THE CYCLOPiEDIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Slrts, ^cimcfs, anlj ILiteraturc. BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. V. LONDON: Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternosteh-Row, F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAIIAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. fifnrf-'wstVi. CYCLOP ^DI A: OR, A NEW UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF A R '\ S and SCIENCES. BOOK-KEEPING. BOOK-KEEPING, is the art of recording mercantile trail faftions in a regular and fyllematic manner. A •merchant's books (hould exhibit the true ftate of his affairs. They (hould fhew the particular fuccefs of each tranfaflion, as well as the general refult of the whole ; and (hould be fo arranged as to afford correft and ready information upon every fubjefl for which they may be con- fulted. Books may be kept either by fingle or double entry. Single Entry is chiefly ,ufed in retail bufincfs ; it is the moll concife and fimple method of book-keeping; but not the moft perfect, being defedlive in fome effetitial par- ticulars. Douhk Entry is generally ufed in wholefale and mercantile affairs ; whence it is fometlmes called Merchants^ Accounts. This method is univerfaily preferred in extenfive commerce, being the moft comprehenfive and fyllematic in its principles, and the moft certain in its conclufions. Book-keeping, as a fclence, is, therefore, underftood to mean the method by double entry ; and in this fenfe we {liall ufe the term, unlcfs when there is occafion to diftingullh double from fingle entry. Book-keeping, Hjjlorv of. The origin of book-keep- ing, like that of moll other v.feful arts, is involved in great oblcurity. It is generally fuppofed to have been firft prac- tifed at Venice, in the fifteenth century, when that city was the grand emporium of Europe. Some authors, however, think that double entry was known to the ancients, and re- vived only in Italy, with the revival of commerce ; and certain quotations are adduced in fupport of this opinion. Thus Pliny, in fpeaking of fortune, lays, " Fluic omnia expenfa ; huic omnia feruntur accepta ; et in tota rat,ione mortahum fola utramque paginam facit," lib. ii. cap. f-. Similar paffagcs may be likewife quoted fronS/ others»-'i which (hew, that the ancients entered the receipts and pay- VOL.V. ments of money on oppofite pages, in the way of debtor and creditor ; but nothing beyond fingle entry can be in- ferred from this praftice ; nor is it probable that any tiling more was wanted in the rude and fimple ftate of ancient commerce. Infurances, bills of exchange, and other modern improvements required, and, in all probability, produced cor- refponding improvements in the mode of keeping accounts ; but the circumllance which places the qucftion in the cleareft light is, that the terms of this art cannot be traced to any ancient language, but feem immediately derived from the Italian, as adopted in the other languages of Europe. When SntUius tranfiated Stevin's book-keeping into Latin, he was obliged to invent or adopt new terms. Thus he calls book-keeping, apolo^'ijVica ; the ledger, codex acccpti expeii- Jique ; the waftc-book, Uher dektltius ; theftock account.yin-; and the balance-account, epilogijmus. From the principles of book-keeping, conjedlures may be formed of its origin. The double purpofe of a bill of ex- change, and the manner of recording the fame, might have naturally fuggefted the idea of double entry. The prin- ciple might have been even deduced from the axioms of Euclid, or the properties of an algebraic equation ; and it is remarkable that tne firft European author on alge- bra, I^ucas de Burgo, wrote the firft tieatifc on book-' keeping, which is thus defcribtd by de la Porte. " Vers Pan. 1495, Frere Luc Italien de nation, en fit imprimer un traitc en Italien (c'eft le plus ancien auteur que j'aie vu fur cette matiere), il fut fuivi par plulieurs autcurs du nieme Pays, & par dcs Frangois, qui au commencenunt du liecle fuivant noii? en ont donne des iVIethodcs impriinecs. Mais I'ordre embarraffant, & le ftyle long & tmhrouillc de ces ouvrages compares a la nettete & a la brievete qui font en ufage aujourd'hui, font voir combien I'experience a poli & ,abrcgc cette Science." La Science des Negocians et Te- neurs deLivres, par M.DelaPorte, p. 12. Paris, 1753. B La Porte's 4441 >4G BOOK-KEEPING. L» Porte'i rfmarli* on the want of metlmd and arrange- mcr.t in tlic old lyllcms of boot-kccpiiip;, will, in fome mtitxxrc, apply to liii owii, thoujjh it Rill coiiliniics a ta\oiinte work in France. We (hall, however, take no further notice here of foreign publications, but confine onr oblrrvationt to tliofe of our own cou:;try, where every fubjcct conneifted wiih cuinmcrce feenu to have been cultivated with the ijriatcft afliduily and fncccfi. The firtl trcatde on book-keeping, in the Englifli lan- guage, of which there is any account, was pnblilhid in the year 15^5 by Hugh Oldcallle, a fchoolmatler ; and it was re- printed, in I jSS, by John Mtllis, under the following cuiious title : " A biiefe inllruttion and manner how to keepe bookes of accompts, after the order of debitor and creditor, and as well for proper accompts, partible, &c. by tlirec bookes, iiamcd the memorial!, jonmall, and Icagcr. Newly aug- mented and fet forth by John Mellis, fchole-niailter ot Lon- don. Imprinted by him at iheSigne of the White I'eare, nigh IJaynard's Caitle, I5»*3, 1 ;nio." In his KpilUcto the Reader, Mdlis fays, " And knowe ye for certainc, that I prtfunie ne xfiirpe not to fet forth this worke of mine own labour and indullrie, for truely I am but the rcneucr and reiiiucr of an auncient old copie printed here in London the I4tli of Augull I j+J." See Ames'» Typographical Antiquities, vol.'ii. p. 733. In I i6y, a fyftcm of book-keeping was publifliedin Lon- don by James Pcele, who fays, in his preface, " that he had inllructed many mercantile people in this art, which had been long praflifcd in other countries, though then new in England." There is no trace of any other workof the kind until the year 1652, when John Collins, an eminent mathematician and accountant, publilhed a large work, entitled, " An In- troduftion to Merchants' Accounts," which fcrved long as a llandard book on the fubje6t. About the btginning of the following century-, feveral fmaller fyftenis were written, chiefly by SiicU, Hatton, Mal- colm, Webfter, Micrj, and Stevens ; but the nioH popular work that had yet appeared, was Mair's " Book-keep- ing methodized," pubhfhed in 17,^8, which, after pair- ing through three editions, was re-printed, with altera- tions, in 1768, under the new title of " Boojc-keeping nioderni/.ed ;" and thcfc alterations, he fays, became nccei- fary, " in confequencc of the conllant change and perpetual flux in the forms and fafhions of accodntiliip." But it may be obferved, that if this edition was modelled after the real praftice of that time, the forms and arrangements of mer- cjants' accounts miift have fi: ce undergone great changes, and manifelt improvements. In Mail's book-keeping, how- ever, the principles of double entry are correctly explained ; but the ndcs and examples are too numerous and verbofe for fchool practice. From the firll appearance of this work, to the year i 789, numerous other fyllems were publilhed, better adapted to the purpofes of teaching the art, though differing but little in arrangement. The moll generally approved were tliofe of Dodlon, Wellon, Donn, Hutton, Hamilton, Gordon, Dow- ling, and Jackfon. Tracts were alfo written, within the above period, by Crofliy, London, Shortland, Wood, Cooke, iJedgcr, and Dilworth. On a review of the foregoing publications, it docs not appear that the theory of book-keeping had hitherto kept pace with the improvements of pradice. While merchants were cnnflantly adopting plans of arrangement, which pro- moted perfpiciiity and corrcftnefs, and diminidied the la- bourof thecoiinting-houfe ; fchoolmaliers, the chief authors un book-keeping, ftemed only to confult or imitate each z other's works, which had boen long confukred by men of bulincl's as obfoletc or impracfticable. A work of a very different defcription was publiflKd in 1789, by Benjamin Booth, a merchant, who thus obftfivei ill his preface : " It is furprifing that in a commercial country like this, there fiiould not be a tieatife on the fubjedt (book-keeping), which, when applied to a large fcale of bulinefl, can be reduced to praftice. Tliofe 1 have feen, appear to have been written by perfons who had not abilities fiilVicient for the undertaking, or by fuch as never had an opportunity of bringing their theories to the left of expe- rience." This elaborate work, which is evidently the refnlt of experience, contains various examples of judicious arrange- ment ; but it is not elementary, having only a journal a:id ledger. Some fmaller publications followed, which dcferve com- mendation, particularly thofc of Mr. Wicks and Mr. Shires. The latter work is Hated to be the icfult of thirty years' experience. It exhibits much neatnefs and iiip;ennity in the arrangement ; but, like Booth's Book-keeping, it contains only a journal and ledger. hi tracing the progrefs of Italian book-keeping, fome- tliing fliould be faid of a rival mrthod, entitled the " Eiig- lidi Book-keeping," publilhed by Mr. Jones in 1796, a work chiefly remarkable for the enormous fubfcription raifed on the occafion. A profpeftns of this performance was pre- viondy circulated, announcing the difcovery of an infallible method of book-keeping by fiiigle entry, and at the fame time reprefeiiting the Italian method as delufive and erroneous. By high promifes and accredited recommendations, fubfcrip- tions (at a guinea each) are faid to have be;n obtained, to the amount of fix or fovcn thoufand pounds. The work, however, did not anfwer the expeftations of the public. Se- veral ingenious tiafts foon appeared, defending double entry, and expoling the iiifuOieicncy of this new fyftem ; and one of peculiar merit, written by Mr. Mill, clofed the contro- vcrly. This gentleman, in order to form a comparative cftimate between the Englifli and Italian methods, arranged Mr. Jones's materials into a journal and ledger, by double entry ; and, in the courfe of the operation, detefted an ef-. fential error ; — a deteftion which completed the triumph of donble entry. The Englifli fyllem of book-keeping, though univerfally rejefted, has proved ufeful to the public as well as to the author. It gave rii'e to much invelligation on the fubjeft ; and the extraordinary eai;eraefs manifclled in the fubfcrip- tion, fliewed that men of bufmefs wiihed for a more practical fyllem of merchants' accounts than had been hitherto offered to their notice. In 1801, Mr. Kelly publiflicd a work, entitled " The Elements of Book-kieping," which appears to have met with very general approbation, and from which the prefent article is, by pernnliion, extraettd. The fiibfequcnt edi- tions of this publication have been coniiderably enlarged by trafts on exchange, banking, and other commercial fubjeits ; but its principal object (as ftated in the preface) ie to explain and illnllrate the modern improvements of mer- chants' accounts. Of what thefe improvements confift, may be known from the following account of the work, TJven in Nicholfon's Philolopliical journal, Feb. 1802. " 'J'hc improvements, which time and experience have effefted in book-keeping, do not comprehend any change in the original principle of donble entry, but in the arrangement and cbffilication of fimilar accounts, which facilitate the operations of commerce ntariy in the fame manntr that the bufinefs of maiuifaftures is expedited bv the diviiion of la- bour. The elementary treatife before us ('Kelly's Book-keep- . BOOK-KEEPING. I'ng:) exliibite thtfe improTementa. Here tlie wade book is di- vided into a luimhei- of fubfidiary books, each of which is the regifter of its peculiar portion or department of buliiiefs ; and each book ii divided into m'>nthly tranfaftions. By thefe nienns the journal is greatly (hortened and fimplificd ; but the principal advantage of fiich arrangement conlifts in polling the books ; for here a whole month's calh, bills, commiffion, infurance, and interetl, are each carried in one fum, or entry, from the journal to the ledger. This me- thod, by which repetitions are avoided, and labour confi- dcrably diminiflied, is now generally adopted in our princi- pal mercantile hjults." PuiNciPLEs or Book-keeping tsoth by Single . AND DouliLE EnTKY. Single Entry chiefly records tranfaftions on credit, and for this piirpofe two books are required, called the Day Book and the Ledger. The day hcok begins with an account of the owner's property, debts, &c. ; then follows a detail of the occur- rences of tr 'de, fet down in the Older of time in which they ake place. The naine of the perfon, or cuHomer, is firft written with the term Dr. or Cr. annexed, according as he becomes debtor or cr.;ditor by the tranfaiilion ; and this may be di- ftingnilhed by the following general rule : " The ptrfon who receives is Dr. and the perfon who gives or parts with any thirg is Cr." Thus, if I fell goods on credit, I enter A. B. the buyer, Dr. to the goods, fpecifying their quantity and value. If I buy goods on credit, I enter C. D. the feller, Cr. by the goods, fpecifying their quantity and value. By the fame rule, if I pay money, the perfon to whom I pay it is made Dr. to cafh for the amount ; and if I receive money, the perfon from whom 1 receive it, is made Cr. by calh, for the amount. And if debts be contradled or difcharged by any other means, the fame rule is obferved ; the perfon, who becomes indebted to me, is entered Dr. and the perfon to whom I become indebted, Cr Alfo, the perfon whofe debt I dif- charge is made Dr. ; and he that difcharges a debt due by me, is Cr. The ledger collefls together the difperfcd accounts of each perfon in the day book, and places the Drs. ar.d Crs. upon oppofite pages ot the fame folio. The perfon's name is written in large charafters as a title : on the left hand, or firft page, he is ftyled Dr. j and on the oppofite, or right hand page, Cr. On thefe pages the traufatlions are en- tered as they (land Brs. or Cr.:. in rtie day-book. For in. Ilance, A. B. is debited for whatever he has bought of mc; and on the oppofite page, he is credited for the paymeiits'he has made. In Ihort, whatever I have given hlni, is on the Dr. fide, and what he has given- me on the Cr. ; and the dilTererice between the Dr. and Cr. fides is called the " ba- lance." yijiiort Specimen of Single Entry. Januaiy i, 1805. Suppofe John Smith owes me lool. which is my folc pro- perty, or the net of my ellate ; and fnppofe that on the 2d of January, I buy of him 8o yards of clotii, at 15s. per yard ; on the 3d, I fell James Taylor, on credit, 60 yards of the faid cloth at iSs. 4d. per yard; and on the 4th, James Taylor pays me in part 40I. Required the day book and ledger of the foregoing tranlaftions, accwding to finglc en- try, and alfo the profit or lofs. Day Booi. or Jan. I, 1805.— Jiiim Smith, Dr. To Balance from Ledger ^ John Smith, Cr. By Cloth for 80 yards, at 15s. per yd ■3 James Taylor, Dr. To Cloth for 60 yds, at iSs. 4d. peryd, 4 J&mes Taylor, Cr. By Calh received in part £■ 100 60 55 40 To pojl the foregoing Accounts Into the Ledger. The ledger being ruled in folio form, according to the following fpecimen, with the left fide for Dr. and the right fide for Cr. alfo a margin for the date, and near the money columns, one for reference to the day book, proceed as follows : Open an account for John Smith, and debit him, on the left hand page, for tool. ; and for the 2d day's tranfaftion, credit him for 60I. on the oppofite page. For the 3d day, open an account for James Taylor, de- biting him for ijjl. ; and for the 4th day, credit him for 40I. When every tranfaftion is thus polled, each account is balancefi, by fubtrafting the lefs fum or fide from the greater, and then putting the difference or balance under the fraaller fide, by which both fums are made equal. LEDGER BY SINGLE ENTRY. Jan. 1. John Smith Dr. To Account from Ledger A Jan. 3. James Taylor Dr. To Cloth for 60 yards, at 18s. 4d.') j per yard - - - J | £■ ICO s.d. o o o o Contra. Cr. Jan. 2. By Ck)th for 80 yards, at 153. peryd. By Balance .... I S" •^ J" — /;• J-. d. 60 0, ° 40 qI 0 IOC Oi 0 Jan. 4. Contra. Cr By Calli received in part - • By Balance ...... 55 0| O; O! By the above ledger it appears that the balances are in my favour ; and if thefe be added to the cafh I have in hand, and the value of the goods unfold, the fiuu ii tke net of my edate ; which, compared with my original flock, fhews my proiit or lofs. Thus it appears that B ^ Joha BOOK-KEEPING. Jahn Smith owes me - - j^'. 40 Jam« Tavlor ov»ts me - - - 15 I li»»e ill Ca(h . ... - 40 I have uafolJioyardiof cluth,') at I ^*. per \ ard (the prime > 1 5 cottj 3 1 10 The net of my edate. too Stock beginning. £• 10 gain. Hence I have cleared lol. by the falc of 60 yards of cloth Bt a profit of js. 4d. per yai-d. Remnrtt onjingl; Entry. By fingle Entry I cannot tell wliat goods are unfold, or my profits or lolTes by my bonks on!)-, except when the tranfaclions are but few, as in the foregoing examples. For as the ledger here contains only tlie accounts of perfons deal'ng on credit, it affords no other knowledge to the owner, than what debts are due to him, and what he owes. But if he wifli to know what goods are undifpofed of, and what he has gained or loft by the whole or anv part of his dealings, he cannot obtain this knowledge by fingle entry, without " taking llock j" that is, he muft weigh or meafure what goods he has unfold ; and their value, added to the cafh in hand, and the balance of debts, will fhew the net of his cllate, and this, compared with his original ftock, will fticw his profit or lofs. Hence book-keeping by fingle entry is effentially defedive, as it affords no method of afceitaining the Hate of a mer- chant's affairs, without taking ftock ; a talk which is both laborious and liable to error, and which at bell affords no adequate means of preventing embezzlement or^letefting fraud ; but thefe objefts are attained by double entiy, per- haps as effectually as human ingenuity can dtvife. Double Entry. In double entr)', three principal books are required ; the •wiijlc hook, joumnl, and ledger. The 'o.mjle book gives a regular detail of the tranfaftions of bufinefi, fct down in the order of time in which they take place, and ftated in a clear, fimple, and circunillantial manner. The journal records the fame tranfaclions as the wafte book,^ bnt they are differently expreffed ; for herejhe Drs. and Crt. of the various accounts are afcertained, in order to transfer them with more cafe to the ledger. The manner of afcertaining the Dr. and Cr. of each tranfDaion here is the fame, in effed, as in fingle entry ; but m double entr)-, things, as well as perfons, are made Drj. and Crt. ; and one thing or perfon ii made Dr. to an- 'other thing or peil'on. Thus, if I fell cloth to A. B. on credit, I enter it in the journal, A. B. Dr. to Cloth. If I hnv doth of C. D. on credit, I journalize it, Cloth Dr. to C. D. ; and if I biiv or tell for ready money, or barter one kind of goods for ano- ther, the following general rule mull be obferved : " What I receive is Dr. to what I give or part v-ith." For inllance, if I buy cloth for ready money, the journal entry is "Cloth Dr. to Calh ;" and if I {A\ it for ready money, " Cafti Dr. to Cloth ;" always fpecifying the quan- tity, price, and a:nount. When two or more perfons or things are included in the fame accnunt, they are expreffed by the term " Sundries," or " Sundry Accounts :' thus, if I feU cloth for part mo- ney, and the reil ci, :..dit. 1 journalize it, •' Sundries Drs. to Cloth ; and then tpecify the particulars. The following rules for d.ftinguifhing Dr. and Cr. wiU apply m all cafes : The perfon to whort, or for whofc account I pay, or farnilh the means of payment, is debtor. The perfon from whom, or for whofe account, I receive, or who iurnilhes me with the means of payment, is creditor. Every thing which comes into my pofleffion, or under my dire£liou, is debtor. Every thing which pafTes out of my poircfTian, or from under my direction, is creditor. The word I doc is fometimes uftd to aflifl the memory as being compofed of the initials of the rule — In Debtor., Out Creditor. The following lines may' likewife affift the memory ia journalizing : ■ By journal laws, what I receive. Is debtor made to what I give ; * ^ Stock for my debts mufl debtor be. And creditor by property ; Profit and lofs accounts are plaiH, I debit lofs, and credit gain. The ledger colletls the fcattered items, articles, or tran- fadions, from the journal, and places them under their ref- peftive heads, oppofing the Drs. and Crs. of each, on the fame principle as in fingle entry ; but here accounts are opened for goods as well as for perfons, and every account is entered twice, whence this method is called "double entry." The accounts of the ledger are diftiiiguillied into three kinds, perfonal, \iA, and fittitiov.s. Perfonal accounts are the fame in double as in fingle entry; and every perfon is debited or credited as he ftands Dr. or . Cr. in the journal. Hence ever)- perfonal account, fuppofe that of A.B., con- tains on the Dr. fide all items or articles, by which he be- comes indebted to me, and on the Cr. fide all items or arti- . cles, by which I become indebted to him; Real accounts are thofe opened for merchandize, or any other fptcies of property, fuch as cafii, bill?, fiiips, houfes, &c. Here, as in all other accounts, each tranfattion is entered on the Dr. or Cr. fide, as it ilands in the journal. Thus, goods bought are entered on the Dr. fide ; and when thefe or any part of them are fold, they are entered on the Cr. fide ; by which the quantity on hand, and the profit or lofs on each article may be, at any time, alcertained. Ficlitious accounts art thofe of llock, and profit and lofs. Stock is a term ufcd to reprefent the r.ame of the mer- chant or owner of the books. On the Dr. fide is entered the amount of the debts which he owed when the books were opened ; and on the Cr. the amount of the caib, goods, debts, andany other property then belonging to him." The difference between the Dr. and Cr. fides Ihews his net ftock, at that time. Profit and lofs is a general term ufed for either gai lofs, fuch as may arife from trade, intercft, com:niffion. On the Dr. fide are entered all tranladions of loffes ; and on t.ie Cr. fide thofe of gain— the difference fiiews the net gam or lofs. ^ Piort Example of Double Entry. in or &c. I'/J.STE BOOK. ;^LoNDON, Jan. I, I^OJ as per old Ac- John Smith owes nie, count in Ledger yf, ^^ Jan. 2 Bought of Joiin Smith, 80 yards Cloth, at 15s. per yard, on account Sold James Taylor 6n credit, 60 yard; of Cloth, at i8s. 4d. per yard - . 4- Recei-.'ed of James Taylor, in part - • £■ :oo 60 55 40 JOUR. BOOK-KEEPING. ./ ■QURNAI.. i-Oiio ul Ledger. L.OSDON, yr.muft have a Cr. and every Cr. a Dr. By the fame rule the other accounts are entered twice in the ledger ; firil, in the diredl way, as they ftand in the jour- nal, and then revtrfed. Thus, the fccond day's account is polled. Cloth Dr. to John Smith, and then John Smith Cr. by Cloth, In the fame manner the third 'and fourth day's accounts are pofted ; James Taylor is debited to Cloth, and Clotli credited by James Taylor ; Cafli is next made Dr. to James Taylor, and James Taylor Cr. by Cafti. Here it may be oblerved that, when an account is once opened in the ledger, every following lranfa£tion which concerns it, muft be brought back, and entered there on the proper fide, as an account is never opened twice, though it may be transferred for want of room. LEDGER. 1805. Stock. Jan. I. Jan.2 Jan. 3. Cloth Dr. To John Smith, 80 yards, at 15s. f- yard - - - - - . . To Profit and Lofs - . . - - Jan. 4. Dr. To Balanci for the Net of my Estate John Smith To Stock Dr James Taylor Dr. To Cloth for 60 yards, at i8s. 4d. f yard - - ..-.-. Cafi To James Taylor Dr Profit and Lofs To Stock gained Dr Balance To John Smith To Cloth - - To James Taylor ToCafli - - - Dr £ no 100 60 10 o. o 5.5 40 o 40 o J5 o '.I ° 40 o 1 lO o 1805. Jan. I. Per Contra, By John Smith - By Profit and Lofs Cr. I Per Contra, Jan. 2. By Cloth - By Balance - Jan. 4. l£. Per Contra, Cr. By James Taylor, 60 yards, at iSs. 4d By Balance utfold, 20 yards, at 15s. 80 Per Contra, ByCafh - . By Balance - Cr. 100 10 no o o d. 60 40 too o o ( o o o o Per Contra, By Balance - 6V. Per Contra, By Cloth - Cr. Per Contra, Cr. By Slock for the Net of my EJlate - J 40 o o 40 BOOK-KEEPING. 'To matt a Irl-! Inliinci, %Vhen every sccoutu 15 polled twice from the journal into the IrJjjer, aiid on ofipoiiti-, e fumj uu llie Dr. lidc will equal all thofc 011 the Cr. fide. This triiil, or check, is generally made on a feparate pa- prr, Slid it nay be pcrloiircd every d.iy, rroiith, or year, according to t!ie extent of the biHiicfs. Tlic titles of the k-dj;cr Bccmints are wiitteu under each other vvutli Dr. to the left, and Cr. to the right. A'uiexcd to each, on its proper fide, is fit down the fiiin of every Dr. and Cr. ; and both fides will a;;ree if tlic v^'orlv be right : as in tht follow- ing example, from the preceding ledger. Trial balance. Dr. Cr. £■ s. '/• 1 ^ £■ s. rl. 0 0 0 Stock 100 0 0 100 0 0 John Smith .... to 0 0 60 0 0 Cloth !9 0 0 .I,? 0 0 Jame« Taylor - - . . 40 0 0 40 0 0 Cani 0 0 0 ^ss 0 0 2.5i 0 0 To matt tilt general balance, and chfe the ledger. The journal being all corrcttly pollod, an account mud be opened for profit and lofs, and anotiicr for balance. Tl'.cfe two acconnts, vvitli that of (lock, are not to be elofed until the others are balanced. Proceed, tlieief )rc, to the fecond account) where the dif- ference between the Dr. and Cr. fides appears to be 40 1, j fct this funi under the fmalltr fide, making both equal. This balance or difference being on the Cr. fide, John Smith's account is therefore credited by balance, and on the balance fiieet it is entered on the Dr. fide : for if John Smith be Cr. by balance, then is balance Dr. to John Smith. By this fiinple method all ptrfonal accounts are elofed ; but in real accounts a double operation is necefiary, when any of the goods remain unfold, as thefe mull be firll balanced. Thus, in the cloth account, the quantities on the Dr. and Cr. fides mull be compared, and tlicir difference fct down wnder the fmaller quantity, making both fid'.s equal. Here the difference is :o yards, which, at firll co(l, is worth J-';l. ; this fum muil be entered on tlie Cr. fide of the cloth account, and then on the Dr. fide of the balance account, thus making cloth Cr. by balance, and balance Dr. to cloth. When the eoo.ls on the Dr. and Cr. fides are balanced, the money columns mull be next compared, and their differ- ence ihcws the profit or lofs upon the article. In the cloth account the Cr. fide is lol. more than the Dr. ; hence clctii is made Dr. to profit and lofs for that fum ; and pro- &t and lofs Cr. by cloth for the fame. James Taylot's account, and the account of cafli being next balanced, proceed to prove the work. The proof of booh ■keeping. The accounts being all balanced, except thofe of flock, profit a::d lofs, and balance, let the profit and lofs account be fird elofed. Hue profit and lofs is Dr. to flock for lol. gained, and therefore Hock is made Cr. by the fame. Th« ftock accouut nmlt be next clafed, where tlie balance appears to be iiol. Hence Hook is made Dr. to balance •for this fum, and the balance account mufl therefore be mnde Cr. by lloek for the fame. Mow if the work be right, both fides of the balance ac- count will be equal ; wh'ch is the proof of book-keeping, and which proof iiectffarily arifes from double-entry. The reafon of this proof willalfo appear obvious from the following confiderations : The balance account contains on the Dr. fide what goods I liave unfold, what eafli I have in hand, and what debts are due to me : And on the Cr. fide it contains v.'hat debts T owe. There- fore the difference between the Dr. and Cr. fide of the ba» hu.ce account is the net of my eltate. Now there is another method of finding the net of my cfl.ite, which is, by adding my profits or fnbtracting my loffcs from my original (lock ; and when this fum is put on the Cr. fide of the balance account, it will make both fides equal, if tlie-books be correft. This principle, or proof of book-keeping by double entry Biay be thus mathemiticaily demonllrated : Let S=:;the net flock at opening the books. p:=the gain or lofs at clofing the books. l)=:thf Dr. fide of the balance account. C=;the Cr. fide of the balance account. Then S + p=:N=itlie net flock at clofing the books, and D — C=:the net flock at clofing the books. Hence (per. Ax. 1. Euclid) D — C=N, and therefore D = N-f-C which was to be proved; that is, the Dr. fide of the balance account (hould equal the Cr. fide, added to the net flock. Hence the proof of book-keeping may be confidered as confining of two methods of afcertaining my property, and thefe muff always agree if the work be right. If they dif. fer, the books are certainly wrong. The converfe of this rule, however, does not hold ; for the balance account may clofe when the work is wrong — a falfe ftatement, for inftance, continued on both fides of the ledger, will not prevent the proof ; but there is fcarcely a probabi- lity that fuch an error could be continued unobferved ; and even intentional mif-ftatements may be prevented by a "check ledger ;" that is, by having two ledgers kept by different perfons. The general praitice is to examine the books fre- quently, which is done by one perfou reading the journal, while another infpefts the ledger, in order to fee that every account has been regularly poded by double entry. It alfo promotes accuracy, to have the books regularly written up, lo as to make the journal keep pace with the wade book, and the ledger with tiie journal. Tlje folloiving Set of Booh exhibits the modern improvements of Merchants^ Accounts. This fyffem of book-keeping is performed on the princi- ples of double entry, like the foregoing, with a waile book, journal, and ledger, but it differs in arrangement ; for here the wafte book is divided into a certain number of fubfidiary books, each adapted to a particular kind of bufinefs : thefe are, the Cash Book, Bill Book, Invoice Book, and Sales Book. The cnf}} look is the received. nfte book for all money paid or The bill book is the wafte book for all bills of exoliange received or accepted. The invoice book is the wade book for all goods ex- ported or fent off, whether on commiffion, or on the mer- chant's own account. The fiili-s look, or account of fales book, is the wafte book for all goods imported and fold on cor.-.miffion. The auafle book contains the particulars of fuch occur- rences as cannot be brought under any of the foregoing heads, and it ^Ifo gives a general account of every tranfac tiODj BOOK-KEEPING. tion, with a refci-ence to the fubfidiary book, where the particulars ;ire to be found. In the fubfidiary books each month's occurrences are clafled together, and fo diipofed as greatly to finiplify the journal ; but the principal advantage of this arrangement confills in carrying a whole muntli's cafh, or bills, in one line to the ledger : and the fame may be done with a month's commillion, intereft, infurance, 8:c. though the practice is not yet become fo general. Specimens of both methods are here given. Befides thefe advantages of fiinplicity and concifenefs, the fubfidiary books have other important ufes as originals. Every exporter and importer of goods upon ccmimillion, muft have an invoice and fales book, and the cafh and bill books are neceflary in all departments of commerce. Where fubfidiary books are kept for every kind of bufi- nefs, a waile book like the following may be difpcnfed with : though fuch will be found highly ufcful, both as an index and day book. But, in teaching, a book of this kind is eifentially neccdary, not only as conncfting the other books, and giving a ready reference to each, but as afFoidlng a re- gular liiltory ol thebufmefs, which the learner ihould always iinderiland. — It is perhaps the want of tliis knowledge that renders the theory of book-keeping fo much more obfeure and perplexing than the practice. THE WASTE OR DAY BOOK. This book opens with an inventory of the merchant's properfy, (fuppofed to be tranfcribcd from the balance ac- count ot a former ledger,) after which, a general rcgilter or diary is given of all tranfafiions, in the order of time in which they happened, with a reference to the inbhdiary books, where fuch are regularly entered. — The following are the refcreiices : C. B. - Calli Book, B. R. - Bills Receivable, B. P. - Bills Payable, I. B. - Invoice Book, S. B. - Sales Book. WASTE BOOK, J,m. i, 1S05. (0 The following is an inventory of my cfFefts, both real and perfonal, being a lilt of the balances in my favour and againil me, tranf ferred from ledger A. dated the 31ft ult. 1 1 700 [ have in calh ------ Funded property 4,000!. in the 4 f cents.") an'&l - - - - - i 3130 Farm in Kent - I -jjo Houfe at Richmond - . . . - 500 Houfehold furniture . - . . - 7 "JO Ship Charlotte, my half . - . . 312c Merchandize for balance in hand ... 2165 ID 6 Debentures for balance due to the Cuftom- 7 houfe - - J 462 10 Bills receivable for the following bills in hand. (particuiais fioni fonner bill book.) No. 210 On Ramfay and co. due 7 r ' > s20 0 0 Jan. i^. - - ( i 426 On Edward Malone Jan. 2 ■■;, 400 0 0 23J On ditto .... jHj 10 c r4i On Hamilton and co. - 7 Feb. I. - . . } 3>^ 0 0 I6I5 2^963 10 6 WASTE BOOK, Jan. i, 1805. (0 i^o. Brought forward 253 On V/eldonandco. Feb. J5, 162 10 c 24, 231 5 o 28, 2j6 5 o 261 104 On ditto On ditto Mlllman .ind fon, - Charles I^c Coin . William Lamos - William Ciiulinley William Pcmbertoii Willoii and Vanelli Oporto • Paris Bilboa - Hamburgh Naples - Leghorn - I owe as follows : To Smithfon and co. of London 'I'o Cyeorge Holland - ditto To Gibfoii and Carr - Birmingham - To Winter and W^ll - Jamaica To Hampton and co. - dllco To Edward Vs'hite - ditto - . . Fo James Prime - ditto . . . Fo Edward Connor - ditto . . . Fo Richard Broadly - ditto ... Bills payable for the following liills accepted by me (particulars from former bill book.) No. 213I ("Charles Mills, duejan. 12, 713 11 c 219 I James Harrifon - 26, 210 10 6 214 si John Gibfon - 26, 431 15 9 216 '- s ■{ Walter and Hume 30, 610 1 ij 3 215 ■» Thomas Pembroke 30, 105 11 6 15 Henry Barlow Feb. 4, 410 o o 2J7J 1_ Patrick Hamilton 11, 126 o o — Jan. I. Shipped on board the Neptune, for Naples, Henry Marfom mailer, fugar for the account of William Pemberton, as p- invoice book, viz Merchandize . - 128 I 10 Charges . • - 7 16 o Comminion - - . 4 18 2 Infurance • - - 320 Accepted a bill drawn on me by George Holland, as "^ bills payable. No. i. 3 Received by this day's poft a bill from Charles Le Coin, of 2385 livrcs ii fous, at 25-J 1^ ecu. as "1* bills receiveable, No. i. . . 5 Paid Hem-y Barlow's bill, No. 215. as ['>• calh book . - . - . . Received difcount on the above, for 29 days, at 5 f> cent. C. B. 12 2490 J ic 6 610 572 428 721 13 265'i6 17 Shipped on hoard the Swan, for Inlhoa, fnndry goods for the account of William Lamos, as |* I. B. viz. Merchandize - - - 63 ' 19 10 Charges - . - 10138 Commiflion - - . 19 11 4 Infurance - - - 1 1 I 6 820 421 268 506 '73 721 216 2608 6569 14 400 410 I iS o o o o <; .5 6 2 o 6 4 o o o o c o G-:' o 6 ±2. BOOK-KEEPING. ir.tSTJ- BOOK, J.m. 12, iSoj. (5) Paid Charles Mills't bill, due litis dav, No. ? 1 3. C. H. -'J Received the amount of Ramfay and co's i)iil, No. aio. as-^* C. D. 1 y •Shipped on board tlie lictfy, for I.tsrhorn le:id for the accuuni of Wilfoii and Vanclli, as I.B. viz. Merchandize - - ;i; 4 5 Charges ... 026 ConiMiiflio;! . . . 4172 Iiifuinncc . • . ? IC o --16- Accepteil a bill di^wn by Gibfou and Carr, No. 1, 15. P . — 18 Doughc of Samuel Lightfoot, fundry goods, amounting, as f bills uf parcels, to 7'3 5-0 19- Receivcd from William Chulmley, two bills. No. 3. and 3, B. R. zi Samuel I.ightfoot has drawn upon me two bills. No. 2. and 3, B. P. -3 Arrived the Nancy, from Oporto, on board f which are ten pipes of Port wine, coiifigned to me by Millman and fon, to fell for their ac- count, S. B. Paid fundry charges on landing Received of William Lamos, three bills of exchange, No. 4, 5, and 6, B. R. Received caih of Edward Malone's bills, No. 424 and 235, C. B. . . . 26 Paid John Gibfon's bill. No. 214, C. B. 26 Paid James Harrifon's bill. No. iig. C. B. -1 Received from G. Scaford, my half fliare foi freight on board the (hip Charlotte, C. B. 28 — _ Received from William Slicpherd for the pro- duce of farm in Kent, C. B. - • - . . 29- Accepted tlirac bills drawn by Smithfon and Co. No. 5, 6, and 7, B. P 30- Paid for repairs 0:1 board the fhip Charlotte. IC. B. Paid Walter and Hume's bill, N= 3 ic, C.B. -,o Paid Thomas Pembroke's bill, No. 218, C.B -Ji- Shipped on board the Hope, Stanley, forja naica, fundry goods for fundry pc-rfons, as w I. B. viz. 22l'lO 300 lOJo O' O 196 800 431 210 138 54 S20 43 610 105 ll'/fSTE BOOK, Jan. 31, 1805. (4) Winter and Weft, Merchandi/.c Charges - - Comniifiion Infurance - Hampton and Co. Merchandize - Charijcs - - • Com million - < Infurance Edv.ard White, Merchandize - Cliarges - - CommilTIon Infurance - - 375 9 9 3 >9 5 I ! 10 12 18 6 170 2 C 7 12 6 5 7 J<= J 19 o 60S 2 5 .5 18 u James Prime, Merchandize Cliarges Conimiirion Infurance Edmund Connor, Mercliandize Charges - Comniinion Infurance - - 603 «3 6 992 iS I [ 6 20 7 6 704 12 II 992 21 12 II 27 10 II Richard Broadly and Shipper, each a half fliare, Merchandize - - - 92315 3 Charges 8 14 5 Commiffion . . - . 28 6 2 Infurance - - - . . 36 5 Sold Smithfon and Co. Port wine, S. B. Sold Georgi Holland, Port wine, S. B. — 31- Received a dividend at the bank, half year's intereft on ^.4000. at 4 -p. Cent. C. B. - •3i- Sold_^.2ooo (lock a -jgl ■» Cent, commiffion 4 Y Cent. C. B. . . 31 Received this month, debentures for fundry goods (hipped, amounting to . . . Received ca(h for debentures this month, c. B ; Paid fundi-y charges this month for houfe ex- pences, C. B. All the infurances of this month have been made with the London AfTurance Company, and the premiums are unpaid. 403 .89 ou 652 763 4 997 218 139 So '595 138 195 68 BOOK-KEEPING. SUBSIDIARY BOOKS ; CamprehenJ'mg the Bill Bool:, Invoice Book, Sales Book, and Cajb Book. The Bill Book. The bill book is an index or regifter of bills of exchange, whether receivable or payable. Bills receivable are thofe which the merchant receives in payment of fome debt or contradt — and bills payable are fuch as are drawn upon him, and which he mult pay when due. Wlien Bills receivable come to hand, thrir particulars are entered in their rcfpeftive columns of the bill book ; and the particulars of bills payable are likewife infertcd in their pro- per columns, when advice is received of their having been drawn, or when they arc left for acceptance. The ufe of tlie bill book will be underftood by obferving how the two following bills are entered. Copy of the bit!, reeeivtJ frm Ghorkt Le eoin, anii eiHei-eJ ffi bills receivable. Li^- fol. d. Paris, Dec. nth, iPor. 2J8^ u azs\. Two montSis after fight pay to the order of Mr. W. Bing, two thouland three hundred and eighty-five Hvres eleven fols Tournois, exchange a 25I -^ecu. for value received. Mr. John Carr, Aecri>l~rl }in. 1802. London. 7 Carr. H. Johes. Copy of the bill dra-wn en me by George Holland, and entered in Bills payable. ;^. 400 o o London, Jan. 2, i8oy. Thirty-one days after date, pny to Mr. Georpc Binns, or order, four hundred pounds for value received. To Mr. A. B. Arrrjitn/, London. ^- ^• George Hollamb. Jour. Bills Recci'vable, 'January 1805. N^ \\ htu Received. Jan. 3 Ditto 19 Ditto 19 Ditto 25 Ditto 25 Ditto 21 From wliun Received. Chas. Le Coin Wm.Chulmley Ditto Wm. Lamos Ditto Ditto Dy \vn^»ni drawn, und Place. Jones Biili Ord Pope Fry Hill Paris Hull uil w huMi (iiawu and wheie. Carr Hall Pcterfburg Fox Grey Hood Cox Bilboa Ditto Ditto London Ditto Briftol Ditto London Ditto Date. Dec. 9 Jan. 5 Nov. 9 Jan. 2 Jan. 2 Jan. 2 Tu wlioin P;!y:ible. William Bing Charles Hume George Ellis Edward Ingram Horner & Scott White &Croker Time. 2 Months fight 31 Days fight 21 Days fight 2 Months fight 2 Montlis fight 2 Months fight Due. Sum. March 6 85 Feb. 22 210 Feb. 12 '.3 7 2 March 28J250 March 2SIJ10 March 28I240 Bills Payable, January 1805. Jour. By whum Drawl .ind Pl.ice. GeorgeHoUand Gibfon and Carr Saml.Lightfoot "■ to Smithfon &Co. Ditto Ditto 4JDit 5 6 7 London Birmingham London London London London London Date. To whom PayaLle Jan. 2 Jan.l2 Jan. 2 1 Jan. 24 Jan. 28 Jan. 28 Jan. 28 George Binns Alfred Simpfon John Andrews EUis and Co. George Ramfay Henry Watts WrightandlHnll Time. 31 Days 5 1 Days 3 1 Days 2 Mths 2 1 Days 31 Days ,j Days date date date datt datt datt date Ace"*. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Due. Feb. :, Do. 15 Do. 24 Mar. 2 7 Feb. 2 1 Mar, Do. Sum. 400 ,300 500 3.310 .^272 To whom paid and when. Clerk of the BankJFeb. 5 John Stubbs D. Lindo William Hoare Henry James John Sills olSamuel Binns Feb. 15 Feb. 29 Mar. 2 7 Feb. 21 Mar. 2 Mar. 2 Invoice Book. An Invoice is a paper fent off with Goods exported on commiffion. The preamble generally contains the name of the fiiip, mafter, place of dellination, and of the perfon to whom the confignment is made. An account is next given of the quantity and amount of the goods, which are generally charged at the bona Jide prime coll. The tradefmen's Bills of parcels are either copied or fent with the invoices, and referred to. The (hipping charges are added to the value of the goods, and upon this fum the agent or faiSor generally charges his commifBon. When he infures the goods, he has alfo a fmall commiffion on the capital infured, which capital is al- lowed to he fomething more than the value of the riik, in order to coT^r the amount of the rilk, premium, and other expences, in cafe of lofs. The coft of infurance generally concludes the invoice, and the agent figns his name at the bottom with the words, errors excepted ; this fignature, however, docs not appear in the book. The invoice book, which contains the copies of all invoices fent off, is fometimes called the invoice bodk outward, to diftinguifh it from the invoice book inward, which contains copies of invoices received from abroad. But this book is often difpenfed with, by preferving the originals, either filed, or in pigeon-holes, or pafted in a blank book made for the purpofe. Invoices of goods received to be fold on commiffion, are generally copied into the fales book, to which the charges are added. TJie-following invoice is here deemed a fufficient fpecimen, and thofe referred to in the wafte book may be underftood as arranged in the fame manner. Vei. V. BOOK-KEEPING. Invud of Su?ar Jlibbtii on board tlte Nepliwe, Henry Marfom !\LiJl:r,for AV- /)/«, by order of IVillijm Ptmbrrlon, Merchant there, for his Account and Rifs, aad to him configtud. London, Jan. I, iSo^. W.l'. No. 1 d 4 No. Cwt. J Grofs 9 1 20 2 — y o 25 3 — 4 — Grofs Tare Neat 2 17 1 26 Cwt. Tare i l 11 — I o 27 — I I o — 112 37 3 4 5 o 12 5 o 12 32 2 20 at 3I. 3s. f Cwt. Charges. Debenture Entry - • .4 Cod of Hogfheads - - - t Cartage, Wharfage, Lighterage, andl Bill^ of Lading . . .J 9 12 Commifllon on 176I.IS. lod. at 2 J -^ Cfn/. Premium of Iiifuranceon 190I. at it 3 17 o Policy Duty • -.-050 Commiflion | '^ Cetit. . - 019 o Drawback allowed at the Cullom-Houfe Enfl. Jour. P. 3. 168 1S4 40 143 16 19 10 The Sales Book, or Factory Book. This book is ufed to trace the net proceeds of any cargo or confignment fold apon commiflion. An account fales generally occupies two pages, with a preamble over both, letting forth the names of the goods, fliip, and perfon, from whom the confignment is received. The firft, or left-hand page, contains an account of the various charges incurred by the tranfadion, fuch as freight, cuftom, expences of landing and felling, together with the brokerage, and faftor's commiflion, both of which are charged on the grofs amount of the Sales. Commiflion is lometimes charged on money advanced for duty, together with the grofs amount of the confignment ; and fome taftors likewife charge intereft on all advances. The fecond, or right-hand page, contains an account of the quantity, price, and amount of the goods fold, with the buyer's name, and the time of payment. The difference between this grofs amount, and the charges, is the net pro- ceeds: for which the faftor gives his correfpondent credit, and fends him a copy of the account fales, to which he gene- rally hgns his name, with the words Errors excepted. In fmall confignments, an account fales may be comprifed in one page, beginning either with the charges, or with the amount ot the goods. The forms of thefe accounts are various, but all tend to the fame objeft, that of afcertaitiinK the net proceeds. ° Charges. BOOK-KEEPING. Dr. Account Saks of 10 Pipes of Poii T/inh, received y the Nancy, from Oporto, on Account of Millman and Son, , 'Y Cooper's Account 3 -^ Vault Rent, Iiifuranccfrom J ^ Fire, aud taking Stock J "* Brokerage, ^s. "^ Pipe - 2 10 Land waiter's Fees - - o 10 Portage of Letters - - o 10 Jan.3 1 . Interell on Duty advanced to this 7 Day, 96 Days, at 5 q* Cent. - - J Commiffion at 2^ -]9. Cent To Millman and Son, for Net "J Proceeds due this Day • -\ 182 2 * Tlie aliove Sales took, place in 1790, linre ■•vhich peiiod Ihe duty lias been advanced to 3s 4d. per gatl. nnd the excife lo 44I. lis. pei lun. As tlicie charges are liable to cominu.T .ilieration, the old rales are here continued a-s '■eing equally proper tu fhew the ioim ol an Ac cuuiU Sales. 14 9 818 207 1 14917 357 805. Jan. 31 By Smithfon and Co. fold them payable at 2 Montlis. 6 Pipes, No. Gall. I 137 2 140 .3 140 4 139 5 14T 6 141 8j8 Lefs two Gall.") —— allowed for Ul- | lagc, viz. 8j6 1 Galls, at ^Gi.'f f Pipe of ij8 j Gallons. J 2l8| I Jan. 3 1 1 1\ By George Holland, fold hire payable in 3 Months. 4 Pipes, < 7 8 9 10 536 Lefs I Gall Ullage,j;3';Gall at 36I. 1=1 Pipe of 138 Gallons. I Gall, for") £ni(l. jfourn. P. 4. and 6. 1.59 357 12I1 1 The Cash Book. The cafli book contains an account of all money tranfac- tions ; it is kept in a folio form like the ledger, with Dr. jnarked on the left-hand page, and Cr. on the right. On the Dr. tide is entered all money received, and on the Cr, all money paid. The amount of thefe receipts or difljurfements may be carried in one fum to tlie ledger, for every muntli, week, or day, according to the extent of the bufuicfs ; but monthly divifions are moft general ; and it is found convenient to transfer the ca(h book firil to the journal, claffing articles of the fame kind together. The following cafh book is formed from the wade and fubiidiai-j- books, by obferving thofc tranfndions where money is either paid or received, and entering them accord- ingly with dates, names, and other neceflary particulars. In real bufinel's, however, fuch trunfadlions (hould be entered at the time they take place. Separate columns ate fometimes allotted in the cafh book for money kept at different places ; fuch as, at a banker's, at the bank, and at home. The banker's book is oftafionally found ufeful in correifting and abridging the cafh book, which may be alfo abridged by the help of a petty cafh book, containing an account of fmall charges on merchandize, and of other incidental expences. The cafh book fometimes contains accounts that need not be transfeiTcd to the journal ; fuch as loans and accommo- dations, wliich are to be foon repaid ; thefe may be CJitcrcd Ihort, and when fettled, they, of courfe, balance themiVivcs. C 2 BOOK-KEEPING. Cash, Dr i«05. J»n- 5 »5 To Interell for difcountiog H. Bar-7 low's Bill, No. 2 1/; ... -J To Bills Receivable, No. 210, Ramfay I and Co. - - . .1 No. 424, E. Ma- No. 2 ;<;, ditto *7ri^o Sliip Charlotte, received for freight 28;To Farm in Kent . . . . 3' To Dcbcntiiris . . . . To Interell, received a Dividend at 7 the Dink . . . - J To Funded Property, fold .;oool. (lock f at 7yi and J ... .J Etttd, your. P. I. and 5:0 400 54 '9.i 80 h Contra, Cr. 159.? o 3i;68'3 805. Jaii.i. J2 1.5 By Charges on Merchandize, ^ \ ^ Nancy, for Naples - - -J By Bills Payable, No. 215, H. Barlow By Charges on Merchandize, Y Swan ) for Bilboa - . - - j By Bills Payable, No. 313, C. Mills By Charges on Merchandize, y Bet-') I fey, for I^eghorn - - -J 2yV>Y ditto for Sales, f- Nancy, paidi Cuftoms, occ. " " 'J 26|By Bills Payable, No. 2 14, J. Gibfon No. 219, j. Hanifon JO By Ship Charlotte, paid for Repairs By Bills Payable, No. 216, W. Hume No. 2:8, F.Pembroke 3i|By Charges on Merchandize, -ji-Hope 7 for Jamaica - - . . ( By Houfc Ex.pences • / 410 10 7 '.5 o 196 43' .110 43 610 44 68 ^854 JOURNAL. The journal opens with the inventoiy of (lock ; after which the fubfidiary books are journalized feparately, ac- cording to the following rules, and then fuch traiifaftions of the wallc book as are not contained in any of the fubfidiary books, clofe tlie journal for the month. Rulej for joufnalizing the Subfiiliary Books. 1 . To journalize the ca(h book. For all money received, " Ca.Oi Dr. to Sundries ;" for all money paid, " Sundries Brs. to Cafli ;" fpecifying parti- culars, and clading items of the fame kind together. See p. I. and 2. journal. 2. To journalize the bill book. For all bills received, " Bills receivable Dr. to Sundries ;" for all bills accepted, " Sundries Drs. to Bills payable;" fetting forth names, numbers, and other neceCTary particu- larj. See p. 2. journal. 3. To journalize the invoice book. The oerfon, for whofe account the invoice is fcnt, " Dr. to Sundries," viz. " To Merchandize," for amount of goods. " To Charges on Merchandize," for (hipping, and other charges. "To CommilTion," for the faftor'siommifTion. " To Infurance," for premium of infurance. See p. ?. journal. ' When feveral invoices are fent by the fame (hip, they may be arranged in columns, as in p. 5. journal ; a method which promotes bot!i accjocy and difpatch, and wkich might be alfo ufcd with the invoice book in general, and with the fales book. 4. To journalize the fales book. The perfon, to vv'hom the goods are fold, is debited for the fales ; and if they are fold for ready money, the account is entered accordmgly in the calh book. Then, " Sales (i^ the (hip's name, &c.) Dr. to Sundries." " To Charges on Merchandize," for charges at landing, &c. " To Interefl," for intereft, if charged on money ad- vanced. " 3^" Commifiion," for the faftor's commilTion. " To A. B. (the configner)," for net proceeds. See p. 4. and 6. journal. The above titles vary in different houfes ; as " Sales of Cotton, Sugar, &c. per the (hip, Dr. ;" "Merchandize im- ported, Dr. ;" and the charges on fales and invoices, viz. " Freight," " Convoy," '« Duty," and « Cuftoms," are moaiy arranged under feparate heads. But, however thefe niodes and terms may vary, the principles and refult are the lame. Note. The pages of the different books are put in paren- thefes m the corners ; and in the ledger the page of the journal, where the article is to be found, is inferted in a co. luinn next to the date ; and the reference next to the money column niews the folio of the ledger where the fecond entry- is made : but here there can be no (igure for " Sundries," as the fundry accounts may occupy different folios ; this'is an inconvenience which can be only remedied by turning to the journal, where the fundries are fpecified, and where the tolio of each ledger account is marked in the margin. SvNDRKS ,OOK-KEEPING. (0 JOURNAL, Jan. 1805 Sundries Drs. to Stock. For the follmving balances in my f.ivou ihe 3111 ult. tiansluiicd. Ca(h— for balanqe in hand - : " " Funded property 4000I. at 78^ in the 4 per cents. - - - " Farm in Kent - - - * ' Houie at Richmond Houfehold Furniture Sliip Charkjtte — my half - Merchandize — for balance in hand t for balance due at the! Debentures | Cuftom-houfe - j Bills receivable, for the amount of bills due to me Millman and Son Charles Le Coin William Lamos William Chulmlcy , William Pemberton \ Wilfon and Vanelli Lilbon Paris Bilboa - Hamburgh Naples - Leghorn Stock Dr.X.a Sundries For ilie following Balances againfl; m tlie 3 III ull. transferred. London To Smithfon and Co. To George Holland To Gibfon and Carr To Winter and Weft To Hampton and Co To Edward White To James Prime To Edmund Connor To Richard Broadly To Bills payable, for my acceptances unpaid - ■ =5 27 28 31 Cash Br. to Sundries. For the following Sums received lliis Month, as per C. B. To Interefl . - - To ditto To Bills receivable, N0.210, . 224> — ns iJTo Ship Charlotte To Farm in Kent To Debentures To Funded Property Ditto - Birmingham Jamaica Ditto - Ditto - Ditto - Ditto - Ditto R O O K . K F. r. P I N G. '5 (3) JOVRNAU Jan. iSoj. ' 5 WiLtiAM PeMBCHTON Z)r. to Sundrics Kur Amuuiii of lin,.icc of Siijar jior Xti>-j lunr, fur Kjji.'ij, at ptr W. B. p. : | ■s To Mcrcliandize - i^S i loj 3 To Cliari;cs on Merchandize 7 if) Oi J To Coniminion - - 4 18 3 ij To Infuiance • • 320 ! 6 14? iS 0 William Lamos Di: to Sundries. "• Fur Amount (/f Ini(4''c|>erSn';iii, furliilU'j, as pti W'.n. p. 1. ^ To Mtrchandi/e - 655 19 10 J To Charges on Merchandize 10 13 8 5 ToCommiflTion . - ig 1 1 4 3 To Infurancc - - 1 1 i 6| 5 677 6 4 Wilson and Vanelli Dr. to Sundries. For Amoum of Invoice of Lead per bctf< v , 1 tur Leghorn, as per W. B. p. 3. i 1 1 i To Merchandize - 2 1 ! 4 q 1 J 'To -Charges on Merchandize 0 2 6 j To ComniilTion - 4 17 2 3 lo liilurance - - 3 15 0 22, 19 1^-' f (4) JOURNAL, Jm. 1805. 3' ZiMtRCHANDizE Z);-. to Samuel Lightfoot jFor amount of ^oods bouaht of him, ;i< ^1 f^B.P. . - - Insurance Dr. to the London AfTur- auce Company. For Am;jum of Infiinnces made ihis Month, as per I. B. (A Nnncy, for Naples - 920 1* S«aii, for Bilboa - 1 1 i 6 Y- Betfey, for Leghorn - 3 1 1; o V- Hope, for Jamaica - 1 2j S <; Deecntures Dr. to Merchandize. For Drawbacks received this f-Ionth . Ji: 3' 8 Sundries Lis. to Sales 'p the Nancy. Fur Amount v\ 10 Pipe? of Port, for Aecount I cf i\i!llman .nnd Son, as per S, B. iS 6 Smithfon and Co. 6 pipes 7 at 2 months - f 6 George Holland, 4 do. at / I j months . . \ '39 II 3050 14' 13S 357 IS o (.S) JOURNAL, >«.3i. 1805. -SuNDRjEs Dri. to Sundries- Fur Amount of Invoice? per Ihe Hope, for Jamaica, as per W. B. p. 3. -Dr Pa. Inv. 6;Wintcr and Weft 7 Hampton and Co. - - . . . 7 Edward White ---.., 7 J James Prime ---... 7 1 Edmund Connor - - . . . 8 1 Adventure to Jamaica, in company with R. I Broadley, my half - . . . S , Ricliard Broadley, his half . ! ^ Crs. . 2 Merchandize ^ .- . . . Merchandize. 375 9 9 1 70 2 o 608 2 6 60.3 13 6 704 12 II T-2 15 3 53SJ 15 II Charges on Merchandize Commiflion Infurancc Charlies on diiio. 3 19 J 7 12 6 992 992 8 '4 5 44 9 Commiflion. II to g 5 7 10 18 ir 8 18 II 6 21 12 II 28 6 2 104 Infurancc. 12 18 6 5 19 o 20 7 6 20 7 27 • 36 6 10 ij 403 1 8^ 4 189! i; 4 652; 6' S 652; I 7631 511 4981 loj 5 49S IO| J i'23 i^ 5 3<5,';7:i4 BOOK-KEEPING. (6) M 1J Cfl -) O 3 u^ 31 8 ^3 3 .=? 8 3' 4 JOURNAL, Jan. 1805. Sales y ^^^ Nancy Dr. to Sundries. To Charges on Merchandi To Commiffion To Intereft To Millman a\id Son, for net proceeds of 10 pipes of port, as "If S. B. 1 196 II 8 18 i 5 149 17 12 III LEDGER. The rules ah-eady laid down in tha introduaory part will appk in all cales that can occur for polling the journal into the ledcrer : fome further explanations, however, may be here ufelul with refped to new forms and arrangements. In the following ledger the accounts are arranged in the fame order as in the journal, except in folios 2, 3, and 4, where articles, which arc often referred to at the fame time, are contiguouHy placed, to fave the trouble of frequently turning to the index. This method of claffing accounts of the fame defcription is found very convenient in extenlive bnfinefs ; but in the theory of book-keeping it is more obvi-- ous and regular to follow the order of the journal. When all the accounts are opened in the ledger from the inventory of ftock, let the fubfidiary books in the journal, for each month, be polled in the following manner : l.TopoJl the journal of the cafi booL Debit the calh account— to fundries, for the amount re- ''"cre'dit the caft account— by fundries, for the amount ^^ ' Then, for the fecond or double entry. Credit each account feparately— by c^, for the refpec live fums received. „ r i. r Debit each account feparately— to cafh-< for the refpec- tive fums paid. 2. To pcjl the journal of the bill booi. Debit bills receivable— to fundries, for their whole amoiint. Credit each perfonfrom whom they have been received— bv bills receivable for their refpeftive amounts.— Again, Credit bills payable— by fundries, for their whole amount. Debit each perfon for whom they have been accepted— to bills payable, for their refpedive amounts. 3. Topojl the journal of the invoice booh. Debit the perfon to whom the invoice is fent— to fundries, for the whole amount. , • r Credit merchandize, charges, commiffion, and inlurance refpeftively— by the faid perfon, for the refpedive fums an- nexed to thefe terms. , ■ t When feveral invoices are journahzed together m columns, (as in page 5 of the journal,) the whole amounts of mer- chandize, charges, commiffion, and infurance, are each polled in one entry. This amngement not only faves labour and repetition in the journal, and affords checks agamft error, but it alfo greatly Ihortens and fimplifies the ledger, ilad C thofe fix invoices been joumalized feparately, there muftliavc been twenty-four cntri-js in the journal, and the fami-num- ber in the ledger, which, by this method, are comprikd ui four. 4. To pofl the journal of the falfs look. Debit the perfon or perfons to whom the coiingnmcnt is fold— to fales ( (f the (hip's name) for the amount, -and Credit charges, commiffion, intcrell, and the coiiligncr — by fales for the fums annextd to tlicfe titles refpeaivtly. Some merchants open alfo a general account of fales, to which they transfer the amount of Dr. and Cr. fides of the faiSory book. . , When the other articles of the journal are polled', a trial balance (hould take place. This ufeful check may be ap- plied either monthly, weekly, cr daily, according to the cji- tent of the buiinefs. In making the general balance, the refidue of funded pro- perty, honfes, lands, furniture, fcips, or goods unfold, is fet down at the firll coll ; but in real bullncfs, it is more corretl and fatisfadory to enter fuch balances at tlieir aftual value, and to debit or credit profit and lofs for the diflerencebetwecu their prefent worth and prime cod. Such a valuation be- cojTies'neceffary, when any change takes place m the hrm of a lioufe, or in the terms of copartnerfnip ; and in order, at any time, to make a true ellimate of profit and lofs, intereft (hould be charged on all property as well as on debts. Partnerfhip accounts are made very obfcure and perplexing in ■moil old fvftems of book-keeping, though in 1 al bulincfs no fuch difficulty occurs. The general pradice is to keep the books of a joint concern as if they belonged to one per- • fon only :— to open a feparate account for each partner like that of any other individnal.and on clofmg the books to di- vide the profits and lolfes according to the terms of co-part- nerlliips. Alphabetical Index to the Ledger. Adventure to Jamaica B ' Bills receivable Bills payable Bioadlcy, Richard Balance Caft Charges on merchandize Comniiflion Chulmley, William Connor, Edmund D Debentures Funded properly Farm in Kent Gibfon and Carr H Houfe at Richmond Houfehold furniture Holland, George Hampton and Co. Houle e^i'ences Infurance Inwreil Kimpton, Edward Le Coin, Charles Lanios, William Lighitoul, Samuel London affurancc company M Merchandize Millman and Son Ptmbcrton, William Prime, James Profit and Lofs Stock Ship Charlotte Smithfon and Co. Sales, per the Nancy W Wilfon and V.inelli Winter and VVeft White, Edwajd FOL. 3 8 17 4 5 6 7 BOOK. KEEPING, (0 LEDGER. Dr. Jan. I. Jan. 31 I To Sundrici To Balance STOCK. 6569 1 1 10 2890316 o Jan. I. Jan. J I By Sundries By Profit and Lofs Cr. 28566 2S903 2 10 Jan. Jan. Dr. To Stock To Sundries CASH. I 1 1 700 o i5o68'i3 an. 3 Jan.ji By Sundries By Balance Cr. 2854 12214 1506S . 31 o Dr. Jan. I. 1 To Stock, 400I. a. 78! Jan.ji. To Profit and Lofg , FUNDED PROPERTY. 3130 3160 Jan. 31. ByCafh, 2000 1. a. 79! By Balance, 2000 1, a. 78^ I 10 ^595 1565 3160 Jan. I. Jan.31. To Stock To Profit and Loft FARM IN KENT. 1520 54 1574 Jan. 28 Jan.31, ByCafh By Balance Cr. I 10 54 1520 1574 BOOK-KEEPING. !(., LEDGER. Dr. HOUSE AT RICHMOND. Cr. Jan. I 1 To Stock .... 1 ffiC c 0 1 ! Jan. 3 1 By Balance .... 0 500 0 0 Dr. HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE. Cr. Jan. 1 1 I To Stock .... I 15'^ 0 0 Jan. 31 By Balance - - - . 10 7 jo c 0 Dr. SHIP CHARLOTTE. Cr. Jan. I 3' I 2 To Stock - . - - ■ ToCiiili - - . . To Profit and Lofs - i \ 113120 1 43 9 94 0 0 15 0 15, 0 1 Jan. 27 31 1 By CMi .... By Bjlance . . - . i ' J 1 i| I3b(jo"o 03120 0 0 i 32.58 10. 0 1 1 !3258'io 0 Dr. MERCHANDIZE. Cr. Jan. I 18 I 4 To Stock .... To Samuel Lightfoot i ' i 712165 10 6f S'jojo 0, 0 Jan. I 31 3]'y William Pembeiton $ [By "William I^amos -.'v.,^ \\T.\i\., — 1 \,-„.,.,ii: 3 12S I 10 3 ^'iS '9!^° i 213 4 5 3385 :,5II, 3 7131,; <5 '^^^5 10 6 S 4 ijy Sundries .... ^y Debentures . • . , By Balance • - - . - u 1 1 1 VOL.V. D COOK -KEEPINC. ^.,_ /,^ LEDGER. _ /;,. CHARGES ON MERCHANDIZE. '^'•- , ■ 11 !.>.n. 1 : I r.Cam . . - _ I 259 1 13 7 Jan. I, 12; '5 3' 23 •; By William Pemberton 3 By W. Lamos - - - jiBy Wilfon and Vanelli 5'Bv Sundries - - - 6 By Sales i?- the Nancy 5 5 5 8 716 10 13 44 9 196 II 0 8 6 8 9 259 13 7 Z)r. " COMMISSION. Cr. Jan. 5 I iTo Piofil and Lofs 9 142 ., J.U1. ! I 2 15 3' 4 3 3 3 5 6 By W. Pemberton Bv W. Lamos ... By Wilfon and Vanelli By Sundries . . - By Sales 'f the Nancy 5 S 5 8 4 4 104 8 142 18 II 0 18 6 2 4 2 9 9 2 £fr. INSURANCE. Cr. Jan. 31 i J To the London AfTurance Com- 7 pany • - - -J 9 141 611 Jan. I 12 3 By W. Pemberton 3 By W. Lamos, ... 3 By Willon and Vanelli 5 By Sundries . - - 5 5 5 3 3 123 2 6 0 5 141 6 II 1 Dr. BILLS RECEIVABLE. Cr. J.3n. 1 J To Stock .... 2 To Sundries ... 12225 1468 3^93 10 c 4 ' "4 3 Jan. 3 7 31 7 I ■By Cafh .... By Balance ... I 10 1303 2390 10 4 0 7 3<593 14 7 BOOK-KEEPING. (4) LEDGER. Dr. BILLS PAYABLE. Cr. Jan. 3 1 I To Cafl\ .... To Balance . . . . I tc 2482 2696 4 5 0 c Jan. I 31 1 2 By Stock .... By Sundries ... I 2608 2,S7c 5 <; 0 0 0 .5178 9 0 Dr. DEBENTURES. Cr. Jan. 1 I 4 To Stock .... To Merchandize ... I 2 461 10 138^15 0 0 0 Jan..} I 3' 1 1 By Ci(h .... By Balance - . . . I to >95 40.'; J 6 14 6 601 5 601 5[ 0 Dr. MILLMAN AND SON. • Cr. • Jan. I I To Stock I 572 .0 0 Jan. 3 1 6 By Sales !«■ the Nancy By Balance . . . . 8 10 i4<,. 42- 17 12 3 9 57- 10 0 Dr. CHARLES LE COIN. Cr. Jan. I I To Stock .... I 38y 15 c Jan. 31 31 2 By Bills receivable By Balance . . . . I j 304 14 0 3^9 15 p P2 BOOK-KEEPING. (j) LEDGER. Dr. WILLIAM LAMOS. Cr. Jan. 1 12 1 To Sto-jk . - - 3 To SuuJrie* 1 o 42R 6/7 1105 12 6 0 4 4 Jan. 2 , 2 By Bills receivable ... By Balance . . - - 3 10 80c SO.') 1 105 0 18 0 4 4 Dr. WILLIAM CHULMLEY. Cr. 3- I To Stoek . . . . To Balance . . . - I 10 3 10 13 271.17 c 0 Jan. 19 2 To Bills receivable - - . 3 582 10 0 i 5S2 :c c — Dr. WILLIAM PEMBERTON. Cr. Jan. I J I To Stock . . . - 3 To Sundries . . - . 7 721 14? 13 18 5 9 Jan. 31 By Balance . . . . 10 865 12 2 865 12 2 Dr. WILSON AND VANELLI. Cr. 1 Jan. I '5 I To Stock 3 To Sundries . . . . I 570 221 2 19 1 Jan. 3 1 By Balance . - - _ 10 79: 7 792 1 _7 .<< BOOK-KEEPING. (6) LEDGER, Dr. SMITHSON AND CO. Cr. Jan. 29 2 4 To Bills payable L'o Sales j^ Nancy - - 4 820 2lHi 5 c 1 fc 6 8 !jan. I 3' I By Stock . . . . By Balance I 10 S20 5 1 0 8 >°3« ioj8 6 8 Dr. GEORGE HOLLAND. Cr. Jan. 2 2 + To Bills payable To Sales Y Nancy . . . 4 1 4-00, c c 13911 3 ijan. 1 31 By Stock .... By Balance .... I 10 421 117 539 I ] 19 6 9 3 539" 3 Dr. GIBSON AND CARR. Cr. Jan. 16 2 To Bills payable 4 300 0 c Jan. I I By Stock - - . . By Balance . . . . 1 JC 26S 31 [ I 8 4 S 300 0 0 Dr. WINTER AND WEST. Cr. Jan. 31 31 5 To Sundries - . . . To Balance . . . . 10 40.3 102 I 4. Jan. 1 D By Balance . . . . I 506 0 0 506 0 BOOK-KEEPING. (7) LEDGER. Dr. H.\MPTON AND CO. C'*- Jan. J I J To Sundries .... 189 I 4 Jan. 1 31 J By Stock - - - - I I7J By Balance - - - - 10 13 i8fj 10 0 n 4 I 4 « Dr. EDWARD WHITE. Cr. Jan. I 5 To Sundries ... 6^- 6 , Jam I By Stock .... By Bcilance - - - - I r I 316 0 J3^ 4 0 2 8 652 6 8 Dr. • JAMES PRIME. Cr. Jan. J I S To Sundries ..-..- 6j2 J 8 Jan. I 31 1 By Stock .... By Balance - . - . i > 1 0 133 [9 0 2 8 I 8 Dr. EDMUND CONNOR. Cr. Jan. 3J ■ ■ \ — 5 To Sundries - - - . Pi 5 1 1 Jan. I 31 1 By Stock .... By Balance - . . ic 721 . 41 18 0 711 763 5'^ BOOK-KEEPING. - - ■ - s. ■' ' ■■ - 1— (S) LEDGER. Dr. RICHARD UROADLEY. ' Cr. Jan- 3^ 5 To Adventure to Jamaica * ^ — 9 i 498 10 b Jan. I I By Stock . . . - By Balance . . . . I 10 216 282 9 J 0 498 10 5 Dr. ADVENTURE TO JAMAICA. . Cr. Jan. 3 1 5 To Sundries, my 5 - - - - 49S IG f :Jan.3i Ey Balance . . . . JC 498 10 J Dr. SALES PER THE NANCY. Cr. Jan. 31 4 To Sundries - - . . 357 12 } !0 Jan. 31 0 By Sundries » , - . 6 357 12 10 Dr. INTEREST, Cr. Jan. z I To Profit and Lofs . . . - 9 83 17 8 J^n- 5 1 6 ByCafh . . . . By Sales ]f- Nancy . . . I 8 8. 2 83 12 5 17 6 2 8 (9) BOOK-KEEPING. LEDGER. Dr J»n- 3' To Cifli HOUSE EXPENCES. I 6S lo Jan. ji By Profit and Lofs Cr. Cb Dr SAMUEL LIGHTFOOT. Cr. Jan. 2 To Bills payable To Balance 4! 1 050 o io!2ooo! O ! 3050 o o Jan. 18 By Merchandize SJojo LONDON ASSURANCE COMPANY. Cr. Jan. 3 1 To Balance 141I 6 Jan. J I Dy Infurance i+i 6n Dr. PROFIT AND LOSS. Jan. 31 2 To Houfe Expences To Stock 6S 10 33618 405 fj Jan. J I jBy Funded Property ;By Farm in Kent By Ship Charlotte By Commiffion ;By Intcrcft I 30 0 I 54 re 2| 94 '5 3 '4^ 6 8 «3 '7 405 8 BOOK-KEEPING. Dr. BALANCE. Cr. Jan.31. To Cafh - ^ I 12214 10 5 J3n.3i. By Bills Pavable *1 269!- 5 c To P\iiidid Property - I ^S^'S 0 c B>- W^illianiCluilmley - . 5 271 0 To Farm in Kent - I 1520 0 0 By Winter and Wcit - - - ( 10: ■ / I s To Hcufs at Richmond - 2 500 0 0 By Samncl Ei^htfoot - - - i^ 20CC, c c To Houfchold Furniture - ■1 750 0 0 Bv London AlTurance Company - 9 J 141 1 1 To Ship Cliarlotte - 2 3120 0 0 By Stock - . . - 22J3J To Merchandize , 2 7'3 2390 40 s 1.3 fj To Bills ri'ccivtable To Delx-nturcs - 3 4 4 14 7 / 2754s = 4 9 To Millman and Son « 4 422 1 2 9 / To Cliarlcs Le Coin - . 4 304 0 s / To William I^atnos • 5 305 iS ^ / To William Femberton « 5 865 12 / To Will"on and Vanclli . 5 Ti- I / /- To Sniithfoa and Co. . 6 2IS I t-' / To George Holland . 6 i'7 '9 9 / To Giblon and Carr . 6 31 S ts / To Hampton and Co. To Edward White » 7 15 II 4 / . 7 J.?') 2 S / To James Prime . 7 'J5 2 S / To Ednmrd Connor . / 41 7 II / To Richard Broadley . 8 282 I 5 / To Adventure to Jamaica S 49S 27545 10 14 5 9 / ~~ Remarls on the Ledger and Subjliliary Boots, As intercft fhould be charjjed in the ledger upon every arti- cle, or debt, from the time it becomes due to the period of lett le- nient,the operation ouy;ht to take place before the general ba- lance,and the difference between the interell of theZ);-.and6';-. fides of each account of the ledger (liould becarriedback tothc jonrnal, making " Sundries Dis. to Interell" for the balance in favour of llock, and " Interell Dr. to Sundries" for the balances on the other fide. Thefe entries (hould then be polled to their refpeftive accounts in the ledger; and it is common, at the fame time, to infert pollagc of letters, and other fmall charges on merchandize. The manner of inferting the balance, and profit and lofs accounts, in the ledger, varies in different counting-houlcs. In fome they are placed as in the torjgoing fpecimen : i;i others, the particulars of tliofe accounts are infcrtcd at the end of the journal, and the fum total only of eacli tranf- .ferred to its proper place in the ledger ; a method that is found very convenient iu extenfive bulincis, where accounts in the ledger may be thus clofed as the goods are fold off, which greatly dnninilhcs tlie labour of the general balance. Befidcs the fiibfidiary books already explained, there are various others peculiar to certain kinds of buiinefs; fuch as Books of Infitrance, and Shipping Accounts. There are alfo feveral, the titles of which are Ivifficiently explanatory of their ufes ; fuch as the Order Bool, Letter Beck, Petty Cajh Book, Diary, and Debenture Book. In fome houfej, a Stock Book is kept, which fhevvs the quantity and price of each article bought and fold ; thus ferving as a lubllilutc for real ac- counts in the ledger ; a purpole which is fometimes effetled by the Warehoufe Book. It fhould be obferved, that the Account Current Book is univerfally neceffary, as it (hews the ilate of each perfonal account in the ledger drawn out in a detailed and fimpk fonn, in order to trai)Iiiut a copy or du- Vox.V. plicate of each pcrfon's account to him at the period of fettlement. Factorage and Exchange Accounts. When a merchant and his agent or faftor refide in coun- tries where different currencies are ufed, the faftor keeps his employer's accounts in the currency of his own countn", and the employer, that their buoks may agree, keeps the fame- accounts in tiie fame currency ; but he alio allots an adjoin- ing column in his ledger for the correfponding value in his own money, by which he afeei tains what profits or lofTes may arife from the fluftuation of exchange. In order to explain fuch an exchange account, the fol- lowing has been feledled from the ledger of a London mer- chant, who (as appears by the ftatem.ent) remitted bills to his fador at Hamburgh, and drew upon him for his reim- burfement or returns ; he therefore debits his factor for the remittances, and credits him for the drafts; the different amounts are firfl entered in the inner columns in banco marks, and then in the outer columns in fterling, according to tlie rate of exchange at which they were negotiated, and hence arifes the profit or lofs : thus, if the merchant Luy* the hills which he remits at a cheaper rate of exchange than he fells the drafts which he draws on his fadlor, there is a gain ; but if otherwife, a lofs. On the fame principle, if he had paid debts which he owed, or received debts due to bira at a more advantageous rate of exchange than th.ofc debts were contraeled for, there would have been a oaiu, but a lofs it the contrary. An exchange account is b.alanced by firft comparing the inner columns ; and when they are equal, there is nothimr due from one party to the other. The difference betv/een the outer columns is profit and lofs ; but if the inner co- lumns be unequal, the balance is « hat one party owes to the Other, which mull he carried to the outer columu at the ^ currcMi BOO ctirrent rate of exchnnge, and then the difference between the oulir cuhinmi k the prulit or lofs. The letters m|a (my account) arc ufcd by the merchant ill keeping the account which his tadorhkcwife keeps, wlio, ill llntiiig the lame tranr.iclions, annexes to his employer's lume h|a (his aetoiiiit); and their ledgers are revcrfed with rrfpetl to the Dr. and Cr. fides. Thus, the factor, in liis account of tlie t.. I owing traiiraciion, debits his eninluyer ior the dr:iits nr bul^ diuwn on him, an I credits him lor the irmittaiiccs which he receives ; and as all the bills were drawn in n.arks (the money of the place where they were t-i be paid), the faiftor has no eoiicirn with any otiier money j tl.ertforc, he debits his employer for commiiHon, brok.Tige, difcount, and podage, in mark?, for which his employer alfo credits him, and values thofe maiks at the rale of exciiange which exilU wiieii the account is balanced. There are other kinds of exchange accounts kcj)t between BOO Cambifts, or dealers in cxchnnge, who refide in different countries, and who agree to tvar.fact each other's b'-ifincfs (comn-.iflion free), and divide the g^ins or lolTes. Such ac- counts, like ail other partnerlhip concerns, leqiiire inteiett calculatioui, according as one party may be in advance for the other : this is the cafe when bills remitted are at a long d;'.tc, -md drafts at a Ihoit one, or the ci^nlrary ; bi't it fre- quently h-jppens that one party ir.ay be in advance lor fums which have not been received by the other party, who is therefore only nnfwtrable for the advances in his polfcffion, and the interell on the remaiiu'er (lioiild be paid out of the general prutits. Thefe exchange accounts arc kept by both parties accord. ing to the following plan ; and when they agree, the J)r. fide ot one accemnt is equal to the C'r. of the other, and the inner colu:nns ot one to the outer columns of the other, and "vice vcrjii. Dr. Mr. JOHN FACTOR, of Hamburgh, MjA. Cr. 1801. HjiiC'j M.irk*. s. p. c 0 Rate. L- '■ iSoi. 24 Dec. 3 1 By Draft, « 2i Us - By ditto, /7 2 Us - By Commi(Tion,T Difcount, Bio- > kerage, &c. -J By Balance I brought down J M.irk-. 5 4 8 II r 0 0 R.iie. ^■ s. r/. Jan. 30 j8 25 Dec.30 To Balance of oldl account - -J To Remittance To ditto To Balance car-1 ried to new ac- ■ count - -J To Profit and Lofs "1 gained by the • re-exchange -J I182 9.1 cc 320 II 12 J I 31 8 31 6 ii 8 101 800 1200 27 43 '4 0 0 0 15 10 9 0 0 0 4 1 97. s 15002 ¥j1 -;i 4 3' 3 31 8 S27 1306 1 •7 to 8 7 10 I 2517S 7 0 2172 25.78 7 0 2172 10 320 12 0 27 0 0 » Book o/ra/rt, is a book eftabli/hed in parliament, fhewing at what value goods, which pay the duty of tonnage and poundage, are to be reckoned at the cuftom-houfc. See Cus- tom, Di'TY, I'dundaoe, and Tonnage. T!;e book of rates annexed to the aft of tonnage and poundage made in t!ie 12th year of king Charles ll. was fubfcribed with the hand of fir Harbottle Grimilonc, then fpeakcr of the houfe of commons. An additional book of rates of goods and merchandizes ufiially imported, and not particularly rated in the former, vvit!i inles, order";, I'kc. was figned by Spencer Compton, efq. fpeaker of the hoiife of commons, 1 1 Geo. I. c. 7. Aliens ufed to pay a larger proportion than natural fub- jefts, generally called the alien's duty ; now repealed by ilat. 24 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 16, except as to fcavage duties, granted to the city of London. By ftat. 27 Geo. IIL c. 13, called the " Confolidation Aft," all the former fta- tutes, impofing duties of culloms and exclfc, were repealed with regard to the quantum of the duty ; aud the two books of rates above-mentioned, were declared to be of no avail for the future; but all the former duties were confolidattd, and were ordered to be paid according to a new book of rates annexed to that llatute. By the improvement of this fta- tute, the duty upon the exportation or importation of any article may be eafily found, or the excife duty to which ■ any commodity is fubjeft, in an alphabetical table. Book-seller, a profeOed trader in books; whether he prints them hirafelf, or procures them to be printed by others, for fale. Book-fellers, among us, are the fame with bihliopola: zmon^ the ancients, whofe office was diilintl from that of llbrarii. Petty dealers, or Tenders of fmall wars, like our publifliers, were more particularly denominated liheU'iones. At Rome^ the Argiletum was the mart of books, as St. Paul's Church- yard, or Fleet- (Ireet, and Paternofler-row, have been among 115 f wheuce that of Mactial. Arg'ikkmas mavis bnlltare tabernas. Cum iibi, pavoe !iba;/crma nq/lva vacent. Book- BOO Book -Wlers are a kind of agents, or curators in the re- public of letters : in many places they are ranked among the members of iiniverfities, and entitled to the privileges of ftudciits : as at Tubingen, Saltzbnrgh, and Paris, where they have always been dilliniriiilhed (rom the vulgar and me- chanical traders, and exempted from divers taxes and impo- {itiop.3 laid on other companies. Forincrly the otRces of bnok-fellers and printers were united in the fame pcrfons. Paper, auiif s of the nniverfitv, when fummon' d, and alUliedat the public proceirions thereof: they were obliged to hnd their books to be read, iir even copied by fuch as were difpofed to borrow, on certain coiii duions, prcferihed by the uni\erl1ty. If tliey kept any bonkj by them which were lut eorredf, the univerlity pu:i!hcd them : they were not allowed to buy ary book of a ihident, without leave of the rcftor ; nor were they allowed to gain above four dcn':crs in a llvrc, by any copies fold to the n'cin- bers cf the univerlity. Every book-fe-lkr was obliged to have a catalogue of all his books hung up in the fliop, wKh the prices as rated by the imiverfity: no book-feller, who bad not taken the oaths to the univcrfily, might fell a book of above ten fnh value. Difu de I'Orig. de I'Imprim. 1. iv. This ftate laded from the thirtee::th ec.tnry to the inven- tion of i)rinting, and even till the end of the fifteenth cenlurv ; during which time there were only allowed twenty-four book- fellers, two binder,', two illnminers, and two fworn book- writers, or copyills. But from that time the kings of France began to take cognizance of them ; .Lewis XI. thought lit to j)r(.fcribe fome new regulations in 1,5.67. Under Francis 1. the book-fellers were brough.t wholly under the royal avitho- rity, and received llatutestrom the king. The chief fcience of book-fellers, is the knowledge of the titles, different ed'tions, prices, and fcarcity of books, witli- ont regard to their contents, or qualities, othcrwife thin as tliefe alfeft the fale of them. See Litlrary PROrEKTV. Book-worm, in Entomology . It would be noeafy taflc t» fav of what precife defeription thofe creatures are, wi;ich the old writers meant by the iiidelinite exprefOon of Bool-nuorm. They fpcak of it as an infect of the mite kind, which after- wards becomes a fly, bred from eggs depofited in the month of Augull in books, cfpecmlly in the leaves neareft the covers ; and which, upon the whole, bears a llrong ref^mb- lance to the mite or hlaUa found in iorn. All this muft na- turally lead to a conclnlion, that, under the general appella- tion of book-worm, they included every infeft ofwhalfoever kind that was known to be deilruftive to book''. Anionjr this hod of latent enemies to our libraries, the mite islTighly injurious. When books are careleHIv left cxpol^cd in damp places for any lenrjth of time, they feldom efcape tlic r.iv.igcs of this imperceptible creature. The fpeeics (l,'Pru8or\z vtrv dctriintninl, r.s is hkeuife erudilus ; the latter of wh'ch di- refts its attacks to thole parts which are fewcd together, ox glued down. Both fpecies are invilible to the naked eve, but their prefence is ealily known by the ill effects they pro- duce. Another mifchievoiis creature is (he larva of a (mall moth of the tinea kind, which is inlinnated in the egg (late into the paper, and, hatching, the larva gnaws Cylindrical cavities through the leaves, and fpins a web. in which it lies feciire, till after paffuig thnnigh tne pupi ftate it becomes a moth. Thelarvn: of leveral fpecies of the dermelles, in like manner, prey upon books, attacki: g the k^tli.r covers as £ 2 well BOO irtll a> ihu paprr. Of tli!» kindi DtrmeRca lacdailin l« ona oflticnmll injurious. Tlic mixture ol ilic juice of worm- -«vo<>>e carried alhore, one on each lide, and fixed to crabs, or caii. ilans let up ; fo that as foon as the enemy has pdAld the fiilt boom, thefe Ihips being fet on lire, and heaved in tluir way, nothing can hinder the enemy's deftruflion. The fliips to be defended may be moored in a halt moon, with their broad- iides fo laid as to batter the enemy when he allempts the boom. When no flrong attacks by land arc to be feared, the mooring of fliips behind a point is be!l, on account of laying the boom. If the boom fliould be forced, which mnft be upon the flood, a fire-fliij), inlUad of falling on board a fliip thus moored, will, by the tide, be hurried beyond her ; and il the place be favourable to the fli'ps moored there, it will be found impracticable to boaid a fliip thus moored, with fuch a wind and tide as the enemy mull have to break the boom, unlels he expofe his boats in carrying out an an- chor to warp over, which will be a very dangerous attempt, or fome unaccountable accident inteivtne. Boom, drift, any yard, fpar, S;c. by which a boat may ride llem on to the fea in a gale of wind, and drive to lee- ward. The ufual method is to make fall a rope, about twice the length of the fpar, to each end of it, and to the middle of the fpar the boat-rope is to be bent. By this contrivance, a boat, in a gale of wind, will drive llem on to the fea, and the drift-boom will prevent the fea from breaking over the boat. See Boat. 'QootA-irons, in a Ship, are two flat iron rings formed into one piece one above the other, employed to conneft the booms to the yards, &c. ; the lower ring is the largell, and is driven on the yard. Some boom-irons fallen on the yards with a crotch or ilrap, fecured by nails and hoops. Viooj:\-Tackle. See Tackle. Boom, in Geography, the principal place of a canton, in the department of Deux Neuthts, and diftriil of Anvers. The place contains 3428, and the canton 14,519 inhabitants. The territory comprehends 92^ kiliometres and 1 1 communes. V>ootA-chi}:inel. See Brandarii;s. BOOMAZOOSE, a river of Africa, in the province of Conflantina, which bounds on one fide the plain, in which are found the ruins of the ancient Thubuna, now Tubaa ; and the river Bareekah bounds it on the other fide. BOOMBANI, a town of Africa, in Ludamar, north- eall of Jarra, and north-wefl of Benowm. N. lat. 15° 10'. N. long. 7° 12'. BOOMITES, a term ufed by fome authors to exprefs a kind of agate, ol a very remarkable brightnefs and tranf- parence, which rcprefents the figures of flirubs, trees, moflfes, &c. in the manner of the deiidrachates, acommon mocho-Jlnne. This is, however, very different in the degree of tranfpa- rencc and brightnefs. BOOMKIN. See Bumpkin. BOOMEAND, or I.aUmd bank, in Geography, is the fecond bank from the fliorc, ending nearly againll Nieuport, on the coaft of Flanders, betwixt that and Ollend. Be- tween that and the firft bank, called the Crcer, a channel of eii^ht or nine fathoms palfes through. 7'ill the banks bi - gin off Ollend, bJing four, and what are called the Flemilh banks. Y,OQ>UO^.OJle-Snndo, a fmall iiland near the coaft of Norway, 12 miles W. of Swroy. BOOMUGGAR, a dillria of Africa, in the province of Conllantina, which is very fertile, and bears feveral traces of ancient buildings. BOON, in Ancient Geography, a port of Cappadocia on the Euxine fea, between Cotyora and the promontory of Jafon, according to Arrian — Alfo, a village of Ethiopia, near the Nile, and on the well fide of it. Ptolemy. B0CN> BOO l^ooN-*/T/j»'/, in G-^^riJ/>l}y, an ifland of A«ierica, on the *oall of tlic dillrifl of Maine;, between tlie mouth of York river ami Cape NeJilock. ISoos's-(^reet, a finall north branch of Kentucky river. Biion'i- J'oint, the mod iiortlicrl)' point of the illand of Antigua. N. Int. 17' 7'. W. loig. 6:°. DOUNDY, or DooNDEE, a to>vn of Hindoftan, in the eruntry of Apimcrt, 84 miles S. E. of Aginicre, and 65 S. S. W. of kaiitampour. The town is lituatLd 011 the foullicrn declivicy ot a lonjf ranije of hills, which runs nearly from E. to \V. 'f'he palace of the rajali, a larp;ea;id m:'Oy building of Aone, ij about halfway up ; arid a kind ofllone fortification run; to the top of itie mil. The pafs throuj;h the hill lies to the call of the town, and is fecured by a gate at each end. The poflllTijns ot tlie rajah of Bondec have been reduced hy the irruptions of the Mahrattas, and en- croachments of tiie Kotah family, to the revenue of lix lacki, of which a fourth part, or chout, is paid to the Mahrattas. BOONE 1J.\Y, lies on t'le welleni fide of the ifland of Kewfo'.'ndland, 2; leagues N. by E. from St. George's har- bour. N lat ^9^ 35'. IJOONEN, Arnold, in Biogrtiphy , a portr.iit pairiter, was born ut Dort, in 1069 ; and after haviiicr been for fome time a dil-iple of Arnold Verbui.':, placed himfclf under Godfrey Schalcken, who recommended to him, after having received his in(tru<:tions for lix years, to thidy nature. By following this advice, Boonen obtained the reputation of a great maiKr at the age of 25 years. His Ihle of colouring was extrcra.-ly good ; the attitudes of his lignrts wei-e ele- gantly difpofed ; his toucli neat. The whole pofi'efTed fuch harmony, and his portraits maintained fuch a llriking like- nefs, that he was ranked among the ablclt artilts of his tiire ; he had a number ot admirers, and a demand for works whicli he was unable to cxecu'.e. He had the honour of painting the portraits of tlieczirol Mofcovy, of Frederick I. king of Pruiha, of the victorious duke of Marlbornugli, as well as of many of the princes of Germany, and moil of the noblemen who attended the czar. His health was impaired by his exccflive application, and he died rich in 1739. Pilk- tngton. BOON'ERSCHANS, in Gcogra;>hy,v,hvU<:k of Gronin- gen, on the borders of Kail Fricdand, about a league from IJollart bay ; 5 leagues S. of Embdtn. BOONETON, a fmall poil-lown of America, in Sufllx county, NV-w Jerity, on the pjlt-road between Rockaway and SuH'cx court -Ik ul'e ; 116 Uiiltsfrom Philadelphia. BOONSBOi<.OU(iH,a town of America, in the county of Maddifon, and liate of Kentucky, fcated at the mouth .,w.!>c, eye, Ox-eye Hone, in Nulural Hljlory, a name given by Scheuctizerto a peculiar agate, in which there frequently appear circles of conlidcrable lize, rcfembling fo.i.e laro-e am- mat's eye. The ground colour of the ftone h grey, a?id the circles of a deep blu-fh black. BOO PS, in £ii:nmology, a fpccics of Sthex that inhabits Gcrnvany, in t!ie environs of Vienna. It is of a black colour, with tiiree fcgmer.ts of the abdomen, and the tarfi of the legs tellaccous. Schranck. ]nf. Auilr Obf. The eyes are large, the'abdomeu ovate. B"0Ps, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Laerus, found in the ftas about Japan. It is fpec'fically dillingnithcd by having the lower jaw rather longer than the uppei- one, and .l»av;ng two TuiS on the back. HoutUiyn ad HaarL The eyes BOO of this fifli are very large ; the teeth in the lower Jaw large and acute. Boops, a fpecies of Sp.^rus, of the lincated kind, found in the Japan feas. The body is marked with obfcure longi- tudinal lines, of which the four loived are gold and illvery, Artcdi defcribes this tifli. Gmel. Boops, in Zoology, liie fpeciiic name of the Pile headeit luhale; Balitna loops, of Linua:us. It is dillinguiilied by having double fpiracles on the fnout, and a horny protuber- ance at the extremity of the back. Linn. This is the Jupiter lidi of Andcrfon ; the French name it la Jubarte. The pike headed whale is a native both, of the northern and finitheru ocean, and grows to tlie length of forty or fifty feet, and fometimes more. T!ie body is round, cfpccially to- wards the head, from whence it fltipes gradually to the tail. The head is large, and of a fomewhat kuotliened form, though tcrminatwg in an obtufe tip. Btfore the noftrils are three rows of circular convexities, the utility of which has not yet been afcertained. Above thefe is the double fpiracle ihroug!) which the animal f^jeds the water in the fame man- nt-r as the other wlmles. I'he eyes arc lituated beyond the fpiracles on each fide of the head. Jull behind the orbit of the eyes aretheears, the apertures of which are fcarcJy percep- tible. In the upper jaw are numerous lamina: of black whale- bone, not above a foot in length. The tongue is large, fat, fpongy, and funiiflied with an appendage towards the throat, a kind of loofe fcin like an operculum. The lateral, or pec- toral lins are large, oval, entire on the pofterior edge, but rounded and cremilated on the front. The dorfal fiifis of a fatty-cartilaginous fubftance ; it is placed on the hind part of the back, above the vent, in a pcfition nearly pependicu- lar. The tail, which is horizontal, is divided into two lobes both of which are pointed at the extremity. The fides b?low the p-dloral fin, together with the anterior part of the belly, is deeply wrinkled with a number of longitudinal plaits, or furrows, which may be contrafted or dilated at the pleafure of the animal. All the upper parts of this kind of whale are of a dark brown, or black colour, obfcurely mar- bled ; the prevailing colour beneath is white, except the fur- rows between the abdominal plaits, which diftend as the aui- Inal opens its mouth and then appear of a bright red. This is reprefented as a very timid creature. There are occalions, however, in which it has evinced a confiderable fhare of courage, fuch as being ftrandcd on the fhore in a llorm, when it has been known to defend itfelf with great vigour, and do no fmall mifchief before it could be over- C()mc._ When the male has been ilranded with the female, of which inftances do fometimes occur in the north, ther will defend each other with uncommon fpirit, emitting at the fame time a moll horrible grunting noife, fomewhat fimilar to that of a pig when lluck for killing. Its greattft enemy in Its native element is the phyfeter microps. This fpecies hvcs principally on the falmo ardicus, the ammodytes tobi- anus, and on the teftaceous, and other vermes. Its flelh and oil are ufed like thofe of other whales. The Greenland- crs, where thofe animals are moa frequent, callthis particu- lar kind kcporkak. BOORS, in Geography, the appellation of a very numer- ous clals of the inhabitants of Ruflia, ufually called fimply boors, but more accurately denominated vaffal-boors, in order to dillmguilh them from the free boors, or free peafants. i liele latter, though often comprehended among the boors 111 Itate papers, and m the enumeration of the people, are really of of a different clafs, and form a kind of middle fta- tiou between the burghers and the valTal-boors. In virtue of their freedom, no man can alienate or fell them ; they edu- cate their children .6 they pleafe ; moll of them poffefs im. moveable BOO moveable property) wlint they earn cannot be taken from tKt'm, proviiicd they duly piiy their common taxes, or per- form their ibited l-dda of hdiour ; ror are they under any arbitrary comniaiid, b'.it, hl:e tiiofe uf fuuerior rmik, own no authority bciides t!:at ot the general laws of the ftate. Among thefe, however, there are various gradations, as all of them do not enjoy the fame degree of liberty. Some are fxprcfsly called boors, and without violation of their free- dom are treated as uicli, though with iomewhat more gen- tlenefs than vafl'ah. Others polTefs true civil lilierty, and differ only by th.'ir place of abode and cuftomary occupations from town's people. To this clafs belong the foreign co- loniih, fctlkd here as hnfliandmeu or fanners, fo that by the'r occupation they are boors ; but on account of the land which they polfcfs, this appellation docs not juRly be- long; to them. To the free-pc;'.lants we may alfo refer the '* Odnodvortzi," as they are called, orone-houfe oivneis, whofe perfons are free, and who pofiefs their houfes with the lands belonging to them, as real property, for which they neither perform feudal fcrvices nor give any of their produfts: b\it they are obliged to furnifli recruits, to pay the pole-tax, and obrok, and they are not allowed to buy villages nor to poITefo vaffals as property. The kozaks, or coflacks, in all their ik-i;'.s and branches, the tartar tiibes, the badikirs, vogule«, kalmucks, with moll pf the n:onadic tribes, and people of the lUppe?, poflels their lands as real and heritable property, and therefore belong to the fame clafs of free- peafants. This is alfo the cafi with rel'peft to diPoanded foldiers, who live in the country ; einancipated ferfs, who have either bought their freedom of their lord, or obtained it gratuitoully in reward (or faithful ftrvice ; malo-Rudian boors, or boors of Little Riilha, who are neither coflacks nor vafTals, but free people, ami frcc-peafants, who belong to their laud, and can neither be fold nor alienated feparately from it. The valTal-boors, as diflinguifhed from thofe we have now defcribed, have no civil liberty ; their chddren belong not to them, but to their manorial lord, on whtjfe will they de- pend ; they alfo, with their childien, fingly or in families, may be alienated, fold, and exchanged ; they polTefs no im- moveable property, but they themlelves are trgited fome- tinies as the moveable, fjmetimes as the immoveable property of another. Thefe boors were originally free, but in Great Ruiria they became gradually valFah, or heritable ferfs. They are commonly divided into three kinds ; but it will be more convenient to dillribnte them into fjur claffcs. The firil confills of " crown-boors," called vulgarly, in Livonia, public-boors ; who are very num.trous, and are the people belonging to the crown. It is nece'hiry, hov.-ever, to dif- tinguilh between boors whom the crown can grant away, as its real vallals, and who pofT.fs no real pmperty, and thofe tribes of people who are owners of immoveable poflcflions, and enjoy certain rights and privdeges. i5i'.t there are, ex- ciufively of thefe tcalvaflals, boors belonging to the crown, whoin the crown cannot with propriety give awav, being at- tached as workmen to the mines, either of the crowm, or of private individuals. Moit of the cmwn-boors pay, befides the head-money, the obrok, i. e. a fum of money for every male foul, and this is the only benefit which the crown de- rives from them. In fome diilriCls they do talk-work, or pay of their produfts ; or, in Livonia, they do both in- ftead of the obrok. Among thefe there are fome that are not only in good circumilances, but even rich ; nor would they be fenfible of their valfalage, if the crown did not poffefs the power of granting them away. Boors of this clafs are jnentionecl under feveral denominations ; as hours of the black plough, boors of the empire, imperial boors, poll- BOO boors, and court -boor.;. In the RnlTi in Ijws anc! tikafcs, the following eight dillinft kind.-, of cioa n-boor; are mcnlioncd, viz. empiie-bofrs, who belong neither to the court, nor to the nobility, nor to the inonalleries, br.t are m'.mberf, or burghers of the empiie ; imperial boors, \\!io belong to tiie monarch perfonally, or rather to the court ; boors of the black plough, inhabiting a great part of the ncr;!ieMi Ruflia, as lar as Archangel ; poll-boors, who are bound, in lieu of* theim])olls, to keep poll-horfes ; coiirt-boors, whofe fervice and tribute-, art drllined to thefiippoit of tl;c imperial comt; monallery-boors, who fortnerly belonged to the motiaRerie.--, but now every where in Great, Little, and White Rtillia, arc under the kamcral-liofs ; economy-boor^•, v ho in Great Ruflia we-e thole boors, who, about the yean "jC^, were tuki n from the moiiaHcries and churches, and made lubordinatc to a particular college of economy, ellablilhcd for that purpofe, but now aboliflied, fo that the boors arc ut.dtr the kamer- alliofs, retaining tiicir former name ; and peltry tribute pay- ing boors, who deliver their tribute in peltry or lurs. Oi.i privilege of the crown boors confills in this, that they may buy of noblemen villages and lands, with the vaffali beloii"- • ing to them. The fecond clafs of crown-boors bears the denomination of " crown. boors," who belonged formerly to the bilhop:, churches, and moi^afterics, hut wcic taken from them in the year 1764 ; tlity are much the fame with thofe of the crown-boors already mentioned, paying particular taxes, ai;d enjoying certain privileges. The boors of the third clafj are, " boors of the mines," who can never be feparated from particular mines, and can never be fold or exchanged apart, though they are transferrable with the woiks to another mailer. The fourth clafs comprehends " nrble, or piivate- boors ;" the condition of thefe depends very much on the humour or caprice of their lord; ne\trtheltfs, thofe if them who belong to wealthy lords, requiring neither tafl<- fervice, nor deliveriea of products, and contenting them- felves with a moderate obrok, live happily, grow rich, ;ind would hardly exchange their condition with that of many who enjoy nominal freedom. Hov.'ever, the dues from thefe boors to their lord are fettled by no laws ; fome pay the obrok, others perform tajlc -fervice, or, in lieu of it, de- liver certain portions of their natural produfls ; from others all thefe are demanded ; but the obrok alone, wlierc the lord is rich, is the moff afnal. Mar.y take. for every ii^ale head only three, otiiers five, and fome from the n:o!l opu- lent of the boors, twenty-five rubles, or even more. Thofe, who fare the worft, are the private boors,- who are obliged to perform ta(k-fervice, in lieu of the obrok, at themirc-works of their lord, which may be at a great diflancc, and with refpeft to whom the dillance is not- coiilidered. The late cmprefs declared it to be her wifli and inclination, that valfal- age fhould be abcliilied; or at leall, that the condition of the boors might be ameliorated, and all opp'tfllve abufis re- fliained. She aiflually adopted feveral meafures for accom- plifiiing her benevolent willies, by iiiflltutiiig a regular tri- bunal for the boors, entirely chofen out of their own body ; delivering the boors at the mines from opprefllon ; appointing overfecrs and guardians to prevent every Ipeeies of violence ; and on every occalion recommending geiitlenefs rnd humani- ty, of which fhe herfell is faid to have exhibited an illullri- ons example. Under her adminiflration inllanccs occurred of noblemen, who were brought to a fevere account for cruelties exercifcd on their vaffals. The moll ulual mode by which a vaffal becomes fuch is, by being born of a valfal. By the common law of Livonia, every child born of an un- married female vaff.il belongs, without reganl to the father, to the cflate on which it is bom. Peter L, however, by an ukafe, BOO nkxft, in 1711^, orJaineJ', that fucli a rliild (lioiild be freCi if a hcc man liave caufcJ it to be bapii/.icl in liis nainei as father. Va(Tal-boois pay poll-lax, aiiJ furiiifh recruits ; but the obrok 'Jif liic truwii -boors is not to be conliJtrcd as a Iiublic tax, but a', a fort of rent for the occupancy of the ands allotted to them, or for pcrmiffun to follow any trade they pleafe. Some of the boors rife by their good behaviour to be officei!" in the army ; and others of them live decently in th^ir houfis, have a fuffiticncy of w hokfomc food, are niatly drdlid, and accuMMilatc a trifling capital, thoui;h, «> lht\ have no unalienable fccurily of punelTniiT it, they fre- quciilly bury it in the ground. In fonie noble villages the boors difplay an opulence which would be looked for in vain ill other countries. The RufTi.in boor, indeed, may foon become rich, as lie underflands the art of turning every thing to profit, and of bcln^ content with a little ; for his clothes coll him nothing, bting wholly maniif;iftured at home, and witli Ins dii.t, which, during the long falls, is extremely meagre, he is fupplied from his hufbandry. The value of an tllate in RufTia is ellimatcd principally by the number of male boors belonging to it. The national lombard, in all mortgages, which it accepts, takes the boor at forty rubles ; but in the fale of an eftatc they are fcldom or never ellimated at fo low a price. In the govern- ment of St. Peterlhurg every foul is paid for, according to t!ie quality of the tllate, from 2C0 ti) 3!>o rubles: in other parts of the empire the price is conuuonly much lower, but at prefent hardly any whcreundtr, ico rubles. On many ellates the boors work three or even four days in every week for the lord. The boors enrolled to the mines have their labours afci.:taiaed by an edict iffued in 1782 ; and thofe belonging to the crown-mints have always experienced a milder lot, as the crown is always interelled in their prefervation. Ac- cording to the enumeration of male inhabitants, made from 1781 to J 783, in the forty one viceroyalties of which Ruffia at that time confilled, the number of crown boors was 4,674,60;, and of private boors 6,678,239. Tooke's View of the Ruffian empire. BOOR- Worm, in Nalural Hifl'jry. a name given by Rumphius to a fort of marine worm, that bores through the bottoms of (liips ; perhaps the Tcreilo mivii'is. BOO.S, in Geogriiphy, a town of France, in the dapart- ment of the Lower Seine, the chief , lace of a canton, in thediftricl of Rouen ; the place contauis 650, and the can- ton 1 1,144 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 107^ kiliometres, and 21 communes. BOOSE, in Rural Economy, a provincial term, fignify- ing a cow-flail. BOO-Shai,tep,. See V>oo.Shantv. BOOSHOOANAS, in Geo^mphy, a tribe of the knff-rs, or caffrtSjinliabiting a finely cultivated and intlofed country in fouthern Africa. The capital, called Lcctakoo, is very large and populous, containing, according to the tllimation of fome commiffioners who vifited it in 180 1, between 2 and .-^jOoo houfes, and from 10 to 15,000 people. It lies nearly in S. lat. 26° ,3c'. and E. long. 27". The men are of a tall athletic form ; of fimple palloral manners ; living almoil entirely on milk and Tegctablts, and following the occupation of (licpherds. The wonun, like other females in favage communities, ptrform all the drudgery of the family. They break up the ground with a kind of hoe made of iron, and afterwards plant it. They alfo conllruft their habitations, and colled the necclTary ma- terial'. They reap the grain, clear it from the hnl]<, and lay it up iii the granaries, wlilch, with other earthen pots and vefl'cls, were the work of their own hands. The men prepare the (kins and hides which fcrve for fhoes, aiid make them up into cloaks for thcmfelvcs, their w.vcs, aud their children. They BOO alfo attend the cattle, milk the cows, and hunt the antilopei and other game, with a weapon called the " hafi'agai," which i;i nfed alfo in battle. The houfts of thcfc people are built in a circular form, being about fixtecn feet in diameter. The lower part, to tlie height of four feet from the ground, is formed of iloue laid in clay with wooden fpars erc6led at certain dillanccs. A fourtli part of the honfe, on the eail fide, is op-n, and the other ihree-fourtlis entirely cloftd. The whole building is covered with a round pointed roof in the form of a tent, well thatched with long reeds, or the draws of the holcus. Fn.m the centre to the back part of the houfe, a cii-cular apartment is feparated, having a narrow entrance, and in this liie head of the family takes his nightly rell; while the other mem- bers of- the fan.iiy flecp in the fore part, or between tl.c large and fmall circles of the houfe. All the houfes arc en- doled by pallifades-; and the fpace between thefe and the dwelling ferves for a granary, and (lore for their grain and pnlff. The granaries are conllruftcd in the form of oil j.u's, of baked tlay, each of them containing about 200 gallons; and thefe are fupported on tripods, compofed of the fame material, which raife tiiem about nine inches above the ground. They are covered with a round ftraw roof crefled on poles, and of fuch a height as to admit an opening into the j-irs, the upper edges of which are from live to ii.\ feet from the ground. To the north of the Boofliooanas are (Ituated, in a culti- vated tract of country, under the fouthern tropic, a much more powerful tribe, called the " Baroloos." The manners of thefe people are kind and fimple ; they are faid to be ac- quainted with tlie art of fmelting copper and iron, for which they have erected furnaces; they are extremely rich in cattle ; their lands and houfes are much better than thofe of the Boofliooanas ; and their chief town is reprelented as io extcnfive, that it is faid to be a day's journey in length, and extremely populous. Barrow's Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, vol. ii. BOOSSEGA, a riverof Africa, in the empire of Morocco, near Tetuan, where the Morocco gallics anchor and winter, under the proteClion of a bad fort. BOOSURA, in Ancient Gcogyafhy, a fmall town of the ifle of Cyprus, towards the luutli-wtll, between Curtum to call, and Pdlaj-paplios to the north-weft. It is mentioned by Strabo. BOOT, a leathern cover or defence for the leg, ufed chiefly on horfe back, both to keep the body more firm, and delend the part irom the injuries of the weather. Boots feeni to have been called thus from their refemblance to a lort of jacks, or leathern bottles, formerly in ufe, and called lothe, in the old French loiilu Borel derives the name from the ancient French word bot, ajliimp, becaufe the boot gives the leg this appearance. It is not long that the boots ufed on horfe-back have been called by this name. In the reign of Charles VII. of Fiance, they were called houfes, hofe. The ancient monks ufually wore boots; that is, the de- nomination of Iv/U, or I'o/fi, was given to their buflj, it is neceffary to return back the acidulous water repeatedly upon the mafs in the alembic, in order to obtain the whole of the boracic acid ; but this being a tedi. ous operation, and generally terminating with the fradure of the B O R B O R tRe alembic, is at prefent but little prairifed. The mod ex- peditious .'iiid economical way o( preparing the boracic acid, is by precipitation ; for this purpole, take a boiling hot fa- tur;!ted folulion of purified boraK in water, and add to it, by a little at a t;mf , fo much fnlphuric acid as to make the foiu- tion (lightly acidulous. The liquor, when cold, will be found to have depofittd a confiderable quantity of thin cryf- talliiJC plates of boracic acid, and more may be obtained by fuccedive evaporation and cooling, till cryihils of fulphated foda begin to make their appearance. Tlie fulphuric acid is on feveral accounts preferable to any other for the dccora- pofitiou of the borax ; yet the nitric, muriatic, or even the acetous acids may be made iilc of. and will cffeft a fepa- ration of the boracic acid from the foda with which it was united in the borax. The proportion of acid obtained by precipitation amounts, according to Beaum.c, to nearly one half of the borax made uic of ; and it is this kind of bo- racic acid that has been nfed by moil chemills in their expe- riments on this lubllanee. The precipitated acid is, how- ever, by no means pure, as it retains, accordii^g to Cadet, a portion of the acid made ufe of in its prccipitatioQ, and confills, according to Beaume, of about ^6 boracic acid 14 an impure unfublimable fait 30 water of cryllallizatioii Sublimed boracic acid is in the form of very minute thin plates, with a fhiniug filvery luftre, and remarkably volumi* nous in proportion to its weight. Tlie cryftallized acid has the fame general appearance, only it is in larger plates, and cf confiderably greater fpecilic gravity. The tafte of boracic acid is ilightly fubfaline ; it reddens fyrup of violets, but exhibits very feeble acid charaftcrs. It is very difficultly foluble in cold water, and requires a confiderable proportion of hot water ; as the hot folutioii cools, it depofits in cryrtalline plates nearly the whole of the acid which it had taken up. Alcohol takes up a larger quantity of this fait than water does, and burns in confe- quence with a green flame. On this account boracic acid has been fuppofed by fome chemills to contain copper. But if a piece of paper is dipped in the alcoholic folution, and then dried, it will burn with a deep yellow flame ; hence it is obvious, that the green tinge in quellion is only caufed by a mixture of the yellow flame of the boracic acid with the blue one of the alcohol. When boracic acid is heated to rednefs in a filver crucible, it becomes firit of a party confillcnce, and then melts into a tenacious glafs perfectly colourlefs and tranfparcnt. By ex- pofure to the air, this glafs becomes opalcfcent, but docs not undergo any other change ; it is foluble in water, and may be obtained, by cooling and evaporation, in the Hate of cryftalhne plates as before. When fiifed in an earthen cru- cible, it diifolves fome of the earth, and forms a Itmi-tranf- pareiit glafs confiderably lels fufible than the pure acid; and when diffolved in water, and evaporated, it becomes a gela- tinous mafs, fupcrficially covered with a few cry Hals of bo- racic acid. Neither the oxygenating nor deoxygenating procefles ap- pear to have the fmallcft eff^eft on this acid ; and all attempts to raife it to a higher degree of oxygenation, or to decom- pole It, numerous as they have been, have not been attended with the fmallell fuccefs. It unites in the moirt way by fingle afiinity with the cauftic alkalies, and by compound affiuity alio with the earths and metallic oxyds ; its attradtion, how- ever, ic fo feeble, that it is incapable, when in folution, of didoilging even the carbonic acid from its bafis. Rut weak as boracic acid is in the moill way, its fixity in the fire ena- bles it to feparate, in a high heat, the iiilphnric, nitric, muriatic, and all the other volatilizable acids from their bafes, forming with them a genus of falts called borau, none of which, exec))! the fub-borat of foda, or common Borax, has hitlicrto been made the objedl of chemical invfftigation. I'onicic acid, befides being obtained from the decompo- fition of borax, is alfo found native in certain hot ipriiigsand lakes in Tufcany. It is not applied to any medical, chemi- cal, or cco'.ionucal ufe. BORACITE, Bora%tt, Ww-fdjlcm ; Ma^mfte boratu, Hauy. The colour of this mineral is yiUowifll, fmoke or afli-grcy, pafiiiig into greyilh or greenifli-white. It occurs in fmall cubic cryllals truncated on the angles. The cryrtals are for the mod part opaque, fome are feini-tianfparent, and a few of the fmallell are entirely tranfparent. Their lullrc internally is conliderablc, and of the vituous kind. The fracture is fmall and flat conchoidaT, pafHng into uneven and fpliiiterv. The cryftals are often corroded more or lefs, and then are eafily pulveiizable ; bat when perfeft, they iirc hard enough to give brilk and lively fparks wiitn iliuck againd the fteel. Sp. gr. i^fi. The boracite, wlicn expofed to a full red heat, becomes opaque, and lofes about \ per cent, of its weight, but un- dergoes no other change ; when intenfcly heated in a clay crucible, it runs into a yellowidi g'afs. It is entirely, though with difliculty, foluble in muriatic acid by long digcllion. According to the analylis of Wellrumb, it confills of 68 boracic acid 1,3.5 "'agnefia II lime 1 alumina 0.75 oxyd of iron 2 lilex 96.25 Some later experiments, however, of Vauquelin make the proportion of lime to be much fmaller ; and it appears pro- bable, that the only elfcntial ingredients of this mineral are boracic acid and niagiielia. Boracite is found near Luneburg, in the duchy of Brunf- wick, lining the lides of a vein in a hill of fulphat of hme. Tlie cryllals from their fliape were known in tlie neighbour- hood by the name of wurfelfpath, or cubic fpar, and were fuppofed by fome mineralogills to be a variety of quartz. The prefencc of boracic acid in them was not fufpefled, till the analylis of Wcftriinib, publilhed in 178S, in the Traufadlions of the Society Nat. Curiof. Emmerling. Hduy. An. de Chim. v. 1 1 . BORAGE, i:i Botnm. See Borago. BORAGlNE.Ii, the n-nth order of the eighth clafs of Jnffieu, of which he gives the following natural charaflcr. C^/j-.v five-parted, permanent. Cvrolla molt commonly regular. Stamens generally live. Germ Am- ple, or four-lobed. Style one. Stigma either bifid, furrowed, or liir.ple. Seeils moll frequently four, either in a capfule or a berry; or elfe apparently naked, obliquely attached to the llyle, and for the moft; part enclofed in the permanent calyx. Coreulum without a perifperm. Stem in moll herbaceous ; in a few, a flirub or a tree. Leaves alternate, often rough. The genera are thrown into live diviflons. i. Fruit, a berrv ; item, a ftirub or a tree. Patagonula, cordia, ehrctia, menais, varronia, tournefortia. 2. Fruit, one or two-cap- fular, herbaceous. Hydrophyllum, phacelia, clllfia, di- chondra ? B O R chondra? m5{nrrfclimidia, cennthc 3. Fruit, four naked fctvii ; lliroat of tlic corolh naked ; for tlic mod part herba- ceous and roii^h. Coldeinia, hcliotropinm, ecliium, licho- Ipcrmum, pulniunaria, onofma. 4. Fruit, four naked feeds ; throat ol the corolla clofcd; herbaceous, and generally rough- leaved. Symphytum, Ivcopiis, ir.yofoiis, anchufa, borago, afperugo, cynocioiruin. Obf. Tlu- lall two divifi-jns would more logicMlly hiive been thrown into one, with two fub- tlivilions. Tliey conililutc Liiuux-us's natuial order, afpcri- folii. 5. Alhed to the boraginex ; herbaceous. Nolana, fip.'ionaalhus ? falkia, tlie connecling link between the bora- gincE and corivolvoli. I-a Marck (I'lncyc.Method.) gives the boragineae a cha- rnii^er which belongs almoll exclufively to the afpcnfolia; of L.uuia:us. He has only three divifions : i. Four germs, or one, four-parted ; the proper afprrifolix. 2. Five germs, or one with five divilions ; nolana, monnicria, raputia. T!:e natural fituation of the lall two was left undetermined by Juflicu. 3. One undivided germ ; comprphcnding the firll and Iccond divifion of JulTieu. He has placed this divifion laft, apprehending, and furely not without reafon, that it ought to form a dillinc\ order between the boraginex and convolvoli. The bpragiufi compofe the twelfth family of the eighth clafs of Venterat, in his " Tableau du rtgue vegetal." It contain'! only the afperifolis, with the Linnxan charafter, except that, in concurrence with Gxrtner, the fruit is con- fidered as confilling of two or four nuts ; in the former cafe each two-celled and two-fecded ; in the htter, each one- celled and one-fecded ; the feeds attached either to the inner fide or bafc of the nut by a filiform or capillary peduncle or placenta. BORAGO (derivation of the name uncertain). Linn, gen. 18S. Reich. 200. Schreb. 248. Wiild. 283. Juff. 131. Ga:rt. torn. i. 415. Smith Flor. Brit. 78. Clafs, frr.tanilria monody iiia. Nat. Ord. iT/ptn/ciHiC — BoraginCit juir. Gen. Charac. Cnl. perianth five-parted, permanent. Cor. monopetalous, whcel-fhaped ; border five-parted, flat ; feg- ments acute ; throat crowned wiih five emarginate, obtufe prominences. Stum, five, awl-fiiaped, converging ; anthers oblong, fixed to the infide of the filaments in the middle, converging. Pyi. geims four; flyle filiform, longer than the ilamens: (ligma fimple. Pn'icarp none ; calyx larger, inflated, containing the feeds. Linn. Schreb. La Marek, Juff. Pericarp, nuts four, boney, ovate, a little compreffcJ, fligl'.tly convex on one fide, fmooth, (liining, light chefiait, obfoletcly angular, marked with a longitudinal furrow in the middle, and wiih parallel, t:-anfverfe wrinkles, imperforate, one-celled, without valves, ^fir^/ folitary, ovate-acuminate, almoll black. Gsert. Eff. Char. Cor. wheel-lhaped ; border fprtading, acute ; throat clofed with rays. Species, l. B. officinalis. Eng. Bot. j'l. common borasfe. •' All the leaves alternate ; calyxes fprcading," Linn. Root long, flefhy, tender, white, fibrous ; Hem about a foot a:id a halt high, branched, hollow, fucculent, cylindric ; leaves al- ternate, large, oval-lanceolate, obtufe, wainklcd, deep green, and, as well as the llern, rough, with (harp, rigid, white bridles ; the lower on petioles, the upper fclfile ; flowers ter- minating on branched peduncles, bine, flefli-coloured, or white ; calyx and corolla divided to the bafe ; tube fliort and white ; filaments (hoit, white, fpringing from the claws of the petal, with a (harp blue proccfs, where the dark purple or blackifli anthers are inferted. Said to have come ori- ginaily from Aleppo, but now naturalized in many parts of Europe, and not uucomraou in the neighbourhood of Lon- B O R don on dunghills and among rubbilli, where it is fcarcely more than b-.ennial. It was formerly cultivated in gardens, on account of the fuppofed cordial virtues of its flowers, but tliey have long loll tlieir reputation, having neither warmth, pungency, finell, nor any other indication of aftivc qualities. Its root, (lem, and leaves contain an infipid vilcous juice, which, on being boiled a ccnfiderable time, form cryilals of nitre. A clariljed fyrup formed from it is prefcribcd by the French phylicians in pleurifies, and otlier dil'ordeis which re- quire a cool treatment. In Italy its young and tender leaves are in common ufe, both as a pot-herb and a fallad. In France its flowers, with thofe of nrdhirtium (tropoeolum), are put into fallads as an ornameiit. In England the flowers and upper leaves are ufed as an ingredient in that Cummer beverage compoftd of wine, water, lemon-juic;, and fugar, celled a cool tankard, to which they fcem to give an addi- tional coolnefs. 2. B. indkn. " Leaves of the ramifications oppofite, embracing the Hem ; foholes of the calyx figiltate." Linn. " Peduncles one-flowered." Miller. An annual plant, rarely rifing a foot high. Stem branching, rough, with fmall, white, (lifTifli hairs j leaves lanceolate, rugged, only the lower ones oppofile ; flowers axillary, (horter than the leaves | folioles of the calyx five-angled, hifpid, expand- ing at the bale into two remarkable fnarp-puinted auricles ; corolla white, pale-blue, or flefh-colour, with five rull- cnloured fpots. A native of the Eall Indies. 3. B. nfri- cana. " Leaves of the ramifications pctiolate ; tolioles of the calyx ovate, acute, ereft." Linn. " Peduncles many- flowered." Mur. Whole plant hifpid, with llifl, fragil briftles, feven or eight inches high, more branching than 13. indica. Leaves large, ovate, and oppofite ; floral leaves fmall and alternate ; corolla fmall, blue, yellow within, with five purpliA fpots; peduncles terminating, divided, and almoll racemed ; folioles of the calyx entire. Native of the cape of Good Hope, cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1759. 4. B. ^eylanica. " Leaves of the ramifications feflile ; pedun- cles one-flowered ; calyx without ears." Linn. Mant. Ste.a hifpid, branching, al)0ut a foot high ; leaves of the ftem oppofite, lanceolate, hilpid ; of the branches alternate, more numerous, fmaller, and more acute ; peduncles axillary, fili- form, folitary, longer than the leaves ; calyx the length of the corolla, ered. A native of the Eafl Indies. 5. B. hngifoKa. Poiret. Barbary. " Leaves linear-lanceolate, fefliie, alternate ; calyx very hairy at the bafe." Willd. Allied to the foregoing, but fufBciently dillindt. Segments of the calyx linear, without ears. A native of Barbary. 6. B. orienial'u. " Calyxes (horter than the tube of the co- rolla ; leaves cordate." Linn. Petiolate ; peduncles many- flowered ; Ilamens longer than the cbrolla, hairv. La Marck. Root large, flefliy, black without, whitilli within, full of an infipid vifcous juice ; fl;em more than two feet high ; root leaves large, on long peduncles, cordate ; Hem leaves alternate, fmall, ovate, on membranous petioles, chan- nelled at the bafe ; flowers axillai7, and terminating, pani- cled ; tube of the corolla longer than the calyx, while ; border white, reflexed. A native of the country about Con- flantinople. 7. B. creiica. " Calyxes the length of the tubeof the corolla; leaves ovate." Willden. Taken up from Tuurneiort, cor. 6, and defcribed from a dried fpecimen. Segments of the calyx ovate rhomboid, very entire ; flowers red. Pr'jpnga.'ion and Culture. The firft is a hardy annual, which will fow its own feed?, and come up without care. The feeds of the feeond, third, and fourth Ihould be fown upon a hot-bed in March, and the piar.ts lliould afterwards be feparately planted in a fmall pot, with light earth, and plunged in a ucw bot-bed ; in hot weather they fl.onld be allowed B O R BO R allowed R pood deal of air. The fixtli Is n perennial, eafily propagated by the root, wh.ich may hz parted in autumn, and planted in a diy f '1 and warm Ihuation. BoRAOO (Morf.-ii). Sea Cynochosswi o/r/'/ja/oifas. BORAHS, Lat. Boao/ia, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of W-ll Gotlih;id, lituate in a mild and nminitainous country, on the river Wiilo. It was founded by Giiitavus Adolj'hn?, and in 1622 endowed v/ith fcvtral privileges. Its inhabitants are a fort of itinerant pedlars, who deal in I'men, and traverfe the kniirdom for this purpofe. Tliis town was delboyed by fire in 1727 ; but %vas afterwards rebuilt, and continues in a good condition. It has a fprin r of medicinal water ; and has the farty-third vote in the diet. BORAK, among Muhonutims., a fabulous animal, fnp- pofed to be ot a middle ki.id between an afs and a mule, whereon the prophet was carried in his nofturnal flight from Jerufalem into the Heavens. This animal the Arabs called Al Borah, q. d. J]:.'imi)g. Tlie night when the journey was performed is called Lcilat al Jileerage, i. e. ihe ni«/j/ of ofcenjion ; and the flight itfelf yll Al^fra, concerning which there is a multitude of -tradi- tions. BO R ANA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Tortrix that inhabits Sweden. Tnis is of a large fize, with the head cinereous, and thorax fufcous. Fabricius, who deferibes it in his MantifTa, thus defines it fpeeifically : wings varied with cinereous and fufcous, with elevated fcattered dots. BORANI, in Anckut Geography, a people of Scythia, who, after having inhabited the borders of the Danube, pafTed the Cimmerian Bofphorus, under the emperor Julli- nian, and ellablidied themfelves in Afia, BORANO, Cape, in Geography, lies near the N.W. ex- tremity of the large gulf of Venice, and forms the N.E. point to the duller of iflands that impede the entrance into that city. N. lat. about 45° 16'. E. long. 12'' 30'. An ifland of the fame name lies within the cape. BORASSUS, in Botany {/Sopacrcro;, Diofcorides). Linn. 1220. Reich. 1336. Schreb. 16S9. Clafs, appendix palms, J_.inn. dl^cia hexandria, Thunb. Gen. Char. Male, ampana, Rheede Hort. Mai. Cal. fpathe univerfal, compound ; fpadix amentaceous, imbricate ; perianth proper, thtee-leaved ; leaves ovate, concave. Cor. none. Stam. filaments fix, thickifh ; anthers thicker, ftriated. Female on a diftinft plant, car'impana, Rheede. Cal. fpathe and fpadix as in the male ; perianth proper, three- leaved, permanent ; leaves roundifh, obtufe. Cor. petals three, rounclhh, permanent ; in La Marck's figure cxaftly fimilar in form and fize to the leaves of the calyx. Pifl, germ roundilh ; flyles three, fmall ; ftigmas fimple. Peri- carp, dnipe, roundilli, obtufe, rigid, one-celled. Seeds three, fub-ovate, compreffed, diilindt, filamcntofe. Species, B. fahellijonms. La Marck Illuft. tl. 898. " Fronds palmate, cowled ; ftipes ferrate." Linn. A tree twenty live or thirty feet higli ; two feet thick at bottom, and one at top. Trunk, bai k of a dark colour ; wood dark rufous red, with a foft pith in the middle ; fronds about eight, decuffate (umbellate. La Marck), at the top of the trunk ; ft;pe near fix feet long, round, and near a fpan in breadth below, flat, fomewhat concave, and not more than a p5lory llony compounds, the ufe of the former fah being much more convenient, on many accounts, than of the latter. Borax will alfo diffolve moll ©f the metallic oxyds, receiving from each peculiar tinges of eolonr. The ufes of borax arc confiderable ; it is employed in the laboratory as a very adlivc flux, and as producing a more perfeftly limpid fulion than any oiher fubHancs. For the fame rcafon it is an ingredient in fome of the finer kinds of glafs ; though its dearnefs prevents it from being employed fo often as it otherwife might be to great advantage. Borax is alfo highly ufefnl to the jewellers and goldfmitlis, as a flux for the folder, by wiiieh pieces of gold and filver are ce- mented together; and in tl'.e End Indies it is employed in the moid wav as a fobxnt for gum lac. 30 RBE'i'O MAGUS, in y/nmv;/ Geography, IVurms, a town of Germany, according to Ptolemy, who fays, it be- longed to the Vangioni. It was their capital. See Worms. BORBO, in Geography, a river of Piedmont, which dif- charges itfelf into the Tanaro at AlU. BORBONIA, in Jietuny, (in honour of Gallon Bourbon, duke of Orleans,) a name firit given by Plumier to ( lants of different characters, afterwards transferred by LiniiKiis to a genus in his clafs diail.lpbia ilicaiulna, which is oblcurely dctincd, and concerning which there are in authors mucli confnfion and inconfilVeiicy. L.a Marck fays, that it differs from genilla,only in having the fegments of its calyx a little longer and Iharper, which is fiirely a flight and indetermi- nable circumllaiice ; and from afpalathus, in not having its B O R leaves fafciculated, which is certainly no generic charaacr at all. He follows Linnaeus, however, in keeping thefe three genera dillinft, but unites it with liparia, from which he finds no reafon to feparate it. Linijxus attributes to it only nine llamens, all united, and obfeiVes, that liparia (a genus formed by him, late in life, from Tlninberg's plants, coUeded at the cape of Good Hope) differs from it m having a tenth feparate ilamen. Bofc fays, that the bor- bonia'has either nine or ten ilamens, eight or nine of which are united at their bafe. La Marck, wiihout noticing Lin- noius's dilliiiftion, aferibes to his united genera ten diadel- phous ftamens ; but it ought to be remarked, that all his dcfcriptions are confeflldly made from dried fpecimens, and Bofc informs us that none of the fpecics are now cultivated in the Paris gardens. In this (late of uncertainty we fl^all follow Willdenow in retaining the Linnsean diltributioii. Linn. S;-;;. Schreb. 1165. \yillden. 1.329. Julf. 85J. Nat. Ord. P apilhmaceie — Legumiiwfn:. Jud. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-le^ftd, femiquinquefid, tur- binate, half the length of the corolla ; fegments lanceolate, acuminate, rigid, pungent, uearly equal, the lower one the longeil. 6V. pentapetalous, papilionaceous, hirfute on the outfide, banner reflefted, obtufe, claw the length of the calyx ; wings femicordate, a little (liorter than the banner ; keel two-petalled, hinulate, obtufe. Stam. filaments nine, united into a cylinder, dehifcent longitudinally above, rifing at tlie end ; anthers fmall. P'ljt. germ fubulate ; ftyle very rted by Jofeph of Arimathea," from the fame mailer ; and " Apollo and Cupid," from Perin del Vago. Pilkington and Strutt. BORCHWORM, or Borgworm, or Warem, in Geo- graphy, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphaha, and bifhopric of Liege ; 10 miles W, of Liege. BORCKELOE, or Borcklo, a town of the united ftatcs of Holland, in the county of Zutphen, on the con- fines of the bilhopric of Munfter, feated on the river Eeixkel ; 15 miles E. N. E. of Zutphen, and 42 W. N. W. of Mnnller. BORCUM, a fmall ifland in the German ocean, near the coaft of Eall FrieOand : about N. N. W. from the point of Embden, at its S.W. entrance into the port and river, and about 3 leagues N. E. by E. from the idand Ri.ttum. Be- tween them is a channel called the Weft Channel of the Embs. N. lat. 5,5° 36'. E. long. 6^ iS'. BORDA, Charles, in Biography, formerly Chevalier de Borda, and a chef d' Efcadre, in the royal navy under the, old French government, was born at Dax, May 4, 1733, and diltinguidied himfelf in early life as an able mathematician. Of his knowledge in this department of fcience ample evi- dence may be found in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, for 1763 and 1767, of which he was admitted a member in 1754. Thefe memoirs contain many excellent papers, communicated by Borda, on different objefts of hydraulics ; on the refiftance of fluids ; on water-wheels and pumps ; on the projeftions of bombs ; on the method of determining curve fines ; on the properties of maxima and minima; and on the beft method of choofing by lot. In' the years 1771 and 1772, he performed a voyage, by command of the king, with Verdun de la Cranne and Pingre, in the Flora frigate, in which he had the rank of " lieutenant de Vaiffeau," to various parts of Europe, Africa, and America, for the purpofe of improving the fciences of geography and navigation, and of making expe- riments with various nautical inllruments and time-pieces, with a view of afcertaining accurate methods for determining the longitude. The refidt of the obfervations of thefe three C aivigatort B O R savigetors was afterwarjs puhlifhtvl at Paris in 1 776, in 2 »ola. 4to., under the title of " Voyage fait par ordre dii Roi. in 1771 a;;d J 772, &c." in vvliicli Borda's fliarc was not the lealk confidcrable. An account of the refnlt of this expedition may be alfo found in the Memoirs of tiic Paris Academy for 1773. '^° Boida the puhhc arc likewife in- debted for the bell cliiit of the CanaiT iflands, which ferved •s a model for the v.diiabk map of thofe iflanc'.s, pi:bli(hcd in Spiin in 17^8. l:i 1774. he undertook a vpyaije to the Azores, the eape Vrrd iilindL-, and the coall of Africa. In the year 17S-, he paUhlh-d a valuable work'j-'ehtitled " Dc- fcription ct ufajje dii circle dc Reflexion, "-in which he re- vived the ufe of the rcrteftirjj circle propofcd by Tobias Maver i.i ij'/'. He was the lirll founder of the Ichools of navS: architcAiire in France, and formed the pl:in of educa- tion, and the rtsjulations to be adopted in tlicfe feminaries. He alfo applied the principles of Euler to the uniform coMllruftion of fliips, fo th:it ali thofe of tiie French navy might be equal witli refpeift to failing. And the advantajijes, in point of fo;m, with rcfjard to quick failing and manoeuvr- ing, poilcfTed by French ihips wiiicli are conllruclcd on true mathematical principles, and aftually acknowledged by ex- perienced Britilh officers, hav;' been principally owing to the gcnin.;, knowledge, and exertions of Borda. He iike- wife brjught into ufe Mayer's old method of meafuring terreftrial angles, after it had been long neglected ; applied it to adronomical oblervations ; and invented a circle on a new conllruilion, with moveable tciefcopes, together with other inlirurnents ; fuch as metallic rules for meafuring bafes, which were ufed in the new mcafuremeut of an arc of the me- ridian in France ; and to the labours of Borda the accuracy of this meafurement has been julUy afcribed. He took the motl aclive part in the late reform of v/cights antl mealures introduced in France ; and he caufcd to be calculated and printed, at his own expence, the logarithms of the dtdmal parts of the circle, according to the new divifion into 400 parts. In 1792, he invented inftriiments and methods for determining, with a precifion before unknovvu, the length of a pendulum, fwinging fcconds at Paris. M. Lalande has publilhed, in his Abridgment of Navigation, Borda's new method for gauging veiTels, together with the tables. Borda was infpeftor of the dock-yards, in which fituation government put great confidence in his talents ; and, in 1797, he was one of the candidates for the office of direftor of the French republic. Although his health had been much im- paired, in confequence of ferving in the American war with d'Eftaingin 1777 and 1778, he continued to employ hlmfelf in a variety of ufeful labours. At length, however, a dropfy of the bread proved fr.tal to him, on the 2Cth of February, 1799, in the 64th year of his age. Lalande's Hilt. Aftron. for J 799. BORDAGE, the condition 01 fervice of the tordarii. Du-Cange. Gloff. Lat. BORDAIIII, often mentioned in the Domefday inquifi- tion, were diftindl from tlie/'rw and villmii, and feem to be thofe of a Icfs fervile condition, who had a lord, or cot- tage, with a fmall parcel of land allowed to them, on condition they (hould fupply the lord with poultry and eggs, and other fmail provifions for his board and entertainment. Though, according to Spelman, the tordarii were inferior to •eillani, as being limited to a fmall number of acres. BoRDARii alfo denote fervajits, or workmen, employed about the houfe in the necefiary offices of fetching wood, drawing water, grinding corn, cleaning yards, and the like : by which they Hand diEinguinxed from villani, employed in the tillage of lands. See Villain. BOIIBAT, ia Commerce, a fmall narrow fluff which is B O R manufactured in fome parts of Egypt, particularly at Cairo, Alexandria, and Damietta. BORD-BRIGCH, Borg-lryce, or Btirgh-bry.-h, Sax. in Engiyb /Inliquily, a breach, or violation of fuietylhip, pledge- breach, or breach of mutual fidelity. BORDE, Andrew, or, as he calls himfelf, Andreas Per. foratus, in Biography, was born at I'evc: fe-y in SufTex, in the early part of the 1 6th century, and entered early among the Carthulians. Qnitting his monailery, he went to Montpcllier, and applied h'mfelf to the Ihidy of medicine, and in 1 542, was made a doftor in that faculty. He now returned to England, and having been admitted of the uni- verfity of Oxford, he came to London, and was made fellow of the Royal College of Phyficians, which had been lately eilablilhed here, and one of the phyficians to king Henry VIII. at Wincheller, where he principally rtfided and pradlifed. Though advanced to thefe honours, his works, full of grofs and barbarous errors, fhew' he was but moi'eiately (killed in languages. He, however, aileCted to Ijf l.arned, generally beginning his accounts of dileafes, with giving the Greeii, Latin, and Arabic names by which they were known. His " Breviary of Health," containing a .Oiort account of all difeafes and their retr.edies, was pub- lilhed in 1 '547. This was republiflied in London in 4to. in 1575, with fome additions which the author had called the extravagants. He was alio author of a compendious regimeiitc, or dietary of health, made in mount Pyllor, which was publiihed in 1,562, and of a book on prognortics, and on urines. Boide was alfo a wit and a poet. He pub- liihed " Tales of the mad men of Gotham," a book Hill remembered ; and a very fingular work, partly profe, partly in verle, which he called " The Introdiittion of Knowledge, &c." dedicated to the princefs, afterwards queen Mary. Before the firft chapter is a wooden print of a naked man, with a piece of cloth and a pair of (hears, with this in- fcription : " I am an Englifiiman, and naked I (land here. Muling in my mind what raiment I (hall wear : For now I will wear thys, and now I will wear that. And now I will wear I cannot tell what, &c." The thought, Dr. Aikin fays, is taken froln the Vene- tians' defcription of a Frenchman. It was probably in con- fequence of his having taken more liberty than was allowed at that time with fome perfon in power, that he was thrown into the Fleet prifon, where he died in 1549. Haller Bib. Med. Aikin's Biog. Mem. BORDEAUX, HI Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in the didiift of Die, to miles S. W. of Die ; the place con- tains 1 18 1, and the canton 3885 inhabitants : the territory comprehends ip/i^ kiliometres and 9 communes. BORDEKOW, a town of Poland, m the palatinate of Lemberg : ,56 miles S. of Lemberg. BORDELIE'RE, in Ichthyology, the common French name of a fi(h included in the Cvprinus genus, that is found in the lakes of cold mountainous countries. This appellation appears to be indifferently applied to the cyprinus baiterus, and cyprinus hlicca of Bloch. BORDENAVE, Tous/saint, in ^/ojra/Z^, was born at Pans in 1728. Having di(lingui(hed himfelf for his in- dnftry and (lout the middle thrum of a flower. BORDES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Arriege ; l\ leagues W. of Mirepoix. BORDEU, Anthony, "in Biography, a phyfician of confiderable eminence, was born at Kefte, in Bcarn, in 169;. After being initiated in the ftudy of medicine by his father, he went to Montpellier, where he was admitted doftor in that faculty in 1719. Invited, in 1723, to Pau, the capital of the province, lie acquired fo much reputation, as to pro- cure him tl\e offices of phyfician to the military hofpital at Bareges, and of infpcAor of the mineral waters there. To the waters he paid great attention, and in 1750, he publilhed a fmall tre»t:fe, (hewing the efTefts he had experienced from them in a variety of Jifeafes. He lived to an advanced age, but the preeifc time of his death lias not been noted. B0R.DEU, Thfophilus de, following the fteps of his father, attained to a Hill higher degree of profelTional emi- nence. He was born in 172^ ; and having paffed through his ftudies with fingular credit, was created doctor in medi- cine at MontpeUier, in 1743. In 1745, he was appointed to fucceed liis father, as infpeclor of the mineral waters, and profelTor in anatomy, which was his favourite ftudy. In 1 74", he was made correfponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, whither he foon after went ; and after paffing through the ufual courfe of ihidits, he was admitted dodlor in medicine there, in 3 754. He was taken off fuddenly by a llroke of apoplexy in 1776, being in the 55th year of his age. He was through life diligent and attentive to his profefTional duties, and feems to have been adluated by a deiire of improving his art, and of leaving me- morials of his induftry and ingenuity. The principal of his works are, " Chylificationis hi.loria," his inaugural thefis, 1742, re-printed at Paris, 1752, l2mo. with his " Rc- cherches fur les glandes." He thought he obferved a du£t pafllng from the thyroid gland to the trachsea ; an opinion, which he repeats in another of his works, but without fuf- ficicnt ground. " Differtatio phyfiologica de fenfu genericc confiderato," Monfpelii, J74J, 8vo. ; 1751, Paris, with bis " Chylificationis hilloria. " Lettres contenant des eflais fur I'hiftoire des caux minerales du Beam, S:c. i2mo. 1746. In thefe he treats of the properties of the waters, and of the geography of Beam. " Rechevches anatomiques fur la po- fition des glandes et fur leur actions, Paris, 1751, 8vo. •' Recherches fur le pouls par raport aux crifes," Paris, 17156, i2mo. ; in which he has gone much beyond Solano in his difcrimiiiation of pulfes, and beyond what can be fol- lowed in pradlice. " Recherches fur le tiftu muqueux, et I'organe cellulaire," Paris, 1766, i2mo. Haller accufes him of difingenuity in attributing to himfelf the difcovery of fome properties of the cellular membrane, which had been B O R before defcribcd by him and others, but does not deny the woik to have on the whole confiderable merit. HaU. Bib. Anat. Eloy. Dia.Hill. Aikin's Gen. Biog. BoRDFu, Fkancis, brother to Theophilus, and edu- cated under liis father and him, was born at P""' >" '^V>1' Having taken his degree of doflor in medicine at Montpel- lier, in 1756, he returned to Pau, and was appointed to fupply the place of liis brotlier, as infpeaor of the waters tliero. In 1757, he publlflied " De fenfibilitate et contrac- tibilitate partium in coipore huniaro fano," Monfpell. ; and in 1760, " Precis d'obfervations fur les eau- de Bareges," &c. 1 2!no. coUefled principally from the works of his father, brother, and other writers on the fubjea. " Recherche* fur les maladies chroniques, leur rapports avcc les maladies aigues, &c. 1775, 8vo. ; principally with the view of (hew- ing the utility and the manner of adminiftering mineral- waters in the cure of chronical complaints. Haller. Bib. Chiiiirg. Eloy. Did. Hift. BORD-Free. See Free. Bord-Halfpenny, or BROD-H.-iLFPENNY, money paid in markets and fairs, for fetting up boards, tables, and ftalls,. for the falc of wares. BORDIGHERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Rate of Genoa, 3 miles E.N.E. of Ventimiglia. BORD-LANDS, the demefnes anciently kept by the lords in their hands for the maintenance of their board or table. This was anciently called horJage. BORDO Nuova, in Geography, a town of Servia, 18 miles E.S.E. of Piftrina. BORDOE, one of the Faroe iflands, having a harbour on the N.W. coaft. BORDONE, Paris, in B'lography, a painter of hiftory, portrait, and architefture, was born at Trevigi, in 151.;, and at a proper age became a dilciple of Titian, whofe un- communicative difpofition he had occafion to regret. He ftudied and imitated the ftyle of Giorgione, and acquired fuch reputation, that at the age of 18 years he v\'as employed in painting a pifture in the church of St. Nicholas. From Venice he removed to Vinccnza, in confequence of an invi- tation to adorn a gallery with paintings in frefco, in which Titian had exhibited a defign repiefcnting the judgment of Solomon. Bordone compofed the hiftory of Noah and his fons, which he finifhed with fuch care, that it was not eiteemed infe- rior to the work of Titian. Having finifhed feveral confiderable works at Venice andTrevigi, he entered, in 1 5.58, into the fer- vice of Francis I. of France ; and gained additional reputation by various hiftorical fubjefts and portraits, which were excel- lently defigncd, and recommended by a chaiming tone of co- lour. On quitting France he vifited feveral cities of Italy, in which he left a number of memorable works, as monuments of his extraordinary abihties. His colouring refembles nature, and his portraits have been very much admired ; feveral of them are ftill prefcrved in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence, the colouring of which is clear, frefli, and beautiful. This artift died in 1 5 88, at the age of 75, according to Vafari ; but according to Felibien, at the age of 6j years. Pilkington. BORD-SERVICE, called alfo Bordage, the tenure of lands on condition of furnifhing provilion for the lord's board or table. Some lands in the manor of Fulham, and elfewhcre, are ftill held of the bifhop of London, by the fervice, that the tenants pay fixpence per acre in heu of finding provifion for their lord's table. BORDURE, or Border, in Heraldry, is a partition line running all round the infide of the field, of an equal width, taking up one-fifth from the outer edge of the field, and without any Ibadow. Arms having a plajp bordure, are em- blazooed B O R blazoned argent, a lortliire gules ; but if indented, engrailed, embattled, &c. argent, a bordtire indaited, gules. The bordure always gives place to the chief, the quarter, and the canton ; for example, or, a bordure, a-zure, and a chief, gules. The chief, therefore, is always placed over the bordure, as are alfo the qi-.arter and canton. The bordure is continued under the chief, but with the quarter and canton it continues found, until it touches them, and there finiflies ; but with other ordir.aries, as the chevron, fefs, bend, &c. the bordure always paiTes over. In arms empaled with another having a bordure, '.he bordure ninll finifli at the empaled line, and not proceed round the coat, as is too often praftifed. When the bordure is charged with bezants, plates, billets, or pellets, it is termed a bordure, gules, bczantce, platee, billetee, or pelletee ; all other charges are exprefsly mentioned as to number and colour. The bordure is borne different ways, as gobone, cheque, vair, bend. Sec. which are explained un- der the different terms. See Gobone, &c. The bordure is not confidered as one of the honourable ordinaries, but as a mark of difference, to diftinguifli one fa- mily from another. Bordure, Per, an inner bordure, appearing as two bordures : bordure indented, with the middle line mdented. Bordure, j*^y//;/ /«^o/n/ indented, differs from the bordure per bordure indented, as the indents mull be from line to line, that is, mull touch both fides of the bordure. Bordure of the jield, is merely a partition line, of the co- lour of the field, nmning round the arms. This bearing is never ufed in Englifli armory, but is often borne both in France and Germany. Bordure Entier, commonly called entoyer, or entoire, a term when charged with inanimate things, as clcailop- ftells, &c. Bordure Enaluren, fo called when charged with birds. Bordure Enurny, when charged with lions. Bordure Verdoy, when charged with vegetables. Bordure PurJIewed, when it is lliaped like vair. BORDUUN, German, probably from Bourden, Fr. a ftop in an organ fo called, of which the founds are an odave lower than the diapafon, to which tliis flop is in the fame proportion as the double-bafe to the violoncello. In an organ, of which thelongefl pipe in the diapafon is iixteen feet, that of the borduun would require thirty-two feet. See Organ and Diapason. BORE, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania, 70 miles E. N. E. of Cagni. Bore, a term ufed to denote a fudden and abrupt influx of the tide into a river or narrow ilrait. This prevails to a confiderable degree in the principal branches of the Ganges, and in the Megna ; but the Hoogly river, and the paffages between the iflands and fands fituated in the gulf, formed by the confluence of the Ganges and Megna, are more fubjeft to it than the other rivers. This may be owing partly to their having greater " embouchures," in proportion to their channels, than the others have ; by which means a larger proportion of tide is forced through a paffage comparatively fmaller ; and partly to the want of capital openings wear them, by which any confiderable portion of the accumulat- ing tide might be drawn off. In the Hoogly or Calcutta river, the bore commences at Hoogly point, where the river firft contrafts itfelf, and is perceptible above Hoogly town ; and its motion is fo quick, that it hardly takes up four hours in paffing from one to the other, although the dillance is near 70 miles. At Calcutta it fometimes occafions an inllantaneous rife of five feet : and both here, and in every other part of its track, the boats, on its approach, immediately quit the Ihore, and feek fafety in the middle of ihe river. In the B O R channels, between the iflands, in the mouth of the Megna, &c. the height of the bore is faid to exceed twelve feet ; and it is fo terrific in its appearance, and dangerous in its confequences, that no boat will venture to pais at fpring. tide. After the tide has paffed the iflands, no vellige of a bore is fcen, wliich may be owing to the great width of the Megna, in comparifon with the paffages between the iflands ; but the eflefts of it are vifible enough, by the fudden rifing of the tides. The bores are alfo high and d;ni;^erous in the mouths of the river Indus. To this fudden influx of the tide, in a body of water elevated above the common fuil'ace of the fea, may be afcribed the injury fufllred by Alexander's fleet, and defcribed by Arrian. He fays, thofe fhips that lay upon the land were fwept away by the fury of the tide, while thofe that ihick in the mud were fet afloat again with- out damage. In order to account for this fat\ it fliould be confidered, that the bottoms of channels, in great rivers,, are muddy, while the fhallows are formed of fand; and it is the property of the bore to take the fliortefl cut up a river, inllcad of following the windings of the channel; conlequent- ly it mull crofs the fand-banks it meets in its way ; and it will alfo prove more deftrudlive to whatever it meets with aground than what is afloat. Rennell's Memoir. BorE; in Gunnery; the bore of a gun, or piece of ordnance, is ufed for the chafe or barrel ; though it feems rather to de- note the diameter of the chafe. See Caliber, and Cannon. liiOKE, fquare, in Smilhery, denotes a iqnarc Heel point, or Ihank, well tempered, fitted in a Iquire locket in an iron wimble, fcrving to wind holes, and make them truly round and fniooth within. BOREA, an ancient name for a fpecies of Jaspir, ofa bluifli green colour. BOREADES, in Mythology, the patronymic names of Zethes and Calais, the fons of Boreas. Hyginus (fib. xl.) • fays, that they had wings to their head and feet. BOREi\.L Signs, in j'ljlronomy, the firft fix figns of the zodiac, or thofe on the northern fide of the equinoClial. BOREALIS, Aurora. See Aurora Borealis. Borealis, in Conchohgy, a fpecies of Venus. Thi,rms ns it i» a oalivc of Iceland, where it inhabits fens, and is very fcarce. BoREALis, a fpccies of Tkinca, the belly and legs of which arc fufcous ; body above cinereous, beneath white ; tail and winp« dufkv. Tonnd in Kinjj George's bay. This is the Boreal fanil-piper of Lnthar.i. Tlie bill is fliort, black, and lomewhat gibbous at the tip ; cyc-brows white. BoREALis, a fpecics of MoTACiLLA, of a green colour; beneath yellow ; front, throat, and temples ferruginous ; tail rotund, feathers on the liJes and at the tips white. A native of Kamtichatka, called by Lalluim the Ri'jly headed warbler. Obf. The bill is pale ; legs black ; and the whole body tinj may he repeaicJ, Lv llie adJ.ilioii of more r.ids, to any dcptli dtl'ircdj ;;/.•, _/,'. 1. is the liaiidk- of this iiillnmifnt, two ftet and a hilf Ion.; ; tliia lianillc- is f.iAenid to t'lic rod by mcr.ns of a clMfp, i, lined witli Itccl, fixed at one c:;d by a hinge, and at the other by the fcrcw i, fo that it may bt placed at any heij;lit. Fi_;. 3. is the handle fcparatcd from the rod, and marked \\ith the rod, with the fame letters as before, /"y-. 4. is another har.dic, or rather kvci", like the handle already dcfcribid, except its having only one branch, or 'lever, marked.;^. This ferves to Hop the borer in bringing it up from a confiderable d^pth ; and alfo to fcrcw and un- fcrcw the feveitil bars or joints as occafion requires, and to put on and take off the ftecl point at the bottom. Tlic handle s /■'> M- '• '^ t''^' ''y "liich the rod is held, and wrought into the earth, cither by tvviiling it round, ef])ecial- ly at Crft, or, after it has penctr;!tcd to fome depth, by lifting it up, and letting it fiiU again, which it does with fuch force as to pierce even the liardeft rocks ; efpecially if it works at any confiderable depth, and has of courfe been lengllu'ncd accordingly ; for every foot of {his r.,d weighs three pounds. Two men will eafily fuinid the dejith of twelve r-et in Icfs than a quarter of an hour, if they do not meet with many ftones. When the rod becomes too heavy to be properly managed by hand, it tnay be railed by a n-pe faftencd at one end of the handle, and at the other to a roller, or kind of windlafs, erected at a proper height, perpendicu- larly over the hole, and tinned with cither one' or two liandles. This will cod but a trifle, and eafily raife the rod, which, when let go, will fall with fuch weight as to ftrikc each tiini very d^ep into the earth. The marquis de Turbilly obferves, that he has feeii it vvrought in this man- ner to the depth of more tlian a hundred fett. The toughtll iron is the bed for making this inftrument, which (hould be well hammered, till its furface is quite fmooth and even ; for the leaft roughnefs and inequality would occafion friftion, which would greatly retard its work- ing. For the fame reafon, and alfo to inc'reafe the force of its fall, it is necefTai-y that it fiiould be perfeflly ftraight ; nor (hould it ever be ftruck with a malkt, hammer,°&c. to force it down, Lccaufe a blow might bend it, and it would eafily break afterwards. The female fcrcw mufl be turned like that in the breech of a gun-barrel, in a feparate piece of iron, crofs-ways to the grain ; and this piece mull be afterwards well foldered on to one of the ends of the rod. The reafon for this is, that if the female fcrew were bored only at the end of the rod, it would, by being hammered out in the fame direftion with the grain, be ftringy and porous, and confequently fo weak as to give way, or burft, in the working of the rod ; whereas, when made of a fepa- rate piece, taken crofs-ways of the grain, the threads of the Icrtw will run with the grain of the iron, and be thence con- fiderably ftrengthencd. A bit, like that of an augre, pro- portioned to the thickncfs of the rod, may at any time, when neceffary, be fubftitutcd inftcad of the fteel point, to draw up a fample of the fubftance from theverybottomof thefounding. If the only thing wanted be to know the nature of the un- der foil, and layers of earth, fo far as they may affed the vege- tation of plants, it will be quite fufficient to bore eight or ten feet deep. A greater depth is only requifite, when water, marie, ore, &c. is fought for, but the common augre may do very well for fliallow boring. By either of thcfe implements there is a certainty of dif- covcnng, without much charge or any hazard, not only what earths are under the upper foil, but alfo whether any other fubttancc of ^alue lits concealed there, fuch as marie, £lialj£, fuUers' earth, foffile (hells, coals, quarries of Hate or 5 B O R Aotie, Ores, 3:c. many of which lie hid an(J entirdy tm- thonglit of in places where their value, was it known, would be ten times more than that of the ellate which covers them. IJORETIUS, Matthew Ernest, a learned phyfician and anatomnt of Berlin, pubhfhcd, in 1724, " /^ natome plantarum et animalium analoga," Rcgiiim,4to; and inl739, " Muf«EumBoretii ii;m,etcatalogusp:aEpnratorum anatom-co- rum reVnmque naturaliuir.," Region), 8vo Haller Bib. i^nat. BOKEUM, in Ar.c'iciit Geography, a mountain of Greece, iu the Pclcpoimefus, placed by Paufanias, in Arcadia.^ Alfo, the name of a port in the ifle of Ttntdos, according to Airian. — Alfo, a promontory of Africa, in the Cyrenaica^ .at the e::lrcmity of tlie gulf of the Sy rtis iviajor. Ptolemy. tJiJiORG, or Bi'RG, ill Geography, a town of Denmark, 1 the ifiaiid of Femcrn. N. lat, 54"' 30'. E. long 11? S', BORGARQCCl, Prosper, in Biogiaphy, an Italian phyfician of eminence, who flourilhed about the middle of the i6th century. After attending the ledhires of Vefalius for fome years, he travelled into France, Flolland, aad Eng- land, to improve hinilVlf in medical knowledf^e. On hit- return he publiil'.ed " Delia contemplazions anatomica fupra tutle le parti del corpo umano, libro quinque," 8vo. 1564, Vcnet. Some uftful obfervations are made, in this volume, on the great anatomical work of Vefalius, whom our au- thor, however, every where treats with refpefi. " Trat. talo di pefte,'^ Venet. 1565, 8vo. " De morbo Gallxo methodus." Though he defcribes the method of curing the lues with mercury, he prefers the ufe of guiacum, be- lieving that men from, ufing mercury were rendered incapable of procreating. He makes no mention of farfaparilla, or the China root, though well known in his time. This tra£t is iiiferted by Leufinius in his coUeclion of treatifes on the difeafe. Borganicci taught anatomy and medicine at Padua for fome years. In the year 1567, he was called to France, where he v.-as honoured with the title of phyfician to the king, which he afterwards ufed. The time of his death is not known. Aibuc. de Morb. Ven. Haller. Bib. Anat Ek.y Did. Hift. BORGE, in Geography, a town in the ifland of Cepha- lonia; 2 miles S. of Cephalonia. BORGE-FlORDS, or BORGAN-FIORDER, a fyffcl or dif- trift of Iceland, in which are warm baths, built in the 1 5th century, by the famous hiftorian Snorro Sturlafon. They are fo fpacious and fo well contrived, that 100 perfons may bathe in them at the fame time. Near thefe is the crofs- bath, in which the inhabitants of the weftern parts of Ice- land were baptized, in A. D. 1000 ; whence its name BORGENTRICK, or Borrenrik, a town of Ger- many,in the circle of Weftphalia, andbifiiopric of Paderborn- 5 miles N. N. E. of Warburg. ' BORGHETTO, a town of Italy, in the Lodefan, -ji- miles S. of Lodi.— Alfo, a town of Italy in the ftate of Genoa, 8 miles N. E. of Albenga. BORGHINI, Vincent, m Bwgraphy, a learned bene- diftine, was born of a noble family at Florence in icic • andentered among the Benediftines in 1531, devoting himfelf to (tudy and the oflTlces of a religious life. Duke CBfmo ap- pointed him prior to the hofpitalSta. Maria degHEnnocenti at i'lorence; and he performed the duties of this Itation with ^f dV -f, ^"', '^'^ i"ftit"tion, declining the archbifhopric ot Pifa, till his death in 16S0. His reputation for acquaint- ance with the purity of the Tufcan diakd was fuch, that he w^as entrufted with the publication of a correded edition of the decameron of Boccacio in 1573 ; and to him are afcribed the annotations and difcourfes that accompany it. His own principal work confitted of two volumes of « Difcorfi," printed B O R B O R -litited at riorenre in 15S4 and 15^51 4to which comprf- :^iid twelve dillVrtations on the origin and ancient itate of that city, and of olhevs in Tufcaiiv, nboundinjr with a variety of curious erudition. He was hlvcwife well (killed in paint- ing and architecture ; and he was ewtrufted hy duke Cofnio with tlie decorations for the nuptiaL of his Con FraTieis, and named by him as his fnbllitule in the academy of deiign. Several of his letters are publilhed in various collections. Gen. Biog. BORGHOLM, in Gcof^raphy, a town of Sweden, in the jfland of Oeland. Near it is the commodious harbour of Borga. BORGHOLZHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weltphnha, and county of Raveriiherg, 6 miles S. W. of Hervorden. BORGHORST, a town of Germany, in the circle of AVeftphalia, and bilhupric of Munller ; 3 miles E. of Stcin- fort. BORGI, m yindent Geography, a people of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in Aria. BORGIA, C;esar, in Biography, a man whofe dire am- bition defcrves to be configned to perpetual infamy in the page of hiftory, was the fecond fon of cardinal Rodcrigo, (afterwards pope Alexander VI.) by his miitrefs, the artful Vanozza. As he was defigned for the church, he was in- vefted, whilll a child, with the archbifliopric of Pamplona, and fent to Pifa for his education. As foon as his father was eledted to the papal fee, in 1492, Borgia haftened to Rome, expecting to fliare in thole dignities which his father's elevated Itation empowered him to bellow. On his arrival, Alexander received him with a grave afpeit, and with a lec- ture on the neccITity of veitraining his ambitious views, and of feeking honour in the path of virtue. Tliis mode of re- ccjrtion was neither fuited to the charaftcr of the father nor to the difpofition of the fon ; but the mother of Borgia foon quieted his mind, by afcribing it to its tine caufe, the artifice and hypocrify which Alexander thought it neceffary to prattife on his elevation to the papal throne. Notwith- ftanding this IcflTon of moderation, Borgia was immediately made archbirtiop of Valcntia, and, in tlie following year, promoted to the dignity of cardinal. When the Fre.:ch army, under Charles VIII. entered Rome, in their expedition againit Naples, and compelled the pope to a treaty, Borgia was obliged to accompany the king as apoltohcal legate, or rather as an hoftage for the performance of the ftipidated conditions ; but finding an opportunity to make his cfcape, and to return to Rome, the treaty was broken, and the king was under a neceffity of leaving Italy. About this time V'anozza urged a complaint againft the French for having plundered her property, and-excited both Alexander and her ion to revenge the injury file had fufFcred. Accordingly they began with adminillering poifon to Geme, brother to Bajazet, who had fled to Italy, as to a fanduary, from that fultan, and whom the French wifhtd to have in their pofTcf- fion, becaufe, after the taking of Naples, they projcfted an expedition againit the Turks. Not fatistied with tliis viola- tion of the obligations of hofpitality, they proceeded, by means of afiaflins, to deftroy the French who remained at Rome. Borgia, conceiving that his elder brother, the duke of Gandia, obllrufted him in the career of his ambition, and that he was his rival in an amour with a lady, faid by fome to be their own lifter, Lucretia Borgia, who was alfo a very particular favourite of her father, determined to get rid of his competitor. Accordingly, on the eve of his departure to the king of Naples, under the charaftcr of his legate a latere, Ije contrived means to affafTinate his brother. This event happened in the year 1497. After the acceflion of Vol. V. I^cwisXlI. to thcthroncof France, pope Alexandcrcnterea into a negotiation with him, parlicularly with a view to tlw promotion of his fon. For the more efleftua! attainment of the objects of his ambition, Burgia rdigncd his dignity of cardinil; and proceeled as ambadador to France, wlicre Lewis created him duke of Valtntinoi.s, granted him a peii- (ion, and appointed him to a command of cavalry. Ax. this time Lewis had folicited the pope for a difp'-nlation to di- vorce his wife, and to marry Anne, duchefs of Burgundy ; and the i, with joints at e and c, and, that they may not move out of the 'vertical plane, they are joineil by tenons to the plank a, in which tlicy may work freely : on the (iJe of one of thefe pieces is iixed a fpring, g, in order to hinder them from uniting, by forcing them into a mortife, in d ; in this fituation the two pieces are penetrated with a hole through which the augre is to pafs. The cord is fallened to the plank ; at the other end of the cord there is hung a weight e, rcfting on the piece N, which is fupported at one end by the piece O, and fixed to the other by a joint to the lever K, which has its centre of motion in the piece of wood H ; fo that, leaning againll the extremity M of the lever, N quits the fupport O, the weight finks down, and draws up the piece a; then the fides bb,Ji\^.6'i, quit the mor- tile d, and the fpring ;^ feparates ttiem : and thus the fupporter does not in tlie leall hinder the motion of the augre. BORJOKFIT, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podolia ; 28 miles call of Kamiuiec. BORIOUEN. See Bieka. BORIQ^UETTA, a province of South America, in the country of Terra I'"iima. BORISSOGLEBSK. See Barissoglkhsk. BORITH, in the Holy Scriptures, an herb thought to be the kali, or faltwort ; of the allies of which fome make foap, and a very good ley to \va(h linen with. It is mentioned iu Jeremiah, chap. ii. ver. 22. BORKAH, or Ardu, in Geography', an ancient empire of the Afconian Turks, which extended on this fide of the Volga from Uvicck, near Saratof, quite to mount Cancafus. Some of thefe were called Kumani or Komani, from the river Kuma, and their town was named Kumager. BORKAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Lariftan, 64 milts S.W. of Lar. BORKELOE. See Borcki- loe. BORKEN. SeeBoRCHEN. BoRKEN, a baihwick of Germany, in the landgravate of Heffe, confiding of eight villages, and a' fmall town of the fame name, become alnioll extiuft. BORKZOWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podolia, 20 miles W.N.W. of Kaminiec. BORLASE, WitLiAM, in Biography, an eminent to- pographical writer, was born of an ancient family at Pen- deen, in the parifh of St. Jull, Cornwall, in 1696 ; and having finifhed hi? grammatical education at Pcn7aiice, Ti- werton, and Plymouth, was entered at Ej^eter college, Ox- H Z ford, B O R fcrd, in t7t3; wherf, in 1719, be took the Aepree of maltci of arts. In the followinjr year he took pricfts' orders, and in 1721 was inducted to the rcflnry of Ludgvan in Cornwall, on the prcfeiitation of the il'.ikc of Bolton ; and this, with the vicara>jc of his native pariPn, was the only pre- ferment he ewr obtained. At I-iid^van his fituation waJ plt»fa;it ard retired ; and he applied with exemplary affidu'ty to the duties of his profclfion, and to thoft- Undies of naliiral hillory and antiquities, to which hio inclination led him. The parilh of Lndgvan abounded with mineral and mttalhc folTils ; and the various parts of Corn\vall prc- fenlcd to his refearch many druidical remains. To thtfe objeds his attention was dirtdcd ; and he commLF.ced his litemry career with " An Elfay on Cornifli Cryilals," which he communicated to the Royal Society, and which produced his tletlion into that fociety in 1749. In 1754, he pub- liihcd, in folio, his " Antiquities, hillorical and monnmcn- tal, of the county of Cornwall, confilting of fevcral cfRiya on the ancient inhabitants, Druid foperdition, cuftoms and re- mains of the moll remote antiquity in Britain and the Britifh ifles, exemplified and proved by monuments uow extant in Cornwall and the Scilly iflands; with a vocabulary of the Cornu-Britifh language ;" a learned and judicious work, free from thofe long d'grtflions and fanciful hi pothcfes, in which antiquarian writers have indulged th.iTifelves. A fecund edition of this valuable work, with fevcral additions, a map of Cornwall, and two new plates, was publifiied at London, in 1769. His next publication was" Obfervations on the ancient and prefent Hate of the iflands of Scilly, Knd their importance to the trade of Great Britain," 4to. 1751^1. This was followed, in 1758, by his " Natural Hillury of Curn- wall," which was jultly coniidcred, at the time of its pubh- cation, as a very important acceflion to the mincralogical hiftory of Great Britain. Soon after tliis publication he prefentcd to the Afiimolean mufeum at Oxford, a variety of folTils and remains of antiquity, for which he received the thanks of the univerfity, and the honour of the degree of doftor of divinity. Having completed his three principal works, and attained the age of mere than 60 years, he pcr- fevercd in his application to his favourite (Indies, and in his diligent difcharge of the duties of his profefRon. His com- munications to the Royal Society were very numerous ; and fome or other of his papers may be found in its Tranfadiions from the year 17J0 to 1772. With a view to his own amufement and improvement, rather than with any defign of publication, he compofed paraphrafcs on the books of Job and of Solomon, and wrote other pieces of a religious kind ; and he prepared for the prefs a treatife, which he had written fome years before, concerning the " Creation and Deluge;" but increafmg infirmities prevented its being printed. His decline commenced with a ftvere il Inefs in the beginning of the year 1 7" I, and terminated in his deceafe on the 31II of Augutl 1772, in the 77th year of his age. He was much eilecmed by all who knew him, as a kind father, affeAionate brother, fincere friend, inllruflive paftor, and good citizen ; and as a man of erudition whcfe life had been devoted to important and ufefnl purfuits. He had fix fons, two of whom furuved him, and they were both in the church. Dr. Borlafe furnillied Mr. Pope's grotto at Twick- enham with a great number of the materials that were ufed jn forming it. In Mr. Pope's letter of acknowledgment, he fays, " I am much obliged to you for your valuable collec- tion of Cornifh diamonds. 1 have placed them, where they may bell reprefent yourfclf, in ajhadt:, but JJ/uiin^^ ;" alluding to the obfcurity of the donor's fituation, and the brilliancy of his talents. Biog. Brit. jBORMES, in Gtogijphy, a town of France, in the dc- B O R panm*nt of the Var, feated on the coafl of the Meditcrra- ne.in, near a fliit fliore, which ferves for a port, whither the vtirds, which cannot reach the gulf of Hieies before a tern- pell, retire ; ^ leagues E. of Hieres. BORMID'A, or BoRMiA, a river of Italy, wluch runs into the Tanaro, near Alexandria. BORMIO, a county in the territory of the Grifons, lying at the Inol and in the midll of the Rhatian Alps, and bor- dering upon En^aciina, the valley of Munfter, the Valteiine, Tyrol, Trent, and tlie Venetian territories. It is entirely inch fed within the mountains, except a narrow opening, which connects it with the Valteiine ; the other acceiles to it lie acrofs the rugged Alps, and in winter are frequently impadahle. This country, which was once a part of the Milanefe, became fubjeft to the Grifonsin 1512.^ (SeeVAL- TELiNE.) It is divided into five diftriets ; viz. Bormio, coniprifing the capital and fevcral dependent villages ; the valley of Furba ; the valley of Pedinofo ; the valley of Ce- pino ; and the valley of Luvino. In the new divifion of SwilTerland, fince the French revolution, the county of Bor- mio, with the Valteiine and Chiavenna, form a part of the Cifalpine republic. WhiHl it remained under the govern- ment of the Grifons, its inhabitants were exempt from the opprefTions exercifed by the Grifon governors in the other countries fubjeft to their dominion. They paid a fixed and moderate contribution ; they collected and enjoyed their own duties upon exports and imports, and were thus fecured from injudicious and opprclfive taxes ; the fines for criminal offences belonged to the community ; and as no part was afiigned to the governor, he was not interefted in convifting criminals ; and the chief privilege, which diftinguifhcd this country from the Valteiine, was the freedom of its govern- ment, and the limitation of the podefta's authority. The fupreme magiftrate of Bormio, called " Podefta," was fent from the Grifons, and continued two years in office; his authority was very circumfcribed, and his power was al- moft wholly dependent on the concurrence of the councils. In thofe councils he never gave a vote, except in cafe of equality ; he pofleficd not the power of arreiling a criminal, nor of pardoning or IcfTening the punifliment. His annual ftipend of about 80I. arofe partly from a payment of money, partly from an allowance of rye, and partly from the colls of luit in civil and criminal caufes. The fupreme authority re- fuled in the podefta, and councils, confifting of a civil and cri- minal tribunal, the members of which were annually chofen by the people. The criminal court, or council of fixteen, changed every four months, confided of two regents, the treafurer, the notary, and i6 connfellors, of whom ten were taken from the town, and two from each of the vallies Furba, Pedinofo, and Cepino. This council was convened by the podefta. at the requeft of the two regents. In order to avrell a criminal, it was ncceffary to affemble the whole council, or at leaft feven of the members ; in other import- ant cafes, the podefta and two regents might give an order of arreft ; but this was deemed contrary to law. The procefs, condutted by the podefta and two regents, was laid before the council ; and upon conviilion of the criminal, provided he did not confefs his crime, the majority of the council determined whether the evidence was fufficient to juftify torture ; which was apphed in the prcfence of the podefta, the two regents, the treafurer, and notary. If the proofs were infufiicient for conviftion, the podefta and connfellors received nothing for their attendance ; a regulation, which fometimes induced the judges to ftrain flight circumftances into proofs of guilt; and not unfrequently occafioned the in- ftiflion of torture. The civil tribunal confided of twelve members taken from the B O R the town of Bormio ; and from thcii" decifion an appeal lay to the fyndicate of the Grifous. The mtmbcrs of thtfe councils were chofcn annually by the affL-mbly of the pt-ople. In the choice of the two re- gents, fixperfons k'letted in a peculiar manner by the reji[ent lall in oflTije and t!ie treafnrer, chofe fix n;eir,bers of the af- fcmbly, three fro.ti the dilliicl of Bormio, and three from the vallies, who appointed lix candidates; the names were then thrown into lix bacjs, and bal'oted for ; and the two, who . had the greateil number of ballots, were repjents, who re- mained in office only four months. The revenue of the country amounted in one year to 22:1. 14s. 4d. ; and the average expences to 212I. 2S. 2d. The expences and re- ceipts are fubmitted, when the regents retire from ulfiee, to the council ot fixteen, and cannot pafs without their appro- bation. The county of Bormio is about 15 miles in lengtli, and •J4 in breadth ; and the inhabitant.', are eflimated at about 14,000. The mounfiinous parts produce only pallurage and wood ; the lower dillrift about Bormio yields corn, but not fuffieient for domellic confumption. The inhabitants export cattle, a fniall quantity of cheefe, andiron, o tained from the mines of Freli, in the valley of Ptdii^ofo, wrought at the expence and for the profit of a private perfon, who pays to the community a fmall annurd rent. The honey produced in Bormio is eileemed excellent. Wine is imported from the Valtclinc, corn from the Tyrol, corn and rice from Milan, linen from Bergamo and Appenzel, and cloth from Germany. The air is cool, but pure and healthy. The ellabliflied religion is the Roman catholic ; and the exercife of every other worfhip is prohibited. Spiritual affairs are under the jurifdittion of the bifhop of Coire, who has a vicar's court at Bormio, in which all ecclefiallical caufes arc tried. The priefts have peculiar privileges, which are ex- tended even to thofe who wear a clerical drefs. Molt of the peafants poffcfs a fmall portion of land, and, in confequence of the freedom of the government, are happier than the peo- ple of the Valteline and Chiavenna. Coxe's Travels, vol. iii. Bormio, the capital of the county of the fame name, is fituattd at the foot of the mountains, clofe to the torrent Fredolfo, which falls at a finall diftance into the Adda. It contains about 1000 inhabitants, but has a defolate appear- ance ; the houfes are of plallered ftone, of which fome few make a tolerable figure, amidil many with paper windows ; and feveral, hke the Italian cottages, have only wooden window (butters. The palazzo, or town-houfe, contains a fulte of wretched rooms for the refidence of the podeila, a chamber for the courts of judicature, and an apartment where the rcprefentatives of the people affemble. In one of the rooms is an engine of torture, which, in defiance of common fenfe as well as humanity, is ft.ill ufed in thefe countries to force confeffion. The archives are kept in an apartment, the door of which has feveral keys ; fo that all the magiftrates, who are entrulled with them, mull be pre- fcnt, whenever it is opened. The moll important of the papers kept in thi^fe archives, is the charter, by which the Grifons confirm, in the moil ample manner, the immunities granted to this country by the dukes of Milan ; it was palfed in the diet of Iluntz, under Paul, bifliop of Coire, in 1513, the vear fucceeding that in which the Grifons annexed Bor- mio to their dominions. Many circnmllances have concurred to deler the Grifons from infringing this charter ; the two principal are, the filuation of Bormio on the confines of the Tyrol, whence they might receive affillance from the houfe of Anilria ; and the fpint of freedom which dillinguifhes the inhabitants, who have watched with a jealous eye the flight- B O R eft advances of encroachment, and never failed to remonftrate with great unanimity and rtfolution, whenever the podefta has difcovered the lead inclination to exceed the bounds of his authority. About a mile from the town are the baths of St. Martin Mclina, recommended for rhtmnalic com- plaints, &c. N. lat. 46^ 17'. E. long. ie° ii', BORN, Ignatius, Baron., in Bio^ralihy, an eminent mi- neralogill and philologer, was born of a noble family at CarKburg, in Tranfylvania, December 26lh, 174J. Hav- ing Ihiditd in the college of the Jefuits at Vienna, he entered into this fociety, but continued a member only one year and a half. At Prague he lludied tlie law ; and, after an exten- five tour 011 the continent, lie devoted hinifelf to natural hillory and mining; and, in 1770, was admitted into the department of the inines and mint of that city. At this pe- riod he vifited th(!-principal mining dillridls of Himg;n-y and Traniylvania, and kept up a correfpondence with the cele- brated Ferber, who afterwards publirtied his letters. In this journey he very nearly loll his life, and did permanent injury to liis health, by dcfcending into a mine at Felfo-Banya, which was full of arfenieal vapours that had been raifed by the heat employed to detach the ore. Upon liis return to Prague, he publiihed, in 1 771, a fmall work of the Jefuit Pada, on the machinery ufed in mines; and, in 177.;, he printed his " Lithophylacium Bornianum," or catalogue of his colletlion of foffils, which he afterwards fold to Mr. Grcville for one thoufand pounds. His reputation, as a miticralogill, was now generally known ; and he was ad- mitted into various learned focieties, among which were thofe of Stockholm, Vienna, Padua, and London. Un- confined to one branch of fludy, he engaged in various plans for the advancement of literature and fcience in Bohemia. He took a part in the work entitled " Portraits of learned men and artifts of Bohemia and Moravia ;" he engaged in the " Afta Literaria Bohemix et Moravis ;" and in 1775, he laid the foundation of a private literary fociety in Prague, which has publilhed feveral volumes of Memoirs. In 1776, he was fummoned by the emprefs Maria Therefa to Vienna, to arrange the imperial colledlion of natural hillory ; and, two years after, he publilhed, with the aiTutance of the emprefs, the " Conchology" of it. But it was difconlinued on the ac- ceflion of the emperor Jofeph. Born was appointed to in- ftrutt the archduchefs Maria Anna in natural hillory ; and, as a recompence for his fervices, the office of counfellor of the mines and mint was conferred upon him in 1779, which obliged him to refide conllantly at Vienna. However, he felt leverely the confequences of the injury lie had fuftained at Fello-Banya ; fo that he became a martyr to the moll ex- cruciating cohcs : and in one of his attacks he fwallowed inch a quantity of opium as threw him into a lethargy for twenty-four hours. The diforder then fixed in his leg:i and feet, and he became lame; for the reft of his life. Nevtr- thelefs, his mind was vigorous and aftive, and he entered with zeal into every meafnre that was calculated to enlarge the boundaries of fcience, and to enlighten and improve man- kind. Rellrifted, under an arbitrary governm.'rnt, from free difcufilons on the fubjefts of religion and politics, he con- necied himfclf with the fociety of free-mafons, and united with others of a fimilar turn of mind, in carrying on a kind of ma{landac lies on the northern arm of the river Pontiana, in N. lat. o" 35'. The UutcU had a refideut here 150 years :ic;o. After that period their pofTeflions were dtftroyed, till the king ot Bantam, to whom Landac and Suceatana had for many years belonged, made a grant, either voluntary or by compulfion, to the company of all thefe lands in 1778. From this time the Dutch have conlldered thefe lands as their property, and the princes who govern them as their vaffals ; they then built a fort at Pontiana, between Landac and Suecatana, and appointed Pangerarig Saidja Nata, as regent of the whole dillrift. The refidence of the prince of Landac is fituated on the projciling point of a mountain, to which there is an afeent by 118 Reps. Two rivers, which are fo full of rocks that no veffels can be navigated in them, flow on the right and left of this mountain ; and the place is naturally impregnable. It is alfo well furn'fhed with artillery. In this kingdom there are gold and diamond Hiines of conlidcrable importance. Between Landac and Borneo, the mod northern kingdom of the ifland, and from which, probably, the whole country took its name, there are feveral fmaller kingdoms, not ytt fufficiently known. Their regents are, in part, vaffals of the lultan of Borneo. A fmall trade is carried on in thefe dillrids with gold, diamonds, canes, wax, and other articles of the like kind, which are given in exchange for the pro- duftions of Java ; but the traffic is unimportant and pre- carious, as the princes of this part of the country live by piracy. Borneo is governed by a fultnn, who relides in this place, where a confiderable trade is carried on with theproduil^lions of the country, which are pearls, birds-nelfs, wax, Haves, rice, and camphor. The camphor of this ifland is preferred even to that of Sumatra. The camphor of Borneo and Sumatra is produced by a tree with oval, (harp-pointed leaves, and large tulip-like flowers. It is thus diftin- guiihcd both from the camphor-tree of Japan, and from the other ipecies of the laurel. An hundred weight of the camphor of Borneo coils 3000, and one of that ot Sumatra 2C00 rix-doUars, but the Japanefe colts fcarcely 50. Of the camphor of Borneo about 4375 pounds arc annually exported. The articles imported are tin, cotton-cloth, and all the produftions of Java, except rice, which is cultivated here in great abundance. The fultan of Borneo lives in great Rate, and is more feared by his fubjects than that of Banjcr ; but he is faid, by thofe who frequent this part of the coall in fmall veifels to exchange cotton-cloth for pepper, to be more conllant in his friend(hip, and more faithful in fulfilling his engage- ments. Between Borneo and Tidorliethe two fmall kingdoms of Balangan and Baraoon, where birds-uells, wax, &c. are ex- changed for Japanefe produflions, and a fort of coarfe cotton-cloth. Next to t:ief' isDanuuar, and a little far- ther are Sammunta, an-1 Cot tee. Between the two laft are many villages, the names of which are not known. The fame articles are exported and impoi led here as at Borneo. B O R The next place is Appar Karrang, and tthey have been unable to expel the }5ugintfc, who have made themlclves mailers of the river, and alfo of the trade. Lurlher fouth lies Simpanahati ; and the whole country from this place to the extreme boun. darics of .SaLitang belongs to the king of Banjtr-mafling, who pr,fl"t.fres alfo tie great and fmall ifland Pulu-Lauts. There appear to be no other kingdoms in the interior part of Borneo ; or, at lcai(, they are not known. The inha- bitants of the mouutaiiis bring the produftions of their lands, and tluir dilfercnt articles ot niaiiufafture, to the neareft part of the coall for i'ale. 1 he moll productive diamond mines of Borneo arc at Ambauwang, beyond Molncco, in the diflridi of J5anier-maf- fing, and at l.,audac and I'ontiaiui. Beliiles thefe mines, which he among the mountains, diamonds are alfo fearched for on the banks of various rivers ; but they are fo fcarce that ten or twelve porfons may dig and fearch fometimts for a whole month before they find diamonds to the value of 20 Spanifh rials. With regard to the gold mines, the ignorance of the natives as to every thing relative to mining is luch, that httle advaritage is derived irom them, thougk they are fnppofed to be very rich. In Banjer-malling the gold is found at the depth of about three fathoms; the veins properly fo called are of a reddifli kind of marl. At Landac the ore is found at the dejith of about ten feet, under a crult relembling rotten wood. Of the animals of Borneo the moll remarkable is the orang outang. The Biadjoos or Dajakkcfe, who are the native inhabit- ants of this ifland, and principally occupy an extenfivc dif- tricl in the interior part of the country on the weft fide of the river Banjer, arc of large ilature, and well formed, and their women, whom they never bring to the places of trade, are faid to be fair and handfome. In their drefs they rc- femble the Malays. The women, and even the wives of their princes, are naked to the middle, and generally wear round the body only a (hort gown. The men paint their bodies with various kinds of figures. They come to Banjer to fell their gold, canes, and rice, for which they receive in exchange coarfe Chincfc porcelain, copper, and earthen velfels or tanipayangs, on which are reprefented dragons, fnakes, and other ligures fuited to their tafte. Before any one of the Biadjoos can fucceed in obtaining a female for his wife, he mull give proof of his courage by cutting off the head of an enemy ; and when he is accepted by the parents, he carries to his bride a prefeut, v.hich confiflb ot a male or female flave, two dreffes, and a water-pot, on which fomc of their favourite figures are exhibited. On ttie wed- ding day, the, bride and bridegroom give each a feaft at their refpetlive houfes ; at the conclullon of which, the bride- groom, in his bed apparel, is conducted to the relidence of the bride, at whole door is one of her relations, who fmears him with the blood of a cock, which has been killed for that purpofe ; and the bride is fmeared in like manner with the blood of a hen. They then prefent to each other their bloody hands, and the folemnity is clofed with a fecond en- tertainment. If the wife die, the hufband cannot contraft a fecond marriage until he has cut off the head of fome in- dividual of another nation, and thus avenged the death of his wife. When a married woman commits adultery, the hufband, without avenging himlelf on the adulterer, puts to death two or three of his flaves, and thus frees himfcif from all ihame ; the woman is puniflied merely with words, but fometiraes with blows, The Biadjoos arc unacquainted with polygamy. B O R polygamy. U » rr.an willies to feparate from his wife in coiifcmiiiice of htr huvirg coniniiltcd foinc crime, lie rc- taiii!> her clotlics anj ornam!.nt6, a:'d snakciliiv pay a line aniountiii^ to aboiit 30 rials; and »ach parly 'is then Kt libtriy to marry. When a BiaJjoy dies tlie liody is put into a colTiiT, and kept in the iioiif.-, until all the remaining; mules in the lainily have purchafcd a flavc j wiio is behiadeJ on the d*y when the LH>dy is burnt, that he may attend the decent, d in the other world ; and before he in put to dcalh, lie is enjoined fidelity to his mailer. The afhes of the deceafid, together with the head of the flave, are put into a watcrinij-pot, and depofited in a finall edifice or tomb conHrurted for that purpole. Sometimes a whole year elapfes before a fliive can be procured. The houfes of the liiadjoos are conl>rnfted of boards joined together; without windows or partitions, except that vvliich ftparates a Im.ill corner in which they flecp. The whole family relide to- gether w ith their (laves, and conlill fometinies of I oo perfons. Their only light is that of a piece of pine-wood, which burns no longer than till about eight in the evening. Over their doors they fufpeiid the bloody heads which they cut off in their flvirinidies. In order to procure thcfe they pro- ceed, with great fecrecy, to the river Banjer, and fiirprile in the night, or attack, in open day, fome fmall vefTel be- longing to Banjer (iiliermen ; and one or two of their un- fortunate captives are then deilined to become a facriiice to their infatiable rage for murder. When they return with a head, the men, women, and children of a whole village tcllify their fatisfaftion by every denionftration of joy. Gongs, or mufical inllrumeiits of copper, are beat by thofe who conduft the conqueror to his own houfe, where the women dance around him, and taking from him the head, they force into the mouth fome food and drink ; after which ceremony, accompanied with a repall and dauce, they hang it up as a trophy of viftory. Before the Biad- joos undertake expeditions in quell of Banjerefe heads, they endeavour to deduce fome omen of good or bad fortune from the flight of a kind of hawk (falco niilvus). They have fearcely any form of government, and no written laws. If a perfon be accufed of theft, and no fufRcient proof can be alleged againil him, the culprit and the accufer are carried before one of the oldeft inhabitants. An earthen pot with allies and water is placed on the ground ; and acrofs the pot is laid a piece of wood, on which are depo- fited two fmall copper buttons. An oath havirg been ad- minillered to each party, the piece of wood is fo turned round that the buttons fall into the water ; the accufed and the accufer take up one of tliefe buttons ; and he, whole button appears as if fcowered and whitened by the allies, is deemed to have fucceeded. The Biadjoos are faid to have fome idea of a fupreme being, to whom they addrefs prayers under the name of Dtwatta ; and as tliey believe that this Dewatta not only created, but ftill prelerves and rules the world, they requeft him to grant tliem happinefs and pro- fperity. If we may judge from the character nf thefe pcop'e, tiieir deity mull be a gloomy and revengeful being ; no nation on earth having a greatei- propenfity to murder ard revenge. The Biadjoos acknowledge tlie lultan of Banjer as their fovereign, and pay him yearly a fmall tribute in gold dull of the value of ao rials. The Portuguefe, Dutch, and Englifli have ever fmce the l6th century ende;'.voured to ellablifh theinftlvts in thi« jfland ; but the Dutch have been the moll fuccefsful. The Portuguefe, it is faid, wilhed to form a fvtiiement here in i ',z6, and with this view prefented to the fultan of X^andac and Suceatana lome beautiful pieces of tajicftry, on which curious figures were wrought j but the fultan, 2 B O R conceiving thefe figures to be animated or magic, and aji- prehending that they might rulh fuddenly from the tapeltiy a'ld ftrangle him, rejcdted the prefent and expelled the Portuguelc from the ciiuntry. The Englilh w-ere not much more fortunate, having quitted Borneo entirely ever fince the year 1706. In I7'i6, they made an attempt to form a fettlement in the illand of Balaaibangan, at the N. extre- tremity of Borneo, which was given up to them by the king of Solon. They placed in it a few Europeans for the fake of trade, and a garrifon of .joo foldier.s Europeans and blacks ; and inte.:ded to ellablilh a factory, where they miglit exchange the produftions of Europe and Hindollan for thofe brought hither from China and the Indian iflands ; but in the year 177a, after a part of their troops had been fwepf olf by contagious difeafes, the fort they had con- llrucled, being badly fortified, was fuddenly attacked, and tlie whole eltablidiment deilroyed. The Englilh have ftdl fome ellablidimenf; on the north coafl. of Borneo ; and the circumjacent Indian nations, and the Chinefe carry on a great trade with this ifland. About Borneo are feveral fniall iilands, that may be denominated the " Borncan iflands," fuch as the Soloos, Tawea, Pulo Laut, Anamba, Natuna, &c. Borneo, a fea-port and capital of the ifland of this name, is large, popnloins, and commercial, with a good harbour ; it confifts of about 5C0 houfes, built on piles, and is fitnated on the N. W. fide of the ifiar.d. N. lat. 4° 50'. E. long. 115° o'. BORNEVALT, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Berg ; 3 miles W. of Lennep. BORNEUS, in Ormthology, the hngtinledfcnrkt lory. This beautiful bird is of a red colour ; quills and tail feathers at the tips green ; a blue fpot on the wings ; orbits fufcous. Inhabits India. The length of this bird is nine inches and a half. Its bill is orange ; orbits of the eyes bare of feathers : quill feathers with blue and green dots ; the two exterior feathers inclining to green ; lower tail coverts red, bordered with blue. Gmel. — Lon perrucbe rouge. No. I. Buff. Pfillaca coccinca honarum fnrtunarum infills. Briff, BOMNHEIM, a village of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and territory of Fianckfort 011 the Ma) ne ; 6 Englifli miles N. of Franckfort. This village is faid to be notorious all over Germany for its numerous brothels. Render's Tour. BORNHOLM, an iflard of Denmark, in the Baltic fea, the remoteft and moil eallerly of ail the Dnnifli iflauds, about iS miles in length, and 10 in breadth. Although it is nearly furrounded by rocks, and the foil is ftouty, it is a fertile fpot, abounding with excellent paftures ; oats, butter, and fifli conftitute the wealth of the inhabitants. Tiiere are fome mines of coal and quarries of marble. It was conquered by the Swedes in 1645, and furrendered to them by the treaty of Roikild, in 1658 ; but the inhabitants re- volted in the fame year, and reftored their ifland to the Danlfli dominion, under which it has lince continued. Bornholm is dillant 75 miles from Zealand, and 15 from the coall of Schonen. N. lat. ^^"^ 12'. E. long. i^° 20'. BORNII, in Cnnchology, a fpecies of Tellina, figured by Born. This fliell is tranlverfely llriated, bent on o:ie fide, and reddilh, with red rays. This is three quarters of an inch long, and two inches broad. The native place is not known. BORNOIT, in Geo^rnphy, an extenfive kingdom of A- frica, lying foiith-eall of Fcz/an, and bounded on the north by the defert of Bilraa, on the well by Kuka, Tagua, and Nubia, B O R Nubia, on tlie foutli by Kaiiga and Begarmce, and on the wtrft by Zcg/cg, Zanfara, and Kafiina. The name Bor- nou, which is given to this kingdom by the natives, is dif- tingnilhed in Arabia by the appellation of Bernon, or Ber- iioa, ilgnifviug the hind of Noali ; for the Arabs conceive, that, on the tirll retiring of tlie deUige, its mountains re- ceived the ark. This is a country of great extent, being comprehended between the lOth and about the 22d degrees of N. latitude. The climate is charafterized by cxcefTive, but not uniform, heat. Two fenfons divide the year ; one com- mencing abont the middle of April, and introduced by violent winds from the S.E. and S.,intenfe heat, a deluge of rain, and fuch tempeils of thunder and lightning as dellroy many cat- tle and people ; at this time the inhabitants confine thcm- felves to their honfes ; the reft of the feafon, thoui^h fnltry and rainy, does not hinder the labours of the luilbandniaii and Ihepherd. The other feafon commences towards the latter end of Oftober, when the heat becomes lefs iiitenfe, the air more fuft and mild, and the weather ferene. The inhaljitanfs arc numennis, and coiilill of various nations; and it is reported that thirty diflercnt languages are fpoken in this empire. The language of the common people of Bor- iiou, though difterent from, llrongly refemblts that of the neighbouring negroes, and is very unlike the Arabic, in wliich, however, the nobles and principal families couverfe. Tlie art of writing is knovrr. among them ; and they are taught to exprefs the Bornou tongue in the charailers of the Arabic. 'J'hey are entirely black, but rot of the negro caft. Their general drefs is conipofed of lliirts of bine cotton, mannfaftured in the country ; a red cap, imported from Tri- poli ; and a white muflin turban, brought from Cairo by the pilgrims, who return through that city from Mecca. Nofe-rings of gold are alfo worn by the principal people, as a mark of dillinftioH. Wheat and bailey are feldom raifed in Bornou ; but the horfe-bean of Europe, and the common kidney -bean are anTiduoudy cultivated, as they are ufed for food, both by the flaves and by the cattle. They alfo cultivate a kind of grain peculiar to the country ; and the neighbour- hood of the city of Bornou is fertile in Indian corn and rice. Gum-trees are thinly fcattered _: cotton, hemp, and indigo are alfo to be reckoned among the various produftions of its foil. In the culture of the ground, the lioe is the only in- ilrument in ufe, as the plough is not known ; and the wo- men (liare with the men the labours of their hufbandry. The fowing feafon commences at the end of the periodical rains in April ; and fuch is the rapidity of vegetation, that one fpecies of their grain is reaped in July, and another, of flower growth, in Auguft or September. Two fpecies of roots are ufed as fubdantial and wholefome food ; one called the "doudoo," v.hofe leaves referable tholeofthe garden bean, is dried in the fun, and reduced to line powder, which is mixed with palm oil into the confiftency of palle ; and the other pre- pared for ufe merely by boilingf. The fruits of Bornou are grapes, apricots, pomegranates, lemons, limes, and melons. The dates are fcarce and indifferent, as are alfo the apples and plums ; but it has a valuable vegetable, called " Ke- dcynah," refembling the olive in form and height, and the lemon in its leaf, which bears a nut, whofe kernel is an ettcemed fruit, and iliell, when bruifed, yi;:lds an oil that fnpplies the lamps with a fnbllitute for the oil of olives. To the clafs of animals we may refer innumeiable flocks of (heep, and herds of goats and cows, (for there are no oxen,) together with multitudes of horfes, buffaloes, and camels, the flelh of which is in high cltimation, which cover the vales or pafture on the mountains of Bornou. The common fowl is reared by the inhabitants ; and their hives of bees are fo numerous, that the wax is often thrown aw'ay as an Vol. V. B O R article of no value in the market. Tiieir game confifls of anteloijcs, partridges, wild ducks, and the ollrich, the fltfli ot which they pii/e above every otiicr. Their other wild animals are the lion, the leopard, the civet-cat, tlie fniall wolf, the fox, the wild dog that hunts the antelope, the elephant, of which, however, they make no ufe, the croco- dile, the hippojiuianins, and giraffe. Bornou is much in- fefled with different kimls of dangerous and difgulling rep- tiles, efpecially fnakes and feorpions, centipedes and toads. Its bealts of burthtn are numerous and various; of which we may reckon the camel, the horfe, tlie afs, and the mule. The dog appears to be the only domeftic animal. In ]ior- nou the fame plan of conllrudting their lioufes univerfally prevails. Four wall.-;, inclofing a fquarc, areereded; with- in the walls, and parallel to them, four other walls are alfo built ; the ground between the walls is then divided into different apartments, and covered with a roof. Thus tlie fpace within the interior walls determines the fi7.e of the court ; the fpace between the walls, limits the width of the apartments; and the height of the walls regulates the height of the rooms. In a large houfe the rooms are each about twenty feet long, eleven feet high, and as many in width. On the outfide of the houfe, a fecoiid fquare or large yard, fur- rounded by a wall, is ufually provided for the inclofure and protcilion of the cattle. The walls are generally compofed of earth and land, but others are formed of Hones or bricks and clay ; and the roufs-conlill of branches of the palm-tree, intermixed with brufli-wood, covered with layers of earth ; and the whole building is white-wafficd with a fpecies of chalk. The utenfils of a houfe, among the lower claffcs, are mats covered with a flieep-flcin, upon which they flcep ; an earthen pot and pan ; two or three wooden diflies, a couple of wooden bowls, an old carpet, a lamp for oil, and a copper kettle. Perfons of a fuperior rank alfo poffefs leathern cnfliions, fluffed with wool, brafs and copper uten- fils, a handiome carpet, and a fort of candlellick, which is tifed for their candles that are made of their bees' wax and the tallow of their flieep. The current fpecies of the empire confifts of pieces of metal from an ounce to a pound in weight, formed of copper and brafs, melted togithcr and mixed with. other materials. The ruling people in Bornou profefs the mahometan religion, fo that the fultan and liis iubjefls are miiffulmen, and the other claffes are pagans. The govern- ment is an elettive monarchy ; and the new fovereign, when chofcn from among the fons of his predeceffor, is inverted with all the flaves, and with two-thirds of all the cattle and land, of his father; the remaining third being always de- tained as a provifion for the other children of the deceafed monarch. To the four lawful wives of the late fovereign, a feparate honfe with a fuitable cftablifliment, is granted by the reigning monarch ; and fuch of his concubines, as were not flaves, are at liberty to return to their friends, with their cloaths and ornaments, and with the pcrmiflion to many. Tiie adminillration of the provinces of Bornou is committed to governors, appointed by the crown ; and the expences of the fovereign are defrayed partly by his hereditaiy lands, and party by taxes levied on the people. The fultan Alii, who was the fovereign of Bornou, in 17S9, though plain in his drefs, maintained a magiiiticent feraglio, accommodating 500 ladies, ar.d was reputed to be the father of ^50 children ; and the number of liories kept for his own ufe and that of his fervants, amounted to 500. The military force of Bor- nou confifts in a great multitude of horfemen, which renders him a much more powerful monarch than the emperor of Morocco ; but his foot-foldiers are few in number, and of little importance. Their weapons of offence are the fabre, the lance, the pike, and the bow ; and a fliield of hides forms 1 their B O R r.vv'^amT- If ■ i"*" «'l'ics to fcparate from his wife in c.)i i.qiKiicc of htr luvii-g comniiltcd foiiic crime, he re- tains licr clothes anJ onianitnls, a:'d makebhtv pay a fine aniouittiii); to about jo rials; and lach jiariy is then ?.t liberty to marry. When a Riadjoy dies t'le body is put into a coffui, and kept in tlic iionf-, unlil all the reniamin;; n>.dc» in the family have purcliafcd a Have ; who is belaadtd on the day when the bi>dy is burnt, lliat he may attend the decent d in the other world ; and before he is put to death, he is enjoined fidelity to his m^iller. The afiies of the deceafid, together with the head of the flave, aie put into a waterinj-pot, and depofited in a fmail eJifiet or tomb conllrueled for that purpole. Sometimes a whole year elapfes before a flave can be procured. The houfes of the liiadjoos are conl>riifted of boards joined to^jethei; without windows or partitions, except that which ftparates a fmall Corner in which they Hecp. The whole family rcfide to- gether with their flaves, and confill fometimes of lOO ptrfons. 'I'hcir only light is that of a piece of pine-wood, which burns no longer than till about eij;ht in the evening. Over their doors they fufpcnd the bloody heads which tlicy cut off ill their Ikiriniflies . In order to procure tlicfe they pvo- ceed, with great fecrecy, to the river Banjer, and furprilc in the night, or attack, in open day, fome fmall veffel be- longing to Banjer fifhcrmen ; and one or two of their un- fortunate captives are then deftined to become a lacriiice to their infatiable rage for murder. When they return with a head, the men, women, and children of a whole village telUfy their fatisfaftion by every demonftiation of joy. Gongs, or mufical inllrumeiits of copper, are beat by thofe who conduct the conqueror to his own houfe, where the women dance around him, and taking from him the head, they force into the mouth fome food and drink ; after which ceremony, ac-.ompanied with a repall and dac.ce, they hang it up as a trophy of viftory. Before the Biad- joos undertake expeditions in quell of Banjerefc heads, they endeavour to deduce fome omen of good or bad fortune from the flight of a kind of hawk (falco milvns). They have fcarcely any form of government, and no written laws. If a perfon be accufed of theft, and no fufficicnt proof can be alleged againll him, the culprit and the accufer are carried before one of the oldell inhabitants. An earthen pot with aflies and water is placed on the ground ; and acrofs the pot is laid a piece of wood, on which are depo- fited two fmall copper buttons. An oath havipg been ad- miniftered to each party, the piece of wood is fo turned round that the buttons fall into the water ; the accufed and the accufer take up one of tl;efc buttons ; and he, whole button appears as if fcovvered and whitened by the aflies, is deemed to have fuccecded. The Biadjoos are faid to have fome idea of a fupreme being, to whom they addrefs prayers under the name of Dtwatta ; and as tliey believe that this Dewatta not only created, but ftill prelVi-ves and rules the ■world, they requtft him to grant them happiiufs and pro- fperity. If we may judge from the character cf tliefe pcop'e, tiieir deity mull be a gloomy and revengeful being ; no nation on earth liaving a greatei' propenfity to murder and revenge. The Biadjoos acknowledge the lultan of Banjer as their fovcreign, and pay him yearly a fmall tribute in gold dull of the value of 20 rials. The Portnguefe, Dutch, and Englifll have ever fince the j6th century endeavoured to eftablifh themfilvts in this jfland ; but the Dutch have been the moll fuccefsful. 'l"lie Portuguefc, it is faid, wifhed to form a f>^tiJcment bere in i'2'^, and with this view prcfented to the fultan of J^andac and Succatana fome beautiful pieces of tapcllry, on which curious figures were wrought ; but the lultan, B O R conceiving thefe figures to be animated or magic, and ap- prehending that thev might rulh fuddcnly from the tapelb-y .vid ftrangle him, rejcaed the prefent and expelled the Portuguefe from the country. The Eiiglilli were not much more fortunate, having quitted Borneo entirely ever (ince the year 1706. In I7'')6, they made an attempt to form a fcttlement in the ifland of Biila.iibangan, at the N. extre- treniity of Borneo, which was given up to them by the king of Solon. They placed in it a few Europeans for the fake of trade, and a garrifon of .;oo foldiers, Europeans and blacks ; and intei;ded to ellabliih a faciory, where they Plight exchange the produftions of Europe and Hindollan for thofe brought hither from China and the Indian idands ; but in the year 1772, after a part of their troops had been fwepf oir by contagious difeafes, the fort they had con- llruded, being badly fortified, was fuddcnly attacked, and the whole ellablifliment dtilroyed. The Engliili have ftiU fome cll.iblidur.ent-- on the north coafl: of Borneo ; and the eircnnijacent Indian nations, and the Chinefe carry on a great trade with this ifland. About Borneo are feveral fmall iflands, that may be denominated the " Bornean iflands," fuch as the Soloos, Tawea, Pulo Laut, Anamba, Natuna, &c. IWrneo, a fea-port and capital of the ifland of this name, is large, populoiJs, and commercial, with a good harbour ; it conlills of about 5C0 houfes, built on piles, and is fituated on the N. W. fide of the ifland. N. lat. 4° 50'. E. long. II ^° o'. IjORNEVALT, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Berg ; 3 miles W. of Lennep. BORNEUS, in Ornithology, the long tailed finrJet lory. This beautiful bird is of a red colour ; quills and tail feathers at the tips green ; a blue Ipot on the wings ; orbits fufcous. Inhabits India. The length of this bird is nine inches and a half. Its bill is orange ; orbits of the eyes bare of feathers : quill featliers with blue and green dots ; the two exterior feathti-s inclining to green ; lower tail coverts red, bordered with blue. Gmel. — Lor't perruche rouge. No. I. BufF. Pfittaca cocciiwa bonarum fortunarum injiilii:. Briff. BOMNHEIM, a village of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and territory of Franckfort on the Ma) ne ; 6 Engliili miles N. of Franckfort. This village is faid to be notorious all over Germany for its numerous brothels. Render's Tour. BORNHOLM, an iflard of Denmark, in the Baltic fea, the remotell and molt eallerly of ail the Danifli iflands, about 18 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. Although it is nearly furroundcd by rocks, and the foil is ftouty, it is a fertile fpot, abounding with excellent paftures ; oats, butter, and fifh conditute the wealth of the inhabitants. Tiiere are fome mines of coal and quarries of marble. It was conquered by the Swedes in 1645, and furrendered to them by the treaty of Rolkild, in 1658 ; but the inhabitants re- volted in the fame year, and reftored their ifland to the Danilh dominiun, under which it has fince continued. Bornholm is dillant 75 miles from Zealand, and 15 from the coall of Schonen. N. lat. 55° 12'. E. long. i_5° :o'. BORNII, in Conchology, a fpecies of Tellina, figured by Born. This fhcll is tranfvcrfely (Iriated, bent on one fide, and reddilh, with red rays. This is three quarters of an inch long, and two inches broad. The native place i« not known. BORNOIT, in Geography, an extenfive kingdom of A- frica, lying fouth-eall of Fez/an, and bounded on the north by the defert of Bilma, on the welt by Kuka, "Tagna, and Nubia, B O R Niiliia, on tlie fouth by Kauga and Begarmre, arc! on the well by Zcgzeg, Zanfara, aiiJ KafTnia. T.'ic name Bor- iioii, which is given to this kingdom by the iiatircs, is dif- tinguiflied in Arabia by the appellation of Bernou, or Ber- iioa, fignifying the hind of Noah ; for the Arabs conceive, that, on tlie firll retiring of the deUigc, its mountains re- ceived the ark. Tliis is a country of great extent, being comprehended between the i6th and about the 22d degrees of N. latitude. The climate is charafterized by cxcefTive, but iiot uniform, heat. Two fenfons divide the year ; one com- mencing abont the middle of April, and introduced by violent winds from the S.E. and S.,intenfe heat, a deluge of rain, and fuch tempefts of thunder and lightning as dellroy many cat- tle and people ; at this time the inhabitants confine them- felves to their houfes ; the reft of the feafon, though fultry and rainy, does not hinder the labours of the hidbandnian and Ibepherd. The other feafon commences towards the latter end of Oftobcr, when the heat becomes lels intenfe, the air more fnft and mild, and the weather ferene. The inhabitants arc numerous, and conlill of various nations; and it is reported that thirty diflerent languages are ipoken in this empire. The language of the common people ot Ijor- liou, though different from, llrongly refemblts that of the neighbouring negroes, and is very unlike the Arabic, in which, however, the nobles and principal families converfe. The art of writing is known among tliem ; and they are taught to exprefs the Bornou tongue in the chara3:ers of the Arabic. They are entirely black, but nih:tes, lULignaUs, pro- cfres ; terms which feem to fiippofe nii arillocracy, and to ex- clude the commons. The boroughs alfo, from the low ftatc of commerce, were fo fmall and fo poor, and the inhabitants lived in fuch dependence on the grtat men, that it does not feem probable tiiey would be admitted as a part of the na- tional councils. It appears from Domefday tlu.t the {rreatelt boroughs were, at the time of the conqncll, fcarcely more than country villages ; and that the inhabitants were of a ftation little better than fcrvile. If it be unreafonable to think that the vaflals of a baronv, though their tcnute was military, and noble, and honourable, were ever fummoned to give their opinion in national c. uncils, much lefscan it be fuppoftd, that the tradefmen or inhabitants of boroughs, whofe condition was fo much inferior, would be admitted to that privilege. Thefe boroughs were not then fo much as incorporated ; they formed no community ; they were not regarded as a body politic ; and being merely formed of a number of low dependent tradefmen, living without any particular civil tie, in neighbourhood together, they were incapable of being reprefented in the dates of the kingdom. The commons are well known to have had no (hare in the governments ellablifhcd by the Franks, Burgundians, and other northern nations ; and as the Saxons remained longer barbarous and uncivilized than thefe tribes, they could never think of conferring fuch an honourable privilege on trade and induftry. The military profefPion alone was honourable among all thofe conquerors; the warriors fubfifted by tlieir pofTeflions in land ; they became confiderable by their inllu- ence over their vaffals, retainers, tenants, and flaves ; and it requires ftrong proof to convince us, that they would admit any of a rank fo much inferior as the burghers, to (hare with them in the legiOative authority. The fiill corporation, even in France, which made more early advances 'v.\ arts and civi- lity than England, is (Ixty years pofterior to the conqueH un- der the duke of Normandy ; and in Normandy, the conftitu- tion of which was moll; likely to be William's model in raifmg his new fabric of Englifli government, the flates were entirely compofcd of the clergy and nobility ; and the fird incorporated boroughs, or communities, of that duchy, were Roiien and Falaile, which enjoyed their privileges by a grant of Philip Auguftus, in the year 1207. All the an- cient Englifh hillorians, when they mention the great coun- cil of the nation, call it an alTcmbly of the baronage, nobi- lity, or great men ; and none of their exprclTions, fays Mr. Hume, [iili infra,') though feveral hundred palTages might be produced, can, without the utmoft violence, be tortured to a meaning, which will admit the con^raons to be conlli- tuent members of that body. When hiltorians mention the people, poptilus, as a part of the parliament, they always mean the laity, in oppofition to the clergy : and though the ■word communitas fon.ctimes occurs, Dr. Brady maintains, that it always means communitas laro7iagn. If, therefore, in the long period of 200 years, which elapfed between the conquell and the latter end of Henry III., and which abounded in faftions, revolutions, and convulfions of all kinds, the houfe of commons never performed one fingle legiflative aft, fo coiUiderable as to be once m.cntioned by any of the numerous hilloriang of that age, they nuift have been totally infignificant ; and in that cafe, wh:a rcafon can be affigned for their ever being affemblcd ? can it be fup- pofcd, that men of fo little weight or importance pofTeffed a negative voice againft the king and the barons ? Every page of the fubfequent hiftories difcovers their exillence ; though B O R thefe liidories arc not written witli greater accuracy than the preceding ones, and indeed fcarceiy equal them in that par- ticular. The migiia charts of king John provides, that no fcutage or aid fliould be impofed, either on the land or towns, but by confent of the great council ; and for more fecnrity, it enumerates the perfons entitled to a feat in that affemhly, the prelates and immediate tenants of the crown, without any mention of the commons: " An authority (fays Mr. Hume) fo full, certain, and explicit, that nothing but the zeal of party could ever have procured credit to any con- trary hypothecs." The fame writer add?, that it was pro- bably the example of the French barons, \\'hich firll eni- bohlened the Englilh to require greater independence from * their fovercign ; and it is alfo probable, that the boroughs and corporations of England were eftablifhed in imitation of thofe of France. In ancient times, men were not very folicitousto obtain a place ift the legiilative aflemblies ; and rather regarded their attendance as a burden, which was not compenfated by any return of profit or honour, proportionate to the trouble and expence. The only reafun for inltituting thefe public councils was, on the part of tlie fnbjeft, that they defired fome fecurity from the attempts of arbitrary power ; and on the part of the fovereign, that he defpaircd of governing men of fuch independent fpirits without their own confent and concurrence. But the commons, or the inhabitants of boroughs, had not yet reached fuch a degree of confideration as to deiireyfcaW/j)! againd their prince ; or to imagine, that even if they were alTemblcd in a reprcfentative body, they had power or rank fufficient to enforce it. For proteftion againil the violence and injuftice of their fellow citizens, to which alone they afpired, they direfled their views to the courts of juftice, or to fome great lord, to whom, either by law or by choice, they were attached. On the other hand, the fovereign was fufficiently alfured of obedience in the whole community, if he procured the concurrence of the nobles. The military fub-vaffals could entertain no idea of oppofmg both their pi ince and their fuperiors ; and much k fs could the burgefTes and tradefmen afpire to fuch a tiiought. Thus, if hillory were hlent on the head, there is reafon to conclude, from the known fituation of fociety dudng thofe ages, that the commons were never admitted as members of the legiflative body. The hrft time in which, according to the opinion of thofe who admit the conclulivenefs of the above reafoning, hiftorians ("peak of any rcprefentatives fent to parliament by the boroughs, was the year 1265, during the reign of Henry III.; when the carl of Leiceller ufurped the royal power, and iummoned a new parliament to London, where he knew his power was uncontrolablc. Befides the barons of his own party, and feveral ecclefialHcs, who were not im- mediate tenants of the crown, he ordered returns to be made of two knights from each (hire, and alfo of deputies from the boroughs ; an order of men, it is faid, which, in formei* ages, had always been regarded as too mean to enjoy a place in the national councils. Accordingly, this period is commonly eilecmed the epoch of the houfe of commons in England. But though that houfe derived its cxiftence from fo precarious, and even fo invidious an origin, as Leiceflcr'x ufurpation, it foon proved, Avhen fummoned by the legal princes, one of the molt ufeful, and, in procefs of time, one of the moft powerful members of the national conditution ; and gradually refcued the kingdom from ariftocratioal as well as from regal tyranny. But l-eiceller's policy, if we afcribe to him fo great a bhding, only forwarded by fome years an inrtitution, for which the general (late of things had already prepared the nation. It was not, however, till the 23d I 2 year B O R year of the rtign of Edward I. (A.D. 1295)1 t^'^t the 6c- putict of towns and borou;^ht were, by a regal fummons, admitted into parliament. This is therefore regarded as the le^al and true epoch of the lioiife of commons, and the faint dawu of popular government in Enijland. Lciccllcr's ufurp- atiuo produced only a temporary cflLd, and the fummons of rc(jrelcntativej from boroU(;li3 wasdifcontinued in fubftqucnt parlumcnt:> ; but from this period burj^elTcs became a per- manent part of the Urituh Icgiflature. The ncceiriiics of £dtvard, occaGoncd by his continual wars, and by the dimi- nution of his dcmtfnei, induced him to recur to this nuafurc for obtaini'ig rtqnifitc fupplics ; and he became ftnfible, that inllcad of impoling taxes by his prtiof^ntive, and enforcing Ikii cdifls for thin purp^fe, a more tx[)>.\lilious and tfitdlual mode was to aifcmble the deputies of all the boroughs, to lay before ihem the iieceflUits of the (late, to difcufs the milter in their prtfince. and to require their confcnt to the demands of their foveieign. Willi this view he ilTuci writs to the fiitrifTi, enjoining them to fend to p;irlianicnt, along with two knights of the fltirc, two deputies from each bo- rough within their county, and thefe provided with fufficicnt powers from their community, to confeiit in their name, to what he and his council ihoiild require of them. Accord- ingly, writs were iffned to about 120 cities and boroughs. *' As it is a mod equitable rule," fays lie in his preamble to this writ, " that what concerns all (hould be approved by all, and common dangers be repelled by united x-H"orts ;" a noble principle, which may feem to indicate, fays Mr. Hume, u liberal mind in the king, and which laid the foundation of a free and an equitable govtnmient. The writs of the parlia- ment immediately preceding remain ; and the return of knights is there required, but not a word of the boroughs ; a demonllration, according to Brady (of Boroughs), that this was the veiy year in which they commenced. After the eleftion of thefe deputies by the aldermen and common-council, they gave fureties for their attendance be- fore the king and parliament ; their charges were rcfpec- tivcly borne by the borough which fent them ; and they had fo little idea of appearing as legiflators, — a cluirafter fo re- mote from their low rank and condition, — that no intelligence could be more difagreeable to any borough, than to find that they mull eleft, or to any individual, than that he was tleCled to a trull, from which no profit or honour could pofTibly be derived. Properly fpcaking, they did not compofe any ed'en- tial part of the parliament ; they fat apart both from the barons and knights, who difdained to mix with fuch mean perfon- agcs ; and after they had given their confent to the taxes required of them, their bufinefs being then finifiied, they fe- paratcd, even though the parliament ftill continued to fit and to canvafs the national bufinefs. As they were all real burgefles of the places from which they were fent, the (he- litf, when he found no ptrfon of abilities or wealth fufficient for the ofEce, often took the liberty of omitting particular boroughs in his returns ; and as he received the thanks of the people for this indulgence, he gave no difpleafure to the court, which levied on all t!ie boroughs without dilliuAion the tax agreed to by the majority of the deputies. It was not till the reign of Richard II. that the flicriffs were de- prived of the power of omitting boroughs at plcafure. 5 Ric. II. cap. 4. The union of tiie reprefentatives from the boroughs gra- dually gave more weight to their whole order ; and it be- came cullomary for them, in return for the fupplics which they granted, to prefer petitions to the crown for the redrefs of any particular grievance, of which they found leafon to complain. Thefe petitions received the fanAion of royal authority, and acquired validity, even without the confent B O R of the nobks. Afterwards, however, the houfe of peer?, the moll powerful order m the fbte, reafonably cxpeaed, that their alTent fliould be expreisly granted to all public ordinances ; and in the rdgn of Henry V., the commons required that no laws fliould be framed merely upon tucir pe- titions, unlefs the (latutes were worded by thcmlelves, and had paired their houfe in the form of a bill. At this tune, the commons were much below the rank of leg'llators ; and throughout the reign of Edward I. their affcnt is not once exprelitd in any of the enading claufes ; nor in the reigns enfuing, till the .;th of Edward III. nor in any of the enacl- iiig claufes of 16 Ric. II. Nay even fo low as Henry VF. from the beginning till the 8th of his reign, the aflent of the commons is not once cxprelTed in any enafting claule. Prcf. to llMffhead's edition of the llatutes, p. 7. The commrn* were fo little accullomed to traiifaiil public bufinefs, that they had no fpeaker till after the^arliament 6th Edw. III.; and in the opinion of moll antiquaries, not till the ift of Richard 11. The houfe of reprefentatives from the counties war, gradually fep.irated from that of the peers, and ft rined a dilliiicl order in the (late. Neverthelefs the knights of (liires did not form the fame houfe with the burgcffes. But by degrees the growth of commerce aui^mented the private wealth and confideration of the burgeffcs ; the frequent de- mands of the crown incrcafed their public importance ; and as they reprefented particular bodies of men, rcfembling in this refp.-- be dileardrd in the 49th year of Heniy III. or under the reign of his foil, or at any time afterwards? A baron, who held i)f the crown, was to all intents and purpofes the head of his vaiTals, in the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III., as much as in any of the preceding reigns. How happened it then, that the confent of thefe vaifals to the making of laws, or any other aft of moment to the public, was not Hill included in the vote of their lord ? Why was it given, againll the eourfc ot former iprocecdings, not by him, as their re- prefentativc, but by knights of the Ihire, or by citizens, or by burgcffes, chofen by the vaifals ? Some have referred this change, as we have above ftated, to the earl of Lci- ccller, in the 49th year of Henry III. But an exifting re- cord, it is faid, demonftrates this date to be falfe. A writ of fnmmons, direfted to the flieriffs of Bedforddiire and Buckinghamihire, and requiring two knights to be fent for each of thefe counties, is extant in the eloi'e roll of the 38th year of Henry III. And there is alfo a claufe in the great charter of the yth of the fame khig (fee Dr. Blackllone's- edition of the charter), wheret)y it is declared, that, together with the fpiiitual and temporal lords, other inferior free- holders, ct omnes de regno, by which words lord Lyttelton underftands " the whole commonalty of the realm," granted to the king the fifteenth part of all their moveable goods, in return for the liberties acceded to them in tliat charter." " Nor," fays his lordftip [tihl irtfrii), " can I difcover in. the hillory of thofe times any reafon fufhcient to render it probable, that fo great an alteration fhould then have been made in the conllitutioii of England." Such an alteration mull have produced difputes, which v. ould have been noticed by fome of the numerous hillorians of that age. But the Englidi hillory is altogether filent as to any difputes between the nobility and the people, on this account, from the ear- liell times of the Saxon government down to the reign of Charles I. Hencf it may be reafonably prcfumed, that the right of the comm.ons mull have been inconteftibly eftablilhed by eullom, and interwoven into the original frame of our government. It is harilly conceivable, that the admiffion of all the lower 01 deis of freemen, or indeed of any large number, to the great council of the kingdom, and to a par- ticipation of the legillative power, to which they had no- right before, fliould have been brought about, and yet pafs unobferved by any writer who lived in that age. If we fnppofe, as fome have done, that the fitting in parliament was at this time regarded only as a trouble and burden, the impofition of fuch a burden on orders of men, who had been before exempt from it, mull have been, on their part refilled and oppofed. But from the aft of the 4th of Edward III., which is thus worded, " It is accortled,- that a parliament Ihall be holden every year once, and more oiten, if need be," we may infer, that it was generally re- garded in a very different light, rather as a privilege, of which they earnellly defired the frequent enjoyment, than as a burden, from which they wifiud to be exempt. It is true, fome boroughs, which, on account of their poverty,. were unable to bear the expcnce of feuding members to par- liament, declined thecxereife of that privile'ge ; but it would be unfair to allege this circumftanee, which occurred in particular inllances, as an argument in favour of the ge- neral fenfe of the commons in counties, cities, or other more wealthy boroughs. Befidts, there are fome inllances of bo- roughs that petitioned to be reftored to the ufe of the privi- lege of fending members to parliament, after a very long interruption^ B O R interruption. Mor.