from what the
French government intended to make the principal feat of
aftion during the campaign, as enabled the firft conful to pafs
the great St. Bernard unoppofed, occupy the plains of Pied-
mont, throw himfelf in the rear of general Melas, and,
by the battle of Marengo, extinguilh at once the hopes of
the Auftrians in Italy.

hL,OCK-l/attery, in the Military Art, denotes a wooden
battery on four wheels, moveable from place to place,
whereby to fire en barbe, or over the parapet ; fometimes
alfo ufed in galleries and cafemates, where room is
wanted.

BLOCK'iru/h, a term ufed in Heraldry, to exprefs a
bundle or bunch of knee-holm, or baftard myrtle, formerly
ufed by butchers to clean the furface of their chopping-
blocks, which fo^msapart of the armorial enCgus afligned to
the company of butchers of London.

'Q-LOCK.-carriage, in the Artillery, denotes a carriage ufed
for conveying mortars and their beds from one place to
another.

Bi.ocv.-houfe, in the I.Ttlitary Art, a kind of wooden fort
or battery, either mounted on rollers, or on a veflel, and
ferving either on the water, or in fome counter-fcarps and
counter-approaches. The name is fom«tiihes alfo given to
a brick or ftone fort, built on a bridge, or the brink of a
river, ferving not only for its defence, but for the command
of the river, both above and below. Such was that noted
block-houfe anciently on the bridge of Drefden,_fince demo-
kfhed on enlarging the bridge.

'B-Locviprinting. See Printing.

BLOCKING, in Middle Age I'/rilers, denotes a kind of
burial ufed for perfons dying excommunicated.

Blockings, circular, in ArchiteSure, are bafes to the
dome, reprefented in the Plate oi Archit. (title Bafdic) QQQj
which, by their apparent folidity, feem to fl:rengthen the
dome, and at the fame time taking from its height, add a
peculiar gracefulnefs to its appearance.

Blockings, yjacrc, are reprefented at S (title Bnjilic), in
Plate of Archit. Thefc, when enriched with bafe and cap,
obtain the appellation of pedestals.

BLOCKiNG-four/2'. See Course.

BLOCKLAND, Anthony de Montfort, in Bio-
graphy, a painter of hiftory and portrait, was born of a
noble family at Montfort in 1532, and acquired his art in
the fchool of Francis Floris, whofe manner he always fol-
lowed. By endeavouring principally to imitate the tafte of
the Roman fchool in delign and compofition, he became a
^iflinguifhed artift. He well underllood the principles of
perfpeftive, and he difpofed his figures with judgment and
accuracy. The ftyle of his colouring was agreeable, and

7

B L O

his pencil mellow. He defigned every objeft after nature,
and gave to the contours of his figures confiderable elegance.
His genius was beft adapted to grand compofitions, of
which he defigned many, both at Delft and Utrecht. Se-
veral of his works, particularly a Venus, and the hidory of
Jofcph and liis brethren, arc in fo good a talte, that they
feem to have been painted by a mafter educated in the
fchool of Florence. Pilkington.

BLOCKLEY, in Geography, a towndiip in Philadelphia,
in the county of Pennfylvania.

BLOCKY, among 'Je-xellers, a name given to a diamond
when its fides are too upright, by its table and colledl being
larger than they ought to be.

BLOEMAERT, Abraham, in Biography, \.\\e moft dii-
tinguifhed of a family of Dutch artiils, was the fon of Cor-
nelius, an architect;, engineer, and excellent flatuary of Dor-
drecht, who, during the troubles of the low countries, re-
moved to Utrecht. Pie was born at Gorcum in 1567 ; and re-
fided chiefly at Utrecht, where he probably died, A.D. 1647.
In his youth, he diligently copied the defigns of Francis
Floris ; but the excellence to which he attained was chiefly
owing to his own genius, which enabled him to acquire a
ityle of painting peculiar to hirnfelf. He painted hiftory
pieces, facred and profane, landfc.^pes, and animals ; but
though he pofTeireda facility of invention, and a free-fpirited
touch, and well underllood the chiaro-fcuro. Iris tafte and
ftyle are faid to have too much of the Flcmifh, and he is
charged with having indulged his own fancy, and deviating
from nature in l;is figures. The hiftorical pidure of the
death of Niobe and her children, gained him great reputa-
tion ; the figures in the compofition being as large as life.
Some flight, mafterly etchings are attributed to this artift,
which are executed in a manner imitating drawings with a
pen, from his own compofitions. He alfo publiihed fome
fpirited chiaro-fcuros, the outlines of which, contrary to
the ufual cuftom, were not cut on blocks of wood, but
etched upon copper. Of this kind are two large prints by
him, reprefenting Mofes and Aaron, both fitting figures.
He left four fons, all artifts. His fon Frederic worked
chiefly from his father's defigns, and imitated his ftyle in
his etchings and chiaro-fcuros. He alfo, conjointly with
his father, made a large drawing book, confifting of figures,
animals, landfcap?s, &c. Henry and Adrian, were both
painters ; and they are alfo mentioned as engravers : the
moft eminent, as a painter, was the latter,

Cornelius, the moil diftiHguilhed as an engraver, was
Abraham's youngeft fon, and born at Utrecht in 1603.
Devoting himfelf wholly to the art of engraving, he firft
ftudied under Crifpin de Pafs, and then went to Rome,
where he died, at a very advanced age. The manner of
engraving adopted by this artift was original, and the
fource of that ftyle, in which the beft French mafters ex-
celled, or thofe of them who worked merely with the graver.
He covered the lights upon his diftances, and the other
parts of his plates which required tinting, with great care :
whereas, before his time, the lights on the diftant hills, trees,
building?, or figures, had been left quite clear ; and by fo
many white fpots, fcattered in various parts of the fame
defign, the harmony was deftroyed, the fubjeft confufed,
and the principal figures prevented from reheving with any
ftriking etfeft. By this judicious improvement, Bloemaert
gave to his prints a more clear and finifhed appearance, than
all the laboured iieatnefs even of Jerom Wierix had been
able to produce. He drew correAly ; but as he executed
entirely with the graver, the extremities of his figures are
heavy ; and his heads are not always beautiful or expreifive.
In the luechanical part of the work few tave excelled him,

/^K 2 either

B L O

either as to cleamefs, or freedom of execution. His great
fault, however, ii want of variety. Tlie naked parts of his
figures, the draperies, and the back ground, are equally
neat, and engraven precifely in the fame manner. Hence
the effeft is flat, and the flcih, for want of dilUndion, ap-
pear-: cold and filvery.

His works, which are numerous, are juflly held in high
e.11;nation, and cannot be ealily procured. The following
are particularly noticed, and the firll imprelTions of fome of
thf m are very rare : the " Chaftity of Jofeph," from Blan-
chart ; the ." Adoration of the Shepherds," from Raphael ;
the fame fubjeit from Pietro de Cortona ; the " Holy Fa-
mily" of tlie " Speaacles," as it is called, from Jofeph's
holding a pair of fpeftacles in his hand, from Annibale
Caracci ; another " Holy Family," from Parmegiano ; the
" Virgin and Child," the child fleeping, from Guido ;
" St. Luke painting the Virgin and Child," from Raphael ;
" St. Peter raifing Tabilha from the Dead," from Guer-
cino ; " St. Marguerita" leaning on a pedeftal, and fetting
her foot upon the dragon, after Annibale Caracci ; the
" Four Fathers of the Church," from his father A. Bloe-
macrt ; " Chnft appearing to St. Ignatius," from the
fame ; " Meleager prefenting the boar's head to Atalanta,"
from Rubens ; feveral " prints for a miflal," after Ciro
Ferri and others ; a fet of fmall prints of " RulUts, S:c."
from his father ; " Heads" from the fame ; &c. &c. Pil-
kington and Strutt.

BLOEMEN, John Francis Van, a painter of land-
fcapes, called by the Italians, from the delicate manner in
which he painted his diftances, " Horizonti," or " Orlzonti,"
was born at Antwerp in 1656 ; and as he ftudied at Rome,
and alway refided in fome part of Italy, he is generally
confidered as an Itahan artill. His works have been very
much admired in every part of Italy, and bought at very
high prices by the heft judges. His iirfl manner refembled
that of Vander Cable ; but he afterwards made nature his
model, and more particularly the views about Tivoli, the
fubjetls of many of his landfcapes, in which he repreients,
with extraordinary truth and beauty, the miftsarifmg from the
agitated furface of the river below. His pictures are gene-
rally well deligned, and well handled ; and thofe of his
bell time are now conlidered as an ornament to the moft
feleol cabinets in Europe. A very capital picture of this
excellent artift, in w-hich the figures were infcrtcd by Sebaf-
tian Conea, is in the colleftion of the earl of Moira. By
this artift we have five fmall etchings, probably done for
his amufement. They are " perfpeClive views," apparently
near Rome. Pilkington and Strutt.

Bloemen', PfiTER Van, brother of the preceding, was
born at Antwerp, .ind after living feveral years with his
brother at Rome, and ftudying the works of the greateft
mailers, returned to his native city, where, in 1699, he
was appointed director of the academy. The fubjecti of
his pitkures are the marchings of fquadrons of cav.di y, en-
campments, artillery, battles, Italian fairs, markets, andfelli-
vals, in which he manifefts correilnefs of defign and draw-
ing, and an elegance in the manner of dreffing liis figures.
His horfcs are defigned in an admirable llyle, and in his
battles they exhibit great fpirit, graceful attitudes, and an
fxpreffion full of life and nature. His landlcapts are en-
riched with elegant architefture, with baffo-rellevos, and
mutilated ilatues, in a noble tafte ; and they are rendered
the more agreeable by a good tone of colour, animals of
difltrent kinds, and excellent figures. His bcfl works are
admired in all parts of Europe, and afford high prices ; but
fome of them are too laboured, and lefs valuable. PiU
kiugtoD.

B L O

Bloemen, Ncrbt;rt Van, broti er of the preceding,
was born at Antwerp in 1672, and being allured by the
reputation of his brothers to vifit Italy, he tiiere devoted
alibis hours to lludy. He principally painted cunverfations
and portraits; but the colouring of his pictures is loo glaring,
and wants more truth and nature. Pilkington.

Blois, in Geography, lat. Blefs, a city of Fiance, was,
before the revolution, the capital of " Le Blalfois," the fee
of a blfhop, fuiFragan to the archbifhop of Paris, and for-
merly the refidence of the kings of France ; but is now the
capital of the department of the Loir and Cher, and divided
into call and wed Blois, the former containing 5400 inha-
bitants, and its canton 12,885, and the latter 7912, and
its canton 11,862: the whole ten itoiy comprehends 237!
kiliometres, and each canton has eight communes. Blois
is feated in a pleafant country, on a fmall eminence near the
river Loir, over which is a handfome ftone-bridge. The
callle is the principal ornament of the city, and has, on the
firll view, the appearance of two dillindl buildings, which
are joined by a paffage cut out of a rock. That part of the
callle, which was built by the duke of Orleans, inftead of
that which he demolilhed in 1632, is a fuperb, but un-
finilhcd edifice. The court before it, where the church of
St. Saviour is fituated, is very large, and was formerly ufed
for tournaments. The adjoining gardens are magnificent and
beautiful. On every gate of the city is exhibited an image
of the Virgin Mary, who is thought to have delivered the
inhabitants from the plague in 1631. In this caille, famous
as the birth-place of Louis XII., are (hewn the chambers
where the duke of Gulfe, and his brother the cardinal,
were murdered by order of Henry III., December 23, 1587.
The church of St. Solenne is the cathedral, which is a
beautiful ilruiflure. The front of the Jefults' college is
decorated witli the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders of
architedure. About three quarters of a mile from the
city, water in great abundance defcends tlirough the clefts
of 3 rock, in a large aqueduit, by which it is conveyed
to a refervoir near the walls, and it is then diftributed by-
leaden pipes to the feveral parts of the city. The trade of
Blois confills chiefly of wine and brandy ; though it has
manufaftures of fcrges and tlcken. Several kings have kept
their courts at Blois, and the French language Is fpoken in
the greatcll perfedlion by its inhabitants. N. lat. 47° 35'
20". E. long. 1° 20' 10".

Blois, Peter of, Pitrus Elefenfs, in Biogrnphv, an emi-
nent writer of the 12th century, was born about the year
1 1 io at Blois in France, whence he derived his name ; and as
his parents were opulent, he enjoyed all the neceffary means
of a learned education. In his youth he fludled in the uni-
verfity of Paris, where he manifefted a (Irong inchnation to
poetry, and in his more advanced life, he applied with pecu-
liar ardour to the lludy of rlietoric. At Bononia in Italy,
whither he removed from Pans, he acquired eminence by his
knowledge of the civil and canon laws ; and he appears alfo,
by his writluprs, to have cultivated an acquaintance with medi-
cine, and with various b anches of the mathematics. But
the principal objefl of his attction, and in which he is faid
to have particularly excelled, was theology, or the fcholaftic
theology of the times, which confilled in vain attempts to
prove and exp ain the numerous abfurd oplni ^ns, which pre-
vailed in the church, by the fiibtltties of Arlllotelian logic.
To him fome have alcribed the firll ufe of the term " tranfub-
ftantiation," which was foon after adopted in the church of
Rome. Being appointed preceptor to "VVilliam II. king of
Sicily, A.D. 1 167, he obtained thecuftody of the privy-feal,
and, next to the archbifhop of Palermo, the prime mlnifter,
he had the greateil influence in all affairs. "However, his

power

B L 0

B L O

power foon terminated ; for, upon the baniHiincnt of the
arclibifliop, A. D. 1168, he left the court of Sicily, and re-
turned into France. From France he was invited into Eng-
land, by Hcnr)'II. who employed him as his private fecre-
tar\', made him archdeacon of Bath, and gave him fome other
benefices. After havinsr fpent a few years at court, he con-
ceived a dif Juft at that mode of life, and retired into the fa-
mily of Ricliard, archbifhop of Canterbury, who made him
his chancellor, about A.D. 1176. After the death of this
prelate, A. D. 1 1R3, he afted as fccretary and chancellor to
archbiihop Baldwin, his fuccelTor ; and was deputed by him
on an emhafly to Rome, A.D. 11S7, in order to plead his
caufe before pope Urban III. in the famous controverfy be-
tween him and the rror;ks of Canterbury, about the church of
Hsckington. When Baldwin departed into the Holy Land,
A.D. 1 190, he was involved in various troubles in his old
age, the caufes of whxh are not diftinflly known, and died
about the end of the 12th century. From his works, which
may be juftly reckoned among the moll valuable monuments
of the age in which he flourilhed, and fome of which may even
now be read with profit, he appears to have been a man of
approved integrity and piety, as well as of a lively inventive
genius, and uncommon erudition. He is faid to have diftated
letters in Latin to three different fcribes, on different fub-
jefts, and to have written a letter in the fame language him-
fclf, at the fame tim-. His printed works confift of 183
letters, which he coUedled together at the defireof Henr)' II.;
of 65 fermons, delivered on various occafions ; and of 17
trails on different fubjedls ; " Opera P. Blefenf. Paris, edit.
A.D. 1667," fol.; and aftervvards printed in the Bibliotheca
Patrum, torn. 24. Cave Hill. Lit. vol. ii. p. 333. Henry's
Hill. vol. vi. p. 147, &c.

BLOKZYL, in Geography, a town and fort of Overyflel,
fituated at the mouth of the Steenwyk, or Old Aa, where it
enters the Zuyder fea, with a harbour capable of containing
200 vefTcls ; defended by fix baflions, and erefted by the
Dutch, at the commencement of their republic, to defend
them from the invafions of the Spaniards. N. lat. 52° 45'.
E.long. J°45',

BLOMARY, or Bloomarv, the firft forge in an iron-
work, through which the metal pafles after it is melted
out of the ore. (See Iron.) They are alfo called blomary-
h earths.

BLOMBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and county of Lippe, which obtained
its firfl privileges, in the beginning of the 14th century, from
count Simon I. ; 8 miles S.E. of Lcmgow.

BLOMESHOLM, a manor of Sweden, in the diftrift
of Bohus, about 3 Swcdifh miles from Stromftadt, in
which is a very ancient monument, confilling of large
ftones, fct up perpendicularly, and arranged in the form of
a (hip.

BLONAI, a barony and caflle of Swiflerland, near Vevay,
and about 1-5 mile from the lake of GeT^eva.

BLOND, Le, Christopher, in Biography, a painter,
•was born in 1670, but little noticed in the more early part of
his life. He became known at Rome in 17 16, and efta-
blifhtd his reputation in Italy, as a good painter of portrait in
miniature. At Amfterdam he diflinguifhed himfelt by paint-
ing fmall portraits, for bracelets, rings, ard fnuff-bn.tes, tirft
in water colours, with a very lively and natinal colouring, and
afterwards in oil. From the Low countries he came over to
England, and projefted a new manufaflory forimprefTing co-
lours on paper with copper-plates, which promiitd to be ad-
vantageous, but in the end proved detrimental to himfelf and
his aflociates, to which his own diifolute life and manners
-very much contributed. His fcheme was to copy the mod

capital piiflures in England, of the greateft mafters, To as to
give his prints the appearance of paintings irvoil. Many of
his prints were well executed, are ftiil extant, and are held in
eftimation. It is faid, however, that he was not the original
inventor of this method of managing colours ; but that he
took it from Lallm.an, and others, who, with equal capacities
and more difcreet conduft, had undertaken it before him, but
failed of fuccefs. Pilkington.

BLONDEL, David, a French proteAant minifter, emi-
nent for his acquaintance with ecclefiaftical and civil hiftor)-,
was a native of Chalons in Champagne, admitted miniiler in
1614, and fettled at Houdau near Paris. His firfl work in
favour of the Proteftants was printed at Sedan in 1615, ""der
the title of " Modefle Declaration, &c." or, " A Mo'deft
Declaration of the fincerity and truth of the reformed
churches in France ;" and intended as a reply to the in-
veftives of the party of the bifhop of Lu^on, afterwards car-
dinal Richelitu. This work eftablifhed his reputation among
the Protellants, and occafioned his being much employed in
their fynods. He was rot diflinguifhed as a preacher j and
his ftyle, as a writer, was perplexed, and encumbered with
parenthefes ; but his judgment was penetrating, his memory
tenacious, and his erudition extenfive. As an honorar\- pro-
fefTor, with a penfion, to which office he was appointed by the
fynod of Charentcn in 1645, he had opportunity to devote
his time to literature ; but though he undertook to refute
Baronius's annals, it dots not appear that he did much be-
fides writing a few notes in his own copy of the work. His
works were " Explications on the Eucharill ;" a treatife
concerning " The Primacy of the church ;" " Pfeudo-
Ifidorus et Turrianus vapulantes," againft the Decretal
epiflles ; a " Treatife on the Sibyls," difproving the truth
of their oracles, and refuting the ancient praftice of praying
for the dead ; and a treatife " De Epifcopis et Prefbyteris."
By his treatife againfl the ilory of pope Joan, which he re-
jected as fabulous, he offended feme Proteftants, who did not
wifh to be deprived of this topic of fatire againft the Romifh
church. Among Blondel's works on civil hiftory, we may
reckon his " Genealogy of the kings of France againfl
ChifBet," written in Latin, and printed at Amfterdam in
1654, 2 vols. fol. which is faid to have been undertaken at the
defire of chancellor Seguier ; and his piece " De formula
regnante Chrifto." On the death of Gerard Voffius, he
was chofen to fucceed himasprofefforof hiftorv in the fchola
iliuftris of Amfterdam, and took poffeflion of his office in
1650 ; but his affiduity in the profecution of his fludies, and
chantje of air, occafioned the lofs of his fight, after which, it
is faid, that he didlated his work intitled '' Genealosry, Sic."
At Amfterdam his fituation was rendered uneafy by a
charge of Arminianifm ; and he died in 165c. Gen.
Dift.

Blondel, Francis, an eminent mathematician and mili-
tary engineer, was born in 1617, at Ribemont in Picardy.
In 1652, he was tvavelling governor to the young count of
Briemie, and after a tour of three years he pubiifhed an ac-
count of it in Latin. After his return he was advanced to
confiderable polls both in the army and navy, and he was em-
ployed in various negotiations with foreign princes. In
1659, being deputed by Louis XIV. as his envoy-extraor-
dinary to Coiiftantinople, he vifited Egypt ; and at the ter-
mination of his embaffy, he was appointed counfellor of ftate,
tutor in mathematics and brllcslettres to the dauphin, and
one of the mathematical pr- fcffiyrs at the royal college. In
1665, he began to difplav his talents for arctate£lure,
when the court employed him to conilruft a bridge over the
Charente at the town of Saintes. In 1669, he became
member of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1670 he was

honoured

B L O

B L O

honoured with letters patent from the king for the fuper-
intendep'x of all the public works in Paris. To him were in-
truded the repair and decorations of the gates of St. An-
tony and St. Bernard ; and the gate of St. Denfe, one of the
moll finifhed pieces of French architeftiire, was defigned and
ereifted by himfelf. In the office of direftor and profeflbr
of the Academy of Architcfture, eftablifhed in 1671, he
gave " A Courle of Architeflure," which was pubUfhed in
large folio, in 1698, and which was long conlidered as a
ftandard book. In l^'S< ^^ prefented to the king his trea-
tifes " On the art of throwing bombs," printed in l6Byi
4to. and " Oii a new method of fortification," which pro-
cured for him the rank of mardial de camp. His other
works were " Notes on the architefture of Savot ;" the
•' Refolution of four principal problems of architefture,"
Paris, 1676, fol. ; " A Courfe of mathematics," Paris, 1683,
4to. ; the " Hiilory of the Roman calendar," Paris, 1682,
4to. ; and a " Comparifon between Pindar and Horace."
He alfo communicated fevtral ingenious pieces to the Royal
Academy of Sciences, which are inferted in their Memoires*
particularly for the year 1666. He died at Paris, Feb. I.
1686. Gen. Dift.

Bi-ONDEL, Francis, was admitted doflor in medicine at
Paris, the place of his birth, in 1632. As he had acquired
confiderable reputation as a (cholar, he was engaged, on the
death of Chartier, to aflift in completinghismagnificentedition
of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, three volumes ot
which were lelt uiifinilhed. He was anavowedopponent tothe
admidion of antimony, and of all chemical preparations, into
the practice of medicine, coinciding in that refpeft with his co-
temporary and coadjutor, Guy Patin. In 1658, he was made
dean of the faculty of medicine, which office he held the fol-
lowing year. In 1660, lie publifhed " Statuta facultatis
medicinx," Paris, izmo. ; and in 1665, an epillle to Alliot,
" De cura carcinomatis, abfque ferro et igne," 4to. Alliot
ufed for the purpofe a medicine prepared from the arfeniciim
rubrum> diflolved in aqua fortis, and precipitated with the
acetum faturni. The precipitate was then wafhed, by re-
peated affufions of warm water, and its caufticity further mi-
tigated by burning fpirits of wine, in which it was immerfed,
until the powder became perfeftly infipid. Blondel died
Sept, 5th, 1682. Haller. Bib. Chii-urg. et Med. Eloy Did.
Hiil.

Blondel, Francis, born at Liege in 1613, ftudied me-
dicine at Cologne, and was for fome time phyfician to the
eleilor of Treves. On the death of that prince, in 11^52, he
went to Aix, and was appointed phyfician and fuperintend-
ant of the baths in that city. In 1663, he publidied " Lettre
de Francis Blondel a Jaques Didier, touchant les eaux mine-
rales chaudes d'AiK, et de Borfct, et les cures qui fe font
faites par fon ufage," Erux. i2mo. j and in 167 1, " Ther-
marum, aquifgranenfuim, et porcetanarum defcriptio," which
was reprinted in 1688, in 410. with engi-avings, and confider-
able additions. He died in 1703, much regretted by the inha-
bitants of Aix, having, by his writings, fo recommended the
waters, as coiifiderably to increafe the refort of patients there.
Eloy. Did. Hift.

' Blondel, James Augustus, of aFrenchfamily, butborn
in England, and admitted licentiate of the college of phylicians
in London about the year 1720 ; publilhed, in 1727, " The
ilrength of imagination in pregnant women examined, and
the opinion that marks and deformities in children ariie from
thence, demonftrated to be a vulgar error," 121T10. Though
Dr. B. had not put his name to this work, yet his neighbour
and colleague, Dr.Turner, difcovering that he was the writer,
and confidering it as an attack upon what he bad faid on
the fubjeft, in the 12th chapter of his trcatife on the difcafes

of the {kin, in which he gives numerous inftancfs of marks
and deformities in the bodies of children, impreilcd on them
by the difturbed imaginations of the parents, thought him-
felf called upon to explain and to defend what he had there
advanced. He therefore, in an appendix to his trcatife on
gleets, publifhed the following year, gave fome additional
obfen.-ation3 on the fubjeft, in further proof of the influence
of the affeftions of the mother over the fa:tus in utero. To
this Dr. Blondel replied, in 1729, and with much humour, as
well as argument, (hewed the abfnrdity and fallacy of the
opinion maintained by his antagonift ; who, if he infifted on
his point, mull admit that animals, and even plants, are under
the influence of the fame affeftions ; their fcctufes being fre-
quently produced equally defeftive and monftrous as thofe of
the human fpecies. The anfwcr is entitled, <' The power of
the mother's imagination over the foetus examined, in anfwer
to Dr Daniel Turner's book, entitled, 'A Defence of the
1 2th chapter of his treatife, de movbis cutaneis." This drew
a more ferious reply from Dr. Turner, addrelTed immediately
to his opponent, under the title of " The force of the mo-
ther's imagination upon the fcctus in utcro ftill farther con-
fidered, in the way of a reply to Dr. Blondel's laft book, by,
8ic." 1730, 8vo. But though the doftor fupports himfelf
with the authority of Schenckius, Hildanns, Horftius, and
many other coUeftors of wonderful and extraordinary (lories,
the good fenfe of his antagonill prevailed, and he has the
merit of having contributed very largely towards removing
the prejudices on this fubjeft, which had prevailed for ages,
and, with them, the folicitude and anxiety which never failed
to torment the minds of fuch women as had the misfortune,
while pregnant, to fee or hear any thing, (Irongly affcfling
their imaginations, left their oflspring (hould be born with
fome defedl or defonnity. It is now pretty generally known,
that no fuch confequences follow, and that the few cafes in
which children are produced defeftive, with redundant parts,
or in any way diftorted, happen indifferently, where the mo-
ther has or has not, in the courfe of her pregnancy, received
fome fiiock or alarm. The power of the imagination in
marking, diftorting, or deforming the foetus in utero is va-
iiifhed, with the witches, ghofts, and hobgoblins, formerly
equally objefts of diflrefs and terror. Haller. Bib. Chir. et
Med. Praft. Eloy Dift. Hift.

There is another writer of the name mentioned by biblio-
graphers.

Blondel, Jaques, furgeon of Lifle in Flanders. He
tranflated the Chirurgia militaris of Nicolas Godin, under the-
title of " La Chirurgie militaire, tres utile a tous ceux qui
veulent fuivre un camp, en terns de guerre, pareillement a tous
autres en condition peftilente ou dyfcnterique, ecrite en
latin, par Nic. Godin," Anver?, 155S, Svo.

Blondel, John Francis, was born at Rouen in 1705 ;
and was known, not only as architeft to the king, member of
the Academy of Architcdlure, and royal profcflor of the art
at the Louvre, but by feveral ufeful publications ; as " A
Difcourfe on Architefture," i2mo.; " A Treatife on the
decoration of buildings," 1738, 2 vols. 4to. ; " A Courfe of
Architeclure," 6 vols. 8vo. 1771 — 1773. The two laft
were publiflied in 1777, 5 ye^''^ after his death. M. de
Ballide alfo publifhed, in 1774, a pofthumous work of Blon-
del, entitled, " L'homme du monde eclairc, par les Arts,"
8vo. 2 vols. Blondel was the author of the articles relating
to architedlure in the Encyclopedic, He died Jan. 9, 1774.
Encycl.

BLONDIN Peter, a native of Picardy, bom Dec. 18th
1682, was a difciple of Tournefort, by whofe advice he tra-
velled over Picartly, Normandy, and the ifle of France, to im-
prove himfelf in botany. In the courfe of his excurfion, he

difco-

1

B L O

B L O

difcovered upwards of an hiindi-eJ and twtnty plants, whicli
had not been before dcfcribed, and fcvcral others, which had
been fuppofed ptcuhar to America. In 1 70S, he was ad-
mitted dodlor in medicine at Rheims ; and, in 1712, he was
received into the Fr-nch academy, in quahty of eleve of
M. Reneaume, an honour he did not long enjoy, being cut off
in the following year, by an inflammation of the lungs. M.
Fontenelle, who fpoke his funeral eulcgium, attributed to
him afmall work, publiflied in his life-time, in which he h td
made fome corrections in Tournefort's arrangement of certain
fpecics of plants ; he alfo fays, he left fome curious memoirs
on the fub;ett of botany, intended for publication, and wh.ich
were prevented being printed by his premature death. But
his name does not appear in Haller's Bib. Botan. nor in the
catalogue of botraiic-il works contained in tlie fplendid library
of fir Jofcph Banks, lately publi(l;cd by Dr. Dryander. Eloy

Dia. Hid.

BLONDVAURY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Charente, 5 leagues ea!t of Con-
folens.

BLONDU.S, or Biosni, Michael Angelo, in Bio-
graphy, was born at Venice, May 4th 1497. After ftudying
under Auguftin Niphus, a celebrated teacher of that time, he
fettled at Naples. He was a voluminous writer. The titles
of the moft; diftinguinied of his works follow. " Epitome ex
libris HippGcratis de nova et prifca arte medendi deque
diebus decretoriis," Romx, 15:8, 1545, 8vo. ; " Libellus
de morbis pucrorum," Venetiis, 1539, 8vo. ; " Dc partibus
iftu feftis citilTime fanandis, et medicamcnto aqui, nuper in-
vento. In phirimorum opinionem de origine morbi Gallici,
deque ligni Indici ancipiti proprictate," Venetiis, 1542, Svo.
For wounds made with a cutting inftrument, and recently in-
flitled, he recommends the application of fmiple water, as a
mod valuable and ufeful remedy. He does not admit that the
venereal difeafe was a new complaint, originating in the Weft
Indies, but believes it to have been known to Hippocrates,
and other ancient phyficians, and dcfbribed in their writings.
He had ufed the lignum fandtum in his attempts to cure the
difeafe, but incfteclually ; the difeafe returning, he fays, after
diicontinuing the medicine, with increafed violence. He
placed iiis prmcipal dependence on mercurv, but does not
give the rationale, or method of ufing it. This work is in-
Icrted by Conrad Gefuer in his " CoUedio fcriptorum opti-
moTum de chirurgia," 1555, fol. For the titles of the re-
mainder of his work?, fee Eloy's Dift. HiRor. Med.
Aftruc. de Morb. Vener. Haller. Bib. Med. Praft. tt
Botan.

BLOXSK, in Gecgraphy, a diftrict of Poland, belonging
to the territory of Warfaw, in the palatinate of Czeril;, or
Mafovia.

BLOOE>, is the nutritive fluid of animals. In the human
fnbjcCl it circulates through the arteries and veins (fee CiR-
cul.\tion), being of a fcarlet colour in the former, and of
a purple colour in the latter ; it is of confiderable confidence ;
of a (lightly faline taile, and peculiar fmell ; its fpecific
gravity is efiimated at 1.0527. When blood is drawn into
a bafon, it firft congeals into a tremulous, jelly-like mafs ;
and then fpontaneoufly feparates into a folid, heavier fub-
ftance termed the craltamentum, cruor, or the clot of the
blood, and a lupernatant pale liquor called the ferum. If
the craffaraentum of the blood be walhed with water, all the
red colour may be wafhed out of it, and a firm whitifh fub-
ftance will remain. This fubftance, which did exift in a
ftate of fubtile fluidity, fo as to be capable of permeating
the minute veffels of the body, and which thus fpontane-
oufly concretes, has been, therefore, called the coagulating
lymph of the blood. If the blood be ftirred with a wifp,

this fubflance concretes in a fibrous form round about it,
and it was in confequence formerly termed the fibrous part
of the blood. By this latter denomination, it is alfo now
generally known and dtfcribed. Thus it appears, that there
are three parts readily diftinguifliable in the blood ; the
ferum; the fibrous part or bafis of the crsflainentum ; and
the colouring matter ; to the more particular confideration
of thefe we now proceed.

Of the Serum.
The .Serum of the blood is of a light greenilh yellow
':-lour, and its mean fpecific gravity is cftimated at 1.C287.
Ii,;:'1j« heritjd to about 160^ of Fahrenheit's thermometer,
the liuid ferura becomes converted into a tremulous folid
fubRa.,;^ ; V. hich being cut in pieces and comprefled, there
can be u, ■ -czid out .f it a muddy and lomcwhat gliainoui
fluid, which is termed the ferolity of the blood. If the re-
mainder be boiled, part of it will be found to be infohible ;
and this has ail tiie properties of albumen, or that infoluble
matter which i.i contained in the white of the egg: for an
account of which, fee the article Albumen. That part of
the ferum whicli is dilfolvcd in boiling water, becomes a
jelly, if the water b; evaporated to a certain degree, and it
be lnff"ered to become cold. It is again foluble, if more
water be added. This modification of animal matter is now
termed gelatine, and to that article the reader is referred for
a more full account of its properties. The fcrofity of the
blood appears to contain animal mucilage, but no accurate
chemical examination has as yet been made of it. The
ferum of the blood turns the fyrup of violets green ; which
efi^edl is owing to foda, that is contained in it. If coagu-
lated fenim be heated in a filver veflel, the filver becomes
blackened by being converted into a fulphuret ; in confe-
quence of the ferum containing fulphur. If the falts of the
ferum be dillolved in boiling water, and afterwards ciyf-
tallized, they are found to be carbonat of foda, muriat of
foda, phofphate of foda, and phofphate of lime.
Of the jibrous Mailer of the Blood.
This matter fpontaneoufly concretes in open and in clofe
veflcls, in the temperature of the animal, or in a much lower
degree of temperature, though with fome little variation as
to the time in which the coagulation happens. Dilution of
albumen by water prevents its coagulation, even by thofe
chemical agents which fuddenly and firmly coagulate it in
its natural llate, fuch as heat, fpirit, and acids. No dilution
of the blood by water has hitherto prevented even the fpon-
taneous coagulation of its fibrous part. The bafis of the
crafiamentum, or fibrous part of the blood, is found to be a
whitifh folid elaftic fubilancc, of greater fpecific gravity than
the ferum. This fubftance, which is infohible in water or
alcohol, and which refembles the mufcular fibres in its che-
mical properties, has been denominated by the French
chemifts fibrine or fibrina, to which article the reader is re-
feiTed for a more particular account of it. It is right how-
ever here to remark, that chemical analyfis ultimately con-
verts all animal fubftances into azot, hydrogen, and carbon ;
and that the proportion of the former is greater in the
fibrous part of the blood than in albumen, or perhaps in
any other animal compound.

Of the colouring Matter of the Blood.
The colouring matter of the blood has an attraftion to
water and difTolves in it, formiing a tranfparent red liquor.
This attraction is perceived in macerating flelh in water ; for
the colouring part, which is 'fpecifically heavier than any-
other part of the blood, and readily finks in thj ferum, yet
lifes up and becomes diffolved in the water. The watery
folution of this part of the blood turns the fyrup of violets
green, and contains both foda and albumen. If the red

part

B L O

part of the blood be incinerated by fire, it is found to con-
tain much iron, which Fourcroy and Vauquelin difcovered
was combined with phofphoric acid in the ftate of fubphof-
phate of iron ; and this is the only part of the blood
which is found in analyfis to contain any of that metal.
Fourcroy examined the blood of the foetus, and fonnd that
the colouring' matter was darker and more abundant than in
the adult fubjeft. He alfo found that the blood of the
foetus contained no fibrine, but much more gelatine than in
the adult.

The colouring matter of the blood is found, by examina-
tion with the microfcope, to be compofed of very minute
f lobular particles. Tlicy were particularly attended to by
.eeuwenhocck, and afterwards examined and defcribed by
others, chiefly by Senac, Hewfon, and Fontana. They are
fo fmall as fcarcely to admit of an accurate examination in
this climate by the common microfcope. This affertion
will probably be readily admitted, if it be granted that they
do not exceed a 200,oooth part of an iucli in diameter ; yet
fuch dimenfions may be Hated as the average eftimate of
their fize, drawn from the accounts of various obfervers.
Haller fays, that he faw them as large as peas by the folar
microfcope, and it was by tiie aid of that inllrument that
we are enabled to give the following account of them. A
drop of blood, much diluted with water, was put upon a
micrometer or piece of glafs, ruled by a diamond in fquares of
j-'^th of an inch, and put before the lens of the folar microf-
cope. The fquares were magnified upon the fcreen to eight
inches diameter. The globules of the blood were fecn un-
dulating to and fro in vaft numbers ; they all appeared
exaftly of the fame fize ; and a few which were feparated
from the reft were attentively examined. Thefe had all the
appearance of globules ; they were circular in their diflc, and
were regularly illumined on one fide, and (haded on the other,
with the prifmatic colours arranged in the middle or greateft
convexity ; the violet being next to the light, and the red
next to the (hade. On varying the focal dillance of the
lens, indeed, an alteration of appearance took place, fome
(hading appeared in the middle juft in the manner repre-
fented by Fontana. Upon again varying the pofition of the
lens, the globules appeared as at firft. Tiiis ihadowy ap-
pearance in the middle probably led Mr. Hewfon to fup-
pofe that they contained a central folid particle. It is,
however, generally admitted, that the colouring particles of
the blood are Ipherical ; and if their fize be calculated
from the preceding account, they will be found to be
lefs in diameter than the 200,000th part of an inch.

If, for inftance, the fquare of j-^^th of an inch be magnified
to a fquare of eight inches, and the globules appear |th
of an inch in diameter, then 64 may be placed in a line
on one fide of the fquare, and 64 X 64 = 4096, is the
number that will ftand within that furface. Now, this
fquare is but ^^th of an inch, magnified on the fcreen to a
fquare of 8 inches ; then, multiply 4096 by 50, and it gives
204,800, as the number of thefe globules which would Hand
in the fquare of one inch.

The preceding account of the blood, imperfeft as it i?,
yet affords us much fatisfactory information. We perceive
that there are contained in the blood, in a ftate of fubtile
fluidity, the materials of which the body is conftruftcd, and
which are capable of becoming folid fibres of various degrees
of folubility. Wi find in it alfo that aqueous liquor which
fills all the interlHces of the folid parts. It is true, that we
find in the animal body many fubllances which do not exift
formally in the blood, and which are new compounds of
matter made out of that fluid ; and for an account of which
the reader is referred to glandular fecretion.

B L O

With rcfptcl to that change which the animal matter
undergoes from a fluid to a folid ftate, and which is called
coagulation, but little is fatisfafrtorily known. It feems to
have been a problem amongft chemifts. Scheele attributed
it to the agency of caloric ; Fourcroy, to that of oxygen ;
and Dr. Thomfon has of late accounted for it, without fup-
pofing the addition of any other fubllance to the coagulated
matter. With reference to the lail opinion, it fhould be
obferved, that in coagulation, a change in the chemical pro-
perties of the coagulated fubftance takes place, which impHes,
that a chemical alteration has alfo taken place ; and that
even if the theory were true with refpeft to albumen, it
will not account for the coagulation of the fibrine of the
blood. Where chemiftry fails to explain phaenomena inci-
dent to living bodies, it is fair to inquire if life may not have
fome (liare in their produAion.

Mr. Hunter thought that the coagulation of the blood
depended on its living powers, and fupported his opinion
by many ingenious arguments. To remove any obieftion
which miglit be made to a fluid or unorganized fubftance
being alive, he adverts to what happens with refpeft to the
yolk and wliitcof the egg, which, in confequence appirently
of their pofteffing a principle of life, are prefervcd from
putrefaftion during incubation, and which refill the efiL-fls
of heat and cold in a degree and manner fimilar to the lower
kinds of animals. His chief arguments in evidence of the
coagulation of the blood depending upon life are, that in
fome cafes where death has been caufed by lightning, or by
violent fatigue in running, as in animals who are hunted to
death, or by blows on the ftomach, the irritability of the
mufcles has been deftroyed, and the blood has remained
fluid, and never coagulated. Mr. Hunter alfo mentions, that
he mixed infufions of bitter vegetables, wh'ch are generally
confidered as tonics, with blood, and thefe did not retard its
coagulation, but that a folution of opium had tliat effeft.
As a profecutlon of this hint, the writer of the prefent
article caufed blood to be much diluted with water, and
infufions of noxious vegetables to be llirred into it ; yet in
thefe experiments the fibrine ilill coagulated,, and that- iu a
fudden manner.

The vegetable infufions were thofe of opium, tobacco,
and the atropa belladonna. It may be proper to relate the
particulars of one of thefe experiments, in order to give a
general idea of the whole. Eight ounces of blood were
drawn from the arm into ten pints of water of 95° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer, containing a ftrong infufion of
the atropa belladonna. It was ftirred with a glafs rod ; the
two fluids appeared tranfparent and homogeneous. In eight
minutes, the temperature being 93°, a confiderable quantity
of floculent coagulum at once fuddenly formed, and no addi-
tional coagulation afterwards took place. The thermomtter
was attentively obferved, but no change was remarked in it
during this coagulation. The gentleman who performed
thefe experiments, wifliiug to repeat them with fome variety
in the mode of conducing them, obferved, however, that
heat was given out during the coagulation of the blood, as
will be feen in the following experiment.

Ten ounces of blood were drawn into a wooden bowl, in
which a thermometer was held. The temperature of the
blood, while flowing from the vein, was 93°. In fix minutes
the thermometer had funk to 89", and coagulation com-
menced on the furface ; on elevating the bulb of the thermo-
meter to the coagulum on the furface, the quickfilver rofe
to 90 and i ; on depreffiug it to the bottom of the bowl, it
funk to 89. This was repeated twice with nearly the fame
refult, and on the third trial the quickfilver rofe to 91°; and
on deprefling it again, it was perceived that the blood was
8 coagulated

I

B L O

coagulated throughout. After this, the quickfilver regu-
larly continued to defcend, Jitid was no longer influenced by-
changing the fituation of tiic bulb of the thermometer.

Witli refpeft to the ufc of the red particle?, Boerhaave
fuppofed, that they might tend to keep the diffimilar
parts of the bljud incorporated, as (hot aj^itated in a mix-
ture of fand ar.d water would prevent the futfidence of the
former from the 1 .tter. It feem?, however, no iirprobable
opinion, that this is the matter which has the very pecidiar
properties of forcibly altradting oxygen gas, even through the
medium of the blood vtlFels, and combining with it, and be-
coming in conlcqucnce of a fcarlet colour, yet, of iioldingit
fo loofely as to part with it in the round of the circulation
to carbon and probably to hydrogen, and'thus contributing
to the production rjf animal iieat. The writer of the pre-
fent article is of this opinion, becaiifc he has expoftd the red
parts of the blood to air containing oxygen gaf, ard always
found the oxyij-ii gas diminiflitd in proportion to the quan-
tity of blood whifth had acquired a fcarlet colour by expofure
to it. On the contrary, he has cxpofed the ferum of the
blood to funilar kinds of air, and never perceived any abllrnc-
tion of oxygen gas bv that fluid. Thus probably we dif-
cover the principles of nutrition of the body and the caiife
of its heat. For a fur.'her account of the effects of refpiva-
t'on on the blood and its confcquences, fee Lungs, ylwc-
iloii of.

Haller's elements of phyfiology may be confulted for an
account of all that had been done refpecting the inviftigation
of the nature of tl'.c blood till his time ; the works of
Mr. Hewfoii and Mr. Hunter m^iy be referred to for addi-
tional information on this fuhject ; the works of Fontana, for
mierofcopical obfervatlons ; and for novel chemical experi-
ments, the writings of Fourcroy, Vauquelin. &c. in the
Annales de Chimie, and thofe of Dcyeux and Parmentier in
the Journal de Phvfique, and Dr. Thomfon's excellent
fummary contained in his Syfliem of Chemii'ry.
Blood, t.ansfujionof. SeeTRAssFus os.
Blood, injeiling liquors into it. See Injectios.
Tjlood, Jpiiting of. See H.emoptysis.
Blood, cooling of. Lord Bacon has fuggeflcd that the
profecution of experiments on this fubjedl fciight polDbly
lead to the means of prolonging liie. But this great philo-
.fopher appears to have entertained erroneous notions refpcft-
ing the ar.imal economy, on this and fome other points.
Nothing accurate was knovrn, in thofe days, on the fubjetl
of animal heat. If the blood were cooled below a certain
ftandard, difeafe and death, and not longevity, would be
the confequence. However, when the quantity of animal
heat exceeds what is natural, the excefs is carried off by an
ir.creafcd evaporation from tiie furface of the body, in other
words, by pcrlpiration. And \n this way, or by the direft
application of water of a low temperature to the Ikin, the
blood, as well as cvei-y other part of the body, may be faid
to be cooled, and difeafe prevented or removed. But this
is not what lord Bacon meant in his propolal for cooling
the bh>od.

Blood, Depuration of. See Skcret;on.
Blood, Flux of, is called an Haemorrhage. The pe-
riodical ones ot women. Menses. Thole alter child-birth,
LocHi.i. That ordinarily happening on the firft coition
is by fome cnlled arid confidercd as the tell of virginity.
^LOOD, fnuiicl.'ing of. See Styptic.
Blood, -voiaiting of. See H.^m.^temesis.
Blood, CircuLilion of the. See Circulation.
Blood, morlid alterations of. The alterations which the
Mood undergoes' in various difeafes, are fuch as claim the
attentive obfervation of phyficians. But, iri order to form
Vol. IV.

B L O

a juft conception of them, it is necefTary previounv to con-
fider what are the component parts of this vital fluid, and
their relative proportions, in the natural and healthy flate.

By the accurate analyfes of modern chemifts it has been
proved, that, befides water, and various faline rratters
(fuch as foda, phofpiiates of lime, of foda, and of ammonia,
and muriates of foda and ammonia), the blood confifls of
what is termed fibrin, albumen (coagulable lymph), and a
colouring principle, viz. oxyd of iron combined with phof-
phoric acid. Thefe feveral materials conftitute the fluid
called bluod, which, in its natural ftate, is kept in conllant
motion, under a temperature of qS'^ or lOo" (in fome ani-
mals the temperature is rather higher) of Fahrenheit's
thermometer. A large proportion of fibrin, fome albumen,
and the colourir.g matter, conftitute the cruor, or craffa-
mentuin ; while the ferum is eompofed of w,?ter, with a large
proportion of albumen, and the faline fubftanccs above
mentioned.

Now, it is probable, that confiderable alterations take
pLicein the relative proportions of th-;fe ingredients, when-
ever the living body, whether of man or brute, becomes
long or violently difturbed in its action, and cfpecially (as
Mr. Hewfon has (hewn) whenever the energy of the vaftular
action 13 much iiicreafcd. But in accounting for any re-
maikable alterations in the blood, there are feveraf other
circumilances, befides that of vafcular action, which require
to be noticed ; and particularly the circumftoinces conr.ecied
with refpiration, fuch as the temperature, and p'irity or impu-
rity of the fuiTounding air, its greater or Icfs degree of hu-
midity, &c. Thefe, by their chemical agency, muft have
a confiderable influence in the production of the various
morbid alterations which take place.

Many variations, however, in regard to the relative pro-
portion of the conftituent parts of the blood, and other
chemical changes in its qualities, which in all probability
frequently take place, are not obvious to the fcnfes, in fome
difeafes, whilft in others they are very confpicuous : for in-
ftance, in pleurify, peripneumony, acute rheumatifm, &c.
In thefe diforders, the blood drawn from the veins, and
fuffered to ftand in the cup uiUil it is cole, becomes covered
with a tough buff-coloured coat, or fize, and is ufually called
inflamal, or inflammatory ilooil. This fize is formed (fays
Mr. Hewfon) by the coagulable lymph (which confills of
albumen and a portion of hbrin) being fixed or coagulated,
after the red particles have fubfided. The blood in thefe
cafes does not appear' to be thicker, but on the contrary-
thinner than natural. It is llower in coagulating than
healthy blood. The coagulation is owing to the aclioii of
the air. Perhaps in pleurify, acute rlu-umatifm, and other
diforders belonging to the phlegnialias of nofological writers,
fome chemical change is produced in the fibrous matter of
the blood (fee Fourcroy, Connoiflanses Cliimiques, article
Sang), whereby it is pretcrnaturally foftened or liqnelied ;
or there m.ay be an over-proportion of albumen, and that of
an altered quality. Whatever be the real chemical diuer-
cnce, we cannot think with Mr. Hewfon, that it is wholly
occafioned by the increafed force or energy of vafcular
action, fince it fometimes occurs in cafes where the aflion
of the heart and arteries is not more vigorous than natural,
and even where their action appears to be below the natural
flandard. Thus a fize has been fometimes obferved upon
the blood drawn fit m patients affedled with typhus (Par-
mentier and Deyeux in Fourcrov, as above referred to),
and even on the blood taken from fcorbutic patients. (Ibid.)
And Mr. Hewfon himfelf remarks, that it is a common oc-
currence in pregnant women. Increafed energy of vafcular
action is doubtlefs a principal caufe of the changes obferv-
4 L able

f;

B L O

able in fizy blood ; but much is alfo to b.- afcribi;d, in Uiis
bufinefs, to tiie ciicumftances connt£tcd with refpiratiou as
before mentio'.icd.

This fizy blood being fo coiiftantly feen in pleunfy, pen-
pneumony, acute rheumatifm, and other inflammatory dif-
eafcs, it has been conlidcrcd as a proof of the exigence of
inflammatory adtion in all other cafes, wl-.ercin it h^s been
obfervcd ; and has accordingly been deemed by many prsc-
tilioncrs the bell and fureit tcft or index when vcnelec-
lion (hould be repeated or withheld, as alfo concerning
the quantity of blood which fhuuld be drawn at each ope-
ration. But this is a very wron.^' mude of proceednig. We
have fliewn that this appearance (the fize or buiTy coat of
the blood) is not reftridled to difordtrs belonging to the clafj
of phlegmafii, but that it occurs in oll.er iiitlances, where
the free and frequent employment of pidcbotomy would be
tifelefs, or even pernicious. Indeed, we liave often found
it neceffary to repeat the ufe of the lancet, where this ab-
earance of the blood has been wanting ; and to abllain
.rom a repetition of it, where it has been prcfent. la regu-
lating, therefore, the abllraiSion of blood, it is neceffary to
attend not only to the appearances of the blood, but more
cfpecially to the kind of inflammatory ac\ion, to tlie (late
of the pulfe and refpiratiou, to the degree and feat of the
pain, and to the age and conllitution of the patici:t. Fur-
ther, the term inflammatory blood, as being hablc to mif-
conception and abufc, fhould be difcontinued ; and the ex-
prefTion Jizy blood, or biuoil iv'uli a biijjy coat, fhould be em-
ployed in its place. But if the term htfameJ blvod be
improper, that of />a/r/</ Woc./is much more fo. This wss
never yet drawn from any living animal, man or brute.
Putridity is eafily known. The fmtU affords an obvious
left ; but the chemical products obtained from animal fub-
ftances in a ftate of putrefaftion, are the fureft tefts. Yet
thofe expert chemilts, Meffrs. Parmentier and Deyeux,
could trace no marks of putridity in the blood taken from
patients labouring under the worll forms of typhus, or what
are commonly called putrid fevers. Such blood did not
3'ield, by diilillation in a water bath, any volatile alkali ;
nor in a moderate temperature did it run into putrefaftion
fooner than the blood of a healthy perfon. The blood in
thefe cafeS; however, has its peculiar appearances ; which,
until we arrive at fomething mure certain in regard to the
caufe thereof, we fhould be content to call typhus-fever blood.
In like manner, the dark-coloured blood of fcorbutic pa-
tients (which fome afcribe to a deficiency of oxygen, and
we would add of albumen alfo,) we fhould be content to
call fcorbutic blood, until we have better data to proceed
■upon. Again, it is conjeftured that the pale colour and dilute
quality of the blood, in chlorotic and dropfical patients,
may be owing to a deficiency of the colouring matter (iron)
of the blood, as well as an under-proportion of the fibrous
and albuminous matter. But we know not of any experi-
ments by which this has been demonllrated. Hence we
mull for the prefent be content to name fuch blood cblorot'ic
and hydropic Hood ; taking care at the fame time to have it
underftood, that in ufing thefe terms, it is by no means in-
tended to convey the idea, that Inch a Hate of the blood is
the caufe of chlorofis or dropfy, but merely the concomitant
of thofe diforders. Whoever wiflies to inveiligate the fub-
jeft of the morbid appearances of the blood more fully,
{hould confult the writings of Hewfon and John Hunter;
and for what relates to the chemical part of tlie inquiiy,
Fourcroy,

Blood, Ufes of the, are either in the animal osconomy
(fee Blood fifra, and Lungs,), or in medicine, religion,
diet, arts, manufafturcs, &c,

B L O

Bloob, iitrchnmca! and comni£rchd ifes of the, are chiefly in
agriculture, where it is found an excellent manure for fruit-
trees ; among lapidaries ; in the manufadure of f.;gar, &c. ;
in building, boards are fometimes rubied with blood to
turn them brown. Some alfo pretend it has anciently bceil
ufed in the mortar of old Vi'alls. Blood is the bafis of
that noble colour called by painters Pnijlan B'lie. See
Pi;t;ssic Acid.

Blood, eating of. This pratiicc appears to have been
prohibited to Noah (Gen. ix. 3. 4 ), which prohibition was
renewed by Mofes (Lev. xvii. 10 — 14.), and obferved by
the Jeu'S, principally with a view to the ufe of facrifices in
divine wor!hip, and as a token of refpecl: to the altar, at
which the blood of every viftim was prefented before God.
The prohibition was repeated by the apollles at the council
ofjerufalem ( Afts, xv. 2'8, 29.), confirmed and defended
by all the fiithers except St. Auguftin, and the univerfal
practice both of the callern and wcfiern churches till his
time ; and in many churches, even of the Well, mucli longer,
aslowasthe middle of the 10th, fome fay the nth and even
the 12th century. T!ie practice of the primitive Clirifliana
fccms to intimate that they undertlood the apoilolical pro-
hibition to be abfolute and perpetual, as they abftained from
the ufe of blood for many centuries. When they were
charged witli meeting in the night, and drinking blood, by
way of binding one another to fecrecy, in fome immoral
pvaftices, TertuIHan replies to this charge, tliat it was well
known that no CiiriRian would eat blood at all ; infomuch,
that it was ufual with heathens, when they wanted to know
whether any perfon was a Chrillian, to fet blood-puddings
before him as a very fufficient tell. Moreover, blood is not
eaten by Chrillians in any part of the Eall, or by the
Greeks, or Ruffians, who are of the Greek church, to this
day ; and it has been alleged, that the ufe of blood was not
introduced into this weftcrn part of the world till a very late
perio'l. When the Pomeranians were converted to Chrilli-
anity, in 11 20, they were particularly enjoined to abllain
from blood, as a badge of their profeffion It was not al-
lowed to be eaten in the Well in the time of Bede, or a cen-
tury afterwards ; and blood was not eaten in any part of
SwifT^-.rland, till Calvin introduced the praftice from fome
other place. Dr. Lardner, however, fays (ubi infra), that
Httle regard was paid to thefe regulations of the apoftohcal
decree by the Latin Chrillians, from the end of the fourth
century.

The qucflion is, whether the apoilolical precept to ab-
ftain from blood, fhould beconfidered as only temporary' and
occafional, a iort of accommodation to the weaknefs of the
Jcwifh converts ; or perpetual, founded on moral principles,
and confequently Itill obligatory. The former opinion feems
the m.ore probable, and is the mofl generally received. For
the prohibition in the law of Mofes, two leafons have been
alTigned ; one is, that the blood was appointed to make
atonement on the altar for offence againfl the law. The pro-
hibition, according to this reafon of it, mult be reftri£led to
Jews and others circumcifed after the manner of Mofes ; for
no other perfons could offer facrifices, or be cut off for tranf-
greffing the Ltvitical laws, but fuch as were of that people.
The other reafon is thus expreffed : " It is the life of all
flefh ; the blood of it is for the life thereof" (Lev. xvii.
14.) i that is, as fome have interpreted the palTage, it is
the nourifhment of the animal, and not fit for your nourirn-
ment ; and becaufe it was not fit for food, and was ufelcfa
and offenfive, therefore it was to be poured out upon the
earth, or covered with dull, that is, buried in the earth j
and this order is frequently repeated. Lev. xvii. 13. Pent,
xii. i6^ 34, XV. 3J. Hence wc may account for the con-

dua

B L O

B L O

dn>!\ of David, wlien his three warriors brought him water
from the w"ll of Bethlehem, at the extreme hazard of thtir
lives (i Chron. xi. iS.): confidering the water as ii it were
tlieir blood, which they hazarded to obtain it, he refufed to
drink it ; and there beiiijj no rule or reafon for offering fuch
water upon the altar, he did what feemed to be next to
OiTering it ; " he poured it out before the Lord." The
Jtwilh ordinance anfwered two obvions ends ; it ferved, with
other rec'tiiations and reftriiilions, to keep the Jewidi people
feparate from other nations ; and it alfo promoted their bo-
dily health and vigour. But there is no foundation, either
in the reafon of the thing, or in the prohibition, to fupport
the opinion of thofe who imagine the eating of blood to
be an immoral thing ; if this had been the cafe, God would
not have permitted the Ifraelites (Deut. xiv. 21.) to fell a
creature that died in his blood to an alien or ftranger, that
lie might eat it. If, therefore, the eating of blood cannot
be reckoned an immorality, the prohibition in the apoftolical
decree cannot be binding upon all men in all times, but
only at fome feafons, when the circumdances of things ren-
der forbearance or abilinence expedient. Accordingly, if
blood be thought difagreeable and unwholefome, as food,
riic ufe of it may be avoided, for the fake of health ; but
we are not obliged to abrtain from it upon a religious
account, or in virtue of this decree, \^hich would be no
better than fuperllition. It has been fuppofed, by fome
approved writers, and efpecially by Dr. Lardner, that this
vas only a temporary provifion, defigned to prevent giving
offence to the believing Jews, and to facilitate civil converfe
and religious communion between believing Jews and Gen-
tiles. Dr. Lardner alfo fuppofcs, that the decree is not to
be iinderilood as a precept or commandment, but as deliver-
ing advice and counfel concerning fome matters of prudence
and expedience, confidering the circumftances of things
and perfons in that time. It has been farther urged as an
argument againft the perpetuity of the apoilolical decree,
that the apollle Paul never quotes, or alludes to it in his
v.'ritings.

On the other hand, it has been argued, that the prohibi-
tion to eat blood, given to Noah, feems to be obligatory on
all his pofterity ; and as it accompanied the firll exprefs
grant of animal food, it feems to be referved, by way of
acknowledgment to God, as the giver of life, and of the
food which lupports it. This refpcft paid to blood, which
is Ihed when animals are killed for food, and which is the
moll apparent vehicle of life, may alfo be intended to incul-
cate a relpect for life, as the m.oll valuable gift of God, and
to warn us not to deprive any animal of it, and much lefs
rean, without necelTity. It has alfo been pleaded, as an ad-
ditional argument for abftaining from blood, that it is not
a wholefome aliment, efpecially in hot countries, promoting
leprous and fcorbutic diforders. The advocates of this opi-
Jiion farther argue, that blood is prohibited becaufe it tends
to make men favage ; that the prohibition is joined with that
of fornication, which is an immorality in the common fcnfe of
the term, but which Dr. Lardner underltands as denoting
marriage with heathens, from which the apollle Paul fo ear-
ucftly diiUiades the Chrillians at Connth ; and that God has
enjoined abilinence from blood on all Chriftians, in order to
manifeil his fupreme dominion over all their enjoyments.
.Seldtn, de Jure Gentium, &c. I. vii. c. I. Shuckford's
Conn. vol. i. p. 9^, &c. Lardner's Remarks on Dr. Ward's
Differtations in Works, vol. xi. p. 329, &c. Pnellley's In-
ilitules, vol. ii. p. 4.;9, &c.

Blood, relr-'wis uf's of, — Among the ancients, blood
was ufed for the fcaling and ratifying of covenants and
alliances, wiiich was done by the contrafting parties drinking

a little of each other's blood ; for appeafing the manes of the
dead, in order to which blood was offered on thtir tombs, as
part of the funeral ceremony. Thus we read, that tweUe
youths were facrificed at the funeral of Patroclus ; and eight
at that of Pal'as. Homer. II.*. ver. 27. Virgil. M.xi. lib. x.
ver. 518.

The blood of viftims was the portion of the gods, both
amonr Jews and Heathens; and accor 'ingly was poured
or fprinkled on the altars, in oblation to them.

Some have aflerted, that the Romans offered human blood
to appeafe their deities, which is denied by others.

The priells made another ufe of blood, viz. for divination :
the ftreaming of blood from the earth, fire, and the like,
was held a prodigy, or omen of evil.

The Roman priefts were not unacquainted with the ufe of
blood in miracles ; they had th-.ir fluxes of blood from
images, ready to ferve a turn ; witnefs that faid to have
ftreamed from the flatue of Minerva at Modcna, before the
battle at that place. But in this their fucceffors has'e gone
beyond them. How many relations in ecclefiallical writers
of Madonas, crucifixes, and wafers bleeding ! At leafl
the liquefaftion of the blood of St. Januarius, at Naples,
repeated annually for fo maiiy ages, feems to tranfcer.d by
far all the frauds of tile Grecian or Roman priellhood. But
the chemifts arc got into the fecret, and we find M. Neu-
mann at Berlin performed the miracle of the liquefaftion of
dried blood, with all the circumftances of the Neapolitan ex-
periment. See Januarius.

Blood, in the Ronijli Church, is ufed in fpeaking of the
wine in the euchariit ; which they fuppofe miraculoully fon.
verted, by the prieft's confecration, into the real blood of
Chrifl. See Transubstantiation, &c.

Blood is alfo ufed abufively for the lap of plants; as
having much the fame office in the vegetable, as the other
in the animal osconomy. In a fenfe not unlike this, wine is
fometimes alfo denominated the Hood of the grape.

Blood is alfo applied, in Pharmacy, to certain vegetable
juices, tears, S:c. as dragon's blood gum. Dragon's blood,
fati^uis Jraconts, is alfo ufed by the Arabs for thejuice of
the anchufa.

Blood, fatjnon, a ruddy liquor produced from the root*
oi fatyr'ium, baked with bread ; and liquefied, as it were,
into blood, by a long digellion.

Blood, in Chem'iflry and jilcheniy, is a denomination
given to fever.^.l artificial compolitions, chiefly on account of
their red colour.

Blood is more peculiarly ufed by the alchemifts for the
tindure of a thing, in which fenfe we meet with blood of
mercury, denoting the tin£lure of it ; dragon's blood, de-
noting the tinfture of antimony.

Blood, Dragon's. See Sanguis Draconls.

Blood is alio ufed, in Middle Age Writers, for fupreme
iurifdidtion, exercifed by the lord of the fee, in cafes where
blood is fpilt. This is alfo called "judgment of blood,"
" juilice of blood," fometimes " cognizance of blood."

Blood, avjiiger of, among the Jews, was the next of
kin to the perfon murdered, who was to profecute the mur-
derer. Ecclefiallical judges retire when judgment is to be
given in cafes of blood, becaufe the church is fuppofed to
abhor blood : it condemns no perfon to death ; and its mem-
bers become irregular, or difabled from their fundions, b/
the effufion of blood.

Blood of Chr'ifl, is the denomination of a militan' order
inllituted at Mantua, in 1608, by Vine. Gonzangua IV.
Its device was " Domine proballi me ;" or, " Ni'nil hoe
triile recepto." Hermant fpeaksof this order, and obferves
thnt it took its name from fome drops of the blood of Chrill
4 L 2 faid

B L O

B L O

faiJ to have been preferved in t]>e cathedral church of is he that ,s derived from the fame pn,r of anceftor, •

Mantua The number of knights was relhaincd to twenty, whereas a perfon of half blood defcends f^om either of them

bd-.dcs the grand-mailer ; the office whereof was annexed to f.ngly, by^ a ^cond^marnage. Black.L Com. vol. 11.

^" B^'onfin'^^rdenotes a diftemper in cattle's backs. ^' BLOODY c\\lT Sa.su!ne,.n Crhnen, \n Writer, of the

which makes them in goina; draw their heads alicit, or after MidJle ami

them : the cure is by ilittuig the length of two j..ints under blood or lite of the oitaider.

MidiUe and Barbarous Age-, that which is pur.ilhed with the

the tail, and thus letting the bcaft bleed plentifully. If he
bleed too much, the farriers knit his tail next the body, and
then bind fait and nettles bruifed on the part.

Y^LQO-o-rumi-ng Itch, is a fpecies of itch in a horfe, pro-
ceeding from an'inlUmmation of the blood by ovtr-heating,
hard riding, or other fore labour ; which gating between
the ikin and flelh, makes the bead rub and bite Inmfelf ;
and, if lit alone, fomc times turns to a grievous mange,
highly infefti'>ns to all nigh him.

Blood, _;■/"■/(/&/", in Syiiac acddama, was a field purchakd
by the Jews, with the thirty pieces of filver wliich had

Bloody Flux, in Mid'iune. See Dysentery.

Bloody Hand, in La-w, one of the four kinds of tref-
pafles in the king's forcU, by wliich the offender being taken
with his hands or other part bloody, is judged to have killed
the deer, though he be not found either hunting or chafing.
In Scotland, in fuch crimes, they fay, taken in the faft, or
with the red hand. See Backblrond.

Vi\.oouY-h.il Cock. See Heeler.

Bloody JJlniid, in Geography, an ifland in the harbour of
Port Mahon, in the itland of Minorca.

Bloody Point, a cape on the fouth-weft coaft of the

been given to Judas for betraying his mnller, and which he ifland of St. Chnllopher's. N. lat. 17= 24.'- W. long. 62
had rellored. It Hill ferves for~a burial-ground, in which 41'

all pilgrims, who die in their pilgrimage at Jcrufalem, aj-e
interred. See Aceldama.

BLO0D^>?(/iuir, in Botany. See H^manthus.
Blood-AouW. See Hound.
Blood-/?//«j^. See Bleeding.

Yn-oov, precious, in Ecclefinjllcal Hijlory, a denomination
given to a reformed congregation of Bernardine nuns at
Pari?, firft eftabhihed under that name in 1661.

Blood, Princes of the, in France, are thofe defcended
from the blood royal.

Yf^Qo-a-flottcn, in Surgery, a dilfemper of the eye?, where-
in the blood-veffels are greatly diftended, fo as to make the
eyes appear red. See Ophthalmia.
li\.ooY>-fone. See Haematites.

V>i.oa-o of fulpkur, fanguis fulphurls, is a preparation of
liver of fulphnr, ground with the oil of tartar per drllquium,
then digefled with <uilcified fpirit of nitre. It is reputed a
good pedloral and diuretic, but rarely prefcribed.

BLOoo-'vffJs, in ylnaiomy, ufually include only the veins

Bloody Bay, a bay on the north fide of the ifland of
Egmont, or New Guernfey.

Y)hO0T>\ -Farland Point, a remarkable head-land on the
northern coalt of the county of Donegal, Ireland, nearly
oppofite to Tory ifland. N. lat. 55° 9' 30". W. long. 8" 11'.
M'Kenzie. Beaufort.

Bloody Rains. See Rain.

Bloody Sweat. Many inllances of this are recorded, in
which it h?.s been owing to bodily diforder, or extreme
mental agitation and agony. See particularly Arillotle's-
Hift. Aniiral. lib. iii. cap. 19. apud Oper. torn. ii. Thua-
nus Hill. Temp. &c. lib. ii. apud Opcr. torn. i. Melange*
d'HiRoire et de Literature, &c. par M. V. MarvlUe, torn,
iii. p. 149. Aifla Phyfico-Med. Norimbcrga:, vol. i. p. 84.
and vol. viii. p. 428. See Agony.

Bloody Urlne,'\u l^Iediclne. SeeH.EMATURi A, andUaiNE.

BLOOM, in the Iron IVorhs, a term ufed by the mi-
ners for a four-fquare mafs ot hamn;ercd iron, about two
feet long, and three quarters of a liundrcd weight, made

. _ >iaiom_ . , ,

and arteries'^ though, in a larger feiife, all the vtlfels in the from part of a fow of call iron. Tlie bloom, however, is
body, as the n'.rves, lymphatics, &c. to the very hair, not yet become iron fit for the fmith's uie, but mull under-
way be comprehended under the denomination. See Ar- go many hammerings, and be iirll made what they call the
TERY, and Vein. ^n^wiji ; which fee.

Btooofnale, See 5/oo^-Snake. Bloom, ia/f, a round mafs of metal, which comes out

Blood-to//<;, in Ancient Law Writers, fignlfies blood, and of the finery of an iron-iuorl. See Blomary.
a cullomary amercement paid as a compofilion for the flied- Blooms, in Sea Language, hot burning winds, blowing

ding or drawing of blood.

'I'lie word is alfo written hlodwite, iloJivlta, blodtuyta,
Hoodivit, blod-wit, bloudiuit, and bluidiveit ; and is f irined
from the ancient Saxon hlml, blood, and vite, or luite, a
fine <.n penally.

from t!ie land to the fea.

BLOOMFIELD, in Ge-'graphy, a townfliip of America,
in Ontario county. New York. By the ftate ceiifus o£
1726, 151 of the inhabitants were electors.

BLOOMING Va-le, a trad of land, in the townfliip

The word alfo denotes an exemption from this penalty, of Manlius, and ilate of New York, or Butternut cretk.
granted by the king to certain perlons and communities, BLOSSOM, in a gentral fenfe, denotes the flower of
as a fpecial favour. Thus, king Henry II. granted to all any plant. See Flower. In a more proper fenfe, the
tenants within the honour of Wallingford — " Ut quieti fint w<<rd is rcftrained to the flowers of trees, which they put
dc hidagio et blodwite ct brtdwite." forth in the fpring, as the forerunners of their fruit, other -

Blood wooi/. See H^matoxylon. wife called tiieir Z/oaw. The office of the-blo(fom is partly

BLOOD-iuor/, or Bloody Dock, in Botany. See Rumex. to proteft, and partly to draw nourifhnient to the embryo^

Blood, Corruption of, in Laiu. See Corruption of fruit, or feed. Phil. Tranf. N'^ 39y. p. 329.
Blood. Blossom, in Botany, denotes one of the parts of a

Blood, inheritnble, denotes fuch a regular defcent as flower. See Corolla.
gives a perfon legal right to inherit the ellate of an anceilor. Blossom is alfo ufed, in the Manege, for the colour of a
tiie Attainder, Escheat, Inheritance, &c. horfe, which has l.«s hair white,, but intermixed all over

Blood, Rejlitution in. See Corruption of Blood, and with forrtl and bay haus, called alfo /^^acA-i-o/ourw/.
Pardon. Horfes of this colour generally are hard and infenfiblc

Blood, Royal, is applied to the regular defcendants of both in the mouth and the flank ; fo that they are little va-
the royal family. See Royal Family. iued ; befides they are apt to turn blind.

Blqod, w/jole aud half ; a kinfinan of the whole blood Blossom, in refpeft of Iheep. See Blissom.

b BLOT

B L O

BLOT L'EglisE, or Blot h Rode, in Geography, a
town of France, in the department of the AUier, lo miles
W. of Gainat.

BLOTED China Ware, a name given by fome to a fort
of china that is loaded with colours in an irregular manner.
This pleafes fome people, but it is a defective fort of ware,
the large blotches of colours having been only laid on to
cover tiie blemifhes or faults in the firll baking.

BLOTNO, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Wilna, on the river Rawie, i6 miles N. of
Lida. N. lat. t;4° 5'. E. long. 25^ 34'.

BLOTTING Paper, a fpccies of ppper, made without
fize or ftiffeiiiiig, ferving to imbibe the wet ink in books of
accouut, and prevent its felling oif, or blotting the oppolite
page- . _ . '

BLOTTiNG-i^oti, a fort of minute book, or memorandum
book, ufed by fome merchants for making imperfeft entries
in a prefent hurry, which are to be copied out fairer and
fuller at night into the journal.

BLOUNT, Thomas, in Biography, a learned Englifh
writer, v.as born at Bordedcy, in VVorcefterfnire, in 1619 ;
and, without the advantage of an univerlity education, made
a confiderable progrefs in literature. By profeffion lie was a
banilter of the Inner Temple. Upon the breaking out of
the popifh plot in t!ic reign ot Charles II., he was much
alarmed on account of his being a zealous Roman Catho-
lic, and fcizcd wjth a paify, which terminated in his death,
in 1679. His wjrks were numerous, and are as follow : viz.
" Tiie Academy of Eloquence ;" " Giofibgraphica, or a
diftionary interpreting fuch hard words, Hcbrevi', Greek,
Latin, Italian, S:c. introduced into the Englilb tongue,"
1656, 8vo ; " The Lamps of the La-.v, and the Light of
the Gofpel, &c.;" " B )fcobel, or the Hiilory of his Ma-
jelly's Elcape after the battle of Worcelter," i66c, 8vo ;
the fecond part was printed in l6Si, 8vo ; "The Catho-
lic Almanac for 1661, 62, 6j, &c. ; " Booker refuted,"
or Animadverfions on Booker's Ephemeris, 1665, 410.;"
" A Law Dictionary," 1671, fol. ; " Animadverfions
upon iir Richard Bilker's Chronicle, &c." 1672, 8vo. ;"
*' A World of Errors difcovered in the New World of
Words, &c." 167;, fol.; " Fragmenta Antiquilatis, an-
cient tenures of lands, &c." 1679. Biog. Diet.

Blount, Sir Henry, was born at the feat of his father
fir Thomas Pope Blount, at Titttnhanger, in Hertfordiliire,
in 1602; and having completed his education at Trir.ity
college, Oxford, he commenced the ftudy of the law at
Gray's Inn. Being refolved to travel, he fet out on his
tour in 1634, and vifited the Turkifh dominions in Europe,
and alio i'everal parts of Egypt. After a long ilay at Grand
Cairo, he returned to England, in l6.;r), and publifhtd an
account of his travels under the title of " A Voyage into
the Levant, &c." Lond. 1636, 4to. which had a rapid
fale, though it was not held in high elliniation by the mod
competent judges. Charles I. appointed him one of the
band of peniioners ; and. on his father's death, in i6jif!, he
fucceedcd to the family feat at Blount's hall in Staff -rdlliire,
and a confiderable eltate. In the civil war he joined the
royal party ; but abandonir'g the royal caufe, he was well
receivLd in London by perfons in power. In 161; I, he be-
came one of the committee for reforming the practice of the
law ; and he wa« very zealous againft tythes, and for the
reduCl:on of the ftipends of all parifh minillers to an eqvial
and moderate provifion. His general knowledge recom-
men Kd him to the otnce of one of the commiflioners for
advancing the trade and navigation of the commonwealth.
His brother's death, in 1654, made way for his fncceffioa
to the Heitforddure eftate. At the Reftocation he was

B L O

favourably received by the king; and in i6fji he ferved the
office of high-flieriff for the county of Herts. From this
time, till his death in 1682, he lived as a retired Engliih
"■entleman ; but he feems to have acquired from his Itavtls
an inclination to freedom of opinion, and to have adopted
feveral frip-iilar and paradoxical notions. Six comedies, en-
titled " Court Comedies," and publifiied under tl'.e name of
John Lilly, have been afcribcd to him. Biog. Brit.

Blount, Sir Thomas Pope, elJ.rll fon of the preceding,
was born at Upper Huiloway, near London, in 1649, and
educnted indcr the immediate infpefti.)n of his father. Hav-
ing cilablilhed an early reputation for learning and worth, he
was created a baronet by Charles II. in l6'9. He reprefent-
ed firll the borough of St. Albin's, and afterwslrds the county
of Herts, and was always elleemtd as a friend of liberty,
and a- true patron of literature. Of his erudition he gave
evidence in his learned work, entitled, " Cenfura Celebri-
orum Authorum," printed at London, in 1690, folio, and
reprinted at Geneva in 1C94 and 17 10, 410. This work is
an accurate and ufeful compilation, containing an account
of the characters and writings of both ancient and modern
authors. His work " De Re Poetica," publifhed in 1694,
4to. is a fimilar compilation, comprehending an account of
ancient and modern poets. His " Natural Hillory," print-
ed lfi93, i2mo. is a kind of common-place book, containing
obfervations, many of which are uncommon, felefted from
the bed modern writers. Of his talents as an original writer,
we have a Ipecimen in his " Effays on feveral fubjecfs," 8vo..
in which he difcuffes many curious points ; fuch as the in-
fluence of the priclthood ; the regard due to the ancients ;
the variety of opinions ; the uncf rtainty of human know-
ledge ; the etFedts of cullom and education, &c. He died
at Tittenhanger in 1697, and left a numerous family.
Biog. Brit.

Blount, Charles, brother of the preceding, was born
at Upper HoUoway in 1654, and polTelfcd diftinguiflied ta-
lents, which were affiduoufly cultivated by his father, who
alTumed the direilion of his (Indies. As he was the favourite
of his father, he encouraged his marrying and fettling in an
independent eftate at the early age of eighteen years. If
we except a little treatife, publifhed without his name, and
entitled " Mr. Dryden vindicated, &:c." his literary c?reer
commenced in j67Sor i679,withthe publication of his " Ani-
ma Mundi, or an hiftorical narration of the opinions of the
ancients concerning man's foul after this life, according to
unenlightened nature ;" in the compofition of which he is
faid to have been affifted by his father. This work contain-
ed free opinions, which gave great offence ; and though it
had been previoully hcenfed, was fupprefled by order of
Compton, billiop of London ; and during his abfcnce bumed
by fome olficious zealot. Several anfwers to it were written ;
and it was particularly animadverted upon in the fecond vo-
lume of Nichols'j Conference with a Theilt. In the fame
year Mr. Blount publilbed fome extrafts from Hobbes'i
Leviathan, in a lingle (hect, entitled " Mr. Hobbes's lail
Words and dying Legacy ;" and intended to expofe, pro-
bably, the political principles of this writer. To thefe, his
ardent zeal for liberty rendered him peculiarly adverfe ; and
his zealous attacltment to this canfe was foon after maiiifelled
in a pamphlet, under the fignature of " Junius Brutus ;"
defigned to alarm the nation with regard to a popilb plot,
and the profpeil of a popilh fucceflor to the crown. In 1680
he publilhed his tranllation of " the Two Firll Books of
Philoilratus, concerning the life of Apollonius Tyanasus,
with philological notes on each chapter," fol. which, being
confidered as a dangerous attempt to reproach and injure
the Chiiltiaa religion, was immediately fuppreffed, fo that

B L O

few copies of it could tc obtaintd. Tliis was follow-ed, in
tlic feme year, by a work tntitled " Great is Diana of the
Eplicfiaiis, or the Original of Idolatry, together with the
politicrl inftitotions ot the Gentiles' SacriKces ;" which,
tlioufrh profelTedly written againft the impofitions of the
Heatlien pricRs, was thought to be aimed at the Chriftian
priellliood, and indireftiy ap;ain(l all revelation. The autlior
was now corfidered as the head of the Deillical fcdt, and he
is charged wiih having taken great jjains, by converfation
and currcfpondcnce, to propagate and defend his opinions.
In a letter to Dr. Sydenhan;, however, lie ncknov,kd^ed,
th.Tl in point of practice, Dcifm wasltfs fatisfacilory than the
C'hri'.lian fcheinc. The clamour occafioned by his former
publications made him fomewhat morecaiitious and reftrved;
and accordingly he ftudioiiHy concealed his being the author
ofatreatife, entitled " Rclipio Laici ;" publilhed in ;6S3,
and faid, by Dr. Lcland, in his Deitlical writers, vol. i. p. 37.
to be little more than a tranflation of Lord Herbert's work,
under the fame title ; and he alfo abandoned the defign
which he had formed of writing a life of Mahomet. From
this time he feems to have changed the objefts of his ftudy ;
for in 16S4 he publiflitd " Janua Scientiariim ; or an Intro-
duftion to Geography, Chronology, Government, Hiftory,
Philofophy, and all genteel forts of learning ;" Svc. which
was intended to adift young perfons at an early age in the
acquifition of principles of philofophy and fcience, without
purfuing the tedious couiTe that had been ufually prefcribed
to them in fchools.

Mr. Blount was one of thofe who cordially concun-ed in
the revolution ; and in a letter addrefTed to W. Levefon
Gower concerning corporations, and inferted in the " Oracles
iif Reafon," he exprefles his wifh, that thofe connfeliors of
the late king, who had injured the independence of parlia-
irient, might be punilhed, juilly confiderlng the purity of
reprefentation as the efTence of a free conftitution. About
this time he wrote his treatife entitled " A Jufl Vindication
of Learning, and of the Liberty of the Prefs ;" which is
cfteemed one of his bell performances, and a fummary of all
the principal arguments that can be urged upon this topic.
In his zeal for the caufe of king William, lie wrote a pamphlet
in 1693, intended to prove the right of William and Mary
to the crown, on the ground of conquefl ; and in expla-
nation of this dtfign, fo diifonant, one would imagine,
with his principles, and no lefs obnoxious than ill-founded,
he declares that he wrote '* with an efpecial regard to fuch
as have hitherto refufed the oath, and yet allow of the title
ofconqueft, when confequentto a juil war." Ey this per-
formance he gave fuch offence, that, on a complaint being
brought before the houfe of commons againft this pamphlet,
entitled " William and queen Mary Conquerors," it was
ordered to be burnt by the hands of the common hangman ;
and in the fame cenlnre was involved a paftoral letter of bilhop
Burnet, in which the fame notion was advanced, probably
vv'ith the fame views.

Mr. Blount, having loft his wife, became ardently en-
amoured of her fifter, a lady of great beauty and merit, who
fcemed difpofcd to return his aifeflion ; but as the ccclefuif-
tical laws oppofed their union, he drew up a cafe llrongly
argued, and referred it to certain divines, who of courfe
gave their opinions againil his wilhes. As the lady retufcd
to comply, after fuch a determination, Mr. Blount funk into
defpair, and at length fliot himftlf through the head.

After this aft of phrenfy, he langnifhed for fome days,
receivinir no nourinimciit but from the hands of the objcft
of his aifedion, till at laft death releafcd him, Auguft 1693.
Many of his private letters and fome fmall trafts were pub-
Llhed, together with a preface, by Gildon, in i<^yj, before

B L O

the author's death, in a work entitled "The Oracles of
Reafon;" which was afterwards re-printed, with fome ad-
ditional pieces, after his deceafe, in if^9j, in a collection of
" The Mifcelianeous Works of Charles Blount, cfq." by
the fame Mr. Gildon, who prefixed to it an account of
the life and death of the author. The learning of Mr.
Blount is unquellionable, and he feems to have poficfTed a
ftrong and ardent mind ; but his early dlflike of fuperllitioii
precipitated him into fome very confiderable errors, and
inclined him to believe all revealed religion to be prieficraft,
becaufe he perceived that fome priefls had converted religion
to their own fecular advantage. His fentiments on the fub-
jeft of religion were divulged in his v.'ritings without dif-
guife, and fufficiently warrant our referring him to the clafs
ofdeifts; but the charge of atheifm alleged againil him
by fome foreign divines, is certainly unfounded. See an ac-
count of Mr. Blount's writings by Dr. Leland, in the
fourth letter of his View of the Deiilical Writers, vol. i. By
this author we are informed that Mr. Gildon, who pub-
liflied the " Oracles of Reafon," and communicated them
to the world, was afterwai'ds, upon mature confideration,
convinced of his error, and in 1705 publifhed his retrafta-
tion in a book, entitled " The Deilt's Manual." The
greateft part of this book is intended to vindicate the doc-
trines of the exiftence and attributes of God, his providence
and government of the world, the immortality of the foul,
and a future ftate. And his avowed reafon was, becaufe
many of the deifts, with whom he was well acquainted,
did really deny thofe great principles, which he at the
foundation of all religion, or, at leaft, reprefented them as
doubtful and uncertain. And their not admitting natural
religion in its juil extent, formed fome of their principal
prejudices againil the Chrillian revelation. Biog. Brit.

Blount, in Geography, a new county of the State of
Teneffee, in America.

BLOUNTSVILLE, a town of America, in North Cf-
rolina, on the poft-road from Halifax to Plymouth, 49 mile*
from Ply.mouth, and 55 from Williauiftown.

BLOW, in a general fenfe, denotes a llroke given either
with the hand, a weapon, or inilrnment. The effeft of a
blow is eilimated like the force of percufTion, and according-
ly it is exprcfled by the velocity of the body mtdtiplied by
its weight.

In Fencing, blows differ from thrufts, as the former are
given by ihikiiig, the latter by puHiing. We fay to give,
to return, to parry a blo'u:. (See Parrying.) Blows on
the fword make a kind of purfuit, called beating.

Blow, hlinel, i&us orbus or aecus, is that which does not
appear, or is not attended with effufion of blood ; in contra-
dillinftion from that followed by a wound, difcolouring,
tumor, or the like, called itius apertus or apparent, an open
blonv.

In the ancient laws, wc find blows for remembrance, given
to make perfons remember fome traif^ttion, and enable them
to become better witnelTes of it in future times.

Blow, mililary, alapa tnilitans, that given with the fword
on the neck or ihonlder of a candidate for knighthood, in
the ceremony of dubbing him. The cnllotn feems to have
taken its rife from the ancient ceremony of manumiffion.

In giving the blow, the prince ufed this form : " ello
bonus miles ;" upon which the party role a complete knigli',
and qualified to bear arms in his own right. Sometimes a
double or even triple blow was given, called trina percvjfio.

Blow, Dr. John, in Biography, born at North Colling,
ham, in Nottinghanihire, was one of the firtt fct of children
of the chapel royal after the rcftoration, that was brought
up under captain Cook. He likewife received inftrudions

fron^

B L O

from HiSi^cdon, domclic organi:! to Oliver Croauvcll, and
Dr. Chriil. Gibbons. In 167 j, he was fvvorn oiie of the
geiitlfxcn of the chapel; and in 1674, upon the deccafe of
Kiiinphrey, appointed mailer of the children. In 16S5, he
was nominated one of the private nivilic to ki:g James 11.
and ill 16S7, he was likcrvife appointed almoner and mailer
of the choriilers h the cathedral church of St. Panl ; but,
in 1093, he rcfij^nied this lail place in favojr of his fell, lar
Jeremiiih Clark.

Blow had '::i3 degree of Qoclor of mnfic conferred on liim by
the fpecial grace ot archbifhop Sancroft, without performing
an exercise for it in either of the Univerfities. On the dcceafe
of Pu;-: 11, in l5y5, he was elefted organift of St. Marga-
ret's, Wellmiftcr ; and, in i6c)C), appointed compofer to
the chapel of thirir majellies, king William and queen Mary,
at a falary of 40!. a year, wh-ch afterwards was a'j<:;mentcd
to 73'. A fecond compofer, with the like appointment,
was added in 1715, when John Weldon was fworn into that
office ; at which time it was required that each fliould pro-
duce a new antiiem on the firll Sunday of his month of
waiting.

That Blow was a compofer of anthems, while a finging-
boy in the chapel roval, appears from Clifford's Colleftion
of the Words of the Services and Anthems ufed in our col-
legtTite and cathedral churches, 1664; for among the ec-
clefiailical compofers mentioned in this book, amounting to
upwards of fixty, are included the names of Pelham Hum-
phrey, John Blow, and Robert Smith, children of his ma-
jefty's cliapcl. Humphrey was born in 1647, and Blow in
1648 ; fo that at the rellovation, the firit being only thir-
teen, and the fecond but twelve, their compofmg anthems
fit for the chapel royal, before they had attained the age
of fixteen or feventecn, would now be regarded as wonder-
ful proofs of precocity, if Purcell, foon after, at a more early
period of his life, had not produced compofitions that were
flill fuperior to thtfe.

Dr. Blow died in 1 70S, at fixty years of age ; and though
he did T;ot arrive at great longevity, yet, by beginning his
career, and mounting to the fummit of i:is profellion fo
early, he enjoyed a profperous and eventful life. His com-
pofitions for tlie church, and his Icholars who arrived at
eminence, have rendered his name venerable among the mu-
ilcians of our country.

Though his church mufic was never collefted in a body,
yet, belldes the three fervices and ten full and verfe anthems
printed by Boyce, in Dr. Tudway's MS. colleftion, nineteen
of his choral produflions have been prcferved ; and in Dr.
Aldrich's colleClion in Chriil-charch there are five more.
The aggregate of which, amounting to upwards of torty
different compolitions of this elaborate kind, is but a fmall
part of what might be found in the chapel and choir-books
of our cathedrals.

Some of his choral produflions arc doubtlefs in a very bold
and grand ftyle; however, he is unequal, and frequently un-
happy, in his attempts at new harmony and modulation ;
but, as a compofer who ranked fo high among our moft
claffical mailers (hould not be praifcd or cenfured indifcrimi-
jiately, we fhall point out a few inftances of his great, and,
to our conceptions, unwarrantable licentioufntis, as a con-
trapuntitl.

We are as forry to fee, as to fay, how confufed and inac-.
curate a harmonill he was ; but as it is necelfary to fpeak of
an artill fo celebrated and honoured by his contemporaries, to
diffemble his faults would furpafs candour, and incur che
ccnfure of ignorance and partiality ; for it is as much the
duty of an hillorian to blame as to praife, when juftice and
integrity require it. Indeed) upon whatever fubjedl a mao

B L O

writes, he fiiould afpire at nothing fo mucli as fpeaking truth,
if he wilhes for tiie approbation of his confcience, which is
not only the moll comfortable of all praife, but, luckily, the
moil within his own power. The abihties of the dead, we
can have no interell in depreciating; and if our opinion (hould
be unjull, the milchief will recoil on ourfelves ; for the dead
have more friends than the living, who are ever ready to
vindicate fuch wrongs.

Though there are flrokes of pathetic and fubjefts of
fugue in Blow's works that are admirable ; yet we have ex-
amined no one of them that appears to be wholly unexcep-
tionable, and free from confufien and crudities in the coun-
terpoint. Of the two-part anthem with chorufes, " Lord
how are they increafed," the firll movement is very plaiiiti%-e
and exprcflive; but there are licences in the harmony which
look and found quite barbarous. Indeed, thcfe crudities are
fo numerous as to throw a doubt on his learning, as well as
genius. Whether they are notes of paffion, effufiors of an
unruly fpirit, or of ignorance and afftftation, we will not ven-
ture to determine ; but, to our ears, they have the full effeft
of jargon and want of principles.

It does not appear that Purcell, whom he did hlmfclfthe
honour to call his fcholar, or Crofts, or Clark, his pupils,
ever threw notes about at random, in his manner, or infultcd
the ear with lawlcfs difcords, which no concords can render
tolerable.

In an anthem, " Turn thee unto me, O Lord," printed
by Henry Playford in the fecond colleftion of Divine Har-
mony, there are fo many wanton violations of rule, particu-
larly in the lall chorus, that it would be endlefs to poi;'
them out ; but they feem fuch as no rule, authority, or j "7 •
can juftify; 7ths refolved on the Sth, afcending- -•'^" ^^'
fccnding ; 2ds treated with as little ceremony ^ 3°^" ,'
deed, we never faw fo flovenly a fcore in prir'' ^J^° 't Oiay, m
general, be laid of his faults in countcrr^'^^' ^"^^ 'J'^'''^ ^""^
unaccounted millions of them to be f ''"'i '" "'^ "'°''''^- .
He has been celebrated by D • ^oy«' f""" ," ^'^ '^"'^"'^
in cultivating an uncommo- '-a'^nt for modulation; but
how fo excellent a judge '^ <^om& and pure harmony could
tolerate his licences. '''' reconcile them to his monumental
character atid tli'- additional praife he has himfelf bellowed
upon him', is p-' unaccountable as any thing in Blow's com-
pofitions, tonfidering the knowledge and known probity of
the late worthy editor of Cathedral Mufic.

Many of his ballads, though only in two parts, are full of
crude difcords unprepared and unrefolved ; the caufe of
which, in fome meafure, may be afcribcd to the ground-
Injh, on which it was now the falhion to write: for melody-
being fcarce, both that and the harmony were frequently in-
jured by this Gothic rcilraint. But the paffing-notes and notes
of embellifliment of the compofers, in general, of this period,
were uncouth in melody, and licentious in harmony. Per-
haps thofe of the prefent times, in lefs than a century, will
be equally unpleafing to the ears of pofterity ; and yet we
fancy that both melody and harmony have received their
lall polifh.

The ballads of Dr. Blow are in general more fmooth and na-
tural than his other produdions, and, indeed, than any other
ballads of his time ; there is more melody than in thofe of
Henry Lawes, or any compofer of the picceding reign ; yet
it is not of that graceful kind in which the Italians were now
advancing towards perfection, with great rapidity. It is
cither of a Scots call, or of a languid kind, tliat excites ng.
other fenfation than fatigue and drowfinef?.

His palloral, " Since the Spring comes on," is, how-
ever, as chaiUiint as any mongrel mixture of Scots,
Irilh, French, and Englilli. that has been fingc com-

piled*.

B L O

piled. The firfl movement, particular!)', fecms to have
been the model of moll of the Vauxhall fongs of the la£b
fifty years.

" Fill me a" bowl," p. 52, has the fame kind of merit.

Thecollefting of his fecular compofitions into a folio vo-
lume in 1700, under the title of " Ampliion Anglicus," was
doiibtlefs occafioiied by the great fuccefs of the " Orpheus
BritLumicns," a fimiiar colleftiou of Purccll's dramatic and
mifce'bneous fong«, publirtied by his widow, in 169S. But
wliethcr Dr. Blow was Simulated to this publication by
emulation, envy, or the folicitation of his fcholars and
friends, by whom there are no lefs than fifteen encomiaftic
copies of verfes prefixed to tht; work, the ungrateful public
feems to have remained aluays infenfible to thefe ftrains of
the modern Amphion, which were not only incapable of
building cities, but even of fwpporting his own tottering
fame.

Some of his innumerable deformities from the Amphion
Anjjiicus are added to thofo of his church mulic, in the
third vol. Gen. Hill. Muf. " Go perjured man," is the
bell of all his fecular prcduftions ; but that, which was
an imitation of a duet by Cariifimi, " D'lle, 0 c'leli," is
overloaded, in his " Amphion Anglicus," with a laboured
and unmeaning accompaniment. P. 44 and 46 of this col-
kiflion, contain two of his bed ballads, " Sabina has a
tlioufand charms," and " Philander do not think of arms."
In thefe ballads the union of Scots melody with the Enghfli,
is firft confpicuous. The fubjeft of a fong, p. 16S, " Ori-
*hea's bright eyes," is llkewiie broad Scots.

"Sxows, in Common Law. Sec Batteky.
. J. ^-"s, fly, the ova of flies dtpoiited on fltfli, or other
bodies pro,,^ f„^ hatching them.

> >n i,^ ^^^ l^uiwuage : when the wind increafes
Irom a moderate v.^^^^^ j^ j^ f^j^ j^ y„^^ . ^„j^ ^^^^,.j_
ing to the various <k,^,,, ^^f ^..^ (^ with which the wind
blows, >t receuves differe. appellations.

fcrohr. Germ ; Chnlummu Yv. ^ blow-pipe is a wind in-
ftrument for the purpofe of increalu.^ the heat of a candle
or lamp, ,n the fame manner as a pair oi bellows is employed
tor railing the temperature of a common fir^ or furnace It
IS not known at what time or by whom tlm very ufeful
tnitrument was invented, but it appears to have been employed
by glafs-workers, enamellers, and jewellers, long beWi it
was adopted as an article of chemical apparatus. The firlV
intimation of its value to the chemill is to be found in
Kunkel's treatife on glafs-makincr.

The common glafs-blower's lamp is reprefented in P/aleX.
A- ^■{Chenaflry). A, 'u a wooden table, within the frame
ot which IS fixed a pair of double bellows B, that are worked
by the fo(;t cf the artilt; from the nozlc of the bellows
proceeds a pipe of lead, or tinned iron, CC, which, fiiil rifing
perpendicularly, is then brought under the top of the table
to n, where it penetrates the wood, and terminates onits upper
fiuface, m a recurved hollow cone E, the apex of which is
pierced with a minute round hole. A flioe-lamp, F, is
placed on the table, fo that its wicii is fomewhat below, and
about half an inch dillant from the aperture of the pipe ; the
bellows b-ing then worked, a c-nllant llream of airis thrown
upon the wiek of the lamp, producing a long conical hori-
zontal flame, G, of very confideiablc intenfity. The increafed
heat of the flame a;)pears to depend, in part, on a more rapid
and complete combullion of the oil, and in part, alfo, on the
concentration of the flame, by the adlon of the blall. The
flame, upon examination, will'he found to coufift of an exte-
rior yellow cone, inclufing another of a lighter yellow colour,
at the extremity of which laft is the focus of grcatell heat.

B L O

The Ihoc-lamp (more diftiiidly reprefented injg. 2.) is fo
called from its refemblaiice to a flioe. It is niade of tinned
iron, and confiils of two parts ; the exterior, a, ferves to hold
the proper lamp, and to retain the oil, which cccafionally
drops from the wick ; the lamp, b, has a fixed cover, except
at the tip, c, where a circular aperture is left for the wiek,
d, which confiils of a bundle of cotton threads, about an inch
in diameter ; at <? is a hinge, by which that part of the lid
neareit the wick may be laifed, in order to pour in frcfli oil,
or to renew or raife the wick.

The glafs-worker's blow-pipe is, however, not fufGciently
portable for the ufe of the chemill and mineralogill, and it
was a happy thought of Swab, the Swedilh mineralogift, to
fubftitute the lungs for the btUows. Gahn, Engeliroem,
and Bergman fuggefted various improvements in the con-
ftruftion of this inftrument, which now appears to have
attained as great a degree of perfection, as it is perhaps
capable of.

The common chemical blow-pipe copfiils of five parts ;
{C/:tmi/Iry, Plate YA. Ji^. T,.) the moutli-piece, a; a plain
tube, /; ; a bulb, r ; a curved tube, (// and a nut, e

The mouth-piece (more dilUnClly reprefented by /^. 5.)
is made of ivory, the re!l of the apparatus being ot brhis, and
fi s clofcly into the pipe, b, fo as to be air-tight ; the bulb,
t, is divided into two hemifpheres, which fercvv into each
other, and is defigned to coiletl and condmfe the moiltiire of
the breath ; into the lower hcmifphere is (Ixed the recurved
tube, d (as reprefented \n Jig. 4.), in fuch a manner as to
prevent the coiidenfcd vapour from efeaping out of the bulb;
the nut, e, is a hollow cylinder fuPhcieiitly wide at one end
to receive the extremity of the curved tube, and peifortcd
at the other with a fmall round hole, to ahow a paiTage f#r
the air; each blow-pipe has generally three of thefe nuts
(Jig. 6.), with apertures of difTerent fixes, the largell of which
does not exceed the diameter of the fmallcfl; pin.

In ufing the portable blow-pipe, the only difficulty is to
keep up a conllant llream of air ; which is to be done by
performing the fundlion of refpiration through the nollri's
alone, diverting fiom time to time a portion of the explrai'ion
into the mouth for the fupply of the blow-pipe, and lorcing
it through the tube by the action of the inulelesof the cheek.
This knack is by fome acquired in an inftant, while others
are a long time in making themfelves mailers of it. To thofe
who experience any difficulty in the free ufe of this inftru-
ment, the following direftions may be of fervice. Firll, let
the learr.cr accuflom himltlf to breathe freely with the mouth
mut ', then in making an expiration, let him transfer the air
intp the mouth, till the cheeks aie moderately inflated, and rc-
taming it there, let him difchargc the furplus of theexpirntiou
through the nollrils, and then make two or three eafy infpira-
tionsandexpiratior.stl'.rough the noftrils, without allowing the
air in the mouth to cfcape. When praftice has rendered this
eafy, which may becfFcded in half an hour, let the nut v>ith
the fmalleft aperture be fixed on the curved tube of the blow-
pipe, and introduce the mouth-piece within the lips ; then in-
flate the cheeks by an expiration, and continue breathing
eafily through the nollrils, till nearly ll'.e whole of the air has
pafltd out of the mouth through the tube ; then renew the
air as before, and, after a few days' prattict, the mufeks of
the mouth will be accuftomed to this new mode of exertion,
and an uniform uninterrupted ftream of air may be kept up for
half an hour without any extraordinary fatigue. A v. ax can-
die,/, having burnt long enough to allow the wiek to be
turned down, in the manner reprefented in the plate, the nut
of the blow-pipe is to be applied to the arch of the wick, and
the air, as it comes through, will bend the flame into a neat
horizontal cone, the exterior part of which is yellow, and the

interior

B L O

»nt(?nor Mu*. Tlie fubftance under examination being re-
<luced to the fize of a peppercorn, is to be placed in the platina
fpoon, Jig. 7. or into a fhallow cavity in a piece of conipaft
charcoal, and being firft gradually heated by the yellow
flame, g, is afterwards to be expofcd to the full intenfity of
the blue focus, h.

An important ufe of the blow-pipe in the laboratory is to
foften glafs-tubes, &c. in order to bend them to any Ihape
that may be required, for which purpofe the blovT-pipe juft
defcribed is not very well qualified, tlie flame not being
[arge enough, and, from its intenfity at the blue fcrcus,
•fting very unequally. It may, therefore, in thefe, and
Cmilar cafes, be advantageouily fuperfedcd by the alcohol
blow-pipe.

This inftrument, the invention of which is due, we beliere,
to M. Paul and profefTor Pidet of Geneva, has received fome
improvements from Englifii artills, and is figured in Chcmijiry,
P/dte'Kl. Jig. I. and 2. It is made of brafs, and confills of
the following parts : A is an oval bafe, in which are tv/o
round holes, for the reception of the two fpirit lamps, B, and
C, the latter of which has a conliderably thicker wick than
the former. D is a pillar that fcrcws into the bafe, and fup-
ports a moveable brafs collar, E, which may be retained at
any convenient height by the fcrew, F. L is the boiler
hanging loofely, but fecurely, in the collar, E ; M is a fcrew
accurately clofing an aperture in the boiler, through which
it is filled with alcohol ; I is a conical plug, ferving as a
fafety-valve, the refiftance of which to the expanfion of the
▼apour is regulated by the fteel fprihg H, comprefTed be-
tween the fcrew nuts G and K ; O is the delivering pipe,
feen more particularly at Jg. 2. It confills of a plain tube,
«, fomewhat longer than the depth of tlie boiler, of a flioulder
»nd fcrew, b, by which it is fixed in the bottom of the boiler,
of a ball and focket joint (compofed of the Iphere, c, «', in-
clofing the perforated bulb and item e,JJ, and of the nut^,
terminated by a fmall aperture, &c. fcrewing on the ftem,y".
N {fig. I.) is a hollow cap, fcrewing into the boiler, and re-
ceiving the head of the tube, a, to prevent any liquid alcohol
from being thrown into it. This blow-pipe works in the
following manner : The boiler being filled with alcohol, and
the fcrews and valve fecured, the lamps, B and C, are lighted.
The alcohol in the boiler being brought to ebullition by the
lamp B, tlie vapour afcends into the cap N, whence it paffes
down the tube O, and is difcharged at P, upon the wick of
the lamp C, producing a long bulky horizontal flame Q,
•whofe extreme temperature is nearly equal to that of
melting copper, and is admirably fitted for the working of
glafs.

Mr. Benjamin Hooke, lately an ingenious mathematical
inftrument-maker in Fleet Street, has made fome improve-
ments in the blow-pipe by alcohol ; for a defcription and
drawing of which we refer to Ni«holfon's Journal, vol. iv,
p. 106, 8vo.

The blow-pipe is of confiderable ufe to^ the mineralogical
themiil, from its being very portable, and fliewing, in a few
minutes, upon a very fmall quantity of any mineral fubftance,
the effeft that would be produced by its cxpofure to the
heat of ourmoft powerful furnaces. It is alfo a valuable in-
ftrument in the analyfis of minerals, by indicating their prin-
cipal contents, rudely and iniperfeftly indeed, yet fo as
to afford a clue to the chemill in his fubfequent opei-a-
tions.

The efficacy of the blow-pipe, in fufing the mod refraftory
fubftances, is, however, greatly increafcd by charging it with
oxygen gas ; a heat is thus produced, fully equal to that of
the folar rays concentrated by the belt Icnfes. The appa-
ratus for this purpgfe confills of the common blow-pipe, witk

Vol.. IV.

B L O

th(* mouth-picce taken out, and conneflfd to a gatometo",
by a flexible tube of elaftic gum ; the curved tube and ter-
minating nut of the blow-pipe ought, however, to be made
of platina, the heat produced being fo intenfe as frequently
to fufe and inflame thofe parts of the inftrument, if made of
brafs. The operator fliould alfo be careful to wear fpeftack*
of green glafs, in order to proteft his eyes from the intolerable
white glow, which is fo intenfe as to caufe even the flame of
a common wax candle to caft a very fenfible fhade. Some-
times a double blow-pipe is made ufe of in experiments with
oxygen gas, by which the eflFeft is confiderably increafed. A
reprcfentation of this is feen in Chem'Jlry, Plate's.. Jg. ■^.
The part, a, which joins the tube of the gazometer, turns
air-tight in a collar, I, on the end of the tube, b, c. On thi«
tube aie two brafs boxes, d, e, into which are fitted the tubes,
J, g, which alfo turn in air-tight fockets, for the purpofe of
enabling the operator to move the blow-pipes, /i, i, nearer to
or further from each other. The blow-pipes, h, !, are alfo
moveable at /•, /, by which the direftion of the blafts may be
varied, fo as to meet on the charcoal, m, at any angle that
may be required.

The caufe of the great heat vrhich is produced by the blow-
pipe, has generally been attributed both to a concentration
of the flame in a fmall focus, and a more rapid combuftion
than ufual. Count Rumford, however, (Effays, vol. ii.
p. 69.) fuppofes that the efFeft of this inftrument is entirely
due to the former of thefe caufes ; and in fupport of this hy-
pothefis, he mentions the refults of fome experiments made
by himftlf, which are fo contrary to daily experience, and
were conduced in fo inaccurate a manner, as to deferve, ia
our opinion, very little confidence.

He begins by faying, " A current of air cannot generate
heat, without, at the fame time, being decompofed ; and, in
order to its being decompoftd in a fire, it muft be brought
into aftual contaft with the burning fuel, or at leaft with the
uninflamed inflammable vapour which rifes from it. But can
it be fuppofed that there can be any thing inflammable, and
not aftually inflamed,'in the clear, bright, and perfedlly tranf.
parent flame of a wax candle ? A blow-pipe has, however,
as fenfible an effetl when direfted againft the clear flame of «
wax candle, as when it is employed to increafe the aftion of
a common glafs-worker's lamp." To this it may be replied,
in the firft place, that flame is not tranfparent ; and, fecondly,
that a confiderable quantity of " uninflamed inflammable
matter" is contained in the flame, as is evident from the foot
that may be collefted by holding a plate of glafs or metal
over it, fo as juft to touch the fummit. The count proceed*
to relate that carbonic acid being driven by a blow-pipe
through the " clear, brilliant flame of a wax-candle juft
fnuff^ed," melted a fmall tube of glafs in the fame time at
when the pipe was charged with atmolpheric air, or even with
oxygen gas. We have repeated thefe experiments, and ob-
ferved, that when the blall was direfted to the whiteft part
of the flame, no well defined horizontal cone was produced
by any of the three gafes ; that when carbonic acid, or the
breath, was paffed through the flame juft above the wick, a
well defined cone was produced, the interior of which was of
a light blue, and the exterior of a pale yellow ; when atmo-
fpheric air was employed, the whole cone was of a bright
yellow ; and, with oxygen gas, the whole flame was of a
dazzling white. The cffeft of the fecond in melting glafa
was greater than that of the firft, and the laft was much more
powerful than the fecond. Neri, art de la Verrerie. Berg-
man's Eff. vol. ii. Philofophical Magazine, vol. viii. p. 325.

BLOWER, fijujjhur, an appellation of contempt, foma-
times given to an alchemift.

In the French king's kitchen, there was a,ncieutly an of-
4 M ficer

B L O

ficer under the denomination of fufflator, or Jire-llotvtr.
The Roman mint-men were diftinguifhed by the appella-
tion of blowers of gold, filver, and brafs, icc.Jlatores aur'i,
argenti.

Blower, among dealers in horfes, a term ufed for
fuch horfes as wheeze much, without wanting wind. See
Wheezing.

BLOWING, in Medicine. One method of adminiftering
medicines is by inflation, or blowing them into the part
by a tube : thus it is they fometimcs convey powders into
the eye, and fometimes up the nofe, for the cure of a
polypus.

Blowing, exfufflatio, was alfo a ceremony in the ancient
adminiftration of baptifm, whereby the catechumen, upon
rehearfingthe renunciation, blew three blafts with his mouth,
to fignify that he rejefkcd or call the devil abfolutely off.

Something like this is rtill retained in the Ruffian church.
In the facramentary of St. Gregory, the pricft who admini-
fters baptifm, is enjoined to blow thrice on the child's face,
making the fign of the crofs with his hand, and pro-
nouncing the words exi ab eo Satan. Juftin Martyr, Ter-
tullian, St. Cyril, and St. Auguftin fpeak of this ceremony
as ufed in their times.

Blowing of af-re-arm, is when the touch-hole is run or
gulled, and become wide, fo that the powder will flame
out.

Blowing is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the natural motion
or courfe of the wind.

In the Sea- Language, the wind is faid to llo-w home, or
blotu through, when it does not ceafe, or grow lefs, till it
comes pad the place where the fpeaker is. To bloiju through
is fometimes alfo ufed to denote, that the wind will be fo
great as to blow afunder the fails. When a wind increafes
fo much that they cannot bear any top-fails, they fay, they
were blown into their courfes, i. e. they could only have out
the fails fo called. To exprefs an extraordinary great wind,
they fometimes fay, it will blow the fail out of the bolt-
ropes.

Blowing is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the force and cffcA
of kindled gunpowder on bodies which happen to be over
it. In this fcnfe we fay to blow up a houfc. Engineers at
fieges make mines wherewith to blow up walls, ballions, and
other defences. Powder-mills are apt to blow up by the
iron gudgeons growing hot, and fetting fire to the powder
duil flying about.

Blowing, among Gardeners, denotes the aftion of flow-
ers whereby they open and difplay their leaves. In which
fenfe, blowing amounts to much the fame with flowering
and bloflbming.

Blowing of Glass, one of the methods of form-
ing the divers kinds of works in the glafs manufafture. It is
performed by dipping the end of an iron ponteglio, or blow-
pipe, in the melted glafs, and blowing througli it with the
mouth, according to the circumftances of the glafs to be
blown.

Blowing of tin, a term ufed by the Cornifh miners for
the fufion or reduftion of tin-ore to the metallic ftate, after
having been roafted to get rid of the fulphur and arf-nic.

Blowing Machine, is ufed in metallurgical cperations on
a great fcale, for the purpofe of exciting combufl:ion in
. furnaces appropriated for the fmelting and reducing of
ores.

The hiftory and improvement of machinery of this nature
have kept pace with the other branches of our national nia-
nufafture, and, in many inilances, may be juftly faid to
have gone beyond them.

In the fmelting of lead and tin ores, the fize and powers

o

B L O

of the blowing machine have been lefs a fubjc^ of alteratios
and improvement, than thofe ufed at furnaces and worki
where iron ore is fmclted.

The natural fufibility and eafy volatilization of the former
metals, in temperatures beyond a bright red heat, have pre-
fcribed the fize of the furnace, the meafure of the blali,
and the nature of the fuel.

In the manufafture of copper, air-furnaces are generally
ufed, except where precipitated oxyd of copper is revived in
fmall blaft-furnaces, refembling thofe called cupolas, ufed
at iron foundenes.

The conllruftion of a lead fmelting machine, or what is
commonly called a " Lead Mill," is extremely fimple. A
water wheel is erefted in the middle of a fquare building.
To the flraft of this wheel are attached four fmall wheels of
cad iron, about i8 inches diameter. Four pairs of bellows,
two pairs on each fide of the fliaft, are placed at equal
diltance?, and fupported upon a ftrong framing of wood. As
the water wheel (haft revolves, the fmall wheels are carried
round, and alternately, or two and two together, deprefs
the extremity of a lever attached by an iron chain to an
equipoifed beam. The defcent of this lever elevates the op.
pofite end of the beam, to which is alfo attached, by means
of another iron chain, the upper or moveable furface of the
bellows. The blaft produced in this way is in general foft,
much inferior in point of either quantity or dcnfity to what
is found neceflary at iron furnaces. The bellows in common
meafure lo feet in length, and 5 or 6 feet acrofs the breach,
moving about 30 fl:rokes per minute.

In the manufafturc of iron it has always been, particu-
larly fince the introduftion of pit coal, the unceafing objeft
of the iron-maker to improve his blowing apparatus ; for
uniformly he has found, that in proportion as he can raifc
air, and make it enter the furnace, fo will his weekly quan-
tity of metal be increafed.

In the early hiftoi-y of this intcrefting manufaclure, when
charcoal of wood was the matter of fuel made ufe of, the
affinities betwixt the latter and the ore were eftabliihed with
more facility. Small furnaces, called bloomeries, were fuf-
ficieatly large, and deemed of profitable capacity, if they
produced a bloom or two of iron per day, of yo to 1-olLs.
each.

Hand bellows, and what were called fuel blafts, were fuf-
ficiently large for the minor operations. After the general
introdutlion of the refinery furnaces, and the divifion of the
manufacture into the making of pig iron, and the refining
of this into bar or malleable iron, the advantages of a
powerful blaft were immediately perceived. Water wheels,
working two pairs or more of leather bellows, were found to
produce powerful effefts, and, in confequence, almoft every
fitiiation that prefented a command of materials and a
waterfall, became the fcite of an iron-mill.

The fimple mode of blowing furnaces by means of a
trompe, was at the fame time introduced ; but in general it
was found, that m.uch greater advantage could be derived
from the defcent of water upon a wheel, either as to dei.fity
or quantity, than by means of the bell conftrufted trompe.

The ufe of water wheels and leather bellows continued ,
general throughout the iron bufinefs, until the principles
and mechanifm of the fl.eam engine were eftabliflied upon
unerring grounds. This wonderuil invention was foon ap-
plied with the happieft efl'ett in many fituations rich with
mineral treafures, but to which nature had denied the ad-
vantage of water fufficient to turn machinery. Cylinders,
compolcd of wood, firmly jointed and hooped, v.'cre firft
introduced as a fubftitute for leather bellows : thefe were
foon after replaced by bored cylinders of call iron ; and

Yiith

B L O

B L O

with this f;rsat difcovcry and application of the art of cad- This was completely accomplifhcd by inverting large cherts,
ing, the blowing machine alTumed a general and udl-pro- or cylinders, in cifterns of wood, ftone, or iron. The fpace

portioned form

This took place nearly 40 years ago, and continued with
a few temporary deviations until the introduction of Bolton
and Watt's highly improved engine. The followiug may
ferve for an oiitHne of the old blowing Iteam engine.

A Ifeam cylinder, working with atmofpheric prefTurefrom
3 to 7 lbs. upon every fquare inch of the area of the pifton.
The diameter of the cylinder for one furnace varied from
25 to 36 inches, and for two furnaces from 56 to 50
inches. Upon the oppofite of the main or working beam,
fomctimts at equal, and fometimes at unequal diftances from
the centre, was placed the air-pump or blowing cylinder,

betwixt the inner and outer cifterns was conftrufted of fuf-
ficient capacity to oppofe to the expanfive force of the blall
a column of water of equal or fuperior refiftance.

This invention was called the water blaft, water preffure,
water regulator, &c. The dimenfions differed materially
from from each other ; this circumftance being much regu-
lated by conveniency, opinion, and the fize of the engine.

Plate XlV.Jig. I, {Chemijh-y) reprefents a ground plan of a
very capacious water regulator, funk in the ground, and built
of ftone and bricks.

A, the inverted cheft made of plates of cafl iron, 40 feet
'ong, 12 feet v/ide, and 12 feet high. The fquare fuper-

This was, in common, equal to four or five times the area of iicies of this cheft is equal to 4S0 feet, and its cubical con

the former; and, with the fmall working power of the fteam
cylinder, feldom coiidenfed the air beyond i\ to if lbs. per
fquart inch. The air-pump was commonly conllruftid open
below, as may be feen in Phte II. fi-;. I. {Chemijhy). The
plan was fometnnes deviated from, and the cylinder inverted.
The blowing pillon was loaded with weights, and the air ex-
preffed by its defcent. In this mode of working, the act
of the fleam pifton, defcending in vacuum, railed the air

tents are 5760 feet. Its weight will amount to nearly jo
tons.

B, the opening to which the air-pipe is attached ; 2 feet
diameter.

CCCC, open fpace betwixt the inverted cheft and ftone
ciftern, for the column of v/ater to afcend ; jf feet wide.

D D D D, ftone or brick-work, of which the great
ciftern is built. This work requires to be well jointed, as

pump pifton loaded with weights. Upon the return of the the motion of the water has a great tendency to open the

ftroke, or while the fteam pifton afcended in the cylinder, this
pifton loaded with weights funk the whole length of the
ftroke, and by means of this loading, proportioned to the
powers of the engine, forced the air either into the regula-
tor or the furnace.

Above, or parallel to the air-pump, was placed the regu-
lating cylinder, as may be feen in the plate above mentioned.
This had a valve of communication, which opened every

fpaces betwixt the ftones. This ciftern is 47 feet ftct long,
19 feet broad, and 14 feet high ; its cubical meafurement
amounting to 1 2,500 feet, and capable of containing 93,300
gallons wme meafnre.

e eee, an opening of one foot in breadth left in the
middle of the building. This is compactly filled with well
trod clay, called puddling, and prevents the efcape or circu-
lation of water through the building. Beyond this the

ftroke the engine made, and admitted the whole difcharge common building extends to a fufficient thicknefs to give

of air. The pillon of the cylinder, frequently called the general fecurity to the whole.

fly pifton, was loaded with weights, and kept conftantly Fig. 2. is a crofs feclion of the water regulator at B,

vibrating; fo that when any deficiency of preffure arofe fig- i. The letters in this view correfpond with thofe in the

from the remitting aftion of the air-pump pifton, the blaft plaji

was comparatively equalized by the prefture of the fly pifton
upon the included air. The fize of this cylinder was gene-
rally in the proportion of 9 to 6 of the air-pump.

The chief objeftions to this mode of blowing, even when
in univerfal ufe, were founded upon the great inequality
of the blaft, and a very confidcrabie waile of air that took
place at iht/nort, or fafcty valve, to prevent the fly pillon
being blown entirely out of the cylinder. The fnort was
an opening made in the top of the air-pump cylinder, on

F, the blaft; pipe from the cylinder entering the cheft,
and branching to the two blaft furnaces.

G G, large hewn ftones, on which the cheft is fupported»
about two feet from the bottom of the ciftern, at inter-
vals of fix feet from each other.

H, loading of hewn ftone, which for this ciftern requirei
to be equal in all to 90 tons. If the cheft weighs 30, then
60 tons of loading will be requifite. This is fuppoiing that
the power of the blovring machine is calculated to prefs

which relied a heavy iron valve, faced with leather fluffed equal to 3 lbs. upon every fquare inch, which many of them

with wool ; this was, by means of an upright iron rod, at- are conftrufted to perform.

tached to a lever, which run acrofs the top of the regulating To comprehend diftinftly in what manner the water re-

«ylinder. As foon as the fly pifton arofe to a certain height, gulator performs its funftions, and upon the fuppofition

a block of wood, or other contrivance, lifted the one end that the comprefling power of the engine is equal to j lbs.

cf the lever, and along with it the valve, to a certain height, upon eveiy fquare inch, we fhall fuppofe the engine at

and permitted a quantity of the denfeft air to efcape, fuffi- reft, and water introduced into the regulator, till it rife to

cient to infure the fafety of the pifton. Notwithftanding the level of the dotted hnc li, 5 feet from the lower edge of

thefe precautions, many accidents and ftops enfued ; the the cheft, and 7 feet in total depth of water. As foon a«

breaking of a pin, or the loofingof a key, frequently ejefted the engine is fet to work, the compreflion of the air imme-

the pifton from its cylinder, though loaded with feveral diately fets the water in motion ; every ftroke making

tons of weight. the water rife in the fpace CC, and proportionally falling

Some iron matters, more ingenious than others, contrived towards GG, in the interior of the cheft.

to take the fpare or wafte air from the fnort, to receive it in
An inverted chefl above water, and blow to its extent fmithy
and finery fires. Endeavours of this kind to hufbandand eco-
nomife air, raifed and condenfed at a great expence, were
fufficient proofs that a method was ftill wanting to complete
the blowing machine, to render its motions fteady and uni-
form, and toequahze the denfity of the blaft throughout the
\ivhole ftroke.

When the inverted cheft becomes filled with air, and the
condenfation has reached the maximum of the power of the
blowing machine, the water will be found elevated 5* feet
to i, and the gauge will exhibit a depreffion in the interior
of the cheft, from /; to /, 3I feet, making in all 7 feet
from k to /.

At every turn of the engine ftroke, the water maintained

at < falls a few inches, and elevates itfelf above i in the in-

4Mz luisx

B L O

tenor of tVie cKeft, a fimilar height. Tliis defcription takes
it for granted, that the fpaccs C C are equal to the area of
the inverted cliell ; fo that every inch of water forced out
of the cheft adds exaftly one inch to the height of the
coUimn.

A blowing maclcine, capable of blowing to purpofe two
blaft furnaces, ought to liave the inverted chell of the regu-
lator equal to three or four hundred fquare feet of area.
There cannot arife any error from having this large enough ;
the want of fpace and capacity frequently proves a real de-
triment.

In calculating the proportions and dimenfions of water
regulators in general, the principle is, to allow the fpace
around the inverted chell equal in point of fiipevficial mea-
furemcnt to the area of the interior of the chdf , that the
defcending column of water may difplace no more in the
perpendicular afcent, than it is itfe't abfolutely deprelled.

If the area or fpace, in which the water rifes and falls,
is only equal to half the area of the inverted cheft, then for
every foot of water which is depreifed in the bottom of the
cheft, a column of two feet will be raifed and maintained on
the outfide. On the contrary, if the outfide fpace for
water be equal to twice the area, then every foot of water
deprefled in the cheft will only elevate the external column
fix inches.

It will appear evident from thefe general fafts, that a
confiderable latitude may at any time be afTumed in con-
ftrufting the water regulator, particularly in old eftabliihed
■works, where local circumftances and conveniency confine
its fituation to one fpot.

Where it is not inconvenient to ufe a high perpendicular
column of water, the inverted cheft may be increafed one
half, double, or even triple the fuperficial meafurement of
the outfide fpace ; fo that if the power of the blowing ma-
chine is equal to 3 lbs. upon the fquare inch, the water in
the cheft will be depreffed 3I feet nearly, and raifed in the
perpendicular column 5 feet j inches in the firft, 7 feet in
the fecond, and lOj feet in the laft cafe. This plan to fuit
former eftablifliments may be adopted with confiderable mo-
difications, always keeping in mind, that every foot of area
gained upon the furface of the water is a material acquifition
to the equalizing powers of the regulator.

One imperfection attends this want of equilibrium on the
two fpaces for the aftion and re-attion of the water. —
\Vhatever fpace the waters would fall, at the return of the
ftroke, fuppofing the infide and outfide columns exaftly ba-
lanced, would in this cafe be increafed one half, double, or
triple.

Again, where fituation does not admit of the perpendi-
tular column being raifed beyond, or not even to the extent
of the depreftion, that takes place within the inverted chelt,
and where an additional fpace cannot be procured for an in-
creafe of its diameter, an inverted chell of much lefs
height than common may be ufed, loaded with a material
cf great weight, fiich as iron. The water in that cafe would
diftribute itfelf over the furface of the cheil, inilead of
rifing in perpendicular height.

One ferious objeAion, however, is made to chefts or cy-
linders, where the eduftiou pipe approaches within a fhort
fpace of the furface of the water ; namely, water rifing in
the pipes, and being conveyed along with the air into the
furnace. This may take place in two ways ; by an Infenfible
and uniform difcharge of water into the furnace, making
the blaft at the tuyere vifible, like the refpiration of the
human body in a frofty day ; or in quantity, threatening
utter deftruftion to the furnace and buildings. The former
ii occaiioned by the air from the edudion pipe> at the com-

3

B L O

men«ement of the ftroke, impinging violently upon the fur-
face of the vvaljtr, and raifing a portion of it in the ftate of
fpray. This is fpeedily diffolved or entangled in the mafs of
condenfed air before the return of the next ftroke, and be-
comes expreficd along with the blall into the furnace. The
other hazardous confequence is occafioncd chiefly by undu-
lation in the column of water, when the blowing machine is,
by derangement or accident, working under its proper
power or number of ftrokes. In thefe cafes, when the
paufe at the end of the ftroke is prolonged, an exhauf-
tion fometimes takes place iu the air-pipes, the water rifes
and is carried in a ftrcam through the blow-pipe into the
furnace.

The fame cafualties may more readily occur, if the fur-
face of the water is upon a level, or nearly fo, with the
tuyere.

In judicious ereftions this is mod carefully avoided ; the
furface of water in the inverted cheft or cyhnder is kept at
leaft S, 9, and 10 feet under the level of the tuyere, even at
the laft period of return, when the water has rifen to its
greateft height within.

• This very proper precaution enfures an advantage of much
importance. A large fpace is obtained betwixt the top of
the cheft and the deprelled furface of the water ; this be-
comes a fpacious refervoir for the condenfed air, and, by ge-
nerating a confiderable portion of elafticity, prevents any
violent perturbation upon the water at any period of the
ftroke. The increafed diftance betwixt the furface of the
water, and the pipe which conducts the air from the cy-
hnder, has a complete tendency to prevent the elevation of
the aqueous particles, and always enfures a quantity of air
comparatively free from moifture.

Upon the principles formerly noticed, it is poffible to con-
ftrudl a blowing apparatus of this nature, wherein there
could be little or no vifible motion in the perpendicular co-
lumn of water even with the fame engine.

Let us fuppofe a machine of this nature at work, with an
accurately balanced column of water, the fall of which, at
the return of the ftroke, was equal to 12 inches. It is evi-
dent, that if the outfide fpace was enlarged fo much over its
furface as to contain this foot of water, without adding any
perceptible height to the column ; that included within the
cheft would, at the return of the ftroke, being fed from
a more capacious limlj, rife a foot, without any fenfible di-
minution taking place in the perpendicular height of the
external fluid. It is equally obvious, in this as in every
cafe with water regulators, that the rife and fall of the in-
fide column of water will remain the fame, under every mo-
dification and form, while the pace and powers of the engine
remain the fame.

The application of water regulators to blowing machines
was foon followed by an attempt to further improvement,
by the introduttion of the air-vault ; tlie principle of which
was to form a receiver of fuch capacity, that the elafticity
or fpring of the condenfed air would be fufficient to ex-
prefs and cquaUze the blaft during the return of the
ftroke.

To eff"eft this, an immenfe magazine was requifite ; to
ereft which of any metallic fubllance would have been
ruinoufly expenfive, and, if conftrufted of wood, infuffi-
cient for retaining the air. It became therefore i-equifite
to try the experiment upon building, or by excavation from
the folid rock. In both thefe ways has the air-vault been
tried, and found to produce an excellent eff^eft, as to
equahzing the denfity of the blaft ; but it has been con-
ceived with fuch indifferent confequenccs as to quantity,
that the plan is for the prefeut given up.

Ail.

B L O

B L O

Air-vaults were conftrufted both at the Clyde and Muir-
kii'k iron works in Scotland, and a conftaut current of air
produced ; but nearly one half the quantity lifted bv the air-
pump efcaped through the walls and arches of the building.
This was at any time made vifible by rubbing foapy water
upon the external walls.

At Devon iron works in Scotland, an air-vaulf was ex-
cavated from the folid rock, 72 feet long, 14 feet wide,
and Ij feet high ; equal to 13,000 feet of cubical meafure-
ment. This ijnmenfe excavation was made comparatively
air-tight, by cauking the feams and fiffures of the rock,
plailering and then covering the whole with alternate layers
of pitch and elofe wove paper.

This was the n'ofi: perfeft experiment ever tried upon
the air-vault ; and if an opinion is to be formed of the
perfeiflion of the apparatus by the quantity of iron at
one time manufactured, a very trifling portion of air in-
deed mud have been loft.

It has been frequently noticed in Scotland, that at works
where the materials were in any degree fimilar, 3000
to ,5500 cubical feet of air per minute will, in the courfe of a
week, produce from 30 to 35 tons of pig iron, whatever may
be the denfity at which it is thrown into the furnace.

The Devon furnace at one time averaged 33 tons weekly
for 9 months running, and confumed of air, per data fur-
tiifhed by Mr. Roebuck in his paper publifhed in Nicholfon's
Journal, vol. iv. nearly 340c cubical feet per minute, under
a preffure of 2|- lbs. per fquare inch. Notwithltanding
this powerful demonftration, ilrong prejudices were enter-
tained to its difadvantage ; and many behcved, that had any
other mode of regulator been attached to the blowing ma-
chine, abundance of air would have been obtained to have
blown two furnaces equally well. That this idea was incor-
reft, may be eafily gathered by calculation from the area of
the air-pump, the length of the working ftroke, and the
number of ftrokes per minute, all of which are particularly
ftated by Mr. Roebuck.

For the general conftruflion of an air-vault formed by
building, fee Plate XV. {Chemljlry.)

Fig. I . is a fe£lion of the vault conftrufted under the
bridge-houfe, or place where the materials are proportioned,
previouily to their being thrown into the furnace. One half
a blafl furnace outline, is feen as connected in point of fitiia-
tion and blaft to the air magazine.

A, the termination of the blaft pipes that convey the air
from the blowing cylinder into the receiver, 3 feet diameter ;
the length depends upon the contiguity of the engine to the
vault.

B B B B, four vaults, i,j feet wide each, 25 feet deep,
and 10, XI, 12, and 13 feet high to the fpringing of the
arches ; total height to the crown of the arches, 165, 17I,
i8|, and 195 feet. Thefe cells communicate with each
other by arched openings in the crofs-walls, which may be
dillinftly feen in the ground plan at L.

C C, the eduftion pipes that carry the air to the furnace ;
18 inches diameter.

D, end view of the range of laying pipes at the tuyere of
the furnace. The dotted lines betwixt D and C are meant
to reprefent the horizontal range of the pipes.

E, part of the outline of a blaft furnace to fltew its pro-
per fituation to the air vault.

F F F F, floor of the refpeftive vaults, compofed of a
mixture of two parts of boring dull, two of fine riddled
lime, aud one part of fine roafted iron flone, mixed up iuto

plafter with water tontaining a confiderable portion of
fait.

G G, end walls of bricks or ftone, four feet thick.

H H H, lining of brick-work, built in the moft acciJ*
rate manner, with fine riddled mortar, and run every fecond
or third courfe with mortar made thin and very liquid.
Thefe walls are two feet and a half in thicknefs, are care-
fully plartered, and afterwards covered with feveral layers
of ftrong paper and pitch, to prevent the efcape of air. The
roofs of the vaults are finifhed in the fame manner.

I, door arch into the vaults ; entrance obtained by means
of a ladder or wooden ftairs fufpended within.

K, fpace above the arches, filled with rubbifh, to prevent
any fpring, and to raife the floor to the level of the
furnace top.

L, the range of the floor, or acclivity to the furnace
mouth.

Fig. 2. is a ground plan of the bridge-houfe containing
the air-vaults, and exhibits one half the ground plan of the
furnace through the centre of the tuyere arches.

B B B B, correfponding to the fame letters in the ele-
vation.

C C, pipes for taking off the blaft; into the furnace.

D, correfponding to the fame letter in the feftion.

E, main pillar of the furnace, fame as E in the feclion.
GGGG, and H H H, correfpond with the fame letter*

in the elevation.

I, fquare for receiving the furnace hearth.

K, part of the ground view of the hearth, and the ap-
proaching blaft pipes.

L L L, openings of the crofs arches, which communicate
the vaults with each other.

Tlie cubical contents of a vault, conftrufted according
to thefe dimenfions, will amount to 20,000 feet.

In general, it may be remarked upon the conftruftion of
the blowing machine, that fince the period of the intro-
duftiou of Mr. Watt's engine, the air-pump, or blowing cy-
linder, has been conftrnfted fo as to difcharge a cylinder full
of air every afcent and defcent of the pifton. This, inftead
of travelling 4 to 5 feet per ftroke, more generally moves S
feet ; and the number of cylinders per minute are feldom
under 24.

Formerly, in the common atmofpheric engine, the move-
ment of the pifton from top to bottom, and back again,
produced only one cylinder full of air from the air-pump,
and the number of cylinders dlfcharged per minute feldom
exceeded 16. A fteam cylinder of 40 to 44 inches diame-
ter, and an air-pump of 6 feet diameter, the pifton moving
about 5 feet per ftroke, were deemed fufncient in the con-
ftruftion of a blowing machine for two blaft furnaces. The
quantity of air pumped up and thrown into the furnaces by
fuch an engine feldom exceeded 3000 cubical feet per mi-
nute. This, and even a larger quantity, is now thrown into
one furnace, and the produce by fuch means increafed frora
15 to 3 J tons weekly.

The firft fet of tables following are calculated to fliew
the quantity of air that would be difcharged by blowing
cylinders of various diameters, the length and number of the
ftrokes being given.

The fecond fet, to fhew what diameter of blowing cyJin-
der is requifite, with a given fteam power, to raife the air to
a certain denfity per fquare inch. See Engine, Water
Reculatorj and Hegulatinc Vavlt.

TABLE

B L O

B L O

.TABLE I. of Blowing Cylinders, their Capacity, Area, and Qiiantity of Air difcharged by a Foui--Feet Stroke, !ie.

36
3

38
39

40

41

4

43

44|

45

46

4
48

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
5^
57
58
5>
60
61
62

63

64

65
66

67
68
69
70

7'
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82

«3
84

85
86

87
88
89
90
9'
92
93
94

95
96

97
98

99

1. .rli

Are» In

Circular

1296
1369

14.44
I52I

i6co
1681
1764
1849
1936
2025
2116
2209
2304
2401
2500
2601
2704
2809
2916
30-25
3J36
3249
3364
3481
360c
3721
3844
3969
4096
4225

4356
4489
4624
4761
4900
5041
5184

5329
5476
5625

577'''
5929
60S4
6241
64C0
6561
6724
6S89
7056
7225

739'''
7569

7744
7921
8100
8281
8464
8649

88366939

9025

92i6

1017.8784
i®75.867c
1 134. 1 176

'194-5934
1256.6400
1320.2574

■385-445'5
1452.2046

■520.5344
'590.4350
1 66 1. 9064
1734.9486
1809.5616
i885'.7545
1963.5000
2042.8254
2123.7216
2206.1886
2290.226.

2375-835°
2463.0144
2551.7646
2642.0856

2733-9774
2827.4400

2922.4734
3019.0776
31 17.2526
3216.9984

33 '8.3 150
3421.2024
3525.6606
3631.6896
3739.2894
384C>.46oo
3959.2014
4071.5136
4185.3966
43CO.S504
4417.875c

4536.47-4
4656.6366

4778.373^'
4901. 6814

5026.5600

5153.0094

52S1.0296

5410.6206

5541.7824

5674.5150

5808.8184

5(^44.6926

60S2.1376

6221. 1534

6361 7400

6503. S974

6647.6256

6792.9246

CipaclTT ofthe

Sirulic ill

cubic FLCt.

9409
9304
9H0I

7944
7oS>-'.235o
7238.2464

28.2744
29.8670

31.5032
33-1831

34-9°5,5
36.67,58

38-4834
40-3,390
42.2370

44-1787
46.1640
48.1930
50.2656
52.3818
54.5416

56-7451
58.9644
61.2830
63.6173

65-9954
68.4017
70.8823

73-3913

75-9438

7S.5400

S1.179S

83.8632

86.570.3

89.3332

92-1754

95-0334

97-9350

100.8802

103.8691

106.9017

109.9778

1 13.0976

1 16.2610

119.4680

Airi^ifc.'iarscd at

tllC Katciif SO

Cylinilcii per

Miuuic.

126.0130
129.3232

132.7326
136.1578
139.6266

■43-'39i
146.6952

150.2950
153-9386
157.6254
161.3560
165.1303
168.0482
1 72.8098
176.7150
180.6638
184.6562
18S.6923
192.7720
196.8954
201.0626

389.8286 205.2730
7542.981620j.5272
7''97-7 54

rjiocoo 7854.0000

'irdifcharpwl at

the Karcoi *o

Cvlin.lcr, per

Minu'.c.

1413.7200

1493-3500
I575.I6OC

J 659- 1 550
1745-2750
1S33.69OO
I924.I7OC
2OI6.95OC

21 1 1.8500
2208.9350
2308.209c
2409.650c
2513. 280c
2619. 090c

2727. oSoo

2837-2550

2948.2200

3064.1500

3180.S65;

3299.7700

3420.5350

3544-1150

3669.5650

3797.190c

3927.0000

4058.9900

4193.1500

4325.3650

4466.660

460S.72OO

4751.6700

4896.7500

5044.0100

5 '93-4550
5345-0850
5498. Sooo
5654.S800
5813.0500
5973.4000

6-35.9350
6301.5500
6466.1600
6633.6300
6S07.8900
6981.3300

7156.9550
7334.7600
7514.7500
7696.9300
7881.2700
8067.8000
8256,5150
844-. 4100
S 5^0.4900

1 130.9760

1 194.6800

1 260. 1 280

1327.3240

1396.2200

1466.9520

1539-3360

1613.5600

16S9.4800

1767.1480

1846.5600

1927.7200

2010.6240

2095.27

2 181.6640

2269.8040

2358.5760

2451.3200

2544.6920

2639.8160

2736.4280

2835.2920

2935.6520

3037-7520

3141.6000

3247.1920

3354.5280

3462.8120

3573-3280

^.irdifcliarsedat Air rtiichargcdat
file Kale of 30 Ibe Pal " " *
Oliiidcra pet CTllnil
Minute. Minute.

3687.0160

3801.3360

3917.4000

4035.208

4154.7640

4276.0680

4399. 1 1 20

45^3-9040
4650.4400
4778.7200
4508.7480
5040.5:00
5172.92S0
5309-3040
5446.3120
5585-0640
5725.5640
5867.8080
601 1.8000
6157-5440
630 yO I 60
6453.2400
6605.2120
6757.9280
6912.3920

S48.232O
896.0100
945.C960

995-4930
1047.1656
IIOO.2I4O
1154.5020
1210. 1700
1267. I 100
1325.3610
1384.9200
1445-7900
1507. 96S0
1571-4540
1636.2480
1702.3530
1768.93 2C
1838.4900
1908.5190
1979.8620
'052.3210
2126.4690
2201.7390
2278.3140
2356.2000
2435-3740
2515.8960
2597.1090

2679.996r

2765.2620
2850.9020
2938.0500
3026.4060
3116.0730
207.0510
3299-3340
3392.9280
3487. S300
3584-0400
36S1.5610
37S0.3900
3879.6960
3981.9780
4084.7340
4188.7980
4294.1730
4400.8560
450S.8500
4618. 1580
4728.7620
4840.6800

4953-909'
5068.4460
5 1 84. 1940
5301.4500

Air difcharECd
Llie Rate of 10
Lylinoeta ]

8835.7500 7068.6000
9033.1900 7226.5520 54I9.9I4O
9232.81007386.24805539.6860
9434.6150I7547.692O 5660.7690
9638.6000 77O9.8S005783.l60O
9844.7-007875.81605906.8620

10053.1 3008042.5040603 '■.87 So

1026^.6500 8210.9200 ''158 1900

10476.31500 8381.0880 6285.8160

213.8251 1 069 1. 2 550 8553.0040 6414.7530

1666 1090^^.3 ?ro 8726.6/^4- i^r;44.o(;8o

706.S600
746.6750
787.5800
829.5775

872-6375
916.8450
962.0850
100S.4750
1055.9250
1 104.4765
1154.1000
1204. S750
1256.640^

1309.5450
1363.5400
1418.6275
1474.HOO
1532.0750
1590.432;
1649.8850
1710.2675

1772-0575
1834.7825

1898.5950
1963. 50CO
2029.9950
3096.5750
2162.6825
2233-3300
2304-3600
2375-8350
2498.3750
2522.00

2596-7275
2672.5425

2749-4450
2827.4400
2906.5250
29S6.7000
3067.9675

3150-7750
3233.0800
33 16.8150
3403-9450
3490.6650

3578-4775
3667.3800

3757-3750
3S48.4650
3940-6350
4033.9000
4128.2575
4223.7050
4270.2450
4417.8750
4516.5950
4616.4550
4717-3075

565.4S80
592.3400
630.1280
663.6620
698.1100

733-4760
769.66S0
806.7S00
844.7400
S83.5740
923.2800
963.3600
1005.3 1 20

047

,6360

1090.83

1 134.9020

II 79.2800

1220.6600

1272.3410

13 19.9080

1363.2 140

1417.6460

1467.8260

1518.8760

1570.8000

1623.5960

1677.2640

1 73 1.4060

1 7 86. 6640

1843.5080

1900. 1 680

1958.7000

2017.6040

2077.3800

2138.0340

2199.5560

2261.9520

2325.2200

2389.3600

2454-3740

2520.2600

2586.4640

2654.6520

2723.1560

^irdircharjedat

tbe Rale of IS

Ljlindera per

Mmute.

424.1160

448.0050

472.5480

497.7465

523.582

550.1020

577.2510

605.0850

633-5550
662.6805
692.4600
772.S95O
753.9840
785.7270
818.1240
851.1760
884.4660
919.245c

954-2595
989-9310
1 026. I 605
1063.2345
I I 00.8695
1139.152c
I 178.1000
1217.6870

Airdlfcliargcil at

ttie Hale of It

Cylinilir* per

Minute.

339.2928

358.4040
378.0384
398.1972
418.8650
440.0856
461.8008
484.0680
506.8440

530.1444
553.9680
578.3160
603.1872

62?.58i6
654.4992
680-94x2
707.5728
735-3960
763.4076

791.9448

820.9284

850-587

880-6956

911.3256

942.4800

974-1576

Air dlfcharscd as

the RaU at lO

Cy 1iui:ci9 per

Minute.

1257.9480 1006-3584
1298.5545 1038-8436

1339-99801071.9984

1382.6300 1106-0848

1425.45 10 1140.4008

469.0250 I 175.2200

1513.2030 I2IO.5624

1558.0365 1246.4292

1603.5255 1282.8204

1649.6620 1319.7336

1696.4640 1357.1512

1743-91501395-1320

1792. 02C0 1433. 6160

1840.7805 1472.6244

189C.1950 1512. 1560

1939.848c 1551.8784

1990.4890 1592.791 2

2042.36701633.8936

2792.5320 2094.3990 1675.5192

862.7820 2147.0865 1717.6692

2938.904c 2200.4280 1760.3424

3055.4000 2254.4250 1S03.54OO

3078.772c 2309.0790 1847.5048

3152.5080 2364.3810 189I.5048

3226.6200 2420.3400 1936.2720

3302.6068 2476.9545 198 1.5636

3378.9640 2534.2230 2027.3784

3456.1960 2592.1470 2073.7186

3534.3000 2650.7250 2 I 20.5800

•;6i3.276o 2709.95702167.9656
3693.1240 2769.84302264.3076
3773-8460 2830.3845 2313.264c
4819.30003854.940012891.580012362.7448
4922.38503937.90802953.43101241 2.75 1 2
5026.5650J402 1.2520J3015.9390 2463.2760
513 1-8250 4105.4600 3079.095025 14.3 254
523S.i8co^4i9o. -440 3147.9080 2565.9012
5345-6275 42'76.5o2o 3207.3765 2215.8744
5A ^4- ?6i;o'4363.332o 3272.4990 261 7.9092

282.7440

298.6700

315.0320

331-8310

349.0550

366.7380

384-8340

403.3900

422.3700

441.7870

461.64C0

481.9300

502.6560

523.8180

545.4160

567.4510

589.6440

612.8300

636.1730

659.9540

684.1070

708.8230

733-9^30

759.4380

785.4C00

811.7980

838.6320

865.7030

893-3320

921.7540

950.0840

979.3500

1008.8020

1038.6900

1069.0170

1099.7780

1 130.9760

1162-6100

1194.6800

1277. 1870

1260. 13CO

1293.2320

1327-3760

1366.5780

1396.2660

1431-3910
1469. .1.520

1527.7c

1539.8860

1576-2540

1613-310C

1651-3030

1689.4820

172S.0980

1767-1500

1806.6380

1846.0620

1886-4230

1927.4700

1968-9540

2010.<^260

2002.7300
2095.2720
2138.2510

2 181. 6660

B L O

B L O

TABLE II. of blowing Cylinders, their Area, Capacity, and Quantity of Air, difcliarged by a Five- Feet Stroke.

n r^

36

37
38
39

40

41
42

43
44

45
46

47
48

49
50
5'
52
S3
54
55
56
57
5«
59
60
6i
62I
63

1296
1369
1444
1521
1600
1681

II Air dircharECii Air du'charged at
Capacity of ' at tbc Rate of ttie Hate uf ^c
iQCHe'. the Strukc in SO Cv""icrs tier Cyiindcrs per 1^1-

L'ubical Feet. Minute, la Citbical nutc 111 cut>ical
Feet. Feet.

1017. 8-S4
1075.8670

ii34.ii';6

1 194.5984
1256.6400
1320.2574
1385.4456
1452.2046
'520.53+4

•590.4350
1661.9064
1734.9486
1809.5616
2401J1885.7545
2500 1963. 50C0
2601 2042.8254

2I2'5.72 16

2 206. 1 886
2290.2264I

2375-8350

2463.0144

2551.7646

2642.0856

1764
1849

i93<5
2025

2Il6

2209

2304

2704
2809
2916
3025
3136
3249
3364

35-3430

37-3337
39-3790
41.4788J

43-6319:

45.8422
48.10421

504237
52.7962I

55-223rt

57-70501

60.24^ 2|

2885.2500

joi2.o5oo
62.8320! 3I4I.6000
'55.4772| j27,;.86oo

<ir ilifcbargcd ;tt
l&c Rate ol 10
CjIindcrB per

Viinutc ia
Cuhicl Ptct.

Air (lircharscil atlAir <lirc^arl:cd at ^Ir (lifch4rgcil at Air difcharRcd at

the Rate i.fZ
CyI'^'Icta per

348
3600

3721

64

65
66

67

68
69

70

71
72
73
74
75
76

77
78

79
80
81

82

S3
84

85
86

87
88
Sy
90

91
92

93

94

9;
96

97
9«

99

100

3844
3969
4096
4225

4356
4489
4624
4761
4900
5041
5.84

5329

5476

2733-9774
2827.4400

2922.4734
3019.0776

68.1770

70.93 n

73-7055
76.6037

79.5216

82.4942'

85.5021

88.6028

91-739',

94.9297

98. .-750

101.4747

104.8290

.1500 141J.7210 1060.2900

1866.6850 I49J.J480 II30.0II0
1968.9500 1575.1600 II81.370O
207J.94OO 165(^.1520 I244.J640
2181.595O 1745.2760 1308.9570
2293.1100 1853.6880 1375.2660
2405.3100 1924.1660 1443.1360
3521.1850' 3016.9480 1512.7IIO
2639.8100 2111.8480 1583.8860
2761.1650 3308.9330 1656.6990
330S.2OOO I73I.I500
3409. 64S0 1807.2360
2513.2800 1884.9600
2619. 08S0 1964.3 160

3408. S500 2727. oSoo 2045.3100
3546.5650 2837.25303137.9390
3685.2750 2948.32003311.1650
3830.1850 3064.1480 3298. 11 10
3976.0800 3180.86402385.6480
4124.7100 3299.76803474.8260
4375.1050] 3430.08403565.0630
2658.0840

883.57 50

9J3-J425
984.4750
1036.9700
1090.29-5
1 146.0550
1202.6050

the Rate p
Il.nde

the Rai
Ctlinders per

tde Rate 1
Cylindt-ra per

cuoicdi Ft-et, I COIMi.al Feet

706.8605
746.6740
787.5800
S29.576&
872.O380
916.3440
962.0840

I260.5925I 1008.4740
1319.9050 1055.924.

3117.25261108.2128
3216.9984 1 11.6665
3318.3150 115. 2192

3421.2024
3525.6606
3631.6896

3739.2894
3848.4600
3959.2014
4071.5136
4185.3966
4300.8504

5625!44i7.875o
57764536.4704
5929 4656.6366
608414778-3736

6241
6400
6561

6724
6889
7056

7225

7396
7569

7744
7921
8100
8281
8464
8649
8836
9025
9216
9409
9604
9801
10000

4901.6814
026.5000
5153.0094
5281.0296
5410.6206
5541.7824
5674.5150
5808. 81S4
5944.6926
6082. 1376
62 2 1. 1 ; 34
6361.7400
6503.8974

1 18.7927
122.4x87
126. IC02
129.8363
133.6271
137.4722
141.3720
145.3262
149-3350

153-3983
157.5162
161.6540
165.9157
170.1972

•74-5332
178.9238
183.3690
187,8697
192.4232
197.0317
301.6950
206.4128
211. 1852
216.0122

4430.1400
4586.9550
4746. +850
4908.7500

5073-7350
5341.4500
5410.6400
55S3-.5250
5760.9600
59.39-6350
6130.9350
6305.0100
6491.81 ^o

66SI.3550

6873.6100
706S.6000
66.3100

/J^

7466.

7669.9150

7875.8100

8083.7000

8295.7850

8509.8600
8726.6600
8946.1900
9168.4500

9.393-4350

9631.1600

9851,5850

10084.7500
10330,6400
2600
10800.6100

6647.62561230.8656

6792.9246J235-8653
6939-7944240-9560

22o.8937|i 1044.6850
225.8297 II 391.4850

3544.1130
3669.^640
3797.1880
3927.0000
4058.9S80
4193.1600
4338.5130
4466-6600
4608.7680
4751.7080
4896.7480
5044,0080
5193.4530
5345.0840

-752-1730
S47.8910
3945.2500
3044.2410
3144.8700
3246.3840
3349-9950

3456-5760
3563.7810
3672.5610
37S3.0060
3895.0890
4008.8130

5498.8880 4124. -660'
4241.1600

1380.5825 1104.466
1442.6250 1154.1000
1506.0300 1204.8240
1570.8000 1256.6400
1636.43001309.5440
1704.4250I1363.5400
1773.2825j1418.u260
1842.6375 1474.1100
1915.0935 1532.0740
1988.0400 1590.4.320
2062.3550 1649.8840
2137-5525IVI0.0420
2215.

2293-4775
2373.2425

2454-3750
253.5.8675
2620.7250
2705.3200

530.1450I 424.1160
560.0005I 448.0044
590,6850 473.54S0

687.6.