-ovcr, it f«ms incrcdililf, that if tliC whole Icgirtative jviwcr had, before ihc rcijjn of Henry III., liecn always placed in the nobility and the king, they (hould not have oppofcd ll\c txtci.fion cf it to fo many pcrfons of lower rank in the llate : more cfprcially as (1)c power of tlic nobility was never higher than it was in tliis rtigii. With regard to the tirl of l.cicellcr, it was not his intcrtft, while he was afting at the head of the noblis and people, in a very dangerous contcft againrt the crown, to n'akc any innovations ofTenfive or dilVartcful to either of thofe bodies ; nor is it probable, that any new inftitution, begun by thst tail, fliould have been confinncd and perpetuated by Edward I An-.ong the clofc ro'ls of the 24th of this king, there is a writ of fummons to parliament, already cited, in which it is afTLMttd, not as an innovation introduced by the carl of Ijeicclter, but " a maxim grounded on a moll equitable law, cliablifhcd by the forefight and wifdom of facrcd princes, that what con- cerns all, (hould be done with the approbation of all ; and that dangers to the whole community, fhould be obviated by remedies provided by the whole community. " If the earl of Leiccller, or even if Edward I., or his father, had intro- duced the prafticcof fummoning the commons to parliament, Edward could not with proprictv have ufed this language. It IS further alleged, that there is not in any of the oldeft ■writs for fending up reprcfentativcs from citits or boroughs the leatl intimation, that fueh cleftions were a novelty then introd\iced. Some writs are taken notice of by Mr. Tynel, an indullrious fcarchcr of records on this fiibjedl, which fet forth a claim of certain tenants in ancitnt dcmefne, before the ijth year of Edward II., that they eught not to be charged with wages to knights of the fliire ; " forafmuch as they and their ancellors, tenants of the fame manor, had, from time beyond memory, been always exempted, by cxtlom, from the expences of knights, fent by the commu- nity of their county to the parli-.mcnts of the king, and of Itis royal progenitors." A time bcvond memory is defined by our law-books to be a time antecedent to the beginning •of the reign of Richard I. ; and if no wages liad been ever paid to knights of the fliire till the reign of Henry III., it would have been prepoderous for thefe perfons to tell the grandfon of that king, that they had enjoyed a cnlloniary privilege of not paying wages from time beyond memory, which mull be fuppofcd, when this exemption was claimed, to go much further back than the reign of Richard I. With regard to cities and boroughs, there are likcwife extant two claims, made in the reigns of Edward II. and Ed- ward HI., which feem to decide the fenfe of that age con- cerning the antiquity of the cullom of citizens and burgeffcs conr.ing to parliament, and from towns that vvcre held under fubjccis, not immediately of the crown. Thefe are the claims of the towns of St. Albans and Barnflaple. In the petition of the borough of St. Albans, fnll taken notice of by Selden, and then by Petyt, Brady, Tyrrcl, and others, and prtfented to parliament in the reign of Edward II. the pttitiontrs aflert, that though they held In cnpite of the trown, a;.d owed only for all other fervice their attendance in parliament, yet the fheriff had omitted thtm in his writs ; whereas, both in the reign of the king's father, and all his predcccffors, they had always fent members. This expref- Ijon, it is alleged, could not have been ufed, if the com- mencement of the houfe of commons were in the reign of Henry III. However, Madox, in his " Hiftory of the Exchequer," p. 522, &c. has endeavoured to di:llroy the authority of this petition for the purpofe to whicii it is ad- duced. He adcrts, firll, that there was no fueh tenure in England, as that of holding by attend.mce in parliament, iullead of all ether fervice ; and fecondly, that the borough B O R of St. .Mh.tns never h Jd of the crown at all, bv.t was always dcmefne land of the abbot. It is no wonder, therefiue. favs Mr. Hume, that a petition, which advances two falfe- honds, fhould contain oix hilloneal millakc, which indeed amouni;; only to an inaccurate and exaggerated cxpreffion ; no llr.i.ige matter in ignorant burgefTts of that sge, who wanted to (hake off the authority of their abbot, and to hold of the king, withinit rendering any fervices even to the crown. See the difcuflion of this fabjcft, and an examina- tion of the reafoning of Madox and i)r. Brady, in Lyttel- ton's Hill, of Eng.Vol. iii. p. 405, &c. The advocates for the antiquity of borough rt^refentatives further refer to a ilatute of the /ith year of Richard II. ilat. 2. which enafts, " that all and fingular perfons and commonalties, which from henceforth (liall have the fummons of the parliament, (liall come from henceforth to the parliaments in the manner as thtv arc bound to do, and hu-vc been accujhr.isd 'zvlthin the realm of England, of old limes. And if any perion of the fame realm, which from henceforth (liall have the faid fummons (be he avchbifliop, biflv.p, abbot, prior, duke, earl, baron, banneret, hi'ight oflheJJure, citizen of dly, lurgefs of Loroiigh, or other fingular perfon or comn-onalty ), do abfent himftlt, S;c. he fhnli be amerced, and otherwife punifiied, according as of old times halh been ufed to be done luilhin the faid realm in ihe faid cafe." Upon this (lalute it is argued, that it makes no dillindtion between the antiquity of fummons to parlia- ment fent to the greater nobility, and thofe to citizens, bur- gefTes, and knigiits of the fliire. Befides this remarkable teflimony of the whole legiflature in the reign of Richard II. to the antiquity of the cullom of the commons coming to the parliament, v/e have a petition of the commons in the fecond ])arliamcnt of the reign of Henry V., which fets forth to that prince, " that as it hath ever been their libertie and free- dom, that there (lionid no ilatute nor law be made, unltfs they pall thereto tlieir afTent, conlidering that the commune of vour land, the which is and ever halh been a member of your parliament, be as well aflenters as petitioners, &c.'* This claim was not difallovvcd either by the lords or the king. Befides thtfe authorities drawn from (latutes and re- cords, it is faid, that very evident indications of the prefence of the people in the national councils, and of their being ccnllituent parts thereof, t!;ough in a diforderly manner, are to be found in fomc ancient hiilories, and contemporary ac- counts of tranfaftions in parliament, from the death of Ed- ward the ConfefTor to that of Henry II. Several inftances to this purpofe, occurring in the reigns of William the Con- queror, William Rufus, Henry I., Stephen, Henry II., &c. are produced by lord Lyttelton, in the Notes to his Hiftory, vol. iii. p. 421, &c. We may further add, that the prefence of the people in the Saxon councils, and their having had a (hare in the higheft adls of legillature and go- vernment, even till the entrance of the Normans, feems to be proved very ftrongly from the preambles of laws and other proceedings of thofe councils, and from the words of the bed hillorians who lived near to thofe times. On this long ufage, fays lord Lyttelton, their right was eflabliflied ; and it ap- pears to have been contiruied under William the Conqueror, with other culloms and rights confirmed by him to the na- tion, and under his fucceffors, by like famftions of ancient liberties granted in repeated royal charters. In ancient times, however, the property of the commons was fo un- equal to that of the nobles, and the feudal obligations of the inferior landholders to the lords under whom they held, created fueh a dependence of the former on the latter, that although, in the idea and fcheme of the government, a po- pular power was mixed with the regal and ariftocratical, yet, in reality, the fcale of the people was not weighty enough to B O R B O R to make a proper coiinterpoifc to either of the others. The commons ufuully deeli;:ed to give their opinion or advice to the crown, in certain matters of Hate, and fubmitted their jndgnieut refpefting tliem to the king and his council, or to them and the lords. While the reprofentatives of cities, towns, andboroiighs, werechofen oidyontof pcrlons refidentin them, they were generally people of low degree and condition, wliofe education and way of life rendered them very unfit tojudge of arduous qucllions concerning foreign aff.iirs, and treaties with foreign ilates. Ncverthelefs, even in the earliell times, fo far back as we have any rolls of the parliament, all the commons appear to have given their advice with great free- dom in matters concerning the internal goven-iment and order of the kingdom. W'lat they declined to advife in, upon fome occafions, were qucllions that related to the making of peace or war. Mr. Hume, indeed, allerts, on the authority of a citation from fir Robert Cotton's abridgment of the records in the Tower, that the commons in thele times were much below the rank of legidators, ar.d that they were con- fidered by the king merely as petitioners, or dcllitute of any proper legillative authority. Eut the whole palfage, cited by lord Lyttleton, feems to confirm, inllead of denying their legillative authority. In the king's anfwer to their application, they are truly toM, that the power of judica- ture does not appertain to them, but to the king and the lords ; and this was the quelHon to which their prayer re- lated : but in llatutes th.-y were to judge, as well as in grants, fubfidies, &c. Their being petitioners was cer- tainly no argument againft their being legidators ; fince the cuurle of proceedings then was, that their petitions, if af- fentcd to by the lords and the king, fliould be turned into lla- tutes, as all the old records of parliament unquellionably fliew. Bnrgefles were firll admitted into the Scottifh parliaments by Robert Bruce, A.D. 1326 ; and in the preamble to tl'.e laws of Robert III. they are ranked among the conllitutnt members of that aflfembly. Brady of Boroughs. Pttyt's Right of the Commons. Brady's Anfwer to Petyt. Tyr- rel's Appendix to his Hiftory of England. Hume's Hill, of England, vol. i. andii. Appendix i. and ii. Lytttlton's Hiilory of Henry II. vol. iii. Robertfon's Hill, of Scot- land, vol. i. p. 75. 8vo. See Witten agemote, and Par- liament. Borough, in Scols Laiv, is a body corporate, confilling of the inhabitants of a certain tracl of ground, ercfted by the iovereign, with jurifditlion annexed to it. Boroughs are erefted, either to be holden of the fovereign himiclf, which is the general cafe of royal boroughs, or of the fupe- rior of the lands fo ertfled, as boroughs of regality and ba- rony. The f.irm.er are empowered, by their charters, to choofe annually certain ofiicc-bearers, or magiftrates ; but in the latter, the nomination of mngiilrates is, by their charters, lodged fometimes in the inhabitants, fometimes in the fuperior. Bailies rtf boroughs have jurifdidlion in mat- ters of debt, fe; vice, and queftions of poffefi:jn betwixt the inhabitants. Tli^ir criminal jurifdicuon comprehends petty riots, and recklefs fire-raifing. The- dean of guild is that magiflrate of a royal borough, who is head of the merchant- company ; to him belong the cognizance of mercantile caufes within the borough, and the inlj.'eftion of buildings, that they encro.lch neither on piivate property, nor on the public llreets ; and he may direcl infufficient houfes to be pulled down. His jurifdi£lion has no dependence on the court of the borough, or bailie-court. Boroughs, Royal, in Scotlarid, are corporations made for the advantage of trade, by charters granted by feveral of their kings ; having the privilege of fending commiflioners to- reprefent them, bclides other peculiar privileges. Thefe form a body of themfclves, and fend commitTioner;, each to an annual convention at Edinburgh, to confult the benefit of trade, and the geneial intereft ot the boroughs. According to Chamber'ayne, th.ey have the fole power of trade and merchandize, excliifivc of all others, a power of holding courts, exercifing the jurifdiclion of Iheriffs, making bye-laws, &c. The eom.pany of merchants in a royal borough make what is called a gild ; the chief of which is a dean of gild, who is next magillrate to the bailiff. Sec GiLr>. The royal boroughs aie not only fo many dillinft corpo- rations, but do alio conllitute one entire body, governed by, and accotmtable to one general court, anciently called the " court of four boroughs," held yearly to treat and deter- mine concerning matters relating to the common advantage of all boroughs. The four boroughs which compofed this court were Edinburgh, Stirling, Roxburgh, and Berwick ; which two lall fallmg into the hands of the Engiifli, Lin- lithgow and l.,anerk were put in their places ; with a faving to the former, whenever they lliould return to their allegi- ance. But this court not being fufficient to anfwer the ne- ceffities of the royal boroughs, they were all empowered, under James III. in 1487, to fend commifiioners to a yearly convention of their own, which was then appointed to be held at Inverkeithing, and is now held at Edinburgh, under the denomination of the ccn-oaiUon of huroughsy veiled with great power. BoRouGH-C^-ur/j-, in Laiv, are certain courts held in bo- roughs, by prefcription, charter, or acl of parliament : fucli are the (lieriff's court, and court of luiftings in London^ See Court. BoROUGH-Tifl^'A/Zi, fo named in contradiflim^ion, as it were, to the Norman cuftoms, and noticed by Glanvil (1. 7., c. ,;j.), and by Littleton (Ji 165.), denotes a cullomai-y de- fcent of lands or tenements in fome ancient boroughs and' copyhold manors, whereby tluy come to the youngell, in- ftead of the eldell fon ; or if the owner haih no iffue, to the. youngeft, inllead ot the eldetl brother ; becaufe, according to Littleton, tlie youngell is fiippofed, in law, the leall able to lliift for himlelf. I Inft. iio. b. And 'v.\ fupport of this reafon, other ufages in favour of the youngell are alleged, as that in Kent, where the lands being equally divided among all the fons, the youngell is to have the privilege of aftre or hearth in the manfion-lioufe, in his (hare, as being fuppofed. the tenderell, and more in need of warming. Others, not- withllanding, fufpeft a different reafon for the rife of bo- rough-Enghfli, viz. that the places, where this cullom now obtains, were anciently liable to that cullom granted to the lords of manors in Scotland by king Eugenius, who had the privilege of enjoying the firll night of their tenants' brides ; fo that the eldell Ion being prefumed to be the lord's, they ufually fettled their lands on the youngeft fon, whom. they thouglit their own ; which being praittifed a long time grew at length into a cullom. ThecuHom, however, never obtained in England, though it did in Scotland, under the nan-.e of " mercheta," or " marchcta," till it was abolilked by Malcolm 111. Perhaps, fays judge Blackllonc, theori- gin of this praftice may be illullrated by that of the Tar- tars, mentioned by Du-Haldc, among whom the fame tul- tom of defcent to the youngeft. fon pievails. As the nation is compofed of (hepherds andTlcrdfmen, the eldell fons mi- grate from their father with an allotment of cattle, to feek a new habitation. The youngell fon, continuing lateft with his father, is naturally the heir of his lioufe ; the reft being already provided for. This cuftoni of migrating obtained in many other noithern nations ; and borough- Englifh may be a re.".i.iant of that paftoral Itutc of oar Bnuth and Gcr- raaii- B O R man ancrdort, wliich C:if.ir and Tacitus dcfcribe. Black- June's Comm. vol. ii. p. S ;, 84. This ciil'.om goes with the land, and dirtdsthe dt.fcent to the yoiinj,'cll Ion, altlioujrh iIktc be a dcvifc to the contrary. 2 Lev. I ;8. If a copyliold in boroiip;h-E:ip;lilh be furn .< dered to the nfe of a perfon .ind his hcirti, the right will de- Icend to the youngell foil, :n."Cording to tlie cullom. 1 Mod. lOi. And a younpell fon fliall inhtiit an ellatc in tail, in 4>oroufrh-En)^'li(h. Noy. icfi. But an heir at common law (hall take advantage of d ciillom annexe.! ti) boroiigli-F.nglifll land ; though the yonnsrcll fon fhall be enllticd to all adlions in right of the land. I Nelf. Abr. 396. And the cldcll fon (hall have tythc.-i arifing from boroii-'.h-F.iiglilli land ; for tythes of common rijrht are not inheritances defjendible to ■an heir, Lnt come in fuceeflion from one clergjman to an- other. Ibid. 347. Borough -Efiglith land beinjj defecnd- ible to the youn^jill fon, if a younG;er fon dies ^v!tilOllt iffiie male, leaving a daughter, fueh daughter ftiall inherit "jure Tcprefent.itionis." 1 .Salk. 243. By this cnllom the widow (hall have tl\c wliole of her huiband's lands in dower, called her " free-bench ;" and it is given to her to enable lu-r the better to provide for the younger children cutnilled to her care. Co. Litt. ^ ;. 1 1 1. F. N. B. i ,0. Mo. PI. 566. As boroiigh-Englilh is particularly noticed by the law, it is un- neceflary to prove that fucli cullom actually cxifts, but only that the lands in queftion are fubjeft to it. I Comm. 76. But the extenfion of the cutlom to the collateral line mull be fpecially pleaded. Robinf. on Gavelkind, 38. 4,;. 93. BoRoi'GH-//f-nitude. Theie, fays Mr. Pennant, were either monumental memorials of departed iicroes, or the rude obiec'ts of wordiip, Inch as the Ifraelites bowed to, when they departed from the purity of adoration. Such objefls are lU'led in Wales Mtini-hirion, or the long ftones, and Meini- gwyr, or the ambrofial ftones, as defcribed by Bryant and others. The river Ure is not navigable higher than Borough- bridge, near which the canal trom Ripon comm\micates with it by means of a lock. About two miles and a half below the town, the river Swale joins the Ure. Borough-bridge, Aldborough, and the manor, honour, and caftle of Knaref- borough were, in the l.Uh of Henry III. granted to the famous Hubert de Burgh, upon his paying icol.a year into the e.\chequcr, but were forfeited by his Ion in the fame reign for joining Simon de Montfort at the battle of Eyeftiam. Borough-bridge remained in the crown till the reign of Edward H. wiio beftowed it on his infolerit favourite .Piers .Ojvefton. It now belongs, with the intcrcft of the two .boroughs, to the duke of Nevvcaftle. Near this pljce, in 1322, a battle was fought between the foldiers of Edward IF. and prnice Thomas, earl of Lnncafter, when the latter was taken prifoner, and, after fuffering various indignities, was bcheiided. Moft of his panizans were talien, and fonie were llain ; among whom was John de Bohun, earl of Hereford, who, in paiTing over the wooden bridge of this place, was tilled by a lance from a foldier lurking beneath the -bridge. This town has a weekly market on Saturdays, and Icveral fairs annually ; the principal of which, in June, continues for a week, and is much frequented by the nianufaClurers from Sheffield, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, &c. Har- grove's Hiftory of Knarciborough. Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia. Pennant's Tour Irom AUlon Moor to Harrowgate, 4to. iSo^. BOROVTTCHI, a town and diftria of Pvuflia, in the government of Novogorod, fitnated on the river Mfta ; tiS milesE.S.E. of Novogorod, and 16S S.E. of Peterlburg. BOROWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czallau, 8 miles E.N.E. of Teutfch Brod. BOROWICA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of VoHiynia ; 20 miles N. of Lucko, BOROWICK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Jviou, .32 miles S.E. of Czerkafy. BOHOWNIZA, a town of Bohemia, in the circbof Konigingratz, 18 miles S.E. of Ilopigingratz. V.OL.V. -B o :R BOllOWSKO, a tow.u of Bohemia, :Hi tlie circle of C/.aftau ; 7 miles W. of Lcdetfoh. DOROZAIL, in 2Jitluini, a diftafe which rcfembles the yawsj frequent among the ^'Cricans iuhabitiiig tht banks o[ .the river Scncg;d. See Xaws. BORCZ.DINKA, in ficosrofh^, ? /ortrefs of KufTiaa Tartary, in the government of C^ycafuB, on the Ural ; ^z miles N. .of Guiiel. BORRAGO, in Boiony. Sec Boraco. liORRELISTS, m Ecckfmjlkalliijhry, a fcft or fort of AnabaptilU in Hojijind, wlio allow ol no ufe of faci amenta^ public prayers,. or olher external woidiip, nor of any human glofs or explication of icripture; but profefs to adhere to .the faith and manners of the New Ttftament tunes in ail their fimpllcity. They look their dci-.omination from their founder, Bor- .rel, a pcilon of great learning in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues, and brother of M. Borrel, ambanador of the States to the French king. BORRl, jostPH Francis, in I.,atin Burrhus, in Bio- graphy., an impoftor and empiric of the X7th century, was born at Milan, about the year 1625, and educated in the Jefuits' feminary at Rome. In early life he was notorious for his licentious couduft ; but afterwards affuining thecha- ra6ler of a religious devotee, he dechiimed againit the cor- ruption of the age, and pretended to fupernalural vifion.s and .revelations. Dreading the powers of the inqnilltion ac Rome, he removed to Milan, where he ellabliftied a new fcft, con- fifting of perfons whom he attached to himfclfand his caufe by vows ot fecreey, and whom he deprived of their prep rty by enforcing the obligation of voluntary poverty. Witlx the afflftaiice of his deluded followers, and by means of a fwoid which he pretended to have received from heaven, he propofed to compel all mankind to unite in one (licep-fold, of which he was to be the fticpherd and fupcrintendant. Among his other fancies and chimeras, one of his moll diftinguithing doftrines was that of the delfieati;ard to the new celeilial kingdom, which tie pretended a commilTion to e'.labhfli, and the downfal of the Roman pontiff, \vl;ieh he threatened to accompliili, are fo extravagant, cliildiftl, and abfiird, that ihey can be viewed by fober pcrfons in no other light tlian as the crude reverits of a difordered brain. In his condiitt he manifellcd, on various occifions, the grcatell vanity and levity, accompany- in^ that fpirit of impofture which is ufnally dilplaycd by quacks and mo'.intcbanks; and, indeed, fays Mofheim, ♦ in the whole of his behaviour, he feemed delUtute of fenfe, integrity, and prudence." Gen. Diet. Moflicim's Eccl. Hill, vol.v. p. 240. BORRIANO, in Geography, a town of Spain, at the mouth of the river Millas, in the gulf of Valencia ; 7 leagues N. of Valencia. BORRICHIUS, OtA'JS, in 'Biography, tlie fon of a Lutheran minlikr at Ripen in Jutland, was born April 6th 162^). At the age of 1 8 he was fent to Copenhagen, where he applied with fo much afliduity to his ttudies, as to gain him the fricndlhip of the fiiporiors of the college, by the re- commendation of whom he obtained the canonry of Lnnden. By continuing this conrfe of life, his reputation for learning and diligence was fo eflablifhed, that in 1654, when he was only zS years of age, he was invited to accept tb.e regency of the academy at Htrlow. But as he had determined to dedi- cate his lime to the acquirement of the knowledge of medi- cine, he refufed this ofler, purpofing to Ipend a few years in vifiting foreign academies, and hearing the moll celebrated profeffbrs in the different branches of tliat art. The execu- tion of this projetl was, however, poftponed, at the inlliga- tion of M. Gerllorff, the prime miniltcr of Denmark, who entertained him at his houfe as preceptor to his fons. Here he continued five years, at the end of which time, as a proof of the fatisfaclion he had given, and of the opinion the mi- niller had conceived of his various endowments, he was at once created profeffor in philofophy, poetry, chemiftry, and botany, in all of which he eminently excelled. Before he entered on the duties of hvs offices, he was permitted, agreeably to his original intention, to vifit the different fcbools of Holland, England,' France, Germany, and Italy, B O R accompanied by the two fons of the mini-ler, his pupils. Having fpent fix years in his tour, and florcd his mind witli the knowledge of all that was cnrio.-s or ufeful, in the countries he paded through, and taken his degree of doaor in medicine at Angers, he returned in October 1666 to Copenhagen. He now undertook the duty of Icdurer in chemilby and in botany ; and by th.e excellency of his difcourfes on thefe fubjcds, confirmed his countrymen m the high opinion they had entertained of his talents. Though the time neceffarily fpent in this employment, and in pre- paring his numerous publications, left him, one would have thoui^ht, but little leifnre for the pra'-.tice of phyfic, yet from the great number of valuable obfervatlons furnifhed by him to the Ada Hailnienfia, he mull have had no incon- fiderable fliare of bufintfs in that way. In 1686, he was made counfellor in the fupeiior court of juitice ; and, in 16.S9, connfellor in the royal chancery. He died the 3d of Oclobcr, in the following year, three weeks after having undergone the operation for the flone in the bladder. As Borrichius had never been married, he left a conliderablc part of the large pofTelfions he had acquired by his pratlice, for erefting and endowing a college for poor Undents in medicine. His principal medical produdlions conlill of obfervatlons publilhed in the Afta Haffnienlia, and other iimilar collections, and of the letters fent by him while on his travels, to F. Bartholine, under whom he had been edu- cated. The letters, Haller obierves, are the mod valuable of thofe publiilied by Bartholine in his " Epillolx Medicx ;" but the works by which he acquired his principal celebrity, were " De ortu et progrefTu chemix," publiihed in 1668, 4to. ; and his " Hermctis iEgyptiorum et Chemicorum fapientia, ab H. Conringio vindicata," 1674. In this very learned and elaborate work, the author defends the charac- ter of the ancient Egyptians, againll the ilrictures of Con- ringiiis : attributing to them the invention and perfection of chemiftry, and even of alchemy ; perfuading himfclf that among their fecrets they pofTeffed the art of tranfmuting metals. But either from infatuation, or a dcllre of vi61ory, he cites feveral manufcripts, fince known to be fpurious, as genuine, and fome written fince the time of our Saviour, as of much higher antiquity. Notwith Handing thefe ble- miflies, the works have great merit. He (hews from un- doubted authority, that the Egyptians were early acquainted with the medical properties of feveral of their plants ; that they ufed faiine, and even mineral preparations, fome of them preparec by chemillry ; that incubation, or the method of hatching eggs by artificial heat, was firll uied by them ; in fine, that the art of medicine, invented by them, paffed from them to the Grecians. Borrichius was alfo author of " Confpeftus prsftsntiorum fcriptorum lingux Latinae ;" " Cogitationesde variis lingua: Latinxietatibus;" " A.^ialefla philologica, et judicium de lexicis Latinis Grascifque," and various other philological works. Eloy. Didl. Hift. Gen. Dift. and Haller's Bib. Med. Pracl. where will be found the titles of the difTertations, and an analyfis of the principal works. BORROMEAN Islands, in Geography, two ifiands fituate in the bay of the lake called " Lago Maggiort," or " Lago di Locarno," in the Milanefe, fo denominated from their having belonged to the Borromeo family. One of thefe iflands is called " Ifola-BcUa," and the other " Ifola- Madre." They are about a league dillant from one ano- ther, and derive the various beautiful fcenes and objefts which they prefcnt from the talle and liberality of the counts Renatus and Vitahan Borromeo. They were origi- nally barren rocks ; but, with immenfe labour and expence, they were fwrnifhcd with numerous terrace;, grottoes, gar- vienSj B O R dens, fountains, groves of ceJars, cyprefs, cition-trcts, o ange- trecs, Inurcl, &c. wliich render tlitm (cents of ench,uitini.nt, and a kind of terreftria! paradifes. For a particular def- cription of them, fee Ktyller's Travels, vol. i. p. .574, &c. BOllROMEO, Charles, Ciirtl'wal, m Bio/r.ipljy , the foil of count Gilbert Borromco, and a filler of pope Pins IV. was born at the calUe of Arona, in 1538 ; and having made a conliJerable proj^rcfs in literature, he was called to Rome on the accelfion of his uncle to the papal chair in 15. i9, and inverted with the dignities of cardnial-i^cphew, archbilhop of Milan, and penitentiary, legate of Ancona, Bologna, and Romagna, and proteiitor of feveral crowns and religions orders. At the age of 22, he was cntrulled with the governnx-nt of the molt important aflairs of the cliurch ; and he prnicipally contributed to that encourage- ment of literalm'e and patronage of learned men which dif- tinguillied tliis pontificate. He iuRituted at his houfe an academy, to which all the learned men at Rome repaired, when the bulintis of th.e day was concluded, to difcufs lite- rary quellinn;, aud particularly fuch as related to facred fubjefts. The works of this fociety have been publiihed in feveral volumes, under the title of " Noftes Vaticana;," fo denominated becaiife its alTemblies were held at nigh.t in the Vatican. In conformity to the dirtftions of his uncle, he began his public career with great magnificence and fplen- dour, more anxious to do honour to the pope and the rank atfigned him by his favour, than to gratify his own inclina- tions ; but when the council of Trent ifl'ucd its decrees for tlie reformation of clerical manners, he fet an example of obedience by dlfmifllng at once 80 domeftics, difcarding filk from his drefs, and failing once every week on bread and water. In co-operation with the defigns of the coim- cil, he exerted himiclf in promoting a better education among the clergy ; and with this view he inllituted a num- ber of feminariis m his own diocefe, and in other places. He founded the Jefuits' college at Milan, and was eminently inllrumental in erefling a magnificent edifice for the univer- fity of Bologna. He took pains in corrcfting the writings of fome doctors of the church, which had been corrupted, and employed Achilles Statins for this pnrpofe ; and lie was alfo aftive in eftablidiing the congregation of eight cardinals, for refolving doubts and obviating difficulties that might arife in the explication of the decrees ot the council of Trent. Although he was urged by his parents, and even by the pope, to prevent his family from becoming extinft by entering into a married Hate, he preferred continuing in the church ; and notwithllanding many impediments arifing from ill health, a \\eak voice, and defeflive articulation, he determined to become a preacher, aud by affiduous and perfe- vering application overcame all difficulties. After the death of his uncle, he removed to hisarchbifltopric, and devotedhim- felf to the duties of his paftoral office, which he performed with great honour to himlelf, and very much to the fatis- faflion and edification of the people. He took great pains in the reformation of religious orders, and in admir.if- tering confolation to the rernotell parts of his diocefe. Dur- ing the plague, which afflifted the city and diocefe of Milan in 1576, he continued in the fcene of danger, by his prcfence imparted comfort to the fick and dying, and fold his goods in order to furnidi himfclf with meaii,s for relieving their indigence and diflrefs. He alfo convened feveral provincial councils and fynods, and obtained their fandlion in enaCling and enforcing various ufeful regulations for the government of the church. His inceffant labours and aullerities impaired his feeble conftitution, and termi- nated his courfe of aftive and exemplary fervice at the early age of -;7 years, in 1584; and pope PaulV. bellowed B O R upon him, in 1610, the honours 01 canonizTion. For faints in the calendar better dcfei ved this dilliiiCiion. I'.or- romeo's writings on fubjedts of faith aud morals were nume- rous ; they were collei'ted in 5 vols. fol. and printed at Milan ill 1747. His " A6l» Ecelcfiac Mediolaucnfis" wa» publillicd in folio, in 1519. Mortri. Nouv. Diit. Hill. Fabr. nib. Gra:c. t. \\. p. 718. The lite of Borromco was puh- lillied by I'cre Touron, in 3 vols. l2mo. Paris, 1761. BORROMIKI, Fr.ANCis, an Italian architt^, W3» born in F599, at Biffoiia, in the diocefe of Como, and ftnd'cd fculptnre firll at Milan, and afterwards at Rome. Under the patronage of Maderno, his relation, who was tlic arcliiteil of St. Peter's, he directed his principal attenlioa to arthitedure ; and upon the death of Maderno in 2629, he woiked under his luccedor Btriiini ; and prctefted by pope Urban VI II. he was employed about the church of Sapienzia and the Baiberini palaces. At length he became the rival of Bernini ; and acquired fuch a degree of reputation., that the king of Spain engaged him to furnidi a dcfign for the enlargement ot his palace at Rome ; and though it was never executed, he received a liberal rccompcnce in money, and was honoured with the order of St. James. The pope alfo bellowed upon him the ordjr of Chrill, and a penfion, In tills career of profperity, the extravagance of lii-i talle in- curred the cenfure of feveral critics ; and he was clinrged,. by Bernini, with corrupting the found principles of the art. The chuiiour agaiull him prevailed, and his rival ob- tained the diredtion of a building for which he had prepared the defigns ; upon which he retired in difgull into I.oni- bardy. On his return, he employed himfelt in preparing a fet of grotcfques for engraving ; but the mortification he experienced preyed upon his fpirits, and produced occafional derangement of mind ; and in one of his paroxyfms, he feizcd a fword and gave himfelf a mortal wound, in his 68th year, Borromini afiefted fingularity, and indulged a capricious and fantallic talle in his defigns and decorations, which was utterly incanfifient with fimphcity and propriety. Accord- inglv fome have rcprefented his ilyle in architefture as rc- fembling the literary flylc of Seneca, and of the poet Ma- rino. A'ain of his own imagined fuperiority, and jealous of his brethren, he declined to concur with them ; and before his death, deftroyed all his defigns, left any other architcdt fhould pafs them oft as his own. His beft work, ainojig many performances, in churches and palaces at Rome, which blend ftriking beauties with fingularity, is accounted to be the college of the Propaganda. The oratory of the Chiefa Nova, and the houfe of the fathers are alfo ad- mired. D'Argenville. Gen. Biog. BORROWDALE, in Geosmphy, a piaurefque diftria of Cumberland, near Kefwick, foutli of l3erwtnt-lake, com- mencing at the cataradl of Lowdore, and fpreading itj tremendous rocks in a vail fweep round the head of the lake, at the dillance of about half a mile from the Ihore, which is bounded by meadow-land to the brink of the water. The afpeft of thcfe rocks, with the fragments that have rolled from their fummits, and which lie on each fide of the road, prepare the curious traveller for the awful ruin to which he approaches in the gorge or pafs of Borrow- dale, that opens from the centre of the amphitlieatre, which bounds the head of Derwent-water. Dark rocks yawn at its entrance, and difclofe a narrow pafs, running up hetweeo mountains of granite, that are ihivered into almoll every pofiible form of honor. Above, the whole fcene refeaiblcS the accumulations of an earthquake or volcanic eruption, fplintercd, fhivered, and amalfed in piles over one another. Huge cliffs have rolled down into the glen below, where, however, remains 3 miniature of the moll delightful palloral K Z beauty B O R r^v-.y rtfl Oi«l>ar)ks of tV ri»cr Dcrwfrt. An>onf; the r.f lirikiM'.of th< WN Hre GSaMnvarn. exl.ibu..t,. iod t.B of htc 1>^^ been accufto,rea tn hvM its ncil : but the deprcdat.ons •nmially oommiMcd en it, yiyimg. liavc dnvni .t f'""; t*^* ace. Hejce the vnU eXteiMs tor a nnic over a fnghtfi.l of a prrcii>ice that B O R 130RSNA, or Borvma, a town and ditlrift of Ruffia, ill the ^'ovcriimcnt of Tchtrnioof, fcaled on a rivulet of tlic fame naffc, faHmg into tlie Dcfiia ; 5 miks S. E. of 1 chcr- iirL'of, and ■;4S S. of PettrdMir^. DORSOD, a town of Hungary, and the capital of a coii'.itrv of the fame name; inhabited by Hungarians Sclavonians, Bohemians, and Germans, and furnilhing good vellcr is prefentcd with an opening view over the IJcr- BORSUC, in Zooh^', tlic name of t4ie badger, ur/iis mtles, in Pohr.d. The fame animal a'fo bears the iiameb of «ont lake- of the Skiddaw-mountain, and the tipper lletps j,m tdHziih^AM, in that country vards the eaft, and reannj? BORSZLJOWKA, \a Geography, of Saddle-back obliquely fcen towards the ealt, anU reannj? uu i^^y. Z-i w vv' iv/i . in ^eogrnp^, a town of Poland, in •.r ir f nV, ..- =11 t),,. hi-iirlits of the eallern (hore. At the the palatinate of kiov ; 10 nuics W. ot K'ov. ;S,St hf g ge^^le lag:or handet of Grange B&RT. a town of France, in the f P^.t-nt of the li« ok^urefouelv on the bank of the Derwont, among Correze, and ch.ef place of a canton, in the d,!lna of Uffel. n^radows and woods, and (helters itfelf under the ruinous The place contains 1792, and the canton 65O.5 inhabitants : fell calltd'Caftle-crag, deriving its name from the calUe or the territory comprehends 140 kiiiometres, and 10 com- f.,,t',-,f.: whi. h from its fummit once guarded this important muneo : diftant 4 leagues S. E. from Uffel. iX Borrowdale ab^un's in valuabl mines, among'v.dnch BORTHWICK, in r./.,..#„ a parifl. and vil age in fome are known to fiippW the iinell wadd, or black lead the county of Edinourgh, bcotland, is noted in the hiltonc to be found in Ensrland. thefc mountains alfo furniih great papje for a magnificent callle which was built here by ouantiticscfiron-ilone, flate, and various kinds of free-ftone. William I. lord Borthwick, about the year 1430. Inns Radchffe's Journcv in 17,;4. vol.ii. p. 350, &c. complete ftate it was very txtenfive, and considered almoft BORROWSTONNESS, or Bowness, a town of impregnable, but Oliver Cromwelllaid fiege to it in 1050, Scotland, i-i the countv of Linlithgow, having a harbour on and forced the ganifon to furrender. " It is feated," ob- the fouth fide of the frith of Forth, and furrounded with ferves Mr. Pennant, " on a knowl, in the midH of a pretty coal-pita and falt-works, which produce the principal ex- vale, bounded by hills, covered^ with corn and woods ; a •Dorts of the place. It has a '^ood pier and harbour of late moil pifturefque fcene. It confifts of a vaft fquare tower, conllruaion : ij tnilesW. of 'Leithand4N. of Linlithgow. 90 feet high, with fquare and round baRions at equal BORSALO or Burs.\l, a town and kingdom of dillances from its bafe. The ftate rooms are on the firft Africa, "in Ntgroland, not far from the fea-coalt, and ex- tending along the northern bank of the river Gambra, as far as Tanta};ritpl>y, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Afderbeitzan, '^o miles S. of Tauris. DORZINSKOI, a town of S;beria, on the Argun ; J44 :v,ilrs S. E. of Nertchiuflc. BOS, in ylniiqiiity, was peculiarly ufed for an ancient Greek lilvercoin, which was d'ldrachmits, or equivalent to two . drachms. Bos, Lambert, in Biography, an eminent philolorrift, was born at Worcum, in Holland, in 1670, and bccanie Greek profefTor at Franeker, in the exercife of which office he ac- quired great rc-piRation, and where he died in 1717. His profound erudition is hono'.irably mentioned by feveral writers, and partici'larly by Fabricius, and by Hemfterrtmfius in his; oration " De linguss Gra;ex prxflantia." His trea- tifeon the Greek elllpfes is held in high eftimationby gram- marians. His other principal works are, " A new edition, with additions, of the Greek grammar of Vilerus;" " an editum of the Septuagint, with prolegomena and various readings," 3 vols. .^to. Franek. 1709; "Thomas Magiftri eclogae cum notis;" " Exercitationes Philologicce, quibus Novi Ficderis loca nonnuUa ilhiftrantur," 1700 and 1713, 8vo ; " Myfterii Ellipfeos Gra;cx expofiti fpecimen ;" " An- tiquitatum Grrecarum defcriptio ;" and " Animadverfiones ad fcriptores quof'am GrKcos." Nouv. Dicl. Hill. Bos, John Baptist Du, the fon of a confidtrable mer- chant and magillrate of Beauvais, in France, was born at that place in 1670, and finifhcd his fludies at the Sorbonne. He afterwards became a dillinguillied writer, and a member of the French academy. In 169'; he was one of the com- mittee for foreign affairs under Mr. Torey, and was after- wards cliargedwith fonie important tranfaitions in Germany, Italy, England, and Holland. After his return to Paris , he was made an abbe, and had a pcnfion. He was a!fo chofen perpetual fecretary of the French academy ; and in this fituation he died at Paris, March 2J, 1742. His prin- cipal works are, " Critical refleclions upon poetry and paint- ing ;" of which the beft edition is that of Paris, 1740, 3 vols. l2mo. ; " A critical hiftory of the eflabliflunent of the French monarchy among the Gauls," of whicli the befl editions are thofe of 174;, in 2 vols. 4to. and in 4 vols. l2mo. ; "The interefts of England ill underftood in the prefent war," 1714; "The hiilory of the four Gor- dians, confirmed and illuflrated by medals ;" and " The hiilory of the league of Cambray, formed in 170S, againll the republic of Venice," of which the beil edition is that of 1728, in 2 vols. i2mo. Bos, or BoscHE, Jerom, an ancient painter and en- graver, was born at Bois-lc-Duc, and took plcafurt in paint- ing devils, witches, and enchantments. His piftures, dil- tinguiftied by the freedom of his touch, and the ilrength of his colotirinjr, are held in hi;,'h cllimafion, fhoiicrh, from the nature of the fubjcCts which he felee'ied, tlicy excite a dejfrep ot luiri-or blended with admiration. The moil remarkable p-.unting of this matter, among feveral others of a fimilar kind, in which he induljjes a wildncfs of imagination, is an allegory of the ])!eafurcs of the lic(l) ; rcprtfentiiig the prii'dpal figure, drawn by mon'lrous imaginary forms, preceded by demons, and followed by death. He was alfo an engraver, and the lirll attift who attempted to engrave in the grotcf- que ilyle ; and he is laid to have been more dillinguiHud by fertility of invention than by a correct judgment. The two plate?, moll deftrving ot mention, are one reprefenting " St. Chnllophcr," carrying the infant Jefns acrofs the water and bending under his load ; on the left is a hermit, co.-ninpr from h.is cell with a lanthorn, and the wliole compolition is furroundcd with fmall grcvtti'que figures of all fhapes, in the mod ridiculous attitudes; and another is the "Lall judg- ment," in which Chrilt appears feattd on a rainbow, with two angels on each fide and founding trumpets, hav- ing on their labels this infcription, " Hie eft dies qnem fecit j furgite mortui, vtnitc ad judicium ;" and at the bottom are fmall figures of men and devils of all (liapes intermixed. To both thefe prints is affixed his name, " Bofche." He died in 15C0. Pilkington and Strutt. Bos, I^Ewis Janssen, or John Lewis de, a painter, was born at Bois-le-I)uc, and having received iiiltrudlions in painting from the artills of his native city, he applied him- felf to Itudy after nature, and became eminent for the truth of his colouring, and the neatnefs of his handling. His fa- vourite fubjedts were flowers and curious plants, which he grouped in vafes of glafs or cryftal, half filled with water, and to which he gave a peculiarly natural and pleafing ap- pearance. He alfo exhibited on the leaves of his fubjefls the drops of dew with fingular tranfparency, and embeilifh- ed them with butterflies, bees, wafps, and otiier infeCls, in a manner fupcrior to that of any co-temporary artills. In the ftylc of his portraits he was no lefs excellent than in his compofition of Hill life. He died in j ^^07. Pilkiiigton. Bos, in Zoology, the O.v, a genus of animals in which the horns are concave, or hollow, turned outwards, lur'atcd and fmooth ; front teeth in the lower jaw eight ; canine teeth or ttifl ; tii^ra, having the lirad and collar black. The natural hillory of the wild duck is detailed fo amply by different writers, that nothing new remains to be a.'.dtJ by us. Dr. Latham, in particular, has entered at great length in his judicious compilation on this fubjei'^. Tiic wild ducks, obferves this writer, are frequent in many parts of England, but no where in more pknty than in iJncoln- fhire, where prodigious numbers, according to Mr. Pennant, are taken annually in the decoys, each decoy paying from five pounds to twenty, annual rent. In Somerfellhirc the rental of a decoy ye;'.'y has been known to amount to even thirty pounds. '\Vith us thcfe birds ;)nir in the fpring. They breed in all the low marlliy grounds, laying froin ten to fixtren eggs. It is obferved of the young, that they always take to the water as foon as they are hatched. The old birds are very artful. They do not conftantly bui'd their neft clofe to the water, but many times at a dillance from it; in which cafe the female takes the little brood in its beak, or between its legs, one or two at a time, to the water Mi:, and going into it herfelf, the young ones follow indim'tively. Wild ducks are known fometimes to lay the eggs in a hi2h tree, in the deferted nell of a crow, or a magpie. Dr. Latham fpeaks of an inllance that took place at Etchingham, in Sudex, in which the female was found fitting upon nine eggs, in an oak twenty-five feet from the ground. The eggs were fupported by fome fmall twigs laid crofsways. In England only a comparatively fmall number ot wild ducks are found in the fummer ; becaufe, at that time, they remain in the more northern parts of Europe, and only re- turn to us towards the winter. In France this fpecies is not often feen till the winter ; appearing in Odober, and again departing north'vard in the fpring. They are caught in that country, as with us, in decoys, the chief of which are in Picardy, where prodigious numbers are taken, efpecially on the river So.mme. They have alfo another method : a fportfman, with a cage of tame decoy ducks, takes his Ration in a certain jdacc, near which, it is conceived, the flock will pafs. If they approach fo neai- as to allow him to fire, he takes them with little trouble ; but i( othcrvvife, he lets fly one of the tame decoy ducks, tlicii 11 iecond, and fo on : thcfe tame birds entice the wild ducks in Imall parties withm reach of the fportfiran's fowling- piece, who is thus enabled to kill fix or feven birds at everv fliot. They are now and then taken alio by means of a hook, baited with a bit of fheep's lights, which, fwimming on the water, the bird fvviillows the bait, and ho..inics i and llie duck huiitir, concealing his ht:id ill rn, can ftizc upon them without cucltin}; the U 1. A limiUr imiiioU is aifo piattifcd in Chnia, and 111 ou.ah Amci'icu, to ukc tlic wiiddtick. BcisCHA... jinat /ir.j Jlvtr lio/.kis meximtij. Brifs. A fynonym ot Anas Clypeala, the Shovelcr, var y. See Cl.VPi.ATA. BosCHA*, Rofchiu BeUomi. The Gargancy. Anas Q_i'ER(yji:BULA is called by this name, both in Gclncr's Tjiidj, and t'.ie Ornithology of Aldrovan'liis, BOSCHI, Bosch, or Bosco, in Gcosrophy, a town of Italy, in the Alcxandna uf the Milancfe, feated on the river Orbe, five miles li. from Alexandria. EOSCIA, in Bctany, (in honour of Bofc, niithor of part of the Zoological and Botanical articles in " Noiiveau Dic- tionalre d'Hirtoire Naturelle," now puhlidiiiig at Paris.) X^dldcn, aC6. Clafs, tctianiRa Irigynia. Gen. Char. Ca/. uerianth, four-toothed. Cur. four-pctallcd. Pericarp, cap- fule, foui-celled. Spt-cies B. umlulala, Thunberg, " Leaves oppofite, lancco. late, waved." A flirub. Native of the Cape ot Good Hope. BosciA. La Mark(I!luft. PI. 395.) Chh, doifi-canJna moMgynia. Gen. Cliar. Cal. perianth, four-leaved. Cor. none. Slam, filaments long ; anthers didymous. Pijh germ on a pedicle, as long as the filaments j iiyle, none ; ftigma pointed. Pericarp, a nut. Seed, one. Species B. A (hrub. Leaves, oblong-ovate, alternate, on rfiort petioles, flronnly reticulated, coriaceous. Flowers in a terminating corymbus. A native ot Africa, in the neighbourhood of Gorcc, where the negroes eat the kernel of the nut. This plant does not appear to be known to Willdenow. It will, doubtlcfs, foon receive anoti.er name, a;i Thunbcrg's plant feems to have got the lirll polfeflion. BOSClilU.S, John, in Bin^^nifJ.y, a native of I..itf;e, of cor:fiderab!e learning and abilities, v.as invited, in 1558, to llic chair of profeflbr of medicine, at Ingoldlladt, winch lie held with credit feveral years. His works are, " De ptHe liber," publifned originally in German, in I5''2, 4to.; " Concordia philofophornm, ac mcdiconim, dc hiimano conceptu, atque toctus increniento, aniniutione, mora in utero, ac nativita^e," Ingolds. 1576, 410. and 1588 ; •' Oratio de Optimo medico, et medieinre anc^onbus, inttr orationes Ingoldftadienfcs." HalLr Bib. Anat. BOSCO, in Law, See Attachiamenta de lofco ct ffinis. BOSCOBEL, mTopography ,\n theparifh ofDonnington, in Shropfhire, is a place memorable in Engh'lh Ir.iiory, for iXit oak tree, wherein King Charles the Second feerefd liimfelf, after the defp.rate battle at Worccilcr. Finding it impracticable tillier to efcape into Wales, or to reacli the metropolis in faftty, and kr.owing that many of his enemies were fcarching for him, in the immerflate ncigliboiirliood, he was prevailed on by Major Carkfs (who accompanied him) to feck protedion in a large oak tree. Here they feated thcnufelyts one whole day, and faw fome of Cromwell's foidicrs fccking for the king in an adjoining wood. After the rclloration, thin tree became highly venerated, and nu- merous perfons went on pilgrimage to fee it. A great part c;f it was cut away, and converted into tobacco iloppers, hafts of knives, and other memorials ; and many plants were propagated from its acorns. Its remains are inclofid with a brick wall, the infide of which is covered with laurel. 'i'ht 29th of May, the day of his birth, and of his relto- 2 BOS ration, is ftiJl commemorated in England, by an annual fellival and hohdav ; and various ckdfes of the commu- nity difplay branehes, leave's, and apples of the oak trei. Near Bofcobtl is Whitcladies, fo named fiora being a nun- nery of white, or Cillercian nuns. The ri;in,s of this are ttill confiderable, and the church is ornamented with circuW arches, &c. Gough's Edition of Camden's Britannia, vol, ii. Carte's Hillory of England, vol. iv. Gratxger's Biographical Hiftorv of England, vol. :ii. BOSCOl, or Bo'sct, in Ecclcfiajiical Hillory, denotes a fpccies or tribe of monks in Palelline, who ied on grafii, like the bcalls of the field. The word is Greek, /2'.-x«, q. d. grazeri i formed frotn ^os-xM, p'ifco, I feed. The Bofcoi arc ranked among the number of Adamite;;, not fo much on account of their habit as food. They took no care about provifion ; but when catine-time came, or .any- of them were hungry, went into the hdds, with «ach liis knife in hJs hand, and gathcix-d and cat what he could lind. BOSCOLI, Aniikija, \\\ Biography , an hiftoiical painter, \\^ born at F"loreuce, in 155,-;, and educated under Santi di Titi. He was the Hill perlbn who had a juft notion of the chiaro-fcuro, and ufed it fucccfsfuUy in the Florentine fchool ; where, though it had been happily pratiifed by Giorgione, at Venice, and alfo by Titian, it was not well underllood before his time. He polTtfred great freedom of liand, and gave a furprifing force of colour ; and both in dLlign and compofitioii the grandeur of his ilile rtlembled that of his madtr. He fludied after nature ; and in his travels he drew flcetches of any particular objcfts that ftruck him ; but purfuing this praftice at Loretto, with regard to the fortifications of the city, he was feized by the officers of juilice, and condemned to be hanged ; but he happily efcapcd, within a few hoins of execution, by the intcrpolition of Signior Bandini, who explained to the chief magiftrate his innocent intention. He was alfo an engraver ; but the fubjefts of his plates are not fpecified either by Marolles or Florent le C'omte. He died in 1606. Pilkington. . BOSCOVICH, Re GEK Joseph, an eminent mathema- tician and natural philofpher, was born of very rcfpetlable parents, in the free city of Rngufa, on the coall of Ualmatia, tl'.e iSth of May, 1711. He was the youngcft of nine children, and his mother lived to the extraordinary age of 103. Six fons received tlie belt: education that their father's circumllances could aiTord ; and all of them, particularly the elde.'l, who became a pricll, were dilHuguiflied by a happy- vein for poetry. Having finilhed his grammatical coiitfe with applaufe, the young Eofcovich, prompted by the example of his brother, in his fifteenth year took the habit ot the noviciate, and entered the Jefuits' College at Rome. There the original bent of his genius difcovercd itfclf, by the enthuliallic ardour with which he plunged into the ftudy of the mathematicf. His progrefs in that important branch of knowledge was fo rapid as -to altunilh, and Joun outrun his preceptors. Under their inilrudtion he acquired the elements of geometry and algebra, but was left to the. exercife of his own appheation in profeculing the higher parts of inatheinatics. He ihiditd by hirafelf the principles of the diilerential calculus; and thois prepared,, he began the Principui of Newton, and devoured that immortal workv\itb the mull eager avidity. He was tninfpoited byithevatt difplay of new and fplcndid truths which v:cre imvciled ; ' and while, with the torch of geometry, i)e. traced the ftcreit links of nature's operations, and feenicd to penetrate the counfels of heaven, he felt ,his paffioji for uiltniftiou won- derlully inflamed i ncr, in the warmth of his temper, coulA lie BOS Jie fiipprcfs tlie movements of felf-gratiilatlon, wliicli tlie confcioiifncfs of his powers and acquirements excited in liis bread. By liis pcrfiiafioii, Noccti, his mailer in philofophy, was induced to reprint a fniall poem on tlie rainbow, and another on the anrora borealis, both of which Bofcovidi enriched with ingenfons notes and ilhillrntions. 1"he pnb- lication of tiiis trail fpread his fame beyond the preeinds of tlie college, and beyond the Alps. Mairan, whofe opinion concerning the aurora borealis he had efpoufed, noticed it with loud commendation, in the fccond edition of liis dilfer- tation ; and the praifes bellowed by the French philofopher, with the title conferred on him of correfpondent of the Academy of Sciences, cnnld not fail to prove highly grati- fying to his youthful vaiiity. After Bofcovich had completed tlie ufual courfe of phi- lofophy, he was obliged, by the rules of the inilitution, to teach grammar and the claflics ; but lie never loll light of his favourite iludics, and lie was invited by his mathematical mailer, to deknd annual the'fes, and deliver public dilTeita- tions on fueli fnbjefts as occalion fuggcfted. Thefe being printed in fiiccefiion, extended farther his reputation. The tirll appeared in 1736, and contained a theory of the folar fpots, very llmilar to that which was afterwards fo inge- nioudy f.ipported by profelTor Wilfon, of Glafgow. It fnppofes the fun to have two atmofpheres, the lower licing dciile, and fometimes fprinlcled with clouds ; the upper rare, and fubjirtl to variation of height. Next year produced two dilfertations ; one on the tianlit of Mercury, and ano- ther on a remarkable aurora borealis. Five years had Bofcovich fpent in the drudgery of teach- ing Latin, and three more were confumed in the unprofitable ftudy of fcholaflic theology, when, by a very fingular indul- gence, he was cxeinpted by his fuperiors from the fourth year's attendance, and permitted to rclinquilb that dark, and thorny path, and thenceforth employ his talents in exploring Nature's wide domain. His fituation now, as fupernu- merary prefect of the Roman College, was entirely fuited to his talle. To communicate mathematical inllruftion was to him a delightful talk ; and he prepared, for the tife of his pupils, a fhort fyllem of geometry, which comprized all the capital truths of that fcience in fourteen propofitions. In the fcledlion of the materials, in their difpolition and arrangement, he exhibited the clearnefs, the precifion, and noble elegance, formed after the model of the ancients. He compofed the elements of trigonometry with the fame purity of talle. But the capital part of the fyllem, his theory of the Conic Scftions, was reared by repeated efforts, and at dillant intervals, and was not publilhed until the year lyjv Bofcovich conlidered thefe curves as defcribed in piano, and alfumed, for his generic definition, the beautiful pro- perty of the i/lrecfi-i.x, which is common to them all, the parabola being only its fimpleft cafe. In the ellipfe, the ratio of a line, drawn from any point to either of the foci, is to a perpendicular from the fame point to the i/ire/7rix, in the ratio of a lefs to a greater ; in the hyperbola, it is that of a greater to a lels. But the author did not Hop here ; he likewife invelligated the properties derived Immediately from riie feftion of the cone. He fuppofed it cut by a moveable plane, and (howed how the feveral curves would thence be fucceffively produced. The fame luminous idea he trans- ferred to the cylinder, the fpheroid, and the conoids. His imagination loved to contemplate the fine mutation and tranfition of mathematical figure, and to trace the feries of fucceffive, yet apparently conneAed changes, which have fuggelled the law of continuity. On that metaphyfical prin- ciple, as elucidated by the transformation of geometrical loci, he gave an exquifite differtation. Other differtations, Vol. V. BOS remarkable for their ingenuity, were fucctflively d.-Iivcrcd to a crowded audience, at the annual examination of hie Icliool, Thefe treated ou various difficult points in geome- try, 3llrciioniy,and optics ; on ofculating circles, the nature of infiuitelimnls, Irajcflories, the inecjiuilitv of gravity over the earth's furface, the centre of magnitude, the lav.s of bodies, living forces, the flux and rtiliix of the fea, the annual abt nation of the fixed ftars, the limits of allroiiomica'l obfi_rvalioiis, the ufe of knfes and dioptric tclcfcopes, and a new nitthod of employing the obftrvation of the phafet in lunar eclipfes, on the dctciniination of a planet's orbit, bv help of catoptrics, and on the atmufphere of the moon, which he held to be very different from that of the earth, and more analogous to water. In one of thefe diflertations he pointed out a mlilake of the famous Daniel iWrnouilli, who had liaflily coneludtd, that the tides of the atiiiofiihere mull rife higher, in proportion to its rarity, than thofe of the ocean ; in another, he fliewed that the qncllion, con- cerning the mcafure of forces, which then fo vehemently agitated the fcientific world, as it generally happens, was merely a difpute of words ; in a third, he (Icetched the out- lines of that bold ftruftuie, wliich has obtained fuch dcferved celebrity among the learned — his fublime theory of the con- flitution of matter. Wliile Bofcovich was thus ufefully and honourably en- gaged in direding the lludits of youth, and enlightening the learned world by his elegant and ingenious writings, the pleafure of his convcrfation was eagerly courtijd at Rome. In every houfe of note he was always a moll welcome guell, and he reigned in every focitty by the afcendancy of his talents. Before mixed companies he would freely talk of his own fpeculations, which he had a fingular felicity in rendering intelligible and interelling to the mod ordinary minds ; and though, on thefe occalions, he was not accuf- tomed to conceal his inward fatisfaction, or decline bellowing upon himfelf the merited encomiums, thefe frequent fallies ot vanity feenied to flow merely from the warmth of his charafltr, and v/ere effaced in the general blaze of admiration entertained for his fuperior talents. Nor was his ambition confined within the circle of abllracl fcience ; indulging the excurfive flights of fancy, he often facrificed to the Mufes, He compoled I^atin verfes, on a great variety of fubjetls, and which confequently pofTefTcd very different degrees of merit. Every occurrence he was ready to feize, whether public or private, ferious or comic ; wars, nuptials, jocular and domellic incidents, were all indifcriminately his theme. He had a wonderful knack in compofing thofe verfes, with a memory not lels aftonifhing for retaining them ; and at the tables of his friends he took pleafure in reciting elaborate piiffages. Surrounded by his difciples and partial admirers, the fort of idolatry which he received appears, however, to have had rather an unfortunate efTeA on his charadter, by tempting him to overrate the meafure of his powers, and extent of his attainments. Once, and onae only, he entered the lills with his illullrious contemporaries. It was in an- fwer to the quellion, propofed by the Academy of Sciences at Palis, to determine the iiiequahties produced by the mutual aftion of Jupiter and Saturn, efpecially near the timr of their conjunction. His memoir was returned with much commendation, and very few mathematicians alTurcdly would have felt themfclves lowered in yielding the premium to tho great Fuler. But Bofcovich was piqued at what he con- ceived to be an unfair decifion, and would never afterM'ards engage in any public competition. A philofopher, refiding in Rome, amidfl the venerable remains of ancient fplendour, was powerfully drawn to exa- mine thofe jnonuments. Bofcovich wrote feveral difftrta- L tioii* BOS tioHS OK the fubitft of antiqiiitict, two of which were print- ed, ami the rcll circulated in manufcript. His zeal, adivily, and fondiicfs of npplaufe, rendered him at all times accefiible, and in a imiltilude of cafes, his advice was ardentlj- (ought by individuals, licncdict XIV. a jjrcat patron of learned men, and his enlightened niiniller, cardinal \''alenti, con- fvilied him on various important objeds of public economy, the clearing; of harbours, and the conlliuiting of roads and canals. On one occiifion, he was joined in a eommifiiun with other mathematicians and architccils, invited from dif- ferent parts of Italy, to iiifped the cupola of St. Peter's, m which a crack had been dilcovered. They were divided in opinion; but the fentlmc;;ts of IJofcovich.and of the Mavijiiis Poleni, prevailed, la llatiiig, however, the refnlt of the coiifultation, wiiicli was to apply a circle of iron round the bnildiiij;, Poleni forgot to refer the idea to its real author, and this umiflton gricvoudy oHendtd the Kagufan peometcr. Other incidents liad concurred to mortify his pride: he bccjnie at lall dif;,'uiled with his fitu-.ition, and only looked for a convenient opportunity of quitting Roiiu. Wliile in this temper of mind, an applic.uion was made by the court of Porlusial to the general of the Jefnits, for ten mathema- ticians of the f.iciety to go out to Brazil, for the purpofe of fiirvcying that fettlcment, and afcertainiug the boundaries which divide it from the Spaniili don.inions in America. U'ilhing to combine with that objeit the menfuiation of a degree of latitude, liofcovich offered to embark in the ex- pedition, and his propol'ition was readily accepted. But cardinal V'alenti, unwilling lo forego the lullre reflcded by a man of fuch dillinguilhed abilities, commanded him, in the name of the pope, to difmifs the projed, and perfuaded him to undertake the fame fervice at home in the Papal territory. In this fatiguing, and often perilous operation, he was aflilUd by the Englilb Jcfuit, Mayer, an excellent mathe- matician, and was amply provided with the requifite inllru- ments and attendants. They began the woik about the clofe of the year 1750, in the neighbourhood of Rome, and extended the meridian line northwards, acrofs the chain of the Appcnniiies as far as Rimini. Two whole years were fpent in completing the various meafurements, which were performed with the motl fcrnpulous accuracy. In the in- tervals, while this great work was carrying on, the adive difpofition of Bofcovich fought aniufement and occupation in other purfuits. At night he was bufy in drawing out his Elements of Coiuc Sedions ; and in the mornings and evenings, during hifi excurfions to and from the remote 11a- tions among the mountains, he compofed on horfebaciv the greater part of his elegant Latin poem on ecl'ipfcs. This fingular fad reminds us of what is reported of the late Dr. Darwio, who is faid to have framed, in his mind, the beautiful and harmonious epifodes of the Botanic Garden, while driving in his chariot, on vifits to his counli'v pa- tients. This important operation of meafuring two degrees on the furfacc of Italy, is elaborately defcnbed by Bofcovich, in a quarto volume, written in liis ufual diffufe manner, and full of illuftration and minute details. But the book is rendered the more valuable by the addition of ftvcral opiif- cules, or detached clfays, relating to the fubjed, and which djfplay great ingenuity, conjoined with the iineft g..'onictric ta(ie. We may inilance, in particular, the difcourfe on the redification of inilruments, the elegant lynthetical inveftiga- tion of the figure of the earth, deduced both from the law of attradiciu and from the adual meafurement of dexrecs, and the nice remarks concerning the curvf and the condi- tions of permanent liability. This lalt trad gave occafion, however, to fomellridurcsfrom D'Alenibert, lo which Bof- BOS covich replied, m a note annexed to the French edition of his works. The arduous fervice which Bofcovich had now performed was but poorlv rewarded. Trom the pope he received only a hundred fequins, or about forty-five iJounds llerliiig, a gold box, and abiinJancf of finii/e. He now rcfumed the charge of the mathematical' fchool, and befides difcharged faithfully the public duties of religion, which are enjoined his order. A trifling circumllance will mark the warmth of his temper, and his love of precedence. He had recourfe to the authority of cardinal Valenti, to obtain admifTion into the oratoiy of Caravita, from which his abfence excluded him, and which yet did aflord only the benefit of a tree, but fingal fupper. In prefnling at that focial rcpall, the phih)fo'ijlier relaxed from the fcverity of his Ihidies, and Ihone by his varied, his lively, and fluent converfation. He lived in habits of intimacy with his colleagues, and efptcially with his compatriot, I'leiiedid Stay, known to the learned worid bv an excellent didad'C poem, entitled " Philofophia Receiitior," and which he elucidated by notes, containing, in a very neat cinnpreffcd forni; the elements of mechanics. At this lime a difpute arofe between tlie little republic of Lucca, and the government of Tnlcany, on the fubjed of draining a lake. A congrefs of mathematicians was called, and Bofcovich repaired to the fcene of contention, in order to dcfe;id the rights of the petty Hate. Having waited three months in vain, expeding the commilHoners, and amufed with repeated hollow promifes, he thought it better for the iiiterell of his conlliluents, to proceed at once to the court of Vienna, whicii then fupremely direded the affairs of Italy. The flames of war had been recently kindled on the continent of Europe, and Bofcovich, like a true couiticr, took occafion to celebrate the tirll fuccefles of the Aullrian arms, in a poem, of which the fiill book was prefented to the Eniprefs Thercfa ; but the military genius of Frederic the Great of PrulVia loon turned the fcale of fortune, and our poet was reduced to lileiice. Mure honourably did he em- ploy fome leifure in the compofition of his immortal work, " Theoria philofophi-.e iiaturalis reduda ad unicam legem virium in natura exillciitiiui)," printed at Vienna, in the year I 75S. This he drew up, it is alleged, in the very fhort fpacc of thirty days, having c-,illeded the materials a confiderable time before ; yet we mull regret the appearance of halle and dlforder, which deforms a produdioii of fuch rare and in- trinfic excellence. After a fuccefsful fuit of eleven months at Vienna, Bof- covich returned to Rome, and received from the fenate of Lucca, for his zealous fervices, the handfome prefent of a thouland feqnins, or about _^."45o. Thus provided with the means of gratifying his curioljty, he dclired and obtained leave to travel. At Paris he fpent fix months, in the fociety of the eminent men, who then adorned the French capital ; and, during his ilay in London, he was elee'led, in 1760, a fellow of the Royal Society, and he dedicated to that learned body his poem on f.7/yy(-,f, which contains a neat compendium of allronomy. The expcdation of the fcientific world was then turned to the tranlit of Venus, calculated to happen in the following year. Bofcovich, eager to obferve it, returned through Holland and Flandeis to Italy, and joined his illuUrions friend, Correr, at Venice, from whence they failed to Condantiiiople, having, on their way, vilited the famous plain of Troy. In Turkey, he fcarcely enjoyed one day of vgood health, and his life was repeatedly defpaired of by the phyhcians. After fpending half a year in this miferable ilate, he returned in the train of Sir James Porter, our am- baffador at the Porte ; and having traverfed Bulgaria, Mol- davia, and part of Poland, his intention was to penetrate I into BOS BOS iito Ruiri.i, if tlie agitation wliicli tliere prevnik-J, on tlie to fxcite tlie envy of ll\e fcavans, who confiJctcd hii J'uildtii di.ath of Peter, had not detfrred hiiu frmn cxecnting the projeft. The diary of his journev, which he piihhflicd in ItaUan and French, is but a poor book, fnll of pedantry, and patched up of triflincr and infipid remarks. Yet fnch were his pride and blind partiahty, that he regarded, with contempt, the wliohfome critieifms to whicti it gave oeca- rewarded greatly beyond his true merit. The freedom of his language gave offence, his perpetual tgotifm became difijulling, and his repetition of barbarous Latin e])igrams was moll grating to I'arillan cars, ncfides, the name of a priejl: and a jchnt did not now command refpeCl ; and the lentiments of aulKit devotion, which he publicly profifled, fion. Bolcovich began his travels at too late a period of liad grnwn unfafliionahic, arid were regarded as Vcarcely bt- life to profit much by them. fitting tl\e character of a philofophcr. Mnabcau, in his let- At Rome his arrival was welcomed, and he was again ters from Prnlfia, mentions Bofcovich with a degree of llipht bordering on contempt, and warmlv recomm^-jids it to his confulted on various plans of public improvement. But in tlie fprinr of 1764, he ^vas called by the Aullrian governor of Milan, to fill the mathematical chair in the univerfitv of Pavia. The honours uhich he received ]irovoked the jea- lonfy of the other profeffbrs, who intrigued to tmdermiue his fame. He took the mod effetlnal m ide, however, to filcnce them, by p'jblifiiiiig his difTcrtations on optics, which exhibit an elegant fynthclis and vvell-devifcd fet of experi- ments. Thefe etTays excited the more atttnlion, as, at this time, the ingenuity of men of fcience was particularly at- tradtd to the fubjecl, by Dollond's valuable difcovery of achromatic glaffco. The expulfion of the Jefuits from the dominions of Spain prevented Bofcovich from going to California, to court to invite from J5eiliiithe cekbiattd l.a^^range, a ma- thematician of the very highell order, and blcli'ed with the mildetl diipofition. But the geondon had llrongly foli- years he fpent at Bafl'ano, in the Venetian flate, where he cited him to undertake. And as his rivals began now to pnblilhed his opufculcs, in five volumes, 4to. compofed in ftir themfelves again, he fought to d'fpel the chagrin, by a I-atin, Italian, and French, and containing a variety of elc- fecond journey into France and the Netherlands. At Bruf- gant and ingenious diftinilitions connected with allronomical fels he met with a pcafant, famous for curing the gout, and and optical fcience. During that time he lived with his cdi- from whofe fingular ileill he received moil elTential benefit, tor Remondini, and occupied liimfelf in fuperintendin"- the On his return to Italy, he w-;i. Moren. Nouv. Dift. Hill. BOSLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trict of Beaugency ; 2 miles N. of Beaugency. BOSN.\, Skrai. See Serajo. Bo SNA, a river of Bofnia, which palTts by Serajo, and joins the Save, 50 miles N. of that town. BOSNIA, called alfo Rama, a province of Turkey in Eu- rope, being a part of ancient Pannonia, or of Turkilh Illyi*- cum, and deriving its name from the river Bofna, or from the people called Boll'eni. It is bounded on the north by the river Save, which feparates it from Sclavonic, on the eail by the Drino, which parts it from Servia, on the weft by the Verbas, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and o:: tii-: fouth by a chain of mountains, which feparates it frori Dahnntia. It is about 40 leagues long, and 24 broad ; and though moun- tainous, it is fertile, more efpecially near the rivers ; its arable land producing good wheat, and its p lilurcs feeding many cattle ; its mountains contain fome mines of filvcr. Its air, foil, produce, language, and inhabitants, rcfemble thofe of Servia. Bofnia and Servia were formerly united to Hungary, and governed by their own princes ; but in 1465, the Turks took pofl'effion of them ; Stephen V. their lalt fovercign being taken prifoner by Mahomet II. and flayed alive ; from that time they have been a province of the Turkifh empire, which appoints beglerbeys and fangiacs over them. Bofnia is chietly inhabited by Greek ChnftianB, together with fome Mahometans, Jews, and Catholics. Its principal towns are Banjaluka, Orbach, Serajo, and Zwernick. BOSOK, a town of Hungary, 3 miles E. of Baia. BOSON, in Conchology, the turbo muricatus, fo called' by Adanfon. BOSOWKA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclaw. N. lat. 49° 20'. E. long. 30°. BOSPHORICUM Marmor, a name given by the an- cients to a Ipccies of marble, of a yellowilh white colour,, w ith beautiful veins of a fomewhat darker hue ; called alfo,, from its tranfparency, pheri^ites. EOSPHORUS, or Bosporus, formed from jSsj, bos,. and CTopoi, pajfage, in Geography, a long and narrow fea whicb it is fuppoftd a bullock may fwim over ; in a more general fenfe, a long narrow fea running in between two lands, oi> feparating two continents, and by which two feas, or a guif and a fea, are made to communicate with each other. In which fenfe bofphorus amounts to the fame with what we otherwife call an arm of the fea, channel, sr ftreight; the Italians, faro ; the Latins, fretum, and the French pat, manche. The name bof^harus is chiefly confined to two ftreights, in- BOS in the Mcditeranean fea, viz.. the " Bofplinni? of Thwce," commonly called the " Streights of C.'oiillaiitiiiopU'," or " Channel of the Black Sea ;" and the " Cimmiiian, or Scythian Bofphorus," fo called, it feems, from its refem- biance to the Thracian : now more commonly the " .Streights of C;ifFa," which unites the fea of Azof with the liuxine or Black Sea. The origin of the name is better agreed on than the reafon why it was tirll given to the Tlirucian Bofphorns. Nvniphius tells us, on the anthority of Acearion, that the Phrygians, deliring to pais the Thracian llreight, bnilt a vefTel, on whofe prow was the figure of a bnllock, and which was hence called ph;, bullock ; and which ferved them for a ferry-boat. — Diontfuis, Val. Flaccus, Calliir.achns, ApoUo- dorus, Marcellinns, &c. fay, that lo, being transformed into a cow by Juno, paffed this Ih-eight fwimming, which hence was called Bolphoius. — Arnan tells us, tliat the Phrygians were enjoined by the oracle, to follow the route which a bullock fhould mark out to them ; and that upon llirring one up, it jumped into the fea to avoid their purfnit, and fwam over this llreight. Others fay, that an ox, tormented by a gad-fly, threw itfelf in and Iwam over ; and others, that anciently the inhabitants of thefe coalls, when they would pafs over, joined little boats together, and had them drawn over by bullocks, &c. Some late writers rather fiippofe Bofphnrus to have been fo called, bccaufe here was anciently the beall-market. Tournef. Voyag. torn. ii. let. 12. and 14. The " Thracian Bofphorus," called alfo the " Myfian Bofphorus," becaufe the Myfians inhabited the country op- pofite to Thrace, connefttd the Euxine with the Propontis, or prefent fea of Marmora, and formed a winding channel, feparating Europe from Afia, through which the waters of the Euxine flow, with a rapid and inceffant courfe, towards the Mediterranean. This Ibeight has been very minutely defcribed by Dionyfius of Byzantium, who lived in the time ofDomitian, (See Hudfou's Geograp. Minor, torn, iii.) and by GiUes or Gyllius, a Fiencli traveller of the i6t!i century. On the lleep and woody banks of this channel the ancients profufely fcattered a crowd of temples and votive altars, at- telling the unfliilfnlnefs, th.e terrors and the devotion of the Greek navigators, who, after the e.\ample of the Argonauts, explored the dangers of the inlxjfpitable Euxine. On thefe banks tradition long preferved tlie memory of the palace of Phineus, infcfted by the obfcene harpies, which Le Clerc con- jeftures to have been only loculls : and of the Sylvan reign of Amycus, who defied the fon of Leda to the combat of tlie Ceftus. The relidence of Amycus was in Afia, between the old and the new rallies, at a place called I^aurus Inlana; and that of Phineus was in Europe, near the village of Mauromole and the Black Sea. The llreights of the Bofphorus are termi- nated by thcCyanean rocks, which, as thepoetsdefcribethem, had once floated on the face of the waters ; and were delUned by the gods to protect the entrance of the Euxine againll the eye of profane curlofity. At prefent there are two fmall iflands, one towards either fhore ; that of Europe being diftinguilhed by the column of Pompey. From the Cyancan rocks, to the point and harbour of Byzantium, the winding length of the Bofphorus extends about 16 miles, and its molt ordinary breadth may be computed at about 1 1 mile. Accordinjj to the Itatement of Olivier, ^Travels in the Ottoman Empire, p. 77.) it is ne:uly 7 leagues long, and about 20 miles from the point of the Se- raglio of Conllantinople to the Cyanean iflands. In its greateft breadth it is not two miles ; and in fevcral places it is fo narrow, that fome ancient authors fay, that a perfon may hear the birds flng from one fhore to the otlier, and that BOS two perfons may hold a convcrfation acrofs the channel. Herudotns, Polybius, and Arriaii tftimated its length from the temple of Jupiter to the city of Byzantinni at 120 iladia, or 15 Roman miles, i. e. 11 miles 5 furlongs and 'y'>.?36 yards in Englilh meafure. Its breadth was various. At its entrance they reckoned it 4 Iladia, or 805 yards ; and at the other extremity 14 Iladia, or 2^1 j yards. But the ancients, as well as the inodcrnu, iliffer very much about thcie meafiires. In certain places its waters formed large bafons and deep bays. The new calihs of Europe and Afia are conllrnrted, on either contineni, upon the founda- tions of two celebrated temples of Serapis and of Jupiter IFrius. The old callles, erected by the Greek en.perors, command the narrowell part of the channel, in a place where the oppofite banks advance within 500 pacts of each olher. Mahomet II., when he meditated the liege of Couilanlinople, rellored and llrtngthcned tlufe fortrelles ; but he was not ap- prized, that near 2000 years before his reign, Darius had cholen the fame fituation to connedt the two continents, by a bridge ot boats, and thus to tranfport ;oo thoufand men againll the Scythians. At thin place the crnfaders alfii entered Afia, when they profecuted the feheme of refcuing the holy land from the yoke of the Mahometans. At a fmall dillancc from the old caftcs, we difcnvcr the little town of Chryfopolis or Scutari ; and as the Bofphorus be- gins to open into the Propontis, it paiTes between Byzantium and Chalcedon. The harbour of Conllantinople may be confidered as an arm of the Bofphoru';, and in a very remote period obtained the denomination of the " Golden Horri," from the rcftmblance which the curve it dcfcribes bears to the horn of a ilag, or rather of an ox, with the epithet golden, ex- prcffing the riches which every wind wafted from the moll dillant countries into the fecurc and capacious port of Con- ftantinople ; which fee. From the mouth of the Lycus, formed by the conflux of two fmall ftreams, and fupplying the harbour with frefli water, by which the bottom of the harbour is clcanfed, and flioals of fifh are invited to make it their retreat, to that ot the harbour, this arm of the Bof- phorns is more than feven miles in length : the entrance is about 500 yards broad, and a llrong chain might be occa- fionally drawn acrofs it, to guard the port and city from the attack of an hoftile navy. The navigation from the ilTue of the Bofphorus to the entrance of the HcUcfpont is about izomilts. See Hellespont, and PaoroNi is. The " Cimmerian Bofphorus," now called the llrtights of Cafta, derived its name horn the " Cimmerians," a people who inhabited the adjacent country ; feparatcd between Cherfonefus Taurica, belonging to Europe, and the territo- ries of Afia ; and joined the Euxine fea, with the Palua Mxotis. Its breadth is ibout 4 leagues. See Sea of Azof. BosPHORUs, or Cimmerian Bofphorus, the name of an ancient kingdom, comprehending all the provinces that were fubject to the Bolphoran princes, and bounded on the eall by Colchis, on the well by the gulf Carc.nites, on the fouth by the Eu.-clne lea, and on the north by the Tanais, where that river falls into the Palus Msotis ; fo that it compiifed the Cherlonefus Taurica in Europe, and in Afia the whole traft which lies between the Palus MsEotis and the Euxine fea. Diodorus Siculus (1. xii.) confines the kingdom of Bofphorus within the Bofphorus Cimmerius, the boundary of Europe and Afia on that fide ; but Strabo (1. vii. ) extends it to the gulf Carcinites, which, with the Palus M^otis, forms the illhmus of the Cherfonefus. The chief cities of the Afiatic Bofphorus were Phanagoria, the metropolis of Bofphorus in Aha, according to Strabo,. Cepi, HermonalFa, Stratoclea, Cim-> BOS Ciirimrliim, Simla on the Pains >fxotis, Tanais at tlie tnniich of the riw-r bearing that nanu-, where the city of A7of ;iiiw ftaiiHi), Paniardis, Tyranihe, anJ Ooialiim, called liy Ptoh-mv a C'mbriaii vilhi rr. The country h.trihrinR on the Palm M lotii and the P.orphonn, wliich was inh ibited by the Cim-r'erii, is reprefcnted by the ar.cients as inhofpi- taMe, covered with thick forells and continual fogs, thioiiirh which the rajs (;f the fun could not penetrate. Sec CiM- MfRIt. Tlie Bofporani were governed by their own piinccs in the eailicrt times ; but the hillory of them by I'rogiis Pom- ptiiis is lo'l, fii that little certainty ii known cinicerning then\. The firll rcc-irded in hillory, and mentioned by Slrabo, (I. vii.) was I.encon ; and lie was fncceeded by frvcral others, whofe hillory is involved in irreat obfciirity. The kiii'Mom of 15 )fphorns. as we arc informed by Dio- donis Sieiilin, was volnntarily fnrvtndered by Pcirifades III. to Mithridates the Great, kii'ijj of Pontus, after it had been held by his ancellors for thc'fpuce of .\oo years. In the time of the lall Mithvidatic war, the 15ofporani revolted from Mithridates, and admitted Ronuni g.irrilons into the cities of Phanagoria, Tlu-odoha, Cherfoncfns, and Nym- phrtHn ; but upon the death of that prince, the vliole country was rellorcd by Ponipcy to his fon Pliar- naces. 'whom he honoured with the title of friend and allv ot the Roman people. During the civil war between C.ifar and Pompty, Pliarnaces, not fatislied with the king- dom of Bofphorus, attempted the recovery of his father's dominion-! ; crolTcd the Ensine fea, and reduced Colchis, Armenia Minor, and fevcral places ii\ Cappadocia, Pontus, and Bithynia. After the battle of Pliarfalia, Cxfar fent againfl him a conliderable force under the command of Do- iniiius Calvinus ; Domitius being overcome in battle, Phar- naces made himfelf mailer of the remaining part of Pontus and Cappadocii, and of all ISithynia ; but as he was advanc- ing into Afia, properly fo called, C.vfar left Egypt, traverled .Syria, and came unexpectedly upon Pliarnaces, and gained a complete viclon'. After this defeat Pliarnaces fled to Sinope, a"d from thence failed b.ick into Bofphorus ; where, upon his landing, Afander, whom he had appointed governor nf that countrv during his abfence, feized and put him to death, and took upon himfelf the title of king of Bofphorus. Cxfar, however, conferred the kingdom of Bofphorus on Mithridates tlii; Pcrgamiaii, in recompenee of fervices which he had performed in Egvpt. But in endeavouring to fecurc the polTelTion of it, he wa-; vanqniOud and llain in battle by jVfaiider, who, aflvr his death, iield the kingdom without any farther molellation. Afander, being dilgiilled by the emperor Angullns, who gave the co;r.maiid of the Bofpho- rcaii troops that ftrved in t!ie Roman army to Sciibonius, abllaiiud from all food» and thus ended his life in the 93d year of his age. Upon liis death Scrihonius, pretending that he was the trandfoii of Mithridates, and marrying Dynami*!, the daughter of Pliarnaces, to(}k podclliun ot the tlngdcnn of Bolpliorns, but w;is expelled from it by Polemon, on whom the kingdom had been bellowed by Augiilhis. Polemon was f-.iccecdcd bv his fon Pokinon II. ; who ex- changed the kingdom, in the reign of Claudius for part of Cil'cia. Trajan, as Entropius informs i:s, took the king of Bofphorus nnder his protec'ion ; and Liiciaii tvUs us, that the Bofporans, in his time, had a king named Eupator ; but we have no record of the jKriod jirevious to the divifion of the Roman empire in which this kingdom terminates. BosPHoRUs, Promontory oj', wasa promontory of Thrace, at the entrance of the harbour of By/antium, fituate on the Thraciin Bofphorus, near the Propontis, a:id N. W. of the jjromontory of Chalcedon in Alia Minor. BOS BosriiORVS, a city of Chcrfonefus Taiiricn, fcated near the Cimmerian Bofphorus, and luppofed by fonie writers to have been the fame with Panticap;enm, which, according to Strabo, was the metropolis of the European Bofphorus. But PI'ny, Entropius, and Sfephanus By/.., Ipcak of them as two different cities. Strabo and Ptolemy take notice of Panticapajum, but fay nothing of Bofphorus ; but Proco- pius often mentions the latter, but never takes notice of Panticapxum ; from which circumllance it has been inferred, that thcfe two names belong, at different periods,* to the fame city ; Panticapxum being its moll ancient name, re- cogiii/.ed by Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy, and Bofphorus the name given to it by Proeopius. Pliny, however, fays, tliat foine perfons called it Bofphorus, and that, in its origin, it was a colony of Milcfians. BospuciRUS, a town of India. Stcph. Byz. — Alfo, the name of a town placed by Suidas towards the Hellc- fpont, which was ravaged under the empire of Jullinian. BOSQUET, Ekancis, in Bin^rup/jj, one of the moff learned prelates of Eiance in the 17th century, was born at Narbonne, in irto'J, and ediicateatiu tranflatioUjwith notes, of the fynopfis of civil law, com- pofed in Greek verfe by Michael Pfcllus. He alfo wrote a " Hillory of the popes, who refided at Avignon," from 1305 to 1394 ; and publiflied fevcral epiflles of pope Inno- cent III. with learned notes. But his principal work was, a " Hillory of the Gallican church, in the reign of Conllan- tine," written in Latin, and publilhed with conliderable augmentations in 1636, 4to. but with the omiffion of fome liberal and fpirited reflections on tiie iiftions and errors introduced into the early accounts of the Gallican church. He alfo left behind him fome MS. obfervations on the liber- ties of the Gallican church, and fome notes on the canon law. Gen. Dltl. l)Osc:_l'F.T, in Ornntnenlnl CiirJemng, is a term applied to detached clumps or other parts of gardens, pleafure or orna- mented grounds, planted with a variety of deciduous ever- green trees, and fhrubs, and herbaceous perennial flowers, either in a regular or irregular manner. They Ihould be laid out ill form luited to the nature, extent, and particular cir- cnmllances of the ground, fo as to produce the greatell pof- fible variety and effeft ; fome being made circular, others oval or o!)l valley, wartiid by a fmall iiiUt of tlic fea, wliilft moiiiitninou5 cmincncci cnciiclc it. Tliis jilacc was formerly ■noted for a catllc, built by one of the IJotcrcaux family ; but no fragments are now remaining, llillory ol I'oroiighs, vol. i. 8vo. BOSSO, Matthew, in Riogra/iky, an ecelefiaftic dif- tinguilhtd for his learning aid virtues, was burn at Verona, in 14:8, and educated firll at Milan, and after his adinilCon into the congregation of canons regular of the l.ateran, at I'adna. His merit advanced him lo fcvtr.il eminent ofiices in his order ; and at Fiefolo, where he Inpcrintendvrd the canonry of St. Bartholomew, he became acquainted with Lorenzo dc Medici, who appoiiitcd him his conlefior ; and it was from his hands, and in his thureh that Jului, the foil of Lorenzo, alterwards pope Lio X. rcceive<\ the crfigns of the cardiiialate. He was ofTcied a bi(ho[)ric by pope Six- tus IV. for his fervices in checking the difordiis that pre- vailed in the nunneries of Liguiia, and the adjacent pro- vinces, but refufcd lo accept it. Alter having five times fuilained the office of vilitor, and twice that of procurator. general of his order, he died at Padua in ijOi. Of his works the principal are tiie following, viz. •' \)c I'alutaribus animi gaudiis ;" " De inllituendo fapicntia aiimo ;" " De tolerandis advcrfu ;" " De gerendo magiltiatu ;" De im- moderato mulitrum cultu ;" and a collection of letters and fmall pieces, entitled " Rscuperationts Fefulan-j'," printed at Bologna, in 1493, and furnifhing one of the fiiicil fpeci- mens of typography of the I5t!i century. Gen. Di£l. Rofcoe's Lorenzo de Medici, vol. ii. BO.SSON, in Gcogniphy, one of the five glaciers of Swif. ferland, that 'llretch towards the plain of Chamouny, and unite at the foot of Mount Blanc. Sec Glacier. BOSSU, Renk Le, in B'iogr,iphy, a polite fcholar and eminent critic, was bom at Paris in 1 631 ; and having re- ceived the rudiments of his education at Nanterre, he was admitted a canon regular in the abbey of .St. Gtnevieve, at the early age of 18 years, and purfued tlie Ihidy of pliilofo- phy and divinity. After having received pricft's orders, in 1657, he indulged his inclination to the Belles Lcttrcs, and devoted himftlf for feveral years to the employment of teach- ing tliem. At length he retired to pafs his time in tran- quil ftudy at the abbey of St. Genevieve ; and in this re- treat, where he was feduloufly employed, puhllflied his " Parallel of the philofophy of Dcfcants and of Ariftotle," and his more popular " Treatife on epic poetry." He alfo publifhed a fmall piece in favour of Boileau againll St. Sor- lin ; but the greater number of his compofitions remain in MS. at the abbey of St. John, at Chartres, of whicli he was made fub-prior in 1677. He died in 16S0. Boffu was dif- tingui(hed by a found judgment, well regulated, but lively imagination, and a mild, benevolent charader. His work on epic poetry furniflies many judicious rule?, of which however, Voltaire fays, that they will never make a poet. It was left in an impcrfedt ftate ; the author having intended to exemplify his rules from Horace and Virgil. The bell edi- tion is that of the Hague, in 1714, with a memoir on the life and writings of the author by father Courayer. Gen. Dia. Bossu, in Gtography, an ifland about 3 074 leagues N. E. from Trinity Point, on the north coaft of the gulf or river of St. Lawrence. BOSSUET, Jamfs Benignus, in Biography, a famous French divine, celebrated for popular eloquence, for his ta- BOS Icnls a.« a controverfial divine, and for his elaborate vindica- tion of thr Roman catholic faith, was born at Dijon in 162 1 ; and having for fome time purfued his lludies under the care of the Jcluits, who willied him to enter into their order, he was rek-ucd from them by the interporition of his uncle, and in 1641 fent to Paris to finidi his lludits at the coUegeof Navarre. As he had devoted himfclf to the clerical profef- fion, theology was the objeft of his particular attention ; and his favoiiiite author was Augullin. To the lludy of polite literature he dedicated a poition of his time ; and whilll he was a profefTtd admirer of Homer, he difappixjvcd the introduftion of mythology into modern poetry. And though the range of his (Indies was very cxtcnlive, he dif- regardfd mathematics from a preconceived notio;., that they would not contribute to Jiiakc him a founder divine, or a more eloquent preacher. The philofophy of Defcartes re- commer^lrd itfilf to him by its novelty, and he adopted it, notwithltaiidiiig the reproach and pcrftculion which it un- drrwcnt. After completing his theological courfc, he re- ceived the degree of doftor of the Sorbonne in 1652, and then rcm(.H'cd to Mctz, when he was appointed canon of the church. Here he wrote his firft polemic piece, which was a refutation of the catechiim of a Huguenot minitter of that town, with whom, huwever, he lived on tenus of uninterrupt- ed fricndfhip. Upon his return to Paris, his eloquence as a preacher recommended him to royal patronage. In 1661, he preached before the king, and his conduft during his rt- fidence at Vcrfailles was fuited to the dignity of his profef- fion. He foon obtained, witliout any foiicitation on his own part, the bilhopric of Condom ; but when he was appointed preceptor to the dauphin, in i6;o, he reiigned this prefer- ment, and devoted himfelf entirely to the dilcharge of the duties of this honourable and important office. In this litu- ation he compofed for the ufe of his pupil, his difcourfe on univerfal hillory, which, notwithflanding fome objeftions that have been urged agaiiift it, is conlidered as his princi- pal performance, and much more inllruftive and ufclul than all his theological and controverfial writings. As foon as he had completed the education of the prince, Lewis XIV. advanced him, in recompence of his attention to this objeft, in 1681, to the fee of Meaux ; and in this fituation of great- er leifure, he employed himfelf in the defence of the church againft both iniidels and proteilants. In his polemic writings he difplaycd much logical acutenefs and dexterity in illuf- trating the doilrine of the church, and the variations fub- filHng among proteilants ; and he deduced his chief argu- ments in favour of the former, and in oppolition to the latter, from the antiquity and unity of the churches ; the authority of fathers, councils, and popes, during a long feries of ages; the novelty of the pretenlions of the reformers ; the necelfity of an umpire in the province of religion for fettling difputes, explaining the fcriptures, and maintaining order and peace ; and the necefllty of fubmltting to fuch an umpire, in order to prevent that dif-union and variety of fefts, each profefling its right to interpret the divine word, and claiming the honour of being the true church, which difgraced the caufe of the proteilants. The latter were ably defended by the French Calviiiills, and particularly by the celebrated Claude, to whom, in the controverfy, fome even of the catholics have allowed the fuperiority. Leibnitz alfo be- came a party in the difpute between the proteilants and papills, and recommended, for the fake of unity and peace, mutual conccffions. But Bofluet remained inflexible, and conceded only that the facramental cup might be allowed, as a matter of favour, to the laity. He was, however, no ad- vocate for the infallibility of the pope, or for his aflumed right of depofing kings ; but zealoufly oppofed both thefe claims. BOS claims, when urged by Innocent XI. againft the indepen- dence of the crown, and tlie hberties of tlicchrgy of France. The confequcnce of his oppofition wus tlie Icifs of the car- dinal's hat, which the pope offered him as an inducement to Ins dcfilling from proftcnting this difpute. BoIFuet, not content with writing on general fubjefts, fuch as the defence of the Chriftian religion, the cathoHc faith, and the Gallican chnrch, undertook to rcfnte the notiuns of the amiable Fcnelon concerning quietifni ; either btcaiife h« conlidered thtfe notions as erroneous and dangerous, or be- caufe lie wilhcd to degrade in the general ellimation the charafter of a perfoii, whom he regarded as a rival, i'ene- lon complained of the havlhnefs with which lie was treated ; and fttch indeed were the inipetuolity and /.eal with whicii he entered into this difpute, that being once at court he main- tained ills opision with a degree of ardour, which led tlie king to fay to him, " What would you have done, if I had taken part with Fcnelon againil you?" Bolfuet replied with great fpirit ; " I would have fpoken ten times as loud." On another occaiiun, however, he was lefs difpofcd to give offence ; for though he had condemned theatrical exhibi- tions, to which I^ewis was addicted, yet being aiked, what he thought of attending tlieni, he reph'ed with aconliderable degree of addrefs, " For it there are great examples, and Bgainft it ftrong arguments." Of his talents as a fpeaker BolTiiet exhibited a fpccimen that was much admired, at the early age of i6 ; and as to his llyle of preaching, it was lofty, fice, animated, and energe- tic. As he poffelfed a retentive memory, he feldom wrote down more than the heads of his difcoiirfes, and fupplied the intervals extempore, but as the refult of previous medi- tation. Hence it happens, that his printed fermons are ra- ther bold and maftcrly Iketches than finillied compofitions ; and however much they have been admired, they are far excelled by the difcourfes of MalTillon and Bourdalone, But his funeral orations are conlidered as furpaffing all others with refpeft to iubJimity and pathos. Of the feven which he delivered and pubhihed, the three that have claimed pre- eminence are thofe for the queen of England, widow of Charles I., in which is introduced a fine delineation of Cromwell's charadler and pohtics ; for the duchefs of Or- leans, filler to Charles II.; and for the famous prince of Conde. In the exercife of his epifcopal and paftoral funftions BolTuet was entitled to great refpett and commendation. He was eminently diftinguilhed by his attention to the duties of his office ; by his diligence in communicating inllruftion to the ignorant, and comfort to the afflifted ; and by the exercife of an exemplary hofpitality to the indigent. In his clerical vifits he paid particular attention even to peafants and children. Whilft he was thus amiably employed, he clofed a ftudious and dignified life, in the year 1704. It ought to be recorded to his honour, that, though he was a zealous advocate for the doctrines of the cliitrch of Rome, he was no friend to perfccution, and exprefTed his difapprobation of the feverity cxercifcd toward the Hugue- nots. Neverthelefs, it does not appear that he ever repre- fented to the king the injuftice, cruelty, and impolicy of this condiift. " The behaviour and manners of Boffuet always command- ed refpeft, but they often betrayed haughtinefs, a domineer- ing di'fpofition, and a high opinion of himfelf; and ihewed he had but little of that fpirit of mecknefs and gentlenefs, which in the archbilhop of Cambray was joined to every vir- tue that infpires veneration. The difference of their charac- ters is eaiily- difcerned in their writings. In thofe of Bof- fuet, the reader admires vigour of mind and (Irength of rea- VOL. V. BOS foning J in thofe of Fenelon, he feels the ptrfuafive powe* ariling from the union of a fine genius with genuine benevo. lence. Accordingly, the fornu r has been faid to have dc- monllrated the trutli, and the latter to have exhibited the aniiablenefs of religion." Of the works of Bolfuet a colhdion was made in i 743, in I 2 vols. 4to. to which was added, a fnppkment of 5 vols. 4to. ; and the Benedictines of St. Maur have publiflud 12 vols, of a new and improved edition. He alfo wrote in Latin a defence of the declaration of the French clergy on ecclefiaftical power. Bolfuet was a dilluignilhed member of the French academy, into which he was admitted in 1671, Eloge Academiqne par d'Alembert. Nouv. Did. Hill. Moreri. Gen. Biog. BOST, or Bust, in Gcogniphy, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segillan, or Seillan, feated on the banks of the river Heermnnd, or Ilindmend ; dillant about 75 milcj S.W. from Candahar. N. lat. E. lo 64'= 23' From this town Abiilfctb All B.n Mohammed al KaUbt one of the moll illulbious poets who flourilhed under the dynally of the Samanide.s derived the appellation of Al Bofi. Hcr- belot. BOSTAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Room, feated in a fertile plain of the fame name, \4-atered by tlie river formerly called " Sarus," and fur- rounded with mountains, on the northern fide of mount Taurus. The town is fmall ; and its inhabitants piefent a Itriking contrail to the m( re polifhed natives of Syria. Their common drefs is a fhort jacket and a fringed tuiiiaa. The women, whofe complexion is fair and florid, wear on their heads flat pieces of metal, fome of filver, and others of copper, according to their rank, which they tie under the chin, and thus fhelter their faces from the fun and rain. N. lat. ,-;S^ 12'. E. long. 56° 28'. BOSTANGI-Baschi, or BoJlati^L-e Bach,, in theTurkijh Affiiirs, an officer in the grand feignior's houlhold, who ha,5 the fuperintendance of all the gardens, water-works, and houfes of pleafure, with the workmen employed in them. The poll of bollangi-bafchi, or chief gardener, is one of the molt confiderable in the Turkilh court ; and his power is very exten- , five. He has the emperor's ear, and on that account is much courted by all who have bufinefs depending at the Porte ; he is governor of all th.e villages on the channel of the Black fea, and has the command of above ten thoufand bollangis, or gardeners, in the feraglio, and other places about Conllan- tinople. He repreiles debauchery, and punilhes theft and other offences. But that which gives him the grcateil eclat is the honour he has of holding the rudder whenever the grand feignior takes his pleafure on the water, and of accom- panying him every w here on horfeback, v.-'. em ver he goes out in Hate. This ofiicer is of the numb '■ of the four " Rickab agaleri, " or officers of the court, who are obliged to attend 'l.e fultan on all folemn occafions ; the other three are called " Buyuk-inibrohor," or great equerry," Kurchuk- imbrohor," or little equeiTy, and " Capidjilar-kiayaffi," or great chambei'lain. The boftangees are generally fn •) of Muffulmans ; their pay is tolerably good, and they are al- moll all married. Tiiey were ellahlifhed under t'.e reign of the full emperors, and for a long time fnrnilhed a nurfcryof the bell folditrs. Thofe of them who difplayed the greattft courage and Ihength, and more efpecially the higheft degree of fanatlclfm, were transferred to the janj/.aries. BOSTON, in Geography, is a large comineroial borough- town of Lincohifhire, in England. It tlairds in that divifion of the county called Holland, and is nearly iurrounded by the fens ; the greater part of which having been inclofed and drair.ed, is now appropriated to arable and meadow M lands, BOS f»ntl«, PrfT!0!i< to x)\\t jtrul national uiuUrlakiiig, Bofton had L»;l much of its p.ip\ilation and trade; but tliis event !i3< rc:iov:iti"i1 the town. It Hands on the banks of the livtr Wi'ham, w'.iich empties itfelf into the fe.i about five miles rill of the tort-ri. Here is a commodi.-us. well-frequented haven : and formerly « great trade was carried on in the ex- portation of wool: that beinp proliibited, tilt merchants were nceelTitatcd to feek forprofit in other commodities, and have nearly kept pace in the cliaracteriftic comnurcial Ipirit of the co;tiitry, bv advancing the popn! ition, opulence, and tnde of Bolton, It is now. one of the mod eonliderablc towns and ports in the county of Lincoln ; and, bclides two weekly maikfts, ha", four annual fairs. Bolloii, according to Dcde, was anciently called Fiotolph's town, from St. U(it')Iph, a Saxon, who founded a monalUry here, which, accordint: to the fame venerable writer, gave origin to the town. Other writers tlate, that the Romans iiad a llation here, and in fupport of this opinion refer to fome ancient foundations of buildins^s, hewn ftoiies,and iinis, tint were discovered here in 1716. This town fent reprcfenta- tives to three national councils, i ith, 2f)tli, and 27th of Edw. III. and fird ri;turned regular members in I'^dw. VI. 's time. Tt was incorporated in the laft year of Henry VII I. 's icij^n. The number of voters amounts to nearly 200. About the end of Henry I.'s reign, a man, named Robert Chamberlain, with fome accomplices, difgmfed in the habits of monks, fct the town on fire in fevtral places, for the purpofe of phin- deriniT the inhab'tants. Chamberlain was taken, and exe- cuted, but refufed to impeach his accomplices. The corporation, by whom the town is governed, confifts of a mayor, who is chief clerk of the market, and admiral of the coaft, a recorder, twelve aldermen, eighteen common- councilmen, a judge, and marflial of the admiralty, a coro- ner, two fcrieants at mace, and other inferior officers. The river Witham is navigableat fpring-tides for vefFels of ten to eleven feet water ; and many of them are employed in the corn-trade to London. A communication is opened between this place and Lincoln, by means of a canal ; and another cut communicates to Sleaford, Horncaftle, S:c. Bollon had formerly, befides St. Botolph's monaftery, a priori-, four friaries, and three colleges. Tt had alfo two churches ; but that of St. John's is entirely deftroyed. The other, dedicated to St. Botolph, is a large, elegant pile of building, with a lofly tower, which is jultly admired for the lightntfs, ncatnefs, and beauty of its various compartments. In the year 1,309 was laid the foundation of this flrufturc, which has fince proved tlie pride and boalt of the Boftonlans. It is joo Let in height, and is faid to be the loflicft tower in England. From its top is a moll cxtenfive view over the flat fens of Lincolnfliire. The whole height is divided into four compartments, of which the uppcrmoll is formed into an oflagon-fliapcd lanthorn, each fide perforated with pointed arched windows, and filled with muUions and tracery^ This is attached to the fquare tower by flying buttreffes, termi- nated by purfled pin;iacles. The three other compartments are ornamented with highly decorative windows and tracery ; and at each corn:r are two ilrong ornamented buttrelTes. The church, though more ancient than the tower, difplays a fine example of Englifh florid ccclcliallical architcfture. Large in dimenfions, lofty and light in its general charafter, and richly elegant in the various decorative ornaments of windows, oratories, door-ways, &c. it will be examined with dcli_jht by the archileftui-al antiquary. It confifls of a nave, chancel, fide aifles, fouth porch chapels, &c. ; and is one hundred feet in width, by three hundred feet in length. In the upper part of the nave are twci;ty-cight pointed win- dows, between which arc fourteen groined arches, witli light BOS fpandrils ciiriouny moulded. Thefe, with their interfeaions and embolfments, produce a very beautiiul eiTcd, which is improved bv the lofty columns and arches that divide the centre from the fide aiflts, Tiie general appearance and convenience of Bofton have been much improved within the lall twenfy years. Many oblh-uttions h'ive been removed, and new buildings eicfted. T!ie market-place is Ipacious, and is ornamented with a handfome market-crofs. In 1772, the corporaticni built an excellent lilh-market, which is abundantly i'upjilied with fea and river fitli. Qjiten Elizabeth gave the corporation a court of admiralty 'over all the adjacent fea-coalh Veffth arrive here from S'tantim's wharf, London, every ten days; and from Hull and Lvnn, every fpriiig tide. Several foreign fliips trade here in fummer with timber, rye, wine. Sec. Bollon is J 5 miles call of Lincoln, and 1 16 miles N.E. of I^ondon. It contaius 12,2 houfts, and Jij^ti inhabitants. Hillory of the Boroughs of Great Britain, vol. ii. How- let's Seled Views of Lincolnfnire, 4to. Boston, the capital of the Hate of Maffachufett's, in America, the hrgell town of New England, and the third in fi/,e and rank in the United States, lies in N. lat. 42° 23' 15", and W. long. 70° 58' 53". I'his town, together with the towns of Hingham, Chelfea, aud Hull, conftitute the county of Suffolk; and it is diftant 61 miles S. by W. from Portfmouth, 16+ N. E. from New Haven, 252 N.E. from New York, 347 N.E. from Philadelphia, and 500 N.E. from the city of Wafliington. It is built upon a pe- ninl'ula of irregular form, at tlic bottom of Mafl'aehufett's bay, and is joined to the land by an iUhmus at the loutli end of the town leading to Roxbury. Its length, including the neck, is 3 miles ; that of the town itfelf is not quite 2 miles ; its wide!! part, 726 yards. The peninfula contains about 700 acres (fome fay 1000), in wdiich are 2376 dwelling-houfef. The number of inhabitants, in 1790, was 18,038; but it has i]nce been much augmented. The town is inttrfcdled by 97 llreets, 36 lanes, and 26 alleys, btfides iS courts, &c. many of which are irregular and incommodious. State-llreet is very fpacious, and connetling in a line with Long wharf, where llvangers ulually land, exhibits a flattering idea of the town. Bofton contains 19 edifices tor public worftiip ; 9 for congregationalifts, 3 for epifcopalians, and 2 for baptifts. The Friends, Roman catholics, niethodifts, Sandemanians, and univerfalifts, have alio one appropriated to each. Moft of them are ornamented witli beaiiiitul fpircs, and furnifhed with clocks and bells. The other public buildings are the flate-honfe, court-honfe, two theatres, concert-hall, Faneuil hall, gaol, alms-houfe, work-houfe, bridewell, and powder magazine. Franklin place, adjoining Federal llreet theatre, contains a monument o! Dr. Franklin, and is reckoned a great ornament to the town. A magnificent ftate-houfe is alfo erefled on the fouth fide of Beacon-hill, fronting the mall, and overtopping the monument on Beacon-hill. The market-place, in which Faneuil hall is fituated, is plentifully fnpplied with all kinds of provifioiis, both from the country, and from the ocean, and rivevs. The harbour of Bofton is formed by point Alderton on the fouth, and by Nahant point on the north. It is fufli- ciently capacious to admit 500 veffels to ride at anchor in good depth of water ; but the entrance is fo narrow, as hardly to allow two fhips to pafs a-breaft. It is diverfified with about 40 iOands, the greatcft number of which confilt of rocks and banks of fand, flightly covered with verdure ; but about 15 of them afford excellent pafturage, hay, grain, and agreeable places of refort in fummer to parties gf pkafiiie. At the diftance of about three miles from the town is Cattle- jfland, the fortifications of which, formerly called Caftle- Waiiam, BOS William, defend the entrance of the harbour, and are garn- loncd by about 10 Itildlcrs, who guard the cniividts, fcnt liithtr for hard Inbour, and chiefly employed in making nails. The light-houfe (lands on a fniall ifland at the nortl> entrance ot the channel ([loint Alderlon and Nantallpagating the gofpel, Malfachiifett's Congregational Society, Medical Society, Humane Society, Bofton Library Society, Bofton Mechanic Aflbciation, So- ciety for the Aid of Emigrants, Charitable Fire Society, and feven refpeftable lodges of free and accepted mafons. For the fnpport of the foreign and donielUc trade of Bof- ton, which is very condderable, there are three banks ; viz. the branch cf the United States bank, the Union, and the Maffachufctt's bank ; the latter confifts of 800 (liares of 500 dollars, equal to 400,000 ; the capital of the Union bank is 1,200,000 dollars, 400,000 of which is the property of the tlate. The principal manufaftures of Bofton confiit of rum, loaf-fngar, beer, fail-cloth, cordage, wool and cot- toa cards, playing card;}, pot and pearl-aihes, paper-hang- BOS ings, lints, plate, glafs, tobacco, and chocolate. It hai ,;o diftilleries, 2 breiveries, S fngar-houfcs, and 11 rope- walks. The number of the dift'ereni ftagcs that run, through the week, from this town, is upwards of 20 ; and on the great road between Bofton and New Haven, there arc con- ftaiuly employed 20 carriages and 100 horfes. For the government of Bofton nine fcledt men are annually chofen ; and at the fame time are choftn a town-clerk, a treafuitr, twelve overl'eers of the poor, twenty-four fire- wards, twelve clerks of the market, twelve fcavengers, twelve coullables, and a mmibcr of other oilicers. Belides thole called " trained bands," there are four other mihlarv companies in Bofton ; viz. the ancient and honourable artil- lery company, the cadets, fuhlcers, and artillery. The fettlement of Bofton took place as early as the yrar 16.! 1 from Charkftown. It was called by the Indians Shau- mut, and by the fettlers from Chaileltown Triinountain, from the view of its three hills; and it derived its prefent name fVmn refpecl to the Rev. Mr. Cotton, a minifter of Bofton, in England, and afterwards miniftcr of the firft. church in this place. _ In 1727, it was ranch damaged by an earthquake, and iias iince freqiiently fuifcred feverely by lires, its houfes having been moltly buiit of wood. The revolution, whence America dutes its independence, commenced at Bofton. Morfe. Boston Corner, a trad of land adioining mount Wafh- iugton, in Berkftiire county, and Hate of MaHachufttts, containing 67 inhabitants. Boston, Ncic, a townfliip of Hillfborough county, New Hampdiire, containing 1202 inhabitants; 12 miles S.W. by W. from Amiiilceag falls, 60 miles W. of Portf- mouth, and equally dillanl N.W. from Bofton. BOSTllA, BoTSRA, BosRA, or Bozrah, in jlncient Gfr^rnphy, one ot the principal towns of Arabia, and the capital of a canton or province called " Auranite." It was the capital of the calltrn Idumxa, and the royal refidence of Joba, the fon of Zerah, duke of Edom ; and in fcripture hiftory, it is commonly mentioned as fituate in a wildernefs, becaule it (lood on the conhnes of Arabia Deferta. It was, however, in thofe times to which the ancient biblical hiftorv refers, a coniiderable place ; having been made a Levitical city by Jodiua, and a city of refuge. It is likewife cele- brated by ancient writers and medals ; and feveral of its bi- (liops, at a later period, aftiiled at fome of tlie ancient coun- cils. It was dillant tour days' journey from Damsfcus, had a very ftrong caftle, a gate 20 cubits high, and one of the largell bafons or reftrvoirs in the Levant. It was captured by Alexander the Great after the battle of Kliis, and he feems to have been much attached to it ; but after his death it became fubjctl to the Sticucidan kings of Syria, until the time of Antiochus Diouyfus, when it was conquered bv an Arabian prince. Under the reign of Trajan, it was fub- jetted to the dominion of the Ilomans. At this time it was comprehended in a province of Arabia ; and Trajan ad,)rned it with many fumptuous ediiiecs, cllabUihed it as a new city, and gave the inhabitants permilhon to denominate it " Trajana." The emperor Scptiniius Scverus enlarged this city, whence fome have regarded him as its founder. This prince, or his immediate fuccefi'ors, conferred upon it the names and honours of a metropolis. Under the reign of Alexander Severus, it was confidered as a place of import- ance, on account of its fituation on the frontiers of the em- pire ; and it was thought worthy of receiving a Roman co- lony. In honour of Alexander Scverus, it afl'umed the name of " Alexandrianna." The two principal divinitie* worfhipped at Bollra were Bacchus and Urania. Bacchus Diouj ills was, according to Diodoms Siculus, the Oliris of M ^ the BOS the Eg)-p»'a"» ! ^"^ '^'' '*'^">' ^^'** lv, the inhabitants of this city engraved a figure of their god Dufarti oji their medals at Boltra. There was aKo a temple of tl»c Roddefs Urania, which was engraved on a me- dal of Scptimiiis Scvcrun, and alio on one of the cinprcfs Mammxa. The woilhip of Jupiter Aminon, and of Sera- pii, was alfo admitted into holUa, and tlicy received from the Greeks that of liipiter Puis or Amicus. 'Hie citizens of bollra regarded Urania as t':e tutelar deity of their city. The D;ifariaii games, which were firll discovered on medals under the icign of i!ie ciiipcrjr I'hil'p, were clchnitcd at Bollra ill honour of Dnfares, the bacchiis of the Arabians. Wliui Arobia was divided, after the coiupull of it by 'I'ra- pn, Baftra was appointed the iBotropolii of that part which retained the name of Arabia ; and its billnjp afterwards be- came the m^ropolitan of the ecclL-liallical province. See BOSRA. — Another town of the fame name, but Icls cele- brated, is mentioued among the Moabite cities, in Jer. ch. xlviii. V. 24. BOSTRYCHITES Lapis, derived from (?o,-;vx'C^. ^ foU the ha}r in braitli, in N.itural Hijlory, a name given by fome to a ilone fuppofed to contain women's hair included in it : fome hav:- uuderllood by it, thoff piecv: of cryftal which have accidental foiiinelTes in them, relenibling hair, or pieces of hair, caufed by earthy or metalline matter ; others call by this name thofc German agates, which contain cither the confervx or other capillary wat^r plants, or other foulnefles running into their form ; the firft of thefe very frequently have the conferva of great length, and varioufly undulated and turned about, fo as very elegantly to reprefent a loofely flowing lock of hair. BosTRYCHiTES is alfo a name given by fome authors to a fpecics of pyrites, whofe irradiations were fuppofed to imitate hair. BOSTRICHUS, in Entomology, a genus of Coleopte- rous infcAs dillinguifhed by having the antennx clavated ; the club folid ; thorax convex, with a (liglit margin ; head inflefted, and conceaK-d under the thorax. Gmel. Fabr. &c. The fpccies of this genus are capucinus, flavicornis, elonga- tu3, typographus, chalcographus, polygraphus, microgra- p!ui?, bidentatns, fcolytus, crenatiis, pygmzns, ligniperda, piniperda, tcUaceus, varius, vittatus, minutus, maculatus, bifafciatus, linibatus, fufcus, and pilofns ; which fee. BOSUI.S, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Aveiron ; .^i leagues N. E. of Rhodtz. BOSWELL, James, in Bw^raphy, fon of Alexander Bofwell, lord Auchinleck, one of the judges in the fupreme court of fcflion, and jiilUciary in Scotland, was bom at Edin- burgh, OA. 2y, 1 -40, and received the firft rudiments of education in that cily. He afterwards lludied civil law in the univerfitics of Edinh\irgli and Glafgow j and during his refidence in thcfe cities, he formed an intimate acquaintance with fome Enghlh fludents, which produced a predilection for their manners, that contributed in a great degree to his future habits and attachments. Ambitious, in early life, of diftinguilhing himfelf by his literary talents, he was fo for- tunate as to obtain the patronage of the late lord Somerviile, of which he always retained a grateful remembrance. In 1760, he vilitcd London, to which he became much attached, and where he fixed his principal refidence. Here he enjoyed the advantage of cultivating an acquaintance with feveral perfons of literary charafter, to whom he recommended himfelf by his attention, and by the urbanity of his manners. Although his fa^ther had intended him for the profefTion of the law, his own inclination led him to with for a commiffion in the army ; but he gnve up this objeA in deference to lord BOS Anchinkck's perfualion, and at his defire returned to Scot- land ; and renewing his attention to the law, purfued a courfe of regular inllruaion, and palTtd Ins trials as a civilian at Edinbi!r.jh. In compliance with his Other's wiihes, he attended the Icaurcs of an excellent civilian at Utrecht, in | the winter of 1762 ; and afterwards obtained permifTion to j make his grand tour of Europe. During his winter's rtfi- ^ dence at Utrecht, hevifitcd feveral parts of the Netherlands, and then commencing his projefted travels, he palTcd from Utrecht to Germany, and puiiued his route through Swit- zeiland to Geneva ; from hence he crolTed the Alps inta Italy, paying his refpeds in the courfe of his journey to \'oltairt at Ecrney, and to RoulTeau in the wilds of Ncuf- chatel. In Italv, he aflociated with lord Mountlluait, to whom he afterwards dedicated his " Thefcs Juridica;." From Italy he failed to Corfica, and, tiavcrfing the ifland, he obtained the friendlhlp of I'afcal de Paoli, in whofe palace he rtfided during his ilsy. From Coiiica he went to Paris; and returning to Scotland in 1766, he loon after became an advocate at the bar in that country. In the famous Douglas caufe, which was at that time a fubjedl of dif- cuflion, he publi(hed a pamplilet entitled " The ElFence of the Douglas Caufe," which contributed to hio popularity. In 176S, appealed his "Account of Corfica, with memcirs of general Paoli," which was highly fpoken of by Dr, Johnfon, and tianflated into the German, Dutch, Italian, and French languages. His prologue, written in the winter of this year, on occafion of opening the theatre royal at Edinburgh by David Rofs, efq. was flattering to the author, and beneficial to the manager, as it fecured to the latter the uninterrupted poffcffion of his patent till his death in Sept. 1790. In the celebration of the Shakfpeare jubilee at Stratford upon Avon, in 17*^9, Mr. Bofwell took a confpi- cuous part, appearing at the mafquerade exhibited on that occafion, under the charader of an armed Corfican chief. In 1783, he publiihed his Ltter to the people of Scotland, which, according to the opinion given of it by Dr. Johnfon, in a letter to the author, " contains very confideiable know- ledge of hiftoiy and the conllitution, very properly produced anti applied." As this letter was fanftioned by the appro- bation of Mr. Pitt, it was foon followed by another, in which Mr. Bofwell difplayed hii ufual energy and political talents. In 1785, he publiihed " A Journal of his Tour to the Hebrides," with Dr. Johnfon ; and in the lame year he removed to London, where he was called to the Englifh bar. But his profeffion feeins to have been lels the objeft of his attention than the " Life of Dr. Johnfon," for which he had been colltfting materials from the commencement of his acquaintance with him in the year 176J, to the time of his death, and which was publiihed in 2 vols. 4to. in 1791. Few perfons can be fuppoled to be better qualified for this un- dertaking than Mr. Bolwell ; for he had known, and he had familiarly, and alnioll daily, convericd with Dr. Jolinfon for more than twenty of the lalt years of his life ; during which, he was happy in the kind regard and nnrefervcd confidence of his venerable friend, who, as we are informed by Mr. B. himfelf, was fully apprized of his biographical intention, and manifeiled no dilapprobation of it. Of this work, which of courle became very popular, it will be fuihcient to obfcrve, that it exhibits a faithful hilloiy of Johnfon's life, exempli- fied in a variety of anecdotes, that rendered it equally in- llruftive and entertaining. The lall hteraiy performance of Mr. Bofwell was the preparation of a fecond edition of this work. Mr. Bofwell combined, with confiderable intelledual powers, a gay and adive difpofition ; and he often expe- rienced an unaccountable depreflion of fpirits. In one of his gloomy intervals he compoftd a feries of cfiays under the title BOS title of die " Hypochondriac," which appeared in a periodical publication about the year 17S2, and which he once thought of collei5tiiicj into a volume. Soon after hid return from a vifit to Aucliinleck, he was feized with a diforder which put an end to his life, in Portland Street, June 19th, 1 79<;, in the >;/;th year of his age. At the clofe of his journal of the tour to the Hebrides, after having- given a llcetch of his own character, he introduces, not indeed without an apology, the encomium of Dr. Johnfon, vvhofc friendly partiality to the companion of his tour reprcfents him as one " whofe acntenefo would help my inquiry, and whofe gaiety of con- verfation and civility of manners are fufflcient to connteraft the inconveniences of travel in coiuitries Icfs hofpitable than we have pafTcd." He loll his wife, to whom he was married in 1 769, in the year 1 790, and (lie left him two fons and three daughters. She was a lady, who to the advantages of a pohte education united a fuperior underftanding ; and on occafion of her death he honoured her memory with an af- feflionate tribute. Biog. Did. BOSWORTH, Market, in Topography, -a. town in I^ei- eefterdiire, England ; fituatedon a hill, and celebrated in hif- tory as the nearell place of note to the fcene of battle between Richard HI. and Henry earl of Richmond. The manor anciently belonged to the earls of Leicefter, and by a par- tition came to Saer de Quincy, earl of Winchefter, who, in the reign of king John, gave it to Richard de Harcourt, of Stanton Harcourt, in Oxfordfhiie, whofe defcendant Ri- chard Harcourt, when lord of the town, obtained from Edward I. the privileges of a market (Wednefday) and a fair. The manor continued in this family till Henry VHI.'s reign, when it came to the marquis of Dorfet ; and from him, by the earl of Huntingdon, to fir Wolftan Dixey knight, whofe heirs are, or lately were, owners of it. Bol- worth is 106 miles N.W. from London, and contains 120 houfes and 791 inhabitants. The church is large, contains fonie ancient arms and monuments, and has a beautiful fpire ; it had five chapels belonging to it. There is a frce-fchool, of which Anthony Blackwall, a learned divine, wai mailer, and Samuel Johnfon (afterwards LL.D. fo celebrated in the literary world) his uiher. Thomas Simpfon, the ma- theriiatielan, was born here in 1710, who, from indigent circumllances, and the bnfinels of llufi-.veaving, acquired fo deep a knowledge of mathematics, as to rank him with the moil feientific men of the age, and to raife him to the pro- fcflTorniip at Woolwich, and F. R.S. He died at Bol'worth, 1761. See Simpson. Nichols' Hiitory of L.eice{lerlhire, fee Market Bofworth, et feq. BoswoRTH, Raiile of, in Hiflory. This battle, on which the kingdom of England depended, and which terminated the civil war between the houfes of York and Lancaller, was fought Augult 32, 1485, on a large flat plain, called Rad- more plain, .3 miles from Bofworth, and 4 miles from Hinck- ley, between Henry earl of Richmond at the head of 6000 men, and king Richard HI. with an army above double that number : about 100 of the former wtre flain, and about 4000 of the latter. The battle, v/hich lalled little more than two hours, was decided by the death of Richard, as his followers then fought fafety in flight, and left Richmond mailer of the field and kingdom. Richard fought with fin- gular intrepidity ; his body, being found among the flain, was ignominioufly thrown acrofs a horfe, and carried to Lei- cefter, where it was interred in the Grey Friars church. Many relics of this battle have at various times been found by digging and ploughing in the field. Thefe were fpurs, rings, armour, crofs-bows, arrow-heads, &c. King Ri- chard's well, and Crown hill) where Richmond harangued BOS his army, prcfcrve the identity of the place. Henry'j Hifl. of England. BOTAF.A, in Geography, the name of one of the La- dronts, or Marian iflands. BOTABOTA, in Onihlolo^y, a name given by fomc writers to that fpccies of fea fwallow {hinniilo efnihiila), whofe nclls are fo famous fi-r foups in China, and in fome of the illands in the Indian ocean. See Esculi,nt.\ Hirumla. The nefts are fuppofed to be rcftonitive, and greatly provo- cative to ver.ery ; for which lall quality it is that the eaft- ern nations in general are fo fond of them. See Bird's Nejl.<. BOTAGIUM, in MhUUc A^e Writers, a fee paid for wine fold in bol,r, or huls. Wine that taftts of the caflc is called v'mum lolalum. BOTALE FoK.\MtN, \n /lihiloniy, an aperture in the heart of a fcctus, whereby the blood is enabled to circiiUite, without going into the lungs, or the left ventricle of the heart. Seel'iiius, Circulation, and Heart. BOTALLUS, Leonard, in Bio^rop'.y, an eminent phy- fician of Piedmont, floiirifhed about the niidille of the i^iu century. He was a difeiple of Fallopius, and toe k hio de- gree of dodlor in medicine at Padua. It appears by hi» writings, that he was a diligent obferver, and enjoyed a con- fiderable (hare of practice. That he was in great ellimation, appears by his having been made in fncciflion phyfician and aulic counfellor to Charles IX. Henry II. of France, and to William prince of Orange. He was alfo ikilled in the prac- tice of fnrgtry, having been inflrufled under his brother in the camp of the prince of Orange, whom he cured of a wound, in which the carotid artery had been injured. His works are, " De curandis vulneribus fclopctorum," Svo. [560, Vcnet. This has been frequently n.pvintcd, and con- tinued, for a lung time, to be elteemed the n.oll uftfiil ma- nual that had been publiflied on the fubjcil. " Commenta- rioli duo, alter de medici, alter de irgioti, nninere," l''/)^, Lion, Svo. ; in this he lays down ruhs for the conduft of the phyfician, the furgeon, and the apothecary, in their at- tendance upon the fick. But the work by which he is molt known, and which produced an important revolution in the practice of medicine, is his " De curatione per faiiguinis miflione, de mcidendae vciise, cutis fcarilicands, et liirudi- num affigciidarum modo," Antw. i ^^^, Hvo. Though bleeding liad always been occafionally ufed in the cure of difeafes, yet in his time it was nearly coiillantly fuperfeded by purging mcdiclnci, or it was too fparingly ufed, and feldom repeated. Our author made frequent recourfc to it, with complete fuccefs, he fays, in diarrhoea, dyfentery, m fever, the plague, and during pregnancy, in which calcs it was nearly prohibited. Flattered with the fuccefs with which his prailice was attended, he became, as he advanced in life, more and more bold and free in the ufe of the lancet, and has left records of cafes, in which he bled his patients ten times, or oftener. He even recommends bleeding in quartan fevers, and in dropfies. The reputation the author acquired, foon procured him profelytes ; and bleeding be- came a general remedy all over Europe : but in no country was it carried to fuch excefs as in France, where tiie profef- fors of medicine, for their too frequent recurrence to it, were held up to ridicule by Le Sage, in his inimitable novel of Gil Bias. The mania has at length fubfided ; and bleed- ing is now confidered by them as a valuable, but not as an univerfal remedy. The works of Botalhis were colleded, and publifhed under the title of " Opera Omnia," in 1660, at Leyden, by I. W Home. Halkr. Bib. Med. Prad. ct Chirurg. Eloy. Bib. Hift. 3 BOTANIST, BOTANY. BOTANIST, a pfrfon who underftands the nature, hif- tory, md diftiii.- ion of vti;cl.ibic5, on iVttlcd arJ certain principles, ai;d can xall every plant by a dilUiid, proper, and iutcll.giblcii.imt. Linnxi liiiidam. liotan. p.l. SceDo- 150TAN0MANCY, formed of |9-,1a.n, herb, and ^avl-.a, dniiuu'iM, n fp.tics of ancient diviuatiin by means of plants, pmicuhirly fa>ie and fijj-lcavcs. Tlic perfons who rtcinrcd X.O it, wrote their own nair.cs and their qnclbons on lcavc«, vhidi they txpofcdlo the wind j and as many of the Ktter» as remained in their own places, were taken up, and bei;;g joined together, c: ntsined the required anfwer. UOTANOIMIILI, among the writers on the fnbjea of vegetables thofe who have treated of them, not ashotanids, on their natural and cftabllHied dilliiiaions, but in regard to diflerent operations, as gardeners, phyficians, &c. DOTANV, is that branch of natural hillory which re- lates to wh;it is ufually tailed the vegetable kingdonn, the fccond of tl'.e thrc'e grand atfcmblages into which all ter- icftrial objetts arc di%'ided. Its name, /Sotavn, is the Greek word for grafs, and is derived from the verb ,5oi', or |5y»(o-K, to denote the union of the parts which polfefs the power of rei.dering the piftil fer- tile. 10. Syngenefia. Anthers united. The twentieth clafs is called gynandria, from ywr,, female, and avKf, male ; it is diftinguinied by the attachment of the ftamens to the piftil itftlf, and not, as in other flowers, cither to the receptacle, calyx, or corolla. 2©. Gynandria. Stamens on the piftil. The twenty-firft and twcnty-fecond claifes roiifift of planf9 which have the ftamens and piftils in feparate flowers, grow- ing from the fame or from difi^erent roots. Their names a'c derived from cim,-, a houfc, compounded with the numerals, one uiid two. 21. Mo- BOTANY. . ..■• le» BOTANY. {lyles ave to l)e counted from Khe bafc, and not from the upper part, which is often divided into two or more fcg- ments, without deilroying the monogynous charafier of the flower. When the ilyles are wanting, the number of Iligmas determines the order. In the chifics ditlynamia and tetradynamia, none of the genera have more than one ftyle ; the charafters of the or- ders are, therefore, taken from the pericarp. The clafs didynamia lias two orders ; the firfl is diRin- guifhed by its naked feeds, inchiftd, till ripe, in the perma- nent calyx inRead of a pericarp. Its name, gymnofpermia, is derived from "ju/ivo.-, naked, and (nr'.fjict,, feed. The fccond has its feeds in a pericaip, and is called angio- fpermia, from ayyurit, a vefTel, and atr^ffj-a. The clafs tetradynamia has alfo two orders, diRiiiguiflicd by the form of the pericarp ; the firft called filleiilofa, from filicula, a little pod ; the fecond, filiquofa, from filiqua, a pod. See SiLicuLA, and Siliqua. In the clafTes monadclpliia, diadelpliia, and polyadtlphia, the orders are denominated from the number of tiie ihuncns, triandria, pcntaiidria, S:c. In the clafs fyngencfia, the orders are more complex. They are fix in number; the firR five are diRingiiilhed by the epithet polygamia, intimating that the flowers are com- pound, and conlift of nnmerous florets, or little flowers, feated on a common receptacle. In the firR order, polygamia sfqnalis, all the florets are equally pofleffed of Rameiis and plRils. In the fecond, polygamia iiiperflua, the florets of the dlflc, or central part of the compound flower, have both Ramens and piRils ; tliofe of the ray or circumference have only plRils, but the latter, as well as the former, produce fertile ictds. In the tliird, polygamia frnRranea, the florets of the diflc have both Ramens and piRils ; thcfe of the ray, neither one nor the other, or only abortive piRils. In the fourth, polygamia neceflTaria, the florets of the diflc have efficient Ramens, but abortive piRils ; thofe of the ray, fertile piRils impregnated by the Ramens of the din<. In the fifth, each floret has its own calyx, in addition to that which furrounds the common receptacle, and forms the whole into one compound flower. The fixth differs from the rtR in having only Ample flowers, referred to this clafs on account of the union of their anthers. It has been lately abolifhcd by the general confent of botaniRs, and the plants formerly included in it have been referred to the clafs pentandria. In the claffes monorcia and dicccia, the orders have the fame names as the preceding claflts, and are diRinguiflied by the number of the Ramens, or by the union either of the filaments or of the anthers, or by the attachment of the ftamens to the plRil. The orders of the twenty-third clafs are denominated from the number of houies or plants on which the feveral kinds of flowers are found. In the order monrccia, there are fome flowers with Ramens and piRils, and others that have cither only Ramens or only piRils on the fame plant. lu the order dioecia, they arc pcrfeft, and only Raminiferous or perfect, and only piRUifcrous flowers on two diftinft indi- vidual plants. In the order tricccia, the different kinds of flowers are diRributcd among three diRinft individual plants. The clafs cryptogamia is divided into four great fami- lies : i. Filices, or ferns. — 2. Mufci. or moflTes. VoL.V- 5. Alga", which term properly implies fea-wcfds ; but bclides thcfe, it contaiiia feveral numerous terrcRrial •^cncra, which ought to couRitute a diRinct order. 4. Fungi. When the ordir to which a plant belongs is afccrtaincd, its gtnus is next to be inveRigated. The charaatrs of the genera are univerfally taken from fome part of the friiitifica- tion, and are advantagcoufly < xhibited in fynoptic taWts, which will be found under the names of the clalfes in their proper pUices. III. The fynonyms of plants; or the names bv which they arc diRinguiflied in the writings of profeficd boluniRs and others, from the earllell times to the prcfent. It is evident, that a nniltiplieity of names for the fame plant is unavoidable in common lift ; but it may be tliought not likely that fclentlfic men fliould willingly incrcaO.- the number. This, however, is the natural confcquence of a gradual improvemint in knowledsjc. As genera were formed, and fpecies accurately dliUiiguKlKd, it became necclfary to invent generic and fpccilic names. As generic characters were fettled with greater preclfion, former dlfpofitions were neciffarily changed, and many plants of courl'e appeared uudir a different generic appellation. 'J'he nomenclature of tlie early botaniRs has, therefore, in the natural courfe of things, become obfoletc ; and, to avail ourfelves of their ob- fervations, it is neccffery to know what they called the va- rious plants which have fince received new names. To form an accurate colleflion of fynonyms is a work of great diffi- culty and labour, which has cxereifed the diligence and dif- cernment of all who have entered dcejily into the fubjeft, and is Rill far from complete. It is much to be lamented that the pei"plexlty has been greatly increaftd b;' the liccntiou-3 caprice of even good botaniRs. Linnxus himfelf has fome- times departed from the nomenclature of Lis predeceflbrs, without any good or apparent reafon. In a work like the prefent, intended for occafional con- fultation, peculiar attention ought to be paid to this per- plexing part of fcience ; and we eReem it incumbent upon us to fpare no pains in coUefting, not only the fynonyms of the moR eminent botaniRs, but alfo the vulgar Enghfti names of indigenous plants, as well as thofe given "by unfcientific nurferymen and gardeners to exotics. IV. The fenfible qualities of pUnts, or the different manner in which they fcverally affe£l the organs of fight» fmell, taRe, and touch. Of thefe, colour is the moR general and the rooR ftriklng., The colours of plants are indeed fo wonderfully dlverfified, and fo couRandy meet the eye, whenever it is dire£tcd to the face of nature, that they contribute, more than any other quality, to the beauty of the creation. They are too fubjedl to accidental variation, to be fafely employed as fpecific Cha- rafters ; but they are in many cales fo nearly uniform and conRant, that they ought not to be entirely neglected. It is not poffible, indeed, to do more than exprefs a fevy leading dlRindlions. In the defcription of their minute fliades, and gradual approximation to a kindred tint, the powers of language utterly fail. The prevailing colour of vegetables, confidered in their appearance as a whole, is green ; but this green is not, perhaps, precifely the fame in any two fpecies of plants, or in different parts of the fame plant, or even in the fame part of the fame plant, in different ilagts of its growth. All that can be done is to point it out generally, by Itating its relation to white or black, or i)y fixi-iig upon the colour of fome well-known plant, or other natural fubRance, not as a mark of identity, but as a llandard of comparifon. Thus we fpeak of light green, and dark green, of apple green, and olive green, i:c. N The BOTANY. The colour* of plants are divide J by Linnaus into Ilyalioci with the tranfparence either of water or of jlaf.. White, either cream-coloured or fnowy. Cinereous, either grey, livid, or lead-coloured, lilack, either dark or iit hlack. Yellow, cither fulphur, flame, or coppcr-cnloured. Red, either crimfon, flcfh-colourcd, or fcarltt. Piirple, more or lefs approaching to violet, lilue. Green. It is fcarcely neceflary to obferve, that this enumeration is very im|)crfeft. The different parts of plants have mod commonly their appropriate colour. Roots and feeds are frequently bl.ick, the pericarp rarely, the corolla fcarcely ever. The lUm, the leaves, and the calyx are generally green, the corolla very feldom. The lilanients and the pillil are often liyalinc. The anthers are often yellow, as is alfo the corolla, efptcislly in rutumnal flowers. Vernal corollas and fwcct berries are frequently white. Red is c(>mmnn in fummer floweo, and fubacid berries growing in the fliadc. Blue is not unfrequent in corollas. The prifmatic colours afford fome fixed points of compa- rifon ill the dcfcription of colours ; but there is no limilar natural ftanJard for the difcrimination of odours and talles. However fcanty and obfcure the vocabulary of the former may be, that of the latter is, therefore, flill more fo. The fenfc of fmcUing and the fenfe of tafte have an evident and in- timate connexion with eacli other. Herbs and fruits that are grateful to the palate have almoll always a plcafant fmell ; but the reverfe does not equally hold ; an agreeable perfume docsnot, in all cafes, warrant the expeClation of delicious food. Every plant has an odour and flavour peculiar to itfelf, and dif- fering from all others in kind as well as in llrength. They are difcriminated, according to the manner in v\lnch they afFeCl the fenfe, by a few general exprclTions, which have little or no precife meaning. Odours are, Ambrofiac, or mufky, as in fweet woodrnfF (afperula odorata) and mufk geranium. Fragrant, as in jell'amine and violet. Aromatic, as in cinnamon, faffafias, and cloves. Unpleafantly flrong, as in garlic and herb robert (gera- nium robertianum). Stinking, as in elder (ebulus) and (linking may-weed (anthemis fcetida). Naufcous, or difpofing to vomit, as in hellebore, afarabacca, and coloquintida. Sharp, as in muftard. Faint, as in primrofe and lilac. Taftes are, Bweet, as in fugar-canc and fig. Acid, as in tamarind and lemon. Fat, or oily, as in frefh almonds and olives. Salt, as in falfola, and other maritime plants. Bitter, as in wormwood. Aflringent, as in the fruit of the quince. This kind of tafte is either aullere, partaking a httlc of the acid, as in linripe fruits, or acerb, rough, partaking more of the bitter, as in the common floe. Vifcous, as in the fruit of the common jujube (rhamnus ziziphus). It produces only a flight fenfation on the pa- late. Acrid, as in garlic. It is foraetimes cauftic, as in the ber- ties of daphne mezereon. Dry and iuCpid, as in farinaceous feeds, and feveral kinds •i back. Water)', as in cucumber and lettuce. K.Tufeous, as in tobacco. riaiits afTca the touch, as they are fiediy ormembranou»» foft or harfh, Iniooth or rough, filky, hairy, or prickly, &c. V. The anatomy of plants, or defcription of the different vifiblc parts of which llitir f\ibllaiice is compofcd. Thcfe are, 1. The epiiki-mis, or thin cuticle which iuvcfts the whole of the plant. 2. Tiic cellular, or reitcuhr fuhjlance, which appears in the young fhoot of a tree after the epidermis is llripped off. 3. The I'llrr, inner or true baik. 4. The dibiinium, or b!ea, improperly called by Englifh dealers in wood, the fap, a ring of imptrfeA wood between the liber and the true wood. 5. The lignum, or true wood, corfifting of concentric (I rata or rings. 6. The pith, a fpungy fubflance inclofed in a longitudinal canal, which conltitutes the innermoft part of the plant. 7. The nu-ilutmry prodiidions, or filaments proceeding frnm the pith, and crofhiig tl'.e flem in a radiate diredion, as far as the cellular fubltance. 8. The meclulhiry appendices, filaments placed between the medullaiy produftions, and reaching no farther than the wood. 9. 'Vhttrachac, or air-veffels. 10. TXxe fap-vcjph, and 1 1. The veffels which fecrete the peculiar juices of the plant. VI. The phyfiology of plants. A plant, like an animal, is a very compound, organized, living being, in which various operations, both chemical and mechanical, are continually carrying on, from its tirll pro- duftion to its final diffolution. It fprings from a feed fertilized by the pollen of its parent plant. It takes in foreign fubltanccs by its inhaling and abforbent vcfTels. It elaborates and alTimilates to its own fubflance thofe parts of them that are nutritious, and throws off the rell. It fecretes a variety of fluids by the means of glands, and other unknown organs. It gives that motion to its fap on which the continuance of its life depends. See the articles Phy- siology of Plants, Vegetable, and Vegetation. VII. The puipofes to which different plants are applied, either as articles of food, ingredients in the compolition of medicine, or materials and inftruments in the ufeful and elegant arts ; the foil and lituation in which they are ge- nerally found, and which are moil favourable to their growth ; the time of the year in which they open their flowers, and ripen their fruit, with many other incidental particulars, are properly within the province of the botanill. But, as a bo- tanift, he is concerned with nothing more than the fimple fadts. The beft methods of cultivating fuch as are raifcd in confidtrable quantities for the fpecial ufe or amufement of man ; the theory of their nutritious or medicinal properties ; and the manner in which they are to be prepared, fo as to ertedl the intended purpofcs; arc the province either of the farmer, the gardener, the phyfician, the chemill, or the artift. But as they cannot, in this work, be conveniently introduced under their refpedlive fciences, they will generally be annexed to the botanical details of each particular plant. VIII. The hiftory of botany. In all ages of the world, vegetables have been t principal article of hrfman food. AVe can, therefore, fcarcely doubt, that fome intimations of the kinds which are njoft proper for this BOTANY. this purpofe, mud liave been given to our full parents by immediate revelation from their Creator. Such intimations, however, would be no more than was abfolutely necefTarjr to prefcrvc them from dying by famine, on the one hand, or by the deleterious effeds of puifonous plants on the other. They would extend only to a fewfalutary roots, herbs, and fruits ; and agreeably to the general economy of human life, all farther acquifitious in knowledge would bt the refult of occafional experiments and flow experience. A knowledge of the various fpecies would tlicn gradually increafe, and feme general dillrihutions would fpontancoully offer tliem- felves to notice. A woody trunk would foon be dillin- gniflied from an herbaceous ilem. A tree and a fiuub, an annual and a perennial herb, would not long be confounded with each other. The moll linking difFercnccs in the form and confillence of the fruit would alfo be readily obfcrved. Ivlofes, as appears from the firll chapter of Geticfis, was acquainted with three charadieriltic divifions : giuji, of xvhich the feed was probably for fome time overlooked or difregarded : herbi, which bear their feed in a dry pericarp or feed veffel ; and trees, with all other vegetables, which have their feed inciofed in a pulpy or fome other eatable fubftance. And it is worthy of remark, that in the grant of vegetables to man for the purpofe of food, only the two latter are mentioned ; the firll being referved for " the bealls of the earth, and the fowls of the air, and every thing that creepeth on the earth." Among thefe a f.-letlion would foon be made of fuch as were moll grateful to the palate, and the other fenfes. 'Whatever were the Dudnim which Rachel begged of the fon of Leali, and which our trauOators have abfurdly rendered mandrakes, it is certain, from the fong of Soloiiion, that they were a kind of fruit which gave a pleafant fmell. Solomon is celebrated for his knowledge of plants ; but all that we know of it is, that he fpake ot them from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyflop that groweth on the wall. It could not, moreover, be very long before the early race of mankind began to perceive that fome vegetable produftions are mildly nutritious, and others actively me- dicinal. In the frequent fearch after new viands, which the reftiefs cuviofity and ciaving defirc of diverfilied gratification, natural to man, would induce him to make, he would find fome that produced violent effefts on his bodily frame, and relieved or removed dlfordcrs, wliich are always the " fources of pain, and often the forerunners of death." This would give a new direftion to his inquiries, and would prelent the vegetable creation to him in a more interelling point of view. Pain is, in all cafes, fo difficult to be borne, that whatever promifes to diminifh it, is fought for with unwearied affiduity. The knowledge of medicinal plants was, therefore, re- garded as a highly valuable attainment many ages before plants themfelvcs were made the objeils of a ditlintl fcience. Botany long continued the humble but engaging handmaid of furgery and medicine. The balm of Giiead bore a high price in the edimation of a Jew, becp.ufe it was ftrongly and rapidly aiTociatcd with the idea of a phyficiau. In Homer, Patroclns Haunches the bleeding wound of Eurypylus with the juice of a bitter root, the virtues of which he had learned from Achilles, and Achilles from Chiron. The power of the nioly, ufed as an interni-.l antidote againft the incantations of witchcraft, is. hkcwife celebrated by the fame poet ; and the knowledge of it is faid to have been owing to the interven- tion of a god. That great honour was obtained by an acqviaintance with the inedical properties of plants, in the heraic ages, is evident from the encomium given to the wife of one of the heroes whom Neilor boafts of having flaiu in his youth : " Who knew the virtues of each earth-born herb." At a much later period, we Ihall fearch in vain for any information concerning the botany of the ancients, except in their medical writers. Hippocrates, the oldell of thole of wlunn we have any remains, and who flouridied at the beginning of the Pcloponnefian war, ofcourle makes menlioa of the plants which were then employed in the cure of difeafes ; but he gives only their names, with their real or fuppofed fanative qualities. Arilbitle, v/ho lived about half a century after, and whofe comprehenfive genius left fcarcely any thing unexplored, could not overlook fo ob- vious and attradlivc a purfnit : but the two books now cx- ifting which bear his name, are of fuch inferior merit, that they are generally thought to be fpurious. Thcophraftus, the dlfciple of Ariftotle, is the firll profcffed writer on plants, whofe works have iucontillibly defeended to modern times. He was acquainted with about five hmidrtd, and has left defcriptions of them, with flight philofophieal flers of each divilion from the flower and fruit. \e died of the phgiie iii i,/'.1. at tht early age of dftv. Chirmi, who was his contemporary, and many years his fur\ivor, en;;aged in the lliin was at firft violently condemned by a few difciples of the old fchools, from an apprehenfion that it would be unfavourable to the recolleAion of fpecific diftinttions ; but its obvious con- venience has long gained it univerfal currency. Notvvithftanding the fupcrlative merit of I>inm:us, he found a rival and an oppofer in Switzerland, as well as in France. The mighty genius of Haller could not con- defcend to walk in the trammels of anotlitr man. In his hiftory of the plants of Switzerland, Ibii'ed by the very able and judicious prefident of the Linncean fuciety, one of the moft excellent and complete Floras the world ever faw, he has adopted a method depending chiefly on the number of the ftamens, combined with the divifions of the co- rolla. But his fyftem is now little talked of, and Icfs ftudied. Linna'us devoted the greatcft part of his life to the con- flruftion and completion of a fyftem confefledly artificial ; but he was neverthelefs fully fenilble, that the perfcdlion of the fcience requires an arrangement founded folely on natural affinities. The idea of fuch an arrangement had been con- ceived, and partly executed, by feveral of .his predeceffors. The improved fyftem of Ray, in particular, is a noble efiay towards reducing the whole vegetable creation into fix natu- ral families. All other diilributions a'C only proofs of the prefent defeftive ftate of knowledge, and are to be employed merely as helps for the attainment of a confummate fyltem. Linnxus has accordingly left what he calls fragments of a natural order, without pointing out their peculiar diftinguifti- jng characters; and the fubftance of his leftures on natural orders has been publifhed, fince his death, by his pupil Gifeke, in which the omiffion is, in fome degree, remedied; though, at the fame time, it is ftrenuoufly maintained, that fuch cha- radlera as fliali be at once completely comprehenfive, and 8 ; exclufivcly difcriminating, arc, in the nature of things, abfo- lutcly impofTiblc. Adanfon, a French traveller in Africa, has alfo attempted to form nat\iral families of plants, not from the confideration of any particular part, but of all, without exception, from the root to the feed. But, independent dilcovcnd before the (hip coincs a-brcall of it ; but from the north it h not difcovered fo foon. About the head of the harbour, there are larj^c banks of fand and inuJ, on which arc great plcntv of water-fowl, and large quar.tities of oyfters, mufclcs, cockles, and other (hdl-fi(h, which fupply the natives, who gather thcni by means of their little car.oes ill flioal-water, with the principal means of their iiibliilence. From the report of Cook, who carefully examined this coall, and t^ok pofTcflijn of it in the name cf the king of Great Britain, it was thought to be a deiirable fitualion for a ftt- tlement ; and accordingly it was propofcd, at the clofe of the American ivar, to tranfpoit felons thither, who were fentenced to this kind of punilhment. This plan was adopted in 17S6; and the firll (hip failed from Spithcad in [aiuiary, 1787, and arrived thither in the fame month of the following year. It a])pcarcd, however, from the report of Cook ami other navigators, that it was fubjeft to the inconvenience of a great fcarcity of water, and on the arrival of the firll fet- tlcrs, that it afforded advantages for the ellabli(hment of a colony much inferior to fuch as they expefted to find ; the foil being fwampy, water fcaree, and the bay itfelf incon- venient for (hipping, on account of the (liallovvnefs of the water, and its expofure to the ealltrly winds : and it'was therefore refolved by governor Phillip to tranfer it to ano- ther inlet, about i 2 miles farther to the north, called Port Jackfon, on the fouth fide of which-, on a ("pot called Sidney Cove, this fettlcment is now fixed. For a further acco\int of the fetth-ment, and of the country, fee New Holland. Two French (hips, called the Ailrolabeand Boulfole, which left Fianc.-, on a voyage of dilcovcry, under the command of M. la Peyroufe, in 1 785, arrived in this bay in the begin- ning of the year 17S8 ; and during their (lay, father La Receveur, who had come out iir the Allrolabe, as a natu- ralift, died of the wounds he had received in a confliA with the inhabitants of MaUina, one of the Ides des Navigntcurs, at which they touched. A monument, bearing an inlcnp- tion, was erccled to his memory', but wa:= foon deilroycd by the natives. Cut governor Phillip ca'ifed the infeription to be engraved on copper, and naiLd to an adjacent tree. Bo- tany bay lies in S.lat. 34°, and E. lung. 151° 21'. Botany JJlunJ, an iHand in the Sonlhern Pacilic ocean, near the coa(l of New Caledonia ; fo called by captain Cook from the number and variety of plants it afforded. S. lat. 22° ;6' 40". E. long. 167° iC'45". * BOTARGO, a fort of fanfage, made of the milts and roes of the mullet-ii(h, much ufed on the coall of the Medi- terranean, as an incentive to drink. The manner of pre- paring botargo, as praftifcd at Martegues in Provence, is dcfcribed by Mr. Ray. The mullets, niii^iles, are taken in " burdigoes," which are places in the (liallows inclofcd with hedges of reeds. The male mullets are called " alktants," the female " botcr," of the roes or fpawn of which the botargo ii made thus : — They firll take out the fpawn entire, and cover it round with fait for four or five hours ; then they prefs it a little between two boirds or ftoucs ; then they wa(h it, and at lall dry it in the fun for thirteen or fourteen days, taking it in at night. Ray Trav. p. J96, feq. The method of making the botargo, in the towns of Kof- low and Kafla, in Cnai Tartary, on the coafts of the Black Sea, W'lierc tile mulLt abounds, is as follows: — Immediately after the fifh fpawns, the fpawn is put wliole into a ftrong brine, and flightly (immcred ; when it is th.jught to be fuf- ficiently done, it is put into pots, and covered with melted B O T wax, to prevent it from fpoiling ; and it will then keep for a long while, and may be conveyed to very dillant coun- tries. . The people of Provence call it bou-argues. The bed is brought from Alexandria and Tunis. There is alfo a nianu- fafture of it near MarfeiUes. It is much ufed throughout all the Levant, and ufually eaten with olive-oil and lemon- juice. BOTARISSAS, Strhijioifi'vc Bolaij/fas, Bell. Aq. one of the fynonyms oi gaihu Iota, railed alfo clnrinfiivliiiUs by the fame author y by the Englidi, eel-pout, or burbot. See Lota Gck/iis. BOTATRISSA, in Ichthyology, fynonymous with bola- r'ljfas, eel-pmit,^n landfcape, in which he attained to liigli perfec- tion. His model was the (lyle of Claude Loiraine; and fome of his perfirmance? are mentioned m competition with tliofe of Clande. The warmth of his fl:ies, the judicious and regular receding of the objefts, and the fweetncfs of his dif- tances, afford a pleafnre luperior to that produced by the works of almort any other artill. His tints are fo admirably formed as to exprefs not only the light of the morning breaking from behind hills 9nd woods, aiid diffuHng a warm glow over the v^holc face of nature, and alfo the fettirg of the fun with its tinge in the clouds, but even the different hours of the day. By his colouring he obtained the dillinc- tion of being called " Both of Italy." We have alfo by his hand a fet of ten landfcapts, which are etched in a flight, free, maiterly llyle. He loft his life by accidentally foiling into a canal at Venice in 1650. Filkington and Strutt. Both, Andrew, brother of the former, and difciple of Bloemart, accompanied him to Rome, and applied to the fludy of figures, in which he imitated the ityle of Bainboc- cio with great fuccefs. The two brothers mutually affilled each other til! the death of John ; and then Andrew return- ed to his own country, where he painted fometimes portraits, and fometimes landfcapes, in the manner of his brother, and alfo convcrfations, and players at cards, in the manner of Bamboccio ; and where he died in 1656. Andrew Both alfo etched fome few plates in a free, mafterly ftyle, re- fembling that of Oftade, viz. fix fmall upright plates of " Dutch merry-making," to which he affixed his name ; " St. Antony praying with a fcuU before him," and " St. Francis with a erucilix before him," its companion. Filk- ington and Strutt. Both, in Gecgrnphy, a river of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, which runs into the Inn, near Scherding. BoTH-//;ci/j- aft, in Sea Language, exprefles the fituation of a flrip failing r-ght before the wind. BOTHAGIUM, Bothage, or Boothage, cuflom- aiy dues to the lord of the market, for the liberty of pitch- ing and ftanding of booths. BOTHENA, Bothna, or Borthna, in the Scotch lyOiu, a park or field wherein cattle are inclofed, and fed. The word is alfo written barthena ; formed from the ancient Scottifh huth, a flock of (hecp. Bothena is alfo ufed for a barony, lordfhip, or (herifF- dom. In which fcnfe it is ordained by flatute, that the king's moot or eourt of eacli bothena, that i'«, each (hciIfTdoni, fhall be held within forty davs. BOTHFELD, in Geography, a dillria of Germany, in the bailiwick of Caluibcrg, confilling of five villages, of which Bothfeld is parochial. BOTHiM.-\R, a county of Germany, in the principality of Zell, and 7 leagues W. of it ; fituate on the Reiife. BOTHNIA, East, OJer-hollan, I.at. OJIro-hclhma, a province of Sweden, fituatcd on the call fide of the gulf of Bothnia, whence it derives its name, is bounded on the north by Swedilh La])ki;id, on the eafl by Ruffia, on the fouth by Finland, to which it properly belongs, and on the well by the gulf of Jiothnia. Its extent has not been accu- rattly afceitained ; by fome it has been compnted-»to be about 90 Swedii'li n;iles long, and 40 broad ; and by others its length has been ellimated at 66 Swedifli miles, and its breadth at 12. It is feparated from Rnflia and Finland, properly fo called, by a chain of hills, which runs along its ealt hde. Thefe mountains fupply large livers, of which fimie difcharge themfelves into the White fea, and others into the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The country, cfpecially on the fea coaff towards the fouth, is low and marfliy ; however, the indnllry of the inhabitants has made it pro- duCfiveof corn.tliough the cold and fro II often difappoint their hopes, and feveral traif s of land lie walle. It abounds with wood, and its lakes and rivers yield plenty of filh. Some of the rivers are faid to have furniflied pearls. The inhabitants derive their chief fubtiftence from agriculture, grazing, burn. ing lime and tiles, and making pitch and tar. They alfo employ thcmfelves in fidiing and hunting, fhip-building, and the manufacture of wooden-ware. Thofe who inhabit the rocky iflands near the fea-coaft fpeak the Swedifli lai.guagc, but thofe of the inland parts ufe that of Finland. The num- ber of inhabitants is ellimated at about So, 000, who are fcat» tercd over 28 parifhcs, 19 of which are occupied by Finns, and nine by Swedes, and which are under the jnrifdiflion of the bifliop of Abo. The commodities furniflied by this coun- try for exportation are timber, butter, cattle, iifh, oil, pitch, tar, &c. Eafl Bothnia is divided into three parts or lehns, which arc under one governor. Its chief towns arc Cajana or Cajaneborg, Utea, Brahellad, Gemla-Carleby, Ny- Carleby, Jacobftaut, Wafa, and Chrillinelladt. Bothnia, H'e/i, a province of Sweden, lying on the wefl fide of the gulf of Bothnia, and bounded on the north and well by Lapland, on the fouth by Angermanland, and on the eafl by the gulf of Bothnia. That part of this province which is inhabited extends from the frontiers of Angerman- land to the church of upper Tornca, and is computed to be abi)Ut 58 Swedifh miles in length, and from 16 to 18 miles in brtadth. Off the coall of this province are feveral plea- fant iflands, and its interior has feveral forells, with lakes and rivers. It has alfo excellent paftures among the moun- tains, the fumniit of which fnpplies the rein-deer with niofs. The foil is tolerably fertile, and produces corn, which is fown late, and ripens in fix, fevcn, or eight weeks, but which is often injured by the fudden frolls of July. This province has feveral mines of copper and iron. The inhabitants arc celebrated for their hardinefs and valour ; they Inbllll by agri- culture, grazing, hunting, and fifliing ; and even in fruitful years mix their corn with chaff and pulverized pine bark, with whichthey make their "flampe brot,"orpounded-bread.They traffick in tfeams, deal-boards, and other timber, ihingles, tar, falted and fmoke-dricd falmon and other fifli, wild fowl, veni- fon, common train-oil, tallow, butter, and cheele ; and alfo in fables, and fls to Norway, aiul tlirougU cxtciilivc dcfcrts to Ruflia. It is divided into four vog- tcys or inferior Kovemments, contains two provincial junf- diaiona, and, with regard to its eccWi'-alHcal llati^ belongs to the fre of Hcrniifand. Tlic principal towns art Umca, Pitta, Lulca, and Tornea. BoTHKiA, c^o/. one of ths branches into which the Rultic ia dividid ; the other being the gulf of I'iiihnd. The former ia fcparated from the baltic by the iflis of Aland, is bounded on the call, weft, and north by tin. .Swcdifli_ domi- nions, and extends between them, from Aland to Tornea, about five dcgrcct and a half in latitn.k.or about 1^7 Ungues from north to foulh, and from iti to j5 in breadth from caft to weft. BOTHNICUS, in Enlomofojj, 3 fpecies of Crvptoce- PHALUS, Chrxfomela bothnua of Linnaeus. The colour is deep black, with a longitudiual red line on the thorax. In- habits Sweden. 130TH0.\. or Botoha, in CfOgraphy, a town of France in the department of the north coaft, and chict place of a canton, in the dillricl of Guingamp ; the place contains 2021, and the canton 7S54 inhabitants ; the territory com- prehends 107! kiliometrts, and S cortinuincs. liOTHWELL, an ancient barony and parifii of Scot- land, which includes an area of about S^ miles in length by 4 miles in breadth. Tfic bridge in tiiis pariih, which crofTcs the Clyde river, is memorable for an engage- ment fought on the foulh fide of it, June 22, 1679, between the royalifts, under the duke of Monmouth, and the prtf- byterian infurgents. In this fatal conflict the latter were defeated, with the lofs of 400 flaln, and 1200 taken pri- foners. Here arc the remains of a callk, which appears to have been formerly of very large dimenfions. It is frequently mentioned in the annals of Scottifh hiftory. Sir John Sin- clair's Statiftical Account, vol. xvi. BOTI, in Geography, a town of Siberia ; 3a miles S. of Orlenga. — Alfo, a town of Siberia, 76 miles N. E. of Is'crtchinfli. BOTICUM, in jliicient Geogrnphy, a town of Afia Mi- nor, ill Phrygia, which had a marlh that produced fait. Steph. By?-. BOTISAS, a name given in Spain to a fmaller fort of alcarrazas, or veflcls ufed for cooling water ; the larger fort being called jarras. See Alcarrazas. BOTISTMEN'I, in Geography, the name of a mountain in the fouthern part of the illand of Madagafcar. BOTI-AN, Al Mokhtar Ben Hassan, Ben Adoun, fir D'Ebn Botlan, in Biography, a Chrillian phylician of Bagdat, the contemporary and antagonift of Ebn Rodwan. It is faid that Botlan, in order to be peifonally acquainted with his adverfary, made a voyage into Egypt, A. I). 1047. On leaving Egypt, he went to Con(lantini>ple, where he lived a year. He is the author of the following works, viz. " Kenafch," or a compendium of medicine, tor the ufe of the convents ; " Inflru£tions how to buy flaves, and to make profit of them;" " Tables of health ;" " Of the dif- eafes of phyficians;" " Introduction to the art of medicine;" '■ Devat et athebbai," or the religion of phyficians ; and " Of the cure of a child who had the ftone." D'llcrbelot. BOTN.\, or Kaozen, in Gtography, a rivtr of Eu- ropean Turkey, which runs into the Dnieper, near Ben- der. BOTOL, or BoTEL Tabago-Xlma, Tabaco-Xima, or TalaM-Siiiia, the name of two iflands in the Chincfe feas, lituated at the dillance of about 5 leagues from the fouth point of Formofa, and on the fame parallel. Tne great iiknd, at its foulli-eaft point, is placed, by captain ^Iarc- B O T hand, in N.lat. 22° %'■ and E. long. Ill' 34'. ; by Dal- rymplt's chart, in N. lat. 22"' 6' 30". E. long. 121° 50'. ; by La Pcronfe, in N. lat. ^i" 57'- E- long. I2i°52'.; by Chanal, in N.lat. 2 2» .5'. L. long. 121" 54'. and by G. Robcrtfon, in his table of pofitions, in N. lat. 22° 6'. E, long. i2i'4i' 4^". This illand is fufficiently eleva.ed to be ften at a dillance of 15 leagues, when the fl<.y is clear ; it is about 4 or ■; leagues in circumference; and it is well peopled with inhabitants, as Marchand obfervtd fires blazing during the night; and La Peroufc, on approaching very near to it, dillinguillied three extenfive villages within the fpace of a league. It is very woody from about one-third of its eleva- tion, taken between the water's edge and its fummit, which appeared to be crowned with trees of the largeft fize. The declivity of the fpace between thtfe forefts and the beach is very rapid. It was covered, fays La Peroufe, with the moil beautiful verdure, and in many places cultivated, though furrowed by the torrents that defeend from the mouutairio. The fmall idand of the fame name, the only one, probably obfcrved by lord Anfon, the other being very often covered witli fogs, lies to the fouth by eall of the great one, in N. lat.2i''57', ar.d E.long. 12 i''56',on the fame parallel with the middle of the gri-at idand, according to Dalrymple's chart; but on the parallel of its fouth-eall point, according to that of La Peroufe. It is fomewhat lefs elevated than the larger ifland, (not half fo high, fays La Peroufe,) but, however, fufiiciently lofty to be feen at the dillance of 10 or 12 leagues. Thefe two iflands are feparatcd by a channel half a league in width; and both (hores, as well as the channel, appeared to Marchand, equally free from rocks or (hoals. On tlie fmall illand La Peroufe perceived fome little verdure and a few bufhes ; but he fays, that it is neither inhabited nor habitable. He adds, that if there be any anchorage at the great ifland, it is extremely near the coaft. Marchand's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 60. La Peroufe s V'oyage round the World, vol. ii. p. 9. Eng. Ed. BOTONE', in Heraldry. See Cross Botone'. BOTONTINI, in M'uUUe Agf Writers, denotes mounts or hillocks, raifed to fene as land-marks, or boundaries of grounds. The word is alio written bolontones, botones, and boclniies. Du-Cange GlolT. Lat. BOTOTOE, in Ormlhology, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a beautiful bird of the parrot kind, but of what fpecies is rather uncertain. It is defcribed as being fmaller than the common parrot, and the plumage totally of a fine blue colour. It agrees v.ith the blue para- keet of Otaheite, Pfittacus Cyaneus, and may very poffibly be the fame. BOTOVSKAI A, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Tar- tary ; 20 miles S. S. W. of KoptrlK. BOTRL\, in Botany, Bofc in Nouveau Diftionaire d'hif- toire natBi-elle. Clafs, pentamlria monogynia. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth, bcU-fliaped, five-toothed. Cor. petals five, (harp-pointed, flelhy, recurved at the point. Stam. filaments five, flat, attached to the claws of the petals. Pifl. germ, fuperior. Stigma feflile, concave. Per. a berry with one feed. There is only one fpecies known, which is a climbing fhrub, with fcattered heart-fliaped, three or five-lobed, veined, crenulated, villofe leaves ; and fmall rcddifli flowers on com- mon axillary peduncles, which terminate in tendrils. It is found ou the coall of Zanguebar, where it is elleemed a diuretic. Its hemes are eaten ; and a dccoclion of its root is given in cafes cf pleurify, inflammation, and abfcefs. BOTRO, ill Geography. See Bourtos. BOTRODUS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain in Celtiberia, mentioned by Martial in his epigrams. BOTRYITES, in Natural Hi/lory, a Hone of the gem kind, EOT kind, refenibliiig a branch oF yoimfr pjrapes. Tlie word is formed from jSoTftj.:, a grape. In Englilli writers, it is fome- times called the grape-ftone. BoTRYiTEs, or Botritfs, alfo denotes a fort of burnt cad- m.ia, found foniewliat in the form of a bunch of grapes, ad- hering to the up])er parts of furnaces, wliere tliat mineral is calcinated. It differs from the placites, wliich is that ga- lliered on the lower parts of the furnace ; though Schroder gives a different dillinftion, viz. into botritts, fovmd in the nuudle of the furnace, placites in the upper, and offracites in tlie lo'.veit part. BOTRYLLUS, (botryllus conglomeratus), in Zoology, the name of alcyoiiium conglomeratitm of Gmelin in Goertn. ap. Pallas Spic. Zool. BOTRYblDES, in Nalm-alHlJlory, afpeciesof Mahre-. PORA, liaving thick, fafligiate, obtufe, cluftered branches, with reticulate, craggy undulations. Habitat, unknown. Defcnbed in Solaridcr and Ellis's Corallines. BOTRYS, in ylncient Geography, a city of Phoenicia, near the coaff and foutfi of the river Elcinherus, mentioned hf Phny, Mela, and Polybius. ^Vccordmg to the latter (lib. V.) it was built by Ethbai, or Ithobal, who reigned at Tyre in the time of Aliab, about the year 923, B. C. Ste- phanus Byz. thinks that this was the city which is called by Joihua (xxi. 36) "l^f^, leljir, and by the LXX Boti'^, and enumerated among the 4S cities which were affigned to the Levites. This city, in Chrillian times, became an epifcopal fee, and itfe who lead a wandering life, keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in thefe bottles, the manner of repairing which he alfo dcfcribes. They ferve, according to' this writer, to preferve their contents more freth than in any other way. They are made, he fays, of goat-fleins : when the animal is killed, they cut off its feet and its head, and in this maniicr they draw it out of the flcin without opening its belly. Tliey afterwards few up the places where the legs were cut ofi', and the tail, and when It is filled, they tie it about the neck. Thefe nations, and the country people of Perfia, never go a journey without a fmall leather bottle of water hanging by their fide like a fcrip. The great leather bottles arc made of the Ikin of an hc-'^oat , and the fmall onci, that fcrve inllead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a kid's flcin. In Ipeakiug ef the Pcrfians, the fame traveller fays, that they ufe leather bottles, and find them ufcful iu keeping water fiedi, efpe- ' tially if people, when they travel, take care to moillen them, wherever they find water. The evaporation thus furnifhed ^ ferves alfo to keep the water cool. He fays, that the dif- agrecabic lade of the leather is taken off, by caufiug it to irr.bibc rofe-wjter, when it is new, and before it is applied to ufe. l''or:n£rly, it is faid, the Perfians perfumed thefe leather veffcls with mallic, or with incenfe. From him alfo we learn, tkat they put into thefe goat-ikin and kid lliln vcf- fels every thing which they want to carry to a diilance in the Eail, whether dry or liquid ; they are thus prefeived I omcwhat liquid, that I preleni, (fee Gen. xllii. 11.) niclofed iu httle vcflcis made of ki;i fquared, and the edges fewed together very artiilcially by a double feam, which does not let out water, much refcmbling that upon the btll Englilh cricket balls. An opening is left in the top of the girba, in the fame manner as the bung- hole of a caflc. Around this the Ikin is gathered to tlie ih.c of a large handful, which, when the girba is full ol water, is tied round with whip-cord. Thefe girbns generally contain about 60 gallons each, and two of them are the load of a camel. Thcv are then all befmearcd on the outlide with greafe, as we'll to hinder the water from oozing through, as to prevent its being evaporated by the aclion of the fun upon the girba, which, in facl, happened to us twice, fo as to put lis in imminent danger of perifliing with thirft." Glafs bottles are better for cyder than thole of flone« Foul glafs bottles are cured by rolling fand or fmall Ihot in them ; mufty bottles, by boiling them. Bottles are chiefly made" of thick coarfe glafs ; though there are likewife botties of boiled leather made and fold by the cafe-makers. Fine glafs bottles covered with draw or wicket, are called J!a/ii, or belieh. The quality of the glafs has been fometimes found to in the bottle. Mem. Acad. Scienc. Bottle, is alfo a meafure at Amfterdam, the fame with the mingle. Bottle, blue, in Botany. See Centaurea Cyanus. Bottle, nw/s. See Stlachnom. BoiTLE, tvlitte. See Cucubalos Behen. BoTTLE-Aivic/, a fpecies of whale. BoTTLE-wo/i', in Natural Hljlory, a name given by the Englifli to various animals ; the cachalot is called the bottle- nofe ; fo alfo any of the whale tribe diftinguifhed by the gibbofuy of their fnout. In fome parts of England the a:!as aralca of old writers is called the bottle-nofe. BOTTLING, or BoTTELiNG, the operation of putting up liquors in bottles corked, to keep, ripen, and improve. The writers on rood hulbandry give divers rules concern- ing the bottling of beer, cyder, and the like. The viitucs of Spa, Pyrmont, Scarborough, and otiier waters, depend on their being well bottled and corked, otherwife they lofe both their tafte and fmell. To preferve thene, it is ncceflary the bottles be filled up to the mouth, that all the air may be excluded, whicii is the great enemy of bot- tled liquors. The cork is alio farther fecured by a cement. Some improve their bottled beer, by putting crytlals of tartar and wine, or malt fpirits.; and others, by putting fiigar boiled up with the elfence of fome herbs and cloves,' into each bottle. Cyder requires fpecial precautions in the bottling ; being more apt to fly, and burft the bottle, than other liquors, The bell way to fecure them, is to have the liquor tho- roughly fine before it be bottled. For v\'ant of this, fome leave EOT l give the preference to thoie which are mod required. is, does not increafe the prellure on it ; which is found to If it is known what particular employment the fliip is wanted be falfe. Phil. Tranf. N"' 351. p. 570. A. D. S. an. 1692. for, thofe qualities then are to be principally adhered to, V- "5- which are mod eflentially necefiary for that employment. When water boils, the bottom of the veffel is found confi- Bottom, Copper, a pradice now become pretty general derably colder than it was fome time before boiling ; info- in Britain, of covering the bottom with ftieets of copper, much that the hand may bear it in the former cafe, not in which accelerates the failing of a (hip, prevents the bottom from being worm-eaten, and keeps it long clean. It is, therefore, neceflaiy, that fhips, making long voyages, fliould be coppered. Bottom, Dotible ; a fliip of this kind was conftrnftcd by fir William Petty in the year i66j ; which was found to fail confiderably fader than any of the fliips with which it had an opportunity of being tried. Her lirll voyage was the latter. Hift. Ac. Sc. ann. 170,;. p. 29. See Boiling. Bottom, in Nav}gntion, denotes the ground or furface of the earth under the water. They fay, a rocky, fandy, gravelly, clayey bottom ; a bottom with good hold, with a bad hold, &c. The bottom of the fea, Ray obferves, is level, i. e. the defcent from the fliore to the deep is equable and uniform : but the bottoms of fome feas are found higher than thofe of from Dublin to Holyhead ; and hi her retnni, flic turned into that narrow harbour againll wind and tide, among rocks and fliips, with fuch dexterity as many old feamen confelTcd they had never feen the like. This veflel, with fevcnty more, were lod in a dreadful temped. Bottom, Foul, that is, when the bottom of a fhip is co- vered with fliell-filh, weeds, &c. This greatly retards the rate of a (hip, and prevents her from tteering and working, and, befides, proves fonietimes fatal. An indancc of this happened to a large built fliip from Africa, in this foul con- dition, that could not be fleered into Liverpool, but was loll, entirely owing to her bottom not being fcriibbed during the voyage. Every polhble means ought, therefore, to te ufed to keep tlie Ihip's bottom clean. For this ]iurpo.re a cafli fcrubber has been found to anfwer with fnccefs when at an- chor, and in calm weather on the open ocean. This fcrubber is made ot elm, about an inch thick, and a foot broad, the middle part of the frame jull to fit a ten gallon cafli, tliat was laflied to thebattons at each end, and the longl'qnarc fpaces on each fide of the calk were filled with bircli-brooni fluff, which projefted about fix inches without the frame, and wedged fall towards the ends, with long wedges againd boards that Aide with fmall tennons at each end in a groove. others. Count Marfigli has made divers inquiries into the ftrufture of the bottom of the fea, and its beds of dones, fait, bitumen, &c. Ray, Wifd. of Great, part i. p. 84. See Sea. Over the natural bottom of the fea is formed an acci- dental bottom, by the mixture of different matters, fand, fhells, mud, &c. drongly compafted by the glutinous qua- lity of the fea-waters, almod to a degree of petrifaftion. Thefe incrudations being neceffarily formed in llrata, there are fome places wherein the filhermen can dillinguifli the -annual augmentations. Hift. Acad. Sc. 1710. Bottom of a Ship, that part of a fhip below the water. This is alfo called the quich-ivork : and that above the water is called the dtad-ivork. As the good or bad qualifications of a fliip, with regard to failing, fleering, and flaying well, vctrlng, carrying fail, flowing her cargo, carrying her guns, .'\:c. depends, in a great meafure, upon the form of (he bottom, every attention ought, therefore, to be paid to this particular point ; and hence the method of conllrutling the bottom of a fhip, fo as to anfv/er any intended purpofe, is the niceft and mod difficult part of fliip-building ; to this article the reader is referred. That a fhip may fail well, it is ncceffary to give her a long to keep the birch fad and firm. Two of thefe were con. floor, with little rifing both fore and aft, and the capacity of neftcd together by iron-work, having a joint, that they may the fore-body equal, or nearly fo, to that of the after- the more naturally ply to the curved or ixiunding parts of body. the fliip's bottom. In ufing this fcrubber, a block was In order to make a fliip deer well, the after-part of the fadened under the bowfprit end, and another on the driver bottom mud not be full ; the wing tranfom carried pretty boom, rigged out right aft ; a fingle block is reeved in thefe high ; the fEfhion-pieces well-formed, and not full below the blacks, and made fad to the flings, and juft long enougfi . O 2 to BOX to vtriT and haul llie fcrubber along tlitsLottom for* and aft, clofc tu tilt kcd. Anothfr rope is bent. to the lower part of the fcrubber, and hauled ti^ht under the bottom, and made fall to the infide of the boat's main-jllBvart, the upper part of the fcrubber being even with the water's edge, at nii'JIhips, on the other fide. The people are thcB ordered to walk fore and aft with the rope to the fcrubber, t:U !t comes to the water's edge both ways, tlie boat movinij tlie fame way with the fcrubber, the people in hir helping, by puftiiiig their bands agauid the Ihip's fide, ti!l the firll depth is thought to b« clean enough ; then the people in the boat haul by llieir rope the fcrubber a depth lower, by which, and the empty caflcs, it, is confined and picdtd to the bottom, at the different depths, til! it is fcrubbeJ diwn to the keel ; and even the kctl ilCelf, by the rope going fore and aft u--ifew more keels are added, at the fame time that Ihe would be little more refilled in moving in the line of the keels, than a veffel drawing fix feet only. Thefe keels, belldes, would ilrengtben the veffel confiderably, 3 B O T would render her more (leady, and Icfs liable to be OTerftr, and thereby enable her to carr>- more fail, <^c. Veffels of thi» kind would likewife be well quahfi.-d iof lying in dock* and harbours when dry ; and though the very quickell liiilers of any, tnijht be navigaud in the ihallnveft water ; from whicli lattei''civcumll:.iice many important advantages would rcfult, as nii. .iug httle danger from faud-banits, rocks, J &c. being cnpabld of riding in many bays, and entering many ha;bo\irs, rivers, and creeks inacctjTible to others, whether as an afylum, or for the p-jvpofe."! of trade or war ; for bombarding, or making dcfcents on an enemy's coall. By enlarging, perhaps doubling, tlie bveai'th of (!-,;ps, and forming their bottoms flat, and well furniflicd with k;rel.v, tluy mull, in the firfl place, become much fteaditivfo as to carry their guns well, roll liule, if at all, and be enabled to carry greatly more fail, ai^d that in a belter direftion ; at the fame time that they would he in no danger of being dif- maftcd croveifet, unlcfsthe malls were of a moft extraordinary- height indeed. Secondly, that they could carry more gun« on their bow and ftern, would have little or 1.0 occafion for ballall ; and if any was ufed, would incur lefs darger upon its (hifting. Thirdly, that there would be much more room upon deck, as well as accommcdat on below, the breadth being fo much increafed without any diminution ot the heicht above the load water line, and without occaConing any neceffary augmentation in the number of men for work- ing the vefiel, &c. Thefe are the principal advantages of a fhip of this conltruclion ; Mr. Gordon, however, proceeds to enumerate others. BoTiOM •with Jliding letls- See Ship •with JJiJing L-e!s. Bottom, fagged, the keel having a convex curvature.- Long llraight floored (hips are inoft liable to be fagged, as well as hogged. This detect ariits, in agrcat meafuie, from loading the fliip with a werighty cargo, as lead, iron-ore, ftones, &c. and (lowing it in tiie main-body of the fhip. This fagging of the bottom has, Irom experience, been found to increaic the velocity ; but, on the other hand, the fliip is generally in a leaky condition. The principal method of remedying this defett, is to dillribuce the cargo more equably, fo that the upward and downward preffuics may nearly counterbalance each other. This may be accomphflied by means of a form-gage; for an account of which fee that article. Bottom, to prevent from le'ing 'worm-ealen. One of the bell rem.edies hitherto diicovered for preventing worms frora deilroying the bottom of a (hip, feems tu be the coal-tar, in- vented by the earl of Dundonald, and manufaflured at Cul- rols in Scotland. By many comparative trials, by finking piles of wood for fome coni'iderable time in the water, fome of which were payed with coal tar, and the others with com- mon v.-getable tar ; it was found that, in thofe payed with coal-tar not the leall appearance of the worm could be traced, the tar iliU remaining black and fmootii upon the wood, whicli, on being cut, emitted a ftrong fmell of the tar ; whereas the other piles were obferved to be full of worms. Some proofs of the efficacy of this tar will be inferted under the proper article. A mixture of the oil of the cocoa-nut with lime has alfo been uied to pay the bottoms of ftiips, in order to exclude worms . Bottom is alio ufed to denote a whole (hip, or rather veffel. In this fenfe we fay, Englifli bottoms, foreign bottoms. By the acl of na%-igation, certain commodities imported in foreign bottoms, pay a duty called petty cullom; from which they are exempt, if imported in Englilh bottoms. Bottom- B O T Bottom is alfo ufcd for what rcmnins at the bottom of a vefi'el. In this, ftnfe, Paracelfus calls the ftdimont of urine, fundui tJririiC. JioTTOMjlone, a kind of iron-Hone, or ore, in the Staf- fordlhire mines. Bottom riai/s. See Nail. BOTTOMRY, in Navigation and Ccmwi'rce, is a con- traft, in the nature of a mortgage of a fliip, on which the owner borrows money, to ennhle him to lit out the rtiip, or to purchaf." a carjjo for a voyage propofed ;. and pledges the keel or bollom of the fliip (fi' coiitradl itlelf kerns to have originated from tlieprafticcof permittintr the mailer of a fliip, in a foreign coimtry, to hypothecate the fhijj, ill cafes of iitctflity, for the puvpofc of niiling money to retit ; and, indeed, it is mcciVary for tlic faftty of the fhip, ami in order to cnfurc the fucctfs of the vovagr. that the mailer, in the abfei-.cf of the owners, (hould have this powir, implied hy the marine law in his appointment. However, with roi'pcd to the piiipofes of this contraft, he potreiren no fiic-h power, till he hcconitsadiially mailer, or as far a,, this biiliiRfs is concemcd, till after he fets fail. Hence, if he borrows money on bottomry in the place where the owners rifide, without their ex orefs anthority, the aft can only concern himfcif, and affcii his own inttrtll on board.' In a foreign country, and in the abfence < f the owners, the ^nailer cannot rail'c any money on bottomry for any debt of his own, but nieielv for the ufeof the (hip, in cafes of ne- cefTity ; and this ncccfiity mull appear in the written contratl, or tlfe the lender will have neither a lien on the fliip, nor an adion apainll the owners ; the mailer alone being liable. Neveithtlefs the lender is not bound to look to the application of the money, but may have his adioii ngainll the owners and his Am on tht. fliip, without being obliged to prove that the money was properly applied, unlcis indeed he be an ac- complice in any fraudiiltnt niifapplication of it ; in which cafe the owners may impeach the contraft upon that ground. As an infuraiice upon any trade with the enemies of the llale in time of war is void, the lending of money tipon bot- tomry is illegal. As to the articles hypothecated, they may be the body, tackle, furniture, and provifions of the fhip, the whole or any part of the cargo, or both Ihip and cargo. On refpon- dciitia, indeed, money may be borrowed without hypothe- cating any thing ; and the borrower may take money on board with him in fpecie, for the purpofe of employing it in trade, during the courfc of the voyage. But it is efien- tial to the nature of the contraft, that the money lent, or fome equivalent to it, be cxpofed to the perils of the fea, at the rilk of the lender. The fame realons of policy which forbid gan\ing infurances, equally apply to wagers in the form of bottomry loans. The mifchiefs likely to refult from ilii? praftice have been reilrained by our legiflature. Ac- cordingly the ftatutc i6C. II. c. 6. re-enafted and made perpetual by 22 C. II. c. n. §12. after reciting "that maftcrsand mariners of lliips, having infured, or taken upon bottomry, greater fums of money than the value of their ad- venture, do wilfully call away, burn, or othcrwife dellioy the fhip under their charge, to the great lofs of the mer- chants and owners," en?.£ls, for future prevention of the fame, " that if any captain, mafler, mariner, or other officer belonging to any fhip, (hall wilfully call away, burn, or othcrwife deilroy the Ihip ta which he belongs, or pro- cure the fame to be done, he Ihall fuffer death as a felon." When thin fpecies of gaming came into ufe in England, and perfons borrowed mone'y " on the voyage," as it was called, without any inlereit in the fliip or cargo, which they could hypothecate, the llatutc l(, Geo. II. c. 57. § 5. directed, that upon Eaft India voyages the money (hould only be lent •on the (hip or goods on board, with benefit of falvage to the lender. A; many Britifh fubjefts, in the reign of George I. fitted out (liips, and clandcllinely traded to the tail Indies'under colour of foreign commillions, the llatute 7 Geo. I. c. 21. § 2. made to reftrain thcfe pratliccs, and to proteA the monopoly of the Eaft India company, de- clares, " that all contiatts and agreements, made or entered into by any of his majelly's fubjcfts, or any perfon or per- B O T •fons ill truft for them, for the loan of any money, by way of bottomry, on any (hip or (hips in the fervice of foreigners, and bound to, or defigncd to t-ade in, the Eaft Indies, (hall be void." This claufe exprefbly, and in the moft unquali- tied terms, reftrains the lending of money on bottomry, on any (liip or fliips in tlie fervice of foreigners. But whether a (hli>, the property of Britifli fubje-dis, (itted out by them, and laden with their merchandize, can be faid to be in the fervice of foreigneis, merely becaufe flie is furniflied with a commiffion from a foreign Hate, is a qncftion upon which there ha-- not yet been any judicial decifion. Freight may be both infured and hypothecated upon a bottomry con- tract. Seamen irv.y borrow money on any goods which they have on board ; but with relpeft to their wages, they can neither iiifure them nor borrow money upon them. As to the rate of marine intcreft, Julhnian, who, in ordi- nary cafes prohibited the centf/ima, or one per cent, per month, or 12 per cent, per annum, allowed it in this contraft, and iV rhadc any higher intereft. But in modern times, when <; jmmerce is carried on between countries remote from one another, it is impofiible to fix any precife ftandard by which this may be regulated. The legality of marine intereft, however exorbitant it may feem, is allowed by courfe both of law and equity ; nor can it be deemed nfury, provided the money lent be bmdjide put in rifl-:. This intereft com- mences with the rilk, and alfo terminates with it. But if the time of the contraft be a fixed period at a ftlpulated rate, and the voyage be performed within that period, the marine intcreft for the whole period will be due ; but it the voyage exceed that period, the rifl-; of the lender will ceafe, and the debt become obfolete, though the voyage fhould not be ended. The rillc alfo will ceafe, if the fhip has been pre- vented by unavoidable accident from performing her voyage within the time limited. Upon the cefTation of the fea-riik, if the borrower delays the payment, common intereft begins to run on the principal, exclufive of the m.arine intereft, " tpfo jure," without any demand. The perils of the fea, which conftitute the ri/lc of the lender, comprehend all thofc accidents and misfortunes to which (hips at fea are liable, and which no human forefight or precaution can prevent. Accordingly contradls on bot- tomry and refpondentia exprefsly provide, that " if, in the courfe of the voyage, and within the time prefcribed, an utter lofs of the (hip by fire, enemies, men of war, or any other cafualties, (hall unavoidably happen," the bond (hall be void, and the borrower difcharged ; fo that the perils are nearly the fame with thofe to w'hich the under-writers upon a policy of infurance are liable. A lofs by pirates, though not ufually expreffed in fecurities of this kind, is included in the riflv. Nothing, however, but a total lofs will difcharge the borrower ; and the obligation remains, notwithftanding any damage which the goods may fuftain by the perils of the fea ; nor is there any deduftion on account of fuch damage. In this refpett the lender on bottomry is in a bet- ter fituation than an infurer, who is obliged to indemnify the infured, to the extent of the fum infured, from all damage arifing from any of the perils againft which the infur- ance IS made. No capture or detention, that does not amount to a total lofs, in a cafe of infurance, can difcharge the borrower. Lord Mansfield, in delivering the opinion of the court, in a cafe of this kind, faid, " It is clear, that, by the law of England, upon a bottomry contraft, there is neither average nor falvage." But the lender is not liable for lofs proceeding from the internal defeft of the thing that is hypothecated, unlefs by exprefs ftipulation, fuch as the (hip's not being fea-worthy, and perifhing by age, rotten - nefs, or any fuch caufe, or the goods perifhing of themfcKes, liquors BOX liquors running out through the dcfcA of the caflcs, ihy goods heating and fermenting by length of time, &c. ; nor is the lender h'able for the ait of the owners or mailer of a (hip, as if the voyage be changed by order of the owners, or if alofs happen by the barratry of tlie mailer, or by the mil", conduft of the merchant. In thefe cafes ilic liorrower is not difcharged, except by expreis llipuhition, which fliall render the lender liable for every lofs not occafioued by the aft of the borrower. Nor is the lender halile for anv lofs by fmuggling, which occafions a forfeiture of the ihip, and a con filiation oi the goods, unkfs he was privy to it. In England, if the money were lent to be employed in a trade prohibited by law, thecoiitracl would be void ; and tlie fum lent could never be recovered from the borrower, even thoLiiih no lofs had happened. The lender, like an infurer, is only anf.verable for lodes that happen wilhin the time and place of the iif!-c, fpccified in the contrafl ; and, there- fore, if the fi\ip deviate from the voyage, without neccITitv, neither the lender nor the infurer will be liable to any lofs that may afterwards happen. (See Insuk ANcr-,.) If the (hip be prelfed into the king's fervice, this wili excufe a de- viation ; but if tile borrower allege a deviation, this mull be explicitly denied. A change of the (hip, witliout neceflity, difcharged the lender. Monty is generally lent for the whole voyage, outward and homeward ; or for either fcpa- rateK ; or for a limited time. The contrail ufually fpeci- fies the commencement and end of the rilk ; and any misfor- ttine, happening before or after, is at the rifl< of the bor- rower. If the voyage be defcribed in the bond, but the time of the commencement and end of the rifle be not fpcci- fied, the rifle, as to the Ihip, (hall commence from the time of her fetting lail, and continue till (he anchors in fafety at ■ her port of dellination ; and as to goods, from the time of their being (hipped till they are fafely landed. When the loan upon goods is both for the outward and homewaid voyages, the lender continues liable to the rilk, during the homeward voyage, on the goods by which thofe have been replaced on which the money was lent. Between mfurance and bottomry there is this difference ; that an infurer, independently of previous ftipulation to the contrary, is liable to the charge of particular average, whereas, a lender without exprefs ftipulation is exempt from it : but, by the general law of merchants, in cafe of grofs or general average, the lender fliall contribute to dif- charge the borrower ; and it is maintained by fome writers, that the nature and object of the bottomry contrafts feem to require, that the lender Ihould be liable for general aver- age. Lord Mansfield, however, as we have already ob- ferved, is of opinion, that, by the law of England, tliere is neither average nor falvage upon fuch contrafts; and in this opinion lord Kenyon concurs. But ferjeant Marlhall obferves, that he has not been able to difcover any decided cafe, or authority in the law, to warrant tliis doc- trine. He alfo diffents from another learned writer, (Park,) who thinks, that the Hat. 19 Geo. 11. c. 37. § 5. which provides, that the benefit of lalvage (hall be allowed to the lender, on E?ft India voyages, conclufively proves, that there was neither average nor falvage upon bottomry con- trafts at common law. Mr. Marlhall is of opinion, that this itatute has not introduced any new principle into the law, either of infurance or bottomry contrafts ; but merely rellored them to their original and proper ufe, from which a fpirit of gaming had perverted them. Nor can he admit, that, becaufe the ftatute gives the benefit of falvage to the lender upon Eaft India voyages, he was not therefore en- titled to this at common law. But admitting this to be the cafe, does it hence follow, that he was not hable to general B O T average at common law ? The ftatute makes no mention of general average. It has been determined, however, that if an iiifurance be made in England, upon a refpondentia in- tcrcft, upon a foreign fliip, and it appears lliat the lender is liable, by the law of the country to which the (liip belongs, to contribute to a general average, the undrr-writers upon the pohcy will be liarile for fuch contribution. As the ftatute nj Geo. 11. c. 17. gives the benefit of falvage to lender? on bottomry, and refpondentia fccnritics, rtftriftcd to Kaft India voyages, it has been a fubjeft of inquiry, whether, before that aft, the lender upon any voyage was entitled to the benefit of falvage. By the ge- neral law of merchants, the event upon wliich the borrower is difcharged, is the total lofs of the ft»ip or goodi, upon which the money is lent, in confequcnce of the perils men- tioned in the contract. The borrower is hound to pay principal and marine iiUereft, provided the fliip or goods, on which the money is lent, arrive at its deftincd port, however damaged or depreciated by the peiils of tlie lea ; nevi-rthelefs, if part (hould be captured or loft, the bor- rower is only bound to pay in proportion to what remains. If the fliip be loft, and the goods faved, the contraft re- mains in force, and the borrower becomes liable, provided another fliip can be procured to convey the goods to the place of their deftination. But for the cxpence of this other velTel, the lender is accountable ; and if no other can be procured, the borrower will be difcharged, on account- ing to the lender for the proceeds of the goods faved. By the law of England, according to the opinion of Lord Mansfield, already cited, " there is neither falvage nor aver- age upon bottomry contrafts :" however, without the be- nefit of falvage, this contraft muft partake, in a great de- gree, of the nature of a wager, even whtn the money is lent upon goods on board, of equal value. In cafe of a total lofs of the (hip, the lender lofes all, though all the goods are faved. Blackft. Comm. vol. ii. p. 457, Mar- lhall on the law of Infurance, vol. ii. b. ii. p. 633. Bottomry, bill of, is a contraft between two perfons, the one borrowing, and the other lending a fum of money, by which the borrower, fetting forth his intention to make a voyage in a certain (hip therein named, acknowledges the re- ceipt of a certain fum of money from tlie lender, on this condition, that if tlie fliip does happily perform her voyage, without any dilafter by enemies or otherwile, then he is to reftore that fum to the lender, with an additional fum, therein exprcfled, for the intereft, within a certain time after his return : but that if the fliip be loft, 01 taken by enemies or pirates, then the perfon of the borrower to be for ever difcharged, and the lender to bear the lofs. For the form of fncii a bill by deed, and when the (hip is to go to leveral ports, fee Marfliall's Treatife on the Law of Infurance, vol. li. Appendix, p. 718. See Bottomry. EOTTONI, Albertus, \x\ Biography, of an illuftrious family, originally from Parma, was born at Padua, in the early part of the l6th century. After paffing through the ufual fehool education, in which he dilUnguifhed himfelf, he applied to the ftt(dy of medicine, took the degree of Doftor, and was foon after advanced to the chair of pro- feflbr in that faculty, vvhich he filled many years, with fin-' gular credit. He died at a very advanced age, in 1596, leaving behind him, Haller lays, an immenle property. He pubhfhcd, " De vita conftrvanda," Patav. 11582. 4to. " De moibij nniliebribus," IJ85, reprinted in the collcftions of Bauhine and of Spachius. " Methodi medicinales dune, in quibu? legitima medtndi ratio traditur." I'rancof. i -595. 8vo. For the titles of other publications bv this author, fee HaUer Bib. Mtd. Eloy. Dift. Hift. BoTTONI, B O T Bottom, Dominiqj'e, the fon of Nicholas Bottom, a celebrated philoloplicr and phyfician of Lentini, in Sicily, bom the 0th of October 1641! received liis education under Peter Caftello. In ifi^S, he was admitted to the degree of doctor in medicine, and was foon after made phyfician to the marquis De Villa Frinca, viceroy of Sicily, phyljciaH to the royal hofpital of Mcflina, and fiipcrintcndaiit of the ?hyficians there, with a pcufion of 50 oi-jwiis per month. ie afterwards enjoyed a liniilar fitualion under the viceroy of Naples. In 1697, ^^ ^^^ made correfpondin^ or hono- rary member of the Royal Society of London, to which he had prcvioufly fent his " Idea hiilorico-phyfica dc magno trinacrix terrx motu," which is publilhed in their tranlac- tions. We have alfo by this writer " Pyroloftia topogra- phica, id ell, dc igne diflertatio, juxta loca, cum corum def- criptione," Neapoli, 1692, -vto. " Febrisrhcumaticx ma- lignx, hiiloria medica," Mtfliiia, 1 71 2, Svo. " IVcferve falutari contro il contagiofo malore," MtfTina, 1721, 4to. He died about the year 173 i. Eloy. Dift. Hill. BOTTONO, in Geogniphy, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Parma ; 9 miles S. S. E. of Parma. 150TTRYS, in /y^Mnp. See Chesopodium. BOTRYTIS. See Byssus. BO'l'TS, in Zoology, bots and horfeworms. See Oes- trus genus, and fpetics Et^'i, Boris, HitMORRHOiDALis, Veterinus, Ovis. Theic are a peculiar kind of grub, found not unfrequcntly in the iloraach of the horfe, of a cylindrical figure, pointed at one extremity, and ob- tufe at the otlur, and bcfct every where with numerous rigid fpines. There are at lead two different kuids inha^ biting the llomach of the liorle, which at length produce, on their arriving at maturity, a two-winged iufeft ol the fly kind. Befides thofe of the horfe, there are others of a diftinft kind, but belonging to the fame family, which live in their grub Hate under the ikin of the backs of oxen, the deer, and the rein-deer ; and others, again, occupy for a dwelling the frontal cavities of the head of the flieep, and cells at the bale of the horns ; and others inhabit alfo tlie fame lituations in the deer. They cxill on the pus and lymph they create on thefe membranes by their irritation ; and when full fed, they fall to the earth, and undergo the ulual transformations of other infeds. The inaccefTible fituations of thefe animals in their lafva ftate, and the impofTibility of raling them out of thofe fitua- tions, has been the caufc, probably, of their hiftory having fo long remained in the greateft obfcurity. They have been generally confidercd by the vulgar as true worms of the inteftincs, and fmiilar in their origin to other worms of the intcftinal canal, than which nothing can be more untrue. The following is a concife detail of what is at prefent known refpefting them ; the account purfumg nearly the order in which the difcoveries have been made. The firft who laboured to unveil the hidden and extraordinary economy of thefe animals was Vallifnieri, an Italian of Padua, and t'.ic pupil of Malpighi. Before his time, tlie moll abfurd notions pre- vailed rcfpefting them. The Romans, who had fcen them hanging to the extremity of the reclum of the horfe, be- lieved them to be pieces of the iutepLine itfelf torn away by the worms and animals er.illing within them ; and Ve- gctius has thus deferibed them ; " Ht'iufir'.odi pafl'ionis fig- num ell (morbus coriagii.ofus,) cum iuvenitur humor in ano fabjE cocla: limihs : ell namque funics ex illis vulueribus quae beftioli intiinfecus ftcerunt." Vallifnieri, in his full elTay, defer. bed the changes of the ocflrus bcvis ; giving indifferent jigures of them, and tracing them from the back of the ox EOT to the perfca ftate of a fly. This effay was publilhed foon after the year 1700. Indeed, all that is known lelpeaing them was difcovertd withii the limits of the lall century. 'I'he next eflay devclopes the hillory of the ocjinis o-vis, or of that infect which is found infelling the noftnls and cavi- ties of the face of the (beep ; and in a fubfequent volume (cd. Venecia, vol. ii. p. 163,3.), he publilhed his obfcrvations on the botts of the horfe. He was emb'arraffed by the great difference he found in the appearance of the botts of the fto. macli ; and hardly knew whether to attribute it to a differ- ence of fex, of feeding, or of their being two dillinft kinds, which fubfequent difcoveries have fully confirmed to be the cafe. His figures of them are very obfcure, and ill expreffed, fo much fo that it requires an eye accuftomed to the appear- ance of thefe infefts, at all to identify them. They ar?, however, without doubt, defigned to reprefent the oc. equi and oe. hitmorrhoidalis. The next labourer in this obfcure path of natural liifiory, was the celebrated Reaumur, vol. iv. p. 503. of the " Me- moires pour I'Hiftoire des Infedles." He repeated all -the exjierimentc of Vallifnieri refpefting the above three fpecies, and fully confirmed all he had faid refpi Cling them ; ac- companying his account with ample details of their ap- pearance and habits, and his defcriptions with much better reprefentations of them than his predeccflbr. Ma- dame de Breautc, an abbeis, in whofe praiics he fufficiently enlarges, at length furniflied him with an opportunity of getting the larva: of the oe. bovis from fome of the cows be- longing to her convent ; and on them he made his obfcrva- tions. Among other remarks, in this intcrelling memoir, he mentions, that by a lingular chance he oblerved a line of fmall air-bubbles arranged along the fide of the infeft, and placed oppofite to the Ipiracula, being entangled in the pus, ' which every where covered its fui face, and correfpoadiug in nuiiiber and pofition to thefe openings ; which would feem to prove that thefe fpiraculte are defigned, not for the ad- miffion of air, as is generally conceived, but in reality for its exit ; the air being received by a cartilaginous tube open- ing at one end of the infecl, viz. that extremity which is placed next the external opening of the fliin, and which be- comes the tail part of the future infeft, the larva being, in reality, inverted in the abfcefs. He very candidly obferves, however, that he could not force any air through thefe aper- tures, by holding the larva under water, and compreffing it with the fingers. He alfo noticed, that the opening in the fkin, through which the larva breathes and evacuates, is confiderably enlarged about the pericd of its exit, by the animal raifing itfelf in the abfcefs, and preffmg againft it ; .and after feme days of this difcipline, the aperture being enlarged, he works hini- felf through by fucceffive efforts, and falls to the ground. This excellent obferver particularly mentions alfo their launching themfelves from the back of the animal at au early hour of the morning in preference to any other part of the day. The perfeft infecl, he obfirvrs, could not be induced to take any kind of food or uouriihment, though he prefented it with a great variety ; a circumflance, indeed, that is not fo much to be wondered at, fince a large (hare of the infeifl world appear to pafs the lall ftage of their lives, not only without food, but without organs for receiving it. Gene- ration would appear to be the leading purpofe of this (hite of their exiftence. It is particularly worthy of remark, as it may be the means of exciting thofe who may be poffeffed of the oppor- tunity to farther refearch, to make mention of the recitals given by this celebrated obferver in ancither memoir (vol. v. p. 66.}. B O T B O T p. 66.), where he defcribes the Innx found in the cavities of the face of the Hag ; and it is evident tiiat they are widely different from thofe inhabiting the fame place in the flittp, or indeed from any other fpecics at prefent known. He did not fucceed in his attempts to breed tlie fly from thefe lavvx ; and we are therefore in the da-k refpecfting this infeA : and, unlefs it be the oejlnu ntifcilis of Linn.rus, which, on fevcral accounts, it does not appear probable that it is, it mnft be a new fpecies. Reaumur fecms fully to have believed the abfurd dodtrine of Va!lif'.:ieri, that the parent fly entered actually into the noftrils and fauces to depofit its egc;?, of which we (hall have occafion to fpeak hereafter more particidurlv. Next to the works of Reaumur, in this line of refearch, follow the writiuiTS of baron De Geer, who has followed and coniirmed the difcoveries of Vallifnieri and Reaumur, without adding any thing of importance to their oblerva- tions. He feems alfo to entertain, without hefitation, the opinion of Vallilnieri, that the ocJJnis eqm enters the reftum to depofit its eggs. We find, however, that he was aware that I^innaeus, under the title oc. boins, had confounded two dillindt fpecies. He alio erroneoiidy appears to have confidcred the oe. iovis aud hit!iioi-r/.ioiJii/is as one fpecies, being deceived by the circumftance of their defcription, which, as to colours, is very hmilar. Linnxus next, by the extraordinary concifencfs of his ■writings, feemed to fatirize the enormous details in the na- tural hillorians of the preceding age, whofe works were rapidly becoming too voluminous even for perufal. On moft occafions he brought what was important to be known within the narrow limits of a few Latin phrafes well ex- • prtffed. He marlhalled, for the firfl time, the fcattered members of this extraordinary race under the common family title of oejlrus. He, however, was only acquainted with five fpecies, all European ; bums, tarandi, hsmorrlioi- eJalis, nafalis, and uvis. His fpecific characters are very appropriate; and we (hall have occafion, in enumerating the fpecies at prefent known, at the coneluiion of tliis general account, to give them nearly as he had done. Fabricius next added to this family three more fpecies ; llie oe. biiccntus, oe. pecarum, oe. tronipe. Defcribing from cabinets, without entering into their hiftory, has been the fourcc of the greatell confufion. His oe. vitu/i is a mere va- riety of the equi ; and the Linnsan bovis, which is the conviTioneft fpecies, teems to be altogether omitted in his enumeration. Gmelin next occurs ; and, collating from all quarters, without any acquaintance with the animals themfclves, has added three more fpecies, which he believes to be new, from the works of profcffor Pallas. Thefe are indicated by the names of an'.'ilop.e, fafc'iculofus, and lominis. The European fpecics, efpecially thofe that infeft our <;attle, horfes, and (heep, in Great Britain, being the moft interefting, we- (hall proceed to illultrate the moft curious circumllances of their hillory, and barely mention the names «f the reft, aud the animals and country they inhabit. Linnxus, through the whole conrfe of his life, had never met with the true fly produced by the ox-bot, but had con- llantly taken a very diffimilar one which infefts the horfe for it. Indeed, this infsdf is truly rare. Vallifnieri had never feen but one, and that was mutilated. Reaumur, with uncom- mon pains, had raifed two or three to the perfedl ttate of a fly, and informs us, that to effeft his purpofe more com- pletely, he employed a eow-herd to colle6t for him, promi- ?ing him the price of half a day's labour for each he fhould bring ; but out of thirty procured by this means not one Voi,. V. lived. The cow-keeper, no doubt, too eager for his re- ward, had preffid thtm with his fingers from tlieir ficuaiionj under the (Icin, before they were perfeftly ripe and full fed ; in which cafe they would certainly all perifh, even though within a day of this period. There is only one good fpecimen of this infeft that wc know of in Engkuid, even at this time, which is in the c«l- leflion of Mr. Thomas Allen, and was taken from the back of a cort' near Hampton court. By rare chance wc took another of thefe in the Alps, between Salanchc and Bonne- ville, after obfcrving it to fettle on fome dung that lay in the road where fome cattle had recently paded, and which, ort our return through Germany, we preientcd to the venerable aud very relpeclable profeflbr D. Schrebtr of Erlang, the intimate friend and pupil of Linn.rus, who, we were fur- prized to find, till that time had not feen it. Nothing is, however, more eafy than to procure thefe inftcts by the fimple means we formerly ufed, end the de- tail of which may not be unacceptable to the public, efpe- cially to thofe who with to fee them from curioliry, or from a delirc to procure them for their cabinets. During the lat- ter months of the fummer, at which time thefe larvK arc moll Irtquently found of a mature age, and ready to quit their habitations, which is difcovcrable by the fnpefior lizc of the tumor, and by the increafed diameter of the external opening in the (kin ; felefting fuch an thefe, the hairs are to be removed with a pair of fciffars to fome little dlftance from the tumor, and a piece of leather thickly fprend with pitch, through the centre of which a hole is cut, and into this is inferted a fmall gauze pouch or bag ; the pitched leather i$ now placed on the Ikin, to which it readily adiicrcs, and the infect, when it falls from the abfcefs, is caught by the bag, where, as it camiot cfcape, it remains till removed by the p'erfon who looks after them. Three larvi, procured in this way, produced two flies in very good condition : one fled away during fome experiments that we were making with it ; the other wau given to Mr. Allen, as above ftateJ, after diuw- ings had been made of it for the ufe of the Liiur^an focicty. We are now under the necefljty of adverting to a fmall commimication fent to the Linnsan fociety by the writer of this article, in the year 1796, and pubiilhed in the third volume of their Tranfaflions, p. 289, as this memoir con- tains fome farther ob.rervations aud difcoveries tlian thc'i which had fallen within the notice of Vallifnieri and Reaimiur, we (hall briefly extreft from them what is new or ufeful. Page 291. " The Lava of the of/lrus btv'u is vei-y unlike the other larvae of this genus, fo much fo that I did not imagine, till I had procured the fly from it, that it was the larva of an oefirus. It neither pofftfTes the aculci, the lips, or the marginal fetae, which are the pror-ii'.ent charaftcrs of the larvs? of the oe. eqiii and hirmorrho'iilalis. When young, the larva is fmooth, white, and tranfparent; as it enlarges, it becomes browner ; and about the time it is full grown, it is totally of a deep brown colour, having numerous dots on its furface, difpofed in tranfverfe interrupted lines palTujg round the fegments. Two dillinft and different kinds of hues are feen on each fegment ; the uppermoft of them is narrower, and confifts of larger dots. Underneath thefe there is a broader line, and the dots fmaller. The firll are cafdy feen, bv ufing tlie lens, to be real hooks bent upwards, or towards the tail of the inftct ; and on examining the broader line of fmall dots, with a tolerably powerful magnifier, they were found alfo to be real hooks turned in an oppolite diredtion to the former, that is, downwards in the abfcefs, and to- wards the head of the infeft. This (jugular arrangement of hooks round the body of the larva, in this inftance, ferve the putpofc of legs in other larvae, enabling it to move about P ia B O T in the abfccfs at pleafure, and to crawl out of it when ripe, and renders the ul'c of the teiitaculz, obfervable at the fmall end in the other fpccies, not ncccflary- in this. " Tliefe hooks, being ercftcd by the mufclei of the (liin, according to the feries of them ufcd by the larva, it appears to be raifcd or dcprelTed in the abfcifs ; and by tliis motion, and the confequent irritation, a more or lefs copious fecre- lion ot pus is produced for the fullcnance of the lar\'a. The chrxfJules continued in tliat Hate from about the latter end of June till about the middle of Auguil, when llie fly, forc- ing; open a vcr\- fingular marijinated triangular hd, or opci- (uhim, at the ("mall end, made its appearance. •' Although its tffetts on the cattle arc fo often remarked, yet the fly itfclf is rarely feen or taken, as the attempt would be attended with con fiderable danger, if ui purfuit of the oxen. The pain it inflifts in depofiting its eggs, apjxrars to be very fcvcre. When one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is caCly known by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd. The unfortunate ol)jc£l of the attack runs bel- lowing from among them to fomc diftaiit part of the heath, or the neartll water. The tail, from the feverity of the pain, is held with a tremulous motion lli-aight from the body ; and the head and neck flretched out to the utmoft. The reft, from fear, generally follow to the water, or difperfe to dif- ferent parts of the ticld. " When tlie oxen are yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended with real danger to tlie drivers ; fince they become pcrfeftly uncontrolablc, and will often run with the plough dirc£\ly forwards through the hedges, or what- ever obllruds their way. " There is provided, on this account, to many ploughs a contrivance immediately to fet them at liberty. The fingu- lar fctne attending the attack of this fly on the herd, has often been the fubjecl of poetical defcription ; no one has, however, more naturally or elegantly delineated it than the bard of Mantua : " Eft lucos filari circa ilicibufque virentem Plurimus alburnum volitans cui nomen afilo Romanum eft, oeftron Graii vertere yocantes : Afper, acerba, fonans : quo tota extcrrita fylvis DifTugiunt armenta ; furit mugitibus aether Concuftus, fylvofque, et ficci ripa Tanagri." Gcorg. lib. iii. ver. 146 — liji. " The ftrongcft and heakhiell bcafts feem conftantly to be preferred by this fly ; and their poircfting them in their backs is confidered as a criterion of goodnefs with the dealers in cattle ; and the tanners obferve, that their beft andftrong- ell hides have the greattft number of bot-holes in them. " The whole of this family of infe.fts appear to have a ftrong diOike to moifture; fince the animals find a fecure re- fuge, when they get into a pond or brook, where the other flies which annoy them, follow without hefitat-oii, but the oeftri rarely or never ; and during very cold, rainy, or V indy weather, they are not to be feen. " Among the country-people, the larvae of this infeft are commonly known by the name of warbles, wornuls, or wormuls, or more properly bots." We now tranfcribe from the above memoir what is moft worthy of notice rcfpefting the oefirus eqtii, or large horfe- bot. " Thefe Iarv2 attach themfelves to every part of the fto- mach, but are in general moft numerous about the pylorus, and are fometimes, though much lefs frequently, found in the inteftines. They hang moft commonly in clufters ; being fixed by the fmall end to the inner membrane of the fto- mach, where they adhere by means of two fmall hooks or tenta- cula- When removed from the ftomaeh, they will attach them- B O T felves to any loofe membrane, and even to the fliin of th< hand ; for this purpofe, they draw back their hooks almoft entirely within the fl)e the means of Jefl roving tbem moll cffcrtually; and this procefs, repeated for t»o or tliree years fuccifTively, in places where they are paiticularly trouble- fonu, might prove eventually ufeful to the farmer: the Lap- landers, we learn from I.inn.fus, migrate nnnually with their rein-deer, on account of the hot wliich infclls them. On thcothcr hand, notwithtlandingthe apparently unnecef- fary exillcncc and cruel cffefts of the oejiri, they are probably not altogether without an ufe, or wcrcdelij^ned hy Providence to add, wiihoii! a recompence, to the numerous lufteriiigs of thcfe laborious and inofTcnfivc animals. •' A phylioloi^icnl view of their effci^s will perhaps bed juftify their exillcnce, and favc them from luch an im- putation. •' The lar\x of the orpi'i, when applied under properredric- tions, and only to a certain extent, mny be of irreatcr utility than from our prefent very limited knowledge of them vvc are able to difcover ; but we m.iy venture to remark, that their eftect in keeping up a conliderable degree of irritation in the membranes, on which they aie fituated, may perhaps not inaptly be compared to that of a perpetual iflue, or bliller. Nor is there wanting abundant proof of the utility of local irritations, in preventing the acctfs, as well as in tlleCling the cure of difordeis. We often fee a formidable difmfe quickly removed by blillering the flan an- tilupe grimmia i called alfo by them grimniL, and Chivre de grimme. Bo vc-EJ?ii'm, or Bnucjlchi, the names of the wild goat {capra ibex of Linn.), in old French writers. The word is of German origin, being derived from boei, or bone, and fleet., a rock or Hone ; in French, lorn: de rocher ; or, as we flionld render it, the rock, or mountain goat. X\\\M Ma, baue dis rochers, houquetin, bouc faimage, &:c. BOUCCANE'GRE, m Ichthyology, one of the fynony- mous names oi fpanis pngel. See Pagkl. BOUCARUE, or BucARDE, in Conchology. Sec Car- DIUM, the cockle. BOUCHAIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the North, and chief place of a canton in the dillridl of Douay, feated on the Scheldt, and carrying on a coTiliderable trade in corn and cattle. The place contains 1,128, and the canton 13,509, inhabitants; the tervitory comprehends i 52^ kiliometres and 20 communes. Bouchaiu is a (hong town ; it was taken by the duke of Marlborough in 171 I, after a fiege of 30 days, retaken in the following year by marefchal Villars, and invclfed by the Auftrians irv 1793, but foon relieved ; 3 leagues S. W. of Valenciennes, and ih N.N.E. of Cambray. BOUCHARDON, Edme, in Biography, an eminent French fculptor, was born in 1698 at Chaumont in Batfigny,. where his father was a fculptor and architcdl : and educated at Paris, in the fchool of Coultou the younger. At Rome, whither he removed as the king's penlioner, to which his merit advanced him, he cultivated, with affidufty and (uccefs, his talent for defign, by copying the precious remains of an- tiquity, as well as the works of modern paijiters. He after- wards Icttled at Paris, and, notwithftanding his fingular fim- plicity of character, became eminently diilinguithed, fo tlxat he was employed in feveral works of importance ; the prin- cipal of which are the fountain in the rue de Crenelle, faux- bourg St. Germain ; a ftatue of Love niaknig a bow of the club of Hercides, with the arm? of Mars ; and the equellrian (latue of Lewis XV. at Paris. In 1736, he was appointed dcilgner to the Academy of Belles Lettres : and, in 1744, he was admitted into the Academy of Painting, of which he was made protelTor in 1746. Having acquired a decent fortune, by his induilry and regularity, and attained high eminence in his art, he died in 1762. His compofitions are formed in the flyle of fimpic antiquity, and more admired for corrtftnefs and good taife, than for force of expreflion or vigour of imagination. His drawings are highly efteemed ;. they have furniflicd various engravings ; and a Treatife on Anatomy, for the ufe of artilts, publilhtd by Huquieres iii. 1741, is illullrated with figures by his hand. The chief amufemcnt of this artill was mulic, which he performed in a mallerly (lyle. D'Argenville's Vies de Sculpteurs. Gen. Biog. BOUCHARI, or PouCHARi, zUo Boutcier, Bouchcrify Sec. in Ornithology: Thefe are the common names of the grey- B O U |rrf\--bsckfd flirik*, lanius exniUlor, in Bufpimdy. Tlie wurds are dciivod from the Euglifli butclur-binls, an epithet applied with us, in a jjcncral manner, to all the ipccics of the (lirike, or lanius ritnus. BOllCHE, Martiv, in Blo^rnphy, an engraver, who flourished in i6}!o. He was chiefly employed by book- fellcrs : «nd portraits were his priTicipal performances. He worked aho^flhcr with the praver, in a nrat but t^ifT ftvle ; but his porfaits, feveral of wliich were thof- of Jefuits who futfcrtd Ml England about his time, arc not dellitutc of mcvit. Strutt. BiivcHE of court, the privilege of having meat and drink at court fcot-free. The word is alfo written bo-u'^e, bouge, and buH^e ; it is mere Erencli, where it fignifies mouih. The French flili ufc the plirafe, yfvoir boiiche a la cour ; that is, to ba-j: tabli or Jut at court. This privilege is fometimes only extended to bread, beer, and wine: it was a cullom anciently in ufe, as well in t!ie boufes of noblemen as ii\ the king's court. Thomas carl of Laiicaller retained lir John de Ewre, to ferve him with ten men at arms in time of war, allowing tlu-ni houge of court, with livtrv of hay and oats, horic-fliOLS, and nails. Sir Hugh Merrill had the fame privilege for liTe, on condition of ferving king Edward II. Kennct. GlofT. ad I'aroch. Ant. p. 578. BoL'CHE d' Argent, in Conchology, the trivial French name of a ibell of the turbo genus, the mouth, or opening of which is fdvery within. Linnaeus calls it turbo argyrojlonnn ; tke Engliih iilver-mouth turbo, or filver-mouth. BouCHE {/'Or, as in the former, a trivial fort of exprcffion among the French collef^ors for the Linnxan turbo chr\foJla- THUS, the month of which is of a fine golden hue. This is the gold-mouth turbo of the Englifti. There are a number of other {hells, dillingui(hed in like manner, by the colour of the mouth, to each of which a cha- racterillic epithet is given ; but fuch names are always capri- cious, and liable to be mifapplied, bccaufe thev are the names in common ufe among the dealers in flicU?, and others, who have only a flight acquaintance with the fubjcft of tella- ceology. It is always bettei, therefore, to retain the names alcribed to them by Linnius, and oilier Latin authors. BOUCHEMAINK, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the dillrift of Angers ; 4 miles S. of A njers. BOUCHENE', a town of Perlla, in the province of Ko- rafan ; lo miles N. of Herat. BOUCHER, Francis, in Biography, a modern French painter of celebrity, was born at Paris in i;o6, firft educated under Le Moine,'and finifhed his ftudies at Rome. Upon bis rctnrii to Paris, where he fettled, he obtained, by the flyle of J\is painting, the appellation of the '= painter of the graces," and the " French Albani." He was advanced to the pod of firll painter to the king, and that of diredor of the Academy of Painting, after Vanloo ; but he was carried off by a premature old age in 1770. His charafter was fecial and frank, without envy or avarice ; he was always ready to bellow his works on tliofe who admired them, and liberal in his encouragement of young anills. Of hi? lingular modefty we have an indance, in his refufal to retouch a pifture of one of the tirft Italian mailers, alleging, " Such works are holy veffels to me." His works were held in high eftimation. He poITcfred great fertility of invention ; but, fays Mr. Strutt, he was defeftive in correftnefs and grandeur of de- fign. He executed fome flight etchings from his own compofitions, and ihofe of other mailers. Strutt. Nouv. J)idl. Hill. B O U Boucher, John, a furious fanatic, was born in Parij, where he became profefTor of pliilolophy and theology, and afterwards reftor, in 1580. He was alfo prior and doctor of the Sorbonne, and was made reftorof St. Bciiedift. As a preacher and a writer, he was a leading and adtive pro- moter of the league againft king Henry III. : the rebels firft afTcmbkd in his apartments in 1585 ; and he ordered the alarm-bell to be rung in his church, which contributed to excite the popular iufurrettion of 1587, the confequencej of which were fo difgraccful ana detrimental to the king. Soon after he publilheii a difcourfe, entitled, " De jnlla Hen- rici III. abdicatione c Fiancorum regno," Par. 1589; which containe'l feveral very infamous charges againil the king. Boucher has been charged with inftigating James Clement, a Dominican monk, to the affaffination of Henry ; however this be, he applauded the aft after it had been committed. He was a violent oppofcr to the fucceffion of Henry iV. againll whom he declaimed from the pulpit and from the prcfs. Nor did his oppofition ccafe with the king's abjura- tion ; for pretending that he was a feigned convert, and that the pope's abfolution was invalid, he publiflicd " Nine Ser- mons" on the fnbjeft, which he had preached at Paris in I ■;<; ;. When the Parifians received Henry into the capital, thefe fermons were pnbHcly burnt, and Boucher, perfilHng in the party of the leaguers, fled with the Spaniih garrifon, in 1 ■;94, into the Low Countries. At Tournay he obtai 'ed , a canoniy ; and, after a refidence of 50 years, he died dean of that chapter, in 1644. Under a feigned name he is fup- pofed to have wntten an apology for John Chatel, who made an attempt on the life of Henry IV. and alio for the Jefuits, who, in confequence of it, were banilhed from France. So atrocious was his virulence as a partifan, that hejullified the conduft of thofe wretches who had hangijd the firft prclident Briinni, and dignified them with the title of martyrs of Jefus Chrift, after they had been executed by the duke de Mayenne for that murder. It is faid, however, that, towards the clofe of his life, he regretted living among the enemies of his country, and manifefted fome figns of repentance for the atrocities of which he had been guilty. Gen. Dicl. Boucher, John-Joseph, born at Lifle, the 25th of March I /J J, was made, in fucceflion, phyfieian to his native city, correfponding member of the Academy of Sciences, and foreign alFociate of the Royal College of Surgery at Paris. He publifhed, in 175-I, " Mcthode abre^ec pour traiter la dyfenterie regnante a Lifle en 1750," 4to. He alfo fur- nifhtd the Journal de Medicine with " f-lcteorologieal Ob- fcrvations" made at I^ifle, and with other pliilofophical papers. Eloy. Dift. Hift. Boucher, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan, on the north coail of the Perfian gulf; 160 miles S.W. of Schiras. BOUCHOUX, a town of France, in the department of Jura, and chief place of a canton in t.hc diftrift of St. Claude. The place contains 1,890, and the canton 6,094, inhabitants ; the extent of the territory comprehends 127J kiliometres and 13 communes. BOUCLANS,a town of France, in the department of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Befan- 5on ; 8 mile's E. of Befanijon. BOUCLIER, in Ichthyology, fynonymous with cyclop- tere the French name of the Cyclopterus genus of fifhes. Bouclier iTecalllede torluc, in Conchalogy,\.\\e'n?ime given by the French colleftors to thofe (helb of the limpet c;enus whole colours, and general form, bear fome refemblai.ee to the fcalc of a tortoife. The moft remarkable fpccies of this kind is pcttella tejludinaria of Linnaeus. 2 BOUCLIEK B O U BouCLiER, in Enlomology, a genus of coleopterous in- fefts in Olivier's arrangement, inchided in his firft fcftion. The bouchers are diltinguilhcd by having two tranfparent wings under the elytra ; body a hltlc deprtlled ; thorax large, dilated, fcarcely lefs than the elytra, and concealing the head of the infeft. The antennas clubbed, pcrfoliated, fomeuhat comprefTcd, nearly the length of the thorax, with eleven joints, the tirft of which is large, elongated, and club- bed, and the lall ahnoft oval. The mouth is furniihej with horny, fimple majidiblcs ; acutely poinled jaws ; and four unequal filiform feelers ; and lallly, the tarfi are filiform, and compofed of five joints. Infefts of this tribe were formerly confounded with thofe oi cajfida, elophonis, fphisnilliim, nlcropljonis, opatrum, and iiiu- diila, from all of which they are to be difcriminated by the foregoing charafter ol bouclier. There is another very analogous genus to this, namely, peltis of Fabricius. Peltis was a name given many years ago by Geoffroy to the infcdls afterwards called filpha by Linnius. It was again taken up by Illiger, who bellowed it on a new genus of cokoplera etlablidicd by him, in which the Linnsan fpecies oijifplid;, groffa, ferruginea, oblonga, and limbata, were comprifed. The genus pehis is adopted from Illiger by Fabricius, in his laft work on coleoptera, Syjlema Eleutheratorum. It will be therefore proper to point out ex- aftly in what particulars thofe two genera differ. The peltis has the lower lip truncated and cihated, while in the boucliers that part is dilated and bifid ; there is fomc diflimi- litude in the external cliarafter of the two genera, and their habits of life are diltinft. See Pei.tis. The boucliers exhale a moft fcEtid odour. Commonly they are found feeding upon cadaverous carcafes, the dung of animals, or other fuch filth. There can be no doubt that the ftench of thefe infects affefts even the animal matter which they crawl upon, and on which they fubfift. When taken in the hand, thefe beetles fpurt from the mouth, as ■well as from the anus, a drop of liquor of a dark or black colour ; the confiftency of which is thick, and the llench dif- gufting. This liquor is not produced by violence or com- preffion ; it is voluntarily difcharged by the creature, and is, beyond difpute, a fecretion prepared by nature to promote the putrefaAion of the flefli it may chance to meet with, as is is only in that ftate that the boucliers feed upon it. Olivier defcribes only a few fpecies of this family ; namely, U thoracique, which is black, oval, and depreffed ; thorax fawn colour ; and wing-cafes with elevated lines. Le Uttornl is black, long, with three elevated lines on the wing-cafes, and a tranfverfe protuberance. Le raboleux is black ; the wing-cafes rugged, with three elevated lines ; the thorax rugged hkewifc, and finuous behind. L'atre is very black, with an entii-e thoi-ax ; tlie wing-cafes dotted, with three fmooth, elevated lines. L'ohfciir is black, {lightly convex, with the wing-cafes dotted, and three elevated lines ob- fcurcly marked. Le quaJripondue is oval, deprelfed, and black ; the wing-cafes of a pale yellow, with two black dots on each. Thefe are all the boucliers mentioned. BOUCNASCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Holftein ; 5 miles E. N. E. of Rendf- burg. BOUCOIRAN, a town of France, in the department of the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridt of Uzes ; 3 leagues W. of Uzes. BOUCONVILLE, a town of France, -in the depart- ment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of St. Mihiel ; 2 leagues E. of St. Mihiel. BOUDHA, in Lid'um Mythology. See Boodh. BOUDIN DE MER, in Zoology, the name given by Vol. V. B O U Dicqurmare in the Journal dc Phyfique, OAober, 1778, to a fort of marine worm with a llieath, wliich, it is believed, niuft appertain to the nereis genus ; but of which thcdclcrip- tion is fo very incomplete as te> render this a matter of uncer- tainty. The animal inhabits a membranaceous ftieath about four inches long. BOUDOIR, Le, in Geography, a fmall iflaiid in tlie fouthern Pacific ocean, difcovered by Qiiiro-s, in 1606, by whom it was callid " La De/.ana ;" in 1 767, by Wallis, wlio named it •' OInaburg ;" and in the following year by Bougainville, who gave it the name of " Le- Boudoir," or " Pic de la Boudeufe." The natives call it " Maitea," ac- cordiiig to the report of captain Cook, who vifited it in 1769. See MAiruA. BOIIDRI, or BouDRY, a town and 'hate-lain of Swiffer- land, in the county of Neuchatel, 6 miles S.S.W. of Ncucha- tel, near the river Reufc, which runs into the lake of Neu- chatel. N. lat. .|C° 59'. E. long. 6° 38'. BOUDROU, or BouoRous, the modern name of the ancient " HalicarnalTus," (which fee,) fituate at the entrance of the Ceramic gulf, now called the gulf of Stancho, on the coaft. of Caria. The fortrefs, which is at the entrance of the prcfent harbour of Boudroun, is the work of the knights of St. John of Jerufalem, who made themfclves maftcrs of this place, when, after the firil crufades, they iiad cflabiidied themfelves at Rhodes. They conftrufted this citadi.1 on the foundations of the magnificent palace of the con; -.t of Artemifa, and named it " Caftel San Pietro," or, in Spanifh, " San Pedio." Of this the Turks made " Bedro," then " Boudroini," changing the P into B, according to their manner of pronunciation. Coats of arms, fculpturcd in fome compartments of the walls, ftill (hew, as at Rhodes, in whofe hands Boudroun was, before it pafTed into thofe of the Turks. Its prefent poncCTors have, with their cuftomary negligence, fuffered the harbour to be choaked up, fo that there is no longer water enough for large (hips : the harbour, however, is fafe and commodious, leaving to the wind and fea only a very narrow entrance. N. lat. 36° 59'. E. long. 27° 15'. BOUDS, in Entomology, the epithet under which the tvee-vil h dillinguiflied in fome countries. BOVEE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trift of Commercy ; 5 leagues S. E. of Barle-Duc. BOVELLES, a town of France, in the department of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the dilliifl of Amiens ; 2 leagues W.S.W. of Amiens. BO VENA, the moft eafterly of the Hieres iflands to the eaft of Toulon, in the Mediterranean, on the coaft of France. See Hieres. BOVENDEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Heffe-Rhinfels ; 4 miles N. of Gottingen. BOVES, a town of France, in the department of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftricl of Amiens; 1-1 league S. E. of Amiens. BOUEXIERE, La. a town of France, in the department of the lUe and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Vitre ; 10 miles N. E. of Rennes. BOUFFE, in Zoology, a race of dogs with fine, lonjr, frizzled hair ; a crofs breed between the barbet and great fpaniel. BOUFFLERS, Louis-Francis, in Biography, duke, peer, and marflial of France, and a celebrated general, was the fon of Francia count of Boufflers, and born in 1644. In 1669, he became colonel of dragoons, and ferved in thecon- queil of Lorraine under marihal Crequi ; and in the war O a^infl B O U Wfaind IWUnd hr diftinguinied himfclf, under Tiirer.ne, in Icvciil baltlta and ficj^'t-s. He aftciwarJs fcrvcd in Ger- Tr.a:iy, on the frontiers of Spain, and in Danders ; and at lt-nf;ih was made gcntral of the army on the Mofcllc, in l6yO. Alter fcvcral fcrvices of importance at Mons, Liege, Luxembiirtf, and Namur, &c. he was advanced in l6v3 to the rank of marllial of France ; and, in the following year, he was made governor of French Flanders and the town of L'flc. In i6y5, havinp lield out f^ days againll the united forces of the allies under kliijj William at Namur ; when ijic place capitulated, he was arrclUd prifoncr of war ; and upon his remonllrance that the whole ganifon, which bad not been furrcndered by the French, according to the articles of war, Ihould have been retained rather than liinifelf, ho was aufwcrcd, by the compliment, " Sir, you are tftiniaied at lo,o;o men." He after- wards condndtd the conference which terminated in the peace of Ryfwick. In 1708, he acquired great glory by an obftinatc defence of Lifle for four months, when it •was threatened with a fiege by Marlborough and Eugene. On this occafion he dlfplayed his magnanimity, by his noble declaration to a perfon who reprti'entcd to him the faci- lity of killing prince Eugene ; " Take him prifoner," fays he, •' and your fortune is made ; but expcft the moft feverc punilliment, if you undertake any thing againll his I'.ic." At the battle of Malplaquet, he conducted the retreat, fo as to lofe neither cannon nor prifoners. Havi.ig eftabliflicd the charadler of a true patriot, as « cU as that of a great commander, he died at Fontainbleau, in 171 1, at the age of 6S. " His heart," faid madame de Maintenon, " was the kit part that died." Nouv. Diet. Hift. Gen. Biog. BouFrLFRR, in Geography, a town of France, formerly called " Cagni," in the department of the Oife ; 7 miles W. of Bcauvais. BOrFR.-XMONT, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the dilhicl of Neufchateau ; 2 leapues S. of Neufchateau. BOUGAINVILLE, John Peter de, in Blosraphy, was born at Paris in 1722, and educated at the college of Bcauvais. The fnll exhibition of his literary character was in a profc trandation of " Anti- Lucretius," with a pre- liminary difcourle. Amongll the friends and patrons, pro- cured for him by his dilliiiguifhed literary talents and amiable qualities, was M. Frerct, ftcretary of the Academy of Infcriptions and Bel'ts Letters, by whom he was intro- duced into that fociety, and whom he fucceeded in his office. Of the various papers, which he wrote for the Memoirs of the Academy, two of the moft confiderable are thofe on the voyages of Pytheas of Marfcilles, and of Hanno the Carthaginian. In 1754, he was admitted into the French academy ; and appointed cenfor-royal, and keeper of the antiquities in th; Louvre. He alio publifhed " a parallel between Alexander and Thanias Kuli Khan ; and edited Freret's Chronology. He died of an allhma, to which he had been fubjtCl from his youth, at the caftle of Lochcs, in 1763. Nouv. Dift. Hift. Bougainville, M. D. F. a native of France, and the full perfon of that country who circumnavigated the globe. His nautical difcoveries were very numerous, and he oc- cupies a high rank among thofe who have extended our ac- quaintance with diftant leas and iiflands. He was killed by the mob in a tumult at Paris, May 10, 1792. Bougainville lay, in Geography, lies in the ftraits of Magellan, on the north fide. Bougainville iJlanJ, an ifland of the South Pacific ocean, adjoining a group of other iflands, with which it forms a bay not lefs than 15,000 toifes in extent, fetn by M. B O U Bougainville in 1768, and feparated by the ftraits, called after his name, from the ifland of Bouka, wluch lee. The high mountains of this ifland are covered with trees, and appeared to the voyagers in fcarch ot La Peroufe to be at leaft 1200 toil'es in perpendicular height, and to he diftant from the fliorc above 20,oco toifes. It terminates in very low lands, having fine plantations of cocoa-nut trees, and feemcd to be. very- oopv.lous. The moft foulheily point of this ifland is in S.'Lt. f 4' 50". E. long. I j5= 38' 34". The nonhern point, called point Laverdy, is in S. lat. 5" "4'. E. long. ij4''5i'. See Ars.^cides and Solomos* ijlaihls. BouGAiNViiLE's^r(j;V.f, lie in the fouth Pacific ocean, at the N. W. end of the iflands of Solomon ; which fee. BOUGEANT, William-IIy/cinth, in Biography, a French Jefuit, was born at Qjiunper, in i6go, and having been educated among the Jefuits, he taught the languages and rhetoric in their feminaries at Caen and Nevers. He afterwards refided in the college of Lev.is le Grand at Paris, and devoted himfclf wholly to literature. Befides the part which he tonkin the Journal de Trevoux, he was the author of fevcral works ; the principal of which are " Hiftory of the Wars and Negotiations which preceded the Treaty of Weftph.alia, in the reign of Lewis XII. ;" 2 vols. i2mo. a work of high eftimation for its curious faft.s and elegant ftyle ; " Expofitions of the Chriftian doctrine by queftions and anfwers, divided into tliree catechlfms," 4 vols. 1 2mo. ; " Voyage Merveilleux du prince Fan-Fercditi dans la Roman- cie," i2mo. a performance of fancy for which fome orthodox zealots occafioned his temporary exile to La Fleche; "Three Comedies," in profe. He aifo wrote fome controverfial pieces on the eucharift, and lome critical papers in the Me- moirs de Trevoux. After his death, was printed his " Hif- tory of the Treaty of Weftplialia," 2 vols. 410. a work that is ranked among the bell hiftorical productions of FVance. Bougeant was of an amiable, focial difpofition ; and is thought to have felt much uncafinefs from the attacks that were made upon him, which fliortened his days. He died at Paris in 174,3. Nouv. Diet. Hift. BOUGH, in Antiquity. Green boughs made part of the decorations of altars and temples, efpecially on feftival occafions. Oaken boughs were offered to Jupiter ; thofe of laurel to Apollo ; of olive to Minerva ; myrtle to Venus ; ivy to Bacchus ; pine to Pan ; and cyprcls to Pluto. BOUGIE, in Surgery, is a French term, originally de- noting a wax taper, but now generally applied to feveral inftruments which are ufed by furgcons in difeafes of the uriiiary palTage, &c. See the articles Caruncle, Stric- ture, Urethra, and CEsophagus, w-here an account is given of the d'.forders iu which bougies are principally em- ployed, the fnbjeft of the prefent artxle being chiefly on the compofition of ihefe chirurgical inftruments. Contrivances for dilating the urethra, in cafes of obftruc- tion to the flow of urine, were employed even fo early as the time of Albucafis, and the Arabiftical fur«;cons ; but thele were not brought to any tolerable degree of perfeftion until about the- middle of the fixteenth century, when the fre- quent occurrence of ftriftures in the urethra introduced them into more general ufe. The firft efforts of furgeons, in this particular department of their art, may be perufed in the writings of Andreas Lacuna, Amatus Lufitanus, Alphonfus Fcrrus, Ambrofe Pare, Franc. Arcaeus, Theo- dore Maycrnc, John de Vigo, and Fabriclus ab Aquapen- dente. It is not eafy to determine who i.ivented wax candles, or latber B O U ratliet- wlio applied them, for tlicfe piirpofcs ; but, as the name bougie is of Fiench origin, it may be the invention of a French furgeon, and perhaps of Guido de Cauliaco, (who flouriflied before the exiftence of Syphilis in Europe): for this furgeon, in his chapter " Dc ulceribiis anchanim, &c." Chir. Mag. Traft. IV. Dodlr. II. cap. 7. recommends the " Turunda ex cera," to be pafl'ed up the urethra. The materials commonly had recourfe to, in the fabrica- tion of bou;j;ies, catheters, and founds-, during the fixteentii century, were gold, filver, and lead ; but as thefe metallic rods were not lufHciently pliable and foft for introduftion into a difeafed urethra, furgeoiis afterwards ufcd bougies formed ol (lips of linen or cloth, dipped in melted wax, &c. and rolled into the fize of a goofe-quill, of fufficient length to pafa as far as the neck of the urinary bladder. This kind of bougie was greatly improved by Mr. Daran, of Paris, who, neverthelcfs, made ufe of fome veiy ridicidous and ufclefs ingredients in the compolition of them; fuch as flieep's dung, pulverized fhoe-leather, port wine, and live pigeons ; not to mention various other ingredients, equally ntedlels, thouj;h not quite fo abfurd and prepotterous. As it is now genendly admitted bv fiirgenris that bougies aft mechanically only, and not mcdieinnlly, in curing difeafes of the urinary canal, we Ihall proceed to defcribe the pro- perties and compofition of waxen or plailer bougies ; after which we (hall notice the elallic bougies, and (IvjU ofl'er a few hints on an invention by Mr,- Smyth, of London, who lias lately contributed to the revival of metallic inltruments, which had almo'.t been wholly laid afide, on account of their wanting due flexibility, &c. The properties required in a bougie for dilating a con- trafted urinary canal are, i. SufKeieiit firmnefs to overcome the refinance of the Ifriiture; 2. A degree of flexibility, which (hall yield and accommodate itfelf to the windings or tortuofities of the morbid canal ; 3. So much ftrength, ciihefion, or tenacity, as not to be in danger of breaking; 4. Perfect fmoothnefs of furfaee, that it (hall occafion no uneafinefs or difficulty iu palTuig ; 5. A mildnefs in its com- pofition, which may enl'ure its remaining for a fufficient time iu the urethra, without exciting pain or inflammation. That it is polTible to communicate a medicinal quality to bougies, cannot be denied ; and it having been an old opi- nion that ftriclures were ufually attended with ulcers or abralions in the urethra, whieli required healing, furgeons have frequently employed medicines in the compofition of bougies, luppofed to poifefs a power of cicatrizing thefe ulcers : but uf late, both the remedy and the difeafe have been exploded ; we do not any longer fufpeft venereal ulcers as a concomitant fymptom of ftrifture, and therefore have difcontinued what were called cicatrizing applications. Still, however, the idea of employing mercury in this way, is not wholly given up ; and there are medical pratlitioners who prefer bougies containing a large proportion of the fpecific, believing that it tends to eradicate any venereal taint in the fydem: but the major part of the profefTion confider mer- cury as entirely ufelefs in thefe cafes ; becaufe, if there hap- pens to be any venereal taint in the conftitution, this mode of adminillering mercury would not be the moll eligible for the cure ; and becaufe the addition of fuch an incongruous article to the other ingredients, has the effeft of diminifliing the tenacity of the bougies. A prefcription formerly in vojiue, and whicli therefore had been received into the lad edition of Chambers's Cyclopxdia, confilled of Burgundy pitch, two ounces ; quicklllver, one ounce ; and crude anti- mony in pov.'der, halt an ounce. The objection agaiiilt antimony, and fuch like brittle ma- B O U terialsi, will undoubtedly be urged with at lead as much force as that we have already made againft mercury ; and on this account we recommend tluit no mineral fubflancc (hall bfe employed in fuch quantity as to Ulfen the tenacity or cohc- five nature of the plailer compofition. The bell formed plailer bougies may, without any injury, be varied in the proportion of their ingredients, oi- in the colo'iring matter they contain, according to the temperature of the weather, or the intention of the furgeon. Tliey may be coloured red, with a little cinnabar ; white, with ccruffe ; black, with Kthiops, 6cc. ; and in warm weather, or a tio- pical climate, they (hoiild be made of a firmer coiifillencc than in a cold country. The bafis of all plailer bougies fhould be wax and oil : the wax may be either yellow or white ; the oil, either vegetable or animal ; to which may be added, a fniall proportion of refinous matter, &c. to aflord the degree of confilleiice and tenacity we re- quire. The ingredients fhould be well boiled and incorpo- rated togetiier, efpecially when there is the addition (ufuallv made) of litharge or minium i;i confidcrable quantity. I'hc following are airo~tig the moll limple and approved compofitions for plailer bougies : N'^ 1. R. Gum lac, one pound ; Litharge plailer, three pounds": DiiTolve the gum lac in the plafter by flow boiling, and add of yellow v\ax two pounds. After about three hours more boiling, the whole may be fct afidc for ufe. N'' II, i^. Olive oil, three pounds ; Yellow wax, one pound ; Minimn, one pound and a half. Thefe. articles are to be boiled flowly for fix hours, or even longer in the winter. If the mafs be not of a fufii- cicntly firm confidence, add three or four ounces more of the wax. N^ IV. R. Litharge plader three parts, and White wax two parts ; to which add as much olive oil or hog's lard as will give the confidence required. Boil them as before. N'^ V. R. Yellow wax, one pound ; Sperma ceti, half an ounce ; Acetated ceruffe, from two to eight drams, according to the degree of folidity defired. Small bougies are to be made of a thicker mals than larger, efpecially for a hot climate. N° VI. R. Yellow wax, four parts ; Oil of olives, three parts ; Sperma t-cti, one part. Boil them gently together for two hours, or until they are properly incorporated. As prefcriptions of this fort may be varied at pleafurc, it is unncceflary to increafe the number of our formula; :' the above compofitions are to be ufcd in a melted date, but not very hot. Slips of fuft linen or calico, of a fine texture, and not lefs than eleven inches in length, are to be dippid into the warm mafs, or Ipread over with fome of it by means of a broad fpatula ; and care Ihonld be taken to make the furfaee of this cerecloth as fmooth and uniform as podlblc. Some perfons advife that the fiips of fine rag fhall be of dif- ferent lengths, from eight to eleven inches, and about three in breadth ; thele flips are then to be rolled up loofely, and taking hold of one extremity with the left hand, let it fall upon the furfaee of the jilafler, and then draw it out gently. As it is drawn out it will unroll, and take up a quantity of plailer on the furfaee, etpial to the thieknefs of a wafer or a fixpence ; though, to facilitate the unrolling of the rag, it will be proper to affill its motion with the end of the fpa- Q. 2 tula. B () U tula, or fome otlifr ii.ftniincnt. The plafter, liowcvi-r, muil be warm enoujjh to foak throiigli, and difcolour tlif rag, othtrwifc it will not make To guud a bougie. If the tlotli be txaftly ttiice inches broad, it will make fix bougies of a moderate fize ; but their fi/e may be fuited to the occafion. It is generally advifeable that the bougie (hoidd be I'malier at t!ie end which is introduced through the ftrie^urcs, than at that which is left out at the penis. For this purpofe many cut off a part of the oblong fquare before mentioned, in fuch a maniicr as to reduce it almoft iuto the (hape of a long right-angled triangle ; but as this way of cutting it weakens the bougie exceedingly, and as it is not at all necelTary that the bougie Ihould be taper from one extremity to the other, it is much better to cut oil a little Hope of about an inch and a half long from the end that is to be palfed into the urethra, which will lelTtn it where it is Hectiniry to be Imall, and leave it Urong in the other part, where the diminution is not ntceffary. The plafter taken up by the cloth, when dipped, will have little bubbles upon its furface, and nut be fo fmooth as if it had been fprcad : therefore an iron fpatula, a little warmed, may be paiTcd over the plaller before it be cut iito bougies, which will render it more compatt and even. It is a much more exad and fpeedy method to cut the bougies off with a knife and ruler than with fcilTars. When they are rolled up, it muft. be with that fide outward which is covered with plafUr ; and they mull firll be rolled by hand as clofe as poflible, before they are rolled upon a board or marble ; for upon this circumllance the neatnefs of the bougie depends. It feldom happens that a bougie is required to be more than a quarter of an inch in diameter, or three quarters in circumference ; but the gencraUty of praftitioners are apt to err in ufnig them of too fmall a fize to produce any per- manent advantage in overcoming the (Irifture. There is undoubtedly a great difference iu the calibre of the urethra of different perfons, and we have known the plaller conipo- fition to have been forced oil the linen by a patient having uftd the bougie too large, fo as to collect the plafttr in a mafs w^thin the urinary canal; but we llill lay it down as a general rule to employ the inftrnment as large as can be conveniently introduced, and again withdrawn from the urethra, although by no means fo large as to hazard the ac- cident here alluded to. Some furgeons have very highly extolled the utility of bougies made of catgut, btcaufe of the property they pof- fefs of becoming dilated by the moifture of the urethra, and thus enlarging the contradled part of the canal. We have, however, been much difappointed in our expeftations from catgut bougies ; as they did not dilate with fufEcient force upon the exaft fpot in which th.- difeafe exillcd, and there- fore fwelled generally without advantage : nav, it even hap- pens that the catgut, if it be large, will not come away without difficulty and pain, iince it dilates equally beyond the flriAure itl'elf, as well as on tlie contraifled part ; and if It be not fufEciently large, its fuftnefs renders it of no utility whatever. As there is no polTible mode in which the cat- gut can do any gotij, but by mechanically extending the flriclure, and as this can only happen for a few moments while the mllrument remains firm, it mull be obvious to every reHedling perfon that ttiis kind of bougie is likely to be even Icfs ufeful than ihofe made of plaller or cere- cloth ; and this is precifely what we have obferved as the refult of our own experience. Praclitioners, being in fome refpeiSs diffatislied with the bougies commonly uftd, have introduced pieces of fmooth whalebone, or long Hips of leall.er, for the fame purpofe : I B O U but we think, upon the whole, they are liable, at leaft, to as tlrong objections as any we have already mentioned ; and the trials made with theni, by fcveral furgeons, have not at all produced a conviAion of their luperiority. At prefent, indeed, they feem to be entirely laid afide. Another fpccies of bougie, which deftrves much more attention, is compofcd of catgut internally, and covered by a thin layer of diffolved elallic gum, or caoutchouc. The manufadlure of this elaflic vegetable fubftance is confined to a very few hands. We believe it was firft applied in a Hate of folution to the purpofes of furgery, either by Mr. Theden, a Pruffian furgeon, or by M. Bernard, of Paris ; but bougies of this kind are alfo made in other countries, efpecially in Sv. eden and Germany, and lately by Mr. Walfh, of London. The mode of diffolving and dr^'ing the caout- chouc is kept as a fecret. It is faid, however, to be foluble in a:ther and in linfeed oil : it may likewife be rendered fluid by cutting the fubftance into flips, and burning them ; but the great difficulty is in refloring it to a ftate of folidity and drynefs, fo as to render the bougies ufeful after they are fabricated and covered with caoutchouc. Thefe bougies, when properly made, arc not only very flexible and fmooth, but may remain a confiderable time in the urethra without being greatly injured. When they crack, or become rough on their furface by repeated ufe, they are unfit for our pur- pofe, and fliould be exchanged for new ones. See the arti- cles Catheter and Caoutchouc. It has formerly been the piaftice of fome furgeons, in ufing any of the feveral kinds if bougies already defcribed, to daub their furface over with diilerent llimulating un- guents, &c. And it has been imagined that the puriforni difcharge thus produced from the urethra, had a tendency to diffolve the callofity of the ilriAure or caruncle, which they fuppofed to be the occafion of the obllrufted urine. Now this is an entire fallacy, founded on a falfe theory ; for neither is there any proof of the exiftence of fuch caruncles and callofities in the urethra, nor (if they really did exill) could the fuppuration produced by fuch means afford mate- rial advantage. Any llimulating fubllance introduced into the urethra, for example a common plaller bougie, may pro- duce a difcharge of matter, efpecially in very irritable pa- tients ; but this difcharge arifes from the whole internal furface of the canal to which the bougie has been applied, and not exclufively, or perhaps, not at all, from the ob- ftrufted part where the llrifture exills : and this fuppuration is no more than the common refL;lt of the application of a mechanical Itimulus, or foreign body, to a delicate fecreting membrane. If that portion of the bougie which came into contaft with the difeafed part be more covered with mucus or pus than any other, this circumftance is probably owing to a greater irritation or increafe of aftion in the fecreting arteries of that part, in confequence of its preternatural irri- tability ; but, by introducing a bougie compofed of aftive ingredients, or fmearing its furface over with acrid materials, we excite an unhealthy aftion not only in the morbid part of the urinary pafi^ge, but alfo along the whole extent of the found furface. The reafoning here employed againll fo ablurd a praAice, will apply likewife againll the uje of what have been called " Medicated bougies," which have been ignoiantly fuppofed to pofTefs fome healing or medicinal quality. The only remaining bougies we intend to notice in the prefent article, are thofe which Mr. Smyth, an apothecary of London, has recently fabricated, of a flexible metallic compofition. Although he has not publifhed his invention, (if indeed it be a nciv compound of the metals,) we think the B O U B O U the inlliumciitj of Mr. Smyth cleferving our confideration. Experience, in a great number of cafes, warrants the life of them, and particularly thole of a large llze ; on account of the extreme fmoothnefs of their fiuface, the yielding- or flexible property they have, without breaking, and the length of time which patients may wear the bougies (where it is neceflary to retain them in the bladder) with eafe to them- felves, and without eroding the metal. We cannot, however, divelt ourfelves of an ohjedlion, which has too mucii foundation in truth, againft the fmall- iized metallic bougies, viz. that there is great danger of tearing or penetrating the urethra in pafling ihem ; fo that they can hardly be trailed with fafety in the hands of inex- perienced perfons, or even of young furgeons who may not be adepts in this line of praflice. Mr. Smyth has certainly obtained very refpcdlable tettimonies in favour of his inllru- ments ; but, we think, on perufmg his late publication, that the comparative advantages and difadvantages of thefe bou- gies are not always detailed with fufficient precilion. Some of the objeftions, which were formerly made by one of the furgeons of the Lock Hofpital, in the fourth volume of the London Medical Review, do not apply to the larger Jized metallic bougies ; and we are alTured that, lince the period alluded to, the inventor has improved the form of his inllruments fo much as to have obviated the little diffi- culties then fuggefted by Mr. Blair. It was our duty to fay this, in juftice to tlie inventor ; and we doubt not, that by further trials and obfervation, it will be found that Mr. Smyth's bougies and catheters are entitled to the patronage of furgeons in general. We do not mean to affirm, that they will exclude the ufe of all other kinds of bougies and catheters ; but only that they are highly ferviceable, (and even to be preferred to any others) in fome particular cir- cumftances of dilealed urethra, or retention of urine, &c. We referve the obfervations we have to make on caujlic bougies for a future article on the fubjeft of Stricture, where the hiftory and treatment of this morbid affeftion will properly come under confideration. In the interim, we refer our readers to the fcveral pubhcations of Mr. Hom.e and Mr. Whateley ; and to a paper, in the i8th number of the London Medical Review, p. 209, vol. iv. entitled " Re- fleftions on the ufe of cauftic fubHances and metaUic bougies in ftriclures of the urethra, by Mr. Blair, furgeon of the Lock Hofpital, &c." Bougie, Inlet, in Geography, lies on the coaft of North Carolina, between Core Sound and Little Inlet. BOUGINESE, or Bonians, a denomination diftin- guifliing one of the various nations who inhabit the ifland of Celebes. Thefe and the Mawflers are the moll known. The Bouginefe are at prcfcnt the moft powertul people in tliis ifland, though, about a century ago, they were not comparable with the Macad'trs. They are ol a middle ilature, ilrong, and mufcular, and of a light brown com- plexion. Some of them, efpecially the women, are nearly as fair as Europeans ; and they have pltaling countenances, except that their nofcs are fomewhat flattifh. The fe- males are ardently addifted to fcnfual pleafures, and inge- nious in every relincment of amorous gratiiication ; and on this account, the Bouginefe girls are preferred, through- out the call, fur concubines, both by Europeans and by Indians. The Bouginefe are generally called by the Eng- lifli BuggelTes. BOUGLON, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrici of Marmande ; 4 miles N. of Caftel Jaloux. The p'ace contains 681, and the canton 5,547 inhabitants. The territorial extent comprehends 162^ kiliometres, and it communes. BOUGUER, Peter, in Biography, a celebrated mathe- mctician, was born at Croific in Lower Brittany, Feb. 10, 1698. He was the fon of John Bouguer, royal profelTor of hydrography, and author of a complete trcatife on Na- vigation, firlt printed in 1698, 4to. and re-piintcd in 1706. In this compiehenlive and excellent work, the author cor- reftly delineated the Hate of navigation at that period. Bouguer, the fon, was initiated by his father in the mathe- matics, at a very early age ; and fueh was his proficiency, that at the age of 1 1 years, he inlhuAed his regent in the Jefuits' college at Vaunts; and at the age of 13, he de- tected the en-or ot a profeffor of mathematics, who, mor- tified at being thus expofed, quitted the country. Al- though he loll his father at the age of 15, and before he had linilhed his Itudies, he was thought competent to ,be his lucceflbr in the office of hvdiographcr ; and he dif- charged the duties of it with great reputation, even at this early age. In 1727 he obtained the prize, propofed by the royal academy of fciences, for the heft method of mail- ing fliips ; in 1729, that, for the bell method of obferving the height of the ftars at fea ; and in 1731, that, for the moft advantageous means of obferving the variation of the compafs. In his piece concerning the bell method of ob- ferving the height ot the liars at fea, he afTnmes the honour of having been the firft perfon who undertook to give a le- gitimate folution of the " Solar ;" for fo he calls the curve, traced by a ray of the fun, in its defcent through the at- mofphere. But though he did not feem to have known it, Mr. Taylor, in his " Methodus incrementorum direfta et inverfa," had obtained, by an elegant analyfis, a fluxional equation, which gave all the points of the curve. How- ever, Bouguer's method was the firft that was applied to ufe for aftronomical purpofes. Bouguer, in his " Optical effay on the gradation of light," publilhed in 1729, ex- amined the intenfity of light, and determined its various, degrees of diminution, in pafling through different pellucid fubftances, and particularly that of the fun in traverfing through the atmofphere. An extract of this firll eflay was given by M. Mairan in the Journal des favans, for i/JO. l)r. Priertley in his " Hiftory of light and colours," p. 541, &c. has given a particular aecount of Bouguer's ob- fervations on this fubjeft. At Havre, whither he removed in 1730, he became intimately conncdttd with feveral mem- bers of the Academy of Sciences ; in the following year, he was chofen to fuccetd Maupertuis as affociate-geometer ; and in 1735 he was promoted to the office of penfioncr-af- tronomer. On the i6th of May in this year, Bouguer left France, on a commiffion, in which he was joined with Godin and La Condamine, for meafuring a degree of the meridian in South America; and he returned to his own country from this expedition in June 1744. Of his various operations, he gavr an account to the French academy in November following : and this account was printed in the " Memoirs" for 1744, and afterwards in his treatife " De la figure dc la terre." The pri:'.cipal fcene of this laborious un- dertaking, was the Cordilleras mountains ; and in the execu- tion of it, Bouguer and his affociates made many other im- portant and uftfiil obfervations, bcfides thofe that related to the immediate objctt of their commiffion. To Bouguer in particular, we are indebted tor many curious rcmaiks on the expanfion and contraftion of metals, and other fubftances, by the fudden change of heat and cold, among thofe lofty mountains ; on the rcfraflion of the atmofphere from their fummits, and on the fingular phenomenon of a fudden in- creafe B O U creafe of refraaion, when the ftar can be obfcrvcd below the line of the level ; on the laws of the JHrerent dciifities of the «ir at different heights ; on the tffed of the attrac- tion of the mountains upon a plummet ; on the method of ellimatiii?, the encrsof naviijators in compining their courfe and dirtance ; on the new conllrndion of a log foi meafni-- in-T the ftip's way i and on a vaiiely of other paniciibrs ; whicli, with thole already recited, will be duly noticed in the courfe of ihi^ work. Of iiis heliomcter for determni- iuc the diameters of the larger planrti in a tclefcope with two objea glaffcs, his expcrimei.ts on the reciprociition of the pcnduhini, and iiis method of meafuring the force of light, S:c. Stc, we fliall introduce an account in Uioir pvo- jier places. The principal works of M. Couguer, that have been le- parately pubhihed, are "The figure of the earth, deter- mined by the obfervations in South America," 1749, ^to. ; «' Treatife on navigation and pilot.ige," Paris, tjjz, 4to., abridged by La Caillc in one volume, 8vo. 1768. " Trea- tife on (liips, their condruclion and motions," i7.)6. 410. ; and " Optical treatifc on the gradation of liglit," lirft pub- lifhed in 17 29, and afterwards in 1760, 4to. The follow- ing detail of his chief communications to the royal academy, and of the volumes of the " Memoires," in wliich they may be found, will probably gratify the cnriofity,and dircft the le- fearches of our mathematical and philofopliical readers. Ac- cordiuTly, we have in the " Mcm.oires" for 1726, a com parifoiTof the force of the folar and lun^r light, with that papers of candles; for 1731, obfervations on the curvilinear mo- '■■ ' lion of bodies in mediums; for 17; 2, upon the new curves called the " lines of purfuit;" for 1733, to determine the fpe- cies of conoid, to be conllruaed upon a given bafe, which is e.^cpofed to the (liock of a "fluid, fo that the impulfe may be the leaft poffible ; and a determination of the orbit of comets; for 1734, comparifon of the t\yo laws which the earth and other planets mull obferve in the figure, which gravity caufes them to take ; on the curve lines pro- per to form the arches in domes; for 173J, obfervations on the equinox ; on the length of the pendulum; for 173'!, on the lengtli of the pendulum in the torrid zone ; on the manner of determining the figure of the earth, by the mea- fures of the degrees of latitude and longitude; for 1739, on the agronomical refraftions in the torrid zone ; obferva- tions on the lunar eclipfe of September Sth 1737, made at Quito; for 1744, lioit account of the voyage to Peru by the members of the royal academy of fcicnccs, to meafure the degrees of the meridian near the equator, and from thence, to determine the figure of the earth, a communica- tion no lefs elegantly, than accurately vviitten ; for 1745, experiments made at Q;iito, and divers other places in ti.e tonid zone, on the expanfion and contraition of metals by heat and cold; on the problem of the mailing of (hips; for 174'', treatifc on fliips, their ftrudlure and motions, (lee Mf.tacentre and Ship); on the impulfe of fluids upon the fore parts of pyramidoids, having their bafe a tra- pezium ; continuation ot the fliort account, given in 1744, of the voyage to Peru for meafuring the earth ; for 1747, on a new conftrudion of the log and other iullruments for meafuring the run of a (hip ; for 174S, of the diameters of the larger planets ; the new inftrument called a heliometer, proper for determining them, with obfervations of the fun ; obfervation of the eclipfe of the moon, Aug. Sth, 1748 ; for 1749, fecond memoir on aftronomical refraftions, ob- ferved in the torrid zone, with remarks on the manner of conftrufting the tables of them ; figure of tlie earth, deter- mined by Meifrs. Eoug-.ier and Coudamine, with an abridg- B O U ment of the expedition to Peru ; for j 7,50, obfervatl«n9 of the lunar echple, Dec. 13th, 17.50; for 17^1, on the form of bodies, moll proper to turn about themfelvts, when they are puflied by one of tlieir extremities, or any other point; on the moon's parallax, with theeftimatiou of the changes, caufed in the parallaxes by the figure of the earth ; obferva- tion of the lunar eclipfe, Dec. zd, 1751 ; for 1752, on the operations made by fcamen, called " Corredtions ;" for 1753, obftrvations'on the paffage of mercury over the fun, May 6th, 17 1.3 ; on the dilatations of the air in the atmo- fphcre ; new "treatifc of navigation, cor.taining the tlieory and practice of pilotage, or working of fliips ; for 1754, ope- rations, &:c. for didinguifliiiig, among the different dcternii- nations of the degree of the meridian near Paris, that which ought to be preferred ; on the direction which the ftring of a plummet takes; folution of the chief problems in the work- ing of (liips ; for i 755, on the apparent magnitude of ob- jrdls ; fecond memoir on the ch.ief problems in the working of (hips ; for 1757, account of the treatife on the working of Ihips ; on the means of meafuring the light. In the vo- lumes of the prizes, given by the academy, are the fol- lowing pieces by Bouguer ; in vol. i. on the mailing of fliips ; in vol. ii. on the method of exactly obferviiig at fea, the height of the liars, and the variation of the compafs ; alio on the caufe of the inclination of the planets' orbits. M. Bouguer was alio for 3 years a writer in the Journal des S^avans, to which he communicated feveral uletul In his earlier years, M. Bouguer had lived in a ftate of fechifion from general intercourfe with the world, and he had thus acquired a caft of temper, which marked his cha- i-aftcr in more advanced life. Although he was univerfally ackuovvledged to polTcfs fuperior talents, and to be dilcin- guilhcd by an afliduity and zeal, no lefs fuccefsful than in- defatigable, in various departments of ufeful fciencc ; he iifdulgcd a dep^ree of fufpicion and jealoufy, with regard to his reputation, whic'i dilgulled fonie of thofc with whom he was under a neceflity of aflociating, and which difquieted his own m.ind. Fully fenfible of the importance and utility of his own performances, he was apt to confider others, who were engaged in fimilar puriuits, as competitors with himfelf, and to grudge them the reputation which they julUy acquired, from an apprehcniion that his own credit would be thus dimir.ifttd. Hence arofe his difputes with La Coudamine, one of the companions of his' voyage, and an'oci:ite in his labours in America ; and the mortification he experienced from the public fuffrage that feemed to have been bellowed on that academician. It is much to be la- me:ited, that mean jealoulies of this kind fhould fulfill among perfor.s, diftinguilhed by their literature and fcience; beeaule they arc not only difreputable to themfelves, but injurious to the advancement of ufeful knowledge. M. Bouguer, after a courfe of inceffant apphcation, which un- dermined his health, clofed his life on the 15th of Augull, 175S, at the age of 60 years. Mem. of the French Aca- demy, 1758. Nouv. Did. Hill. Montucla, " Hiil. des Mathematiques," by De La Lande, torn. iv. Gen. Biog. BOUHIER, John, a pecfon of eminent literary charac- ter, was born at Dijon, in 1673, and firll educated at a Je- fuit feminary, where his extraordinary talents for languages were carefully cultivated. The peculiar fl;udies of his pro- feffion were profecuted at Paris and Orleans, wlience he returned to Dijon, and began the exercife of it in 1673. Here he diilinguiflied himfelf by his profeffional praflice, and was admitted into the parliament, fucceeding his father in the office of prefident a mortier. As he devoted hi.s leifure B O U leifure hours to literary inquiries, he was well knowo to the learned, and in 1727, was unanimoudy defied a mem- ber of the French academy. But afHitlcd with the gout, he was under the necefiity of refigninghis office of pri.rident a morlier ; and, in I 746, this dilorder, feizing his llomacli, terminated his life. He was much refpcifled on account both of his private and public character ; and his literary pertornianccs, publithcd fcparatcly and in the memoirs of difierent focietics, are very numerous. Some of the princi- pal are, " A tranllation, in verfe, of Petronius on the civil war, and of feme pafFages in Virgil and O^-id," with very learned notes ; " A trandation of Cicero's Tufculan Q_\ief- tions," in connection with the abbe d'Olivet ; the 2d and 5th are by Bouhier ; and he alfo annexed learned notes and difTertations to the' tranfiations of others of Cicero's works ; " Letters on the feft of Tlicrapeuta: ;" and " Diflertntioas on Herodotus." In hisown profcdion his principal work is " The cudom of Burgundy," 2 vols. fol. 1746; and a " Trea- tife on diirolulion of marriage on occaliou of impotence," eftetm.ed by the curious. Nouv. Didt. Hill. Gen. Biog. BOUHOURS, Dominic, a learned Jefuit and critic in the French language, was born at Paris in 1628; and having taught for iome time in the colleges of the Jcfuits, became preceptor to the young prince of LongueviUe, and to the marquis de Seignelai, fon of the famous Colbert. He died in tl".e place of liis nativity, in 17C2. His firfl work, which was an agreeable mifcella". V on fubjefts of tafte, entitled •' Les entretiens d'Ariile et d'Eugene," appeared in 1671, and was at firft much read. His oth'fer principal works are, " Remarques et doutes fur la langue Francois," 3 vols. 1 2mo. ; " Manieres de bien penfer fnr les ouvragts d'Efprit," I2mo. much commended by Voltaire; " Penfees ingenieiifes des ancicns et dec modernes ;" l2nio. ; alfo, " Lives of the grand-mailer d'Aubuffon, of St. Ignatius, of St. Francis Xavier, of mad. de Bellefond, and tranfiations of fome books of devotion, in fome of which he manitcfts his attach- ment to the Jefuits, though with lefs credulity than that of others. His manners were polite ; but his criticifms, tliough he was a general apologift, involved him in fome literary difputcs. Nouv. Dift. Hill. BOVI-Cervus of French authors, in Zoology, their Buhch and ant'dope huhalis of Linnaeus. BOVIANUM, \\\ Anaent Geography, Boiano, a town of Italy, in Samnium, fituate among ihe mountains. It was taken fevcral times by the Rorrtans ; became a Roman co- lony, and pofTcfied the advantages granted by the Juhan lav.'. See Boiano. EOUJEIAH, in Geography. See Bugia. BOUILLAC, a town of France, in the department of I the Uppvr Garonne ; 3 leagues N. W. of Grenade. ' BOVIIjLiE, in Aneit-nt Geography, Marino, a town of Italy in Latium, fituate at the lotli mile in the Appian -ay, and b.iilt after tiie deftruftion of Alba, by the Aliiani. !l bjcam.e a co;;r!derable place, as is mdicatfd by its ruins, iinong which is a temple dedicated to AugulUis. Near t:iis city Claiidius was ilain by order ot Milo ; and here they celtbratcd games in lionour of the Julian family. BOUILLE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- pivtment of the Lower Seine ; j leagues S. S. W. of Rouen. EouiLLE Menard, a town of France, in the dcpart- -isut of the M;iyne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, n the diftriil of Segre ; 3 leagues N. W. of Scgre. ' BOUILLEROT, or i?o«/^r^au, in leh.hyrdogy, common names of feveral filhes in France, but more efpecially ot Gobiiis ;f£r; the Cyprlnus goblo dxiA Bknn'tus pholis bear the fame B O U BOUILLET, John, in Biography, born at Servian, in the diocefe of Bci^icrs, the 14th of May 1690, and created doftor in medii-ine, at Montpeliier, in 17 17, enjoyed, dur- ing the courlt of a long life, fptnt in the Ihidy and prahice of mcdicTiie, at Btzicrs, a conliderablc portion of reputation. He was, in fuccefiiou, made profcllbr in mathematics, and fecretary to the academy at Bcziers; member of the royal fociety at Montpeliier, and correfponding metiiber of the academy of iciences at Pari«. He was alfo autiior of feveral ingenious dldl nations. " On the ])r<)perties of Rhubarb," publiihed at Bcziers 1717, 410. probably his " Inaugiual Tiicfis." " Sur la caufe de la pefanteur," 1720, i2mo. wiiich obtained for him a prize from the academy at Boiir- deaux ; «' Avis et remedes, contrtla pellc," Bezicrs, 1721, Mvo. " On ailiima and on the gout," in wliicli complaints he recommends the Venice foap as a powerful auxiliary ; " Sur la maniere de traiter la petite vciole," Be/,iers, \)-i,6, 4to. and fome years after, " On the bell method of prefcr\ing the dillrid of Bezicrs from that difcafe ;" " Rccucil des let- tres, et autres pieces pour fervir a I'hilloire de I'academie de Bezicrs," I7,;6, 4to. with feveral other publications; for the titles, fee Eloy Dift. Hill. He died in 1770. Bot;iLLET, Henry Nicholas, his fon, was born De- cember 6th, 1729. Treading in the (leps of his father, he was made doftor in medicine, at Mo.itpcUicr, and member of the academy of Beziers. He publiihed, in 17^9, in 410. '■ Obfervations fur I'anafarque, le hydropcfics de poitrine, des pericarde," &c. Haller. Bib. Botan. BOUILLEUR DE Canari, in Ornithology, the provin- cial name by which the Am bird is known among the Creoles and negroes in Guiana. BOUILLON, among Earners, alump of cxcrefcence of flcfh, growing either on or jull by a horle's frufli, and making him halt. Bouillon, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ardennes, and cliief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Sedan ; the place contains 1,97.3, and the can- ton 4,.J40 inhabitants. The territory comprehends 1675 kilioniLtres, and 17 communes. BOUl LLY, a town of France, in the department of the Aube, and cliief place of a canton, in the dillricl of Tro- yes ; 7-miles S. of Troyes. The place contains 790, and the canton 9,310 inhabitants. Within the territory are 2I2t,- kiliometres, ar.d 28 communes. BOVIN, or BoviNG ijland, an ifland of France on the coall of Lower Poitou, fouth of the river Loire. It is wholly covered with fait pans. BOVINA, Afiectio. SeeAFFECTio. BoviNA, in Zoology, a fpecies of T^.nia, found in the vifcera and liver of cattle. This kind is iimple, with the vcficle large ; body (hort, with imbricated fcaks. Barthol. Flill. Auat. Cent. Gocze, &c. BO VINO, in Geography, a city of Naples, in the pro- vince of Capitanata, and fee of a bidiop, fuffragau of Bcn- evento. It Hands very high, on the iouth lide of the river Cervaro. It is a duchy belonging to the Guevaras, one of the Spanidi families that followed the fortunes of Alphonfus the magnanimous. BOVIS, m Entomology, a fpecies of Pkdi-^ulls, with which cattle are iuteiled. Linnseus dillinguilhes it by the eight traiiiverfe ferruginous lines on the abdomen. Linn. Fn. Suec. BoviE, a fpecies of Oestrus, with brown, unfpottcd winfs; abdoncn black, white at the bafe, and at the tip fulvous. Fabr. &c. See Botts, O.wi-Jly, and Oes- trus. JiOUISSE, in Geography, a towa of Fiance, in the de- partment B O U pertrnftit of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in tlie dillric\ of hi-Orane ; .5 leagues S. W. of I3 GralTc. 1U)VISTA, ill Bohiny. See Lycoperdon. liOVIUM, in /Incient Geogrnphy, a place in the fecond rout of Antonine's itinerary, pl.iced by fome antiquaries at Bangor-MoLiacliorum ; by others at Bovcrton, and by Mr. Horfley fomcwlicrc near Strctton, at the dill .nee of about 10 miles from Cheller. But its true fituation is unknown. BOVIUS. Thomas, in Biography, an empiric of a noble family in Italy, lived in the middle a.id at the end of the l6th century. He called himftlf Zephirielem, the name he gave to a tutelar fpirit, who, he pntended, watched over and affitlcd him. He was well llorcd vvit'i general Uarninjr, but applied parliculariy to the iUiJy of the law, of medicine, and of chymillry. He wrote againft the re- gular phyfieians, and boalU of the fuccefs of his prnAice. He contrived an elaborate and concentrated preparation of mercur) and gold, firll dilTolvcd in a kind of aqua regia, which he called his Hercules. With this he profeffed to cure malignant and pellilcntial fevers, the plague, and the lues venerea. Ht condemned the method ufed in making the decoftion of the woods, by which their volatile parts, in which he contends their virtue rcfidc, weredillipated. He cured tpilepfieswith a preparation of antimony, and fupprelTed menfes with hellebore. He ^xpclled a tape worm from one of his patients, meafuring, he fays, fifty yards in length. He condemns bleeding, except in certain afpefts of the heavens. He prepared " aurum potabile," with which he pre- tended to have performed great cures. He laughs at Capi- vaccius, who had difmifled a patient as incurable, whom he afterwards reftored to health. He was addifted to alchemy, and acknowledges he was indebted for much of his know- ledge to Arnold de Villanova. He pretends to have cured upwards of jooo patients. But notwithllanding his boafting, Claudius Gellus, who undertook to refute him, in a fmall traft, fince joined to Bovius's works, (hews he was no phylician, and that he was very little confulted. The titles of his works are, " Flagcllo contro de medici communi dctti rational!," 410. Venet. 15S3; " Fulmine contro de medici putatitii rationali," 410. Verona, 1592 ; " Melam- pygo, overo confufione dc medici fofifti e del Claudio Gelli," Verona, 1,^95, 410. He difcovered that a difeafc, affefting the- inmaies of a monaftery, was occafioned by their cooking their food in copper velTclB, not well tinned. His works, which fc-parately paffed through fevcral editions, were col- lefted and pr'iiied at Venice, in 1626, izmo. Haller. Bib. Med. PraCtica. BO UK A, in Geography, an ifland of the Pacific ocean, fo called by Bougainville, from the frequent ufe of this term among the natives, feparated by a narrow channel from Bougainville illand. It is fometiines called lord Anfon's illand. The vail plantations of cocoa-nut trees which adorn its fliores, indicate a numerous population. The natives are dextrous in the ufe of their canoes : they feem to be ac- quainted with the method of barter ; and from the value which they affix to nails and other articles of hard-ware, they indicate a knowledge of the ufe of iron. They are addifted to gaiety, and palilonately fond of mufic, efpecially of the mod briik and noify tunes. The colour of their iliin is blacklfli ; they are of a middling (lature ; and their mufcles, diftmdtly feen as they are naked, indicate great ilrength. Their figure, though not very agreeable, is very expreffive. Their heads are very large, their foreheads broad, hke the other parts of their faces, which are very flat ; their chins large and prominent, their cheeks full, their nofes flat, their mouths very wide, and their lips thin ; their ears are loaded with large rings made of fkeUs, by which they are very B O U much extended. Some have red and white ftreaks traced upon then- bodies; and fome have bracelets formed of the fibres of the cocoa-nut hun<. Their hair is curled, thick, and bulky; and they pluck the hair from every other part of the body. Tliev handle the bow with much addref? ; and their induftiy feems to be particularly direft- ed to the fabrication of their arms. Their canoes are form- ed of fevcral planks, ingcnioufly conarufted, .ind adapted for a quick motion. The nortii point of Bouka is in S. lat. 5° 5' ',()", and 154° 29' E. long. Labillardiere's Voyage in fearcii of La Peroufe, vol. i. p.. 375, &c. BOULAC, BouLAK, or Bulak, a large, irregular,"and pleafant town, about 2 miles long, but not very wide, built on the call fide of the harbour of Grand Cairo, and about half a league diftant from it. The road leading to it ap- pears to be one of its ftreets ; and the crowd and buftle of the place indicate the entrance of a populous and commercial city. Boulac is the port of Lower Egypt, as well as of Cairo, as Mifi-el-Attike is of Upper Egpyt ; and here all the merchandize is landed which comes from Damietta and Alexandria. It contains magnificent public baths, and large " Okals," which are fquare buildings, round a great court with a portico, that fupports a winding gallery. The ground floor is compofed of fpacious warehoufes ; and the next floor contains apartments without furniture and without ornament. Thefe okals are inhabited by ftrangers, who there depofit their merchandize. One fingle gate, like that of the citadel, fecures them from infult at the time of the revolts. Thefe khans are the only inns to be met with in Egypt. The traveller is obliged to furnifii them, and-drefs his viftuals there; for in this country a dinner is not to be had for money. The okal built by Ali Bey the great, and called the Alexandrian okal, is equally extenfivc and con- venient, and chiefly ufed for goods brought from that city. From all the houfes at Boulac thoufands of boats may be feen at anchor, of every fliape and of every fize. Some of them are ftrong and fohd, and have two mads, and are em- ployed in tranfporting merchandize. Thefe have ufually a large chamber for the pafl"engers. Others, lighter and without deck, only ferve to convey the people trom one fliore to the other. Thofe which are ufed in voyages of plea- fure are adorned with painting and fculpture, and have hand- fome apartments covered with carpeting, and (heltered from the fun. In thefe the rich amufe themfelves by breathing that cool air, which is inceflantly fupplied by the Nile. With a favourable wind, and when the fail is fpread, thefe light veflels feem to fly upon the water ; but when the wind is contrary, a number of robufl; men row them with great rapidity. Cleopatra, who knew the charms of thefe water- parties, and the variety of landfcapes which diverfify the verdant banks of the Nile, engaged Cxfar in one of them, and carried him even into Upper Egypt. Gardens, occu- pying the fertile grounds between the houfes of Boulac, and between this port and Cairo, afford an ample fupply of fruits and vegetables. In the middle of the river, nearly over- againft Boulac, is an ifland, where Murad Bey has a kind of profpeft houfe, or place of retirement, and here are alfo feveral gardens. Oppofite Boulac, upon the weft bank of the Nile, is the fmall village of " Embabe," or " Emba- bil," compofed of wretched round huts of earth under the fycamore trees, by which they are propped. Some few houfes of brick hardened in the fvm, and a fmall mofque, lofe themfelves at a dillance, among the foliage of date and tamarind trees. This village is famous for the excellent quality of its butter, with which it fupplies the inhabitants of Cairo ; and, indeed, it is the only place in Egypt where butter can be eaten frelh ; every where clfe, in that country, it B O U It is good for notliiiig-. The fertik plains adjacent to Em- babe, on the wellern fide, arc enriched with feveral kinds of culture ; and in particular they produce a fort of lupins, of the feeds of wliicli there is a great confumplion in Epfypt. Thefe are boiled with fait and water, and eaten, after beinc; ftripped of the thick and hnrd fl-ciii with which they are covered. They are fold ready drcifed in the ftrects and markets. By the Chrillinns in ll;e tad, lupins, called " Em- babens," from the place of their growth, arc eaten as a flimu- lus for drinking brandy. Flour is alfo made of them, which is adapted to clean the hands and foften the flvin. The ttalk, reduced to aflics, is preferred to other cliarcoal in the compofition of gun-p; wdtr. Half a league to the north-enfl of Boulac is the old caflle of " Helle," fo called, probably, from " Hciiopolis," not far dillant ; it is now falling into ruins. Here the Beys, attended with brilliant retinues, receive the rew pacha, to conduft him in pomp to the prifon, whence they have jull expelled his preJcccflbr. In the environs of HtUc are fpacious inclofures, where orange, lemon, and pome- granate trees grow luxuriantly, and form, with fycamorts and palms, bowers and groves of delicious fragrance and refrcfliing coolnefs. Savary. Sonnini. Brown. BOULAJ, C.esar-ILgasse Du, in Bto^mphy, regiller, hilloricgrapher, and reftor of the univerfity of Paris, was a native of St. EUier, in Maine, and became, for many years, proftflbr of rhetoric in the college of Navarre. His trtatife of rhetoric, entitled " Speculum eloquentis," was much efteemed ; and he alfo publifhed, in French, a " Thefaurus of Roman antiquities," fol, Paris, iG^o; but he acquired his higheft reputation from a " Hiftory of the univerfity of Paris," in 6 vols. fol. containing, indeed, many fabulous rela- tions with regard to the early periods of the univerfity, but much curious information concerning the lives and writings of the literati of France, and of other countries. Boulai wrote Latin verfes with tolerable eafe and purity. He died in 1678. Gen, Did. BOULAINVn.LlERS, Henrv de, count de St. Saire, &c. was born at St. Saire, in 165S, and educated in a feminary of the fathers of the oratory. His firft profefiion was that of arms, which he quitted on the death of his father, and an account of the deranged ttate of his domeftic affairs. From this time he ardently purfued his favourite ftudies of hiftory and genealogy, both for his own amufe- ment, andthe inftruftion of his children. Voltaire, quahfying his commendation by afcribing to him that attachment to fyf- tem, which perverted his narrations, fays of him, that he was the mod ItzvneA gentleman in the kingdom, with refpect to hif- tory, and tlie bell qualitied to write that of France. But Montefquieu, as well as the prefident Hcnault, have entirely rejefted his affertions concerning the commencement of the French monarchy ; and the former characterizes him as *' poffcffing more wit than underflanding, and more under- ftanding than knowledge." Such was his refpeft for nobi- lity, that he entitles the feudal fyllem, " the nialter-pi;ce of ?'-uman art." Inclined as he was, in fome refpefts, to free- thinking, he had his fyftematic prejudices, and avowed his faith in judicial aftrology. In all his writings, however, his intentions feem to have been thofe of a good citizen. His works are, " A Hiftory of France, to the reign of Charles VIII." J vols. limo.; " Hiltorical Memoirs on the ancient government of France, to the time of Hugh Capet ;" " Hiftory of the Peerage of France;" " Diftertations on the Nobkfte of France ;" " State of France," 6 vols. 1 imo. ; " Memoir on the Adminiftration of the Finances." 2 vols. i2mo.; " Hiftory of the Arabians and of Mahomet," left unfiniftied, but publilhed after his death, both at London Vol. V. B O U snd Amdcrdnm ; in which work, it fecms to have bcfn l.is anil to n prefcnt Mahomet as a iiero, and an accompllfl-.cd flatclman ; but in doing this, he has deviated much from true hiftory. This work fubj.-aed him to the fufpicion of indiftercnce with regard to Cliriltianity ; but t!ic Catholics have endeavoured to adduce atteftatiuns to his p=ety, at the time of his death, which happened in 1722. All his works on French hiftory have been collcdtd in 1 vols, fol'o. Nouv. Dlrt.IIift. BOULAN, in Geogni/'h. See Bulam- BOULANCHAIR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in tTiC provmce of Ahidulia, -o miles S. W. of Malatia. BOULANOER, NiciiotAS-AsTMONV, in Biography, was born at Paris, in 172!, and devoting hiuifclf to the ftndy of mathematics and architeaure, he accompanied the baron de Thiers to the army, as engineer. On his re- turn, he was employed in the conftrurtion of liridges and caufeways, and executed various public works in Cham- pagne, Burgundy, and Lorraine. From contemplating, iu the exercife of hi;; profcffion, the changes which iiave taken place in the firface of the earth, he was led to extend his views and rcfearches to tlie changes of manners, govenimeiit, and religion ; and, in order to acquaint himfclf more accu- rately and extenfively with thcfc fubjefts, he applied to the revival, or improvement, of his knowledge of Greek and Latin, and to the ftudy of the oricntnl languages, both ancient and modern ; and if ln"r> life had been prolonged, he would have become one of the moft learned men in Europe. His fpeculations, however, inclined him to free-thinking ; and of this he gave evidence in various publications. Such were, " A Treatife on Oriental Defpotifm ;" " Antiquity Unveiled," publilhed after his death ; " Chriftianity Un- veiled," not afcertained to have been written by him ; " A Differtation on Elias and Enoch." He alfo contributed to the Enc;, clopxdia the articles " Deluge," " Corvee," and "Society." He died in 17^9. Nouv. Did. Hift. BouLANGER, JoHN, an engraver, who flouriflied about the year 1657, was a native of France. His firft manner of engraving was partly copied from that of Francis de Poilly ; but he afterwards adopted a manner of his own, which, though not original, he greatly improved ; and, accordingly, he finiflied the faces, hands, and all the naked parts of his figures very neatly with dots, inftcad of ftrokes, or ftrokes and dots. This ftyle of engraving has been of late carried to a high degree of perfection, particularly in England. Notwithftanding feveral defers in the naked parts of his figures, and in his draperies, his beft pnnts are defervedly much cfteemed. Such are " A Holy Family," from Fran. Corlebet ; " Virgin and Child," from Simon Vouct ; " The Pompous Cavalcade," upon Louis the XIV. coming of age, from Cliauveau ; " The Virgin with the infant Chrift," holding f.mie pinks, and therefore called " The Virgin of the Puik5," from Raphael ; " the Virgin de Pan"au," from Salario ; " Chrift carrying his Crofs," from Nicolas Mig- nard ; " A dead Chrift, fupported bj Jofeph of Arimathea." He alfo engraved many portraits, and, among others, that of Charles J I. of England. He likewife engraved from I-eonardo de Vinci, Guido, Champagne, Stella, Coypel, and other great mafters, as well as from his own dtfigns. Strutt. BOULAR, in Ornhhology. Cotgrave has the long-tailed titmoufe, parus caudatus, under this name. BOUIjAY, in Giogmphy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Mofclle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftria of Metz ; 4? leagues N. E. from Metz. The place contains 2,669, ^''<1 ^^^ canton I2,8ij inhabitants: its territorial extent comprehends 227* kiliometres, and 37 communes. R BOUL- B O U BOULCOLACA, amonjr the moJiin Gruh, de- notes the fpe(ftro of fomc wicked pcrfon who died excom- municated by the patriarch, rc-aniniated by tlic devil, and caufing great dilUirbaiice utnoiig tlie people; of which many ftranjje llorics arc told. The word is Greek, and is fome- tiinos written /S.ixoXaKi,-, brotikolakos ; and fiippofcd to be derived fnim ^j-tnoi, or ,?;-«x, mud, and Xaxio,-, a ililclj, on account of the tilthinefi of the fight. BOULDER walls, in HuiMin^, a kind of walls, built of round flints or pebbles, laid in a ilrong mortar ; iifcd where the fca has a beach call up, or where there is plenty of flints. BOULDUC, Simon, in Biogrnphy, an eminent apothe- cary and chemilk of Paris, and for manv years demonllrator in Chemillry. and alFuciatc in the Royal Academy of Sciences, fumiflied the memoirs of that fociety with nume- rous diflertations, containing analyfen of the moll popular and valuable vegetable produdions ufed in medicine, which are Hill valued for their neatnefs and accuracy. The prin- cipal are, the analyfis of ipecacuanha and of colocyiithis, publilhed in the memoirs of the academy for the year i 701 ; of jalap, hellebore, and focotrine aloes, in 1708 ; of catechu, (terra japonica) 1709; (hewing this fubllancc to be a vegetable produftion, and not an earth, as it had been efleemed ; of rhubarb and opium, pnblilhed in 1712; of the cuciuiiis agrellis^ in 17 19. He made an extraft from the ■wild cucumber, which was a powerful hydragogue, and ■which might be given in dofes of 24, grains, with perfedl fnfety ; alio an elaterium, the dofe of which was fix grains. He died, far advanced in years, in 1729. His fon, BouLDUc, Giles Frascis, born at Paris, Tebniary 20th, 1675, fnccecded to his honours and appointments, and continued the fame line of rcfcarch. His effays, con- taining analyfcs of Icveral purging falls, and of fome mineral ■waters, were alfo pubiifhtd in the memoirs of tl.i: Royal Academy of Sciences. He died at Verfailles, the 17th of January, 1742, much regretted by the king and queen, to whom he had been many years apothecary. Hallcr Bib. Eot. Eloy Di6t. Hid. BOULEy\U Lake, in Geography, a lake of North America, in the vicinity of Bear Lake, with which it com- municates by rivers and fmall lakes. This lake might, with greater propriety, be calLd a canal, as it is not more than a mile in breadth. Its courfe is rather to the call of north for 13. miles, to Portage de L'Ifle. The Bouleau Portage is in N. lat. 54° 50'. BOULENE, a town of France, in the department of the Gard, five miles E. of Pont St. Ffprit. BOULETERANES, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Eaftem Pyrenees ; 12 miles W. of Pcrpignan. BOULEY Bay, called alfo Trinity Bay, lies on the N. Y.. point of the ifland o£ Jerfey, and E., from Bonnut- haven. 150ULIMY, in Meillcine. See Bulimy. BOULINIS, or BowLiGNis, in Commerce, a copper coin fliuck at Bologna, in Italy, equivalent to the baiocco. BOULKI, in Geography, a town, of Poland, in the pala- tinate of l.embcrg ; 16 miles S-. E. of Leniberg. BOULLOIRE, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of St. Calais: the place contains 1490 and the canton 9,011 inhabitants: its territory includes ;6o kiliometres, and nine communes : five leagues E. of Le Mans. BOULLONGNE, Louis di:, \.\\e elder, in Biographv, a painter, was born at Paris in 1609; and though he was principally dillinguilted for his ability in copyinc'- the xvorks «f the moll famous aiicieut painters, and in prcfervL'ig a 1*- <'■» B O U very tlrikii'ig rcfcmblance, he painted hiHorical fubjeflj of his own invention and defign ; of ihcfe there are three in the church of Notre Dame, in Paris, viz. " St. Paul at Ephefiis," " the Martyrdom of St. Paul," and " the Prefcntation of Chrift in the Temple." He was painter to the king, and profefTor in the academy. He died at Paris in it to the northward of the village it is foul and ftony ground ; and there are alfo fome fmall rocks almig the coall, fo that Ihips nnift not approach too near the fouth- vvard of the road, 'i'he Engiilli channel, from about Roni- rey in Kent to the bottom of the bav of Boulogne, is about 30 miles wide ; and this lliort diftancc was formerly favour- able to the fmngglers of Englifli wool. Boulogne is the " Gcloriacum" ot thi ancients, and it was denominated " Bononia" under Conllantinc. The famous pharos, or light-houfe, at this place, was creeled of an oftagonal form, abo\it 200 feet in circinnference, and 66 ftet in diameter, by Caligula, and it was repaired by Ciiarleniagne in Sio. In I '145, wlien the Englilh took this cit\, they ftirrounded the ancient ftrnfture with towers ; and it was thus preferved till the :!9th of July 1644, when the whole of it fell, and no- thing now remains but rubbilh. Mr. Lyon, in his "Ob- fervations on the ancient Poiius Iccius," where Julius Cxiar embarked for Great Britain, contends (fee Archsologia, vol. K.), that this could not have been Calais, nor any place to the calhvard of it, but that it was to the wellvvard, and at Boulogne. From a piece or two, which he procured, of the materials of the ancient llrncture above mentioned, he infers that the pharos was conllrufted at Boulogne of a pe- trifaction called by fofiilills tophus; and that it is of the fame kind with that uled in the conllruftion of the other li);ht-lionfe, built by the Romans on^ the hill at Dover, which ilill cxills, though gradually finking into decay. N. lat. jo" 43' 3J". E. long, i"^ 36' 33". High-water lo*"' jo'. BooLOGN'E, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in tiie diltricl of St. Gaudens ; 4 leagues N. of St. Gaudtns. The place contains 1,476, an^vo. This is taken principally from tlie works of Wifeirian, of which it is little more thau an abridgment. " A Phyiico-mechanical Account of the Gout, King's Evil, &c." 171.=;, 8vo. London; and an " EUay on t-xterr.al remedies," publi(hed about the fame time. Hall. Bib. Anat. Med. et Chir. BOULUKE, in the MilUjiy •Orlrs of :he Tvrh, jl bi^dv of the jani-.'.aries, with an officer in the place of a co- lonel at their head, feiit upon foiue particular eiitcrprizc ; they arc felefted out of the body for this, and, as foon as the bufinefs is over, arc received iigain ir.to their former companies. BOUNCl'"., in L!.- i3 a tonnage bounty, ana P^P";-'^";:".^^^"'"-- ""'r^. I'v"- "lo-id- ^.^.I'othcvmk be O.ipportcd at home, it would not of the flup. not to hcrd-hgence or ^^'^^^^'^^^^ bV^raftblfto tax all other branches otMndullry tor th^ .hence U ha. been too con,a>o ^^^;^^^^^^^-^_ J;-,, ,.p.„ , is principle the bou.ues upon the expo.- ^ • rTi •.■,! _i 1 -1 i-l.jtljj and liritilli nuule gun-powder, lip a long wav into the laud, and called fea-lochi, aud which, by the operation of the bufs bounty, is gone ainioll entirely to decay. I'onrlhVy, in rasny parts of ScolJand, d.iring cer- tain feaions of the year, heiriugs fiipply a great part of tlie food of the couiinon people ; and, therefore, a bounty, which tended to lower their price in the liomc market, might contri- bute to very general relief. But the herring-buls bounty contributes to no fuch good purpofe. It lias ruined the boat-tiAicry which is bed adapted for the fupply of the home jmrket, and the greater part of its produce is lent abroad. Another ingenious writer. Dr. Anderfon (ubi infra), has In pubHc, as well as in private cxpences, great wealth may, perliai)S, frequently be admitted as an apolog-y for great folly. I'nit there irwll furtly be fomcthing more than ordinary iib- furdity in continuing fuch profufion in times of general difU- culty and dillrefs." When a bounty m.iy be confidercd as a drawback, it is not liable to the fame ohjeClio:i= w:th that wliich is properly a bounty. Thus, the bounty upon refined iiigar exported is a kind of drawback of the duties upon tiie brown and muicovado fugars from which it is made. That Ipecies »ji refined fugar upon which the bounty is granted is de4io:ra- pointed out iimilar defects attending the linieriesof Scotland; nated, in the llalute-book, fugar in the loaf and whole, and lie propofes, for remedymg'them, that a reafoiuible being nett." Upon the export of tins ioit of fu^-ar the bounty Ihould be allowed on every barrel of lierrings properly bounty was railed by 5 Geo. III. c. 4.;;. to 14s- ^d. ; and a cured'; and that the bounty icpou buffes per ton Ihould be further bounty of lis. 6d. was granted by 2 I Geo. Ill c. 16., in confequence of an additional duty of 6s. per cwt. laid in I/8j on raw lugar imported. The whole bounty- amounts to 26s. per cwt. When parliament, in 1791, by ,; I Geo. Hi. c. ij. laida further duty of :s. 8d. per c«l. on raw fugar imported from the Bntilli plantations, making the import duty ijs. per cwt. in the whole, no addition was made to the bounty on the export of retined loaf. But an addition was made of 3s. 4d. to ilie drawback, on what the ilatute calls "ballards, and grotind orpowdcrcd lugar," and alfo on " refined loaf broken into pieces," and all fugar called " candy." It was propofed in 1791, when the addi- tional duty of 2 8. 8d. was moved, to augment the bounty in lowered, and thefe vclfels be prohibited from fidiing within a limited dillance of the coall. This would allow the natives to filli in their creeks with freedom ; and it would likewife allure merchants to come and purchafe the fifii when fredi caught, and cure them for themfelves. But as the moll im- portant improvement, he propofes that the herring and Greenland wliale-filheries fliould be made to go hand in liai-ui, and mutually aifitl one anotner. The whalc-fifiierv', he ob- iervcs, has been greatly retarded by the large fi/.e of the vef- fels which have been ufually employed in it, and the mifma- nagement that always attends public companies in matters of trade. To prevent this, in fome degree, for the future, _. . Dr. Anderfon propofes, that the bounty (Ivjuld be granted to the ufual proportion ; but the fugar refiners remonllrated vcflels of a fmaller fiy.e; and that all reftric'lions, with regard againll the mealure, as beiii', according to their Ib'tement, to the number of hands, provilions, tackle, &c. fliould be beneficial only to the planters. By a iubfequent law it is entirely abuliA:ed ; in lieu of which the vefTels fliould be only enacted, that, after the year 1792, whenever the average obliged to purfue the filliing for a certain limited time (if not of the prices of brown or muicovado fugar (taken weekly fooner loaded), without following any other employment, upon oath before the lord mayor ot I,ondon, and publillied in the Gazette) fliall exceed, in the fix weeks rclpectively preceding the middle of February, June, and Oclober, the amount of 50s. per cwt. (exclufivc of the duty), the diaw- baek on raw fugar exported is immediately to ceale for four months, and the Ixjuiuy on yijiw^il is to ceafe during a like term, but commencing alter an interval of one nionlh. I'Vom a llatement made bv Mr. Bryan Edwards (Hilt, of the Well As thefe fmall vefTels would be equally proper for the her. ring-tilliery as for that in the Greenland leas ; and a.i in botli filheries the necciiary number of kands is nearly the fame, it would be eafy fortliefe adventurers, on their return from the Greenland feas, to put alliore tlicir lor-iling, with the fifliing apparatus, and take on board the tackle, &c. neceifary fur the herring-filliery, and to proceed immediately to the proper ilatioiM in fearch of that kind uf filli. It is further propoled, Indies, vol. ii. p. 4/12.) it appears, tiiat the apparent loli to that iiiRead of fixing the rendez.vous for the iMriing-iifliery precifcly to the 221I of June and ,ili of OctoVior, as at pre- I'ent, Iliips might be entitled to receive the bounty, if they bean fifhing on any day between the two periuds above- ;r.entioncd ; tiie ftiips being obliged to continue tlirecinonths the revenue, arifing from the bounty, is no more ihau one Ihilling the cwt. But as every hov;Ihead of fugar jofescon- liJerably in weight, alter the duty is paid, and before it is either exported or worked up, and the duty is (jfteii paid for more than the caJks really cunlain, by the ftrict rrgnlatiojis re- ipccling B O U rpe£lingtare,everyhog(}iead,byamoJci'atccalcLilation(avera2" ing the good and bad fugarsj, lofes _i;6 lbs. which, at 15 s. per ' ewt. th-' import duty, makes 7s. 6d. perhogfaead lofs to tlie I planter, and a clear and certain gain to the revenue, however the i'ligar may be diipofed of. Thus government is reim- hurCcd for a conlldcrabk pare of what it appears to loie by the bounty, and the interell which it gains, by a dcpofit of the whole duties on importation makes uj) the remainder. " The average annual import of raw fiigar is about ifSo,ooo hoglhcads ot 12 cwt. nett ; now fuppofinij every ounce of this was to be exported, and receive the drav.-back of 15 s. per cwt. yet, from the difference of weight alone in the fame fugar, occafioned by an unavoidable walle, government would have received in duties,. from this hngle article, between yo and 60,000 1. per annum more than it refunds in draw- backs and bounties on the fame commodity-'' See Dra%v- BACK, and Sugar. The bounty upon wrought filk exported, is alfo a draw- back of the duties upon raw and thrown iilk imported. See S 1 L i; . The bounty upon gun-powder exported is a drawback of the duties upon brimllone and falt-petre imported. In the language of the culloms, thofe allowances are called draw- back*,, which are given upon goods exported in the fame form in which they are imported. When that form has been fo altered by manufatlure of any kind, as to come under a new denomination, they are called bounties- Bounties are fome- times called premiums, as drawbacks' an; fomsiimcs called bounties. Having given a compendious abftradl of Dr. Smith's reafoning againfl the fyftem of bounties, particularly as it is appHcable to the exportation of corn, we fliall now advert to the arguments alleged by the advocates of this fyftem in its favour. Among thefe advocates we may reckon Dr. fames Anderfon,in his letters entitled " Obftrvatioiis on t-he means of exciting a fpirit of national indullry, &c." 4to, j/77, and his "Calm Invcftigation of the circumftances that have led to the prefent fcarcity of grain in Britain," 8vo. 1801 ; Mr. Dirom in " An Inquiry into the corn laws and corn trade of Great Britain, &c." 410. 1796 ; Mr. Mackie, in a " Supplement" to the laft-meutioned work ; and Mr. Malthus, in his " EfTay on the principh; of population, &c." 4.10. 1803. Some of the earliell topics, from which argu- ments were deduced in favour of the bounty, were its great encouragement of Britifli fliipping, and the gold it brought home for paying the balance of exported corn. But exclu- fively of thtfe arguments, the advocates for the bounty urge, that, by forcing a produdion of corn, greater than the annual confumption of the home market, the bounty provides a re- ferve againft years of deficient crop ; — that it fecures an ade- ijuatc profit to the farmer ; — that it reduces the prices of corn, which are ufuallv very fluAuating, to a greater uni- formity and fteadinels ; — and that it makes this uniform price rather lower than it othcrwlfe would be. Fro.Ti fuoh confi- derations, Dr. Anderion, and others on the fame fide of the difputed quelHon with himfelf, have inferred, that^ fetting afide the innumerably beneficial effefts of a well regulated and efficient bounty on the exportation, aided by a duty on the importation of corn, with regard to the population, in- dullry, manufaclure?. commerce, national wealth, pubhc tranquillity, and augmentation of revenue, it is a meafure f aught with multiplied advantages ; and " that it could not be abandoned," fuch is the llrong language of Dr. Anderfon, " without endangering the weltare ot the people, and the very exiftence of this kingdom, as an independent nation." Upon the four preceding propofitions it has been obferved by an anonymous writer, feemiugly well acquainted with the B O U fubj((fl (Edinburgh Review, N"^ IX.), that the promifed lleadinefs in the price of corn inuft be derived from that lur- plus of produce which is to be refcivcd in years of a bad crop ; this furplus of the average produce above the annual confumption, mull be the refull of an enhrged encouragement of tillage; and this cnciiuragement, operating by an aug- mentation of the profits of the farmer, mull ultimately co.i- hll in an incrcafe of the price of his commodity. The argu- ment, therefore, lo far as it depends upon the firtl three of the above alleged advantages, refolvcs itfclf into this tingle propofuiou, vi/.. that the bounty gives the farmer a real ad- vance upon the price of his corn. When it is dated, as a fourth cwiifidev.it:on, that it has likewife the cffeil of lowering the price of corn to the confumers, it is the money price only that can here be confilleiitly uiiderflood ; a diminution of which is without doubt compatible with an advance of the real price. Confcquenlly, in an invclligation of the effects pro- duced by a bounty upon the commerce and growth of core, the piccife fubject of inquiry is the eflecl of that bounty upo:, the real price, and upon the money price of corn. Dr, Smith, accordingly, who has decidedly pronounced u very different opinion from that above Hated, maintains it, bv propofitions direclly the reverfc, already detailed, of which the following is a fiimmary : — that it can have no eff'cC\ in equalizing prices, becaufe llr^re is uo furplus to be rcftrvcj in years of fcarcity ; — that there can be no fuch furplus, be- caule the bounty gives no additional encouragement to agri- culture ; — that it can give no fuch encouragement, becaufe it occafions no advance of the real price of corn ; — and, lalUy, that its effeft is to raife,- not to lower, the aveiage money price of that commodity. The anonymous writer above cited, after having illullrated, in a very clear and falif- fadlory manner, the eifeft of a bounty, firik on the pro- dutucu, and then upon the exportation of bread-corn, in conformity to the principles and reafoning of Dr. Smith, fupplics feme dcftfts, and correfts fome errors that cl- caped the notice of this very ingenious and accurate author, in his genera! argument upon the bounty. By fcparating the extenfion of the foreign market, from the enhancement of price to the farmer, aud treating them as quite diiiiiicl. Dr. Smith fecms to have overlooked the ncceffary connec- tion that fubfifts between them. In both cafes, he appears to have too halHly affumed, that a bounty on exportation would immediately occaiion a rife of the money-price in the home-market ; and this affumption betrays itlelf explicitly, when he fpeaks of it as " a very moderate fnppofition, that a bounty of 5s. per quarter upon exportation, may raifc the price 45. in the home market." From this affumption, he deduces a feparate anfwer to the alleged enhaiicemtnt of prict ; but his remarks on this head, which, as far as they extend, are unexceptionable, are not fuflieient to war- rant his inference, that the bounty can have no efieft in raifing the real price of com-; becaufe he has overlooked that inlerrdl which elapfes between the enhancement of the money-price of corn, and its communication to the money, price of labour and other commodities. In his feparate anfwer to the alleged cxtcnfion of foreign demand, lie does not exprefsly deny the faft, but afiirms, that, in every particular year, this is at the expence of the home market ; and endeavours to fliew, that the bounty alfu reftrains the gradual extenfion of the home market, by its enhancement of the price. But in affirming, th;it llie ^usntity exported in every particular year, were it not for the bovinly, would- remain in the home market, he evidently takes it for granted, that this quantiiy, though there had been no bounty, v/ould ftill have been grown ; now, this is the very quellion, upon which he undertakes to prove his par- ticular ?, B O U ticular opinion. In endeavouring to (heirr, tliat tlic en- lianccineiit of price, occafioncd in the liome market by the bounty, miift rcftrain the papulation or the indullry of the country, he proceeds upon the ahovc-mcntioucd adumption, that the bounty occafions an iir.mediate rife "f the money- price of com ; and mull, therefore, cither reduce the lublill- ence of ihe labourers, or, if waives rife, the ability of their employers to give them work. If that rife of money-price, however, is confequent, as the anonymous writer arj;ues, to an cxtcufixii of demand in the foreign markit, it will at firll increafe the ability of thofc employers ; and though it will likcwifc reduce at full the fnblilieiicc of the labourers, their wages mull foon rife to their tr;ie rale ; and this rife in the money-price of labour, will onlv reduce the ability of the employers to its former Lvtl. The anr-ymous writer, after llitjfe critiiifms on the na- foning of Dr. Smith, proceeds to fpccify fome of the enorj into which the advocates for the bounty have fallen, whicii are of a more palpable kind, aiid which proceed from an im- perfect acquaintance with the principles of politicpl economy. \i the ^rj! place, they have mifunderllood Dr. Smith's important doctrine, that the variations of the nio;:ey-price of com are communicated ultimately to that of labour, and other commodities. Whilll they infifl, that the price of commodities and labour is liuble to be affefted by many other circunirtances, bcfidis the price of com, they advance a truth, in itfelf unqueflionable, and not incompatible with Dr. Smith's propofition, which merely alTerts, that every change which the bounty may occafion in the money-price of com, will communicate itfelf, firll to the moiiey-wjges of labour, and, through them, to the money-price of all other articles ; and thus, the real price of corn wi'.l be maintained the fame, notwitlillanding a nominal variaticm. In the frcond jilace, they Icein very i.mperfectly aware of the manner in wh'ch the principle of competition operates upon profits, and upon exchangeable value : and, on this account, many of their remarks arc inconfillent as well as unfounded. They have fuppofcd, with Dr. Smith, that the fum of the bounty is immediately added to the former money- price even in the home-market, and, at the fame time, contend, that the average-price in that market will be lowered. It is alfo their opinion, that the real price of corn will, upon the whole, be rendered cheaper to the con- fumers, and that the fame real price of corn will be maintained permanently higher to the farmer ; though thclc two politions arc, in direifl terms, contradictory to each ether. IJr. Malthus obfervcs, that ^hc bounty greatly lowers the price of com, by producing a growth confiderably above the wants of the aAual population ; whilll lie forgets, that a greater growth can only be oecafioned by a greater demand, to which it will be always adjiilled ; and, keeping the fiipply and the demand always in the fame ratio, will in other words keep the price always at the fame rate. I'nt the advocates for the bounty have betrayed a much lefs pardon- able inattention to the neceffary action of the principle of competition, when they conceive, as fome of ver)' hi^h authority have done (See Reports of the comm'ttee of the houfe of commons refpefting the corn trade, ordered to be printed May l-Jth and June 14th i S04), that the averap^e price of grain in the home market may be fo low as not to yield a fair and reafonable profit to the grower. Befides, Dr. Smith and his opponents have pronounced, tliat, in vcars of extra- ordinary abundance, the boimty will prevent the money-price of corn in the home-market from falling quite fo low, as it would fall if there were no bounty. Dr. Smith, indeed, is confident with himfelf, b?caufe he uniformly maintains, that the bounty can have no effett in rendering the annual produce B O IT larger than it othervvife would be. Bnt thofe who afTcrt this pofiron, and afliimc that the bounty increafes the produce, and occafions a furphis growth above the annual confumption, evidently incur the charge of inconfillency. For this furplus will, in a year of extraordinaiy abundance, psrtnkc of the extraordinary increafe ; fo that over and above th.e ufual home fupply, there will, in fuch a year, be reaped not only the extraordinary increafe upon that fupply, togethtr with the ufinil fnrplus for exportation, but like- wife the extraordinary increafe upon that furplus. Of thefe four portions of the crop, therefore, not only the fecond, but the fourth alfo, will be thrown as an exccfs upon the home-market ; and the price in that market will confe- quently be lowered much more by the whole of this excefs, than it would have been by the former part of it alone. The ingenious writer, to whom we are indebted for thefe remarks, fuggclls that a bounty upon export may, in a particular manner, afford fome temporary encouragement to tillaii-e ; and thus, to a certain degree, force the produftion of a furphis, which may be referved for the home-market in deficient years. By preventing, in fuch yars, the tempo- rary price from rifing fo high as it othervvife would, it may be conlidered as rcftraining a little on one fide the occafional flnftnations of the price of corn ; but, by overltocking the home-market in plentiful years ftill more than it woiild othcrwife be overliockcd, it mufl be confidered as giving a flill greater range to the findtuation of the temporary price on the other fide. Whilll the bounty has this influence upon the temporary changes of real price, its effefls upon the _« nominal price of corn will be to raife and keep it higher than it otherwife would be. If the encouragement to tillage, derived from a bounty, (liould be deemed a fnfficient benefit to induce a great nation to cllablifli it ; it fiiould be remem- bered, that, though it may indireftly fecure a more certain fupply of corn, it neceffarily retards, upon the whole, the growth of national opulence and indullry. It forces a part of the national capital into a branch of trade, which is unavoidably a lofing one, and v.hich does not return the whole of the capital that is employed in it ; for the whole fum giitntcd in bounties, together with the expences of collecting the tax for defraying them, is a part of the national capital thrown into that trade without any return. After eliimating to its full amount the pofllble benefit to be derived from fi;eh an artificial contrivance as the bounty, we fliould not only weigh againit that, both the immediate facrilice and all the fubfequent difadvantages, but we ought alfo to confider whether the very benefit propofed, at lead: in one point of view, might not be better obtained in another way ; as by the removal of any cxilling impediments to cultivation, to the frte commerce of land, the free employment of capital, or the free transference of labour. Befides the facrifice of capital that is incurred by bounties, there is a difadvantage arifing from that conllant dimir.ution of the real wages of labour, which is oecafioned by the progrefiive rife of the price of corn in the home market ; other difadvantages are incurred from the conllant enhance- ment of the money-price of labour and all other commodities, both in the depretiation of fixed pecuniary returns, and in the injury to domellic mannfadures, with regard to their competition againll foreign indullry. Moreover, another difadvantage, perhaps ilill greater, confi'ls in the uncertainy and derangement to which interferences of law fubjeft the capital that is veiled in the trade of grain, and the obllacle oppufed by them to the free enlargement and confolidation of this moll important fyflcm of commerce. On the other hand, it fliuuld be confidered, that the encou- B O U B O U ragemcnt wliitli nny afiigncd bounty will gis'c to Iiufljandi-y, mall expire after a Ihoit interval, or as foon as the money price of corn, in the home market, lia? rifen, which it will ine- vitably do, fo high as to cover the whole advantaivc, which the bounty had orininally given to the exporter in his falcs abroad ; — and tho whole encouragement which, in the mean time, the bounty can give to agriculture, will be foiuul to be very flitjht, when it is conlidered ifi what way it is formed, and that it confills, not in the addition of the whole bounty to the fanner's price, bnt in that fmall addition to his price which is occafioned from time to time by the gradual cxtcn- iion of foreign demat:ds. In reference to the prtftnt ci-cumllances of this country, it ought alfo to be recolieited, that, when the average price of cora at home is greater than that of the foreign market, the interval of encourage- ment to tillage, undi.r the fap.ic bounty, will be fliorterthan in the other two cales, and the wliole difadvantnge of high money pric;^ will be fooncr brought to its greatell iieight. Adverting to the prefent Hate of the agricultural produce of our ow.i country, and what has cauftd an alarm to fomc nf our legiflators as well as political writers, we arc happy in adopting the opinion of tliefe who think it unneceflary. If, behdes being depi^ndent in years of fcarcity on very large im- portations from abroad, we are even in ordinary years de- pendent upon importation for a certain portion of oiirneceffary fupply, it Items, admitting the faft, to be only a temporary and llig'it inconvenience. It is doubted, whether, in this cafe, a bounty upon exportation, and the prolubition of importation, furnilh the moll fuitable and efftftual remedy : and it is not unreafonably fiiggelled, that an entire freedom of importation, continued with a bounty upon produtlion, augmented from time to time, might have appeared at lead a more plaiifible propofal. Nothing can be more un- founded than the fear, which fome advocates for t)ie bounty have exprefTed, that England may ceafe to be an agricultu- ral nation ; except the lamentations, v.hich others have indulged over the aftual decline of its hufhandry, lince that which has been called the fatal llatute of the year 1775. It fliould be recollefted that, from year to year of this period, the hnfhandmen of Britain have extended their capital, their (Icill, and their produce, though the commerce and mannfaiflures of the illand have in fome mcafure concealed its agricultural grandeur. The bounty feems to have re- commended itfelf to fome of ito admirers, as a fimple expe- dient for fecuring, by paying a few fhillings at the cullom houfe, fuch a furphis of annuHl produce as will equalize the variation of value, and ellabliiTi even a remedy againll the natural inconllancy of the feafons. In this view of it, the bounty is to accumulate, by a ];iiid of mechanical operation, a furplns of produce, for fupplying an occafional deliciency ; and it is to aft as a regulator of the price, againll the circumftances that tend to enhance or to deprtfs it. If it is capable of doing fo much, it may alfo do more ; and ferve to reprefs, as Mr. Malthus has inferred, the principle of popu- lation a little in years of plenty, and to encourage it com- paratively in years of fcarcity ; regulating, in this manner, the population more equally, according to that quantity of fubdllence which can permanently be fupplied. It is well obferved, that a meafure can rarely be wildom for one great llatc, which may not be permanently followed by all. All cannot, by adopting the bounty, fccure to each an export of grain ; and the Tingle nation that Hoops from the plain high maxims of policy to fuch an artifice, will ultimately be convinced that the advantage gained by it, it any, mull be very inconfiderable. The balance of this trade cannot long be very great to any nation ; and it will be naturally pofleffed by that one, whofe capital and (liill arc in Vou. V. a condition to f.irnlni the additional fupjilics molt adiran. tageoully to all. In this condition, if the exportation is freev it will hold thi- b.dance, without requiring the aid of a bounty ; nor can a bounty give it the balanoe, if it be not in that condition. Having llated, as briefly as pofiible, the priocips! arc;!!- ments on both lulcs, for and againll a bounty, we (hnll clojir this article with a (hort abilract of the hillory of thii, com- mercial inltitution. The piices of corn had been fo variable during the 17th ci ntury, and in general fo high, the average price of wheat for fifty years bef.re l6j;o having been 61. 8s. led. and from 16/^0 to l7co.jl.o«. I id. per quarter, that the attention of the Icgiflature had frequently been direfttd to this objcft ; and various attempts had been tnaiie to revive agriculture, with a view of redrcirmg this evil, by encouiMging the exportation, and checking the importation of corn ; but none ot them haoi ts, within the period at the beginning of which the bounty had been inftituted, prefenteu a flattering coincidence ; and at a time when the analyfis of national wealth was unknown, it was natural enough to believe, that the caufe of thcfe curious fafts could be no other but that remarkable law which julk preceded their appearance. As a perfpcftive regulation. Dr. Anderfon couliders k as one of the hightll exeU'ons of S humaa B O U human wi!>loiT: ; for the beneficial tendencies that have re- fiilttd from It m practice, uiid to which wc can now refer as fads to iiifomi our iudpmcnt, could be only contcmpbtcd bv the dv-viUrs of that law as plaufiblc probabilities, liy the opcntion of this law, tiie pricci in the home market were reduced, in tl'.e courfe of ^0 years, to the confunicrs in the horuc market, from 3I. to il. i;s. 6d. per quarter; and we were enabled by it to export corn till our exccfs of ex- ports riife by de!»rccs to the amount of more than one mil- hon and a half qnaittri in one year, which brought into the couiitrv a Cum not much under three millions llcrlinjj;; being paid for the price of our owu bell manufaduiej, and for encourajTiuR the molk ufeful kind of iiidulliy that ran ever be promo'ed in anv nation. Similar fcntiineuts w ith rev^ard to king William's corn law were adopted by our admiicis u|.o I the continent. The bounty became a theme of paiie- j;)ric in all their political trcatiles. Though a moll artili- cial expedient, it was appiauded even by the eeonomills of France, in whofe profound writings all devices were repro- bated, that might check tlie Ipontaneous order of nature. Dr. Smith, however, maintained that the fyllem of laws, which is conneded with the ellabhihmcnl ot the bounty, fcems to defervc no part of the praifc which has been be- ilowed upon it. The improvenunt and profperity of Great Britain, which have been fo often aferibed to thofe laws, n.iv very eafily be accounted for by other cauies. That fecurity which the laws in Great Britain give to every man, that he iliall enjoy the fruits of his own labour, is alone fiilHcic'it to make any country flourilh, notwith Handing thefc and twenty Athcr abfuid regulations of commerce ; and this fecurity was perfeAed by the revolution much about the fame time that the bounty vVas ellablifhcd. The natural effort of every individual to better his own condition, when fuffered to exert itfclf with freedom and fecurity, is fo powerful a principle, that it is alone, and without any alfill- ance, not only capable of carrying on the foeiety to wealth and profperity, but of furmounting a hundred impertinent obllrudions with which the folly of human laws too often incumbers its operations ; though the efFeft of tliefe ob- llruftions is always more or lefs either to encroach upon its freedom, or to diminilh its fecurity. In Great Britain in- dulliy IS perfeftly fecure ; and though it is far from being perfectly free, it is as free, or more free, than in any other part of Europe. Upon the whole, though the period of the greateft profperity and improvement of Great Britain has been pollerior to that fyileni of laws which is conne£led With the bounty, we mull not on tliis account impute it to thofe laws. It has been pollerior likewife to the natiimal debt ; but the national debt has moll aflTuredly not been the vaufe of it. The fentiments of Dr. Smith were adopted by many philofophical inquirers ; and at length tliey ap- proved tliemlVlves to our legillators, and became a fubjeft of parliamentary ilelibtration. Accordingly the act of 1773, (1.5' Geo. III. c. 43 ; leealfollatj. Jl Geo. 111. c. 30. .^2Geo. III. c. ^o. =3 Geo. III. c. 3, fty) "'^'ieh was condudled through tlie houfe of ccmmions by Mr. Burke, tffeCled a vir- tual repeal of the bounty, though it retained the language, ;iiid fcemcd even to confirm the puipofes of the former law, in compliance with thofe prtjudiceswliich it was more ealy to be- tray than to conquer. By this llatute, the hii;h duties upon importation for home confumption arc taken oil, as foon as the price of middling wheat rifes to 48s. per quarter; that of mid- dling rye, peafe or beans, to 32s. ; thai of barley to 243. ; and that of oat^ to 1 6s. ; and iullead of tliem a Iniall duty is impofed of only Od. upon the quirter of wluat, and upon that of other grain in proportion. With .egarj to all thcle different fort« of grain, but particularly with regard to B O U wheat, the home market is thus opened to foreign fuppHes at prices coufiderably lower than before. By the fame Ita- tute, the old bounty of 5s. upon the exportation of wheat ceafes fo foon as the price riles to 445. per quarter, inRead of 48s., the price at which it ceafed before ; that of 2s. 6d. upon the exportation of barley ceafes as loon as the price riles to 22s. iullead of 24s., the price at which it ceafed before ; that of 2s, 6d. upon the exportation of oatmeal ceafes as foon as the price rifes to 14s. iullead of i js., the price at which it ceafed before. The bounty upon rje is reduced from .js. 6d. to ,;s., and it ceafes fo foon as the price riles to 28s. inllead of 32s., tlie price at which it ceafed before. So far, fays Dr. Smith, this law ftems to be an improvement upon the ancient fyRcm ; but by this law, a bounty of 2S. per quarter is given for the exportation of oats, whenever the price does not exceed 14s. No bounty had ever before been given for the exportation of this grain, any more than for that of peafe or beans. By the fame law, tlie exportation of wheat is prohibited as loon as the price rifes to ^45. per quarter ; that of rye at 28s. ; that of barley at 22s.; and that of oats at 14s. Thefe feveral prices are, in Dr. Smith's opinion, mucli too low ; and there feems to be an impropriety in prohibiting exportation alto- gether at thofe precife prices, at which that bounty, which was given in order to force it, is withdrawn. The bounty ought to have been withdrawn at a much lower price, or exportation ought to have been allowed at a much highers In thefe rcfpects the new law feems to be infaior to the ancient fyllem. However, with all its imperfections. Dr. Smith applies to it what was faid of the laws of Solon, that though not the bell in itftlt, it was the bed which the inte- rells, prejudices, and tempers of the times would admit of; and he adds, that in due time it might prepare the way for a belter. Since the pafllng of this aft, and the repeal of the bounty, circurailances have occurred, in confequence of which the prices of corn have rifen, and the balance of trade has been turned againll us. The prices, according to the ilatement of Dr. Anderfon, in 1801, have rifen from 2I. 2S. id. to 5I. 103. per quarter ; and our imports have been advanced to three millions of quarters nearly, in value more than fix millions flerling ; and this, compared with the fum already Hated arifing from the exports under the former ail, granting a bounty, makes a total balance of trade againll us, in this iingle article, of not lefs than nine millions flerling per annum. Thefe fafts feem to have made a great imprefilou on feveral ingenious and well informed minds ; the bounty has once more found advocates among fome political writers of great merit, and among feveral Itatefmcn ; and a llatute has been lately paffed, which, it is expetted, will produce all the beneticial tifeels that have been aleribed by its advocates to the old bounty. The committee of the houfe of commons, in their fecond report, ordered to be printed June 14th, I 804, deliver their opinion in thefc words : " It appears to the committee, that the price of corn from I 791 to the har- veft of 180; has been very irregular; but, upon an average, iiicrealed in a great degiee by the years of icarcity, has in general yielded v. fair profit to the grower. The ul'ual high prices, however, have had tlie effcd of lUir.ulating induilry, and bringing into cultivation large tracls of walle land; which, cumbined with the two lall productive feafons, and other caufes, have occalioned i'uch a dcpreffion in the value of grain, as it is feared will greatly tend to the difcourage- meiit of agriculHire, unlcl's maintained by the fupport of pailiainent." Accordingly an z& was palled July 30th, 1004, (44Geo.III.c. toy.) to regulate the impoitation and ex- portation ot corn, and the bountiesand duties payable thereon. Vrithoul the aid of this new llatute, it has been faid, that the B O U tlic farmer cannot be fure of obtaining, even in tlie home market, a fair and reafonable profit. By thofe who have difapproved this meafure, and who, adopting the general principles of Dr. Smith, are adverfe to a bounty, it lias been alleged, that, like other forts of trade, tiiat of the farmer is liable occafionally to the fpirit of overtrading, if profits for a time have happened to be greater tlian ordi- nary. The late years of dearth and mofl; extraordinary price, they iay, rendered the profits of farming, for the time, much greater than ordinary : and tiie confeqiitnce appears to have been a pretty free indulgence of the difpolltion to trade too much, and to cuter into projedls difproportioncd to the capital that would immediately be invefted. In many inftances, where farmers came to make a new agreement about rent, they reckoned too confidently upon the conti- nuance of prices which they ought to have confidered as unufual ; and made the ellimato of their future returns too much upon the recent rate of profit, and not upon an ave- rage fufficiently and reafonably large. Like other improvi- dent fpeculators, they were, ofcourie, to fuffer for their want of forefight, as loon as prices and profit returned to their or- dinary rate. Hence it has happened, that tliofe farmers who had overtraded, and who found it difficult to make good their imprudent engagements, found it almoll as eafy to perfuadc other perfons as themlelves, that prices are much too low. Their landlords, in particular, are not the perfons moll likely to difcover that prices are not too low, but rents a little too high ; and tliey may honellly find it fomewhat difficult to be convinced, that the embarratTment of their tenants is owing to that local caufe, and not to fomething that affects the general condition of the country. To this purpofe, it is faid, in a pamphlet by a member of parliament, entitled, " Curfory Obfervations on the aft for afcertaining the boun- ties, S:c." 1S04, that " times, unfortunate in other refpefts, impreffed on tillage a renovated vigour ; a vigour which the principles of this aft, and thofe alone, are able to fullain." By this ftatute it was enafted, that, from and after No- vember the 15th, iiSo4, fo much of the llatute ,) i G;o. III. c. -JO. as regulates the prices at which Britiffi corn, grain, malt, meal, flour, and bileuit, may be -exported, except to Ireland, and at which foreign corn, grain, meal, and flour, may be imported, except from Ireland, and as fixes the du- ties and bounties payable thereon, fliall be repealed. By this ftatute it is farther enatted, that the importation and ex- portation of corn, into and from England and Wales, fliall be regulated by the average price of the twelve maritime dif- trifts ; and into or from Scotland, by the average price of tlie four dillrifts in Scotland ; andthat the bounties and duties ffiall be regulated by fchedulcs, annexed to this aft ; that when- ever tlie average ihall be under the prices at which corn may be importable into Great Britain and Ireland, on the low duties from foreign parts, exportation fliall be allowed from Great Britain to Ireland, Sec. ; and that the importation and exportation of corn, into and from Ireland, fliall be regulated by fchedules, annexed to this aft. The firll fchedule fliews the prices to which ^^lie fcale of bounty is to attach on the export of corn, &c. and the prices at which the exportation is prohibited. By tliis fchedule, wheat may be exported, when at or under 4SS. per quarter, with a bounty of 5s.; rye, at or under 323. with a bounty of ;;s. ; peafe and beans are exportable without a bounty, till at or under ; /js. ; barlev, beer, or bigg, or malt made of barley, beer, or bigg, may be exported at or under 28s. with a bounty of 2s. 6d. ; oats, at or under i6s. with a bounty ot 2s. ; wheat flour, bifcuit, &c. with a bounty of is. 6d. per cwt. ; wheat meal, with a bounty of ts. :jd. per cwt.; barley, beer, or bigg meal, with a bounty ot lod. per cwt. ; and oatmeal, with a B O U bounty of IJ. per cwt. But when the prite of wheat ex- ceeds y+s. that of rye ,i$i. that of peafe and beana 351, that of barley, beer, or bigg, or malt made of them, .^tS. and th-.it of oats lijs., no CKport is allowable. The fceontl fchedule fliews the prices, according to which higli or low duties are to take place on importation. When impiirted from tU- province of Q^ncbee, or the other coloiiieb or plan- tations in North America, wheat under j ;s. per quarter it fubjeft to the high duty of 24s. 3d. per quarter t »t or above 5.JS. but under 56s. to the firll low duty of .'i. cd.; and at or above ^fn. to the fecond low duty ..f ftd. ; rvo, peafe, and beans, under 35s. per quarter, are Uibjcft to tlir In'gh duty of 22s.; at or above 3 ys. but under. 573. !» ilic firll low duty of is. M.; and at or above .^/S. to the kcond low duty of 3d. ; barley, beer, or bigg, under 26s. art uibjeC^ to the high duty of 22s.; at or abi.vc 26s. but under ifi-. to the firll low duty of is. 3d.; and at or above 2Ss. to the fecond low duty of ;d. ; oats under 17?. pay the high duty of 63. 7d. ; at or above 17s. but under 1 8s. the t:rll lov/ duty of IS.; and at or above iHs. the fecond low duty o.» 2d.; oatmeal, if under ifis. 6d. per boll of 140 lbs. avoir- dupoife, or i 2«S lbs. Scotch troy, is fubjeft, for every boll, to the high duty of 8s.; at or above i6s. 6d. per boll, bnt under 17s. 4d. to the firll low duty of is. ; and at or above 17s. 4d. per boll, to the lecond low duty of ;d. When im- ported from any other foreign country, wheat under f)^s, per quarter, pays the high duty of 24s. 3d.; at or above 635. but under 6f>s. the firll low duty of 2S. 6d. ; and at or above 66s. the fecond low duty of ("id.; rye, peate, and beans, under 42s. pay the high duty of 22s.; at or above 42s. but under 44s. the firll low duty of is. 6d. ; and at or above 448. the fecond low duty of 3d. ; barley, beer, or bigg, under 31S. 6d. pays the high duty of 22s.; at or above .Jis. ^d. but under ;;s. the firll low duty of is. 3d.; and at or above 3,;s. the fecond low duty of ,;d.; oats under 21s. pav the high duty of 6s. 7d. ; at or above 2is. but under 22s. the firll low duty of is.; and at or above 22s. the fecoiid loiv duty of 2d.; oatmeal under 23s. per boll pays the high duty of 8s. ; at or above 20s. but under 2 1 s. the firll lo\>- duty of is.; and at or above 21s. the fecond low duty off'id. The third fchedule fliews the ])rices to wliieii the fcale of bounty attaches on the export ol corn, ground corn, flour or meal, malt, Sec. from Ireland, and the prices at which the exporta- tion is prohibited. When exported to any foreign country, wheat, at or under 2ys. yd. per barrel, Britilh, is allowed a bounty of 33.; rye, and alio peafe and bean^, at or under 20s. 4d. a bounty of is. lod.; barley, beer, or bigg, or malt made of thefe, at or under i6s. a bounty of is. '^d.; oat*, at or under 103. 2d. a bounty of is. jd.; wheat, flour, bif- cuit, &c. a bounty of is. 6d.per cwt.; wheat meal, ts. 3d. per ditto; rye meal or flour, yd. per ditto; barley, beer, or bigg flour, lod. per ditto; and oatmeal, is. per ditto. When the price of wheat exceeds 33s. id. per barrel, Bri- tilh; of rye, peafe, and beans, 22s. id.; of barley, beer, bijTg, or malt made of them, 17s. 8d.; and of oats, J2s.jd.; no exportation is allowed. The fourth fohedule fliews the prices, according to which the high or low duties arc to take place on importation into Ireland ; tor which, and other par. ticulars, we refer to the aet itielf. Bounty, Qjian ^Imu'.!, for augmenting poor livings under 'ol. per annum, confills of the produce of the firll fruits and tciichs, alter the charges and puifions payable out of the fame are defrayed. A corponitioii for management of the fame was fettled, &c. in 1704. See Augmi.ntation and First i'Rurrs. By flat. 44 Geo. III. c. 2. the fum of 8000I. was granted out of the confolidoled fund to the governors of queci S 2 Anne '5 B O U Anne's bounty, for the relief of curates dcpriveJ of thtir curts on Recount of tlie rcfiJtnce of incumbents, in coiife- qoencc of the att 43 Geo. III. c. 84. But no curate is entitled to receive any allowance under tlie aft, who (hall not produce to the faid governors a proper rccoinmendation from the bifhop of the diocefe in which the cure is filuated, and no allowance ftiall exceed three-fourths of the income !oil. BOUPER, Lf , in Go^raphy, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees; 10 miles S. W. of Ma'jleon. BOUQUENON, a town of France, in the department of the MoTelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Bitcheon the Sarre ; 5 It-agues S. W. of Ditche. BOUQJ'ETIN, in Zo:>!osy, the wild goat. SeeCAPR.\ Ibft. BOUR, in Gtography, 3 town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania ; 4 miles S. E. of Akferai. BO UK AC, a town i:i the Arabian Irak ; ;o miles S. S. E. of Baj,'dad. BOrRBACH, or GmnH-noiirlach, a town and caftle of Gcrniaiiy, in the circle of Wellphalia, and principality •if Naffaii-Dillenburg, near which is a k:.d mine ; 9 miles \V. of Dillet;burg. BOURBON, Nicholas, in Biography, a famous L:itin poet in the i6th century, was a native ot Vandeurc, near Langrc; ; and appointed by Margaret de Valois preceptor to her daughter, Jane d' Albert of Navarre, the mother of kinc Henry IV. He died at Conde whither he had retired, and where he had a benefice, about the year 1553. He wrote eight books of" Epigrams," commended by Eiafmus, and a poem on the forge entitled " Ferraria." He was diftinguifhed for his knowledge of antiquity and of the Greek language. BouRBOS, Nicholas, a celebrated Latin and Greek poet, was nephew of the former, and fon of a phyfician at Bar-fur-Aube, where he was born about the year 1574. He taught rhctonc in the colleges of Paris, and was nominated by cardinal Du-Pcrron, in 161 1, profefior-royal in Greek eloquence. He was canon of Orleans and of Langres, and a pried of the orator)-, though he declined the title. In i6;*-, he was admitted by cardinal Richelieu a member (f the French academy, without foliciting the honour. He died at the houfe of the fathers of the oratory in 1644. As a Latin poet, he fuftained the higheft; rap.k in France, and lias been thought, if not Giperior, equal to any who livtd in the two laft centuries. In his'vcrfes he has combined a Confiderable portion of poetic fire with elevation of ftyle and fentiment ; and he has been charged with making Lucan and Claudian, rather than Virgil, his models ; tlieir manner being pi^jbably better adapted to the warmth of his conceptions. His malter-riece is faid to be an " Impreca- tion againil the parricide of Henry IV." His poems were printed at Paris in 1651, izmo. Healfo wrote Greek, as as well as Latin verfes, and in the latter language lome pieces of profe. His tafte wa-> refined and accurate ; and as he was much addicted to the ufe of wine, he expreffed his contempt of the French poetry, by faying, " When I read French verft;, 1 think I am drinking water." Al- though he was afraid of llarving, 15,000 livres were found in his ftrong b 'X at his death. Bourbon publifhed an edition of St. Cyril's work againft the emperor Julian, with a Latin tranflation. Nouv. Diet. Hift. Bourbon, ijte of, in Geography, lately called IJle de h Rt- unton, an ifland of the Indian ocean, about 370 miles diftant from the coail of Madagafcar to the eaft, and at the diftance of about 90 miles to the weft of the ifle of France, was tirft difcovercd by the Portugucfe, in 1545, who called it Maf- 8 B O U earenkas, after the name of the commander of their fleet ; and this appellation was afterwards corrupted into Mafcaraigne. In 1642, Pronis, the commandant at Madagaicar, took pofTeffion of the ifl.tnd for the French government ; and fevcn years after, fays La Barthc, in his " Annalcs mantimes et coloniales," but, according to others, in 1654, the nevr com- mandant, M. dc Flancourt, took poffefiion of it again in the nam- of his fovcrcign, and gave it the name of Bcvrloti. He introduced into it domcftic animals, which multiplied confidcrably ; and, on account of its fertihty, fcveial French- men formed in it fcttl-.mcnts. In 1665, two (liips of De la Plairc's fqnadron arrived here, and left Renaud, an " officer d'adminiftration," together with 10 labourers. The French, who, in J 671, efcaped the maflacre at Fovt Dauphin in Madagafcar, fled to this illand ; and various fea-faring prr- fons fettled in it, and employed themfelves in agriculti;re. From the ifle of France to tliis ifland, the paffage may be performed in a day, but the return often rcq-iircs a month. It is about 40 miles in length, and 30 ia breadth. The (horcs are exceedingly fteep, and cannot be approached ex- cept by fniall vefTels, v.-ithout danger. On this account it has few ports ; but round the iOiind there are fevcral good roads where llilpa m.ay ride fecurdy. The foil is more fandy than that of the iflc of Fratice ; and at fome dillaoce from the Ihorc it is mixed with thole fmooth ftones, which cover the bottom of the fea. In thofe parts, however, which admit of cultiva*io-.i, the ground is excellent, and well watered by vaiious llreams that are fupplied in fummer by the nieltmg fnow, which in winter covers the tops of the mountains. The foil, thus manured, thous;h not deep, is very fertile, and produces Turkey corn and rice, twice a year, and of the latter a great abundance. The mountains are very high ; and the three inacceflible peaks, called the " Salaffes," are faid to be l6oo toifes. In the fouthern part of the ifland there is a tremendous volcano, the dillrift round which, called " pays brulc," is entirely burnt up ; and there are many gulleys, the declivities of which are fo fteep that they cannot be cultivated. The ifland is divided into four quar- ters. The firft is that of St. Paul, whicii is the largeft and moll populous. Their houfes are built at the foot of a fteep mountain, on both fide? of a frefh water lake. Their plantations are on the top of a mountain, wh'ch they afcend by a very fteep and toilfome paffage. On the fummit, ho-.vever, is a fpacious plain, divided for the moft part into plantations of rice, tobacco, corn, fngar canes, and fruit- trees. The fea at the port of St. Paul is calmer, and the anchoring ground more fecure than at St. Dennis ; never- thelefs, mariners prefer the latter. The quarter of St. Dennis lies 15 miles from that of St. Paul towards the eaft ; and here the governor refides. Thisdillrift is more pleafant, though lefs populous, than the other. The chief port in the illand is that of St. Dennis, where a draw-bridge, fccurcd by iron chains, has been conftrufted for the purpcfe of enabling boats to land. This bridge extends more than 80 feet into the fea, and at the end of it is a ladder of iopes by which people who wifh to go on fiiore muft afcerd ; iu all other parts of the ifland they muft jump into the water. At f.vo leagues from St. Dennis, proceeding along the fea- coaft, is the quarter of St. Mary's, wh-ch is thinly peopled. The laft and moft fruitful diftvift of the ifland i's that of St. Sufanne, four leagues from St. Dennis ; the paf- fage from one to the other having been with great labour cut through a wood ; but the paffage fro.-n St. Dennis to St. Paul is only by fea. The flyz, and entered at an early age, into the fociety of Jefuit'i. Having dillinguifiied himfclf by his proficiency in the l\iidies hiimcdiattly connected with his profeffiou, and more particularly by his talents for the pulpit, the fo- ciety determined to aflign him the officu; of a preacher. The reputation which he acquired in the country, induced his fuperiors to fend for him to Paris in 1669, where his fame increafed, and recommended him to the court, fo that he preached before Louis XIV., in the advent of 1670. He continued, for many years, the favourite preacher of the king, though he occafionally animadverted on his pcrfoual faults, fpon the revocation of tiie ed:d of Nantes, he was appointed by the court, to preach the catholic doc- trine to the new converts in Languedoc. His talents were peculiarly adapted to this mifTion, as he was fcrious and imprefTive, and, at the fame time, mild and inlinuating, and capable of accommodating his addreffes to perfons of every rank and condition. With refpeA to the llylc of his elo- quence, M. d'Alembert, in his " Eloge de MafTillon," re- prefents it as folid and fcrious, and, above all, ftriclly logical. Compared with MafTillon, he is faid to have been the bell rcafoner, and the latter the moll pathetic. It re- dounded much to the honour of Bourdaloue, that he had, in a great degree, the merit of an original ; the pulpit, when he appeared, " rivalling the theatre in buffoonery, and the fchools in drynefs." Towards the clofc of his lite, he devoted himfelf to the fervice of the hofpitals, the pri- fons, and the poor, and to other offices of charity. His conduft, which was exempt from that laxity of morals that was charged on his fraternity, afforded the befl refutation of the " Provincial Letters." He died in the midll of his pious and benevolent labours, in 1 704. His dlfcourfes and other religious tracts have been publiflied in two editions, one of 16 vols. Svo. and the other of iS vols. l2mo. The full is the moft efteemed. Nouv. Di£l. Hill. BOURDEAUX, or Bordeaux, in Geography, a citT and fea-port of France, and capital of the department of the Gironde, including 6 cantons, which contain i 1 2,844 inhabitants, and comprehending Qji kilioinetres, and one commune. Bourdeaux is feated on the we!l bank of the rivL-r Garonne, about 40 miles rrom its month ; and, before the revolution, it was the capital of the ]ir(>vince of Guy- enne, and one of the moft prciperous and flourifiiing cities of iMance, but, in confcqutnce of that event, its com- merce has fuffered much injury. The tide flows quit^ up to the city J its port is amp'e and commodious, and (hips of conliderable burden may load and unload at its quavs. It was not uiiufual to fee 400 or 500 veffels in the harbour at the fame time. Its traffic with the Wvll Indies con- lilled ot fugar, cotton, indigo, and other merchandizes ; Its chief exports were wine and brandy, and particularly the vin de Bordeaux, which we denominate claret ; to- gether witli vinegar, fruit, rcliii, paper, honey, cork, &'j. j and its imports were woollen iiuffs, tin, copper, coal-, her- rings, leather, failed beef, tallow, dn\gs, deals, mafts for B O U ftii'ps, liemp, pitcli aiiJ tar. The wliale ant! cod filTiery, likcwile, formed a coiifiderable brancli of tlm commerce of tliis city. It had 5 forts, the principal of which is that called " Trompette," fortified by M. de Vaubaii, and comniaiidiiig the harbour. The figure of this city is a Isiiid of half moon ; and it coiifids of 3 fauxboiircfs, viz. that of " Chapcaiix-ronge," that of " St. .SurinV' and that of " Ciiarlrons," which hill is remarkable for its ex- tent, and the beauty of its buildings. Its univerfity was founded in 1441 ; its academy of fcienccs and belles lettres was eilablilhcd in 1712, to which belongs a large library ; its cathedral is an imnienfc Gothic ftrudhire ; and its hof- pital, built without the walls, accommodates a variety of nianufadures. The " Phice royale," in the fauxbourg of '' Ciiapeaux-roiige," is adorned with feveral magnificent buildings, and an equellrian llatue of Louis XV. iu bronze, erected in 174.;. Its theatre is the moll magnificent in France, and the adors ufed to receive extravagant falaries ; and as much as London exceeds Paris, fo much did Bour- deaux, before the revolution, tranfcend Liverpool. This city has many velliges of Roman art and grandeur ; fuch as the tower-gate, faid to have been conftrufted in the time of Augullus ; the amphitheatre, which formed an oval of 227 feet long and 140 feet wide ; the palace of Gallienus, of whicli remain only iome walls, and the z gates at the en B 0 U ton of Orleans, both whilll he wa« in favour, and when he loft it ; but at length, being difgulUd with the tumult and artifices of the court, he withdrew in order to enjoy the fweets of retirement. He died at Paris in 1^:63. His me- moirs, under tiie name of Moiitrefor, in 2 vols, i imo. con- tain feveral curious particulars, relating to tlic iiillory of his time. He divulges without fcruple, the projeds he formed again 11 the hfe of caidinal Richelieu. 150URDELIN, Claudl, born at Villa-francha, near Lyons, in 1621, applied early to the (ludy of pharmacy and chymiftiy, in which he acquired confidenible re- putation. \\'hen the royal academy of fcicnces was formed in l6<>6, under the aufpices of Monf. Colbert, he was appointed to fupcrintend the cliymical department, and, in conjunaion with Duclos, made analyfes of the principal mineral waters in France. He alio furniflied the academy with the analyfes of numerous other natural bodies, and contrived, or executed the greater part of the chymical ex- periments, made in the laboratory of the academy, for the fpace of 23 years. He died in 1699, and was fncceeded in Ins appointment by Monf. Lemery. Haller. Bib. Botan. Floy. Dift. Hill. BOURDELOIS, in Gen^rnphy, was, before the revo- lution, the name of a country of France in the province of Gnyenne, in the environs of IVjurdeaux ; boundid on tlie eall by Ageiiois^ and Perigord, on the fouth I)y Galeonv, trance; a temple confecrated to the tutelary deities, whofe columns furpallcd in elevation the finell buildings of the city, on the well by the fea, and on the north by Saiiitonge. and which fubfilled almoll entire, till the year 1700, when BOURDELOT, John, in Bio^jrjjife of a fpecies of the Haliotis genus, found upon the rocks on tlie coaft of France, and in the Mediterranean, the animal of which is eaten. The fort of Haliotis, generally called Bourdin, is the H. tuherculala ; but the fpecie-^^^/vV?/!-; aif^ bears the lame name. Belloniiis gave the title of Bour- din to the whole tribe of thofe fliells called the fea ears, auris marina, &c. See Haliotis. BOURDON, in Entomology, the trivial French name of the male inkd of the common honey bee, jlph miUitica. But, among the naturalifts of Fiance, it is applied, 111 a more efpecial manner, as a gentrical title to that family of the bee tribe which Linnaeus calls ^ipcs iointinair.cs hirfut'iffimn: . Thefe arc called alfo Bourdons velus, or hauy bees, in common. See Aris, Bee, }i(.f.,'wilj, and Hcm- BLE-iff. Bourdon, Sfhastian, in Biography, an eminent paint- er and engraver, was born at Montpellier, in 16 16, and received the lirft rudiments of his art iVoni his father, who was B O U ^•as a psinter on glafs. lie afterwards (ludicd at Paris, under an artill of no great note, and at the age of 1 8 years went to Italy, where he very fucccfsfully imitated the ftylc ot dil- ferent mailers, as Claude LorraMie, Andrea Sacchi, Corre- gio, and Bamboccio. After ius return into h;s own coun- try, he painted, at the age of ^7, his moil famous pidurc, " The crucifixion of St. Peter, in the cliunl. of Notre Dame at Paris." But being by religious prokllion a Cal- vinift, he was interrupted in the cxcrcilc of his profcllion by the civil wars ; and therefore, in 1^.52, he removed to Sv-e- den, where queen Chrillina made him her full painter, lure he had an opportunity of exhibiting a fingular d.lplay of his dirintereftcdiicfs. Gullavus Adolphus, the father of Chnl- tjna, had brought fomc piflures fioni the piUajrc of IVaguc, wlHch had never been unpacked. Ciirillina employed Bour- don to examine thefe ; and upon his making a favourab.e report of them, cfpecially thofe of Corregio, the queen pre- fented him with the whole colleaion. Bourdon declined accepting them, and informed the queen, that they were fomc of the finelt pieces in Europe, and that Ihe ought not to part with them ; accordingly Chrillina, after her abdication, look them with her to Rome, and made them the bans of a coUeclion, which afterwards came into the poiLIlion ot the regent duke of Orleans. After Chrillina's abdication. Bourdon returned to Trance, and purfucd the cxercife of his profclTion with uncommon afliduity ; conGning himfelf frequently to his garret, which was his painting-room, for a month together. He pniated in a great variety of ftyles, and fucctedcd in all ; hi'.toi y, portrait, landfcape, paftoral, and grotefque. His chief faults, fays Mr. Strutt, arc .want of force in the colouring, though others afcribe to it great force and cfTett, and of cor- rcflnefs in the outline ; but thefe were amply overbalanced by the beauties of his compofition, the lively fertility of l-.is imagination, the animation of histxprtfllons, and the variety and gracefulnefs of his attitudes. His virgins in particular are much elleemed ; and the heft of his pieces are thole that are the lead fmilhed. Bourdon was one of the twelve per- fons who, in 1648, commenced the ellablilliment of the Royal Academy, of which he became diretlor. A violent fever terminated his life in 1671, much to the regret of all who highly lefpcCled his charafter as well as geniu.s. Some of his daughters painted in miniature, and lome of his fcholars became eminent. His principal works are in the churches at Paris, in the gallery of the hotel fe.vations on contains 217,^, and the canton 5787 inhabitants ; the cxtenc cvtry branch of midwifci^. «' Rccueil des fccrcls," &c. of the territory comprehends 2jj kiliomctrcs, and 10 com- 1635, 8vo. contsiniiig formula: for the coinpofition of a "^■"i?"' J T n e -n ■ ^'^^' variety of medicines, for the cure of dileafcs incident Doi'RC d: Lcjira, a town of Fiance, in the department p.i.icipally to women and children, in which (lie appcais to of the Ardeche ; 6 leagues K. N.W. of Privas. have had great faith ; alfo for preparing cofmctics, for im- 'SiQ\3t.a-MaurUe, a town of Savoy, in the department of proving tlie complexion. '« Recit veritable de la nnifii.icc Mont Blanc, and chief piace of a canton, in the diftilft of de mell'i-s. et d.iines, le» enfa.is dc I'rance," containing a Monties ; the town contains ^166, and the canton 11,578 regiller of the biiths of the children of the queen, with ihc i:.habit3nts; and the territory includes 967^ kiiiometres, and circumilances attending the hiboiirs. it appears that the conr.munes. pielent made her on the birth of each of tlie royal intanis was, 500 crowns for a male, and 300 for a female cliild. She had alfo a peiifion of 300 crowiij per Annum, which /he was to enjoy during her liie. " Inllruflions a ma tille," Pa.-i.;, i6.|2, containing rules for her condu'l in pradice. Thef;: tvvceii the ifle of Noirmoutier and the continent. It has a feveral t.ealifes were coUcified together and publifiicd in f.u'e bay and harbour ; and trades chiefly in fait, made from i'>52, Paris, i2mo. The volume is'decorated with portraits Bouv.G hcuf, a fea-port town of France, in the depart- n-.oiit of the L,ower Jjoire, and chief place of a canton, in the dliirift of Paiii-.boeuf, feated on the Englifli channel, at the iTsouth of the Loi.-e, in a bay to which it gives name, be- fall iiiaillies in its vicinity ; 6i leagues S. W. of Nantes, and 2 W. N. W. of Machecoul. It contains 20,^3 inhabi- tants, and the population of tiie canton includes /.^oi ; the territory comjj.-ehends 187^ kiliomctres, and 6 communes. BouRG .{POifans, a town of France, in the department of the Ifei-e, and chief place of a canton, in the d.lhift of ot the queen of Fiance, to whom it was dedicated, and of mad. Bourfier. It is alfo accompanied with copies of verfcs to the king's phyliciaus, and to mad. B. Haller Bib. Chi- rurg. Med. BOUROER Mestres. See Burgher Majlcrs. BOU RGESjin Gf.-)^raphy,an ancient city of France, form- Grenoble, and 5 leagues S. E. ofit. The town contains crly called y/iii^vVwrn and /^//ur/fi-j-, the capital of the depart _o-(;, and the canton 12,688 inhabitants ; and the territory ment ol the Cher, fituatevit thec;infiux of thcAuronandEure. ineludes 910 kiliometres, and 21 communes. Before the revolution it was the fee of an archbifhop ; its BouRC- fl'^ /ViTji", or i/« ^a/fnc^, a town of France, in the univerfity was founded in 1466, by Lewis XI,, who was department of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in born here, and inveftcd the town with coiifiderable privileges. the diftrift of Valence, i mile N. of it. The town contains The college of the Jefuits was a large and magnificent build- 2339, and the canton 15,113 inhabitants; the territory in- ing. It contained 16 pariih chu.ches, and many public 'eludes 245 kiliometres, and 14 communes, buildings. The cathedral chuixh is confidt-i-ed as one of EouRG le Rdne, a town of Fiance, and principal place the moil beautiful Gothic edifices in Europe. The prin- of a dillrici, in the department of Paris, and 4 miles S. of it. cipal inanufaftures of this place are linen cloth, woollen BouRG A' i?6;)', a town of France, in the department of the Ih.fTs, and (lockings, which are fold at its annual fairs; Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diilritt of Fre- excluilvely of thefe its commerce i; fmall. The town contains nay-le-vic ; a leagues S. of Alencjon. 15,340, and thcdiilrift the fame number of inhabitants; ]jOVB.G-de-Viza, a town of France, in the depai-tnient of the territory includes 90 kiliometres, and i commune. N. the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the dift.-ift of Mon- lat. 47° 5' 4". E. lo.ig. 2" 23' 26". tauban, 8 miles W. of Lauzerte. The town contains 684, BOURGET, afmalltownof Savoy, fcated on a lake of and the canto i 7,470 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends the fame i.ame, about 10 miles long, and from 7, to j wide, 130 kiliometres, and 11 communes. " 6miles N. of Chamberry. This lake has a fidi unknown iu BOURGACHARD, a town of France, in the depart- other countries, called " Lavarette," which weighs Tour ment of the Eere, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- or live pounds, and which is much valued at Chamberry. trift of Pont Aiidenie.-, and 4 leagues E. ofit. Near this lake is an irregular recipi'ocating fpring, which BOURGANEUF, a t-own of France, and principal ilfues from a rock, and is called " La Fontaine de Mer- plaee of a diihicl, in the department of the Ci'cufe, 5^ league-s veiilc." ' W. of Aubufion. BouRGET, Le, a town of France, in the department of BOU RG DUN, Le, a town of France, in the depart- Paris; 2 leagues N. of it rpent of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in tlie dillrift of Dieppe, and ; leagues S.W. ofit. BOURGEOIS, Louisa, alfo called BcuiJJer, in Bio- jrr/ijiJ.ty, an expei'ienced and intelligent midwife, in great re- pute, the latter part of the iCth and the beginning of the BOURGNEUF de LAFoREST,LE,atown of France, in the department of the Maycnne ; 3 leagues N. W. of Laval. KOURGOGNE, a town of France, in the department of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Reims, and 6 miles N. of it. The town contains 633, and I 7th centuries. Her hutband was an army fuigeon, as fhe the canton 11,989 inhabitants; the territory includes 275 informs us, and had been educated under Ambrofe Pare ; kiliomcf.-es, av.d 25 communes. from him flie received inllruftion in the more dilFicult BOURGOING, a town of France, in the department paits of the art, fo that flie was enabled to deliver in fome cf the lfci-e, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of cafes, where the affifta. ice of the furgeon was ufually thought la Tour-du-Pin, and 2 leagues W. of it. The population iicceffary. In one- cafe fhe extrafted a ftone f.-om the uri- of the town includes 359^ perfons, and that of the canton nary bladder, by means of the forceps. It is no won- 15,021 ; the territory comprehends 175 kihometres, and n dtr, tlicrefore, that (lie attained to the height of her profef- fion, and (hould be tmpioyed by the ladies of the higheft rank, and at length by the queen of France, whom (he de- VOL. V. communes. BOURGTHEROUDE, a town of France, in the de- partxcnt of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the T diftria B O U diflricl of Pont-AuJemer, and i; leagues E. of it. The town contains 86o, and tlic canton 1 1,237 inhabitants ; the territory includes 107^ kiliomclres, and 24 communes. BOURGUKBUS, a town of France, in the department of Calvados, and chief pLice of a canton, in the dillrid of Caen; containing 405 inhabitants; the population of the canton is ';,3')i ; and the extent of the territory compre- hends 147A kihometres, and 30 communes. BOURGUEIL, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- tria of Chinon ; 7^ leagues W. of Tours. The town con- tains 2Sio, and tlie canton 14,969 inhabitants ; tiie terri- torv includes I4:i kiliometres, and 7 communes. BOURGU£T,LE\vis,in5;V''A'-y''Wasl)ornatNimesin 1678. and remoing with his family, who were proteltants, to SwilTerland, on the revocation of the cdid of Nantes, he piirfucd his (Indies at Zurich. Here he dillinguilhed him- ielf by his apphcaliou to theology, the languages, mathe- matics, law, antiquities, medals, and more particularly na- tural hiftory. His attention was more efpecially duefted to geology, for the cultivation of which his fituation among the Swifs mountains was peculiarly favourable. He after- wards fettled at Neufchatel, and here became profefTor of philofophy and mathematics. In 1729 he printed, in French, " Philofophical letters on the formation of falts and cryftals, and on the generation and organic mechanifm of plants and animals," &c. izmo. In the preceding year he had undertaken, with the aflillance of learned colleagues, a periodical work, entitled " 13ibliot\jeque Italiqiie," printed at Geneva, and extended to 16 vols. Svo. which was elleem- ed a judicious and ufcful performance. Bourget had many literar)' connedions, and was a member of feveral learned focieties. Many of his papers were publifiied in the " Jour- nal Helvetique." He died in 1742. Moreri. BOURGUIGNOTTE, a defenfive weapon wherewith to cover the head ; being a kind of calk, open before, and proof againft either pike or mulket ; its name arofe from the Bourgiiignons, who firll introduced it. BOURGUIGNONS. See Burgundians. BOURI, in Ichthyology, the Arabic name of Miipl cepha- lus, Linn. BOURIGNON, Antoinette de la Porte, in Bio- graphy, an enthufiail of a wild imagination and turbulent difpolltion, was born at Lide in Flanders, in ifil6. Under a pretence of a divine infpiration and commifTion, flie en- gaged in i-eviviag the true fpirit of Chriftianity, which Ihe reprcfented as extinguifhed by theological animofities and debates. Her own temper, however, was very different from that truly Chrillian fpirit which (he profelTtd to rouze and reanimate. Adverfe to marriage, though urged to it by her family, which was opulent, (he eloped in order to avoid their perfuafions; and, after a variety of adventures, became governefs of an hofpital in her native town, and affumed the order and habit of St. Auguftin. Here, however, her relllefi and overbearing temper occafioned fuch diilurbances, that, in confequence of the interference of the magillrates, (he was obliged to remove to Ghent. One of her converts, named Chrillian Bartholomew de Cordt, who had been a J.-infenill and pried of the oratory at Mechlin, was owner of part of an illand in HoUlein, called Noordftrandt. Of this patron of her fanaticifm (he bought an edate in this idand, and determined to fettle there with her difciplesr In the mean while (he refided at Amfterdam, and made many profelytes. She alfo wrote feveral books, and parti- cularly one, er;titltd, " The 1-ight of the World," in which (he profeffes to explain her myftical principles. Molheim fuggefts, that an attentive reader of her works will perceive, B O U that her intdled mull have been in a difordered ftate ; that mod of her divine eft'ufions were borrowed from the produc- tions of the Mvilics ; and that, by the intemperance wf her imagination, Pne has given an additicnal air of abfurdity and extravagance to the tenets nhicli (lie had derived from thofe pompous enthufialls. The predominant principle of her works is this : " that the Chrillian religion conliih neither in knowledcc nor pradtice, but in a certain internal fecliiig and divine impulfc, that arifcs immediately from coinmunion with the Deity." Upon the death of De Cordt, w!io made this female fanatic his heircfs, (he left Holland in 1671, with a view of fettling at Nocrdilrandt ; but (he difcouragcd many of her difciples from attending her, under an appre- henlion that their attachment was felfilh, and that they withed to obtain a fubliftence at her expence. She wrote in French, Dutch, and German, with great facility ; and printed her numerous works in a prefi, which (he had fet up in her own houfe. Such, however, were both her prin- ciples and temper, that they expofed her to a variety of pro- fccutions, which difquietcd her mind, and made it necellary for her frequently to change her abode. At length (he obtained the diredion of an hofpital in Eaft Frielland, where her time was devoted to the Icrvice of the poor, whild (he retained htr money under a notion, that (lie could find none that were deferving objeds of her bounty. After a life of viciiTitude and vexation, and fuffcring many infults on account of her religious fancies, (lie ended her days at Franeker, in 1680. Whilil (lie lived her followers were few in number; but after her death, her writings were the means of multiplying her profelytes, who were dillinguilhed by the appellation of " Bourignonids." Amongll thele a Cartefian, of a bold and penetrating genius, whofe name was Peter Poiret, took the lead ; and he drelTed out in an artful manner, and reduced to a kind of fydem, the wild and incoherent fancies of Bourignon, in a large work, entitled, " L'Oeconomie Divine, ou Sydeme Univerfel," which was publifhed, both in French and Latin, at Amderdam, in 1686, in 7 vols. Svo. In Scotland her notions occafioned a controverfy, in which Dr. Cockburn didinguidied himfclf as the opponent of the Bourignonids. Gen. Dift. Modi. Eccl. Hid. vol. V. p. 514, &c. Svo. BOUllMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a can- ton, in the didricl ot Chaumont, and 6 leagues E. N.E. from it, feated ou a deep mountain ; the popultition of the town is edimated at 107 1, and of the canton at 10,370; the tcrritorv includes 2721- kiliometres, and 26 communes. N. lat. 48°'i2'. E. long. 5^ 32'. BOURN, a market town of Lincolnfhire, in England, ftands on the fouthern fide of the county, near the borders of Rutlandfhire, at the didance of 97 miles north fi. ui London. Here have been a cadle and a priory, but both are paitly dellroyed. The outworks, ditches, and fome fragments of the former are left to commemorate the fpot; and as the fortified area includes about eight acres of land, we may prefume that it was a place of conliderable drength and importance. " Very large irregular works," fays Mr. Gough, " are on the north and well fides between the two ditches; the earth raifed about 20 yards in length, and 10 in breadth, and a ditch between every one of thefe pointing to the grand moat." Thefe works are faid to have been formed by Oliver Cromwell, when he attacked the town. Some of our ancient hidorians have dated that S. Edmund, king of the Ead Angles, was crowned at Bourn ; but this is con- futed by Ml. Gougii, who places the fcene of that event at Buers in Suffolk ; indeed this callle does not appear to be coniicfted with any public event till the time of the Dani(h invafions. B O U invafioiis. Some of tliefe maraiiders'having made an im-oaJ into Lincolnniirc, Miircot, lord of Bourn, with his ii\imcr- ous family and attendants ti'ainfd in arms, and about 2yo men from Croyland abbey, marched againll them, and met them at I^aundon, where a defperate battle enfued, which terminated in favour of Marcnt and hi3 party. Bourn, as its name implies, is fituated in a valley, and has a ftream running through part of it, which turns three mills, very- near its fource. Here is alfo a medicinal mineral fpring, the waters of wliich are rather braekiOi, and are fou:;d to be ferviceable in fome diforders. Here are fome tanneries, and one parill\ church, a chapel, and two alms-houfcs. The markets are weekly on Saturdays, and here are three annual fairs. Veffels of about ten tons burthen convey articles of commerce, &c. from this place to Spalding, Bollon, &c. That diftinguilhcd ftatefman, fir W. Cecil, who was created baron Burleigh, by queen Elizabeth, was born here in 1521, ;vnd podefred this manor. At an inn in this town was formerly a curious old portrait of queen Elizabeth, on a panntl. Tiie town-hall w-as built by the above noble- nan. The townCiip contains 282 houfes, and 1474 in- habitants. At Stanefield, a village a little to the north, is a chalybe- ate fprinf, and, according to J^r. Stukeiey, many Roman coins have been found here. About four miles hence is Grimfthorpe, a feat belonging to the duke of Ancafter. The houfe, a magniiicent llruClure, Hands on a hill in the midft of a large park, which, with its fine woods, and large piece of water, conllitute many grand and beautiful fcenes. " Grimllhorpe," fays Fuller, " I may call an extempore ftrufture, got up on a fudden by Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, to entertain king Henry VHI. in his progrefs into thefe parts." Since the period of Fuller's writing, this houfe has undei-gone many improving alterations, and is now finiihed and fitted up in an elegant ilyle. Cough's edition of Cambdeu's Britannia, vol. ii. Fuller's Church Hillory of England. BOURNASEL, a town of France, in the department of tl'.e Avevron, 4^ leagues N. W. of Rhode/.. BOURNEVILLE, a town of France, in the department of the Eure ; 2 leagues N. W. of Pont Audemer. BOURNEZEAU, a town of France, in the department of the Vendee ; 5 leagues N. W. of Fontcnay le Comte. BOURNIQUEL, a town of France in the department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Montauban, feated on the louth fide of the Avcyroii ; 13 miles E. N. E. of Moutauban. B-OURNOU. See Bornou. BouRKOu, Great and Little, two capes at the commence- ment of the road in the gulf of Salonica. This road, which t-erminates at a fhoal, which is fituated at the head of the gulf, affords good anchorage to fiiips of every fize, and a Ittfe retreat to fleets. EOURO, one of the Moluccas or Spice iflands in the Eaft Indies, lying between Ceram on the euft, and Celebes on the weft ; its fiiape is oval, the longeft diameter extend- ing eaft and weft ; about 90 miles in length by 50 in breadth. This ifle was nominally lubjedt to the king of Ternat ; but in 1660 the Dutch built a fort in the bay of Cagele, or Caycli, at the north eaft end of the iOand, where the natives who profefs the Mahometan religion have a mofque, whofe roofs, gradually arifiiig in a regular gradation one above another, prefent a very agreeable appearance ; and though they burned the exterior woods, they feem to have improved the induftry of the inhabitants. This ifland riles fuddenly from a deep fea, being encompaffed as with a wall. Part of its northern coalt is inhabited by a people who are fub- B O U jefts of the Dutch company, and are governed by their " Oran-cayos," who have eueli a " d:ip," or deputy under them. The interior pans, which confift of nioinilains fo lofty, that they may be lometimes difcvird at the dillanee of 28 leagues, are the haunts of the " Alforcfi," or wild moun- taineers. Tiie louth coaft is now dcferted, on account of the continual invafions of the Papuas. 'J'he coaft, to the eaft of the village of Caycli, is watered by a number of fmall ftreams; but to tlie north-weft there is a very con- fiderablc river, called by the natives " Aer-Beffar," which difcharges itfclf into the road-ftead. This river is very deC]., and for fome diftance from its mouth more than 70 feet broad. On its borders is found the beautiful flirub, knoivn b;- the name of " Portlandia grandiflora. The pebbles rolled from the mountains by the rivulets are fragments of "quartz," mixed with mica. Birds, efpecially paiTots, are fo numer- ous, that the illand probably derives from tills circum.ftance its name, whicii fignilies, in the Malayan language, a bird. The woods alford abundance of deer, goats, and wild boars. The civet weafel is found in this illand, and the curious hog called babirouffa. A green ebony, and a kind of iron wood, aic mentioned among the trees, and feveral other kinds of wood, proper for inlaid work, mtich valued by the Chinefc, and others ufcful for dying ; and it is not improbable that the clove, and perhaps the nutmeg, defy, in the receffes of the mountains, the uild avarice of man. The fago tree grows here in great abundance, fupply- ing the inhabitants with the principal means of their fub- fiftence, as well as an article of exportation. The " Cayou pouti," of the Malays (yl'/i7j.'f!/i:^z latifolia) grows in great abundance upon the hills; and from this is olitained, by dif- tillation, a great quantity of the oil of cajeput. Accoiding to attronomical obfervations, made by thofe who ptn-fued the voyage in fcarch of la Peroufe, at the village of Cayeli, its latitude was 3° 21' 54" S. and longitude 127° 21' 6" E. The dip of the magnetic needle was 20° ,50'. Its variation, obferved on board, was o" 54' E. The higheft point in- dicated by the thermometer (Reaumur's) on board was 23°, and on fhore z z;"^ -f'^ths. The meicury in th* baromttcr vari- ed only from 28 inches I line to 28 inches 2 lines. The time of hiiih water on the full and change days-ivas three quar- ters after eleven ; it then rofe to the perpendictilar heiglit of 6 feet. Voyages in fearch of la Pt-rouie, drawn up by M. Labillarditre, vol. ii. p. .JoS, «c. Eng. cd. BouRO, is alfo a fmall ifland, north of the illand of Su- matra ; •■; leagues N.E. of Acheeu. BOURON, a town of European Turkey, in Romania, the fee of a Greek biftiop, feated on a lake of the fame name, and I <; miles diftant from the coaft of the Archipelago. BOURRE, in Oi-iiill'o/ovy. According to Salerne, the common or domeftic duck is called Lcunr in Normandy, and the ducklings hr.urrct. BouRRE, in Zoology, is alio a word in ufe in France to exprefs the hair of feveral quadrupeds, fuch as the ox, the buflalo, the horfe, flag, &c. Thus alio they have the di- ftiuiStion of bourre th lame for the woolly kinds, and lourie de foie for that of a filky texture. BOURREE', Fr. the air of a dance fo called, is fup- pofed to come from Auvergne, in which province it is lliil in ufe. The tune is in common time, and begins with an odd crotchet. Rouffcau. BOURRERIA, in Botany. See Ehretia. BOURRIQLIE, in Zoology, fynonyraous with Vantjfe, the ftie-afs. BOURSAULT, Edme, in Biography, a French dra- matic writer, was born in the province of Burgundy, in i6j8 5 and by fingulai- alTidiuty, though his education was T 2 altogether B o tr alto^f thcr neglcacd in liis youth, attained i> a Ttry accuratt aoquaiiit.'.iice with the French language. After his ft;tt!ij- ineiit at Pari*, he was <-mpl,ovea by ihc ki;ig in coniFoGng a worltforlhc Dauphin, entitled " Tiic tree Study of So- vereigns." which was fo well received, that t'ac author would liave been appointed fiib-preceptor to the djuphin, if he had iindcrflood Latin. Tor a weekly pzcHe in verfe, with which he amufed the court, he obtained a pcnfion ; but, on aeeount of a!i imprudent attack upon .the Capuchins, a complaint was lodged a,;ain(l him by the queen's Spanilli confcffor, who belonged to that order, and in confcquenee of it his gazfttc and pciilion were fupprelTed, and he him- felf was in daiisrer of being conlincd in the baftilc. , In a finnlar gazette lie afterwards intioduccd a fatire on the prince of Oranc;e, which political coiilidei-alions induced the court to fupprcis. At length, however, he was ap- pointed receiver of the taillc» at MontU:(,on, where he died in I -01. As a writer for the ftage, Lourfiiult was diltiii- jruilhed by his talents for agreeable ridicule, united with I'ood fenfe, and alfo by an haVmonious verlilication, as well US a ftvle that w.ns ea'fy and adapted to his fubjetts. His " Efope a la Ville," and " Efope k la Cour" ftiU retain their reputation on the theatre. An attack, upon Boileau, by way of retaliation for fomc pcrfonal refleftions in this au- thor's fatircs, prevented the introduclion of his piece in one act, entitled " La Satyre des Satyres," on the ilage ; but it was afterwards printed with a preface. Some years after- wards, Bonrfault, by his polite attention to Boileau, cor.ci- luUtd his friendlhip, and induced him to mfert fome oilier name terminating v.ith tjn.'l, in his fatires. Bourlault alfo wrote tragedies and operas ; and his dramatic works were published in 1746, under the tltla of " Theatre de Bourfauh," in 3 vols. 1 2mo. His letters, mifccUaneous pieces, and romances, are now forgotten. Nouv.Dift. Hid. BOURSE, in Ichthyology, in the ides of France and Madagafcar, the common name of all the lifhes of the Te- TRODOS genus. In the I'rench American colonies, halifts I'k'tlle (bali/les -vetula) bears the fame name. Lacepede like- ■wife aifigns the word bourfe as a fpecific name to a new fpe- cies of baliftes defcribed by Sonntrat, the firll dorfal fin of which has three rays ; the fecond is fpotted ; tail forked ; and below the eye a black lunated fpot. BOURSIER, Lawrence-Francis, in Biography, an eminent theologian and metaphyiician, was born at Econen, in the diocefc of Paris, in 1679, and entered into the Sor- bonneini709, where, in 171 1, he obtained the degree of doftor. As he devoted himfelf to lludy, he refnfed feveral benefices which were offered to him ; and, at the age of 31, accuired great celebrity, both as an eloquent writer, and 'irofound reafoner, by a work entitled " Tlie Adion of God on the Creatures," or " PhyGcal Premotion proved by reafoning," 2 vols. 4to. and 6 vols. izmo. This work was hi»hly extolled by the Janfenitts ; and Voltaire fpeaks of it (Age of Lewis XIV.) as deeply argumentative, learned, and fomctimes extremely eloquent. It involved him in a controverfy with the famous M.debranche. He was alfo the author rf a memoir prefented to Peter the Great by the doflors of the Sorbonne, concerning a propofed union between the Ruffian and the Latin churches, which origi- nated from a conference held by the author with the czar, on his vifit to the Sorbonne. His other works, v/hich were numerous, chiefly related to the difputes that fubfifted in the Galilean church. In 1729, he was one of many doftcrs who were expelled the .Sorbonne ; and from this time he vvfas under a neceffity of fecuring his perfonal liberty by liv- ing in privacy, He died at Paris, in 1749. Nouv, Did. iiift. B O U BOURSIRES, in Entomology, the isnar biru. Rochcf. Ant. 1. c. 21. See Latro. BOURTANG, in Gtogrr.phy, a town ana fortrcfs of Groningcn ; 12 miles S.S.W. of ViTinfchotten. BOURTH, a town of France, in the department of the Eure ; 2 leagues N.W. of Verneuil. BOURTHES, a town of I'rance, in the department of the Stritits of Calais, and chief place of a cantonj in the di- ilrift > f Boulogne ; 4 leagues S.E. of Boulogne. BOURTRY, or BoTRO, a village of Africa, in the kingd-jm of Anta, on the Gold coaft, feated on a fmall- river, at the foot of an eminence, on which the Dutch have' built an irregular and mean fort, of an oblong form, divided into two p>iris, each defended by four fmall pieces of can- non. The fort was built by one Carolus, in the fervice of tlie Dutch, who afterwards pafi'ed into the pay of France,. and obtained that privilege from the king of Anta, en ac- knowledging, his fuperiority by a flighti tribute. This tort is called Badenilyn ; its batteries command the village of Bourtry, which has no other com.nTerce befides the gold' trade carried on witli the negrjcs of Adorn. The inhabit- ants are of a mild and gentle difpofition, much attached to. the Europeans, whom they con!ider as their protedlors. In 1708, the Dutch concerted a plan for forming fugar-p'anta- tions, which alarmed fir Dalby Thomas, then the* Englifh governor at cape Coaft, who rcprefented to the Royal Afri- can company the danger of permitting the Dutch to execute a fchtmc, which would diminiPa the value of the Brltidi co- lonies in the Weft Indies. Tlicfc fugar-piantations, the plan of which was thus counteratlcd, never anlvvered the great expeflations of the Dutc'.!. BOURY, in Zoology, a fpecies of 0:3, that inhabits Ma- dagafcar. It is of the fize of a camel, of a fnowy white co- lour, and, like that animal, has a protuberance on the back. Boury is the name by which this kind is called by the natives. BOUSCH, or Bouch, i.i Geograpljy; a town of Upper Egypt, lituate about a quarter of a league from the weft bank of the Nile, and 4 miles N.E. of Benifouef. Tiie houfcs are built ot brick, and ti'.e roofs are elevated in the form of pigeon-houfes. The inhabitants occupy the ground- floor, and the pigeons the f ril ; a praflice \\ hich is general through the relt of the T;iebais. Tiiefe houfes, which- make lome figure at a diftance, exhibit on entering them only tokens of wretchednels in the midil of an abundantly rich country. In this town is occafionally held a confider- able market for cattle and piovifions. The canal of Boufch formerly poured its waters into the river for iix months of the year. At prefent it conveys them through the whole year into the lake Moeris, which docs not receive a iuflicient quantity by Jofeph's canal, half choakcd up as it is, to ad- mit of its relloring any to the Kile. BOUSIER, ot the French Er.tomohg'ijls. SeeCopRis. BOU.SKAVIR, in Geography, a river of Perfia, which difcharges itftlf into the Perfian gulf, near Bender Rik. BOUSSAC, a town of Frjance, and principal place of a diilrift, in the department of the Creuie, 6 leagues N.E. of Gucret. The place contains 5S6, and the canton 7-787 inhabitants ; the territory includes 3J7i kllioi-netres, and 17 communes. BOUSSANGES, a town of France, in the department of the Herault ; 6 leagues N. of Be-z-ieres. BOUSSIE^RE, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs, and chief place of- a canton, in the diftridt of Befangon ; the town contains 347, and the canton 70:5 inhabitants; the territory comprehends aj5 kiucmetres/and aj communes. EOUSSU, B O U BOU^SU, a town of France, in tSe i3op3ttrnJiit of J,:- mnppe, and chief place of a canton, in the '.''ilhi.'^l of Mons ; the town contains iSSi, and the canton i:!,5~i inhabitants; ih'.' territory includes 82 J kiliomctrcs, and 1 ; communes. BOUSTROPHEDON, comp )u ;ded of (3y,-, buUock, and fpsT'w, I turn, in Liti-raluri, is iifed in fp;akinT of the an- cient m.^thod of vvritii)*; among th? Grt-'-ks, wherein the lines wtrc cbnt'nned forwards and backwards, like the fur- rows in plonijhing. Panfanias (li'-). v> c. 17. Eiiaca) mentions feveral ancient infcriptions written in this manntr : tiie laws of Solon are affo fi.id to hive been thus written ; wliich,- as the author lail cit'jd jxpl:ii-:s it, is when the fecond line is turned, on the contrary fide, beginiiincr at the end of the former, thus ; EK AlOS AP PoHcr. Arch.Crrxc. lib. i. cap. 2C torn. i. BOUT, i.T Orni'hology. Under this name BnfFon defcribes two birds of the CaoTopHAOA genus ; namely C. am, as !e B O U be cut t!own. The kirtj-j of Boyton i« cbl!,v'd to pr.v.'".!.- f.>r liim j^uidcs and mterprclevs, and alfu vcfltls, if lie fhovid i..-.- J them. Ihit as this contrail has not been legulaily fuifili' d, the government in Inuia has thought proper to w'thhirld this pecnniavy allowatice, ?.t leall for one year, in order to induce this prince to adhere more rigiilly to his contra^^, and to be more aftive in affilling the company to dellroy this rich produfVion in his country, for the benefit of Am- boyna and Banda. Tiio pafl'axc between Bonton and the Toncan-bi-liis is the fecond dangerous part of the navigation for fliips goir.g to the Moluccas or Spire iflands ; the ochcr being that of the " Bud;;croons." The former channel is, indeed, wider than the latter, being about i\ leagues in breadth from the ncarelt part of Bouton to the wtfltrnmoft of the Toucan-befTis ; but the danger is of longer duration, on account of the numerous fmall iflands that form the duller called the " Toucan-belTfs ;" all of which arc cither connedtd or Airrounded by rocky flioals, over aild between whick very rapid currents Lt ftrongly to the talhvard : be- pfl'i! bout d: Pciin ; and C. tvajor, as /^ grand bout de fides, a large and dangerous flat, called the " Hoefy/.er, " or horfe-flioe, lies o:ie and a half or two kaints foiitli of them, upon which many veflels of the company have bee:i wrecked. In the nahowtll part of the pall'age is alfo a buy running into the land, weft and north, into which vefllls arc in danger of being driven by the currents which fct into the .bay, if the point oppofite Toucan-beffis be api)roached too near in calm weather. From this bay there is no tfcapc till the v.^cll monfoon fets in again ; and fome of the company's fliips ha e been under a neceffity of remaining in it for five or fix m .nths. From this circumftance, the navigators have given it tlie name of" Dwaal," or Miftake-bay. The prin- cipal town of this ifland is Callafnfurg, feated about a mils from the- Tea, on the top of a hill, and furrounded by walL. The inh.ibitants are fmall, but wcll-fhaped, and of a dark olive complexion. Their honfcs are erected on polls; and their rcligiun is Mahometanifm. Stavorinus's Voyages to the Pctun. BOUTA, in Anacnt Geography, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior, near the fource of the river Cinipha, ac- cording to Pcolcmy. BOUTADE, in Afiifc, an irregular flight or movement ■without art or ftiidy. The word was alfo form-'rly ufcd for z folo on the inol d'l gnmha, thus c.dled as beinr fuppofed to bo extemporary. Richelet fpeaks. of a dance called bou'.ndc, invented by th.e famous Bocan, in the reign of Lewis XIII. fo called from the briflc humourous mannei of its beginning ; but now out of ufe. BOUTAEL, in Ichthyology, the local name of a certain kind of fifli, that is faid to inhabit the lakes, ponds, and Handing w-aters, in the Ea(£ Indies, where it is alfo called tiie Neegen oogsn. Ray dcfcribes it under the name "f lam- pttra Iiidlca. It is conjcftured that this mud b^ long to the lamprey, or ^^/rcmjaon genus, from the accounts of authors v/ho fpeakof it ; but whether really fo, or not, k is difficult to determine. BOUT AN. in Grajrai/.y. See Bootan. BO UTANT, in Archtte3ure. An arc boutant is an- arch p. joo. S. lat. 5^. E. long. i2j' Eail Iiidiea, vol, 30' BouTON ch Camifilk, m Concholo^y, a trivial name in France for trochus hib'io of Linna:us. BoiJTON de la Chine, the Linnxan trochus nllol'icus. BouTON de Rofc, a fpecies of Bulla, ornamented with r.rbuttrefs, ferving to fullain a vault ; and which is itfelf red bands, Oidla ciplujlr: oi lAnnxus. fiiftained by fom.e ilrnng wall, or mafliive pile. The word is French, and comes from the verb bouter, to lilt, or abut, A p:Uar Boutant is a large ch'.in or pile of flone, made to fuDport a wall, terrace, or vaults BOUTE', in the Manege. A horfe is called Louie, when his legs are in a ftraight line from the knee to the coro- net ; (hort-jointed horfes are moft apt toTje loute. Bouton terrejire, the common name of a tcrrcftrial fnail, figured by D'Argcnvillc. It is the helix rotundata of Lin- nxiis. BOUTONNE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Charente, 2 leagues E. of Rochfort ; palling by St. Jean de Angdy, and navigable to that town. BOUTS-RiMES, a popular term in the French Poetry ; fignifying certain rhymes, difpofed in order, and given to a BOUTKOUJ A, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the poet, together with a fubjeCt, to be filled up with verfcs province of Ghilan ; 120 miles N.N.W. of Reflid. eriding in the fame words, and the fame order. The inven- BOUTON, or BooTON, one of the Molucca or rather tion of the bouts-rimes is owing to one Du Lot, a poet, in Ceiebefian iflands, in the Indian fea ; fituate about 12 miles to the fouth-eaft of Celebes. It is a large and woody iOand, and is a kingdom of itfelf, to which the neighbouring iflands belong. The king of Bouton is in alliance with the Dutch company, who pay him a yearly fiim of l^o rix-dollars, or 321. 14s. 6d. fterling, in new Dutch coin, upon condition, that he fhould not only permit the extirpation by the C(;m- pany of all the clove-trees in this and x\e neighbouring iflands, but alfo aflTift them in efTefling it. For this purpofe, the company annually fend out a ferjeant, who is ftyled the extirpator," and who goes through all the woods in the the year 1649. In fixing t!ie bouts, it is ufual to chufe fuch as fcem the remoteft, and have the lead connexion. Some good authors fancy, that thefe rhymes are of all others the eaficft, that they aflill the invention, and furnifli more new thoughts than any others. Sarraan has a poem on the defeat of the bouts-rimes. The academy of Lan- ternifls, at Thouloufe, have contributed towards keeping in countenance the bouts-rimes, by propofing each year a fet of fourteen, to be filled up on the glories of thq grand mo- narque : the vidlorious fonnct to be rewarded with a fine medal. An in(lan."c hereof may be given in the following iflands, a.ad caufes all the clove-trees wliich he meets with to one, filled up by P. Coir.rairt : Tout B O U Tout cH grand Jans le roi, I'afpcc'^ feiil de fon lujlt lUiid nos tiers enncmis plus Irtoids que dcs ^la^ons. r.t Guillaume n'attcnd que Ic tcms dcs mo'iffms. Pour fe voir foccombcr fous un bras fi rclujlt. Qu'on nc nous vante plus Ics miracles d' yluSHfii ! I.ouis dc bien regner lui fcioit dts /.•■ on/ .• Horace cu vain regnk- aux dieux dans fes chunfins : Moinj que mon hcros il eto't fage et Jii/!f, if^- BOUTSALUCK, in Oinitholosy, fynonymoub withru- tulris frnUlofi •.rtitu which fee. BOUTTONNE'E, Er. in Tfcral.lry, is applied to tlie feed of a rofe, when rcprefc-nted of a different colour from the flower; which t!ie Englifli cal!yW/f/il loiivreuil noir d' ylfiiqiie. BOUVIER, the name of motacilla n^vla. Salem. Orn. BOUVIERA, in IcMyoh^y, a name given by fome writers to a fmall frefli-water fnh, found in the clear llreams of France and Germany. Tlic French call it bouvicre. It alfo bears the name of bululca. This is cyprinus amarus of naturalills. BOUVIE^RE, the common name in France o^ ryprinus amarin. BOUVaCNES, in Geography, a town of the Nether- lands, in the county of Namur, featcd on the Meufe. Near Bo'.ivigncs, which was formerly furroundtd with a wall, and had a llrang caftle, are the remains of nn ancient city, called " Chivremont," the inhabitants of which committed many di-pvedations, and defended tliemfelves with valour againft Charles the Simple in 922, agaiiill Otho in 939, and againft liruno arch'.jifliop of Cologne, in 960. But it was at length taken and dellroyed, in 992, by Notger, billiop of Liege. It is diltant four leagues S. from Namur. BOUVINES, or PoNT-A-BouvixEs, a village of Flan- ders, fcated on the river Maique, 3 leagues S.E. of Lille, ■tthcre Philip Augnflus obtained a great victory over the emperor Otho in 1214. BOUVi^EUIL, in Ornilhology (Buffon, &c.), lox'ia fyrrhula of J-innxus and other fyitematie writers ; and bul- iTii.-h of the Englifh. Bouvreuil, in a more general fenle, implies all the birds of the LoxiA genus. BOUXIERES-aux-Dames, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Menrthe, i league N. of Nancy. BOUXWILLER, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the di- ftrift of Savcrnc ; 6 leagues N.W. of Strafburg. The town contains 2700, and the canton 12,264 inhabitants ; tl'.e ter- ritory includes ro5 kiliometres, and 21 communes. BOUZANNE, a river of France, in the department of Indrc, which rifes near Aigurande, 7 leagues from Argen- ton, and difchargcs itfelf into the Creufe, ntarClufeau. BOUZUOGAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro- vince of Natolia ; 24 miles N.W. from Mogla. BOUZE, a town of Trance, in tlie department of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of Bcaune ; i league N.W. from Bta\'.ne. BOUZEK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania ; 52 miles E.N.E. of Kir-(hehr. EOUZILLE', a town of France, in the department of t^e Mayne and Lone ; 1 league S.E. of Ancenis. BOUZfLS, a town of France, in she department of Vendee, and in the .dillrift of Montaigu ; 5 miles fouth of it. BOW BOUZKIR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Beilhehri. BOUZOLS, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire ; i league S. of Puy-en-Velay. BOUZONVILLE, a town of France, in the depart. ment of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftria of Thionville, and 5 leagues S. of it, feated on the Nied. The town contains 1400, and the canton 12,740 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 190 kiliometres, and 40 communes. BOW, ^rctis, a weapon of offence, made of wood, horn, or other eiailic matter ; which, after being ilrongly bent, by means of a ftrinj^ fadened to its two ends, in returning to its natural il:ite, throws out an arrow with great force. The bow is the moft ancient, and the rnoft univcrfal of all weapons : and has been found to obtain among the mod barbarous and remote people, who had the leaft commu. nieation with the reft of mankind. Its invention was afcribed by the ancients to Apollo, and was faid to have been hrft communicated to the primitive in- habitants of Crete : Hence, even in latter ages the Cretan bows were famous, and preferred by the Greeks to all others. Some, however, rather chole to honour Perfes, the fon of Perfeus, with the invention ; while others afcribed it to Scythes the fon of Jupiter, and progenitor of the Scythians, who were not only excellent at the bow, but by many reputed the firft mafters of it. (Potter's Arch. Groec. &c. ) All thefe different tales, however, ferve but to fhow that its antiquity mull be referred to theremoteft periods of hillory. The earlieft inftance in the Old Teftament, where the ufe of the bow is implied, is in that remarkable paffage where Hagar and her fon, driven from the houfe of Abraham, wander in the wildernefs of Beer-fheba. Of Iflimael it is faid (Gen. xxi. 20.), " Ar.d God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wildernefs, and became an archer." The connexion of which with the fifth preceding chapter (xvi. 12.) implies an earlier praftice with the bow than any that can pofTibly be adduced from the profane Iiillorians. The overthrow of Saul was particularly owing to the Philiftine archers, (i Sam. xxxi. ,3.) and (2 Sam. i. iS.) David, we are told, who fucceeded him, " bade them teach the children of Judah the ufe of the bow ; behold it is written in the book of Jalher." The praftice of the bow indeed, at this time, appears to have been fo general, that it was not unfrequently made ufe of as a figure of fpeech. Ifrael, when blelFnig his fons, (Gen. xlix. 23, 24,) fays of Jofeph, " The archers have forely grieved him, and fhot at him, and hated him. But his bow abode in ftrength, and the arms of his hands were made tlrong, by the hands of the mighty God of Jacob." The companies that came to David at Ziklag (l Chron. xii. 2.) •' were armed with boivs, and could ufe both the right hand and the left." Its earlieft application was undoubtedly to the purpofes of food : and accordingly, when Ifaac fent Efau to the foreft, he faid, " Take, I pray thee, thy weapons, thy quiver, and thy bo-a', and go out to the field, and take me fome venifon." The fabulous writers of antiquity affert, that Teutarus, a Scythian, firll gave Hercules a Scv/hinn bow and arrows (Lycophron. Caffandrn, V. 36.) ; and Tiieocritus mentions it by the name of the Msotian bow. From the Scythians, it was derived to the Grecians, fome ofwhofe ancient nobility were inilrufted by the Scytliians i.iitsufe, which in thofe days pali'td for a moft princely education (Potter, Arch. Gra:c. torn. ii. 1. iii. cap. 4. Lc.x. jNIilit. ii. 26c). The Scythian was dillin- guifhtd Aqu'.n BOW wuilTied from the Grecian boiu, as wtll as from ttiat of every otlier nation, by the lintrular incurvation of its Ihape, which was fo great as to form a half-moon or femicircle (Aimn. Marci_-liinus, 1. xx.); whence the fhepherci, in Athcmns, bciiitr to defcrihc the letters in Theftns's name, and ex- prclfiug each of them by fonie appofitt refemblance, com- pares the third to the Scythian bo.v, meaning not the more modern charadter of 'H, bnt the ancient C, which ia fcmi- circular, and bears the jd place in HHCeVC. Among the ancients, the bow-lliing, called rfix^'^'^ij was ma Ir of horfe's liair, and thence called fcTrrrsii. ; though Homer's Low-llrin ;s are fiequcnlly made of hides ci;t into fniall thongs ; whence -ro^.--- Bo;ix. The iippcrmoll part of the bo,v, to which the llring was falleiied, was called j-.o^ivn, b^ing commonly made of gold, and t!ie lall thing towards finiihing the bow. The Grecian bows were frequently beautified with gold orfilver; whence we have inention oi aureus arcus ; and Apollo is called afyvfoTofo,-. But the matter of which they BOW - the tenth cen'uiy, (MS. Cott. Claud. R. iv.) (hews it w.is made very different from what one might cxpcd in a military « eapon : the firing not being falleiied to tlic cxtrtmilics, I'Ut fiiffercd to play at fome dillance from them. In fl/.e too it was a mere toy, compared with t he lon^^-Uiu of fiiccced- ing ages. (Strutt's Sports and I'allimes, p. 39.) The hillory of the hotia-tow lias been a!ri.->dy detailid, under the head of Archkkv. We have here litile elfc to add, than that a variety of afts of parliament, pafl'id in dif- ferent reigns, tended much to the encouragement of thole who ufed it. In ii^'ii (1: Ed. IV. c. ii.}, four bow-llavcs wereo.-flercd to be imported, with every ton of nicicliandizt, from Venice ; and by other acis, pafTed in the firft of Richard III. the lixth of Henry VIII. and the thirteenth of Elizabeth, ten bows for every butt of malmfey. Malm.- ley or Tyre wine, at that time came chiefly from Crete, which then belonged to the Venetians ; and the price of bows, it appears, had rifen from 40s-. to SI. a hundred ( Archa;ol. vol. vii.) In the ^Sth of Henry VIII. the price were ordinarily compofed, feems to have been wood ; though of a ye.v-bow was reduced to three fliiilings and four pence. they were anciently, Scythian like, made of horn, as appears ( Ibid.) from that of Pandarus in Homer (Iliad, d'. v. ic;. Potter Arch. Grtcc. torn. ii. cap. 4.) Till the iecond punic war the Romans had no bowmen in their armies, but fuch as came with their auxiliary forces. (See Potter, lit fupra). The bows of the Arabians, who attended Xerxes' expe- dition, were long, flexible, and crooked, (Herodotus Polymn. Ixix.) The Battrians alfo had their bows and arrovi-s (Ibid. Ixiv.) : and among the Indians they are flill retained. In tli« ages of chivalry its ufe wa: confidcrcd as an cfi'en- tial part of the education c;f a yuing ir.aii, who" wiflied to make a figure in life : and even the ladies, as in later times, partook of the amufeineiit. It is faid of Margaret the daughter of Henry the VII. that when file was on htr way to Scotland, a hunting party was made for her amufement in Alnwick park, where Hie killed a buck with an arrow. (Leland's Colled, vol. iv. p. 2;t!.) And the life of the bow was more th;m once praftifcd by queen Elii^abetli. The In drawing the bow, the primitive Grecians did not pull ladies, however, might probably have iifed the ciofs-bow back their hand towards their right ear, according to the James I. iflued one or two commiflions for the preven- fadiion of modern ages, and of the ancient Perfians (Proco- tion of enclofures in the grounds which had formerly pius de bello Perfico, 1. i.); but, placing their bows been ufed for the pradice of the bow : agreeably to which, diredly before them, returned their hand upon the right the archers' grounds in the immediate neighbourhood of brealt (Euftathius, Iliad. J. p. ,■344. &c.). This was like- London were reduced to the fame ilnte they were in in the wife the ciiftom of the Arna/.onian women, who are reported beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. (Strutt's Sports and to have cut off their right brtaits, left they fhould prove an Paflimes, p. 14.) impediment in fhooting. Among the ancient charters prefervcd in the Biitifh The moll barbarous nations often excel in the fabric of the Mufeum (Rol. ix. 8.), is a petition of the bowyers, flet- particular things which they have the greateft neceflity for, chers, arrow-head-makers, and ftring-makcrs, dated i'^.-;';, in the common offices of life. The Laplanders, who fnppOrt requefting the king to appoint Richard Adamcs and Jcflery themfelv.-s almoll entirely by hunting, have long had an art le Neve to put in force the ftatnte of the th'Vty-tliird of of making bows, which we, in thelc improved parts of the Henry VIII. It was referred by the kino- to the privy world, have never arrived at. council; and a eommiflion, the original of which, witli the Their bow is made of two pieces of tough and ftrong broad feal annexed, is in the fame coUedion (xii. 6S.), was )od fltaved down to the fame fize, and flatted on each afterwards direded to " Timothie Taylor, John Hobatt, fide ; the two flat fides of the pieces are brought clofely and evenly together, and then joined by means of a glue made of the fcales of perch, which they have in great plenty, and of which they make a ghic fupcrior in flrength to any which we have. The two pieces, when once united in this manner, will never fcparate, and the bow is of much more force to cxptl the arrow, than it could pofFibly have been under the lame dimenfions, if made of only one piece. Henry Plobart, and Jefftry le Neve for the maintenance of artillery, areherie, aui.]Jlioo/i-ris; in /oiij^-ioives, to enforce an aft of the thirty-third of Henry VIII. that all perfons under 60 years of age fliould vife and excicife in (hooting in long-bowes ; and that men children, from 7 to 1 7 years of age, fliould be inftrnfted in the fame." This, it feems, was one of the lalt ads by which public encouragement was given to archery. The great body of the people, from the iniprovements that had been made in Having thus traced the early hillory of the bow, and mihtary tadics, were not likely to fupport the c iffion evinced its general ufe, we now come to its hillory as principally confined to England. The bows in ufe have been of two kinds ; the common or loiig-boiu, and the crofs- how : but as the Saxon ho\v appears to have differed from them both, our readers may not be difpleafed to read tlie defcription of it feparate. Its particular ufe among the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes has been already mentioned : in what was now propofed : and the troubles which were rifing turned the attention of the legifiature to more ferious objcds. Afcham (Toxophilus. 157 1. 4to.) fays, it was neccffary for the archer to have a bracer, or clofe fleeve, to lace upon the left arm, that the bow ftring, when loofed from the hand, might not be impeded : to this was to be added a /hool'mg their (lade of braril, elm, a(h, and I . >ir yew, liad tlis laiiClion from at by llif archer* forpnilimc were ., a,,^ i. .ivtTi." The I VII was a level mark, aiij ! (Irouft arrow with a broad fc.ither. The - f;," but ccrtai:i in its iliftance ; arrow, with a middling-lizL'd i---^:\\.r, V - bi't I'lu.i. 1 I'.c ronvir wa* a " mark, of un- certain Icn-lli." And thus were they ikillcd ir. the dilT^rent kmdi of (hootins^. . The two e:uU or extremities of a bow, to which tite ftnng IS faileucd, are called its horns, tornua. And tiie ftrength of a bow may be calculated on this principle, that \\.sfpring, i. e. the power whereby it relljres itlelf to its natural pofition, is always proportionate to the diftance or fpace it 13 removed therefrom. The <-R.ojs-i.;-a', or Jria/et (from ailalffta, \.e.arculalijla, a bow witli a (lii)i;\ conlilU ot a ftcel bow, faftcned upon a rtock, and is difcharged by means of a catch or trigger, whi'.-h probably gave rife to the lock upon the modern mtilket. Caylc, explaining the difftrence between teflimony 3!iid aig'imcut ufes this fimile : " Telliinony is like the fnot of a Ion y-bo'-jj, which owes its efficacy to the force of the (liooter ; argument is like the ftot of a croj's-botv, equally forcible whether difcharj-^ed by a dwarf or a giant." The invention of crofs-bows is faid by ancient writers to have come from the Sicilians. Tliey made both great and Imall bows. The great ones, drawn on wheels, as our can- non are, threw darts three cubits long ; while tliofe of the fmallcr kind were carried by foot-foldiers, the len^jth of whofe quarrels was fcarce a cjbit and an half. The larger ones wt're called ij/J/7<-, of which, as Livy informs us, there were uo lefs than three and thirty at the fiege of Carthage, bcfide fifty-two of a fmaller kind (fee Balista); and Jofephus mentions" forty at the fiege of Jerufalem. Vegetius fays, that the bali'la difcharged arrows with luch rapidity and violence, tliat nothing could refill their fi)rce. And Athe- nius tells us, that Agefiftratus made one of little more than two feet in length, that (liot darts almoll five hundred pacts. (RoUin's Arts and Sciences, vol. ii. p._^.J.) Crofs botvs were firll uftd in England by the Normans, at the battle of Hallings ; and a quarrel, or bar-bolt, from one of them, was the immediate caufe of Harohl's death. That they were afterwards adopted among our military wea- pons, is evident from the continual recurrence of laliflarius in the Domefday Survey. In the reign of Stephen, 1139, the fcoond council of I.atcran p'ohibited their ufe ; and fome hillorians affert, that they were not again ufrd in this country till the reign of Richard I., whofe death, occaficr.ed by one, was confidercd as a judgment on his impiety : bat Fitzllcphen, who wrote his Hilloryof London about 1 180, in tlie reign of Henry II., fays, the fiow-J!aves. See Garbling of bozv-Jlaves. Bow-faio. See Saw. I'OWDOIN, in Geography, a townfliip of America, irj Lincoln county, and diftrict of Maine, on the north-eadern bank of Androfcngcrin river : didant from York, north- eaderly, 36 miles, and froin the month of Kennebeck river 6 miles, and 16G N.E. from Bodon. It contains gS-j in- habitants. BOWDOINHAM, a towndiip of Lincoln county, and didrift of Maine, feparated from Pownalborongh eall, and Woolwich fouth-ead, by Kennebeck river. It lies 17 1 miles N.E. from Bodon, and contains j^^^ inhabitants. BOWED, in Brjtan\, {arcuatus), bent like a bow ; a term exprtffing the direftion of filaments, and the figure of a le- gume. It is employed alfo by Gxrtner, to denote that figure of the cotyledons which is found in fome of the leguminofx and filiquofre, in canella, myrtus, cydus, fcorpiurus, &c. and that figure of the em.brio which occurs in allium, mora;a, afparagus, S;c. BOWEL-Galled, in Farriery, denotes a laceration oc- cafioned by the tightnefs and heat, or friftion, of th« girths, jud behind the elbows of the fore -legs, and is foon hardened and obliterated by two or three applications of 3 foft fpmige, impregnated with common vinegar. BOWELLING, exentcratio, the aft of pulling out the entrails of an animal. Bowelling makes part of the progrefs of embalming. BowF.i,LiNO is alfo a part of the punifiiment of traitors in England, who are to have their bowels ripped open, torn forth, and burnt before them. FrnRioni, fufpendio, decollatioiii, <■.■«- entcraliotii, £5° quaterixaliotii adjudicai'it. Knyght fub. Edw. II. in the fentence of Hugh Spencer. BOWER, Archibald, in Biography, a native of Scot- land, was born at or near Dundee in 1606, educated in the Scots college at Douay, and admitted, in 1706, into the fociety of Jcfuits at Rome. After fome varieties of fitua- tion and employment, during the fucceeding interval, he at length, viz. in 172J, fettled at Macerata, where, according to his own account, he performed the office of counfellor to the Inquifition : conceiving difguft, as he dates the fadl, at the enorraities committed by this tribunal, or, as his enemies 8 alTertj BOW alTcrt, cViavgcd with incontinence, he i-eniaveJ, in I'jiCi, to Perngia, :uiJ fccretly made his efcape to England. Of tlie circumllances attending his efcape he has given a very ample acconnt ; hut his written docnments and oral tcllimony have been fonnd to difler in feveral particulars from each other, and of courfe his integrity was not only fnfpefted but re- proached. Soon after his arrival, he was introduced by Dr. Afpinwall to Dr. Clarke and to bifhop Berkeley, from intcrcourfe with whom, added to his own reading and rea- I'oning, he obtained, as he fays, the fulled conviction that many of the favom-ire dotlrines of the church of Rome were not only repugnant to fcripture and realon, but wicked, blafphcmous, and utterly ineoufiilent with the attiibutcs of the deity. Under the imprcfTion of thefe fentiments he withdrew himfelf from the Romifli communion, and aban- doned the order with which he had been conneCled. His mind feems at this time, according to his own account, to have been in a Hate of fcepticifm and indecifion on the fub- jeft of religion; and though he continued a Protcdant for about fix years, he connected himfelf with no particular de- nomination of Proteftant ChriRians. At length, however, he conformed to the church of England, alleging that this church was " as free in her fervice as any reformed church from the idolatrous practices and fuperllitious of popery, and lefs inclined than many others to fanaticifm and euthufiafm." By the recommendation of Dr. Goodman, phyfician to king George I., he obtained patronage in the family of loii'd Aylmer, and was entruftcd with the education of two of his lordlhip's children. By lord Aylmer, he was introduced to lord Lyttlcton, v%'ho confidered him as a kind of religious confeffor, and remained his adlive friend and zealous advo- cate, even when he was defertcd by almoll every other perfon of any diflinguifhed reputation. Whilft he lived with lord Aylmer, he formed a conneftion with the bookfellers, and was employed, firft, in a monthly publication, entitled " Hilloria Literaria," and afterwards in the compilation of the " Uni- verfal Hillory." The part of this work which he undertook was the Roman hiilory ; but in the execution of it he is charged by his coadjutor, George Pfalmanaazas, with having unduly extended it in fome parts, and in others, particularly in the Byzantine hiftorj^, with having injurioufly abridged it. By the emolument accruing from his tuition and writinE;s, he accumulated a confiderable fum of money, the difpufal of which led to difcoveries which very materially injured his character, and fubjeCled him to jull reproach. According to his own ftatement, he propofed to purchafe a hfe annuity with this money, amounting to iiool. ofold Kouth-Sea annuities ; but being difappointed in thefe views, he negotiated with Mr. Hill, a Jefuit, refpefting the loan of it ; and obtained from him an intereft equal to that which he might liave made of it by the purchafe of the annuity in which he was difappointed. A very different account of this tranfaftion has been given by thofe pcrfons who have queftioned his integrity ; and it muft be acknowledged, that it is accomparjed with lucli kind of evidence, as leaves little room forhefitation in admitting the credibility of it. They allege, that being defirous of re-admiffion into the church, which he had abandoned, he made ufc of his money in a way which would ferve to recommend him to the ftiperiors of the fociety with which he wifhcd to be re-united. Accordingly, he propofed to father Shirburn, then provincial in England, to deliver up to him, as reprefentative of the fociety, his whole dock, on condition of their granting him a life-an- nuity, of 7 per cent. The offer was accepted ; and Bower paid at fundry times fums of money, amounting in the whole to I J50I. and ftipulated by a bond to receive yearly 94 1. los. In confequence of this negotiation, Bower was re- admitted, BOW in a formal manner, into the order of Jefnits, at I-ondon, about the end of the year 1 744, or beginning of the year 174_';. Afterwards lie determined, for reafons not fatis- faftorily afcertained, to fcparatc from the order of Jefuits; and upon leaving them he obtained a return of his money. When a fecond edition of the " Univerfal Hidory" was in contemplation, the bookfellers, very unforluately for tlicm- felves and for the credit of the work, engaged Bower to re- vife and corrcft it ; but though he received a coniidcrable fum of money, not lefs than 300I. he publifhcd it without any material emendation. In 1747 he announced (o the public propofals for a " Hiilory of the Popes ;" the full volume of which was prefented to the king in the following year. In recompence of his labour, Mr. (afterwards lord) Lyttleton, obtained for him the place of keeper of queen Caroline's library ; and his credit being fomcwhat revived, he married a niece of bilhop Nicholfon, v.'ith a fortune of 4000I. His " Hidory of the Popes" was continued, in fucceflive volumes, printed at different periods. In i 7/54 hi* unalterable friend, Mr. Lyttleton, appointed him clerk of the buck-warrants, a place which, thongli of no great emolu- ment, evinced his continued attachment. In this year the lird attack was made on his " Hidory," which the advocates of popery confidered as peculiaily hollile to their church, in a pamphlet printed at Doway, entitled " Remarks on the two lird volumes of the late lives of the popes," 8vo. ; a publication afcribed by Mr. Bower to a popilh pried of the name of Butler, one of the moll active and dangerous emiffa- ries of Rome in this kingdom. But an event foon happened, which was much more ruinous to the reputation of Mr. Bower, and which funk him into total difgrace ; and this was the divulging of his corrcfpondence with the Jefuits. The charges alleged againd him were repelled with fpirit by himfelf; but his veracity, though attelled by an affidavit, was quedioned ; and he had fcarcely any friend left befides lord Lyttleton. In the courfe of this controverfy, he was in danger of being exhibited on the llage, as a mock con- vert of profligate charadler, by Mr. Garrick, on account of the manner in which he mentioned that incomparable adlor and his lady, in his " Summary of the controverfy between the papids and the author," 410. But Mr. Garrick, by the mediation of lord Lyttleton, was induced to wave that public chaftifement which he had intended. The reputation of Bower's hidory declined with his own j the fourth volume was publiflied during the agitation which the controverfy in which he was engaged had produced ; the fifth appeared in 1761 ; and the fixtli and fevciith volumes were prefented to the public a little time before his death ; and whatever may be the edimation in which the preceding volumes deferve to be held, tlicfe two are executed with fuch hade as to deferve very- little regard. The whole period from 1600 to 1758 is com- prehended in 26 pages ! Bower died in 1766, at the age of I'o; and he left a will, dated in 1749, which contained no written declaration of his religious principles, agreeably to the praftice which very much prevailed in thofe times, and which, in his peculiar circumdances, might have been reafon- ably expedled. His widow, however, fometime after his death, atteded his having died in the Protedant faith. New Biogr. Di(ft. 8vo. 1798. Bower, Lut/y's, or Vir^hi's, in Botany. See Clematis. Bower, in Carchnhig, a fliady place, under covert of trees or branches interwoven. A bower differs from an arbour, in that the latter is always built long and arched, but a bower either round or fquare at the bottom, and made with a fort of dome or ceiling at the top. See Arbours. 'Rovit.t.-anchors, hejl andfmtill, in Sea-Language. See Ak- CHOR. Ui BOWES, BOW BOWES, in Ctograi^hy, a town of Yorkl'hire, England, ii more noted for its former than picftnt coufcqueiice. During t!ic abode of the Romans in Brit^iin, this place was chofen for one of their military ilalions; iiiid from an iiilcribcd »ltar found here, it appears, that, in the reign ot Severus, Vfhen Viriiu Lupu j was legate ami proprxtor of Britain, the firft cohort of the Thracians wa« in garrifon here. Horfley, in his Britannia Romans, fays, " there is an old caftle here, which, with the churcli, (land in the nortli part of the old Roman llation, and no doubt have been built out of the ruins of it." About two furlongs fouth of this llation (called iavatris) runs the river Greta. Bowes is included in that divifion of the county of York, called Richmondfliire, in the north riding, at the dillance of 4 miles from Barnard caftle, and 248 miles north from Lon- don. The town confills of one long llreet, running cail and well, and contains 120 houfes and 670 inhabitants. Here is a weekly market on p'ridays, and one fair annually. This parifli includes the three townfiiips of Bowes, Boldroi;, and Gilmonby. The furrounding country, confiRing molUy of moors and commons, abounds with coal and lead mines, which, with the royalty, belong to the proprietor of Carlton- hall. About two mHes from Bovvp's, is a fmjvilar natural curiofity, called God's biulge, which is farmed by a rude arch of freeftone. This llrctches acrofs the river Greta, the waters of which are precipitated over dilTereiit ledges of rocks, and foon afterwards fink beneath tliefurface, and con- tinue through a fubtcrraneous paii'age of about half a mile, when they again emerge into light through fome rocky ca- vities. Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia. Hutchin- fon's Tour to the Lakes, Svo. BOWET, or BowEss, among Falconers, denotes a young hawk when (he draws things out of her neft, and covets to clamber on tlie boughs. BOWGE of court. See Bouche of court. BOWL, denotes either a ball of wood for the ufe of bowling, or a vefTel of capacity for holding liquors. BowL-waJll. See W.'.ssF.i,-i}«.«'/. BOVVLL)ER_/?(/;.YX, a fpecies of fmall (lone?, of an inde- terminate texture and figure, generally ronndilli, found on the ftiores of the fca and banks of rivers. Bowlders, or bowlder- ftones, are only lumps and fragments of ilones or marble, broken from the adjacent chrts, and rounded by being bowled and tumbling to and again by the aftion of the water; whence the name bowlder-ftones, as being formed by an aftion like that of a bowl, and thereby reduced to the fmipe of one. Neither the bowlders nor rubbk-ltones are ever invelled with an exterior ftrong crud or fkin : it is plain from the maimer of their formation they cannot. This is one mark by which they are dil'iinguifhed from flints, peb- bles, or the other native nodules, which were formed before the fubfiding of the matter of the ftrata, and are always ■ covered with fnch a cruft or flcin, unlefs it has been worn off. BOWLE, JOHN, in Biography, reftor of Idmiuftone near Salifbury, was a defcendant of Dr. John Bowie, bifhop of Rochcftcr in the 17th century, born in 1725, and being ad- mitted of Oriel college, i:i the univerfity of Oxford, took the degree of mailer of arts in I 750. He had the honour of being, according to Dr. ]3ouglas's account, the original de- teAor of Lander's forgeries, for the purpofe of injuring the reputation of Milton. He was the author of a " Letter to Dr. Percy," and editor of Don Quixote in Spanifh, and of Marfton's Satires, and fome old poetry in Englith. He died in 17«S. KewBiog. Dift. B0WLE3JA, in Botany (named after Bowles, author of Tnveh in opain). Flora of Pern, pi, ^4. Bofc in Nuuveau BOW Diaionaire d'Hiftoire NaturcUe. Chis, ptntandrla digynU. Nat. Ord. umbclllfera. Gen. Char. Umbel of three flowers. In-uol. none. Fruit tetragonal. Seeds two, externally concave. BO\VI.INE,in 5i.-a-/aH?«(7.::^f, aropefallcned ncarthe middle of the leech, or perpendicular edge of the pi incipalfquare fail?, by three or four fubordinate parts called bridles, and leading^ forward towards the bow, and hence its name. It is always iifcd when the wind, is fo nufavouriible that the fails mud be all braced lideways, or clofe- hauled to the wind : in this fitua- tion, the bowlines are employed to keep the weather or windward edges of the principal fails tiglit forward and fteady, without which they would be always fhivering. and rendered incapable of fervice. Neither the fpritfail, nor fprit-fail top-fail has bowlines, as there is no place forward to which tliey could L-ad, and therefore thefe iails cannot be nfed when the velfel is upon a wind. The bowlines of the fore-fail, fore-top-fail, and fore-top-gallant-fail, lead to the bowfprit. Thofe of the main-fail, main-top-fail, and maiii- top-gallant-fail lead to the foremall ; and the mizen-top« fail, and top-gallant bowlines lead to the main-maft. To check or cafe the bowline, is to llacken it, when tlis wind becomes large, or more aft ; and when the wind comes more a-hcad, or the (liip lies nearer to it, fu that any parti- cular fail is fhivering, or nearly fo, it then becomes necelTary to j;et the weather-leech of that fail more forward, that the fail may Hand, or be kept full ; and the order for this pur- pof-- is to haul taught, or take a pull of the weather bow- hue belonging to that fall. BowLiNH-i/vV/Zfj-, the ropes by which the bowh'ne is faf* tened to the leech of the fail. BowLiNE-ifna/, a particular kind of knot which will not flip, by which the bowline bridle is faftened to the cringle. See Knot. BOWLING, the aft or art of throwing bowls. Bow!, ing, among us, is chiefly the name of a game or exercife^ praftifed either in open places, as bares and bowling-greens, or in clofe bowling-alleys. The ikill of bowling depends much on a knowledge of the ground, and the right choice of a bowl fuitable to it : for clofe alleys the fiat bowl ; for green fwards plain and level, the bowl as round as a ball is preferred. The terms ufed in bowling, are, to loiul -wide, which is when the bias does not hold, or is not fliong enough ; nar- row, when it is too ftrong, or holds t o much ; jintly hoiulcd, is when the ground is well chofen, and the bowl paffcs near the block, even though it goes much beyond it ; howling through, or z yard over, \s done in order to move the block ; an ci'cr-lowl, that which goes beyond it ; a bowl laid at hand, is that put down within the gamtfter's reach, to be in the way of the next bowler, and hinder his having the advantage of the bcil ground ; bowling at length, neither bowling through nor fhort ; a dead length, a juft or exadt one; throwing or flinging, is difeharging a bowl with a ftrength purpofcly too great for a length, in order to carry- off either the block or iome near bowl ; bowl-room, or m/^ ing-wood, is when a bowl has free palfage, without ftriking on any other; get ojf, is when a bowl being narrow, is wanted to be wider ; bowl bejl at block, that neareft the block ; drawing a cafl or bowl, is to win it by bowling nearer, without ilirring either the bowl or block; a bowl is faid to rub, when it meets with fome obflacle in the ground which retards its motion, and weakens its force ; it is gone, when far beyond the block. Block fignifies a little bowl laid for a mark, alfo called a jack. Mark, is a proper bowling dif- tance, not under fo many yards ; and being at leaft a yard and a half from tlie edge of the green. Ground, a bag or hand° BOW handkercliief laid down to mark where a bowl is to go. Lead, -the advantage of throwing the block, and bowling Jirll. C|ue colki\_z." This edition was fold with great rapidity ; and the conjeaural emendations were well received by the learned. Thefe were feparately publifhed, with very confidcrable' enlarge nients, in one v ""^^- '>'= title of " Sclet-t Difcourfes; i. of the corre pondence ot Hebrew months with the Jnl.an, from the Latn. o p ofelTor Michaehs ; 2. of the Sabbat.cal years, frcnr the r . . Inrl - of the years of jubilee, from an anonymoiiS : te in Maifon's HiLire Cri-lique de la Republiqne des retrre "" ^"'i '" ^"4. 1'=^ correfted a new edit.on of Sch'velius's Greek le(:,con to .-hich he added a number of new words, collected in the courle of h.s ftud, s. Of bs critical ll;i^.7rj, accord- ing to Terence : " Siqua eft habilior paulo, pugilem cfie aiunt." M. Burette has given the hillory of the ancient pugilate, or boxing, with great exaflnefs. Mem. Acad. Infcript. torn. iv. p. 353, &c. The athletSE fometimes came immediately to blows, and began with charging in the moft furious manner. Some- times, whole hours paffed in haralTing and fatiguing each other, by a continual extenfion of their arms, rendering their mutual blows incffeclual, and endeavouring by this mode of defence to keep off their adverfaries. But when they fought with the utmoll fury, they aimed chiefly at the iiead and face, which parts they were moft anxious to de- fend, by cither avoiding or catching the blows that were aimed at them. When a combatant threw himfclf with all his energy upon another, they had a furprifing addrefs in avoiding the attack, by a nimble turn of the body, which caufed the incautious adverfary to fall, and deprived him of the viftory. Notwithftanding the ferocity with which tlie combatants contended, they were ibmirtimcs fo exhaufted VeL. V. BOX by the duration of the combat, as to be tinder the neccflity of making a truce, upun which the b.ittle was fufpended for ionic minutes, which were employed in recovering from their fatigue, and rubbing off the fweat with which they were, bathed. They then renewed the fight, till one of them, by letting fall his arms through weakncfs, or by Iwooning away, indicated that he could no longer fupport thcpaiu and fatigue, and dcfircd quarter, which was con- Iciling himfelf vanquilhcd. Tliis art, adapted, as one might conceive, only to a pe- riod of barbarifm, has in modern times been almoft appro- priated by the Englilh ; and about half a century ago, it formed a part of the exhibitions at places of public amufe- nient. It was encouraged by the nobility, and even toler- ated by the magiftrates. Before the cftabhfliment of Broughton's amphitheatre, a booth was eredled at Totten- ham court hi London, the proprietor of which, Mr. Geo. Taylor, invittd the jirofeffors of the art of pugilifm to dif- pl^ay their ikili, and the public to attend their performances.. The entrance money, amounting fcmetimLS to loo or 150I., was fliared among the performers, in fuch proportion, that the victorious champion had two thirds of it, and the van. quillied one third ; and in fome cafes, both had an equal Ihare. When complaints were made by the nobility an* gently of the inconvenience attending the exhibitions in- Taylor's booth, they prevailed on Mr. Broughton, at that time of vifi:;g fame in the clafs of pugilifts, to build a place bcttei- adapted for the purpofe. A fubfcription was raifcd, and, in 1742, a building was erefted behind Oxford-road, and denominated " Broughton's new Amphitheatre." In this building, there were, befidesa ftage for the combatants, feats correfponding to the boxes, pit, and galleries in other theatres. In proecfs of time, the public tafte was re- fined and improved, fo that exhibitions of this kind ceafgd to be popular, and funk into neglcft. At a later period, the death ot one of tiie combatants ferved to render them ftill more difreputable, and unworthy of any patronage and en- couragement. Inftances, however, are often occumiig of the renewal of thefe conttfts ; but they are now fo dif- graceful in the public eftimation, and fo much reftrained and prohibited, by the interference of the magiftrates, that they are attended by few perfons above the loweft clafs of the community, whenever, by eluding notice, they happen to take place. Boxing, an operation in failing, fomewhat fimilar to box-hauling. It is performed by laying the head fails a. back, to receive the greatcft force of the wind in a line per. peudicular to their furface, in order to bring the fhip's head back into the line of her courfe, after (he had inclined to windward of it, by negled of the perfon at the helm, or otherwife. But flioiild a (liip be taken flat a-back, or through negled in not timely boxing her off, it Ihould caufc the wind to be broad upon the other bow, and it fl'.ould be the wifli of the officer to have her upon the fame tark as before, then furl the helm over to that fide, which jnll before was the weather; brail up the mizcn, and mi. zen [lay-fail; raife the main-tack and flieet, and fquare the after-yards. In this fituation of the helm and fails, (he will pay round off upon her keel ; and when (he ha* brought the wind aft, and gathered head-way, (liift the helm. The wind round upon the other quarter, haul aft the mizen and niizen fta\ -fail (lieets, brace up tlie after- yards, get on board the main tack, and hawl aft the flieet. As (lie comes to, right the helm, and trim ftiarp as before. Boxing, in Ship-building, the projection left on the haufe-picces, in the wake of the haule-hoks, where the plankf do not rut) through. . BOY BOXING H iilfo ul'cJ for ihe tapping of a tree, to make it MtlJ Its juice. Tlic boxinc; of maple is pcrformcil by ninking a VirL- with en »x or cliiiiil into tlie fide of tbe tree, ahout a foot from tlic grouiiH ; out of it flows a bqnor from whitli fiigar is mr.de. Phil. Tranf. N"' J64. See Mafue, Dlkldixq- liiitCH, and Sap. BOXMEER, in Gfn^rnfih, a town of Germany, fitu- .Jte on the well lide of ibc Nlt-ufe, on the frontiers of the diichv of Giieldrcs: 8 leaguis E. of Dois-le-Duc, and 4 S. S.' W. of Clevc». DOXTKHUDE, a town of Geniiany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of IVenicn, L-ated on the river Eike or EITi:, navigallc for boats to the Elbe. It is fub- jert to tlie Danes ; 14 miles W. of Hamburg. N. lat. 3.;' 40'. E. ioil^r. if" \ :;'. BO.XTEi,, a town of Bi-abant, featcd on the Dommel, and furni'hfd with Unices; 5 miles S. of l)oib-le-duc. N. lat. i^i" ,!o'. E. long. [," Tj'. BOY-BisHOP, in jlnllquity. See Bishop, Bov, Si. in Geo;;raphy, a town of Spain iu the province of Catalonia ; 6 miles 6. W. of Barcelona. BOYAR, or BoiAR, a tern nfed for a Rufiian lord, or grandee. According to Bccman, boyars are wliat, in other countries, are called the upper nobility : he adds, that the cy.ar of Miifcovy, iu his diplomas, names boyars before waywodes. It hasnot yet been fatisfaftorily determined, what the ancient boyars were ; whence they derived their delcent ; and how they maintained their dignity ; and whether this dignity was conferred by the fovercign ; whether it attached to birth, or whether it fprung from tlie rank and import- ance which they brought with them into the country. If we confider them as the privy counfcUors of the fovereign, then their precedence arifes merely from their office, or ihey mull have pofTefled it by their birth. But it has been likewife affirmed, that the boyars, now in general the moil confidcrable of the Ruffian nobility, came from abroad, were fprung frbm foreign anceftors, and brought their nobility into the empire with them. However, future refearches are necelfary for obtaining fatisfailion, with regard to thefe quellions. During the Tartarian and Mongolian fovereign- tv, no trace of them is found ; and even during the reign of czar Ivan VaffiUicvitch I. no fuch title appears, though it fecms to have arifen at that time, or very foon after it : for, under the c/.ar Ivan VaffiUievitch II., the boyars had already endeavoured to colleft a confiderable force ; but were much overawed by that monarch. In the fuc- ceeding period of dillraftioii, occafioned by the afpiring views of the patriarch and his fuperior clergy, the boyars feized the favourable opportunity of extending their power. It is alfo probable, that perfons of refpeftable birth from other countries, who occupied high ftations in Ruffia, and on this account, as well as from the privileges biought with thetn, enjoyed great authority ; and hence all boyars, i. e. the fuperior officers, might take occafion to alTume a confequence, which they afterwards, as opportu- nities occurred, endeavoured to enlarge. Although the boyars are always mentioned in hi(loi-y as peifons of diftinc- tion, yet the fame hiftory alio informs us, that they re- ceived their dignity from the fovereign alone, that it was entirely perfonal, and that it was not tranfmitted bv inheritance from lather to fon. Accordingly, it depended on the will of the monarch, whether he would have many or few boyars: and, therefore, they can never be con- fidered as native privileged deputies of the people, nor as perfons who could rellcain the power of tte fovereign, or BOY refill him in the undue exertions of it. In lome cafes, however, they «fur])ed an authority to which they had no jiill pracnfions, aiid th.cn brought great diltrels upon the empire. At the drasviiig up of the uloflicnic, or old law of the land, they, as well as the clergy, were confulied ; but probably only as privy counfellors, under which d'-f- cription they were generally noticed in the ukaflcs. How- ever, in order to prevent any further ufurpation and mif- takes, an order was iifued in 1701 by Peter I., that they fliould no lo!iger be mentioned at all in the iikalTes. T'l-oin the authority they pofTed'ed, and with a natural defire of extending it, it may be reafonably prefutned, that they took a lead in the eleftions of the fovereign princes, if they were not the prime managers of them ; tlity without doubt thought themfelves the full perfonages after tlie fovereign and tlie privileged reprefentatives of the people, erpccially of all the rcll of the nobility ; and this fetms to be the reafon why the latter are not named among the eleftors. 