632.1820

654

30
.5630

75^i-355<-
796.9430

1772.0560
1834,7820
189S.5940

497-7456
533.5828
550.1064

577-2504
c 05. 0844

633-5544
662.6796
692,4600
732.8944
-53.984c
785.7364
818.1240

823.3495

865.5750

903.6180

942.4S00

982.1580
1022.6550

1013.9695 851.1756
lio^.^Sz; S84.4660
1149.0550 919,3444
1192.S240 954.2592
1237.4130 989.9304
1283,5315 1026.0242
1339.0420 1063.2336

376.0S65 1100.8692

H23-9455 1^39-1564
1963.5000 1473.6250 1 178.1000

2029.49401522.1205 12 1 7.6924 10 14.7470

2096.5800 1572.4350 1257.9480(1048.2900

2 1 64. 2560, 1623. 1920. 1298.5536' 1082. 1280

Air difeharced at
II e Rate of 10
Cyundcra per

Minmc ia
- utiical F.cl,

353-4302

3 73-33 7<^

393.7900

414.7880

436.3190

458.1720

481.042

504.2370

527-96

552--i33o

602.4120
62S.3300
654.7730
681.7700
709-3 13 C'
737-0550
761.0370
795.316c
824.9430
8515.0210
886.02S0
917.3910
940,2970
9Si.75"o

2791,61252233.3300,1674.997511339.998

2S30.4500J2304.3 840,1 7 3 8.2880,1 382.63 04

2969.817512375.8540'! 731.890511425,5 124

7088.2350 246.1187
7238.2464 251. 32S2
7389.8286]256,59i2 12S29.560
7542.9816 261.9090 13095. 450'

1 1543.2S00

2650
,8000

' • 793
12047

12305-9350
12566.4100

7697.7054
7854.0000

267.2813
272.7082

1.5364.0650
3655.4100

5654.8800
5813. 04S0
5973.4000
6135.9580
6300 6480
6466.1600
6636.6280
6807. S880
6981.3280
7156.9520
7334-7600
7514.7480
7696.9280
7881,1368
8067. Sooo
8256.5120
8447.4080
S640.4SS0
8835.7480
9033. 18S0
9234.6340
9434.6130
9638.3400
9844.7480
10053.1280
10363,6480
10476.3600

4359.7S60
4480,0500
4601.9490
4735.4860
4849.6300

3060.4675
3152.5050
3245.9075

3340-6775
3436.8050
3534.3000
3633-1550
3133-375°
3834-9575
3937.9050

4041.3500

2498.3740
2522.0040
2596.7260
2672.5420

1836.2805 1469.0244

1116.6650
1152. 1920

1187.9270
1249.1870

2749.4440I2063.0830
2S27.4400 2120.5800

189 1.50 5 01151 3. 2024 1261.0020
1558-0356 1298
1603.5252 1336.2710
1649.6664 1374.7220

1947-5-I45
2004.4065

2906.5240
2986.7000
3067.9690
3150.3240
323.5.0800

4977.471014147.S925
5105.91604254.9300
5335.9960I4363.3300
5367.714014473.0950
5501.07004584.2250
5636.0610I4696.7175
5773.6960I4810.5800
5910.951014925.7925
6050.85005042.3750

6192.3840 5160.3 200
6335-556015279.6300 4223.7540
64S0.3660 5400.3050 4320.2440
6626.811015522.3425 4417.8740
6774,891015645,74254516.5940

2179.8930
2240,0250
3300.9745
2367.7430
2434.810:

33iS.3i4O24S8.735O
3403-94402552.9580
3490.66403667.9980
3578.476Oj3683.857O
3667.3S0O 2750.5350

^757-3740
384S.4640

1696.4640
^743-9144

1413.7200
1453.2620

1792.0200 1493.3500

•840.179611533-9845
1890.1944I1575.1620
1939. S480 1616.5400

39-

1-0.6:

40

403.3 .9000
412S.2560

6935.968015771.6400

1990.9S74
2042.3664
2094.3984
2147.0856
2200.4283

381 8. 0305 2254.4244
28S6.348C 12309. 07S4
2955-4755 2364.3804

3025.4250
5096.1920
3167.7780
5340.1880

3313-4055
J387-H50

7075.9590
7238.6800
7383.5610
7539.8460
7697.7360
7857-5700

10691.3520,8018.4590
io.)oS.538o8i8i.246o

5 S96.63 25
6023.9000
6152.9675
62S3.2050
6414.7800
6547.7250
6682.0525
6817.7050

4617. 3!2013403. 4840

3587.9795
36 14.3 40c

47i7,^o'.o
4819.1200
4922. J 7J0
5020.5640
5131.8240
5238.6800
5345.6260
5454.1640

2420.3400

2476.9536
2534.2224
2592.1464

2650-7244
3709.9554
277o,38-'2
2830.3S36
2891. 4;2i

1 659. 1 5 70
1701.9720
•745-3320
1789.23S0
1833.6900
1878.6870
1924.2320
1970.3170
2016.9500
2064. 1 2 So
2111.8770
2160,1220
2208.9370
2 358. .970
3308.6560
-358.6530
3409.5600
2461.3740

3513.2820

I,.

3691.7805:2953.4244
3764.92303c15.9384
3848.868013079.0944 2565.9130
3928.785cj3r42.yo80i2610.3400
4009.219513207.375613673,3130
J.000.12 ;cl32 7 2.49^4137 2 7.08 20

B L O

B L O

TAT5Lr, in. of blowing Cylinders, tlieir Area, Capacity, and Quantity of Air difchargcd by a Six-Fcet Stroke.

Area In
CircuUf

IllCllCi.

36

37
3«
39
40

41

42
43
44

45
46

47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
5«
59
60
61
62

63
64

65
66
67
68
69
70
7J
72
73
74

75
76

77
78

79

80
81
82

S3

84

S5
86

87
88
89
90

9>
92

93
94
95
96

97
98

99

Arc» in SqUAie
Inches.

Capacity of the

Sliolcc in

Cubical Feet

1296
1369

1444

152

1600

1681

1764

1S49

1936
2025
2 1 16
2209
2304
2^.01
2500
2601
2704
2809
2916
3025
3136
3249

33^H
3481
3600

3721
3844
39^'9
4096

4225
4356
4489
46243

Air <ltrcliargeil at

tlie Rale 01 SO

Cytiiiilcra i)cr

liuutc in Liitiical

Feci.

IOI7.87S4
1075.8670
I I 34. 1176

1^94-5934
1256.6400
1320.2574
1385.4456
1452.2046
1^20.5344

'5^ OH 350
1661.9064
1734.94S6
1S09.5616
'885.7545
1963.5000
2042.8254
2123.7216
2206.18S6
2290.2264

2375-8350

2463.0144

2551.7646

642.0856

2733-9774
2S27.4400

922.4734
3019.0776
3117.2526
3216.9984

33'y-3J5o
3421.2024

3525.6606

1631.6896

47^'i|3739-2894
4900:3848.4600
5041J3059-2014
51844071.5136
53294185.3966
54764300.8504
5625 441 7.87 ?o

57764536-4704
5929 4656.6366
60844778.3736
6241 4901.68 14
6400 5026.5600
6561 5153.0094
6724 5281.0296
6889 5410.6206
70565541.7824
72255674.5150
7396 5808.8184
75695944.6926
77446082.1376
79216221.1534
810C 6361.7400
8281 6503.8974
8464 6647.6256
8649 6792.9246
8836:6939.7944
9025!7c88.235o'295.343i
92i6j238.2464'30i.5939
9409 7,142-9^^6 307.9095
9604I7389.8286 3 14.3008
98oi;7697. 7054 320.7376
(ico'icooo 7S:;4.oooo 327.2.^99

42.4116
44.8005
47.2548
49.7746
52.3582
55.0107

57-7251
60.5085

63-3555
66.2680

69.2460

72.2895
75-3984
78.5727

81.81 24
85.1 176
88.4466
91.9246

95.4259
98.993 1

102.6025

106.3234

I I0.0S69

ii3-9'57
1 17.8100
121.769
125.7948
129.8544

33-9998
138.2631
i42.5/;oi
146.9025
151.3203
155-8036
160.3525
164.9667
169.6464

174-3915

179.2020

184.0780

189.0195

193.9848

199.0989

204.236

209.4399

214.7086

220.0428

225.4425

230.9079

236.438

242.0340

247.6954

253-4223

259.2147

265.0725

270-9957
276.9843
283.0384
289.1580

Air difcharf*cd at

Ihc Kate of 40

Cyliixiers per

[inute in Cubical

feet.

2120.580

2240.0250

2362.7400

2488.7300

2617.9100

2750-535°
2886.2550
3025.4250

3167-775'
3313.4000

3462.3000

3614.4750

37O9.92OO

3928.6350

4090.6200

4255.8800

4422.3300

4596.2300

4771.2950

4949-6550

5130.1250

5316.1700

5504-3450

5695-7850

5890.50

6088.4850

6289.7400

6492.7200

6699.9900

6913-1550
7127.5050

7345-12 _

7566.0150

7790.1S00

8017.62

8248.3350

8482.3200

8719-5750
8960.1000
9203.9000

9450-9750
9699.2400

9954-9490
10211.8350

10471-9950
10735-4300
11002.1400
11272. 1250

1154.5-3950
11821.9050
12101.7000
12384.7700
J2671.1150
12960.7350
13253.6250

13549-7850
13849. 2150
14151.9200
14457.9000

14767-1550
15079.6950

15395-4750
15715.0400
16036.8800
16362.4950

Air difctiargcdal

tbc Rate of 30

Cv'inJers per

Minute in Cudi.

cal Fctt.

1696.4640
1792.0200
1890.1920
1990,9840
2094.3280
2200.4280
2309.0040
2420.3400
2534.2200
2650.7200
2769.8400
2S9I.580O
3015.9360
.3I42.90S0
3272.4960
3404.7040
3537.8640
J676.984O
3817.0360
3959.7240
4104.1000
4252.9360
4402.7560
4556,6280
4712.4000
4870.7800
5031.7920
5194.1640
5.559-9920
55JO.524O

Airdifcharited at

the Rale of 15

Cyl'n<lcrs per

.Minute in Cubi.

c.^1 i'eet.

Air difcbarjicd ai

the Rate of zo

Cylinilers per

Minute in cubi.

cal Feci.

Airdifcharpcd at
ihe Rate of IS
Cylindcra per
Minute in cubi-
cal Feet.

1272.3480
1344.0150
1417.6440
1493.2380
1570.7460
1650.3210

1731-7530
1815.2550
1900.6050
1988.0409
2077.3800
2168.6850
2261.9520
2357.1810
2454.3720
3553.5280
2653-3980

2757-

580

2862.7770

2969.7*)3o
3078.0750
3189.7020
3302.6070
3417.4710
3534.3000
3653.0910

377.3-8440
3895.6320
4019.9940
4147.8930
5 702. 0040I42 76.5030

5876.1000
6052.8120
6232.1440
64 1 4. 1 000
6598.6680
6785.8560
6975.6600
7168.0800
7363.1200
7560.7800
7759.3920
7963.9560
8169.4680
8377-5960
8588.3440
8801. 7120
9017.7000
9236.3160

9457-5240
9681.3600
9907.8160
10136.8920
10368.5880
10602.9000
10839.8280
11079:3720
11321.5360
1 1566.3200
1 1813.7240
12063.7560
123 16,3800
12572.0320
12829.5040
I ;c89.996o

4407.0750
4539-6090
4674.1080
4810,5750
4949.0010
5089.3920
5231.7450
5376.0600
5522.3400
5670.5850
5819.5440
5972.9670
6127. loio
6283.19
6441.2580
6601.2840
6763.2750
6927.2370
7093.1430
7261.0200
7430.8620
7602.6690
776.4410

1060.2900
1120.0125
1 181.3700
1244.3650
1308.9550
1375-2675

1443-1275
1512.7125

1583.8875
1656.2000
1731.1500
1807.2375
1834.9600

1964-3175
2045.3100

2127.9400

221 1.1650

2298.1150

2385-6475
2474.8275

2565.0625
2608.0850
2752.1725
2847. S925
2945.2500
3044.2425
3144.8700
3246.3600

3349-9950
3456.5750

3563.7525
3672.5625

3783

575

3895.0900
4008.8125
4124.1675
4241.1600

4359-7875
4480.0500
4601.9500
4725.4875
4849.6200

4977-4745
5105.9175

5235-9975
5367.7150
5501.0700
5636.0625
5772-6975
5910.9525
6050.8500
6192.3850

6335-5575
6480.3675

848.2320
896.0100
945.0960
995.4920
1047.1640
rioo.2140
1 154.5020
1210.1740
1267. 1100
1325.3600
1384.4200
1445.2900
1507.9680
1571.4540
1636.4980
1702.3520
1768.9320
1838.4920
1908.5180
1979.8620
2052.0500
2126.4680
2201.3780
2278.3140
2356-2000
2435-3900
2515. S960
2592.0820
2679.9960

765.2620
2851.0020
2938.0500

026.4060

Air difcharged at
the Rale of 12
Cy llnders per
Minute in Cubi-
cal Feel.

Airdifchargcd a

116.0720
207.0500
3299-3340
3392.9280
3487.8300
3584,6400
3681.5600
3780.3900
3879-6960
3981.9780

40,'34-7340
418S.7980
4294.1720
4400.3560
4508.8500

636.1740
672.0075
708.8220
746.6190

785-3730
825.1605
865.8765
907.6275

950-3325
999.0200

1038.6900
1084.3425
11 30-9760

1178-5950
1227.6860
1276.7640
1326.6940
1378.8690
1431-3885
1484.8965

1539-0375
1594.3510

1651.3035

1708.7355
1767.1500
1826.5450
1886.9220
1947.8160
2009.9970
2073-9465
213S.2515
2203.5375
2269.8045
37.0540
2405.2875
2474-5050
2544.6960
2615.8725
2688.0300
2761.1700
2835-2925
2909.7720
2986.4835
3063.5505
3141.5985
3220.1290
3300.6420
3381.6375

the Rate of 10
Cylinder! per
linule in Cubi-
cal Feet.

7952. 17506626.8125

8129. 8710
8309.5290
8491.1520
8674.7400
8860.2930
9047.8170
9237.2850
9429.0240
9622.1280
9817.4970

4728.76
4840.1800

5068.4460
5184.2940
5301.-1.500
5419.914c
5539.686c
5660.7680
5783.1600
5906.8620

6o3i.87bo

461 S. 1580 3463.61 85

546.5715
5630.5100

4953.908037j5.4310

6774.8925
6924.6075
7075.9600
7228.4500

7383.5750

7539-8475

7697-7375I6158.1900

7857.5200,6286.0160

8018.4400l6414.7520

8181. 247516544.9980

3801.3345
3883.2205
3976.0875
4064.9350
4154.7645
4245-5760
4337-3700
4430.1465
4523.9085
4618.6475

47 14-.
481 1.0640
4908.7485

508.9392

537.6060

567.0576

597.2952

628.2986

660- 1284

692.7012

726.1020

760.2660

705.1960

830.9520

807.4740

904.7808

942.8724

981.7488

1024.4112

1061.3592

1103.0952

1 143.1108

1187.9172

1231.2300

1275.8604

1321.0428

13669SS4

1413.7200

1461.2364

1509-5376

1558.2528

1607.9976

1659.1572

1710.6012

1762.8300

1815.8436

1869.6432

1924.2300

1979.6004

2035.7568

2092.6980

2150.4240

2208.0360

2268.2340

2327.8176

2399.1868

2450.8404

2513.2788

2576.5032

2640.5136

2705.3100

2770.8948

837-2572

2904.4080

2972.3448

3041.0676

3110.5764

3180.8700

3251.9484
3323.8116
3376.4608
3469.8960
,3544.1172
3619.1268
3694.9140
3771.6096
3848.8512
3926.9988

424.1 i6o

448.0050
472.5480
497.7460
523.5820
550.1070
574.2510
605.0870
638.5500
662.6800
692.2100
722.6450
753.9840
785.7270
818.2490
851.1700
884.4660
919.4920
954.2590
989.9310
1026.0250
1063.2340
1 100.6890
1(39.1570
1178.1000
1217.6950
1257.9480
1296.0410
1339-9980
1382.63 10
1425.5010
1469.0250
1513.2030
1558.0360
1603.5250
1649.6670
1696.4640

1743-9150
1792.0200
1840.7800
1890.1950
1939.8480
1990.9890
2017.3670
2094.3990
2147.0860
2200.1780
2254.4250
2309.0790
64.3810
2420.0900
2476.9540
2534.2230
2592.1470
2650.7250
2709.9570
2769.8430
2830.3840
2891.5800
2953-4310
3015.9390
3079.0950
3143.0080
3207.3760
3272.4990

B L O

B L O

TABLE IV. of Blowing Cylinders, their Area, Capacity, and Quantity of Air difcharged by a Seven-Feet Stroke.

Area la
Circular

Ares in Square

Capacity of the

Mroke in
Cubical feet.

Air diTcbarECd ai

the Rate Af jo

Cyliii.rer. per

Miaulc lu Cubical

1444'' ^34-1 176 55-i3o<5

15Z1 1194.5934 5S.0705

1600 1.256.6400 61.0845

16S1 1320.2574I 64.1791

I764i3.'^5.4456 67.3459

1849 '452'2046 70.5932

1936 1520.5344 73.9110

20251590.4350' 77.3126

21161661.90641 80.7670

2209:734.9486: 84.3377

23041809.56161 87.9648

2401 £885.7545 91.6681

25001963.5000^ 95.4478

2?>or 2042.c'254 99.3038

Z70412123.7216 103.1877

2809 2206. i8t<6 107.2453

291612290.22641111.3302!

3.325 2375.8350'! 15.4919, 5774.59JO

3136 2463.014411 19.7029 5985.1450

3249 2551.7646,124.0439! 6202.1950

336412642.0856,128.43471 6421.7550

34«' 2733-9774:J32-9oi6

360012827.4400.137.4450

3 72 1 '292 2.47.54! 142.0646

3844I30 19.0776; 146.7606

3961,13117.25261151.4968

4cq6J3216.99S4l156.jjj1

3^
37
3^
39
40

4'
42
43
44

45
46

47
48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

5(^

57

5

5'.

60

61

62

63
64

65
66
67
68
69
70

71
72

73

74

75
76

77
78
79
80
8j
82

83
84

85^

86

87
88

89'

91
92

93:
94;

96
97
98^
99

lOO I

"VoL. IV.

I296JIOI7.S784I 49.4702
1369 1075.8670; 52.2672

2473-51°'^

261 J. J 60c
29°5-525^

J°-)4-25^

J20S.955C
JJ67.2950
J529.0000
3695-553C
J865.6J00
40J9-3500
4210.8850
4398.2400

45f^4-4'35o
4772.J900
4965.4400

31.^9-3^50
5j62 2650

5566.5100

.Air difchargerf at i

Ihe Kate nf *o

Cylinders per

.linulc io Cubical

feet. I

Air flifcharpcd at
tfie Rate of 30
Cylinder* per

Wiiiutcin Cubical
reel.

4225 ^3'8-3'50|i'52.i664
4356 3421.2024166,3084
44: 9 3525.6606 171.J862
4624 363I.6S96 I76.540J
4761 i739.2?94i8i.77o8
4900 3848.4600 187.0779
5041 3959.2014 192.461 1
51844071.5136,197.9210

5329 4i''5-39^6, -03-4567

5476 4300.^504 209.0690
56254417.8750l214.757t
5776 4535-47o4|S2o.522;
5929 4656.6366I226.J 156 X1JI5.70C':

60844778.3736 2J 2. 2S2O II614.IOOO

6645.0800
6872.2500
7I0J.2J00I

7338.0300;
7574.8400
7816.6550

8io8.j2co
8315.4400
8569.J100
8827.0150
90S8.5400

9353-8950
96^-3 -0550
9896.0500
10172.8350
10453-4500
10737.8800
11026.13^
iij 15.780':

6241
6400
6561
6724
6S89

4901.6814 3j8.j09jl11915.4650

5026.5600, 244.5465-1 22 1 7.J 250

5 i53.oo94'35o.49jj '12524.6650

5281.0296^256.7166,12835.8500

5410.6206 26J.0162 IJ150.8100

705615541. 7824:269.5925 1J469.6250

7225 5674.515O1375.8444 1J792.2200

739615808.^^1 841282.5 7JO 1411 8.650c

756915944.6926 288.9779 14448-8950

7744 6082.1376 395.659J 14782.9650

7921 6221.1534lj02.4171 15120.8550

8100 636i.74oojo9.25i2;i5462.56oo

8281 6503.8974316,161615808.0800

6647.6256!j2j.i4Sj'i6i -7.415c

6792.9246:jjo.2U4'i6<; 10.5700

6939-7944'337-35io'i'5867.55oo

7088.2550 J44.5669 17228.J450

8464
8649
8836

9025.

921617238.2464
9409173^9-8286
96047542.9816
9S01 7697.7054

35i-8595ii7 .92-9750

,5,59'3944;i7969.72oo

366.6842' i8j3.(.. J 100

|, ... . . 374-1938,18709.6900

000017854.0000,58 1. 79 15' 19089. 575c

1978.8080

2090.6880

•2205.2240

2322.8200

2443-3800

2567.1640

2693.8360

282J.7280

2936.4400

3092.5040

3231.4800

3373-5080

J5 18.5920

3666.7240

3817.9120

3972.1520

4127,5080

4289.8120

4453-2o8o

4619.676c

4788.1160

4961.7560

5'37-3S8o

5316.0640

5497.8000

5682.5840

5870.4240

C059.8720

6253.3240

6486.O560

6652.3360

6855.4480

7061.6120

7270.83

7483,1160

7698.4440

7916.8400

8138.2680

8362.7600

S590.J040

8820.908^^

9052.624

9291.2800

9532.3720

9773.8600

0019.7320

0268.6640

0520.6480

0775.7000

1033-7760

I -94.:.; 2 00

1559.(160

1826.3720

2096.6840

2370.048

2646.4640

2925.932c

3208.4560

3494-04CC

3782.676c

4074.380c

43:5-7760

46.^7.3680

4967.75

5 :7I.66sc

1484
1568

1653
1742
1832.
1925.
2020,
2117,
2217,
2319.

2423.
2530.

2638

2750
2863
2979

3095
3217

3339
3464
359''
3721.
3853.
398/'
4123.
4261,
4402.

4544'
4689.
4S64,
4989.

5141-
5296.

5453
5612

5773

5937
610?

.1060
.0160
.9180
.1 150
-5350
•3730
•3770
•3300
•3300
.3780
.6100

I J JO

,9440
0-130

.Airdifcharpcdai

the Rate of 25

cylinders per

Minute in Cul>i.

tal Feet.

12J6.7550
1J06.6800
1378.2650
1451.7625
1527.1 125
1604.4775
16SJ.6475
1764.8300

'847-7750
1932.S150
2019.6750
2108.4425

2 199. 1 200
2292.2050

.43402386.1950
.1 140 2482. 720C
.63102579.6925
.3590 2681. 1J25

.9060I278J.2550

,757o;2887.2975

.oS7o'2y92.5725

,3i7o;3ioi.o975

,04103210.8075

jj 22.5400

3436.1250

J551.6150

15609.0150

,9040^787.4200

•993o'39o8.j2 75

Airdirchantedat
the Rate of 20
Cylinders per

,Mii.utc in Cubi-
cal Feet.

.0480
,J5CO
9380
,8180

989.4040

1045-3440
1 102.6120
II61.4IOO
1221.6900
I2S3.582O

i34i'i.9i8o
141 r.8640
1468.2200
1546.2520
1615.7400
1686.7540
759.2960
1835,3620
1908.9560
1986.0760
2063.7540
2144.9000
2226.6040
2309.8380

•irdifcharRcd at

the R^ic of t$

Cvlindersper

Minute III Cubi'

cal Feet.

742.0530

784.00^0

826.9590

871.0575

916.2675

912.6865

101C.1885

1058.6650

1108.6600

1159.6890

121 1,8050
1265,0655
I3I9.472O

Air difcharged at
the Rate of IL
Cylinders per

Minute in Cubi.
cal Fee-.

593

627.

661.

696

733

770

808

847.

886.

927
969.

1012
1055

6424
2064

567
8460
,014c
,1492
,508
1184
9320
7512

444
,0524

5776

1375.C215 1100.0172

394.0580I1795.5435
2480.87 80' 1 860.6585

2568.6940
2658.0320
748.40CO
841.2920
293^.1.120
3029,9360
3126.6620

431,2120

1489.5570
1547.8150
1 608. 1 795
1669.9530

1732-37851385
1436.
1488.

1 145

1191

1238.

1286

1335

,9920]-. 054.1 600:3 24J.J 280

1926.5205
1993.5240
2061.6750
2130.969c
2201.4090
2272.4520
2344.9965
2432.4960

6272
6442
6615
678^
6968

7149
7330

7514
7701
7890
80S1,
8275.

847 1'
8669.
8869,
9072,

9277'
9484.
9694,
9906,
;oi2o.

^03 37'

■o':55'
[0781.

[ I coo,

[ 122

25-04:57-720015326.16302494,6260

,586o'4284,6500|3427. 7 2^012570.7930

209o'44i J. 5075I35 J0.8060 2648.1045

12404544.270015635,41602726,5620

' ' " 3806.1685

2886.9165

2968.8150

J05 1.8505

3136.0J50

J22 1.3640
3307.8405

.i;394-734o
3484-2500

3574-6395

,jj7o|4676.9475i374i.55So
•8jjo 4811.5275 3849.2220
,65004948.0-50
,701015080.4175

.0700!5226.7250

,728o'5J68.940o
,68105513.0675
,46805657,8900
,46005807.0500
•27905957-7325

3950
7990
498c
,(8.0
77:0
33^0
,1900

'337°
,7790
•5130
,5560
,8480
,4-1.90
3420
5300
,007 c
,,850

•"3-^

:60

.8 I 4c

"453-7450

010
OC62.33.5

641 7.9 1 50
65,5.40-0
6,34-8125

'896. IIOO

7050.J250

. -24-4475

7391.4825

500.4275

773-2800

790.t.04C0
8078.7075
S255.2850

8433.7750
SO14.1725
S790.4875
8984.8600

3958.4200
4069.1340
4181.3800
4295.1520
4410.4540
4526.J120
4645.6400
4766.1860
,662514886.9300
51:09.8660

5134-3320

52-^,0.3240
5387.8500
5516.8880
5647.460c
5779.5580
5913.1860
6048.3420
6185.024c
6323.232c
6462.966c
6604.2280
6747.0200
6891. 3380
7037.190c
7187.8880

9i67.io5o'7333..'>84c
9354-345017483.8760
9544-78757635-8300

3736
,6456

2524
•9436
,9624
,9028

4348
.5268

1541

1594

1649,

1704

176.

1817.

1875.

1945

1995

2056.

2118

2l8l

2244
2309

2375
2441

2508

2577
2646.

2715

2787

2859

Air difcharged at

the Rate of ■©

CyliGflera per

Minutein Cu'.i-

cal Feet.

5665.197-2932

.^/57-3995
.1850.7490

3945-430
4040,8875

4137.6665

4235-595-'

4334.6685
4434.8895
4536.2565
463S.768-
4742,4240
4847,2245
4953. 171C
5260,265c
5168.5035
5277.8925
5390,9160
5555,2630
5612,907c
5726.8725

4N

J 005
J080

3156'

3232.

310.

:j88,

467,

354^
3629,

371''
3793.
3877'
!962,
4048.

4134'

4222,

4JI2.

4400,
4490

4?8i

494.7020
522.6720
551.J060
580.7050
610.8450
641.7910

673-4590
705.9520
7j4,iioo
773-1260
807,8700

843-3750
879.6480
916.6810
954.4780
993-0380
loj 1.8770

I072.45JO

IIIJ.J020

1154.9140

1197.0290

1 240.4390

2164:1284.5470

.8192 IJ29.O160

•34oo|ij 74.2000
,7752!i42o.646o
,127211467.6060
,961611514.9680

99721563-3310
,9968 1621,6640
,7008 1663.0815
,6j44'i7 1 5.8620
4856,1765.4050
.2406 1817.7080
•9348,1870.7790
.5332,1929.6110
,o52o'i979.2ioo
,480412054.5670
,8280 2090.1900
0912,2147.5760
27242205.
7872 226J. 1560
.^840 2522.8200
,7ii6 2j8j.o9jo
■1580,2445.4650
■9196,2504.9550
.5993 2567.1660
2650,1620
2695.9250
2758.4440
2823.7500
2889,7790
2956.5930
J024.1710
5092,5120
J161.6160
3231.4850
3J02.1140
3373'5ioo
3445.6690
3518.5950

,2104
,3256
.4980

.1944
.7100
.1328
.4760

•7348
.9116
.0052
,oi44

9392
,7796
,5368

,2120
,8028
,3140
•732815595.9440

5666.8420
5741.9580
3817^9150

B L O

B L O

TABT.E V. of Blowing Cvlinders, tTicir Area, Capacity, and Qiianthy of Air difcharged by an Eight-Feet Stroke.

Ar»ln
1 Circular
I Inctie:.

36
37
3«

3<;
40

4'
4^
43
44
45
46

47
4S

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
51
58
59
60

61

62
63
64

65

66

67
68
69

7°
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
7S

79
80

81

8

83
84

?5

86

87

88
89
90

9

92

9.

94

95
..96

97
98

99

100

Areola Square

Capacity of tue

SITOKCIP.

Cubical t'cct>

1296
1369

1444
I52I
1600
1681
1764
1849

193'i

2025
2II6
2309

23°4
2401
2500
3601

2704

2809
2916

3°25
31.56

3249

33*^4
3481
3600

3721

3844

39'J9
4096

4225

4356

4489

4624
4761
4900

1017.87H4
1075.8670
[ 1.54.1 1 76

ii94.5y34
1256.6400

i3-°--574

ij8j.+45^
1452,2046

i52=>-5J44

1590-435°
1 66 1. 9064
17,34.9486
1809. 5616

1885.754
1963.5000
2042.8254
21 2

Air (lirchaiitctj at
tbe Kaieo: so
Cylinder, iicr

r.lmtMc <it
Clinical Ice.

Air itircliar^.fd a
Ibc Rate of 40
Cyiiii'^cfs pet

•J-7 ,
2206.1S861

5041
5184
5329
547'5

2290.2264

•i7,5-83j°
2463.0144
2551.7646

,642.0856

27.33-9774
827.4400

2922. 47J4
3019.0776
3117.3526
J 3 16.9984
.5318.J150
3421.2024
31^25.6606
3"63 1.6896

3739.2894
3848.4600

3959.3014
4071.5136
4185.3966

4300.8504
4417.8750

... 4.i36.47°4
59394656.6366

60S4 4778.3736
6241 4901.6814
6400I5026.5600
6561 5153.0094
67245381.0296
68895410 6206
7o5''|554i-7824

722,^;5'574-5i.5o
73965808.8184

77446082.1376

7921 6221. 1534

8ioo;656i.74oo

SiSi

8464

8649
8836

9025
9216

9409

9604

9801

10000

16I117.9288
.5660

56.5488 2S3/.4400
59.7340 29S6.7000
63.0064 3150.3300
66.3663 331S.3100
69.8110 349o.5';oo
73-3476 3667.3800
76.9668 3848.3400
80.6780 4033.9000
84.4740 4233.7000
88.3574 4417.S700
93.3380 4616.4000:
96.3860 48 19.3 000
1 00.53 1 3 5026.5600
104.7636 5238.1800
109.0833 5454.1600
.4903 5674.5100
5S96.4400
6138.3000
127.2346 6361.7300
131.9908 6599.5400
136,8034 6S40.17
141.7646 7088.3300
146.7836 7339.1300
151.8876 7594.3800
157.0800 7854.0000
162.3596 S117.9S00
167.7264 S386.3200
173.1406 8657.0300
178.6664 8933.3200
184.3508 9217.5400
95°J-.'34oo
9795.5000
10088.0200
10386,9100
10690.1700
10997.7800
11309.7600
11626.1000
11946.8000
12271.8700
12601.3000
13932.3200
13273.2600
13615.7800
13962.6500
14315.910
14669.5200
15029.5000
I ';393.'S6oc
315.2508l15762.5400
323.7120 16135.6000
16513.0300
16S94.8200

190,0668

195-8700
201,7604
7-7382
213.8034
219.9556
226.1952
233.5220
238.9360

45-4374
^2.0260
358.6464
365.4652
372.3156
379.2550
286.2782

393-3904
500.5900
507.8772

Air (Jirchargeo ai
[Ac K4icof .0
Cvlm.lcr* per

Minute in
CuMCJl Feet.

6503,8974
6647.6256
6792.9246

<59 59-7944

7088.3350

723S.2464 .

73 89.S386 410.5460

7542.98 16419.0544

7697.7054427.6502

7854.0000436.3333

330.2606
337.8964

345-6'9^

353-4300
361.3376
;69.3i24
377-3846
385-5440
393,7908
402,1252

7280.9800
17671.5000
1 8066.3 Soo
18465.6200
18869.2300
19377.2000
196S9.5400
20106.2600
20527.3000I

30952,7200
21382.5100
21816.6600

3261.9530
2389.3600
2530.2560
2654.64S0
2793.4400

1933-9040

3073.6720
3327.1300
337S.9600
3534-29'^o
3 '193. 1200
3855-4400
4031,3480
4190.5440
4363.3880
4539.6080
4717.1520
4903.6400
5089.3840
5379.6320
5473,1360
5670.5840
5871.3040
6075.5040
6383.2000
6494.3840
6709.0560
6925.6240
7146.6560
7374.0320
7603.6720
7S34.S000
S070.4160
S309.52S0
S553.1360
8 7 98. 2 240
9047. SoSo
9300.SS00

9557-4400

9817.4960

10081.0400

io34.5-85'5o
1061S.6080
10893.634!
I II 70. 1200
11451.1280
1 1735.6160
12023.6000
12315.0S80
1 2610.03 30
1290S.4S00
13210,4240
13515-8.560
13824.7840
14137.2000I
I4453-I04:>
14773.4960
15095.3840
15421.760C
15751-6320
[16C85.0080
16421.8400
16762. 1760
17J06.0080
1745J.3280

^ir oirctian;c(l at
tlie Hate of £>
Cylinilers per

fMinute in
Cuhical feet.

IO96.464O
1792.0200
I 890. 1920
1990,9860

2094-330 =
2300.4280
2309.0040
2420.3400
2534.2200
2650.7320
2769.8400
2891.5800
5015.9360
3142.9080
3272.4960
3404.7060
3537-8640
3676.9800
3817.0380
3959.7240
4104.1020
4353.9380
4403.4780
4556.6380
4713.4000
4870.7880
5031,7930
5194,2180

5359-9920
5,530.5240
57O2.CO4O
5S76.IOOO
6052.8120
6332.1460
64I4.IO3O
6598.6680
6785.8560
6975.660

7168. oSoo

7363.1220

7560.7800

7759-3920

7963.9,60

8169.4680

8377-5900

85S8.3460

S801.7130

9017.7000

9236.3160

9+57-5240

9681.3600

9907. SiSo

10136.8920

10,368.5880

10602.9000

10839.8280

11079.3720

11321.5,80

11566.3200

U813.7240

12063.7560

12316.3800

12571.6320

12829.5060

13089.9960

720-

141.

1493-3500
1 5 75. 1 600

^659. 155-
1745-2750
1833.6900
1924,1700
2016,9500
2116,8500

2208,9350
2308,2000
2409,6500
2513. 2S00
2619.0900
2727.0800

2S3 7-2550
2948.2300

3064.150
3180.865
3399.7700
3430.0850

3544-1 150
366c,.s6so

3937.0000

Air ..ifcl
at tlitf M.
:0 Cyl.i
[ler Mmuic 11
C.:l>ical Feet,

eta

Air difchirKcJ Air dirc^iarged
It Ibf ita:.: jf I at the Kale of
ylin..crs H Cvliiuler.

lulc ill per Minute in
CuiK-Tl Feet

1 130.9760
I J94.680O
1260.128;
1337.3240
1396.2200
1466.9530

1 53 9-3 3 60
1613.5600
1689.4800
1767. 1480
1846.5600
1927.7200
2010,6340
2095.2720
21S1.6940
19.8040
235*^-5760
2451.3300
3544.693c
3639.8160
2736.0680
3835.29
2935-6520

i>4S.3,jio
896.^100
945.096c

995-4930
1047.165.
1100,3140
1 154.5030
1210.1700
67,1100

13 25.3610 1063. 448S
1107.936J
1156,6320
1206.3744
1255.1053
130S.9984
1361.8824
i4i5-^'456

797.19003037.7520

3141.6000

4058.9900 5247.1930

4193. 1 600
432S.5150
4466.6600
4608.7700
4751.6700
4896.7500
5044.0100

5193-4550
5345,0850
549S.8900
5654.8800
5813.0500
5973-4000

6135-9350
6300.6500
6466.1600
6636.6300
6S07.S900

3354-5280
3463.8130
3573,3380
3687.0160
3801.3360
3917.4000
4035.3080
4.154.7640
4376.0680

678.5S5C
6So,8o8c
756.076S

796.3944
S37.7330
880.171
923,6016
968.1'? 60
1013.68S

Air dircliarged
itilacratu of to
Cylti.dcr. per
Winnie in Cubi.
cat Feel

I3S4.93OO

1445-7900

507.96S0

1571-4540

1636,2480

1702.3530

1768.9320

1838. 49CO 1470.7920

I90S.5I9O I526.8153

1979.8630 I5S3.8896

2052.0510 I64I.6438

3126,9690 1701.1752

3301,73901751,3912

2378,3140 1812.6312

3356.2000 i884;96oo

2435-39401948.3152
3515.8960 2013.7 168
3597.1040 3077.6873
3679.996c 3 144. 1968
2765.262c 2212.2096
2S51.0020 2380.8016
93S.05002350.44co
3026.4060 2421. 124S
3 1 16.0730 2492.8584
3207.0510 25155. 640S
4399.11203399.3340 3639.4672
4523.90.403392-9290 3714.3424
4650.4400 3487. S300 279C.3640
4778.7300I35S4.0400 3S67.3330
490S.74S036S1.0610 3945.3488
37S0.3900 3024.3126
3 8 79. 696

5040.520
5172.93S0
5309.3040
5446.3120

69S1.3350 ,5585.0600

7156-9550
7334.7600
7514-7500
7696.9300
7881.2700
8067,8000

5)25-5640

5867.8080
601 1.8000
6157-5440
6305.0160
6454.2400

835.5.01506655.2120
8447.41206757.4380

S640.4900
3835-7500
9033.1900

6912.3930

7068.6000
26.5530

9332.8100 73S6. 3480

04..54.6150

9638.2000

9844-7700 . ,„
10053.1300 S042.5040
10263. 1500 S3 1 0.9200
10476.3 60018381.0880
10691.35508553.0040
10908.3300 8726.6640

- .- . 3103.7568

3981.97S03185.5824

4084.7340

4188.7950

4294-1730

4400.8560

4508.8500

4618,1580

4738.2620

4840.6800

4953-9090

5068.4460

5184.2940

5301,4500

5419.9140

5539.6S60

5660.7690

3267.7873
3351.0360

3435-3834

3520.6848

3607.0800

094,5364

3783.0096

3872.544;

3963-127,

3054.7568

4147-4352

56^.4880
597-34-0
630.064c
663.662c

698,1 IOC

733.476c
769.668c
806,780c
844.7400

883.5740

933.3800
963.8600

1005.3130
1047.6360

1090.8470

1 134.9020
1179.288.;,
1335.6600
1272.3460
13 19.9080
1368.0340
1417.6460
1467.8260
1518.8760

1570. 80CO
1623,5960
1677.3640

1731.4010
1786.6640
1843.5080

1900. 1680

958.700c

017.6040

077.3820

3138.0340

2x99.5560

361.952c

325-2200
2389.3600
2454-3740

2520.3600
3586.4640

3654.6520
2733.1560
2792-5300
2863.7820
933-9040

3005,9000
3078,3720

3152.5080

3327.1300
3337.6060

3378.7140
3456.1960

4335-9312

4241.1600 3534.3000

3613.3760

4431-7488 3693.1340

7547-6920 5660.7690 4538.6152 3773.8460
7710.8800 578,5.1600 4626.52So;3S55.44co
7S75. 8160 5906.362014735.48961393 7. 908c
603 1.87S0 4825.50244021,252c
6i58.i9oo'4926.552c'4io5.46oo
6285.8160! 503S.?)53S 419.-^,5440
6414-7.5305131.80244376.5020
6544.998 :5235,99844^63.3yVo

B L O

B L O

TABLE I. ot die Powers of Steam Engjnes working at the Rate of 5 lbs. Aroirdupoife upon every Circular Inch, or 6.3616 Ibv
iipoii every Ijquare Inch of the Steam Pifton apphcable to Blowing Machinery ; and the Areas and Diameters of Blowing
Cylinders reqiiilite to raifc Air of various Denfities from i\- lb. to 4 lbs. upon each Circular Inch, or from 1.90 lb. to 5.092 lbs.
Avoirdupoife upon each Squaie Inch of the Air Receiver.

.

w

BU" ' J lb. per

Bl^ft 1 J per

Blill 1[>. per

BI.1H It II.. -^-cr

:.i..ii 1} tt». pc

r eiaft iJl;5. PM| Cl.lt jlb.pt

r lafl *l[> pcrlBUn 3Ut> per Blalt fJlb.pcr BUG a lb. t«^l

Circular Tch. .>r

Circular Inch,

■.iiculir neb.

CircuUr inch.

^.-^tif llCb

circular Ii.clj

.Icircul^r lnc^

.ir».uiat Inc ,( ircuiir Inert.. Circalar Inch.

circular Incb,

2 ~

■=,-

w"" •

• -OO IL i-cr

cr I \I ih per

■:r ?.5+ Id. per

or Z.8-> It-. [>tr

.r ;..b 1'. pe

T J,*, lb. pcrjur i.4l lb. PC

f r .131b. pc

T ...%iU. pcriof ..7;tt>. pei

or s V lb. per

' ">-

<-

"= = 1

Sqi.ire "-ch

Sriua.c Incb-

quarc Inch.

Sq..a.c_I..ch.

'^•i -'<: Incb.

Si-.uare incb.

Square Incb

-ti'j^ie Inch. 1 Square Inch.

Square Inch

A-ca vf Di^m

Ar.-.ot

i^mc-

/\tci of

D.amc.

A CJ of

Uiame-

•rea I'f.Diam

irea ofjMam

. Area c

iaoi

\r=j 0

tan.

fVrea 0

I iarr. Area of

Ui^m

*i a o'

niaot.

z 2

*w-

t)1i>vini; of

b;ii*lr..;

icr of

b!ow DC

er of

t<lot«iiii;

ler .if

!.I(»«ir,et of

McuingI of

blowir g

of

OHiD(

of

lUo.i.ft] of

?>:o»ing

of

^lo.ini'

of

z -

'"

C> iii.'cr ni!:o.

-Aliri'c.

f 11...

>lin'ler.

l)itt>>.

Cylinder

[Jillo.

CTlirn'.lnir.o.

riinn

Ditto

C>lin.I

Drtto

Ciind

nm..

■mo

Cvhnd.

T'tO

-3

Cvl.nc
500

Dilio

22}

2 0

4C0

200c

i333i .;^;

I 14.-

34

1000

32

8881 29i

8ooL8i

727

27

b6C

i6

615

-4?

57i

24

5.53

21

441

2205

1470 384

126;

35-^

II02

oil

980

3U

882

m

8oi

28^

735

1 - I

-/4

676

-6

630

25

588

24

55'

23*

Z 2

484

242c

161 3| 40

'383

37^

I2I0

J. 5

107.5

33

962

31

8S0

294

80'.

28'

744

^7*

691

26I

645

25*

60 r

244

-3

5^<'

264J

1763

4-

1511

39

1322

3(^i

ii/j

3-i-i

105B

321

961

3i

8S1

29*

813

2S-i

755

274

705

264

66\

5*

24

5-(

28SC

192s

44

1645

404

1440

38^

1280

35i

1152

34

10-17

i2j

9C0

ji

8bc_

29I

82 2

2 81

768

27*

72c

27

-5

625

3125

■2083

45 i

1785

42i

1 02

39-5

1388

37i

1250

35i

'I3

3i

1041

3H

961

31,

892

29I

833

29

781

28

26

6761 33S0

2253

471

1531

44

1690

41

1502

3Si

^35-

1 r'-, -1

1229

55

1126

i34

IC40

3''-i

965

31

901

;o

S45

-9

:t| 729

3645

2430

49?

2082

45 i

1822

4^^

1620

4oi

1458

58

1325

36J

1215

33*

1121

33'

1041

321

972

51

911

30}

2^

7^4

3920

2613

51

224c

471

1960

44^

1742

41 1

1568

39i

1425

374

130O

36

120(^

34?

1120

334

'^'45

32i

9S0

315

^9

841

4205

2803 53

2402

49

2102

455

1 868

43^

1682

41

1529

39

1401

57*

'293

36

I23I

34}

1121

334

,'051

324

3="

900

4500

3000 54 J

2571

5^1

2250

475

2000

44J

1800

42!

1636

404

1500

.81

'384

37s

1285

36'

1200

1
J-T4

1125

33i

31

961

48C5

3^03 56^

-745

5-;

240-

49

2135

46i

1922

44

'747

41?

1601

40

1478

384

'371

37i

1281

36

I-Ol

3'*

32

1024

5120

34:3 5«i

2925

54

3_0O

5=^

2275

47I

2048

45^

1S61

t3

170^.

41 +

'575

59*

1462

38i

1365

37

128c

55^

,^3

1089

5445

3630

604

3111

55 i

2722

•5%

2420

49i

2178

46I

1980

44-

1815

424

i'575

41

1554

39^

1452

38

1361

37

j3 +

1156

578c

3853

62

33=-

57 i

289c

5il

2508

50^

2312

48i

2IOI

46

1926

43*

1770

42i

1651

404

154J

39*

1445

38

■5

1225

6125

4083

64

iS=°

59i

3062

S5?

2722

52J

245-

49|

2227

''''\

2041

45

1S84

«i

1748

4i|

^^33

,04

1531

39*

?6

1296

648c

4320

65

3732

61

j24'-

57,

2880

53 i

2592

H

^35''

484

2i6o

46I

'99.i

44*

1851

43

172S

41 1

1620

40*

^ ,

iS'Jp

6§45

4563

671

3>ii

62i

j422

585

3042

55i

2758

52i

2489

49*

2281

47*

2106

46

1954

44*

1825

4-*

1711

41'

3^

1444

722c

4800

691

4'-5

64^

3610

60

3208

5H

2888

53I

2625

5if

2406

49

2221

I

+7?

20O.;

454

^9^5

44

18^5

424

39

1521

7605

5070

71'

4345

66

380

6ii

3380

58

3042

^l

765

524

^535

5oi

2338

4S4

2172

465

2C28

45

1901

43*

40

I'OC

8000

53.3

7.:

4571

6:1

4000

63 i

SSSb

l^^

3200

S6i

2909

^•^,

2606

514

2461

^9*

2285

47}

-°33

405

200s

-i-4*

+

.6SI

8405

56=3

15

480;

^A

4202

64I

3735

61

5362

■'"^

3056

"!

2801

53

2586

5\

2400

49

2241

+7I

2101

45*

-j- -

1764

8820

5S&0

761

5-4"

7i

44IC

66i

3920

62I

35^8

|9f

3207

564

2940

5^*

2713

52*

2520

50}

2352

48!

2205

43

1849

9245

6230

79

534-

r-i

4622

68

41C8

64

3698

6o|

3361

^^

3081

55\

2S44

^3

2656

5U

-46^

49*

23 1 1

48

44

1936

96 0

H53

S04

5531

74 r

^840

69!

4302

^•5'

3872

62^

3520

59?

3256

57*

297S

54*

27O5

sn

2581

50*

2420

49*
50,

514

43

2°-5

10125

675c

82

5784

76

5062

71

45'==

67

4050

63 i

5681

60*

3375

58

3115

56

2891

53|

i7oo

5^

253'

46|jii-

lO-DO

705.

84

6004

771

529c

72I

47°4

68 i

4232

Pi

3847

52

3526

5-A

3255

■57,

3022

55

2S21

53

2645

4712209

I 1045

■iP

c^''

63 1 1

794

5522

74|

4891

70'

4418

^.y\

4016

634

3681

604

3398

58f

3^55

561

2945

54*

2761

524

4K|.'3:4|ii52c

76SC

87i

658.

81

.576'

7-5

5120

7^i

4608

'>ri

+1S9

'•4!

3840

62

3544

59'f

3291

574

3072

55t

-8S0

54*

4924oi;iiO05

8003

891

6857

82J

6002

Hi

S3 3 5

13

4802

694

43^5

66

4001

634

3693

6oi

3428

5S4

32QI

56*

3001

50I250C

12500

8333

94

7142

0^^

6250

"9,

5555

H^

^000

;i*

4545

6/5

41C.6

64*

3S46

62^

3571

59i

3333

58

^125

56

57
58

51

2601

3°=^5

8666

93

■431

So-

6502

8oi

i'^'o

76

5202

- , J.

t729

^8i

4335

66

4001

6,1

3714

61

3468

59

325'

52

2704

13520

9013

95

77-5

88

6760

82J

6008

77^

i4c8

13^-

+916

70

45 q6

67}

4.160

64!

3862

62}

3605

60

3380

53

2809

14045

936J

9o'

8025

89I

7021

83 1

6242

79

5618

'li

5107

714

4681.

6Sj.

4321

55*

4012

634

3745

6ii

35^^

-1,1
j9+
60I

54

2916

14580

9720

984

8831

9'4

729c.

85I

6480

8oi

5S32

764

5301

721

4860

'm

4486

^7,

4 1 65

64I

,888

624

3645

S5

3025

15125

10083

lOOi

8642

93

7.562

^'.

6722

82"

')050

y8l

.500

74-J

5041

IT-

4653

68*

4321

6^1

4033

63 r

3781

6ii

56

3'3^J

15680

J0453

I02j

896;

94t

7840

88i

696S

t'i

6272

79*

5701

15i

5226

IH

4824

69'

44S0

67

41S1

64!

3920

6i\

57

3249

16245

10S30

104

9282

964

8122

90

7220

^^,

6498

%o%

5907

76}

5415

131

4996

70*

4640

681

4332

65*

4061

63*
64*

58

3364

16820

II2I3

106

9611

98

841=

91 f

7475

86J

57 2 8

82

0112

7Si

0o6

15

5175

73,

4S05

'o|

4481

67

4205

59

34*^1

'7405

11603

.07^

9945

99i

870-'

93i

7735

88'

6962

S3i

6329

794

5801

76i

5355

I

73?

497 i

704

4641

68

4351

66

60

3600

iScoo

I2COO

109 J

10285

lOli

900c

9S

.8000

8yA

720:

^4i

6545

81

6000

774

553S

1

74"^

5142

111

4800

69i

4500

^7,
68*

61

372J

18605

12403

I Hi

10628

103?

9302

9'i

8268

91

7460

86i

I76J

32|

6201

7SI

5724

75*

.5315

13

4961

70'

4650

62

3S44

.92.C

I2S13

I12i

1C982

104^

96IC

98

8542

92^

7688

^^74

6989

834

6406

80

5913

77

5491

74

5J25

Hi

4805

69f

63

3969

19845 13230I

115

1134=

1064

9922

99I

882c

94

7938

89

7216

85

6615

Sii

6jc6

78*

5697

75t

5292

72*

4961

64
65

4096
4225

20480
21125

'3653
14083

"7
1 185'

11702
12071

108?
110

1024c
10562

loii

I02i

9102
9388

95i
97

8192
8483

904

7447
76S1

86i

^li

6S26
7041

34

6301

5500

794
Sol

5851
5035

764

Hi

5461
5^33

74
75

5120
5281

7'^

72i

66

4356

217S0

14520

I20i

•2445

ml

10890

I04I

9680

9Si

8712

)3k

7920

39

7260 S5I

5701

3i|

5222

19

580S

70*

5445

73*

•5

67

4489

22445

14963

122-!-

12825

ii3i

II222

106

9975

100

8978

?44

3i6i

^0*

74S I 86'

5906

33

5412

3o

S9S5 774i

5611

68

4624

23120'

J54>3

124'

13211

"li

11560

I°75

10275

loji

9248

i6

3407

?a

7706187^

7'i3

M<

5605

Sii

5165

7Si

57S0.

69

4761

23805.

15870

126

13601

116I

I 1902

109

10580 103

J522

?74

3656

n

7935,89

7326.

J54<

58oi.

32i(

534S }

^Q

T9?i •

12.

490o\?4joo'

16353

128

14000 1 184I

12250

iioi

108S8 104^9800190 |89C9|<

)44

? 166 904 7538!S6jl"

jO0oS2^l<

5553 1?

^i*6r25|7sil

4Na

15 L O

B L O

TABLE II. of the Povvei-s of Steam Engines workinfj at tlie Rate of (5 lbs. Avoirdupolfe upon every Circular Inch, or )f>,i<) lb. upon
every Square Inch of the Steam Pillon, applicable to Blowing Machinery; and the Areas and Diameters of Blowing Cylinders
requifite to raife Air of various Dcnfities from i\ lb. to 4 lbs. upon each Circular Inch, or from 1.1,0 lb. to 5.092 lbs. Avoirdupoife
upon each Square Inch of the Air Receiver.

20
21
22
23
H

25

26

27
i8
29

30
I

33
,H
35
36

j7
58

39
40

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

49

5°

400
441
484

5^9

676
729

784

841

900

961

1024

1089

1156

1225

1296

1.569

1444

1600
1681
1764
1849
1936
2025
2116
2209

2,304
24c I
2500
2601
2704
2809
2916

3025
51,36

3249
3364
348
3600
3721
62I5844
'■'.5 3969

4096
4225

4356
4489
4624
4761
4900

2400
2646
2904
3174

3750
4056

43 74
4704
5046
5400
57^J6
6144

6534
69,56

735°
7776
8214
8664
9126
9600
10086
10584
1 1094
11616
12150
12696

13254
1,5824
14406
1 5000
15606
16224
16854
7496
18150
18816

19494

20184

0886

21600

C rcuUr Iiicli.

or l.y. Ih. per

S'lujrc liicli.

Arc.1 c,f Di*ni

23064
3814
4576

25350|i

6136

26934

27744
28566
29400

1600
1764
1936
2x16

2304
2500
2704
2916
313'''
3364
3600

3844
4096

435'^
4624

4900
5184
5476
577'5
6084
6400
6724
7056
7396
7744
8ioo
8464
8836
9216

9364
0000
0404
0816
1236
1664
2100

2544
2996

3456

3924
4400
4884
5376

5875
6384

6900
7424
795^5
8496
9044
9600

bloll M I" pvr
Clrcuir Inch,
or l.ztlh. per
Sqiiare Inch.

CylKm.

40

4
44

46

48
50
5-
54
5^'
58
60
62

64
66
68
70
72
74
7^
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96

98

100
102
104
)o6
io8
no
1 1

"4
116

118

o

124
126
128

130
132

134
136
138
140

Diamc
tcr of
Uillo.

1371
1512

1659
1813

1974
2142

2317
2499
2688
2883
3085
3289
3510
3 733
3(Ai
4200

4443

4<59.

495°

5214

5485

5763

6048

6339
6637
6942
7254

7573
7899
8232

8571
8917

9270

9630

9997

°37i

°752

1 139

15

1935

2342

2754

3179

3608

4043
4485
4934
539°
5853
6323
6800

37

305

40

42

44

46i

48

5°

51J

53i

55i

57i

59

61

63

65

66^

684

7°
72
74

76

--i
/ /"

79i
8ii
Sii

85

blalt 2 Ih |icr

ClrCl^lar Inch,

or X.54 Ih. per

Snuirc (ncli.

Arta uf Diaim--
Mowing ! tcr of
Cylintl. I Ditcu.

1200 34^

87
881
90 J
925

94*
96^

984^
100
101^
103I
lod
oU
09?
Ill

II4I

116^

u8|

1205

122?

124

126

r27f

'295

^3^3

1452
158;
1728

1875
2028
21S7
2352

2523
2700
2883

3072
3267
3468

3675
388S
4107
433

45'53
4800

5°43
5292

5547
5808

6075
6348
6627
6912
7203
7500

7803
8112

8427
8748

9°75
9408

9747
10092

10443
10800

11163

1 1532

1 1907

12288

12675

13068

13467

13872

1428,

14700

36i

38

39i

4'^

43^

45

46I

48I

5°i

52

53 i

55i

571

5^

60

62I

64

^5i

69I

71
72i

74i

76i

78

79i
8ii

83 i

84J

86i

88i

90

91^

93 i

95h

97

98i

ioo|

1025

104

1 05 J

i°7i
109I

1 lOj
112^

114?

116

II7I

119^

12li

Eu.i ^1 1 ' per
CircliUr Inch.
or t. 315 lb. per

Area «i Dume-
bloninj. icr of
Dillo

106':
1176

1290
X4IO

1531^
1666

1944
2090
2242
2400
2562
2730
2904
3082
3266

3456
3650

3S5O
4056
4266
4482

4704
4961
5162
5400

5642
5890
6144
6402

6666
6936

7210

749°
777<5
8066
8362
8664
8970
9280
9600
9922
0250
0584
0922
1266
1616
1970
2230
2693
5066

34i

36

., - 1

J/5

39
40 J

42i

44

45

49

5°l

52i

54

55i

57i

59

60^^

61
63 i

65h

67

681

7°i

72

73^

75

76I

78i
80
8ii
83 1

85
86i

88

89J

9H

93

94i

96I

98

99i

lOll

103

104I

io6|

io7«

i°95
111

II2i
II4I

UUli i. i Id. per
CircuUr Inch,
or i- t.i ifi per
S<iuarc inch.

blo^rinK
Cili-u-.

96

1058
1 161

I26y

'38

15°°
1622

1749

1880

2018

216

2306

2457
2613

2774
2940
3IIO
3285
3465

365°

3840

4°34
423,3
4485
4646
4860
5°7S
53°i
5529
5762
6000
6242
6489
6741
6996
7260
7526
7797
8073
8354
8640

89;°
9225

9525
983°
:oi40

:°454
°773

:io97
1426
1760

UUtt 2j lU. per
Circulnr Inc',.
or 3.4» Ih. per
Sqoare neb.

blowin

31
325

34

35l

37

iH
40

41I
43^
45

48

49|

5'

5H

54

55i

57

5H

6Di

62

63 h

65

661

68

69I

7^i

73

76

771

79

8oi

82

83I

85i

86|

88i

S9I

91^
93
94i
96

97i

99

100^

I02i

i°3l

'°5i
107

108J

872

962

1056

I '5-:
1256

1363

1475
159-^
171c

1834
19*53
2096
2234

2^71"
2522

2672

28 2 7

2986

3 '5°
3314
349°
3667
3S4S

4°34
4224
4418
4616
4819
5026
5238
5454
5^575
5899
6128

6362

6600
6S42
708S

7339
7594
7854
SiiS
83S6
8659
S936
9218
95°4
9794
0088

0387
0690

Diamc.
ter 01'
Ditto.

29^

31

32^

34

35i

37

38^
40

41^

43

44-1

46

47^

49

5'!

53I

54

56

57^

59

6oi

62

62i

64i

66i

6S

69!

71

72^

74

75^

77

78^

79l

S2I
84

85i

87

88i

90*

9^

93

945
96

97^

99
lool
102

lilait 3 ll> per
cir. inch^
S.3< lb. pi

Sipj^rc IHJ

H«n 1 1 ,. pel
Cir, Incb, or
4. 1 1 lb, per
tijuare Incb.

bUiM-inr, i.f
Cylind. Ditto.

800 2Si

8S2

96S

Mow
Cylin

29^
31

io5cJ32i

1152
125,;

'352

H58
1568
1682
I Soo
1922
2048
2178
312

245°
2592
2738
2SSS
3°42
3200
3362
3528
3698

3872
4050

4232
4418
4608
4802
5°°°

34

355

3 7

38^

39^

41

42^

1-4

45^
46I

48

49l
1

2i
53I

55

5^i
58

5408
5618

5832

6050
6272
642S
6728
6962
7200
7442
76SS

7938
8192
S450
8712

8978

9248

9522

10319800

r>f

'ilio.

281

788
814
S0330

97'^'3'i
1063132

153

24S

1

I

J 345

1447

'55-

1661

74

i;

1890
201C

2134
2261

2392

•527
■661
2808

2953
3103

3256

34

38

39i

40-5

42

43l

45

Ai

47^

49

5°i

51^

53

.59i„ .
60^3413

3574
3738
3906
4078

4253
4432

4613

4801

4992
85
5383
5584
5789
5998
6210
6426
6646
6869
7096
7327
75<5i
7800
8041
8287
8536

S789
9046

6?
^3^

65
661
68
69I

7°

72

73i

75

762

771
79i
80I
82

83^

85

861

87I

89

90I

92

935

944

96I

971
99i

Uiiill ) lib. per
Cir. [ncn, or
1 *S lb. per
Square tncb.

.\rea of niam.

ing

rylind

685

756
S29

9°9
987
107

1159
1249

'344
1441

1542

^645

n55

1866
1981
2100

2221

2346

2475
2607

54| 2742
55' ^'

j)7

5H
60

61$

62-

64

^^5i
66-'

68

69\

7^'

72

735

74

76

77?

78^

So

81I

S3

Hi

85I

87

881

89I

9«

92I

934
95

28S1
3024
3169
3318

-471
3627
3 7 86

3949
4116

42S5

4458

4635
+815
4998
5185
5378
5569
5765

59^7
6171

6378
65S9
6804
021
7242
7467
7695
7924
S161
S400

Ditto

26^

TtJ,

28|

3°

3'l

32i

34

5i

i'i

39i

4°l

41I

+34

44

454

47

484

49f
514
52J

J J4

55

BUM i II). per
Cir. Inch, 01
.77 11'. per
■iliiare Imh.

ilowiiig
Cy.intl.

640

774
S46
9.:!

roSi

Uiaiii

Area ol
hlow in
Cylind

^5i
261

564
57^
59

60;^

' 2
62I
64
05 i

661

67I

69i

7H

72

734

/J4

II*
7H

.94

3i

824

16S9
2822
295S
3°97
3240
3385
3534
36S6

3841

4000
416]
4326

4494
4665
4840

5° 1 7
5198
538
55*59
576°
5953
015°
•. 6350

S3|!6553
84416760

86^ 6969

^7l

29

3H-

3J^

324
16634

354

3^4

37f

39

4°i

4ii

43

44i

451
\6i
48

494
5°l

1254

1345
1440

1.^37

1638
1742
1S49

1960

2°73
2190
2310

2433
2560

ilJiU 4 I;., pti
Cir, Inch, ui
S-Ojlb. p«r

iquarc Inrh.

544
55h
5^^

^\
59\

60I

614

63

^\\

654

67

68

69i
70

72
734

''A
1 5^

600
66 1

726

793

864

937
(014

109,3
1176
1261

^35^
1441

1536
"533
1734
1837
'944
2053
2166
2281
400
1521
2646

773
2904

3037
3i7<5
3313

89

9047

9'l7

7182

739S

70 1 7

840

a!
nitto

-44
"04
27
28

294

3°i

314

33

34

35i

38

40^
414

43

444

45^

yl

48

49

5°4

5'i

52^

534

55

5^4

57i

3456 58I
3601

3750
3901
4056

4213
4374
4537
4704
4873
5046

77

78:^

79k

8o|

82

834

85I
8/4
881

5400
5581
5766

5953
6144

6337
6534
6733
6936
714J
7350

.,.3
j94
61

624

63I

644
66

674

68v'
69f

71

--> I

/-!4

76

I If

-ft

/94

81

I
I

8:
8,*

w4

B L O

B L O

Z III. of the Powers of Steam Engines working at the Rate of ^Ibs. AYoirdupoife upon every Circular Inch, or S.pilb. upon every
Inch of the Steam Pillon, applicable to Blowing Machinery ; and the Areas and Diameters of Blowing Cylinders, requifite to raife
various denfities from i^lb to 4lbs, upon each Circular Inch, or from i.9olb. to j.oyalbs. Avoirdupoife upon each Square Inch of
r Receiver.

BUn -ilb.pcrCir BlaU i^lt>. per v ir. UUU lib.ixrtn.

Bl^it 111 .. licrtir.

Ulitl iVi'.,. ^ti Cir.

tflai? i^lb.pcr Lir

Blan lib. per Cir.

8Ufi3llb. per Cir.

Blatl i;ib. per

Blaft 3llh. per

Blaft 4lb. per

ai

liicfc, or l.'j^lC)- Inch, or i.tZlb.^

Inch, or z. s*lb.

Inch, or l.«i51h,

fnch, or 3.1 «ln.

Inch, or i.4ii''.

Ii.ch, or J.Bllh.

Inch, or A.ijib

Cir. In'th, or

Cir. Inch, oi

Cir. Inch, or

0I3

per Square Inch. perSquaic inch

per Square Inclt.

per Square Inch.

lier Square Inch.

^er Square lnt.h.

per Squaie Hich.

per iquare Inch.

4,lSIb. per

i.77lh.per

S,05'b. per

«£ 3

Square Inch.

Square inch.

Square lucb.

?""

rtrcA of

UliMC

Area of

Diame-

Area of uiamc-

Area, of

IJiRine.

Area of

Diame-

Area of

Diamt.

;*rca of

Dt.;mc-

Area of

Diamc-

Area of

Diam.

Area o(

Diam

Aica vt

Diam

iis

Mowing

tcr 01

Mov.ing

ter of

blowing

icr of

6!ouinB

ler of

hlowins

ter of

biowing

ter of

bl.iwing

ur of

bitiwing

icr of

b1outb{^

of

b'owinf

of

bli.«inp

uf

Cyhn(1;;r.

UutP.

Cylinder

liKO.

Ci Under.

Ditro.

Cylinder.

1)1 Uo.

3j!

CvUudcr.

Dilto.

Cylinder.

Ditto

Til

Cyinricr.

Ditto.

3°*

Cylinder.

Ditto.

Cvlina.

Ditto.

r>l.n(J.

t^itto

Cylinil.

Dnto.

2S0C

I066

43J

1600

40

1400

31k

1244

1120

roh

1014

933

861

29

Soo

28!

746

2/1

700

2 6i

pS;

205S

45 J

1764

42

1543

391

1372

37

1234

35

II22

33-i

1029

32

949

30*

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29*

822

28*

771

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338S

2258

471

1936

44

1699

41

1505

38I

i3.';5

36I

123:

35,

1 129

33*

1042

3',

96S

31

903

30'

837

29

37=3

2468

495

2II6

46

1851

43

1645

40i

1481

38^

1346

36^,

1234

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1139

33*

1058

32*

987

31*

925

30*

4.032

1688

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23^-4

48

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45

179:

42

1612

40

1466

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1344

36*

1240

35

1152

34

1075

32*

lOoS

3H

^375

2916

54

2503

5°

2187

46i

1944

43^

1750

41!

1590

40

1458

38

1346

36*

1250

35*

1166

3"^,

1093

3H

+73-^

3:54

56

2704

5^

2366

481

2103

40

1892

43l

1720

4'i

1574

39*

1456

38

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36*

1261

35*

11^3

■^^,

5103

34^ i

58I

2916

54

255.

50*

2268

47i

2041

45*

1855

43

1701

41

1570

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1458

38

136c

Hr

1275

35i

J48S

3(^58

60*

3136

5^^

2744

SH

2439

49i

2195

46!

1995

44*

1829

42!

16SS

41

I56S

39*

1463

38!

1372

36i

$887

39H

62i

33^4

58

2943

54J

2616

51^

2354

48i

2104

46

1962

44*

iSn

42*

1682

41

1569

39*

1471

3^

530c

420=

64^

3600

60

315 =

56

280c

53

2520

5-i

2290

47*

2100

45*

1938

44

1800

42*

1680

41

1575

39*

5727

4484

67

3844

62

3363

58

2989

54.L

2690

51*

2446

49

2242

47*

2069

45*

1920

44

1793

42!

1681

41

7168

4778

69I

4096

64

3584

591

3185

56!

2867

53^

2606

5°*

23S9

48*

2205

H,

2048

45f

1911

43*

1792

42*

7623

5080

7'i

4356

66

381I

(nl

3388

58

3049

55

2772

52*

2541

5°*

2345

48*

2178

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2032

4-5,

1905

43*

5091

5394

73*

4624

63

4046

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3396

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2942

54*

2697

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2489

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2312

48

2157

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2023

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4287

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343°

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2638

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15876

126

13891

II7I

12348

Ill

11113

105!

I0102

lOO*

9261

96

8548

92*

7938

89

740S

86

6945

M

3672

[9114138!

16384

r28

14336

119J

12743

113

11488

107

10426

102

95.-;^

97*

S822

^-^,

8192

90*

7645

S7|

7I6S

84I

)575

197 16 140^

16900

T30

14787

I2l'i

I3H4

114!

11830

108!

10754

i°3|

98j?5

99^

9100

95i

8451

93

7S86

SS|

7393

86

3492

20328 142?

17424

132

15246

i23i

13552

ii6i

12196

no!

IIOS8

105!

10164

1005

9382

^^

8712

93*

8130

90*

7623

87!

'423

20948,144*

17956

134

15711

I25I

13965

118!

12569

112

11426

107

10474

102

9668

98!

8978

94*

S379

91*

7S55

88*

1368

215781146^

18496

136

16184

1271

14385

120

12947

113*

1177°

108*

10789

103J

9959

99J

9247

96i

8631

93,

8092

9°

i327

222l8|149

19044

138

i666j

129

14812

121!

1333°

115!

12119

no

11109

105*

10254

101!

952297*

88S7

94*

833191^!

1.300

228661151 II9600

140

17150

MI

15244

123^

13720117

12472

in*

11433

i°7 10.554

102!

98oo!99"

9146

95h

8575

9=5f

B L

0

B L 0

TABLE IV. of the Powers of Steam EngincR working at t!ie Rate of £!bi, Avoirdiipoifc, npon every Circular rncli, or i

0.18

i
Ls. iipon ci

is

Inch of tlitf Steam Piilon, applicable" to Blowing Machinery; and the Areas and Dianaeters of liiowiiijj Cylinders rt'

luii'ite to r

ll

various Dciifities from ij; lb. to 4 lbs. upon each Circular tueh, or fion> i.yo lb. to 5.092 lljt.. Avoirdupoile upon each Square Inch!
Receiver.

_^ r

Etafl J llj. i.er

UJ.iit ■ In. per

Blaft L Ih. i>er

Mldit li lb. jicr

l.lai! :l lt>. [tcr

Blall r\ Ih |>cr

Ul.it ^ lb per

Blalt a Ih. [,Lr

■lall tl

n. p.r

nun !i ID, peri]

— " »

rl.cuBT nth,

r,rciJ.ir Inch

Circular nicli.

Circular Incli,

Circular liicn,

circular locli

Cir^uUr Inch,

Circu ar Inch,

Circular

lurh.

circular Incli m

'^ji

s .

- —"3

or '.yo 111. per

IT '.■: Ill |.cr

u. 15* Ih- I'o

^T l-8i5 Ml. per

or i,'6 III. per

or { *t li.. per

or %.$i il. I'cr

or A-Ci Ih. per

or 77

b. oer

or « ;; 11.. per

" '-^

i =

If!

Squdrc Incti.

St]ii^rr Tiicb.

;>iliurc Inch

Siiu^re Inch.

S(i>iaie Inch.

Square I

ntli

Sij'iarc Inch.

square Inch.

Square

uch

'quarc 'nch. ]

^

Area of

[>iaiiK-.

•.TCA nt

Pianw.

Arc* ol

'iani.

ArcM ..f

liamc

Area '.<

liainc

A.cj of

■■iaX-

Area cU

Dia.i,e-

Area . t

Kianic.

Ate- of"

Oiamc.

Area of

1-iafnc

*""

hl-.M-iriK

t«r of

How. in:;

tcr .il

I'IkwiIi';

of

h on ins

M.iwL.C

U-r of

bl,... ,.. ■

ItT of

t>i(iwini:

ler 01

hlowiJlR

Ic-r ot

hlo,> „„;

ler of

hl..,>ing

tcr of

5-7.

CyViy.iiCT.

Pill...

Cylmdtr.

Ditto

::vii;..^cr.

Dillo.

[TylJndcr

ntiio.

■Vli.i.cr

nirt...

Cvliu.,cr

nitto.

C^linncr.

Ditt...
1^1

Cyliiiricr-

Onto-

Cyliiiuer

Dill...

Cilin,l;r,

DilUi

10

400

3200

2Ij3

46i

182S

42 1

160c

40

1432

37J

laSi"'

36

I I 63

34

1066

984

3'k

914

30

85;

29

21

441

35^8

2352

48|

2016

45

176.;

42

1568

39h

1413

37i

I3S2

35i

II76

34

1085

33

1008

3 It

94-0

30-;

22

484

3872

2581

50^

2212

4/

i9.;6

44

172°

4'i

1548

39^

1408

1290

351

I 191

34t

H06

33

1033

.>^'

-3

52y

4232

2S2I

53

241S

49

2116

46

1S80

43 i

169a

41

1.138

39

I4IO

37 i

1303

36

1309

34!

1128

3 5i

24

5.7f'

4608

3072

551

^633

5'*

2304

48

3048

45i

1845

4.5

1675

41

1536

39

1417

J7^

1316

36\

1228

35

2,S

625

^000

3.333

57^

^857

53-f

3500

50

3332

^K

2000

44l

1818

42f

1666

40^

1538

39,

1428

37^

1333

3'>l

36

676

5408

36^5

6b

3090

55i

2704

52

2403

48f

2163

46^

1966

44i

1803

42^

1664

40I

1545

39\

1443

3"^

-7

729

5«3^

38S6

62i

•.3.332

57-

2916

54

2592

5°4

2332

4-H

2120

46

1944

44

1794

42i

1666

40J

1.555

3'-A

zS

784

6272

4181

64^

3584

59I

3'3^>

56

2787

52^

2508

5°,

2280

47f

2090

45f

1939

44

1793

42i-

1673

4i

29

841

6-28

4485

67

J 844

6,|

3,364

58

2990

54i

2691

5'i

2446

49i

2242

47i

3069

45*

1933

43f

1794

42i

3^

900

7202

4803

69T

4114

64

3600

60

3200

,^6A

2880

53i

3618

5'^

2400

49

3311;

47

2057

45:^

1920

44

31

961

7688

5125

71^

4593

66

3844

62

3417

5H

3075

55^.

2795

5H

2562

5°i

3365

4Si

3196

46I

2050

45^

i'

1024

8192

5461

74

46S1

63^

40:;6

64

3640

6oi.

3276

57i

2989

54f

2730

52i

2530

•5°,

2340

48i

2184

46I

33

roSv

8712

5808

76,

4978

7oi

4356

66

3872

62I
64I

3484

59

3168

56i

2904

.54

2680

5'i

3489

50

2323

48

34

ri56

9248

6165

78,

5 2 84

72-i

4624

68

4110

3699

6oj

3362

^\

3082

55i

3S45

53,

2642

51 z-

2466

49i

3.';

1225

9800

<55.33

81

5600

74^

4900

7°

4555

66

3920

62i

35^'3

59f

3266

57

3015

54i

2800

53

2613

-Ji

36

1296

10368

6912

83I

5924

77

5184

72

4608

68

4147

64{

3770

611

3456

5H

3190

56i

2962

544

2764

u

37

1369

10952

7.301

851

6258

79i

5476

74

4867

69I

4380

66i

3982

6.3

36';o

6o|

3308

58

3129

5^

2920

"3;

3«

1444

''55'-

7713

87I

6601

Sof

5776

7'>

5134

7.3"

4620

68

4300

64I

3850

62

35.54

59i

3300

57;

3080

55i

39

1521

12168

S112

90

695.3

8.3

6084

78

5408

4867

69f

4424

66i

4056

63 f

3744

61

3476

59

3244

57

4-

1600

12800

8533

r-i

7314

S5i

640-

80

56S8

75: :

5120

/If

4654

68i

42^,6

6.5i

3938

62!

3657

6oi

3413

58?

41

i68x

'3448

896J

94^

7684

?7-i

6724

Si

5976

77^-

5379

734

4S90

~°.

4462

66^

4137

64 _

3842

62

3586

59?

42

'764

X41 ij

9408

97

8064

89f

7056

84

6272

79t

5644

75

5131

/if

4704

681

4342

65\

4033

63i

376;

6ii

43

1849

14792

9861

99i

845,3

92

7396

86

6574

81

5916

76f

5378

/o".f

49,30

7°^

4520

67i

4236

65

3944

6it

44

1936

15488

12325

loii

8453

94

7744

88

68S3

83

6195

7H

5632

75

5162

71I

4765

69

44-5

661

4130

64

45

202^

16203

10800

104'

9257

96i

8100

90

7200

85

6480

Sol

5890

76i

5400

73i

4984

7o|

4628

68

4320

65? »

46

2116

1692S

1 1 285

to6i

967,;

98|

100:5:

8464

92

7523

86|

6771

82i-

6155

7Si

5642

7.5

5208

74

4S36

6g\

4514

67

47

2209

17672

11781

108^

10098

8S36

94

7854

881

706S

84

6426

83

5890

76*

5437

73i

5049

71

4712

68J

^

4^

•^304

1S432

122SS

iioi

10532

102i

9216

96

8193

9°4

7,572

^4

6702

8i|

6144

78

5671

''J)

5260

73!

4915

70

■

49

2401

1920S

12805

<i,3i

10976

I04I

9604

9

8536

92

7683

87.J

6984

83^

6402

80

5910

77

5488

74

5123

714

5'=

2500

20000

'33 i 3

"5*

1 1428

100^

1 0000

10

8888

94

8000

8yi

7272

85i

6666

8ii

6153

784

5714

754

5333

73

51

2601

2080S

1,5872

117I

iiSSS

109

10404

102

9248

96i

8323

9ii

7566

87

6936

83i

6403

80

5945

77

5.548

745

5-

2704

21632

14421

120

I236I

1 1 I

10816

104

9614

98

8652

9.3

7S66

88|

7210

85

6636

8ii

6180

784

5768

Tfi

,'

53

2809

22472

14981

I22i

12841

"3i

1 1336

106

9987

lOO

8988

94l

8135

9oi

749°

86i

6914

^3.

6420

80

5992

54

2916

23328

K'i55-

124i

13330

'1.5^

11664

io8

1036S

ioi|

9331

96^

S482

9\

7776

SSJ:

7116

84

6665

8i4

6220

79

s

jS

3025

24200

16133

127

I3S28

"7^

12100

no

10755

103.;

9680

98

8800

9,3i

8066

89I

7446

86i

6914

83

6453

8oi

,l

56

313^

25088

16725

129!

14336

i'9-i

12544

1 12

11150

io5i-

10035

1 00

9122

951

8362

9'i

7719

87f
89^:

7168

844

6690

82

57

3H9

■'5992

17.328

IJIr;

14852

12.^

12996

114

11552

107^

10396

lOlf

9451

97i

8664

93

7997

7426

86

6931

83!

5''^

33''4

26912

1794c

'34

'5378

124

■345''

116

11960

i°9i
ml

10764

103^

9786

98*

S970

94f
961

S280

91

76S9

87*

7176

844

59

3481

27S48

'^5(^5

'36i

1590S

126

'3924

lib

12376

11139

105I

10126

lool

9282

8568

92|

795^'

89

7426

86'

60

3600

28S00

1920C

l3^

■6457

I28i

14400

12c

12800

rl3

11520

i°7i

10473

102I

9600

98

8861

94^

8328

got

7680

874

i

61

3/21

29768

19845

140^

I70IO

i3o|
132I

14S84

!22

13230

114:?

11907

109

10824

104

9922

99I

9159

95f

8505

92

7938

89^

62

3S44

30752

20381

142I

17572

'5376

134

13676

117

12308

111

11182

105-5

10250

101^

9462

■^^ 1
97t

8786

93i

8200

90I

63

3969

^''^J

2116S

'45

18144

'34l

.5876

126

14113

"9^

13700

iiif

1 1454

1^7^

10584

102|

9769

98f

9072

95i

8467

9a,

64

4096

32768

21845

•475

18724

136I

16384

I2S

14563

12 0i

13107

1144

11912

109

10922

1044

100S2

lOo:?

9361

965

8738

93^

65

4-^5

5j8io

^-^533

i49n

'9314

'39^

16900

13c

; 5022

122i
T24I

13520

ii6i

12290

iioj

11266

106^

10400

102

9657

98?

9014

95,

66

435''J

34848

^-3232

152

19913

'4if

17424

132

15488

'3939

118

12672

112i

11614

'07I

10722

103'

9956

992

9293

9^

I

^^

H89

35912

23941

■541

20521

'43i

17956

134

15960

I26I

14364

119I

13058

114

11970

XO9I

11049

105

10260

I

9576

98*.

68

4624

36992

24661

'■5^

211,38

I45f

18496

136

16440

I2S

14796

i2ii

13451

116

12330

111

11382

1064

10 09

103

9864

99i

69

4761

3S088

25592

'59^

21764

'47^

19044

138

16924

130

15235

I23t

13847

II7I

12696

1131

11719

loSi

10882

i04i

10156

100*
102^

i^

1-900

^9200

26133

162

22400

149^^

10600

'4--

17422

132

15680125^

14254

il8i

13066

ri4i

l206l

no

1 1200

106

10453

^:

B L O

B L O

1

iwers of Steam Engines working at t!

le Rate of olbs. Avoirduooife

upo:i every Circular lacl

, or II

.45lb

. upon

CveiT

Stiuare Inch

" Iteam Puton applicable to Blowiii;T Machinery ; and the Areas and Diameters of Blowin

T Cylinders

requihte to raife Air of various Den-

^' 11 i^lb. to 4li)s. upon each Circular Inch, or from i.yolb. to 5.093lbs. Avoirdupoife, upon each Square Inch of the Air receiver.

*

UUfl iHi>. pcrctr.

m»« Hlb per cir.

Blall liri. f.tt L.r. Biaft ;jir> [..^rttr.

HUlt z\\b. pcrCir.

Blalt ziu>. (.crCtr-

KU(t 3lb. per cir.

8i-t( iilb. per Cir

Clall Jilh. per cir .Blalt liiii tercir.

Blatl 4lt|>,ptrCi: I

Iticli.ur i.oolb.

Iiich,orl.t!lft.

Inch. «ir I-S+l"!.

Incti^ur l.SOb.

incl;,or ?.ib!b.

inch, 'If jiilh.

Iflch. or J iilib.

Ii.^Ii, or 3 8 lb.

Inch or 4.*slb.

Inch,- r,i.77lb.

fncb, or s Cglb. f

per 3-i'iarc luch.

per Square iiicti

per iquarcincll.

per Square ikcL.

per Squaic Inch.

per ^.^ujrc lucb.

pcrSiJuare liiLb.

pcr&i]uaic Inch.

per square lucb.

p:r Square litcb.

per Square inch 1

Ar-s lit

nian.e-

Arciof

nirinii:-

^rcat>f l)i.iT^e.

Area of

"iar.tc-

AlLM .jf

Ui^mc-

-Area of

l)ni;i!;-

Area of

Oia.nc-

Area ot

Dian.e.

A tea .,r'

tiiii ic-

-Area of

Di3ii-e-

Area of

Diarjic.

t,l„»n,g

tsr.rf

li1f)*itiR

ttr t.f

hltjwiijg j ter dT

blowing

t-ruf

Mutiny

tcr of

6 uMip.g

rcrof

tilo^ing

u-r of

\>\a*'ins

tcr of

blown.i;

ier of

blou-ir.s

tcr or

blowing

ter of

WO.

C^l-n.lc-.

Ditto.

tryliiider

DittJ.

45^

CvTi^tler 1 Ditto.

CylinUcr-

Ditto

LyliiKlcr.

iJitto

C>lir.(Jcr

Diltn

36

Cylinder.
1200

"34I

Cylin.ler.

Ditto

33i

Cviiidcr.

l-itio.

Cyliii.icr.

O'tto
31

Cylinder.

Ditto.

3°

6oc

2400

49

2057

1800

42^

i6oo

40

1440

37^

1305,

IIO7

IO2S

32

960

90c

9<y,

2646

5H

2268

47

1984

44:!

1764

42

1587

39t

1443

3^

1323

3H

I22I

35

1134

33i

IO5S

32^

992

31I

35'

3904

54

24S9

49?

3178

46i

■ 1936

44

1742

4i|

1584

39;

1452

38

1340

36I

1244

35

II6I

34

I0S9

33

761

317^

sn

272c

53

238c

48J

21 16

46

1904

43^-

1731

+H

1587

39i

1464

38I

1360

36I

1269

35l

119c

34-i

iS,

i4,^f'

■^9,

2962

Sji

2592

5ot

23^4

48

3073

45-^

iSSs

43;!

1728

4H

1593

395

I4S:

38-/

1382

31

1296

36'

■<;^-,5

37.1'-

6I1

j2I4

56%

2812

53

2500

50

2250

47i

2045

45i

1875

43I

1730

n

1607

40

1500

38-!

1406

37 i

:o8.

405^^

64*

347^'

59

3042

55

3704

52

2433

49i

3312

■+7,

2028

45

1872

I73S

4jt

1622

40

152 I

39

,j6i

4.374

66i

3749

61

3280

57i

2916

54

2620

51

23S5

48I

2187

46I

2018

45

1874

1749

41*

1640

40J

056

4704

6SI

4032

63-^

3528

59^.
6i|

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TABT.F, VI. of the Powers of Steam Engines working at the Rate of lolbs. Avoirdupoifc upon every Circular Inch, or 12.7 3lb3. upon t\

inch of the Steam Pifton, apphcablc to Blowing Machinery ; and the Areas and Diameters of Blowing Cylinders requifite to n

'■

various Denlitics from i^ lb. to 4 lbs. Avoirdupoifc upon each Circular Inch, or frona 1.90 lb. to 5.092 lbs. upon each

b<iuare Inch

»

Receiver.

I
I

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~~~

bl»it i^lb. per

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iitait alb. per

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- ^

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circular Inch,

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fiicular Inch,

fl

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or <.^olb. per

iir ^.it lb. per

or 1.5416. per

or i.Bolb. per

or , 6 li' per

or J »llh. per

or i-iJi lb. v«r

(jr ).ui it). i*er

or 4.4Jlh. pti

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^ •=

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N

-

B L U

Blowing nf a Flotuer, among Flor'ijls, an artificial pro-
cefs in ordi-r to bring a flower to difplay itfelf with greater
perfection and beauty tlian it would arrive at in the natural
way of blowing. The ufual method is thus : about April,
when the flower ftems begin to put forth, ox Jphiclk, as the
gardeners call it; they place by each flower a itrait flick foui-
feet long, and tie the fpindles to it as they fhoot. As foon
as the flower-buds appear, they leave only owe of the largell
on each flower-ftem to bloflbm. About ten days before
the flowers open themfelves, the round-podded kinds will
begin to crack their huilis on one iide, when the careful
paidener, with a fine needle, fplits or opens the huHi on the
fide oppofite to the natural fraftion ; and about three or
four days before the complete opening of the flower, cuts
ofF with a pair of li:ifrars the points on the top of the flou'er-
pod, and lupplies the vacancies or ( penings on each fide of
the hu(l< with two fmall pieces of vellum or oil-cloth, flipped
in between the flower-leaves and the infide of the huflc ; by
fuch means, the blofibm will difplay its parts equally on all
fide?, and be of a regular figure. Befides this care, when
the bloflbm begins to ihew its colours, they ufe to fliade it
from the extreme heat of tlie fun with a trencher-like board,
or other device of the like nature, faftened to the flick
which fupports it ; for the flowers, as well as fruits, grow
larger in the (hade, and ripen and decay fooneft in the
fun.

In Heraldry, a fleur de lys is faid to be blown, cfpanoiii,
when its leaves are opened, fo that buds appear among
the fleurons. The arms of the city of Florence are urgent,
ajlcur de lys bloivn, gides.

ViLOW itiG-fnahe, in Zoologv, a name given by the people
of Virginia to a fpecies of ferpent much refembling the
European viper, but coufiderably larger, and very remark-
able for its inflating and extending the furface of its head
before it bites. Its wound is very fatal.

BLOWN Red, in the manufafture of porcelane. See
Red.

BLUBBER, in Phyfiology and Trade, the fat which in-
vefts the bodies of all large cetaceous fifli, ferving to furnifli
an oil.

The blubber is properly the adeps of the animal : it lies
immediately under the flcin, and over the mufcular flcfti.
In the porpoife, it is firm and full of fibres, and invefts the
body about an inch thick. In the whale, its thicknefs is
ordinarily fix inches ; but about the luider lip, it is found
two or three feet thick. The whole quantity yielded by one
of thcfe animals ordinarily amounts to forty or fifty, fome-
times to eighty or more hundred weight. Phil. Trauf. N°

77- P- "75-

The ufe of the blubber to the animal feems to be partly
to poife the body, and render it equiponderant to the water;
partly to keep off the water at fome diftance from the
bloo^l, the immediate contaft whereof would be apt to
chill it ; and partly alfo for the fame ufe that cloaths
ferve us, to keep the filh warm, by reflefting or reverbe-
rating the hot fl;eams of the body, and fo redoubling the
heat ; fince all fat bodies are, by experience, found lefs
fenfible of the impreffion of cold than lean ones.

Its ufe in trade and manufaftures is to furnifli train-oil,
which it does by boiling dow:'. Formerly this was per-
formed afliore in the countries where the whales were caught ;
but of late the fifliers do not go afliore, they bring the blub-
ber home, flowed in caflvs, and boil it down there.

BLUBBFR-//i;«.r. The livers of cods, which having been
barrelled, yield fpontaneoufly a confiderablc quantity of oil,
which being flciinmed oflf, the refidue are called islubber-
Lvers, to be boiled down for more oil.

Vol. IV.

th

B L U

Blubber, _/i'^, a denomination given by our navigators t»

e urUca marhm. or i'ea-rettle. Phil. Trant. N" 3-19.

BLUDENTZ, in Geograply. See Pludentz.

BLLTE, one of the fevcn primitive colours of the rays of
light, into which th.ey are divided, when refrad^ed through a
glafs prifm. See Colours, and REri'.ACTiON.

Anciently blue was the fymbol of the fea ; for which
reafon, in the Circenfian game?, the combatants v.h.o re-
prefented the fea were clad in blue; and thofe who had
diftingtiiflied themfelvts by any notable exploit at fea, weve
rewarded with a blue enfign.

Mr. Boyle has given us the following method of makii.g
tranfparent blue, nearly equal to ultramarine. The principal
ingredient of this beautiful colour is '.he cyanus, or blue
corn-bottle flower, which abounds almoft in every corn-field,
and may eafily be had during four of the fummer months.
It may be gathered by children about the verges of com-
lields, without doing any damage to the corn. This flower
has two blues in it, one of a pale colour in the large outer
leaves ; and the other of a deeper blue, that lies in the
middle of the flower. Both thefe will do, being feparatcd
from the buttons or cafes in which they grow ; but th.e
deep blue leaves in the middle produce much the bell colour :
this may be obfcrved by rubbing the leaves while they are
frefli upon a piece of writing-paper, fo hard as to cxprefs
the juice, wluch will yield an excellent colour, that by the
experience of two or three years has not been fcund to
fade. A fufficient quantity of thefe middle leaves being
procured, let the juice be prefled from them ; to which a
little alum being added, will give a lafting tranfparent blue,
fcarc^-ly inferior in brightnefs to ultramarine. It is very
probable, that if the chives of thefe flowers were cured in
the fame manner with faffron, they would produce a much
greater body of colour, from which a tindture might be
drawn with more eafe than when prefled frefli from the field.

Mr. Boyle alfo recommends another fine blue, produced
from the blue leaves of rue beaten in a ftone mortar with a
wooden peflle, and then put in water for fourteen days or
more, wafliing them every day until they are rotten. Thefe
beaten up at laft, water and all, until they become a pulp,
and then dried in the fun, will make a fine blue for
fhading.

Blue A/Im, Cemlres bleues. See Verditer.

Blue bice, is a colour of good brightnels, next to Pruf-
fian blue ; it is alfo a colour of a body, and flows well from
the pencil. See Bice.

Blue, m Dying. See Dying, Indigo, and Woad.

Blue black. See Black.

Blue enamel. Sec Azure Enamel.

Blue, Flanders, is a colour feldom ufed but in land-
fcapes, as being apt to turn green,. The French 'call it
cendre -verte, or green aflies.

'Sihve. for painting or ftaining glafs. See Glass.

Blue Japan. See Japhnning.

Blue Indigo. See Indigo.

Blue Z./V»n/j, or Lacmus. See Litmus.

Blue, Painters', is made differently according to the
different kinds of paintings. In hmning, frefco, and mi-
niature, they ufe indifferently ultramarine, blue aflies, and
fmalt ; thefe are the natural blues, excepting the laft, which
is partly natural, partly artificial. See each under its proper
head. In oil and miniature they ufe indigo, blue bice, blue
verditer, lapis armenus, fmalt, and litmus, alfo a counterfeit
ultramarine. Enamellers and painters of glafs have blues
pecuhar to themfelves ; each preparing them after his own
manner. See Enamelling, Fainting en Glass, aiid Neu-
mann's Chem. Works, by Dr. Lewis.

4 O Blue,

B L U

Bl«e, Pnijfian. See Prussic jic'td.

Blue, Saxon, a folution of indigo in fulphuric acid. See
Indigo.

For an account of the procefles for obtaining blue liquors
from oak.-du!l and vitriol, fronn logj-wood and vt;rdignfe,
from log-wood and blue vitriol, from an efTential oil and vo-
latile fpirit ; fee Dr. Lewis's Commcrcium Philofophieo-
Teclinicum, ed. 410, ann. 1773, p. 3S2. 407. 456.

Blue, Stone, or PoivJer, lifcd in waibing of linen, is
the fame with fmalt, either in the lump, or powdered.

When the fnialt is taken from the pot, it is thrown into
a large vciTcl of cold water ; this makes it mofe tradlable
and eafily powdered. Afterwards, wlitn examined after
cooling, it is found to be mixed with a greyifli matter re-
fembling aflies, which they call cfcheL This grey matter
it feparated by wadimg, and then the blue fubllance is
powdered and fifted through fine fievee, to bring it to
what we c-a\\ poiuder-LIue. Phil. Tranf. N° 396. See Co-
balt.

Blue, turnfol, is a blue ufed in painting on wood, made
of the feed of that plant. It is prepared by boihng four
ounces of turnfol in a pint and a half of water wherein lime
has been flacked. See Turnsol.

Blue, ultramarine. SccLazulite.

There is a blue fubftance, fomething like what Kentman
mentions under the name of cteruleum patavinum. It was
difcovered in a peat-mofs in Scotland. This earth is at firft
of a white colour, and only grows blue by being expofed to
the air. It has alfo fome rtfemblance to what Mr. de Cofta
in his Nat. Hift.of Folf. p. 103. ca\\% ochria friabilis caruka.
It is defcribed very minutely by Mr. Douglas, who gives
an account of his various experiments upon it, and recom-
mends it as a cheap paint in gum water, particularly as it is
levigated and prepared by nature. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Iviii.
N° 27. an. 1768.

Many fimilar fpecimcna of blue earth have been difco-
vered in England and Ireland, and feveral parts of the con-
tinent.

Blue-W/, a name given in fome countries to the Cone-
AVhe.\t.

^hvz-lottle, in Botany. See Centaurea.

BtuE-Ca/i, in Ichthyology. See Ble\v-C<;/.

Blue yohn, the common appellation, among the Derby-
fhire miners, of Fluop.-Spar.

Blue Mantle Purju'want of Arms. This ofScer is by
patent a member of the corporation of heralds. Sir Henry
Spelman conjeftures, that the title was taken from the co-
lour of the mantle of the French kings. This office is faid
to have been inftituted by Henry V., and probably might be
coeval with that of Garter, and erected with reference to
that order ; but although the catalogues place John Wrex-
worth and others by this title under the reign of Henry V. ;
Anthony Wood afcribes the creation of this office to
Henry VI., in whofe 26th year Bluemantle Purfuivant
waited on Bruges, Garter king of arms, into France, and
alfo on the bilhop of Chichefter and others, ambafiadors
thither. Previous to that date there are not any entries on
record relating to this officer ; but from thence to the pre-
fent time the fucceffion hath been carried on without any in-
terruption.

Blue Nuns, files Hues, thofe of the order of the An-
nunciation.

BLUEFIELD's Bay, in Geography, a bay in the ifland
of Jamaica, lying S.E. of Savannah-la-Mar, and having good
anchorage for large velfels. N. lat. 18° 10' jo". W. lono-.
78°.

Bluefield's, or BkivJUld's Bay, a bay on the weftern

B L U

coaft of Nicaragua, in New Spain, into which a river of
the fame name is difcharged. N. lat. 11° 40'. W. long.

BLUEHILL, a town(hip of America, in Hancock
county and diflriil of Maine, on the weft fide of Union
river, 344 miles N.E. of Bofton, and ij E. of Penobfcot ;
havnig 274 inhabitants.

Bluehill Bay, a bay of America, formed by Naflteag
point on the weft, and Mount Dtfart ifland on tlie eaft, and
extending northerly to a mountain on the eaft of Penobfcot
river, wliich, from its appearance at fea, is called " Blue-
hill." Union river difcharges itfelf into this bay.

Blue Hills, a range of mountains in New England, the
firft ridge of which in New Hampffiire pafles through Ro-
chtfter, Barrington, and Nottingham.

Blue Mountains, are mountains of America, in Nor.
thampton county, and ftate of Pennfylvania, extending from
S.W. to N.E. and through a fmall interval acrofs the Dela-
ware.— Alfo, a range of mountains, which run from S.E.
to N.W. through Surry county, in the ifland of Jamaica.
Blue mountain peak is faid to rife 743 1 feet above the level
of the fea ; and the precipices are interfperfed with beauti-
ful favannahs Alfo, a mountain in RufCa, part ofthe Al-

tay mountains. See Sinnaia Sopka.

Blue R'ulge, or South Mountain, is the firft ridge of
the Alleghany mountains in Pennfylvania, Virginia, and
North Carohna, diftant from 130 to 200 miles from the fea,
and, meafurtd from its bafe, about 4000 feet high. Be-
tween this and the north mountain is a large fertile vale.
The paflage of the Potowmack river through this ridge is
one of the moft ftupendous fceres in nature. See Alleg-
hany Alountains, and Potowmack River.

Blue Licks, lie on the main branch ofthe Licking river
in Kentucky, and are fituated about 8 miles wefterly from
the Upper Blue Licks. Both of them are on the N.E. fide
of the river ; and the latter is about 15 miles N.E. of
Millers.

Blue Spring, lies between Big Barren and Little Barren
river, fouthern branches of Green river, in Mercer's county,
Kentucky, about 22 miles fouth-wefterly from Sulphur
fpring, and 1 3 foutii of Craig's fort, on the north fide of
Green river.

Blue Stone Creel, a fmaU weftern branch of the Great
Kanhaway.

BLUENESS, that quality which denominates a body
blue, depending on fuch a fize and texture of the parts that
compofe the furface of a body, as difpofe them to refleft
the blue or azure rays of light, and thofe only, to the
eye.

With refpeft to the bluenefs of the (]<y, M. de la Hire,
after Leonardo da Vinci, obferves, that any black body
viewed through a thin white one, gives the fenfation of blue ;
and this he affigns as the reafon of the bluenefs of the fliy,
the immenfe depth of which being wholly devoid of light,
is viewed through the air illuminated and whitened by the
fun. For the fame reafon, he adds, it is that foot mixed
with white makes a blue ; for white bodies, being always a
little tranfparent, and mixing themfelves with a black be-
hind, give the perception of blue. From the fame principle
he accounts for the bluenefs of the veins on the furface of
the ilvin, though the blood they are filled with be a deep
red ; for red, he obferves, unlefs viewed in a clear, ftrong
light, appears a dark brown, bordering on black: being
then in a kind of obfcurity in the veins, it muft have the
effea of a black ; and this, viewed through the membrane
of the vein and the white fliin, will produce the perception
of blueuefs. ■

In

B L U

In the fame way did many of the early writers account
for the phenomenon of a bhie ilij ; fuch as Fromondus,
Funccius, Otto Guericke, and many others : their opi-
nion long prevailed, and has been adopted by fome in more
modern times, efpecially by Wolfius and Mufchenbroek.
But in the explanation of this phenomenon, fir Ifaac New-
ton obferves, that all the vapours, when they begin to con-
denfe and coalefce into natural particles, become tirft of fuch
a bignefs as to refleft the azure rays, before they can confti-
tutc clouds of any other colour. This, therefore, being the
firil colour which they begin to reflect, muft be that of the
fiaeil and molt tranfparent flties, in which the vapours are
not arrived to a groflhefs fufficient to refleft other colours.

M. Bouguer, without having recocrfe to the vapours
diffufed through the atmofphere, in order to account for
the reficttion of the blue-m.aking rays, afcribes it to the
conftitution of the air itfelf, whereby thefe fainter-coloured
rays are incapable of making their way through any confi-
derable tract of it. And he accounts for thofe blue (ha-
dows, which were firll obferved by M. Bufton in the
year 1742, by the aerial colour of the atmofphere, which
enlightens thefe fhadows, and in which the blue rays
prevail ; whilll the red rays are not rcflefted fo foon,
but pafs on to the remoter regions of the atmofphere. The
abbe Mazeas, in a Memoir of the fociety in Berlin, for tlie
vear 1752, accounts for the phenomenon of blue fhadows by
the diminution of light ; having obferved that, of two fha-
dows which were caii upon a white wall from an opaque
body illuminated by the moon, and by a candle at the fame
time, that which was enlightened by the candle was reddifh,
and that which v,'as enlightened by the moon was blue.
However, the true caufe of this appearance feems to be that
afligned by M. Bouguer, which agrees with the folution
given of it about the fame time by Mr. Melville. But
inflead of attributing the different colours of the clouds,
as fir Ifaac Newton does, to the different fize of thofe
globules into which the vapours are condenftd ; Mr. Mel-
ville fuppofes, that the clouds only refleft and tranfmit
the fun's light ; and that, according to their different
altitudes, they may affume all the variety of colours at
fun riling and fetting, by barely reflecting the fun's inci-
dent light, as they receive it through a fhorter or longer
tra& of air : and the change produced in the fun's rays
by the quantity of air through which they pals, from
white to yellow, from yellow to orange, and laftly to
red, may be underilood agreeably to this hypothefis, by
applying to the atmofphere what fir Ifaac Newton fays
concerning the colour of tranfparent liquors in general, and
that of the infufion of lignum nephriticum in particular.
Edinb. Eff. vol. ii. p. 75. Bouguer Traite d'Optique,
p. 368. Newton's Optics, p. 228; or Prieflley's Hill,
of Vilion, &c. p. 436 — 449.

BLUFF-Head, or Bluff-headed, in the Sea- Language, is
when a fhip has but a fmall rake forward on, being built
with her ftcm too Itraight up.

Bluff-headed fnips are oppofed to thofe that are fliarp-
headed. They are fhorter, lefs mailed, and fail cheaper.

BLUING OF Iron, a method of beautifying that
metal fometinies praftiftd ; as for mourning buckles,
fwords, or the hke. The manner is thus : take a piece
of (rrind-ftone, and whet-flone, and rub hard on the
work to take off the black fcurf from it ; then heat it
in the fire, and as it grows hot, the colour changes by
dfgrces, coming firft to a light, then to a dark gold co-
lour, and laftly to a blue. Sometimes they grind alfo
indigo and fallad-oil together, and rub the mixture on the
work with a woollen rag, while it is heating, leaving it
to cool of itfelf.

B L U

Among fculptors we alfo find mention of bluing a
figure of bronze, by which is meant the heating of it.
to prepare it for the application of gold leaf, btcaufe of
the bhiiih cafl it acquires in the operation.

BLUM, Joachim Christian, iu Biography, an efleemed
German poet, was born at Rathenau, in 1739, and received
the early part of his education in his father's honfe, from a
lady, who was the governefs of his lifters. At the age
of eleven years he loll his father, and became mailer of
a library, of which he availed himfelf to great advantage.
During iiis refideuce with his mother and fillers, he amufed
himfelf with playing hymns on the harpCchord, and with
reading moral authors, and reciting orations, which he did
in a manner fo afi'efting as to caufe his hearers to fhed
tears. His mother concluded, that he had an inchnaf.on
to become a clergyman, and with this vitw placed him, in
T754, at a fchool in Brandenburg, where he nianifelied by
his courfe of reading, and alio by his perfoi-mances, a
flrong turn for poetry. In 1 7 J", he removed to the
gymnafiura at Berlin ; and giving up all thoughts of the
niinifterial office, he devoted himfelf to the fludy of phi-
lofphy and the belles lettres, indulging himfelf occafionally
in his favourite purfuit. Fro?n Berlin he proceeded, iu
1759, to Frankfort on the Oder, where he lludied for
fome time ui'.der Baum.garten, for whom he profeffed the
highefl refpect ; but when this city fell into the hand*
of the Ruffians, he j-etired to the houfe of his mother ;
and as his health was in an imirm and dechning flate, in
coiifequence of an accident which had almoff proved fatal
to him in his youth, he determined to continue with his
mother, and to devote the remainder of his days to the
mufcs in his native place. Here he clofed his life, Au-
guft 28, 1790. His poetical works were " Lyric Poems,'
and " Idylls," publifhed at various periods after the year
1763. A dramatic piece, in pi-aife of his native town,
entitled " Rattci:au delivered," was often reprefcnted at
Berhu with applaufe, but forbidden in compliance with
the requcfl of the Swedifh ambaffador. Blum's poetry is
faid to be charaAerized by foftnefs, limplicity, and correfl-
nefs, and he ranks among the befl poets of Germany. He
aKo publifhed fome volumes under the title of " Walks ;"
two volumes of " Orarions ;" and a colleftion of " German
Proverbs." His works in general were much read, and ap-
proved by perfons of the firfl ditlinclion. The late king of
Pruflia, Frederick William, honoured him with a very par-
ticular token of favour. As Blum's health required his re-
fideuce in the countr)-, he purchaied, in 1787, a fmall eflate,
upon which was a maiifion in a very ruinous condition ; but
having in the purchafeexhaufled almoft the whole of his pro-
perty, he could not repair his houfe without affiftance ; and,
therefore he addrcffed a poetical epillle to the king, in which
he introduced the following lines :

" O aid thy poet, gracious prince,
And free his breaft from care ;

All that he aflcs is competence
His manfiou to repair.

Thofe mould'ring walls, which long have flood
Offenllve to the eyes,

A temple then to gratitude.
Shall renovated rife.

His grovts, near yonder wand'ring ftream,

Whofe banks with reeds are crown'd,
Thus confecrattd grov.s fll;;?! fetm.
And fhade the hallow'd ground."
With this addrefs his majefly was fo much pleafed, that he
ordered for him 2C00 rix-doUars. Blum expreiTed his grati-
tude in a fecond epi'.Ue, to which the king retumed his befl
4 O 2 wifhes.

B L U

wiflies. Befidea the Greek and Latin, he well underftood
the French, Italian, and Englifh languages ; and he had
ftudied with great attention the hillory of the Chriftian
church. Gen. Biog.

BLUMBERG, in Geography, a fmall town of Germany,
in the landgravate of Baar.

BLUMENAU, a bailiwick of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Calcnberg, featcd on the Leine.

BLUMENFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Sivabia, and comniandery of Minau, feated on the river
Ach ; 8 miles N.N. E. of SchafThaufen.

BLUMENSTRAST, J. Deodatus, in Biography,
took his degree of dodlor in medicine in Leyden. Return-
ing thence to Ruffia, his native country, he was foon dif-
tinguifhcd by the emperor, who made him archiator, or
principal phyfician to his court. He had alfo the honour
of being appointed the lirll prefidcnt of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Peterfburg, which had been inllituted,
Haller fays, by his exertions. He died at Mofcow at an
advanced age, in April i 755, leaving only one publication,
which was firft printed in the year 1700, 4to. " Medicus
Caftrenfis Exercitui Mofcovitarum." Haller Bib. Med.
Prael. Eloy. Did. Hill.

BLUMENTHAL, in Geography, a bailiwick of Ger-
many, in the duchy of Bremen.

BIAJMLIS Alp, a majeftic eminence of the Alps, in
the canton of Bern, in Swifferland, terminating the valley
of Lauterbrunnen, and having at its feet a large glacier,
which llretclies towards the valley of Galler. The Blumlis
Alp, and aifo the feet of the Aipfchelenhorn, are covered
with black fchiftus ; but the granite is not apparent, except
at a confiderablc height. The fides of the Bhunlis Alp,
bordering the glacier, are black flate, in which have been
found feveral belemnitcs, and a fragment of a Cornu Am-
monis, a foot in diameter.

BLUNDERBUSS, in the Military Art, a (liort fort of
fire arm, with a large bore contrived to carry a number of
muiket or pillol bullets at once. The blunderbufs is pro-
per to do execution in a crowd, or to make good a narrow
pa(ra.^e, as the door of a houfe, ftair-cafe, or the like.

BLUNT, in Fencing. To fight with blunts, is to exer-
cife or parade with weapons without points or edges.

BLUNTING the angles of a hatlalhn, in the Military
Jirt, fignifies to retrench the four corners, and turn the
fquare into an o£lagon. This is done in order to give an
opportunity for prcfenting the pikes, or firing on all fides,
and was a mihtary evolution formerly much in ufe, but now
difufed.

BLUSHING, a fuffufion or rednefs of the cheeks, ex-
cited by a fcnfe of lliame, on account of confcioulnefa of fome
failing or imperfection. See Enchymoma.

Blufhing is fuppofcd to be produced from a kind of con-
fent or fvmpathy between feveral parts of the body, oc-
cafioned by the fame ne've being extended to th.em all.
Tims the fifth pair of nerves being branched from the
brain to the eye, eai-, mufcles of the lips, cheeks, palate,
tongue, and nofe ; a thing leen or heard, that is flumefu!,
aftedls the cheeks with blulhcs, driving the blood into the
minute vclTcIs thereof ; at the fame time that it affefts the
eye and ear. For the fame reafon it is, as Dr. Dcrham
obftrves, that a favoury thing feen or fmelt, aficCls the
glands and parts of the moutli : if a thing heard be plcafing,
it affefts the mufcles of the face with laughter ; if melan-
oholv, it exerts itfelf on the glands of the eyes, and occa-
fions weeping, S:c. And to the lame caufe Dr. Willis
afcribes the pleafure of kiflli.g.

BLUSTERING -aicather is that where the wini blows
8

BOA

with various degrees of ftrength, attended with a dark (ky,
rain, fnow, &c.

BLUTEAU, Don Raphael, in Biography, a religious
theatine, was born of French parents in London in 163S.
After having dillinguiflied himfolf in facred and profane
hterature, he vifited Portugal and acquired fuch knowledge
of the language as to be able to preach in it with applaufe.
From Portugal he returned to Paris, and was for fome time
pi^acher to Henriett.->-Maria, queen of England. Upon
revifiting Portugal, he obtained an office in the inquilition,
and became member of the Royal Academy of Hillory.
Of his works, the moll efleemed is " A Portngutfe and
Latin Dirtionary," in 8 vols. fol. Coimbra 17J2 — 1721, to
which he added a Supplement in 2 vols. fol. Lilb.m, 1727,
1728. He died at Liibon in 1734, at the advanced age of
96. Moreri.

BLUTFINK, in Ornithology, one of the fynonyn-.ous
names of loxia pyrrhu'a, the common bulfinch. Frifch,
Av.

BLYSOOG, in Geography, a river of South Wales,
which runs into the Tivy, about 3 miles S.S.E. of Car-
digan.

BLYTH, in Geogra/ihy, a fmall market town of Notting-
hamlhire, in England, has been the feat of a callle and a
priory ■, but thefe buildings, with their endowments and pri-
vileges, being entirely demolifhed at the dilTolutiim, the
town alfo funk in the general wreck, and has never fince
been renovated. The whole parilli confiils now only of
157 houfes, with 589 inhabitants. Here are a fmall market
on Wednefdays, and two annual fairs. The church is a
large handfonie llrufture, and contains feveral ancient
monuments. Some of the CrefTy family built an hofpital
here, which bears the name of Blyth-fpittle.

Blyth, or South Blyth, a fmall fca-port town of Northum-
berland, in England, is a place that has obtained its fole con-
fequence fince the reftoration ; for, previous to that period,
here were fcarcely any houfes. In the year 1728, its trade
had fo much increafcd that above 2C-0 veflcls were entered in
the cnllom-houfe books as failing from this port. It is con-
fidered as a creek to the port of Nev.callle, and its principal
trade is in coals. Blyth is 14 miles N. E. of Newcaftle,
and 288 miles N. of London. The townfiiip contains
183 houfes, and 1170 inhabitants, of whom 234 are em-
ployed in trade. Here is a fmall market on Saturdays.
About three miles fouth of Bl) th is Scaton Delaval, a feat
belonging to lord Delaval, whofe grandfather, fir Francis
Blake Delaval, was an able admiral in the beginning of the
laft century. He was often projecling fome improvements
in the ports near his feat, and after furmounting great difficul-
ties, conlhucted one upon a new plan, which now bears his
name.

BMl, in M-i/lc. See Gamut.

BO7V., in Zoology, a genus of the Serpent race, diflin-
guilhed by having plates, or undivided feuta, both on the
belly, and be.ieath the tail ; the latter of which, unlike the
crotali, does not terminate in a rattle.

Such is the Linnaean cliarafter of tliis genus, the fpeciea
of which are not very numerous. Gmelin enumerates the
following kinds in the Syllema Naturse : contortrix, canina,
hipnale, conilrictor, cenchris, ophryas, enydris, murina,
Icytale, and hortulana* But in addition to' thefe, we are
to mention a fe\y ether fpecies dcfcribed by Dr. Patrick
Rufiel in a recent publication on the ferpents of India,
with the obfervatlons of Dr. Shaw upon the newly dif-
covered kinds, and feveral others lately fpoken of by con-
tinental vvritcrs.

Dr. Ruiiel, in the wo:k iibove cited, las four new fpecies

of

BOA

of boa, called, in the Indian language, bungarum pamah,
pada'ai cootoo, geedi paragoodo, or in the young ftate cobra
monil, and the horatta pam. Thtfe are the fpecies, fafciata,
viperina, llneata, and horatta of Dr. Shaw's zoology. Dr.
Shaw has hkewiie increafed the number of the bo3? by the
addition of a fifth fpecies, crotalus mutus of Linnaeus, which
he is induced to remove from the crotali to this genus,
bccaufe it is not furnifncd with a genuine rattle like the reft
of that tribe.

But the French writers of the prefent day have regarded
the anangement of the Swedilh naturaliil in the amphibious
clafs of animals with much lefs indulgence, their alterations
tending to little lefs than the fiibverfion of his fyftem. The
boa genus, aseitabHfnedby Linnseus, is obviouflv defective, in
one point at leaft, where nature had herfelf prefcribed thofe
characters which ought not to have efcaped the dlfcrimina-
tion of the naturalift. Nothing, we mult admit, can be more
improper, if it could have been avoided, than to include in the
fame natural family both the vcnemous and inoffenfive kinds
of ferpents ; or, in other words, to unite, under one head,
thofe which, having fangs for the conveyance of poifon into
the wound infliftcd with their bite, are highly dangerous,
and fuch as have no fangs for this purpofc, and are there-
fore comparatively hannlcfs. The firft innovation upon the
Linniean genera was made by Lacepede, w'lofe method
has been followed by others ; and ladlv, by Latreille, with
fome improvements, in his Natural Hiilory of Reptiles.

Latreille retains among his boEe thofe only of the Linnzan
fpecies which have no venemous fangs ; for the reception of
the remainder he eftablifhes the new genus Scytale.
This genus forms an intermediate link between the two
Linnaean genera boa, and crotalus ; having, in common with
both, the abdominal plates, and either plates alone, or plates
and fcales beneath the tail ; the poifonous fangs removing
them from the bose, and the naked tail from the crotali, or
fnakes that have a rattle at the extremity of that part. The
boss of Latreille contain the following fpecies : le boa dev'in
(conftriftor, Linn.), le boa giant (a fpecies hitherto con-
founded with the former), U toa bojoli (ooa canina, Linn,
and Lacepede), leboa hipnale (hipnale, Linn.)./f boa eenchr'ii
(cenclins, Linn.), U boa enhycre (enydris, Linn.), le boa
o/iAn'f (ophrias, Linn.), /if boafcytale (Icytale, Gmel. Scheu-
cher), le bca brods (hortulana, Linn.), le hoa rr,tti)ore (Seba,
V. 2. pi. 29. I.), and le boa turc, a native of the Grecian
illands, delcri!)ed by Olivier in his " Voyage dans I'Einpire
Ottoman. " — Thus the Linnxan boa comar.'r'ix, a poilor.ous
fpecies, le fcytale a groin of this writer, is removed from
among the buse to the genus Scytale, together with ano-
ther fpecies not before delcnbcd, le fiylale a tcte plate, and
the four new fpecies mentioned by Dr. Rufltl belong un-
queftionably to the fame genus, being all of the vcnemo'.;s
kind. We have, therefore, fix fpecies of the Scytales
confounded with the natural family of boa.

The bo3e, taken coUctlively, exceed in magnitude all the
other tribe of ferpents. The powers of certain fpecies,
like their ftature, are prodigious. Tiiefe enormous kinds
are principally the inhabitants of the burning regions of
Africa, whofe fame, in this rcfpeft, was celebrated in ages
of remote antiquity. Hilloi-y fpeaks of ihtfe tremendous
ferpents in terms that ftagger credibility ; but travellers of our
own times, who have had the opportunity of obferving thefe
creatures in their native haunts, and whofe rcktions deferve
every rational degree of credit, afford fo much collateral
evidence, that we are not allov.'ed to rcjedt,the authority of
the ancients in many of the moll material points. When
Valerius M,;ximus relates, upon the anthcity of Livy,
the conteft between an army of Romans under Atiilius

BOA

Regulus, and an enormous fnake, that difputed with them,
for a confiderable time, the pafiage acrofs the river Bagdara
in Africa, and was at lall only overcome, after kiUing many
of the foldiers, by means of the battering machines employed
in attacking fortrefTcs, we are inchned to fufpeft the whole
as fabulous. If. ho«ever, we reflect at the fame time upon
the fize and power of this monfter, the fl-;in of which, when
taken off, was 120 feet in length, we need not be aftonilhed
at the refiftance it was capable of making. Something muft.
be allowed on this occafion for the luxuriance of fancy, or
the fictions of the battle between the Phoenicians, and the
facred fnake of Mars, would almoft ihrink from comparifon
with this furprifing adventure .

lUc volubilibus fqnamofos nexibus orbes
Torquet, et immenfos faltu finuatur in arcus :
Ac media plus parte leves erectus in auras
Defpicit omne nemus :

Nee mora : Phoenicas (five illi tela parabant,
Sive fugam ; five ipfe timor prohibebat utrumque)
Occupat ; hos morfu, longis complexibus illos ;
Hos necat alRatos funefti tabe veneni. Ovid.

The ferpentmentioned by Livy is beheved to have been an
overgrown creature of the boa genus, the conftr'tdor of Lin>
nseus ; a kind which, from the fuperiority of its fize, is em-
phatically denominated the " King of Serpents." This
fpecies, of which we fliail fpeak more largely in another
place (vide Constrictor), is found occafionally in Africa,
India, and South America, from 20 to 30 feet in length,
and even more ; and of a ftrength fo great, as to be able to
dcftroy moil of the larger animals by the violence of its
preffure only. We have feen the iliins of this particular,
fpecies almoft 20 feet in length, and of a bulk proportionate.
Among the articles of Natural K'fto'-j-, collected in South
America for the National Mufeum at Paris, but intercepted,
and fold in this country, there were feveral fpecimens ;
dried (liins of this kind are a'fo prcferved in the Britilh and
Leverian mufeums, and in moil of the public mufeums on the
continent, which at once remove every unreafonable degree
of fufpicion as to the aftual exiilence of fuch a monftrous
kind of ferpent.

If, therefore, according to the ideas of latter writers, the
tme boas are deftitnte of poifonous fangs, nature has more
than amply fupplied the deficiency by the powers they are
endowed with for the dedruftion of their prey. The
elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the lion,
are the only animals that can refill them with fuccefs. The
Hag, the leopard, and even the buffalo, entangled once withia
the coils of the bbdy of the boa, mull fall an eafy victim to its
voracity. The boaeare, among ferpents, what the elephant and
thehon are among quadrupeds : like theelephant, they fuipafs
the reft of the ferpent race by their fize ; and, like the lion,
excel them in their addrefs, their courrge, and their force-
They feldom attack thtir prey by artifice, decoying their
unwary adverfary, and, by a wound as fudden as infenfible,
pa'alyzing its effcrts with the deadly torpor of their poifon.
Confident in their powers, they attack them openly ; oppofe
their ftrength to the refiftance of their enemy with ardent
intrepidity ; and when they conquer, it is by the manifeft
fuperiori.ty of bodily vigour over that of their^ opponent. —
It (hould be cbferved, that thefe traits of charader relate
only to the largeft of the boa genus, of which no mere than
two fpecies are correctly afcertained, although there is
reafou to believe the number muft be greater. Much con-
fufion prevails among travellers who have defcribed thefe
ferpents : they have entered largely into the prodigies of
their liiftory, without paying any due regard to the defcrip-

tioa

BOA

tion of the animals tliemfelves, a circumftance that has
hitherto involved this matter in obfcurity, and leaves us in
confiderable doubt as to the real number of dillintt fpecies
already difcovered, and mentioned by thofe travellers. See
Constrictor, &c.

BOACRjE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, on
the Aurelian way, in the route from Rome to Artlato,
through Etruria and the Maritime Alps. Anton. Itin.

BOAD, in Gognipky, a town and fort of Hindoltan, in
the country of Oriifa, near the Mahanuddy river ; j^ miles
S. E. of Sumpulpour, and loo weft of Cattack. N. lat.
20^ 40'. E. long. 84° lo'.

BOADICEA, BouDiciA (Tacitus), or Bunduica
(as file is called by Dion), in jindent Brii'i/h Hi/lory, z
queen of the Iceni, celebrated for her misfortunes, and for
her formidable, though unUiccefsful, refillance to the Roman
power in Britain.

Atthe time wlienthe revolt, of which Boadiceawastheprin-
cipal mover, took place, the fouthern part of the idand had
tranquilly fubniitted to the government of the Casfars. Al-
though fcarccly 18 years had elapfed fmce the invafion of
Clauduis, Britain was already confidered an important ac-
quifition. Several flouridiing colonies were founded ; nu-
merous fettlers blocked from the more diltant provinces of
the empire, and the only expedition which employed the
legions, was that undertaken againft the fequeftered ifland
of Mona, the principal remaining feat of Druidical fuper-
ilition. But amidlt; tills feeming fecurity, the oppreflion
exerciftd by individuals excited indignation among the
natives. The procurator, Catus Decianus, who, in the
abfence of the propraetor, poflefled the exclufive adminif-
tration of government, behaved with the moll infufferable
tyranny; and, according to the confeffion of Tacitus him-
felf, the great men of the nation were treated as flaves, and
deprived injurioufly of their eftates by this upllart governor.
The fear, however, of incuring the imperial refentment,
retlrained them from exprefiing their diflatisfaftion other-
wife than by murmurs, till the deceafe of Prafutagus, king
of the Iceni, brought matters to a crilis. This monarch,
by his attachment to the party of the invaders, had merited
the title of friend and ally of the Roman people, and by
his lall will, had bequeathed his eftates as a joint inheritance
between the emperor Nero and his two daughters. His
policy, if intended as fuch, failed of the defired effcit. The
procurator, under pretence of carr\-ing the teftament into
execution, feized on all the pofTeffions of Prafutagus with-
out exception ; and as Boadicea dared to murmur againft
fuch flagrant injuftice, he aAually caufed herfelf to be pub-
licly fcourged as a flave, and the challity of her daughters
to be violated by his officers.

Such outrages were beyond fuflferance. The Iceni to a
man rofe up in arms, headed by Boadicca in perfon, who to a
mafculine Ipirit joined a gift of natural eloquence calculated
to inflame the paffions of a barbarous multitude. The
Trinobantcs, and other neighbouring nations, alike incenfed
at the extortions of the procurator, followed the example,
and an army of 1 20,000 iflanders being rapidly formed,
marched diretlly againft Camalodunum, (luppofed to have
been Maldon,) tlie ntarefl Rom^.n colony. As Decianus
could only fpare a tew foldiers to aflift trie inhabitants in its
defence, the place was alinoft inilantly ftormed, and, v>'ith
a temple lately erected to the divinity of Claudius Csefar,
reduced to aflies, all witliin it being previoufly mafTacred.
The ninth legion, which had ventured to take the field
againft the infurgents, was next attacked and defeated.
The infantry were almoft totally deftroyed. The com-
mander, Petilius Cerealis, at the head of his cavalyy, with

7

BOA

difficulty regained his camp, where he carefully intrenched
himfelf; while Catus Decianus, terrified at the confequcnces
of his infamous conducl, made his elcape into Gaul, covered
with univerfal odium.

After fuch a feries of ill-fortune, the only hope of the
Romans remained vefted m the propraetor Suetonius Pauli-
nus, at this time occu led in exterminating the Druids of
Mona. On receiving news of the progrefs made by Boadi-
cca, he immediately marched, though by a dangerous route,
and through the midft of an hoftlle country, to Augufta
(London), already a confiderable place, though not yet
dignified with the name of a colony. As he judged this
poft untenable, he retired to unite his fcattered forces, ac-
companied by fuch of the inhnbitants as chofe to follow his
fortunes; but the women and children, the old and infirm,
who were left behind, without any other proteftion than
their fex, their age, or their fituation afforded, were indif.
criminately facrificcd to the fury of the Britons. Vcrula-
mium, another colony, fliared the fame fate. All foreigners
were every where put to the fword, and the cruelties, faid
by Dion to have been exercifed upon fome of the fufferers,
are fliocking beyond defcription.

The rebellion had now attained its iitmoft height. Three
Roman ftations laid in afhes, and the blood profufely poured
of 70,000 of her pcrfecutors, had amply revenged the wrongs
of Boadicca. The whole eailern part of the ifland was in
poflclTion of her partizans, and her forces in arms had iu-
creafed to the amazing number of 2 :;o,000, when Suetonius,
having taken every mealure prudence could fuggcft in his
circumftances, prepared to check this torrent in its courfes
The^proprxtor, although accuied, and perhaps with juftice,
of pride and exceflive cruelty, yet pofTeffed the moft fplendid
military talents. During the laft reign he had fignalifed
himfelf, when commander in Africa, by a complete victory
over the rebellious Mauritanians. Nero rewarded his bravery
by naming him to the government of Britain. The late re-
duction of Mona had increafed his celebrity ; and he appears
to have been the only general then in the empire, Corbiilo
probably excepted, equal to the taflc of reducing the infur-
rettion raifed by Boadicea. His fituation was, however, ex-
tremely critical. It was in vain that he difpatchcd inftruc-
tions to Pasnius Pofthumus, who commanded the fecond le-
gion, to march to his affiftance. Psenius, in confequence of
lome difference with his general, or aftuated by a fecret jea-
loufy, refufed to move, in dircft difobedieuce to orders.
Thus Suetonius law his whole force reduced to the four-
teenth legion, Gemina, and the Vexillarii of the twentieth,
which, added to a tew auxiliary cohorts, only amounted to
about 10,000 men. With this army, fmall as it was, he de-
termined on hazarding a battle, and therefore waited the ap-
proach of the Britons on a narrow fpot of ground, opening
in his front into an extenfive plain, while his rear was pro-
tected by a thick wood. According to the ufual difpofition
obfcrved by the Roman armies, the legionaries were ftationed
in the centre. Hanked by the liglit armed and auxiliary co-
horts ; the wir.gs being compofed of cavalry. Suetonius did
not tarry long in expedtation of the enemy. The Britons
loon appeared, covering the plain in immenfe numbers.
Tlieir wives and children, who had accompanied them to be-
come fpedtators of a viftory already confidered as certain,
were mounted in heaps on waggons, encircling the field in
their rear, like an amphitheatre. Boadicea, with her two
daughters, drove in a chariot along the ranks, encouraging
her troops in animated language. She renewed the detail of
Roman injuftice ; befought vengeance for the wrongs
fuftained by herfelf and her family ; magnified the importance
ot the viftory the had already gained, and alTi.red her fol-
lowers

BOA

lowers that tUeir enemies, forfaken by all tlie gods, would
never be abk to endure even their (houts of onfct. She
finifhed by exhorting them to conquer or die, which, (he
added, was her o-.vn refolutior;. Suetonius on his fide did
not ncgleft to animate his men by a fuitable oration, and the
acclamation and cheerful countenance with vvhicli it was re-
ceived, convinced him that he had every thing to hope from
the bravery and difcipline of his foldiers.

The Britons came on, uttering loud fhouts, menaces, and
fongs of victory, while the Romans, clofely drawn up,
awaited the onf..-t in perfeft filence, and at the requilite
diftance, made a firil difcharge of the pilum with terrible
effeft. Preferving the advantage of the ground, they re-
ceived the attack of the barbarians with fuch firmnefs, as
checked its impetuofity ; till, having expended all their jave-
lins, not without dreadful carnage of the enemy, they rufhed
forward from all pa'ts at once, obferving the form of a
wedge, the more eafily to penetrate fuch an immenfe multi-
tude. This charge was feconded by the allies with equal
ardour. The firll ranks of their opponents were inftantly
borne down, and hewn in pieces ; but the reft crowding to
furround the Romans, a bloody conteft commenced. The
Britifh war-chariots, wherever they fucceeded in breaking in
among their enemies, occafioned terrible annoyance, till Sue-
tonius, ordering his men to direct their blows at the naked
bodies of the drivers, by degrees difembarraffed himfelf of
thefe troublefome invaders. The aftion w^as long maintained
with fury on both fides, the Britons, though deftitute of
order or difcipline, fighting with great obftinacy and defpe-
ration ; but, finally, the fuperior fkill, coolnefs, and bravery
of the Romans, bore down every oppofition. Prodigious
numbers perifhed beneath the fwords of the legions, or by the
charges of the cavalry, who trampled aU before them ; while
the crowds that endeavoured to iave themfelves by flight,
met with an infurmouritable impediment in their own wag-
gons, which enc'.ofed them in form of a femicircle. Here
the (laughter was terrible, for mercy, in the circumftances
of Suetonius, would have been in the higheft degree
imprudent. The Romans, in the heat of their fury, fpared
neither age nor fex. Even the beafts of burden, ilmck
through with daits, increafed the horrors of the fcene, and
the heaps of dead, which covered the plain, the fields, and
the furrounding forefts. Upwards of 8o,oco Britons are
computed to have perifhed on this occafion ; while of the
Roman"! about 400 were killed, and fcarcely fo many
wounded.

Few viftories, even in the moft fiouriftiing ages of the
republic, deferved to be compared with this of Suetonius.
Never had any been more decifive. The remaining rebels,
terrified at the dreadful chaftifement they had received, dif-
perfed into their refpective diftricts, and Boadicea herfelf
perilled foon after the lattie, either through chagrin, or, as
is the prevailing opinion, {he ended her days by poifon.
Psenius Pofthumus, whofe difobedience had prevented the
fecond legion from iharing in the triumph of their country-
men, fell upon his own fword, thus avoiding the puniftiment
and difgrace which awaited his conduct. The vigour with
which, though accompanied by afts of the moft terrible fe-
veritv, Suetonius purfued the revolters, reftored tranquillity
to the whcie ifland before the enfuing fpring. The intrigues
of individuals, and the jealoufy of his execrable fovereign,
occafioned hisfubfequent recal from his government ; yet the
triumphs obtained under his aufpices, conferred everlafting
honour and renown both on his own name and that of the le-
gion he conimanded.

Boadicea is defcribed by Dion Caffius as a woman of large
(lature, itrong and well proportioned in her limbs, of a manly

BOA

and (lern countenance, harfti, authoritative voice, and pof-
fefling beautiful golden hair, which reached down below her
waift. That (he was polTefTed of uncommon abilities, or at
leaft had pcrfons of extraordinarj' talents to afiift her, is evi-
dent from the rapidity with which (he cut off the Roman
garrifons one after another ; the difpofition of her forces, fo
as entirely to interrupt the communication between the
quarters of the legions ; the victory (lie obtained' over
Cerealis, famous himfelf for his military knowledge, and the
extremities to which (he reduced Suetonius, the greatefl
general of the age. Dion is loud in praife of her eloquence,
and puts into her mouth feveral elaborate orations. We have
preferred the authority of Tacitus, refcr\'!ng, however, fuch
pafFages of Dion as are moft neceffary to elucidate the narra-
tion. The defeat and death of Boadicea are faid to have hap-
pened A.D. 61. Tacit. Annal. xiv. c. 31— 37. Dion
CafSus, Hift.'Rom. lib Ixii. cap. i — 12.

BOADJOOS, in Geography, called zMoOran laut, or men
of the fea, are a fort of itinerant fifliermen in the Eaft In-
dies, faid to come originally from Johore, at the eaft entrance
of the ftraits of Malacca, though fome are of opinion, that
they muft have come either from China or Japan. They
Uve chiefly in fraall covered boats, on tlie coafts of Borneo,
Celebes, and the adjacent iflands. Others dwell near the
fea, on thefe iflands ; their houfes being raifcd on pofts, at a
httle diftance in the fea, and always at the mouths of rivers.
They are Mahometans ; and have a language of their own,
but no written charafter. Many Boadjoos are fettled on the
north-weft coaft of Borneo, w ho not only fifh, but make fait,
and trade in fmall boats along the coaft. Some of their
boats are from 12 to iS and 20 tons burden, and carr)* from
16 to 20 men, and form, in fome places, a fleet of a hundred
fail. Others of them are about 5 or 6 tons burden, which
are managed by women, even in hea\-y feas. Their method
of making fait is as follows : they gather fea-wecds, burn
them, make a ley of afhes, filter it, and form a bitter kind of
fait in Iquare pieces, by boihng it in pans made of the bark
of the aneebong, or cabbage-tree ; thefe pieces of fait are
carried to market, and pafs as a currency for money. Thofe
that are fettled on the north-weft coaft of Borneo ufed to
fupply the Englifh at Balambangan with rice, fowl, and other
provifions. Many of them are fettled at the mouth of the
river of Paflir, who employ themfelves chiefly in catching
fmall fhrimps with hand-nets, which they pufli through the
mud ; the fhrimps, after being well wafhed with water, are
expofed to a hot-fun. They are then beat in a mortar, and
made into a kind of pafte, called Uatchong, which has a ftrong
fmell, and is much in requeft all over India, Thefe latt.
Boadjoos may be confidered as ftationary or fixed, compared
with thofe who live always in their boats, and who, as the
monfoon fhifts on the iflands Borneo and Celebes, (hift their
fituation to leeward, fo as to be always under the lee of the
land, for the fake of fine weather. Moft of thofe who rove
round Celebes, though they change their fituation with the
monfoon, confider Macaffer as their home. Whilft the
Boadjoos lie at anchor, in boats managed by their women,
they are dextrous in fifliing for tnpangs, i. e. fwallows, or
fea-flugs, which they take in fcven or eight fathoms water.
When tliey fee the fwallow in clear water, they ftrike it with
an inftrument, confifting of four-beardefl iron prongs, fixed
along an almoft cylindrical ftone, rather fmaller at one end
than at the other, about iS inches long; an iron fhot is
fixed at the end of the ftone, next the point of the prongs.
The fwallow is dried in the fmoke, ai.d fent to the China
market. They alfo dive for it, the beft being found in deep
water. The black is reputed the beft ; but there is fome of
a lighter colour, found only in deep water, which is more

valued

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valued in China llm.ii tlic black, and fold even for 4.0 doUsr
a picol : fomeoftlie pieces weigh half a pound. The white,
caught in fhoal water and on the dry fand, amoncr coral rocks,
is the worll ; its value being about four or five dollars a
picol. The Boadjoos are very ufeful to the Dutch Eaft
India company, in carrying intelligence fpeedlly from place
to place. Stavorinus's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 240.

BOADODA Bajhaiv, in the /'wr/Z/a Military Orders,
an officer o{\.\\t janiiartes, whofe bufniefs it is to walk every
day about the principal parts of the city, with a number of
janizaries to altei.d him, to keep order and fee that all
things are regular, even to the d: efs. Tliis office is for three
months, and from this the perfon is ufually advanced to be a
prach.

BOTE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Peloponnefus i[i
Laconia, at the extremity of the B.rotian gulf. Diana was
particularly worfliipped in this place ; Apollo and Efcula-
pius had their refpec'live chapels here. At fome ftadia
from this city was a temple of Serapis and Ifis. Paufanias.
BOAGRIUS, a river, or rather torrpnt, of Greece, in
the country of the Epicnemidian Locrians, according to
Ptolemy. Strabo fays, that it watered the town of Thro-

nium Alfo, a town of the fame country, fituate to the

weft, oif the confines of Phocis.

BOANERGES, i.e. Sons of Tkmukr, in Scripture
JJiJlory, a nainc given by our Lord to the two apollles
James and Jnhu (Mark, iii. 17.), which fome have erro-
neoufiy fuppofed to be an appellation of reproach, intimat-
ing a fiercenef-i and furioufnefs of temper ; whereas it is much
more reafonable to confider it, with others, as a title of
honour, prophetically reprefenting the refolution and courage
with which they would openly and boldly declare the great
truths of the gofpel, when they were made fully acquainted
with them. How well they deferved this title, fufficieutly
appears in the fequel of their hiftory. See James, and
John.

BOANS, in Zoology, a fpecics of Rana, or frog, the
body of which is fmooth, marked with contiguous fpots be-
neath ; and the feet palmatcd. Gmelin. Two varieties of
this kmd are defcribed ; /3, having the upper part of the
body biueifli lead colour, and y, with the body iucKning to
orange. Laurent. Amph. &c.

This kind inhabits America, and differs from rana arhorca,
the tree-frog, to which it is nearly allied, accoiding to Gmc-
Ln, in having all the feet webbed, and the body fpotted with
white. Much confufion prevails refpetling tlie Linn^ean
fpecies, boans. Dr. Shaw fufpcCts it to be the fame as the
rana maxima of that author, probably in a younger ftate. He
mentions likewife another fuppufcd variety, the rana vir-
g'tninna altera of Scba.

BOAR, the ivihl boar or hog from whence the common
hog derives its origin. See Scrofa Sus. The male of
the tame hog is alfo callc-d the boar.

The wild boar \% a native of almoft all the temperate parts
of Europe and Afia, and is alfo found in the upper parts
of Africa. Formerly it was an inhabitant of this country,
as appears from the laws of Howel Dda, who permitted his
grand huiitfman to chafe that animal from the middle of
November to the beginning of December. (Leges Wallica;,
41.) There are alfo many places in Wales that retain the
name Pennarth, or the Boar's Head, to this day. William
tlic Conqueror pnniflied with the lofs of their eyes any that
were convit3:e<l of kiUing the wild boar, the ftag, or the roe-
buck. (Leges Saxon. 292.) And Fitz-Stephen tells us,
that the vaft fortft, which in his time grew on the north fide
of London, was the retreat of (lags, fallow-deer, wild boars,

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and bulls. Charles \. turned out wild boars in the New
Foreft, Hampfhire ; but thefe were deftroyed in the civil
wars. (Pennant.) In France, Germany, Poland, and other
countries on the European continent, they are IliU common,
and the hunting of them is a principal amnfcmeiit among
parties of the gentry. Boar-hunting is a favourite diverfion
alfo in other more diftant parts of the world.

Thefe animals are found in the fteppes of the Samara and
the Volga, in Ruflia, on the confines of the river Ur.il in
Daonria, and about the Irtylh. Between the Ural and the
Yamba they are very numerous, and are hunted in winter
by the Coffacks, not without danger, with dogs, and fome-
times killed with carabines, and fomctimes with lances. AU
though they feed folely on the roots of fea-weed ai;d fcdge,
they grow to fuch an extraordinary fize, that they are fre-
quently found weigliiiig upwards of fix hundred pounds ;
their bacon is nearly four indies thick in fat, th.ough their
flePi is in general dry and .'irm and well-flavoured.

Sonnini thinks it probable (fee his Travels in Upper and
Lower Egypt, p. 348.) that the wild boars of Egypt arc
not the fame v.ith thofe in Europe. The great difference
of chmate, and the ftill greater difference of fituation, mud
have occafioned at leaft !ome varieties in the fpecies of thefe
animals. More multiplied in temperate or cold countrie'!,
which appear more fuitablc to their nature, they inhabit the
thick receiTes of the forefts, where they can find abundance
of food. They never leave the v,-ooc'.3 but to pafs from
one to another, or to ravage the growing crops, and thefe
predatory cxcurfions are undertaken only by night. In ge-
neral, they retire to the darkeft and clolcft places at the
rifiiig of the fun, the brightnefs nnd heat of which they
feem to dread. T1ie wild boar of Egypt, on the contrar)',
has no fhelter. Continually expofed to the rays of a burn-
ing fuu, he roams over the hottell fands, where he with dif-
ficulty finds a few fcattered fhrubs, which afford him a fcanty
fubfiftcnce, and fcarcely any (hade. He is alfo frequently
fecn in the dcferts of Nitria, which is the refort of a greater
number of animals than any other part of the deferts,
on account of the (heets of water it contains, and of the
plants that grow on their banks. Thefe boars are folitary,
though a general want of food fometimes drives them in
herds to the environs of the lakes of Natron. As the Ma-
hometans and Copts do not eat the flefh of t!ie wild boar
more than that of the hog, and hold both thefe animals in
equal abhorrence, it was impoffible, fays this writer, to
procure a wild boar in Egypt, at leall without feeking it in
the delert. Upon the whole he concludes, that they are
not the fame as thofe of Europe. It is perhaps, he adds,
in this fenfe only that we muft iinderlland the paffages of
Arifiotle (Hift. Nat. l.viii. c. 24.), and Pliny (Hift. Nat.
1. viii. c. 33.), who have afferted that there are no wild boars
in Africa. Wild boars, fays Buffon, are as common in Afia
and Africa as in Europe. But he has given an account and
a drawing of an African wild boar, which is remarkable for
feveral particular charafters ; and hence there is reafon to
believe, that the " hanzire" of Egypt is the fame animal as
the wild boar of Africa.

Among huntfmen, the wild boar has feveral names ac-
cording to its different ages : the firft year it is called a pig
of the faunder ; the fecond, a hog ; the third, a hog-fleer ;
and the fourth, a boar. When leaving the faunder, he is
called a fingler, or fangler. The wild boar inhabits woods,
living on roots, mafts, acorns, and other vegetable food.
Though gluttons,- they do not attack other animals to de-
vour them ; but they eat ficdi when they meet with it.
They have been fcen to cat horfe-fleih ; and the (kin of the

deer.

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BOA

deer, and tlie claws of birds have been found (licking in
tbcir ftomacb, but this may be from neceffity. Yet they are
fond of bluod, iince they will eat their own young, or even
children in the cradle, according to BufTon. " Wild boars
(lays this writer) do not feparate from their mothers until
the third vear, and till that age are called by the hunters
ftock bealts, or b.afto of company. I'Tiey never wander
alone till they have acquired fuffitient ftrengtli to refift the
attacks of the wolf. Thefe animals, when they have young,
forfii a kind of flo.-ks, and it i-; upon this alone their fafety
depends. When attacked, the largeft and ilrongeft. front
the enemy, and by preffing all round againft the weaker,
force them into the centre. Domeftic hogs are alfo obftrved
to defend themfelvts in a fimilar manner. The wild boar is
hunted with dogs, oi killed by furprife during the night
when the moon fliincs. As he flits flowly, leaves a ftrong
odour behind him, i.nd defends himfclf againft the dogs,
and often wounds them dangeroufly, fine luinting dogs are
tmnecclTary, and would have their nofe fpoiled, and acquire
a habit of moving flowly, by hunting him. Mailiff's, vi'ith
very little training, are fufficient. The oldeft boars, which
are known by the track of tl.'eir feet, fliould alone be hunted :
a young boar of three years is difiicult to be attacked, be-
caiife he runs very far without Hopping ; but the old boars
do not run far, allow the dogs to come near, and often ftop
to repel them. During the day, the boar commonly keeps
in his foil, which is the moft fequefiered part of the woods,
and comes out by night in queft of food; and in fummer,
when the grain is ripe, it is eafy to furprife him among the
cultivated fields, wliieh he frequents evei-y night.

The boar lives to twenty-five or thirty years, if he
efcapcs accidents. The time of going to rut is in De-
cember, and lads about three weeks. They feed on
all forts of fruits, and on the roots of many plants ; the
root of fern, in particular, feems a great favourite with
them ; and when they frequent places near the fea-coail,
they will defcend to the fliores, and demolifh flielliilh. Their
general places of reft are among the thickeft bufties that can
be found, and they are not eafily put out ot them, but will
ftand the bay a long time. In April and May they fleep
more foundly than at any other time of the year, and this is
therefore the fuccefsful time for taking them in the toils.
When a boa.r is roufed out of the thicket, he always goes
from it, if poflible, the fame way by which he came to it ;
and when he is once up, he will never ftop till he comes to
fome place of greater fecurity. If it happens that ?i founder
of them are found together, when any one breaks away, the
reft will follow the fame way. When the boar is h'lnted in
the wood where he was bred, he will fcarce ever be brought
to quit it ; he will fcmetimcs make towards the fides, to
lillen to the noife of the dogs, but retires into the middle
again, and ufually dies or efcapes there. When it happens
that a boar runs a-head, he will not be flopped or put out
of his way by man or beaft, fo long as he has ftrength left.
He makes no doubles or croilin;;';, when chafed ; and when
killed, makes no noife, if an old boar ; but the fows and
pigs will fqueak when wounded.

The fealon for hunting the boar begins in September, and
ends in December, when they go to rut. If it be a large
boar, and one that has lain long at reft, he muft be hunted
with a great number of dogs, and thofe fuch as will keep
clofe to him ; and the huntfman, with liis fpear, fliould al-
ways be riding in among them, and charging the boar as
often as he can, to difcourage him. Such a boar as this,
with five or fix couple of dogs, will run to the firft conve-
nient place of flicker, and there ftand at bay, and make
at them as they attempt to corae up withiijm. There oucht

Vol. IV.

always to be relays alfo fet for the beft and ftauncheft
hounds in the kennel ; for if they are of young eager dogs,
they will be apt to feize him, and be killed or fpoik'd, before
the reft come up. The putting of collars with bells about
the dogs' necks is a pjreat fecurity for them ; for the boar
will not fo foon ftrike at them when they have thefe, but
will rather run before them. The huntfmen generally kill
the boar with their fwords or fpears ; but great caution is
neceflary in making the blows, for he is very apt to catch
them upon his fnout, or tufl<, and, if v/ounded and not
killed, he will attack the huntfman in the moft furious man-
ner. The places in which the wound is to be given with
the fpear, are either between the eyes in the middle of the
fort- head, or in the fhoulders ; both thefe places make the
wound mortal. When this creature makes at the hunter,
his fafety confifts merely in courage and addrefs ; if he flies
for it, he is furely overtaken and killed ; if the boar comes
ftraight up, he is to be received at the point of the fpear;
but if he makes doubles and windings, he is to be watched
very cautioudy, for he will attempt getting hold of the fpear
in his mouth, and if he does fo, nothing can fave the huntf-
man but another perfon's attacking him behind. He will,
on this, attack the fecond perfon, and the firft muft then
attack him again. Two people will thus have enough to
do with him ; and were it not for the forks of the boar-
fpears, that make it impoflible to prefs forward upon them,
the huntfmsn, who gives the creature his death's wound,
would feldoin efcape falling a facrifice to his revenge
for it.

The modern way of boar-hunting is generally to difpatch
the creature by all the huntfmen ftriking him at once ; but
the ancient Roman way was for a perfon on foot, armed
with a fpear, to keep the creature at bay ; and in this cafe
the boar would run of himfelf upon the fpear to come at the
huntfman, and pufli forward till the fpear pierced him
through.

The hinder claws of a boar are called guards. In the
corn he is faid lo feed ; in the meadows or fallow-fields, to
rout, 'worm, or fern ; and in a clofe, to graze. The boar
is farrowed with as many teeth as he will ever have ; his
teeth increafing only in bignefs, not in number. Among
thefe there are four called tufhes, or tulles, the two biggeft
of which are of no ufe to him when he ftrikes, ferving only
to whet the two loweft, which are his moft formidable wea-
pons of defence. As the boar advances in age, he becomes
Icfs dangerous, on account of the growth of thofe tu&s,
which turn up, or take fuch a curvature, as rather to im-
pede than alfift him in wounding his adverfarv. The Ethio-
pian boar, or hog, is a ftill more fierce and dangerous ani-
mal than the kind found in Europe. In habits and manners
they are pretty much the fame, although fpecifically diff^er-
ent ; and, like the common boar, is capable of inflifting the
moft tremendous wounds with its tuflcs.

The flelh of the boar was eftt.?med a delicacy among the
ancient Romans ; a boar ferved up whole was a difti of llate.
The boar was fometimes alfo the military enfign borne by
the Roman armies, in lieu of the eagle. Certaia writers of
modern date fpeak of the flefli being imwholefome, except
to thofe of athletic conftitutions.

A remarkable circumftance concerning the wild boar is
related by Sonnini. In the year 1787, an animal of this
kind, of a moft extraordinary lize, was killed in the neigh-
bourhood of Cognac, in Angoumois, which had many-
times efcaped from the hunters, had received many gun-
fhot wounds, and had coft the lives of feveral dogs and men
each time of attacking him. When this animal was at
length (lain, feveral bullets are faid to have been found be-
4 P tweea

"BOA

twfen liis (Icin and flcfli. Had not the above account been
given by hunters of diftinguifhtd order, and too well ac-
quainted with thefe animals to h^ive made any mi (lake, it
might have been imagined, that this formidable creature,
which had long continned its ravages in the park of Cog-
nac, belonged to a different fpccies. It was of an enormous
fize, with a very longhead, a very fharp or pointed fnout,
and ics mouth was armed with teeth of a very fingular
form. The hairs of the body were white ; ihofe of the head
yellowilh ; the neck marked with a black band in form
of a cravat ; and the ears large and Ilraight ; and what
appears fnrprifing, confidering its fize, it was of uncom-
mon fwiftncfs. Tor a further hiflory of this animal, fee

SCROFA.

Boar, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to ioar when he
flioots out his nofe as high as his ears, and toffes in the
wind.

BOARD, a piece of timber fawed thin, for the purpofes
of building. See Timber.

We fay, a deal-board, an oak-board, &:c. Boards thicker
than ordinary are called planhs. Boards formed ready for
the coopers ufe are called dap-boards. We have alfo mill-
board, and fcale-board, fiiavcd very thin, for cafes, band-
boxes, &c. Deal-boards are generally imported into Eng-
land ready fawed, becaufe they are prepared cheaper abroad,
by means of faw-mil'.s. Clap-boards are imported from
Sweden and Dantzick. Oak-boards chiefly from Sweden
and Holland ; fome from Dantzick. Pipe-boards are
brought from Dantzick. We alfo import white boards for
fhoe-makers ; mill and fcale boards, pafte-boards, &c. for
divers artificers. Scale-board is a thinner fort, ufed for the
covers of primers, thin boxes, and the like. It is fawed with
mills, and imported from Hamburgh.

Board, feiil/jer-erfgerf, graining, /og, pajl, found, IraH, wajle,
luealher. See the feveral adjeflives.

Board, is alfo ufed for a kind of table or bench, whereon
feveral artificers perform their work.

In this fenfe, vye fay a work-board, a fhop -board, a tay-
lor's-board. &c.

, Board, is alfo ufed for a flat machine, or frame, ufed in
certain games, and the like.

In this fcnfe, we fay a draught-board, a chefs-board, a
lliovel-board, and the like.

Boards, in Bcok-linding. See BooK-niNDiNc.

Board, bureau, is alfo ufed for an office v.'herc accounts
are taken, payments ordered, and the like.

In this fenfe, we fay the board of works, board of ord-
nance, board of treafury, and the like.

Board of green cloth. See Green-cloth.

'ZohRT) of Controid, was firft inftituted in 17S-;, by ftat.
24. Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 25. with a view of direfting and aid-
ing the Eaft India company, in the executive government of
India, and efiablifhing a power of controul in this kingdom.
This board was further e!-ablilhcd and regulated by the fiat.
^'5 Geo. III. c. 52. the operation of which commenced in In-
dia on the ill of February 1794. By the former aft fix
perfons were to be nominated by the king, as commiffioners
for the affairs of India ; but by the latter, the number, in-
flead of being limited to fix privy-counfellors, is indefinite,
depending upon the king's pleafire ; of which number the
two principal fecretaries of ftate, and the chancellor of the
exchequer, are to be three ; and his majcfty, if he pleafes,
may add to the lift two commiffioners, not of the privy-
council ; and the perfon firft named iu the king's commiffion
is to be prtfident. The king may give 5000I. a year among
fuch of the commiffioners as he pleafes ; which, together
with the falary of the fecretary and ofBccrs, and other ex-

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pences of the board, are to be paid by the India company ;
the whole not to exceed i6,oool. per annum. The mem-
bers of this board and their officers are fworn to execute the
feveral powers and trufts repofed in them, without favour or
affedtion, prejudice or malice. The office of a commiffioner,
or chief fecretary, is not to be deemed a new office, todifable
them from fitting in parliament ; nor is the appointment of
a commiflioner, not having a falary, or of a chief ftcretary,
to vacate a feat. Three commiffioners muft be prefent to
form a board. The powers of the board are to fuperintend,
direft, and control all afts, operations, and concerns, which
relate to the civil and military government and revenues of the
Britifti territorial poffcflions in India, fubjeft to certain re-
ftriclions. They and their officers are to have accefs to the
papers and records of the company, and to be furnifiied with
copies or extrafts of fuch of them as fiiall be required. They
are alfo to be furnifhed with copies of all proceedings of
general courts, and courts of direftors, within eight days, and
with copies of all difpatches from abroad, relating to mat-
ters of government or revenue, immediately after their arrival.
No orders on thofe fubjeSs are to be fent by the company
to India, until approved by the board; and when the com-
miffioners varv or expunge any part of the dilpatches pro-
pofcd by the direftors, they are to give their reafons ; and
all difpatches are to be returned to the court of dircttors in
14 days. The direftors may ftate their objettions to any al-
terations, and the commiffioners are to rc-confidertheni ; and
if they interfere with what the din-flors deem matter of
commerce, the directors may apply to the king in council to
determine betwixt them. But the board is reftricted from
the appointment of any of the company's fervants. If the
dircftors, on being called upon to propofe difpatches on any
fu'ijeil relating to government or revenue, fhall fail to do fo
within 14 days, the board may originate th>-ir own difpatches
on that fubjeft. The board is not to authorife any incrtafc
of falaries, or any allowance or gratuity to be granted to
perfins employed in the company's fervice, except the fame
Ihall be firft propofed by the company ; and their intention
and reafons for iuch grant are to be certified to both houfes
of parliament, 30 days before the falary can commence. The
direftors are to appoint three of their members to be a com-
mittee of fecrecy, through whom difpatches, relating to go-
vernment, war, peace, or treaties, may be fcnt to or leceived
from India. This committee, and their clerks, are to be
fworn to fecrecy. Orders of direftors, concerning the go-
vernment or revenues of India, once approved by the board,
are not fubjeft to revocation by the general court of pro-
prietors. For the further provifions of the afts, appointing
the board of controul, fee Eafl India Company.

Bo AKD of Ordnance. Sec Ordnance.

Board of trade and plantation, was eftabliflied by king
William, in the year 1696. Commercial matters had before
this time been generally referred to a fluftunting committee
of the privy-council ; the obvious inconveniences attending
this mode of management, induced king Charles II. to erett
a fpecial council of trade in the year 1668, which was foon
. after laid afide : it was renewed again in 1C72, but foon dif-
ccntinued, and the former method of reference to com-
mittees of the privy-council revived. In i6tj6, a regular
and permanent board was eftablilhed, for fettling all difputes
and regulations relating to commerce and colonies. This
board, befide fuch of our minifters of ftate, who only attend-
ed on extraordinary occafions, confifted of a fifll lord com-
miffioner, and of feven other commiflioners, with an annual
falary of one thoufand pounds each. This board was abo-
iiflied in 17S0.

Board of trade, Bureau de commerce, an office in the French

pohtyj

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pol'tVi eUabliflied in iJ2j, compoftd of eight perfons of
experience in commerce ar.d navigation, where all papers
a-.'d propofals relatinc; to the improvement of trade are
examined, and all difficulties which occur in afFaiis of navi-
gation and commerce, either within or without the realm, are
difcufied.

BoARD-cfaff«, denotes a certain annual fum allowed to
houflioid fcrvants for maintenance. Board-wages, granted
to the menial officers and fervants of the crown, commenced
in 1629, when the uecelFities of king Charles oblii^ed him to
retr.T.ch the expcice of his houfli.'.ld, by aboli'hing the
greatell part of the dailv tables in his palace, which were
eighty in number, and fubftituting this annual allowance in
their room.

Board, or Aboard, in the Sfa Language, is ufed in Ipeak-
ing of things within a ihip, or other vcffel.

Hence, to go aboard fi'gnifies to go into the (hip ; to heave
oi'er board, is to throw a thing out of the vcfTel into the
fea ; to (lip by the beard, is to (lip down by the (hip's fide;
to fall aboard o^,is to ftrike or encounter another (hip, when
one or both are in motion ; to keep the land a-hoard, or to
keep hold of the land, is to (leer near to, or in fight of th6
land ; board di^d board, is when two (liips come fonear as to
touch o'.ie another, or when they lie lide by fide. Weather-
board,is that fide of a fl;ip which is to windward. To board
a fa-.p, IS to enter an enemy's (hip in an engagement. See
Boarding, infra.

Board demotes the diftance run by a (liip at one tack ; and
hence to naie a board, or, as it is otherwife exprclFed, to
board it up to a place, is to turn to windivard ; and to beat
fometimes upon one tack, and foraetimes upon another ; in
which it is to be notf-d, that the farther you (land oii to one
point of the comp^fs, the better board you will make ; and
that it is better making long boards than (hort ones, if you
have fea -room. A long board is when yau (land a great way
off btfure you tack or turn.; ^Jljort board \i when you (land
o(F a little ; a good board is when a (hip does not go to lee-
ward of her courfe, or advances much at one tack, and fails
upon a llraight line. To leave a land on back-board, is to
leave it a (lern, or behind ; the ^ati-i(?fl/v/ being that which,
in boats or (hips, we lean our backs againd. A-board main-
tack, the order to draw the main-tack ; i. e. the lower corner
of the main-fail, down to the chefs-tree. See Chess-
tree.

BoARD-/-ar, and Starboard. See Larboard, and Star-
board.

BOARDED Floor. See Floor.

BOARDING, in Naval Taffies, denotes the art of ap-
proaching the (hip of an enemy fo near as to admit of the
graplings, which are fixed on the lower yard-arms, at the
lorccaftle, gang-ways, &c. being thrown into it, for the
purpofe of lecuring the vtlTtls together, and of entering her
decks with a detachment of armed men. The method of
conducing or of avoiding this kind of attack depends
upon the relative fituation of the contending (liips ; and
varies, as it is to be performed to windward, to leeward,
v;ith the wind at large, or wh;:i the fhip propofed to be
boarded is at anchor.

In the firft cafe, when the enemy's (liip keeps her wind
under an eafy fail, and is overtaken in a chafe by thofe who
intend to board her, the veffel of the latter mull get on the
weather-quarter of the former, within half a pitlol (hot.
She (houid then begin and continue a brl(k aftion, fo that
the fmoke of the cannon and mufqiietry of both (hips may
conceal her manoeuvres ; and, under the cover of this cloud,
(he (hould increafe her fail, if (he has not way enough, in
order to augment her velocity and the rapidity of her move-

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merits, that fhe may more readily lay on board the enemy,
on the weather-fide, either exactly abreafl or a little abaft.
This may be eafily done, by edging down fuddeii'y upon her,
but avoiding being raked by the enemy's fire. By this ma-
iiceuvrs the grapnels will be on board of the adverle (hip, be-
fore or very (oon after (he fufpedls the d^fign of the boarderc.
In this fituation, the vcfTcl propofcC to Ic boarded can recur
only to one precarious expedi nt, which, duly obferved by
the boarder, will be of little or no avail. For when f;ie
braces (harp a-back her head fails, to caufc the fliip's falling
off, ar.d fquares thofe aft, to give her (levn-way, the boarder,
by perform.ing briflclv the lame manceuMe, will be as well
fituated for boarding as before; provided the boarding (liip
feels the impulfe of her fails and ht-lnl, which ought to be
put a-weather, and kept fo till the (hip's head-way ceafes,
when it is to be put a-lee, to affi!l her in falling off, in order
to board the enemy to lee-ward ; tor the boarder ought to
be on the quarter of the other, fince at the moment the two
fhips were right before the wind, (lie v. ho was diredlly to
windward, and wilhed to board, had only to continue her
movement of rotation, and render her velocity equal to that
of her adverfary, by fliortening fail in order not to pafs
her. If, therefore, the circular motion is kept up by the
boarder, which at fird caufed him to fall off, and now bring*
him to the wind oil the other tack, he will join the enemy to
lee-ward ; for it is evident that, if this motion of turning be
more rapid than that of the (hip which wifhes to avoid board-
ing, the boarder will clofe with her before (he can range to
the wii.d on the other tack, fince the boarder comes round
with greater celerity. However, if the fliip which fears
boarding was preffcd thus clofely, (he could make no otlier
attempt than to throw once more ail her fails to the maft,
by bracing them only perpendicular to the keel to give her
ftern-way, and putting the helm a-weathcr, to keep her to
the wind, as foon as her head-way ceafes ; obferving that, a3
(he is to windward, (he may be thus driven on the boarder,
who watches for her under her lee. But necelTuy obliges her
to adopt this only expedient ; becauie, it (he could go a-(lera
with fufficicnt velocity, (he might let the boarder pafs
a-hcad, veer under his lltrn, and rake him, if he does not
anticipate this mancEuvre, and as quickly m.anoeuvre in the
fame manner ; the great velocity with which he comes to
the wind, and goes a-head, his fails being (till full, reducing
him to this Hate, wb.ich may prevent his perlifting in the de-
fign of boarding. Neverthelefs the boarder may attain his
purpofe, if he throws all his fails a-back at the fame time as
the fliip to windward ; becaufe, the attacked (hip dropping
to leeward, and having ftcrn-v.ay firll, approaches the
boarder, who has prefervcd his pofition on the quarter, and
longer kept his luff, by having gone a-llern fomewhat later
than the weather fliip. It '(hould alfo be obferved, that
when the two (hips are right before the wind, if the veffel
which fears boarding moves more quickly to the v.'ind than
the one which attacks, (he will avoid it, as the retreating
(hip will be clofe to the wind before the other, and able to
get a-head of her, by making all fail to keep her wind, or
to heave in flays, and get upon the other tack. This lad
movement, however, is diladvantageous; becaufe it will
prefent the Hern to a (hip, wliich will avail itfelt of that
fituation, and rake her, and this may be m.ore deiiruiftive
than a well oppofed attack by boarding. After all, if the
(hip that is inclined to board (ails better than the other, (he
will always have it in her power to execute her pui'pofe, if
(he is as well manceuvr;d as the (liip which endeavours ta
efcape.

In the fecond cafe of boarcing to leeward, when clofe to the

wind, the boarder fliould arrive within pillol (liot, clofe in

4 P 2 the

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the wake, or, at mod, to the weather quaftei* of the (hip
againll which the attack is meditated ; taking care to con-
tinue fleering, fo as not to be raked by any of the guns that
belong to tiie quarter on which he (lands. In order to come
up with his adveriary, he mud edge away a httle, and range
round aft, fo clofe upon the enemy's lee-quarter, that his
cat-head may almoft touch lier quarter-gallery. When the
ftiip has Ihot fufHciently a-head, and is parallel to that of the
adverfarv, the fore-caftle being a-breall of the enemy's main-
maft, the mizen and mizen llav-fail flieets are to be well
hauled aft, the helm put hard a-lee, and the head-flieets let
fly; then the (hip, coming rapidly to the wind, fhivers her
fails, and clofes with the oppoCng veflel fide to fide. In
executing this manoeuvre, which cannot fail to fucceed with
the advantage of failing, great attention is neceflTary ; be-
caufe, if at this moment the weather-diip, which wiflies
to avoid being boarded, either fets her courfes, or lays ail
thofe flat a-back which flie had fet, flie may chance to break
the grapnels, if the fails of the boarding veffel have not
been trimmed like thofe of the other ; for, by making more
fail, if the wind be a little fre/li, ihe vnW fhoot a-head through
the water, and drag the boarder with fuch force as to break
the chains or hawlers by which the two (hips are confined
together. By laying ail flat to the maft the boarded veflel
is ftill more likely to fucceed, fince the fails of one (hip will
be full, while thofe of the other are a-back.

This mode of boarding may be avoided, if the boarder does
not pay ftricl attention to his own manoeuvres, as well as to
thofe of his adverfary ; and it may be more readily avoid-
ed, if the adverfary's vedel braces her head-fails (harp
a-back, fetting only, if necedary, the foie-fail, at the fame
inllant laying to the maft or (hivering, according to the ne-
ceflity for more or lefs ilern-way, all thofe which are abaft,
and putting the helm hard a-lee. This is to be executed,
when the boarder is about a (hip's length a-ftern of the other
veiTel. The quicknefs of this evolution, and the rapid veer-
ir.g of the weather-fliip, may bring the boarding veflTel,
which is a little to leeward or a-ftern of the other, into
the moft dangerous fituation, if (he does not manoeuvre in
the fame manner, and with equal celerity ; as the boarder's
fails being full, keep up his velocity, and may, before he
can veer, engage his bowfprit in the main ftirouds of the
enemy, who pays (hort round on her head. Thofe who
wi(h to board a (hip, and to engage the enemy's bowfprit in
their main flirouds, need only to get a little to windward of
her, and about one or two (hip's lengths a-head, according
to the eftimated celerity of their movements ; then brace
(harp a-back the head- fails, (hiverthe after-ones, or lay them
flat to the maft, with the helm a-lee. This manoeuvre, well
performed, and covered by a brifl< fire, will commonly fuc-
ceed ; but care muft be taken not to come round too foon,
but to range very clofe to the adverfary ; becaufe, if the
boarding vtlTel be not fufficiently a-head of him, it might
fail in boarding, by paying too (hort round, and its bow-
fprit get foul of his lore-niroud<;, which would be ver)- dif-
advantageous. The defign will be fruftrated, if the board-
ing (liip, being too far a-head, pafles under the bowfprit of
the enemy, who will thus, however, be expofed to be raked
at his head, if he does not manoeuvre in the fame manner
and equal quicknefs as the boarding velTel, which has the
great advantage of priority. In order to engage the bow-
fprit of the enemy's fliip in the rigging ot the boarding
veifel, this (hould be ranged very clofe to the other ; becaufe,
if this were attempted at only a (hip's length large, and to
windward of the enemy, he need merely, upon perceiving
the defign, to put the helm hard a-lee, and heave in ftays.
if this laft method be properly executed, the two (hips can

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only range very near each other, and exchange their broad-
fides, and the lee-fliip will immediately gain the wind of her
adverfary. Confequently to execute this manoeuvre well,
the veflcls muft be nearly yard-arm and yard-arm.

If the boarder be at a certain diftance aft on the weather-
quarter, the fliip wifhing to avoid boarding muft heave in
(lays, as foon as the othL'r vefkl is in ihe aft of veering, in
order to clofe with her to leeward. By this manoeuvre they
will come head to head, fo that they may reciprocally fire
their broadfidcs, in nafling on oppofite direftions, and the
lee-(hip will get to windward.

In the third cafe, when two flips engage with the wind
large, the boarding veffel fhould keep as clofe as pofuble on
the lee-quarter of the (hip (he n^ans to attack by boarding,
that (he may execute her purpofe by coming rapidly to the
wnd, and being careful not to pafs ?.-head of her opponent.
The weather-fhip, in order to avoid being boarded, muft adl
according to circumftances, in the manner directed in the
laft cafe. A fiiip may be boarded on the weather-fide, by
conforming to the inftruftions relating to boarding to wind-
ward. When two veffels are engaged with the wind right
aft, the boarder ought to drop a-ftern of the enemy, in order
to run up clofe along-fide of him. if the boarder has the
advantage of failing ; for, as (he then advances towards her
adverfary, the adverfary can only endeavour to range rapidly
to the wind on the other tack, as foon as the bowfprit of the
boarder is a-breaft of her ftern, and thus gain the wind, in
order to be in a fituation to extricate herfclf more eafily by
a good manosnvre. The boarding veffel (hould be allowed
to come a-breall of the ftern of her adverfary, before (he
hauls her wind ; becaufe, if this were done looner, the (hip
a-ftern, at a fmall diftance, would board her perfectly well,
even if (he failed with equal celerity, fince the boarder
would be to windward, would run large longer than the
other, would range more (lowly to the wind, and continue
to ftem a-head of the flying (hip. This will appear more
evident by confidering, that the boarder coming from wind-
viard preferves his velocity longer, trimming his fails only as
the fhip comes to the wind, and cuts the courfe of his adver-
fary with a fine lefs curved than that defcribed by the re-
treating (hip. If, by coming too foon or too faft to the
wind, the boarder chofe to abandon his defign, he might do
fo by veering a few points on the other tack, and (horten*
ing fail ; fo that the retreating (hip will fhew her ftern, and
the boarder can then rake her by palhng under her ftern.

In attacking a (hip clofely to leeward, the boarder fhould
keep away a little when abreall of her, and feem to yield un-
der her fire. If the enemy's fhip (hould thus be induced to
veer, in order to bring the boarder more under her guns, the
latter (hould heave rapidly to the wind, by putting the
helm a-lee, trimming all (harp abaft, and fupprefling the
effeft of the head-fails ; which (hould be done at the inftant
when the enemy is perceived to be bearing down. The
two (hips will, by the quicknefs of this manoeuvre, and the
priority of the movement thus gained on the enemy, foon
clofe, and, with proper attention, the enemy's bowfprit may
be entangled in the fore or main rigging of the boarding
veflel, which would be a favourable circumftance in the at-
tempt to board. However, it may happen that no attempt
can be made to board, if the weather-fhip, inftead of bear-
ing away, phes more and more to windward; ibr this faint
manoeuvre may take the boarder too far off to leeward of the
adverfary. If the boarder fnould chamce to be a ftiip's
length to leevi-ard, and about the fame diftance a-head of the
enemy's veffel, it may, under cover of a heavy fire, heave
in ftays ; and thus come right athwart the enemy's hawfe,
rake him fore ?.nd nft, and board him, his bowfprit being
3 right

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right over the enemy's gang-way; nor can he poffibly avoid
a broadtide ; for if he heave all a-back and make a-ftern
board, which is his only refource, lie may avoid being
boarded, but his fituation will be very perilous.

In the laft cafe of boardirg a fiiip, which is at anchor,
Tiding head to wind, it mull be executed under fail ; for if
the boarder cannot apprjach the enemy except by towing
a-head, he will never be able to board the latter againft his
will; becaufe he will be always able to annoy the boats
which are laying out the tow-lines. It (hauld not therefore
be attempted, unlefs the boarder be under way. In order
to perform it with fuccefs, the boarder mufl be fufhciently
to windward to approach the enemy by a little falling off,
without expcfiiig his ftern to the fire of the latter, which in
this fituation might be played on v.ith great advantage. If
the boarder, then, fhould be thus to windward, fo as to be
able to approach the er.emy at anchor, he ought to Hop his
head-way, by taking a-back his mizen top-fail and fore llay-
fail ; and when about a fhip's length from the veflel pro-
pofed to be boarded, let go an anchor, and tlien work, fo
that, as foon as the mizen top-fail is taken a-back, the mi-
zen clofe aft, the top fails clued up, and the fore-topmaft
ftay-fail hauled down, he may come head to wind, and veer
away cable, till, by tiiUing off, he comes board and board
with his opponent, who is ftill riding at his moorings, and
who at that inilant ought to be alfo raked by the boarder.
This is the only method of manoeuvring to which the board-
ing (hip can recur ; becaufe, as foon as the anchor is gone,
the fhip acquires ftern-way, and when the cable is checked,
/he runs head to wind, in which the is much aflifted by the
mizen and mizen top-fail, which impel her ftern to leeward,
till the wind is right in the dircClion of the keel ; and, as
the cable is veered away, till exaAly along-fide the fhip at
anchor, her own anchor being right a-head of the vefTel {he
means to board, it follows that, as foon as the boarding (hip
comes head to wind, flie is in a proper fituation to throw
her grapnels, and fend her crew on board of the other, if
they are the ftrongeft.

The ftiip at anchor fhould never wait for the enemy in that
fituation, which is always difadvantageous, and as there is
much greater probability of efcape when under way, JBut
if it be necefiary for the enemy to continue at anchor, he
fhould take advantage of the boarder's fhip letting go her
anchor, to cut the cable by which he rides ; and by this
mancEuvre fall athwart, rake the boarder, avoid being board-
ed, and bring up with the lee-anchor. If time allow, two
fprings fhould be caft out, one on each fide of the cable by
which the (hip rides, if there have been no previous oppor-
tunity for laying out two anchors, and thus guard againft
furprife, in cafe the fhip which attacks has it in her power to
pafs on either fide of the other ; and when the fide for which
ihc is determined is perceived, the afTailed fhould heave on
the fpriiig which is on the fame fide fhe has let go her an-
chor, if fhe be a-head, and on the oppofite, if fhe be a-ftern,
veering out at the fame time the other fpring and cable, till
the aflailant be brought right a-breaft. Then he may be
Taked at pleifure, as he has no way of efcape. His only
coiirfe to prevent danger would be having alfo a fpring ;
and, under cover of a brifk fire, veering upon that fpring
and cable, to lay his enemy handfomely on board. But if
this precaution Ihould have been neglefted, he muft cut his
cable, and drop on board of the fhip to leeward ; who, on the
other hand, has no mode of avoiding being boarded, but by
cutting, to get under way, or to run on iliore.

It is always eafy to board a fhip at anchor, when the wind
will allow approaching to her under fail ; in which cafe it is
moft advifeable to run her along-fide, or to bring-to to

BOA

windward of the fhip Intended to be attacked, keeping her
exaftly to leeward; then to drift on board of her, by
trimming the fails in fuch a manner as to keep as nearly as
polTible the broadlide of the attacking vefTcl oppofite to that
of the adverfe fhip. In this fituation the boarder fhould
annoy the enemy with his guns till he can clofe with him ;
and by conftantly cannonading, his fire may not be fo well
ferved as it othe'rwife might be. If, whilft a veffel is under-
wry, it be propofed to board a veffel that is moored, an an-
chor fhould be let go at the time of boarding ; for if the at-
tacked Ihip fhould at this moment cut her cables to drive on
fhore, this would prevent the aflailant and the afTailed running
a-ground together. Elements and Practice of Rigging and
Seamanfliip, vol. ii. Bourde's Manoeuverer, or Skilful Sea-
man, &c. tranflated from the French by Saufeuil, 4.to.
178S.

BoARni>iG-H?//m», in Siip Rigging. See Netting.

BOARI, in Geography, a village of Africa, on the
Gold Coaft, fituated between Sukonda and Saina, where
the Dutch had formerly a fmall fadory, which was after-
wards removed to Sama.

BOARIA Lappa, a name given by the ancient Roman?
to the fruit or rough balls of the common aparine or cleavers.
Pliny calls this plant fometimes lappa, fometimes lappago ;
and the fruit by the names of lappa baaris, or lappe can'md:,
and fometimes canarii?.

BOARINA, BoAROLA, in Ornithology, the name of a
fniall bird, defcribcd by Aldrovandus and others. This is
the fig-eater of Albin and Latham; and Motacilla Nit'via
of Gmelin.

BOARULA, a fpecies of Motacilla, called in Eng-
land the grey wagtail. The colour of this bird is cinereous
above, beneath yellow ; tail-feathers dark, and pile at the
edges. This is an European bird, about fcven inches and a
half in length, and, like the reft of the wagtail tribe, fre-
quents watery places. They are lively, aftive birds, per-
petually flirt the tail, and feldom perch, but reft upon
the ground. They feed chiefly upon infefts. The neft of
this fpecies is made on the ground, and is compofed of dried
fibres and mofs, lined with wool or feather, and ufually con-
tains from fix to eight eggs, which are of a dirty white,
marked with yellow fpots. They breed in the north of
England, feldom approaching nearer to the fouthward than
Cumberland, till after the month of Odlober. Linn. Donov.
Brit. Birds, pi. 40, &c. Le Bergette, of Belon ; and la Bir-
goroneltejaune, of Brifon, is of this fpecies.

Obf. A variety of Motacilla Boarula inhabits Java. The
colour is an olive brown, beneath yellow; lower part of the
neck grey ; firft tail-feather entirely white ; innerfide and
tip of the fecond and third white.

BOAS, in Entomology, a fpecies of ScARAB.fEus, that
inhabits Sierra Leona. The thorax is retufe, excavated,
bidentated; horn of the head recur\ed and fimple. Fa-
bricius.

BOAT, a fmall veffel, generally without a deck, managed
by fails or oars, or drawn by horfcs upon canals, rivers, or
lakes, for the purpofe of conveying palTengers, goods, &c.
from one place to another. The form, equipment, and
names ef boats are different according to the purpofe for
which they are intended, or 10 the country where they are
built. Hence, boats are made flight or ftrong, fharp or flat-
bottomed, open or decked, plain or ornamented, as they
may be defigned for fwiftnefs or burden, for deep or fhallow
water, for failing in a harbour or at fea, and for convenience
or pleafure.

As boats make always a neceffary append^ige to Ihips, it

w-ill,

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will, tliereforc, be proper to give a brief cccount of ihofe
btlor.i^'iig to the different clalFcsof fhipping.

Ships of war, particularly of the line, have ufually fix
boats, a!id the number clecnafes with the rate of the (hip.
The large ft is called the long-boat, and fometimes the launch;
and its principal employment is to convey heavy (lores to
the fhip. This boat is generally fiiniidied with a maft and
fails, and is occailonally decided, armed, and equipped, for
cruifing (liojt diftances againft merchant ftiips of the enemy,
or fmugglcrs, or for impreffing feanien, &c. The large is
the next lefs boat, and i;i particularly appropriated to carry
the principal fea officers, as the admiral, captain, &c. to or
from the fhip ; and in confcqucnce of its flender conftruftion,
combined with its fmall breadth, is very unfit for fea. This
boat never rows lefs t'lan ten oars. The pinnace is fimilar
to the barge, but imaller, never rows above eight oars,
and is ufed by lieutenants in going afliore, or coming off to
the fliip. Cutlers are broader, deeper, and fhorter than the
former; they are emplovid on almoft all occafions, as for
going afhorc, carrying ilores, provifions, boarding fhips at
fea, &c. yolly-boat is the fmalleft boat uftd in any of the
fhips in his majelly's fervice. In Plate VI. oi Ships are per-
fpeftive views of a man of war's long boat, of a barge, and
flat-bottomed boat.

In an Eaft Indiaman there are four boats, the long boat,
tutter, jolly-boat, 3.nA yawl. The (iril of thefe is for conveying
ftores and goods to and from the fliip ; the fecond forgoing
afhore ; and the others are employed occafionally.

Ships in the Weft India trade ufe boats in number and fize
according to the iflands at which they intend to take in their
cargo. Four boats generally belong to a (hip in the Jamaica
trade. The largeft, called v^Jlia'lop, will ca-rv from eighteen
to twenty hogdieads of fugar. The next lefs in fi^e is ufu-
ally called a ten hogjliead boat, from the number of hogdieads
it carries ; thefe two are left in the country. The next lefs
boat, called a double mofcs, or pinnace, carries two hoj^flteads
a ftiort diftance ; and the fmallell boat is called the jolly
boat, and is generally fiifpended from the taffrail.

Ships in the Windward Ifland trade, loading at Barba-
does, Martinico, Dominica, &c. generally ufe a flat launch
with (Iceeds, each about thirty-fix feet long, one end being
upon the boat's fleni, and the other upon the betlch, upon
which the fugar hogftieads are rolled ftom the beach into the
launch. At St. Vincent's, Grenada, and Tobago, a one
hogfliead mofcs is ufed. At Trinidad a launch as flat as can
be built is ufed. At Demerara, Berbice, and Surinam, they
geiicrally ufe failing craft that will carry from twelve to
twenty hogftieads.

Ships employed in tloe whale. fiftiL-ry have fix or more boats.

Thefe are very narrow in refpcft to their length, for the pur-

pofeofpullingfaft;they areftrongbuilt.and (lir.rp at both ends.

Smaller veffels of one hundred tons and under, have in

general one boat.

Baehot, a fiftiing boat on the rivers in France ; it is
provided with a maft, oars, fiftiing lines, a ftaff, a pole to
faften their boat on the river when they are fifhing, S;c.

Bal%a, or balfa, a boat, or rather raft, compofed of five,
feven, or nine logs or trunks of trees, ufed in South Ame-
rica. This boat is fo called from balza or balfa, the name
of the wood of which it is conftrufted, but which is called
puero by the Darien Indians. The balza is a whitifti fpungy
wood, and fo very light that a boy can eafily carry a log
four yards long and a foot in diameter. The follovving ac-
count of this boat is extrafted from the Relacion Hillorica
del Viage a la America Meridional, necho de Orden, de
S. Mag, &c. Impreffa de Orden de Rey en Madrid, 1748.
The balzas are not only adapted to this river (Guayaquill,

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but venture to fea, and carry on the trade as far as Payta.
Their dimenfions are proportionate to their ufe, or the voyage
for which they are intended; fome being only for fiftiing,
others for the river trade, bringing fruits, and all forts of mer-
chandize from Bodega to Guayaquil, and from thence ex-
porting them to Puna, Salto de Tunibez, and Payta ; others
are yet more co-iimodioiifty contrived for carrying families,
with all their furniture and neceffaries, to their plantations or
country houfes. The puero trees, of which they are built,
are twelve or thirteen toifes long, reckoning five feet to the
toife, and two feet, or two and a half diameter ; fo that the
whole breadth of nine logs, of which fome of them confift, is
between twenty and twenty-four feet ; and thole of feven or
fewer logs are proportionate.

Thefe logs are faftened to each other only by the bejucos
or withies, with which the crofs logs are alfo laftied to them,
yet fo fecurely as never to give way, if not worn out by long
ufe, though in their voyage to the coaft of Tunibez and
Pavta the fea runs vei-y high ; but the negroes neglefting to
examine if the bejucos are not too much worn to fuftain ano-
ther voyage, before they put to fea, it too often happens
that the laftiing breaks, the logs feparate, and both cargo
and pafiengers pcrifti ; indeed the Indians, being more aclive,
get upon a log andfafely work it to the utareft harbour.
One of thefe melancholy inftances happened while we were
in the jurifdiftion of Qiiito, and are wholly to be imputed
to the fordid negligence of the Indians, who feem to have
no fenfibility of danger.

The tliickeft log of the balza is placed fo as to reach far-,
ther than the others ; at the ftern, another log is laftied to
this, on each fide, and others to thefe, tiH the intended num-
ber be completed, vvhicli is always odd ; the large one in the
middle being, as it were, the llay and foundation of the
others. The larger fort of thefe vefftls ufually carry about
twenty-five tons, v.'i':hout damaging the cargo in confequence
of its being too near the water's edge, for the fea never
breaks over them, nor does the water fwell between the
logs, or ever rife above them, becanfe the whole body of
the vehicle accommodates itfelf to the motion of the water
in all weathers.

Thefe rafts work and ply to windward like a keeled veffel,
and keep their courfe before the wind almoft as exaftly, .
which is the effcft of another contrivance befides the rudder ;
fome large planks, three or four yards long, and half a yard
broad, called guares, are fet up vertically at the ftern, and
alio forward between the main logs. By pulhing fome of
thefe under the water, and taking others a little up, the
float fads large, bears up, tacks, or lies to, according as
the machine is v\-orked ; an invention which has hitherto
efcaped the acutenefs of the moft ingenious Europeans ; and
though the Indians have indeed contrived the inftrument,
yet they are utter ftrangers to the principles of mechanics,
and the caufes of its operations.

Had it been known before in Europe, the lofs of many
lives in fliipwreck might have been prevented, as appears by
the following, among many other inftances : in the year
1730, the Genouefa ftiip of war, being loft in the Vivora,
the mariners made a jangada, or raft, to lave their lives, but
mifcarried by committing themfelves to the winds and cur-
rents, without any fteerage ; and the frequency of fueh.
melancholy events induces me to give a minute explanation
of this inftrumcnt, from a memoir of Don Jorge Juan, re-.
lating to it.

The direftion in which a fhip moves, when under fail, isia-
aline perpendicular to the faft, according to the demonftra-
tions of Renan, ia his Theory of Manual Arts, cap.ii. art./..
Beinouilli, cap.i' art. 4 ; and Pitot, fed. ii. art. 13. The

re-aftica-.

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re-aftion 'osirg equal, and oppolke to the aftlon, the oppo-
fitjon cf the water to the motion of the vefFcl will alfo be ip.
a t'.:rc£lion perpendicular to the fail, from leeward to wind-
ward, and the impulfe of a longer body exceeding that of
a fmaller, fuppofing the motion of both to be equal, it fol-
lows that, upon one of the fore guares being thrull under
water, the veflel will lie to, and bear up again, if it be
taken out ; and by a parity of reafoning, an after one being
thrall under water will caufe the fnip to b.ar up and to lie
to, on its being taken out. The way ufed by tlie Indians,
in managing the balza, is to increafe the ni'.raber of guares
to four, five, or fix, to keep her to windward ; for it is
evident that the more there are under water the greater will
be the lateral refiilarce, which is thus incrcafed by the
lee-boards ufcd in fmalltr veflels, and for the fame purpofe.
Thefe guares fo effeiSually anfn-er the end for which they
are intended, that, when once the balza is underway, onlv
one need be worked ; and by thruiling it down or raifine it
up a foot or two, tlie veiTel is kept in a right courfe. Plate I.
of loits, contains a perfpeftive view of a Balza.

Barge, the fecond boat in a fhip of war, as mentioned

above ; a veffel employed in sarrying merchandize in the

river Thames, with one mall. See alfo the article Barge.

Bum boat, a fmall boat employed in felling vegetables,

&c. to veflels lying at a diftance from the fliore.

Bunder boat, a beat at Bombay for carrying off pilots
to a fliip, and taking paflengers alliore.

Cholaud, a boat navigated on the river Loire in'France ;
theft boats are narrow and low, for the purpofe of more eafily
palling through the locks of canals; they are principally ufed
in carrying wines, and other productions, and merchandizes
of the provinces, which lie near the Loire and Allier.

Coolie, a boat em.ployed as a wherrj- at Bombay ; it ha:- one
niaft, with a confiderable rake forward, and fails very fall.

Felucca, is a ftrong paflage-boat ufed in the Mediterra-
nean, having from lo to 16 banks of oars. The natives of
Barbary often employ boats of this fort as cruifers.

Ferry boats, are ufed for conveying paflengers, goods, horfes,
cattle, (Xc.acrofs ariveror branch of the fea; and,tiierefore,are
of different dimenfions and forms of conftruction accordingly.
F'ljVmg boats, are of various kinds ; thofe employed in the
falmon fifhing, which is generally in rivers, or at the fea
ftiore. and commonly called cobles, are narrow at one end,
and bioad at the other, for the purpofe of making up the
net npon it, and from which the net is let into the river or
fea. Boats employed in the white fifliery, that is, in taking
ling, cod, haddocks, &c. are pretty large ; fome carr)'ing ten
tons and upwards, with tivo mails, with fquare or lug-fails,
and ftrong built fo as to endure a rough fea ; they are ufu-
ally and unequally fharp at both ends, the Ihsrpelt end being
the bow. Decked veflels cAXkA fmach having one maft, or
iuggers with three malls, are employed in this liihery.

Flat-bottomed boat, is fo conllrucled for taking the beach
eafily, for the greater convenience of landing troops with
their baggage, accoutrements, &c.

Flottes, boats of the mailer ferrj-men at Paris. The ord-
nance of that city, made in the year 1672, enjoins tlxm
to keep their boats always provided with Haves and oars ;
and to have a fufficient number of boats ready at the places
and fervices appointed by the provoil of the merchants and
echevins.

Fi-ncets, boats whicli navigate on the river Seine; they
are large, long, and ftrong; they come from Roan, and from
the rivL-r Oife, and are commonly ufed to caiTy great loads
of wood for fuel, alfo goods, &c.

Gig, a fmall light boat, ufually fufpended from the taff-
rail of a fliip.

BOA

Holland, Boats cf. In almoft all the Seven United Pro-
vinces there are boats which ferve for public carriages, which
fet out from every city at all hours of the day, and carry
paflengers very conveniently from one place to another, at a
very fmall expence. They are long, narrow, and covered,
and can contain about fistypitrfons; each boat is drawnby one
horfe, and has only two m.en to manage it, the one attends
the helm, and the other takes care of the rope ; the horfe
is generally rode by a boy. In thefe bnats there is a room
which can eafily contain fix perfcjns ; this room., which is
called a roef, has glafs windows, whereas the other openings
in the boat are ftiut with oil cloth in bad weather. A
paflenger may take a place in this room, or the whole room.
Thofe boats which carry goods from Amfterdam to the
Hague, and which leave Amfterdnm at eight at night, ar-
rive at the Hague next morning. In thofe boats, however,
defigned for paflengers only, a perfon is obliged to change
boats feveral times. From Amfterdam to Haerlem he muft
change boats half way, becaufe the canal there is cut by
a dyke. At Haerlem, the paflengers muft crofs the town to
get to the boat that is to cznry them to Leyden. At Ley-
den, he muft again crofs the town to meet the boat in which
he is to go to the Hague. All this can be performed in ten
hours and a half ; for, at eight o'clock precifely, a boat fcts
out from Amfterdam to Haerlem, where it arrives about
half an hour after ten ; at eleven a boat fets out from Haer-
lem for Leyden, and arrives there at three in the morning;
half an hour after three a boat fets out from Leyden, and
arrives at the Hague half an hour after fix. There is fuch
good order kept, that at the ringing of a bell the boat muft
fet out immediately, without waiting for any paflenger.
There are few countries where people can travel fo conveni-
ently as in Holland.

Ivahah, a boat or canoe of the Society Iflands, of which
captain Cooke gives the following defcription. The ivahah
is ufed for fliort excurfions at fea. Thefe boats are all of the
fame figure, but of different fizes, and ufed f^r different
purpofes ; their length is from ten to feventy-two feet, but the
breadth is by no means in proportion ; for thofe of ten feet
are about a foot wide, and thofe of more than feventy are
fcarcely two feet. They have the fighting ivahah, the fifhing
ivahah, and the travelling ivahah, for fome of thefe go from
one ifland to another. The fighting ivahah is by far the
longeft; and the head ar.d ftern Ere confiderably raifed above
the body, in a femicircular form, particularly the ftem,
which is fometimes feveuteen or eighteen feet high, though
the boat itfelf is fcarcely three feet. Thefe never go to fea
fingly, but are fallened together fide by fide at the diftance
of about three feet, by ftrong poles of wood, which are laid
acrofs them, and laflied to the gunwales. Upon thefe in
the fore part, a ftage or platform is raifed about ten or
twelve feet high, and fomewhai wider than the boats, which
is fiipported by pillars about fix feet long ; upon this ftage
ftand the fighting men, whofe miflile weapons are flings
and fpears ; for, among other fingularities in the manners
of thefe people, their bows and arrows are ufed only for
diverfion, as we throw quoits ; btlow thefe ftages fit the
ro\\ers, who receive fi-om them thofe that are wounded,
?nd furnifli frtfh men to afcend in their room. Some of
thefe have a platform of bamboos, or other light wood,
through their whole length, and confiderably broader, by
means of which they can carr)' a great number of men.
The filhing ivahahs varv- in length from about forty feet
to the fmalleft fize, which is about ten feet ; all that are of
the length of twenty-five feet and upwards, of whatever fort,
occafionally cany fail. The travelling ivahah is always
double, and fumillied with a fmall oeat houfe, about five or

fix

T

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fix feet broad, and fix or fcven feet long, which is faftened
upon the fore part, for the convenience of tiie principal peo-
ple, who fit in tliem by day, and deep in them at night.
The filhing ivahahs are fometimes joined tojjether, and have
a houfe on board, but this is not common. Thofe which
are (horter than twenty-five feet, feldoin or never carry fail ;
and though the Hern rifcs about four or five feet, they have
a flat head, and a board that projects forward about four
feet. The ivahahs are th^^ only boats ufid by the inhabitants
of Otaheite.

Life-boat, a boat invented by Mr. Henry Grcathead of
South Shields, for the purpofe of preferving the lives of
fhipwrecked perfons. The following circumftance gave rife
to this invention :

In September 1789, the ftiip Adventure of Newcaftle, was
ftrandedon the Herd fand, on thefouth fide of Tynemouth
haven, in the midft of tremendous breakers ; and all the crew
dropped from the rigging one by one, in the prefence of
thoufands of fpeflators, not one of whom could be prevailed
upon, by any reward, to venture out to her afliftance, in any
boat or coble of the common conftruftion.

On this occafion, the gentlemen of South Shields called a
meeting of the inhabitants, at which a committee was ap-
pointed, and premiums were offered for plans of a boat which
Ihould be the beft calculated to brave the dangers of the fea,
particularly of broken water.

Many propofals were offered ; but the preference was
unanimoufly given to that of Mr. Greathead, who was im-
mediately diredfed to build a boat at the expence of the com-
mittee.

This boat went off on the 30th of January 1790 ; and
fo well has it anfvvered, and indeed exceeded, every expefta-
tion, in the moft tremendous broken fea, that fince that
time, not fewer than two hundred lives have been faved at
the entrance of the Tyne alone, which otherwife muft have
been loft ; and in no inftance has it ever failed.

The principle of this boat appears to have been fuggefted
to Mr. Greathead by the following fimple faft.— Take a
fpheroid, and divide it into quarters ; eacii quarter is ellipti-
cal, and nearly refembles the half of a wooden bowl, having
a curvature with projeAing ends ; this, thrown into the fea
or broken water, cannot be upfet, or he with the bottom
upwards.

The length of the boat is thirty feet ; the breadth, ten
feet ; the depth, from the top of the gunwale to the lower
part of the keel in midfhips, three feet three inches ; from
the gunwale to the platform (within), two feet four
inches ; from the top of the ftems (both ends being
fimilar) to the horizontal line of the bottom of the keel,
five feet nine inches. The keel is a plank of three inches
thick, of a proportionate breadth in mlddiips, narrowing
gradually towards the ends, to the breadth of the ftems at
the bottom, and forming a great convexity downwards.
The ftems are fegments of a circle, whh confiderable rahes.
The bottom feftion, to the floor heads, is a curve fore and
aft, with the fweep of the keek The floor timber has
a fmall rife curving from the keel to the floor-heads. A
bilge plank is wrought in on each fn^e, nc;:t the floor-heads,
with a double rabbit or groove, of a fimilar thicknefs with
the keel ; and, on the outfide of this, are f^xed two bilge-
trees, correfponding neariy with the level of the k.-el. The
ends of the bottom fedioii form that fine kind of entrance
obfervable in the lower part of the bow of the filhing boat,
called a coble, much ufed in the north. From this part to
the top of the ftem it is more elliptical, farming a confider-
able projeftion. The fides, from the floor-heads to the top
o£ the gunwale, flaungh ofF on each fide, in proportion to

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above half the breadth of the floor. The breadth is continued
far forwards towards the ends, leaving a fuf^icient length of
ibaight fide at the top. The faeer is regular along the
ftraight fide, and more elevated towards the ends. The gun-
wale fixed to the outfide is three inches thick. The fides, from
the underpart of the gunwale, along the whole length of
the regular ftieer, extending twenty-one feet fix inches, are
cafed with layers of cork, to the depth of fixtecn inches
downwards; and the thicknefs of this cafing of cork being
four inches, it projcifts at the top a little \^■ithout the gun-
wale. The coik, on the outfide, is fecured with thin plates
or flips of copper, and the boat is fattened with copper
nails. The thwarts, or feats, are five in number, double-
banliccl ; confequently the boat may be rowed with ten oars.
The thwaits are firmly ftanchioned. The fide oars are fhort,
with iron tholes and rope grommtts, fo that the rower can
pull either way. The boat is fteered with an oar at each
end ; and the fteering oar is one third longer than the rowing
oar. The platform placed at the bottom, within the boat,
is horizontal, the length of the midfliips, and elevated at
the ends, for the convenience of the fteerfman, to give him
a greater power with the oar. The internal part of the
boat next the fides, from the under part of the thwarts
down to the platform, is cafed with cork ; the whole quan-
tity of which, affixed to the life-boat, is nearly feven hun-
dred weight. The cork indifputably contributes much to
the buoyancy of tlie boat, is a good defence in going
along-fide a veflel, and is of principal ufe in keeping the
boat in an ereft pofition in the fea, or rather for givnig her
a very lively and quick difpofition to recover from any fud-
den cant or lurch, which fhe may receive from the ftroke of
a heavy wave. But, exclufively of the cork, the admirable
conlb-uftion of this boat gives it a decided pre-eminence.
The ends being fimilar, the boat can be rowed either v. ay ;
and this peculiarity of form alleviates her in rifing over the
waves. The curvature of the keel and bottom facilitates
her movement in turning, and contributes to the eafe of the
fteerage, as a fingle ftroke of the fteering oar has an imme-
diate effeft, the boat moving as it were upon a centre.
The fine entrance below is of ule in dividing the waves,.
when rowing againft them ; and, combined with the con-
vexity of the bottom, and the elhptical form of the llem^
admits her to rife with wonderful buoyancy in a high
fea, and to launch forward with rapidity, without fhip-
ping any water, when a common boat would be in danger
of being filled. The flaunching or fpreading form of the
boat, from her floor-heads to the gunwale, gives her a confi-
derable bearing ; and the continuation of the breadth, well
forward, is a great fnpport to her in the fea ; and it has
been found by experience, that boats of this conftrufticn
are the beft fea boats for rowing againft turbulent waves.
The internal fhallownefs of the boat from the gunwale down
to the platform, the convexity of the form, and the bulk of
cork within, leave a very diminillied fpace for the water to
occupy ; fo that the life-boat, when filled with water, con-
tains a confiderable lefs quantity than the common boat,
and is in no danger either of finking or overturning. It
may be prefumed by fome, that in cafes of high wind,
agitated fea, and broken waves, a boat of fuch a bulk
could not prevail againft them by the force of oars ; but the
life-boat, from her peculiar fonn, may be rowed a-head,.
when the attempt in other boats would fail. Boats of the
common form, adapttd for fpecd, are of courfe put in mo-
tion with a fmall power; but, for want of buoyancy and
bearing, are over-run by the waves, and funk, when impelled
againft them ; and boats conlliuaed for burthen meet with
too much refinance from the wind and fea, when oppofed

to

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to tliem, and cannot in fuch cafes be rowed from the (hore
to a (hip in difticfs.

Ml-. Grcathead gives the following iuftrudtions far the
maiiaijement of the life-boat.

The boats, in general, of this defcription are painted
white on the oiitfide ; this colo^ir more immediately enjrag-
ing the eye of the fpeftator when riling from the hollow of
the fea, than any other. Tiie bottom of the boat is at tirll
varnilhed (which will take paint afterwards^ for the more
minute iiifptCtion of purehaf;rs. Tlic oars Ihc is equipped
with are made of fir, of the btd quality ; having found by
cxperiencf, that a rove afh oar, that will drefs clean and
light, is too pliant among the breakers ; and when made
llrong and heavy, from rowing double-banked, the purchafe
being Ihort, fooner exhaufts the rower, wlucli makes the
fir oar, when made ftift", more preferable.

In the management of the boat ihe requires twelve men to
work her : that is, five men on each fide rowing double-
banked, with an oar flung over an iron thole, with a grom-
rr.et (as provided), fo as to enable the rower to pull either
way, and one man at each end to (leer her, and to be ready
at the oppofite end to take the lleer-oar, when wanted.
As, from the conftriiftion of the boat, (he is always in a
pofition to be rov.'ed either way, without turning the boat ;
when rcanned, the perfon who (leers her (hould be well
acquainted witli the courfe of the tides, in order to take
ev^'i-y pcjffible advantage : the bell method, if t';o direflion
viU admit of it, is-to head the fea. The (leerfman (hould
ke;p his eye fixed upon the wave or breaker, and encourage
the rowers to give way, as the boat rifes to it ; being then
aided by the force of the oars, (he launches over it with vail
rapidity, without fiiipping any water. It is necefHuy toob-
ferve, that there is often a (Irong reflux of fea occafioned by
the ftranded wrecks, which requires both difpatch and care in
the people employed, that the boat be not damaged. When
the wreck is reached, if the wind blows to the land, the
boat will come in (hore without any other effort than (leering.
The following additional obfervations and inilrudlions are
given by Mr. Hinderwell of Scarborough.

The life-boat at Scarborough is under the direilion of a
committee. Twei:ty-fonr filhermen, cempo(ing two crews,
are alternately employed to navigate her. A reward, in
cafes of fnipwreck, is paid by the committee to each man
aftunlly engaged in the affiilance ; and it is expccled the
velTel receiving alhilance fhould contribute to defray this
cxpence. None have hitherto refufed.

It is of importance chat the command of the boat fhould be
cntrulled to fomefteady experienced perfon, who is acquainted
with the direction of tlie tides or currents, as much (kill may
be required in rifing them to the moll advantage, in going to
a (hip in diilrefs. It (hould alfo be lecommendtd, to keep
the head of the boat to the fea, as much as circumllances
will admit ; and to give her an accelerated velocity to meet
the wave, much exertion is neceffary in approaching a wreck,
on account of the (Irong reflux of the waves, which is fome-
times atte;!ded with great danger. In a general way, it is
fafcil to go on the Ice quarter ; but this depends on the po-
fition of the veffcl ; and the mailer of the boat (hould exercife
his (Ivill in placing her in the moil convenient fituation.
The boatmen (liould pratlife themfelves in the ufe of the
boat, that they may be tiie better acquainted with her
movements ; and they (hould at all times be (Iriclly obe-
dient to the dircclions of tlie perfon who is appointed to
the command.

P/a'e II. of Boats contains a perfpeftive -.ricw of the life-
boat rifing over a heavy furge, and going out to the affift-
ance of a fliip, which appeais in the horizon in dith-els. In
Vol. IV.

BOA

the life-boat are ten rowers pulling to get 'to the flilp. At
the lower end of the boat, a man is (leering her with along
oar towards the (hip ; and another perfon is llationed with
an oar at the higher end, to (leer the boat on her return ;
both ends of the boat being formed alike, in order to ufe
cither at pleafure in going to or coming from the (hip. The
(heer, or curve of the boat, rifing confiderably from the middle
to the (lems, or ends, is clearly difiinguilhcd ; alio the coating
of cork, fecured by (lips of copper along the outfide of the
boat, near the p:!rt where the rowers are fcattd.

As every thing relating to this important invention mud be
interefting to the public, it is, therefore, prefuir.ed the follow--
ing additional intormation will not be unacceptable, efpecially
as It contains the ilrongeft evidence of the great utility of this
boat.

Tiie life-boat having been fubmitted to a teft of twelve
years' experience, during whieli period Mr. Greathcad facri-
ficed a very confiderable portion of his time in furnilhing
plans, and otherwife rendering the invention as extenfively
ufefnl as he could ; on the 2jth of February 1802, he pre-
fented a petition to the lioufe ot coamioiip, the prayer of
which was as follows :

" Your petitioner having been inftrumental in favinT the
lives of fo many perfons ; the utility of the boat being now
edablilhed ; and your petitioner having derived little or no
pecuniary advantage whatever from the invention, his models
having been made pubiic ; hnrobly liopes, that this honour-
able houfe will take his cafe into their confideration, and
grant your petitioner fuch reward as to this honourable
houfe (hall feem meet. Sec."

The petition, having been recommended by his majefly,
was referred to the confideration of a committee ; from
whofe repoit the following is a brief abllradt.

" It appeared to your committee to be neceffary to direft
their inquiries particularly to the three following fubjeds.
" I ft. The utility of the lifc-bo.:t.

" r.dly. The originahty of the invention claimed by Mr.
Grcatheiid.

" jjdly. Whether he had received any, and what remune-
ration.

" And in order to afcertain thefe fadls, your committee
proceeded to examine,

" Ralph HiUery, a feaman, who (lated. that he had been
forty-five years at fea, in the Greenland and coal trade, and
has refidcd ahvays at Shields. About three years ago, he
was in the Northumberland life-boat, v.hich was prefented
to North Shields by the duke of Northumberland, the fiift
time (he went off, which was to the relief of the (loop Edin-
burgh. This veffel was feen to go upon the Herd finds,
about a mile and a half from (here ; (he was brought to ao
anchor before the hfe-boat got to her, and (lie continued
ftriking the ground fo heavily, that flie would not have held
together ten minutes longer, had they nut got to her ; they
made her cut her cable, and then took (even men out of
her, and brought them on fiiore. The fea at that time was
monftroufly idgh, fo high that no other boat whatever could
have lived in it.

" He was then afl<;ed, whether he had been out in. the
life boat on any other occafion ?.to v.-hich lie replied, that he
had been five times out in lier to the relief of different (liips;
from one (hip they faved fifteen men ; and in every inftance
when he, the witrefs, was in the boat, ihey faved the whole
of the crews of the wrecked (hips. Befidcs the times he has
been himfelf in the boat, he has feen her go off fcores of
times, and never faw her fail in bringing off fuch of the
crews ae flayed by the (hips. But many times part of the
crews of the veffcls wrecked have taken to their owa boats,
4 Q_ aiii

BOA

and have been drowned by the bonts' upfetting ; whilft the
remainder of t'le crews that continued on board have been
faved by the lite-boat. And the witncfs declared his con-
• viftion, that no other boat that ever he faw could have
gone from the fliore, and favcd the crews, at the times the
life-boat went.

" He ttattd, that in the event of the life-boat filling with
water, fhe would continue ftill upright, and would not
founder, as boats of a common conltrudion do. That about
two months ago, he faw her come on (hore with a fhip's
crew, bcfides her own crew, fo full of water, that it ran
over each lide ; the fca had broken fi/veral of her oars ; and
he believes, that no boat of any other conllruftion could
have brought the crew on iliore fo filled with water,

BOA

been invented ? he anfwered, the curvature of tlie keel, and
the flaunchiiig fides, which render it almoll impoffible to be
upfet. When this boat was afloat and full of water, the
men ;ill went to one fide of the boat, in order to try the
poffibility of upfetting her, which they could not effcci.

" Mr. Thomas Htnderwell, of Scarborough, (hip-owner,
ft-ited, that the peculiar nature of the curvature of the keel
of this boat is the fo',:ndi'tion and balis of its excell-jnce. it
regulates, in a great mtafure, the flieer with elevation to-
wards the ends. Tliis conftruftion fpieiids and repels the
water in every direftion, and enables her to afcend and de-
fcend with great facility over the breakers. The ends being
reduced regularly from the centre to lefs than one-third
proportion of the midrtiips, both ends are lighter than the

the Velocity of 59 tons, riding at anchor on Tynemouth
bar, amongft the broken water, when the fhip Planter was
driven on fhore by the violence of the gale, about one hun-
dred yards from the Velocity ; the life-boat came off and

the convejiity of the keel and the flreer at the top, leaves fo
fmall a fpace for the water to occupy, that the boat,
though filled wirit water, is in no danger of finking or up-
fetting. Tht? buoyancy of the boat, when tilled with water.

took fifteen perfons out of the Planter; and they had is alfo aflilled by the cork being placed above the water,
fcarcely quitted the fliip, when (he went to pieces; they line.

muil all othervvife have inevitably periflied, as the wreck " Mr. Samuel Plumb, of Lower Shadwell, defcribed him-

came on (hore almoft as foon as the life-boat. He con- felf to have been bred to the fea, and to have afted in the
ccived, that no boat of a common conftruftion could have capacity of mafter of a fhip from 1777 until within thefe
given relief at that time. There were feveral other vefTels in eighteen months ; that he had been chiefly employed in the
the fame fituation with the Planter, namely, the Gatelhead, coal and Baltic trades, and had rcfided at Shields the whole
the Mary, and the Beaver, befides a (loop, whofe name the of his life till within the lall five years. He is acquainted
witnefs does not know. The crew of the Gatefliead, being with the Shields' life-boats ; and from every information he
nine in number, took to their own boat, which funk, and had received, Mr. Greathead has been univerfally confidered
feven of them were loft ; the other two faved themfelves by as the inventor of them.

ropes thrown from the Mary. After the life-boat had " He went out in one of them to the relief of a fliip,
landed the crew of the Planter, (lie went off fucceffively to which was wrecked on the coaft near the mouth of the
the other veffels, and brought the whole of their crews fafe Tyne. The firft time they reached the wreck, the rope,
on lliore, together with the two perfons who had efcaped which they threw from the wreck to the life-boat, broke,
from the boat of the Gatelhead. He has feen the life-boat and the boat was drifted to the northward by the violence
go to the affiftance of other vefl'cis at different times, and llie of the wind and ftrong current of the tide ; they then landed,
always fucceeded in bringing the clews on {hore. _ and by two horfes dragged the boat along the fand to the

" The witnefs has ftveral times obferved her to come on foathward, and then launched her again through the break-
(hore full of water, and always fafe. ers to the veffcl. In the fecond attempt they fucceeded in

" Captain Gilfred Lawfon Reed, an elder brother of bringing the crew on (hore. The witnefs never faw any
the Trinity-houfe, ftated, that he had been bred to the fea, other boat in which he would have ventured to the relief of
and had been a member of the Trinity-houfe feventeen years, the crew, or which he thinks could have executed the pur-
He had the management of the life-boat at LoweftofFe, par- pofe of faving them.

ticularly laft year, where he was requcfted by the fubfcribers " Mr. WiUiam Mafterman, of South Shields, (hip-owner,
to make any improvement he thought necefTary. She was was one of the original committee that ordered the life-
built exadly upon Mr. Greathead's plan, correfponding boat at South Shields in 17S9. He corroborated the
with the model before the committee. Havmg fitted her evidence given by captain William Carter ; and ftated, that
for fervice as far as he thought proper, he was requefted by from the fituation of his refidence, he has feen the perform-
a number of the fubfcribers to launch this life-boat ; he ance of the life-boat more frequently than probably any
took an opportunity, when the fea fell very heavy on the other of the committee at South Shields, and has frequently
beach, and launched her in the prefenee of at lead two hun- feen and afTifted in the launching of the life -boat from the
dred fpeiftators. Twenty-four men jumped into her ; and beach into the fea during a llorm. That this is done with
when (he firft mounted the waves, the fpeftators with one the affiftance of low wlicds, or what may be called rollers,
voice exprelfed their aftonifliment. He had given the men upon which fhe is dragged to the water's edge, and by
orders to crofs a (hoal, that lay about a mile and a half from means of hands proportioned to the weight of the boat,
the (hore, upon which the fea broke very heavily ; by fome fhe can be launched with as much eafe as any other boat,
miftake one of the plugs was left out of the bottom, and (lie He remembers the inflance ftated by Mr. Samuel Plumb, in
filled with water before (lie got to the (lioai, which obliged which the life-boat, being drifted to the northward by a
the men to return immediately, and (he brought the tv/enty- rt.-ong tide, was landed, and again launched to the fouth-
four men fafe to (hore, though when (he gained the (hore, (lie ward, oppofite to the wreck, and in the' face of a very heavy
was full of water to the gun-wale and midfliips ; yet by her fea. When the Gatelhead, Planter, and other (hips were
ftieer one-third of her at each end was out of the water. wrecked, it was firft difeovered that the life-boat could att

" Being allied, wherein he confidered the fupcriority of with perfeft fafcty athzuart the fea ; and fince that time, the
the life-boat coufifts over any other boat that has hitherto boat has beefi rowed athwart fea, or otherwife, indillercntlv,

3 ' as

BOA

as the objeA to be relieved required it ; and that (he goes
with the fame fafety from one objeft to another, in a broken
fea, as an ordinary boat would pafs from one (hip to another
in a fmooth fea. He is confident, fince the eftablifliment of
the life -boat, that there have been at lead 300 perfons
brought on fnore from fhips in diftrefs, and wrecks off ShieldG,
the greatell part of whom miift otherwife have periflied.
And the witiicfs added, that it was his opinion, founded
upon experience and the obfervations he had been enabled
to make, that no fea, however high, could overfet or fink
the life-boat."

The originality of Mr. Greathead's invention is there
proved by proper certificates and atteftatioiis ; and the
remuneration that he had received, over and above a prolit
of from ten to fifteen pounds each, upon building a few
boats, are ifated to be.

From the Literary and Philofophical Society of New-
caftle, five guineas.

Royal Humane Society, a medallion.

Corporation of the Trinity H.mfe, loo guineas.

Society of Arts, a gold medallion and 50 guineas.

The voteof parUament, on the 3d of June, in confequence
of the foregoing report, was, " That a fum not exceeding
1 20c pounds be granted to his majc-fty, to be paid to Henr)'
Greathead, of South Shields, in the county of Durham,
boat-builder, as a reward for his invention of the life-boat,
whereby many hveshave already been faved, and great fccu-
ritv is afforded to feamen aiid property in cafes of fhip-
wreck."

The fubfcribers at Lloyd's, on the 20th of May, voted to
Mr. Greathead the fum of loo guineas, " as an acknow-
ledgment of his talents and exertions in inventing and build-
ing a life-boat," and 2000 pounds " for the purpofe of en-
couraging the building of life-boats on different parts of the
coafts of thefe kingdoms."

At the beginning of 1S04, Mr. Greathead received a
very valuable diamond ring from the emperor of Ruffia,
whofe munificence to ingenious men of all countries is vrell
known.

The following extraft from the Tyne Mercui-y of the
29th November iSoj, is another proof of the great utility
of the hfe-boat.

The Bee of Shields, John Houfton mailer, having put to
fea (21ft Nov.) in an ealterly wind, had not proceeded far,
when it began to blow ftrong from the fouth-eaft, which
obliged him a few hours after to put back. In taking
Tynemouth bar at the laft quarter ebb, in a verj' heavy fea,
file ftruck the ground, and unfhipped her rudder. Being
now completely unmanageable, (he drifted towards the
north fide of the bar, and at length drove on the Black
Middens. They who have witneffed the tremendous fea
which breaks on the north-eaft part of this harbour, in a
fouth-eafterly wind, may form a conception of the dreadful
fituation in which the crew of the veflel were fituated. In
the midft of rocks, where the fea runs mountains high, fo as
fiequently to obfcure the Ihip, and where any vefTel might
be expefted immediately to go to pieces ; their only refuge
from being fwept into the gulf, was to climb up into the
(hrouds, which the captain, with fix men and boys, being
the v/hole crew, inftantly effcfted. The dangerous fituation
in whicn they were placed, immediately attracted an im-
menfe number of fpectators from both North and South
Shields. The fhores in everj' dircftion were hned with
people, who expreffed, by their anxious looks, the moft fym-
pathetic apprehenfions for their fafety. The making ufe
of the life -boat v.-as by moil people thought impoffible ;
and at all events, the attempt was attended with extreme dan-

BOA

gf, owing to the tremendous fea, and the immenfe rockis
which lay where the veffel was ftranded. So confident,
however, was Mr. Greathead, the inventor, of the life -boat
being able to live in any fea, if properly navigated, that he,
without hefitation, and with the greateft alertnefs, volun-
teered his fervices to bring off the men from the brig.
This intrepid offer operated like eleflricity among the
failors ; and immediately the Northumberland life-boat was
launched, and manned with Mr. Greathead and South
Shields pilots. In the courfe of a few minutes they reached
the veffel, without much difBculty, and picked off the men
from the ihrouds (hivering with cold, and almoft periflied
by fatigue. One man, in making too much haile to enter
the boat, fell into the breakers, but was immediately re-
covered. When the whole crew was in the boat, they
rowed towards the fhore, and in lefs than an hour from the
time the boat was launched, did they return in fafety to
South Shields, without a fingle accident !

Upon the ill of Augull 1777, fome trials were made on
a boat, or {loop fit for inland navigation, coafting voyages,
and (hort paffages by fea, which is not, like ordinary veffels,
liable to be overfet or funk by winds, waves, water-fpouts,
or too heavy a load, contrived and conftruftcd by Mon-
Ceur Bernieres, director of the bridges and caufeways in
France, &c. at the gate of the invalids in Paris, in the pre-
fence of the provoll of the merchants, of the body of the
town, and of a numerous concourie of fpeftators of all con-
ditions.

Thefe experiments were made in the way of comparifon
with another common boat of the fame place, and of equal
fize. Both boats had been built ten years, and their ex-
terior forms appeared to be exadlly fimilar. The common
boat contained only eight men, who rocked it and made it
incUne fo much to one fide, that ic prefently filled with
water, and funk ; fo that the men were obhged to fave
themfelves by fwimming ; a thing common in all veffels of
the fame kind, either from the imprudence of thofe who
are in them, the ftrength of the waves or wind, a vio-
lent or unexpefted (hock, their being overloaded, or over-
powered any other way.

The fame men who had iuft efcaped the boat which
funk, got into the boat of M. Bernieres ; rocked and filled
it, as they had done the other, with water. But, inftead of
finking to the bottom, though brim-full, it bore being
rowed about the river, loaded as it was with men and water,
without any danger to the people in it.

M. Bernieres carried the trial ftill farther. He ordered
a mad to be erected in this fame boat, when filled with
water ; and to the top of the maft had a rope faftened,
and drawn till the end of the maft touched the furface of the
river, fo that the boat v/as entirely on one fide, a pofition
into which neither winds nor waves could bring her ; yet, as
foon as the men, who had hauled her into this fituation, let
go the rope, the boat and maft recovered themfelves per-
feftly in lefs than the quarter of a fecond ; a convincing
proof that the boat could neither be funk nor overturned,
and that it afforded the greateft poffible fecurity in every
way. Thefe experiments appeared to give the greater
pleafure to the public, as the advantages of the difcovery
are not only fo fenfible, but of the firft importance to man-
kind.

Marnois boats, fo called from being employed on the river
Marne in France. They are flat, and carry wine, corn,
timber, &c. from the province of Champaigne.

Ncrivay boat, or yawl, is fharp at both ends, and of va-
rious dimenfions. This boat, from its conftruclion, is ad-
mirably adapted for enduring a high fea, and will often ven-
4 Qji ture

BOA

tore out to a great didancc from the land, when fome foips
can fcarccly carry any fail.

Piihlc, a boat of the Society iflands ; it is bovv-fided, and
fliarp-bottomed. The pahie, according to captain Cook,
is of different fizes, from thirty to fixty feet long, but like
the ivahah, is very narrow. One that was mcafnred was fifty-
one feet long, and only one foot and an half wide at the
top ; in the widell part it was about three feet, and this is
the general proportion. It does not, however, widen by a
gradual I'lVcll, but the fides being ilraight and parallel for a
little way btlow the gunwale, it fwcUa abruptly, and dravvs
to a ridge in the bottom ; fo that a tranfverfe fecnon of it
has fomewhat the appearanee of the mark upon cards,
called a fpade, the whole being much wider in proportion to
its length. Thife, like the largeil ivahahs, are ufcd for
fighting, but principally for long voyages. The fighting
pahie, which is the largeil, is fitted with the ftage or plat-
form, which is proportionably larger than thofe of the
ivahah, as their form enables them to fuftain a much greater
weight. Thofe that are ufed for failing are double, and thofe
of the middle fize are faid to be thf bell fea-boats. They are
fometimes out a month together, going from ifland to ifland,
and fometimes, as is credibly reported, thjy are not unfre-
quently a fortnight, or twenty days at lea, and could keep
it longer, if they had more (lowage for provifions, and con-
veniences to hold frelh water.

When any of ihefe boats casTy fail fingle, they make ufe
of a log of wood which is fallened to the end of two poles
that lie acrofs the veffel, and projeft from fix to ten feet,
according to the fize of the veffel, beyond its fide ; fome-
what hke what is ufed by the flying proa of the Ladrone
iflands, and called, in the account of lord Anfou's voyage,
an Outrigger ; to which the iTirouds are fallened.

Some of them have one malt, and others tv.'o ; they are
made of a fingle ftick ; and when the length of the canoe
is 30 feet, that of the mad is fomewhat lefs than 25 feet ; it
is fixed to the frame that is above the canoe, and receives a
fail of matting about one-third longer than itfelf ; the fail
is pointed at the top, fquare at the bottom, and curved at
the fide, fomewhat refembling what is called a (houlder of
mutton fail, and ufed for boats belonging to men of war ;
it is placed in a frame of wood, which furrounds it
on every fide, and has no contrivance cither for reefing
or furling, fo that if either fhould become neceflary, it muft
be cut away, which, however, in thefe climates, can feldom
happen. To the top of the mad are fallened ornaments of
feathers, which are placed inclining obliquely forwards,
the (liape and pofition of which will be conceived at once
from the figure in l\\e plate of Boats.

The oars or paddles that are ufed with thefe boats, have
a long handle and flat blade, not unlike a baker's peel. Of
thefe, every pcrfon in the boat has one, except thofe that
fit under the awning, and they pufh her forward with them
at a good rate. Thefe boats, however, admit fo much
water at the feams, that one perfon at leail is continually
employed in throwing it out. The only thing in which
they excel is landing and putting off from the Ihore m a
furf ; by their great length, and high fterns, they cuuld
land every day, where the Englifh boats could fcarcely
Ijnd at all : they have alfo the fame advantages in putting
off by the height of the head.

The exaft dimenfions of a pahie, given from a careful
admeafurement, will fo very materially contribute to the
elucidation of the defcription fubfequently given, as to the
manner and particular form in which this clafs of canoes is
built, that they might perhaps enable an European draughtf-
4r.an, to conftriiA one fo nearly refembli'ig them as to

BOA

crMle fome diflicuky in pointing out the true from that
which was lietitious :

Feet, lnc)'€S.

Extreme length from Hem to ftern,
reckoning tlie bending up of either

not

5'
I

I

I

2

2
2

O
2

6
a
S
II
9

+
6

4
1 i

9
o

Ereadth in the clear of the top forward
Breadth in the midlhips
Breadth aft ...

— In the bilge forward
— In the midfliips ...
—Aft ....

Depth ill the m.idfliips - - ■ '

Height from the ground on which flic ftood 3
Height of the head from the ground with-
out, including that of the figure - 4
Height of the figure - - - o
Height of the Ikrn from the ground - 8
Height of the figure - - - 2
To illu Urate the defcription of the manner in which thefe
veffcls are built, it will be neccffary to refer to fig. 2.

Pifl'C II.

The firll ftage or keel under a a, is formed of a tree
hollowed out like a trough, for which the longell trees are
chofen that can be procured, fo that there are never mere
than three in the whole length ; the next llage under b b,
is formed of ftraight planks, about four feet long, fifteen
inches broad, and two inches thick ; the third ftage under
c c, is like the bottom, made of the trunks hollowed into
its bilging form ; the lall is alfo cut out of trunks, fo that
the moulding is of one piece with the upright. To form
thefe parts fcparately without faw, plane, chiffel, or any-
other iron tool, may vi-ell be thought no eafy tafli ; but the
great difficulty is to join them together.

When all the parts are prepared, the keel is laid upon
the blocks ; and the planks, being fupported by flanchions,
are fewed or clamped together with llrong thongs of plait-
ing. Thefe are paffed feveral times through holes that are
bored v>-ith a gauge or auger of bone, which performs its
office with tolerable exaftnefs ; and the nicety with which
this is done, may be inferred from their being fufficiently
water-tight for ufe without caulking. As the plaiting
foon rots in the water, it is renewed, at leafl, once a year,
in order to which the veffel is taken entirely to pieces ; the
head and ftern are rude, with refpefl to the defign, but very
neatly finiflied, and pohflied to the higheft degree.

Thefe pahies are kept with great care in a kind of houfe,
built on purpofe for their reception ; the houfes are formed
of poles let upright in the ground, the tops of which arc
drawn towards each other, and fallened together with thei?
ftiongeft cord, fo as to fonn a kind of Gothic arch, which is
completely thatched quite to the ground, being open only
at the ends : they are fometimes fifty or fixty paces long.

Peter-loat, a boat employed in the river Thames in fiftling.
They in general fail well, and are good fea boats.

Pleajure-loai, a veffel employed by gentlemen in excurfions,
upon the water, for their anmfement. Their fize and man-
ner of equipment are very various, being from a few tons
burthen, to upwards of two or three hundred tons, and hav-
ing on^' or more mafts.

Pojl-boats, are boats cftablilhed on the river Loire in
France, tor the convenience of the public. They are long in
refpeft to their breadth, and go very fart. There are alfa
fomv. oil the Rhone, which go from Lyons to Avignon \n
24 hours.

Proa; fee that article.

Pu:it, a fort of flat-bottomed boat, whofe floor refembles
the plaifoira of a floating ftage. It is ufed by the naval

artificers,

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artificers, either in caulking, breaming, or repairing the bot-
tom of a (hip.

Sampan, a Chinefe boat without a kec!, aopearing alrr.oft
like a trough ; they are made of different dimeiifious, but are
mo'.Uy covered. I'here are paifengcr fampans, to cany
people backward and forward, between the town aijd (hips.
Thefe boats are as long as (loops, but broader, almoft hke a
baking trough, and have, at the end, one or more decks,
made of bamboo-Hicks ; the cover, or roof, is alio made of
bamboo-dicks, arched over in the (hape of a grater, and may-
be raifed or lov-'cred at pleafure ; the fides are mad; of boards,
with little holes, and fnutters inftead of windov.s ; the boards
are faftencd on both fides to pods, which have notches like
fteps on the infide, that the roof may be let down, and reil on
them ; on both ends of jhe deck are commonly two little
doors, at leafl there is one at the ftem. A hne, white,
fmooth carpet, fpread i^p as far as the boards, makes the
floor, v>'hich, in the middle, confifts of loofe boards ; but this
cai-pet is only made ufe of to deep on. As thefe boats differ
frcmthofe of Europeans in fhape, they are likeivife rowed in
a different manner ; for two rowers, poding themfelves at the
back end of the fampan, work it forwards very readily by
the motion of two oars, and can almod turn the vefTcl jud
as they pleafe ; the oars, which are covered with a little hol-
low quadrangular iron, are laid on iron fwivels, which are
fadened in the fide of the fampan. At the iron the oars are
pieced, which makes them look a httie bent. In common,
a rower fits before with a ihort oar, but this he is forced to
lay afide when he comes near the city, on account of the great
throng of lampans ; and this inconvenience has confirmed the
Chinefe in their old way of rowing.

Sampans of burden are the largeft boats, by which all
porcelain, filk, and other commodities, are conveyed from
Canton to the European fhips. But thefe boats do not ferve
for the above-mentioned purpofes only, but are ufed, btfides,
as houfes for whole families, which are born, marry, and die
in them. They commonly have, beCdes, hogs, fome chickens
and dogs, and fome flower-pots, containing Guinea pepper,
or fome other plants, in thefe boats.

Duck fampans, are boats in which they feed four or five
hundred ducks. They have on both fides a bridge, which
may be let down. In the day-time the ducks feed in the
river upon herbs and fifh ; at night their mader calls them
into his boat ; they immediately obey him, and come on board
as foon as he lets down his bridge.

Fifulng fampans, are the fmalled of all, narrow, like fome
European fifhmg boats, and have either a very fn-.all deck of
flraw, or bamboo, or are even without that poor convenience.
Bad as thefe boats are, yet parents, and their naked children,
are feen to get their livelihood in them, both fummerand win-
ter,by fifhing, and picking up whathasbeen thrown overboard
from other veffels. For this purpofe they tie feveral hooks
to a cord, and throw them out in different places, almod in
the fame manner as fifhermen lay their eel-hooks. They
have better or worfc fortune, as it happens. There is no-
thing fo filthy but what thefe people will ufe as food ; and
the hogs, which having died are thrown overboard, when they
begin to putrefy, float in a few days, and often become the
occafion of quarrels, which end in battles. The reafon why
the Europeans fink the hogs, which die on board their fhips,
is, that the inhabitants of this place may not fall upon them ;
for it is faid that the Chinefe, when they go on board any
fhips, will give pepper to the hogs, which they think is poi-
fon to them., that they may get them again if they fhould die.
It is certain, that numbers of hogs die in poflefEon of the
Xuropeans whilft t^ey day in China.

3

Miinilarln's fampars are greater or lefs red-painted boats,
ornamented with dragons, and fuch like figures, or with
little flags.

The Stage-boats, called in French, bateaux coches, and
more commonly cochci-d'eau, water coaches, are large
covered veffcls, which ferve, particularly on the river Seine,
for the conveniency of travellers, and for carrying all forts of
merchandizes. The names of them are the paffage-boat, or
water coach of Sens, of Auxerre, of Montereau, and of Fon-
tairihleau, or Valvin.

Tilt-boat, one with a cover, to defend the paffengers from
rain, &c.

TraS-boal, a boat employed in a canal in conveying
paffengers, &c. from one place to another. This mode of
traveUing, though not expeditious, is indeed very pleafant,
and certainly much cheaper than by any land carriage. From
Grangemouth to Port Dundas, a didance of nearly 30 miles,
the fare is only one (hilling, or eighteen pence.

J'/al-hoat, a boat having a well in the bottom, to preferve
fifh alive.

A Wherry is a light (harp boat, ufed in a river or harbour,
for carr)'ing paffengers from place to place.

The boats, or wherries, allowed to ply on the Thames
about London, are eiXhtrJhuUers, wrought by a fingle per-
fon with two oars ; or oars, wrought by two or more per-
fons, with each an oar.

The following are fome of the terms ufed in the manage-
ment of a boat.

Bale the boat, is to throw out the water which remains in
her bottom, or the well-room. See Baile.

Fend the boat, to fave her from beating againft the (hip's
fides.

Man the boat, an order to thofe appointed to manage her
to go on board the boat immediately.

Moor the boat, the order to faden a boat with two ropes,
fo as that the one fhall counteract the other.

Trim the boat, the order to fit in the boat in fuch a manner
as that die ftiall float upright in the water, without leaning
to either lide.

IFind the boat, the order to bring her head the other way.

The boat's gang, includes thofe who are employed for
rowing in the boat ; fuch as the cockfwain and his gang, to
whom the charge of the boat immediately belongs.

A bold-boat is that which will endure a rough fea well.

To prefer-ue boats from foundering at fea ivhen Jljips founder.
Take any mad, yard, boom. Sec. that may be found floating
from the diip ; the longer the better ; make fad to each end of
the boom a rope about twice its length ; and bend one end of
another rope, about ten fathoms long, exactly in the middle
of the fpan, and the other end is to be made fad to the fore-
part of the boat, fo that fhe may drive dera on to the fea.
When this misfortune happens far from land, and the domi
ceafes, in moderate weather the drift boom may be towed
end on to the boat's ilern, that they may either row or fail
towards land.

Mr. Hutchinfon, in his treatife on praftical feamanfhip,
gives an account of a boat being preferved by this method,
as follows. The Bafil, in herpaffage from the Well Indies,
took up ten men in a fmall boat, twelve feet long, which
was preferved from foundering after the veffel had foundered,
by having a rope fad to a log of wood, as they called it, and
tied to the boat's bow, which kept her to drive end on with
the head to the waves, and broke their violence fo much as to
preferve her from filhng with water, when one half of them
was obhgcd to he down in the bottom of the boat, to pre-
vent her being top-heavy. By particular inquiry of the

maiiex-

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mnfter and mate of the Bafil, Mr. Hutchlnfoii was informed,
that thofe people belonged to a fchooner bound from Ber-
Buidas to the Weft Indies ; that it was after a hard gale of
wind when they met with the boat, which had two oars for
mafts, and two blankets fet upon them for fails, and was
ftcering for Bermudas, when they were fortunately taken up ;
and that the log of wood, as it was called, they drove by,
was riieir fore fquare-fail-yard, fpanned with a rope to each
jtprd-arm, and a rope about ten or twelve fathoms long bent
to the middle of the fpan, and made fall to the boat's bow,
to drive by. The mate of the fchooner told the mailer of
the Balil, that they had been favtd in this manner in a boat
once before, by driving to leeward of a mall, in a hurricane
in t'he Weft Indies.

In order to account for this wonderful effeft of the drift-
boom, in preventing the broken water from fwamping the
boat, it may be obfcrved, fays Mr. Hutchinfon, that waves
never break till their tops are forced forwards by their great
velocity beyond the perpendicular of their bafe ; then that
water falls down forward, and inclofes and compreffes
a quantity of air, which, by the power of its elafticity, blows
this fore-part of the waves to pieces, forwards and upwards,
in an oblique direflion, and makes it appear like froth.
They then have no buoyant power to lift a boat ; but when
they are high, they fill and fink her. And they break more
in (hoal water than in deep, in proportion as their bottoms
or bafe are more obftruftcd in their velocity by the ground
than their tops ; hence, in very fiioal water, they are conti-
nu-ally breaking, fo that they make nothing but what is
called broken water, by which ftioals may be feen and known
at a great diftance in cleai' weather.

If we endeavour to account for the wonderful effedl of fo
fmall and fimple a machine, to pi-tferve fuch a fmall boat,
deeply laden as file mutt be with ten men, from being filled
with water in fuch a ftorm ; in our opinion, it is owing to
the boat driving end on by the drift boom, that keeps it al-
ways fwimming on the fnrface, broadfide to the wind ; and
the waves that are running towards it, within the length of
the drift boom, mull certainly obftruft the velocity of the
tipper part of thefe waves, fo as to Icffen their increafe in
height, and prevent the top from running beyond the per-
pendicular of the bafe, or bottom of thefe waves, that occa-
fions their breaking, as has been defcribed, but fpend them-
felves without breaking. Thefe reafons, we hope, will be
thought fufficient to recommend this method to be tried and
brought into practice on fuch dreadful occafions : and we can-
not help thinking, that the fame method {hould be tried,
when under the dreadful neceflity of faving lives by boats
landing on a lee ftiore in a ftorm, where broken waves run
high. The only difference we would recommend in the ma-
nagement, is to proceed with the boat's ftern to the drift
boom, and her head to the Ihore, to be ready to row and
fteer for the beft apparent landing-place ; and if it is a long-
flat ftiore, as foon as the boat (hikes the ground, cut or flip
the drift boom rope, that it may not haul the boat off the
ftiore again by the back fweep of the waves.

Upon landing a boat in a J'nrf. Before the boat comes
near the fhore, pour a little oil on the water, which will pre-
vent its breaking, and greatly allay the fwell, fo that the boat
may approach the fhore without the dread of being fwallowed
up in the breakers.

M. Danzcl has lately invented an hydraulic machine for
making a ftiip or boat advance during a calm, and even
againft a current.

The mechanifm of this machine is very fimple ; it confifts
of a long pole, to the anterior extremity of which an appa-

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ratus, fliaped like a drawer without back or front is at-
tached in fuch a manner, that when puflied forwards it folds
itfelf back under the pole, to which it (as it were) adheres,
and prefents to the water the thin cutting furface of its
three edges, viz. of the bottom and two fides, v/hich can
neither oppofe to the water a refiftance capable of prevent-
ing the pole from penetrating farther, or of making the ftiip
recede. When the pole, which is pufiied forwards from the
veffel, has attained to its full reach, the drawer, as foon as
the pole is pulled back, alfumes a vertical pofition, and pre-
fents to the water its whole cavity. By thefe means it em-
braces a column of water, which, without finding means to
efcape, preffes on a furface much larger than that of a com-
mon oar, and keeps the drawer immoveable ; fo that thofe
who draw the pole towards them, iuftead of making the
veflel to recede, caufe it to advance. This machine, which
may be multiplied more conveniently than oars, has this
vifible advantage over the latter, that it oppofes to the wa-
ter a refiftance infinitely fuperior, while the paflive re-adtiori
of this refiftance renders the labour of the mariners lefs la-
borious End more effeftual.

De Chales propofes the conftruftion of a boat, which,
what burden foever it bear, (hall not only move again 11 the
current, without either fails or oars, but alfo advance fo much
the fafter, as the rapidity of the water is greater. Its make
is the fame with that of the others, excepting only a wheel
added to its fide, with a cord, which winds round a roller as
faft as the wheel turns.

Something of the like kind has alfo been fince done by
M. Pitot. Vide Mem. Acad. R. Scienc. an. 1729. p. 35y,
and p. 540.

M. de la Hire has given us an examination of the force
neceflary to move boats, both in ftagnantand running water,
either with ropes faftened to them, or with oars, or with any
other machine : wherein he Ihews, that the larger the fur-
face of the oars plunged in the water, and the imaller that
of the boat prefented to the water, is ; and again, the
longer that part of the oar between the hand and the places
where the oar refts on the boat, and the ftiorter that between
this lail point and the water ; the freer will the boat move,
and the greater effecl will the oar have. See Oar.

Hence it ;s eafy to calculate the force of any machine that
ftiall be applied to rowing ; v. gr. if we know the abfolute
force of all the men who row, it muft be changed into a
relative force, according to the proportion of the two parts
of the oar ; i. e. if the part out of the veffel be double the
other, and all the men together can aft with the force of
900 pounds, we compute firft, that they will exert ,300 ;
vi'hich 300, multiplied by the furface which the velfcl pre-
fents to the water, gives a folid water of a certain weight ;
which weight may be found, and of confequence the veloci-
ty imprefled on the velfel by the oars. Or, the velocity of
the oars may be found in the fame manner, by multiplying
the 300 pounds by the furface of all tlie parts of the oars
plunged in the water. Nor would there be any difficulty
in finding firft the relative forces, then the abfolute ones ;
the velocities either of the oars, or of the veffel, being given,
or the proportion of the two parts of the oar.

Boats fail more flowly and heavily over ftiallow than over
deep waters. See an account of experiments for explaining
this, in Dr. Franklin's Letter to St. John Pringle. E-t-
periments, &c. 410. 5th ed. p. 510.

Boats, Conjlruaion of. In order to illuftrate this by an
example, let it be required to lay down the feveral plans ofa
long boat, the extreme length being 3 1 feet, and breadth
moulded 9 feet.

Draw

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Draw theftraight line VO,Jg. i. Pftrtel. {Ship liiMMg)
eqvial to 31 feet, tht extrtrnie lcnj(th of tlie bo;it, and alio
to reprefent the upper edge pf the keel. Let © be the
ftation of the midfhip frame. From the points P, 0, and
O, draw the lines PT, ©M, and OS, perpendicular to PO.
Make ©M, ©N, equal to the upper and lower heights of
breadth refpedlively at the main fra:r.e, PT, the height of
breadth at the tranfom, and OS, the height at the liern.
Defcribe the curve IMS, to reprtlcnt the flieer, or extreme
height of the lide, which, in a fliip, would be called either
the upper height of breadth line, or the upper edge of the
wale. Through the point N draw a curve parallel to
TMS, to reprefent the breadth of the upper drake of a boat,
or lower edge of the wale, if in a fliip. The dotted liiie
TNS may alfo be drawn to reprefent the lower height of
breadth.

Set off the rake of the poft from P iop, and draw the line
pt, to reprefent the aft fide of the pofl ; then 'Yt will repre-
fent the round up of the tranfom. Set oif the breadth of
the poll from p to r, and from T to s, and draw the line rs
to reprefent the forefide of tl'.e poll, which may either be a
curve or a ftraight line at pleafure. Set up the height of the
tuck from/) to k. Let Lx be the thicknelo of the tranlom,
and draw the line Z .v to reprefent the fore fide of the
tranfom.

There is given the point S the height of the Iheer on
the forefide of the Item ; now that fide of the ftem is to
be formed either by fweeps, or fome other contrivance.
Set off the breadth of the ftem, and form the aft fide
of it.

Set up the dead-iifing from © to </, and form the rifing
line ris. Draw the line KL parallel to PO, to reprefent
the lower edge of the keel, and another to reprefent the
thicknefs of the plank or the rabbet. The rabbet on the
poft and ftem may alfo be reprefented ; and the ftalions of
the timbers affigned, as ©, ( i ), 1,2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; and
©, (A), A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H ; and the !heer plan will
be completed.

The half-breadth plan is to be formed next ; for this pur-
pofe the perpendiculars TP, 9, 8, Sic. mult be prodi.ced.
Upon M© produced fet off the half-breadth from the line
KL to R (Jig. 2.) : fet off alfo the half-breadth at the tran-
fom from K to i, and defcribe the extreme half-bread.h line
^RX, making the fore-part of the curve agreeable to the
propofed round of the harpin.

We may next proceed to form the timbers in the body
plan. Let AB fjig. 3.) be the breadth moulded at @.
Lrect the perpendicular CD in the middle of the line AB,
draw the line mn diftapt therefrom the half thicknefs of the
poft, and xy the half thicknefs of the ftem. Then take oft"
the feveral portions of the perpendiculars ©, 1, 2, Sec. inter-
cepted between the upper edge of the keel and the rifing
line in the llieer plan, and fet them up from C upon the line
CD; through thefe points draw lines parallel to AC ; take
off alfo the feveral lower heights of the breadth at @, I, z,
&c. frc m the Iheer ]j\^n ; and fet them up from C upon the
middle line in the body plan ; and draw hues parallel to AC,
through thefe points ; then take off the feveral halt-breadths
correfpondir.g to each from the fioor plan ; and fet them off
on their proper hall-breadth lines, from the middle line in the
body plan.

Conftruft the midftiip frame according to the directions
mentioned in that article, the form of which will in lome
meafurc determine the form of the reit. For if a mould be
made on any fide of the middle line to fit the curve part of
it, and the rifing line, or that marked tend mould, (Jig. 4.)
and laid in fuch a manner that the lower part of it, which is

ftraiglit, may be upon the feveral rifing lines, and the upper
part juit touch the point of the half-breadth in the breadth
line corrcfponding to that rifing upon which the mould is
placed, a curve may then be drawn by the mould to the rifing
line. In this manner we may proceed fo far as the rifing
line is parallel to the lovver heiglit of the breadth line. Then
a hollow mould muft be made, the upper end of which is left
ftraight, as that maiked holioiu mould (Jig. t^..). This is ap-
plied in fuch a manner, that tome part of the hollow may
touch the fide of the keel, and the ftraight part touch the
back of the curve before dcfcribed by the bend mould ; and
beginning abaft, the ftraight part will always come lovver on
every timber, till we arrive at the midfhip timber, when it
comes to the fide of the keel. Having thus formed the tim-
bers, as far as the whole mouldings will ferve, the timbers
abaft them are next formed. Their half-breadths are deter-
mined by the ftieer and floor plans, which are the only fixed
points through which the curves of thefe timbers muJl pafs.
Some form thefe after timbers before the whole is moulded,
and then make the hollow mould, which will be ftraighter
than the hollow of either of thefe timbers. It is indifferent
vrhich are firft formed, or what methods are ufed : for after
the timbers are all formed, though every timber may appear
very fair when confidered by itfelf, it is uncertain what the
form of the fide will be. In order to find which, we muft form
feveral ribband and water lines ; and if thefe do not make
fair curve?, they muft be reilified, and the timbers formed
from thefe ribband and water lines. In ufing the hollow
mould, when it is applied to the curve of each timber, if the
ftraight part is produced to the middie line, we ftiall have as
many points of interfeftion as there are timbers ; and if the
heights above the bafe be transferred to the corrcfponding
timbers in the fheer plan, a curve paffing through thefe
points is called a rifing Jlrait . This may be formed Ijy fixing
a point for the aftermoft timber that is whole moulded, and
transferring that height to the flieer plan. The curve mult
pafs through this point, and fall in with the rifing line fome-
where abaft dead-flat ; and if the feveral heights of this line
be transferred from the ftieer to the middle line in the body
plan, thefe points will regulate what is called the hauling
down of the hollow mould.

The timbers in the after-body being all formed, thofe in the
fore-body are formed in the fame manner, by transferring the
feveral heights of the rifing and breadth lines from the ftieer
to the body plan ; the half-breadths corrcfponding to each
height muft alfo be transferred from the floor to the body
plan. The fame hollow mould will ferve both for the fore
and after-body ; and the level lines, by which the water lines
to prove the after-body were formed, may be produced into
the fore-body, and by thefe the water lines to prove the fore-
body may be defcribed.

Another method of proving the body is by ribband lines,
which are formed by fedtions of planes inclined to the flieer
plan, and interlefting the body plan diagonally, as before ob-
ferved, of which there may be as many as may be judged ne-
ceffary. In this, four ribband lines are laid down, marked
diag. which are drawn in fuch a manner as to be perpendicular
to as many timbers as conveniently may be. After they are
drawn in the body plan, the feveral portions of the diagonal,
intercepted between the middle line and each timber, muft be
transferred to the floor plan. Thus, fix one foot of the com-
pais in the point where the diagonal interfeds the middle
line in the body plan, extend the other foot to the point
where the diagonal interfedts the timber, for example, timber
9. Set off the fame extent upon the perpendicular repre-
ienting tlie plane of timber 9, from the point where it inter-
fetts the line KL, on the floor plan ; in like maiiacr proceed

with

BOA

with all the other timbers, both in the fore and after-body,
anil we (hall have the points through which the curve mull
pafs. If this flio'.ild not prove a fair curve, it mult be al-
tered, obfirvinji to conform to the points, as ntaily as the
nature of the curve will admit ; and, therefore, it may be
carried within one point and without another, accorJiiig as
the timbers will allow. For after all the ribband liiics are
formed, the timbers muft, if ntccfrary, be altered by the rib-
band lines ; this is only the reveife of forming thcfe hnes ; for
taking the portions of the ftveral perpendicuhirs intercepted
between the line KL, and the curve of the ribband line in the
floor plan, and fetting them off upon the diagonal, from the
point wiiere it interfects the middle line, we (liall have th:
points in the diagonal through which the curves of the tim-
bers mull pafs. Thus the dillance between the line KL.,
and the ribband at timber 3, on the floor plan, when tranf-
ferrcd to the body plan, will extend on the diagonal from
the middle line to the point where the curve of timber 3 in-
terfefts that diagonal. The like may be faid of all the other
timbers ; and if ftveral ribband lines be formed, they may be
fo contrived that their diagonals in the body plan fiiall be
at fuch ditlances, that a point for every timber being given
in each diagonal, will be fuflicient to determine the form ot
all the timbers.

Ill llationing the timbers upon the keel, for a boat, there
muft be room for two futtocks in the fpace before, or abaft
© ; for which reafon the dillance between thele two timbers
will be as much more than that between the other, as the
timber is broad. Here it is between © and (A), which con-
tains the diftances between © and (i), and the breadth of
the timber befides.

Tile timbers being now formed, and proved by ribband and
water lines, proceed then to form the tranfom; fafliiou-pieces,
&c. ; fee thefe articles.

This metliod of whole moulding will not anfwer for the
long timbers afore and ab;ift. They are generally canted in
the fame manner as thofe for a Ihip. In order to render this
method more complete, we fliall here defcribe the manner of
nioolding the timbers after they are laid down in the mould
loft, by a r\f,ng fquare, lend, and holh'-jii mould.

It was (hewn before how to form the timbers by the bend
■and hollow moulds in the draught. The lame method mull be
ufed in the loft ; but the moulds muft be made to their proper
fcantliuL's in real feet and inches. Now, when they are let,
as before dircded, (or moulding each timber, let the middle
line in the body plan be drawn acrofs the bend mould, and
draw a line acrufs the hfUlow mould at the point where it
touches the upper edge of the keel ; and let them be marked
with the proper name of the timber, as in_yfy. 4. The gra-
duatio.is of the bend mould will therefore be e.xacTily the lame
as the narrowing of the breadth. Thus, the dillance between
© and 7 on the bt nd mould is equal to the difference be-
tween the half breadih of timber 7 and that of ®. The height
of ti'.e head of each timber is likewife marked on the bend
mould, and alfo the floor and breadth firmarks. The floor
firmark is in that point where a ftraight edged batten touches
the back of tl;e btnd mould, the batten being fo placed as
to touch the lower edge of the keel at the fame time. The
fevcral rifings rf the floor, and heights of the cutting-down
line are m;irked on the rifmg fquare ; and the half-breadth of
the keel fet olf from the llde of it.

The moulds being thus prepared, we fliall apply them to
mould timber 7. The timber btmg (irft pioperly lided to its
breadth, Liy the bend mould upon it, fo as may bell a:ifwer
the -ouiid a-cording to the grain of the wood ; then lay the
rifing fquare to the bottom of the bend mould, fo that the
iijjc draw.i acrofs the bead mould at timber 7 may coincide

BOA

with the line reprefenting the middle of t'.ie keel upon the
rifing fquare; and draw a line upon the timber by the fide of
the Iquare ; or let the line be fcored or cut by a tool made for
that purpofe, called a rajVin^ hnifi:; this line lo rafed will be the
fide of the keel. Then the fquare mufl be moved till the fide of
it comes to 7 on the bend mould, and another line mufl be rafed
in by the fide of it, to rcprefent the middle of the keel. The
other fide of the keel muft likewile be raled after the fame
maimer, and the point 7 on the rifing fquare be worked on
each fide of the keel, and a line rafed acrofs at tfiefe points to
reprefent the upper edge of tlie keel. From t:iis line the
heitrlit oftbc cuaiug down line at 7 muft be fet up, and then
the rifing fquare may be taken away, and the timber may be
rated by the bend mould, both mfide and cutfide, from the
head to the floor firmark ; or it may be carried lower if ne-
cefiary. Alter the firmarks and heads of the timbers are
marked, the bend mould may likewife be taken away ; and
then the hollow mouldappliedto the back of thefweep in fuck
a manner, that the point 7 upon it may interfetl the upper fide
of the keel, before fet oft by the rifing (quare j and, when
in this ptifition, the timber may be raied by it, which
will com.plete the outfide of the timbers. The infide of the
timbers may hkewile be formed by the hollow mould. Tfic
(eantling at the keel is given by the cutting down before
fet off. The mould mufl be fo placed as to touch thefweep
of the infide of the timber formed before by the bend mould,
and pafs through the cutting down point.

The ufe of the fi'^marks is to find the true places of the
futtocks ; for, as they are cut olT three or four inches fhort
of the keel, they mull be fo placed that the futtock and
floor firmarKs may be compared and coincide. Notwith-
flandnig which, if the timbers are not very carefully
' trimm d, the head of the tuttcck may be either within or
without its proper iialf breadth, to prevent which a half
breadth llaff is made ufe of.

The half breadth liaff may be one inch fquare, and of any
convenient length. Upon one fide of it are fet oft', from
one end, the feveral half breadths of all the timbers in the
after-body; and tliofe of the fore-body, upon the oppolite
fide. On the other two fides are fet off the feveral heights
of the ftieer ; the after-body on one fid.e, and the fort-body
on its oppofite. Two fidej of the ftaff are marked half-
breadihs, and the other two fides heights ofihcficcr.

The ftaff being thus prepared, and the floor timbers fatt-
ened on the keel, and levtlled acrofs, the futtocks mufl
next be falUiied to the floor timbers ; but they muft be fet
firll to their proper half breadth and height. The half breadth
ttalf, with the affiftancc of the ram-line, ftrves to fet them
to the half breadth ; for as the keel of a beat is generally
perpendicular to tiie horizon, therefore the line, at which the
plummet is fufpended, and which is moveable on the ram-
hne, will be perpendicular to the keel, whence we m.ay by
it fet the timbers perpendicular to the keel, and then fet
them to their proper half breadths by the ftaif ; and when
the two firmarks coincide, the futtock will be at its proper
height, and may be nailed to the floor tim.bers, and alfo to
the breadth ribband ; which may be fet to the height of the
ftieer, by a level laid acrofs, taking the height of the flieer
by the ftaff, from the upper fide of the keel ; by which
means we ftiall difcover if the ribband is cxadlly the height
of the iheer ; aud if rot, the true height may be fet off by
a pair of compalfes from the level, and marked on the
timbers.

Juvenal ( fat. xv. v. 176—128,) defcribes the boats of the
ancient Egyptians, as if they were earthen-ware ; and it is
alleged, that fuch earthen-ware ftiips were ufed on the Nile,
and that they were called " pia*," painted, becaufe thefe

boats

BOA

BOB

boats of baked earth were marked with various colours.
However, it is much more probable, that the Egyptians
formerly, as they have done in more modern times, made
ufe of rafts, which were made to float by empty veffels of
earthen-ware faftened under them. The word " pictoe," it
is fnggefted, does not denote their being beautified with a
variety of colours, but means their being rubbed with fome
fubftance that might fill up the poi-es, fo as to prevent the
water's penetrating into the cavity of the pitchers, and cauf-
ing them to fink, for the Egyptian earthen-ware is faid to
be very porous. Thefe floats, however, were not con llruft-
ed to pafs up and down the Nile like boats, or properly de-
iigned for carrying goods upon them, but it is an eafy mode
of conveying their earthen-ware from Upper Egypt, where
it is manufaftured, to the lower parts of that country, where,
when they reach the deftined place, the float is taken to
pieces, and fold to the inhabitants. Harmer's Obferva-
tions, vol. iii. p. ^6.

BoAT-/jooi, an iron hook with a (harp point, having a
fockct in which a long pole is ftuck. This is a veiy necefTary
appendage to a boat, as by means of it, any thing floating
pail may be hooked ; the boat may be held on to the fliip,
or piiflied along, &c.

3o AT Jlcercr. In the whale fifhery a perfbn is appointed
to each boat, whofe exprefs duty is to (leer the boat towards
the fifli, &c.

Boats, bridge of. See the article Bridge.
Boat, remo-ved tuith Jleam. An experiment was lately
tried on the canal between Grangemouth and Glafgow, to
make a large boat or lighter move by the power of ileam.
As, it is prefumed, the feries of experiments is not yet com-
pleted, the reader is, tlierefore, referred to the article
Steam.

BoAT-/:i'(7;n, the officer who has the care of the boats,
fails, rigging, colours, anchors, and cables committed to
him, which he receives by indenture from the fnrveyor of
the navy, and is enjoined to ufc great care in the difpofi-
tion of I'lem.

It is the duty of the boatfwain particularly to diredl what-
ever relates to the rigging of a ftiip, after flie is equipped from
a royal dock-yard. Thus, he is to obfervc that the mails
are properly fupported by their flirouds, ftays, and back-
ftays, fo that each of thofe ropes may fuilaiu a proportional
effort when the mall is llrained by the violence of the wind,
or the agitation of the (hip. He ought alfo to take care that
the blocks and running-ropes are regularly placed, fo as to an-
fwcr the purpofes for which they are intended ; and that the
fails are properly fitted to their yards and (lays, and well
furled or reefed when occafion requires. It is likewife his
office to fummon the crew to their duty, to aihd with his
mytes in the necelTary bufinefsof the (hip ; and to reheve the
w?.tch when it expires. He ought frequently to examine
th'.- condition of the malls, fails, and rigging, and remove
whatever may be judged unfit for fervice, or fupply what is
deficient ; and he is ordered by his inllruclions to perform
this duty with as little noife as pofiTible.

The boatlwain is not to cut up any cordage or canvas
without an order in writing from, the captain, and under the
infpeiSion of the mafter ; and always to have by him a fuf-
ficient quantity of fmall plats for fecurity of the cables.

He is not to fign any accounts, books, hlls, or tickets,
bef )ve he has thoroughly informed him(elf of the truth of
every particular therein contained. His accounts are to be
audited and vouched by the captain and mailer, and pre-
fented to the furveyor of the navy ; and until iach accounts
arc pafled, he is not to receive any wages. If he has caufe
of complaint againil any of the oflicers of the fhip, with re-
lation to the difpofition of the (lores uudcr his charge, he is
Vol. IV.

to reprefent the fame to the Navy-board before they pay off
the fliip. Fifteen years fervitude intitles a boatfwain to
fuperannuation.

The BoatJwahCs Mate has the charge of the long boat,
anchors, cables, &c. ; he mufl; give an account of his flore ;
and he is appointed to execute the fentence of a captain or
court-martial.

Boats, train of, a number of fmall veffels faftened to each
other, afcending up the Loir in France, by fails when the
wind ferves, othcrwife towed by men, fometimes to the num-
ber of feveuty or eighty to a fingle rope.

BoAT-3i//, in Ornithology^ the Englilh name of a fpecies of
Cancroma, cochlearia. Brown's Illullrations. Or, more
properly, at this time the Englifli name of the Cancroma
genus, C. Cochlearia being called by the modern writers the
crejlcd boat-bill, and C. Cancophraga, the ivhite bellied boat-
bill. Thefe are the two only fpecies known. See Can-
croma.

Boat, fcapha, in Surgery, a fpecies of bandage, ufed
when the crown of the head and the part between that and
the forehead are to be bound. It is likewife called tholus
dincleus.

Boat^V, in Entomology. See Notonecta.
Boat i/land, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf of
St. Lawrence, near the fouth coaft of Labrador. N. lat,
^0° 2'. W. long. 6o° 55'.

Boat Parage, a channel into Facile harbour, in Duiky
bay, New Zealand.

BOATING, a kind of punifhment in ufe among the an-
cient Perfians for capital ofiTenders.

The manner of boating was thus : the perfon condemned
to it being laid on his back in a boat, and having his hands
flretched out, and tied faft on each fide of it, had another
boat put over him, his head being let out through a place
fit for it. In this pofture they fed him, forcing him to tat
by thrufting (harp iron inllruments into his eyes, till the
worms, which were bred in the excrements he voided as he
thus lay, eat out his bowels, and fo caufed his death, which
was ufually twenty days in effefting; the criminal lying all
this while in mod exquifite torments. On his face, placed
full in the fun, they poured honey, enticing the flies and
wafps to torment him. Plutarch tells us, that Mithridates,
whom Artaxcnces condemned to this kind of puniihment,
for pretending to have killed his brother Cyrus, lived feven-
tecn days in the utmolt agony ; and that, when the upper-
moft boat was taken olf at his death, they found his flefli
wholly confumed, and fwarms of worms gnawing his bowels.
Herodot. 1. i. c. 133, 140. Plut. in vit. Artaxerxes.

BOATIUM Civitas, in .Ancient Geography, a town of
Gaul, and one ot the twelve cities of Novempopulania.

BOATSKIDS, in Naval ^rchiteaure, are long fquare
pieces of fir, extending acrofs the fliip from the gang-boards,
on which the boats, fpare mafls, &c. are (lowed.

BOB, or Ball, in Horology, is the metallic weight which
is attached to the lower extremity of a pendulum rod, by-
means of a tapped adjuft;ing nut, at fuch a dillance fiom the
point of fufpenijon as the time of a given vibration requires.
(See the articles Centre of Oscillation and Pendu-
lum.) In fixing upon a proper bob for any pendulum,
two things are particularly to be attended to : the (hape
which is beil calculated for meeting with the lead refiftancc
from the air; and the weight which is bed adapted for pre-
ferving the iiochronifai of the vibrations with a given main-
taining power. Each of ihefe confiderations has been the
fubjttt of much invefligation. A fphere is a folid, the fur-
face of which bears the lead proportion to its folidity of any
other, and a cube is one with great extent of furface com-
pared to its (olid contents ; con fequeutly, th« former (hape

4 R has

J

BOB

has obtained in cannon balls, intendtd to pafs through the
air with as little obllruftion as poffible, and has fometimes,
for the fame reafoii, been applied as a bob for a pendulum.
Such a ihape is better adapted for a large bob than a imall
one ; for the incrcafe of the furface is in proportion to the
fquare of the diameter, whereas tlie increafe of weight or
quantity of matter is as the cube. Mr. B. Martin (Mathe-
matical lullitutions, vol. ii. p. 417.) propofed two equal
frufta of fimilar cones, to be joined together at the bafes, as
a ligure approximating nearly to a folid of leail rcfiftance,
and recommended it as that out of which the middle one of
three fegmcnts, cut longitudinally, will conftitute the belt
(hape for an appended weight, to anfwer the purpofe of avoid-
ing refiftance. Such a fedion, he conceived, would difplace
but a fmall quantity of air in one vibration, and the inipulfes
of that quantity, being made obliquely on the floping fur-
faces of the ends, would produce but a fmall effect. The
lenticular {hape, however, compofed of two fegments of a
large globe joined to the line of feftion, has been generally
adopted by clock-makers, probably becaufe two plates ot
brafs of that (liape can be eafily foldered together, and left
hollosv, fo as to be filled with lead, or other heavy metal,
in order to obtain a due degree of weight without adding to
the thickuefs, which is an advantage that brafs or copper
cannot have of itfclf in any fhape. M Ferdinand Berthoud
(ElTai fur I'Horlorgerie, tome. ii. chap, xiii.) made fome
experiments with bobs of both a fpherical and lenticular
Ihape, of equal weight, attached fucceffivcly to the fame free
pendulum, from which it appeared, that, in the fame tem-
perature, the latter continued to vibrate ieconds much longer
than the former before they arrived at the quiefcent ftate,
which experiment was confidered as a proof that the lenticu-
lar ihape has the advantage in efcaping the effeft of refiftance;
it was difcovered, however, on a repetition of the experi-
ment, with feconds and half-feconds pendulums, that the
friftion at the point of fufpenfion occaiioned by heavy
weights, particularly when vibrating in long arcs, made con-
iiderable alterations in the refults, and proved itfelf a fecond
fource of refiftance to the free motion of the pendulum.

The fecond confideration to be attended to in making the
bob, as has been faid, is the weight which a given pendu-
lum requires, with a given maintaining power. No theory
is adequate to determine this defideratum of itfelf, becaufe
the diminution of the maintaining power by the friction of
the pivots and the ftate of the oil, the duration of the im-
pulfe on the pallets, the nature of the efcaptments in other
relpetls, the refiftance of the air, and at the point of fufpen-
fion, and particularly the nature and quantity of momentum
of the pendulum, muft all enter into tlie calcr.lation ; and
thefe are data, many of which are conlfantly varying. The
momentum, or whole quantity of motion of any pendulum, is
the weight multiplied into the fquare of its velocity, fo that
a large arc with a fmall weight, and a fmall arc with a corrtf-
ponding large weight, cxterls paribus, ought to have an equal
effetl upon the ifochronilm of the fame pendulum ; but the
theory is not perfeft ; for firrt, large circular arcs deviate
confiderably from cycloidal ones, which, it has been de-
mon llrated by Huygens and others fincc, are thofe which
have the ifochronal property in an uniformly denie medium ;
and fecondly, they require a greater maintaining power than
calculation gives : for inllancc, where the arc is 10° from the
point of reft, the addition to be made to the maintaining
power beyond calculation is 5^ parts in 100, according to
Berthoud's experinieiits, wiiich colifideration induces him to
conclude, thatirregulatiticain the maintaining power will affcft
the momentum principally corrpofed of velocity, more than
the momentum principally compofed of weight ; each kind
of monientuni, however, has its peculiar difad vantage j for

I

BOB

great velocity is fubjeft to great refiftance from the air, and
great weight to much friftion at the point of fufpenfion.
^Ir. Alexander Cummings was an advocate for a large arc with
a fmall bob ; but modern pra6tice is in favour of a large ball or
bob with a fliort arc of vibration. It feems to be generally
allowed, that the momentum of a pendulum ought to be as
great as poffible for a given maintaining power, provided the
latter be iufticient to overcome all obftacles to conftant mo-
tion ; but as the momentum is obtained in two different
ways, it may be proper to fubjoin here an ilhiltration of them.
If a pendulum, moving in an arc of one degree from the
quiefcent point, with a bob or ball of fix pounds, have its
momentum denominated by unity, then the fquare of any given
momentum will give its correlponding weight for another
bob, moving in the fame arc ; or the fquare root of the given
momentum will give the arc of femivibration with the fame
weight; for inftance, a momentum 4 will require 6x4 = 24
for the weight where the arc remains unaltered ; but the root
of 4=2 will be the arc from the point of reft with the fame
weight ; again, if the momentum be required to be 9 for a
given maintaining power, the weight muft be 54, or the
arc 3° from the point of reft, and in the fame proportion
for any other momentum ; but, in faft, both the weight and
arc may be varied according to circumftancts, which lati-
tude affords great variety in the adjuftment of the bob, and
matter for multiplied experiments to determine what weight
and arc ftiall be moft defirable, taken conjointly under dif-
ferent circumftaiices.

The moft practicable method of adjuftment of the mo-
mentum of a pendulum, where a weight is ufedasthe main»
taining power, feems to be, to vary this power iuftead of the
weight of the bob or ball, which, when once finiftied of the
requifite (hape, is not fo eafily altered. In pendulum clocks,
aftuated by a fpring as a maintaining power, fuch adjuft-
ment cannot indeed be made in the power properly without
changing the fpring, or altering the fufee after they are ad-
jufted to each other; but as thefe inftruments are not intend-
ed to meafure time with great nicety, the adjuftmt h of the
bob to the maintaining power is exadtly done by gucfs. In
Huygens's beft clock, the maintaining power was equal to
three pounds, falling about go inches in 24 hours, and the
ball of its feconds pendulum, together with the pendulum
itfclf, was alfo three pounds ; but the nature of his cfcapcment
required the vibrations to be performed in long arcs. Cum-
mings tried different weights for his pendulums from 6 to 16
pounds, and various arcs from 3° to 6° from the point of
reft ; but it does not appear that any other ftandard has
been adopted by clock-makers than what accords with the
individual opinion of each. See Maintaining Power.

Bob, in Ringing, denotes a peal confifting of feveral courfes,
or fets of changes.

BoB^iTy, in Sea-Language, a rope ufed to confine the
bowfprit of a ftiip downward to the ftem, or cut-water, and
to counteraft the force of the ftays of the fore-maft, which
draw It upwards.

It is fixed by thrufting one of its ends through a hole
bored in the fore-part of the cut-water, and then fplicing
both ends together, fo as to make it two-fold, or like the
link of a chain ; a dead-eye is then feized into it, and a lan-
iard pafling through this, and communicating with another
dead-eye upon the bowfprit, is drawn extremely tight by help
of mechanical powers. The bob-ftay is the firft part of a ftiip's
rigging, which is drawn tight to fupport the mafts. With
this view, it is ufual to fufpend a boat, anchor, or other
weighty body, at the bowfprit end, to prefs it downwards
during the operation.

BoTi-Jlay-ho/es, are thofe holes in the ftem, or fore-part of
the knee of the head, to which the bob-ftay is fattened.

BQBAC,

BOB

BOBAC, in Zoology. The bobak of the French and
Englifh writers is a fort of Marmot with fmall, and fome-
what oval ears ; tail hairj' ; a claw upon the fore thumb ;
and the body grey above, and yellowilli beneath. Gmelin
calls this animal arSomys hohcic.

There appear to be two varieties of this fpecies, if not
more. The bobac of Rzaczindci (Nat. Hill. Pol. p. 235.)
defcribed by Briffon, in his Hiftory of Quadrupeds, under
the name of marmolta polonica, is of yellowifh colour, inclining
to reddiih upon the head ; but the bobac defcribed by Pallas
is of a greyi(h brown colour, with only the under parts yel-
low. In every refpeft, except the colour of the hair, thcfe
two varieties agree.

This creature is rather larger than the rabbit, meafuring
about fixteen inches from the nofe to the bafe of the tail,
the latter of which is four inches and an half in length ; fo
that the whole animal meafures above twenty inches. Dr.
Pallas, to whom we are chiefly indebted for an account of
the bobac, tells us, that it is a native of the high, but
milder and funny fides of mountainous countries, which
abound with fiflile, or free-llone rocks, where it is found
in di'y fituations, and fuch as are full of fprings, woods, or
fand. It abounds in Poland and Rufila, among the Carpa-
thian hills : it fwarms in the Ukraine, about the Borifthenes,
efpecially between the Sula and Supoy ; and then again
between the Borifthenes and the Don, and along the range
of hills which extend to the Volga. It is found about the
Yaik and the neighbouring rivers ; and inhabits the fouthern
defert in Great Tartary, and the Altaic mountains, eafl of
the Irtis. It ceafes to appear in Siberia, on account of its
northern (ituation, but is found again beyond the lake Bai-
kal, and about the river Argun and the lake Dalay, in the
funny mountains about the Lena, and very frequently in
Kamtfchatka, but rarely reaches as high as latitude 55°.

The bobac is not conlidered as an article of food by the
Mahometan tartars. The Coflacks and the Calmucks, on
the contrary, hunt and kdl them for eating ; the fleth, how-
ever, is very fat, and not in much efteem for the goodnefs
of its flavour. In its manners of life the bobac refembles
thofe of the Alpine marmot, with which it has been appa-
rently fometimes confounded. It inhabits deep burrows, in
focieties of from twenty to twenty-four in each receptacle.
Their habitation is lined with the fintft hay ; and it is faid,
the quantity found in every iuch receptacle is fufficient for
a night's provender ior a horfe. In the morning, or the
middle of the day, when the fun (In'nes, they go abroad in
fearch of food, always taking the precaution lo ftation one
of the party at the entrance of their cell as a centinel, who
announces the lead approach of danger with a whilUe ; and
all, if within hearing, are thus enabled to provide for
themfelves in the bell manner circumftances may require,
either by returning for (heker to tlieir cell, or remaining at
a diftance till the danger is over. The marmot, when at-
tacked, rears itfclf upon the haunches, and defends itfelf
with the fore paws. It eats with the fore paws, in the fame
pofture. The bobac is an animal of a mild and gentle dif-
pofition, and may be eafily domefticated. They are torpid
throughout the winter, unlefs kept in a warm room. They
breed early in the fpring, and are faid to produce fix or
eight young. The fat of this creature is ufed for dreffing
furs and leather.

BOBAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 32 miles S.
of Saade.

BOBART, Robert, in Biography, curator of the bo-
tanical garden at Oxford, which had been lately inllituted
by lord Danby, pnblilbed, in 1648, " Catalogns plantarum
horti medici Oxonienfis," 8vo. The catalogue gives the
names of about iCoo plants, many of them from Canada,

BOB

firft the Latin, then the Engli(h names, in alphabetical
order. This was re-publi(hed in 16 jf^, confiderably un-
proved and enlarged to more than double its bulk ; Bobart
being aflilled in the work, as he acknov.-kdges, by Dr. Phi-
lip Stevens and Wm. Brown, M.A. Bcfides the trivial
names of the plants, there were now added thofe from Ge-
rard, Parkinfon, and Bauhine, which were not in the firft
edition. Bobart ditd iu 1679, ^'^ the age of 81 years.

Bobart, Jacob, who fuccecded his father, as curator
of the garden, publilhed, in 1699, ^^^ ^\^r&. volume of
Morrifon's " Plantarum hiftoria univerfalis OxonienCs, feu
herba-um diftributio nova, per tabulas cognitionis, ex na-
ture libro detefta," fol. ; making up by his own induftry
and fagacity what was deficient in the loofe and imperfect
/Icetches left by the author at his deceafe. There is an in-
genious paper by this writer in the Pliilufophical Tranfac-
tions for the year l68j, on the effefts of the great froft,
which happened the preceding winter, on trees ar.d other
plants. Many oak, elm, afli, walnut, and other trees,
were found, he fays, with large rents or clefts in different
parts of their trunks, in the large branches, and in fuch
parts of their rooto as were not funk deep into the earth.
Parts, he adds, that were fo knotted, that they could not have
been fplit but with great difficulty with beetles and wedges,
were rent afunder by the force of the ice contained within
them, making, at the time of burfting, a noife like the ex-
plofion of gunpowder. It was fuppofed, that the trees
which fuffercd were difeafed, that fome of the veffels were
diftended or burU, and that the effect was produced by the
freezing of the fap or other juices contained in thefe cavities.
Philof. Tranr abr. vol. iii. p. 89. Haller. Bib. Botan.

BOBARTIA, in Botany, (named in honour of James
Bobart, formerly profeffor of botany at Oxford), a genus
formed by Linnajus for a plant faid to grow in the Eaft In-
dies, with the following effential charafter : — Glumes of the
calyx numerous ; the exterior ones (hort, univalved ; the in-
terior longer, bivalved ; glume of the corol. fingle, fiiorter
than thofe of the calyx, fitting on the germ, (hrivclhng.
This generic charadler was firfl publilhed in the Amcenitates
Academicas, vol. i. p. 113. (Lugd. Bat Ed.) ; and in the
Species Plantarum a reference is given to Scheucher, Gram.
369. Reichard added another fuppofed fynonym from Plu-
kenet tab. 30. fig. 7. Schreber, JufTieu, La Mark, and Bofc,
have all taken it up from Linnsus ; and La Mark, in his
Illuftrations, has copied Plukenet's figure. WiUdenow, in
his new edition of the Species Plantarum, has abohlhed the
genus ; afferting, on the authority of Schumacher (Aft.
Soc. Nat. Hafn.), that Linnzus drew up the charadter of
his bobartia from a mutilated fpecimen of morasa fpathacea,
firft completely defcribed by Thunberg, and adopted by
Linnxus the younger in the Supplementum Plantarum,
p. 99.

The miftaken fynonyms of Scheucher and Plukenet are
referred by Willdenow to cyperus arenaria of Retz,of which
Plukenet's figure, copied by La Mark, is faid to be a good
reprefentation. A figure of moraea fpadicea is alfo given by
La Mark under its proper genus.

Bobartia. See alfo Rudbeckia Purpurea.

BOBBIN, in Commerr.e, a term denoting about |- of a
hundred of undiefTed flax.

BOBBING, or Bobbin, a little piece of wood turned
into a cylindric form, whereon thread is wound, to be ufed
in the weaving of bone-lace.

The French alfo give the denomination bobitie to what
among us is more properly called ifpool or quill. In which
they are alfo followed bv fevcnil Englilh.

In this general fenfe, bobbins arc ufed to wind thread,

worlleJ, hair, cotton, filk, gold, and filver; and they are

4K.1 of

BOB

ol different lengths and fizes, according to the materials
which are fpiin or wound.

Bobhing for Eels, among F'ljhermen, is an amiifing me-
thod of catching eels, generally prattifed from the fide of a
boat, the piers of bridges, wharfs, or other fituations, where
deep w.iter can be at once reached. The bait made life of
may be either fcourcd lob-worms, or garbage of any kind ;
which bait of whatever kind is ftrung Icngthv.ife on worftcd,
Jo as to completely cover it : fome yards are prepared in this
way, which are then tied up in links, making fomething
like a b'lndle of fringe. So prepared, the bait is fufpended
from 3 ftrong rod or pole by two or three yards of pack-
thread, leaded within a foot of the worms with more or lefs
■weight according to the ftrengtli of the current. The bait
and lead muft be funk to the bottom, and fuffered to remain,
when the fifh will foon be felt to nibble ; but time mull be
allowed for them to make their hold ftcure, after which
they may be gently pulled up to within a fmall diilancc,
when a (light jerk will fecus them. The mouths of
rivers, muddy and deep places, where the tide reaches, are
particularly favourable for this fport.

BOBBIO, or BoBio, Bohhim, in Geography, a fmall
town of Italy, and capital of a diftriA of the fame name,
formerly belonging to the duchy of Milan, feated on the
river Trebia, the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan of Genoa, 30
miles N.E. of Genoa, It is now a canton of the diflrift of
Alexandria, in the department of Marengo.

BoBBio. See Biobio.

BOBENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Upper Hefie ; 1 7
miles eaft of Giefen.

BOBENNEUKIRCHEN, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and the Vogtland ; 6 miles S.W.
of Oelfnitz.

BOBER, a river which runs into the Oder, at a fmall
diilance to tiie well of Croflen in Silefia. — Alfo, a town of
Lithuania. N. lat. 55° 46'. E. long. 25° 46'.

BOBERG, a high promontoi^ in the prefeflure of
Bofling, and diocefe of Ripen, in Denmark, near which the
coall is vei7 dangerous, and has proved fatal to many fliips.

BOBERSBERG, a town of Silefia, 9 miles S.S.W.
of Croffen, and 28 S. of Frankfort on the Oder. — Alfo, a
town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and
duchy of Croffen, 6 miles S. of Croffen.

BOBI, in Conchology. Adanfon gives this name to the
variety 0 of -ooluta perjicula,

BOBISATIO, or Bocedisatio, in Mijic, denotes
the ufing of the feven fyllables, lo, ce, d'l, ga, lo, ma, ni,
to exprefs the feven mufical notes in lieu of the fix ufnal
ones introduced by Aretine, iit, ne, mi, fa, fol, la, as has
been fometimes done by the Nctherland and German mufi-
cians fince the beginning of the feventeenth century,
to avoid the mutation neceffary in the ufe of thefe latter.

BOBLINGEN, in Geography, a fmall town and diftrid
of the fame name, of Germany, in the duchy of Wurtem-
berg, fituate in a fertile country, and in the forefl of Schon-
buch, which abounds with game, having a callle feated on
an eminence lying above the tov.'n. The diflridl contains 12
parifhes ; and the vicinity produces fome wine.

BOBR, a river of Lithuania, which runs into the Dnie-
per ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Rohaczow.

BoBR, in Zoology, a kind of marine otter, fo called by
the Ruffians, who rtlide at Kamtfchatka, the precife fpe-
cies of which is doubtful. Some have imagined it to be
allied to rhe caftor.

BOBRITZSCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and countiy of Erzgeberg, 4
miles S,E. of Freyberg,

B O C

BOBROF, a diftrid of the government of Voronetz, in
Rufiii, feated on the Biliuk, falling into the Don.

BOBROWNIK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin, 34 miles W.N.W. of Lubhn.

BOBRYSLE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Minflc, feated near the river Berezyna. N. lat. 53°. E.
long. 29° 12'.

BOBTI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Troki.
N. lat. 55°. E. long. 24'' 15'.

BOCA. See BoccA.

Boca Efcomlida, in Geography, a ba^'' of North America,
in the bay of Campechy, on the coafl of Yucatan. N. lat.
lS° 50'. W. long. 9i<='46'.

Boca Grand, a bay of North America, at the mouth of
the river Zucar, on the S.E. coall of Colla Rica. N. lat.
10° 50'. W.long. 83^36'.

Boca Tora, a bay of North America, in the Caribbean
fea, on the couft of Veragua. N. lat. 8° 58'. W. long.
82"^ 1'.

BOCABRITO, a town of North America, in the
country of New Navarre, 65 miles eaft of Cinaloa.

BOCA-CHICA, the ftrait or entrance into the harbonr
of Cavthagena, in South America ; which was filled up
fince the attack of the Englilh in 1741, who, having made
themfelves mafters of the forts which defended it, entered the
bay with an intent of taking the city ; but their attempt mif-
carried, and they were obliged to retire with confiderable lofs.
This event produced orders for opening the old entrance, by
which all fiiips now enter the bay.

BOCA-DEL-DRAGO, a ftrait between the ifland of
Trinidad and Andalufia, in the province of Terra Firma,
South America.

BOCAGE, a fmall territory of France, in Normandy, of
which the principal place was Vire.

BOCALIE AU, a fmall ifland near the eaft coafl of New-
foundland. N. lat. 48° 15'. W. long. 53° 26'.

BOCAMELE, in Zoology, the provincial name of an
animal of the Mustella tribe found in the ifland of Sar-
dinia. This is believed to be the creature defcribed by Ari-
ftotle by the name of lais.

BOCANA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituate in the
eaftern part of the ifle of Taprobana. Ptolemy.

BOCARDO, in Logic, the fifth mode of the firft
figure of fyllogifms, wherein the firll propofition is
particular and negative ; the fecond, univcrfal and affirma-
tive ; and the third, or conclufion, particular and negative.
Thus :

BOC Some animal is not man.

A R Every animal has a princ'ple of fenfation.

DO Tl.-refore fomething hasa principle of fenfation,
ihat is not man.
BOC AS, Las, in Geography, a town of North America,
in New Bifcay, I30 miles E. of Parmal.

BOCAT, the name of a valley in Syria, in which are
the ruins of Balbec, of which Mr. Wood fays, it might by
a little care be made one of the richeft and moil beautiful
fpots in Syria ; for it is more fertile, he adds, than the cele-
brated vale of Damafcus, and better watered than the rich
plains of Efdraelon and Rama. In its prefent neglefled
ilate, it produces corn, fome good grapes, but very little
wood. Here, it is fuppofed, was fituated " Baal-hamon,"
which was the marriage portion of the bride of Solomon.
Sol. Song. viii. 12. This eftate was leafed out to a variety
of tenants, each of whom paid her a clear rental of a thou-
fand fhekels of filver, amounting to about 120I. i6s. 8d.
fterling. Harmer's Outlines of a New Commentary on So-
lomon's Song, p. 35. Good's Song of Songs, Prtf. p. 13.
6 Bocat

B O C

B O C

Bocat was alio called " Bekaa," which fee. Sec alfo
Bai.bec.

BOCAUD, JoHW, in Biography, born at Montpellier,
where he received his education. In 1540, he was made
doctor; and in 1544, on the death of Denis Fontenon,
proftflor of medicine in the univerfity there; an oflice he is
faid to have filled with diltingui(hed honour to the time of
his death, which happened in 1558. We have or.ly one
work publillied by this writer; " Tabulae curationnm et in-
dicationum ex prolixo Galeni methcdo, in fumma rerum
capita contraftre," fol. Lyons. Haller. Bib. Med. Prad.
Elcy.D^a. Hill. Med.

BOCCA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mantua, in the Comtsfezza, 5 miles N.N.E. of Sabionetta.

BoccA Tigris, a name given by foreigners to the river
Pe-ki;ing of China, near its difcharge into the fouthern fea
of Cliiiia. Ste Pe kiaxg.

BocCA, in Glafs-mahing, the round hple in the working
furnace, by which the metal is taken out of tht great pots,
and by wh'ch the pots are p-.it into the furnace. This i^ to
be (topped with a cover made of earth and brick, and rc-
moveable at pleafure, to prefcrve the eyes of the workmen
from the violence of the heat.

BOCCACCI. or B0CC.1CCINO, Camillo, in Biography,
a painter of hiftoiy and portrait, was born at Cremona in
151 1 ; and, having receive,! inftruftions in the art of painting
from his f^t! er, removed to Rome, and aflumtd the Roman
talte. His application was indefatigable, and his improve-
ment fo obfervahle, that he was immediately etnployed in
fcveral noble wtuks for the churches and convents. He died
young in i ^46, when he was making rapid progrefs towards
very high perfedtion. Piikington.

EOCCACCINI, Anthony, a furgeon of Comachio, a
town in Ferrara, flouriflied in the early part of the lait cen-
tury. Reviving the practice of Magatus, in the cure of
wounds and ulcers, which had fallen into difufe, he admitted
no oily or greafy applications in the treatment of them, nor
made ufe of tents or i.jeftions in the cure of abfcefles, which,
by irritating the parts, prevented, he faid, their union, and
frequently occaiioncd the orifices to become callous. His
works, illuftrating his practice, are " Cinque difinganni
Chirurgici, perla cura delleferite," Venice, 1713, 8vo. treat-
ing of the cure of gun-fhot wounds ; "Cinque difinganni Chi-
rurgici, per la cira dtlle ulcere," Ven. 1714, Svo. with ob-
fervations explaining and defending thedoftrine of Magatus.
Haller. Bib. Chirurg. Eloy. Diet. Hift. Med.

BOCCACIO, or Boccace, John, an eminent Itahan
winter, and one of the reftorers of literature in Europe, was
born of parents in low condition at Certaldo in Tufcany, in
13 Ij. Declining tliat meri:antile occupation for which he
was originally dtfigned, and in which he fpent fome of his
earlier years, he devoted fome time to the ftudy of the canon
law ; but as foon as he had an opportunity of choofing for
himfelf, he purfued a courfe of literature ; and with this
view fought inftruAion from the beft matters, and at Flo-
rence put himlelf under the tuition of Leonzio Pilato for
the Greek language. Befides the advantage he derived in
furniihing his mind with ilores of literature, and in culti-
vating a good tafte, from coviverfation with the moll learned
men of his age, and from coUefting and copying the mod ap-
prove-l Greek and Latin writers of antiquity, ht: was parti-
cularly indebted for his progrefs in learning, and for his fu-
tnrt reputation, to the inilrudlion and patronage of Petrarch,
who was eminently ufeful to him both by his advice and by
fiipplying iiim with money for aiding the proftcution of his
ftudies, when his own patrimony was exhaulled. By a dili-
gent improvement of thefe advantages, he acquired fuch repu-

tation, that the republic of Florence conferred upon him the
honour of citizenfhip, and employed him in a variety of
public tranfaftions. Among other important comrriffions
v.'ith which he was entrufted, that of negotiating the return
of his friend Petrarch to Florence was particularly agreeable
to him. But though his mefiage to this purpofe did not
fucceed, it afforded him an opportunity of cftablidilng a
more intimate and confidential correfpordence vvith this pa-
tron of his youth. In 1353, two years after his vifit to
Petrarch, he was fev.t to pope Innocent VI. at Avignon.
At this time he lived freely, and devoted himfelf chiefly to
poetry and compofitions of a lighter kind. During his ram-
bles in Italy, he vifited Naples, as fome have faid, in the
year 1 J41, where he was favourably received by king Robert,
and where he refided for fome time. Here he fell in love
with a young perfon whom he calls Fiametta, and who is
commonly fuppofed to have been the natural daughter of
Robert. In 1359, he had a conference with Petrarch at
Milan, the refult of which was his indulging more ferious
refleftions than he had hitherto done ; and having received
an admonition in 1361, that his life would not be of long
continuance, and that he would foon abandon poetry, his
mind was fo impreffed that he immediately determined to
relinquidi his poetical lucubrations, and even tl.e perufal of
profane authors, and, againll the counfel and remonflrance
of Peti-nrch, to part with his library. About this time he
affumed the clerical habit, and adopted a plan of conduft
more guarded and regular than that of his palt life. In
1362 or i,j6,3, he again vifited Naples ; and, without making
any long Itay there, went to Venice, and paffed three months
with his frie:.d Petrarch. He was again deputed by his
countrymen as anibaffador to pope Urban V. at Avignon ;
and in 1367 he attended the pontiff under the fame cha-
racter at Rome. A public le<5ture on the " Coinedia" o^
Dante, having been inllituted at Florence, he commenced
his expofitions of that author in Odtober, 1373 ; but, pre-
ferring the retirement of Certaldo, his native place, towards
the clofe of his life, he died there in December i ^ 75. Boc-
cacio was a voluminous writer both in profe and verfe. His
works in Latin were, a mythological trtatife in 15 books,
" De Genealogia Deorum," Bafil, 15 ;2, fol. efteemed ex-
cellent at the time when it was written, but long fincefuper-
feded by more valuable publications of a fimilar kind ; to this
was annexed a " Treatiie on Mountains, Rivers, Seas,
Lakes, &c. ;" with refpedt to both thefe he has been charged
with plagiarifm ; " An Abridgement of the Roman Hif-
rory," from Romulus to the year of Rome 724, with a pa-
rallel of the feven kings of Rome and of the emperors to
Nero inclufively, Cologn. 1534, Svo. ; an hillorical trea-
tife, in nine books, entitled " De Cafihus virorum et fcsmi-
narum illuftrium," beginning with Adam, and terminating
with John king of France taken priloner by the Enghlh
at the battle of Poictiers, in 13J6, which work was tranf-
lated into Italian, Spanilli, French, and Englifli, printed
at Augfturgh, in 1544, and in French at Lyons, in 1483,
and at PariS, in 15;!^, by Claudius Vitart, under the title of
"Traitcdcs Mefaventures des Perfonnagcs fignalez," Svo. ;
and another book " De claris mulieribus." He alfo wrote
in Latin a number of eclogues. In Italian poetry, his com-
pofitions were the " Thtfeide," in 12 books; the " Filo-
itrato ;" the " Ninfale Fiofelano," &c. &c. But though
he was reckoned one of the three princes of the poets of
that age, he is ran&d only as the third of the triumvirate,
precedency being affigned to Dante and Petrarch. It is
faid, that he was duly fenfible of his inferiority ; and that,
after having fcen the ibnnets and fongs of Petrarch, he deter-
mined to throw his own into the fire. His profe works,

which

B o d

which are more valuable, are his " Commentary on Dante,"
printed at Rome in 1.544, l6to. ; and at Florence, in 1576,
8vo. ; fome romances of an amorous kind, intermixed with
verfe, as " II Filocopo," " La Fiamctta," " L'Ameto,"
• II Laberinto d'Amore," &c. &c. But his moll cele-
brated proJ.uflion of this kind is his " Decamerone," or
colleflion of one hundred llories, or novels, feigned to have
been recited in ten days by a company of ladies and gentle-
men, who had retired into the country from the plague of
Florence in 1348. Thefe (lories are partly founded on faft,
and partly the produtlions of the author's own imagination ;
and they prcfent a curious exhibition of characters and man-
ners in all the ranks of fociety. They abound with fatitical
ftrokes levelled againll the vices and frauds of the priefls,
and even the mytleries of religion ; and the language, in
fome parts, is fo free and licentious, that we may well
\vonder at their being recited before females of charafter and
condition. However trite and vulgar many of the refleftions
may now appear, the ilyle in which they are delivered is
confidcred as a model of elegance and purity for the age m
which they were written, and places the Italian language far
beyond that of any modern nation at fo early a period. No
work was ever more popular, or more generally tranflated,
than the Decamerone. The llories that occur in this work
have fmniflied materials for fome of the moll popular pieces
of La Fontaine and other fimilar writers. Boccace affumes
the credit of having firll brought the writings of Homer and
of fcveral other Greek authois from Greece to Tufcany ;
and he was, without doubt, a moll indullrious and indefa-
tigable cop \ ill of the remains of antiquity. His poetry is
pronounced by his countrymen to be as feeble and languid
in its charafter, as his profe is exquifite and admirable. His
valuable library was bequeathed to a convent in Florence,
where it was long preferved. For a further account of his
bfe and writings, fee Fabricius's Bibl. Lat. medii xvi.
torn. i. p. 248. &c. ; and Tirabofchi, torn. v. p. 8J.439 —
451. Gen. Dia.

BOCCALE, or BocAL, a liquid meafure ufed at Rome,
anfwering to what among us is called a bottle, being equiva-
lent to about an Englifh quart. Seven boccahs and an half
make the rubbia.

BOCCALINI, Trajan, in Bkgrnphy, a fatirical writer
of the 1 6th century, was the fon of an archit'fl at Carpi,
and horn at Loretto in 1.556. At Rome, where he prin-
cipally rtfided, he had accefs, by the vivacity of his genius,
to feveral petfons of rank, a:id among others to cardinal
Bentivoglio, whom he inllrudlcd in geography. Prote£lcd
from the danger to which his fatirical turn expofed him, by
the influence of the cardinals Borghele and Gaetani, he alfo,
by their recommendation, obtained feveral offices of trull and
honour in the ecclefiallical (late, and was appointed to the
government of Benevcnto. But his public conduft oc-
calloned complaints, and he became obnoxious to the
Spaniards, .by expollng with freedom and feverity their de-
figns aaainll the liberty of Italy, fo that he was under a
necedity of retiring to Venice in 1612. In the following
J car, it is (aid that he was alTairniated bj four ruffians, who
broke into his chamber at an early hour in the morning,
and beat hiui fo feverely with fand-bags as to occafion his
death. Of his works, the moH celebrated is his " Raggu-
agli di Parnafo," or news from ParnafTus, in which, under
the fielion of a court in which Apollo prefidcs, he takes oc-
cafion to fatirlzc the aftiors and works of feveral perfons who
pafs under review ; but his refleftions frequently betray the
want of critical judgment and of a re-gard to truth. A lecond
part of this work, written with the fame views, is entitled
" The Secretary of Apollo." His " Political Touchftone,"

BOG

levelled againft the Spaniards, is of a fimilar kind. He
alfo wrote the " Political Balance," " Commentaries on
Tacitus," and fome other works. Tirabofchi. Gen.
Diet.

BOCCARELLA, in the Glafs-Manufaaurc, a fmall
hole or aperture of the furnace, one of which is placed on
each fide of the bocca. almoft horizontally with it. Out of
them the fervitors take coloured or (iner metal from the
piling pot.

BOCCAS, in Ichthyology, the Arabian name of a fifli
belonging to the Scomber genus, obferved by Fordval in
the Red Sea. Vide Scomber sassun.

BOCCHERINI, LuiGi, in Biography, who, we hope, is
dill living at Madrid, and whofe inllrument is the violoncello,
though he writes but little at piefent, has perhaps fupphed
the performers on bowed-indruments and lovers of muGc with
more excellent compofitions than any mailer of the prefent
age, except Haydn. His ftyle is at once bold, mallerly, and
elegant. There are movements in his works, of every Ilyle,
and in the true genius of the inllruments for which he
writes, that place him high in rank among the greateft
mailers who have ever written for the violin or violoncello.
There is perhaps no indrumental muiic more ingenious, ele-
gant, and pleafing, than his quintets ; in which invention,
grace, modulation, and good tade, confpire to render them,
when well executed, a treat for the mod refined hearers and
critical ')udges of mufical compofition.

BOCCHETTA, in Geography, a chain of mountains,
over which is the high road between Lombardy and Genoa ;
on the fummit of the highell, which is very deep, is a way
fo narrow that three perfons can hardly go a-bread, called
" The Pafs of Bocchetta," defended by forts, and confidered
as the key to the city of Genoa. In 1746, the imperialids,
having made themfelres maders of this pafs, found little
difficulty in proceeding to that capital. In 1778, a magni-
ficent road was made from the Bocchetta to the north of
Genoa, through the Polzevera, which, for the fpace of three
years, employed from 5 to 800 men, by the patriotic muni-
ficence of one noble family, the Cambiafi. The Polzevera in
the Bocchetta yields a beautiful done, which is ferpentine, of
various colours veined with marble.

BOCCHIANICO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Abruzzo citra, 3 miles S. E. of
Civita di Chicta.

BOCCIARDI, Clementi, called Ckmentone, in Biogra-
phy, a painter of hidory and portrait, was born at Genoa in
1620, and after having been the difciple of Bernardo Strozzi,
went to Rome for improvement, by a judicious obfervation
of the ancient fculptures, and the works of the celebrated
modern artids. By the efforts of his own excellent genius,
and a diligent application to defign, he difcovercd the art of
blending the antique and modern guds in a dyle both of
gracefulnefs and llrcngth. Mod of his works (his portraits
excepted, which were lively, natural, and graceful,) are in
the chapels of Genoa, Pifa, and other cities of Italy, where
they are much edeemed. Pilkington.

BOCCOLD, BocKHOLDT, or Beukels, John, com-
monly called John of Leyden, a journeyman-taylor of
Leyden, who, in the earlier part of the i6th century,
connedled himfelf with John Matthias, a baker of Haerlem,
and with his alTillance difplayed the adonifhing effects of fa-
naticifm and enthufiafm. Thefe two anabaptill prophets,
for this was the appellation which they afTumed, fixed their
refidence at Munller, in Wedphalia, and at length gained
fuch a number of profelytes, that they became maders of the
city, and edablifhed in it a new form of government, diredled
by Matthias, who iffued his commands, with the ilyle, and

witK

B O C

with the authority of a prophet. Matthias, having pil-
laged the city, amaffed large hoards of wealth, and reduced
all ranks to an equality, provided for its defence, by repair-
ing and extending its fortifications, by forming all his fol-
lowers, who were capable of bearing arms, into regular
bodies, and by endeavouring to add the vigour of difcipline
to the impetunfity of enthufiafm. After tiiefe preparations,
he fent out emiiTaries to the anabaptifts in the Low Countries,
inviting tlicm to aflemble at Muniter, which he dignified
with the title of Mount Sion, and from thence he propofed
that they (liould fct out to reduce all the nations of the
earth under their dominion. The bifhop of Munfter, juftly
alarmed by thefe hollile appearances, affcmbled an army, laid
fiege to the town, and flew Matthias, with 30 of his attend-
ants, in their firll frantic fally. Matthias, in the fame year
1554, was fuccecded by Boccold, who, more cautious than
his predecefTor, fatisfied himfelf with carrying on a defenfive
war, whilil he waited for the fuccours from the Low Coun-
tries, which he encouraged his deluded followers to expcft.
But though lets daring in aftion than Matthias, he was a
wilder euthufiaft, and of more unbounded ambition. Ac-
cordingly he marched naked through the ftreets, and pro-
claimed with a loud voice, " That the kingdom of Sion was at
hand ; that whatever was highell on earth (hould be brought
low, and whatever was lowell fhould be exalted." In order to
verify his declaration, he commanded the churches, and the
moft. lofty buildings in the city, to be levelled with the
ground ; and depriving Cnipperdorling, one of the moft con-
iiderable of their profelytes of the confullhip, the higheft
rank in the commonwealth, he degraded him to the humilia-
ting office of common executioner. In place of the depofcd
fenators, he named 12 judges, according to the number of
tribes in Ifrael, and referved to himfelf the authority pof-
fefled by Mofes as legiflator of the people. He further
declared to the afTembled multitude, that it was th- will of
God, that John Boccold (hould be king of Sion, and fit on
the throne of David. Accepting this heavenly calling,
which he pretended to have received by a fpecial revelation,
he was immediately acknowledged as monarch by the deluded
multitude, and aflumed all the ftate and pomp of royalty.
He wore a crown of gold, and was clad in the moft lump-
tuous garments. A Bible was carried by him in one hand,
and a fword in the other ; he appeared in public attended
by a body of guards, coined money with his own image, and
appointed the great officers of his houftiold and kingdom,
among whom Cnipperdorling was nominated governor of the
city, as a recompence for his former fubmiifion. As the
exccftes of enthufiafm have ufualiy led to ienfual gratifica-
tions, BoccoM inllrufted his pr phets and teachers to incul-
cate the lawfuhiefs of a plurality of wives, as one of the pri-
vileges granted by God to his faints ; and he himlelf fct
the example of this Chriftian liberty, a* he called it, bv mar-
rying at once three wives, one of whom was the beautiful
widow of Matthias. He proceeded with augmenting the
number of his wives to fourteen, reftrifting, however, the
title of queen to Matthias's widow, and allowing no other
to (hare with him the fplendour and ornamerts of royalty.
The multitude availing themfelves of his example, indulged
their defires to the molt licentious and extravagant cxcefs ;
and polygamy and freedom of divorce univcrfally prevailed.
The biihop of Munfttr, in the mean while, aided by the
German princes, prcffcd clofer the blockade of the town into
which the fiege had been converted ; but its fortifications
were fo ilrong, and fo diligently guarded, that they durft
rot attempt an aifault. But no fuccours arrived to the be-
fieged; and after a clofe blockade of about fifteen months,they
began to feel and lament the efTefts of fcarcity. However,

B O C

fuch was the fafcioating influence of Boccold's promife*
ai:d predirtlons, that no one feemed inclined, or at leaft pof-
fetfed refolution eooui^h, to propofe a furrender. One of his
wives, intimating a fmall doubt of liis divine rr.ilTion, was
fummoned before him asa blafphenner, and co.Timandipg her
to kneel, he cut off her head with his own hands ; his
frantic followers at the fame time dancing with joy round
the bleeding body of their companion. Notwithftanding all
the horrors of famine, the people of Muiifter (till rcfufed to
capitulate. At length, however, a deferter made his efcape
to the enemy ; and offered to head a party of the bcfi'^gers,
under cover of the night, to a weak part of the fortifications,
and Icfs vigilantly guarded than any other. The propofal
was accepted ; and the party fcaled the walls, feiztd one of
the gates, and admitted the relt of the army. A dreadful
carnage enfued ; the king and Cnipperdorling were taken
prifoners. The former, loaded with chains, was carried
about from city to city, as a fpcftaele to the people ; but
notwithftanding all their infults, he maintained a firm and
unbroken fpirit ; and adhered inflexibly to the tenets of his
feet. He Wis afterwards broUj^ht back, to Munfter, and fuf-
fered the moft exquifite as well as lingering tortures of death
with aftonifhmg fortitude ; thus finilhing an extraordinary
courfe of delution, at the age of 26 years. Baylc, Art.
Anahapt'ijls. Robertfon's Hift.of Ch. V. vol. iii. p. 99, &c.
Modieim's Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. 452, &c.

BOCCONE, Paolo, or P.^jl, an ingenious naturalift,
was born at Palermo, in Sicily, April 24th i6;3. He was of
a wealthy and refpedtable family, originally from Savona in
Genoa. To improve himfelf in natural hiftory, particularly in
botany, to which he was early attached, he travelled over
Sicily, Corfica, Malta, many parts of Germany, Holland,
and England, converCng with the moft eminent literary cha-
radters in the places he vifited, with whom he afterwards
kept up a correfpondence. In the courfe of his travels, he
was admitted doftor in medicine at Padua, was elected mem-
ber of the Academ. Naturas Curiof. and made botanill to
the grand duke of Tufcany. In 16S2, he entered among
the Ciftertian monks at Florence, and with the habit of the
order, took the name of Sylvio, which he affixed to his latter
works, but he was ftil' permitted to continue his refcarches
in natural hiftory. Returning at length to Sicily, he retired
to one of the houfes of the Cifttrtians near Palermo, where he
died, Dec. 22,1704. As he had been indefatigable in his re-
fearches, his collection of plants and other natural produc-
tions was very confiderable. Sherrard, who faw his hortus
fjccus, or fpecimens of dried plants, in 1697, was fo ftruck
with their mimber a.id beauty, that he engaged him to give
a catalogue of them to the public, which he did in his
" Mufao piante rare," publiihed at Venice in 4to. the fame
year. The catalogue was alfo publiihed by itfclf. Several
of his works appear to have been printed while he was on
his travels. The firft of them, " De abrotano mare mo-
nitum,"in 1668 ; and in the fame yjar, " Manifeftum bota-
nicum, de plantis SicuHs," Catanex, 4to. By an advcrtife-
ment at the beginning of the work, he offers to botanifts
the feeds of many of tlie curious and rare plants he had col-
ledted, at moderate prices. Morrifon publiihed an edition
of this work at Oxford in 1674, 410. under the title of
" Icones et defcriptiones rariorum plantarum Siciiias, Melitoe,
Gallix, et Italic." Many of the plants, Haller fays, were
new. The figures are fmall, and in general not well deli-
neated or engraved. His next production was " Re-
cherches et obfervations naturelles," publiihed at Paris in
167 1, i2mo. again at Amfterdam in 1674, and again in
1744, in 8vo. It confi'ls of letters to his corre(pondents in
France, Italy, England, &c. In 1684, in i6mo. " Oper-

vazioni

B O C

B O C

vai'ioni natural! ove fi contengono materle medico fifiche e early in the fprini?, and then plunged into a bed of taaner j

di botanica," Bologna. The obfervations are 26 in num- bark, and occafionally watered. When the plants are come

ber, and dedicated", or addrefled to fo many of the author's up, they niould be tranfplanted into feparate pots hlled with

friends and patrons, amonfr whom are many perfons of high hght ftindy earth, phinged again m the hot bed, and Hiaded

rank. He is very profiife in hii elo!;ia on ti.e medical virtue from the fun in the heat of the day, till they have taken

profiile in nu elog

of many of the plants, which he praifes far beyond their real
value. " Tenere oportet," Haller fays, " creduli'.m effe
virum, et in viribus mediois plantarum hberalem." " Mulseo
di fifica e di efperienze decorato di opervazioni naturali.

root : at firft they {hoiild be fparingly watered, but when
their ftems are become woody, they will require a larger fup-
ply. In about two rr.onths, they fhou'd be tranfplanted into
larger pots, and plunged again into the bark. In warm

Venet. 1697, 410. The author here alFumes the name of weather they fliould have a good (hare of freQi air, but

Sylvio. The obfervations are, as in t!ie former work, dedi- (hould never be taken out of the ftove.

cated to his noble patrons, and contain ample accounts of 2. B. cordata. " Leaves cordate, a little lobed." A

the medical virtues of various plants, much beyond what, native of China. Pankk elongated, with fingle, not divided,

from experience, they have been found to p^ ffefs. Some branches. Calyx -white, as in the preceding fpecies, but
fmaller differtations were printed in Mifcel. Naturs Cunof.

and in the Journal des Savans. On the whole, Boccone ap-
pears to have been an induftrious and intelligent writer, and
to be defervedly reckoned one of the promoters and im-
provers of botany. Haller Bib. Botan. Eloy. Dift. Hill.
Med.

larger. Stamens about 24. S'yh none. Sfigma bilamcllated,
fefiile. Willdenort-, by whom it was firil defcribed, as it
fhould feem, from a dried fpecimen.

BOCCORE, in Naturd ITiJloxy, n">0^. q- d- f''* and
early fruit, a name given in the kingdoms of Algiers and
Tunis, and alfo in Palci'ine, to the early fig, which was

BOCCONIA, in Botany, (named from Paolo Boccone, produced in June, in Paleitine, though the ktrmez, or
M.D.)agenusof theclafsfl'oAfaw^r/amonofjJHM. Nat. Ord. kermoufe, the % properly fo called, which they prefcrved
"""~ '~ "■ r, • 1 t: . . jji^ij made up into cakes, was rarely ripe before Auguft, and

fometimes hung upon the trees all the winter. Thcfe latter
figs continued a long time upon the tree before they fell off;
whereas the boccores dropped as foon as they were ripe, and,
according to the appropriate and beautiful allufion of the
prophet Nahum, (iii. 12.) fell into the mouth of the eater,
upon being fhaken. We learn from Pliny (N. H. 1. xvi.
c. 26.) that the fig-tree was bifera, or bore two crops of
figs, viz. the boccore, as we may imagine, and kermoufe : and
it is well known, that the fruit of thefe prolific trees always
precedes the leaves ; confequently, when our Saviour faw
one of them, in full vigour, having leaves, (Mark xi. 13.) he
miffht, according to the common courie of nature, very
jullly look for fruit, and haply find fome boccores, if not
fome winter-figs likewife upon it. The time of the year in
which the event referred to in this paffage occurred, was un-

Rhoeades. Pa/^rreracf^, Juflieu. I.in. gen. 591. Reich. 643
WiUden. 927. Schi-eb. 803. La Mark, p. 394. Gsrt. 44.
JufT. 2 J 6.

Jiir. Char. Cal. two-leaved. Cor. none. Style bifid. Pm-
ta/y*. two-valved. Seed one.