1'he boyars, in early times, when wars were frequent, belides having a fliare in the eleftion, were commanders of the army, as well as the minifters and counfellors of the prince. The direfting fenate in the Ruffian government, inftituted by the em- peror Peter I. about the year l/ii, and raifed to the rank of the fiipreme college of the empire, confilted at firll of 9 boyars ; and feems to have been created in the place of tiie old boyars. The boyars before his tim.e fat at the helm of ihite in the capital, and officiated as viceroys in the pro- vinces, deciding, commanding, and afting, according to their own humours. But he abrogated the court of boyars, called " Boyar(lc Icat of fir Jiilm Glynn, by wliom lie was then cm- ployed in his profclTional capacity, and in the parifli of which nii father was an inhabitant, naturally attracted his atten- tion. An cxart delineation of a building that he had fo often contemplated, alFordcd him pltaliire, and excited an allonilhnnent caiier to be conceived than defcrihcd. Con- iiderin^ it as an engravinj;, and rcflcftintj that from the fame copper might be taken an almoft indefinite number of iinpnlliuns, fie determined to quit the pen, and take up the graver, as an inltrunienc which would enable him to dilTeminate whatever work he could produce, in fo much wider a circle. This refolution was no looner made, than it was put in execution ; for, with that fpirit and perl'evcrance which he manifetled in every fucceedi:!j; iccne of life, lie, at twenty-one ytars ol age, walked up to the metropolis, and bound hinifclf apprentice for icven years to Mr. Toms, the engraver of the print which had fo forci- bly attraAed his attention. Tliefe, and accidents equally trifling, fometimcs attra<5l men of (bong minds into the path that leads dirctt to fame, and have been irenerally conlidered as proving that they were born with iomc peculiar genius for fomc peculiar lludy ; tho\igh, afti-r all, genius is per- haps little more than what a great moralill has defined it : — " a mind with ilrong powers accidentally direfltd to fome particular objed." Sir J. Reynolds had the firll fondnels for his art excited by the perulal of " Richardioii's Treatife on Painting ;" and, as we have before obfcrved, Mr. Boy- dell was induced to leirn the art of engraving, by a coarfe print of a coarfe artift, reprefenting a mif-(hapen Gothic calUe. His conduft, during his apprenttcelhip, was eminently atllduous. Eager to attain all pcllihle knowledge of an art on which his mind was bent, and of every thing that could be ufeful to him ; and impelled by an iiidullry that feenied inherent in his nature, he, whenever he could, attended the academy in St. Martin's lane to perfect himfelf in drawing ; his Icifure hours in the evening were devoted to the lludy of pcrfpedive, and to the learning of French without the aid of a mailer. After very ileadilypurfuing hi> bufinefs for fix years, and finding himfelf a better artill than his teacher, he bought from Mr. Toms the lall year of his apprentictfliip, and became his own mailer; and the firfl ufetliat he mai'e of his freedom was to return 'into his own country, wheie he mar- ried a very deferving young perfon of a mod refpe6table fa- mily, to whom he had an early attachment, and with whom he lived many years in great felicity. Inthcyear i74y,ori746, he publiflied fix fmalllandfcapts, defigned and engraved by himfelf. This publication, from his having, in moll of the views, chofen a fituation in which a bridge formed part of the fctnery, was entitled " The Bridge- Book," and fold for a fliilling. Small as this fum was, he fometimes fpoke with apparent pleafure of a filverfmitli in Duke's-court, St. Martin's-laiie, having fold fo many, that when he fettled his annual account, he thought it would be civil to take a filver pint mug in part of payment, and this mug he retained until his dying day. He afterwards defigned and engraved many other views, generally of places in and about London, and publifhcd the greater part of them at the low price of one lliilling each. But, even at this early period, he was fo much alive to fame, that after having paffcd fevcral months in copying an hiilorical pidure of Coriolanus by Stballiaii Concl:a, he fo much difiiked his own engraving, »liikt h« CUV the plate to pieces. J3eliUc thsfe, he engraved BOY many print'; from Brocking, Berchcm, Salvator Hofa, kc. The manner in which many of them are executed is highly refpedabic ; and, being done at a time when the artill had much otlur bufinefs to attend to, difplnys an induftry rarely to be paralleled, and proves, that had he devoted all his time to engraving, he would have ranked high in the pro- fellion. His facility of execution, and unconquerable per- fcveiance. having thus enabled him to complete 152 prints, he coUedcd the whole in one port-folio, and publilhed it at five guineas. He modellly allowed, that he himfelf had not at that time arrived at any eminerce in the art of engraving; and that thofe prints are now chlelly valuable from a compari. fon of them with the improved llate of the art within the lafl 50 years. In fad, there were at that time no eminent en- gravers in England ; and Mr. Boydcll faw the nccefiity of forcing the art by ilimulating men of genius with fiiitable rewards. With the profits of the folio volume of prints above mentioned, he was enabled to pay very liberally the bell artilis of his time, and thus prefented the world with Engliflt engravings from the works of the greatell mailers. The encouragement that he experienced from the public way equal to the fpirit and patriotifm of his undertaking, and foon laid the foundation of an ample fortune. He ufed to oLftrve, that he believed the book we have alluded to was the firtt that ever made a lord mayor of London ; and that: when the fmallnefs of the work was compared with what had foliowed, it would imprefs all young men with the truth of what he had often held out to them, " that iiidullry, patience, and per- feverance, if united to moderate talervts, are certain to fur- mount all difficulties." Mr. Boydell, though he never him- felf made any great progrels as an engraver, was certainly the greatell encouiager of the art that this country ever knew. Englilh engravings, which were before confidercd as extremely inferior to thofe of foreign nations, began from that time to.be highly prized ; and ihe exportation of them foon became a valuable article of conunerce. On the jth of Augull, 1782, Mr. Boydell v»as chofen alderman of Lon- don, for the ward of Cheap, in the room of alderman Cricliton, deceafcd. Having been fo fucccfsful in promoting the art of engrav- ing in this country, he rtfolved to dired his next efforts to the cltahlillimg of an Englilh fchool of hiilorical painting ; and julUy conceiving that no fubjed could be more appro* priate for fuch a national attempt, than England's infpired poet, and great painter of nature, Shakfpeare, he projeded, andjull lived to fee com])leted, a moll Iplendid edition of the works of that author, ilhidratcd by engravings from paintings of the firll artilis that the country could furnifhi and of which the expence was prodigious. Thcfc paintings afterwards formed what was termed " The Sliakfpeare Gat lery," in Pall Mall ; and we believe there are few indivi- duals, pofTcired of the leall talte, or even curiofity, wha have not infpeded and been delighted by them. In the year 1790 Mr. Boydell was chofen lord mayor of London ; an office, of which he difeharged the duties and the honours with a diligence, uprlglitnefs, and liberality, that may be equalled, but will rarely be exceeded. Alter having expended, in his favourite plan of advanc- ing the fine arts in England, no lets a fum than 550,000!. this worthy and venerable eharaiiter was neccfiltated, by the floppage of his foreign trade during a dozen ) ears of war, to apply to parliament, in the beginning cf ii>o4, tor per- mifTion to dil'pofe of the Shakl'pcare gallery, and his other colledions of pidures and pnuls, by way of lottery. His letter to fir John William Anderfon, bart. on the occafion of his introducing a petition for that purpol'e to the houfe of commons, is preferved in moll of the rcfpedable periodi- cal BOY BO Y cal publications of the time, and will at once inform, in- llrud, and deeply affeft the feilings of the reader. It is, however, too lon;^ for infcrtioii in this place; and, indeed, the facility of rdererice to the Gentleman's, the European, the Monthly Magazines, &c. render it httle ncceffary. £A ccincidenct that may be jviil worth mentioning here is, that by mere cliance this article came undrr the writer's hand on tlie veiy day which, by the refiilt of the lottery, transferred the property of this valuable colledtion to Mr. Taffie, an aitiil of Leicefter Square, the nephew of a late well known imitator of ancient cameos and intaglios. J Mr. Boydell's deatli was occafioned at lall by a too fcrupu- lous attention to his olTieial duties. Ahvays early in his at- tendance on public bufmefs, he arrived at the Sctrions-houfe in the Old Bailey, on I'riday the 7th December 1804, before any of the other magillr^tcs, and before the fires were lighted. Standing near a prate while this was done, the damps were drawn out, and he took, a cold ; this produced an inflammation of the lungs, which terminated his life on the I'nefday following. He was interred, witli great civic pomp (the fpontaneous refult of private fricndfliip and pub- lic relpicl), on the 19th of the fame month, in tlie church of St. Olavf, Jewry ; leaving behind him, for the inltruiflion of mankind, a llrdcinir c.xample to what heights of fiimc and fortune men may attain by the united efforts ot perfevtring indulh-y, prudent entcrpri/,e, and honourable dealing. We havf fhcwu liow Mr. Boydell's 152 placts, engraved by him- felf. laid the foundation of his fortune. We underlfaiid, how- ever, that he was alfo the means of making Mr. Woollet's genius known to the pubhc, by employing him to engrave the Niobe and the Pliaeton, from pittures by Wilfoii. For the firll of thcfe he agreed to give WooUet 50 guineas, and when it was completed, paid him 100. The lecond the artill agreed to engrave for 50 alfo ; but Mr. Boy dell paid him 120. The two prints were publillied by fubfcription at 5s. each ; and proof impreffions have fiiice been fold at pub- lic audion? for ten and fometimes eleven guineas each ! ! BOYER, Abel, was born at Callrcs in 1664, and on occafion of the revocation of the edlft of Nantes, lie became a refugee, and finally fettled in England, where he became a confiderable writer. His " French and Englilli Ditlionary," 4to. has been often publiihed, and is well known ; and fo is his " French and EngliOi Grammar." His " Political State" was a moutlily pnblieation> commenced in January 1710, and continued to November 17:^9. He alfo wrote the " Hillory of king William," 3 vols. 8vo. ;" " Annals of queen Anne," II vols. Svo. ; a French trarilation of " Addifun's Cato ;" " Letlei'S French and En^lifh ;" an Englllh tranOation of " Telemac!:us ; " State Trials to that of the Earl of Ox- ford," and fevetal other works. He died at Chelfea, in 1729. Moreri. Geii. Biog BoYER, JoHM Baptist Nicholas, was born at Mar- feilles, Augufl the 5th, 169J. His father, intending to bring him up to bufinefs, gave him a fuitable education, and, at a proper a/e, fent him to Conllantinople, to his uncle, who was conful there ; but finding him inclined to literature, and to tiie iludy of medicine, he fent him, on his return from, the Levant, to the univerfity at Montpelliet. In the year 17 17, he took the degree of dodlor, and gave for his inau- gural thcfis, " A DilTertation on Inoculation of the Small Pox," which he had feen prafufed at Conllantinople. On the plague breaking out at Marftilles, in 1720, he was fent there with five other phyfieians ; and his praftice, or his condufl on that occafion, having been approved, he was re- warded by the king with a peniion, and was made phyllcian to a regiment of guards. He was fome years after invited to Hunlpruche, a town in the bifliopric of Treves, where an infetlious fever was making great ravages, and, in 1742» to Paris, on a fimilar occafion. Hia fucccfs at theie places occafioned him to be fent tor to Bcauvais, in 1750, where by his judicious miinagement lie prevented the fpreading of an infectious fever, infelliug that country. For thife fer- vices he was honoured by the king with letters of nobility, and invelled with the order of St. Michael. He died Jan. J768. His works are " Methode indiquee contrc la mahidic epidemiquc qui vient de regncr ii Beanvais," Paris, 17'0, 4to. It conlills of only ten pages. " Mctliode a fuivrc dans le traitement de difierentes maladies epidemiqnes qui regnent le plus ordinairement dans la generalite de Paris," 1761, l2mo. He wrote, in 1745, a " Memoir" on the dif- eafe infeiling the cattle at tliat time. It was fent to the Royal Society in London, and procured him a place in the lilt of their foreign members. He alfo gave a new edition of the Codex medicamentarlus," feu " Pharmacopxia Pari- ficnfis," 4to. a very ufeful and well digelted work. Eloy, Dia. Hill. Boyer's Bay, in Geography, lies at the N.W. end of the ifland of St. Kitts, in the Well Indies. BoYER, in Navigalion, a kind of Flemiflr floop, or fmall vefTel of burden, having a boltfprlt, a callle at each end, and a tall mall ; cliiefly fit for the iiavigatiq,n of rivers, and, in many of its parts, refembling a fmack. The boyer has a doable bottom, and a forked mad, that it may run better with the bowling-line, without driving. BOYEIIA, in Geography, a village of Africa, in the kingdom of Anta, on the Gold coaft, fituate between Bourtry and Tokorari, and wholly inhabited by fifhermen and labourers, who carry on a confiderable trade with their neighbours by exchanging the fruits of the earth and fi(h foe the produce of other countries. This village, and an adjoining one, called " Pandos," of the fame defcription, are known at fea by a large pointed rock that lies before the coall. BOYES, an order of American priefts or magicians, ufed by the favages for calling up their gods, either to be re- venged on thofe who have done them any injury, or to be cured of fome difeafe, wherewith they are infefted, or to drive out fome devil. They are alfo confulttd with regard to the event of their wars. Each boye has his peculiar duty ; who is invoked by certain forms of words, fung in a quaint tone, accompanied with the fumes of tobacco. BOYEUPECANGA, in Zoology, the name of a very- large ferpent, dillinguiihed by this name on account of cer- tain prominences on its back. It is a very large and remark- ably thick ferpent, and of very fatal poifon. Ray. BOYLE, Richard, in Biography, an accomplilhed l\atef- man, generally llyled the " Great earl of Cork," was the defeendant of an eminent and honourable faniily in Hereford- tliire, and the fecond fon of Roger Boyle, a younger bro- ther, who fettled at Canterbury, where he was born in 1565. Having purfued his Ihidles for fome tune at Bennet college in the univerfity of Cambridge, he removed to ihe Middle Temple with a view to the profeflion of the lav/ ; but he foon changed his dedinatiou, and entered into the fervice of fir Richard Manwood, chief baron of the exchequer. This fituation preleiiting to him no profpctlof fpeedy advancement, he went to Dublin in l_';SS ; and, though his whole wealth amounted only to 27I. js. he had good recommendations, which, together with his own talents, introduced him into connexion with the principal pcrfons employed in the go- vernment, to whom lie rendered himfelf eminently ufeful. The bufinefs in which he was engaged afforded opportuni- ties ot acquiring a comprehenfive and accurate knowledge of the kingdom, and of the ftate of public aftairs, which he did not negledt duly to improve. His marriage alfo, in 1 59^^, with D O Y wiili a la.ly pofTifling jocl. ^tperimeiits, relating to the gravity and elaftieity, and other qualities, of the air, which entitled Iiim to rank amor.gft the firll pliilofophers of any age. He fociety, he continued throygh life one of its nioft ufeful and iiidullrious members. In llie following year he puhhflied his " Cinilideratioiis on the iifefulnefs of experimental phi- lofophy ;" his " Experiments and confiderations upon co- lours," with " Obfcrvations 011 a diamond that fliines in the dark;" and " Confiderations on the ilylt of the holy fcrip- tnre," cxtraftcd from a larger work, entitled " An cflay on fcriptnre," publiflied after his death by Mr. Peter Pett, at- liad al this early period of his fcientific career renounced the torney-gencrarfor Ireland. In 1664, Mr. Boyle was elefted philofophy of Arillotle, as a fyllem of words inllead of into the company of royal miners ; this new coinieflion, and things ; and attached to the only jull and tlfeflual mode of other engagements of a benevolent and public nature, pre- purfuing phdofophical refearches by experiment, and fearing vented his publilhing any trcatifes, either on religion or phi- lell his mind ihould acquire any improper bias from the ingenuity of the author, he declined the perufal of the voiks of Des Cartes, whofe philofophy was held by many in high ellimatiou. Mr. Boyle did not rellrift himfelf, wliilll lie continued at Oxford, to the lludy of philofophy ; but he availed himfelf, in the profecutiou of facred crilicifm, of the ajlillance of thofc great (U'lentalilU-, Dr. Edward Pococke, lofjphy, in this year. But the year 1665 produced' his " Occafional refleftions oil feveral fubjeds ;" to whicli is prefixed, " A difcourfe concerning the nature and life of fuch kind of writings." This piece, which had been writ- ten by Mr. Boyle in his youth, and at various intervals, was ludicrouny attacked by Dr. Sivift in his " Pious medita- tions upon a broomllick, in the llyle of the honourable Mr. Thomas Hyde, Mr. Samuel Clarke, and Dr. Thomas Robert Boyle." How far Mr. Boyle potfelfcd in his youth, Barlow, afterwards bifliop of Lincoln. His correfpondence or acquired in his maturer years, a correft tafte and ilyle of was alfo at the fume time very extenfive ; and was carried on writing, partxularly iu works of imagination, it is now for the pnrpofe of the piomotionof fcience with Mr. Henry needltfs to inquire ; it is fufficient to obferve, that no at- Oldenburgh, afterwards fecretary to the Royal Society, tack on the part of Dr. Swift can aiTttl the fame of this Dr. John Beale, John Evelyn efq. Dr. John Pett, and Dr. dillinguiftied perfon, either as a man or a philofopher. In John Wallis, who honoured him with the dedication of his this year Mr. Boyle, befides fome communications to the excellent treatife " De Cycloide, et covporibus iiide genitis." Royal Society, printedin thePhilofopliicalTranfaftioDS, pub- In 1659, as foon as he was made acquainted with the dif- lidied " Experiments and obfervations relative to an expe- treffed circumlhmces of Dr. Robert Sanderfon, afterwards rimental hiftory of cold, with feveral pieces thereunto an- bilhop of Lincoln, who had been deprived of his prefer- nexed ;" a work w^ell received at the time, and containing a inents on account of his attachment to the royal caufe, he variety of obfervations and fadls that have been ufeful to fettled upon him an annuity of fifty pounds a year ; a favour thofe who, in move, modern times, have direfted their atten- which was refpeftfuUy acknowledged by the doflor in his dedication of " Ten leftures on calcs of confcience," deli- vered in Latin in 1647, ai^d printed at Oxford in 1659. After the reftoration in 1660, Mr. Bovle was treated with great refpeft by the king, and alfo by the lord-trea- furer, lord Southampton, and lord- chancellor Clarendon ; and by the latter he was urged to enter into holy orders. Having conGdered the propofal with due attention, his pious fcruples determined him to decline the clerical office. In tion to this interelling fubjeft. Towards the clofe of this year, his majefty appointed Mr. Boyle provoft of Eton col- lege ; but he dechued accepting this honourable and lucra- tive offlee, becaufe he did not widi his fludies to be inter- rupted, and becaufe he thought it more fuitable to a perfon in holy orders. About this time Mr. Valentine Greatraks, an Irilh gen- tleman of good family and competent fortune, and of a fe- rious difpofition inclining to melancholy, perfuaded himfelf this year he publifhcd his " New experiments touching the that he poffeffed the power of curing difeafes bv flroakin fpring of the air ;" which involved him in a controverfy In fome cafes he fucceeded, but in others he failed. His with Fra"cifcus Linus and Mr. Thomas Hobbes, and to which performances, however, were fo extraordinary, tliat they ex- he annexed a defence iu the edition of 1662 ; and alfo his dif- cited very general attention ; and an account of them was courfe " On feraphic love." Mr. Boyle's reputation had publithed, by Mr. Henry Stubbs, in a ktter entitled " The at this time extended itfclf to foreign countries; fo that miraculous conformill, &c." and addreffcd to Mr. Bovlc. the grand duke of Tufcany communicated to him by Mr. To this letter Mr. Boyle replied ; but his anfwer was not Southwell, then refideut at Florence, his wifli to correfpond publifhed till eighty years afterwards, in Dr. Birch's account with him on philofopliical fubjecls. In 1661 he publilhed of his life. Neverthelefs, the fentiments and reflexions con- his " Phyfiological eflTays, and other trails ;" and foon after- tained in it were probably communicated to his fiiends ; and wards his " Sceptical chymift." Other treatifes, to which though they were exprcffed with a caution, candour, and he refers in this pubhcation, and which were iu great for- judgment, that did him great honour, they were thought to wardnefs, were U'jfortunately loft at the time of the great countenance what fome perfons deemed a deception, or the fire of London. In 1662, a grant of the forfeited impro- mere tfTefts of enthufiafm, and they produced a controverfv priations in Ireland was obtained from the king in his name, of fome continuance. As far as Mr. Boyle was concerned but without his knowledge ; and they were applied by him in this bufuiefs, it will be fufficient to obferve, that, firmly to the promotion of religion and learning. He was alfo believing the aAual exercife of thofe miraculous powers appointed governor of the corporation for propagating the which attefted the truth and divine origin of chriftianity, and giifpel in New England ; and in this office he was a£live and admitting, in confcqueuce of the extent and variety of his Vol. V. 8 y refearches BOY rerfarcliM info the operations of nature, the reality of fafts, wMtli he could not immcclijttrly reconcile by analogy to the fnf\all aggregate of human acquilitioii, the k-tttr, hailily written by him in reply to Mr. Slubbs, did not at all dero- gate from his cliaraftcr as a philofophcr, or as a man of ra- lional pietv. He neither denied nor admitted the cxilleiice of the miraculous power afcribed to Mr. Gieatralis ; but allowing the facls, he propofed a variety of inferences and queries, wliich demanded difcuflion ; and in llic whole of Uiis conlrovetfy he condu6u-d himfelf in fuch a manner as to avoid perfonal ccnfure from any of the difputants. See Stroakinc. In 166O Dr. Wallis addiefFed to Mr. Roylc " An hypo- fhe'ls about the flu:^ and reflux of the fea," printed in N" xvi. of the Philofophical Traiifaftions ; and Dr. Syden- ham dedicated to him his «' Mcthodus curandi fibres, pro- priis obfervationibns fuperftrudla." His own publications in this year were " Hydroftatical paradoxes ;" " I'he ori- gin of forms and qualities, according to the corpufciilar philo- fophy, illullrated by expeii.ments ;" and fevcnd papers com- municated to the Royal Society, aiid pri:ited in the Philo- fophical Tranfaftions of that period. In the difpate that occurred in the ellablifhment of the Royal Society between the adherents to the Arilloteli.in or old philofophy, and the advocates for the new method of philofophifing by experi- ments, Mr. Boyle took a decided pan with the latter ; but without incurring cenfyre or reproach from the moll violent of the cppolitc party. About this time Mr. Boylt removed to London, where he afterwards relided, very much to the .idvantaqe of the Royal Society, which he countenanced by his perfonal prefcnce and philofophical communications; as well as of the caufe of fcience in general. In 1C69, he publifhed his " Continuation of new experi- ments touching the weight and fpring of the air," to w hich he annexed " A difcQurfe of the atmofphtres of confillent bodies ;" and alfo " A difcourfe of ablolute rell in bodies ;" together with other hydroftatical pieces fuhjcined to his larger works : and ir. the fame year he revifed feveral of his foimer trafts, which had been tranllatcd into Latin for the benefit of foreigners In the following year appeared his treatife " Of the cofmical Qualities of things," containing a variety of intcrclling faft; and obfervati. os ; and feveral papers, comrnvniicateJ to the Royal Society. At this time liis (ludies were intcrmpted by a ftroke of the palfy, the effefls of wliich were removed by a llriiSl attention to a pro- per regimen ; fo that he foon returned to his labours. In 167 1, he publifhed a fecond volume of " Conliderations touching the ufefulnefs of experimental philof:>phy," and " Tracts of a difcoverj- of the admirable rarefaftion of the air, &c. ;" and in 1672 appeared his " EfTay concerning the origin aiid virtue of gems," 8vo. ; his " Trafts, containing new experiments touching the relation between flame and air, and various other intereRing fubjefts chiefly relating to the ftatical aftion of fluids j" and, in the Philofophical TranfaClions, " Obfervations on fliining flelh," and a paper on the effefts of the varying preffure of air. In 1673 ^^ publifhed " EfTays on the flrange fubtlety, great efficacy, and determinate nature, of efBuviums ;" " Experiments en fhe weighing and coercion of lire and flame," Svo.; and " A letter concerning ambergris," communicated to the Roval Society. In 1674 appeared a coUedion of " Trails on the faltnefs of the fea ; on a ftatical hygrofcopc ; on the natural and preternatural Hate of bodies, and on the pofitive or privative nature of cold," 8vo. ; " The excellency of theology compared with natural pliilofophy," 8vo. ; " Trails, containing fnfpicioiis about the hidden qualities of the air : aaiEadvcrfions upon Hobbts's probkm concerning a va- BOY ctium ; and a difcourfe of ihr- cnufe of attra£l!on bv fuc- tio:," Svo. ; and in this year he communicated to the et'.itor of the Philofophical Tr'anfactions, " An account of the two forts of Hehiiontian laudanum." In 1675 he pub- lifhed " Some confiderations about tiie reconcileablenefs of reafon and religion," by T. E. a layman ; to whicii is an- nexed, by the publilhcr, " A difcourfe of Mr. Doyle about the polTibility of the rtfurre6tion," Svo. T. E. are fup- pofed to be the final letters of his own name, as both thefe trails are afcribed to him. In this year he comiminicatfd to the Royal Society four papers, wiiich appear in the Tranfaitions : " On the air-bladders of fiflies ;" " A new elfajP inilriimcnt ;" " New experiments touching the fpring of the air, &c. ;" and " An experimental difcourfe of quickfilver growing hot mtli gold." In 1676 he publiflicd " Experiments and notes about the mechanical origin of particular qialities," in which he treats of alkalis and acids, lieat and cold, talles, odours, volatility, fixity, corrolive ac- tion, precipitation, magnetifm, and eleilricity ; and he alfo comnuinicated to the Royal Society two papers on the con- figuration of the furfaces of fluids in contaft with each other. Mr. Boyle, having been for feveral years an ailivc and ufeful dircdlor of the Eall-India company, wifhed to avail hitnfelf of his office for propagating the gofpel in thofe re- mote parts to which their commerce extended : and with this view he caufed 500 copies of the four gofpcls and ails of the apolUes to be printed at Oxford, in the Malayan tongue, under the direction of Dr. Thomas Hyde, and to be lent abroad at his own expence. For ii.nilar purpofss of piety and benevolence, he had tranfmitted, about three years before, fevera! c>ipies of Giotiiis's treatife " De veri- tate Chriliiana; religionis," tranllated into Arabic by Dr. Edward Pococke, into the Levant. In 1677 a mifcelhineous collection of his works, defec- tive, and badly arranged, was printed in Latin at Geneva. In the following year he communicated to Mr. Hook a " Sluirt memorial of fome obfervations made upnn an arti- ficial lubllaiice that fliines without any preceding illuHra- tion," which was publillied in that philofopher's " Cutle- rian leilures :" this iub!lance was the phofphorus of urine. In this year he alfo pubiiflied his " Hifloiical narrative of a degradation of gold made by an anti-elixir," 410. ; and he received a tribute of fiiiguLir refpeil, in a letter from the great Newton, laying before him his fentimeuts concerning an ethereal medium, which he afterwards propofed, in his Optics, as the mechanical caufe of gravitation. In the year 168c, he p jblifhed " The aerial nottiluca," Svo. ; and " An account of a new lamp," in Hook's Philofophical Col.ec- tions ; and he improved the fecond edition of his " Scepti- cal Caymifl." Some perfons have very unwarrantably af- fcrted, that Mr. Boyle affumed to himfelf the mvention of phofphorus, after having 'purchafed the fecret of Kraft. This calumny is refuted by his own narrative, in which he difc'.ifles the claims of Brand, Kunckel, and Kraft, and acknowledges the advantage which he derived, in the profe- cution of his inquiries, from the inform?.tion communicated to him by the latter, that the fnining fuhllanee was obtained from a matter belonging to the human body. From the narrative it appears, that tne aerial noiliiuca was an aqueous folution, or diffufion of phofphorus, obtained by diitillation from putrid urine in an cxpermient where his retort failed ; and which did not prove altogether fuccefsf nl. At the annual elec- ,. tion of officers for this y^.ir, Mr. Boyle was eleiled prefident of the Royal Society ; but having objtilionsotiielicacy with regard to the official oaths that arc required, and for fome other reafons, he declined accepting the honour. At tuis ihne BOY time lie contributed very liberal'-/ to the publication of Bur- net's Hillory of the Reformation, as the author acknowledges in his preface to the fccond volume. It was probably about the beginning of the year 1681, that he exerted iiimftlf for rromoting the propagation of the gofpel among the In- dians ; as his letter 011 this fubjeft was a reply to one from Mr. John Elliot, of New Er.gland, dated Nov. 4, 1680. From this letter, which is preferved by Dr. Birch, it apjuars that he was a declared enemy to periecution on account of religious opinions. In this year (1681) he publilhcd his " Difeourfe of things. above rcafon ;" and in the following year, " New experiments and obfervations made upon the icy noCtiluea," 8vo. ; and alfo a " Continuation of new experiments phyfico-mechanicai, touching the fpring and weight of the air, witli a large appendix." It appears that hi.-i icy noflilnra was the folid pholphoius, which at firil he found fome difliculty in making ; but from a paper left with the fecretaiy of the Royal Society, to be opened after his death, which was ntverthelefs communicated to his friend Dr. Be:.le during his life, we find that he evaporated urine bv dillillation till it acquired the confidence of fyruj), then mixed it with filiceous land, and diitilled by a ilrnng beat into a refcrvoir containing water. See Phosphorus. In 16S3 he wrote a letter, fanftioning and enccjuraging an undertaking of Mr. Fitzgerald for rendering fea-water frefh ; and in the f(,llowing year, he publilhcd his " Natural hillory of human blood," and his " Experiments and con- fiderations about the porofity of bodies," both in 8vo. From a letter addrcfied to Mr. Boyle in 1684 by the learned Dr. Cudivorth, it appears how highly he appreciated his talents and labours. After recommending a coUeftion of his fevcral treatifes, he concludes in thefe terms : " You have much outdone Sir Francis Bacon in your natural expe- riments ; and you have not infinuated any thing, as he is thought to have done, tending to irreligion, but the con- trary." The year ibSi, produced his " Short memoirs for the natural espeiimental hillory of mineral waters," and an " EITay on the great cfFcfts of even languid and unheeded motion ;" to which is annexed an " Experimental difeourfe of fome hitherto little regarded canfes of the fahibrity and infalubrity of the air," Svo. In the courfe of that year appeared in the Philofophictil Tranfatlions, " An account of a ilrangcly ftlt-moving liquor," which was a compound of oils and bitumens, the ingredients of which, though known to himfelf, he has not fpecified : and alfo a dillindl treatife " On the reconcileablencfs of fpecific medicines to the coipufcular ; hilolcphy, to which is annexed, a difeourfe about the advantages of fimple medicines," Svo. Befides thefe philofophical trafts, he prefented the world in this year with a theological treatife, entitled, " Of the high veneration man's intelledl owes to God, particularly for his wifdom and power," Svo. The only work that appeared in 16S6, was his " Free inquiry into the vulgar and re- ceived notion of nature." This treatife was much admired by the advocates for pure religion and found philofophy ; it was tranflated into Latin, and reprinted in the following year in i2mo. In this year, 1687, he publiflied a work, written in his youth, entitled " The martyrdom of Theo- dora andDvdimia," and five decades of " Choice remedief," to which when the work was reprinted in 1692, five more were added. In 16K8 appeared " A difquifition about the final caufes of natural things ; wherein it is inquired whe- ther, and if at ail, with what caution, a iiaturalift fliould admit them ; to which was fubjoined, by way of appendix, " Some uncommon obfervations about vitiated fight." About the beginning of this year our author found it expedient to apprize the public, by way of preface to his mutilated and BOY unflniflied writings, and as a general apology for the fiatein which they appeared, that fome of his papers had been ftolen from him, and that others had been dellroyed by cor- rofive liquors. The decay of iiis health, and the derange- ment ol his afTairs in Ireland, obligul him to diminifli the number of his communications to the Royal Society, and induced him to refign the oflice of governor of the corpo- ration for propagating the gofpel in New England. From other arrangements with regard to bis private affairs, hi» papers, and the numberofvifits which he reciived, it appeared that he was not without apprehenfions of an approaching change. The time, however, which he thus referved to himfelf, he induftrioufly improved ; as he availed himfelf of it for coUefting various elaborate procefli;s in chemilliy ; which, as we are informed in a letter preferved by Dr. Hircli, " he left as a kind of hermetic legacy to the ilndious dif- ciples of that art." This collecli(-n he committed to the care of a friend, enjoining him to impart it to the public fiiithfully, and without envy, verbatim in his own cxprtf- lions. This friend is unknown, and the work was never p'.iblifhed. From many circnmllances, however, we are led to conclude, that Mr. Boyle concurred, with many other in- genious alchymiiU of the age in v.-h^ch he lived, in believing-, what is now rtjeiled as a groundlefs opinion, the poffibility of tranfmuting the bafer metals into gold ; and hence, pro- bably, he was led to take pains in procuring, in 1681;, the repeal of the ftatute of the 5th of Henry IV. againll the multiplying of gold and lilver. In 1690, he publifhed his " Medicina hydroftatica, or hydrollatics applied to the materia mcdica," Svo. with the promife of a kcond volume, which never appeared ; and " The chrillian virtuofo, iheiving, that by being addided to experimental philofophy, a man is rather afiilled, than indifpoied to be a good chnllian ;" a fecond part of which waspublilhed in an imperfefl ilate, after his death. In 1691, he communicated to M. de la Croze, " An account of fome oblcrv;,tioiis made in the great congregation of waters, bf lowering down bottles into the fea 600 feet from the fur. face," which was printed by that author in the " Hillory of learning." Mr. Boyle's laft work, publifiicd by him- felf, was his " Experimeuta et obfervationes phyficae ," to which is added " A fmall colleftion of llrange reports," Svo. In July of this year, Mr. Boyle executed his lall will, and in the fucceeding months his health rapidly declined. On the 2jd of December, he loll his filler, lady Ranelagh, to whom he was afiettionately attached, and within a week afterwards, viz. on the 30th of Decem.ber, 1 691, he de- parted this fife, in the 65th year of his age, and was in- terred at the upper end of the fouth fide of the chancel of St. Martin's in the fields, n.ar the remains of his filler, with whom he had lived for the greatctl part of 47 years. His funeral fermon was preached by Dr. Burnet, bilhop of Salifbury. Mr. Boyle's pollhumous works areas follow: i. "The general hillory of the air, defigned and begun," 1692, 410. ; 2. " Medicinal experiments, or a colle&ion of choice re- medies, for the moll part fimple, and eafily prepared," 1692, i2mo ; 3. " General heads for the natural hillory of a country, great or fmall, drawn out for the ufe of tra- vellers and navigators," 1692, izmo.; 4. "A paper of the honourable Robert Boyle's, depofited with the fccreta- rics of the Royal Society, Oel. 14, 16S0, and opened fince his death ; being an account of his making the pholpliorus, &c. Sept. ,jO, 16S0;" 5. " An account of a way of ex- amining waters, as to frcdmefs or faltnefs;" 6. " A free . difeourfe againft cullomary fwearing, and a dilTuafive from curfuigj" 1605, Svo. 7. "Medicinal experiments, or a Y i " coilec- BOY collection of choice remedies, chiefly fimple and cafil^ pre- pared, ufcd ill famil'CJ, and tit for the ftrvice of the coun- try people;" the jd and lull volume puliliflicd from the au- thor's original ^lSS. A coUedion of all Mr. Boyle's works was publiflied in 174+, in 6 volumes folio, with a life prefixed, by Dr. Birch ; and in 6 vols. 4t4>. in 177;. Mr. Boyle, as to his pcrfon, was tall and (lender, and of a pale and emaciated conntenancc. His coiiiUtutiou was fo delicate, that he regulated his cloathiiig by a thermomettr : and he was occalionally fnbjeft to fuch debility of body, fiich painful paroxyfms of the ftone, and fuch dcpriffion of fpiiitb, that we may be well allonilhed at the number and variety of his fcicntific and literary performances. How- tVL-r, to the fimplicity of his diet, and the Uriel temperance which lie obftrwd, we may rcafoiiably afcribe the degree of healtli which he enjoyed, and the length to which his life V IS protracted. His fpecch was flow and deliberate, and fnbjtct to hefitation ; in his corvcifation he was unaf- fumlng, never dilating his own opinions, or urging his ob- jtdions to lliofe of others with coiilidtncc, but rather pro- pofmg them as topics of inquiry and diicudion ; and in liis manners he was fingularly mild and courteous. Although he was a favourite at court, and indulged in free iiitercourle with three fucceirive fovercigns, viz. Clunks 1 1. James 1 1 . and William HI., he never difgtiifed his fentinitnts with re- gard to public men and nieafuris ; but he took no a£livc part in the politics of the eventful times in which he lived, preferring tiie pnrfults of pliilofophy, and the re- tirement whicli beft fuittd liis infirm frame and religious tem- per. To the rank of a peerage he never afpiretl, but re- fufed it whenever it was offered to him. One of the moll prominent features of his charaiSler, was his fincere and un- affected piety. This was exemplified in all his writings, and in the wliole courfe of his lite. Of his firm attachment to Chnllianitv, and of his folicitiide for vindicating its truth, and extending the knowledge and influence of it, he ex- hibited many fubllantial proofs, botli wliilll he lived, and at his death. Befides the tranflation of the gofpels and book of afts into the Malayan language, and of Grotius's treatife concerning the truth of the Cliriflian religion into Arabic, which we have already mentioned, and which was conducted at his own expence, he propofed an impreflion of the New Tellamenl in the Tui killi language j and when the Turkey company undertouk it, he liberally contributed towards accompli ;hing it. A tranflation and edition of the Bible in the liifh lai;gu?(;c coll him 7C0I.; and he de- frayed a confiderable part of the charge attending an im- prefTion of the Wcllh Bible, and of the Irilh Bible for Scotland. He gave, during his life, jool. towards propa- gating the Chrillian religion in America; and as foot), as he heard that the Eall India company were projefting a fimilar delign in the Ea!l, lie fent a donation of icol. by way of example and encouragement in the profecution of the fcheme. Of the impropriations belonging to his eflates he ordered confiderable lums to be given to the incumbents, in thefe parifhes, and even to the widows of thofe who had died before this dillribntion of his bounty. This he did twice during his life to the amount of Cool , and he ordered anolliet diftrihution as far as his cllate would, bcai', by his will. In other refpeils, his charities were fo numerous and. extcnfive, that they amounted, as bifhop Burnet informs us, from his own knowledge, to upwards of loooh per an- num. The annuity eflablilhed by his will for providing a feries of lefturcs in defence of Chriflianity, affords further evidence of the benevolence of his temper, and of his con- cern for promoting the intcrells of religion. See Boylk's Lecluui, His zeal, iii the caufe of religion, though it was BOY ardent and aftive, was free from the lead tinaure of bigotry and intolerance. Whilft he adhered to the eflabhflied church, he entertained the mofl undiffemblcd charity to- wards all who differed from him in opinion : nor did he ever exprcfs himfelf in ftrongcr terms, and with a greater de- gree of indignation, than when he condemned every kind of feverity and perfecution in the province of religion. Burnet in his funeral eulogy informs us, that his know- led,;e comprehended Hebrew and the other Oriental lan- guages, the wi-ilings of the molt eminent fathers, commen- taries on the fcriptures, religious controverfics, and the whole body of divinity. He reprefents him as being ac- quainted with the whole compal's of the mathematical fci- ences, and as well verfed even in the moll abllrule parts of geometry. Geography, navigation, and books of travels he had recourfe to for the relaxation of his mind, and the amnfement of his intervals of leifure. Of his knowledge with regard to fubjcdts of natural hillory, cheinillry, and experimental pliilofophy, his various refearches and difco- veries, recorded in his numerous publications already re- cited, afford ample evidence. Mr. Boyle, indeed, poiTcffcd in an eminent degree thofe qualities, which juflify his being ranked among the iirll philofophers of any age or country. He was dillinguiflied by the coniprehenfion of his views, and the extent and variety of his refearches, by indefatigable dili- gence and invincible pcrfeverafce in his colledlion of fafts and invcfligation of their caules, by a total freedom from any preconceived attachment to theories and fyllems, by candour in difcufling the opinions of others, and by fidelity, modefly and perfpicuity in the narration of his own per- formances. Mr. John Hughes might well fay of him (Spedlator N° 554), after obferving that he was born the fame year in which lord Bacon died, that he was llie per- fon deligned by nature to fucceed to the labours and in- quiries of that extraordinary genius. It woidd be endlefs to recount the teflimonies in corrimepdation of him, that might be collettcd from the writings of the moll illullrious foreigners, and of the bell juoges of his merit in our own. country. It will be fuiiicient to fay, that he is uniformly ranked with Bacon and Newton ; that his refearches and experiments have led the way to many modern difcovcries, both in pliilofophy and cliemittry : and that his writings will ever be held in high cflimation by every friend of fci- ence. " They cannot be read," fays one of his biogra- phers, " without improvement ; and in thefe alone, if no life of Boyle had ever been written, the reader would be- hold a man truly deferving of the affcdtion, the eftecrn, and the admiration of fucceeding ages." Bo\le's account of himfelf, under the name of Philocetus. Birch's life c£ Boyle, prefixed to his works. Burnet's funeral fcrmon. Biog. Brit. Birch's Hifl. of the Royal Society. Phil. Tranf.. BoYLii, Charles, fourth earl of Orrery, and baroa Marllon in England, was the fccond fon of Roger, fecond earl of Orrery, and was born at Chelfea in 1676. At the, age of 15 he was entered at Chrift-church college in the univcrfity of Oxfoid, where his tutors were Dr. Atterbury, afterwards bifhop of Rochefler, and Dr. Freind. His ap- plication and proficiency were fo diltiuguifhed, that he was, ilylcd by Dr. Aldrich, the dean, " the great ornament of our college," and deputed to prepare an edition of fome claffic author, for his annual publication. The book re- commended by the dean was the " epiflles of Phalaris," of which a fplendid edition appeared in 169';. I'his publica- tion gave rife to a controverfy, the particulars of which have been already detailed under the article Btntlcy. We fliall here add, that from a letter of bifhop Atterbury to Mr. Boyle, written in 1698, (fee Epillolary Correfpond.; dice, , BOY ec.ee, &c. publifhed by Mr. Nichols, vol. ii.) it appears, that the former laid the dcfign of the celebrated book, in anfwer to Bentley's difllrtation, wrote above half of it, re- vifed a good part of the reft, and tranfcribcd the whole. Upon the death of his father, Mr. Boyle quitted the uiii- verfity and entered into public life. He was chofen as a member of the houfe of commons in 1700; and when his brother Lionel died in 170.;, he fiicceeded to the title of the earl of Orrery. For hi- fervices in the army, he was elefted, in lyoy, one of the knights' companions of the mod ancient order of the thilUe ; and as a niajor-genenil, to which rank he was advanced in 1 7O';, he dilUnguifhed himfelf at the battle of the \^'ood in Flanders. He afterwards rc- fided for fome time at Bniflels, as the queen's envoy to the ftates of Brabant and Flanders : and for his faithful dif- cbarge of this truft, he was raifed to the dignity of a Bri- tilh peer. On the acceflfion of George I. he received addi- tional honours ; but during tlie abl'ence of the king at Hanover in 17 16, his regiment was taken from him : upon which he refigned his poll of lord of the bed-chamber, and withdrew frt)m public affairs. When Layer's plot broke out, he was iufpetted by the government, and committed to the tower, whence, after being confined 6 months, he was firit liberated by bail, and at length dilcharged. From this time he amnfed himfelf with his library and philofophi- cal apparatus, till his death, which happened in Augull 1 73 I. He was much efteemed for his domeftic and focial qualities ; and refpcdled for his talents and literary attain- ments. He was the author of a comedy, entitled " As you find it," and alfo of fome fongs and occafional poems ; but his favourite ftudles were of a different kind. The af- tronomical inifrument called an " orrery," and firft in- vented by Rowley, whom he patronized, derived its name from his title. See Orrkry. Biog. Brit. Boyle, John, earl of Cork and Orrery, only fon of Charles, fourth earl of Orren^, by lady Cecil, daughter of the earl of Exeter, was born in 1707, and for his early edu- cation entrulled to the care of Mr. Fenton, the i)oet. From Wellminllcr fchool, whither he had been ient at a proper age, he removed to Chrill-church college, Oxford. As an iiillance of his filial piety, whicli does him honour, it is re- lated, that when his father was committed to the Tower, he earnclUy intreated to be confined with liim ; bat this indul- gence was rcfufed. Soon after the completion of his 3 ill year, in J 7 28, he married lady Harriet Hamilton, the youngell daughter of George, earl of Orkney. A diffenfion whiclj occurred between the two earls produced a temporary milunderftanding between the earl of Orrery and his fon. This mifunderllanding is faid to have originated in lord Boyle's refufal to fuffer his wife to fit at table with his father's miftrcfs. However this he, the fon's coiidufl on the occafion, and in a lltuation peculiarly delicate and trying, re- " fleClcd great honour on his judgment and temper. Although a reconciliation had been effcfted between the father and the fon, yet the latter found reafon to regret theirdiffenlion ; for under the influence of a prejudice haftily conceived, the earF had made his will, and bequeathed his valuable library, con- filling of above io,ooo volumes, with the exception of the journals of the houfe of peers, and books relating to the Englifli hillory and conllitution, bequeathed to his fon, and a fine colleflion of philolophical initrumencs, to the college of Chriil -church. After tlieir reconciliation, he determined to alter his will, and had lent for his attorney' with this view ; but the fuddennefs of his deceafe prevented the execution of his jull dcfign. Tiie young lord, however, behaved on the occafion with a filial piety and generofity, which entail fin- gular liflnour on his memory. For though his father had BOY died confideraSly in debt, and had left legacies to a Iarp;e amount to perfons who were no relations, he took his debts upon himfelf, paid the legacies, and fcnt the books and ma- tiiematical indrumcnts, witiiin the limited time, to Chrill- church. The lofs of his father, aggravated by the circum- ftances now recited, made a deep imprellion upon his mind, and was fuccecded by a fit of illnefs, which endangered his life. Of the acutenefs of his feelings we may form fome judgment by the following lines addrtlfed to a friend, in re- turn for a confolatory letter received by him at Bath, and cnclofing 3 copy of verfes, which exhorted him to difpel his grief by poetry, and to (hew that Batli could infpire as well as Tunbridge, where, in the preceding year, he had wriltca fome humourous verfes. " Nor Bath, nor Tunbridge, can my lays infpire, Nor radiant beauty make me Itrike the lyre j Far from the bufy crowd 1 fit forlorn, And figli in fecret, and in filence mourn ; Nor of my anguifh ever find an end ; I weep a father, but I've lofl a friend." Upon the recovery of his health and fpirits, he took his feat in the houfe of peers ii; January i-j^-., a;id diftinguilhcd himfelf by his oppofition to iir Robert Walpole's adminillra- tion, and particu'arly by his fpeech agalnll the mutiny bill, and a Handing army, wh'ch was much applauded. However, the delicacy of his health, his love of retirement, and the nc- ccfilt y of occafional refidence in Ireland, precluded him from a regular attendance on his parliamentary duty. During his refidence in Ireland, he became acquainted with dean Swift, who profeffcd a high regard for him, and introduced him to the friendfliip of Mr. Pope. Upon his return to England, '" I733> 1'^ retired to his feat at Marflon in Somcrfelfhire, and amufed himfelf in building, planting, and improving both his eftate and h;s library. In 17 J7 he took a houfe in town, tor the convenience of iuperintending the education of his fons at Wedminfter fchool. Having loft his firft lady in 1733, he married a fecond wife in 1738 ; and with both he enjoyed the moft uninterrupted ftate of domeftic felicity. In 17:9 he publiftied a new ediiion, in 2 vohimes 8vo. of the dramatic works of his great grandfather, Roger, earl of Orrery, and, in i 742, his ftate letters in one volume foho. I'he fii ft of hisown performances, which was Imitations of the firft and fifth odes of the firft book of Horace, with remarks on the peculiar excellencies of this poet, and on the tranflations of llacier and Sanadon, appeared in i74i,fo!. In i743liis lordftiip was prelentcd, by the univerfity of Oxford, with the honorary degree of doftor of civil law, and he was hkewife eleded a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1746 he removed to Calcdon in Ireland, where he refided, with little inter- miflion, till the year 1750; employing his intervals ofleifure in laymg out gardens and plantations, and in various fub- ftant'.al and ornamental improvements. On his return ta Marllon, he purfued thofe alterations and improvements wb.ich he had begun at a former period. In the mean while, the employment of his winter-evenings was his " Tranflation of the Letters of Pliny the Younger, with obfervations on each letter, and an eitay on Pliny's .life," which was pub- lilhed at London in 1751, in 2 volumes 410. and fince re- printed in Svo. This work was well received, and efta- bliftied the reputation of the author as a polite fcholar ; and it would have Hill retained its character as a ftandard work of the kind, if it had not fuffcred by the fupertor elegance of Mr. Mehnoth's tranllation. In the fame year appeared his " Remarks on the hfe and writings of 13r. Swift ;" in a feries of Letters addrelFcd to his fecond fon ; which, abound- ing with popular anecdotes, met with a very rapid fale, though it gave occafion to many ftriclures and attacks, on ?cc'ou-il BOY tccoont of the frtedom with which it reprcfcntcd the de- ftfti a» wll :• ihr cXfcUencici of the chjrailtr of liis old fn-'J. 'I'lie jvirtrai: it exhibits is, however, Jccmt-d more f3itliftil tlian feverjl others of a iTH>re flittering kind. In I7J3 lord Orrery fucccedcd to the Irilh titles of Richard the tliirj carl of Biulington and fourth earl of Cork, who died without male iffuc. His lordlhip continued to araufe himfclf and the world by occafional writings; and coniniunicatcd fever^l t>ap--r<, chieflv of tlie humourous kind, to the periodi- cal publiciiions, eniiiled, " The World," and " The Con- roiUeur;" tlie former cunduacd by Mr. Moore, and the latter by Mr. Thornton antl Mr. Colman. In 17J4, he fet out on a tour to Italy, and rclided nearly a year at Florence, where he acquired ui'iiverfal elleem, and where he collecled nn'crialB for his hiftory of Tufcany, w'luch he propofcd to pubhrti, in a ferics of letters ; but of tlicfe he only tiniihed twelve, which were publilhed after his de?tii in J774. From lta»y he rerumcd to Marllon in 1755 ; but the lall years of his life were rendered peculiarly dillreffing to him by the lols of hij wife and his tldeft fon, and by frequent and fevere paroicyfms of the gout. Thcfe trials, however, he bore with a fortitude and refignation which did honour toTiis principles and character, both as a philofopher and a Chriilian. In Ilia ditlrefs he fought refuge, like Pliny, in his ftudies ;«and amufed himfclf by pubhlVing, in 1759, from an original MS. «« Memoirs of the life of Robert Cary, earl of Monmouth," with a preface, explanatory notes, and a tender^ledication to his youngell fon. He alfo, in the fame year, wrote a preface to Mrs. Lennox's tranflation of Brumoy's Greek theatre ; and he tranflated " The Difcourfe upon the theatre of the Greeks," " The original of tragedy," and " The parallel of the theatres." Some fmaller pieces, written by his lord- ftiip, are difpcrfed in the periodical publications of his time. His lafl work, which was pollhumous, is his " l..etters from Italy," written in the years 1754 and i~',s, and publidied in 1774. ^y '''^ ^'^" J"*^" Duncombe, who hath prefixed a life of his lordlhip. In his laft itlntfs he is laid to have burnt many MSS. and, among them, the continuation of his letters from Italy, on account of their not being corrected ar. J fairly tranfcribed. It is alfo apprehended, that his Florentine hitlory underwent the fame fate. At length this truly ac- complilhed and amiable nobleman fell a facrifice to an here- ditary gout, at a comparatively early period, in November 1762, in the 56th year of his age ; and his remains were in- terred near to thofe of his fecond lady, in the burial-place of liis family in Frome church. He was fucceeded as earl of Cork and Orrery by Hamilton, his fecond fon by his fufi; countefs ; and on his death the titles and ellate of the family devolved on Edmund, his fon by his fecond lady, who became the feventh earl of Cork and Orrery. From the tribute of juft refpeft paid to his memory by the writer of Wm life, we learn, among other particulars, that " in every domelHc and focial relation, in all the endearing con- neclions of life, as a hnfband, a father, a friend, a mailer, he had few equals. The lullre which he received from rank and title, and from the perfonal merit of his family, he reflected back, unimpaired and undiminilhed ; and though the poll of honour, which he chofe and preferred, w-as " a private fla- tion ;" though he was neither a ftatefman nor a foldier, like the lirft lord Cork, the firll lord Orrery, and his own father ; the rival of Pailadio, like the late lord Burlington ; or the rival of Bacon, like Mr. Robert Boyle ; yet, in a general tailt for literature, and, as they are commonly called, polite ftudies, he was by no means inferior to his ancellors." — " He loved truth even to a degree of adoration. He was a real Chrillian ; and, as fuch, conllantly hoped for a better life ; there trulling to know the real caufes of thofe effefts, which BOY here ftruck him with wonder, but not with doubt." Mr. Duncombe proceeds to exhibit, in fevc-al inftances, the ftrikin-r r. fer.iblance between the earl of Orrery and Phtiy, his favourite Roman. With regard to religion, his fenti- mcnts were rational, and his moral conduft as irreproachable and exemplarv, as bis manners were elegant and accomplilhed. His political'principies were thofe of a difinterelled patriot, and an ardent lover of liberty. His fentiments and feelings on this latter fnbjett are admirebly difplaycd in the follow- ing lines, extracted from, one of his pieces annexed to his " I'l-anflation of Pliny," and expreffing the love of Britons for liberty :— " With native freedom, as with courage bkfl. Chains, and each mark of thraldom we delcfl:. 'Tis heaven's high gift, 'tis n iture's great decree. That none bj flaves, whom God him.fcif made; free. Revere we ought thofe powers which we enuuft, But to ourfe-lvts be refo!!:tely jull : Scorn bafe corruption, r.or, like Haves, d-fown The laws that fix'd our monarch in his throne : I'or well we know, tjy Truth's eternal rules. Where flaves are fubj:fts, tubjccls mull be fools. Exert but reafon, liberty will reign. And tyranny exalt her impious he-ad in vain." Biog. Brit. Boyle, in Geo-^raphy, a market and pod town of the county of Rofcommon, and province of Cnnauglit, Ire- land, iomctimes, but improperly, called Abhey-Buyk. It is fituated OH the river Boyle over which it has two iloi.e bridges. In 1786, it contained about 200 families, and has probably incrcafed ; its linen markets having of late become confiderable from the improved Hate of the yarn and linen manufaftures in its neighbourhood. This town had a caflle, which was of great llrcngth, having held out during the civil war of 1641. It was one of the new corporations in the reign of James I. and continued to fend t«'o members to parliament until the aft of union deprived it of that privilege. In the neighbourhood, and at prefent inclofed within the demefne of lord Kingfton, is the ruin of the abbey of Boyle, finely fitnatcd near Lough Kev, from which the town derived its nam.e, and probably its exiftence. It belonged to the Cillertian monks, and was founded in 1161, after three or four other places had been tried, and not found fufiiciently agreeable. The monkiih records mention feveral noble converts who took the habit of the order, and probably enriched it with confiderable benefaftions ; and they alfo mention fome inftances of facriiegious plunder, in the wars which for fo long a time dillraCled Ireland. When the diffolntion took place, the property of the abbey was found to be very confiderable, and was granted to fir John King anceftor of the earl of Kingfton, by James I. in 1603, in reward of his fervices. The remains of this ancient ereftion arc fufficient to {hew its former magnificence, and deferve the attention of the antiquarian. The architefture is Gothic, and the arches are efteemed for their noble elevation and grandeur ; and are of fo firm a texture as to have with- ftood the fevereft {hocks. Boyle is 84 miles N. W. of Dublin. N. lat. 53° 58'. W. long. 8° 13'. Beaufort— Monafticon Hibernicum. BovLE, or BuELLE, the nam.e of a river which, rifing in the county of Mayo, flows iuto a romantic (lieet of water called Lougii Gaza ; thence meandering through woods and dales, it enters Lough Kee, or Kingfton lake, a beau- tiful piece of water, interfperfed with feveral iflands, fome of which are adorned with old caftles and ruins ; others in the ftate of nature, wooded with lofty timber trees ; and fome highly improved without a tree to be fccn, but the more BOY more pleafing proTpeft of evei-larting verdure. The river again emerges out of the ealltni fide of this lake, as it wore by conftraiiit, and then glides on to pay its tribute to the Shannon, which it joins a little above Carnc-k. Boyi-e's Leclurcs-, a courlc of eight ftimons or Icflure":, preached annually, fet on foot by the honourable Robert Boyle, efq. by a codicil annexed to his will in 169 1 ; thedclign of w^hich, as exprcfTed by the inllitutor, is, to prove the truth of the Chriftian religion againft intidcls, without difcending to any CDntroverfies among Chrittians ; and to anUvcr new difficulties, Icruples, &c. For the fupport of this leflure, he affigned the rent of his houle 1:1 Crooked-lane to fome learned divine witliin the bills of inoitahty, to be elected for a term not exceced- ing three years, by the late archbilhop Tcnnifon, and otherf. But the fund proving precarious, the falary was ill paid : to remedy which inconvenience, the faid arch- bifliop procured a yearly ilipcnd of 50 pounds, for ever, to be paid quarterly ; charged on a farm in the parillf of Brill, in the county of Bucks. To this appointment we are indebted for many elaborate defences both of natural and revealed religion. A collec- tion of thcfe fcrmons from the year l6yl, to 1732, was printed in lyjQ, under the title of " A defence of natural and revealed religion," in 3 vols. fol. ; and thoie of Icvcral of the preachers have been printed and publifhed in dif- tind vohmics. An abridgment of thefe left'ires in 4 vols. 8vo. was pu.jliilied by the Rev. Mr. Gilbert Burnet, vicar of CoggL-lhall, in EfTex, who died in 1746. BOYLING. See Boiling, and Ebullition BOYLSTON, in Geography, a townlhip of Worceder oounty, in the ftate of Malfachufetts, America, 10 miles N. E. of Worccller, and 45 N. W. of Bollon. It was incorporated in 17B6, and contains by furvey I4,3i;6 acres of land, of rich foil and well watered, and 839 inhabi- tants. BOYNE, the name of a confiderable river in Ireland, fnppofed to be the Bulimia of Ptolemy. It takes its rife in the bog of Allen, in the county of Kildare, and having feparated that county from the King's county, and tlie fouthern part of Meath for feveral mile-^, it enters the latter county at Clonard, and flowing N. W. divides it nearlv into'two equal parts, forming the general civil divi- fion of the county, and conllituting a boundary to every barony touching its banks. The fccnery of this river has been miicli celebrated, and there are few fituations adapted to the purpofe of mill machinery that are not occupied. In its com le within the county of Meath alone, there are fix cxtenfive bouliing mills, belides fevtrsl grift and cloth mills; and one for tlie manufaftory of cotton was erefting in 1802. The Boyne navigation, between Drogheda and Navan, runs akng tlie courie of the river, and lias c-jufider- ably increaied ilie trade of both thofe towns. At Navan, it receives the Blackwater, and having paffed by Slaiiie and Drogheda, it flows into the Irifh fea, a few miles below the latter town, to wh;ch it is navigable. The fifliery of this river is valuable, and the falmon in part'cular is highly efteemed. The Boyne, however, is not fo noied for any circumilance as for the viftory gained by William 111. over that infatuated prince James II. on the ill of July, lOiyO. The place where the battle was fought is between Drogheda and Slaine, and is marked out by an obeliflc, founded on a rock, v. iicli rifes boldly from the river. The advantage of fituntion was in favour of James's army ; and if he I ad not himlcll fled before the battle was decided, the event tnight have been very different. The brave duke Scliomberjj loft, his life on this occafion, and Wiliir.m was BOY often in great danger. It was long cuflom.nry to celebrate' liie anniverfary of the day on which this baltle was gained ; but as it ferved no purpofe but that of perpetuating party aniiiiofity, the obfervan<-e begins to be neglefted ; and it is to be hoped that the different fefts will become fo united in attachment to their common country, as almoll to forget that they were ever enemies. Thomfon's Meath, &c. Boyne, a town of France, in the department of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the jillrid of Pitlii- viers ; 2 leagues S. E. of Pithiviers, and 7 N. E. of Orleans. BOYSE, or Bois, John, in B'wi^rnphy. Sec Bois. BoYSE, Joseph, a protellant difl'enlir.g minillcr, was born at Leeds, in Yorkdiire, in January, 1^)59-60. After early inftru6tion under the care of his parents, he received the firll part of his education for the miniftry at the private academy of the Rev. Mr. Fiankland, near Kendal, in Weft- moreland, and completed it under the luition of the Rev. Mr. Edward Veal, who kept a private academy at Stepney, near London. Having continued in thefe feminaries five yearj, and availed himlelf of the opportunities which he en- joyed in the latter fituation of attending on the preaching of many able divines, both coiiformifts and non-coiiformilis, lie entered on the exercife of his miniilrv about the year 1680. In 1683, finding that he could not dileharge the duties of his function in England without moleftation, he accepted an invitation to be joint-pailor with Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Daniel Williams, in Dublin ; and had afterwards for his co-adjutorthe Rev. Mr. Thomas Emlyn, fo well known for his writings and his fufferings. This comiedion fubfiftcd for more than ten years with mutual fricndfliip and unin- terrupted harmony ; but it was at length difTolved in con- fequence of Mr. Emlyn's fentiments concerning the doc- trine of the Trinity. On this occafion the zeal cf Mr. Boyfe for the orthodox led him to take fome fteps that were thought injurious to his former colleague, and inconfil'ent with the friendlhip that had fubliiied between them ; though he difapproved the profecution which Mr. Emlyn fiiflered, and behaved towards him with a greater degree of kindnefs than any of the other diffenting minillers of Dublin. The iai ter years of Mr. Boyfe's life were embittered by bodily dif- orders and llraitened circumftances. His funeral feimon was preached in December, 172S; but the prtcife time of his death is not known. He was confidercd as a pious, learned, and ufeful divine ; afliduous in the exercife of his mkiiilry, and in his couducl generally efletmcd. He had a principal concern in promoting live adl of toleration in Ireland. His works were publifhed in 17:8, in 2 vols. fol. The Jirjl contains 71 fermons, 6 differtalions on the doc- trine of juftifieation, and a paraplnafe on thofe pafiages of the N. T. which chiefly relate to that doiflrine. Th« Jccond volume contains feveral pieces^ of which the principal is a " Vindication of the true deity of our bleffed Saviour,'' in anfwer to Mr. Emlyn's " Humble inquiry into the Scripture account of Jefus Chfifl, &c." As Mr. Boyfe's anf'.ver was publidied at the time when Mr. Emlyn was under profecution for his fentiments, his condutt did not efcape cenfure ; and was thought not to be candid, liberal, and ingenuous. Biog. Brit. BoYSE, Samuel, the fon of the former, was born in 170H, and having received the rudiments of his education in a private fchool at Dublin, was lent, at the age of 18 years, to the univeifity of Glafgow, probably w:th a view to the office of a mimfter. Belore he had attained his 2oth . year, he imprudently married ;' and this connection, in ad- dition to tlie natuia: extraviigance of his temper, involved him ii: pecuniary diflieultits, which obliged ium to quit the uuivcrfitf BOY ■umvfrfity before he Ind fmillicd his (lujius, and to fcek re- lief for liimfclf, his wife, her filler, and faii.ilv , from his fjihcr at Dublin. NotwillUlnndiiif; tlic aflillaiice he re- ceived, very much to the injury of his father's circumftaiici-^, his own coiidudl, wliich was marked by indolence and didi- patiun, and that of his wife, who was diHuliite and vicious, contributed to increafe his diftrefs, and toacceleiate liis ruin. After the death of liis father, all his rtfources failed, and he vrai under a necclTity of repairing to Edinburgh, where hii poetical talents procured for him a confiderable degree of patronage. In I7;ii he pnblilhed a vohuuc of poems, to which were annexed a tranllation of " The tablature of Ccbcs ;" and " A letter upon liberty ;" which liad been printed in the Dublin journal, in i/.'G. This publication gained him reputation, and recommended him to the patro- nage of the counttfs of Eglinton, to whom it was addrelled. Upon the death of the vifcoiintefs Storniont he wrote an elegy, entitled " The tears of the nnifes," for which lie received a handfome prefcnt from her luilhand, lord Stor- mont. Thefc tokens of favour, on the part of his lovdfhip, and of the countcfs of Eglinton, ferved to prociire for him the patronage of the duchefs of Gordon, who employed her intercll in obtaining a place for him in the cuftoms at Edin- burgh, but he loil tlie intended benefit by his own negli- gence. Having reduced himfelf by his own imprudence and indolence to extreme poverty and dillrtfs, he was under a neceffuy of leaving Edinbnrgli ; and with recommenda- tory letters to Mr. Pope and llr Peter King, then lord chancellor of England, as well as to other perfons of rank, falhion, and influence, obtained from the duchefs of Gordon, and from lord Stormont, he removed to London. But his own indifcrction defeated tlie kind dcfign of thefe recommendations, and he again experienced the dillrels of indigence, without making any attempt to extricate himfelf, befidcs writing a variety of mendicant letters. Tiicfc ferved to procure him a temporary fupply, which he foon expended by the moft unaccountable and inexculable extravagance. About the year 1740, his penury and wretcliednefs were fo extreme, that he pawned his apparel, and even his bcd-cloatlis, and confined hinifeif in Jiis lodgijigs and his bed, with no other covering befides a blanket. Wrapped only with tiiis covering he iat up in bed, having cut a hole through it large enough to receive his arm ; and placing the paper on his knee, he fcribbled in the bell manner he could the verfes he was obliged to make. When he was under a necclTity of appearing abroad, he occafionally fupplied the want of a (hirt by flips of white paper round his wrifts, and neck. In this flate he remained for feveral weeks, without any other fubfiftcncc except what he could obtain by writing verfes for the magazines, and from benefaflions procured bv the moll abjedl fupplications, and by the nieaneil arts of deceit. When he was employed in tranflating from the French, it was his conllant prattce, after fending a (lieet to the prcfs, to pawn the original, and to repeat this as often as it ^vas redeemed during the courfe of his work. After paf- fmg through various fcenes of a wretchednefs that is fcarcely paralleled in the records of human mifery, in the viciilitudes of fpunging-houfes, garrets, and ale-houfe.s, he refided at Reading, in 1745, where, having loll his wife, he was em- ployed in compiling an hillorical work, entitled " An hif- torical review of the tranfadlions of Europe, from the com- mencement of the war with Spain in 1739, to the infurrec- tion in Scotland in 1745, &c." and publifhed in 1747 in 2 vols. Svo. This work, for which the author was paid at a very low rate, is not deftitutq of merit, and contains much iifeful information refpeding the hillory of that period. After Lis rtluin from Reading, he married a fecond wife of BOY low conditio:!, but he afTumed a more decent behaviour, and fonie hopes were entertained of liis reformation. He was employed by a bookfcller to tranflate Fenelon's " Dc- monllraiion of the being of a God." At this time his ap- pearance was very different from that to which he had been accullomed, and he feemcd to pay fome regard to his cha- rafter. Towards the clofe of his life, and during a linger- ing illnefs which preceded his diflbhition, the principles whicli he hud imbibed, coiitralled agaiiill the liceiitioufncfs and profligacy of his conduft, produced a degree of re- morfe and iclf-ieproach, which he could not evade or fup- prefs. So deep, indeed, and fo permanent were the im- prcflTions of his good education, that his whole life was a kind of confiici between his vicious inclinations, and liia fober reafon. It was, as it is faid, from the experience of this mental ftruggle, that he wrote his poem, entitled, " The recantation." He ditti in indigence and obreiiiity in London, in the month of May 174s), and was buried at the cxpence of the parifli. Few in'.lances occur, in wliicli di(iiiigui(hed talents have been more lamentably perverted, than in the cafe of Mr. Boyfe. Bifides his genius for po- etry, lie polTcfred a talle for painting, nnific, and heraldry : and if his powers had been diligently cultivated and exer- cifed, he might have acquired a higher degree of excellence than he ever attained ; and he would certainly have efcaped the ignominy and wretcliednefs, which were the confe- quences of his niifcondudl. His poetical cffufions, if they were collefled from the periodical works in which they were infcrted, would make feveral volumes. Two volumes were publifhed in London during his life. The moft cele- brated of his poetical produftlons was his religious poem, entitled "Deity," and publiflicd about the year 1741. This poem received the public commendation of two very different writers, viz. Hervey, in his " Meditations," and Fielding in his " Tom Jones ;" and it was fo popular, as to have palTed through three editions in 1752. Of this piece, Mr. Boyfe faid, that Mr. Pope, upon being a(ked if he was the author of it, difclaimed the work, but at the fame time acknowledged, that there were many lines in it, of which he fliould not be afliamed. The bell of Mr. Boyfe's produflions are admitted inio Dr. Anderfon's colleftiou of the poets of Great Britain, printed at Edinburgh. In Ogle's Canterbury tales of Chaucer modernized, feveral ap- pear undrr Mr. Boyle's name, and are executed with fpi- rit. His ode entitled " Albion's triumph," was written on occafion of the battle of Dettingen in 1743, and publifli- ed without his name. Cibber's lives of the poets, vol. v. Biog. Brit. BOYSERSTEIG, in Geography, a calcareous mountain of Germany, near Stutgard, the capital of the duchy of Wurtemberg. BOYUANA, in Zoology, the name of an American kind of ferpent, of a long and flender form, the colour entirely black. It is related of the boyuana, that it has exactly the fmcU of a fox, but fo ftroug, that no one can endure to be near it. The particular fpecics, or even genus is uncertain. Several of the ferpent race have an offenlive fceut ; that of fome of the boa tribe is known to be intolerable, when they have fcizcd upon their prey, and begin to anoint it with their lahva, preparatory to fwallowinsj it. BOZE, Claude Gros de, in Biography, an eminent antiquary, was born at Lyons, in 1680, and after firft apply- ing himfelf to juiifprudence, devoted his whole attention to antiquities and lutdals. In this ftudy he was encouraged by tlie chancellor Pontchartrain, Bignon, Vaillant, and Hardouin, who became attached to him on account of both his amiable charader and cxtenfive erudition. In J 705. B O Z 1705, Se was admitted into tlit academy of iiifcriptions and beftes lettres, and in the following year appointed perpetual fecretai-y. He became a member of tlie French acadifmy in I7i5;andin 1719, lie was appointed keeper of the royal cabinet of medals, tlie treafnres of which he augmented by his journey to Holland in the cnfuinp, year. Upon his le- tnrn to Paris, be devoted himfelf wholly to his academical and official duties, except that he contributed alfo fome occafional papers to the " Journal des Seavans." He died, tinich elleemed for tiie ger.tlenefs and polittnefs of his man- ners, in 17.54. His publications are, the 15 Inft volumes of the " Me- moirs of the Academy of Infcrlptions, fee." to which he added the hillorica) eulogies of its members, publifhtd feparately in 2 vols. l2mo., and much valued as elegant and judicious compofitions, particularly the latter of them ; the fecov.d edition of the " Mcdallic'hillory of Lewis XIV." brought dov.'n to that king's death, 173.5, fol. ; " The hif- tory of the emperor Tctricus, illuilruted by medals ;" and feveral dilTertations on medals and other fubjedls of anti- quity, in the academical memoirs. A catalogue of his valuable library was publifhcd in 1745, and is highly prixed by bibliographers. Another was publLlhed after his death, PariSj 175.^1 Svo. Moreri. Nouv. Dift. Hiftor. ■ B07.E, in Geography, an ifland and river in the ifland of Sardinia. The town is on the fouth fide of the river, which falls into the ocean on the weft ; and the ifiand of this name lies off the weft to the fouth, between the mouth of that river and another fituate to the fouth of it. BOZEN. See Bolzano. BOZENTIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cracow, feated at the foot of Kaleberg mountain, and fur- rounded with a wall and rampart. BOZIN, BosiNO, Basineck, Bazinga, or Bazinium, a fnidll, but handfome, free royal city of Lower Hungary, in the upper outward diftrift, feated on a rifing ground. The inhabitants are induftrioufly employed in the cultiva- tion of vineyards, trade, and handicrafts. In 1605, 1620, and 1655, this place was laid in aOies. BOZOCK, or BzowiK, a fmall town of Hungary, with a caftle, in a diftrift of the fame name. BOZOULS, a town of France, in the department of the Avevron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriA of Rodes, or Rhodez, and 10 miles N. E. of it. The town contains 2,506, and the canton 6,427 inhabitants ; the tenitoiT comprehends 237' kiliometres, and 12 communes. BOZRAH, in yfticttnt Geography. See Bostra. BozRAH, in Geography, a town of America, in New- London county, and ilate of Connefticut ; 36 miles E, from Norwich. BOZZASOTRA, Anthony, in Bwsrnphy,zce\ehra\.tA profefibr of medicine in the univerlity oi Naples, his native country, flouriftied the early part of the 1 6th century. His works are " Qiinsfitmis de calido innato," Neapoli, 1542, /^\.o. " De venefeflioue in uterum gerenti, adverfus ne- gantes hujufmodi auxillum pro cautione abortus," Romse, 1545, 4to. The author (lievvs that the prohibition of Hip- pocrates, to the bleeding of pregnant women, arofe from the rude cuftom of bleeding ad dehquium ; but that blood might be drawn in fmall quantities from women in that ftate, not only fafely, but with advantage. " Traflatus quatuor- decim medendi methodi, tx Galeno," Neapoli, 1549, 8vo. ,He died Jan. Ij, 1557. Haller, Bib. Med. Eloy. Did. Hift. BOZZOT^O, in Geography, a town and fmall principa- lity of Italy, in the duchy of Guaftella, adjoining to the Cremonefe, formerly belonging to the duchy of Mantua, Vol. V. BRA from wbich it was feparated. The town was fottifit.d' in 1734. It ij ikuate 15 miles W. of Mantua, and 20 L. of Cremona. BRA, HenrV DE, in Biography, ^r,mmw\)' called Umryo Bra, a phyfician of coniid-irable eminence, borji at Dockiirn, in Weft Friefland, the 25th of September, IJjy, was ini- tiated into the ftudy of mtdicine by his father, who wag penfionary phyfician te the town. To improve him in knowledge his father fent him to vifit the different univtr- fities in France, Italy, and Germany. After fpendincj eight years, he returned by I'afle, where he took his degree of doilor in medicine, utider John Bauhine, the elder. He now went to Kempeu, where he praftifed about eight years, but was at length invited to Zutphen, and made penfionary phyfician, and there continued to the end of his days. His works, which vvere in requclt in his time, are " Medica- mcntorum fimplicium et facile parabiliura ad it\eruin, tt hydropem, catalogus, et qunmodo iis utendum," l^eid. i^'jo, Svo. " De curandis venenis per medicamcnta fimplicia, et facile parabilia," Anaheim, j6o?, Svo. with others of a fimilar kind. " De novo qnodam morbi geneie, Frifiis et Weftphallx- ptcnliari," publilhed in the works of Peter Foreftus. Haller, Bib. Med. Eloy. Didt. Hifl. ]5ra, in Geor;r,iphy, a town of Italy, in the principaliiy of Piedmont, including 5 parilh churches ; 10 miles S. E. of Carmagnola, and 2 N. W. of Cherafco. BRAAN, a river of Scatland, which runs into the Tay, near Dunkeld, in the county of Perth. BRAAWICKEN, or 'Bravicxen. a gulf of Eaft Gotliland, on the weft fide of the Baltic fea, about 30 leagues S. W. from Stockholm, into which the river Motala difcharges itfelf near the town of Nordkioping. BRABANCIONES, in Middle Age Writers, a kind of Netherland foldiery, infamous for rapine, being little better than commiffioned banditti, who hired themfelves to fight for any tliat could pay them bcft. The word is varioufly written by the hiftorians of thofe days ; all given them from the country of Brabant, which was the chief nurfery of thofe troops. They are alfo fre- quently confounded with the Routiers, Jiolurierr, Ruptnrii, Ruterarii, Coteraux, &c. Daniel. Hift. de la Mil. Franc, liv. iii. chap. 8. Towards the clofe of the 12th century, when the goveni- ment in all the ftates of Europe was relaxed, and it was almoft impoffible to enforce any general execution of the laws, troops of banditti under thefe denominations were em- boldened to difturb the public peace, to infeft the highways, to pillage the open country, and to brave all the efforts of the civil magiftrate, and even the excommunications of the church, which were fulminated againft them. Some of thefe troops were occafionally enlifted in the fervice of one prince or baron, and others in that of another : they often afted in an independent manner, under leaders of their own '; the peaceable and induftrious inhabitants, reduced to poverty by their ravages, were frequently obliged to betake themfelves to a like diforderly courfe of Iii: ; and a continual inttftine war, pernicious to induftry, as well as to the execution of juftice, was thus carried on in the bowels of every kingdom. Thefe mercenary ruffians formed a kfndoffociety or govern- ment among themfelves, which fet at defiance the reft of mankind. The greateft monarchs were not afhamed, on ur- gent occafions, to have recourfe to their affiftance ; and as their habits of war and depredation had given them expeii- ence, hardinefs, and courage, they generally compofed the moft formidable part of thofe armies, which decided the po- litical quarrels of princes. Accordingly Henry II. enhftcd numerous troops of them in his fervice ; and the fituatioo 0/ . Z his BRA hi* aCiirswa* fuch a? to u-nder iven fucH bant'.'.li t-.f on y fiirccs on whole tidility hr could repair any coutiiience. We ftad alio offotlifrs \iniWv t'''> -"'d luniWr dcnonilnalioiis ip tlie fiit.ftqiiint r>ic;n« of Jiiehard 1. and Joliii. Hume's HilL vol. i. and vol. i». BRABAMCON, in Gtosrndhy, a town, with tho title of principality, in the county of Mainaut ; 4 leagues E. of Mauheupc. BRABANDERKOEG, a fmall iflancl of Denmark in tho (!uchy of Slifwick, and picftdurc of Hvifum, called alfo N'ordllrar d, which fee. BRABANT, Ducny of, a province of the Netherlands, bounded on the north by Holland and Gueldirland, on the eafi by Gnelderland and the principality of I.iege, on the feiuth by Nartiur and Haiiiaut, and on the wc!l by Flardcrs and Zealand. The circumference is elliniatcd at about So leapues, and it contains twcnty-fix walled towns, belides fevcral others of inferior importance ; the principal cities are I,ouvain, Antwci-p, and lirnlfels. It was firlf erc6\td into a clucliy in the ^th century, and formerly belonged to the Franki(h monarchy ; but it afterwards became a fief of the German empire. The lad duke of Brabant, of the race of Cliarlcina^ne, was Otto, on whofe death, in lOOjT, it came to Lambert I. count of Louvain, who marriea the iiller and heirtfs of Otto. By his podtrity it dcfcendcd to Philip II. duke of Burgundy ; and from him in the line of his family to the emperor Charles V., and by him to Philip II. knig of Spam. In the 17th century the repub- lic of the United Nctherhinds took poflcffion of the northern part of the duchy of Brabant, which it retained at the peace of Weftphalia. This comprehended the quarter of Bois-le- Duc, (which fee,) and a part of the quarter of Antwerp, and was called Dutch Brabant. Charles III. afterwards known bv the title of the emperor Chailes VI., after the battle of Ramillics, in 1706, took pofTeflion of the Auftrian part of this duchy, conlilling of the town and quarter of X.ouvain, thofe of Bruileh, and thofe of Antwerp. A fmall part towards the fouth was known by the name of Walloon Brabant. When the French paffed the Rhine they eftablifiied themfelves in Brabant ; and by the new partition pf their territories and conqutfts, in confequence of the third article of the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, and the fecond of the treaty of I^uneville, in 1801, which ceded the Autlrian Netherlands to the French, the eallern pan of Brabant was formed into the department of Deux Nethes, and the fouthein part into that of Dyle. The air of Brabant is good, and its foil is feitile. It produces a great quantity of flax, and is watered by feveral rivers, of which the chief are the Dommtl and the Dcmer, which, after receiving the fmaller rivers of Chute, Dyle, Seene, and Nethe, takes the name of Rupel, and difcharges itfelf into the Scheld. The religion of this countiy is the Roman ca- tholic. Mr. George Foftcr, who travelled through this country in 1790, gives a very unfavourable account of it. See his travels, vol. iii. In no place, he fays, has ignorance ever cftabhlhed her dominion fo firmly, nor diffufed fo palp. able a darknefs, as over the minds of the Brabanters ; and no where has the iron yoke of implicit faith fo deeply de- graded the human underltanding. Never, he adds, fince they were deluged with blood by Plilip and Alva, have thefc provinces atlrafted the notice of mankind, except when foreign armies made them the theatre ot war, or when, hke an abfolute property they were transferre-' from one princely family to another. Nothing can be a greater proof of the ftupidity and infenhbility to which the" people were funk, than the indifference (hewn by the Brabanters, and the op- pofiticn made by the Flemings, to the defign of the emperor n R A Tefc-pli II. to open the navigation of the Scheld, Incired the piAure which he gifcs of the decayed (late of their ma- r.ifa'rtures, of the wealth and power of the church, of the infolent fpirit of the nobles, and of the fuperftition which prevails among all ranks, is fuflicient to convince us that the inhabitants oAhefe countries were fo exceedingly degraded by civil and religious tyranny, that they were become totally infenfible to every thing that can dignify hunian nature.. Of the people, however, he obferves, that their good quali- ties are their own, but that their fau'ts are derived from then- teachers. They are remarkably phlegmatic,, but human^:, good natiired, and friendly; even ainid the violence of pa. - fion, they are neither cruel nor implacable. The meaiurcs which Jofephll. concerted, however arbitrary in their firll appearance, imprudeRt in their arnmgement, and precipitate in their execution, were defigncd for reftraining the power of the infolent priefts, and for abohfhing the groffcr abfur- dities of popery. But the infurreilions occafioned by them, and the revolution in which they terminated, were attended with confequences which the people had reafon to larneni:. By throwing off their allegiance to the einperor, they fell under a heavier yoke, and groaned under the moft intoler- able of all defpotifm, that of an abfolute arillocracy. Koat far their condition h?.s be€?i improved fince their country has been made a part of Belgium, by the extenfion of the French conquefts, time muil determine, and their own experier/ce may clearly in fome racafure he able to tcftify. See Ne- therlands. BRABEIUM, in Botany, from ^(xSiCav, ^ifaptrs, Lin. gen. 160. Reich. 1262. Schreb. J5S0. Mant. 137,332, Juflieu 79. Clafs, polygamla mcnucia. Species plantarura & fyltema naturz. Ed. 12. tetrandr'ia monogynia. Nat.. Or* dcr not determined by Linnaus. Protes Juirieu. Gen. Char. Cal. ament pubefcent, with ovate, obtufe, three- flowered fcaks. Cor. monopetalouG, deeply divided inta four oblong, obtufe fegments, rolled back at top. Stam, filaments four, inferted into the bafe of the fegments ; an- thers oblong, attached to the inner fide of each filament, fo as fcarcely to reach its fumrait. Pi/}, germ very fmall, viL, lofe, ttyle filiform, longer than the ilamcns ; Stigma fimple, Martyn (two upright and oblong, Lin. La Mark, and Bofc.) Per. a dry drupe, fomewhat pear-fhaped, villofe. The male flowers on the fame tree agree with the above, with the exception of an abortive piilil. Sted, nut globular. EfFen. Char. Scale of the ament. Cor. with four revo- lute fegments. Stam. four. Pifl. one. Drupe, fomewha; pear-fliaped. Seed, globular. Species. B. StettulifoUum, (Syft. Nat.) Stellal'ifoTium, (fp. plant.) Breyn. Cent. i. pi. i. Pluk. 47. pi. 265; La Mark, pi. S47. African almond. A native of ths country about the Cape of Good Hope, where it grows to a tree of a moderate fize, but m Europe it feldom growa above eight or nine feet high. S-lem ftraight, foft, full of pith, covered with a brown bark, throwing out horizontal branches at each joint, which gradually dwninifh from the bottom to the top fo as to form a fort ol pyramid. Leaves lanceolate, of a deep green on their upper, and a pale ruffet colour on their under fide, reticularly veined, with a fcv/. blunt ferratures at their edges, and growing in whorls on fhort peduncles, round the joints or knots ot the branches, from five to feven in a whorl, jiments axillary, growing; alfo in whorls, a little Ihorter than the leaves. The fruit is called, at the Cape of Good Hope, the wild chefnut, and is greedily eaten by the wild boars. The foregoing generic charafter and defcription have been drawn up from a careful comparifon of Linnsus, Mar» tyn, La Mark, awl Bofc, who all agr«e in calling the bra-. faeium BRA nKium an amentaceous tree. But Unnxiis mud liave ufed the term in a lax and improper ftnle ; he would otherwife have placed the genus in ius natural order of amcntacex, 3Tid not among thofe whofo natural charafter he deemed du- bious. \V hen La Mark wrote his defcription in the Ency- cloptdie Methodique, ht had in his ])Olitffiou only a dritd fpecmien without flowers, brousrht to Europe by Sonneiat; he conlequently defcribed the iVuctilication from precediuj^ iiuthors. Where he obtained the tigure publiflied altcrwarde, and how he would nowdefcribe the plant, is not known, the letter-prefs to that part of the work not being yet publifhed ; but certain it is that the fruftilication, as it is there deline- ated, has not the appearance of an ament. It correfponds much better with the foUowmg natural character by Juflicu. (Tiie corolla of other authors. ) Cn/. fmal), four-cleft, at firft connivent, afterwards revolute, the fegments bearing the itamcns at their bafe. S/amcris, four, anthers oblong, at- tached to the inner pan of the filaments. Sl/gmas, one or two. JJrtipe, villoie, one-feedcd. Jjeaves (of the Theo- jihrafta) nearly in whorls ; flowers in axillary fpikes, fa- fcicled, the falcicles eonfilliiigof threeor more flowers con- nected with a fingle bradtea, (the fcale of the ament, of other authors.) The calys: lomctimes five-cleft, with five ita- mens, and a greater uuinbev of mafculine flowers. Whether what Julfieu calls B. theophrajla be a new fpecies, we have not at prefent the means of afcertaining ; but the inflorefcence in La Mark's figure we fliould rather call a raceme than a fpike. The irabyla capcnfu, Mantifia, 1,Ij7, is judged by pro; ftiTor Martyn to be probably the fame tree bearing her- n";aphrodite flowers. La Mark pronounces it to be fo witii- riit hefitalion. Bofc makes no mention of it, either under hrabeium, or in a feparate article. Linnius fays, that though it refembles the brabeium, its fruilification is alto- gether different. His defcription of it in Mant. i. is as follows: Branches, rigid, purplifll, ftriated, fubviilofe. Leaves, feven in a whorl, petioled, lanceolate, rather rigid, a hand's breadth long, fmooth above, reticulated underneath. Pe- tioles, ereft, pubefcent. y'menis, oblong, cylindric, petioled, round, erect, lateral, often two within each leaf, fliorter than the leaves, lather rigid, two inches long, imbricate. t^ea/es, ovate, ac\ite, pubeicent, many-flowered. CoroHutc, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft. Stamens, five. Style, one. Propa^atlnn and Culture. This tree is propagated in Europe only by layers, and that with difiieulty. The layers ftionld be made of the former year's flioots, and flit at a joint, 33 is praftifed in laying carnations. The beft time is in April, when the plants are beginning to flioot ; but they will often be two ycaro before they produce roots ftrong enough to be taken from the old plants. They mufl; have little water given them, efpecially in winter. The plants mufl be placed in a good green-houfe in winter, but in fum- mer fliould be fet abroad in a flieltered fittiation. See Mar- tyn's Miller's Dift. The brabeium does not occur in the Hortns Kewenfis. - BRADEUTES, or Brabeuta, formed from ^fxS'.m, pn~e, or reivarJ, in Antiquity, an officer who prefided at the public games, and decreed the prizes to the vidlors. The Latins called him d'fi^r.ator, and munermius. The ge- nerality of writers coiifonnd the brabeutes with the agnno- theta, between whom there liowevtr appears to have been this difference, that the former prefided at the gymnic com- bats, the lat'.erat the facred ones. The number of brabeu- ta was not fixed ; fom.etimes tlierc was only one, but more commonly there were nine or ten. BRA BON [ .A.C UM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Bri- tai"T(, m.entioned in the Motitia Imperii, and fuppofcd bv Mr, Horlley to be the fame with Brenietonacis. BRA BRABORG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in E»fl. Gothland; 24 miles E. of Nordkioping. BRABYLA, in Jiotnny. Sec BitAnKiuM. BRAC, orCALAO D'AFRicyii'., of Buffon, in Ornitholcgf, the African Hornbill ; Buceros Jfricnr.ui of Gmeliu. BRACARA AuGL'STA, in j-Uidcnt Gengr,fh\\ Braga, a town of Spain, i,i the territory of the Callaiu, fituatc above Nebia, and occupying the r.>.iik of" Convcntus." t'cr Br AC. A. BRACCAS, in Geography, an ifland of America, neat thiit of Cuba ; one of tiiofc called Caymans. BRACCATA, '\n Entomolojry, a fpecics of Vfspa, of a black colour: the thorax without fpots ; hp filvtiy ; bale of the antenna in front, and the fore legs yellow ; thighs above black. Linn. Inhabits Europe. Braccata, afpeciesof Tfnturkdo, of a black colour ; thighs rufous; bafe of the four pofterior flianks, and three lall joints but one of the antennae white. Linn. A native of Europe. BRACCATUS, an European fpccies of Ichneumon, of a black colour, with the mouth, nntcnnre, and thighs at the bafe yellow; abdomen ferruginous, and black at the bafe ; four anterior legs yellow. I^inn. &c. BR-A-CCI ANO, in Geography, a fmall town of Italy, in the Hate of the church, and patrimony of St. Peter, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, in which are warm medicinal baths. The duchy furrounds a lake, called " I-ago di Bracciano." The town is fituated at the dillance of 2 leagues from the Mediterranean, and 15 miles N. W. from Rome. BRACCIO, Itah the arm, in iifw/'f, as Viola da brac- cio, a tenor-viol, that refls on the flioulder, to diilinguifli it from the bafe-viol, which refts on the leg. See Viol di Gamba. Braccio di J\Talva, called alfo T-zaloma, in Ceo:^rapl.y, a diftria of the Morea in European Turkey, comprehending the ancient Arcadia and Laconia. BRACCIOUNI, Francis, in Biography, ^n Italian poet of noble extraction, was born at Pilloia, in 1566, and ad- mitted into the academy of Florence, where he devoted hiir.- fclf to the purfuits of literature. Having accompanied the cardinal MafFeo Barbcriiii to France, he returned after th^; death of Clement VIII. to his own country ; but upon the accefilon of Barberini to the popedom, under the title of LTrban Vlli. he re-vifited Rome, and became joint fecretai-v with the pope's brother, cardinal Antonio. He was alfo allowed the honour of taking a furname from the arms cf the Barberini family, which were " ]5ces," and from this cir- cumftance was denominated Bracciohni dell' Api. During his continuance at Rome, he frequented the mcfl. illullrious academies, and obtained great reputation for his literature, but was reproached fur his fordid avarice. After the death of Urban VIII. he retired to his native country, where he died in 1645. Bracciolini was a copious writer in various kinds of poetry, epic, dramatic, paftoral, lyric, and bur- lefque. The mod noted of his poems is his mock-heroic, en- titled " Scherno degli Dei," ridiculing the heathen mytho- logy ; which, though confefledly inferior to Taflbni's "' Sec- chia rapita," dil'putes with it priority of date. Of liis he- roic poems, the mofl. celebrated is the " Croce Racqiiiilata,"* Paris, 1605, i:mo, ranked by fome next to tJie great works of Aricfto and Taffo. ] le cekbrated the elevation of his patron Urban VIII. in 23 books, and he muft therefore have written verfes with great facility. His dramatic pallo- ral, entitled " L'Ainorofo fdegno," is ellcemed oi-.e of the beil prodviftion.s of that age; and fome of liis trarpdies gain-.d applanfe; pai-ticularly his '• E\-aiidro." Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. Braccioi.ini, Pogcio, one of .the rtvivers of literature in Italy in the 15th century, waj the fon uf Guceio Brac- Z 2 ciollni. BRA eiolin!, and bom in i}So, at Terranuova, a fmafl town of the republic of Florence, not far from Areizo. Deriving from liis father no hereditary advantaRcs of rank or fortune, he fonght emoUinient and diiliiiftion in the courfc of htcrary fKirfuiti. Having acquired a competent knowledge of the Latin and G:tek languacics at Florence, where his ftiidics were ditiaed by Manuel Cryfojoras, he .emovcd to Rome about the year 140: ; and here his literary reputation intro- duced him to the notice of Boi.ifiice IX. who took him into his fervice, and promoted him to the uifice of writer of the apoll.ilic letters. At the period immediately preceding the admiflion of Poggio into the pontifical chaiicciy, the Italian liatcs had been convulftd by war and faction; but a treaty liaviiig been concluded, juft before his arrival, between Ijoiiifjcc and the riortntinc republic, the Roman court, relieved from its dillraftion and anxiety, was become a fcciie of luxury and difTipation. Poggio, however, retllled the temptations which prcftnted tliemfelves to his lively fancy a:id ardent coiiftiution'; and as the emoluments of his office aHordcd only fcaiity means of gratification, he devoted himfelf the more afliduoufly to the profccntion of his ilndies, and to the cultivation of an acquaintance with thofe whole converfalion might lead to the improvement of his mind. Literary purfuits were now become falhiunable, and the chaiader of the fcholar was often found united with that of the man of the world. To tiiis ciicumllauce it is natural to afcnhe the union of lcariiin>r, politenefs, and knowledge of the human heart, which iVines lb confpicuoudy in the writings of Poggio. In 1404 he fiiftaiutd a confideraMe lofs by the death of his patron, Boniface ; but his diilinguidi- ed merit lecommended him to the favourable notice of the fuccrflbr to the papal fee. Innocent VI 1. ; who continued him in his office, and treated him with particular kindiicfs and refpedl. During the diflr;ic\io'.is of the Roman court, which fucceeded thed^ath of Innocent in 1406, Fo;,'gio ex- changed the intrigues and diffenfions of the pontifical palace for the tranquil delights of friendlliip, which he enjoyed at Florence in the fociety of his literary acquaintance, and par- ticularly in the patronage and cordial ellecm of the cele- brated N.ccolo Niccoli. He fcems, however, to have re- tained his fituation in the pontifical chancery ; and having afted as apoftolical fcribe to Alexander V. he occupied the fame office in the houfchold of John XXII. that pontiff's fucceffor. At the council of Conllance, in 14 15, the death of Manuel Cryfoloras, t!ie iiillvudor of his youth, afforded him an opportunity of celebrating his praifes in a funeral oration, and of dedicating to his memory an appropriate and elegant Latin epitaph. Upon the dcpofitioa of John at this council, and the confequcnt difperlion of the pontifi- cal houfehold, Poggio remained at Conltaiice, and em.ployed his intervals of leifure in ftudying the Hebrew language, under the direftion of a Jew who had been converted to the Chriftian faith. But in this language he fcems to have made no great progrefs ; nor, indeed, was he dcfirous of provid- ing himfeif, by a knowledge of the oriental tongues, with the weapons of religiuus controverfy. As he was not dif- pofed to call in queillon the prevaihvg creed, he was inclined to think that St. Jerome's trandation of the Jewifh Scrip- tures was amply fufficient for all the purpofcs of his Chrif- tian faith. Biblical (Indies fccm not to have fuitedhis tafte and inclination ; and lhtTo''oie his proficiency in them was not very confiderable. The vigour of his mind might like- wife have luffered fomc relaxation from the precarioufncfs of his fituation, and the gloomy and d.fcoiiraging profpe£ts which pr.-'fcnted themfclves with regard to his future prefer- ment. Finding no amufement in varyinir Of extending his ijlerary purfuits, hcaltogether fulpeudcd hisHudics ; and in BRA the fprlng of the year I4i<5, he avafled himfelf of the leifuK afforded him, by the termination of his fun£\ions as fecrcUry to the Jcpofed pontiff, to make an extuifion to the baths of Baden. On his return to Conllance he was prefent at the trial of Jerome of Prague ; and of this trial and the latl end of Jerome he gave a vcr)- ciicumftantial and intercfting ac- count, in a letter to his friend Leonardo Areuus. " He Hood undaunted and intrepid," fays Poggio, " not messly contemning, but, like another Cato, longing for death. He was a man worthy to be had in cverlafting remembrance. I do not com.mend him for entertaining Iriitimcnts hollile to the conllitution of the church : but I admire his learning, his extenfive knowledge, tlie fuavity of his eloquence, and his ability in reply. But I am afraid that all thefe endow- ments were bellowed on him by nature, in order to effect his deftruftion." He thus concludes ; " He may have been hereti- cal in his notions, and obftiiiate in perfevcring in them, but he certainly died like a philofopher. I have rehearfed a long llory, as I wiflted to employ my leifure, in relating a tranll a£lion which furpaffes the events of ancient hillory. For neither did Mutius fuffer his hand to be burnt fo patiently as Jerome endiued the burning of his whole body; nor did Socrates drink the hemlock as cheerfully as Jerome fubmitted to the fire." The feeling manner in which he defcribcs ther trial and execution of Jerome, evinces a heart, which daily intercourfe with bigotted believers and licentious hypocntea could not deaden to the impulfes of humanity. The mani- fcil iuterell which he took in the fate of a man, who was held up by the church as an object of unqualified abhorrence, awakened the fears of Leonardo on his account ; and he ad- vifed him to exercifc a greater degree of caution. During thevacancyof the pontifical throne, Po/gio improv. ed his leifure by an expedition of no Imall importance to the in- tereils of literature. Having received information that m.any ancient MSS. of clalFic authors were fcattered in various monalleries, and f:ther repofitories in the neighbourhood of Conllance, he determined to refcue them from the hands of thofe who, ignorant of their value, were i offering them to perifh. In the monaller/ of St. Gall he found, among other MSS., a complete copy of Qiiintilian, buried in rub- bifh and duft ; and alfo the three tjiil and one half of the fourth books of the Argonautics of Valerius Flaccus, and Afconius Pedianus's comment on eight of Cicero's orations. In a monallery of the monks of Clugny, in the town of Langres, he found a copy of Cicero's oration for Caecina; and in his other refearchcs he difcovered the following ora- tions of the fame author, the lofs of which had been long deplored by the learned : viz. " De lege Agraria contra RuUum, lib. i. et lib. ii." " Contra legem Agrariam ad populum ;" and " In L. Pifonem." A copy of thefe ora- tions is prcfervcd in the abbey of Sta. Maria at Florence, with a memorandum afcribiiig the difcovery of this and alfo of three others, viz. " Pro C. Rabirio Pifoiie ;" " Pro C. Rahirio perduellioiiis reo;" and " Pro Rofcio coma;do," to Poggio ; but the three lall are torn from the volume. To him alfo, in concurrence with Bartolomeo di Montepelciano, we are in- debted for reffoiing to light the poem of Sillus Italicus, Lac- tantius's ti-eatife, " De ira Dei et opificio hominis," Ve- gctius " De Re militari," Nonius Marcellu.-', Ammiarais Mar» celhnus, l..ucretlus. Columella, and Tertullian. Poggio llkewifc: added to the eight comedies of Plautus, known be- fore his time, twelve more ; and by the alTiduity of his own refearchcs, and thofe of others employed by him, he difcover- ed a fragment of Aulus Gellius, a copy of Julius Frontinus, " De aquieduftis," and eight books of Firmicui's treatife on the mathematics. From Cologne he procured the fif- teenth book of Petronius Arbiter ; and to his exertions we owe BRA owe the entire work of Columella, the prortrvafior- of Cal- purnius's Bucolic, and lin: lecovery of the works of Mani- liuR, Lucius Septimius, Caper, Eutychius, and Prohus. After the depofnion of JohiiXXII. Poggio remained for • Jome time in iulpence with regard to his future dcftination ; and it does not appear tliat he held any office under Murtln V. who was cleeted to the papal fee, although, afttr the diffolution of the council of Conilance in 1418, he travc'leJ in the fuite of the new pontifl to Mantua. At this time he paid a vifit to England, in confequeiice of an Invitiitiou from Beaufort, bilhop of Winchtfter ; but difappointed in his expedtations of preferment, adequate to his vii.\v3 and wilhes, he impatiently waited a favourable opportunity of returning to liis native country. At length, vii. in 1420, wlien the difTenfions refpefling the pontilicatc were finally fettled, and Martin V. was re- cognized as the true fucoeflor to the papal throne, Foggio arrived at Rome, and accepted the clSce ot fecrttary, to vvhicli he was reeouunended by the cardinal ot St. Eultbius. A quarrel having taken place between his two friends Leonardo Aretino and Niccolo Niccoli, he interpofed as mediator, and fucceeded in accomplifhing a reconciliation. In 14^9 he availed himfelf of an interval of tranquillity, in prefenting to public notice his firft literary prodattion, which was a " Dialogue on Avarice," and which feems to have polTefl'ed coufiderable merit. In this dialogue he took occafion very feverely to fatirize thofe Francilcan friars, who were dillmguiihedby the title of" Fratres Obfervantias," a new order foiuided by Bernardo of Siena. This was folio A-ed, at a more advanced period of life, by a " Dialogue on Hypocrify," a compoiition which abounds in the keen farcafms of polifhed wit, and in acute obfervations on tlie human charafter. In both thefe dialogues he boldly ex- prefles the contempt he entertained for thofe ccclefiaftics, who adopted the religious habit as a convenient clcak for the concealment of indolence or luxury ; and who, by the mere appearance of extraordinary fandlity, endeavoured to attain that worldly honour which at the fame time they afFefted to defpife. The freedom with which he expofed l\ie vices not merely of individuals, but of whole clalTes of religious hypocrites, manifelled a great degree of virtuous refolution, and merited no meao praife. After ttie acce.lion of Euge- iiius IV. to the papal throne, a conteil occurred between him and the council of Bafil, which terminated in the depofition of the pontiff, and his (lit;ht to Flerence ; and Poggio, in attempting to follow him thither, was captured, and for fome time detained in confinement. However, by tlie payment of a ranfom, which his pecuniary circumftances rendered very oppreflive, he was fet free, and finally accom- plifhed his retreat to Florence. Durmg his refidence in this city, he had an opportunity of tellifying his ardent attachment to the hoi]fe of Medicis, by entering into a literary contelt, or rather a kind of lampoon war, with Fi-lelfo, an avowed enemy of chat family, in which they feem to have vied with each other in inventing fallehoods of the moff atrocious kind, and in difgraeing their pages by the moltmalevolentandindecentcalumnies. This conteft between two of the mofl learned men of the age was condufled in a manner, which, however it might have contributed to the amufement of their contemporaries, entails lalfing difgrace oa both parties, in the judgment of poilerity. Poggio, foon after the termination ot this conteft, determined to fix his permanent refidence in the Tufcan territory, and with this view he purchafed a villa in the plealant difirift of Valdarno. The Tuican government favnureil his purpoles of retirement, and paffed a 'jublic aft, which exempted him 9uad his children from the payment of all pubUc tases. BRA Poggio's fortune was inconfiderable ; but he contrived to render his humble nmdion an objedt of attention to the lovers of the liberal arts, by the treafures of his library, and by a fmall colletlion of ftatues, whicli he dilpofed in fuch a manner as to conditule a principal ornament of his garden, and the appropriate furniture of an apartment which he intended to dedicate to literary converfation. His attention Icems toihave been long engaged by the ihidy of ancient leulpture ; nor was he Icfs affiduous in refcuiiig its relics from obfcurity, than in fearching for ilie beif writers of antic]uity. With this view he made a diligent furvey of the ruiris of ancient Rome, and inferted in the proemium to his dialogue, " De Varietate Fortunx," a catalogue of the relies of Roman architefture, which has beei\ introduced by Mr. Gibbon in the 7 ill chapter of his " Decline and Fall of the Roman empire." Poggio's refearches extended beyond the precinfts of Rome, and his zeal for the rertoration of the monuments of ancient fculpture induced him to vifit Crypta, Ferrata, Tufculum, Ferentir.um, Alba, Arpinum, Alatrinum, and Tiburtum ; and by means of friends he direfted his refearches to Rhodes, Greece, and other c(jun- tries. Whilll he was occupied in coUeftiug ornaments for his rural refidence, he was employed at the requell of a friend, Scipio of Ferrara, in compoling a diiTcrtation on the comparative merits of Cxfar and Scipio ; wliich he clofcs with tlie following general ftatement of his opinion, " that the youth of Scipio was diftinguifhed by the purcft moral,"!, whilil the early years of Caefar were rendered infamous by his vices ; that the former, infpired with the fpirit of patriotifm, by his fplendid military achievements refcued his country from dellruflion ; and that the latter, prompted by ambition, too fuccefsfuUy exerted his extraordinary talents to effect the iubverfinn of the commonwealth : that confe- quently, whilll Scipio was by no means inferior to Cxfar in the fame of his military exploits, he was greatly hu fuperior in virtue, which alone conllitutes the charafter of a truly great man." Soon after the termination of a contro- verfy which this publication occafioned, an event occurred which, in all the circumftances that attmdtd it, reflects no great honour on the charaifler of Poggio. At the age of 5 ■;, he married a young lady of a wealthy and honourable family in her jSth year ; and to this alliance he facrifieed a m.illrefs, by whi^m he had had izfonsand 2 daughters, and, moreover, fet afiJe a bull of legitimacy which he had pro- cured for them, in order that they might be enabled to inherit his fortune. Not long after this event, in J437, his friend Niccolo Niccoli died, and Poggio compofed and pubhflied his funeral eulogium,in which are feveral traces of eloquence and pathos. Although Poggio devoted much of his attention to domellic duties, and to the improvement of his Tufcan villa, he found leifui'e to renew his difgractful literary conte'l with Filelfo ; and to compofe a work, which redounded much more to h'i honour, entitled " A Dialogue on Nobility," and publifhed iu 1440. This was followed, by his " Dialogue on the unhappinefs of princes," in which he dwells with lo much energy on the vices of exalted rank, as to affrd room for fufpicion, that refentment and indigna- tion had at leaft as much influence in its compofition as the fuggeflions of philofophy. However, ihe cffufions of mo- rofenefs that occur in this dialogue are iuterfperfed with precepts of found morality, and the hiiloiic details with whicfi it abounds are both entertaiiiing.and ir.flruCtive. In 1444 he loft Leonardo, the fole furviving cDrnpanios of his youthful years ; and on this oecafion he pubhihed a funeral oration, which was at oiic« djgulticd and pa- thetic. Poggio, though he had held the office of apollolic fecre- 8 tarjr BRA ttrf unier ftven pontiffs, hnd nevtr been promoted to any i>( lilt iup'.Ti' r d.partnunti of tl>e Roman clianccry. But »htii N'lcol.* V. afcciiJtd tSc pontifical tlironc, liis prof- pet^ were origlitf ned ; and lie tiidulfjcd the hope of fpeuJ- lag the r.maiiiJer of Wu days iii ii tlaie of indepeiiJeuce, if nn of affluence. With a view of improving his intcrcil wnth the ni* pimtiff, lie addrcfled to him a congratulalory Dic- tion, vihicli was lecompcnfeJ by very liberal prcfeiits. This was I'uccecdtd by a dedicatory cpilUe, iiUioducin^r to his Tmrunit^e a dialogue " On the viciflitudes of foilime," the moll interelliiijj of Pogjfio's works, and inculcating maxims of fublime p'.iilofophv, enforced by a detail of fplcndid and UrikiiiK eventi. Con'.idinT in the pontiff, he alfo publilhcd the diJo^iie " On hypocrify," already mentioned. At the ncj.ie'.l, and under tiie patron.ige of Nicolas, he alfo contributed to the illulliation of Grecian literature, by a L^itin trandation of llie works of Diodorus Siculuf, and the C:yrop(rciia of Xc-iiophon. Diiii'ig the ph^ue, which raged in various parts of Italy in 1450, PogRio yifited the place of hio nativity ; and availing himfelf of this interval of relaxation from the duties of liis ofiice, he publifhcd his " Libsr Facetiarum," or cjlle) forfeit the favour of the pious Kugenius, or of the moral and accomphfhed Nicolas V. 'J'o thofe with whom he main- faused a perlonal iotercourfe, h: recommended LImfeJf by BRA the urbanity of his manners, the {Irength of his judgmen(, and the fportivencfs of his wit. As a icholar, Poggio is entitled to diftinguiflicd praife. By afiiJuous ftudy, he be- came a confiderablc proficient in the Greek language, and intimately couvcrfant with the works of the Roman clafiic . authors. In fclefting as his exemplar in Latin compoCtion, the llyle of Cicero, he mainfel'ted the difcernmcnt of true tallc. When compared with the works of his immediate pred'ecedoTS, the writings of Poggio are truly aftonilhing. " Rifing to a degree of' elegance, to be fought for in vain in the rugged Latii-iity of Ptliarca and Cokiccio Salutati, he prepared the way for the correctnefs of Pohliano, and of the other etrineiit fcholars whofe gratitude has refieftcd fuch fplcndid ludrt on the charafter of Lorenzo de' Medici." Shepherd's life of Pogc^io Bracciolini. 4to. 1802. 11RACF, IS commonly taken for a couple, or pair; and in this fcnfe i.s apphed by huntfmen to feveral beafts of game ; as a brace of bucks, foxes, hares, &c. — They alfo fay., a brace of greyhounds. Brack, in ylnhik-Sure, denotes a piece of timber framed in with bevel-joints ; ferving to keep the building from fwerv. ini either way. When a brace is framed into a king-piece, or principal rafter, it is called by fome a_/?ru/. Brace, Br.\cchio, or Brasse, in Men/uration, ienotet a foreign long mcafurc, anfwering to our fathom. Brace is alfo ufcd for a meafure taken from the length of the arm when extended , and is ul'ed in divers cities of Italy, in lieu of the foot or yard. Its length is various ; the brace of Bergamo, accordmg to Scamozzi, is nineteen Paris royalinches, and a half ; according to M. Petit, fix- teen inches two-thirds ; the brace of Bologna is fourteen inches ; that of Creffe, feventten inches feven lines and a half, according to Scamozzi ; and according to M. Fttit, feventeen inches five lines ; the Mantuan brace is fcventeea inches four lines ; that of Milan, tweuty-two inches ; thole of Parma, twenty inches one-third ; of Sienna, twtnty-one inches two-thirds ; of Florence, twenty inches two-thirds, according to Maggi ; twenty-one inc!ies four lines and a half, according to I.orini ; twenty-two inches two-thiidi, according to Scamozzi, and twenty-one inches one-third. Recording to Picart. Brace, in T/ritlng, a term ufed to f?gnify a crooked line, (as > ) made at the end of two or more articles in an ac- count, the amount of which is ufually placed in the centre of the brace. It is alfo ufed in printing, to enclofe an entire paffage, as in a triplet, &c. Brace the yards !o, in Sea-lar^vage, fignifies to move them, by means of the braces, to any diredtion required. To brace about, is to brace the yards round for a contrary tack. To brace Jharp, is to brace the yards in a pofition, in which they will make the lead pofiible angle with the keel, for the fhip to have head-way. To brace to, is to eafe off the lee- braces, and round-in the weather braces, to alTid the motion of the ihip's head in tacking. See the next article. Brace, a rope at each extremity of all the yards of a (hip, except the mizen yard, which is provided with ropes called -vanrs, for the purpofe of bringing the yard in a proper polition, that the fail mav be full, v.he- ther the fliip is failing by, or large. All braces ought, if poffiblc, to lead aft, for the greater fccurity of the mails; in fliips, therefore, the braces of the yards belonging to the fore and main-mads lead aft ; but in fquare-rigged veficls with two malls, thofe, only, of the yards belonging to i^.ie fore-mail, lead aft. The braces of the yards of the after- mail of a fquare rigged vefTcl, lead forward. The bracas of the principal yards are double, being reeved through blocks. BRA BRA b'oi-ks, at that. tom. i. i%: ii. Kennet. Rom. Ant. Not. P. If. lib. iv. cap. J 6. Bartholin has a trcatife on the bracelets of the ancier.to. The northern people ufed alfo to fwcar on their bracelets, to render coiitrafts more inviolable. Bracelets are (till much uLd by the favages of Africa and America, made of metal, glafs-beads, (bells, and the liki . In civilized countries they form a comman part of the orna- ment of the ladies. Bkacelet is alfo ufed, m ^Inatomy, to de.iote the circu- lar ligament which invcfts the carpus, called alfo ligamcntum annular!. Bracelets, in fome Ancient Lata Books, denote beagles, or hounds of the fmaller kind. BRACES, in Giogritphy, are two fand-banko lying aci-ofs the entrance into the channtls for the i-iver Hughly, at the bottom of the bay of Bengal. Braces, in Ship building, that fccurity to the rudder which is fixed to the Hern poll, and bottom of the rtiip, and to which the rudder is hung. Braces of (2 cojch, denote the tliick and ftrong flraps of leather on which it hangs. BRACHERIUM, or Bracheriolum, a kind of fteci bandage worn about the hips, and ufed for tiie retention and. cure of ruptures. Du-Cange Glofl'. Lat. BRACHIjEUS, or Brachialis, inUrnus, mufculas, in Anatamy, is the deeper fituated flexor of the elbow joint. It arilcs flefhy from the middle of the os brachii, and from all the lower and fore part of the bone. It palfts over the joint, and adheres firmly to the ligameni. It is infcrt.d by a ftrong fhort tendon into the coronoid jjrocefs of the ulna. Its ufe is to bend the fore arm, and to prevent the capfulc of the joint from being pinched. BRACHIAL na-ccs. See Nerves. BRACHIALIS, coraco. See Coraco-Brachialts. BRACHIATE, in Bolany, a term applied to branches when they grow oppofitc to each other-, one on each fide of the ftem, and when each pair points in a different direc- tion, fo as to make a right angle with the pair above or be- low it. BRACHIOBOLUS, a name given by Allioni to a- ge* nus of plants formed for fuch fpecies of filymbrium as have a fhort filique. It corrcfponds with Haller's radicula. See Sisymbrium. BRACHION, in Ancient Ceographyr Gcrba^ an ifland in the Mediterranean fea, fituate on the coafl of Africa, 1 1 leagues S. E. of Tacape. Scylax. BRACHIONUS, in Zoology, a genus of Vnrmes infufo- ri,t, having the body contratlile, covered with a fhtll,' and furnifhed with ciliate rotatory organs at the head. The fpecies of this genus LinniEus includes m his genus Vorti- cAld, from which they are difliuguilhed by modern natural- i;ts by the (helly covering of the body ; the vorticcUs being- deftitute of a (hell. ,^ The fpecies of this genus are urceolaris, patella, Jlriatus, ciri'atus, tripus, uncinatns, inucronatus, cernuus, calyciflo- rus, tuhifex, quadridentJitus, and patina, whicli fee. BRACHITyE, in F.cchfiajYual Hijlory, a branch of Manichees, who appeared in the third century. BRACHIUM, the arw, 'm Anatomy, is thnt part of the upper extremity which intervsnej betVTcen l)j£ joints of the (huiilder and elbcw, BsACKivM,, BRA Brachivm, in B(y!>T<\-, a term cmp'oytd I'y LirnsiJS as D mearure ot Lilanta. It denotes tl>e dilUncc from the arin- pit to the bale of tiic middle finger in a middle Hied m3"i and ii about 24 inches. DkaChium. movfniium ptunJui, in jlnaloiry., a name givcti by Vefaliiis, and otlier of tl;e old writcru, to the muf- cle now generally called deho'uks. Brachium mov.iis quarlu:, the name by which Vefa'.ii's ca!U the mufcle now generally known under the name ot Uu\lfmits ilcifi. rallopms, and many others, hive alfo culled it quntlut kumtri. DRACHII /cr/w, a name given by Vefalins and others to a muffle llncc called, from its Ihape, l.-m mnjjr, and rolim- Jus m ijor. I'.RACHII'RE, ill Zoology, an cpilhct plven by the I'rciich natur.ihih to many animals that have (hort win^s, the word being derived from the Greek as in Brachytcra, &c. 15RACHLERCHE, Frtsch, in Omlihology, Alauda Campestris, tlic meadow lark. BRACHMANS, a branch of the ancient Gymnofo- pUidj, or philol'ophers of India, remarkable for the feve- ritv of their lives and manners. See GvMNOsor hists. The Greeks ufually j;ive them the name Gym.nof.iphills ; but among ancient authors, both Greek and Latin, we find different accounts of thefe Indian fages. Ptolemy confiders them as dillini't from the Gymnofopliills ; and he places the Brachmans, whom he calls Maji, in a fouthern diilrift of India, between the rivers Solenus and Chabtrus, not far from the fea ; whereas he afligns to the Gymnofophifts a ii- tuation in the north-eaftern part of that country, near the wellcrn bank of the Ganges. On flie other hand, Mc£;aft- henes, cited by Strabo, (Geog. torn. ii. p. 1038.) aflerts, that the Gymnofophifts were divided into two branches or fcAs, viz. the Brachmans and the Germanes. Diodorus Siculus, in one place, reprefents the philofophers of India, who were the Brachmans of Mej;alUienes, as equivalent to the priefts of other nations ; but, in another palfage, he contideis them as a fcparate nation, feft, or body of men, fettled in one particular part of India- Arrian (De Exped. Alexand.) fixes the Brachmans among the Malli and the Mu- ficani ; and Pliny (Nat. Hid. 1. 6. c. 17.) fays the r.ypellation Brachman was applied to many nations, and intimates, that it did not denote a diftinft clafs or order in fociety. Por- phyry (De abflin. 1. 4.) affirms, that the Gymnofophifts were divided into two feds, the Brachmans and the Sama- neans ; and that of the Brachm.ans, fome lived in a moun- tainous tradl, and others about the Ganges. Arrian, Apuleius, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Plutarch, differ in fiveral particulars relating to thefe Indian fages ; though they all feem to agree in celebrating their love of divine wifdom, their knowledge, their abftemious way of life, their fmgular temperance, and their contempt of all the ■good, as well as evil things of this world, fo miich defired or dreaded by the bulk of mankind. Upon the whole, it feems to be evident from various records, concerning the ancient Brachmans, that they were not fo much a dillinft nation, or particular clafs of philofophers, as a tribe or bo- dy of men, or rather a numerous family, defceiided from one common anceftor, who exifted at fome remote period, and who was different from the progenitors of the people among whom they lived. They deduced their origin from Brahma, the firft of the three beings whom God cr?ated, and whom he afterwards employed as his agents in forming the world. Some have fuppofed that this Brahma was the feipreme being : but others have rejedled this fuppofition as abfurd and incredible. It has been a generally received BRA opinion among fon.e of the heft: Jevdfh writers, adopted \tf Shurcftani, an Arabian author of great repute, and fanc- tioned by the authority of the learned Dr. Hyde (De rtl. vet. Pcrlacum, p. 31, 3-), who has offered feme ingenious con- jsclmes in deiince of this notion, that the progenitor of the Erachfnans was the patriarch Abraham, whom in their language they call /7W.rma, or brania. PoftelUis (In comment, ad Jezir.) takes thefe Brachmans to have beertdefcended from Abraham by his wife Keturah, whence he calls them Abrachmans ; and believes that the true ifhgioii prevailed long anicrg them ; and, indeed, from the accounts given of them l»y the ancients, it feems to appear, th.it they acknowledged one fupreme being, and a future ftate of rewards and punifhmenls. It alfo farther appears, that fo.ne of them worfliipped this fupreme being with great firvency and adoration, fpcnding the gveateft part of the day and night in finging hymns in honour of the deity, praying and failing almoft incefl'antly, and defplfing every thing in, this world for his fake. Hence, lome have derived their name from the Hebrew barach, to Ufs or pn^y, becaufc this was their pi'incinal occupation. Moft of them lived in folitude, without mai-iying, or pofl'tfling any eftatcs ; and fri>m this circumftanee ot their retiring into the counti-y and living in deferts, F. Thomafin deduces the oritrinal of the appellation by which they are diftin- guifhed ; fuppofmg it to have been derived from the He- brew barach, to Jly or efcap:. Thefe Brachmans, according to the accounts of Arnan and Porphyry, were held in great veneration in their own country, enjoying pcrfeft liherty and total exemption from taxes, and officiating, not only as the priefts of the Indians, but Ilkewife as the princijjal counfellois of their princes. Thus they ferved their coun- try-, both in a civil and religious capacity, as the M.igi did among the Perfians. They alTiilcd at the public facrilices ; and if any perfon defired to facrifice in private, one of them mi'ft be prefeut, otherwife the Indians were perfuaded they would not be acceptable to the Gods. It was their pecu- liar provinc-: to confalt the ftars, and to pi-aclife divination. According to Strabo's account, they believed that the worid had a beginning, and that it will have an- end ; that its form is circular ; that it was created by God, who pre- fides over, and fills it with his majefty ; and that water is the principle of all things. With regard to the immortality of the foul, and the future punifhment of the wicked, they followed the dodrine of Plato ; intermixing it, like that philofopher, with fome fiftions, in order to exprefs or de- icribe thofe puniftiinents. The Brachmans are celebrated all over the ancient world for their wifdom, the aufteiity of their lives, and their invincible fortitude and patience. Their food confifted altogether of herbs, roots, and fruits, and their-- drink was water. They wholly abftained from the flcfli of animal's, and thought themfelves defiled by touching them : they thought it higlily criminal to deprive the moft inconfiderable animal of life ; and as they held the doftrine of the Metempfychofi.':, they fuppofed that the fouls of men tranfmigrated into thole of brute animals. Pythagoras is faid to have ftudied their doftrine and man- ners, and to have received his notion of the tranfmigration of fouls, or Metempfychofis, from them. Perfuaded that it is below the dignity of a man to wait calmly Ibr death, when he finds hinifelf opprelTcd by age or fieknefs, they earneftly wifh for the moment when the foul fha'.l leave the body, and hold it to be glorious and laudable to preclude the approach of their laft hour, and to burn themfelves alive. Among them, no honours were paid to thofe who died merely of old age ; and they conceived, that their fu- neral pile, and the fire that was to itcduce thtm to afties, would BRA BRA be polluted if tliq- did not move to it with a firm and quick ftep, and alccnd it with fortitude and nnimation. Cicero, in his Tufculan (^uelHons, (1. v. ii. yS.) cxpicffts his admiration of the invincible patience, not only of the Indian fages, but alio of the women of tliat country, who ufed to contend for the honour of dying- witii their common hufband. This privilege was relerved for that wife to whom the hulband was moll affedionatcly attached ; and it was decided in her favour by the fentence of ptrfons ap- pointed for that purpofe, who never pronounced judsjment till they h<-:d made a ilriA examination, and heard the alle- gations o»n all fides. The wife, who was ultimately pre- ferred, ran to meet death, and afcended the funeral pile with incredible firmnefs and joy ; whilll the furviving wives withdrew with the moft deprtfilng regret and forrow, and with their eyes bathed in tears. Some of the Brachmans, however, lived in cities, and adbciated with their own fpe- cies ; and fo far from confidenng fuicide, or a premature furrendcr of themlelves to death, as a virtuous and brave aftion, they looked upon it as a weaknefs in man not to wait patiently the ilroke of death, and as a crime to antici- pate the will of the GoJs. The Brachmans were all of one tribe ; and in this refpeft, they differed from the Gymno- fophifts, and particularly from the Samanaians, who might have belonged to any family or Indian tribe. They formed the firft and principal of the four calls that fubfillcd from time immemorial among the Hindoos, and that were fup- pofed to be derived from Brama. See Cast. In ancient times it fliould fcem, that the Brachmans were tiot hereditary, or adldinft Levi tical tribe; but that any mem- ber of the other calls might enter into this order, which was ofcourfe deemed inferior to the chief fecular or military call. But in latter limes the cafe has been very different ; for the meanell Bramln will not now condefcend to eat with his fovereign. The Brachmans from the time of their birth were put under guardians ; and as they grew up, had a fucceflion of inftruCtors. They were in a llate of pupillage till 36 years of age ; after which they were allowed to live more at large, to wear fine hnen and gold rings, to live up- on the flefli of animals not employed in labour, and to marry as many wives as they pleafed. Others of them fubmittcd, through their whole lives, to a Ilricler dl'cipline, and paffed their days upon the banks of the Ganges, with no other food befides fruits, herbs, and milk. The rigours praflifed by the Brachmans are almoft incredible, and would hardly be believed, if they were not altelled by the bed authority, and by the reports of modern travellers concerning the cru- elties, penalties, and even tortures, which are commonly praclifed without fcruple by the Indian Bramins. Pliny relates, (N. H. 1. vii. c. 2.) that fome have flood vi-Ith their eyes ftedfaftly fixed upon the fun from morning to night, and that others have remained, in one and the fame painful pofture, upon the burning fands, for whole days. For a further account of the tenets and praflices of the ancient Brachmans, fee Gvmnosoph ists and Saman^eans. Among thofe Brachmans, that are mentioned with parti- cular refpeft by the Greek writers, who treat of the time when Alexander vilited India, and particularly by Strabo, (Geog. 1. XV.) are Mandanis and Calanus. The former is celebrated for the boldnefs with which he cenfured the in- temperance and licentioufntfs of Alexander and his army, in a conference which he held with Oneficritus. The lattei-, when he faw Alexander's meffengers clothed with fine linen garments and elegantly adorned, laughed at their effemi- nacy, and requeiled them, if they wilhed to hold any con- ference with the Brachmans, to lay afide their ornaments, and, like them, recline naked upon the rocks. Of him, it -' Vo... V. is alfo related, that when he found the infirmities of agf coming ujjon him, he devoted himfelf to voluntary death, and atcerdmg the funeral pile, laid, " Happy h.our of de- parture from life, in which, as it happened to H .rculcs, after the mortal body is burned, the foul (hall go forth into light ! " The modern Bramins of Hindollan derive their nainc from the ancient Brachmans, and pretend to derive their doftrine and pratlicc from the lame origin. In feve- ral particulars, the refemblance is manifeft ; and aUh.ough much inferior, both as philofophcrs and men of learning, to the reputation of their anccltors, as priclls their reli- gious doftrines are dill followed by the whole nation, and as preceptors they are the fource of the greatell part of the knowledge which exills in Hlndoftan. However, fir William Jones, andfcveral other intelligent authors on that fubjedl, caution us againfl confounding the ancient Brach- mans with the modem Bramins. The religion of Bouddha, (fee BooDH and Birmak fm/i/rr,) flill retained by the Birmans and other adjacent nations, it is faid, was the real ancient fyllem of Knidoftan ; but the artful Bramins have introduced into it many innovations, in order to increafe their own power and influence. If the conjefturcs of fir William Jones, relative to the infcriptions found at Mon- gueer, andon the pillar at Buddal, (A fiat. Refearches, vol, i. p. 123, &c. 8vo.) be well founded, it appears that the governing power on the banks of the Ganges, as late as about the tmie of the birth of Chrill, belonged to the fert of Bouddha. Although the Bramins had then introduced themfelves into Hindoftan, and had obtained lands, and even the rank of prime miniller to the great Rajah ; they had not perfuaded him to change his religion, a change which, when accomplifhed (fays Dr. Buchanan, Afiatic Ref. vol. vi. p. 165.) proved equally detlruttive to the prince, and to the people. He adds, " however idle and ridiculous the legends and notions of the worfiiippers of Bouddha may be, they have been in a great meafure adopted by the Brahmens,' but with all their defefts monflroufly aggravated : rajahs and heroes are converted into gods, and impolfibilities are heaped upon improbabilities. No ufeful fclence have the Brahmens dillufed among tlicir followers ; hiftory they have totally abohfhed ; morality they have depreffed to the utmoll ; and the dignity and power of the altar thcv have ereftcd on the ruins of the llate, and the rights of the fubjcft. Even the laws attributed to Menu, which, under the ior:n in ufe among the Burmas, are not ill fuited for the puipofe of an abfolute monarchy, under the hands of the Brahmens have become the moll abominable and degrading fyfiem of opprellion, ever invented by the craft of defigning men." From the account which Mr. William Chambers has given of the fculpture and ruins at Mavalipuram, (Afiat. Ref. vol. i. p. 160, 161.) we have very good rcafon' for believing, that the worlhip of Bouddha once extended overall India, and that it was not rooted out by the Bramins in the Decan fo late as the 9th, or even the 1 2th century of the chriilian xra. Dr. Buchanan obferves, (Af. Ref. vol vi. p, i'63.) that this opinion of the late introduftion of the fu- pcrllition now prevailing in Hindoftan is not contradlfted by the almoll fingular remain of the Hindoo hilloiy ; the only- one which has efcaped the deflruttive refearch of the cunning Bramin ; i. e. the hlilory of Calhmere prefentcd to the fjltan Akber on his firil entrance into that kingdom. We are told, (Ayeen Akbcry, ii. 17.5.) that the Sultan caufed, this book to be tranflated, and of this tranflation Abul Fazil has given an abridgment. This informs us, that wIku Cafiimere was freed from an in\mdat!on, by which it liad been covered, a certain Kufliup brought the Bramins to inhabit the new land ; that, after a long tinae, a general A a aifembly BRA •(Ttn.bly of tlie inhabit.ints was called, who elefted a man ctlcbntcJ for his virtue lo he their kin^r ; and lliat r.mi thenceforward moiiarxrhv was eftabUhed u) that dchj;hltul rcL'ion, The i.ame of ihc firft fLiccctTor to ibis kinjr, that it mcmioiied, a Owiiguiid, contemporary vvilh Kiflicii ; re- ferrcd by Dr. Buchanan to the year btfoie Mahomnud «-o,orB. C.»48.'rhefe Dramuis, whom Kulhup brought to C'.illimtre. could not. our author apprehends, bo the Biamin fefi of priell», as they cultivated the earth, and were the only inhabitants ok the country ; but tl.cy muft have been one of the Brachnan nations, fcvcral of which, ac- cording to Pliny, were difpcrfed over India ; a.-.d thefc again, he conjeaurcs, are tlic fame with the Bianima oi the Rabins, luppofed by them to Iiave been the hrtl inhabitants of the earth. " That this muftbe the meaning of the hiftory of Cafhmere (he fays) feems plain ; as wc are told, rajnli Jennek tlie 45th prince, and who, aceordnig to my theory, mull have Uved about the year of Chrill 202, eftablinud m hi5 reign the I'rahraeny intcs. His fuccetTor Jelowk, the moll powerful of the princes of Ca!hmere, tolerated the doftrine of Bowdh ; and in that delightful valley it was not till the reign of Ncrkh, the 5f>th prince, A. D. 342, that the Brahn.ens got the beUer of the followers of Bowdh, and humcd down their temples." In procefs of time, as the Rahans, or priells of Godama in the Birman empire, were entirely prohibited the lludy of aftrology, and as the people were much addidcd to all kinds of divination, the Bramins availed themfelvcs of their credulity, and tftabliflied them- felves in confiderable numbers all over India beyond the Ganges. It does not feem, however, that they have any concern in the religion of thefe countries ; but they are merely employed about the courts, and in the iioufes of the great, as the Chaldeans were about the kings of Perfui, as footh-faytrsand wifemen. They annually compofe almanacks ; they perform incantations, under the throne of the king, before an audience is given ou folemn occafions ; they are confulted in all matters of importance, for determining the fortunate hour or feafon in which thefe ought to be under- taken ; and they btilow on their protcftors, amulets, charms, and fuch trifles. By fuch means the Bramins have rendered themfelvcs important and ufeful in the Birman empire, and kave obtained many privileges, confirmed even by the written law of the kingdom. However, their introdudlion into the Birman kingdom is a very recent event. The knowledge of the Birman Bramins is chiefly confined to aftrology, and, it is faid, that they are very ignorant of allronomy ; in fo much that, when they attempt to calcu- late eclipfes, they do not pretend to afccrtain either the hour of their commencement, or the extent of the obfcma- tion. It is alfo affeited that the Bramins of Hindoftan are BOt much farther advanced in fcience than thofe of Ama- japura, notwithilanding the improvements they have intro- duced from time to time, as they were able to procure information from their conquerors, Mahommedans and Chrif- tians. The lunar zodiac, in ufe among the Bramins, has been exhibited by fir William Jones, (Af. Ref. vol. ii. 291, Ice.) and is fuppofed by him to have been communicated to the Birmans from Chaldsea by the intervention of the Bramins ; iior is it unreafonable to imagine that the Bramins have derived aftronomical knowledge from the Greeks and Arabs. The religion of the Bramins, according to the opinions maintained by Paiilinus and fir William Jones, is eflcntially the fame with that of the Egyptians ; and M. Anquetil du Perron concurs with the latter in fuppofing that Egypt was the fource from whence the Bramin worlhip has been fpread •ver a great pari of the Eaftcm world. The Bramin priefts BRA in India adopted and extended it, and, as we have already obfervcd, gained a fuperiority over the priells ot Bouddha about the time of Chrilt ; and about 900 years afterwards, they totally overthrew his doclrine in its native country. Tlie Veda--,' wliich are the okleft books of the Bramins, are inferior in antiquity to the time of Bouddha, bccavife they mention the name of that perfonage. Againll the Egyptian origin of the Braminical worfiiip, the cofmography of the Bramins has been adduced : this is neaily the fame with that of the Rahans, and feems to have been framed in the north of llindollan. However, we may re:ifonably fuppofc the Bramins to have been a colony of Egyptians, who formed their firll elUiblilTiment in the vicinity of Bombay ; as the images in the caveat Eleplianta (which fee) fecm to be thofc of the goJs of the Bramins. By degrees they engralted their fuperllitlon on the ignorance of the Hindoos, adapt- ing the .\friean deities and" mylUcal phihifophy to the Afia- tic fables and heroes, and carefully introducing the Egyptian call and ceremonies, with ull their dreadful conlequences. Some have fuppofed, that the religion of the Bramins wa« introduced from Egypt into India as early as the time of Se» follri.s; but to this opinion it has been objefttd, that the objed of his military expeditions, if indeed we allow their reality (fee Sksostris), appears to have been plunder, and the capture of flaves, rather than the propagation of reh- gion or philofophy. The perfecntion of the Egyptian priells by Cambyfes is an event more likely to have produced an extenfive migration into India ; nor is it improbable that the Egyptians, who before this time traded to India, might have comniuuicated fome knowledge of their fcience to the Hindoos. Whatever was tlie precife a:ra of the introduftlon of the Bramins into India, it feems to be unquellionable, that, in the ufualcourfe of human affairs, a contell arole, at fume pe- riod or other after their fettlcmcnt, between the regal and ec- clefiallical powers. The latter, inllead of being fubdutd, as in China and Japan, acquired the fuperiority, as in Thibet. But in Hitidoiian, from a moll relined and cunning policy, the priefthood affertcd the divine inllitution of the feveral cails (fee C,-\st), and, in the natural progrefs of their power, pronounced their own to be the fiipreme, and pofleffed of innate and hereditary fanftity. It feems to be alli>wed that Boodh was a deified philofopher ; and it is alfo probable, that Brahma was the lopliill who invented the new calls, and was not only deified, but placed in the firft rank of the gods, by the grateful priefthood, which affumcd the fole di- reftion of the national mythology. The chief modern dei- ties ot the Bramins are Brahma, Vilhnu, and Siva, i. e. the creator, the preferver, and the deftroyer, corrcfponding to the three charaflers under which the Greeks reprefented their Zeus or Jupiter. But the fundamental principle of the whole fabric of Indian mythology, conformable to the univerfal fyftem of the eaft, was the belief in a fupreme cre- ator, too inetlable and fublime for human adoration, which was therefore addreffcd to inferior, but great and powerful divinities. The names and attributes of the gods and god- deffes (for the voluptuous Hindoos delight in female divini- ties), are very numerous, and, as human ideas and wants are almoft univerfally the fame, correfpond in many inllances with the Greek and Roman polytheifra. The chief divinities of the Hindoos arc well reprefented in Sonnerat's decorated publication ; and we have an elaborate account of them in a tradl " On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," pubhfhcd in the firft volume of the Afiatic Refearches, p. aa 1 — 275. The Bramins of Hindoftan conftitnte the firft and chief of the four orders or cafts (fee Cast) into which the whole body of the people is diftributed. Their ©rder it deemed tbe BRA the mod facred ; and to them belongs the province of ilu- dying the principles of religion, performing its funftions, and ciihivatin^ the fciences. They have been fur a long time, wliatfocvtr be their origin, and whether it be more an- cient or raor^ modern, the prieds, the inftruilors, and the phiiofophcrs of the nation. Such is the fuperioritv of their call or urJer, even to that of the monarchs of India, vvitli regard both to rank and fanftity, that they wonld deem it degradation and pollution, if they were to eat of the fame food with their fovereign. Their perfons are facred, and even for the moil lieinons crimes thcv cannot be capitally pvinilhed ; their bh)od mufl never be flied. On important occafionp, it is the duty of fovereigns to confnlt them, and to be direclcd bv their advice, as was the cafe with refpeift to the ancient Brachmans. Their admonitions, and even their cenfures, muil be received with fubmiffiverefpeft. From feme accounts preferved in India of the events which have happened in their own country, wc find, that princes, wiio violated the privileges of the calls, and difregardtd the re- monlirances of the Bramins, have been depoied by their an- thiirity, and put to death. The difcoveries of modern times, procured and furniUv.-d by thole who have vifitcd India during the courfe of the tliree lall centuries, afford us a confiderahie degree of authentic information concerning the ftate of fcience among the Bramins. The dillinclion between matter and Ipirit appears to have been known at an early peiiod by the phiiofophers of India ; nor can any de- fcription ot the human foul be more fiiited to the dignity of its nature than that given by the author of the " Maiia- barat," an epic poem, in high clUmation among the Hin- doos, compoled, according to their account, by Kreefhna Cwypayen Vtias, the moll eminent of all their Bramins, above 3000 years before the Chrillian a:ra. This poem con- fids of more than four hundred thoufand lines. Mr. Wil- kins has tranflatcd above a third part of it ; but only a (hort epifode, entitled " Baghvat-Geeta," is publilhed. " Some," fays the author, " regard tlie loul as a wonder ; others hear of it with allonifhment ; but r.o one knovveth it. The weapon divideth it not ; the fire burnetii it not ; the water corrupteth it not ; the wind drieth it not away ; for it is indivilible, inconfumable, incorruptible ; it is eternal, uni- vcrfal, permanent, i:nmoveable; it is indivilible, inconceiv- able, and unalterable." With regard to the knowledge of logic and metaphyfics for which the Bramins have been ce- ' lebrated, we learn from Abul Fazil's compendium of the philofophy of the Hindoos in the Ayeen Akbery (vol. iii. p. 95, &c.) ; from the fpecimen of their logical difcuffions contained in that portion of the Shastek, pubhflifid by colonel D«w (Differtation, p- 59, &c.) ; and from many paffages in the Baghvat-Geeta; that the fame fpecnla- tions which occupied the phiiofophers of Greece had engaged the attention of the Indian Bramins ; and the the- ories of the former, either concerning the quahties of ex- ternal objects, or the nature of our own ideas, were not more ingenious than thofe of the latter. That fceptical philoCophy, wlilch denies the exillence of the material world, and aflcrts nothing to be real but our own ideas, feems to have been known in India as well as in Europe ; and the fages of the Ead, as they were indebted to philofophy for the knowledge of many truths, and were able to deline with accuracy, to dillinguilh with acutenefs, and to reafon with fubtlety, were not more exempt than thofe of the Well from ks delufions and errors. To the iubjeft of ethics the Bra- mins bad dirtfted particular attention ; and their fentiments feem to have been various ; fo that, like the phiiofophers of Greece, thsiy were divided into feels, dillinguilhed by max- ims and tenets otten diametrically oppofite. From feveral paffages that occur in the Baghvat Gecta wc may infer, that BRA the diHIngiilfhlng dotSlrines of the Stoical fchool were taught in India many ages before the birth of Zer.o, and inculcated with a pcrluafive earncftnefs nearly refembling that of Epic- tetus. From India the wcftern world derived llieir know- ledge of the modern mode of notation by 10 cyphers or figures, which have been univerfally adopted, and fourtd fo convenient for performing every operation in arithmetic with the greatcll facility and expedition. (See Akithmetic.) The allronomy of the Indians affords a proof Rill more con- fpicuo IS of their extraordinary progrefs in fcience. To M. de la Lonbcre, on hli return from an emball'y to Siam, A. p. 168;, we are indebted for an extraft from a Siamefc MS. which contained tables and rules for calculating the places of the fun and moon. The epoch of thefc tables correfponds to the 2 ill of March, A.l). 6;!l. Another fct of tables was tranfmitted from Chrifnabouram, in the Car- natic, the epoch of which anfwers to the icth of March, A.D. 1491. A third fet was brougnt from Narfapour, the epoch of wliich is between the 17th and i8th of March, A.l). I5i'i9. The fourth and moll curious fet of tables was publilhed by M. Le Gentil, who received them from a learned Brahmin of Trivalore, on the Coromandel coaft. The epoch of thefc lall tables is very ancient, and coin- cidts with the beginning of the celebrated sera of the Coi- lee Jogue, which, according to the Indian account, com- menced .5 102 years before the birth of Chriil. The calcuJa. tions of M. Bailly, founded on thefe fourfets of tables, liave been verified by Mr. Play fair, who has alfo lUuflraten and extended his reafonings, in a learned differtation publilhed in the Tranladions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii. p. v; 5. From the inquiries, reafonings, and calculations that relate to Indian adronomy, it has been inferred, tiiattlie motion of the heavenly bodies, and more particularly their fituatioii at the commencement of the different epochs to which the four fets of tables refer, are afcertained with great accuracy ; and that many of the elements of their calculations, efpeci. ally for very remote ages, are verified by a furprifing coin- cidence with the tables of the modern adronomy of Europe, when improved by the latell and mod nice deduflions from the theoi-y of gravitation. The Indian Bramins annually circulate a kind of almanack, which contains adronomical prediftions of feme of the mod remarkable phenomena in the heavens, fuch as new and full moons, the eclipfes of the fun and moon ; and they feem to poffefs certain methods of calculation, that involve a very extenfive fydem of adrono- mical knowledge. M. Le Gentil, while in India, had an opportunity of obferving two eclipfes of the moon, which had been calculated by a Bramin ; and he found the error in either to be very inconfiderable. The method of calculatuig eclipfes, adopted by the Bramins, is very different from that which was praftifed among rude nations in the infancy of adronomy, and founded on an analyfis of the motions of the fun and moon, which indicate a confiderable acquaintance with thefe motions. Indeed, the modern Bramins, though they are guided in their calculations by fcientific principles, do not underdand them ; nor are they acquainted with the methoo of condrufling the tables, to which they recur in their computations. Of courfe the ancient Bramins, who condrudled the tables and rules now in ufe, mud have pof. fcfled an extenfive and tolerably accurate acquaintance with the elements of geometry, and alfo with the principles of plain and fpherical trigonometry. See Bekarts. With regard to the rehgious inftitutions of the Bramins, they feem to be artfully contrived with a view of extending their own authority, and maintaining their influence over the people. They form^ indeed, a regular and complete fyftcm of fupcr.lition, ftrengthened aiid upheld by every circum- Ilance that caa excite the veneration, and fecuie the attach- A a 2 meut R A BRA enabled to fupporl by baviiij; a com..umd of ihciinuienle re- venues Willi which the liberality of pruiccs, an.l the zeal ot pll/runs and dc-v..t«s, have enriched thor pagodas. 1 he nmibcr of their deities, the alt.ibules and characters they afcribid to them, and the various rites by which th(.y ce e- l.iaii-d their worlhip, arc fuch as indicate thtir origin in tlic 5 udcr .igc.= of focicty, aad fuch as are adapted, in their iia- aad dcli?Q, to anfwer the purpofes of their introduaion world." Thelc refined feiitiinents the niOLicrn Bramins de. rive from the writings of their ancient ruiidits, to whicli they arc alfo indebted for the wifdom which the moll learned members of tluir order now pofTcfs. The mott profound myf- teries of the Hindoo theology, which had been long carefully concealed by the art of the modern Bramins fro.ii the body of the people, have been unveiled by the tranflations from the Sanfcrit, or Shanscrit language lately pubhflied. '"d duSau" "The' mrnncrs''of"thV"indians7 though The principal defign of ^the Baghvat-Geeta, ahc'ady cited tcri-ihc forms By the knov.-n inflnencc of fuperlluion we which we derive from the Greek philolophers. Dov.', in Drill be able to accour.t for the ellabhihmcnt of a ritual of his «' DifTertation," (p. 40.) quotes a pafTage from one of worlhip fuited to the chnraaer of fucli deities, among a gen- the facred books of the Hindoos, from which we may infer tie people Everv- aft of religion, performed in honour of what were the general fentiments of the lear.ied Bramins con- iome of their gods, fcems to have been prefcribcd by fear ; cerning the divine nature and perfcftious : " As God is im* ai'd a variety of mortifications and penances was introduced material, he is above all conception ; as he is uivifible, he amouT them, the recital of which is accompanied with can have no form ; but from what we behold of his %yorks, horror. Altliough it is repugnant to the feeii.igs of an we may conclude, that he is eternal, omnipotent, knowing all Hindoo to flied the blood of any creature that has life, things, and prefent every where." To men capable of many different animals, not c.^:cepting tlie moll ufeful, fuch forming fuch ideas of the deity, the public fervice in the pa- as the horfe and'the cow, were offered up as viftims upon godas mull have appeared to be an idolatrous worfliip of the altars of fome of their gods ; and their pagodas were even images, by a fuperftitious multiplication of frivolous or iramo- po'.luted with human facrificcs, as well as the temples of the ral rites ; and they mull have perceived, that it was only by Well. But religious inllitutious, and ceremonies of a lefs fe- fanftity of heart, and purity of manners, men could hope to "" ' gain the approbation of a I'eing perfeft in goodnefs. This truth is ftduloufly inculcated in the " Mahabarat ;" but, at the fame time, with the prudent refcrve and artful precau- tions natural to a Bramin, lludious neither to offend his vcre kind, were more adapted to the genius of a people, formed, by the extreme fenlibility of tlicir mental and cor- poreal frame, to an immoderate love of pleafure. Accord- ingly, tlitre is no pari of the earth, in which a conneftion between the gratification of fenfual dtfires and the rites of countrymen, nor to diminiih the influence of his own order, public rclieiou is difplayed with more Ihameful indecency We find, however, a very lamentable mixture of ignorance than in India. In ever)' pa^^oda a band of women was fet and error in all the theories of the Bramins, in common with apart for the fervice of the idol honoured tliere, and devoted the fages of other countries, concerning the pcrfeftions and from their youth to a life of pleafure, for which the Bramins operations of the Supreme Being. As they held that the prepared them by an education, which addtd fo many ele- fylkem of nature was not only originalTy arranged by the cant accompiilhments to their natural charms, that what power and wifdom oi God, but that every event which hap- they gained by their profligacy often brought no iaconfider- pened was brought about by his immediate interpofition ; and able acctffion to the revenue of the temple. It is the office as they could not comprehend how a being could aft in any of thefe women, in eveiy fervice performed in the pagoda, place in which it was not prefent, they fuppofed the deity and in every public proccffion, to dance before the idol, and to be a vivifying principle diffufed through the whole crea- to Gng hymns in his piaife ; and it isdifiicult to fay, whether tion, an univeifal foul that animated each part of it. Every thev trefpafs moH againll decency by the gellure which they intelligent nature, particularly the fouls of men, they conceived exhibit, or by the verfes which ihey recite. T'he walls of to be portions fcparated from this great fpirit, to which, after the pagoda are covered with paintings in a ftyle no lefs in- fulfilling their delliny on earth, and attaining a proper degree delicate ;^and in the innennoll rectfs of the temple is placed of purity, they would again be re-united. In order to efface the *' Lingam," an emblem of produiltivc power, which it the llains with which a foul, during its refidence on earth,, would be improper to explain. has been defiled, by the indulgence of fenfual and corrupt If we advert to the theology of the Bramins, vpe fliall find appetites, they taught that it mull pafs, in a long fucceffiou that, amid all their polytheifm and fuperftiticn, they acknow- of tranfinigrations, through the bodies of different animals, ledge and reverence one Scpreme Being, the creator of all until, by what it fuffcrs and what it learns in the various tilings-, ar.d from whom all things proceed. " They all," forms of its exiftence, it (liall be fo thoroughly refined from f-iys Abul Fa/il (Ayecn Akbcry, vol. iii. p. ,^.) " believe all pollution, as to be rendered meet for being abforbed into lit the uiii:y of the godhead; and although they hold the divine cffcnce, and returns hke a drop into that un- bounded BRA li.>undi:cl occp.n, fiom which it originr.IIy ifTiied. Thcfe Joc- trincs of the Bramins conserninjj the deity, as tiie foul which pervades all nature, giving adUvity aiul vigour to every j;irt of it, as well as the final re-unii>n of all intellgent crea- ■iires to their primx'val fourec, coincide with the tejiets of lie Stoical fcliooi. In the errors alio of their thccjiogical I'jciilatlons we may difeover a great fimilarity. As it was , iniutained by many among the Greek and Roman philofo- iihers, that the vntgar and iinltarned-liad no right to truth, i:iie Bramins of India adopted limilar ideas, and they regu- lated their conduct in the fame maimer with refpeft to the great botly of the people. To their order btlongcd tlic exchifive right of reading the facred books, as wtU as of cultivating and teacliing fcience ; and therefore they had it in their power more ei'l'eilually to prevent all who were not members of the order from acquiring any information beyond what they were plcafed to impart. Hence it happened, that, like raany of the fages of Greece, the Bramins of In- dia carried on, with Ihidied artifice, a fclieme of deceit, and, according to an emphatical exprcfilon of an infpired wiiter (Rom.i. iS.), they ddahtcd the truth in unrighteoufnets. Whilll they themfelves knew and approved what was true, they laboured among the rell of mankind to fuppurt and perpetuate what was falfe. The Bramins of Hindoilan have a language peculiar to themfelves, which they call Sanfcrit of Shaiiferit (which fee) ; and in this language they have ancient books written, as they allege, by their gri;at prophet and founder Brahma ; fuch as the Beda, or Vedam, delivered, as they fay, to their lawgiver, Brahma, by the Deity ; the Shajler, or Sl.\i/}ah, which is their bible ; and Ptiran, or Pouranc, a hillory which they deem facred, and which they pretend to have been didlated by God himfelf, containing alfo the explanation of the (barter. For an account of thefe books, fee each of thefe terms. Tlicfe facred books are kept in clofe cuftody by the Bra- mins ; nor do they fuffer their contents to be communicated to their own laity, much lefs to ilrangers. The (hafter con- tains a fiimmary of their moral and ceremonial laws, together with the diltribution of mankind into tribes and clafTes, and an account of the rules of conduft appropriated to each. (See Shastah.) From this book, on theprecepts of which the Bramins profefs to found their praflice, it appears, that their religion, and particularly the ceremonial part of it, con- fitls in frequent ablutions in their rivers, and more efpecially in the Ganges, muttering over divers prayers under green trees, and in their temples, accom.panicd with proceffions, tinkling of bells, offerings to images, unftions, and limilar rites, the obfervance of falls and lelHvals, pilgrimages, invo- cations of faints, and divers ftrange and uiiaccountable pe- nances. From their Vedam they pretend to derive ftveral piivileges, peculiar to their own order ; fuch as thofe of cele- brating the feaft called " lagam," at which they kill animals, and eat llclh, and offer a beaft for facriilce, which they ftrangle, in order to avoid lliedding its blood ; of teaching the Kuttcries the manner of celebrating this feaft ; of read- ing the Vedam, and of teaching it to their own tribe, and that of the Kuttcries ; of demanding but not of giving alms ; and of never being punilhtd with death, even for the moll enormous crimes. Tlieir iIHce is to teach others not only reading, writing, and arlthn etic, but the principles of their religion. As a recompence for their time and labour, the kings, or rajahs, affign for their fupport the revenues of cer- tain villages, and they alfo receive contributions from the inhabitants of the ftveral countries in which they refide. Thty are alfo allov,fed to officiate as merchants, and to praftife phyfic, but are llriftly forbidden to employ them- lelves in tillage, or any handicratt trade ; or to perform any BRA fervilt ofHce, C'vcn for the king. An offence ( f this kind would incur degradation and expulfion from their tribe ; however, they are permitted to aCl as fecretaries, ambalfa- dors, or counfellors to their fovcreigns, and, indetd, thty al- iiioft wholly cngrofs thefe honourable ofhc;.-s to themfelves. The birth, baptifm. and ediicalion of the Br.imins are at- tended with ciicunillances and ceremonies peculiar to tlicm- lelves. At their baptifm, they are net only wafhed with water, but anointed with oil, which rites are accompanied with prayers and benediftioiis. At an early age, they are invclled with a fmall cord, which is hung on the left (liouldrr, and defcends low on the right (ide ; and whieli they retain as an cd'ential article of tlieir attire. The Bramins never contraft marriage out of thtir own tribe, and that they do at a very early period of life. On this occafion they receive a fecond little cord, refembhng the firlt, and to this alfo they ufually annex a third, which fervcs inftead of an upper garment. When the Bramins arrive at maturer and more advanced age, they are allowed to take wives out of th« other tribes ; but they never marry their children to near relations, as incefl. is deemed by them one of the five mortal fins which is fcarcely ever to be forgiven. Among the Bramins polygamy is indulged to great excefs ; and as an apology for it, thty allege, that the Vedam has rot forbidden it. For concubinage and adultery thev have no puniihment ; but a Bramin who finds his wife to be inconilaiit, confines her and lupphes her with food while (he lives ; and if he is inucii attached to her, he requires her to ferve at a feall, to which he invites feveral of his tribe, and after the guclts have received vifluals from her hand, (lie is regarded as an honelt woman. Their diet, like that of the ancient Brachmans, is fimple and temperate, and confifts folely of rice, roots, fruits, and herbs, and their drink is waterand milk. They never ufe any intoxicating liquor ; for they-abhor drunkennefs, and reckon it among their mortal fins. Although the Bramins decline eating fieih, becaufe they deem the llaughter of ani- mals for this purpofe to be a great fm ; they are, however, charged with inconfiflency by the Kutterits and Soudras, who eat fifli and fiefli, as they dillodgc many fo\ils from their bodies by plucking up roots and plants, which, upon their fyllem of tranfmigration, are endued with fouls as wtU as animals. The Bramins, as we have already obfervcd, are priefls both fecular and regular, and have amongll them an eftabhflied hierarchy, compofed of feveral orders, that are varioufly dillinnuiflied in the feveral provinces of Hindoilan. The learned Bramins conftitute two claffes ; the firll of which is called " Kuru," and belongs to the priellhood; the fecond, denominated " Salliriar," or " Slialliriar," comprehends the profellors of the different fyflems of theology. Beiides thefe two claffes of learned Bramins, there are many others, not much inferior to tliem ia v-iifdom and erudition, whofc. chiel bufineis is to inllruft youth in thofe points which relate to the ceremonies ufed in public worfliip, and folenin fellivals. The miniilerial funtlion of the Bramins confifts in praying with the people, and reading their law. To them it alfo belongs to educate the young perfons of the fame tribe, who advance by various gradations to the prieftly office. When they are fct apart to this office, they are en- joined not to change their tribe ; to obferve all things con- tained in the law of the Bramins ; and not to communicate the myrteries of their religion to any of a different ptrfua- fion. The Bramins are divided into fix fefts ; viz. Weiftnomva, Seivia, or Aradheya, Smartu, Shauvakka, Pafenda, and Chcktea, who are diftinguiflied by certain differences in their tenets, and ceremonial pratliccs. For a further account of the BRA the doftrititJ, worftiip, cliani6\er, ciinoms, tec. of the Jiraniins, we nuy rcitr to the La Porte Oiivorte of M. Ro- ger, ch:iplain to the Dutch farton- at I'oohcat on the coall of Coroina iJel ; ttie travels of IV-rnier and Soniurat ; the Diffi nations of Ormc, Dow, fir WiUinm Jones, fie. &c. ; the Code of Gcntoo Lawn; tlie Afialx Rerfearchts ; Ro- bcrlfoii's Difniiifition conciriiing India, ice. Sec alio the articles ahove referred to, and aUo UhKARts, Hindoos, HiNDosTAN, 5tc. in thi> dictionary. Robert de Nobih, an hahan Jtfuit, and one of the Indian minionaries, in the btginnnig of the fcvcnteeiith ceiitmy, in order to fecure fuocel;. to his niiffibn, aiTiimcd the title and appearance of a Braclimaii, and at lciii»th perfuadid the cre- dulous people, that he was, in reality, a member of that ve- iierahlt order. He forged a deed in the ancient Indian charaeters, (hewing that the IJrachmans of Runic were olJer than thofe of India, and that the Jcfuits of Rome d. rcpanda. Leaves ovate, repando-finuate. 2. 15. rolundifolia. Leaves nearly round, very entire. I' order. Brachvci.ottis. See Cineraria. BRACHYGRAPHY, (from ^.y-yj.;, f.ori, and -,,^ais fcnbo, I write.,) denotes the art of (hort-hand writing, called alfo TACHYGRAPHY. See Short-hand. BRACHVLOGY,frani (Sfv.>.v;._/Zio;7,and ^o-/o,■, exprcffon, in y^/ic/w/V, brevity, the exprelTing anything in the moll con- cile manner. This, lo far as confident with ptrfpicuity, is a virtue and beautv of ilyle ; but if oblcurity be the coiile- quencc, which is often the cafe, it becomes a blemifh and inexcufable defed. Q^iintilian gives us an iuftance C)f bia- chylogy from Sallull : ^lilbridates, corpore ingenti perinde armatiis : Mithridates, as it were armed with the hugencfs of his (lature. Inll. Or. lib. viii. cap. iii. BRACHYOTOS, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Strix, or Owl, of the horned kind. It is fpecitically diftinguiflied by having the horn-feather or tuft very fhort ; the body is fufcous above ; feathers edged with yellow ; beneath pale yellow, longitudinally ftreaked. Forll. Penn. — Donov. Brit. Birds. &c. — Buffon calls this kind of owl ehouette, or grande chevkhe. It is the fliort-eared owl of Englilh orni- thologills. The length is fourteen inches. Found in America as well as Europe. BRACHYPNOiA, in Medicine, a term exprefling (liort breathing, a fymptom which occurs in various affections of the lungs, both acute and chronic, from pp-x^:, Jhort, and nnu:, I breathe. See Dyspncka. BRACHYPOT^, a term applied to perfons labouring under acute difeafes, who drink but little, and with diffi- culty ; from ^p.;^tj,-, Jloort, and xf/ln;, a drinker. This term has been applied by fome modern phyficians to perfons labour- ing under hydrophobia. BRACHYPTERA, in Entomology, z fpecies of Mantis, found by Pallas in Ruffia. Thecolour is cinereous ; thorax dentated ; wings half the length of the abdomen. Haunts fandy delcrts. Brachyptera, in Ornithologv, the name of a genus of birds of the rapacious kind, in Willughby's Syflem. The birds c» this genus he diftinguifhes by the fliortnels of the wings, the word being derived from 'pfy.-xy:,J}3ort, and -ttt.-i.-m, a wing ; thefe, when folded, not reaching fo far down as the extremity of the tail. Of this genus were the gnj}.mwk, fparrow hawk, and three kinds of butcher-bird. Neither the gencrical term, nor the difcriminating charafter laid down for it are recognized bv modern ornithologills. BRACHYPTERUS, mEntomology, a fpecies of Cimet, defcribed by Linnxus, the colour of which is pale ; body linear ; wing-cafes a third part the length of the abdomen. Inhabits Europe. Brach YpTERus, a fpecies of Gryllus, {Tettigonia, Fab. Locujia, Gmel.) Inhabits the north of Europe. This kind feeds upon the grafs ; it is of a greyiih fufcous colour, and is dillinguifhed further by having the wingj, and wing- cales BRA BRA cafes half thtf length of the body, a circumftance to which its fpecific name alludes. BRACH YPYRENIA, from/;^«vl^,•,7^,o,/, a„d Tri-pr.v, ««• cleu!-, in Natural I/i/loiy, a genus of toffils of the i lafs of iSe p- TARi.iE. The brachvpyrenia liavc a flioit roii didi nucleus, incluled by, and contained witiiiu, the body of the iw.iis. BRACHYTELOSTYLA, the name of a genus of cryllals. The word is derived fronn lifX^v;, /I'orl, and Ts^isto;, perfcd, and i-uK'ii, a column, and cxprefTes a perftil cryllal, with a Jhort intermediate culnrnn. The bodies of this genus are cryftals compofed of a (liort hexangular column, tcruiinated at each end by an hexan- gnlar pyramid. Of this genus there arc fix known fp^cies. Hill's HilL Fofllls, p. 163. BR ACHYURA, in Omhhohj^y, a fpecies of Fiungilla, that inhabits Italy. It is briefly defcribed as being entirely ycUowilh. This is the fhort-taikd fparrow, and ihort-tailed Italian fpan-ow of Englilh writers. Briffon names it pajferculus hononit-njis . BRACHYURUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Ichneu- mon, that inhabits Germany. The colour is fulvous : fcutel fulvous ; thorax, eyes, and abdomen, (which is linear at the bafe,) black. Schrank. — Abdomen and head tellaceous j legs yellow. Bkachyurus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Lanius, defcribed by Pallas. The head above is ferruginous grey ; eye-brows whitifli ; a black band from between the eyes to the ears ; body above greyilh, cinereous ; beneath yellowilh white J tail rounded. — This is x\\z Jliort-ta'ilcd Jlmkc of Latham. Found but rarely in Hungary. Brachyurus, the fliort-tailed crow,a fpecies of Cor. vus, of a green colour; beneath tawnyifli, and llneated on the head with the fame colour ; wings with a white fpot. This bird inhabits the ill inds of the Indian ocean. The fpecies admits of no lefs than feven dillinft varieties, accord- ing to fome writers, of which n-umber Gmelin defcribes three, corvvs Pb'ilippinenfis, corvus Bengalenjis, and corvus Maddgafcar'tciijis . BRACIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in t"!ie department of the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a caatoM, in the didrift of Blois, 3 leagues N. E. of Blois. The place contains 700, and the canton 10,250 inhabitrtnts ; the extent of the territory comprehends 345 kiliometrcs and 14 communes. BRACKE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wetl- phalia, and county of Oldenburgh ; i3 miles N.N.E. of Oldenburg. Bracke, or Brake, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wcrtplialia, and county of Lippe ; one mile S. E. of Lcmgow. BR ACKENWITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and middle mark of Brandenburg ; 3 miles S. of Treuenbrietzen. BRACKET, in Building, denotes a kind of wooden ftay, in form of a knee or fhoulder, ferving for the fiipport of Ihelves, Sec. or a cramping-iron, which ferves as a ftay in timber work. The word is alfo written bragel, and feems derived from the Italian brachetto, a diminutive of hrachio, arm. Modillons are a fort of brackets to the coronii of an entablature. Brackets, in ylrt'iUery. See Cheeks of a Mortar. Brackets, in Skip-building, fmall knees ferving to fup- port the galleries, and commonly ornamented with carving. Alfo, the timbers fixed under the galleries and frame of a foip's head to fupport the gratings. BRACKISH water, a mixture of freili and fait watfr. BRACKLEY, in Geography, an ancient liorough town of Northamptondiire, England, confills of the two parifliet of St. James's and St. Peter's, and a hamlet called Old Bracklty. Leland dates, that this place confided of many llreets, in his time, and that it was a flourifliing town diirinj» part of the Saxon dynally, till the Daiieo " nifed it." Edward the lid. inade it a wool (laple, and gave it a cor- poration ; but it was not invelled with borough privileges till the lall parliament of Heniy VIII., when two members were returned. " There was a fair callle," fays Leland, " in the fouth-well end ; the fite and hill where it flood is evidently feen, and beareth the name of the Callle Hill, but not any piece of wall (lauding." Here were alio three ancient catholic erodes, one of which, fays this relpedtable antiquary, " was decorated with divers tabernacles, with ladies and men armed. Some fay the dnplers of the town made it ; hut I rather think fonic nobleman, lord of the town." This crofs, 28 feet high, was taken down in 1706, by the duke of Bridgewater, to build the handfome town- houfe in its place. Robert BofTu, earl of Leiceder, founded an hofpital here in th^ time of Henry III. John, fou of lord chancellor Ellefmere, was created vifcount Brackley 14th James I., earl of Bridgewater the following year, and marquis, afterward.s duke of Bridgewater, 6 George I. On Bayard's Green, between Brackley and Mixty, was held a famous tournament in 1249; and another was held here about the fame time. The river Oufe rifes near this town, and fupplies it with water. Here are a weekly market on Wednefday, and five fairs annually. It is ij miles from Northampton, and 6j N. W. from London. The two paridies and hamlet contain 183 houfes, and 1495 inhabi- tants, of whom 53J are employed in manufaftures. Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia ; Bridge's hiftory of North- amptonfliire, folio. BRACKWADE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wedphalia, and county of Ravenfberg ; 4 miles S. E. of Bielefeld. BRACLAW, or Bracklau, a city of Poland, and capi- tal of a palatinate of the fame name, called alfo Lower Po- dolia, feated on the river Bog. BRACTEA, a thin flake or fpangle of any fubdancc ; it is iifed by many authors in the lame fenfe with the word lamina, but ufually in a fort of diminutive fenfe, exprefling a fmall plate. Bractea, BRACTE,ini?o/(77/)i, z name given by the Latins to very thin plates of gold, filver, or other metal, and ap- plied by Linnxus to the floral leaves of a plant, fird dillin- guifhed and defcribed by himfelf. They confill of fcales, or of fmall leaves, which differ from the other leaves of the plant generally in figure, and often in colour. They are placed fometimes on the peduncle, and always near the flower, fo that in fome cafes they are liable to be midakea for a perianth : they may, however, be diflinguiflied from it by their continuing as long as the proper leaves ; whereas the perianth withers as foon as the fruit becomes ripe. Good examples of braftese may be found in tilia (linden or lime- tree), melampyrum (cow-wheat), monarda (ofwego balm), &c. According to the phyfiology of Linnseus, and his imme* diatc pupils, they are formed m the bud, by a kind of anti- cipation, and become proper leaves of the new Ihoot or branch in the fecond year, if the Hate of inflorefcence be not haftened on by the force of the medullary principle : but when that takes place, as in certain circumdances it naturally does, part of the nourilhment which they would otturrwifc have received, being diverted tg the ufe of the ftufti. BRA • >r, ihfv do not acqiiire their full vigour, and in ..c, dwiiKilc into floral loaves. In pmol" of tins trtioi J, It i« allet'ed, that if the frurtitkation be prematurely dcftroyed by iiikds, or puqiofcly cut oli', they regain fiiffi- Clfnt fuftcnancc, and aflume the foim and li/c ot perfcft teavr«. See the introdudion to the fecond volume of the Kvllema Natiirar, and two dilTertations, entitled Piolepfis l^lamarum, pui)liflicd in the Amoenilates Acadeinicx. The braftex are placfd by Linnxus urdcr the head of what he fanciftlly calls fulcra, props, or fuppons, from an idea that they fuilain or llrena;thcn cither the whole plant, or fomc of its parts. In the Syll-iiia Nature they arc dif- tinjjuifhcd according to their dmation, into cailinous, fallinjT olT before the end of the fummer ; fiirUiious, falling oft at the end of the fummer; and ferfjleiit, remaining be- yond the end of the funimcr : but it docs not appear liow the criteiion laid down in tlie PHilofophia Botanicn, to dif- crimiiiate a brafte from a perianth, is to be applied to thofe that are caducous. They are (lilcd amofc, wlun they fiielter the flowers in the form of a crown, tuft, or coma (head of liair) as in the fritillaria imperialis (crown imperial), bromc- lia ananas (pine-apple), &c. : but in this cafe ihty do not BRA T^R ACTON, Henry de, in Bkgrapljy, z ceLbratcd Englifli lawyer and judge of the 13th century, v. as, accord- infr^to Prince (Worthies of Devon), a native of Devotid-.ire ; and havino- gained dillingnidied reputation by his fludy of both the canon and ciiil law at Oxford, he was appointed b" kini'adh)rd cunfciciitior.fly precife and fcrnpulous. This iiicidont gave n new dir^.ftion to his views and pnrfiiits; and though for fomc lime !ie pnrfutd the ftudy of the law at the Inner Temple, he rcfolved to re- move to Cambridge, and to devote himfelf to the profcdion of a divine. In this new fituation he applied to his Undies with ilngnlar diligence, and firft took his degree ol M.A. ; and was afterwards eletted tcliow of Pembroke hall. Dur- ing tills time the recoUeftiou of his former mifconduft op- pvefled his fpirits, nor was he able to recover the trancpiillity of his mind till, by fucccffive payments, as his cireiimllanees would allow, he had difcharged the full fum of 520I. los. as a rellitution to the king. By this aft ot jull retaliation, perform- ed voluntarily on his own part before the king and council knew of the offence, did he give the mod unequivocal proof of the fincerity of his repentance, and lay the furcft founda- tion of that reputation and ufefnlnefs for which he was after- wards dillinguiOied. Having thus pacified the accufations of his coiifcience, he proceeded in his ftudies with unabated vigour ; and his charader for piety was likewife fo eminent, that bifliop Ridley, in 1550, fent for him to London, in- duced him to receive deacon's orders, gave him a hcence to preach, and foon after appointed him one of his own chaplains. Air. Bradford acquired great popularity as a preacher, both at St. Paul's Crofs in London, and in his native county ; and continued the exercife of his miniflry with uninter- icitting ardour and fmgular fuccefs until the clofe of king Edward's reign, and after the commencement of that of queen Mary. But with the change that took place on this occafion, he, as well as many others, fuffered the feveritv of perfecution. His undaunted refolution and zeal expofed Lim to peculiar danger ; and his popularity as a preacher, which afforded him an opportunity of preferving the life of a popifh priefl, who, by a furious declamation againit the late king, and in favour of popery, had incenfed the multi- tude that formed his auditory at St. Paul's Crofs, was in- terpreted by his enemies into an occafion of offence ; and in confcqnence of this aft of humanity and kindnefs, for which he merited recompence even from the powers that then pre- vailed, he was arretted by order of the queen's council and biiliops, and committed to prifon tmder a charge of fedition and herefy. During his clofe confinement, for about a year and a half, in various prifuns, he manifelltd an invincible attachment to the principles of the reformation ; and exerted himielt by private admonitions and epiftolary addreffes, for which he availed himfelf of every opportunity that occurred, in reprefenting the delufions of popery, and in confirming thofe wlio were wavering in their adherence to the protellant faith. Many of his letters and difcourfes are extant ; and they abound with expreflions of the moil fervent piety and unlhakeii conllancy. In the beginning of the year ii';4, he was brought before a commiihon fpecially appointed for his examination ; but, as he perfilled in an undifmayed avowal of his opinion, he was finally condemned. After his con- demnation, he was remanded to prifon, where he remained near iialf a year longer; manfully refilling every attempt that was made with a view of inducing him to abandon the caufe to which he was devoted, and recommending himfelf to mild treatment on the pait of thofe who had the cullody of him, by tlie gentlenefa of his temper and manners. Dur- ing the fuocelTive intervals of his confinement, he preached conllantly, and was allowed to receive the vifits of his friends, who rclorted in great numbers to enjoy the benefit of his difcourfes. So irreproachable and exempliry, indeed, w'as his condiid, and to fi:ch a degree did he attach the eileem, and intereil the humanity of thofe who had accefs to him, Vol. V. • BRA tliAt m.iny paplfts were induced to txpref their widies for the jirefei vation of liis life. To liis fellow prifuners he communi- cated fahitary counfel and pecuniary aflillance, as their fcvcraL circumllances required ; and he was eminently iifeful in rc- clainiing the erroneous, and in reforming the vicious and pro- fligate. At length, however, the day of his execution arrived; and when it was announced to him, he lifud np liij eyes to heaven, and faid, " I thank Clod for it ; ) have look, ed for it along time; therefore it a)mcs not luddenly, but as a thing waited for every day and hour; the Lord make me woitliy of it." On the ill of July, 15^5, he was broriglil to the Ihike at Smithfield,in company with aYorkfliIre youth, named John Lyefe, then an apprentice in London, whom he animated to conllancy by l;is example of calm and un- daunted fortitude ; and having killed a faggot and the Hake, he pulled off his cloaths, and prepared for the laft tremend- ous fcene. At the flake, he exclaimed aloud, with his Iiands and face lifted up towards heaven, " () England, England, repent thee of thy fins; beware of idolatry, be- ware of Antichrills, ktl they deceive you:" and then for- giving, and intreitling forgivencfs of all the world, he Com- forted his companion, and embracing the flaming reeds that were near him, uttered tliefe words, the lail which -vere dillinftly heard ; " Strait is the way, and narrow is ihc gate," &c. and thus expired. Biog. Brit. Bradford, £a/l and ll'^(/f, in Cfojrnpiy, townfhips of America, in the county of Chcller, and ftate of Pennfylvania. Bradford, a townfliip of Effex county in the Maffachu- fctts, feated on the fouth fide of Merrimack river, oppofite to Haverhill, and 10 miles weft of Newbury port. It has two parifhes, and contains ij"! inhabitants. In this place is a ma- nuf-fture of leather flioes for exportation, and fomc veflels arc built in the lower parilh. Several llreams fall into the Merri- mack river from this town, which fupport a number of mills of various kinds. Alfo, a townfhip in HilUborough countv, New-Hampfhire, containing 2 1 7 inhabitants, incorporated 111 1760; 20 miles E. of Charlcftown Alfa, a townfliip in Orange county, Vermont, on the wefl bank of Connefticut ri- ver, about 20 miles above Dartmouth college, having 6J4 in- habitants. In this townfhip is a remarkable ledge of rocks, about 200 feet high, which appears to threaten the pafllng traveller ; the interval between it and the river is fcaretly wide enough for a road. Bradford, a market and manufafturing town in Wilt- fliire, in England, 200 miles W. from London, and 7 N. E. from Bath. Its name appears to have been derived from the Saxon term Bi-adaifnrd ; fo called from the broad ford which formerly crofied the river at this place. Though not a town of large extent, it has accpiired conliderable import- ance from the great quantities of line broad clotli manufac- tured here, as from ten to twelve hundred pieces are fent away annually. One manufaftory alone employs nearly fifteen hundred perfons, and the number of clothiers is between fixty and feventy. Its fituation is peculiarly romantic, be- ing principally built on the declivity of a hill, and confills of three llreets rifiiig one above the other. Thele are narrow and irregular, yet many good houfes prefent themfclves to the eye of the paifenger. The church, a plain ilone build- ing, with a fquare tower and fmall lleeple, is lltuated at the foot of the hill, and confills of a nave, N. aifle, chanoel, and a fmall chapel on the S. fide. In the chancel are fcveral large and handfome monuments, and the church is orna- mented with two windows of modern ilained glal's, which were given by John Ferrott, efq. a native of Bradf ird ; who alfo left a donation of ten pounds to be laid out in bread, and dlllribiited among the poor monthly. Near the chuieh is a free-fchool fur boys, and in the town are tvvo charitalfle B b c.'tabllj"*(- B R A ( n for oU nieii and wonuii. Tlie v'lver, ivf- t )• tl.f name ot tlic l.mvcr Avun, palVcs throigh, ani! ili'.idfs the town "into two pirts, nflndivcly ttrnied llic Now and Old Town. Thtfc arc coniRclcd by two Hone bridpcs, one of iiiiio arctics, llic other of four. 'I'lu- markirts, v-hichan-on Mondays and Saturdays, a.e well lupplicd with meat and vegetables. It has alfo two fniri for oatllc, Sec. Bradford formerly fent two members to parliamtut, who . ere fumnontd tbe twenty-third year of Hdw. I. but dilcon- .;iied the iicxt year. The town was greatly damajrcd by •c on the ',oth April 1742. The lioules are uSS, and '.e inhabitants 7302, of which number 4648 are employed ■ : the nianufaaory. By a notice in the Saxon clironicle, it jjipears that a battle was fought near this town in 652, be- tween Kenewiitch, a weft Sa^on kinp, and the Britons, who w.rc defending the counties of Somerfet, Devon, and Cornwall frcm Saxon dominion ; but their efi'orts proved iHifuccefsful, and Kenewalch drove them farther weftward. A ntmnery was founded here by Aldhtlm, biftiop of Sher- borne, about the year 706, which w^s totally dcftroyed in the Dan (h wars, and never afterwards reftorcd. This lo;d- fliip, with the parfonape, were given to the nunnery of Shaftlhurv by king Ethelred in the year loio. About 2 miles N. E. from Bradford is the vill.ige of Holt, noted for a irrdciiial fprinir which was difcovcrcd in the year 1718. Vonr miles N. W. is Monktou Farley, the feat ot the duke of SonerLt. About 3 miles S. W. r.re the mouldering ruins of Farley CalUe, formerly one of the rtfidcnccs of the H'-irgerfords. BKADFORn, an ancient and oonfidcrable market and ma- mifaduring town in the Welt Riding of Ynrkftiire, in En<^- !and ; is fituated between Leeds and Halifax ; 10 miles 5:om the former, 8 from the latter, and 196 N. W. from Lon- don. It is an extenlive parifh, containing feveral I'libordinate liamlets, fcattcrcd cottages, and feats. The profperous ih'.tc of the clothin;:; trade, and the augmentation of its mamifadtures fince tlie general application of macb.inery, have confpired to inereafe coniiderably the buildings and population of this part of the countiy. In iSoi the houfes of this town were elUmated at 1368, and its inhabitants at 639), about 1300 of whom were directly employed in ma- nufaftures. Though worlled ftuffs are the llaple trade of the place, yet fome broad and narrow cloths, wool cards, combs, and leather boxes are alfo made here. For the con- venience and accommodation of the tradefmen of the town, a public Urudlure has been 'erected, called the Piece-hall, wherein various manufaftured articles are exhibited and fold. In the vicinity of Bradford is a fpaciousiron foundery, with farge, &c. which is advantageonfly fupplied with its coal and iron ore, on the fpot : here have lately been call fome pieces of cannon for government. Three large iron- founderies are alfo eftablilhcd in this tovi-n ; alfo a very fpaci- ous lUU-houfe, for thedillii'ation of aquafortis and fpirits of vitriol. By a cut from the Leeds and Liverpool canal, the nianufaftures of the place are cheaply conveyed to the great marts of commerce ; and other merchandizes and materials are brought back in return. Br.idford has a weekly market ( Monday), and two principal fairs annually. The church is a large well propoitioned ilrudure, dedicated to St. Peter; and has under it the chapels of Thornton, Wibfey, and Hsworth. The adjacent land is all inclofed, pofTelTed by fmall proprietors , and moilly occupied by the manufatturers of the town. It is chicHy kept in paftnre for the fupport of cows ; but a fmall portion is ploughed, and appropriated to oats. At the commencement of the civil war in 1641, Bradford was befieged and raafacked by the earl of New- cailk's army. 4 BRA At Pudfey, .J. miles from Bradford, is a large religious honfe, belonging to the Moravians ; and confrils of a chapel, refiv'^orv, dormitory, fchool, &c. See Moravians. Aikin's Defcriplion of the country nnmd Maiichcfter, 4to. BUAOING Bav, lie's in the Kle of Wight, at the eaft end of the illar.d, alinoll oppofite to Portfniouth, and not far from St. Helen's road. It is ctnerally dry at low-water, and when the tide is in, has only a narrow channel for fmall xtffels, on account of a bar at the entrance. BRADLFJA, in Dolany, (in honour of Richard Brad- ley, F. R.S. the (uk profeflbr of botany at Cambridge.) Schreb. 1474. G:crtner, 63-'. Glochidion, Forller. Clafs, monsaa motiailclphia, (Schreb.) Moiiizda hcxandr'ia, (La Marck.) Nat. Order, Evphorbtic. Male Fkwen. Trt/v-v, none, (Schreb.) five or fix leaves, perfifting (Ga'rt- ner.) Carol, petals fix, ovate, concave, fpreading, nearly equal. (Schreb.) none, (Gxrt.) 5/am. filaments three, very minute ; anther cylindric, ereft, confiftmg of three imited, didvmous anthers, tipped with a fliarp-pointed ap- pendage. (Schreb.) fix, (Gsrt.) Female Floivers. Cal. none. Cor. one-petallcd, fix-parted, inferior, three , of the fegiT.cnts interior, (Schreb.) Cal. and Cor. as in the male, (Gxrt.) Fiji, germ globofe, fix-furrowed, fupfirior ; ftvle, nore ; Itigmas, from iix to eight, very fmall, converg- ing, (Schreb.) ilyle thick, fix-parted above, iligmas fimple, obtul'e, (Gaert. from the papers of Solander,). Perianlh. capfule dcpreffed, with twelve furrows, fix cells, and fix valves, dehifcent. Seeds, foliiary, roundifli, (Schreb.) two in each cell, (Ga;rt.) Species I. B. f.nica. (La Marck. illud. pi. 772. a? branch in fruit,) a ihrub. Leaves, alternate, lanceolate, veined. Flowers, axillary, fingle, peduncled. 2. B. zeyla- nica. A (hrub. Calyx, monopiiyUo'JS, fix-parted, (Gseit.^ Flowers m.ore tl.an one on a peduncle, (La Marck.) 3. B. ClocljiJi'ji!, ( Philipica, Ca\"anilles, jil. 371.) A tree. I-eavest alternate, lanceolate, fmooth, axillary, very fmall and na- merous. Bradleja is neaily allied to phyllanthus ; but the ftrufture of the feeds is fo fingidar, that it ought to be made a dif- tinft genus. BRADLEY, James, in Blogrnphy, an eminer.t aftrono- mer, was born at Shireborn, in Gloucefterfhire, in the year 1692, and received the firft rudiments of education at a grammar fchool in North-Leach. He was admitted a com- moner of Baliol college, in the LTniverfity of Oxford, March the 15th, 1710-11; and took tlie degree of B. A. Oftober the 24th, 17 [4, and that of ^L A. January the 2ift, 1716-17. In 1719, he was ordained deacon and prieil ; and preferred in the fame year by the bifliop of Hereford, who had made him his chaplain, to the vicarage of Bridllovv in Herefordil>ire. The finecure reftory of Lan- dewy Wclfry in Peinbrckefiiire was alfo procured for him ■ foon after, by the honourable Mr. Molyneux. With fuch patronage he might have indulged realonahle exp-ftations of more confiderab'e p.rcferments, and of attaining to emi- nence in the church ; but his predileftion lor mathematical, and aftronomical ftudies gave a different dirtftion to his views and purfnits. In theic he was afnlled and encouraged by his uncle. Dr. James Pound, who then relided at Wan- dead in Eflex, where our ailronomer was curate, and where he conimenced thofe obfervations that laid the found?.tioii of his future fame. On the 3iitof Oftober, 1721, he fuccoeded Dr.Johii Keil, as Savilian profeffor of ai'tronomy at Oxford ; and de- termining to devote himfclf to aihonomy, fo congeEial to his BRA liis tEile and talents, he rcliTiieJ his preferments in l!ic church. In 1724, he comnmnicattd to the Royal .Society Iiis obfcrvations on a comet, which had appeared towards the clofe of the preceding year ; and, in 1726, he commu- nicated to the lame body, of vvliich he had become a mem- ber, a paper containing a comparifon of feme obfcrvaticns' made at I^ilbon, witli thofe made by himfclf at Wanltead, on tiie eclipfes of the f.rll fatellite of Jupiter, and publillicd in the Philofophical Traiifaflions, No. ,;i><'). (See Abr. vol. vi. pt. i. p. 412.) Tlieie communications were follow- ed by his celebrated theory of the aberration of the iixed ilars, the difcovery of which was announced in 1728, and publiflied in the Philofophical I'ranfaclions, No. 406. (See Abr. vol. vi. pt. i. p. 129.) For a particular account and illullration of this theory, of the principles on which it is founded, and of the important purpofcs to which it is ap- plicable, fee the articles AiJERRATioN, LiclTT,and Star. Our author's theory, ellabUdisd by the moll accurate ob- fcrvations, was approved by the moll eminent mathemati- cians ; and whilll the pubHcation of it ferved in a very high degree to advance his reputation, it was the means of intro- ducing him to the acquaintance and friendfliip of the earl of Macclesfield, fir Itaac Newton, Dr. Hallev, ajid fevcral other perfons of the moll dillinguiQied charatler. In 17JO Mr. Bradley was appointed lefturer of aftronomy and experimental philuiophy in the Univerlity of Oxford ; the duties of which office he performed till witliin a few years of his death. His obfcrvations on the comet that ap- peared in the beginning of the year 1737, were publilhed in the Philofophical Tranlaftions, No. 446, and an abltraCl of them maybe found intiie Abridgment, vol.viii. pt.i. p. 210. About tins time Dr. Halley, who was then the aftronomer royal, and who had conceived a very high opinion of Mr. Bradley's talents and attainments, formed a dclign of refign- iflor in his favour; but ids death prevented the accomplifliment of his purpofe. However, after that event, he obtamed the appointment in February 1741-2; and was, at the fame time, honoured w'ith the degree of doftor of divirjity by a diploma from Oxford. He was now in a fituation peculiarly favour- a'ole for the proftcution of his favouiite fcience ; and he loft no opportunity of cultivating it by the number and accuracy of his oh-fervations. Accordingly, in 1747, he announced to the Royal Society his important difcovery of the nuta- tion of the earth's axis ; which was publiflied in the Philo- fophical Traufaftions, No. 485 ; and is preferved in the Abridgment, vol. X. pt.i. p- 32. For a particular account of this difcovery, fee 'Nutation. The Royal Society, duly apprized of its value, conferred on Dr. Bradley their annual prize medal. By means of the excellent inllrunients, conllrucled by Mr. George Graham, Dr. Bradley, who knew how to ufe them, and what allowance ought to be made for the errors to which they were fnbjciSl, was enabled to obferve celellial phenomena, which had eicaped the notice of former allronomers ; and to the vigilance and accuracy of his obfcrvations v/e are indebted tor the above-mentioned difcovery. Senhbie, however, ot the importance and utility of good inJlrumeuts, our excellent ailronomer availed him- fclf of the yearly vitit of the Royal Society to the Royal Ob- fervatory at Greenwich, to recommend an attention to this bufuiefs ; and he fuceeeced in obtaining, by the interpoli- tion of the fociety, in 1748, a grant ot loocl. from his majefty George II. to be laid out under his direc- -tion for the !.-r)provenient of the aftronomical apparatus. Mr. Graham and Mr. John Bird aililled him in the accom- pliihment of this objeft. To him the world is peculiarly m- «, o\- Pf, in Geography, a dillrift- of -Norway, in the diocefe of Chrilliania, containing the difl.ri£tx>f Tillemavken. The inhabitants are diftinguiflied for their hardinefs and valour, and have been always ac- counted the moll warlike people of Norway. In this dif- trift are feveral iron founderies. BRADWARDINE, Thomas, in Biography, denomina- ted the " profound doclor," was born at Hatfield, in Suffolk, (according to Godwin), or at Hart field, in Sufftx, (ac- cording to I'ale,) towards the beginning of the 14th cen- tury, and educated at Mevton eollege, in the univerfity of Oxford, of which he was prodlor, in 1,325, and where he took the degree of doftor in divinity. He was introduced to court under the patronage of Stratford, archbifhop of Canterbury, and became conicfTor to Edward III. canon of Lincoln, and chancellor of St. Paul's cathedral in Lon- don. He accompanied the king in his warlike expeditions to Trance, and lo his fanflicy and prayers the fuperllition of the age afcribed the viftories of this monarch more than to the bravery of the foldiers, or the (kill nf their general. In 1348, he was cledled by the chapter of Canterbury, to fncceed Stratford as metropolitan ; but, in deference to the king and pope, who preferred John Pllford, he furrendercd to him the aichiepifcopal chair, but upon his death he v.as again I! BRA BRA again elefted, and confirmed by the king and pope. His confecratinn took place at Avignon, but his premature death prevented his bcin;j; enthroned. As u theolo;j;ian, and alfo as a mathenriaticiun and pliiKifopher, he gained great reputation, and his charaiter (or an attention to tlie duties of his elevated iiation is highly coniuiended. His works are leftures delivered at Merton college, and entitled " De cauGi Dei, et de veritate caufarum eontra Pclaginni," librl iii. publillied by Henry Savile, in London, in i6lS, fol. ; •' Geometriea Specniativa," iuid " Avithnietica Speeulativa," printed together at Paris, in 151-' ; and " Tra<^atus Pro- portionurn," Venet. 1505. Molheim, probably referring to the firll of the works above recited, lay., " the learned Bradwardine, an Englifh divine, advanced many pertinent and ingenious things towards the confirmalion of ChrilUanity, in a book upon Providence."' Cave, Hill. Lit. t.ii. p. 425. Moftieim's Ecel. Hift. vol. iii. p. ,;67. BRADY, Robert, a learned Englidi hiftorian and phyfi- cian,\vas a native of Norfolk, and admitted, in 164';, in to Cains college, at Cambridge, wherehe took his degree of bachelor of phyfic,'in 16'; 3, and that of do6t()rin the fame faculty, by royal mandate, in if;6o. By the fame mandate he was alfo clefted niaiter of his college. About the year 1670 he was appointed keeper of the records in the Tower of London, and fonic time after he was chofen regius profeffor of phyfic, in theUniverfity of Cambridge. A letter to Dr. Sydenham, written in 1679, and propofing certain quellions, which were anfwered in Sydenham's " Epillols refponforioe dux," is his only per- formance in the line of his profefllon. His praftice was probably inconfiderable, as he employed himfelt chiefly in hirtoiical invelligation, and was one of the reprefentatives for tlie Univerfity, in the O.-iford parliament of 1681, and in that of James H. in 1685. He was, however, phyfician in ordinary to the king. He, among others, attefted the birth of the prince of Wales in 1688. He died in 1700. His principal hillorical works are, " An introduflion to the old Englifh hiftory," and " A complete hiftory of Eng- land, from the (irfl: entrance of the Romans unto the end of the reign of king Richard II." in :? vols. fol. The firll work was printed in one volume in 1684, and the fubllance of it may be comprifed in the three following propofitions, viz. I. That the reprefentatives of the commons in parlia- ment were not introduced till the 49th of Henry KL 2. That William duke of Normandy made an abfolute conquell cf the nation. 3. That the fncceffion to the crown of England is hereditary, and not eleftive. The fecond work was printed in two volumes ; the firll in 168 ■;, and the fecond in 1700. The principal aim of Mr. Brady is to fhew, that all the Englifh liberties are derived from the crown by way of coneeffion from the princes; and he adduces a coUeftion of copious materials, chiefly epitomifed from Matthew Paris, in order to prove that the Normans impofed on theEnglilh nation their own fyftem of laws and cudoms. The fyflem adopted by Brady, in confequence offome bias rcfulling from his ob- ligations to the crown, and his perfonal attachments, and ably fupporicd, is the bafis of the general doctrine main- tained in Hume's hiftory. To this purpofe it is obfcrved by the learned Dr. Gilbert Stuart, (View of Society in Europe, p. J 27,) that " Mr. Hume, (Irnck with the talents of Dr. Bradv, deceived by his ability, difpoled to pay adulation to government, and wilhng to profit by a fyiUni formed with art, and ready for adoption, has executed his hillory upon the tenets of this writer. Yet, of Dr. Brady it ought to be remembered, that he was the flave of a faftion, and that he meaidy proftitutcd an excellent underttanding, and admirable quicknefs, to vindicate tyranny, and to dellroy the rights of his nation." Befides his three volumes of hillory, i)r. Brady alfo wrote, " A treatife on Burghs," in a thin folio. Biog. Brit. Br.^dy, Nicolas, an epifcopalian divine, was lintally dcfcended from Hugli Brady, the fu ll protellant bilhop of Meath in Ireland, and born at Bandon in the county of Cork, in iC'Jf;. At the age of 12 years he was removed from Ireland to Wellminller fchool, and from thence clefted (Indent of Chrillehurch at Oxford. After remaining in the Univerfity about four year?, he wi-iit to Dublin, where his father refided ; and in the Univerfity of that city he obtained the degreus of B. A. and M. A. and, afterwards, in a man- ner peculiarly honourable, he received the degree of D. D. Plis firll ecelcfiaftical prefcnnent was to a prebend in the ca- thedral of St. Barry, at Cork, and to the parilli of Kinag- larchy, in the county of Cork, to which he was collated by bilhop Wettenhall, to whom he was domellic chaplain. His attachment to the revolution, and his zeal in piorBoting it, expofed him to much fuffering ; and, fuch was his interell with M'Carty, king James's general, that in 1690, when the troubles broke out in Ireland, he thrice prevented the burning of his native town. Having been deputed by the people of Bandon to come over to England, for the purpofe of petitioning parliament for a redrefs of fome grievances which they had fuffered, while king James was in Ireland, he refigned his Irilh preferments, and fettled in London. In this country he was much efteemed for his pulpit talents, and obtained feveral preferments, amounting in the whole to 600I. per annum ; the lail of which was the rectory of Clapham in Surrey, which he held, together with Richmond, to the time of his death. He was alfo chaplain to their majellies, king William and queen Mary, and afterwards to queen Anne. He died May 20, 1726, in the C7th year of his age. His works are a tranflation of the " iEneids of Virgil," publifhed by fubfcription in 4 vols. 8vo.; " Three volumes of fermons, publilhed by himfelf; and "Three other volumes," publilhed by his fon, in 1730; and "A new verfiou of the pfalms," in which he was afPifted by Mr. Tate. This verfion was licenfed in 1696; and is now ufed in mod churches of England and Ireland, inftead of the old and obfolete verfion by Thomas Sternhold and John Hop- kins, made in the reign of king Edward VI. Biog. Brit. BRADYPE, in Zoology, (in French) fynonymous with Bradypus, the (loth. BRADYPEPSIA, in Medlclm, a term fignifying (low digedion, from /S^aSu;, (low, and wij-if, concoftion. See Dyspepsia. BRADYPUS, in Zoology, the firft genus of animals in the order hruta, the charafter of which (lands thus in Gme- lin : no fore-teeth ; grinders in each jaw fix, obliquely trun- cated, cylindrical, the two anterior ones longeli, and far dillant : body covered with hair. The fpecies are tr'uiadylus and d'ldadylus, which fee. Dr. Shaw defines the generical charafter of the (loth, or IraJypus genus, in a manner fomewhat different from the pre- ceding. He obferves that there are no cutting-teeth in either jaw ; that the canine teeth are oblufe, (uigle, longer than the grinders, and placed oppofite ; grinders, five on each fide, which are obtiife ; fore-legs much longer than the hind ; and the claws very long. The two fpecies tridadlylus and di- dadylus are retained by this writer, under their old Linnxan names ; a third fpecies is alio added, the urfine floth, brady- pus urfinus, the urfiform fioth of Pennant, and pctre (loth of Catton. It (liould be obferved, that the immcnfe fo(ril (keleton, of which Monf. Cuivier has given an accurate defcription under the name of megatherium, in the opinion oi that writer, muil have belonged to an animal much more nearly allied to the genus BRA geniii braJypii", or (loth, thau to any other at prcfcnt known. I'hc ikvKtuii alliiilvd to w:is fomiJ in the vicinity of the river l^a PUta ill a folTii Ihif, a hundred feet beneath the fnrfice of a fandy foil, h is ti French feet ionj;, and lix in hciglit. The orii;inid is at Madrid. URAE-Mar, in GeojrapLy, a mountainous diftrift of Scolt»nd,in A' crdcondiire, 27 niilcs N. W. from Aberdeen. Ill this territory liie lail earl of Mar began to raife a rebtllion iu 1715. \\«.\h' Murray, a mountainous and woody traft of land, lyine on tlie rtiorcs of Elgin and Nairn in Scotland. LRAG, a name given to a game at cards, from the nature of it ; the princip-d llakc being won by him who bragj with moll confidence and add re fs ; i.e. who cl'.allenges the other ganicllcrs to produce cards equal to his. In this ^ame a pair of acts is the bell brag, a pair of kings the next, and fo on : and a pair of any fort wins tlie Itakc from the moll valu.ible liiigle card. Tlie knave of clubs pairs with any other card in hand : but a hajd of cards of lels value in this game has foiiietimes gained the llake from one of fupe- rior value, by the confidence and art of bragc;ing : the con- ted being given up on the j'art of tl?e latter through fear of lofing. One llake is gained by the higheil card that is turned up in dealing, three cards being dealt round to each perfon, and the lall turned up ; the hii;he(l card is the ace of dia- monds : the other flake is won by the perfon who firft makes up the cards in his hands one and thirty ; each dignified card palling for ten, and drawing from the pack. Each gamellcr depofits three Hakes, one for each card. UllAGA, in Ge^S''''ph' '''S Bra^jra of Antonin's Iti- nerary, a city of Portugal, and capital of the province of Entre-D:ici-o-c-Minho, is filuated in a broad open vale, cultivated and fliaded by trees, near the fmall river Cavado. It is fubjtCTt to the arciibilliop of the place, who has a re- venue of above 100,000 crufades, and appoints judges and two tribunals, the one fpiritual and the other temporal ; fo that this is the only city where the .king does not appoint a corregidor, or a juiz de fora. In the coutos, or privileged places round the town, hi? fentence is final in criminal affairs, but not on the inhabitants of the town. Braga contains about lj,ooo inhabitants, 5 pariflies, and 7 monafteries. Several of the ftieets are wide and open, but moll of the houfts arc fmall. Among tlie ohjefts of curiolity in this town, we may reckon the large old Gothic cathedral, with its antiquities and trcafures; and alio the church and monaf- tery of St. FrnCluofo, with its trcafures and relics, and (land- ing very confinciioufly on a hill without the town. Braga claims a very ancient origin. The Romans called it Au- guda Bniccara, and Roman coins are ofttn found in the iieighboiirho«d. Although it has much diclined from its former importance, it has a hat-nia;iufaftory, which fupplies a great part of Portugal with hats for the common people ; and it has alfo an inconliderable manufadlure of knives. It exhibits ligns of indullry and aftivity ; and the women are every where feeii knitting, fewing, or making linen. The rich inhabitants are reckoned more relcrved and unfocial than their neighbours in the other towns of Minho ; and they are accuftd of being quarrelfome, fond of fcandal, and of difagreeablc manners. N. lat. 41" 26'. W. lonp. Bkaga, I-I.\, is now called Fort Dauphin, in the idand of Cuba. Braga, the name of a liquor brewed in RnfTia from wheat, which, as well as the bnfu, that is brewed only from »nillct, is till bid, foaming, alFecling the head, and drank only by the common people. Oh the Terek, a fort of beer is brewed, called " terlkaia braga," by foakiiig millet in warm BRA water ; and when it is fwoLi like malt, it is bruifed, boiled foft, and fo poured upon malted-rye and barley. By the malt the brev.age i- tepid, and in this (late oats are added; it is then left to firmtnt, and the hufl^s being llralned from the drink, it is fit tor ufe ' It is of good colour, always turbid, rather clammy, difgulling to the talle and fmell, and very intoxicatmg. BRAGANTIA, in Bolany. Loureiro. Flor. Cochin. Clals, gynandria hcxandria. Gen.Ch. Calyx none. Corol. one-petalled ; tuhc globu. lar, with ten furrows ; border divided into three, equal, ob- tufe, recurved fcgments. .Stam. anthers fix, felTile, oblong, adhering to the middle of tlie llyle. Pift. (lyle thick ; ftigma concave ; germ linear, inferior. Pericarp long, quadrangular, four-celled, four-valved. Seeds, many. There is only one known fpecies, a (lirub about five feet high. Leaves large, alternate, lanceolate, very entire, vemed. Floiucrs in racemes, axillary, brown red. It grows on the inonntains of Cochinchina. BRAGANZA, in Geography, a city of Portugal, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, in the province of Tra-los-Moutes, feated on a fpacious plain near the river Ferven^a. It conlills of a city, fortilied with towers and a callle ; and a town, defended by a fort. Braganza contains two parl(h ciinrches, two hofpitals, four convents, and about 2^00 inhabitants. It is one of the moll ancient towns in the kingdom, and is faid to have been built by Augullus. Its manufactures conlill of (ilk llufls, velvets, and grogram. It was erefted into a duchy by Alphonfo V. in i_i4Z. John II. its eighth duke, was crowned king of Portugal by the name and llyle of John IV. ; and it confers the ducal title on the prefent reigning family. N. lat. 41° 5;'. W. long. 6° 48'. Braganza, a fmall town on the frontiers of the marclie of Trevifano, in the territory of the republic of Ve- nice. BRAGGOT, derived from the old Britilh word brag, which fignlfies malt, and gols, a hrjihy-comh, a. fort of drink made in fome parts of England, of malt, with honey, fpices, and other ingredients. BRAGNAS, or Br.egnet7., in Geographv, a town of Norway, in a dilliicl of the fame name, in the dioccfe of Chriftiania, feated on the fide of the river Dramme, oppofite to fitromfoe and Tanger. Thefe three towns lie in a fertils vale, at fmall dillances from each other, at the bottom of fome rugged rocks, and on tlie margin of a bay. They are dilllnguiihed by the general name of Diamine, becaufe they are fituated on that river. Each ol them has its own church, and feparate jurifdivltion. The inhabitants are indullricus, and carry on a confiderable trade. The principal exports are timber and planks. The imports are chiefly corn, and lead from England for fmelting the fiK'cr ore at Konglherg. In the dillriet of Bragnas-lchn are fevcral iron-works, and aifo 3 glafs-houfe. N. lat. ,59° 45'. E. long..lo°22'. BRAGOS, ariver of Spain, In Catalonia, which runs into the Segre, 6 leagues N.E. of -BaLigner. BRAGU Point, lies at the mouth of the great river Ava (fee Ava) ; and is fuppofed by M. Goflelin (Geogra- phy of the Greeks analyfed) to be the " Magnum Pro- montorium," which M. d''Anville concludes to be cape Ro- mani:i, at the extremity of the peninfula of Mahitca. ])Pv ACrUZ, a town of Germany, in the county of Tyrol ; 27 miles W. of Trent. BRAHE, TvcHo.in Biography, a celebrated a (Ironomer, was the dcfctndant of a noble family of Sweden, fettled in Denmark, and born December the lyih, 1546, at Kuudllorp, afmallloiQihip near HJfinborg in Scania or Schonen. His father. BRA f.ttlier, Otto Br^hcs having a large family, the charge of his c.'iucation was undertaken by his uncle, George Drahe, who ;idopted him as his heir. This was a fortunate circumllance 1 ir Tycko, as his father thcnigiit literature inglorious, and wilhtd allhis fons to follow the military profeflion. After a oourfe of private inftruCtiOn in the I-atin language, his uncle flit him, i:i l55Ti to Ihidy philufojihy and rhetoric at the ;:caJeiny of Copenhagen ; where he was cafually incited to :;lic Ihidy of ailronomy hy an eclipfe of the fun, which iiap- j.encd Auguft 2'ilt 1560, at the precife time predifled by allroiiomers. plence he was led to regard that fcieiice as divine, which accurately defcribtd the motions of the celcllial bodies, and predettrniiiied their relative pofitions. From this time l.e devoted himfclf to the ftiidy of ailronomy, and by means of the tables of Stadius, which he pnrchnfed, he acquired a knowlcdg;e of the theory of the planets. In 1562 " he was fent to iludy the civil law at Leipzig, in which he made a very confiderable proficiency ; but, 11 twithftanding the remoi.llrances of his tutor, and the application with which he was required to profccute the Ihidy of the law, his predominant inclination led him to peifeft himfelf in aftro- iiomv. With this view he expended the money that was allowed iiim for his private e.\pences, in the purchafe of books, the difiicult palTarres of which were explained to him by his private tutor Scultens ; and by means of a fmall celelUal globe, and nightly obfervations of the heavens while his preceptor was in bed, he became acquainted, in the courfe of a month, with the names and pofitions of the conftelbtious, and the spparent motions of the celelllal bodies. Infpired with the fame ardent zeal in the proiecution of his favourite fcie':ce, he acquired a competent knov\ledge of malhematics, without the aifuiance of a niaflcr, and invented feveral ma- thematical inilruments. Having paffed three years at Leip- zig, it was his intention to have purfued his travels through Germpny ; but the death of his uv.cle in 1565, and the eilate which was bequcaihcd him, required his return to his native councry. Difcuuiaged, iiowevcr. in his favourite purfuits by his relations, he made the neccfiary arrangement ot hisailairs; and before the expiration of a year, he abandoned liis couutrv, and fet out on his travels. Accordingly he firll went to Wittenberg, and on occafion of the plague, which broke out in this town, he rem.oved, in 1567, to Rotloc, where an accident occurred that endangered his life. At a wedding-feall to which he was invited, a difpute arofe be- tiveen him and a Uanifh nobleman, on fome fubjecl of ma- thematics, v.'hich terminated in a duel ; and having loll his nofe ill theconflift, he contrived to fupply the defect fo com- pletely, by an artificial compohtion of gold, filver, and wax, that it could hardly be diftinguifhed from the natural organ. From Roftoc, Tycho continued his travels through the principal towns of Germany and Italy, and in l^6g he re- paired to Augfburg, where he formed an acquaintance with the celebrated Peter Ramus, who admired his (kill in the fcience of ailronomy. After his return to Copenhagen, in 1571, he was favoured by his maternal uncle, Stcno Billes, with a convenient retreat from the ceremonies of the court, and the intrnfive vifits of the capital, at hiscaftie of Herritz- vold near Knudllorp ; which alfo afforded him a com-nodious fituatlon for the conllruclion of an aftronomical obfervatoi-y, and a chemical laboratory. During his refidence with his uncle, Tycho, belides his allronoraical refearches, profecutcd, with his natural ardour, the Iludy of chemillry, or rather of alchemy, to which he feems to have had an early inclination, with the c.iiiiv.erical view of obtaining the philofopher'sfl one, that he might amafs wealth fufficient to enable him to fettle in lumc foreign country. At Herritzvold he obferved, in 1572, a new liar in the coiiilellatioai Cadopeia. Soouafter BRA this period he incurred ti;c refentment of his relatione by marrying a beautiful country girl, whole name was Chrilliiia, and who v as the daughter of a neighbouring piafaiii. Al- though he offered various reofons in jnllificalion of his elioice, the connexion with a ptrfon fo far below his rank alienated his f'an)ily from him; and they lefufed to hold any inter- conrle with him, until Frederic II. interpof^.d, and au'thorita- tively effeded a reconciliation. Tvcho himfelf feems not to hive repented of his choice ; but 'found in his Chrillina, to whom affedion had attached him, a grateful companion, and an obedient wife. In 1574, he connnenced his Icilurcs at Copenhagen, by the exprels dtfire of the king ; and ia thele Icdures he took occafuni to explain the theory of the planets, introducing his explanation by a learned oration oa the hiilory and excellency ofallro-iomy and the filler-fciencei, with fume remarks in favour of judicial ailrology, a Iludy no lets conger.ial to the times thaii'to the inclinations of Tycho hnnfelf. Difguilcd by the condud of bis relations, and with his countrymen in general, our philofophcr determined to quit Denmark and fettle abroad. After travelling through Germany and Italy, he at length formal a puipofe of fixing hisj:cfidence at Bafle, to which he was induced by the fakr. brity of the air, the cheapnefs of living, the celebrity of the univerfity, and Che opportunity this lituation would afford him of maintaining a correfpondence with the allronomcrs of France, Germany, and Italy. With this view lie retnrne<( to Denmark; but wliilll he was preparing for his removal., he received an uiiexpecled melfage from the king. Frede- ric, iecrelly apprifed of his intentions, was unwilling that Denmark Ihould be deprived of fo great an ornament"; and in order to retain him in his dominions, offered him protec- tion, and, with a liberality which did honour to the monarch as well as to the philofopher, prefentcd him with the ifland of Huen, and promifed to ertd the buildings and to provide the apparatus necefl":)ry for his feientific purfuits. He ::lfo fettled on him a pe:;fion of 2000 crowns a year, and "-ave hira a fee in Norway, and a canonryof Rofehild, which pixiduced a. thonfai.d more. This liberal offir Tycho gratefully accepted ; and repair- ing to Huen, he was prefent, on the Sth of Augult, ir76, at th^e laying of the lirit ftone of a magnificent houfe, which he afterwards called Uraniburg, or the Caftle of the Hea- vens. This was a building 60 feet fquarc, containing 3 fpacious fuit of apartments, an obfervatory, and a fubterra- i.eous laboratory ; for the eredion of which the king fup- phed 100,000 rix-dollars (2o,oool.), and *Tycho liimfelf expended no lefs a fum. He afterwards conilruded a de- tached-building for his obfervatory, which he called Sriern- berg, or the Mountain of the Stars-. lu this retreat he paffed 20 years, and, by his obfervations and ftudy, greatly contributed to the in.iprcing prcfentcd with this curious machine, acknowtedged tiie favour by the donation of a gold chain, and by an alTurance of inviolable I'.ioteaion and encouragement. Notwithllaiiding thife alfurances, the ene- mies of Tycho, jealous of his merit, or offended by the violence of his temper, and the feverity of his fatire, con- trived, in 1596, under various pretences, to divert tlie young king's attachment, and to induce him to deprive the allro- iiomer of his penfion, his fee, and the canonry of Rofchild. Thus deprived of the means of fiipporting iiis expenfive eftablilhment at Uraniburg, Tycho was reduced to the ne- ceffity of quitting his favourite rcfidence, and repairing to Copenhagen, where for a fhort time he continued his obfer- vations. But the malevolence of his enemies purfued him ; and therefore, after having tianfported from Uraniburg all thofe parts of his apparatus which could be removed, he departed from Copenhagen with his wife and family, landed at Rolloc, and remained a year at Wanlteck, with his learned friend Henry Rantzau. About this time he publi(hcd his aftronomical treatife, intitled " Allronomia iiiRaurata mechanica ;" and having dedicated it to the emperor Rodolplius II., who had a talle for mechanics and ciiemillry, he received from him an invitation to fettle at Prague, whither he removed, towards tlie clofe of the year i ,yS. The emperor granted him a magnificent houfe, alligncd him a penlion of ;^coo crowns, and promifed him a fee for himfelf and his defcendants. Here he fcemed to have obtained a fixed fettlement for him- felf, and his fons, and his fcholars, among whom was the famous Kepler ; but he did not long enjoy the advantages of this fituation. About a year bttore his death, he felt fymptonis of declining heakh, occalioned, probably, by his ititcnfc application, a.id by tiie chagrin he had fuffered on his removal from Uraniburg ; to thefe he was hiinlelf con- fcions, though .he concealed them as much as poflible from his friends. But the immediate caufe of his deceafe was a ilrangury, brought on by drinking more than he was ac- cuftomed to do, at the table of a lord named Rofenberg, and by an imprudent retention of urine ; and attended with excruciating torments, wliich occafioned a violent fever, and a temporary delirium ; in the paroxyfms of which he was heard frequcntiy'to exclaim, " Ne frullra vixiffe videar ;" i.e. that I may not feem to have lived in vain. When the fever fubfidtd, and he recovered his fenfes, he was well ap- prifcd of his approaching end. In the profpect of it he gave necedary orders with compofure and refignation, amu- fcd himfeff with compofing an extempore copy of verfes, fung various hymns, offered up prayers to the Supreme Being, recommended to his family and friends piety and fubmilTion to the divine will ; charged his fons, that none of bis works (liould be loll ; exhorted hi; pupils to perfevere in their lludics, and converfed with Kepler on the abdrufer parts of aftronomy, and requeded him to complete the Ro- doiphine tables which he had conftrutlcd for regulating the taotions of the planets. Thus employing his lall moments, BRA he expired fo quietly, that he was neither heard nor feen by any of thofe v.-lio were prefent, to breathe his laft. He died Otlober the 241!!, 1601, in the .55th year of his age ; and was very magnificently interred in the principal chi-rch at Prao-ue, where a noble monument was erefted to his me. mory. His wife, two fons, and four daughters, furvived him. Tvcho Brahe was a man of moderate ftature, with light red hair, and a countenance that was rather handfome. As to his mental powers, he combined energy and aflivity ; and thus endowed, he was admirably qualified for arriving at thofe eminent attainments by which he was diftinguiflied. His merit as an aftronomer is unquedionable ; for though he rejedlcd the limple and beautiful fyllem of Copernicus, and endeavoured to reconcile the abfurdities of the Ptole- maic hypothefis, he formed a fyftem conformable to the more obvious phenomena, but which did not require any motion of the planet which we inhabit. To this fyftem (for an account of which, fee System ) he was fo zealoufly attached, that, in his laft moments, he defired his favourite fcholar, the great Kepler, to follow his hypothefis rather than that of Copernicus. For a further account of his dif- coveries, as well as for a concife abftraft of his hiftory, fee Astronomy. As a poet, Tycho wrote fome Latin verfes, which are not altogether deftitute of claffic elegance. He had alfo a tafte for building ; he drew the plan of the caftlc of Cronberg, and ficetched the defign for the noble maufo- leum of Frederic II., which was executi d in Italy, and erefted in the caftle of Rofchild. As a medical praftitioner, he was fond of being confulted, and gave his advice and medicines gratis 5 he invented an elixir, which he calls an infallible remedy for epidemic diforders, and of which he publifhed the recipe in a letter to the emperor Rodolphus. He was likewife a good mechanic, and conftrutted feveral automata, which he took delight in exhibiting to the pea- fants ; and in his apartments at Uraniburg he had feveral contrivances, which were calculated to deceive and aftonilh thofe who came to vifit and confult him. He was alio very much devoted to the ftudy of chemiftry ; and expended as much on the terreftrial aftronomv, as he ftyled it, as on the celeftial ; but he has left no writings on this fubjeft. In- deed, his refearches in this department of fcience, like thofe of his contemporaries, were direfted to the vifionary delide- rata. To judicial aftrology he was addidled to a degree that is truly aftonilhing; and he manifel1:ed a pronenefs to credulity and luperftition, very unfuitable to his learning and judgment. He was an attentive obftrver of good and bad omens ; infomuch, that if he met an old woman on tird leaving his houfe, or a hare crofTed him upon his journey, he would inftantly return home. He took pleafuie in being conlulted as a fortune-teller; and pretended, that his know- ledge of the heavenly bodies enabled him to obfervc horo- fcopes, and to foretel future events. At his houfe at Uraniburg, he kept an infane perfon, who fat at his feet during the time of dinner, and whom he fed with his own hand ; and he noted down any incoherent exprefiions which were uttered by this perfon, under a perfuafion, that the mind, in a ftate of emotion, was capable of predicting future events; and he even believed, that, if any inhabitant of the ifland was taken ill, this idiot could predid his recoveiy or deceafe. As to his natural difpofition, it was irritable, impetuous, morofe, and inflexible ; and he indulged a humour for rail- lery, to a degree that gave offence ; but while he rallied others without referve, and becoming caution, he was ealily provoked by the raillery of others. If, however, we divert our attention from the unfavourable to the brighter parts of his BRA 1v,s cliarader, we fliall be juRified in adoptiii_^ llic eulogy of his panegynft Joflcniis, in his " Func-ral oration ;" vvlio obfcrves concerning him, that " His lliidies were hfe ; meditation, delight ; fcience, riches ; virtue, nobihty ; and religion, his conllant guide." Gail'endus, in his " Equitis Dani Tychonis Bnihe x-\lh-onomoruni Coryplijci vita," gives the following lill oi his principal writings : I. " An account of the new liar which appeared Nov. I2th, 1 572,ir. Cafliopeia," C!)peiiliagen, 1573, 410. 3. " An oration concerning the n:iatliematical fciences, pronounced in the uiiiveriity "f Copenhagen, in 1574;" publilhed by Conrad Alhic, ofikrgcn, in Norway. •{. " A treatil'e on the comet of the year 1577, immediately after it difappeared." Upon revifing it nine years afterwards, he added a loth chapter, printed at Uraniburgh, 1589. 4. " Another trea- tife on the new phcenomena of tlie heavens ;" in the firlt: part ot which he treats of the retlitution, as he calls it, of the fun, and of the fixed liars ; and in the fecond part, of a new ilar which had then made its appearance. 5. " A col- ledlion of allronomical epiilles," 4to. Uraniburgh, 1596; Nuremberg, 1602, and Francfort, 16 10. It was dedicated to Maurice, landgrave of Hefl'e ; becaufe it contains a con- fiderable number of letters of the landgrave William, his father, and of Chnllophcr Rothmann, the mathematician of that prince, to Tycho, and of Tycho to them. 6. " The mechanical principles of allronomy reilored," Wandefburg, 1598, folio. 7. " An anfwer to the letter of a certain Scotchman concerning the comet in the year i '577." 8. " On the compofiiion of an elixir for the plague ; addreffed to the emperor Rodolplius." 9. " An elegy upon his exile;" Ivoilock, 1614, 4to. 10. "The Rodolphine ta- bles," revifedaad publidiedby Kepler, according to Tycho's dclire. 11. " An accurate enumeration of the fixed itars, addrelTed to the emperor Rodolpluis. 12. " A com.plete catalogue of 1000 of the fixed liars, which Kepler has in- feited in the R odolphine tables." t >. " Hilloria cvelcilis ; or, a hiilory of the heavens, in two parts ;" the tirft containing the oblervations he had made at Uraniburg, in 16 books ; the latter containing tb.e obfervations made at Wandeihurg, Wittenberg, Prague, &c. in 4 books. 14. " An epiftle to Caller Pucer," printed at Copenhagen, 1668. The apparatus of Tycho Bra'he, after having been tranf- potted f:om place to place, during his hfe, wap, after his ■death, pnrcliafed of his heirs by the emperor Rodolphus for 2i,ooo crowns of gold. The perfons to whole cullody he committed them, concealed them from infpediou ; and thus they remained ufelefs till the time of the troubles o-" Bohe- mia, when the army of the elector palatine plundered them, bi-eaking fome of them, and applying others to different ules. The great celellial globe of brals was preferved ; carried trom Prague, and depolited with the Jefuite of NeylTa in Silefi^, whence it was afterwards taken, about the y ::ir j6j3, by Udahic, fon of Chrillian, king of Deimiark, a:;c! placed in the hall of the roval academy at Copenhagen. Gall'endi, ubi fupra. Moreri. Coxe's Travels in Denmark, See. vol. V. p. 191, &c. Svo. Gen. Ditl. I'RAHELINNA, in Geography, a town and royal de- mefue of Sweden, in the province of Savolax. BRAIIESTAD, a town of Sweden, in the province of Eall Bothnia, built by count Peter Brahe in 1652, and invefted with the privileges of a town. It has a conimo- ■diuiis harbour. ■♦ BRAHH-OW, or Braila, a town of Walachia, feated ■on the Danube, near the confines of Moldavia, oppofite to Sihftria. N.lat. 45°. E. long. ;>7°. .14'. BRAHIN, a town of Lithuaiiinj in the palatinate of Mmlk ; 48 miles E. of Mozyr. Vol, V. BRA BR/i^ILLER, Fr. to fcream and roar in finglng vul- garly, like country pl'almodills and parilh clerks. BRAILS, m Sea languiigc, a general name given to all ropes which are employed to liaul up, or colkft to tlieir yards, the bottoms, lower corners, and ikirts of the great lails, for the more ready furling them whenever it liccomcs nceeflary. In particular, it is applied to ropes, fallened at diftcreiit places on the aftmoft ridge of the mizen, and paff- mg through blocks on the mizen mall, for the purpole of brint^ing or biailing up the fail to the mall ; boats with either gaif or fprit-fails have generally brails attached to ihcfe iails. The operation of thus drawing them together, is c.-Wled bmiling them up, or Imuhr:^ tiscm up in the hru'ih. BRAIN, in Ami'.omy. The brain is a foft and fomewhat white fubHance, fitiialcd in the cavity'of tlic (lv,i,oa ^'' f - he,^s .Sec Tranfae^ions of a Society for the im- div.fion t a the "'I" ' > r Qf ti,e fiffura Sylvn, and the 1-™ Pi'<='-^ .f ''-K ^ ,"V 11 d the anterior lobe ; and all u-hichreftsontheo,bit,,scaUea ^^^^ ^^^" -tV:frt::^^-fbotS tentorium. isUd petrou part "^ t'^^ \^ jP; Waller's d.v.hon of the cerebrum, the poftenorlobe. ^"';^' ^'^ " ^^ by anatomifts. Some .vhich has been g^".'^"y/2nor or great lobe into two authors, however, 'l'^''^^^''^ Pf ^"'°V eh refts in the mlddle ,, ,lhng ?- P^HLliddkli of the brain; and ;£l£r^;PAthetentor...thepofter.r ^"^stherearenodiaingui.a^I^;sinthe.pp.p^^^^ of the hem.fpheres of the ^^^^J^"^; , -^ .^e level of the cuftomary to pare all th fe a-ay, near y ^^^^^ corpus call .fum, m ''''^'} '^^'T'^^Lu.,, certain cavkies vhich are fituatcd on e"ner i ^^^l-i,!