Gen. Char. PeriantJi two-leaved, ovate, obtufe, concave,
caducous. Cor. none. Stamens, before the opening of the
flower, from 12 to 24, afterwards feldom more than 10;
very (hort. Anther: linear, very large, as long as the calyx.
P'l'l. germ roundifh, contracted both ways, large, pedicelled.
Style one, bifid. Stigmas fimple, reflex. Pericarp, capfule
fubovate, attenuated to each end, comprefled, one- celled,
two-valved. Vahes coriaceous, opening at the bafe ; the
annular future crowned with the permanent ftyle. Seed one,
globular, involved in pulp at its bafe, fixed to the bottom
of the capfule. Ohfer-v. The capfule rtfembles a fihcule in

its general ftiape, and in the permanent future terminated doubtedly three or four days before the paffover, at which

by the ftyle. our Saviour was crucified, and the paflbver in that year fell in

Species, l. Boccoma frutefcens, (hrubby bocconia tree, the beginning of April. But it has been inquired, how Chrift

celandine, or parrot-weed. " Leaves oblong, finuatcd. could expeft to find ripe figs on the tree at the latter end of

Willd." An ornamental Ihrub, 10 or [2 feet high, with a March •' to which it is replied, becaufe figs were ripe fo

ftraiorht, hollow trunk filled with pith, covered with a foon in Judaea. It has been fati'^faftorily proved, that the

fmooth, white bark, and divided near its fummit into feve- harveft in Judaea began at the palfover, and ended at p-n-

ral cylindric branches. It abounds in all its parts with a tecoft ; and as the barley in Jiidsa was ripe in March, and

thick, yellowifh juice, fimilar to that of celandine. Leaves the wheat in April, we need not wonder, if there were ripe

fix or feven inches long, and about three broad ; alternate, figs in the beginning of April too, or before the time of the

oblong, femipinnatifid ; a little finuated, with oval, un-
equally toothed fegments ; green and fmooth above, glau-
cous, and a little tomentofe beneath ; on (hort petioles ;
flowers fmal!, greenifh, numerous, in large pyramidal, ter-
minating panicles ; braftes lanceolate.

paffover. This, indeed, was th^ iifual tim.e for the firil
ripe figs ; and therefore it was natural to exptil that there
(liould be figs at this feafon, more efpecially as the tree I'.ad
leaves, before which the fruit came forth ; and as the " time
of figs" as bifiiop Kidder has (hewn, the ti.v.e of gathering

It is a native of Mexico and the Weft Indies, where its in ripe figs, was not yet come. When S.. Mark fays, " for

acid juice is ufedto take offtetters and warts, and is alfo faid the time of figs was not yet," he does not d-rfign to give a

to be employed in dying yellow. It has an evident affinity with reafon of what he faid in the immediately foregoing claufe,

the celandines in its fenfible qualities and two-leaved caducous viz. '■ he found nothing but leaves," but he gives a reafon

calyx,butdiffersremarkably from them in its incomplete flow- of what he faid in the claufe before that, viz. "he came,

ers and monofpermous fruit. La Mark conjectures that its if haply he might find any thing thereon." And it was a

want of a corolla is owing to the change of its natural petals good reafon for our Saviour's coming and fecking figs on

into ftamens : for, he obfeiTC?, after the fall of the true the tree, becaufe the time of gathering them was not yet

ftamcns, four are conftaiitly left, which continue as long as • come. The tranfpofition above fuppofed, is not uncommon,

the calvx. See La Mark. Encyc. See Mark xvi. 3,4. Gen. xiii. 10. Jofli. xxii. 22. See

The fluubby bocconia was firft cultivated in England by Hallett's Notes on Texts of Scripture, vol. ii. p. 115, &c.

Mr. Miller in 1739, and has flowered and ripened its feeds Harmer's Obferv. vol. i.

in the phyfic garden at Chelfea. It is propagated by feeds, BOCH, John, in Biography, a modern Latin poet and

which ftiould be rowu in a pot filled with light frefh earth, claffical fchoiar, was born at Bniflels in 1555 ; and having

entered

B O C

B O C

entefed into the fervice cf cardinal Radzevil, accompanied
him to Rome, ai.d tncre ftiidied theology under Bcliarmin.
He afterwards trav-Utd into Poland, Livonia, and Ruffia,
and was in danger of loliug his feet by the froft in his
journey to Mofcow. Upon his return to the Low Coun-
tries, the duke of Panna appoint! d him fecretary to the
town-houfe of Antwerp. He died in 1609. His poetical
works, confilling of epigrams, elegies, heroic pocins, &;c.
were colleftcd, and printed at Coloijne in 1615. He has
been highly clteemed as a Latin pott by the critics of his
country, and called the " Btlgic Virgil." Gen. Did.

BoCH, in Geo^rophy, a river of the Netherlands, which
runs irto the M^ufe, 5 milts below Dinant.
BOCHARIA. SeeBucHARiA.

BOCHART, SAMihL in ^/o^raft/iy, a learnedorientallft,
was the fon of a miniiler of the reformed church at Rouen,
where he was born in iJCyQ. Having llutlitd polite litera-
ture at Pans, philofophy at Sedan, and divinity, with the
oriental laiignagcs, at Saiimur, and made a furprifing pro-
grefs at a very early age, he completrd his courle of oriental
literature under Erpcnius and Ludolf at Leyden. On his
return to France, he fettled as miniiler at Caen. In 164'j,
he publiflied liis " Phaleg" and " Canaan," the two
parts of his " Geographia Sacra," a work of very extraor-
dinary erudition and refearch, in which lie invei'tigatcs the
hiftory of the human race as recorded in the Bible, the
difperfion of mankind, and the oiigm of nations and lan-
guages, together v.ith a variety of collateral fubjeCts. Not-
withftanding the charge of fanciful interpretations and chi-
merical conicftures, which has been alleged againll fome
parts of this work, it has long maiatain-d a high degree
of reputati'jn, and furniihed an ample lupply of materials
for modern writers. In ilie progrefs ct this work, the
author was led to purfue a variety of inqinries concerning
the animals, vegetables, and minerals mentioned in the
facred writings, on which he intended to have compofed
diftinft treatifes ; but he only completed that relating to
animals, w!iich was printed at London in i66j, under the
title of " Hicrozoicon." In this work the errors are fuch
as muft unav(,idably occur at a period when the knowledge
of natural hiftory was very impertect, co;viparcd with that
of more moderr times. In compliance with the invitation
of queen Chriflina, Bochart vifited Sweden in 1652, ac-
companied by the learned Huet, who wrote an humourous
and elegant Latin poem on their journey. But finding
that the capricious levity of the SwtdilTi queen was not
fuited to his own gi-ave character, he returned to France in
1653, and refumed his former ftudies. He was a member
of the academy at Caen, and by his moderation and can-
dour, maintained the diftingiiifned reputation which he ac-
quired by his profound erudition, together with the cftecm
and refpeft of perfons of ail partita, till the time of his
death, which happened, in confrquence of an apopleftic
ftroke, during a diipatation with Huet in the iicademy.
May 16, 1667. I'tfi es the learned works already men-
tioned, Boch.irt left feveral dilTertations, particularly one,
in which he attempts to piove that jEneas never was in
Italy. His works were collected and printed by M. de
Vilkmandy at Leyden in lyia.in 3 vols, folio. Gen: Did.

BOCHO, in Geograph'/, a town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of Upper Saxony, and principality of Querfurt, j miles
S. E. of Jii'erbock.

BOC'iOLl.fCZE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Sai.Qomirz, 20 miles E.-S.E. of Radom.

BOCHOLT, or BocKOLT, a town of Germany, in a
prefefturaie of the fame name, in the bifhopric of Mun-
fter, and circle of Wellphalia ; feated en tlie Aa, and

Vol. IV.

having iron mines in its vicinity ; 36 miles W.S.W. cf
Munlier.

BOCHOL^LT, or Bochout, a town of Flanders,
fituate on a canal cut from the Scheldt ; 4 miles N. W. of
Sas-Je-Gent.

BOCK, Blauer Bock, in Zoology, a fynonymous name
of the blud antelope, anlilcpe leucopkaa. Kolbe. — Bock alfo
fignifies the male of the common goat. Gefn. Thitrb.

BOCKA, or BucKAU, in Geography, a mine town of
Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxcny, and country of
Erzgeberg, 3 mi'es W. of Schwartzenberg.

BOCKENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Wellphalia, and bifhopric of Minden, one mile from Minden.

BOCKENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, and county of Hanau-Muiizenberg ; z
miles W. N. W. of Franekfort on the Mayne.

BOCK KORD, or Book-Hoard, in Jlnttquily, a place
where books, evidences, ot writings were kept.

BOCKHORST, John Van, in Biography, ■a.-p^\nX.i:r oi
hiftory and portrait of the Flemilh fchool, was born at Muu-
ftcr, about the year 1610; and removing to Flanders, ac-
quired the art of dtfign and colouring in the fchocl of Jac-
ques Jordaens. He defigned well ; the heads oi his wom.en
are generally graceful, and thofe of his men diftinguiihed by
character : his tone of colouring fometiincs refemblcd that
of Rubens, but more frequently that of Vandyck. His
pitlures have great force and harmony, and his ikilf/l ma-
nagement of the chiaro-fcuro produces an agreeable effect.
An altar piece at the church of St. James in Ghent, le-
prefenting the martyrdom of this faint, and a pidture of the
Annunciation in another church, painted in 1664, arcdiftin-
guillitd performances of this mailer. l)efcam.ps. Pilking-
ton.

BOCKI, in Geography, a fmall town of Poland, in Po-
dalachia, in the palatinate of Bielfk.
BOCKING. See Braintree.

Bo c KING herring, in the Dutch Trade, fignifies the fame
with bloated herring among us.

BOCK-KOGO, in Geography, a vaft peak of the Bren-
ner mountains in the Tyrol, riling little inferior to Gefrorn,
and in the fame latitude, but towards the well.

BOCK-LAND, or Book-land, formerly denoted that
which we now call FREEH0LD-/a«(/, or CHARTER-tow.-;'; and
it was by that name diftinguifhed from FOLK-Zam/, which
was C0PYH0LD-/ani/. In Ancient Lazv-Wriiers, it denotes
a poflellion or inheritance held by evidence in writing. The
word was doubtlefs wntten boeh-land, quafi Icoh-laiid, anfwer-
ing to free land, or land held by book or charter, which v>-as
regarded as free property, and defcended to the heirs of the
polfelfor. It ilood oppofed to YOi.vi-lanJ, which was that
held without writing.

BOCKUM, BocHUM, or Bocheim, in Geography, a
town and prefefturate of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and county of Mark ; feated in a very fertile diftrict,
24 miles N. li. of DufTeldorp, and 35 N. of Cologn.

BOCNIA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cra-
cow, famous for its falt-mines, firll difcovered in 125 1.
The fmall river called Raab, that falls into the Viftula, runs
near this town, which is furrounded with hills and emi-
nences. The falt-minc of Bocnia is in a narrow flip of land,
about 750 feet in breadth from north to louth, and about
10,000 feet in length from eaft to weft, and its greatell
depth below the furface is about lioo feet. The fait lies in
veins, and is fome what finer, efpecially at a certain depth,
than that of Wieiiczka. It is cut in fmall pieces, and put
up in cafks. Largepiecesof black wood have been fou id in
this nunc, which are incrufted with fait ; and likewife ala-

4S bafkr,.

BOD

bafter. The mines, \\4iich are very dry, are under the di-
redlion of the magillrates of Wieliczka. The town is 20
miles E. of Cracow.

BOCZEY KOWO, a fmall town of Lithuanian Ruflia,
in the palatine of Polock.

BODiEUS A. Staph L, John, in Biography^ was born
at Amfterdam the beginning of the 17th century-, where, at
a proper age, he was admitted doftor in medicine, but at-
tached himfelf particularly to botany, in which he acquired
confiderable celebrity. He died in i6;6, at an early age,
leas'ing a work, on which he appeared to have bellowed much
labour, prepared for the prefs, which was publiftied fome
years after, viz. Joannes Bodsus, a Stapel, in Theophrafti
Hiiloriam Plantarum, fol. Amft. 1644. Eloy's Did. Hill.
Med.

BODAISKA, in Geography, a town of Hungary, 7
miles W. of Patak.

BODDAERTI, in Ichthyology, a name given to a fpecies
of ChvETODOn. This has the body variegated with brown
and blue bands, and the ventral fins armed with two fpines.
Schr. dcr. berl. naturf. Gmel. The habitat of this tilh is
unknown.

BoDDAERTi, a fpecies of Gobi us, found in the Indian
ocean. Pallas defcribes it fpecifically as having the rays of
the anterio_£ dotrfal fin cirriform, and the third ray very long.
Tills fifli is fix inches in length ; the body blueiih brown,
pale and yellowilh beneath, of a convex fliape, tapering in a
flight degree towards the tail, and covered with fmall foft
fcales. The head is thick, blunt, fomewhat convex, and
fpotted with brown and white. Jaws nearly equal. Lips
thick and flefiiy : eyes vertical. Lateral line with fcarcely
perceptible papilla, and a few fnowy white fpot?. Each
ilde of the back marked with feven black fpots, and on the
fides below thele as many dots of white. Vent nearer the
head than the tail ; furrounded by a black circle, with a
conic peduncle behind. Dorfal fins blueilh-black, the an-
terior ones fpotted with white, the other with fctaceous rays,
and fix tranfverfe white lines between each ray. Peftoial
fin rounded. Tail blueifh white. In the firil dorfal fin five
rays, in the fecond twenty-five; peftoral twenty-one ; ven-
tral thirty-four ; anal twenty-five ; caudal eighteen. Pallas.
Gmel. &c.

BODECKEN, in Geography, a town of Geimany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and bifhopric of Paderbom, 4 miles
N. N. E. of Buren.

BODEGAS, a town of North America, in the province
ofVerapaz, on the north-eaft coaft of Dolce-bay. N. lat. 15°
4o'.W. long. 75°35'.

BODEGNE'E, a town of France, the principal place
of a canton, in the dillrift of Huy, and department of
Ourte; the place contains 320, and the canton 7422 per-
fons ; the territory comprehends 1071 kiliometres, and 17
communes.

BODEGON, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, 4 leagues
from Seville.

BODEKKER, in Biography, a painter of portraits, was
born in the country of Cleves, in 1660, and abandoning the
profeffion of mufic for which his father had intended him,
he was placed as a difciple, in the art of painting, under
John De Baan, at the Hague. He commenced the exer-
cife of his profeffion at Bois-le-Duc and Breda with great
reputation ; and having refided fome time at the Hague, he
clofed his hfe in 1727, at Amfterdam, where his perfoim-
ancels were much efteemed. Pilkington.

BODENBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony, and bifliopric of Hildefheim ; 8
milesN.E. of Alfeld.

BOD

BODENETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudini ; 10 miles N. of Chrudim.

BODENFELDE, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and principality of Calenberg, feated on the
Wefer, in the quarter of Gottingen.

BODENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Hefle, 18 mile*
E.N. E. ofCalTel.

BODENI, in Andcnt Geogriiphy, a people of European
Sarmatia, according to Ptolemy.

BODENLEICH, in Geogrujihy, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Luneburgh-
Zell ; 32 miles N. E. of Zell.

BODEN-SEA, a name fometimes given to the gulf of
Bothnia, which fee.

BODENSTEIN, Adam, in Biography, a celebrated
German phyfician, fon of a famous theologian, called trom
the place of his refideiice, Carloltadt, was born there ii\
152^. He was a pupil, and ifienunus defender ot the doc-
trines of Paiacelfus, in which he appears to have placed ail
entire confidence. For a malignant fever raging at Bade, in
1577, he went there, armed v.itli a Tiieriaca, co.nipofed on the
principles of his mailer, with which he boafted he (hould be
able to fnbdue the fever ; but taking the infeftion, he fell
a facrifice to his credulity and temerity. Bcfides editing
feveral of the works ot Paraocliiis, he left the following^
which were collected and publilhed in one volume tolio, at
Bafle, in 15S1.

•' Epillola ad Fuggeros, in qua .\rgunienta Alchymiam
infirmantia, et confinnantiaadducnntur; quibus ct eam artent
efle veriffimam dcmonllratur ; lapifque vere inventus oftendi-
tur." " De Podagra prefeivatione, traftatus." " De herbis
duodecim zodiacl fignis, dicatis, 5:c." Adamus records bis
epitaph, placed on his monument, he fays, at his own deiire,
in which he is faid to have died, anno falutis, 1577, astatis
hcbdomada feptima, for feven times feven, or 49 year,;. Alfo
the following lines, in which Bodenilein is fuppofeJ to fay i
" Nfc omnia, nee omnes mihi
Placuere : quinam egoomnibub?
Non omnibus cous feiiex,
Non eremita fpagirus.
Nam tu viator omnibus ?
-Deo placere cura. Abi."

Adami Mclch. Vitae Germ. Med. Haller Bib. Med. Eloy
Did. Hift.

BODENWERDER, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Lower Saxony-, and principality of Calen-
berg, fcatcd on the Wefer ; 16 miles S. of Hamelen. It
has lome trade with Bremen and Hamburg in coarfe linen.

BODEN-ZEE, a name given by the Germans to the
fuperior hke of Conftance, which fee.

BODERIA, or BoDOTRiA, in Ancient Geography, an
jeftuary mentioned by Ptole.Tiy in his dtfcription of Great
Britain, which is the prefent Firth of Forth in Scotland.

BODGURV A, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia, 2S miles N. N. W. of Kaftamoni.

BODIANUS, or BoBiANUS, in jincient Geography, a
borougli of Italy, which was repsopled by a decree ot Julius
Cxfar.

BoDiA>jus, Bodian, in Ichthyology, a genus of Thoracic
filhes, firft eftabliihed by Dr. Blo'ch, for the reception of
fuch fpecies of the two Li;ina:an genera Sparus and PtRCA,
as have certain charaders common to both, and are not
therefore fufficiently diilind to be divided ir.to two genera.
The charadcr of this new genus, as laid down in the firft
inilance, confilts in having the gill covers fcaly, armed, and
f mooth, or even at the edges. Un Jer this head Dr. Bloch

dcfcribes

BOD

BOD

defcribes ten fpecies only, namely, Botilanuj lorFtanut, ba-
ilianiis gullntus, bcrlinnus pentacantbus, bodianus licnac, lo-
dtar.us aya, bod'ianvs niarnlritus, bodlnnus apua, bodianus
macrolspidolus, bodianus Jlellifer, and bodianus arnenteus,
Lacepede, in adopting the genus Bodianus, coniiderably
augments the- number of its fpecies by the addition ot others
jiot previoufly defcribcd under either of the Linnaean genera.
In his " Hilloire Naturelle des Poifons," there arc altogether
no lefs than four and twentv fpecies. The generic charafter
is modifii.d, and two feftioiis formed to admit them. Its
eiTcntial chara&er is thus exprefled : one or more fpines to
the gill covers, the margins of which are neither denticulated,
nor jagged ; only a little beard, or foraetimes none to the
jaws ; and a fmgle dorfal fin.

The tirlt feftion of the Bod'ans include thofe which have
the caudal (m furcated in the form of a crefctnt, of which
tliere are fourteen kinds ; le bodian ceilere [bodianus pal [>ebra-
tus), le bodian loutl, le bodian jaguar [bodiunus pentacantbus),
le bodian macrolepidote, le bodian argente, le bodian B'och
{bodianus bcdianus), le bodian aya, le bodian tachetc, le bodian
vivanet, le bodian Fifcher, le bodian decacanthe, le bodian
lutjan, le bodian grofie tete, and le bodian cycloftome.

in the fecond divifion, the fpecies of which have the tail
fin entire, Lacepede defcribes only ten, le bodian rogaa, le
bodian lunaire, Ic bodian melanoleuque, le bodian Jacob
Evertfcn, le bodian bcenac, le bodian hiatule, le bodian
apua, le bodian etoile, le bodian tetracanthe, and le bodian
fix raies.

The genus Bodianus is rccognifed, and admitted by Dr.
Shaw into the general zoology. He includes in this tribe
precifely the fame fpecies as tliofe defcribed by Dr. Dloch,
with five additional fpecies defcribed by Lacepede as Bodi-
ans, namely, perca louti, Gmel. fparus palpebratus, Gmel.
perca rogaa, Gmel. perca lunaria, Gmel. and bodianus
nielanoleucus of Lacepede. But the generical defioition of
the Bodianus, as given by this author, is evidently at vari-
ance with that affigned to it by others. The great objeCl
of the Ichthyologill, in eftablifliing the new genus bodianus,
inuft have been to fcparate from the two genera perca and
fparus, fuch fpecies as do not 'iriftly belong to either ; and
unlefs this could be accompli (lied in a fatisfadory manner, it
were better to permit them to remain where Linnaeus placed
them. By fome uuufual overfight Dr. Shaw appears to
have failed in this rcfpeft ; his bodiani are not fufBciently
dillinguifhcd from the Linncean percx, as the following ge-
neric character will (hew : " Ho.hit of the genus perca. Gill
covers fcaly, ferrated and aculeated. Scales (in mod fpecies)
fmoot'i." The gill-covers of the perca, according to this
writer, are fcaly and ferrated, and the fcales of the body (in
moft fpecies) hard and rough. According to this definition ;
a perch with fmooth fcales, and the denticulations of the gill
covers confpicuouflv large, may be millaken for a bodian ;
and a hard fcaled bodian, on the contrary, for a perch. If we
are to allow an innovation on the Linn^an arrangement by
the infertion of the genus bodianus, its true character feems
to be that the plates which conllitute the gill-covers are
fmooth at the edges, and only armed with one or more dif-
tinft fpines ; while the ierrated edges of thofe pHtes as plainly
point out the percce : and if the plates be both Ierrated and
aculeate!, we conceive it highly proper to retain them under
the old Linnxan ^enws perca.

BODIN, John, in Biograpliy, a famous lawyer of France,
was born at Angers in l5io, tludied the law at Touloufe,
and preferring the common to the civil law, quitted Touloufe
and entered at the bar in Paris ; but not fucceeding to his
expectations, he devoted himfelf to literature. He com-
menced his career as a writer, with a tranflation into elegant

Latin verfe of " Oppian's Cynegeticon," or books of hunt-
ing, accompanied with learned notes, claimed as his own by
Turntbus. His " Method of Hiftory," was published in
I 566, and his " Difcourfe on Coins," with an anfwer to
the paradoxes of Midellroit in 1568; but thefe were intro-
duftorj to his great work in French, " Concerning a Re-
public," printed in 1576, in folio, and frequently reprinted
in 8vo. To this work the prefident Thuanus bears very
honourable teftimony ; it was alfo much commended by
other perfons of learning ; and obtained for the author a
high degree of reputation tliroughout Europe. It became
the text-book of private lectures both at London and Cam-
bridge. His tables of law, entitled " Juris Univerfi Diilri-
butio," were printed in 1578, a^d in the following year his
" Demonomanie dts Sorciers," to which was annexed "A
Refutation of the book, de Lamiis," ofJohnWier, phyfi-
cian to the duke of Cleves, who had undertaken to prove that
the ftories of witchcraft and forcery have chiefly arifen from
impofture or dclulions of fancy. The literary character of
Bodin, who defended this kind of fuperllition, incurred re-
proach, and he himfelf was fufpefted of being a magician.
Before this time he had been invited by Henry III. to his
court, who was much delighted with his converfation and
treated him with attention and refpeft. But the royal fa-
vour was of no long continuance ; for Bodin, who held an
office in the prefidial court of Laon, was fent, in 1576, as a
deputy of the third eftate of Vermandois, to the affembly of
the ilates-general at Blois ; where he remonftrated againfl
the project of alienating the royal demefnes belonging to
that province ; and this he did with fuch effefl, that Thu-
anus principally alcribed the defeat of the injurious fcheme
of alienation to his conduct on this occafion. Bodin alfo re-
folutely oppofed the party of the Guifes, who were endea-
vouring to procure a decree for compelling all the king's
fubjeCls to profefs the catholic religion. By fuch meafures
he became obnoxious at court ; and be, therefore, accepted
a propofal made to him by the king's bi other, the duke of
Alengon and Anjou, to accompany him to his government
of the United Provinces. He afterwards attended him to
England, and, it is faid, that he advifed the feizure of Ant-
werp, in confequence of which the duke loft both credit
and influence. After the death of his patron, Bodin re-
turned to Laon, anddifcharged the ofGceof chief magiftrate
with great integrity. In this city he died of the plague in
1596. A work, written by him but never printed, and en-
titled " Heptaplomeron, five de abditis rerum fubhmium
arcanis," is faid to have been an attack upon religion, and
defigned to invalidate the authority of revelation. By the
feemiiig advantages which he gave in this vork to the Jev.-ifti
religion, he was lufpeded of being a convert to it ; but it is
more probable, tliat he was a fceptic with regard to religion,
and alike indifferent to all modes of faith. A little while
before his death he publilhcd a Latin treatife, entitled
" Theatrum Univerfse Naturae," in which he purfues the
caufts and ';fFet\s of things to their principles. B din was
of an ardent and inqnifuivc temper ; and his erudition was
fuperior to his judgment. Gen. Dift.

BODLEY, Sir Thomas, was born at Exeterin 1544,
and at I 2 years of age removed with his father to Geneva,
who took his family thither to avoid the perfecution of queea
Mary's reign. In the univerlity cfthat city he commenced
his rtudies ; and when his father returned to England, on
the acceffion of queen Ehzabeth, he was fent to Magdalen
college, Oxford, where he remai^'ed for fome years, arid be-
came fellow of Merton college. Here he read kdures in
Greek and philolnphy, and officiated as proftor and public
orator. In 1576 be went a'oroad for improvement, and

482 fpent

BOD

fpent four years in his travels. In 15S3 he was made gentle-
man-ulhci- to the queen; and iiaving married, he entered into
pubUc Hfe, and was empUiyed in various foreign embalTies.
At the Hague, where he refided feveral years, his chief
biifincfi was tlie negotiation of money-concerns between the
States and queen Ehzabeth. After his final return to Eng-
land, in 1597, he found that his further advancement was ob-
ftruAed by the intrigues and jealoufies of perfons in power,
and he therefore formed a fixed purpofe of retiring from all
public alTairs, deroting the remainder of his life to the laud-
able employment of refouiidiiig the univtrlity library at Ox-
ford, furnilhing it with books, and enlarging the building.
See LiiiRARY. At the aeccflion of king James, Mr. Bodky
received tlie honour of knighthood. He died in 16 12, and
was buried in Merton college choir. An annual oration is
dill fpoken in his praife. Biog. Brit.

CoDt-F.Y, John, who pratlifed phyfic in London, in the
beginning of the lall century, publilhed, in 1741, a critical
clfay on the works of various authors, particularly on thole
treating on medicine, with the view of fliewing that neither
Uiofe phylicians who wrote the moft correft and valuable
•treatifos on medicine, nor thofe who were the moll intelligent
practitioners, were ufually the moll encouraged : fame and
fuccefs being more commonly the appendages of craft and
pulicy, than of flcdl and judgment. A fimilar opinion was
held by the late Dr. Samuel Johnfon, who thought a judi-
cious hillory of the fate of phylicians might prove both an
entertaining and ufeful work. Something of this kind was
done by Pierius, in his book " De Literalorum Infelici-
tate," but on a larger fcale, embracing the whole commu-
nity of letters. Eloy. Diet. Hill.

BODINC'OMACUM, in ylncient Ceogfaphy, the name of
a borough of Italy in Liguria, where, according to Pliny,
the river Eridanus was at its grcateft depth ; called in his
lime " Indullria."

BODIONTICI, a people whom, according to Pliny,
Galba annexed to Galha Narbonnenlis ; but before tins
time they formed a part of the Ligurian,-. M. D'Anville
)ias placed them in the maritime Alps. Their capital was
Dinia.

BODKIL, in Geogrnphy, one of the channels between
Flanders and Walchtren ifland, in Zealand, by which great
Ihips may fail in.

BODMER, in Bio^rapliy, a celebrated profelTor and
writer of owiflerland, was born at Zurich in l6y8 ; and be-
came profeffbr of Helvetic hillory and politics in his native
place. In this ofhee he taught his pupils to think for them-
felves, and to make fuch obfervations on hillorieal fa£ls as
might render them intimately acquainted with the human
heart. He wrote the hillory of his own country in the form
of dramatic dialogius. Although he became one of the
moll voluminous of the German poets, and contributed in a
oreat degree to reform the talle of his contemporaries, and
to fiimiiiarize them to the fublime beauties ot Homer and
Milton, he had fcarcely written a verfe in the German
laiiguage before he was 50 years of age, when the firll canto
of Klopllock's Mcfiiah fell into his hands, and excited his
emulation. His firll cfTays were in epic poetry, the fubjefts
ot which he took from the Scriptures, but he afterwards de-
voted his niufe to other topics ; and it is oblervable, that old
age, which generally increafes aullerity of manners, had the
contraiy eflccl on Bodnier; infomuch that his lad pieces
were the moll gay, and that when he was 80 years old, he fre-
quertly amufed himielf with TibuUns and Petronius, andalfo
with Boecace ;;nd la Foritaine. At the age of 77, he began a
tranflation of Homer's Iliad and OdyfTey, which he finilhed;
he was 80, alfo, when he pubhflied his vcrfion of the Argo-
nautics of Apollonius llhodius. He died in 17S3, at the

BOD

age of 85 years. Bodmer has been dtfervedly ftyled by the
unanimous voice of his contemporaries, " the father of Ger-
man literature ;" whole jufl critieifms and correft judgment
animated the poetical genius of Klopllock, Haller, and
Gefner. Bildnilfe, &c. or Portraits of celebrated German
Literati, &c. Rome, i^iy-;.

BODMIN, in Geovraphy, an ancient borough and market
town of Cornwall, England, is f.ated near the eallern bor-
ders of the county, on the confi\ies of Devonfliire. This
town appears to have been formerly the principal ieat of re-
ligion in the wellern diftrict, and contained a priory, a col-
legiate church, and, acoordi\ig to Hals, thirteen other
churches, or free chapels. The remains and loimdations of
fome of their religious llruftures Hill exill ; and the fites of
others are remembered by the old inhabitants. Among thefe
were the priory with its chapel, &c. vSt. Peter s cluirch, St.
Paul's church, on the northern fide of the town, of which a
folitary fquare tower remains ; St. Nicholas, or the friary.
The prefent town-hall and fcfiion houfc occupy the fite, and
are conllru6ted witii parts of the latter building. The firlt
religious foundation of Bodmin was removed to it from Pad-
(low, a town on the northern coall of the county, which
being much infefted by the .Saxons and D ines, was the re-
fort of the monks for greater protection and fafety. Here
they eitabhflied the priory, and its various dependent build-
ings ; all of which gradually decayed after the removal of
the fee. The town occupies the northern face of a hill, and
confills principally of one long llreet llretching call and wefl.
Near the eallern end of it is the parifh church, a large an-
cient ftrudlure, confilUng of three ailes, and a tower which
is attached to the north lide. The chancel part is certainly
the moll ancient, and was formerly connected with the
priory-building. An old chapel, now appropriated to a
fchool-room, llill remains near the eall end of the church,
and a little farther call is a neat modern manfion, occupy-
ing the lite of the domellic part of the priory. A mo-
nument richly and curioudy feulptured, of one of the prior*
of this houfe, is carefully prefei-ved in the chancel. This
was made to commemorate the name and official charafter
of Thomas Vivian, who w?.i bifhop of Megara, and died in

1533-

Bodmin is dillinguiflicd among the mmierous boroughs of
Cornwall, as being tlie only one free from the controul of
a patron. It was firll made a borough in the time of
Henry II. and its privileges were afterwards confirmed by
king James I. who incorporated it in the 15th year of his
reign. In 1799, .a new charter was obtained, which veiled
the government in a town clerk, twelve aldermen, and twenty-
four eoniinon council-men, who hold the lole privilege of
elefting two members for parliament. About half a mile
N.W. of the town is a regular, commodious county gaol,
which w^as begun building in 1779, from defigns by Sir
John Call, who plainud it according to the fyllem recom-
mended by the pliilanthropic Howard.

Bodmin gave birth to Dr. Richard I>ower, an ingenious
phvfician and anatonnll, who made various experiments on
the transiufion of blood from one animal into another. This
town has a market on Saturday, is 23J miles fouth weft
from London, and contains 27S houles, and 1951 inhabi-
taiitti.

BODOBRICA, in Jnaait Geography. See Baudo-

BRICU M.

BODODO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Benin, containing about 50 houfes, or little cabins,
built of reeds and covered with leaves. Here a viceroy has
his refidence, attended by a councd, whole jurifdiftion ex-
tends over this canton in all civil affairs, levying taxes, and
rating duties and impolh on merchandize. In criminal cafes

of

BOD

BOD

of gveat importance, the viceroy and council arc obliged to fpun very fine. Thefe are.contradiftinguifhed from brittle

iend to Benin, the capital, for the orders of the court.

BODOK, a diftriit of Lower Hungary, in the province of
Nitra, containing loi large villages.

BODON. See Widin.

BODROG, a diftrift of Hungary, near the Danube, 30
miles S. E. of Colocza, inhabited by RulTians and a ieiv
Hungarians. — Alfo, a river of Upper Hungary, which has

bodies.

Bodies, Jpccific gravi/y of. See Grayitt, and Weight.

Body, denfe. See Density.

Body, rrt/-i°. See Rake.

Body, luminous, or Judd, that which emits its own rays, or
(hincs by its own light.

Body, illuminated, that which diffufer the light of another

its fource in the Carpathian mountains, and difchargcs itfelf by rt-fleclion, or which fhines by borrowed 'i fht

into the Tlieis near Tokay.

BODTY, in Zoology, the name of a certain kind of
American fnake, fuppoled to be of the nmphi/bjtna tribe, but
of which this fpecies is apparently duusttul. The fame
fnake is likewiie called Ibijara.

BODUNGEN, Gri-at, in Geography, a market town of
Germany in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Klct-
tenberg, ^ miles north of Bleicherode. Little Bodungen lies
in the bailiwick of Lora, 4 miles north of Blci-lierode.

BODWEI.L's Falls, lie in Mercimack river, between
Andover and Methuen, in North America, about 5 miles
below Patucket falls.

BODY, in Phyftcs, a folid, extended, palpable fub'lance ;
of itfelf merely paffive, and indifferent either to motion or
reft : but capable of any fort of motion, and of all figures
and forms.

The word alludes to the Saxon lod'ige, Jlalure ; and to
the Belgic hoode, a cover, q. d. the tahernade of the foul.
Body is compofed, according to the Peripatetics, oi matter,
form, and privalion ; according to the Epicureans and Cor-
pufcularians, of an affcmblage of hooked, heavy atoms ; ac-
cording to the Cartefians, of a certain quantity o( exten/ion ;

accordmg to the Newtonians, of a lyllem or affociation of according to three dimcnfions : in which fenfe, body makes
folid, maffy, hard, impenetrable, moveable/>(/r//V/cv, ranged or the fubjeft of geometry

Body, opahe, that which intercepts the rays of light, or
prevents their p-jflTage through it.

Body, Iranfpurait, diapkanons, at pellucid, that which tranf-
mits the rays of light. S'.e Transparency.

Body, the inertia of. See Vis inertia.

Bodies, homogeneous . See Homogeneous.

Bodies, congruous, thofe whofe particles have the fame
magnitude and velocity, or at leaft harmonical proportions of
magnitude and velocity.

Bodies, incongruous, thofe which have neither the fame
magnitude, nor the fame degree of velocity, nor an harmoni-
cal proportion of magnitude and velocity.

Body, hard. See Hard.

Body, volatile, that which rifes by the force of heat. See
Volatile.

Bodies are divided into animate and inanimate ; i.e. into
thofe informed by a foul, and thofe which are not ; or thofe
that have life and thofe that have none.

Some confider bodies, either as natural znd fen fble ; vh.
as formed by phyfical caufes, and clothed by phviical quali-
ties (in which fenfe, body makes the objecl of phyfics) ; or,
HS intellectual or quantitative, in the general or abi'.ract ; and

difpofed in this or that manner ; whence refult bodies of
this or that form, dillinguiditd by this or that name. Thefe
elementary or component particles of bodies mull be infinitely
hard ; vaiUy harder than the bodies compounded of them ;
nay, fo ha'-d as never to wear, or break in pieces. " This,"
fir If.iac Newton obierves, " is neceffary in order to the
world's perfifting in the fame ftate, and bodies continuing of
the fame nature and texture in feveral ages."
Body, a^ecliont of. See Affection.
Body, colours of. See Colour.
Body, elements of. See Element.
Body, cffoice of. See Essence.
Jjody, exi/lence of. See Existencf.
Body, exten/ion of. See Extension.
Body, modes of. See Mode.
Body, motion of. See Motion.
Body, qualities of. vSce Quality.
V>ov>\ , fjUdity of. See Solidity.

VtOOY , flid, that whofe particles cohere, or are fome way
connected with each oiher. See Solid.

Body, fuid, that whufe particles eafily flide over each
other, and are ot a fit fize to be agitated by heat ; or that
whofe particles do not cohere, but are eafily put in motion
by the fmallcft force. See Fluid.

Body, rough, that whofe furface is befet alternately with
eminences and cavities, in contradiftinftiou from a fmooth
bodv.

Bodies, dudile, thofe which being ftretched do not break,
but extend one way as much as they fhrink another. Of
thefe fome are hard and malleable, as metals ; others, foft or
•jifcid, as glues, gums, &c. Mem. Acad. Scien. an. 17 13.
p. 268.

Movies, fle.\ille, thofe which admit of being bent without
breaking ; fuch are thread, wire, fibres, and even glafs, when

Bodies, alkaline, coufiflenf, elafHc, fxt, heterogeneous, atmO'
fphcre of, defcent of, mercury of. See tlie feveral articles.

Body, with regard to animals, is ufed in oppofition to
foul ; viz. for that part of an animal, compofed of bones,
mufcles, canals, juices, nerves, &c. concerned in digeftion,
circulation, &c.

In which fenfe, body makes the fubjeft of comparative
anatomy. See Anatomy.

ViovsY , faculties of the. See Faculty.

Body is alfo applied by anatomifts to feveral particular
parts of the animal fabric — As, the callous body of the
brain, the cavernous or fpongeous bodies of the penis, &c.

Body, reticular. See Reticular.

Body, in fpeaking of a horfe, denotes the cheft, but chiefly
the flanks.

A horfe is faid to have a good body, when he is full in the
flank J a light body, when he is thin or llender in the
flank. If tlie laft of the fhort nbs be at a confiderable
dillauce from the hanuch-bone, though fuch a horfe may-
have a tolerable body for a time, if he be much laboured,
he will lofe it. It is a general rule r.evtrto buy a horfe that
is light bodied and fiery, becaufe he will prefently deftroy
himfelf.

Body of a plant, in Botany. See Botany.

Body oJ a piece of crd.nance, in Gunnery, that part compre-
hended between the centre of the trunnions and the cafca-
bcl. It ought always to be more fortified than the reft. See
Cannon.

Body of a pump, in Hydraulirs, the thickeft part of the
barrel or pipe of a pump, within which the piilon moves.
See Pump.

Body, in Grawc/cji, denotes the fame with folid, which fee.

Bodi es, regular, or Platonic, are thofe which have all their
fides, angles, and plaiKs, fimilar and equal.

Of

B O E

Of tTiefe there are only five ; viz. the tetrahfdrorr, conTifl-
jng of four angles ; the oaabeclron, of eight ; the kofahcdron,
of twi-nty ; the doikcahsJron, of twelve pentagons ; and the
cube of fix fquares. Sec Regular ^ofl'/Vx ; fee alfo Te-

TR AHFDRON, S(C.

Body, in I.aiu. — A man is faid to be bound or held in
lody and goods ; that is, he is liable to remain in pnfon in
default of payment.

A woman, though in other refpefts (he cannot engage her
perfon but to her hulband, may k lakcn by the body, when fhe
carries on a feparate trade.

Body of the place, in Forttjicntwn, denotes either the build-
ings inclofed, or more generally the inclofurc itfclf. Thus,
to conllnid the body o'f the place, is to fortify orinclofethe
place with ballions and curtains.

Body is alfo ufed for an alTemblage of feveral different
things coUefled into one ; more particularly a number of
perfons united into a company or college.

A ftate or nation, under the adminillration of one fove-
reign, is called a body polilic. All large empires are un-
natural, becaufe the relation between the head and limbs
is here too remote. No body, either natural or politic,
can long remain found without exercife. See Corpora-
tion.

Body, corps, in ll^ar, is an aggregate or alTcmblage of
forces, horfe and foot, united and marching under fome
chief.

An army, ranged in form of battle, is divided into three
bodies : the van-guard, the rear-guard, and the main body ;
which lall is ordinarily the general's pail.

Body of refirve, in the Military Art, a draught or de-
tachment of a number of forces out of an army, who are
only to engage in cafe of necefiity.

Body, in matters of Literature, a name given to a collec-
tion of whatever relates to any particular fciencc ; thus
we fay, the body of the canon law ; the body of tlie Saxon
law. King James I. had a deSgn to compile a body of the
Englidi law.

The body of the civil law confifts chiefly of the Inilitutes,
Pandefts, Code, and Novels. A ghjfated body, is that
to which gloifes are added in the margin, compofed by feve-
ral lawyers.

Body is alfo ufed figuratively forconfilleuce, folidity, and
flrength. In this fenie, we fay the body of a cloth, wine,
&c.

Vintners have divers arts of increafing or diminilhing the
body of wine.

Body, among Painters. — A colour is faid to bear a body,
when it is capable of being ground fo fine, and mi.xing
with the oil fo entirely, as to feem only a thick oil of
that colour ; as white-lead, lamp-black, vtrmillion, lake,
indigo, S:c. But verditers, fmalts, &c. will not cm-
body with the oil, but are ftill apt to fcparate from it in
working.

Body plan, or plane of projection, in Ship-building, is a
fection of the fhip at the midihip frame, or broadell place,
perpendicular to the fheer and half-breadth plans. The
feveral breadths, and the particular form of every frame of
limbers, are defcribed on this plane. As the two fides of a
fhip are fimilar t') each other, it is therefore unnecelTary to
lay down both, hence the frames contained between the main
frame and the ftem are defcnbtd on one fide of the middle
line, commonly on the right-hand fide : and the after frames
are defcribed on the other fide of that line.

BODZELIN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Sandomirz, 24 miles fouth of Radum.
BOE, in Ancient Geography. See Bo«.
3

B O E

BoE, a fmall ifland of Norway, 25 leagues north oF
Bergen. — Alfo, a town of Norway, 18 miles north of

Bergen Alfo, a town of Norway, 12 leagues north of

Romfdale.

BOEBE, in Ancient Geography, the name of a lake or
marfh in the ifland of Crete. Steph. Byz.

BOEBIS, or BoEBiAs, a lake which fome place ia
Bccotia, was fituated near the confines of Magnefia, not far
from mount Offa. It has been fincc called the lake of Efero.
North of this lake was a town called Boebe, whence the lake
derived its name.

BOECE, or BoEis, Hector, Lat. Boethius, in Biogra-
phy, a celebrated Scottifii hiftorian, was born of an ancient
family at Dundee, about the year 1470. After having
fludied in his native place, and alfo at Aberdeen, where he
was profefior in 1497, he went for further improvement to
Paris, where he became a profeifor of phiiofophy, and where
he had an opportunity of cultivating an acquaintance with
feveral literary perfons of eminence, and particularly with
Erafmus. Upon the ellabhfliment of the kiig's college at
Aberdeen, by Dr. Elphinfton, the bilhop, about the year
1 500, Boethius was fcnt for by the founder, and appointed
principal of that univtrfity, and contributed, in concurrence
with his colleague Mr. Hay, to furnifh the kingdom with
feveral excellent fcholars. After the death of Elphinfton,
his patron, in iji^^, he wrote his life, together with an ac-
count of his predecrffors, under the title of " VitK Epifco-
porum Murthlacenfium et Aberdonenfium," Paris, 1522,
4to. He then engaged in his great unde'rtaking of writing
the hiftory of Scotland, to which he prefixed a large geo-
graphical defcription of the countiy- Tiiis hiftory was pub-
liflied under the title of " Scotorum Hiftoria ab illius gentis
origine," Paris, 1526, fok ; and he continued to improve it
till his death, which happent?d about the year 1550. The firft
edition of this work confided of 17 books, a d ended with
the death of king James I. The next edition, printed at
Laufanne and Paris, in i ';74, fol. was much enlarged by the
addition of the jSth and part of the 19th book.,. It was
afterwards carried down to the end of the reign of James III.
by J. Ferrerius, a native of Piedmont. The whole hiftory
was tranfiated into the Soottifli dialed by John Bellenden,
archdeacon of Murray, by command of James V. and pub-
liihed in 1536. R. Holinlhed publilhed it in Engliih, with
confiderabie additions, in the fiill volume of his Chronicles.
This work has been difi'erently appreciated by national par-
tiality on the one hand, and national prejudice on the other.
Whilft it is allowed the merit of elegance and purity of
ftyle, it is charged with detailing marvellous tales and
legends, and with introducing imaginary and fiditious cir-
cumilances, in order to ornament and dignify the antiquity
of the Scots nation. As to his general charafter, Boethi\is
was a great mafter of chiffica! and polite learning, well fliilled
in divinity, phiiofophy, and hiftory ; but too credulous, and
much addided to tlie belief of legendarv ftories. With re-
gard to his other accompliniratnts, he was difcreet, genteel,
well-bred, attentive, generous, affable, and courteous. Biog.
Brit.

BOECKEL, John, born at Antwerp in November 1535,
was admitted dodor in medicine at Bourges in I'^fi^. At
Hamburgh, where he went to refide, he was foon diftin-
guiftied for his fupcrior fl<ill, and appointed teacher of ana-
tomy and medicine, an ofSce he filled with fufficient reputa-
tion, feveral years. He died there March 21 ft, 1605. His
works are " De pefte qui Hamburgum civitatem, anno 1565,
grayifilmc afflixit," Henricopoli, 1577, 8vo. ; " Synopfis
novi morbi, quern pleriqne catarrhum fcbrilem vocant, qui
Bon folum Gcrmaniam, fed pene univerfam Europam gra-

vifiimc

B O E

■rinime afflixit," Helmf. 1580, 8vo. This may be eos-
fidered as the earlieft record of the contagious catarrhal fever,
which has many times fiiice vifited the world, and which has,
in this country, been famiharly denominated the influenza.
" Anatoraia vel defcriptio partium corporis humaiii," PIchnf.
158^, 8vo. The text book from which the author gave his
leftures, " De philtris. Utrum animi hominum his commo-
veantur, necne I" a quellion much agitated at that period of
the world, but long fnice laid afleep. Haller. Bib. Anat.
Eloy Bib. Hift.Med.

BOECLER, JoH>j-HENRY,an eminent German philolo-
gill, was born at Cronheira in Franconia, in 1610, and pre-
ferred, at the age of 21, on account of his great learning, to
the office of profcfTor of eloqr.e.ice at Strafburg. In i6-|8 he
was invited to Sweden by queen Chriftina, and appointed to
the chair of eloquence at Upfal, and to the office of royal
hiiloriographer ; but bein;T obliged by ill health to quit the
country, he became profeffor of hillory at Straiburg. He
was counftUor botii to the eleftor of Mentz and to tlie em-
peror, and received a penfion from Louis XIV. He died in
1692. His piincipal works are " Commentationcs I'liniana;;"
" Timur, vulgo Tamerlanus," 4^0. 1657; " Nutitia Sti. Ro-
mani Imperii," 1681, 8vo. ; " Hiftoria, fcholaprincipum ;"
" Bibliographia critica," 17IJ, 8vo. ; " DiiTertationes Aca-
demicae," J vols. 4to. 1710; " Animadverfiones in Poly-
bium," 4to. 16S1 ; " Commentatio in Grotii librum de jure
belli et pacis," 4to. 17 12. He wrote, bcfides, Latin cum-
mentaries on various ancient authors, and fcveral traas on
German hiilory. Nouv. Did. Hill.

BOEDROMIA, in y^w/Zyu/Vj', from /Smi^jojxo,-, helper, Ae-
rived from /Soxi', / cry, and '■f^-i^w, I run, folemn feafts held at
Athens, in memoiy of the luccour brought by Ion, fon of
Xnthus, to the Athenians, when invaded by Eumo'.pui, fon
of Neptune, in the reign of Ereftheus. Plutarch gives an-
other account of the boedromia, which, according to him,
were celebrated in memory of the viftory obtained by The-
feus over the Amazons, in the month Boedromion, called by
the Corinthians " Panemos ;" which was, in the ancient
chronology, the third month of the Athenian year. It con-
fifted of thirty days, and anfwered to the latter part of our
Auguil and beginning of September.

BOEHM, in Biography. See Behmen.
BOEHMER, Philip Adolphus, fonof Juftus B. pro-
fclTor of anatomy at Hall in Saxony, under whom he received
liis education ; was admitted do£lor in medicine in 1736. As
he apphed his mind particularly to the lludy of midwifery,
he gave for his inagural thefis, " De precavenda polyporum
generatione." His next dilTertation, which was pubhihed in
1 741, in 4to. was " Situs uteri gravidi, ac fcetus, ac fede
placentx in utero." In this he has given a critical examina-
tion of the midwifery forceps ufed in England, which he com-
pares with, and prefers to Leuret's. Thcfe pieces were added
by the author to his edition of fir Richard Maiminghaia's
" Compendium artis obftetricice," pubhibed in 174O, 4to.
Having acquired celebrity by ihefe and other works, he was
adopted member of the Acad. Nat. -Curios, and foreign aflTo-
ciate of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris. He was alfo
appointed to iuccecd his father as profeffor of anatomy and
medicine in the univerfity at Hall. In 1749 he pnbliflied
" Inftitutioiies oileologicae, in ufum prcleftionum," 8vo.
Ki.!ler particularly commends in this work the engravings of
the embryos, and fome fcctal Ikeletons. His " Obf^rva-
tionum anatomicarum, fafeiculus primus," folio, v,as pub-
lifhed in 1752. Among many rare and curious obje-^ts are,
an engraving of a pregnant uterus, to fhew the membrana
dtcidua, and a ftetus in one of the Fallopian tubes, with the
placenta. The lecond colledion, aifo in folio, publiflitd in

B O E

I7ji5, (Contains a fmaller foetus in one of the tubes, and a
child with two bodies and only one head. For the title,-; of
the remainder of his diffcrtations, fee Haller. Bib. Anat. and
his colleftion of medical thcles, in which the greater part of
them is iiiftrted.

BOEHMEillA, in Botany (named by Jacquin in honour
of George Randolph Bojhmer, profeffor of anatomy and bo-
tany at Wittenburg), a genus of the clafs monoecia tetrandria,
formed by Swartz for three plants, not defcribed by Linnxus,
natives of the Weft Indies, to which he added two others,
the urtica cylindrica, and the caturus ramiflorasof Linnxus.
It conlUtutes a connecting link between uitica and parietaria.
N It. Ord. _/I-<;inV«'. 6V//V^ JufVu-u. .Schreb. 142 I. Jacq.
Americ. 246. Swartz. prod. 34. Juflieu. 403. Gen. Char.
Male flowers on the fame plant with the female, cither diftin A
or mixed. Ca!. perianth one-leafed, four-parted to the hale ;
fegmeuts lanceolate, acute, fomewhat erect, coloured. Sc'areb.
(tubular, JulTieu and Bole;. Cor. none. Me8. r.one. S:.im.
filaments four, longer than the calyx, awl-fhaped, erc6t ; an-
thers rouiidifh, ovate. Fem.ale flowers, Cor. none. /"//?.
germ ovate, compreifed ; ftyle filiform, erecl, t)ermanen"t •
Itigma hmple, pubefcent. Pent, up, none. Seeei, roundifh,
compreifed, margined. Sehr;b. (lingle, very fmall, enclofed
in the periiiancut calyx. JufT. Bofc). The flow-rsire fepa-
rated from each other by numerous, denfe, ovate-acuminate,
braitts or fcales.

Species, I. B.catiJ.^ia. Brown Jam. 23S. " Leaves op-
pofite, ovate, acute, ferrate ; racemes very long, pendulous ;
flowers dioECOUs; ffem fuffruticofe." A flirub ten or twelve
feet high. Brown calls it the nettle-tree. 2. B. liliorei/'ts.
" Leaves oppofite, ovate-lanctolate, ferrate ; flowers con-
glomerate, axillary, monoecous, mixed; ftem herbaceous,
four-cornered." Native of Hifpaniola. 3. B. cylinelrica.
" Leavesoppofite, ovate, acuminate, ferrate; racemes fpiked,
axillary, eicif, timple." An annual plant, with a lucid, her-
baceous ftalk, dividing into feveral branches ; leaves with
three longitudinal veins; on pretty long petioles. A native
of North America and Jamaica. 4. B. ramiflora. " Leaves
alternate, broad-lanceolate, acuminate, ferrate, wrinkled •
flowers aggregate, axillary and lateral, moncecous, dillind.
Males three-ftamened." A flirub, eight feet high, with long
branches ; leaves fickle-fiiaped, rugged, on verv fliort petioles,
placed towards the ends of the twigs ; very diflerent in fize
fome being two inches, and others a foot in length on the
fame twig. Male flowers fmall, yellowifh, numerous, aggre-
gate, on the leaflefs old branches. Female flowers whitifh
on the younger twigs to the very end. Native of Jamaica
and other iflando of the Well Indies. 5. B. hirta. " Leaves
alternate; ovate, acute, ferrate, hirfute ; flowers monoecous,
heaped, axillary, mixed." A native of Jamaica.

La Mark has not inferted this genus either in the alpha-
betic part of the Encyclopedic, or in the fubfequent
fyflematic feries of figures. He follows Linna:us in referring
the cylindrica to urtica, and the ramiflora to caturus.

BOEL, Peter, in Biography, an excellent painter of
fruit, flowers, and animals, was born at Antwerp in 162 c
and having been a difciple of Snyders, whofe widow he mar-
ried, he went to Italy, v.htre his uncle Cornelius de Waal
reiided, and in his return through France was much em-
ployed, particularly at Paris, where hecontinuedforfome time.
He died in 1680. As an artill be copied after nature, with
a free and bold pencil, and a tint of colour that was natural
and beautiful. There are fome few flight, but fpirited,
etchings by Boel, from his own compofitions, reprefenting
various animals, &c. Cornelius Boel, who flouriflied in 161 1,
and Coryn or Quirin Boel, who flouriflied in 1660, both en-
gravers, were of the fame family. Pilkington. Strutt.

BO£LE.

B O E

EOELE-BOELE, in Geography, a diftrift of the iflaiid
of Celebes, fituattd in Ur- bay of Boiii, at and near a river of
the fame name. I'o the weft itbas Wauvvo Wotlc ; to the
fouth, the river Caffa ; to the north, the river Tanka ; and
to the eaft, the fliorts of the bay. It is fometimes called
7c/lcilimpoe, and has three chief townfliips, \iz. Boele boele,
Lamant, and Radja, which are all independent of each
other. The kings of Boni confider it as an appendage of
their crown.

BOELE-COMBA, a territory of Celebes, which was
anciently a feparate kingdom, but in later times it was fub-
jugatcd by the MacafTer:; ; and is become one of the pro-
vinces belonging to the Dutch Eaft India company. It
ftretches from the river Kalcnkoiigang, which divides it from
Bontain, to Bera, or rather to the river Banipang, which
runs between them ; to the north of it lie the mountains of
Kyndang, which leparate it from Boni, or rather from the
highlanders of Touraayo ; and to the fouth, it is wafhed by
the fea. The land i> fertile in rice, and abounds in game and
extenfive forells ; but the timber is nnt adapted to the con-
ftruAion of houfes. When the weft monfoon renders it

dangerous for ftitps to

the road before Buele-Comba,

they run into the rjver Kaleknngang, near the mouth of
which ftands the palifadoed fort Carolina, in which the refi-
dent of the Dutch Eaft India company, who is a junior
merchant, has his abode. Tlie province of Bera reaches
from the river Bampang eaftward, along the fca-coaft to the
point of Lafftm or I.affoa, and thence northward to the
point of Cadjang j Knd on the land fide, it borders upon
Boele-Comba, Tonrang, and Kadjang, belonginpr to Boele-
boele. This counti^ belongs to the Dutch company. It
is barren and rocky, but has fome woods which furnifli tim-
ber fit for building proas. The men are good warriors both
by fea and land ; the richcll are merchants ; and others em-
play themfelves in building proas, and in manufafturing a
fort of coarfe white cloth from the cotton which the place
fupplics.

BOELON. See B^elon.

EOEN, in Geography, a town of France in the depart-
inert of the Loire, and chief place of a canton in the dillridl
of Montbrifon, feated on an eminence near the river Lignon ;
6 leagues fouth of Roanne, and 3* north of Montbrifon.
The place contains 1220, and the canton 10,929 perfons ;
the territory comprehends 305 kiliomctres, and 22 com-
munes.

BOEJSIAC, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Bodiavus, de-
fcribed by Dr. Bloch. The body is of a clear olivaceous
colour, marked with fcven oblique brown bands ; and the
caudal fin is rounded. This fidi is mentioned as a na-
tive of the feas about Japan, where it is called yean boenac.

There are feven rays in the gill membrane of this fpecies,
fifteen in the ptdioral fin, fix in the ventral fin, eleven in the
anal fin, fixteen in the caudal fin, and twenty-five in that on
the back.

BOENASA, In yfncifrit Geography, a town of Cappado-
cia, in the interior of the Galatic Pontua. Ptolemy.

"BOEON, a town placed by Ptolemy in the interior of the
Tauric Cherfonelus.

BoEON, or.BcELo, a town of Greece, in the Doric region,
according to Thucydides, near mount Parnaffus. This was
OBe of the four cities which, according to Pliny, Strabo, and
Steph. Byz. gave the name e.f " Tctrapolis" to the country
pofTefl'ed by the Dorians, near mount Oeta.

BOEONUS, Diu, an iftand of India, according to
the Pcriplus of the Erythraean fea, placed bv M. d'An-
Tilla at the foutb-weft evitraaee of the " Barygazenus

B (E O

BCEOTIA, a name given to two ancient kingdoms ci'
Greece ; one founded, or rather reftored, by Cadmns, and
called by him I'jocotia, from the ox [los), which is faid to
have dnefted him to the place where he built the capital of
his kingdom, afterwards known by the name of Thebes ;
the other in ThelTaly, faid to have been founded by Bceotus,
the fon of Neptune, and brother of Qiolus, by Arne, the
daughter of Oiolus king of CElis. Tliis Bocotus, according to
Bryant (Anal. Anc. Myth, vol.ii. p. 326.), from whom the
Eccotians are fuppofed to be defcended, and from whom this
country is faid, by fome, to have derived its name, was an
imaginary perfonage, and merely a variation of Boutus and
Butus, the ark ; which in ancient times was inditierently
ftyled Theba, Argus, Aren, Butus, and Ba-otus. This
Boeotusof Greece, according to the mythology ot this writer,
is the lame with Boutus of Egypt, Baitr.s of Cyrene, and
Buto or Budde of the Indians. The hillory oi the origin
of this kingdom is intermixed with fables ; but it is more
certainly known, that the pofTefrors of this fettLnieiit held
it for more than 200 years; and that wlun they \4tre ex-
pelled from it by the Theffalians, they fijught a new efta-
blidiment in that country, which till tliat time had been
called Cadmeis, and which was then named Ijccutia. We arc
informed bv Diodorus and Homer, that tliefe Boeotians fig-
nalized themfelves at the Trojan war; and the latter adds»,
that five of Boeotus's grandfons were the five cluefs who led
their Bceotian troops thither. Whatever be the true ety-
mology of the name Bocotia, given to this country, it was
dillinguilhed by feveral other appellations, according to its
fuppofed founders : thofe, who afcribed it to Og) ges, called
it Ogygia ; others called it Cadmcis, from Cadmus ; and
by others it was denominated Aonia, from Aon, the fon of
Neptune ; and Hyanthis, from Hvas, the fon of Atlas. It
is now called Straniulippa ; and Thebes, its ancient cnpital,.
Thive, and, corruptly by the Greeks, Stibes or Stives.

It bordered on the eaft with Attica, and was in time
joined to it, being parted from it by the mountain Ciths-
ron ; on the north, it was bounded by the ftreight Euripus,
now caUed the Negropont ; on the weft it had the kingdom
of Phocis ; and on the fouth, the gulf of Corinth, its ut-
moil extent from eaft to weft was i'^ 10', and it was nearly
of the fame length from north to fouth, but approaching to
a point eaftward. Epiiotus, from Strabo, calls it /io»» Tfi-
SxXarlo;, fo/a trimaris, becaufe it was contiguous to three
feas ; and by means of its commodious havei:6 it could carry
on a commerce on one fide witli Italy, Sicily, and Africa ;
and on the other, with Egypt, the ifle of Cypi'U's, Mauri-
tania, and the Hellefpont. It had alfo the large lake Copaif,
and the two large rivers, the Afopus and Ifmeiius, bciides
other ftrenms, by which it was watered and rendered Icreile.
This country is partly hilly, efpecially Aonia, properly fo
called ; the reft is low and flat, and abounding v^ith excel-
lent pafturage and corn ; but the air was fo dcnfeand foggy,
that Horace thought it influenced the genius of the inhabit-
ants. The Boeotians, in general, were reckoned not to
pofl'tfs that penetration and vivacity, which charattcr.zed
the Athenians, whofe air was remarkably pure, tli)Ugh fc-
parated from them only by mount Cichx-ron ; but tiiis, per-
haps;, might have been attributed more to cdm :ti.:i thai, to
nature. As they employed their time more in b>. elily tha" in
mental exerci'es, they were deficient with refpctt to tl.at
facihty of cxprefTion, thofe ginces of elocuti. i., the know-
ledge derived from ftudy, a':d thofe pleafing in. nuers, wi,;i.li
are more the work of art thn.n nature. But it llioulu i.ot be
fuppofed, that Boeotia produced no men of genius. Several
Thebaiis have done honour to the fchool of SociVes. Epa-
miuondas was not lefs diftinguiftitd for Iiis knowledge than
4 for

B CE O

for Ill's military talents. It fliould alfo be remembered, that
BoEotia was the birth-place of Hefiod, Corinna, and Pindar.
Its mod remarkable places were the Trophonian cave,
Thefpia, Aulis, the ftraits of Thermopyla: and Thebes,
which fee refpeftively.

The government of Boeotia was altogether monarchical,
and pccuHarly defpotic, the will of the king;s being the law ;
and of thefe fome governed more like tyrants than moderate
fovereigns. Plutarch, in his " Morals," mentions an ancient
cuftom that prevailed among them ; which was the manner
of introducing their new-married women into their new ha-
bitations. They were brought home in a kind of chiiriot,
or cart, the axle-tree of which was immediately burnt, thus
intimating to the bride, that (he was fixed with her huf-
band for life, and mull not expeft to return to her pa-
rents.

The Boeotians, as to their general charafter, were coura-
geous, infolent, and vain ; and with them the tranfition was
very fhort from paffion to infult, and from a contempt of law
to a total difregard of the diftates of humanity. The fmalleft
expeftation of advantage gave occafion to the grofleft afts
of inj\ifl;ice ; ard murders were frequently the confequence of
the moft. frivolous quarrels. The women were t.nll, well-
formed, and generally of a fair complexion ; and their voice
was remarkably fweet and tender ; whereas that of the men
was harfh and difagreeahle, and in fome mcafure fuited to
their charafter. Of this charafter for infoleiice and ferocity,
which generally dillinguifhed the Boeotians, no tracts were
to be found in a body of young warriors, called the " Sacred
Battalion," confiding of ,^oo, who were brought up toge-
ther, and maintained at the public expence in the citadel.
Their exercifes, and even their amufements, were regulated
by the melodious founds of the flute. To prevent their
courage from degenerating into blind fury, care was taken
to infpire them with the nobleft and the moft animated fen-
timents. From this band each warrior chofe a friend, to
■whom he remained infeparably united, whom it was his am-
bition to pleafe, and to fhare his pleafures and fufferings in
life, and his labours and dangers in battle. Thefe 300 war-
riors were at one time diilributed in troops at the head of
the different divifions of the army. Pelopidas, who had fre-
quently the honour of commanding them, having made them
fight in a body, the Thebans were indebted to th m for al-
moft all the advantages they gained over the Lacedsmo-
nians. Philip deftroyed this cohort, that had been invin-
cible, at Cheronxa ; and the prince, when he faw thefe
young Thebans ftretched on the field of battle, covered with
honourable wounds, and lying fide by fide on the ground
on which they had been flationed, could not refrain from
tears, but bore a noble teflimony to their virtue as well as
to their valour. Plut. in Pelop. t. I. p. 287.

For the fucceflion of the kings of Bceoti , after Cadmus, ar.d
the hiiloi-y of the kingdom as a monarchy, fee Thebes. The
Ecsotians, after having expelled their kings, who had rtijrned
in fucceffion from Cadmus to Xanthus, for about 300 years,
formed themfelves into a republic, of which the chief magi-
ftrates were the pnetor, or fliategos, the Boeotarchi, and the
Polemarchi. The authority of the prxtor, who waschofcn
from among the Boeotarchi, lafted only a year, and re-
fcmbled that which was veiled in the praetors of Achaia and
JEtoMa. The Boeotarchi alTifted him with their advice,
principally in time of war, and comqnanded under him ; and
they conflituted the fupreme court in miUtary affairs ; fo
that the pr<etor could not aft in a manner contrary to their
determinations. They alfo bore a great fway in the civil
adminiflration, and hence derived their title. Their nnmber
was uncertain, being 7, 9, or 1 1 ; they were chofen yearly,
and obliged by law, as well as the prsetor, to reCgn their

Vol. IV.

B O E

office, on pain of death, before the firfl month of the new
year was expired. Tiie Polemarchi were altogether civil
magiflrates ; it being their province to maintain peace and
concord at home, while the Boeotarchi were employed in the
wars of the republic. Befides thefe officers, there were four
councils, in which the whole authority of the flate con-
fifted. Thefe were compofed of the deputies that were fent
by all the cities of Boeotia ; and without their approbation,
the Bceotarchi could not declare war, make peace, conclude
alliances, or tranfaft any bufinefs of importance. The Boeo-
tians, and efpecially the Thebans, were continually haraffed '
by the princes of Macedon ; neverthelefs, they took part
with Philip againfl the Romans, and could not be prevailed
upon by the Athenians and Achoeans to defcrt him, and to
join the other flates of Greece, till he was entirely defeated
in the famous battle of Cynocephalae. They then, fore-
feeing their danger, fent deputies to Flaminujs, imploring
his proteftion. He received them with great humanity, and
put them upon the fame footing veith the other allies of the
republic in Greece. Flaminius, at their requell, obtained
the releafe of the Boeotians who ferved in the Macedonian
army ; but, notwithftanding this favour granted them by
the interpoGtion of the prjconful, they neglefted to make
the necetTary acknowledgments, and filled up all vacant
offices w^th perfons who were enemies to Rome, and attached
to the intercfts of Macedon. Flaminius was exafperattd by
this conduft ; and Brachyllus, their praetor, was murdered
by the friends of Rome. The murderers, however, were
difcovered, and one of them, Pifiilratus, was put to death.
For this murder of their praetor the Boeotians determined
to be revenged ; and they took occafion to affaflinate all the
Romans whom they found wandering about in the fields.
In confequence of this outrage, Flaminius ravaged their
territories ; but, upon their confenting to deliver up the of-
fenders, he defifted from any further afts of feverity ; and
the Boeotians, duly apprized of his lenity, continued ever
afterwards faithful to the Romans. But as fome of their
leading men joined Perfes, king of Macedon, in his wars
againfl the Romans, the whole country was, on that account,
treated with great feverity ; Rome being at. tliis time under
no apprehenfion of an iavafion from Antioclins, as ilie was
when Flaminius was fo eafily appcafcd. At the dilTohition
of the .A.chsean league, Baotia, with the reft of Greece,
was reduced to a Roman province. See Ach^ans.

BOER, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, and county of Recklinghaufen, 6 miles
W.S.W. of Recklinghaufen, and 42 N. of Cologn.

BOERHAAVE, Herman, in Biography, a profefTor
of medicine and chemiilry, of fnch eminence as to form
a new ira in thefe fciences, was born at Voorhout, about
two miles from Leyden, in Holland, the 31ft of December
166S. His father, James Boerhaave, the pailor of the vil-
lage, having nine children, took on himftif the care of their
education ; and, as he intended Herman for the cluirch, he
was careful to ground fim well in Greek and Latin. In
thefe languages he made fnch rapid progrefs, that when he
was only fourteen years of age, his father fent Inm to com-
plete his education to the public fchool at Leyden ; and, in
1684, he went from thence to the univerfity. His father
dying foon after, and in flcnder circumftances, the progrefs
of our young ftudent's attainments would have been inter-
rupted but for the friendly afliftance afforded him by Daniel
Van Alphin, burgomafter of Leyden, who furriflied him
with the means of continuing his ftudies. The kindnefs of
this worthy man was remembered by Boerhaave, with grati-
tude, to the end of his life. He now apphed to the mathe-
matics, and to acquire a knowledge of the Hebrew and
Chaldee languages ; propofing, agreeably to the intentions
4T of

B O E

of his father, to qualify himfelf for the miniftry : and that
he might rehtvc his patron from a part of his expence, for
his fullcnance, he gave private leffons to the Undents in ma-
thematics, and litre probably laid the foundation of that
excellence in the art of co-iimunicating knowledge by lec-
tures, for which he in time became fo celebrated. In 1690,
he took his degree in philofophy, and gave for his inaugural
thefis, " De diftinftione mentis a corpore," in which he re-
futes, in a folid and jndxioub manner, the errors of Hobbs
and Spinofa. This, however, did not prevent his being fuf-
pefted of Spiiiofifm, which made him quit his intention of
entering into th-.- fervice of the chnrch, and turn his mind
to medicine, particularly to the ftudy of chemiftry, as more
futted to the activity of his dilpofition. To acquire a know-
ledge of anatomy, he read the works of Velalius, Fallopius,
and Bartholine, and attended diffedions under Nuck. In
medicine, he lludied Hippocrates, and the reft of the
Greek and Latin writers in fucceUion, but returned to Hip-
pocrates, whofe works were always mentioned by him with
veneration. Among -the moderns, he gave the preference to
our countryman Sydenham, whom he called the Divine Sy-
denham.

Tlius quahfied, in 1693, being 25 years of age, he was
admitted by the univerlity of Harder wyck, in Gucldeilajid,
to the degree of doftor in medicine. His thefis on this oc-
calion was " Dc utihtate explorandorum excrementorum in
jsgris, ut fignum." To the urine he paid the greateft at-
tention. He now applied to the praftice of medicine, from
which, however, he is faid to have derived but little profit.
As his praftice, therefore, employed but a fmall portion of
his time, he had leifure for examining all the theories of me-
dicine which had prevailed, in fucceflion, from the earUeft
time, and of forming from them a theory, if far from per-
feft, much lefs exceptionable than any that had preceded it ;
and which, when matured, fuperleded them, and became the
reigning doclrine over all Europe for more than half a cen-
tury. Urelincourt, who had long been profeflbr of the
theory of medicine, dying in 170J, the univerfity of Leyden
feized the opportunity this event atforded them of attaching
him further to that place, by placing him in the vacant chair.
This they were prompted to by gratitude as well as by pru-
dence ; Boerhaave having refufed an advantageous olTer of
fpttling at the Hague, and, though in no public office or
capacity, he had already acquired a confiderable reputation,
and drawn a great many foreigners to Leyden, to hear his
leftures in chemiftry. On the occafion of this promotion he
read his " Oratio de cominenda:;do ftudio Hippocratico."
In Hippocrates, he particularly admired the correftnefs of
his defcrlptions and hillories of dileafes, liis patience in at-
tendi'ig to the indications of nature, or the coiiilitution, to
which, with little interference, he frequently committed tht
cure of the difeafe, and his honeft and iincere account of the
termination of the difeafe, whether in health or death. In this
he has not been al .vays followed by writers of cafes. In i 703,
be was invited to accept a profeifor's chair at Groningen ;
but as he had refufed, when much lefs known, an eftablifnment
at the Hague, he had no difficulty, now that his fame was
more extended, and pupils were flocking to him from all
parts, in rejefting this offer. The univerfity at Leyden
thought it neceffary to reward this frelh proof of his attach-
ment to the country, by augmenting his falary. About this
time he delivered his " Oratio de ufu ratiocinii mechanic!
in m.edicina." Thefe compofitions were all publilhed ; and
as they were drawn up, and poliflied with care, they doubt-
lefs contributed in extending the fame of our profeffor over
Europe. On the death of Peter Hotton, curator of the
univerfity garden, in I 709, he was appointed his fucceffor,
and made profeffor of botany . He now read his " Oratio qua

3

B O E

rep\irgat« medicinx facilis afferitur fimplicitas;" fhewing that
the knowledge of medicine would be eafieft obtained by avoid-
ing hypothefes, and attending to fads and obfervations ;
aiid that difeafes would be more certainly cured by ufing
only a few choice and fimple medicines, than by the hetero-
geneous compofitions then in vogue. He now, in addition
to his other ftudies, employed himfelf f-rduloufly in acquir-
ing a more extended knowledge of plants ; and this conti-
nued to be his amuftment and delight to the end of his life.
" Often have I fetn," Haller fays, " the good old man,
moving llowly along the garden, at a very early hour in the
morning, attending to the culture of the numerous exotics
he had introduced there, claffing and arranging them for
his leiflures." One year only after being appointed pro-
feffor in botany, he publillied '' Index plantarum quas in
horto Lugduno Batavo reperiuiitur," 8vo. This work was
re-publiilied by him in 1720, much enlarged and improved,
including a hiftory of the garden, 2 vols. Svo. In 1709, ap-
peared his " Aphorifnii de cognofcendis et curandis mor-
bis," Svo.; " aureus in fummabrevitate libellns," Haller fays.
A work univcrfally read and admired, on which baron Van
Swieten, his illuftrious pupil, who had attended his inftruc-
tions for near twenty years, publilhed his Commentaries, in
1742, extending it to five vohunes in 4to. About the fame
time he publifiied his " Iiiftitutiones rei medic<e in ufus an-
nux exercitationis domefticse," Svo. Thefe two works,
the one treating of the hiftory and cure of difeafts, the other
of the phyfiology of the human body, improved and en-
larged at different times by the author, have pafTed through
numerous editions, and have been printed in every country,
and tranflated into every language in Europe. Schulten
fays, there is a verfion of them alfo in the Arabic. Boer-
haave was now in the zenith of his reputation, and had fuch
a confluence of ftudents from a.U parts of the world, as
never probably before occurred to any one profeffor. He
gave leftures on the theory of medicine, in botany, and in
chemiftry, and delivered them with fuch clearnefs and
precifion, as to till his pupils with equal aftoniflimcnt and
delight. Haller, who was two years under his tuition,
fpeaks of hini with enthufiafm. •' Vix lui parcm habuit." We
have hardly fince fcen, and perhaps ma;- never again fee his
equal. In 1714, he was made rector of the univerfity. On
laying down this ofBce at the end of the year, he read his
difcourfe " De comparando certo in phyfici^" It is only
to be acquired, he fays, by e:^periment, and by a careful and
minute examination of natural objetts. Bidloo dying at this,
time, he was advanced to the chair of profeffor in the
praftice of medicine ; and, on the death of Le Mort, in
17 iS, he was made profeffor of chemiftry. He was now at
the head of every branch of medicine ; and his pupi.'s were be-
come fo numerous. Dr. Matty fays, that Leyden was fcarcely
fufficieutly capacious to contain them. In addition to thefe
numerous vocations, he was frequently confuited, in cafes of
difficulty and danger, by phyficiars in ail parts of the v/orld.

With thefe advantages, it will not excite furprife, that
his wealth ihould accumulate and become extremely abun-
dant. As his diet was frugal and fparing, and he was plain
in his apparel, he has been accufed of being too parfimo-
nious ; but it fliould be confidercd, that attached as he was
to fcience, and immured in bufincfs of fuch variety and ma"-
nitude, he had no time for expence or luxury, except in
what regarded the improvement of fcience. In procuring
rare and valuable books, and in colleding plants from diftant
countries for his garden, he fpared, we are told, no expence.

In 1718, Boerhaave had publilhed " De Chemfa, fuos
errores expurgante," which was all he purpofed giving on
thatiubjed; but fome of his pupils having, at the inftiga-
tion, he fays, of the bookfellers, ventured to print, in his

name,

B O E

B O E

namff, tranfcripts of his leftures, fo iiicorredlly taken as to
materially injure his fame, to vindicate himfelf from the
dlfgrace this might bring upon him, he found himfelf under
the neceffity of preparing his leiSurcU for the prefs ; and, in
1 7,; 2, he publifhcd them under the title of " Elementa
Chemix, qax anniverfario labore docuit, in publicis privatif-
qae fcholis, Hermannus Boerhaave," 2 volj-.i-to. The work is
dedicated by a moil affectionate addrefs to his brother James
Boerhaave. The firft volume contains the hiftory and the
theory of the art, and is furnifhed with numerous engravings
and defcriptions of furnaces, and other inftruments of che-
miftry. The fecond contains the procefles, or operationes
chemicce. In the firll volume he gives a catalogue of all
the works he had publidied, preceding it, with much mo-
defty, with this declaration; " Sciafque, me nihil edidifle
unquam, prastcr fequentia, quse non abfque verecundia re-
cenfenda puto." At the back of the title-page he fays,
" Ut certus fit leftor, hunc librun: a me editum prodire,
propria manu adfcribendum putavi ; nee pro meo agnofco,
ubi h^c adfcriptio aleft, IBo>.rhaave ;" uniting, as his
cuftom was, the H and the B.

The charafter of Boerhaave, as a chemift, is thus given
by Macquer, in his Preliminaiy difcourle to his Didlionary
of Chemiftry. " Next to Stahl we place the immortal
Boerhaave, though he excelled in a different way. This
powerful genius, the honour of his co\;ntry, of his profcf-
fion, and of his age, threw light upon every fabjeft which
Retreated. To the view which he took of chemiftry, we
owe the fineft and moft methodical analyfis of the vegetable
kingdom ; his admirable treatifes on air, on water, and on
earth, and particularly on fire, which is an aflonifliing maf-
ter-piece, is fo complete, that the human underftanding can
fcarcely make an addition to it." To his moral charafter
his difciple Haller bears the following honourable teftimony :
" Some, though few, will rival him in erudition ; his divine
temper, kind to all, beneficent to foes and advtrfaries, de-
tradling from no man's merits, and binding by favours his
daily opponents, may, perhaps, never be paralleled." In
his converfation he was eafy and familiar, and in his de-
meanour grave and fober, but at the fame time difpofed to
pleafantry, and occafionally indulging in good-humoured
raillery ; fo that he was compared to the admirable Socrates,
whofe bull he is alio laid to have refembled in features. By
his pupils, whom he regarded with the kindnefs of a parent,
he was beloved and refpefted in a very high degree. Piety
formed a diftinguifhing feature of his charafter ; and devo-
tion was his daily exercife.

As Boerhaave was of an athletic make, had accuftomed
himfelf to exercife on horfeback, to fpend much of his time
in the open air, and to ufe a frugal and plain diet, he had
been enabled thus far to endure the extreme fatigue of his
profeflional labours, with only fome occafional interruptions
from illnefs ; but being grown corpulent, and incapable of
riding, his conltitution began to be on the decline, fo that,
in 1729, he found it neceffary to refign his offices of pro-
feiFor in chemiftry and botany. The fpeech he made on
this occafion, was publifhed under the title of " Oratio cum
cathedrx chemias et botanices valediceret," ^to. In this he
recounts fome of the moft memorable occurrences of his life,
and fpeaks with gratitude of the patronage and favours he
had received from individuals, in enabling him to chufe his
walk in life, as well as from the members of his own pro-
feffion, who had admitted his improvements in the theory
and praftice of the arts he taught, with more kindnefs and
lefs oppofition than is ufually given to ir.novators of any
kind. This doubtlels arofe in part from the great learning
and abilities he was known to poficfs, and from the high re-
putation he had thence acquired, demanding refpeft ; and

partly from his difpofition, averfe from contention, and think-
ing but modcftlv of his endowments. From whatever caufe
■ it might arife, tliere was never perhaps fo great a revolution
in any fcience brought about with fo little oppofition as was
made to that p-oduced by Boerhaave. He had before, viz.
in 172S, been admitted foreign affociate of the Royal Aca-
demy of Scienees in Paris; and in 1730, he was eledled a
fellow of the Royal Society in London. The fame year he
was again made i-eclor of the univerfity at Leyden. On
quitting that office, he 4:ead his " Oratio de honorc medici
fervitute," which was alfo pubhilicd in 410. In this he agaitt
infills on the neceffity of attending to the method nature
takes in curing difcafes, or the manner in which they teimi-
nate fpontaneonfiy, .;s praftifed by Hippocrates. Though
this feceffion from public employm.ent procured him fome
refpite from his labours, he ilill continued revifing and cor-
redling his original works. He alfo fpent much of his time
in revifing the works of other writers, and publifhed more
correft editions than were before extant ; as the " Opera
Anatomica et Chirurgica And. Vcfalii," fol. ; Albinus con-
tributed to this work ; of Bellinus, " De urinis et pulfibus,"
4to. 1730; of Profper Alpinus, " De prxfagienda vita et
morte," 4to. 17.33 ; Aretasus, " De caufis, fignifque mor-
borum," fol. 17.31 ; Luifinus, " De lue venerea," fol.
172S, and fome other works. Still, however, he enjoyed
eafe and relaxation from the more fatiguing part of his bufi-
nefs, and he paflTed the principal part of his time, during the
remainder 'of his life, at his manfion, a fmall diftance from
Lcydcn, in domeftic recreations, with his wife and daugh-
ter, to whom he was much attached. Here he had a gar-
den well-ftocked with every thing that could contribute to
his pleafure, and here he amufed himfelf with his violin, in
which he was a proficient. Towards the end of the year
1/37, he became fenfibly affefted with difficulty of breath-
ing, and a fenfe of fuffocation, which incommoded him,
whether walking or lying down. This went on increafing ;
and a fmall time before his death, he perceived a ftrong pul-
fation on the right fide of his neck, which he attributed to
a polypous concretion in the aorta. No remedy being com-
petent to combat this dreadful difeafe, he expired calmly, in
the midft of his family, on the 23d of September 1 73S. He
was buried in the church of St. Peter's at Leyden, where
his fellow-Citizens ercfled an elegant monument to his
memory. The pedeftal is of black marble, fuppoiting
an urn, decorated with emblematic figures, reprefenting the
four 3ges of man's life, and the fciences in which he excelled.
On one face of the pedeftal is a medallion with the head of
Boerhaave, furrounded with fuitable decorations, his feal
hanging under it, on which is engraved his favourite motto,
" Simplex figillnm vein," Cmplicity the feal of truth ; and
underneath, " Salutifero Boerhavii gcnio facrum," facred to
the health-reftoring genius of Boerhaave.

In the courfe of this flcetch of the life •f Boerhaave, his
principal works have been noticed ; for a more complete ca-
talogue of them, fee Haller's Bib. Med. Pradl. Anatom. et
Botan. and Eloy's Dift. Hift.

Boerhaave, Abraham Kaav, profeffor of medicine in
the univerfity of Petcrfburgh, was born at the Hague in
1715. He was the fon of James Kaan, and of Margaret the
daughter of Herman Boerhaave. After receiving a good
claffical education, he went to Leyden, where applying to
the ftudy of medicine, under the celebrated Albinus Gaubius,
and other mafters, he was admitted to the degree of doftor
in 173S. He had be"fore obtained an honorary medal from
the univerfity, for his dilcourfe, " De gaudiis Alche-
miftarum ;" thouvih he was more particularly attached to
anatomy, which he cultivated with great fucccfs. The year
following he took the name of his uncle Boerhaave. In
4T 2 1740

B O E

1740 he went to Peterfburgh, where his talents foon pro-
cured him the fituation of profefTor in medicine in the unt-
verfity there, and of one of the members of the imperial aca-
demy. By Portal and Blumenbach, be is called archiater,
or aulic counfellor, and firft pbyfician to the cmprefs, con-
founding him with bis brother, Herman Kaan B. who about
the fame time enjoyed that honour. In the courie of a fe-
vere and tedious illnefs, from which he with difficulty reco-
vered, he loll his hearing. This happened in 1749. He
died in 1753. His works are " Pcrfpiratio diCta Hippo-
crati, per univerfum corpus anatomice illuilrata," Luijd. B.
173S, l2mo ; in which he fhtws there is a conilant inhala-
tion, or abforption, and an exhalation, or perfpiration, carried
on, not only on the fiirface of the body, but in ail the prin-
cipal cavities. " Impetum faciens dic1:um Hippocrati per
corpus confentiens, philologice tt phyfiologice illullratum,"
Lugd. Bat. 1745, I2mo. In this he treats of the aftion of
the mind upon the body, by the means of the nerves ; of the
fabric and motion of the miifcles ; on the effeds of opium,
given to a dog, &c. He alfo gave the anatomy of an ele-
phant, which he had an opportunity of diflefting, and of
two monflrous infants, and a dilTertation on what have been
called, improperly he fays, hermaphrodites ; no real herma-
phrodite having ever been produced. Hallcr. Bib. Anat.
Portal. Bib. Chir.

BOERHAVIA, in Botany, (named by Vaillant in ho-
nour of the celebrated Boerhaave.) Lin. gen. 9. Schrtb. 13.
Reich. V. i. p. 6. Willdcn. 20. Jnffieu 91.; a genus
placed by moll botanills in the clafs moiumilria monogyiila,
though in different fpccies, there are from one to four
ilamens. Nat. Ord. j4i;gr{gnttc. — Nyffngencs. Juffieu.

Gen. Char. Cul. oblong, tubular and angular, placed
beneath the coroU, with a contrafted, entire mouth, perma-
nent. Coroll. monopetalous, bell-fhaped, upright, obtufely
five-cleft, plaited, fixed on the calyx. Neil, fiefhy, lub-
cylindric, with a mouth (lightly toothed, furrounding the
bafe of the germ. Stam. filaments one, two, three, or four,
inferted on the margin of the neftary, between its teeth ;
capillary, near the bo'tom (within the calyx) more {lender,
upright, about the length of the corolla ; anthers twin-
globular. P'lJ}. g-'rm roundilh, pediceiled, the pedicel fur-
rounded by the neftary ; ftyle thread-lhaped, twifted, as
long as the ilamens ; tligma capitate. Pericarp, none ; calyx
enlarged: clofed, encrufting the feed. Seed one, oblong, ob-
tufe, angular. Obf^rv, It is nearly alHed to Mirabilis. The
toothlets of the neftary are fomctimes triangular, very fmall,
and fomttimes obfolcte.

EfT. Gen. Char. Cal. fmall, entire. Cor. one-petalled, bell-
fliaped, plaited. Seed one, encrulled with the enlarged calyx.
Ddhl has iiijudicioufly abolilhed this genus, and placed its
fjpecies with the Valerians. In the opinion of Willdenow,
it belongs properly to the clafs trlandria, and may readily
be dillinguifhed from valerian by its very entire calyx, fo
minute, as fcarcely to be vifible, without the afliflance of a
lens, on which account it appears to have been overlooked
by Linnaeus and La Marck. ProfefTor Martyn, in his edition
of Miller, has niadvertently given Calyx none, as part oi its
eflenti d general charaftcr ; though in the natural charafter
tranflated from Schreber, he had properly afhgned it one.

Species, l. B. ereBa, upvight hogwced. " Stem ereft,
fmootn ; Stamens two." Jacq. and Miller. " Stem tetra-
gonal, fmooth, with vifcous joints, and flowers in a corymbofe
panicle." WiUden. Stem two feet high, fprinkled v/ith very
minute protuberances as fine as hairs. Leaves waved, ovate,
acute, rough at the margin, growing by pairs on long
petioles from the joints of the lltm, which are placed at a
confiderable diflance from each other. Corolla cylindric,
white, with five reddifh (hades ; fegments acute, with fmall
8

B O E

teeth interpofed. Stigma capitate. Difcovered by Dr.
Houfton at La Vera Cruz in 1731, and fince found at the
Society Ifles. 2. B. adfcendens. " Leaves obiong-ovate,
fomewhat flefhy ; flowers panicled ; peduncles two-flowered ;
ftem afcendiug." Willden. Stem fmooth, tetiagon.il ; leaves
petiolate, oppofite, veined, entire, fmooth ; tlie young leaves
and the margin and petioles of the older ones hairy ; hairs
jointed as in veronica aphylla ; panicle terminal, fpreading,
naked ; peduncles two-flowered, involved in membranaceous
braftes ;. fruit club-fhaped, rough, with fmall tubercles. A
native of Guinea. Wiilden. 3. H. dijfvfa. •' Stem fmooth
and even, fpreading ; leaves ovate." Linn. " Stem round>
pubefcent ; flowers in corymbofe heads." Willden. Leaves
white underneath ; flowers purple, with one llamen. A
native of the Eafl and Well Indies. Cultivated in the
royal garden at Hampton Court 1690. Mr. Miller received
feeds from Jamaica by Dr. Houdon. 4. h. iir/uta. "Stem
fpreading, pubefcent ; leaves ovate, repand, or ferpentine."
Reich. " Stem roundifh, hairy ; flowers in heads." Willdcn.
Stems a foot high ; peduncles axillary, fullaining fmall clofe
heads of fcarlet diandrous flowers, which generally fall off in
about half a day. A native of Jamaica. 5. li. phimbaglnea.
" Leaves fubcoidate, orbiculate-acute, pubefcent beneath ;
fl>>wers in umbels." Willden. Umbels axillar, on long pe-
duncles ; coroll of a pale rofe colour ; ilamens three ; fruit
turbinate, tlriated, crowned at the apex with pediceiled tu-
bercles. Willdcn. A native of Spain. 6. V>. fcandens. La
Marc, Tab. 4. " Stem ereft ; flowers two-flamened ; leaves
cordate, acute." Linn. " Stem ereft, flowers tvvo-iiamened, in
umbels ; leaves cordate." Willden. Stem fhrubby, very flifF,
fmooth, witli alternate branches; leaves fmooth ; umbels of fix
green flowers ; involucre of five leaves. A native of the rocky
coafts of Jamaica and other Well India iflands. Cultivated
in 1691, in the royal garden at Hampton court. 7. B. excel/a.
" Stem ereft ; lower leaves cordate-ovate, upper ones ovate,
flowers with three (lamens in umbels." It refembles the
fcandens, but differs from it in its taller ftem, in its upper
ovate leaves, in its doubly larger purple flowers, and in the
number of its Ilamens. Native place unknown. Defcribed
by Willdenow from a living plant. 8. Vi. repanda. "Stem
ereft ; leaves cordate, repando-finuate ; flowers in umbels,
with three ilamens." Willden. Refembles the fcandens,
but differs from it in its herbaceous Hem and oppofite bran-
ches and peduncles. A native of India and China. 9. B.
chsrophUloides. (Valeriana Chaerophylloides. Smkh Ic. ined.
fulc.j.l " Leaves bipinnatifid, toothed ; flowers with three
flamens in umbels." Willdcn. It has entirely the habit of
a Boerhavia, and agrees in all the generic charafters, except-
ing only the flyle which is trifid. 10. B. repens. " Stem
creeping." Linn. Native of Nubia, between Mocho and
Tangos. II. B. anguJ}ifolia. "Leaves linear, acute."
Linn. Native place unknown. 12. B. tetrandra. Stem
creeping ; flowers with four (lamens. Forft. Prod. 2.
Native of the Society Illes, found by Forllerin the ifland of
Huaheine 1774.

Thefe are all the fpccies in Willdenow's edition of the
Sp. PI. La Marck (lllufl.) has made the hirfuta and the
repens the fame as the diffufa, and appears to have been un-
acquainted with the adfcendens, plumbaginea, excelfa, re-
panda, chosrophylloides, anguflifolia, and tetrandra ; but has
inferred two others, which, as far as can be determined from
their fpecific charafters, feem to be diflinft fpccies. B. pani-
culata. " Stem erecl ; leaves ovate, acute ; panicle naked,
filiform, very vifcous." A native of South America. B.
tuberofa. " Stem erecl, (lirubby ; root tuberofe, efculcnt."
A native of Peru. The following may poffibly be the hir-
futa, though he unites that fpecies with the diffufa. B. oh-
tuftfoUa, " Stem procumbent, fpreading, vifcidly pubef-
cent ',

B O E

tent ; leaves ovate, obtufe ; umbels fmall, fomewhat In
heads, lateral." A native of South America.

Propagation and Culture. None but the firft, third, fourth,
and fixth, have been cultivated in England. They will not
thrive in the open air, but mull be raifed from feeds, and
treated like other tender exotic plants. The firft three are
annual, and when they grow too tall to remain under a com-
mon frame, may be planted in a warm border, where, if the
feafon prove favourable, they* ripen their feeds ; but a plant
or two fhould always be placed in the ftove, to enfure a fuc-
ceflion of feeds. The fourth, which is perennial, may be
preferved in a warm ftove two or three years. See Martyn's
Miller.

BOERN^R, Frederic, in Biography, profefTor in
medicine at the univerfity of Wittcmburg, in Saxony, and
an aftive member of the Acad. Nat. Curiof. received his
education at Leipfic, where he was born, June in, 1723.
He publiftied feveral dilfertations on medical fubjccis, but
his principal work is " Noclcs guelphicae, five opufcula me-
dico-literaria," Roftock, 175J, 8vo. He died June 1761.
Eloy. Dia. Hift.

BOERNERIANUS Codex, in BMca! Hiflory, a MS.
of part of the N. T. noted G, in the fecond part of Wct-
fkin's N. T. It belonged to Dr. C. F. Boerner, was col-
lated bv Kuftt^r, and defcribed in the preface to his edition
of Mill's Greek Tcftament. It contains the epiftles of St.
Paul, that to the Hebrews excepted, which was formerly
rejefted by the church of Rome ; it is written in Greek and
Latin, according to one of thofe veriions, which were in
life before the time of Jerom. The Latin is interlined be-
tween the Greek, written over the text, of which it is a
trandation. Stemmler fuppofes that the Latin was written
fince the Greek ; but profeflbr Matthai, who publiflied this
MS. at MeilTen in Saxony in 1791, fuggefts, that an unifor-
mity in the hand-writing, and a fimilarity in the colour of
the ink evince, that both the Greek and Latin texts pro-
ceeded from the fame tranfcriber. That it is an ancient
MS. appears, fays Michaelis, from the form of the charac-
ters, and the want of accents and marks of afpiration. It
feemsto have been written in an age when the tranfition was
making from the uncial to the fmall charafters ; and from the
correfpoudence of the letters r, s, and t, in the Latin tranfla-
tion, to that form which is found in the Anglo-Saxon al-
phabet it is inferred, that this MS. was written in the Well
of Europe, and probably between the 8th and 1 2th centuries.
This MS. is preferved at prefent in the eleftoral library at
Drcfden : and a copy of it is kept in the library of Trinity
college, Cambridge, among the books and MSS. that were
left by Dr. Bentley. Michaelis on the N. T. by Marfh,
vol ii- and iii.

BOERO, in Geography. .See Burro.

BOESCHOT, a town of Brabant, on the river Ncthe ;
12 miles N. E. of Malines.

BOESEROENS, or Budgeroons, three fmall unin-
habited iflets of the Eaft Indies, fituated in the ftrait that
lies between the ifland Saleyer and^the point of Celebes, called
LaflTem. Thefe three iflands almoft block up the paflage
between the fouthern part of Celebes and the northern part
of Saleyer, the whole fpace between which is about a
league and a half. The ftrait is pafltd between the fouth-
ernmoft and middlemoft, or between the latter, and the
northernmoft of the Budgeroons. This is one of the moll
dangerous parts of the navigation for fliips failing to or from
the Moluccas, or fpice iflands ; and it cannot be avoided
without going round to the fouth of Salevcr, which is a
much more dangerous route, on account of the great num-
ber of fhoals and funken rocks, which abound there, and
are not accurately laid down in the charts.

B O E

BOESIPPO. SeeB;Esippo.

BOETHICUS, in Entomology, s. fpecies of Hesperia,
(Pleb. Rur. Linn.) that inhabits India. The wings
are tailed, blueifh-brown, pale afli colour beneath, and un-
dulated with whitilh ; a double ocellar fpot in the anal
angle.

BOTLTHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Se-
VER.INUS, in Biography, defcended from one of the moft il-
luilrious confuiar families of Rome, lived in the time of the
emperor Zeno, near the end of the 5th century. He was born
at Rome about 470, the fame year with Martianus Capella,
another Rom.an writer on mufic. He is faid to have fpent
18 years in the fchools of Athens, purfuing the ftudy of
philofophy under Proclus ; others, however, have queftioned
this faft, and it has generally been allowed, lliat the term of
18 years is too long. Neverthtlef», his vifit to Athens is jufti-
fied by much internal evidence, adduced by Brucker, (Hift.
Crit. Philof. t. iii. p. 524 — 527.) and by an exprefllon,
though vague and ambiguous, of his friend Cafliodorus,
(Var. i 4'.) " longe pofitas Athenas introilli." it is cer-
tain, that the erudition of the Latin language was infufficient
to fatiate his curiofity, and that he devoted much of his
time and attention to the ftudy of Grecian fcience and letters.
From a letter of Cafliodorus, written in the name of Theo-
doric, it apocars that he had ihehonour of introducing to the
Romans, in their own language, the mufic of Pythagoras, the
aftronomy of Ptolemy, the arithmetic of Nicomachus, the
geometry of Euchd, tlie logic of Ariftotle, and the mechanics
of Archimedes. He alone was efteemed capable of de-
fcribiiig the wonders of art, a fun-dial, a water-clock, and
a fphere which reprefcnted the motions of the planets. He
commented upon parts of Ariftotle, Cicero, and Porphyry ;
and from the commendations which he bcftows upon the
latter, as the beft interpreter of the former, he feems to have
united the Platonic with the Ariftotelian doclrine. Boethius
feems to have been the firft who apphed fcholaftic philofo-
phy to the fervice of Chriftian theology ; and he employed
liimfelf in defending the orthodox creed againft the Euty-
chian, Arian, and Neftorian herefies, in a treatife " De Uni-
tate et Uno. In civil life he attained to peculiar honours ;
as he was conful in 4S7, and alfo in 510 ; and he was alfo
created patrician, and advanced to the poll of mailer of the
offices. He married the daughter of his friend, the patrician
Symmachus, and he enjoyed the peculiar fatisfaflion of
feeing his two fons elevated to the confulate together in
522. Few perfons paffed through fife with a greater Ihare
of outward rcfpeft and honour ; and few could be more
diftinguilhed by the teftimonies that were given to his bene-
volence and liberality, his virtue and patriotifm, as well as
to his fingular talents and learning. His own affeveration
claims our aftent, that he had reluctantly obeyed the divine
Plato, who enjoined every virtuoiB citizen to refcue the ftats
from the ufurpation of ignorance and vice. For the inte-
grity of his public conduft he appeals to the memory of
his Ci/untry. His authority had reflrained the pride and
oppreffiou of the royal officers ; he had always pitied, :md
often relieved, the diflrefs of the provincials, whofe fortunes
were exhauiled by public and private rapine ; and he alone
had the courage to oppofe the tyrrany of the Barbarians,
elated by coiiqueft, excited by avarice, and, as he com^ains»
encouraged by impunity. In thefe honourable contefts, his
fpirit foared above the confideration of perfonal danger, and
perhaps of prudence- In addition to his other learned la-
bours, he had firmed a defign of tianflating all the works of
Plato and Ariftotle into Latin ; but was prevented from
executing his piirpofe by a premature death. Having for
fome years enjoyed the favour of Theodoric, the Gothic
king of Italy, he was at length fufpefted of being hoilile to

his

B O E

hi? govtrnrwent, and of concurring with others, and particu-
larly with Albinus, who was accufed and convicled on the
prefumption of hoping, as it was faid, the liberty of Rome.
" If Albinus be criminal," exclaimed Boethius in the pre-
fence of the kin^, " the fenate and myfclf are guilty of the
fame crime. If we are innocent, Albiiuis is equally entitled
to the proteftion of the laws." The advocate of Albinus
was foon involved in the danger and perhaps the guilt of
his client ; their fignaturc, which they aflerted to be a for-
gery, was affixed to the original addrefs, inviting the emperor
Juliin to deliver Italy from the Goths ; and three witnelfes
of honourable rank, but probably of infamous charafter, at-
teiled the treafonable defigns of the Roman patrician. Upon
this kind of evidence, Boethius was committed to cuttody,
and rigoroufly confined in the tower of Pavia ; and a fcrvile
fenate", at the diftance of t;co miles, pronoimced a fentence
of confifcation and death againll the moft illuftrious of its
members. During his conlinement, he compofed his treatife
" De confolatione philofophias," mentioned in the fequel of
this article ; and at length the executioners of Theodoric's
mandate fulfilled the favage commiflion with which they
had been entrulted, or, perhaps, even exceeded it, by tiie
mode of putting him to death. Some fay that he was be-
headed ; but others relate, that a ilrong cord was faftened
round his head, and forcibly tightened, till his eyes almoft
ftarted from their fockets ; and he was then beaten with
clubs till he expired. This event happened, according to
fome, in the year 526, but according to others in 524. Boe-
thius, in his lad hours, derived fome comfort from the fafety
of his wife, of his two fons, and of his father-in-law, the ve-
nerable Symmachus. But Symmachus, perhaps indifcreet
in the mode of tellifying his grief, was fometime after dragged
in chains from Rome to the palace of Ravenna, and there
put to death, A. D. 525. Theodoric, it is faid, experienced
the bitternefs of felf-reproach, and the anguifh of an unavail-
ing repentance for the murder of thefe two illuftrious fe-
r.ators, Boethius and Symmachus. His daughter Amala-
funtha is faid to have rellored to the fons of Boethius the
confilcated eftates of their father.

His celebrated tradl on niufic, divided into five books, was
flrft printed in black letter, with his treatifes on arithmetic and
geometry, at Venice, 1499. It is remarkable, that in this
copy the Greek of the famous yf?/a/?M confultum, againll Ti-
motheus at Lacedcemon, is omitted ; though it was afterwards
found in a beautiful MS. of Boethius, De mufica, 15 B. IX,
of the I Ith centur)', in the Britifh IMufeum, where the infa-
mous chromatic (pjjpjuaTo^) is faid to have been fubftituted by
that mufician to their grave and fimple enharmonic (Eva^(.(wiw),
in the fame manner as it is printed in the Oxford edit, of Ara-
tus. (See Differt. on the Muf. of the Ancients, p. 27.)

It feems iiecefTary here to give fome account of this fa-
mous treatife on mufic by Boethius, which, to read, was
lon^T thought necelTai-y to the obtaining a mufical degree in
our univerfities ; and which, with great parade, has been fo
frequently praifed, quoted,and pronounced, by writers on that
art, to be of the greatctt importance to every mufician, yet
contains nothing but matters of mere fpeculation and theory,
tranflated from Greek writers of higher antiquity ; wiiich,
if neceffary to be known at this time, would be more pro-
fitably lludied in the original ; but the theory of every
art being vain and ufelcfs, unlefs it guide and facilitate
pra£lice, the definitions, calculations, and reveries of Boe-
thius, are no more ufeful or effential to a modern mufician
than Newton's Pnnctpta to a dancer.

In the proemium, or introdu£l:on to his firft book, " De
Mufica," he treats of the morality of mufic, and gives us all
•the old {lories concerningits miraculous powers of exciting
virtue, reprefGng vice, curing difeafes, &c. And in this

B O E

book we find whence Zarlino, and all the Italian writers on
mufic, down to Padre Martini, drew their extenfive divifions
of muiic into viiiintane, human, and irjirumtntal. For Boethius
fays, " Trcs effe Mulicas," lib. i. cap. 2. So had Anil.
Quintilianus informed us, long before the birth of Boethius.
And as far as we are able to divine at prefent concerning thefe
dillinftions, the ancients meant by mundane mufic, the mufic
of the fpheres. By human, or humane mufic, the perfect
organization of our frame, and the union of foul and body.
By the laft only, the inilruinentai, we are brought to
real mufic, by the grateful production and union of tuneful
founds.

Then we have definitions, fuch as are given in Euclid
and all the Greek writers, on harmonics and fpeculative
mufic in Meibomius. After which, we have the doftrines of
proportion and ratios, inllituted by Pythagoras, who would
not trull to the various and fallacious judgment of the fcnfes,
but had recourfe to reafon and calculation to fettle his doubts.
The account of the difcoveries and harmoiiial laws eftabli(hed
by Pythagoras, not only inferted in Bottliius, but all fub-
fcquent writers, is taken from Nicomachus, one of the feven
Greek writers on mufic in Meibomius. In the fame book,
we have a very fuperficial and unfatisfadlory account of the
genera. But we are indulged with feveral chapters on the
mufic of the fpheres from " Cicero de Repub." lib. vi. where
the fuppofed analogy between the planets and the feptenarj,
or feven founds in mufic, is aflerted.

At the clofe of this book, chap, xxxiv. Boethius ellimates
theory and fpeculation far above praftice in mufic. But
what, we may aflv, is the ufe to the world of fuch a theory
as he defcribes, without praclice ? Or, indeed, praclice,
without the fuppurt of what is now underftood by theory ?
The fpeculative theoriils, confined to meditation and ex-
periments in hannonics, talk of mufic without bearing it ;
and the mere praftician hears it, without uuderflanding it.
Boethius allows him oidy to be a mufician who can exa-
mine, judge, and give reafons for what is done. Here we
have the origin of the verfes afcribed to Guido :
Muficorum et cantorum.
Magna eft diftantia, i<.c.
The whole fecond book is relative to the difpute between
the Pythagoreans and Arifloxenians, which is not yet fettled,
about dividing the fcale, whether by the ear, or by num.bers.
All the muficians in Europe are now difputing whether we
ftionld temper our fcales on fixed inllruments, or adopt the
triple progrtfiion of Pythagoras, and tune by perfect ^ths.
See TRii>LE PpvOGression, and Temperament. We
have here the tone-major and tone-minor to difcufs ; which
we talk about, but never feci or think of the diftindlion in
our modidation or performance. The apotoms, comma, and
limma, are left for the amufement of fpeculative harmoniits
to talk about, and for muficians to pradife with their ears
and (\ngc\s, fc;ns y f/en/L-r.

In the third book, Boethius continues his controverfy
with the Ariftoxenians, and proves what has been long
fettled, that there is no fuch thing in mufic as a literal /ja/f-
note. The odlave is faid to contain five tones and two ftmi-
tones ; and in the temperament of equal participation, the
twelve femitones of the oAave muft be nearly equal.

In book iv. the fubje6t is purfued of fplitting of tones ;
for the ancients could " divide and fubdivide a tone from
fouth to fouth-weil fide."

We were very much difappointed formerly at the non-
performance of a promife made book v. at chap. 3. the
title of which is " Muficarum per Grxcas ac L;:tinas litcras
notarum nuncupatio." But Meibomius fays the promife
dots not extend to the Roman notation in the Seldon MS.
at Oxford ; ncr had the Romans any notation of their own

ia

B O E

B O F

;n the time cf Boetliius ; and all the muGcal terms he

ufes are Greek, as were thofe of Vitruvius.

Even the eulo^fts of Boethius coiifefs, that his work is
fo purely theoretic, that in reading' it we never think of
practice. Let us leave it then to philofopliers who are con-
tent with imaginary founds. The mention of inftruments,
or of the voice as employed in finging, never occurs. No
allufions to the mnfic of his time, but all is abfti-aA fpccu- .
lation, tei:di;ig doubtlefs to the perfefiion of the art, but
feeming little conneftcd with it. The harmony he talks
of is more the harmon'ia mundiai Kepler, than that of Han-
del and Havdn. Guido faid, that Boathius's work was
only fit for philofophe'.s. In the middle ages, fo few under-
flood Greek, that tliofe who were curious to know fomething
about the miraculous powers of that mufic, imagined that they
fuould find it in Boettiiiis's tranflation, who had been educated
at Athens. Such fpeculations are curious and amufing, in
moments c-f meditation, to fcientific and inquiring minds ;
but practical muficians, whether compofers or performers,
can afford httle time for fuch fublime and fpi; itual amufe-
ments. Neverthelefs, he muft be a dull and incurious pro-
fcQbr, who feeks not the reafon of things, the principles of
his art, and origin of founds. If he have a mathematical
turn, let him read Galileo, Daniel Baitoli, D'Alem.bert,
Holder, Rameau, Tartini, and Smith's harmonics. Tiiey
are ail intelligible, and lead to knowledge which he will be
expected to poflcfs ; but for any thing ufeful that he can
acquire from Boethius's fpeculations, or from the Greek
theorifts, his prototypes, that will make him a better com-
pofcr or performer, the cafe is hopelefs. Yet there are,
who, after allowing that " it was of fo little ufe in practical
mufic, that they never thought of it in reading Boethius ;"
yet returning afterwards to .former prejudices, it is infifted on,
tS.at " he has communicated to tlie world fuch a knowledge
of the fundamental priiicip'.cs of the mufic of tiie ancients, as
is abfolutely nec^Jiiry to the right underftanding of our own
fyllem."

When we fpeak of the inutility of Boethius's work on
mufic to the mufical ftudents of modern times, we prefume
not to extend our cenfures further. The writings of this
great and g.od man on other fubjedls have been too long held
in reverence to be depreciated (lightly. His molt celebrated
production was his etaic compofition " De conlolatione phi-
lofophise," and has always been admired both for the ftyle and
fentiments. It is an imaginary conference between the
author and philofophy perfonified, who endeavours to con-
fole and foothe him in his afHictions. The topics of confola-
tion contained in this work, are deduced from the tenets of
Plato, Zeno, and Aridotle, but without any notice; of the
fources of confojation which are peculiar to the Chriftian
fyftem. It is partly in profe, and partly in verfe ; and was
tranflated into Saxon by king Alfred, and illuftrated with a
comm.entary by Affer, bifhop of St. David's ; and into Eng-
liflj, by.CJiaucer and queen Elizabeth. It was alfo tranflated
into Engliih verfe by John Walton, in 1410, of which tranf-
lation there is a correct manufcript on parchment in the Bri-
tifh mufeum. Few books have been more popular, efpeci-
ally in the middle ages, or have pafled through a greater
number of editions in almoft all languages. It has been ob-
ferved by Mr. Harris, in his " Herme>^," that " with Boe-
thius the Latin tongue, and the lalt remains of Roman
dignity, may be faid to l-.ave funk in the wellcrn world."
To the fame purpofe. Gibbon fays, that " the fenator Boe-
thius is the lall of the Romans, whom Cato or TuUy would
have acknowledged for their countryman. " Fabr. Bib. Lat.
torn. ii. p. 146, &c. Le Clerc, Bib. Choif. t. xvi. p. 168
— 275. Burney's Hiit. Muf. vol. ii. p. 31, &c. Gibbon's

Hift. Rom. Emp. vol. vii. p. 43, &c. Brucker's Hift Phil.
by Ji.n;ieid, vol. ii. p. ^ij.

BOETTICHER, Gottlieb, a phyfician of eminence,
and in confiderable prattice at Berlin, during the early part
of the lalt century, publifhed various works on the theory
and pradlice of medicine. The principal are, on the exift-
ence of a nervous fiuid, " De vera fluidi nervorum exift-
entia," Berlin, 1721, 4to. ; " De morborum malignorum,*
imprimis psftis et peftilentiae, explicatio," 4to. 1713; this
has been feveral times reprinted. He contends, that the
plague is contagious ; and that the infecting effluvia may
be retained, and conveyed in full vigour, in the clothes
or bedding of the fick, to diftant countries ; a doctrine that
has been lately ftrongly oppofed. Pregnant women, affected
with the plague, conftantly part with the fruit of the womb
before they die. Hypochondriac perfons, he thinks, are
not fufceptible of the contagion. But in this he is probably
mitlaken ; as we know lunatics do not enjoy fuch an cx-
eir.ption from contagious difeafes in this country. He re-
commends bleeding on the firit attack of the fever, and then
to have recoi-.rfe to fudorifics. " De refpiratione foetus in
utero," 4to. 1702. Haller. Bib. Med. et Anat.

BCEL^F, Le, in Geography, a place in the north-weftern
corner of Peiinfylvania, at the head of the north branch of
French creek, and JO miles dillant by water from fort
Franklin, where this creek joins the Alleghany. The
French fort of Le Bceuf, from whence the place has its
name, lies about two miles eaft from Small lake, which is
on the north branch of French creek ; and from Le Bceuf,
is a portage of 14 miles northerly to Prefque ifle in lake
Erie, where the French had another fort. N. lat. 42° i',
W long. 79° ^y 20".

Bffiur, in Ornithology, acording to Salerne, the common
name of the bulfinch (loxia pyrrhula) in the canton of So-
lot)ne. The troglodyte, fylvia troglodyte's of Latham, is like-
wife called by the fame name [bceuf) in Sv/itzerland.

Bceuf de Mara'is. The French call the common bittern
[ardeajlellaris), becaufe it frequents marfhes, and has a loud
cry, and emits a fort of roaring noifc that has been com-
pared to that of an ox or bull, by this name. " II n'y a,"
lays Belon, " bceuf qui put crier fi haut."

Bceuf d'/tfrijue, in Zoology. By this name fome French
writers diltinguifh the buffalo ; the epiihet is mifapplied,
becaufe that animal is equally common in India, whence in-
deed, it is fuppofed, the African buffalo firft originated.

Bceuf a Boffin, fynonymous with bifon. By fome it is
likewife called bceuf des Illinois.

Bceuf Guerrir. Under this denomination the French
defcribe a race of African oxen, which the Hottentots call
baclleys ; the word lachley in their language fignifying war,
to the purpofes of which they are trained up, in the fame
manr.er as elephants are by the Indians. War-oxen of this
defcription are inltrudted alfo to guard the herds of the
common oxen.

Bceuf de Mer, in Ichthyology, is the name of the long-
beaked ray, raja oxyrinchtis of Linnaeus.

Bceuf de Mer, in Zoology, the common French name for
any of the Phoce tribe of animals, correfponding with
the general Engliih name <A fea-coiu.

BOFFRAND, Germain, in Biography, a celebrated
French arclnteft and engineer, was born at Nantes in 1667,
and having been educated at Paris, he employed himfelf for
fome time in fculpture, during the winter, and ftudied archi-
tecture in the fummer. His talents at length engaged the
attention and patronage of Hardouin-Manfart, an eminent
arehiteft, who obtained for him a place in the commiffion for
the royal buildings. In 1 700, he became a member of the

Royal

BOG

Royal Academy of Architefture, and was much employed at
Paris, and by fevcral German princes, in furnidiing defigns
for various edifices. His ftyle of building was grand and no-
ble, and formed after the model of Palladio. He was like-
wife a (liilful engineer, and conftrufled a great number of
canals, fluices, bridges, and fimilar works. As architeft to
the general hofpital of Paris, he gratuicoufly fervedthe infti-
tution ; and, as he was dillnterelled in his temper, he was
lively and amuling in converfation ; and he indulged his tafte
for literature by the compofition of feveral pieces, adapted to
the purpofe of producing temporary gaiety and mirth, for
the Italian comedy. His " Book of Architefture," with
plates, was printed at Paris in 1745, folio ; and contains an
account of the general principles of the art, exemplified in his
own works. In'this work he has alfo introduced a curious
memoir, defcribing the method of calling the bronze equef-
trian ftatue of Lewis XIV. He retained his gaiety of dif-
pofition to the age of 87 years, and died at Paris in 1755.
Encycl. Hift. Gen. Biog.

BOFIN, Boffin, or Baffik Lough, in Geography, one
of thofe large lakes in Ireland into which the river Shan-
non expands, fituattd between the counties of Rolcommon
and Leitrim.

BOG, derived from the Italian buca, a hole, or rather from
the Belgic hoogen, to lend, on account of its giving way when
trod upon, in Agr'icuUure, a quaggy fort of earth, generally
met with in low fituations, covered with coarfe gralFes, but
of fo little folidity as to be incapable of fupporting the tread
of heavy animals; caufed by the dilToIution, decay, and depo-
fltion of different vegetable and other fubltances,'' from the
ftagnation and detention of the water that oozes along on
the clayey or other thin tenacious flrata below, or which
fprings up through the fiffures, or other openings of them.
They are of difFtreut kinds, depths, andconfiftencics, accord-
ing to the different circumftances of the cafe, and the nature
of the fituatiun of the ground on which they are formed, as
well as that of the earthy material that enters into their com-
pofition. Dr. James Anderfon, in his treatife on draining
bogs and fwampy grounds, remarks, that clay is a fubllance
that llrongly refills the entrance of water into it ; but, when
it is long drenched with water, it is, in procefs of time, in
fome meafure, dilfolved thereby, lofing its original finnnefs
of texture and confiftence, and becoming a fort of femi-fluid
mafs, which is called bog. And as thefe bogs are fometimes
covered with a furface of a particular kind of grafs, with
very matted roots, which is ftrong enough to bear a fmall
weight without breaking, although it yields very much ; it
is in thefe circumftances denominated Afivaggle.

But, whatever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably oc-
cafioncd by water being forced up through a bed of clay, as
juft defcribed, and diffolving or foftening a part thereof. A
part is only mentioned, bccaufc, whatever may be the depth
of the bog or fwaggle, it generally has a partition of folid
clay between it and the refcrvoir of water under it, whence
it originally proceeds. For if this were not the cafe, and the
quantity of water were confiderable, it would meet with no
fufficicnt refinance from the bog, and would of courfe, iffue
through it with violence, and caiTy the whole femi-fluid mafs
along with it. This would more inevitably be the cafe, if
there was at fird a cruft at the bottom of the bog, and if that
crud fhould ever be broken, efpecially if the quantity of
water under it was very confiderable. And as it is probable
that, in manv cafes of this fort, the water (lowly dilutes more
and more of this under-crull, no doubt is entertained but that
in the revolution of many ages, a great many irruptions of
this kind may have happened ; although they may not have

BOG

been deemed of importance enough to have flie hillory of
them tranfmitted to pofterity.

It has been remarked by Mr. King, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaaions, N° 170, that the fprings, with which
Ireland abounds, are generally dry, or nearly dry, in the
fummer time, and that grafs and weeds grow thick about the
places where they burlt out. In the winter, he obfei-ves,
they fwcll, run, foftcn, and loofen all the earth about them.
The fward or fcurf of the earth, which confifts of the roots
of grafs, being lifted up and made fuzzy by the water, at
that feafon (he has feen it lifted up afoot or two at the head
of fome fprings), is dried in the fpring, and does not fall to-
gether, but withers in a tuft, through which arifes new grafs,
which is alfo hfted up th.e next winter. By this means the
fpring is more and more ftopped, and the fcurf grows thicker
and thicker, till at firft it makes the appearance which we
call a quaking bog ; and as it grows higher and drier, and
the roots of the grafs and other vegttifbles become more pu-
trid, together with the mud and llime of the water, it ac-
quires a blacknels, and grows into that which we call a turf-
bog.

It is, however, confefTed, that there are quaking-bogs
caufed otherwife. When, it is obferved, a ilream or fpring
runs through a flat, the paflTage, if not kept open, fills with
weeds in fummer, trees fall acrofs it and dam it up ; then in
winter the water fl:agnates further every year, till the whole
flat is covered. Afterwards a coarfer kind of grafs (hoots
up, peculiar to thefe b'^gs ; this grafs grow s in tutts, its roots
confolidate together, and its height increafes every year, in-
fomuch that he has feen it as tall as a man. This grafs rots
in winter, and falls on the tufts, and with it the feed, which
fprings up the next year ; and (o continues making an annual
addition. Sometimes the tops of the flags and grafs are inter-
woven on the furface of the water, and this becomes by
dv-i;rees thicker till it lies like a cover on it ; then herbs take
root in it, and by the matting of their roots, it becomes very
(Irong, fo as to bear a man. He has gone on bogs which
would rife before and behind, and fink where he flood to a
confiderable depth, under which was clear water.

It is further obferved, that Ireland abounds in mofs more
than any other country ; this mofs isof divers kinds, and that
which grows in bogs is very remarkable. The light fpongy
turf is nothing but a congeries of the threads of this mofs, be-
fore it be fuffieiently rotten ; the turf then looks white, and is
light. It has been feen in fuch quantities, audio tough, that
the turf-fpades could not cut it. In the north of Ireland,
they denominate it old-wives tow, being not much unlike
flax. The turfholesiH time grow up with it again ; and all
the little gutters in bogs are generally filled with it. To this
he chiefly imputes the red or turf bog ; and from the fame
caufe even the hardened turf, when broken, is ftringy, though
there plainly appear in it partsof other vegetables ; and he is
almoft, from fome obfervations, tempted to believe, that the
feed of this bog-mofs begets heath, whtn it falls on dry and
parched ground. However, the mofs is fo fuzzy and quick-
growing a vegetable, that it greatly (lops the fpring, and
contributes to thicken the fcurf, efptcially in red bogs,
where he remembers to have obferved this mofl: particularly.
The fituations of land may fometimes contribute to the form-
ation of bogs in it, as flat fpots of ground lower than the
level of an adjoining liver or lake ; for when that part is
filled up by the (limt and earth brought from the furrounding
grounds, and the rotten plants and animals, which are buried
in it, have choked it up, it will become a bog ; and then the
water will continue to flow into it from the river or lake,
efpecially when either of thefe is fwelled by a fall of rain or
melting of fnow, Thefe waters may alfo fometimes have

this

I

BOG

iiiis effeft, witliout a communication above ground, by foak-
ing through a fandy or gravelly foil. And another caufe
that may contribute to the produftion of bogp, may be tlie
fall of a number of trees, which, by occafioning a ftagnation
in the v.-ater brought down from higher grounds, may cKufe
the dcpofition of much earthy vegetable, and other materials,
and confequently the produdliun of boggy appearances in
the places where fuch obllruftions are met with.

Bogs are difcriminated by different titles, according to the
nature of thecircumftances under which they occur ; as pedi-
logs, q;iah\vg-hogs, fpr'mg-logs , anA turf- Logs. The firft being
that fort of bog wiiich is principally compof^d of peat -earth.
The fecond Inch a kind of bog as, when trodden upon, af-
fords an elallic kind of motion, or (haking under the foot.
The thiid is fiich a bog as arifes from the oozing or fpring-
ing up of water through the ftifF ftr.ita of materials on which
it is formed. Mr. Elkington, the celebrated drainer, makes
two clalTes of this fort of bog ; the firft of which is diftin-
guiflied by the fprings rifing out of the adjoining higher
grounds, in a regular line, along the upper fide of the wet
furfdce ; while, in the latter, the number of fprings that ap-
pear are not confined to one regular dircAion along the upper
ilde, bi!t burft oat promifcuoufly over the « holt furface,
cfpecially tovvurds the lowf-r fide, forming quagmires all
round, that fhake and bend under the feet like a fiifpended
cloth, over which it is dangerous for the lighteft cattle to
pafs, and which fn^w ihcnifclves at a dillancc by the verdure
of the grafs, which the quags or Ipots immediately round the
fprings produce. The lall is a lort of bog conllitutcd of
materials which partake of tlie nature of turf.

Wherever bogs are met with, draming is unqueftionably
the firft ftep to be taken towards their improvement. For
tlie full accomplidiment of this purpoie, Mr. Elkington's
mode may in many cafes be fuccefsfully reforted to, and with
great and fudden efTett ; though the improver fiiould not be
too fanguine in his expectations, or imagine that it is in
every cafe an eafy operation to free this lort ot land from an
excefs of moifture. There are probably iome bogs which
cannot, without great difficulty, be drained at all ; and others
that would coft the value of the land, in drains and machinery,
to effeft fuch improvements in them. But m twithftanding
imrnccefbful trials may fometimes be made, the drainer ought
not to be totally difcouraged from further attempts, where
tliere is a tolerable profpetl of fuccteding in the bufinefs at
laft ; as the cafes are no doubt very numerous, in which this
fort of land may be tfieftually drained at an eafy expence,
and thereby brought from a Rate of inutility to yitld con-
fiderable profit to the owners aiid the public. See Draining
of Bcigg^ Lands.

It is obferved-in the appendix to Mr. Johnfton's account
of Mr. Elkington's mode of draining, that in the improv-
ing of bogs, after their being drained, as the great objeft
is to get the ground brought to fuch a ftate, as to be fit for
being laid down with grafs feeds, when it may be confidered
in fuch a ftate of improvement, that any fubfequent crops
will require no more than ordinary management to cultivate
them; the firft thing to be done, where they are cxtenfive,
is to have them divided into proper enclofures by open ditches,
by which means much furface water may be carried off, as
well as by properly attending to the formation of the ridges
and furrows in ploughing, and giving them a direction to-
wards the open ditches, by which the rain or furface w-ater
may be difchargtd as it falls ; and after this has been effedl-
ed, to have the furface well levelled by means of the fpade,
as being in moft cafes more effeftual than by the plough.
The better forts of the materials thus removed may be mixed
up with lime or other fubftances, and fet upon the land ; while

Vol. IV.

BOG

thofe of the coarfer kinds are made ufs of to fill up the in-
equalities on the furface. Paring and burning, where there
is much coarfe vegetable matter, may be praclifed with ad-
vantage. In order to this, whatever earth i-emains unem-
ployed, in filling up hollows, fiiould be burnt, together with
that taken out of the ditches, unlefs the latter has been al-
ready carried off for fuel. The greater quantity of afhes
there is, the greater wiil be the improvement of the foil itfelf,
and the more will the earth be benefited. The aflies, after
being well incorporated with the foil by means of light or
fuperficial ploughing, frequently fo enrich it, as to produce
excellent crops for two years or more. The etTccls of the
afhes and burnt materials have been laid, in fome eafes, to be
increafed by the addition of a little lime. When the turfs
have been reduced to afties, fpread ever the furface of the
ground, and turned in with a little funow, turnips or potat
toes ought to be the firft crop. If the form.er, they may be
fown broad-caft, and fed off by (heep, by the dung and urine
of which the foil will be greatly benefited, as well as by the
refule of the plants, and the confohdation produced by their
treading upon it. It will then be in a ftate for a crop of
oats or barley, which fliould be fown with grafs-feeds, and
well roiled down. The ploughing after the turnip crop,
thus eaten off, fliould be very flight, in order not to bury
the enriching materials too deep ; in which view oats ought
to be preferred to barley. It t!it foil be full of the roots of
rufhes, weeds, and coarle plants, a fumnicr fallow may be ne-
celTary before any crop be taken ; and when the afiits have
been made in a particular part of the field, they may be
fpread over the furface before the feed furrow is given, and
the roots and tough clods, after bei;ig collected and burnt,
may be fpread along with them.

If the bog be very foft and deep of peat, fo as not to ad-
mit hovfcs for ploughing the firft year, a crop of turnips
broad-caft may be got by fowiv.g the feed among the fpread
afhes, harrowing it in with a light harrow and roller drawn
by men. This crop, being eat off as above, will leave the
land the enfuing year fo much coufolidated as to admit
the plough.

^^'hen the fuiface has not been pared and burnt, fallow-
ing for two years may be reccffary to rtdnce the foil to
a proper mould, in the laft ftage of which the lime or oilier
manure muft be applied. In this cafe two white crops,
with an intervening one of turnips, potatoes, &c. may be
taken before the grafs-fecd- are fown.

Boggy foil, of v.hatever kind, after being once broken up
and pulverifed by tillage and a courfe of fallow, .Oiould not
be over-cropped before being laid down in grafs; and, when
brought into a good fward of grafs, fhouid not be too foon
broken up again, but continue fo, bufti-harrowing and top-
drefFing it when the herbage begins to mofs. Repeated
rolling is alfo neceffary in fuch foils.

It IS probably a better practice to feed fheep the firft and
fecond years of the grafs than to cut it for hay, a? it caufes
the roots of the grafs to flnke more horizontally through the
foil, and more clofely to cover the furface. With this view a
greater proportion of white and yellow clover, and othei'
fhort grafs feeds, fhouid be fown.

In the manuring of foft boggy lands fonie caution is
neceffary ; for, though the ploughmgs, previoufly to the ap-
plication of the dung, may be made deep with advantage,
the fubfequent furrows ftiould be very fiip'jrficial, and the
dung regularly and uniformly blended with the foil ; for,
when this is not the cafe, it is apt to fink down too much,
and be of little utility. The fame thing takes place with
refpeft to lime ; and even when marie is buried too deep it
is faid to lofe its power as a manure.

4U Oh

B O G

On fuft bog-gy groiiiic'., mfrcly intended for pafliire,
tiothiii-; will produce a mori rapid impiovLinent than llie
applical'on of a- thin covcrinjj of marlf. In O'.dcr to this,
the directions already jriven, with refpect to paring and burr.-
ir.;;, (hould be obfervcd.

'Marie, wliich is often found under a gravel or clay, mr^y
alfo be of preat fcrvicc; but if a loamy earth be near at
hand, it will, pcrliaps, be Icfs cxpenfive to the farmer to
bring fiich earth to cover the bog, than it will be to dig up
the clav. But of whatever kind the earth be v.hich is laid
upon the bog, the quantity fiiould always be fufficient to
cover its whole furface four, live, or fix inches deep, ac-
cordintr to the lliffncfs of the foil fo brought.

Sea-fand, as being freqacntly mixed with (liells, is well
fuited to this purpofe, it the boggy ground be fituated near
the fea, fo that it can be Cufily procured. The great weight
of thefe materials tends equally to confolidate the bog,
and prefs cut the moillure from the fpongy peaty earth ;
therefore the thicker they are applied the better. A flight
fpriiikling of lime over it will add to the eflcft, and bring
up much white clover and other fwect graffes.

Tiie moll barren earths or foils, v.hcn ufed in this way,
may have good effecls ; but lime-llone gravel, where it can
be procured, is to be preferred to all others. After the
land has been treated in this manner, and la'in fome years in
pafture, it may be broken up for tillage, and crops of grain
taken before being laid down with grafsfeeds. By plough-
ing, part of the natural foil will be turned up, and intimately
mixed with the eaith, &c. that has been laid upon it, and,
if lime or dung be added, will together form a very fertile
mould. When boggy grounds are much over run with
ruflies, and other coarfe, four, aquatic plants, fcarcely any
thing tends more to the liril part of its improvement than
that of over-Hocking it with ditFerer.t forts of cattle, as foon
as ever it is fiifficiently folid to bear them with fafety ;
care muft, however, be taken not to put them on till it is
quite firm, as if that be done they will not only poach the
furface, but the coarfe herbage will remain without being
eaten clofely down. The pradice of cutting the ruflies
frequently in tb.eir voung and tender Hate, is alfo of con-
fiderable utility. By thefe means alone a better kind
of herbage is fpeedily brought up, and much improvement
produced.

Another confidei-able means of improving this fort of land,
where the fituation is fuch as to admit of it, or when it lies
near the fide of a large river or fiream, of which, by means
of proper dams and cuts, a command can be obtained, is
that of floating it with water, a procefs that, when judici-
oudy managed, never faili to produce abundant crops of
grafs. And that it is a mode of improvement well fuited
to this fort of land, is evident from the effects that have been
produced in different in dances ; and from the obfervations
of Mr. Bofwell, that it requires more and longer watering
than any fandy or gravelly ioil :. the larger the body of wa-
ter that can be brought upon it tiie better; its v.eight and
ftrength will greatly alTill in con-prclfuig the foil, and de-
llroying the roots of the weeds that grow upon it ; neither
can the water be kept too long upon it, cfpeeially in the
winter feafon, immediately after the after-matli is eaten ;
and the clofer it is eaten the better. The manner of con-
ducing the bufuiefs of watering muft be fuited to the cir-
cumilances of the particular cales.

After being thus improved, it mufl; next be determined to
what huling purpofe it may be bell applied. Tiie too great
moillure of thefe foils, which always lie flat, renders them
unfit for continued tillage, and their mould becomes fo loofe
by frequent ploughing, that it frequently does not afford

BOG

fuflieicnt (lability to the roots of corn. For this reafou bar-
ley. oats, and rye do better here than wheat, wiiich requires
a firmer footing ; but neither of them fliould be fowed thick,
becaufe the fruitfuhiefs of the foil will always make up in the
fize of the plant.-, what fome might think wanting in their
number. I'he mod beneficial method cf employing this fort
of land is, undoubtedly, that of converting it into meadow,
becaufe, when thus prepared, and not injudieioufly exhauft-
ed by crops of corn, it will yield great quantlfes of excel-
lent grafs. It is, however, ufual to begin with fowiv:g fome
kind of grain on this prepared iurface, to indemnify the
farmer by the plentiful crop which it generally yields ; fuch,
indeed, as fometimes defrays at once the whole expence of
the improvement, In fome cafts the moft profitable method
may be to fow it in the autumn with rape, the leaves of
which fliading the furface in hot weather, and rotting in the
winter, contribute greatly to mellow the earth : the ftrong
roots of this plant open the foil too, and its feed brings a great
return when fold for making oil. One or two ploughing*
after this will prepare it for a crop of wheat. After this is
taken off, and the Hubble turned down, w'hite clover and
grafs-feed fiiould be fown, and the ground laid dov.-n for a
lafting meadow ; or if turnips be fcwn, or cabbages planted
in the autumn, thefe in the fpring may be fuceeeded by-
barley, with which the grafs-fecds may be fown.

In crude moory or black peat boggy improved lands, Mr.
Marfliail remarks, that what is moil defirable is a crop that
is fovvn and reaped during the fummer months, and which
demands neither labour nor attendance in the humid feafons
of autumn, winter, or fpring ; and inch a crop is found in
rape, which is luckily natural to the climate, and at the fame
time highly profitable. Trials with this may be made at but a
trifling expence on a fmall portion of the ground, the proof
of which anfwering, it is obferved, " is not whether the
plant will thrive as herbage, but whether it will mature its
feed on the given foH in the given fituation."

Afcer a recompence has been obtained by crops of this
fort, which may be repeated, as there is no danger of exhaufl-
ing fuch deep foils, the foundation of more lafting profits
is to be laid ; which may be effefled by fowing grafs-feeds,
with or over the rape crops, or after the ftems have been
drawn, according to feafons and the circumilances of the
land, flocking, as diredled above, till fuch time as the furface
becomes fufiiciently firm, and the foil has attained a fuitable
texture for mixed cultivation, which time may be much
fhortened by the apphcation of foflile fubftances of the cal-
careous kind in any period of the improvement.

When either through neceflity, for want of other arable
land, or out of choice, the farmer intends to continue
ploughing his improved bogs, the furface muft be raifed in
ridges, and the further management of it may be like that
of moll other ploughed grounds.

If a foil of this kind happens to be fituated near a town,
a greater profit may accrue from planting it with garden
ftuffsthan from any fort of grain, as beans, peafe, cabbages,
potatoes, turnips, carrots, &c. are found to tluive exceed-
ingly well in earth of this kind.

Bog, moving or migrating. Thefe foft mafles of earth have
been fometimes known to move out of their place. An in-
ftance of this there was in Ireland, in the year 1697, about
Charleville in the county of Limerick. There was heard
for fome time a noife under ground like that of thunder at a
great dittance, or almoll fpent ; and foon after this the earth
of a large bog in the neighbourhood began to move, and a
hill or rifing fituated in the middle of it flood no longer
above the level of the reft, but funk flat. The bog not only
moved itfclf, but carried with it the neighbouring palture-

lands,

BOG

lands, though feparated by a large and deep ditcli ; tlie motion
continued a confuierable time, and tlie fiirface of the moving
earth rofc into a fort of v\-aves, but without breaking up or
burfting any where. The pafture-land rofe very high, and
was carried on with tlie fame motion till it refted upon a neigh-
bouring meadov/, the whole furface of v.-hich it cos'ered,
remaining fixtcen feet deep upon its furface. The wliole
quantity of the bog was torn from its former feat, and left
great gaps in the earth where it had joined, which threw up
foul water, and very flinking vapours. Phil. Tiruf. N° a ^3.
The whole cmntry came in to fee fo ftrange a light as thip,
for it continued moving a long time ; but few gueflcd the
true caufe of it, which was this : a more than ordinary wet
fpring occafioned the rifing of the bog to a great height in
one part, and thence proj)agated itfclf through the while
bog ; fo that the hill in the midll was undermined, and
naturally funk flat ; t!:i3 and the more than ordinary weight
of this large bog prefiing upon the adjoining pailurc-land,
forced up its foundations, which were only a loofe fand.
This was puihed on iideways, where there was a defcent
from the bog, and at lengtli having given the bog more
room, all was quiet and remained in that Hate. The bog was
more than forty acres of ground.

Another inftance of tliis kind occurred, in f.Iarch 1745,
at the bog of Addergoole, about a mile and a half from the
town of Dunmorc, in the county of XJalway. In confe-
quence of a violent ilorm, attended with a fall of rain, re-
fembling a water-fpout, the turbary, which the turf-cutters
had jnll left, containing about twelve acres, was put into
motion, and floated tili at laft it fubfided upon a piece of
low pnllure of near thirty acres, by the fide of the river,
where it fpread and fettled. The moving-bog choaked up tlie
river, which confequently overflowed the back grounds, and
in a little time a lough or lake of near c^^ acres covered tlie
adjacent fields. A palTage for the river was formed as fpeedi-
Iv as poffible ; but before it could be finiilied, and the lake
difcharged, it was fuppofed to have covered 300 acres ; haw-
ever, in feven or eight days it gradually decrcafed to 50 or 60
acres, of which extent it continued. Irifh Tranfadlions,
vol. ii. p. 4.

Bog, ancient Hypanis, in Geography, a river of Poland,
which rifes in Podolia and joins the cltuary of the Dnieper
or Nieper, a little above Oc/.akow, about N. lat. 46° 32'.
E. long. 32° 32'. This river feparates Poland and a portion
of European Turkey from Rufiia. By taking up the Ingul,
the Sinucha, and the Guiloi, befides other llreams in its
courfe, it becomes a very confiuerable river.
Bog bean, in Botany. See Menvanthes.
Bog herry. See Vaccinium.
Bog mofs. Sec Splachnum.
Vy'jG bujh. SceScHOENUS.
Bog luooil. See \^ oon fullerrancous.
Bog ore. See Iron.

BOGA, in hlithyohgy, fynonymous with Bogne, and
Spdrus hoops.

I'OGAERT, Martin Vanden, furnamed UesjanHns,
in Biogrnpliv, aa eminent Iculptor, was born at Breda, in
Holland, 111 i6JO, and fettling in early life at Paris, he be-
came a member of the Royal Academy, at the age of 3 1
years. The lirft of his mo!l coiifiderable works was an cquef-
trian ftatue of I^uuis XIV. crtiited at Lyons in the place
BcUeoour. He alio adorned the gate of the church ot the
Mazariii college with fix groups of ftoiie, repreieiitiiig the
evangclill.-i and the Greek and Latin fathers of the church; and
befides many other works, the moll dilliuguilhcd was the
monument ereiltd in the place of Victory, at the cxpciice of

BOG

marechal du Feuillade, on v.-hich the king, crowned by vic-
tory, is exhibited in a Handing polhire, invelled with the
regal ornaments, and having under his feet a cerberus, to
denote his triumph on cccafion of the triple alliance. This
group is 30 feet high, and was formed by a finglc caft, un-
der the particular direftion of Desjardins. This artiil: died
rich in 1694. Encycl.

BOGAHA, in Bola/iy and Mythology, a tree held facred
in Ceylon, on account of the imagined preference given by
the deity Buddou to the fhade of this tree above all others.
Wherever it is found throughout the iiland, perfons are ap-
pointed to watch over it, and preferve it from dirt or injury.
It is held in the fame eftimation among the followers of Bud-
dou, as the banyan tree is among the Brahmins. The Can-
dians hold their great feftival under the fhade of a tree of
this kind, whicli Hands at Annarodgburro, an ancient city
in the nortlicrn part of the king of Candy's dominions ; and
none but his own fubjefts are permitted to approach this
fancluary. Tradition fays, that the bogaha tree fiiddenly
flew over from fome dillaut country and planted itfelf in the
fpot where it now (lands. It was intended as a Ihelter for
the god Bnddou, and under its branches he was wont to
repofe, while he fojourned on earth. Near th.s hallowed
fpot 90 kings are interred, who all merited admiflion into
the regions of blifs by the templts and images they conflruct-
ed for Buddou. They are now fent as good fpirits to pre-
fide over the fafety of his followers, and protcCl them from
being brought into fn'jeftion to Europeans; a calamity
againft which they continually pray. Around the tree are
a number of huts, eredled for the ufe of the devotees, who
repair hither : and as every fort of filth and dirt muft be
removed from the facred fpot, people are retained for the
purpofe of continually fwceping the approaches before the
worlhippers, and to attend the prielU during the perform-
ance of the ceremonies. Percival's Ceylon.

BOGANEU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; 6 miles S. of Chrudim.
BOGAR. See Bokhara.

BOGAROVSKOI, a town of Siberia, 136 miles N. of
Toboin<.

BOGAS, or BoeHAs, a fmall town of Egypt, at the
mouth of the Nile, j miles N. of Daniietta. See
Boghass.

BOGATOI, a town and difl;rift of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Kurilc, feated on the rivulet Penna, falling into the
Pfol ; ^8 miles S. S. W.of Kurfl<.

BOGAZI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the country of
Diarbekir, 50 miles W. of Diarbtk.

BoGAZi, fignifying in the Turkifli language a " canal," or
" ftrait," a name given by the Turks to two llraits, adjoin-
ing to the ifland of Samos ; one, called Little Bogazi, and
fcarcely half a league broad, feparates Samos from the
continent of Afia ; the other, called the Great Eogazi, and
nearly two leagues broad, lies to the well and feparates this
ifland from the fn-jall Fournis iflands, fo denominated, b"e-
caufe, at a diftance, they appear like the roofs of ovens ; they
were anciently called " Corftae infulas," This is a paffage
much frtqi'.ented by fliips failing from Coni'antinople to
Syria and Egypt, and tliey find here good anchorages.

BOGDANA, a tcwn cf European Turkey, in Mol-
dav a, on the borders of Tranfylvaiiia ; 60 n.iles S. of
Niemecz.

BOGDEN, Martin, in B'.ngraphy, a favoured pupil of
T. Bai tiioline, and llrer.uous defcinlcr of his ian;e and opi-
nions, was born at Drefdcn, about the year 1630. After
vjfiting France, England, and other parts of Europe, to im-
4 U 2 prove

BOG

prove hiniCIf in knowledge, he took the degree of Dofior
ill Med'cine, at fialli in Swiiferlaiid, in 1652, and at the
end of fonr or five years, pafTcd principally with BartUolinc,
to whom he was (Irongly attached, he fettled at Bern. His
works are principally eontroverfial, defending the priority
of the difcovcry of the lymphatics by Barthohne, agalnfl
Rudbeck tiie Swede, who claimed it ; and who, if he did
not difcover tiiem, Hallcr fays, has the merit of having more
fully and accurately defcribtd them, than Bartholine had
done. Bogden, in this contcll, difplayed much learning, but
equal roughnefs and iil-humour. The titles of his works
are; " Rndbtkii inlidi^ ilrutla; vafis lymphaticis Thomx
Bai-tholini," 4to. and " Apologia pro vafis lymphaticis
Bartholini, adverfus infidias fecundo llruftas ab Olao Rud-
btk." Hafi'ni;c, 16,54, l2mo. " Simeonis Seth, de ali-
mentorum facultatibus," Gr. & Lat. 8vo. 1658. " Oh-
fervaiioncs Mcdic?j ad Thomam Rarlh." The obfervations,
12 in number, are publilhed in the " Culter Analomicus," of
Lyfer; Copenh. i66j, Halltr Bib. Anat. Elov Dift.
Hift.

BOGDIKOTZ, in Geop-al>hy, a town pf Ruffian Sibe-
ria, on the Tc'nilim ; 6 miles N. W. of Atchinflc.

BOGDINSKOI, or BoGDOM Dabassu, an uiexhaufti-
blc falt-lake of Siberia, in the fteppe towards Tzaritzin ;
the fait of which, according to Pallas, is better than that of
the Elton.

BOGDO, Great, the higheft mountain of central Afia,
according to the reports of the Monguls and Tartars, is pro-
perly a central fummit of the Altaian chain of mountains,
which gives fource to the Upper Irtyni, and feems to be
delineated in Arrowfmith's map of Afia at longitude 94°, and
latitude 47°. See Altai and Belur.

BoGDO, Utile, is a mountain of Afiatic Ruffia, lying to
the north of the Cafpian fea, near which is a falt-lake of the
fame name.

BOGUOM.A.NTIS, in Ancient Geography, a countr)- of
Afia Minor. Ptolemy.

BOGDOY, in Geography, a name given by the Ruffians
to the Manchews, or Mandlhurs, who inhabit the eallern
part of Chincfe Tartary, an extenfive and poprlous dillrict
N. N. E. of China, and who a-e fubjtft to the Chinefe em-
pire. See Mandshurs and Chinese Tartar y.

BOGENSEE, a town of Denmark, in the iiland of Fu-
uen ; 12 miles N. W. of Odenfee.

BOGESUND, a fmal! town of Sweden, in weft Goth-
Lind, 4 leagues S. of Falkioping.

BOGGILCUND, a diliricl or circar of Allahabad, in
Hindoilan, litnate well of Benares.

BOGH ASS,a canal c^r ftrait, fo called in the language of
the country, at the mouth of the weftern or Bolhitic branch
of the Nile, now called the branch of Rofetta. This paflage
is not navigable through its whole width ; there being only
a naiTOw channel, which, owing to the inllability of the bot-
tom, and the ai^itation of the fea, is continually (liifting.
A pilot or mailer of the Boghafs is continually employed
in founding this changeable palfage, and giving directions to
thofe who navigate 1;. The incrcafing danger of thi? paflage
led to the operation of cleanfmg the canal of Alexandria, and
thus to facilitate the communication between Alexandria and
the reft of Egypt. See Bogac.
BOGIA. SceBoujEiAH.
BOGILLANA. SteBACLANA.

BOGLIASCO, a town of Italy, in the ftate of Genoa,
near the fea coaft ; 6 miles E. of Genoa.

BOGLIO, or Beuil, a mountainous territory of Italy,
in the principality of Piedmont, and county of Nice> feated

BOG

near the Alps ; its chief place has alfo the fame name. Iliis
country was furrendcred to Fratrce in May 1796.

BOGLIPOUR, a town of Hindoilan, and capital of a
province, m the country of Bahar, near tlie Ganges ; 3^
miles S. E. of Monghir, and I 15 N. W. of Moorlhedabad.

BOGLORAY, a town of Poland, in the pahitinate of
Sandomirz ; 24 miles E. S. E. of Sandomirz.

BOGMUTTY, a rivtr of Hindoftan, which runs into
the Ganges near Monghir, in the country of Bahar.

BOGNOR, or HoTHAMPTON, (as it is fonietimes called
in honour of its founder, ) is a plealant retired hamlet, on
the louthern coaft of England, in the county of SuIFcx.
This place has only rifen into notice within a few years, be-
ing, previous to 1790, merely inhabited by a few fifhermen.
About this period fir Ricliard Hotham purchafed fome
ground here, where he built a houfe for hinifelf, and h;<d
others erected fortlie accommodation of bathers. His pbii
of making this a falhionabie bathing place has fucceeded,
but it was not much frequented till alter his death, which
happened in 17^,9- Soon after this event, the ground and
hou'.cs were fold in different lots. Some of the purchafers
have built additional dwellings, and Bognor is now become
a place of great rcfort during the fumnier months. The
adjacent villages of Berfttd, Felpham, &c. alfo receive a
number of fummer vifitors, who refort to this coaft for the
purpofe of its fine beach and mild air. Bognor is 7 miles S.
of Chichefter, and 67 S.W. from London. It has a good
hotel, an alTembly-room, alibrary, and fome other eftablifli-
ments for the accommodation and amufement of its vifitors.

BOGODUKHOF, a town and diftriit of Rufiia, in the
government of Kharkof, feated on the Mcrlo, falling into
the Vorlkla ; 84 miles N. N. W. of Kharkof.

BOGOE. See Booc.

BOGOGNANO, a town of the ifland ofCorfica, jleagues
N. E. of Ajaecio.

BOGOIAVLEN3KIO, a town of Rufiia, in the go-
vernment of Ufa, 48 miles S. of Ufa.

BoGoiAVLENSKoi, a tovvn of RufTia, in the govern-
ment ofArchangel, near the coaft of the White. Sea ; yirniles

S.W. of Archangel Alfo, a town of RulTia, in the fame

government, near the river Onega, 100 Liiiles S. ofArchangel.
— Alfo, a town in the fame government, on the Pinega ;
70 miles E. of Archangel. — AUb, a town of Rufiia, in the
province of Uiling ; 51 miles E. N. E. of Ufting. — Alfo, a
town of Siberia, on the Tciiulim ; So miles E. N. E. of
Ton.fl<.

BOGOMILI, or B. GARMiT.E, in EcckfwjVical Hiflcry,
a fcct fprung from the Manichecs, or rather frem tiie Maf-
falians, towards the clofe of the eleventh century ; whofe
chief, Bafll, was burnt alive by order of the emperor Alexius
Comnenus. Being condemned to bs; burnt, he declared that
the fire would not hurt him ; upon which the Greeks who car-
ried him to execution, fir'.'c took off his cloak, and flung it into
the fire, to try whether it would prove incombuftible ; whilft
it was burning, the poor fanatic cried out, " Do you not fee
that my cloak is untouched, and carried away in the air :"
upon which they caft him alfo into the fire, where he was
foon confumed to aihes. Du-Cange derives the name from
two words in the Bulgarian language ; Bog, Drus, and niUvi,
miftrere, have mercy. The Bogomili denitd tiie Trinity ;
maintaining that God had a human form; that the world
and all animal bodies were created by evil angels ; and hence
they concluded, that the body was the prifon of the immor-
tal fpirit, and that it ought to be enervated by failing, con-
templation, and other exercifes, fo that the 'foul might be
gradually reftored to its primitive liberty ; and that wedlock

was

BOG

ivas to be avoided ; and they alfo maintained that it was the
archangel Michatl that became incarnate. Tliey rejcdtd
the books of Mofes, and onlv adn^ttcd fcven books of
fcripuire ; they maintained the Lord's prayer to hi the only
eucharlft ; that the baptiim of the Catholics was only that cf
St. John, and their's that of Jcfi'.s Chriil ; and that ail thofe
oi their feet conceived the Word, or Lo^os, as ir.uc!'- as the
Virjrin, denying the reality of Chriil's body, which they
confidered only as a phantom. They alfo held, that the
body, upon its feparatioii by death, returned to the malig-
nant mafs of matter, without either the profpeci or the pofiibi-
lity of a future refurrcction to life and felicity. Mofli. Eccl.
Hift. vol. iii. p. no. Jortin's Rom. on Eccl. Hift. vol. v.
p. \6.

BOGORDSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Archangel ; S miles S. W. of Mezen.

BOGORODITZK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel, on the Dwina ; 44 miles S. S. E. of
Archangel.

BOGORODSK, a town and diiti-itl of Ruffia, in the
government of Mofcow, on the Kiiafma ; 28 miles E. of
Mufcow.

BOGORODSKOI, a town of Ruffian Siberia, in the
province of Tomil-;, feated on the Oby. The chinch be-
longing to this town is famous tor a celebrated picliire of
the Virgin Mary, called " Oediitria," which is brought
every year, on the 2iil of May, in proceffion to Tomflc.
There are irons works in this place.

BOGOROSTAN, a town and dittricl of Ruffia, in the
province of Ufa, feated on a river falling into the Samara.

BOGOTA, a town and province of New Granada, in
Spaniih South America, feated near the river Magdalcna.
The town is called Santa Fe de Bagota, and is the capital of
the kingdom of New Granada ; it is fituate on the banks of
the fmall river Pati. which runs into the Magdalena. It
was made an archbifhop's fee by pope Julius III. in J554,
and an univerfity was erefled here in 1610. It has a fo-
vereign court of judicature, the prefident of whxh is gover-
nor of the whole province or ki: gdom of New Granada.
Near it are fome gold mines, and tlie chief mcidern m;r.es of
Peruvian emeralds, juil'y preferred to all others, fince thoie
of Egypt have been ne'^ledled. Among the numerous
cataracts of this country Bouguer mentions tliat of the
river Bogota, which paffes the city of the fame name,
about S leagues before it joins the Magdalena, faid to be
a vertical fail of more than 1200 feet. N. lat. 4" 20'.
W. long. 75° 40'. When tiie Spaniards took polTcfiion of
this part of South America, they found in Bogota a nation
more confiderable in number, and more improved in the va-
rious arts of life, than any in America, except the Mexicans
and Peruvians. The people of Bogota fubfiiled chiefly by
agriculture. The idea of property was introduced among
them, and its rights fccured by laws, handed down by
tradition, andobftrved with great care. They lived in large
towns ; they were decent'y clothed, and their houfcs, com-
pared with thofe of furrour.dmg tribes, m ght be termed
commodious. Government had affutied, in this ftate of ci-
vihzation, a regular I'orm, and ajurifdiclion was eilublifhed,
which took notice of different crimes, and punilhed them
with rigour. They wtre acquainted with the diftinition of
ranks, and their chief reigucd with abfolute authority. He
was attended by various officers and guardj, carried with
much pomp in a fort of palanquin, and the road was fwept
before him a;id ftrewed with flowers. For the fupport of
this expence taxes were levied on the people, who regarded
their prince with veneration, and feldom approached him but
with an averted couutenaace. One of the chief caufes of

BOG

that obfequious I'pirit, which prevailed among the people of
Bogota, was tlie influence of fupei'lition. The refpeCt
they paid to their moriarchs was infpircd by religion ; and
tlie heir apparent of the kingdom was educated in the inner-
moft recefs of their principal temple, under ijch auftcre dif-
cipline, and with fuch peculiar ntes, as tended to fill his
fubjects with high fentixents concerning the fanftity of his
character, and th- dignity of his itation. This fnperilition,
which, in the rudeft period of fociety, is either altogether
unknown, or waif es its force in childifli unmeaning practices,
had acquired fuch an afcendant over thofe people of Ame-
rica, who had made fome little progrefs towards refiiier.'ent,
that it became the chief inftrument of bending their minds
to an un>im.ely fervitude, and fubjected them, in the be-
ginning of their political career, to a dcfpotifm hardly lefs
rigorous than that which awaits nations in the lai't ilage of
their corruption and decline.

The people of Bogota (as well as the tribe of the Nat-
chez) had advanced beycnd the other uncultivated nations
of America, in their ideas of religion, as well as in their
political inftitutions. The fun and moon were the chief ob-
jects of their veneration. They had temples, altars, priells,
facrifices, and that long train cf ceremonies, v.hich fuperlti-
tion introduces wherever Ihe has fully eftabliflied her domi-
nion over the minds of men. But the rights of their wor-
fhip were cruel and bloody ; they offered human viftims to
their deities, and many of their practices refembled the bar-
barous iuilitutionsof theMexicins» Robertfon's Hift. Ame-
rica, vol. ii.

BOGRA, an uncultivated mountainous tract on the
north of the barony of Miiftery, in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter, Ireland. It is upwards of ten
miles long, and in fome parts fix miles in breadth ; and is a
common to the adjacent e'tates. In winter it !S for the mod
part deep, marfhy, and impaiTablc ; but in fummer hard and
firm, producing grafs and heath, and is then grazed by vaft
herds of cattle, v;hich are removed to the lower lands when
this feafon is over. Large quantities of turf are alfo pro-
cured from it. Dr. Smith has applied to it thefe lines of
Thomfon :

"The brown burnt earth
Offruits^and flowers, and every verdure fpoiltd.
Barren and bare, a joylcls drc<iry waite
Thin cottagcd ; and in time of trying need
Abandoned."
Many confiderable ftreains flow from this high and wild
trait, which difcharge thtmfelves into the Lee or Black-
water, as their direction is fouth or north Smith's Cork.

BOGRUSH, in Ornithology. The Motaalla Scharwhatw;
Linn, ar.d Rtd IVarller ol Latham, 15 defcribcd under this
name in the ArClic Zoology.

BOGUE, in Ichthyology, the French name of a fiih of the
Sparus genu.", Spams hoops of Linnaeus.

BoGUE, Belv, m Ivlyiholagy, tl e white god to whoin
the Slavonians paid their adorations. His ilatue, imcarcd
with blood, was covered with flies. His rites confifted in
diverfions, games, and feafts. He was a beneficent deity, cor-
rcfpondin'g to the good principle, the " Oromazes," of the
Perfians. The black god, " Toherry Bogue," correfpond-
ed on the contrary to the evil principle, the m.aleficent being
Arimanes. He was worihipped by bloody facritices, and
the prayers of his votaries were addrefled to htm in a mourn-
ful and plaintive voice.

BOGLT.SLAW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Kiovia ; 32 miles S. E. of Bialacerkiew. N.
lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 31° 12'.

BOGUTCHAR, a town and diftria of Ruffia, in the

govern-

BOH

joveramnit of Voror.etz, on a rivulet of die fiime name,
laili'.ifj into tlie Don.

BOGWANGOTD, a town of Hindoftan, near the
Ganges; 1 1 miles N. of Moorlliedabad.

BOHABOL, ia Jncient Geography, a town of Afia in
Syria.
'BOHADSCHIA, in Botany. See Pfltaria.
BOHAIN, in Geo^mpky, a town of France, in t|i; dt-
Jfe-tmtnt of the Aifiie, and chief place i:f a cantop, in tlie
t!i!h-!tt of St. Quentin ; lo miles N. N. E. of St. Qncntin.
The place contai:;s 2152, and the canton 131S1 inhabitants.
The territory comprehends 172^ kiliometres, and 14 coin-
innnc?.

BOHAR, in Ickhyoh^y, a fpecies of Sen's N.v, defcrib-
ed by Forlkal, as a native of Arabia. The colour is red,
linealed, and clouded vs'ith white. Forllv. Fn. Arab.

This bears a ftronjj affinity to another fifli dcfcribcd by
the fame writer, as an inhabitant of the fame country, Ivaf-
mira. Gniclin txpreffes a doubt whether it does belong to
the Sci.tNA genus. The body is of an oblong form, and
covered with fmooth fcales. When alive there are two large
fpols on the back, which dilappear after the fi!h is d-ad.
There are two (hort cirri, or beards before the nollrils : in
the upper jaw two fubulate teech, which project beyond the
lower, the two middlemoll of which are placed remote.
The lateral line runs nearer to the back. l)orlal and anal
fins rounded behind, and the unarmed part of both Icaled,
the fpines of the latter growing gradually larger : ventral
conneftcd by an intermediate membrane. Tail bifid.
Gmelin.

BOHAROAVCZE, in Giop-aphy, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Kaminiec ; 60 miles N.W. ot Kaminiec.

BOHDANICE, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim, which has the privilege of holding fairs.
BOHEA, \n Botany. SeeTHF.A.

BOHEMIA, in Geography., called in German Boicrham,
Bcihe'im, Bohiim, and corruptly Boehmen, that is, the habi-
tation of the Boii (fee Bon) ; a kingdom of Europe, in the
Auftrian dominions ; bounded on the north by Mifnia,
Lufatia, and Silefia ; on the w'eft, by the circle of the
Erzgeberg, the Voghtland, the margraviate of Culmbach,
and the Upper Palatinate ; or, in general, by Franconla ;
on the fouth, by Bavaria and Auftria ; and on the ea!l, by
Moravia, Silelia, and the county of Glatz. Bohemia is en-
vironed on all fides vi'ith high mountains and large fortfts ;
towards the fouth it is feparatcd from Auftria by a ridge of
confiderable elevation, which psfTes to the north-eaft of Ba-
varia ; and on the north-well, it is parted from Saxony by a
chain of metallic mountains, called the Erzgeherg, a w"ord
denoting hills that contain mines. On the well of the river
Eger, near its iunftion with the Elbe, Hands the mountainous
group of MileiTou, near which is Donneberg, fuppofcd to
be the higheft in the province ; and on the aorth-eail is the
Sudctic chain, which branches from the Carpathian, and
divides Bohemia and Moravia from Silefia and the Pruflian
dominions. T his country was formerly remarkable for an
cxtenfive foreft, a remain of the ancient Hcrcyuia Sy'.va,
which extended from the Rhine to Sarmatia, and from Co-
logne to Poland. The Gabreta Sylva lay on the fouth-weil
of the fame country, where a chain of hills now divides it from
Bavaria.

Bohemia, as we have already obferved, derived its name
from the Boil, who, under their leader Se^jovefus, fettled in
that country about 5(^0 years before the Chrillian ira. The
Boii were foon after expelled by the Marcomanni ; and thefe,
being weakened by their wars with the Romans under the
condud of Tiberius, were fubducd by the Sclavi (fceScLA-

BOH

vONtANs), who, like the other Scythians, wandered from
place to place with the'r farmlies and cattle ; and, as Strabo
iiiformiS us, even in the time of Augullus Ca-far, lived pro-
niifcuoufly with the Thracians. Afterwards, fprcaduig
themfelves well ward, in a few centuries they poncHed Illyri-
cum, Poland, Moravia, and Bohemia. But retaining their
ancient manners, they negledled to build cities ; and inha-
biting the country in detached hordes, they regarded only
pallurage and the care of their flocks. The firll ruler,
or chief, mentioned by hi'torians, was one Czechius, from
whom the natives derived the appellation of Czechs, or
Zcchs, who, quitting Croat'a, migrated firll to Moravia, and
from thence to Bohemia, about the middle of the fixth cen-
tury, which he found covered vvitii wood, and pofTeiTed rather
by herds of wild cattle than by men. Here he fettled his
fmall colony, and taught the few inhabitants ot the country
to cultivate the lands, and to fow corn. Alter his death,
the Bohc.T.ians remaii'ed for feveral vcars without a ruler or
judge ; but being now aflembled in villages, they were
anxious to obtain a more fettled form of government than
that which they had found effeftual during their palloral life.
With this view they chofe for their governor a young man,
wl.ofe n,;me was Croc, diilinguillied by his prudence, wh.o
reilored peace and order, and maintained the authority ot
the laws. He was fucceedcd by the youngell of his three
daughters, Lybufia, who was refpedled for her flvill m the
art of divination ; and who, abcut the clofe of the ieventii
century, married acountry labourer of the name of Premiilaus,
who, being called from the plough to the dignity of governor,
carried his cloak and fiioes along with him, as memorials tor
his pollerity, to prevent their being elated with the profper-
ity of their condition. This Prem.iflaus is faid to have
founded the city of Prague, to have diilributed the people
into different ranks, and, after quelling fome ten;porary in-
furreCtions, to have reigned peaceably till his death. He is faid
to have been the firll duke, though others trace the origin of
the duchy to an earlier period, and fay that Czecliius was
the firll who bore this title. The government feems
afterwards to have continued hereditary in his family, though
with fome fcim of election ; and a deicendant, whofe name
was Borivorius, or Borzivori, embraced Chrillianity about
the clofe of the ninth centurv, and, alter fome oppcfition,
introduced it into his dominions. On this occafiun feveral
churches were built, and Ichools creeled ; but upon the
death of his ion Wratifiaus I. in the beginning of the tenth
century, his wife Drahomira, who alTumed the government
during the minority of her fons, manifeftcd her hatred
againit the Chrilliaus, malTacred about 300 of them in one
night, burnt their temples, and ordered them to deliver up
their arms. However, upon the acceffion of her fon Wen-
cefiaus II. A. D. 916. the Chrillian religion was again en-
couraged ; and, in order to prevent dilputes with his brother
Bolefiaus, who had been educated under his mother, he
crded to liim that part of Bohemia, which lay beyond the
Elbe. Wenccflaus, having obtained a viftory in a duel, a
challenge to wliich he accepted for the purpofe of fpaiing
the lives of his rebellious fubjeds, was invited by Otho the
Great to the diet at Worms, where he offered him the title
of king, which Wei Ceflaus declined accepting. In the year
932, \Vcncenaiis was murdered by his brotficr BoJellans I.
fumamed the Cruel, who, fiiccecding him, conducted his
admiiiifti-ation with great cruelty, perircuting the Chriltians,
and ixpelling tiiem the kiiigdom. His Ion and iuccelibr,
Bolefiaus II. furnair.ed the Pious, founded and endowed 20
churciies, and obtained leave from pope John IX. to create
a bifhop at Prague. His fubjeds formed a confpiracy againfl
him, on account of fome reforms which he attempted to in-
troduce ;

BOH

BOH

troduce ; and epcampincr on a mountain in the vicinity of
Prague, tliey were exptlied thence by the Ctirilliaiis, with
t!ie alHllance of tlie Jews, a:^d obliged to remain in peace.
In recompence of this ferv'ce, the Jews were allowed to
build a fyna.Togue at Prague. In the eleventh century,
Breiiilaus, the fo:i of Udalricus, having obtained the go-
vernment of Moravia, kept pofrefiion of it by rcpnlfing the
Poles who invaded it ; and, f'.iccteding to the government of
Bohemia, on the death of his father, A. ID. 104^, he again
defended it again!! Hungarian robbers, by whom it was
ravaged ; and having conchided a perpetual peace with Ca-
Cmir, king of Poland, he died, leaving five fons, of whom
the eldeft inherited Bohemia ; and Moravia was divided
among the four youngell. Wratitlaus II. fucceeded his
brother, A. D. 1061 ; and, in 1086, was honoured with
the regal tiile by the emperor Henry IV. who alfo in.vefted
him with the domains of L.ufatia, Moravia, and Silefia.
This dignity, however, was merely perfonal ; and the con-
ftant title of king only com.mences with Prcmiflaus II. in
1 199. He, and his immediate fucceffors, were ilyled Otto-
cari, or Othogari, on account of their attachment to the
ir.tere!! of the emperor Otho. Upon the death of Wcncef-
laus IV. A.D 1255, his fon Premiflaus Othogar fucceeded
I him ; and having fettled his affairs in Bohemia, took pofief-
fion of Auilria, i^lina, part of Carinthia, and other provinces
to the fouth,and carried his arms into PruHiafor the defence
of the Chrillians ; and having defeated his oppofers in fevcral
engagements, he prevailed on many of the people to abandon
Paganifm. After his return to Bohemia, in 1271, he is
faid difdainfully to have rejected the imperial crown, which
was afterwards given to Rodolpluis, count of Hapfburg ;
but Othogar refuling to do him homage, and to take from
him the inveftiture of his ilates, alleging that he owed him
nothing, and that he had paid him his wages, Rodolph
having been great marfhal of his court, was at length obliged
to comply, and to deliver five ftandards to the emperor for
the five fiefs which he pofTcflTed. A reconciliation, however,
afterwards took place, and Othoear received the inveftiture
of Bohemia and Moravia, on condition of renouncing Auf-
tria, Carinthia, and Stiria. Wenceflaus V. fucceeded his
father in 127S, and was elefted king of Poland ; but refuftd
the fccptre of Hungaiy, that was offered him, in favour of his
fon. In 1310, the ancient lineage failed ; and John, the
fon of the emperor Henry VII. of the family of Luxem-
bourg, who had married the yo'jngeft fitter of Wencefiaus
VI., obtained pofiefiion of the kingdom of Bohemia. John,
having refigned Bohemia to his fon Charles, and procured
for him the imperial dignity, proceeded with him to France,
to the affillance of Philip againft the £nglifh, and was fl^in
in the famous battle of Crecy, in 1346. Charles IV. em-
peror, having fucceeded his father, created his brother John
marquis of Moravia, erefted an univerfity at Prague upon
the plan of that at Paris, and engaged pope Clement VI. to
erect the fee of Prague into an archbilhopric, with this privi-
lege annexed to it, that the archbilhop fliould have the honour
of crowning the king of Bohemia. He enlarged and beautified
his capital, by adding what is called the New City, in which he
founded the college of Carlftcin. With the afiiiiar.ce of feve-
ral learned perfons, he reduced the laws of the kingdom to
writing, which are ftill extant, under the name of " Caroline
Contlitutions." He greatly extended the boundaries of his
hereditary dominions, and caufed his fon Wencellaus to be
crowned king, in the fecond year of his age. He alio
prevailed vnth the eleftors to chufe him king of the
Romans, in the fixteenth year of his age ; and having
commenced the junftion of the Moldaw with the Danube,
he died before he had executed his defign ; and in I.J/S, was
fucceeded by his fon Wenceflaus VII. In the reign of this

prince, who was notorioufly diffohite, prodigate, and favage,
and who, by hib lice-n'oufncfs and cruelty, incurred the ha-
tred of his fuhjecls, John Hufs • ud Jerome of Prague intro-
duced the do&rints of the reformation into Bohemia. See
Huss, and Jerome. Wenceflaus died fuddenly in 1419;
and before his brother Sigifmund, who luccecded him as
king of Bohemia and tniperorof Germany, could come from
Hungary to take pofft:fiion of the crown, the Hufiites, under
John Zifca, had acquired great Itrength, and, up n his ap-
proach to the kingdom, they lent deputies to him, defiring
liberty of confciencc ; b'.:t, inllead of granting their requell,
he only declared, that he intended to govern the kingdom
as his father had done. A civil war enfued, in which the
troops of Sigifmund fuftained feveral defeats ; and which,
after a continuance of fixteen years, cccafioned by his breach
of faith to Hufs and Jerome, terminated in feveral concef-
fions, and in his admiflion into Prague with great folemnity
and rejoicing. Upon the death of Sigifmund, in 1438, Al-
bert of Audria, who had married his daughter, received the
crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. The fucceflion was,
however, afterwards difputed and infringed by George Po-
diebrad, a Huffite chief ; by Uladiflaus, ion of Cafimir, king
of Poland ; and by Matthias, king of Hungary. Uladiflaus
ultimately fucceeded, being elerted, in 147X, by the ma-
jority of the rtates, and foon after receiving the invelliture
trom the emperor. Upon the death of Uladiflaus, in the
45th year of his reign over the Bohemians, and the 23d
over the Hungarians, he was fucceeded by his fon Lewis in
both the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungarv, A.D. 1516;
but, in 1526, he engaged the Turks at Mohatz, and being
utterly defeated, was drowned in the Danube, in his flight.
After the death of Lewis, his dominions fell to Ferdinand,
archduke of Auftria, infant of Spain, and afterwards empe-
ror, who had married Anne, the only daughter of Uladif-
laus : and both the empire, and the kingdom of Bohemia,
have ever fince continued in the houfe of Auftria. Ferdi-
nand, at a diet of the ftates held in 1547, declared the king-
dom hereditary and abfolute ; and when Ferdinand II., in
1620, had routed the army of his rival Frederick at the
White Mountain near Prague, Bohemia was reduced fully
to the co: dition of an hereditary kingdom ; fo that from
that time the ftates had no concern with the right of fuc-
cefiion. The crown, however, is conferred with fome ap-
pearance of election, which right the ftates of that kingdom
pretend to claim ; altliongh, by the treaty cf Wcftphalia,
Bohemia is declared hereditary in the houfe of Auftria. The
king of Bohemia is the firft fecular eleftor, and as fnch pays
homage to the emperor and the empire for his ftates ; and
with this exception, he has a right to exercife, through all
his dominions, the royal authority agreeably to the laws of
the kingdom, which prohibit his raifing contributions or
taxes otherwife than at the time when the ftates are af-
fembled, the appointment of which is entirely in their own
power. He gives his opinion, as eledtor, after the elector
of Cologne, and formerly afufted at the afft-mbly of the
electors only at the election of an emperor, nor did he appear
always at the diets of th.e empire. He is arch-butler, or
arch-cup-bearer, of the holy Roman empire ; and on this
office his right to chufe a king of the Romans is faid to de-
pend. It has been alleged, that Bohemia has been of old
time a genuine ftate of the German empire, without contri-
buting to its taxes, which was a privilege conferred upon it by
Frederick II. in i 212, who at the fame time exempted it from
the jurifdiftion of the fupreme judicatory of the empire. In
1 708, it was acknowledged by the three colleges of the empire,
at an aft of the diet called "the admifiion," that the king and
eleftor of Bohemia has an undoubted rieht of feat and voice in
all its afTcmblies ; in confequence of which the emperor oro-
a miied.

BOH

inifi-'d, that, on account of liis lit-reditary kingdom of Bobe-
niia, and of the countries belonging to it, he will pay an
eleftoral proportion of all taxes and impolls of the empire
and circle, and alfo joo florins yearly to the chamber-
judicator)- ; the colleftive body of the empire engagin'^
at the fume time, to take tlie kingdom ot Bohemia, and
the countries united with it, under its protection and
defence.

Bohemia, ever fincc the time of Cliarles IV., has been di-
vided into twelve circles, befides Prague, vvhxh is confidcrd
as a diftinft territci-y. Thefe are Kaurzimer (comprchmd-
ing Great Prague), Pilfner, Lentmeritzer, Konigingratzer,
Rakowitzer (including Btraun), Chrudinicr, Prjichintr, Sla-
ner (comprehending LitUe Prague), Bunzlaner, Saatzer,
Czadaucr, and Bcchiner. Each circle has two head-men, or
captains, appointed annually, for the adminiftration of the go-
vernment, one from the llatc of lords, and the other from that
of knights. The duchy of Siltfia, the marquifate of Mo-
ravia, and that of Lufatia, formerly held of this crown, but
at prefent only Moravia, which is incorporated with the
kingdom of Bohemia, and is in pofTcfTian of the houfe of
Auilria. In I 742, the county of Glatz was ceded to the
king of Prufila, and by him added to SiUfia. The govcrii-
ment of Boliemia is managed by fix different courts ; viz.
the council of the regency, or great roval council, in which
prefides the great judge or bun^iavc of Bohemia, wlio has
under him iS hcutenants of tlie king, and other aflefTors ;
the council, or fuperior chamber of juftice, at which the
great mailer of the kingdom is prefident ; the ch?.mb;r of
iiefs ; the new tribunal, to judge the appeals of the Ger-
man vafTals, with its prclident, vieeprefident, and aflefTors ;
the roval chamber of finances, with a prefident and vicc-
prefident ; and the chancery, which always follows the court.
The llates, confilling of the clergy, nobility, and gentry,
and rcp'efentatives of the towns, nuet at Piague, where a
commilTiontr from the iovereign points out the necefiity of
granting fnch fupplies as the court demands, which, how-
ever exorbitant, are granted without hefitation or examina-
tion, though not fometimes without fubfequent complaint.
The clergy are compofed of the archbirtiop of Prague, fe-
vcral bifliops, provofts, and abbots, befides the, inferior
clergy. The nobility confift of princes, counts, barons,
and knights ; the others are burghers, hulbandmen, and
peafants.

The ellabliflied religion of Bohemia is popery ; but there
are manv protcRaiits among the inliabitaiits, who are now to-
lerated by the wife regulations of Jofeph II. in the free
txercife of their religion. The Jews at Prague are in-
dulged alfo with a toleration. The archbirtiop of this city is
born legate of the lioly apoftolic fee of Rome, and crowns
the king of Bohemia ; lie is alfo a prince of the holy Roman
empire, primate of the kingdom, and perpetual ch.ancellor
of the univerfity of Prague. His fuffragans are the bi-
fiiopsof Leutmeritz and Konigingralz. The goyernment of
the church and clergy is veiled in the archlcpifcopal confillory,
from wh-ch an appeal lies to the king or the pope.

The extent of Bohemia, and alfo its population, have been
varioufly cllimattd. Its length is about 162 miles, and its
breadth 142. Some centuries ago, the inhabitants were efti-
matcd at thr^-e millions; but in later times they have been very
much diminifhtd. It is faid, that in the year 1622, and the
three or four following years, no fewer than 30,000 families,
and many other individuals quitted the country, among
whom were many of the nobility, on account of the inteftine
religious wars, and tiie fuccecding irruptions of the Swedes.
In M. Hocck's " Statiftical View of the States of Ger-
many, &c." 1 80 1, the kingdom of Bohemia is ftated to
contain 9625 fquare miles, 250 cities, 30S market towns,

B O H

11,455 villages, 4.50,000 houfcs, i,J40,5io men, i,4'j6,435
women, and the total of the population 2,806,943. The
number of Lutherans has been cftimated at 9050, of the
reformed at 25,1 10, and of Jews at 36,coo. Some writers
have dated the number of Protellants at 36,000, and that of
the jeu's at 40,000, of whom Sooo are fettled at Piague. In
their difpofitions, habits, and manners, the Bohemians refem-
ble the Germans ; being indeed a mixture of Sclavouiaus and
Germans, the former of whom live in villages and are flaves.
They liave no miilile rank of people ; for every lord is a
petty fovercign, and every tenant a Have. Th.e Bohemian
ptafants, on the imperial demefnes, have been lately relieved
from the Hate of villainage, in which tliey had been fo long
and fo unjuilly retained ; and it is hoped, that the example
of the emperor will be followed by that of the Bohemian no-
bility in genera], fo that their vafl'als may recover thofc
rights of which they have been long deprived. The native*
of this country are fmgularly robuft and flrong-built, hand-
fome, except that their heads are fomewliat too large, and
atfivc, farewd, courageous, and fincere. The gentry are
ingenuous, brave, and more inclined to arms than arts.
Learning in Bohemia is in a low ftate ; though the kingdom
pofTelTcs one univerfity, I2gymiiafia, 2,119 German fchools,
200 fchools of indullry, and 33 lad'es' fc'iools.

The Bohemian language is a dialeft of the Sclavonic, but
fomewhat h.ardtcr tlian that of their neighbours, who Ipeak
the fame language, and who ciiange the confonants, and
p uticularly tiie /, more into vowels. The Bohemians for-
meily ufcd the fame letters with the Ruffians ; but in the
lime of Bolellaus the Pious, the Latin was intro^'.uced
among them. Upon the firll introduction of ChrilHanity in
tills reign, the religious fervice was performed in the Latin
tongue, a language unknown to the people ; but in confe-
qucnce of tlie reprcfentation of Methodius to pope Nicholas
the Great, he ailoved the prayers to be rehearfcd in the
vulgar tongue. But fome years after, when a bifliop was
fent into Bohemia, tlie I^atin tongue was again ordered to
be intioduced in all their churches. Perfonsofa fuperior
clafs, from their intercourfe with the court ot Vienna, fpeak
high Dutch or German, with which the language of the
common people is alfo intermixed.

Bohemia is, upon the whole, one of the higheft. countries
in Europe, and forms a large extended plain, furrounded,
as we have obferved, by high hills covered with wood. The
vale in the middle, which is watered by the Elbe, the Mol-
daw, and the Egra, is protefted from the wind, and it has
neither lakes nor moraffcs which taint the air, which is diy
and clear, with unwholefome vapours. The climate is there-
fore falubrious, and not liable to thofe fudden changes,
which are fo fatal to health in other places. The heat of
fumiiier, and the cold of winter, are alike moderate. The
foil is ill general rich, though in fome places it is fandy. It
is fertile in corn, wine, fruits, pafture, fafFron, ginger, hops,
wool, flax, and timber. The Bohemian hops, which are
much valued, are carried as far as the Rhine in great quan-
tities. Bohemia produces a tliong large breed of horfes,
many of which are purchafed for the ufe of the French ca-
valry. Its mountains are the richell in Europe, in gold,
lilver, precious ftones, copper, quickfilver, iron, lead, tin,
fulphnr, and faltpetre. The Bohemian tin is reckoned the
bell of any except the Englilh. All kinds of marble are alfo
found in this country, together with pit-coal, alum, muf-
covy-glafs, excellent mineral waters, and hot baths. It alfo
furnillies numerous herds of cattle, and abundance of game
and wild fowl, and alfo bears, lynxes, wolves, foxes, bad-
gers, martens, beavers, and otters. Its rivers and ponds
afford a plentiful fupply of fiih, and fuch as are of the beft.
quality and flavour.

Accord-

BOH

BOH

A.ccov(3!pg to the ftatement of M. Hoeck (ubi fupra),
Bohemia had, in 1787,

Acre^. S;]. ToiiCi.

1. Of ploughed land, - 3,609,360 - 776

2. Ponds, - - 6^,1 ij - 1373

3. Fields, ... 220,ij6 - 1393

4. Meadows, - - 798,393 • io'6

5. Gardens, - - 85,712 - 722

6. Ma rlliy ground, - 65,515 - 970

7. Failures and heaths, - 613,131 - 1209

8. Vineyards, - - 4,482 - 671

9. Woods, - - 2,319,811 - 557

Total 7,785,655

8738

The territorial produce of grain, forage, vines, wood"",
and rivers, amounted, in 1789, to 30,057,939 florins. Of
cattle there were, in 1771, 97S9 oxen, 2338 bulls, 9688
cows, 2723 calves, 8452 fheep, 16,718 hogs, 564 he-goats,
v'75S (he-go3ts, and 533 alfcs. The produce of grain
amounted to two millions of minots (a minot being equal to
three bulheis) of wheat, ten millions of minots of grain,
four millions of minots of barley, and tight millions of mi-
nots of oats. In the Lft of natural productions are alfo to
be reckoned fruit-trees, hops, principally in the circle of
Saaz, flax, tobacco, faffron, poultr)', bees (of which, in
1791, there were 20,257 hives), tin (chiefly at Sciilacken-
walde, and there are ten mines of tin in the circle of Saaz,
and two in that of Leutmeritz), cobalt, 10,000 quintals in
the circle of Saaz, Clver, aluai, at Commothau, in 1788,
1,539 quintals. This author alfo ftates, that Bohemia had,
in 1782, 95 manufactures, which employed i.;9,6i3 work-
men. Thefe manufactures are of linen, wool, cotton, filk,
paper, glafs, leather. See. amounting in the whole to
35,645,447 fluriiis, of which flrangers take to the value of
11,840,737 florins. The articles of export, according to
his enumeration, are alum, Epfom-lalt, butter and greafe,
filh, flax, poultry, grain, mineral waters, hare-(kins, wood,
hop?, cobalt, hides and Ikins, fruit, horfes, pork, brim-
ftone, vitriol, game, flax, tin, dimity, articles in iron, arti-
cles in glafs, garnets, hats, linens, brafs, paper, pct-a(h,
aqua foitis, lace, cloth, and thread. The articles of import
are cotton, lead, white lead, books, iron, and iron articles,
colours, flax, jev.-ellery, fpicery, horned cattle from Hun-
gary, coffee, cotton, ftuffs, galls, merchrndife of Lyoni,
liqueurs, fiiks, Hungarian cattle to the value of 800,000
florins, and wine to the value of 500,000 florins. The ba-
lance of trade is faid to be in favour of the country.
M.Hoeck aifo informs us, that the revenues of the llate are
fifteen or lixteen millions ; but that the expences are fo high,
that out of this fum the furplus amounts only to 636,000
florins ; that tlic contribution in 1789 was ;, 646,01 7 florins,
and the tax on the Jews 216,006 florins ; and that the an-
nual revenue from the domains of the crown was, during the
life of Maria Terefa, 332,720 florins ; thefe domains are
now etlimattd at 177,774 acres. The number of foldiers
to be furnifhed by Bohemia, in time of peace, is 54,964 ;
-and, in time of war, 76,896. The capital city of Bohemia
is Prague ; which fee.

Bohemia, a liroad navigable river of North America, 10
miles long, which runs W.N.W. into Elk rivtr, in Mary-
land, 1 1 miles below Elkton.

BOHEMIAN, or Moravian, Brethren, in jCcc/t-

Jiajlical Eijlory, is an appellation anciently given to the Pro-

tellanti in Bohemia. By their adverfaries they were called

Plcards, i.e. BfgbarJs. They were dcfcendtd from the

better fort of Huffites, and were dilliuguiftied by feveral re-

VOL. IV.

ligious inflitutions of a fingular nature, and well adapted to
guard their community againll the re.^^ning vices and cor-
ruptions of the times ; and as foon as they heard of Luther's
delign of reforming the church, they fent deputies, in the
year (523, to recommend their.ftlves to his fricrndfliip and
^ood ofSces. In fucceeding times, they continued to mam-
feil the fame zealous attachment to the Lutheran churches
in Saxony, and alfo to thofe that v^•ere founded in other
countries. Upon this their religious principles were exa-
mined, and nothing was found, either by Luther or his dif-
ciples, in their doctrine or difciphne, that was liable to cen-
fure. Their coiifcfilon of faith, though not altogether ap-
proved by this reformer, was regarded as an objeft of tole-
ration and indulgence. Ntverthclefs, the death of Luther,
and the expulfion of thefe brethren from their country, in
J 547, changed their religious connexions; and many of
them, more efpecially of tiiofe who retired into Poland, em-
braced the religious fentiments and difciphne of the reformed.
Their attachment to th.e Lutherans feemcd, however, to be
revived by the convention of Sendomir in 1570; but as the
articles o'i union, that were drawn up in that aflembly, foon
loft their authoiity, the Bohemians by degrees entered uni-
verfally into the communion of the Swifs church. This
union was at firll formed on the exprefs condition, that the
two churches (houlj continue to be governed by their refpec-
tive laivs and inllituticns, and iliould have feparate places of
pubhc worfliip ; but, in the following centur)-, nil remains of
diiTenllon were removed in the fynods held at .\ftrog, in 1620
and. 1627, and the two congregations were formed into one,
under the title of " The Church of the United Brethren."
In this coalition the reconciled parties (hewed to each other
reciprocal marks of toleration and indulgence : 'or the exter-
nal form of the church was modelled after the difciphne of
the Bohemian Brethren, and the articles of faith were taken
from the creed of the Calvinills. See Unitas Frairum.

Lafitius has a treatife De Gcftis Fratrum Bchcmicorum.
Camerarius has alfo given the hiltory of the Bohemian bre-
thren, from whom eccleliaftical hiftonans have derived a large
train of fects, as the Huffites, Adamites, Taborites, Calixtins,
&:c. which fee relpeclivcly.

Bohemian chatterer, \xi Ornithology, a bird of the Pnjferine
order, common in many parts of Europe, in Northern Alia,
and America. It fometimes vilits the iouthern parts of Bri-
tain in the winter. The common Englifli name of Bohemian
chatterer was impofcd upon this bird by old writers, under
the idea that it was peculiar to Boiiemia. Later authors call
it the IVaxen chatterer, from the horny appendages at the
extremity of the fecondaiy quill-feathers, which are of a
fcarlet colour, and in appearance bear fome relemblance to
fealing-wax. This is called Aii.pdis garrulus by Linnaeus.
Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

BOHEMICUS, the name of a fpecics of Falcon that
inhabits the mountains of Bohemia. The legs of this kind
are ycllowilh ; body above cinereous, beneath hoary white ;
live exterior quill-feathers black on the outfide ; orbits of the
eyes white. Gmel. Falco Bohemkus. Mofufe-habicht, mi/fy
lauce, Mayer,

This bird is fcarccly a foot in length ; bill near the angles
of the mouth yellowifh ; irides yellow ; tail acute and long ;
legs thickifli, and feathered below the knees ; claws black
and roundilh. Feeds on mice.

BOHKAT, in hhthyology, is the Arabic name of a fort
of Ray that inhabits the Red fea, and is defcribed by Foiikai
under the appellation of Raja djidilenjis.

EOHME, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the AUer, 4 miles S. E. of Bethem, in the principality
of Luneburg-zell.

4 X BOH-

BOH

BOHMISCHKRUTT, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of AuHria, 3 miles S.S.W. of Feldfburg.

BOHN, John, in Biography, was born at Lcipfic the
20th of [uly 1640, where he received the rudiments of his
edncati in. At a proper age his father fent him to Jena, to
be initiated into the IhiJy of medicine. In 1659, he returned
to Ltipfic, co^itinning his ftudies there, until i66j, when de-
firous of participating in the knowledge of the improvements
making in his profcfhon, in diflerent parts of Europe, he
■went to Copenhairen, Holland, England, France, and Swit-
zerland, every where attending the lefturcs of the moft cele-
brated mafttrs, but particularly attaching himfclf to Malpighi.
Returning, at the end of two years, to Leipiic, he took his
degree of doflor in medicine, and was in fucccffion advanced
to the rank of proftfTor in anatomy, aTid in therapeutics.
In 1(591 he was appointed public phyfioian to the city of
LeipfiCi and, in 1700, dean of the faculty of medicine,
■which offices he continued to hold with credit to the time of
his death, in 1718.

Befides numerous diflertations on the different branches of
medicine, which had great merit, he publilhed, in 1668,
•' Exercitationes phyfiologicne xxvi," 4to. This work was
afterwards confiderably enlarged, and republiflied in 16S0,
under the title of " Circukis anatomicophyfiulogicus, five
ceconomia corporis animalis," 410. In this he examines, with
accuracy and judgment, the different hypothefcs then pre-
■vailins; in medicine. He here firft ihewed the difference be-
tween the cyftic and the liepatic bile. Finding the liquor
amnii coagulable, he fuppofed it contributed to the nourifh-
ment of the foetus ; which, however, later experience contra-
difts, as foetufes born without heads, or where the pafTage
through the cefophagus into the ftomach has been clofed, are
found to attain, in utero, equal bulk and firmnefs, as thofe
that are perfeA. He fuppofed the heart to be excited to
contraftion by tlie ftimulus of the blood ; and (liews the offa
pubis are not feparated in parturition, to allow a free palTage
to the foetus ; which was in his time the prevailing doctrine.
In his " De variolis, haftenus in patria gratfatis," publiflied
in 1679, he advifes giving purgatives with calomel, on the
firll attack of the complaint, with the view of rendering the
difeafe more mild ; a praftice of which later experience has
proved the utility. In his " De Renunciatione vulnerum,"
1689, 4to. Amlierdam, he {hews what wounds are necef-
farily fatal. His treatife " De Officio medici duplici, chnico,
et forenfi," 410. 1704, gives rules for the condudl of phy-
ficians, in attending their patients, and in giving evidence
befo'e a court of judicature. This is a work of great merit,
and has fcarcely been exceeded by any later production on the
fubjeft. Thefe have all been frequently reprinted. Haller.
Bib. Mtd. Eloy. lilumenbach.

BOHOL, in Geography, one of the Phihppine idands be-
tween Manila and Mindanao, about 16 leagues long from
north to fouth, and 8 or 10 broad. Thefouth coaft towards
Mindanao is the moll populous ; that is, from Lobag, the
metropolis, to the little i/land or peninfulaof Pangloo. The
foil does not produce rice, but is faid to be rich in gold mines,
and to yield, in great abundance, cocoas, batatas, and feveral
forts of roots which ferve inllead of rice. In the mountains
there are multitudes of cattle, and fifh in the fea, which the
natives exchange with thofe of the neighbouring iflands for
cotton. N.lat. 10°. E. long. 122° 5'.

BOHONIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin,
2 miles S.S.W. of Teia.

BOH RAN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Brefiaw, 16 mimes fouth of Breflaw.

BOHRLITZ, atown of Mora\-ia, in the circle of Brunn,
9 miles W.N.W. of Aufpitz,

B O I

BOHUS, or Bah us, a fortified idand of Sweden, in
Gothland, encircled by two branches of the Gotha, about g
miles north of Gotheborg. The fort itand'i on a rotky emi-
nence, and was formerly celebrated in thchiftory of Norway,
as a place of conliderable ftrength, and turming i;ie fror.tier
fortrefs during the conftant wars between the Danes and
Swedes. It was eveatd in 1309 by Kacquin IV. king of
Norway, and, before the invention of gun-po«d r, it was a
wooden fortrefs; but in [448 was built \\ith llonc by
Chrillian 1. The fituacion is itronj, and it is gariifuiied by
100 men. The lummit affords a plealing vie-.\ of the Gotha,
winding at the feet of barren rocks. Bohus gives name to a
jurifdidlion of which it is the capital. It formerly belonged
to Denmark, but by the treaty of Rofchild, in 1658, it was
ceded to Sweden.

BOHUSLAW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiov, near the river Ros. N.lat. 49° 37'. E. long. 31*
II'.

BO J A, in /Intiquity, a collar or chain fattened about the
necks of criminals to prevent their cfcape.

The word is alfo written boga, bod'ui, and biiga.

BOIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the jEgean fea.
Anton. Itin.

BOJADOR, Cape, or Bajadore (which fee), in
Geography, lies on the weftern coail of North Africa, placed
in the Tables of the Commiffioners of Longitude, in N. lat.
26^i2'3o", W. long. i4'^27', and, in Renncll's map, in
N.lat. 26° 20', W. long. 14° 17'. — W.long. i4''49', by M.
Fleurieu, and 14^ 28' Conn.-de-Tcmps. This cape was
doubled by Gilianez and the Portugutfe navigators, under
the direction of prince Henry, and embnldencdby their voyages
to Madeira, which required their quittinu the coalt and ven-
turing into the open fea, in the year 143J. For 20 years
before this time, this cape had been the boundary of their
navigation, and it had been deemed impaffable. But this
fuccefstul voyage, placed by the ignorance of the age on a
level with the moll famous exploits recorded in liillory,
opened a new fphere to navigation, as it difcovered the valt
continent of Afiica, ftill walhcd by the Atlantic ocean, and
ftrctching towards the fouth. Of fuch confequcnce wa. the
doubling of this cape, that the Portuguefe foon after ad-
vanced within the tropics, a:id in the fpace of a few years
difcovered the river Senegal, and the whole coall extending
from cape Blanco to cape de Vcrd.

BOIANO, a town of Naples, in the county of Molife,
the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Benevcnto, who refides at
Campo Baffo ; 9 miles fouth of Molii'e. See Bovian u M.

BOIARDO, Matteo-Maria, in Biography, coimt of
Scandiano, a perfon eminent for literature, was bo^n at
Fratta near Ferrara, about the year 1430, and ediica" -d at.
the univerfity of that city, where he principally .efid^d.
Being highly efteemed by the dukes Borfo and Hercules I.,
he was appointed by the latter governor of Reggio in the
Modcnefe, where he died in 1494. He was well acquamted
with the Greek and Latin languages ; and tranflated into
Italian, from the former, the hiftory of Herodotus, and from
the tatter, the golden age of Apuleius, and the chronicle of
Ricobaldo. His eclogues in Latin verfe are reckoned among
the moft elegant produtlions of that age. He alfo wrote in
Italian verfe a comedy, entitled " Timon," taken from a
dialogue in Lucian, and other pieces. But his greatell fame
was derived from his " Orlando Inammorato," whlcii com-
bines with the ancient epic the extravagance of modern ro-
mance. His ilyle was rude, and his verfification Riff and
har(h ; but the fervour of his fancy and the livelinefs of his
imagery rendered this work, which he left unlinifhcd, capti-
vating and popular. It was continued by Niccolo Agoftino,

and

II

B O I

B O I

and recompofed and polifhed, about half a century afterwards,
by Lud. Domenico and Fr. Benii. The work of the latter
is fo well executed, that it has almoft fuperfeded the original.
The bell edition of Boiardo's own performance n that of
Venice in 1544- This work ferved as the model and
groundwork of Ariofto's " Orlando Furiofo ;" wliich is
properly a continuation of it, with new adventures. Boiardo's
lonnets bear the chaTafter of a much purer ftylc than his
Orlando. Moreri.

BOIARKI, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Kiov, -^8 miles S.S.E. of Bialacerkiew.

BOICININGA, or, more properly, Boiciningua, in
Zoology., the Brafilian name of the moft common kind of
rattle-fnake that is found in South America: — Crotale lo'iguira
of Bofc.

BOICUAIBA, a kind of Peruvian ferpent, fuppofed to
belong to the Did genus. It is defcribed as beinjj twenty
feet loii'j black on the anterior part, the reft yellow.

BOIGA, the name of an- American fnake, called by Lin-
nxus Coluber ahaetuUa.

BOIGUACU, the name of a fort of ferpent, called alfo
'iibo'ia, and by the Poituguele Colra de -veado. The relations
of thofe writers who fpeak of this extraordinary creature par-
take rather of the marvellous, infomjch that we cannot but
entertain confiderable doubt as to the identity of the fpecies ;
that it is of the boa tribe there can be no difpute. Perhaps
it is no other than the ibiloboca and boiguacii of Seba, which
Dr. Shaw defcribes under the name of Boa regla; a fpecies
fomewhat allied to coiidriclor, and of which the hiftoi7 has
probably been confounded with that of the latter kind. The
boiguacu is reprefented as the largelt of all the ferpent tribe,
in which it agrees with conftrictor. It grows, we are told,
to the length of four and twenty feet, and more. The mid-
dle of the body very thick, but becoming fmaller at the head
and tail. Down the middle of the back runs a chain of black
fpots, a hand's breadth diftantfrom one another, each having
a fpot of white in its middle ; and below thefe are two other
rows of fmaller black fpots, towards the belly. Each jaw is
faid to be furniibed with two rows of (hai-p teeth white as
pearl. The head veiy broad, with two protuberances over
the eyes, and, in fome of this fpecies, two claws, like thofe of
birds, behind the anus, towards the tail. The laft particular
of which muft evidently be an abfurd miftake, arifing from
the inattention of the defcriber.

We are further told, that the boiguacu is a terrible crea-
ture, one that preys upon the larger animals, and will feize
upon a man. That it either lies in ambuib in the thickets,
or on the branches of large trees, from which it throws itfelf
upon its prey. It has no venom in its bite ; and its flelli is
eaten, and efteemed a delicacy. This fort is common in the
Brafils. The fize to which it attains fometimes is aftoni!bing.
Borritus preferved the lliin of one (fuppofed to be the fame)
which had been killed by himfelf, that was twelve yards long ;
and he relates, that there was a ferpent of this kind deftroyed
in Java, that meafured thirteen yards and a half in length,
and had, when killed, a boar in its belly. And de Laet re-
lates, that in Rio de Ic Plata there are fome of this kind of
ferpents fo large, that they will fwallow a whole ftag.the horns
not excepted. This is probably exaggerated. It is affirmed
of the boa conftriftor, by others, that when the enormous
creature has gorged an animal of this kind, the horns remain
flicking out of the mouth of the ferpent, till the digeftion of
the flefh takes place, and the horns drop off. The boiguacu
is eaten by the natives of Brafil.

BOII, in Ancient Geography, a people, who, according to
Caefar (lib. vi. c. 24.), %vere a Gaulilh nation, but from Gaul
pafled into Germany, and, fettling in the prefent Bohemia,

continued there till they were expelled by the Marcomanni .
Strabo calls them at different times Celtes and Gauls ; and
M. Pelloutier is of opinion, that they were a tribe of the
Celtce, who inhabited Thrace and lUyria. Some of thefe,
he fays, occupied the Hernician foreft en the other fide of
the Danube, and migrated into Bohemia ; others were mixed
among the inhabitants of 1 hrace ; and others remained in
lilyria, between the Danube and the Drave. Of thefe Boii
there were, therefore, feveral dillincl tribes. After BcUo-
vefus had made an irruption into Italy through the country
of the Taurini, the Boii and Lin^ones entered it by the Pen-
nine Alps. Thefe Boii occupied the .'r.ore fouthern part of
Gallia Cifpadana, or Cifalpine Gaul, and were feparated from
Etruria by the Apennines, and from the Senones by the Ru-
bico. Their principal city was Boronia. In the year of
Rome 395, they advanced in Italy as far as the plain of
Pra;nelle, and were defeated there by tlie dictator C. Sul-
picius. Purfued by the Romans, they retired over the Da-
nube, and inhabited the co':fines of Paimonia and lilyria,
along with the Taurifci and Scordifci. In this country they
contended with Boerebiftas, king of the Getae, and were de-
ftroyed by his troops. Their country afterwards remained
defert and uncultivated, and was called the " defcrt of the
Boii." The Romans in procefs of time built here the towns
of Scarabantia and Sabaria. Csefar is fuppofed to have re-
ferred to thefe Bo-.i, when he fays, that the Boii who had
remained on the other fide of the Rhine, and who had de-
fcended irom Noricia, where they laid fiege to the town of
Noreia, were fummoned by the Helvetii to unite with them
in an irruption into Gaul. Another body of the Boii hav-
ing entered into Gcrmaiiy, fettled on the north of the Da-
nube, in an exteniive country, almoft wholly furrounded by
mountains, and having on the weftern part the Hercynian
mountains. This country was afterwards occupied by the
Marcomanni, and is now called Bohemia. Thefe Boii were
blended by degrees with other nations ; but retainincr fome
kind of importance, they preferved an imperfetl trace of their
name in that of Boioarii, whence proceeded Bavaria. The
Boii, who joined the Plelvetii on their attack of the Gauls,
were overpowered by Caefar; but after their defeat, the MAm
prevailed with Caefar to allow them a fettlement, on account
of their diftinguifhed valour, in a fmall dillrift of their terri-
tory. It is faid that he built for them a fmall town called
" Gergovica," of which no trace now remains. M. d'Anville
places thefe Boii in a kind of peninfula, formed by the rivers
Liger and Elaver, before their re-union. Another body ot
the Boii, denominated by Aufonius " Picei," occupied the
weftern part of Gaul, comprehended in Novem-Populana,
fouth-weft of the Bituriges Vivifci, upon the fea-coaft.

BOIL, or Furuncle, in Surgery, is a painful, circum-
fcribed, and inflammatory tumor, feldom larger than a
pigeon's egg, generally of a conical figure, feated in the fub-
cutaneous adipofoie membrane, and proceeding from an in-
ternal caufe. Its apex or central point is but flightly raifed
above the ikin, and commonly tends to fuppuration. No part
of the furface of the body is exempt from the attacks of tliis
diforder, but thofe parts are more liable to boils which abound
with cellular fubftance. The purulent fluid they contain
is ufually inclofed in one or more cyfts or facculi, and is veiy
flow in coming to a ftate of full maturation ; fo that it is re-
quifite to aid the formation of matter by warm ftimulating
apphcations, and at the fame time to fupport the conftitution
by ftrengthening remedies, nutritious diet, and falubrious
air.

Several boils will often appear at the fame time, and after

■they have healed, new ones may arife ; in which cafe, we

may fufped the patient to be of an ill habit of body, and re-

4X2 quire

B O I

JjiiiVf particular medical attention. But it is a very bad prac-
tice-, though bv no n-.enns uncommon, to admiuifter frequent
purges in fuch cafes, which tend (I ill more to diminilli the
tone of the patient, already too much exhaufted. The (late
of the fvfttm muil be remedied by fuch means as are indicated
by the peculiar circumttances c.f the patient ; for no genera!
plan can be prefcribcd, which is poper i:. aU cafes.

Before a conliderable boil appears, tlif patient fometimes
feels himfelf indifpofed, rather feverifh, a-id is troubled with
a number of (light complaints, which all difappcar as foon as
the tumor is formed ; fo that in liiis cafe it leems to have
fome iiniilarity with a critical metaftafis. Otherwife, boils,
on account of the fenfe of tenlion and p'-uu which they occa-
fion, are more troublefome than d.mgerous.

The bell common method of treating thefe tumors
locally, is to bring them as foon as poilible to fuppvu^a-
tion, as this feems to be their natural tendency ; and as
the attempt to difcufs them generally fucceeds either very
imperfeftly or not at all, fome few cafes excepted. For
dilculling them are recommended the external applications of
fpirit of vitriol mi;:ed with honey, (trong wine-vinegar, cam-
phorated oil, &c. In mofl cafes, however, it is necefTary
that we (hould immediately endeavour to promote fuppura-
tion, whicli may be done by means of fimple einnUicnts ;
fuch as bread and milk poultices, linfecd cataplafms, or a
mixture of oatmeal and honey. If the pain be extremely
great, we may add a fuujl quantity of tlie extraft of hemlock
or poppies, and give a grain or two of opium infernally.
When the inflammation is moderate, but the hardnefs confi-
derable, ftiir.ulant and calefacient remedies, fuch as roailed
onions, white-Iilly roots, gum ammoniac, &c. mud be com-
bined with tile emollients. Mr. Fielitz affirms that no re-
medy brings boils fo ealily and quickly to fuppuration, as the
leaves of the richuis communis boiled in milk, and applied in
the form of a poultice.

When the tumor does not burfl fpontaneoudy, whicli it
generally docs at its point, it is to be opened with a lancet.
Belides the general rules, according to which fuch an abfccfs
muil be treated, it is necedary alfo that t!ie core or m.em-
branous part of the boil fliould be extratled in due time,
and that all the remaining hardnefs about the circumference
of the fore Ihould be dilcuflcd. For as long as this core re-
mains in the cavity, the fore will not heal perfectly, neither
can it be brought to heal unlefs the hardnefG be difcufTed, but
either an ulcer or a fiflulais produced, or the fore fl<ins over,
whilll an induration ftili remains behind, which gives rife, ac-
cording to the part in which it is i'ltuated, to various trouble-
fome tymptoms, and after fome time becomes again inflamed,
nor does it difappear entirely till it is difcufTed by a complete
fuppuration.

We may indeed attempt to difcufs fuch indurations by
means of the ulual deobllruents, fuch as the external appli-
cations of mercury, hemlock, foap, bclladcuuia, 5cc. but they
will generally fail of their ciTeft, and we (hall be obliged to
wait till a new inflammation is produced. It is therefore bed
to fupport and promote the fuppuration from the very com-
mencement, and not to fuPfer the abfcefs to heal up till all re-
mains of induration have difappcared ; and when the fuppura-
tion does not proceed with fufficicnt vigour, it ought to be
promoted by means of warm turpentine, and digellive oint-
ment. If this do not produce the requifite effect, it (hould
be mixed with red precipitate ; and to the indurated parts
we ought to apply externally hoc fomentations, with other
emollient and ftlmulant remedies, according to the general
lules laid down under the article Abscess.

Boils, _§'u»). See Gum.

BOIl^EAU, 1^ I c HO LAS, named Defprecfux, in Biography,

B O I

an eminent fatiric?.! poet and critic, was bom either at Paris,
or at CroUe near that citv, in If^lrt. Boilcau himfelf, after
having been truly enno'ilcd by his writings, had the filly
vanity to pique himfelf on the high antiquity of his lineage.
He pretended that [ohn Doileau, the aiiccllor of his family,
wns CTinohled in 1,371 by Charles V. king of France : and
he boaftcd, in confequenre of a fuit inilitiited againft his-
family, and occahoned by a fcvere fciutiny into the validity
of titles afiumed by the noblede of the kiupdom, under st-
comuiiirion of inquiry cftabliflicd by Lewis XIV. in ifiQj,
that he had gained his caule with flying colours, and that he
had a patent in his poirefTion which allowed him a nobility of
400 years' antiquity. It is faid, however, that the fentence
paffed in favour of Boileau's nobility was the refult of his
reputation as a poet, honoured with the proteflion of the
king ; that the titles produced had been fabricated ;
and that a writ had been found among the papers of the
poet for 20 louis d'ors, paid by him for his {hare in the titles
which had been forged by an obfcure perfon of the name of
Haudiquer. However thii be, his own writings were un-
quellioiiably his bell " lettrcs dc noblcfle." As a younger
brother, he was harfhly treated in his youth, more tfp-.ciall^
btcr.iife his father regarded liim as a heavy and Ihipid lad,
deditute of that vivacity of temper and underllanding foi-
which his elder brothers were dillingu-ilied. We are in-
formed alfo, that he underwent an operation for the (lone at
eight years of age. Thefe circumllances probably induced
him to declare, that if he could be rellored to infancy, on the
hard conditions he had experienced, he would not have ac-
cepted the grant ; and hence he always difputed the common
opinion, that infancy is the happ'eft period of our lives.
Defpreaux, indeed, feems not to have thought the othet^
parts of his life more happy than his infancy ; to him all ap-
peared equally miicrable ; youth, tormentedwithpaflions, ma-
turity with cares,, and old age with infirmities ; and he (cemed
to have adopted in fome meafun- that philofopher's opinion,
vvlio, when he was aflied " what was the happiell period of
a man's life ?" anfwered, " that which is paft." " It would'
be difficult," fays Defpreaux, " to determine this queftion ;
we are fure, however, that it is hardly ever the prefent time."
Builean was intended by hie father for the profeffion of an
advocate ; but his talle for polite literature, to the culture
and gratitication of which he devoted his leifure hours, dif-
qualiiied him for this mode of life ; and his repugnance to it
was ftrongly indicated by his dropping afleep, while his bro-
ther-in-law, M. Dongois, a clerk of parliament, was reading
an arret, which he had taken great pains to compofe. Uporj
this, he was fent home to his father as an invincible dunce,
who would be nothing elfe but a (impleton during his life.
Relieved from the embarralTincnt of purfuing a profeffion
which he detefted, his attention was next direfted to fcholaf-
tic divinity, from whichhe was equally averfe. When his father
found, that Ins views re fpefting him were altogether fruft rated,
he allowed hiin to indulge his own inclination, and to devote
himfelf wholly to literature. At the age of 30 years, Boi-
leau's true charaftcr, which had long been unknown to any
but his intimate and confidential friends, was developed ;
and he appeared before the public as " a writer of fatires.M
He began with ridiculing the numerous tribe of bad writers,
and he thus excited a hoft of enemies. Among others the
duke de Montauflier reproached him on account of the feve-
rity of his perfonal fatires as injurious to fociety ; but he
conti-ived to difarm his enmity by a fingle ftroke of flat-
tery, which verilied, fays D'Alembert, the lines of La
Fontaine :

" Amufe the great with adulation,
Your praife to all their faults extend,

Wbate'eR

B O I

Whate'er tlieir former indignation.
The bait goes down, and you're their friend."
Twelve of his fatires were pubUll>ed ; one of thefe was his
fatire ajrainfl; women, the mod bitt>-r and outrageous of all,
which is faid to have been occafioned by his havini;; been in
early life jilted by a young perfon to whom he was going to
be married, and who ran away with a mofquetaire. RaCMie
the younger, one of his particular hiends, however, fays, that
he never had a miftrefs, nor ever thought of marrying. On
the publication of this fatire he was attacked from all quar-
ters ; but his friend Racine confoled him as well as he could :
" Courage," fays he, " you have attacked a numerous corps,
which is all tongue; but the ftorm will blow over." The
beft of his fatires was that entitled " A fon Efprit ;" a piece
of irony, abounding with the moft keen and polilhed ridi-
cule. Whatever reproach Boileau incurred for the perlona-
lity of his fatires, it is mentioned to his honour, that he al-
ways diftinguiflied between folly and vice ; and that he never
attacked bad tafte and dunces with any other arms than ri-
dicule, while vice and profligacy were treated by him with
juil indignation.

The fatires of Boileau were followed by his " Art of
Poetry," which is reckoned the bcil (.fall the poetical works
of critieifm exTlting, equally admirable for the good fenfc of
its maxims, and the appropriate beauties of language by which
his precepts are exemplified. This was fucceedcd by his
" Epiftles," formed after the model of Horace, and ren-
dered pecuharly plealing by the union of morality with criti-
eifm, and defcription with fentiment ; interfperfed with
charaAeriftic traits and anecdotes of himfelf. In one of
thefe, addreffed to the king, he artfully, at the inftigation
of Colbert, endeavoured to divert the fovereign's mind from
the fchcmes of conqueft to the glory of promoting the wel-
fare of his fubjjfts by plans of utility r.nd beneficence. Lewis
was gratified by the delicate praife with which this advice
was accompanied, and applauded the epiftles ; hut went
to war with Holland. In 1674, he publi(hed his " Lutrin,"
a mock-heroic kind of compoficion, founded on a trifling
difpute between the treafurer and chsnter of the holy chapel,
and ranking among the firft produdions of this clafs. Boi-
leau had now acquired a degree of reputation which re-
commended him to favour and patronage at court ; and the
king honoured him with a penfion, an cxclufive privilege for
printing his own works, and the ofHce, conjointly with his
friend Racine, of royal hilloriographer. In this latter capa-
city neither he nor his aflbciate had an oportunity of appear-
ing before the public. Boileau, indeed, publiflied his " Ode
on the taking of Namur," which is more an hillorical than
a poetical effort. At this time he attended frequently at
court ; and yet he maintained a freedom and franknefs of
fpeech, more efpecially on topics of literature, which are not
toinmon among courtiers. When Lewis aflced his opinion
of fome vei fes which he had written, he replied ; " Nothing,
fire, is impoffible to yourmajcfty ; you wilhed to make bad
verfts, and you have fucceeded." He alfo took part with
the perfecuted members of the Port-royal ; and when one
of the courtiers declared, that the king was making diligent
fearch after the celebrated Arnauld, in order to put him in the
Baftile, Boileau obftrvcd, " His majefty is too fortunate ; he
will not find him :" and when the king aiked him, what was
the rcafou why the whole world was running after a preacher,
named Ic Tourneux, a difciple of Arnauld, " Your ma-
jefty," he replied, " knows how fond people are of novelty :
— this is a minifter who preaches the gofpel." Boileau ap-
pears, from various circumftances, to have been no great
l^riend to the Jefuits, whom he offended by his " Epiftk on

B O I

the Love ef God," and by many free fpeeches. By royal
favour, he was admitted unanimoufly, in 1684, i"to the
French academy, with which he had made very free in hij
epigrams ; and he was alfo aflibciated to the new Academy
of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres, of wliich he appeared to
be a fit member by his " Tranflation of Longinus on the
Sublime." To fcience, with which he had little acquaint-
ance, he rendered, however, important fervice by his burlcfque
" Arret in favour of the Univerfity, againll an unknown
perfonage called Reafon," which was the means of prevent-
ing the eflablifliment of a plan of intolerance in matters of
phdofophy. His attachment to the ancients, as the true
models of literary tafte and excellence, occafioned a coitro-
verfy between him and Perrault concerning the comparative
merit of the ancients and moderns, which was profecuted for
fome time by epigrams and mutual reproaches, till at lengttx
the public began to be tired with their difputes, and a re-^
conciliation was effefted by the good offices of their common
friends. This controverfy laid the foundation of a lafting-
enmity between Boileau and Fontenelle, who inclined to
the party of Perrault. Boileau, however, did not maintain
his opinion with the pedantic extravagance of the Daciers ;
but he happily exercifed his wit on the mifreprefentations of
the noted charafters of antiquity, by the falhionable ro-
mances of the time, in his dialogue entitled " The Heroes
of Romance," compofed in the manner of Lucian. In op-
pofition to the abfurd opinion of father Hardouin, that moil
of the claftical produftions of ar.cient Rome had been
written by the monks of the I3ih century, Boileau pleafantly
remarks, " I know nothing of all that ; but though I am
not very partial to the monks, I (liould not have been forry
to have lived with friar Tibullus, friar Juvenal, Dom Virgil,
Dom Cicero, and fuch kind of folk." After the death of
Racine, Boileau very much retired from court ; induced'
partly by his love of liberty and independence, and partly
by his diflike of that adulation which was expefted, and for
whicii the cloie of Lewis's reign afforded more fcaiity mate-
rials than its commencement. Separated in a great degree-
from focicty, he indulged that auftere and mifantliropical dlf-
pofition, from which he was never wholly exempt. His
converfatiju, however, was more mild and gentle than his^
writings ; and, as he uled to fay of himfelf, without " nails
or claws," it was enlivened by occafional fallies of pleafautry,
and rendered inftruclive by judicious opinions of autiiors
and their works. He was religious without bigotry ; and
he abhorred fanaticifm and hypocrify. His circumftances
were eafy ; and his prudent economy has been charged by
fome with degeneratmg into avarice. Inftances, however,
occur of his liberality and beneficence. At the death of
Colbert, the penfion which he had given to the poet Cor»
ntille was fupprefled, though he was poor, old, infirm, and
dying. Boileau interceded with the king for the reftoration
of it, and offered to transfer his own to Corneille, telling tha
monarch, that he fhould be afliamcd to receive his bounty
while fuch a man was in want of it. He alfo bought, at an
advanced price, the library of P.itru, reduced in his circum-
ftances, and left him in the poffeffion of it till his death. He
gave to the poor all the revenues he had received for eight
years from a benefice he had enjoyed, without performing
the duties of it. To indigent men of letters his purfe was
always open ; and at his death he bequeathed almoft all his.
poffeflTions to the poor. Upon the whole, his temper, though-
naturally auftere, was, on many occafions, kindandbenevolent,
fo that it has been faid of him, that he was " crue'» only in,
verfe ;" and his general character was diftinguiflied by wortli
and integrity, with fome alloys of literary jealoufy and in-

juftice^.

B O I

juftice. He died of a dropfy in the bread in 1711, at the
age of 75, and bequeathed the greater part of his property
to charitable ufes. His funeral was attended by a very con-
hderable number of perfons of rank and literature. How
came this man (exclaimed a woman in the ftreet) to have fo
many friends i Tliey fay he never fpoke well of any body in
his life.

As a poetical writer, he has been denominated the " poet
of good fenfe," corrctl in his verfification, choice and pure
in his language, jull and' rational in his fentiments, always
guided by judgment and tafte, obferving the limits of de-
corum, and never betrayed by wit or fancy into extrava-
gancies. Few, if any writer, ever compolcd fo much, with
fo little occafion for erafement or alteration, Voltaire, who
often denied the eqiiity of his decifions in matters of criti-
cifm, fays of him, in a letter to Helvetius ; " I agree with
you that Bollcau is not a fublime poet ; but he executed
admirably whatever he undertook. He is clear, eafy, happy
in his exprefTuin ; he feldom rifes very high, but he never
finks. IJtfides, the fuhjtfts of whicli he treats are not of a

kind to require great elevation. 1 fhall, therefore, always

warmly recommend that kind of writing which he has fo
well taught, that refpcft for language, that quick fucceffion
of ideas, the art and facility with which he condufts his reader
from one fubj-cl to another ; and above all, his fimplicity,
which is the true fruit of genius." Boileau was the firft
writer who formed the national tafte of France, and by his
tranflations and imitations gave his countiymen a true relifli
for the epiftles and fatires of Horace, which before his time
ufed to be much lefs efteemed than his odes. The great
defeft of Boileau, according to D'Alembert, is want of
fenfibility ; and if cnthufiafm, which is incompatible with
that coldnefs of heart that diftinguiflied his charaftcr, is ef-
fential to a true poet, his claim to this honourable appella-
tion mull be difallovved. Neverthclefs, his works may be
juftly regarded as mafter-pieces of their kind, and can never
die, as long as the language in which they are written exifts.
Having taken great pains in the compolition of them, he was
not infenfible of their peculiar and charatlcrilHc excellence ;
accordingly, in fome lines written by himfclf, and intended
to be placed under his portrait, he makes no hefitation in
affirming that he had united the merits of Perlius, Juvenal,
and Horace. Boileau and Pope have been thought much to
refcmble one another, as to both the kind and difcriminating
characler of their writings ; but, fays a very competent
judge, " Boileau, with a nearly tqual portion of wit, has
much more delicacy and correftncls ; while Pope as much
furpaflcs him in force and fancy. Both abound in good
fenfe, and each has enriched his language with nervous lines
that have pafTed into proverbial fentences." In another
place the fame writer obferves, that after we have rendered
to Boileau Defpreaux all due homage as a great poet, and
as the legiflator of talle, his faults as a fatirift indicate an
acrimonious and unfeeling charafter, a high conceit of his
own powers and confeqnencc, and an unpardonable difregard
of the happinefs and reputation of others. " If the Englifh
poet had as much cauilicity as the French, and more peevifh
irritability, he feems to have had a more feeling heart, and
a nicer fenfe of jultice." We may remark, that perfonal
fatire foon Icfes its fait and poignancy ; and that the fatires
of Boileau, as well as the Dunciad of Pope, are lefs read now
than any of t'eir other works.

Btfides tht works of Boileau, already mentioned, there are
feveral liiiallcr piece s both in piofe and verfe. Of the whole
there have been various editions, with explanatory notes; and
of thefe the principal are that of Geneva, 2 vols. 410. 17 16,

B O I

with illullrationj, by Brofette ; that of the Hague, with
Picart's figures and notes, 2 vols. fol. 1 7 18, and 4 vols. J2mo,
1722; that by Alhx, with Cochin's figures, z vols. 4to. 1740;
and that of Durand with illuftratious, by St. Marc, 5 vols.
8vo. 1747.

Boileau had feveral brothers of very fingular charaders.
Jajiies, a dodor of the Sorbounc, was born in 1635, ftudied
in the univcrfity of Paris, took his degree of doitor in
theology in 1662, was appointed dean of Sens, and vicar of
the archbidiop Gondoin, in 1667 ; and in 1694, was pre-
fented by the king with a canoniy in the holy chapel of
Paris. He died dean of the faculty of theology in 1716.
He is well known by a number of works in a peculiar
ftyle, fome of which were not remarkable for decency ; but
thefe he wrote in Latin, " left the bifliops," lie faid " ftiould
condemn them." He was not more a friend to the Jefuits
than his brother ; and he defcribed them as " Men who
lengthened the creed, and ftiortened the commandments."
As dean of the chapter of Sens, he was appointed to
harangue the celebrated prince of Conde, when he paffed
through the city. This great commander took partieular
pleafure on thefe occafions m difconcerting his panegyrifts ;
but the doclor, perceiving his intention, counterfeited great
confnfion, and addrelTed him in the following manner:
" Your highnefs will not be furpriled, I truft, at feeing me
tremble in your prtfence, at the head of a company of peace-
ful priefts ; I ftiould tremble ftill more, if I was at the head
of 30,000 foldiers." He manifefted a contempt of fanaticilm,
as well as of decorum, by his " Hiftoria Flagellantium, &c."
or, an account of the extravagant, and often ir.decent, prac-
tice of difcipline by flagellation, in the Chriftian church.
It was tranflated into French ; and not many years ago
(viz. 1777, 4to. and again in 1782, 8vo.) by M. de Lolme,
into Englilh. In his treatife " De antiquo jure prcfbyte-
rorum in regimine ecclefiallico," he difcovcrs the greateft
freedom of fentiment, endeavouring to fhew, that in the
primitive times the priefts participated with the biflrops in
the government of the church. He was alfo the author of
feveral other publications, difplaying much curious learning
and a fatirical turn, which are now configned to oblivion.

Gilles, the eldeft: brother of Boileau Defpreaux, was
born in 163 I, and had a place in the king's houfhold. He
was a man of wit and learning, and publilhed a tranflation of
Arrian's Epiftetus, with a life of the philofopher, Paris,
165";, 8vo. He alfo publifhed a tranflation of Diogenes
Laertius, in 2 vols. l2mo. i66y ; and two difiertations
againft Menage and Collar. His " Pofthumous Works"
were publifticd in 1670. He alfo wrote verfes, in no high
eftimation ; and his poetical pretenfions exited a jealoniy of
his brother's rifing fame, which produced an open variance
between them. He was a member of the French academy ;
and died in 1669. Gen. Did. Nouv. Diil. Hift. D'Alem-
bert's Hift. dcs Membres de I'Acad. Franc. 1 787, and
Eloges, he. 1779, — tranflated by Aikin in 2 vols. 8vo. 1799.

BOILED, or BovLEoJi/is, thole which have been put,
while in the balls, into hot water, to make them wind the
better.

In which (enfe, boiled filk ftands oppofed to raw.

BOILER, or Boyler, a large copper veffel, wherein
things are expofed over the fire to be boiled.

The boiler in the alum-works is a veffel, in which the
liquor is evaporated to a confiftence, and is made of lead.
The general fize is about eight feet fquare, and they contain
about twtlve tons each.

They make them in this manner : firft, they lay long
pieces of call-iron, twelve inches fquare, as long as the

breadth

B O I

B O I

breadth of the boiler, and at about twelve inches diftance
from one another. Thefe are placed twenty-four inches
above the furface of the fire. On thefe malfy bars of iron
they lay, crofs-wife, the common flat bars of iron, as eiofe
as they can lie t gether, and then make up the fides with
brick-work. In the middle of the bottom of this boiler is
laid a troui^h of lead, wherein they put at firft about a hun-
dred pound vi'cight of the rock. They ufe NewcaiUe coals
in the boiling; and if they find the liqr.or not ftronjr
enough, they add more of the rock at times, as it boils.
Phil. Tranf. N'' 142.

The boiler for makinj; colours. Sic. muft: be made of pew-
ter ; becaufe iron and copper will be corroded by the ialine
fubllances ufed in the maniifafturv- of them.

Count Rumford (See his Effays, vol. i. p. 220.) recom-
mends double bottoms to boilers, and alfo to faucepans and
kettles of all kinds, ufed for culinary piirpofes ; which con-
trivance, he fays, will, in all cafes, mod eflfedt'ially prevent
what is called by the cooks, " burning-to." The heat is
fo much obllruttcd in its paffage through the thin fheet of
air which, notwithllanding all the care that is taken to
bring the two bottoms into aftual contaft, will ftill remain
between them, that the fecond has time to give its heat as
fall as it receives it to the fluid in the boiler ; and confe-
quently it never requires a degree of heat fuffii-ient for burn-
ing any thing tliat may be upon it. He fuggefts that it
■will probably be bell to double copper faucepans and fniail
kettles throughout ; and as this may and ought to be done
with a very thin fheet of metal, it would not coll much, even
if the lining were to be made of filver. When the two
fheets of metril that form the double bottoms of boilers are
made to toi'c'i each other throughout, by hammering them
together after the falle bottom has been fixed in its place,
they may be tacked together by a f-w fmall rivets placed
here and there, at cor.fiderable diltances from each other ;
and when this is done, the boiler may be tinned. In this
operation, if proper care be taken, the edge of the falfe
bottom may be foldered by the tin to the fides of the boiler,
and thus the water or other liquids, put into the boiler, will
be prevented from getting between the two bottoms. The
Count adds, that this invention of double bottoms might
be ufed with great fuccefs by ditlilers, to prevent their li-
quor, when it is thick, from burning to the bottom of their
flills. (See Still.) Having found in the courfe of his
experiments, (See Phil. Tranl. 1792, Part I.) that con-
fined air is the bell barrier that can be oppnfcd to heat for
the purpofe of confining it, he propofcd to confine the heat
in the boilers of his conftrudlion, and to prevent its
efcape into the atm^fphere, by means of double covers.
Thefe covers were made of tin, or rather of thin iron-plates
tinned, in the form of a hoUow-cone ; the height of the cone
being equal to about one-third of its diameter ; and thus the
air which it contained was entirely (hut up, the bottom of
the cone being clofcd by a circular plate or thin Iheet of
tinned iron. The bottom of the cone was accurately fitted
to the top of the boiler, which it completely clofed by means
of a rim about two inches wide, which entered the boiler ;
which rim was foldered to the flat (heet of tinned iron that
formed the bottom of the cover. The fleam, generated by
the boiling liquid, was carried off by a tube about half an
inch in diameter, which paffed through the hollow conical
cover, and which was attached to the cover, both above and
below, with folder, in fuch a manner that the air with which
the hollow cone was filled remained completely confined, and
cut off from all communication with the external air of the
atmofphere, as well as with the ileam it ger.erated in the
boiler. For his various contrivances in the moil advan-

tageous conflruflion of boilers for the faving of fuel, and for
producing the defired effeft, we refer to his Effays, vol. ii.
p. iS, &c.

BOILERY, or CoiLARY, in the Sn// IVorls, denotes a
falthonfe, pit, or other place, where fait is made.

BOILING OF Meat, in Coohsry, is the expofing of
meat to the heat of boiling water, while it is immerfed in it
for a certain time. By this joint application of heat and
moidure, the texture is rendered more tender and more fo-
luble in the llomach ; and it is only in this way, that the
firmer parts, as the tendinous, ligamentous, and membranous
pnrts can be dulv foftened, and their gelatinous fubftance
duly cxtrafted. A moderate boiling rendero the texture of
animal flefh more tender, without much diminution of its
nutritious quality ; but if the boiling is extended to extradt
every thing foluble, the fubftance remaining becomes lefs
foluble in the flomach, and at the fame time much lefs nu-
tritious. But as boiling extrafts in the firfl place the more
foluble, and therefore the faline parts ; fo the remainder,
after boiling, is in proportion to the continuance of the
operation lefs alkalcfcent, and lefs heating to the fyflem.

Boihng is commonly praftifed in open velTels, or in vcffels
not clofely covered ; but it may be performed in digefters,
or veffels accurately and tightly clofed ; and in fr.ch veffels
the effiCls are very different from thofe that take place in
open veffels. As we can hardly employ any other degree
of heat than that of boiling water, the water in the digefler
is never made to boil, lo there is no exhalation of volatile
parts ; and, although the folution is made with great fuc-
cefs, and may be to any degree required, yet if it be not
carried very far, the meat may be rendered very tender,
while it flill retains its mofl fapid parts ; and this kind of
cookery will always give the moll defirable ftate of boiled
meat. Boiling, in the ordinary way, is different, according
to the proportion of water that is applied. It a fmall quan-
tity be applied, and the heat in a moderate degree is conti-
nued for a long time, this is called " flewing," and has the
effedt of rendering the texture more tender, without ex-
trafting much of the foluble parts ; and of courfe it leaves
the meat more fapid, aud fufficiently nourifhing. CuUen's
Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 400, &c.

Boiling, elulUtion, in Phfjics, is the internal commo-
tii.n excited in a mafs of water or other liquefied fubftance,
by the fucceffive convtrfion of the lower portions of the
fluid into vapour, and their violent effort under this expan-
five and elallic form to make their efcape. It is ufually,
though not neceflanly, produced by the application of heat.
The cir umllances which precede or accompany the pheno-
menon of boiling, arc beftobferved in a thin tranfparent flafli
nearly filled with water, and fufpendea over a lamp or a
charcoal fire. Numerous minute globules are fcen coUefting'
from all pohits towards the fides and rifing in a ftream to the
furface ; occafioned evidently by the difcharge of air, which
is always in fonie .proportion combined with water. As the
heat increafes, the liquid particles near the bottom of the
flafli fnddenly burft into fteam, and fhoot upwards ; but in
afcending through the colder mafs, they again collapfe, flop-
their prognfs-, and feem loft. Such alternate expanfions
and contraftions, by throwing the fluid into a gentle tremor,
frequently caufes a peculiar fort of finging noife, which is
rightly fuppofed to betoken the approach of acT:ual boiling.
This finging is more likely to happen in the cafe where heat
is applied partially ; for inftance, if a tea-kettle be placed at
the fide of the fire, fince the heat is then more flowly and
unequally diffufed through the body of the water. But after
the whole contents being fully penetrated, are warmed up
to the requinte degree of inccniity, the Ileam, as fall as it is
8 formed,.

BO!

formefl, afcendfi contiimally and efcapeJ unimpaired through
the fluid, which it therefore heaves with violent agitJitior.

The lame appearance almoft is pindiiccd by removing or
even dimiiiifliiiig the atmofpherfc prelTure. Thus, if a tum-
bler holding vN'avin water be introduced under the receiver
of an air-pump, as the exhauftion proceeds, or the incumbent
weiirht is gradually withdrawn, tlie latent portion of air is
dlfcTiargcd in a rapid flow of eKpanded bubbles. But this
procefb, at fome certain point ot rartfaftion, is fuccetded
by the vchcmer.t commotion which conftitutes boding ; and
the water, affiiiiiing its invifible form, fills the impcrfeft void
with vapour, which betrays its exillence by condeniing
aTainfl. llie fidts of the receiver in copious dew. Nor is heat
pofitivoly neceifary towards vapori/Latiou, for it only confpires
iu aceomphfliing that effed, and fupplies the want or the
impel feftion of our means of producing exhauftion. By
Jielp of an air-pump of tl'.e bell conilruftion, the coldcil
water may be made to boil, nay, ice itftlf could be changed
into invifible Itcam. Hence the utter impofTibility of ever
obtaining a perfed vacuum, beeaufe the reftraining influence
of preflure being entirely removed, the hquid matter un-
avoidably prtlentcd would always diflule a thin vapour.

The oppolite influence of heat and prefTure on the con-
■Ritution of fluids is well exhib'ted by a verj' fimple yet
ftriking e>:perinient. Take a large thin phial, and having
warmed il gradually to avoid the rilk of cracking the glais,
fill it completdy with boiling water, cork it tight, and ex-
pofe it to a current of cold air. As the water cools, it
■ncceffarily contrads its volume, and leaving an imperfcd va-
<:uity below the neck of the phial, it hence becomes to a
.confidercble degree relieved from the load of atmofpheric
prelTure. It therefore foon begins again to boil, nay, it
will boil more briltcly the falter it cools ; and this fingular
appearance, fo contrary to our ufual notions, may continue
perhaps for tlie fpace of half an hour, till the water has
grown as cold almofl as the temperature of the human body.
On the fame principle depcndn the conftrudion of what is
called xhc pulfe ghifs : thisconfifls of two balls conncded by
a pretty long tube ; one of thefe balls is fdled with coloured
water or fpirits of wine, which having been made to boil and
expel the air by its vapour, at the fame inftant the point
projcding from the other ball is hermetically fealed. As
that vapour condenfes with cold, it will leave the included
liquid then in a fort of vacuum, and the heat of the hand is
then fufficient to caufe it to boil and to flow from one ball
into the other.

if a veffel containing water be placed over a fteady fire,
the water will grow continually hotter till it reaches the
limit of boiling, after which the regular acctffions of heat
are wholly fpent in converting it into fteam. The water
therefore remains at the fame pitch of temperature, how-
ever fiercely it boils. The only difference is that, with a
ilrong fire, it fooner comes to boil, and more quickly boils
away. Hence the reafon why a vetf^l full of water, and
plunged into the centre of a larger one, which is likewife
filled with that fluid, barely acquires the boding heat, but
will never adually boil.

The formation of (learn occafions a prodigious confump-
tion of heat ; for if the time be noted in which water, by
the adion of a flrong fire, is raifedfrom the limit of freezing
to that of boiling, it will be found to require more than five
limes longer a fpace to boil entirely away. Thus, a portion
of heat correiponding to above 900 degrees by Fahrenheit's
fcale, is always conlumed in the ad of boiling, or rather it
is trausferred and enters into the compofition of fleam,
the gafeous produd. This abforbed heat is as conftantly
evolved when luaui condenfes and returns to its hquid form.

B O I

Hence in dlflillation a very large refrigerator/ Is required fov
condenfing a comparatively fmall quantity of aqueous or
fpirituous vapour. Hence too the explication of the fa-
miliar remark that fleam fcalds more cruelly than boiling
water.

The heat of boiling water, being fubjed to the influence
of the atmofpheric preiRire, is thus not abfolutely fixed.
It varies with the variation of the barometer, and decreafes
as the mercury defcends. The extent of this fliduation
may in our changeable climate amount to five degrees by
Fahrenheit's fcale, the fuccelTivc diiTerence of a dtgiee cor-
refponding nearly to each twentieth part of the remaining
incumbent weight. On the tops of lofty mountains water
will boil much fooner than in the plains below. This curi-
ous fad has been noticed by feveral travellers, and was par.
ticulruly obferved by Saun"ure on the fummit of Mont Blanc.
A Hill greater variation would be experienced on the peak
of Chimboraco, the highell point of the Andes, where
water would boil with a heat fcarcely fuperior to that which
is comm )nly alhgned for the boihiig of fpirits of wine.

It is therefore evident that, under an augmented prefigure,
all liquids will more flovvly reach the crilis of ebullition and
will then have acquired a more intenfe heat. Thus water
may be heated up many degrees above the mean point of
boiling, if it be fubjeded to the adion either of condenfed
air or of conllned lleam. Such is the principle of Paphi's
Dhcjlcr ; which, being nearly filled with water, is Mint per-
fectly clofe, and^fet on a good lire. As the fteam fo formed ii
prevented from efcaping, it neceffarily concentrates, and ex-
ei ting accumulated energy, it by its prodigious compreflioii
enables the water c >ntinually to receive additional heat.
Nor would this progrefs at all Hop, till the elallicity of the
imprifoned vapour comes to furmount every obftacle, anil
burils the veffel with terrible explofion. Accidents of that
fort are extremely dangerous, and the experiment has confe-
quently never been puflied to its utmoil pradicable limits.
^Vhen the fradure takes place, not only the confined fleam
is liberated, but the pren"ure being now removed, the excefs
of heat inllantaneoufly converts a part or the whole of the
water likewife into fleam, which augments the general
cffed. This we may perceive in the burfling of a glafs
cracker; for the little bafe is fhivercd into atoms, and the
water which it contained is entirely difperfed, beating down
flat the wick of the candle by the violence of the fudden ex-
panfive blafl.

Hence the boiling heat of a deep cauldron is always rather
grrater than that of a (hallow pan. This excefs we might
cllimate at neaily one degree of Fahrenheit, for each foot of
depth. The heat of ebullition mull alio rife fomewhat
higher, if the fleam be not allowed to efcape as fall as it is
generated ; for which reafon there may be a flight difference
of energy between rapid and flow boiling. Hence by the
combined operation oi both thefe caufes, water deeply lodged
in the bowels of the eartii or concealed under the dark ted
of the ocean, is capable of acquiring the moft intenfe heat
from the adion of fubterranean fires ; a principle of which
Dr. Hiitton has ingenioufly availed himfelf in framing his
Theory of the Earth.

But the pofition of the boiling point is likewife modified
by the influence of chemical attradion. Thus fugar, com-
mon fait, and other faliiie fubilanccs, have all of them a
tendency to fix water and retard the crifis of its converfion
into eladic vapour. Strong brine will not boil until it is
heated up feveral degrees above the ordinary limit. Hence
a veffel containing frelh water, and immerfed in another
which is filled with brine, will gently boil, while the fur-
rounding fluid only fimmcrs. On the other hand, the addi-
2 tion

B O I

B O I

tion of alcohol renders water more volatile. In the diRil-
laiion of fpirits, the feimcnted liquur in the copper boils
always at a lower temperature, or at lame intermediate point
between the ebullition of water and that of alcohol. The
fpirituous fumes which rife carry along with them a portion
of evaporated water. Hence the neccffit}' of reflificatioii,
or repecited diftillations, to procure alcohol in its purcil ftate;
for the boiling heat is lowered, and confequently the pro-
portion of aqueous admixture is diminilhed, at each fuccef-
five procefs. See Digester, Eeullitiom, Fire, Fluid,
Heat, Pressure, Steam, Vapour.

Boiling of fill iv'ith fotip, is the firll preparation in order
to dyeing it. Thread is alfo Ir^ilui in a ftrong lixivium of
afhes, to prepare it for dyeing.

Boiling is alfo a part of the piocefs for bleaching warp
linen.

Boiling to death, caUariis decoquere, in the Middle Age,
a kind of punifhment inflifted on falfe coiners, thieves, and
fome other criminals.

This punifhment was inflifted on thofe who were guilty
of murder by poifon, 22 Hen. VIII. cap. 19. but this adl
was repealed by i Edw. VI. cap. 12.

Boiling is alfo a method of trying or affaying the good-
nefs or falfenefs of a colour of a dye, by boiling the iluff in
water with certain drugs, different according to the kind or
quality of the colour, to try whether or no it will difcharge,
and give a tindlure to the water.

With this intention, red crimfon filks are boiled with alum,
and fcarlets with foap, in quantity equal to the weight of the
filk.

Boiling wj/iT/, \n Natural H'flary. See Spring, and
Water.

BOINITZ, in Geography, a town of Hungaiy, eleven
miles W. N. W. of Kremnitz.

BOJOBI, in Zoology, the Brafilian name of the Lin-
n3:an boa canina. See Canina.

BOIODURUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Vin-
delicia, fituate on the Danube, according to Ptolemy ; the
Itinerary of Antonine places it on the route from Ovilabis
to Augufta Vindelicium, between Stanacum and Quin-
tianx.

BOIOHEMUM, or BoiMUM, the country of the
Boii, anfwering to the prefent Bohemia, which fee. On the
fouth of it lay the " Gabreta Sylva," and to the fouth,
weft, and north, the " Hercynii montes." The interior of
it was penettated with difficulty, and was little known.

BOJOWKA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Braclaw, forty-eight miles eaft of Braclaw.

BOIQUIRA, in Zoology, a name by which the natives,
in fome parts of America, call the rattle fnake. Suppofed
to be the Crotalus horridus, of Naturalills.

BOIREL, Anthonv, in Biography, born at Argentan,
in Normandy, about the year 162], apphed himfelf to the
praftice of furgery, in which he acquired confiderable repu-
tation. In 1677 he publidied, " Traite de plaies de tete,"
8vo. extrafted prir.cipally from the works of Hippocrates,
Galen, and of Ambrofe Pare, which he appears to have
itudied diligently- He has added fome improvements to
their praftice.

Nicholas Boirel his brother, phyfician at Argentan, pub-
lifhed, in 1702, " Nouvelles ohfervations fur k-s maladies
vencriennes," i2mo. Paris, which was reprinted 17 i I, but
contains little new on the fubjeft. Haller Bib. Eloy. Dicl.
Hift.

BOTS, Cardinal du. See Dusois.

Bois, Gerard du, a member of the congregation of the
Orator)', and a Latin profefTor in it, was born at Orleans,

Vol, IV.

in 1^20. Having fucceeded father Le Comte, in his place
of librarian to St. Honore, and having pofltffion of his pa-
pers, he finifhcd for the prefs his citrhth and laft volume of the
" Ecclefiailical Annals of France," which was printed in l6'?.5;
and in confequence of it he obtained a pepfion from the French
clergy. He afterwards undertook to wijte thehiitory of the
Parifian church; and, in j 'ir,o,publiflied the firftvolumein folio.
The fecond, which he did not live to finilh, appeared after his
death, which happened in i6iy6. This work is written in pure
elegant Latin, and contains a variety of niterefting fafts relat-
ing to civil as well as ecclefiallical hiftory. Nouv. Diet. Hift.
Bois, Boys, or Boyse, John, an eminent divine, and
one of the tranfiators of the bible, in the reign of James I.
was bom at Nettleftead in Suffolk, lu 1560, and made fuch
early proficiency under the inftvuiitions of his father, that at
the age of five years he read the bible iti Hebrew ; and at
fix, wrote that language in a fair and elegant charafter.
At the age of 14 he was admitted into St. John's college,
Cambridge, and by his great flvill in the Greek language ob-
tained a fcholarfliip before he had been hall a year at col-
lege, and afterwards a fellowfhip. Declining the profeflioii
of phyfic, for which he was intended, he devoted himfelf to
the ftudy of divinity, and was ordained in 1,85. He of-
ficiated for 10 years in his college as principal Greek lec-
turer ; and as an inftance of his afliduous application, and
of the early hours of ftudy at that period, it is mentioned,
that he voluntarily read a Greek lecture at four in the morn-
ing, which was attended by moft of the fellows. On the
death of his father, he fucceeded him in the redtory of Weft-
Stowe, near Bury, in Suffolk ; but in 1.596, he married the
daughter of Mr. Holt, rector of Boxworth, in Cambridge-
fliire, and having before refigned Weft-Stowe, took poffef-
fion of this Uving. In this fituation the negleft of domeftic
economy involved him fo much in debt, that he was under
a neceffity of felling his choice colleftion of books. After-
wards, however, he retrieved his affairs by keeping a board-
ing-fchool ; and was appointed one of the Cambridge tranf-
lators of the bible. (See Bible.) The part that fell to the lot
of that clafs of divines, with whom he was connedted, was the
Apocrypha; and this he compleattd in four years, without
deriving any advantage from it befides his commons. He wag
afterwards appointed one of the fix delegates who met at
Stationers'-hall in London, for the purpofc of revifing the
tranflation, and who were employed for nine months in this
bufinefs, with an allowance from the Stationers' company of
jos.a-week each.jFor theafhftance which he gave tofirHenry
Savile, in the publication of St. Chry foftom's works, to which
he devoted the labour of many years, he received the very
inadequate recompence of a fingie copy of the work. How-
ever, fuch was his reputation, that he obtnined, without fo-
licitation, from Dr. Andrews, bilhop of Ely, a prebend in
his cathedral, in 161 5 ; and he was thus enabled to fpend
the laft 28 years of his hfe in tranquil retirement. Although
hewasalwaysahaid ftudent, he publiflied nothing; but left be-
hind him many MSS. particularly a commentary on the greatefl'
part of the N. T. A work of which few copies were printed,
and, therefore, little known, appeared after his death, un-
der the following title " Johannis Boifii veteris Intei-pretis
cum Bcza aliifque recentioribus collatio in IV Evangeliis,
et Actis Apoftolorum," London, 165^, 8vo. He fuftained
the character of an excellent Latin writer, a profound fclio-
lar, a loyal fubjeft, a ftriC\ churchman, and a plain prafti-
cal preacher. It was his praftice to attend the pubhc fer-
vice of the church twice, if not thrice a day ; and his charity-
was as extenfive as his devotion was regular and conftant.
Although he devoted eight hours a day to ftudy even in hi*
old age, he preferved his health by the exercife of walking, '
ifY t»

B O I

to which he had accuftomcd himfcif fiom his youth, by con-
fining himfclf to two meals a day, dinner and fupper, by
fitting or walking an hour after dinner before he went into
his ftudy, by occafional fading, fometimes twice in a week,
and fometimes once in three weeks, and by not ftudying
after flipper, particularly towards the clofe of life, but di-
verting himfelf with cheerful converfation for two hours
among his fiiendi. When he was a young ftudent at Cam-
bridge, he received from the learned Dr. Whitaker thefe
three rules for avoiding thofe dillempeis which ufually attend
a fedentary hfe, to which he adhered with equal conftancy
and fuccefs. The firlt was to lludy always Handing ; the
fecond never to lludy in a window ; and the third never to
go to bed with his feet cold. Accordingly he attained the
age of 84 years, and died in 1643. Biog. Brit.

Bois, Di/, Lake, in Geography, lies in North America,
to the north-weft of lake Superior, and receives the river
dc la Pluie, in N. lat. 49°. It was formerly famous for the
richncfs of its banks and waters, which abounded with all
the ncceflarics of a favage life. The Frencli liad formerly
feveral fettlements in and about it ; but it has fince declined,
though it is now recovering its priftine ftate. The few In-
dians who inhabit it might live very comfortably, if they
were not fo immoderately fond of fpirituous liquors. This
lake is rendered remarkable by its having been named on
the part of the Americans, as the fpot from which a line of
boundary between them and Britilli America was to run
weft till it ftruck the MilTilfippi, wliicli, however, as Mr.
Mackenzie obfervcs, can never happen, becaufe the N. W.
part of the lake du Bois is in N. lat. 49° 37'. and W. long.
94° 31'. and the northernmoft branch of the fource of the
Miffiffippi is in N. lat. 47° j8'. and W. long. y5°6'. afcertained
by Mr. Thomfon, aftronomcr to the North-weft Company,
who was fcnt expiefsly for that purpofe in the fpring of
179S. He, in the fame year, determined the northern bend
of the Milfifoury to be in N. lat. 47° 32'. and W. long.
101° 25'. and acording to the Indian accounts, it runs to the
fouth of weft, fo that if the MifTifoury were even to be confi-
dered as the MifTiiTippi, no weftern line could ftrike it. It
does not appear, fays Mackenzie, to be clearly determined
what courfe the line is to take, or from what part of lake
Superior it ftrikes through the country to the lake du Bois ;
if it were to follow the principal waters to their fource, it
ought to keep through lake Superior to the river St.
Liouis, and follow that river to its fource; clofe to which
is the fource of the waters faUing into the river of lake la
Pluie, which is a common route of the Indians to the lake
du Bois ; the St. Louis pafl'ts within a ftiort diftance of a
branch of the Mifiiffippi, where it becomes navigable for
canoes ; and if the navigation of t!ie MilTiffippi is confidered
as of any confequence by this country, from that part of the
globe, fuch is the nearell way to get at it. The lake du
Bois is nearly round, and the eanoe courfe lies through the
centre of it among a cluftor of iflands, fome of which are fo
extenfive that they may be taken for the main land. The
reduced courfe would be nearly north and fouth. But, ac-
cording to the navigating courfe, the diftance is 75 miles,
though in a direft line it would not be fo long. At about
two-thirds of it there is a fmall carrying place where the
water is low. The carrying place out of the lake is on an
ifland, and named Portage du Rat, in N. lat. 49" 37'. and
W. long 94° 25', and is about 50 paces long. The lake
difcharges itfelf at both ends of this ifland, and forms the
river Winipic, which fee. Mackenzie's voyage, &c. through
the Continent of North America. Introd. p. 59.

3ois-ie!/e, or Htnnchemont, a fmall fovercignty of France
before the revolution, fituate in Berry, between Bourges
8

B O I

and Sancerre, about 10 leagues in circuit, containing about
6,500 inhabitants ; its principal towns are Bois-belle and
Henrichemont, which fee.

'Bois-ie/le, a town of France, in the department of the
Cher, 15 miles N. E. of Bourges.

Bois-commuii, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift in the department of the Loiret, containing about
1600 inhabitants ; 7 leagues N. E. of Orleans, and j W. of
Montargis.

Bois, Glacier des, one of the lower Glaciers of the Al-
pine mountains adjoining to Mont Blanc, and the valley of
Chamouny in SwifTerland, from the thawed ice of which
flows the river Arveron. This glacier is more than 15 miles
long, and above three in its greateft breadth. The general
thicknefs of the ice was found by M. Sauffuie to be from
80 to too feet.

Bois-Zf-c/uc, or the Diil-e's luood, a city of Dutch Brabant,
feattd ou the river Dommel, where it receives the waters of
the Aa ; fo called from its fituation in a woody country, to
which the dukes of Brabant were accuftomed to refort for the
purpofe of hunting. The woods were cut down by order of
Godfrey III. duke of Brabant; and he laid the foundation of
a city in 1 1 84, which was finiflied in I 196, by his fon duke
Henry I. and much enlarged in 1352, I4';3, and 1559.
The city is enconipafted by the Dommel and Aa, by the
waters of which it may be eafily inundated ; and it is fome-
times inaccefTible except by boats. The principal forts that
defend it are thofe of Crcvecoeur, near the Meufe ; another
called IlabcUa; and a fmall fort called St. Antoine, towards
Brabant. It has alfo a caftle, built by order of the States
General, in the 17th centu:7, as a check on the Roman ca-
tholics then more numerous than the reformed. It has four
gates ; and its walls are flanked with baftions ; the approach
to it by land is on caufeways, and by v\'ater at three gates
or avenues. The cathedral, erefted in ij66, and dedicated
to St. John the Evangelill, is one of the moft beautiful
ftruftures in the Low Countries. Its wooden tower which
was very lofty and fupported by four ftone pillars, was de-
ftroyed by lightning in 1584. It has had feveral other
churches and monafteries. This city lulfered very much in
the i6tii century, during the religious wars; but at length
the Dutch made themfelves mafters of it in 1629. Pope
Paul IV. founded a bilhopric at Bois-le-duc in 1559, having
jurifdifiion over ten cities and 189 villages ; the chief re-
venue of which arofe from the abbey of Tongerlo. The dif-
tri£t of Bois-le-duc, called " Maycrcy," is fltuated between
Holland and Guelderland, having Holland to the N., Upper
Gucldciland and the duchy of Cleves to the E., the quarter
of Antwerp to the W.,and the bifliopric of Liege to the S.
It is divided into five fmall diftridls, and comprehends 102
villages, and three cities, Bois-le-duc, Helmont, and Eynd-
hoven. Ou the 14th of September 1794, an engagement
took place near this town between the Britilh army and the
French, in which the latter were viftorious; and on the 9th
of Oftober, in the fame year, the town was taken by the
French. It is jS miles E. N. E. of Breday-and 42 S. S. E.
of Amfterdam. N. lat. 51° 42'. E. long. 4° 59'.

Bois, St. Marie, le, a town of France, in the department
of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftria of CharoUes, 7 miles.S. E.of Charolles.

Bois d'Oignt, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl of Ville-
franche, J^\ leagues N. W. of Lyons. The place contains
900, and the canton 13,501 inhabitants ; the territory com-
prehends I92i kiliometres, and i3 communes.

BOISEAU, in Commerce, a meafure of two bufliels and
half of a peck at Bourdeaux in France.

BOISMONT,

B O I

B O I

BOISMONT, Nicholas Theinel de, in B'lograplj,
abbot of Greftain, preacher in ordinary to the king, doctor
in theology, and member of the French academy, was born
in 1715, and obtained great reputation for eloquence, parti-
cularly in the compofition of funeral orations. His princi-
pal works are, a panegyric of St. Lewis, and funeral ora-
tions on the Dauphin, on the queen of Lewis XV. and on
that king himfelf. Thefe pieces are diftinguifhed by great
fertility of ideas, a rapid and animated ftyle, lively and noble
imagery, and philofophical refleftion. Or fterile fubjeAs,
the orator exercifes too much art in decoration, and is too
ford of antithefcs. He is reckoned, however, the moit
eloquent of French orators in this department, and M.
D'Alembert has alluded to him in a ftrain of high applaufe
in his eulogy of Flechier. Nouv. Diet. Hift.

BOISROBERT, Francis le Metel de, a man of
wit and pleafantry, much favoured by cardinal Richelieu,
was born at Caen in 1^92, and contributed much to the
eftablKhment of the French academy, of which he was a
member. He wrote poems, comedies, tragedies, tales, let-
ters, romances, &c. which fucceeded for a time, but are now
almoll forgotten. He was the amufing companion of Riche-
lieu, and gained by his buffooneries the abbacy of Chattillon.
fur-Seine, though his habits were far from being clerical.
He was generous and beneficent, and tookpleafnrc in ferving
men of letters. He died in 1661. Nouv. Ditt. Hift.

BOISSARD, John-James, an eminent antiquaiy, was
born at Befangon in 1^28, and travelled, for the purpofe of
collefting antiquities, into Italy, the ides of Coifu, Cepha-
lonia, and Zante, and the Morea. After his return home,
he was made governor to the fons of the baron de Clcrvaut,
and travelled with them into France, Germany, and Italy.
Having loft a great part of his valuable coUettion at Mont-
belliard, when the Lorrainers ravaged Franche Comte, he
took pains in repairing his lofs, and publiftied his great
work, much valued by antiquaries, and now fcarce, entitled
" De Romanae urbis topographia et antiquitate," in 4 vols.
fol. Ij97 — 1602, enriched with many engravings by Theo-
dore de Bry, and his fons. He alfo publifhed a work, en-
titled '• Theatrum vitx humanas," 1597 — 1599, 4to. con-
fifting of the lives of 19S illuftrious perfons, with their por-
traits. His " Book of Emblems" was publifhed, with
figures, by Theodore de Bry, in 159,), 4to. His Latin
verfes were inferted by Gruter in the " Deliciae Poetarum
Gallorum ;" and after his deatli was printed his work " De
Divinatione et magicis prseftigiis," fol. He finally fettled at
Metz, and died there in 1602. Gen. Dift. Nouv. Did.
Hifl.

BOISSEAUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Loiret, 4 leag'jes N. of Neuville. .

BOISSEZON d'Aumcntel, a town of France, in the
department of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftricl of Caftres, 2\ leagues E. S. E. of Caftres.

BOISSIERE, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, and chief place cf a canton, in the
diftrift of Montdidier, 2 leagues E.N.E. ofMontdidier.

BOISSIEU, Bartholomew, Camillus de, fon of
a phyfician at Lyons, was born in the year i7.;4. His
father dying when he was only fix years of age, his mother
is faid to have taken on herfclf the care of his education,
until he was fufficiently advanced to be fit to be fent to
Montpellier. PafTing through the ufual ftages, in 3 756 he
was admitted doftor in medicine, and went thence to Paris,
where he ccntiuued his ftudies for twelve months longer.
He here became acquainted with Sauvages, with whom he
afterwards kept up an epiftolary correfpondence. He now
returned to Lyons, and was admitted of the college of

phyficians, and attained to conflderable praftice. His ca-
reer was however (hort, for he died in 1770, aged only 36
years. He was author of two differtations, the one on the
power of antifeptic medicines, the other containing a com-
parative view of the cordial or heating, and the cooliBg or
antiphlogiftic, mode of treating fevers, and gives the pre-
ference to the latter. He received for each of them a medal
from the academy at Dijon. They were pubhfhed in the
years 1770, and 1772. Eloy. Difi. Hill.

BOISSY, Louis de, a dramatic writer of France, was
born at Vic, in Auvergne, in 1694, and, though originally
dcftined for the church, indulged his more prevalent incli-
nation to the theatre. His firft performance was a tra-
gedy, which failed of fuccefs ; bnt he was m.ore profperous
in comedy. His btft pieces are " L' Impatient," " Le
Francois a Londres," " Les Dehors Trompeurs," " Le
Babillard," " La Surprife de la Haine," " Le Comte de
Neuilli," ard " La Piece fansTitre." BcifTy's diftinguifliing
merit confifted in availing himfelf of the ridicule of the day.
His verfes are often ingenious, but his plots are defeftive. He
became a member of the French academy in J751 ; and
had the honour of reviving the credit of a periodical pub-
lication, called the French Mercury. He died In 1758.
His dramatic works have been collected in 9 volumes, Svo.
Nouv. Dic't-Hift.

BoissY, Si. Leger, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Seine-el-Oife, and principal place of
a canton, in the diftridl of Corbeil ; the place contains 470,
and the canton 14,224 inhabitants ; the territory compre-
hends 1775 kiliometres, and 26 communes.

BOISZKY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Bielflc,
13 miles S.W. of Bielftc.

BOITIAPO, in Zoology, a fort of ferpent that inhabits
Brafil, and is called by the Portiiguefe cobra de c'lpo. This
is an ambiguous fpecies. It is defcribed as being feven or
eight feet long, as thick as a man's arm, round, and point-
ed towards the tail, like a fhoe maker's awl. The body-
covered with fine fub-triangnlar fcales, the colour olive and
yellowifh. It lives on frogs, and muft be of the poifonous
kinds, fince its bite is reprefented dangerous.

BOITMANZDORF, or Boesdorf, in Geography, a
town of Silefia, in the principality of Neyfz, 5 miles N.N.E.
of NeyfT:.

BOITZENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and Ucker Marck of Brandenburg, 8
miles S. W. of Prenzlow.

BoiTZENBURG, Or BoTZENBURG, 3 town of Germany,
in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Mecklenburg,
at the conflux of the Boitze and the Elbe. It was fuiTounded
with walls in the 14th century; at this town, vefl'cls
that pafs the river pay a toll, producing annually 40,000 dol-
lars, of which the duke of Mecklenburg-Strclitz is entitled
to 9000 ; ,? leagues E. of Lauenburg.

BO IV IN, Louis, mBiogrnphx,?i diflinguilTied fsholar and
penfionary of the academy of belles letters, was born at Men-
treui! I'Argilc in Upper Normandy, and educated, firft
under the Jefuits at Rouen, and afterwards at Paris, where
he fettled. His acquirements in literature were various and
extenfive ; but his temper, according to his own account,
was intraftable and unfocial, enterprifing, vain, and vcrfatile.
He was employed by feveral eminent magillrates as the
affociate and diredlor of their private iludies ; but the litigi-
oufnefs of his difpolition involved him in great trouble and
expence. He publilhtd fome learned diftertations on hif-
torical fubjefts, in the " Memoirs of the Academy of Belles
Letters ;" and made great progrtfs towards a new edition
©f Jofephus. He died in 1724, aged 75 years.

4 Y 2 BoiviN,

B O K

BoiviN, John", a younger brother of the preceding, was
born in 1662, and inflrufted by his brother, ellabhflied his re-
putation as a man of letters at Paris, at tl-.e age of iS years.
His difpofition was a counterpart to that of his brother, and
he was much eftecmed for liis amiable temper and manners.
The abbe de Louvois afTigncd him a confiderable peiifion, and
in 17 14 procured for liim the place of under-keeper of the
king's librar^■. In 1 721, he was admitted member of the
French academy, and became penfionary of that of belles
lettres in 1724, on the death of his brother. He excelled
in the Greek language, of which he was profefTor in the
royal college. His printed works are " An apology for
Homer, and the fliield of Achilles," l2mo ; a French tranf-
lation of " Homer's Bntrachomyomachia ;" a French tranf-
lation of the " Oedipus of Sophocles, and the Birds of Arif-
tophanes ;" " Greek Poems," much admired for their ana-
creontic delicacy; an edition of the " Mathematici Veteres,"
1693, fol. ; a Latin " Life of Claude Pellctier ;" a Latin
tranflation of the " Byzantine Hilloi-y of Nicephorus Gre-
goras, with notes," 1702, which is elteemed faithful, learned,
and elegant. He alfo publidied feveral dilTertations on hif-
torical and literary topics in the " Memoirs of the Academy
of Belles Lettres." He died in 1726. Nouv. Dift. Hill:.

BOIUM, in yfiicient Geography, one of the four principal
cities of the Doride country in Greece. It was feated on
the river Pindus, to the eaft of Erineui.

BOKEA, in Botany, (Aubl. Guian. Sup. 38. t. 391.)
frudlitication unknown.

Species. B. pronacinfs, A tree fixty feet high, three
feet and a half in diameter. Tiunli with a greyifh, fmooth
bark, throwing out at its fummit a great number of branches,
fome upright, others inclining, and almoft horizontal, which
fpread in all direftions. Leaves alternate, oval-lanceolate,
entire, terminated by a long, tender point, fmooth, firm,
green, on (hort petioles ; two caducous ilipules at the bafe
of each petiole ; the exterior part of the wood is white, the
interior brown, intermixed with yellowilh green. The
latter is vei-)' firm and compaft. It is a native of Guiana.
See La Marck, Encyc. Method.

BOKELM.^N, JoHS Frederic, in Biography, pub-
lilhed the beginning of the lad century at Leyden, " Me-
dicus Romanus fervus, fexaginta folidis sllimatus." On
this fubject, a moll interelling controverfy was carried on
fome years after, between Drs. Mead and Middleton, in
which many of the literati took part ; and this diDertation,
originally written to convey a cenfure on Drelincourt, was
republirtied. The fubjeft will be noticed again in the life
of Dr. Mead. Haller Bib. Med.

BOKENEM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, and bifhopric of Hildelhcim, 16
miles S.S.E. of Hildefheim.

BOKET, a town of Ciermany, in the circle of Fran-
conia, and bilhopric of Wurtzburg, 4 miles N. of Kif-
fingen.

BOKHARA, BucH.iRiA, or Bogar, a famous city of
Great Bucharia (fee Bucharia), feated on the river Sogd,
in that diftrif^, lying N.E. of the river Jihon, or Oxus,calltd
Sogdiana, or Al Sogd. It is.'itinted very advautageoufly for
trade, in a delightful and fertile country, and ha» repeatedly
contefted the metropolitan dignity with Samarcand. Befides
its own wall, which was very Ihong, it had an outward in-
Ciofure, comp)vhendi:-,g not only the fi)hurbs, but a diftric^
about four leagues in extent on each fide, which contained
feveral villages and farms, watered by the river Sogd. The
Sogd, which is the valley or plain of Sarmacand on the eaft,
and the mountain called Vorka on the nurth, were the
boundaries of this territory ; although its }urifdi£tiuii ex-

B O K

tended to feveral towns which were fituated beyond its great
wall. Mirkhond, in his hiftory of the pofterity of Japhet,
affirms, that Bokhara was the capital of Turqucftan, in the
time of Oguz Khan, one of the moll ancient kings of the
Moguls, or Tartars, and reckoned by the Mahomeddan Tar-
tarothe eighth in defcent from Japhet ; and enumerates feveral
towns which were dependent upon it. Bokhara aftenvards
became the capital of the (late of the Samanides founded
by Ifmaei, the great grandfon of Satpan, in the year of the
Hegira 297, or of Chrill 909, under the caliph MotaJhed.
After the fall of the empire of the Samanides, the Moguls
of Cathai made fhemfelves mailers of this city ; but it was
retaken by Mohammed, kirg of Karafm, in the year of the
Hegira '594, or A. D. 1197. This conquell of the Karaf-
mians alarmed the nations of the north, and drew towards
Jihon ver; powerful armies of Moguls and Tartars, who
defolated fome of the finell provinces of Afia. In the year
of the Hegira 617, or A. D. 1220, Jenghiz Khan, after a
fiege of fome continuance, took this city, and ordered it to
be fet on fire ; fo that nothing of it remained, except the ful-
tan's palace, called " Ark," conftrufted of Hone, and forne
few private houfes built of ftonc, all the reft having been
wooden edifices. He then caufed a fcarch to be made in
the palace and houfcs, and commanded all the foldiers, who
had concealed thcmfelves, to be put to death. Bokhara
continued for fome years in this defolate ilate ; but at
length the Khan ordered it to be rebuilt, not long before
his death. In the year of the Hegira 772, A. D. 1370,
Tamerlane took this city from fultan Haflain, who was the
laft prince of the houfe of Jenghiz Khan ; and the Timurides,
or defcendants of Tamerlane, retained pofleffion of it till
about the year of the Hegira 904, A. D. 1498 ; when
Baburwasdefpoiled of all his territories in Tranloxana and
Khorafan by Schaibek Khan, who obliged him to fly to
India ; and from that time Bokhara has always belonged to
the Ufbeks, who have maintained it by frequent wars with
the Perfians. Herbelot Bib. Or. p. 190.

Bokhara was eminently diftinguiftied in former times by
the arts and fciences which flourifhed in it, and by its fa-
mous univerfity, to which Undents reforted from all parts,
and in which the celebrated Aviecnna was educated. As
an emporium of commerce, it was alfo no lefs famous. To
this place merchants repaired from all parts of India, from
the different countries inhabited by the Tartars, fromPerfia,
and even from the dominions of the grand fignior on one
fide, and from Ruflia and Poland on the other ; fo that in
the warchoufes and markets of this city might be feen a
great variety of oriental and European merch-.ndife. About
the middle of the i6th century it was vifited by Anthony
Jenkins, an Englifhman, whole curious and interefting ac-
count of the mart of this city has been trantlated into feveral
languages, and copied by the bell writers. See Hackluyt's
Collcttion, p. 25;{- At that period, indeed, it fullai'ned
lome injury from the vicinity of Samarcand ; but fince it
became the feat of the khan of the Ufbek Tartars, who is
mailer alfo of Samarcand, which he vifits only in the fum-
mer ftafon, its commerce has revived, to wh'ch th.e con-
venience of its fiti-.ntion in no fmall degree contributes. When
it was vifited by the Englifh agents in 1741, (fee Hanway's
Travels, J. 242.) it was large ar.d populous, fubjeCt to its

khan ; ftanding on a

ground, with a llender wall of

earth ; the houfes of clay, but the numerous mofques of
brick. The citizens manufactured foap and callico ; and
the chief products were cotton, rice, and cattle. From th«
Kalmuks they received rhubarb and mu.Oi ; and from Ba-
duklhan, they ufed to receive lapis lazuli, and other precious
Hones ; that city being co .mputtd at 16 days' journey from

Bokhajra.

B O L

B O L

Bokhara. There was gold and copper coin ; and after
Nadir took this city, the Perfian and Indian filver became
common. The inhabitants were civilized, but perfidious.
In t'.,c; loth century it was dillinguilhcd by the manuiafture
of fine linen. N. lat. 29^ 24'. E. long. 62'.

I'OKI, a river of Africa, which rifcs in the country
called Jallonkadov, between the heads of the Senegal and
JolMa, and joir . the Barchfing, or an arm of the Senegal,
inthedil-'^Tof Brooko, in N.lat. 13° 11'. W. long. 8° 31'.

BO KIR A, a river of India, which runs into the fea,
JO miles W. of Junagur.

BOKSAN, a town of Hungary, 10 miles fouth of
Lugos.

BOL, Ferdikand, in Biography, a painter of hiftory
and portrait, was born at Dort in j6li, educated at Am-
fterdani, and placed as adifciple in the fchool of Rembrandt.
He was chieiiy diftiiiguilhtd by his portraits, which he
painted in a free, bold manner, but not with that clearncfs
of flefli, and remarkable relievo, for which his matter was
famous. His colouring was too much tinged with brown
in the carnations ; but with this exception, his portraits had
a great appearance of life and nature. Asa painter of hif-
tory, he manitelted a good tafte of compofition, as well as a
tolerable expreilion in fome of his figures ; but he was defi-
cient in grace and elegance. His " Appointmint of the 70
elders in the camp of the IfraeHtes," and " Mofes breaking
the tables of done," m the council chamber of Dort, are
well Jefigned and executed. In the chamber of the burgo-
maftcrs there is an hiftorical pifture of " Fabricius in the
camp of Pyrrhus," which is exceedingly admired. The
etchings of this artift are bold and free. The following,
from his own compofitions, are generally much efteemed ;
viz. " Abraham's Sacrifice," " St. Jerom, feated in a ca-
vern, holding a crucifix," and a " Philofopher, holding a
book." Bol died in 1681. Pilkington and Strutt.

BoL, John, a painter of landfcapes, hiftoiy, and animals,
was born at Mechlin in 1534, and completed his ftudies at
Heidelberg. His fubjefts were views of feveral cities and
towns in the Low Countries, and different profpects of Am-
fterdam ; and in his piftures the vcflels, with the refleftions
of them from the water, are admirably executed. His in-
vention and compofition were very pleafing ; his colouring
poflclfes great harmony and union ; and his manner of
iketching and pencilling is broad and free. Van Mander
highly commends one oF the paintings of Bol, in dillemper,
the llory of which is " Dzdalus and Icarus." This artiil
etched a fet of landfcapes, which are " views in Holland,"
in the ftyle of a matter. He died in 1593. Pilkington and
Strutt.

BOL A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, the capital
of the country of the uEqui, ntuate, according to Plutarch,
50 miles from Rome. Pliny places it in Latiura. See

BOLABOLA, more ufually pronounced Borabora,
in Geography, one of the Society iflands in the fouthem
Pacific ocean, fituate four leagues N. W. of Otaha, and in-
ferior to it in extent, being about feven leagues in circum-
ference. The reef that Unrounds it is nearly full of iflets,
much larger than thole that are fcattertd among the rocks,
encloiing Otaha and Ulietea. It difi"ers from thofe illands,
and from Huaheine, in having only one harbour on its ccaft ;
whereas the (hores of the others, bei:ig llrongly indented,
form, like the coafts of Eimco, numerous places of Ihelter
for ftiipping. It isalfo diltinguilhed by a very lofty, double-
peaked mountain in its centre, and is more rude and craggy
than the other Society iflcs. Its eatlern fide appears barren ;
the wefttrn is more fertile j a low borii t, which funounds

the whole, and alfo the iflands on the reef, are pro-
duftive and populous. Its earliell inhabitants are faid to
have been malefaftors banilhed from the neighbouring
iflands. As their nu- ber rapidly increafed, and their mili-
tary prowefs gained reputation, they eftablilhed their a^itho-
rity in Ulietea ajid Otaha, and alfo in Maurova and Too-
bae. Their conquefts acquired fo much refpcft, that the
fiippofed tutelary divinity of Bolabola, named Oora, or
Oraa, had been adopted by the people of Teiarraboo, in
preference to two imaginary deities whom they formerly
worfliipptd. The Bolabolan warriors are punfturcd in a
different manner from thofe of the more eallern iflands.
Bolabola was difcovercd by captain Cook, togetlier with the
group called by him the " Society Iflands," in July 1769;
but though he took poffcfTion of it in the king's name, he
did not land upon it either in liis firll or fccond voyage.
But in 1777, he landed on this illand, notwitflanding the
account which he had received of its inhabitants, and was
introduced to Opoone, who had been reprefented as a very-
formidable chief, but whom he found old and feeble, though
flill much efteemed arid feared. Opoone was fucceeded in
his government of this and the neighbouring iflands by his
daughter, who, in 1774, at the age of 12 years, had been
betrothed to a chief named Boba, who governed Otaha
under Opoone, and was dcfigned to fuccecd him in the
fovereignty. In 1791, when captain Edwards vifited Bola-
bola, a man named Tatahoo, had the chief authority. S.
lat. 16^ 32' 30". W. long. 151'^ 52'. MifFionary Voyage,
Introd. p. 41.

BOLACA, mj^ncient Geography, a town of Pelopponefus,
in Trip:iylia, a country of Ehs. Polybius.

BOLAVOSANSKA, in Geography, a town of Siberia,,
in the government of Irkutzk, 80 miles N. W. of
Ilini/k..

BOLBACH, a river of Germany, in the duchy of Stiria,
which rifes in a lake, 10 miles S. W. of Voitfberg, and runs
into the Sulm, near Wippelfpach.

BOLBjE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Caria, called alfo Heraclese.

BOLBE, a marfli of Macedonia, near the Ionian fea,
before Apolljnia, according to Scylax.

BOLBEC, or BoLLEBEC, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Lower Seine, and chief
place of a canton, in the diilrift of Havre ; the place
contains 4921, and the canton 14,171 inhabitants;
the territory comprehends 105 kiliometres, and iS com-
munes.

BOLBENA, in Ancient Geography, the rame of a coun-
try in Afia, in the Greater Armenia. Ptolemy,

BOLBlTiXA, a town of Egypt, fituate near the
fecond mouth of the Nile, adjoining to the fpot where Ro«
fetta now ftands.

BOLBITIKUM Oftwm, a name given by Ptolemy and
Pliny to thi- fecond mouth of the Nile, from that of the
town, Bolbitina, feated near the canal called " Tuli." The
Bolbitine branch is now called that of Rofetta, RolTetta, or
Rafchid, which fee. Strabo informs us (1. 17. torn. ii.
p. 1 153.) that, under the reign of Plarciiitichus, the Mile-
fians, with 30 veffels, landed at the Bolbitme, or Boibitic
branch, and there fortified themfelves.

BOLBON'ACH, in Botany. See Lukaria.
EOLBULyc, in Ancient Geography, a name given \sf
Pliny to an ifland of Ana Minor, fituite on the coall of
Ionia.

EOLC.A, in Geography, a branch of the Tyrolefe Alps,
fituate 50 miles N. W. of Venice, and noted for fcffil filh,
in argillaceous fcbiilus. .

BDLCHE--

B O L

BOLCIIERETSKOI, a town of Kamfchatka. N. lat,
52° 54' 30°. E. long. 156° 37' 30".

BOLCHOF, or BoLKOF, a town and diftria of Ruflia,
in the government of Orel, featcd on the river Nugra, fall-
in? into the Occa ; 32 miles N. N. W. of Orel.

'BOLD SHORE, in Sea Language, a fteep coaft or fliore,
fo that (liips may approach clofe to it.

BOLDSON, an ifland of Sweden, in the province of
Halfingland, having a good harbour.

BOLE, in Mineralogy, Bol, Germ. Bol, Fr. ArglUa bolus,
Werner. The colour of bolo is generally an obfcure Ifa-
bella yellow, or reddifh, or whitidi brown ; it is alfo fome-
times, though rarely, met with of a greyifli ytUow, or fledi-
red ; its furfacc is often marked witli black, fpots and den-
dritic fin-ures. It occurs generally maffive, feldom ditfemi-
nated. Internally it exiiibits a (light ghmmering luftre. Its
fraifture is perfectly conchoidal. It flies, when broken, into
irregular, fliarp-edged fragments. The dark coloured va-
rieties are opaque, the lighter colo\ired are more or lefs tranf-
lucid. It hasagreafy feel ; adheres ftrongly to the tongue ;
gives a (hining llrca'k ; is very foft, and eafily frangible.
Sp. gr. 1.4 to 2.

When put into water it abforbs a portion with great ea-
gcrnefs, and then breaks down into fmall fragments, with a
verv fenl'ible crackling noife; but is not reduced to an im-
palpable powder. When finely pulveri/.ed, and difFufed
through boiling water, it remains fufpended in this fluid a
much lefs time than any of the plallic clays, and is entirely
feparable by the filter.

Before the blow.pijje it turns black, and melts without
add'tion, though with fomc difficulty, into a porous, greenifli,
grey flag.

According to a fomeuhat inaccurate analyfis of Bergman,
the I..emnian bole contains

Siliceous powder ... - 47.
Carbonated lime ... 5.4
Carbonated magncfia . . 6.2
Alumine . - - - - 21.
Oxyd of iron - - - 5-4
Moifture and volatile matter 17.

J02.0
Bole occurs in beds of wakke at Strigau in Silefia, and
in bafalt at Scheibenbcrg in Saxony ; it is found alfo in
Tufcany and Sienna in Italy, and in the ifland Lemnos in
the Archipelago.

The only ufe of bole, at prefcnt, is as a coarfe red pig-
ment ; for which purpofe it is calcined and levHgated, and is
vended in Germany under the names of Berlin and Englifli
red. Anciently, however, a very high rank was afligned to
bole among the articles of the Materia Medica ; it was con-
fidered as a powerful aftringcnt, fudorihc, and alexipharmic,
that from Armenia and Lemnos being particularly efteemed.
The Lemnian bole^ in the time of Diofcorides, was dug up in
the prefence of the priells of Venus, and after being mixed
by thtm with goats' blood, was moulded into cakes, which
were impreffed with the figure of a goat, in order to authen.
ticate them ; hence it was called Z?.§a-,i; ci.i-)<i:,fioiUum capri-
num. It (fill continued to be a confccrated remedy even in
the 1 6th century ; according to I'elon, the vein was opened
annually on the 6th of Augull, and, after prayers faid by the
pricll:;, as much of the earth was taken out as was thought
fufficient for the enfuing year ; the entrance to the vein was
then clofed, and the fevertll punilhments were denounced
againll any one who (hould open it without permiflion. Part
of the earth was fent to Conllantinople, where it was made up
into fraall cakes, and received the fcal of the emperor j the

BOL

retrainder was prepared in the ifland itfelf, and was impreffed
with the feal of the governor. The profits of this manu-
fatture were too confiderable not to be encroached upon, and
the bolar earths, and even the clayey marls of Italy, France,
and Germany, obtained a place in the Materia Medica,
under the general name of TervitfigtUatie, from which, how-
ever, they, together with the Lemnian earth, have been at
length defervedly excluded.

Bole is alfo ufcd for the body or trunk of a tree ; and
hence bohng trees are thofe whofe heads and branches are
cut off.

BOLEMOW, in Geography, a fmall town of Poland, iB
the palatinate of Rawa.

BOLENA, a town of the Morea, in the duchy of Cla-
rence, 5 leagues from the gulf of Lepanto ; the fee of a
bifliop, fuffragan of the archbifhop of Patras.

BOLENBERG, a fmall town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg, on the Baltic.

BOLENE, or BoLLENE, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton in the
dillricl of Orange, 3 leagues north of Orange. The town
contains 4064, and the canton io,S';2, inhabitants; the
territory comprehends i2>-k kiliumetres, and 7 com-
munes.

BOLENL'E, or Bod.'e, in Natural HiJIory, a name given
by ancient writers to a fort of ftone of a roundifli figure, and
marked wuh leveral ndges and lines. They are fuppofed to
be the fame with thofe called Bronl'is and Omlr'iiz, both
bei' g imagined to fall from the clouds in time of thunder-
ftorms ; but they are really no other than a common fpecies
of Echtnitie.

BOLERA, in Geography, a town of Spain in Arragon,
4 leagues from Huefca.

BOLERAZ, a fmall town of Lower Hungar)', in the
upper outward dillrift of the county of Prelburg.

BOLES KO, a town of Hungary, 28 miles north of
Topoltzan.

BOLESLAW, or BuNTZLAWi a circle of Bohemia, on
the confines of Lufatia and Silefia, from wliich it is fcpa-
rated by mountains. The capital is Buntzlaw.

BOLESLAWIEC, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Siradia, 24 miles S.S.W. of Siradia.

BOLETUS, in Botany (Gr. /SiXirvi,-, from its globular
form), a genus of the clafs cryptogamia, and of the order
fungi, formed by Linnseus, and dillinguiflied from the agarics
by having what is generally the lower furface conipofcd of
tubes inftead of gills. The name was given by the Romans
to a fpecies of efculent fungus, efteemed by them a great de-
licacy, and celebrated by their hiftorians and poets for being
the vehicle of the poifon adminiftered to Claudius Cxfar, by
his wife the younger Agrippina. This has been generally
fuppofed by modern botanilts to be the Jtgaricus xeratnpelinus,
thence called by Scheffer Cxfareus ; but Withering thinks it
was the deliciofus of Linnaeus. See Agaric

Among the moderns it wasfirft adopted as a generic name
byTournefortjwho applied ittothecommon morel, the fungus
favaginofus of fome of the older botanills, afterwards referred
by Linnaeus to his genus phallus. La Marck, difpleafed
with Linnxus for altering Tournelbrt's names, has reftored
the name boletus to the morel, and has ieparated it from
phallus on account ol its not being perforated at its fummit.
He has, in confequence, divided Linnoeus's genus boletus in-
to two ; calling ihofe tliat are feffile and woody, agaricus,
and thofe that are pedicclled and foft, fuillus. The Linnaean
agaricus he has named amanita, as Dillerius and Haller had
done before him. Juflieu and Poiret concur with him in
thefe alterations. But this, as Bofc well obftrves (Nouveau

Didicaaire,

B O L

B O L

Diftionaire, fab voce Boletus), is to increafe a confujjpn al-
ready too great, and to overtvirn a nomenclature which has
been generally adopted in Europe fince the publication of the
fexnal iyfteni. For, however Linnxus mav in feme cafes
have capricioufly changed ancient names, and however it may
be wirtied that, in the prefent inftance, he had called his bole-
tus, agaricus, which would have prcfervcd to the ofBcinal
agaric its cuftomary generic denomination, it is better to let
things remain as they are, than again to unfettle the language
of the fcience, and thereby to impede its farther advance-
ment. We (hall, therefore, go on as we have begun, in
adhering ftrittly to the Linncean nomenclature, where we
are not induced to depart from it by weighty fcientific
reafons.

Linnreus has enumerated only fourteen fpecies, and
Reichard has made no addition to the number. Gmelin
has extended them to a hundred and feven ; but there is
rcafon to fufpedl, that he has fometimes given the fame
fpccies more than once under a different name. The fettling
of iynonyms is in every part of botany an intricate and often
unfatisfaftory bufinefs, but peculiarly fo in the clafs crypto-
gamia. Withering, in the third edition of his Arrangement
of Britifh plants, has defcribed fifty-one fpecies, many of
which have feveral varieties. In this number are included
eight of the Linnaean fpecies. He difpofes them under
tiu-ee grand divifions, as they have central, lateral, or no
ftems ; and fubdivides them according to the colour of their
tubes. None of them being cultivated, we (hall confine our-
felves to thofe which are of Britifh growth.
Stem Centra!.
* Tubes luh'tte. I . B. pellucldus. " Tubes decurrent,
very fliort ; pores minute, angular : pileus concave, rich
brown, fcaly ; ftem whitifh, thick, fhort." 2. Yi.fulfufcus.
" Tubes very fhort ; pileus light brown, fmooth, clothy to
the touch, regularly convex; flefh very white; ftem pale
brown, covered with a beautiful white net-work over its
whole furface ; root conical ; refembles the elephantinus in
habit." 3. B. cyaiiefcens. " Tubes brownifh with age, not
decurrent; pileus brown, convex, very fiefliy ; flefh white,
changing to a fine blue when expofed to the air; ftem brown,
rounded at the bafe." 4. Y>. polyporus. " Tubes very fhort;
pores circular, extremely minute ; pileus brown, irregular ;
flefh very thin ; ftem brown, varying from perfectly central
to perfectly lateral, tough, thickening upwards." 5. B.
leptocephalus. " Tubes very fhort ; pileus tawny bay, flat,
thin, leatherlike ; ftem brownifli, thick as a crow-quill."
Firft obferved in Britain by Mr. Dickfon, growing on rotten
flicks. 6. B. aurantiacus. " Tubes not decurrent, readily
parting from the pileus; pileus convex, full orange-red,
vifcid, thin at the edge, and without tubes for about one-
tenth of an inch ; ftem whitifh, rough, with coloured pim-
ples, fpongy, filken." It is eaten in France when young.
* Tubes brown. 7. B. bovinus, Linn. " Tubes not touch-
ing the ftem, unequal in length; pileus thin at the edge,
brown or olive, clammy, large; flefh fpongy, white; ftem
dirty white, with reddifh ftains, from three to feven inches
high, and about an inch in diameter." It varies in the co-
lour of its tubes and pileus, and in the fmocthnefs or rough-
nefs of its ftem. 8. Vi.fubfquamofus. " Tubes decurrent, ob-
long ; pileus yellowifh brown, with red brown, fcurfy,
fcales, the centre hollowed ; flefh folid, pure white ; ftem
brownifh, tapering downwards." 9. B. perennis, Linn.
" Tubes decurrent, not feparating from the pileus, very
Ihort ; pileus flattifh, hollow in the centre, ftriated with hairs,
marked with alternate circles of brown and tawny, leathery ;
ftem red brown, often excentric, fhort, wiry, frequently com-
ing up fo thick that the piles run into one another." There

is a variety of a cinnamon colour, within and without, the
B. c'lnnamomeus of Jacqnin, firft found in this kingdom by
Mr. Dickfon. 10. ^. fubtomentofus, Uinn. " Tubes rather
angular, of different fhapes ; pileus yellow, convex, flefhy,
fomewhat woolly; ftem yellow." 11. B. rubecLirius.
" Tubes olive-colour, fixed to the ftem; pores rich red
brown, moftly oval ; pileus red cinnamon, convex, foft to
the touch, rather clammy ; flefti thick, fpongy, buff-colour,
inftantly turning blue when wounded ; ftem red cinnamon,
fpongy within, and rich yellow, but inftantly changing to a
blue." J2. B. piperatus. " Tubes decurrent, deep orange,
or earthy red ; pores browner, open, irregular ; pileus yellow.
fmooth, nearly flat, thin at the edge ; ftem greenifh yellow."
Its pungency on the tongue and throat is like that of a cap-
ficum. Firft found in England by Mr. Sowerby, in Hainault
foreft, Effcx. * Tubts buff. 13. B. nummuJarius. " Tubes
loofe from the ftem, very fhort; pores angular ; pileus co-
lour of brown horn, with a black circle at the edge, convex,
dimpled, leathery, fmooth, very thin, about an inch in dia-
meter; ftem colour of brown horn, black at the bafe,
fmooth." Chiefly found on rotten branches of hazle. 14.
B. nigripes. " Tubes decurrent, very fhort; pileus whitifh,
the flze of a fixpence; ftem black at the bottom." * Tubes
yelloiu. 15. Y>.eJcphant\mis. " Tubes fnort, adhering firmly
to the pileus; pileus dead white, convex, but very irregular;
ftem yellow, thick and fhort." \6. V>. edulh. " Tabes not
fixed to the ftem, readily parting from the pileus; pores cir-
cular, fmall; pileus brown, with ruft-coloured patches, nearly
globular, feven or eight inches acrofs when fully expanded:
flefh white, greenith when wounded; ftem liii'ht brownifh
yellow, tapering upwards." Bulliard reckons Tt a variety of
bovinus. 17. B. gregarius. " Tubes fliort ; poies oblong,
unequal; pileus chefnut, fmooth, thin, flattifh; flcfli wdiite,
about three inches over; ftem pale chefnut, pinky below, iii-
fenfibly fwelling into the pileus. iS.B. /u/eus. "Tubes
readily feparating from the pileus ; pores round, fn^'all; pileus
deep bay, rather conrcal, ftriated, vifcid ; flefli white, not
changing; ifem dirty white, cylindrical, widening at top-;
ring permanent." 19. B. oUvarcus. " Tubes inftantly turn-
ing blue when wounded; pores bright yellow, round or oval;
pileus olive-brown ; flcfli bright yellow, turning blue when ex-
pofed to the air; ftem brown below, yellow or crimfoii
above." 20. B. fiiiiguineus . " Tubes a little decurrent, un-
equal in length, changing to deep blue; pores lemou-yellow,
angular; pileus crinifon, changing to rich red brown, femi-
globular; flefli white, changing flowly to a bluifti caft when
wounded; ftem yellow, with broad criinfon ftreaks, appa-
rently twifted." Found by Dr. Withering, near Birming-
ham, but only in one place. 21. B. chryfentercr,. " Tub^f
decurrent; pileus gently convex, pinky-red; ftem yellow
bt-low, pinky upwards, fwelling in the middle." 22. L.
favus. " Tubes a little decurrent ; pores irregular in fhape
andfize; pileus convex, deep orange when young, fhining
with a vifcid varnifli; ftem ycUow, cylindrical; curtain white,
leaving a ring." 23. B. laa'ijluus. *' Tubes in contaft with
the ftem; pores very minute; pileus reddifti-bufF, very con-
vex, vifcid; ftem bright yellow." The plant abounds with
a mild milky juice. Its flavour is like that of the agaricus
campeftris. 24. B. fubflnaus. " Tubes fhort; pores mi-
nute; pileus yellow, brown, olive, convex, thin, fmooth,
leathery; flefti thin, white; ftem dirty yellow, hard, tough,
fometimes excentric.

Stem lateral.

* Tubes luhite. 25. B. albidus. " Tubes decurrent, not

perpendicular to the pileus; pores angular, verj- irregular ir

fhape; pileus white, lobed ; ftem folid, fometimes only a

knob." The whole plant white, with a cottony fubftance,

which.

B O I.

Vfhk\\ is cafily rubbed ofF. 26. B. rugofus (/«f/Ww, Curtis).
«' Pores. very fmaU; pileua chefnut coloured, fliiniiig, flat,
marked with concentric grooves; edjrcthick, wrinkled; ftem
chefnut coloured, hard, uneven, (binuig." 27. B./ronJofin.
" Tubes decnrrent; pons very fmall, fometimes confluent;
pikus brown, lobed, tiled, leathery; ftem black at the bafe,
very irregular and mifliapen ; fonu-times nearly two feet
acrofs."" 28. B. L-!ulimis. " Tubes very ftiort; pileua
pinky-brown, fmooth, oblong, convex, thin, curled in at the
edge'; fiefli white; ftem black; whole plant leathery." 29.
13. cr'ijlatiis. " Tubes (liort, not feparating ; pores irregular;
pileub golden yellow, varloudy fliaped, jagged, curled : ftem
brown, woody, dillorted, thick, porous." 30. B./qiianio/iii.
"Tubes fliort, dinting; pores large, angular; pilcos pale
buff, pencilled with featherlike fcales; fledi firm, white,
elailic; ftem dark coloured, while within." * Tides yel-
lotulfj. 31. B. rnn^ifeniws. " Tubes decuiTent, ragged at
the extremity ; pilcur^ an expanfion of the ftem, dirty yellow;
ftem dark brown, with one or more lateral branches, fplitting
at the end into ftveral hornfliapcd branches, either expanding
into the pileus, or barren with yellow tops." The whole
plant refembles the palmated branches of fome of the larger
fpecies of deer. ^2. V^. la/cfo/us. " Tubes decurrent; pores
fmall, unequal; pileus deep buff to chefnut, of a fubftance
like cork, hollowed in the middle, thin, and waved at the
edge; ftem tough, white, conical." 33. B. lateralis.
«' Tubes very fliort; pores very minute; pileus yellow,
fmooth, flat, very thin, leathery; ftem yellow, fpieading out.
at tlie top to form the pileus."

Slenilefs.
* Tubes iL'hite. ^4. Ji./uberq//is. " Tubes pointed; pores
irregular; pileus white, convex, thin, downy when young,
fmooth when old, perfeftly refembling cork." 35. B.medul-
lapnnis. " Wholly white, cruftaceous, fpreading; pores fmall,
on the upper furface only." On decayed wood and branches
of trees. 36. B./aliciiius. " Tubes very ftiort; pileus femi-
circular, xvliitilh, fmooth, thin, foft, leatheiy." 37. B.
fuaveolens {tlifcoulcus, Dickfon). " Tubes very long, chang-
ing firft to ftraw-colour, then to tawny; pores irregular;
pileus fmooth, femi-circular, white or tawny; flefli yellow
brown." .58. B./pon^'ofiis. "Pores fringed, ang;ular; pi-
leus often very large, brown, woolly, turning quite black
when old." 39. B. lachryvians. " Pileus orange-coloured,
wrinkled, reticulated, with abroad, white^archedborder; pores
chiefly on the upper furface of the white border." Frequent
in damp cellars, j^o. B. ver/icolm: " Tubes fliort, minute;
pileus thin, velvety, ftriped with concentric circles of various
colours." * Tides bmiun. 41. B. ciilicularis. " Tubes
long; pores minute, rich yellow brown: pileus rich dark
red brown, femicircular, veiy uneven, with concentric
ridges." ^2. V). cryplamm. " Tubes very long; pores mi-
nute; pileus leathery, thin, fupine, becoming woody when
old," 43. B. labyrhilhifarmis. " Tubes long ; pores
finuous; pileus rugged, zoued, woody; lobes many from one
root." 44. B. iiiiicolor. " Tubes fliort; pores labyrinth-
formed ; pileus leathery, woolly, with different fhades of the
fame colour. * Tubes red. 45. B. laciniatus. " Tubes
very fliort; pileus brownifh, arched, warty, thin, fringed at
-the edge." 46. V>. abiet'tnus. " Pores angular; pileus thin,
. gently convex, wrinkled, woolly, greyifh, whiter at the
.edge." 47. B. hij'phlus. " Tubes fringed; pileus bright
red brown, in old age black, rough with briftly hairs." Pof-
fibly a variety of the vdutinus. * Tubes yellozu. 48. B.
fulphureus. " Tubes fliort; pores minute, irregular; pileus
bright aurora, llreaked." 49. B. velulinus. " Pores angu-
lar, irregular; pileus large, very ireegular in fhape, covered
with a dcnfe pile of a lilvery grey soluur." * Tubes green.

B O L

p. B. i^iiiarhis. " Tubes very flender; poresverj- fine, yel-
lowiftl', changing to red brown; pileus (haped hko a horfe's
hoof, fmooth, red brown to blackifli." It is the officinal
agaric, the a^riric nmmlouvier of p^a Marck. For the do-
meftic and furgical ufes to which it is applied, in different
parts of the continent of Europe, and the manner in which
it is prepared, fee the article Agaric, in Pharmacy. 51.
V). foiKcritar'uis. " Pores circular, equal; pileus white, con-
vex, thick at the edge, uneven."

To thefe I..a Marck adds the agarirus qiierciniis of Lin-
nxus, and obferves, that it properly belongs to this fpecies ;
for tliouuh it has the appearance of gills, they are really
tubes with large mifliapea pores, which near the edge of the
pileus have a more regular form. Bulliard and Woodward
incline to the fame opinion ; and we ourfelves have already
fuggefted that it feems to conneft the agarici with the boleti.
See Ag.vricus.

Boletus (Hallcr). See Helvella Mitra.

Boletus (Tournefort). See Clathrus Cancel.

LATUS.

Boletus (Tourn. Michel, and Haller). See Phallus

EsCL'LENTUS.

Boletus (Gled.). See Hvdnum Repandum and

AuRlSCALPIUM.

BOLI, or BoLLi, in Geography-, a town of A fiatic Tur-
key, in the province of Natolia, 140 miles eaft of Conftanti-
nople, and 74 N.W. of Angora. This town is fituated on
a fmall river, which difeharges itfelf into the Black fea. It
is the capital of a maritime canton, called by the Turks " Boll
>iali6li," and in the interior part of its extent very moun-
tainous. N. lat. 4o°4';'. E. long. 31° 26'.

BOLIDES, in Meteorology. Sec /^/n;-BALLS.
BOLINA, in /Incient Geography, a fea-port town of the
Peloponnefus, in Achaia, near Argyra.

BOLlN-£US, a river of the Peloponnefus, which
watered the towns of Argyra and Bolina, according to
Paufanias. It difcharged itfelf into the fmall guU of
Panormus.

BOLINAO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the ifland
of Lu<;on, or Manilla.

BOLINBllOKE, a town of America, in Talbot
county, on the eaftern fliore of Maryland, <; miles E.
of Oxford. It lies on the N. W. point of Choptank
river.

BOLINGiE, in yfiieient Geography, a people of India,
near the Indus,- mentioned by Pliny, Ptolemy, and Steph.
Byz.

BOLINGBROKE, in Geography, a fmall town of Lin-
colnfliire, England, is fcated in a valley between tlie river
Witham and the fea-coalh Here was formerly a very con-
fiderable caftle, which was nearly demolifhed bv Oliver Crom-
well and his partizans, wlio alfo laid other parts of the town,
with the church, in ruins. In the times of feudal vaflalage,
the caftle at Boliugbroke was diftinguiihed amoTig the pom-
pous manfions of the uoblcs. Here the celebrated John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, oceafionally held his court, and it
was the birth-place of his fourth fon, who was afterwards
crowned king of England. He was the fourth Hcni-y who
fat on the Englifli throne, and from the place of his birth
vi'as known by the name of Henry of Bolingbroke. The
St. John family alfo derive the title of vifcount from this
town. The only manufarture of the place is earthen -ware,
and that is very inconliderable. In the parifli are 72 houfc?,
and 283 inhabitants.

BOLINTHOS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
Ariftotle, and fome of the other ancient Greeks, to the mo-
mps of .^lian, that is, the Bonasus.

BOLI-

B O L

BOLIPLEIKA, in Geography, a town of RuITm, in tlie
government of Saratof, on the well fide of the V^olga ; I2^
miles louth of .Saratof.

BOLISSUS, in Anc'ient Geography, a town of Afia, in
j'Eolia, near Chio, according to Herodotus. Thucydides
(1.8.) mentions a viftory gained by tlie Athenians over the
inhabitants of Chio near this town.

BOLKOF, in Geography. See Bolchof.

BOLKOWITZ, a town of Silclia, 20 miles fouth of
Glogaw.

BOLLANDISTS, in Literary Hijlory, a denomination
given to certain Jefuits of Antwerp, who were a conli-
derable time employed in colletling the lives and afts of the
faints. — Thus called from J. Bollar.dus, one of the firll and
chief of the alTociation.

BOLLANDUS, Joh v, in Biography, a famous ecclefiafti-
cal hiftorian, was born at Tillemoiitin the Low Countries, in
I '\f/i, and ecucated among the Jefuits, by whom he was em-
ployed in collefting memorials oi the church-faints, uuderthe
title of " Aila Sanfturum." The plan of the work was
formed by father Rofweide, and it was to be arranged ac-
cording to tr.e order of celebrating their memories in the ca-
lendar. Bolhindus, in 1643, pubhthcd " The Lives of the
Saints of the Month of January," in 2 vols. fol. ; followed in
1658, by thofc of February, in 3 vols. fol. He had begun
thofe of March, when he died in i66j. This work was con-
tinued by Henl'chenius, Papebroch, and others, on a fcale of
iuch extent, that the commencement of Odlober reaches the
47th volume foiio. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

BOLLAPvDS, large polls fet in the ground on each
llde of a dock. On docking or undocking fhips, large
blocks are ladied to them ; and through thtfe blocks
are reeved the tranfporting haufers to be brought to the
capitan?.

COLLEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of Aullria, and duchy of Carinthia, 7 miles call of
Ivlellftat.

BOLLENZ. See Bxegno.

BOLLIK, a river of England, which runs into the Mer-
fey, 4. miles E.M.E. of Warrington.

BOLLITO, in the Glafi. Works, a name by which the
Italians called a fea-grten colour, or artilicial cryilal.

To prepare this colour you mufl have in the furnace a
pot filled with forty pounds of good cryilal, firft care-
fully fliimmed, boiled, and purititd, without any manganefe;
you muft then have twelve ounces of the powder of fmall
leaves of copper, thrice calcined, and half anotmccof zaffer in
powder ; mix them together, and put them at four times in-
to the pot, that they may the better mix with the glafs;
llirring them well at each time of putting in the powder,
left they ihould fwell too much and run over.

BOLLOS, in the mines of Peru, a denomination
given to the ingots or bars of filver procured there from
the ore by the operation of the fire, and the ufe of aqua
iortis.

BOLM, in Geography. See Bulam.

BOLNEST, Edw.\rd, in Biography, praftifed medicine
in London the beginning of the 17th century. lie pub-
liflied, in 1605, " Chemia Medicina illullrata," or the true
grounds and principles of the art ot phyfic, Svo. London,
and the following year a tranilation of it into Latin " De-
lineatio fundamenti et princip. art. med. ;" alfo " Aurora
cheinica ten naturalis methodus preparandi animalia, vegeta-
biiia, et inineralia," 1675, Svo. An edition of this work
.vas publifhed in Englilli, in 1672. " A rational way of
preparing animals, vegetables, and minerals, for phyfical
ufes." Hailer. Bib. Med.

Vol. IV.

B O L

BOLNKI, in Geography, a town cf Lithuania, in tl: ;
provir.ce of Wllna, 14 miks E.S.E. of VViicomirz.

BOLCGNA, or BoNOMA, a city of Italy, the capital
of the Bolognefe duchy, is, next to Rome, the largtlt,
fn:eft, and richeft city in the EccltCallical State. Its an-
cient name was Fclfina, derived from Fclfinus, a Tufcan
king, who is fuppofed to have built it 2J years before the
foundation of Rome. The name of Bor.onia is traced by
fome to a fuccelTor of Fclfinus, cr.lied Bonus ; but others
deduce it from the Boii. Its circuit is bLtwecn five and fix
Italian milej, and the number of its inliabitants is eftimated
at 80,000 ; but the whole diftrict, wh.ieh includes 308 citifs,
towns, and villages, is faid to contain 308,000 peifons. Its
figure is oblong, the length of it much exceeding the
breadth ; and viewed at a dillance, it bears f^me referablance
of a (hip, the tower of Afinelli, whicli is 371 feet high, being
the mall. It is furrounded by a folid and lofty brick v.-aii,
well built, and adorned with piazzas, which extend tlirough
the ftreets, and under which paffengers may walk without
being incommoded by the fun or rain. The houf-.s in ge-
neral have lofty porticoes, which would have a better efieil
if the ftreets were not fo narrov.- ; but in this particular,
magnificence is facrificed to convenience, for, in Italy, iliadc
is confidered as a luxury. This city is feated at tlie' foot of
the Apennines, in an extenfive, fertile plain, which libei-ally
fupplies the inhabitants with its rich produce. The river
Savona vvaflies its walls, and the rivulet Reno paffes through
it, parting into feveral fmall ftreams ; and the latter, by
means of a canal, communicates with the Po, and aflbrds
great advantage to the city.

_ The public edifices of various kinds are numerous and mag-
nificent. ^ In the centre of the city ftands a high tower, called
Degli Afinelli, from Gerardo Afinelli, who built it at iiis own
charge in 1 109 ; near it is the leaning tower, called Garifenda,
which by a fall of part of it is nowrcduced to the height of i„o
feet, and which inclines, fo that a plumb-line let down from
the top deviates feven feet from the wall at the bottom. Of
the palaces in Bologna, that which is denominated the Public
Palace is much the moft fpacious, though not the moft ele-
gant. In this the cardinal legate is lodged ; and it has alfo
apartments for the Gonfalonier, as well as h,ills, or chaai-
bers, for fome of the courts of juftice. This edifice contains
fome very m.-.gnificent apartments, and a few good pidures,
of which the moft eftecmed are, a large one, by Guido, of
the Virgin, and the infant Jefus, feated on a rainbow ; a
Sampfon, alfo by Guido, rtfrefliing himfelf with the water
which ifi'ues from the jaw-bone, with which he has juft de-
feated the Phijillines ; and a St. John the Baptift, by Ra-
phael. The firft objecl: which ftnkes the eye of a ftranger
on his arrival at this town, is a noble m.arble fountain in the
area before the Palazzo Pubhco. The principal figure is a
ftatue of Neptune, \ i feet high, with one hand ftretched
out, and the other holding the trident. The body and
limbs are finely proportioned, the anatomy perfect, and the
charafter of the countenance fevere and majeftic. This
figure of Neptune, as well as all the others of boys, dol-
phins, and fyrens, which furround it, are in bronze. I'he
whole is the workmaniliip of Giovanni di Bologna, and is
highly efteemed ; and yet there feems to be an impropriety
m making water flow from the breafts of the fea-nymplis or
fyrens. Over the entrance of this palace is a bronze
ftatue of pope Gregory XIII., weighing i i.joo pounds,
ana executed by Mmganti. Near it is another ftatue of
pope Boniface VIII. The interview between the emperor
Charles V. and pope Clement VII. in 1529, when that
prince fubmitted to be crowned by the pope, is recorded by
an infcription on a copper-plate. In tjie Sampieri palace
4Z are

B O L

are feveral pieces by the three Caraccis ; one cf the bed
ever done by Albano, reprefenting Cupid kifTing his mother
Venus, and, with an air of triumph, pointing at the rape of
Proferpine by Pluto ; and another, more admired than all
the rell, and confu'cred by the judges as the niafter-piece of
Guido, the fubjeft of which is the *' Repentance of St.
Peter," and confilling of two figures, that of the faint
who weeps, and a younj; apoftle who endeavours to comtort
him. Although the nobility of Bologna are not now very
rich, many of their palaces are furnifhed in a magnificent
tafte, and contain paintings, particularly thofe of the cele-
brated maimers which this city had the honour of producing,
that are their chief ornaments, and are held in high eftima-
tion. The palaces were built, and ornamented, when the
proprietors were richer, and when the fincft works of archi-
tcfture, fculpture, and painting, could be procured on eaficr
terms than at piefent. The galleries and apartments are
fpacious and magnificent ; and yet there are circumftances in
the mod fplcndid, that mull hurt the eyes of thofe who are
accuftomed to that perfe<5t exaftnefs in finifhing, whicli pre-
vails in Engli:h houfes. The glafs of the windows of fome
palaces is divided into little fquare panes, which are jc-ined
together by lead ; and the floors of all are fo indifferently
laid, that you often feel a loofe brick fliaking under your
feet, as you walk through the fineft apartmenti;.