^ a fedion of the ...called ^'-;-- :;^SS mpJf^d^^f t'^o fubftances, an bram we perceue that it is ^ ^^ ;^^,^,.,„r „ne terior one wh,c^. .s o . -^ -|. ' ,,, eritious and which IS white, ^^''"'^f-r,- i„grea and alba; or, from ,vhite fubftances, or f^^.^^f) ."^^''^ ^h, bark does the wood the former [u-o""^-£ '^^ "co^ "a-diftinaion, the cortical of a tree, they are named n coin ^^^^.^^^ and medullary f^^ft^nc s of the brain _ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ receives fo great a fnpp.yof^b^^^^^^^^^ ,he medul- Injeaion it appears ^hnoa compo ^^_^^_ ^^ ^^^^ laiy fubftance ° V^^r^t on of a black fubftance, named by cruracerebriisafmallpo >onot a ^ ^^^^^^^ Soemmernng locus niger ^^^ ^j Pj^^ ,„„„3l ,,d fubftance, P^--^^ '"S °f 2^^PP ^^ ,„ the under furface -;ifeniftSri'ob:,ant::'na;edby Soemmering portio '■^^fthe fubftance.of ^et^i-ij[;;;;;^3h.b.i^ „.oved by «P"'^^,,^":r"l^t ° the greateft extent of of the corpus """f^-;^^^ d^onftrfted in the brain, niedullary matter, ^^^V^ hemifnheres is united by the The medulla of the '""'^ ^'"T^'^^X „^^ .s c^lofum T e .a gm aUn. is^^ ^^ --,°'^'d^ Z:\^ Td^frfrtwo^tmfplieres, inU . overlapped ^^T ^l^-^^gi bidden, until the hemifpheres manner ^^^^V^j r ^r or removed by diffeftion. Its ,,, either ^^f ^//^tf 'o halToI the he.mfphere, audit length IS equal to that or o. ^j^^^.^ L plced in fuch a ht-tioii th P ce^equ ^^^^^^,^^ ^_^^ „f its own length is left, b<=twecn ^^ ^^^^^^^^^ the front of the cranium -^ ^J^^-^i^^^, The breadth of its pofterior P- ^^^^ '^^^.tt t lefs in front. Its upper this part IS about , °f ^^ ^^'^^'^^^....ds in front and behind, rt"to rnr■;wJ^rled extremities, which are the BRA bourrelets anterleur and roflmeur of V-'l J';yy'-- JL^" nrominent lines run throu^^h the whole length ot the corpus cX fum with a dcprcfTum between them, wlych >s called the raphe, -rranfverle lines proceed from tlufe on both ''tI^; t^o' ^£l -ventricles (ventricnh tricorn« of ^•i^ a'A/vr( are fituated in the fubftance of the bram, by the fide f f di?cir :: caUofum, tone in either l>emifp ere ) an ihou Id be opened by an inc.hon along 'he nnars m of that bod . The roof of the ventricle being difletted oH, 'ts '^o""'- becomeTapparent. The cavity begins in the fror^ lobe of tl c bniin, as far forwards as the commencement of the p^ cal'lofuni. This portion of the ve-Unc es^ ^vh,cll formed between the fro.ft of the corpus ftnatnm and the Lduiry matter of the front lobe, turns rather outwards, Tnd dfttinguiftied by the name of cornu anterms. rie ventricle then runs from before backwards in a direflKm vent ce UK eallofum, and diverging from r p : ite e'^^ AlWards it bends downwards fonie- tl no like the turning of a ram's horn, and returns obliquely £nfl!S;mlforwardt to terminate f "f^ "'^^ '-, ^^ Sa:S^ho::S;he'-:^ntriele At t^^^ pla^ whe.e U. ventricle bends in order to run downwards, theie is a. pa. ic 1 location paffing into the pofterior lob^ /ormin^ a triangular p^^intedcavity tc^-ti,^ in^a^ J ^c, with it^ Til) nt turned inwards. l nis is mc u.i, ,' r , ito point turiit ventricle. Its length and fiv.e cavity. i''« ^"f l*^" '/,„i- accumulates fomttimes to the Berohni, 1796,410.) _ ,,„. r.r,arated bv a perpendicular The two lateral ventricles are leparatea d) The part which has been t:.ken out fhould be laid on a plate, ill the fame fituation which it held in the cranium, that the fourth ventricle may be demonftrated. This cavity is formed between the upper and poilerior part of the me- dulla oblongata, and the middle anterior part of the cere- bellum. It extends laterally to a confiderable dillancc in the crura cerebeili ; a groove runs along the middle of the medulla oblongata, which conflitutes the front of the ven- tricle, and terminates in the end of the cavity in a point. From the lateral produftions, and the pointed termination of the cavity, it has been named the cahmus fcriptorius. Its fhape indeed bears confiderable refemblance to a pen, ex- cept that it is much larger. To defcribe its boundaries more accurately, we may Itate, that it has four fides or pa- rietes. The fuperior is formed by the valvula cerebri, the lower and anterior by the back of the medulla oblongata, the two lateral by the crura cerebeili, and in part by the thick portions of tlie valve, v.-liich unite tb« crura cerebeili to BRA to the coipora qiindii^cmina. It opens above into tlielliiid vcntncle, by intans of tlie canalis mcJiiis ; its tcnninatioii would open bilow towards the back of the medulla fpiiialis, were it not clofed by pia mntcr. The brain may now he tumtd over tX) expofe the balls. The lower and anterior part of the third ventricle is clofed by a cineritious fubllance of a conical form, which extends from the anterior conimif- furc and crura cerebri to the jiindion of the optic nerves, where its apex is continued, under the name of infiindibuliim, to the pituitary gland. This body is lodged in the fella tiircica, the upper aperture of which is aintraftcd by a fi)ld of the dui-a mater. Its fuperior furface is plane ; its inferior convex. Its fubllance is harder tlian that of the brain. Immediately behind the infundibnlum arc fccn two fmall convex medullary eniinencts, named the corpora fubrotuuda, candieantia, or mamiliaria, from uhieh tlie anterior crura fornicis and the pedunculi of tlie pineal gland commence. The crura cerebri (proccfl'us mcdullie cerebri of Soemmer- ring) are two large medullary proctdes, having a fibrous ap- pear..nce externally, wliich come from the middle and con- vex part of the hemifplieres. They are feparated above and in front, approach below and behind, and meet toge- ther juft before they terminate in tlie medulla oblong.ita. There is feen therefore a depreflion, or hollow, between thefe crura in front, from which the third pair of nerves arifes, and which is called by Vicq d'Azyr la fofle des nerfs oculo-mufculaires. The cerebellum is lodged in the pofterior and inferior foffa of the bafis cranii ; it is fituated therefore under the cerebrum, in a peculiar cavity, formed chiefly by the occi- pital bone, the poilerior furface of the petrous part of the temporal bone, and the tentorium. Its upper furface is nearly flat ; the under and pollerior are convex. It forms in front fome prominences named appendices vermiformes. It is divided into a right and left lobe, by a hflure which does not extend very deeply, and which lodges the falx cerebclli. The cerebellum confifts, like the cerebrum, of an intermixture of cortical and medullary matter; but they have m.t the fame relative arrangement as ifi the cerebrum. The furface of the cerebellum is marked by ieveral horizontal lines, not difpofed concentrically, into which the pia mater dtfcends to a confiderable depth, and from which other divifions containing alfo proceffes ot pia mater commence. The cerebellum has, therefore, a much more extenfive furface than an equal bulk of cere- brum ; and the cortical matter is more abundant than the medu ary. On a vertical feaion we fee a thick cord of meduUar)- matter fending off proccffes, from which other branches proceed, and all of which are furrounded by cortex ; this is the arbor vitae. An horizontal feclion dif- covers feveral parallel curved portions of cortex and medulla fucceedmg each other alternately. The trunk of the arbor v'tK conltitutes the crus cerebelli on each iide, which joins the medulla oblongata. _ The medulla oblongata is a large protuberance occupy- ing the lower and middle part of the cranium, and rell- •ng on the baf.lar proccfs of the occiput. It is formed the crura cerebclli and cerebri, which have been al- ■ defcribed. Its furface has an irregular and fibrous 1>> _ ice. It is divided into a right and left portion by a Hich contains the bafilar artery. This body is -ons Varolii, tuberculum annulare, or nodus '^■' A the V '""^''^ "'"'^ P^*^" ^'■°'" '^^ pofterior part to "'^ W\ A rot. """""^ "lagiui^i occipitale, and enter the "' th mieU the Xv ' "=""<= "^ medulla fpinalis. It is fepa- ^'^„.\ canal under th. '■o'" by a circular contraftion. The t d from the pone Vi- 'lary cord forms a bulb or dilated "pper part of this rufdv appeata^ cr.oove, '.'■• BRA part, which is divided into four convexities, of which tli* two fuperior are named corpora olivaria, the two inferior corpora pyramidalia. For the moll ample and fatisfaftory information on the anatomy of the brain, we refer the reader to the Encefalotomia Nuova univerl'ale di Vincenzo Mala carne, Torino, 17H0; the Traite d'Anatomie of Sabatier, vol. ii. ; the fourth volume of Soemmerring's work " De cor- poris humani fabrica ;" and his dilTertation " Ucbcr das or- gan dcr Seele." Above all, however, the ■' Traite d'ana- tomie, et de phyfiologie, avcc des planches colories," Pari<:, 17S6, folio, of Vicq d'Azyr, requires the greateft com' mendation. In this fuperb work all the parts of the brain are reprefented of their natural colour, with fuch fidelity and beauty as render it, beyond difpute, the grandeil book, which has ever been publillitd in liluftration of the human frame. We (hall fubjoin to this defcription of the brain, a brief account of the anatomy of the medulla fpinalis, and nerves. Thus, we dial! include in one article, the ilruaure of the fcnforium, of the organs which tranfmit imprcffions to it, and convey the determinations of the will from it ; which are only to be confidered as parts of one circle of actions. ^ Sfnicliire of the Medulla Sptnahs. This part is a continuation, as we have already mentioned from the medulla oblongata, which is formed by the iinioa' of the medullary appendices of the cerebrum, and cerebellum'. The bulbous portion, which we have before defcribed as forming the corpora pyramidalia and olivaria, is the com- mencement of the medulla fpinalis ; although, as it is con- tained 111 the cranium, the term of fpinai marrow cannot, with Unci propriety, be applied to it. The medulla fpinalis confilb externally of medullary mat- ter ; on making a tianfverfe fediou, we find a portion of cmentious fubllance in the centre, confifting of two ftripes which crofs each other, thus X. When covered by its membranes, it is of a firmer confiftence than the brain; but It fpeedily difTolves when laid bare. Its form is nearly cy- hndncal, but it is comprefl'ed before and behind. A groove extends along its anterior and pofterior flat furface, and thefe imprefiions feem to divide it into two cords. It is larger in the bottom of the neck, and towards the lower part of the back, thaain the intermediate fpaces. It con- traftsm the lumbar region into a conical form, and ttrmi- nates by a fmall filament, which is fixed to the bottom of the mealh of dura mater. It fends off a pair of nerves at each interval between the vertebr.1;, which are named cervical, dorfal, lumbar, or fa- cral, according to the region in which they arife. Thefe nerves are produced by two fafciculi of fibres, one of which comes from the front, the other from the back of the cord 1 hele are feparated by a membrane, which xvill be prefently mentioned, and penetrate the dura mater by two diftinft holes, after which they unite to form a ganglion. The ar- tenes of the dura mater are derived from many fources ; the vertebrals furnifli an anterior and pofterior one. The others are derived from the cervical, intercollal, lumbar and facral arteries, which enter at the openings, through which the nerves go out, and communicate with the fpinai branches of the vertebrals, fo as to keep up their fize to the end of the medulla fpmahs. The vems, which are alfo numerous, pour^their blood into two longitudinal finufes, formed in the Qura mater which lines the vertebral canal, and ex- tending the whole length of that canal. Thefe communi- cate together by tranfverfe portions at the intervals of the vertebra;, i hey communicate in the neck with the verte- bral veins ; in the back, with the intercoftals ; and below, with the lumbar and facral veins S The BRA Tlie fpinal marrow is covered externally by a proJualon of duo m ter, which eitends from the great occpUal ora- nenU-X bottom of the facrum, conneaed throughout to the ve tebral canal, by a loofe cellular and adjpolc fub- h ce and al the intervals of the vertebra, by the cou.cal proccfs which it attaches to the commencemen of the Lrv" The tunica arachnoidea is much more loolely con- ea dto thevalcular membrane than .t .s m he bra . The piu mater furrounds the fpinal marrow very clofe y, m- fomueh that, in making a tranfverfe teaion, the medullary S^e protrudes from the cut furface. The medulla fpma- ^ CO, n aed at the hde to the dura mater by fmall por- ; of membrane, which are found between the antenor d- turn For delcriptions and reprefentatjons of the me- 'on 'of - Mom'o's obfervations on the nervous fyf- tem" and Fratfcher defcript.o meduUx fpn^ahs cum tcone, Erlang. 1783. SiruSi/re of the nerves. The nerves are foft, white and fibrous chords, nearly oi a cylldrlcrLpe, arifrng from the br.in, or :.edu a pma lis When they leave the bram, the pia mate, colleas the fibres nto larger or [mailer fafciculi, vvh.ch can be fee, S O.U any priious preparation, by mak.ng a lo^g.tudma or t,-anfverfe feaion of a pretty la,-ge t,-u.,k. Where tie rlrves penetrate the dura mater, they are hrmly conneaed o h 'ma,-g>nof the openmg and have been fnppoM to recerve an r.ternal coat f™"^ ^^^^^ ■^^'"^T,^, ;J^fii" 1^ is onlv true of the optic nerve. I he medulla, y ^ila"^"]^ "' the nerves are covered by a vafcular membrane called by R il , u lema, which detLhes proceffcs from itsumerfu,- fac to urro nd and inv.ft the fm.ller d,v,fions and fibres of \he medulUuy fubtVance. ^y .mme,fu,g a^.er^. n al kah, the medulla of the ne,ve ,s drffohed, ^'"^ ^e cont^,,xa .nen'.bvanous tubes formed of neurdema are le • Ac.os d,irolve the neu,-ilema, and leave ^ -jfj "^ y^]"? ,^ Thefe organs receive a confiderable fupp) ot blcua m m Slels w4h ramify ^^ ^^ ^^^'.^^f'^^S- t^^Sr:^^^ :f'rn::"ri;refolv.d on us fu ace in o a loofe fublbnce, which conneas the nerve .0 T:T: Turd^ S^Tttfe'^^HittVhLs: . whoUy - : , • a r' M -rS>-l "bfervations, however, Ihov ^ v^n Verfe lh-i:e in the fubllance of nervous trunks, of rmlo a fmall tuber- c k, and that they are conneaed by a-ncw formed n,atter. Ar atomUls have difputed greatly, whether or not th,s were real nerve, whether it was a regeneration of medullary mat- er. As it would not probably be very eafy to deoUe th 3 nueftion bv merely anatomical teft,mony, f-om our STc'e of\h"'.inIte ftruau,-e of thefe organs, tt appears 1ft ph.lofophical to inquire, whether the new n^^tter vn^ perfonn the funaions of a ^^^^^^ ' r\V^'''^''\uT iTZ Ltely proved bv the experiments of Dr. Harghton, in the. firft part of the PhilufophkalT,anfaa>ons for the year 1795- n fome pa,ts of the' nervous fyftem,httk tube.-cles or knots, calkd ganglia, are found in the courfe of the nerve and are ufually formed by the concurrence «/ f^^^^^' branches. Thefe bodies are of various figu,-es, but gene-- rally flattened. They partake more of the red colour, t£ Z trunks of the'nerves on which they are formed as *hey poffefs mo,-e numerous blood-veffels. They contam everaf rfervous fibres, diftinguiftied by their ?«"■-£-- te,-iftics, and fur,-ounded by a pretty firm vaicula, fubftance. Th fibres communicate in thefe bodies, and each nerv which goes from a ganglion, is faid to Vf^J^J-'^^^ of every other nerve which oins it. For a fuith.er aecou, t o\ the Ilruaure of nerves, the fo"--"gr-tr de Stiu "• fulted- ReilExercitationes Anatomicx; P.ochaflca de btiuc tuid Ni'S-um; Monro's Obfervations on the btruaure and Fuiaions of the nervous Syftem ; Arneman verfuche kbehdigen Thie,-en ; Fontana T,-a,te iur le Vemn d^ a Vipere, &c. ; Haafe de ganglns nervorum ; Scarpa An- of1heb,-.in and nerves, we proceed m conformity to the Tlie circmlt.on. «h,ch h«e mJucrf 'l'" '» ''«'™ inff and voluntarv motion a,-e fufpended. zdly, i lie laue pE tbe fa, in Lk .«. .0 «1"* ",;L'""','f" d'f l£^S^:™Ss':^errr :r jb » ;. A«3 pik «to !«.= Utbur limbs uktn .11, ™ fcm^^ B R A If bcliirve that tlu-y arc removed from tlieir bodif', in c-.illence of which rcafon fnr- nillies us with the mod indilputable teftiinony. Of thefe kinds of fubtile and mobile matter, we know that they fre- c(uently aiS upon, and put in motion that which is move ^rofs and inert. We fee magnctifm move even ponderous pieces of iron, and eleftricity difplace and diffcver the molt Itabile fubltances which oppofe its pafTage. The reafons for entertaining the opinions of Mr. Hunter, that there i; a fubtiie, mobile, and invifible fpecies of matter connected with the evident llruclure of living bodies, as magnetifm may be fuperadded to iron or cledricity to various fubllances, will be detailed under different articles in this book. At prefenc, ■we claim pcrmifrion to employ this explanation of the phe- nomena of life, becaufe there appears nothing improbable in it, or incoufiilent to piefent philofophical noliojis ; and it is a fuppolitioH, which appears, not only verifiable, but ade- <|uate to account for the phenomena which occur in living bodies. By employing tlii-j mode of accounting for the BRA aftions of life, we avoid all inquiry into the primary caufe of the motions of matter ; we contemplate only a fecondary cauie, fuch as takes place in eleilrical and magnetic experi- ments, in which a fubtle fpecies of matter puts in m'otion that which is more grcfs and inert. If it be admitted, that fenfation exills in the brain, and volition proceeds from that part, it ticceflarily follows, that a motion muft be tranfmitted along the nervous cords, when- ever thefe effiCls take place. It was formerly fnppofed that thefe cords were pafljve, and ir.ight be made mechanically to vibrate ; but their want of clailicity and tenfion, and thtir pulpy origins and terminations, arc circumftances which ren- dered this fiippofjtion inadmiffible. Phyllologifts were, therefore, induced to fuppofe, that the nervous fibrils were tubular, and that they contained a fubtile fluid, by means of which fuch motions were tranfmitted. Haller's oi)inion of the ncrvnus fluid appears fenlible and accordant to the philofophical opinions of his time. He fays, " Si vero co- gitata nollra de ipfa natura fpirituum proferre jubcremur, ac- tivuin ad niotum a voluntate et a feuiu concipiendum aptif- fimum cekrimum omne fenfuum acie fubtiiius, tamen hafte- nus igne et jethere et eledio, ct magnetica materie craffius facerc elementum, ut et contineri vafis et vinculis coerceri aptum fit, et dtnique manifeftura e.K cibis nalci et reparari queat." But, at prefent, no one will doubt the poflibility of a fubtile and mobile fluid inhering in cords, and moving along tlieai without being contained and confined in tubes. Does nor elcftricity move along a wire ? and is it not pro- bable that a fubtile fluid may inhere in a fubftance, in confe- qucnce of an attrafkion v.hich it poffelTes to it, and more particularly, if the fubftance which attracts it is fnrrounded by others, which may be regarded as non-conduflors. The celerity with which motions are tranfmitted from the tangible extremities of thofe nerves which are moft dillant from the brain, and the celerity with which volition is tranfmitted to mufcles in confequence of fenfations thus occafioned, are fufficient to convince us that tiiefe effeCts muil be produced by the medium of a very mobile matter. It is not neceflary to fuppofe, when motions of a fubtile matter are tranfmitted along the nervous cords, that an evident motion of the viiible matter of thofe cords fhould take place. This opinion, that fenfation is caufed, and voli- tion directed through the medium of a fubtile, invifible mat- ter, inhering in the nervous cords, is fo like the opinion of Hartley, of the phenomena of the nervous fyflem being produced by the vibrations of an aether, that it is not necef- lary, in this place, further to profecute the fubjeft. We' rather refer the reader to his work, for a more ample illuf- tration of this theory. Fornierly it was fuppofed, that the motions of the nerves, which caufe fenfation, were the mere effeft of an impulfe made on their tangible extremities by the bodies which we feel. It fcems to be an improvement in modern phyfiology, to impute the nervous motions to an aftion begun in them, in confequence of the ftimulation which they fnffer from fuch impulfes. This opinion is contended for by Doflor Darwin, in his paper on " Ocular Speftra", infert'td in the Philofophical Tranfaftions ; and Mr. Home has further fliewn, in the Croonian Ledure for the year jSoi, inferted in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, that nerves have an irri- tability refembling that, of mufcles, which produce a con- traftion in them when they are divided. This opinion alTifts us in uiiderftanding how our fenfations may be very vivid from the fiightefl impulfes ; fnch as, for inftance, take place fiom the application of the particles of odour to the oKaftory nerves, for it is not the impulfe, but the con- fequcnt aftion, that is tranfmitted to the fenforium; and why we . BRA BRA vremayliave no fenfation from the mod violent impulfes, for fncli \ve cannot but fuppofe to take place wtien a limb is re- moved by a cannon ball, n circumftance \vhicl\ I'as happened witliout the confcioufncis of the perfou to whom it has j occurred. ! Thefe hypothefes appear to us adequate to explain all the circuniftanceslhat have bei-n noticed relative to the fuiidtions 1,1 the neivo\is Ivileni. To review the circumilanccs, even with the greatelt poffiblc brevity, would render this article to ) extenlive. Yet, there are ionie particulars which the leader may expe^it that we fliould advert to. Of tlieie, it is right to mention, that the dilpofuioii of the nerves to ait, is increafed, as the canfes exciting their aftion is diniinidicd. This circumllance has been exprtfTcd, we can fcareelv fay explained, by the late Doftor Brown, in his " Elementa r.Iedicinx," by faying-, that the excitability of the nerves is :!cciimnlated in proportion to the deficiency of the cxcitiif^ Liuifes. 1'his fatt is prodnf^ive of conieipiences which ap- [lear particulaily beautiful and ufeful ; it luruilhes H power tit accommodation in our fenfts to the varying circumllances ol life. Thus, for inltance, a perfon confined in the dark, fliall receive the iniprcfiion of fight from a very fniall quan- tity of light, and his eyes would even be injured by t!ie com- mon day-light. Tlie reverfe of this is equally true : that a '.icrfon Ihall live in a llrong light, till his eyes become fo ;.ecuttomed to it, that a lefs quantity Ihall not produce a proper impreffioii ; or a perfon, wlio has long been in a Hill and iilent place, ihall hear the flightell found, fuch as would he imperceptible to one whole auditory nerves had, lor fome time, been accuiionied to the forcible imprellioiis of the air, made by loudly founding' bod,, s. This power of accom- modation does not only belong to particular feiifes, but it will bear a more univtrfal application. A perfon, living a iUXurioMS hie, v.-ho avoids every fenfation which gives him vhe leall uneafinels, and who attends only to the gratifica- lion of his plenfnrcs, renders his nervous fyftem too fenfible : he flirinks at the cold wind, he is llartled at a lond noife ; and every rough impreffion, which would not dif- quiet another, owing to his ill-judged indulgence, dillrefTcs him. Let us remark the contraft in a hardy feanian, who lias indured the inclemency of the weather, who has fuftained fatigue and pain: if the winds blow, or the cannon thun- der, he hears the one, and feels the other, but they do not much affect him ; and from being habituated to ieiifations, at lirit painful, he is afterwards nna.fctted, even by thofe im- jncirioi'.s which would hurt a man living in the n.edium be- tween thefe two extremes. It feems alfo right here to remark, that a great finiilarity appears to exif* between the fuppofed irritable attions of the nerves, and thofe of the mufcles. The facility, accu- racy, and celerity of the actions of nerves are improved by ufe, as is exemplified in the correft and quick feniations of thofe perfons v/ho are accuftomcd to exercife their audi- tory nerves in attending to mufical founds. A train or fiiecelTion of nervous aftions having taken place, they become concatenated, and are liable to recur in fuccef- fion, if one of thefe aiiions is accidentally induced. Both the nerves and mufcles feein to require temporary refpites fromaftioa, and both appear to be refrclhed by flcep. The fuppofition of aflions occurring in the nerves, explains many circumftances connefted with difeafes. Vehement aftions may be begun independent of impulfes in the tangible ♦■xtremities of nerves, and thus occallon fevere pains. This feems to happen in the difcafe called tic doloureux. Ordi- narily, actions begun in the tangible extremities of the nerves, are regularly tranfmitted to the brain ; but in cafes of nervous pains, the aition feems to begin iii the middle of the nerves. Vol. V. It is alto probable, that aftions may take place in the fenforial extremities of the nerves producing illufory fenfations, and thus exciting ideas. The next fubjtdt which claims our attention, is the part of the brjin to which all the nervous motions, produced by ex- ternal imjueflions, lend, and from which al! the motions nriling from volition begin. Phyfiologiils have agreed to call this part the fcnforinm, and have fuppofed it to he fituated in various parts of the brain ; but there is no part of the brain to which this importance lias been afcribed, which has not been oecafiunally found difeafcd, without fen- fation and volition being impeded. Of late, SoemmtTinff has iifRrmed, that he can trace all the nerves to the ventricles of the brain, in which he thacfore fuppofes the faculty of fenfation and volition to refide. All our feiifes may be gra- tified at the fame time, and we may give a preference to the 'pleafure which we receive from one of them, above that which we derive from the others ; which circumllance feems to prove the unity of that wliich perceives and determines. Ualler, after confidering the fubjett, thus concludes : " Nunc quidem in nniverfum obfervamus, non debere angufliorem aiii- ni3E fcdem poiii, quani lit conjunfla omnium nervorum origo ; neqne particulam aliquam pro ea fede offerri, nifi ad quam omnes nen'os ducere poflimus. Facile enim intelligitur, debere a fenforio commnni nullum uUin.s particuLc corporis animati fenfum abelfe," &-c. Elem. I'iiyfio!. If it be admitted that fenfation and volition exift in the brain, it mull alio be granted that motions m\ift be produced in the fenforial extremities of the nerves by the objetts of fenfe, and that refleited motions mufl take place in the nerves, by which the mandates of the will are tranfmitted to the mufcles. If all that has been faid were to be afcertained, the extent of our knoivledge would, in that cafe, only lead to this con- clurioii, that motions of a fubtile fubllancc took place in the feiifbrinm, and from fuch motions we elleem it impoflible to account for fenfation. We can conceive no varieties in thefe motions but thofe which relate to degree or duration. We feel It impoflible to believe that fenfation can be the refiilt of fuch motions, or that ideas can arife from any fucceflion or train of them. We therefore conclude, with many celebrated phyliologifts, and men of the founded underflanding and greatefl refleftion, in the natural belief, that fenfation, remem- brance, companion, judgment and volition are properties of a dilliud fubllance. The conclulion to be drawn from this examination of the funftions of the brain and nerves, and from that of the other animal functions, feems curious and intcrclling. We perceive an exafl correfpondence in the opinions we obtain from phyfiological refearches, and thofe which arife fo naturally from the fuggellions of reafon, that they have been confi- dercd as intuitive. For moft reflecting perfons in all ages of the world have believed, and it is, indeed, natural to believe, what modern phvliology teaches, that in the human body there exifls an afTernblage of organs, formtd of common inert matter, fuch as we fee in the dead l^ate, a principle of life and motion, and a ftntient and rational faculty, all intimately connefted, yet each diftiiidt from the other. Braik, Chcnucd} Aiialyfis of. Though the analyp.s of this moft important organ can throw no light on its peculiar funflions, it is in itfelf fufficiently remarkable to Le detailed fomewhat at length. It is needlefs to give all the conjectures on the nature of brain, made before clKmilts had acquired a tolerably accurate and juft method of analyzing animal matter. The experi- ments of real importance are chiefly thofe of 1 nourtt, ia ijco, with i'orae lubfequent additions by Fourcroy. D d The BRA thnift through the inner cml of it ; one of which rcfting atrofs two chciks or tars, in the upprr end of the pump, fcrvrs as a fulcrum for tlic brake, frpporting it between the checks. The other boil connects the extremity of the brake to the pump fpear, which draws up the box, or pif- ton charged with the water in tlie tube, tiee Pump. BRAKEI., in Gm^raphy, a town of Gerniany, in the circle of Weftphaha, aiid bilhoprick of P.idcrborii, formerly a city of the empire, 3 miles K. of Paderborn. BRAKENUURG, Rkisikr, in liiosraphy, a painter of landlcipes and coiivcrfations, was horn at Haerlem in 1649, and lludied firll under Momners, and afterwards, ac- cording to Houbrakcn, under Bernard Schendel. His lub- jtt^s were hkc thofe of Brouwcr ; and he refenibted him, not only in his genius, and llyle of coinpolition, but in the diirdutcnifs of liis morals. In feme of lus pidures, he leems to have been defirous of imitating OUadc. His figures were del'igncd after nature, and reprel'ented in the habit and fafhion ofthe times. His fubjeits were the feafts of boors, the amufements of the villagers, dancings, and frequently converfations, in which love a\id wine were always introduced. His compolltions are ingenious, and full of variety ; though the forms of his men and women arc the fame, and feleftcd without elegant talle from low nature. His colouring is Urong and natural, his touch lively and fine, but he is de- ficient in talle of defign. Pilkington. BR.^LIN, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the prin- cipality of Qels ; 7 miles E. of Wartcnberg. BRALIO, a mountain in the country of the Grifons, feparating the valley of Munller from the county of Bor- mio, and being a part of the Alps, which is fuppofed to be the fame with that mentioned by Tacitus, under the ap- pellation of " Juga Rhsetica." The firft fource of the river Adda lies near the fummit of this mountain. Over the Bralio is a road, which, though very indifferent, was formerly the principal pafTage for the merchandize, fent • from the Tyrol, through the Valtchnc, into the Milanefe : at prefent, it is much lefs frequei'tcd. BR.\M, a river of Germany, which runs into the Stoer, 10 miles above Itzehoe, in the duchy of Hohlein. BR AM A, or Brahma, in Mythclogy, a pagan deity among the Brahmins in the Eaif Indies. See Brachmass. Brama, in JJilhyclogy, a fpecics ofCvPRiMUS, known with us by the name of Bream, and which is dillinguilTied by having the fins brown, and in the anal iin twciity-leven rays. The bream is found in lakes and rivers, or in the fea. It grows to the length of t.vo, or even almoll three feet. The food of this fifli is herbs, worms, and fmallcr fiflies. This is e'leenned a coarfe fifli for the table, but to the angler it affords excellent Iport. The bell time of angling for the bream is from St. James's day to Bartholomew tide, being then in the highcft perfection. BRAM/E, in Natural Hiftory, a fpecies of Echinorhvn- CHUs, that infells the intellines of the brenm. The neck i-i filiform, and the probofcis armed with very minute prickles. Ccez. Gmei. Bra^!.€, a fpecics of Fasciola, found in the inteftines ofthe bream and fticklcbacks. The form is oblong, round, taperi:ig, and oblufe at the bafe ; neck round and fomewhat incurvated. Mull. Zool. Dan. BRAMAGUM, orBROMAGUM, in Jncient Geography, a to.vn of Italy, in tne route from Rauracum to Augnlla PrsE'ori.i. Antonin. Itin. BRAMANT, in Geography, a fmall town of Savoy, in the valley of Maurienne, featcd on the river Arc. N. lat. 45='. E. long. 4° I y. JbRAMANTE, Lazzari, in 5;'e^rj/A)', a famous Italian BRA architea, was bom at Caftel-du-Sanfe, in the territory of Urhmo, in 1444. His firll views were dircfled to the pro- felTion of a painter ; but architeaure being better adapted to his talle and talents, he devoted himfelf wholly to the attainment of excellence in the art. For this purpofe he went to Milan, about the year 147c, and afterwards to Rome, and other cities of Italy, availing himfelf of inilruc- tion from the bell mailers, and from a diligent examination of the aichiteaural remains of antiquity. At Naples hi was employed by cardir.al CaralTa in re-building the convent dclla Pace ; and the reputation he thus acquired recom- mended him to pope Alexander VI., in whofe fervice he executed many deligns. Under Julius II. he was employed, as fupcrintendant of his buildings, in accompliihing the n-iand projeA of joining the Belvidere with the Vatican, by- means of two galleries extended acrofs a valley. In 1504 he accompanied pope Julius to Bologna, and was engaged in fortifying the town ; and during the war of Mirar.dola, he had i'everal opportunities of cxei-ciling hi3 talents in the mili. tary art. After his return to Rome, he adorned the city with many tine bmldings ; and at length undertook to de- niolilh the cathedral of St. Petu's, and to fupply its place with another edifice fuited to the capital of the Chnllian world. His plan for this purpofe was adopted ; and before the death of the pope, in 1513, the new Itruclure was ad- vanced as far as the entablature ; and at the time of his own death, in 15 14, the four great arches for the I'upport of the dome were eredted. The original delign was abandoned by the architefti who fnccecded him, not without injury to the ftrudure ; but the profccution of the work was entrufled with Michael Angelo, who praifed his plan, and conformed as much as poflible to his ideas. Bramante was no lels elliniable for his general charadler than for his extraordinary talents as an artill. Obliging in his dilpofition, he took, pleafurein encouraging young perfonsof the proftfli'.in ; and he invited the celebrated Raphael, who was his couiin, to Rome, inilruaed him in architeclure, and procured for him employment in the Vatican. He was alfo fiddled in poetry and mufic, and compofcd extemporaneoufly for his harp. To him is afcribed the invention of conllrucling arches by caftiijg in wooden moulds a mixture of lime, marble dull, and water, fuppofed to be a revival of the ftticco of the an- dents. His poetical w'orks were printed at Milan, in 1 756. The knowledge and practice of the art of engraving may alio be added to his other accomplilhments. This art he probably acquired at Milan, and his execution of it exadly refembles the flyle 01 Andrea Mantegna, that is, with the flrokes running from one corner of tlie plate to the other, without any crofTing. He died in 1517. Tirabofchi. " Strutt. BR AMBAS, in Botany, a name given by the people of Gunien, and lome other parts of Africa, to a peculiar fpccies of len;on-tree. The leaves of this are of a deep green, and of an admirable fragrancy, when rubbed between the hands. Tl;e fruit is very fmall, and has a vemavkablc tliin Jkin. The juice is ufed ui dying. Phil. Tranf. N^ ic8. It has not been taken up as a dillinft fpccies, either by Linnseus or any other fyftematicbotanill. In the Abridgment of the Philofophical Tranfaftions it is pafled over without notice. BRAMBER, in Geography, is an ancient borough, town of SuflTex, in England. This place, though now redaiced to only 25 houfes, Ihll pofTctTes the privilege of fending two members to the Englilh imperial parliament, and the borough ot Steyning, which unites with this, alfo returns two mem- bers. (See Stevning.) From 1298 to 1472 the writs for elefting burgelTes to ferve in parliament were direfted jointly a to BRA to thefe two places ; but fioce thnt period each has been fe- parately rcprefeiiteJ, and each governed by its refpeflive charter. Tliis boronji'h is the joint property of two perfons, ■who, in tl:e year 17S6, llroiigly oppofcd each otlicr, for the cxclufive power of poireffiiig the whole. In this Ihiiggle, it i3 Hated on authenticated authority, that a tenant of one of the poor cottages h id the fortitude and integrity to retift the prefent of loooh which was ufFeved for hi'j vote. Here is neither niarl.et nor fair, and its wliole population only amounts toninety-one perfons. It is 5 i iiiilcs.l'outh from Lou- don. Hillory of the Boroughs of Great Britain, Svo. vol. iii. BRAMBLE, in Bolany, the common Englilh name for the black-berry and dew-berry bufhes, Ilubus fruticofus and ca;lias. Bramble, Bramhlhtg, riramlli-Jinch, in Ormthdog\, See Ts.ifioii.LA monlij'i-ingfil/a. Brambltng, greater. SeeFRiN- Gii.LA lapponka. Ray calls the tawny hanirng, Euibci-i'za tmijhit'ma, the brambiing or fca lark. B R .\ M B L E -^(j.'/f, in Entomology. See Galls of ihe Brain- lie. BRAMBLn-7(c/, otherwife called haU'ur, is a net ufed by bird catchers, of fevtral (i/.es. BRi\ME, Martin Brame of Sonnerat, in Ornilhuhgy, Turihu pngoilarnm, the pagoda thrufh. BRAMER, Leonard, in Biography, a Flemifli hiftori- cal painter, was born at Delft in ijyO, and acquired the art of painting in the fchool of Rembrandt, whofe manner in fmall he imitated. At the age of 18 years, he went to Rome fur further improvement, but could never wholly di- veil himfelf of the Flemini gout. With a tine tafte of de- fign he combined an expreffion generally good, and occa- fionally noble. His pencil is delicate, and his colouring very peculiar in the tints, and bv great ikill in the management of the chiaro-fcuro, light, bold, and full of luftre, particu- larly in the vafes, which he vvas fond of introducing, and to which he gave a rich and tine relievo. To his pictures he was accuftomcd to give a great degree of traniparence, by painting with a very thin body of colour, efpecially in the brown and fhadowy parts. His name was famous, not only at Rome, but in feveral other cities of Italy, and his works, out of Italy, arc fcarce ; but when they occur in an un- damaged Hate, they fetch high prices. Among his moll capital piiftures are the " Railing of Lazarus," exhibiting a charming contrail of light and (hadow ; his " Denial of St. Peter;" both executed in his bell manner, and pre- ferved at Rome ; and, particularly, a fmall pifture on copper, reprcfenting the " Story of Pyramus and Thifbe." Pilkington. B RAM I A, in Botany. Rheede, Hort. Malab. torn. x. tab. 14. Clals, diilynamia angiofpermla. Gen. Char. Cal. five-leaved, rather unequal. Stamens, four, two longer. P'lft. ftyle filiform ; lligma fimple ; germ fuperior. P,-ri- carp, capfule conical, one-celled. Seeds, numerous, attached to a linear, central receptacle. There is only one known fpecies. Stems, cyliiidric, ten- der. Leaves, oppoiite, oblong, obtufe, fucculent. Floiuers, axiiiaiy, fingle, blue. It is a native of moill fituations in the Eaft Indies. BRAMHA-LL, Johm, in Biography, an eminent pre- late of Ireland, was born at Pontefradl in Yorklliire, about the year 159.J, and admitted into Sidney college in Cam- bridge, in 1608, where L: took his degree of B. A. in i6i2, and that of M. A. in 1616. Having taken orders, he was preferred to a living in the city of York; then to the rec- tory of Elvington in the fame county, and afterwards to the prebends of York and Rippon. In thefe feveral fitua- tions he engaged fuch a degree of efteem and confidence, BRA both by liis abilities as a preacher and by his genera! conduft, that he had very confidcrable influence in all public tranf- aftions. As one of his mnieftyV. high c^mmifTiouers, to which office he vvas appointed, he was very afTuhious, and, as fome have faid, fevere in the difchargc of his duty. In 1025 he took his degree of B. D. an'd in i6iO that of D.p. on which latter occafion the fubjrcl of his Latin' thefis was " The Pope is the Author, or Maintainer of all, or at leall, of the chief ConlroverfRS in the Chriftian world," ni the lupport of which he difplaytd great learning. Soon after he was invited to Ireland 'by lord Wentworth, deputy of that kingdom, and fir Chiiftoplier Wanderford, mailer of the rolla ; and in i6,3.j, having refigned all his Englifli pre- ferments, he removed into that country. Erom the arch- deaconry of Meath, whicb was his firft preferment, he was advanced in the following year to tlie bilhopric of London- dery. In thefe llations of dignity and influence he was eminently aflive and ufeful in pafling feveral important adla m the parliament of 16J4, in reforming the dodrine and difeiphne of the church, and in the improvement of its re- venues. In purfuance of the tirll of thefe mcafures he abo- IKhed the fee-farms that were charged on the lands of the church ; in accomplKhing the fecond, it was his objeft to elFeft a more entire union between the churches of Ireland and of England, and for this purpofe he obtained a canon in the convocation, holden at that time, which expreffed an approbation of the ;,q articles of the EngiiOi church, and which denounced excommunication againil thofe who affirm- ed, that " any of them are in any part fuperilitious or erro- neous ;" and with a view to the improvement of the revenues of the church, he adopted various means, which, in the fpace of four years, gained an accefTion to them, of 30 or 40,0001. a year. In the condutl and execution of thefe meafures, however, he excited much oppolition and obloquy, and he incurred the charge of being inclined to popery and arminianifm. In March 1(^40-41, ai tides of high-treafon were exhibited by the houfe of commons to the houi'c of lords in Ireland againil him, and feveral of the minillers of ftate, in which they were charged with a confpiracy for fub- vcrting the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and for in. troducing an arbitrary and tyrannical form of government. Inftead of fecuring himfelf by flight, agreeably to the advice of his friends, he determined to repair to Dublin, and to appear before his enemies in the parliament houfe, w-here he was arrefted, and from thence conveyed to prifon. After a rigorous examination, in the courfe of which he cleared himtelf from all ftlfifh and finiller views in recovering the patrimony of the church ; and when his accufcrs were pro- ceeding to fix upon him the charge of fubvcrting the laws of his country, he obtained, by the interpofitioa of the primate Ufher, then in England, a letter from the king to Hop the profecution of the fuit. Accordingly he was fet at liberty, though not publicly acquitted. Finding it unfafe to refide at Londonderry, he removed to England ; and fettled in Yorklliire, where, by his influence and adivity, he did great fervice to the royal caufe ; but, after the battle of Marllon- moor, when the king's affairs became defperate, he em- barked with feveral perfi,ns of diftinclion for Hamburgh, in 1644; and from thence he went to Bruflcls, where he molUy rtfided, and exercifed his minillry till the year 1648. In that year he vifited Ireland, but was foon obliged to withdraw again to the continent ; and he remained abroad until the reHoration. Upon this event he was rccompenfed for his loyalty, by being tranllated, in January 1660, to the archbilhopric of Armagh, the piimacy and metropolitan fee of Ireland. Soon after his promotionhe vifited his diocefe, and by prudence, moderation, and firmncfs, allayed the dif- coutcuts BRA contfnts that prevailed in it, removal (tven\ prejudices that were very gentrally eiucrtaiiied, both a[raii.ll liimfclf and the church, and gained over many adherents to tlic caufe of conformity. In the parUament of 1661 he was chofen fpeaker of the houfe of lords ; and as a further evidence of the high eftimation in which Iiis charader was held, both houfes concurred in cxpunginij from their records ever)' charge both againft himfclf and the earl of Strafford. Inthis parhamcnt he alfo obtained many fnbiUntial advantages for the church. Whilil he was meditating other plans for the benefit of tlic church and its minifters, he was difablcd from profecuting them by a fccond llroke of the palfy ; and this was fucceeded by a tliird fit w)iich termin;ited his Me, in June l66ji. His works were colUacd and reprinted at Dublin m |Cj67, in one volume, folio, which was divided into four Unes or parts. The/rJ/ contains his difcourfes againll the Roman Catholics ; the ffcoml confifts of various pieces agamll the Engli/h feftaries ; the lUnl includes his writings againft Mr. Hobbs, which have been deemed very valuable; aiid the /oiir/i comprehends his controverfics about the Sab- bath and the Lord's day, fingle fermons, and occafional tracts Mr. Granger obferves, " that Dr. Bramhall was one of the moft learned, able, and adive prelates of the age in which he lived, an acute difputaiit, and an excellent preacher." Although his condutl in the Irilh convocation of I (5; 4 be not entitled to any very extravagant applaufe, and the latter part of the canon, which is faid to have been procured by his arguments, be totally inconfillent with a proper refpett for tree inquiry, oranyjult fentimeiits of rehgious liberty; and although he coincided in many re- Ipeds with Laud and more efpecially in his principles of evil government, he pofTetTcd much greater moderation in religious matters. The temper and prudence, lik.wife, with winch he condufted his ddigns, for the intereft of the eitabl.nied church were far fuperior. Whilft he approved himfelf a firm friend to the church of England, he manitefted a great degree of chanty towards perfons of different per- lualions ; and, accordingly, he diftinguilhed between articles necctlary for peace and order, and thofe that are neceffary for falvation ; often declaring, « That the church was not n D A tl','^J'r"JL ^y Sonera! propofitions." Biog. Brit ■ K^r^l'?^?^' "^^"■'■""-' °f kiUingabramfn, r ; ted BRAMINS. See Brachmans. BRAMNEE, in Geo^rnj>/,y, a river of Hindoflan which RR''AVfPo?L°'^^'^"S=''' 40'^il"S.ofBaIafore. BRAMPOUR. SeeBuPHANPouR. BRAMPTON, a market town in Cumberland, Eng- hnd, IS l.tuated in a deep and narrow vale, 3 , , miles N.W from London. Camden fuppofes it to have been the Ro- man Bremeturacum, "where the Cuneus Armaturarum vere m garnfon on t!,e decline of the Roman empire ;" and from us general appearance, it feems to have been of much greater importance than at prefent. At the eaft end is a ^aft conical mount, called the Moat or Caftle-hil! ; which h about 360 feet in perpendicular height, and as acc'livity very Iteep Near the lummit are a trench and rampart, which entirely furround the hill, the crown of whicli has been fended by a breaft-work. Brampton principally confills of one fpacious ftreet, irregularly built; but a few modern houfes, and a good inn, have been lately erefted. Its chief fai^for Th^^^^r "^ ""^'^^ (TuefLy),and two ann H ' I, rL /^.' ^""' "^^ °''tai"^d in the rei-^n of Henry the 1 hird, by. Thomas de Multon, lord of Giffland The houfes are J46, and the inhabitants 16S2, who are^ot weU employed, there being no manufaaure of any ex nt m BRA the town : it appears, however, to be iinproving ; and a railed waggon-way, which the earl of Carlifle has lately made from his collieries at Tindalefell, will probably conduce to the augmentation of its trade. Religious worfliip is per- formed in a chapel, which was confecrated in 1789, having been built with the materials of the church, which ftooi about a mile from the town, on a bold eminence, near the banks of the Kver Irthing. The chancel yet remains, and the burial-fervice is generally read there, moft of the inhabitants preferring to be interred 111 the ground that had entombed their anceftors. About two miles diftant, on the face of a rock overhang- ing the river Gelt, is the celebrated Roman infcription noticed by Camden, and almoft every antiquary fince his time. The rock is of an angular form ; and, from its ex poicd fituation, the letters have been partially obliterated but lefs fo than could have been expeded from the ftorras ot htteen centuries. Near the jundion of the rivers Irthing and Gelt is Ed mond-Caftle. the feat of Thomas Graham, efq. beautifully ituated ; but greatly improved by the plantations, and other taltefuland judicious alterations of the prefent proprietor S'VrVT"^^!'' °."//'!''"gg™H"'^' is a mound of earth,' called Caftle-H.Il ra.fed about twelve feet from the adjacent land, hollow on the top, and upwards of thirty yards in dia- meter. Between one and two miles north-weft from Ed mond-Caille, is Watchcrofs, the fourteenth ftation ad lineanT Valh, and luppofed to have been the Aballaba of the No t.tia. It IS htuated on the fummit of an eminence, of an caly alcent, and commanding a very extenfive profpedt. 0„ the fouth fide are feveral irregular lines and breaft-works and the lite ot the Pr^torium is ftil! diftinft. The m"lkS way, which generally accompanied the Prstenturs, runs Z his part of the countj^ at fome diftance, in order to avo d the marlhes and bogs through which both the walls of Seve! rus and Hadnan were carried. Its comparative direftion therefore, from Carr-voran to Stanwix. is that of a ftring to a bow ; and hence it pafl-es this Itation, which is fevera hu > drcd yards fouth of the wall. "ciax nun- .v^/^^v^^^"^' ^ '°«'" °f Germany, in the circle of Weftpha ha, and bin^opric of Ofnabruck on the Hafe ■ W?f h") ■ °^Vorden Alfo, a town in the circle' of Weftphaha, and county of Lingen ; 5 miles S. S. e! of . BRAMSTEDT, orEaAHMSTHDr, a town of Germanv I :V\ °^- ^°r- ^''°"y' -d duchy oHoE* Of wheat bran it is that ftarch-makers make tbeJr ft, .1, ngred.ent m the compofition of ?ataplafms Som! ,1 it wns plfn „C^ °' ^°^P- Among the ancients. ui.u wcduies tne hands in eu of fnar, A .v, T —."•"*» n was alfo ufed as an eroti:," to S^e lov"""^ ''^ ^""^"'^ thartI?e"of"b"akt7"a,:d m'°t"' '"V"^^ ''-" °^f"-d fubfifted on this a tic .^^thTlT' T]'"^ ^ave principaUy ^^^r-dS^^Irr-^^--^^ found BRA found in the ftomach and inteftinal canal, impenetrably hard, and about lo or 12 pounds in weight. However, bran, though an improper food for horfes in Us dry Hate, is an ufe- ful ingredient in malhts with meal, and ferves to prevent the fatiating richnefsof that article alone ; and alfo in common naalhes with oats, when a horfe is under a conrfe of ohyhc; and with a proper h.pregnationot honey >n the malhes for colds, during the feverlty of the wmter feafon. Taplm. Dyers rank bran in the number of non-colouruig drugs ; becanfe it yields no colour of itfelf. It ferves for the makmg o " eir four waters, ufed in preparing ftufls to take the dye This water is made by boihng wheaten bran, and into the decoftion putting a little leaven. r o • BRANA, in y/«nV«/ Geosraphy, a town of Spain, in ^'bR ANAW," in Geoi^raphy, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz; in which is a manufafture ot coknir- ed cloth ; II miles N. W. of Glatz, and 2y N. E. of Ko- "'°BRANC A Ursina, J. Bauh. in Botany. Bear's breech. ^%tLT.Urf:.a Ger,nanka, J. Bauh. See He^ACKUM ^^B^ttcT in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, being one of the C^pei-'verde iiles, near the coaft of Benin, '" bIan'ca, in Middle Age Writers, the paw or extreme pait of the foot of a wild beaft, or bird of prey. Du- ^"b^Inca, or Branchia, alfo denotes a right of lopping or cutting off branches of trees in th, foreft forhrmg. Du- *^^B^RANCALE0, John Francs, in Blosraphy, a Nea- Bolitfn phyfician, pubUlhed, in 1534. " De balneis, quam falSa fint, turn ad fanitatem tuendam, tum ad morbos Srandos D alogus adverfus neotericos," Rome, 8vo. Hldefends bathing againft the objeaions of his cotempo- Set on the authority of Galen, and from his own expe- rie" ce recommends the^raftice in intermitting fevers, and a In affiftant in the cure of the lues venerea. He reprove, his breXen or their too frequent ufe of P-f ^ -^t"fe? Ae common refource, at that time, againft -g f '^-f"; The work has been feveral times reprinted. Haller l.ib. ^BkANCALEONE, in G-.-^^.^. /^o^ of Italy in thekindom of Naples, and province of Calabria Ukra ; 9 "'bRANcIs: S;. a town of F«nce, in the department of the Indre and Loire ; 4 leagues b. ot 1 ours. BRANCH, in Bota„y. Branches are the divif.ons of a ftem or trunk, which are found on many herbaceous plants, bTare chiefly noticed on (hrubs and trees. Fhe primary branches fpring immediately from the trunk ; the fecondary 'o^erSm^he^ primary ; ^1^^^^^^^^^::^^:, ^i^SrW^^o^i^l^ts':^^ trunk! and with ^he ex?ep on of a root, are in fadt little trees, ^vhlch if under favouiable ^';'-r''''"TheY proceed from buds formed SiX'rfS^f thl-trinf^hich interrupt the p.af^ P'T^hSwIrSnclis^are often nearly parallel to the hori- zon at rrghrangles with the trunk : thofe above them make 7 BRA angles more and more acnte, as they are placed nearer the funimit ; bnt tlicfe angles diifcr in diflcrent fpecies, aiid m every individual tree are fuhjcA to numerous vanetics, from the influence of external caufcs. Some branches produce only leaf, and new branch bnds : others produce only flower buds The former are fmooth in their Inrface, pliable and tough, with clofe ibaight fibres, eafily feparabh. from e-ach other • the latter are wrinkled at tlieir bale, have their l.bres lefs compaft, and break fhorl wlicn ftruck. There are alfo branches which pierce the bark without a bud, and form what is commonly called falfe wood. Thefe, as they- are often luxuriant in their growth, and rob the more ufelul branches of their due nourifliment, arc carefully pruned away bv the Ikilful planter and lunlicultill. They have a rough bark, and produce only a few blackilh buds. BRANCH, in Veoctahk Anatomy. Almoft every plant or tree, when arrived at a certain period of its growth, ex- hibits at its fuperior part, more or lefs of a divided or rami- fied appearance. The mode of increafe by means ot branches has been obferved fo generally ainongil vegetables, that it was formerly confidered the exchilive dillinction ot that clafs of beings ; but it is now well known that a nu- merous tribe of animals multiply themfelves by branches, and therefore this mode of propagation is not quite pecuhur to the vegetable kingdom. • Ona fuperficial infpedion, the branches appear as fo many divifions and iub-divUions of the tree, in the formation ot which the main trunk is difpofed of or expended ; but a more accurate examination proves, that the trunk lofes none of its fubftance in the production of the branches ; that both trunk and branches take their origin, and continue to in- creafe precifely in the fame manner; that, in faft, every branch^fliould be confidered as a lefTer trunk, differmg on ly from the parent ftem, in the circumftance of not deriving its furteiiance immediately from the earth. _ i-,.u,l.v The branches are the produd of the buds in w ich they enjoy, for a certain period, a ipecies of fatal ^j^'ltence, as the enibrio of the trunk did originally in the feed. See the articles Seed, Fruit, Trunk, Bud, and Bulb. The kind of attachment which continues to iublilt be- tween the trunk and the branches affords additional proo ot he ndividuahty of the exiftence of the latter : alt ongh he external form of a tree would lead to the iuppofiton, t lut hTbranehes were formed by differeiit -^T^^ ^ fafcicuh compofing the original trunk, in the fame ..,anne> asone fepa.ates into feveral portions the hbres of a rope et, to exhibit the contrary, it is only -"'^7 \° "'^^'^^l^ feme feft.ons of the branches where they are implanted 1 to he trunk. Thus, fuppofe a tree whicn divides mo to primary branches, be cut tranfverfely about a foot <'bo e the bifurcation, the feftion will be found to ^P- -V;^ ^ ° two diftina trunks, each compofed of concent ic circles ot woody fibres. (See Plate \l. m Vesetalh Anatomy, /?. ... Tf a t^-anfverfe feaion be then made of the fame brunch s, at the place where they firft appear to /^parate f om the trunk, the concentric layers correfpondmg to "-' b'-anc h wdl be perceived as before, but they will be found fui- ™unded 'by feveral circles of the .;oody ayers belonguig to the trunk. (See Plate II. m Vesetalne Anatomy, M- ^-l la tranfverf feaion be again made fimilar to the laft, but a few inches lower down, the circles of woody layers which coZofe tl branches will be feeu diminilhed in number and fiZ'lile the concentric layers of the t-nk ha- become in the fame proportion more numerous. (See ■< /"''■. ^t- '" thefe defcribed be repeated at (hort diftances fi om each othe , St wlu be found, thLhe number of -o^ly -cles^wh.h BRA wpertain to the branches, continue rc^juhrly to decline, in proportion as the fediions are performed lower upon the tree, until they difappoar altogether, there being at lall exhibited only the appearance of the divided circles of the layers of wood, which conilitute the main trunk. The connexion of the branches with the trunk is, therefore, by means of a cone, of which the apex is diredcd towards the cc;itiv ol the tree, and the bafe correfponds with the fuperficics. Fix- 4- of PLle II. in yr^rtable ^iialoniy, reprefents the ar- rangement of the lij;ntouB fibres, by means of wliich the orijjin of the branches is rendered of a conoid form. When a branch is forcibly torn from the lUm, it is com- monly obfervcd to briii^ with it a portinn of a cone or pyra- mid, wliicli leaves a corrtfponding dcprLlTion at tiit part from whence the branch has been removed. Tliis arifes from the woody fibres being moft eafily ruptured, where tiity are reflected into the angle, which forms the line of jundiun between the branch and the trunk. The fmall or fecondary bi-aiiches have precifcly the fame kind of orij»iu and connexion with rcfpect to t!ie large or primary branches, which ihcfe latter liave with regard to the trunk. Hence every branch may be coiifidtred as a parent ftem fuftaining others, which in their turn give origin to new branches, and thefe again to others, as long as the vegetable continues to grow. brandies acquire bulk by the addition of fucccfilve layers of wood, in the fame manner as the trunk. See Ji^'. ^. of P/ate II. in Vegelnbli Aiialowy, which is copied from the delign of Duhamel, to illullrate the growth of branches. The entire lignre is fiippofed to reprcfeiU a ttee of four years of age, furnilhed with fevtral branches in the order in which they might naturally occur. The wood\' cone, N° I, having developed a bud towards a, a branch vould exill in the fouVth year polTefTed of four layers of wood, as rcprcftnted by a b. If another bud wore formed upon the ligneous layer of the fecond year, N° 2. 2, its branch in the fourth year would be compofcd of three layers, as feen in c d. Admitting further, that in the third year a bud was produced from the branch a b towards /', a little branch would be formed which could only have two layers ; and lallly, if in the fourth year, when the llgncoiIS layer N° 4. 4, is depofited, another bud wtrc to grow towajds »■, the branch to which it would give origiu would be made of only one layer of woody fibres, as (liewn by g h. Thus, the number of woody layers which compofc any branch being afcertained, its age becomes knowu, and the relation which this bears to the age of the parent trunk is diicovcrcd by finding the woody layer upon which the apex of the ligneons cone of the branch is implanted ; or, in other words, obferving the point where the paralklifm of the longitudinal fibres of the trunk is tirll interrupted. It is alTerted by Parent, " Hiftoire de I'Academie," 1/1 1, that the branches are nourifhed by the pith or medulla, but nothing can be more erroneous : the medulla of the branch does not even communicate with that of the trunk, although the ligneous cone of the branch is moll freqnentlv implanted upon the innermoft layer of tiie woody fibres, or thofe which immediately incafc the medulla. Du Hamel has remarked, that the longitudinal fibres, whether woody or cortical, take the direction of the cliicf current of the fap : thus, if the fap be propelled in the di- reAion of the trunk, (vvliich happens when, either the branches hav* been originally iiiconfiderable, or have been early lopped off,) the conical and woody libres prcfcrve nearly a pcrpenC.ular poiition, only ftparating to give paf- fagc to til? branches and immediately after recovering their paralleUlm. See PLle II. in Fc^aable ^ha!cmj\ Fig. C. BRA exhibits a portion of a thick trunk, from the fide of which had proceeded a fraall branch. If a large branch anfes from a trunk, it neceffarilv altraAs a great portion of the lap, and, in ihih cafe, the inclination of the cortical and woody fibres is obliquelv towards th^t brahch, as it is rcprcfcntcd bv /!>. 7. of Plats I!, in p'egetabk Anatomy. 'I'his efiedt is Hill more remarkable in trees, wh.ich have been topped im- mediately above the oiigin of a.young biar.ch ; for then, all the I'l'.p bci.ig obliged to p:;fs towards tlie branch, the fibres purfut the fv.ne direction, and hence, if a tree be examined in the fpiiug, after having been thus deprived of its top the preceding winter, the new lignco'.tS afTiiine more of an creft polition. The lefier rainilications obferve a ilmilar pofitirn^ The economv of foiue trees lenders the direction of their branch.es fomewhat peculiar : thus , in the /id/'/./r, they are nearly vertical, whilll in the iveepitig ifi'hf'.v they bend towards the earth, and in the Jig-tree tliey are curved towards the root ; but iri thefe in- llancts alio the loweR branches arc (till the moll pmminent, in order that all may be equally and fairly expoicd to tlie light. Du Hamel has made a number of experiments, to deter- mine the proportionate thickntfs of the trunk to the primary branches, and again of thefe to the fccondary branches ; his experiments tend to prove, that the Itjuares of tlie cir- cumferences of the tirll branches exceed timfe of the trunk, in the proportion of 5 to 4 ; and in comparing the iquares of the cirenraterences of the primary and fecondary branches, he found that the latter fell fhort of the others in the pro- portion of 100 to loi in one inftance, and in another of nearly 50 to i;i ; the primary branches, therefore, not only exceed in quantity the trunk, but thole of the fecond order alfo, which are neverthclels' fo much more numerous. Du Hamel explains this curious circuniltance, by fupDoling that the fmailcr branches arc moll liable to be deilroved, in which cale they would not only Inffer diminution thcmfelves, but their lofs would tend to make thofe from which they fpring more vigorous, and confequently larger. The Abbe Sehabol dillinguifhes in fruit trees five forts of branches : the hrll kind are fmooth on the furface, their fibres are llraight and cloftly apphed to each other, but eafily feparated ; they are pliant, and break with diffi- culty ; it is upon thefe branches the wood buds are found. The fecond fort fultain the fruits ; they are wrinkled at their bafe ; their fibres appear to be more interwoven ; they are fuppofcd to be endowed with numerous veffels and pores ; they contain a thick lap ; and w hen bent are readily broken. The third kind of branches refemble thofe which become die wood, but are not produced from buds ; they arife from the bark, and', as they never become hard, thty are called the branches luilh fiilj'e ivood. The fourth fet are veiy broad at their bafe ; then- bark is brown and rough ; their buds are black and not numerous ; thefe branches, like the lall, are produced by the bark ; they grow rapidly and foon perilh ; they are injurious to the tree, in depriving more nfe- Inl branches of their due proportion ot nonrilhrnent.' The fifth fort are fmall branches which abound upon nnhealthy trees ; they exhauil feeble trees, and are ufelefs upon the moll vigorous ; they die before they acquire any magni- tude. There is a remarkable relation between the branches and the roots ; upon thefe parts mutually depend the afcent and defcent of the lap ; they mull, therefore, a6t in harmony and in proportion to each other : lience, if a tree be deprived of fomc ot the principal branches, the correfponding roots perifh ; or, if the iniall branches be clipped to form the tree into any particular Ihape, the roots gradually aifume the fame figure ; if the fuinmit of the trunk be cut off, the lateral branches become more vigorous ; in the fame manner Vol. V. BRA tlic lateral roots acquire llrength, by the removal of the ex. tremity of the principal root. The fine fibres of tlic root pcriHi at the fall of the leaf; and lalUy, experiment hai fhewn, that the tops of the branches, when covered witii the earth, will produce roots ; and that the roots, when txpol'cd to the air, will put forth leaves. Branch, in Ah iMogy. Anciently branches were carried iti the liands at the procefiions and ceremonies of the god.. ; whence the ihciHuphon, or branch bearers. The Thefpians adored a branch. The oHvebianch was the fymbol or en- fign of peace. The natives of the iflands of the South Seas ule green boughs, &c. fyr the fame purpofe at tliis day. Bkanch is alfo applied to the parts or Tamificatior.s of divers other bodies, which, in refpec^t hereof, are coiifidcred as llciJis. Thus chemills fpeak of the branchcsi of their me- talline vegetation, branches of the arbor Dhuin, arbor Af.ir- /is, &.C. Phil. Tranf. No. 286. Mem. Acad. Sc. 1692. 1710. Branch, in .^/;<7/cmj', denotes a divifion of a vein, arter)', or nerve. All the veins in the body arc only branches of the •vena cava. Branch is alfo ufed in the Military Art, in fpeaking of trenehcs, mines, and their feveral dufts, ways, retur.'s, and the like, bttween one well and another. SecGALLl-RY. Branch is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the veins in mines of gold, filver, or other metals, which divide like the veins in the body. Branch, in Genealogy, is applied to the feveral lines or fucceffions arifing out of the fame ftock or origin. In which fenfe, branches amount to much the fame with cadets. Branch alfo denotes a complex metalline kind of candle- flick, contrived for tlie reception of a number of candles. Thefe, in ancient writers, are called phari, canlhara, jejfe } when made of glafs, lujlres ; the richer fort, girandoles. Branch oJ the trenches, in Fortificalion. See Boyau, BRANCH^an^, in jprt/cowrj', fignifies to make a hawk leap from tree to tree, till the dog fprings the partridge. Branch, in Scripture, is an appellation peculiarly given to the Meffiah, as being of the branch or houfe of David. Branches of vaults, are fomctimes ufed to denote the arches of them. Branches of arches, denote feveral portions of arches fpriiiging all from the fame fummer. Branches of ogives, in Archite^ure, the reins or arches of Gothic vaults ; which traverfing from one angle to another, diagonal-wife, form a crofs between the other arches which make the fides of the fquare, whereof thole arches are dia« gonals. JBranches of a bridle, in 'Ccit Manege, are two crooked pieces of iren which fupport the moutii-bit, the chain, and the curb : and which are faflened on one fide to the head- flail, on the other to the reins ; ferving to keep the horfe's head under command. What way foever the branches of the bit incline, the horfe's mouth goes to the contrary. The duke of Ne wcaflle is very particular on the head of branches; explaining their feveral kinds and their effedts, which arc reducible to thofe of a lever. The branch is always to be accommodated to the defign, either of bringing in, or raifing a horfe's head, and to the neccffary degree : accordingly, we have flrong and hardy branches, gentle branches, rude branches, &c. With regard to their form and flrnclure, branches arc either llrait, in form of a piflol, for yoniighorfes to form their mouth ; or, after the conilable of France's fafhion, for boflTes that already carry the head well : others are in a form of a Ji e gigoc. BRA rigot, or leg ; others of a bent knee j others in the French faUiion, &c. . Thcfe are the laws in thcWnnr^f ■• i. That the farther the branch is from the horfe's neck, the more elTcift it will have. 1. 'I'hat Ihort braiichfi, crierit panbus, arc ruJcr, and their effei^s more fuUen, than tiio(c of loi>|rcr. .;. Tliat the branch is to be proportioned to the Icngtli of the horle's neck. That part of the branch of ahridio, whereby we nidje of Its cffifts and which difcovers its iln-ngth or weJiknels, is called the rwi of I he kwfjuet. A ilioiig and hardy b'ancli is that wliofe fevilc-liole, at the lower-end of it, i$ placed on the out-lido of the line of the bamiuet. A srcntle hrjnch h that, the fevi! hule of wliich ii fct on the iiillde of tlie faid line. A nuic and hardy bi-a.icTi w ill bring in a horfe's ht;3d, proportionably as it is more or lefs hardy ; whereas a gentle bram-h, by diminiiTiing the cffeft of the hit-month, makes a horfe more cafiiy to Dear tlie prelf.irc thereof, wlio before could hardiv endnre it. See Bits. BRANCHED vdvtt. See Vflvet. BR.-VNCHER, among Fo-.ukrs and Falconrrs, denotes a young bird well fledged, which, having qnitted the ncft, is not yet in a condition to fly far, or fliift for itfelf, but ftill ke;ps in the bnfiics or branches about its native dwelling, where it is fed by the dam. The br.inchers of hawks are alfo called r.ima^e falcons ; ihofe of nightingales, pitjhers : becaul'e, as fome fay, they are thrnft out of the neil' by the old ones. Canary birds of the firft year are called branchers ; when juft flown, and un- able to feed themfelve3,/>i//Jrrj'. BRANCHERY, in the Anatomy of Vc^dahh-s, denotes the vafcniar parts of divers fruits, as apples, pears, plums, and berries. lu which fenfe the branchery ftands contra- diftingnilhed from tlie (kin, pulp, &c. The branchcr)' of an apple is only thf ramifications of the ligneous body through all the parts oi \.\\e paraichyma ; the greater branches being likewife, by the inofcnlations of the fefler, united together. Grew. Anat. of Plants, hb. i. cap. 6. § 2. BR.VNCHIA, \n Ichthyology. See Gills. BRANCH I A DTE, in Ancient Geography, a people who are placed by Qjjintus Cnrtins towards tlic Oxus, and by Strabo in Sogdiana, the adjacent Country. BRANCHIALE, in Nnt ^° be moilt. See Catarrh. Branch us, or Iranchu, alfo denotes a kind of glandular tumor in the fauces, refembling two almonds, which render the breathing and hawking difficult. BRANCION, in Geography, a fmall town of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, I5 league W. of Tournus. BRANCO, an ifland in the gulf of Mexico, and bay of Campcachy, between cape Condecedo, or point Dclgado, and V«ra Cruz. BRANCOVAN, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Walachia ; 28 miles N. of Nicopoh. BRANCOURT, a town of Frruice, in the department of tlie Aifne ; 10 miles W. of Laon. BRANCZYCE, a town of Lithuania, in the province of Novogrodek ; to miles N. of Sluck. BRAND, in Agr'iculhire, the name of a difeafe to which corn, and fome other graffes, are fubjeft. 'It is a fort of fungus, which derives its nourifliment from the vegetable. Of thefe fungi, there are feveral fpecies. One of them is named by Dr. Withering (Bot. Arrang. vol. iv. p. 3SS) " Reticularia Segetum ;" and in a pamphlet upon Brand, by the Rev. Henry Bryant, entitled, " A particular in- quiry into the caufes ot that difeafe in wheat commonly called Brand, 5cc. ;" Norwich, 1783, it is called " Dult Brand." In other places its ufual name is " Smut," or " Burnt Corn." This fpecies is common to wheat, oats, barley, and rye. The felh.c:i fluitans, and otiier graffes, are alfo affeiSlcd by it. It is deflitute of fcent, and confunies not only the fariiiaceous part of the grain, but even the arillus and chaiT, dilperfing itfclf entirely before the corn is cut ; fo that the injury occafioned by it is confined to the quantity of grain dellroyed by it, which is not very great in any feafon. The ear is often affected by this reticularia before it emerges from the folium vaginans, or hofe ; but about the root there is no appearance of difeafe. Ijarley and oats are more frequently attacked by it than wheat ; which circumftance may be accounted for by the latter being iifnallv Ji'ijl'ei' for fowing. Mr. Lathbury examined the dull of this fungus under a powerful magnifier, and thus found, that it confilted of a number of minute particles, uniform in fliape and fizc, much fnialler and blacker than thofe of the " pepper brand," and lefs eafily feparable ; and they feemed to be contained in little irregular cells. This dud, or feed, is tlie food of a fmall, fhining, black dermef- tes, the " lle^meftcs ater," of Mardiam. Another fpecies which Mr. Bryant didiugiiillu-d by the name of." pepper brand," is alfo called fimply " brand," or " bladders." This fpecies does not eaf through the arillus, conl'uming BRA only the farinaceous part of tlie grain. The cars affeflctl by it are eafily difcoveied by thi;ir external afpcft ; for tiiC chaff opens as if unnaturally difltnded, the germen becomes fliorter and rounder, and exhibits the appearance of Iwel- ling, ar.d a fort of inflammation ; the grain affimiing in this ftatc a deep and dingy hue, eafily breaking when rubbed, and furniniing a iootv powder, which foils the finger.;, and emits a very fetid fcent. This fpecies is very prejudicial to the farmei-s ; bccaufe it is carried with the corn into t!ie barn, and when broken iindcr the flail it dil- colours and otherwifc injures the faniple, fo as to i-ender it unlaleable, or to reduce its price. For the prevention of this evil, farmers generally drefs their feed-wheat with va- rious preparations : fome ufe a lixivium of wood-aflies and water ; others, fait and watcT only, or fea-wattr, v. hen it can bcealily procured ; others, the ley fronuhe foap-boilers ; othti's again, urine and chrcfe-whey ; and others, it is faid, have iu- fufed arfenic for this purpofe. All, as Mr. Kirby believe-', diy their ieed with fiefh flacked lime. From this praiiiee wo may infer, that the difeafe is fuppofed to originate from the adhcfion of thednfl or feed of the brand to the feed of the wheat ; and thefe methods are adapted for the pnrpofc of wafliing it off, or dcilroying it. Tlic ultimate catift of this diftemper has been ' varioudy affigiied. Mr. >r>ryant (nbi fupra) llrenuoully maintains, that it is occafioned by an injury which the antherx" receive by too great conllritlioiit when the ear emerges from the folium vaginans ; and ttu-re- fore he condemns the common prafticc of drcffing the feed, as not only ufelefs, but deftniftive of the grain. Some take the dull for the eggs of infefts ; and others adopt the opinion, with which Mr. Kirby coincides, that this evil ij occafioned by a minute vegetable of the order of " Fungi." Mr. Bryant's method of accounting for this diforder, is aeknovi'ledged by this ingenious naturalift to be plaufible ; but he conceives that it is founded upon no arguments which can convince one who is in feareh not of theories, bi>t of truth. From a variety of exjieriments m.ade by the Rev. Peter Lathbury, F.L.S., and recited by Mr. Kirby, (ubi infra) together with other faifts that occurred within his own knowledge, he concludes, without hefitation, that the prafticeof drcffmg the feed previous to fowing, in 'the way above-mentioned, is a very iffcftnal prevention of the brand. Rejefting Mr. Bryant's hypothcfis, and alfo tliat of the brand's being produced by infefts, Mr. Kirby proceeds to ellablifli the third opinion, that the diforder is occafioned by a vegetable fubffance. The faft, tilablidied by the ex- periments which he recites, that the duft of brand, carried into the field with the feed-wheat, like other vegetables, propagates itfclf, gives (he fays) the higliell degree of pro- bability to this opinion. It is further confirmed by the re- cital of an experiment of Mr. Lathbuiy, of fowing it, as it were, upon its native foil (efpecially in the cafe of wheat taken from a clean fample), which feems to have occafioned the dellruiSion of three-fourths of its produce. Behdes, this du!l, when placed under a powerful magnifier, exhibit* every appearance of minute feed. As to the manner iu which thefe feeds veget.ate and afceud from tiie feed with the growing plant, till they reach the heart of the grain, it is a fubjeft of inquiry that may be extended to a great number of the fungi, which without impropriety may be denominated " fnbcutaueous" vegetables. ^Vith regard to the brand in particular, it is fnggcftcd, as a probable con- jefture, that the uncommonly minute feeds of this fungus may attach themfcives either to the " plumnla," and fo pafb through the air-vcffels into the plant ; or elfc to the " rollclhini," which feems mod likely ; and in that cafe they may be propelled through the fap-veffels with the fap, E e - till BRA till th«y at leiigtli airive at their final fcr.!. '.he Start of the gcrmrii. Sctr oblcrvation$ upon cevtiiu funci. \vhith are paralitica of ihc wheat, by the Rev. U illiam Kirhy, V. L. S. Ill the Liaiia-an Ti-anfadtions, vol. v. pa^^c 112, &c. Brand, in Gt»,^<;il>hy, a ti)Wn of Germany, in the circu- of Erzgfbtrg, chiefly inhabited by niini-rs ; 2 miles S. of FrcybcrK. DRANO-SuNDAV, Dimanche dts Brjnilons, in French F.iiUfajl'ical IVntcr:, denotes the full Suiulay in Lent; which it thus called on account of an aneient pvaeti^-e in the Lyi;ni-.n of hij enemies, allies in whom he could repofc tio confidence, few troops, and almoll no rcfonrccs of lupplies. Ne^'erthcitfs, he compelled the king of I'oland, in 16^6, to declare Pruflia an independent Hate, which had been formerly held of the I'olilh fovereigns : and doling a rei^tn, which has been much celebrated, was fueceeded, in 168S, by Itis fon Frederic III. born at Koni^jf- borg, in 16;;, who, fupporting the emperor in the eoiited for the Spaiulh fucceifioii, was by him aeknowledTtd as kin (^'"''^^"^"^^y' ti« name given by Clu- £v " Lhn '° ''"^ "'^''"''^ "'■ ''"^'■°"S^ '-^^' -- '- BRANDGUTH, in G..,r^iy, , ,,^, j„ Germany, l' ^'^.^'^"f Upper Saxony, and country of Erz<.S 4mil«5N.E. of Lauterftein. '' ^"■^^^^S> ^^BRANDHIRSCH, in Z..%. See CHavt;s hipp^.a. ofhif?-,'^?^'^^' ^'^"'"T,'- '" ^^'S>-aph, an Italian painter othiltory, was born at Po , about ^o miI-<: f,v.-„ I? ^ ^^^ pZ, and lira iuftruded by Algl'dr d ft^riSr b" n? that o'f^tTr^^ "' 'r "' P' '-^""^ °' -"^'' -? efj : o der of ^li K^TV "■''° "'^"-'^ him a knight of the he had a lively ^eniuVai dTe , , ''\^";-^"l''="". although corred nnrl t,,-." T ^^ee p.ncil, he was often very m- low company, diffinatinir kC Tl r , P'^^^U''^ m wealth which hi SL J P'.^'^f'" V"'^ ?'"'""'•« 'l^e His works are efl;f?ome'v ^\Vf"'^ "" '^^^• The dau.rhter of tl n-,; ; ' °'^ M.Ian, and Gxta. Rofa da T, o i, of wifom r ■"'' '"''''^'^ ^° ^''^ "^^^-^^^ nion, becaufei;:.,S,,;iZi?b«:r '^p'^h"' ^ ""'^ "P"" behaviour Rofa wis fo inl r ^ , Cy this conteinptuoua nl„tl,„ !,.,„.,.■_■'', .'''. \"«"f';d, that he collededallthe clothes belongiu. ; hi bnde"', I ''^'' ''^ ^""^^^"^rf ^H the and fent them bSck ^S Iher witTr'"'?-'''" '^''^'' daughter's perfon was fnrn 1 > "'^"'^^S^. " tliat his happy ; and^hatTg^od^aSr^: ^^ "",'f 1"^ '^"^-^ -Ms a bad paiLr t^ J^^X^r Sng^::"-- JiRAND. I BRA BRANDINGm the face or hand, fknotes a pvini(Timcnt in- fliaed by law on various offences, by burning with a hot non, after the offender has been once admitted to benefit of clergy. By 4- ilen. VII. c. 13. a dilHnftion was ellabhflied be- tween mtre lay fcholars, and clerks in orders, by direfling, that alfo laymen, who are allowed the priviloRe- of clergv, ftould be burnt with a hot iron in the brawn oi the lelt tbu" b This dillinaion, however, was abolidied lor a time bv ^8 Hen. VIII. c. l. and 32 Hen. Vfll. c. 3. but it 13 held to have been viruially relioredby I T.dward VI. c. 12. After thii burning;, the laitv, and before it the clergy, were riifchareed from the fentence of the law i., the king's courts, and delivered over to the ordinary to be d-mk with according to the ccclefia'Ucal canons. But the trial m the ecclehaU tical courts, and confcquent purgation, were attended with fuch •perjuries and abufes, that the ftatate 18 Elr/,. c. 7. e-iafts that after the ofltnder has been allowed his clergy, he' Ihall not be delivered to the ordinary ; but, upon inch allowance and burning in the hand, he Qiall forthwith be enlar-red and delivered out of prlfon ; with provifo, that the iud^Tc may, if he thinks fit, continue the offender in gaol ior^any time not exceeding a year. Thus the law continued for above a century; e-xcept only that the_ ftatute 21 Tac i c 6 allowed, that women conviciled ot iimple lar- cenies'iin'der the value of 10s. ftonld be burned in the hand, and whipped, flocked, or imprifoned for any time not ex- reedino-avear. And a fimilar indulgence by the ftatutes '■, & 4 V ' & M. c. 9. and 4 & -5 W. & M. c. 24. was ex- tended to'vvomen guilty of any clergyable felony w'hatfoever, who were allowed to claim the benefit of the flatute, m like manneras men might claim the beneht.of clergy, and to be difcharged, upon being burned in the hand, and in-pn- foned for any time not exceeding a year. T^ie punilhmei.t of burning in the hand, being found ineffedual, was alio chaiio-ed by ftatute 10 & 11 W. III. c. 23. into burning in th? moll vifible part of the left cheek, nearell the nofe ; but this provifion was repealed by ftfltute 5 Ann. c. 6. It was farther enafted by the fame ftatnte, that when any perfon is conviSed of any theft or larceny, and br>rnt in , the hand for the fame according to the ancient law, he ihaU alfo, at the difcretion of the judge, be committed to the houfe of correclion or public work-houfe, to be there kept to hard labour for any time not lefs than fix months, and not exceeding two years ; with a power of inMt.ng a double confinement in cafe of the party's efcape from the firft. It was alfo enadedby 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and 6 Geo 1. c 7.i that when any perfons (hall be convifted of any lar- ceny, either grand or petit, or any felonious Ilea ing or taking of money or goo^s and chattels either from the per- fon or the houfe of any other, or in any other_ manner, and who by the law fliall be entitled to the benefit of clergy, and liable onlv to the penalties of bnrnmg in the hand or whipping, the court, in their difcretion, inftead of fuch bnrningin the hand, or whipping, may dired fuch offenders to be tranfported to America, (or, by ftatute 19 Geo. Hi. c 74. to any other part beyond the feas) for fevt-n years. See Tr AN s PORT AT ION . It is alfo enafted by the fame fta- tute, K) Geo. III. c. 74. that, inftead of burmng in the hand, the court in all clergyable felonies may impofe a pecu- niary fine, or (except in the cafe of manflaughter,) may order the offender to be once or oftener, but not more than thrice, either pubUcly or privately whipped : which fine or whipping ftiaU have the fame confequences, as burning m the hand ; and the offender, fo fined or whipped, ftiall be equally liable to a fubfeqivent detainer or impnfonment. bee hencfit "■^BRANDTS, in Geograf^y, a town of Germany, in the BRA circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Leipfick ; 9 miles E. of Leipfick. BRANDLECHT, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weilpluilia, and county of Benlheim ; 3 miles S. S. E. of Northoru. BRANDMULLER, Gufcory, in ^i^i^r^Mv, a pain- ter referred by the Germans to the firll rank of artifts, waa born at Bade in i(56i ; and, in coiifequeiice of having dif- covered a genius for his art, and of having acquired a know- ledge of defign by ftudying and copying fome good prints in iiis father's pod'effiou, he was placed under the tuition of Cafpar Meyer. From Bafle lie removed to Paris, and was admitted into the fchool of Le Brun, whofe efteem and preference he acquired by his proficiency in his profeffion to fuch a degree, that he became the objeft of jealoufy to others, and v,'as under a ncccflity of retiring into his own country ; having firft obtained the prize in the Royal Aca- demy at Paris. He excelled in liiftory and portrait ; and refembled Le Brun in the fire, elevation, and grandeur of his fubjtfts. His defign is correft ; his expreffion juft and animated ; and his method of colouring good, fo that it re- tained its original ftrength and beauty without fa,ling. He died in 1691. Pilkington. BRANDO, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulph of Bothnia, containing 6 or 7 villages, a church, fome arable land, and fmall woods. Bkando, a town in the ifland of Corfica, 6 miles N. of Ballia. BRANDOLINI, Aurf.lio, \n. Biography, an eminent Italian poet, divine, and polite writer, was born of a noble family at Florence in the I'Jth century, and furnamed " Lippus," on account of a defluxion from his eyes, which, at an early age, had nearly deprived him of his fight. Not- withftanding this misfortune, he acquired great eminence in various kinds of literature ; and he found in thefe, fources of confolation, amidft the affliftions occafioncd by a dcfc£l of fight, and the lofs of his fortune. Among other excel- lencies for which hc-was diftinguiflied, he was fingularly ready in his poetic compofitions ; and this talent he poi- feffed in fo eminent a degree, that he is faid to have put into very elegant verfe, without premeditation, all the topics of Pliny's 37 books of Natural Hiftory. Corvinns, king of Hungary, hearing of his fame, invited him to his court ; and employed him, for feveral years, in teaching rhetoric at Buda and Gran. After the death of that king, in 1490, he returned to Florence, and affumed the habit of the friars of St. Au'Tuftin. In this new profeffion, he applied affidu- oufly to the exer.cife of his miniftry, and preached, with g;reat applaufe, to crowded auditories in feveral parts of Italy. As to the charafter of his fermons, it is faid, that they were diftinguiflied, not only by ingenious illuftrations of the Scriptures, but alfo by a ftrain of fnblime philofophy derived from the ancients. After refidlng for fome time at Naples, where he had for his fcholar Giammaria del Monte, afterwards pope Juhus III., he fettled at Rome, and died there of the plague in 1498. The moll valuable of his nu- merous works were his 3 books, " De Katione Scribendi," containing the precepts of good writing, and written with fingular learning and elegance ; his two books, entitled " Chrittiana Paradoxa," firft printed at Bafil in 1543, Bvo ; " De Humana; Vitx Conditionc, et toUenda Corporum ^gritudine." Thefe, with fome others, were printed at Bafil in 1498. He alfo pnblifiied, in heroic verfe, the hif- tories of the O. and N. T., a commentaiy on St. Paul's epiftlcs, a treatife " De Lege," fome orations, and fome Latin and Italian poems : and left, feveral treatifes in MS. on political and hiftorical fubjrfts. Tirabofchi. Gen. Dift. BRAN. BRA BRA El)-. Upon the decay of itiis ftnirturc, tliat piclatt- gvaiittd 40 days' paiJou to iiU pcrloiis wlio toiitiibiiti-d towards tlie repairs, and to tlie litniiit, a paiiUm for tluce years. 1 his town gives tiie ink of duke of Ikaudon to Archibald Hamil- ton, which title was full c.iiifi.ned by queen Anne in 1711. Simon Eyre, lord mayor of London, who Iniill I.cadeii- hall, was a native of this town. Here are a weekly market on Thurfdays, and four i'aira annuidiy it has been abT'idgcd in French, ni 3 vols. 8vo. 1730. Urandt alfo wrote " A Hillory of the Town of Enkliuy- feii ;" " Life and Exploits of Admiral Riiytcr;" "Ac- count of the Proceedings againll 15araevel(h, Hoogcrbeets andGrotius;" " Poems," &c. He dial in 1685. Mo- reri. Brandt, Nicholas, or, as fome call him, Selsjiati, a German chemill, much addifted to the fanciful relearches In the v.c'inity of Brandon, are fome very extenfive rabbit of the period in which he lived, was born in 145b, and died warrens, which uipply the London markets with vaft num- in May, 1521. Leibnit/., m the MelaBg^s de Berlin for 1710, bers of this animal cited by Chaptal, in his «' Elements ot Chcmittry," vol. 111. Brandon is 78 miles N. of London, and contains 203 houfes, with 1 148 inhabitants. Gough's Edition of Cam- den's Britannia, vol. ii. BRASDON,atownniip of America,in Rutland county, Ver- unont, iituate on both fides of Otter Creek, containing O3 7 inhabitants ; about 60 miles N. of Bennington. Here Bran- don Creek dilchargcs itfclf into Otter Creek, from the North Eall, Brandon, a harbour on the N. fide of Long Ifland, p. 350, mentions Brandt as a chemilt of Hamburg, who, duiing .\ courfe of experiments upon urine, with a view of extrattii'iC a fluid proper for converting iilver into gold, di(. covered pliofijhorns in 1667, or, as others fay, in 1669. He communicated his difcovcry to Kraft, who imparted it to Leibnitz, and, as it is pretended, to Boyle. (See Boyle.) Leibnitz, fays Chaptal, introduced Brandt to the duke of Hanover, before whom he performed the whole operation ; and a fpecimen of it was fcnt to Huygens, who fiiewed it to New York, V mil" W. of Smithtown, and at the lame the Academy of Sciences at Paris. It is faid, that Kuncktl dillance from Hampllead plain. had aflociated iiimfelf with Kraft to purchale the proctfs Brasdon, St. the name of an iflet or rock lying in the from Brandt ; but Kunckel having been deceived by Kraft, Indian ocean, to the N.E. of the iflands Bouibon and Mau- who kept the fecret to himfelf, knowing that urine was made ritnis. S. lat. l('° 45'. E. Ion?. 64° 4S'. life of, fet to work, and difcovered a proccis foi making the Brandon, a mountain in the county of Kilkenny, Ire- fubftance ; and hence it has been called Kunckel's phof- land, below which the river Barrow flows ; it is the laft of phorus. See Phosphorus. the granite chain which takes its rife in the county of BRANDY. This valuable fpirit is produced by the Wicklow, and though its elevation is rot confideiable, it commands a very extenfive profpeft. — Alfo, a very high mountain in the county of Kerry, Ireland, which is (een at the dillance of 15 leagues, and is an important land-mark for mariners. Its fnmmit is generally covered with clouds diftillation of wines of ^11 kinds, and, properly fpeaking, by no other fermented liquor, though, as we have explained fully, under the article Alcohol, the purely Ipiriiuous part of all fermented vinous liquors, procured by diftilla- tion, is eflentially the fame, and, therefore, an infinite va- and it is tlleemed a certain token of tine weather when its liety of imitations of the intermediate produfts of dillilla- tion may be produced by adding flavouring and colouring matters to any kind of pure fpirit. Brandy is prepared in many of the wine countries of Eu- rope, and, with particular excellence, in Languedoc, in Anjou, whence the well-known Cogniac brandy, and oilier top IS vifible. It received its name from St. Brandon, who had an oratei7, or chapel, near its fummit. Brandon Bay, a bay on the wellern coail of Ireland, near Tralce bay, in the county of Kerry. On the well it has Brandon mountain, and, on the eaft, a flat low land called Maghericbeg, ofl' wliieh is a clulUr of fmall iflands. This parts of the fouth of Fiance. bay is open to the north, and has neither lafc anchorage nor The general mode of preparing it is extremely fimple, tolerable flicker. Smith's Kerry. being nothing more than a well-regulated dillillation of wine Brandon Heaif, a cape of Ireland, forming the wellern from fuitable velTels. This maiuifaflory is technically extremity of Brandon bay, and projedling from the lofty termed, in France, Biuhne, and the makers, Bruleurt Brandon mountain. It is about 15 miles well of Tralee, d^euu de vif. N. lat.jz' 17'. W. long. 10° i'. and 10 north of Dingle. Beaufort. BRANDRITH denotes a trevet, or other iron (land, whereon to fet a vcflcl over the fire. Brandrith, among Builders, denotes a fence, or rail, about the mouth of a well. Though every wine will give a certain portion of brandy, by dillillation, it is not every kind that can be ufed with advantage. In general, the ilrong heavy wines are to be preferred. Thofe that do not yield a lixth of their quantity of fpirit, are not worth the expence of working. The apparatus is compofed of three parts, the ahmh'ic, or BRANDT, Gerard, in Biography, an eminent hiftorian, boiler, the capital fitted on the top of the boiler to receive was born at Amilerdam, in 1626, and, after a courfe of pre- the fpirituous vapour, and the ferpentine, or worm, a con- paratory Ihidy, commenced his minillry with a congregation voluted pipe fitting to the beak of the alembic, and im- of remonllrants at Nieukoop. Having married a daughter of merfed in water, in which the vapour is condenfcd, and the celebrated Gafpard BarlsEus, he removed firll to Hoorn, flows out at the bottom, in the form of diftilted fpirit. and finally to Amilerdam in 1667. His principal works are. The altmbic is a cylindrical copper boi'.'r about 30 inches «< A fliort account of the Rfformation in the Low Countries, ( French) high, and 24 in diameter, flattened at the bot- and the War with Spain," 165S : " Hillory of the Refor- torn to prtfent a greater furface to the fuel, and drawn out into BRA into a neck at the top, about 2 inches hiph, and only 9 or lo in dinmeter. The capacity of this alembic is about 320 quarts. The capital, which fits on the ntck of the alem- bic, is fomewhat in the form of a very flattened cone, with the apex downwards, and truncated where it joins the alem- bic. Its diameter here is of courfe a trifle more than that of the neck of the alembic over which it fits ; above, its di- . ametcr is about 7 or 8 inches more. A tube, or beak, projefts laterally from the lower part of the capital, to con- vey the vapour into the pewter Itrpeniine or worm, which makes fix or feven turns before it reaches the bottom of the large tub of water in which it is immcrfed. The diame- ter of liie worm is about an inch and a lialf at the upper part, where it joins the beak of the capital, and leflens gra- dually to one inch towards the bottom. The alembic is built into brick-work, which lines the whole, except the bottom, and a few inches below the neck. Beneath the alembic is the fire-place, made fo that the flame of the fud (generally wood) immediately touches the flat bottom of the alembic, and lumifhtJ with an afli- pit, flue, and regillcrs, or dam.pers. In diflilling, the alembic is full filled to about five-fixths of its capacity, with wine, (which, in the above dimen- fions, is from r, to 6quintals,) and ihe fire kindled beneath. When the wine is near boiling, the capital is put on, and eU the joints luted with clay and aflus, and prefently a thin llream of brandy begins to fall from the lower extre- mity of the worm, into a large cafl< fet to receive it. The lire is kfpt up, and the dillillation continued, till all the ipirit is got fronV the wine ; after which, the fire is let out, and the remaining contents of the alembic are drawn off by a cock at the bottom, and thrown away as uftlefs. In dilliUing, care fliould be taken not to urge the fire too much at firit, otherwife the wine boils up into the ca- pital, and comes over into the worm, mixing with, and fouling the fpirit. In general, the flower the procefs, and the fmaller the ilream of Ipirit from ths worm-pipe, the finer and better i,s the brandy. The diftillers make a dif- tinftion between the former and the latter runnings of the fpirit. What firft comes over has the (trongeft, richeft, and higheft flavour, and this is gradually lelfeued, and the fpirit becomes more and more watery to the end. Therefore, when the brandy becomes weak, the portion already dif- tillcd is fet apart, and the remainder is colledled in a fe- parate vefTcl, and is called yi'i:o?/r/.r, cr petite can, or feints, in the term of Britifh dilliUers, and is not immediately fit for life, but is rediftilled with frefh wine, in the next procefs, being ilill too valuable to be lofl:. It is obvious, that the precife point at which this diftinflion is made, mnft be arbitrary, and, therefore, it is determined, iu fome coun- tries, by the proportional quantity of fpirit obtained, to the wine put into the alembic ; and, in others, by a certain fpecific gravity ; in Spain and Poitugal, (as with rum in the Well Indies,) the finking of olive oil in the fpirit is theefta- bliflied proof. The wine is known to be entirely exhaufted of its fpirit by taking a fmall quantity of the liquor at that time diftilling over, laying it oti the heated part of the alembic, and putting a lighted matcti to it. If the fteam which it gives, takes fire, burning with a blue flame, it is lliil fpi- rituous ; if not inflammable, the liquor is little elfe than water. It takes about nine or tm hours to run off the quantity above mentioned, in which time about 6olb. of coal is ufed, when this is the fuel. Brandy is naturally clear and colourlefs as water ; for the different fliades of colour, which it has in commerce, arife partly from the cafks in which it is kept, but, chiefly, from the addition of burnt fugar, launders wood, and other co- VOL. V. BRA louring matters that arc intentionally added by the mami- fiic'iurer, and whieh aj'pear to do neither good nor harm 10 the quality of the fpirit. Tiiere are feveral ways of judging of the ftrcngth of the fpirit. Many are mentioned under the article Alcohol. The following is aifo much ufed by the dealers : a pliial i« filled three qmirters with the brandy, (lopped with the thumb, and fuddmly knocked, with fome force, againil the knee, to prevent breaking it. This mifea a froth on the furfacc, and, by the fi/.e and durability of the bubbltf, a good idea may be formed of the llrength of the liquor by thofe who arc in the coullant habit of examining famples. Tliis is, however, as liable to error as the trial with gun- powder, burning, &c. ; for it is well known, that certain additions may be made to brandy which will very much alter the frothing. After all that has been done, it is ilill a difficult problem to determine, with perfcdt accuracy, the n:rength of all kinds of made fjiirits, by any fliortcr method than that of dillillation, though the improved hydrometers anfwer mod of the purpofes of tr.ide and levenue. 'I'he ftrength of the fpirit, of courfc, depcjids on the ftrength of the wine from which it is made, and this, again, depends on the quantity of facchaiine mucilage contained in the muff or grape-juice, aiul the perfeiiiion of the fer- mentation, (ienerally fpeaklng, the wines of hot climates furniflr much more fpirit than thofe of colder ; and fweet, rich, well-ripened grapes give much more than the cold, four, watery fruits. The richeft wines furnifli as much as a thi;d of fpirit ; and the general average of the wine.i in the fouth of France and Spain is ftated to be, by Chaptal, about a fourth. On the other harid, fome of the northern wines (though perfecl; as wine) give no more th-an a fifteenth of fpirit. The principal differences in the quality of brandies are Jlrciigth, or quantity of alcohol, ixwA favciir, which laft is given, apparently, by feveral piinciples contained in the wine. There appears to exill in wine a peculiar aroma, or flavouring principle, which is imparted (fomewhat altered, indeed, by dillillation) to the brandy procured from it. This, whatever it is, is leffened by every fubfequent recti- fication of the brandy, and is entirely loft when the alcohol or purely fpirituous part is extrafted. Tliere are alfo fe- veral unpleafant flavours found in different kinds of brandy, and which greatly impair its excellence and delicacy for the table. The flavour of empyreuma, or burning, is the common- elt. This is properly fo termed, fince it is fcarcely ever found in the very firft portions of any diftillation, but in- creafes as the proceis conlinues ; when the wine, therefore, has undergone a longer impreflion of heat, and when, from the decrcafing ftrength of the fpirit, a higher temperature than at firft is required to keep the wine boiling in the alembic. This burnt flavour is alfo more prevalent where the conftruclion of the Ilill is fuch as to require a longer continuance of the boihng, and may, at any time, be given, by raifingthe heat much at tlie end of the procefs. Though this flavour is difagreeable to the fined judges of brandies in the wine countiies, it has become, through the caprice of faihion, an excellence in fome exported brandies, and muft, accordingly, be given by the manutuflurer. Chaptal, with great probability, attributes this burnt tafte, in a great meafure, to the prefence of the malic acid in the wine, which alfo appears, in fome degree, in the fpirit diftilled from it. He obfervcs, that the thin or ill-fermented wines contain much of an acid which, by its forming info- luble falts with lead, filver, and mercury, and lime, and by other chemical tefts, is proved to be the malic, and it alfo appears in great abundance in cyder, perry, and other fuch F i harfh BRA harrti winei. All thf ff. whtn diftilWd, yield a fpirit which it (if bad quality, niiiJ. cinpyreiimatic, efpccially in tht Irtll-di!liIl oil is not known, nor can it be well afctr- taincd, whether it is different from the common flavonrinff principle, or arorra of wines, except in beintj fo abundant, as to be in p.Tt altered by d'll Illation, and cliansjed thereby from a grateful to a naufenus fubllance. \\'hen fpirit, charged with this oil, is rubbed in the hands till dry, a llrong ungrateful fmell is left by this oil, refembling, in fome degree, the breath of drunkards. Sometimes this oil is in fiich a quantity as to feparate, in part, from the fpirit a< it cools, and is found in the capital, as a conci'cte, fuetty oil, ftrongly naufcous to the fmell and talle. Brandy dif- tilltd from this oily wine is, in faft, a faturated folution of this effential oil in alcohol. It is much improved by a fe- cond rectification, with the previous addition of pine water, which immediately renders the fpirit milky, feparatcs it from a great part of its oil, and, by very careful rediflillation, the fpirit rifes much more pure than before. Any artificial fol'jtion of an effential oil in alcohol may be reftifiedr and the oil feparated in the fame tnanner. The manufaclure of brandy, in other countries, very clofely refembles the French procefs which we have juft defcribcd. Thus, in Spain, the ftill is filled to four-fifths of its contents with wine, the capital luted on, a fire kindled, and, in about an hour and a half, the fpirit begins to come over. About a fifth of the entire quantity of v.ine is proof- fpirit, in which olive oil finks, and comes over fit to be ufed, without farther procefs ; and, as much of inferior and weaker fpirit comes over afterwards, which is rediflillcd and reftified. When the wines are old, heavy, and oily, and a fine clear fpirit is wanted at once, water is added to the wine before dillillation, to keep down the oil. The princi- pal ditlilleries in Spain are in Catalonia. In Portugal, the olive-oil proof is alfo eftablifhed, and the wines arc there alfo fo heavy and oily, as often to re- quire the addition ofwat^r, which, however, is not added to the wine, but only to tlie brandy before rcftification. An inferior kind of brandy is made from the marc of grapes, or the refiduc of the grapes after the juice has been prcffed nut. This ftill rctaihs enough of the grape-juice to be readily brought into fermentation, whtii properly ar- ranged, and, therefore, to be capable of yielding after- waitls a fpirit by dillillation. In Switzerland, it is thus performed : Winc-call 3 miles W. of Brecknock. BRANFORD, a townfhip of America, in the county of New Haven, and ftate of Connefticut, lying on the fouth fide of a river of the fame name, which runs into Long Ifland found, 10 miles E. of New Haven, and 40 S. of Hartford. It is confiderable on account of its iron works. BRANG, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Volhy- nia ; 44 miles S. W. of Lucko. BRANGES, a town of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftria of Louhans, half a league N. W. of Loulians. BRANITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principahty of Oppau ; 4 miles S. E. of Jagerndorf. BRANrrZY, a town and diftrie^ of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Mofcow, featcd on the Mofcva, between Mof- cow and Kolomna. BRANK, in Botany, polygonum fagopyrum, buck-wheat. Rrank. See Scolding Bridle. BRANKER, or Brancker, Thomas, in Biography, an eminent Englifh mathematician, was born in Devonfhire, in 1636, admitted butler of Exeter college, Oxford, took the degree of B. A. in 1655, and that of M. A. in 1658, and BRA and became a pi-eachcr. Upon the reftoration, objecting to conformity to the eftabhfhed church, he rcfigiied his fcl- low/liip at Oxford in i^Ctz, and retired to Cheller ; but changing^ his mind with rcfpect to conformity, he was epifcopaliy ordained, and was appointed niiniller of White- gate. Ijy his attention to mathematics and chcmillry, in the ftiidy of which he employed his intervals of leifure, he obtained the patronage of lord Brcrewood, who gave him the reftory of Tilfton. Being afterwards appointed mailer of the well-endowed fchool at Macclesfield, he fpent the remainder of his hfe in tliat place, and died there in 1676. His mathematical writings were " A Piece on the Dodlrine of the Sphere," in Latin, publifhed at Oxford in i66z ; a tranllation of Rhonius's algebra, entitled " An Intro- duction to Algebra," 4to. Lond. 166S, in which he li- berally acknowledges the afliHance of Dr. Pell. He alfo corrcfponded on fubjcfls of mathematicB with Collins, and other eminent men. Huiton's Dift. BRANKYRKA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sudermania. BRANLE, Fr. a kind of dance, very gay, brought hither from France in the time of Charles II. BRANLIN, in Ichthyology. See Samlet. BRANNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in tlie diftrift of Libourne ; 2 leagues S. of Libourne. The town contains 544, and the canton 10,726 inhabitants : the ter- ritory includes I >; ^ kiliomttres, and 21 communes. BRANNOGENIUM, in indent Geography, a town of the Ordovicts, in Ptolemy's defcription of Britain, placed by Camden and Baxter at Worcefter, fuppofing that fome tranfcriber had committed a miftake in afligning it to the Ordovices, from which territory Worcefter is too remote. Mr. Horfley places it near Ludlow, which might belong to the Ordovices. BRANNOVII, a people mentioned by Csfar, who were under the proteftion of the iEdui, and who furniflied him with troops. They are placed in a fmall canton of Bur- gundy in France, called the " Briennois," to the weft of Mafonnois. BRANNY, in Botany, furfuraceous, covered with branny fcales ; a term apphed to the ftipes, or ftalks of fome fpe- cics of fungi. BRANODUNUM, in yfndetit Geography, one of the nine forts, fubjtft to the command of the count of the Saxou fliore in Britain ; garrifoncd by the equltes Dalmatis, and feated on the Sinus Metaris; now Branceller in Norfolk, on the wafhes. BRANSEE, in Ceos;raphy, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Little B.-lt ; 5 m'iles W. N. W. from Affens. BRAI^vSK, a town and dillrlft of RulTia, in the govern- ment of Orel, fitu^ite on the Defna. — Alfo, a town of Po- land, in the palatinate of Bielflc, 16 miles W. of Bielflc. BRANSKA, a town of Tranfylvania, feated on the Marilh. N. lat. 46° o'. E. long. 23= 15'. BRANSON, a town of SwilTerland, in the Valais, north of the Rhone, and about 2 miles N. E. of Martiguy. N. lat. 46° 11'. E. long. 6° 57'. BRANT, a river of North Wales, in the ifle of Angle- fea, wliieh runs into the Menai, about 3 miles S.from New- burgh. — Alfo, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Aullria ; 8 miles E. of Zwetl. BRANTA, Brunta, and Brent-Goosi-, in Ornitho- logy, fynonyniouo names of Anus BerrJcla, the common brent goofe of the EnglUh. Branta ToRRiuA, is the name given by Scopoli to Anas torrii/a, Gmel. BRA Branta Albifrons Scopoli, Anus aWicans, Gmel. BRANTHOME, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a can- ton, in the dilhid of Perigucux ; .ji leagues N. of Pcrigucux. 1 he town contains z+Ol, and the canton 10,765 inh:ibil. ants; the territory comprehends 265 kiliomctrcs, and 12 communes. BRANTOME, in Bitgraphy. See Bourdeillhs. BRAQirE, and BRAe Sciueb. 9,58. Clafs, /uW- aria ilecagyiiia. Gen. Char. Perianth one-leaved, fix-parted, permanent ; fegments lanceolate, curved, obtufe, coloured; three of thein Ulterior, alternate, a little longer and narrower than the others. Cor. none. Slam, filaments from eighteen to twenty- five, capillary, ereil, attached to the receptacle, fliorter than the calyx ; anthers oblong, ert-a. Pifl. germs from five to ten, oblong, comprefTed, attenuated at the apex ; ftyles erccl, bent inwards towards the lop, pubefcent, Ihorter than the ftamens; ftigmas obtufe. Pericarp, as many capfules a^ germs, oblong, comprefled, the outer fide flat, the inner gibbous, acuminate, rather flelliy, ene-celled, without valves. Seeds two or three, oval, comprefTed. Obf. Calyx, before flowering, ereft, green. Allied to neftris. In both genera the pericarp might, perhaps, be more properly called a berry. Only one feed often comes to perfeftion. Bofc. in Nouveau Diftionaire, gives the fame generic charafter, except that he confiders the three inner fegments of the calyx as a corolla. He gives no farther defcription of the plant, nor does he mention any habitat. The genus is not taken up by 'Willdenow, nor is there any figure of it in La Marck's illuftrations. BRASIDAS, in Biography, a famous Lacedasmonian general, who dilfinguifhed himfclf, on a variety of occafions, in the Peloponntlian war, wjiich began in the 4Jlft year before Chrift. Flaving gained the reputation of one of tlic greatell generals of his time, he received a mortal wound in the aiition between the Lacedremont-aiis and Athenians, near Amphipolis, in which the former proved victorious, B. C. 422. See Athenians. Bralida<^, no lefs diftinguiflied bv his modelly tlian by his prudence and bravery, wrote a letter from Thrace to the Epiiori, which clofes with this heroic declaration : " Wiiatevcr the honour of the ftate requires, I will perform or die ;" and he fulfilled his promife. Phitarcli (Apothegm.) records, that having cauglit a moul'e among fome figs, he let it go after having bitten liis fingers, obierv- ing to thofe who attended on the occafiun ; " That there u no creatuu-fo contemptible as not to be able to free itfelf from a foe, if it exerts all the power it poffcires." Fiiblic honours were decreed to his mother for the f'peech uttered by her on occalion of his death (fee Athenians) ; and a monument was ereaed to Brafidas at the expcncc of the public. See the next article. BRASIDIA, in y/ntirjiiity, anniverfary ftatls held at Sparta in honour of Bralidas, famous for his great atchieif- F f 2 niciu« BRA nients in favoor of that (late, at Methonc, Pylus, and Am- phipo!i<. The Brafidia were celebrated with facrifices and games, at which none were allowed to coiitv.-nd but free-boni Spartans. To be ablcnt from tlitfo foltmnities is faid by fome to have been held criminal, and piinirtitd with fines. Mcurf. Grxc. Ferial. Potter. Arch. GrJC. lib. ii. cap. ■20. BR.ASIL, or Brazil, in Geography, an cxtenfivc and opulent country in South Americi, belonging to the portu- giicfe, and of fuch importance as to be almoll eirenlial to the exiftotice of their monarchy. It derives its name from the wood which is fo called, mentioned by Chaucer, and known many ajcs before his time. It is bounded on the north by the river of the Ama/ons and the north Atlantic ocean, on the cad by t!ic fouth Atlantic ocean, on the fouth by tiie mouth of the river I.a Plata, and on the well by a multitude ofniurrtffcs, lakes, rivers, and mountains, which feparate it from the dominions of the Spaniards; and extends from the frontier ai Dutch Guiana, N. lat. 3°, to Port St. Ptdro, S. lat. 32°, including 31;" of latitude, or 2100 geographical miles, and in breadth from Cape St. Rorjiie, to the faitheft Porlugjefe fettlemcnt on the river of Amazons, called St. Paul de Omaguas, comprehending at kail the fame num- ber of miles. Some have afcribcd the firll dilcovery of Bra- filto Martin Behem, in 1484 (fee Bf.hem); but this, how- ever, has been more generally allowed to Pedro Alvarez Cabral, who, being entrullcd with the command of a power. ful fleet, defigned by the king of Portugal not only for the purpofes of trade, but alfo of conqueft, let failin 1 500 ; and in order to avoid the" coall of Africa, where he v^as likely to be retarded in his voyage by variable breezes or frequent calms, he Hood out to fea, and kt-pt fo far towards the weft that he found himfelf, to his furprife, upon the (hore of an iinknown country, in the loth degree beyond the line. He iirll thought that it was fome illand in the Atlantic ocean that had not been before obferved ; but proceeding along its coaft for feveral days, he was led gradually to believe, that a country fo extenlive formed a part of fome great continent. This country proved to be that called by its difcovercr " St. Croix," but now known by the name' of Brafil. Here he landed ; and iiaving conceived a high idea of the fertility of the foil, and the agreeablenefs of the climate, he took pof- feflion of it for the crown of Portugal, and difparched a fhip to Lilbon, with an account of that event, which appearetf to be no Icfs important than it was unexpedled. The Por- tugucfe, however, notwithllanding the flattering report of Cabral, entertained, for fome time, no very favourable opi- sion of this country ; bccaufe they found, after a furvey of its harbours, bays, rivets, and coalh, that it afforded neither gold nor fdver ; and accordingly they fcnt thither none but condemned criminals and abandoned women. Two ftiips ■were annually fent from Portugal for this purpofe, and they returned with parrots, and woods for the nfe of the dyers and cabinet-makers. In 1548, when the Jews were perf.cuted by the inquilkion, they were plundered of their poflcffions and baaiihed to Brafil. But receiving encouragement from fome of their mercantile friends in different nations, with whom they had formerly been conneftcd, they were enabled to procure fugar canes from the ifland of Madeira, and to fftabhih fugar plantations. The court of Lifton, perceiving that the mother-country might derive conCderable advantage from this colony, although it fnrnilhed them n, ither gold nor filver, fcnt thither, in 1549, Thomas de Souza to re- gelate and fiipermtend it. This gcvernor, notwithllandintr the talents which he polTcired, found it veiy difficult to reduce thufe who had been accuftoraed to anarchy to due BRA fubordination, and to induce the natives, who were dif* pcrfed through the forellsand plains, and who had no fettled liabitations, to alTociate with one another, and to fubmit to the yoke which the Portuguefe feemed delirous of impofiri^ upon them. A dilfatisfattion enfued bet^veen both parties which at length terminated in war; nor was the force that had accompanied Souza fufficient to bring it to a peaceful termination. This was in fome meafure effected by the cllabliniment of a kind of central and rallying point for the colony at St. Salvadoie, which was built in 1549, on the bay of All-Saints, and which was the firft Portuguefe fettle- mcnt in the country ; but the objeft was chiefly accomnlilh- ed by the addrefs of the Jefuits, who, difperljng themfelvesi among the Indians, contrived to engage their efteem and attachment, and thus to extend the influence of the Portu- guefe, and to infure, as well as to augment, the advan- tages which the mother country derived from this fettlement. The Indians, inllruded by the Jefuits and employed b^ them, diftribnted among the favage natives hatchets, knives', and looking-glalfes wilh fuch effcd, that they were induced to regard the Portuguefe as an inoffenlive and humane peo- pie. The increafing profperity of the colony became n-ra- d^ually known in Europe; and excited the' envy of '^the French, Spaniards, and Dutch fuccedively. The latter however, were the principal enemies with whom the Portul gutfe had to contend in their new fettlement. In 1624 the Dutch admiral Willekens ^vas detached with a powerful fquadron, and a confiderable number of foldiers and marines for Bralil ; and having call anchor before St. Salvadore, the capital of the country, and the refidence of the Portud allies. But the Dutch government fooii began to opprefs the 1 or- tuguefe colonills who, inftead of amufing tliemfelves with complaints, took up arms againll their new mailers, and by their own valour and refolution, with the connivance, in- deed, but without any avowed alTiftarice from the mo- ther-country, drove them out of Brafil. The Dutch, there- fore, finding it impoffible to keep any part of the country to themfelves, were contented that it (hould be rellored to the crown of Portugal ; to which it has hnce belonged, o-ivinir title to the prefumptive heir. Gtoffo Minas Geraes, and Minas Goyaves. l^he reil are fiefs srranted to fome of the nobility, m recompence ot their Extraordinary fervices, who do little more than acknow- kdge the fovereignty of the king of Portugal, and his repTefentative the%-iceroy of Peru, who aas botn in a civil and military capacity, and maintains the ftate and grandeur of a fovereign prince in the city of St. Salva- dore. Formerly Bahia dos Todos os Santos, or St. bal- vadore, was the principal feat of government and chief mart for commerce in the Brafils ; but the difcovery and improvement of the gold and diamond mines, withm about lOO leagues of Rio de Janeiro, and communicating im- mediately with it, gave a deemed fuperiority to the latter. On the coaft are three fmall iflands, where ihips touch for provifions on their voyage to the South Seas , viz. ler- ^ando, St. Barbaro,^nd St. Catherine's. The bays, h a i- bours and rivers, are the harbours of P-"^f -^;' ^1 " Saints, Porto Seguro, the port and harbour of R^o de Ja- ne o, the port of St. Vincent, the harbour of St. Oaoriel and he port of St. Salvadore, on the north fhore of the rWer La Plata. "AH the provinces of Brafil,' fays fir George Staunton (Embaffy to China, vol. i. P- '^^^O « a°e growmg faft into opulence and importance. 1 bey mant^aaure of late feveral of the moll neceffary articles- rrtS-owuconfumptlon; and their produce was- fo cor>. ■fiderab e, that the balance of trade became to be already m Sf vour ; and remitta^ces of bullion were made to them tom Europ , in return for the overplus of their exports be- yond thei, imporu." It appears, from the account, of this BRA wrlrfr, that the Portucuefc fettlcra have manifeaed repeated fymptoms of revolt from the parent country. It appears alfo, that dnrlng the adminiftration of the marquis de 1 om- bal, fo long prime roiniller in Portugal, thefe colonies were delivered from fome monopolies and reftraints, which hafl con- tributed to dcprefs them ; and, moreover, that the project of removing the feat of the Portuguefe government to the Brafils was onee, in faa, ferioufly in contemplation with th« miniller, when that country was invaded by the bpanilH forces in 1761, and that calculations were made, and pro cautions taken, as to the number of yeffels necena,7 to tranfport acrols the Atlantic the royal family, with the principal officers of the court, and their feveral attendants. But the projea vanidied with the danger that occalioncd .1;, and the Brafils continued to be confidered as a colony, del- tined, exchifively, to enrich the parent ilate. The climate of Brafil has been defcribed by two crnmenl natnral.lls, P.fo and Margrave, who oblerved it with ph.- lofophlcal accuracy, as temperate and mild, when compared with that of Africa. This they chiefly afcr.be to the re- freihin'T wind, which blows continually from the fea. 1 he air is not only cool, but chilly through the night, mio- much that the natives kindle fires every evening in their huts. Nieuhoif, who refided long in Brafil, confirms their defcrip'lon. The rivers in this country annua.ly ovcrllow then- ba-,ks, and, like the Nile, leave a fort of Ihmc upon th- lands; fo that the foil, efpecially in the v-cinity of' the rivers, is extremely rich. The northern provinces are fubiea to heavy rains and ftorms ; but thole oi the fouth are more temperate and fertile. Among the vegetable produaions of this country, we may reckon Indian corn, wheat, rice, manioc, fugar canes, coffee, cocoa or choco- late, indigo, pepper, caaus, on which is bred the in eft furuilhing cochineal, and the noted Brafilian tobacco. 1 he red or Brafil wood, imported into this country, tor the purpofe of dyeing, is the property of the crown, lo the clafs of efculeut plants, we may refer thole that are commoo to all the tropical regions of America, fitch as, befides the co- coa and chocolate nut, the plantain, the banana, palms, the yam, potatoe, ci.fava, together with many fpecies ot me- lons and gourds. The principal fruits are the pine apple, ,h. mango, and the tamarind. The warm aromatic phi.ts fcuind here in a truly indigenous ftate, and much ufed b> the inhabitants as condiments to their food, or as the bans of various drinks, are the oranges and hmes, the grapes, jringer, the turmeric, feveral fpecies of pepper American coffee, capficum or Guinea pepper and the wild cinnnmo., (lanrns canella.) Several medlcmal plants ci high elhma- tiou enow herefpontaneoufiy, and in great abundance, fuch a.-e the contrayerva, the Indian pink, the meehoacan, the ialap, the amyris which yields the gum elemi, and the gui- icum. Befides the Brafil wood, this country furmOies for ornamental ufe, or for the purpofe of dyemg, ^-^.^^■°f'J^^' tic, mahogany, ebony, rofe wood, fattin wood, and many others. Among its ornamental plants are the Br^fihan myr- tle, the fcarlet fufchia, and the amarylhs formofifl.ma. Brafil abounds with horned cattle, which are hunted mere V for their hides, of which 20,000, it is faid are annually fei t to Europe. Thefe cattle are taken and kdled, more for the fake of their hides and tallow than their fltlh though great quantities of the latter are applied to the uie of fuch fliips as fail from Pernambucco, Bahia, Todos os Santos, and^io de Janeiro, to Guinea. 1 he places which are chiefly frequented for procuring thefe "ttle are Rio Grande and Rio Paraiba, lying to '^e northward ot Per- nambucco; and they are inhabited by Indians, calhd Ta- puyes ; many of whom fend annually large droves of cau^ BRA throngh the Tiipique nation, which extendi from the fOurce cf Rio St. Francifco in S. lat. 8"^ to that of Klo Docc in ■S. lat. 30°, to Uahia Todo» os Santos, and Jlio de Janeiro, where they fell tliem for 3 or 4 cniladoes a piece, (a cni- •lado bcinj; in value about js. 8d. Ilerhng,) or exchange t;>em for knives, hatchets, &c. or coarfe baize, for a yard i.f which they will give a good bcall. Aii:ong its animals, ve may rickon fcvtral fpccies of the armadillo or dafypiis, the cat or fclis kind, the otter or Intra, the weaftl or inuf- tcla, the opofTuni or didelpliis, ihe porcupine or hyf- trix, the cavy, the fquirrtl or fciunis, the hare or Ic- .pu'i the mulk or inofchus, the dter or cervns, the ■hog or fns, occ. Among the fillies found on its coalls, and in its rivers, arc fonie fpccies of the cachalot or phyfeter, ■and the j;lobe-fi(h, bcfct with fpikcs like a hcdjre-liog, 5;c. Many of its birds are curious and beautiful, particularly fomc of the parrot or plittacus kind, the toucan or lam- phalUis, the motmot or inomotus, tlic palamedca or an- fiinga, with a lliong nail or fpur at each (Icxure of its wing,<, and a htnn about 6 inches long growing from its forehead. The fize and vivid line of the Howeis in the fo- rclls, and the gaudy plumage of the birds, aie very iliikiiig. Brafil breeds a variety of fcrptnts and venomous reptiles ; among which are the Indian falamander, an iiifedl with 4 legs, whofe lling is faid to be fatal ; the ibibobuca, a fpc- cies of icrpent, about 7 yards long and half a yard in cir- cumference, ifec BoiGUACu); the rattle fnake of enormous iiie ; and the liboya, or roe-buck fnake, which is faid to extend to the length of between 20 and 30 feet, and to be 1 or ;5 yards in ciicumfercnce, and which is capable, as fome authors have reported, of fwallowing a roe-buck whole. The hiding noife of this large and formidable fnake fets the heater on his guard, and they feldom, with- out provocation, advance to an attack. The gold and diamond mines of Bralilwere 6rfl; opened in i68l; andouiinfoimationconcerningthemisimperfcd. The former are fituated in tlic mountains, from which flow various ilrcams north and fou'Ji, which difcharge themfelves on one lide intothe river Tocantin, and on the other into the Parana ; but there are mines of gold, as far inland as the river Cuy- aba, which runs into the Paraguay, and even near the river Ytenas. Others are near the river Paixe and Saguitinhon- ha, the Riacho-Fundo, and Guarapara in St. Paul's. One fifth of the gold is exafted by goveninient, and the people of Rio are prohibited from working up even the gold of their own mines, and the tools and inllruments ufed for that purpufe are feized and confifcated. The diamond mines are near the little river of Milhoverde, not far from Villa Novade Principe, in the province of Seno de Frio, S. lat. 17° according to La Cruz, and W. long. about 44^ Thcfe diamonds of Brafil are not of fo finea water as thofe of Hindoitan ; being of a brownifli and obfcure hue ; and, fuppofing the weights to be equal, they are fold 10 per cent, cheaper than thofe of the eaft. One of the largell dia- monds that has been known, was fent from Brafil to the king of Portugal. -It weighed 16S0 carats, or 12* ounces-; and it has been valued at 511,787,^00!. Some ilvilful lapi- daries, however, have fuggeltcd, that this fuppofcd dia. moiid 13 only a topaz. All the diair.ond mines belong ex- cluhvcly to ti'.e crown. The mines of gold and filver are faid to have yielded above five millions fterling annually : thofe of diamonds have been ufually farmed at about 30,oool. yearly, which is thought to be fcaicely a fifth of their ac^ tual produce. The trade of Brafil, notwithttanding the reftiaints and inr.politions to which it is fubjeft, is very extenfive, •40d c, ntm jiilly incrcaCng. This commerce is of fuch BRA importance to the parent (late, that it could not fulj- fift witliout it. The confluence of people who rcfort to the Brafils from Portugal, and from other countries, has much augnienied the imports of gold, and, what is much more ini])ortaiit to Europe in general, the exportation of the ma- nutafturea of this hemifphere. Great Britain fnpplies Bra- fil with a variety of woollen manufaclures ; fuch as line broad medley cloths, fine Spanifli cloths, fcarlet and black cloths, ferges, duioys, druggets, fagathics, fhalloons, camb- lets, and Norwich ilulfs, black Colcheflcr bays, fays, and long ells, hats, ftockings, and gloves. Holland, Ger- many and France, have chiefly exported thither, fine hoi- lands, bone-lace, and fine thread ; filk iiianufadurcs, lead-, block tin, and other articles are alfo fent from different countries. England like wife trades with Portugal for the ule of the Brafils, in copper and brafs, wrought and un- wroiight pewter, and all kinds of hard ware. By this ex- tenfion of its trade, Portugal, inftead of 12 (liips ufually employed in the commerce with Brafil, employs at leaft joo fail of large veffels, which are perpetually pafiing from ons country to the other. Brafil alfo carries on a confiderable trade with Africa in flaves, and thus Portugal occupies a great number of Ihips. All thefe fhips, employed in dif- ferent branches of t-rade, go and return at appointed fea- fons, under the diredion of government, and under convoy of a certain number of men of war ; nor can a fingle /hip clear out or depart, without .the fleet, except by a fpecial licence from the king, which is feldom granted. By thefe re^lriaions, however, as well as by the infatuated pohcy of the country, it fails to derive that advantage from this extenfive conimerce, which it is adapted to afford. The fleets fail in the following order, and at the following ftated periods : that def- tincd for Rio de Janeiro fets fail in January ; the fleet to Ba- hia, in February; and the thirdfleet to Pernambucco, in March. The duties which the agents of Portugal levy upon the importation of goods from Lilbon and Oporto at Rio da Janeiro ai-e 12 per cent., upon the value of each article, i he chief duties paid at Lilbon, on the commodities of the iiraWs, are as follow : upon gold, i per cent. ; coffee, 8 percent.; fugar, nee, and ildns, 10 per cent.; indigo, 12 ■ per cent.; planks, 17 per cent.; and rum, 4 dollars for -every p,pe of ,80 gallons. All large fliip timber, as well as the Brafil wood, 13 claimed as the property of the crown. Yet, notwithilandir.g all monopolies, prohibitions, ■and heavy taxes, the whole revenue from the Brafils is faid not to be equal to^ miUion fterling, of which the expence ot their, government confumes about a third part Th? taxes areleverely felt, efpecially in the interior provinces, where the carnage and tranlit duties increafe the prxe of every article fo enormoully, that a bottle of port wL, for mftance, cods los. fterhng ■to the confumer! The ha d- flups thus impofed by the mother-country, e-xclte a fpSt of general diflatisfadion and revolt. .Henc^ u happens, th" Jioleofi^cers both civil and militaty, who are natives of Portugal, and aho the ecclefiadics, foon change their orl ginalaffedion for -the parent ilate, into an attachn u To that where they are likely to foend their davs a ,d ir! •■ ometimes tempted to facrifice to 'their own inter ft t at "1 U^ An^ic. poLLlt^i^ -~-^^^Jcm.g Sa^-k" t: Ri:;rjr:r;.r^'"'°"^^°'^^"'^ ^-^ ^°-g» The population of this extenfive country has notbe-n ar or 4 .,U,.«.. Accorfing ,„ C, G.'o,-,' S^^S'L! ■^ CCUMt, B R A cor-Bt, (EmUfTyto China, vol. i. p. 17.2.) nil the white, sre computvd at about 200,000, and the mimbcr ot Haves, born in Africa, or dcfcendtd fiom fuch, is elhmated at 600,000. Probablv, the natives do not excetd one million. Labour is chiefly performed by flaves, of whom about 30,000 are annually imported, and of thefc, about 5,000 are ufuallv fold every vcar at Rio. In the harbour of Ku., at a place called Val I.ongo, are warchoufcs for the recep- tion and preparation tor fale of the ilaves, that arc imported thither, chiefly frtim Angola and Bensjnela. 1 his Ipot is appropriated to the pnr],ofe of cleanfmg, fatUn.ng rei,.. derintjOeek and faleable, and concealing the dekiU of tint, clafsof beings, who, it is faid, feem little feiilible of the humiliation of their condition. The average price on in.- portation is :.bout 28I. ftrrhnfr each. Before tluy are Ihipped from Afnca. a duty of lo,ooo reis a head is paid to the queen of Portug-al's agent there ; the wh.ole aniount- jno- to about 6o,oool. a-year, which goes into her privy pu'rfe, and is not confiH.red as part of the public revenue. The plantation flaves i„ the Brafils are allowed two daya out of feven for their own purpofes, whic'l. is a greater in- terval than that which is granted in the \\ eft Ind.a .n.uKh. They are upbraided for being addidtd to lleahng and \yug ; their dlfpofition feems to he gay and attive, and eali!y_ re- conciled to their fituat.on^ They f.ldoni recur to intoxica- tion as a relief againft any f.elings of dil refs ; and they are fond of mufic and dancing. Many of thefe flav-s are the property of the crown, and of thele, about 10,000 are .m- ployed in the diamond mines ; and fevrral of them are at- tached to convents The Benediaines alone had 1000 upon their plantations ; fome of thefe fathers obferved, that the offspring from the conneaion between the biacks and whites were generally endowed with much intelligence and ingenuity. S^.me of them they bred up carefully, and in- ftrufted with fuch fucccfs, that they thonght themfelves tinder no neceffity of fending perfons to the univerf.ties of Portusal for a liberal education : one of this mixed breed, as they boailed. having been promoted to a learned profef- fordiio at Lifljon. „ , . i_ The European fettlers, in all clafTes of fociety, are much addided to gaiety and pleafure ; and though at R.o in par- ticular, there are three convents for men and two for wo- Len, the aufterity and felf denial n.tended by their original bftitution are little pradifed. Although the conqueit of the country was at firft profelTedly undertaken for convert- ing the natives to Chriftianity, and ample endowments have b.en granted for this pnrpofe, yet none of the fnars now en'gage in the troublefome, unf„fe, and perhap., hope lef enfei-prife. No inquifition or tribunal ot the holy office has been eftablhhed in the Brafils. Nev.rthelefs. the ceremo- nfes of religion are regularly obferved, and even multiplied at Rio. During the day-time, bells, and fomaimes fl.y- rockets announce, at every hour, the performance of fome Enty in. the churches; after fun-let the ftreets are crowded^ with proceff.ons ; and at every corner is ftuck up, haelafs-cafe, the image of the Virgin Mary, wluch re- ceive! regular homage from paffengers. Men of the lower ckffes generally wear cloaks when they walk abroad ; and thofe of the middle and higher ranks neya- appear without Wds. The ladies wear their hair hanging down .r. treffes, ;n with ribbands, and adorned with flowers •> their l.ad Wintr uncovered. In their vil.ts to the churches, both at tafns andvefpers, they are very regular ; at other times, They -ve generally feated at their balconies or windows. Sly of fhem have fine dark eyes, .and anmated conute- „ancls. In the evenings, they amufe themf U'es with play- [„g on fome kmd of mufical inRrument, chiefly the harph. B R A chord or guitar. Among the more innocent pkafures of' both clatfcs, arc operas, plays, and mafquerades, and aflem- blies in a public garden. In Brafil, tlie convents and mo- naileries are nninerons, but the manutaaoiier, more rare. The original inhabitants of the Brahk have h«en found ■ incapable of being reduced to a (late of fiavciy, or even to the domeftic habits of civil foc.etvv Children of tliefe na- tives have been taken into Portnguefc families, and pains have been taken, from motives of cnriofily, or of humanity, • to domcftieate and inflnicl them; but their nature, it i«- faid, is fo intraftable, that they conllantly return to thti-- original habits of favage life, witW.ut retaininj,' any o» thi principles which might reftrain their palTiouo or capricfs.. Thefc people, though poor, fddom offer ihemfth.xs for hire, and are- as Icldom coveted by the Portngnefe, except for rowing tlieir boats, in which pradice they are remark- ably expert. In their perfons they are generally fomewliat vindtr the middle fi/.e, mnlcular, (lout, and a£tivc, of a- lu-ht brown complexion, black, llrong, uii'-urling hair, with. VCI7 httle beard; and large dirk.eys, which difcovcr no mark of imbecility of intell-a ; their afpca, upon tho- whole, indicates no trace cf ncannefs or vulgarity ; bc.t their looks and expaffiims arc intelligent and diiln.dt. Their chief pleafure f-cnis to confill in boiindiefs freedom ; and whilll they cherifln an hereditary and implacable antipathy to the invaders of their coirtry. tney withdraw troin the confiderable frtlkments of the Portugntfe, and mafluore in- dividuals, without remorfe, wherever they are found dil- perfed and unproteaed. The c aft between Rio and BahiH is dill very nuieh inhabited and frequented by them ; anei this prevents any regular communication by land, betwtea thele two places.' The language of the indigenous Brafili- anshas not been invellii;ated by the Portugu. fe ; but that which is molt widelv diftufed is the Quarania, or that ot the Guaranis. They have no books in tlieir eiwn language. As to the government of the Brafils each province has its refpeaive chief, under the viceroy, but they receive their inftruaions from the court at Lifbon. They are ufuallv ap-- pointed for three years, but continued at pWifure. l-ach.. dillria has a particular judge, from whofc fentences an- appeal lies to the fuperior tribunals of Rio Janeiro or Lifl^on. „r J c Brasil, or BRAZiL-/rW. Fernambouc \\ood.— ba- pan Wood. The tree which bears this important wood is Ihe CiESALPiNiA Cri/ia.- Linn. This wood is very hard, takes a high polifti, and is fo heavy as to fink in water. . When chewed, it has a fweetifli talle. It refembles in ap- pearance red faundersi but is diftinguiflied from it readily, by giving out its colour to water, which faunders-wood does not. , j Brafil wood is valuable for the beautiful orange and red colour in various fnades which it furniflies to the dver, and itJ analyfis is of fome importance. Boiled in water for fome time, the wood furnilhes a fine red decoau.n. The relidue appears black, but alkalies will dill extraa much colour from it. Spirit of wine and ammonia alio readily exUaCt a colour which is of a deeper red than the preceding. When fulphuric acid is added flowly to a frefli watery de- coaion of brafil wood, a fmall quantity of red precipitate falls down, and the clear liquor now afl-umts a yehow. ^ltrlc acid produces a fimiiar change, but the liquor 13 more ot an orange. Molt of the other acids alfo produce a red precipi- tate, and leave the liquor of various fiiades of yellow and orano-e. The alkalies rellore the colour of the hqtior, but witira tendency to c imfoii and violet-brown. The adion of the fohitions of tin and e.f alum is themott important. Alum giveJ a fine red precipitate in gr^at abun- BRA dance, inclining to crimfon, and fubfiJing n.iwJy. Tl>« fiipcniitaiit liquor alio retains the original coUsiK" of the d«- CoAioii, but a furtiicr crimfon precipii.itf is yifUUd on add- inj» alkili enough to dccompofc the ahim in fohition. In this wav, a fine crimfon Lake and Carmine are Jomctixes prepared, which therefore confilt of aluinine, united inti- matctv with the natural co'.ourof the wood, a litlh- licight. glnhruwy differs from the preceding in being Imallcr, lefs proper to be ufed in dyeing, and in having its leaves per- fedlly fmooth. It is a native of St. Domingo. A fiugle f.-male plant has been cultivated in the royal garden at Pa> ris. which flowered in the b<'g'!n',iing of November. BRASILIENSIS, \n Entomology, a fpecies of CiCADA, [Membrads Fabr.) The thorax of this kind has two horns, is fpotttd with white, and is produced behind beyond the length of the abdomen. Inhabits Brafil. Brasiliensis, a fort of Gryllus {j-icheta), that inha- bits Brafil. Its genera! colour is fufcous ; wings tailed and longer than tl e elytra ; back pale ; tail afcendiiig, and, the length of the body. Fabr. &c. Brasiliensis, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Falco, with, yellow feet ; body rufous, varied with white and yellow dots ; tail variegated with white and fufcous. Gmel. Willughby and Latham dcfcribe this under the name of tlie Braliiian kite, being found in Brafil, where, wcare in- formed, it is highly dellruftive to the domefiicatcd poultry. It is as large as our common kite. The beak and claws are long, very fiiarp, and black : eyes with the irides ycllowifh. Buflon has defcribed it by the name idl caracara. The fame bird is c'lrctis Lraj'ilicnfis of BrifTon. Brasiliensis, a fort of Psittacvs, or parrot, that is finuid in Brafil. It is of the fize of a pigeon, of a green co- lour, with the face red, the temples blue, and the orbits of the eyes cinereous. Gmel. Whether it be diftiiid from the lejcr green parrot of Edwards {jfittacus autiimnalis of La- thaiii). BRA tham), remains doubtful. It is the fame bird as BiilTon calls crick a tele blene. Brasilif.nsis, a fpecifs of Aickdo, the plumage of winch is variegated with rufous, chcfi/ut, fufcous, and white ; beneath white ; grcatt-r quill feathers and tail rufous, with tranfverfe fpots. Gniel. This bird is of the fize of the coinmon European king's fifher : the bill and eyes are black ; band acrofs the eyes, with the legs and claws, brown. Buifou calls it gi/>-g'iJ>- It is i/p'uhi BniJiUfnJis of Bi'ilfon ; and the Brafdian kln^' s fjher of Englifli writers. Brasilif.nsis, a fpccies of Mfrops, of a fine red colour, varie'jated above with fnfcous and black ; wincrs and tail pale blue. Grael. &c. This is the Braf.iian hee-coicr of I.'itliam ; mcfcps rovge ct lieu of Bufton ; ap'tqjier Jjm/i'iiri/Js of Bi iflon ; zndpica Brn- Jilieiifs of Seba. T!ie length of this bird is nine inches. As the name implies, it is an inhabitant of Brafil. Brasililnsis, the fpecies of Anas, called by Englilh writers the tnarecn duck. Tlie coloiu- of its plumage is fuf- cous ; beneath cinereous and gloCy ; between the eyes and beak is a yellowifh or ochraceous fpot ; chin wliite ; tail wedge-fhaped and black. This is- a native of Brafil. Brash. IE N sis, a fpecies of Ardea, with a fniooth head ;' body blackilh, dotted with yellow ; quill and tail feathers, with the bill and legs, blackiih. Gmel. Brifi". This is a bittern of large fi/.e, nieafuring two feet eight inches. Brown, in his Natural Hiilory of Jamaica, calls it the chicl'wg hc-n. It is named yoro by Marcgraave ; by Bnf- fon, onore dcs Lou. Inhabits Brafil and South America in general. Brasilif.nsis, a fpecies of Embfriza, defcribcd fpeci- fically by Gmelin, as having the crown, collar, and body be- neath yellow ; back, wings, and tail greenifli, variegated witSi fufcoKs and yellow. Inhabits Brafil ; its fize that of the common fpaiTow. I^atham name? it the Brafdian bunting. Ray has it under the title of giilram/jici>'^a/a. It is le gulrregat and bruont du Brefd of Buffoii. Brasii.iensis, a fpecies of Turdus, of a black colour, beneath ruily yellowidi ; rump ferruginous ; tail fomewhat wedged, and having the outer feathers totally white, and the reft white only at the tips. Gmel. Qhf. Acrofs the wings is a white ftripe ; legs brown. This is tiie yellow-bellied thrufh of Latham. Brasiliensis, a fpecies of Tan AGRA, of a fmall fi/.e, being about fix inches in length, that is found in Brafil. The general colour is black, beneath wliite ; throat and rump bhieifli ; face and brealt black. Gmel. Obf. The beak is blackini ; head bhieifh. Called by La- tham turquolfe ianager. Marcgraave has it under the name of fi'lra-^cnoii ; and BufFon, thofe of iurquln and ianagra bleu du Brcjil. Brasimensis, in Zoologv, a fpecies of Rana, or toad of a yellowifn adi colour, witli waved red fpots ; beneath glabrous. Laur. Inhabits Brafil. BRASLAW, in Gergrapfoy, a city of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna, on the fide of a lake, which commu- nicates with the Dwina ; 71^ miles N.N.E. of Wilna. N. lat.55°36'.« E.long.«:7'^ 23'. BRASMA, in the Medical U'rilh/gs of ths Jncicr.is, a came given by Diofcorides and others to a light, empty, and good for nothing kind of black pepper. This was no pecu- liar fpecies of pepper, but, as John Bauhine has well ob- Itrved, it was tlie fame with the pepper we now frequently meet with, which kas decayed upon the plant. Diofc. lib. ii. cap. 189. Vol. V. BRA BRASPARS, in Gfography, a town of France, in the de- partment of Finiderre, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrid of Chateaulin, 8 miles N.E. of Chatcatihn. BRASS, or Latten, Lall-,n Jaur.r, Fr. ; MrJJingG. This very important alloy is a mixture of coppcT and zinc in various and uncertain proportions, fo intimately united as to form a homogeneous malleable yellow metal, applicable to a vail variety ot purpofcs in the arts, and capable of being wrought in various wa)S with the grcattll facility. Mere fufion will fcnrccly produce a pirfed union between copper and zinc ; for the latter metal, being liiglily volatile and combullible, readily takes fire, and burns olf at a heat neceilary to melt tiie copper; and hence, when the metaU are fimply melted together, before an uniform alloy can be obtained, the proportion of zinc i.s every moment JefTening by its volatilization, and would continue to flv off in this manner, by the continuance of the fuiion, till at lall fcarccly any thing but the copper would be hit behind. In order, theretore, to combine copper with as' much zinc as it can take up, fo as to retain its malleability, the very ingenlouj procefs of dry cementation has been reforted to in the mann- ladure of brafs, wliich is performed by Itrongly heating (niTill pieces of copper in clofe vefFels with zinc in the Hate nearly of vapour, whereby it is thoroughly penetrated with the zinc, and unites with it into a perfcft alloy. Zinc being a volatile metal, it can only be procured from its ores by fubliniation ; and the procefs of obtaining it (which will be dcl'cribed at length under that article), is to heat ftrongly a mixture of the native oxyd with charcoal in a clofe veffcl, with no other exit for the vapour than a tube dipping its further end in water. As fonn as the charcoal reduces tiie oxyd to the metallic ftate, the zinc rifes in va- pour, paffes through the tube, and is condenfcd in the wa- ter. A fimilar reduftion takes place in brafs-inakiiig, only, inllead of conveying the vapour of the zinc out of the cru- cible, in which it is formed, copper is inclofed in the fame veflcl, which being then thoroughly heated, readily abforbs the zinc as foon as reduced to the metallic (late, fixes it, contrafts a very intimate union with it, and the refult ;» perfeft brafs. Brafs is made in many countries, but no where more e\tcr. fively and better than in England, in which both the mate- rials are in great abundance. The ores of zinc are fcvcrjl fpecies of calamine, and of bhnde terir.ed by tlic niine-rs black jack, \<'hich are found abundantly in Devonfiiire, Der- bylhire, and North Wales, accompanying the lead ores, and in otiier places. Thcfe are chiefly oxyds or carbcnated oxyds of zinc, and require a previous calcination before they are fit for brafs-making. At Holywell, in Flintfhiiv, the calamine, wliich is received raw from the mines in the neighbourhood, is firll po;:ndcd in a ftamping mil), and then waflied and fiftcd, in order to feparate the lead svilli which it is largely admixed. It is then calcined on a broaj ihaliow brick hearth, over an oven heated to rcdnefs, and Jrequently ftirrcd for fome hours ; or, in fome places, a conical pile is conipofcd of horizontal layers of calamine alternating with layers of charcoal, and the lowcit layer i* of wood in large pieces, with intervals left for the draught of air through the centre of the pile, to maintain the combulHon thoroughly. The calamine being fully calcined is then ground in a mill, and mixed at the fame time with about a third or fourth part of charcoal, or in fome places with pit-coal, which lall, however, injures the malleability of the brafs. This mix- ture is then put into large cylindrical crucibles, along with alternate layers of fmall bits of copper, confining either of the clippings of copper plates, or of copper fliot, made by melting any refufe pieces of this metal, and pouring it into G g cold BRA BRA cold water, which dividcE it into very fcii.ill rounJtd Ihot-likc frapitifiits. Powdered charcoal is put over all, and the crucibles are covered and luted up. The brafs furnace has the form of the fruftum of a hollow cone, or a cone with the bafe downwards, and the apex cut off horizontally. At the bottom of the furnace is a circular ginte, or perforated iron plate, coated with clay and horfe-dung, to defend it from the aiflion of the fire. The crucibles (land upon tha circular plate, forming a circular row with one in the mid- dle. The fuel, which in Eni^land is coal, is thrown round the crucibles, and is thrown into the furnace at the upper part of it, or the truncated apex of ilie cone. A perforated cover, made of bricks or clay, and kept tojiether by iron bars, is fitted to this opening. This cover fervcs as a regiiUr to regulate the heat ; fo that when it is to be increafed, the cover is to be partly or entirtly removed, and a free drauijlit admitted to the external air, which pafTcs alou'^ an under- ground vault to the a(h-hole, through the holes in the circu- lar grate betwixt the crucibles, and through the upper mouth, along with the fmoke and flame, into an area, where the workmen (land, wliich is covered by a large dome with a chimney to conc!urg, they are, in Goflar, 30 parts of copper, 40 to 45 of cadmia, and twice the volume of charcoal ; in many of the manufactories in France, 35 of copper, 35 of old brafs, 40 of calamine, and 20 to 25 of charcoal ; in Sweden, 30 of copper, 20 to JO of old brafs, and 46 of calamine, with charcoal fuf&cient ; or 40 of copper, 30 of old brafs, and to of calamine ; in this country, generally about 40 of cop- per, and 1^0 of calamine. The prodmft of brafs varies alfo 5 but it fecnis to be in few places fo great as in fome of the works of England, where, as already mentioned, 40 pounds of copper incrsafe to 60 pounds of brafs. This fupciior quantity is afcribed to tiie fmallnefs to which the copper is prcvioufly reduced by pouring it melted into water, whicli, it fccm?, is not always praftifed elfcwhere, and probably too to the goodnefs of the calamine. At Stolbcrg, near Aix la Cliapelle, where brafs is ma(!e to a very great extent, the furnaces are cylindrical, and each contains eight crucibles arranged in two tiers of four each. The crucibles are fifteen inches high, twelve inches deep, and eight or nine wide. The proportions are 40 pounds of copper, 6'^ of calamine, and double its volume of cliar- coal. After the fire has been kept up for twelve hours, a workman takes oft with an iroi^ tiowel all the fcum and charcoal which fwim upon the liq'.^d, and when cooled form a mafs called wLeJl. This, examined by a glafs, is found to confill of calamine and copper particles cohering together, but not completely uniled. The brals refulting from this firll procefs is coarfc, brittle, and unequal in tex- ture, and requires a fecond infion, before it is fit to be wrought. For this purpofe the fame ciTicibles are ajjain employed, and are filled, firll with three handfuls of the mixture of calamine and charcoal, over which are put two or three pounds of the impure brals broken in pieces, tlien more calamine and charcoal, with a piece of the nrhejl, and over all the calamine and charcoal powder. They are then heated ftronglv for two hours, after which the brafs is fit to be call into plates. A fingle fufion, where the fire is kept up long enough, and the materials are good, is certainly fufficient to make good malleable brafs; but it is probable, that the finell forts undergo a fecond operation with frefii calamine and char- coal. Some fecrecy is, however, obferved by thofe indivi- duals who have the reputation of making the very fined ar- ticle. In the laboratory, by way of experiment, brafs may be made in a much fhorttr time by ufing the fame materials, that is to fay, copper-fhot buried in a mixture of calamine and charcoal, putting the cnicible m a wind furnace, and heating flowly for half an hour, till the zinc begins to burn off in blue flame round the cover of the crucible, and then raifing the fire, and heating biiflcly for an hour longer. This procefs of cementation of copper is alfo Ihewn very neatly by a fomewhat different management, as given by Cramer. Put the mixture of calamine and charcoal into a crucible ; cover it with a thin layer of clay, over which, when dry, lay a thin plate of copper, and cover the whole with fine charcoal powder, and a luted cover to the crucible. Apply heat gradually, and the vapour of the reduced zinc will life through the floor of clay, will penetrate the red- hot copper above it, and convert it gradually into brafs, which, at the end of the operation, will be found lying melted upon the ftratum of clay ; a^d the increafe of weight, which the copper will be found thus to have gained, will afford a good prailical tcfl of the goodnefs of tiie calamine, and its fituefs for brafs-making in the great way. B afs is wrought into plates by calling and laminating. At Stolberg the plates are firll call i»to a mould formed of two blocks of hard granite five feet long, three and a half broad, and eight inciies thick. Thel> „re placed one above the other, and the upper one is raiftd by a pulley, and fmeared with cow-dung previous to calling. To give the plate the requifite thickucfs, hoops of iron of different dimenfions are adapted to the under ftonc, fo as to confine the melted metal, and regulate its thicknefs. The ftones 3 are BRA are ffently mclmed before the metal is run into tlicm. 'n»e;c pbtfs are afterwards laminated and mauutadurcd lU a thou- land different ways. _ r, r ,^.^ ...itl, The moll impouant properties of brafs, compared with Conner, are the ioHowing : its colour is much bnghtcr, and more approachipg lo gold; it is more ful.We than copper, ZLkX from the ci?eumllance, that lefs than a copper- re in. heat is fufficieht for tlie malang of bra s ; U ,skfs TmM t.. rnrt, and to be aded on by the vail variety or ! ane swhi h corrode copper ; and laftly, .t -s equally ™ IkXle when cold, and more eKteniible than uther copper rl ;t and hence is p.cuharlv titted to be niade mto wire. Brafs, however, is only malleable when cold, by ham- „ no-, brafs is found to become magnetic, perl-PS " • Y "om tte particles of the iron hamn,er which may have b en b^en ntoitsfurface; but this makes it neceffary to ulc ■urhamm red brafs about compais.«eedks, and lim.lar m.ig- r tic aUarafus. Tlic expantion of brafs has been vuy ae- cirate? determined, as tl-is metal is mod commonly ufed for mathematical and allronomical -'t"-- ;' ^'^t utmoll prccilion is required. Mr. Smeaton found that 12 ndie iu kn..a. of call braft at 3^^ <:^p^nc,d by ibo of ha (or at the boiling point ot water,) 225 ten thoutdth parts of an inch : brafs wire in the fame circum- £1"; expanded 232 parts; brafs 16 parts, with one of uancL-a J, ,.,^^,.., The expanlion of hammered cop- pe"; ifo^W 04 p^rtrb^t that of ^.nc ,s 353 ^ f" ^hat brafs Tolds a middle^'^^ace in this refpeft between its two compo- •" Tl^^ zmcisreadilv (eparated from braf. by fire. When bi;afs is heated Irondv in open veffels to at kaft a copper-melting La th z nc of- the b-afs takes^fire, and llowly burns away. I thi i crtinned long enough, little f^^^^^^^"\^"^^ thou At ftiU retaining a fmall portion o zmc, vvhich no fui- lrbrm:^:^ri^r:-^^^^ doubt el alf-. in manufacture,) by mixmg theoxyds of coj^- cer and zmc, and reducing them together. This plan is fneeniot: and the intimate°m,xture ot the two metals, the Irfat obieft ,n brafs-making, is probably more rccuratdy Sn dm this w-ay than ev^n by the common prucefs ot obtamea in j f„ii„w,na experiment on this plan is "r "sage: Mix t'gethe'r 50'parts of oxyd of copper, °I,LiL after the diitillation of verdigris (wh.ch is a very remaining alter lie Q j , calaminaris, 400 parts n'^Kl^c'^ ilL a dTo^p r s of cLrcoal powder ; melt to- ^bkA-e t 'fihfnctafe of v^eigh't g-f ^y t e eopp" is t e proportion which conllitutes the fineft bra s, -li^'^hVt wluc^ ^pper wdl^-P -^s V ^S, ^"^ S'^'tr tn£m: kc^^" When th^copper retains .fifth of zmc the colour is not fo fine; and any quantity ^ov ' :Vixr;ill be expel^d by the ^-^ even when e £r^'^:e;^te^:.r^K::i^^«;^^smthis er;iment the proof, that the copper now retains no more than a fixth of zinc, and is tme brats. BRA Tlie analvils of brafs is a point of fon« conftqutnce, snd feveral modes have been propolcd, fome good, otheis detec "Ivafs may, in fome degree, be analykd by firongly l'"t- ine in an open veflel, as above m.nlioncd. 1 lie zmc ll.eu bifrns off, alid when no more l\:.me is g.ven out, the copper is fuppokd to he pure. 15ut Dizc has found that this mode is vcrv uncertain ; fo that no two allays of the lame lampk conefpord, for it is not eafy to tell when all the zmc .. burnt off that can thus be volatdi/.ed ; and the incrtale of weight, caukd by the oxidation of part of the copp.r, throws a further uncertainty on this mahod. Neither will a l-n,pk f Intion of brafs ni the fulphur.c, or any other acid, and crvllall./.ation, anfwer the purpo.e ; for, though mncl. of the crytlalli/.ed fnphat of copper n,ay ua- dilybe picked out from the fulphat of zmc, the pc.kc feparatioii of the two kinds of cryllals is impraa,caMe and at laft one fpccies becomes mixed with a portion of the other, even in the refpeaive cr) Hals. M. Dize propofcs the following methods : 1 Diffolve the brafs in nitric acid, which takes up the copper and zinc, and kavcs any tin with which it is otteu alloyed. Decompok the clear nitrated folut!on by pot-all., rediffolve the precipitate in Uilphunc ac.d, and «.dd a pu:cc of clean bright iron to the folntion, prevtoudy dilnt d w h fix parts of water. The copper is thus precipitated .n the metallic Rate, and the fulution now holds fulphat of iron, and fulphat of zinc. Th.k M. Dize propoks to feparatc bv -allic acid, which (lowly precipitates the iron, and leases tlie "/.nc. Laltly, the fulphat of zinc may be decompokd bv a carbonated alkali, and the quantity of zmc in the carbonat may be eftimated according to proportions, which will be prefentlv mentioned. . r ,, • „ This'^metl.od is ukful, but the kpaiation of the iron fiom the zinc by tlie gallic acid, is exceffively ua.ou. bul- phuretted hydrogen gas would be umch (liorter, and to be ^'t Molve br.fs in nitric acid, dilute with fix parts of Dure water, and immerk in the folut.on a cyhnder or bright c an lead The copper fpeedily kparates m the meta he ft te round the lead, winch kft takes its place^m the lolu- tion. As this advances, the hquor loks its blue coK u a^^d when all the copper is kparated, it becomes ilightly ■Sow. To determine, however, whether al *'- -pper u kparated, add a frelh clean piece of kad, av'd bod the folu- tion for fome time. This now contains mtrat of kad, and nk a of zinc. Sulphuric acid will precipitate thence the 1 d n he form of L infoluhk fulphat, and the mtrated zTnc may then be decompokd by a carbonated alkah. Oa tWs prel-ipitation, however, there are fome obkrvations to be made. 'copper, when d.ffolvmg '"."'tnc -.d bfo bs he made. V-opper, wucn un.u. ■'■■£, — -- - , neary Vol itswaight of oxygen; but kad, under tlie fame^mlunlnces, abloibs only J,%. Hence (as Vau- q^inr^^wkson ^his fnbjea "^ ^he analy is of bra s xoo mrts of copper diffolved in mttic acid would requne, tor ^e dffox genation, (which takes P^-^ -'--.;- "^X aliic oxyd in folution is precipitated in a "^-^^^""^ f^'"^. .^Y a other metal immerkd in it,) full 250 parts of kad, which M is of courk oxK'ated in proportion as the copper preci- pitates in the metallic form. But this large quantity of ^xyd o lead cannot be held in folution by t!,e nitnc ac.d ex ept this is largely m excefs ; and this explains why, as M I)iz6 has obferved, a portion of oxyd of kad is apt to orm at the latter end of the procefs, and to mix w.tl Ic cooper, fo as to require a fubkqnent operation to get c "P , r,.p^ f,om It Nor will an excefs of ac.d er.inre the 3yoSe5:^ci;hatedcopper;forM.Vauquehnni.dsthat ^ ' Gg a BRA if 50 grains of pure copper are dilTolved in nitric aciJ to fxccfs, and then precipilated by metallic lead, of which about 220 grains are requifite, the cupreous precipitate weiglis I 3S grains inllead of the original 50 grains, and therefore is not pure copper, but an alloy of this metal, with a very lar^^e proportion of lead. This method, there- fore, of analyfing brafs n hijjhly erroneous, unlcfs the fup- pofcd copper precipitate be feparatcly treated, in order to free it from the large proportion of lead with which it mull be alloyed. The following methoJs are given by Vauqnelin : 3. DilTolve a given quantity of brafs in nitric acid, p\it it in a well-clofed bottle, and add cnuilic pop-ath to excefs, To that there fliall be a fenfible alkaline talte in the liquor ; (hake the mixture well, and keep it a -fliort time in dig-ef- lion. By this fnn[ne procefs the oxyd of copper is preci- pitated by the alkali, but the oxyd of zinc is re-dilTolved in k ; and if the liquor be now tiltcnd, the alkaline iolution of zinc pafFes through clear, and the oxyd of copper is left behind. This oxyd is brown, and nearly metallic in ap- pearance. When thorou;^'hly wafhed, and gently dried, it contains rtj per cent, of metallic copper. It one is afTurtd by a previous affay, that the brafs only contained copper and zinc, when the quantity of copper is thus obtained, th.at of the zinc may be inferred from the ditTerence between the copper, and the weight of the brafs employed ; or elfe the alkaline folution of zinc may be fuperi:ituratcd with ful- phuric acid, fo as at firft to precipitate, and afterwards to rc-diflblve the zinc, after which this metal may be precipi- tated as a carbonat, by adding carbonat of pot-afh or foda. A very trifling quantity of copper paffas into the alkaline folution of the zinc, occafioned by a fmall portion of am- monia formed by the nitrated metals when the cauftic alkali is added, which takes up this atom of copper. If necef- fary, the copper might be again precipitated by heating the alkaline folution, fo as to expel the ammoniac ; but not to boiling, otherwife fome of the zinc would feparate from the alkali, and caufe a greater error. 4. Diffolve brafs in fulphuric acid, dilute with 20 times as much water, and immei fe a Itick of zinc exactly weighed. The copper foon precipitates completely in the metallic ftate, which is to be well wafr.ed and weighed. The folu- tion now contains only the zinc of the brafs, and the zinc diflblved out of the ftick of metal immerfed. By weighing the undilTolved ftick of zinc, and precipitating the whole by carbonat of pot-a(h or fcda, an cafy calculation will give the portion of zinc belonging to the brafs : or, more fimply, this may be inferred from the copper obtained, and the quantity of brafs originally employed. It only remains, on the fubjedl of analyfis, to give the metallic contents of carbonat of zinc. Dize diflblved 100 parts of zinc in nitric acid, precipitated it by carbonated foda, and this produdt, well wafhed and dried, now weighed 180 parts. Hence 100 parts of carbonat of zinc thus obtained, contain 55.5 of metalliczinc. On the other hand, Vauquelin found that carbonat of zinc obtained from the fulphat by carbonated pot-a(h, well •wafhed and calcined in a crucible to expel all the carbonic acid, contained 69 per cent, of metallic zinc. Hence the carbonat obtained by Dize, it is obvious, muft only have been dried at a low temperature, probably that of boiling water ; and from either of the above data the quantity of zinc msy be eftimated : or elfe the carbonat or oxyd may be mixed with charcoal, and ftrongly heated in an earthen retort, without the accefs of external air, by which the zinc will be reduced, and will diftil over, and condenfe in the «aol neck of the retort in the metallic ftate. BRA Analyfis fliews a vaft variety in the proportions of the different fpecies of brafs ufed in commerce ; nor is it eafy to determine whether the perfeAion of this alloy depends on any certain proportion of the two metals, or the mode of manufafture. In general, the extremes of the highell and loweft proportion of zinc are from 12 to 25 parts in the hundred. Even with fo great a quantity of zinc as 23 per cent., the dudility of brafs is not injured, provided it be manufaftured with care, though zinc itftlf is fcarcely mal- leable. In proof of this, Dize analyzed a fpecimen of a remarkably line brafs, which is made at Geneva forefcape- ment wheels, and otlrer nicer parts of watch-making. This metal unites great beauty of colour to a high degree of duSility ; and the bars that are perfed; fetch a very high price with the watch-makers of this town, fo celebrated for this delicate manufadlure. This brafs was found to conliil of y^ of copper, and 25 of zinc. Probably, too, the copper was Swedifli, or of iomc other very fuperior kind. The common brafs of Paris appears to contain no more thau about 13 per cent, of zinc. The Englilh, probably, con- tains more /.inc. The ufe of brafs is of very confiderable antiquity ; but from the inacnracy of the ancient defcriptions, and their ignorance of the tine nature of zinc and its ores, much un- certainty prevails on this fubjedt. Moll of the genuine relics of antiquity of this kind are compofed of various mix- tures of brals, with tin and other metals, and are rather to be termed bronzes. Por this and the other yellow alloys of copper, fee Copper. Keir, in a note to the article brafs in Macquer's dic- tionary ; Watfon's EfTays ; Sage in J. Phyf. vol. xxxviiii. ; Dize in ditto, vol. xlviii. ; Repertory, vol. xiv. ; Vauquelin in An. Ch. vol. xxviii. ; Encycl. Melh. ; Original, S:c» . Brass, in Antiquily. See jEs. Brass, in a more extenlive fenfe, includes copper, and all the mixtures or allovs of Cf>ppcr with other minerals. In which fenfe, brafs amounts nearly to the fame with the Ro- man x.%, and the French ahain. huASs-Zumps, or Brasses, in Mineralogy, a conwion nam* among the colliers for the maffes of pyrites that are found, to accompany, more or Icfs, the different kinds of coal. Brass d'Or, in Geography. See Cape Breton. Brass, St. Bay of, lies eall by north from cape d'Aguillas, on the eall fide of the cape of Good Hope. S. lat. 34°. IE) A AS s i/Jciti J, one of the fmallcr Virgin illands, iituate near the N. W. end of St. Thomas's ifland, on which it is dcr- pendent. Brass town, a town of America, in the flate of TenefTee, fituate on the head waters of Hiwaffee river, about 100 miles, fouth from Knoxville. Two milei S. from this town is the " Enchanted mountain." Brass -wire. See Wire. BRASS.Jl. See Bressay. BRA8SAC, a town of France, in the department of Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton in the dillritl of" Iflbire, feated on the AUier ; 3 leagues S, of IlToire. Brassac (le Belfourtas, a town of France, in the de-- partment of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton in the dillria of Caftres ; 4 leagues E. of Callres. The town contains 1149, and the canton 4190, inhabitants ; the terri- tory includes 195 kiliometres and 5 communes. BRASSAU. See Cronstadt. BRASSAVOLA, Antonio-Musa, in B'wgrnphy, pro- feffor in medicine and philofophy at Ferrara in Italy, who flourifhed in the early part of the 16th century, was a dili- gent invefligator into the properties of medicines, both fimple and compounded. Hs was educated luider Manardi and X.eonicini, BRA Leonicini, two celebrated profenbrs at Ferrara, but fuiiflied his ftudies at Pan's. On his return, he wiis made phyficiau '' to HercultsII. his fovertign, to whole daiiglitt-r he dedi- cated one of his worlds. As he loon came into great rtqiiell; in his profcfUon, and had acquired cor.ficlerablc kuow!t:'ge in bota'iy, and other parts ol natural hillory, to wliich lie had, in a particular manner, turned lii.s attention, he was able, from his own experience, to eorredl levtral errors of his teachers, on the nature and qualities of drugs. The tirll work by which he became known, is " Exanien oinniimi fimplieiuni medicamentorum, quorum iifus in publieis ofli- cinis eft," Romx, i5,-;6, fol. This work has been frequeiitly re-printed. In the courfe of it he examnies the qualities of fome poifonous drugs, and their effecls on dogs, and other animals. He twice faw a cartilage, he fays, of the form of a crofs, in the hearts of two ftags. He had received manna from Syria, bat preferred the Calabrian. He ftiews that cal- cined mercury had been early given in the cure of the lues venerea, though then difufed. " De medicamcntis tam fim- plicibus, quam compofitis, qua: unicuique humeri funt propria," Tiguri, i5';i;,Svo.; containing many valuable ob- fervntions, principally from experience, on the cfTcfls o'f various purging medicines. He cffefled the cure of a maniacal coniplaiut, in a perfon of rank, by the ufe of black hellebore, which had been many years diluled and profcribed. " Examtn omnium fyruporum, quorum publicus ufus eft," LugdJni, 1540, 8vo. This, as well as feveral other of his works, is written in the fi.>rm of a dialogue, between hinifelf and an apothecary. In the commencement, the apothecary gives an account of his manner of treating his wife, from whom he exafts the fame implicit fubmiffion that Petruchio requires from Catherine, on their wedding-day. When re- tired to their chamber, he fays, he threw a pair of breeches on the ground, and giving his bride a ftick, fimilar to one he held in his hand, infilled on her contending with him who fhould thereafter wear them ; and having then conquered her, lie had taken care to keep up his authority. I'he doftor reproves liis gueft, and gives him fome good rules for his future conduct. He afterwards, and in fucceffion, pubhflied '• Examinations of the compoiltious of eleitnaries, pills, lo- hoclis, trocliiles, &c." befides " Commentaries on parts of the works of Hippocrates," " A Complete lilt of Galen's works," " A Treatife on the venereal difeafe, on the ufe of China root, guiacum, &c." in all of which he has many original obfjrvations. He died, according to Carrere, in. 1554. His fon, Brassavola, Jerom, publilhed, in 1590, " De officiis Riedicis libellus," 4to. Ferrara. In this he treats largely on the duties of phylicians, on their conduft in confultation, on the ligns from which the prognortics in difeafes may be drawn ; alfo, " In primuni Hippocratis aphoriimorumhbrum e.xpolitio," 4to. Ferrara. Haller. Bib. Med. Botan. Eloy Dia. Hift. BRASSBRIDGE, Thomas, of Northampton, pub- liflied, in 1578, " The poor man's jewel," " A treatife of the peftileuce, and a declaration of the. virtues of the herbs carduus benediiitus, and angehca," 8vo. London. Haller. Bib. Botan. BRASSE, in hhlhyoh^y, a fpecies of PercI. BRASSI, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton in the dillrift of Clamecy ; 10 miles E. of Corbigny. BRASSICA, in Botany, is derived by C.Bauhine from Sfci^ai or iSfKctrw, which he fays fignifies to devour, becaufe it is eagerly eaten by cattle ; but tliis is a fenfe in which the Greek word does not appear to be ufed by ancient writers. LiiHisus derives it from the fame word,. and rightly rendering BRA it to boil, fuppofes the plant was fo called from itr hr'-^r sr common pot-lirrb. Scaligcr cotjidurts il ' it nally written TTfao-iM,- t'on^ irfccanx, a divlfi. 1, 01 garden. But as the word was not kiuuui co i e who tirll called the plant from wiixh hinniua iias the genus fa^Kvoj and afterwards xpu,?^, it is probab / ot Latin oi-igin. By Varro and Fellus it is derived from pralica, on account of iis being cut oif from the lltm. This Uems foiced, and trx etymology mull be allowed to be altogether uncertain. Lin. gen. pl.S20. Reich. 884. .Schreb- J096. Jun". 238. Gxrt. 4J4. Tab. J43. La Marck PI. 565.. Smith Elor. Brit. 311. Clafs, telr adynamia Jiliquofa. NaU- ord. filiqiiofa or cnicifijn.us. Crucifnt, Juff. Gen. Char. Per'taiilb four-Ieavcd, crtdt, a little converging. Leaves lanceolate-linear, concave channelled, gibbous at the bafe, ered, parallel, deciduous. Cor. four-pctalled, cruci- form. Petals fubovate, flat, expanding, entire, gradually leilening into claws about the length of the calyx ; nidtari- ferous glands four, ovate, one between each of the fhorter flamens ai.'d the pillil, and one between each of the longer ftamens and the calyx. Stam. Pilamcnts fix, awl-fliaped, erect, of which two oppofue to each other arc the length of the calyx, and four longer. Anthers ertft, acuminate.. PiJ}. germ, cohunnar, the length of the ftamens ; ftyle (hort,. the thicknefs of the germ : ftigma capitate, entire. Peri- carp, lilique long, rather round, but flattened on each lide, and in ionie fpecies quadrangular, two-celled ; partitior» prominent at the apex, two-valved, valves (liortcr than the diffepiment. Seeds many, globular. Elf. Char. Cal. ered't, a httle converging. Seeds globular. DilTtpiment prominent. Neftariferous glands four. It is diftinguiftied from linapis by its firm and clofe calyx, and from raphanus by its hliques not being articulated. Its diftinftive charadler is however very obfcure, and fome of its fpecies might be referred to other genera. * Sdiques Jletukr, four-angled, ivitlj a very Jliort permanent Sp. I. B. or/ra/j/w, Lin. /ir/;/"ci//rtto, La Marck. "Stem- leaves coidate, embracing the Hem, fmooth ; root leaves,, rough, very entire." Root annual, fpindle-fhaped, fmall,. white. Stem generally branched at the bafe, about a foot high, round, imooth, glaucous. Leaves glaucous, very en- tire, obtufe : root leaves obovate : , ftem leaves alternate t; flowers fmall : petals white or yellowifn, narrow: filiques very long, eredt. A native of Spain, France &c. and rarely in England on the coafts of Suffolk, Ellex and Suflex. 2. B. aujlriaca, Jacquin Auft. Tab. 283. " Leaves cordate, embracing the item, very entire, fmooth. Siliqucs deeply furrowed." Diltinguiftied from the foregoing by its furrowed lihques and yellow flowers. AVillden. Dr. Smith deems it only a variety of the former. Corn-fields in Aullria and Thuriugia. 3. B. campcjlris, Linn. " Root and ftem (lender, leaves cordate-acuminate, embracing the item ;. lower leaves lyrate, toothed, foraewhat hifpid." Smith, Roat annual, fpindle-fliapcd, fmall. Stem crcdl, branched, round, fmooth, rather glaucous : upper JLm leaves alternate, very entire, imooth ; hiucr a little toothed, loiucjl and ef- pecially the root ones, lyrate, toothed, and waved, hifpid beneath at the veins; alt glaucous, and paler beneath. Leaves of the calyx fcarcely cohering, a little fprcading. Petals yellow, three times larger than thofe of the orientalis.. Stltques eredl, romid, obfoletely quadrangular, relicularly veined, torulofe, with an awl-lhaped beak, quadrangular at the bafe, ftriated. A clearly diftiiidt fpecies. Smith. A native of Europe, and plentiful in fome parts of England. La Marck coniiders both the campcltris and the auftriaca as va- viciies of tlic onentalis. 4. B. avvenJU, Lii.n. Miint. " Leaves cwbiating D R A cmtiMcinj i1ic Scm, fpatulatf, waved, tl.t npocr out* ear- A\ie, entire." Root pcromiuil. Sifm a foot hi,;h, fmootli, braiiclitd, zigZH?;, pcrrniv,<. C. okrn.-ea. Linn. Cabbage. " Root caulelccnt, round, ficlhy ; all the leaves fmooth, glaucous, waved or lobed." Smith. Root biennial, from a fpan to a foot long, fcarred. Flowers large, lemon-coloured. Siliqiies torulofe. 9. B. richeri. Villars. Allioni. " Leaves petioled, oblong, a little toothed; root caulefctnt." Wilid. /?«>o/ perennial ; /t-m leavis very entire. Mountains of Daiiphiny and Pied- mont, to. B. cretka. WiUd. " Stem fhrnbby ; leaves round- jlh, crenatc, petioled, fmooth." La Marck. Root -fftxin- nial. Stem abnut a foot high and an inch thick. Leanyes glaucous, a little flelhy, from three to four inches long, and from two to three broad. P^'/.j/« channelled, from one to two inchts long. Difcovered by Tournefort in Crete and the iflands of^he Archipelago. II. "Q . fiiffruticofa. Willden. " Stem fomewhat Ihrubby ; leaves glaucous, a little flefhy, vcrv entire, ovatc-oblong, attenuated at the bafe." Root perennial ; ferns branchedj ereit, fmooth, round, a foot high. Leave- fmooth, petioled, obtufe. F/(-wcr violet, reticularly \c\r\t& ; fiUques flender, erett, fmooth, round, allied to B. arvenf.s, but differs in llie Ihrubby (lem, and petioled leaves, attenuated at the bafe. On arid mountains in the north of Africa. 12. B. chinenfis, Linn. Amaen. " Leaves oval, nearlv entire, floral ones embracing the ftem, lanceolate ; calvx longer than the claws of the petals." Root biennial ; lower leaves large rcfembling thafe of cynoglolTum, but fmooth. Flowers yellow. Siliques a little flattened. China. 1 1. Vi. iHoIiicea. lAwn. " Leaves lanceolate-ovate, fmooth, undivided, toothed." Root biennial. Laves tough, not efculent. China. 14. B. fuhhqlhila. WiUd. " Radical leaves fmooth, runtinate ; ilem leaves lanceo'ate, ver^- en- tire, fomewhat hailate." Root annual -jjiem ereCl, branched. Racemes with few flowers ; Jlowers yellow ; filsques (lender, round, ereft. Iflands of the Archipelago. 15. B. poly- morpkit, Murray. " Lower leaves linear lanceolate, pinnati- fid-toothed; upper awl-(liaped, entire." Willden. /iIm^ peren- nial. 1 6.B. terel'ifolia. WiUdcn. "Leaves flelhy, round, fmooth, piffiiate; pinnules dilHnd." 7?to/ long, branched, crooked ; fern fmooth, branched, a foot high ; leaves glaucous, fmooth ; foft pinnules unequal, i-lotuert in rjiccmes pctlicelled. Calyx BRA coloured ; leates clofe, li.iear. Carol large, violet ; lamina obovate, entire ; filiiues flender, fmooth, two inches long. nVany-feedcd. ^^oili faiidy groinid in the north of Africa, * Enicit. Siliques with a fworJfiapeJJlyle. 17. B. 7b«'-nr///, La Marck. " Ltavts runcinate, hif- pid ; ftem hifpid ; filiques torulofe, fmooth, fpreading, with a veiy long beak." Gouan. Root annual, fmall, fibrous. Stem flender, generally Ample, almoft nnkeil near the top. Leaves oblong ; upper ones almoft. linear. Flowers fmall, pale yellow, in racemes. Siliques pedunclcd. Cul- tivated in the royal garden at Paris, and luppoftd to come from Spain. iS. II. Fru.-q/irum, Linn. " Leaves runcinate- pinnate ; llem hifpid at the bafe ; flowers without vciii.s." La Marck. Root annual, fpindle-ihaped. Stems feveral, about a foot and half high, a little branched, (lightly ibiatcd. Root- leaves proltnite on the ground. Stea-leav^s alternate, one to eachbranch,alittledecurrent,glauco'JS, often with a few hairs; petioles furrowed above. Flowers in a loofe, terminating ra- ceme. I'iduiicles alternate, one-flowered. Corollas yellow. Sili- ques fprtading, obtufely quadrangular. Barren places and waits in the fouth of Europe. 19. B. Eruca, Linn. " Leaves Urate ; fteni hairy ; flowers pale, v,-ith coloured veins." La ^Iarck. Root annual. Stem two feet high, angular, branched. Leahies green, petioled. Calyx erect ; claws of the petals erect, long ; laminx broad, roundilh. Siliques on ihort peduncles, prtlTed to the (lem. South of Europe. 20. B. piimatijlda, Willden. " Leaves pinr.atilid, fegments ferrate, iiliques cufpidate, four-fided." Stem a foot and a half high, fmooth, fometimes hifpid at the bafe. Flowers pale yellow, nerved. Siliques fmooth, acuminate. North of Afric?. 2 I. B. elo!i^ata,W\]\.dtn. " Leaves petioled, the lower fmuatr, pinnatifid, hifpid, the upper (mooth, toothed ; filiqu. s torulofe, four-fided, cufpidate." Root biennial. Atmfmocth. Racemes very long, loole. Siliques little longer than the peduncle; valves half as long as the di(repinient. \Valdlleir. BaiTen land in Hungary. 22. B. Cbeiranthus, Willden. " Leaves petioled, pinnatilid, dentate, hifpid ; filiques toru- lofe, with a flat beak." Root biennial ; filique one-feeded. Dauphiny and Piedmont. 2^. B. "l-£/7i:(;;-m, Linn. "Leaves runcinate, filiques hifpid, covered with a fwelling caljx." Root annual, fpindle-fliaped. Stem hairy, branching. Leaves lanceolate, toothed, fmooth above. Racemes erect, terminat- ing. Flowers yellow, with darker veins. Calyx at firll cylindrical, afterwards inflated. Siliques fhort, oval, or elliptic, hifpid backwards. zx.'Q. lyrata, Willden. "Leaves hifpid, the root ones lyrate, llem ones toothed ; filiques ob- long, comprefTed." Stems half a foot high, fimple or branch- ing, feveral rifing from the root, with few leaves. Stem-leaves fmall, oblong, petioled. Flowers violet, veined. Siliques fliort, hifpid. Sandy deferts in the north of Africa. 25. B. crajjifolm, Willden. " Leaves pinatifid, fegments linear." Vahl. In Egypt, about the pyramids ; found by Forfl- oleracea, or common cabbage, which has a biennial root, And upright, flcfliy ftallc, of oblong ronndifh leaves, which in fome varieties clofely cabbage into large conij)aCl heads; but in others they fpread hiofe and open. The varieties of thii are the<:ommon heading cabbage, •with a roundifh, oblong, clofely cabbaged head, of roundifli or oblong, plane, entire leaves ; the Savoy cabbage, with a roundiHi and oblong clofely cabbaged heiid, of rouncifh, erumply-curled leaves ; the fimbriated open cabbage, or borecole, having a tall ftem, crowned by an open loofe head, e turnip-cabbage, with the ilalk and root fvv'clhng, turnip-Jhaped, being crowned by a head of open t(blongi(h leaves) never cbilng to cabbage ; the clulUred BRA bralUca.orcauliflower, withan upright fhortifli Halk, crowned by an open head of oblong, narrow, plane, entire leaves, not cabb;»"ing, but having a large cluflered flower-head in the centre; and the Italian cabbage called broccoli, having an crec\ robull ftalk, crowned by a large open head of oblong, dark, and light-green plane leaves, not cabbaging, but afford- ing a cluflered flovver-head in the centre, in the manner of a cauliflower. B. Napns, navew, rape, or cole, has a fpindle-diaped bien- nial root, and oblong, lyre-fliaped, deeply divided, finuated, fmooth leaves, not cabbaging; the ftem leaves being oblong and cordate. This is feldom cultivated in the garden, but is valuable as a field crop ; the culture, application, and ufe of which will be defcribed hereafter. See CoLf. B. Rapa or turnip, produces a large round flefliy annual root, crowned with oblong, cut-finuatcd, rough leaves. As thefe plants are molUy confidered among gardeners as different, and as requiring diflerent modes ot culture, they may be treated of under feparatc heads. Of trie B. capitata or common heading cabbage the varieties are numerous, and all denominated cabbages, from the circumftaiiee of their inner leaves turning in clofely over one another, till by degrees they form a large, compatl, globular, or oval head, fome of them attaining a very large fize. And as fome of them are in perfeftion in fummer, and others late in autimin, they are fub-divided into fummer and autumn cabbages. Of the early fummer kind tlie varieties are the fmall, roundifh, early cabbage, and the larger, oblong, early cab- bage. The firft comes early in May, and the fecond about the middle, or latter end ; both ot them foon become very hard, and crack ; and, therefore, no conliderable quan- tity fliould be raifcd, where the ufe of the family is only re- garded. Of the fngar-loaf kind the varieties are the early dwarf fugar, the large, and hollow fugar loaf. The firft is a fmalt. longifh, pyramidal cabbage^, which comes in e.:ilv in June, and is very fweet while young; but foon grows hard. The fecond is a large, pyramidal, hollow cabbage, that comes in about the end of June, and is in full perfeflion in July and Auguft, feldom growing hard or cracking. It is a line fa 1. ly and market cabbage. The earV Yorkfliire cabbage is a roundifli, oblong, heading cabbage of ?. moderate fize, growing clofe, hearting quickly, and cabbaging early in fummer, as in Mav, June, or Julv, 5;c. It is an exceeding good, tender-bod.ng, fwett- eating cabbage, proper to cultivate with the large lugar- loaf ki:^d, Stc. as ap.vincipal, early, and general fummer crop, aiid for autumn and winter ufe as young light cabbages. The early Battcrfea cabbage is a roiindifli-oval-hend- ing, rather fmalhfti cabbage, that heads quick, comes iu early, and is excellent for ufe while modcratelv young, or of middlipg light growth, before it becomes very hard. The early Riiffia cabbage is a fmall roundifh cab- bage that comes in about June and July, heads very fall:, and foon grovi'S hard ; but if ufcd while young and hollow is very iwcet and tender. Of the autivmn and winter kinds; the principal forts are the common round white cabbage, which is a large middle- ftzed, roundifh, very white cabbage, that is in ptrfcdion about Auguft and September, and which gradually acquires a degree of hardnefs. It is hardy enough to endure the winter. The l.afons, thofe fown in autumn and the firll week in Auguft arriving at per- fection early in the following autumn, as Augnfl and Sep- tember ; and the fpring fowing coming in abcnit the begin- ning or middle of September, or towards Michaelmas, though they fJdom attain any tolerable perfctlion till the end of October. Thty arc very fine in November and December, but rarely attain fo large a growth as the autumn-railed plants. The fame method of putting the feed in, and pricking out the plants, is to be obferved, as in the»famnier kinds. The lime for planting out the autumn-raifed plants is, for a few October or November, but for the jirincipal part February, or early in March ; and for the fpring-raifed plants, May and June. All of them muil have an open expofure of well dunged ground, and the plants fet in rows two fttt and a half at leall dittart; and for the larger kinds, a yard diilant each way (honld be allowed. All the culture they need is that of hoeing, to extirpate weed^, and drawing earth about their (lems, which is an feet J but the latter jihntings need not be planted at more than a foot and a liaU dillant. ft i< fomctimcs cuRomary to plant nut the fummer crop? of thefe |)lants between rows of forward beans, peas, kidniy- beans, tauiiflowcrj, early cabbage, and other plants, that (land dillant in rows and arc foon to come off tlie gnwiid ; as by tills prad'icc fome ground is gained; but the plants are generally li.ietl when they are planted out in a clear open foot of ground, previoufly well dug over for their reception. In perfiiraiing the fummer plantings it is of much advan- tage to cliuf? moill weather for the work, otherwife watci- ing Vnull be )>rad^fcd fcveral times till the plants have llricken frefh root. , All the culture that is afterwards required is, to hoc ihcin well, to dellroy the weeds, and to drasv a little caith up ta their llems occafionally. McJ.od 'f (ulliire in the borecole HiiJ. In the borecole varieties of cabbage, the plants are open, never clofing to form a head or cabbage. They poflefs a peculiar degree of hardinefs, fo as alinofl to bid defiance tn the feverclt winter. The forts moHly cultivated arc th;r green curled borecole, the red curled borecole, the thick, leaved curled borecole, and the finely fringed borecole. They mofUy rife witli a thick tlalk a yard or more in height, furmounted by a large head of thick lt;res ; in fome fpread- ing horizontally every way, being fin.ly fringed and curled ; but there are others that grow more contraftcelly. In ail the forts the flems produce numerous fine fprouts early in fpring, clofely furrnunding them for fome length, and which, as well as the principal or main top heads, boil e>cceedinq;lv green and tender. I'he main i-.eads come in for ufe in au- tumn and winter, and the fprouts early in the fpring. They are railed by fowing feed annually from March to the middle of April, for the main crops ; and a fmaller por- tion, in the beginning of May, for a fucceffion. Thev fhould all be fown in open fituatious, not too thick, and the feed raked in. A quantity of the plants, when the leaves are an inch or two broad, fliould be pricked out on beds four or five inches afunder, to remain five or fix week-, fo as to obtain a proper degree of llrength for the late crops to be felefted out finally in June and July for the main crops, in rows two or three feet and a half afunder ; and for the late crops, early in Augnll, placing thefe in rows two feet apart and eighteen incht s in the rows. Moifl weather (hould, if poffible, be cliofeu for this purpofe. A fmall crop may alfo be fown in autumn, or about thp beginning of Auguft, to ftand the winter in young growth, and be planted out early in the fpring, in order to be of the largcft full fi/e in the following autumn. For the field culture of thefe plants, and their application as the food of cattle, Ihcep, &c. fee Borecole. The Siberian borecole, or Scotch cole, is a fort, fe>me of which grow with very tall ftems and large open heads ; others more rcbull, with (horter flems and larger heads of broad curly leaves ; in fome forts, fpreadiug ; in othei =, ftanding ercft. Thefe forts are not fogenei-ally elleantd a? the common borecoles to cultivate in the gr.rden in any con- fidcraWe crops ; they, however, boil tolerably tender and good in the winter, and the (Urns furnifli young fprouts after the main tops are gatlicred ; fo th::t I'ey might be cultivated for winter and fpring ufe. They alfo anf\ur well in the field. See Borecole. 'I'htre are fome perennial varieties of the borecole kind, H hi - with BRA vith variif;atcd Iravts, which arc cuIlivauJ a» [jlaiUb of or- naniciil and ciinol'ny. There are others ;illo dI ;i fomewhat perennial (hriib by nature, rifiiig with tall braiicl>ing ftcnis, i'liruiihcil with leaves all ihe year round ; of which foine .lie curiuully variegated, the plants contiiniinp Icvcral years. Tliofe with variegated leaves uiake an higlily ornamental and euiious appearance. 'ri\efe forts are propagated and continued principally by planting the oiT-fets, ilips, and flips of the lidc (hoot?, in the fpring or fumnier fcafons, watering them till they become \vell-ri)otcd. The common or green colewort !■; a hardy biennial plant of the iipen-headed kind, with a fliort ftem producing a head of lar^illi, oblong, plane, entire leaves, generally of a green colour. It is a very hardy plant, and was formerly cultivated for winter greens, but, till fcvorely pinched by froll, is tough, rank-tafted, never boiling fo fine and tender as the cabbage colsworts, for which reafon it is rarely culti- vated now for the table. They may be raifed for winter ufe by lowing the feed in July, as directed for cabbage cole- worts. The Anjou cabbatre or colewort is a plant of the borecole kind, which grows tall, and produces very large open head?. li is raifed as the preceding kinds, but mud be planted out at a much greater diftance. BrufTels' fprouts, or choii de Milan, is a dwarf, perennial, open colewort, very prodiiftive of fprouts all the year round. It is raifed by feeds, as in the other open eoleworts, and by the perennial roots, the fmallell bit of which will grow and iocreafe very fall. Method of culture in the turnip callage linds. This is a fingular variety of cabbage, having its ftalks fwelled globularly, like a great turnip, and crowned by a large tutt of leaves, which never clofe or cabbage. The forts are the turnip cabbage, with the turnip above the ground ; and the turnip cabbage, with the turnip under the ground. The plants rife and grow for fome time, as in the common open colewort kind, till they form bulbs. It is the globular or tutnip-part of tlie plant that is ufed, being fometimes fliced in fonps, and by fome ufed as common tur- nips ; but unlefs employed when quite young, they are rank and unpalatable. They are much recommended for culture in fields, as a green food for cattle and fheep ; their chief merit is their hardinefs, as they aie capable of withftanding the hardell winter. See Turnip Cabbage. Thefe plants are propagated by feed fown annually in March, April, and June, being fet out in an open lituation, in rows two feet afunder, keeping them clean from weeds, and throwing a little earth about the bottom of the ilems occafionally. The turnip part will be fully grown by Michaelmas, and continue all winter for ufe. They may likewife be fown where the plants are intended to remain, and be hoed out to proper diftances. This lail is probably the bell method of cultivating field crops. Mtlhcd oj culture in the caul\Jlons:er kind. The cauliflower is fuppofed to be a variety of fome of the forts of common cabbage, brought up to its prefent improved l^atc by diligent culture. Mr. Miller infills that the cauli- flower is fpecifically diftincl from the common cabbage ; becanfe, in a courfe of lilty years' experience, he could never find tl'eleaft appearance of one approaching the other; becaufe tiny are fo different in their leaves, when the plants are you.ng, a? to be eafily diilinguifacd ; and becaufe the common cabbnge puts out one upright ftem from the centre, which afterwards divides into feveral branches; whereas the cauliflower fends out many flower llems from the part that is eaten, v/hich is a compad coUcftion of the heads of thefe BRA flalks, dividing afterwards into fo many (lems, and branching out into many fpreading (lioots, fo as to form a large fpread- ing head when in flower, but never rifing pyramidieally like the cabbage. Tofc, however, afftrts, that though in a well cultivated foil it inay be kept from degenerating, by being properly watered, it will bceome a common cabbage, if neg- Icdted. It was fird brought to England from the ifland of Cyprus, and, in the courfe of the lall century, has been fo much improved in our kitch.cn garden;., that moll parts of Europe are now fupjiiied with Englifli feeds. The varieties are the early cauliflower and the late cauli. flower, which are alike in their growth and fize, only the early kind comes in about a week before the other, provided the true fort can he obtained, of which, however, there is no certainty, unlcfs by fowing the feed from the earliell forts, as is tl:e praflice of the i^ondon kitchen gardeners, who arc always in poffefTion of an early and a lite kind of the former, of which they are very careful. Both the va- rieties art of a delicate nature, being generally too tender to refill the cold of the winter feafon, without the occafioiial aid of glaffes or other means. Thofe who are curious in the culture of the cauliflower, have generally three or fourcrops in the year ; as an early fummer crop, a main fummer crop, a late fummer crop, and an autumn or Michaelmas crop. The proper feafon for fowing the above crops are, for the early fummcr-crop, about the middle of Auguft ; the plants which rife in the fame feafon are to be pricked out, and preferved through the winter, under bell glafles, liand glaffes, frames, or other conveniences, v>'hich, being planted out in fpring, arrive at perfeftion the enfuing fummer, trom May to July and Auguft. For the late fummer crop to fnccted the above, the feed mull be fown in February, or early in March, but not later than the firft week in April, the plants being fet out in May to come in for ufe in .Au- guft and September. And for the Michaelmas or autumn crop, the fowing fliould be performed about the middle of May, the plants being fet out in July. Thefe are ready after Michaelmas, and the following month, come to perfefliori gradually in Odlobcr, but are never fo large, fair, or per» feftly headed as the fummer crops. In the culture of the early and main fummer crops, great attention is neceflary to procure good feed, fuch as is not more than a year old, and which has been faved from the bell forts. For the purpofe of railing them in the greateft pertcftion, a bed of the richeft light earth, in the full ground, in a free expofure, is to be prepared at the proper period, by digging it well over neatly, one fpade deep, and breaking the furfacc fine, then, either fowing the feed on the furface, and raking it in evenly and liijhily ; or firft, raking the furface fmooth, and then fowing the feed, fifting light earth over it to a quarter of an inch in thicknefs. When the weather is dry, gentle waterings, in the evening, are neceffary, both before and after the plants appear ; and if very hot, dry weather, it is advifeable to (hade the bed moderately with mats in the heat of the day. The plants generally appear in a week or ten days. All the culture necefi'ary afterwards, is occafioiial watering and weeding, until towards the latter end of September, when their leaves will be an inch or two broad ; a q'lantity of the beft plants fhoulJ then be pricked out, in four feet wide beds of rich earth, in rows three or four inches d'ftant, rejecting all crooked and black-flianked plants. As foon as they arc planted, a moderate watering fliould be given, which, when dry wea- ther prevails, fliould be moderately repeated. The plants mull remain there till about the end of Oftober, when they fhould be tranfplanted into their winter quarters, fome being planted out under hand or bell glaffes for the earlieft crops ; others BRA others into garden frames, to be occariorally proteinc4 by glaffes till plantfd out in the fjiriiig. The plants intended to ho wintered in frames may alfo, oc- eafionally, be pricked ont from the feed bed at once into the frames to remain. For the plants to be cultivated under ^rlaffes, a proper bed of the richell mellow ground Ihould ,be provided in the bell defended and warmell part of the garden, in a free expofurt to the ftdl fun, being well dnnyed with the belt rotten dung, fnchas that of old cucumber or melon beds, or any other of (Iniilar quality, fpreading it equally over the grouTid at lead three or four inches tliick, and the whole then reguliriy trenched in o.>e good' fpade deep, burving the dung equally, then forming the ground into beds a yard «'ide, witli foot -wide alleys for tlie convenience of going in to raife,-and let off and on the glafies, &c. The plants are then to be put in, allowing three to each glafs, though the London gardeners often plant more ; but two of the bell are enouijh to be left to come to perfection. At the time of plantinp; them, a quantity of the hundfoinefl, llraight, clear-fhanlci-d plants fllould be choien, which being ready, a line (liould be Ibetched along the middle of the beds, and at every yard dillance, and three plants put in a triangle, fix or feven inches apart ; a little water being given afterwards, and the glaffes put on, which (bould be kept clofe about ten or twelve days. When the plants have taken frelh rout, prop them up on the funny fide, about three inches high, with forked fticks, pieces of brick-bat, en- woodtn pegs, fifteen inches long, three or four notches being made an inch or two above one another to receive the edge of the glafs, ftick'ng them in the ground. The glalTes, by this means, may be readily propped higher or lower, or on any fide as occafion may require. During winter the glaffes fnould be kept almoft conltantly over the plants, only keep- ing them tilted on the props in mild weather, on the wa-m- eit fide, for the admifllon of air ; but in fine, mild, dry days they may be fet quite off, which if the plants be forward in growth, fhould be praftifed at all opportunities, litl by too conftant glafling they be drawn up to flower in the'r fmall winter growth, and be rendered ulelefs. The glaffes mud always be put over the plants at night ; and when cut- ting winds or fiolly weather prevail, they fhould be kept as clofe down as pofiible, and long litter laid down dole about tlie lower part of each glafb, raifing it higher as occafion niay require. In their fpring culture, they muflbr thinned out, about the beginning or middle of March, to one flout plant or two at moil under each glafs, though in large bcU-glaffes the market gardeners frequently leave more, for the take of having the advantage of the glaffes, to bring as many as pof- fible to early perfeftion. The otheis fJKJuld be planted out into another place, as a piece of rich, well-dunged ground, the plants being raifed with the point of a trowel, to prrferve the fibres of the roots, being planted t-vo feet and a half diilant each way, water being given to fettle the earth about them. The plants under glaffes fliould have the earth direclly made good about them, and a little mould drawn up about their Items, continuing to cover them oc< ft nally wiiii the glaffes, which mull now be raifed confidcrably on p'ops. in proportion to the advanced growth of the plants, not omit- ting to let them have the benefit of the full .lir in mild days, and that of warm (bowers, by oecifionally fetting tne glallcs wholly oif. But the glaffes are to be continued occalionidly over the plants until the middle or latter end of April, or longer, if it be neccffary. When the plants are fo tar ad- va -ced that their leaves piefs againll the glaffes, they fhould be raifed, by forming a border or riJge of earth round each BRA hole of plants, three or four inches high, on which ridge tf mould the glaffes fliould be fet, continuing to prop up one edge occafionally as before, and according as the plants ad- vance in growth, railing them on every fide three or four inches in height ; as ihe length of the day; and warmth of the weather now increale, th«: plants grow freely, and require as much free air aniflKipric of Enm-lHiia, fvRtcd on tin- Pafiaigc, which, st a little dif- iiixnce, dillhit^cs itfilf iiit > tlie bay called Frilcho-haf. It vas built ill the ytar 12 -j;, aiul dirives its name from I'nino, Kifliop (if Prague. In H<^i, the inliabitaiits cxiKllcd the Piilifh parrifoii, and afforded an afjhim to the hifl'op ot I'.i mrtaiid, viio had declared for the knijrhf; of the Teuto- nic order. It was formerly one of the Prufllaii great citi>.-3, and fent reprefcutatlves to the feiiate or council ot iltite ; Lut it is MOW under the jurifdidlion of the liilho'). It is larjje and populous, aid cinies on a (rood iradc. Dfannf- fc.rK is divided into the Old aud New Town ; .52 ir.iks S.W. of Konigfhcrjr. N. lat. 54° ;o'. E. long. 20" :'■ BnAiiKrarRC, a town of Oermany, in the circle of VVcftphalia, and county of AVicd Ruiikcl ; 4 miles N.E. of New Wied. BRAUNSDORF, a town of Germany, in the circle of tipper Saxony, and circle of Ei/gcberrr ; n miles N.E. of Freyberg. Alfo, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Aullii.i ; 6 luilcs K. of Mcillau. BRAUNSf.I.EFEN. a town of Moravia, in thecircle of Olmutz, 16 milf! N.N.E. of Olmutz. BRAl^NSWEIO, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxonv, and duchy of HoUleiu, ferving as a favix- biirg to Kiel, and one mile north from it. BRAVO, John, in Bkgrnphy, a native of Callik-, prac- tifed medicine at Salamanca, the latter part of the i6th century, with dillinguilhed reputation ; he was alfo pro- feflbr in medicine there, and much reforted Irk and elleemed by his pupils. His works are " De hydrophobic natura, caufis, atque medcla," Salam. 157 1, Svo. ; " De faporam et odorum differentii-', et caufis," i -8j, 8vo.; " De curandi lationepcrmedicamentipnrgantis exhibltionem," 155S, Svo.; " De fimplicium mcdicanientorum dcltftu," l59-> ^'o- He alfo pubhfhed, agreeably to the fafhion of the times, commentaries on the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Bravo, Johs, profeffor of medicine and furgery, in the ur.iverfity of Coimbra, in Portugal, pukhflud in 1605 " I^^ niedendis corporis malis per mannalem operationem," i2mo.; " De capitis vulneribus," fol. 1610. He died in 1615. Bravo, Gasparu, of Aguilar del Campo, in Old Caf- tile, phylician to Philip IV. and to the Inquilition, took his degree of dodtor in medicine at ValladoHd, where he taught medicine and furgery the middle of the 17th century ; and was author of " Refohilii>num medicarum ciica univerfam tolius philofophiae doclrinam," 1649, Lug- duni, fol. 1" " Confultationes medicx, et tyrocintum prac- ticum," Colonise, 1-671, 4to. ; " Op<-n;m medicinaliuni, tomus tertiu^" Lugduni, '<574, fol. The author treats in thefe volumes of ttic phyfiology and the pathology of fever ; of the effefts of bleeding, puiging, and of fudorifics ; of the ufe of the Peruvian bark, lately introduced into praftice, which he commends : aud, amcwig his confnkations, he gives an account of the difeafe and death of Philip IV. of Spain. Haller. Bib. Med, Bravo Rio, called alfo Del Norte, or of the northern ftar, the principal river of Spanifh North America, which, »s f..f as its fources can be conjeftured, has a coiirfe of about 1000 Britifti miles ; but its whole circuit probably exceeds that of tl>e Danube. It difcharges itfelf into the gulf of Mexico. N. lat. 35° 40'. E. long. 97° 30'. Bravo ! Ital. a word which needs no explanation. It is an Italian exclamation of applaufe, which all Euvope hasadopted. If, in a theatre, the Italians approve a mufical compofi- lion, and diflike the finger, though they hilj the performer, BRA ihcy .•>fterwan!s cry out iravo fiiire U mnejlro ; and on the contrary, when they hifs the compofer, immediately af'cr they diicriminate, if the linger is 11 favourite, and exclaim bnrvo Marchcfc, or Iruva /.v Piiinti ; and if a cornp.ifer is A plagiarill from the well-known works of a favourite autiior, tl>e critics cvv out Ivik-o Pai/i-.llo ! or l/rat'O Chiuinjfa !' BR.AURbNI.V, in ytntlquily, a feaH held every fifth vear in honour of l)iana. furnamed Braanmhi from Bniuroti, a village near Achen?, where the famous llatue of that gorl- defs, brought from .Sc\ lliia Taurica, was prefcrved till it was taken av.ay by Xerxes. The ceremony of the Braoninia was ;iiaoagcd by ten mer>, frona their oHice called 'IspcToi-.i ; the victim offered was a ooat, and it was cnllomary for certain men to ling one of floiner's Iliads duiing the fervicc ; other rainillcrs at the folemnity were young virgins, from five to ten yetrs of age> habited in yellow, and confecratcd to Diana, under the de- nomination of Ajx.-.oi, i.e. bears, which they derived frorr. this circumftancc. A bear, having becor.ie tanie and trac* tabic, was admitted to eat and play with the Phlenida", the inhabitants of a borough in Attica ; but a young maid being too familiar with it, the bear tore her to pieces, and was af- terwards killed by the brethren of the damfel. Hence a fatal pellilence enfued, for ftayiag which an oracle advifed them, in order to appcafe the anger of Diana, occafianed by the dellruftion of tlie bear, to confecrate virgins to her in memory of it. The Athenians obeyed the mandate of the oracle, and enafted a law, that no virgin fhould be married till file had undergone this ceremony. Potter. Arch. Grxc» lib. ii. cap. 20. BRAVUM, in yfnnent Geography, a town of Spain,, placed by Ptolemy in the Tarragonenfis, in the country of the Murh iges. BRAVURA, Ital. is a mufical term, as ^ria S. Bra^ I'-.ira, implies a ftyle of air, with wliich in modern times. Mifs Davies IngleUrjt, the Gabriel, the Agujiari, Madame Le Drun, Madame Mara, and ^!rs. Billiiigton, have made us perfeftly acquainted. M. Ginguinc, in the EncycL Meth. has defcribed and apologised tor execijtwa., with much tafte and feeling. " We admire (fays he) the w-arbllng of birds, in tones which we cannot appreciate or underftand % the nightingale, blackbird, thrutli. canary bird, and lark, charm us with their divifions ; the meafured intervals and varied mek.dies exquifitely performed by fwect and flexibls voices, fupporttd and enriched by harmony, may afford a delight of a fuperior kind, in human tones, which can infi- nuate themfclves into the ininoft receffes of the heart, to which words can never [xnetrate, however impaJTioned, or tuned by numbers." BRAUWEILER, in Geography, a prefefturate and abbey of Germany, in the circk of the Lower Rhine, and deflorate of Cologa ; 7 miles W.N.W. of Cologn. BRAUWER, or Brouwer, Adrian, in Biography, a Flemifii painter of great eminence, w-as born of obfeure pa- rents at Ondenarde, as fom.e fay, or, according to Hou- braken, at Haerlem, in 1608, and obtained inlTruftion in his art from Francis Hals for the profit of his labour. In this fituation he manifelled fuch fuperior powers, that Hals employed him in a garret apart from his other fcholars, af- figning to him hard labour and a fcanty diet, and felling his performances for high prices. From this ftate of dofe con- finement and harfii treatment he eloped, and went to Ara« fterdam, where his works were known and efteemed. Hav- ing become matter of 100 ducatoons, which he received for a fingle piece, he became frantic with joy, and fpent it at a tavern in ten days. From this time his ufual abode was a public houfe ; and he worked only when he was urged to it BRA it by ncctiTity. As foon as lie had fiiii(hcd any ],kce, he offered it for fale ; and if it did not produce a ilipulatcd price, he burnt it, and began another with j^ri.ater cart. Poircfilnjjj a vein of low liumour, and engaging, both _ fober and drunk, in many droll adventures, he removed from Amllcrdam to Antwerp, where he was arrcUcd as a fpy, and committed to prifon. Thiscircnnidance introduced hiin to an aci[u:untar,ce with the duke d'Arcmbcig, wlw, liaving obferved his genius, by fomc Ihght ikctches drawn with black lead while in cullody, requelttd llubciis to fur- nilh him with materials for painting. Bronwer cliole tor his fubjeift a group of ioldiers p'ayir'.g at cards in a corner of the prifon ; and when the pidure was (inidied, the duke himfclf was attonifhed, and R'.'.hei-.s, when iie ia-v it, imme- diately proncnuced that it was the performance of bii'iuver, and offered for it the fum of Coo guilders. The duke, however, retained it, and gave the painter a much lai'^s^j- fum. I'^pon this, Rubenj procured his relealt', and received iiim into his c.wn lioule ; but, uninfiuenced by gratitude to his benefaclor, he ftole away, and returned to tlic Iceues of low debauch, to which he had been formerly accuftomcd. Being reduced to the necefllty of flying from jullice, he took refuge in France ; and, having wandered through fe- vcral towns, he was at length conllraincd by indigence to return to Antwerp, where he WRS taken ill, and obliged to feek relief in a huipital ; and in this alylum of lelf-procurtd poverty and dillreis he died m his ,j2d year. Rubens la- mented his death, and procured for him an honourable iiiter- liient in the church ot the Carmelites. Such were the talents of Brauwcr, that, in the courfe of a difiipated life, he attained to diftinguilhcd excellence in the ftyle of painting- wliich he adopted. His fuhjefts were taken from low life, and copied after nature ; iuch as droll convcrfations, iealls, taverns, drunken quarrels, boors play- ing and difputiug at cards, or furgeons dreffing the wound- ed. His expreilion, however, is fo lively and cliavaifteiiilic ; the management of his colours fo furpri/.ing ; and truth was united with exquifite higii finilhing, correilnefs of drawing, and wonderful tranfparence, to Inch a degree, that his paintings are more valuable, and atlord higher prices, than many works of the moft eminent mafters. Some of his bell works are found at Dulfeldorp. His dra\\ings are dilpcrled in the various cabinets of Europe. Several of his defigns have been engraved ; and we have fome few etchings by himftlf of fubjedls ufually reprefented in his piclures, wliich are iigned with the initials of his name, H. B. ; Adrian being fpelled with an H.. Pilkington. Strutt. BRAUX, in Geography, a tawn of France, in the de- partment of the Ardennes; 5 miles N. of Charlevillc. BRAWALLA. See Browalla. BRAWN, in the Ciilwary Art, fignifies the (ledi of a boar, boned, roli.-d up, or tolhifcd, boiled, and lailly pickled, for the winter's ufe. The method ofpreparlng it is as follows : —After the flefli has been fprinkled with iait. and the bloi.d drained off, it is to be falted a little, and rolled up as hard as poflible. In this itate, it is to he boiled in a copper or large kettle till it is fo tender as to admit of a Itraw's being 'uii through it ; and then fet by thorougl'ly trt cool. When it is cold, it is to be put into a pickle, prrparec^ bv adding to everv galiou of water a handful or two of fill, and as much bran of wheat ; boiling thefe ingredients together, and then draining the bran as clear as poflible from the liquor. When the li- quor is quite cold, the brawn is to be put into it. Brawn is made only of the flitches, without the legs ; the oldeft boars are cholen for this ufe ; it being a rule, the older the boar, the more horny the brawn. BRA There is alfo brawn of pig, which is made by fcuWirpr, drawing, and boning the beall whole, except the head j then cutting it in two collars, foakiiig it in brine, ftafon- ing, rolhiig, putting it into a cloth, binding it up, boilinjj it, and when boiled, hooping it up in a frame. I'lllAXl A, in J'eler'tnari Scinirr, a difcafe of fliccp, which is dillributed into the dry, collivc, and watery hraxcy. The dry braxcy feema to he co'.d and inflammation in the bowels, owing to tlie taking in with the food fomc hoar- froll, or to a change in the blood ari'.ing from the removal of lilt animals from a poor to a rich keep. The coitivc braxcy is merely the colic, from obltriided inteilii.e^. The watery braxcy is fuppofed to be the " red water," as it urifcs from the ulual caufe, and is attended with the fmiilar fymptom ot fuppreffion of urine. In this latter cafe, inllead of ufing lur. pentine and other ilroiig diuretics, the furell and fafetl courfi: is to punfture the bladder, without wounding the guts, ant} thus to draw oil lilt; uriue, afterwards cavoriiig and healing the wound. BRA\, SIR Rkginai.d, in B'logrtiphy, an Englifli poli- tician and inge-iious areiiiteft of the i ijth century, was the fecond Ion of tir Richard Bray, one of the privy council to ki:^g Heiiiy Yl., and dcfcended from an ancient family, who accompaniui William the conqueror into Fngiand, and flourifhed in the counties of Northampton and Warwick. In the full year uf Riclir.id III., Reginald obtained a ge- neral pardon, probably, on account of the part he had taken from perlonal and hereditary attachment to Henry VI.; and he was recommended as a peifoii of fobcr and prinieut piilicy, to lliofe who favoured the advancement of the tail of Riehnuind, allei wards king Henry V'll., to tlic throne. In the fervice of this prince, both before and after his accefhon, he was Heady and aclive ; and his zeal was re- compenfed Ly a vaiiety of honourable appointments. He was made a kniglu banneret, probably at the battle of Bof- woi th, a knight of the bath at the king's coronation, and afterwards a knight of the garter. He >vas alfo conilable of the callle of Oakham in Riitlandfhire, joint chief jullice with lord Fitzwalter of all the forells foutli of Trent, high treafurer, chancellor of the duchy of I.ancaller, high fltw- aid of the univerlity of Oxford, and a member of the privy council. In the icth year of the king's reign, he had a grant tor lile ot the ide of Wight at the annual rent (fays Camden) of ;oo marks. He received many other marks ot the royal bounty and favour ; and died Augull the 5tli I J03, polfelfed of a very great cllate ; and his remains were interred in the chapel at Windtor. Notwithllanding the wealth he acquired, and the activity with which he offici- ated as minilter during 17 years, under a fovereign, who was fufpieious in his temper, and extorted large fums of money from his fubjeCls, hillorians concur in giving him an excellent characfer. They teprefeiit him as the father of his country, a tage and grave perfon, a fervent lover of jullice, and one who would often admonifli the king when he did any thing contrary to jullice or equity. His piety and charity were alto conlpicuous in the ulual exe^cll^.s ol the times, in which he lived. Cf his ikill in architedlure, he gave fufTicient evidence, in building the chapel of Hemy VII. in Wellminfter abbey, i^hich was condncied under his diredlion, and in coinpleating tlie chapel of St.Oeorge at W iiidfor, to which he was a libc- ril beiufadlor. As he died without iffuc, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune to Edmund, the cidell Ion of his voungcr brother John, who was fummoned to parliament ill i5,;o, as baron of Eaton Bray ; and he alfo left coiifi- derable eilates to Edward and Reginald, younger brothers of Edmund. Froin Edward, the manor of Shirt Vachcry 1 i i and BRA BRA and CranlfV in Surry, which was given to lir RegiuiiU upon the execiilion and attdindcr of lord Aiidley, dtl"c-ciiire, where the male line of that bra.icli beca:ne extindl, about lifly years ago. ISiojj. Brit. Bray, Tiioma."!, a learned and pious divine of I'le 17th century, was born at M.irton in Shropfliire in 1656, and after fiiiilhinir \im fcliool educutii):i at Olwcllry, was ad- mitted into Hart hall, in the nnivcrlity "I Oxh)rd, wlicre he made coiifulerable prniiciency in thofe lUidics, which wtre adupteJ to tl.e eccleliallical jirofefiion, for which he was in- tended. Fieinij under a necclTny ot leaviiio Oxford, on ac-^ count of his circumllanccs, foon after he had coinniented l)atheh>r of arts, he entered into liolv orders ; and by his afiidnity in dtfcharging the duties of his profellion, as well ai bv his exemplary behaviour, he obtained the patron;i5Jc of lord Diirby, who prclcntcd him to tlie living of Ovtr- AVhitacre in tlieco'inty of Warwick, geiicroudy avi^iiiented for his fake, by the 'iddition nf tlie great tithes, and in l6i;o, to the rc£>ory of Sheldon, which he retained till wiMiin a quarter of a year of his death. In 1693, he took hi5 degree of mailer of arts in Hart-hall, O.\ford. At iiheldon, he compofed his " Catechctic;il lettnres," pnb- li(hed in 1696, which were not only well rece.ved by thcp ib- lie, but the means of recommending him to Dr. Compton, bifuop of London, who fixed upon him as a proper perfon for modelling the infant church of Maryland in America, and cdablifhing it upon a folid foundation. In 1^)96, he was appointed commiflary for this pnrpole, with a falary of ^ool. per annum. Determined on aflive and ufefnl fervice, whatever prefent facrifices might attend it, he intimated his readmefs to accept the office, on condition of being encou- raged and aided in providing parociiial libraries for the mi- nilters who were to be fcnt to the churches of this colony. This fcheme of parochial libraries he extended to all the co- lonies and plantations in America and the Well Indies, and alfo to the faftories in Africa ; and he connefted with it another dcfign, which was that of cllablilliing lending-libra- ries in every deanery thro\ighoi,it England and Wales, out of which the neighbouring clergy might borrow books ; iuid where thev might have an opportunity of confulting them, with regard to all matters that pertained to literature in general, and to thtir own office in particular. The plan became popular, and many libraries were founded, both at home and abroad. With a view of promoting the utility of thefe libraries, and of directing the niiflionari-rs in the profe- cution of cheir theological iludies, Mr. Bray publillied two books, one entitled, " Bibliotheca parochialis, Sic." and the other, " Apollohc charity," a dilcourfe upon Daniel xii. 5. preached at St. Paul's at the ordination of fome proteftant niifiionarics, intended for the plantations ; to which is prefix- ed, "A general view of the Euglilh colonies in America, Sec." About this time, viz. in i6^j6, Mr. Bray took the degree ofdodorin divinity, though his circumftances would hardly allow of the expence attending it ; thinking that this title rfnd honour would give authority to his advice, and fcrve to promote the benevolent p'jrpofes which hr: wifhed to accom- pliih. In 1698, he made fome unfucccfsfnl exertions in order to procure a public tvind for the propa^ration of the gofpel in foreign parts ; but failing in his main dellgn, his efforts availed for th; purpofc of forming a voluntary lociety, which was afterwards incorporated by royal charter. See Society. Ever fince his appointment to the ofnee of commifTary for Maryland, he hid received no emuhiment from it ; but he liad expended his time and money in promoting thofe im- portant objeds, to which he was zealuiiny devoted ; and, I therefore, fome of his friends endeavoured to diiTuade him from profecuting his defign of going abroad, and to accept of two valuable preferments which were oflered to him at hotne, which were ihofc of fub-almoncr and the donative of Aldgate in London. But peril lling in his purpofe, and rmding that his prefence was nccelfary, he let fail for Mary. land Ml iCh^cj, and arrived thither in March of the following year. He immediately ajiplicd to the objecl of his milTuui, vifittd the province, and took meafures f'. ]if.A\-banL, a narrow bank of faiid on the eaft coall of Ireland, oppolite to Bray-head, at the didance of from hx to feven miles from the coall, and extending about eight miles N. by E. The lead water found on it was nine feet. BRAY-Z'rai/, a cape on th^ eall coafl of Ireland, near the town of the fame name, which is ftcej), and the highell land upon tliat part of the coaft. It is 1 2 miles north of Wickiow-head, and 5 mdcs fouth 01 Dalkey, the fouth point of the entrance into the bay of Dublin. N. lat. 53° 12'. W. long. 6° 4'. Bray fur Sdr.e, a town of France, in the departmcr't of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diilricl of Provins, ,5 leagues S. of Provins. The town contains 2C,;o, and the canton 10,582 inhabitants ; the ter- ritory comprehends 272^ kiiiometres, and 2j communes. EaAY Jiir Sommc, a town ot France, in the dtpartrnent of the Somnie, and chief place of a canton, in the dillnft of Peionnc, 3 leagues W. of Peronne. The place contains 1065, and the canton 9645 inhabitants; the territory in- cludes 145 kiiiometres, and 20 communes. BRAZE', a town of France, in the department of the Cijte-d'Or, 2 leagues from Dijon. BRAZED, in Herniary, the fame as Braced, is ufed to expieis Inch ciiarges as arc folded or interlaced. BRAZEEL porju, m Botany, (Petiver). See Spi- GEI.IA A»STHELM1A. BRA"ZEN age is ufed by the poets to exprcfs the third age of the world. See Age. Brazen-i'///^, among Mliiiirs, is the ftandard by which the other diihes are gauged, and is kept in tb.e king's hall. Brazen /aver, in 'Jeiuijh H'ljlory, one cf the utenfi'3 of the court of the tabtniacle, delcribed in the jOih chapter of Exodus, and conveniently liluatcd between the eall end BRA of the tabernaele and llio altar of bvirnt-ofTerings. Neitlier its fliape nor li/.c is mentioned by Mofes ; bnt it was pr(«. bably of confiderable capacity, as it ferved for the ufe of all the prlertj te) wafli their liands and feet, before they per- formed their minillry. It is faid (Exod. XKviii. S. ), that Mofes " made the h'.ver of brafs, and the foot of it of brafs, of the looklng-glafTes of the women, who alTembled at the door of the fibernacle of the congregation." Such were the ancient mirrors, made of poliflied br.ifa or other metal ; whicli gave but a dark or obfeure iina.:n ht finds liiinftlf ciiiiblcd to do fo without much rilk of beint^ forced, aKvavs coils a general fomc of the b^ft and bravell foldicrs in his Rriny, and frtqiKiitly deters the rcll from I'ubfoq-jcnt ha- z;»rdou-i alleiiipts, efpecially if the dillnidion from the couiittrinMiei a:id fouga(Fc» has been conlldtrable. When the br.-ach is to be carried fword in hand, it is indilp:.nril)ly iieccfT.iry that all the defences of the work Ihould be ruined ; the biea.-h itftlf very pradicp.ble, a;id that, both before and during the actacic, an inceflant lire of c;innoii, nuifqiietry, a-id aiort:irs llionld be poured i:pon, and into the works sn- fdadiiig that, the immediate obictl of theaflault. The front of the attack Ihould fui pafs and cmbnice the whole extent of the work ; for, under thefe circumllances, the lupcrior depth and number of llie be!ie::er's column of attack, mull neceir.irily, as at Oc/.akow, Bender, Valenciennes, Sec, overbalance tlie inefiicient refillance wliich can be oppofed by a garrifon. It was from a negled of alltliefe preca\itiqp9, that the grand attack of the confederates upon the calUe of Namur in i6(;;; entirely failed. The columns dclHucd to mount the di jerent breaclics began their march from too great a dillance, and, although protetud by a prodigious Jiie of bombs and artillery, the moll forward never pene- trated further than the middle of the breach ; and they re- tired after fullainmga ferious lofs. In facl, it isalmoll im- poUihle to mount a breach by aflault, while any works re- main, v.'hofe hre is either diredted upon, or enfilades the attack. * But, on the other hand, it is equ.illy rafli in a governor to re- fill a (lorm, or hazard the lives of ins garrifon in friiitlcfs at- tempts to maintain polTeflion of the breach, after thtfe works have all been dellroyed, and the breach is reduced to its ou n ilefences. A pl:ice tluis obllinatcly holding out is in danger of bei:ig taken by affuilt, and the garr'lon put to the fword, or obliged to furrcndcr at difcretion. Retrenchment?, indeed, mav lometimes fen'e to protract an unavailing rtfillance ; but tiieir con llruf lion fiioidd not be delayed, as is generally the cafe, till after a breach has been made in the body of the place, with the fole view of obtaining a better capitu:ation. When the liege is once formed, much time is loil in their formation ; and the lofs of men by the bombs thrown into the bullion is very great, belides the confuierable fatigue which the fol- diers experience. In the ravelins, horn-works, crown- works, lunettes, and other detached fortification?, they are of greater fervice, efpecially when the ditches are dry, and the communication with the body of the place eafy ; for, then it becomes impolTible to carry them by the gorge. And when they have revetements, and a fofle, the beliegers will be reduced to the necelTuy of bringirg up artillery upon th'; work to batter ih.eni in breach, or to try the eiFcft of his bombs. If the enemy adopt the method of a blinded fap, he mull be very careful to cover himfelf from the fire of the curtain, and the faces of the bullions ; and in every one of thefe cafes, much time is loll before he can approach the body of the place. Tlie breach itfelf may alfo be defended to advantage. When the enemy are ready to mount, a great quantity of all kinds of combuHibles are thrown at the foot of the breach, to b-' llrcd, and conllantly fupplied with fuel. While they are mounting, a great number of grenades mull be thrown among them; fneks, glafs, or earthen bottles filled wit!i powder, and burning matches tvvifUd round th'em ; cr.iw-.feet, harrows, and large timbers, with long iron fpikes failened with chains, fo as not to be removed, as al£j (hells, fo confi:!ed, as not to roll out of the breach. A great quant ity of loofe powder may a fo be feattered about, and fire ftt to it at the approach of the enemy. U'his being well executed, and fire arms, both great and B R E fmall, well fei-ved, together with the mortars for throwing (hells and ftones, will do them infinite damage, and fenfibly retard the taking of the work. When the defence is ex- haulled, and the enemy at lad are mailers of the breach, the ] mines are fired, to dellroy, ifpoffible, their lodgment, with all the men ellablifhcd in it. Should this fuccced, the be- ficged may return immediately, and clear the breach, fa as to render it imprafticahle. Several^ mines fliould be made under one another, if the ground will allow of it, that the breach may be dellroyed feveral times, which will fometinies di(hearten the enemy's troops, put them out of all patience, and may eventually contribute to make them raife the fiege, as was the cafe at Mallricht, when befieged by the prince of Orange in J(>'/4- Muller. Syll. ofMathemat. vol. vi. Feuquieres Memoircs Milit. chap, xcvii. xcviii. and xtix. Lreach of cloj'e, in J.aiv. See Clos!'. Breach of covemmt, denotes the non-pcifcrmance of any covenant exprefTed or implied in a deed ; or the doing of an ad, wiiich the party covenanted not to do. See Cove- nant. Breach of duly, denotes the non-execution of any office, employment, or trull, &c. in a due and leg;d manner. See Assumpsit*. Breach of pence. Sec Peace. Breach of poumh See Pound. \!>ii.i..\CHofprifan. See Prison. HjV.?. ACH, to bailer in, batre en breche. See Battering. Br e AC H , mourning the. See Mo u N T i N G . BREAD ordinarily is made of the flour or meal of fome farinaceous vegetable gro\ind, and kneaded with water and leaven or yeall. In defcribing the procefs nf making bread, it is natural, in the firll place, to advert to the fubllance or material of which it principally confifts. This is the flour obtained from fari- naceous vegetables, principally wheat or rye, or a mixture of both thefe, called in many parts of the kingdom bread- corn, converted into meal by trituration, or grinding in a mill, and fcparated from the liulk or bran by lifting or bolt- ing. This is compofcd of a fmall quantity of mucilaginous faccharinc matter, loluble in cold water, and feparable from it bv evaporation, much (larch, which is fcarcely fohible in cold water, but capable of comb-ning with that fluid by heat, and an adhefive grey fubllance, called gluten, in-, foluble in water, ardent fpirit, oil, or ether ; and in many of its properties refembling an animal fubdance. When flour is kneaded with water, it forms a tough palle, contain- ing the conflituent principles of flour, with very little altera- tion, and not eafily digelltd by the (lomach. By heat the gluten, and probably the (larch, undergoes a conliderable change, and the compound is rendered more eafy of madi- cation, as well as of digelliou. When this dough is kept in a warm place, it fwells up, becomes fpongy, and filled with a number of air-bubbles, difengages at length an acidulous and fpirituous fmell, tatles four, and in this date is called " leaven," from the French word " lever," to laife. Whild the dough, or pade, is left to unde-go a fpontaneons decoinpofitlon, in an open ve(rel, tlie various component parts are differtinly afTtCaed ; the faccharine part is con- vertible into an ardent fpirit, the mucilage tends to acidity and mouldinefs, and the gluten probably verges towards a (late of putridity. By tliis inclpiera fermentation, the mafs is rendered more digtdible and light ; that is, it becomes much more porous by the difcngpgenieut of ekiRic fluid, «hieh feparatcs its parts from each other, and"m\ich enlarges its bulk. The operation ot baking puts a (lop to this procefs, by evaporating a great part of the i:vjidure which favours the chcmicai BREAD. diemical attraction, and probahly alfo by ftill furtlier changinyr the natui'L" of the component parts, llread, however, in this ilate, will not pofTcfs the rtquirue uniformity ; bccaiife fome part", may be mouldy, while others arc not yet fiiiriciently K changed from the Itate of dough. In order to promote an uniform fermentation, a fmall portion of leaven is intimately blended with a quantity of other dough ; and this, by its luiion with the mafs, and the aid of a gentle heat, accelerates the fermentation, and diffufes it through the whole mafs at the fame time ; and as foon as the dough has acquired a due increale of bulk from the carbonic acid gas, which endea- vours to efcapc, it is judged to be fufliciently fermented, and fit for the oven ; the heat of which checks the fermentation by exficcation, or the fubtradion of its water. It is obvious, that by the fermentation of the dough united with leaven, a quantity of carbonic ac'd gas is extricated from the flour, but remains confined in it by the tenacity ot the mafs, where it is expanded by the heat, and by thatexpanfion elTefts the " rifing" of the dough. This is alfo the eliicient caufe of the porofity and fpongincfs in baked bread. The fermenta- tion by means of leaven is thought to be of th . acetous kind, becaufe it is generally fo managed, tliat the bread has a four flavour or taile. This bread, railed by leaven, is ufnally made of a mixture of wheat and rye not thoroughly cleared of the bran, and is diftinguiflied by the appellation of brown bread ; and the praftice of making leavened bread appears, from the hilloriesof the earlier nations, and particularly from the fcriptures, to be very ancient. But yea'.t or barm, which is the mucilaginous froth tliat rifes to the furtace of beer in the firll llage of its fermentation, feems to be of modern date. This vinous ferment is ufed tor the liner kinds of bread, com- monly denominated white bread. When this is mixed with the do\igh, it produces a much more fpecdy and effeftual fermentation than that obtained by leaven, and the bread is accordingly much lighter, and fcarcely ever lour. The fer- mentation by ycall feems to be almoll certainly of the vinous or fpirituous kind. Bread, if well prepared and properly baked, is materially diderent from flour and otl\er farinaceous cakes ; it no longer iforms a tenacious dough with water; nor can ftarch and gl'iten be any more feparated from it ; and hence, moll probably, its good qualities rtfult. The Greeks, in the firll ages, are faid to have fubfilled upon acorns and berries, and were for a long time iinac- qnainted with the art of ploughing the earth for corn ; al- though, according to Hefiod's defcription of the golden age (Oper. 1. i. v. Ii6.), the earth produced corn without cultivation. When this age expired, the earth, as they imagined, became unfruitful, and men lived in a Hate of ex- treme ignorance and barbarity, till Ceres taught them the art of agriculture. The invention of making and baking bread was afcribed to Pan ; and, according to Pliny (Nat. Hift. 1. xviii. c. 7.), barley was ufed, before any other fort of corn, as the food of men ; but in more civilised ages, barley-bread was only appropriated to the ufe of beails. However, it afterwards was ufed only among the poor, who could not obtain anv other provifion. Among the Greeks their loaves were baked either under the afhes, or m the oven ; and they had a kind of bread, called jux^k, which was made with a coarfer flour, fait, and water ; to udiich they fometimes added oil. The art of making bread was not known at Rome until A. U. C. 'jSo. Tlic Roman ar- inies, on their return from Macedonia, brought Grecian bakers into Italy. Before this time the Romans (fee Pliny, Hill. 1. xviii. c. 8. and 11.) prepared their flour into a kind of pap, or foft pudding ; for which reafon Pliny calls them eaters of pap. VOL.V. Among the ancients, we find various denominations of bread ; fueh as I. Pamsfilipnruu called alf:) „wncaminati the mafs. When the fermenta- tion has been fullieienllv excited, the dough is put into pans, and placed in an oven to be baked. By thi.^ pri>ccfj a light wholefome bread is made, which is not only pleafing to the eye, but agreeable to the talle. Sec Rick In Norway, they have bread made of barley and oatmeal, baked between two ftones : and Uartholm fays, that it keeps tO or 40 years, and that the older it is, the more agreeable. For their great feails they life the oldell bread ; and at the baptifm of a child, they have bread, which had been baked probably at the baptifm of the grandfather. Dr. Towiifon, in his " Travels in Hungar\'," has de- fcnbed the mode of making cxeellent bread without yeall, as it is prafliled at Debretzin in that country. The fer- ment ufed for this purpofe is made in this manner: Two good haudfuls of hops are boiled in four quarts of water; this is poured upon as mnth wheaten bran as it willmoiHen ; and to this are added four or five pounds of lenvc 11. When the mafs is warm, the fevcial parts are will mixed by being worked together. It is then depofited in a warm place for 24 hours, and attciwaids divided into fmall pieces, about the fize of a hen's egg, or a fmnll orange, which are dried by being placed upon a board and expofed to a dry air, but not to the fun ; when dry they are laid by for ufe, and may be kept half a year. The ferment thus prepared, is applied in the following manner, For a baking of fix large loaves, fix good handfuls of thefc balls are diffolved in fcven or eight quarts of warm water ; and this water is poured through a fitve into one end of the bread-trough, and after it three quarts of warm water, the remaining mafs in the ficvc being well prelTed out. The liquor is mixed up with flour fufficient to form a mafs of the fize of a large loaf: this is ilrewed over with flour, the ficve with its contents is put upon it, and the whole is covered up warm, and left till it has rifen enough, and its furface has begun to crack : this forms the leaven. Then fifteen quarts of warm water, in which fix handfuls of fait have been dif- folved, are poured through the lieve upon it, and the neccf- fary quantity of flour is added, and mixed and kneaded with the leaven ; this is covered up warm, and left for about half an hour. It is then formed into loaves, which are kept in a warm room for half an hour ; and after that they are put into the oven, where they remain two or three hours, accord- ing to the fize. The great advantage of this ferment is that it may be made in large quantities at a time, and kept for ufe; and on this account, it might be ufeful on board of ftiips, or in camps for armies in the field. The quantity of bread allowed a foldier for bis day's fub- fiftence is called a ration. For armies the bread is either baked in the park of provi- fions in the camp, or in the town nearell the army ; for the conveniency of ovens, an army ought always to have at leall four days bread before-hand. In fome cafes, the dillance of the places from whence bread is to be had, or the army's march from one country to another, obliges the general to dillribute bread for fix, or even for eight days ; a thing never done without abfc'lulenecefGty, by reafon of the abufe which fome foldiers make of it, who fell their bread without regard to future fubfiilence. For long marches K k 2 through BREAD. through an enemy's country, they fometimes, inftead of bread, make bKket. Bread, in Domejlk Economy, fcrves as a nutritive ali- ment, in all countries where it can be obtained. The fari- naceous vegetables are dillrlbuted fo univerfally over the face of the earth, and have become to fuch a degree the objefts of culture, that tliey are ve'-y generally made into bread ; and as gencnlly a portion ot them is taken into the mouth alon" with almoft every morfel of other food. By fermen- tation it acquires a more fpongy texture, and becomes more friable, and of courfe more eafily mifcible with the faliva, and our other aliments, during the progrefs of manducalion, which it nectfiarily retards, and whilll the operation of di- gellion is performed in the ftomach. 'To thefe purpofts it is adapted by being bulky without too much folidlty, and by being firm without too great difliculty of fohilion. The be'.l aliment of this kind is bread, made of the flour of good wheat, well fermented, thoroughly baked, with a little lalt ; whereas that which is not thoroughly baked, well kneaded, and without fait, is reckoned luu-tful and unwholefome, as are alfo unleavened bread and cakes baked under the adies. In general, the lighter the bread the better and more agree- able it is ; coarfe and barley bread is deterfive, commonly purgative, at lead to thofe who are not ufed to it. " We are willing to own," favs Dr. CuUen, in his difcufllon of this fnbjcft, " that a farinaceous fubflance, formed by fer- mentation into a perfeft bread, is the mod wholefome con- dition in which farinaceous matters can be employed as a part of our food; and we are ready alfo to allow, that the unfermented farinacea, taken in immoderate quantity, efpe- clally at a certain period of life, or in dyfpeptic ilomachs, may be the caufe of difeafe : but all this feems to have been exaggerated ; for the morbid elTefts of unfermented fari- nacea are truly rare occurrences ; and, indeed, the fame unfermented farinacea are for the moll part very well fuited to the human economy. However confiderable the ufe of fermented bread may be, the ufe of unfermented farinacea is ftiU very great and confiderable amongll almoft every peo- ple of the earth. Tiie whole people of Afia live upon un- fermented rice ; and I believe (fays he) the Americans, be- fore they became acquainted with the Europeans, employed, and for the mod part dill employ, their maize in the fame condition. Even in Europe, the employment of unferment- ed bread, and of unfermented farinacea in other (liapes, is dill very confiderable ; and we are ready to maintain, that the morbid confequences of fuch diet are very fcldom to be obferved. In Scotland, nine-tenths of the lower clafs of people, and that is the greater part of the whole, live upon unfermented bread, and unfermented farinacea in other forms; and at the fame time I am of opinion (fays this writer) that there are not a more healthy people any where to be found." In oppofition to tliis faft it has been alleged, that this kind of diet is only fafe, when ufed by robuft and labouring people : but Dr. CuUen fays, " We give it in this country not only to the farmer's labouring fcrvants, but to our feden- tary tradefmen, to our women, and to our children ; and all of the latter live and grow up in good health, except a very few dyfpeptics who are not free from complaints, which thafe alfo are liable to who live on fermented wheaten bread." It is hardly neceflary to fay any thing of bread in refer- ence to its medical ufe ; however, decoftions, creams, and jellies of bread have been direded in fome difpenfaries. Bread, well baked, and infnfed or lightly boiled in water, imparts to it a deep colour, and a highly agreeable reftrin- geiit tafte. This liquor, ufed as common drink, has been fometimes beneficial in a weak las (late of the ftomach and inteftines ; and in bilious vomiting and purging, or the cholera morbus ; of which inllances occur in the Edinburgh cdays, in which no other medicine was ufed. The ufe of bread, as an external application, is well known. Mr. Boyle adures us fPliil. Works Abr. vol. i. p. ,H- 39-) that he derived a mendruum from bread ilrongerthan aqua fortis, and which would aft even upon glafs itfelf. See farther concerning bread in the writers on food and cookery ; efpe- cially in Hen. Nicolai, Tia£l. de Pane, Dantifc. 165 1. Eabr. Bib. Antiq. c. 19. §. 6. Cullen's Mat. Med, vol. i. p. 2S3. Brkad, banpournichok, or lonpaurn'iclcl, the name of a vci-y coarfe bread eaten in Wedphalia, and many other places. This bread of the Wedphalians dill retains the opprobrious name once given it by a French traveller, of bvnpournicljoli;, good for his horfe Nlchole, but is by no means a contempti- ble kind. It is far from being peculiar to this age or coun- try : it has been known in dillant places, and in different ages, and was called by the ancients p,iius furfunictiis, or panislmpurus, from its not being fo thoroughly cleanfed from the hufli or bran, as the fine forts of bread are. The wref- tlers of old eat only this fort of bread, to prcferve them in their drength of limbs ; and we may learn from Pliny, that the Romans for three hundred years knew no other bread : and it has been faid, that this coarle bread nouridies more, aduages hunger better, and generates humours lefs fubjeft to corruption than the white. The inhabitants of Wedphalia, who are a hardy and ro- bud people, and capable of enduring the greated fatigues, are a living tedimony to the falutary efletls of this fort of bread ; and it is remarkable, that they are very feidom at- tacked by acute fevers, and thofe other difeafes which arife from an ebullition of the humours, and a malignant colliqua- tion of the blood, and of the humours of which it is com- pofed. It is certain that a lefs drong diet is more proper to weakly conftitutions, and people of fedentary lives, than this ; but for thofe who will ufe the necefiary exercife with it, it is eafy to fee that it is preferable to all other kinds of bread ; fince it remarkably reftores drength, and has another falutary effeCl, which is, that it renders the belly foluble : this was a quality remarked in coarfe bread, and highly com- mended in it, fo early as in the days ot Hippocrates. The Germans make two forts of waters by didillation from this bread ; the one with, the other without, the ad. dition of a fpirituous liquor : to both which great virtues are afcribed. Tliat without any thing fpirituous, is made of the juice of craw-fidi, May-dew, rofe-water, nutmegs, and faftron, didilled from a large quantity of this bread. This is edeemed a great rellorative, and given in heclic habits. The other is didilled from this bread and Rhenidi wine, with nutmegs and cinnamon. This is given in all the diforders of the ilomach, vomiting, and lofs of appetite, and other complaints of the fame kind ; and befides thefe, there is a fpirit didilled from it by the retort, in the dry way, which, when feparated from its fetid oil, is edeemed a power- ful fudorilic, and very valuable medicine, in removing im- purities of the blood. Hoffman. Bread, horfe, is made of wheat, oats, and beans, to which fometimes are added anifeed, gentian, liquorice, fenu- greek, eggs, and ale ; and fometimes i^e and white wine are ufed. For race-horfes, three forts of bread are ufually given with fuccefs, for the fecond, third, and fourth fortnights feeding ; they are all made of beans and wheat, worked with barm, the difference confiding chiefly in the proportion of the two former. In the firft kind, three times the quan- tity of beans is ufed to one of wheat ; in the fecond, equal 6 quantities BREAD. quantities of both ; in the third, three times the quantity of wheat to one of beans. Bkem), Jiiirnimiiilii/, in the proteftant churches, is com- mon leavened bread, agreeabJt to the ancient prafticc. In the Romilh mafs, axyniiis, or ui|lt^,vened bread, is ui'ed, parti- cularly in the Gallican church, where a fort is provided for this purpofe, called ^nin a chanter, made of the pureft wheatcn Hour, prelTed between two iron plate?, graven like wafer-moulds, being firft rubbed with white wax, to prevent the parte ihcking. See Azvmus. Ecclefialllcal wiiiers enumerate other fpecies of bread, allotted for purpofes of relij^ion : as, i . Cakiu/ariiu, that an- ciently oilered to the prietls at the calends. 2. Prel/tnt/a- rius, the fame with capilularis, that dillributed daily to each prebendary or canon. 3. Bev.ed'iBus., that anciently given to catechumens before baptilm, inliti. of the Lucharirt bread, of which they were incapable of partaking. 4. Conficrated bread is a piece of wax, palle, or even eartli, over which fe- veral ceremonies have been performed with bencdiflions, &r. to be fet up in an n^mis de't, or a rehc box, and prcfented ior veneration. Unleavened bread, or a%yh Th. Jews eat no other bread during their pafibvcr; and exadlfearch was made in every houfe, to fee that no leavened bread was left. The ufage was introduced in memory of their hafty departure from Egypt, when they had no Icifnre to bake leavened bread. 6. Shew bread was that ofleied to God every Sabbath-day, being placed on tiie golden table, iu the holy of h.olies. BREjiD of St. Hubert, St. Genevieve, St. Nicholas, Sic. denote cakes famSlificd with certain prayers and invoca- tions of thofe faints, held by the fuperttitious to be of great efficacy ;n the cure of hydrophobias, agues, and other difeafts. Bread is alfo ufed to denote certain foods made of animal, or even mineral matters, ferving to fupply the place of bread. In divers parts of the North, we read of fifh-bread, particu- larly in Iceland, where dried cod is ufcd for bread, being firll beaten to powder, and made up into cakes. The like obtains among the Laplanders, whofe country affords no corn ; and even among the Crim Tartars. Phil. Tranf. N° 102. p. 35. Sheff. Hift. of Lapl. chap. 14. In the Jordihip of Mofcaw in Upper Lufatia, a fort of white earth is found, of which the poor, urged by the calamities of the wars which raged m thole parts, make bread. This earth, dug out of a hill where they formerly worked at laltpetre, when warmed by the fun, cracks, and i'mall globules proceed from it like meal, which ferment when mixed with meal. Some peifoiis have lived upon it for fome time. Some of this meal has been kept for more than fix years. A fimilar earth is faid to be a'fo found uear Geronne, in Catalonia. Germ. Ephcm. 1764. Bread, in a more extenfive fenfe, includes all the necef- faries of life, as food, raiment, lodging, &c. Hence the fabbath is lometimes called, in ancient writers, the Jaj of bread, by reafon the eucharill was then adminiller- ed every Lord's day. In this comprehenfive fenfe the term bread feems to be ufed in the petition of the Lord's prayer. Matt. vi. 11. In this pafTage i'Trma-n: v.j]oc> denotes " fufficient bread," or a com- petency. The word ETTiycnoj is one of the ceVaJ Atyof^isviv, and is found in no Greek author prior to the Evangelill. The tompofition is of f^i and tcria, q. J. proper, or fufficient for fup- port ; and it is not improbable, that e^i nc-ixv fliould by degrees have coalefced and become tnys-iov, as it now Hands in the MSS. The petition exactly correfponds to that in Agur's ce- L'biated prayer, in the O. T. 'pM CH? •' Prov. xxx. S. Compare Gen. slvii. 22, with Luke xv. 12. The Syriac vcr- fion haa " the bread of our need." Sec Mcdc's works, vol. i. DilT. xxviii. p. 16S. Bread, a^f, or { bread are regulated by tht magiftratca according to the puce of wheat ; and the alTife of bread, beer, ale, &e. is gr.uiied to the hud mayor of London and other ccporitions. Stat. 51 Hen. III. St. i.; and ^1 Hen. III. St. 6. Sec alfo 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 15. But' the llatute of 31 Geo. II, c. 29. containing regulations conccrnn g the alTife of bread, and for preventing adukcration, repeals fo much of ll.it. 51 Hen. III. entitled " Afllfa paius et cerevifi.c," as re- lates to the alTife of bread, and the flat. 8 Ann. c.i 8., and all amendments by fubfecjuent aft^ ; and re-enafts the fame with additions and amendments. This (btute tnadts, that the affife be fet, in all places to which the right of fo domg extends, witii a regard to the price of the grain, meal, or flour, in the adjoining market.*, and witii a realonable allowance to the bakers tor their charges, labour, and p'olit. In order to di- redl the inagillrates in making this allowance, they are to trikc notice, that the peck loaf of each fort of bread is to wugh, when well baked, 17 lb. 6 oz. avoirdupois weight, and tlie rell in proportion ; and that ■ very fack of meal, or flour, is to weigh two hundred weight and two quarters, neat ; and that from every fack there ought to be made, at an average, twenty fuch peek loaves of bread. By ;8 Geo. III. c. 62. it is enafted, that the magiflrates, before they fet the alfife of bread, dial! add to the average price, per quarter of wheat fit for making wheaten bread, ^d. on account of the ad- ditional duty on fait, fo as to increafc fuch average price ^d. per quarter ; and in fettling the aflife, they fliall u(c fuch increaled averagr price as if it were the real average price of wheat, fo long as fuch additional fait duly fliail continue. By 31 Geo. II. c. 2y. f. 3. no perfon fliall make or fell, in any place where the affife is fet, any fort of bread, except wheaten and houfehold (otherwife brown) bread, and fuch forts of bread as fliall be allowed in the affife ; and the of- fender againft this part of the Itatute, upon convidion by his own confefllon, or the oath of one witncfs, before any magiftrate or juftice within the limits of their jurifdidion, fliall forfeit, not exceeding 40s. nor lefs tlian 20s. In every place where an affife is fet, the aflife and weiglit of the feveral forts of bre.^d there made are fet according to tables, calculated for the purpofe. Table of the Affife and Price of Bixad made of Wheat. Weight. Price Price bull of ihc Cl lif The penny oaf. Q uartern Io.nf. Hjil' pe'C k. Peck loif. whL3l anj Diking. Wlicatcn Houfeh. w beaten H jufch. vv beaten Houfcb. Wheaten Ilouleb. S. d. oz.dr. OZ. dr. S. d. s. d. S. d. S. d. d. S. d. 2 9 2 2 4 29 4 0 3i 0 2i- 0 H 0 4l oi 0 9i 3 0 iO 4 27 J 0 3i 0 H 0 7 0 5i H 0 10^ 3 3 iS 9 25 4 0 3i 0 H 0 7iio - :i 5i 3 0 II 3 6 17 c 23 ,) 0 4 0 .? 0 8 0 6 4 I 0 3 9 16 6 :i 6 0 4i 0 3i 0 85 0 6i 1 I I 4 0 '5 A 20 4 0 4i 0 H 0 9 0 6i 6i I Ij 4 3 '4 4 19 I 0 4f 0 3i 0 9^ 0 7* n I 2i 4 6 ^3 '. '7 15 0 .5, 0 3i 0 i<4- 0 71 84 t 3l 4 9 12 1? ■ / 16 1 6 0 5i 0 4 0 10^ 0 8 9l 1 1 t 4^ • 5 5 0 12 1 0 .'ii 0 4^ 0 117' 0 8i 5 3 II <; '.5 7 0 6 0 tl I 0 0 9 1 0 I r _i_ () 1 1 ■ -r 10 0 (>i 0 I o\ 0 9i 2 J * / Table BREAD. Taele of tlic Affife and Price 0 f Bread m?.deof Whi-At. W EIGHT. 1 Price. | buOiel of The pel nyl .af. 'q uariern lojf. Hilf (itck. Peck Ijaf. 1 iMheu ind tAk i«i WhckrcB. Uau eh. WheilCn 1 K DUlCh. V keaica Hcwfch Wbcilen HouTch S, d. oz. dr. oz. dr. s. dK d. d. <. d. S. d. s. d. I 9 10 8 14 4 0 fio 5 li 0 9j ^ ^^, I 7^ 6 0 10 2 '3' 9 0 7 0 ?i 'i 3 loj: J 3i < H 6 3 9 11 13 I 0 7i 0 5i H 3 I0| ^ 4l i 9i 6 6 9 4 12 10 0 7-i 3 ^'r 3 0 II 2 6 I !0 6 9 9 0 1 2 I 0 7i 3 Si 3^ 0 I I J 2 7 I II 7 0 8 8 II 7 II 9 0 8 0 6 4 I 0 2 8 1 0 7 3 II 2 0 81 0 ^1 4^' I 0} 2 9 2 I 7 6 S 3 10 II 0 0 ^5 ; I I a 13 2 2 7 9 / 14 10 6 0 0 6| 5? I iJ 2 11] 1 25 ^ 3i S 0 7 10 10 2 3 9i 0 6| 6i I If 3 °i 8 3 7 5 9 15 0 9I 0 7 / I 2 3 2 2 4 8 6 7 2 9 9 0 0 7i 7i I 2i 3 3 ^ 5 2 6 8 9 6 15 9 4 0 10 0 7i 8 ■ 3 ^ 4 9 0 6 13 8 15 0 loi 0 7i 8J r - ' J .S 2 7 9 3 6 9 8 12 0 loijo 8 9 t 3! 3 H - 7t i 8| 9 6 6 7 8 8 0 lojo 8J I 9l . 4^ 3 7? 9 9 6 4 8 .^ 0 1 1 0 «?'i loi I 4J 3 H ^ 9^ 10 0 6 1 8 2 c II^O «v 1 1 ' 5 i 10 1 10 2 II 10 3 5 15 7 »5 iifo 8j;i III > -fi 5 11 10 6 5 f3 / 12 0 0 9 > 0 r 6 4 0 3 0 10 9 5 1 1 7 9 ofo 1 9V oJ, I 6| 4 I 3 I 3 - tl 0 5 9 7 5 °!° 9^'^ I I 7 4 ^ 1 r 3 J 6 7 .5 oio 9i2 li r ^ 1 4 3^ i n II 6 5 5 / 2 1 0 10 2 H I 7l 4 4^ > Ji ; 4 II 9 5 2 6 '^! lio 10 2 3 I 8 4 :> 12 0 5 I 0 IjI lio I oil 2 1 1 I 8i 4 7 3 5 12 3 4 '5 6 '°i - 2 0 I3.|2 4 f 9 4 8 3 6 14 ' 6 4 14 6 s' 0 I 23: 0 I0|2 4i I Qi 4 9 12 9 4 13 Cj 5 2A 0 II 2 ■; I 10 4 10 ! 8 1.3 0 4 1 1 t) 4 — 3 3 11+2 5f r loi 4 Hi 3 Si '3 ■3 3 6 4 9 8 6 6 3 0 0 Hi 1 I7; 2 2 6^ 7 I loi I II S I ,1 ^ 5 9 J 10 13 9 4 7 5 '£' — 3i 4 0 Ilf i 7i I III 5 3 ! II 14 ^ 4 5 5 13 I 0 2 8 2 0 T 4 4 0 14 3 4 4 .1 ^■1 42 I oi 2 85 2 Ol 9 =; 4 I 14 0 4 3 ■) 9 i_ 5 I 0i2 9 2 1 1 6 4 2 By the precceiFinjT table, if the price c- wheat is 5s. a ■bulhel (Wincheller mtafure) and the allowance of the ma- giftratcs to the baker, for baking, is is. 6d., theaveight and price of the ftveral loaves will be found oppofitc to Cs. 6d. in the firll column. The wttght of loaves of any fize may be eilimated from that of the penny loaf by fimple addition ; e.g. the fix-pei.ny loaf weighs fix times as much, &c. ; and the wheatcn loaves are three-fourths of the weight of the houfliGid loaves ; and if the magiftratcs allow any of the white loaves of the price of one penny or twopence, they are to weigk three-fourths of the weight of the wheaten loaves of the fame price. The prices of the houfehold loaves are always three-fourths of the prices of the wheatcn loaves. The perfons authorized to fet the aflife weight of bread, when whtat is above the price of 14s. 6d. the highefl price of a bufhel of wheat, together with the baker's allowance in the table, flionlj obfcrve, that the rcfpeftive wei"-hti of the fcveral affiled loaves will decreafe in the fame proportion as the prices of the bulhel of wheat, together with the allowance for baking, increafes ; and that fuch weights may be deduced from the prefcnt table as in the followin'T examples: l. Required the weight of the twelve-penny wheatcn loaf, when the price of the bufhcl and baking is 16?. The weight in the above table oppofite to 8s. eftimated in the mode above directed, is jib. i loz. Sdwts. But the price of the bufliel and baking being now twice as much the weight of the loaf can only be half what it then was, viz, 2lb. 130Z. I2dwts. 2. Required the weight of the twelve penny wheatcn loaf, when the price of a bulhel of wheat and bakingis i6s. ,jd. The weight, when thepriceof the budiel and baking, is lOs. is 2lb. l.joz. I2dwts. ; and the weight, when the price of the budiel and baking is i6s. 6d. is 2lb. iioz. i4dwts. and thefe two added together give jlb. 90Z. lodivts. and, therefore, one half the weight at 16s. 3d. is 2!b. 120Z. i3dwts. For the price of the peck loaf, and its fubdivifions, it (liould be obferved, that the price increafes in the fame proportion as the price of the buOicl of wheat, together with the allowance for baking, e. g. i . Required the price of the peck loaf wheattn bread, when the price of the bufhcl and baking is 16s. The price of fuch loaf by the table, when the bulhel and baking is Ss. is 3s. oid. ; confcquently at i6s. it mull bv' double or 6s. id. 2. itequired the price of the peck loaf when that of the bufhelaud baking is ills. 3d. Tne price when that of the bulhel and baking is i6s. is 63. id.; at 16.?. 6d. 6s. 4d. ; and adding thefe, we have I2S. 5d. one-halfof which, or6s. 2ld. is the price at i6s. jd. See 39 and 40 Geo. III. 74. The affife is to be Tet in avoirdupois weight ; and the prices of grain, meal, or flour, allowed to be made into bread in London, (liall be dLtermined by the public fale in the London markets during the whole market, and certified on oath bc-forc the court of mayor and aldermen, on fome cer- tam day m every week, by the meal-weighers or perfons ap- pointed by the faid court ; and entered in writincr, under their hands, in lomc book provided by the city, and kept at the town-clerk's office. On the next day after fuch price (hall_ be certihtd, the affife and weight of all forts of bread tor lale, and alfo the price, fhall from time to time be fet by '^^/!"%'^ourt, or mayor, and remain in force unril a new affife in London Ihall be fet. As foon as it can convenient- ly be done, the affile fo fet (hall be made public in the manner d.r.fted by the faid court. But before any advance or reduaion Ihall in any week be made by the faid court or mayor in the price of bread, the meal-weighers or perfons duly appointed (hall return the prices of grain, meal, and Hour, in wnting, to the common hall of the company of bakers, fo that the faid company may, on the mornin.T of the next day after every fuch return and entr)-, and before any adile be fet, have an opportunity to oHer to the faid court or mayor their objeaions againft any propofed ad- vance ">" reduaion. In other cities and town's corporate this bufinefs fhall be conduded and fettled by the court of mayor and aldermen, if there be any, or by the mayor, bailiff/ or chief magillratcs, or by two jullices in fuch towns and p ces which have no fuch mayor, bailiffs, aldermen, or c lef magiltrate. In places wuhin counties at large, two julfices are authorized to fet the affife. Bread of different denominations, fuch as lix-penny, twelve-penny, and eighteen- penny loaves, and peck, half-peck, and' quarter of a peck loaves. BREAD. lonVea, fliall not be allowed to be made or fold at the fnme time in the fame place, under a penalty of forfeiting not more than 40s. nor lefs than 2cs. at the plcafnre of the ma- giftrate, upon convidlion of the otFender. After the affifc has been fet, no alteration (luiU be made in it till the price of corn alters 3d. a bunu-l. Officers appointed to make returns, and offenders agaiiill the due execution of this aft, fliall forfeit a fum not exceeding 5I. nor lefs than 20s. : and dealers in corn refufing to difelofe the real prices of grain, meal, or flour, publicly fold, or knowingly giving a falfe price, fhall, on conviftion by confeffion, or the oatli of one witnefs, forfeit not m ;re than lol. norlels than 40s. Bakers of bread made of other grain befides wheat, according to order, are re- quired to conform to the affife, on pain of forfeiting not more than 5I. nor lefs than 40s. The llatutc ,36 Geo. III. c. 22. contains regulations for makingmixtdbread, aiidenafts that perfonsin any place vvhat- foever, whetheranvaffifcof brtadhas becnfet ornot, may make and fell peck, hall-peck, quartern, and Iialf-quartern loaves, made of the whole produce of wheat, deducting only r^\h. of bran per bulhel ; or made of any fort of wlieaten flour mixed with meal, or flour of barley, rye, oats, buck wheat, Indian corn, peafe, beans, rice, or any other kinds of grain, or potatoes, in fuch proportions and of fuch prices as the maker or feller fliall deem reafonable. Every loaf of fuch mixed bread fliall have upon it a mark. It is required by 31 Geo. II. c. 29. § 21. that the fcveral forts of bread made for f;ile fliall be well made, and no alluni, or mixtuie in which allnm is an ingredient, or any other ingredient or mixture whatever, (except only the genuine meal or flour, •which ought to be put therein, and common fait, pure water, eggs, milk, yeaft, and barm, or fuch leaven as is allowed by thofe who fet the aflife, or by any magiflrate or juflice within his juriidiftion,) fliall be ufed in making any dough or in tlve preparation of bread, on pain that the offender (other than a fervant or journeyman), upon con- viftion by confeffion, or the oath of one vvitnefi!, fliall forfeit not more than lol. nor lefs than 40s. or be committed to prifon or houfe of correftion for any time not exceeding one calendar month, nor lefs than 10 days, at thepleafure of the magiftrate. A fervant or journeyman, upon conviftion, fliall forfeit not more than 5I. nor lefs than 20s. or be committed to prifon as aforefaid. The magiftrate before whom fuch offender has been convifted, may apply the money forfeited for caufing the offender's name, place of abode, and offence, to be pubhlhed in fome news-paper, printed or publiflied near the place where the offence fhall have been committed. The adulteration of meal, or knowingly expoflng it to fale, incurs a forfeiture of not more than 5I. nor lefs than 40s. If bread fold, or expoftd for fale, be deficient in weight according to the affile, the offender, formerly liable to the pillory, fhall now forfeit not more than 5s. nor lefs than is. for every ounce wanting ; and for every defeft lefs than an ounce, not more than 2s. 6d. nor lefs than 6d. fuch bread being complained of, and weighed before a n.agiftrate within 34 hours after the fame fliall have been baked or expofed to fale, within the bills of mortality, or within 3 days in any other place. It has been obferved, that bread lofes weight by keeping : fo Bartholine concludes from fome experiments that the diminution was nearly one fouith in fix months. Bakers are obliged under a penalty, not more thau 20s. nor lefs than /Js. to mark their wheaten bread with a large Roman W, and their houfehold bread with an H. No perfon fliall fell bread for a greater price than that afcertaincd by the affife, or refufe to led fuch btead at the ftipulated price, under a penalty of forfeiting for every fuch offence nuv more thau 40s. nor lefs than 10s. By 2 and 3 Edw. VI. c. 2^. if a Laker (liidl confpirc not to fell bixad but at certain prices, every futli perfon fliall forfeit lol. for the firit offence ; and if not paid within 6 days, lie fliall be impnfoned 20 days, and have only bread and waiir foi hi,i fulleiiance ; for the fei ond offence, 20I. or the pillory ; m d for the third oflincc, 4 J. or the pillory, and lofs of an lar, and bec<-miiig infaiiKuiy. Bread inferior to wluaten Ihall not be fold for a higher price than houfehold bread, under a penalty of 20.S. By 31 Geo. II. c. 2y. and 32 Geo. II. c. iS. magillratcs may grant warranto for fearching lioufco, in order to examine bread delieiLiit in weight, or uneoufor- mablc in any refpeft to the flatute and aflife, and for feizing the fame ; and alfo, upon information givoi on oath, for fearching mills, and other places, where adnherated mi.al isconcealed, andfor feizing the fame. Every miller, baker.cvc. who has in his poffcffion unlawful ingredients for the purpofc of adulterating meal or bread, fliall forfeit not m.orc than lol. nor lefs than 40s. ; and out of the forfeiture may be publiflud the name of the offender, his place of abode, and h's offence in fome news-paper, printed or publiflied in or near the place where the ofleiiee was coiumiltcd. Perfons obllrnfting tueli fearch and fcizurc fti:;ll forfeit not more than jl. nor lefs than 20s. By a general cl.v.ife in the aft 31 Geo. II. c. 29. § 34. all penalties and forfeitures, when recovered, flail be paid to the informer ; and by 32 Geo. II. c. iS. one moitty of fuch penalties as are not particularly difpofed of fliall be given to him who fliall inform and profeeute ; and the other moiety, together with all penalties and forfeitures incurred in the weighing, trying, or ftizure of anv bread by any magiflrate, fliall be applied, for the better execution of the aft, according to the pleafure of the magilhate. Profecu- tions under this aft are limited within 7 da) s after the com- miffion of the offence, by 3; Geo. 111. c. ,,7. The flatute 3 Geo. III. e. II. contains certain regulations and provilions in cafe no affife is fet. By 13 Geo. III. c. 62. a flandard wheaten bread was ordered to be made of fuch flour as is the wholeproducd fcUers of it fliall be liable to all the penalties of the former afts. See the tables 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 18. and c. 74. Barn's Juflice, vol. i. and iv. Bread, Indian, or Cafava. See Jatroph a Manihot. Bread, .SV. John's. See Ceratonia Sihqua. Brfad, /iL'ine, pains pordniis, a denomination given to trufi^es. Bread, fow's, a name applied to the herb cyclamen, Brkad-room, in a fliip, that which Is fet apart to hold the bread. The boards of the bread-room fliould be jointed and caulked, and alfo lined witlx tin plates, for the greater prefcrralioa B R E prefcrvatiofi of the bread. It is alfo proper to warm it well witti charcoal for fever::! day: btfore the bread is put into it, liiice notbiii;j is more iiijiiiiuus to bread than moilhire. n^EAD, fiull tree, in Botany. See Artocarpus. H^FAn, Hul-tree. See Brosimum Alicastrum. BRK.A.DALBANE, or Braidai-bis, in Geography, a diilrcl of Pcrthl'hire, Scotland, including a traft of country meufiiring about 32 miles from E. to W. and 13 in its broadell part from N. to S. This mountainous country forms part of the Grampian hills, and is fuppofcd to have b^-cii anciently called Albania ; whence the Highlanders dill denominate themfelvcs Albinich ; and the duke of York re- ceives his title of Albany from this place. The name Braid-Albainn, in the Gaelic tongue, fignilies the highcft part, which corrcfponds witli this portion of country, as fome vivei-s that take their rife iiere, run partly into tlie cailern and partly into the welkrn oceans. Flax is the prin- cipal article of cultivation. Some years back, when pre- miums were ofl'cred for the greatcfl crops, from 80 to 120 hoglhtads of linfced were annually fovvn ; and each peck yielded two Hones of dreflcd flax. Next to this, oats and potatoes are moftly cultivated ; and from the latter fome rtroHjT fpirit lias been dillilled, whicli is found to be cheaper than that made from grain. Bread and llarch are alfo made from this root. Corcar, or the lichen omphaloides, an ar- ticle of commerce, is obtained in abnnjance from the rocks, and is fold moftly to dyers. Pennant's Tour in Scotland, 4to. vol. iii. BREADTH. See Latitubh, Dimension, Area, &c. Breadth, ^d/V J. See Hair. Breadth, Finger's. See Finger. Breadth, Hand's. Sec Hand. Breadth, in Shlp-bmlJing, the breadth of a fliip at any particular place, as the extreme breadth, which is the greateft breadth, being at the main frame, the top-lmher breadth, the hreadih at the main or iving tratifoin, &c. The breadth and curvature of all the frames are laid down on the body plan, or plane of projeftion ; thofe of the fore-body being on the ri^lit hand ilde of the middle line, and the frames in the after-body being on the left hand fide of the fame line ; from whence the frames are transferred to the mould lott. See BoDY-P/iJH, and Sm? -building. Bf.2ADTH.pweeps. Of thefe there are two; the lower and upper. The centre of the lower breadth-fweep is in the line that reprefents the height of the extreme breadth of the limber. If there is a part of the timber ftraight, the centre of the fweep will be in the lower line. From this centre extend to the point that limits the half breadth of the timber in the fame hne ; and with that radius defcribe a circle downwards, till it comes near the floor fweep. The centre of the upper breadth-fweep is in the line that repre- fents the extreme upper height of the breadth of the timber ; from which a circle muft be defcribed to pafs through the point that limits the half-breadth of the timber in the fame line, and produced upwards at pleafure to form the top- timber. Half Bueadth 0/ the Floor, is the diflance of the centre of the floor fweep from the middle line in the body plan at the main frame ; which will always be lefs than the diftance between the point where the fl;raight line, drawn from the fide of the keel to touch the back of the floor fv.-eep, is from the middle hne. This lall may be called the true half- breadth of the floor, which in fliarp ihips will be above the rifin^ line. /fa^-BREADTH Plan, or Floor Plan, or, as it is frequently called, the horizontal plan, contains the feveral half-breadths B R E of evcr^' frame of timbers at different Iieights ; ribbands, wattr-lints, &c. are alfo defcribed on this plane. Height of Breadth lines, are two lines named the upper and lozver heights of breadth. Thefe lines are defcribed 011 the plane of elevation to determine tiie height of the broadell part of the fliip at each timber; and being defcribed in the body plan, limit the height and breadth of each frame at its broadell place. One line fcrvts for both in the half-breadth pian. Mainhii/f-BuzATtTH, is a feAion of the fliip at the broad- cfl; place, perpendicular to the Iheer plan, and reprefents the grcatell breadth at the outfide of every timber. Top-tiwher /la^-BREADTH, is a feclion of the fliip at the height of the top-timber hue, perpendicular to the plane of elevation. /A;^-Breadth Staff, a rod about an inch fquare, and of any convenient lengtli. Upon one fide of this ftafi" are fet off, from one end, the feveral half-breadths of all the timbers in the after-body ; and thole of the fore-body are fet off upon the other hiie. On the other two fides are fet oil' the feveral heights of the flieer ; the after-body oh one fide, and the fore-body on its oppofite. Two fides of the itatt' are marked half-lnadihs ; and the other two fides, hsighls of ihejl^eer. BREAK, in yigrictdture, denotes, in Norfolk, land ploughed or broken up the firll year after it has lain fallow in the flieep-walks. In ArchiteBure, it denotes a recefs, or giving back of a part behind its ordinary range or projeAure. In whioh fenfe, thev fay, a break of pediment : a break of entabla- tures, whereby it Ihrinks, as it were, between the columns, is reputed a tault. Bkeak, Cape, in Geography, lies on the eaft coafl; of Newfoundland, and forms the eaft point of the entrance into Trinity bay, about 10 leagues fouth-eaft from cape Bona- venture. Break-Avj IflanJ, hes without the new paflage or north entrance into Dufliy bay, on the weil coall of the fouthern ifland of New Zealand. Break-//;, among Caipenters, is when they break a hole in brick-walls with their ripping chilTtl. Break-wcc/', Brife-cou, in Building, a fault in a ftair-cafe, as when a ftep is made higher or lower than the reft, and landing-place too narrow, or the like. BREAK-ci'rt/ifr, in Sea-Language, the hull of an old fhip, or vcfTel, funk at the entrance of a fmall harbour, to break the force of the waves in their paflage to the veflels moored within. Jetties, however, where practicable to be built, are employed for this purpofe. A break-water is alfo a fort of a fmall buoy faftened to a large one in the water, when the buoy rope of the latter is not long enough to reach from the anchor, lying at the bottom, to the furface of the water. The ufe of this break-water is, therefore, to fiiew where the buoy fwims. BREAKERS, a name given to thufe billows that break violently over rocks lying under the furface of the fea. They are diftinguiflied both by their appearance and found, as they cover that part of the fea with a perpetual foam, and produce a hoarfe and terrible roaring, very different from what the waves ufually have in a deeper bottom. When a fhip is unhappily driven among breakers, it is hardly pofGble to fave her ; as every billow that heaves her upward, ferves to dafh her down with additional force, when it breaks over the rocks or fands beneath it. Breakers' Point, in Geography, is the fouth-eaft point of B R E oF Hope hay, on tlie north-weft coad of Noitli America. N.lat. 49° 15'. W. long, i 26° 40'. BREAKING, in yl^rlcuhure, denotes the ploughing up of grounds, efpecially fuch as have lain fome time fa]!ow. Br FA KING Buli, the commencement of the difcharge of the cargo of a fiiip. BRiAKiNG_/Z>ot/-J, in Shipbuilding, are thick pieces of tim- ber, incurvatcd into the form of knees, and ufed to ftreiiglhen the fore-part of the (hip, where they are placed at different heights diredly acrofs the ftcm, fo as to unite it with the bows on each fide. The breaft-hooks are ftrongly connefted to the ftcm and hawfe-pieces by tree-nails, ai;d by bolts, driven from without, through the planks and hawfe-picces, and the whole thickiiefs of the bread -hooks, upon whofe infide thofe bolts are fore-locked, or clinched, upon rings. Tliey are ufually about one third thicker ; and twice as long as tlse knees of the decks which they fupport. The fore-fide of the breaft-hooks, which is convex, is formed fo as to correfpond with the place in which it is fta- lioned ; that is to fay, it conforms exaclly to the interior fi- gure of that part of the bow where it ought to be fayed ; accordingly, the branches, or arms of the breaft -hooks, make a greater angle, as they are more elevated above the keel, whilft the lower ones are more incurvatcd. As it is rot neceiraiy that the inner, or concave lide of thefe pieces ftiould retain a regular form, the artificers frequently let them remain as thick as poffible, to give additional lupport to the fore part of the ihip, where the fuftains the whole fhock of reliftance in dividing the fluid, or in plunging down into it. It is evident, that the connexion and folidity of the fhip in this place, will be reinforced in proportion to the ftrength and extent of the breaft-hooks, fo tltat they may cover a greater number of tlie head timbers. Breast-^j/;;, called by the llzXan'i grande'zzo dt petio, is a dillemper in horfts proceeding from luperfliiity of' blood and other grofs humours, which being diffolvcd by fome extreme and difordci'v heat, refort downward to the breaft, and pain them extremely. The figns of the breaft-pain are, ftiST, ft'aggering, and weak-going with his fore legs, befides that he can hardly, if at all, bow his head to the ground. Breast-^A?.V, in yintiquity, a piece of dcfenfive armour, wherewith to cover the breaft. The breaft-plate is faid to be the invention of Jafon. It was originally made of leather, afterwards of mail, and laftly, of a brazen or iron-plate. When made of this lad matter, it is more particularly called dibanus, by the m.oderns cui- afs ; when made of brafs, with a GorgQn's head in the middle, it is denominated ^gis. The bread-plate, called alfo by the Romans /fiSor/j/c, is frequently confounded with the thorax and lorica ; from both which It ought to be diftinguiftied, as being properly a half-thorax, or half-lorica, covering' only the breaft; whereas the thorax invelled the body. As the whole thorax might be a temptation to the fol- diery to turn their backs, when equally guarded with their breaft, the thorax was thrown away, and the hemi-thora- cion, or breaft-plate, only retained. Polya^n. Stratag. hb. vii. BREAST-^/a/f, in Je'Uiijh Antiquity, one of the prieftly veftments anciently worn by the high-pricfts. It was a folded piece of the fame rich embroidered tiffue with that of the ephod, having fet upon it twelvepreciousftones in gold, on 6 each B R E B R E faci) of winch was engi-aven the name oT one of llie tribes. Thtlc were fet in four rows, three in each row ; and the whole was fallencd at the four corners ; tliofe at the top to c:ic!i faouldcr-piece by a golden hook or ring, at the end of a wreathed chain ; and tliofe below to iho girdle of the cphoil, by two blue ftrinjjs or ribbands, wiiich had likewife two rings and hooks ; fo that the whole mi)jht be tied f,i(l to the garment, witiiont danger of falling oh ; for they were ne\er to be fevered. The Jews fay, that if the high priclt did, at any time, either through inadvertency, or wilfully, put on one without the other, he was to be pvuiilhed : hence this onianient was called tlie numonnl, to put him in mind how dear thofe tribes ought to be in his clUmation, whofe names he wore over his breall. This is ;ilfo called the breafl-phite of judgment, becaufe it had the divine oracle faftened to it. Thus, however, mod interpreters have underdood the command of God to Mofes of adjoin- ing the urim and thum;::im to the breall-plate. The ftones of the bread-plate were divided from one another by the golden partitions into which they were fet, and were ranged in the following order, to which the Hebrew names are added, together with the tribe that vvai engraven on each of them : I. Odem. Sardius. Renbcn. '2. Phiterah. Topa/.. Simeon. ^. Barketh. Carbuncle. Levi. 4. Nophek. Emerald. Judah. 5. Saphur. Sapphire. Dan. 6. Jahtdom. Diamond. Naphtali. -J. I^cdiem. Ligure. Gad. 8. Shebo. Agate. Afher. 9. Aehlamah. Ainethyd. IfTachar. 10. Tarlhilh. Beryl. Zcbulnn. II. Sho'.Rm. Onyx. Jofe]i!i. 12. Yafhphe. Jafper. Benjdmin. BREAST-//a/^, m the ]\Ii!r.ege, denotes a leathern drap running from one fide of the faddle, crofs the hurie's bread, to the other ; intended to keep the faddle from flipping backwards in mounting up rifing-grounds. It is othcrwife called tie ; fometimes \\\e po'ilrail. Brf. AST-/'A;/f, among Artificers, denotes a drill- jjlate, againd whieii to fet the blunt end of the drill. Bre AST-/)/o;/;;/', in Agriculture, a fmall plough fo con- ftruiiled, that a man may pu(h it before him. It confills of a cutting-iron about eight or nine inthes long, with one of its fides turned up to cut the t\irf, which ii fixed to a pole about five or fix feet long, forked at the upper end, with a crofs handle. It is ufed in the operation called turn- baL'ing. BREAST-rort diilance, he cannot be hit from behind the dopes (hould be as Iteep as the tenacity of the ground ^sA\ work. The dllTerence in height between the (lopes de- allow. If the fcarp forms one continued (fnrface with the pcnds on the thitknefs of the work. If this is 24 feet, exterior (lope of the bread work, the enemy has the greateft the exterior talus may be two feet lower than the inner ; difficulty in gaming the fummit ; but as the fcarp m this if the breall-work is weaker, the difference mud be propor- cafe fuftains too great preflnre, it would foon give way, and tionablv IdTened. If on an eminence, it will be n.ceffary a confiderable part of the work with it. Even (hould the to Rive the fuperior Hope a gi-catcr declivity. Its proper fcarp (land hrm, the earth mull conltantly fall from the inclination may be eafily determined, only taking care that bread-work mto the ditch, and hU it up to our great difad. th« fire regulated by it is not confined to a fingle point on the ground, but extends as much as pofTible. When the bread-work has no exterior (lope, but the fummit is con- tinued outwards until it meets the furface of the ground, it is a perfeft glacis. In this cafe the bafe mud be much broader than that of a common bread-work ; otherwife the work would be too weak, and the (lope fo deep, that the fire afting in that direftion indead of grazing, would bury Two advantages are derived from a vantage. To prevent this, the bread-work is thrown up at a (mall didance from the edge of the ditch, thereby leav- ing a free palTage between them, called a lerme. This cer- tainly facilitates the enemy's mounting the bread-work ; but to diminilh this difadvantage, it (hould be made as narrow as polTible. The fize of the ditch is regulated by that of the bread-work. The requifite quantity of earth may be procured equally, whether the ditch is wide and (hallow, narrow or deep ; but the removing it is eafier by the latter itfelf in the ground. _._ ^- . ,1 ,r - ■en glacis: every point in front of it is expofed to the fmall arms mode, and the enemy will alfo have greater dilBculty in of the garrifon, which is not the cafe in any other kind of crofTing the ditch. In low ground, however, this cannot bread- work ; and it cannot be dedroyed by the enemy's Ihot, which only drikcs into it, the loofe earth remaining in its proper place ; but it is attended with this difadvantage, that it may be mounted without difficulty. When cannon are planted behind a bread-work, they may either fire en barbette, or through embrafures. In the former cafe, indead of a banquette, an elevation of earth is formed fufficicntly large to contain guns mounted on their carriages, and of fueh a height that their muzzles may reach above the fummit. This elevation mull be carried to within two and a half, or three feet from the top of the work, and fufficicntly broad to afford convenient room for the gun and men attached to it. About ten or twelve feet are allowed for each piece of cannon. The length fliould be always be done ; and the ditch mud at all times be fulfi- ciently broad not to be leaped acrofs. k is ufually 10 or 12 feet wide, and, wherever the fituation allows, at lead fix feet deep ; but if thofe dimenlions will not furnifh the necef- fary quantity of earth, an augmentation mud be ntade either of the width or deptfi, and fometimes of both. A bread-work, condrufled according to the foregoing rules, covers our garrifon againd the fire of an enemy, and enables us to (ire on him with tolerable fecurity during his march towards it. Notwithllanding this, if he is refolute, and not to be deterred by the lofs of a few men, and as there is no particular difficulty in furmounting the ditch or bread- work, we have ultimately no fuperiority over him, and mud therefore have recourlc to other obdacles to impede his pro- from twelve to eighteen feet, according to the gun, that fpace grefs. Thefe arenaturalandartificial. Certain naturalobdacles may be left behind to prevent its rnnning down in the recoil, render the aceefs to a place extremely difficult ; fuch as when An eafy (lope, called a ramp, is made to every battery of this the bread-work is behind a river, canal, or morafs, too deep nature, that the guns maybe run up without difficulty. This for the enemy to wade through; or when it is fituatedin rocky method, however, is only fafe when the enemy cannot bring ground, or on a high and deep hill which cannot well be artilleiy againd the bread-work, or when poded on an emi- climbed by a body of men in any regular order. Here there is nenec; and even then we (hould endeavour to cover the art ill try- men with gabions or fand-bag'; placed upon the work, leaving an opening of 1-5 or 2 feet between them for the mouth of the cannon. If two or more rows of gabions are placed one before the other, the opening mud increafe in width towards the front, that we may be enabled to point the gun to either fide, as well as diredlly forwards. When the guns, and men who fer7e them, are much cr.pofed to the enemy's fire, tmlrnftires are to be cut for tliem. When fevcral pieces of no abfolute necelfity for a ditch ; and provided thebreall- work covers us from the enemy's fire, it may be confidered as per- fect. Artificial obdacles are, I. Palifaih!, which may either be fixed in the open field in front of the ditch, or in the ditch, itfelf, fometimes in two rows, or ladly upon the banquette, where they occafion excclfive inconvenience to the enemy, and afford effential protection to the garrifon. 2. Fraifes, buried in the exterior flope of the bread-work, tlitir points inclining a little downwards. Where there is alfo a rowr of B R E. of palifades upon the banquette, thefe occafion much ob- ftniftion to the enemy in his endeavours to mount. 3. Chc- •vaux de frize, planted along the middle of the ditch, where they render the pafl'age extremely difficult, efpecially if they ftand behind a row of palifades. 4. An albatis of trees cut down and arranged on the outfide of the ditch, along the whole front of the work. When the branches are well intermingled, and the trunks buried obliiinely in the earth, or faftcned down by Urong pickets, they cannot be removed without great difficulty. The abbatis Ihould lie under the fire of the brcail-work, and therefore ought not to be more dillant from it than 200 or 250 yards. 5. Trous de loup placfd chequerwife in front of the work, about 16 or 20 feet from the countevfcarp. Three rows of them prefent at all times a formidable obftacle, as they cannot be pafTed except by each man fingly, which caufes the enemy to remain a long time cxpofed to the fire from the breaft-work, and to form under it at a great hazard. 6. Cro-U's' feet fcattered along the bottom of the ditch, or in the ground in front of it ; or, where they are wanting, a number of 'lakes, capped and pointed witli iron, may be driven into the ground. 7. y/n rti/wMCf^rtV/ci about 30 yards in front of the firih This, if filled with water, or cnfilaced from the breaft-work, prefents a confiderable obftacle ; but, ctherwilc, only affords the enemy a pljce of fhelter, where he may reft fome time in fecurity, and from thence make the remainder of his way to the work in great haile, fo that it becomes a detriment inftead of an advantage. 8. y}n artificial inundation of the country in fjont of the work, efFefted by means of dams. This, if five or fix feet deep, and properly under the fire of the garrifon, is an amazing and obvious advantage ; but the work is fo laborious, and requires fuch a combination of circumftances to render it effeftual, that it is rarely executed in the field. 9. Fou- gajps, or fmall m'mes, placed about eight or twelve yards from the ditch, and fprung when the enemy is marching over them towards the breaft-work. Thefe occafion great dif- order ; and as foldiers have a great dread of mines, and anxioufly avoid an attack upon any fpot they conceive un- dermined, are an excellent fecurity againft the attacks of a fuperior enemy. Previous to the elevation of the bread-work, its entire plan mull be traced or marked out upon the ground, in luch a manner that the workmen may afterwards be enabled to calculate the thicknefs of the work and breadth of the folTe. In computing the length of the breaft-work, two feet are allowed for each file of men ; and as troops are ufually formed two deep for its defence, the length will be equal to the number of men : ten feet are allowed for a fmall gun, and fourteen or fixtecn for a larger. Thus the length of a brcail-work for 250 men, and four field-pieces, {hould be 290 feet. In excavating the ditch, three work- men are allowed to every eight feet in length ; and when in a clayey or gravelly foil, to every three men with fliovels, one with a pick-axe fnould be reckoned, to loofen the ground. The breaft-work itfelf, and every thing imme- diately belonging to it, (hould be erefled entirely by the troops. A work with a revetement of fods may in general be cOmpleated in a day, provided there is a fufficient num- ber of workmen. But if it is to be formed with fafcines, or palifadcd, it W'll require two days ; and if there are liktwife to be fraifes, fougaffes, trous de loup, &c. three may not be fufficient. Unclrr the articles Rampart, Fosse, Reve- tement, Fascines, Fougasses, Palisades, &c. the reader will find the coiiftruflion ot the different parts of a brcait-work more fully explained. In Plate IV. Fortification, fg. i,a,b, c, i? the banquette ; c, B R E tt, the interior flope or talus ; d, e, the fummit of the breaft- work ; e,f, the exterior flopc or talus; /, g, the berme; ^, h, the fcarp ; i, the folic ; i, /, the ccuntcrfcarp ; /, m, the glacis. Fi^. 2. is a breaft-work fraifed and palifadtd, frcn in profile ; ^, is a row of palifades planted upon tiie bHiiquriic ; i, another of fraifes, buried in the exterior talus of the breaft-work ; c, chevaux de frize in the middle of the ditclj behind d, a row of palifader,, fixeil at the foot of the coun- terfcnrp ; e, trous de loup ; /, abbatis of trees Iccn in profile. Fig. 5. is a plan of the breaft-work; a, is the (lopo of the banquette; i, banquette ; r, interior talus ; .,nrtSi fome of them n-.n^e from plaec to place, fame manner wth the Moors, and both of ih.m employ 3„a live in teits or portable huts, others in fcattercd villages, Arabic words. 1 he bhellu enumerate the days after he •.,void.:ur, jruHTallv. all intermixture with other nations, fame metliod, but m then- own language. Both the Breoes Thefc arc reckoned' the richellofall the various inhabitants of and .Shellu ocnote the months of the year l.ke the Moors litt country ; and thty carry on a mucli larger traffic of and the Arabs, and date from the fame a;ra, or the year of catde, hides, wax, honey, iron, and other commodities; tln.y have likcwife fome artificers in iron, and weavers. The Drtbes and the Moors form the two principal claffcs, comprehendinir the dillerent tribes that people the enipn-e of Morocco. Ilie Brtbes, as well as the Moors, adopted, willi'.uit doubt, the Maliometan religion, analogous as it was the Hegira. The Koran, and books of prayer of the Brebes and Shelhi, are in Arabic ; and fo are their ads ar:d title-deeds, which are written by their Talbes, or learned men. Chenier's Morocco, vol.i. BREBEUF, George m., in Bingraphy, a French poet, was born at Torigny, in the Lower Normandy, in i6j8, " " " During to thtirmaanorsaad prevalent cuftoms, on the firft invafion and ftudied pohte literature at Caen and Pans. of the Arabs ; but thev are ignorant, and pay little regard his refidence at Rouen, where he lived feveral years, he pub- toaiiv of the precepts of their religion, except to that which lifiud, in 1636, a parody on the 7th book of the ^neid, ipfphis them with a hatred for others of a different profef- and the f^rft book of Lucan travtftied, which latter work lion. Mahometanifm, however, has not effaced the ancient ha- was intended as a fatire againft the titled vanity of great bits and prejudices of thefe people ; for thev eat fwinc's fielh, lords, and the feivile bafeiicfs ol their flatterers. He atter- and, in thofe places which have vineyards, drink wine ; alltg- wards laid the foundation of his celebrity by a tranflation of ino-, asanapolo. ers, introduced into his landfcapes, and reprcfented alfo at their fealls, dances, or converfations, v/hich he compafed in the manner of David Teniers. His piiftures were well handled, and agreeably coloured ; ard fome of them were much elleemed. Ambitious of vifiting the court of the tleftor palatine, who had been reprefenttd to him as a mag- nificent patron of peifons of his profeflion, he accompanied his brother Gerrard thither; but being at a lofs for a proper introdudlion, he and his brother finiihed two pifiurcs, in which they painted tlie poitraits of the eltclor, and of his principal attendants, which were ftrlking refemblances, as they had oblerved them in the chace ; and they then pre- vailed with an officer of the honfehold to place them in a gallery, through which his highncfs always paffcd on his return from hunting. The ftratagem fucceedcd ; as the prince obferved them with furprife and fatisfacJtion ; and the artills were ordered to be brought to court, where they were honourably received, paid liberally for their works, and pre- fented, among other donations, with two medals of gold. Job died in 1698. Pilkington. Bri;ckber.g, or Berkhe ydf.n, Gf.rrard, brother of the preceding, was born at Haerlem in 16.15, ■*"'' painted many pifturcs in concurrence with his brother ; but his ufual fubjefts were views of churches, convents, noblemen's houfts, and magnificent flrutlurcs, which he adorned with fmall figures dcfigned after nature, and intended for his compofi- tions. His works were much elleemed ; but as he was ad- vancing to reputation, he was unfortunately drowned in a canal oa his return home from an evening party of friends. This event happened in 169J. Pilkington. BRECKERFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle cf Wellplialia, and county of Marck ; 26 miles N.N.E. of Cologn. BRECKNOCK, a townfliip of America, in Lancaflcr county, and Hate of Peniifylvania. Brecknock, or Brecon, is the piineipal and countytown of Brecknockfliire, South Wales. It isfitnated in a nio!l ro- mantic part of the country on the banks of the rivers Ulk and Hodny , whence its ancient name was Aberhodny. During the daysof chivalry and papacy here were acaftle and a m.onallery, both of which appear to have been extenfive and important. They were built ni the reign of Henry I. by Barnard de Now- marck, a Norman lord, who obtained great polfeffions in this- part of the country, and perpetuated his name by founding fe- vcral religious houfcs. This tuwa was particularly diltinguilhed- B R E by Iiiii inftitutions ; amonp; which were two priories approprU ated rifpcclivcly to Ikiicdidiiies and Dominicans. One of tlicfe was converted into a college bv Henry VI II., and the principal building of the other is now a parifli church. The remaining fragments cf the caftle prove tl'.dt it has been an extenfive and grand pile of building. Part of the keep, and a tower called llly-tovver, ilill remain. The latter is fo natned from Dr. Morton, bllhop of Ely, who was confined here by order of Richard III., where, in conjunftion with his keeper, the dilappointcd duke ot Buckingham, they planned the union of the two houfes of York and Lancafter, ;ind tlie fucceflion of Henry VII. Their plan was com- plete!) digclled, and eventually brought to a fucccfslul ter- mination, though the projeftors of it experienced very oppo- lite fates. The duke, who was the moll aclive in this tranf- adion, was detected, fei/.cd, and executed ; but the more fortunate bifliop efcaped from the caltle, kept quiet, and hved to become, iu the enfuing reign, a privy counfellor, and was further advanced to (ill the metropolitan fee of Canterbury. The callie is divided from the town by the river Hodny or Honddy. Its main body, with all the princi- pal part«, are Hid to be traced, though the tower juft men- tioned is the only large mafs of building that remains to charaderizc its architedure ai-d gloomy dignity. Brecknock was formerly furrounded with an embattled wall, and entered by four gates, named, according to their rcfpcdive fituations, Eaft-gate, Well gate, High-gate, and Water-gate. There was alfo another gate in the fuburb, called Portherne S. Manx. The town confills, at prefent, of three principal fpacious ftreets, and, according to Mr. Alalkin's (latemeut, " is one of the beil built in Wales," though fome of the fmallcr ftreets, occupied by poor inha- bitants, are " miferably deficient in general arrangements." The trade, though not very confiderable, is progreffivcly increafing fince ttie coinpletion of its canal ; and fome ma- nufactories of woollens and hats are ellablifhed on a refpeft- able fcale. " Brecknock," obferves Mr. Malkin, " appears in moll refpcfts to be a very defirable refidence, and is much inhabited by clergy and gentry of independent fortunes. The number of fpacious and modern-built houfes is greater, in proportion to its fize, than perhaps in any town of Wales. The markets are well, but not very cheaply, fupplied. The broken fummit of the mountainous ridge, continued into Monmouthfhire in irregular lines ; the dil'mantlcd towers of Aberhodny, with its mouldering walls in wild and various ruins, while the unpidurtfque compaftnefs of the modern buildings^ is favourably concealed, render this one of the mod linking fituations, near any town in the principality." The iituation of the priory and callie, with the fecluded and in- tcrelling walks formed near thcfe ruins, are peculiarly de- lightful, and invariably attradt the attention and admiration of all ftrangers. Brecon is a borough, and returns one member to parliament. Here were buried the three bilTiops of St. David's, Main- waring, Lucy, and Bull. In the town and its vicinity have been found feveral Roman antiquities, with coins, &c. and fome large intrenchments are to be feen on the neighbouring hills ; but the moll remarkable fortification is Y-Gaer, about trt-o miles N.W. from the town. This was probably occu- pied, if not made, by the Romans. It is feated on a gen- tle eminence, overlooking the river Uflc ; parts of its walls remain ; and within the area of the camp fome Roman bricki have been found, fimilar to thofe at Caerleon, with the infcription LEG U AUG. Contiguous to the camp, in the middle of a highway, is a rude carved pillar, about fix feet high, called Maen-y-jMorimoti, or the Virgin's ftone. Another fragment of Roman antiquity is a fepul- B R E chral pillar, noticed by Gibfoii and Cough, fta/iding up- right by the road-fide, with a defaced infcription, of which only the word VICTOR INI is legible. Brecknock confills of three parillies, and contains 540 houfes, and 2^76 inhabitants. It is 171 miles well from London, and has two weekly markets on Wednefdays and Saturdays, and four fairs yearly. Evans's Cambrian Itine- rary, 8vo. i Sol. Malkin'a Scenery, Antiquities and Bio- graphy of South Wales, 4to. 1S04. Gough's Edition of Camden's Britannia, vol. li. Brfcknock Canal, in Inland Nai>igalt(m, joins that from Momnouthfliire, eight milts and a half from Newport, and about one from Pontypooi. It crDfies the river Avon, and palTes the high ground by means of a tunnel 220 yards long, and, inclining towards the river Uflc, paflls Abergavenny. It then runs parallel with the Uflc to the town of Breck- nock ; making a courfe of nearly thirty-three miles, with fixty-eight feet rife. A rail-road extends from Aberga- venny to the canal, one mile in length ; and from the canal at Cwm Clydach to the coal and iron works at Wain Dew, four miles and three quarters. Another rail-road, from the canal to Llangroincy, crofTes the river Ufiv, and is in length one mile and a quarter. The rates of carriage for all kinds of merchandize, materials, horfes, cattle, &c. are particu- larly fpecified by the a£l of parliament. Philips's Hiftory of Inland Navigation, 410. BRECKNOCKSHIRE, deriving its name from Brecan, adillinguifhed charaderin legendary ilory, who fucceeded to it about the year 400, one of the counties of South Wales, is bounded on the north and eaft by Radnorfhire, having the river Wye for its natutal divifion. A fmall part of He- refordfhire alfo attaches to its eaftem limits ; on the fouth- tall and fouth the county of Monmouth forms its boundary ; and a fmall part of Glamorganfhire, with Caermarthenlhire and Cardigan (hire, bound its weftern and fouth-weftern ex- tremities. The length of this area, north and fouth, is efti- mated at twenty -nine miles, and its breadth at the fouthem bafis about thirty-four miles, making nearly 900 fquare miles, and containing about 600,000 acres. This dillrid is divided into the fix hundreds of Builth, Crickhowelj Deuynnoch, Merthyr, Penkelly, and Talgarth, and con- tains 4 towns, and 67 parifhes. Thefe, with the hamlets, are populated by 31,633 pcrfons, and contain 6794 houfes. This county is defcribed in the following terms by Gi- raldus Cambrenfis, who wrote at the latter end of the twelfth century, and was archdeacon of St. David's, in which dio- cefe this county is included. " Brechiniane (fays he, in his Itinerary of Wales) is a county abounding with corn ; and if ever any deficiency- happens, it is plentifully fupplied from its neighbour, Eng- land. It is rich in pafturcs and woods, deer and herds, and abounds alfo with river-fifli in the Ulk on one hand, and the Wye on the other ; both yielding falmon and trout in plenty, but the Wye greater quantities of the excellent filh called umbrtt. It is enclofed on every fide, except the north, by high mountains ; having on the well the mountains of Canterbochan ; on the fouth the fouthern hills, the chief of which is Cader- Arthur, or Arthur's chair, from its two fummits (it being ^ixofujoj, double-topped) refembling a chair; and this chair, being on a high and ileep place, is by the vulgar afcribed to the greatell and moft fovcrtign monarch of Britain, Arthur. On the top of this hill rifes a fpring, deep like a well, but fquart ; and though no Itream runs out of it, they find trout in it. Thcfe mountains, forming abar- rier to the fouth, keep out the fun, while cool breezes, and the native falubrity of the air, render the country extremely tf mperate. On the eaft. ftretch the Tolgar and Ewias hills." * Previous B R E Previous to tlie reign of William Riifus, this county ap- pears to have been veiled in its native princes ; but in tin's veign Barnard de Newnrarch, a Noiinan of great fijirit, combined with prudence, ad'embled a confulerable body of Englifli and Normans, vv-ith whom he invaded this tcrricory, and fubdued the inhabitants. To feciirc his newly acqnired poficiTions, he built caftles, and aflicrned different parts of tht-ra to his principal ailbciatcs. This policy further in- •<3nccd him to marry Nelt, grand-daughter of GrufFytli ap Lhewelin, who, proving to be of a moll revengeful and abandoned fpirit, involved her lord in much trouble, and oc- calioned her fon to be dilinherited, by faliely fwearing to Iving Henry I. that he was a baftard. The lordfliip pro-- grelfively paffed to Milo, earl of Hereford, and his fons, nest to Humphry de Bohune, to Philip Brufc, to Thomas Plantagenet, fixth fon of Erlw. III., and afterwards to the ■dukedom of Buckingham, till an attainder veiled it in the crown. Brecknockfhire was the feat of war in J 2 17, and afterwards in I2jj, when Lhev^-ehn came with an army, and <3ellroyed nearly all the towns and caftles in the county. At the relloration James Butler, afterwards duke of Or- mond, was created earl of Brecknock. The general afpeft of the county is mountainous and grand, affording a fublimity of fcenery, interfperfed with large plots of cultivation, that attaches to it a peculiar cha- rafter among the ftrongly marked divilions of South Wales. It is diftinguilhed from Glamorganflure by more level and extenfive vales ; its mountains are alfo more continuous, more lofty, and prefenting an appearance of hill piled upon hill. Its woods are commonly in very large maffes, and the banks of its rivers are luxurioufly clothed. The principal river of this county, next to the boundary one of tiie Wye, is the Ufl<, which, taking its rife in the Black mountain, on the border of Caermarthenfhire, flows through a fine valley, in its piogrefs to Brecknock. Agriculture, in this county, is much improved within the laft twenty years. Being contiguous to Herefordfiiire, the good hulbandry of which is defervedly noted, many Englilh farmers have purchafed eflates here, and introduced, with themfclves, new and more approved principles of agri- culture. The principal remains of Roman antiquities arc in and near the town of Brecknock. Among thefc are a caufeway running nearly at right angles with the Iflcer, and leading probably to the great Roman camp in the neighbourhood. Another Roman road has been difcovered near the bridge of Capel Rhyd y Briw, and another on the top of the moft unfre- quented mountains. A Roman hypccaull has alfo been difcovered in a fidd near the county town. Maikin's Tour in South Wales, 410. 1S04. Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia, vol. ii. Barber's Tour in South Wales, 8vo. i8oj. Breda, Van, or Bredali;, Peter, in Biography, a painter of landfcapes and cattle, was born at Antwerp in 16^0; iludied landfcape after nature, and adorned his deiigns with figures, corre£tIy drawn and judicioufly grouped. His fcenes are generally enriched with elegant Roman buildings, fountains, monuments, and ruins. His llyle, though inferior, rcfembled that of John Brueghel. He died in l6Sr. Pilkington. Breda, Van, John, a painter of liidory, landfcape, and converfations, was born at Aritu'erp in 168.J, and indrnfted by his father Alexander Van Breda, who was much elleemed as an artift, with whom he continued, pro- titing by good example and advice, till he wa? iS years of age. Among the capital paintinrrs in the p;)(refTion of John de Wit at Antwerp, Breda feitfted thofe of Velvet Brueg- hel, which he fucccfofully copied ; and he employed 9 rears Vol.. V. ' ■ ' B R E in copying alfo the piftures of feveral other gfreat madcrs. which he did fo exadly as to puzzle good judges in dif- tinguifliing the originsls from the copies. Having clla- blilhed Ills reputation in Holland, he accompanied Rjfbrack the fculptor to London, where he was highly cllecmcd and obtained conliderable patronage, and particularly that of tlie earl of Dervs'entwatcr, who was beheaded fJr rebellion in 1715. In Lmidon he was much employed by the court and nobility, and was hardly able to lupply the demands made upon him for his performances. From London, after a refidence of five years, he returned to Antwerp, much enriched ; and in 174^, when Louis XIV. vifited that city, he honoured this mailer by purchafing four of his pirturcs ; viz. « Chrill at the fea of Tiberias," " Chrift performing miracles," and " two landfcapes," with figures fo exijuifitely finilhed, as not to be eafily diftingnifhed /"rom thofc of Brueghel. Tlu's mailer and Wowermans were the models which he imitated ; and he approached nearer to tlum than any other artill of his time, llis landfcapes are in the ftyle and tafte of the former; and his converfations, liidorical figures, fairs, and battles are in the manner of the latter. His colouring is good, his touch ntat, his flvies and dillarces natural and beautiful ; and his tafte of dcfign agreeable. He had as much fire in his compoficion, and perhaps more genius than Brueghel ; and, upon the whole, he is a painter of fuch rank, tliat the value and eftlmation of his v.'orks muft always increafe. He died in 1750. Pilkington. Bri^da, in Geography, a city of the Netherlands, the capital of Dutch Brabant, fituated at tlie confluence of the rivers Aa and iVIerck, in a marfliy country which may be overflowed by means of thefe rivers. The former of thcfc ftreams, being, a little before its arrival at the town, aug- mented by the Byloop, is here rendered navigable, fo as to form a communication with the Geiman ocean. Breda was formerly large, populous, and wi.ll fortifiid, and was reckoned one of the llrongeft places in the Dutch frontiers. But its fortifications have funk into decay, fo that it is un- able to ftand a long fiege ; its circumference is ettiniatcd at about 4000 paces, and it is fald to contain about 22co honfcs, which are in general well built. Its citadel is environed with a moat ; and its figure is triangular, having at every angle a gate conilrufted with biick ; and its ramparts planted wilh elms. The great church is a magnificent ilrudure, and remarkable tor its tower, built in ]6(/6 and afterwards rebuilt, the height of its fpire being 363 feet. In this church are feveral. monuments of the ancient lords of Breda ; of which the principal are ihofe of Engelbcrt I. v. ho died in 1442 ; of John, who died in J475 ; aiid of Engelbcrt II. who died in i.504; but they arc not well preferved. The town-houfe is large, and its apartments regular and fump- luoufly furnifhed. Its woollen manufadlurcs and commerce were formerly pvofperous ; but they have long fince very much declined. Breda is the capital of an ancient barony or free lord.Tiip, which comprehends feveral confiderable villages, and the woods of Lieftofch, Mailbofch, and Ulvenhoutf'tbofch. The former of thefe v.oods is inttifetied with walks and viftas ; and the fecor.d, confiftinij of fir-trees, is about \\ league in length, and half a league in breadth. This barony ir.cludes good corn la:'d and padurcs, interfp.rfed v.itli many heaths and moraffcs. It was wrefted from the county of Strjcn, to which it formeily belonged, about the year iioo, by the duke of Brabant ; in 1212 it pcitained to Godfrey of Berg, as a fief of Brabant; in 1284 John I. duke of Brabant conferred the lordfiiip of Breda on Rafo von Gavre ; and in i.;:'(5 it was fold to John III. duke o£ Brabant, who parted with it, in 135 1, to John vou Polancn, M m whofe B R E wliofe grand-Jaugiitcr Joanna transferred it to licr confoit Engilbert of Nafliiii, wliuin (h<: married in 14-4' I" confc- qiience of tl>is alliance it remained iii the lioulc of NafTaii, till William III. of Ergland, dyiitff without iffiic, caufcd it to be left in abeynncc. The old caftle was begun by Heniy of NaiTaii ill 15JO; but about the year 1680, William prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, eroded the new one, which is a magnilicent ftruilure, furrounded by the waters of the Merck. Breda fuffered exceedingly in the wars of the 16th century. In l^'iy it was annexed to tlie domains of the king of Spain, by the duke of Alva, on account of tin rebclh'oa of William of NafFaii, prince of Orange. In I57i, the emperor Maximilian iiaving oflcrtd liis mediation for per.cc, a conftreiice was held at Breda, but it terminated witliout an agreement bct«ei:ri the Spa- niards and the Confederates. In IJ77 it was delivered up by the garrifort tr, the States ; but in 15S1 it was retaken by Claude de Berlaniont, and fell into tlie hai:ds of the Spa- niards. In J5yO prince Maurice took it by a ilratagcm, having ftnt a party of fejcct men concealed in a bent loaded with turf, by which means the prince was admitted, :ind the C'ty furrcndcred. In if'ij^ it w^as invtlltd by Spinola, who, well knowing the llrength of the place, determined to reduce it by famir.c, ar,d for this purpoft drew trenches round it for the fpace of four miles, erediing forts and redoubts ;:t certain intervals ; the ficge wiis pro- fcctited by Spinola with the utmoll diligence and vigour ; and the place was defended, ainidil the calamities of famine and difeafe, with a fagacity, ileadinefs, and valour, which did honour to the talents of the governor, Jnllin de NaiTau, the natural fon of William prince of Orange. A ncgolinticn at length took place between tlie befiegcrs and the ganifon ; and the refult %va?, that two capitulations were dravvn up, one tcr the garrifon and the other for the city, both cf which were the moil honourable and advantageous that could be devifcd. Thefe were accepted ; and the garrifon marched out, after having fuftaincd a fiege of 10 months, and having loll two- chirdi of tiicir number and an equal number of the inha- bitants. Spinola drew up his army to lalute them, and, furrounded by his field officers, paid particular compliments to the governor, and commanding oiTicers. He alio dif- tributed money among the foldiers, ordered the fick and wounded to be tenderly treated and taken care of ; and in the regard paid to the valour and merit of his enemies he dilplayed all the fentiments of a hero. On the citizens alfo he poured out a profufion of civilities ; manifciling his admiraliou of their conllancy and fidelity to a degree, which even alarmed the States-General. In n''37 Henry, prince of Orange, determining to recover Breda, laid fiege to it on the 23d of June, and obliged the governor, Omer de Fourdin, a very dillinguilhed officer, to funender, the 20th of October following. The governor and foldiers on this cccafion, were, by the prince's generofity, allowed all the honours of war ; and the officers of the city placed on the fame footing as in the year 162';, before it was reduced by Spinola. Fouibin paid his compliments, fealed in a letter, to tire prince ; he was received gracioufly, loaded with praifes Hnd honours, and difmifled with valuable prcfents, rcftecling equal credit on the generofity of the prince and the valour of the governor. After this event the Dutch confiderably augmented the fortifications ; and yet, though they have hten reckoned among the moll complete in the Netherlands, Breda furrendered to the Frencli, on the 24th of February jyp-;, after a fhort fiege of 10 days. However, on the 20th of March following, it was again delivered up to the Dutch by capitulation, and the foldiers were permitted to return to France with fafe conduA. B R E Breda was rendered fam.ou? in 1667 by the famous congrcfs which was held there for a general peace ; fird, between Louis XIV. king of France, and Charles II. king of England, concluded the 2 I (t of July, by the mediation of the king of Sweden j fecondly, between the king of England, and the States-General on the ^ id of July, one article of which peace was the celF.on of the province of New York to the Englilh ; and tliirdly, on the fame day a peace was ralifud between the king of England and FrtJevick III. king of Denmark. Breda lies 46 miles fouth of Amilerdnm, and 22 S. S. E. of Rotterdam. N. lat. ,-i°37'- E-'^"g- 4°4)'- BREDE, La, a town ot France, in the department of the Giro;:iie. BREDEMEYERA, \n Hottmy, Wlllden. I,,>I4. Clafs, diaiielphia oSamlria. Elfential Char. Calyx thret-leaved ; Cor. papilioiiaccoub ; llandard two-pctalled ; drupe with a two-celled nut. Species. '^.Jhril-Mida. A fhrub from five to eight feet high. Leaves I. early alternate, oblong-lanceolate, finooth, veined, tvvo or three inches long, with fhort petioles. F/owirs, fmall, yellow, terminating, panicled. Panicle, much branched, pyra- midal, many-flovvcred. BniLia, linear-fubulate, at the bafe of tlie pedicles. A native of Caracas in the margins of woods. BREDENBORN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wellphalia, and bilh.opric of Paderborn, 4 miles E. of Nelicim. BREDE RODE, an ancient feignory of Holland be- tween Bcverwick and Haerlcm ; tiie lord ot which was one of the principal perfons who prefented a petition to Mar- garet of Au'lria, again (I the inqulfilion and other innovations in the year 1566. The title is e-xtiBdl. BREDEWIG, or Breedvig, a fea-port town in Nor- way, in the diocefe of Aggerhuus, and dillridl of Bradfbcrg- lehn, 44 miles S. S. W. of Chriftiania. BREDEWITE, in jlncient Lew Writers, an amerce- ment arifing from fome default in the affile of bread. BREDIN, in Conchology, the French name of the com- mon limpet, Patella vulgaris. BREDL, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bolefiaw ; 6 miles N. E. of Turnau. BREDON, the name of a hill in England, that divides the vale of Tcwklhury from that of Evefham ; from the fum.mit of which the profpeft is cxtenfive, commanding the cities of Gloucellcr and Worcefter, and a confiderable num- ber of towns and villages. BREDSTEDT, an ancient and populous town of Den- mark, in the duchy of Slefwick, and capital of a diilrift of the fame name, two Danidi miles in length and as many in breadth, containing a confiderable number of acres of marfli- land, and fubjeft to the prefeft of Flenfburg ; 2 1 miles N. N. W. of Slefwick. BREDYDT, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleftorate of Treves ; 1 1 miles E. of Treves. BRE'E, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of Ruremonde. The town contains 1184, and the canton .5493 inhabitants ; the territory includes \6z\ kiliometres and 1 1 communes. BREECH, in Ship Building, the angle formed by a knee timber, the infide of which is called the throat. Breech of a gun, in Artillery, denotes the diftance from the hind part of the bafe ring to the beginning of the bore, and is always equal to the thickncfs of the metal at the vent. See AC, fg. t. Tab. Gunnery. Engineers have contrived a fort of cat charged by the breech. Breech^ cannons, which are B R E ^9.i.T.CH-moii/t!ings.. See Mouldings. Breech prefeiitat'ion, in AFtJ-wifiry, a fpecies of pre- ternatural or croU birth, uhieb lee; iiivvhicli the nates ot tlie foetus prefent to the uterine oritice, at the commencement of labour, inltead of the head. When on tlie burfting of the membranes, the part of tlie foetus about to enter the os uteri feels loft, and of a globular figure, the accoucheur will generally be riglit in pronouueing, that it is the breech'tf the cliild that prtfents ; parlicularly, if during the pains, the meconium, or fccccs of the child are forced away. Though both nates may be perceived prefenting, when the child enters the pelvis of the motlier, yet one of them always comes down, through that pafhige, before the other, and in that manner conies into the world. When the pelvis ol the mother is of l!ie ufi;nl form and dimenfions, and the child is not dilproportionably large, tliis fpecies of labour requires very little more attention, on liie part of the afilllant, and ufuaily terminates, iqoaliv fafelv to the mjther and child, though not fo fpeedily,as a natural labour. When, on account of the difproportion between the bulk of the child, and the pelvis of the mother, or through the rigidity of the foft parts of the mother, the breech of the child is very much preffed, and llraightened in its palfagc, the fcrotum, if it be a male, will be much fwellcd, and black. This blacknels and fwtUing, however, uludlly foon lublide, or they may be difperfed, by fomenting thepart with warm water, applying afterwards, fome elder, or other cooling ointment. In this kind of labour no manual alliliance will be necef- fary in ordinary cafes, until the breech of the child is thrulf down fo low by the pains, as to prefs upon the external orifice. The accoucheur may then pals a finger up the vagina, and round the groin ot the child, and afful in draw- ing it down, during each pain. This will contribute much towards facilitating and expediting the birth of the part. Or if, on account of the difproportion between the fize of the child, and the capacity of the pelvis of the mother, the breech of the child fliould not defcend fo low as to enable the accoucheur to affili with his finger, a blunt hook may be palled round the groin, and ufed in the fam.e manner. This will give a better purchafe, and enable him to exert much more force than he could ufe with his finger; but great caution is neccfl'ary in extracting in this way, lell the head of the tliigh bone of tile child be broke oif with the inltrument. To prevent this accident, it will be neceilhry that the ac- c-oucheur keep two or three of his fingers pieffed (Irongly again!! the thigh, on the fide the inilrument is applied, keep- ing the thigh clofe to the body of the child. When, by either of thefe means, the breech of the child is delivered, the accoucheur mu'l attend to the pofition of the child, and if its belly be placed oppofite to the pubes of the mother, he muil turn it round to the fncrum, and then complete the delivery in the manner directed under the article, Labour Prelernaliiral. If flooding or convulfion fliould come on, during a labour of this knid, before the breech of the child lias entered, or made much progreis in the pelvis, the accouclieur muil pais his hand llowly and gradually up into the uterus, uctil he reaches, and ean take a firm hold of one or bot!) the feet of the child, which he mull bring down through the vagina, withdrawing his hand in the fame flow and cautious manner as he had introduced it. SccConvulsions and I'looding during parturition. liRF.ECHES,a garment worn by males, reach nig from the girdle to the knees, and fervmg to cover the hi))S, thighs, &c. The ancient Romans ijad nothing ni tlieir d:'ci» a;ifwcriug B R E to our bieecfits and ftoekings ; inflead of wliicli, undertlieir lower tunics and waillcoats, tliey fomctimis bound tlieir thighs and legs round with lilkeii fcarven, or fafcit, called t'tl/ialia MxA J'emorallit. Salmuth. ad Paiiciroll." p. i. i6i. Kennet. Rom. Ant. Not. p. ii. lib. v. cap. 8. Ilrccciies appear to he a habit peculiar to the barbarous nations, efpc- cialiy thofe inhabiting the colder countries of the Norlii ; wlience 'I'acitns calls them Imrhamm legmen. We find nieii- tion made of them among the ancient Getn-, Sarniatx, Oauls, Germans, and Britons ; tlicy alfo obtained among the McJes and I'tifians, as being a people of Scythian origin : they alfo afterivards got footing in Italy, fone pretend as early as the time of Auguftus; but without mucli foundation, tliat em- peror's breeches, mentioned by Suetonius, being apparently- only fwatho tied over his thighs, 'i'dcit. Hill. lib. ii. cap. 20. Ptrf. Sat. iii, ver. 51. Ovid. Trill, lib. v. Eleg. \\. Suet, in Augull. cap. 8;j. However this be, breeches were at length received into Italy, and grew fo highly into falhion, that it was thought nccelfary, under Honorinsand Arcadius, to reilrain them by- law, and expel the hiiucarii, or breeches-makers, out of the city ; it appearing a thing unworthy, that a nation, which command'-d the world, fliould wear the habit cf barbarians. AVe find frequent mention of Iract, brace,:, or bracchr, iii claific writers, but the form of tliii habit is not agreed on : lume will have it to have been a rough party-coloured coat. BREECHING, in Sea Liin^iitif^e, a rope ufed to fecure the gun cl a fhip, and to prevent it from recoiling too much in the time of adtioii. It is thus named, becanfe it is mad- to pafs round the breech of the gun. This rope is fixed by lalleii- mg the middle of it to the liiiidmoll knob, or cafeab'cl of the gun, which, by faiiors, is called the pomiglion, or pummelion ; the two ends of it are afterwards inferted through two llrong rings on the fides of the carnage, and falUned to other bolts in the fides of the ihip. The breeching is of fufficient length to allow the mu/.zleof thegun tocomewilhin the iliip's fide to be charged. BREED, in RursI Ecei:oii!y, a term applied to anv par- ticular lort of any kind of domellic animal, wliich is known and dilliiiguilhed from all others by certain cliaracferillic marks, or 111 the technical language of the breeder, points. Thus, in the horfe kind we liave the vnec breed ; the heav^ llacL, cart, or Le'tcifleifuire breed ; the Cleveland Imy, or Tori- Jh'ire breed ; the 6'«/^//■ P iineh breed ; the Clydejdcilt, m Scotch breed ; the I'/elch, or polity breed, &c. And in neat cattle, the long-horned, or ]_,ancafl.nre breed ; the m'iddle-horned, or Dcuonjk'ire breed ; the Jhort horned, Dutch or Holdernejs breed ; the Welch breed ; the SuJ'olh dun bre^d ; the Gailaway, o\- pklhd breed ; the H'lghhuid, or KUoe breed ; the Loivland, ot Fif.jhire breed ; \.\vt Jlderney breed ; the VAld breed, S:c. In the (heep kind, the neiu Leicejler, or Dyhley breed ; the L'lnculnjljire breed ; the I'eefivaler breed ; the Roinney Marjli breed; Vh.t Dartmoor, uv Devai/hire unit breed ; ihc Jixnioor breed ; the Dorfetjhire breed ; the Herefordjh'tre, or Rylanil bretd ; the South Dozvri breed ; the. Xorj'olb breed ; \\\c tiealh breed ; the HerdzLHch breed ; the CL.-viol breed; the Dutifuuil breed ; the Shetland breed ; the JlLrino, or Sf-ani/h breed, &c. In the Iwine kind, there are likewife feveral breeds, as of the large fort, the Beri/J.'ire breed; the Uampjhire breed; the Shropjhlre breed ; the CloMcJhrJhire breed; the HertfordJlArc breed. Sic. and of the Imalhr forts, the Chinefe breed; the , among whom were nineteen olTicers who were killed, and fevcn wonndcd. This battle is com- monly called " the battle of Bunker's Hill," from the name of another hill near Breed's Hill. It happened on the i;th of June-, 1775. BREliDBAND, in Natural I/i/hry, one of the fynonyms of Echinus sax^^tilis, which fee. BREEDING, in a general fenle, is ufed for the care of Tearing or brin;^ing up the young of divers animals. BatEDiNG, in a moral fenfe, denotes a perfi;n's deport- ment or behaviour in the external offices and decorums of focial life. In this fenfe, we fay, wcW-bred, iW-iirJ, a man of breeding. Sic. Good breeding amounts to much the fame with what is otherwife called poliu-ncfs, among the ancient Romans urhanil^. Good breeding is nearly allied to virtue, and wdl, of itfelf, lead a man a great part of the way towards the fame ; it teaches him to rejoice in acls of civilily, to fetk out objcfts of companion, and to be pleafcd with every occafion of doing good offices. Lord Shaftcfbnry compares the well-bred man with the real philofopher : both charaders aim at what is excellent, afpire to a jull talle, and carry in view the model of what is beautiful and becoming. The conduft and manners of the one are formed according to the r.ioft perfedl cafe, and good entertainment of company ; of the other, according to the ftriftell interell of mankind ; the one according to his rank and quality in his private ftation, the other according to his rank and dignity in nature. Horace feems to have united both charafters. •'Quid verum atqne decenscuroet rogo,etomnisin hocfum." bhaftcs. Charatt. vol. i. p. 64. vol. ii. p. 242. vol. iii. p. 161. Hor. lib. i. Ep. ver. 12. Breeding, in Mnlwifery. Immediately after having conceived, a woman is faid to be breeding, and this ftage of pregnancy continues for the fpace uf three or four months, or to the time of quickening, after which (he is faid to be young with child, and at feven or eight months, great or big with child. Thefe ftages, not of themfelves of im- portance enough to be noticed, ar-e here mentioned on account of fome lymploms, peculiar to each of them. The moll rem.arkable of ta-le, and which frequently attacks wom.en almoll immediate'y after conception, is naufea and vomiting, particularly in a'morning, and as foon as they rife from their beds ; though in feme cafes, it continues through the whole of the day, fcarce fulftring them to retain any part of their food. It is ufual to attribute this fymptom to nervous irrita- tion, occafioned by the dillenfion of the minute veffels ofthe uterus, the ilomacli fympathlfing with the part. As it is fo general an attendant on breeding, perhaps, by the (hock it gives to the frame, it may be intended to affift in unfolding thofe veffels. Whatever may be ths caufe, vomiting in preg- nancy is rather a troublefonie.than dangerous fyniptom, and the violence of it may ufually be mitigated, though it cannot be entirely quieted, by a moderate and flender diet ; and by t jkiug fmall dofcs of rhubarb and magnelia, by lofing three B R E or four ounces oFbboJ from the arm, or by going for a (hcrt time into the country. It ufually ceafes foon after quicken- ing, though in fome women it continues through the whole time of gcllation. Cardialgia or heart-burn, which fee, pnolher frequent attendant on this llage of pregnancy, is equally untraclable and laliing, and only to be alleviated by rem.cdies and management limilar to thofe recommended for naufea and vomiting. Colliventfs, to wiilcli women in this Hate are alfo fubjefted, is perhaps occafioned by the lofs of the bile, whicli is thrown up by vomiting, in Head of going down through the inteilincs, where, by its (limulus, it is fup- pofcd to keep up the perlflaltic motion of the bowels, and thence to facilitate tiie defccnt, and difcharge of the faeces, Magnt fia and rhubarb, fenna, manna, Epfom, and glauber's fait:, in fmall doles, are the moil convenient and efficacious remedies for f>bviating this complaint. When the ilomach is fo weak as to reje£l thefe remedies, recourfe may be had to aloes, of which four, five, or fix grains, in the fonn of pills, may be given at night going to bed. The cullom of giving womai a larger portion of food, while breeding, which by the common people is thought to be necefTary, as they have then two to fnpport, if not the mofl frequent caufe of the inconveniences here noticed, as attendant on pregnancy, cer-- tainly tends to increafe ar.d aggravate them, as the Ilomach is at that time generally very weak and delicate, particularly in the laft months, when the uterus has acquired Inch a bulk as to prefs on and llraiten the bowels, and confequently to impede the paffage of the food. A moderate diet, air, and exercife, are necefTary in every ftage of pregnancy. Thole women thereiore err exceed- ingly who live at fuch times too fedentary a life, particularly thofe who fpend much of their time in eroudcd rooms, at the card-table, &c. as befides the injury done by fitting too long in one pollure, which they always find troublelome to them, they breathe an impure and noxious air, whence proceed head-achs, ficknefs, taintings, and a train of nervous fymp- toms, which not unfrequently lead on to abortion. Breeding, in Rural Economy, the art or fcience of raifing different forts of live flock, in the bell and moll per- fedl manner. This is a branch of the art of hufbandry, on which great attention has lately been bellowed, but which probably depends on principles and circumllances that are not yet fully inveftigated or underflood. Much improve- ment has, however, been effefted in the railing of almoft every kind of live flock, fince the nature and means of its fupport have been better known and more abundantly pro- vided. The greatly increafed demand for the animals, either in confequence of their ufefulnefs for the purpofes of labour or thofe of fapplying the food of mankind, has probably had much effetl in promoting this fort of improvement, as rendering it more an objett to the breeding as well as graz- ing farmer. It has been well remarked by the author of " Pradlical Agriculture," that notwithllandlng much has been done in different dlftritls, in bringing diflercnt breeds of different forts of live flock to a greater ftate of perfee'ition, much ttill remains to be effcrted ; and that it is probably far from having reached that point to which it is capable of being carried, by the judicious combination of the bell and molt appropriate breeds of domeftic animals, with the improve- ments in the cultivation of herbage, or other forts of green food for their fupport. To fully explain the means of ac- complilliing luch improvements in every fort of ilock, many ad- ditional fatts and experiments arc, however, ncceffary. All that can be done at prefent is, perhaps, that of prcfentlng the farmer with a few hints and direftions, which may fcrve as guides in conduCling the bufinefs. In purfuing attempts of this nature to any extent, Mr. Mid- I dletoa B R E B R E d!cton has juflly obfcrved, great care fliciild be previoiifiy taken, that thert be a fufficicnt degree of flieiter, Ihadi.-, and warmth, and at the fame time a higli ilatc of feitilily in the land, with fuitable drainage ; as it is only by the riclinefs and abundance of food that fuch changes or improvements can be made in the mod advantageous manner, or the llock be carried to any high ftatc of perfLiition. DilTerent modes of pradHce have been followed in the im- proving of hve (lock, but the principal are thofe of crolfing the different breeds, fo as to fupply the imperfedlions a:d defefts of the one by the merits and perfections of the other; and of uniting the valuable qualities or p rfefticns of the fatie icinds by continuing to breed and fekfting the moll p,r- L'lJt animals in the fame line or famdy. 'I'he lornier of thefe methods has been long known and tmpl.iyed ; but the iatttr has, only withni thele few years, beeii fidly mtroduced to the notice of the farmer, and is not, probably, yet fo much attended to as it would feem to deferve. It has been commonly fuppofcd, that the pratlice of croffmg the breeds of domellic animals pufTefres various other advantages, as well as thole of prcvcntnig the decreale and degeneracy of the llock, on account of the animals bjing kept from becoming too nearly relate 1 to each othe' . There are ma::y farts, however, which (liew that the luppolition of the degeneracy of animals in confequcnce ot the nearmfs of their relationlhip is not fo well founded as has been com- monly imagined. Tlie compkte iucccfs ot the contrary pradtice ni the management of Mr. Bakewell, who reared his bell llock by the nearcft affinities, not only without de- generacy in any rtfpeft whatever, but with a continued im- provement and amelioration, makes llrongly againft the opinion ; as well as the circumltance of cattle in the wild flate, in particular iituations, remaining for centuries with- out the Icaft alteration taking place in their form, or change in their colour or other properties. It has, notwithlland- ing, been afTerted, that in this fyftem of breeding, young flock decreafe lapidly in fize. If, however, fuch a circum- flance was really apt to occur, it could hardly have been overlooked or dilregarded by the very expert and intelligent breeder juft mentioned, in his long and very extenlive experi- ence of railing various kinds of live ftock, by couphng the moll perfeA animals of the fame line or family. There cannot be any doubt, however, but that by the method of crofling the breeds of animals much advantage may be derived, efpecially in what relates to fize, and forae other properties noticed below ; yet it is obvious, that it muft require the niceft care, and the greateft circumfpettion, in order to fuit the animals in the moil exafl manner to the nature of the improvement that is intended, otherwife injury, inllead of advantage, may be the confequcnce. Indeed, from the injudicious and random method in which improvements of live ftock, on this principle, have, in general, been un- dertaken, it does not feem improbable but that injury may often have been produced inftead of benefit, by uniting fuch breeds, as, from the great diffimilarity of their forms, quali- ties, or other propel ties, could not have any chance of efteft- ing the purpofe with utility. Belides, in almofl every dif- trict of the kingdom, where the breeding fyftem is purlued to much extent, ufcful breeds of domeftic animals are aflert- ed to have been injured by the pradlice of injudicious crofTing, as may be feen m the various reports that have been pub- lilhed by the Board of Agriculture : and lord Somcrvillc, iu his excellent view of the fyftem of the Board of Agriculture, has very pertinently remarked, " that to the mountebank doftrines of croffing diffiniilar breeds, whom iiature in its infinite wifdom had let afunder, we are indebted tor much confufion and mifraanagement." It cannot, however, be difputcd, but that by purfuing this method with iudgment and proper attention, great advantaj^cs may often be ob- tained, efpecially in regard to bone or fize, and the hide- or coat, as well as in the improvement of particular parti or pomls, and probably in what rciatts to the niovcmrnt or (peed ot the a-imals. The ai-.lhor of " Praflical Apiicf!- turc," has obfervcd, " As it is in fome nieafurc a principle founded in phyfiological fcitnce, ajid countenanced by ihe obltrvat'on aid experience of ages, that animals arc fon-e- what endowed with the laculty of not only propagating an ofTspiing that has, in a confulerable degree, the propcities, dilpofitions, and tefi-mblancts of th.emltlves, but that i?, in fome meafure, fnbjeft to a (imil.'.rity of difcai't ; it would ap- pear, that although there may be occafional d>.vi;:tion-j, the mott certain method, and that which has the beft foundation ni the nature and economy of the anim.al, in fo far as the particular qu.lities and oilier properties, bifides ihofc th.-.t have been j.at mentioned, are concerned, is to breed in the fame line, and. perhaps, in. the fame family ; as by a cartful procedure in this way, the expert breeder may not only have the greateft (ecnrity for attaining that improvement which he is anxious to produce, but run tlie lead rifiv of deteriora- tion." The fucc; f« of this praiTl ice, it is contended, " has not merely been fliewn in the breeding of the farmer's ftock, but alfo in that of the fpo^tfnian, as it has been found that pointers and game cocks have been bred with the greated perfedion and fuperiority in this mode :" and that " it is by the (ame means that the valuable properties of the race-- horfe are perpetuated and preferved." " Tlie fame thing like- wi(e," it is added, " takes place in the vegetable economv, the fiucll and moll perfeft produtlions of this fort being propagated by fuwing feed felcded from the beft and molt perfett plants of the fame kind, and taking the buds or off- letb from the beft and moll perfed trees of the fame fpecics." " There is alfo another circumftance," continues the fame author, " that feems to fticw the propriety and fuperior ad- vantage of this m.ethod of proceeding in the breeding of domclbc animals, wdiich is that, however much the breeds of live ftock m;.y be altered by climate, paftnre, and other canfes, in what rcfpeds their colour and other triflmg par- ticulars, their fpecitic charaders remain invariably the fame. No caules of thele kinds have ever been capahle of changing any one of the dillind breeds, whetlier of neat cattle, (heep, hrrfes, or hog?, in fuch a manner as to have the charaderiftic diftindious of thofe of any of the others." On thefe principles it is therefore concluded that " by having recourfe to occafional crofling in the above inten- tions, and the careful fcledion of the moft perfed animals of the fame breed or kind, with due attention to conftant good feeding, the improvement ot live ftock may be car- ried to the greateft perfedion," " But as the pri.ic'pal objed of the breeding farmer muft conllantly be tiiat of obtaining fueh animals as will afford him the largell profit, it may be nectffary to afceitain the nature and torm of the animal that may be mofl advantageous in this view, or which pays the beft for the food that is con- fumed, as by this means it will be feen what points arc the moft defirable or uleful in a breed or variety, and what cir- cumftances ought to be attended to, fo ai tojnllity its intra- tluttion in prelerencc lo any other," The properties wh-K'h feem the moft particularly to in- tereft the breeder, in his attempts to improve the different forts of live ftock, are princip-ily thole of form or fliapc, fize, difpofition, hardinefs, quick maturity, nature of fJefh, fattening pnperty, mil.k, hide, aptitude for labour, and the quality of the breed, or, in the hu.guag'e of the art, blood. With regard to fcnu, the notions of breeders have been confider- BREEDING. co.ifiat.;iLlv at variniice ; In'.t it would fcem that there can animals pay the hell for the fooJ they cni,r,inie, nor Joes if. only be one jjcrfecl form, which inuft be that wiiich appro piiiqualcs the moll to cxafincfs in the fliape aiul proportion ot tliC difTtrcnt paits. This (lioiild, therefore, be tlie prin- cipal aim of the impi-ovcr, whatever the nature or breed of the animal may be. Tlie writer, mentioned above, conceives, that " in this view a perfediy formed animal Hionld have nn exad pro- I' " " "" appear capable of bcinjj eallly afcertained, as it nnuft obviouily be influenced by a variety of caiifes. It is a property that may, l)owever, be dclirable v\'liere the chief objidl of the gra/ier is that of feeding to a great weight, elpccially where the fnpply of food ii ncli and abundant, but ni othei circumtlances, it is perhaps not fo necefTary to be- attended to. It is the difference in the quantity of meat afforded b) )ortion and confillcncy in all tlie different parts; the head large and fmall animals, in proportion to the extent and va- iieat and compactly formed, being neither too large nor of lue of the food which they differently confume, that is to be too great lei:undance of fnpply mull obvioudy be much connected with It. The length of time that ditlertnt forts of live Hock may be kept with advaptage, under dilleri-nt circumHances, has, however, not been yet well afcertaincd, but neat cattle may generally, it is lup- polVd, be kept longer wiili profit to the farmer than flicep. It is obvious, however, that the method in which the ani- mals are treated in refpeft to food mud greatly influence the matter, as where they are abundantly fupplied at all times, and of courie conftantly prefervcd in a thriving ftate, they will, without doubt, arrive much earlier at a Hate of ma- turity, than when the contrary is the cafe. In all forts of Hock this mull invariably be the confequence. It has, in- deed, been well obferved, by fir John Sinclair, that where the animals are conftantly well fed, a greater progrcfs vv'ill be made in three years, than in the common pinching mode cm be made in five. The necelllty and advantage of not fnfl'ering live ftock of any kind to be reihiiTled, efpecially in their more early growth, from the want of due care, food, and warmth, are therefore fufliciently clear, and ftiould ncfcr be difregarded by the breeder in rearing of his ftock. In addition to the obfervations that have been already made on the natun of the JJiJh of animals, it may be re- marked, that its goodnefs probably iti a great meafure de- pends on the breed being a quality inherent in the miifcular fubftance. Mr. Marfiiall has indeed obferved, in the Rural Economy of the Midland Diftrids, that there " the grain is clearly underftood to depend wholly on the breed, and not, as has been heretofore confidered, on the fize of the animal." Experiments are wanting to fliow how far the flavour and colour of the flefti of different animals may de- pend on or be influenced by the nature and quality of the food on which they are fed, and on the breed. The com- mon notion of its being in fome degree connefted with the colour of the flcin of the animal, is moft probably without any real foundation. The great deviations that have fometimes been obferved in the flefli of animals from the natural ap- pearance, can only be accounted tor on the fuppofition of their being difcafed. It is remarked in a late work on jirac- tical agriculture, that " in the living ftate the proofs of good flefh are a mellow, elaftic, rather firm feel, without any de- gree oi hailhnefs, and in the dead condition a fimilarity of feel, with a fine grain and marbly appearance. There may likewife be fome difference in the quality of the flefli of ani- mals in proportion as they are more old or young, being in the former cafe more hard and lefs tender and juicy than in the latter. The fmenefs of the grain may alfo vary accord- ing as the animal is male or female, being in general coarfer in the former than the latter. The dfpojiiton to fatten readily while young is another property which has fome relation to that juft noticed; and which greatly intcrefts the profits of the grazing farmer, as where it does not occur, a large proportion of food muft often be confumed to little or no advantage. It is well known, that fome animals of different kinds, and fome par- ticular breeds of different forts of animals, become readily fat with but a trifling confumption of food, while others that confumc in a valtly increaf d proportion have not the 2 leaft B R E •ka!T appearaiiC'.' of attaining fuch a ftate ; but the principle fin which this tK-pcnds has vol been yet fully afcertained. Viivn the little knowledge that has been obtained on the fulje^, it would fcem to he a quality feme way or other coiuitclid witli the fnullnels of bcvie. In the experience of Mr. IVikewcU and fonic other intelligent breeders, it was found todepcrd much upon the goodnefs of form and the breed. But whether it depends on thefe, or is the confe- ■qucML-c of f.ime particular ftate or ilri;thv.T internal orgai-s, it is evidently of great importance to the farmer to have fiurh animals as not only fatten readily, but in many cafe::, as can be fupported on the inferior forts 6f fo>jd. The oppofition that lias been made to the utility «>f this quality on the fcorc of the over-fattening of animals, and the i'uppi.fition that fuch fat meat is kfs ufeful, as well as lefs economical in theconfumption, is probably without any found.-.tion in truth or jull obfcrvation, as the grazier has no other means of increafing the quantity of lean meat in his feeding llook, but through the medium of the fattening Property. I'i'-is quality (liould of eourfe be condantly kept in view by the breeder in raifing.of his ftock, whatever the kind may be. The ilatc of the l>Ue or Jh'm is likewife a circumftance that Ihould be attended to in the breeding of animals, as (bowing, in fome degree, their difpofition to become fat. When It has a loft filky feci there is molUy a difpofition in the animal to fatten in an expeditious manner, and it is fup- ijofed to have an advantage in being more dilteniible, and of eourfe more adapted to admit a large increafe of flefli. Thick hides inay, however, have advantages in cold cx- pofed fituations, where warmth is more particularly necef- fary to the animals. The quality of furnifliing a large fupply of m'llh, with the lead pofllble expenditure of food, is another property in ani- mals that ought not, by any means, be overlooked by the breeding farmer. How far a feparate and dillinft breed fliould be provided for this purpofe, or one partly adapted to this ufe, and partly to that of the butcher, be employed, is a point that has not yet been determined ; but as it is well known, that fuch cows as have much tendency to fat- ten feldoni or ever afford any large quantity of milk ; there fliould probably be a breed exclulively for the purpofe of the dairy. -Sir John Sinclair iias, however, fuggofted it as pro- bable, " that, by great attention, a breed might be reared, the males of which might, in every refped, be well calculated for the ihambles ; and the females, when young, produce abundant quantities of good milk, yet, when they reached eight or nine years of age, be eafily fattened." It is fup- pofcd that this would be the mod viduabie breed that could be produced, and that fome of the Scotch breeds have nearly attained fuch a ftate of perfeftion. The capability of performing labour in an eafy and pro- per manner is another property, that, in many cafes, demands the attention of the breeder, efpecially in neat cattle and horfes ; but in refpeci to the former fort of ftock, it has not ■vet been, by any means, decided, whether there be any ad- vantao-e in the incteafe of meat by working the animals, or whether there may not befome diladvantage in their growth being retarded by the praCiicc. It cannot, however, be tlifputed, but that where cattle are made to undergo much labour, they muft be a greater length of time before they can be in a proper ftate to be brought to the market ; and it would feem that the growth of the animals myft alfo be IclFcned ; however, as they are capable of being reared and kept at a much cheaper rate than horfes, a breed well cal- culated for th^s ufe may, in many inftanccs. be an obje£t of I'-wat confcqucnce to the farmer. B U E The inherent property of a breed, or what is ufually termed blood, is likewife a quality that has engaged the at- tention of the breeder in the raifing of live ftcck. This is moftly ihown in the external appearance, and of eourfe may ferve to guide the judgment of the grazier in chooling fuch animals as may be the be ft fuited to fuch improvements as he may have in contemplation. Kuch are the princioal points to which the attention of the breeder fliould be diieflid in his attempts at improvements of this nature, as well as the means by which tliey are chief- ly to be accomplifhed. And it has been remarked by Dr. Uickfon, in his Syftem of Praftical Agriculture, that " the fuccefs of liis endeavours, to whatever fpecies of excellence his attention may be direfted, muft obvioufly, in a great meafurc, depend upon the accuracy and correftnefs of his judgment in choofing thofe breeds, of whatever fort of live ftock they may be, that are moft adapted to his circum- ftances ; and in feledting fuch individuals, both male and female, of fuch breeds, as are the raoft perfeA and cxadi in their different parts and properties ; cautioufly continuing to breed from them, without ever differing the leaft inter- mixture by the admiffion of thofe of infciior qualities ; ad- vancing in this way, with the niceft attention to fuch faults or defefts, however trifling, as may arife, fo as to alter and correft them by appropriate pairing in the fucceedmg gene- rations. And as an indifpenftble afliftant in this arduous nn- dertaking he muft conftantly have recourfe to the aid of good and abundant keep at all feafons, with fuitable degrees of flielter and warmth for both the old and young ftock ; fo that they may never decline in flefli or be checked in their growth." This, continues he, " would feem to conftitute the great fecret of the important art of breeding live ftock, which the fnperior difcernment and unwearied perfeverance of a Angle individual raifed to a degree of notice and per- feftion that has had the happieft effefts in bringing the im- provement of our domeftic animals to a flate of excellence perhaps unequalled in any other country." See Cattle and Live Stock. Breeding ofjijli. See Tis»-j)orif!. Breeding 6/' /lojyi'j-, t'o^s, &c. See Horse, S:c. BREEF-i-fl/Y/j-, denote a kind of falfe cards, either longer or broader than the reft, whereby they may be known and diftinguiflied. BREEN, G. V. in Biography, an engraver of fome merit, whofe time is not afcertained, who worked entirely with the graver, and imitated the ftylc of James de Gheyn, from whom he probably received his firft inftruftions ; though he never equalled his mafter, either in correflnefs of dcfign, or mechanical execution. Strutt. BREENBERG, Bartholomew, called Bartolo- MEO, a painter and engraver, was born at Utrecht in 1620, and went, at an early period, for improvement to Rome ; where the fociety of Flemifli painters, called " Btntvogels," diftinguiflied him by the appellation of Bartolomeo. Among the fupcrb ruins and beautiful objects, in and about this city, he acquired an elegant tafte ; and he peculiarly ex- celled in landlcapes, whicii he enriched with hiftorical fi.b- jefts. The figures and animals, which he introduced, were elegantly difpofed, and executed with fpirit and freedom : efpecially when they were not larger than the fmall fizc, iu which he ufnally painted them. His manner, particularly with refpeft to colouring, gradually improved ; his touch is lijht and fpirited, his tone of colouring very plcaflng, his tafte altogether of the Roman fcliool, and his piiSures are diftinguiflied both by force and delicacy. The draperies of his ligures, which are gracefully proportioned and dehgned, are eafy and ornamental, and in his fmalieft figures, the ex- ' prelTion B R E preflion is lively, fonfible, and natural. His piilurcs nn; exceedingly rare, and liighly valued. We have oF Iiia eteli- ing a fet of 24 views, and landlcapea, oniaineiited witli ruiiiS, &c. from his own dcJigns. lie died in 1660. PiU kington and Strntt. BREESEBACH, in Geography, a river of Germany, wnieh runs into the Uullrut, 4 miles S. of Wcifeiilee, in the circle of Upper Saxony. BREEZE, a fhiftiiig wind, Wowing from the fea and land alternately, during certain hours of the day or night ; only fenfible near the coalls. The fea-breeze, Dampier obfervcs, commonly rifes in the morning about nine, proceeding flowly in a fine fmall black curl on the water towards the (horc : it increafcs gra- dually till twelve, and dies about five. — Upon its ceafmg, the land-breeze commences, which increafes till twelve; and ie fuccceded in the morning by the fea-breeze again. The Tea-breezes rule by day, and tlie land-breezes by night ; fo that, dividing their empire, tliey remain as conllant as the feafjns of the year, or courfe of the fun, on which they feem alone to depend ; not but that they appear fooner or later, ftronger or weaker, in fome places than otliers, and vary the alternative according to the feveral latitudes, fitu- ations, foils, mountains, vallies, woods, and other circum- ilances of the countries where they are found. In fome countries, the fea-breezes appear only to be ef- forts of the general or trade-wind, as at Barbadoes, and in many places between the tropics, where the general wind, if not impeded by mountains or iflands, blows frefli in the day time, but, after fun fct, the terreftrial exhalations be- coming precipitated, produce a new wind, which is not only ible to make head againll the trade-wind, but to repel it from their coalls. The fea-breezes do not all come from the fame point of the compafs, but from different points as the land lies. In Brazil, and many of the Caribbee iflands, they have no land-breeze, efpecially if the fhores lie low, as at Bar- badoes, where the general or eailern wind blows from one end of the ifle to the other, and ferves inftead of the land- breeze. In other places they want the fea-breeze, efpeci- ally between the tropics, in coalls which lie wellerly, as in the weftern kingdoms of Africa. If cither the eafterly or wellerly winds blow frefli, they hinder both the land and fea-breezes in the Mediterranean ; of which thofe are always found the weaketl which rife latcft. In England, in very hot days, and when no other winds are ftirring, the like alternation of land and fea- breezes may be obierved on our coalls, though with little certitude, any where to the northward of Portugal. Breezes are more conftant in fummcr than in winter, and more between the tropics than in the temperate zone. The general caufe of thofe alternate breezes which fet on and off the coalls in hot countries, is the greater rarefac- tion of the air by reflcfted heat, and by fermenting exhala- tions over the laud than over the water: the denfer air from the water becomes a fea-breeze in the day ; but tliis air, con- denfcd again, by the cold of the night, may then occafion a land-breeze. The caufe of this alternation of fea and land-breezes may be familiarly illullrated by placing a common pewter wattr- plate in the midll of a large veffcl, and filling the former, firll with hot water, and the latter with cold, and holding a taper juft blown out at the edge of the plate ; in which cafe, the fmoke will he obferved to gather over the plate which has heated, and of courfe rarefied the fupcrincumbcnt air; but if this experiment be inverted, and the plate filled with cold water, whilll the larger veffcl is filled with hot water, the fmoke of the taper, held near the plate, will be Vol. V. B R E fcen to move towards tlie rarefied air that rcHs over the hot water in the hugir vcnel. Breezes dilRr from elrfi^, or trade-winds, as the fonnvr are fcrlpts of the Salic and other weregilds in Lin- denbrog's German codes." The reader, who is defirous of further fatisfaftlon in this inquiry, will find mod that has been faid refptfting the origin of the brehons in Dr. Led- wich's " Antiquities of Ireland," and in the " CollciSanea de rebus Hibernicis," and other works of general Valiancy. The latter gentleman has pubHflied a tranilation of fome parts of the code, in the loth number of the " Collc£la- nea." At the time of the conquefl of Ireland by king Henry IL A.D. 1 172. the Irilh were governed by the brehon law ; but the laws of England were then received and fworn to by the Irifh nation, affembled at the council of Lifmoie. King John, in the 12th year of his reign, carried over with \\\n\ into Ireland many able fages of the law ; and there by his letters patent, in right of the dominion of conqueft, is faid to have ordained and cilablilhed, that Ireland fhould be go- verned by the laws of England ; which letters patent fir Edward Coke (i Lift. i6i.) apprehends to have been then confirmed in parliament. But to this ordinance many of the Irillj were avetfe from conforming, and Hill adhered to their B R E B R E their brelion law ; fo that both Henry III. (A. R. JO.) anj Edward I. { A.R.j.) were obliged to renew the injunction ; 3»nd Ht length, in a parliament holden at Kilkenny, 40 lid- ward III. under Lionel duke of Clarence, the then lieute- nant of Ireland, the brehon law was formally aboliihtd ; it 'being unanimoudy declared to be indeed no law, but a lewd ■cullom crept in of later times ; and it was enatled, that no Englidi Inbjeft {hall fubmit to a trial by this law, on tiic penalty ot high treafon. And yet, even in the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wild natives Hill preferred their brehon law, which is defcribed by Edm. .Spenfer (State of Ireland), to have been " a rule of right tin written, but delivered by tradi- tion from one to another, in which oltentimes there appeared a great Ihew of equity in determining the right between party and party, but in many things repugnant quite both to God's laws and man's." As to the prevalence of this law among the Irifli, this writer further obferves, that " dwelling as they do, who'e nations and fepts of the Irifh together, without any Englifhman amongll them, they may do what they lilt, and compound, or altogether conceal, amoiigtl themfelves, their own crimes." Some writers have fpoken of ■thefe laws, as if they were peculiar to the Irifli, and an evi- dence of their barbarity ; not duly coniidering, that wlun they were ellablilhed, many otlicr nations had limilar laws ; and that if the Englidi had taken proper pains to introduce itheir improved inilitutions, and to fettle the country under any kind of regular goveniment, they would, in all probabi- ■lity, have been able, though not without difficulty, to effeft it. The civilization and improvement of Ireland fecm, however, to have engaged little attention till the reign of James I. ; who " proceeded in this work," fays Hume (Hill, of Great Britain, vol. vi. p. 5S.), " by a fieady, re- gular, and well-concerted plan ; and in the fpace of nine years, according to lir Jolin Davies, he made greater ad- vances towards the reformation of that kingdom, than had been made in the 4+0 years which hadelapfcd hnce the con- queil was firll attempted." Tlie legiflative union, refcrvcd for the reign of George III. afloids a profpefl, under regu- lations prelcribtd by wiic, moderate, and falutary counfcis, and enforced by fuitable lanftions, of further improvements, conducive to the remedy of the peculiar diforders of Ireland, and to the promotion of the real interells of both countries. See Union. BREIDDYN-HiLL, in Geography, lies on the border of Shroplhire, and occupies a large fpace between Montgomery and the vale of Severn. It conlllls principally of a coarle argillaceous fchiftus, blended in fome places with fniall rhomboidal cryftals and a calcareous fpar. The fummit of this hill, near the pillar erefled in honojir of admiral Rod- ney, affords a very extenfive and delightful profpet\, extend- ing over the vales of tiie Severn, Fyrnwy, and Taued, as far as Plinlimmon, Cadcr-idris, and Aran-ben-llyn, whofe pointed tops agreeably diverfify the line of the horizon. This was a favourite htuation of Llewelyn the Gre.it, about the year 1 240. BREIDEMBACH, a town of Erancc, in the depart- ment of the Mofcllt, 5 miles north of Bitche. BREISCH, a town of Germany, in the circle of I'^pper Saxony, and duchy of Crofien ; 8 miles S. ol Croffen. BREITENBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Schwartzburg, feated on a fmall river of the fame name, in the niidll of 'woods, fields, hills, and vallics, with tv.-o churclics and 4C0 lioufes ; 14 miles S. of Erfurt. On tlie river, in its vicinity, is a mii.e yielding fulphnr, alum, and vitriol. BREITENBURG, a lorddiip and parochial village of Germany, in the duchy of HoUlein, and circle of Itzehoe, feated on the river Stor, 'z miles S. of Itzehoe. BR.EITENECK, a town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, wliich gives nar:ic to a lordfhip, filuate in the v^' [)i.r palatinate, and contrilinting to each Roman month -' florins, and to each chaiubtr term ij rix doll.us. The i'ef c(hite5 of this feignory belong to the elcdlor of Bavaria, and the allodial to tlie counts of Montlort, in whieli is the town, vi'hieh has & citadel, and is dillaul j nnles N.E. Iron. Dictfurt. BREITHORN, and Brei ti.auinen, peaks of tie Jungfrau, or Virgin, in the canton of Bern, in Swifi'irl uid. BREITKOI'F, John (,OTri.oii Immanuei., in Bn- grnp/jy, an ingcTiions printer, lettt r-founder, and booklcllerof Leiplic, was born in thatcity, Nov. 2;, 1719. In early life he manifelled a llrong attachment to thcfcicnces, and acquired a confiderable acquaintance with the languages, particularly the modern ones. When he joined liis fatlier in bufincfs, !.e commenced the iludy of mathematics ; and after the peruLil of a work of Albert Durir, in which the (liape of the let- ters is deduced from mathematical priiK:ip!es, according to which the firll printing types were formed, he made the im- provement of the art of printing a principal objcift of his at- tention. Accordingly, he began with delineating tlic turrei of types mathematically ; and he endeavoured to fafliion tkcm according to the moll beantifid models, whieli hs could procure by an extenfive refeareh among the Engiilh, French, Dutch, Flemifh, and Itahans. By his ingenuity and diligence, employed in tiiis way, he obtained nev/ aiid improved figures of charadlcrs, and had them call in ma- trices cut for the purpofe. Thus his printing-office and lettcr-foundcry acquired very high repalatiwii, as being the moll complete in tlie world, not excepting thofe of the fo- ciety " de propaganda" at Rome, and containing punches for 400 alphabets, with an equal number of matrices, and a very copious alTortmeiit of ornaments. Whilll he was alTi- duous in profecuting every niude of improvement, he in- dulged no mean jealoufy in contemplating the inventions of others in a fimilar way ; but, on the contrary, he employed the types of Balkerville, and duly appreciated the value of thofe of Didot. Breitkopf found by his virious and exten. five refearches, that engraving in woud iir.d given birth to printing ; and that the latter had contributed to the improve- ment of engraving. He was tluis led to transfer fome par- tieulars, in the province ofthe engraver, to that of the printer; and with this view he made his tiril experiment on mufical notes, and contrived to reprefent, by the typograpliic art, all the marks and lines which occur in the inoelcni mufic, with no lefs accuracy than that with which they are reprefent cd by engraving. Recuning to mathematical principles, he fucceeded, in 1 755, in bringing this art to its prefent degree of perfection. He proceeded to print maps with niovcabls types, and, in 1776, aceomplifhed, after encountering many difficulties, the objeft at which lie aimed. This, however, he confidered as a matter of mere curiol-'ty ; and fuch was alfo another attempt, which was that of copying portraits by moveable types. In 1793, he directed his attention to another objetl of greater utility ; v hich had long been con- fidered as impiafticable, and on which large funis had be-in expended without avail. This was that of priming, with moveable types, the Chinefe chaiatiers, w/.ich are, in gene- ral, cut in pieces of wood, fo that a whole iioufe is often nc- ceiTary to contain the blocks employed for a fingle book. After fome trials lie at length luccteded; and having fenl Ipecimens to the pope, he returned him thanks in the po- litell manner by cardinal Borgia. His next attempt was that of printing mathematical figures in the fame manner ; but though he Inrniounted all obllacijes by hit perfeveriiig exertions, his numerous tiigagemente prevented the comple- tion of his defign. Breitkopf direfted his allenlion to the improvement ol type-metal, particula>!y by giving ii that degree of harduefs, which has been a defideratum 111 founde- N n 2 rie» B R E Tin of this kind. He Jifioven-d likfwift, a little before his dvatli, wliich liappcni-J on the :hth of [aiuiary, i;94, a new method of faciiitatini: the prortfs of melting and rail- in:; ; but tliis he coiiccaltd for the bi.ulit of his heirs. l-Vdin his foundtiy, wliich employed 12 furnaces, and 59 ^rorknien, types were fcnt to Rnflia, Sweden, Poland, and even America. He introduced alio fevcval Improvements in hh prtlTes, which were freely prefentcd to the infpedion of tliofe who vifited his print ing-houfL*. l^efidts his mechanical ir.ventlon":, which occupied much of his time and attention, his refearches into the orijjin and progrefs of the art of printing were very confidcrablo, and furnifiitd the materials of a hiftory, which he left beliind in manufcript. Of this larger vork, he publiihed, in 1774, an accoimt, in a fmall trcalifc, containing, among other par- ticulars a refutati'^'i of the opii'"c>n of thofe who pretend that printing was iirll employed at Florence, Wirtzburg, or Antwerp. In 17S4, he publiihed the firll part of a work, entitled, " An Attempt to illullrate the origin of playing-cards, the introduttion of paper made from linen, and the i.ivention of engraving on wood in Ei'rnpe." The latter part of this work was finilhed, but not publiflied, before his death. His lal\ publication w.is a fmall " Treatife on Bibliography, S:c." pub ifiicd in I7yJ, and containing extraifls from his larger works, with his reafons lor retain- ing the prefent German charafters, and a refutation of fome afl'ertions refpefting typography. Breitkopf was dillin- guiflied by his afliduity and perfevcrancc ; and devoted his whole life to Ihidy and ufcful emph)ymcnt, with the inter- ruption of only 5 or 6 hours in the 2 (., which he allowed for fleep. SchliirhtegroU's Necrology. Gen. Biog. BRKITZENHEIM, in Geography, a lordfiiip of Ger- many, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the Nahe, near the town of Creutznach, and deriving its name from an old caftle now in ruins. In the matricula ol the empire it is aireffed at fix florins, in that of the circle at 8, and pays to the chamber of Wetzlar 3 rix-doUars, Ij^ kreutzers. Its inhab-.tants are partly Roman catholics, and partly Lu- therans. BRELADE'S, St., a bay on the fouth coafl of the ifland of Jerfey, which takes its name from a village, 5 miles W. from St. Helier. BRELANDS, a town of Norway, 7 miles W.N.W. of Chriftianfand. BRELLES, a town of France, in the department of Finiilerrc, and diftrift of Breft ; 3^ leagues N.W. of Breit. BREM. See Prem. BREMA, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe, near the conflux of the Seflia and Po, on the frontiers ol Montferrat ; 28 miles W. of Pavia. BREMBO, a river of Italy, which rifes on the frontiers of the Valteline, and difcharges itfelf into the Adda, about 8 miles from Bergamo. BREME, a cape which forms the fouth-eadern fide of the mouth of Oroonoko river, oppofitc to cape Araya, in South America. BREMEN, a duchy of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, bounded on the north by the German fea and the Elbe, on the eaft by Hollltin, Luneburg, and Vcrden, on the fouth by Verden, Hoya, and Diepholz, and on the well by the Wefer, Oldenburg, and the German ocean. Its grcateft length is about 60 miles, and breadth about 40. The face of the country is level, and it is almoll furrounded by the Elbe and the Wefer. The air is cald ; but the country ia fertile and well-peopled. The Elbe, Glle, and Wtfcr, are bordered with very rich marfh lands ; thofe on B R r. the Elbe produce plenty of grain and fniit ; thofe on tlic OHe are alio very productive of grain, and yield a clay for veffels, and a kind of free Hone ; the foil on the border.? of the Wefer, bcfides being fertile in grain, fupports likewifc large breeds of cattle. Between Bremen and Stade, the country is either a barren fand, or a morafs. In order to guard the lands againll the inundations of the river;;, dykes and dams have been creAed, and arc kept in repair at a great cxpence ; and yet in winter they are frequently fo much overflowed, that the inhabitants are obliged to make ufe of long poles to leap over the ditches and other waters, in pafiing from one place to another ; and the inundations of the Wefer in particular are fnch, that cities and villages appear like fo many iflands in the niidll of a fea. The champaign countrv has, in fome parts, good corn land; tlie heaths arc covered with fhetp ; and the culture of bees is an objetl of particu- lar attention. On the moors are dug great quantities of turf, which is exported to Bretnen and Hamburg, and ufed in brickkilns, the glafs-hr.nfe, and as fuel in private houfes. This country yields likewife much flax. The inhabitants likewife, by their lituatiou between navigable rivers, have been induced to turn their thoughts to trade. They have the reputation of being good foldiers ; but on account of the marlhes and inundations of the country, they are fubjeft to agues and fevers, and are hence led to indulge the habit of drinking much brandy. Reilbeck defcribes them as yellow- Ikinned, foft-fie(hed, and full of wrinkles ; and their imall round figures form a ftriking contrail with the tali Geimans of the fouthern parts. Few rofy cheeks are ob- fervcd either among men or women. The duchy of Bremen was formed out of an- archbifhop- ric, which was originally a bifhopric, founded by tlie em- peror Charles the Great in 787 or 788, of which Willehad, an Englifliman, was the firft bilhop. In 858, the fee was incorporated with Hamburg, as the archbifliopric of the northern nations ; and the archbifhops gradually got into their hands the counties within the diocefe of Bremen, and acquired the fovereignty over it. But after the death of the archbifliop Roden in 15 11, the chapter elecfted archbifhops out of princely families ; in 1644, ^''^ Swedes made them- felves matters of Bremen ; and, in 164S, at the peace of Welt- phalia, it became a duchy and fief of the empire. In 1675, the duke of Brunfwick and Luneburg, in conjunftion with the bilhop of Munfter and fome Danifli forces, overran this duchy as far as Stade, which place was taken in the follow- ing year by the Luneburg troops. The conquerors firft thought of Iharing the duchies of Bremen and Verden be- tween them ; but Sweden kept the whole to herfelf, except fome fmall part of it, which was rellored to the dukes of Brunfwick and Luneburg, at the peace of Nimegucn in 1679. During the northern war, the Danes, in 1 7 12, re- duced the duchies of Bremen and Verden ; and in 17 15, Frederick IV. transferred them to the elcilor of Brunfwick, in lieu of the fum of 700,000 rix-dollars. In 1719, by the peace of Stockholm, they were ceded by the crown of Swe- den for ever to the ekftor of Brunfwick, together with all their rights and appurtenances, in the fame manner as they had been granted to Sweden by the treaty of Ofna- bruck ; for which renunciation the eleftor paid Sweden a million of ris-dollars. In 1732 the elcftor obtained the emperor's inveftiture for Bremen and Verden. The eledor of Brunfwick, as duke of Bremen, poiredcs in the college of princes, the fixth feat on the bench of temporal princes, and in the diet of Lower Saxony, exclufivcly of a vote, is alternately dircdor with Magdeburg. The affeffment of the duchy to a Roman month, is 24 hnrfe and 100 foot, or i5S8 florins, which is alfo its contingent to the raatricu'ia of B R E of the circle ; anJ to the imperial chamber al WLti^lar, it pays loS rix-duUars, ^la^ kiTuf/crs. I'lie duchies of Bremen and VcrJen are jointly under the following colleges ; vi/.. tlic rejvency, einifillinp of three connfeiiors, and fnbor- dinate to the privy-council at tlanover ; and the chancery, compiled of the three counfellors of regency, a director, and ci-rtain judiciary coiinfcUors, and taking cognizance of cri- minal and executive cafes. In the high court of jullice fit all the members of the chancery, with fcven alTefTors, nomi- nated by the Itatcs of each duchy ; viz. three by the Bremen nobility, two by Stade and Buxteluide, one by the nobility of Verden, and one by the town. The chief branches of the fovereign's revenue are thofe of the demefne bailiwicks, diltrids, and jnrifdiClions, with the regalia; certain pay- ments arifing from the fubjeilj, as excife, and the monies for the maintenance of the high court of appeal at Zell, for furnifliing forage, S:c. In the whole duchy there are but two cities, viz. Bremen and Stade, and 1 2 market towns. The ftates of Bremen coniill of the nobility, and the deputies of the towns of Stade and Bux.tehude, whofe privilejjcs are the fame with thofe of Verden. An afTembly of all the Hates, or a diet, cannot be held without the knowledge and confent of the regency ; but the nobility may affcmble twice a-year at Bafdal, without giving any previous notice to the regency. All the inhabitants, except thofe who belong to the free ftates, and who have a right to fit and vote in the diets, are taxable ; and the number of taxable hearths is 22,276. The ellablifhed religion is Lutheranifm ; the number of Lu- theran churches is 1 18, under the fuperintendency of more than this number of pallors ; and the fupreme infptftion of the churches of this duchy and of the principality of Verden is vefted in a general fnperintendent. The Calvinifts form feven congregations, with a like number of pallors. The dodlrine and inftitutions of the reformed church were introduced into the republic of Bremen in the i6th century. An attempt for this purpofe was made fo early as the year aj;56, by Albert Hardenberg, the intimate friend of Me- landlhon ; but it did not fucceed till towards the clofe of this century, when no meafures, either of prudence or force, were fufficient to prevent the church of Bremen from model- ling its faith, worfhip, and government, after that of Ge- neva. The manufadtures of this country, exclufively of cordage and linen, are thofe of cloth, flannel, kerfeys, and other woollen (luffs, at Scharenbeck. Ammund, in the di- fliift of Leffum, has a fugar refinery, and a porcelain ma- nufaclure. The principal rivers of the duchy, bcfides the Elbe and the Wefer, are the Ofte, the Schwinge, the Luhe or Aua, the Geefte, and the Lefum. Bremen, an imperial city of Germany, and capital of the duchy of the lame name. This city lies on the banks of t!ie W^efer, which divides it into the Old and New town ; joined by a large bridge, and another fmallcr one over a little branch of the fame river. The ftreets of the Old town are very narrow ; the houfes, which are rarely more than two ftories high, are, in general, old-fa(hioned and inconvenient, nor are the more modern bnilt with great tafle. The ex- change, however, the Lutheran orphan-houfe, and a few other edifices, are in a much better ftyle. The houfes, both of the Old and New town, which are numbered, inchifive of the fuburbs, are 5105 ; and Hoeck ellimates the number of inhabitants at -',.0,000. The Old town is the largcft and moll populous, and is divided into tour pariflies. Mod of the magillrates ar,d principal merchants have their winter habi- tations in this town ; but their gardens and fummer re- fidcnces are in the other. In the Old town Hands the cathedral, which is an ancicHt Gothic ftrufture, and which B R E belongs to the Lutherans. Under it:; choir is the " B'c'7- keller," or lead-cellar, fo called becaufe the lead, with which this building is covered, was call there. It has the fingalar property ot preferving from pntrefaclioii the dead bodici \vliich are put in it, and thus refcmbles the vaults of the Cordeliers and Jacobins in Tonlouft. This city i, governed by a council, that conlills of four burgomaller.s', uho prcfidc by turns, each for fix months, two lyndics, and t .veiily-four fenators, fome of whom arc jnrill.s and the rdl merchants. The whole body is diliribtited into fourcourts, each confillin'r of a biirgomalier and i\x. knators. Tlicfe magiltrates elecl their new colleagues, without confiilting the citizens ; but none can be chofen who are nearly related to any already m office. They may make any arrangement thty think' fit, with reiped to the police ; but they cannot tnaCl anv new law, nor alter any part of the conditution, nor inipoic any Uix, without allembling the citi/.ens ; neverthelefs, no relo- lutions of thelc latter arc of :iny effec'l, iinlefs approved by the council. The management of all public money is committed to deputies, appointed by the citi/.ens, who aft under the orders of the council, and mnll lay their accounts before their coiiilituents. Their taxes are moderate; they who polfels property exceeding ,3000 doll.irs, pay a fcot or tax on what they are worth, in which each is left to cdimate hii own poli'eirions, and to afcertaiu the fiim wliieh he thinks he ought to pay. In doing this, the citizens are, in general, fo confcientious and public-fpiritcd, that mod of them really contribute more than could drittly be demanded fiom them ; but they are well fatisfied that the revenues of their little date are wifely and frugally adminidered ; and not waded in fupplying the extravagances of princes, nor in difiuling corruption among the people and their reprcfentatives. The police of this city, it is faid, is excellent ; and not a beggar is to be feen in or near it ; the niagillrates taking care to furnifh the poor with an opportunity of gaining a fubfillence by indudry. To the Jews, however, they are lefs tolerant and equitable ; for they will not permit any of them to rtfide in the city, nor even to enter it, except during the lair. The predominant church at Bremen is the reformed, or Calvinid. Of this perfuafion are the magidrates ; though the Luther- ans are not, by any law, excluded from the regency. For- merly they were fometimcs chofen into ihtfe odices ; but fince the Calvinills have had undidurbed pulTcdion of the government, they have taken care to keep out all that are not of their own feft. This city was formerly an arch- bifhopric ; but fo early as the ijth century, fitquent dif- pntes occurred between it and the bifliops and chapttr. Frederic, the lad archbidiop of Bremen, was frequently at variance with the city, oppofing its appearance at the diet, though formally fummoned to it ; and in i6j9 he conferred the Ciithedral on the Lutheians, which had been (hut up ever fince the year l^CS. But in 16-1-0, Bremen was fummoned to the diet, and allowed a feat and vote on the Khenlfh bench in the college of Imperial cities. In 1O48, at the peace of Wedphalia, both the city, its dependencies, a'ld vaiials were confirmed in their date-freedom, rights, and privileges, cccle- fiadical as well as civil ; and though difputcs afterwards arofe, tlie houfe of Brunfwick and Lmicburg, in 17,5 1, voluntarily granted to the city that freedom which had been coi.teded, and all dilputes were brought to an amicable termination. In 1757, the French got poll'cffiun of this city ; but in the following year hadily abandoned it and were fuccceded by a body of Hanoverians. In the d'et ot the empire it potledes the eighth feat on the Rhenidi b;nch in the college of Im- perial cities. Its matricnhir aflefrment is,j20 florins, and its ccnitiiigeiit to the chamber at Wetziar 148 rix-,!ollar3, 67! krcutzers. The king of Oreat Brit.iin, as tltClor ot Bruuf- wiek. B T^ E -nick, n»iW chiwB all the autliority wliltli llic prelate and chapter formcilv eijoycJ. He appoints llv.- pallor of the catlirdnil, wliiirh IkIodcjs to the Lutlierars ; vho, as fijch, are immediately dependent on the elcftoral govern- ment. Brtmen is fnpptifd wrth water from the Wcfrr by means of 4 wheel turned by the llream, w hicli raifes it into a rcfer- voir, ivlicnce it is conveyed to the feveral houfes by fnb- terrancnn coniKiit:., at a very fniall expence. On the bnildin;; which contains this machine is the following in- fcriptiun : " Volve "Pater, Civi tradam tua dona, Vifnrsris!" Provilidns of all kinds arc much cheaper at l^remcn than at Hanibnrij, or e^cn in Hanover ; and yet neither tlie com- merce nor the xvealtli of Bremen is inferior, in jiroportioii to its fi7.e. to thofe of the orhcr llanfe towns ; but the cxpen- live luxury, whch prevails in many trading places is un- ■knoxvn here, and the mantiers of the inhabitants ;re plain and frugal ; of »,hich one great canfe is, that the town is very little vifited by fti-anj;ers. In thi i city there are many nianu- fartnres, eNclnfive of a very Cdnridcrab'.c trade. I'his trade confilh in inni, flax, hemp, and Imt'n, exported to England, Prance, Spain, and 1'ortnp.al, and in returns of various other articles with which it fupplies \Veflph:^I:a, and the countries about Hanover. It is alfo a confulcrable gainer Tiy its fifheries, and particularly the trade of bhibbcrwitli the ■fouth of Germany. Bremen is famous for Rhenifh wine ; the falc of which is monopolized by the city, and it can be bouijbl only at the public vaults. In one of thcfe, as we are informed by baron Knigge in his " Letters written on a Journey from Lorraine to Lower Saxony," publilhcd in I 793, that wine is kept fo very old, that if, to the prime coil, the accumulating interell of the money, the (illing up, and other expcnces, were added, a bottle of it would amount ta above a thoufand dollars ; but the baron does not vouch for the truth of this report. This precious liquor is only ufcd "by the magiftrates on rare and grand occafions, and it is fometimcs adminillered, by order of the prefident, to the -fick. The charaftcr of the inhabitants of Bremen, fays this •author, has been unjuitly treated with contempt by travel- lers ; and they ha^'c been reprefented as a plodding, ftupid ■people, without genius or talte. He obferves, on the con- trary, that though the citizens of liremen have not that ex- ■quifite tafte for the comparatively trifling arts of luxury and amufement, nor that IVuditd polifli of manners which refult from an habitual want of more fcrions employment, and from frequent intercourfe with foreigners, whofe fole object is plea- fure ; they have in general good natural abilities, improved by a judicious education ; snd with relpeft to ufeful knowledge, whether literary or fcientific, more information may be ob- tained hy converfation in Bremen, than in manv places in which ir.ore pompons prettnfions are fet forth. They are obliging, frank, and hofpitable ; and their numerous and excellent inftitutions for the education of orphans, and for ■other charitable purpofes, which are fupported by voluntary contributions, refleit .honour on their ger.r'rufity and public fpirit. This city has lately afforded M. Olbers an oppor- tunity of forming an aflociation of opulent merchants, who have eftabliihcd a mufeum, a phyfical cabinet, and an obfcr- ^atorj', with profefTors, among whom M. Olbers, the dif- •covercr of the new plana called Pallas, is the profefTor of aftronomy. Bremen islituated 52 miles S.W. of Hamburg. N. lat. JJ^.^o'. E.long. 9". BREMENIUM, in Ancient Gf^grnphy, a town from which Antoninus begins his firft journey in Britain. It was ■ene of the towns belonging to the Otadeni. Dr. Gale places B R E it at Brampton, on the river Biemilb in Noi thumberland ; others place it at Brampton in Cumberland ; but the altar that ha:; been found at Riecheiltr, or Rucheilcr, near the head of the river Read in Northumberland, with the name Bretnenium upon it, demonllrates that this was its real fitu- ation. Baxter (Glofs. p. ^rt.) derives its name from the Britidi words Bre man iii, which llgnify a town upon a lull near a river, which is agreeable both to its fituation and prtf-nt appellation. Horllty, Brit. Rom. p. 243. BKEMKRVORDE, in Gec^rnphy, a large village and bailiwick of Germany, in the duchy of Bremen, in which was formerly the palace of the aichbilhop. It has municipal privileges and two burgomallers ; 30 miles N. of Bremen, and 10 S.W. of Stade. N. lat. ,13° S^'- E. long. 8° 55'. BREMETONACIS, in /t.icidnl Gengrnply, a place of Britain, in Antoninc's tenth rout, from Glanovtnta to MedioIaTuim, between Galacum and Coccium, or Appleby and Ribchefter; fuppo-fcd to be Overborough. BREMGARTEN, in Cco^mphy, a town of SwifTerland, and one of the free baiJliages, formerly fubjefl to the cantans of Znric, Bern, and Glarus, from the year 1712, and united by the French divifion of 179H, to Baden, which forms a part of the department of Argovie or Arcow, according to tfie French conllitution of iPoi. The inhabitants of this bailliage are Roman catholics. Its regency, previous to the French conqncll, coiifjlled of the litttle and great c-oun- cil ; the former being conipofed of 12 members, and the latter of 40. The town is leattd on the Rcufs, about S miles S. of Baden; and has a wooden bridge over the river, forming a communication between the cantons of Zuric and Bern. It is divided into the Upper and the Lower town ; the former fituate on an eminence, and the latter on the bank of the river. N. lat. 47° 14'. E. long. 8° 12'. BREMIS, a town of SwifTerland, in the Valais, fituate fouth of the Rhine and near it ; 4 miles E. S. E. of Sion. N.lat. 4^° !?■.'. E.long. 7° 16'. BREMONT LA MoTTE, a town of France, in the de- partment of Puy-de-D6me, 10 miles from Clermont. BREMPT, a fmall town of Germany, in the eleftorate of Treves, feated on the Mofelle. BRENAS, a range of mountains in the fouthern part of Africa, towards the Cape of Good Hope, which, according to Barrow, in his " Travels," iSoi, p. 29S, paifes N. W. and S. E. about lat. 32° or ,53°. This great range, fays Paterfon, p. \2<,, runs E. and W. at the dillance of about 4 days' journey from the mouth of the Orange river; pre- bably the inmoll terrace of the Table land of fouthern Africa, which feems to be pervaded by the Jagas, a wander- ing nation like the Tartars. BRENCKHAUSEN, a town of Gei-many, in thecircle of Wellphalia, belonging to the abbey of Corvev, 4 miles N. W. of Corvey. BRENDOLO, a fmall fea-port town in the canals of Venice, between Venice and the mouth of the Po. BRENET, a pifturefque lake of Swiflerland, in the valley of the lake of Joux, upon that part of the Jura chain of mountains called Mont Joux, in the bailliage of Roman Motier. From this fmall lake dcfccnds a ftream, which is loll in a hollow gulph called " L'Entonnoir," or the funnel, in which feveral mills are turned by the force of tlie current. About 1 miles further, on the other fide of the mountain, the river Orbe burlls forth, and is probably pro- duced by the (Iream here ingulphed. BRENETS, Les, a village and mayoralty of SwifTerland, in the Valais, containing about 1000 inhabitants ; 10 miles N.V. of Neuchatel. It is feated near the river Dou. N. lat. 47° 1;'. E.long. 6" 27'. BRENNA, B R E BRENNA, Brecvo, or Bli-nxo, Val cr, one of ilic bnilliagcj of SwificiliUKl, which foinierly belonged to thr o?.iitons of Uric, Sehweitz, iuul UiiderwaUlen, but referred by the Frcticti conftitution of 1801, totlie i 7th (iepartmeiit. I't lies N. of the Bellinzouc and Riviera, and between Val Leventina and the river Tefiino, on the well, and Val Calanca on the eaft. It is about 7 leagues lonir, and half a leaii-ue broad. Its principal relourceo are its pallures and its chtfiHlts. See Bl-.LLINZON E. BRENNAC;E, Brennas'nm, in MhUle 4^r Wrih-rs, a kind ol tribute paid, in lieu of bran, or bran itfclf, which the tenants weri- obliged to furniHi for fupport of the lord's hounds. The word is aifo written Iremr^e, brcnafjum, and Ircinviic, hrsrw^i^im, brc-naticum, and breiumticiim. IJn-Canre •Lat. GlofT. BRENNAU, in Ceogrn/y/jv, a town of Lower Bavaria, fiuiate on the river Hum, meanly built and finking into de- cay ; 1)2 miles from Munich, and 23 miles from I'affau. BRENNE, the name, bcfoi-e the revolution, of a fmall diilriiS of France, that lies between Berri, Tourraine, and Poitou, and of which the cliicf town was Mezzieres ; form- ing now a part of the department of the Indre. Brenni., a town of France. See Braine. BRENNER, Hem ^"'^ another tranllation of it was printed at Eondon in 17,56 by the fons of the cele- brated V/hillon. In 1722 Brenner communicated to the royal college of the chancery his obfervations on tlie caufe of the expedition undertaken by Peter I. againll the Perfians ; of which Julius Rabner has availed himfelf in his hiilory of that prince. In the courfe of thefe obfervations, lie an- nounced his intention ol giving an accurate delcription of the Cafpian fea, and of the river Daxia in the country of the Nezetzu Tartars, which he fuppofed to be the ancient Jaxartes ; but a copy of it was inferted, without acknow- ledgment, in the " Memorabilia Orientalis partis Afix." Whiill Brenner occupied the office of librarian to the royal library at Stockholm, to which he was appointed in 1722, he enriched it with more than 30 volumes of MSS. which treat of the ecclefiailical hiilory of Sweden. But his health having been impaired by his long confinement in RuiFia, he died in 1732. Gen. Biog. Brenner, in Geography, the modern denomination of the Rhaetian Alps, which pafs through the Tyrol, between Infpruck and Slbrzing, over which the high road is ex- tended tlirough an interval of 4 leagues. Thefe mountains rival the grand Alps of Swifferland in numerous glaciers, and, like other grand chains, prefeiit e.xterior barriers; that B R E* on the north being di(lingui(hed by the name of Spitz, and that on t!ie fouth by the appellation of Vtdreiu. The primitive or greatcft elevation^ arife to the north of Stor/ing, whence ilrcanis proceed towards the river Inn on the north, and to the Adige on the foulh ; and the E'fac deftends, as a precipitous torrent, ainidll mades of granite, pclrcfilex, and marble, while the avalanches become dangerous to travellers. The naked and rugged peaks of th ■ mounts Lorenzen, Fartlshel, and Tfchafatfeh, raifc their towering heads towards the N. W., and on the S. E. are thofe of Glander, Schlofs, Pragles, and Pallanfer. Their Uimmits are entirely bare, and feer.i to be compofed of granite. Tlie glacier moll eafy of accefs is that of Stnbeii, the centre of which prefents many Alpine plants ; and the granite and porphyry are frequently covered with calcareous (lone. The glacier of Stuben is 46 92 feet above the level of the fea, i>nd exhibits the iifual phenomena ol fuch fcencs, with beautiful pyramids of azure, which in finifhine rcfletl a blaze of light. The mountain, particularly called Brenner, is, according to Beaumont (ubi infra) only yicg feet above the level of the iea. The town of Steinach is placed nearly in the centre of the Tyrolefe chain ; towards the eaft, from the midH of a long courfe of glaciers running N. E. and S. Vv'. rifes the grand mountain Gefrorn, a mafs of granite covered witll inow, and one of the hlgheft peaks ot the Rha-tian Alps ; on the welt is Habichfpiz, of fmailer height ; but to the S.W. is Tributaan, another llupendous peak of the great Brenner chain. . Bock-kogo (which fee) is another. The Brenner, or burning hill, fays Beaumont, is fo called on ac- count of the frequent thunder-ilorms. Beaumont's Rhxtiaii Alps, Lond. 1792. Pinkerton's Gcog. vol. i. p. 362, &-C, See Alps, and Tyrol. BRENNING. See Burning. BRENNKIRCHEN, in Geography, a fmall town of Lower Audria, on the frontiers of Hungary, not far from the Danube. &RENO, a town of Italy, in the Bredano, feated near the Oglio, between Bomiio and Brefcia ; 3^ miles N. of Brefc'a, BRENOD, a town of France, in the department of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrid of Nantua ; 5 miles S. of Na;'.tua, The town contains 879, and the canton 6959 inhabitant's r the territory includes ^15 kilio- mttrcs and Ii communes. BRENSCHEN, or Breunschen, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleftorate of Mentz ; 7 miles S. of Militenberg. BRENT, Miss, in Biography, afterwards Mrs. Pinto, the firll linger who performed the part of Maiidane in Dr.. Arnc's Artaxerxes. In her bravura finging flit had con- fidcrable merit : her execution was neat, dillintt, rapid, and unrivalled at the time (i7f)j ) ; but has been greatly fur- paffed by lubfequent female fingers. This iMjrformcr died in 1S02, oppreiled by age and indigence. Her hiilory, if detailed, might furnifli a uftful lefl'on to female favo irites of the public, poflefied of greater vocal powers than human- prudence. Brent, in Geography, a river of England, which runs into the Thames at Brentford in Middlefcx. BRENTA, a river v.hich has its fource in the Tyrol, about 7 miles E. from Trent, pafiesby Padua, and runs intO' the Adriatic, a little to the fouth of Venice. Brenta, in Oriiilhology. See Branta. BRENTFORD, in Geography, a market-town of Mid-- dlefex, England, Hands on the northern banks of the river Thames, at the dillance of feven miles W. from London< This place is particularly diftinguiflied in the page of hiilory as the fcene of warm contention, ia the llronijly conteited elec- r> R r. tkftions fi>r I'nc civ.ii.ty of Midiilclcx. It derives its inmc ■lVo:ii a rivulet called Brent, wl.ith |);i(rc3 through it ui its comk- from Hcipdo:i to the Thames. Tin- town is divided into two uxnt called New and Old Brentford, and belongs to two dilti'.iM parifhcs : the former being niolHy within tlic b.)u;idary of HanAell pnri^h ; wliiill the l.ilter is iilunti-d in tli.il of Citat lidlinjj, to which village its chsptl !•; iub- ordmiite. Tliia is a modern ilrurturf, and wxs rcbnill in i;'>4. Kxclvilive of continual pafiagc of travellers through thiitown, it derives coiiliJerable piofits from the different jiuUs .ind mannfadnrcs ellablillied here. Large quantities of malt, corn, ilour, pottery, biick?, and tiles, are annually fent licncc to the metropolis. Here are- a weekly market on Tiield.iys, and two annu.nl fairs for fwine, fiiccp, &;c. The town is compofeJ of one very long ilrcet, occupying the iidc! of the great weltern road, and iis houfes are molUy inhabited by fl)op-kcepers and tradefmcn. In iSol, the population amounted to 1443, and the houfes to 2S7. ■ III the civil wars bi'twctn Charles I. and his fubjefls, tliis town was rendered a fjcne of conflict and (laughter. The king, after defeating the rebels at Edge-hill, marched his forces to Brentford, where he was oppofed by tliofe of the parliament. A battle enfntd, and the latter were van- quiilied, when their captain w:is killed, and above 5CO were taken priloners. The earl of Forth, having greatly fignalized liimfelf in this engagement, was firll made general of the king's forces, and afterwards created earl of Brentford; which title became extintt at his death in 1651. About one mile Well of Brentford tlands Sion-houfe, a flately ancient inanfion of the dukes of Northumberland. It takes its name from a m.onaftery founded here by Henry V. in 1 4 14. Edward VI. gave it to his uncle the prottftor, Edward Seymour, duke of Someriet, who, about 154", began to build a magnificent llruftnrc here ; but being afterwards executed for felony, this property was confif- cated. Palling through different propiietors, James II. at lall Icttled it for ever on the Northumberland family. The liovife Hands in a fpacious park on the bank of the Thames, and is compofed of a large fquare with towers at the corners, and an open court in the centre. It is built of white (tone, and embattled all round. On t\\e oppolite banks of the river are the beautiful royal gardens of Kew. They were begun by the late prince of Wales, afterwards much improved by the dowager princcfs, and completed under the direction of his prefent majelly. This monarch has alfo commenced the building of a magni- ficent callellatcd palace, under the fuperintendence of Mr. James Wyatt, architect. See Kew, et feq. Lyfon's En- virons of London, vol. ii. Gough's edition of Camden's iJritaiinia, vol. ii. BRENTIUS, or Brentzkn, John, in Biogrjphy, one «f tlh; earliell Lutheran divines, was born at Wil, in Snabia, in 149'j ; and having purfued his (ludics with great reputa- tion at Heidelberg, he obtained a canonry of Wittenberg, and took holy orders. Although, at an early period of the reformation, he became a convert to the opinions of Luther, and taught them publicly, he retained a great part of the popi(.>i dottrine of the real prefence, and attempted to ex- plain and defend it by the notion of the ubiquity of ChriH I'nce his al'cenllon, whence the appellation of " Ubiquita- rians" has been ap plied to a clafs of Lutherans. On the fubjtCt of baptifm he had alfo peculiar notions, and he mam'.ained, in the extreme, Luther's opinion concernin'T jultification. In the alTemblies of Worms and Ratifbon, lie dillinguifhed himfelf as an ardent difputant ; and he was charged with promoting the religious war of 1546, which rendered him particularly obnoxious to Charles V. After I B R E the death of I.tither, he alTumed a confiderable lead in l.is party. He was twice married; and in 1570 died at Tubingen, where he was theological profcfTor, leaving be- hind him a numerous progeny. His works have been pub- lifh.ed in 8 volumes, fol. Moreri. BRENTOLA, or Brkndola, in Geography, a fmall town and diilrict; of Italy, in tl.e Vicentm, at a fmall dif- tance from V icenza. BRENTON's re./, the fouthernmoft point of Rhode ifland, in America, about three miles from Newport, lifs 2 miles E. of Beaver-tail ; forming with it the mouth of Newport harbour. BRENTONEGO, a town of Germany, in the Tyrol; 12 miles S.S.W. of Trent. BRENTUS, in Eniomology, a genus of Coleopterous infefts, having the head projecting into a very long, (Iraight, cylindrical fnout, beyond the middle of which the anten';fe, which are moniliform, are inferted. Fabr. &c. Tlie fpecics of this genus are anckorago, ajjimilis, bnrbkornis, lifronf, cylindriconits, difpar, dniryanus, hnjiile, monilis, ncfulus, and fcmipunSatus, which fee. BRENTWOOD, in Geography, is a large chapelry iu the parilh of South-Weald, in the county of Eflex, Eng- land, fituated 18 miles E. from London, on a communding eminence. It is a confiderable thoroughfare, and contains many inns and public-houfes. The Crown Inn is of very- ancient foundation ; and even in Salmon's time was reputed to have had that fign for 300 years. The county adizes were once held here ; and in the High-ftreet are the remains of a town-hall and prifon, inhabited by a farrier and other perfons, who are bound to put them in repair when the aflizes (hall be again removed hither. Here is a good gram- niar-fchool, endowed by fir Anthony Brown in 1537. The chapel, a fmall ancient llruAure, was founded about the year 1221, at the interceffion of David, prior of St. Ofyth, for the ufe of the tenants of a manor belonging to that monadery. This townfhip contains 182 houfes, and 1007 inhabitants. Camden fuppofed the Caefaromagus of the Itinerary to have been in the neighbourhood of Brentwood. At South- Weald is a circular camp, lingle-ditched, includ- ing about feven acres, fuppofed to have b.en a caftra explo- ratorum near which the Roman way, called Watling-ftrcet, palTes. Morant's Hiftory of EfTex, 2 vols. fol. Brentwood, a townfhip of America, in Rockingham county and ilate of New Hampdiire, containing 97 i inha- bitants, diftant 7 miles from I'.xeter, and 19 from Portf- mouth. In its vicinity is found a (lone iii which vitriol and fulphur are combined. BRENTZ, a river of Germany, which rifes in Wirtem- berg, and difcharges itfelf into the Danube, near Lau- gingen. BREPHOTROPHIUM, from/?, -Jo;, \nfant, and rjs?;., / nour'ijli, an hofpital for foundlings, or a place wherein children, expofcd by their parents, are brought up at the public charge. BREREWOOD, Edward, in Biography, firft profefTor of allronomy at Grelham- college in London, to which office he was chofen in 1396, was born in the city of Chefter in I ^65 ; and having completed his courfe of grammar learn- ing in his native place, was admitted, in 1 jSl, of Brazen- Nofc college, in the univerfity of Oxford. Here he ac- quired the charadter of an affiduous tludent, and took his degree of mailer of arts in 1590. Failing in his attempt to obtain a fellowlhip, for which he was a candidate, he re- moved to St. Mary's hall. After his election to the pro- fefTorfhip of Grelham college, he feems to have had no wifhes of further preferment ; but devoted himfelf to the purfuit B R E p'lrfuit of knowledge, and pafTed the remainder of liii life in retirement. He died of a fever, Nov. 4th 1613 ; and was buried in the chancel of St. Helen's church, witiiout any monument or other memorial. From his works on a va- riety of fubjefts, which were printed after liis death, we may conclude that he was a very general fcholar. Thcfe are as follow : i. " De ponderibiis ct pretiis veterum nuni- morum, eorumque cum recentioribus eollatione," lib. i. Lond. 1614, 4to. printed alfo in the " Critici Sacri," vol. viii. and in the Apparatus of the " Biblia I'olyglotta." 2. '• Enquiries touching the diverfity of Languages and Reli- gions through the chief parts of tlie World," Ivond. 1614, 23, 2 1, 4to. ; 1647, ^'^- Svo. To this was prefixed a learned preface by his nephew and heir, Robert Brerewood. ■3. " Elementa logicE, in gratiam ftudiofa; juventutis in aca- demia Oxonienli," Lond. i6r4, 1615, &c.Svo. 4. " Trac- tatus quidam logici de predicabilibus, et predicamentis," Oxon. 4to. 1628; and 1637, &c. 8vo. 5. " Traftatus duo ; quorum primus eft de meteoris, fecundus de oculo," Oxon. i6j I, 1638, 8vo. 6. " A Treatife of the Sabbath," i6i I ; Oxf. 163 1, 4to. 7. " Mr. Byfisld's Anfwer, with Mr. Brerewood's Reply," Oxf. 163 1, 4to. S. " A fe- cond Treatife of the Sabbath," or " An explication of tlie fourth Commandment," Oxf. 1632, 4to. 9. " Commentarii in Ethica Aritlotelis," Oxon. 1640, 4to. 10. " A Declara- tion of the Patriarchal Government of the Ancient Church," Oxf. 1641, 4to.; Lond. i'547; Bremen, i7oi,8vo. Ward's Lives of the Profeflbrs of Grefiiam College, p. 74, &c. BRESANY, or Brezan, in Geography. See Brze- ZANY. BRESARGTA, a fmall town of Sardinia, in the north part of the ifland deriominated " Capo di Lugatori." BRESCIA, or II Bressano, or Bresciano, a country of Italy, formerly a part of Lombardy, but now belonging to the Cifalpine republic, is bounded on the north by the county of Bormio, on the north-eaft by the Trcntin, on the call by the Veronefe, from which it is feparated by the lake Garda, on the fouth by the Mantuan and Crcmoncfe, and the fmall lake of Idro, and on the weft by the Berga- mafco, from which it is in a great part divided by the lake Ifco. Brefcia, though mountainous, is fertile in wine, oil, and maize, and has excellent pafturages, and fome mines of copper and iron, and alfo manufactures of iiik, paper, S:c. The air is wholefome, and the country populous. Its prin- cipal rivers are tlie Adige and the Oglio. It became a province of the Venetian ftates in 15 17; but Brefcia, its capital, was taken by the French under Bonaparte, in 1796, and it formed a part of the Cifalpine republic by the Sth article of the treaty of Campo Formio in lycj", confirmed by the 12th article of the treaty of LuneviUe in 1801. Brescia, in I^atin Brixia, the capital of the above pro- vince, is fituated on a beautiful plain on the Iniall river Garza. It is large, being reckoned about a league in eir- •cumfererence, well fortified, having a caftle on a hill, and is faid to contain about "Jo, 000 inhabitants, fome of whom are rich and noble, and others are ingenious and diligent in carrying on levcral manufaftures of linen, and particularly tire-arms, fwords, knives, and other cutlery wares. It is encircled with walls, in which are five gates ; the ftreets are handfome and clean, moll of them being watered by little ilreams from the river, and the buildings are good. It hasfeveral public fquares, the largeft of which is lurromulcd with piazzas, and in the centre of it Hands the town-iioule. The palace, where public bullnefs is tranfaftcd, is a magni- ficent Hone ftrutture, built from the ruins of a temple of Vulcan, and remarkable for its architetlure and paintings in frefco. Belides the cathedral, this city has 19 parifli- churches, 30 convents, a general hofpital, and feveral ehari- VOL. V. B R E table foundation?. The cathedral is a modern edifice, to tht rearing of which cardinal Qiiirini, once bilhop of this city, contributed liberally ; and he alfo prefentcd the tily with a library ; in acknowledgment of which the ma- giftracy, in J 7 50, erefted two marble ftatucs to hi» honour, one in the church, and the other at the entrance of the librai-y. In the cathedral is exhibited the Kimoiis llandard of Conftantine ; and this, as well as feveral of the churches, are adorned with beautiful llalues and p;iintii;gs. The magiilracy, before the revolution, confifted of Coo citizens, divided into inferior council:, under a noble Vene- tian, who prefidcd as governor, or podeftat. This city waj the fee of a bilhop, fullVagan of Milan. Brefcia is faid to have been built by the Ceiiomani, commanded by Belovefus ; and as others affirm, by Brennus ; and it afterwards became a Roman colony. It w,ns burnt by Radagaflus, king of the Goths, in 412, and re-cftabhftied by Attila in 452. It wai afterwards poftelVed by the Lombards. Charlemagne, having defeated king Uidier in 771, entered Brefcia, and built the church of St. Denis. In 1426, after having fuf. fered much by the troubles occafionedby the duke of Milan, it furrendtred itfelf to the repubUc of Venice. Gafton de Foix, general of Lewis XLL took it in 1512 from the Venetians, and abandoned it to pillage, with the exception of the houie inhabited by Chevalier Bayard: but in 1517, it was rcllortd to the Venetians. It was vifited by a plague in 147S, which fwept away 21;, 000 perfons ; and again by a fimilar calamity in 1524. Brefcia was the birth- place of Tartaglia, the famous mathematician, and of Gam- bara, the pott, who died in i';96. it is dillant about 44 miles E. of Milan, and 32 N. W. of Mantua. N. lat. 45° 31'. E. long. lo"^ 5'. BRESCICATI, in Commerce, a kind of bays, which fupplies the negroes between the river Gambia and Sierra Leona. The beft forts for this trade are the blue and red. BRESCOU, in Geography, a fmall ifland of France, with a fort upon it, in the gulf of Lyon?, near the coaft of Lan- guedoc, or lierault, about a league S. of Agde ; which fee. BRESELLO. See Bersello. BRESINI, a fmall town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lenczicz. BRBSINS, or Bresons, a fmall ifland of the Atlantic, near the foulh-weft coaft of England. BRESK, or Brescan, a town of Africa, in the king- dom of Algiers, feated on ih.e fca coaft, at the bottom of a bay in the Mediterranean; 50 miles W. S- W . of Algiers. N.'lat. 36' /;o'. E. long. 2° 30'. BRESKENS, a town of Flanders, in the i£and of Cad- fand ; 10 miles N. of Slurs. BRESLAU, or Wratislav, a principality of Silefia, bounded on the N. and N.E. by tliat of Otis, on the S.E. by that of Brieg, on the S. and S.W. by thole of Brieg •and Sehweidnilz, and on the W. by tliofe of Lignitz and Wohlau. This diftrict forms a kind of long fquare, about 25 iniles in length, by 16 in breadth. The country is very level; and the parts of it near the rivers, are cither fandy or fwampv. It is, however, an excellent corn country, and not dcilitute of r;ch pafturage ground ; it abc-mids v.itk flieep and cattle ; and near the capital, the cows are ol an uncommon fize, and yidd a proportionate quantity of milk; and this part of the country produces great quantities of madder. Wood is e^cry where fcarce, except in the circle of Namflau ; and the roads are fo. bad, as to be in fome places impnlTable ; but this inconvenience is remedied, par- ticularly in the vicinity of Breflau, by dykes and canalt, which are kept in repair at a great annual expencc. On the paikitiun of Siieiia in 11O4, among. the font o( Ul.idiflaus II., BiclTrv'.; fell to the ftcre cf Boleflnus Altus •, O 0 bur B R E lilt difpiites occurring amon(> his ftiCccfTors, it was fulJ by one of them, viz. Henry VI., to John, king of Boliemia, who, aficr the dtath of Hcnr>', in 1 3 •i5, incorporated it with the crown of Rohemia, endowing tlie city, at the lame time, witli divers i.-nportant privileges ; and the kings of B»hemia aUva; s appointed governors over that pvincipahty. In I ^^7, kin.j John alTigned the gorcrnmeiit to the city of lircfiau'; and,' in 1505, king Wladillaus transferred the ju- dicaturf of tlie whole princip.ility to tlie fume city : fo that the chitf ma(jillr..te occnpicd the part of governor vnuil the vear li^^jj, when botli the government and judicatiins were fiirrendertd to the emperor Ferdinand III.; and in this Hate' it continued, till it was nnited to PrnlTia. It is di- vided into four circles: vi/. thofe of Brtllau, Ncuniarkt, Canth. and Namllau ; and, together with the dillrict of C.logaw, it includes 53 cities, loH towns, 14 market-towns, and between 5 and 6 thoufand villages, 2000 catholic churche?, 605 prottliant churches, 20 abbeys, <;l convents, and 59,000 htanhs in the citie;. The principal river of this principality, of whicli the property and jnrifdidion belong to the kin^, is the Oder, which, in its courfe through the country, receives the inferior dreams of Ohlau, Lohe, Weyda, and Weillritz. Bresiai;, or liREsi-.vw, the cnpital of the above-de- fcribed princip:ility, and of the whole duchy of Silefia, is fi- tu.ited on the fou'th fide of the Oder, which receives the Ohlau after its windinjj ccurfe through Old Brellau. This place, the antiquity ot which is uncertain, was fet on fire by the Tartars in 124 1, and was formerly environed by the Oiilau, as with a moat ; and all without the Ohlau to the wall* in their prefcnt pofition, were additions made by the emperor Charles IV. The Neudadt is more modern, and, iince the year 1529, has been included within the fortifica- tions, which are now, indeed, of no great importance. The whole town, both old and new, including the fuburbs, is of great extent, being no lefs than two German miles in lentTth. It is reckoned one of the moll beautiful cities in Germany ; an(l has feveral large regular fquares, broad ftreef •!, and (lately edifices, both public and private. The Ro- man catholics have feveral churches and convents; the Luthe- rans have feven churches within the walls, and two without, andtwogymnafmms; theCalviniilsand theGreeks have, sach of them, one church ; and the Jews have two fynagogucs. The popiih univerilty is a uoble edifice ; and the exchange, adjoining to the council-houfe, is an elegant ilrufture. Se- veral of its monafteries and convents are magnificent build- ings : and it has fome good public libraries, with two armou- ries, a college of phyficians, and a mint. Brtilau holds the third rank, next to Berlin and Konlgfberg, among the cities of Prudia. It is the centre of all the trade of Silefia, and it! manufaftures are confiderable and various. The number of its inhabitants is ellimated at about 52,000 : and as it has feveral annual fairs, it is much frequented by Hun- garian, Bohemian, Polilh, and other mercliaius. The ma- gillracy, which is Lutheran, confills of a town-court a: d a council ; and its confillory is likevvife Lutheran. This city was taken by the king of Pruliia in 1741 ; compelled to fur- render to the Anftrians in 1757 ; and retaken by the Fruf- fian army'at the clofe of the lame year, after a fignal viAory over the Aullrians in its vicinity. In the lail fiege, feveral of its churches were much damaged, the library of St. Mary Magdalen was dellroycd by the burlling of a bomb, and Its Cobnrbs were condderably injured, N. lat. Ji" 3'. E. loig. i7*'-'45"- BRKSLE, a town of France, in the department of the Oife, and diHriit of Beauvais ; 7 miles S. E. of Beauvais. — Alfoj a rivtr of Fraace, which riics uear Au.T.«k, and B R E feparates the Jopai-tmeut of the Sommc, from that of the Lure, till :t falls into the fea at Tiepoit. BRKSMx\, in Ichthyok^y, a name given by Hildegard, and feveral others, to the Bream, Cvprinus Brama, which fee. BRESMAL, JoHS Francis, in Biography, a phyfi- cifln at Liege, was born in the year lO.fo. Alter iludying fome years at home, he went to Paris, where he was ad- mitted doftor in medicine, in 1689. In the courfe of his travels, he had turned his attention, in a particular manner, to invelli"-ating the properties of the moft celebrated mine- ral fprings, of which, on his return to Liege.he pubiiihed analvles, giving alfo accounts of their virtues in the cure of difcafis. The titles of his works are, " La circulation des eaux, ou I'hydrographie des minerales d'Aix, et de Spa." Liege, ifiyy, l2ino. " Defcription, feu analyfis de fontis, S. .,€gidii, prope Tunyros," 1700, i2mo. He cites a defcription of this fpring from Pliny. " Parallele des eaux minerales chaudes et froides du diocefe de Liege. Avec iin avis au public, pour le preferver de la pelle, &c." 1721, 8vo. For the titles of other works by this writer, on the fubjeft of mineral waters, fee Eloy. Dift. Hid. BRESSAN, in Gen-^rapby. See Brescia. BRESSAY, or Brassa, one of the Shetland iflands of Scotland, about 4 miles long, and 2 broad, feparatcd from the main land of Shetland by a narrow fea, called " BrelTay found," forming a fpacious harbour, in which a thoufand fliips may ride at the fame time. In this harbour, the Dutch vefTels, employed in the herring filhery, aflemble about the middle of June. The inhabitants of Breffay fit out about 26 large fifiiing boats. The mountains fupply (late for building, and peat for firing. N. lat. 60" 20'. W. long. 0° jo'. BRESSE, a country of France, fo denominated before the revolution, from a foreft called " Brcxia," fituate ia the province of Burgundy, and bounded on the eaft by Sa- voy, on the fouth by Viennois, on the well by Lyonnois and Dombcs, and on the north by Franche Comte. It is ellimated at 40 miles from north to fouth, and 23 from eaft to weft. It is fertile in corn and hemp, and has fine paf. tures and feveral lakes, abounding with fifli. For fome time, it was an earldom fubjedl to the dukes of Savoy, who added it in 1601 to France, in lieu of the marquifate of Sa- luzzo. The principal towns are Bourg, the capital, Beauge or Bauge, Coligny, Montreuil, Loge, and Pont de Vaux. BRESSICI, or Breste. See Brzesc. BRESSOLES, feeBREzoLEs. BRESSUIRE, a town of France, in the department of the two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri<5t of Thouars. The town contains 6jo, and the canton, 591 1 inhabitants : the territory includes 290 kiliometres, and 13 communes. BRESSUS, or Brepus, in Anc'tenl Geography, a town of Afia in Armenia Major, fituate near the Euphrates, ao- cording to Ptolemy. BREST, or Breast, in ylrchitedure, a term ufed by fome, for that member of a column otherwife called the Ton, Brest-summers, or Bressumers, in Building, a;ie pieces of timber defigned for the fupport of the brick-work in the front or rear wall of a building, for carrying arches, &c. In the inner parts of a building, the pieces into which the girders are framed are called summers.. Brest, in Geography, a ft.a port town of Fi-ance, and principal place of a diilricl, in thc> department of Finiilerre. The number of inhabitants in the 3 parts, into which it is di- vided, is ellimated at 27,003; the firft canton contains ijjCQO, and includes <2i kiliometres, and one cocimune ; t'ii& B R E B R E Uie fecoiid contains 17,275 inhabitants, and cottipifliends towers or eaftles, wherewith towns or camps were defended. 25 kiliometres, and 5 communes ; and tlie third canton in- DiiCange GlofT. Lat. eludes 14,408 inhabitants, 22I kihometrts, and one com- BRKTAGNE, in Gcorraphy. See Eritanv. mune. Breil is feated on the decUvity of a hill on the fide BRETCHEM, or Gratham, a fmall town of Pohfh ot Its port ; and its ftreets, which are few in number, are Pruffia with a caftle on the fame river, in the territory of narrow and inconveniently contrived. It has two parifh Culm; 4R miles E. of Culm. churches, a marine feminary, and a court of admiralty ; but BRETKNOUX, a town of France, in the dcpartmcrt of it is principally famous for its fpacious road and harbour, which are reckoned, (if we except Toulon), the largeft and the fafed in the whole kingdom, and capable of containinir 500 fliips of war, in 8, 10, and 15 fathoms, at low water. Its entrance from the welt fouth-\veft, called the " Gullet," is the Lot, and chief place of a canton in the diftritt of ligeac, 4 miles N.N. W. of St. Cere. The place contains 58';. and tiie canton H754 inhabitants; the territory comprchcudi 140 kiliometres, and 11; communes. BRETESSED, in Hemllry, a term ufed by French lie- narrow and rocky, and the palTage is difficult and dangerous, raids to exprefs any charge that is embattled 01^ both lide« on account of the funken rocks on both fidis of the fnore. oppofite to each other. The entrance is alfo guarded by a ftrong caftle feated on a BRETEUIL, in G,-c^rn/>fjy, a town of Fi-arce, in the rock on the fea-fide, and defended on the land-fide by a department of the Eure, and cliicf place of a canton, in the large ditch and other fortifications. On one fide of the port dilliict of Evreux, 5 leagues S. S. \V. r.f Evrcux. The place contains 1873, and the canton 12,775 inhabitants^ the territory inchides 1S7J kihcmrtres, and 14 communes. Br i.T tu I L, is alfo a town of Fiance, in the department of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Clermont, ji polls S. of Amiens. The place coiitaiiu 2ifo, and the canton, 11,632 ii:habitant« ; the extent of the territory comprehends 147 1 kiliometres, ar.d 19 com- nuines. BRETHREN and Sijlcrj nflijt Free Sphlt, in Ecdfuijli. IS a large quay, more than a mile long, and 200 paces broad, covered with ilore lioufes for various kinds of mer- chandife ; and, on the other fide, there is alfo a quay, for the warehoufes, and the fii;e church of Notre Dame ; and in a fuburb, about half the i'v/x of the city, there is a ftrong to\"er oppofite to the caftle at the entrance of the harbour. At the bottom of the ha'bour, to which the range of maga- zines on the quay nearly extend, there are two docks for the building of fhips, adjoining to which are the fliops and houfcs of the workmen ; and one of thefe docks feparates cal Hi/lory, an appellation afrnmed by a new fet't which the rope walks from the city. The arfenal of Brell is a fprung up toward.-^ tlie clofe of the thiiteenlli ctnlui7, and very large and magnificent building, plentifully fupplied S'""<-3 many adherents in Italy, I'rance, and (Jermany. with different kinds of naval flores. This was entirely con- They took their denomination from the woids of St. I'aul, fumed by fire in the year 1744. In 1604, an attempt was Rom., chap. riii. ver. 2. 14. and ma;::taiiRd, that the tn:e made by lord Berkeley, who commanded a fleet of twenty- children of God were. inverted with the privilege of a full nine fhips of war, with a number of fire fliips and bomb- and perfeft freedom from the JurifdiClion of the law. They ketches, and general T.ilmache, who had the command of were enthufiafts to a degree of dilhaflion, both in their twelve regiments of infantry, and two of marines, to feize piinciples and praftice. They refembhd the BKCiiiRDi, on Breft. But whilft the failing of this expedition was de- by which name they were fomctimes called, in their alpe£\, layed by counter irttrigues, the king of France difpatched apparel, and manner of living. Som.e of their pvofefSii marefchal Vaiiban to repair the old, and to raife new fortifi cations, and a large body of troops to defend them. When the Englilh armament arrived, the French were prepared in great force to repel it ; and, therefore, the attempt, though condufted with fingular refolution, was defeated, with the principles refembled thofe of the Panthelfts; for they hel<*, that all things flowed by emanation from God ; that rational fouls were portions of the Deity ; and that the univerfe was God ; and that by the power of contemplation, they were united to the Deity, and acquired hereby a glorious and lofs of 900 Britifh foldiers, and 400 feamen, and of general fublimc liberty, both from the finful lufts and the common T;'Jmache, who died of his wounds, and who, in the agonies inftintls of nature : and hence they concluded, that the per- of death, complained, that he had fallen by the treachery of Ion who was thus abforbed in the abyfs of tl. •. Deity, be his countrymen. N. lat. 48° 22' 55". W. long. 4° 30' 50" Brkst, bny of, an American bay on the coaft of the Weilern ocean in New Britain. N. lat. Ji'' 10'. W. long. 5i°3o'. BRET, Cape, lies in the Pacific ocean, on the eaft coall came a part of the Godhead, and was the fon of God \n the fame fenfe and manner that Chrift was, and that he was freed from the obligation of all laws, human and divine. They treated with contempt all Chriliiaii ordinances, and all external aAs of religion, as unfuilable to the flate of per- of the north ifland of New Zealand, within about 7 leagues feftion at which they were arrived. Some of them were of feveral fmall iflands, clofe under the main, called " Ca- honell but deluded enthufiafts : and ihi.y endured the tor- valles". S. lat. 5^;° 7'. E. long. 1'/]° ^1'. nients inflifted upon them by the inquifitors with ailoiiidiing Bret, in Ichthyology, a name which the people on the calmnefs and triumph. Others proceeded to the moll ex- coaft of Lincolnlhire give to the common turbot, a fifli ex- travagant licentioufnefs of conduct. They held their fecrct trcmely common with them, and taken in vail abundance, aflemblies Hark naked, and lay in the fame beds with their The way of catching them is in a net, trailed it is faid upon fpiritual fillers, and indifcriminatcly with other women, the ground by two horfes ; the one going up to the middle without the Icall fcruple or hefitation ; modefty and decency of his body in the water, the other on the fhore. The tur- being, according to their creed, marks of inward corrup- bot is knomi by the name of Bret among the fifhermen, on tion. And fome of them proceeded ftiU farther, and main- many of our fea coafts, but moft commonly, the fmaller taTiied, that the iliviue man, or believer, could not fin, let turbot only are diflinguifhed by that title; when they have his conduA be ever fo horrible or atrocious. Many edicis attained to a moderate fize for the table, they are called turbot. It Ihould be further obfcrved, that the pearl, Pleu- raiecies Rhombus, likewife obtains the name of bret in loijic parts of the country, Bret is the name of the turbot almolt throughout the north of Britain. BRETACH14':, in MidJIi Jge llViters, denote wooden were publilhed againll them ; but notwithftanding the fcic- ritics they fuffered, they continued till about the m.iddle of the tifteciith cci!tur\-. They were called by feveral other namo, fueh as Schweftriones, Picards, Adamites, and Tnrhipms. Mofheiin'i Ecel. Hifl. vol. iii. p. J 2 2, &c. 202| ■/.J> &c. O02 tREIl:R!.N B R E Bketrrck anJClsrii of the Common I.ife, a denomination afTuttied by a religious tVatcniity towards the latter end of the fifteenth century. They lived under the rule of St. Au- guflin, and were eminently ul'cful in promoting the caufe of rehgion and learning. Their fociety was firll termed, in the preceding century, by Gerard de Groote, a native of De- ventcr ; but did not flourifh till about tl.e ptriod above- mentiontd, when it obtained the approbation ot the council of Conilance, and became very relpectablc in Holland, the Lower Germany, and the adjacent provinces. It was divided into two claifes ; the Irtlered hrtlhicn, or ckrlf, and the Min-.'.t! : thcv lived in fcparalc habitations, but maintained {be clofell fraternal union. The former applied to the lludy of polite literature, and the education of youth ; wliilll the later were employed in manual labour, and the mechanic arts. Unreftrained by religious vows, they neverthclefs had all things in common ; and this community was the great bond of their union. From the fehooh cref'ttd by the clafs of clerks proceeded many celebrated pcrfons, who contributed to the revival of literature and talie in Germany and Hol- land ; fuch as Erafmus, Hegius, Murmelius, &c. They were frequently called Bi-^hards, and Lollards, by way of reproach. Moflieim, vol. iii. p. 25J. Brethres-, White, fralres albat'i, were the followers of a leader about the beginning of the fifteenth centur)'-, who was arrayed in a white garment ; and, as they were alio clothed in white linen, they were diftinguiflied by this title. Their leader was a prictl from the Alps, who carried about a crofs, like a (landard, and wliofc apparent fanftity and de- votion^drew together a number of followers. This deluded enthufiall pradtifed many adts of mortification and penance, endea\t>uring to perfuadc the European nations to renew the holy war, and pretended that he was favoured with divine vifions. Boniface IX. apprehending that this enthufiall or impoilor concealed infidious and ambitious views, ordered him to be apprehended and committed to the flames, upon which his followers difperfcd. Mofheim, vol. iii. P-275- Bretiiren of the Olfrvance. See Observance. BRETON, in Geography, a river of England, which runs into the Stour, near Hadleigh in Suffolk. Bretou, a fand-bank, about two miles from tlie coaft of France, in the Engliih channel, and at the fame diftance fouth from Granville, towards Cancale bay, the middle of which is dry at low water. Breton, Cape, lies at the north end of the lake which extends northward from the Bayonne river at the bottom of the bay of Bifcay. It is known at Bayonne by its flat tower, and often called " Cabriton." Breton, Cape, an ifland, or rather a colleftion of idands, called by the French " Les Ides de Madame," fituated in the Atlantic ocean, on the coaft of North America, between 45° 28' and 47° N. lat. and between 59° 44' and 61° 29' W. long, and about 45 leagues E. of Halifax. This idand is about 109 miles in length, and from 20 to 34 in breadth ; and, though attached to Lower Canada, is feparated from Nova Scotia by a narrow ftrait, called the " Gut of Canfo," which forms the communication between the Atlantic ocean and the gulf of St. Lawrence. It is furrounded with fharp ■pointed rocks, feparated from one another by the waves, above which fome of their tops are vifible. All its harbours are open to the eall, tuniing towards the fouth ; and on the other parts of the coaft there are not a few an- choring places for fmall veflels, in creeks or between iflets. The foil is generally fwanipy and mofly, and unfit for agri- culture ; and as it abounds with lakes and forefts, the cli- mate is cold and foggy. The fcarcity and poverty of pallures have likewife prevented the increaf^ of cattle. Al- B R E though it abounds in timber, fuch as pine, beech, birch, maple, fpruce, and fir, it has derived httle advantage from it. The fur-trade of this ifland has always been very inconfider- able ; its peltry confifted only in the fldns of a few lynxes, elks, mudcrats, wild-cats, bears, otters, and foxes, both of a red and filver and grey colour. Some of thefe were procured from a colony of Miemac Indians, who had fettled on the idand with the French, and never could raife more than Co men able to bear arms. The reft came from St. John's on the neighbouring continent. The firtiery is a much more im- portant oljcft ; and, in 1743, when this idand belonged to the French, the whole value of it is faid to have amounted annually to a million fterling ; and no lefs than 564 ihips, befidcs diallops, and 27,000 feamen, were employed in this trade. At prefent the inhabitants of the idand take about 30,000 quintals of fi(h annually, which are diipped for Spain and the ftraits, principally by merchants from Jerfey (belong- ing to England) who yearly refort hither, and keep ftores of fupplies for the fifliermen. Part of their firti was fent to the French fouthern idands, in 20 or 25 fhips from 70 to 140 tons burden. Btfides the cod, which made at leaft half their cargo, they alfo exported to the other colonies, timber, planks, thin oak-boards, faked falmon and mackerel, train- oil, and fca-coal. In return they received fugar and coffee, rum and molades ; the overplus of which they conveyed to Canada and to New England, where they obtained in ex- change, fruits, vegetables, wood, brick, and cattle. Befides this allowed trade, they alfo carried on a clandeftine or fmuggling commerce, in flour and falt-fifli. In this idand there is a ver)' extenfive bed of coal, which lies in a horizontal direftion, about fix or eight feet below the furface : but this has been chiefly ufed as ballaft. In one of the pits a fire has been accidentally kindled, which could never yet be extin- guiftied. Thefe mines yield a revenue of i2,oool. yearly to the crown. The number of inhabitants in cape Breton does not exceed loco. This ifland was difcovered, according to the French au- thors, about the year 1500, by the Normans and Bretons, who navigated thefe feas ; and as it was fuppofcd to be a part of the continent, it was called Cape Breton, which ap- pellation it has abfurdly retained. But though it had been for fome time a place of refort for fidiermen in the fummer, the French did not take pofleflion of it before the year 17 13 ; they then changed its name into that of " Ifle Royale," and fixed upon fort St, Dauphin as their chief fettlement. But as this harbour, though fpacious and flieltered from winds, was difficult of accefs, they direfted their views to another ilation ; and in 1 720 commenced their fortifications at Louif- bourg. The fettlers were chiefly Europeans ; the Acadians and French of Nova Scotia not chooCng to leave that country. This ifland remained in the poffeffion of the French till the year 1745 ; when it was captured by the New-England militia under the command of WiUiam Pep- perell efq. a colonel of the militia, and a fquadron under commodore Warren. It was afterwards reftored to the French, and retaken in 1758, by admiral Bofcawen and general Amherft ; and finally ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1763 ; fince which period the fortifications have been blown up, and the town of Louidjourg difmantled. This idand, with refpeft to matters of government, was con- fidered as annexed to Nova Scotia, till the year I/84, when it was erefted into a feparate government by the name of Sydney, its capital. The other principal town is Louif- bourg. The prefent feat of government is at Spanifli river, on the north fide of the idand. This ifland may be regarded as the key to Canada, and the fiiTiery in its neighbourhood depends on its protedlion ; and the moft convenient harbour for its fecurity and fupply is Louilhourg, Es-ETON, B R E Breton, Pcrtuls, or Breton channel, lies on the weft coad of France, and on the north of tlie ifland of Rhe, betwem that ifland and the main. Breton, Port, hes at the extreme part of the Mtditcrra- rean, on the coait of Syria in Alia ; N. N. E. from Larifla gulf, at the diltance of about 14 or 11; leagues. BRETONNAYAN, Ren^, in Biography, praftifed me- dicine with reputation at Turin, towards the end of the l6th century, but is only now known by a fingular woik in verfe • " La Generation dc I'homme, et le temple d-; I'ame, avec autres auvres poeticques extraitcs de I'Efculape, de R. B." Paris, 15S;, 4to. In the courfe of the poem the author treats of the ftone, gout, melancholy, colic, &c. The henrt he calls the fun of the microcofm ; the liver the temple of human nature. He defcribes alfo a variety of cofmetics to beautify the (Icin, which was at that time pretty much the cultoni, among writers on medicines, particularly thofe vho treated on the difeafes incident to women. Haller. Bib. Ch. Eloy. Dift. Hill. BRETOYSE, or Bretois, the law of the marches of Wales ; in life among the ancient Britons. BRETTA, or Bretten, in Geography, a town of Swe- den, in the province of Da'.ecarlia, at the wellern extremity of the lake Vener or Wener, and at the dillance of about half a Swedifh mile from WenerlLorg. BRETTEN, or Bretheine, a town of Germany, in a prefefturate of the fame name, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and palatinate of the Rhine, feated on a hill on the Salzbach, and accommodating the Roman catholics, Lu- therans, and Calvinifts, in their refpeftive worfhip. It is famous as the birth-place of Philip Melanfthon. It was fet on fire by the French in 1689 ; diftant 21 miles S. from Heidelberg, and 18 S. E. from Spire. BRETTEVILLEy;//- Laife, a town of France, in the department of the Calvados, and chief place of a canton in the dillria of Falaife ; i o miles N. N. W. of Falaife. The place contains 790, and the canton 14,450, inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 230 kiliometres, and 41 com- munes. Bretteville I'Orgtteilkufc, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Calvados, and chief place of a canton in the dillrift of Caen ; 2 leagues W.N.W. of Caen. BRETTIGAU. See Prettigau. BREVAL, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife, and dillri£l of Mantes, one league S. W. of Mantes. BREVANNE, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, and diHrift of Cliaumont, 6 miles S. of Bourmont. BREUDEI^, John Philip, in Biography, a Dutch phyfician of eminence, who lived the latter end of the i6th and the beginning of the 17th centuries, only now known by a " Colleftion of medical confultations," which he pub- lifhed in 1615, at Franckfort, 410. and which were much eftecmed. Breudel, Zacchary, born at Jena in Saxony, in 1592, was initiated into the knowledge of medicine by his father, who was one of the profefTors in that univerfity. In 161 7, he was made dodlor, and, on the fcceffion of his father, pro- fefTorin medicine, an office which he filled feveral years with dillinguifhed attention and abihty. He has left feveral works, the principal of which are " Chemia in artis formam redafta," Jena, ifijo, i2mo. ; " De Medicina, arte no- bihfTima," 1635, 4to. Breudel, Adam, profeffor in anatomy and botany in the univerfity of Wittemberg, diftinguidicd for his knowledge of the Greek language, as well as for his lldll in his profeflion, B R £ publiO.cd, in 1700, a colleftion of inaugural diffcrlations, among which Haller notices, as of fupcrior value, " Dc hydrope ovarii mulicbris," in which lie gives an accurate de- fcnption of tiiat organ ; " Embryoncm in ovulo ai.te con- ccptionem," an opinion which is row pretty gent 1 ally af- ioited to ; " De nutrltione foetus in utero materiio." He alfo puljlirticd " De lapidicina mirrocofmi," 410. 171 1, fliewing tilt varieties in Hones found in the kldnies and blad- der. He relates the cafe of a young woman who dillroytd a foetus file was pregnant with, and procured abortion, by paffiiig a lUlkt up the vagina into the uterus, but her life fell a faentitc to tlie experiment : alfo, " Obfcrvationum ana- tomicarum decades tres," 410. Tliey came out from i6c5 to 161S. In the third part he defcribes llie exhaling veiftU oftheiieart. Breudel, John Godfrey, nephew to Adam, prof^fTor m anatomy at Gottingen, the beginning of the lall century, pubhlhed, in 1758, an accurate anatomical defcription of the " valvula Euilachij," with engravings ; and, in 1747, " De auris humanae concha ;" " De phofphoro urin'ario," and otiier iimilar works, which have conhderable merit. He died at Gottingen, January iSih I7';8, aged 47. Haller. Bib. Medica. Botau. Aiiatom. ct Cliirurg. Elov. Did. Hill. " •' BREVE, BREvis,77j6r/, in Grammar. — Syllables are dif- tinguiihcd into loiigH. Sec Vas ir/-i'C. BIUIVLN, ill Gcogriipby, a mountain of SwinTerland, fituitc on o;ie lidc of tlie vailty of Chamouny, and oppofite n) the placicre. The licight above tlii MLditcrrancan is eUiinitcd at ft:58 feet. DRF.VET, in the Vrnuh Laws, denotes an aft ilTued by a f-cietary of Hate, iinportn.fr a grant of fomc tavour or donation from the kin;. Tlie word is formed from the middle age Latin, hrevctlmu, of hreve,Jhnrt. In which fciife brevet amounts to iiiucii the fame with our war a ant. They fay a brevet of nomination, a dulic by hvevct ; luch a ptrfon liad a br>jvel of a marflial of France. Br t VET more particularly dmotts the commifnon of a fiiballern officer, being only written on parchment, and without feal. A brtvet-ofliccr is one whofc rani; is above his pay ; «. g. a brevet-major ferves only as a captain, and receives pay as fuch. Hence, a fubaltern, who obtains rank by brevet is under a neceflity of difcharging the additional fxpences of his new di^'iiity, together with the fees of his new commilfion, without additional pay. Brevft, m \}!\t Sta Language, is fometimes ufed for a BILL of loading. BREUGHEL, or Brueghet-, Peter, in Biography, commonly called Old Breughel, in contradillinction to his fon, Rij eminent painter and engraver, was born at Breughel, a village near Breda in 15 lo, and acquired the tirlt principles of his art from Peter Cock or Koeck-van-Aelll, wh.d'e daughter he married. He afterwards travelled in France and Italy ; lludied nature, amidll the mountains of Tyro! and the fcenery of the Alps ; and availed himfelF of tlic Tiorks of the greateft mailers in Italy. On his return from Italy he reiided for fome time at Antwerp, and from thence he removed to Bruffcls. Whilll he was employed by the tnagillrates of this city in taking views of the canal which falls into the Scheldt, he fickencd, and died in 1570; after having caufed to be burned in his prefence all his hcentious and fatirical defigns. He chiefly excelled in landfcapes, and droll fubjefts, rcfembling thofe of Jerom Bofche ; and he was particularly fond of reprefenting the marches of armies, robberies, flvirmilhes, fpoits, dances, weddings, and drunken quarrels ; and in order to acquire greater flcill and accuracy in this kind of reprefentations, Le often affumed the habit of a peafant, and joined the meaner boors at their featls and amufements. His figures were corrcft, and their drapciics well chofen ; the heads and hands were touched with fpirit ; and his expreffion, though not elegant, was true. His principal performance is in the emperor's colkclion at Vienna, which is the " Reprefentation of the building of the tower of Babel, by Nimrod." Several of his paintings are in the cabinets of the emperor and elec\or palatine, a.'d difperfed through various parts of Europe. For his amulemcnt he engraved fome few land- fcapes and grotefque fubjefts. Pilkington and Strutt. Breughel, Peter, t\it younger, known by t!ie appel- lation of the *' Hellifh Breughel," from his delight in reprefenting horrible fubjedts, the fon of the preceding artill, v;-i% born at Bruflels, and became the difciple of Gclles Coningiloo. His compofitions rather excite difguft than fatisfaction ; and his human figures, though freely pencilled and not ill coloured, are not much more elegant than thofe of the infernal kind. In his liiftorical fnbjeC^s he generally introduced witches and devils ; Inch as Orpheus charming Pluto and Proferpine to procure the dehverance of Eurydice, furrounded with horrible forms and appear- ances; Saul and the witch of Endor ; or St. Anthony's B R E temptatitms. He a'fo was an engraver. He died in \(jj^i. Pilkington and Strutt. Bkeuohel, Johm, diftingiiilhed from his mode of drcfj by the appcllr.ti()n of " Velvet Breughel," was the fon of Peter Breughel the Old, and born at BrufTels in 1560. He was inlirucled, probably, by his father, and by other artills ; but, whoever were his indruftors, he acquired an eminence in every art of painting, in colouring, in defigii, and in pencilling, far fuperior to that of his father, and of ail his contemporaries in his flyle. He began with painting flowers and fruit, which he executed with admirable (Ivill ; and then proceeded to landlcapcs, fca-ports, aud markctf , in which he introdured a number of fniall figures, furprif- ingly exadt and coireftly drawn. At Cologne, where he rttidcd for fome time, he gained an extraordinary reputation ; and his piilures were w.'ll known and admired in Italy, in which country he fpent fome time. He died, according tn the moll probable accounts, in 1625. That the indullry of this artift mull have been fingular, iufficiently appears from the number and variety of his piftures, and the exqnilite neainels and delicacy of their execution. It has been lamented, however, by connoilTeurs, that his didances arc overcharged with a bluilli tinge. Breughel often decorated the pictures of his friends with fmall figures, thus greatly enhancing their value ; he was employed in painting flowci-:, fruits, animals, and landlcape fcenery, in the pieces of liillory -paintings ; and in this way Rubens made occafional ufe of his pencil. He fometimes joined this mailer iii larger works, which have been much admired ; and particu- larly in a " Vertiimnub and Pomona," a picture three tect higli and four broad, highly commended by Houbrakcn, and fold at Amderdam for above 2^0!. ilerling ; and " a Terrellrial Paradife," painted for Charles I. king of England. In the gallery of the archiepiicopal palace at Milan, there is an admirable landlcape of Breughel, repre- fenting a defert, in which Giovanna Battilla Crefpi painted the figure of St. Jcrom ; and among a great number preferved in the Ambrofian library in that city, there is an oval pifture of the Virgin, painted by Rubens, which is encompafled by a garland of flowers admirably executed by Breughel. Moil confiderable cabinets pofTefs fpccimens of the art of tliis mailer. Some fmall engravings of land- fcapes &c. are alio afcribed to Breughel. Pilkington and Strutt. Beeughel, Abraham, called the A''M/o/;Vjn, was born at Antwerp in 1672 ; and removing to Italy at an early age, he fl-udied with fuch fuccefs, that he acquired a degree of reputation, which made his works much fought for, and highly valued. Nature was his model ; and he reprcfenttd his objefts with elegance and truth, with a warm and natu- ral colouring, and with a broad and free touch ; which indicates a ready and expert hand. The performances of this mailer are clalled among thole of the moll admired artiils. The fortune, acquired by his profeffion, was con- fiderable ; but, he loft the whole of it by the diflionefty of a merchant in whom he confided, and died in confequence of the grief occafioned by this misfortune. Pilkington. Breughel, Peter, of Bois le Due, took his degree of doftor in medicine at Padua, and was in fuch efteem with Philip II. king of Spain, that he was by his command ap- pointed profelfor in medicine at the univerfity of Louvain, though, from his frequent attendance on the nobility in the neighbouring provinces, he was not able to perforin the duties ot that office. On his death, w hich happened in the year 1377, he left a fum of money to found a college at Louvain tor fix Undents, who were to be inllrudlcd in the different branches of medicine. The college, which is (liU 2 in B R E jr cjcidenee, bfars the name of the founder ; but no atlcli- tioiT !ia\iiig bcin made to the revenue, it Is now only capable of niaiiitai.iui;,; three lludciUs. Eluy. Did. Hillor. 13REVLA uf.ata, mentioned by Fcotlal Jl^riters, were written memorandums, introduced to perpetuate the tenor of the conveyance and invcfliture of land-;, when grants by parol only became the ocoafion of difpiite and uncertainty. To this end they regillered in the deed the pcrfons who attended as witndrcs, and heard it read without iigning their names ; the clerk adding their names in a fort of memo- randum. Modern deeds are an improvement and am- plification of thcfc. Blackllone's Comment, vol. ii. p. 327- BREVIARE, to abbreviate or reduce a thing into a fhorter compafs. This is othcrwife called abbnvlarc and iribrcviare. BREVIARIUM, is more particularly ufed among Ro- man writers, to denote a book introduced by Auguifus, containing the accounts of the empire. The defign of it was for giving an account to the people how the monies le- vied on them were applied. The emperor Tiberius laid afide the breviarium, but it was refumcd by Caligula. BREVIARY, is an epitome and abridgment, or fliort ftate of a thing. The woid is Latin, breviarium, though not pure, as appears from Seneca, who obferves, that the ancients, in lieu of it, uied Jhmmariiim. Breviary was alfo ufed among the ancients for the place where the briefs, or what was written abbreviately, were prcferved. Breviary, among Ecc/efnjlical IVriUrs, denotes the of- fice or fervice, both for day and night, as performed in the Romilh churches. Breviary is more frequently ufed for a church-book, containing the office of the breviary, that is, the prayers, and other parts of the fervice, with the feveral variations to be made therein, according to the feveral days, canonical hours, feails, and the hke. D. Mege derives the name breviary from hence, that the ancient monks in their journeys, &c. had little books, wherein were the pfalms and lelTons read in the choir, col- lefted out of large volumes : and F. Mabillon tells us, he has fecn two fuch books in the archives of Cifteaux ; they were not above three fingers broad : their letter was ex- ceedingly fmall, and conlilled moftly in abbreviations, ex- prefllng a whole period in a few fyllabks : whence they had a good title to the appellation of breviaries, q. d. abridg- ments. Some deduce the appellation breviary hence, that when the popes refided in the Lateran palace, the office read in the papal palace was much fhorter than that faid in the other churches of Rome ; which office, thus abbreviated, was compiled by Innocent III., and called officium capellare, till fuch time as the Francifcan friars adopting the fame, in conformity to the papal chapel, it became denominated brevi- arium, and fhortly after was in general ufe. Marg. Vocab. Ecclef. p. 38. Menag. Orig. Franc. The (irft time the word breviary occurs, in the fenfe of a church-book, is in a letter of the archbilhop of Lyons to the bilhop of Langres, in 1099 ; or rather by Micrologus, who lived in loSo, The Roman breviary is general, and may be ufed in every place : but on the model of this have been formed various others, peculiarly appropriated to each diocefe, and each order of religious. The breviary confifts of the fervices of matins, lauds, prime, third, fixth, nones, vefpers, and the complines, or poft-communio ; that is, of feven different hours ; on account of that faying of David, Seplies in ilie lauilem dixi tibi. The obligaiioa of reviling the breviary every day^ B R E which was at firll univcrfal, by degrees was reduced to tie benehciar)- clergy alone, who are bound to do it on mmi of mortal fin, and of refunding their revenms, in proportion as t ley arc delinquent herein. Ii, the fourteenth centurv, ttierc was a particular refervation in favour of bilhops, for palling, on occafion, three davs without rehearfing the bre- viary. The inllitution of the brevi.iry not being vcr>- an. cient, the lives of the faints were infer! ed in it, agreeable to the opinions of the times, i. c. full of ridiculous ill-attc(Kd tads ; which gave a handle to feveral purgations, orreform- ations thereof, by feveral councils, particularly thofe of 1 rent and Cologne ; by fcvei-al popes, as Pins V. Clement VIII. and Uiban VJII. as alfo by feveral cardinals and bilhops, each of whom lopped od fome of the extravagan- cies, and bro^ight the work nearer to the fimplicity of the primitive olHees ; as acknowledging, that in the ancieirt church there was nothing read, but icripture itfelf.— Cardi- nal Ouignon carried tlie reformation the farthcll; leavimr out the httle office of the Virgin, the verfes, refponfes, and a great part of the lives of the faints. The breviaries now in ufe arc almoft innumerable : the dilTerence between them confifts principally in the number and order of the pfalms, hymns, pater-nollcrs. ave-maries, credos, maginhcats, cantemufes, benedidufes, canticamufes, nunc dimittifes, miferereres, hallelujahs, gloria patris, The moft eminent, after the Roman breviary, arc thofe of the Benedidins, of the Bernardines, of the Chartreux, of the Pra;monftratenfcs, of the Dominicans, the Carmelite':, trie Fiancifcans, and Jefuits ; alfo that of Cluny, of the church of Lyons, the church of Milan, and the Mozarabic breviary ufed in Spain. But, in reality, there is fcarcely a church in the communion of Rome, in France, Flanders, Spam, Germany, &c. that has not fomething particular in the form and manner of its breviary, though the dillerences arc generally inconliderable. See Ambrosian, Gallicav. &c. The breviary of the Greeks, which they call .-.^^cy.ov, horologium, q.d. dial, is nearly the fame, in almoll'all the churches and monalleries that follow the Greek rite. The Greeks divide the pfalter into twenty parts, xa5/._ Tiie antenns in the male of this fpecies are hooked ; thofe of tlie female forked at the tips. _ BREVIER, among Printers, is the denomination of a fmall fpecies of lettei-s between minion and bourgeois. See Printing. .^ ._ , , . , BREVTNE, in G:o;;rjphy, a town of Swifferland, in the principahty of Neuchatel, 12. miles W. of Neuchatel. N. lat. 47°- F.. long. 6° 23'. BREVIPES, m Entomology, a fpecies of Staphtlinus that inhabits Europe. The colour is deep black : wing- cafes and legs tellaceous : (hanks (hort. Linn. Inhabits Europe. BREVIPILIS, in ZorJogy, that variety of the dog (Ca- KMs) known by the name of king Charles's dog. BREVIS aibiti, in Anatomy, one of the extenfor mufcks of the cubitus, ariliiig from the external (pine of the humerus. Brevis rjdii, one of the fupiiiatory mufcles of the ra- dius, arifing partly from the external condylus of the hume- rus, and partly from the upper and exterior part of the ulna ; and inler'ted into the fuperiorpart of the radius, which it embraces wholly : and ferves to turn the palm of the hand upwards. Brevis is alfo ufed by fome for the third of the extenfors of the carpus, wliich, aiifing from the lower part of the humerus, and running along the radius, terminates in the bone of the carpus which fuftains the middle finger. Some anatomifts join this with the fecond extensor, and call them bicornis, or radialis externus : others choofe to dilbn- guifh tliem btcaufe they have different origins, and inlcr- tions ; and that their bellies are feparable. Brevis extenfor poUicis pedis. See Extensor. T^yn-f-^i^Jlexor pollicis pedis. See Flexor. Brevis peron^us. See P e r o n .ci' s . Brevis pronator radii. S ec P R o x A i o R . Brevis, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cerambyx of a blackiih colour, with fpinous thorax : thighs rotundate, Ihort -. anterior joints of the feet lobed with hairs. Sulz. &c. A native of Surinam. BREVITY, in a general fenfe, that which denominates a thing brief or (hort. Brevity is more particularly ufed in fpeaking of the ftyle or compofition of difcourfc. Brevity of difcourfe is by fome called brachylogia and breviloquentia ; fometimes laconifmus. Tacitus and Pcrfuis are remarkable for the brevity of their ilyle. There are two kinds of brevity, one arifiDg trom drjnefs, poverty, and narrownefs of genius } B R E the other from iudgment and refle(flion ; vvhich latter alone is laudable. Brevity is fo efTcntial to a tale, a fong and an epigram, that without it, they neccdarily languilh and become dull. Rhetoricians make brevity one of the principal marks or conditions of eloquence ; but the rules they prefcribe for attaining it, are difficult tu apply, fo as ftill to keep the due medium between too much and too little. A jull brevity is attained by uling all the words which are neceffary, and none but thofe which are necelTary. Sometimes it may alfo be had, by choofing a word whieh ha; the force of feveral. It is this la(l kind which Quiatilian ad- mires fo much in Sallud ; and the imitation of which, by other writers, has caufed fo much obfcurity. See OliSCURi rv. BREVIUM eujios. See Custos. lls.t.v\VM fit/fo rctorno. See Falso. BREUNLINGEN, in Geography, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, which, at the peace of Munfler, was ceded to the houfe of Auftria. BREVOORDT, a fortified town in the United Nether- lands, in the province of Gucldcrland, and county of Zut- phen, furrounded by a maifh ; feven leagues S. E. of Zut- phen. BREW, a river of England, which runs into the Britift channel, about 8 miles N. of Bridgewatcr. BREV/ED-wiNE. See Wine. BREWER, a perfon who profeffes the art of brewing. Brewers are called, in Middle ylge JVrilers, brejlalores, Ini- ciatores, braxionarii, brafiatrices, braxalrices, and cambariu Du-Cange Glofl. Lat. torn. i. The brewers of London make a company, incorporated by Henry VI. in 143^, confifting of a mafter, three wardens, twenty-eight aiTiftants, and one hundred and eight livery- men. See Company. The apparatus and utenfils of a brewer, or a brewhonfe, are a fursace made clofe and hollow for faving fuel, with a vent for the paflage of the fmoke, led it taint the li- quor ; a copper, which is preferable to lead ; a mafli-fat near the head, a cooler near the made-fat, and guile-fat under the cooler ; adjoining to all, are feveral clean tubs, to receive the worts and liquors. Brewer, in Geography, a ftrait in the Magellanean fea, about the ifland called Statenland, which parts it from the ftraits of Le Maire. It was difcovered by the Dutch na- vigator Brevi'er, about the year 1643. Brewer's Ha-oen, a good harbour at the N. end of the ifiand of Chiloe, on the coaft of Chili, in South America, and in the South fea. The Dutch attempted to land here in 1643, in order to obtain pofl'elTion of fome part of Chili? but they were driven off by the Spaniards and natives. S. lat. 42'^ 30'. W. long. 74'' 10'. BREWING, Brajage de la biere, Fr. Bas Brauen, Germ. The art of brewing, or of preparing a vinous ferment- ed liquor from the farinaceous feeds, is of very high anti- quity. The ancient Egyptians, from the foil and climate of their country not being favourable to the culture of the vine, were induced to feek a fubflitute in barley, from which, in all probability, by the procefs of malting, they knew how to procure a fermented hquor. The town of Pelufium, fituated on one of the mouths of the Nile, was particularly celebrated for its manufadlories of malt liquor, of which there were two kinds ; one called Carmi was Iweet, and appears to have refembled our fweet and gluti- nous ales, the other named Zillmm, feems to have been analogous to modern beer. The Germans, from the teiti- raony of Tacitus, were capable of preparing a liquor iimilar to wine (quandam vini fpeciem) from barley, by fermenta- tion- Julian, Slrabo and Polybius, (how, that the fame art was B R F. W I N G. was known to the Spanianls, the OhiiIs, and the inhabitants of tlie Britifli illands, and the north o( Europe. All tlic ancient malt liqno''s, however, ftem to have been made en- tirely of bavlcj', or fome other fariiiaceoiu grain, and tliere- fore were not generally calcnlattd for long keeping, as this ijuality depends confidcrably, though not entirely, on the bitter extracl of hops, or other vegetables, with which the liquor is mingled. Modern malt liquor is eflentially compofed of water, of the foluble parts of malt and hops, and of yeall. For a particular account of the preparation of Malt, we refer our readers to that article. It will be fufficicnt for our prefent purpofe, to mention, that barky confills of fecula or ftarch, albiuncn, and a little gluten ; and, that by the procefs of germination or malting, the ftarch is con- verted into faccharine mucilage. If each grain of barley was perfectly malted, the whole of its ftarch would be changed into fugar ; this, however, is never the cafe : the foluble contents, therefore, of fuch malt as the brev/ers make ufe of, arranged in the order of their refpeclivc pro- portions, are faccharine mucilage, ftarch, albumen, and gluten, of which only the firft is abfolutely iieccfFary for the produflion of a vinous liquor. Three or four different kinds of malt are diftinguiflied by the brewer by their co- lo'.irs, which depend on the degree of heat that was ufed in the drying. Malt that has been dried by a very gentle heat fcarcely differs in its colour from barley ; if expoftd to a fomewhat higher temperature, it acquires a light amber- yellow hue ; and by fucceflive increments of heat, the colour becomes deeper and deeper, till, at length, it is black. Tlie change of colour is owing to the grain being partially charred or decompofed ; and in proportion to the extent to wliich this alteration is allowed to proceed, will the produce of fugar, that is of fermentable matter, be dimininicd. Tiie principal advantage of high-dried malt over the paler kind, is the detp yellowidi brown tinge which it gives to the liquor : but this colour may be communicated much more fconomicaily by burnt fugar. The malt, whether pale or high-dried, muft be bruifed betiven rollers, or coarftly ground in a mill before it is ufed, and it is foimd by expe- rience, that malt which has lain to cool for fome weeks is, in many refpefts, preferable to that which is ufed as it comes hot from the mill. The firft ftcp in the procefs of brew- ing, is § I. MiT/Jjj/lg. This is performed in the mq/h-ttiri, v.