Bologna is alfo embellilhed with a great number of churches
and convento, which are enriched with a variety of paintings,
fculptures, &c. Of t!ie churches, of which there are faid to
be 200, tiiat of St. Petronius is the largeff . In this church
the emperor Charles V. was crowned in 15,30 ; and on the
pavement of it, CalTini drew his meridian line, confijling of
pieces of red and white marble inlaid, of a hand's breadth ;
thofe in which the figns of tlie zodiac are cut, are a foot
fquare. This hue is half the length of the church, which is
360 feet ; and at its comm.cnccment is a Latin infcription,
exprcfling that '• the whole length of this meridian line, di-
ttinguiOied by the fi^ns, &c. is the fix hur.dred thoufandth
part of the circumference of the terraqueous globe." On
the pavement, at the end of the line, is an inlcription in
white niarblf, denoting " the meridian line from the zenith
to the tropic of Capricorn." Oppofite to the vertical
point, is the date MDCLIL A fmall round aperture has
been made in the roof of the church, towards the fouth,
through which the rays of the fun f;rm a circular luminous
fpot, about eight inches in diameter, on the pavement,
which Ihews tl'.e proper meridional point on the line every
day. The church of the Dominicans is one of the moll
magnificent in Bologna. The chapel, dedicated to the ho-
nour of S:. Dommico, who is faid to have died at Bologna
in 1221, is much admired. It coufills of a curious dome,
in which theglitterln:; of gold appears throughout, adorned
with the mod capital paintings, reprefenting the hillory of
his life. His monument is of white marble, ornamented
with beautiful baflb-relievos, by Michael Angelo ; and the
altar, together with the large candlefticks that ftand upon it,
are of filver. The pavement and the walls are inlaid with
marble of different colours. In the veflry is depofited,
amidft jewels and various trcafures, a manufcript of the Old
Teftament, or at lead of the Pentateuch, pretended to have
been written by Ezra himfelf. See Bible. It is a large
folio, carefully prefcrvcd in a glafs cafe, and was prefcnted
to the convent by the Jews, when they removed hither from
Rome, and were allowed to ereil a noble fynagogue about
the clofe of the 14th century. The other principal churches
are the Francifcan, in which are paintings by Pacini, Luigi,
Caracci, Brizio, Guido, and Tiarini ; that of St. Agnes,
contaiaing, ever the high altar, the martyrdom of the faint,
&

B O L

by Domenichino ; St. Bartholomew, before which Hands a
marble ftatue of St. Petronius, by Brunelli, and in whieh
are an annunciation, the nativity, and the flight into Egypt,
by Albano; the church of the Capuchins, in the veftry of
which is a crucifixion, by Guido ; that of S. Giovanni in
Monte, famous for an admirable pifture of St. Cecilia, by
Raphael, which is much extolled by Addifon, and reckoned
one of Raphael's capital pieces, &c. &c. The convents alfo
are enriched with valuable paintings and other ornaments, as
well as the palaces and churches. A Dominican convent,
feated on the top of a hill, about three miles from the city,
is in poffeflion of a portrait of the virgin Mary, faid to have
been painted by St. Luke. Sigoni fays, that it was brought
from the church of Sanfta Sophia at Condantinoplc in i 160;
and it is thought to have wrought many miracles in favour
of the inhabitants of Bologna. A curious gallery, open to
the fonth, and clofcd by a wall to the nortli, is built all the
way from the city to the convent; on the open fide it is fup.
ported by a long row of pillars ; and was erefted by volun-
tary contribution, in honour of the virgin, and for the
convenitnce of pilgrims. This longcolonade is about twelve
feet in breadth, from the pillars to the wall, and about fix-
teen feet high; all the communities of the town walk, once
a year, in iulcmn proctffion, to the convent, and bring the
holy pifture to vifit the city. It is carried through the
principal llreets, attended by every inhabitant who can afford
to purchafe a wax taper. D\u-ing this procclTiou, the bells
continue ringing, the cannon are fired, and the troops under
arms praflile the fame ceremonies when the pi£lure pafTes,
as if it were commander in chief of the forces. In the libra-
ry of the convent, belonging to the church di S. Salvatore,
are many curious MSS.; particularly one of the hillory of
queen Edhcr, written on yellow coarfe leather in large He-
brew characters, and done up in a roll or volum.e, according
to the original fignification of the word. The csnors pre-
tend that this was written by Ezra. Here is alio Ihewn a
Hebrew MS. of the O. T. written on vellum, in 3 vols, fol
faid to have been written in 95^ ; it has, however, points or
vowels. Among other MSS. amounting to about ^co in
number, are the N. T. called the " Codex Bononienfis,"
faid to be of the nth centuiy, containing the whole N. T.
except the apocalvpfe, ahoiuiding with abbreviations; and a
Greek verfion of the minor prophets and Daniel, fuppofed
to be of the lOth century; and among the printed books are
Manutius's edition of Cicero's works, 4 vols. fol. publiflied
at Milan in 149S, and a Latin bible in folio, which, by a
printed advertifement annexed to it, appears to have been
completed at Mcntz by John Full and Peter Schoiffcr in
1462.

The univerfity of Bologna is one of the mod ancient and
moll celebrated feats of literature in Europe ; it was founded,
as lome fay, by the emperor Theodofiusin 453, but others,
with greater probability, attribute it to Charles the Great.
For an account of the academy of fciences, fee Academy.
Over the gate of the magnificent edifice appropriated to that
academy, is the following liberal infcription : " Bononienfe
Scientiarum atque artium inditutum ad publicum totius
orbis ufum." Here are an obfervatory, with the neceffary
indruments for aftronomical obfei'vations ; a very valuable
hbrai-y, in three fpacious i-ooms, where any perfon may
dudy and have the ufe of the books four hours every day ;
alfo, apartments for the ftudents of fculpture, painting, ar-chi-
tcfture, chemidry, anatomy, adronomy, and evei-y branch
of natural philofophy. They are all ornamented with de-
figns, models, indr-uments, and every kind of apparatus
requifite for illudrating thofe fciences. There are alfo pro-
feffors who regularly read leftures. There is a hall full of

models

B O L

models in architcfture and fortification, a valuable collec-
tion of medals, and another of natural curiofities, as animals,
earths, ores, minerals; and a complete colleftion, to affiil the
ftudy of the materia medica, and every part of natural hif-
tory. There is alfo a gallery- of ftatues, confifting of a few
originals, and very fine calls of the beft ftatues in Italy.
Honorary premiums are diftributed every year among the
artifts, for the beft defigns in painting, fculpture, and
architefture.

The anatomical theatre is adorned with ftatues of cele-
brated phyficians ; and the mufeum belonging to it fuppiies
an abundance of anatomical preparations, and a complete
fuite of anatomical figures in wax : a man and woman are
exhibited in the natural ftate; the fame with the 11-cin and
cellular membrane removed, fo that the external mufcles of
the whole body and limbs appear. In the fubfequent figures
the more external mufclea are gradually removed, till no-
thing but the finiple Ikeleton remains. Thefe figures are
ver)- well formed, preferving the natural appearance and
Ctuation of the mnfclesand blood-veflcls with as great exac\-
nefs as could be expefted in a work of this nature. There
are alfo models in wax, of particular parts, and of feveral of
the vifcera of the human body ftparately.

The inhabitants of Bulogua carry on a veiy conCderable
trade in filks and^ velvets, and leather bottles, which are ma-
nufaftured here in great perfedlion. The country produces
imraenfe quantities of oil, wine, honey, wax, flax, and hemp ;
and furnifhes all Europe with hams, dried tongues, faul'ages,
macaro"i, fweetmeat, olive, perfumes, wafh-balls, liqueurs,
and effences. The people are induftriou?, and allowed to
enjoy the fruits of their labour ; the nuns arc very ingenious
in making artificial flowers, and imitating fruits of various
kinds; and very beautiful works are alfo made of walnut-
tree and rock-cr)-ftal. The markets are plentifully fupplied
with provifions ; fruit is had in great variety, and of excel-
lent quality ; and the common wme af the country is a light
white wine of an agreeable tafte, which is preferred by
ftrangers to any of the French or German wines that may be
had there. The inhabitants, in general, are facetious and
polite to ftrangers, who may receive at Bologna every kind
of accommodation that may fuit their tafte.

Bologna long retained the name of a republic, fent an
ambaftador to the pope's court, and the word " Libertas"
was infcrlbed on the arms and coin of the ttate, with the
flattering capitals S. P. Qj^R. The civil government and
police of the town were allowed to remain in the hands of the
magiftrates, who were chofen by the fenate, which formerly
confifted of 40 members ; but fince this republic came under
the protection, as it is called, of thepope, he thought proper to
add ten more ; but the whole 50 ttili retain the name of the
" Quaranta." One of the fenators prefided in the fenate, and
was called the " Gonfalonier," from his carrj ing the ftandard
(Gopfalone) of the republic. He was the chief magiftrate,
was atteiided by guards, and was conftantly at the palace, or
near it, to be ready on any emergency ; but he remained
only two months in office, and the fenators took it by turns.
In the midft of all this appearance of independence, a cardinal
legate from Rome governed this republic ; he was appointed
by the pope, with a vice-legate, and other affiftants. The
orders which the legate iflued, were fnppofed to be with the
approbation of the fenate ; or at leaft, they never difputed
the office, wliich was of higher dignity than any other in the
gift of the court of Rome, and continued for three years ; at
the expiration of that time, his holincfs either appointed a new
legate, or confirmed the old one in the office for three years
longer. This ecclefiaftical viceroy lived in great magnifi-
cence, and had a numerous fuite of pages, equerries, and hal-

B O L

berdiers, who attended him in the city. '\^Tien he went into
the country, he was accompanied by guards on horfeback.
The gonfalonier and magiftrates regulated all the ufual mat-
ters which regarded the police, and decided, in commou
caufes, according to the laws and ancient forms of the re-
pubhc ; but in affairs of great importance, and, indeed, aj
often as he chofe to interfere, the cardinal legate without
doubt influenced all decifions. This muft be mortifying tn
the fenators and noble families ; but was lefs felt by the
people in general, who exhibited every appearance of living
under a mild and beneficent government. Bologna was the
fee of an archbidiop ; who had for his fuffragans the biftiops
of Crema, Borgo, St. Domino, Modena, Parma, Piacenza,
and Reggio. Bologna is 2J miles S.W. of Modena, ?.nd 145
N.W. ofRome. N. lat. 44" 29' 36". E.Iong. 1 1'^ 2 i' 15".
Keyfler's Travels, vol. iii. p. 247. Moore's View of Society,
Sec. in Italy, vol.i. p. 252. See Bolognese.

Bologna Bottles. See Unannealfd Bottles.

Bologna Stone. See Bunonian Stone, and Phos-
phorus.

BOLOGNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Marne, and chief p!ace of a can-
ton in the diftritt of Chaumont, 6 miles north of Chau-
mont.

BOLOGNESE, Francisco, in Btograph-;, an eminent
painter of landlcape and hifton,-, whofe original name was
Frandjco Gnnmldi, was born at Bologna, in 1606, and edu-
cated in the fchool of Annibal Caracci. He completed his
ftudies at Rcmt ; and his improvement was fuch, as to at-
tradl the attention of pope Innocent X. by whom he was
employed both in the gallery of his palace at Monte Cavallo,
and in the Vatican. Among his numerous admirers and
friends were the prince Pamiili, the pope's nephew, and
many of the principal nobility at Rome ; Lewis XIV. and
cardinal Ma:iarin at Paris, who procured for him a large
penfion, and employed him in decorating the Louvre ; and
after his return to Italy, the popes Alexander VII. and
Clement IX. He was peculiarly happy in his execution of
landfcape : and was diftinguillicd by his frefti and bold co-
louring, light and fine touch, and an elegant mode of com.-
pofition. His landfcapes in the manner of Caracci are mo-
dels of the ftyle of that fchool, though the colouring of them
n thought to be fomewhat too green. He underftood arclii-
teflure, and alfo etched, with great freedom, talle, and fpirit,
a great number of landfcapes, partly from his own defigns,
and five after Titian. His agreeable manners and amiable
difpofition attached univerfal efteem. His benevolence was
fingiilarly manifefted towards a Sicilian gentleman and his
daughter, who had retired to Rome from the troubles of his
country. They lodged near him, and were known to be fo
poor as to want bread. As f .on as Bologncfe was apprized
of their Gtuation, he repeatedly knocked at their door in the
morning, threw in fome money, and withdrew undifcovercd.
The Sicilianat length deteded him in one of his afts of benefi-
cence, and in token of gratitude tell at his feet. The painter
raifed and embraced him, and they continued mutual friends
through hfe. Bologncfe died at Rome in 1680, and bequeathed
confiderable property to his {iyi children. His principal works
are at Rome, and confift of large landfcapes, and hiftcrical
pieces in frefco. The pidlures of his beft time are verj- rare,
and afford large prices. His fon Alexander was a good
painter in the ftyle and tafte of his father, though much in-
ferior. Among his engravings are the " Brazen Serpent,"
from a compolition of his own, which, though flight, is a
fpirited, free etching, in the ftyle of a painter. Pilkington
and Strutt.

BoLOGsFSE, or the duchy of Bologna, in Geography, a ter-
42 2 ritorr

B O L

ritory of Italy, in t!'.e ecckHaftical flate, bounded on the
r.orth by the Ferrarcfe, on the eall by Romagna, on the
fouth by Tufcanv, and on the welt by Modena ; anciently
inhabited bv tlie I3oii and Liaiires. It was formerly a re-
public, under the protcflion of the emiieror of Germany;
but in 127S, it became fnbjeft to pope Nicholas III. After
many viciffitudcs, pope Julius II. in 1513, annexed the city
of Bologna, and all its dependencies, to the papal dominions ;
and in confeqiience of its voluntary fubmiffion to the fee of
Rome, it was indulged in feveral privileges, which it conti-
nued long to cnioy without molcftation. But after the city
of Bologna was taken by the French in the campaign of 1 796,
the legations of Bologna, Ferrari Modena, and Reggio,
entered into a treaty to form a republic, under the name of
the " Republica Cifpadana," or " Cifalpiue Republic ;"
which was confirmed by the eighth article of the treaty of
Campo Formio, Oclober 17, 1797.

The foil of this territory is rich and fertile, and in the vici-
nity of Bologna it is fo much improved by cultivation, that it
appears like one continued garden. The vineyards are not
divided by hedges, but by rows of elms and mulberry-trees ;
and the vines hang in a very beautiful picturefque manner, in
felloons from one tree to another. The country is not only
fertile in vir.cs, but likewife in corn, olives, and pafturage,
and has, not without rci;fon, acquired the name of " Bologna
la Gralfa." The Bologntfe affirm, that their cheefe is not
infetior to that of Panna, and they fell a great quantity of it
under the name of Parmefan cheefe. See Bologna.

BOLOGNETTI, Pompev, m Biography, was born at
Bologna in Italy, about the year 1616, where he received
his education, and attaching himfelf tothepraflice ofphyfic,
was admitted dodlor, and then profeffor in medicine, at the
univerfity there, in which capacity he was much admired, his
leftures being numeroufly attended. His works arc " Con-
filium de precautione occafione meicium, ab infultibns immi-
nentis contagii," Bono. i6;o, folio ; which perhaps gave
birth to Dr. Mead's work on that fubjeft, or fuggefted the
idea of it. " Remora fenedlutis," 1650, 4to. Haller. Bib.
Med. Eloy. Did. Hiil.

BOLOGNINI, ANGELus.a celebrated profeflbr of me-
dicine andfurgery, who flourithcd the beginning of the i6th
century, was born in the neighbourhood of Padua, but prac-
tifed and taught medicine at Bologna. At the earned in-
ireatv of his pupils, he fays, he publillied, in 1508, " De
cura ulcerum interiorum, et de unguentis communibus in fo-
lutione continui," 4to. which has been frequently re-printed.
He was of the fchool of Avicenna, on vvhofe works he com-
mented in his Icftnres. He gives forms for preparing oint-
ments with mercury, which he highly extols, and fays, they
cure thelues, though the falivary glands fliould not be afifefted,
which, however, he admits to be defirable. The latter pait
of his hfe was fpent in retirement at Padua. Aftruc. de
Morb. Gal. Hall. Bib. Med.

BOLOTOVA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, 24 miles
N.E. of Nertfchink.

BOLSCHAIA, a town of Siberia, on the Irtilh,240 miles
H.S.E.of Toboifk.

BOLSCHAKINA, a town of Siberia, 68 miles fouth of
Orlenga.

EOLSEC, Jerom, \n Biography, a carmelite of Paris in
the ;6th cenfOry, who deferted his order on account of
fome free opir.ions, and became a refugee at Ferrara. There
he commenced the profcflion of phyfic, and being acquainted
with Calvin, removed to Geneva. In this city he divulged
fome opinions concerning predeftination, which excited the
refentment of the Genevan reformer, and which induced the
aagiihatts of Geneva, probably at his inlligation, firil to

B O L

imprifon him, and finally to banifii hi;n, as one convifted of
fedition and Pelagianifm. He was aftcrwar.ls expelled from
the canton of Bern, v.-hither he had retired ; and failing in
his endeavours to ingratiate him.fclf with the Proteftants of
Paris and Orleans, he returned to the bofom of the Catholic
church. He then revenged himfclf by writing a very flan-
derous account of the life of Calvin in 1577, and another of
that of Beza in fjSa, the falfities of which fobcr Catholics
are afliamed to quote. He alfo wrote again!! Calvin's in-
ftit\ition, and his arguments were afterwards made ufeof by
Cardinal de Richthen. Boli'ec praftifed phyfic at Autun,
and at Lyons, in which latter city he died, a few years
after he had written Beza's life. Gen. Did.

BOLSENA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ecclefi-
aftioal Hate, and patrimony of St. Peter, delightfully fitnated
on a lake that is of the fame name, which is about .55 Italian
miles in circumference. In this lake are two iflands, namely,
Bifentina and Martana, with a church in each illand ; in the
former the unfortunate Amalafunta, daughter of Theodoric,
kino of the Oftrogoths, is faid to have been put to death in
5?4, by order of the ungrateful Tlieodatus, her coufm,
whom file had ?.dmitted to a (liare in the government. Wc
Itarn from Pliny, Hilf. Nat. 1. ii. c. 95, that in his time
thefe two iflnnns were floating. He calls this lake Tarqui-
nian, a nam.e which it derived from Tarquinium, one of the
principal 12 Etrurian cities, whofe territones ancie: tly ex-
tended to this lake; but it has been doubted, whether Pliny
refers to the iflands of this lake. Bolfena is ennroncd with
mountains, covered with trees, forming a kind of anguft
amphitheatre. On an eminence near it may be feen the
rains of the ancient " V^olhnium." It is 7 miles S. of
Orvieto.

BOLSOVER, a confiderable market town of Derby,
fhire, England, has been noted for its manufatfories of
buckles, fpurs, bridle-bits, llirrup-irons, and other firailar
articles ; but the greater part of them is now made in
Birmingham, and its vicinity. The town is governed by
a conftable, and two head-boroughs; and a copyhold court
is held here every three weeks. Here was fonnerly a caftle,
which, according to the Doomfday-book, was pofTeffed, at
the Norman conqueft of England, by William Pevere!. It
v.-as of confiderable extent, and from its remaining fortifica-
tions was evidently of great ftrength. Its fortrefs is men-
tioned by Leland, as being in ruins when he vifited this part
of England, in the time of Henrv the Eighth. A modern
manfion, ftill called the caftle, occupies the fite of the an-
cient buildings, and was eredted by Sir Charles Cavendifh
in 1613. It is of fquare (liape, and afiumes the caftcllated
charafter by towers at the four corners, and an embattled
parapet. In this manfion, a fuperb entertainment was given
by William Duke of Newcaftle, to Charles the Firft and his
queen in the year 1633. Upon this occafion, all the neigh-
bouring gentry were invited to partake of tlie fcftival, which
was conduced upon fo magnificent a fcaie, that the ex-
pences were eftimated as amounting to 15,000!. Grand
pageants, Sec. were reprefented before the royal guefts, and
the fancy and tafte of Ben Jonfon were employed in pre-
paring fpeechts and fcenery upon the occafion. It now
belongs to the Duke of Portland, whofe family obtained it
by m.arriage with a daughter of the Earl of Oxford. In
the parifit church is a magnificent monument to the memory
of the above-named Sir Charles Cavendilh, many of whofe
family are alfo interred here. Bolfover has a weekly market
on Fridays, one annual fair, and a flatute fair for hiring
fervants, &c. It is 8 miles from Mansfield, and 1 45 N. W.
from London. In the parifli are 435 houfeSj and icgi in-
habitants!.

At

B O L

J At Elmton, a frr.all village three miles N. E. of Bolfover,

was born JeckdJab Biiy.'on, a man who, though only a poor
labourer, acquired extraordinary celebrity, for his retentive
memory, and recondite powers of calculation.

Three miles north of Bolfover are the great coal works,
called Noi bri;T's Colliery. Thefe belong to the Duke of
Portland, and are let out to a company of perlons who frfiid
great quantities by the canal to Worklop, Redford, Stock-
with, &c. Bibliotheca Topographica, No. 32.

BOLSTER, am.ong Surg^ms, a foft yielding fubllance
either laid under the head or a broken limb.

Bolster is alfo ufed for a Huffing, intending to fill out
or raile a flat, finking, or holljw part. In which fcnit hol-
ders are contrived for crooked, bunched, and other diftoried
backs, fhoulders, &c.

Bolsters of a fad Me ■, in the Mdi:;re, thofe parts which
are raifed on the bows, both before and behind, to rell tlie
rider's thighs, and keep hiin in a pollurc of withftanding the
diforders which the horfe may occafion. Common faddles
have no bolfters behind, or even before.

BoLSTiRS, in Sea Language, finall cufhions or bags, filled
vith tarred canvas or rope yarn, S:c. and placed under the
{hrouds and flays, to prevent their chafing againil the treftle-
trecs, by the motion of the mad, v.hen the fliip rocks at
fea.

Bolsters are alfo pieces of fir fayed upon the upper
fide of the trellle-trees, ar.d againft the thwart-lhip fides of
the maft-head. They mull be fuiSciently long to clear the
fid-hole and atter crofs-tree, and broad enough to projcft
one inch and a half, or more, without the trelUe-trecs, and
the fame in depth, and rounded from the upper to the lower
edge on the outfide, and nailed to the trefth. -trees at each
end. Their ufe is to prevent the (hrouds chafing by the
motion of the mails.

BoLSTEP.s of an anchor are cylir.drical pieces of iron, with
a hole through the middle, ufed when holes are to be
punched, or opened with piRS.

BOLSWAERT, Bolswerd, or Bolswert, in Geo-
graphy, a town of Friefland, in the United Netherlands,
faid to have been built in 713 by Bolfwine, fon of Rad-
bode, king of Friefland, from whom it took its name. It
was almoft burnt down in 1475, and again in 1515, when
it was rebuilt and encompaffed with a rampart of earth.
About a league from this town is a port, which, though
much ob!lructed by fand, is very ufeful to the inhabitants.
Bolfwacrt is about two miles in circumference, and was for-
merly one of the Hanfe towns ; and a great part of the Frief-
land baize, which formed a confiderable article of exporta-
tion, was wove in this place. It is diflant 13 miles S. W.
of Leewarden, and 7 S. S. E. of Harhngen. N. lat. 53°
2'. E. long. 5° 24'.

BOLSWERT, or Bolbuerd, Boetius Adam A, in
Biography, an engraver and printfellerof Antwerp, derived
his name from Bolfwert in Friefland, where his family re-
fided, and ilourilhed about the year 1620. He worked only
with the graver, and fuccefsfully imitated the free, open
ftyle of the Bloemarts, in whofe fchool he probably per-
fected himfelf in his art. When he worked from Ruben?,
he altered that ftile, and his plates are neater, fuller of
colour, and more highly finifiied. His plates from Bloemart
are a fet of " Twenty landfcapes," " The foreft of the her-
mits and hermitefles of Egypt and Paleftine," and " The
Nativity of Chrift :" and thofe from Rubens, in a more
finilhed ftile, are the " Refurrection of Lazarus," and its
companion " The Laft Supper," which is a very beautiful
engraving. Strutt.

Bolswert, or Bolsuerd, Scheltius A, brother of

B O L

tiie preceding, ficirifhed about 1626, ancTworkcd ertirely
with the graver. His general charafter, as an artift, is thus
defcribed by Bafan : " We have a lar^e number of prints,
which are held in great efteem, by this artift, from various
mailers, but efpscially from Rubens, whofe piflures he has
copied with all pofiible knowledge, tafte, and great effeft.
The freedom with which th'S exceller.t artift handled the
graver, the pifturefque roughnefs of etching, which he
could imitate without any other affifting inftrument, and
the ability he poftefTed of diftinjuifhing the different m.aflts
of colours, have always been admired by the connoifteurs^
and give him a place in the number of thofe celebrated en-
gravers, who are defirous of rendering their works as ufelul
as they are agreeable, and of acquirnig a reputation, as
lafting as it is juftly merited." His print* are the exadt
tranfcripts of the pictures from which he engraved them ;
and his laft works, though not equally neat or finifhed, are
always beautiful and indicate the hand of a maftcr. His
boldeil engravings are from Rubens ; and his neateil from
Var.dyck and Jordans. Some of this mafter's works have
been carefully copied, fo as eafily to deceive the unllvilful..
Amongft the ellimable engravings of this artiil the follovw-
i->g arc mentioned : viz. the " Brazen Serpent," from Ru-
bens ; " Abraham offering his fon Ifaac," from Theodore
Romb",ut ; the " Education of the Virgin, by St. Anne,"
the " Marriage of the Virgin," the " Nativity of Chrift,"
the " Adoration of the Wife Men," the «' Feaft' of Herod,"
in which the daughter of Herodias is exhibited, prefenting-
the head of John the Baptill to his mother, and the " Mi-
raculous Draught of Fifties," all from Rnbens ; " Chrift
crowned with thorns," from Var.dyck, and a " Cracifi-^ion,"
from the fame, in which a figure appears prefenting the
fponge to Chrift ; St. John and the Virgin are feen ftandin^
at the foot of the crofs, and Mary Magdalene reclining
towards it. This is one of his moft beautiful engravings.
The Crft impreffion?, in which the left hand of St. John is
not feen, are very fcarce ; in the fecond, the hand appears
upon the ftioulder of the Virgin ; but in fubfequent impref-
fions, the hand was again erafed. Strutt.

BOLT, in BuihUng, an iron faftening for a door, moved
with the hand, and catching in a ftaple or notch made to
receive it. Bolts are chiefly of three kinds : plate, round,,
znd Jprir:g-icl/s.

Bolt of a lock is the piece of iron which, entering the fta-
ple, faftens the door ; being the part which is moved back-
wards and forwards by turning the key.

Of thefe there are two forts ; one ihuts- of itielf by only
putting-to the door, and is called a fpring-boll ; the other,
which only moves when the key opens or fhuts it, is called
a dormant-holt.

Bolt is alfo ufed for a large iron pin, having a round'
head at one end, and at the other a key-hole or flit, wherein
to put a pin or faftening, ferving to make faft the bar of a
door, window- fliutter, or the like.

This is more particularly called a round-bolt, or iv'indorv-
bolt.

Bolts, in the Artillery, are of feveral forts ; thofe which
go betwixt the cheeks of a carriage to ftrcngthen the tran-
foms are called tranfcm-bolts. The large iron bolts or knobs
on the cheeks of a carriage, keep the handfpike from
Aiding, when it is poifing up the breech of the piece. The
two fiiort bolts that being put one in each end of an Engliflx.
mortar-carriage, ferve to traverfe her, are called traverfe-
bolts. The bolts that go through the cheeks of a mortar,
and, by the help of quoins, keep her fixed at the elevation
given her, are called bracket-bolts. And the four bolts that
faften the bracket or cheeks of a mortar to the bed, are

called.

B O L

•ailed hcd-bo'its. Befides thefe there are bolder, eye, breech-
ing, garnilli, joint, ilool-bed, and axle-tree bolts. See Car-
riage.

Bolts, in Cmjpenlry, denote pieces of wood cleft with
wedges, in order to be fplit into laths.

Bolts, or iron pins, in a Si!i[>, are of feveral forts, of
which the mod common have fniall round heads, and are
ufed to unite two or more pieces together. Some have
round flat heads, called fau.-er-heads, with a mortife in the
other end, or point, and are iifed to fallen moveable pieces
to thofe that are fixed ; others have an eye at one end, for
ladling or hooking blocks, &c. :md are driven in mad-heads,
yards, caps, &c. Some have a fquare part left at ^the back
of the eye, that they may not be driven on the eye, and en-
danger fplitting. Bolts are frequently diftinguidied accord-
ing to the places where they are ufed ; as, chain-bolts, bolts
for carruigcs, &c.; rinir-bo/ls, ferving for the bringing-to of the
planks, &c. ilrlve-bolts, ufed to drive out others ; fet-bolts,
employed for foi'cing the planks, and other works, and
bringing them clofe to one another ; rng-lolts, on each fide
full of jags or barbs, to keep them from flying out of their
holes ; clench-bolts, thofe which are clenched or fadened at
the ends where they come through ; fore-lock-bolts, made
like locks with an eye at each end, whereunto a fore-lock of
iron is driven to prevent Halting out ; furl, or fender-bolts,
made with long and thick heads, druck into the ontermod
bends or wales of a diip, to fave her iides fiom bruifes and
hurts. The following machine for drawing bolts in and out
of diips was invented by Cajnani Bolton of the Navy, and
obtained from the Society of Arts their prize of the gold
medal. A niodtl of it is prefervcd in the repofitory of
the fociety for the ufe of the public. The dcfcription
of it (See Tranfaftions of the Society, vol. xvi.) is as
follows :

AAA AAA [Phile ofSh'ips) is the frame of the machine.

B, a cylindrical tube, k:iving a female fcrcw in the infide.

C, a wheel with teeth attached to the cylinder B. D, an
endlefs fcrew adapted to the wheel C. E, handle of the
vinch. F, the bolt drawing out. G G, blocks to fupport
the frame. H, a hollow piece of dctl, having on its out-
fide a male fcrew, whofe threads work within the female
fcrew in the cylinder B. To this piece of deel the bolt is
to be rivcttcd. I, a femicircular piece of deel, which is to
be introduced into the notches <i:i H, when a timilar notch
has been cut in the head of the copper bolt, which by this
means is prevented from turning in H, while drawing. K,
the bolt, as prepared to receive the machine. L, a Heel bar,
fomewhat fmaller than the bolt to be drawn, having at one
tnd a male fcrew. A, and at the other end another male
fcrew that fits into the female fcrew in B. M, a fedlion
of a male fcrcw, having a fqnarc hole larger than the
bolt. N, a bolt with a male fcrcw at one end ready to be
drawn in.

The machine, of which a plate is annexed, confids of a
frame fupporting a cylindrical female fcrew tube. On this
tube is mounted a wheel with teeth adapted to an endlefs
fcrcw fitted to the frame, and woiked by a handle.
7'o (Iraiv the bolt out.

The head of the bolt mud be cut otf, and a hole made in
the timber big enough to receive the male ftrew H, which
is put over the bolt : a flit is then to be made, either by a
faw or cold chidel, in the head of the bolt, to receive the
key I, and which corrcfponds to the flit in H ; the bolt
head is then to be rivetted as firmly as poflible upon H: the
cylindrical tube, B, is then to be fcrewed on, turning the
whole machine round till it can be done no longer, when
the endlefs fcrew is to be ufed. If the machine is of a pro-

B O L

per ftrength, and the rivetting well done, the power is fuck
as to extraft the bolt or break it, but generally it will be
drawn out uninjured.

To draw bolts intojl.nps.

It will be necedary to have a'bar, L, which is recommended
to be made of deel, long enough to pafs from the infide to
the outfide of the diip, and fomewhat fmaller than the cop-
per bolt intended to be drawn in. This may be called a
conduftor. On one end fliould be a male fcrew, a ; the
bolt to be drawn in diould be tapped at one end to receive
the male fcrew, a, on the condudor, and at the other end
fliould be another male fcrew that fits into the female fcrew
in B ; after which the operation is the fame as drawing a
bolt out, and the machine fliould be applied accordingly.
When the bolt arrives at its dedined place, it may be lecured
on the infide by a nut, which is as good a way of fadening
as clinching, and much more expeditious.

This machine, though only of the height of eighteen
inches, will draw bolts in or out of any length; tor, after
the bolt has rifen to the top of the tube, it will only be ne-
cedary to fcrew the machine back, and follow up the work
with blocks of timber, as reprefented in the drawing.

Ni:lc. If the upper part of the hcle in H be made fquare,
larger than the round hole as fliewn at M, and the head of
the bolt rivetted into it, it will do away the iiectfiity of tlie
key, I, render the inachine Itfs complicated, and fave much
time and trouble.

Bolts of an Anchor, are cylindrical iron pins for faden-
ing the tw^o parts of the dock together.

Bolts for -whirls, in Rope-making, are large iron pins
with round heads, driven in the board over the crank-wheel
for the whirls to run on.

Bolt is alfo ufed for a meafure or certain quantity of can-
vas, amounting to twenty-eight ells.

Bolt of filk or dud' denotes a long narrow piece, of in-
definite meafure.

Bolt, peafe, in Efftx, denotes the peafe-draw, when the
grain is threflied out of it.

Bolt, thunder. See Th UNDER-io//.

BoLT-ro/ii", in Sea Language, is a rope fewed to the edges
of a fail, to prevent it from rending by the force of the
wind, or any other caufe.

A bolt rope fliould be made of fine yarn fpun from the
bed hemp, and fewcd neatly on with good twine. To avoid
dretching, the rope mud be kept well twided while fewing
on, and care taken that neither too much nor too little
flack is taken in : that part of the rope at the leech of the
fail is to be crofs ditched at every foot in length, at every
feam, and in the middle of every cloth at the foot, with
three crofs ditches : four crofs ditches diould be taken at all
the beginnings and fadenings off ; the firll ditch given twice,
and the lad three times. Small fails have two crofs ditches
at every feam, and three at every fadening off.

BOLTED y/oiic, that which has palTed through the
bolter.

BOLTEL, in Building, any prominence or jutting out,
as of a piece of timber, end of a beam, or the like, advancing
beyond the naked of the wall.

BOLTERS, or BouLi ers, a kind of fieves for meal,
having the buttons made of woollen, hair, or even wire.
The word feems derived from the German, icutal, a Jievc ;
whence alfo bentelcn, to bolt. The bakers ufe bolters,
which are worked by the hand ; millers have a large fort,
WTOught by the motion of the mill.

BOLT-HEAD, a veflil ufed by the chemids, the fame
as matrafs ; which fee.

Bolt- he AD, in Geography, a promontory of England, on

the

I

I

B O L

the fouth-coaft of the county of Devon, 19 miles S. E. of
Plymouth, N. lat. 50° 9'. W. long. 30'' 47'. The pro-
montory 4* rriles W. N. W. of this is called Bcll-ta'il.

BOLT and Tun, in Hcraldrj, is a bird bolt in pale pierc-
ing throufjh a ton.

BOLTING, or EouLTiNG, the aft of feparating the
flour from the bran, by means of a lieve or bolter.

BoLTiNG-c/o//', or BoLTER-c/o/A, fometlmes alfo called
bultir.^-cloih, denotes a linen or hair-clotii for lifting of meal
or flour.

That kind of bolting-cloth which is ufcd for fifting of
meal, and alfo for a variety of needle-work, for young
ladies' faniplcrs, and for filling up the frames of window-
fcreens, &c. is wove after the manner of gauze of fine-fpun
wocllen yarn. The wool neceflary for making this cloth
mud be long, wcll-waflied, and fpun to a fine equal thread,
which, before it is fcowered, mult be fcalded in hot water,
to prevent it from flirinking. The wcb muft be llifFcned ;
and ill the manufacture of it the Englifh have the advantage
of the Germans, whofe cloth of this kind is much cheaper,
but much inferior in value to that of England. The
bohing-cloth of this country is ftifPer, as well as fmoother,
and the flour palTcs through it much better than through
that of the Germans, which is either very little or not at all
lliffened. A manuiaftory of this cloth was ettabl'fhcd at
Oftra, near Drcfden, by one Daniel Kraft, about the end of
the 17th centur)' ; and at Hartau near Zittau, it was intro-
duced by one Plefsky, who learned the art of making it in
Hungary. The cloth, which is fent from hence for fale, not
only every where round the country, but alio to Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silefia,is wove in pieces, containing each from64
to 6j Leiplick ells; the narrowed being 10, andthe widell
14 inches in breadth. Large quantities of it are alfo made
by a c<impany in the duchy of Wurtemberg. Bolting-cloth
is alio uiade at Gera, as well as at Potfdam and Berlin ; at
the latter of which places there is a manufadlory of it earned
on by the Jews.

BoLTiNG-m;//, a verfatile engine for fifting with more
eafe and expedition. The cloth round this is called the
bolter.

The method of applying a fieve in the form of an extended
baor to the works of the mill, that the meal might fall into
it as it came from the ftones, and of caufing it to be turned
and fliaken by the machinery, was firll made known in the
beginning of the 16th century, as we are exprefsly told in
feveral ancient chronicles.

Bolting, crBooLTiNG, among 6y>6r//?ntn, fignifies rouf-
ing ordillodging a fox, rabbit, or badger, from its retting
place.

Bolting, in Latv, a method of pleading, or arguing,
formerly in ufe in the inns of court ; interior to mooting.
The cafe is argued firtt by three lludents, then by two bar-
rillers ; an ancient, and two banitlers iitting as judges.

The word comes from the Saxon holt, a boufe ; bccaufe
done privately within doors, for inftrnftion.

BOLTON, Edmund, in Biography, an Englifh antiqua-
rian writer of the 17th century- . By religious profeflion he
was a Roman Catholic, and probably enjoyed fome office
under Villiers duke of Buckingham. He was diligent in
his refearches into fubjefts of hittory and antiquities, and
was the author of feveral works, of which the principal are
the following ; viz. " A Life of Henry IL ;" " Elements
of Armories," Lond. 4to, i6to ; " A tranflation of
Florus ;" " Nero Caefar, or Monarchy depraved," Lond.
fol. 1624, in which he attempts to eftablilli the improbable
opinion, that Stonehenge was a monument to the memory
«f queen Boadicea. His " Vindiciae Britannic*," left in

B O L

MS., was dcfigncd to prove the great antiquity and early
importance of London. From all his performances, Bolton
appears to have poflefied the crednhty, nationality, and love
of trifles, often attendant on antiquarian liucHc?, when they
are not direfted by taile and judgment. The time of his
death is not known. Biog. Brit.

Bolton, in Geography, a village of Yorkfliire, in England,
had a vei-y confiderable monaftery of canons regular, of the
order of St. Auftiii, founded in 1120 by Robert de Romeli,
and this had afterwards other benefactors, and at the dif-
fclution its annual revenu-.s were valued at 212 1. Part of
the religious houfe ftill remains, and one room is appropriated
to a free fchool, which was founded by Robert Boyle, efq.
Tliis village is rendered remarkable from being the birth-
place and refidence of Henry Jenkins, who was born in the
year 1500, and lived to the great age of i6g years. He
enjoyed a conllant ftate of good health, and poflefTed his
faculties to the lait year of his life. See Longevity.

BoLTON-Zf-Ti/aarj, is an ancient manufacturing town of
cor.liderable confequence in Lancalhire, in England. It may
be confidered as the original feat of the cotton trade in this
country, and for the manufacture of ornamental and fancy
goods is I'cill particularlv celebrated. Leland, in his Itinerary,
notices the cottons (then a Ipecies of woollen) and coarfe
yarns which were brought to this town in his time, and
obfei-ves, that many villages in the vicinity were engaged in
this manufacture. Coal-pits were alfo worked at th.at time,
and coals are flill obtained in abundance from pits in the neigh-
bourhood. The making of fultians was introduced into this
town, at a very early period, and ilill continues a prominent ob-
ject of trade. During the civil wars in the ic'gn of Charles I.,
Bolton was befieged by prince Rupert in 1644, and many
of the inhabitants were killed. The town is well built, and
has rapidly encreafed in iize and population. It is feated
in a flat dillnft, as its name partly implies. The advantasje
of canal conveyance to Mancheller and Bun,-, has proved
highly important to the town, whofe manufactories are
thereby greatly promoted. Bolton has a free fchool,
of which Ainfworth, the author of the Latin dictionary,
v.-as once a matter. The profperity of Bolton may be
partly eltimated from the following comparative ftate of its
population. In the year 1773, there were 5339 inhabitants
in this town and Little Bolton. Thele were augmented to
11,739 perfons in 1789 ; and in iSci, when the population
of the country was ettimattd by order of the houfe of Com-
mons, there were found to be .3476 houfts, and 17,413 in-
habitants in the townlhip and chapclry of Great and Little
Bolton. The principal mart for the fale of goods made at
this place is Manchcfter, where the manufacturers refort on
Tueldays, Thurfdays, and Saturdays. " The neighbourhood
of Bolton," obferves the judicious Dr. Aikin, " has been
diftinguilhed for producing nien of great talents in mechanical
invention, who have generally been wholly uneducated, and
indebted only to native powers, and the habit of obfervation.
The moft celebrated of thcfe was fir Richard Arkwright,
of whom falfe pride and prejudice alone can think it deroga-
tory to lay, that he parted a great part of his life in the
humble Ration of a barber in the town of Bolton. His
mind was fo ardently engaged in the improvement of the
mechanifm ufed in the manufactures, that he could fcarcely
keep above want by the exercife of his proper profeflion ;
but his perfeverance and ingenuity were at length rewarded
with a mcafure of opulence, which nothing but the tide of
profperity in a commercial nation could bettow." See
Arkwright.

At Smitheh, an old hall, or manfion, north of Bolton,
formerly belonging to the Fauconberg family, is a curious

old

B O L

oU wainTcolteH room, \he pannels of wliich are adorned vvll'n
upwards of p heads, cut in wood. This I'.a!! is ihtwn and
vilitiJ as a curiolity, from a fiiperftitious prevalent opinion
that an in~.prcflioii of a foot may be feen in the ftone floor
niadt by une Marfli a martyr, in the rci^n of queer, Mary.

Rivia^lon, in the parifli of Bolton, is a confpicnous hi!!,
crowntd with a buildir.ir called lvivinwton-p:ke. Some veins
of lead and calamine have bee:i work'.d r.i this r,-.i;^hbov.r-
hcod, but have not hitherto proved very fortunate to the
adventurers.

rjoltun is It miles from Manchefler, and 197 m:ks N. W.
of London. It has a market on Mond:iys, and two fa.rs
Eunnally. Aikin's Defciiption of th.e Coiintry round Mau-
•cheilcr, 4to. 1795.

Bolton, a townfliip of America, in Chittenden coupty,
Vermont, feated oti Onion river, about 104 miles N. N. F..
fro:n Bennington, containing 88 inhabitants. — Alfo, a tovn-
Ihip in ToUand county, Connefticut, incorporated in 1720,
and fettled from Wcathcrstield, Hartford, and Windfor,
14 miles E. from Hartford. — Alfo, a townfhip in Worcefter
county, MafTachufetts, iH miles N. E. from Worcefter,
and H ^^- ^'"'^ Bofton ; containing 861 inhabitants, and
a good bed of lime'.lone.

BOLTONIA, in Botany, (named by L'Heretier, in ho-
nour of James Bolton, late of Halifax, in Yorivfliue, a felf-
taught naturalilland artill in a humble fphere of life, author
of the " Hillory of Britilb Singing Birds," 2 vols. 4to.
of " Brithli Fern's," 4to. and of " Fungufes growing about
Halifax," 4 vols. 410. with figures of the fpecies, all drawn,
etched, and coloured by himfelf.) L'Heret. Sert. Angl.
p. 31;, .56. Schreb. 1 309. Juffieu 45c. Bofc. Nov. Dift.
Clafs, Jyngen^Jiii polygam'ia fuperjiuct. Nat. Ord. Compnfila
radiiits. — Corymhifcy,z. Juff.

Gen. Char. Cal. common ; imbricate, with nearly equal
linear, acute fcalcs. Cor. compound, radiate ; florets of
the dilk tubular, funnel-fliaped, five-cleft, numerous ; of the
ray many, linear, entire, pilliliferous. (Schreb. 1 three-tooth-
ed. (Bofc.) P'ljl. germ oblong; llyle filiform; fligmas
two, thofe of the ray re^lute. Pcncnrp. none ; calyx un-
changed. Seed folitary, compreffed, flightly toothed, two-
horned ; receptacle naked, honey-combed, hemilpheric.

EfT. Char. Cal. common, imbricate, with linear fcales.
Cor. radiate. Gerr.is compreffed, vertical. Seed obfcurely
toothed, two-horned. Recept. honey-combed.

Species, I. B. ajlerohlcs, (matricaria aff. Linn. Mant.
116). "Leaves quite entire." Stem upright, two feet
high, even, fcarcely angular, flightly flrcaked ; leaves alter-
nate, remote, feffile, lanceolate, even, bent down at the bale,
ragged about the edge ; panicle thin, (liffifh, with one-
flo.vered peduncles ; diik yellow ; ray pale fleib-colour.
3. B. glajl'ifolia. " Low er leaves ferrate," Five or fix feet
high. Both fpecies are natives of South America, flower
late in the autumn, and w-cre cultivated by Mr. Miller in

'758-

BOLTSACKEN, or Bolts.ick, in Gfogrnphy, rocks

at the N. entrance of the Great Belt, 5 miles S. E. from

the ifland of Sarafoe. N. lat. 5^;° 415'. E. long. 10°

40'.

BOLTY, in Ichlhyolugy, a fifh of the L.^brus genus,

{Labrus nUotkus of Linnaus), that is found in the Nile. It

is figured and defcribed by Sonnini, in his " Voyage tn

Egypte." This, it is obferved, is one among the fmall

number of filhcs that inhabit the river Nile, the flelh of

which is delicate, and of a good flavour. Daubenton, in

the French Encyclopaedia, calls the fpecies Nebuletix, on

account of the obfcure fpots with which the fins are

marked.

B O L

EOLTZNITZ, in Geography, a river of Germany,
v.-l'.ich runs into the Elfter near Elfterwtrda, in the margia-
vir.te of Meiifen.

BOI^U, a mountain of Afia, in Armenia, 144 miles S. E.
of Erivan.

BOLUADIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Natolia, 28 miles N. of Kara-hiflar.

BOLUC baji, in the Turk'tjh JJairs, denotes the chief of
a company, or a captain who has the command of an hun-
dred jani/aries.

BOLUliUS, in Andent Geography., a town of Greeci?,
i!i Thefprutia. — Alfo, a town of Illyria, which belonged to
the Traliians. Steph. Byz.

BOLUS, in Pharmacy, is a very ufeful form of extempo-
raucous prtfcription adapted to a variety of cafes in which
a more folid or a more liquid form would not anfwer the
purpofe. The confidence of a bolus is the fame as that of
an cleftuary, that is, about as foft as dough, fo as eafily lo
flip down the throat without falling to pieces. As it mud
in fime degree be tafl.ed while fwallowed, it generally confiils
of the medicine in powder, worked up to the proper tena-
city by means of fome grateful fyrup, foft extraft of liquorice,
or a palatable conferve ; or, if the medicine be an oil, balfam,
or other liquid, dry fugar, with flour, almond-palle, and the
like, are added to bring it to the due confidence. It is in-
tended to be only a fingle dole.

The fubdanccs mod proper to be exhibited in this form
are thofe that are very heavy, and fcarcely to be fufpended
in any liquid fo as to be drank off, fuch as calomel, tin-
powder, deel-filings, xthiops mineral, or thofe that are
too bulkv to be made into a convenient number of pillo,
and are naufeated by the patient in a liquid form, fuch as
cinchona, chamomile, burnt-fpong?, Dover's powder, vale-
rian root ; or fome of the dronger acrids and aromatics,
as guaiacum, camphor, muflc, cador, ammonia : or thofe
that are little foluble in the domach, unlefs previcufly
mixed with fome eafily foluble matter, and yet do not readilv
combine with liquid fufficient to be drank off, as oil of tur-
pentine, the balfams and the like, mixed with fugar and
flour. BolulTes diflfer from troches in iliis, that the latter
are made firmer, though equally iolublc, and being intended
for flow fclution in the mouth ; they confift only of infipid,
or not unpalatable ingredients. Subdances that readily-
become very moid, fuch as the kali preparatum, fliould not
be ufed in this form, unlefs the bolus is intended to be
taken immediately ; but on this head lefs caution is required
than in compounding electuaries.

This form of medicine fliould be avoided where the patient
is in a date in which the power of fw.illovving is with difti-
culty exercifed, as in apoplexy, and other comatoft diforders ;
in fome fpafmodic and painful affettions of the throat ; or
where the cefophagus is naturally very narrow. Alarming
accidents have fometimes arifen from a negleft of thefe
precautions. It is Hkewife difficult to get very young chil-
dren to fwallow tlicm, unlefs made extremely thin. Thefe
minutioe will not appear trifling to thofe who are in the
habit of perlonally witnefling the trouble and difiiculty which
daily attend the exhibition of medicines, and are fo liable
to defeat the mod judicious plans of the prefcriber.

In hofpitals and difpenfaries this form is very commonly
adopted, as it is prepared with little trouble, and is economical
in the more expenfive drugs, no more of them being
employed than the immediate wants of the patient re-
quire.

BohVS-HeaJ, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, on the
fouth-wed coad of the county of Kerry, 38 miles S. W. of
Killarney. N. lat. 51° 44'. W. long. 10"=' 12'.

BOLWICK,

BOM

BOLWYCK, a town of Norway, 40 miles W. of
Tonfberg.

BOLZANI, Urbavo Valeriano, in Biography, one
of the revivers of literature in the ijth century, was born at
Belluno about the year 1440. Having entered, when young,
into the order of the Minorites, he travelled through Egypt,
Paleftine, Syria, Arabia, Greece, and Thrace, obierving
whatever was curious either in nature or art. In the courfe
of his perambulations, lie twice afcended the fummit of
^tna, and furveyed its crater. As a ftri£t obferver of his
vows, he declined acceptin^j the honours and dignities
which were offered him. His fixed abode was at Venice,
where he taught the Greeii language, and, among other
fcholars, inftnifted the learned Gean-Antoiiio Flaminio, and
John d'Medici, afterwards pope Leo X. He was the firil
who facilitated tlie attainment of the Greek, by compofing
a grammar in that language ; of which the firll edition was
printed in 1497, and a fecond, much enlarged, in 1512. He
died in i ';24.

BOLZANO, or BoLZEN, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the Tyro!, feated on the river Eyfac, near its con-
fluence with the.Adige, famous for its four annual taiis, each
of which continues a fornight, which are much reforted to
by Italian and German merchants; 6 leagues S. W. of
Brixen, and 9 N. of Trent. It was taken by the French in
March, 1797. N. lat. 46° 2S'. E. long. 11" 14'.

Bolzano, a town of Italy, in the Viccntin, belonging, to
the (late of Venice, 2 leagues E. of Vicenza.

BOM, in Zo'Jogy, the name of an American ferpent of
the Boa genus, called likewife home, and boma. It is faid
to grow to a vaft fize, and to be perfeftly harmlefs ; but the
latter affertion is improbable ; it is not certainly of the
poiionous race of ferpents. This is called the bom, becaufe
it emits a remarkable noife refembling the found of that
word, when pronounced with a deep hollow voice.

BOMAL, or BoHEMAL, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the duchy of Luxemberg, leated on the Ourte,
7 miles S. W. of Spa, and 53 N. W. of Luxemberg.

BOMANGOY, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Angoy, or Gov (which fee), fituate on the north bank of
the river Zaire. 8. lat. 5° 56'. W. long. 13°.

BOMARZO, a town of Italy, in the ecclefiaftical (late,
and patrimony of St. Peter, once epifcopal ; 14 miles from
Civita Caftellana.

BOMB, in the Military Art, a hollow iron-ball, or (hell,
furnifhed with a vent, by which it is filled with gun-powder,
and which is fitted with a fufee, or hollow plug, by which
!t gives fire, when thrown out of a mortar.

In the Englifh artillery, bombs are now commonly tailed
ihells.

The word bomb comes from the Latin lomlus, crepitus,
orjjlilus ani : by rcafonofthe noife it makes.

The m.ethod of preparing a bomb is as follows : a hol-
low iron globe A B f Plate Gunnery), is call pretty
thick, having a round aperture A, by which it may be
filled and lighted ; and circular anf<c C, D, of hammered
iron fixed in the mould when they are caft, for the com-
modious putting it into the mortar, as well as for carrying it
from one place to another. In France, the handles are caft.
iron : but they are thus rendered more clumfy, and liable to
break fooner than the. others.

It has been ufual to make the lower part of the bomb the
thickeft, that it mav fall on that fide, and never on the fufee,
and that it may alfo better refift the (hock, or impreflion
of the powder by which it is diliharged from the mortar ;
but Mr. MuUer thinks that neither of thefe confiderations is

Vol. IV.

BOM

of any great importance, and recommends rather to mate
them every where equally thick, becaufe they would thcs
burfl into a greater number of pieces. Artillery, p. 151. m
his Syftera, &c. vol. v.

After the (hells have been ganged and ex.imined as to
their dimenfions and weight, they muft be well fearched
within and without by means of a copper gra'.er, to afcertain
whether there be any holes or ca^aties in them ; and the
iron pin or fpike at the bottom of the infide, which fupports
the corp when they are call, Ihould be beat down or broken
off. They are then to be hammered all over, to ku'jck off"
the fcales, and difcover flaws ; ar.d no ho!?, in the large
fliells, is allowed, of more tl:an J of an mch deep. An
empty fufee is then driven into the fufee Irolc ; and the
(hell is fufpended in a tub of water, fo that the water may
cover it, without running into the fufee ; in this fituation
the nofe of a pair of bellows is introduced into the fufee
hole, and feveral ftrong puffs given with tl:e bellows ; and
if no bubbles rife in the water, it is concluded that there
are no holes in the (liell, but that it is founid and ht for
fcrvice.

When the (hell has been thus proved, and is found to be
dry within, gun-powder is introduced into its cavity, by
means of a funnel ; but it is not quite filled. ArtiUerills,
though they agree that (liells fhonld not be quite full, have
not afceriained the precife quantity uliich would ferve for
their burlling into the greatell number of pieces. Cap«
tain Dcfaguilliers, after having made feveral experiments,
apprehends, that the moll proper quantity of powder is two
thirds of the weight which would fill the cavity. A little
fpace or liberty is left, that when a fufee or wooden tube a,
e, of the figure of a truncated cone, is driven through the
aperture, the powder may not be bruifcd. This fufee is
preffed in at firft by the hand as far as it will go, and then
drove with a mallet as hard as poffible, taking care, however,
not to fpHt it ; for if the lealt crack were in it, the com-
pofition would give fire to the powder, and the fhell would
burft either in the mortar, or in the air, and thus do no
execution. For the method of preparing and filling the
fufee, fee Fusee.

This fufee is fct on fire, and burns flowly till it reaches the
gun-powder, which goes off at once, burfting the fliell ta
pieces with incredible violence ; whence the ufe of bombs in
bcfieging towns. Special care, however, muft be taken,
that the fufee be fo proportioned, as that the gun-powder
do not take fire before the (hell arrives at the dellined place ;
to prevent which, the fufee is frequently wound round with
a wet clammy thread.

The fufees are driven into the (hell, fo as that only about
an inch and a half come out beyond the fufee-hole ; and
then the (hell is faid to be fixed. They are charged long
before there is occafion to ufe them ; and in order to fecure
the compofition with which they are filled, the two ends
are covered with a mixture of two parts of pitch, one of
rofln, and three of bees-wax, which will guard the com-
pofition within from the accefs of air ; and it will thus
keep as long as you pleafe. When the fufee is to be put
into the (liell, the little end is opened or cut off; but the
great end is never opened till the mortar is to be fired.
Bombs or /hells are made ot different magnitudes, from that
of 17 or 18 inches diameter downwards ; the very large ones
are not ufed by the Enghfh, that of 13 inches diameter
being the largefl fize now employed by them. The follow,
ing table (hews the weight, dimeufions, &c. of Engliih and
French (htils.

5A

SHELLS

BOM

BOM

SHELLS.— Their Dhnenfiom, Weight, is'c

Nature.

Weight.

H
Q

Powder
contained

Powder
for

Diameter of Fulee
Hole.

Thicknefs

of

Metal.

in Shells.

Burfting.

Outfide.

Iiifide.

13 Inch

10

8

5^ —
41 —

H. Gren. j

Ct. Qr. lbs. oz.
I 3 2

039
0 I 115
0 0 i5i
008
0 0 3 II
0 0 I 13

Inches.

12|

9i

i *

5i

44
3-49

2-77

lbs. oz.

10 4

4 5
2 11
I 0

0 7

lbs. oz,
6 12
2 10
I 14
0 12

0 5
0 i|

Inches.
1.837

1-57
1. 219

•S94

.832

Inches.
1.696

1.45
1.127
.826
.769

Inches.
2.05

i-.^75
1.2

0.822

0.653

Fretic/} Shells, in French Weights and Mcafures.

Inches.
I2-Iiich

10

8

6

lbs.
150

lOO

43
23

12
10

8
6

17 0
10 0

4 1
2 S

S 0
,3 0
I 0

0 12

Lines Po.
^5 9
i.i 9

12 0
II 0

Lines Po.
15 0

15 •=
1 1 0

10 6

Lines.
16
16

JO

10

30

29.5

21

3-5

5

4
d

11.7
d

Mr. MuUer gives the fo'lowing proportions, from the 1 3
inch bombs, now commonly ufed, and obferves that they
may be eafily adjulled to any other calibre, by making the
diameter of the iliell to 30, as any part exprefied in inches,
to the fame part exprelfed in parts of the diameter divided
into 30 equal parts.

Diameter of the bore

Diameter of the (hell ...

Diameter of the hollow fphere

Thicknefs of the metal at the fufce hole

Thicknefs at the oppofite part

Diameter of the fulee-hole

Weight of the Ihell unloaded,

Weight of the powder contained in the Piiell

236.5

N.B. The letter d denotes the cube of the diameter of
the bore.

But (hells have alfo been lately made with the metal
«very where of the fame thicknefs, and are found to
burft into a greater number of pieces by this condrudlion.
The Germans do not name their (hells from the diameter of
the bore which receives tlicm, but from the weight of a
ftone-ball that fits the fame bore as the (hell. Thus a jlb.
howitzer admits a ftone-ball of that weight: the (hell for
this weighs i5lbs. and cnrrefponds to the Englifh 5-^ inch.
The 3olbs. howitzer (hell weiphs 6o!bs., and is rather more
than 8 inches in diameter. At the fiege of Gibraltar, fmall
ihells, as \\ inches, and hand-ccranades, were quilted into
crape for 13-inch mortars. The fiifees were turned in.
wards next the iron-tampion, and leaders of quick-match
for communicating fire to the fufees were introduced
through holes made in the wond-bottoni, and placed as
near the fufees as poffible in tlie centre of the grape.
Thefe anfwercd very well for fnort ranges. In general,
the winlage, or difference between the diameter of the
(hell and mortar, is -irfi^ of the latter ; and the diameter of
the hollow part of the (hell is -,'eths of the fame. For finding
the wcioht of an iron-fhell, the following rule has been
given. Take ^ of the difference of the cubes of the ex-
Vernal aisd internal diameters, and this will be its weight ,

In order to find how much powder will fill a (hell ; divide
the cube of the internal diameter of the (licU in inches by
57.3, which will be the number of pounds of powder. To
find the fize of a (hell for containing a given weight of pow-
der; multiply the number of pounds of powder by 57.3, and
the cube root of the produdl will be the diameter in inches.

Bombs only differ from granades, in that the latter are
much lefs ; and inftead of mortars are thrown out of the
hand. Bombs are thrown not only out of mortars and
howitzers, but out of cannon. The following (liells may
be fired from guns ; viz. hand-granades from 6-pounders ;
4y flitUs from i2-pounders ; 5!- (liells from 24-pour.ders }
and 8-inch (hells from 68-pr-carronade3. Shells may be
alfo thrown from guns to fiiort diftances, in cafe of neceffity,
though the bore be not of a diameter fufficient to admit the
flieil. For this purpofe the gun may be elevated to any
degree that will retain the (hell upon its muzzle, which may
be alTified by a fmall line pafTing from the lugs of the (hell-
round the neck of the gun. To produce a greater effeft,
the fpace between the (hell and the charge may be filled,
with wads, or fome other fubifance.

Bombs may be ufed without mortar- pieces, in the manner
praclifed by the Venetians at Candia, when the Turks had
poffeffed themfelves of the ditch, roiling down bombs upon
them, along a plank fet doping towards their works, with.
ledges on the fides to keep the bomb right forwards. They
are fometimes alfo buried under ground to blow up. See
Caisson'.

M. Blondel, whohas written on the artof throwing bombs,
obferves that the firft bombs were thofe thrown into the
city of Watchtendonch, in Guelderland, in 1588, though,
others pretend they were in ufe a century before, viz. at
the fiege of Naples by Charles VIII. in 1495. Stowe
fays (p. 584), that mortars and bombs were invented in 1544»
by foreigners, whom Heni-y VIII. employed. But they.
came not into common ufe before the year 1634, and then
only in the Dutch and Spiinifh armies. One Malthus, an
Englilh engineer, is faid to have firft earned them into
France, where they were put in ufe at the fiege of Collioure,.
in 1642.

The art of throwing bombs makes a branch of gunnery,
founded on the theory of projeflilcs, and the laws and quan-,
tities of gun-powder,

Mefl-..

BOM

BOM

Mefi". Elondcl, Guifnce, de Reflons, de la Hire, and BOMBA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Trichoba, one of

others, have written exprefsly on the art of throwing bombs, the genera of Animalcule or Vermes infuforia. This kind

BoMB-/5(7//cr)'. See Battery. is briefly defcribed as being of a changeable form, with a

BoMB-f/;(y?, is a kind of chefl; filled ufually with bombs, few hairs on the anterior part. This is found abundant in

fometimes only with gun-powder, placed under ground, ftagnant water : the body is thick, fomewhat pellucid, of a

to tear aad blow it up in the air, with thofe who Hand yellowiih colour, and filled with paler molecules. Miill.

on it. Gmel. &c.

Bomb-chefts were formerly much ufed to drive enemies BOMBARD, Bombarda, a piece of artillery- anciently

from a pod they had feized, or were about to take pofTef-
fion of : they were fit on fire by means of ^fauctjfee faften-
ed at one end, but they are row much difufed.
Bomb, 'wnter. See \J kTt.'s.-lotnb.

in ufe, exceedingly iliort and thick, and with a very large
mouth, by fome alfo called bafilj/i, by the Dutch dondcrbujs.
Some derive the word, by corruption, from Lombard, as
fuppofing this piece firft ufed in Lombardy. Du-Cange,

Bo MB-Ti^-/j-, which are fmall fhips formed for throwing after Volfius, derives it from bonibus and ardeo ; Menage,

bombs into a fortrefs, are faid to be the invention of M.
Reyneau, or Renard, and to have been firfl ufed at the
bombaidment of Algiers, in 1681. Till then, it had been
judged imprafticable to bombard a place from the fea.

The bomb-ketches on the old eftabliflimcnt carry one 13-
inch, and one lo-inch mortar ; with eight 6-pounders, befides

from the German bombarden, the plural of bomber, laltjla.
But we doubt whether the Germans knew any fuch word.
It is no tmufual thing with Menage, and many other
etymologifts, to give derivations from words of their own
making.

There were fome of thcfe pieces faid to have carried balls

fwivels, for their own immediate defence. The modern bomb- of joo pounds weight; Froifiart mentions one of fifty feel

veffcls carry two 10-inch mortars, four 68-pounders, and long. To load them, they made ufe of cranes, &c. The

fix iS-poanders carronades ; and the mortars may be fired bombard is fuppofed to have been in ufe before the invention

at as low an angle as 20 degrees ; though thefe mortars are of cannon.

not intended to be ufed at fea, but on very particular oc- Bombards can hardly be fuppofed to have been of metal,

cafions, their principal ufe, at thefe low angles, being to nor charged with gun-powder. They were rather a fort ol

cover the landing of troops, and to proteft our coails and balilla; for throwing ilones, and were plaved with ropes,

harbours. A bomb ketch is generally from 60 to 70 ftct BOMBARDIER, an engineer, orperfon, whofe bufinefs

long from Item to ftern, and draws eight or nine feet water, is to take care of the firing and throwing bombs out of

The tender is generally a brig, on board of which the mortars. — He firft drives the fnfee, then fixes the (hell,

party of artiUcr)- remain, till their ftrvices are required on points, loads, and fires.

board the bomb-veffel. The fol!ov>-ing inilruilions ferve Bombardier, in Entomology. See Car.\bus.

for their management and fccurity in adion. BOMBARDING, the art or acl of attacking a city or

I. A Dutch p>imp, filled with water, muft be placed in fortrefs, by throwing bombs into it, in order to ruin or fet

each round-top, one upon the fore-caftle, one on the main- on fire the houfes and magazines, and do other mifchicfs.

deck, and one on the quarter-deck ; and furniihed with
leather buckets, for a frclli fupjjly of water.

2. The boomj muil be wetted by the pumps before the

tarpaulins and mortar-hatches are taken off ; and a vi'ooden

fereen, 5 feet fqnare, is to be hung under the booms, over writers for the Hippopotamus.

each mortar, to receive the lire from the vents. Tj/^ivrn \ otxttt ■ n 1 ■ j r ni n r-

„. I 1 ■ r 1 , 1 /• 1 BOMBAhlNll, in CcCTm.Ti:^, a kind of filk Uuh manu-

3. i he embrazures bemix nxtd and properly iecured, r ^-i j nfi 1 .1 c • . t- j .u
,•' ,111 J 1 i^uii_i taCtnred at Muan, and thence lent into 1' ranee and other

the port mult be let down low enough to be covered by the , ■ --ni i,- 1 ir r 1 1 1 1 1- r

- v _ , . „ . & ; countries. i he rrencn alio ule the word bombalme lor

Bombarding is not reckoned the moll honourable method
of making war, as it rather tends to do mifchief to the inha-
bitants than to the works.

BOMBARIN, in Zoology, the name ufed by fome old

fole of the embrazure. Previous to its being let down, a
foar mull be lalhed acrofs it, to which the tackles for raif-
ing it again mull be fixed : this fpar ferves to project the
tackles clear of the explofion.

4. The mortar'i mull not be fired through tlie embrazure
at a lower angle than 20 degrees, nor with a greater charge
than jibs, of powder.

5. Previous to firing, the doors of the bulk-head, under
the quarter-deck, mu!l be lliut, to prevent the cabin being
injured by the explofion.

6. The bed mu!l be wedged in the circular curb, as foon
as the mortar is pointed, to prevent rc-action ; the firll
wedge being driven tight before the rear ones are fixed, in

ilufl made of cotton, more properly called dimity.

BOMBAST, in Rhetoric, denotes z. Jlyle too high and
pompous for the fubjedl; and occafion ; or a certain manner
oi elocudon and adlion, which is grand when fupported by
dignity in the fentiment, and force in the expreflion, but
never tails to appear ridiculous v.here the fentiment is mean,
and the exprcllion flat. See Style.

BOMBAX, in Botany, (a name given to the common
cotton tree by Scrapion an A-Vvabian phyfician in the begin-
ning of the ninth century ; Pliny had before called cotton
Bombyx. Gr. ^'./.y.pa.\. Suid.) filk cotton. Lm. Gen.
835. Reich. 901. Schreb. 1127. Juffieu. 275. Willdcn.

orde'r to gi\-e the full bearing on the table, as well as the 1284. I, a Marck. Fromagcr. Clafs, monadelphia polyan

rear of the bed.— The holes for dog-bolts mull be corked dria. Nat. Ord. Coliimnrfene — liLihacea. Jufs.

up, to prevent the fparks fi-Uing into them. Gen. Char. Cnl. permanent, either of one leaf, tubular-

7. When any fiicUs are to be ul'cd on board the boir.b, campanulate, three, four, or five cleft ; or of five unequal

they mull be fixed on board the tender, and brought from leaves. Cor. either five petals, or one petal five-cleft.

thence, in boxes in her long-boat ; and kept aiong-fide the
bomb-lliip till wanted, carefully covered up.

8. In the old conllructed bomb-velfcls it is neceflar\- to
hoill out the booms ; and raft them along-fidc previous to

Stam. filaments five or more, connate at t!ie bafe, fome-
times flightly, fometimes tnbnlar. /";/?. germ fnpcrior,
turbinate-obloiig. Stigma capitate, with five teeth more or
lefs developed. Prricarp. large ovate-oblong, membranous

firin" ; but in thefe new ones, with embrazures, only the and almoll woody, five -celled, five-valved. Seeds Tinmerom,
boats need he hoilled out ; after which the murtars may be round, woolly. Rtccpl. colnmuar five corneitd, fonniag the
prepared for aciiuu in 10 miniitts. See litTen. pariitions.

5 A ? Elf.

BOM

£(r. Char. Cal. fimple. Capfule fomewhat woody, five-
celled, five-valved. Seeds woolly. Recepl. five-cornered.

Species, i. B. fentandrnm. (La Marck Tab.
587.) •* Flowers pentandrous." Linn. " Anthers bent ;
leaves in fevens." Willden. A tree fixty or eighty feet
high. Bark, greenifli, ftnooth, eafily feparated from the
wood ; often fprnikkd, cfpecially when young, with large,
conic, fpinous tubercles; branches, near the fumniit, pen-
dant ; leaves 011 long petioles, digitate, folioles from live to
nine, either entire or ferrate, lanceolate, ending in a point ;
flowers in a fimple umbel; partial peduncles about an inch
long, with fcveral alternate braftcs ; petals five, white and
velvety without, linooth, concave, and 6f a purple or deli-
cate rofe colour within ; anthers two or three, on a filament,
twilled together ; fruit half a foot long, fliaped like a cu-
cumber, very (lender at its bafe ; feeds oval with a fliarpilh
point, enveloped with a great quantity of (hort dark cotton
which is not fpun, but ufed for Huffing pillows, mattralfes,
&c. Rnniphius fays that the valves open at the bafe.
Plumier afferts the contrary. Jacquin, who faw the living
plant in fruit, gives no information on the fuhjeft. A na-
tive of both Indies. Cultivated by Mr. Miller in 17^9.
2. B. eriatithos. (Cavan. Tab. 152.) " Flowers pentandrous ;
anthers fimple, ereft ; leaves in fevens." Willd. Trunk very
fpinous ; leaves terminated by a filament, very fmooth ;
calyx Ihort and very large ; petals three inches long, whitifli,
covered without with a (hurt thick down, fmooth within,
concave, and rounded at their extremity ; tube formed by the
h)wer part of the filaments, bottle (baped ; anther linear,
longitudinally fixed to the upper part of the filament. Found
by Commerfon in Brazil. 3. B. pyreinudak. " Stem with-
out thorns; leaves cordate, angular; flower pentandrous ;
anthers united ; fruit very long, pyramidal." Cavan. A
large tree with very fpreadiiig branches ; wood white and fo
light that fifiiers ul'e it inftead of cork ; bark thick, fibrous,
cinereous, marked with whitilli fpots, and reddidi wrinkles ;
leaves a foot in diameter, rtrongly nerved, green on the up-
per, ycUowifii and downy on the lower furfacc, on long and
thick petioles ; flowers numerous on long peduncles ; coroll
large, monopetalous, campanulatc, deeply divided into five
fegmcnts ; calyx large, reddilh, green, campanulate, with
five blunt divifmns ; filaments five, thick, fupporting as
many large nearly arrow-lhaped anthers which are fpirally
imited and cnclofe the fummit of the llyle ; ftyle reddifli,
club-fliaped, marked at the end with five fpiral furrows ;
caplule furrowed, from eight to ten inches long ; feeds very
fmall, fomewhat cgg-fliaped, enveloped with fine, fhort,
reddilh cotton. A native of the Antilles. ^. Y>. grandlflura.
" Leaves in fevens j flowers pentapetalous, l.irge, polyau-
drous; ftamens unittd into a tube at the bafe/' Cavan.
Calyx large, expanding with four blunt divifions ; coroll
fuperb, of five petals, each five inches long, but narrow in
proportion to tiicir length, whitifli, flefliy at their bafe,
velvety without, I'mooth within, and rounded at their ex-
tremities, inferted at the bafe of the tube of the filaments,
which is naked, entire in its whole length, and terminated
by a prodigious number of red filaments a little fliorter than
the coroll ; anthers kidney-fliaped, fmall and loofely attached
to the filaments ; ilyle filiform, thick, longer than the
ftamens, with five fmall teeth ; fruit unknown. Defcribed
by Cavanilles from a fpecimen in the Herbarium of Thouin.
It grows about Rio-janeiro. 5. B. Cahi. " Flowers
polyandrous ; leaves in fives." Linn. Trunk clofely armed
with ihort, ilrong fpines, fo large as to be hollowed out into
canoes of twenty-five tons burden ; calyx fmall, campanu-
late, with five fmall teeth ; coroll monopetalous ; tube
ftraight, twice as long as the calyx j border divided into five

BOM

long, concave cbtufe fegments ; filaments nuinerous, pro-
ceeding from five dillinft bodies, which are united at the
bafe and form a conic tube adhering to the bafe of the
coroll ; anthers oblong, loofe ; germ fomewhat ovate, with
five angles ; capfule oblong, fmall at the bafe ; feeds nearly
round, covered with down, which is ufed by tiie lower ranks
to iluff pillows and chairs. A native of South America,
near Carthagena. Cultivated at Hampton Court in 1692,
6. B. heptaphyllum. " Flowers polyandrous ; leaves in fe-
vens." lAna. " Stamens in five bodies." Cavan. A
tree fifty feet high, fix feet diameter at its bafe ; wood foft,
light, and brittle ; bark thick, cinereous, fpinous when
young; leaves digitate ; calyx four cleft ; flowers numerous,
large, odorous ; coroll of five petals, downy without, at-
tached by its bafe to the bottom of the tube of the fila-
ments ; filaments very numerous, kidney-fliapcd, fliorter
than the coroll, loofely attached ; fruit elongated. 7. B.
glohofum. " Leaves in fives or fevens, obovate, emarginate ;
fruit globular." WiUd. (Aub. Guian. Tab. 281.) A
tree thirty feet high ; trunk a foot and a half in diameter ;
leaves palmate, green, fmooth, oval, obtufe, (lightly crenu-
lated at the fummit, the middle one the largell, on long
petioles, with two long, pointed, caducous ftipules at their
bafe ; flowers unknown ; fruit in axillary and terminating
racemes. A native of Cayenne. 8. B. grj/fypium. " Leaves
five-lobed, acuminate, tomentofe beneath." Linn. A
large tree with green, nearly fmooth bark ; leaves alternate
on long, (lender, pubefcent petioles; flowers large, in fimple
panicles on downy peduncles ; calyx of five unequal leaves ;
petals twe, as long again as the calyx, expanding, yellow ;
filaments numerous, flightly united at their bafe ; anthers
oblong, curved ; capfule oval-obtufe ; feeds kidney-lhaped.
A native of the coallof Coromandel.

The fpecies known to Linnasus were at firft placed by him
with the common cotton and its congeners, under the old
Greek name Xylon ; but afrerwards feparated on account of
the fimple calyx. Thofe with the double calyx he then
called gofiypium ; thofe with the fimple one bombax. The
fpecies of the genus bombax, as it now Hands, differ fo
much from each other in moll of the parts of frudification,
as almoll to juftify the divifion of them into dillindl genera.
The culyx, the coroll, the number and fupport of the
llamens, the form and iiilertion of the anthers, all vary :
nothing is conllant but the fimple calyx ; the five-celled,
five-valved capfule, and the woolly feeds. We have alteretl
the natural and efleiitial generic charadcrs, and fo formed
ihem as not to exclude any of the fpecies.

Propagation and Culture. Silk cotton is propagated by
feeds fown in a hot-bed in the fpring. In about two months
it fliould be tranfplanted into a fmall pot filled with fre(h
loamy earth, and piungtd into a moderate hot-bed of tan-
ners' bark. At firft it fliould be fliaded from the fun ; but
afterwards, when the weather is warm, (hould be allowed
frefii air, and frequent fupplies of water in fmall quantities,
with a nnifonn degree of heat. In autumn it muft be re-
moved into the bark-ftove and fparingly fupplied with
moiiluie. It makes a pleafing variety in a large (tove, but
is not likely to produce (lowers in England. See Miller,
Gardener's Diftionary.

BOMBAY, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Indian
Sea, near the weftern coall of Hindollan, about 7 miles in
length and very narrow, containing a very (Irong and ca-
pacious fortrefs, a large city, a dock-yard, and marine arfe-
nal. It is feparated on the N.E. by a narrow llrait from
Salfette, another ifland, and thefe two, together with the
neighbouring fliores of the continent, form a large found,
in whicli are feveral other iflands, particularly Caranjah and

Elephanta ;

BOM

BOM

Efephanta ; the latter (which fee) being famous for its fub-
terraneous temple, and both of them acquifitions from the
Mahrattas. It was flrlt talccn pofTcffion of by the Portii-
guefe, foon after their an-ival in India, and called bv them
Biion Bahia, or Good Bay, from the excellence of its har-
bour, which is fo fpacious as to accomtr.odate, as it is
affirmed, a thoufand (hips at anchor, and well (hcltered from
all winds. The Portuguefe ceded it to the Eng-lifli in
1662, as part of the dower of the Infanta, queen of Charles
II. After the kir.jj's marriage, a fleet under the command
of lord Marlborough was fent to take pofTelTion of it ; and
Sir Abraham Shipman was appointed Governor. But upon
their arrival in September 1663, the Viceroy, aftuated by
the Popilh clergy, who objected to the ceffion of the ifland
to heretics, refufed to furrender it. At length, however,
in 1664, he was terrified into compliance, and a treaty was
eftablifhed, by which Mr. Cook, upon the death of Ship-
man, was iuvefted with the pofTeffion of the ifland, in qua-
lity of Governor. By this treaty the inhabitants were to
be continued in the free exercife of their religion, and in the
undilUirbed pofTeffion of their eftates under the crown of
England. Although the trade of Bombay was at this time
very profperous, it was foon found, that the royal revenues
were not fufficient for defrayinor the charge of the eftabliOi-
ment, and that the trade itfelf was fubjeft to very confider-
able obftruclioiis ; fo that the king found it expedient to
make a ftill grant in fee-tail of the port and territory to our
Eafl India Company, which was done by charter, dated
26th March 1 663, and thus they have continued to hold it
to the prefent time.

The city of Bombay, the principal port and fcttlcment
of the Englifh in this part of India, is fituated in the
northern part of the ifland, N. lat. 18° 58', E. long. 72"^
38'. It is about a mile in length, but narrow; and de-
fended botli towards the fea and land with various fortifica-
tions, which have been conlirufted at a great expence, and
which have rendered it the moil confiderable fortrefs in
India. On the ifland alfo there are fmall forts fufficient for
protefting it from any irruption of the Indians ; and in the
harbour there are bafons hewn out in the rock, for the pur-
pofe of careening fliips. The houfes of Bombay are in ge-
neral neither fplendid nor commodious; but there are feveral
handfome buildmgs, among which are the governor's pa-
lace, and a large, elegant church near it ; the houfes are not
flat-roofed, as they are in other parts of the Eafl, but they
are covered with tiles in the European fafhion. The Englifh
have giafs windows. The other inhabitants of the ifland
have their windows of fmall pieces of tranfparent fhells
framed in wood, which render the apartments very dark.
The foil of the ifland is fterile, and incapable of any great
improvement ; its chief produce confifts of cocoas and rice,
befides mangoes and fome Indian fruits. It drawi a con-
fiderable fupply of provilions from the continent, and from
the fertile ifland of Salfette. Large quantities of fait are
manufactured on the fhore, from the fea-water that f5ows
into pits adapted to this pui-pole. The fea-breezcs and fre-
quent rains cool the atmoCphere, and render the climate of
this ifland temperate ; and though the air is not fo pure as
at Madras, yet it is much more wholcfome than at Bengal ;
the coaft of Malabar being pretty healthy, though lefs fo
than the coall of Coromandel. The ifland of Bombay has
been rendered much more healthy than it was formerly, by
a wall, which has been built to prevent the encroachment of
the fea, where it formed a fait marfh, by draining the marfhes
in its environs, and by an order that none of the natives
ftiould manure their cocoa-nut trees with putrid fifli. Ne-
verthelefs, many Europeans, efpecially on their firll arrival,

are feized with fevers, fluxes, and other dlforders, which
prove fatal ; and others fliorten their days by not adhering
to a mode of life fuitable to the climate. The natives, how-
ever, and others, who abllain from excefs of animal food
and ftrong liquors, enjoy a good fliare of health, and live to
a confiderable age. The want of frefh water is an incon-
venience to which the inhabitants are fubjecl ; the btft being
that which they preferve in ciflerns afcer rain ; whereas that
which is fupplied by their wells has a brackifh tafte.

This ifland is become vciy populous, in confcquence of
the toleration which is ^ranted by the Enghfh to perfons
of every religious proftfllan. The number of inhabitants is
eftimated by Nicbuhr at 140,000, and of thefe the Euro-
peans form the m.oft inco:'.fiderable clafs. The other inha-
bitants are Portuguefe, or Indian Catiu I'cs ; Hindoos, the
original pofltflbrs of t!ie country ; Ferfians from Kerman ;
Mahometans of difEtrent fects ; and fome Oriental Chriflians.
The Englifh have a haudfome church at Bombay, but they
are difadvamageoufly circiimilanced with regard to officiating
clergy. The Catholics are much more numerous than the
Protcilant?, and have many pricls, as well Europeans as
Indians, who attend their lludits at Goa. The pope, many
years ago, appointed for their fuperintendance a bilhop of
Bombay, but he was difmifled by the governor of the ifland.
The Catholic churches are decent buildings, and are within
fumptuoiifly ornamented. Tlie Jews had once a college and
a fynagogue in the middle of tliis ifland ; hut the college
was converted into a country -lioufe for the Englifh governor,
and the fynagogue into a fuitc of affembly rooms.

Bombay is the feat of the Englifh government for the coafl ,
of Malabar ; as Madras is for the Coromandel coaif , Calcutta
for Bengal, and as Bencoolen was for Sumatra. Thefe four
governments, of which that of Bengal has the lupcriority and
control, are obliged, by an aft of the Britifh parliament paffed
in 1773, ('3 Geo. III. c. 63.) to afford mutual afTnlance in
cafesof extraordinary exigence. The different ellabhflimei.ts
are under fimilar adminiflration, and all procefFes between fub-
jedls of the company arc deterinmed by the law of England.
The council or regency of Bombay (as ysell as that of Ben-
gal) confiits of a governor and three members of council.
The other fervants of the company are factors and writers
of different ranks, and are fometiir.es transferred from one
department to another. The governor and members of
ccmicil of the other prefidencies are to be under the control
of the government-general of Bengal, with refpecl to
treaties with the native powers of India, levying war, making
peace, coUeefing and applying revenues, levying and em-
ploying forces, or other matters of civil and military go-
vernment ; and they are required in all cafes to obey the
orders of the faid government-general, unlefs the direftors
of thi company Ihall have fent to thefe fettlements any
contrary orders not known to the government-genei-al, ot
which, in that cafe, they are to give this governm.ent im-
mediate advice. The Court of Direitors are to appoint to
thefe feveral governments, and likevvife the commander in
cliief of all the forces, and the three provincial commanderi
in chief. All governors and counfellors are prohibited from
trading, except from the company, 24 Geo. 111. felT. a.
c. 25. 3j Geo. III. c. j2. See Bo.iRD of Controui and
Eajl India Co M P A N V .

Bombay Hooh, an ifland of America at the mouth of
Delaware rivet, about 8 miles long and 2 broad, formed
by the Delaware on the eaflcrn fide, and Duck Creek and
Little Duck Creek on the Maryland fide ; thefe are united
together by a natural canal. The N. W. end of Bombay
Hook is about 47 miles from Capes Her.lopcn and May ;
from the Hook to Reedy Ifland is 9 miles.

BOMBAZINE,

BOM

BOMBAZINE Rapids, lie on a rivei- in Lincoln coun-
ty, and dillrict of Maine in America, and are navigable for
boats witli fonie lading, at a middling pitch of water. They
took their name from Bombazine, an Indian warrior, who
was Ilain by the Englilh in attempting to crofs them.

ijOMiiA/, INE, a lak.e,fevcn or eight miles long, in the town-
fliip of C:ilUctun, county of Rutland, and ftatc of Vermont.
BOMDELLA, in Euli/mology, a fpecies of Bombvx, of
a middle fize, that inhabits Aullria, tlie wings of which are
cinereous, fprinkled with fufcous. Fabr. Mant. This is
Tin^a Bomhycella of the Vienna catalogue. (Wien. Schniet-
terl.

COMBERG, Daniel, in Biography, one of the early
printers, was a native ot Antwerp, and lettled at Venice,
wheie, in i^itj, he printed a foho edition of the Hebrew
B'ble. See Biule. He alfo began an edition of the Tal-
mud, in 1520, and completed it fome years afterwards in
eleven volumes folio. Each of the three imprefTions of this
immenfe work is faid to have co(t him ico,ooo crowns. His
whole property was devoted to the imprelhons of valuable
editions of Hebrew Bibles and rabbinical works, for which
purpofe he employed a great number, as fome fay, more
than 100 of learned Jews. Bomberg was himfelf a Hebrew
fcholar. He died about the middle of the i6th century.

BOMBIC Acid. The lilk worm has a fmall rcfervoir
near the anus, from which, when full grown, or efpecially
when in the chryfalis (late, a minute quantity of an acid liquor
is feen to ooze out. If the entire aniir.al is bruiftd, it gives a
liquor containing the ufual foft animal matters, together
with a native acid. Alcohol feparates the former, and leaves
the latter in iolution, which, by evaporation, furnifiies a
very four pungent yellow fluid, which fliews all the marks
of an acid by reddening bkie vegetables, and uniting with
alkalies and fome earths. The difcovercr, Chauflicr, con-
siders it as peculiar, and hence it has obtained a feparatc
place in the lill of animal acids ; but from analogy with the
experiments on \.\\e formic acid, and other circumllanccs, the
fcparate exillence of the boiiibic acid is very qiieftiouable.
No other chemill has yet undertaken to confirm or difpnte
the orioinai ilatement. Mem.de I'Acad. de Dij.m. 1783.

BOiVIBICHIE, in GfugmjJ.y, a town of Afia in Syria,
44 miles E. N. E. of Aleppo.

BOMBINA, in Eii/oi!io!ogy, a large fpecies of Cur cu-
l.io, dcfcribed by Eabricius, as a native of Cayenne. The
colour of this inleft is ferruginous brown, and tlie wing-cafts
ilrialed, with black elevated tubercles.

BoMiiiNA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Ran A, or frog, the
belly of which is orange, fpotted with /l-;y-bhK-, and the
pupil of the eye triangular. Blumenb. This kind appears
to be extremely variable in point of colour and markings.
In the tenth edition of the lJ;\n. Sylt. Nat. it is defcribed
as the Riina varirgntn. Iloefel, in his " Hilf ory of Frogs
and Toads," calls it Biifo igtieus, (bufo vulgo igneus di(ftus).
It is like wife La fonnante, and le couleur dc feu, of Lacepede,
and Ratia ignsa, or fire-frog, of Dr. Shaw.

The permanent varieties, if they may be fo expreffed, of
this particular fpecies, do not feem to be very conxftly af-
certained. Gmelin, upon the authority of preceding wri-
ters, conllitutes the following varieties: /3 has tiic belly black,
with clear white fpots and ip.:ckles ; ■)■ is of a fufcous co-
lour; and 0 is diftinguidied by its loud fonorous voice.

This is the fmallell of the European kinds of either the
frog or toad. The general habit refembles that of a toad, but
it is faid to hap and Iwim with as much or even greater facihlv
than the common frog. Dr. Shaw obferves, that he places
it among the frogs inilead of toads, on account of its depofit-
iijg its ova in cluilered heaps ; not in firings like the latter

BOM

animals. In Germany, Italy, and other European countries,
which this creature inhabits, it is known to delight in marfliy
places. The found of the male, which alone is vocal, is
clear and fharp, and is thought by fome to refemble, in a
very peculiar manner, that of a man giggling with laughter.
This, indeed, is not the univerfal opinion ; fome authors com-
pare it to the tone of a bell, or the note of a cuckow, for
which reafon it has obtained the name of bombycina.

This animal, according to Dr. Shaw, may be confidered
rather as an aquatic than tenellrial fpecies ; being rarely
found on land, but chiefly inhabiting tuibid Ifagnant waters,
in which, in the month of June, it depohts its fpawn, the ova
being much lari'^er in proportion than in mod others of the
genus. The tadpoles are hatched towards the end of June,
and are of a pale yellowilh brown colour ; and, when young,
are often obfervcd to hang from the furface of leaves, &c.
by a glutinous thread proceeding from the fmall tube or
fucker beneath the lower lip. They arrive at their full fize
towards the clofe of September, and at that period are re-
markable for tlie flelhy or muicular appearance of the tail,
which is ilronger in proportion than in mod other tadpoles.
About the beginning of Odober they affume their complete
or ultimate form ; and when the tail has fo far decreafed as
to be ilill a quarter of an inch in length, that remaining por-
tion becomes entirely obliterated in the fpace of about twelve
hours. The iire-frog is a lively aAive animal; leaping and
fwimming admirably well. When furprifed on land, or un-
able to elcape, it Iquats clofe to the gi-ound ; at the fame
time turning back its head and limbs in a lingular manner,
and if farther tcized and irritated, evacuates from the hinder
part of the thighs, a kind of faponaceous frwthy fluid, of no
bad fccnt, but which, in fome circumflances, has been found
to excite a flight feiilation of acrimony in the eyes and nof-
trils. This fpecies is obferved to breed at the age of three
years, and may be fuppofed to live about ten ; but this is
not entirely afcertained.

It ought not to tfcape remark, that the triangular form
of the pupil of the eye, which Gmelir. and others ctnilider as
the moll llriking criterion of this fpecies, can only be ob-
ferved in a full light, for when examined in the fliade its fhape
is circular.

BOMBOESKJE, in Zoology, the SciURUS AsiATicus
ill Le Bruyn's it. p. 434, t. 2 54.

BOMBUS, in Mfi'lidiu. See Flatulency.

BoMBUS, ill Mufir, an artificial motion with the hands,
imitating, in cadence and harmony, the buzzing of bees.
The word is originally Greek, and lignifies the buz or noife
of bees, gnats, and the like. In this fenfe, lomhiis xa^.^^.
one of the fpecies of applaufe ufcd by the ancient auditories.

BOMBYCILLA Bohkmica, in Ormlhulng\i, the name
under which BrifTon dcfcribes the Bohemian chatterer, y/;;/-
pelis Giirrulus. The fame author likcwile calls an American
variety of this bird Bomhycilla Carolincnfis.

BOMljYClNUM, in Ancient Writers, properly denoted
a fpecies of filk, brought from A..fryriaard the ifland of Cos.
In which fenfe it Hood dillinguifhed from Sericum, another
fort of lilk brought from tiic Indies.

BoMRYCiNUM velamentum. See Velamentum.

BOMBYLIUS, \\\ Entoniolog-;, a genus of Dipterous
inlects, dillinguiflied by the following charafter: beak or
fucker very long, fetaccous, flraight, nnA coidilling of two
unequal valves, with.in which three fetaceous briitles are con-
tained ; feelers two, (hort and hairy : antennx fubulate, and
connected at the b:if"e. I^inn. Gmel. &c.

The antennx of the infccls in this genus are (liort, and

contain three articulations, the lirll of which is long, the

fecund fhort, and the third or iail conical, and terminating

- in

BOM

BOM

in a kind of appendage, almoft forming a fourtli joint, as is
to be obferved with the adiftance of glalTes. Tholi? who
have carefully examined the ftrudlure ot the trunk with the
microfcope affirm, that the number of valves or briftles con-
cealed within the external bivalve (heath are four inftead of
three, as Gmclin dcfcribes them. The antennx are infcrted
at the bafe of the trunk.

Infecls of this genus have the head comparatively of a
fmall fize, of a form fomewhat rotund, and almofl wholly
occupied by the eyes. The thorax large, the abdomen
bulky, and rounded at the extremity as in the bee. Both
the thorax and abdomen are hairy, or covered v.-ith down.
The wings longer than the body, and extended hori/.ontally.
Legs long and flender.

The fize and rotundity of the body afford an excellent
natural charafter, by which this tribe of infcfts may be dif-
tinguifhed from thofe of the genera empis and alilus, with
which fome naturaliils have confounded them. The Fabri-
cian fpecics of volucella, cytherea, and anthrax, have been
referred to the bombylius gcuiis with very little propriety.

■^Fhe true bombylius is a lively aftive tribe of infefis, that
fiiblill entirely on the neclnreous juices tliey extrafrt from
flowers, with the affiftar.ce of tlieir long probofeis or trunk.
They fly with much rapidity, making all the time a foft
humming noife fimilar to that of the bee. In England the
largell fpecies (major) has acquired the name of the humble
bee fly. The infcCts of this tribe are found in the winged
ftate in the fummer, but their metamorphofe is utterly un-
known.

Only a fmall number of fpecies in this genus are at prcfent
known, namely major, medius, minor, minimus, atcr, fuf-
cus, grifeus, virefcens, and albifrons : tbefe are natives of
Europe. The extra-European kinds are 3:qualis, capenfis,
cupreus, maculatus, pygmxus, and vcrficolor.

BOMBYX, a genus of Lepidopterous infcfls,
or rather one of the iubdivi.lons of the PhaL/'ena, an ex-
tenfive genus, in which all the infefts of the moth tribe
are comprifed by Linnaeus. Fabricius, in his " Entomolo-
gia fyllematica," admits the bombyx as a genus, applying
tlie term phalaena, which Linnxus gave indifcriminately to
all the fpecies of the moth tribe, as a generical name to that
particular defcription of moths which have the palpi cylin-
drical, the tongue advanced and membranaceous, and the an-
tennae filiform.

The true definition of the bombyces, whether confidered
as a fubdivifion of the phalsena, or as conflituting a genus
of themfelves, is not fufficiently explicit. A great number
of the fpecies may be readily refLrrtd to their proper ftation
in the genus, by obferving with attention the charadters laid
down by Linnxus ; but there are others which cannot be fo
accurately diRinguifhed froiu the nodtna as we could wifli,
by the affUlance of thofe cliaraclers. If, for inftance, we
advert to the earlier editions of the I.innxan Syilema naturse,
we (hall find even in the fmall number of fpecies which that
iiaturalill defcribes, that the greateil confullon prevails in
this refpeft. Had Linnaeus been himfclf correft in his ideas
of the natural charadler of the bombyces, we are almoll per-
iuaded he would not have conlidered phalana bucephala as
a noclua, any more than domlnula, fuliginofa, jacobxie,
and fome others, which he includes as fuch in his arrange-
ment of the lepidoptera.

I^innaeus thought at firft the pefilnated antenns of the
lepidoptera a fufBcient criterion of the bombyces, provided
the wings were incumbent and deprcffed, while the iiiftfl
remained in a reft'nij nofition, becaufe thegeometrx, though
often furniflied with pectinated antennx, have the wings ex-
panded, horizontally wher. ut rell. But later obfu'vatjons of

other naturalifts have determined this charafter of the bom-
byx to be infufGcient to dillinguifh it.

In the Syftema naturx, Linnxus divides the bombyces
into fcftions in the following order ; the elingues, or thofe
without a manifeft fpiral tongue, and the fplrilin^ues., having
an involuted fpiral tongue. Thefe two principal feclions are
fubdivided again ; the clingues, into thofe with the back
fmoothornot crefted, — with expanded wings, — with reverfed
wings, — with deflefted wings, — with ereft crefls, or tufts on
the back ; and ihejpiillingnes, thofe fmooth, with expand-
ed wings, — with deflected wings, — and with the back crelled.

This mode of arrangement is entirely fuperfeded by the
Entomologia Syflematica of Fabricius. The htter writer
takes his characters, as ufual, chiefly from the tongue and
palpi. His bombyx is thus generically dcfcribed ; feelers two,
compreffed, reflected ; tongue fhort, and membranaceous;;
antennae filiform. By this many of the Linnsan bom-
byces are excluded, for the reception of which he ellablifhes
two other genera, thofe of Coffus and Hepialus, both of
which moll Urictly appertain to the Linnsan bombyces.
The bombyx coffus gave I'abricius the idea of forming a
diiUnft genus of the fpecies analogous to this infect. The-
characters he lays down f.ir the coffus are thefe ; the palpf
or feelers two, compreffed, cylindrical; with no tongue;
and the antennas fhort and filiform. His hepialus has two
hairy feelers, between which is the rudiment of a biiid
tongue ; and the antennx are moniliform.

Gmelin, in the lalt edition of the Syfl. nat. endeavours
to reconcile the Fabrician genera as fubdivifions to the prin-
cipal Linnsan genns Jy/jul^na. His bombyces confiil of the
attaci, which have the wings expanded, and tiie bombyces
(llrittly fo) which have not the wings expanded, and thefe
latter are again arranged in fubdivilions in the following or-
der: lirll, thofe with reverfed wings, as in quercif'lia; fecond,
thofe with dcfledttd wings, as in hucephala and liele; thirds
thofe with incumbent wings, as in anttqua ; and fourth, thofe-
with convoluted wings, as in lellu. The four famlHcs, into
which Olivier feparates the bombyces, fcarcely differ from
the preceding ; they confill of thofe with expanded wings,
with wings reverfed, with wings bent down (defledted), and
with wings recovered (incumbent).

The bombyces are to be confidered as a true natural fa-
mily of the moth tribe, which for the moft part may be
diilinguilhed by the cafual obferver, who will attend to the
ftrudiure of the antennx, the form of the body, the pofition
of the wings, and fome few other partic\ilars to be men-
tioned hereafter. The antennx, which are fihform, and
either peclinated or ciliated, differ greatly in the two fexes of
the fame fpecies ; the male being generally diilinguiflied by
having the antenna: much broader, or larger, than in the
other fcx. The thorax of the bombyx is rather m.ore bulk}-,
and the body thicker than in the nodlua:, efptcially in th.e
females. Thus far confiftcnt with the l^iunsan character ;
hut a flrici attention to the feelers and ftrufture of the
tongue, as Fabricius obferves, will be alfo neceffary to deter-
mine many of the bombyces, which approach fo clofely to
the nodtux as not to be accurately dijlinguifhed by any other
means. For this rcafon Fabricius is commendable in having
endeavoured to define the precife limits between the bom-
byces and iheir analogous tribes: his character is more defi-
nite than that which Linn:eus had previoufly alfigned to this
family. The difcrimiiiation of Fabricius is obvious in fepa-
rating the two tribes or genera of coffus and hepialus from
the bombyces, under which head Linnsus comprehends
them ; for thofe iiiftdts certainly form dillindl natural fa-
milies, both in their general appearance, their metamor-
phofes, chtir habit.s of life, and other peculiarities, from that

which.

BOM

which ought to be confidercd as the natural faniily of bom-
byces.

The infefts of the bombyx trihe never fly except in the
evening. During the day time tliey fccrete themfelves un-
der the leaves, or beneath the branches, in the clefts of trees,
where they may remain fccurc till about fun-fet, at which time
they appear to be on the alert, at firll crawling about the
branchts, then fluttering their wings, and becoming brilkcr
in all their motions as the evening comes on. The larger
fort of moths, which we fee firll llarting from the woods or
hedges after fome of the gcometne, are the fii'tfts, the
Fabrician hepiali, which fly fwiftly as their trivial name im-
plies, but low or near the furface of the gromid ; thefe at
twilight are fuccecded by the bumbyces and noituae, whofe
flight is more elevated. They continue to fport about till
it becomes quite dark. The males of the bombyccs are
commonly firlt upon the wing in learch of the females,
wljich latter arc in fome few fpecits entirely deftitutc of
wings, or at hall have only the rudiments of thejn clofc to
the thorax ; in which cafe the female waits upon the trees or
herbage for the arrival of the male ; the female of bombyx
antiqna, the vapourer moth, is a Uriking proof of this, for
it has fo little the appearance of a moth that any one, except
an tntomologilt, would millake >X for an apterous or wing-
lefs infeft. 'I'hofe females which have wings are commonly
larger even than the males.

The bombyces are produced from a larva, or as it is more
ufually termed by common obfervers, a caterpillar. This
is of a long cyhndrical form, having in fome fpecies afmooth
flcin, or in others more or Icfs tuberculatcd ; fometimes
the fl<in is covered with a fine filky down, or with hairs ;
and fome of the larger kinds are armed with fpines and
brillles. All tlielarvx of the bombyces fubfill on vegetables.
Their jaws are llrong, and of a horny texture, and below
them is a fmall opening, through which the creature draws
the filky thread o! fo much utility in its general economy.
Mofl of tliefe larva; have fixteen feet, fome have only fourteen
fei.t, and others no more than twelve, fix of which are hooked,
and fituated on the three firll annulations near the head, the
others towards tiic lower extremity of the body are (hort,
broad, and very different in ilruftnre.

The greater number of fpecies in the~ bombyx tribe, when
in the larva ilate, lead a folitary life, in which cafe they
fcparate as foon as they are hatched from the eggs, and
crawl about to provide for themfelves, the fmalleft of thefe
even being able to obtain its own fnbfillence ; they can eat
as readily, and fpin, or throw out the filky thread with as
much facility as when grown bigger. The latter is of con-
fidcrable utility to the larva, for when it wiflies to defcend
from one branch of the trse or bufli to another, inflead of
being obliged to puvfue a circuitous courfe, by crawling or
walking, it need onlj fallen one end of the fillien thread to
any particular fpot and lower itfclf by its aflillance to the
branch defired j or when fulpended mid-way between the
branches, it can pafs alide with a fwing to any other point
within a eouvcuient dillance. In like manuer, when obferved
by birds or other enemies, it can drop in au inllant and
elude the enemy, wsiiting concealed below among the leaves
or on tlie ground till the danger is over, and then remount-
ing to the former fpot by the aid of this thread. This is a
provifion of nature foi the ftcnrity of the larvx of the bom-
byces, in common with tliat of other Icpidopterous infefts.

Some Ipeeits of the bombyces live in focii ties, as may be
obfervtd, for infl;anee, in bomlyx m-ujlna of entomologllls,
(the kcL-y-moth of Englifh coileftors). The iarvse of this
fpecies, by their united labours, fpin a capacious habitation,
in which the infant brood is hatch.ed from the egg, and after

BOM

"tmdergolng their feveral transformations finally tecoi»e

moths.

Like other larvce of the moth tribe, thofe of the bom-
byces call their fl<in feveral times. When full grown, and
approaching the pupa Hate, thofe of the bombyx kind fpiu
a fort of vveb, in which we find the moil valuable filk pro-
duced by thefe creatures at any time of their lives. The
filk fpun by the hairy larvne is obltrved to be of little value,
bccaufe the creature interweaves it with the hairs it plucks
off its flvin for this purpofe. The common filk worm {bom-
bvx mor'i), whofe cocoon coafills of the moll valuable kind
of filk, as is well known, has the fliin perfeftly fmooth, or
free from hair. There are certain fpecies of the larger bum-
byces, the larvje of which have fmooth fltins, but Hill befet
with annular feries of fpinesi or brillles, that produce very
llrong filk, and are reared with the view of obtaining the
cocoons for the manufafture or filk lu the Eaft Indies. The
breed of thefe ufeful infeSls has long been cultivated in
India, although tlie filk produced from them is very little,
if at all, known in Europe. SeeSiix. The bombyces re-
main in the pupa Hate for a certain time, varying according to
the fpecies, fome only a few days or weeks, others fix or
twelve months, two years, or even three. The fame day
that the creatures emerge from the pupa ftate they are in a
condition to perpetuate their race. Almoll immediately after
coupling the miales die ; the females live long enough to de-
pofit the eggs in a proper place for their feeurity, and where
the infant brood may find iubfiftence, after which they
perifli likewife.

The fpecies of the bombyx tribe are numerous. Thofe
already defcribed by naturahlls amount to a large number ;
and there are, in the cabinets of the curious, many more,
efpecially of the extra-European fpecies, that have never
been defcribed ; even in the colleitions of this country, thofe
of the latter defeription are numerous. The following are
defcribed by Linnceus and Fabricius, and enumerated by
Gmelin : atlas, hefperus, aurotus, cecropia, paphia, poly,
phemus, cypria, cytherea, mulitta, promothea, ei-ythrins,
ianus, megaera, hippodamia, niftitans, femiramis, boreas,
luna, epimethea, argus, pavonia, minor, media, major,
achelous, angulata, liberia, tau, jo, abas, falmonea, profer-
pina, fenellra, penelope, tyrrhea, peifpicna, armida, mili-
taris, callalia, populifolia, quercifoha, illicifolia, promula,
caffandra, capenfis, aluco, auft;ralafia;, quadricin£ta, rubi,
pruni, amphione, potatoria, ocularia, hibifci, cynira, cerafi,
pini, trifolii, quercus, ftigma, lufca, dumeti, catax, lanef-
tris, vinula, fagi, verficolor, mori, populi, eueria neuftria,
tricolor, callrenfis, franconica, taraxaconis, cinerea, mah,
avellanae, proccfiionea, pityocampa, rurea, atra, rufa, la-
gopus, imperialis, crafficornis, hyphinoe, cyane, bucephala,
helops, olcagina, caja, pudica, cafta, maculofa, virgo, me-
nete, deflorata, tarqninia, tarquinius, hebe, villica, planta-
ginis, vittata, monacha, flava, lutea, difpar, amafis, chry-
forrhoca, auriflua, bicolor, falicis, caflTmia, centrolinea men-
dica, advena, rutila, lentifera, cratacgi, eridanus, tibialis
nitidula, plumigcra, obfoleta, corones feftiva, dryas, coryli,
^ flavomaculata, nuda, furcula, curtula, reclufa anachoreta,
anaftomofis, telludo, afella, bufo, cippus, pudibundus, fco-
pularia, faleelina, tremula, caruleocephala, argentina, de-
cora, rufa, didxa, elegans tritophus, ziczac, dromedarius,
terebra, coffus, palpina trepida, querna, gnoma, arenacea,
mono, rnbea, alph;ea, purpurea, ceraria, murina, nebulofa,
ftrigofa albida, aulica, helvola, undulata. lubricipes, lota,lxta,
communimacula, comprefla, milhauferi, fprcta, lincus, ftri-
gula, begga, vnigrum, ruffula, rufina, grammica, ftriata,
matronula, parthenias, leponna, celfia, dioue, capucina,
camelina, oo, aefculi, antiqua gonollignia, paradoxa, zona,

pylotis,

BOM

pylotis, gfaminis, popularis, fulminea, gloiiofx, cnni, ro-
lea, luforia, cribrum, libatrix, leftrix, credula, dominula,
hera, faiiguinolenta, ricini, crotalarias, colon, popiileti,
ancilla, confperfa, fuliginofa, ornatrix, priverna, francifca,
jefuita, viciella, veftita, mufcella, borabella, peftineUa, an-
nulata, grilta, jacobss, rubricollis, pulchella, bella, hif-
trio, and umber. To which are to be added bombyx iigura
Donov. Ind. Inf. ; hepialus mappa Donov. Brit. Inf. ;
coflus labyrinthicus, argenteus, fituratus, and ncbulofus,
Donov. Inf. New Holland.

In adhering to the Fabrician fyftem, in preference to that
of Linnxus, we are to exclude from the foregoing liil of
bombyces the following fpecies: lagopus, roftrata, fagitta,
gemina, deflorata, and faga, all of which are to be referred
to the Fabrician genus hybL-ea : hnmuli, jodutta, liipulina,
hecta, obbqua, cama, crux teftudo, afe'la, bufo, and mappa,
fpecies of the hep'wlus genus of Fabricius : and cofTus, un-
'uiculatae, terebra, aefculi, fcalaris, pyrina, labyrinthicus,
ai-genteus, lituratus, and ncbulofus, which ftridly belong
to the Fabrician genus coffin.

Bombyx is alfo a name given to the Silk-wov?!.

Bombyx, in the indent Mujic, a kind of inftrument,
which, in Ariftotle's time, was made of a reed, calamus,
and, by reafon of its length, was dif&cult to play on.

The word feems alfo to have been ufed for a key, or con-
trivarce for ftiutling and opening the holes of wind inftru-
ments.

Bombyx, in the Ancient Naturali/Is, fignifies indifferently
either filk or cotton.

BOiSIENE, in Geography, a port town of Zealand, one
of the provinces of Holland, on the north fliore of Schouwin
ifland, one league eaft of Brouwerfhaven.

BOMING, an ifland of Afia, in the mouth of the
Ganges. N. lat. 22° 45'. E. long. 91° 25'.

BOMIO, in Ancient Geography, a ftation near Axbridge,
according to Antonine's Itinerary ; but placed by Camden
and Gale at Boverton, in Glamorganfliire.

BOMMEL, in Geography, a town of Holland, in the
iiland of Over-Flahee, 7 miles W. of Willemiladt.

BoMMEL, a ftrong town of the duchy of Gueldres, feated
on the Wahal, in the ifland of Bommel-Waert, firft fur-
rounded with a wall by Otho III. count of Gutldres, in
1229 ; 60 miles N.E. of Antwerp, and 7 N. of Bois-le-Duc.
Eommcl was taken by the republican troops of France,
Oftober 4, 1794.

BoMMEL-ZF^/iT/, a kind of ifland, in the province of
Gueldres, about five leagues in length from Louveftein N.W.
to Fort St. Andrew S.E., and two in its greateil breadth,
formed by the rivers Maes and Wahal. It is defended by
three forts, viz. St. Andrew, Voorn, and Crevecoeur.
The firft has five baftions, and was built in 1599 by the ad-
miral of Arragon, and the cardinal Andrew of Auftria,
lieutenant general of the Spaniih forces ; the fecond is fitu-
ated at a fmall ifland, called Voorn, at the eaft end of Bom-
mel-Waert, and was conftruAcd by the prince of Orange,
nnd on that account is fometimes called Fort Naflau ; and
the third is at the fouth fide of the ifland towards Bois-le-
l)uc. Thefe three forts were conftrained to furrender to
prince Maurice in the year 1600. In 1672, the French
took the ifland under marflial Turenne, who, after deftroy-
ing the fortifications, abandoned it in the following year.
At the commencement of the religious difputes, count
Charles dc Manfvelt, paffing this ifland with fome Spanifli
froops, was encompafled by feveral Dutch fliips under the
command of count Hohenlo, who ordered tlie dykes to be
opened, and thus totally inundated the ifland, fo that the
Spaniards v/ere obliged to retire to (he citadel, and would

Vol, IV.

BON

have miferably periflied, if a fudden frofthad not conftrained
the count to abandon the ficge, and to allow them liberty
to retire. In commemoiation of this deh\erance a chapel
was built at Bruffels, in honour of the immaculate concep-
tion of tiie Virgin, next the Dominican church, which, being
deftr'oycd in i''-'95, was afterwards le-built with greater mag-
nificence. In 1794, the republican troops of Fi-ance, hav-
ing compelled the Dutch to abandon Bommel, overtook
them in their retreat, and compelled a great part of them to
furrender'. They afterwards availed themftlves of the frozen
ftate of the Wahal, and were making progrefs towards Gor-
cum and Calenberg ; but they were attacked by the Britifli
troops in conjunftion with the Heffians, and driven acrofi
the river-, with the lofs of a cunfiderable number of men and
four pieces of artillery. But this temporary fuccefs was of
no permanent avail for reftraining the progrefs of the Frencli
army.

This ifland belonged to the province of Guelderland, ex-
cept the town of Louvellein, which, with a very fmall di-
ftrift at the weftern end of the ifland, belonged to Hol-
land.

BOMO, in Ancient Geography, a name given to the ifland
of Euboea, from the cattle with which it was ftored ; the
ancient Arabian word homo, or bohmo, fignifying, according
to Hcfychius, cattle, or herds of cattle. This is, probably,
the moft ancient appellation ; the ifland having been firft
peopled, as Strabo informs us, by the inhabitants of Arabia
and Phoenice.

BOMOA, in Geography, a town of North America, io
New Navarre, 10 miles S. of Cinaloa.

BOMONICA, in Ani'iquiiy, an appellation given at
Sparta to the children, who, in the lacrifices of Diana,
ftrove who fliould receive the greateft number of ilripes with
rods, which they fometimes continued to do the whole day,
and even, as Plutarch relates, to death itfelf.

The word is formed from (S^/xo,-, altar, and vixn, titdory ;
importing as much as I'lftor ad aras, or conqueror at tbt
e.liars.

BOMPART, Marcellus, \a Biography, praftifed me-
dicine at Clermont Ferrand the early part of the feventeenth
century, and was aulic counfellor to the king. No memo-
nals of his life are known ; but his work " J* lifer Homo,"
in which he gives a fuccinft account of all the principal
difeafes affli£iing the human frame, was much efteemed. It
was dedicated to Pietre, Riolan, and Guy Patin ; and to be
patronifed by them was highly creditable : alfo " Nouveau
Chafle Pcfte," Paris, 1630, Svo. ; and " Lettrcs d'lTrppo-
crates traduites et commentees," 1632, 8vo. Haller. Bib,
Med. Eloy. Dia. Hift.

BOMPEL, in GeogropJiy, a town of Hindoftan, in the
Panjab, 15 cofles eaft of Seba, and j miles S.E. of Nadone,
a town on the Beyah. N. lat. 31° 55'. E. long. 75*

57'-

BOMRAUZE, a town of Hindoftan, in the Carnatie,

58 miles W.N.W. of Madras, and 36 N. of Arcot. N. lat.

13° 24'. E. long. 79° 38'.

BOMY, a town of France, in the department of the
ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton in the diftriift
of St. Omei-, 8 miles S.W. of Aire.

BON, John, Le, in Biography, a native of Anterville,
in Champagne, and eminent in his time for his knowledge
in medicine, phyfician to the king of France, and to the
cardinal de Gurfe, pirblilhed, in 1571, " Therapeia Puero-
rum," i6to. Paris, " induced to it," he fays, " by the ig.
norance of the furgeons, midwives, and tonfors, who at-
tended women iu child-birth. By their blunders and inex-
pertnefs iji their art, many women loft their lives, and many
j B children

BON

children were 3eftroyed." His work is \'e\j full on tlie
fubjoi-t, giving rules for the management of women before,
during, and after parturition. He has left formulse for a
variety of ointments, with which he direfts the pudenda of
the women to be anointed, and which he thought conduced
much to accelerate the birth of the child. When thefe
failed, lapis xtites was to be tied to one of the thir^rhs of the
woman, and polipody of the oak to the feet. But thcfe,
he gravely admonillies, are to be taken away as foon as the
child is born, left they fhould draw away the womb alfo.
Such mighty power was attributed to thtfe trifles ! It is
probable, however, that the author only meant by thefe
proceffcs to gain time, and to prevent the too hafty interfer-
ence of the midwivts, furgcons, &c. ; and as there was no-
thing in the remedies that could injure the woman, who
■would fiequtntly be delivered by the natural pains, during
their ufe, he might nux. be forry to find the attendants attri-
buting the lafety of the woman and child, and the happy
termiiiation of the labour, to them. Whatever his real opi-
nion might be, it is certain, that, among the people, thefe
kinds of remedies acquired great credit, and the ufe of them
was continued for near a century after his time. Among
other objects that engrofled the attention of this writer, we
find him giving formulx for ointments for fmoothing the
wrinkles of the abdomen, and for preventing the breafts of
women who had borne children from becoming large and pen-
dulous. " Ne venter rugis indscoru ,"he fays, "ct llatens, eas
viris fuis ingratas, parum amabiles, ct abominar.das reddat ;
lie mamniK in majorem molem extendantur." His book ap-
pears to have been in great requeft, as it paflcd through
many editions, and isinferted in the " Colleftion of Treatifes
on diforders attending pregnancy and child-birth," by Caf-
arWoltius, pubh(hed in 1586, re-edited by If. Spachius,
"ol. 1597, under the title of " Gynecia, five de mulierum
morbis," from which the above quotations have been taken.
Haller. Bib. Med.

Bon, John Philip, probably of the fame family with
John le Bon, publifhed, at Padua, " De Concordantiis Phi-
lofophis et Medicince," 4to. 1573 ; he was alfo author of
feveral poetical works, which were much efteemed in their
time. Eloy. Dift. Hift.

Bon, in Botany, {Affirms). See Coffea.
Bon, Ca/ie, in Geography, called by the Moors Ras-
Addar, and the promontory of Mercury, or Hermes, of the
ancients, is a cape of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis,
in the Mediterranean fea, diftant 11 leagues E.S.E. from
that of Zibeeb, and forming the eaftcrn point, as Zibceb
does the weftern, of the gulf of Tunis. It is fo high, that
from its fummit the mountains of Sicily, diftant more than
20 leagues, may be difcovered i.:i fair weather. See JKci-
MURVS, and Dakhul. Cape Bon is fituated about N.N.E.
from Tunis. N.lat. 36=50'. E.long. 1 1° ij'.

Bon, in Modern hijiory, the name of a feaft celebrated
annually by the Japanefe in honour of the dead. On this
occafion they ufe a great number of lights, and run with
cagernefs to the tombs of their departed relations with fuch
choice meats as they conceive to be fuited to the tafte and
jiourilhment of the dead.

Bon, Fr. ; Buono, Ital. ; as terns Ion, and tempo luono,
ufed, in Mufic, to exprefs the accented parts of a bar. It
is the firft note of binary meafure of two minims or two
crotchets in a bar ; the firft note of the ternary meafure of
I or |, and the firft and third notes of common time. It
is oppofed to terns mama'is and tempo cut/ivo, the unaccented
part of a bar. The French, at prefent, diftinguifh thefe
portions of a bar by the terms terns fort and terns faille, ftrong
and weak, and almoft loud and foft parts of a bar. It is on

I

BON

the accented part of a bar that a difcord regularly prepared
is ftruck, and refolved on the unaccented part.

BONA, John, Cardinal, in Biography, was born at
Mondovi, in Piedmont, in 1609, and entered at an early
age into a reformed congregation of Cillertians. After
having ftudied philofophy and theology at Rome, he re-
turned to his own country, and became, in 1 65 1, general
of the congregation ; and he was, at length, viz. in 1669,
nominated a cardinal by pope Clement IX. Upon the
death of this pontiff, he was thought of as a fit perfon to
fucceed him ; but another was eledted. The cardinal fpent
the remainder of his days in ftudy and pious exercifes, and
died at Rome in 167+. He was the author of feveral works,
chiefly of a devotional kind ; fuch as, " De Divina Pfalrao-
dia, deque variis ritibus omnium ecclefiarum in pfallendis di-
vinis ofRciis," 4to. containing an hillorical account of the
praftice of pfalmody in theChriilian church ; and " Rerum
Liturgicarum libri duo," 4to. giving a fimilar account of
the celebration of the niafs. Both thcfe works have been
often reprinted ; and of the latter an edition much enlarged
was publifhed at Turin, in 1747, by father Salas, in 4 vols,
fol. Gen. Dift.

Bona, John de, profefTor of medicine at Padua, pub-
lifhed, 1758, " Hiftorine aliquot curationum, mercurio fab-
limato corrodente, perfeftarum," Veronae, 410. This me-
dicine was much commended by baron Van Swieten, and
forms probably the bafis of moft of our uoftrums celebrated
for their power of removing pimples, blotches, &c. from
the face and other parts of the fliin. It was intended by
the author to fuperfede falivation in the cure of lues vene-
rea, and in fome cafes it has been ufed with complete fuc-
cefs ; but it too often difappoints the expcftation of the
prefcriber, to be entirely depended on. " Traflatus de
Scorbuto," 4to. 1761. The author fhcws that this difeafe,
though moft frequent in cold marfhy places, is not unfre-
quent in warm countries. " Dell ufo e dell abufo dell
caffe," Venet. 1761. Coffee, which is hot and drying,
fliould only be ufed, he fays, by perfons of cold phlegmatic
conltitutions. In the quantity it is iiTually taken in this
country, it will fcarce be hurtful to any habit or conflitu-
tion. " Obfervationes medicje ad praxim in nofocomio.
anno," 1765, 8vo. Patav. 1766. Haller Bib. Anat.

Bona, in Botany, [Dodoens). See Vicia Narlonenfts,
and Faba.

Bona Nox. See Smilax.

Bona, in Geography, a fea-port' town of Africa, in the
eaftern or Levantine government of the kingdom of Algiers,,
and province of Conftantina ; known to the Moors by the
name of Blaid el Ancb, or the town of ju'iebs, from the
plenty of fruit which is gathered in the neighbourhood.
Bona, fays Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 46.), is, without doubt,
a corruption of Hippo, or Hippona, though the rivers of
the ancient Hippo-regius are fituated fomewhat more than a
mile to the fouth, and furnifhed materials for theeredlion of
Bona, which is the Aphrodifium of Ptolemy, and placed bv
him 15' to the north of Hippo. Bona was formerly rich and
populous, but is now poorly built and thinly inhabited.
Bona, bcfides its capacious harbour to the eaft, had for-
merly a convenient little port under its walls towards the
fouth ; but by the conftant difcharge of ballaft into the one, _
and a negleft of cleanfing the other, both are rendered
unfafe and incommodious. However, a great quantity of
corn, wool, hides, and wax, are every year permitted to be
fhipped off from this place ; and, by proper management,
it might be rendered the moft: flourifhing city in Barbary ;
and, by introducing a fupply of frefh water, it would alfo
become one of the moft convenient and delightful. The

adjacent

BON

BON

adjacent country produces corn and fruit, and great num.
bers of fmall and large cattle, but is much expofed to the
incurfions of the plundering Arabs. The French have a
faftory at Bona, where they purchafe corn, oil, leather,
wax, and wool, and conftantly keep a refident agent, who
has charge of the correfpondence between Bona, Algiers,
La Calle, and Marfeilles. N. lat. 57°. \V. long. 7° 50'.

Bona Foriuna, Cape, is a cape of Ruffia, in the White
Sea. N. lat. 6f 35'. E. long. jS- 25'

Bona Shoals. See Bassaws.

Bona Dea, \}at good goddefs, in Mythology, a niyderious
kind of divinity, vvhofe name was unknown to men, and
wliofe facred rites, performed by the Veftal virgins for the
fafety of the Roman people, were attended only by women.
Some have fuppofcd that this name belonged to C) bele, or
the earth, as the fource of all good things. Plutarch con-
founds her with Flora. Varro pretends that fhe was the
wife of Faunas ; and that file maintained her charafter for
challity to fuch a degree, as never to allow herfelf to look
upon any man befides her hufband. Laclantius, on the
contrary, fays, that this wife of Faunus, having drank wine
in violation of the prevailing cuftom of the period in which flie
lived, was whipped to death by her hulband with rods of myr-
tle; and that he, afterwards repenting of the deed, and lament-
ing the lofs of his wife, placed her in the rank of divinities.
The feafts of the Bona Dea were annually celebrated, with
pecuhar folemnity, on the iirft day ot May. The houfe, in
•which the rites of the fellival were performed, was adorned
at a great expence ; and as the night was the feafon appro-
priated to this purpofe, the apartments ivere illuminated
with a great number of lights. The veftals were conveyed
into the houfe of the fovereign pontiff, or one of the chief
magiilrates ; and care was taken to exclude all males, and
all animals of this fpecies ; and every thing mafculine was
fo fcrupuloufly excluded, that even piftures of that fort
were covered during the ceremony. To this purpofe, Ju-
venal (vi. 339- ) fays :

" ubi velari pidlura jubetur

Quascunque alterius fexus imitata figuram eft."

It was fuppofed, that if a man by <:hance, and without
any deliberate intention, became the witnefs of thcfe myite-
ries, he would be ftruck blind. Clodius, however, was
guilty of polluting tliefe myfteries. Whilft Pompeia, the
wife of Ca;far, with whom he had an intrigue, was, accord-
ing to annual cuftom, celebrating in her houfe the awful and
myllic facrifices of the " Bona Dea," Clodius determined to
gain accefs to his miftrefs, even in the feafon of her holy mi-
niftry. Accordingly, he drcffed himfelf in a woman's habit,
and by the benefit of his fmooth face, and the introduction
of one of the female fervants who was in the fecret, hoped
to pafs without difcovery. But by fome miftake between
him and his guide, he loll his way when he came into the
houfe, and unluck'ly fell in among the other female fer-
vants, who, detefting him by his voice, alarmed the whole
company by their Ihrieks, to the great amazement of the
matrons, who prefently threw a veil over the facred myfte-
ries, while Clodius found an opportunity of making his
efcape by the favour of fome of the damfcls. This tlory
was prefently fpread abroad, and raifcd a general fcandal
and horror through the whole city. Cifar put away his
wife upon it ; and perfons of all ranks were defirous of
a\ ailing themfelvcs ot this circumftaiice to get rid of a citi-
zen, who, by this, as well as other fpecimens of his auda-
cioufnefs, feemed born to create mucli dillurbance to the
frate. It had been the conftant belief of the populace, that
if a man (hould ever pry into thefe myfteries, he would be
iuftantly deprived of fight j but it was not poflible, as Ci-

cero fays, to know the truth of it before, till Clodius ven-
tured upon the experiment ; though it was now found, as
he tells him, that the blindnefs of the eye was converted to
that of the mind. The aftair was foon brought before the
fenate, and by them referred to the college of priefts, who
declared it to be an abominable impiety : upon which the
confuls were ordered to provide a law for bringing Clodiu«
to a trial for it before the people. Clodius's faftion, how-
ever, ultimately prevailed ; and when the trial came to the
iffue, 1-, condemned, and 31 abfolved him. When Cxfar,
on this occafion, was fummoncd to give evidence, h-" de-
clared, that he knew nothing at all of the matter, though
his mother Aurelia, and fifter Julia, who were examined
before him, had given a punctual relation of the whole faft ;
and being interrogated, how he came then to part with his
wife ? he replied, " that all who belonged to him ought to
be free from fufpicion as well as guilt." Cicero, in his ora-
tion for Milo againft Clodius, often refers to this facrilege,
with a view of rendering his adverfary odious to the people.
Many Roman writers have exclaimed againft the licentiouf-
nefs and infamy of thefe myfteries, called by way of emi-
nence the Roman myfteries, and celebrated on the 4th of
December, though thofe of the goddefs Cybele were cele-
brated on the firft of May. Neverthelefs, this goddefs is
called holy in an infcription recorded by Gruter, " Bonse
Deas SanSd facrum, &c." Lucretius (ii. 598.) depifts the
good goddefs as bearing a mural crown, and drawn in a cha-
riot by lions. She is alfo thus reprefented on the medals of
the emperor Philip. The Gieeks alfo had their good god-
defs, whom they denominated the goddefs of women ; and
the Carthaginians paid divine honours to a goddefs under
this appellation, whom they believed to be Juno.

Bona Fides, or Bona Fide, is ufed in fpeaking of things

done with an honeft intention, in oppolition to thofe

done with a deiign of fraud and deceit, faid to be mala

fde. In this fenfe, we fay, a grant, a conveyance, bona

fde.

In many cafes, in the civil law, the bonajide of an action
excufes the want of fome of the cuftomary forms.

Contrafts honicjide'i, among C'liiil'ians , ftand contradiftin-
guifhed from thote Jiridi juris ; the former being gained by
plain honefty and confcience, which fometimes include feve-
ral things not exprefsly mentioned ; whereas the latter arc
reftrained to the exprefs terms of the deed. A buyer bond
Jidei, is he who really believed the thing to belong to the
feller at the time when he purchafed it. A poffeffor bona
Jidei, is he who is in pofTcflion of a thing belonging to ano-
ther, but which he truly beheves his own. To be entitled
to the benefits of next acccffion, it is requifite the perfons
have poffelfed the thing bona Jide, or reaUy thought them-
fclves the proprietors.

Prefcription cannot arife from z&.s done mala Jide ; fince
what was unjuft in its origin, can never be made juit by
time and continuance. See Prescription.

B0S.E Fide: yiclions, thofe wherein for farther light, the
judge might take cognizance of things not mentioned be-
tween the parties.

Bona Fide Judgment, that wherein the parties are obliged
to pay each other what is due bonajide, i.<. juftly and equi-
tably ; and the judge has a power of eftimatingwhat ib thus
due to the aftor or plaintiff ; a power given him by the for-
mula of the pra:tor, viz. ex Jide bona, xel quantum equius
melius.

Bona Gejlura. See Good /1-bearing.

Bona Gratia, a phrafe anciently ufed in fpeaking of

divorces, which were brought amicably about for fome juft

reafon, with the confent of both parties, and without any

5 B 2 crime

BON

crime on the part of either, as in cafe of old age, difeafe,
barreiinefs, monachifm, captivity, or the like.

Bona rfefunai ad collignuliim. See Colligendum.

Bona Alob'tlia. See Mobilia.

Bona Notabilia, in Law. Where a perfon dying has
goods, or good debts, in another diocefe, but within the
fame province, befides his goods in the diocefe where he
dies, amounting to the vaUie of five pounds at leaft, he is
faid to have bona notalUia : in which cafe, the probate of his
will, &c. belongs not to the bifhop of the diocefe where he
dies, whofc jurifdiftion cannot extend beyond the bounds of
his own diocefe, but to the archbithop of the province.

Though if a perfon happens to die in another diocefe
than that wherein he lives, on a journey ; what he hath
about him above the value of five pounds, &c. fliall not be
bona nolab':lia.

Bona Patna, a jury or affife of countrymen, or good
neighbours. See Assise and Jury.

Bona penfura, perifliable goods. By ftat. 13 Ed. 1.
cap. 4. the cargo of a fhip that hath been cad away fliall be
kept for a year and a day, and reltored to the rightful
owner ; but if the goods be fuch as will not endure fo long,
they are bona perilura, which the fheriff is allowed to fell,
and to account in money for the value.

Bona ■vacantia, goods, fuch as royal filh, (hipwrecks,
treafure-trove, waifs, and eftrays, in which no one can claim
a property. Thefe goods, by the law of nature, and by
the imperial law, belonged to the firft occupant or finder ;
but in the modern conilitutions of European governments,
they are annexed to the fupreme power by the pofitive laws
of the ftate.

BONACCIOLUS, Lewis, in Biography, a phyfician
of great eminence and authority, praftifed medicine at Fer-
rara, in the early part of the i6th century. His great work
" jEnneas muliebris, five de foetus formatione," was firft
publi(hed in 1503, in fol. " qua, prxter alia, plurima quo-
que ad coitum, et ad rem veneream facientia, diftione liber-
rima defcribuntur." It was neverthelefs dedicated to Lu-
cretia, daughter to pope Alexander VI. But the dedica-
tion, Blomenbach obferves, is only to be found to the folio
edition, princip. which is extremely rare. A copy of this
edition was fold by Paterfon, in 1791, with the fplendid
Paris library. This writer, Douglas fays, was the firft who
diftinguifhed the clitoris from the uymphae, and ftiewed them
to be diftinft parts. The TEnneas was again printed in 1587.
It was alfo inferted by Cafpar Wolfius in his Colleftion of
Treatifes, called " Gynecia, five de muherum morbis," 410.
1586, re-edited by If. Spachius, fol. 1597 ; and with Pi-
nxus's phyfiologlcal treatifes. Though of little value now,
the work was for a long time held in great efteem ; the au-
thor having given in it a more accurate anatomy of the
fcEtus, and of the partes generationi fubfervientes, than any
preceding writer. Douglas Bib. Hal. Bib. Anat.

BONACHI, in Geography, a town of North America,
in New Navarre, 180 miles S. of Cafa-grand.

BONACOPUS, Hercules, \n Biography, of Ferrara,
and for fome years profeffbr in medicine at Bologna, pub-
lifhed, in IJ52, " De affeftu quern Latini tormina appel-
lant, 4to. ; " De humorum exuperantium fignis ac ferapiis,
de compofitione Theriacie, de modo preparandi aquam ligni
fanfti, &c." 4to. 1553; the latter medicine was now in the
zenith of its reputation for its powers in curing the lues ve-
nerea ; " De curatione pleuritidis, ab Hippocratis, Galeni,
&c. monumentis deprompta,"4to. 155J. He died in 1558.
Bonacopus had much learning, and contributed by his works
to revive among his compatriots a tafte for literature, parti,
cularly for the works of the ancicat Creek fathers in medi.

BON

cine. His brother, or near relative, James Bonacopus, was
alfo in much efteem. He was phyfician to pope Paul III.
He died in 1553, aged 69 years. Aftruc. de Morb. Gall.
Haller. Bib. lYIed.

BONAFIDES, Francis, profeffor in the praftice of
medicine at Padua, pahhfhed, in 1^33, " Qiixftio de cura
pleuritidis per vensefedlionem, adverfus Curtium," 410. Ve-
net. He defends the praftice of the Arabian phyficians,
who recommended bleeding by the vena faphaena, on the
fide oppofite to the part affefted, in plethoric habits ; in
debilitated conftitutions, by the bafilica in the arm, of the
fide where the pain was felt ; a diftinftion not attended to
in modern praftice. Haller. Bib. Med.

BONAIRE, in Geography, an ifland almoft uninhabited,
near the coaft of South America, about 20 leagues from the
continent, and 14 S.E.of Cura9oa, belonging to tlie Dutch.
It is about 50 miles in compafs, and has on the S.W.fide, near
the middle of the ifland, a good bay and road. Here were
formerly a few houfes, with a fort guarded by a fmall num-
ber of foldiers ; and five or fix Indian families rcfidsJ here,
and cultivated maize, yams, potatoes, &c. The ifland has
plenty of cattle and goats, which are annually falted and
fent to Cura^oa. On the fouth fide is a good fait pond,
from whence the Dutch procure iait. N. lat. 12° 16'. W.
long. 68° 18'.

BONAMES, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, 3 miles N. N. W. of Frankfort on the
Mayne.

BONAMY, Peter-Nicholas, \n Biography, was born
at Louvres, in the diftrift of Paris, in 1694, and educated
for the ecclefiaftical profeffion. But, devoting himfelf en»
tirely to literature, he became under-librarian of St.Viftor,
and diftinguiflied both by the politenefs of his manners, and
the variety as well as afliduity of his ftudies. In 1727, he
was admitted a member of the Academy of Infcriptions and
Belles Lettres, and made many valuable contributions to its
Memoirs. His papers are charafterifed by fimple but correft
language, variety of erudition, clearnels of argument, and
foUdity of criticifm. At the inftigation of M. Turgot, a
place was created of hiftoriographer of Paris, and Bonamy
was appointed to occupy it. He was thus led to write va-
rious memoirs relative to the hiftoi-y and antiquities of the
city ; and on occafion of a bequeft of a curious library to
the city, he was made librarian. From the year 1747, he
condufted the " Journal of Verdun" with tlie ftrifteft pro-
priety and decorum. In univerfal efteem for candour and
probity, as well as learning, he died at Paris, in 1770/ aged
76. Gen. Biog.

BoNAMv'j Point, in Geography, lies on the fouthern fide
of Chaleur bay, at the N.W. extremity of Eel river cove,
and forms the S. limit of Riftigouche river.

BONANA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Oriolus, of a
fulvous colour, with the head and breaft chefnut ; back,
quill, and tail feathers black. Gmel.

This is called by Bnffon xanthormus, and h carouge. It
is fuppofed to xochiiototl of Hern. Mex. and xochitotl altera
of Ray. Brown names it the bonana bird.

The length of this bird is feven inches : bill black ; bafe
of the lower mandible grey ; head, neck, and breaft chef-
nut ; upper part of the back velvet black ; lower part, with
the rump, belly, thighs, and under the wings, a deep
orange red ; vent the fame, tipped with chefnut ; greater
wing coverts, quills and tail, black ; legs and claws grey.
The female differs in having the colours lefs vivid than in
the male.

The bonana bird is a native of Maitinico, Jamaica, and

the other iflands in the Weft Indies, where it chieily inha-

4 bits

BON

bits woods. The neft of this fpecies is of a curious ftruc-
ture, being compofed of leaves and fibres of vegetable, fewed
with the greateft ingenuity to the leaf of a banana plant, in
fuch a manner that the leaf itfelf forms one of the fides to
the neft ; when completed, it is faid to be exaftly in Ihape
of the fourth part of a globe.

Another bird, of a fpecies very analogous to the above,
is defcribed by Ray and Sloane under the names of 'waichy
picket, Spanjflj vigbtitigak, yfmericari haug-ncfl, and idci'us mi-
nor nidum fiifpendens . This appears to have been confounded
with the former kind. Briflbn, deeming them both the
fame, included the fynonyms of the two fpecies together,
which led later obfervers into an error. Dr. Latham fepa-
rates them ; and, upon the authority of this able ornilholo-
gift, Gmelin gives the luatchy picket as a diftinft fpecies un-
der the name of oriolus nidipendiiliu. This fpccific name is
chofen, in allufion to the manner in which the nelt is fallened
to the extremity of the further twigs of the trees in which
it hves. The neft of the bonana bird is before defcribed ;
that of the watchy picket is very different, being of a long
cylindrical form, compofed of ftalks, fibres, and the inward
hairs of the " old man's beard," which latter bears a ftrong
refemblance to horfe-hair. The two oppofite methods of
conftrufting, as well as placing the neft, as Dr. Latham ju-
dicioufly obferves, cannot furely belong to one bird. See

NiDIPENDULUS.

Obf. Gmelin places the watchy picket, with a note of
fcepticifm, as a fynonym to motacilla calidris. This might
poffibly miflead, without obferving that Sloane, Ray, S:c.
defcribe more than one bird under that name ; the latter is
the American nightingale of Edwards, and the hang-ne/l
nvarbkr of Latham, the bird called the watchy picket by
Sloane, Hift. Jam. 2. p. 299.

BONANNI, Padre Filippo, in Biography, a Jefuit,
who pubhfhed at Rome, in 1722, in 410. drawings of a
curious coUeftion of mufical inftruments, reprefented in the
hands of the performers ; entitled " Gabinetto Armonico
Pieno d'Iftromenti Sonori indicati e fpicgati — ed offerto al
fanto Re David." The collection is curious, and the in-
flruments are not ill executed ; but we are not fure that the
drawings are always correct.

BONARATTE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of the In-
dian ocean, fouth-eaft of Saleyer, ceded by the Macaffers
to a raja of Boni, in Celebes, who ufed it as a place of edu-
cation for his dancing girls, and appropriated to the fame
purpofe by the kings of Boni. It is chiefly inhabited by
Bougenefe.

BONARELLI, Guidubaldo, Count, in Biography,
an Italian poet, was born in 1563, in the palace of the duke
of Urbino, to whom his father was favourite minifter ; and,
after previous inftruftion at home, was fent to ftudy theo-
logy at Pont "a Mouffon, in France, where he made fuch profi-
ciency, that he was invited, at the age of 10, to take the chair
of philofophy at the Sorbonne. He returned, however, into
Italy, and was employed by Casfar, duke of Modena, in
fome important nego-iatiors at the courts of Rome and
France ; but incurring difgrace by his marriage, he with-
drew to Ferrara, and, in 1607, publifhed the paftoral drama
by which he acquired celebrity. This drama was acted by
the academy of " Intrepidi" at this place, of which Bona-
relli had been one of tne founders. In his way to Rome, for
the purpofe of affuming the ofRce of msjor-domo to cardinal
Efte, he was feized at Fano with a diforder, which termi-
nated his life, Jan. 8, 160S. The drama of Bor.arelli, en-
titled " Filli di Sciro," was much applauded both in Italy
and other countries at its firft appearance, and was ranked
by common opinioa next to the Aminto of Taffo, and the

BON

Paftor Fido of Guarini. Although this paftoral has many
poetical beauties, it ftrongly indicates the corrupt tafte
which then prevailed : neverthelefs it maintains its place
among Italian paftorals. Many editions of it have been
printed ; and it has been tranflated into the French and
Englifli languages. Gen. Biog.

BONARES, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Anda»
lufia ; one league from Lucena.

BONARIENSIS, in Ornithology, that fpecies of Loxia,
or groftjcak, defcribed by Bufton under the name of noir-
fouci. The head and back of the neck are blue ; body above
blackifli, beneath yellow ; belly and vent fulphur colour ;
wings and tail blackilh, edged with blue.

This bird is about fevcn inches long, and is obferved ge-
nerally to fly in pairs ; they haunt gardens, where they do
much mifchief, as they feed on feeds. The bill is blackifli;
legs reddilh ; claws acute, curved, and grooved ; the hind
claw largeft. This is the marigold grojbeak of Latham.

BoNARiENSis, a fpecies of Tanagra, that inhabits Bo-
naria. This is eight inches long ; the colour black, gloffcd
with violet, and with greenifli on the wings and tail. Gmel.
&c. Buffon calls this bird tangavio. The beak is black,
the legs blackifli, with large claws. The female is of a
brown colour, with the head black, and glofied with
blue.

BoNARiENSis, a fpecies of Motacilla, of a black co-
lour ; throat and fides ferruginous ; face, chin, middle of ■
the belly, and exterior tail feathers, white. This bird
is of the fize of a linnet ; bill blackifli ; hind-claw large. Buf-
fon calls this demi-Jin noir et roux. It is the auhite-chinned
ivarbler of Latham.

BONAROTA, in Botany, Michel, and Scopol. See

P.EDEROTA.

BONASCOLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
ftate of Genoa, near the fea-coaft, 4^ miles S.S.W. of
Brugnetto.

BONASIA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cicada {mem-
bracis, criiciata) found in America. Fabricius defcribes it
as having the thorax bicornuted, produced behind, and edged
with white ; at the bafe of the wings is a white fpot.

BoNASiA, is alfo the name of a fpecies of Papilio [He-
liconius), the wings of which are fufcous, with a common
fulvous band ; the lower pair fpotted at the bafe with
black.

BoNASiA, in Ornithology. Under this name Briffon de-
fcribes feveral fpecies of the Tetrao genus ; as forinftance,
tetrao Canadenfis he calls bonafta freti HudJ'onis ; tetrao Ca-
nace, bonafta Canadenfts ; tetrao lagopus, bonajia fcotica ; and
tetrao togatus, bonafta major Canadenfs.

BONASUS, in Zoology, one of the fynonyms of the
wild ox. See Bos Taurus.

By fome the bonafus is underftood to be that particular
kind of wild ox which has the horns bent back, and the
mane very long. Bonafus of Pliny, &c. bos cornibus in fe
flexis, juba longiflima. Linn. Syft. Nat. The bifon is
thought by Gefner to be the bonafus of Ariftotle.

BONAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ftrift of Gueret, jJ leagues N. of Gueret.

BOMAVENTURA, St., in Biography, a cardinal of
Rome, and entitled the " Seraphic doctor," was born at
Bagnarea, in Tufcany, in 1221 ; and having entered into
the order of Minorites, in 1243, ftudied at Paris under
Alexander de Hales, and there taught theology with great
applaufe. He received his doftor's degree in 1255, and in
the following year was made general of his order. He de-
clined accepting the archbilhoprigk of York, to which he

wag

BON

■was nominated by pope Clement IV. In 1265; and, after
his dcatli, the choice of a fucctirnr was referred by the car-
dinals to Bonaventura, who fixed on Gregory X. by whom
he was made cardinal, and whom he attended to the fecond
council of Lyons, in 1274, where he died in the fame year.
He was canonized by Sixtus IV. in 1482, and declared a
dottor of the church by Sixtus V. in 1588. His works
have been collefted in 8 vols. fol. and were printed at Rome
in 1^88 ; and an edition of them in 14 vols. 410. has alfo
been publifhed. Among thefe are his " Life of St. Fran-
cis," the founder of his order, and " A Commentary on the
Mafter of the Sentences," in which he appears to be a com-
plete mailer of the theology of the 13th century. To him
has been infcribed the inllitution of religious confraternities ;
and though his private charadler, and literary talents, are
commended both by proteftants and catholics, he has in-
curred Come reproach for the zeal with which he promoted
the worfhip of the virgin Mary, as the mother ot God.
Moreri. Encycl. Molheim. vol. iii.

Bonaventura, Frederic, an eminent fcholar and phy-
fician of Urbino, in Italy, who flourifhcd in the -early part of
the 17th century, publilhed, in 1601, " De natura partus
oflomeftris, adverfus vulgarem opmionem, libri decem,"
Francof. folio ; an enormous volume, containing upwards
of one thoufand pages, on this uninterefting fubjeft, in
which he has introduced the opinions of different writers,
and accounts of all the controverfies that have been held on
the legitimate period of utero-gcllation in women. The
auchor had publilheda difTertation on the fubjeft, in the pre-
ceding year, which he incorporated in the great work, but
with which a modern reader would probably have been fully
contented. Haller. Bib. Med.

Bonaventura, Cape, in Geography, hdtxiateonihtcoafi
of New Guinea, in S. lat. 6° 15', and about 65 leagues N.E.
from port St. Auguftine. The land is low and luxuriant,
and produces the cocoa-nut, bread-fruit, plantain, &c.

Bonaventura, the name of an ifland, north-eaft of the
bay of Chaleur, off the coaft of New Brunfwick, in the gulf
of St. Lawrence, and a Uttle to the fouth-weft of the point
which forms the fouth-eaft entrance into that river ; about
a league from Gafpe bay, — Alfo, an ifland on the ftarboard
fide of the entrance into Porto- Bello harbour, oppofite to
the mouth of Guanches river. See Porto-Bello.

BONAVENTURE, or Bueneventura, a river, bay,
harbour, and fort, on the coaft of Papayan, in South Ame-
rica, nearly fouth from Panama bay. N. lat. 4° 20'. W.
long. 77". Barks and floops of 40 or 50 tons may go up
to a village a league beyond the fort. Bonaventure is the
ftaple port of Cali, Papayan, Sta. Fe, &c.

Bonaventure, Cape and Port, are fituated on the eaft
coaft of Newfoundland, about fouth-weft of Bonavifta cape,
and form the north entrance into Smith's found, from
whence the coaft runs S. by W. into Trinity bay. — Alfo, a
bay on the eaft fide of the ifland of St. Vincent. N. lat.
13° 9'. W. long. 61° 18'.

BONAVISTA, fo called in reference to its beautiful ap-
pearance at fea, the moft eafterly of the Cape de Verde
iflands, about 20 miles long, and 12 broad, anddiftant about
Jo leagues weft from the coaft of Africa. Its furface is low
towards the fea, but within hilly, particularly towards the
north-eaft extremity, where is a hill, which, from its conical
and truncated ftiape, appears to have been a volcano ; and
there is another hill, much higher, towards the fouth-weft
end, with high land to the weftward of it. The foil is
fandy, barren, and uncultivated ; milk, goats, fifh, and tur-
tle, are the principal food of the inhabitants. It affords
£ome fait ; and if the culture of it were not negleded, it

BON

would yield cotton and indigo. It is known at a diftanjc
by feveral white banks on its north lide, where the fliore is
bold, and where a rapid river dilcharges itfelf into the fea.
This ifland has a good harbour on its weft fide, where veffels
may lie in 15 or 16 fathoms water. At the diftance of a
league or a league and a half from the fouth-eaft point of
the ifland is a reef of rocks ; and over this point, fays Capt.
Cook, there is a pretty high round mountain, rifing not far
from the fliore. This point, by his obfervations, is in
N. lat. 16*^ o', and longitude from London, by account,
21° 51' W. The latitude of the north end of the
ifland is le'^ 12' N. and of the fouth end 15° 57' N. but
that at the eaft er.d was not afccrtained. Mr. Wales,
in the fecond voyage, determined the latitudes of thefe three
points as follows : north point 16° l-J-j' N. eaft point 16°
3f' N. and latitude of the fouth point 15° 58' N. Stavo-
rinus fays, that this ifland has two eminences of a middhng
height, that appear diftinCtly upon it ; and that there are
two reefs, one at the north fide, and one at the fouth fide,
which ftretch out to the eaftward, and which are both very
dangerous. According to the account in lord Macartney's
embafly to China, the fea-coaft on the fouth-eaft fide was
guarded by rocks ; but towards the fouth-eaft end the fliore
was much covered with white fand. On that iide there
feemed to be neither cultivation nor inhabitants. The lati-
tude of Bonavifta was 16° 6' N. and the longitude 22° 47'
W. The variation 12° 36' to the weftward of the pole.
This ifland belongs tc the Portngnefe.

Bonavista, Cripe, the extreme N.W. point of the ifland
of Cuba in the Weft Indies, opening into the gulf of
Mexico, from whence the land falls off fouthcrly to cape
St. Antonio.

Bonavista, Cape anil Bay of, lie on the eaft fide of
Newfoundland ifland, the cape lies in N. lat. 48^ 54', and
W.long. 52° 33', and was difcovered by John Cabot and
his fon Seballian, in 1497, under a commiflion for exploring
unknown lands, obtained from Henry VII. The bay
is formed by this cape and cape Freels, 15 leagues
apart.

BONAYE, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Nantes. The place contains 834, and the canton 9,530,
inhabitants ; its territory comprehends 13J kiliometres and
7 communes.

BONCAT, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrenees, 6 leagues N. of Bayonne.

BONCHAMPS, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayenne, 2 miles S.W. of Craon.

BONCONICA, Oppenheim, in jlnc'ient Geography, a
town of Gaul, placed between Mogontia to the north, and
Borb itomagus to the fouth, feated on the river Rhenus, in
Germania prima.

BONCONVENTO,orBuoN-coNVENTO, in Geography,
a town of Italy, in the territory of Sienna, wheie the
emperor Henry Vl I. died; 12 miles S. of Sienna.

BONCORE, Thomas, doftor in philofophy, medicine,
and law, in Biography, has left a memorial of a deftruftive
peftilcnce, which raged at Naples, where he was in high
credit, as a praftitioner in medicine, in the year 1622. " De
populi, horrihili, ac peftilenti gutturis affeftione, nobiliffimam
urbem Neapolim vexante, confilium," 4to. 1622, Neap. An
early account of the fcarlatina anginofa, or malignant fore
throat, which has of late years made fuch frequent appear-
ance, and proved fo dcftrudtive, among children particularly,
in this country. Eloy. Bib. Hift.

BOND, John, an Enghfti grammarian of the i6th cen-

tury, was 3 native of Soraerfetftiire, and after linilhing

6 his

BON

his fframmatical education at Wincliefler fthool, vss en-
tered, in 1569, at the age of 19 years, a ftudent in the
univcrfity of Oxford, uhere he was diftinguifhed by liis
proficiency in academical learning. Having taken his de-
grees of bachelor and mailer of arts, the former in 1573,
and the latter in I J79, he was promoted by the niafter and
wardens of New College to the maftcrfhip of the free-fehool
at Taur.ton, in Somerletihire, which office he occupied with
reputation for feveral years. At length he quitted the la-
borious ftation of fchool-mafter, and directed his attention
to phyfic, which he praftifed more for amufement than pro-
fit. He died in 1612, and was buried in the chancel of the
church at Taunton. He wrote " Commentaries on Ho-
race and on Perfius."

Bond, or Ohligat'ior,, in Law, is a deed whereby the
ohligor, or pcrfon bound, obliges himftlf, his heirs, exe-
cutors, and adminillrators, to pay a certain fum of money to
another called the olligee, at a day appointed. If this be all,
the bond is called a iiiigle one, " Simplex obligatio ;" but
there is generally a condition added, that if the obligor does
fome particular aft, the obligation fhall be void, or elfe ihall
remain in full force ; as payment of rent, performances of
covenants in a deed, or repayment of a principal fum of
money borrowed of the obligee, with interell, which princi-
pal fum is ufually one half of the penal fum fpecified in the
bor.d. In cafe this condition is not performed, the bond
becomes forfeited, or abfulute at law, and charges the ob-
ligor while l.ving ; and after his death the obligation de-
fcends upon h;s heir, who, on defeft of perfonal aflets, is
bound to difcharge it, provided he has real aflets by defcent
as a recompenfe. So that it may be called, though not a
t!ire3, yAacolIaUrnl, charge upon the lands.