-hich is a circular wooden veffel, fliallow in proportion to its extent, and fur- niflied with a falfe bottom, pierced with fmall holes, fixed a few inches above the real bottom: when it is fmall, it ouc[ht to have a moveable wooden cover. There are two fide- openings in the interval between the real and falfe bottom ; to one is fixed a pipe for the purpofe of conveying water into the tud ; the other is fitted with a fpiggot for the pur- ])nfe of drawing the liquor out of the tun. The brewing commences by iirewing the grili or bruifed malt evenly over the falfe bottom of the maih-tun, and then, by means of the fide pipe, letting in from the upper copper the proper quantity of hot water. The water firft fills the interval between the tivo bottoms, then forcing its way through the holes in the falfe bottom, it foaks into the grift, which, at firft lloating on the furface of the water, is thus raifed oft' the bottom on which it was fpread. AV'hcn tiie whole of the water is let in, the procefs of jnafiiing, pro- perly fo called, begins. The object in mafhing is to effect a perfedl mixture of the malt with the water, in order that all the foluble parts may be extracted by this fluid : for this purpofe, the grill is firft incorporated wuh the watw by Vol. V. means of iron rakes, and then tlit mafs is beaten and agi- tated, and ftill further mixed by long flat wooden poles, rcfembling ojrs, which indeed is the name l)y which they are teeluiically known. In fome of the large porter brew- cnco, the extent of the tun is fo great, that the procefs oS- mafliing cannot be adequately performed hy human labour, and recourfe is had to a very finiple and offeftua! inftnimcnt for this purpofe. A very ftrong iron flciiw, of the fame height as the malh-tun, is fixed in the centre of tliis vef- fel, from which proceed two great arms or radii, a'fo of iron. and befet with vertical iron teeth a few inches afimdcr, in the manner ol a double comb : by means of a fteain engine, or any other moving power, the iron arms which at full reft on the falfe bottom, arc made ftowly to revolve upon the centra! ficrew, in confequencc of which, in proporticni as they revolve, they alfo afcend through the contents of the tun to the furface; then, inverting the circular motion, they defccnd again in the courfc of a few revolutions to the bottom. Thefe alternate motions arc continued till the grift and water are thoroughly incorporated. When the maftiing is completed, the tun is covered in to prevent the efcape of the heat, and the whole is fuffered to remain ftill, in Older that the inlolublc parts may feparate from the li- quor : the fide fpiggot is then withdrawn, and the clear wort is allowed to run of!', ftowly at firft, but more rapidly as it becomes fine, into the lower or boiling copper. The operation of malhing, as it i's the firft in order, is the moll important ; and all the fucceeding ones are raodi- fied according to the circumftances, under which this pii- mary one is elleded. The principal thing to be attended to, is the temperature of the mafli, which depends, partly on the heat of the water, and partly on the ftate of the malt. If any quantity of barky is mingled with twice its bulk of water, the temperature of the mafs will be very nearly that of the mean temperature of the ingredients. If the pakft malt is fubjcfted to the fame expcrim;nt, the tempe- rature will be fomewhat greater than that of the mean heat. This excefs is found to increafc very rapidly, in proportion to the colour or drynefs of the malt employed ; lo that when one part of the highcll dried malt is mixtd with two parts of warm water, the temperature will be no lefs than 40° Fah. above the mean. In calculating, therefore, the heat of the mafh, it is iieeeflary to take into confideration, both the drynefs of the malt, and the proportion which it contains of unmalted, or imperfeflly malted barley. The objecl in mnfliing is to extraft from the malt, as much as poftible of the faccharine mucilage ; but this is fo intimately combined with the other parts of the grain, that the range of temperature which can be employed for this purpofe, is very confined. If the water was let upon the grift boiling hot, the ftarch which it contains would not only be diffulved, but converted into a gelatinous fubftance, in which all the other parts of the malt, and moft of the water, would be en- tangled, beyond the poflibility of recovery by any after- .procefs ; and great lofs is perpetually fuftained by inatten- tive brewers, from this very cucumftance. The moft elii;i- ble ter.iperature upon the whole for mailiing, appears to be about U>J° to 190° of Fahrenheit : the heat of the water, therefore, for the firft malliing, muft be fomewhat below this temperature, and the lower in proportion to the dark colour of the malt made ufe of. Thus, for pale malt, tlie water of the mafti may be at 180° and upwards; but for high-dried brown ra;dt, it ought not s obtainable from any vegetable, imder proper manaj;e- nient ; but the more readily and perfcdtly the fubjeft dif- folves, the better it is difpofed for fermentation, and the produftion of brandies. Tlius fntjar, honey, treacle, manna, and other infpiffated vegetable juices, wh'ch totally unite with water, into a clear and uniform folution, are more im- mediate, more perfccl, and better adapted fubjeds of fer- mentation than roots, fruits, or herbs, in fubllance, the grains, or even malt itfelf ; all which diffolve but very im- perfcftly in liot water. Yet malt, for its cheapnefs, is generally preferred in Eng- land, and brewed for this purpofe, much after the common manner of brewing for beer ; only the worll malt will fcrve f»r diftillation ; and the tinfture, without the addition of hops, and the trouble of boiling, is here direftly cooled and fermented. The grain intended for brewing is previoudy malted, to prepare it for diffolving more eafily and copioufly in the water, fo as to afford a richer tinfturc or folution, which, after due fermentation, will yield about one half more of proof fpirit than the tinfture of an equal weight of unmalted corn. Brewing is alfo ufed, in an ill fenfe, for the counterfeit- ing and compounding efpecially of wines. Vintners and wine-coopers are fulpeiled of brewing wines, or mixing divers inferior forts, to imitate fome belter kind. The nectfiity of accommodating their liquors to the palates of their guells, is another caufe of brewing ; infomuch that fome have con- fefled they commonly draw out of two or three cades for every pint. Brewing, the appearance of a colleftion of black and tempelluous clouds, avifing gradually from a part of the horizon, being an indication of an approaching ftorm. BREWINGTON, Fort, in Geography, lies in the town- (liip of Mexico, New- York, and at the weft end of lake Oneida, about 24 miles S. W. from fcyt Ofwego. BREWOOD, or Br ee wood, a market town of Staf- fordfhire, England, confills of 5S1 lioufes, and 286J inha- bitants, the greater number of whom are engaged in the iron manufaftories. The bifiiop of the diocefe had formerly a feat here, and a fmall Benedictine nunnery ^-as founded here in the time of Richard I. A large free grammar fchool is eftablidied in this town. Here are a market on Fridays, and one fair annually. Gough's edition of Cam- den's Britannia, vol. ii. BREY, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of We!l- phalia, and bidiopric of Liege, feated on the river Nci.r, 29 miles N. of Liege. — Alfo, a town of Upper Guelder- land, 6 miles W. of Venlo. BREYDA FioRDUR, a bay of Iceland, in the weft, quarter, and in the dillrict called Dala-SyfRl. BREYDEL, CH.tRLns, called Cnvallfr, in Biography, a painter of landfcapes, was born at Antwerp, in 1677, and remained under the inllruction of old Ry (brack, the land- feape painter, for three years, after which periud he be- came, in confeqnence of his clofe application, competent to commence the praflice of his art. Having been diverted from his purpofe of vifiting la'y, by the cntouragiug re- ception which he met with at Frankfort and Nuremberg, he fpent two years with his brother, Francis Breydcl, at the rouit of Htlle-Caflcl J and he afterwards went to Amfter- dam, where he copied fevoral views of the Rh ne, from the dcfigns of Griffier, and thui improved his colouring, pen- cilling, and taftc of defign, fo that tlie works of this Jirtill may be regarded as his fccond and beft fchool. At length he fettled at Ghent, where hi,; performances wuc much admired ; but he was reduced, by extravagance in hi» drefs, furniture, and table, to the iicceiruy ^of earning money expeditioully, and to multiply pidures much infe- rior in defign and execution to others, wiiich had been produced l)y iiis pencil. His health declined towards the clofe of his life ; and his peiformances, during the intervals of eafc which he enjoyed, amidil recurring paroxyfms of the gout, wanted the fpirit, delicate finidiing, and firmnefs of touch of his bcttef days. Whilft the ideas and ftyle of Griffier were his models, his pidures, which were vie«s of the Rhine, were well defigned, neatly executed, and excellently coloured. But he changed this manner, in order to imitate Velvet Breughel, whofe works were univerfally admired, and feleded for his fubjeds battles, fieges, and encampments. He often copied the prints of Vandcr- meultn ; but afterwards compofcd very readily in tiiis ftyle, without borrowing fvcmi any other artift. His bed pidures arc full of fpirit, his touch is firm and well adapted to his ftyle, and his defign is corred. Some of them appear too laboured, but others are full of harmony. He died in 1744. Pilkington. Breydel, Francis, brother of the preceding, was born at Antwerp, in 1679 ; and is fuppofed to have been a dif- ciple of old Rylbrack. At an early age he excelled in portraits, and was appointed painter to the court of Heftc- Caftel, where his works were held in high eftimation. From Hefte-Caffel he removed to England, and continued here for feveral years, with his friend Vandermyn. Befides portraits, he painted converfatioiis, feafts, ad'emblies, and carnavals ; and his converfations, as well as his other compofitions, are finely executed, agreeably coloured, and well difpofed. This artift died in 1750. Pilkington. BREYER, in Geography, the name of an iHand on the coaft of North America. N. lat. 44° 19'. W. long. 06° 2 5'. BREYNIA, in Botany, (in memory of Jac. Breyniiis, and his fon, Jac. Phil. Breynius, both celebrated botanills). Forfter 7J. Schreb. i6oj. La Marck Illuft. 860. Clals, polygamia diacia. Gen. Char. I. Complete flowers. Cal. perianth one-leaved, top-fliaped, minute, with fix fegments ; fegments, concave, blunt, clofely converging, deprefled, flat at the end, fo that it is pervious only by a fmall hole. Cor. rone. Slavi. fila- ments none ; anthers five, linear, erect, fallened longitudi- nally to the ftyle, approximating. Pl/t. germ, very fmall. Style cylindric, as long as the calyx ; itigma obtufe. Peri- cfii!.uloron, five palms, or fifteen inches evei-y way : the fnil were ufed iii private, and the latter in public edifices. They had aUo hall bricks of each fort ; and in bnildin;;, the whole bricks were laid in one coiirfe, and the half in the next. At Pitane in Alia, at Calentiini in Spain, and at Mar- fcillcs, they had bricks fo lijclit as to fwim on water, the earth of which they were made being of the nature of pumice Wore. \Vhen Vitruvius mentions bricks, it appears that he means fun-dried bricks; for he obfcives, that bric-ks could not be ufed by the "RoT-ans within the city ; as to fave room in fo crowded a town, the laws did not permit any walls in public places to be made thicker than one foot and a half, v.hile brick walls of that thicknefs would not fiippi)it more than one (lory. Accordingly, the walls were built with hewn Uone, lijlnciout fuljlanccs (ftniauris te(laceis), or rubble. That ihefe tellaceous fubftances were tiles, is evident, for he obferves, that it could not be known at fuft whether they were of good loam and well burnt, 1nit that they fhouldte laid in a roof during a winter and fummer before they were ufed in a wall. Auguftus boafted that he had found Rome of brick, and left it of marble. It could be only fun-dried bricks that he referred to, for baked bricks were ufed in the mod fumptuous edifices : the temple of Teace, the Pantheon, and all the Thcrmx were of this m,-itenal. Whatever may be the precife time of the introduction of baked bricks in the edifices of Rome, they appear to have been always fquare. M. C^uatremere de Q^uincy, in the En- cyclopcdie Methodique, obferves, that in his refearchcs among the antique buildings of Rome, he has found bricks of three fizes. The lead were 7^ inches fquare, and li thick ; the medium ones 16^ inches fquare, and from 18 to 20 lines in thicknefs ; and the larger ones 22 inches fquare, by 21 or or 22 lines thick. The fmaller bricks were employed to face walls of rubble work ; and to make a better bond with the wall, they were cut diagonally into two triangles, the longer fide was placed on the outfide, and the point towards the interior of the work. To tie moreeffeftualiy the facing with the rubble, they placed at every four feet in height one or two courffs of the large fqnare bricks. The large bricks were alfo ufed in the arches of openings or difcharge, which were necefTaiy in the building. No long bricks, fnch as arc ufed at prefent, are found in antique conftrui!\ions. In modern times, bricks have been ufed in all countries. Chardin thu? defcribcs the mnnufafture of bricks in Perfia. The material of Perfian buildings is brick, either dried in the foil cr binnt in the fire. The tiles or bricks of earth are made in thin wooden moulds, of S inches long, 6 v^-ide, and 2! inches thick. Tlie labourers temper with their feet the earth, which is generally mixed with llraw cut very fmall, to give it more confillence, and that the bricks may lad longer and not break. They pafs the hands over the bricks to fnioolh them, after having dipped them in a vcfiel of water mixed with draw, Hill finer than was at firll ufed. Then taking off the mould they leave the bricks to dry fur two or three hours, after which they are ranged over one another, where they remain till the drying is completed. The baked bricks are made of two parts of earth and one of cinders, well tempered together, in moulds larger than for the others. They leave them to dry in the fun for feveral days, then place them in a large furnace, ranged one over the other, at fome diftancc, -winch they fill ^vith plader. They clofe the furnace and light the fire, which is kept up for tiiree days and nights. Bricks have feveral advantages over done as building ma- tci ials. From their porous drufturc they unite better with the cement ufed : they are lighter than done, and not fub- je^it to attra6t damps and inoilUire. The earth proper for the u-.anufafture of bricks is a clayey loam, neicher abonnding too much in faiid, which renders the wave heavy and '.-rittle, nor yet with too large a propor- tion of argillaceous nutter, which caufes it to fhrink and crack in drying. The general procefs of the manufacture is as follows : The earth ftiould be dug in the autumn ; it diould lie during the whok of the winter expofed to the frod, as the adtion ofthe air, in penetrating and dividing theparticles of theearth, facilitates the fubfequent operations of mixing and temper- ing. During this time the earth (hould be repeatedly turned and worked with the fpade. In the fpring the clay is broken in pieces, and thrown into diallow pits, where it is watered and fudercd to remain foaking for feveral days. The next dep is that of tempering the clay, which is generally per- formed by the treading of men or oxen. In the neighbour- hood of London, however, this operation is performed by means of a horfe-mill. The tempering of the clay is the mod laborious part of the procefs, and that on which the per- fection ofthe manufacture effentially depends. It is to negledt in this part, that we are chiefly to attribute the bad quality of modern bricks, in compariton with the ancient. All the dones diould be removed, and the clay brought to a per- feftly homogeneous pade, ufing the lead pofliblc quantity of water. The following experiment, made by M. Gallon, merits attention. He took a certain quantity of the earth, pre- pared for the making of bricks ; he let it remain for feven hours, then caufcd it to be moidened and beate.i during the fpace of thirty minutes : the next morning the fame opera- tion was repeated, and the earth was beaten for thirty mi- nutes : in tlie afternoon it was again beaten for fifteen mi- nutes. Thus this earth had only been worked for an hour and a quarter longer than ufnal, but at three different times. The material had acquired a greater denfity by this prepara- tion ; for a brick made with this earth weighed five pounds eleven ounces, while another brick, made in the fame mould, of the earth that had not received this preparation, weighed only five pounds feven ounces. Then having dried thefe bricks in the air, during the fpace of thirteen days, and hav- ing burnt them along with others, without any particular pre- cautions, they were examined when taken from the kiln, and it was found that the bricks made of the earth which had been the mod worked dill weighed four ounces more than the others, each having lod ^\sc ounces by the evaporation of the moidure. But their ilrength was very difterent ; for OB placing them with the centre on a fliarp edge, and load- ing the two ends, the bricks formed with the well-tempered earth, were broken with n weight at each end of 6- pounds or J 50 pounds in all, while the others were broken with Jj pounds at each end, or 70 pounds in the whole. The earth, being fufliciently prepared in the pits, is brought to the bench of the moulder, who works the cl?y into the brick-moulds, and drikes off the fupcrlluous earth. The bricks are delivered from the mould and ranged on the ground ; and \vhcn they have acquired a fufficieul hardncfs to BRICK. to admit of liandliiig, tfiey are drefTcd with a knife, and ftaked or built up in long dwarf walls, and thatcbed over, where they remain to dry. The burning of bricks, which is the next operation, is performed either in a kiln or a clnmp. In the former, the bricks being fet in, and the kiln covered with pieces of brick, they put in wood to dry them with a gentle fire ; and this they continue till they are pretty dry, which h known by the fmoke turning from a whitifii to a fliin black fmoke. They then ccafe to put in wood, and pro- ceed to burn with bvulh, furze, llraw, brake, oi- fern fag- gots, having firll clofed up the moutli of tlie kiln with a thin- log (pieces of brick piled upon one another and clofed with wet brick earth iiiftead of mortar), then they continue to put in more faggots till the kiln and its arches look white, and the fire appears at the top, upon which they flacken the fire for an hour, and let all cool by degrees. Thus they continue alternately heating and flacking, till the ware be thoroughly bunit, which is ufually eifctled in 48 hours. About London they burn in clamps, built of the bricks themfelves, after the manner of arches in kilns, with a vacancy betweeen each brick's breadth, for the fire to play through; but with this difterence, that, inilead of arching, they gather the flues over by making the bricks projeft over one another. The place for the fuel is carried up ftraight on both fides till about three feet high ; they then nearly fill it with wood, and over that lay a ftratum of fca ccal, and then overfpan the arch ; fea-coal is a!fo ftrewcd between every row of bricks in the clamp ; laftly, they kindle the wood which communicates with the coals ; and when all is burnt out, they conclude that the bricks are fufficieiitly burnt. The proper burning of bricks is a matter of confidenible difficulty, and requires an experienced workman ; as it is neceflary to maintain an equal heat throughout the whole mafs, neither too little, wliich would leave the bricks weak and crumbly, nor too great, which would caufe them to run together into a vitrified flag. This operation is much better performed in kilns than in clarrps, as the fire can be kept up and regulated at difcretion ; while in clamps, as the whole of the fuel mull be put in at once, the manufacturer is always tempted to ufe too little, and the outfidc bricks are neceflarily under-burnt. Thefe are called famel bricks, and are fold at an inferior price. The legiflature has often interfered to regulate the manu- faflure of bricks. By flat. 12 Geo. I. cap. 35, earth or clay, defigned for making bricks for fale, Ihall be dug and turned at leall once between the ifl of November and the ill of February, and not be made into bricks till after the lil of March, and no bricks be made for fale but between the ill of March and apth of September. But by Hat. 10 Geo. III. cap. 49. earth may be dug for making bricks at any time in the year, provided fuch earth be turned once before it be made into bricks. And by the former ftatute, no Spanilh is to be mixed with the earth or breeze ufed in the burning of bricks : and all bricks are to be burnt either in kilns, or dillinft clamps, each fort by itfelf. By Hat. 3 Geo. II. cap. 2;. there may be mixed with the brick-earth any quantity of fea-coal allies, fifted or fcreened through a fieve or fcreen half an inch wide, and not exceed- ing 20 loads, to the making of ico, 000 bricks, each load not exceeding 36 bulhels. And breeze may be aii.^ed with coal in the burning of bricks in clamps for fale. Sec. Stock- bricks and place-bricks may be burnt in one and the fame clamp, fo that the flock bricks be fet in one dillincl parcel, and not mixed and fv.rroundtd with place-bricks. For the more eiieftually fecuring the obfervation of thefe la',\s, it was enaclcd, by in Geo, T. cap. 55. for the brtter difcovery of offenders, that the nianer and wardens of the company of tylers and bricklayers Ihould have power to ft-arcli brick-kilns, &c. ; but they havuig permitted, and even en- couraged divers pcrfonr, to make bricks contrary to tl.o diredlions in the faid aff, by 2 G''0. II. cap. 15. they arc divcfted of that power, and any two, three, or more perlons, appointed by the juflices of pence, are empuwercd, within i_5 miles of London, to go in the day-time into aiiv grounds, (beds, or ])laccs where any cl.iy or earth flnill be digged or digging for bticks or pan-tilts, or any bricks or pan-til'.s fhall be making or made for fale, and there to view, (earch, and infpcdl the f^mc, 5:c. Oticndtrs to forfeit iO itritings for every thoufand of unllatutable bricks, and 10 fhillings for every thoufand of fuch tiles ; one moiety to the ufe of the profecutor, the other to the poor of the parilh ' where the offence fliall be committed. By 17 Geo. III. cap. 42. all bricks made fcr fale (hall, when burned, be not lefs than 85 inaheilong, zh thick, and 4 wide. By 43 Geo. III. c. 6g. (confolidating the excife duties) paffed July 4, 1803, every thoufand of bricks made in Great Britain, not exceeding 10 inches long, 3 inches thick, and 5 inches wide, is liable to a duly of 5 s. and exceeding tlie fore-mentioned diraenfions to los. ; and every thoufand of bricks made in Great Britain, and fmoothed or polillied 011 one or more fides, not exceeding the fnperficial dimtiilions of 10 inches long by 5 inches wide, is lubjett to a duty of -I2S. and if fuch bricks exceed thefe dimenfions, to the duty on paving tiks. The fnid duties are to be paid by the makers. An additional duty of lod. per thoufand was impofcd on bricks and tiles in the ways and means for the year 1809, The different kinds of bricks made in this country are principally place bricks, grey and red flocks, marie facing bricks, and cutting bricks. The place-bricks and flocks are ufed in common walling. The marles are made in the neighbourhood of London, and ufed in the outfide of build- ing ; thefe are very beautiful biicks, of a fine yellow colour, hard, and well burnt, and in every refpefl fuperior to the flocks. The finell kind of marie and red bricks are called cutting bricks, they are ufed in the arches over windows and doors, being rubbed to a centre and gauged to a height. There is alio a fine kind of white bricks made near Ipfv,-ich, which are ufed for facing, and fometimes brought to London for that purpofe. The Windfor bricks, or fire-bricks, \\'hicli are made at Hedgerley, a village near Windfor, are red bricks, containing a very large proportion of fand ; thefe are ufed for coating furnaces, and lining the ovens of glafs-. houfes, where they Hand the utir.ofl fury of the tire. Dutch clinkers are alfo imported, long narrow bricks, of 3 brimilone colour, very hard and well burnt ; they are fre- quently warped, and appear almofl vitrified by the heat. The ufe of them is for paving yards and llables. T>RiCK'wa//s. See Wall. Bricks, Oil rjf. See Oil o/"0/kvx. TjRiCK-e/t//I. It is a cuflom with fome perfons to reduce this fubtlance to a very fine powder, and give it, inflead of chalk, ill the heait-burn. Many of the lozenges, fo much famed for the cure of this diforder, and fold under the pomp- ous name of coral lozenges, are only m^de of a mixture of this uncouth medicine, and fugar, made into the confillence of palle, with gum tragacanth reduced to a mucilage with rofe-water. Brick is alfo ufed in fpeaking of divers other matteis made in the form of bricks. In which fenfe, we fay a penny-brick, or brick-btead. Some alfo mention brick-tin, a fort of tin in that fhape brought B R I lj:yj^:.t from Germany; ami brii-k-foap, maJi: iii oblong pi.. ci, from a pound and a li::lf to three pounds. BmcK, irX»'.o. or rry^-.i.x, lalemihu, in the Mlli/>iry yf'l, ;ternal walls, are genei-ally worked in what is called Flcmifii bond, that is, with headers and llrctchers alternately, and the courfes fo difpofed, that the middle of the bricks of one fall over the joints of the next. Brickwork is meafured by the fquare foot reduced to the thicknefs of one brick and a half; thus a wall two bricks thick, ten feet long, and three feet high.=: 30 fquare feet would be called 40 feet reduced. It is valued by the rod of 272 feet. Facing and gauged arches are meafured by the fuperficial fquare foot, and cornices by the foot running or the length. B R 1 BRICKWELL, C.h.\rlfs, and J.\mks, in Bio-raphy, two brothers, who appear to have made their travels fcrve to the improvement of natural hillory. The elder pnbliHitd " A natural and political Hillory of Portugal," Svo. Lon- don, 1726; the other, "A natural Hillcry of Carolina," Svo. 1739, Dublin, in which he gives a particular account of plants, indigenous to that country.; and the fame year, alfo at Dublin, "A Catalogue of .American Trees and Shrubs, which will bear the Climate of England," fol. with engravings, Haller. Bib. Botan. BR ICON, in Geogrnphy, a, town of France, in llic di.-- partment of the Upper Marne, and diftricl of Chaumoiit ; 7 miles W. of Chaumont. BRICZANI, a town of European Turkey, in the pro- vince of Moldavia ; Jo miles S. E. of Cokziro. BRIDE, a woman juft married, or a wife in the firil , days of her matrimonial Hate. See Marriage. Among the Greeks, the bride was ufually conveyed in a chariot from her father's houfe to that of her hufband in the evening, as the inoft convenient time for concealing her blufiies ; Ihe was placed in the middle, her hufband fat on one fide, and his intimate friend on the other ; torches were canied before her, and in the proccfHo\i they were fome- tinics accompanied by fingers and dancers. When they ar- rived at the end of their journey, the axle-tree of the car- riage was broken, fignifying-, by this aAion, that the bride was never to return to her father's houl,'. The day ou which the bride left her father's houfe was celebrated as a fcllival, diflinc/t from the nuptial folemnity ; which was kept at the houfe of t'ne bridegroom, and began in the evening, at the time of.the bride's arrival. A banquet was prepared for her reception, from rcfpetl due to the gods of marriage, who had been previoudy invoked, ar.d that the marriage miglit be made public, as it was ufually attended by a con- courfe of friends. Before the bride was conducted to the marriage-bed, which was richly adorned, according to the quality of the perfon, file bathed her feet in water, which the Athenians fetched from the fountain " Caliirhue," afterwards called E>v!Ky.fi) perhaps, impoHible at this time to determine to whom this invention is due. The Egyptians, fkilful as they were in archittflure, do not appear to have poirciFcd arches; their temples were roofed •.vith /labs laid horizontally from colum!i to column, and the openings covered with malTy lintels, or, as in the pafTagcs within the great pyramid, with courfes of (lones projcfllng over one another like inverted Heps, till they met at top. Some of their tombs, however, which arc excavated in the fclid rock, have the appearance of vaults, as the ceilings are hollowed out in a circular form, and there arc inftanccs of hemifpherical niches. Similar forms alfo prevail in the Hindoo excavations at Ellore, in the Dec- can, and in the idanu of Salfette. See Mr. Daniel's Plates of Indian Antiquities and Hindoo Excavations. This praftice, though it has the form, has not the principle of an arch ; for it is evident that a fohd lintel gains no llrengtii by being hollowed in the middle, neither is the execution more difficult ; and though both the Hindoos and Egyptians attained this flep, they never, at Itaft, there arc no remains which authorize us to fuppofe tliat they ever did make any further progrefs in the difcovery of arches. The Chinefe arc acquainted with the ufe of arches, and from the known adherence of this nation to ancient modes, we may attribute a veiy high antiquity to this praftice among thein. Their arclus are of various forms, pointed, femi- circular, femi-elliptical, and horfe-flioe ihaped ; their con- ilruCtion, as dtfciibtd by Mi. Barrow, is curious, " each ttone, from five to ten feet in length, is cut fo as to form a feL'ment of the arch, and, as in iiich cafes there is no kcy- ftoiie, ribs of wood fitted to the convexity of the arch are bolted tlirough the Hones by iion bars, fixed fall into the folid parts of the bridge. Sometimes, however, they are without wood, and the curved ftonc:; are morticed into lonj tranfverfe blocks of (lone." Mr. Barrow proceeds to oh- lln-e, that " there are, however, arches wherein the (lone^s are fmaller, and pointed to a centre as in ours. I have under- (lood from the late captain Pari(h, that no malonry could be fupcrior to that in the great wall, and that all the arched and vaulted work in the old towers was exceedingly well turned." However, the moil ancient arches, of whofe creftion w^e have dates, arc thofe in the cloacx of Rome, which were begun by Tarquiuius Prifcus. There are alfo arches in fcvcral Greek theatres, lladia, and gymnafia, among others^ the theatre of Bacchus at Athens, ereftcd, probably, 400 years before the Chriftian era. The Greeks, it is well known, often neglefled the moft necelfary objedls to lavifli enormous funis on works of mag- nificence, though deditute of any efTential utility. Pericles, fo far from thinking of aquxducis, could licver be prevailed upon even to conllruft a bridge over the little Cephifus. The Romans difcovercd, in this refpeft, a more folid man- ner of thinking ; they were, it is true, much attached to pomp, but they never negledled works of public utility : they never riflved their lives unneceflTarily in crofGng a tor- rent, as the Athenians mull have done previous to the arrival of the emperor Adrian; tor it was Adrian who undertook to form, by a bridge, a fafe communication acrofs the Cephi- fus, between the territories of Attica and Eleufis, on the mod frequented road of Greece. While, therefore, we afcribe to the Greeks the ufe of arches and vaults, properly conftruficd for covering various openings in their buildings, we mull look to the Romans for the application of arches to bridges, and for the chief improvements in thofe ufeful ftructures. The condruftion of the Roman bndges is bed defcribed by Bergier: they poiFeffedall the requifites which are met with in a modern bridge ; they confided of /;'/«, or piers, fonike!, or arches, fublkes, or butments, pninmenta, and aggsres ; the roads over in the middle for carriages, on each fide of which were dicurforia, or banquets, fomewhat liigher than the relt of the road for foot palfengers, and feparated from it by a fpoiule, or railing, and fometimes even covered over to (helter paflengcrs from the rain, as in the Pons .^lius. Among the Romans, the building and repairing of bridges was fird com- mitted to the prieds, thence -namti, ponufcss , then to the cen- fors and curators of the roads, and laltly, the emperors took. the care of the bridges into their own hands. The ancient bridges of Rome were eigh* in number. The bridge of Fcihrichu, which joins the ifland of the Tyber to the city ; it is now called Panic Quntro Cap], from the four heads o: Janus, which are placed upon it. The bridge of Ceflius, now called of Sun Barihvlomeo, which frcm the other fide of the iflaud palTcs to Trans-Tevcre. The firft bridge built at Rome, which was of wood, and thence called Puns SiiiUciiis, was afterwards rebuilt of done by .^milius Lepidui ; BRIDGE. Lepidus ; fome veftiges are ftill to be feen at the bottom of the Aventine mountain. The bridg-e called Senntorhis, and alfo Paleitiiws, of vvliich fome arches remain near to Santa Maria. The bridge of yamciihn, which, as it was rebuilt by Sixtus IV. is now called Ponle Stjlo. The Mihhis, now called Poule Molle. There are alfo, near the iiofpital of Santo Spirito, the remains of the Triumphal Bridge, fo named becaufc the proceffion ofthe triumphs pafled over it to go to theCapitol. Near to this is the bridge of Santo Angelo, formerly called Pons jE/iuy, from the Emperor j5iliu3 Adri- anus ; it was repaired by Nicholas V. and afterwards orna- mented with ftatues by Clement IX. Of thefe bridges the lad mentioned is the only one at all remarkable for fize. One of the moft celebrated of the bridges of antiquity was that built by Trajan over the Danube. It was erected by that emperor for the convenicncy of fending fuccours to the Roman legions on the other fide of the Danube, in cafe they fliould be fuddenly attacked by the Daci, but demolifhcd by his fuccefTor, Adrian, led the barbarians, overpowering the guards fet to defend the bridge, fhould, by means of it, pour into Miefia and cut off the garrifons there. Some of the piers are ftill to be feen in the middle of the river, near the town of Warhcl in Hungary. According to the defcrip- tion given by Dion CafTius, (lib. 68. cap. ij.) this bridge con- lifted of 20 piers of fquared ffone, each of them 150 feet high above the foundation, 60 feet in breadth, and 170 feet dillant from each other, which was the fpan or width ofthe arches, fo that the whole length of the bridge was nearly 1500 yards. Confiderable doubt, however, is thrown on this account by Montfau9on, who obferves, that in the baffb relievos of the Trajan column, this bridge is reprcfented with only four piers befides the abutments, which iuppurt three larger arches or truffes of wood, with two fmaller llone arches at the extremities. On the road from Loretto to Rome, at the bottom of the hill on which the town of Narni is iituated, there are the broken remains of an ancient bridge, which appears to have been very magnificent. Its form and dimenlions are ftated by AgolHno Martinelli, in a book printed at Rome in 1676, entitled " Defcrittione de diverll Ponti effillenti fopra la Fiume Nera & Tevere." This bridge which joined two mountains, between which flows the river Nera, was of an extraordinary height, and was built in this manner by Auguftus, that the inhabitants of Narni nu'ght pafs on a level from one mountain to another. The whole length was 850 palms (6;7 feet). It confifted of lour large and un- equal arches; the firli, which was entire in the time of Mar- tinelli, while all the others were broken, was lOO palms (75 feet) in fpan, and r jo palms (102 feet) in heiijht ; the fecond arch j8o palms (135 feet) in fpan; the third i:* palms (114 feet); and the fourth, which abutted againll ilie other mountain, igo p>ilms, or 142 feet. The Poril da Garde, about 3 leagues from Nifmes, is a very confiderable Roman work. This ftrnfture was at once a bridge over the river Gardon, and an aquffidudt which carried water to Nifmes. The flrll row of fix arches, which is the bridge, fupports a Ircond arcade of eleven arches, which is continued upon tlie flope ofthe two mountains forming t'le valley; above the fecond is a third arcade of 3 ^ arches, much fmaller than thole bclov.-, fnpporting the canal on a level with the two mountains, along which the water was con- duced to Nifmes by a continued aquxduft. This remark- able edifice is built of fioncs iff an extraordinary fize, con- tiecled together without cement by iron cramps. The length of the firfl arcade is about 46^ feet, of the fecond 780, of the third S50, and tr.e height fro;u the river 190 feet. The celebrated Roman bridge Pvnt.Sl.Efpih, near Lyons» has long been reckoned one of the fmell and boldeil of the ancient bridges in France. Its whole length is upwards of Soo yards ; it is veiy crooked, bending in many places, and making fcvcral unequal ajigles, elpecially in thofe parts where the Rhone has the itrongefl ciiri-cnt. The arches are from I- to 2 J fathoms wide, and have their feet, or the bottoms of the piers, protected by two pcdcilals which pro- ]<:6i from them; the lower part of the j)iers confills of feveial courfes of footings jutting out like fteps. Between the great arches there are fmaller arches like v.indow.s that come down nearly to the top of the pedellals, about the middle of the pier. This mode of conltruftiou was adopted with a view of breaking gradually the mighty force of the Rhone, the feveral courles of fteps jutting out from the piers were intended to oppofe and break the flrtani by portions, and prevent it from comin-j with its whole force at once upon the fabric ; and when the flood fliould rife fo high as to cover the fteps and pedeftals, then the fmall window-like arches would afhft to convey the v.-ater through, which might otherwife endanger the great arches. The bridge of Crioude is of great antiquity, and very re- markable, as the largeft. Itone arch with which we are ac- quainted. This bridge has only one arch, under which paffes the whole ftream of the river Alller. Tlie arch is formed of two ranks of fquared ttones ; all the reft ofthe fa- bric is of rubble work. The two extremities of the arch are founded upon the rock, which occallons the fpringing on one fide to be higher than on the other ; its fpan is i8i feet, and its greateil height from the water to the fofTit of the arch is 68 feet 8 inches, and the width of the bridge between the parapets is 13 feet. In the middle ages bridge building was reckoned among the atts of religion ; and a regular order of hofpitallers was founded by St. Benezet, towards the clofe of the 12th century, under the denomination of pontifices or bridge- builders, whole ofHee was to afTilt travellers by making bridges, fettling ferries, and receiving ftrangers in hofpitals or houfes built on the banks of rivers. We read of a hof- pital of this kind at Avignon, where the hofpitallers dwelt under tl-.e direftion of their firft fuperior St. Benezet. Tlie Jefuit Raynaldtis has a treatife exprefsly on St. John the bridge-builder. The bridge of Avignon was begun in the rear 1 176, and finifhed in^n_S8; it confifted of iS arches, and was about 1000 yards in length. Several of its arches have been dt- ftroyed by the r.npidity of the currrent together with the force of Llie lee. Over the feveral canals at Venice are laid nearly f^co bridges of different fizes; the greater number of them are of ftone. The chief of thefe, called the Rhd/o, is celebrated as a mafter-piece of art : it conlifts of one flat and bold arch, nearly loo feet fpan, and only 23 feet high above the water, and was built in 15S8 to 1591, after a defign of Michael Angelo. The breadth of the bridge, which is 43 feet, is divided by two rows of fliops into three narrow ftreets, that in the middle being the w ideft: ; and there is in the centre an open archway, by which the three ftreets communicate with one another. At each end of the Rialto is an afeer.t of 56 fteps; the view .from its fummit is very .lively and mag- nificent. The whole exterior of the fliops and the bridge'is of marble. Tiie foundation extends 90 feet, and refts upon i2,ooo elm piles. This ftiudure coft the republic 250,000 ducats. The aqu;cducl bridge of Alcantara, near the city of Tif- bon, is one of the moft maguilicent works of the kind ever executed. It was begun in the reign of John V. king of Q^ q 2 Portugal, WIDTH. wimH. Sumber. Fcui. Inches. KuTiber. Foci. Illi hei. I 22 0 '9 44 4 29 0 20 3^ J 3 43 ° 21 36 5 4 4i ° 2 2 i'> 5 5 56 0 -3 36 S 6 6j 0 24 29 2 7 70 0 -.) -9 2 O Gcanii loS 5 26 29 2 9 72 0 27 29 2 10 65 10 2S 20 2 1 1 65 10 2y 29 a 12 65 10 'S^ 21 10 '3 5+ 8 31 21 10 '4 54 « 32 21 13 15 54 7 33 21 10 16 44 4 34 21 10 17 44 4 3j .il 10 18 44 4 B R 1 D G F. P^rtu^J. in the year i ; 15, and nniilicd ilie Ctli of Ai.gud The width of the different Arches are as under : t7,-j.^ 'iv arch\tcft, under whofe iiifpcClion it was begun aid fini.'Tied, was the brigadier Miiifel de Maya. 'l"he ftrram! whiih p.ifs through this diid, for theufeofihe i .habinnts of the eity of L\(bi>ii and vUla^ei adjacent,^ have their cliicf fopply from a fprinfj r.far the Riberia de Caran- que, about three le:ic:Hes and a h.ilf from Liibon, whtie the atjiiTdjft eommtrees; and the water is conveyed from thence throu^jh the hills by fubttrnneoiis patTages, where fome other f:jriiij,"i unite with it, and acrofs m.iny valleys on the lopj of ranges of very ma^nuicent arches, of which that crf>ninj tlie'vale of .\lcantaia is the chitf. l"rom a fnb- trrraiieoiii omrfe the w.ittr is conveyed through the build- jnij on tlie top of tlic arches by nuaiisof two channels, each of^which is nSoiit 1 2 niches deep ; it generally flows about the depth of feven inches, and is an abundant and never tail- ing fiipplv of water to Lifb.in. The interior height of the buil«iin^ i» about i %, feet ; and through tlie centre, betv.een the tlrcanis, is a wide handfoine walk or foot-path, paved with beautiful free-llonc. The building is continued the iime height and width through the whole of the aqvi^Jnft from I.iiSon to the fpring, near the Riberia de Caranque, fo that if by accident any part becomes out of repair, the workmen have eafy acccfs to it. The fubterraneous palTages are iighttd and ' ventilated by frequent op-nings made from til', furface of t!ie earth into liie aquiedud ; and over each of thcfe openings turrets or fqnare towers are ereft- ed, which have windows latticed w.lh iron bars to admit the light and air, and at the fame time to prevent mifchiev- ous perfons from throwing any thing into the building to injure it. This pile is lighted and ventilated by 79 windows and 16 turrets ; the former are three feet feven inches long by 13 inches wide, railed with iron and latticed with bars ; the lat- ter rife 2j feet fix inches above the roof, and arc i6fectfquare ; beneath every fecond turrtt is an arched door-way into the aqusducl on each fide of the building, wherein the water flows, and between that building and a parapet wall is a foot path leading from Liibon towards the very pleafant village of Bemfiqne, about four miles from Lifbon, where feveral •jcntlenieii have their cpiintas or countiy-fcats : one in parti- eular, the quiiita of Gerard de Vifme efq. an Englifli mer- chant of the firll eminence, mull not pafs unnoticed ; it is a ptrfeft palais enchantc, whofe fliady bowers, beautiful gardens, fine ponds, purling llreams, and fportive fountains, .ire frequently honoured with vifiis by tbe queen and royal family. The water channel under the grand arch is about 24 feet wide and feven feet deep, but, except in very rainy feafons, no water pafics through this channel ; the fmall running ilrcam conllantly pafiing through the va'e of Alcantara is conveyed by a very narrow channel under the pavement through the grand arch, and then continues its courfe tlirough th.e valley, in a dream between two and three feet wide, till it empties ilftlf into the Tagus at Alcantara bridge, about the diftaiice of two miles from tlie uqnxdudt. The i^pence attending the e.^tecntion of fo magnificent a work, and keeping the fame in repair, has been immenfe, yet the fmall tax of a fingle rey on every pound of meat, raifcs a fund fufficient for the purpofe. There is a chapel feen through the eleventh aich, dedicated to Notla Scnhora dos Terramotos, our Lady of the Earthquakes ; in com- memoration of that dreadful event the earil-.quake in 175J, Vihen the gieatefl part of tlie city of Liibon, with moll of her ftately buildings, and magnideeiit temples, were levelled with the ground. The height of the grand arch is 227 feet, and the total length of the piers and arche? 2464 feet. .Several of the bridges in France are remarkable for their fi/'.e and boldnefs of conftruft:on, a:nnng which may be mentioned the bridge of Ntuilly, built by M. Perronct, over the Seine, on the alignment ot the great avenue of the Champs Elyfces, in front of the palace of tiie Tuilleries. This bridge, which is level at top, confiflf! of five equal arches of 120 feet French (12S ieet Englifli) in fpan, and 30 feet French (32 feet Englilh) rife. The arshes are oval, compofed of i i arcs of circles of different diametL-rs; thus the upper portion of the arch was formed with a circle of 160 feet radius, which, by its fettlement during the building, and after the ftriking of the centres, was flattened, till it be- came an arc of a circle of 259 feet radius, differing fo little from a platband, that, as Perronet oblerves, the rife of the curve, in a length of 33 feet, amounted only to 6 inches 9 lines. The piers are 14 feet wide, and the breadth of the bridge 48 feet. It was begun in the year 176S, and tei- minated in 1780. The bridge on the Seine, at Mantes, confifts of three arches, that in the centre having an opening of 120 feet French (128 Englilh), and the two others loS feet French (n6 Englifh); the piers being 2^ feet 6 inches wide, and the abutments 29 feet. This ilrufture was begun by I^L Hupeau in 1757, and completed by Perronet. The bridge of Pont-Sainte-Maixence, on the rrver Oife, on the great road from Paris into Flanders, is alfo a work of Perronet's. This bridge, which is 41 feet wide, has three arches of 77 feet opening each, being a fegment of a circle defcribed with a radius of 1 18 feet. Each pier is fingularly compofed of four cylindrical pillars 9 feet diameter, leaving, therefore, three fpaces or intercolumniations between them, which are arched over, the two txtenial ones clofed with a thin walling, and the middle one left open. The bridge over the Loire, at Orleans, is compofed of nine arches, which fpring at j 2 inches above low water ; the middle arch is 106 feet in fpan, with a rife of 30 feet ; the two arches at the extremities beiug 98 feet wide and 26 feet high, and the others in proportion ; the four middle piers 19 feet, the four others 18 feet, and the abutments 23 feet 6 inches thick, making the whole length iicofect; the arches are o\-dl, defcribed from three centres. This bridge was built by M. Hupeau, begun iu 175O; and finiflied in 176^. We BRIDGE. Wc have many bridc^es of conrulerahlc note in onr own country. Tlie triangular bridge at Croyhuid in Lincolnfliire, which was erefted about the y:,-ar 860, is faid to be the moll ancient Gothic ilruSiirc remaining entire in tlic kingdom. There are two circiimllanc« intheconl>ruflion of thii bridge, which render it an objeiS of great c\iriority. Firll, it is formed by t'.iree fcmi-arches. wiiofe hafes Hand in the circnraference of a circle, at equal dillances from each other. Thtfe unite at the top ; and the triune nature of the llrnflure has led fome to imagine that it was intended as an emblem of the Trinity. Second! v, the afcei:t on each of the fcmi-arches is bv lU'ps paved with fmiill ilones fet edge-ways, and isfo lleep, that none but foot-pafTengers can go over the bridge : liorfe- men and carriages frequently pafs under it, aa the river in that place is but (hallow. For what purpofe this bridge was really dellgncd, it is diificult, if not iinpoirible, to determine. Uti- lity, it is obvious, was one of the leall motives to its eredliou. To boldnefs of delign and lingulaiity of conllruftion it has more powerful claims ; andthefe qualities it mud be allowed to pofTefs in as great a degree as any bridge in Europe. Al- though this bridge has been cretled fo many centuries, it ex- hibits no marks of decay : twelve months ago there were no fiffures to be perceived in either of the arches, and all that was mifTc^ were a mound and fceptre, whicli have been torn from the hands of a ftatue of king Ethelbert by the ruthlefs hand of rime. London bridge is in the old Gothic ftyle, and had twenty fmall locks or aichcs ; bi'.t there are now only 19 open, two having lately been thrown iiito one in the centre. It is 940 feet long, 44 high, and 47 clear widtli between the parapets. Tiie piers arv from 15 to 35 feet thick, with llerlings pro- jei.ting at each fide and end, 10 that the ereatell water-way, ■when the tide is above the (Itriings, is 545 feet, fcarcely half the breadth of the river ; and below the llerlings the water- way is reduced to 204 feet, cauling a dangerous fall at low water. London bridge was firlt built with timber in the reign of Ethelred. between the years 993 and 1016 ; it was repaired, or rather rebuilt of tnnbtr in 1 163, and the prefent ftone bridge was begun under king Henry II. in 1176, and finifhed under king John in the year 1209. It is probable there v.'cre no houies on the bridge for upwards of 200 years, iince we read of a tilt and tournament held on it in IJ95. Houfes were erected up'in it afterwards, but bemg found a great inconvenience and nuiiance, they were removed in 17 ■jS, and the avenues to the bridge enlarged, and the whole made more commodious : the two middle arches were then thrown into one, by removing the pier from between tiiem. The expence of the repairs amounted to above 8o,oool. There were other bridges in England built in the manner of London bridge i as the bridge at Rochelter, which is 550 feet long, and has 1 1 arches ; alfo the late bridge at Newcaitle upon Tyne, which was broken down by a great flood in the year i77i,.for want of a fuflicient fpace for water-way through the arches. The longetl bridge in England is that over the Trent at Burton, built by Bernard abbot of Burton, in the i.:th century. It is all of fquarcd frce-ftone, and is ftrong and lolty, 1545 feet in lengtb, and cor.fifting of 34 arches. The bridge at Blenheim confifts of three arches, the chief of which fpans loi teet 6 inches. Near Old Aberdeen tiiere is a bridge over the river Don, very much celebrated. It is in the Gothic tafte. There is alfo a remarkable bridge called Sarah or Ifland bridge, built' over t'ae LlfFcy above Dublin, ia the year 1792, by Mr. Alexander Stevens, a mafon from Edinburgh : it confifts of a fmgle elliptical arch ic5 feet fpan, and only riling 22 feet ; it is therefore fix feet wider than the Rialto at Venice, and one foot Icfs in height. But the mod extraordinary bridge in Great Britain is, doubtlefs, that over the rivei- TatV, n.-ar Llantvifstnt, in Glamorganlhire, Called in Wellh Ponl y ty Pry.ld. This is the work of Wdliam Edw irds, an uneducated mafon of tlie country, who was only indebted fur his ikiU to his own indudry and the p .vver ot iiis genius. He had engaged, in 1746, to build a ne>v bridge at this place, which he executed in a Hyle fuperior to any thing of the kind in this or any part of Wales, for u'-atnefs or workmanlhip, and elegance of delign. "It confided of three arches, elegantly light in their conftnic- lion. The hewn ilones were excellently well dreficd and clofely jointed. It was admired by all who favv it. But this river runs through a very deep vale that is more than ufually woody, and crouded about with mountains. It is alfo to be conlidcred, that many other rivers of no mean capacity, as the Crue, the Bargoed TafT, and the Cunno, be- fides almod numberlcfs brooks that run throutjh long, deep, and well -wooded vales or glens, iall into the Taff in its pro- grefs. The dcfctnts into thcfe vales from the mountains being in general very deep, the water in long and lieavy rains colleiis into thefe rivers with great rapidity and force, raif- ing floods, that in their d.'fcriptions would appear abfolutely incredible to the inhabitants of open and fliit countiies, where the rivers are neither fo precipitate in their courfes, nor havefuch hills on each iide to fwcll them with their tor- rents. Such a flood unfortunately occurred after the com- pletion of this undertaking, which tore up the largeft trees by the roots, and carried them down the river to the bridge, where the arches were not fufficiently wide to admit of their paffage. Here, therefore, they were detained. Brufli-wood, weeds, hay, draw, and whatever lay in the way of the flood, came down, and colletled about the brandies of the trees, that duck fad in the arches and choaked the free current of the water. In confeqnence of this obdruclion to the flood, a thick and drong dam, as it were, was thus formed. The aggregate of lo many coUefled llreams being unable to get any further, rofe here to a prodigious height, and, with the force of Us prclfure, carried the bridge entirely away bcfove it. William Edwards had given fccurity for the dability of the bridge dui'ing the fpace of feven years ; of courfe he was obliged to eredt another, and he proceeded on his duty with ;ill pofllble ipeed. The bridge liad only ilood about two years and a half. The fecond bridge was of one arch, for the p'jrpofe of admitting freely under it whatever incum- brances the floods might bring down. The fpan or chord of this arch was 140 feet, its altitude 35 feet, the feg- ment of a circle wlrofe diameter was 170 feet. The arch was finidied, but the parapets not yet crefted, when fuch was the preffure of the unavoidably ponderous work over the haunches, that it fprung in the middle, and tiie key- dones wei'e forced out. This was a fevere blow to a ma.n who bad hitherto met with nothing but misfortune in an enterprilc which was to edablilh or ruin him in his pio.*'eiiion. William Edwards, however, poiTedcd a courage which did not cafily forfake him ; he engaged in it 3 third time, and by means of cylindrical holes through the haunches, fo re- duced their weight, that there was no longer any danger from it. The fecond bridge fell in 175 i ; the third, which has dood ever fince, was completed in 17J5." (Mr. Mal- kin's Tour in South Wales.) The prefent arch is 1 40 feet in fpan, and 35 feet high, being a fegment of a cucle of 175 diameter. In eacli haunch there arc three cylindricjl openingi running thi-oiigh from fide to iide ; the diameter of the lowed is nine feet, of the next fix feet, and of the upptr.Tioft. three feet. Tiie width of the bridge is about eleven BRIDGE. ileven fort. To Hrengthcn it liOrir.or.t:illy, it is made wideft at ilic abiitnnciits, from which it coi.tradts towards tlie centre b) fcven otf-fcts, fo tliat the road-way is one foot nine inches «iJcr 3t the cxtrtmilits than at the middle. The briJffcs of Wellminllcr and ISlatkfriars, over the liver Thames at London, arc among the fintU lUuctures of the kind in Europe. The former is i.;JO feet long, and 44 fctt wide, haunj; a coniinodioiis broad footpath on each fide ff>r pafTenntis. It confilli of tliiitccn large, ai-.d two fmall arches, fuuitciii intermediate piers and two abutments. The length of each abutment is 76 feet ; the opening of cacli of the fniallcr archts is 25 fcit ; the fpan of the hrll of the large arches at each end is i2 feet, of the next j6 feet, aiid fo on increaling by four feet at a time to tlic centre arch, the fpan of which is jC) feet. The two piers of tiie middle arch a>-c i- feet wide, and the others decreafe equally on each hdt, by one foot at a lime, even- pier terminating wHth a falicnt riglit angle againll either llream. The arches are femi-circular, and fpring from about the height of two feet above low water. The breadth of the river in this place is about 1220 feet, and tlie water-way through the bridge amounts to 870 feet. The bridge was liegun in 1738, and opened for pafTengers in 1750, at a neat cxpence of 2iS,>Sool. It is conftruftcd of the beft materials, and in .« neat and elegant talle ; but the arches are too fmall in pro- portion to the quantity of mafonry. rdackfriars bridge, nearly 0])poiitc to the centre of the city of London, was begun in i7''jo, and completed in ten years and three quarters, at a neat expence of 152,8401. It is an ex- ceedingly light and elegant llrufture ; but, unfortunattly, the materials do not feem to be of the bell kind, as many of the ftones in the piers are decayed. The bridge confiils of nine large, handfome, and nearly elliptical arches ; the central arch is 100 feet wide, and the four arches on each fide, reckoning towards the (liorcs, decreafe gradually, being 98, 93, 83, and 70 feet refpettively, leaving a water-way 0^788 feet. The whole length from wharf to wharf is 995 feet, the breadth of the carriage-way i8 feet, and that of the raifed foot-wav on each fide feven feet. The upper furface of the bridge is a portion of a very large circle, which forms an clerfant figure, and admits of convenient pafTage over it. On each pier there is a recefs or balcony, with two Ionic columns and pilafters, which Hand on a circular projeftioii of the pier above high water mark. The bridge is rounded ofT at each extremity to the right and left, in the form of a quadrant of a circle, rendering the accefs commodious and agreeable. This edifice mull be regarded as a fine fpecimcn ot Mr. Mylne's ingenuity and jwlgment, though the method of c(m(lruclion has neitrr been made pubhc. Uefides the bridges already mentioned, there are many other neat and elegant flrutlures in diffirtnt parts of Great ]?ritaia and Ireland. The bridge over the Tees at Vv'infton in Yorkfhire, was dtiigned by fir Thomas Robinfon, ■and built by John Johnfim, a common mafon at Walfing- 4iam, in the year i 76:. It confiils of a finjjie arch loS feet -9 inches fpan ; is built of rubble-ftone ; and coll only /Jool. An elegant flonc bridge has lately been built over the Tweed at Kelfo, upon the plans and imder the direftion of Mr. John Rennie. This has five elliptical arches of 72 feet fpan each ; is quite level at top. It has two Doric pilafters, which Hand on a circular projection of the pier, with a fimple block cornice. The coll of this bridge was about 13,0001. exclufivc of the roads at each end, which coll about 3CO0I. more, in all i6,oocl. The bridge over the Peafe, or rather Pcnths, on the road from Dunbar to Ik-rwick upon Tv.eed, is rathtr an luicom- mon ftrudure. This bridge croll'es a deep ravine called the Peaihs. It confifts of four femi-circular arches. That at the call fide of the ravine is 54 feet fpan ; the fecond 5; feet; the third 52 feet, and the further or weftern arch 48 feet. The height of the bridge, from the bottom of the ravine to the furface of the road, is 124 feet. The fituation is beautiful, and has a moft romantic appearance. It was dcfigned and built by the late Mr, David Henderfon, architcft in Edinburgh, and does him confiderable credit. The aqujcdudl bridge, conltnifted by Mr. Rennie on the river Lunc at Lancaller, is one of the moll magnificent work 5 of the kind which has been erefted for the purpofes of navi- gation. At the place where it is built, the water is deep and the bottom bad. it confiils of 5 arches of 70 feet fpan each, and about .39 feet above the furface of the water. It has a handfome cornice, and every part of it is finilhed in the befc manner. The foundations are laid at the depth of 20 feet under the furface of the water, ard ftand on a flooring of timber, fupportedbypiles. The foundation alone coft i5,oool. The fuperllrutlurc cofl above twice that fum, although the ftone was found within about a mile and a half of the place where the aqureducl was built. Barges of 60 tons burthen navigate the canal. The total height from the furface of the river to the furface of the canal is 51 feet. It may be obfcrved in this place, that the Romans always, without any exception that we are acquainted with, made their arches either of a ftmiclrcle, or of a Icfier fegment of a circle. The vouflbirs were generally included between two concentric curves, on which account thefe are called extra- doffed arches. The earlier Italian architedls followed the example of the Romans in the forms of their arches, which are either femicircular, or of a fmaller fegment, called by them area intiero, and arcofcemo, from which term our woik- men have taken that oi Jleme arch. Elliptical arches are very much ufed by the engineers of Erance, moft of the bridges in that country being in this manner. The French diftinguifti their arches into three kinds, I'arc plein-cemtrc, I'arc fiirhmijje, and I'arc furlo'ijfi ; the firft is a femi-circlc, the fecond higher, and the third lower than a femi-circle, being formed by the greater or fmaller axis of an cllipfis ; in praftice, however, thefe are generally compofed of feveral arcs of circles of different diameter, as in this cafe the joints are more eafily traced. The arcs fuvbaiflcs are alfo called atife de panicr. The arc bomhc is an aic furbaiflc, formed by a fegment of a circle. The ancients always laid their wrought ftones without mortar between the joints, frequently ufing iron cramps to connett them more firmly together. Their large arches, and thofe v.hieh had to bear very great weights, were compofed of feveral ranks of vouftoirs extradofted, and breaking joint, as is feen in the great cloaca of Rome, and in feveral bridges and aquredufts. Modern architedls, however, generally ufe only one rank of vouftoirs, each of which is terminated at top by a horizontal joint, and laterally by a perpendicular joint, for the purpofe of ranging better with the courfes of the haunches and fpandrels. The decoration of bridges ought to be fimple and large, their beauty confiftmg chiefly in the proportion of the voids and folids, the contour of the arches, and apparent ftrength and folidity, together with boldnefs of conllroftion. How- ever, many modern architects have carried finiplicity to ex- cefs, particularly in Paris, where the arches of all the bridges are plain, and without any member of architecture. A happy introduflion of ruilic work of various forms and fizes breaks the monotony of the Inrge mafl'es, and enriches the edifice. This method was often employed by the an- cients, and we never Hud that they nc^lifted to ornament the arches of their bridges v ith archivolts more or lefs rich. I Pailadio, 1 BRIDGE. Palladio, in all liis ckfigns of bridges, has never omitted this fimpleft and belt decoration of arches. Cornicts and bnl- hiftrades alfo are both iif'rful and ornamental in thefe ftrudiures. Generally fpeaking, large arches are more expenfive than fmaller. In a bridge lately dcfigned over a river, wherein the foundations uvrc vtry dillieuk to conllruft, one delign with three arches of 1 16 feet each, was eiliiiiated at 1^,174!. and another of live arches of the fame kind was clHniated at 12,04.1!., which was contraClcd for and built tor tlie above fum. IFooil.^ri bruises now demand our attention. The fimpleft cafe of th.efe edifices is ihat in which the road-way ii> laid over beams placed horizontally, and liipportcd at each end by piers or polls. This method, however, is deficient in ftrength and width of opening : it is therefore ntceffary, in all works of any magnitude, to apply the principles of trulTnig, as ufcd in roofs and of arches. Wooden bridges of this kind are lliff frames of carpentry, in which, by a proper difpofition, beams are put, fo as to fland in place of folid bodies, as large as the fpaces wliich the beams enclofe ; and thus, two or three or more of thefe are fet in abutment with each other, like mighty arch flones. Palladlo has given fever>d very elegant defigns of wooden bridges, which he thus d-fcrihes. The bridge of the Cifmone. The Cilmone is a river, which, falling from the mountains that divide Italy from Germany, runs into the Brenta a little above Bafiano. And, becaufe it is very ra- pid, and great quantities of timber are fent down it by the mountaineers, it was refolved to make a bridge there, with- out fixing any polls in the water, which were hable to be carried away by the violence of the current, and the Ihock of the ilones and trees that contiimally came down. The invention of this bridge, (fays Palladio,) is, in my opinion, very worthy of attention, as it may ferve on all occafions where thefe difficulties may occur, and becaufe that bridges thus made are flrong, beautiful, and commodious ; (Irong, becaufe all their parts mutually fupport each other ; beauti- ful, becaufe the texture of the timbers is very agreeable ; and commodious, being even, and in the fame hne with the remaining part of the Itreet. Tb.e river where this bridge was erefled is ico feet wide ; this width is divide'd into fix equal parts ; and at the end of each part, excepting at the banks, which are ftrengthencd with pilaflcrs of llone, the beams are placed, that form the breadth of the biidge, upon which, a little fpace being h f t at their ends, were placed other beams lengthways, which form the fides. Over thefe, directly upon the firll, llie coloiielli (king-pofls) were difpofed on each fide ; thefe king-pofls are connefted to the beams which form the breadth of the biidge by means of irons paiFing through the projediing ends of the bcanis, and bolted and pinned through both. See /V. i. P/rt/^ XXXII. ol ArcJr.uaure. Palladio proceeds to defcribe three other methods of con- flrucling wooden bridges without polls in the water, like the bridge over the Cilmone. The bridges after the firll method are to be made in this manner: the banks being ftrengthened by pilallers as neccffuy fhall require, one of the beams forming the breadth of the bridge is to be placed at fame diftance from it, then the firll llrut is to be placed with one end upon the pier, and llie other end abutting agalnll the firll queen-poll, which is to be connefted v.'ith the beams by irons. Then tlie fecosd beam for the breadth is to be placed at a diftance equal to the fpace betv.'een the flril beam and the pier, vvhicli is to be Supported in hke manner with a ft rut and quecn-poil, and thus proceeding as far as is required, obfcrving to have a kiiig-poil in the middle of t!ie length in which the f'.ruts meet both ways and with collar beams between all the polls which lliffeii and fupport the wliole coiillrutlion. Bridges after this manner are to be wider at the extremities, and contraft to- wards the middle. Kec/r. 2. Phite XXXTI. oi Architetiure. The invention of the following biidge has tiie U[)per part which fuppoits the weight in the form of a polygon, In- fcribed in a flat fegment of a circle ; the beams forming the breadth of the roa feet 6 inches in fpan ; the interior ring is call in two pieces, each piece being about 70 feet in length. It was contlrudcd in tiie year 1779, by Mr. Abraham Darby, iron-mallcr at Coalbrook Dale, and mull be confidercd as a very bold effort in the firll inttance of adopting a new mate- rial. The total weight of the metal is 3 /SI tons. The fecond iron bridge, of which the particulars have come to our knowledge, v. as that dtfigned by Mr. Thomas Payne, author of many political works. It was conllrufted bv MtlTrs. Walkers at Rotherham, and was brought to Lon- don, and fet up in a bowhng-grcen at Paddington, where it was exhibited for fome time. After v.iich it was intended to have been fent to America; but Mr. Payne not being sble to defray the c.xpence, the manufailurers took it back, and the malleable iron was afterwards worked up in the conftruction of the bridge at Wearmouth. The third iron bridge of im.pnrtance erefted in Great Britain, was that over the river Wear, at BiP.icp Wear- mouth, near Sunderland, the chief pro;e<3or of which was Jlowland Burdon, cfq. M. P. As this is i- the moll confi- dcrable tlruclurc of the kind, it may be proper to give a brief iltetch of iti hiftor)'. In confequcnce of the increafing trade and population of Sunderki.d and the two Wtar- mouths, tlie ancient ferry, which v/as almolt in tl:e middle of tlie harboar, had become very infnfficicnt and unfafe, fo that, befides frequent delays and difappointments, feve- rul inttances had occurred of the lofs of lives. About the year 17^0, in which Mr. Biirdon v.as returned to parliament by the county of Durham, foTie gcntlemrn iutereded in the welfare of the town and neighbourhood of Sunderia[;d, united for the purpofe of removing th.e evilr. ariling from the ferry, and Mr. Burdon wa< appointed oie of the committee. L'oiicciving at -firft that a ihjne bridge would he proper, they b«gan to adopt m.cafurcs for its ereclion. An archiie£i was chofen to carry on the neceffiuy works, who in due time produced plans, cllimatcs, and a model of the intended edi- fice. But as the work was of confiderable magnitude and importance, it was thought expedier^ to refer the defign to the opinion of fome gentlemen of celebrity for fcieiitihc and praftical knowledge in and near the metropolis ; their report being unfavourable, the fchemc of ereClmg a Hone bridge was "abandoned. The committee, however, being now warmly engaged in the bufinefs, continued to prolecutc their inquiries ; and Mr. Burdon in particul.ir being fre- quently called by his parlianientaiy duty to London, wjs verv diiio'ent in his endeavours to obtain inform.ation ai;d hints from various quarters, as to the- peculiar advantages and difadvantngcs of different materials, as well as of various modes of condrudlion. Mr. Burdon had the good fortune to be alTifted in the maturing of his plans by Mr. Thomas Wilfon, a truly ingenious man, and at tiie fame time to learn much of the conflruction of iron bridges from MefTrs. Walkers, of Rotherham, fo that at length he became pcrfuaded that iron would be the mcfb proper material of which to form the propoied bridge. He tho>!ght it bell, however, to adhere to the ancient conftruclion, by dividing the arch into portions in the man- ner of arch ftones, and taking advantage of tl;e duftility and tenacity of iron to produce an arch of that metal at leall fifteen times lighter than a corresponding arch of Hone, and capable of being put together upon an ordinary fcallbld- ing. inllead of an accurate centre, ina nuich fhorter fpace of ume. Mr. Wilfon, in conjunftion with MefTrs. Walkers, con- llrufted and fet up an experimental rib at Rotherhrmi, which being found to anfwer expeftation, the lucccfs of the expe- riment was communicated by Mr. Burdon to the towTi of Sunderland and the county ; and his propofition for the ereition of an iron bridge was acceded to. The firft Hone was bid in September, 1795 ; and Mr. Wilfon was ap- pointed to the fuperintendance of the work. The iron-work was cad by MefTrs. Walkers, of Rotherham, and tlie arch was turned upon a very light but firm fcafiolding, fo judi- cioufly conllrufted that not any interruption was given to the pafTage of the numerous vefTcls which navigate the bufy river of Sunderland. The mode of bracing the ribs was fo fimple and expeditious, that the whole was put together and thrown over the river in ten days ; the fcaf- folding was immediately removed, and the bridge opened for general ufe or. the 9th of Augull, 1796. During the period occupied in erefting the bridge, Mr. Burdon took out a p itent to I'ecure the invention of " a certain mode or manner of makii'g, uniting, and ap- plying caft iron blocks to be fubllicuted in lieu of key-Hones, in the conilruftion of arches." He thus pro- ceeds to defcribe his invention, which " confills in apply- ing iron or other metallic compontions to the purpoTe of conllrufting arches upon the fame principle as flor.e is now employed, by a fubdivifion into blocks eafily port^ible, anfwcring to the key-flones of a common arch, which being brought to bear on each othtr gives them all ihe firmr.efs of the folid fione arch, whiKl, by the great va- cuities in the blocks, and their refpcftive diflances in tlitir lateral polition, the arch becomes much lighter than that of flnne, and by the tenacity of t!ic nictal the parts are fo intimately cur.nefted that the accurate calculation of the extrados and intrados, fo neceflary in ftone arches of mag- nitude, is rendered of much lefs confequcnce. /Vj-. 4. P/,je XXXIII. oi ArclAttilurc reprefentsa block of catt iron, five feet in depth from A to A, and four inches in thickncfs, hav. ing thret arms B, B, B, and making a part of a circle or ellip. fiji the middle arm is two feet in length from D to C, ai;d the BRIDGE, the otliffi- two are in proportion. On each fiJe of the arms arc grooves (three quarters of an hich deep, and three inches broad) for the p-.irpofc of receiving malleable or bar-iron, and in each arm are two bolt holes, D. iV;-. 2. reprefents two of thefe blocks placed together, and the joints tonliucd to thiir refp'.itivo politions by the bar-iron on each fide of tlie arms as at E, E, E, which, with other iiiEibr blocks fo united and bearing upon each other, become a nb. /Vf. -;. and F, F, Jig. z. are hollovv tubes iix feet long, and four inches in diameter, having (lionlders at each end, with lioles anfvvcring to thofj of the blocks ; O is a block of another rib coTineded wiih the former by the tubes F, F, placed ho- rizontally. Through the holes in the fhoulders and arms of the block and bar-iron are bolts, fallened with cotterels or forelocJvS, as at H, H, H, H. The blocks being united with each other in ribs, and the ribs connefled and fiipportcd laterally by the tubes as above defcribed, the whole btcom.es -ay by reafon ot its bending up. the Handing or the hanging arch, it is equally true, that in wards : in this refpedl, it appears, that the flat ellipfis has the cale of juft equilibration, the column cither prefling or the advantage of the circular arch ; but the cycloidal arch of drawing at any point of the arch is reciprocally as the radius equilibration, though fimilar to thefe, has the advantage of of curvature and the cube of the fine of the angle, in which both, becaufe the extrados runs farther on, nearly parallel the vertical line cuts the curve in that point (Cor. 2. pr. i. to the arch before it comes to the point of inflcftion. We Arch) ; or, fince the cofecant vaiiesa.s the fine inverfely, the (hould obferve, however, that in many cafes, even of circu- column above-mentioned is reciprocally as the radius of cur- lar or elliptical arches, the evil arifing from the infletlion of vature, and direftly as the cube of the fecant of the curve's the extrados may be thrown off to a greater dillance, by a very inclination to the horizon, in the given point. fimple expedient: for, in an arch of equilibration, as NBH, But the analogy between the Handing and the hanging ^f^.J. /"/. XXXVIII. of y/;-f/j;VfiS;//r, whofe extradosis EIK arch has been traced out, not fo much for the purpofe of SF, fince the points at in, n, 0, &c. are kept in equilibrio by- corroborating the true theory of equilibration, as for the the heights of the wall I m, K «, L 0, &c. if the lines I ;«, fake of deducing from it a very popular and general mode Kn, Lo, &c. be divided in a given ratio, in i,!:, I, &c. the of conftruftion ; Hriftly accurate in its principle, and yet fo fmaller mafs, under the new extrados e, i, i,/,/, will Hill fe- fimple in its application, that the moH illiterate artiH may cure the equilibrium. Now it is obvious, that the lower extra- fafely praftife it. Suppofe it were required to afcertain the dos runs much farther from the crown than the upper one, form of an arch which fhall have the fpan AG (fg-2. PL before it has a point of inflexion : and hence appears one great XXXVIII. Architeaure) and the height D 8, and which Hiall advantage arifing from the ufe of iron in bridges inHead of have a road-way of the form B EC above it. Let the outline Hone. Suppofe, for inftance, that an arch was to be con- figure ABECG be inverted, fo as to form a figure A ^^^ G. ftruiled, having the fpan AD, and height CB, and that Sufpend a fine chain of uniform thicknefs from the points A the neceffary thicknefs of a ftone arch at the crown was and G, and of fuch a length, that its lower point will hang BS ; here it is plain, that if the road way were made, having a little below d, coiTefponding to D. Divide AG into a a pradicable Hope as SK«, it would fall far below the re- number of equal parts (the more the better) in the points i, quired extrados at KIE^ and confequently, the arch, for E. r 2 want BRIDGE. want of a rufficicnt weight ov«v the portion A m n, and an equal portion on the other fide of the vertex, would be in eonftaiit danger of rifing in the haunches. But a bridge formed of hollow iron voufloirs would be abundantly ftrong, with far Icfj thickncfs over the crown, as B j ; and then the true extrados e i i// would, in every part, have a proper flope for a road-way ; wliile, at the fame time, tlie ftrufture is in no danger of being dcflroycd for the want of an equili- brium in all its parts. Wc have mentioned under the article Arch, what kind of arches ought to be preferred in the eie£\ion of bridges ; and have fiiewii whieh are ftrongell : we may here obfervc, that if there be two arches of the fame kind, with an equilibrated load over each of them, the llrength of the one will be to the (Irength of the other reciprocally, as the radii of curva- ture at the vertices of the two arches : hence, an elliptical arch, ftanding on its (hoiter anh, will be (Iron^er than a fe- micircular arch of tlic fame fpan ; and the femicircular arch of equilibration will be llronger than a flat clilptical arch of the fame fpan. As to the efftia of an additional weight over any part of an arch, it will vary in proportion of the horizontal dillance* from the extremities of the arch. Hence, the greatcft danger ariling from an additional weight, is when it lies over the crown of the arch ; for then the pro- duct of the horizontal dillances from the abutments is equal to the fquare of the femi-fpan, and is the greatcft it can be. Since in anv arch of equilibration, the preffin-e arifing from the incumbent weight at any point is reduced to the direction of the tangent at that point, we have in any fuch arch VB,/-. 4. PI. XXXVIIl.of yi';vto-c7(.')v,the weight «f the piirtVBEA, the prelTurc along the tangent FB, and the horizontal prefTure in dirtiTtion DB, refpeftively as the lines FD, BF, and BD, or as the conefponding lines in a triangle, whofe fides are feverally perpendicular to thofc in BDF. Hence, it is tafy to find the area of the portion AEVB, thus : make c v parallel and equal to CV, the ra- dius of curvature at the veitex ; and draw c b perpendicular to the tangent BF, meeting v b the perpendicular to f -u in b ; then in the triangle c v b, c v correfponds to DB, and V b ta DF ; and the area of the parallelogram a it, having V t =^ VE, is equal to the area of ABVE : in like manner, by drawing <:^ perpendicular to GI, the tangent at G, we Ciould have the parallelogram /j b equal to the portion HB over the part GB of the arch. The area of the fpace HEVG, between the arch and the road-way, being thus afcertalned, its weight of courfe becomes known, and, con- fequcntly, its horizontal preflure againll the abutment, as at G : for it will be, as the line -vg : vc :: the weight over the fcmi-areh : the horizontal thrull againft the abutment, or a pitr, at G. But in cllimating the thruft againft the piers, &c. it is molt common to afcertain the pofition of the centre of gra- vity of the load above the arch. Now, in cafes of equili- bration, this may fometimes be cfFeded without much diffi- culty : for it is well known, that if a heavy body be fuf- (aincd by two forces, their diredions muft meet, either at the centre of gravity of that body, or in a vertical line wh.ich pa^Tes through it ; therefore, fince the whole incum- bent weight, over a properly balanced arch, is fuftained in equilibrio by two forces, ailing in the direilion of the tan- gents to the extreme points of the curve, the centre of gra- vity of the materials upon the arch will be in the vertical line which paQls through the interfeflion of thefe tangents : and, in moft cafes occurring in pratlice, the centre of gra- »itv will be nearly eqni-dillant from the e?;trados and intra- dos of the equilibrated arch. Thus, in the curve AVE, load- 4^ to the equibbriuni, _/ff. 5. Fl. X.XXVIIl.of ^/rf/^i/ciSMrs, the centre ofgravity of the fuperincumbent mafsism the ve> tical line D if, palling through the interfeftion of the tan- gents AD, and BD. And the centre of gravity of the materials AVHK, between the crown and the abutment, is about the middle of the vertical line E e, paffing through the interfcftion of the tangents AD and V i. If the arch be part of a circle, (V is the tangent of half the arch AV, which, fubtrafted from half the fpan, leaves AG = fine of A V — tangent of half AV : and fince G e = verfed fine of arc AV — verfed fine of arc e V, we fhall, by adding A Ea to G e, have the ahitude of the centre of gravity, from AC the horizontal fine. If AV be a parabola, AG = | AC ; but if it be an equilibrated curve, with a horizontal extra- dos, then AG = ^/ — TnTirCV"' ^"^"'^ ^^ '* '"^ radius of curvature of the arch at the crown. When the arch is- not julliy equilibrated, otlier methods of finding the centre of gravity of the mafs fupported muft be had recourfe to, See Hutton on bridges, p. 49 — ^S- It may be worth while, however, to dcfcribe here an eafy praClical method, accurate enough for moft purpofes : namely, to drav.' on a. piece of card paper, a plan of the arch, and its loa-d ; then to cut out half of it as DABC,/^. 6. P/. XXXVIII._ of ylirhheclure, and to determine experimentally the point K in the piece cut out, on which, when fupported, the whole wilt- reft ; for this point will manifelUy correfpond with the centre of gravity. The place of the centre of gravity being determined, we mav now (liew how to afcertain the thicknefs of a pier, ne- ccffiiry to fuj)port a given arch. Let ABCD, fig. 6. P!, XXXVIII. reprefenL the mafs over half the ai-ch;DEFG the pier. From the centre of gravity K of the mafs, draw KL, perpendicular to the horizon : then the weight of the arch, in tire direftion KL, wiH be to the horizontal pufli, or lateral preffnre at A, in the dirtftion LA, as KL to LA. For the weight of the arch in the direction KL, the horizontal pufti in the direelion LA, and the oblique pufh in the direftion KA, will be as the three fides KL, LA, KA. So that if A LA denote the weight or area of the arch, then-p-p. A, will be LA its force at A in the direftion LA ; and^^r^XGAxA, its effeft on the lever GA, to overfet the pier, or to turn it about the point F. Again, the weight of the pier will be as its area EFxFG, and, fuppofing the load over the ai'ch, and the pier to be of fimilar materials, EFxGFX = FG or ^EFkFG% is the eil'eft on the lever |FG to prevent tho pier from bein)j overfet. Here it is luppofed, that the length of the pier, from point to point, is the lame as the. thiekntis of the arch, and that the centre of gravity of the pier falls in the vertical plane bifefting FG. Now, that the, pier and the arch- may be in equilibrio, the two efFeds jult LA ftatcd muft be equal: therefore, we have |EF.FG" — -r-j-X G.\XA, from which it follows, that the thicknefs of the . . ^ 2GA-AL pier is FG = v^£p — ^kT'^'^' In the above inveftigation, it is fuppofed, that the whole of the pier is out of water i but if any part of it be im- mcrfed in water, tJiat part will lofe fo much of its weight aa !.? equal to its bulk of water, if the water can get below the pier or into the joints. This, however, may eafily be brought into the calculation. By applying the above the- orem to the feveral cafes which m.ay arife, the thicknefs of the pier may be found, fo that it fhall _////? balance the fpread BRIDGE. sr nioot of tlie arch, independent of any arch on the other fide of the pier. But the weight of the pier ought a httic to preponderate, or exceed in effedt, the flioot of the arch ; and, therefore, the thicknefs ought to be taken a httle more than what the theorem will give : indeed, in moll cafes occurring in praftice, the thicknefs mull be between the fifll> and \\\q fevcnlh pait of the Ipan of the arch. The only remaining coufidcration in the theory, relates to the form of tht ends of a pier, fo as to afford the leall refillance to the force of the llream of water. Now, it may be found by a fluxionnl procefs, that if the water ilrike every part of the pier with equal velocity, the end of the pier (hould be a right-lined triangle, when the force of the water upon it is the lead poffible : when the variably increafed velocity, as in the cafe of a flood, is ufed, the form of the ends comes out a little curved. One third of the abfohitc force is taken off, by making the ends of the pier fcmieirciilar ; J^ would be taken off, if the cuds were parabolic; but when the ends are right angled triangles, with tlie right angles pointed into the flream, the abfolute force of the water upon the pier is reduced to one half; and an acute angle pointed to the flream will reduce its force llill more. But in rivers, on which heavy craft navigate, and pafs the arch, it is ge- nerally better to make the ends nearly femicircular : for, al- though it does not divide the wat«r fo well as the triangle, yet it will bear the fliock of the veffcls better, and, at the fame time, be more likely to turn them off towards the mid- dle of the arch. Bridge, in Gunnery, th« two pieces of timber which go between the two tranfums of a gun-carriage, on which the bed refls. Bflidg e, in the Military art. Flying iridge, font volant, or pons chidarius, iignifies a bridge couilrufted of pontoons, leather boats, beams, hollow calks, fheaves of rulhcs, blown bladders, called afcogephyri, or the like, laid upon a river, or marfhy and boggy ground, and covered over with planks, for the paffage of a body of troops. Flying bridge, pont "volant, taken in a more particular figniiication, denotes a bridge compofed of feveral boats, connefted by a flooring of planks, and furrounded by a bal- luftrade or railing. It is furnilhed with one or more malls, to which is faltened a flrong cable, fupported at proper dif- tances by boats, and extending to an anchor to which the other end is made fall, in the middle of the water. By this contrivance, the bridge becomes moveable, like a pendulum, from one fide of the river to the other, without other help than a rudder. Such bridges were formerly fomistimes con- llrufted of two (lories, for the quicker paffage of a great number of men, or that both infantry and cavalry might pafs at the fame time. The ufe of this kind of flying bridge is, however, attended with great difficulty and dan- ger, and fubjeft to ths mofl: fatal accidents. An unfortu- nate inltance of this occurred at the evacuation of Nime- giien in the campaign of 1794, where, while the Dutch g-arrifon were occupied in croifing the river, an unlucky Ihot from the French batteries carried away the top of the mall, and the bridge fwinging round to the enemy's fide of the Waal, above 400 of the garrifon were immediately made prifoners. Thofe who remained in the tower, to a much greater number, bereft of the means of efeape, fur- r-endered to the befiegers. Another kind of_y^7«_f, or Jloating bridge, is formed of tvro fmall bridges laid over one another in luch a manner, as that the jippermolt itretches and runs out by the affillance of cords drawn through fmall pnllies, placed along the fides of the undermoft biidge, which is thus puflied for- ward, till the farther extremity of it rolls againft the place- it is iiitended to be fixed upon. When thcfc two bridges are extended to their uttnofr length, fo that the two middle ends meet, they (hould not be above four or five fathoms long ; for if longer, they wilt break. Their chief ufe is for furprifing oiit-works, or for- tified pods that have but narrow moats. In the memoirs of the R^oyal Academy of Sciences, we find a newcontrivancs of a floating bridge, which lays itfelf on the other fide of the river. Vide Hilt. Acad. R. Scienc. an. 1713, p. 104. Draw-bridge, or pons fubdii^arius, is a bridge fallened at one end with hinges, fo that the other end may be lifted up or let down by fome eafy contrivance. The mod com- mon method is by a kind of balance called plyers (which fee) ; in which cafe the bridge ftands upright, to hindtr the paffage of a moat, or the hke ; the breadth of this bridge K ufually about nine or ten feet, and its length about liftecu feet. There are others fo conllrufted as to" be drawn back, for hindering a padage, and to be thrud over again for aflfording a palfage. Others open in the middle, half turn- ing to one fide, and the other half to the other, being joined again at pleafure ; but thefe are fubjed to an obvious in- convenience, as one half of them remains on the enemy's fide. The marquis de L'Hopital has given the condruc- tion of a curve, in which a weight will always be a counter- balance to a draw-bridge ; which the younger Bernouilli has (hewn to be no other than the cycloid. Ael. Erud. Lipf an. 1695.. Drawbridges are likewife frequently ufsd on canals, navi- gable rivers, and wet-docks ; for fmall canals they confid of one leaf or frame only, moveable on hinge'; ; but for large canals, fuch as the Forth and Clyde canal, in Scotland, and for wet-docks, &c. they are made in two pieces which meet in the middle, forming an arch, and are railed or lowered by means of balance frames, moveable on the tops of up- rights, fuited in height to the magnitude of the bridge. Such bridges, however, have been found inconvenient in ufe, owing to the obdruaion they give to the yards and rigging of diips in pafiing through them. This gave rife to the invention of a different fort of bridge, which, for fmall canals, confills of one frame or leaf only, turning on a centre or feries of balls or rollers ; and for large canals, or navigabl» rivers, they are formed of two parts, which meet iiv th- middle. The fird that have come to our knowledtre are thofe at Cherbourg and Toulon. Neither of them," how. ever, are fo complete as thofe that have lately been con- flrufted art the Wed India and London docks ; the latter fpans 40 feet, and 15 feet wide in the roadway, and is made of thin ribs of cad iron, about an inch and a half thick, turn- ing on a number of concentric rollers, moving between two circular rings of cad iron, which are very nicely turned, and there is a flap for each leaf, which lets down by a fcrew,' and abuts againd the done work on each fide, forming the whole, when diut, into an arch, capable of carryino any weight which can ever pafs over it. " The whole, though weighing 8,^ tons, moves wiih great eafe, and can be opened and (hut in lefs than three minutes, thereby occafioning very little obdruaion to tra- vellers, while veffels pafs through the locks. Biidge of communication, is a bridge made over a river to preferve a free interconrfe between two armies, or for! tified places, feparated by the dream. The bridge now mod generally employed, and which, by reafon of Us fupenor efhcacy, has gradually almod fupcr- ieded the ufe of all thofe above-mentioned, is that con- druaed of copper or wooden boats, fadcned with flakes or anchors to the bed of the river, and covered over «-ith planks* BRIDGE, planks. Mi)dem aniiie« gtnfraUy carry with them a num- ber of thcfe copper boats, or pontoons, that they may always be in rcadinefs for tlirowing over bridges. Several of thefe being joined fide by fide, till they reach acrofi the river, and planks laid over them, make all plain for the troops to march upon. The mod remote ages of antiquity foniifh us with many remarkablf indanccs of bridges of this kind. One ot the earlieft upon record, is that laid by Dnrlns Hyftafpts over the Ifter, or Danube, in his Scythian expedition, about the year before Chritl -^oS. Herodotus, 1. iv. c. yS. Darius alfo crolTcd the Thracian Bofphorus with ^00,030 men by means' of a bridge of boats, the ftrait being five ftadia, or ico8 yards in breadth. That of Xcrxts, in the year 4S0 before Chrift, feven Greek fladia, or, as fome eftimate them, nearly a mile in length, acrofs the HcUefpont, is ftill more remarkable. Tlie boat-bridges of Xerxes began at Abydos, and terminated a little below Seftus. This paffage, which is the narrowed part of the llrait, is only about .^y^i toifes. or 800 yards wide. But, as the length of the bridges is faid to have been feven nadia, M. D'Anvillc (M. de I'Acad. des Bell. Lettr. t. 28. p. 334.) has from thence inferred, tliat thefe ftadia were o::ly 51 toifes, or loS yards, each. The firft bridge of Xerxes having been carried away by the force of a tempeft, he fubftituted two others, that towards the Pontus Euxi- nus, confifting of 360 vclTcIs of the largeft dimenfions iifed in the ancient navies ; tlie other of 340. Thefe were flcadily moored by means of large anchors. Six immenfe cables, faftened to large piies driven into the oppollte (hores, ex- tended the whole length of the bridges. Acrofs thefe were laid trunks of trees, ard upon them a flooring, which was covered with eaith for the paflage of the army. Tlie whole was fecured by a railing on cich fide. This contrivance is the model of mod of the bri'lgcs of boats which have fuice been condru£led, with tiiis difference, that the vcdels of Xcrxts were arranged ftem and ftern upon the water, a plan exafily contrary totheprefent method. Tiiat thePcrfianswere in tl e habit of conftrudling bridges of tl;is kind, appears from thefe examples, and from another recorded by Xeno- phon, who mentions that of Sitacc over the Tigris, com- pofed of 27 boats. The Greeks and Romans were very expert in this part of the military fcience. Several bridges of boats are mentioned by Appian, in his account of the fecial war. That of C^efar over the Rhine is farriliar to the readers of ancient hiftory ; and in all his campaigns, ve obferve particular attention on the part of th.at celebrated commander with regard to the paftage of rivers, or preferv- iiig comnvjnications by means of bridges. In the conteft between the armies of Otho and Vitellius about Cremona, a bridge of this kind is noticed by Tacitus. That of Tra- jan over the Danube has been already mentioned. Where boats were wanting, the ingenuity and cruelty of the an- cients found other expedients for overcomir^g the ohftacies prefented by the rivers to their progrefs. Hamilcar Barcas, in his war againd the mercenaries, croffcd the Macar by means of the following ftratagem. He obferved that when the weft-north-wcd wind prevailed, the fand it agitated almod choaked up the mouth of the river, and formed a kind of natural bridge for the palfage of his troops. He availed himfeif of this difcovery to pafs the Macar in the night, and obtain by furprife an c ify viftory. Sapor the Perfian, by a refincmmt in cruelty, made ufe of the bodies of his prifoners to facilitate the patfage of his army. ( Vid. Herod, hb. iv. cap. 97, 101. — Ibid. lib. vii. cap. 3J — 36. — Xeno- phnn Anab. lib. ii — Appian, de Bel. Civ.— Cifar de Bel. Gall. lib. iv. — Tacitus, hid. lib. ii.— Dion Caffius, hid Polybius, lib. i.~Trebell. Poll, in Valerian.) Of late -years the laying of bridges acrofs rivers has been greatly improved and facilitated. In the campaigns of 1 799 and 1800 in particular, this branch of the military fcience attained that pinnacle of excellence which it will be difficult to furpafs. few objeils prefent more varied details than the crofling a river by open force, and in prefence of an enemy. In operations of this kind, localities and other phy- fical circumftances differ fo infinitely, and give rife to fuch numerous combinations of advantages or difadvantages, that it is impofiible to lay down any given precepts which may be applicable in all cafes. What may be very proper and feafible upon one river, or at a certain feafon of the year, may be inipraiSicable tlfewhere, or in any other period. Sometimes the necefTaries for the expedition mud be tranf. ported by water ; at others, by land. Rivers which have marlhy banks, a fmooth bed, an even current, and a muddy bottom, require totally different precautions from tliofe with a rapid and formidable cunent, which are overhung with thick woods, or have a rocky bottom. The bed ccrr.men- tary upon thefe feveial cafes, will be a detailed account of the operations adopted in them. The paffages of the Rhine by the French troops at Ur- dingen, Ncuwicd, Kebl, and Dierditira ; at Reichlingen, Atzmoor, and Lucidieg in Swiflerland ; thofe of the Lim- mat, the Danube, the Lech, the Inn, and finally of the Mincio, will evince the progrefs lately made in the conllruc- tion of bridges of pontoons. Two of thefe have been treated with great precifion by an engineer in the French fervice, whofe work well deferves the attention of military men in general. (Dedon, relation des paflages, de la Lim- mat et du Rhin. Par. 1801, 8vq.) Under this article of briJgcs we may alfo mention portable bridges, eafily taken afunder, and put together again. M. Couplet mentions one of this kind, 200 feet long, and which 40 men may cari-y. See Du Hamel. Hid. Roy. Acad. Scienc. 1. iii. ^ y. c. 4. Pendant, or hanging Irhlgej, called alfo phUofophical bridges, are thofe which are not fupported by pods or pillars, but hang at large in the air, being fudained only at the two ends or hutments. Of fuch bridges, confiding of a fingle large arch, inftances have been already mentioned. Bridges of this kind are ufed by the Spaniards for pafTmg the tor- rents in Peru, over which it would be difficult to throw more folid druftures either of done or timber. Some of thefe hanging bridges are formed fo drongand broad, that loaded mules pafs along them. Ulloa, tom. i. 3 58. Dr. Wallis gives the dcfign of a timber-bridge, 70 feet long, without any pillars, which may be ufeful in places where pillars can- not be convenieatly crefted. Phi!. Tranf. N° i6j, p. 714. Dr. Plott informs us, that there was formerly a large bridge over the cadle-ditch at Tutbury in StafFordfliire, made of pieces of timber, none much above a yard long, and yet not fupported underneath, either with pillars or arch-work, or any other fort of prop whatever. It has been already mentioned, that the ancient Romans paid particidar attention to the condrutlion and reparation of bridges ; and that in the middle ages the building of bridges was reckoned among the afts of religion. By our ancient laws, pintium reparatlo, or the reparation of bridges, was part of the trinoda necejfitas, to which every man's eftate was fubjed. However, by the great charter, 9 Hen. III. c. 15. no town nor freeman fhall be diilrained to make bridges nor banks, but fuch as of old time, and of right, have been accuftomed. And none can be compelled to make new bridges, where none were ever before, otherwife than by ad of parliament. 2 Lid. 701. By the common law, fome ptrfous are bound to repair bridges by reafon of llie tenure of B R r B R I of their lands or tenements ; and forae by reafon of prefcrip- tion only. 2 Lift. 700, But if a man make a bridge for the common good of ail the futjjefls, he is not bound to repair it ; and if none are obliged by tenure or prefcription at common law, then the whole county or frauchifc (hall repair it. 2 Inft. 701. By 22 H. VIII. c. ■;. it is eii.ifted, that, as in many places it cannot be known and proved, what hundred, town, parifh, perfon, or body politic, ought to repair bridges broken in the highways, in every fuch cafe, the faid bridges, if they be without a city or town corporate, (hall be made by the inhabitants of the county ; if within a city or town corporate, then by the inhabitants of fuch city or town corporate ; if part be in one (hire, city, or town corporate, and part in another, or part within the limits of a city or town corporate, and part without, the inhabitants of the (hire, cities, or towns corporate, (liall repair fuch part as lies within their limits. The decays of bridges arc pre- fentablein the Icet.ortorn. 2ln(l.7oi. By the above aft, the jullices, or four of them at the leaft, (hall have power to in- quire, hear, and dttermine in the general feflions, of all manner of annoyarces of bridges broken in the highways, to the damage of the king's liege-people, and to make fuch proccfs and pains upon every prefentment againft fnch as ought to be charged to make or amend them, as the king's bench nfually doth, or .'s it fliall feem by their difcretions to be necelTary and convenient for the fpeedy amendmer.t of fuch bridges. Such part of the highways as lies next ad- joining to any ends of any bridges within the fpace of 300 feet, (hall be made and repaired as often as necelTary ; and the juftices (hall inquire into, and determine annoyances in fuch highways. By I3 Geo. II. c. 29. no money (liall be applied to the repair of bridges, until prefentment be made by the grand jury at the alTizes or feffions, of their infufR- ciency, inconvenicncy, or want of reparation. Again, by I Ann. ft. I.e. 18. no fine, ilTue, penalty, or forfeiture, upon any prefentment or indidtment for not repairing bridges, or the highways at the ends of them, fliall be returned into the exchequer, but (ball be paid to the treafnrer, to be ap- plied towards the faid repairs, and not otherwife : and no prefentment or indiftnnent for not repairing bridges, or highways at the ends of bridges, fliall be removed by " cer- tiorari"out of the county into another court. The charges of repairing and amending bridges, and highways at the ends of them, fliall be paid out of the general county rate. 12 Geo. II. c. 29. The four jullices in fefTion may appoint two furveyors, with falaries, to fee the bridges amended. 22 H. VIII. c. 5. This bufinefs of furveying bridges is ufually annexed by the juftice,'; to the office of the high con- ftables, with the allowance of falaries. The flat. 14 Geo. II. c. 3j. gives jullices the povi-er of changing the fituation of bridges, as it enables them to purchafe lands adjoining any county bridge, for the more commodious enlarging, and convenient rebuilding the fame. By 12 Geo. II. c. 29. juftices, at their general or quarter felTions, after prefent- ment made by the grand jury of bridges wanting repara- tion, may contraft fur rebuilding and repairing the fame, for any term not exceeding fcven years, at a certain annual fum. Tney (hall give public notice of their intention to contraft, make contrafts at the moft reafonable prices, and take fecu- rity of the contraftors for due performance. If a man has toll for men or cattle paffing over a bridge, he is to repair ic. And toll may be paid in thefe cafes by prefcription or ftatute. By many fpecial ftatutcs, enafted upon the occafion, it is made felony to dcftroy bridges, &c. erefted by virtue of thefe afts of parliament. 'BwivcE-maJliTt, are officers of the city of London, chofcn by the citizens, who liave certain fees and profits belonging to their office, and the care of London bridge, &c. Bridge, in Altific, a fmall wooden machine for ftrings to reft on, in tuning violins, tenors, bafes, guitars, monocords, &c. In this lall the bridges are moveable. BRIDGEND, in Geography, a town of Glamorganfliire, in Soutii Wales, lituated on the banks of tlie river Og- more, over which is a ftone bridge, dividing the town into two parts. One of thefe Is called Bridgend, and the other Newcaftle. The latter, being feated on high ground, com- mands fome very fine and extenfive profpefts. There is another part of the town called OldcalUe, by way of diftinftion from the former, each of which was fonnerly pro. tefted by a cattle, a[id fome remains of both are fllll ftaiiding. At Oldcaftle is a chapel of eale under Coity, that being the mother-church ; and at Newcaftle is a large well-built parifh church. The river Ogniore abounds with falmon, trout, fewin, and various other lilh, with which the markets are generally well fupplled. The foil round Bridgend is fertile and well cultivated ; and the town is alfo in a ftatc of confiderable inipnivement. The agricultural fociety of the county has cftabllflied a woollen manufaftory in this town, and fupplled it with different machines. About two miles eaft is tlic village of Coitv, where are the remains of a very large and venerable calUe, which, next to Caerphilly, was the largell in South Wales. Bridgend has a good weekly market on Saturdays, and two fairs annually. It is 20 miles from Cardlft', iSl W. from London ; contains i68ii houfes, and 7140 inhabitants. Malkin's Tour in Soutll Wales, 4to. 1S04. BRIDGENORTH, a large ancient borough town of Shropfhire, England, is built en the top and declivities of a hill, v.'hich rifes fteeply from the river Severn. It covers a confiderable extent of ground ; many of the ftreets are narrow, and fome alleys which lead from thofe to the river, confili. of long flights of fteps. Bridgenorth appears to have obtained fome confequence as early as the time of Ethclflcda, wife of king Ethelred ; and was fortified and furnifhed with a catUe by Robert de Bellcfme, or Beliafme, fon of Roger de Montgomere, in the time of Henry I, Collefting a few aflxiciates, he here made rf)Ughs of Great Britain. BRIDGES, James, w Biography, publifiied, in 1751, a veil known work on the fubjec\ of farriery, in which he appears to have been well vtrled, with the following quaint title : " No Foot, no Horfe ; or, an EITay on the Anatomy of the Foot of a Horfe. With particular Directions for the Cure of the chief internal Difcafes the Horfe is fubjcCt ■r impoits are very conlidera- b!e. Coals are alio brought from the Welch coal), to fiipply the town and neighbourhood : the duty on which for feveu years was clllmated at between i6 and 17,0001. Thirty- two veflels belong to the port from 20 to 120 tons bur- then. The town contains 493 houfes, and ,5634 inhabi- tants, 9S6 of whom are engaged in trade and manufaftures. The houfes are built in an irregular manner ; but the prin- cipal ftreet is wide, and well paved. The quay is alio large and commodious. ''I'here are feveral mceting-houfes for prefbyterians, anabaptilts, and quakers; and it is a lingular circumftance, that in one of thefc there is a pew appropriated for the mayor and aldermen, flionld they be of that perfua- lion. Bridgewater is 147 miles W. from London, and 12 S. from the Brillol channel. A fuburb called Eallover, is joined to the town by a (Irong ftone bridge. See Sedge- moor. Collinfon'sHiftoryof Somerftt(liire,voI. iii. 4to. 1791. Briiigewater, a towjilliip of Amtiica, in Grafton county. New Hampfbire, incorporated in 1769, and con- taining 281 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Somerfet county, in New Jerfey, containing 2578 inhabitants, in- cluding 357 flavcs. — Alfo, a confiderable townfliip in Ply- mouth county, MaiTachufetts, containing 497 ^J inhabitants, of whom many are maiuifafturtrs of hardware, nails, &c. ; about 30 miles E. of S. from Bofton. — Alfo, a tovvnfiiip of Vi'indfor county, Vermont, about 55 miles N.E. of Ben- nington, containing 29J inhabitants. 13RIDLE, from la brule, Fr. in the Manege, is an inftrument for the guidance and management of the liorfe by the hand, and is compofed of the bilts and reins, which fee. " It is probable, that fome time mud have elapfcd before the inllrument called a bht was ufed for the government of horfes, by putting it into their mouths. By looking back into antiquity for the pradlices of paR times, and the origin of many cultoms defcended to us, we every where find the greateft plainnefs and fimplicity in their firll ilate ; and the more ancient, the rudtr and fimpler they were. The ilyle of archltefturc, tiie fadilon of the habltsand drelTe.-; of early times, the method of preparing food, and many ai tides befides, are convincing proofs of this alTertion. By degrees light broke in, and men advanced prog_refriveIy from one improvement to another. It is curious to obferve, that in ancitnt Greece many of the terms appropriated to naviga- tion were alfo ufed in horfemanihip. The word Kv^ti;, or kcles, which fignifies a runner, Icrved hkewife, as Suidas favs, to denote light failing veficl'^, and fwift horlrti Homer calls fhips horfes of the fea ; and the pilot, the coachmai) Vol. V. or driver of the VLffel. Pindar calls a bridle an anchor ; ancT in this fenfe Neptune may properly be called the inventor of the horfe, which implied no more than a fliip. 'I'hefc little obfervations are only offered to the reader aa an argument that bitts and liridks were ufed in the mofl diftant ages ; but at what cxacl period to fix their origin, is a talk by no means eafy to perlorm. It is probable to fuppofe, that the people of tlie lirlt ages of the world, prompted by their necelfities, and arting from tliem alone, made no other ufe of the hotfe at tirlt than what might be for domeftic pur- pofes, teaching him to fubmit to carry men and btirdens ; and having reconciled and made him patient, ihcy tnught liim, by degrees, to dlltingnilh and obey the different founds of the voice, as well as to be direfted by the guidance of a fwitch or wand which the rider carried in his hand. It is, however, apparent, that they iTiade ufe of cords or thongs to lloj) and confine the horle in any place where thev chole he (liould Itay. Thele cords they faftened round the horle's neck, as may be ieen in the figures, though of a much later date, carved upon Trajan's pillar at Rome. Thefc ropes hanging down from the necks of horfes, are imagined to have fuggelled the firil hint ot traces for drawing ma- chines. Strabo fays that the Moors, or Africans, ufed cords for bridles. It is probable to think, that after a time they might (hfcover, that if a cord was put into the mouth, or at leall over the nole, like our halters, which may be ufed both ways at the fame time, it Would be a more efieAual method of guiding and controlling the horfe ; and hence is derived the fuppofed origin of bridles, which, in after ages, have been multiplied in fuch numbers, and under fuch a variety of (hapes, increafing and improving as men grew more fl^il- ful in riding, and applied it to fundry purpofes." Berenger, Hifi. and Art of liorfemandiip, vol. i. p. 40. When bridles came into fafliion, the moll remarkable were thofe called " lupata," having bits of iron rcfembling wolves' teeth, to which Horace refers, 1. i. od. bi. " Cur neque militaris Inter -.Kqualcs eqnitat, Gallica nee lupatis, ' Temptrat ora frxnis J" Virgil (Georg. ii. 1. 115.) ftems to aCcribe the firll inven- tion of them to the Lapithx, or Centaurs, who inhabited a. town in Thefialy, called " Pelcthronium," when he fays, " Fi'Bcna Pekthronii lapitha', gyrofque dedere linpofiti dorfo. " But fome are of opinion, that he fpeaks of bridles, as in- vented not by the Lapitha;, but by a pei Ton of that nation, whofe name was Pelethrouiu'-', to whom Pliny (H. N. 1. vii. c. '^^1.) attributes the invention of them. Bridle, in Anatomy. See Fr-ienum. Bridle, among Surgeons, is a kind of nANDACi; contrived for retaining the knver jaw in its place. Bridle, fcoliling, or Br.^nk, an inftrument formerly ufed in fome parts of Scotland, and in StaflFordlhirc, for correfling fcolding women. It confifts of a kind of head- piece, which opens and inclofes the head, whilll an iron appendage is put into tli« mouth, and takes particular hold of the tongue, which it effeftually keeps from ftirring : thus liarneded, the offender is led in triumph tbrough the ftreets. A figure and defcription of the Stafibrdihire bridle is given by Dr. Plott, who prefers it to the ducking-llool, which not only endangers the health of the party, but alfo gives the tongue liberty betwixt fucctffive dips; to neither of which inconvenience^ thi,^ inftrument is liable. BRinLt-i/><7'V;, in Hiijbanclry, a name given by our farmers to a part ot the ftnicture of their plough. This is an iron chain of feveral links, faftened at one end to the beam of the plough, near that part where the collar receivfs S f iIk B R 1 •ihf tow clmin ; »rd faftencd at its oihtr end to the rtakc oFilie plough, or to tliat iipii^'lit piece wiiicli runs parallel to llic left crowllaff, and at its bottom plus in the tow-chain ; this ilalic is fallrned to the crowftaff, fomctinus by the end of this inJ!:-chj!n, and fonulimcs by a wy^he or cord. BitiOLt-iij/i./, in the Mauige, fmnifies the horfcnian'sleft- Jiand, in rcfpeA of whicli the vight hand is called the fpear or hvord-hnnd. Briblls in Sm-hin[;uagf, denote the upper part of the nionrings in the king's harbours, to ride fliip« of war. I'miiLKs of l!ie low-line. Sec 13o\v-/;nf. inilDLlN'GTON, or Burlint.ton us fometimes writ- ten, in Ctogrnphv, is a ka port town of the eall riding of Yorkftiire in England. It is Iniilt on the ftiorc of a bay, to which it gives nume, which is found to be a fafe harbour Kir velTels, when the wind is ftrong from the N. N. W. and N. E., being fceured by two piojcdin^ piers of confidcrabie extent, running out obliquely into the lea, and rendering the entrance very narrow. The prisicipal trading veffels are colliers, and moll of the inhabitants are connected with tliei'e. Here was formerly a priory of black canons, founded early in the reign of Henr)- I. The chiirch has been large, but its clioir, tran- fepts, and fteeple, have been entirely dellroycd, leaving only the nave for parochial fcrvicc. A Mr. William Huflltr was a conliderable bcnefaftor to the town, and in the i6th Charles II. Richard Boyle baron Clifford was creAcd earl of JJurlington, (from this town). In the Sth William III., and ill of George I. afts of parliament were obtained to repair the piers. Sec. of the harbour. Bridlington is now frequented as a bathing place ; it lies at about lo miles S. W. of Flamborough-head, 40 eaft of York, and 206 north from London. The houfes amount to 707, and inhabitants to 3 1.50. Cough's edition of Camden's Britannia. BRIDON, or Bridoon, in the Manege, is derived from the French BriJon, a diminutive of la bride. By la bride, the French denote the reins going to the curb ; and by bridon, the reins going to the fnaffle or leffer bit, which is held in referve in cafe of any accident with the former. In the Englifh language, it is called a bridoon, and a very different ufe is made of it. The reins of the bridoon pafs parallel to the line of the horfe's head, through a loop hanging from the head ftall, and from thence to the hook of the faddle, for they are only ufed in harneffed horfes at prefcnt, efpccially cf the richer orders of fociety, and where elegance of appearance is confidered. The rein fo difpofed draws againft the corners of the mouth, and not upon the bars, as the fnaffle does, and tends more forcibly 10 elevate the head, as tl'.e curb does to deprefs it ; though, they are often ufed at one and the fame time, the fnaffle having an intermediate efFecl. Bridles of late have been conftrufted with a property, fomewhat fnnilar to the bridoon, to be ufed with the hand, the rein pafling from the head IHll, through a tube or pipe placed in the lituation of the crofs piece of the fnaffle, to the hand ; fo that when drawn light againll the mouth, it preffes the cheeks upwards, and (hortens the head-ftall which has not a good appearance. A ring is alfo fi.xed to thi; hollow crofs piece for the rcms, as in the ordinary fnaffle, fo that tlie rider has it in his option to ufe either. BRIDPORT, in Geography, an ancient borough, market and manufafturiiig town of Dorfetfliire, England, is fituated in a vale at the diftance of about one mile north of Bridport bay. It is nea-ly fi;rrounded by eminences, fome of which aflumc a conical fliape ; and on its weftern and eafUrn fides, run two fmall rivulets, which are highly ufeful to the maHufattiirers. Seated on the great weilern road, at the diltance of 135 miles S. W. from London, it derives many B R I advantages from travellers, and farther advantages from Its contiguity to the Englilh channel. It feems to have been a very confiderable town before the conquetl, as it is thus noticed in the Domefday Book : " In Edward the Confefl'or's time, here were 120 houfes, fuhjett to every fervice to the kijig, and paying geld for 5 hides, viz. to the ufe of the king's domelUcs, ( Hufcarles) { a mark of fdver, except the ctillnms pertaining to the farm of one night for one night's lodging. Here was one mint-mallcr, \vho paid to the king one mark of filvcr, and 20 IhiUings on the charge of coinage. Now there are but 100 houfes, and the remaining 20 are ruined, that the inhabitants are unable to pay the tax." The manor anciently belonged to, and was held of the crown, in fee- farm by the burgeffes, to whom it now bclonirs. The town received its charter of incorporation from Henry the III., who granted " to the men of Bridport, that the j village ihould be a free borough ; and th.at they and their heirs fhould hold ic, with ail liberties, &c. paying yearly to the exchequer at Michaelmas, the farm which they ufually paid, and 40s. for the increafe of the village." The charter now in force was granted by Charles II. The earlieft return to parliament was made in the twenty-third of Ed- ward I. The right of eleclion is veiled in the inhabitant houfeholdcrs, paying fcot and lot, and the number of voters is about 160. This town does not feem memorable for any hiftorical tranfaClion, though it appears to have been alternately the quarters of the royal and parliament's troops during the civil v.-ars ; and in the duke of Monmouth's rebellion, feveral exceifes were committed here by his forces. In 16S';, the town exhibited a folemn fcene, when twelve of its inhabitants were executed for being aftively concerned in that rebelhon. The town is large, andhas a very refpeft- able appearance ; many of the houfes being new brick buildings, and its principal ftreets are broad and fpacious. The number of houfes is 28S ; of inhabitants ,9117, who are principally fupportcd by the manufafture of feins, and nets of all forts, lines, tv.-ines, and fmall cordage, as well as fail-cloths. Large quantities of thefe articles are exported to America and the W^eft India iflands ; hut the greater part is confumed in the Newfoundland and Britidi tifheries ; it being computed that upwards of 1500 tons of hemp and flax are worked up annually. This manufafturc was fo flou- ridiing in the reign of Henry VIII., that cordage for the whole Englifh navy was ordered to be made exclufively here, or within five miles of the place. A handfome market- houfe and town-hall has been ercfted in the centre of the town, on the ruins of an old chapel dedicated to St. Andrew. Here were formerly feveral religious foundations, no reli£ls of which now appear. Here are alfo a charity-fchool, three alms-houfes, and a gaol. The church is a large ancient pile of building, in the form of a crofs ; the tower in the centre of the ftrufture is adorned with pinnacles and battlements. The diffenters in this town have mcetinjj-houfes, and are both numerous and refpeftable. The haven is fituated at the mouth of the river Brit, a mile fouth of the town. It does not appear that Bridport was of any confequence in ma- ritime affairs ; and although feveral attempts have been made to make it a port, they have all proved inefFeflual. The cliffs here are compofed of land, though the furrounding country is covered withhme-ftone full of flaclls. The height of the cliffs is in fome places nearly 2co feet ; and they contain belemnitas and other folTiis ; befides pyrites, gypfum, hepatic ore, &c. Giles dc Bridport, confecrated biliiop of Sahfbury March II, I2j6, was, according to Leland, " cauilid Britport, becaufe he was borne," in this town. The markets are Wednefday and Saturday : and there are three fairs annu- ally. Hutchjns's Hiilory of Dorfetlliire, vol. i. I B.IIDPORT, B R I Bridport, a townfliip in America, in Addifon county, Vermont, on the eaft (hove of lake Cliamplain, about 72 miles N. N. W. from Bennington, containing 449 inha- bitants. BRIDY, or Bredy, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the Arabian Irak ; 140 miles N.W. of Calfora. BRIE, the name, before the revolution, of a diftrift of France, fituated partly in Champagne, and partly in the Ifle of France, and called from its particular iituation " Brie Champenoife," and " Brie Franfoife," or " Brie Parfienne." The principal towns are Meaux, Provins, and Chateau Thierry. Uriv. fur Hieret, or Brie Comte Rohert, fo called from Robert of France, count Dreux, a former poflt (Tor, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Marnc, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Melun, feated on the Yerre, and j^ pofts S.E. of Paris. The place contains 2571, and the canton S089 inhabitants ; the territory com- prehends 170 kiliometres, and 15 communes. BRIEC, a town of France, in the department of Fini- fterre, and chief place of a canton, in the di'.lrift of Quim- per; 2^ leagues N.N.E. of Qiiimper. The town contains 3000, and the canton 4735 inhabitants; the territory in- cludes 3224- kiliometres, and 2 communes. BRIEF, formed from the French bref, of the Latin brevis, which fignifies the fame, denotes a thing of fliort ex- tent or duration. It is more particularly ufed for a fummary, or fliort ftate of a thing ; and alfo for an aft or writing drawn up by a notar)-. Brief attefted. Breve tejlatum, a public inftrument clothed with the proper formalities. Brief of devi/ing, Brevis dlvi/!onalh, denotes a lall will or teftament, or devise. Brief of an oath. Breve facramenti, an inftrument made on oath, and authenticated by the fubfcription of wit- nefles. Brief is alfo ufed for a judicial epiftle, directed by a lord or other fuperior to his fubjefts or dependents, enjoining fome- thing to be done or forborn. In which fenfe, we fay, the lord's, king's, bifhop's, or pope's brief. Brief alfo denotes the territory or diftrifl within which the lord's brief had courfe. In which fenfe, we meet with the bifhop's brief, breve ep'fcopi, the count's brief, breve com'tlls, &c. Brief alfo denotes the yearly revenue arifing out of the lands ufually defcribed in briefs. Brief, Breve, in Common Laiv, is fo called, quia brev:- ter inlentionem profcrcntis cxp'jmt, becaufe couched in a few plain words without preamble, &;c. See Breve. Brief alfo figniliesanabridgmtnt of the client's cafe, made out for the inftrudlion of connfeJ, on a trial at law ; in which the cafe of the party is to be briefly but fully ftated ; the proofs mull be placed in due order, and proper anfwers made to whatever may be objefled again!! the caufe of the client by the oppofite fide ; and in preparing this, great care is requi- fite, that nothing be omitted to endanger the caufe. An attachment has been granted againft a party and his attorney, for furreptitionfly getting poffeflion of the brief of a counfel on the other fide, and applying the fame to an improper pur- pofe in his defence, t Bro. P.C.519. Although a brief is not of itfelf evidence againft the party for whom it is prepared, vet, as a difcovery of the fecrets and merits of his cafe may be produftive of peijury or fubornation of perjury, and thereby obftruft the juftice of the court in which the fuit is depending ; the obtaining of it in a furreptitions manner is an ofrciice highly dcferving cenfnre a«d punilhment. Brief, in Scots i-atu, a writ ifTucd from the chancer)', B R I direfled to any judgc-ordinar)-, commanding .tnd authovjfing that judge to call a JU'V to inquire into the cafe mentioned in the brief, and upon their verdidl to pronounce fentencc. Brief a !' Evffquc, denotes a writ to thebifliop, which, in " quare impedit," fliall ;:io to remove an incumbent, urlcfs he recover, or be prefcnted " pendente lite." i Kcb. ■5S6. Brii:f is alfo ufed for a letter patent, grantin;;- a liceiicc for collefting money to rebuild clunchcs, lellcrc lofs by lire, &c. Churchwardens rre, by ftat. 4 Ann. c. 14, to colleA mo- ney upon thefe briefs', which are to be read in churches, ivc. and the funis coUeiled to be indorfed on the brief in woid;; at length, and figncd by the miniller and churchwarden!;; after which they fliall be delivered, with the money colletUd, to the perfons undertaking them, in a certain time, under the penalty of 20I. A rcgifter is to be kept of all money collefted, &c. : and the undertakers, in two months alter the receipt of the money, and notice to fufferers, arc to ac- count before a mafter in chancery, appointed by %\\c lord chancellor. Briefs, apnjlolical, denote letters which' the pope dif- patches to princes and other magiilrates, touching any- public affair. They are thus called, as being verj- concife, and written on paper, without preface or preamble ; by which they are diftinguiflied from buHs, which are more ample, and always wiitten on parchment, and fealed with lead or green wax ; whereas briefs are fealed with red wax; and with the feal of the fifherman, or St. Peter in a boat ; a feal is never applied, but in the pope's prefence. The brief is headed with the name of the pope, apart ; and commences with Dih8o JHio fidatem, et apoftolicam benedidionem, ^c. after which it proceeds direflly to the matter in hand, without fur- ther preamble. Briefs arc not fubfcribed by the pope, nor with his name, but with that of his fecretary. Pope Alexan- der VI. inftitutcd a college of fecretaries for briefs ; fince which time they have been made much longer, and more ample than before. See Adbreviator. Formerly briefs were only difpatched about affairs of juflice; but now they are likewife ufed in matters of benefices, expeftive graces, and difpcnfations. Briefs of the dead, Breviii mor/tionim, were letters fent by the monks of one raoiiaftery to thofe of another, with whom they were in fraternity, to inform them of the deaths or obits of their monks, for whom they were to fay the ftated and cuftomary prayers and maffes. Thefe were alfo called litcrte currentes, a formula of which we have in the book of the ufages of the Ciflercian order. Brief of remnnhnwce, Bre^ie recorddiionis, or rcmemora- inriiim, or mcmorahile, denotes a character, othenvife called NOTlTIA. BRIEG, in Ceogrnphy, one of the largeft and mofl fer- tile principalities of Silclia, fiirrounded by thofe of Oels, Breflau, Schweidnitz. Munflerberg, Neyfze, Oppcin, and in a detached part of it bordering on Poland. Its form is irregular ; its extent being about j^ miles in length, and from 8 to 21 in breadth. It prcduee? corn, madder, and tobacco. The lird duke of Brieg was Boleflaus III. who obtained it in IJ 14 ; from him it defcended to Frederick II. who embraced Lulheranifm in 1523, and in 1557 concludc'd a comp^ift of fraternity and fnccefTion with Jor.chim II. eleflor of Brandenburg ; and on this We-re foucded the claims of Frederick II. king of Prnilia. The chief towns of this principality are Brieg, Ohlau, Strchlen, Nimptfcli, Creutzburg, and Pitfclien ; and its chief rivers are the Oh. lau and Oder. Briec, in Latin Lrrga, a city of Silefia, a circle-town, and the capital of the above province ; feated on the river S f 2 Oder. B R I 0'!er, ami formerl)- one of the laigeft and moft coiifuleralile cities of Silefia ; the calUe, coUcgt, and arfenal being great ornaments to it, and moll of the hoiifcs well built. It has alfo a nianufaftiire of good cloth. But in 1618 it fiifTcfcd much from a fire, and Hill more from the ficge of the Prufiians in 1741, to whom it was ctded by the peace, and who increafcd the fortifications, and built a new fubnrb. North of Brieg, at a fmall dill.iuce, is a large forell of oak, beech, and pines, partly bclongin^ to the city ; and between ibem is a fpacious meadow, intcrfecled by a broad dike paved with Hones, where is held on St. James's day a yearly fair for cattle and horfes. N. lat. 50^ 40'. E. long. Brieg, or Brio, a town of SwifFtrlan.!, and cnpital of one of the levcn iniepciident dixains or commonweakhs of the Valii-. hearing the fimc name; feaicd near tiie conflux of the river Saltini with the Rhone. The furroundin^ country abounds with palUire ; and in tlie vicinity of the town are warm baths; r6 miles E. of Sion. N. lat. 46^ jS'. 1^.. long. 7° 49'. DRIEL, or Br[ll, a maritime town of Holland, fitua- «cd on the north iide of the ifland of Vuorn, near the mouth of the Meufe, with which it communicates by means of a fpacfous and convenient harbour. In 1572 the confederates of the United Provi:;res laid in this place the foundation of their republic ; for being expelled the Low Countries by the duke of Alva, they retired to England, and having equipped a fm.-Il fleet of 40 fail under the conjma;!d of count Lumay, they failed towards this coait, being called in derifion " gucux," or beggars of the fea, and geefe of the fea. Upon the duke's complaining to queen Elizabeth that they were pirates, ihe obliged them to leave England ; and ac- cordingly they let fail for Enekluiyfcn ; but the wind being unfavourable, they accidentally fleered towards the ifle of Voorn, and. attacking the town of Briel, which was inca- pable of ciTedual refillance, they took pofftflion of it, for- tified it, and made it the firft ai'ylum of their liberty. In 15S5, a treaty \vas concluded between the States of Hol- land and queen Elizabeth ; and Btiel was one of the caution- ■ary towns delivered into her hands for fecuring the ful- filment of their engagements. Accordingly it was garri- foned by the Eiwlilh during her reign, and part of the Jiext ; but reftored to the States in 1616. N. lat. a° Ci' E. long. 4°-;'. ^ ^ ' BRIENNE-LeChateau, a town of France, in the department of the Aube, and chief phce of a canton, in the dilh-iCt of Bar-fur-Aube, 4 leagues N.W. of Bar-fur- Aubc. The place contains ;j [9;, and the canton 14,692 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 277A kiliomctrts, and 28 communes. BRIENNOIS, a name given before the revolution to a fniall ddlnci of Fiance, in Burgundy, near the Loire, of which Semnr en Briennois was the capital. BRIENON, or Briesnon, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Yonne, and diltnft of Auxerre ; 2 lea-rues W . of St. Florentin. " BRIENTZ, a lake of Swiflerland, in the canton of Bern, ijout 8 miles long and 2 wide ; fiiuated nearly at rioht a,,' gles With the lake of Thun.—Alfo, a town of Swiireiland in the fjme canton, adjacent to the lake, and N.E. of it ; fa- mous for the checfc made in its vicinity ; 22 miles S.E. of S^?' Ti'* ""*'■ ^^'^ """"^ through the centre of this lake. N. lat. 4<5° 41'. E. long. 7° ^2'. BRIENZA, a town of Naples, in the Principato Crtra • 20 miles N. of Policaftro. . ' ' BRIES, Brizna, Brezno, or Banya, a royal f,-e town of Hungary, feated on the river Gran, which by fuc- B R I ctfHi-e fires has been milch reduced ; whofe inhabitants are chiefly employed in the breeding of fiieep. BRIETZEN, or Wrietzen, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Middle Mark of Branden- burg, near the Oder; 32 miles E. from Berlin. It has frequently fufFcred much from fire. BRIEUC, St., a city of Fra::ce, capital of the depart- ment ot the North Coafts, and the fee ofabifliop; fur- rounded by mountains, which intercept the view of the i'ea though at the dillance only of about a mile, on which it has a fmall harbour. The churches, of which St. Michael is tlie hirgell, ftreets, and fquares, are tolerably handfome ; but the town has neither walls nor ditches. 'The convent of the Cordeliers is well built, and has a fpacious garden ; near it is the college maintained by the town for the'inftruc* tion of youth. Brieuc confills of tv.-o parts; the firil con- tains 4000, and the fccond 40^0 inhabitants ; the can- ton of the former contains 14,737, and that of the latter 15,108 inhabitants ; and the territory of both comprehends 265 kiliometrcs, and that of the firft includes 5, and that of the Iccond 8 communes. N. lat. 48° ^^'. W. long. BRIEUL-sur-Bar, a town cf France, in the depart- ment of the Ardennes, and dillriit of Vouziers : 'j leagues N. of Grandpre. ° n •■'l^^^'T' V°"'" °^ France, and principal p'ace-ofadi- Itntt, m the department of the Mofelle, 4 leagues N W of Mentz. The place contains 1433, and the canton 06. 6b- habitants; the territory includes 225 kiliometres, and " communes. ''" BRIG, m Sea-Langimge. See Brigantine. BRIGA, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftna of Monaco ; 22 mdcs N.E. of Nice The town contains 2895, and the canton 43S6 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 365 kiliometres, and two com- munes. I'^i^^^f^?/' '" 'u' ^^•''""'■y ^'-t, a party or divifion of a body of foldiers, whether horfe, foot, or artillery, under the command of a brigadier. The word is French ; fome derive it from the Latin br^a, abjuc, '^M^^'/>'jue Du-Cange derives it from ll garni an ill-difciphned loldier, who fcours the countiT, and plunders It of every thing, w^it'nout waiting for the enemy • as the armies of Arabs, Tartars, &c. The origin of bril gand IS again deduced from bngand„.e, a fort of armour ufed in the army raifed by the Parifian., during the cap- tmty of their king John in England, notorious for their rob- fh^i''""' r^'f'^''''^'^ ^P<^^\^mg, three forts of brigades ; viz he bngade of an army, the brigade of a troop of horfe and the brigade of artillery. A brigade of the army conf^fts of either root or dragoons, the exaft number of which no hxed, but genei-ally including th«e regiments, or fix batta ions; a bngade of horfe may conffll of e ght ten o,- twelve fquadrons; and that of artillery of eth or te^ pieces o cannon, wuh all their appurtenances. The eldeft bngade takes the rigln of the firft line, the fecond of the fe- coudline, and the reft in order; the youngelt always occu py.ng the centre: the cavalry and artlUery^bfert tKn e' order The troops of horfe-guards in England are d vfdTd mto feveral bngades, according to their ftitngth! Brigade. iJ/^y.r, m the MWtary Art, an ofBrer .h.r from among the moft ingenious and expert captains Rrfc^ai gade^. B R I B R t gaile, where they regulate together the jjiiarJs, parties, de- tachments, and convoys, and appoint tliem the hour and place of rendezvous at the head of the brigade, where the brigade-major takes and marches them to the place of ge:ieral rendezvous. A major of brigade ought to keep .a roll of the colonels, lieutenant-Colonels, majors, and ad- jutants, belonging to the brigade. When a detichmcrit is to be made, the major-general of the day regulates with the brigade-majors, how many men and offieers each bri- gade fhall furriifh ; and they again, with the adjutants of the regiments, how many each battalion is to fend, which the adjutants divide among the companies. The comple- ments each regiruent is to furnifh, are taken by the adju- tant at the head of each regiment, at the hour appointed, v.'ho delivers them to the brigade-major at the head of the brigade, who again delivers them to the major-general of the day, and he remits them to the officer who is to command the detachment. BIIIGADIER-General, an officer whofe rank is the next above that of a colonel, appointed to command a corps confjiling of fcveral battalions or regiments, called a brigade. Every brigadier marches at the head of Lis brigade upon duty . The brigadier of foot commands him of horfe in gar- rifon , and the bri.^adicr of liorfe, him of foot in the field. Bfigadjers of the Iiorfe-guards command yonngcll captains of horfe, who have generally fome higlier rank in the army. Suu-Brig ADiEii of a troop of horfe-guards, an affillant of the bii"-adier. BRIGANDINE, in Heraldry, a jacket or coat of mail, coniiniiiiV of a number of imall plates of iron, lewed upon quilted linen or leather, covered vvitii the fame, and worn by troapi calLJ brigands. BRK,-ANI.»i]SlI, Brigantini, Brioandinarii, or BrigakCii, in Aihldle Age IVrilcrs, military thieves, or hi;;h\.aymen, who intefted France and the Netherlands. See Brabancionfs. BlllGANTES, iny/««Vn/GeojTa/iZ'_)i and Hijlory, a people of very ancient origin, who occupied feveral parts of Rhcetia, the ifiands of Britain, Sp.ini, &c. According to Stephanus Byzantiaus, they were the fame with the Bregi or Brigcs; and the Briges were, according to Strabo (Geog. I. xii. p. 5/;o.) the fame with the Pliryges or Phrygians. From a pafTage in Herodotus (1. vii.) it appears that they retained the name of Briges whilft they remained in Europe with the Ma- cedonian? ; but tiiat when they migrattd i'ito Afia, tliey were uiltinguiflied by the appellation of Phryges. Some have fuggclled, thnt the name ot Brigantes was formed from Gomri or Gombri, the defcendants of Gomer, one of the moll ancient progenitors of the people of Europe ; by fubjoining the Celtic citnl, de.ioting a hundred, whence is derived GombricanI, and exprtfling the termination hrlcant, by the Latin Brlganles. Whatever be the etymology of the name, the Brigts or Brigantes are placed by Steph. Byz. in the mountains of Thrace and Macedonia ; and fome <^f them, as Herodotus infotms us, paffed into Phrygia, whiJll others proceeded as far as Rhoetia towards the well, where Strabo recognizes them. Here we find the lake " Brigan* tius," and a town of the Brigantes. From hence they ad- vanced towards the north, following the cpurfe of the river Rhine, which fignifies, in Celtic, the conductor, as far as the ocean, and croffed it to the Britifti illands. It is not improbable, that others of the Brigantes migrated into Gaul, and there founded the city of the Brigantes, now called Briancon, and that other colonies of tlie fame nation palled into Spain, where we difcover a reference to their name in feveral places. Thofe Brigantes who traverfed the ocean into the ifle of Albion became the nipil numerous asd powerful people of the ancient Britons. Their territories reached from fea to fea, quite acrofs the iflaiid, and com- prehended that large Iraft of country, which is now di- vided into Yorkfhire and the county of Durham on the eall eoall, and I.ancalhire, Welhnoreland, and Cumberland on the weft. Thefe Brigan-es are fuppnfcd to have been de- fcendtd, as we have already intimated, from the ancient Phrygians, who were the full inhabitants of Emopc, and to have come over into this illand from the coall of Gaul, before the Bclgje arrived in that country. They were fettled, without doubt, in this ifland in times of very re- mote ant'quity, and efteemcd thcmfelves the Aborigines, or (iril inhabitants of it. The Brigantes were not in the lealt afTccled by the incmiions of the Romans under Julius Caefar; but Seneca (in Ludo) infinuates, more probably, with poLti-> cal compliment than truth, that they were fubdued by the emperor Claudius : " — — Ilk Bntannos Ultro noti littora ponti, et coeruleos Scuta BrigaiUes, dare Roinulasis colla catenis Juffit." It appears, however, that they fooii contrafted fome alliance with, or made fome kind of fubmliTion to, the Ro- mans. For, when Ollorlus, the Roman governor, had de- feated the Iceni, and was marching his army into the well againlt the Cangi, he was called away by the news of aa inliirrettion among the Brigantes, which he foe • quieted. Tacitus Annal. 1. xii. c. .,2. But it alio appears (Id. 1. xii. c. :;6.) that thefe people were, fome time after this, govern- ed by their own princes, particularly by the famous Cartif- mandua, who was a faithful and ufeful ally to the Romans. They afterward; comnicnced holl'lities againft the Romans in the beginning of Vefpafian's reign, A. D. 70, and were partly lubdued by Petiliiis Cerialis, then governor of Bri- tain, and foon after totally reduced by the renowned Agricola. Tac. Vit. Agr. c. 17. 20. The country of the Brigantes compofed almoft tlie whole of the fourth Roman province in Biicain, called " Maxima Csfarienlis," and was governed by the confular prelident of that province. Dur- ing the times of the Romans, this was a frontier province, and was therefore much frequented, and carefully guarded by that people. The towns of the Brigantes were Epiacum, Vinnovium, Caturrattonium, Calatum, Ifurium, Rigodunum, Olicana, Eboracum, and Camunlodunum ; which fee re- fpeftive'y. Henry's Hift. Book i. c. 3. §1. The Brigantes of Ireland are fuppoled to have lived in that part which is now the county of Waterford, adjoining the river Brigus. It is natural to conclude that thefe were either a colony of the Brigantes of Britain, or fprnng from the fame race. Even general Valiancy fecms to admit this;, and he has quoted a paifage from a work of Monf. Brigante, (bowing the Brigantes to be Celts of the pofteiity of Japhet, and to have received their name from their attention to na- vigation. That they proceeded immediately from Geimany and Rhcetia is rendered probable by Ptolemy's having placed near them the Canuciaad Menapii, people found in Germany on the coalls of the ocean. The Englilh words, brig and brigantinc, are fuppofed to be derived fiom the lama fource. BRIGANTI, ANNinAL, in Biography, a celebrated Neapolitan phyfician, who flouridied the latter part of the 16th century, publiflied, in 1577, at Naples, two fmall works in Italian, 4to. the one containing " Regulations pro- per to be obferved for preventing the propagation, and dif- fufion of the plague;" the other, " On the prevention anj cure of the meafles :" alio, " Epillolx medicinales," 8vo» jj8: ; much commended by Toppius. The author treats hugely B R I k»uel)-iii thfin of ilie cure of luei venerea. Hallcr Bih. McJ. Eloy i)ia. Hill. I'.RIOANTINE, a fmall, light, flat, open vcfTcl, wliicli goes both with lails and oars, and is citlier tor lighting or giving cliace. It has uf'ii'.lly twelve or fifteen benches on a liJc for the rowers, a inmi and an oar to each bench. 15ri2:anliMts are principally nfed hy the Coriairs, all the hands aboard benig loldicr^, .-.lid each having iiis mufquet ready UiuiL-r hii oar. but the ttim is generally iiftd for a merchaiit-fliii) with two rralU, though manners of different nations r.pply it to a peculiar fort of veffcl of their own marine. Among Engliih feamen the ngging of a brigantine or brig is little diflercOt from the lore and main mails of a fliip, the braces of the fails on the main-mad leading forward. The aftcr- main-lhroud mull be fcrvcd from the mall-head to the dead- eye, to prevent its being chafed by the main-boom and gafF. The after-b.ick-ftay is fitted with a tackle, that it may be (lackcned when the maii:-fail jibes, or is bowfed forward by the b'join-penc'ent and tackle. Liigs carry no main-yard, but a crofs-jack-vard. BRIGANTINUS L.'vcus, m j^ncknl Gecgmphy, a lake of Rhcctia, now the lake of Conllance, whitli fee. BRIGANTIUM, or Brigantia, a town of Rhoctia, fcated on the precedmg lake, now Bregentz ; which fee. — Alfo, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis,"E. N. E. of Salinas, in the c nitry of the Catnriges, near the pafs into Italy acrofs the Alps, rtckoned in the times of the Romans among the cities of the fecond order, and exhibiting in the infcriptions, and medals of gold, iilver, and copper, which have been found in its vicinity, traces of its ancient impor- tance, now Briangon ; which fee — Alfo, a town of Hif- pania Citerior, feated at the bottom of a fmall gulf, north of Magnus Portus, and near it, now Betancos ; which fee. BRIGE-BoTE, Vjt.ioc-Lote, or Brigh-Zo/c, in j^micnt Laiu lln.'ers, fignifies a being freed from contributing to the reparation of bridges. See Pontage. The word is formed of the Saxon iri^, airid^r, and io/e, compenfalion. It IS fonietimes alto written brugh-bole, or hruch-hote. BRIGEUM, in /Inchr.i Geography, a town of Spain, to- wards the S. W. of ARurica. BRIGES. SeeBK.OANTEs. BRIGEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the '^nl^Tnn ' ^^ "^''""''' ^ "'''^' ^- °^ MontmoriUon. BKIGGb, HiiNRV, m Biography, a celebrated mnthe- maticiaii, was born at Warley Wood, near Halifax, iu York- ih.re,^ about the year 1556; and admitted a fcholar of St John s college, m the univertity of Cambridge, in ic-o- w_here he took the degree of Bachelor of Arts in i 58., tliat of Mailer, ,n 15.S5, and was chofen fellow of his colle-e in r' II J' /"f""^<^ '^"'ly «as the mathematics, in w°hich he excelled, fo that n. 1592 he was appointed examiner and efturer in that faculty, and foon after reader of the phvfic- leetures, founded by Dr. Linacre. Upon the fettlement of Greniam college, ni London, he was chofen the tiril pro- tc lor of geometry, in 1596 ; and at this time he conftrutl- liLVr 1 7 ^>''^™'"'"5.\t»'^ '"-%ht of the pole from the magnctical declination ; which table was publifhed in Dr. ^t""Vl" ' "^=,\%-te," and by^M. Blondeville « h.s "Iheoncjncsofthefevcn Planets;" London, 1602 r.m.= ^^l -^ f commenced an acquaintance with Mr. James Urtier, afterward, primate of Ireland, which was mamtauKd by a coi-refpondence for fcveral years. In one t^llT'' 'r'^'f" '''- heinform'shim, tm h rTlm I /l'7°''''^ '.''°"'/'"^ ""'^''-- invention of loga- r thnis, lately difcovered ; which he explained m his lec- tures, propohng an alteration ia the fcale of baron NapiJ, B R I from the hyperbolic form to that in which I iKould be the lo- garithm of the ratio of 10 to i. This alteration was propofed to the baron in a letter; and, in 1616, Briggs made a journey to Scotland for the purpofe of converting with him on the fubjcft ; and he repeated his vifit in the following year. The rcfult of their conferences, which were conduAed with fingular mutual rcfpeCt, was the adoption of his plan ; fo that upon his return from the ftcond vilit, Briggs pub- lifhed the " Chilias prima," or firft thoufand, of his lo'^a- rlthms, in Svo. In 1 61 9, he was appointed the firft pro- felTbr of geometry, at Oxford, in the intlitution founded by fir Henry Savile ; and rtfigning his profcflbrfiiip at Grefliam college, in 1620, he removed to Oxford, and fettled at Merton college, where he was foon after incorporated mafler of arts in that u->- This eminent mathematician died January the 26th ir^,o, u. Merton college, and was buried m the choir of the chapel under the honorary monument of fir Henry Savile, having over his grave only a plain ilone, with his n Jme inicnS on Bri^^i''"T ; '" "Comment, de Vit. et Stud. H. l^nggii, London 1707, 4to. gives him the charader of a n an of great probity, eafy and acceffible to all, free fiom ternng a Itudious retirement to ail the fplendid circumftances of B R I of life. The lcarne.1 Mr, T. Gatnker, who attended his lee- tare, at Cambrid^ve, reprefents h,m as highly efteemed by all perfon. Hulled in l!ie mathematK-, both at home and abroad^ Mr. O.ghlredealk him "The muTor of the aire for eSent flc.!! in^eomct.y." Dr. Barrow h,s fucccnor a GreOiam co!le(re, lu his inaugural ovation, celebrates h.s great St es, flali: ar,d indnftry, in perfeamg Napier's remark- bf invention" of logarithms ; which wuhout '"-are a^.d pains might have remained an .mperfeit and ufehf. d hgn. Lfides the works already enumerated, he wrote many others, the chief of which are the following : I. » Tub es for the Xro--ent of Navigation," publilhed ..t the 2d ed.t.on o W-iirht's " Errors in Navigation deeded and correded, ^ London, 1610, 4to. 2. " Euchdis Elementornm, vi. Ltbu iriores &c." London, 1620, folio. 3- " Mathemattca ab An iqnis minus cog.uta," communicated by the author to Dr. George HakewUl, and publiihed m h.s ' Apolog.e," London, fol.; and alio in the " Appendix to AVard s Lives No o " t,. " Commentaries on the Geometry ot Ftter Ram?;," re-pubhfted. 5- " D"« Epiftolx ad celeber- rimum Virum, Chriftianum Longomontanum, re-publiihed, andcontaining remarks on a treatife of Longomontant.s about fquanncr the circle, and the other being a defeiice of anth- ^eticaf geometry. 6 " Animadverhones C.e°-^ --■ .to ?. " De eodem Argumento," ^Ko. Thefe t«o lall treatifes contain a great variety of geometrical propofitions concerning the properties of many figures, with f^veral arttl - ^t.cal computations relating to the circle, angular fedion &c 8 ■' An Enghfh Treatife of common Anthmet.ck fol Q «' A Letter to Mr. Clark of Gravefend," dated 1606, and containing a defcription of ^^edwell's ruler, and di|^- tions for ufin|it. The four laft were m the poffeffion of M . W Tone" father of the late fir William Jones. Ward's Liies of the Profeffors of Grelham college, p. lio, &c. Biocr. Brit. See Logarithms. i • 1 •, Briggs, William, was born at Nor>v.ch, which city his father reprefented in parliament, about the year 1^.52. At the age of 13 he was fent to Bennet college, in Cam- C-idc continent, and thus cfcaped the vigilant purfuit of his cruel enemies. In confequenct of the repeated damages done by the fea, the inh ibitaiitsof Brigliton fubfcribed a large fum of money, «nd colkc\ed much more by brief, ,'5cc. in order to raife fonie artificial barrier ; and early' in the lull ccntuiy the clills were fecurtd by wooden fences, called groins, projecting towards the fea. This town may attribute its popularity to Dr. Richard Ruffel, who, having fettled here, wrote a treatife on the importance of fea-balhing, and fucccfffuUy recom- mended the prailice in fcrophulous, and glandular com- plaints. He caufed a valuable mineral fpring at \Vick, about one mile from the town, tobeindofed in a bafon. A build- ing was afterwards crefted over it. The name of Rufltl null be held in grateful remembrance by the inhabitants of all watering places, if they refleft that he was the rellorer, and great promoter of that highly important rellorative of health — fea-bathing. To commemorate his name, the late Kev. Dr. Manningliam wrote the following lines, " Clara per omne TEvum Rufl'elli fama manebit Dum rttinct vires unda marina fuas." Adoiiring agts Ruflel's name fliall know Till ocean's healing waters ceafe to flow. The fuccelTor of Dr. Ruffel, (Dr. RhcUan) a!fo con- tributed to bring Brighton into repute by publifliing the natural hillory of the town in 1760. Brighton is the llation for packets between this part of England and Dieppe, &c. Here are fcvernl chaiitits, and endowed fchools j alfo a convenient, but fmall play-houfe, erefted in the year 1789. The church, an ancient ilruc- ture, ftands on a hill, a little north of the town, and contaiiis fome curious, and interelling monuments, and infcriptions. In the call llreet of Brighton, which forms the weRern boundary of the Steyn, ftands the Marine Pavilion, a rc!idetite of his royal highnefs the prince of Wales. It was finilhcd in the year )787, and from its callern front commands a line view of the fea. Sec. Adjoining to this, is an excellent family manfion belonging to the duke of Marlborough ; many other elegant houfes, handfome row?, fquarts, and ilreets, now combine to give Brighton a rcfpeclable appear- ance, aud render it attractive, and" comfortable for its inha- bitants and occafional vifitois. It is 54 miles fouth from London, 8 from Lewes, and contained in 1801, 1427 houfes, and 7,139 inhabitants. Ancient and modern Hillory of Lewes and lirighlhelmfton, by \V. Lee, 8vo. i 795. BRIGIOSUM, in Jncknl Geography, Brion, a place of Gaul, Ijluatc, according to the Thcodofian tabic, btlwctn Avedonacum and Rauraua, in the route which leads from Mediolanum to J,imonum in Aquitania Seeunda. BRIGITTINS, or Bridoktin's, more proji^rly Bir.- eiTTiNS, a religious order denominated from their foun- drefs St. Bridgit, or Birgit, a bwcdiih lady^ ia the four- B R I tcenth century, whom fome rcprefein as a queen ; but Fa- bricius, on better grounds, as a princefs, tiie daughter of k'lig Bigerus, Icgiflator of Upland : (he is famous for lier revelations. The Erigittins are fometimcs alio called the '• Order of our Saviour;" it being pretended that Chriil himfclf diclated the rules and conllitutions obferved by ihenv to St. Bridg' t. In the mai i,.tlie rule is that of St. Augnl- tin ; only with certain additions fuppofed to have been re- vealed by Chrifl ; whence they alio denominate it the " Rule of our Saviour." The iii ft monaftcry of the Brigittin order was cre£led by the foundrcfs, about the year IJ44, in the diocefe of Lincopen ; on the nivdcl of which all the rt;ft were forr.vd. The Biigiltins profcfs great morlilicatiun, poverty, and felf-dcnial, as well as devotion ; and they are not to polTefs any thing they can call their own, not fo much as a halfpenny, nor even to touch money on any account. This order fpread much through Sweden, Geimany, the Nether- lands, &c. In England we read but of one monallery of Briggittins, and this built by Henry V'. in 1415, oppotite to R.ichmond, now called Sion-houfe ; the ancient inhabitants of which, iince the diflblution, are fettled at Lifbon. The revenues were reckoned at 1945!. per annum. BRIGNE, in Ichthyology, 2^ nime given by the French M\- cvmen to the Ffrca punclafa of Linnxus. Lacepedc retains tins filli in his natural hiilory, under the nameot Ccntropone Laip. BRIGNAIS, in Gfo^iaphy, a town of France, in the department of the Rlione und Loire ; ± Lagues S. of Lyons. BRIGNEUIL /'.//'r.:, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Charente, and diilridi of Coiifolens ; 3 leagues S. E. of Confolens. BRIGNOLA, a town of Italy, in the (late of Genoa; 23 miles N. E. of Genoa. BRIGNOLLES, a town of France, and chief place of a diftrld, in'the department of the Var, leated among moun- tains, in a fertile country, and celebrated for its fruit, and particularly its plums, which take their denomination from it ; 6 leagues N. of Toulon. The town contains 3460, and the canton 12,1 14 inhabitants : the extent of the terri- tory comprehends i6okiliometres, and 6 communes. N. lat. 43'' 24'. E. long. 6° 15'. BRIGUS, in Ancient Geo^rnphy, a river of Ireland, men- tioned by Ptolemy, fuppofed to be the main channel of the rivers Suire, Nore, and tiarrow, which unite below the towns of Rofs and Waterford. Colleft. de Rebus Hibern. Brigus, Cope and Say, lie in the bay of Capetown, on the caft coafb of Newfoundland. The cape is high and rugged, and the bay narrow and deep. BRIHUEGA, in Gco^^rciphy, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, featcd on the river Tajuna, the principal commerce of which co:;fifts in wool. Tliis town was taken poffcnion of in 1710, by general Stanhope, with the Englifh army, iii behaif of the archduke Charles; was bei.egcd by the duke of Vendome in favour of Philip, king ot buain, and its gar- rifon were obliged to furreiider as prifoncrs of war. It is diftant 43 miles E. N. E. from Madrid. N. hit. 41'^ o'. W. lorg. 30^ 20'. PiillL, Matthew, in Biography, a painter of landfcape and hiftory, was born at Antwerp, in 1550, and having ac- quired the rudiments of his art in that city, went to Rome lor further improvement; where he acquired fuch reputa- tion as to be employed by Gregory Xlil. in the Vatican, and ptnfioned till his death in 1584. Bk.il, Paul, brother to the preceding, a painter of land- fcapes, was Lorn at Antwerp, in 1554, .aid educated in the art of painting, under Danitl Voiteiii.i.iis. After his re- moval to Rome, where he faw the woiks of Titian and Caracci, B R I •Caracci, he wholly abandoned his Flemifh ftiff manner, and acquired a more pleafing ftyle, and a charming tone of colour. He fucceeded his brother Matthew, both in iiis employrnent and penfion, but far excelled him rn the cxercife of his art. The figures in his landlcapes were generally painted by An- drew Caracci ; and bv this circumilance their valne was greatly enhanced. His manner of painting is reprefented as true, fweet, and lender; the touchiiigs of his trees as firm, but delicate ; his fcenery, fituations, and diftances are admirable, being commonly taken from nature ; and the mafles of his light and (hadowas ftrong, yet, very judicious. In the latter part of life, his landfcapes were always both beautiful and ■exquil'itely (inifhcd, 1 hty were frequently painted oti copper. The genuine works of Brii, rfpecially tiiofe of the large fize, are rsrc, and afford very high prices in every part of Europe. Witlmi a few years one of his laiidfcapes fold in Holland for l6:'l. and anotlier at an auftion in Loudon for marc than 120 guineas: and they were thought to be cheap. He etched feveral landfcapes in a iiiafterly, fpirited ilyle. This mailer died in 1 6:;6. Pilkington and Strutt. BRILESUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Greece in Attica, BRILL, in Geography. Se« Briel. BRILLAC, a town of France, in the department of the Charente ; 5 miles N. of Confolens. BRILLIANT, in a general fenfe, fomething that has a lucid and brig;ht appearance. Brilliant, in the Miiiiege, is applied to a horfe, that is brilk, high-mettled, and ftately, v.ifh an elevated neck, fine movements, and exciUent haunches, upon which he rifes, thou;jh ever fo little put forward. BRIILLIANTE, Ital. Mujic, fpirited, animated, with fire. BRILLIANTS, a name given to diamonds, of the ' fincll water. See Diamond. BRILON, in Geogr/tpky, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and capital of the duchy of %Veftphalia ; having calamine in its neighbourhood; 60 miles E. N. E. of Cologn. BRIM, the utnioft edge of a thing, as of a glafs, plate, or the like. The brims of vefFels are made to projed. a little over, to hinder li^quors, in pouring out, from ninning down the fide of the velicl. The briming, or brimming of veflels, was contrived by the ancient potters, in imitation of the fupcrcilium or drip of the cornices of columns ; it is done by turning over fonie of the double matter when the work is on the wheel. Among fiorifls, the brim of a flower denotes the outward «dge of the pttala, or that part thereof wliich turns. A fow is faid to brim, or go to brim, when flie t.tkes the boar. The hart goes to rut, the roe to tourn, the boar to brim. BRIMBATUS, in Natural H'ljlory, one of the fynonyms •of Holuthuria pcnlaelii, which fee. BRIMENIUM, in Ancient Geography. See Bremeniu M. BRIMFIELD, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the county of Hampfhire, and ftate of the Maffachufetts, fituated E. of Connecticut river, and containing 12 11 inha- bitants; 34 miles S. E. of Northampton, and 75 W. of Bofton. BRIMOND, in Ornithology, one of the fynonyms of ylnas hiflriomca ; or Harlequin Duck. BRIMSTONE, a common appellation of fulphur. Brimstone, _y?&wfr 0/". See Flower. Brimstone marble, a preparation 01 brimftone, in imita- tion of marble. VOL.V. B R I Brimstonp. medals, figures S:c. may be call in the fol- lowing manner: melt half a pound of brimflone over a gentle fire ; with this mix half a pound cf fine vermiilion, and when you have cleared the top, take it ofl" the fire, ftir it well together, and it will difToKe like oil ; then cart it into the mould, which muft firil be anointed with oil. When cool, the figure may be taken out ; and, in cafe it lliould change to a yellowilh colour, you need only wipe it over with aqua furtis, and it will look like the finell coral. BRIN BLANC, Buffon, in Omilhology, trochlhis fuper- ciliofus, the fupercilious humming-bird. Br IN Bleu, Buff, is Iroihihts eynnurus, the blue-tailed humming-bird. BRINDlSI.or BRUNDUSnjM,in Geography, a celebrated city of Naples, in the Terra d'Otranto,' fituated at the en- trance of the Adriatic. It was anciently large and flourilh- ing; and may ftill be confidercd as a great city, if the ex- tent of its walls be confidcied ; but the inhabited houfes do not occupy above half the inclofure. The llrects are crooked and rough, the buildings are poor and ruinous, and it has no very remarkable chui-cli or edifice. It is, however, an arch- hifljop's fee ; but the cathedral, dedicated to St. Tlieodorc, though a work of king Roger, is inferior in point of archi- tefture to many churches founded by that monarch. Of ancient Brundufium, tht; remains arc merely numerous broken pillars, fragments of coarfe Mofaic, the column of the light- houfe, a large marble bafon receiving the water from brazen heads of deer, fome infcriptions, ruins of aquedufts, coins, and other fmall articles for furnilhing the cabinet of an anti- quary. Its caftle, built by the emperor Frederic II. t» protecl the northern branch of the harbour, and repaired by Charles V. is large and ftately. The port is double, and is the fineft in the Adriatic. The outer part is formed of two promontories, that feparate gradually as they advance into the fea, leaving a narrow channel at the bafe of the angle. The iiland of St. Andrew, on which Alphonfus 1. built a fortrefs, lies between the capes, and fecurcs the whole road from the fury of the waves. In this triangular fpace, large Ihips may ride at anchor. At the bottom of the bay the hills recede in a femi-circular fliapc, and thus leave room for the inner haven, which encircles the city in the figure of a ftag's head and horns, and is fuppofed to have given rife to the name of Brundufium ; which, in the old McfTapian lan- guage, fignified the head of a deer. This interior port is peculiarly beautiful, and admirably adapted to every pur- pofe of trade and navigation. It is very deep, extending in length 2\ miles, and in its greateit breadth 1200 feet, and is Iheltcred on every fide by tlie hills and town. In ancient times, the communication between the two havens was marked by lights placed upon columns of the Corinthian order ; but of thefe only one remains entire upon its pedeftal. It is of the green and white marble, called " Cipolhno ;" and its capital is adorned with figures of Syrens and Tritons, in- termingled with the Acanthus leaf, and upon it is a circular vafe, which formerly held the fire. Near it is another pcdeftal of fimilar dimenfions, with one piece of the fhaft lying upon it, but the reft of the column was fold to the people of Lecce, after the earthquake of 1456, which over- turned it, and dellroyed great part of the city. The inter- val between thefe pillars correfponded to the entrance of the harbour ; which is very favourably fituated for trade. Here goodnefs of foil, depth of water, fafety of anchorage, and a centrical pofition, are all united ; and yet it has neither commerce, hufbandry, nor populoufnefs. From the obftruftions in the channel which communicate with the two havens arife the various evils that defolate this difaftrous town. Julius Casfar began its ruin by his attempt to block Tt up B R 1 up P.iiT.pty'j (i-.ct, by diivliig pilts into llit neck of la nl h.-e>v;:tn tlictwo rij^cJ of lulls, and ihrovviii'j in nartli, tree;, and niiiij of hoiilVs : however, I'omocy failed out and cicapL-J to dccce. In tlic i ;,t!i century, the prince of Taranto fimk fi>;ne (hips in the miildle of the Inrbiiur, to prevent the rovalills from cnterin;^ the port ; a;: J ihtfe oecafioncd an aceu:nnbtion of fan.l aid fen-weeds, which clioaked up the mouth and rendered it impallablc. In ijjz, the evil was in- treafid ; and from that period the port becamc_ a fa-tid, preen lake, full of infection and noxious infeds ; fo that no filh bill etli could live in it, nor any bor\t ply except canots made of a linfile tree. 'I'he low )rnHi:ids at each end were over- flowed with niainu-s.whirh produeedaniiually a grievouspelU- lcne<*, that dellroyed or drove away the \w^A\ portion of the iiihabiiauts. From iS.ooo they were reduced in 1 76'> to yooa livid wretches, tormented with ague's and malignant fevers : and in 177; above 1 ^co perfons died during the auliiMin. Whereas ,; j years before the air of lirindifi was elleemed fo wholefomc and balf.iniic, that the csnvents of Naples were arcutlomed to fend their coufuinpti\e friars to this city for the recovery of their health. It was at length determined to make fomo elTorts for ojiening th.- port afitfli, and plans were drawn up for tliat purpofe. liy means of machines, and of the labour of galley flavef, the channel has been partly cleared, fo aj to liave two fathom of v.ater, and to admit large boats and a free palfage to the fea ; and thus the water of the inn.r port is fet in motion, and once more rendered wholefomc. The plan, however, was found, in 1J39, to fail of complete fuecefs, and the canal was again in a great meafure cho;;ked up, fo that the pellilential air prevailed as much as ever. But attempts have been renewed for clearing it again, and opening a pafiage to the waters, an..l draining the adjacent marfiies ; and the inhabitants of Brii.difi had a return of health, and are happy in the prof- pecl of returning commerce and opulence. In cleaning the channel, the workmen have found fonie medals and feals ; and they have drawn up many of the piles that were driven in by Cxfar, which are fmall oaks dripped of their bark, and are found as frefh as if they had been felled only a month, thinigh buried above i3 centuries feven feet under the fand. The foil about the town is li^ht and gf.od, and products excellent cotton, with whic'.i the Brindifians mani:fa£luie gloves and llockings. It is not cafy to afcertain who founded Brnndnruim, and who were its firll inhabitants. Strabo fays that it was ori- ginally occupied by the Cretans, who landed here from GnolTus with Thefeui. Others fay that it was founded by tlie Japyges. The Romans took early poflelTion of a har- bour fo convenient for their enterpiizes againit the nations dwelling beyond the Adriatic. They feiu a colony hither, A. U. C. 509. Pompcy fought an afylum in tliis city, and from hence fled- to Greece. Here Odavianus fu II afTumed the name of C»far, and he concluded one of his fliort-lived treatKS of peace with Antony. Brundufium was celebrated Hi the birth-place of the tragic poet Pacnvius, and became rcmarktble for the death of Virgil. The barba-ians, who ravaged every corner of Italy, did not fpare fo rich;.- town ; and ill S,;6, the Saracens gave a finilhing blow to its for- tunes. The Greek emperors were dcfuous of relloring it to its ancient ilrength and fplendour, if the Normans had allowed them opportunity ; but after obflinate ilruggles, and varieties of fu<;cefs and defeat, they were finally expelled Brindifi by William I. The crufades, which drained other kingdoms of their wealth and fubjuds, contributed to enrich and eilabhih this city, as it was one of the pons where pilgrims and warriors took (liipping. Tt wasalfo benefited by the refiJenceof the emperor Frederick, B R I whofe frequent annaments for the holy land required his prefence at this place of nndc/vous. At length the lofs of Jerufalem, the fall of tlic Grecian empire, and the ruin of the L'-vait trade, after the Turks had conquered the call, r^.-- duced Brindifi to a (late of inactivity and dcfolation, from whicli/it has never bi-en able to emerge. N. lat. 40° 5*'. E. Ion". iS^ 1'. Swinburne's Travels into the Tivo Sici- lies, vol. ii. BRIXDLEY, James, in Bio^^rrjJ.'v, a perfon of extra- ordinar\- genius for mechanical inventions, and dillinguiflied by his'ikill in planning and condnfting inland navigation, was born at Tunlled, in tlie parilli of Wormhill, and county (>f Derby, in the year 1 7 l f). His parents poircficd a fmall free- hold, the income of which his father diflipated by field diver- iions, and by aflbciating with perfons above his rank ; and thus the educaticni of the fon was wholly neglcfted. Urged by the necefTities of !iis family, he contributed to itsfupport till he was nearly 17 years of age, by that kind of labour which, in country places, is affigned to the children of the poor ; but at this age he bound himfelf apprentice to a wheelwright, whofe name was Bennet, near Macclesfield in Chefhire, and foon became expert in I'.is bufmcfs, difcovering, at the fame time, a lingular genius for the extenfion and improvement of the mechanic arts in general. Accordingly, in the early period of his apprenticelhip, he performed feveral parts of the bufinefs without any inllruAions from his mafter, and gave fo much fatisfadion to the millers who employed him, that he was always confulted in preference to his mailer or any other workman ; and before the expiration of his fer- vitude, when Mr. Bennet, by his age and intirmities, became unable to work, he carried on the bufinefs with repuiratioji, and provided a comfortable fubfillcnce for the old man and his family. About this time his mailer was employed ir» conllrufting an engine paper-mill, the firll of the kind that had been attempted in thcfe p?.rts; hut as he was likely to fail in the execution of it, Mr. Brindley, without communi- cating his defign, fet out on Saturday evening after the bufinefs of the day was finilhed^ and having infpeded the work, returned home on Monday morning, after a journey of 50 miles, informed his mailer of its defeds, and completed the engine to the entire fatisfadion of the proprietors. Mr. Brindley afterwards engaged in the miU-wright bufinefs on his own account, and foon acquired the reputation of a moll ingenious mechanic. The fame of his inventions and con- trivances was in a little while fpread far beyond his own neighbourhood ; and in 1752, he was employed to ered a curious water-engine at Clifton in Lancafiiire, for the pur- pofe of draining coal-mines, which had before been performed at an enormous cxpence. The water for the u(e of this engine was conveyed from the river Irwell by a fubterraneous channel, nearly 600 yards long, which palTed through a rock ; and the wheel was fixed 30 feet below the fuvface of the ground. In i-',j, he conllruded a new filk millat Conglcton in Chelhire, according to the plan propofed by the proprietors, after the execution of it by the original un- dertaker had failed ; and in the completion of it he added many new and ufeful improvements. He introduced one contrivance for winding the filk upon the bobbins equally, and not in wreaths ; and another for Hopping, in an inllant, not only the whole of this exlenfive fyflem, in all its various movements, but any individual part of it at pleafiu-c. He likewife invented machines for cutting the tooth and pinion wheels of the ditTtrent engines, in a manner that produced a great faving of time, labour, and expcnce. He alfo intro- duced into the mills, ufed at the potteries in StafTordlhire for grinding flint-ftones, feveral valuable additions, which greatly facihtated the operation. In I75<^, he con- ilwided B R I B R I ftnic^-il a C.eatn enj;uic at Nt\vcr>[l!e imdirr-Line, upon a iiL'vv [ilein, wliich evinced his gtiiiiis for invention and con- trivance. The boiler was made with brick and llone, inllead of iron pl.'.tcs, and the water was heated by fiie-places, fo conftriifttd as to fave the confiiinption of fuel. He alfi in- troduced cylinders of wood inltcad of tliofe of iron, and lie fnbllituted wood for iron in the chains which worked at the tnd of the beam. But in thefe and fimikir contrivances for the improvement of this nicful enptine, he was ob'.lriicud by interelled engineers ; and his attention was diverted from the profeeution of them by the great national object of " In- land Navi;i-ation." In planning and txeciitiiig canals his iiieehanical jreniiis fonnd ample Icope for e.^ercife, and formed a fort of diltingniihiug '.era in the hillory of our conntry. However, envy and prejudice, and an attachment to efta- bli filed cuftoms, railed a variety of obilacles to the accom- plifliment of his dcfigns and nndertakings ; and if he had not been liberally and powerfnlly protected by the duke of Bridgwater, at the commencement of tlie hnfinefs, his triimiph over the oppcfition with which he enconiitercd mull have been in a very confidcrable degree oblirufted and retarded. The noble d-.ike pofi'ciied an ellate at Worfley, about 7 miles from Manchefter, rich in mines of ccal, from which he derived little or no advantage, on account of the expeiice which attended the conveyance of this article by land caniige to a fuitablc market for confumptlori. Fully apprized of the utility of a canal from Worfley to Manchcl- ter, he confidted Mr. Brindley on the fubjeft ; who, Ivaving furveyed the country, declared the fcheme to be prafticabla. Accordingly, his grace obtained, in the years TJ^'i and 1719, an aft of parliament for this purpofe ; and Mr. Brindley was employed in the conduft and execution of the vmdertaking, the lirlt of the kind ever attempted in England, with navigable fsbterrancous tunnels and elevated acjuoeducls. At the commencement of the bufinefs it was determined, that the level of the water fliould be preferved without the ulual obllrnftions of locks. But in accomplilhlng this objeCl, many diHiculties occuntrd ; and it was foon .'^ound that it would be neccdary to carry the canal over rivers and many deep vallics, and that it would not be ealy to obtain a fnf- ficient fnpply of water for completing the navigation. How- ever, Mr. Brindley, patronized by the duke, and furniOicd with ample rcfources, perlcvercd, and at length conquered ail the embarrafTments, occafioned by the nature of the un- dertaking, and by the pafiions and prejudices of individuals. Having completed the canal as far as Barton, where the river Irwell is navigable for large vefFcls, he propofed to carry it over that river, by an aquxduft 37 feet above the furface of the water. This was confidered as a chimerical and extravagant projeft ; and an eminent engineer, who was confulted on the occalion, ridiculed the attempt. " I have often heard," fays he, " of caltlts in the air, but never before was fl'.ewn where any of them were to be erefted." The duke of Bridgwater was not difcouraged ; but confiding in the judgment of Mr. Brindley, empowered him to profe- cute the work ; and in about 10 months the aquceduft was completed. This allonifliing work commenced in Septem- ber 1760, and the firft boat failed over it the 17th of July, I76r. The canal was then extended to Mancheftcr, where Mr. Brindley's ingenuity in diminilliing labour by mechanical contrivances was exhibited in a machine for landing coals upon the top of a hill. It is no wonder, that an objett, fo curious in itielf, andoffuch national importance, (liould have attradted general attention. See Canal. The dnke of Bridgwater, having found by experience the utility of thtle inland navigatiouo, citended his views to Liverpool ; and obtained, in lyfs, an aCl of parliament for branching his canal to the tide-way in the Merfey. This part is carried over the river Merfey and Bollan, and over many wide and deep vallies. Over the vallies it is conduit ed without a fingle lock ; and acrofs the valley at Stretford, through v^'hich the Merfey rurs, a mound of earth, railed for prelerving the water, cxteidi nearly a mile. In the con- (IruCt^on of this mound Mr. Brir.dlev difplayed his mechanical genius, by rendering the canal itfclf fublcrvient to his defign, and by bringing the foil, neceffary for his purpofe, along the canal in boats of a peculiar form, which were condnAed into caifibons or cifterns ; fo that on opening the bottoms of the boats, the earth was depofited where it was wanted, and the valley was thus elevated to a proper level for con- tinuing the canal. Acrofs the Bollan the ground was raifed by temporary locks, formed of the timber ufed in the con- llruttion of the caifToons juft mentiotied. In the execution ot every part of the navigation, Mr. Brindley difplayed fin- gnlar Ikill and ingenuity; and in oider to facilitate his purpofe, he produced many valuable machines. His economy and forecall, in every part of the work, deferve to be narti- culaily noticed, and they are peculiarly difccrnible in the ftops, or flood-gates, that are fixed in the canal, where it is above the level of the land. Thefe ilops are fo coulfnifted, that if any of the banks {hould give v,'ay and occafion a cur- rent, the adjoining gates will rife merely by that motion, and prevent any other part of the water from efcaping, befides that which is near the breach between the two gates. Encouraged by the fuceefs of the dnke of Bridgwater's undertakings, a lubfcription was entered into by a number of gentlemen aiid manufaiSurers in Staffordniirc, for cn;:- ftrnCfing a canal through that country, in purfuance of a fcheme which had been fuggelled fome years before ; and Mr. Biindley was engaged to make a furvey from the Trent to the Merfey. Upon his report that a canal for connecfting thefe rivers was prafiicable, application was made to parlia- ment, in 1 "]•'), for an aft to this purpofe, which was obtained in the fame year. Accordingly, in 1766, this canr,!, " The Grand Trunk Navigation," was begun ; and it was con- dufted, with great fpiiit and fuccefs, under the direftion of Mr. Brindley, as long as he lived. For a further account of this canal, fee Canal. The next objeft which engaged the attention of Mr. Brindley was the conllruftion of a canal f.-om the Grand Trunk, near Haywood in Staffordfhire, to tiie river Severn near Bewdley, by means of which the port of Bridol was conneftcd with the ports of Liverpool and Hull. This canal, about 46 miles in length, was completed in 1772. His next undertaking w.ns the furvey and execution of a canal from Birmingham, which (liould unite with the Staffordlliire and Worcelterlhire canal near Wolverhampton. This navigation, which is 26 miles in length, was tiiiiflied in about three years. Our engineer advifed the proprietors, in order to avoid the inconvenience of locks, and for the more effeftaal fupply of the canal with water, to have a tunnel at Smeth- wick ; but his advice was difregarded ; and the managers have Cnce been under a neceffity of erefting two fteam-en- pines. The canal from Droitwich to the river Severn, for the conveyance of fait and coals, was executed by Mr. Brindley ; and he alfo planned the Coventry navigation, which was for fome time under his direftiow ; but a difpute arifing about the mode of executing it, he refigned his office. Some fliort time before his death, he began the Ox- fordlhire canal, which, uniting with the Coventry canal, ferves as a continuation of the Grand Trunk navigation to Oxford, and thence bv the Thames to London. -The lall undertaking, in wdiieh Mr. Brindley engaged, was the canal from CheliBlielJ to the river Trent at Stockwith. He T t 2 furveyed B R I (f.rreyti and phnned ihe whole, ant! executed fome miles of tKe tuvigalioii, which wat tinifhed by his brothcr-in-Iaw, Mr. Hcnlhall,in 1777. Such was ihceiUblilhed reputation of Mr. Brindlcy, that he was edifultid 011 a variety of oc- ctfioni ; and, indeed, few woikauf iliis kind were undertaken wnhout bis advice. He was employed by the city of London, to furvey a eourfe for a canal from Sunning, near Reading in Btrkdiire, to Monkey ifland, near Riclinioiid ; but, on account of the oppofition of the land-owners, this plan was defeated. He had alfo, for fome time, the direftion of the Calder naviga- tion J but, on account of a difference among the commif- fioners, he declined any further concern in it. In 1766, he taid out a canal from the river Calder, at Cooper's bridge, to Huddcrsfitld in Yorkfhire, which has fince been exe- cuted. In 1768, he revifcd the plan for the inland naviga- tion from Leeds to Liverpool j but, though he was ap- pointe' thofe of his own inventive mind, he generally retired to bed, and by there one, two, or three days, till he had devifed the expedients which he needed for the accomplilhment of Ins objeits. He tli-n got up, and executed his defign without any drawing or model, which he never ufcd, except for the Iitisfaiftion of his employers. His memory was fo tena- ciojs, that he could remember and e.\ecute all the parts of the njoft complex machine, provided lie had time, in hjs previous furvey, to fettle, in his mind, the fcven»l de- partments, and thcii relations to each other. In his calcu.- B R I lations of the powers of any machine, he performed the requitite operation by a raental procefs, in a manner which none kneiv but hi:rfelf, and which, perhaps, he was not able to communicate to others ; and after certain intervals- of confidcration, he noted down the refult in figures ; and then proceeded to operate upon that refult, until at length the complete folution was obtained, which was generally ri^bt. Sonie have faid that Mr. Brindley had been fo much negledted in early life, as never to have learned to read and write ; and it has alfo been affirmed, that his afpeA was that of an idiot, and his language mean, obfcu«-e, and almoit unintelligible. But neither of thefe faifls- is well founded. Although he read little, and wrote lefs, he had frequent occafiou for corrtfpondence with his friencis and employers* His countenance was fenfible and ar.imaled ; but as he was unoftentatious in his outward appearance, his drefs was always {>lain. His converfation, on occaiions of importance, and among his intimate friends, waa inllruiflive and interell- ing; and enlivened by the fingular genius, and t!ie benevo- lent and patriotic fpirit, for which he was dillinguilhed, and which gave energy to his purfuits. His want of literature, indeed, coropelle-d him to cultivate, in an extraoidinary degree, th« art of menu>iy ; and in order to facilitate the revival, in his mind, of thofe vilible objptls and their pro- perties, to whidi his attention was chiefly dirctled, he fecluded himfclf from the external impreflions of other ob- jects, in the folitude of his bed. Dr. Wallis, who was emi- nently diftinguifhed by the tenacioufiitfs of his memory, fo that he could extraft the cube root of any number to 100. places of figures in his mind, availed himfelf, for this pur- pofe, of a fimilar feclufion. Mr. Brindley's inceffant at- tention to important and interefting objefts, precluded hin» from participating in any of the ordinary amufements of life, and ii^deed, prevented his deriving from them any plea- fure. Accordingly, though he was once prevailed upoa by his friends in London to fee a play, he found his ideas fo much dillurbed, and his mind rendered fo unfit for buC- nefs, as to induce him to declare, that he would not on any account go to anotlier. It is not improbable, however, that by mdulging an occallonal relaxation, remitting his applica- tion, and varying his purfuits, his life might have been pro- longed, and his ufefulncfs extended. Whereas the multi- plicity of his engagements, and the con'.tant attention which, he bellowed on them, brought on a hettic fever, which con- tinued, with little or no intermifi".on, for fome years, and at laft terminated his ufcful and honourable career on the 27th of September, 1772, in the 56th year of his age, at Turr- hurft, in St^ffordfhire. He was buried at New Chapel, hi tlje fame county. The talents of Mr. Brindley were cf a fingular kind ; and under the patronage of his grace the duke of Bridg- water, they had an opportunity of being unfolded and exer- cifed to their full extent, iii the execution of works new to this cnmitry, and which will perpetuate his fame to future generations. The brief recital which has been given of his llupenJoud undertakings, will enable the reader to form fome j,udgraent of this extraordinary perfon. Such was the en- thuiirbfm with which he engaged in all fchemes of inland navigation, that he feemcd (if we may credit report) to. regard all rivers with contempt, whe-n compared with canals. To this purpofc, it is faid, that in an examination before the houfe of commons, when he was aflced by a member, for what purpofe he appi-ehendcd rivers were created ? he re- plied, after fome deliberation, " to feed navigable canals." As to his private charafter, thofe who knew him well, ai.d hadanopportunityofconverfing, familiarly with htm, refpeacd hir-A B R I aim in a liigli dfgree " for ihe uniform and iindiakcn inte- grity of his conduft ; for his fteady attachment to the in- terell of the commniuty ; for the vaft compafs of his undcr- llaidiniT, which fccmed to have a natural affinity with all j^rand objciSs ; and, likewife, for many noble and beneficial defigns, coiiilantly generating in his mind, and which the multiplicity of his engagements, and the fhortnefs of his life, prevented him from brinpring to maturity." Biog. Brit. BRINDONES, in Botany, a name given to the fruit of the mangoullan of the Celebes Iflands, the Garciana Celebica of Liim^up. In the old French Encyclopedic, it is erroneonfly conjeftured to be a fpecies of I^imunium. BRINE. This term is ufed technically for a foliition in water of common fait, or any faline liquid in which this fait is predominant. Thus the native fprings of fait water are called 3r/«c-fprings ; the fea water is termed brine. Sec. I.each, or Irlch-bririe, is the mother -water left in the pons during tl'.e mnnufafture of fait, after moft nf the pure fall has been obtained by boiling down. It confifls of muriai of foda mixed with the caithy murlats, and oilier impuri- ties of natural brine. For every thing relating to tltC manufafture of fait from briiie, fee Muriat of Soda. Brise alfo denotes a pickle pregnant with fait, wherein things are ftecped to keep. BaiNE-Z-rtcj, the pits wherein the falt-water is retained, and fuffered to (land, to bear the aclion of the fun, whereby it is converted into fait. There arc divers forts of falt-pans, as the wattr-pan, fecond-pan, fun-pan ; the water being transferred orderly from one to another. Brine-^;/, in Salt-making, the fait fpring from whence the water to be boiled into fait is taken. There are of thefe fprings in many places ; that at Namptwich, in Chefliire, is alone fufficicnt, according to the account of the people of the place, to yield fait for the whole kingdom ; but it is under the government of certain lords and regulators, who, that the market may not be overllocked, will not fufFer more than a certain quantity of the fait to be made yearly. See Pit. BRiNE-yij//. See Salt. Viv.i'Ai-fprings. See Salt and Spring. BRINEK, or Brineti, in /tjlronomy, the bnght flar rn the conlldlation Lyra ; more frequently called Lucida Lfrs. "BRINGERS-UP, in a lattalion, are the whole laft rank of men in it, or the hindmoll man in every _/?7i?. BRINGING-IN a horfe, in the Manege, is the keeping down his nofe, when he boars, and toffes it up to the wind. A horfe is l/rought-'tn by a ftrong hard branch. BRING-TO, in SeamanJlAp, to check, or retard, the velocity, or rate, of failing of a fhip, by arranging the fails in fuch a mar.rier, that they (hall counteraft each other, and thereby prevent her either from advancing a-head, or get- ting ilern-way. In this fituation the fhip is faid to lie-to, or to lie-hv. Bringing-to is generally ufed to detain a (hip in any particular llation, in order to wait the approach of fome other velTcl tha;t may be advancing towards her ; in waiting f.:r a boat from the (hore ; or, until there be fuflRcient deptb ef water to admit the veffcl to fail into a tide-harbour. Brisg-u^, an txprtffion ufed for coming to an anchor. Bring hy the lee, is when by bad ileerage, or otlitrwife, a ^Ip's head moves from llie wind, which (lie brings fncccf- fivcly allern, and then fo far rouod upon that which was formerly the lee fide, that the fails are laid aback. BRINJAN, in Geography, a town of Hindollan, in the country of Boglana ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Nalfuk. BRINJAUN, or Brinjam, a town in the peninfula of B R I India, in the Travancore countr)-, on the coaft of Wals' bar; :^ miles W. of Travancore. N. lat. 3° ig'. E. lonff. II 5 • BRINING of Grain, in Buraf Economy, the praflicc of immerfing it in fome fort of liquor or pickle, with the in- tention of preventing the fmut, or other difeafes. Steeps, or pickles for this ufe, are prepared in various ways, and with very different forts of materials ; but chiefly by dif- folving faline fubdances in water, urine, or fome other flnid, till they are very ftrongly impregnated with them. The grain, after having remained in thefe (leepsa fufiicieni length of time, as fix, eight, or ten hours, or more, according to circumlUiiccs, and the light part that fwims on the furface removed, is taken out and dried by proper draining, and the fifting of a little lime in a fine powdery (late over it. The fowing (hould be performed as foon as pofTible after this has been done, as the grain is liable to be foon injured by its being delayed. How far the ufe of ftecps or brining grai:i may be advantageous, or whether fuch pratliccs have any other utility than that of hallening the vegftation of the feed after it is committed to the earth, has not yet beeir well alcertaineJ by experiment. See Steep. Brining of Hay, the praftice of blending fait with hay in the operation of Racking, in order to preferve it more cffeftiially, and render it more palatable to animals. It is chiefly had rtcourfe to when hay has been much injured by rain in making. The pra£lice is faid to prevail in Ame- rica. BRINKE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia, and biihopric of Ofnabruck ; 16 miles S.E. of Ofnabruck. BRINN. See Brunn-. BRINON !es Allemands, a town of France, in the department of the Nicvre, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrifl of Clamecy ; lomiles S. of Clamecy. The town contains 314, and the canton 9959 inhabitants ; the territory includes 1424 kiliometres, and 26 communes. Bkinon f Archeveque, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- triA of loigny ; 4 leagues N. of Auxerre. The town con- tains 2372, and the canton 12395 inhabitants : the territory comprehends 257^ kiliometres, and 11 communes. BRINS, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ; 5 miles S. S. E. of Gabl. BRIOCA. See Briuega. BRIOLLAY, a town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of Sagre. The place contains 849, and the canton 6143 inhabitants; the territory includes 142^ kiliometres, and S communes. BRION, a town of Fi-ance, in the department of the Two Sevres, and diftricl of Thouars ; li league from Thouars — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lozere, and diftricl of Marvejols ; 3 leagues W. S. W. of St. Chely. Brion ijland, one of the Magdalen iflands, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 5 or 6 leagues VV. from the Bird iflands. N. lat. 47° 50'. W. long. 60° 47'. BRIONNE, a town of France, in the dcpartmerit of tlie Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Beniay, feated on the Rille, 3^ leagues N. N. E.of Bcmay. N. ht. 49° 51'. E. long. 0° 51'. BRIONNl, a fmall illandin the gulf of Venice, near the coall of Illria. N. lat. 4J° :o'. E. long. 13"^ 51'. BRIONY, in Botany. See Bryonia. BRIORD, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of ilie Ain j 10 miles S. of Bcllcy. BRIOS- B R I DRlOS-ToMBOs, a town of France, in the department of t!ie Oifc ; lo miles N. of Beauvais. DRIOUDI-, a town of I'raiicc, and principal place of a didriH in the depaninent of the I'ppcr Loire, feated on the river AUier, over which is a bridge of Hone, which is i-egarded as a Rninan work. The town contains 5j86, and the dilbicl I jS07 iuhabitr.nts: the territory compreliends26j;!i.i;ionietrcs, ui.d 19 communes. This is called "Old Brioudc," by way of dilliiiition from " Driondc Ghfi-," whith lie.; alfo near the liver AUicr, in which is a collegiate church, called St. Julian. N.lat. 4; 1 4'- K. long, .i'^ 23'. DK.IOUX, a town of France, in the department of the Two Sevres, and ch'if place of a canton, in the ditlricl of Mcllc; 1 leagues S. W. of McUe. The place contains 741, and the Ciuton 92:5 inhabitants; the tcirilury includes j|ij kihomitres, and 23 cj:^ununes- BRIOUZE, a town of France, in the department of the Oine.and chief place of a canton, in the dilhid uf Argentan ; 4-' leagues \V. of Argentan. The town contains 940, and t'lie canton 9,;;o inhabitants: the territory includes 1152A klliomelrcs, and I 7 communes. r.RIQ^UEBEC, a town of France, in the department of the Ch.-innel, and chief place of a canton, in the dilbicl of Valugnes ; ;i leagues W. of Valognes, and ,j J S. of Cher- burg. The town contains 4000, and the canton 1 1, 1 08 in- habitants : the territory comprehends 1 73 kiliometres, and I I commnnts. BRIQUENAY, a town of France, in the department of the Ardennes, and dillrid of Vouziera ; 4 miles N. of Grandpre. . „ r DRIQ_UER.\S, a town of Piedmont, m tlie valky ot Lucerne ; 4 leagues S. of Pignerol. N. lat. 44^ 41'. E. long. 7° 24'. BRISACH, or Brfysach, OIJ, a town of Germany, formerly the capital of Brifgaw, feated on the Rhine, ar.d partly upon an eminence, which commands the adjacent champaign country. The bridge of boats over the Rhine at this place was demoliil-.ed fome years ago, and the pafiage altered to a ferry. It was formerly an imperial city, but mortgaged in ij.ii, by the Emperor Lewis of Bavaria, to Otto duke of Auftria, and the mortgage was ratified by Charles V. in 1 348. This place had formerly a fortrefs, which was taken by the French in 1688, but redored in 1697, and a'^ain taken in 170.3, but furrendered in i;ij. The fortifica- tions were razed in 1741, by order of Maria Therefa, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and the town became an open place. N. lat. 48° 51'. E. long. 7° 49'. See Brisgaw. Bkisach, ncu; a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trid of Colmar, fituate about a mile from the well fide of the Rhine, and oppofite to the old town. It was built by Lewis XIV. and fortified by M. Vauban ; it flands entirely upon the plain, and its ftrcets are fo regular that in the great market all the gates of the town are to be feen. The town contains 1682, and the canton 7925 inhabitants: the ter- ritory comprehends 170 killometres, and 16 communes. The road from this place to Bafie, 9 leagues N. diftaiit from it, is very pleafant, and commands a prolpec\ on the left hand beyond the Rhine into the margraviate of Baden. N. lat. 48^ .5'. E. long. 7° 41'/. , BRIS AGO, a town of the Milancfe, feated on the borders of the Italian bailliages, and near the well bank of the Lago Maggiore or lake of Locarno, and ', miles S. of Lo- carno. N.lat. 45° 55'. E. long. 8. j j'. }iRISAU, or Br/kzowa, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz, 6 miles S. of Zwitau. BRI6BA>'E, John, in Bk^mphy, originally of Kelfo, in B R I Scotland, prailifed medicine feveral years, towardsth.ee: d of thelalt century in London, and piibhlhed in 1 -C)y, "Anatomy of Paintin;;, orafhort and eafy Introdufticni to Anatomy, con- lillin" of tables of Albinus, with linear figures on a Inidler fcak-rincluding .'\lbinus's figures of the Uterus," fol. London. Alfo " feleCt Cafes in the pradice of Medicine," 8vo. 1772, London. Among thefe, are interfpcrfcd fome ufcful prac- tical obfervations. Haller. Bild. BRISE', in Fremh Armory, fignifies broken, and implies an ordinary with part of it broken off. The Eii^lifk blazon it with the word couped. BRISEIS, in Kiiloniology, a fpecics of Papilio, the wings of which are dcntated, brown, and glodtd wiih (liiiiing green : on the anterior wings two ocellutcd fpols, and a white band : two black fpots beneath. Iiiliabitj Germany. Linn. Fabr. &c. — Tliis is Papillo Jaiitho of Pallas. Briseis, in Fabulous ll'ijlory, the wife of Myncs king of Lyrnelfa, who was taken c-!ptive by Achilles, afti.-. he had taken the city and killed her hulband. D.Jt wh.-n Aga- memnon robbed him of this objed of his ardent affedion, file became the accidental caufe of innumerable diforders in the Grecian army. Achilles, enraged, retired to his tent ; and till the de.ilh of I'atruclus refufed to fight agaiiill the Trojans. BRISELLO, ill Geography. See Bkrslllo. BRLSCi.-\\V, a dillrid of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, fituated on the call fide of tlie Rhine, by which it is feparated from France ; a portion of it was formerly pof- fc-fhd by the marquis of Baden, and the principal part be- longed to the houfe of Auftria ; but by the i8th article of the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, confirmed by the 4th article of the treaty of I^uneville, in 1801, his majeilv tlie emperor, king of Hungary and Bohemia, bound lumfclf to cede to the duke of Modena, as an indemnification for the territory which that prince and his heirs poffcfied in Italy, the Brifgaw ; which he is to polTcfs upon the fame con- ditions as thofe, in virtue of which he pofielTcd the Modenefe. BRISIACUS, Mons, in Andmt Geogmphy, a town on the right or call fide of the Rhine, now Old Brifach. BRISICH, or Breysich, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of ^Vcllphalia, ai'.d duchy of Juliers ; 16 miles N. N. W. of Coblentz. BRISIGUELA, a town of Italy, in the province of Romagna, belonging to the Hate ot the church ; 6 miles from Fayenza. BRISITINO, a town of Naples, in the province of Capitanata ; 1 1 miles S. S. W. of MaiifreJona. BKISK, a town of Germany, in the circle of Tapper Saxony, and LTckermark of Brandenburg ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Beefliow. BRISKET, in the Manege, that part of a horfe extend- ed from the two flioulders to the bottom of the cheft. BRISKOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; 4 miles S. of Franckfort on the Oder. BRISSAC, a town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and dillrid of Angers ; if kagues S.S.E. of Angers. BRISSEAU, Peter, in A'ojrrt/'/j)', after receiving his de- gree of dodorin medicine, at Montjieliier, went to Paris, where he acquired confiderable reputation by his pradice. In 1677, he was admitted of the college of phylieians at Tournay. He was foon after appointed by Lewis XIV. phyfician to the military hofpitah at Tournay and Mons ; and on Tonrnay's being taken by the allies in 1709, he removed to Dov/av, where he died September joth, 1717, aged S6 year's-. Brifleau was author of feveral works ; but what acquired him B R I B R I him mod credit, was his " Nouvelles Olifcrvntions fur la Cataracle," 'Ruirnay, 1706, i2mo. continued in 1 70S, by " Suite (les Obfervations I'lir la CatarafteJ' Ho was the lirlb who demoiiiliMtcil, that the catarart is b dileafe of the cry- ihiUine lens. I.afiiier, and Qiiarrc, who Iv.-ld the fame opi- iiimi, had not diffeclud any eyes, alTcrted witli the difeafe, or publilhed any thing upon the fiibjecl; ; neverthelefs, the College of Surgeons at Paris rcfufed to give BrilTeau the credit of the difcovery. " Obfcrvationi faites par M. B." 1 2mo. I 706. Thefe are all on furgical fubjcfts. He cured a fuldier of a wound in the fld of his refidencc at Boulogne, had been introduced to niadcmoifellc Dupont, who was employed under mad. de Genlis as reader to the daughter of the duke of Oilcans, and whofe mother kept a lodging houfe in that place: and having married this Kidy, whom mad. Roland extols as a pattern of every domellic virtue, he found it nc- celTary to exert his literary talents for gainin" a fubtiHence. ISut as France did not alTord that unrcllrided liberty, which as an author lie wilhed to indulge, he formed a del'ign of printing, in SwifTerland or Germany, a feiies of works in a kind of ptiiadienl publication, under the title of " An uiii- verfal Correfpondence on Points intertlling to the Welfare of Man and of Society," which lie propofcd to fmuggle into France. With this view, he vifitcd Geneva and Nei'i- chatel, in order to eftablifli coriefpondences ; and he alfo made a journey to London, which was to be the central point of the ellablilhment, and the fixed rcric!ence of the \vi iters. His Intention.i!, however, were divulged by the treachery of fomc of his confidential afTociates ; and the fcheme, romantic in itfelf, whatever the judicious and candid may think of its ultimate dcfign and tendency, totally fail- ed. During his abode in London, he concerted the plan of a period'cal work or journal, on the literature, arts, and politics of England, wliich, bring piiblifhcd in London, was allowed to be reprinted at Paris, and full appeared in 1784. The avowed objcd of thi* publication, as he him- felf declares, was " the univerfal emancipation of men." Li London, he was arreHed for debt ; but being liberated by the generofity of a friend, he returned to Paris, where he was committed to the baftille, in July 1 7S4, on the charge of being concerned with the marquis Pclleport in a very ob- noxious publication. But by the intercll of the duke of Orleans, obtained by mad. Genlis at the interceflion of his wife, he was releafed, on condition of never rcliding in England, and difcontinuing his political correfpondence. In 1785, he publifhtd two letters to the emperor joftph IL " Concerning the Right of Emigration, and the Right of the People to revolt," which he applied particularly to the cafe of the Walachians : and, in the following year, appeared liis " Pliilofophical Letters on the Hillory of England," in 2 vols, and " A critical Examination of the Travels of the Marquis de ChatcUeux in North America." With a view of promoting a clofe, political, and commercial union between France and the United States, he wrote in 1787, with the aflillance of Claviere, a traft, entitled " De la France et dcs Etats Unis, &c." " On France and the United States; or on the Importance of the Arr.crican Revolution, to the Kingdom of France, and the reciprocal Advantages which will accrue from a commercial Ir.tercourfe between the two Nations." Of this work, an Englifh tranflation was pub- lifhed, both in England and America. At this time, he was in ihe fervice of the duke of Orleans, as fecretary to his chancery, with a handfome falary, and apartments in the palais royal ; and, without doubt, employed in aiding his fchemes of ambition. In this fituation, he wrote a pamphlet againft the adminiftration of the archbifhop of Sens, entitled " No Bankruptcy, &c." which occafioned the iduing of a lettre d« cachet againft him. But to avoid its effeft, he went to B R I Holland, England, and the Low Countries; and at Mech- lin, he edited a newfpaper, called " Le Courier Belgique." For the purpofe of promoting the views of a fociety at Pa- ris, denominated " Lts Amis des Noirs," and ettablilhed for the pUrpofe of abolifhing negix) flavery, he embarked for America in 1 788; and, during his refidence in that coun- try', he fought for a convenient lituation, in which a colony of Frenchmen might be organized into a republic, according to his ideas of political hberty. But his return washallened in 1789 by the intelligence he received of the progrefsof the French revolution ; after his arrival, he publiflied his " Tra- vels in America ;" (Nouvcau Voyage dans les Etats Unis, &c. ,3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1791.) and as he found the atten- tion of the public direfted to the approaching aflembly of the States-General, he wrote his " Plan of Conduft for the Deputies of the People." At this time, he had withdrawn from the partifans of the duke of Orleans ; and he took an aflive part in the plans that were then projected for the or- ganization of the people, with a view to their imion and energy in accomplifliing the revolution. To the lodgings of BrifTot, as a perfou who was held in cllimation at this pe- riod, the keys of the bailillc, when it was taken, were con- veved ; he alfo became prefident of tlie Jacobin club ; and he dillinguiflied himfelf in various ways as a zealous pro- moter of thofe revolutionary principles, which, afterwards, gave occafion to a great number of atrocious exceffes. Af- ter the king's flight to Varennes, BrifTot openly fupported the republican caufe ; nor does there feem to be fufiicient reafon for fuppofing, that he was fecretly concerned in the plot for raifing the duke of Orleans to the throne. But as fome form of monarchy was ftill the objeft of the national wifh, he was obliged to reihain his impetuofity. The po- pularity acq\iircd by his writings, and conduft, was fuch, as to induce the Parilians to return him as one of their members in the " I>egi(lative national afTembly," which fuc- ceeded the " Conllitucnt afTembly" in Odouer J 791, of which adembly he was appointed fecretary ; and he became afterwards a member of the committee of public inftruilion. Although inferior to many others in talents and knowledge, his aftivity raifed him to the rank of head or chief, in the party denominated " Girondills" or " La Gironde," the name of the department to which feveral of its members be- longed, and alfo from his own name " BrifTotins." In hia career of ambition, he does not feem to have been influenctd by pecuniary confiderations ; power, more than wealth, being the objedl of his aim ; for, at this time, he and his family lodged in an apartment up four pair of flairs, and fublilled on his ftipend as deputy, and the inconfiderable gains accruing from a newfpaper. As a determined enemy to monarchy, he was unremitting in his efforts to engage the nation in a war, with the avowed purpofe of involving the king and his miniflers in difliculties which would termi- nate in their ruin ; and this part of his political condufl mull ever be lamented and execrated by the friends of free- dom, and of mankind. In the impeachment of M. Delef- fart, the minillcr for foreign affairs, Biidot took a principal lead ; and alleged againfl him feveral articles of accufation, in confequence of which, he was apprehended, tried by the high national court at Orleans, and condemned to die, with- out being firll heard in his own defence, fo that he became the firll vidim to that defperate faftion, which afterwards deluged France with blood. His colleagues were fo com- pletely terrified by this event, that they requtiled leave to relign, and the miniltiy was at once completely diffblved. Their fucceffors, appointed by the king, under the direc- tion and influence of Briflbt, were Dumouricr, Roland, and Claviere. This appoiatnaent was followed by a declaration 3 of B R I B R I of war, decreed !iy tlie national anembly, apaiiid tlic king ■of Hungary and Bohejnia ; arid BrifTot, durinr; tlie exillence of tliis adminillration, which ternninated fooji, was confider- ed as the moll powerful pcrfon in France. AJKnit this time, BrilTot began to entertain fccret jealoufy and fiifpicion, with regard to the views of La Fayette ; and he concurred with ether members of the affembly, in figning an accufation againft him, which, however, he was not able to fubltan- tiate. He, and his republican party, were likewife indullri- ous in their endeavours to throw an odium on the court, by alleging, that a private correfpondence was carried on be- tween the king and queen and the emperor; and they even averred, that an " Aullrian committee," and a confpiracy in favour of the cnemif^ of the country, exiilcd among the friends of the court. The charge fccmed to be unfupportcd by lufficient evidence ; the king publicly contradifted thefe accufations as calumnies ; neverthclefs, they made no fmall impreflion on the minds of the public. To the writings and conduft of Briflot, the horrid maflacres at the Tnilleries, on the loth of Augull 1792, have been principally afcrib- ed, though he is faid to have prcfcrvcd the lives of fevcral of the Swifs guards on that fatal day. He was employed to draw up the declaration to the neutral powers concerning the fufpenfion of the king's authority ; but he is faid to have regarded with hoiTor the fanguinary fpirit that was flow predominant among the leaders of the jacobins. Whilll, indeed, he was afcending to the pinnacle of power, he feems to have been the ardent advocate of infurreftion and the re- volutionary power : but as he found himfelf raifed to that ftation, he began to inculcate " order and the conftitution." To him we may not unjuftly apply that erpreffion in Taci- tus, which he cites againft the anarchifts in the national convention : " Rerum potiri volunt ; honores, quos quieta repubhci dtfperant perturbata, confequi fi pofle arbitran- tur." In the fhocking maffacre of the prifonevs at Paris in September, he had probably no concern. When the " National convention," the idea of which is faid to have been fuggefted by him, affumed the direilion of the Hate, and affembled on the 20th of September 1792, he was re- turned as member for the department of Eure and Loire, his native country. In this affembly, he openly avowed himfelf an advocate for a republican government, in oppofi- tion both to the Jacobins and Orleanifts ; and was expelled the Jacobin club. On this occafion, he wrote a vindication of his public conduft, under the title of " An Addrefs to all the Republicans." He appears to have been fhocked by the profpeft of the fatal iilue of the king's trial, and to have attempted th-e prefervation of his life, by deferring his exe- cution, till the conftitution fhould be perfcfted. The war with England, which foon followed the death of I^ouis, is afcribed to his ardour and credulity ; for he was led to ima- gine, that the confequencc of it would be a civil war in this •country ; and it is faid, that this, as well as the war with Holland, was decreed in the national convention, Feb. i, 1 793, at his motion. This charge, however, he retorts on Ids accufers, and fays, that the anarchifts, by voting the . This fecond city of England is fituated on the fouthern extremity of Gloucefterdiire, and the northern of Somerfetftiire, and once formed part of both counties. It is fcatcd principally on a peninfula between the rivers Frome and Avon, and hes in 51° 30' N. lat. 2° 46' W. long, and is in a bearing weft 1 1 7 miles from London, and 12 from Bath. Various conjeftures have been formed relative to its ancient and prefent name. Barret, in his large hiftory of this city, fays it received the appellation of Caer- Oder at an early period; but is at a lofs for t' e origin of Oder. Caer-Brito, its original defignation, was evidently the generic name it obtained while a protefted city of the' Bri- tons, under the Roman forces, which were ftationed at Abone in its immediate vicinity. From this it was changed to Brightftow, or Brighticftow, perhaps a tranflnion of Caer-Brito j or it might have taken that name from U n Brightick, BRISTOL. Brightick, fon of Algsr, nnJ grfat-f;raiulfbn of Alfred, who was licixiliury lord of tlie place. Iti prefciit iiaii;e, Driftol, : -' ' ■ have been derived from fome early Latin writers, it, by w:»y of euphony, into Briltulina, while tl.'.t ■ I : ■■jnimoii prommciation, Urillow, is evidently an abridi^ed mode of pronouncing rriplitliow. It is a tra- dition, from an accoimt whicii WilUam of Worccrter givcj out of a M.S. he fav." in the houfe of the Calenderies, that Briilow w.is foundtd, or rebuilt by Brennus, fon of Malmutiuj Dii.i.vallo, who reijjned a king of the Britons 380 years antecedent to the Chtillian cera. In allulion to which two ilatncs are placed over St. John's gate, in this city, emblematic of BrcMiius and Bclinut, wlio are faid to li»vc rcijincd couj'jintly after the dtceafe of ih'.-ir father. It is prob.ible tliat a htuation fo eligible mull iiave (Inick the taily Diitoiio, who therefore made it a place ot alFociated habitati'Mi, previous to the Roman invaGon ; however, it is t»ideiit that it was a place of importance Jtuingthat period, for Gilda:!, as catly as A. D. 450, reckons this 'among t!ie forlillevl and eminent cities of Britain, under the name ©f Cacr-Brito. Kttinins tlfo, A. D. 620, mentions it in his enumeration of 2^i cities of Britain. On the dereliction of the iHand by the Komans, the Saxons overran the country and took poflelllon of Brillol. Leland fays, it was by them conlij^r.ilily increafcd ; and alfo remark?, that St. Jordanus, a difciple of St. Auguftine, fent by pope GrCj^ory to con- vert tlie Saxons to Chriltianity, preached the gofptl at Briftol, where he died arul was buried. Thus we lind it a place of note at the end of the 6th century. In Domefday book, finidted by command of the conqueror in J086, the inhabitants are ttyled burgefles. It was then exceeded in rate by no city, except London, York, and Wincheilcr. E.irly and prtfcnt extent. The city, as firll laid out at the conflux of the Frome and Avon, was, except on the northern part, where afterwards thecaftlc was erected, infulated by thefe rivers. The ground rofe each way to the centre, forming a pleafant hill. It was divided into four tranfverfe ftreets, and walled round after the courfc of the river for its better defence. At the end of each ftreet were a fortified gate and a church, and fourchurchcs furrounded the crofs atthecentreofthecity. fn this llate BriAol could not exceed a mile and a half in circumference. The conflux of people drawn hither bv its growing trade foori extended it beyond the walls, both on the Gloucefterfliire and Redcliffe fide of tlie Avon. Other walls and gates therefore would become neceffaiy, and it was thus further defended, before the wooden bridge was built acrofs the Avon. Leland mentions others, which he ternisv " Ellcrnavel fecunda mocnia urbis." indeed, the large and llrong caftle, with its outworks, when completed, as it joined clofcly to the old town and the buildings on the fouthern fide of the river, inclofed alfo by a Urong wall, were great additions to the city, and thus made its circumference at leall two miles and a half. The acceflion of the monallery of St. Auguftine, with Gaunt's church and hofpital to the w-ell, t!ie priory of St. James to the north-wett, and the pur- chafe of the caftle precindis, and laying it out in llreets, added very confiderably to the extent of Brillol, towards the clofe of the J 7th century. Since that period moft of the buildings have been erected, both in the city and fuburbs, which bear a modern appearance, and tliefe have been nume- rous; fo that it may be truly faid, that Briftol has increafcd, within the laft 40 years, full a fourth. This city once formed part of the Saxon kingdoms of Weflex and Mercia ; and after the whole of England was fubjeded to one monarch, aijd divided into counties or fliires, conftituted part of the coimties of Gloucefter and Somerfct, though it was generally cgnfidered as belonging to the latter county. It was by royal 4 charter, temp. F.dw. III. made a county of itfelf ; and by other diliVrent charters, its boundaries have bttn exterdtd from time to time, till they now form a line on the Glou- cefterfliire fide, of 4^ miles and 57 perches, and on the So- merfttdiire fide 2 i miles and 18 perches: the whole city is therefore 7 miles and ^, <^ perches in circumference, and, taking in the fnburbs from Lawrence-hill in the call to tlie Hot- wells in the well, is more than z '"'Its in length. Its breadth, from Stokes Croft turnpike on the north, to Afiiton turn- pike on the fouth, is upwards of 2^ miles. The number of houfes and inhabitants it is difficult to afcertain. In the late furvey by order of government, the return from Brillol mull have been very inaccurate, and is ftated at 10,896 houfts, and 63,645 inhabitants. Anderron,in 1758, puts the latter down at ico,oco, but gives no documents for this enumera- tion. The houfes may be ftated on an average citiniate at 17,003; and if the environs of Templc-llrect, Lewin's-mead, College-place, Limc-kiln-lane, &c. be attended to, the rate of 7 to a lionfe will not appear too high. This calculatioD, including thofe in hofpitals, alms houfes, &c. will bring it to about 1 28,000 pcrfons, which will not far exceed the truth. I'iiUic Biiildiii^^s, &.C. The buildings in tlie old part of tlie city are awkward, and the various alterations that have taken place at diiFerent periods have deftroyed all uniformity. 'I'iic cttv ftands on very uneven ground, and very high vvalis are raifed round molt of the houfes; but the enormous height t» which they are often built, appears highly unreafonable, efpe- cially \\\v.n it is confideied that an enclofiiig wall has been known to coft the value of the houle itfelf. This fafljion is de- clining, and Briftol can now boall fome good and handfomc houfes, in the open ftreets, fquares, 5cc. Among the principal buildings are the Cathedral, Redcliffe Church, the Exchange, Infirmary, Public Library, Theatre, AITembly-rooms, &c. The CiitheJrtil is only part of the original building, which was the church belonging to the abbey of St. Auguftine, founded by Robert Fitzharding, younger fon of the king of Penmark, whofe monument is ftill preferved within it. At the difl'olution of the monaftery, this noble building, then .^,■50 feet in length, was partly demoliflied ; but when the king determined to eretl fix new bifiioprics, of which Briftol was one, and was informed there was enough of the fabric left for a cathedral, he put a ftop to its further demohtion ; the weftcrn part being removed, it was left in that mutilated ftate in whicli it remains ; the prefent fabric confifts of the tranfept, the eaftern part of the nave, and the choir. At trie weft end is a large fquare tower, highly ornamented and crowned with battlements and four pinnacles. The ptelent church, from eaft to weft, is 175 feet; its breadth of tranfept, from north to fouth, 1 28 feet ; the breadth of nave and aides 73 feet, and height of the tower 140 feet. The efta- bliftiment is a dean, fix prebendaries, four minor canons, facrill, Sec. ; and fervice is performed twice every day. The Chitrch of St. Mory Rsdcl'i^'e, fays Camden, " is like a cathedrcil, and on all accounts the firil parifti church in England." It was founded in 1392 by Simon de liurton, who was fix times mayor of Bri'lol. According to tlie mayor's calendar, this church was finifhed A. D. 1376, and was then celebrated for its architecture all over England. The tower and fpire were 250 feet high ; but in 1445 a ter- rible ftorm of thunder and hghtning deftroyed part of the fpire, and the church was much damagfjd. The latter was repaired by the munificence of Mr. William Cannyiigs, mer- chant, but the fpire was never rebuilt. The church ftands on an eminence, called RedchiTe-hill, and is built in the form of a crofs. The nave rifes above the aifles, is lighted by a fcries of lofty windows on each fide, and is fupported by flying buttrelTes. The tower is large, and with the remain-. igg BRISTOL. IBT part of tlie fpire, viclily ornamented witli carved work, and alfo a variety of niches and (latiies. Though a kifty and maffy building, yet, from t!ie pecuhar beauty of its ma- foniy, it has a ligiit and airy appearance both without and within. I'he roof, nearly 60 feet in height, is arched with ftone, and ornamented with various devices. The church, in- cluding our lady's chapel, is in length 239 feet, and the tran- fept, from north to fouth, 1 1 7 feet. The breadth of the nave and aides is 59 feet, and at the crofs, nave and ailles, 1 14 feet. The height of the aides both direCl and tranfepts is 25 feet. The height of the nave is 54 feet. St. Mary's chapel has been feparated from the church, and is ufed as a grammar- fchool. A peculiarity obfervable in Redciide-church is that the trani'ept coniifls of three divifions, or aides, limilar to the body of tlie church, which has a fine cffeiR when the fpetlator places hinilclf in the centre of the building, and looks around him. Belides the above, there are 15 other paridi churches in Bnllol, fome of which are modern ftruc- turcs. Temple church is rather curious, and its tower is out «f the perpendicular. There are alfo 22 chapels, or places of wordiip tor difi"entcrs of different denominations, and 5 chapels of the eftablillicd religion. The Hxr/.-dn^e, diiilhed and opened in 174,^, was built by V/ood, the architect of BkiIi, at an expence of 50,000 1. It is a handfome building, in the Grecian llyle, no feet in front, and 14S feet in depth. The principal front is upon a bold rufticatcd bafement, the central part of which makes a tetrailyle of almod whole columns, with Corinthian capitals, fiippoitlng a pediment, in the tympan of which are the arms of England carved in ftone. The place intended for the merchants is a perillyle of the Corinthian order, 90 feet by 80, and capable of containing 1440 perfons. The General Hofpitul, for the reception of all cafes, and all perfons of whatever nation, is a handfome edifice, though it has unfortunately never been yet completed. The Theiitre-royal, King-ttreet, is a peculiarly neat and convenient ftrufture : indeed, Mr. Garrick pronounced it to be the completed in Europe of its dimenfions ; and he wrote a prologue and epilogue, which were delivered at the open- iiig, May 30th, 1766. The Brijlol City Library, is fo called, becaufe part of its coUeftion belongs to the corporation, and the greateft part te a focicty of gentlemen. It contains an excellent affem- blage of ancient and modern books, which, by donations and annual fubfcriptions, are rapidly increafing. They are con- tained in a large freeftone building erefted for the purpofe, with a convenient houfe for the head librarian, who has alfo an affiftant librarian. The AJfemhly-room, in Prince's-ftreet, has a beautiful front of free-ftone, coniilting of a ruftic bafement, with a central projctlion fupporting four Corinthian columns, coupled and crowned with an open pediment. On the frieze, in relievo, is the follov.'ing nwtto : " Curas cithara toUit," Mufic dif- pcls care. To thefe may be added, the Gu'ihUmll, where the aflizes, Itdlons, and other public bufinefs are tranfafted. Crjveriiment, civil OJJtcers, Sec. — The original govern- ment of Brillol feeniB to iiave been mixed, military and civil ; the chief authority redding in the lord conftable of the caftle, who deputed another officer for the execution of JBllicc, called " prepodtus villas," or provoft of the town. The earlieft account of this officer occurs in Domcfday- book. In the reign of king John, Briftol obtained a charter to be governed, like London, by a mayor. Sic. From the Annals, it appears, that the civil government, 'at different periods, has been varioufly modelled, as nppears itom the following lift : 1. Till A. D. 1205. A prcpofitor under the cullos of the cadlc. 2. 1266. A mayor and two prcpofitors. 3. 13 '3- A mayor and two fcnefchals. 4. i.S"^' -A mayor and two bailiffs. fj, 1500. A mayor, dieriff, and two bailiffs. 