This fecurity is called a " fpecialty ;" the debt being
therein particularly fpecified in writing, and the party's
feal, acknowledging the debt or duty, and confirming
the contraft, rendering it a fecurity of a higher nature
than thofe entered into without the folemnity of a feal.
In order to make a good obligation, it has been held that
three things are necelfary, viz. writing in paper or parch-
ment, fealing, and deliveiy : but it hath been adjudged not
to be necefTary, that the obligor fiiould fign or fubfcribe his
name, fealing being deemed fufficient, and fubfcribing being
no effenlial part of the deed. And though the feal be necel-
fary, yet if the word fealed be wanting, it is remedied by
verdift and pleading over, for all neceflaiy circumilances
fliall be intended ; and if it were not fealed, it could not be
the deed or obligation of the party. Moreover, though
fealing and delivery be effential in an obligation, it is not
neceffary to mention in the bond, that it was fealed and de-
livered, becaufe, according to lord Coke, (2 Co. 5 a.) thefe
are things which are done afterwards. The name of the ob-
ligor fubfcribed is fufficient, though there is a blank for his
Chriftian name in the bond ; and where the obligor's name
is omitted to be inferted in the bond, if he figns and feals
it, the court of chancery may make good fuch an accident.
An obligation is good, though it has no date, or a falfe or
impofiible date ; the date not being of the fubilance of
the deed ; but the day of the delivery is the day of date,
though no day be fet forth. Every deed is fuppofed to be
delivered and made on the day of its date ; and if the plain-
tiff declare on a date, he cannot afterwards reply, that it was
iirft delivered at another day. A plaintifl may fugged a
date in a bond which has none, or one that is impofiible, &c.
provided that the parties and fum are fufEciently expreffed.
.A. perfon fhall not be charged by a bond, though figned
ajid fealed, without delivery, or words, or other aft, amount-
ing to a delivery. But it may be delivered by mere words j

B O IT

and arj aftnal delivery, without fpeaking any word, is fuffici-
ent. If a bond be altered by interlineation in a material
part, it becomes void ; and it may be made void by rafure,
&c. or by i-afingthe date, &c- after deliver)-. If the words
at the end of the condition, " that then this obhgation to
be void," are omitted, tlie condition will be void, but not
the obligation. If the condition of a bond be impoffible at
the time of makmg it, or be to do a thing contrary to fome
rule of law that is merely poCtive, or be uncertain or infen-
fible, the condition alone is void, and the bond fhall ftand
fingle and unconditional ; for it is the folly of the obligor
to enter into fueh an obligation, from which he can never be
releafed. If it be to do a thing that is malum in/,-, the obli-
gation itfelf is void ; for the whole is an unlawful contraft,
and the obligee fhall take no advantage from fuch a tranf-
aftion. And if the condition be poffible at the time of
making it, and afterwards becomes impoffible by the aft of
God, the aft of law, or the aft of the obligee himfelf,
there the penalty of the obligation is faved ; for no prudence
or forefight of the obligor could guard againft fuch a con-
tingency. Co. Litt. 206. When a condition is doubtful, it
IS always taken moll favourably for the obligor, and againft
the obligee; but fo that a reafonable conllruftion may be
made as nearly as poffible according to the intention of the
parties. If no time be limited in a bond for payment of the
money, it is due prefently and payable on demand, i Brownl.
53. ; and if a condition be impoffible in refpeft of time, it
fhall be paid prefently. Jones 140. i Leon. loi. If the
party, who is bound to perform the condition, difables him-
felf, this is a breach. A bond made with condition not to
give evidence againft a felon, &c. is void ; but the defendant
muft plead the ipecial matter. 2 Wilf. 341, &c. Condition
of a bond to indemnify a perfon from any legal profecution
is again il law, and void, i Lutw. 667. And if a fherifT
takes a bond as a reward for doing of a thing, it is void.
3 Salk. 75. See CoNDiTiOK.

On the forfeiture of a bond, or its becoming fingle, the
whole penalty was formerly recoverable at law ; but here
the courts of equity interpofed, and would not permit a man
to take more than in confcience he ought, viz. his principal,
intereft, and e.xpences, in cafe the forfeiture accrued by
non-payment of money borrowed ; the damages fuflained,
upon non-performance of covenants ; and the like. And a
finiilar praftice having gained fome footing in the courts of
law, (fee 2 Keb. 553. 555. Salk. 596, 597. 6 Mod. 11.
60. loi.), the ftatute 4 and 5 Ann. c. 16. at length en-
afted, in the fame fpirit of equity, that, in cafe of a bond,
conditioned for the payment of money, the payment or
tender of the principal fum due, with intereft and coils,
even though the bond be forfeited, and a fuit commenced
thereon, fhall be a full fatisfaftion and difcharge. The
court of Chancery will not generally carry the debt beyond
the penalty of a bond ; yet in a cafe, where a plaintiff fought
relief againft fuch penalty, though it was decreed, it was on.
the payment of the principal money, intereft, and cofts ; and
notwithftanding they exceeded the penalty, this was affirmed,.-
I Vern, 350. 1 Eq. Ab. 92. 6 Vin. tit. Penalty. 3 Comm.
455. And where the condition of a bond is to perform a
collateral aft, damages may be recovered beyond the penal-
ty, and the court of K. B. will not ftay the proceedings on
payment of the money into court. 2 Term Rep. 388.

All perfons who are enabled to contraft, and who are
fuppofed in law to have fufficient freedom and underftanding
for that purpofe, may bind themfelves by bonds and obliga-
tions. 5 Co. 119. 4 Co. 124. I Roll. Abr. 340. If a
perfon, illegally imprifoned, enters into a bond, during fuch
Teftraint, to the perfon who caufcs it, the fame may be

avoided

BON

avoided for diirefs of impiifonmcnt. Co. Litt. 25 5- 2 Iiif^-
4S2. The bond of a feme covert is tpfo facio void, and (hall
bind neitlier her nor her hufband. The bond of an infant,
even for ncceflaries, with a penalty for payment, is void.
But if an infant, feme covert, &c. enter with a llraiiger, who
is not fubjetl to their difabilities, into an obligation, the
ftranger fhall bo bound by it. However, infants, idiots,
feme coverts, and aliens, may be obligees. Sole corpora-
tions, fuch as birtiops, prebends, parfons, vicars, &c. can-
not be obligees ; but a corporation aggregate may take any
cliattel, asijoiuls, Icafes, &c. in its political capacity, which
lliall pafs in iucccfllon, becaufe it is aUvays in being. Cro.
r.llz. 4^^. Dyer. 48 fl. Co. Litt. 9 a. 46 a. Hob. 64.

1 Rot. Abr. 515. If a drunken man gives his bond, it
bii'.ds him ; and a bond without confideration is obligatory,
and no relief (liall be had againll it, for it is voluntary, and
as a gift. Jeiik. Cent. 109. But on the general iffue, the
defendant may give in evidence that they made him lign the
bond when he was fo drunk that he knew not what he did ;
and thougli a voluntary bond cannot be reheved againll in
equity, it may not be paid in a courfe of adminillration, fo
as to take place of real debts, even by fimple contraft ; yet
it fliall be paid before legacies. I Chan. Caf. If;;. An
heir is not bound, unlefs he be exprefsly named in the bond,
though the extcntors and adminillrators arc. Dyer 15.
Two or more pcrfons may bind themfelves jointly in an ob-
ligation, or they may bind themfelves jointly and feverally ;
in whicli lad cafe, tlie obligee may free them jointly, or he
may free any one of them at his eleftion ; but if they are
jointly and not feparately bound, they muil be freed jointly ;
and in fuch cafe, if one of them dies, his executor is totally
difcharged, and the furvivor or furvivors only chargeable.

2 llol. Abr. 148. Dyer. 19. 310. 5 Co. 19. 1 Salk.
39 J. I Lutw. 696.

With regard to difcharge of bonds, if a leffer fum be paid
before it is due, and the payment is accepted, it fliall be
good in fatisfaftion of a greater fum ; but after the money
is due, a Itfier fum, though accepted, fhall not be a fatis-
faflion for a greater fum. Moor. 677. 3 Bulfl. 301.
I Lutw. 464. It has been adjudged, that the acceptance of
one bond cannot be pleaded in fatisfaftion of another bond.
Cro. Car. 85. Moore, 872. Cro. Eliz. 716. 727. 2 Cro.
579. A bond, on which neither principal nor intereft has
been demanded for 20 years, will be prefumed in equity to
tc fatisfied, and be decreed to be cancelled ; and a perpetual
injunftion granted to flay proceedings thereon. i Ch.
Rep. 79. Finch. Rep. 78. Satisfaftion, moreover, may
be prefumed within a lefs period, if any evidence can be ad-
duced in aid of the prefumption, fuch as the fettlement of
an account in the intermediate time, without any demand.
Yet length of time is no legal bar ; and is only a ground for
the jury to prefume fatisfaftion. i Term. Rep. 270. As
to the pleading of performance of a condition, the defendant
mull fet forth in what manner he has performed it. By
flat. 8 and 9 Will. HI. c. 11. ^8. in aftions on bonds for
performance of covenants, the plaintiff may affign as many
breaches as he pleafes, and the juiy may aifefs damages. In
debt on a bond, the defendant may have feveral pleas in
bar. I Salk. iSo. But a defendant in an aftion on a bond
cannot plead, " Non eit faclum," and a tender as to part.
^ Term Rep. 97. In debt on an obligation the defen-
dant cannot plead, " Nil debet," but mud deny the deed
by pleading " Non ell fatlum ;" for the feal of the party
continuing, it mult bediffolved, " Eo ligamine quo ligatur."
Hard. 332. Hob. 218. In bonds to fave harmlefs, the
defendant being profecuted, is to plead " Non damnifi-
catus, &c." The Healing of any bond, bill, &c. for money,

BON

being the property of any one, is made felony, as if offend-
ers had taken other goods of like value. Stat. 2 Geo. II.

-J'

Form of a bond or obligation, with condition for the
payment of money. " Know all men by thefe prefents,
that I David Edwards, of Lincoln's Inn, in the county of
Middlefex, efquire, am held and iirmly bound to Abraham
Barker, of Dale-hall, in the county of Norfolk, efquire, in
ten thoufand pounds of lawful money of Great Britain, to be
paid to the faid Abraham Barker, or his certain attorney,
executors, adminiflrators, or afligns ; for which payment
well and truly to be made, I bind myfelf, my heirs, execu-
tors, and adminiflrators, firmly by thefe prefents, fealed
with my feal. Dated the fourth day of September, in the
twenty-firll year of the reign of our fovereign lord George
the third, by the grace of God king of Great Britain,
France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, and fo forth,
and in the year of our Lord one thoufand feven hundred
and ."

The condition of this obligation is fuch, that if the above
bounden David Edwards, his heirs, executors, or adminif-
trators, do and Ihall, well and truly pay, or caufe to be
paid, unto the above named Abraham Barker, his execu-
tors, adminillrators, or afligns, the full fum of five thoufand
pounds of lawful money of Great Britain, with lawful in-
tercfl for the fame, on the fourth day of March next enfuing
the date of the above written obligation, then this obliga-
tion fhall be void and of none effedt, or clfe fhall be and re-
main in full force and virtue.

David Edwards, (Z,. .S.)
Sealed and delivered, being firft duly

ilamped, in the prefence of

George Carter,
William Browne.
Blackilone's Com. ii. 340. Jacob's Law Dift. by Tom*
lins, vol. i. tit. Bond.

Bond oi Arbhration. See Arbitration.

Bond, AJfignmentQl. See Assignment.

Bond, bad. See Bail.

Bond, counter. See CouNTER-ioni/.

Bond oi rejignatirm. See Resignation.

'Siotin-tenaitts, are the fame, in refpeft to the nature of
their tenure, with copy-holders, and cuftomary-tenants.
Blackftone's Com. vol. ii. p. 148.

Bond, in Mafonry and Brick-laying, is when bricks or
flones are, as it were, knit and interwoven ; and when they
fay, make good bond, they mean that the joints are not
made over, or upon other joints ; but reach at leaft fix inches,
both within the wall and on the furface, as the art of build*
ing requires.

BONDAGE property denotes a ftate of fervitude or
flavery.

Bondage, hondag'ium, in Englijb Law Writers, the fame

with VILLENAGE.

Tenants in bondage paid hcriots, and did fealty ; they
were not to fell trees in their own garden, without licence
of the lord.

The widow of a tenant in bondage held her hufband's
eflate, quamdiu ■v'txerit fine mar'ito.

Bondage, hy the forelock, or bondagium per anterlores crines
capitis, was when a freeman renounced his liberty, and be-
came flave to fome great man ; which was done by the cere-
mony of cutting off a lock of hair on the forehead, and de-
livering it to his lord ; denoting, that he waa to be maintained
for the future.

Such a bondman, if he reclaimed hib liberty, or were fu-
gitive from his mailer, might be drawn again to his fervitude

by

BON

\>y the nofe ; whence the origin of the popular menace, to
puil a man by the nofe.

BONDELIA, in ylncitnt Geography, a town of Italy, in
Etruria. Ptolemy.

BONDENO, or BuOKDKNO, in Geo^raphv, a town of
Italy, in the duchy of Ferrara, at the conflux of the Panaro
and Po, 9 miles W. of Ftrrara.

BONDMAM, Bond us, formjd from the Saxon bond.,
fignifying ?l fetter, in the Eiigl'ifa Laiv, is ufed for a villain,
or tenant in vilknage. See Villain.

The Romans had two kii.ds of bondmen ; one called /iiT/,
w!io were thofe either bought for money, taken in v\ar, left
by fucceffion, or purchafed by fome other lawful acquifition;
or ehe born of their bondwomen, and called ■verns. Both
are called in our law villains in grofs, as being immediately
bound to the perfon and his heirs. We may add a third
kind of bondmen mentioned by Juftinian, called adfcr'iptitii
gleba, or agr'tcenjul; who were not bound to the perlon, but
to the ground or place, and followed him who had the land.
1'hefc, in our law, are called •villains regardants, as belong-
ing to the manor or place.

In the Engliili as well as vScottifh laws, thofe called by
the Romans -jerna, are fometimes alfo denominated natlvi,
as being barn on the land. See Nativus.

BONDORF, in Geography, a country' of Germany, in
the circle of Swabia, about live leagues long, and between
one and three broad, lying between the Brifgaw and the
landgraviates of Baar and Stuhllngen. It had formerly lords
of its own, but in 1613 was purchafed by the abbey of St.
Blaife. It is aflclfed in the imperial matricula, at 2j florins,
.;o kruitzers ; and its contingency to the cliamber, at Wetz-
lar, is 12 rixdollars, iji kruitzers. This teiritory com-
prehends the town of Bondorf, 28 miles N. N. W. of Zuric,
and teveral villages.

BONBOU, a kingdom of Weftem Africa (formerly a
part of the kingdom of Bambouk), the capital of which is
Fatteconda, near the eaftern bank of the river Faleme.
This kingdom is bounded on the north by Kajaaga, on the
eaft by Bambouk, on the fouth-ealt and fouth by Tenda and
the Simbani v.ildemefs, on the fouth-well by Woolli, and
on the well by Foota ToiTa. It lies between N. lat. 13" 32'
and 14^52', and between W. long. 10° 8' and 11° i8'.
Mr. Park, in his inurney through this kingdom towards the
call, found that the country, {hough covered with woods,
like that of Woolli, roie into hills, eipecially towards the
Faleme river, and that the foil varied to a cor.fidcrable de-
gree ; but wherever the land was cleared, great natural fer-
tihty was oblcrvable. Bondou, in particular, may hterally
Le pronounced " a land flowing with milk and honey."
Both thtfe articles, together with rice, and Indian corn of
two or three fpecies, were to be obtained at a fmall expence.
Of their honey, the unconverted or pagan natives make an
intoxicating liquor, much the fame as the mead, or nicthcg-
Jin, of Europe ; and this, and the wine of the palm-tree, con-
Aitute their principal hquors. The price of a fowl in Bon-
dou was a button, or a fmall bit of amber ; goat's flefli and
mutton were proportionably cheap ; and for lix or eight
amber beads Mr. Park might at any time have purchafed a
bullock. I'lic domellic animals are nearly the fime as in
Europe. Swine are found in the woods, but tlicir flelh is
not eileemed. Probably the marked abhorrence with which
this animal is held by the votaries of Mahomet l:as fpread
it feif among the Pagans. Poultry of all kinds, the turkey
excepted, may be had every where. The Guii)ea fowl and
red partridge abound in the fields ; and the woods furnilh a
fmall Ipecics of antelope, of which the venifon is highly and
defervedlv prized. Of ihc other wild animals ia the Maii-
VOL. iV.

BON

dingo countries, the moft common are the hy»na, the pan-
ther, and the elephant. But of the method of taming the
latter animal, and applying his ferviccs to the nle of man.
the natives of Africa are totally ignorant ; and when they
were told by Mr. Park, that this was done in the eail, thev
treated the information with contempt, and exclaimed
" Tobaubio fonnio," i. e. the white man's lie. They find
means, however, to deflroy the wild elephants by fire-srms
for the fake of theii- teeth, which they transfer in barter to
thofe who fell them again to the Europeans. Tliey cat the
flefli, and deem it a great delicacy. The paftures of Bofi-
dou furnifli an excellent breed of horfes ; but the ufual bealf
of burthen in all the negro territories is the afs. The applica-
tion of animal labour to the purpoies of agriculture is no
where adopted, and the plough is an inilrument altogether
unknown. The chief implement ufed in hufhandry is the
hoe, which in different diftricts is of various forms ; and
labour is univerfally perfornred by flaves. The Mandingoes
cultivate, befides the grains proper to tropical climates,
ground-nuts, yams, and pompions. They hicewife raife
cotton and iridigo, and they produce of thefe materials a
tolerably fine cloth, of a rich blue colour; and they make
good foap from a mixture of ground-nuts and a ley of wood-
aflies. Their trade with the whites is compofed of (laves,
gold-duft, ivory, and bees-wax. Their inland traffic confiils
chiefly of fait, which is procured from the Moors, in barter
for corn and blue cloth, and of warlike ftores, which are ob-
tained from the European traders on the Gambia river.
Thefe are lold ag^in to itinerant merchants, called " Slat-
tees," who come down annually from diftant countries, with
flaves, and a commodity called " Shea-toulou," which is an
excellent fort of butter, produced from the kernel of a nut
boiled in water. They alfo bring down fmall quantities of
iron, which is manufaclured in thi interior diflricls ; but
thofe articles of this m.etal which are in ufe among the na-
tives of the coaft, are made of iron from Europe. The
natives of the Gambia countries are alio fupplied, in con-
fiderable quantities, with fweet fmelling gums and frankin-
cenfe, which are the produce of Bondou.

Bondou is chiefly inhabited by Foulahs, a race of negroes,
who lead a wandering life, and employ themfclves chiefly in
the pallurage of cattle, and the cultivation of corn. Among
thefe, however, are a great number of Mandingoes, by whom
the trade of the country is chiefly conducted. The govern- •
ment in Bondou, and in all the adjacent petty ftates, is
monarchical, but no where abfolute. The pcrlons, who are
called chief-men, conltitutc a fort of ariftocracy, which ferves
much to rellrain the powers of the fovereign. The king
cannot declare war, nor conclude a peace, without their ad-
vice. When Mr. Park vifited Bondou, the king was a
" Soninkee," or Pagan, like the king of Woolli ; but he
had adopted the Moorifli name of Almami, and with the
name he leemcd to have injbibed foniewhat of the ^'oorifl^
difpofition ; for although the traveller had prefcnted to him
his umbrella, and lome other articles, he compelled him, as
he had before compelled maior Houahton, to flrip in his
prefence, and uirrendcr his coat, which, he faid, l;e (hould
rcferve for his own wearing, on great ar.d public feflivals.
In return, however, he gave Mr. Park five miiikallies (drams)
of gold-dull, and loaded him with provifions. Every con-
ildcrable town is under the immediate government of a ma-
gillrate, called the " Alkaid ;" bv whom the duties and
cufloms on itinerant traders, which are paid in kind (the
oirly fyllem of taxation), are levied. The office is hereditary .
The people of the lower claffes are in a ftate of flavcry, or
vaffalage, to iiidividual proprietors ; bnt the power of tf.e-
maller is faf from being unlimited. He may punifh his
5 C ■ flave

BON

flave corporally ; but cannot deprive him of life for any
offence, nor even fell him to a llranger, without firft bringing
him to a public trial, called a '' Palaver," before the chief-
men of the town ; and on fiich occafions the caufe of the
flaves is pWadcd by the native Mahometans, who are a fort of
proftflional advocates. Tlitfe indulgences indeed extend
only to native or dometlic flaves ; for captives tai<en in war,
and thofe who are obtained in traffic, may be fold at pleafure,
and treated as the owner thinks proper. Park's Travels
intoAfriea. Re"ncll's Proceedings of the African aifociation.

BON DOUR, a town of Afuitic Turkey, in the province
of Natcilia, 2-1. miltS well of Ifbarteh.

BONDRE'E, in Ornithology, the honey buzzard (fako
api-vorus^, ftanc's under this name in Buflbn's Hiftory of
Birds. The Frencli writers of the prcfcnt day alio call it
bondree.

BONDUC, and Bonducella, in Botany (Plumier).

See GuiLLANDIN.U

BONDUCH, in the Materia Med'ica, a name by which
many authors have called the Molucca, Marfao, or Bczoar
nuts.

BONE, in /luatomy. The bones are the moft folid parts
of animals, and may be regarded as the walls of a building
fupporting and containing the other parts. The human
body is compofcd of a pile of bones, the extremities of
which are varioufly ihaped, and adapted to each other, and
calculated to admit of a variety of motions. Bones appear
to be compofed cf a vafcuiar fiibllancc, not differing ma-
terially in llruilure from that of the reft of the body, ex-
cept that there is depolitcd in its interllices phofphat of
lime, which gives to the whole mafs rigidity, ftrength, and
a permanent figure. That Hate of the vcffeis in which they
fecrete, and depofit, earthy matter, occurs in diftafes of other
parts of the body. The nutrient veflels of arteries, mem-
branes, and ligaments, occnfionally depofit lime, and caufe
the ofTification of thofe part?. Tiie earth of bone is alio
depolited in fome fpecies of tum.ours, and often in confider-
able quantity, and in an irregular manner in the cellular lub-
ftance of a limb, when the bone of it is difeafcd. After this
general view of the fnbjeft, we proceed to give an account
of the ftrufture of a bone, both with refpeft to the arrange-
ment of its earthy particles, and with relation to its vafcuiar
texture.

It is cuftomary, however, in giving an account of the
ftrufture of bones, firft to dcfcribe thtir original formation
in the fcctus ; and this is ufefui, hecaufe it demonlfrates the
fimplicity of the procefs, and tends to refute old and erro-
neous ideas refpeCtir:g it. The parts of the young foetus
which are afterwards to become bone,>, are merely a vafcuiar,
gelatinous fubllance, fcarcely dillinguifhable from the other
parts ; afterwards the outhne of the bone becomes evident,
and its fubltance is rendered white and firm, in proportion
to the quantity of hme depofited in it. The quantity depo-
fited in it, even at the lime of birth, is only fufiicient to give
firmnefs to the whole mafs, but not to prevent its flexibility.
The extremities of all the long b')nes coufill of large portions
of cartifige, and thefe, by degrees, become bony. This
change is effefted by an alteration, tirlt, in the organization
of the parr ; the cartilage is abforbed, the vefTcls enlarge, fo
as to admit of inieftion, and then they appear to have the
power of depofiting earthy matter, or forming bone. The
formation of bone begins in the centre of a cartilage, and
gradually extends from thence to the remote parts, fo that
the feparate piece of bone, formed at the extremity, rem-ains
to nearly the period of puberty, conjoined to the body of
the bone, by a cruft of cartilage. In this ftate it is techni-
cally termed an epiphylis. The obfervation of thefe faifls

BON

led formerly to the erroneous notion, that it was neceflary
that cartilage fhould exill, prior to the formation of bone ;
and that it was converted by preffure, or in fome inexplicable
manner, into bone. It were a walle of argument to refute
this opinion. We can perceive a llriking advantage that
rcfults from the bones of the foetus being formed as they are.
Their flexibility admits of the form of limbs becoming
adapted to the varying figure of the pelvis, through
which they muft pafs, and their elalticity, wiiich is powerful,
rellores them afterwards to their natural ihape.

The fubjeft which full engages our attention, in examin-
ing the llrufture of bone, is the arrangement of the earthy
parts. The phofphat of lime is depolitcd by the arteries
in minute points or particles, and thefe being placed length-
wife, with refpett to each other, form fibres ; again thefe
fibres being placed parallel to one another, form bony plates,
fcales, or laminae. That bones are fibrous and lauiincus, is
evident from a mere infpeftion of them in the foetai ftate ;
that they are fo in the adult fubjeft may be demonftrated by
calcination, or long expofure to weather : in which cafes the
connefting vafcuiar fubftance is more fuddenly or flowly dif-
fipated, and thus the arrangement of the earthy matter is
rendered vifible. The earthy fibres of long bones extend
themfelves in a direftion parallel to the axis of the bone ; in
broad bones they fhoot out in every direflion, like rays from
a centre. In long bones the earthy matter is confolidated
in the circumference and fides, fo as to form thick and llrong
walls ; whilfl a tube or more Ipongy bony ftruilure is found
in their centre. In broad bones a fimilar llruflure is ob-
ferved ; the earthy matter is conlolidated exteriorly, fo as to
form denfe plates or tables ; whilft interiorly the fabric of
the bones is fpongy or cancellous. In the internal ipongy
part of bones the marrow is depolited. In the middle part
of long bones the wails are very thick, being compofed of a
great number of bony lamella, and thefe walls gradually be-
come extenuated as thty approach to the extremities of the
bone, where they are proportionally very thin. Long bones
are alfo flender in the middle, but at ttie fame time llrong, on
account of the great quantity of carthv m.atter thus confoli-
dated to form their walls ; whilft there is but little cavity or
m.eduilary ftrufture. Thefe bones expand greatly at their
extremities, in order to afford an extent of furface for the
formation of joints, and for the fupport of the weight of
the body. In the extremities cf long bones, though the
walls are thin, there yet exiils a great deal of bony matter,
which is depofited fo as to leave interfpaces between its
fibres, forming what is termed the cancellous ftrufture, or
lattice-work of bones. It has been therefore concluded,
that the quantity of earthy matter may be nearly equal in
each part of a bone, and give to it an equal degree of
ftrength ; but that it has this difference of arrangement,
that in the middle it is compafted fo as to form very thick
and denfe walls, occupying but little fpace, and leaving but
little internal cavity, whilll in the extremities it occupies a
greater fpace, and forms a lefs folid kind of fabric. It
would be defirable to afcertain, with fome piecifion, where
fimilar circumftances are to be met with in broad bones ; and
though no precife ndes can be given, yet this may be ad-
mitted as a general truth, that where a broad bone fwells out
into a protuberance, there we (liail find the walls or tables
thin, and the cancellous ftrufture abundant ; and, on the
contrary, where a broad bone is condenfed fo as to occupy
but httle fpace, there we Ihall find the tables proportionately
thicker, and the cancellous ftrufture lefs in quantity.

Having thus defcribed the an-angement of the earth of
bones, we may next enquire into the advantages which re-
fult from this llrufture. The long bones are made Uender

in

BON

in tbe middle, to allow of the convenient arrangement of
large mufcks round them ; they become expanded at their
extremities to afford an extent of furface for the formation
of joints, and the fupport of the weight of the body. A
cavity is left in the midcle ; for if all the earthy matter had
been compafted into the fmalleft poffible fpace, the bones
would have been fuch flender ftems, as to be very uufuitable
to their offices ; and if they had been of their prefent dimen-
fions and folid throughout, they would have been unnecefla-
rily (Iron J and weighty. Befides, it can be proved by ma-
thematical demonltratlon, that the ftrength of the bone be-
comes augmented, in proportion as its fibres are placed at a
greater dillance from its centre.

With regard to the vafcular ftrufture of bones, there can
be no doubt but that it exaftly refembles that of the reft of
the bo.ly. That bones pofiVTs numeioii^ arteries, is proved
by the injeftion of young bones from the general arterious
fyftcm of the fubjecl ; for they are made very red br the
injedlion conveyed into them by numerous, though minute
arteries, which enter them by pores evident on their furface.
The effect of feeding animali with madder is an additional
and ftriking proof of the fame facl ; for the bone becomes
deeply tinged with the red colour of the madder. The
caufe of this phenomenon has of late been cxpla:ned by
Dr. Rutherford : he has (hewn that itarifes from a chemical
attraction that exifts between earths an i certain colouring
materials, which caufes them to combine fo intimately as to
form pigments which are called lakes by painters. Dr.
Rutherford diflblved madder in dillilled water, and added to
it muriate of lime, which produced no change of appearance
in the folution ; on the further addition of pholphat of
foda, a double decompofuion took place ; the muriatic acid
combined with the foda, and the phofphoric acid with the
lime. The pholphat of lime alfo combined with the mad-
der, and they were tos;ethcr precipitated, forming a beautiful
red p jwder. If blood be conftantly conveyed into bones by
numerous arteries, it mult be returned from them again by
veins, or otherwite it mull accumulate in them in confiderable
quantities. That bones poffefs abforbents in common with
other parts is equally clear, and is proved by their mode of
growth, and alfo by their dileafts. The growth of the
tube of a bone is a proof of the mutation ol its parts by ab-
forption ; for if bones grew merely by new matter depofited
on the furface, the tube of the bone fhould be of the fam.e
dimenfions in the adult as in the foetus : on the contrary,
however, the tube enlarges, and bears the fame proportion
to the whole bone in either ftate. If any number of lamins
of the iides of a bone, or if a portion of its whole fubltance
perifh, the mortified part is detached in the fame manner that
it is in foft parts ; and this detachment is manifeftly the
effedl, in the firtl inftance, of the agency of the abforbing
vclFcls. Though a portion of animal fuljftaiice has perillied,
it (till pofieffes the fame po.vcrs of cohelive attraction that
It did while living ; it (till tenacioully adheres to the living
parts ; but a fpace takes place all round the dead portion,
and the produflion of tliat fpace can only rationally be at-
tributed to the removal of parts by the abforbents. In
diftafes of bones tlicir form becomes entirely altered, if an
increafed depoiition of matter takes place in their intennal
parts ; and this alteration of form could not happen unlefs
the walls were removed by abforption, and depolited anew
in conformity to the augmented buik and figure, which the
difeafed dcpofition had occalioned. Not to cite lefler in-
{lances, one may be mentioned, which Mr. Hunter ufed to
(hew in his leftures, of a very large and globular bony
tumour, which had formed in the extremity of one of the
bones of the leg in an ox. The tumour was fo folid, that

BON

the feAion of it admitted of being polilhed, and the walls of
the bone had become thin, and of a fpherical form, fo as to
make a neat kind of cafe containing this bony tumour.
That bones polTefs nerves as well as arteries, veins, and ab-
forbents, cannot be doubted ; for though they have naturally
but httle fenfibihty, they become extremely painful when
difeafed; and again a fungus fometimes grows out of a bone,
which is fenlible, though it may have no connection whatever
with the furrounding foft parts ; of courfe it muft have de-
rived its nerves, by means of which it polfefles its fenfation,
from the bone out of which it arofe. That the veflVls and
nerves of a bone are connefted together by common cellular
fubftances, as in other parts of the body, is demonllrated by
feaking a bone in dilute muriatic acid, which diiTolves all the
lime, and leaves the vafcular matter a lictle thickened, but
perfeftly flexil>le. We then fee that this vafcular and eel-
lular matter lias a laminated arrangement coiTefponding to
that of the earthy, which has been defcribed, fo that between
each layer of earthy matter, ti\cre is a layer of fuit fubllance,
and of courfe the different layers of foft fubilance are con-
nected by vcffeis and cellular membrane, winch incervene
between the bony fibres, and conneft the different flrata to-
gether. Bones are covered by a fltong, tinn, fibrous fub-
ftance, ter.mtd periofleum, on which the veifels are firft
dillributed ; from this they defceud, conncc"ted by cellular
fubftance, between the fibres of the bone. The vedels and
nerves of the bone enter it through holes which are evident
on the furface, and which are larger and more numerous in
the extremities of the lo';g bones than in the middle. The
vefTcls do not penetrate the bone in a tranfverfe direction, but
obliquely, running tranfverfely through a certain number of
lamelis,' and then taking a perpendicular courfe between
others, which prevents the bone from being weakened, par-
ticularly at any onepart, by that want of earthy m.atter which
is necefTary to leave room for the admiffijn and dilliibution
of veffcls.

The marrow that is contained in bones is of an unftuous
nature, and in herbaceous animals, hardens when it becomes
cold ; but it remains fluid in thofe which are carnivorous.
Some of the red parts of the blood are depofited with it in
young animals, but in thofe that are adult it is no longer
tinged with blood. The marrow is contained in fine cells,
which do not communicate with one another, like thofe of
the common cellular fubllance. This is proved by fawing
a bone through, and keeping it in a temperature which will
preferve the marrow fluid, with the part which is fawn down-
wards. Under thefe circumllaiices, if the cells communi.
cated, the gravitatian of the liquid marrow would caule it
quickly to drop out, and leave the cells empty ; but this does
not happen. The cells which contain the marrow are lodged
in the cancelli of the bone, at the extremities of the long
bones ; but in the middle they are uni'upportcd by tins kind
of olfeous ilructure. The cellular fubllance which contains
the marrow, being condenfed upon the infide of the walls of
the bone, and adhering to them, has been termed the peri-
ofleum interiuim. In the principal bones we perceive arte-
ries, m.uch larger than thofe for the nutrition of the bone,
which penetrate the wails obliquely, and fpread their
branches upon the medullary cells, for the nourllbment of
thefe parts. That thefe are the chief nutrient arteries of the
m.arrow cannot be doubted ; and it has been contended, that
thev have e::cluCvely this power, and that they do not anallo-
mofe with the nutrient arteries of the bone. This opinion
has been formed, becaufe in fome cafes of accidental injury',
in which the medullary artery has been deiiroyed, the mar-
row has, as it were, perifhed. This opinion, however, ilands
in direft oppofition to all analogy; audit mijfl indeed be con-
i; C i fidered

BON

B O N

fidered as a very Urango peculiarity, were not tlie minute
contiguous nutrient arteries to inofculate with one another.
The writer of this article is of opinion, that they do in this,
as in other inftances, for it is conunon in amputation to cut
pffthe trunks of the medullary arteries, and yet the marrow
of the remaiiiinfr bone does not perirti ; and, again, the bone
may be injefted from the medullary artery alone. We may
next inquire into the ufes of the marrow. Havers thougl'.t
that it traiifudcd through the bo^ne, and by this means pre-
vented it from becoming brittle ; nay, he even defcribcd the
pores through whicii fuch tranfudation was fuppofed to take
place. The cells, however, which contain the marrow are
perfeft vcficles ; and we know that no tranfudation of con-
tained fluids takes place through the membranes which con-
tain them during life, though in conlequence of putrefaftion
it does afterdcath. If a bone be depiived of its periofleum
in a living body, no tranfudation of oil from its furiace takes
place ; and even after de?,th a recent bone may be deprived of
its periofleum, and put in warm water for a confiderable
time, and yet no fuJden tranfudation of oil from the hirface
will take plact, as might be cxpefted if there were natural
channels for this purpofe. Tlie canals which Havers de-
fcribed, are probably the palTages through which the vefieU
are tranfmitted. If then this opinion of the ufe of the mar-
row be unfounded, we have dill to inquire, for what purpofe
is "t defigncd ? The utility of the bones being formed as
they are, fmall and tubular iu their middle, expanded and
fpongy at their extremities, has been already explained. If
^ then fpaccs are ncccfTarily left in their interior parts, thofe
fpaces muil be filled with fomething, for they cannot be left
void, or the immenfe prefTure of the atmofphere would crufli
their parietes, and abolilh the vacuum, '^riiere is no matter
in the animal body more fuitable to fill their fpaces than the
marrow ; and it is to be regarded as a part of the adipofe
fyflem of the animal. Iu corroboration of this remark, it
has been oblervcd, that iu impoverillied and dropfical fubjefts,
where there is no fat in other parts, there is likewife none
even in the bones i and if a bone be fawn, and the medullary
cells broken down, to that the fluid which they contain may
drop out upon paper, that it will not penetrate it, and render
it trAnfpareiit like oil ; bat, on the contrary, that it will en-
cruft upon if, from its being of a gelatinous nature, like that
fluid which is found in the inter"iices of the common reticular
or cellular fubftance. From the clrcumftances which have
been detailed in the foregoing account, viz. the great and
general vafcularlty of bones ; — the qrantity of fott fubllance
exifting in every part of them ; — their growth and mutation
of form in difeafe, &;c. ; — it is natural to conclude, that there
cxift in the compofition of every bony fibre, arteries for its
formation, ab.'orbents for its removal, ce!lul:it fvibftance for
the connexion of its parts, and nerves to give animation to
the whole. In this view of the fubjed, we perceive no
elTential difference of ftruClure between bones and other parts
of the body ; nor do we expect any effenti^l ditTcrence in the
funflions of their nutrient, and other velTels. We naturally
conclude that bony fibres are formed and repaired, and that
they undergo mutation or removal in the fime manner, and
from the fame caufes, that foft parts do. Mr. Hunter, how-
ever, from obferving the Ihiated appearance of the bones of
animals, who have been at one time fed with madder, and at
another with common food, and obferving that the exterior
llria was red if the animal was killed after having been for
fome time fed with madder, and white if it had only taken
Its ordinary food, concluded tliat bones grew by a dcpolkion
ou their fnrfacc, and a correfpondent removal of the internal
part of the walls of the bone. Mr. Hunter alfo, to invelli-
gate the truth of Da Hamcl's opinion refpeding the growth

of bones, bored two liolcs in the tibia of a pig, one near the
upper end, and the oth.er neartlie lower ; the fpacc between
the holes wa? exaftly two inches ; a fmall leaden Paot was in-
fertcd into each link : when the bone had been incieafed iu its
length by the growth of the aiiiuial the pig was killed, and the
fpacc between the two fhots vv;i.se\aclly two inches. Mr. Hun.
ter's experiments and "pinions are publiilitd by Mr. Home in
thefecondvolumeof Tranfaftions ot a Society for the improve-
ment of Medical and Chirurgical Knowledge. We forbear
to give a more detailed account of tlicm, ov enter into
any difcuflion of the fu'njeft, but refer the reader to the ori.
ginal paper, becaufe we believe that no theory will be foundi
on coniideration, to be adequate to account tor the pheuo-
mena of the growth and difeafes of bones, except that
which admits the bony fibres to be ot the ianic ftrufture as
the foft fibres of the body, and confequently concludes that
both are formed, removed, and renovated in the fame nianner.
We fubjoin fome references to the inftruitive works on the
flruttureof thebones. Albini iconesofiium fcetusjcui accedit
ofleogen. brevis hlRoria. — Annot. Acad. J. G. Walter
handbuch von den knochen. Reichel Diflf. de offium ortu
& ftruttura in .Saudif. thefaur, diff. vol.ii. Bochmer inlli-
tutiones olleologlca;. Blumenbach Gefchichte und bcfchrei-
bung der knochen. The works of Ruytch. Nefbit's hu-
man olleogeny explained. Kerckring anthropograph. ri-
trograph. & olleogenia foctuum. Du Hamel in memoires
de I'acad. des Sciences, 1742. Haller. in op. minor,
torn. ii.

Bone, in Chanijlry and the Arts, The analyfis of bone,
and the produfts obtained from it by various chemical pro-
celfes, deferve confiderable attention, as this great clafs of
animal fubflanccs ranks among the moil important to the
chemift.

So great a fimilarity is found in the compofition of the
bones of different animals, that their properties may firft be
defcribed generally.

Bone, when firll taken from the animal, is moifl and
greafy on its furface ; and if cylindrical, it contains a quan-
tity of the peculiar fat called mnrroiu. When this is Sepa-
rated, and the bone expofed to the air, it gradually dries,
becomes brittle and whiter ; but the articulating heads long'
remain moift, grtafy, and yellow. When once dry, and
kept in a dry and airy place, they are fcarcely fufceptiblc or
further fpontaneous alteration.

The effect ot mere heat on bone has long been known to
chemillry and the arts, as furnifhing forae very important arti-
cles of chemical manufacture. Heated in the open air, bona
firlt becomes oily and yellow, gives out a watery vapour, to
which fucceeds a thick, denfe, fetid fmoke, which readily
takes fire, and when oace kindled, affords heat enough, when
the bones are in fulTicicnt quantity, to complete the entire
calcination, which lalls for many hours, during which they
become fuccefTively black and carbonaceous, brittle, and ac
iall, when every thing combuflible is confumed, they remain
nearly white, friable, light, and extremely porous or cellular
in texture, and retaining their original fhape and bulk. This
procefs of burning bones in the open air, in large heaps, is
performed near great towns for the fake of the earthy fait
bonc-q/b, which is left behind, and forms on an average about
half the weight of the fre/h bone. It is compofed chiefly of
phofphat of lime, and is ufed by the afiayers as the material
for cupels, and for a few other pnrpofes.

But the volatile produAs which are wafted in the above
procels, are highly valuable when the bones are dilUllcd in
clofe veflVls, without addition as before, but with a proper
apparatus to receive and condenfe the volatile produfts. In
thefe circumftances, with a heat at firft gentle, but gradually

iiicreafing.

BON

BON"

fhcreanng, bone yields, at firft, a limpid water,. with a pecu-
liar animal oily fmell, which foon becomes ioiiiregnated With
carbuuated an:)mo:iia, togtthcr with an oil, at firll of a clear
yellort'j pungent, and nut ungrateful to the fmtll, but after-
vrards rendered brown, and even black, by the increafing
heat, ftrongly fetid and ammoniacai. With the eirpyreu-
matic oil, a large quantity of fulphuratcd hyGroj.rtn, of
carbonated hydrogen, and of carbo;:ic acid gas efcapes.
The produft;, of this diftillation, when condeiiled, are the
ammoniacai water, and the tmpyreumatic oi! ; the former
contains, befides carbonaL of ammonia, a portion of febacic
and pruffic acid united with the alliali ; the oil may-
be feparated ii;to the lefs and more tmpyrenmatic, by
changing the receiver occafionally, and keeping apart the
firil portions of the oil as the pureft. If this oil is again
repeatedly diftiiled by itfelf from clean vefTels with gentle
&eat, it becomes at lalt as colourlefs as water, pun-
gent, and not very unplcafant to the fmell, fo volatile at a
common temperature as only to be kept by inverting under
water the months of the vefTels that contain it, and aftingin
medicine as a powerful fndorific. It is called from the name
of the inventor, Dippel'j- oil, which fee.

The only valuable part of the produfts of the diftillation
of bone is the ammonia, or volatile alkali, which is mixed with
€V;.-ry part of the di billed liquid, and is afterwards purified
by fubfequent proceflcs, affilling in the formation of the
MuRiAT of ammonia, or forming the pure Carbonat of
emiiionia of the fhops, \.he ful "volatile, fp'irit of hartjlmrn, &c.
When the diftillation is difcontinued, the bones remain in the
retort of a brown colour, and fwimming in a black, thick,
extremely fetid, tenacious oil. If they are then gradually
heated to rednefs in clofe iron vefTels, every thing volatile is
diflipated, and the earthy part remains dry and friable, ftill
retaining the original form of the bones, but thoroughly im-
'pregnated with the charcoal of the oil, foas to become a fine
gloily black. This is afterwards ground to a fine powder,
mixed with lize into cakes of a convenient weight, and forms
one of the fpecies of lamp-black, ufed very largely as a pig-
ment. The harder and compafter bones, fuch as ivory, fur-
nifh a fimilar and more -valuable black pigment, fimply by
heating to rednels in clofe vefTels.

But tlieanalyfis by heat, though it furnifhes feme valuable
articles of commerce, is not well calculated to exhibit the con-
ftituent p:'rts of bone in their proper chara(9:ers.

In fact, the ammor.ia, probably mucli of the oil, and all
the gafTes, are formed by the aftion of heat out of the real
conitituents of bone, as they exift in the animal.

Water and acids are the chief re-agents to be ufed by the
chemift.

Cold water has fcarcely any aftion on bone, but by long
maceration its texture becomes more loofe and open, and the
gelatinous part becomes gradually changed, as by flow animal
putrefaftion.

Hot water afts with great eafe upon bone, when reduced
to fmall pieces by rafping or bruifing ; the firl): efTeft is to
leparate molt ot the naiural oil of bone which rifes to the
top, and when cool concretes to a fuety fat. The water
then difTolves the gelatin, which is found to compofe a very
confiderable part of the fubllance, even of the dritfl and mofl
compail bone ; and in this method a clear infipid pure jelly
if extracted, rendering the water, even when in large propor-
tion, of a ftiff, tremulous confillence when cooled, which,
by evaporation, leaves at lalt a flrong, hard^/i/i-.

The experiments of M. Pelletier on this fubjeft are im-
portant. This accurate practical chemill took fix pounds of
dry bone fhavings, procured from the button-mould makers,
macerated them for two days in cold water, and then boiled
them for nine hours with 24 quarts of water. The produft

was a very flrong clesr jelly, and at the bottom of the vcfTel
the marc, or earthy rtfidue, which was prcfled in order to- fc-
p^rate thv portion of fomewhat turbid jolly, with which it was
entangled. By fubfeqnc.it boi'ing down, the jelly became
fo ftifTwhen cold, as to bear to be cut into firm fikcs, which
were hung up on firings in a place under cover from the
weather (as in the common manufaclure tif glue), and in a
fortnight became hard, brittle glue of good quality. The
produce was 15! ounces of clear glue, l.a'.l ;:n our.ce more
from the marc, and fomewhat foul, and the marc itfelf
weighed 41b. 3 oz. The lofs in the operation amounted to
13 oz. In like manner 50 lb. of ivory ihavings, exhauilcd by
repeated boiling, gave 95 lb. of clear glue, and 30 lb, of the
marc remained.

Thefe fafls are impo-tant to the manufacturer ; nor is the
ufeof bone L-fs intercfting as an article capable of fupplying
iriuch good and wholefome nutriment to man and ether ani-
mals: In the rr; king of foups it is a matter of con^mon ob-
fervation, that bones contribute, when boiled with the meat,
to the richnefs of the liquor ; but it is not commcnlv known
how much they may be made to add to the nutritious qua-
lity ; nor is it generally known that the hardefl and dricft
bones, even thole that have been kept for years, retain their
gelatinous part unchanged.

The exaft proportiorr of jelly cannot eafily be afcertaincd
by extraftion with water, for even when converted into the
hardeft glue, it has become intimately united with a portion
of this fluid ; and it is by no means certain that the utmoft
deficcation of glue equals the degree of drj'neis of natural
gelatin, as it exifts in the more folid bones.

The quantity of jelly is alfo much increafed, either by
giving the water by which it is extrafted a higher heat than
the boiling point, or by reducing the bones to a fine powder,
and ufing repeated codtion and pulverization.

The former method was ufed by Papin, who, in his va-
luable experiments on the folubility of animal fubllances,
when confined with highly heated water in his Di^fjhr,
found that he was able to extradl every thir.g from powaer-ed
bone, but the mere earthy part. The latter mode has been
bro'ight into notice by M. Proult, in an impcrtant econo-
mico-chemic^l memoir on the " Method of amiiiorating the
fubfiftence of the Soldier," publifhed at Madrid, in 1791.

Though there is a great i;eneral fimilarity betweeo the
bones taken from different parts of the body, they differ
much in the relative portion of fat, of gelatin, and of earth.
The younger the animal is, the lefs earthy fait, ceteris pari-
bus, is contained in its bones. The large, round, joint-
heads of the thigh, and other lar-ge bones, contain much
more oil than the rib or blade bones, as is feen when they
are expofed to the air ; the latter foorr becoming dry and
clean, but the former remaining long foul ard greafy.

No method of extradling all the foluble part of bone
anfwers the purpofe fo completely, as longboihng in Papia'j
digeller with a very great heat ; the earthy rcfidue tlien re-
mains quite friable in the fingers, and gives little, if anv,
volatile, oily, or ammoniacai produtl on burning. But the
jelly which remains iir the water, arrd the oil which fwim.s
at the top, are found to have acquired a biirat unplcafant
tafte ; and in the proctfs, a confiderable quantity of gas is
generated, doubttefs fi-om partial decompofition of the fo-
luble par-t. On the other hand, even after repeated boiling
and laboi-ious pulverization, unafTifted by a higher heal than
that of boiling water, the earthy refidue ftill feclb clammy and
cohefive between the finger?, and retains fome of the oil.

M. Prouft afTerts, that the knuckle and joint bones fim-
ply chopped into fmail pieces, and boikd for a quarter of
an hour in a common copper, yielded no lefs than one fourth
of their weight of fine infipid fat, which rofe to the top of

I the

BON

the water, and on cooling concreted into the confidence of
fuet. The haunch bones yielded about one eighth of fat.
The utmoft economy of bones, therefore, when ufed as
human food, may be obtained in the following method.
Fii-ll chop the fredi bones into fmall pieces, and extraft the
fat in the way jull mentioned ; then dry the bones, and
powder, or reduce them to a fine palle, by fome pretty
ilrong mechanical power ; and boil them with about ten
times their weight of water, for fome hours, till half the
water is wafted, more or lefs according to the kind of bone ;
the joint and thick bones making a richer jelly than the thin
bones, and tlierefore requiring lomewhat Icls boiling down
to make a jelly of a determinate conlillence.

M. Prou'.l finds that this proportion of water is fufficient
to leave a jtlly of about the fame richnefs as would be pro-
duced by diffolving one oimce of bone jelly, dried to the
confillcnce of portable fonp, in thirty-unc ounces of water,
and makes a jelly of a very agreeable dej^rec of richnefs.
The extraftion is much afTifted by ufing an n-on vcflTel wit'n
a elofe lid, to give a heat fomewhat greater than that of
boiling water, thougii not to the degree of a Papin's
digeilcr.

In all the above experiments on the extraftion of jellv and
fat from bones, tlie ui'cooked bor.e is underllood to be ufed.
The b.>nes of lo'tlcd me.^'t, tliongh deprived of fome of their
extractive matter, are llill rich in niitrin-.ent ; but ronjnng ren-
ders them entirely unfit for tliis pnrpole.

The earthy part, whieli compofes on an average about
half the weight of the larger bones of animals, was difeo-
vered firft by Gahn, a Swedifh chemift, to confid of the
ph-.ifphoric acid united with a large proportion of lime. It
will be more minutely defcribed under the article Phos-
PHAT of Lime ; and ii i^ the molt convenient fubftance from
which Phosphorus is prepared. It may here be men-
tioned, that the llronger acids, fnch as the fulphuric or ni-
tric feparate a part of the lime from tins earthy fait, but
onlv a part, for when fulphuric acid is added to bone afh,
fulpliat of lime is formed in great qnautitv, mod of which
remains at the bottom of a fupernatant liquor, confifting of
a great excef;. of phofph(n-ic acid united with a fmall portion
of lime, and alio tome fulphat of lime diifolved therein. It
fhould be remarked in the analyfis of this fait, that this acid
phofphat of lime, is not decompofcd by any fingle acid,
nor even by the pure or carbonated alkalies ; for, on adding
the latter, the precipitate is not carbonated lime, but ftill
the pholphat.

This earthy fait, when in foh.ilion, is, however, entirely
decompoled by the nitrat or acetite of lead ; the lime re-
maining d'fiolvcd in the liquor by the nitric or acetic acid,
and the pliofpliat of lead torming an infoluble precipitate.
Phofphat of lead is dilliugnifliable from fnlphat of the fame
metal by bcin^ readilv f .luble in n'tric acid. If t!ie phof-
phat is forinkled on hot charcoal, the lead is reduced, and
the Uinu;:oefncfs and peculiar fmell of phofphor\is are per-
ceivable. Tl;e phofphat of lime is equally dillingm'fhable
from the fulpli.u i:f lime by being very folubie in moft acids,
tven when dilute.

Much light has b.'en thrown on the analyfis, and with it
the phyfieal (Iruetureot bone, ard ot nioll other of the hard
fupuorti:!g or p/oteCting parts of the body, by the accurate
and numerous expeiimeiits of Mr. Hatchett, whofe re-
fearches into thcle fubjecfs are admirably calculated to Ihew
the extreme advantage wh'ch pliyfiology derives from the
labours of the chcmill, when affilled by accurate knowledge,
and guided by a philofophical fpirit.

When bones, boiled or frelh, are fteeped in any acid, a
(light effervefcence is perceived, and they prefently are ren-
dered foft and flexible by the gradual abllrattion of the

BON

earthy bafis (chiefly phofphat of lime), which becomes dif-

folvcd in the acid. If the bone be previoufly boiled for a long
lime in water, its gelatin is removed by this liquid ; but
if the bone is in its natural ftate, the gelatin alfo is gradually
diflblved in the acid, rendering it yellow and fomewhat tena-
cious. The infoluble refidue (except in a few kinds of bone,
fuch as the enamel of the teeth) is either a membrane or a
fpongy cartilage, retaining the form of the original bone ;
for, in the procefs of oflification, membrane or cartilage
forms the firft bafis or rudiments of bone, which is after-
wards completed by the gradual depofition of the earthy
falts. Though pliofphat of lime forms the chief ingredient
in the earth of bones of all animals, a fmall portion of ful-
phat of lime is mixed with it; and Mr. Hatchett has detected
alfo a little carbonate of lime. The carbonic acid of this is
that which occafions the (light effervefcence during the adioy
of the acid ; the lime remains difToIved in the acid after the
precipitation of tlie phofphat of lime by pure ammonia. A
carboniited alkah then precipitates it together with the now
decompufed earth of the calcareous lulphat.

We have thus (hewn the great conllituent parts of
bone to be gelalin, folubie by boiling in water, and giving a
line clear jelly ; oil, feparable, during the boiling, by rifing
to the top of the water, and when cold concreting into a
fuet ; phnfbhut of Um^, fohible in ddute nitrous muriatic or
acetous acid, and precipitable thence by pure animcuiia ;
iome filphat of liiiie ; a little carbonate of lime ; and a mcm-
branous or cartilar'hwus fnbllance, retaining the form of the
bone after every thing elfe has been extracted by water and
an acid.

For a highly probable opinion on the nature and ongin of
this membrane or cartilage, we are indebted to Mr.Hatchett,
who ha> fliewn a number of charaftcrillic marks, in which
it moll ftrongly refembles infpiifated albumen, and by which
it differs from gelatin. The chief of tliefe are the fol- -
lowing :

When dry, it is femi-tranfparent, like horn, and more or
kfs brittle. In this ftate it refifts the aition of water very
powerfully ; for when boiled for many days with this fluid,
a fcarcely perceptible precipitate is given by nitro-muriat of
tin ; a tell of difiolved albumen. In this it Itrikingly re-
fembles coagulated albumen, and as pointedly differs from
gelatin, which, as we have feen, is readily extraiSlcd by
water even from the dryell and hardeft bones.

This bony membrane, as well as albumen, is fcarcely
afted on by cold muriatic and fulphuric and dilute nitric
acids, which laft readily extrafts gelatin from bone. How-
ever, after an immerfion in thefe acids of fome weeks, the
bony cartilage, when taken out and fteeped in ammonia,
gradually diffulves into a blood-red liquor. But if the nitric
acid is heated, the albuminous membrane is rapidly diifolved
with the copious difcharge of nitrous gas.

With caullic fixed alkali, the bony membrane or cartilage
is readily diffolved into a perfeft animal foap (a lliong mark
of refemblance to albumep, and difference from gelatin), and
during the procefs much ammonia is given out. Acids
again feparate the albumen from the foap, unaltered in che-
mical properties.

Lallly, the bony cartilage is extremely flow to enter into
a ftate of putrcfadion, though kept moift and warm for
many weeks; and in this too it refembles coagulated al-
bumen.

Therefore, in addition to the above-mentioned conftituent
parts of bone, we may add nlbumcn, in a condenfed ftate,
forming the fubftance of the original cartilaginous or mem-
branous ftrufture, both of all the organized bones, and, as
Mr. Hatchett has alfo ftiewn, of moft of the hard parts,
which ferve for the covering, proteftion, and arming of

almod

J

BON

BON

almoft every part of the animal creation. See the articles
Shell, Horn, &c.

The enamel of the tooth is a fi-.i^ular variety of the bone,
being entirely dcllitute of the albuminous membrane. Wbe.n
an entn-e tuotli is immerfed in dilute nitrous acid, the enamel
totally uiiTolves without rcfidue ; but tl;e core of tht tooth is
afted oil like otiier bone, ledvuig a cartilage of the fame
(hape. The tolution of enamtl is found to be ahnoil en-
tirely pholphat of lime, by the tells already mentioned,
being precipitable by pure ammonia, giving phofpiiat of
lead, by adding the acetite of this metal, &c.

Fifh-hones Mr. Hatch.elt found to contain rather a larger
quantity o! cartilage, m proportion to tlie pholphat of lime,
than the bones of quadrupeds. Of the dillcrcnt kinds of horn
and defenlive weapons, the (lag's horn, elepbant's.tufl<s, and
theotherhard and heavy defences, entirely reiemble bone; but
the horns of cattle, rams, and the fofter ipecies, contain fo
little earthy rthdue, that they owe their folldity tntii'elv to
the extreme condenfatiou of the other conlHtuents, the ge-
latin and albumen.

Bones may be foftened by a fhort immerfion in a weak
acid. This arifes from the partial abllraftion of the earthy
bafis ; and advantage may be taken of this property in the
working of bone, for the various purpofcs of manufacture
to which this article is applied by the turner, comb-maker,
cutler, &c. Bone, thus foftened, is again made hard, by
being fteeped in alum-water. Alkalies alfo foften bone, as
they do every other animal matter, by beginning to att
upon the fottcr pjrts. See Ivory.

Bones readily take various colours, which, if diffblved in
an acid, fink deep into the fubilance of the bone, and pro-
duce a pleafmg effetl. Tb.e metallic fohitions are generally
preferred for this purpofe. To give a gr^en, diffolve vcr-
degris in diililled vinegar, immeife the bones in the folution,
put the whole in a velfel, very well clofed, and bury it in a
dunghill, or give it a flow and uniform warm.th in any other
way for about ten or twelve days. The bones are then
found very deeply and permanently dyed green, and capable
of a good polilh. The once prized Turquoifc ftone is foffile
bone of various animals, accidentally impregnated with ful-
phat of copper whilfl buried in the earth. To give the
artificially c'.yed bones a finer colour, boil them in nut-oil,
and they will then take a very high polilh.

A permanent black is given to bone, either by nitrated
filver, or in the following manner: boil equal parts of li-
tharge and quick-lime in water, and the bones along with
them for lome hours, llirring them frequently. Other
metallic folutions may be ufcd tor different colours.

Or the dye may be given by preparing the vegetable
coloured lakes, or concentrated dyes ; and by rubbing the
bone, firll with dilute nitrous acid to open its texture, and
then rubbing in the dye for {onie time. This may be ap-
plied in various ways, hrft foftening the bone by a weak acid,
whereby it is made fit to receive the colour.

Bones are whitened by fimple expofure to fun, wind,
and weather, being firit thoroughly cleaned, and particularly
by occafional immerfion in brine : thus the bones of fea-
birds and filh, left for forae time on the (hore, are found
beautifully white and clean. The fame effect is produced
much more fpecdily, but perhaps lefs permanently, by the
oxymuriatic acid, the bone being expofed for fome hours to
this acid gas in clofe veffels, as Mr. Smith of Briftol has
obferved. The acid firll makes the bone yellow, which, by
expofure to air, goes off, and leaves the bone beautifully
white. This colour a little fades, when the bone is kept
in clofe cafes excluded from the light. See Skeleton.

From all that has preceded, it will appear obvious that,

to the ehemiil and manufafturer, bone is one of the moil
curious and valuable of the animal fubllances, though con-
fidered vulgarly as little better than rcfiife, and fcattcred
about without care. Bcfides its ufe as a hard and good
material for turnery and workmanlhip of various kinds, it
gives, by chemical decompofition, a large quantity of ufeful,
nutritive jelly, fit for human food, or the fame, in the form
of glue, for the arts. When fubjeC^ed to fire, it yields a
vaft quantity of ammonia, and is Jictually the material ufed
in very many manufatturcs of the ammoniacal falts; and the
rtfidue, Itrongly calcined in clofe veffels, (and therefore re-
taining its carbonaceous ingredient,) produces ufeful and
fine black pigments ; or, burned with accefs of air, leaves
an earthy fait, neceliary to fome important chemical pro-
ceffes.

Some of the preparations from bone are only ufed in
medicine. Of thefe, are Dippcl's oil, and the lefs reftified
oleum cornu cervi, (oil of hartfhoni,) both powerful ludo-
rifics, and fuppofed antifpalmodics ; ihc fplrltus cornu cervi,
(fpirits of hartlhorn), fo univerfally known as a llimulant
and cordial ; and the carbonat of ammonia, often called fait
of tiartlhorn. The white calcined earth of bones, cornu cervi
cnlcinatiim, enters into the compofition of one or two phar-
maceutical preparations, but without exhibiting any obvious
properties. In dlftafes of tiie bones, where the loftening
and fpontaneous deformity fliews an evident want of their
earthy bafis, this calcareous phofphat has been given with
apparent advantage. Of the unprepared bones, the elk's
tooth, rhinoceros's horn, and ihavings of the dried human
flcuU, &c. are medicines entirely exploded only within a few
years from the European pharmacopsias, and iU!l maintaining
high credit in the countries whole charatlerillic credulity
and fuperftition in medicine firll brought them into repute.
The only real utility of unprepared bone in medicines is
found in furnifhing, v/hen boiled in water, a light and nutri-
tive jelly for the invalid ; and for this purpofe, hartfhoni
(havings are employed with advantage. Memoires de Pel-
leticr, torn. ii. Proull in the Journal de Phyfique, tom. liii.
Hatchett in the Pliil. Tranf. for 1799 and iSco. Smith
in Beddoes's Well of England Contributions. Johnfon's
Animal Chemiftry. Encycl. Method. Arts and Metiers,
(Article Eca'dlt:), Sec. &c.

Bones, D':fcdfes of the, in Surgery. As bones are organized
parts of the animal bodv, they are liable to molt of the
difeafes with which the fofter organs are affecled. Thefe
are either fpontaneous, or accidental ; but, from the hard-
neffi of their compofition, and the fmall degree of vafcularity
and fenfibility they poflcls, there mull neeeffarily be a con-
fiderable difference between the phenomena and fymptoms
of difeafed bones, compared with thofc of the foft parts.
They are naturally endowed with little or no fenfation ;
but are extremely painful in an inflamed Hate, when the
blood-veffels, which enter thiir fubllanct:, are dillended,
and the nervous filaments are kept upon the ftretch, as in
the cafe of venereal nodes, &c.

Bones may be wounded with a (harp inllrumcnt or con-
tufed with a blunt one, in the fame manner as the mufeles,
or integuments ; and they will re-unite again, if the injury
they fuffer be not fo extenfive as to intercept the circula-
tion, or dellroy their vitality. But, if a bone be fo in-
jured as to perilh, its fubilance will either be gradually
comminuted and diffolved, or call off in a larger portion, by
the procels we denominate exfoliation. If any two ulcerated
furfaces of ficfh (fuppofe two contiguous fingers) be ap-
plied together, and allowed to heal, they will coalefce, and
the veffels from one part will (hoot into the other : in like
manner, if the articulating furfaces of two contiguous bones

(fuppofe

BON

(fuppofe of the tibia nnd ft-niur), be dtveflcd of tlieir
cartilage by ulceration, their extremities may co:defce, and
form one cor.tiiuious bono, which is nrmed cnchylajls. A
ftilT joint, from this caufc, is irremediable, and in general it
may be conlidered as the moll favourable termination of
difeafed joints ; for they too commonly are attended with
fuch dillrefHng fym])toi!is as to require amputation, in order
to prcferve the patient's life. See Vn'hite S\V£lljng, and
Difi-aps of I he Joints.

The coillidcration ai Fradiircs and DiJlocaUoiu is referved

for their proper places in the Cyc!op:rdia, where will be

likewifc dcfcribed the mar.ncr of reducing bones, vulgarly

called hme-fcllhig. This art, (which requires a very corredt

acquaintance with the anatomy of the joints and mufeles),

lias, mofl unaccountably, been ofte:! left to ij^norant

.ferriers ^r;d mechanics, who arc totally celUtute of kucw-

■ Icdge on thefe fubjec^s 1 We might, with as much re:ifon,

cntrull the repairing of a watch, or a mill, to perfons who

•never had an opportunity of examining their mechanifm ! By

-accident, it is barely poffible, foiiie good might be done ;

but the greater char.ce is, that the inftrument would be

damaged rather than rectified, in the hands of fuch un&ilful

operators.

jjoiies will, in ricketty and fcrofulons coiillitutioiis, pafs
into a (late of fpontaneous enlargement, or decay, or flexi-
bility, &c. The fpongy parts of bones, e. g. the extremi-
ties of cylindrical bones, are moll liable to become dileafed
in fuch fubjeifls, efpecially during the early period of lite ;
but in venereal patients, who are alfo very fufoeptible of
morbid changes in the bones, they are their hard parts chiefly
which become aff'eCltd, as in the middle of the tibia, or
tilna, or upon the central portions of the frontal and parietal
bones. See Rickets, Scrofula, and Lues Venerea.
Some obiervations on the furgical treatment of difeafed bones
will be alfo made under the heads of Caries, Necrosis,
Spina Bifida, Distortion, Curvature, Mollities,
and Exostosis.

The llrudlure of bones may be altered from feveral caufes ;

but principally, from eith-rr a deficiency, or a redundancy of

the phofphat of lime, which enters into their compofition,

and gives them folidity. When there is too little phofphat

of lime, the gelatinous part of the bones being unable to

f'lftain mucli weight or refillaiice, they will become prettr-

naturally flexible ; and, on the contrary, when there is too

much phofphat of lime, in proportion to the gelatinous

pait, the bones will be very fragile, and perhaps, may even

break from the mere aftion of the mufeles. The flexible

jtatc is mo'l common in young perfons, and the fuperabun-

dance of oflfeous matter is chiefly predominant in old age ;

but either condition of the bones may occur at any period

of hfe, from peculiar morbid difpolltions. The popular

notion of our bones being more frangible in cold weather

than in hot, is erroneous, and without foundation ; fince

the difference of feafon make no difference in the texture

of the living bones : and the only natural caufe to be af-

figned for the fraflure of our limbs more frequently in the

winter than in the fummer, is that of an increafed flipperinefs

and hardnefs in the ground from froft, S;c. which mull

neccflarily occafion more phyfieal violence and frequency in

our falls.

Bones, hi the funeral fohmmt'ies of the ancients. — Divers
ufages and ceremonies relating to the bones of the dead,
have obtained in different ages ; as gathering ihtm from
the funeral pile, wafhing, anointing, and depoCuing them in
urns, and thence into tombs ; tranflating them, which was
not to be done without the authority of the pontiffs ; not
to fay worfhipping them, ilill pradifcd to the bones of the

:b o N

faints in the P-omifu church. Among the ancients, thelionf «
of travellers and f, Idiers, dying iu foreign countries, were
brought home to be buried, till, by an exprefs S. C. made
doling the Italic war it was forbid, and the foldiers bones
ordered to be buried where they died ; the reafon was, left
liie melancholy light Ihould difcouvage the people from
venturing their lives. Antiquaries are divided as to the
manner of diftinguifhing the bones of the deceaied, from
thofe of the beails and flavcs, who were facriliced at his
funeral, and thrown into the fame fire : probably it wa«
done by dilpoling the body of the dead in the middle
of the pile, and the others towards the fides. Potter's
Archaeol. torn. ii. lib.iv. cap. 6.

The Romans had a pecuhar deity, under the denomina-
tion of Offiln^o, to whom the care of the induration and
knitting of the human bones was committed : and who, on
that account, was the object of the adoration of all breeding
women. Pitifc. Ant. tom. ii. p. J41.

BosES,fo/ftk, or petrified, are thofe found in the earth,
frequently at great depths in all the ftrata, even iu the
bodies of ftones and rocks.

There are divers forts of foffile bone ; fome of a huge fize,
ufually fuppofed to be the bones of giants, but more truly
of elephants, or hippopotami ; others Imaller, as vertebra,
te;th, and the like.

It has been dilputed whether thefe be really animal fub-
flances, or mineial, that is, Hones thus figured. Modern
iiaturaliils generally allow them to be animal, not merely on
account of their figure and refemblauce, but of their che-
mical principles, which are found to be wholly of the animal
kind. It is fuppofed they were repofited in thofe ft:rata at
a time when all things were in a Hate of folution, and that
they incorporated and petrified with the bodies where they
happened to be lodged.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions (vol. Ixxxiv. p. 407,
&.C.) we have fome obfervations on foffil bones by the late
Mr. John Hunter. They were occafioned by an examina-
tion of bones of this kind, found in the caves of Gailenreauth
and Klaufsfl.ein, two fmall villages in the principality of Bay-
rcuth, (or Bareith,) and prefented to the Royal Society by
the margrave of Anfpach. Thefe bones are confidered
more as incrufled bodies than extraneous foflils, fince their
external furface has only acquired a covering of cryllallized
earth, with little or no change in their internal flrudlure.
The principal earth with which bones are moft commonly
incnilled is the calcareous ; and this happens either by the
bones being immerfed in water, in which this earth is fuf-
pended, or by water's pafTing through maflcs of this earth,
which it diflolvcs, and afterwards depolits upon bones which
lie underneath. Bones which are incrufled feeiii never to
undergo this change in the earth, or under the water, where
the folt parts were deflroytd; while buncs that are folTilizcd
become fo in the medium, in which they were dtpofUed
at the animal's death. The incrufled bones have been pre-
vioully expofed to the air ; w-hich is evidently the cafe with
thefe bones, and alfo with thofe of the rock at Gibi altar,
thofe found in Dalmatia, and thofe of the illand of C'trigo.
They are thus dillingnifhcd from foffilized bones : but as
they are found in difl'erent fit nations, it is more difficult to
account .for their prefent Hate. Thofe in Germany are
found in caves ; the coall of Dalmatia is faid to be wholly
fin-med of them ; and this is the cafe with a large portion
of the rock of Gibraltar. With refpcft to the firil elafs of
bones, as they are tliofe of carnivorous animals, refcm-
bling, in fome refpefts, thofe of the white bear, and yet dif-
fering, in fome circumflances, from the prefent auiiiTal of
that fpecies, Mr. Hunter fuggells, that the animals to which

thty

BON

tkey belong reforted at different periods to tliefc cares, as
places of retreat, and periflied in them. In Gibraltar, they
ars moftly the bones of animals of the ruminating tribe, of
the hare kind, and sf birds, with fome of a fmall dog, or
fox, and likewife fliells. Thofe in Dahnatia appear to be
moftly of the ruminating tribe. From thtie facts, it may
be prefumed, that their accumulation did not arife from any
inftin<3;ive mode of living, as the fame mode could not fuit
both carnivorous and herbivorous animals. As to the local
diftribudon of thefe bones, it is neceffary to recur to fiicccflive
fhiftings of the fituation of the fca, in confcqucnce of which
we may have a (Iratum of marine extraneous foflil.;, one of
earth, mixed probably with vegetables and bones of land
animals, a ftratum of terrcllrial extraneous foflils, then one
of marine inoduftions ; but as the fea carries its inliabitants
* along vvitii it, wherever there are thofe of land animals,
there will alfo be a mixture of marine ones ; and from the fea
commonly remaining thoufands of years nearly in the fame
fituation, we have marine foflils unmixed with any others.
As all operations rtfpetling the decompofition, as well as
the growth, of animal and vegetable fubftances, proceed more
rapidly on the fnrface of the earth, to which the air has
accefs, than within it, we Ihall find fewer changes as we
defcend into the eavtli, and at laft probably arrive at a cer-
tain depth, wliere no change takes place. Subftances,
therefore, that are foCilized at a great depth, and depofited
in ftone, clay, &c. are preferved for a very long time from
putrefaction ; as much fo as if they were in a vacuum ; the
heat alfo in fuch fituations being uniform, commonly about
52° or 53"; and in the colder regions they are Hill longer
preferved. It has been generally underftood, that in CK-
traneous foflils the animal part is deftroyed ; but Mr. Hun-
ter has not found this to 'be the cafe. Shells, and bones of
filh, muil probably have the lead in quantity, having been
longed in that ftate, otherwife they fhould have the mod ;
for the harder and the more compact the earth, the better is
the animal part preferved ; and this is an argument in
proof of their having been longeft in a foffil ftate. In the
foifil bones of fea-animals, as the vertebrs of the whale, the
animal part is in large quantity, and exifts in two ftates ;
the one having fome tenacity, but the other like wet duft ;
in fome of the harder bones it is more firm. In the foffil bones
of land animals, and thofe which ir.habit the waters, as the
fea-horfe, otter, crocodile, and turtle, the animal part is in
great quantity. In the horns of ftags dug up in Great
Britain and Ireland, when the earth is diftblved, the animal
part is in confiderable quantity, and very firm. The fame
obfervations apply to the foffil bones of the elephant found
in England, Siberia, and other parts of the globe ; alfo
thofe of the ox kind ; and more particularly to their teeth,
efpecially thofe from the lakes in America, in which the
animal part has fulfered very little : the inhabitants finding
little difference in the ivory of fuch tufl^cs from the recent,
except its having a yellow ftain ; the cold may probably
allift in their prcfervation. In incrufted bones, the quan-
tity of animal fubttancc is very different in different bones :
in thofe of Gibraltar, there is very httle ; it partly retains
Its tenacity, and is tranfparent, but the fuperticial part dif-
folves into mucus. Thofe from Dalmatia furnilli fimilar
refults. Thofe from Germany, efpecially the harder bones
and teeth, feem to contain all the animal fubftance natural
to them, though in this refpedt they differ among themfclves.
The bones of land animals have their calcareous earth united
with the phofphoric acid of the aerial, and retain it, when
foiShzed, as Mr. Hu!;ter thinks, in proportion to the quan-
tity of animal matter they contain. This he infers from the
quantity of cffcrrefcence. In fome bones of the whale, put in-
V91.. IV.

BON

to the muriatic acid, the effervefcence is very great ; in the
Dalmatia and Gibraltar bones it is Icfs ; and in thofe of the
German caves, it is very little, fince they contain by much
the largeft proportion of animal fubftance. From the ex-
periments and obfcrv-ations of the ingenious Mr. Hatchett,
(fee Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxxix. p. 335.'; we learn that the bones
of the Gibraltar rock confift principally of phofphat of lime ;
and that the cavities have been partly filled by the carbo-
nate of lime, which cements them together. FofTil bone*, he
fays, refemble bones which, by combuftion, have been de-
prived of their cartilaginous part ; for they retain the figure
of the original bone, without being bone in reality, as one
of the moll effential parts has be^-ii taken awav. Such
foffil, or burned bones, can no more be regarded as bone,
than charcoal can be confidered as the vegetable of which it
retains the figure and fibrous texture. Bones which keep
their figure after combuftion, refemble charcoal made from
vegetables replete with fibre; and cartilaginous bones, which
lofe their fhapc by the fame caufe, may be compared to fuc-
culent plants which are reduced in bulk and fiiape in a
fimilar manner. Hence he is led to queftion if bodies, con-
fifting of phofphat of lime, like boncs, have concurred ma-
terially to form ftrata of limellone, or chalk ; as it appears
to be improbable, that phofphat is converted into carbonat
of lime, after thefe bodies have become extraneous foffils.
Thedeftruction, or decompofition of the cartilaginous parts of
teeth and bones in a foffil ftate, mull have been the work of
a very long period of time, unlefs accelerated by the aftion
of fome mineral principle ; for, after having, in the ufual
manner, fteepcd in muriatic acid the os humeri of a man,
brought from Hythe in Kent, and faid to have been taken
from a Saxon tomb, Mr. Hatchett found the remaining
cartilage nearly as complete as that of a recent bone.

M. Cuvver communicated to the Societe d'Hiftoire Na-
ture'.le at Paris, a curious memoir upon the foffil bones of
animals. The following abridgment has been taken from
the Societe Piiilomatique, N°l8, Year VI. In order to
determine the relations and differences that fubfift between
the feveral fpecies of animals that do exift, or have exilled
on the furface of the globe, he direfted his attention to
the following. 1. The animal which afforded the bones
and teeth, called the bones and horns of the mammouth,
by the Ruffians and Siberians, and of which remains are
found in Europe, is a fpecies of elephant, refembling the
elephant of Afia ; but differing from it in the alveolae of its
teath, its tuflcs being longer, the angle of its lower jaw more
oblufe, and the laminse of which its grinders are compoftd
thinner. Th" true analogous living animal is not known,
though it has been hitherto confidered as the ordinary ele-
phant. 3. The anim.al, of which the remains are found on
the banks of the Oliio in North America, which the Ame-
ricans and Englifh have alfo named mammouth, though it
differs much from the former. Remains of it are found
in Europe and Afia. It niuft have been nearly as high as
the elephant, but more bulky ; its tufks are fmaller ; its
grinders are armed with large cutting points, of which the
leclion by wear prefents double tranfverfal lozenges. There
are three molar teeth on each fide, o.ne of four, one having
fix, and one eight points. .3. The animal of which the
teeth tinged by copper afford the turquois ftone, and of
which there was a mine at Simore, in Languedoc. The
remains of this fpecies are found in the department of Ain,
in Peru, and elfewhere. It muft have confiderably refembled
the former ; but the points of its molar teeth arc round, and
when worn, their feciion prefents firft, a circle, then a femi-
oval, and afterwards a figure of a trefoil, which has caufed
thera to bt confounded with the teeth of the rhinoceros ;
' D fome

BON

feme of thefe teelli have 12 points, others 6, others 4.
4. The rhiaoceros. The fett and fragments of the jaws of
this animal are found in France, and elfcwhere, in which the
author has hitherto obferved nothing which differs from the
common rhinoceros j bii.t, as he has not yet feen an entire
bone, he cannot pofitively affirm that they are identical. 5-The
fpccies of rhinoceros, with an oblong cranium, which is
found in Siberia, Germany, and other countries. The author
has feen teeth, and parts of tlie jaw-bones, found in France,
which appeared to him likewifc to belona; to this animal ; the
principal charafler of this fpecics confiils in the long clofure
of the nofe : the living analogous animal is unknown. 6. A
molar tooth v\'nli two tranfvcrfal eminences, which is in
the polleffion of Citizen Giliet ; and of which the National
Mnfeum pofll-fFes a young tooth that refemblcs neither the
teeth nor the germs of any animal yet knowm, whether Hv-
ing or foffil : the only tooth which this (lightly relembles
is the lall mola; tooth of the rhinoceros. This tooth, there-
fore, indicates the exigence of a fixth foffd fpecies, of
which the living analogous animal is unknown. 7. The
animal, twelve feet in length, and fix in height, of which
the Ikeleton was found under ground at Paraguay, and is
preferved in the royal cabinet of Spain, at Madrid. The
author proves by a detailed comparifon of the bones, with
thofe of all the known quadi-upeds, that it is a proper and
diilindl fpecies, more nearly approaching the floth than any
other ge.nis, and that it may be called the giant floth.
Citizen Cuvicr, in this place, comm.unicates the interefting
difcovery he has made, that the floth {brarlypus iridaByhu,
Lin.) has naturally and conftantly nine cervical vertebrae.
It is the firll known exception, cttablilhed by Citizen Dau-
benton, that all quadrupeds have neither more nor lefs than
feven cervical vertebrae. 8. The animal, of which the re-
mains are found in the caverns near Gaylenreuth and Mug-
gendorf, in the margraviatc of Bayreuth, in Fiaiiconia.
Various authors have confidered it as a white bear ; but
It differs from this animal, as well as from all the known
bears, in the form of its head, which is particularly cha-
rafterifed by the projection of the front, by the abfence of
the fmall tooth, which all the known bears have behind each
canine tooth, by the offeous channel of the humerus, in
which the brachial artery pafTes, and by feveral other cir-
cumllances in the figure and proportion of the bones. This
animal, ho.vever, refembles the bear more particularly than
any other kind. 9. The carnivorous animal of which the
bones are found in the plailler-ftone of Montemartre : the
form of its jaws, the number of its molar teeth, and the
points with which they are armed, indicate that'this fpecies
is referable to the genus canis ; but it does not completely
refemble any fpecies of this genus. The moil iiriking
diftinflive mark is, that the feventh molar tooth is the greateil
in the aninial of Montemartre, v^hereas the fifth is the largeft
in dogs, wolves, foxes, &c. 10. The animal of which the
lower jaw was found near Verona, has been confidered by
Jofeph Monti as a portion of the cranium of the fea-cow ; a
notion which all the geologifts have adopted, though it be
the contrary to the moll fimple notions of comparative ana-
tomy. This jaw, according to Curier, has belonged to an
animal reftmbling, though fpecifically different from, the
mammouth, the animal of the Oliio, and that of Simore.
Its mod particular charafter confiils in the curve which
forms its fymphyfis. 11. The animal of the flag kind of
which the bones and the antlers are found in Ireland, in
England, at Maeftricht, &c. It is fufficiently different from
ail the flags, and even the elk, to which it has been referred,
by the enormous magnitude of its antlers, the flattening of
their fuperior part, and the branches which fpring from

BON

their bafe. Several figures of thefe are given in the Philo-
fophical Tvanfaftions. 12. The genus of the ox or beeve
alone affords feveral foffil fpecies : the craniums of tvvo were
found in Siberia, which have been defcribedby Pallas, who re-
ferred one of them to the ordinary buffalo ; but he has fince
attributedthem to a peculiar fpecies, nativesof Thibet, named
arni. Citizen Cnvier proves, by ofleologic companion, that
thofe craniums have not belonged to the buffalo. The other
appeared to Pallas to have belonged to the buffalo of the
Cape, or the mulk ox of Canada. Citizen Cuvier ihews
that they cannot have belonged to the former ; but not
being in poffcffion of the cranium of the arni, nor the mufi<
ox, he makes no decifion refpeiiling their identity with the
fo.Til craniums.

The author likewife defcvibes two kinds of craniums
which have be^n found in the turf-pits of the department of
I^a Somme, which greatly refemble our common ox, and
that of L'Aurouchs, but are more than one fourth longer.

From this inquiry the Citizen Cuvitr concludes, i. That
it is not true to affirm that the animals of the iouth have for-
merly lived in the north, their fpecies not being perfectly
identical. 2. That in every country thei-e have lived animals
which do not at prefcut exitt, either on the fame fpot, or
elfcwhere in any knov.n country. Hence he leaves to geo-
logiRs, the talk of making, in their fyflems, fuch changes or
additions as they may think belt fuited to explain the faiSs
which he has thus tilablifhed.

Bone is alfo applied abulively in fpeaking of other mattei-s
which bear fome analogy, either in refpcCl of llruilure or
office, to the bones of animals.

In this fenfe rocks are fometimes called the bones of the
earth. Divers fpecies of figured ftoues, as the ccphautes,
cardites, iffc. are denominated mineral bones, enolta, ofteo-
coUa, Sec. Some naturalills confider (hells as a fpecies of
bones. The lobtter, according to Fonteuelle, is an animal
which cari-ies its bones on its outfide.
Pones, Giants. See Giants bones.
Bones, Mammnnth. See Mammouth.
BoNE^/frf. See Bon-Y\9.i..
'BotiE-Zace. See L.\CE.

Bone, /jiirk, NeJ>er's, quitter, 7-ir.g, 'whak. Sec the feveral
articles.

BONEF, in Geography, z toww TinA abbey of the Nether-
lands, in the county of Namur, 3 leagues north of Namur.

BONENCONTRE, a town of France in the department
of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, 5 nines S. W.
of St. Jean.

BONETTA Shoal, hes about N. E. by E. from Bona-
vifta ifland, one of the Cape de Verd iflands, dillant from it
about 12 or 14 leagues.

BONEZIDA, a town of Tranfilvania, on the Samos, 12
miles N. of Claufenburg.

BONFADIO, James, in Biography, an eminent Itali>;r5
fcholar of the i6th century, was born at Gorzano, in the
Brefcian territory, and iludied in the univerfity of Padua.
From thence he went to Rome, where, for fome time, he
ferved the cardinals Merino and Ghinucci, as feeretary ; and
after wandering from place to place, he refumcd his ftudies
at Padua, where he was probably employed in the inftruftion
of youth. Deriving from none of his employments more
than a precarious fubfi Hence, he was, m 1545, invited to the
chair of philofophv, in the city of Genoa, to which was unit-
ed the office of hiltoriographer, with a confiderable penfion.
Whilll he was bufily profecuting his ftudies, he was charged
and convifted of an unnatural crime ; beheaded in prifon ;
and his body was publicly burnt in July 15 jo. Asa writer
in the Latin and Italian languages, both in profe and verfe,
8 he

BON

he excelled ; and his tranflation of Cicero's oration for Milo,
is reckoned one of the moll elegant pieces of Italian profe
which the century affords. His capital work is the " An-
nals of the republic of Genoa," written in Latin, and com-
prifing the hillory from 1528, where Giuftiniani Iirft off, to
February 1530. It was firll publifhed at Padua, in 15S6,
4to. and tranflated into Itahan by Palchetti. The ftyle is
elegantly fimple, the narrative lively, and the fcntiments
elevated. His Italian letters and poems were printed at
Brefcia in 1746—47. Gen. Dift. Nouv. Dia. Hill.

BONFATTI, in Geogmphy, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and province of Calabria citra, 3 leagues
W. of St.Marcc.

BONFINl, Anthony, in Biography, was born at Af-
eoli, and after being feme years protellor of belles-lettres, at
Recanati, was invited by Ivlatthias Corvinus king of Hun-
gary, in 1484, to his court, where he was employed in
writing the hillory of the Huns. Here he enjoyed the of-
fice of tutor to the queen, Beatrice ot Arragon, and received
many honours from Matthias, and his fucceffor Ladiflans.
He died in i ';o2, aged 75. Of the hillory of Hungary he
left 4^ decads, brought down to 1495 ; of which 3, or 5O
books were printed, by Martin Brenner, in J ';43, and the
remaining i ■" books were added to a new edition by Sam-
buc\i;, in 1568. This work is written with elegance, and
is clall'ed among the bell modern hillories in Latin. He
alfo wrote an account of the capture of Belgrade by Maho-
met II. ; and a work entided " Sympolion Beatricis, feu
dialogorum de lide conjngali et virginitate, lib. iii." He
likewife tranflated, from the Greek into Latin, the works ot
Philoftratus, Hcnnogtnes, and Herodian. Gen. Ditl.

BONGARS, James, a polite fcholarand able negotiator,
was born of proteftant parentsat Orleans in i ^54. Having
lludied firft at Straftur;:;, and attended a courfe of law under
Cujacius, he entered into the fervice of the king of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV. by whom he was errployed for 30
years in various negotiations, particularly with the German
princes. Being at Rome in 1585, he wrote a fevere reply
to the violent bull fulminated by pope Sixtus V. againll
Henry IV.; and he alio publifhed a fpirited anfwer to a Ger-
man piece, imputing the bad fuccefs of the joint expedition
in 1587, to the mifconduft of the French. He was dif-
tinguifhed by his knowledge of books, and had colle£led a
large library, a great part of which was at length annexed
to the public library of Bern. As a critic he became known
by a valuable edition of " Juflin," Paris, 1581, 8vo. He
alfo edited a eolleftion of the Hungarian writers, and the
" Gclla Dei per Francos." But his reputation was prin-
cipally owing to his Latin liftters, written during his nego-
tiations, and publifhed after his death, at I^eyden, in 1647,
and afterwards tranflated into French. The llyle is clear,
eafy, and pohfhed, and they feem to have been didtated by
an hont-il heart. A colk'Sion of his French letters, " Le
Secretaire fans fard," has alfo been publilhed. Although
a Calvinill, Bongars, difapproved of the religious wars of
that party. He died at Paris in 161 2. Gen. Di6l.

BONGO, or Bunco, in Geography, one of the iflands
of Japan. The principal town, feated on the eaft fide of
the ifland, is called by the fame name. This is a port op-
pofite to Tonfa, and feparated from it only by a narrow
channel. N. lat. 32° 41'. E. long. 131° 57'.

Bongo Pala, in Boiany, Pifo. See Myristica aromauca.

BONGUATRORA, Serpens orHat'iJfima amhomenfis hon-
guatrora of Seba, in Zoology, the name the coluber ahatutla
bears among the natives in the ifland of Amboyna. See
Ah^etulla.

BONHAMPTON, in Geography, a town of America,

BON

in Middlefex county, and flate of New Jerfey ; about 6
miles N. E. from New Brunfwick.

BONI, a kingdom of the ifland of Celebes, which lies
on the weflern fide of a bay, called on that account the bay
of Boni, is the fecond kingdom, in point of importance, in
the ifland. Its extent from the river Chinrana to the river
Salenico is about 20 leagues ; and withni land it is bordered
upon Soping, Lamoere, Macatles, and Boelcboele. In
ancient times this kingdom was independent of, and uncou-
nefted with any other. It is flill in clofe alliance with the
two fmall kingdoms of Soping and Loeboe, or Lothoe. The
natives of Boni, that they may not appear inferior to the
Macatfers, deduce their origin in like manner from the goAs.
The iii ll king, they fay, defeendcd from heaven, and was
known by the name " Matta Salompo," that is, the all-
feeing. This fovereign, their firft monarch, inflituted the
laws of the country, which are ItiU obferved ; madp the
royal ftandard, called " VVorong Porong ;" and appointed
feven eledors, under the denomination of " Matoua petoes."
The prince or fovereign is called " pajong ;" and he isfkfled
for lile by feven nobles, which number is kept up by the
pajong, and they are appointed by him from certain free-
holders. The pajong is often reftrained by a fort of pariia-
mcnt, eleded by the freeholders ; it confills of 4C0 mem-
bers, 200 of which are called " mattoua," 100 are called
" pabicliarro," and 100 are called " galarang." The firfl
foverei-ii, after reigning 40 years, refigned the kingdom to
his Ton, and, with his wife, afcended again to heaven ; and
from him all the fucceeding kings of Boni are defcended ;
none others, befides his poflerity, born of marriages with
roj'al princefles, being entitled to the crown. Notwith-
flanding the common defcent of the rulers of Boni and Ma.
cafFer from the gods, thefe two nations are avov.-ed enemies.
About the beginning of the 17th century the Bougintfe, or
people of Boni, and their queen, were compelled to conform
to the mahometan religion; and the condition ij pofed upon
them was, that the enemies of MacaflTer fhould hkewife be the
enemies of Boni, but not the enemies of Boni thofe of Macaf-
fer. At this time Boni was able to bring 70,000 tightin" men
into the field. The hatred which was thus excited among
the Bouginefe againll the Macaflers, and their inceflant quar-
rels, enabled the Dutch, who, as their int rell required,
favoured fometinies the one party, and fometimes the other,
to make themfelves mailers of the ifland. The princes of
Boni, Soping, &c. \mited themfelves to the Dutch bv the
Boni contradl, which was concluded November j8th, 1667 ;
and to this the MacafTers were afterwards compelled to
accede. At prefentthe Bouginefe are the mofl powerful, as
the Macaflers were about a century ago.

The Bouginefe, or Buggeflts as they are ufually called by
the Englifli, are of a middle fize, and have a brown, but not
dark, complexion. Among the female fex in particular,
fome are found almoll entirely fair. Their features in ge-
neral are agreeable, only that their nofe is a little flattened.
They arc lels open and more treacherous in their difpofitions
than the Macaflers ; and never attack their enemies openly,
but endeavour to fall upon them by furprife. Thofe who
never did them an injury are not fecure from being murdered
by them, when they can do it with privacy ; and they often
commit fuch aelions for no other rcafon, as they fay, than
to try the goodncfs of their krifles, or daggers. Many Ma-
caflers, as well as Europeans, have fallen fiicrifices to this
thirll for blood. Their daggers and affagays are commouly
poifoned, as v>ell as their fmall darts, which they can flioot
at their enemies to a confiderable diilance by blowing them
through a tube. Their clothing confills of a piece of red
or blue cotton cloth wrapped round the body, and drawn
5 D z between

BON

between the legs. Tlie upper part of the body h quite
naked. On the head tliey wear a piece of cotton cloth in
the form of an handlierchief, with which they cover their
hair, which is as black as pitch, and very long. On the
other parts of the body, neither the men nor women fufter
any hair to grow; they pnll it out by the roots, in the lame
manner as the Mahometans and Indians do, as foon as it ap-
pears. Their food is chiefly rice, fiih, and pifangs ; and
their beverage is water, though they are not dclUtute of
" faqueer," or palm wine. The Bougincfe women are in
general much handfomer than thofe of the other Indian
tribes; feme of them, if their complexion had the fame mix-
ture of red and white as our females, would be accounted
beauties in Europe. They are naturally of an amorous
difpofition, and are capable of undertaking any thing to
gr.itify their inclinations. The Bouginefe, who liave in ge-
neral adopted the mahometan rehgion, may have four wives,
provided the hufband can maintain them ; but if they are
not fatisfied with each other, tiiey may feparatc with as
little trouble as they were united. They are a high fpiritcd
people, fond of adventures and emigration, and capable of
undertaking the mod dangerous enterprifes. The appella-
tion " Bngguefe," has become, among Europeans in the
call of Lidia, fynonymous with foldier, juft as feapoy is in
the weft. The people of Celebes a.'e very induftrious, and
they are very adventurous merchants ; and the Buggnefe, in
particular, often find their way to the fpice illands, in
fpite of the vigilance of the Dutch. They write their
language from left to right, in acharafter peculiar to thcm-
felves ; on the fea-coalt they univerfally fpeak the Malay
tongue, and have many Malay phrafcs in their own language.
Their funerals are attended with vei7 little ceremony. The
body is wrapped up in a piece of white cotton cloth, and
depofited in the grave, over which fome fweet fcented flowers
are ftrewed, andtvvoftones are erefled, one at the head and
another at ti.c feet. Stavorinus's Voyage to the Eaft Indies,
vol. ii.

BoNi, lay cf, a bay in the kingdom of Boni, in the
fouthern part of the ifland of Celebes. It is called Sewa by
the natives, and Bnggucfs, or long hay, by the Englifh. Of
tliis bay we have the following account by captain Foreft.
Having paffed the ftrait between Celebes and Saleyer, called
the " Budgeroons," keep on in a direclion N. E. by N.
about 130 miles, and you will find, near the weft coaft of
the Sewa, a fmall illand called " Baloonroo," vifible 8 or 10
leagues off, and having fome rocky iflets at its eaft end.
Farther on, about a day's fail, or about 60 miles, is the
mouth of the river Chinrana, which takes its rife in the
Warjoo country, the capital of which is Toftoro, lying a
day's journey by water from the mouth of the river ; it after-
wards paftes through Boni ; it has a good muddy bar, paf-
fable by large fliips, and is navigable a good way up ; it has
feveral moutiis, and on its banks are many towns, which
carry on a great trade in gold, rice, fago, csffia, tortoife-
fiicU, pearls, &c. The anchorage is good off the river's
mouth. Half a day's fail farther north, along the weft
coaft of the Sewa, is the river Peeneekee, which is not very
confiderable. Farther on are two places called Akohngan
and Telludopin, which are pretty well inhabited. Con-
tiiuiing ftill north, you come to the river Sewa, not very
confiderable; then to the river Loo, famous for boat-building;
then you come to Mankakoo, where are gold and plenty of
lago, very cheap, and alfo caflia and feed-pearl. Being now
come to the bottom of " Buggefs-bay," the fago-tree
abounds very much ; and in many parts of the Sewa, there
arc fpots of foul ground, on which they fifti for fwallow,
which they generally carry to Macafler, to fell to the China

BON

junk. On th.c eaft fidc'of the Sewa th.e country is not fo
well inhabited as on the weft fide. The fouth-eaft point of
the Sewa is called " Pajnngau;'' where is a cluftcrof illands,
rather fmall, among which is good anchorage. SUivorinus's
Voyage, vol. ii. p. 213.

BONIEUX, a town of France, in the department of the
Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftnct of the
Apt. The place contains 2450, and the canton 6178 in.
habitants; the territory coinprehends 130 kiliomelres, and
6 communes ; S leagues E. of Avignon.

BONIFACE, in Biozrriphy. There are nine popes of
this name. Bomfnce I. fucceeded Zolimus in the year .q.iH;
and when the fchifm, occalioned by a party that favoured
Eulalius, was terminated, he was fully eftablilhcd in pollef-
fion of the papal fee in 419. Before his eleftion he was a
prcftjyter of irreproachable charafter, and after his advance-
ment he was a lover of peace ; and though he maintained
what he called the juft rights of the Roman fee, in the ju-
rifdiftion which his predectffors had exercifed over the biftiops
of Illyricum, he made no attempt to extend his authoiity
and claims. He revoked the privileges gmnted by Zofinius
to the fee of Aries, and rellored them to the fees of Nar-
bonne and Vienne, which had been unjuftly deprived of
them ; and with a moderation that redounds much to his
honour, he refnfed to interfere in a difpute which took plate
between the clergy of Valence and Maximus, their bilhop.
He died at a very advanced age, November 4, 422 ; was
canonized as a faint in the church of Rome ; and his feftival
was kept on the 25th of Oftobtr. Bede gives credit to the
relation of miracles wrought by this pope, and Baronius (ad
ann. 423,) fays, that he relieved Rome in the time of a fa-
mine.

Boniface II., a Roman by birth, and a Goth by de-
fcent, iupplied the vacancy occafioued by the death of Fe-
hx III. in 520 ; and upon the death of a com.petitdr, named
Diofcorus, obtained quiet poirefRon of the papal chair.
This pope confirmed the decrees of fome Galilean bifliops,
who condemned the femipelagian doftrlne ; and in J3 i he
propoied to alter the mode of electing a pope, and to alTume
the prerogative of appointing his fuccctlbr. He obtauied a
decree for this piirpofe, and aftually nominated a deacon,
whofe name was Vigilius. But at a fecond council the
Roman fcnate, in concurrence witli the bilhops and clergy,
ebliged the pope to r.;voke his former decree, ^nd to ac-
knowledge himfelf guilty of high treafon. Boniface died in
Oftober, 532.

Boniface 111., a native of Rome, fucceeded Sabinian, after
a vacancy of ahnoll a year, in 607 ; and having ingratiated
himfelf with the emperor Phocas, to whom he was deputed
as a nuncio by pope Gregory, in 603, he obtained from
this tyrant the title of " univerfal bifliop," and " head of
the church," which was taken from the bifliop of Conftan-
tinople, and transferred to Boniface and his fucceffors in the
fee of Rome. Thus, fays Bower, was the power of the
pope, as univerfal bifliop and head of the chin-ch, or in other
words, the papal " fupremacy," flrft introduced. It owed
its original to the worft of men ; it was procured by the
bafeft means, or by flattering a tyrant in his wickednefs and'
tyranny ; and according to the previoufly declared judgment
of Gregory the great, it was in itfclf '" anti-chrillian, he-
retical, blafphemous, and diabolical." Boniface afterwards
afl'eiTibled a council for fettling the eleiSlon of bifhops, in
which they were forbidden to nominate their own fucceffors,
and the confent of tlie people, clergy, and fovereign, and
the confirmation of the pope, were made neceffary. Boni-
face died in Novertiber, 607.

BoniJ'acc IV., a native of Valeria, in the country of the

Marfi,

I

BON

Marfi, was elecEled to the papal fee in Auguil CoS ; and
havi;ig obcained trorn Pliocas the grant of tlie pantheon, con-
verted it into a chnrch, dedicating it to the J\'[other of God
and the ChriRian Martyrs. He held a council at Rome to
fettle fome affairs of the Englifli church, at which Mellitus,
the firll bifliop of London, is faid, by Bede, to have at-
tended ; but the afts of this council, and fome pieces afcrib-
ed to Boniface, are thought to be fpuriuus. He died in
615, and was fainted.

7jo/;//a-cV.,anative of Campania, and a prefliyter of the Ro-
man church, fucceeded Deufdedit in December 619. In
624 he fent the pall to Juftus, the fucceffor of Mellitus in
the fee of Canterbury, and interefted himfelf in the propa-
gation of Chriftianity in Britain, by fending letters and pre-
fents to Edwin the king of Northumberland, and alfo to
his queen Edelbcrg, filler of Eadbild king of Kent, who,
having alTumed the Chriltian proteffion, was allowed by her
marriage articles the free exercife of it. He died in Octo-
ber 62 5. Some decretal epilUes, relating to matters of fmall
importance, are afcribed to him. According to Mofheim
(Ecc. Hill. vol. ii. p. iS^), this Boniface enafted tliat in-
famous law, by which the churches became places of refuge
to all who fled thither for proteftion ; a law which procured
a fort of impunity to the moll enormous crimes, and gave
a loofe rein to the licentioufnefs of the moll abandoned pro-
fligates.

Boniface VI., was a Roman of infamous charafter, and
fucceeded Formofus in 896. Baronius (ad Ann. 897.) will
not allow him a place among the popes. He died foon after
his election.

BonifaceVW., denominated " Anti-pope," was a deacon of
the Roman church, of the name of Franco, and advanced to
the papal chair in 975, upon the death of Beneditl VI. to
whofe murder he is faid to have contributed. Soon after his
election he wasconftrained by an adverfe party to leave Rome,
and to fly toConllantinople; but he carried with him the trea-
fures of St. Peter. Gerbert ftyles him " of all monfters of
wickednefs the mod wicked." Upon the death of the em-
peror Otho II. in 984, he returned to Rome, and occupied
the fee in the room of John XIV. whom he difplaced, ini-
prifoned, and put to death. Franco died in 985 ; and he had
rendered himlelf fo odious by his tyrannical conduft, that his
corpfe was treated with the utmoil indignity, and dragged
naked through the Ilreets.

Boniface VIII., a native of Anagni, and a defcendant of
the noble family of Cajetani, was employed by popes Mar-
tin IV. and Nicholas IV. in feveral important legations,
and fucceeded pope CelelUne V. whom he artfully perfuaded
torefign, in December 1294. The bea;inning of the follow-
ing year he was enthroned at Rome with great folemnity
and parade ; in the proceflion from St. Peter's, where he was
confecrated and crowned, to the Lateran, for the purpofe
of being inthroned, he was mounted on a white horfe, richly
caparifoned, with the crown on his head, whilll the king
of Apulia h.eld the bridle in his right hand, and the king
of Hungary in the left, both on foot. His fubfequent con-
duct correfponded to the haughty grandeur of his inflalla-
tion. In order to lecure himfelf agalnll any future trouble
from Celeftine, he confined him in prlfon at Anagni, where
he died. Failing to mediate a peace between James king of
Arragon, and Charles II. king of Sicily, he formed an al-
liance againll Frederic of Arragon, whom the Sicilians had
made then- king, and proceeded to excommunicate him and all
his adherents ; but he was at length obliged to confirm him
in his dominions. His next meafure was that of humbling
the family of Colonna, two cardinals of which had oppofed
his clcdion ; for this purpofci after having declared the

BON

whole family infamous by a public decree, confifcatinjr their
eftates, and excommunicating all who countenanced or pro-
tefltd them, he ordered a crufade to be preached a"ainll
them and their friends, demohlhed their houfes and calllcs,
and obliged them to feek fnclter in foreign countries ; and
he moreover punidied with utter demolition the city of Prx-
nelle, for its attachment to them. To Boniface is com-
monly afcribed the inllitution of the jubilee in 1300. See
JusiLEE. In his attempt to mediate a peace between Phi-
lip the Fair king of France, and Edward I. king of Eng-
land, he was charged with partiality to the latter, fo that
Philip could be prevailed on merely to agree upon a truce ;
and his enmity againll Boniface, which was fmothered for
fome time, at length broke out into a flame. Philip, with
a view of fupporting the war againll England, prohibited the
exportation of any gold or filver from the kingdom without
his permiilion ; and Boniface, appri/.ed that this order was
levelled againll the fee of Rome, iifucd a bull, forbidding
lecular princes to cxaCl, and the clergy to pay, any fums
from the ecclefiallical revenues, without his approbation.
The animolity between the pope and the French potentate
was increaled by the arrogance with which a legate from
Rome delivered the pope's meffage, enjoining the king of
France, in common with other Chriftian princes, to aid the
king of Tartary in a war againll the Saracens, and by the fub-
fequent arrcll of the legate. Boniface, much enraged, dif-
patched a nuncio to demand his releafe; and in cafe of re-
fufal, threatened to declare the kingdom devolved to the'
holy fee, to abfolve his fubjefts from their allegiance, and
to fummon all the Galilean bifliops to Rome. The king
refented this violent proceeding, renewed the prohibition
againft carrying money out of the kingdom, and forbade his
ecclefiallics on any pretence to vifit Rome. In thefe holliLe
meafures the king was fupported by the Hates of the nation,
which appealed to a general council, and Boniface prepred
to fulminate adecree of excommunication and forfeiture of his
crown againll Philip. Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna were
fent, on this occafion, into Italy to excite the perfecuted
Ghibelline<; againll the pope, who was then at his palace
in Anagni. They fecretly approached it with a body of
troops, and made themfelves mailers of the perfon of Boni-
face and all his treafures. During the three days of his con-
finement the pope was treated with great indignity, particu-
larly by Colonna. At length the people of Anagni, recover-
ing from their conllernation, refcued the pope from his cap-
tivity ; who returned to Rome, where he was feized with a
fever, which terminated his life in Oftober 1303. He was
buried at St. Peter's in a grand maufoleum, which he had
eredled for himfelf. Although Boniface has been jufl.ly
extolled for his learning, intrepidity, and experience in pub-
lic affairs, and for his patronage of literature ; he was arro-
gant and overbearing, ambitious, crafty, and violent, and
avaricious to fuch a degree, that he was intent upon accumu-
lating riches to exalt the church and aggrandize his own re-
lations. He was the author of feveral works, fuch as epillles
and decrees, two difcourfes on the canonization of Lewis IX.
of France, called St. Lewis ; two famous prayers, one to our
Saviour, and the other to the Virgin. He alfo caufed to be
publilhed the fixth book of the decretals, and wrote a treatife
entitled " De regulis juris."

Boniface IX., a native of Naples, defcended from a noble
family in reduced circumllanccs, whofe name was Peter Tho-
macelli, was more dilUnguilhed by his prudence andaddrefs
than for his profound and extenfive learning, and waselefted
pope at Rome upon the death of Urban VI. in 1389. The
greatell part of his pontificate was devoted to negotiations
with his rivals at Avignon, Clement V XL and Benedid XIII.

in

BON

•n which were difplayed on both fides much cunning and ar-
tillce, and at the fame time an inflexible refolntion of retain-
ing the tiara. Boniface was arbitrary in the excrcife of
power, and towards the end of the year 1394 he would have
been maffacrcd by the people, if he had not been feafonably
refcued from the enraged multitude by the interpofition of
Ladifiaus, king of Naples, who happened to be then at
Rome. He afterwards retired to Perugia, and from thence
he removed to AfTifi ; but on the approach of the jubilee
year, 1400, the Roman people, apprehending, that in the
abfence of the pope it would not be celebrated with the
ufual folemnity, and the pecuniary intercfts affcCted, de-
puted an emhalfy to invite his holinefs to Rome Upon his
arrival he was received with joy and inverted with extraordi-
nary powers, in the exercife of which he repaired and forti-
fied the walls and towers of the city, and the caftle of An-
gclo, and alfo placed garrifons in them, fo that he ,made
himfclf abfolute mafter of the city. Some afcribe to Boni-
face the inl\itution of Aiinatcs (Sec Annates); but
though the origin of thefe is of more ancient date, he is al-
lowed to have been in a very high degree avaricious and
rapacious, to have fold church preferments to the belt bidder,
without regard to intrit or Icanuiig, and to have made it his
conilant ftudy to enrich his family and relations. He died
of a paroxyfr.1 of the Hone in 1404. Bi;wer's Hillory of
the I'opes.

BoNUACK, called the " ApolUe of the Germans," was
a native of England, vhofe original nan:e was " Winifrid,"
born in Devonlhire, A.D. 670, and was educated in a Bene-
diftine monaftery at^Exeter. This famous eccltfiallic, who
was ordained a piieft A.D. 700, with two companions, paflcd
over into Friefland in 70.;. in order to preach the gofpel among
the heathens ; but failing in his liill attempt, on account ot a
war which broke out between Radbod the king of that coun-
try, and Charles Martel,he returned to England. However, he
refumed his pious undertaking in 718 ; and at Rome he was
folenmly empowered by the Roman pontiff, Gregory II. to
preach the gofpel not oidy in Friefland, but throughout
Germany ; which commiffion he executed with confiderable
fiiccefs. In the year 723, he was confecrated bifliop by
Gregory II., who changed his name of Winifrid into that
of Boniface ; and he is faid to have been the firil who took
a folemn oath of obedience to the pope, which he did at this
time. Upon his return to Germany, with the inftruclions
of the pope, and the peculiar protection of Charles Martel,
he preached in Thuringia, Heflia, and Bavaria, and creded
a great number of Chriftian churches. As thefe were too
numerous to be governed by one bifliop, this prelate was
advanced to the dignity of archbiihop, in 732, by Gregory
III., under whofe authority, and the aufpieious proteflion
of Carloman and Ptpin, the fons of Charles Martel, he
founded in Germany the biflioprics of Wuitzboutg, Bura-
bonrg, Erfurt, and Aichftadt ; to which he added, in 74.1-,
the famous monafleiy of FalJa. His lall p-omotion, and
the lail rccompence of his afliduous labours in the propaga-
tion of the truth, was his advancement to the archiepifcopal
fee of Mentz, A. D. 746, by pojie Zaehary, by whom he
was at the fame time created primate of Germany and Bel-
gium. In his old age he returned again to Friefland, that
he might finifli his miniflry in the fcene of its commence-
ment ; but his piety and zeal were ill rewarded by that bar-
barous people, by whom he was murdered in 7 f;4, together
with fifty ecclefiaft:ics, who accompanied him, and who
fliared the fame fate. He was interred in the abbey of
Fulda, and canonized by the church of Rom.e, to which he
was ardently devoted. His zeal for the glory and authority
of the Romaa pontiff equalled, if it did not furpafs, his

BON

fdlicltude for the fervice of Chrifl:, and the propagation of
his religion ; and in combating the heathen fuperflitions, he
recurred to other weapons than thofe which Chriftiaaity re-
commended, em.ploying violence and terror, and fometimes
artifice and fraud, in order to multiply the number of
Chrillians. His epillles, and thofe of his coadjutors, firfl
publiflied with notes by Serrarius, in 1605, and re-pubhfhed
in 1629, are written in a barbarous ftyle, and dilcover an
imperious arrogant temper, a cunning and infidious turn of
mind, an exceflive zeal for increafing the honours and pre-
tentions of the facerdotal order, and a profound ignorance
of manv things, the knowledge of which was indifpenfably
necefiarv in an apoflle, and particularly of the true nature
and genius of the Chriftian religion. The Bcnediftincs have
publiihed his ftatutes, and fome of his fermons. Bower's
Hilt, of the Popes, vol. iii. Moflieim's Eccl. Hift. vol. ii.
p. 205, &c. Cave's Hill. Lit. t. i. p. 622. Dupin, Eccl.
Hift. cent. 8.

Boniface, count of the Roman empire, one of the two
generals of Placidia, the mother of Valentinian III., Aetius
being the other (fee Aetius), v.'ho have been defervedly
named as the laft of the Romans ; was the intimate frjend of
St. Augulline, bilhop of Hippo, but incurred his difpleafure
by marrying a wife of the Arian fed, after a folemn vow of
chalHty, and a refolntion of retiring fi'om the wr.rld, and
by fome other inftances of licentious conduct with which he
was charged. However, the people applauded his Ipotlefs
integrity, and the army dreaded his impartial and inexorable
jultice. Of his jullice, the following Angular faiSt is re-
corded. A peafant, who complained of the criminal inti-
macy between his wife and a Gothic foldier, was direfted to
attend his tribunal the following day : in the evening, the
count, who had diligently informed himfelf of the time and
place of the affignation, mounted his horfe, rode ten miles
into the country, fjrprifed the guilty couple, puniflied the
foldier with inllant death, and filenced the complaints of the
hufband by prefenting him, next morning, with the head of
the adulterer. Boniface, having defended Marfeilles, when
attacked by Ataulphus, was rewarded by the emperor Ho-
norius with the command of the troops in Africa, which
province he refcued from the repeated attempts of John,
who ufurped the empire. Placidia, who affumed the go-
vernment of the empire during the minority of her fon,
highly pleafed with his bravery and loyalty, called him to
court upon the death of that ufurper, preferred him to the
poll of " comes domellicoruin," and fent him into Africa
with unlimited power. Thefe marks of favour excited the
jealoufy of Aetius (fee Aetius), who artfully contrived,
under the malk ot friendfliip, to engage Boniface in a revolt,
which took place in 427. Accordingly, Placidia declared
him a public enemy, and fent troops againll him. Having
defended him.elf for fome time, he found at length that he
was likely to be overpowered ; and therefore, after fome
hefitation, the laft ftruggle of prudence and loyalty, he dif-
patched a trully friend to the camp of Gonderic, king of
the Vandals, with the propofal of a Uriel alliance, and the
offer of an advantageous and perpetual fettlement. The
Vandals accepted the propofal, and Genfcric, who fuc-
ceeded his brother, and whofe ambition had neither bounds
nor fcruples, tranfpnrted his troops from Spain into Africa
in 429, and obtained, by the concurrence of feveral favour-
able circumftancts, an eafy conqueft. Placidia difcovered,
when it was too late, the artifice that had been pradifed by
Aetius ; and Boniface, who alfo perceived and lamented his
error, returned to his allegiance. But his efforts to recover
Africa were unavailing ; and he was under a neceffity of
abandoning the country, and of returning to Ravenna,

where

BON

BON

where he was kinclly received by Placidia, and advanced to
the rank of patrician, and the dignity of mafter-general of
the Roman armies. The haughty and perfidious foul of
Aetius was exafperated by the honourable mode of his re-
ception, and he haftenedto return from Gaul to Italy, with an
army of Barbarian followers, and to decide his quarrel with
Boniface in a bloody battle. Boniface was fucccfsful ; but
in the conflltt he received a wou'.id from the fpear of his ad-
verfary, of which he expired within a few day^, A.D.452.
Before his death he is faid to have tellified his forgiventfs of
Aetius's treacherous conduft, to fuch a degree, as toexh«rt
his wife, a rich heirefs of Spain, to accept him for her fe-
cond hnfband. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xiv. Gibbon's Hill.
&c. vol. vi.

Boniface, Natams, an encjraver of gre;lt merit, who
flourifhed in Italy, towards the conclulion of the i6th cen-
tury. His works are chiefly etchings, performed in a fligiit,
fine ftyle ; and his fmall figures he executed with great fpi-
rit. His chief work was the plates compofed by D. Fon-
tana, architeA to pope Sixtus V. concerning the removal of
the Vatican obehflcs. Strutt.

BONIFACIA, in Botany (J. Bauhin). See Ruscus
racemofiis.

BONIFACIO, oi-BoNFACio, in Geography, a fea-port
town of the ifland of Corfica, department of I^iamonc, and
chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of Sartenc, on tlie
fouth coaft, and in the ftrait between tlie iOands of Sardinia
and Corfica. The town is fmall and fortified, and the can-
ton contaiiis ,3172 inhabitants; 28 leagues fouth ofBallia.
N. lat. 41'' 34'. E. long. 9° 20'.

Bonifacio Point. See Baldivia.

Bonifacio Strait, commences near the town of the fame
Tiame, on the S.E. of the ifland of Corfica; and its length
to point Tico, the moll northerly point of Sardinia, is 25
leagues.

BONING, in Surveying and Levelling, Sec. is the placing
of three or more rods or poles, all of the fame length, in or
upon the ground, in fuch a manner, that the tops of them
all may be in one continued flraight line, whether it be ho-
rizontal or inclined, fo that the eye may look along the tops
of them all, from one end of the line to the other.

BONJOUR, William, in Biography, a learned Au-
euftin, was born at Touloufe in 1670 ; and at Rome, whi-
ther he was fent for by cardinal Norris in 1695, he became
diHinguiflicd by his learning and piety. He was employed
by pope Clement XI. in fcveral matters of importance, and
particularly in the examination of the Gregorian calendar.
Bonjour had alfo the fupcrintendence of the feminary ella-
blifhcd by cardinal Barbarigo at Montefiafconc, and denomi-
raated the Academy of Sacred Letters. He was acquainted
with almolt all the oriental tongues, and more elpecially
with the Coptic, or ancient Egyptian. Aftuated by a zeal
for acquiring knowledge, and for propagating the gofpel, he
vifited China, where he died in 17 14, whilil he was em-
ployed in forming a map of that empire. His works are,
«• Seleft Diifertations on the Scriptures ;" " An Account
of the Coptic MSS. in the Vatican;" " A Coptic Gram-
mar ;" and " A Roman Calendar." Moreri.

BONIS ARRESTANDIS NE DISSIPENTUR. See ArRES-

tandis.

'Stotiii non amovendis, a writ diredled to the flierifTs of
London, &c. where a writ of error is brought, to charge
them that the perfon agaiiift whom judgment is obtained be
not fuffered to remove his goods, till the error is tried and
determined.

Bonis, terris, et catallis rehabendis pojl piir^ationenu See
Te&ris.

yfrre/lo/a^o/iiper Boms mercalorum. See Arresto.
BONITO, in Ichthyology, fynonymous with the French
bonite. This appears to be a name afligned indifcriminately
to more than one or two kinds of fifhes, although it feems to
be confined in fome dtgree to thofe of the Scomber genus.
T\\t /comber pelamis of Loefl. is the Qih mentioned under the
name of lanilo by Ofbeck, v. ho alfo calls \t /comber pidcher.
The lonilo is vag/uely defcribed as a large fea-fidi, with a
long, broad, and thick body ; eyes, and likewife the gills,
large ; and the greater part of the body free from fcalts. It
is obferved ilill further to be a filh of great beauty, and
very common in fome fcas ; our Eall India lliips ufually fall-
ing in with inimenfe (hoals of them. It, is impofiible to fay
whether this may be the /comber pelamis, or not ; but as a
matter of opinion, we think it to be the fame, btcaufe the
latter is found in immtnie (hoals belw-een the tropics, and in
the Atlantic ocean. The bonito of Bloch (/,• lonite Je Btoch)
bears the Latin name oi /cornier Jarda.

BONITON,- the commoi> French name of Scomeer
amia of Linnsus.

BONIZO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy
of Mantua, on the fouth fide of the Po, oppofite to
Olligha.

BONKOSE, in Ichthyology, the Sci.'ENA nehulo/a, a fi(h
difcovered by Forihal in the Red fea. Bonkofe is the name
it bears in Arabia.

BONLIEU, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardcciie ; j leagues N. N. W. of
Tournon.

BONN, in Latin Bonna, a fmall but populous and forti-
fied city of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and
electorate of Cologne, or, according to the French arrange-
ment, tlie chief place of a diilrift, in the dcpartnient of the
Rhine and Mofclle ; the place contains 8S37, and the can-
ton 18,951 inhabitants; and its number of communes is 31.
The number of houfes is faid not to exceed a thoufand ;
and as it has little foreign trade, moll ot the inliauitants are
attracted thither by its being the refidence of the elector of
Cologne. The ftreets are narrow, crooked, dirty, and
badly paved, and in winter badly lighted. The public
walks are few, and not very agreeable. The churches are
(lately ; and the town-houfe is adorned with fine paintings.
The Jews at Bonn have a llreet to themfelves, confifling of
21 houfes; and their number is eftimaied at 250. Bonn
was taken from Lonis XIV. into whofe hands it was fur-
rendered by the eleiElor, in 1673, by William prince of
Orange ; in 16S9, by the marquis of Brandenburgh ; in
170J, by a detachment of the duke of Marlborough's army^
after a fiege of three weeks, and the lofs on both fides of
2000 men ; and on the 6thof Odober, 1794, by the troops^
of the French repubhc. It is Ctuated J4 miles S.S.E. of
Cologne, 30 E. of Aix-la-Chapelle, and 28 N.N.W. of
Coblentz. N. lat. 50"^ 40'. E. long. 7°.

BONNA, in Zoology, iynonymouswith Bonasus ; which,
fee.

BONNAGHT, o,' Bonnagh, an old term, which oc-
curs frequently in Irijh hijlory, and was the fame with coin
and livery ; being a certain proportion of meat, drink, and
money tor the maintenance of a foldier, and lometimes free
quarter. HoUingfhead fpeako of it as an Iriili impofition,
which beggared the farmers ; and fir John Davis, the emi-
nent attorney general of Ireland in the reign of James I. in.
his juftly admired tra<£l, entitled " A Difcoverj- of the
Caufes, why Ireland was never fubdued," has thefe words :
" But the moll wicked and mifchievouscullom of all others,
was that of coin and livery, which confilled in taking of
man's meat, horfe meat, and money, of all the inhabitants

o£

BON

EON

oppieffion was not temporary, nor lim.tc'd cither to pla.v. w.
time, but becaufe there was every where a continual war,
either o.Tenlive or defenfive, and every lord of a country, and
every marcher, made war and peace at his pleafure, it be-
came univerfal and perpetual, and was indeed the moll heavy
opprenion that ever was ufed in any Chnllian or Heathen
kintrdom." The curious reader w
whole paffage in fir J. Davis's Hiftorical Trads, p. IJ2, ct
fcq of the edition printed in Svo. Dubhn, 1767. ims
praftice was forbidden by the ftatute of Kilkenny Pelted in
14-0, and bv feveral fucceeding ads, in one of vvhich
(uiidcr t^enry VII.) it is called a ilamiiahk cujom. Spen-
ler, in his " View of the ftate of Ireland," feems, however,
to think the ftatute unnecefiarily fevere in making it treafon.
Hollinglhead. Irifh Statutes. Spenfer's State of Ire-
land

' in

vioufnefs and eflcminacy. His poems in heroic verfe have
alfo been efteemed. The Pancliaris was publilhed at Paris
in 15S8, and tranflated into French by La Bergerie ; and all
the poems of Bonnefonius are printed after thofe of Beza, in
Barbou's edition of the latter, Paris, 1757. There are
London editions in 1720 and 1727. A foil of Bonnefonius
ill do wtU to confult the diftinguifhed himfelf by Latin poetry, chiefly written on
public charafters and events. Nouv. Ditl. Hift.

BCvNNER, Edmund, i\n Englidi prelate of deteftable
memory as a pcrfecutor of Protellants, was born, as it is
generally believed, of poor parents at Hanky, in Worcefter-
fliire ; but fome havcafiirmed that he was the natural Ion of
George Savage, reftor of Davenham, in Chefliire. About
the year I 'J 12, he was admitted a ftudent of Broadgate hall
(now Pembroke college) in the univerfity of Oxford, fa-
mous at that time for the education of civilians and canonifts.
BONNART, John, in Bio^raphv, barber furgeon, and In 1519, he took his degrees of bachelor of the canon, and
marterofthecoll'egeof furgeonsat Pans, pubhftitd, in 1629, bachelor of the civil law ; and about the fame time entered
"La Semain des medicaracns obfervee, et chefs d'ceuvres into holy orders. In i '525, he was created doftor of the
des maitres barbiers chirin-gieus de Paris," Svo. It contains canon law. More diftinguidied by his talents for bufinefs
a courfe of ftudy neceflary for young men previous to their than for his learning, he was appointed comniiffary of the
being eleAed into the college, with obfervations on the me- faculties by cardinal Wolfey, who conferred upon him a
thod of treating fuch complaints as come under their care, plurality of ecclefiaftical benefices. After the cardinal's
The author ft^ronglyrecornniends opening the jugular vein death, he contrived to infinuate himfelf into the favour of
in cafes of quinfey. " Methcde pour bien feigner les acci- king Henry VIII. , and became a zealous promoter of the
dens qui arrive pour etre mal fait," Svo. 1628. Haller Bib. reformation, as well as an advocate for the king's divorce
Med Elov. from queen Catharine, and a ftrer.uous fupporter of the

BONNAT, in GcoTaph^, a town of France, and chief meafures that were adopted for abolifliing the pope's fupre-
place of a canton, in the department of the Creufe, and di- macy in this kingdom. He was alfo patronized by Crom-
llritt of Gueret ; the place contains 20J2, and the cant<in well, fccretary of llate, and employed as ambalfador at feveral
10,804 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 2572 kiho- courts. In I'Jp, he was deputed on an enibalTy to Rome,
metres and 12 communes. to excufe the king's appearance to a citation at that court ;

BONNAUD, in Biography, publiftied, in 1770, " De- and in 15,; 3, lie was fent to pope Clement VII. then at
gradation de I'efpece humaine par I'ufage des corps de ba- Marfeilles, to deliver the king's appeal fiom the pope to the
leine " i2mo. Paris. In this very fenfible and ingenious next general council agaitift his excommunication ; and on
little work, the author forcibly reprefents the various evils this occafion he expoled himlelf by his boldnefs and inde-
confequent on ufing ftays ftiffened with whale-bone : thefe cent warmth to pcrfonal danger. He was iikeviifc em-
are indigeftion, and other diforders of the ftomach, ruptures, ployed in other embaffies to the kings of Denmark and
and difficult refpiration, often terminating in confumptions ; France, and to the emperor of Germany. Being recalled
befides, they not unfrequently occafion deformity of the from France in 15,38, on account of the boldnefs with which
body, which they are fuppofed by their admirers to contri- he remonftrated againft the proteftion afforded to an Englifli

bute in preventing. Haller. Bib. Med

BONNAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Befanjon, 2 leagues N. of Befangon.

BONNE, a town of Savoy, in the Lower Faucigny, 10
miles E. S.E. of Geneva. N. lat. 46° 11'. E. long.

6° 7'.

Bonne, a bay on the weft coaft of Newfoundland,

traitor, he was nominated to the bifliopric of Hereford, and,
before his confecration, tranflated to the fee of London
in 1539. At the time of the king's death in 1547, he was
ambaffador at the' court of Charles V. Till this time
he appears to have concurred in promoting the reformation ;
and by the fubferviency of his principles to his intcrell, as
well as by his capacity for public bufinefs, he fecured the
favour and confidence of his tyrannical mailer. But from his

N. lat. 49° 35'. W. long. 53°. — Alio, a bay on the coaft fubfequent condutt it is evident that he was feeretly attached

of Spain in the Mediterranean, ntarly eaft from Malaga, to the Romilli religion; for foon after the acceflion of Edward

N. lat. 36° 42'. W. long. 2° 40'. VI., he feruplcdtotitketheoath that was required forrcnounc-

BONNEBOSQ, a town of France, in the department ing the pope's authority, and he protefted againft theking'sin-

ef the Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift junctions and homilies, which, however, he had never read.

of Pont I'Eveque, 2 leagues S.W. of Pont I'Eveque. But being committed to prifon for difobedience, he after-

BONNEFONS, John, or Bonnefonius, in Biography, wards recanted, and was releafed. Whilft he outwardly
was born, in 1554, at Clermont in Auvergne, became an ad- profeffed zeal for the reformation, he privately ufed all the
vacate in Paris, and, in 1584, lieutenant-general at Bar- means in his power for obftrufling its progrefs and eftablifii-
{ur-Seine, and died in 1614. He was diftinguifhed as a ment. His conduft warranted the fulpicions that were en-
Latin poet, and particularly by that kind of poetry, which tertained of his fincerity ; and in order to bring it to a tclt,

be

BON

he was ordered by tKe privy council to preach at St. Paul's
crofs on ctrtaia articles, counefted with the principles of
the rcfornnation, and given to him in writing. But he per-
formed this fervice in a manner fo unfatistaftory, that, upon
the complaints of Hooper and Latimer, commiflioners were
appointed to proceed fummarily againll him ; the refult of
which was, that h^ was committed to prifon, and deprived
of his bifliopric. Thefe proceedings, allowed even by his
enemies to be arbitrary and fevere, roufed his refentment ;
nor was he long obliged to wait for an opportunity of ample
retaliation. Lfpon the accefTion of Mary to the throne, he
vas redored to his billiopric, by a commiiliun dated Auguft
J 553 ; and in the convocation of the following year, lit was
appointed preiident in the room of Cranmer, who was com-
mittcd to ihe tjwer. In this year he vifited his diocefe,
and indnllrioufly rooted up all thefeeds of the reformation. In
the four fiicceeding years he was an active and favage per-
fecutor ; and he is faid to liave committed to the flames
200 peifons, who avov.-ed their tirm adherence to the pro-
teftant religion, and who refufcd to embrace the grofs errors
of popery, bclidcs iniprifoning and torturing many more.
Bonner's dilpolilion was in the liighcll: degree cruel and
ferocious ; and religious bigotry, grafted on a temper natu-
rally favage, rendered hmi a lit inllrumeiit to be employed by
the artful Gardiner in the condemnation and execution of
heretics. But though his nature did not leem to recoil at
this favage employment, he dreaded tlie increafed odium
that atterided it, and refufed any longer to be the execu-
tioner of the law:. However, in 1556, he concurred in the
degradation of Cranmer, and enjoyed the malignant pleafure
of triumphing over him with his ufual infolence. In the
following year his name was inferted in a kind of inquifitorial
commiflion for fearchiug after, and pimithing all heretics, as
all perfons who were of the protellant rrhgion were then
denominated. Upon the accefiion of Elizabeth, he had the
effrontery to accompany the other bifliops in their progrefs
for meeting her at Hlghgate ; but flie looked upon him
with feelings of jufl indignation and horror, as a man pol-
luted with blood. He reuuiined fur fame months un-
molefted ; but in May 1559, he was fummoned before the
privy council ; and refuiing to take the oaths of allegiance
and fupremacy that were tendered to him, he was deprived
of his bifhopric, and committed to prifon. In this flate of
confinement he remained for fome years, bearing his reverfe
of condition with a degree of cheerfulnefs which might have
become a better man, and occalionally warding oft, by keen
and humorous repartees, the popular infults that were offered
him. He died in prifon, September 5, Ij6y ; and was
buried at midnight in St. George's church-yard. South wark,
left any indignities fliould be offered to his remains by the
incenfed populace. Bonner was fingularly favage in his
natural temper, bluftcring and prophane in his converfation
and manners, furious and violent in his conduft, grofs and
corpulent in his perlon, and in every refpedl fitted for the
part he ac^ed, as an unrelenting and brutal perfecutor. He
was generally regarded as dellitute of any fixed principles ;
and he has been charged even with Atheifm. As a canonill
and politician he was allowed to excel ; but his knowledge
of divinity was very imperfeft, and he had no reputation for
T-arniig. However, fcveral pieces, theological, controver-
fial, and palloral, were publifhcd under his name. By his
jnterell with queen Mary, he obtanied feveral advantnges for
the fee of London, which his fucceffors have enjoyed. Biog.
Brit.

BONNET, Charles, an eminent natural philofopher,
was born at Geneva in 1720, and educated under a domeftic
tutor, whom his father provided for him, as affording fupe-

VOL. IV.

BON

rior advantages to thofe which he enjoyed in any of the public
fchools. At the early age of 16, he' difcovered that pecu-
liar inclination of his mind, which led him to thofe ftudies
that laid the foundation of his future fame and excellence.
From the perufal of the Speftacle de la Nature, he was in-
duced to direft his particular attention to the ftrutlure and
manners of the ant-lion, and added many curious obferva-
tions relating to it, to the hAs that had been previouflv
coUefted by MefT. Poupart and Reaumur ; and he was fur-
ther led by the Memoirs on Infedls, publillied by the latter,
to repeat many of his experiments, and to difcover new
fads, v/hich indicated in a youth of 18 a degree of faga-
city and refearch that furprifcd and gratified this eminent
naturalift, by whom he was encouraged to proceed. The
intereiling obfcrvations which he made on different fpccies
of caterpiiiars, and other infects, in the years i 7,58 and i 739,
were communicated by him to Reaumur. Plis father had
deflined iiini to the profeffion of the law ; but the ff udy
of natural hilhiry was his chofen and favourite employm.ent.
Having, in 1740, decided a quellion that h.id been left un-
fcttled by Reaumur, refpetfting the multiplication of tree-
hce, or aphides, without actual conjunction, h? communi-
cated a paper on this fubjedt to the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, and in ciTnfequcixe of it, had the honour of be-
coming a cortefpondcnt of thiit ilhillrious body. His eve-
light was irreparably injured by the minutenc'fs of his re-
fcarchcs on the generation of thefe animals. In 1-4T, he
found that many fpecies of worms pofTcfs, in a degree, the
rcprodudive power of the polype: and in 1742, he dif-
covered that tlie refpiration of caterpillars and butter-
flies, \yas effedlcd by means of their pore-; called " Stigmata."
The tccnia, or tape-worm, was alfo a fuhjtd of his fuccefs-
ful inveftigation. In 174,,;, he was advanced to the rank of
dodor of laws, and on this occaiion he tfitally abandoned
the profefTion of the law. A paper on iufedf s, which was
this ycarcommiinicarcd to the Royal Society of London, ob-
tained for him the honour of being elected a member. His ob-
fcrvations on aphides and worins.under the title of " Infeclo-
logy," were publiflied in i 744 ; and this work was intro-
duced with a preface, in which he gave a brief f]«tch of his
ideas concerning the developemcnt of germs, and the fcale
of organized beings. This work was very favovn-ablv received
by the public ; but fiich had been the nature of his re-
fearches and the afTiduity of his application, that his eves
and his health failed him ; and he was reduced to the dif-
trefTuig neceffity of laying adde his microfcope, and of
defifling from rending and writing. This felf-dtnial, pecu-
liarly alfiidive to his ardent mind, he bore, however, w^ith phi-
lofophical refignatioii ; and by a total intenniffion of his
fludies he had tfie fatisfaction of regainir.g a confiderable
degree of healtli and cafe, though he was never able to em-
ploy his eyes as he had been accuftom.ed to do. In 1 ':46,
he commenced a courfe of experiments on the vegetation of
plants in mofs and other fingular fubftanccs ; and in the
foUov.'ing year he examined with minute attention the leaves
of plants, with a view of afcertaiiiing the appropriate ailion
of tiieir ujipcr and under furfices. He 'alio employed
coloured injeftions for the pnrpofe of deterniijiing whether
the fap alcendb by the bark or wood ; and he made various
obfervations on vegetable nionfters, and other circumflances
of vegetation, which were communicated to the public in
one of the moll curious and original of his work.'?, entitled,
" Inquiries into the ufe of the leaves of plants," (irft pub-
lifhcd at Leyden, in 1754, 4to. ; to which fupplcments
have been added as late as the year 1779.

Bonnet, probably conllrained to remit his attention to ex-
periments by the circumllances already mentioned, direfted
5 E hi»

BON

his fpcculative refeavches to tbe faculties of tlie human mind ;
and liaviiig c;)lle£>td a mafs c f materials on tliis fubjcft, he
pubiiflied A kind of abiidgmcnt of them, under the title of
an " EiTay on Phyfiology," in 175,^, at London. This
work, which appeared vvithont his name, and which he did
not acknowledge for 30 years, contains a concife ftatement
of the fundamental principles cf his philofophy. " It
traces the origin and progrefs of the human mind, from the
firll germ oflife, to the devclopement of all its faculties,
ths mutual dependence of which it points out, as deduced
from actual obfervation. It enters into the difficult fub-
ie£l of human liberty, and endeavours to reconcile it with
the divine prefcience, and with the philofophical principle,
that every eff'.'ft mull have an adequate caufe. From the
edential properties of the adlivity of the foul, and the efiedls
of habit upon it, the whole art of education and govern-
ment is deduced ; and a fyftjm of the former is laid down,
materially different from the ufually cilablillied methods."
Our author's metaphylical ideas w'ere evidently founded on
the principles of Malebranche and Leibnitz ; but as he had
freely difcufled fome points of a delicate nature, and w-hicli
were likely to involve him in perfonal controverfy, he chofe
to conceal his name. His next wurk, tne fruit of five
years' labour, was an " Analytical Effay on the faculties of
the Soul," firft printed at Copenhagen in 1760, 4to. at the
cxpcnce of the king of Denmark. In this work he affumes
the liypothefis of a ftatue organized like the human body,
which he animates by degrees, and (hews how its ideas
would arile from imprefiions on the organs of fenfe. Al-
though this performance was well received by fome phi-
lolophers, it foon fubiefted the author to the charge of
materialifm and fatalifm ; but to this charge he made no
reply. Accultomed to retirement, to which mode of life
he was obliged to recur, on account of his deafnefs and
other bodily infirmities, he fought the comforts of a domeftic
life ; and in 1759, he married a lady of refpeftable family,
the aunt of the celebrated Saulfure, with whom he paffcd
37 years of connubial felicity. In the profecution of his
phyfical fyftem, Bonnet publidicd at Amfterdam in 1762,
his " Confiderations on organized bodies," 2 vols. 8vo. The
principal objefts of this work were, to detail, in an abridged
form, all the moll interefting and well afcertained facts, ref-
peCting the origin, devclopement, and reproduftion of orga-
nized bodies; to refute the different fyllems founded upon
" epigcnefis ;" and to explain and defend the fyltem of
germs. His " Contemplation of Nature," which ap-
peared in 1764, Amil. 2 vols. 8vo., was a popular work,
diiplaying the principal fafts relating to the different orders
of created beings, in an inllruflive and entertaining manner,
and recommended by the charms of an eloquent ilyle, with
a conllant reference to final caufes, and the proofs of
wifdom and benevolence in the creator. This was tranflated
into feveral European languages, and enriched with notes by
the author himfelf, and alfo by others, in a new edition. His
concluding work was his " Pahiigcnefic Philofophique,"
printed at Geneva in J 769, 2 vols. Kvo. This treats on the
pall and future ftate of living beings, and fupports the idea
of the revival of all animals, and the perfedi:ig of their facul-
ties in a future flate. To this work he annexed " tin inquiry
into the evidences of the Chrillian revelation, and the
doilrines of Chrillianity, which, with a piece " On the
exiftence of God," was publiflitd feparatcly at Geneva in
1770.

Towards the year 1773 ^^ refumed his attention to na-
tural hillory, and pubiiflied, in Rozier's journal, a memoir
on the method of preferving iufttts and hlh /„ cabinets. In
the following year he ftnt to the fame jourii al a memoir on

BON

the loves of plants, originating in the difcovery of a kind of
cleft or mouth in the pillii of a lily. Other memoirs con-
tained a detail of his experiments on the rcprodudlion of the
heads of fnails, and of the lin.bs and organs of the water
falamander. He alfo made obfervatior.s on the pipa or Su-
rinam toad, on bees, on the blue colour acquired by mu(h»
rooms from expofure to the air, and on various other fub-
jefls in natuial hillory. His reputation introduced him as
an aflbciate into moll of the literary focieties of Europe ; and
in 178,3 he was eletled into the fcledl nunr.ber of foreign af-
fociates of the academy of fciences in Paris. His corref-
pondence was extenfive, and his attention to public duties
exemplary. In the great council of tiie republic into which
he entered in 1752, and in which he had a leat till I J 68, he
dillinguillied himlelf by his manly eloquence in the fupport
of wife and moderate meafures, and his conRant zeal in the
caufe of morals and religion, with which, in his opinion, the
profperity of the Hate was ti'eritially connefted. The lall
25 years of his life were Ipent altogether in the country,
wh'.-re be enjoyed, with a competence, the intercourfe of
cliofen friends. Some part of his time was employed in the
education of youth, tor which ofnce he was admirably quali-
fied. The revlfal of his wovki; occupied near eight years of
his life, and required a degree of application which was injuri-
ous to his health. This collcerion appeared at Neuchatel, in
Qvols. 4to. or iSvols. 5vo. and contains, bcfides the works al-
ready mentioned, feveral fmaller pieces in natural hillory and
mttaphyfics. They are all written in French. Towards
the year 17S8 he manifelled alarming iyniptoms of a dropfy
in the biealt ; and thele became more aggravated in procefs
of time, and occafioned a variety of fufierings which he en-
dured with patience and ferenity, till at length he was re-
Itafed by death. May 20, 1793, at the age of 73 years.
Public honours were rendered to his remains by his fellow
citizens ; and his funeral eulogy was pronounced by his iiluf-
trious friend and kinfman, M. dc Sauffure. Mem. pour
fervir a I'Hill. de la Vie et des ouvtages de M. Charles Bon-
net ; Berne 1794. Gen. Biog.

Bonnet, Jaqj,ies, publillied, in 1726, at Amfterdam,
" Hilloire de la niufic," the hillory of mufic and of its effefts
from its origin to the prefent tiir.e, explaining, in what
its beauty confifts, 4 vols. i2mo. This hillory was at firft
undertaken by the abbe Bourdelot, uncle to the editor of
this work, and dillinguilhed by his erudition. Bonnet
Bourdelot, brother of Bonnet, the firll phyfician to the
duchefs of Burgundy, continued it after the death of his
uncle, and at length arranged and digelled the matcriab
which he found among the MS. papers of his uncle and his
brother. Indeed the firll volume only was written bv Bon-
net; the three kill were compiled in a patriotic fury by Fren-
cufe, a phyfician, in 1705, who died in 1707, in the flower
of his age, having only arrived at his j jd year. He feems tp
have been wholly itimulated to this undertaking by the abbe
Raguenet's parallel between the mufic of the Italians and the
French; which, though written with the utmoll circumfpeclion
and civility to F>ance, M. Frencufe thought too favourable to
Italy ; and inllead of a continuation of the hillory of mufic, .
has given us nothing but a violent philippic again'll the abbe
Raguenet, for daring to draw a parallel between the mufic
of France and Italy, and a cenfure of all the moll illuftrious
Italians of the 17th century, fuch as Carifllmi, Luigi Rofli,
Scarlatti, and Corelli ; and letting up Lulli againll them
all, has formed his refutation of the abbe into three dialogues;
in which two of the interlocutors are champions for Lulli,
and only one, and that a lady, neither a deep logician, nor
a powerful advocate for the Italians, is the heroine that un-
dcrtakes their defence. But the poor Italians have no quar-
ter

I

BON

BON

ter given tliem ; not only their miific and fingiiig, but even
their '.::.3fuage is cen fared for its elifions, its metaphors, its
fimil''s, conftruflion, and inverted plirafes.

The ex"citionof the Italians he compares to the dexterity
of the foldicr who was brought to Alexander, to exhibit a
trick which he had acquired by infinite pains and practice,
of chucking a pea into a diflant hole which jull fitted it.
When all the reward which the great conqueror beftowed
upon the foldier for his ufelcfs application of time was, to
order him a peck of peas.

Iiideed hII the praife that is due to Bonnet for the firft
part of what he calls a hiltory of mufic, is, the having col-
leftcd materials towards a hiftor\' of the art ; but he was no
muficidn, and equally unable to explain the theory of the
ancients as the praftice o*^ the modems ; fo that his work
is totally devoid of tallc, order, and ufeful information.

Bonnet, or Bonkt, Theophilus, an eminent and re-
fpeftabl- praftiliirr phyfician, and voluminous writer in me-
dicine, of Geneva, where he was born, March 5th, 1620.
Following in the fteps of his father and grandfather, he
early attached himfelf to the praftice of phyfic. After vifit-
ing feveral foreign academies, he was admitted doftor in
medicine at Bologna, in 1643, and was foon after made
phyfician to the duke de Longueville. Though he foon at-
tained to high credit in hisprofefRon, and had a large (hare
of praftice, he dedicated a confiderable portion of his time
to reading, and to difTedting fuch fabjetts as the hofpital
afforded him, with a view of difcovering the feats of the
difeafes, under which the patient had laboured ; minuting
every deviation he obferved from the natural ftruclure of the
vifcera, or other parts of the body, and thus opening a new
road for improving the fcience he cultivated. He alfo ap-
pears to have made extrafts of eveiy thing he deemed wor-
thy of notice, from the vaTious works he read. His hear-
ing from fome accident becoming defeftive, he withdrew
from praftice, and employed the laft ten or twelve years of
his life in 'arranging the materials he had collected. The firft
fruit of his labour, which he gave to the public, in 166S,
was " Pharos medicorum," 2 vols. i3mo. This was printed
again, much improved and enlarged, in 1679, '" 4'^o- under
the title of " Labyrinthi rnedici, extricati," &c. compiled
principally from Bellonius and Septalius. In 1675, " Pro-
dromus anatomise praclicce, five de abditis morborum caufis,"
fol. ; the precurfor of his principal work, " Sepulchretum,
leu anatome practica, ex cadaveribus morbo denatis pro-
ponens hiftorias et obfervationes," &c. 2 vols. fol. Genev.
1679, which far exceeded the expettation raifed by the
prodromus. It was enlarged by nearly a third part, and
republifhed by Manget, 2 vols. fol. i 700, and was afterwards
taken by Morgagni, as the bafis of his work, " De fedibus,
et caufis morborum," by which the fepulchretum is in a
;;reat meafure fuperfeded. The author begins with obfei-va-
tions on the appearances of the brain and other parts of the
head ; then of the contents of the thoi-ax, abdomen, and
pelvis ; and Lftly, of the extremities ; forming an immenfe
body of difleftions, which he has illuilrated by many perti-
nent and ingenious obfervations. " Cours de medicine, et
de la chirurgie," 2 vols. 4to. 1679. An epitome of the art
of furgery, with fome fedtions relating to the practice of me-
dicine, feleAed from the mcft accredited authors of the age.
" Medicina feptentrionalis, colleftitia," 2 vols. fol. 1684.
fhewing how largely the practitioners of the northern parts
of Europe, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Holland, and
England, have contributed to the improvem.trt of anatomy,
furgery, and medicine, by extracts and accounts of the
works of the principal writers of thofe countries. " Mer-
curiiis compilatitius, feu index medico-praflicus, decifiones,

cautiones, obfervationes in fingulis affeflibus, Sic. o-ftendens
tutam medendi viam," fol. i6Sz. A molt ufeful work,
fhewing under the name of every difcafe or afieclion where
cafes or obfervations may be found, and what authors have
written upon them. Such an index continued to the pre-
fent time, though very voluminnus, would be highly ufeful.
Bonet alfo publifhed " Epitome operum Sennerti," fol.
1685, and " J. D. Turqutti de Mayerne, de Arthritide,"
1671, i2mo. and " Rohaulti tradlatus phyficus, e Gallico in
Latinam verfus," 1675, 8vo. He died of a dropfy, March
3, 1689. Hall. Bib. Med.

Bonnet, in a general fenfe. See Cap, Hat, Mitre,
&c.

Bonnet, in Fortification, a kind of 'rale ravelin, without a
ditch, having a parapet three feet high ; anc-ently placed
before the points of the faliant angles of the glacis; being
pahfadoed round ; of late alfo ufed before the angles of baf-
tions, and the points of ravelins, and fauffebrayes. See
Plate Fortif.

The bonnet has two faces, from ten to fifteen, or more
rods long: the parapet is made of earth, from thirty to
thirty-fix feet thick, and from nine to twelve feet high : it
is environed with a double row of paliladoes ten or twelve
paces diftant trom each other ; hath a parapet three feet
high, and is like a little advanced corps du guard.

Bonnet a preire, or priejl' s cap, is an outwork, having
at the head three faHant angles, and two inwards.

It differs from the double tenaille only m this, that its fides,
inftead of being parallel, grow narrower, or clofer at the
gorge, and open wider at the front ; on which account it is
alfo denominated queue d'aronJc, or fwallow"s tail.

Bonnet, in Geography, a river of the county of Leitrira,
in Ireland, which paifes within four miles of iLough Clean,
from which the Shannon iffues, and carries boats into Lough
Gilly, and thence into Sligo bay. Dr. Beaufort obferves,
that the day may come, when the fpirit of enterprife and
commerce will open itfelf a paffage by this channel alfo.
Beaufon.

Bonnet, St. a town of France, in the department of the
Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Gap, 2^ leagues N. of Gap. The place contains 1508,
and the canton 10,284 inhabitants ; the territory compre-
hends 24^ kiliometres, and 20 communes.

Bonnet le Chateau, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Montbrifon, 4 leagues S. of Montbrifon. The
town contains 1506, and the canton 12,945 inhabitants. The
extent of the tenitory includes 1925 kiliometres, and 10
communes.

Bonnet le Caftet, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy de Diime ; 5 leagues N. E. of Brioude.

Bonnet de Bruyeres, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridl of Villefranche, 6 leagues N. of Viiletranche.

Bonnet de Chavagne, St. a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifcrc, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltrift of St. MarceUin, i^ league S. W. 01 St. Marcellin.
Bonnet de youx, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriA ofCharollts, ;^ leagues N. E. of Charolles.
The town contains 1,321, and the canton 6140 inhabitants ;
the territory comprehends 160 kiliometres, and 7 com-
munes.

Bonnet, in Heraldry, a cap of velvet worn within a
coronet.

Hoti tier pepper, in Botany. See Capsicum annuum.
Bonnet, in Sea-Language, an additional part of a fail,
5 E 2 laced

BON

laced at the bottom or foot of thc'/ore-fail, tiy-fail, and ftorra
maul-fails, of fome ved'els with one mail, in moiierate winds.
It is made like the foot of the fail for which it is intended,
and has latchings in the upper part, to correfpond with and
fall through holts iji the foot of the fail, b)' which it is
falleiied.

The words in reference to it are, lace en the bonnet, that
is, fallen it to the courfe ; Jhake 'ff the lontid, that is, take
it off the courfe.

Bonnet chin'.it, in Concholo^y, is the common or tririal
name applied by French collectors to the Patella Chi-
MENSis, in the fame manner as we (liould call it in Engliih
the Chinefe ionnet, or limpet flicll ; thus alfo the French
Biinriet tie Polognr, for the I.innxan Biiccinum li-Jllciiliis, &c.

J5oNNET chiiwis, in Zoo/orv, the French name of Simia
SiMCA, Gmel. or Chinefe ape of Pennant's fynopfis, a
fpecies that inhabits the country of Bengal. See SiNiCA.
Obf. The fame animal is called Guenon couronie, by late
French writers.

BONNETABLF,, in Gco^^raphy, a town of France, in
the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in
the didrift of Mamei-s. The place contains 45''^", and the
canton 11051 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 105
kiiiometres, and 10 communes.

BONNETELLA, in Entomology, an European fpecies
of Tinea, dcfcnberi by Linna-us, in Fn. Suec. Fabricins
and others. The wings are white, with two httle fiKery
lines, the poderior one of which is waved.

BONNETIA, in Botany, (in honour of Charles Bonntt
of Geneva,) Schreb. 915. Willden 10^0. Mahuria Aub-
let 222. Jufl'. 434. Encyc. method. Clals, polyandria
monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain. Juff. Gen. Char. Cat.
of one leaf deeply divided into five ovate, acute, concave feg-
ments, two larger tl.an the others. Cor. petals five, ovate,
fomewhat obtufc, concave, longer than the calyx, the three
fuperior fmaller, upright ; two lower larger, inclined, at a
diflance from each other. Stain, lllaments very numerous,
inferted into the receptacle, fliorter than the coroll, dilated
at the top. Anthers yellow, oblong, tcti agonal. Pi/l.
perm fuperior fmalj, oblong. Style imurved. Stigma hol-
low, three-h.bed. P.rkarp. capfnle dry, membranous, ob-
long, three-celled, three-valved, valves iharp pointed. Seeih
many, fmall, black, oblong, involved in a coloured mem-
brane, affixed to the three-fided receptacle.

Elf. Char. Gal. five-parted, two parts larger. Cor. five-
petallcd, three fmaller upright, two larger inclining. Ca[>f.
oblong, three-celled, three-valved. manv feeded.

Species. B. palujhis. Lamark. Ululh tab. 464. A tree
fifteen feet high, levtn or eight inches in diameter ; branches
upright, chit lly towards the top of the trunk ; leaves al-
ternate, pctiolcd, ovate, entire, fmooth ; petioles chanelled,
with two fmall llipnlcs at their bafe ; flowers purple,
fpiked, one, two, or three together, furnilhed with three
fcaly brades, one larger at the bafe of the peduncle, the two
others lateral. A native of Cayenne and Guiana.

BONNEV.A.L, Claude-Alexander, Count of, in
Biography, a del^-endant of an ancient family of Limoufin,
was born in 1672, and having entered betimes into the army,
ferved with dillintfion in Italy under Catinat and Vendome.
Abandoning his country in 1706, and entering into tlie
fervice of the emperor, a fentence was procured againft him
by the miniller Chamiilart, which fubjected him to decapi-
tation. Notwithltanding this profcription, he ventured to
Paris, and publicly married a lady of the family of Biron.
In 17 16 he ferved againll the Turks under prince Eugene,
and was a major at the battle of Petcr-Waradin, where he
behaved with Angular valour j but in 1720 he bad a dif-

o

BON

pute with prince Eugene, and challenged hitn, for which
offence he was deprived of his employment, and condemned
to a rear's imprifonment. ITpon regaining his libertv he me-
ditated revenge, went over into Turkey, became a mufful-
man, and was created a badiaw of three tails, general of
artillery, and at laft, m.ailer of the ordnance. In tl'.is fitua-
tion he introduced European improvements among the
Turks, and lived much elleemcd to the age of "i; yeais. II«
left a fon, who fuccccdcd him in the office. He was a man
of quick parts, courage, and ability ; but fingular in his con-
dndt, qnarrelfome in his difpofition, and addicted to fitire.
Upon changing his religion, he faid, " It was only chang-
ing his night-cap for a turban." With all his eccentricities
he preferved a calm temper; and faid, " In all my perfecu-
tions I never loft my appetite or good luimour. Happy
thofe who have philofophy in their blood !" His " True
Memoirs," and his " New Romantic Memoirs," w ere pub-
blilhed in London, in 1755. Nouv. Diet. Hilf.

BoNNEVAL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
paitment of the Eure and Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftridl of Chateandun, feated on the Loire.
The place contains 15^1, and the canton 10,6 ;8 inhabitants;
the temtory comprehends 3375 kiiiometres, and 27 com.
mnnes.

BONNEVILLE, a town of Savoy, the chief place of
a diftrift in the department of Leman, and before the French
revolution, the capital of Faucigny, feated on the banks of
the Arve, at the bottom of a chain of rocks, whicli from
this place diminifh into hills. The adjacent country is a
rich plain, producing plenty of wine and corn, but neither
populous nor well cultivated. The place contains ',90, and
the canton 9286 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends
iC'^ kiliometrcs, and 15 communes. N. lai. 46^^ 11'. Ej
long. 6° 15'.

'Rcis\Ty\\.i.v.'ih-s-Bouchoux. See Bol'Choux.
BONNIE'RES, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Oile, and chief ])lace of a canton in thediftrici
of JMantes ; the place contains 7(^9, and the canton 11.984
inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 207* kiiiometres and
27 communes.

BONNY, a town of France, in the department of tlie
Loirct, and chief place of a canton in the dillricl of Gien ;
containing about i.;oo inhabitants ; j leagues S.S.E. of
Gien.

Bonny, a river of North Africa, which forms the
xllunry of New Calabar, in the kingdom of Benin, difcharg-
ing itfelf into the bay of Biafra. N. lat. 4^40'. E. long.
6^, jo'.

Bonny, in Mineralogy, a name given by our miners to a
bed of ore foiuid in many places in hills, not forming a vein,
nor communicating with any other vein, nor terminating in
firings, as the true veins do ; it is a bed of ore of five or fix
fathoms deep, and two, or fomewhat itfs than that, in thick-
nefs, in the larger fort ; but there are fmaller, to thofe of a
foot long, I'liey have their trams of Ihoad-ftoncs from
them, and often deceive the miners from the cxpeftation of
a rich lead vein. They differ from the fquatts only in being
round beds of ore, whereas thofe are flat. Phil. Tranf.
N° 69. p. 2098.

BONO et malo, Jl^rit, i!e, in /,aci', a fpecial writ of gaol-
delivery was a;icieiitly ufcd for each particular prifoner under
this title : but thefe being found inconvenient and oppref-
five, a general commililon for all the prifoners has long been
ellablifhcd in their Head. 2 Inft. 4J.

BONONCINI, Gio. Maria, in Biography, Modancfe
Accademico iMlarmonico di Bologna, and'father of the cele-
brated John and Anthony Bononcini, publiflied in 1673, a

work

BON

BON

work entitled " II Mufico Praflico," or the Pra£lical Mu-
fician, dedicated to the enipsror Leopold, in thin quarto.
This treatife contains many ufeful precepts, and examples of
compoCtion ; but is neither fo accurate as to be implicitly
followed, nor fo ample as to fupply all the wants of a mufical
Undent of the prefent times. Page 1 8, he fpeaks of a canon,
in his opera terza, for fifteen hundred and ninctv-two voices,
or iix hundred and forty-eight choirs ; which, on account
of the difficulty of finding fuch a number of fingers affembled
together, he has reduced to twenty-two. In the hiftorical
part of this tract, his knowledge is not very profound, or
reading extenfive ; and the authors he cites, in fupport of
hii information, give it no additional weight. 1 he exanipks
he has given of the ufe of the fecond, page 64, are, in ninny
inilanccs, erroneous, and fuch as can be found in the works
of no good contrapuntill of the lad century. The fe-
cond is not only confounded with the ninth by this author,
page 64, but improperly prepared and reiolved.

iE^=ilii=i

1

-*-p— -

-e —

5^=E^:

^

a ^

-'c^-

s

w-

This difcord of 1 he iecond feems to require one of the parts
to remain ftationary, till the fufpendcd harmony is completed ;
but Bononcini often puts both parts in motion. In his ex-
ample of c imterpoint upon a plain foi!g,.page 76, there are
other difall'.nvances.

liiilli

Much explanation and inilruiilion are given for the eccle-
fiaflic.il moJi.s, but none cf the keys, uled in fecular mufic,
are defined or afcertained.

BosoNciNi, John, the celebrated opera compofer, and
rival of Handel, was the fon of Gio. Maria Bononcirii, of Bo-
logna, the fubjeciof the preceding article. He firft arrived in
Tngland in 1720, on the cllablifliment of our famous
" Corporation of the Royal Academy of Mufic," under
the aufpices of kmg George I. and the principal nobility and
gentry in the kingdom ; for the fupport of which jOjOcol.
were fubfcribed. We have now before us the original deed
and covenant, with the feal and fign manual of all the fub-
fcribcrs, who became academicians, and bound themfelves and
their refpeftive executors, adminillrator.s and affigns, to pay
all fuch refpeftive fum or fums as fhall from time to time be
demanded out of their fubfcription, &c. The king fub-
fcribed Tcool. and the reft, to the number of 73, in this ori-
ginal lift, 2col. each.

It is a curious record to be in poffL-fnon of the autography
of fuch a number of the heads of our moil ancient and il-
luft.rioue faniihes thus preferved. It is not, indeed, equally

important or honourable with the lift of the barons who
figncd the Magna Charta ; but it is fuch a memorial of our
profperity, good-humour, patronage of a pf)hte art, and
happinefs, that wc would give a fac-fimile of each fignature
on a copper-plate, if we had room.

In order to render this academy as complete as poffible, it
was determined by the difeftors not only to engage a lyric
poet in their fervice, but the beft vocal performers that could
be found in the ftveral parts of Europe where there was a
mufical theatre, and the three moft eminent compofers th.en
living who could be prevalkd upon to vifit this country.
For this purpofe Bononcini was invited from Rome, as he
tells us himfelf, in the dedication of his Cantatas and Duets
to George 1. (Qiii i>i trovo, chiamata da Roma per lervgio
della real Accademia di Mnfica). Attilio Ariofti, from
Berlin, was hkewifc engaged as a compcifer on this occafion ;
and Handel, who refided at this time with the duke of
Chandos, at Cannons, was not only included in the trium-
virate, but commiflioned to engage the fingers.

During the firft year of this eilabhlhment, theie three com-
pofers furniftied new operas alternately, till January i~2i,
when, for difpatch, an aft of the opera of Muzio Scavola
was affigned to each of thefe maftcrs ; the firft act to Attihoj
probably from fenicritv, a? Ite was far from voung when he
came hither ; the fecond act to Bononcini, at that time
about jo ; and the third to Handel, the youngeft of the
three.

As this divifion of the drama feerr.ed to krply a conten-
tion and trial of fliill. the pubhc took fides, perhaps Icls from
feeling than tl.e fpirit of party ; for party whets our appe-
tites for pleafure as well as polities. Many of the nobility
and gentry, who had been in Italy, and had witnelTed the
applaufe which Bononcini had received there as a compoler,
were partial to him here. While otheis who had vifited
the court of Hanover before the deceafe of queen .,\.nne, and
knew the favour in which Handel had ftocdwith the elector,
as a great performer on the organ and iiarpfichord, before
his compofitions were much known, and afterwards had
heard his pro<iudtions performed in London, were unwilling
to be pleafed with the compofitions of his principal rival.
Attilio, though a good mufician, feems to have been out of
the queftion ; neither his fame nor talents being equally
fplendid with tliole of the other two, by whom, and for
whom, the conflict continued with as great a rage as between
the honfesof York and Laneafter. till the year 1727 ; when
Bononcini, after the run of the Ir.ft and beft opera which he
had cumpofcd in England, " Aftyanax," quitted the con-
tcft with Handel, and ceafed to write for the ftage. But
the feuds among the friends of thefe great mufic'ans, which
Swift's epigram had rendered fo nfible, did not end here,
but continued as long as Bononcini remained in this
country.

Here, as his biographer, it feems our duty to give his
real character as a compofer. He was feldom heard on the
violoncello in this country, though as a performer on that in-
ftrument he was eictremely admired in Italv ; and his melody
was, perhaps, more poliflied and vocal, though not fo new as
that of his powerful Saxon rival. Having been bornandnurfed
in Italy, where finging was fo highly cultivated, he was re-
ported by all his countrymen to fing in a molt exqiiifite tafte.
His recitative too, both in writing and utterance, was uni-
verfally allowed to be the beft of the time, and in the true
genius of the Itahan language ; but as a corredt, powerful,
and inventive compofer, he was an infant compared withi
Handel.

Of all the works which this celebrated compofer pnblifhed
in England, his book of " Cai>tate e Duetti," dedicated to

bis

BON

BON

Iii« majefty George I. in 1731, the year after his arm-allrere,
feems the belt. In 1722, liis '< Divertinienti da Camera,
tradotti (trar.fpofcd or accommodated) pel Cembalo da
quelli compoliti pel Violino e Flauto," were publilhed by
liimfelf, and fold at his lodginj^s in Siiffolk-tlreet. In thefe
we meet with pleaiing and malierly pali'ages, but they are fo
inferior in force, contnvance, and invention, to the leflons of
Handel, that even his admirers, on a comparative view, muft
have regarded tiicm as frivolous and trivial. The adapos are
the bell movenients in them, and have notes of tafte and
pafla^es of cxprefTicn, which muft liave been then new to
Englifli ears. Bononcini, however, like other compoftrs of
his time, is ve.-v fpan.ior of his jiafTagcs, and indidges idlenefs
and want of invention by frequent rcfullaj, or repetitions,
which Handel lec-ms always to avoid more than any compofer
of this period, except tlie Scarlatti's, father and Ion. In
feveral of thefe leifons the fubjcd is heard in one part or
other throughout a whole movement ; as in the miruet,
page 35, the firl^ bar is perpct-ial.

His funeral anthem for the duke of Marlborough, was fet
and performed the fame year, 1722. The fliort lymphony,
and whole firll movement are grand, and of a melancholy call.
The fecond movement has not much to recommend it. The
third is more languid, than pjilionate or pathetic. The
fourth is plaintive, but was not new at the time it was written.
The fifth and laft movement has mufica! merit, but none of
true feeling, or genius ; no " heart-rending fighs," or luch
exclamations of iorrow and afflitlion as would naturally be
expefted from a man of great abilities, who either felt the
words or the lofs of his patron.

Bononcini wai a celebrated and voluminous compofer long
before he arrived in England: his eighth work, confifting
of " Duetti da Camera," was dedicated to the emperor
Leopold, and publifhed at Bologna in i6yi. The feven
operas he compofed during his refidence in England, make
but a imall part of his dramatic produftions. He produced
two operas at Rome in 1694 ; after this he went to Vienna,
where he compofed many operas and oraforios for the im-
perial court and chapel. In 1720, he was again in high
reputation as a dramatic comnofer at Rome, whence he was
invited to London by the dn-fdors of the Royal Academy
of Mufic. In 1732, he publiflied " Twelve Sonatas for
two Violins and a Bafe." It was about this time that he
was accufed of arro'j;ating to himfelf a madrigal compofed by
Lotti of Venice, and publiflied in that city in l/c;, in a
work entitled " Duetti, Terzetti, e Madrigali a piu Voci,"
dedicated to the emperor Jofeph. The title of the madrigal
is " La vita caduca " and has fur initial line " In una
fiepe ombrofa." We are in pofTciru n of the book in which
this compofition was printed, and, upon examination, are
extremely allonifhcd that Bonocini would riil': the great repu-
tation of which lie v.as already in poli'efiion, for a production
which could incrcrife it fo little. The counterpoint of this
madrigal :s certainly correft, but it is dry, and all the fub
jedts of fugue are fuch as hud been ufed by thoufands before
Lotti was born. There arc many madrigals 1 y much older
mafttia, particularly Luca Marenzio, Stradella, and the
elder Scarlatf' ' it are learned and pleafing in modulation,
and more fan ii and agreeable in the traits of melodv that are
uftd as fubjects of imitation. Indeed, Bononcini's plagiarifm
was as v'-.'k as wicked. We ufed to doubt the truth of the
charge, irom an idea that ;;is reputation was fo well efta-
blilheci. r; -J his genius fu fertile, tha; iie had not the lead oc-
cahon to invc recourfe to fuch illicit means of extending it.
The cr me ofth.lt is very much aggravated when the thief is
not impelled to it by want. Rich men and mifers have, how-
ever, been often detefted in illegal appropriation. Yet upon

a careful and critical examination of the works of John Bo-
noncini, we think his wealth did not confift in rich and deep
mines of fcience, nor were his refources in learned and elabo-
rate compofitiun, either in the ecckfiallical or madrigal ftyle,
vcrv orrat. His perfonriance on the violoncello, his can-
tatas, and his operas, iiad been admired in every part of
Europe ; but not content with partial fame, he aimed at
nnivcrfality. In his anthem for the funeral of the duke of
Marlborough, he attempted to rival Handel in his grand
church flvle ; and finding in how much veneration well
written madrigals were held at the Academy of Ancient
Mufic in London, where Handel at this time was regarded as
a moQern, and an innovator, he was tempted to rifl< the re-
p'l" ;'.in he had fiirly acquired, by trying to augment it in an
ill, ^: I manner. Traditi^) . had fi'led our minds with ideas of
his abilities, which the examination of his works has dimi-
nidud ; while a drift fcn'tiny into the produftions of Han-
del has grea'ly augmented our vent ation for that compofer.
V/e have novv- before us, in a printed pampVdet, all the letters
that p-''td between the fecretary ot the Academy of An-
cient Mufic and fignor Ant. Lotti on this occafion, with
fuch tclhmonies and certificates, from the moll refpefiable
proftfTors at Venice and V^ienna, in proof of the madrigal in
difpute having been compoled by that mail' r and not by
Bononcini, that not li.e icaft doubt remains ot 'he faft.

Soon after the funeral of .ne duke of M lb; rough, the
countefs of Godolphin, who, upon the dec r ■ of her father,
became duchels of Marlborough, as fettled in h's patent of
creation, received Bononcini into her houfe, in the Stable-
yard, St. James's, and fettled on him a penfion of 500I. a
year. Here he lived in eafe and .Tffluence, enjoying as an
artift the othim cum dign'ilate in its full extent ; the duchefs
having concerts twice a week, in which no other mufic was
performed to the firll people in 'he kingdom than the com-
pofitions of her favourite mafter, executed by the principal
fingers of the opera. It is fuppofed that he gained a loool.
by the book of cantatas which he publilhed by a two-guinea
fubfcription ; many of the nobility fubfcribing for five or ten
copies ; the duke and duchefs of Queenfbury for twenty-five
books each, and the countefs of Sunderland alone for fifty.
After the difpute concerning this madrigal, his importance
and reputation diminilhed confiderably ; and about the year
17,33, '^^^ quitted the kingdom. After which he refided at
Paris for ieveral years, where he compofed mafles and motets
for the chapel royal. At the conclufion of the peace of AiK
la Chapelle in 1748, he was invited to Vienna by the empe-
ror of Germany to compcfe the mufic for that occafion, and
is faid to have been prefented with eight hundred ducats for
his trouble. After the celebration of the peace was over,
qi.itting Vienna in company with Monticelli, he fet off in
the fame poft-chaife with this celebrated finger for Venice,
where they were both engaged, Bononcini as compofer, and
Monticelli as firll man, in the operas for the enfuing Carnaval
in that city. Here we lofe fight of this renowned compofer,
who if we fuppofe him to have been no more than thirty
years of age in i6r;i, when his eighth work was printed at
Bologna, and dedicated to the emperor Leopold, he mull
at this time have attained his eighty-feventh year ; which
will give weight to the general opinion, that his life was ex-
tended to near a century !

Bononcini, Antonio, brother of John, and an opera
compofer, little lefs renowned in Italy, than the author of
Cnfelda and AJlyanax. It has always been imagined that
the famous opca of Camilla, the fecond attempt at that fpe-
cies of drama in England, in 1706, was fet by John Bonon-
cini ; but we can find no proof of it in any one of.the nu-
merous volumes of operas in our poffeflion, or dramatic

records

BON

BON

records that we have been able to confult. " Camilla Re-
gina de Volfci," written by Stampiglia, and fet by Marc
Antonio Bononcini, the brother of John, for tiie imperial
court of Vienna, about the year 1^597, was in fnch favour
all over Italy, that it was performed at Venice, 1698; Bo-
logna, 170' ; Ferrara, and Padua, 1707 ; Bologna again,
1709; Udine, 1715; and a third time at Bologna, 1719;
and feems to have been tlie opera that was performed in
England, during 1706, fifteen times ; 1707, twenty; 1708,
ten ; and 1709, eighteen ; in all iixtv-four times !

BONONIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Oalha Cif-
padana, called Fclfuia, at the time when the Etrufcans were
mafters of the northern part of Italy, and then their capital ;
fuppoftd bv fome to have been founded by an Etrufcan
prince, denominattd Felfinns. But when thcfe firft poflef-
fors were driven away by the Boians, it acquired the name
of Bononia. In the year of Rome 564, the Romans con-
dufted a colony to this place, with a view of fortifying this
fide of the country. It afterwards became a municipal city ;
and owed much of its magnificence to Auguftus. See Bo-
logna.— Alfo, a town of Upper Pannonia, placed by
Ptolemy on the Drave. — Alfo, a town of Dacia Ripenfis.
Not. Imp. — Alfo, a town of Upper Moefia, in the route
from Viminiacum to Nicor.iedia, between Dorticon and Ra-
tiaria. It. Antonin. — Alfo, a town of Eower Pannonia, in
th-e route along the Danube, between Cufi and Cucci, 19
miles from Sirmium, according to Ammianus Marcellinus.

BONONIAN Stone, afmall, grey, foft, gloffy, fibrous,
ponderous; fulphureous ilone, about the bignefs of a large
walnut, or even of an orange ; when broken, having a kind
of cryftal, or fpany talc within ; found in the neighbour-
hood of Bologna, or Bononia, in Italy ; and, when duly
prepared, making a fpecies of phofphorus. It is of no cer.
tain figure ; but is fomecimes round, fometimes oblong and
cyhndric, and fometimes denticular, which lall kind is faid
to be the moll fliining and tranfparent. Its colours are va-
rious ; fome being alh-co!oured, others of a fky-bluc, fome
of a ferruginous colour, others yellow, others greyi(h white,
and fome almoft perfectly white. The beft for ufe are faid
to be the (ky-coloured and the white. This ftonc is found
jr. feveral parts of Italy, but efpecially in the diftrift of Bo-
logna, towardo the Apennine mountains, and on mount Pa-
leriio, or Paterno, about five Italian miles from Bologna.
They are m.oft; commonly found after heavy rains, among the
earth wafhed cfT from the neighbouring mountains. In
this cafe the feveral maffes of it appear, when the earth is
wafhed away, as bright as burnifhed filver, or with the glit-
tering of talc refembling the glofs of a looking-glafs. This
ftone is the ponderous fpar, or combination of vitriolic acid
with ponderous earth. See Spar.

A cheraill, vvhofe name was Vinccnzo Cafciarolo, having
gathered fome pieces in a river at the foot of mount Paterno,
carried them home, in hopes by the tire to draw filver out
of them ; but inftead of what he expetted, found that ad-
mirable phenomenon they exhibit, which confifts in this, that
having been expofed to the light, they retain it, and fhinein
the dark. This difcovery was made about the year 16 jo.

The property of this ftone is, that though it has no lucid
appearance in the dark, until it undergoes a particular cal-
cination, it becomes capable, by previous preparation, of im-
bibing, when expofed for a few minutes to the light of day,
or even to the riarre of a candle, fuch a quantity of hght,
that it afterwards (liines in the dark for an interval from
eight to fifteen minutes, like a glowing coal, but without any
fenfible heat. The light it emits is fufficient to read by, if
the letters be placed near it. It does not retain its light
long, but requires often renewing ; and when well prepared,

Its virtue will lad five or fix years, but feldom longer.
The method of ufing it to the greateft advantage, is to
remain for fome time in a dark room, and to introduce the
calcined fubftance immediately after its being expofed to the
light.

M. Homberg is faid to be the firft perfon who taught us
the true manner of preparing and calcining tiie Boponian
ftone, having made a journey to Italy on pui-pofe to learn
it. Though others allege, that the true art of preparing
and calcining the (tore is loil ; there having been but one,
an ecclefiaftic, v.ho had the true fecret, and who is fince
dead, without communicating it to any perfon. See Phil.
Tranf. N''2I.

M. Homberg, on his return from his travels in Italy,
brought v.-ith him a great number of thefe ftones, and cal-
cined 200 of them in fo many diiier;at ways, *.i'^t he at lall
found out the fecret. His method was as follows : — He
firft; fcraped the ftonc all over, till it appeared !ik' talc ;
then, having foaked it thoroughly in brandy, and inclofed
it in a pafte or cruft made of other Hones of the lauie kind
pulverized, he calcined it in the fire, or a fmall furn; ce.
After this operation, he took off all the powder of the crult
in which the ftone was inclofed. Both the powder and the
ftone, when brought into the dark from the open air, make
a luminous appearance ; and the former, if kept in a ftrong
and well-ftopped phial, when expofed to the air, imbibes the
hght, and if fprinkkd on pidlures and letters, illuminates
them in the dark. In preparing the pafte, the 'tone mull
be pulverized in a brafs mortar. This circumllance is men-
tioned by Lemery, who, in his " Cours de Chymie," de-
fcribes at large the whole procefs of preparing this ftone,
which he acknowledges to have learnt from Homberg him-
felf.

The whole art of preparing this ftone, fo as to make it
ftiine in the dark, is dcfcribed at large in Hook's " Philofo-
phical CoUeftions," by fir Marc Antonio CeUio ; and in a
book of the fame author, publifned at Rome in lASo, on
this fubjecl : and the fubftance has hence been called " II
Fosforo de Marc Anton. Ceilio."

The following has been ftated as an approved method of
calcining this ftone. Make a cylindric furnace of iron or
copper plates, 7 inches in diameter, and as many in height.
Line the infide of it with a ftrong lute, fo that the infide
may be 6 inches wide in the clear hollow ; at the top of this
make four notches, 2^ inches deep, and is i;.ch wide; to
this annex a cylindrical oart of the fame diameter, but a
little higher ; and at the bottom rnakt two afn-holes, or air-
holes, big enough to admit the hand. Line this, hke the
other, with good lute, and give it a bottom of lute, that
it may more powerfully refledt the heat ; ami line the cover
for the top with lute. Into this furnace introduce an iron-
wire grate near the bottom, for fullalning the coals, and fo
as to admit of free accefs of air. On this grate lay fome
pieces of lighted charcoal, and over thefe fome pieces not
lighted, all bruifcd to the fize of about a walnut. Some of the
ftones mull be powdered, and thole which are to ' c calcined
muftbe dipped in ftrong aqua vitx, and while wet rolled in
the powder, or the powder itfclf r.-!ay be made '!p into thin
cakes with mucilage of guna tragacanth. The ftones, thus
covered, or the cases, muil be laid upon the bed of char-
coal cbfe to one another, and another bed of fmcil pieces of
charcoal laid over them to the top of the furnace ; the cover
of the furnace is then to be put on, ;md the fire lighted.
When the charcoal is entirely confuraed, ai;d the whole is
cold, take out the ftones, and, feparating the cruft from
them, wrap them up in filk or cotton, and keep them dole
in a box for ufe. Preferve the cruft taken oflF the ftones ;
I for

BON

for tliis (liines as well as the ftone ; and being pulverized,
mav be rubbed over any furface for emitting light, the iur-
face beinjj firll daubed over with the white of an egg in order
to make it adhere ; and this will Ihine like the ftone. This
kind of furnace is not abfolutely necelTary to the operation ;
but it is convenient to know the quantity of charcoal requi

BON

BONTAIN, in Giography, a kingdom of the iHand of
Celebes, fituate on the i'oulh co:ift, and on the eaft fhore of
the bay of 13oni. It is bounded on the weft by the river
Tino, which divides it from the kingdom of Tourattea ; on
the north, by the mountains which bear its own name ; on
the eaft, by the river Kalekongang ; and on the fouth by the
Cte for giving the (hining qualltv to the'ftone ;"W an *ex- fea. It was anciently confukred among the dependent allies
cefs of heat deltroys it, and too Imall a degree is not fufficient of Macaft-er, and governed by then- kings ; but it has been
to produce it. Tiie greateft degree of phofphorence feems twice conquered by the arms of the Dutch Eaft xndia corn-
to depend on a due application of the hfat. An extreme pany and their allies, and was ceded to them, in property,
decrree of heat fufes this ftone. For other methods of pre- by the treaty of Bom. The country is pleafant, and fertile
paring this kind of phofpho.us, fee Phosphorus. See m rice. It has a large bay where ftips may he m perfed
If 1 PUT iatety during both tlie monloons. i he loundings are good

"^ This property of affording a phofphorus by calcination, is and regular, and the bottom foft mud ; nor is tliere is any
common to the other gypfnms, when pure from metallic or danger in coming in, except from a r.dge of rocks, which
oth^r heterogeneous mixtures ; the artificial gvpfums fucceed are above vvater and are a good mark for anchoring. 1 he
equally with the natural, and it is found to belong to a va- higheft land in fight is called^' Bontain-hill,^ h. lat^. 5° 30';
riety of other fubftances. M. Margraai" obferves, that all
fubftinws which have this property, contain a vitriolic acid,
united to an alkaline or calcareous earth.

and ivhen a ftiip is in the offing, at the diftance of 2 or 5
miles from the land, flic ihould bring this hill N.orNiW.,
and then run in with it and anchor. In this bay there are

M. Elpigni obferves, that one Za<Tonius had a metliod of federal fmall towns ; that which is called " Bontani," lies m
making llatues and pictures of the Bononian ftone, which the N.E. part of it (S. hit. 5° 10'. E. long. 117° 28'.) ; and
would ihine varioullv in the dark ; but he adds, the perfon here is a imall paliladoed fort, on which are mounted eight

died without difcoveriug his fecret. See Piiil. Tranf. N°

1J4-

guns, that carry a ball of about eight pounds weight ; it is
juft fufficient to keep the country people in lubjeClion, and
'bONONIENSIS, in On,ilLoIo!;\', the fpecific name of is intended for no othtr purpofe ; it lies on the fouth fide
the greater lapwing, trlm^a l,ono,m-i,fu of Gmelin, and -va- "fa fmall river, and tliere is water for a Ihip to come clofe
ndlus bononhrifis mnjor of BriJon. The legs of this kind are t'^ H. Wood and water arc to be procured here m great
ochraceoiis; "head "and upper part of the nfck chefuut ; plenty; hkewife plenty of frefli provihons, at a icalonable
l)odv above black, beneath white ; throat and breaft fpotted '"ate : the beef is excellent, but it would not be eafy to pro-
witl'i ferruginous. Gmel. 01/. This is larger than the com- cure enough of it for a fquadron. Rice may be had in any
mon lapwHig (irhiga ■vaiicUus); tV.e beak is yellov/ifti and quantity, and alfo fowls and fruit: in the woods there are
black at tlie tip. herds of wild hogs, which may be piirchafed at a low price,

BoN-oNiENSis, pnffercuhis loivmunfis of Brifton. This is as the natives, who are Maiiometans, never eat them; and
frwr]!!,, brachyura of Gmelin, or Ihort -tailed fparrow. filh may be caught with tlie ftine. The tides are very irre-

Be^NOSIANI, or BoNOsiACi, in EcL'fxftcal H\(lory,
an ancient branch of Adoptiani, in the fourth century, de-
nominated from their leader Bouofus, a biftiop of Mace-
donia.

BONPLANDIA, in Rotany
iandr'td monogyniii.

Gen. Char. C«/. tubular, five-toothed. Cor. monope-
talous, ahnoft labiate ; tube longer than the calyx ; border
with fine emarginate divifions ; the two fuperior long and
(Iraiglit, the three inferior pendant. Stam. five inclining.
Pt/L germ fuperior ; ftyle capillary ; ftigma bifid ; Peruarp,
capfule ovate, three fided ; cells three ; feeds three.

Species, B. gemhiiflora-, an annual plant ; leaves alternate.

gular ; it is commonly but once high and once low water in
34. hours, and there is feldom a diftcrence of fix feet between
them. The inhabitants of Buntain, and tliofe of Boele-
Comba and Bera, are the bell humoured, moft peaceful, and
Cavan. 532. Clafs, Acn- moft tradtable of all the fubjefts belonging to the Dutch
company, in the whole idand of Celebes.

BONTEMPI, Angelini, in Biography, a native of
Perugia, and author of the firft hiftory of mufic in the Ita-
lian language with which we are acquainted. He was an
able profeflbr, of confiderable learning, who flouriflied about
the middle of the 17th century. His work, which has for
title " Hiftoria Mufica di Gio. And. Angelini Bontempi,"
was pubiiilied at Perugia, in fmall folio, 1695. It is be-

fmoolh, lanceolate, toothed ; flowers violet, large, axillar)', come fomewhat fearce, which enhances its value with col-

growiug in pairs. A native of New Spain. lectors of books ; and having been long unable to procure a

BOMPOIIRNIKEL, a denomination given to a coarfe copy, we imagined when one was found, from Broffard's

kind of bread ufed in Weftphalia. See Bread. charafter of the work, that we were i'l pofTefiion of a greater

BON.S-HoMMF.s, or VtaH-Hoiiimes, in Ealcftaflkal Hlf- treafure than on examination it proved to be. For with

to.-y, a fort of liermits of St. Auguftin, founded by F. de great parade of his learning, fcience, and acquaintance with

Paula. They were brought over into England in i2Sj, by the Greek /Zit'or/z/j-, that arc come down to us, he leaves us in as

Edmund, earl of Cornwall, and fettled at Artiorng, in utterdarknefs concerning the/)/-(;(7/Vc of ancient mufic as ever;

Bucks, befides which they had only one houfe more at and, to iay the truth, he has furniflied us with but little

]:'.dington in Wiltfaire. They followed the rule of St. Auf- information concerning the modern of his own time, with

tin, and wore a blue habit. which, however, as a contrapuntift, he feems to have been

Tlie name is faid to have arifen from Louis XI. of France, perfectly well acquainted. Indeed, by the frequent ufe

who ufed to call F. de Paula, prior of the order, le bon he makes of fcientific terms, his book, when cafually

homme. Till then they had been called the Alinimi, or order opened, has more the appearance of a dry mathematical

ofGrammont. See Albigknses. treatife, than the hiftory of an elegant art,

BONSDORI'Tl, in Entomology, a fpecies of Curculio, The motl curious and interefting part of his work, is the

of an oblong form. Colour white, with a black band and account which he gives of the dii'cipline of the college of

fpots ; fnout fulcated and brown. Bonfd. Cure. Suec. In- fingers in the fervice of the pontifical chapel, and of the

habits Sweden, and is halt the fize of curculio fuldniflris. great mafters who then fiourifhed at Rome, who had diftin-

guifhed

BON

;gmfhed tliemfeUes in writing " Alia Paleftrina" for tlie
•church ; ftcular mufic was then but httle cultivated, and
lefs rcfpefted there, till operas and oratorios had made fome
prcgrefs in polifhing melody, and in the jull accentuation
and exprefllon of words.

BONTIA, in Bolatiy, (in honour of Jacobus Bontius, a
■phyfician at Batavia, author of atreatife " De Medicina In-
dorum"). Linn, fpecies Soo. Syft. 579. Reich. ,3. 200.
Willden. 120S. Schreb. 1062. juffleu 127. Clafs, tliily-
nnmia angiujperm'ia. Nat. Ord. pcrfonais — allied to the
folaneiz ? Jufl*.

Gen. Char. Per. calyx one-leaved, five-parted ; fegments
obtufe, ercft, permanent. Cor. one-petalled, ringent ;
tube long, cylindric ; border gaping ; upper lip ereft, re-
flexed near the end, emarginate ; lower femitrifid, the fize of
the upper. Slum, filamcntb fubulatc, bending to the upper lip,
the length of the corolla ; anthers hmple. Pijl. germ ovate ;
llyle Cmple ; lligma bifid, obtufe. Peiicarp, drupe ovate,
with an oblique apex. Seed, nut oval, one-celled, germi-
nating.

Eff. Char. Cal. five-parted. Cor. two-lipped ; lower lip
three-parted, revolute. Drupe ovate, one-feedcd, with an
oblique apex.

Species, Hj. daphnoides, Barbadoes wild olive. ( La Marck
Illuft. Tab. $46.) " Leaves alternate ; peduncles one-
fiowered." Linn. A Ihrub four or five feet high ; leaves
rather ftiff, lanceolate, fmooth, green on both fides, lower
ones ferrate, upper ones entire. Flowers ycllowilh, with a
line of dullcy purple acrofs the lower lip ; axillary fingle, or
in pairs ; tube and lower lip hairy. It was cultivated by
Mr. Bentick. in 1690, and flowered with Dr. Shcrard in
June 172,;.

PropagaUnii ami Culture. It is cultivated in Barbadoes for
making hedges, and may be raiftd in England from feeds
fown on a hot-bed early in the fpring. It muft afterwards
be tranfplanted into a fmall pot filled vv-ith light earth, and
plunged into a moderate tanner's bark hot-bed, with a large
allowance of air and water in hot weather, but fliould always
remain in the iiove. It may alfo be propagated by cuttings
in the fummer. Being evergreen, and growing in a pyra-
midal form, it makes a pretty variety in the ftove.

BoNTiA, (Brown Jamaic.) See Avicennia germi-
tians.

BoNTiA, (Pet.). See Epidendron carlnatum.

BoNTTA, in Coiichology, a fpecies of Helix, of which
feveral varieties are defcribed by Chemnitz. This (hell is
fomewhat conic, ventricofc, perforated, and pellucid, with
the tip black ; on the firll whorl three ytllowifh bands ;
aperture ovate. HefiK botitia is a native of Bengal ; the (hell
is extremely fragile.

BONTIUS, James, in Biography, a native of Leyden,
was educated in philofophy and medicine, under his father
Gerard ; and being fcnt to the Eaft Indies, pradifed phyfic
at Batavia about the middle of the feventejnth century. On
his return to Europe he wrote feveral valuable works on the
difeafes and praftice of medicine of India. Thefe are, " De
confervanda valetudiue, ac dicta fanis in India obfervandis ;"
*' Methodus medendi, qua oportet in India oricntali uti ;"
" Obfervationes feleftx ex ditlettione cadaverum ac autopfia
defcriptK." He alfo publifhed curious obfervations relating
to the botany and natural liillory of thofe regions, more cU
pecially the vegetables ufed in medicine and diet in his work
entitled " De Medicina Indorum," in 1642, and afterwards,
with Alpinus's work " De Medicina ^gyptiorum," 4 to.
171S. He alfo publifhed " Hilloria Nat. et Med. Indis ori-
cntalis," fol. in 1658. His brother Regnier v.-as many years
profeflor of medicine at Leyden, and rcclorof the univerfity.
He died in 162 5. Haller. Bib. iSled. PraA. et Botan.

Vol. IV.

BON

EOKTORY, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Braclaw, 20 miles eail of Braclaw.

BONVINCINO, Alessandro, called Le Moretio, in
Biography, an eminent painter of hillory and portrait, was
born at Rovate in 1514, and (ludicd for fome years under
Titian ; but he was enamoured with the defigns of Raphael,
which he accidentally faw ; and devoting himfelf to the affi-
duous iludy of thofe mafter-pieccs of art and genius, he be-
canie an exceeding good painter. His works are eagerly
bought, and n:uch admired for the tendernels of the pencil-
ling, the correttnefs and fpirited exprefllon of the figures,
the neatnefs of the finidiing, and the rich variety of the dra-
peries, confiding of velvets, damaflcs, or fatins, copied after
nature, and wonderfully imitated. He was equally excellent
in portrait, and placed by fome perfor.s in competition with
Titian. He died m Ij64. Pilkington.

BONUS Henricus, in Botany, (Bauh. &c.) See Che-

NOPODIUM.

BONZES, or BoNZUs, a name given to the priefis and
rehgious of China, Jcipan, and Tonquin. This is the ap..
pellation under which the priefts, who are attached to the
worfhip of Fo (fee Fo), are generally known among Euro-
peans. They are called "Talapoins" by the Sianiefe, " La-
mas" by the Tartars, " Ho-fliang" in China, and " Bonzes"
in Japan. They generally live in a fort of comnninity, in
places apart, or configncd wholly to them. 'J'he illand
Pou-to, near Chufan, is a famous feat of bonzes, being
wholly inhabited by them, to the number of joco, all of
the fetl of Hofhang, or unmarried bonzes.

They live a kind of Pythagorean life, and have not lefs
than four hundred pagodas, or temples, in this little ifland.
They have alfo females, called bonzefles, a fort of nuns,
who dedicate themfelves to the worfhip and fervice of fome
temples or idols. They are obliged to abltain from all con-
verfe with men, and on that account are cloillcred in large
rnonafteries, hke thofe of the Romifh and Greek church.
For incontinency thefe bonzelTes are condemned by the man-
darins to a kind of pillory called Ranghi, which fee.

Thefe bonzes, or Chinefe prieils of Fo, worfhip him
under the forms of feveral animals, through which they
pretend that he had tranfmigrated before he was deified ;
and ingroffing the worfiiip of this imaginary deity to them-
felves, in the Chinefe temples, they fupport and propagate
it, with a view to their own perfonal emolument and in-
fluence, by the moll unwarrantable impoftures. They ad-
mit, however, the dillinftion between good and evil ; and
they declare, that, after death, rewards will be bellowed on
the good, and punifliment^. inflicted on the wicked, in places
defliined for the fouls of each. They teaeh, that the god
Fo appeared on earth for the purpofe of faving mankind,
and of relloring to the patlis of falvation thofe who have
ftraycd ; that it is bv him their fins are expiated ; and that
he alone can procure for them a happy regeneration in a fu-
ture life. They enjoin the ilrid obfervance of five precepts ;
of which the firit forbids the killing of any living creature,
of whatever nature it may be ; the fecoiid, the taking away
of the goods of another ; the third forbids men to pollute
themfelves by unclcannefs ; the fourth, to lye ; and the
fifth to drink wine. They, above all, recommend the prac-
tice of certain acts of mercy ; fuch as, treating their bonzes
well, building monalleries aiid temples for them, and lup-
plying them with every thing neceffary for their mainte-
nance, as the moll eff.;clual means of pHrticipatin;- th- bene-
fit of their prayers, mortifications, pen niecs, and ot'ier me-
ritorious actions towards t!)C atonem;nt of their own fins
and for obtaining a happy tranfmigrition in another life.
On the other hand, they terrify thole wlio withh;)ld their
benefaftionsfrom them with menace,: alluring them, that thev
5 F llvuli

BON

ffiaffherpafter revive in the form of dops.'rats, ftrpcnls, liorfes,
and mules ; aud that they fhall he for ever expofed to the
mort deirradiiist and wretched tranfmigrstions. Thefe me-
naces feldnm fail of making a deep impreffion on the mjnds
of the credulous vut^'a'-, infomuch that they often perfuade
them to burOj at th.» funerals of their deceafed relatives,
paper gilt, or wafhed with fih'er, fi'k, cloth, and other gar-
ments, which, they jMrtend, will be converted into fubvlan-
tial gold and lilver, and fupcrb ve(l:nents, for th.e ufe of
their parents and friends. Lc Compte relates a ftory of an
old man, who was led to believe,' by the reprei'entations of
thefe bonzes, that his foul flwiild pafs into the body of one
of the emperor's p-.ifl-horfcs. The poor man was fo diflrefied,
that he could neither cat nor deep, and hi^ grief was uich
as to threaten the fpecdy termination of his life. He learned,
however, that the fouli of the Chriltians were exempted
from thefe dreadful metamorphofes ; upon which, he applied
to one of the Jefuits for Chriilian baptifm, afTuring him, that
lie would rather be of that, or any rcligiijn, than tranfmi-
grate into a poft-horfe. Tlic Jefuit complied with his rc-
queft, and made his mind eafy. Thefe bonzes are perfectly
acquainted with all the arts of hypocrify and deceit ; and
dextroufly praiSife them as occafions occur. They addift
therafeives to rigorous falling, frequent watehings, and lon^
prayers before the altars of Fo. Wh.en they cannot obtain
gifts by cunning and addrcfs, they endeavour to procure
them by exciting c^mpafiion, and by fubmlttiiig to the fe-
vereft penances, and praftifmg the moll rigorous aufterities.
With this view they often appear in public places, as fright-
ful fpeflacles of mortification. They often drag along the
llreets heavy chains fattened round their necks, arms, and
legs: they beat their heads againll the ftones and polls, and
mangle their bodies, fo that they are fmeared with blood ;
they carry burning coals upon the tops of their naked
heads ; and fome of them are carried about in a kind of
fedan, the infide of which is ftuek full of nails and fpikes,
fo that they cannot (lir without wounding themfelves ; and
thefe nails they fell to the populace for a few pence, as
amulets and prefervativcs againll all harm, and as efficacious
means of bringing down bleffings on the purchafer and his
family. By pretending to know the prefcnt ilate of the
dead, and the future condition of the living, they contrive
to extort money from the furviving friends, in vivder to pro-
cure for the deceafed a foeedy releafe and paffage into a bet-
ter ftate. Many other inllances of their knavery are related
by Du Halde, Le Compte, and other writers. Some of
thefe are fo atrocious in their nature, that the relation of
them cannot be read without horror ; and we are led to hope,
that they are recited by the Jefuit mifllonaries, to whom
the bonzes have been great enemies, and againll whom they
have excited various pcrfecutions, with fome exaggeration.

We read of their privately felling men and women, and
hurrying them away in a clofc fedan, where nothing is to be
fecn but the tops of their heads, and their eyes moving in a
terrifying manner, to the next river or canal, and diownino-
them without mercy, before crowds of fpeftators, who are
harangued by one of the fraternity into a firm belief that
the perfons fo treated had earneftly requelKd to be thus dif-
patched out of the world, in order to obtain immortality in
a future (late. With all the external appearances of fanciity
and aufterity, thefe bonzes unite voluptuous manners and
fecret profligacy, cf which various inftances are recited.
• Notwith (landing the infatuation which induces the vulgar to
fupport the popular fuperllition of the country, the condi-
tion and characler of a bonze are generally defpifed in China.
Mod of thefe fanatical impoftors are fprung from the drer^s
of the people. Thofe of Pegu, however, are faid to be ge-
nerally gentlemen of the highell tutraaioii. See Pegu. To

BON

recruit and perpetuate thtir feft, they p'.vchafe ycung chil-
dren, whom they betimes initiate in all their myfteries, and
iwhom they inilruft in every trick and deccpiioji which mav
re-;der their profeRiou profitable ; the(.e afterwards fticceeci
them, and trajifmit their aits to other young bonzes, who
are educated in the fame manner. They are, in general,
verv ignoraTit, and unable to give an c.vafl account even of
the true doilrine of their fetl. Although the)' ha-ve no re-
gular hierarchy, they acknovvkdjre fupev^ors, whcm they
call " ta-ho-fhang," or grand bonze:?. This rank fecurcs to
thofe v.-ho have attained it particular ddlinction, and the-
firfl pkce in all rehgioiis aflemblies at which rhey may be
prefent. There are bonzes of all conditions ; fome cteftined
only for collecling alms ; others, better (Icilled in the art of
fpeaking, and who have acquired f'me knowledge of the
Chinefc literature, are commilTioned to vilit the literati, and
to infinuate themfelves into the houfes of the great ; old
men, rendered venerable by age, and by a grave deportment,
are employed to exercife their talents among the female fex ;
thefe prefide in all their aflemblies, which, though not com-
mon., are held, however, in fevcral provinces. Thefe reli-
gious clubs are very lucrative to the bonzes. One of thefe
pviells enters the chapel, where the female devotees are af-
fembled, and fings fome anthems to the god Fo. At length,
aft.-r h:iving for fome time repeated " Omito Fo," (Omito
b-ii-.g t\re name of another deity more ancient than Fo, and
worshipped by the Japanefe under the name of Amid?., which
fee), and after being dunned with the tinkling roife of feveral
fmall kettles, upon which they beat, they place themfelves
at table, and the noi(y devotion terminates with mirth and
a good repaft. On days cf greater folemnity, the bonzes
adorn their places of worfliip with feveral idols, and nume-
rous paintings, ey.hib'ting under various forms the different
punifhments inflicted on the wicked in hell. The prayers
and fealling continue feven days, during which their chief
bufinefs is to pre are and confecrate treafures for the other
world. In every province of China there are temples, to
which numerous votaries repair; fome of them making pil.
grimages thither from very remote places. The pilgrims
climb thefe facred mountains with great difiiculty, and are
fometimes dragged up on their bended knees. Thofe, where
age or infirmities, or urgent bufinefs, will not allow of their
joining thefe devout caravans, commiflion fome of their
friends to bring them a large leaf, filled with charafters, and
(lamped by the bonzes in a particular corner. The centre
of this leaf is occupied by the im.age of the god Fo. On
the veftments of the god, and around his figure, are traced
out a multitude of circles, intended for the following pur-
pofe. — The devotees of the god, whether male or female,
wear hanging from their necks, or around their arms, a kind
of chaplet, compofed of too beads of moderate fize, divided
by three which are much larger; and a bead, ftill bigger,
in form of a fmall gourd, ornaments the top of the chaplet.
Thefe beads they roll between their fingers, pronouncing
the myderious words " 0-mi-to, Fo 1" and each of thefe in-
vocations is accompanied by a genu-flcdtion. When they
h.ave completed the number of too, equal to that of the
beads, they mark with a red ftrbke one of the circles which
furround the figure of the god Fo, on the leaf ftamped by
the bonzes. This leaf becomes the regifter of all the prayers
which they have repeated in the courl'e of their lives. To
verify its authenticity, the bonzes are, from time to time,
invited to their houfes, where they mull atteft the number
of circles marked ^vith red ftrokes, and imprint their feals on
the leaf. When .any of them dies, this variable memorial is
carried at the funeral with the greatefl folemnity, and depo-
fited in a fmall box clofely fluit and fcaled : this they call
" lou-in," or a pafTport for the other world ; and it

coils

I

BOO

BOO

cofts a large fum of iiioaey to have all tliefe formalities ob-'
ferved.

It has been already hinted, that the bonzes are peculiarly
inimical to the prosrrefs of the Chrillian religion in China,
Japan, &c. ; and that they have excited a ipirit of perfecii-
tion againll the European niifiionari^, who have hitherto
been chiafly Jefuits of the church of liome. Thrfe llran-
gers, tht-y fay, have introduced thcmfclves into China for
the purjjofe of invading it; the new aoftrine they preach
is calculated, as they pretend, to procure followers, and a
number of paitilans, fufficient to fecond their etiorts, when
European troops and fleets (hall be ready to attack them ;
and fonietimes they allege, that the mifliunaries perluadc
people to embrace their doArine merely by the aid of forctry,
and that they gain converts, and fix their attachment
by lavifhirjg gold and fdvcr among them, of which they
have great abundance, bccaufe they poiTefs the fecret of
imitatmg and counterfeiting thefe precious metals. By fuch
and iimilar reprefentations, they have checked the zeal, and
counterafted the efforts of Chrillian raifuonarirf. Le Compte,
State of China. Da Halde's China, vol. i. GrofEere's
China, vol. ii.

It has been cbferved (fee EnibatTy to China, vol. ii.
p. lOO.), that the likenefs is fo ftrong between the apparent
worfhip of many of the priefts of I'o, and that which is ex-
hibited in churches of the Roman faith, that a Chinefe, con-
veyed into one of the latter, might imagine the votaries he
faw -were then adoring the deities of his own country. On
the altar of a Chinefe temple, behind a fcreen, is frequently
a reprcfentation which might ferve for that of the Virgin
Mary, in the perfon of " Shin-moo," or the facred mother,
fitting in an idcove with a child in her arms, and rays pro-
ceedmg from a circle, which are called a glory, round her
head, with tapers burning conftantly before her. The long
coarfc gowns of the Ho-lhangs, or priefts of Fo, bound
with cords round the waift, would alniolh equally fuit the
friars of the order of St. Francis. The former live, like the
latter, in a flate of celibacy, refide together in monafteries,
and impofe occafionally upon tliemfelves voluntary penance
and rigorous abllinence.

BOO-Hadjar, in Geography. See Agar.

Vjoo-yeemah, a river of Africa, in the province of Con-
fiantina, which runs along the weileni fide of the mar.Ti
which feparates betwixt Bor.a and the ancient Hippo. Over
this river is a bridge of Roman (Irutlure.

^oo-SLaiter, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis,
faid by Shaw (Trav. p. -jC).) to be built on the ruins of the
ancient Utica, which fee.

BOOBERAK, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of
Algiers, formed by the junction of the Niffah and Bugdou-
rah. Its mouth, which is made up of a number of branches,
is the eaftern boundary of the province of Titterie.

BOOBY, a word of uncertain etymology, derived by
Skinner fr.;m the Spaniih lobo, fooiiih ; but deduced
by Junius from lowbarj, an old Scottilh word for a
coward or contem.ptible fellow ; denotes a dull, heavy,
(hipid perfon.

Booby ijland, in Geography, a fmall iiland in the W^-ft
Indies, 1) ing directly opp;ifue to iVIofquito bay, at the S.E.
extremity of the idand of St. Chriitopher's, and more than
liaif a league from it, off the north end of Nevis iil?.nd. —
Alfo, a fmall ifland, fuppofed to be one of the iflands called
Prince of Wales's iflands, extending from thence and Wal-
hs's iiland, as far as New Guinea.

BooBv, in Ornithology, the name of pihcauus Jnla in
Catefby's Natural Hiftory of Carolina. The ^reaj booby of
Catelby is a variety of pdccmws hnffunus. Broivn looby of

L,3lhim, peUctmusJilicr ; leffer looby, pehcanus parvus; fpafttd
toobw pelecanus manilatus.

EOODGE-BOODGE, or Booge-booge, in Geogra.
phy, a town of Hindoftan, the prefent capital of the terri-
tory of Cutch, and refidence of its rajah. It is alfo called
Booz, and placed in a nixp, to which Mr. Rennell refer?,
about ^4 gecgraphical milts to the E. or E.S.E. of the
eaftern brancli of the Indus : 120 miles S.E. of Tatta, and
about 2CO W. of Ahmcdabad.

^OODW, Boiithlha, Riidha, or Biiclrlou, in Mythology, a deity
very anciently aiid very generally worftiipped in India. The
name of this deity is varioufly cxprefTed by different writers.
In the Pali langu.ngc, and amr.ug the Cmgalefe, his com-
mon name is Bouddha. Mr. Cliambers, in tlie Afiatic Re-
fearches, writes Buddou ; and Paulinu5(iMuf. Birg.), Budha;
and from thefe two appellations wc may eafily deduce the
Budda or Butta of Bcaufobre and Bochart, the Bod of the
Arabians, Bodda of Edrifi, Bovux of Clemens Alexandrinus,
and Baoutli of M. Gentil. The nam.e is faid to be an ap-
pellation, fynonymous with fage or philofopher, and ex-
preflive of ivifdom. By Budha, fays the learned Bryant,
(Ana). Anc. Mythol. vol. iii. p-57J,) we are certainly to
undcrlland the idolatrous fymbol, called by fome nations
Buddo ; the fame as Argus and Thcba. In the mythology
tranfmitted concerning it we may fee a reference both to the
machine itfelf, and to the perfon prefcrved in it. In confe-
quence of which we find this perfon alfo ftyled Bod, Budhu,
and Buddo ; and in the weft Butus, Battus, and EoDotus.
He was faid by the Indians not to have been born in the
ordinary way ; but to have come to light indiredlly through
the fide of his mother. By Clemens of Alexandria, he is
called Bouta ; and in the hiftory of this perfon, however
varied, we may perceive a relation to »iie Arkite deity of
the fea, called Pofeidon ; alfo to' Arcalus and Dlonufus ;
flyled Boeotus and Thebanus. Different learned men have
fupoofed Boudha to ha^'e been the fame with Noah, Mofes,
or Siphoas the .^5th kfiig of Egypt ; and fir William Jones
fuppofed Bouddha to have been the fame with Sefac or Se-
fotlris, king of Egvpt, who bv conqneft fpread a new fyf-
tem of religion and philolophy from the Nile to the Ganges^
abouf roco years before Chrift. In order to reconcile fome
differences of opinion among the Hindoos, v.-ith regard to
the time of Bouddha's appearance, this learned writer agrees
with Giorgi in fuppofing, that they have confounded two
Bouddha's ; the younger of whom eftabliflied the new re-
ligion, which gave great offence to the bramins in India,
and was introduced into China in the firft century of our
sra ; whereas the more ancient Bouddha preceded him by
many centuries, and is referred by fir 'W. Jones, after a va-
riety of computations, to the year 1027 before Chrift. For
want of adverting to this circumftance, he confounded the
latter Bouddha with the Woden of the Goths. Mr. Cham-
bers alfo remarked, that Pood or Poaden, which is the
Siamefe mode of pronouncing the Boodth of the Indians
arid Birmans, bears a ftriking rcftmblance to the Gothic
Woden ; ar.d it is further fuggefted, that Boodh is the dies
Mercurii, the Wednefday, or Woden's day, of all Hindoos.
But etymological rcafoning, more cfpecially when it inter-
feres with chronology, is not fufficient to eftablifh the iden-
tity of Boodh and Woden. According to the chronology
of the Hindoos, which fir W. Jones has minutely invefti-
gatcd and detailed, Boudha was the ninth " Avatar," or
defcent of the deity, in his capacity of preferver, or the ninth
incarnation of Viflinou, which was long antecedent to the
exiftence of the dciiied hero of Scandinavia, who, according
to fome writers, was a contemporaiy of Pompey and Julius
Csfar, and who is placed by the author of the Northern
5 F 2 Antiquities,

BOO

Antiquities, 70 years after the Chriftian sra. Bcfides tlie
attributes of BooJh and Odin art very different. The deity,
whofe doftrincs were introduced into Scandinavia, was a god
of terror, and his votaries carried defolation and the fword
throughout whole regions; whereas the ninth Avatar (fee
Maurice's Hilh of Ilindollan, vol. ii. part,?.) introduced
the peaceful olive, and appeared in the world for the pur-
pofe of preventing fanguinary afts. He feverely cenfured
the facrifice of cattle, or depriving any being of hfe, and is
denominated the author of happinefs. His place of reti-
dence is ^aid to have been difcovered at Boodha Gaya in
Bengal, by the ilhiifrlous Amara, renowned amongfl m;.n;
and according to an infcription in Sanfcrit, found on a Hone
in this place, and trantlated by Mr. Wilkins, (Afiatic Re-
fearches, vol. i. p. 2S4,) he caufed an image of the fuprcme
fpirit BooJ-dha to be made, and wor(hipped it according to
the law, with perfumes, incenfe, and the like ; and he thus
gloiified the name of that fupreme being, the incarnation of
a portion of Veefhnoo : " Reverence be unto thee in the
form of Bood-dha ! reverence be unto the lord of the earth !
reverence be unto thee, an incarnation of the deity and the
eternal one! reverence be unto thee, O God, in the form of
the God of mercy, the difpeller of pain and trouble, the
lord of all things, the deity who overcometli the fins of the
Kalce Yoog, tlie guardian cf the univerfe, the emblem of
mercy toward thofe who ferve thee!" &c. As the doftrines
of Boodh and Woden are different, and their seras are very
remote, they mnft of courfe be different perfons. The
Buddha of the Hindoos is unquelHonablv, fays lir W. Jones,
the Foe or Fo of China ; and M. de Guignes, on the au-
thority of four Chincfe hiilorians, affcrts, that Fo was born
about the year before Chrill 1027, in the kingdom of Calh-
jnir. Mr. Chambers, following M. Geiitil, and followed
by Paulinus, conceives, by a very forced train of etymology,
the Fo or Fohi of the Chincfe to be a corruption of Boud-
dha. Nor is the derivation of Taautos, Toth, or Touth,
the Egyptian name for Hermes from Bouddha, lefs fanciful;
and yet Fo-hi, the progenitor of the Chintfe, a mihtary
tribe, whom the Hindoos call the Chandravanfa, or children
of the moon, was, according to their Puranas or legends,
Buddha, or the genius of the planet Meicury.

Among the various appellations by which the deity Buddha
is known in ieveral parts of the Eaft, that of Godama is very
common. This Godama, Gaudma, or Gotma, &c. as his
name is differently expreffed, is faid to have been a philofo-
pher, and is believed by the Birmans to have flouridied above
3 ;oo years ago ; he is faid to have taught in the Iiu'ian fchools
the heterodox religion and philofophy of Boodh. See G<j-
DAM.i. The image that reprefents Boodh is called Gaudma or
Goutum, which is now a commonly received appellation of
Boodh himfelf : this image is the primary objeft of worfliip
in all countries fituated between Bengal and China. The
feftaries of Boodh contend with thofe of Biahma for the
lionours of antiquity, and are certainly far more numerous.
Tlie Cingalefe in Ceylon are Boodhills of the pureft fource,

BOO

effential fpirit of their Wifhna(Vi(hnou) or their deity, who
made his ninth appearance in the world under this name : the
Peguers call him Samana Khutama." Where he treats con-
cerning the introdutlion of Boodh into China, he fays, (id.
ibid.) "about the year of Chrift 51S, one Darma, a great
faint, and twenty-third fucceffor in the holy fe; of Seaka
(Buddha), came over into China from Seitcnfeku, as the
Japanefe writers explain it, that is, from that part of the
world, which lies weftward v.ith regard to Japan, and laid,
properly fpeaking, the firll firm foundation of the Budfdoifin
in that mighty empire." Others fay, that the fed of Boudha
was introduced into Cliina in ihe year of our ira 630, and
that from China it extended itfelt to Japan, Tonquin, Co-
cbincliina, and the moil remote parts of Tartary.

Whatever may be the antiquity of the worfliip of Boodh
or Buddha, we can entertain no doubt of the v/ide extent of
its reception and prevalence. In the illand of Ceylon, in
the extenijve Birman empire, in the kingdoms of Siam and
Cambodia, the prevailing religion is that of Bouddha or
Godama, aixi Mr. Chambers (i\liatic Refearches, vol. i.
p. 162, &c.) has given very good reafons for believing
that the worfhip of Bouddha extended all over India, and
was not rooted out by the Bramins in the Deccan, fo latel)''
as the 9th, or even the 12th century of the Chrii\iau aenii
From the hiffory of Cafhmire, prefented to the fultan Ac-
bar, on his firft entrance into that kingdom, we learn, that
Jelowk, one of its moft powerful princes, tolerated the doc-
trine of Bouddh ; and that it was not till the reign of Nerkh
the 59lh prince, A. D.342, that^the Brahmins acquired
the alcendcncy over the followers of Boodh, and burned
down their temples. In Nepal the motf ancient religion is
that profefled by a fed who call themfelves " Baryefu,"
and who feera to be worfliippers of Bouddha. In Narhoara
or Nehrvvaleh, the capital of the kingdom of Guzerat, we
find that even after the Mahometan invafion, in the i Ith
century of our aera, EdnC, who wrote in the 12th century,
informs us, that the people continued in the worfhip of the
idol Bodda or Bud. This Arabian geographer adds, that
the worfliip of the prince of this country, who reigned on
the Malabar coaft, with the title of Balhara, and whofe
dominions extended over Guzerat, and the grcatefl part, if
not the whole of Vifiapour, was addreffed to Bodda, who,
according to St. Jerome and Clemens Alexandrinus, was
the founder of the left of the Gymnolophifts, in like manner,
fays M. d'Anville, as the Brahmins were ufcd to attribute
their inllitution to Brahma. If the coiijectures of fir WiUiain
Jones, relating to the iafcriptions found at Mongheer, and on
the pillar of Buddal, be well founded, the governing powers
on the banks of the Ganges, as late as about the time of the
birth of Chrift, were of the feft of Bouddha ; and however
idle and ridiculous the legends and notions of the wor-
fliippers of Bouddha may be, they have been in a great mea-
fure adopted by the Brahmins ; but with all their defefts
and extravagances much aggravated, rajahs and heroes being
converted into gods, and impoiTibilitics accumulated on im-

and the Birmans acknowledge to have received their religion probabilities. From various authorities, to which we might

from that ifland, which they call Zehoo. From thence it refer, it fufficiently appears, that the worfliip of Bouddha,

was brought, as the Rhahaans fay, to Arracan, and it was or Buddou, has prevailed in fcveral parts of India at a period

_ . ^, r prior to that of the Brahmins ; and that this has been the

then introduced into Ava, and probably into China ; for
the Birmans confidently affert, that the C'hinefe are Boodh-
ifls. Kxmpfer, fpeaking of the Budz, or Seaka, (Shaka, Sha-
kya, Sjaka, or Sakya, denoting, according to Paulinus,
the cunning, or the god of good and bad fortune,) fays,
(Hifl. Japan, b. iv. c. 6.) " I have flrong reafons to believe

cafe even fo late as the 9th and the 12th centuries of the
Chriftian xra ; and that this fyftem forms the bafis of that
religion which the Brahmins have brought with them into
the fouthern parts of the pcninfula of Hindoftan, into Ma-
- - . - ^ - dura, Tanjore, and Myfore. In thofe parts of India, and

botti from the aflinity of the name, and the very nature of chiefly on the coaft of Coromandel, and in Ceylon, the god
this rehgion, that its author and founder is the very fame Baouth, fays M. Gentii, of whom, at prcfent, they know
pcrfon whom the Bramins caU Buddha, and believe to be the no more in India than the name, was the objeit of worfhip ;

but

BOO

BOO

But it is now totally abolifhed ; except that there may be
found feme families of Indians, who have remained faithful
to Baouth, and do not acknowledge the religion of the
Brahmins ; and on that account feparated from and de-
fpifed by the other cafts. It is generally allowed, that
about the time of Chrift the Brahmins gained a fuperio-
rity over the worfhippers of Bouddha ; and about 900 years
afterwards, we find them totally overthrowing liis doc-
trine in its native country, and perfecuting his followers.
The Vedas, which are commonly fuppcifed to be the
oldeft books of the Brahmins, are of later date than the time
of Bouddha, as is evident from the mention which they
make of that pcrfonage. Afiatic Refearche?, vols, i. ii.
and iv. Symes's EmbafTy to Ava, vol. ii. ch. 15. For a
further account of the votaries of Bouddha, as well as the
principles and rites of his worfhip ; fee B.rachmass, Go-
DOMA, Rahans, Samaneans, and Tirinanxes. See alfo
BiRMAN empire, Ceylov, China, Cochinchisa, Siam,
&c.

BOODICOTTA, in Geography, a town of the peninfula
of India, in the Myfore country ; 87 miles E. N. E. of Se-
ringapatam, and 33 E. S. E. of Bangalore. N. lat. 12' jc'.
E. long. 78° 20'.

BOOG, or BoGOE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, between
the idandsof Moen and Falller.

BOOGOO, in Zoology, the fpecies of Baboon called
Sinua maimon, by Linnxus. See Maimon.

BOOK, a writing compofed on fome point of know-
ledge by a perfon intelligent therein, for the inftruftion or
amiifement of the reader.

The word is formed from the Saxon inc, which comes
from the Northern btiech, of buechaus, a beech or feivice-tr-ee,
on the bark of which our anceftors ufed to write.

Book may be defined more precifcly, a compofition of
fome man of wit or learning, defigned to communicate,
to prove, or illuftrate fome fcience, art, truth, or invention.

Book is diftinguKlied from pamplilet, or fiiigle paper, by
its great length ; and from tome or volume, by its containing
the whole writing on the fubjeft. liidore makes this dilUnc-
tion between //(Jo- and codex ; that the termer denotes a fingle
book, the latter a coUeflion of fevcral; though, according to
Scipio Maffei, coilex f>gnifies a book in the fquare form ; liber,
a book in the roll form. The primary diltinftion between
liber and coilex feems to have been derived, as Dr. Heylin has
obferved, from the different materials ufed for writing, among
the ancients. From the innerlide of the bark of a tree, ufed
for this purpofe, and called in Latin liber, the name of liber
applied to a book was deduced ; and from tablet, formed
from the main body of a tree, called cjuJex, was derived
the appellation of codex.

We fay an old book, a new book ; a Latin, a Greek
book ; to read, to write, to publifli a bocik ; the preface,
the title, the dedication, the index of a book. To collate a
book, is to fee that it be perfect, and that none of rlie flieets
be either wanting or tranfpofed. Book-binders fpeak of
folding, fewing, beating, prtfiing, covering, gildmg, and
lettering of books. See Bookbinding.

A large collection of books is called a library. An inven-
tory of a library, in order to the reader's finding any book,
is called a catalogue.

The hiftory or notitia of books makes the firft part, ac-
cording to fome the whole, of the literary fcience. — The
principal points of the notitia of a book are, its author, date,
printer, edition, verfions, comments, epitomes, fuccefs, eu-
logies, cenfures, condemnation, fuppreflion, adverfaries, vin-
dicators, continuators, and the like.

The hiftory of a book is either of its contents, which ij
4

given by analyfing it, as is done byjournalifts and reviewers ;
or of its appendages, and accidents, which is the more imme-
diate province of thofe called literators, and bibliothecarians.

The contents of a book are the matters delivered in it ;
which make the province of the author. Of thefe there
is one principal matter, called the fubjeft ; in refpeft of
which the reft are only incidents.

The appendages of a book are, the title, preface, epiftle
dedicatory, fummaries, table of contents, index, and the
like, which are the proper province of the editor, nnlefs per-
haps the title page, which is frequently ufurped by the
bockfcller.

In the compofition of a book, there occur fentinients,
which are alfo the materials of it ; method, the order where-
in thele are difpofed; and ftyk, or exprefiion, which is the
language in which they are clothed.

The giving of hiftories, catalogues, and bibliothecas of
books, is faid to have been firft introduced by the Germans:
we may add, that they have beft fnccecded in them ; and to
them the chief works of this kind are owing. I. Alb. Fa-
bi;rius has given us the hiftory of the Greek and Latin
books ; Wolfius, that of the Hebrew books ; Boeder, of
the principal books in each fcience and faculty ; Struvius, of
the books of hiftory, law, and philofophy ; the abbot Fa-
bricius, of the booksof his own library ; Lambecius, of thofe
in the Vienna libraiy ; Le Long, of the books of Scripture ;
Mattaire, of the books printed before the year l5.';o; and
Morhofi'i a general literary hiftory of this kird, under tl e
title o£ Polyhiftor. Tlie various catalogues of choice libr?-
rics are ufefu! and necelfary for the fame purpofes ; fo are
likewife the relationts, S;c. and the reviews which have been
periodically publidied. See Bibliotheca.

Books, as to the material! of, they were firft written on
ftones, witncfs the Decalogue given to Moles (which is the
oldeft book we have any warranted account of); then, on the
parts of plants, e. gr. the leaves, chiefly of the palm-tree ; the
rinds and barks elpecially of the tilia or philyra, and the Egyp-
tian papyrus. By degrees, wax, then leather, were introduced,
efpecially the ilcins of goats and flieep, of which, at lengthy
parchment was prepared : then lead came in ufe : alfo linen,
filk, horn, and, laftly, paper itfelf. See Paper.

The parts of vegetables continued long the common mat-
ter of books ; infomuch that moft of the names and terms
belonging to books, in moft languages, are taken thence ;
as the Greek biblos, the Latin liber, codex, fsHu;n, tab:da,znd
the Englifti bool itfelf. We may add, that vegetable barks
appear ftill in fome meafure retained for books in certain of
the Northern countries, as among the Calmiic Tartars, where
a library was difcovered by the Ruffians, of an unufual form
as well as matter : the books were exceedingly long, but of
no breadth : the leaves very thick, and made of barks of
trees, imcared over with a double varnilh ; the ink, or writ-
ing, being white on a black ground. Hift. Acad. R. Infer.,
t. iii. p. 6.

Whatever were the materials ufed by the ancients for
their books, they were liable to be eafily dcftroyed by the
damp, when hidden 'in tlie earth ; and in tim.es of war, de-
vartation, and rapacity, it was neccflary to bury in the earth
whatever they wifhed to preferve from the attacks of fraud
and violence. Accordingly, it is well known, that perfons,
whofe property was thus expofed, concealed in this manner,
not only filver and gold, but wheat, barley, oil, and honey ;
and alfo their garments, and their writings. With this.
view, Jeremiah ordered the writings, which he delivered to
Baruch, to be put in an earthen veflel. See chap, xxxii.
In the fame manner the ancient Egyptians made ufe of
earthen urns, or pots of a proper fhape, for cootaining-

what.

BOO

whatever th:)' wanted to inter in the earth, and which, with-
out fuch cave, would have been foon deftroyed. We need
not woiidcr then, that the prophet Jeremiah fliould think.
it iieceffary to e;iclofe thofe writings in an earthen pot,
which were to be buried in JuJjia, in fonie place where they
might be found without ir.uch ditTicuky on the return of the
Jeivs from captivity. Accordingly two dilTerent writings, or
imall rolls of writi:ig, called books ia the original Hebrew,
were dtligntd to be enclofcd in fnch an earthen vcflcl ; but
commentators have been much embarraded in giving any pro-
bable account of the r.eceffity of two writings, one fealed,
the other open ; or, as the palTage has been conimdhly un-
derftood, the one fsalcd iifi, the other left open for any one
to read : more efpecially, as both were to be alike buried in
the earth and concealed from every eye, and both were to be
examined at the return from the captivity. In order to folve
this difficulty, the ingenious Mr. liarmer (Obf. on Script.
vol. iv. p. 4.) remarks, that though one of them is faid to
huJiakJ, it doth not follow that it was fealed in fuch a
manner as not to be opened. Like modern deeds for the
conveyance of land, it might have been fealed, though not
with wax, yet, according to the prefent eallern man-
ner, with ink, fa as to be valid. Moreover, the v.-ord
tranflatcd 6/>fn, in reference to the evidence, or book which
was open, is not the fame that is twice ufed by Nchemiali,
ch. viii. J. ; but it is a word, which fignities (l Sam. iii. 7.
21. Dan. ii. 19, 30. x. i.) the revealing of future events to
the minds of men by a divine agency ; and it is particularly
ufed in the book of Ellher, (ch. viii. 13.) to exprefs a
book's making knov.-n the decree of an earthly king. Con-
fequently the o/>en hiok of Jeremiah feems to iignify, not its
bein-i- then lying open or unrolled before them, while the
other was fealed up ; but the book that had revealed the
will of God, to bring back Ifrael into their own country,
and to caufe buying and felling of houfcs and lands again to
take place among them. This was a looL of prophecy, open-
ing and revealing the future return of Ifrael ; and tlie other
little book, which was ordered to be buried along with it,
was the purchafe-deed. By adverting to the different
modes of writing in the Eaft, we obtain a fatisfaftory inter,
prctation of a paffage in the book of Job, (ch. xix. 23, 24.)
and a diilinct view of the beautiful gradation which is loil
in our traiiflation : " O that my words were now written !
O that they were printed (written) in a book ! that they
■were graven — in the rock for ever!" In the Eall there
is a mode of writing, which is defigned to fix words in the
memory, but the writing is not intended for duration. Ac-
cordingly, we are informed by Dr. Shaw, (Trav. p. 194.)
that children learn to write in B.'.rbary by means of a fmootii,
thin board, (lightly covered with whiting, which may be
wiped off, or renewed at pleafure. As many occurrences
were effaced from the memory of the Arabs in tlie time of
Job, as Well as from their writing-tables, as it now often
happens in Barbary ; Job expreffes his ivifh not only that
his words were written, and written in a book, from which
they fliould not be blotted out, and graven in a rock, the
moll permanent mode of recording tliem, and much more
effeftual for perpetuating them than a book.

We find in Signior Callaguatta's account of the afbeftos,
a fcheme lor the making of a book, which from its im-
perifliable nature, he is for calling the bo-jl- of elernity. Tlse
leaves of this book were to be of the afbellos paper, the
covers of a thicker fort of work of the fame matter, and the
whole fewed together with thread fpun from the fame fub-
ftance. The things to be commemorated in this bool; were
to be written in letters of gold, fo that the whole matter of
the book being incombuftible and evcrlaltingly permanent

BOO

againft the force of all the elements, and fubjeft to no
changes from fire, water, or air, mull remain for ever, and
always preferve the writing committed to it. See Papei^.

Books, form of. The full books were in the form of
blocks, and tables, of which we find frequent mention in
Scripture, under the appellation _/J-/)Zi«-, which the Septua-
gint render a|i»:;, q. d. fquare tablet : of wliich form the
book of the covenant, book of the law, book, or bill of
divorce, book of curfes, &c. appear to liave been. As
flexible matters came to be wrote on, they found it more
convenient to make their books in form of rolls, caUed
by the Greeks xovrxxtx, by the Lafns voluminii, which ap-
pear to have been in ufe among the ancient Jews a.s well as
Grecians, Romans, Perfiaus, and even Indians. And of
fuch did the libraries chiefly confill, till fome centuries after
Chrift. The form which obtains among us is the iquare,
compofed of feparate leaves; which was alio known, though
little ufed, among the ancients ; having been invented by
Attains, king of Pcrgamus, the fame alfo who invented
parchment : but it has now been fo long in poiieffion,
that the oldeft manufcripts are found in it. Montfaucon
affures us, that of all the ancient Greek manufciipts he has
leen, there are but two in the roll form ; the reil being
made up m.uch after the manner of the modern books. See
Book-binding.

The rolls, or volumes, were compofed of feveral fheets,
faftencd to each other, and rolled upon a fticic, or unibiluus ;
the whole making a kind of column, or cylinder, which wn»
to be managed by the umbi/icus, as a handle ; it being re-
puted a kind of crime to take hold of the roll itltlf. The
outlide of the volunie was cnWed front ; the ends of the
vmhilicus, were called corr.ua, horns ; which were nfualiy
carved and adorned likewife with bits of filver, ivory, or
even gold and precious Hones. The title 'ZvXXx.So^ wa'.
ftuck on the outfidc. The whole volume, when extended,
might make a yard and a haif wide, and fifty long. Fabric.
Bibl. Antiq. c. 19. § 7. p. 607.

Sir John Chardin informs us, in a note on If. viii. i. that
the eaflern people roll their papers, and do not fold them,
becaufe their paper is apt to fret. ^Vhdll the ^Egyptian
papyrus was in common ufe, its brittle nature made it
proper to roll up wliat they wrote : and as this had
been a cuflomary pratlice, many continued it vs-hen
they ufed other materials, which might very fafely
have been treated in a different manner. This method of
rolling up their books is referred to in the New Teflament ;
and that they were of the fame form much more anciently,
we learn from Jer. xxxvi. 2. Pf. xl. 7, &:c. Sec.

It is cuflomary not only to wrap up Oriental books and
letters, which are rolled up, in an elegant and collly cover-
ing ; but to infcribe words on thefe coverings, which give a
general notion of their contents. This pratlice of wiitin<r
on the outfide of the cafe of a letter, or book rolled up, fccnrs
to be at leaft as ancient as the time of Chryfoftom, as we
learn from a note of Lambert Bos on Pf. xxxix. 7. as it
occurs in the LXX. v. 40. in our verflon. Chryfoitom re.
marks, that they call a wrapper (nXniix) the Kftp^Aic, which
is the word the Septuagint tranllators make ufe of to ex-
prefs the Hebrew word we tranflate volume : " In the
volume of the book it is written of me." The learned
father feems to fnppofe, that there was written in or on
the covering of the facred volume, a word or words which
fignified the " coming of the MeiTiah." But Chryfollom
would hardly have thought of fuch an interpretation, if it
had not been frequently done at Conftantinople in bis time,
or by the more eaflern princes that had buiinefs to tranfaft
with the Greek emperors, or been known to have been

praeliled

BOO

prjAifird before tbofe timts among the Jews. Chrvfollom
{•'ved in the 4th century. Aquila. who is rhotight to have
K'-ed above too ytirs foontr, and is aliowtd to lif a moft
i-iofi tranflator of the Hebrew, ufts, ^ccorc^in^ Vi Bos, the
fone word tiXr^, or wrapper, to cxprcfa the H^hrcw word
w; traiiflattr vohime. He therefore fuppofcd thai what was
written, to whitli this p^^age refers, vs-as written on the
c.-)veri:';r or wrapper of the facred boiks. This e>:p!anfjtiiin
fiijjgefts a much more agreeable mode of renderiiijr the word
than our Engli'.h term ■vo/i.me ; fince every ancient Hebrew
book was a •.'olurae, or roli, ar^d ccnfequtntlv t!',e pHiTac^e
merdv espreifes ; "In the book it is written of me." But
if we iinderftand it of the cafi in which their books were
wrapped up, the thoyght is not only clear and diltincl, b-.t
very enerejetic, and amounts to this, that the fum and fnb-
ftance of the facred books is, that " the Mcfilah cometh ;"
and that thofe words accordingly might be wrote or em-
broidered, with great propriety, on the wrapper, or cafe in
in which they were kept.

Another trandation i-er.ders the ward !v Tof<w, which in-
timates that tl'.. r:iotto was infcribcd on the cylinder, round
which books of this form were wort to be rolled. Tn this cafe,
it v.'3s probably written < n that part of the cylinder which
reached bevond the p.'.rchment, lir.cn, or whatever material
was iifed, and which was cor.ve: ient enough for cxhibicing,
in briif, what the purport of the volume was. Mr. Har-
mei-(Obf. on Script, vol. iv. p. 1 1 ) fuTgcfts, that the circle
of gold, with the name of one of our Saxon princes ucon it,
and o.rnamented after the mai^ier of thofe times, might be
V defigned to cafe the end of the cylinder, or one of the cylin-
ders, on which fome book belonging to that monarch, or
relating to him, was rolled ; of which ancient piece of gold
an engraving is given in the feventh volume of the Archxo-
logia, or Tranfa<£lions of the Antiquarian Society. This
fort of capping to thofe cylinders ufed to be called the
" Aeftel."

To the form of books belongs alfo the economy of the in-
fih, or the order and arrangement of points and letters into
lines and pages, with margins, and other appurtenances.
This has undergone many varieties : at tirft, the letters
were only divided into lines, then into feparate words ;
which, by degrees, were noted with accents, and ditlributed,
by points and Hops into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and
other divif:ons. In fnme countries, as amon.^ the Orientals,
th.e hues began from the riglit, and ran to th.e left ; in
othere, as in Northern and Weilern nations, from the left to
right ; others, as the Grecians, followed both directions al-
ternately, going in the one, and returning in the other,
called boujlrophedon. In the Chinefe books, the lines ran
from top to bottom. Again, the page in fome is entire,
and uniform ; in others, divided into columns ; in others,
diitingv.ifhcd into te.^t and notes, either marginal, or at the
bottom : ufually it is furniihed with lignatures and catch-
words ; alfo with a regifter to difcorer whether the book
be complete. To thefc are occafionally added the apparatus
of fummavies, or fide note^ ; the embeliiflimcnts of red,
gold, or figured initial letters, head-pitces, tail-pieces,
effigies, fchemeS; maps, and tke li.'ce. The end of the
book, no\7 denoted by Jinis, was anciently marked with a
<!, called coron'ij, and the whole frequently waflied with
an oil drawn from cedar, or citron chips, (Irewed between
the leaves to preferve it from rotting. There alfo occur
certain formtde at the beginning and end of books ; as
among the Jews, the word p'n> C/^« for'.h, which we find
iX the end of the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Ezekiel, &c. to exhort the reader to be courageous, and
proceed on to the following book. The conclufions were

BOO

alfo often guarded with imprecations a^ainfl fuch as (liould
falfify them ; of which we have an infla-ice in the Apo-
calypfe. The Mahometans, for the like reafon, place the
natne of God at the- beginning tf all their books, which
caii-r.t fail to procure t-em prottdion, on account of the
niiniite regard had among them to that name, wherever
found. For the like reafon it 15, that divers of the laws of
the ancient emperors begin with the formula, In r.omh.e Dei.
At the end of each book the Jews alfo added t!ie number
of verfes contained in it, and at the end of the Pei.tateuch
the number of feclicns ; that it might be tranfmi'ted to
pofterity entire. The Maforetes and Mahometan doftors
have gone farther ; fo as to number the feveral words and
letters in each book, chapter, verfe, &c. of the Old Tefta-
ment, and the Alcoran. See Alcoran, Bible, Maisoka,
&c.

The kinds and denominations of books are various.

Books, with regard to their :ifc and authority, maybe,
divided into human and diiiine, alfo calledyj^rtJ and inrpirfd
books.

Books, Sibylline., thofe compofed by certain pretended
prophetefTes, depofited in the Capitol, under the care of
duumitiri. See Sibyls.

Books, Canonical, thofe received and allowed by the
ch-.irch as parts of holy fcripture. Such are the books of
the Old and New Teftamcnt, as commonly bound up toge-
ther. See Canon, and Bible.

Books, apocryphal, thofe excluded out of the canon,
yet received and read in fome churches. See Apocav-

PHAL.

Books, Authentic, thofe which are decifive, and of autho-
rity : fuch, in the civil law, are the Code, Digeft, &c.
in our law, the Statutes, &c. Bacon de Augm. Sc. 1. 8.
c-3-

Books, Auxiliary, thofe lefs eflential, yet of ufe, as fub-
fervient to the others : as in the ftudy of the law, books of
Inftitutes, Formuh-e, Maxims, Reports, &c.

Books, Elementary, t'lofe which deliver the firft princi-
ples of fciences: fuch are thofe under the titles of Rudi-
ments, Methods, Grammars, &c. by which they (land con-
tradiilinguifncd from books of a fuperior order, which aim
at making farther advances in the fciences.

Books, Library, fuch as are not ordinarily read over, but
turned to, and confulted occafionally ; fuch are diciion-
aries, &c.

Books, Exoteric, thofe intended for the ufe of popular
and ordinary readers.

Books, Acroamatic, thofe containing more fecret and fub-
lime matters, calculated for adepts and proficients in the
fubjed.

Books, I^.ilUc, the records of paft times and tranfaftions
kept by puMic authority.

Books, Church, ox Ecchfiajlical, thofe ufed in the public
offices of rehgion.

Books, again, with regard to theiryj^o/c a/;,/y;,^fV^, niay
be divided into hijhrical, "thofe v\hicii relate faAs, either by
nature or mankind ; dogmatical, thofe which lay down
doctrines, or generil truths ; mifeilnneous, thofe of a neu-
tral kind, containing both facts and doftrines ; hifiorlco-
dogmatical, thofe which only rehenrfe doftrines, or, at
mofl, indicate the arguments by which they are proved, as
Mallet's Geometry ; fientijico-dogmalical, thofe which not*
only recite the dodlrines. but demcnlliatc them, as Euclid's
Elements. Wolf. Pnil. Rat. ^ 3. c. i. J ;.4, 750, 751,
&c.

Books, Pontifical, zmong the Romans, were thofe a p.
pointed by Numa to be kept by the pntifcx maximus ; de-

fcribing

BOO

fci-ibing all tlic ceremonies, facrificcs, fealls, prayers, and
other ivligious matters, witli the manner, and circumllances,
wherewith each was to be celebrated ; thefe were alfo called
iiidigiiamenla, as containing the names of all the gods,
and the occafions, and/ormu/^ of invoking each. Liv. i.

!>•->•

Books, Ritual, thofe which directed the order and man-
ner of founding, building, and confecrating cities, temples,
and altars ; the ceremonies belonging to walls, gates, tribes,
cnrix, camps, and the like.

Books, Augural, called by Cicero recotuUli, were thofe
wherein the fcience of foretelling futurity, from the flight
and chattering of birds, was contained. Cicer. Orat. pro
domo fua ad pontiff. Serv. ad JEn. 1. 5. v. 7j8. Loniti,
<le Bibl. c. 6.

Books, Arufpidne, thofe wherein the myfterics of divining
from the entrails of victims are prefcribcd.

Books, Jch^roiUic, thofe wherein the ceremonies and
difcipline of Acheron were contained ; fometimes alfo called
Rbri Etrtija, as being fnppofed to have been compofcd by
Tages the Hetrurian ; though others pretend, that lu had
received them from Jnpitcr himfelf : fome fuppofe thefe to
have been the fame with the Itlri fataks ; others, with the
l\hri arufpkhil. Serv. ad JEn. 1. S. v. 3(^8. Lomei, ubi
fupra.

Books, Fulgm-jjl, thofe written touching thunder and
lightning, and their interpretation. As that compofcd by
the Tufcan nymph Bigois, preferved in the temple of Apollo,
tierv. ad JE,n. 1. 6. v. 72.

Books, Fatal, thofe wberein the ages, or terms of the
life of men were written, according to the Hetrurian difci-
pline. Thefe were confnlted by the Romans in all pub-
lic calamities; and inftruClions taken from them, how
to expiate the offended deities. Cenfor. de Die. Natal.
c. 14.

Books, Black, thofe which treat of necromancy and
witchcraft ; or thofe whicli arc printed in the old black let-
ter, the Celtic character, now only retained by the Germans.
The fame denomination is alfo given to fome other books,
on account of the colour of their backs, or the dilmalntfs
of their contents ; whence alfo Red Look, and Dontifday-
boot.

Books, Good, in the common ufagc, are thofe of devotion
and piety, as foliloquies, meditations, prayers, &.C. Vide
Shaftefli. Charaft. timi. i. p. 165. idem. torn. iii. p. 32^.
£^ good hook, in the bookfellcr's language, is a faleable one ;
in the language of the curious, a fcarce one ; in that of men
of fenfe, an uleful and inllruiitive one.

Among five principal things which Rabbi Akiba recom-
mended to his fon, one was, that if he lludied the law, he
fliould take care to do it in a good hook, left he Ihould be
obliged to unlearn all again. Vide Cren. de Furib. Librar.
See a'.fo farther, on the head of judging and choofing of
Books.

Books, Spiritual, thofe which treat more exprefsly on the
fpiritual or Chrillian life, and their exercifts, as to contem-
plation, &c.

Books, Prophane, fuch as do not treat of matters of re-
ligion.

Books, with regard to their authon, may be divided into
(ijwnymoiii, thofe without any author's name ; t:ryptoiivmO!i.r,
t'lofe whofe authors' names are concealed in fome anagram,
or the like ; pJcudonpnoM, thofe which bear falfe names of
authors ; poJlhumfAu, thofe publifhed after the author's
death ; genuine, thofe really written by the pcrfons whom
they pretend for their authors, and flill remaining in the
ftate wherein they were left by them ; Jjjuriou!) or fiij>pofiti-

BOO

thus, thofe pretended to be written by others than their
real authors ; interpolated, thofe which fince their compofi-
tion have been corrupted by fpurious additions or infer-
tions.

Books, with regard to their qualities, may be divided into
char or perfpicuous, which, in the dogmatical kind, are
thofe where the authors define all their terms accurately,
and keep tlrictly to thofe definitions in the courfe of their
wcrks : oh/cure, thofe where words are ufcd vaguely, and
v/ithout defining : prolix, thofe which contain more things
than were iieccffury to the autlior's defign ; as if in a book
of furveying, a man fhould give all Euclid ; nfeful, thofe
which deliver things neceffary to be known, either in other
fciences, or in the bufincfs of life; complete, thofe which
contain all that is known concerning the fubjeft : relatively
complete, thofe which contain all that was known concerning
the fubjecl, at a certain time ; or, if a book were written
with any particular defign, or view, it maybe faid to be com'
plite, if it contain neither more nor lefs than is neceflary for
the accomplifliing of that end : in contrary cafes, books arc
faid to be iiicompUle,

Books, with regard to the wia/to- of which they confifl,
may be divided into paper-looks, thofe written either on
linen and cotton paper, or on the papyrus, of which laft
kind few are now remaining. Montfaucon Pal. Grxc. I.i.
c. 2. p. I,;. Parchment-books, lilri in membrana, thofe
written on fliins, or pelts, chiefly of iheep. Linen-hooks,
lihri lintei, among the Romans, were thofe written on blocks,
or tables, covered with a linen cloth. Such were the
Sibylline books, and divers ancient laws, epillles of princes,
leagues, annals, Sec. Plin. Hill. Nat. 1. xiii. c. 2. Leathern
bocks, lihri in corio, mentioned by Ulpian, are by Guilandinus
taken for fuch as were written on barks, different from that
ufually written on ; which was the tilia : by Scaliger, with
more probability, for fuch as were written on certain flcins,
or certain parts of (kins, different from thofe commonly ufed,
which were the pelts, or back parts of fhcp. Ulp. 1. 53.
Guiland. Papyr. Membr. 3. n. ^o. Scaliger, and Guiland.
Block-hooks, lihri in fchedis, thofe written on wooden planks,
or tablets, fmoothed for that purpofe with an afcia, and a
plane. Such were the ordinary books among the Romans.
IFaxen-hoois, lihri in ceris, mentioned by Pliny, have occa-
fioned fome difpute. Herm. Barbarus fufpeCts the term to
be a corruption, and inclines to read in fchedis, inftcad of /«
ceris, on the authority of fome ancient MSS. Others fee no
need of the emendation, fince it is known the Romans fome-
times covered their planks or fchedic, with a thin fliin of wax,
to make them fufceptible of erafements and amendments,
which the lihri in fchedis were not, and confequently were lefs
fit for works that required elegance and accuracy than the
waxen ones, which are alfo called cera or lihri cerei. Ele-
phantine hooks, according to Turnebus, were thofe written on
tliin flices, or leaves of ivory ; according to Scaliger, thofe
made of the guts of elephants ; according to others, thofe
wl'.erein the acts of the fenate, relating to the emperors, were
written ; according to others, certain huge or bulky books,
confifting of 3 j volumes, containing all the names of the 35
tribes. Salmuth. ad Pancirol. p. ii. p. 25J. Guiland. Pap.
Mem. 2. n.4S. Seal, ad Guil. p. 16. Calv. Lex. Jur.
p. 534, Fabr. Defcrip. Urb. c. 6.

Books, with regard to their mamifaHure and commerce,
may be divided into mamfcript, thofe written with the hand,
whether originally by the authors, called autographi, or at
fecond hand hy lihrarii, or copy^s ; printed, thofe wrought
off from the prets ; hooks in quires, orjheets, thofe not bound
or ftitched ; hooks in folio, thofe wliercin a fhcet is folded but
once, or makes two leaves, or four pages ; books in 4°,

where

BOO

BOO

vrhere it makes four leaves; in 8", where eight; inJuode-
cimo, where twelve ; in i6', where fixtecn ; in 24°, where
twenty-four.

Books, with regard to c'lrcumjlances and accidents, may be
divided into lojl, thofe which liave perifhed by the injuries of
time, or the malice or zeal of enemies. Such are divers
even of the ancient books of Scripture, written by Solomon,
and others of the prophets. Fabr. Cod. Pfeud. Vet. Teft.
torn. ii. p. 171. p. 247. Books/irowZ/f,-/, thofe which authors
have given expeftations of, which they have never accom-
plifhed. Janf. ab Almcloveen has given a Bibliotheca of
books promifed, but ftill latent, or not publillied. Books
Jiaitlous, thofe which never exifted : to which may be added
divers feigned titles of books. Loefcher has publifhed a
great number of plans, or projefts of books, many of them
good and ufeful enough, if there were but books written cor-
refponding to them. M. Dugono has a whole volume of
fchemes, or projeds of looks, containing no lefs than 300c.

Books in Ana, Anti, Sec. See Ana, Anti, &;c.

Books, the/cope, or d^Jign of, is various ; that of fome is
to tr'ce the origin of things difcovered ; of others, to fix
and eftabliih fome truth, or raife fome doftrine to a higher
pitch or fubtilty ; of others, to remove fome fcruple, or pre-
judice, which had before obtained, or fix more accurate and
precife ideas of things : of others, to explain the names and
words ufed in different nations, ages, and fefts ; of others, to
improve our knowledge of fafts, and events, and ihew the
order and ways of Providence ; laftly, others aim at divers,
or all of thefe ends.

Books, the nfes of, are numerous ; they make one of the
chief inftruments, or means of acquiring knowledge : they
are the repoCtories of laws, and the vehicles of learning of
every kind : our rehgion itfelf is founded on books : " With-
out them," fays Bartholin," " God is filent, juftice dor-
mant, phyfic at a ftand, philofophy lame, letters dumb, and
all things involved in Cimmerian darknefs." De Liibr.
Legend. Diif. i. p. 5.

The eulogiums which have been bellowed on books are
infinite : they are reprefented " as the refuge of truth,
which is baniflied out of converfation ; as ftanding coun-
fellors, and preachers, always at hand, and always difin-
terefted ; having this advantage over oral inftruftors, that
they are ready to repeat their leifon, as oft as we pleafe."
Books fuppl) the want of mailers, and even, in fome meafure,
the want of genius and invention : and can raife the dulleft
perfons, who have memory, above the level of the brigliteil
without them. An author who wrote not inelegantly,
though in a barbarous age, fums up all their praifes. Vide
Lucas de Pennaap. Movhoif. Polyhill. lib. i. cap. 3. p. 27.
" Liber eft lumen cordis, fpeculum corporis, virtutum ma-
gillcr, vitiorum depulfor, corona prudentum, comes itineris,
domefticus amicus, congerro talentls, coUcga & confiliarius
prajfidentis, myrotheciumeloquenti?e, hortus plenus fruftibus,
pratum floribus diftinclum, memoriae penus, vita recorda-
tionis ; vocatus properat, judus feftinat, femper prxfto eft,
nonquam non morigerus, rogatus confeftim refpondet ; ar-
cana revelat, obfcura illuftrat, ambigua certiorat, perplexa
refolvit, contra adverfam fortunani defenfor, fccundx mode-
rator, opes adauget, jacluram propulfat," &c.

Perhaps their greateft glory is, the atfeitlon borne them
by many of the greatcll men in all ages : M. Cato, the elder
Fliny, the emperor Julian, and others, are on record for a very
extraordinary devotion to books. This laft has pei-petuatcd
his paflion by fome Greek epigrams in their praile. Richard
Bury, bifhop of Durham, and lord chancellor of England,
has a treatife exprefs on the love of books. Philobibkon,
five de Amore Librorum. Vide Plin. Epift. vii. hb.iii.

Vol. IV.

Cato's attachment to books may be obferved in the followirtg
paragraph.

" M. Catonem vidi in bibliotheca fedentem multis circum-
fufum Stoicorum libris. Erat enim, ut fcis, in eo inexhaufta
aviditas legcndi, nee fatiari poterat : quippe qui, ne reprehen-
fionem vulgi inanem reformidans, in ipfa curia foleret legere,
fjepe dum fenatus cogerelur, nihil operse reipublicse dctra-
hens." VideCic.de Divin. lib. iii. n. 11. See alto Cic.
Orat. pro Arch, tom.iv. p. 2182.

Books, the ill effeds objefted to, are, that they employ
too much of our time and attention ; engage us in purfuita
of no ufe to the commonwealth, and indifpofe us for the
fnnftions of civil life ; that they render men lazy, and pre-
vent their exerting their own talents, b)* furnifhing them, on
every occafion, with things that are the productions of others ;
and that our natural lights become weakened and estinguifhed,
by inuring ourfelves to fee only with foreign lights : befides,
that ill men are hereby furniflied with m.eans of poifoning
the people, and propagating fuperftition, immorality, enthu-
fiafm, or irreligion, which will always fpread fafter, and be
received more greedily, than leflbns of truth and virtue.
Many other things are added concerning the emptinefs of
books, and the cn^irs, fables, and follies they are fraught
with : which, together with the multitude and perplexity of
them, are fuch, that it may feem eafier to difcover truth in
the nature andreafon of things, than in the uncertainty and
confufion of books. Add, that books have turned the other
inftruments of knowledge out of doors, as experiments, ob-
fervations, furnaces, and the like, without which the natural
fciences can never be cultivated to purpofe ; and that, in ma-
thematics, books have fo far fuperfeded the exercife of inven-
tion, that the generality of mathematicians are now contented
to learn the folution of problems from others ; which is to
relinquilh the chief end of their fcience ; fince what is con-
tained in mathematical books is properly the hiftoiy only of
mathematics, not the fcience, art, or talent of folving
queftions ; which is hardly to be had from books, but only
from nature and meditation.

Books, for the art of writing, or compq/ing, we have much
fewer helps and inftruflions than for the art of fpeaking ;
though tlie former be the more difficult of the two ; as a
reader is not fo eafy to be impofed upon, but has better op-
portunities of detcdling faults than a hearer. A great car-
dinal, indeed, reduces an author's bufinefs to a few heads ;
were they but as eafily praftifed as prefcribed ; " Let him
confider who it is writes, what, how, why, and to whom."
Auguft. Val;r. di Cant, in edend. lib. 7'hf conditions required
in a hook are, according to Salden, " folidity, perfpicuity,
and brevitv :" the firft will be beft attained, by kteping the
piece long by us, often reviewing and correfting it by the
advice of friends : theyfr/jni^, by difpofing the fentiments in
a due order, and delivering them under proper and ufual
expreffions : the third, by throwing every thing afide that
does not immediately concern the fubjedl. Were thefe
rules obferved, it would fcarcely be poffible for any, except
an angel from heaven, to write many books. " Vis
totidem quot Thebarum portas vel di\itiis oftia Nili."
The cuilom is much altered fince the times of the ancients,
who carried their fcrupuloufnefs into what relates to the
compofition of books beyond all that has been above ex-
prefled ; fo auguft was the idea they formed of a book, that
nothing would fuffice lefs than its being a treafure : " the-
fauros oportet effe, non libros :" no labour, no affiduity and
exaftnefs, were thought enough to fit a work for the public
view : every fentiment and expreffion were to be maturely
weighed, and turned on all fides ; and not fuffered to pafs,
onlefs erery word were a pearl, and every page befet with

iG

gems.

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ferns. So tliat they put the reader in potTeflion in a fingle
our, of what had coft them perhaps ten years' intenfe
thought and apphcation. Such were thofe books, which
were reputed " cedro digiii," fit to be anointed with
cedar-juice, and tlius rendered incorruptible, for the in-
ftruftion of all future ages.

Books, for the origin of, we have nothing that is clear:
the books of Mofcs are doubtlefs the oldell of all that are
extant; but there were books before them, for Mofes cites
feveral. A book of Enoch is cited in the tpiftle of Jude,
V. 14. and 15. from which fome endeavour to prove the
reality of antediluvian writinp;s ; but the book cited by that
apoftle is generally allowed both by ancient and modern
■writers to be fpurious. See Bible.

Of proplianc books, the oldeft extant are Homer's poems,
which were even fo in the time of Sextus Empiricus ; though
we find mention in Greek writers, of about teventy others
prior to Homer; as Hermes, Orpheus, Daphne, Horus,
Linus, Mufieus, Palamcdes, Zoroafter, &c. but of the greater
part of thefe, there is not the leaft fragment remaining ; and
of the others, the pieces which go under their names are
generally held by the learned fuppofititious. F. Hardouin
goes farther ; charging all the ancient books, both Greek
and Latin, except Cicero, Pliny, Virgil's Georgics, Horace's
Satires and Epillles, Herodotus, and Homer, as fpurious,
and forged in the thirteenth century, by a club of perfons
under the direftion of one Severus Arcontius. Fab. Bib.
Gisec. lib. i. cap. i. ^ i. { 6. torn. i. Hardouin de Num.
Herod, in Proluf. Act. Eiud. IJpf. an. 1710. p. 70.

Among the Greeks, it is to be ohferved, the oldell books
were in verfc, which waa prior to profe ; Herodotus's hif-
tory is the oldeft book extant of the profaic kind. Strabo.
Geog. hb. i. Heuman. Via ad Hill. Liter. § 20. p. jo.
^. 21. p. 52. ■

Books, the mull'uude of, has been long complained of:
the complaint is as old as Solomon, who lived three thou-
fand years ago : they are grown too numerous, not only to
procure and read, but to fee, to learn the names of, or even
to number. England has more to fear on this fcore, than
other countries ; fince, bcfidts our own produce, we have,
for fome years pad, drained our neighbours. However, as bi
fhopCaramuel's fchememifcanied, which was, to write about
a hundred volumes in folio, and then prevail on the civil and
mihtary powers to oblige all their fubjeCts to read them, we
need not much regret the multitude of books.

In reality, there are few of the immenfe number of books
which deferve leiioully to be ftudicd : fur the reft, part of
them, like this, are only to beoccalionally confulted, and the
reft read for amulement. A mathematician, for inllance, ought
not to be entirely ignorant of what is contained in the mathe-
matical books ; but then a general knowledge is fufficitnt,
which may eafily be had by running over the chief authors ;
out of whom references may be made, direfting to the places
where they may be found, when wanted. For there are
many things which are much better preftrved in books than
in the memoi-y ; as aftronomical obfervations, tables, rules,
theorems, proportions, and in fine, whatever does not fpon-
taneoufly adhere to the memory, when once known. For
the lefs we croud that faculty, the readier and freer will
the genius remain for inventing.

Other books may be valuable in themfelves, for fome fpe-
cial purpofe, or in fome peculiar fcience, but are not fit to be
perufed except by thofe who are engaged in that particular
fcience, or bufinels. To what ufe is it for a divme, or a
phyfician, or a tradefman, to read over the huge volumes of
reports of adjudged cafes in the law ? Or for a lawyer to
learn Hebrew and read the Rabbins, unlefs his inclination
8

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leads him, and his leifure allows him to employ himfelf in
this way ? For improvement of knowledge and faving of
time, it is of great importance for young perfons to have
the moft proper books for his reading, recommended by a
judicious friend.

Books of importance of any kind, and efpecially complete
treatifes on any fubjeft, flioidd be firft read m a more general
and curfory manner, to learn in lome degree what the trea-
tife promifes, and what you may expect from the writer's
manner and flciU. For this purpofe let the pvelace be read,
and the table of contents, if there be any, before thij firfl
furvey of the book. By this means you will not only be
better fitted to give the book a firft reading, but be much
afhlled in a fecond perufal of it, wliich fhouid be done with
greater attention and deliberation, and you will learn with
more eafe and readinefs what the author proftfTes to teach.
In reading it will be ufeful to mark what is new or unknown
to you belore, and to review thofe chapters, pages, or para-
graphs. Unlefs a reader has an uncommon and moft re-
tentive memory, we may venture to affirm, that there is
fcarccly any book or cliapter worth reading once, that is
not worthy of a fecond perufal. At leaft it will be proper
carefully to review all the lines or paragraphs which were
previoufly marked, and to recolleft the feflions which were
thought truly valuable. There is another reafon why it
will be ufeful to take a fuperficiai and curfory furvey of a
book, before we fit down to read it, and to dwell upon it
with ftiidious attention ; and that is, that there may be feveral
difficulties in it, which we cannot eafily underftand and re-
folve at the firft reading, for want uf a fuller comprehenfion
of tiie author's whole fchenic. Many fueh difficulties
would be unravelled when we have proceeded farther in fuch
books, or would vaniih themfelves upon a fecond reading.
What we cannot thoroughly underftand at firft may be
noted down as matter of lubfequent conflderation and in-
quiry, if the pages that follow do not liappen to flrike a
complete light on thofe which went before. In perufing
books that treat of fubjcrts of natural, moral, or divine
fcience, it fhouid be confidered that it is our bufinefs, not
merely to know the opinion of the author, for this is but
the mere knowledge of hillory ; but truly to refieft, whether
his opinions are jull or not, and to improve our own know-
ledge of the lubjcdt by a careful inveftigation of it. With
this view we fhouid deal freely with every author whofe
works we read, and yield our aflent only to evidence and
jull reafoning. If a writer on any particular fubjecl, to
which your attention is directed, maintains fentiments fimilar
to your own, but does not explain his ideas, or prove his
pofitious to your fatisfaftion, mark fiis defeats, or faults,
and endeavour to do it belter, either in the margin of your
book, or rather on fome papers of your own. e. g. When
the author is obfcure, enlighten him ; where he is imperfedf,
fupply his deficiencies ; where he is too concife, amplify,
and fct his notion in a fairer view ; where he is redundant,
mark the paragraphs that ought to be retrenched ; where
he trifles and indulges to impertinence, abandon thofe paf-
fages, or pages ; where he argues, obferve whether his rea-
fons be conclufive ; if the conclufion be true, but the argu-
ment weak, endeavour to confirm it by better proofs; where be
deduces any propofitions obfcurely, or doubtfully, make the
juftnefs of the inference to appear, and add further inferences
or corollaries, if fuch occur to your mind ; where you fup-
pofe he is miftaken, propofe your objedions, and correCl
his errors ; what he writes fo well as to approve itfelf to
your judgment, as both juft and ufeful, treafure up in
your memory, and count it a part of your intellcftual gains.
If the method of a book be irregular, reduce it into form,

by

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by an anal) fi3 of your own, or by hints in tke margin ; if
thofe things are heaped together, which ftioiild be feparated,
dlflinguitb and divide them. If feveral things relating to
the fame fubjeft are fcattered through variovis parts of the
fame treatife, let them be brought together into one
view, by fuitable references ; or if the matter of a book be
really valuable and dcferving the labour, you may arrange it
in a better method, reduce it to a more logical fcheme, or
abridge it into a leifer fonn. All thefe praftices will have a
tendency to advance your owo ikill in logic and method, to
improve your ju igment in general, and to give you a more
comprchenfive furvey of that fubjecl in particular. When
you have finifhed the treatife, with all your obftrvations upon
it, recolleft and determine what real improvements you have
made by reading that author. If a book have no index, or
good table of contents, it is ufeful to make fuch as you are
reading it ; taking notice merely of thole parts which are
newand well written, and wtU worthy of remembrance, or re-
view. If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar excel-
lencies, or defects in his Ilylc, or maimer of writing, atten-
tively obferve them, and whatever ornaments or blemifhes
t jcur in the language, or manner of the writer, you may
make juft remarks upon them. One book pcrnfed in the
manner now propofed, will tend more to enrich the under-
Handing, than ikimming over the furtace of 20 authors.
" There are many who read," fays the exc lleiit author of
whofe ufeful obfeivations we are now availing 0111 Iclves, (fee
Watts's Improvement of* the Mind) " with conlf:uicv and
diligence, and yet make no advances in true knowledge by
it. They are delighted with the notion^ which they read,
or hear, as they would be with ftories that are told, but they
do not weigh them in their minds as in a juft b?.lance, in
order to determine their truth, or falfhood ; they make no
obfervations upon them, or inference from them. Perhaps
their eye Aides over the pages, or the words flldc over their
ears, and vSnilb like a rhapfody of evening tales, or the
[hadows of a cloud flying over a green field in a lummer's
day ; or, if they review tliem fufRcieiitly to fix them in their
remembrance, it is merely with a defign to tell the tale over
again, and to {hew what men of learning they are. Thus
they dream out their days in a courfe of reading without real
advantage. As a man may be e?ting all day, and for want
of digeilion is never nourifhed ; fo thefe endlefs readers may
cram themfelves in vain with intelletlual food, and without
real improvement of their minds, for want of digefting it_by
proper refleftion."

" Never apply yourfclvps," fays the fame writer, " to
read any human author with a determination, before-liand,
either for or againft him, or with a fettled refolution to
believe, or dilbelieve, to confirm, or oppofe whalfoever he
faith ; but always read with a defign to lay your mind open
to truth, and to embrace it whereloever you find it, as well
as to rejeft every falfhood, though it appear under never fo
fair a difguife. How unhappy are fhoie men, who feldom
take an author in their hands, but they have determined be-
fore they begin, whether they will like or diflike him ! They
have got fome notion of his name, his charafter, his party,
or his principles, hygeneral converfation, or perhaps by fome
flight view of a few pages ; and having all their own opi-
nions adjufted before -hand, they read all that he writes with
a prepoffcflion either for or againtt him : unhappy thofe
who hunt and purvey for a party, and fcrape together out of
every author, all thofe things, and thofe only which favour
their own tenets, while thty defpife and negleft all the reft !"
The author fubjojns an ufeful caution ; and wilhes not to
be underftood, as perluading a r>erfoii to live without any
fettled principles, by which to judge of books, men, an4

BOO

things, or to be always doubting about his foundations. Buf
having fettled, upon good grounds, the moit neceflary and
important principles of fcience, prudence, and religion, v:
(hould read, with a juft freedom of thought, all thofe books
which treat of fuch fubjeCis as may admit of doubt, or
reafonable difpute. When we perufe thofe authors who
defend our own fettled fentimenta, we fnould not hallily
conclude that all their reafonings are juft and folld ; nor
eagerly embrace all their leffer opinions, btcaufe wc a^r-e
with them in the greater. When we read thole authors
who oppofe our moft certain and eftablifited principles, we
fhould be ready to receive any information from them in
other points, and not abandon every thing they fay, though
we arc well fixed in oppofition to their main object :
" Seize upon truth where-e'er 'tis found,

Amongft your friends, amongft your toes.

On Chrillian, or on heathen ground ;

The flower's divine where-e'er it grows ;

Negled the prickles, and alTume the role."
Upon the plan of reading above ftated and recommended,
a few books well chofen, and thoroughly ftudied, may fuf-
fice. It may be added, that as knowledge is naturally ad-
vantaereous, and as ever)' man ov.ght to he in the way of in-
formation, even a fuperfluity of books is not without its
ufe, fince hereby they a'e brought to obtrude themfelves
on us, and engage us when we had leaft delign. This
advantagf, ■>" ancient father obkrves, we owe to the multi-
plicity of books on the fame tubjeCT, that one falls in the way
of one man, and another beft fuits the K-vel, or the appre-
henfion, of another. " Every tiling that is written," fays
he, " does not come into the hands of all perfons : perhaps
fome may meet with my books, who may hear nothing of
others which have treated better of the fame fubjeCl. It is
of fervice, therefore, that the fame quellions be handled by
feveral perfons, and after different methods, though all on
the fame principles, that the explications of difficulties, and
arguments for the truth, may come to the knowledge of
every one, by one way or other." Add, that the multitude
is the onl) fecurity againft the total lofs or deftruction of
books : it is this that has preferved them againft the injuries
of time, the rage of tyrants, the zeal of perfecutors, and
the ravages of barbarians ; and handed them down, through
long intervals of darknefs and ignorance, fafe to our days.
" Solaque non norunt ha:c monumenta mori." Bac. de
Augm. Sc. lib.i. Auguft. de Trin. lib. i. cap. 3. Barthol.
lib. cit. Difl". i. p. 8, &c.

Books, tie fcardty fjf, is an evil much more to be la-
mented, in the furvey of part ages, than their multitude at
any later period. Before the art of printing was invented,
the trouble and expence of procurins; copies very much re-
tarded the progrefs of literature. The univcrfal ignorance
that prevailed in Europe, from the feventh to the eleventh
century, may be afcribed to the fcarcity of books during
that period, and the difficulty of rendering them more com-
mon, concurring with other caufes arifing from the ftate of
government and manners. The Romans wrote their books
either on parchment, or on paper made of the Egyptian pa-
pyrus. The latter, being the cheapeft, was of courfe the
moft commonly ufed. But after the Saracens conquered
Egypt, in the feventh century, the communication between
that countr)' and the people fettled in Italy, or in other
parts of Europe, was almoft entirely broken off, and the
papyrus was no longer in ufe among them. They were ob-
liged on that account to write all their books upon parch-
ment ; and as the price of that was high, books became ex-
tremely rare and of great value. We may judge of the
fcarcity of materials for writing them from one circumftance.
5 G 2 There

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There ftiU remain feveral manufcripts of tlic Stli, 9th, and
following centuries, wrote on parchment, from which fome
former writing had been erafed, in order to fnbftitiite a new
compolition in its place. Thus, it is probable, feveral of
the works of the ancients peridied. A boek of Livy or
of Tacitus might be erafed, to make room for the legendary
tale of a faint, or the fuperftitious prayers of a niiffal. As
the want of materials for writing accounts for the lofs of
many of the works of the ancients, and for the fmall num-
ber of MSS. previous to the i ith century, many fafts prove
the fcarcity of books at this period. Private perfons feldom
poffelfed any books whatever ; and even monalleries of note
had only one mifl'al. Towards the end of the feventh cen-
tury, even in the papal library at Rome, the number of
books was fo inconfidcrable, that pope St. Martin requcfted
Sanaamand, bifliop of Maeftricht, if pofiible, to fupply this
defeft from the remoteft parts of Germany. In the year
855, Lupus, abbot of Ferrieres in France, fent two of his
monks to pope Benedift III. to beg a copy of Cicero de
Oratore and Qiiintilian's Inftitutes ; " for," fays the abbot,
" although we have part of thefe books, there is no com-
plete copy of them in all France." At the beginning of
the tenth century books were fo fcarce in Spain, that one
and the fame copy of the bible, Jerome's epillles, and fome
volumes of ecclefiaftical offices and martyrologies, often
ferved feveral different monafteries. Among the con-
ftitutions given to the monks of England by archbifhop
Lanfranc, in 1072, the following injunftion occurs: At
the beginning of Lent, the librarian is ordered to deliver a
book to each, of the religious, for the perufal of which a
whole year was allowed ; and at the returning Lent, thofe
monks who had neglefted to read the books they had re-
fpeclively received, are commanded to prollrate themfelves
before the abbot, and fnpplicate.his forgivenefs. In 1299,
John de Pontiffara, bifhop of Winchefter, borrows of his
cathedral convent of St. Swithin, at Winchefter, " bibliam
bene gloffatam," that is, the bible, with marginal annota-
tions, in two folio volumes ; but gives a bond for the return
of it, drawn up with great folemnity. For the bequeil of
this bible to the convent, and 100 marks, the monks founded
a daily mafs for the foul of the donor. If any perfon gave
a book to a religious houfe, he behcved, that fo valuable a
donation merited eternal falvation, and he offered it on the
altar with great ceremony. The prior and convent of Ro-
chefter declare, that they will every year pronounce the ir-
revocable fentence of damnation on him, who ihall purloin
or conceal aT^atin tranflation of Ariftotle's Poetics, or even
obliterate the title. Sometimes a book was given to a mo-
nallery, on condition that the donor fliould have the ufe of
it for his life ; and iometimes to a private perfon, with the
refervation that he who receives it (hould pray for the foul
of his benefaftor. In the year 1225, Roger de Infula, dean
of York, gave feveral Latin bibles to the univerlity of Ox-
ford, on condition that the ftudents who perufed them,
(hould depofit a cautionary pledge. The hbrary of that
univerfity, before the year 1300, confiifcd only of a few
trafts, chained or kept in chells, in the choir of St. Mary's
church. Among the ftatutes of St. Mary's college at Ox-
ford, in 1446, one is, that no fcholar (liould occupy a book
in the library above one hour, or two hours at moll, fo that
others fhall be hindered from the ufe of the fame. The fa-
mous library eftablifiied in the univerfity of Oxford by Hum-
phrey duke of Gloucefter, a munificent patron of literature,
contained only 600 volumes. About the beginning of the
14th century, there were only four claffics in the univerfity
of Paris, which were fingle copies of Cicero, Ovid, Lucan,
and Boethiu3.

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The price of books became fo high, that perfons of a mo-
derate fortune could not afford to purchafe them. In the yea-
1 174, Walter, prior of St. Swithin's at WinchelUr, purchafed
of the monks of Dorcheftcr, in Oxfordfhirc, Bede's homilies
and St. Auftin's pfalter for twelve meafuves of barley and a
pall, on which was embroidered in filver the hiilory of St.
Birinus converting a Snxon king. Abor.t the year 14CO,
a copy of John of Mcun's " Riinian dc ia Rofe" was fold
before the palact-gate at Paris for 40 crowns, or 33 1. 6 s.
6d. The countefs of Anjou paid, for a copy of the homilies
of Hainion, bifliop of Halberfladt, 200 fneep, five quarters
of wheat, and the fame quantity of rye and millet. Even
fo late as the year 1471, when Louis XI. of France bor-
rowed the works of Rhafis, the Arabian phyfician, from the
faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only depofited by way
of pledge a confiderable quantity of plate, but he was ob-
liged to procure a nobleman^ to join with him as furtty in a
deed, binding himfelf under a great forfeiture to reflore it.
Many other inftances might be cited, in order to fhew how
fcarce books were at the period to which we now refer, and
with what difficulty, and at what extravagant prices, copies
of them were procured ; and therefore we can be at no loii
in acconnting for the extreme ignorance that prevailed.
But when, in the nth century, the art of making paper
was invented, and more efpecially after the manufacture be-
came general, the number of MSS. increafed, and the ftudy
of the fciences was wonderfully facilitated. Indeed, the
invention of the art of making paper, and the invention of
the art of printing, are two very memorable events in the
hittory of literature and of human civilization. It is re-
markable, that the former preceded the firft dawning of
letters and improvement in knowledge, towards the clofe of
the eleventh ctntuiy ; and the latter ufhered in the light
which fpread over Europe at the asra of the reformation.
Murat. Antiq. Ital. vol. iii. vol. ix. Mem. de I'Acad. des
Infcript. tom. ix. Hift. Lit. de France, par des Religieux
Benediftins, tom. vii. Naude Addit. a I'hifloire de Louis
XI. par Comines, ed. Frefnoy, tom. iv. Robertfon's Hift.
Ch. V. vol. i. Wharton's Eng. Poetry, vol. i. difT. 2.

Books, to form a judgment of. Thofe who have treated
of the fubjeft, direft us to obfcrve the title, the author's or
editor's name, the number of the edition, -the place where,
and the year when it is printed (which in old books is fre-
quently marked at thj end), and the printer's name, efpe-
cially if it be a celebrated one ; proceed then to the preface,'
and index of contents, and look for tlie author's defign, and
the occafion of his writing ; confider alfo his country (each
nation having its peculiar genius), which may fometimes be
learned from the dedication ; if his life be annexed, run it
over, and note his profeffion, what rank he was of, and any
thing remarkable that attended his education, ftudies, con-
verfation, or correipondences with learned men ; not forget-
ting the elogies which have been given to the author, which
often occur at the beginning, or even any critique or cen-
fure, efpecially if made by a man of judgment. If the pre-
face does not give an account of the method of the work,
run briefly over the order and difpofition of it, and note
what points the author has handled ; obferve whether the
things and fentiments he produces be trite and vulgar, or
folid, and fetched from greater depths. Note, whether he
go in the common road, or make any innovation, and intro-
duce any new principle.

But it is a fmail number of books we have opportunity of
thus judging of by perufing tliem ; befides, when we have;
read a book over, the judgment comes too late for many
purpofes. Life is too fhprt, and time is too precious, to
read every new book quite over, in order to find that it is
I ■ not.

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not worth reading. It feems neceflary, therefore, to have
other indications, whereby to prevent our being at the charge
of procuring, or the pains of perufing a worthlefs book.
Divers rules of this kind are given by Baillet, Struvius,
Stollius, and others ; which, though in reab'ty no more than
prefiimptions, and frequently liable to be falfilied, are not
without their ufe. The journalifts de Trevoiix objefted to
them all : " The fhorteft way," fay they, " to judge of a
book is to read it, if you be qualified in the fubjeA ; other-
wife to refer yourfelf to thole who are fo." Heuman is
fomewhat more explicit ; making it a mark that " a book
is good, when it is efteemed by perfons intelligent in the
fubjeft it treats of ; and when thofe who commend it re-
ceive no advantage from the applaufe they beltovv on it, nor
are leagued with the author in any cabal, for efpoufing any
particular principle, f^ Hem, or patty, in religion or learning."
Baillet, Jugem. des Sgav. torn. i. b.ii. p. 12 i. Struv. Introd.
ad Not. Rei Liter, cap. 5. § 3. p. 390. StoU. Introd. Hift.
Liter, p. i. (J 11. p. 9. Budd. de Criteriis boni libri, paflim.
Mem. de Trev. an. 1712. Art. ij. Heuman. Confp. Rei-
publ. Liter, cap. vi. $11. p. 280.

But more particularly, it is an indication that a book is
good; I. If the author be known to excel in that talent
more immediately necelTary for fuch a fubjeft ; or have al-
ready publifhed any thing on the fame that is efteemed.
Thus we may conclude, that Julius Cxfar will teach us the
art of war better than Peter Ramus ; Cato, Palladius, and
Columella, agriculture better than Ariltotle ; and Cicero,
oratory better than M. Varro : add, that it is not enough
the author be lliilled in the faculty, but that he be fo in the
particular branches of it, concerning which he treats ; fome,
for inftance, excel in the civil law, yet not in the public
law ; Salmafius proved himfelf an excellent critic in his Ex-
ercitat. Plinian. but was much inferior to Milton in his Dc-
fenfio Regia. 2. If the book be on a fubjeft that requires
great reading, it may be prcfumed good, if the author had
a copious library, or could have accefs to one ; or if he lived
in a place where books were not wanting ; though here is
danger too of running into excefs of quotations ; efpecially,
fays Struvius, if the author be a lawyer. 3. A book which
took up a long time in compofmg, cannot often fail of being
good. 4. Books on points of doftrine by ecleftic writers,
are to be prefumed better than thofe writ by the retainers to
particular litis. 5. The age of a writer may alfo give us
fome indication : books, which require labour, are ufnally
better performed by younger perfons than thofe who are far
advanced in years. 6. Another indication may be taken
from the author's ftate and condition : thus, hiftory written
by a perfon who was an eye-witnefs to what he relates, or
is concerned in public affairs, or has accefs to the public re-
cords, or other monuments, from whence intelligence may
be drawn ; who is not biaflfed by party, or any other indi-
reft or finifter motive, will be fuppofed to be good. Thus
Salluft and Cicero were well able to write the hiftory of Ca-
taline's confpiracy. D'Avila, de Coraines, Guicciardin,
Clarendon, &c. were prefent in the civil wars they defcribe ;
Xenophon, having an employment in the Spartan ftate, has
treated excellently of that commonwealth ; and Amelot de
la Houflaye, by living long at Venice, was enabled to ex-
plain the fecrets of their policy. Camden wrote annals of
the affairs of his own time ; Thuanus had correfpondence
with the beft writers in every country ; and Puffendorf had
accefs to the public archives. So, in literary matters, we
give credit to thofe who have the direftion of libraries. 7.
The time or age wherein the author lived may give fome
light ; every age having, according to Barclay, its peculiar

genius and excellency. See Bartholin. Struv. BiidJ.
Heuman. Baill. lib. cit.

Some judge by the bulk or fize of books ; following the
grammarian Callimachus's rule, that even- great book is of
courfe an ill one, jitya. l?tc?M-j, jx'.ya y.ay.r>v ; a fingle leaf of
the Sybil was doubtlefs pieferable to the vaft annals of Vo-
luiius : yet Pliny's obfervations will neverthelefs hold true,
that " a good book is fo much the better by hov/ much it
is bigger." Plin. Epill. 20. lib. i. Martial prefcribes a re-
medy againft the lavgenefs of a book, when that is the only
complaint, read but a little of it :

" Si nimius vidtar, feraque coronide longus

EITe liber, Icgito pauca, libellus ero." ^

Yet is the fmallnefs of a book a real prefumption in its
favour: he muft be a poor author, who cannot furnifh a
pamphlet, or loofe flieet, \\ ith things curious, and written
with ipirit ; but to fupport the fame through a volume in
folio, requires very extraordinary abilities indeed. Addif. in
Spec. N'^ 124.

There are fome general miftakes, which perfons are fre-
quently guilty of in paffing judgment on the books which
they read. One is, when a treatife is written but tolerably
well, we are ready to pronounce a favourable judgment of
it, and fametimes to exalt its charafter far beyond its merit,
if it agree with our own principles and fupport the opinions
of our party. On the other hand, if the author be of dif-
ferent fentiments, and efpoufe contrary principles, we can
find neither wit nor reafon, good fenfe, nor good language
in it. For avoiding or corredling this error, it (hould be
confidered, that books are never to be judged of merely by
their fubjeft, or the opinion they reprefent, but by the juft-
nefs of their fentiments, the beauty of their manner, the
force of their expreflion, or the ftrength of reafon, and the
weight of juft and proper argument, which appear in them.
Another niiftake, which fome perfons fall into, is this :
When they read a treatife on any fubjeft, with which they
have but little acquaintance, they find almoft every thing
new and ftrange to them, their underftandings are much
gratified and improved by many things unknown to them
before ; and hence they are led to admire the treatile, and
commend the author: whereas, if they had previoufly attained
a confiderable degree of fliiil in that fcicnce, perhaps they
would have found that the author had written very indiffer-
ently, that neither his fenfe nor his method was juft and
proper, and that he delivered nothing that was not very
common or very trivial, in his dilcourfes on that fubjeft.
On the other hand, if we have made ourfeives matters of
any particular theme of knowledge, and fnrveyed it long oa
all fides, there is fcarcely any writer who much pleafes us
afterwards, becaufe we find little or nothing new in him ;
and yet in a true judgment perhaps his fentiments are unex-
ceptionably juft, his illuftrations clear, and his reafonings
forcible, and all the parts of the difcourfe are well connefted
and fet in a happy light ; but we knew moft of thefe thmgs
before, and therefore they do not ttrike us, and we are in
danger of difcommending them. There are fome other foU
lies into which perfons are apt to be betrayed in forming'
their judgment of books. Some perfons, who are of a for- ■
vyard and lively temper, and who are fond of intermeddling
with all appearances of knowledge, will give their judgment
of a book as foon as the title of it is mentioned, for they
would not feem ignorant of any thing that others k now ;
and efpecially, if they happen to have any fuperior character
or poffeflions, they fancy they have a right to talk freely
and to pronounce magifterially on every thing, even of a hte-'
rary kind, that occurs. Thus, blind men will talk of the

beauty

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beauty of colours, and of the harmony or difproportion of
figures in painting ; the deaf will prate of difcords in tnuCic ;
and thofe who have no pretenfions to literature, will pro-
nounce, with an unpardonable prefamption, on books of
fcience ; and thofe who have little or no acquaintance with
cither the fpeculative or praftical principles of rehgion, will
arraign the btH treatifc on divine f,ibjec;is, though they do not
underlland the very language of the Scripture, nor the com-
mon terms or phrafes ufed m Chrillianity. Judges of ano-
ther 'defcription fet themfelvts up to decide in favour of
an author, or againft him, according to the company they
have kept, and the judgment pronounced concerning a book
by others of their own (tamp or iize, though they have no
knowledge or tafte of the fubjeA themfelves. Thefe, with
a fluent and voluble tongue, become mere echoes of the
pi-aifes or ccnfnres of other men. Others, again, pafs judg-
ment from the ftcret ftimulations of vanity, pride, or envy ;
and in order to jallify an un warrantable and fevere cen-
fure, they will allege a miftake or two, which they have dif-
covercd, or a few fentiments and expreifions not fuited to
their capricious tallc and humour. It is, however, an indi-
cation of perverfenefs and prejudice, to rail at uny human
performance becaufe it is not abl'olutely perfeft. Horace
has glvtu us a better example :

<• Sunt dclifta tamen, qaibus ignoviffe vtlimus :

Nam iiique chorda fonum reddit, quern vult manus, ct

mens,
Pofcentlque giavem perfaspe remittit acutum ;
Nlc fciiiper ferict quodcunque minabitur aicus
Verum, ubi plura nitent in carmine, non ego pancis
OtTcndar maculis, quas aut incnria fudit,
Aut humana parum cavit natura." — De Art. Poet.
" De not too rigidly ceniorious :

A ilring nuiy j;ir in the bcft mailer's hand,
And the moil {liilful archer mifs his aim ;
So in a poem elegantly writ,
I will not quarrel with a fmall miftake,
Such as onr nature's frailty mayexcnfe." Roscommon.
Another, and very freqnent fault in palTmg judgment upon
books, is this, that perfons fpread the fame praifcs, or the
fame reproaches, over a whole treatife, which are jullly ap-
plicable only to fonie detached parts of it. After all, when
any pcrfon pretends to give his judgment of a book, we
fhould confider whether he be a capable judge, or whether
he may not lie under fome u ihappy bias or prejudice, for or
againft it, or whether he has made a fufhcient inquiry to
enable him for forming a juil opinion. Watts's Improvement
of the Mind apnd Works, vol. v. ch. 4 — 5.

See farther concerning books, in the writers on literary
hillory, libraries, iludies, learning, arts, and fciences ; more
cfpecialty in Salden, Bartholin, Hodannus, Sacchinus, Bail-
let, Buddtus, Saalbach, Puthcrbeus, Raynaud, Schufner,
Ijaauffer, Schwartzius, Crenius, Morhoff, and others, who
have written treatifes exprcfs concerning books. Chrift. L.i-
bcnus, i.e. Gnl. Saldenus, ^iQ'kK^iKta,, five de Libris fcri-
iendis et legendis, Ultrai. 1681. i2mo. et. Amftcl. 1688, 8vo.
Struv. Introd. ad Hill. Liter, c.5. § 21. p. 454. Th.
Bartholin!, de Libris legendis, 167b, 8vo. &: Francof. 171 1,
j2mo. Struv. loc. cit. jo. Fred. Hodanni DilTert. de
Librij legendis, Hanov. 1705, 8vo. Fr. Sacchini de
Ratione Libros cum profeftu Icgendi, Lipf. 171 1,
jimo. Baillet, Jiigcmens des S^avans fur les principaux
Ouvrages des Auteurs, torn. i. Car. Frid. Buddeus, de
Critertis boni Libri, Jen. 1714. Chr. Saalbach. Schediafma
de Libris veterum, Gryphis, 1705, 4to. Fabric. Bibl. Ant.
cap. 19. § 7. p. 607. Rcimm. Idea Syll. Antiq. Liter,
p. 229, feq. Gab. Putherbcus, de toUcudis ct expurgandis

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malis Libris, Par. 1549, 8vo. Theoph. Raynaud. Erote-
mata de bonis ac malis Libris, Lugd. 165;, 410. Moriiof.
Polyhill. Liter, lib. i. cap. 16. n. 28. p. 177. Schufner,
Dillert. Acad, de Multitudine Librorum, Jenx, 1702, 4to.
Lauffer, Dilfcrt. advcrf. nimiam Librorum Multitudinem.
Vide Jour, des Sgavans, torn. Ixxv. p. 572. Chr. Got.
Schwartzius, de Ornamentis Librorum apud Veteres, Lipi.
170^ and 1707. Tho. Crenius, dc Libris Scriptorum op-
timis et utiliffimis. Lugd. Bat. 1704, 8vo. ; an extraft of
which is given in Aft. Erud. Lipf. an. 1 704, p. 526, & feq.

The importation or fale of mafs-books, or other popifh
books, is by Hat. 3 Jac.I. c. 5. § 25. liable to a penilty of
forty (hillings.

The importation of books firft printed in this kingdom,
and reprinted abroad, is prohibited under a penalty of 5 1.
and double the value of every book fo impotted and fold.
Vide ftat. 12 Geo. 11. c. 36. § i.

There was a claufe in the ftatute of the Sth of queen
Anne, c. 19. empowering the chancellor and iome other
great officers of llate, to fet the price of books ; but this is
now repL-aled by 12 Geo. II. c. .36. § 2.

The fole right of printing books bequeathed to the two
univerlities of England, the four univerfities of Scotland,
and the colleges of Eton, Weftminfter, and Wincheller, are
fccured to them by Hat. 15 Geo. III. c. 53. See Lite-
rary Property.

Books, biiniliig of, was a kind of punifliment fanftioned,
both among tlie Greeks and Romans, by legal Icntence. At
Athens, the works of Protagoras were prohibited ; and all the
copies of them which could be collefted, were burnt by the
public cryer. Diogenes Laert. I. ix. 52. At Rome, the
writingsof Numa, which had been found in his grave, were, by
order of the fL-nate, condemned to the fire, becaule they were
contrary to the religion whicii he had introduced. Liv. 1. xl.
c. 29. Plin. xiii. 13. Plutarch, in vit. Numas. As the populace
of Rome were, in times of public calamity, more addidled
to fuperftition than ftemed proper to the government, an
order was iil'ueJ that all fuperflitious and aftrological books
(hould be delivered into the hands of the praetor. This
order was often repeated ; and the emperor Auguftus caufed
more than 2C,ooo of thefe books to be burned at one time.
Liv. 1. XXV. CI. 1. xxxix. 16. Tacit. Annal. vi. 12.
Sucton. l.ii. c. 31. Sometimes the care of the execution
of the fentence for burning books was committed to
triumviri appointed on purpofe ; iometimes to the praetors ;
and iometimes to the sediles. Labienus, whom from
his fatirical fpirit fome have called Rabienus, is faid to
have been the firll who underwent the feverity of it, under
the emperor Auguftus. His enemies procured ^ Jenatufcon-
fuhum, whereby all his books, publilhed during feveral
years, were ordered to be coUefted and burnt. The
thing, fays Seneca, (in the introduftion to the 5th, or, as
others reckon, the 10th book of his " Controverfise,")
then appeared new and ftrange to take revenge on learn,
ing ! " Res nova et infueta, fupphcia de lludiis fumi !"
Caffius Sevtrus, a friend of Labienus, hearing the fen-
tence pronounced, cried aloud, that they muft burn him
too, fince he had got all the books by heart ; " Nunc
me vivum uri oportet, qui illos edidici." Labienus
could not furvive his books ; but (hutting himfclf up in
the tomb of his anccftors, pined away, and was buried
alive. It is related as fomtwiiat lingular, that a few years
after, the writings of the perfon, who had been the caufe
of the order for burning Labienus's books, (hared the like
fate, and were alfo publicly burned, in a manner fome-
what fimilai', the works of Ben-Arias Montanus, who alTifted
to make the firll catalogue of prohibited books, in the Ne-
therlands;

J

i

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therlands, were afterwards inferted in a catalogue of the
fame kind. The exprefiion of Cafiius above cited gave oc-
cafion to a law of Auguftus againft abufive writings. Ta-
cit. Annal. 1. i. c. 72. When Crcmutius Cordas, in his
Hiftorj'j called C. Caflius the laft of the Romans, the fe-
nate, in order to flatter Tiberius, caufed the book to be
burned ; but a number of copies were concealed and pre-
ferved from the flames. Tacit. x'\nnal. 1. iv. c. 31;. Antio-
chus Epiphanes caufed the books of the Jews to be burned ;
and in the firfl centuries of our ara, the books of the
Chriftians wtre treated with equal fevcrity, of which Arno-
bius (Adv. Gentes, 1. iii. 5:iv.) bitterly complains. Eiife-
bius informs us (Hid. Eccl. 1. viii. c. 2.), that Dioclcfian
caufed the facred Scriptures to be burned. After the fpreaJ-
ing of the Chriftian religion, the clergy exercifed againft.
books that were either unfavourable or difagrteiible to them,
tlie fame feverity which they had cenfured in the heathens
as foolifh and prejudicial to their own caufe. Thus, were
the writings of Arius condemned to the flime'! at the coun-
cil of Nice ; and Conflantine threatened with the punifh-
ment of death thofe who (hould conceal thtrm. Socrates,
1. i. c. 6 The clergy affembled at the council of Epheiuf,
requelled the emperor Theodofius II. to caufe the works of
Neftorius to be burned, and their reqiie't was complied
with. Cod. 1. i. tit. J, 6. The writings of Eutyches
fliared the like fate at the council of Chalcedon ; and the
fame practice of burning books thought to be heretical with
regard to religion, or injurious to the ftate in a political
view, has been imitated in fubfequent ages, and in various
nations even of the Chrillian world.

Divers other ancient teftimonies concerning theburninCTof
books are given in Reimm. Idea Syft. Antiq. Liter, p. 3S9.

Books, Catalogue cf. See Catalogue.

Books, Csnfiirs of. See Censor.

Books, Privilege of. See Privilegf.

Books, ivhitening of. The following procefs for whiten,
ing prints, printed books, and paper, has been announced and
defcribed by M. Chaptal. Smiple inmerfion in oxygenated
muriatic acid, for a longer or fhorter fpace of time, accord-
ing to the llrength of the liquid, will fuffice to whiten an
engraving. But in whitening the paper of a bound book, it
is neceflary that all the leaves (hould be mciflened bv the acid,
and therefore the book muft be well opened, and the lea>'fs
feparated ; and the boards mull be made to reft on the edge
of the vefTel containing the whitening liquor. This liquor
in the procefs afTumes a yellow tint, and the paper becomes
proportionably white. At the end of two or three hours,
the book may be taken from the acid liquor and plunged
into pure water ; and the water fhould be renewed cvery^
hour to extra-ft the remaining acid, and to dillipatt the dif-
agreeable fmell. In order to render this procefs more
cffeAual, the book-binders deftroy the binding, unfew the
book, and feparate its leaves ; they then place thefe in cafes
formed in a leaden tub, with very thin flips of wood or glafs,
fo that the leaves may he flat and feparate from one another
at very fmall intervals. The acid is then gently poured into
the tub, without deranging the leaves. When the paper is
become fufHciently white, the acid liquor is drawn off by a
cock at the bottom of the tub ; and its place is fupplied by
clear, fre{h water. The leaves are then dried, and, after
being preffed, re-bound. The leaves may with greater ad-
vantage be placed vertically in the tub. With this view,
M. Chaptal conftruiEled a wooden frame, adjufttd to the
proper height, according to the fize of the leaves propofed
to be whitened. This frame fupported very thin flips of
wood, at the diftance from one another of half a line. In
each of thefe intervals he placed two leaves, and kept them

fixed in their place by two fmall wooden wedges, puflied in
between the flips. Wlien the paper was whitened, he hfted
up the frame with the leaves, and plunged them into cold
water, to take off the rem.aining acid, as well as the fmell.
By this operation books are not only cleaned, but the paper
acquires a degree of whitenefs fuperior to what it poiTelTid
when firil made. This acid will alfo ferve to dcflroy ink
fpots ; but it has no ai3:on upon fpots of oil, or animal
greafe ; however, a weak folution of pot-afh will efTcSually
remove ftains of that kind. To oxygenate the muriatic
acid, it is only neceffary to dilute it, and mix it in a very
flrong glafs velTcl with manganefe, in fuch a manner that the
mixture may not occupy the whole content of the glafs. Air-
b ibbles are formed upon the furface of the liquor ; the
empty fpace is filled with a greenifh vapour ; and, at the
end of fome hours, the acid may be fuitiicr dil;;ced with
water, and then ufcd. In order to remove Ipots of pi-eafe
from books and prints, M. Defchamps, member of the Phi-
lofophical Society at Lyons, recomm.ends to take out as
much as pofTible oTit by means r.f blotting paper; and then
to dip a fmall brufli in the effcrtial oil of well reftifitd fpirit
of turpentine, heated almoft co ebullition, ^nd draw it gently
over both fides of the paper, which mull be carefully kept
warm. This operation mufl be repeated as often as the
quantity of greafe imbibed by the paper, or the thicknefs of
the paper, may render neceffary. When the greafe is entirely
removed, the paper may be reilored to its former whitenefs,
by dipping another brufli in highly rcftified fpirit of wine,
ar.d drawing it, in like manner, over the place which wa&
ilaiiied, and particiilarlv round the edges, to remove the
border that would ftiil prefent a ifain. Bibhothtque Eco-
nomique, vol. i. See Bleaching.

Book, common-placi:. S>;e Common-Place.

Book, text. See Text.

Book, is alio nfed tor a part or divifion of a volume, or
large work.

In this fenfe we fay the book of Genefis, the firft b-ok of
Kings, the five books of Mofes, &c. — T^'e D'gell is con-
tained in fifty hookf, the Code in twelve book*.

Books are ufually fuhdivided into chapters, fometimes in-
to feCtions, or paragraphs : accurate writers quote chapter
and book.

Book is alfo ufcd fora lift or catalogue of perfon-' names.
-^Such among the ancients were the cenforial bonks, beintr
tables or regiilers co;,taining the names of all thofe who
werecenfcd or taxed under Auguftus. Tcrtullian affuicsuf,
that our Saviour's name was found in the cenforial book
of Auguftus. Adv. Marcion. lib. iv. cap. 7. See Cessus.

Books, in Matters of Commerce, denote the feveral regif-
ters wherein merchants and other dealers keep their ac-
counts. Hence to look, is to regiller in a book.

We fay, fuch a pcrfon's books are in good order ; mer-
chants cannot poflibly do without books ; they are even
obliged by the laws to keep books. But more or fewer are
required, according to the nature or extent of their deaUngs,
or the precifion and exaftnefs they defire therein.

The ancients had alfo their books of accounts { witnefs
the codex accefti i^ expenji, fo often mentioned in Reman
writers ; and the patrimorAal books, which were rentals*
containing an account of the lands, goods, and chattels, ai.d
other effects belonging to each perfon.

Among the defefts to which the trial by jury is fubjefl,
one is the want of a compulfive power for the produftion of
books and papers belonging to the parties. In the hands of
third perfons, they can generally be obtained by rule of
court, or by adding a claufe of requifition to the writ of
" fubpoena," which is then called a " fubpoena duces tecum."

But,

444045

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But, in mercantile tranfaiSioiis efpecially, t^e fight cf the par-
ty's own books is frequently decifivc ; as the day-book of a
trader, when the tranfadion was recently entered, as really
undtriiood at the time; though fubfequent events may tempt
him to give it a different colour. And, as this evidence may
finally be obtained, and produced on a trial at law, by the
circuitous courfe of filing a bill in equity, the want of an
original power for the fame purpdfes in the courts of law is
a material defeiEl.

Book-binding, the art of fewing together the fheets of a
book, and fecuring them with a back, and ftiong pafte-
board fides, covered with leather, &c.

Binding is ditlinguiflied from Hitching, as in the latter the
leaves are only fewcd, without bands or backs.

We fay, French binding, \z\v-binding, jrzrUe-iinJing,
binding in parchment, in {lieep, in calves leather, &c. alfo
hiU-hinding, wherein the leaves are generally left uncut,
and only the back covered with leather, the pafteboard fides
being covered with marbled, or blue paper. Dutch-binding
is where the backs are of vellum. The Italians are ftill
contented to bind in a coarfe, thick paper, called binding
alia rufiica, the inconvenience of which is its being liable
to wear out without careful ufe. Without doubt, the
art of binding is almoft as ancient as the fcience of compofing
books ; and both the one and the other followed immedi-
ately the firft invention of letters. Whatever the matter
Blight be, on which men firft; wrote, there was a neceflity of
uniting the feveral parts together ; as well for the making
them of one piece, as for the better preferring them ; hence
the origin of book-binding.

According to Olympiodorus (apud Phot.) it was one
Phillatius, a learned man at Athens, who firft taught the
ufe of a kind of glue, to faften the feveral leaves together ;
on which account a ftatue was ereded to him.

Books, th manner of binding in volumes, i.e. of gluing
the leaves together ; that of rolling them on round pieces,
or cyhnders of wood, appears the molt ancient ; though
that of binding them fquare, and of fewing feveral quires one
over another, lays claim to confiderable antiquity. The firft
of the two, which we call Egyptian binding, held a long time
after the age of Auguftus ; but it is now difufed, excepting
in the Jjwifli fynagogues, where they continue to write the
books of the law on vtUum fewed together ; making, as it
were, only one long page, with two rollers and their clafps
of gold and filver, at each extremity.

The form now in ufe is the fqiiare-h\nCi\n^, which is faid
to have been invented by one of the Attali, kings of Perga-
mus ; to whom we likewife owe the manner of preparing
parchment, called in Latin, from the name of his capital,
Fergamena, or Charta Pcrgamea.

Books, manner of binding. The firft operation is to fold
the flieets according to the form, viz. into two leaves for
folios, four for quartos, eight for oftavos, &c. which the
workmen do with a flip of ivory or box, called a folding-
Rick ; in this they are direfted by the catch-words and figna-
tures, which are the letters with the numbers annexed to
them, at the bottom of the pages. The leaves thus folded,
and laid over each other in the order of the fignatures, are
beaten on a ftone with a heavy hammer to make them folid
and fmooth, and then prefled. Being thus prepared, they
are fewed in a fewing-prefs, upon pack-threads or cords,
•which are called bands, at a proper dillance from each other,
and in a convenient number; which is done by drawing a
thread through the middle of each fheet, and giving it a turn
round each band, beginning with the firft, and proceeding to
the laft. The common number of bands is fix in fulios,
and five in quartos, odlavos, &c. Sometimes they life a

BOO

faw to make places for the bands, which are funk into tlie
paper, fo that the back of the book, when bound, is fmooth,
without any appearance of bands. After this the backs are
glued, the ends of the bands being opened, and fcraped with
a knife, for the more convenient fixing of the pafte-boards ;
then the back is turned with a hammer, the book being
fixed in a prcfs between boards, called bacling-boards, in
order to make a groove for admitting the pafte-boards.
The boards being then applied, holes arc made for drawing
the bands through, the fuperfluous ends being cut off, and
the parts hammered fmooth. Then the book is prefTed in
order for cutting ; which is performed by a particular ma-
chine called 2i plough, to which is fixed a knife. After this
the book is put into a prefs called the cutting-prefs, betwixt
two boards, the one lying even with the prefs, for the knife
to run upon ; the other above it,' for the knife to cut
againft.

The book being cut, the pafte-boards are fquared with a
proper pair of iron (hears ; and it is then ready for fprink-
ling, gilding, blacking, or marbling the leaves. The co-
lours with which is is fprinkled, are ufually vermilion, or
fap-green ; which is done with a brufti made with hog's
briftles, holding the brufh in one hand, and moving the
hair with the other.

In the French-hxnAm'g a book is put in parchment, i. e.
a flip of parchment is apphed over the back betvi-een each
band, and the ends parted on the infide of each pafte-
board. This preparation, called indoijing, feems peculiar to
the French binders ; who are enjoined by ordonnance to
back their books with parchment on the penalty of 30
livres, and the re-binding of the book ; it is done in the
prefs, where the back being grated to make the pafte take
hold, the parchment is applied ; and they afterwards add
glue to fortify it.

In 1799 a patent was granted to Mr. John Williams and
Mr. Jofcph Williams, ftationers, London, for an improved
method of binding all forts of books. By the fpecification
it appears, that this invention confifts of a back, of a femi-
circular, femi-oval, or any other curved form, turned a little
at the edges, made of iron, fteel, copper, brafs, tin, or any
other metal, ivory, bone, wood, vellum, paper, leather,
or any material capable of retaining a firm fituation. This
back, being put on the book before bound, fo as juft to
cover but not to prefs the edges of the paper, will, when
the book is opened, prevent its fpreading on either fide, and
caufe it to rife in any part which is opened to nearly a level
furface. This firm back, turned at the edges, fo as to caufe
all forts of books to open freely, is the objeft of this patent.
The method of binding, prattifed by the inventors, is as
follows : they forward the paper in the ufual manner ; few
on vellum flips, glue, cut, clothe, and board, or half-board ;
and put on the firm back by failening it at the fides, through
holes, by vellum, or fecuring it by inclofing it in vellum or
ferret wrappers, or other matters, pafted down upon, or
drawn through the boards. Mr. Ebenezer Palmer, ilationer
of London, obtained a patent in 1800 for an improvement
in the mode of bindng books, particularly account books
of merchants. This confifts in the addition of a certain me-
tallic chain, which is made or applied in the following manner:
firft, provide feveral fmall bars of metal, about the thickncfs
of a (hilling, or more, according to the fize and thicknefs
of the book ; the length of each bar being from half an
inch to feveral inches long, in proportion to the ftrength re-
quired in the back of the book. At each end of every bar
is made a pivot of different lengths, in proportion to the
thicknefs of two links, which they are to receive. Each
link is made in an onral form, and contains two holes, pro-
portioned

BOO

BOO

portioned to the fizes of the pivots ; and thefe links are of
the fame metal as the hinge ; each of them being nearly equal
in length to the width of two bars. The hnlis are then
rivetted on the pivots, each pivot receiving two of them, and
thus holding the hinge together, on the principle of a link-
chain or hinge. There are further two holes or more of dif-
ferent fizes, as required in each bar of tlie hinge or chain,
by means of whicli each feSion of thebookisftrongly fallen -
ed to the fame ; which hinge, fo faftened, operates with the
back of the book, when bound, in fuch manner as to occa-
fion the feveral feftions to open fo as to bring them on a
parallel with each other, and confequently admit the mled
lines being written into, without any inconvenience, clofe to
the back.

Manner of gilding looh on the edges. The book, being
put tight into the prefs, between t%vo boards, is fcraped with
a knife called z.fcraper ; and after that with another called a
fmoother, in order to take out all fci-atches. Being thus made
fmooth, they fcrape a little yellow ochre upon the book,
wet it with a little fize-water, and rub it off with fome clean
fhavings. The gilding fize is made with the white of an
egg, mixed with water, and beat well together. The leaves
being wetted with the fize-water, with a brudi, the gold is
then laid upon it, and afterwards dried before the fire.
When dried, it is bumiflied off with a dog's tooth fet in a
handle. See Gilding on pnper, &c. Blacking the
leaves is done with fine antimony, the leaves being wet, and
the antimony rubbed upon them until quite dry, when it is
bumifhed hke the gold.

The head-band is now added, which is an ornament of
thread or filk, of two or three colours, placed at each ex-
treme of the book, acrofs the leaves, and woven or twitted,
fometimes about a fingle, and fometimes a double piece of
rolled paper, or, what is more lafting, of glued paper-thread.

For the covers ; the ikins ufed undergo feveral prepara-
tions, which we fhall explain in calf, as being the leather
moft ufed ; and as being that to which all the reft with a
little variation may be referred. The calf-ll<in, being moif-
tened in water, is cut to the f ze of the book, and the thick-
nefs of the edges pared off on a marble ftone kept for that
purpofe. The cover is next fmeared over with parte, made
of wheat-flour; then ftretched over the pafte-board on the
out-fide, and doubled over the edges withinfide. They then
cord the booh, or bind it firmly between two boards, to make
the cover Hick the ilronger to the paile-boards and the back;
on the exaft performance of which depends a great part of
the truth and neatnefs of the book. The back is then
warmed at the fire to foften the glue, and the leather of the
back is rubbed down, with a folding-ftick or bodkin, to fet
and fix it clofe to the back of the book. It is now fet to
Arj, and when dry, uncorded : the book is then wafhed
over with a httle pafte and water, the edges and fquares
blacked with ink, and then fprinkled fine with a bruffi, by
ftriking it againft the hand, or a ftick ; or with larger fpots

mixed with vitriol, which is called marbHiig, Two blank
leaves, on each iide, arc then to be pafted down to the cover,
and, when dry, the leaves are burmjhed in the prefs, and the
cover rolled on the edges.

The cover is now glazed twice with the white of an egg ;
it is then filleted plain, or with gold ; and at laft polifhed
with a polilhing iron, puffed liot over the glazed colour.
If the book be required to be lettered, they pafte a piece of
red Morocco on the back, between the firft and fecond band
to receive the title in gold letters ; and fometimes a fecond
between the next bands underneath, to receive the number
of the volume.

The plain binding, properly fo called, is now complete ;
the gilding on the back and cover, as it makes a part of the
booh-binder's bufinefs among us (though, with the French,
&c. it is a diftinft profeffion), we ihall here fubjoin.

Manner of gilding booh on the back and covers. In ordi-
nary binding, they gild little elfe but the backs, and the
outward edges of the cover. On the backs are gilt the title
of the book, &c. with flowers, rofes, knots, ftars, &c. be-
tween the bands : on the covers are fometimes added com-
partments, arms, &c. All thefe ornaments are made with
each its feveral gilding tool, engraved in relievo ; either on
the points of puncheons, as thofe of letters, rofes, ftars, &c.
or around httle cylinders of brafs, as the lines, embroideries,
&c. The puncheons make their impreffion, by being preffed
flat down ; and the cylinders by being rolled along by a
handle, to which they are fitted on an iron ftay, or axis.

To apply the gold, they glaze thofe parts of the leather,
whereon the tools are to be applied, three or four times with
a liquor made of the whites of eggs diluted with water by
means of a fponge ; and, when nearly dry, they flightly oil
them, and then lay on pieces of leaf-gold, and on thefe ap-
ply the tools, with a careful even preffure of the hand, or roll
the cyhnders, both the one and the other, reafonably hot.
If the figures be large, and require a great relievo, as arms,
&c. they are beat or preffed down. The gilding thus finifhed,
they rub off the fuperfluous gold, and polifh the whole ; the
glofs of which is greatly affifted by a final preffing between
horns peculiar for the purpofe.

Our book-binders, for gilding on rough leather, makeufe
of renn dried and powdered, inftead of whites of eggs ; and
the gold leaf, firft cut to a proper fize, is laid on a hot fome-
what oiled ftamp, and preffed down : and thus the refin melts
only in thofe parts where the hot ftamp is applied, and the
gold fixes on it, whilft the other parts of the leather remain
rough as at firft. Dr. Lewis's Com. Phil. Tech. p. 615.
See Gilding.

Ahaf. Fritfch, chancellor of the univerCty of Jena, has a
differtation exprefs concerning book-binders, De Bipliopegis;
wherein he treats of the laws prefcribed by thefe artificers,
and the tax or price fettled by the raagiftrale for biuding
books, of evr. y fort in (heep-fkin, vellum, &c.

END OF VOL. IV.

Vol. IV.

5H

Strihan and Prefton,
New-Stieet Sijuare.

LIST OF PLATES, Vol. IV. Part II.

jINJTOMT of birds, Plate Tv

, Plate 11.

ARCHITECTURE, Plate L

, Plate

CHEMISTRY, Plate V III.
CONCHOLOGr, Plate IV.
MIDWIFERY, Plate XIV.
MILITARY MANOEUVRES, Plate III,

, Plate IV.

MUSIC, Plate II.

, Plate V.

ORNITHOLOGY, Plate IV.

, Plate VI.

PNEUMATICS, Plate I.
SCULPTURE, Plate I.
— , Plate II.

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