6. To this day. A mayor and two fheriffs chofen an- nually. Thegovcrnmcnt of thecity isnowadminidercd by a mayor, a recorder, twelve aldermen, who arc all jufticcs of the peace, two dieriffs, an undcr-dierilf, twenty-eight common- council-mcn, town-clerk, deputy town-clerk, ci>amberlain, vice-chamberlain, fteward of the dieriffs' court, clerk of the arraigns, re giftrar of the court of confcience, and alfo a high fteward. There arc other officers pertaining to the corpora- tion, as fword-bearers, two coroners, water-bailiff, quay-maf- ters, fchool-madcrs, clerk of the markets, keepers of the pri- fons, infpcSors of nuifanccs, eight fcrj cants at mace, criers of the court, common-crier, exchange-keeper, dieriffs' officers, club-men, city marflial, and a band of muficians in conftant pay. Great form is obfervcd on the ijtii of September, in tile clcftion of mayor, when the whole body corporate is convened. He is allowed icool.for the year of his mayoralty, and the dieriffs -ocl.each for th;: year of their dirievalty. The mayor has the highell marks of honour granted to magi- ftracy, fcarlet ermine gowns, fword, mace, cap of main- tenance, &c. He holds a daily fedlons in the council, houfe to iicar complaints, and accommodate diflerences, courts of confcience, and pie-powder, quarterly ftfTious, and a ge- nera4 jail delivery twice a year : one for the decidon of civil, and the other of criminal caufes, wherein the court has the power of life and death. The mayor, aldermen, and com- mon council have the cuftody of the city feal, which is im- predl'd with the city arms. Tliefe are gules, a cadle on a hill by the fea-fide, and the helm of a fliip pafling by, all proper ; to which were afterwards added two unicorns as fupporters. The motto is, " Virtute et Induftria." From the time Bridol was made a county of itfelf, it has, by various charters, and grants, been endowed vi'ith additional privileges and immunities, all of which were confirmed by a new charter from queen Anne. By another of king Edward IV. 1461, Bi-iftol was ex- empted from the authority of the high admiral of Eng- land by land and water ; and 'the right of determining differences, belonging to the court of admiralty, was re- ferred to the mayor and corporation. The jurifdic- tion by water extended up the river only to lower Harrate, till an aft of William carried it to Hanham ; thence it reaches to Kingroad and down the channel to the Flat-holmes. To this place, Gildas, the ancient Britidi faint and liidorian, retired, and here he died. The opulent corporation of Brillol is poffefled of large edates, both in the city and in the country ; and they arc the patror,s of feveral church livings, fo that they not only podefs great influence, but have it in their power to encourage genius, and reward induftry and merit. The city is divided into twelve wards, each of which has an alderman to pre- fide over it. The recorder is always one of the aldermen, and, by virtue of his oifiee, the principal. The fenior alderman, as in Eondon, is called the father of the city. Every ward has one chief conftable, and twelve others, a night conftable, and aproper number of watchmen under him. Briftol contains three prifons : Newgate, at tlie end of Wine-ftreet, which is a gaol for malefactors and debtors ; Bridewell, or the city prifon, for the confinement and cor- reftion of kfs offenders; and at the end of Gloucefter-dreet is a prifon, on Howard's plan, for that part of the fuburbs U u 2 wiiich BRISTOL. which ftands in the county of Glouceftcr, and a Bridewell on the Somcrfct fide. The aft for lltrhting liriftol with lamps was procured in the reign of William III. This obliged the citizens to hang out their own lamps ; but they are now provided, and the lighting contraflcd for, by the different parilhes. Moll of the ftrccts are well paved on the paiTjge. In 1 583, fir Humphrey Gilbert performed a voyage for the colonization of America, an account of which is given in Hackluyt. Many other voyages were afterwards made from Brillol, with the like public-lpiritid views, tliough not witli equal fuccefs. The merchants had, previous to 1526, traded to St. Lucas in Spain, and thence to the Canaries, iijeV with Hag ftones ; but the pitching with pebbles in the fending out cloth foap, &c. and bringing in return fugar, carriace-^-av is at prefent extremely uneven and bad, and drugs, dye-ftuff, &c.; and De Wit, m Ins lutereft of Holland, requ.ri amendment. The poor rates are feparately af- fays this city very early engaged m the cod-hd.ery on the Icired.andcolleaedontherefpeftivcpBrinies; but the poor coall of Newfoundland, and alfo entered into the Well- M-e taken care of conjointly, and have a houfe called St. India trade foon alter the difcovenes were iriade. In Paer's hofpital. The-re are fourteen (lands of hackney 15,-6, the merchants were mcorporated into the fociety roaches in various parts of the city, and one at Dowry called Merchant Venturers ; and various grants, immunities, fouare Each coach is numbered, and marked C. B. There and franchifes, were annexed to their locicty. bcbalhan Ca- bas lately been inlUtuted at Bnftol a fociety for the fup- bot was conlbtuted the t.rll; governor. I" '5«i^. four ihips were fitted out from fjnilol to join the (^ucen s fleet ran vote for members but fuch as are free of the city, v/hich freedom is attained by fervitude, by hereditary right, by marrying a freeman's daughter, or by purchafe. The number of freemen, at prefent, is about 8000. The city gives title to an earl, and the earldom was formerly in the uoble family of Digby, but is now in that of Hervey. Commerce, Trade, Shipping, &c. — That a port fo fitu- ated as Brillol (hould have early participated in the com- merce of the country, can be no matter of furprize. Wil- liam of Malmlbury, in n 39, fays, it was a place much ad- difted to trade, and was then full of {hips from Ireland, Norway, and every part of Europe, which brought hither much commerce, and great foreign wealth. From the charter of king John fomcthing may be learnt of the com- merce of the place in his reign, but more will be furniflied by that of Edward III. Brillol was grown fo opulent in 13:7, that the mayor and commonalty lent the king (Richard II.) 500 marks, which is the firll inftance (ex- cept London) in the Fccdera of a lay community lending dour for the African trade feems much to be abated ; and the Briltolians now yield the palm of IraHic iu humaubcings to the rival port of Liverpool. The merchants in BriRol trade with a more entire independence on London than any other port in Britain. Whatever exportations they make to any part of the world, they can import the full returns, and find a market, without configning their (liips or cargoes to London. They have buyers at home for their largeft importations, confcquenlly the fhopkeepers of Briftol, moil of whom are wholefale dealers, keep up a great inland trade, having riders and carriers, like the London merchants. The quay of Briftol, which was commenced where the bed of the Frome was altered, reaches round from the ftone bridge on the Frome, to the new handfome bridge over the Avon ; in extent one mile, being one uninterrupted wharf of hewn ftone, with fufEcient depth of water, at flood tides, for the largeft (hips to ride clofe to the walls, and difcharge their cargoes. Thefe, as the tide ebbs, ride fafe at their moorings on a foft oozy bed of mud ; but foreign and (harp money to the crown ; and, in future loans, we (ind Briftol keeled (hips are often tlrained, and obliged to go into follow London. In 1487, a petition was prefented to dock after lying here. This occafioned a new floating-dock the king, to empower the citizens of Briftol to remove all to be made, at the expence of 20,oool. It is fituated neai: obftruftions in the river Avon that impeded its navigation the Hot-wellroad ; its gates will admit a (^4 gun vefleUand between Briftol and Bath; for before the time of Ri- it will contain 40 fail of flipping. Here alfo are dry and wet chard I. the Avon was navigable to Bath. In 1711, an docks, for repairing and building fhips. A fcheme has long aft of parliament was obtained, at an expence of 15,000!. been in contemplation to dam up the water, and keep the to amend this navigation by placing wears, locks, and vefTels in the harbour conftantly afloat. In T8o,j,anaftof other obftruftions. In the roll of the fleet of Edward III which was at the fiege of Calais, in 1347, we find the pro- portion of (hips and men furnifhed, on that occafion, by London and Briftol : the former fupplied 2 j (hips, and 662 men, and the latter quota was 22 (hips, and 608 men. William Cannyngs is diftinguiftied as a great merchant Parliament was obtained for the purpofe, a plan was adopted, and this great work is now executing with all poflible expe- dition. When completed, the port will be capable of hold- ing 1000 fail of (hipping, which convenience muft, eventu- ally, be of great advantage to the city. The plan is to dam up to a certain height the whole of the prefent bed of here in 1445, and he appears to have traded with peculiar the Avon and Frome, and to make a new channel for the privileges, to Prufiia, the Hanfeatic towns, and Denmark William of Worceller fays, that Cannyngs employed for eight years, in his own (hipping concerns, 800 men, and he fpe- cifies the fliips and tonnage employed by him. l"he fame Cannyngs paid king Edward IV. 4200 marks for his peace, j. e. for leave to trade to prohibited places, and to be free of impofts and duty. The commercial charafter of the Briftol merchants will river through Redcliffe meads. Three hundred thoufand pounds are already fubfcribtd, and three years given to ac complith the defign. From what has already been done, it is conjectured that the expenditure will not exceed the eftimate ; and it workmen can be obtained, it is prefumed that it will be liniftied within the afllgned periocl. By this plan, fliips will not only be kept afloat at the quays, but may enter the locks, and go to fca at neap tides, which will be a won- beft appear from the letters patent which were granted to derful faving in time and expence ; and a navigation will be John Cabot, a Gcnoefe by birth, but a refident merchant in opened up the Avon, as high as the town of Keynlham, in this city, and to his three fons, who fitted out veflels for one level : the money to be railed by duties and taxes, bear- the purpofe of difcovery. In 1527, Robert Thorn obtained ing an intereft of 4 per cent, and not exceeding 8 per cent. leave to go on a voyage of difcovery, to find out a north-weft The intereft is to hn raifed by a tax on houfes in the city, of one BRISTOL. one (hilling per pound rent, and a port-duty on all goods Z merian^dize^mponed. The ta. on honfcs .s con- iidered too partial to be jull ; and the dnlies on articles im- ported n.ay probably ad as a conlide.able proU.bU.on on fo- «°.rvdTa./fr.quenting the port. T,me alone, however, ^';:ir d:fcover th2 poliey' or impoliey of thus ra.hng the fum neceirary for its aceomplimment. 1 he trade of th.. po t has been ever nudi.atinfr from the 1™%°^ ,"'"'' it I, J7, (when W.llian, of Malmftury >nakes fuch honou.able n,ent,on of it) to the prelcnt time Every veffel o abosx 6= ton. btnthen pays a certain wharfage ; and from the watei- bailiffs' returns, it appears that, in . 745. '^ "" f J. Oi81. iHs. "id : in .775- to upwards of 2000I. 1" W' the privateer; fitted out from Bnllol, aceordmg to Banet, exceeded in to.nasre, number of guns and men, the whole royal navy of Great Uritam. In ,769, there were entered invvard at the Cillom-houfe 42/ foreign llups, cxcluhve ol I^ondoners, Coalleis, Sec. In 17S7 the entry at the cuftom houfe was as oUows : ' ' Shii-.s. Tuns. !5l"i«. T.ms. Entered inviards — Brit. 416 48,125 Foreign, 69 li,ii2 Entered outwards-Brit. 3S2 46,7.9 Fore'gn, G6 10,445 The following is a lill of ftips and vefl.ls belongmg to this port in 1787 : Koicis" Trade. Iships I Tons. ,528153,491 CuJllci S^tpa. 30 3078 Men. 142 IMhlng Vc-iTl-Is, &t ,bip3. 1 ons. 7 i 340 Men. 30 After this period the trade inereafed conhderably ; and another computation Hates, that in 1788, -^ 4 (hips were employed to Jamaica, 58 to the Leeward iflands, 37 to Africa, 33 to Newfoundland, 50 to North America, and -00 between Briftol, Ireland, France, Spain, London, &c. amounting to 1392 ; befides X03 trows from 50 to 130 tons burthen, employed in the Severn and Wye trade. But the commerce of Briftol received a fevere check during the laft war ; and the prefent paralizcs the fpirit of adventure, and the hand of induftrv. Should peace quickly return, and the port be fini(hed, there can be little doubt but this place will become more flourifhing than ever. Befides the foreign trade, Briftol has many very conGdera- ble raanufaftures ; "and the cheapnefs of fuel, with the ready conveyance to a market, renders this an advantageous place for carrying on various trades. The brafs roUery builnefs was begun here about 1 704. The manufaftory of zinc out of calamine ftone, and the ore of zinc called black Jack, was ellablilhed at Briftol in 1743, for which Mr. Champion obtained a patent. Mr. Emerfon at Hanham eftablidied works for making brafs, by expofing copper to the fumes of calamine, and obtained the fineft brafs in the world. VideWatfon's Chemillry. The glafs houfts of Briftol are not only numerous, bufc great quantities of different glafs articles, and bottles, aae annually made here. This trade is increafing, and it is faid that more glafs is manufaftured at Briftol than at any other place in England. Many large iron founderies are alfo eftabhflied here, and a fteam-engine faftory is ereftcd for boring cannon ; fmelting lead, and making of white and red lead, are among the manufadories of this city. There are 20 fugar-houfes for the refining and manu- fafture of fugars ; feveral large diftiUeries, which help to fupply London ; and the exportation to foreign parts is very confiderable. The manufafture of foap has long been an article of great trade here ; for, in 1523, it fiipplied London with the bell gray fpeckled (bap at id. per pound ; but k is now IS. Large quantities are ftill fent to London, to moft parts of the kingdom, and to America. This place was, at an early period, noted lor its woollen trade. In i3Jy, we iind from Rymer, that the cloth maiuifaaurc wns removed from Flanders, v.'hcn Briftol was appointed a principal ftaple of wool, and many looms were let up for weaving woollen cloths. In Henry V 1 1 Ith's reign, it was full of "clothiers, weavers, and tuckers ; and the magiftrates gave great encouragement to let up tiic Colcliefter rug maiuifadory, and many fiims have at times been left to the corporation in truft for the ufe of young clothiers. This trade is not entirely taken away, as fome woollen ftuffs, ferges, &c. are ftill made. The manufadure of (ilk fringes, fail cloth, cottons, morocco-leather, Cvc. muft not be omitted. Several potteries alio now rival thole of Staftbrdfliire. Milihiry H'ljlory, Cajlle, &c.— It is highly probable, that fo confpicuous and important a place early partook of the difafters arifmg from the internal commotions of this kingdom, and tlie evils arifing from foreign invafion. But hUlory is filent, the records being loft till 915, when Stow fays, a great navy of Danes failed up channel and infcfted the weftern coails, landed in divci-s places, and took great plunder ; at which time Briftol fuffered from the marauding enemy. King Edward fon of Alfred, 911, according to the Saxon annals, fent his army out of Mercia, and met them in Weffex, where he fought and routed them. The battle was deciftve, and the Danes were then fubjed to the Saxon monarch. Edward went on to build towns and caftles ; and amongft others he built that of Briftol, on the Mercian fide of the river Avon. Camden, therefore, was evidently mif- taken when he afferts that Robert Rufus, natural fon of Henry I. was the founder of the caftle of Briftol. Turgot mentions it as the work of Edward in 915, and fays, it was " the goodlieft of five built on the banks of Avon ;" and in 10S8, it is mentioned by Roger Hoveden as " Caftrain fortifllmam :" and if it were fo llrong 20 years after the conqueft, there cannot be a doubt, but it previonfly exifted as a fortrefs for the defence of the city. Another decifive proof of Camden's error is, that the caftle was held by- Godfrey biftiop of Conftance, and Robert de Mowbray earl of Northumberland, in a rebellion againft king William Rufus in 108S ; before king Henry I. earl Robert's father, was at man's eftate. This earl, though not the founder, cer- tainly rebuilt fome parts, repaired others, and ereded a palace and other offices. He alfo built a magnificent tower, fcarctly equalled at that time in England, and encompaffed the whole with ftroiig walls. Leland informs us, that Robert built part of it, and that " the dungeon tower was made of ftone brought out of Normandie by the redde earl of Gloucefter." It was not till 1130, that earl Robei't began to rebuild and improve the caftle ; which, excluding the out-works, was 450 feet from eaft to weft, and 300 feet from north to fouth. There were in it two great courts, many towers, a church, and a magnificent chapel. The king had alfo a palace within the walls. The principal buildings ftood upon an area, covering ,; \ acres of ground, cxcliifive of courts, yards, and other accommo- dations for the officers and the garrifon. Leland informs us, that the great tower ftood in the north weft part of the caftle; and in his time, about 26'h of Henry VIII., tiie whole was in a decayed ftate, and tending fait to ruin. In the reign of John, the caftle was annexed to the crown ; and here that monarch cruelly conlined theprincefs Eleanor, (called the damfel of Brittany,) who, after forty years miferable confinement, died here in 124;. In tl,'.- barons wars, during the reign of Henry III., piince Edward his fon fupplied the caftle with provifioiis, and lined the X townlraen BRISTOL. lownfmen iccol. for not afliHing himwitli u.pplio. The btter bcfiCRed him in tlie calllc, and the prince fled to Windlor, where lie was f- VI I. at which time Giles lord d'Aubeney held the calli^-. Dnrinvj the reformation, tnmults broke out in the well ; and at lirillol, tlic calUe, waiU, and gates of the city were repaired and mounted with caimon ; but by the prudent toiuhici of Mr. William Ciieller, the difcontents were foon appcafed, and a gc:^vral pardon was procured for tlie delin- • luents. In tlie years i;^', and i^Sh a mint was efta- bliflied in the cattle ; and the church plate, feized by the tonimifTiont.rs, was here coined. By a petition to king Charles I., 1629, the king granted the caftle and its appurtenances to the mayor and corporation of Brillol, and made it a part of that county and city ; and in 16; I, it was fold lo the mayor and buigell'es for 959!. In the eonimeiiceinent of the war, between the king and his parliament, the callle was repaired and ganifoned by the parliamentarmy, under the governor Col. Kath. I'iennes. This was confid'ejed a place of the grcatcll confcqncnce, and fcrved to awe all the wellern conntits, having accommo- dations for a large army. The king, therefore, was very de- lirous of obtaining poileflion ; a plot was f, rmed by Yca- maits and Bouchitr, lo deliver it up to the king's forces ; but this biing difcovered, prince Rupert, at the head of a confldcrable "army, belieged it ; but fearing the length of a blockade, he determined to take it by iiorm, which he quickly eireCled. But the place was thus dearly bought, for the king loft moft of his valuable officers, and more than i-jOJ of his bcft troops. It was thought of fo much confe- quence, that a public thankfgiving was ordered for the luccefs of his majefty's arms. The citizens fubfcribed 1400I. to prevent the plunder of the foldiery ; and orders were confcquently given for death to be the penalty of plunder. Briftol was ordered to pay 50,003!. in money, and clothe and equip ijoo of the king's foldiers. At the battle of Nafeby, prince Rupert repaired to Briftol, which he found fupplied with men, provifions, and ammunition, fo that he wrote to the king, alTuring him he was able to futlain a four months' fiege. This revived the hopes of the king's party ; and it was thought that the prince would make a vigorous and defptrate defence ; but, to the fur- prife of all, he made but a very feeble and fliort relillance. This unexpefted and difaftrons event damped the royal caufe, which from that day rapidly declined ; and certainly the capitulation of this grand Ration haftened the fatal caiaftrcphe of the king's iubmiff.on, and fubfequent decapi- tation. After Oliver Cromwell was proclaimed proteftor, he ilTutd orders for the demolition of the caftle of Briftol. Tjie difmanthng was begun in 1665, and the whole was razed to the ground. Scarcely any veftiges are now remaining. Thus this fortrels, deemed impregnable in foiTiier ages, and which has made fiich a dillinguifhed figure on the page of hiilory, the fubjeft of fo much nego- tiation, and fo much contention, was deftroyed after having weathered the ftorms of feven centuries. The inhabitants, previous to this period, appear to have always been in oppo- fition to the reigning princes, but fubfcquently, however, the reverfe appears the cafe. In the duke of Monmouth's rebellion, they efpoufed the caufe of king James. During the rebvUion, in the reign of George I., and elpecially in i'iSt tb^y were decidedly for the houfe of Hanover ; and and in the preferit day their exertions in defence of the nation are too well known to need a comment. Such are the moft material places, objefls and events, con- neAed with the city of Briftol. We may further ftate that its buildings cover an area of about 1 coo acres of ground, and the fuburbs above 500 more. With the appendages it contains 600 ftreets, fquares, lanes, courts, &c. in which are erected 47 churches and chapels. Here are 5 hotels, 50 inns and taverns, 7 banking houfcs, and 4 prifons. It is the chief city, quay, and mart of the wcftern parts of the kingdom, and is claftcd among the principal cities of Europe. Briftol is the birth-place of many diflinguiflied literary and public characters, the memoirs of whom will be intro- duced under their refpctlive heads. We fliall therefore only mention the names of the principal : Thomas Chatterton, poet, fir William Draper, William of Worcefter, William Cannyngs, Edward Cclfton, Ann Yearllcy, Mary Robert- fon. For an account of the Hotwtlls, Chiton, St. Vincent's rocks, and many places in the vicmity, fee Cliftom. Bar- rel's Hiftory of Briftol, 4.10. 1789. Bkistol, a townlhip of America, in Lincoln county, and diftrift of Maine, containing 1718 inhabitants; 204 miles N.E. from Bollon. Bristol, a county in the fouthern part of the ftate of Maftachufelts, lituate to the ealt of a part of Rhode ifland ; its principal town is Taunton. It has 15 townfliips, 97,3''0 acres of improved land, 130,767 of that which is unim- proved, 31,709 inhabitants, and 17,860 head of cattle. Bristol, a county in the ftate of Rhode ifland, border- ing on Briftol county in the Maflachufetts, north-eail ; and mount Hope bay, eaft ; and including the townlliips of Briftol, Warren, and Barrington. The number of inha- bitants is 321 1, of whom are 98 flaves. Bristol, a fea-port town, and capital of the preceding county, lies on the weftern iide of the pcninfula, called Briftol-neck, and on the eaft fide of Briftol bay ; including Popafquadi-neck, and the whole northern and eaftern parts of Briildl-neck to Warren, north ; and to mount Hope bay, eaft. Its diftance, including the ferry, about half a mile broad, is about 3 miles from Rhode ifland, 13 miles N. from Newport, 24 S.E. from Providence, and 63 from Bofton. Although it has fuffered greatly by the ravages of war, it is now in a very flourilhing ilate, having 1406 inha- bitants, including 64 flaves. Its fituation is beautiful ; its climate healthy ; its foil rich ; and its harbour fafe and commodious. Onions, in confiderable quantities, and a va- riety of provifions and garden ftufF, are raifed here for ex- portation. N. lat. 41° 45'. W. long. 7i°2g'. Bristol, a townfliip in Hartford county, Connefticut ; 16 miles W. of the city of Harlford. Bristol, a town in Bucks county, Pennfvlvania ; il miles S.S.E. from Newtown, and 20 N.E. from Philadel- pliia ; feated on Delaware river, oppofite to Burlington in New Jerfey, and containing about Jo or 60 honfes. It is noted for its mills of various kinds. N. lat. 40° 17'. W. long. 75° S'. Bristol, a townftiip in Philadelphia county. — Alfo, a fmall town in Charies county, Maryland. — Alfo, a townfliip in Addifon county, Vermont, call of Vergcnnes, having 2 1 1 inhabitants. — Alfo, a new town of New York, in Scho- harie county, incorporated in 1797. Bristol Bay and Riv:;r, lie on the north-weft coaft of North America ; the north point of the bay is cape Newn- ham, and the fonth point is cape Oenemak, on the peninfula of Alafica. Thefe two points of the bay are in N. lat. ^4** 30' and 58° 42', and in W. long. j6i" 24' and 163° "^o". The B R I B R I The river, which runs into tiic bay from the ea(V, is about a tnile broad at the entrance, and has plenty of fahnon. N. lat. j8° 27'. W. long. ijS" 5'. The variation on this coad is nearly 20° E. Bristol Bay, a bav on the S.W. coall of Nova Scotia, N.lat. 44° 4'.'. W. long. 6f. Bristol Capi:, lies in Sandwich idand, S leagues N. from cape Montagne, and E. from Freizl.ind j)cak. S. lat. 59"^ 2'. W. long. 26° ■;!'. Bristol Channel, the eftuary or wide frith of the Severn, is that part of tiic Atlantic Ocean, which lies between the fjuth coaft of Walts and the counties of Somerfet, Devon, and Cornwall, in England. BRISII RE, in Faruf.ctiUon, a line of four or five fathoms, which is allowed to the curtain and ordlon, to make the hol- low tower, or to cover the concealed (lank. Brist-'RE, in Heraldry, is the mark of diftinflion of houfcsor families, when borne as (Inch on a bend, felfe, &c. BRIT, in Geo^ral 1,475,000 1,567,000 1,669,000 1,652,370 fum is raifed by a variety of taxes, m aid of th* rfven f. arifMiff from the excife and culU.ms. The ability of the country for bearing the burden which Us exigences impolc upon it, confills in the produce of its land and manufadureH, and in the circulation of property, occafioned by its domelbc trade and foreiRU commerce. Thefe fources of national N^ealth have been improved to an aftonilhuiK degree in the couife of the lad century and a half. Ava.lmg ourfelves ot the eilimatc of the national wealth of Grest Bnlam, furmni- cd by Mr. Grellier, an ingemouB writer, inone of our periodi- cal publications (Monthly Magazine, vol. x.) ve fliall fub- ioin the following llatement of its vail increafe during the period above mentioned. In 1^64, iir W Uham 1 elty efti- matcd the wealth of England at the fum of two hundred and tifty millions. His coir.put:ition is fi^jointd. Value of the hnd ; being 24 millions of^ acres, yielding 8 millio.is per annum y^^. 144,000,000 rent, worth at 18 years purchafc -J The population of Scotland, in iSoi, compared with that of the beginning of the laft century, appears to be as 000 to 634, or near!y as 10 to 6h which, as the 09 panlh regifters were received from the manufaciunng parts of Scotland, gives too high a Aateraent of the incre.Je of popu- ^'Tthe year 1695 a poU-tas was levied in Ireland; and on tWsoccafion it was calculated, that the number of inhabi- tants was i,o34>ooo; but die ufual evaRon of taxation may be fuppofed to have conf.derably kiTened thyeal numoer. About the year I795> Ireland contained, at leall, 4 coo,ooo, and f.nce that time the number has uotmcreafed. However, it may not be very erroneous to cftimate the population ot Ireland at ,,500,000 in the year 1700, and at 4,000,000 in the year 1801. If this be granted, the population be- longing to all the Brltifti ifles has increafed during the laft century from 8,100,000 to 15,100,000. Of the population of Great Britain, the arn^y has, of late years, engroffed a confiderable fliare It confifts of regtdars, fn cavalrf, and infantry, and the mihtia.exdufive of artilkiy and engineers. The 'volunteer corps ,n Great Britain and Ireland amounted in December, 1803, to 43°>°oo ^ ^"'^ °" the ift of January, 1805, the fecretary of war made the following return of the ilate of the Bntilh forces at home .ndon foreign Rations viz. ^-^'"3 of cava ky -df I,o83 horfe artillery; 8,559 of artillery' ; 124,8,8 oiin- flntry, including 20,747 men for limited fervice, and 21,20b men belon-in- to foreign and provincial corps in Bntilli pay ; and 8^ 809 of militia : fo that the whole BritiHi force, in regulars, mihtia, and volunteers, amounts to 674,469 men. To thefe we may add the royal regiment of artillery, the horfe brigade,- the brigade of gunners and drivers, and com- panies of^reign artilkry, amounting on the ill of January, ^So< to i6,6?o ; and the corps of royal artillery, artihcers and labourers, including, at the fame period,, 704 men. But the great rampart and fupreme glory of Gieat l.ri- tain confift in her navy, in fize, ftrength ^"J "umber of fhips, far exceeding any example on record In ibo5, the otal of ihips in commiffion amounted to 684, confift.ng of lU of the line, 19 fifties to forty-fours, 150 frigates, and 404 fhips of various kinds ; bef.des feveral repairing, hi ordinary, and building: amountmg in the whole to 80° For this immenfe fleet, the number of feamcn, aminally voted, amou.ts from a hundred to a hundred and t . nty thourand ; a number which no other countiy ancient or modern could have lunplied. To fupport the expendi- tuir occafioned by the army and navy of Great Bntam, to defray the other charges of government, and alfo to difcharge the intereft of the national debt, a very large VolTv. Houfcs ; reckoning thofe within the bills'! of mortality,equalinvalue to one-thiid j- of the whole " ' *"i Shipping ; 500,000 tons, at 61. per ton, I including rigging, ordnance, &c. -\ Stock of cattle'on the 24 millions of acres' and the wafte belonging to them, ■ eluding parks, fidicnes, warrens. Gold and filver coin, fcarce _ - Wares, merchandize, plate, furniture 30,000,009 acres'! n, in- > , &C.J 3,000,000 36,000,000 6,000,000 31,000,000 £. 250,000,000 But fince the time when this computation was made, a great difference in the value of money has taken place, which difference appears from the table of fir George Shuck- buro-h Evelyn, in the Philof. Tranf. for 1798, part i, page 177° to be in the proportion of about 5 to 14; and, there- fore, the total wealth of England and Wales, m 1664. would have amounted to 700,000,000/. according to the prefent value of money. ^ , . r , • r The value of land has progreffively increafed, in conle- quence of improvements in cultivation, and the increafed confumption of its produce, from 18 years' purchafe, at which iir William Petty ftatcs it, to fiom 28 to 3° jef * purchafe. The whole landed rental of England and Wales, and the Low-lands of Scotland, was ftated by this writer at about 9 millions ; and if he had included the High-lands of Scotland, it is reafonable to fuppofe that he would not have made the whole rental of the ifland more than 9,5co,oool. G King and Dr. Davenant, in the reign of queen Anne, ftated the rental of England and Wales at 14,000,000.: about 25 years ago, it was generally reckoned at 20,0^,000! ; but at prefent it confiderably exceeds tlwt fum- The cul- tivated land appears, from the ftatement of Axr. M'ddl^on, in his " View of the Agriculture of the County of Middle- fex," to be 39,027,000 acres, and the commons and v^-afte- lands to be 7,889,000 acres; and, therefore, the total ot acres in England and Wales amounts to 46,016,000 acres. If therefore, we conllder the commons and walte lands as equal in annual value to only one million of cultivated acres, th- whole may be taken at 40 millions: and taking the average rent, which, at 15s. per acre, appears to be a moderate computation, at a tenth lets the rental amount, to 2 7,oco,oool. and the value at 28 years' purchafe t« 7c6ooo,coo!. The number of cultivated acres in Scot- land is upwards of 12 millions, and of uncultivated acre? upwards of 14 millions, which, being of little ufe, may be wholly excluded ; and the cultivated part, being rated at an avera'-'-c of los. per acre, yields the fura of 6,ooo,oool. X X P"' BRITAIN. and die total rental of Great Britain will be pCT- annum jj,oco,oool. and the value of the land, at 30 years' pur- chafe, be 990,000,000). Other writers have endeavoured to prove, (fte Bcche's " Obfcrvatious on tlie Produce of the Income Tax,") that in the whole extent of England and Wales there are no more than 38,500,000 acres of land ; and that Scotland, with its adjacent iflands, contains about 2 I millions of heavy guineas remained out in circulation, whfcfr with the filver and copper coin, made the whole, at that time, about 20 millions, at which fum Mr. Chalmers elU- matcd it in the year 1786. Mr. Grelher eftimates it at about 25 millions. Of the value of the merchandize and manufaflures ufually in the hands of the merchants, wholefale dealers, (liop-keep- millioni of acres. It is not fo eafy to afcertain the value of crs, and manufafturers, it is very difficult to form a fatisfadory the houfcs as it is to determine the value of the land ; but the following (latemcnt of their rent, founded on the numbers re- turned as chargeable and excufed to the window duties, in England and Wales, in 1781, will not be thought too high : Number of cottages 284,459, at 20s J y-^ per annum - - - - j Number of houfes under 10 windows, ) 497,801, at 5I. per annum - -J Number of houfcs under 2 I windows, 7 171,177, at 13I. per annum - -j Number of houfes, above 20 windows, \ jj,373, at 40I. per annum - -j Tot.il Kent. 284'459 2,489,005 2.5'57.655 2,094,920 The total rent, at 20 years' purchafe, makes 148,720,7801. and including Scotland at lefs than a fixth of England and \\'ale5, the whole will amount to 170,000,000!. In order to form an idea of the value of cattle and farm- ing (lock, on the land, wc may confider the black cattle and calves, (beep and iambs, fwine, pigs, and poultr)-, annually confumcd in London as worth 6,ooo,oool. which cannot be more than a feventh part of the whole confumption, amounting therefore in value to 42,000,0001. : but the whole number of cattle exifting mud be more than double the quantity brought to market ; fo that, including horfes, afles, cows kept for milk, and oxen employed in agriculture, the whole value of the cattle cannot be lefs than 90,000,0001. Taking the annual confumption of grain of all forts at 14,000,000 quartets, which is probably below the trutii, it may be prelu ned, that in general there is at leall three or four months' fupply on hand, which, at only 3 ^s. per quarter, will amount to at leail 6,125,0001. The value of hay and ftraw, and all kinds of fodder, and of all implements of huf- bandry, cannot be lefs than five or fix millions, and with the former fura will make about I2,c00,00ol. The total value of cattle and farming flock is therefore i02,ooo,oool. ; and if it be eftimated as equal in value to only three times the yearly rent, it will amount to nearly this fum. The value of the fhipping belonging to Great Britain may be more accurately afcertained : for it appears that, in 1794, the tonnage of the vefTels in the merchants' fervice was 1,589,162 tons ; but taking it at 1,500,000!. at 81. per ton, it makes I2,ooo,oool. and this is without doubt below the real value. In the year ending the 5th of January, 1804, the number of Britifli (hips entered inwards was 11,396; their tonnage 1,614,365 ; and the number of foreign (hips 4,252, and their toimage 638,034 ; the number of Britifh ftiips cleared outwards, was 3,662, and theirtonnage 574,542; and the number of foreign fhips 3,662, and their tonnage 574,542. The fhipping of the navy may perhaps be cllimated at 4,ooo,oool. making, with the former fum, i6,ooo,cool. to which fome addition (hould be made for the value of tlic fmall craft employed on our livers and canals. The quantity of money in the country has, at different times been a fubje£l of difpute, and has never been deter- mined with precifion. However, by the re-coinage in 1 773, 1774, and 1776, it was found, that the value of the light gold dehvered into the bank amounted to 15,563,5931.; and It was generally admitted that fomewhat more than two idea. The total amount of the exports in 1797 was 28,917,0001. and of imports 21,013,000!. according to the cutlom-houfe accounts ; but thefe accounts being confide- rably below the true value, if we take the whole aj ratetl only 60 per cent, under the value in 1800, the annual amount of foreign trade eftimated for that peiiod, will be 79,S8S,oool. to which fome addition fhould be made for fmuggled goods. Mr. Pitt, in 1799, computed the imports at 2 i;,ooo,oool. and the exports at more than 33,000,000!. ; and in Feb. 1801, the foreignexpoitsat 17,000,000!. andthe domcftic at 2 o,ooo,oool., amounting to a total of 3 7,000,000!. The oflicial value of all imports, on an average of fix years, ending the 5th of January, 1S04, was 29,490,945!. ; and the official value of Britifh manufaftures exported, on the fame average to the fame time, was 23,834,340!. ; and real value 40,100,870!. ; and the ofHcial value of foreign mer- chandize exported, on the fame average, to the fame time, was 15,323.5001. i and the real value 9,323,2571. Itwasthe opinion of a numerous meeting of merchants in March, 1 797, that there is always, at the Icaft, two months' fupply of ex- port and import merchandi/.e in the cuftody of the merchants and traders, which, according totheabovetotalof 79,888, oool. will amount to 13,3x4,666!., to which fome addition (hould be made for property in the hands of foreign mer- chants. But the value of goods in the hands of manufac- turers and retail traders far exceeds this fum. The offi- cial value of Briti(h manufadtures exported in 1798 was 19,771,5101. ; but this being at Icaft 71 per cent, below the real value, we may take the actual value, on an average of two years, 3131,356,793!., which, it is prefumed, cannot be more than a third of the whole produce of our manufac- tures ; and accordingly, this will amount to 94,070,379!. If we deduft 5,000,000!. for that fmall part which is fup- pofed to be in the hands of the merchants, the remainder will be 89,070,379!. ; and of this it is probable that there is much more than three months' fupply in the hand.s of the manufacturers and retail traders, which, eftimated in this proportion, amounts to 22,267,594!. As to the value of that part of the property of indivi- duals which confifts in houfchuld furniture, wearing appareli provifions, fuel, carriages, &c. See. we can recur only to conjedure ; but it may bethought not to- bq ovep-rated at three times the yearly rent of tl)e houfes which contain'it, or 26,026,000!. in the whole of Great Britain. The following fummary will exhibit the refults of the above eftimates : Value of the land of Great Britain £. Houfcs -.-... Cattle, and all kinds of farming ftock - Shipping, navy, and merchant (hips Money - . . . . Goods in hands of merchants and whole- fale dealers .... Goods in hands of manufadurers and retail-traders ... Furniture, apparel, &c. ■1 990,000,000 170,000,000 IO2,CO0,O0O 16,000,000 25,000,000 13,314,000 22,267,000 26,0; 6,0c o Total - j^. i,364,6o7,ooo> From BRITAIN. From the above ftatcment it appears that, fince the year 1664, there h.is been an average gain of upwards of fonr millions per annum, of which a very confidcrable part has been derived, direftly or indireftly, from foreign commerce. The great increafe of the annual income affords a further proof that there mull have been fiich an accumulating fur- plus. Sir W. Petty (Pol. Arith. p. 123.) fiippofed the income derived from land to be 8,ooo,oool. the profits of perfonal eftates 8,000,000!. and the profits of all kinds of labour 36,000,000, making together 42,000,0001. Mr. G. King eftimated the whole income at 43,500,0001. Dr. Davenaiit, in 1701, dates the income derived from land at io,ooo,oool. the profits of trade at 6,ooo,oool. and thofe of fciences, arts, labour, induftry, manufadlurcs, retailing foreign goods, and buying and felling home com- modities, at 3 5,ooo,oool. making in the whole 49,000,000!. Thefe accounts are exclufive of Scotland ; but after making a fufficient addition for this country, it will appear that there has been a confiderable increafe of the general income. Sir John Sinclair, in his " Hints addreffed to the Public," in 1783, obferved, that the income of the country arifing from lands, commerce, and manufaftures, was commonly calculated at ioo,ooo,oool. which he in- clined to think a low valuation ; and, without doubt, the profit derived of late years from each of thtfe fources has confiderably increafed. It is not eafy to form a very pre- cife edimate of the national income ; but the foUowiug llatement is prefumed to be not very inaccurate : From rent of lands . - • £• ditto of houfes . . . - Profits of farming, or the occupation of 7 the land .... -J Income of labourers in agriculture Profits of mines, collieries, and inland - navigations . . » Profits of (hipping in merchants' fervice, and fmall craft Income of ilock-holdTS From mortgages, and other money lent ) on private fecurities • - - J •Profits of foreign trade ... Ditto of manufactures . . - Pay of the army and navy, and feamen 7 in merchants' fervice - • - 5 Income of the clergy of all defcriptions - Income of the judges, and all fubordinate ) officers of the law - - - J Proftflbrs, fchool-mafters, tutors, Sec. Retail trades, not immediately conneftedl with foreign trade or any manufadlurej Various other proftflions and employments 2,000,000 Male and female ftrvants - - - 2,000,000 3J,ooo,ooo 8,500,000 6,120,000 15,000,000 2,000,000 1,000, coo 15,500,000 3,oco,oco 11,250,000 14,100,000 4,500,000 2,200,000 i,8oo,oco 6co,ooo 8,000,000 Total jC- 1,30.570'Coo If the total expenditure be eftimated at 135,81^0,0001., which has been deduced from a minute, and, perhaps, as accurate a ftatement of particulars as the fubjeiS, admitting of various conjeftures and prefumptions, allows, the difference between this expenditure and the general income (hews the annual gain of the country, or the fum applicable to the extenfion of commerce, the refervation of a greater quan- tity of foreign articles, the increafe of (liipping and buildings, agricultural or mechanical improvements, or other augmen- tations of the general (lock. On introducing the income-tax, Mr. Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer, gave the following ellimats of the annual in- come of Great Britain : The land rciital, afier deducing one- i/._jg^QQjj^jjQQ The tenants' rental of land, dedufling' two-thirds of the rack-rent The amount of tythes, dedufting one- 1 fifth - . - - . -J The produce of mines, canal naviga- I tions, &c. deducing one-fifth - - J The rental of houfes, deducing one-fifth The profits of profeffions - - The rental of Scotland, taking it at \ one-eighth of that of England - y The income of perfons refident Great Britain, drawn from p fions beyond the feas The amount of annuities from the pub- 1 lie funds, after dedufting one-fifth f for exemptions and modifications -J The profits on the capital, employed 1 in our foreign commerce - - J The profits on the capital employed in domeftic trade, and the profitoof fliill and indullry a - i ent inT poffef- >■ ?} 6,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 2,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 ^2,000,000 I 2,0CO,0Cd 28,000,000 Total ;f .102,000,000 As one of the principal fources of the wealth of Great Britain confids in its manufdftures, it may not be improper to give a brief ftatement of them ; referving a more copious detail for other articles in this dictionary, under which they will feparately occur. The woollen manufacture defervcs to be firll mentioned, becaufe it is the moft ancient, and, in a variety of refpefts, the moft important ftaple of the country. In an examination of the principal woollen manufafturers by a committee of the houfe of commons not long ago, the quantity of wool grown in this country was eftimated at 600,000 packs of 24olbs. each, which, valued at ill. per pack, amount to 6,6oo,oool. : and though the increafe of value of maimfaflured wool is various, and depends on its quality, yet it was ftated, that the total value of the wool manufafture m this country amounts to 19,800,000!. But the calculation fuppofes, that the number of (heep, in 1791, was 38,800,000, which exceeded the truth at that time, and much more fince that period ; and it was formed upon an unufually high price of wool. But the eftimatc will be much lefs objettionable, if it be formed on 500,300 packs at lol. 10s. per pack, and thus the value of the wool will be 5,250,000!., and its manufaftured value will be 15,750,000!. The average value of woollen goods exported lor 1 797, 1798, and 1799, is 6,104,211!. which, as the cuftom-houfe values of goods exported are much below their real value, requires an addition of about 35 per cent, and thus it be- comes 7,630,2631. The value of goods retained for home con- fumption will be nearly equal to that of fuch as are exported ; and, therefore, the whole value of the manufadture appears to be about 15,260,000!. and may be taken, at a medium, between this fum and thai before ftated, at 15,500,000!. Deducting 10 per cent, on the coft of the goods, for the profits of the manufacturer, with intercft of his capital, there will remain 14,090,901;!. for the coft of materials and wages of labour : and as the value of the wool is about 5,250,000!. ; tlie amount of workmanfiiip, or the wages of all the perfons employed in this manufacture, is 8,S40.c,09l. ; and the whole number of perfons employed, averaging their wages at 8s. each per week, does not exceed 425,043. The value of the leather manufacture may be ftated at 10,500,000!. from which dedufting 954,545!. for the pro- fits of the capital, and 3,500,00(01. for the coll of the raw X ^ Z article. BRITAIN. article, thtir will rcniniii 6,04j;,455l. for the wages of perfons employed in it, which, allowing; to each 25I. a year at an average, makes the mirobcr employed 241,818. The cotton maimf;itturc was formerly iiiconfidcrable, in compatifon wiili its prefent ftnte. Tiie total quantity of cotton wool imported into England, on an average of five yean, ending with 170J, was i,i70,88ilbs. ; and fo late as the year 1781, it amounted to only 5,]0!,9:olb3. But ttiis inanufadurc was fo much txtmdcd, that before the com-nencemtnt of the lad war the confumption of cotton Wool amouiiteJ to upwards of 3o,ooo,ooolbs. per annum. During the years I7v6. I797» 1/9*^1 '"I35 tons, worth, at 22I. per ton, 970,970!., which, together with tlie former fums, amounts to 2,262,470!. Some years ago, the value of the iron manufadure was edimated at 8,700,000!. ; but if this fum fliould appear too high, we may include tin and lead, and the value of the whole will probably amount to 10,000,000!., and the number of perfons employed to 200,000. The copper and brafs manufadures are now eftabliflied in this country. Till about the years 1720 or 1730, mod of the copper and brafs utenfils ufed for cubnary and other purpofes in this country were imported from Hamburg and Holland, being procured from the manufadories of Ger- many : and even fo late as the years 1745 and 1750, copper tea-kettles, faucepans, and pots of all fizes, were imported in large quantities. But by the perfevering indudry, capi- tals, and enterprifing fpirit of our miners and manufadurers, thefe imports liave become totally unneceffary ; fo that the articles are now all made liere, and far better than any otlier country can produce. The difcovery of new copper-minea in Derbyfhire and Wales, about the year 1773, contributed to the extenfion of the manufadure in this country ; and it appears to be dill increafing, notwithdanding the late great advance in the price of copper. The value of wrought copper and brafs, exported during the year 1799, was 1,222,187!.; and there is reafon to believe, that the whole value of thefe manufadures at prefent is at lead. 3,500,000!., and the number of perfons employed 6o,oool. The deel, plating, and hard-ware manufadures, including the toy-trade, have been of late much extended, and may probably amount in value to 4,000,000!., and the perfons employed to at lead 70,000. It is acknowledged, that many of thefe edimates mud be en"entia!!y defedive, from the want of public documents re- fpeding many important brandies of trade. However, they ftrve to fhew, in a general view, the relative extent of our principal manufadures, as in the following fummary : Annual Value. Peilbns employed. Woollen - - £'. 15,500,000 425,043 Leather • - io,50o,oco 241,818 Cotton - - 9,500,000 322,140 Silli ... 2,700,000 60,000 Linen and flax - 2,000,000 60,000 Hemp - . 1,500,000 35,000 Paper • - 900,000 30,000 Glafs - - • 1,500,000 36,000 Potteries . •- 2,000,000 45,000 Iron, tin, and lead 10,000,000 200,000 Copper and brafs - 3,500,000 60,000 Steel, plating, &c. - 4,000,000 70,000 ;f. 63,600,000 1,585,000 To the above enumerated manufadures of greater import- ance, we might have added thofe of hats, horn, draw, &c. which taken together are of very confiderable amount, and employ a great number of hands, There are alfo fome, which, though not gene-ally included among the manu. Tadures, BRITAIN. The num. faftures, partake of the nature of theff, and might, not im- well as eftablirtied reputation of its merchants properly, be clafTcd with them. To this head wc might refer ber of rcgiflered vctTols belonging to the Britifh dominions, the elegant branch of exportation, or that of beautiful and employed in trade in 1S02, was 20,368, their tonnage prints, for which this country is in an eminent degree in debted to the late alderman' Boydell. GrtUicr, Month Mag. Jan. iSoi. The commerce of Great Britain extends through the eaft- crn and wellern hemifpheres of the globe, by means of the capital and credit of tlie country, the flcill and induflry of its artizans and manufaAurers, the number of its fhips 2,128,055, and the number of feamen navigating the fame, 154,530. In 1S03, the number of vtlTcls was 21,445; their tonnage 2,238,249 ; and the number of men 15^,445; being an increafe of 877 (hips, of 1 10,194 tons, and of 915 men . The following table will exhibit a complete view of Bri- tifli commerce folely from the jiortof London, for one year, and the charadler of its feamen, and the enterprifmg fpirit as ending Jan. 5, 1 795, fmce which the commerce has incrcafcd. Names of the Countiies, Ireland ... Britilh Weft Indies . Conquered Iflands Britilh American Colonies Guernfey and Jerfey - Gibraltar ... Honduras Bay South Filhery Afia, including Eaft Indies Africa ... Turkey Streights ... Venice ... Italy - . . . Spain . . . . Portugal ... Madeira . . - Canaries ... France ... Auftrian Flanders Holland Germany ... Pruffia . . . . Poland Sweden Ruffia Denmark and Norway Greenland United States of America Florida Foreign Weft Indies Prize Goods Valine of Imports Value- of Exports fiom tlie Port of LurK^an » into Lone lull. to Foreign Pairs. Biiiim Furcign Manufadurcs, MficlMndizc £■ s. J. £■ s. d. £■ '■ d. 2,209,501 3 4 168,687 18 3 9'4.352 4 4 6,072,117 5 0 2,249,043 13 11 579.453 6, 0 1,226,064 13 8 260,976 0 II J 10,817 18 0 307,412 13 0 654,84^- 19 4 251,551 6 2 91,956 1 2 12,001 13 10 21,616 16 8 >2.947 16 8 83.4; 3 14 II 69,315 2 8 14,696 4 2 2,029 18 11 2,550 16 2 197,680 8 6 21 6 8 — — — 8,916,950 2 10 5,398,680 I 4 185,190 16 0 66,013 8 4 90.593 12 9 188,743 16 6 641,860 19 2 32.065 12 0 123.776 7 2 8,399 14 0 — — — — — 82,107 16 0 6,305 17 II 16,305 7 2 1,215,012 15 0 80,98a iS 9 340,786 0 8 1,070,697 18 0 205,096 4 4 265,11-9 3 4 644,600 3 8 182,780 6 2 119,813 12 6 7.479 16 8 27,998 6 10 6,886 18 2 6,763 19 10 20,116 18 4 377 5 2 130 6 8 3,216 5 3 63,625 10 6 . 137,249 .^ 0 129,413 9 7 887,642 18 10 1.203.5 '5 3 6 114,458 3 7 1,968,687 3 4 1,089,307 J9 4 1,044,654 18 0 6,176,100 14 8 196,657 3 2 54.3S0 14 0 272,719 17 4 . 104,978 10 4 7,022 11 10 57,067 2 4 262,727 3 4 33.845 5 6 111,457 14 4 1,269,688 9 6 95.519 8 8 491.244 9 n 166,366 1 0 147.340 0 II 545,509 19 8 26,753 11 2 — — — — — — 811,511 18 8 2,251,280 12 I 429,248 7 8 16,259 16 0 38,067 0 3 8,855 0 0 - 56,240 2 0 J.7'57 13 10 60 0 0 1,572,868 8 8 Included in the ac- count of each c:.uii '/• 291,706,476 '7 4 1 1.39*5.539 13 8 14,208,925 14 6 RECAPITULATION. The aggregate value of goods imported into London in one year Britifli manufadlures exported ^. 11,396,539 13 8 Foreign merchandize, do. 14,208,935 14 6 Value of goods imported in upwards of 1 9000 coalUng veffels, averaged at 500I. > 4,500,000 each. J } Value of goods exported coaftways, in about 7000 veffels, at icool. each 7,000,000 o o Total amount of property fiiipped and unfhippcd in the river Thames, in the courfe of a year, eftimated at - ... 29,706,476 17 4 25,605,465 8 z 11,500,000 o o 66,811,942 5 6 If BRITAIN. Tf \pf aJ3 to tliii ertimate, tlie accounts belonging to the other p.-s, fiigar, rum, cotton, coffee, ginger, pepper, guiiincum, farfapai ilia, maiichineal, mahogany, gums, Sec. ; from Africa, gold-dull, ivory, gums, &c. ; from the Eall Indies and Ciiina, tea, rice, fpiccs, drugs, coloiiis, filk, cotton, faltpctre, fliawis, and other priidiKls of the loom ; from our remaining fcttlements in North America, furs, timber, pot-afli, iron ; and from the vanous Hates of ICurope, nunierou* articles of utility and of luxury. Pinkerton's Geog. vol. i. p. lOO. For other particulars relating ti> Great Britain, fee Con- stitution, DtDT, Fund, Parliament, Revenue, &c. &e. See aifo Kncland, Scotland, and Wales. Britain, in Hijhry. It will be niotl fuitable to the plan of tins work, to divide the hillory of Fiigldnd into feveral branches, each of which may he confulted under the pro- per heads. Thefc divilionf; will be, — the hillory of the idand anterior to the SaKon invalion, whicli will be the fubjetl of the prefcnt article ; — the hillory of the Saxon ortarchy from the invalion of the Saxon tribt-j to the period of the Norman conqucll, \vh:eh will be introduced underthe word Saxons ; — the hillory of England from the Norman conquefl to the acccirion of James 1., for which fee the article England; — and the hillory from that period to the preient times, which will be inferted under the fame head. Scotland, Ireland, and Walks, will he fepnrate I'ubjefts of hillory ; and their traiifac^ions, fo long as they continued independ- ent natiors, may be fought for under their refpeftive names. So much as ii necelTary to be known of the hilloi-y of the other BritilTi illes, will be found under the articles of He- brides, 7/7. o/" Man, Orknivs, and Sh etland. Thefe different topics will comprifc all that is material in the hif- tory of the Dritifn ides. It would give us very little trouble to ftate the biftory of Britain anterior to the Saxon invafion, if we could adojyt the account fo popular among our anceftors, and give the fidions of Jeffery of Monmouth a place in our authentic annals. But Jeffery's hillory, though fupported by the belief of mod of the men of Icarnnig in the lixteenth century, by many in the fcventeenth, and by fome in the laft, cannot for a moment be fufFcred to rank in our ellimation as true hiftory. We need not combat the tale by a profound dilquilition : it has the merit of difcrediling itfelf by its abfurdities and impro- babilities ; and we might difmifs it into oblivion without ano- ther fentence, but that the public may be curious to know what fort of fidion it was, which was capable of interelling our anceftors fo much, and of feducing fo many learned men to patronize and defend it. After fettling Eneas in Italy, man7ing him to Lavinia, and killing Turnus. in cxadt conformity to Virgil, Jeffery gives him one Sylvius for a grandfon, whofe friends, the magi of the day, oblige with a prophecy, that his wife was pregnant with a fon, who would deilroy both his father and aiothcr, and after travelling over many countries in banifh- ment, would at laft arrive at the higliell pitch of glory. This lucklefs lad was Brute, who killed his mother in his birth, and, at 15 years of age, completed the prtdiiftion by dellroying his father. Being expelled Italy by his kinlmen for the parricide, he went to Greece, and found the Trojans kept in flavery by one Pandralus, whom the author compli- ments with the title of king of the Grecian?, but whom no Greek hillorian has ever acknowledged. Brute affembled the Trojans from all parts, and feut a letter to this Pandra- lus, affuring him that the Trojans would rather live after the 6 manner of wild beads on flelh and herbs witli liberty, than enjoy the greateft luxury under his flavery. Pandi-afus was furprifcd at this mefTage ; but he was ig- norant that he had to do with a hero whom hishiftorian had determined to make an infallible conqueror. It was, there- fore, ill vain he befieged a town called Sparalinum, the fitu- ation of which only Jeffery knew, but with which he has forgotten to acquaint us ; for though he outnumbered the Trojans fo much that their brave commander dreaded a pitched battle, yet Brute contrives a ftratagcm to enter their camp at night, deceive the watch, and kill them all in their flcep. He accompliriies all this as cafily as he conceived it. Pandrafus is taken prifoncr ; his army annihilated. A con- fultation is held to confider what is to be done with the cap- tive ; and at it is a rule with Jeffery' to detail the very words of every converfation, the fpetches are again recited at full length ; and Pandrafus is liberated on condition of giving Brute his daughter Ignoge for wife, with plenty of gold, filver, fhips, corn, wine, and oil, and aHo permiffion to re- niove to fome other country. With his new wife and 324 fliips, and after many fwoons on the part of Ignoge, and many kilFes on the part of Brute, " which he ccafcd not till file grew weary of crying, and fell adcep," he ftt fail, and two days afterwards came to an un- inhabited ifland, in which was a convenient temple of Diana, and a ftatue of the goddefs, that kindly gave ani'wers to all who conl'ulted her. In fix very pretty lines, which Milton thinks too good for the age of the tranflator, he allcs her whither they were to go, though a reaionable man would have formed foir.e notion of that before he had fet out, and not have trulled to the vague chance of a defertcd illand and a prieftlels oracle. After repeating the words exaftly nine times, and walking four times round the altar, and laying himfelf before it upon the ilcin of a white hart, he fell afleep. About the third hour of the night (for Jeffery is very particular in circum- (lance, though the incident is p'accd shout 2000 vears be- fore him), about the third hour of the night, " the ufual hour for deep fieeps," apparitions, and vifions, the goddefs in perfon appeared to the Trojan, and in eight lines as har- monious as his own, informs him, that beyond Gaul there was an ifland in the weft, formerly occupied by giants, but then deferted, where he ftiould found another Troy, and a race of kings, by whom all the world fliould be fubdued. With this anfwer, but without being made much wiferby it, for Brute knew as much about Paiadife as about Gaul, they put to fea again in a weftward courfe, and in 30 days came to Africa, being ignorant as yet whither tofteer. At laft they reached the ftreights of Gibraltar, after great danger from pirates, where their Ihip had nearly been overturned by thofe fea-monfters called Syrens. However, they made a Ihift to efcape, and contrive by advancing ftill to the weft, for no retrogade courfe is mtntioned, to get into the Tyr- rhenian fea, though, unfortunately for accurate geography, this fea, inftead of being near Spain, or beyond it, is in the direft contrary courfe, becaufe it wafhes the lower part of Italy. But be this as it may, here they pick up fome Tro- jans, whofc general was Corincus. This was a very modeft man, but withal fo courageous, " that if he encountered with any giant, he would immediately overthrow him, as if he had been a child." From this Tyrrhenian fea they reached the Loire, as fud- denly as if Jeffery had fuppofcd they were clofe together. In vain all the kings and princes of Gaul united againft the in- vaders ; for they, whom fome pirates had greatly endan- gered, and fome Syrens had nearly drowned, now defeat all the confederated Gauls, burn their cities, lay walle their fields, and make " difmal {laughter among the people, being unwilling BRITAIN. unwilling to leave fo much as one alive of all that wretched nation." After thefe humane exertions, " they build towns, as Homer telUlits," in fome work to Homer and to us equally unknown ; and then doubling if it were prudent to fifrht there any more, they fail to Biitain, the promifed land, and arrive at Totnefs. A new train of miracles l.'tcins ; and, indeed, a little im- piety is cxhihitcii by Jelfcn-, loi tie goddtfs toh' Bnite, that this ifiand had formerly bef" inhabited by giants, but was now deferted ; vet, in coiuiadiftion to itie divine afTt-rtion, the daring monk, in his iixt.enth cli..pter, pcopksit, though thiiilv, with giants flill. However, at their com' g, awny fly the giants to their caves, to the ^■r^Ht difco"! -nt of Ci rineus, " to whom it was the greatell poflible diverfion to encounter them." To in- dulge his fav in ite inclination, he begs " the country of Cornwall for his (hare, becaule the giants were in greater liimibcr there, than in all tlie other provinces." Brute obliges him : and an opportunity foon arrives to make Co- rinciis very happy. " Among the reft there was one deteftable monfter, named Guemagot, in ftature 12 cubits (or about iS feet high), and of fuch prodigious ftrength, that at one fliake he would pii!l up an oak, as if it had been an hazel wand. One day, when Brute was at Totnefs, this fellow, and 20 more of h s companions, fell upon the new-comers, among whom they made a dreadful flaughfer." This was precifely what Cori- neus wanted ; for as the other twenty were foon difpatdied. Brute ordered " Goemagot to be prefcrved alive, ont of a defile to fee a combat between Iiim and Coiineus, who took vail pleafnre in fuch rencoin.ters." " Overjoyed Jt this, Coiineus threw afulc his arms, and challenged the gia.it to a wreltiing match ;" but a Cornifh hug frjm the Gobah of Cornwall loon broke three of Co- rineus's ubs, which, we are very ciicumftantially told, were two on his right fide, and one upon his left. But tliis acci- dent, inftfad of difabling, "enraged Corineus to fuch a de- gree," that though never me'itioned but as a mortal man, and of mortal fize, he feizcJ hold wf this tremendous giant, " threw him over h's (houlders as if he had been a hare, ran with him as faft as he was able for the weight to the next fhore, nay, got even up to tlie top of a very high rock, and there hurled do^vu the fivage monfter into the fea." " The place where he fell," adds Jcffery, " is called Goemagot's leap to this d;;y." The above eircumdances prefent a faithful abridgment of the firll fixtccn chapters of this ancient hiftory. The firft patrons of " The Britifh Hiltory" defended all its ftory. The later advocates allow it to contain a few hyperboles, but warmly maintain that it ought not to be wtiolly rejected on this account. But, unfortunately, the whole hiftory is in this ftrain ; of this only a few more brief Ipecimens need be given. Biennus, who bcfieged Rome at the head of the Gauls, when Camilius and the geefe faved the capitol, was, accord- ing to this hirtorv, a Briton; and his brother Belitius, then king of Britain, was with him. Conaii, king of America, wanting wives for his foldiers, afks the king of Cornwall for foine, who fends h m 11, coo daughters of his nobility, and 60,000 of a meaner fort. The greater part of thefe are drowned ; the reft are murdered. The magi commanded Vortigern to find a youth who had never had a father, and Merhn is accordingly brought, whofe mother had a miracu- lous conception from a demon. The king cannot build a tower, becaufe it is fwallowed up as tall as it is raifed. Merlin foretells, that there is a pinid deep under the ground, which occafions it, and that at the bottom of it are two hol- low ilones, in which two dragons are adeep. UlLtr Pen- dragon, to gratify liis paffion for Igerna, is transformed by Merlin into the figure of her hufband. To crown the whole, Cadwallo being tofied on a certain idand, and longing for venifon, his fervant Brian goes in fearch of fome, but finding none, he cuts out a piece of his own thigh, which he roafts upon a fpit, and carries to his mafter as venifon ! ! ! What- ever may have been the prejudices of former times in favour of the book, every reader will now treat it with derifion, though he may not chute to adopt the quaint phraleology of the Dutchman, who called it a " grootc, grove, lange, dicke, tafteliieke, ende uiibefchnemte h)gen," which in plain Englifh is, a great, heavy, long, thick, palpable, and fliamelefs lie. The account of Brutus and his Trojans having colonized Britain, was in exiftence before JefTery. It appears in Nen- nius, who lived about, or before, the ninth century : his pro- face is a triumph to the advocates of the Trojan, becaufe it announces that he had taken his hiftory not only from the Roman annals, the chronicles of the holy fathers, and the hiftories of the Scots and Saxons, but alfo from the tradi- tions of his anceftors, and from the monuments of the an- cient inhabitants of Britain. On infpefting his hiftory, it is curious to remark to what fouices lie refers his fevtral in- cidents. The tale of Brutus is from the annals of the Romans ; and his genealogy up to ./Eneas, thence to Noah, and thence to Adam, was furnifhed to the chonographer by the traditions and writings of thofe who firft inhabited Bri- tain. Unfortunately for the tale, no Roman annals that we know of have fenftioned the hiftory of Brute ; and we may be allowed to deny that the Druids had any acquaint- ance with the Jewifli fcriptures. Of other romances on this remote part of our hiftory ; the didioiieft forgery of Annius of Viterbo, who made cer- tain annals of Berofus and others, in which Samothes, the fon of Japhct, is faid to have led a Celtic colony into Bri- tain ; of Albion, a giant, who was ftnt after Samothes to give it a name ; of the vifits of Hercules and UlyfTes ; of Albina, the princtfs of Syria, and her thirty fitters, com- mitted to the mercy of the fea for murdering their hufbands, who were thrown providentially on England ; of Celto, the daughter of Britannos ; of Britannus, the grandfon of Ne- meth, who brought a colony here out of Ireland, and of foch like wild and abfurd inventions, we need only fay that they are fit to clafs with the hiftory of jeffery, and may be permitted to repofe in oblivion, as proper companions to his Brute and Corineus. To the fame grave may be configned all thofe writers who have wafted their time in deriving the Britons from Japhet, from Gomer, from Javan, from Thi- ms, from Afkenaz, or from Shem. Such derivations are as unreafonable as the fpeculation of the man who affirmed that the earth was divided between the tiiiee fons of one father, as a typical reprefentative of the divine Trinity. The only accounts that can be fully relied on for the eaily hiftory of the European nations, arc thofe which the Roman and Grecian writers have tranfmitted to us. Even tlieir ftatements frequently demand our ciiticifm, but we muft dig for truth in their mines. From the extent of geographical knowledge which Homer difplays, we might not uiireafoiiably expeft to find fome allufion to the Britifti iflands in his works ; but altiioiigh he mentions with familiarity Italy, Sicily, Greece, ThelTaly, Epirus, with fome adjacent countries, and by Strabo and later authors, has been thought to allude to Spain, no other part of Europe is explicitly commemorated in his Epopcas. One of the oldeft Greek books which contains any allu- fion to the Britilh iflands, is the Argonaiitica afcribed to Orpheus. The cdebratcd perfou of this name lived ante- rior BRITAIN. at that time known, (with only one exception, which we (hall hereafter notice,) except thofe which military horrors hnd explored. He is nccurate about the tribes or nations that fwarmeil round the weftcrn fliorcs of tlie Euxine from the tnodern Conllantinople to the fca of Afoph, becaufe Darius had profecutcd a wild expedition agaiiift the Scy- thians who divclt there. But the hifloriar, fails where the Perfi.m dcfpot was checked ; or, if he indulges fome hally txcurfions beyond, it is only to repeat talei! fo abfurd, that the credit of his whole hiftory has been impeached from his Scythic reveries. In other parts of the world, wherever the natians warred whofe traufac'tions he records, he feems anxious to be minute and faithful ; but every other country which the glitter of arms had not revealed, he did not con- defcend, becaufe he was unable, to defcnbe. It is, perhaps, from this circumftance, that when we turn from Greece, and the adjacent kingdoms, and extend with national partiality our view weihvard over the regions, now divided into Spain, France, Germany, the Northern empire, and the liritiHi idands, we find the hiilorian lamenting, but ingcnuonfly confcfTmg, the penury of his information. " I have nothing certain to relate concerning the weftern boundaries of Europe. I know as little of the iflands called CafTiteridcs, from the tin which is thence imported among us ; and though I have diligently iwqiiirtd, yet have I never feen any man who by his own experience could in- form me of the nature of that fea which bounds the extre- mities of Europe ; however, it is certain that amber and tin come from its remoteft parts." The ignorance of Herodotus mud have been the ignorance of his age ; for it feems to have by no means proceeded from his negle£l of inquiry. " Europe has not been fully difco- vered by any man ; and we have no account whether it be bounded on the north and ead fide by the fea." About 120 years after Herodotus, the preceptor of Alexander flourilhed, who reigned for fo many ages in Eu- rope the monarch of metaphyfics. A treatife has been preferved to us, which is ufually attributed to him ; but to which his right has been difputed by men whofe erudition is formidable enough to leave the queflion undecided, even by thofe whom their arguments may not convince. If the circumftance that afferts the claim of Ariftotle appeared un- fatisfaftoryto the two Scaligers,to Cafaubon, Salinafius, Me- nage, Voffius, and others, we cannot but be, at leaft, doubt- ful on the fubjeft. By thefe gentlemen it has been given to Theophrallus, or to Anaximenes of Lampfichus, or to the ftoic Pofidonius. But vv'hether the book " De Mundo" be the compofition of Ariftotle, or of fome of his contem- poraries, or of his immediate fucceflbrs, or even of later writers, it is, under every opinion, a proper fubjeft for our pre- fent confideration. It feems to be a phyfiological account of the univerfe ; but it alfo contains a very rapid and concife furvey of the geography of the world. If it was written in the age of Ariftotle, it will flievv how little the geographers of thofe times knew. If it be of later date, it will prove that lapfe of time gave no increafe of knowledge. After a fingular conjeflure, which Columbus has fince happily demonftrated to be jnft, that beyond the Atlantic there were other continents, fome larger, fome fmaller than our own, he defcribes the coafts which the ocean, as he thought, waflied ; a;id after condufling the fea from the weftward through the ftrei^hts of Gibraltar to the Propon- tis, he ftates its piogrefs from the eaftern regions. He tells us, that it comes towards the Gallic gulph, and thence to thtn known concerning the popuLtion of Europe, and of the columns of Hercules. the Britifii iflands. " In this fea are two iflands, called pislxvixsi, axSw y.xi But when we take up the hiftory of Herodotus, which I=pvr), larger than thofe we named above. They are di redly gained the Olympic laurel, we perceive that no regions were above the Celts." ' Thefe rior to Homer ; but the poem5 that pafs under his name, lire by Snidas and Stobma attnbutcd to a man whom they call Orpheus the younger, and whom others name Onoma- critus. He has been referred to tiie times of Piliftratus, or about 5<5o years before Chrift. This poem is curious as a fpecimen of the geographical opinion; which tlic author and his cotemporaries entertained of the wcllcrn part of Europe. It was a voyage from Thcf- {a\y to Cnlchis on the eaftern part of the Euxine. But the part nioft intcrefting to us, is the manner in which thefe ad- venturers are ftated to have returned home; for, inftead of tracing; back their courfe to Colchis, the difference of which was co[r.p:irativtly fmall, they fa;l to the P.ilus Meotis, or Sta of Afoph, thence up the lands to the northern occaii, and, after circumna%-igatmg Europe, arrived at laft at their dcftined port. So little was Europe known at this early period, that it was fancied to have been polhble to have failed from the Euxine fea into tlie Hyperborean ocean. Whoever reads this compolition, from verfe ICJ3 to 129^, though he maybe entertained with the romantic table of the Macrobians, who are fcated in the icy ocean, and who, after living 1000 years in the moft aftivc exertions of wifdom and juftice, void of labour and law, fink from unin- terrupted felicity, into a gentle, but perpetual flecp ; yet he will need no further evidence to convince him, that the author was wholly igr.orant of the continent of Europe. It is indeed fingular, that he mentions the ifland lernida, which is prefumed to be Ireland, and which the Argonauts pafs with apprchenfion in their voyage from the North fea. But this is not mentioned with the accuracy of a man who knew what he was writing about, or elfe Britain, and not Ireland, would have been commemorated; for though Camden thinks that the ifland next mentioned under the name of rftvoiis-r^iv, or Piceis Obfitam, was Britain, this cannot be the fact, becaufe, after they had left lernida, they v\'ere tofled by a furious tempeft for twelve days before Lynceus dif- ccrned the illand nvjKWTs-av ■ It is remarkable, that in oppo- fition to all the mythologifts, the author makes this iiland in the Atlantic to have been the n.lldence of Ceres, and the place from which Proferpine was carried off by Pluto. With equal peculiarity he makes another ifland in thefame fea, which he calls >.iy.y.iOf x^f"" '> ^'''^ which Camden, by a ftrange error, thought to be the fame as the former, though three days fail from^the habitation of Circe. The geographical miltakes of this author are worthy of notice, becaufe the man who afpircd to write in the celebrated name of Orpheus, is not likely to have been the moft ignorant of his contempora- ries. About 450 years before Chrift, Herodotus, the father of hiftory, flouriflied. Greece was then fo deftitute of know- ledf^e, that, like many of his countrymen who pofTclTed afti- vity and energy of iutelleft, he travelled to Tyre, Egypt, and AfTyria, in fcarch of the information which thefe coun- tries in his days almoft cxclufivcly pofleffcd. His compo- fition feems to indicate that he made geographical fubjefts a principal object of inqniiy ; and he fought for it at thole places where it was molt likely to be obtained. The fitua- tion of Greece, which on its eaftern fide lies parallel with Afia Minor, and had frequent intercourfe with Egypt, Phos- nicia, .Slcilv, and that part of the Italian peninfula which now compofcs the kingdom of Naples, introduced him to an acquaintance with the three continents. It is therefore, if anv where, in his works, that we may reafonably expeft to find the moft accurate coUeftion of the facts which were BRITAIN. Thefe curious pafTages defei-ve a moment's confiJcration. Of Europe this geographer knew that the northern parts were inhabited by the Scythians, and the weftern by the Celts ; and that beyond the Celts were two idands called Bretanikai, whofc names were Albion and Hicnin. This is the eavlicll author in which the Britiih iflands are explicitly named. That the Britiili iflands were known to the ancient world long before the time of Cicfar, may be inferred from the paftaire in Polybiu;:, which mentions them. This author lived about 2O0 years before the chriitian xra. He enjoyed the confidence of Scipio and Lelius ; and when he deter- mined to write hillory, lie made many journies to the parts which he intended to deicribe. In the latter part of his third book, he promifed to write concerning the (Spsrlxiw^'i vr.o-w, the Biitilh illands, and the making of tin. Unfortunately for our curiolity, this trea- tife has not reached us. It is certain that he conipoftd it, bccaufe Strabo mentions his difcuffions concerning Britain. Three other Grecians alfo wrote concerning Britain. Thefe were Pytheas, Dicxarchus, and the celebrated Eratofthenes, who all lived anterior to Polvliius, and whofe opinions about our ifland Polybius compared and difputed. Thus we find that Britain was an ifland which had ob- tained much notice among the Grecians. We may alfo perceive, from fome intimations of the claffical writers, that the Britifli iflands had been difcovered and vifited by the Phoenicians and Ciuthaginians. There feems to be no reafon to doubt that the Cafliteri- des were another name for the Britifli iflands. Pliny fays, that Midacritus firll brought tin from thefe iflands ; and Strabo acquaints us, that the Phoenicians had been long ac- cuftomed to vifit the Caffiterides from Spain for the fake of traffic ; bv-t concealing their courfe from others. He gives a ftriking inftance of their effort to conceal the navigation to our iflands. When the Romans followed a Phoenician fliip bound thither, for the exprcfs purpofe of difcovering the market, the mafter ran his fliip afliore, and deftroyed it, rather than let them trace his courfe ; and he was indemnified by his countrymen forthclofs out of the public treafury. But the Romans, by frequent attempts, at lall obtained the know- ledge which they fought. Bochart derives Bretanike, the Greek name for Britain, fron\the Phoenician or Hebrew words *\3!«f'n~l3' Barat- anac, the land of tin. Caffiteros, the Greek for tin, from which the iflands were called Caffiterides, he alio compares, with much ingenuity, with the Chaldee Killarsand Kifliia, by which the Targums of Jonathan and Jerufalem render the Greek word xMTsi'r-fo;. It was the invafion of Crefar, about 54 years before Chrift, which brought the Romans firil acquainted with the natives of Britain. Caefar, ambitious of attaining the highefl dif- ■tiniilion in the Roman flate, applied himfelf to warfare, as the fureil means of railing an exalted reputation, and of creating a folid power. With this view, he attacked and conquered the Gauls ; and in profecution of the fame pur- pole he invaded Britain. Not being well acquainted with the harbours of the ifhmd, he fent C. Volufenus in a veffel to explore them. The na- tives, at firll alarmed at his preparations and threats, fent •overtures of peace. Crefar received them civilly, but per- iilled in his invafion. After five days abfence, Volnfcnus arrived at Ccelars Ration, and reported his obfervations. C'.cfar embarked two legions of foot in about eighty tranf- poi ts ; and with thefe, and eighteen more for the rell of his army, he failed towards Britain. He arrived at a part inconvenient for landing fi'om its mountainous afpcft, and beheld the rocks covered with tlie armed inhabitants. He remained five hours at antlior, vv,"it- V'oL. V. ing for the arrival of his whole force ; and when the wini! and tide ferved, he failed out about eight miles farther to a plain and open (hore. The Britons fent their horfe and chariots to oppofe his landing, and all their forces followed. A fevere contcft en- fued. The Roman vefl'els were too large for the fliallow fea, and their foldicrs were obliged to leap into the waves in unknown places, and with heavy armour, and to confljil with the aftive natives, who were well acquainted with tlit^ coall, and zealous in their oppolition. At laft the Romaa gallics brought their engines to bear againfl the Britons. I'heir appearance and effeft checked the brave lavages, and the fland-ud-bearer of t!ie tenth legion, at that critical mo- ment, rulliing with his eagle towards the enemy, the Romaini followed witli new courage, and, after a defperate ftruggle, compelled the Britons to retire. This defeat occafioned new propofals of pacification, which were broken, and the llrugglc re-commenced. The Britons were repulfcd again, but Cxiar chofe to abandon all further efforts to conquer the ifland, and returned to the continent. In the following year he invaded the ifland again. The natives vigoroufly oppuled him under the command of Caf- fivcllaun. They experienced defeats, but their refillance was too fierce for the Romans to fupport, and Cxfar again withdrew from the ifland, having flicwn the ifland to the Romans (fays Tacitus) but not having conquered it. The Britons remained unmolefted by any attacks from the Romans till the reign of Claudius, at which period, un- fortunately for their independence, but perhaps liappily for their civilization, they were invaded by Aulus Plautins. Divided by civil feuds, and no longer oppofing to the Romans that union of will and power by which they had baffled the genius of Csfar, the feparate exertions of their various tribes were generally difallrous, and the ftruggle ended in the complete conqueft of the ifland. The events of this conflict are chiefly recorded at great length by Taci- tus, and are too familiarly known to tis to be recited here. In the thiid and fourth centuries Britain gave fome difturb- ance to the Roman empire, by the turbulence of that part of the Roman army which was llationed within it. At various intervals they made fome of their favourite officers emperors, who contended for the purple with the other com- petitors. In thefe centuries Britain was much diftrcffed by the incurfions of the Pitls and Scots on the north and well, and by the Franks and S:ixons from the fea. At lall the barbarians prefled fo vigoroufly on the Rom.an empire, thai: the Roman forces were compelled to abandon Britain in 4159, and the ifland for a lliort time recovered its independ- ence, to lofe it again on the triumphant invafions of the Saxons. See Saxons. Britain, New, in Geography, an appellation which has been appropriated, by fome geographers, to the mod nortliern regions towards Hudfon's bay, and the coall of Labrador ; and comprehending the whole traA of country that lies north of Canada, conunonly called the EfquimauK counti-y, including Labrador, New North and South Wales; faid to be S50 miles long and 750 broad. This is in general a mountainous, frozen, and barren country ; abounding witli lakes, rivers, and bays, that furnifh plenty of fi(h. The fifliery and the fur-trade are the only produdls of thiscountry that render it valuable. It is very thinly inhabited by a people refembling tlie Ivaplandcrs, and the other nations in the nonh-weilern parts of Europe, from whence their an- ceftors probably migrated. But the naiiie of New Britain is not admitted in French or Englifli maps. See Hudsos's Bny, and I.,abrador. Britain, Kf.u, an ifland, or rather a group of iflands, in tlic Pacific ocean, being a part of that cxtenlive traft deno- ^ y minuted B R I minstfil Australasia. It was fird fxplorfd and named ( ■, l»,«m;>itfr, who paffcd a lirait called atter hi? r.aoie, bc- tutci. tills ttrritiry ai.d Papua, or NVw Guinea. In 1767, cant.Cartrivt iiavifjaleil a ihannel that lies btt\veen New V. ■■-.:.. ;,,,,i Xew lre!ai\J ; and he called its north point Cape . !•.» rail point C.'pe Orford, and a bay about the , ,^ , ; ••- . .'^ni coall Port Montague. This land was {■_xn by '9 fcjuadron in 172:, and by M. de ■ •■ . l».irpjiitr, who vifitcd the bay fince ;'• in 170J, fou-.d the land rrountainous ;; . ».i.... ,, u..i . .vetfperfed with fertile vales and beautiful Urea'.".. T'le country fcenied very populous, the natives rvfenit'i'ni^ ih .fe of I'dpua, and navigating their canoes with grcut fKill. The c! 'cf proHuct fcemcd to be cocoa nuts, but there were yams, and other loais, particularly ginger ; and the fea and rivers fwarmcd with (vK In the main land, and adjacent ill-S, there are fevcral voleanos. A Spanifh frigate, c.illed the Princtffa, fpiled from Manilla, towards the ch'fc of the year 1780, fnr San Klas in California ; and li.iving, in her way thither, fallen in with fome of the iflands which form the nortlicrn part of the Rroup called New ]Jri«sin, (he difcovered, on the 20th of January 17S1, nine fmall iflands, overed with palm-trees, furrounded by a fand bank, and foriiiLiiJ within thenifelvci a lagoon, or pond of Uill water, and agreeing, in every other refpeft, with the de- fcriptlon which is given by Valentin of Ontong Java, dif- tnvertJ by Le Mane and Schoutcn in 1616. The latitude of the fo'Jthcrn part of lbs duller of iflands %«as obferved to be 4^ 5 5' S. Nck^• Britain I es between 4^ and 6° 50' S. lat. and l+H^ 20' and 151'' 2d' E. long. BRITANNIC Plagui;, in AhScine. See Sweating- sickness. BRITANNICA, in Bolany. See Rumex Aqual'icus, or Hv DP OLA PAT HUM. BRITANNICO, John, in Biography, an eminent Italian fcholar of tlie Ijtli century, was bora in the Brcfclan terri- tory, of a familv originally from Great Britain ; and having l\udicd at Pa-! na about the year 1470, kept fchoolat Brefcia, and dillinguirned hiir.fclf by feveral learned annotations on various claffic authors, partic.ilarly Juvenal, Horace, Perfnis, and Statins in his Achilleid. He alfo wrote grammatical and other Irafts, and an eulogy on Bartholomew Cajetano. He is fuppofed not to have long furvived the year 1518, and did not live to publidi his notes upon Pliny's Natural Hiftory. BRITANNICUS Codex Era/mi, in Biblical Hijory, a MS. copy of the New Ttllament, which is one of the two MSS. (the Codex Ravianus being the other) that contain the difputed palTage of the three that bear record in heaven, 1 John, V. 7. This MS. is probably the fame with that de- nominated Montfortianus and Dublinenfis, soted 61 in the full part of Wctftein's N. T. in the fecond 40, and in the third 34. It is of the l2mo l-ze, contains the whole N. T., is written on a thick glazed paper, and not on vellum, in a modern hand, and is probably of the i6lh centur)'. Mill relates, that it belonged originally to one Froy, a Francifcan friar, who poirelTcd it either about or before the middle of the 1 6th century ; a few years previous to which period, that is, between I5l9and 1522, it was known to Erafmus by the name of " Codex Britannicus." From Froy it came into the polTeffion of Thomas Clement, probably a doftor of philofophy and medicine in England ; from him it came into tjie hands of William Chare, a learned Greek fcholar ; after Chare, it was podefied by Ur. Thomas Montfort, and from him took its name, becaufe it belonged to him when it was collated for the London Polyglot; and lince the time of Ulher, who had it after Montfort, it has been preferved in the library of Trinity-college in Dublin, where it is noted G. 97 ; and hence it is fometimes called Dublinenfis. As Eiafmus, in the iwo firft editions of his Greek Teftiiment, B R I omitted I John, v. -,. but in the later editions inferted it, be- caufe he had found it, as he relates, in a Codex Britannicus, it ha; been concluded, with a very great degree of proba- bilitv, that the Montfortianus is the fime as the Britannicus of Erafnus; becaufe, tHough every MS. in Great Britain has been carefully fearched, this is the only one %yhich con- tains the paflage in quellion. In proof of this it is llrongly urL'cd, that the text of the third edition of Erafmus, in 1522, dllTers in this interpolated paffage from all other editions, except thofe which were immediately copied from it, and at the fame time agrees word for word with the Codex Mont- fortianus. Although no critic would pfcribe a high auti-. qnity to the Cod. jilontf. we have no rcafon to fufpecl that it is a mere tranfcript from the Complutemian Polyglot, which is faid to be the cafe with refpcA to the Codex Ravianus. For the difference is (Irongly marked in nume- rons paffages, and even the text in qucftion, for which this MS. is famous, is not the fame as in that Polyglot. Erafmus defcribes the Codex Britannicus as a Latinizing MS. ; and Wetftein entertains the fame opinion with regard to the Montfortianus, of which the paflage in quellion, I John v. 7, affords the flrongeft proof ; for in the Cod. Montf. it not only differs from the ufual text, but is written in fuch Greek as manifellly betrays a tranflation from the Latin. For the fatisfaftion of thofe who may not have ac- cefs to other means of information, we fliall give it below, with all the abbreviations, as it is given by Travis, in his letters to Gibbon, p. 153. OtV Tpei's EiffilV 0* ^-tapTU pouvT' £v Tw oZrji, -nrJip, \oyo^f y.y.'i iTvcc ayi'oy y,y.'i otiTcV 0* Tp:*; Ev iia-'i Ka'i TfU'j Ei'T*y di jj-^pv Here the article is omitted before the words expreflive of Father, Son, and Holy Gholl, becaufe there is no article in the Latin, and it occurred not to the tranflator, that the ufual Greek was 0 ■s'^ln;, 0 \oyo-, 10 T7»Euaa. He has alfo f» Tvi yr,, which is falfe Greek, for f-i 1»,- yr,;, becaufe he found in the Latin, in terra. He has likewife omitted xxioi Tptij eij TO Ev E15-1V, which is wanting in many Latin MSS. becaufe the Lateran council, held in 1215, had rejefted it through po- lemical motives. The omiflion of this claufe at the end of the 8th verfe proves, not only that the writer of the Codex Montfortianus copied from the Vulgate, becaufe no ancient Greek MS. omits the claufe in that place, but that he copied even from modern tranfcripts of the Vulgate, becaufe this final claufe is found in all the MSS. of the Vulgate, written before the 1 3th century. It is further alleged, that •anui^a,, in the 6th verfe, is altered to x(^^'^'> becaufe chrillus is the reading of the Vulgate, though it is not found in any Greek MS. Befides, in this MS. the Latin arrangement is obferved with regard to the divifion of the text into chapters, though at the fame time the x^JiaXccia. of Eufebins are noted. This Latin arrangement was introduced by Hugo de S. Caro, in the I2th century, and is that of our printed Bibles; but though obferved in the modern MSS. of the Vulgate, it was in general not admitted into the Greek MSS. which adhered to the xs^pccXata, of Eufebius. Its admiffion, there- fore, into the Codex Montf. not only fliews what influence the Vulgate has had in this MS. ; but proves, at the fame time, independently of other arguments, that the Codex Montf. is very modern. For no Greek MS. is known, in which the text is divided into our prefent chapters, that was written before the I Jth century ; when the Greeks, who fled from their own country into the well of Europe, became tranfcribers for the members of the Latin church, and of courfe adopted the Latin diviiions. Moreover, the dots over the < and v, which have been urged in favour of the antiquity of this MS. on the authority of Montfaucon, who, in his " Palso. B R I B R I " PjIiEOi^rapliia," had faid that tlicfe dots were in ufc a thoufand years ago, are likcwifc ufcd in the mod modern MSS. (fee the fame Palxographia, p. .324. J.tj-) ; and therefore, fo far from being a proof of anliqiiily, they are iiftd as an argument to prove, Vliat the Cod. Montf. is very niodern. No one MS. written in fmall Ittters, among tiic fpceimens produced by Montfaiicon, before the 12th cen- tury, has ihcfe dots. As thefe letters, > and v, are always dotted in the Cod. Montf., but not always in the MSS. of the 13th and 14th centuries, and ilill Icfs often in thofe of tlic i:lh century, we may infer that the Codex Moiit- fortianus is at leall as modern as the 15th century. Mi- chatlis's Int. to the N. T. by Marfti, vol. ii. BRITANY, or Brktagnf., in GifjgrtipLy, was, before the revolution, a confiderable province of Fiance, witli the title of a duchy, reunited to the crown by Francis I. in 153:. It derived its name from the Uritons, by whom it waschicl'y inhabited, when tliey were driven from their own country by the Saxons, and fought refuge in that part of Ciaul talKd ^^rmorica, which fee. This province forms a kind of penin- fula, bounded on tlie north, well, and fonth by the fea, and on the ead by Maine and Anjou. Its mean length is elli- mated at 57 leagues, and its breadth at about •;,) : its extent of coall was computed at about 150 leagues, containing a confiderable number of bays and good ports. Its navigable rivers are the Loire and the Vdaine, united with tiie Drance by means of a canal between Rcnnesaud Dijon. The other rivers are the Ardre, the Hie, the Men, the Borneau, the Claye, and the Aden, which difeharge themfelvts into the ocean. The climate is temperate ; and the foil, which is generally grave! or gravelly fand, with low ridges of granite, is divcrfifud with hills and plains ; and ex- tenllve heaths, reftmbling Corn .vail in its appearance, in fome places covered with forells of wood, and in others well cultivated, and producing wheat, hemp, flax, &c. Nume- rous herds of cattle are bred and fatted in the paflures ; game and fifh are plentiful ; cider is the ordinary drink of the inhabitants, and fome parts produce wines and brandy. In fome diftrifts of this province there are mineral fprings, and mines of iron, lead, and coal. The charafter of the Britons is rough and choleric ; but they are brave, good foldiers, and excellent feamen. The commerce of this province is confiderable, and confifts of a variety of articles, recited under its principal towns. By the new arrangement, Bre- tagne forms the departments of the Hie and Vilaine, the North-coafts, Finillerre, Morbihan, and I^ower I^oirc. BRITE, in ylgriciillure, a term applied to hops, when they are over-ripe or (liattcr ; in which cafe they are faid to Iritc. BRITISH America, in Geogrophy. Sec America. British Coin. See Coin. British Conjlituthn. See Constitution. British Cronun. See Crown. British JJImuIs, in Geography, are thofe which are adja- cent to the Britifli coafts, and fubjcft to the crown of Great Britain. Of thefe a geographical defcription, and other par- ticulars relating to them, will be found under their rtfpeflive names. We (hall here only obferve, that lome of them, as the ifle of Wight, of Portland, of Thanet,&c. are comprifed in fome neighbouring county, and are th.erefore to be looked upon, in a legal point of view, as annexed to the mother ifiand, and part of the kingdom of England. As to others that require more particular confideration, fee ^/f of Man, Alderney, &c. British I^ngunge. The language of the ancient Bii- tons, when tbey were firll invaded by the Romans, was a dialeft of the Celtic ; which had been the language of all the nations of Europe defcended from Gomer, and Ilill con- tinued to be fpoken by the people of Ganl, and feveral other ■countries. This is undeniably evident (fays Dr. Henry, Hid. vol. ii. p. 336.) from the nature and rcafon of thing.'! ; from the telliniony of ancient authors ; from the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, &c. in Britain being fignificant and defcriptive in the Celtic tongue ; and from the remains of that moll ancient and venerable language in feme paits of Britain, as well as in fome countries on the contiuent. Sec Wales. BRITO, Bernard DE, in Biography, 3. Portuguefchillo- rian and elegant writer, was born at Almeida in l^C'), and having entered into the order of Cidercians, was ftnt to purfuc his ftudies in Italy. On his return he was appoiiite.( principal hilloriographer for Portugal, and was the firfl, writer who undertook a general hillory of that country ; ol which, under the title of " Monarchia Lufitana," he pnb- lilhed one volume in 1507, and a fccond in 1609. The work was continued by fathers Antony and Francis Bran- dano to fevcn volumes folio ; the lall of which was printed at Liftion in i6li. Brito alfo wrote " Eulogies of the Kings of Portugal, with their Portraits ;" " Ancient Geo- graphy of Portugal ;" and " Chronicle of the Ciilercian Order." He die d in 161 7. Nouv. Dia. Hift. BRITOL.'\G/E, in y/aclenl Geography, a people who, ac- cording to Ptolemy, inhabited Lower Moclla, towards the mouth of the Danube. BRITTEN, in Geography, an ifiand in the Frozen ocean, near the fouth-weft coall of Nova-Ztuibla. N. lat. 71" 6'. E. long. 55'' 14'. BRITTLENESS, in Natural Philofcphy, that quality of bodies by which they are ioon and eafily brcken by prtllure or percufTion. It llands oppofird to tenacity. Brittle bodies are extremely hard ; the lead percnflion extrts a force on them equivalent to the grcattll prefTiire, and may confequently eafily break them. This effeit is par- ticularly remarkable in glafs fuddenly cooled, the brittlenefs of which is thereby much increafed. Tin, though in itfelf tough, gives a brittlenel's to all the other metals, when mixed therewith. The brittlenefs of glafs fcems to arife from the heterogeneity of the parts whereof it is com. pofed, fait and fand, which can never bind intimately together. In timber, brittlenefs ftems to be connedled w'ith durable- nefs ; the more brittle any fort of wood is, the more killing it is found. Thus it is oak is of fo long duration, while beech and birch, as being tough, prcfently rot, and are of little fervice for building. Brittleness of the honf, in horfes. See Hoof. BRITTON, Thomas, in Biography, the mulica! fma'I- coal man. This was an ingenious, innoxious, and humble man, of a profi.ffion which no longer fnbfills. Not only the ufe, but even the name of fmall-coal is hardly known at prefent. Dr. Johnfon defines it : " Sniall-eoal, httle wood coals, irfed to light fires ;" and illuftrates the word from the SpeiSator, and Gay. " A fmall-coal man, by waking one of thefe diflrcficd gentlemen, faved him from ten years imprifonment." Spec- tator. " When fniall-coa! murmurs in the hoarfer throat. From fmutty dangers guard thy threatened coat." Gay's Trivia. In our own memory, fmallcoal was daily cried about the ftreets, and of general ufe in the capital at leall, in kind- lings^ fires. Britton was a great favourite of Hearne, the antiquary', whom he much rcfembled in his fondntfs for oUl thinas, and who has given a long account of him in the appcnd:x to "Homing! ChartulariumEcclefiaeWigoniienfis," and informs us, that Britton was born at or near Higham Ferrers, in Northamptonfhire, from whicii place he went to London, where he bound himfclf apprentice to a fmall-coal man. After he had ferved his full time of feven years, his mailer Y y 2 ii"' B R I gave him a fum of money not to fet up. Upon tliis, Tom went into Northamptonfhirc again, and after he had fpent his money, he returned, and fct up a fmall-coal trade, though his mafter was ilill hviiig, taking a liable in Clcrk- enwcll, which he turned into a houfe. Tliis feems tlic only difhonuuiable action with which Tom could ever be charged. Some time after he had been fettled in bufiiitfs here, he became acquainted with Dr. Garanicre, iiis ncighnoitr, an eminent chc riil, who admitting liim into his laboratory, Tom, with the doflor's coulent, and his own obfcrvalion, foosi became a notable chcmill, contrived, and built himfelf a movinsi laboratory, in which, according to Hearnc, " he performed with little expence and trouble, fuch things as had never been done before." Defidcs his great (kill in chemiflry, he betiime a praflical, and, as was thought, a theoretical muficiaii. Tradi- tion only informs us, that he was very fond of mufic, and that he was able to perform on the viol da gamha at his own concerts, which he at firft cllabliflied gratis in his niiie- rabie houfe, which was an old mean building, the f round- floor of V hich was a rcpofitory for his fmall-coal ; over this was his concert-room, long, low, and narrow, to which there was no other afcent than by a pair of ftairs on the oiitfide, fo perpendicular and narrow, as fcarcely to be mounted without crawling. Heame allows him to have been a very diligent colleftor of old books of all kinds, which, in his courfes through the town crying his fmall-coal, he had a good opportunity of doing at flails, where he ufed to ftop and fcleft for pur- chafe whatever was ancient, particularly on his two favourite fubicfts of chemillry and mufic. On the former, it lias na- turally been fuggefted, that he had picked up books on Rofycrucian myllerics, and not impofTible, but that he may have walled fome of his fmall-coals in the great fecrets of alchymy in the tranfmutation of metals. With refpeft to mufic, he coUefted all the elementary books in Englifli that were then extant : fuch as Morley's introduAioii, Siinpfon's divifion violift, Playford, Butler, Bath, and IMace ; nine books of inllruftion for the pfal- mody, flute, and mock t"umpet. But befides his vail col- letlion of printed mufic, the catalogue of which fills eight pages in 410. of fir J. Hawkins's hill, of mufic, he feems to have been fuch an indefatigable copyiil, that he is faid to have tranfcribed with his own hand, very neatly and ac- curately, a coUedion of mufic which fold after his deceafc for near icol. Mr. Walpole, in his anecdotes, fays that " Woolafton the paintir, who wa? a good performer on the violin and flute, had played at the concert, held at the houfe of that ex- traordinary perfon, Thomas Britton the fmall coal man, whofe picture he twice drew, one of which was purchafed by fir Hans Sloane, and is now in the Britifh mufeum : there is a mezzotinto from it. T. Britton, who made mut h noife in his time, confidering his low llation and trade, was a collector of all forts of curiofities, particularly drawings, prints, books, manufcripts on uncommon fubjetts, as myllic divinity, the philofopher's Hone, judicial ailrology, and ma- gic; and mufical inllrHments, both in and out of vogue. Various were the opinions concerning him : fome thought his mufical aflcmbly only a cover for feditious meetings ; ethers, for magical pnrpofcs. He was taken ior an atheill, a prtlbyterian, a jsUiit. But Woolafioii the painter, and the fon of a gentleman, who had likewife been a member of that club, averred it as their opinions, that Britton was a plain, fimpje, honell man. \»'ho only meant to amufe h'm- felf. The fublcription was but ten (hillings a year; Britton fouTid the inftruments, and they had cofiee at a penny a difli. Sir Kans Sloane bought many of his books and MSS. nov/ 3 B R I in the mufeum, when they were fold by auftion at Tom'j coffee-houfe near I^udgate." We have in early life converfed with members of this concert, who fpoke of him in the fame manner. So late as the middle of the lall century, mezzotinto prints of him were ill all the print (hops, particularly an excellent one by Smith, under which, and almoll all the prints of Britton, were the following verfes by Hughes, who frequently per- formed on the violin at the concerts of this ingenious fniaU- coal man. ♦' Though mean thy rank, yet in thy humble cell Did gentle peace and arts, unpurchafcd, dwell ; Well pleafcd Apollo thither led liis train, And mufic warbled in her fweetell drain. Cylleiiius fo, as fables tell, and Jove, Came willing guells to poor Philemon's grove. Let ufelefs pomp behold, and blufii to find. So Iowa (lation, fuch a liberal mind." In moll of the prints, he was reprefented with his fack of fmall-coal on his ftioulder, and his meafure of retail in his hand. In the Guardian, N° 144, Steele fpeaking of the variety of original and odd charafters, which our free government produces, fays : " AVe have a fmall-coal man, who b-gin- ning with two plain notes, which made up his daily cry, has made himfelf mafler of the whole compafs of the gammut, and has frequent concerts of mufic at his own houfe, for the entertainment of himfelf and friends." But the afiertion of fir John Hawkins, that Britton was the firft who had a meeting that corrcfpondcd with the idea of a concert, is not correft : in the time of Charles I. and during the ufurpation, at Oxford, meetings for the per- formance of Fitncies in fix and feven parts, which preceded fonatas and conceits, were very common. And in Charles the Second's time, Baniller, father and fon, had concerts, firil at taverns and public houfes, and afterwards at York buildings. It is, perhaps, not a matter worthy of difpute ; but we imagine, that it would be difficult to prove that Handel ever played at the fmall-coal man's concert. Handel was proud, and never had much refpett for Englifli compoleis. He had been careffed and patronized by princes and nobles fo long, that he would as foon have gone into a coal-pit to play at a concert, as to the hovel of our vender of Imall- coal. About the commencement of the lad century, a pallion prevailed among feveral perfons of diftinetion, of coUeRing old books and MSS. : and it was their Saturday's a^nufe- ment during winter, to ramble through various quart rs of the town in purfuit of thcfe trcafures. Tlie earls c-f Ox- ford, Pembroke, Sunderland, and Winchclfea, and the duke of Devonfiiire, were of this party, and Mr. Bagford and other coUeftors affifted them in their rcfearches. Brit- ton appears to have been employed by them ; and as he was a very modcll, decent, and unprefuming man, he waj a fliarer in their converlation, v.hen they met after their morn- ing's walk, at a bookfeller's (hop in Ave-Maria lane. Brit- ton ufed to pitch his coal fack on a bulk at the door, and, drcifed in his blue frock, to Hep in and fpeiid an hour with the company. But it was not only by a few literary lords that his acquaintance was cultivated ; his humble roof w-as frequented by alfemblies of the fair and the gay ; and his fondnefs for mufic caufed him to be known by many dilet- tanti and profelfors, who formed themfelvcs into a club at his houfe, where capital pieces were played by fome of the Srll profeffional artills, and other pradtitioners ; and here Dubourg, when a child, played, ftanding upon a joint-ftool,. the firll lolo that he ever executed in public. We cannot terminate this article better than from Tiu -■\ikin's B R I B R I Aikin's account of Britton. (Gen. Biog.) The circiim- fiances of bis death were as extniordinary 33 thofc of his lile, if the llory is to be credited. A ventriloqiiill was intro- duced into his company by an acquaintance who was fond of niifchievoiis iefts. This man, in a voice, feeniingly com- ing from a dillance, annonnced to poor Britton his ap- proacliing end, and bid him prepare for it, by repeating the Lord's p'aver on his knees. Britton, whofe myftical and nia- gicnl books had probably made him credulous, obeyed the in- junflion, went home, took to his bed, and adlually died in a few days. This was in September 17 14. He was buried with a vc-rv rcfpeftful attendance in Clerkenwell church-yard. BRITUIN, in G:'o^riJp/.;c3 and impofls. Tne religion of the diocefe is Roman catholic ; but among the peafants there are fome Lutherans : tlie capital is Brixen. Brixen, the capital of the preceding bilhopric, feated on the river Eyfach, at fome diltance fouth of the Brenner mountains. It is furrounded with hills and vineyards, ami is a well-built populous town ; the houfes being adorned with piazzas, and painted on the outfide. It has many public buildings, cxcbinvc of the cathedral, which are hand- fome, and feveral fpacions fquares : the mineral waters in its vicinity canfe it to be much frequented. In ic8o, a council was held here by the emperor Henry IV. which depofed pope Gregory VII. This town was taken by the French in March, 1706. N. lat. 46° ,;5'. E. long. 1 1° ,';o'. IjRIXENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of Francouia, and principality of Anfpach, affording an afyluni f(n- involuntary homicides; 16 miles E. N. E. ot Wuizburg. BRIXIA, ill /Indent Geography, a town of Rcgio Tranf- padana, belonging to the Ccnomani, feated on the Mela; now Brescia, which fee. Brixia, a river of Suliana, which difeharges itfclf into the Peiiicgulf, and which rendered the coafts dangerous, according to Pliny, by the quantity of mud depofited by it. BRIXTON Bay, in Geography, lies on the well fide of the ifle of Wight, and is an open bay to the north-well from the finith point of this ifland. The ground is rocky, and in fwelling feas or winds in fliore, it does not afford a defirable retreat nor a fafe anchorage. BRIZA, Qi/aiing gra/s, in Botany, (/Jfi^a;, to nod) Linn. S4. Reich. 00. Schrcb. 115. G:trtn. 6. Tab. I. Juff. 32. LaMarck. Tab. 45. Smith Flor. Brit. 34. Clafs, /Wrtm/r/Vj d'lgyma. Nat. Old. Gramma. Gen. Char. Cal. glume many-flowered, two-valved, fpreadiiig, blunt, collefting the flowers into a fubcordate, two-rowed fpikelet. Cor. two- valved ; the lower valve the fize and figure of the calyx, the upper one very fmall, flat, ronndifli, enclofing the other. Ne3. two-leaved ; folioles linear, crenulate. Slam, filaments three, capillary, oblong. Pijl. gtrm, roundifh, fpreading. Stigmas, plumofe. Perlc. none ; the corolla unchanged con- taias the feed, and when ripe, opens and drops it. Seeti, one, adhering to the corolla, comprefTed. Eff. Char. Ca/. bivalvcd, many-flowered ; little fpikes two-rowed. Cor, two-valved, ventricofe, with cordate obtufe valves ;_/(•«/ ad- hering to the corolla, deprefTed. LaMarck obferves, that Briza is too nearly allied to Poa, to make a good dillinft genus. He has, however, kept them fc- parate ; but judging that what has been called a multivalve calyx in Uniola, its principal difference from Briza, is nothing more than two or three abortive florets, he has aboliflicd the genus, and defcribed its fpecies under Briza. In agreement with the greater number of authors, we have thought it bcft; to preferve the original diftrlbution. Species 1. B. mmor. Lin. (Eng. Bot. 1316,) ajpera. Knap. (Gram, Brit. 61.) '■ Spikelets triangular, fever-flowered ; calyx longer than the florets, ftipule very long, lanceolate." Dr. Smith. Rrot fibrous, fmall, annual. Culm cre£l, about feven inches high, round, roughifli, with minute fpine^ pointing downwards, leafy, often branched at the bafe. Leaves fli^athing, cvcii, lanceolate, acute, flat, of a pleafant green, flriated, rough at their margin. Sheath ftriated, fmouth. Stipule lanceolate, very long, embracing the flcm, decnrrent, adhering to the leaf above, very tender. Panicle fpreading widely ; branches growing two together, branchlets diehotomous, divaricated, capillary, rough, green. Spiielets pendulous, trembling, deltoid, fmooth, beautifully variegated with white and gici n, with about feven flowers. Calyx-glumes nearly equal, con- cave, very obtufe, ftriated, membranaceous at the mart;i!i, longer than the florets. Florets alternate, gradually fmalltr ; inner glumes very fmall, emargiiiate. Dr. Smith defcribi s the culm as fmooth, but in fpecimens fent us From the wefl of England, it has a flight roughncfs, jull fenfible to the touch, and vifible with a ilrong magnifier. We have, there- fore, followed Mr. Knap in this part of the dtfcriptioii. The B R I T!>e greater Itnjrth of t!ic calyx k mod obfervable when the panicle has jiift biirll fom iis ihcatli. At a more advanced ■period the diilinction nearly difappears. It is a rare plant III F.nRltnd, peculiar to tlie foiuliorn counties, and chiefly found in Cornwall. 2. B. iri.-iHa, Linn common qnaking jjraf*. cow.q«alic9, (liakcrs, ladi.-s-hair, bird's eyes. Eng. IVit. J40. Knap. Gram. Brit. 6o. " Spikciets ovate, fevcn- flo.vered, calyx lh'>rtcr than the florets, ftipule very fliort, ohtufe." Dr. Smith. Riit perenni.il, fibrous, elongated. Cfitm erefl, round, leify, very fmooth. I.fnvis acute, flat, flriatrd, a little rem^h. SIjoiiIu, very long, flriated, fniooth. .'./()>(//£• very (hort, obtnfe. fcarcely dccurrent, not adhering to the Iraf above. Ptin'icit widely fprcadiiig, mnny-flowered, bi-anchts growing by two.?, branchlets as in the minor, but brown, not ereti\. SpihtUts, ptndiilous, trembling, ovate, or a little heart-lhapcd, fmojth, fliining, variegated with wliite and brown. Cjlyx-^!it.Hes nearly equal, concave, obtufe, fcarcely llnated, fcariou^at their mari;in. Florets as in the mhior. Dr. •Smith. Common in t!ic dry i(li r.icndows of Europe, and other parts of Europe. It has no peculiar excellence, and has never been cuhivatedfeparatdy. J. B. r.'rfH/,Linn."Spikeletsovate, feven-lKiuervd : calyx equal to the florets." Very like the jireccdii'g, but the leaves are twice as broad. Root annual. ..V./s.'/.'ir acute, decurreiit, adhering to the leaf above. Pr.nide fuller, green, more branched ; branchlets much divaricated, occafioned by callous knots depreffing them at their bafc. Fioxufrt rather fmallcr, readily falling oiT when fliaken. Native of the Levant, Spain, &c. Introduced into England, 17.S7, by Mr. Zicr. 4. li. ,?™;<:;;/.//a. WiUd. " Spikclets ovate, calyx fliorter than the flowers, culm geniculate." Tliujib. Cape of Good Hope. ,5. B. cnjjenjis. (Poa lirizeidrs, Linn. Sup.) " Spike-lets ovate, ten-flowered, Jjaniclc clofe. Thuiib." Pedicles Ample. Cape of Good ili>pe. 6. B. maxL-na. -Linn. " Splkelcts cordate ; florets fevcntcen." ^04/ annual. Leavcshro:\d. fu/m about a foot -.Slid half high. Spile. hti very few, very large, ftiiiiing, fca- rious, variegated with green and white. Peduncles fimple. Italy, Portugal,Cnpe of Good Hope, India. 7. B. eragr^>Jlis. I.inn. " Punicle oblong ; fpikclets lanceolate, many-flower- ed.'.' I..a Marck. Root annual. Culm from five to feveu iiiches high, decumbent near the bottom. La Marck o'.ifervts, that it is nearly allied to Poa eragiolUs, and Wdldenow doubts whether it be more than a variety of it ; but Vill irs aiferts that it may always be dillinguifhed by the outer valve of the corolla, which is concave, pellucid, with a nerve running along the middle, and two along the edge. South of Europe. 8. B. monfpejfulana. AUion. " Spike ■nodding, ii:nple ; fp'kelets alternate, pedunclcd, fubfolitary, ovate; calyx live -Sov.-ered." Martyn's Miller. BRIZACA, in ^'Indent Geography, a town of Afia, in Armtnia .Major. Ptolemy. BRlZrVKA, a river of Afia, in Pcrfia Propria. Its mouth was dangerous, accordinjr to Arrian, on account of the jjanks aiid rocks with which it abounded. Ptolemy calls this liver B.ifoana. BRiZE, in Agriculture, a word that fignifies fuch lands as have remained long without tillage. Br I z t-r<.'.7.-, or V>».'.%n-ven!s, a kind of (helters ufcd by gardeners, vvho have n.it walls on the north-fide, to keep the cold winds from damaging their melon beds. Brize-vents are inclofurcs fix or fcvcn feet high, and an inch thick, made of ft;rav.', fupported by flakes fixed into the ground, and props acrofs both infide and outfide, faftencd together with willow twi^s, or iron-wire. BRlZEMiiOURG, m Gcgraphy, a town of Prance, jn the department of the Lower Charente, and diilrift of .St. Jean d' Angcly ; i\ leagues S. of St. Jean d'Angely. i3RIZ£N, a town of Germany, in the circle of Uppcj- B R O Saxony, and Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; 4 leagues N. of \\'ilteiiberg. BRIZIO, or Briccio, Francesco, in Biography, a painter of architefture and landfcape, was born at Bologna, in IJ74, and educated firft in the fchool of Paiferotli, and afterwards under Ludovico Caracei. Having applied with great diligence to the Ihidy of the principles of perfpeAive and architefture, he acquired a ilyle in his compofitions of fuch diilinguidicd excellence, that his piftures were much admired, not only for tlic truth of the pevfpeAive, and the beauty of the colouring, but alio for the grandeur of his ideas, the majeflic llyle .jf the architeilure, the elegance of the ornaments, am! the noble taflc of landfcnpc, which he in- troduced to fet ofi'his buildings. He was aUb an engraver, and is faid to have affilled Agoflino Caracei, in the plates which he engraved : we have alfo fome etchings by this mafter. Of his prints we may mention his " Holy Family," from Corregij ; " St. Roch," from Pamiigiano ; the " Flight into Egypt," from Ludovico Caracei ; and " Chrill and the Woman of Samaria," from Agoftino Caracch. He died in 162^. Pilkington. Strutt. BROACH, Brocha, in Mitldh Age IFriters, denotes aa awl or bodkin. Among us broach is chiefly ufed for a (leel inflrument ferving to open holes in metals. It is fomelimes alfo applied to a flick on which thread or yarn is wound ; and, in the North, to a fort of wooden needles ufcd in knit- ing certain coarfe things. See an account of the broach ufcd in weaving tapeftry, under Tapestrv. In fdme part of England, a fpit is called a broach : and hence alfo to broach a barrel, is to tap it. The ancient lordj received from their tenants a fee or tribute, Ci\\\c6. pertiifagiuniy for the liberty of broaching a cag of ale. The term breach or Ircche, is alfo ufed in Scotland, to denote a certain utenfil ufed by the Highlanders for tallen- ing their veil, and refembling the " fibula" of the Romans. This broach is commonly of filver, of a round figure, and furnilhed with a tongue, croffing its diameter, and lerving to fallen the folds of the garment : fome have two tongues, one on each fide of a crofs bar in the middle. Ancient broaches of elegant workmanfliip, and richly ornamented, are preferved in feveral fam.ilies ; fome of which are infcribed with names, to which particular virtues were afcribed, and others furniflud with receptacles fur relics, fuppofed to de- fend from harm : fo that they leem to have been ufed not only in drefs, but for the purpofe of amulets. IjROACH, in Geography. Sec Baroach. Broach to, is when a ihip failing large fuddenly flies up to the wind, in confequence of the difficulty of fleering, or of bad lleerage. Sec. fo that the fails are all taken aback. BR07\D-Arrow, in Heraldry, differs from \\\t pheoJi by having the infide of its barbs plain. Broad Banh, in Geography, a bank on the coallof Flan- ders, the fouth end of which la about 4 or 5 leagues N.E. by N. from Calais cliff. On the weft iide between this and Rattle-bank, is a channel of 18 or 19 fathoms. Broad Bay, a bay of America, in the dlllrift of Maine, lying on the line of Lincoln and Hancock counties, bounded by Pemaquid point on the well, and Pleafant point on the eafl^. Broad Bay, on the coatt of Wales. See St. Bride's 5<2)'. BaoAD-rrt/? Iliijhamlry, in Agriculture, that fort of arable cultivation in which the feed is put into the foil by the hand, without the aid of niachioery. In this way the feeds are fcattercd over the furface of the ground, without being con- fined in regular rows, as is the caie in the drill method, which is mofl;ly oppofed to it. The putting of the feed into the earth in this way feems better fuited to the fl.ony and more ftiff B R O fliff ki'iids of land, tlian that by means of iiiaclilnes, as tliey mull conftantly be liable to be put out of order, and of couife to depofit the feed in an irregular manner. See Hus- BAMDRy. Bv.0. \D-ca/l Sowing, that mode of putting grain, turnips, pulfe, clover, jvalTes, &c. into the earth, by difpcrilng them over the furface by the hand. See Sowing. Broad Fourtccns, in Geography, the name of a faiid which lies 5 or 6 leagues N. E. from the Texcl, extending bv a fmall tad N. from the Texcl, and N. W. by N. from Flu'r Vlialand iflaud towr.rds the fouth. Upon this fand arc .jenerally 14 fathnnv; of water, and between it and the land from iS to ig, and more norlhcily iO failioms. Broad Jiavrn, a coniidcrable harbour of the county of Mi'.yo, Irehnd, iviicr Ktween Urrld and Binwy heads. It is very extenlivc, has ^.oaA ground, and water of fufftcicnt depth for any fh'p ; but is fo much expofed to northerly vinds, that thtre is not room for more than two large fliips in well ihfUercil anchorage. Small veffeh, iiowever, may go further up, and lie very fafe on foit fand, with three or four feet water rnJcr them at low water. The wellern fliorc of this bay is formed by the penlnii;!-! of the Mullet, fometinies erroneoufly repr;fented as an illand. There are at prefent only a few filhing villages on the coall of this harbour. About two miles N. by E. of Binwy head are three or four very remarkable rocks, called the Slags of Rroadha-ven. Lon. between 9° 40', a;'d 9° 4^/ W. Lat. 54'^ 19' N. Broad /i/Vcf, in Coinage, a denomination given to certain gold pieces broader than a guinea ;• particularly Carolufcs and Jacobufes. Broad River, in Geography, an arm of the fea, ex- tends along the well and north-weft fides of Beaufort or Port Royal idand, on the coaft of South Carohna, and re- ceives Coofa river from the north-wcit, wliich may be alfo called an arm of the fea. Thefe two arms embrace all the iflands between Coombahee river and Dawfufl-cee found, with which Broad river alfo communicates. Channels between Broad river and Coofa form the iflands. The entrance through Broad river to Beaufort harbour, which is one of the bell in the Hate, lies between Hilton's head and St. Phillip's point. Broad River, or Cheraleehaw, a water of Savannah river, from the Georgia fide, which empties into the Savannah at Peterfburg. Broad River, in South Carolina, rifes by three branches from the N.W. viz. the Ennoree, Tiger, and Packolel, which unite about 40 miles above the mouth of the Saluda river ; and this, with Broad river, forms Congaree river. Broad river may be rendered navigable 30 miles in North Carohna. Broad Sand, lies on the weft fide of the buoys of the channel in the Zuyder Sea, within the Texel. BROAD^v.o^^D Jlone, in Building, a fpecies of free-ftone, thus de- nominated becaufe it is raifed broad and thin out of the quarries ; or not exceeding two or three inches in thicknefs ; chiefly ufed for paving. lij^o xvi-irhceled JVaggnn. Sec Waggon. BROAD-worm, in Zoology, fynonymous with /um '/vVj/x lalus of old writers. See Taenia, and Tape-worm. BROADALBIN, in Geography, a town fl\ip of America,- in Montgomery county. New York ;. containing, by the ftate-cenfui, of 1796, 277 inhabitants, who are eleflor?. BROADLEY, a town of Poland, in the principality of Bclez : 4S milts E. of Bele/.. BROBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of the^ Lower Rhine, and chftorate of Treves ; 15 miles S.E. of Treves. BROCADE, in Commeree, a fort of (luff, or cloth of gold, filver, or filk, railed and enriched with ffo^trs, foli-- ages, or other figures, according to the fancy of the manu fafturer. Formerly, the term was reftrained to cloths woven either wholly of gold, both of woof and warp, or of filver, or of both together; but by degrees it came hkewife to pafs for fuch as had filk intermixed, to fill up and terminate the flowers of gold and filver. At prefent, any ftuff of fiik,. fatin, or even fimple taffety, when wrcught and enriched with the flowers, &c. obtains the denomination of bro-- cade. lu the manufafturc of brocades, the flatted gilt wire is fpun. in threads of yellow filk, approaching as nearly as poffiblc to the colour of gold itfilf. The wire, winding off from abobin, twills about the thread as it fpins round, and by means of. curious machinery, a number of threads are thus twifted at- once by the turning of one wheel. The piincipal art con- fifts in fo regulating the motion, that the feveral circumvo- lutions of the flatted wire in each thread may juft touch one another, and feem, as it were, one continued covering. At Milan, it is faid, there is made a fort of flatted wire, gilt only on one fide, which is wound upon the thread, fo that only the gilt fide appears ; the preparation of this wire is kept a fecret, and has been attempted in other places with little fuccefs. There is alfo a gilt copper wire, made in the fame manner as the gilt filver. Savary obferves, that this kind of wire, called falfe gold, is prepared chiefly at Nuremberg ; and that the ordinances of France require it to be fpun, for its diftinflion from the gilt filver, on flaxen or hempen threads. The Chinefe, inftead of flatted gilt wire, ufe flips of gilt paper, which they both interweave in their ftnfts, and- twill upon filk threads ; but whatever be the pretended beauty of the fluff's of this kind of manufaiture, it is obvious that they mull want durability : accordingly, the Chinefe themfelves, as we learn from Du Halde, fenfible of this ini- perfeftion, fcarcely ufe them any otherwife than in tapeltries,- and fuch other ornaments as are not intended to be much, worn or expofed to moillure. The Venetians have carried on a large trade, to the Levant, in a kind of brocade called damafqueie, which, though B R O tlioiigh it h« only about half the quantity oF goM Or fiKfr ai tint made amoii); us, looks far moi-e beautiful. The flatted wire is neither wound ciofe together on the lilk threads, nor the threads ftruck clofe in the weaving ; yet, by paffiig the Huff betwixt rolls, the difpofition and manage- njent of which is kept a fecret, the tiffuc or flower is made to appear one entire brilliant plate of gold or filver. The French minillry judged this manufaclure important enough to dcferve their attention ; and accordingly, for contriving the machinery-, tliey engaged the in renlous M. Vaucanfon, known throughout Europe for his curious pieces of mechau- ifm, who, in the memoirs of the academy for the year 1737, gives an account of his fuccefs, and of the eftablifliment of fueh a manufadlure at Lyons. The lower roll is made of wood, thirty-two inches in length and fourteen in diameter ; the upper one of copper, thirty-fix inches long and eight in diameter : this lall is hol- \n\v, and open atone end, for introducing iron heaters. I'or making the rolls cylindrical, he has a particular kind of lathe, wherein the cutting tool, which the molt dexterous hand could not guide in a (Iraight line through fuch a length as lliirty-fix inches, is made to (liJe, by means of a fciew, on two large (leel rulers, pcrfeclly (Iraight, and capable of be- ing moved at pleafure, uearcf, and always esaclly parallel, to the axis of the roll. He firll difpofcd the rolls nearly as in the common flatting mill. Ill this difpofition, tin men were fcarcely lufHcient for turning them with force enough to duly extend the gilding ; a:i! the collars, in which the axes of the rolls turned at each cud, wore or gulled fo fall, that the prcffure continually diminilhed, infomuch that a piece of ftuff of ten ells had the gilding fenfibly lefs extended on the lad part than on the firft. He endeavoured to obviate this inconvenience by fcrewing tlic rolls clofer and clofer in proportion as the ItufF pafled through, or as the wearing of the collars occafioned more play between them ; but this method produced an imper- fedion in the fluff, ever)' turn of the fcrew making a fenfible bar acrofs it. To lelTen the attrition, each end of the axes, inftead of a collar, was made to turn between three iron cy- linders called friftion-wheels : but even this did not anfwer fully, for now another fource of unequal preffure was difco- vcred. The wooden roll, being compreffible, had its diame- ter fenfibly diminiflied : it likevvife loll its roundnefs, fo that the prelTure varied in different points of its revolution. On trying different kinds both of European and Indian woods, ell the hard ones fplit, the foft ones warped without fplitting, and, of more than twenty rolls, there was not one which con- tinued round for twenty-four hours even without being worked in the machine. Thefe failures put him upon contriving another method of prelTmg the rolls together, fo that ihc force fhould always accommodate itfelf to whatever inequalities might happen. The axis of the copper roll being made to turn between friftion wheels as before, that of the wooden one it prcfTed upwards by a lever at each end furnilhed with a half collar for receiving the ei>d of the axis. Each lever has the end of it.s fliortarm fupported on the frame of the machine, and the long arm is drawn upwards by an iron rod communicating with the end of the fhort arm of another lever placed hori- -.jontally : to the long arm of this lall lever is hung a weight, and the levers are fo proportioned, that a weight of 30 pounds prctTcs the rolls together with a force equivalent to 1 75 ;?6 pounds, which was found to be the proper force -for the iutTicient cxtenfion of the gilding. By this contrivance four men can turn the rolls with more eafe than ten can turn thole which are kept together by fcrews ; and the fame veight acting uniformly in evtry pan, the preilure continues B R O always equal, though the wooden roll iliould even become oval, and though the Huff be of unequal thicknefs. A piece of cloth, of about two ells, is fowed to the begin- ning and end of the fluff, to keep it out to its width when it enters and parts from the rolls, which could not be done by the hands for fear of burning or bruifing them : a^ it would take too mucli time to few thefe cloths to every fmall piece of an ell or two, a number of thefe is fowed together. The llntr is rolled upon a cylinder, which is placed behind the machine, and its axis prefFed down by fprings to keep the fluff tight as it comes off. Four iron bars, made red hot, are introduced into the copper roll, which in half an hour ac- quires the proper degree of heat, or nearly fuch a one as ii ufed for the ironing of linen : the wooden roll is then laid in its place, and the machine fet to work. If more than thirty ells are to be pafTed at once, tlie wooden roll mull be chr.iigod for another, for it will not bear a longer continuance of the heat witiiout danger of fplitting, and therefore the manufac- turer fliould be provided with feveral of thefe rolls, that when one is removed, another may be ready to fupply its rooin : as foon as taken off fro:ii the machine, it (hould be wrapt in cloth and laid in a moill place. The principal inconvenience attending the ufe of this ma- chine is, that the heat necefTary for extending the gilding, though it improves the brightnefs of white and yellow filks, is injurious to fome colours, as crimfon and green. A double preffure will not fupply the place of heat : and the only method of preventing this injury, or rendering it as flight as poffible, appeared to be to pafs the fluff through with great celerity. Rich brocades may be cleaned, and the luflre of tliem re- covered, by wafhing them with a foft brufli dipped in warm fpirit of wine. Neither alkaline liquors nor foap (hould be ufed for this purpofe ; becaufe the former, while they clean the gold, corrode the filk, and change or difcharge its colour, and the hitter alfo alters the fhade, and even the fpecies of certain colours. But fpirit of wine may be ufed without any danger of its injuring either the colour or the quality of the fubjeft, and, in many cafes, it proves as effedlual for reftoring the lullre of the gold, as the corrofive detergents. Spirit of wine fcems to be the only material adapted to this intention ; however, this is not proper in all cai^cs : for if the bafe metal, with which the gold of the covering was alloyed, has been corroded by the air, the particles of the gold may thus be difunited ; and the lilver underneath, tar- ni(hed to a yellow hue, may continue a tolerable colour to the white ; but in fuch cafes the removal of the tarnifli would be prejudicial to the colour. See Lewis's Com. Philofo- phico-Technicnm, p. 62. 226. Brocadh-Shell, in ConcLoh^y, a trivial name given fometimes to CoNus Geographicus. I^inn. In a more general fenfe, the epithet brocade, fynonymous with the French Irocard, is applied to various other objedts of natu- ral hiftory, whofe difpofition of colours, and markings, bear a fancied refemblance to that fort of fluff, lilk, cloth, and wh-ch is commonly underflood by the word brocade. Bro- card among the French, and brocade with us, is not, there- fore, the language of naturalifls, but of dealers, and un- fcientific collectors. BllOCARDICS, Crocakdica, denote maxin^ or prin- ciples in Lo'-m; fuch as thofe pubhflied by Azo, under th« title of Brocard'ua furls. VofTms derives the word from the Greek rspix^x*'^' <1- <"• firjl elements. Others, with more probability, from Bur- chard, or Brochard, bifliop of Worms, who made a colle-c- tjon of canons, called from hence BrdCArdha ; and as this work R R O work ahoiindcJ mucli in fcnti'iiofS and proverbs, the appel- lation biocaidiia liccame liciice extended to every thing. IIROCATKLL, cnlk-d by tin; Trench brocatU, an ordi- nary kind of lliifl' niiide of cotton, or cnavfe lilk, in imi- tation of brocade ; chiclly ufid for tiipcftry and other inr- iiiture. That manufaiUiitd at Wnice is the moll cf- teenicd. BROCATELLO, a name given by hipidarics to a cal- careous (U>ne or marble, conipoUd of fra^jnients of tour co- lours, white, grey, yelUnv, and red. liROCCO, in G-ogrnphy, a town of Naples, in the county of I^avora ; 5 miles \V. of Cipna. LROCCOLI, in Boljuy and Cuir.hrjng. .See Bras- SICA OL fRAe F A. BROCHOS, in Stir^frv, is a term of doubtful fignifi- cation. It has been confidered by fonic as a Cireck name for the !aque:is, or noo!"e ; and bv otltcrs, as denoting ban- dages in general. Caltellus informs us, that this word re- lates to certain chirurgical inllrumtnts ; and he refers to the authority of Galen and Oribafius. It has aifo been confidered as exprelFive of a privation of voice, or aphonia. Pyfons having a very huge and prominent upper lip, have been denominated Irocli : although Dr. Turton, in his Medical GlofTary, fays that Ivochus fignifies one who has " the chin and nether lip (licking out." BROCfiUS, in Ancient Gdograpljy , a town of Phoeni- cia, feated near a marlli, between Libanus and Antilibanus. Polybius- BROCK, among Spoiifmen, fomctimes denotes a badger, olterwile called a grey brock. Brock, and Brocket, are alfo ufed to denote a hart of the third year. BROCKDROP, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Sa.xony, and duchy of Holftciu ; 6 miles W. of Krempe. BROCKEL, or Brakel, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wellplialia, and county of Verden ; J miles E. of Rotenburg. BROCKEN. See Hart/. BROCKLESBY, Richard, in Biography, who attained to confiderable eminence, and acquired a fplendid fortune by the praftice of mcdienie in London, was of a refpeftable family of Cork, in Ireland, but was born at Minehead in .Somerfetfliirc, where his mother was on a vifit to one of her relations at the time of his birth. This happened on the Ilth of Augull, 1723. His parents were qnakers ; but it docs not appear that they were folicitous to initiate him in the principles of that left. At an early age he was fent to a famed academy at Ballytore, in the north of Ire- land. There he formed an intimacy with Edmund Burke, whichwas improved into the moft cordial fricndfliip when they met together afterwards in London. Having completed his fchool education, he went to Edinburgh, and after attend- ing the leisures of the profeiTors in the different branches of medicine there, he proceeded to I-eyden, and took his degree of doftor, imder the celebrated Gaubius, in June, ^ 74j' g'^''"g> f""" '"^ inaugviral thtlis, a diflertation " De Saliva fana et morbofa." The following year he came to London, and fettled in Broad-llreet ; and as the income allowed him by his father was not large, and he found that fnm not much increafcd, for the firft few years, by the profits of his profefTion, he determined to regulate his expenccs in fuch a manner, as to fecure him from the mifcry of de- pendence. " Never fuflering himfclf, as he was ufed to to have a want that was not accommodable to his fortune." The fame year he piiblidied an EfTay concerning the Morta- lity of the Horned Cattle, which contributed to extendjus Vol. V. B R O name and cl!ara(f\er. In 1751 he was ad nitttd a licentiate in the Royal College of Pliylicians, in l^ondon. In i'jS'r he received an honotaiy degree of doftoriii mcdiciiic, from the univerlity of Dublin, and the following year ht was ad- mitted by the univerlity of C.-orbridge, ad eirndrm. He then became a candidate, and in June, I/J*!, "'as clcdled a fellow of the College of Phylicians. As his prafiice waj now much increafed, and by the prudence of his condncl, and the luavity of his manners, he had conciliated to him- felf the friendlliip of his profefTional brethren, he was, by their recommendation, appointed phyfician to the army by . Lord Barrington. In this capacity he went to Germany, and continued there, until a few mrr.ths before the coiiclu- fion of the war, in 176;. The following yeai he publilhed the reliilt of hi.s obfervaiions ai:d pra'^ice, under the titlfi ot " Economical and Medical Obfcrvations, from 173S to 175,), tending to the Improvement of Medical Hof. pitals." 8vo. He now returned to London, and lettled in Norfolk-ilreet, in the Strand. His fortune was by thij time increafcd by an ellate of Coo', per annum, which de- volved to him on the death of his father ; and the duke of Richmond, and live other noble perfonages, agreed to give him penfions of locl. per annum each, as a recompence for attending their families. This, with his half pay from the army, made up a handfome income ; and a^ he pofTeli'ed the aldermanly virtue, as dean Swift calls it, diferetion, he was enabled to keep a carriage, and to live with fome degree of fplendour. Soon after he was made a fellow of the Royal Society ; and not being incumbered with a fnuiily, he dedi- cated what tim.e he could fpare from attending hi.s patient-,;, &c. to reading, or to afTociating v/ith ])erfons eminent for literature and fcience. On his fuggellion, a profeiTorlhip in chemiftry was added to the eilablilhmei-t of the college at Woolwich ; and on his rei"g «p Itiirj a)in )!l too mucli for him ; and obftrvid, " Wliat an idle piece of ccreoiony this buttonin;; and unbuttoning is to m- n-jw." After fictirij;; fotne mlnutts in a chair to re- cruit himfelf, he went to bed, and in a fe>w minutes quietly- expired. Hi3 fortune, which is faid to have exceeded j!0,ood1., was Ifft between his two ncpliews, a few legacies to friends a:iddillaiit relations excepted. A< llr. B. W.1S of a quiet and peaceable drfpofition, he wai not likelv to enter into any feri;)'.is broil ; he was, how- ever, at one time, obliged to accept a challeni^o. The occa- lion was this : the ht- d>Aor, afteru-ards Sir John Elliot, in the courfe of his attendance on a p.nient with Dr. B., had made ufe of means to obtain the favour of the family of the patient, which were not cunipatible with the cha- ratter of a f^entlemin. Of this Dr. B. talked openly, and the e>cp'.cluons he ufcd on the occafion were reported to Dr. Elliot, with an intiination, that if he did nol infid on an apology from hii antagonhl, no one would, hereafter, meet or alTociate with him. A duel was the rcfult, v.hich, however, terminated without the effulion of blood, the fecondj having taken care to place the combatants at fuch a dilhnce, that their balls, if they fhould hit, would do no mifchief. Befides the Tvorks mentioned before, Dr. B. was author of " Oratio Harveiana," publilhed 17C0, 4to. ; " An Ac- count of a poifonous Root lately found mixed with Gen- tian," Phil. Tranf. No. 486. ; " Experiments on cutting the Tendons, in various Animals," ibid. vol. 43. ; " Cafe of a Lady labouring under Diabetes," Med. Obf. vol. 3. ; •' Experiments relative to the Analyfis of Seltzer Water," ibid. vol. 4. ; " Cafe of an Encyftcd Tumour in the Orbit of the Eye," ibid. ; arid " A Differtation on the Mufic of the Ancients," fuppofed to be written in the early part of Jiis life. BROD, a fortified town of Sclavonia, feated on the Save, and famous for a viftory gained over the French in 16S8. N. lat.45°2o'. E.long. i8='36'. _ Brod, Bomifch, a town of iiohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ; reduced to alhes in 1637, and fmce rebuilt; 7 miles N.W. of Kaurzim. Brod, Tiutfch, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czafla*, on the Sazava, taken by the allies in 1 741 ; 20 miles S.S.E. of CzaOau. Brod, Ungartjh, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hradifch ; 8 miles S.E. of Hradifch. BRODEAU, John, (Lat. Brodeus), in Biography, a learned critic, was born at Tours about the beginning of the 1 6th century, and having ftudied law at Bourges under Alciatus, devoted himfclf to the belles lettres. He travel- led into Italy, and formed connexions Avjth Sadolet, Bembo, Manutius, and othA- literary charaoers. After his return to France, he diftinguiflicd himfelf by feveral works of criticifm, the principal of which is a coUeftion of obfer- vations, correftions, explanations, &c. of ancient authors, entitled " Mifcellanea." The firft fix books of this work were publifhed in the fecond volume of Gruter's " Lam- pas, feu Fax Artiu.n," in 1604 ; and the four latter books in the fourth volume of the fame coUeftion. In his notes on Euripides, he has been charged with plagiarifm. He was alfo verfed in mathematics, and the oriental languages, as well as claffical literature. He died at Tours, where he was canon of St. Martin, in 1563. Gen. Dift. BRODENFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Vogtland ; 3 miles E. of Oilfnitz. •' I B R O BRODER.'^, a fortified town of Hindoftan, in thtcountry of Gjzerat, fituate on the fmall river Dader, in the north- call part of the traft lying between the rivers Tapty and Mvhie, through which the great road leads from Sural to Ougein. This is a modern town in comparifon with feveral others, having been built by the fon of the WX king of Guzerat, near the fcite of an ancient town, formerly called Radipore, but now Old Biodera, which is entirely gone ta decay. It Hands in a very fertile, though fandy, country, has good walls and toivtrs, and is full of artificers, who ma- nnfatlure the finell Ihiffs of Guzerat, bafts, nicanees, cannu- quiiis, ehtlocs. Sec. : the cottons of Brodera are finer than thofe of Baioath, but narrnwer and fhovter. Indigo is alfo an article of trade in this place, and the vicinity fupplies gum-lac. The Dutch faftory eftablifhed at Brodera ia 1620, was abandoned before the year 1670. N. lat. 22° IJ' 30''. E. loii.a;. 73" 1 1'. BRODERIJES, Fr. a term in Mufic for embroidering or gracing a melody. It is equivalent likewife with duuHcs, variations, JlcurlU, an old term for fiourifhing an air. All thcfe terms are ufed for the notes of mufic which the per- former adds to his part in the execution, to vary a melody often repeated, to embellifh pafiages too plain and fimple, or to (hine by the aftivity of throat or finger. Nothing mani- fells the good or bad taile of a muGcian, fays Rouffeau, more than the choice and apphcation of thefe ornaments. French vocal performers were very fparing of their broderies or graces in the middle of the laft century ; for if we except the celebrated Jeliote and mademoifelle Fel, no French finger durft venture to make a fingle change in his part on the llage. French m-^lody had been for fome years growing more flowi and lamentable, that it was capable of no improvement by graces. The Italians are unable to execute a melody quite plain ; they give full fcope to their memory or fancy, and try who can make the greateft number of changes : anu emulation often abfurd, and carried to an ofFenfive excels. However, the accents of their melody are fo ftrongly marked, that there is little fear of the air being fo difguifed, as not to be recognizable through all the performers' redun- dances. With regard to inftruments, a folo player may do what he pleafes ; but a performer in a full piece, who dares em- broider his part, was never fuffered in a good orcheftra. BRODETZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boltflaw ; e^ miles S. of Jung Buntzlaw. BRODIATORES, in the Middle Age, a kind of libra- rl'i, or copiils, who did not write the words and letters plain, but varioufiy flourifhed and decorated, after the manner of embroidery. Du-Cangc Glofl". Lat. torn. i. BRODNITZ, in Geography, a town of Prufiia, in the bifhopric of Culm : 30 miles E. of Culm. BRODOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Holftein, 4'i miles N.E. of New- ftatt. BRODY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lem- berg ; 30 miles S. of Lucko. BRODZIEC, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Mintk; 48 miles E. of Minfk. BROECK, Crispin Vanden, in ^/o^ra/^jr, a painter and engraver, was a native of Antwerp, and flourifhed about the year 1590. As a painter, he had fome reputation in the hif- torical line ; but the prints engraved from his defigns, which are numerous, evince him to have been a man of genius and great fertility of invention. Among the engravings that are attributed to him, is the " Circumcifion of Chrift," in chiaro- fcuro ; the outline of which is etched in a bold free manner on copper ; and the block of wood, which produces the lighter tints, B R O tints, is To contrived as to imitate the hatcliings of white chalk upon the lights. The daughter of this artift, viz. " Barbara Vanden Bro- cck," learned to draw of her father, and was probably in- ftrudled in the art of engraving in the fchool of the Colaerts Her progrefs, however, was fuch as to refleft no fmall credit mi her talents. Mr. Stnitt notices the following plates of her execution ; the " Lad Judgment," done altogether with the graver, and in the ftyle of Martin Rota ; a '• Holy Family," with St. John and fevend angels ; and anotiier " Holy Family," with St. John kneeling, and attendant an- gels, publifhed by Hendius, A. D. 1621. BROECKHUYSE, John, Lat. Broulhuftus, an ele- gant fcholar and Latin poet, was born at Amllerdam in 1649. Difliking the profeflion of an apothecary, to which he was apprenticed, he left his mailer, and entered on board an India fliip ; and by degrees became mailer of an armed vefTtl. In this fituation he felt an incli- nation for letters and poetry ; and, by the advice of Grx- vius, applied to the fludy of the Latin language, of which in a few months he made himfelf complete mailer. He af- terwards abandoned his fta-faring employment, and devoted himfelf with ardour to claflical (Indies. Whilll he was on board his (hip, he wrote feveral pieces, one of which was entitled " Celadon, or Impatience to revifit his Country ;" and a coUeAion of his poems was publilhed at Utrecht in 1684, by which he acquired great reputation. Asa critic, ■under which chara&er he excelled, he publiflied valuable editions of Sannazarius, Propertius, Tibullus, and Aonius Palearius. He alfo tranflated into Latin father Rapin's •' Parallel of Homer and Virgil." He died in 1707, and a monument was erected to his memory at Amllerdam, where he was interred. A fplendid edition of his poems in 4to. was publifhed at Amllerdam, in 171 1. Moreri. Gen. Biog. BROECKHUYSEN, Benjamin Van, a Dutch phy- iician of confiderable learning and ingenuity, of the 17th century. After taking his degree of doftor in medicine at I^eyden, he was made phyfician to the armies of the repub- lic, and then phyfician to the fort and town of Bois le Due. He was alfo known and efteemed by king Charles II. of this country, when refident in Holland. His works arc, " CEconomia Corporis animalis, feu Cogi- tationes fuccindta: de Mente, Corpore, utriufque Conjunc- tione," Noviomagi, 1672. " CEconomia animali ad Circu- lationem Sanguinis breviter dehneata," Gouda, 168', 8vo. He was a follower of the fyilem of Des Cartes, and main- tained that the blood was heated in the heart by fire aftually refident there ; and to this he attributed the impulfe it re- ceived, and which maintained and fnpported its circulation. " Rationes philofophico-medicx," Haag. 1687, 4to. wiit- ten in a florid and poetical ilyle, explaining the animal «:co- nomy on Cartcllan principles. Haller. Bib. Anat. Eloy. Dia. Hill. BROEK, Elias Vanden, a painter, was born and (lu- died at Antwerp in 1657, &nd became the difciple of Emell Stuven, and (Indicd De Heem, fays Houbrakcn, or of Mignon, according to Defcamps. He painted, in a loofe, eafy, and natural manner, all forts of fruits, flowers, frogs, and reptiles. He dcligned and coloured eveiy objc£t after iiature. Broek died in 1711, Pilkington. Broek, in Geography, a town or rather a large village of North Holland, dillinguifhcd by the elegant neatnefs and beauty of the honfcs and llreets, and alfo of the inhabitants. The honfcs, which are built of wood and covered with tiles, are painted and ornamented on the outlidc with a variety of vivid colours, according to the fancy of the owner ; and the windows are generally fafhed and decorated with cwtsiins. B R O The infide of t'le honfes is alfo equally neat »nd embclliihid. In the front3 of moll of th<-m arc agreeable gardens, diver- filied with gravel walks, Ihellwork, images, and little hcdgci, or painted rails. The (Irtets are paved with bneks, and watered by rivulets that pafs by the fides of the honfes; and in order to their being kept clean, they are too narrow tH admit of carriages, nor arc cattle fnlftrtd to pafs ihrougli them. The fame attention to neatntfs and ornament io ma- iiifeft in the tin irons of Brock. The town is chiefly inha- bited by perfons who have retired from bullnefs, or who arc connefted witli fome commeieial houks at Amderdam. The females are beautiful, but lingubrly referved, particu- larly among llrangers. The principal articles of trade are cattle and corn. Brock is dillant one league \V. from Mo- nikedam. BROERS Bank, lies on the coaft of Holland, acrofs a village of the fame name, and the cloy Her of Ten Duyn, running W.N.W. about a league into the fea. BROEUCQUES, John Francis du, was born at Mons, in 1690. At a proper age he was fent to Lonvain, and in 1712 was admitted dotlor in medicine ; having finiflicd his ttudies there, he returned to Mons, where he was much elleemed for his profellional abilities, and continued prafti- fing to the time of his death, which happened fuddenly, July nth, 1749. He pabliflied in 1725, in 121110. " Re- fleftions fur la Metliode de traiter les Fievrcs par Ic Quin- quina." In this he combats, and fnccefsfuUy, fome ot the prejudices ftill remaining againft the ufe of that medicine. " Preuves de la Neceflite de regardcr les Urines, et de I'Ufage que les Medecins on doit faire pour la Guerifon des Mala- dies," 1729. Brgeucqj-'es, Anthony Francis, one of the fons of the former, took his degree in medicine at Louvain in 1747, and on the death of his father fucceeded to his praflice, in which he continued until 1767, the time of his death. Two fmall ufeful works, the refult of much practice, were publifhed by him : " Difcours fur les Erreurs vnlgaires, qui fe commettent dans le Traitement des Enfans," Mons, 1754, i2mo. " Reformation des Erreurs vulgaires fur le Regime que la Medicine prefcrit aux Malades et aux Convalcl- cenfe." Mons, 1757, izmo. Eloy. Didl. Hill. BROGLING, a method of firtiing for eels, olhervrifc called Sniggling. BROGLIO, or Broil, in Geography, a town of Pied- mont, in the county of Nice, 15 miles N.E. of Nice. N. lat. 44° : 2'. E. long. 6^ 42'. BROGNE, a town and abbey of the county of Namur; 10 miles V/.S.W. of Namur. BROILING OF Meats, in Domejlk Economy, See Dressing of Meats, BROJO Castra, in Geography, a town of Europ'san Tnikey, in Livadia ; 22 miles N. of Livadia. BROKEN, among PalnU'ri, a colo'.iiis laid to be broken, when it is taken down or degraded by the mixture of anotiier. Broken Arrow, or Clay-Calfiay in Geography, an Indiau town in the Creek country, in Weft Florida, 0:1 the weft fide of Chatauchc river ; 12 miles below the Cuffitah and Coweta towns, where the river is fordable. BiiOKEN backed, in Si-a-Langangf, denotes the ftatc of a (liip which is fo impaired and loofeiied in her frame. as to droop at each end ; a diforder to which the French fliips are mod expofed, on accoui.l of their length, &c. IjROK!-'N Bay, in Geography, a capacious inlet, being the aifluary of the Hawkibury and other rivers, on the eailern coafl of New Holland, about 8 miles to the northward of Port Jackfon. S. lat. 33° 20'. E. long, j 51" 27'. Bro;:sn IJiauJs, a name given to an afleinblagc of rocky Z z z eminences, B R O eminences, for the mod pirt barren, fitiiate on the ceaft of Arracnn, in the tjft Imiie*, and affording (hckcr only to pirates and thieves. N. lit. l6^ 30*. E. long. 94° 28'. Bkoices AW/. Among Norji-yoiiia, broken kneti are a mark of a lliimblcr. UnoKrH S'amierj, in jtr'abnu-tlc. Sec Nvmber and Fr*ctio\s. Bkokc K Ray, in DlofHrks, the fame with ray of Refr ac- tios, which i.e. Biioicts- ll'itui, in Frterimiry S.'':aice, a difcafe frequently 1 ' ■" -. The fi'lUiwiiii; are the indications \ ce. Tlie breathing; of the liorfe becomes r- . 1 I:ji:i :'..; r.;itviral Hate, aid fiom an csfy, gentle, and 11: ;'orm rripiratioii is changed tu a painful, laborious, heaving, liiMi of the flanks, which rife by fcvCml fuc- ■IS to a prcttrn.r.iir.il li.-i;^ht, then fuddcnly rtUs a::ii .'u.i viownwards beyond the natural extent of thefe parts ; the iioftrils become dtlated, and licld rigid and opened to their utmnll extent, and the face becomes every where eirsci^trd and co::tracied : fuch are the appearances in very '. rjfrs ; in more recent cafes thtfe ;ippeaninccs are ;, and it is a difcafe that can exill in every degree ol iiiiiuiiefs or violence. When the difeafe has been of long (landing, and little pains or care n taken with the animal, as may be more par- ticularly obfer%cd in cart horfcs, and liorfis employed in farmer's work in the country, the abdomen becomes lar^e ard pendulous ; but in more recent cafes, and in horles otherwife fitnatcd, we have obftrved that, in the early llage at Icaft, the abdomen is rilhercontracled and is painfully held t'p in this diforder. Great third attends this difeafe, perhaps arifing from the incrcafed action or fever which it occalions, and this has been too often milbkcn for the caufe of it, and has led to the moft cruel privations. There is no diforder, perhaps, of the horfe, which has fo much en^a:Ted the attention of anatomifls and of fpeculative ingeiri-us men, as this, to difcovcr its caufe. It has, how- ever, we believe, never yet been fatisfaclorily explained ; at lend, there is no author that we are acquainted with that has formed any connected or probable account of it, unlefs perhaps very lately, and which was derived from the fource we are about to mention. Haller feems to have fuppofed it proceeded from a relaxed or ruptured diaphragm. Lower imagined that a relaxation or injury of the phrenic nerves might occation it; fome have allured us, after examination, that the lungs are not at all af- fciled in this complaint, and that its feat was about the la- rynx arid air-palTagcs ; and fome of the writers on this fub- iect have believed, that the lungs were grown too big for "the chctV, and that this was the fource of the mifchicf, and there have been many other conjeflurcs equally abfurd. Some thought they elucidated the nature of this difcafe by compar- ing it to a confumptio'.!, and others lo an ailhma. We truil fomething more natural and fatisfaftory will be found in the follo»Ting llaLcment of our obfervations on this Angular difcafe. In the year 1795, being engaged in the diffeclion of a i^rey marc that was fent to the veterinary college to be de- ikroved on account of this complaint ; on opening the chell, the lungs appeared free from inflammation, being very white; and, as it appeared free from rednefs and increafe of colour, the general concomitant of difeafe, we were led for a vi-hile to confider the lungs as not the feat of the difotdcr, as t.'.hers had done (for feveral of the pupils were prefent at this diniiftion). On cutting into their fubilance, no inflam- mation was perceivable ; on examining them more dofely, B R O we obfer\-*d i. fmall bladder or veficle on the outfide of the lungs, in the external inverting pleuritic coat ; this was con- ceived by fome who were prclcnt to be a tubercle, and that tnbercles might be the caufe of the broken wind. Sufpeft- i-g, however, fiom its appearance, that it was not folid, but contained air, it was punclured, and it immediately fnbfided. This inftautly fuggcfted to the writer of this article, that the lungs were actually in a ilate of emphy- f'litj, or that air was contained in a ftate of extravafa- 'lion in their fubllance, and which not only feemed evi- dently the cafe in this iudance, but we have fince fully verified it by examination and diffection of a confiderable number of cafes of broken wind, and found that it is the tonllant appearance. This txtravafation of air in the fub- Ibnce of the lungs is perhaps occafioned by a rupture of the air-cells, as fuggelled by Mr. Coleman at that time, un- lefs It is formed in them, and thrown out by fome morbid operation of the blood-vefTels, as fometimes happens in the intellines and vagina ; for the exaft way in which this em- phvfema arifcs has not been yet afcertained. It fully ex- plaii.s tlic caufe of the white appearance of the lungs, the membranes being feparated and divided by air lying between them partially admit the light, alfo the puffy appear- ance they make, and the crackling noife they give on their being handled ; all admit of a ready explana- tion by this difcover)-, and fo do the fymptoms which- attend the diforder ; for the common air elcaping, from difeafe or a fudden rupture of the ceils, into the membranes compofing the lungs, thereby comprefs and obliterate more or lefs the natural cavities dellined for the recep- tion of t!ie air, and thus occallon the effort we obferve to overcome this obllruftion, and which naturally induce the appearances we have defcribed as the fymptoms attending this diforder : it alfo accounts for its incurability, and the oppreffion which a full ftomach occalions. As the extra- vafation proceeds, the complaint gradually, or fometimes fiiddenlv, increafes, fo as to be infupportable to the ani- mal ; and at length being quite ufelcls, he is neceffarily deftroyed. In fome cafes, the dileafc, without much in- creafing, may exill for many year;, and till the horfe dies from other difeafe or age. This white appearance of the lu'igs it is that had deceived fo long thofe who had been led through curiofity to examine the lungs in this complaint ;. it being fo unufual to fee any part in a ilate of difeafe more delicately white than in its healthy ft ate ; and fingular it is, that the extravafated air fhould not bring on the inflammation and dcllruftion of thefe organs. Horfes, in bad cafes of broken wind, are obferved to void air in confiderable quantities by the anus, as though the extravafated air of the lungs was abforbed and carried to the intellines ; or it is probably only indigeftion which is the caufe of this : and the fmiths, not unfrequently, on this account, cut through and divide the fpUnBer an'i, then the power of clofing the reclum is loll, and the air efcapes without any noife ; and they are led from hence frequently to imagine they have cured the complaint. We are now led to confider what the caufe is, which in the general eftimation of mankind leads horfes to this difcafe, viz. their being allowed too much water ; and here, we ap- prehend, evci-y obferver of common feehng and humanity mull be fliocked at the recoUeftion of what inftances have fallen within his own obfervation of cruelty in this refpecl, and of what horfes are daily and hourly fuffering from the moft barbarous of all cuftoms, the denying a fufiiciency of water to found horfes to prevent their becoming broken- winded. True it is, that water adminillered to horfes in an improper manner, cfpecially after the privation above fpoken B R O r 1 .r m-,v become a caufe of tlielr being broken- water, expoltdto a never c ^ _ j I, natural gratifying the appefte .n .tl"^;^^y °:,';\';=' ;k,„, b,comes a Ld healthful beverage ''-"S.^^^ii'^SfomJch cruel and poifon, and induces the very m.lch.eU ma i ^j_ Llefs pains had been taken '« ^-^ /o^the her _^^_^^^^ lowed to drink ^^l^^'^'^X^^'^^ ZdJ^o orfe on a com- mon, expofeJ to ^^e w^t^^ »' ^ broken-winded from of as often as he pleafer,, ^^■•",'=^'^7.;''^„ ^ ^ privation of ..vater,. ^'"r^"'hi:t5';t£ro'°o"K^^^^ and, in his tiUlexceuc;. „nfipr what c rcumllances it V r If T pt lis now coniider, unaer wnav. 1.1. ^u- himfelt. i^et us "o™ j- ^^^^ ^^.^_ r ^^^Se^Sa- !::fc --g on his journey tev. Uie.iaveucr, \ .r ,!,£ horfe's ftomach was loaded -°"W b'. '-.°™7,:^ tly ab orb'd from the ilomach, and "'Ir "Tfflipfmation, become, unlightly and trouble- palling oU in peiipnauu.i, ptrfp ration, not Opportunity tl.at topp=.», « tW «p»c. of k" b""!., "•f;ST!^rt*t.:rr4,t:.': '''\."£:Sr;c..ua.dt...tb.ho*;.r^o„j^^^^^^ ,i„b., .,«. !>'""^,""S'„f „° £ n «t". on th Jed, B R O ..iraiiyicadtoit. ^^ ^^ ptn;::^^:;;n::r^:'Sit^ both in the metropolis and 'be comUjy ^j_^,_. come home, to let them go to the t ougl a fill- among thefe broken-winded horks arc \ery Sii'iigh the? have all the water they can defire before he would touch it ; and it >'> ° JV b ^^ ^^^ in general warmer, 1-ing been «P°f J^j/'^^.^^^ f,,„ a rofd'f;™^ : "vSu'u^^^^^^ -p-r- ^^^^^ too gr^at with the horfe heated by -^^^^^'J^^^^^'Xoi, the Jl::^s.-^^.»V«l;r Hisses and the remedies various, often °PP° ''%f;'^,f';'^ j^ nothing f„„ .nd fou.d i. the "'"7""/',fc„i ?bu, the O.t.k. of ih. Rom.o. >v«rt co.rfc .nd >blu d • "' ^ j.foi. appe.vt„h.v.h.d.bett.rkno,v kJeog,.™t«^^^^^^ si?::^;rwTi;o9;pta^L„^^^^ -CTtS'^'^-^jt:^^--^^^^^ poE t=;v?ii *b»i;i,%tr:rtf 5 efpecially among the lower "'"^^ f b°J' to afce tain violently' fqueezing the wind-pipe and ^b-"at, o ^^.^^ if a horfe be broken-winded, ^''"^b ^ 'J ^"^^'"^^^ will be the tnoft mifchievous ,'^°"f^q";"=^;,iJ^i„^ul!d, and this- in proportion to the violence °f \b. 'r^tauon , ^^ .^^ urion, we believe it to be »' b" ' X v.terii.«y College, A grey P"7 "■' ^"'S St Bel i" the /■" •7?', SVS siSpX^Vb'.!^!;; -j^e^rffto-e i B R O j»w, and all the external parts of the throat, were free from t»clling. The difficulty of breathing was confiderable, and threat- ened fufTocation : iliis induced us to fuppofc fome obftrud^ion was tlie caufc, either in the noftrils, fauces, or larynx. Tlie operation of broncl\otomy was had recourfe to, which imnicdiatcly relieved him : picfent fufTocation being thus previntcd, our mxt plan was to remove the obHacle, which we imagined nii^'ht be in the nofe. The frontal bone was trepanned, and it was intended to trepan the njfal bone, but this was not executed, for the pus from the former fouiid its way t'. rough into llie nofe, and the nofe ivas injec'tcd every day, through this opening, with a warm decortion of herbs. As the orifice in the trachea every day became fmaller, it was diflicuit to keep in the canu/a, which accidentally a few days after falling out, the horfe was fuffocated and expired. On opening the head, there was no obllruAion any wiiere to be found ; on opening the larynx, the true caufe was difcovered. The internal membrane that lines the larynx, or wind- pipe, was enlarged or dillendcd with a fluid, in a way that prevented the admiffion of air. This membrane was de- tached from the fides of the larynx, and fo diflended, that the two portions met each other in the centre of the pipe, forming two hemifpherical tumours, which afted as valves, ■and completely excluded the admiffion of air. Qn cutting into thefe tuinours,they were conipofedof cellular membranes, dillended by a fmall portion of fluid : the furrounding parts did not bear any marks of inflammation. If thefe tnmours had formed on one fide only, they might have been attributed, perhaps, to fome pundure, or fome injury from bleeding, or other caufe of this fort ; but being on both jides of the throat, it is probable both fides mua have been irritated, to produce it, and nothing fo likely as violent compreflion of that fort we fee men ufe when they propofe to try horfcs for broken wind ; for they endeavour to fqueeze the pipe till both fides meet, otheiwife the horfe will not cough, or only flightly. Since this, another cxaftly fimilar cafe was brought to one of the flanghter-houfes of town, while we were cafually (laying there, and the horfe was faid to du. of fuff^ocation, they could not tell why. On examining the larynx, a iimilar mifchief was difcovered. During the laft fix years, we have opened more than lo horfcs that were broken-winded, and uniformly found the lungs emphyfematous : violent breathing and appearances, m every refpeft like broken wind, attend other afl'eaions where the lungs are injured, as in large abfcefl^es forming in. the lungs, water thrown out in the cheft in roarers, and even violent pain in any part of the body, will produce appearances refembhng broken wind, which again difappear when thole atieclions are removed. When the flomach is loaded, efpecially with water, all the fymptoms of this diforder are more eafily remarked, efpeci- ally on exercife ; it is, therefore, one of tlie moll fore means of a certaining it ; and on tliis account horfes with this com- plaint, are in general kept from dnnking great Quantities of water, which they are much difpoftd to do, probably from the U..r obferved to attend the complaint, and alfo, perhaps, trom the blood m the lungs not undergoing fo completelv the changes it ought to do in that vifcus Some horfcs are diftVrently afl-eded in broken wind to others : the re pirat.oi, ,s quickened in fome without much heaving, and the abdomen in Inch is contrafted and hard, inllead of being large and pendulous. It is fometimes atlendca with a cough, which is not deep, but fl,ort and hard, as though tlie lungs rcliiled p.rfedtly the impulfe of this exertion On excrciie the cough is much increafed, alter which he feems rcheved ; the head in cou-hing is hdd B R O low, his neck ftrctched eut as though he endeavoured to bring ^fomething from his throat; " guaj; ojicula devo. rajjfel :" the face has a rigid emaciated appearance, refembling, though lefs violent, that conllriftion which attends lock jaw. The eyes are often yellow from difFufed bile ; the nollrils dilated and rigid. The appetite is not affefted by it, if any thing it is increafed. The writer of this article endeavoured to rupture the cells of the lungs of a found horfe, by inflating them, and laying weights upon them, and found that no moderate prelfurc would do it ; indeed when removed from the body, no expe- riment could be very fatisfaftory, and he dcfifted from farther experiments with this defign. BROKER. The oiigin of the word is conteft^ed ; fome derive it from the French iroyer, " to grind ;" others from brocarJer, " to cavil, or riggle;" others deduce broker from a trader brolen, and that from the Saxon broc, " misfortune ■" which is often the true reafon of a man's breaking, fn which view, a broker is a broken trader, by misfortune; and It 13 faid that none but fuch were formerly admitted to that employment. Brokers are of feveral kinds ; eichange-brokers, in- furance-brokers, (lock-brokers, and pawn-brokers. Brokers, exchange, are a fort of negotiators, who con- trive, make, and conclude bargains between merchants and tradelmen, m matters of money or merchandize, for which they have a fee, or premium. See Exchange. Thefe, in our old law-books, are called broggeri, and in Scotland, broccani, i. e. according to Skene, mediators or interceffors m any contract, &c. See Proxeneta. 1 hey make it their bufinefs to know the alteration of the courle of exchange, to inform merchants how it goes, and to notify to thofe who have money to receive or pay beyond lea, who are proper perfons for negotiating the exchange with i and when the matter is accompliflied, that is, when the money ,s paid, they have for brokage, two fliiUings per lOO pounds fttrhng. ^ ^ Thefe, by the ftatutes of 8 and 9 William III. 6 Ann c 16. are to be hcenfed in London by the lord-mayor and aldermen, who adniimfter an oath, and take bond for the faithfu execution of their office : and any perfon afting with- out fuch a hcenfe and admiffion, is liable to the forfeiture of 50CI. and perfons employing them forfeit eol. This is alfo the cafe at Briftol, by fta,. sV.eo. II. c.„? They a fo to of thl7 1 '"^'' "^^ "" '/r '\' '-^^ P^"^'')' ^ --i -^ to deal tor themfelvcs on pain of forfeiting 200I. Thev are like- wife to carry about with them a filver medal, Lv o the king's arms, and the arms of the city, &c. and to pay 40 a year to the chamber of the city ^^ In France, till the middle of the feventeenth century ^eir exchange brokers were called « courtiers de change •'' b It by an arret of council in ,639, the name was chan' d for that more creditable one of " agent de change, banqC et finance;" and in the beginning°of the eighteenth cen ury-, to render the office ftiU more honourable, the title of king s counfellors" was added. At Grand Cairo, and feveral places of the Levant the 1 he exchange-brokers at Amiterdam,called "makelaers " br:k rs^'^bef V "'Z T' ''^' "'^ Engli(h, calkd -^ ?:";„ m^trs'. but b '^' "''^"'^y ''^' ^^f--^ the burgo. andt ci "^Z:^: Sr'' "'fe T '"^'""' 395 ; whereof 37, are^'chS::^; aTd''^ ^ ::^;he"o£: are nearly double that number ; fo that >„ Skrdam ttre are B R O are nearly looo exchange brokers -The difference bet v«n ?he two confifts in thi, ; that the books ana P-fons of he former are allowed as evidence in the courts of jud.ce , Seas, in cafe of difpute, the latter are difowned. and the.r %t"fe?SStorn exchange brokers of Amfterda. is fixed bv two regulations, of 1613. and 1623, with regard to Juerlof exchige, to eighteen fob for 100 !>-- de gros or 600 florins, i. e. three fols for 100 florins ; payable, half by the drawer, and half by the perfon who pays the money. But curtom has made confiderable alterations >^>^['i"l- The Jews, Armenians, and Banians, are the ch.^f broke, s throughout moft parts of the Levant and the Indies In Perfia! all arTairs are tranfaded by a fort of brokers whom fhev call " delal," i. e. " great talkers." The manner of Sing their coiraas is very lingular, and has been expla.n- ^^The r:^rSin^a:t::-kinds of brokers, one for the fervice of merchants,^ the other of manufadurers, artificers and workmen. The bufinefs of the former is to fac h tate the fale of goods in the wholefale and mercantile way ; that of the othef, to procure the goods wanted for -anufaaurer , artificers, &c. or to fell their goods when made A' Par s there is fcarce a company of tradefmen, o-- ^-" "^^^j^ h" but have their brokers, who are ufually taken out ot ttieu Sdy, nd make it their fole bufinefs to negotiate m the pr- ticular kinds of goods to which fuch company is by ilatutes reftra ned Thfre are brokers for drapery, brokers for gro- cer^ brokers for mercery, &c. There are. even brokers foVanners, curriers, cutlers, and the like Did o C^mm Brokers, hfuranu or pohcy, are agents who tranfaft the buWs of infu4nce between the merchant or party infured and he underwriters or infurers. Thefe mfurance brokers, from the nature of their employment, ought to be, and m- td generaUy are, perfonsk rVpeaabiUty and honour, in whom unlimited confidence may be ^P^/f • J" ^j^^t broker the merchant looks for the regularity of the con- S and a proper fekaion of refponfible underwriters : ft'n hhr, alfo, he underwriters look for a fair and candid difdofurrof an material circumftances alTeaing the n(l. and r ^l^,vrient of their premiums. There is ufually an ;Vn':cSt between eacf broker. =f^ every underwriter rHertXs\^^™tlf rbt tlhe^undlrJ^^^^^^^ broker ^^f "J^j^^^^'^^i, fo, ,n loffes to which the under- '"'C is Hable and which the broker is authorifed to receive. TnXed it ^generally underftood, that by the ufage of trade • T !lln fbe underwriters give credit only to the broker for thSpremmms and can rJort only to him for payment ; and th"t he alone, and not the underwriters, can recover the and tnat ne d. , , rj,, ■ ^ however, has never rr fm'led by any Ptial deteLination. But though th underwriter thu'^s looks to the broker for his premium, aid though he broker in his account with the underwri^^er, rakes cSt for the loffes and returns of premiums, which I -c .nthorifed to receive from the underwriter; yet, fuch Lffes are no to be regarded as a. M/ from the underwriter lofles are not to g bankruptcy of a policy Lt?htcourt of king's bench (.3 Geo.'lII.) held, that thourh iredlt for the premiums mnft be given to the broker becaufe the underwriters know nothing of the principals ; vet that they could not f.t off the loffes or re urns ot ^ ' -1 due to the principals, and which they only cou d ?u"C aga ft a debt 'due f^om'the defendants to the bank- lue tor, ag defendants had no commiffion del 'Sre I f bf^quent cafe, where the adion was brought by the aff:gnees of an underwriter againft the faaor, it wa. B R O determined (26 Geo. III.) that the defendant might fet off £ upon Johcies fubfcribed by the b.nknipt a„d^ ue o the defendant's eorrefpondents ; but there the f jf^^'J^" ' ^^ a commiffion M cW.«, which, »^' J,^^'-^"^'^^'-'''^, V"^', '^n r him liable to his eorrefpondents forlolles, vvithout hrll bring- ing an aai.Hi on the policy againft the uiiderwritcr. ^Where the merchant happens to relide at a f ^--^ ^ the plac. where he means to be inlur.d, the policy .s nfua ly effeaed by the mediation of his agent or corrJpondent there, who if he be not a broker, employs one, and gives h.m U ne'ceflai'y inllruaions. In order to his being an ageiU m fuch a cafe, he muft either have exprefs '^f ^'""^''^ '^= principal to caufe the infurancc to be made, or elfe it mull ^ a duty arifing from the nature of 1^>^ ^orrefpondcncc with the pri-'eipal- And no ge^eraWuthonty wh, h he r.v have in relation to a (hip or goods, will make him an "g7nt' ?or ;he pm pofe of infur^ng, o'n behalf of the parties in terefted. However, though one man cannot, m general, compel another againft hit confent to become an agent for ™ ng an infurance to be effeded for him, there are three cafes "which an order to infare muft be complied with: as A,i where an agent has effeas of his principal ,n Ins Zi-ficoudly, where he has been in the praa.ce of making infurances, and has given no notice to difcontmue ; and, Z-dly, where he accepts bills of lading fent him on coudi- ''°Trthe"office of agent or broker, great -fponfj^ility attaches • and, in the execution of it, it is the duty of ach ?o condua himfelf with the greateft fidelity, P^ft^aJ V' and circumfpeaion. For in this, as in all other cales, where a man ci^er by an exprefs or imphed undertaking, engages to do an aa fo7another, and he either wholly negkas to do t, or does it improperly or unfl.ilfuUy, an aaion o" the cafe w Ulie againft him'to recover a fatisfaaion f°; f ^ "J^^ damage re fulting from his negligence, or want ot Ikill. S^ncl if a merchant here accept an order from his corref- pondent abroad to caufe an infurance to be made, but limits the broker to too fmall a premium, in confequence ofjv^ch no infurance can be effec'ted ; he is liable to make good he lofs to his correfpondent ; for though, it 1. h. duty to get he infurance done at as low a premium as poffible, yet, he ha. no right fo to limit the premium, as to prevent the infurance from bemg effeaed. And even a voluntary agen>, j;ho haa no piofpea of remuneration for his trouble, is Lablc, pro- vided that he takes any ftep in the bulinel^. It is not only the duty of the agent in t«nfaaing the bufinefs of infurances, to condua h.mfe f with fidelity ...d punauality towards his employer, but he is foM to obferve thi ftriaeft veracity and candour towards he mf irer ; r any fraud or concealment on his part will avoid the policy, even though the infured be altogether ignorant and 'T^ :£-Snft - agent, or broker, whether f^r n^li- .ence or unflulfufncfs in effeaing an infurance, the plam ift is entitled to recover to the fame amount as he might ha^c leco- ver d atainft the underwriters, if the policy had been properly Iff^aed. But he can only recover what, ^^po.nt of la^, he might have recovered on the policy; and not what the nd^llence or Iiberahtv of the underwriters might probably hav I duced them to pay. In fuch an adion, the agent may avail 1 mfelf of every defence, fuch as fraud deviation, non- avail mmie „4 ranties &c. which the underwriters Sh'haTelt up m a'acliou on the pohcy: but.if the ;St aa h. the ulual manner, it will be de.med fuffieient ^There are many reafons why an agent or broker ougnt not to bean infurer. He becomes too much mterdled to fettle vitSi fairnefs the rate of premium, the amount of pan^l B Tl O l..!T«, Stc; anJ though he (houlJ not himfciroccafion nny iin- iiccrlfar)' dcluy in obllaclc to the paymrut of a lols, he will not be over-ai.xioiii tJ remove the doubts of othera : btliJcs, h; ought not, by uiijerwritirjj the p:illoy, to deprive the pjirtiec of lii< uiibialTed teftimony, in cnfe ol dilpiite. If ail a^oiit or broker, meaning to appropriate the pre- mium til lii.nfelf, and mke the chance of a fafe arrival, rc- prtfcnt to liii tmploycr that an iiifiimnce has been effected ajjrecably to his inllriiCtions, tlie principal may inanitai.i trover for the policy njraiiiil the accent or broker ; and, upon jjroof of a lofs, he ;?.v, a fort of petty dealers in drapery, who iell Irc^nicn'.s or remnau'suf oluth«, itufTs, Glks, and the like, at nnJcr price. Urokf iis,_^3(-/f, are lliofe employed to buy and fell Hinrcs in the joint lloek of a company or corporation ; and alfe, in the public funds. The negotiations, &c. of thefc brokers are reg;ulated by ftat. 6 Geo. I. cap. i8. and 7 and lo Geo. 41. cap. S. which, among other things, enact, that contracts in the nature of wagers, &c. incur a penalty of 500I. and by the fale of ftock, of which the ftller is not pofTcffcd, and which he does not transfer, a forfeit of lool.; and coiitrafts for fale of ar.v llock, of which the contractors are not actually po(l'e(fed, or to which they are not entitled, are void, and the parties ai^rceing to fell, &c. inctir a penalty of ^oc\.; and that brokers keep a book, in which all contraiSts, with their dates, and the names of the parties conctrntd, Ihall be entered, on -pain of ijol. : thefe enactments, however, are little regarded by the gamblers in the public funds. Sec Stock-jolbing. Urokers cf hotifehohi funnlurc. See AypRAiSERS. Brokers, paun, are perfons who keep fliops, and let out money to neccflitous people upon pledges, for the moil part on exorbitant intereft. Thtfe are more properly called pawn-takers, or tally-men, fometimes fripcrs, or friperers. Of thtfe is to be undcrllood the ftatutc of i Jac. I. c. 2 1 . by which it is enafted, that the fale of goods, wrongfully gotten, to any broker in London, Weftminller, Southwark, or within two miles of London, Ihall not alter the property thereof. If a broker, having received fuch goods, fhall not, upon the rcqucil of the right owner, truly difcover them, liow and when he came by them, and to whom they are con- veyed, he (hall forfeit the double value thereof to tl-.e faiJ owner. But th;re are feveral excellent regulations refpefting pawn- brokers of later date. By (lat. 25 Geo. IIL c. 48. pawn- brokcTs arc r.nnually to take out a licence on a lol. itanip, within tlie bills of mortality, and 5I. in any other part of trie kingdonn, for each (hop kept, under a penalty of /jol. By Hat. 29 Geo. IIL c. 57. conlirmed by ttats. ji Geo. III. c. 52. and ,5.3 Geo. III. c. j;,}. pawnbrokers are allowed the follov.-ing rates of profit for intereft and warclioufe- room. For every pledge upon v.iiich there has not been lent above 23. 6d. one halfpenny, for any time during which the faid pledge fhall remain in pawn, not exceeding one month, and the fame for every month afterwards, including the current month in which fuch pledge fliall be redeemed ; for 5.-., one penny; for 7s. 6d., one penny half-penny ; for los., two-pence; for 12s. <1d., twopence h?.lf-penny ; for 15s., three-p.nce ; for 17s. (5d., thrce-pjnce half-penny ; for il., four-pence; and fo on progredively and in proportion for any fum not excccjing 40s. ; and for cvcr^• fum exceed- ing 40s. and nu exceeding lol , at the rate of .;d. and no more for the loan of every 20s. of fuch money lent by the mouth ; a.id fo in proportion for any fradional fum. A B R O party applying for the redemption of goods pawned, within fcven days'after the expiration of any month, n-ay redeem them without paying any thing for the feveii days ; and ap- plying after feven days, and within fixteen days, pays tlic pr'olit for one month and the half of another month ; but after the txpii-alion of the firll fourteen days, the paw.i. broker may take for the whole month. He is required to mr.ke entries, and to give duplicates. Any perfon Iraudu- lently pawning the gojds of another, and convicted before a jullicf, Oiall forfeit 23S. and the value of the goods pawned, &c. to he afccrtained by the juflice; and on failure of pay- ment, be committed to the houfe of correction for not more than three monltis, nor lefs than one month, and be pub- licly whipped ; the forfeitures being applied to the fatis- faction of the injured party, and the defraying of colls, and the overplus, if any, to the poor of the parifli. Any perfon counterfeiting or altering a duplicate, may be ftized and taken before a j'.illice, who is to commit the offender to the houfe of correction for not more than three months, nor lefs than one. If a perfon fliall oiler to pawn any goods, refilling to give a fatisfaftory account of hiniftlf and the goods ; or if there be reafon to fu(p;£t that the goods are ftolen ; or if any perfon, not entitled, dial! attempt to re- deem goods pawned ; they may be taken before a jnllice for examination : and if it appear that the goods were llolen or illegally obtained ; or that the perfon attempting to redeem them has no title or pretence to the fame, the juftice is to commit him to be dta'.t with accordi::g to law, provided the nature of the ofTeiice (liall authorize fuch comm.itrr.ent by any other law ; or otherwife, for not more than three montiis, Ror lefs than one. A juftice may grant a fearch-wanant, and a peace-officer break open doors, and reftore the goods, if found, to the owner. If pawn-brokers rcfufe to deliver up goods pltdgtd within one year, on tender of the money lent and intereft, a juftice is empowered, on conviction, to commit them till the goods be delivered up, or rtafonablc fatisfaCt'.on be obtained. Goods may be fold bv public auction after the expiration of one year; being expofed to public view, and catalogues of them publiflied, and two ad- vertifements of fale by the pawnbroker to be nifcrted in fomc ncwfpaper, two days at leall before the fir.ft day's fale, under penalty of 5I. to the owner. Pawnhr.,kers, receiving notice from tlie owners of goods before the expiration of a year, are not allowed to difpofe of them, till after the expiration of tiirce m.onths from the end of the faid year. They are to enter an account of fales in their books of all goods pawr:ed for upwards of tos. ; and the overplus, in cale of (ale, fliall, upon demand wiihin three years, be paid to the owner, neceiiary intereil, c('fts, &c. being dtdufted ; and refufal to pay the overplus (hall incur a forfeiture of treble the fum lent, to be levied by di.lrefs. Pawnbrokers fiiall not purchafe goods in their cuftody, or fufier them to be re- deemed for that purpofe ; nor lend money to any perfon ap- pearing to be under twelve years of age, or intoxicated, or purchafe duplicates of other pawnbrokers, or buy any goods befjre eight in the forenoon, and after feven in the evening ; nor receive any goods in pawn before eight in the forenoon, or after nine at night, between Michaelmas and Lady-day; and before feven in the forenoon, and after ten at night, during the remainder of the year, except the even- ings of Saturday, and thofe preceding Good Friday and Chriftmas day ; nor carry on the trade on any Sunday, Good Fri.lay, or Chriftmas day. Pawnbrokers are to place in their fliops, a table of rates allowed by this aft ; and they are required to have their Chriftian and furname, and bufinefs, written over the door, under a penalty of lol. h.-Jf to the informer, and half to the poor. Pawnbrokers offend- incr B R O B R O ii^X affai'ift tliis aft, in cafes where no penalty is provided, (liall for cvei-y offence forfeit 5I. leviable by Jillrcfs, half to the iiiforiner, a^d half to the poor. Complaint fhall, in all cafes, be made within twelve months. This ad does not extend to pledges for money above lol., nor to pt.rlons lend- ing money npon pjoods at 5 per cent, interell. In the cities of Italy, lliere are companies eftablidicd by anlhorlty for the letting ont money in pawns, called " monnts of piety ;" an hon id, wherein they only receive ready money, and return it ^i;?iii, with iiiterell at (i> mnch per annum. At l«)logna, Ltiey tiave fcveial fuch "monnts;" which are dilhnguilhed intoy>-i7t^- ntit/ Jici-/>:-/iin/ ; the intere.1 of the former is only -four per ft.-nt. ; in the latter, ftven. BROKl'.RAGE, the fee paid to a Broker. BROKAY, in Geography, a town of Hindoltan, in the conntry of Candeifli ; ti miles S.W. of Bmlianponr. BROLO, a town of tile ifland of fjitily, in the valley of Deniona ; 7 milts V/. "of Pati. BROMBE^IG, a town of Pohfi rrnfTui, feated on the river Bro, ealkd alfo D'ulgrjl, which fee. BROM'E, Alexander, in BiograjJjy, a poet of the J 7th centnry, was attorney of the lord mayor's court c;f -London in the Jtign of Charles II., and wrote the great- cil number of the fonjis and epigra;ns that were publilhcd in favour of th^ royahits, and againll the " rump," in tlie .time ot OJivcr Cromwell, av.d during the rebellion. Thefe, vith his tpiflles -and epioran;s, tranilated from different au- thors, ivei-c piir,ltd in one voianie f!vo. after the reftoration. He.altj publifiird a vei fnm of H.Maee, and left behind him a comtdy.r.ntitled " The Cunning Lovers." He alfo publilhed two .»-;.iumes in 8vo. of the plays of Richard Brome, a drainaiic writer in the reif;n of Charles I., who had been oiiginaily a menial fervant to the celebrated Ben Jonfon. One of .the pluys of R. Bronie, called '-The Jo- vial Crew," was nut long ago revived, and fnccrfsfuUy ex- hibited. He died in i'.^i. The editor of his plays, A. Brome, was .born in [620, and died in 1^66. Biog. Dram. Brome, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin- cipality of Lnnebiirgb-Ztll, leated on the Oiire, and belong- ing to a jurifdiction of the fame name, which comprehends a part of the marlhy forell of Dromhng. Brome ^^,"<7/i, in Botany. See Bromus. BROMELIA, (in memory of Oiaus Biomel, a Swede, au- thorof Lupologia, Stock. H.i", J2mo. andChloii's Gothlea, 1694, 8vo.) in BaUviy, Linn. ^'en. 595. Reich. 4.17. Schreb. 450. Ckfs, hsxandr'ia monogyn'ta. Nat. Ord. coronarU. Bru- nulia:. JufT. Gen. Char. Cat. perianth three-cornered, fiiperior, per- manent; feg.T.ents three, ovate. Cor. either monopetalnns with thj'ee deep divifions, or of three p.-tals, narrow, lance- olate, ereft, longer than t!ie calyx. Neffary, adhering to each petal above the bale, converging. S/am. filaments fix, awl-(haped, fliortcr than the corolla, inferted into the recep- tacle. Linn. Schreb., on the corolla or calydne glaiuh. Bole., on calycmc glantis proihtced above ike germ (ihcnce in fome de- gree gynandrous ?) Jnff. Anthers ereft, arrow- Ihaped. P'lfl. germ inferior ; ilyle fimple, threadfliaped, the length of the Ilamens ; ftigma obtufe, trifid. Pericarp, a berry orcap- fule, one or three-celled. Seec/s, fomewhat oblong, obtnfe. EflT. Char. Ca/yx trifid, fuperior. Car. with neti.areous fcales at the bale. * Flowers on a common receptacle; corolla monopetalous. Vol. V. Species, I. B. yln.was, pine-apple. (La Marck III. PI. 2:3.) " Leaves ciliate-fpinous, Iharp-pointed ; fpike co- mofe." Limi. Root perennial, fibrous. Root-leaves from two to three feet long, and from two to thne inches biotid, channelled, often a little glaucous. Stem lliort, cylindric, thick, liafy. Spike glomerate, denfe, fealy, oval or conic, crowned with a tuft of leaves, fiinilar to the root and ftem leaves, but fmalier. Flowers bluilli, fcllilc, finall, and fcatttred upon the etnimon, thick, flcfliy receptacle. Genu, halt bnned in the fnbllr.nce of the receptacle, which, after the (lowers tall off, increafes in f:/e, and lieconits a fntcu- lent fruit, covered on all tides with fuiail liiang'jiar fea!e«« cylindric, thick, firm, two or three feet high, pubefccnt, fiirrounded by the red interior leaves. Scales pale red, or whitHh, diminifliing in Iize as they approach the Inmmit of the item. Floiuers voic- colonred, feffile, in the axils of the upper fcales, and form- ing a beautiful, pyramidal fpike. Fniil about the. Iize of a walnut, ovate-pyramidal, obfcurely three-cornc/ed, threc- ctlled, covered with a thick fuberofe-ficfliy vind, rugged, with continent dots, and terminated by the permanent, trifid fligma refenihling a tuft of fmall leaves. The fruit is de- feribcd by La Marck as a capfule, but is faid by Brown (Jamaic.) to have an agreeable fwcet p'.ilp, joined with fiieh a ll.arpnefs, tliat, if luflered to conMuue in the month, it will caufc the blood to ooze from the palate and gums. A native of the Weft Indies. Delr.ription chiefly from La Marck. 'J. V). nudicaulis. " Iladi'.ial leaves dentate-fpinous ; item leavts very entire." Linn, Root perennial, paralitica], attacliing itfelf to tiie tuinkstjf large trees. Root-leaves two . feet long, three inches broad, ftiff, concave, fmooth, green, pointed, and edged with llrong black fpines. Stem cylin- dric, hrni, thick, two or three feet high, covered with a fhort down, which generally gives it a whitifli colour, though it is fometimes ahnoll entirely red. Stem -leaves or fcales oL- long, very entire, part red or purple, part whitifh. Flow- ers Iplktdj rofe-coioured, fcflile, not accompanied by fcales, 0 ^ whence B R O M E L I A. whe-ice 't. trivial name, and by which it is fo clearly diftin- Martyn, and even La Marck, will by no means include aU emftied from the preceding, that it ought to form part of the (pccies ; we have therefore enlarged the former, and fhe fpecinc charaacr. Bana ovate, of a bright red co- abridged the latter, m order to make them fufficiently cora- lour. Its Itavcj like thofe of the European dlpfacui, or prchenli tcaU'l, retain the water from rain and dew, and afford a deli- cious draught to tlie hunter and traveller in its native fcorch- ing climate. Common in the woyds of the Well Indies, and fcnt from the coai\ of Guinea to Mr. Miller. 6. B. P'uala. La Marck. " Radical leaves fiiorl and fpnious ; rtem-lcaves very long and very entire, without Ipints." Burm. Anier Rool-leai'ct lanceolate, (liarp-pointed, llri- atcd, covered beneath with a whililh powder, and a little enlarged at the bale. Sum or Stuns cyhndric, l"rni, about the itiicknefs of the finger. Stcm-U.ives fword-fhapcd, pen- dent. Flown of a beautiful red, in a clofe pyramidal Prcpagation, Culture, and Ufi. The Ananas, or com- mon pineapple, has long been cultivated in the Weft In- dies ; but its fruit has only lately been brought to perfeftion in Europe. The firll perfon who completely fuccceded was Monf. Le Coiir of Leyden, in Holland, a contemporary of Mr. Miller ; though it was introduced into England fo far back as 1690 by Mr. Bentick. It is propagated, either from feed, or from the crown at the top of the fruit, or from the fuckers at the fide of the lUm. As the method of propagating by feed is the flowed, it is fcldom pra&Ifcd Europe. There are, moreover, here comparatively few fpikc, Br;reen, concave, many of them rolled up into the Ihape of a horn, and terminated by a fliort blunt point. Sinn four feet high. Slem-lejv.-s alternate, oblong, pointed, concave, without fpines. Spikes, one terminal, the others in the ax- ils of the fcalcs, or upper leaves of the Hem. Flowers fmall, fefiile. Dirries round, with a fmall point, in fimple ra- cemes, of a bright coral red. Seeds fmall, oblong, reddifh. A native of the Well Indies. 8. B. braaeuta. Willd. jcftured, to the greater number having only fti^minifcrous flowers ; and he founded his opinion on the dif erent fitua- tion of the cells in the two kinds ; thofe which produce feed Iving near the centre of the fruit, and thofe which are abortive nearer the rind. When ;he feed is intended to be preferved, the ripe fruit fliould be hung up in a warm room, till all the moiilure of its pulpy part is evaporated, and fhould afterwards be kept in a dry place. In fpiing, when the weather begins to grow wartTii tlie feed fliould be fown in a pot filled with good garden earth ; the pot fliould then be plunged in a hot-bed ; and v%hen the plants have acquir.-d a certaia height, they fliould be removed into frefl; pats, and treated like other «' Ler.ves fcrrate-fpinous ; bracles ovate-lanceolace ; fcape tropical plants. The grand elfjutial is to guard them from rlonjatcd ; raceme compound ; branchlets fubdivided ; flow- too much moiilure. er feflfile." Swartz. Root perennial, paralitical. Brakes fcarlet, membranaceous, very entire. y. B. pamculigera. WiUd. " Leaves ferrate-fpinous ; brades lanceolate ; ra- ceme compound ; branchlets fubdivided ; flower peduncled." Swartz. Scape more than a foot high. Brades fcarlet. The Ananas, contrary to a common- opinion, is thcnight by fome perfons to be equally good, whether it be produced from the crown or the fuckers. See the next article. Bromelia, in Gardeniagy compithends a plant of the fine fruit kind, the B. ylnanas, or pine-apple, and fome other alternate, membranaceous, half a foot long. Raceme two feet fpecies railed for the purpoft of variety long,erea. /Wunc/f/ an inch long, tomentofe. 10. B. Cl;ry- Of the firft there are ieveral varieties in cultivation; but fantba. Willd. " Leaves ferrate-fpinous ; braftes lanceolate, thofe which principally deferve the attention of the culti- toothed ; raceme fubcompound, fliorter than the leaves ; flow- vator, are the queen, which, is '.he mod to be relied on for ers peduncled." Raceme a foot long, compound at the bafe. a certain and regular crop ; the Antigua and fugar-loaf, the Flowers yellow. Peduncles fmooth. Brakes flirivelliiig. fruit of which is larger; the Montferrat ; the king, and J I. H. Aeanga. I>inn. " Panicle ciiffufe ; leaves ciliatc-fpi- the g;reen pine. nous, fliarp-pointed, recurved." Native of Brazil. This The white pine, called by Miller the queen pine, is the ipecies, which appeared in the firll edition of the Species moft common in Europe. Its flcfli is whitifli and fibrous; Plan'^arum, was omitted in the fecond, from a doubt whether and its rind, when ripe, is as yellow as that of an orange it is fp«cifically diflincl from B. Karatas ; but, on farther confidera'tion, it was replaced by Linnxus hiinfclt in the Syf- trma Natu.'^, and has been admitted by the fubftquenl edi- tors of the Species Plantarum, but is not noticed by La Marck. Plumier, and the other older botanifls, divided this genus into three ; yiuat'.a, Karata, and Bromelia. The flowers of Its fmtll is highly pleafant, and it excels moft of the reft ia fize and btauty ; but it falls fliorr. of fome others in flavour, edges the teeth, and makes the lips fmart. The yellow pine edges the teeth Icfs ; but both are exceeded by the fugar loaf, which is diftinguiflied from all the others by the purple ftripes on the infide of its leaves. Its fruit, when ripe, in- clines to a ftraw colour. The Montferrat pine is now rare in the Anana, fayS Juflieu, are in a clofe fpike, on a fcape Europe, but is efteemed one of the beft in America. The. which is leafy at to^D i as the fpike ripens, it takes the form protuberances of the fruit ave longer and flatter than thofe of a flefliv, fcaly, efculcnt ftrobile, compofed of united berries, which are fcaroely divided into cells, and frequently do not ripen their feeds. The Karatas have a denfc radical cor^'mbus, and ovate berrifs. The Bromelias are ?oofely fpiked or panicled on a fcape or ftem; and the fruit can Icarcelv be called a bcrr)-. La Marck, if he were not un- f the common fort. Th'.- fmooth pine may be a diftinft fpecies : its fruit having no crown of leaves, and its root and ftem-leaves being without fpines. There are feveral other varieties ; but as they are continually changing, it is. not ncceflary to fpedfy ihem. The Karatas is chiefly propag:ated by feeds; for though it willing to increafe the number of genera without abfolute throws out fuckers, they are ilUfliapen, and produceun neceflity, would be difpofed to keep the /ItianmnA Karata fightly plants. The feeds fliould be fown early in the united, on account of their common receptacle and mono- fpring, in fmall pots filled with light rich earth, and plunged petalous corolla, and to feparate the reft which have poly- into a hot-bed of tanner's bark. When the plants are petalous corollas on diftinft receptacles. The general and ttrorg enough, they Oiould be tranfplanted each into a fepa.« effential charafters, as they ftand ip Linnseus, Schrej^er, raj* pot, and again plunged into the hot-bed, where they fliould B R O M E L I A. fhould icmain till Michnelmas, and then be removed into the ftove, and treated like the ananas. The peng\iin is culti- vated in precifely tlie lame manner. Neither of them will produce their frnit iu England, till they are three or four years old. The latter being verj' fpinous makes an impe- netrable hedge, and is much ufed in the Well Indies ior fencing pallure lands. The other fpecits are cultivated only for curiofity, and are raifed from feeds brought from their native country, not producing any in England. Bcfides the varieties of the B. anurias, or pine-apple, above mentioned, there are others known to gardeners, and fometimes introduced into cultivation. The culture of the pine-apple is more difficult, and re- quires a more cxatl and nice attention in its management, in this climate, than that of ahnoll any other plant. It is only capable of being accompliflied fo as to afford good fruit, by the aflillan'.e of the lloves of the hot-houfe, with the artifi- cial aid of fire beat. And in order to effett the hufinefs with the greatell eafe and convenience, and in the moll perfeft man- ner, belides the Hove uf the hot or fj uiting-houfe, others are ncceffary for the purpolc of bringing the jjlants forward in, till ready to fet out in the fruiting-Uove, which are trimmed nurfery-ftoves, or pits of fuccefTive lloves. And where large quantities of fuch plants are cultivated, it is alfo ufeful to have what are termed bark-pits, finined either by deep frames of wood or of brick work lix feet in width, with fufficient length, five or fix feet deep behind, and four and a half in front, having the tops gl.rzed ; for the piirpofe of making hot-beds in, for the immediate reception of the crowns and fuckers from the parent plants, and to prevent the fuccefllon-ftove from being crowded teo much. Where the whole culture of thefe plants is to be efferted in one (love only, the plants mull be raifed and fruited together, by which practice not one half of the fame hot-houfe can be occupied at one time with fruiting plants ; bcfides, the young plants are often liable to be brought forward too rapidly. All thefe different (loves and nurfing pits Ihould be provided with proper fires and fire-places, fo contrived as to work fteadily and fave fuel as much as pofTible, as upon this the expence of the culture of totfe plants in a great meafure de- pends. See HoT-HousE S/ove lind Bark Pits. It is remarked by Mr. Nicol, that lloves for this ufe are varioully conllruiled : " foine are fingle pitted, fome double, and fome even triple ; fome have flues running un- der, and fome round the bark-bed." Thefe he coi.fiders as being very dangerous to the roots of the plants, if overheated. He alfo difapproves of double and triple llovts, as being vei7 uneafy to work in flormy weather, and confining a vail quantity of llagnant unwholefonie air in dull hazy weather. A flove in which there is a perfeft command of fire- heat, and which admits a free circulation of air in all parts, is to be preferred, and none are fo convenient fen- this purpofe as fingle ones. The fituations for them fliould be dry, and the bottoms or floors raifed above the furface of the ground. The common praftice of having borders for vines to be trained up the rafters, Mr. Nicol confidcrs as highly prejudicial to the pine plants. Preparation of tie barh ifds. — The circiimftance of im- portance in the culture of thefe plants, is that of forming the beds in the lloves and pits. Tht.'e are differently conllituted with different cultivators, and are dcfigned .for the pur- pofe of plunging the pots into, with il,c plant.' in them, in order to their due growth, and fupport. 'Thefe beds are moflly compofcd of tanne-s' bark, as being a fubftancc that not only affords the moll uniform and durable ha at, but which is bed fuited to the nourifhment and growth <, 'f the plants and fruit, as well 33 the moft manageable. See Ba&k beJ. The great artiii m.iking of thefe bed,-, i.«that of producing fuch an uniform moderate bottom heat a.^ may not it:jure the roots of the plant,-;, while it is fnffieient to promote their regular growth. The author of the " .Scotch Forcing Gat- dcner" obferves, tliat his idea of " the quantity and qua- lity of bottom heat that is required by the pine," is dif- ferent from that generally entertained. He never wiflies the ])iants, except in llriking fuckers, to Hand in a bottom heat higher than that of blood heat, and that too of a mild moill nature. If the wateh fliek to the depth of the bottom of the pot feels jufl a little warm to the hand, or when ap- plied to the cheek, when the body is of a comfortable tem- perature, it is fnffieient ; and he thinks it confillent with reafon, that the bottom and fuperficial heat (hould corref- pond at all times. In order more effedua'ly to attain this end, and that the rter, Oftobrr, and the following month, that ih.e hc:il may be well kept up dininjj the winter, and in the fpnng, as about the be^;iiniin;,' of Api;l ; a forking up being ■'ivcD in the interval brtwcn thefe periods. 'I'lic pits in thole cafes Ihould be . will filled up, lo allow for the failing that ;il« ■ , \cc, /■ /L-rfoHiri^lfv P.'.rilf. — Themod fuitable fort ofi. lijl tor the culture of the pine-apple plant is that of tiie liim vegetable kind, or fome conipofition in which it is a principal ingredient ; a large proportion of which IhouId always be provided in a proper Hate for the purpofe. The molt bene licial kind is that which is obtained from the decayed leaves of the oak, or a mixture of it with that from thofe of afli, elm, beech, f\camorc, &c. This mould is prepared by coUefting them as they fall in tl'.e autumn, and placing them in a lieap, throwing a very little light mould over them, to prevent their blowing away. They (Iviuld rem.iin in this Hate during the wir.ter, and till the b.-ginning of May, wtien they IhouKi be turned over and mixed Well together. In this way, by the fpring following, they will be reduced into a mould proper for ufe. This Ihould, however, be fiftcd before it is employed, in order to remove pieces of Hick or other improper matters. A compoft of turfy vegetable mould with rich garden foil and well roltt^ liable dung from a hot-bed, in the proportion of one-thud of the latter, which have remained tojjcther for a confiderable time, is likewifc recommended by fome. Brown, ftrong, loamy earth, when reduced by long expofure to the air, is another ufeful material j and pigeons' dung that has been at Kail two years in an heap, and frequently turned and expofed to the influence of the weather, may be employed : alfo fhell maile, and fea or river gravel, which has been lifted and kept in a dry place, having the li/e of large peas, &c. may fonictimes be employed. The proportions in which they are advifed to be made ufe of for different p'.up ifes in the culture of tliefe plants by Mr. Ni- col, are thele : " For crowns and fuckers entire Vfgetable mould, with a little gravel at bottom, to ilrike in; after- wards three-fourths vegetable mould, and onc-fonrth loam, mixed with about a twciuieth part of gravel, and a little entire gravel at bottom, till a year old. For year old plants, till fliiftcd into fruiting pots, one half vegetable mould, one half loam, to which add about a twentieth part of gravel, and as much (licll marie with a httle gravel at bottom, as above. For fruiting ir;, one half loam, a fourth vegetable mould, a fourth pigeons' dung, to which add gravel and marie, as above, and lay two iiich«s of entire gravel at bottom." Rai/in^tte I'larts. — This is the next point of material con- fequcnce in the cultivation of thefe plants, and which is effcfted cither by the crowns produced on the tops of the fruit, the offsets, or fuckers from between the leaves, and the roots of the old plant. The lall fliould never be employed when it can be avoided ; of the other two, fuckers are pre- ferred by fome, while crowns have the advantage, according to others ; but Mr. Nicol juilly remarks, that if the former lave the fuperi-jrity in being the ftrongerplant6,theyhavellke- %ife the dijfadvantage of running to fruit more imfeafonably than the latter. The crowns are procur«^ by twlfling them off" the fruit, when it is made ufe of, and the fuckers by breaking down the leaf immediately beneath them, and moving them gently both ways till they come off, which (liould not be attempted till the under parts appear of a brnwnifh colour, and ripe, as under other circumiUinces they are liable to break in the middle and be fpoilod. When taken off, they Ihoultf each of tium be cleared of a few of the lower out- ward leaves about the bottom where they are to form roots, by rubbing them off; i'ome alfo pare the urder parts of the Humps fmooih with a knife. They are then laid or hung up in a dry place four or five days, or more, that the over moif- lurc and wounds of the Humps, or thick parts of the plants, may be dried up and fiifficiently healed over before they arc planted, and the danger of their rotting Be prevented. ,The author of the " Scotch Forcing Gardener," however ob- ferves, " that if they are perfectly ripe, ai.d the old plants have had no water for a week or two before tin y were taken off (which they ou;;ht not), nothing of this kind is necefiary." Each plant frequently atfords many iuckcrs, but rarely more than one crown. The crowns are ufjally gathered one bv one as the fruit is ufcd, and ftuck into a br,rk-bed till the whole crop of them, as well as the fuckers, can be potted together. The plants, after being thus prepared and collefted, muft be placed, according to their lizcs fingly in pots three or four inches in diameter, and five or fix deep, provided for the purpofe, and filled with entire ve-getEble mould, as diredted f,bove, having the bottoms previoufiy laid with clean gravel, of the fize of horfe beans, to the thickncfs of an inch or fomething more : fome, however, only advifc pieces of flate or tile to be put over the holes in the pots. The firll is probably the bcft ni- thod, as pre- venting the water moft cHcttually from Hagnating about the roots of the plants. In plantinu- they (liould be put neither too (liallow, nor to too great a depth, but have the mould pretty clofcly prcfled round them. The nurfing pit Ihould be prepared for th.cir reception by having new tan to the extent ot a filth or fixth part added, but none fulTered to lie within ten or twelve inches of the furface. In thefe beds, when of a due heat, the pots fiiould' be plunged up to their brims, in regular order, at the diHance of two or three inches pot from pot each way, keeping them perfeiflly level, and the largelt towards the back parts. Some advife a flight watering to be immediately given, but others think that ne'ther the crowns nor fuckers Ihould have any for the firft fortnight after planting, nor any ever-head the f.rll winter, IcH they Ihould be injured in their hearts by the damp which it occafions. As the plants thus raifed only produce fruit in the ftcond, or more generally, in the third year's growth., commonly with fuckers and crowns for future increafe, and become afterwards of no ufe but as ftocks for fupplying a few more fuckers, there is obvioufly a necelTuy for raifing frelh fup- plies of plants annnally. Culliive in the yci'ifng Slave. — The management of the plants the firll year, or while they remain in the nurfery-lloves and pits, requires much attention to keep them in a regular and healthy growth by preferving a continued proper degree of heat in the beds, and a judicious application of water with a fuitable admiflion of free air. Mr. Nicol obfcrves, that where the plants have been ftruck in the beginning of Sep- tember, the beds will mofiiy continue of a kindly heat till about the b'.'ginning of November, but Ihould then be wrought over, introducing about an eighth part of new tan by trenchinT- it in. But though the plants will in gene- ral have made good roots by this period, they do not in common. B R O M E L I A. cflminon (land in nfed of being frc^i potted ; Aich only as are in aiiy degree matted being put v'nto other pots of tlie next li/.e to thofe in w liicf' they arc g."Owing. The matted part being fimply taken off, iS^y Hn-uld be replnced with tiie bulb as entire as poffible. They &>. then to be plunged in the bedii, as in the former cafe, quite itp. to tlic bri.ns of the pots, and fiiould remain till the beginning of April ; at which period the beds fliouid be again wruiig.ht over, as dirccfted above, and tlie plants hive the mould who.'ly 'b:ikeH from the roots, after which they lliould be replace.' in the fame pots with frcdi mould, and repUinged in tlie beo.^- I'l this cafe the roots being frcfh lliouid never be diltnrbed, the parts that are decayed in the Humps or other places bci.'g intrely removed. As the heat of the beds, witliout the aid of lire, will not be fnllicicnt during thefe periods for the iieahhy growth ot tliefe plants, it will be requifite to have recourfe to that of the aitificial kinds. This fliould be applied about the be- ginning of O^ober, or the fcMlowing month, according to itie Hate of the feafon. In the application of this heat great care (hould be had to keep it fo moderate as not to force the plants forwaids too much, and render. them in danger of fruiting unfeafonab'y, while it is fuffieient for their peifcft growth. The former is fhcwn by their drawing up with long leaves and white hearts; and the latter, by the want of the proper healthy afpeft. To accomphdi tliij in the moil cei tain ir.-inner, ^Ir. Nicol recommends working the ftoves fo as to keep the thermometer as near as poffible to 6j^, at feven or eight o'clock in the morning and nine at night, un- til about the lirlt of March, and then toincreafe it gradually to 70°, at wliich it (hould be maintained fo long as artificial lieat may be required. When the weather is very fevere, it is likewife nccclTary to cover and defend the glaffes in the ir'ght time, as well as occafiowally in the day, with canvas {x>r the purpofe, cloths fixed with rollers and pullies, or lai-ge garden mats. At the above period the plants ufually begm to grow in a vigorous and rapid manner, and require potting again about the firlli or middle of May, at which time the bed (hould be Hirred up to about half its depth, and, if ne- ceffary, a very little new tan'worked in. The piants (liould be put into pots about fix inches in diameter on the ii.fide in the tops on a medium acccnding to their fizes, with the balls en:irc ; and if any of them are matted, that part (lionld be difplaced, plunging them to the brims at the didance of about fifteen inches from centre to centre of the plants in the largeft kind, and a foot in the fmaller kinds, giving a flight watering at the time. Another pottmg becomes ne- ccifary ab;>ut the begi-ining of Augud ; and where there are three' compartments, tl;e plants fiiould now be removed into the facctfu )n hoiife, the bark-beds being worked over to the bottom. The plants mud. be put into pots of eight inches diameter, plunging them to the brims at the diilance of fix- teen inches on a medium, and fettling them with a gentle wa- tering. At thefe periods a more free admiffion ol frclh air be- comes neceffary, efpccially when tlie weather is mild and favourable. Where other houfes or fucecffion-flovcs aie employed in the culture of thefe plants, they may at this time be removed into them, in order to be more conveniently managed in their growth the lecond year. Culiure in ihe Suraffloii Stoves or Phs. In the fecond year's growth it will be necelfary, towards the middle of November, to work t!ie bark beds over to lall during the winter ; but the plants need not be diifted, the decayed leaves about their bottoms being only twilled oiT, and a little fre(h mould laid on the furface of the pots, where it may be requifite, re- plugging the pots to the brims as before. Some advife the leaves of tlie plants to be lied up while they are potting or removing them, in order to keep them from beiuf; bruifcd ; but the writer juH mentioned dilapproves of the pradlice, as he finds they are generally much more bruifed in tying than when left loofe. The method which he follows, is to liave a pcrfiin (landing oppofite to him in the time of potting, which is performed on a dage about a yard li'gh, whofe bnfinefs is to hold up the leaves in a loofe, thougli regular manner, between the arms, and prepare and hand the pots. In thi.s manner he has often been able to fliift an hundred one-year old plants in two hours. In conveying the plants through the doors of the tlovcs, the pirfon (hould proceed with the back foremoll, by which means the leaves are faved from injury, as the pot goes fir(l, and the leaves arc drc;v.'n b\ -kwards after it. Ai'>out l.he beginning of March the plants again require .fhifting,- and the bark beds fliould then be trenched over as bef"l giving them a dight watering. Towards the fird; of June, the plants fliould again be fliifted. The bark beds being wrought over to about half their depths, and z little frelh tan aOded when ncccd'ary, the plants, witli their balls entire, fliould then be placed in pots of about ten inches diamieter, plunging them, at tiie didancc of eighteen inches fiom centre to centre, iiuo the beds, and iettling them with a little water. In regard to potting, it is rema-ked by the fame author, that at all times a few of the bottom leaves (hould be tivillcd off each plant, that fredi roots may be made more readily to fnrnilli the furface, which tends to keep- them more Heady in the pots. The fire heat in thefe cafes fliould be begun about tlie fame period as before, according, to Mr. Nicol, and kept to about 60 degrees of the thermometer till the beginning of March, and then gradually incrtafed to 65° for the rcmaiuder of the feafon. The plants diould be re- frefhed occafionally with a little water, according as the earth in the pots becomes dry, or as the (late of the weatlier demands. They fliould likewife have a mort fiee admiffiim of frcfli air, v henever the fealuii will admit of it witlicut danger. Cuhure in ila friiiling-Jlo'vr or hot-hovfc. The plants raiferl in the niirfriy pits, and Continued in. their growth 111. the fiicefffion doves, havingattaiied a propcrfize and iliength, fliould, towards the latter end eif Augnd, or the beginning of the following month, be pljced in the pots in which they are to fruit, in the fame maiiiKr as before, and depofited in t!ie doves of the hot-honfe, whicli (hould have the bark beds prepared for their reception, by trcncliing them over to the bottoms, and adding j.l^out a tenth part of new tan in a proper Hate of preparation for tlie pnrpofe, being well blended, and m.ade fo as fv< fill up tlie p.ts well. The pots in wdiicli the pl.uits are .'.ow put, (hould be about a foot in diameter ; which dioiilc>'be plunged in the beds to the brims, a gentle watering beii'g immediately given. In potting the plants, Mr. NiCol iu thefe cafes advifes the u(e of a imall Hick to trundle the mould down between the balls and the fides of the p:it,. fo as to leave no cavities, a circureHar ce which ihould be attended to, as. being of great utility. I'be management in this (late differs but little from that of the preceding ; the chief circumHance to be regarded, is that of keeping up the heat in as regular a manner as pofiible, with the addition of a due quantity of refrtfliing moiiture, and free air. The beds fliould, about the middle of No- vember, be dined up to half their depth, and a little tan added ; but the plants muH not be (hiftcd at this period, only B R O M E L I A. I eludes, to prev-nt the plant, from ftart.ng too ioot fn.lt ; a..d thc.r do,n- fo is frcqunuly more in coMtq of too much bottom htat, than irr<^guhrity m the ter «,>, Tfomnn- to be rf -plnnRed to the brim5 again in the Zl fo^ " wimcr. It ., the comn,on pra^-ce at tin, t,me ^ add a la^« QKuUitv of new tan. in order to k'^p up a ftron, l-^"- >^'« through this feafon ; '>^- -'"ej ^ - N.C0I thmks nothing cau be mo.-e erroneou . He ha I^re-idv remarked, that the bottom and foperfic.al heat ougl. ^o c^rlefpond at all tunes ; and if the houle .s to be vvrc..ght a, 6o» only for the winter, it follows, he fuppofes, that a verv moder:>te bottom heat is futTKient. The tempc.ture of the huufe bein,. fo much reduced >" -mter.js.^^he con^ equence tem'pera-. ,ure of the i\..vc. In the beginning of February, w.hicV U the beft (hewing feafon, the bark Inds will requi-e trench- • ing. which is the only time of the year that the a^ovc author aJvif 5 a devi:.tion from the rules given above, tvom this tm« thehcufe, in his opinion, (liould be wrought as higb a, -0°. and the bottom heat keep pace v ith the artificial, for'which new tan, to the extent ot a fi>;'Ji i«rt, fhould b e added. Such of the plants, he obfen,es. as arc not fhe^v.i, are healthy at the root, and (land eied anr'. firm in the j o ts, (hould have a little fre(h mould laid on r'.ie fuiface by l.he removal of about two inches of the r.ld. But thofe t lat are already ihewn, and thofe that a'.; anywife uiihealtliy . or appear Hunted. Iliould be Ihaken out entirely, and rcpliced with frefli mould in the fame '^ots ; but none of the n >ots, unlefs wafted, (hould be cut a'.vay, or removed. This, fo ) ar as it refpeds the plants that are (hewn, he prcfumcs ha; not been hitheito recomme;Xed ; he is confeqiiently happy m being enabled to do it with confidence, as it has i:ver I een a matt-r to be regretwd, that pints, from the want of fun and air in the winter tnonths, are apt to be Hunted, and (hew their fruit too fi-on ; and that fruit fo (hewn, li;ldom comes to any confiderable Ike or flavour ; the plants fo Hunted, being unable to nouriih the fruit, and thtfe, from the want of funfhine in the early months, coming far (hort in flavour of that matured at a later period. It is added, that the experiment was tried on a dozen of plants, the half of which were in, and the other half pail, the flower at this time of the vear; the refult was, that they were kept back a full month by the operation ; thofe that were pall the flower equalled, and thofe that wtro only in flower exceeded any of the others of their own fjrwardnefs at the time of (hitt- ing. Being encouraged by this fnccefs, he treated his whole (lock of fruiting plautt in the fame manner in the following feafons, and they wire kept back to a better fea- fon, and fwcUed their fru-t to as good a fize as thofe that (hewed in February. Towards the beginning or middle of Mav. the bark beds (hould be agiiin trenched to the bottom, a tenth part of new tan added, anil the plants re-plunged in the beds in the fame manner as in the preceding cafes, no- thin wri- now in tlic /ciiilli «f llitir ivputatioi-. lie ihtiiks t\yriy pi-'tt'c? of expofing tlicir patients to the open air ill the miilll of winter, of reptlling t!ie tnipticii, and c!i-ciu(]j or prcventin;T the fi:p;ii!r.uivc procefs, too bold, a;unwzard.>iii. On liie wliulc, liowcvtr, he iitknoivkdgei., tliey were d J" rving of coninuiid.iiioii, for tiie iinprovcmeiits tlu-y had introd>:itd, in the tuatn^cnt, botli of tlie iiiocidat- cd, and nainral fniall pox Mis ni\t work, the moll ton- fi Irr.dde one, written by him, vvay, a town in Mace- do:.ia, fituate, according to Thucydides, iu the gulf where the hike of Bolbe difcharged itfelf into the fea. B ROM I US, in Enlrjmol'jgy,7i. fpccies of Tab AN us, having a purple b:\ud through the eyts, and the body cinereous. Linn. Fu. Sv. Frequent in Germany, and fome other parts of Europe. Degeer calls this Tabanus macniatus. BROMLIiY, in Geography, a market town in the county of Kent, England. Tlic manor of B' omlcy w'as given by king Ldgar,in 700,to thrbilbop of Rochciler,who,in coiifequence, had a palace erecled here, and the bifhopsof that fee appear to have made it their feat till the prtfcnt time. Near the .palace is a fpring, which has been found to poffcfs the fame qualities as the water at Tunbridge Wells. In moukifh times this was held in high etlimation, and a chapel was crefted near it for the ufe of pilgrims. A college, or hofpital, was erefted at Bromley, by Dr. Warner, bifliop of Rochefttr, in the reign ot Charles II. for twenty poor clergymen's widows. This is faid to have been the full endowment of the kind in England. In confcquence of a bequeft from the reverend Mr. Httherington, of 2000I. and of bifliop Pcarce, who left 5000I. more, the trullees Iwve been enabled to augment the annual allowance to the widows from 20I. to 30I. a id the chap'ains from 30I. to 60I. By aucther bcquell from a Mrs. Betenfon, ten additional houfes have been erected, and endowed. Bromley is fituated on the rivi.r Ravenfbourn, at ,the dillancc of 10 miles S.£l. from London. Here are a 6 I B R O weekly market on Thurfday, and two fairs aniVJally. The town confids of 4:4 houfe>, and 2;co inhabitaiiCs. Wilfoii's 1 lillory of Bromley, 1 2mo. BtoMLEY, a towidhip of America, in Bennington coun- ty, \'ermont, about ^z miles north-eallerly from Benning- ton, containing 7 i iiih-ibitauts. — Alio, a town iu Somerfct cour.lv. New Jerley. Bro^iley, or Abbots-Bromlf.y, a fmall market town of Stiih irdfliire, in England. The adjunrt abbots was given to i: in cnnfequence of its abbey, which is now entirely dcllroyed. This town confills of one ilreet, near the centre of which ii the town hall, where the court-lcet and court- baron of t'l' earl of IJxbiidge arc annually htld. Bromley ftauds in a fiiie open fertile country, dillant 1:9 miles N.W. from London, and 1 1 from the city of Litchfield. Here are a weekly niirket on Tuefdays, ard th'ee annual fairs. The town cont;.ins 202 houfes, and Hob inhabitants. Near I'romlsv is Blitlifield, the ftat of lord Bairot ; and at two miles dillnnce is How-crofs, the feat of the earl of Shrewfbnrv. The foicft ol Needvvnod, conlidercd the great ornament of Staifordlhire, is 3 mdcs from this place. B R O M pro N. See Chatham. BROMSEBivO, a town of Sweden, in (he province of .Smalaiid, which has a large bridge over the river that here difcharges itfelf into the fea. A fmall ifland Jies in the middle of the liver, on which two ftoncs are ereftcd for boundaries. This place ia famous for a congrefs, held in 1541, and again in 1^72, for lettling fome difputes con- cerning the arms of the three northern crowns ; and alio, for a treaty of peace, concluded in 1645, between Sweden and Denmark. It is 4 leagues from Chriilianople. BROMSC-ROVE, a town of Worcellerlhiiv, in Eng- land, is noted for its manufactures of worlled, hnen cloths, fi(h-hooks, needles, nails, &c. It had .""ormerly a manufac- tory for broad and narrow cloths, but this is removed into Gloucellcrlhire. In the reign of Edward I. Bromfgrove fent two members to parliament, and it has had many privi- leges coi>ferrcd on it bv different monarchs. Edward VI. founded a grammar fchool here, which was additionally en- dowed by fir Thomas Cooks. The church and town are large and handfome, and the former, from its high fituation, is approached by a flight of fifty fteps. It is ornamented witli fome painted glafs, and contains fcveral fine monu- ments. Among thefe is one for judge Lyttlelon, iCco; biihop Hall, of Briftol, 1710; fir Humphrey Stafford, who was killed in Cade's rebellion ; fir John Talbot, of Grafton ; and another afcribed to a daughter of Henry VII. This parifli contains twelve manors, and its houfes amounted, in 1801, to 1178, and its inhabitants to 5998, of which t2;S were engaged in nianufaftures and trade. Bromfgrove is 11') miles N. W. froin London, and 12 from the city of Worceiler. About one mile and a half diftant is Grafton manor, the ancient feat of the earl of Shrewfbury. Hewell-G range, the feat of the earl of Plymouth, is at 4 milts dillance. Dod- ford priory is within two miles of Bromfgrove. Nafli's Hif- tory of Worceftcrfhire. BROMUS, \n Bot,:ny, (Sixj^y^fooJ,) Linn. 8y. Reich. 9,5. Schreb. 120. Juir.,52. Wdld. 140. La Marck, Illuft. 119. pi. 46. Smith Flor. Brit. 38. CLfs, tnonJiLt ill^y- nia. Nat. Ord. graniina, grah'es. Gen. Char. Cal. glume, many -flowered, two-valved, fpreading, coUefting the florets into an ob'ong two-rowed fpiktlet ; valves ovate-oblong, acuminaiC, awnlcfs ; the lower one Imalleft. Cor. twc-valvcd ; the outer valve the fize and form of the calyx, concave, obtufc, bifid, putting out a llraight B R O B R O ftiai^ht awii generally below its apex ; inner one lanceolate, finall, awnlcfs. A'ttV. two-leaved ; leaflets ovate, acute, gibbous at the bafe. Slam, filaments three, capillary, fliorter than the corolla ; anthers oblong. Pyi. germ top-lhapcd ; ftyles two, flujrt, reflex, villous. Stiomas fimple. Peri- carp, the corolla cloL-ly (hut, adhering to the feed, not dehif- cent. •Sci'f/ flugk, oblong, covered, convex on one fide, fur- rowed on the other. Eir. Ciiar. C:i'.. two-valved ; fpikelets many-flowered, ob- long, two-rowed ; (the awn below the apex of the outer glume of the corolla, Linn.) inner glume fringed with ilroiig, dillant, brillly hairs. Dr. Smith. The genus Bromus is entirely artificial, and there are no natural boundaries between it and felluca that have been liitlierto afcertained. It was originally alTumedbv Linnaeus, that a terminal llraight au'n fliould determine a plant to be a fefluca; but in pradlice this dillinftion has not bten llriflly obferved, and great confulion has accordingly arifcu ia the dillribution of fpecies. Dr. Smith's new ch.arafttr will prove a happy one, if it (liall be found to prevail in all the foreign fpecies, which have the geneal habit of Bromus ; but we fear it will lometimes fail. It is already fufficiently evident, tlial the pofition of the dorfr.l awn, and the fringe of the glume, cannot both be admitted into the eflential charadter of the genus. Sp. I. Ti. fecal'iKus, Linn. (Eng. Bot. pi. il^l. Knap, p. 79.) /'o/)'mo/}6/.iu/, Scopoli, Hudfon, Withering. "Pa- nicle fpreading ; peduncles nearly fimple ; fpikelets ovate, comprefied, ten-flowered, florets dillmC^, roundifli." Dr. Smith. Smooth rye brome-grafs. Root, annual. Stem about three feet liigh, fimple, round, fmoolh, and leafy. l.eavcs, broadifli, flat, ribbed, rough at the edge and un- derneath, cloathed above with fhort, foft hairs ; fheaths furrowed but not rough. Stipule, very fliort. Pamela, when young, ereft, with lanceolate, clofed fpikelets ; when ma- ture, pendent, with the fpikelets fo expanded that the rachis is vifible between them. Calyxes unequal, awnlcfs ; glumes elliptic, fmooth, three-nerved, membranaceous at the edges. Florets, roundiih, Imooth, rarely downv, ovate, flat ; outer glume marked with feven flight ribs, with a rou^h and rather fhnrt awn ; inner glume toothed rather tlian fiingcd. Dr. Smith. Knap. Native of England, in Norfolk frequent. 2. B. muU'if.orus, Weigel. Gmelin. Willd. - (Knap. Tab. So.) Confideved by Linnsus, a variety offe- calinus. " Panicle fpreading ; peduncles feldom with more than one fpikelet ; fpikelets, ovate-lanceolate comprefled, fifteen-flowered; florets lubimbricate, roundifli." Dr. Smith. Root, annual. Stem, fmooth. Lotucr leaves, naked be- neath, a littla hairy at the edges above. Upper leaves, pu- befcent, with a (hort wooUinefs beneath, hairy above ; all rough at the edge ; flieath fmooth. Stipule, very fhort, lacerated, fcarcely hairy. Panicle, as in the former. Spike- lets, ovate-lanceolate, rather comprefled, imbricate, and finally rather remote. Glumes generally fiightly pubefcent, rarely fmooth. Dr. Smith. ^. B. mollis, Linn, faid by La Marck, in Encyc. Meth. to be only a variety of Vi.fe- callnus, but the error is correfted in the IllulL (Curtis ^. Eng. Bot. 1078. Knap. 77.) " Panicle erect, clofe, com- pound. Spikelets, ovate. Florets, imbricated, depreffed, ribbed, downy." Dr. Smith. ^00/, annual, of a few fimple fibres. Stem, ereft, about two feet high, fimple, filiated, generally fmooth ; joints Iwelling, often thickly clothed with hairs. Leaves and tlieir fheaths thickly covered with a foft hoary pubefcence. Stipules, bluntly jointed. Panicle, two or three inches long, creft, at firft clofe, afterwards a little expanding ; branches half-whorled, the upper fimple, the lower more or kfs fubdividcd, angular, pubefcent. Sptke- VOL.V. lets, nearly upright, ovate, acute, rather tumid. Florets, froni feven to ten, clofely imbricated, elliptical, concave, and dc- prcflcd. Calyx of two unequal glumes, fcarious at their edges, keeled, villous, marked with feven or nine flrong green ribs. Coy. glumes fimilar to thofe of the calyx, the external one bearing a rough awn about its own length, a little below its fummit ; inner one membranaceous, without nerves, with a thick green fringed edge. Its compound denfe panicle, and its ibongly ribbed, depreffed, clofely imbricated glumes, at once dillinguifli it from the two former. The B. nanus of Weigel is only a llarved dwarf variety. Dr. Smith. It is a common plant in meadows; and in feme parts of th.e north of England, conilitutcs a principal part of their herbage, but chiefly in fields lately laid down, and owing perhaps not to its being preferred on account of its own excellence, but to the largenefs of its feeds, which are more eafily gathered, and confequently more profitable to tl'.c coUeftor. Mr. Knapp informs us, that in the fouthern part of Scotland it is cultivated by itfelf like ray-grafs in England. 4. B. ra- cemo/us, I-inn. Polymorphus, Hudfon, &c. (Eng. Bot. io;9. Knap. 78.) " Panicle, nearly creft, fpreading, fimple ; fpikelets ovate, of about fix imbricated, depreflTed, ribbed, fmooth florets." Dr. Smith. It agrees in general habit witli the preceding, but is more flender ; its glum.es are perfeflly fmooth and fliining, and their ribs lefs promi- nent. (i-B. fieSlnatus, Willd. " Panicle, fpreading ; fpike- lets, ovate, imooth, inner valve of the corolla fringed, awn- lefs." Thunberg. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 6. B. lanceohitus, Willd. " Panicle, ereft, fpreading ; fpikelets, lanceolate, fmooth, a little comprefled ; awns, at the time of flowering, ftraight ; at the ripening of the feec', bent." Roth. Root, annual. A native of dry fituatioiis about the Cafpian fea. 7. B. ahpecurus, Willd. " Pani- cle, clofe, ere6\ ; fpikelets round, awns divaricated." Vahl. Spikelets, nearly fcffile, fpirally twilled at the bottom. 8. B. fquarrofus, Linn. "Panicle nodding; peduncles fimple; fpikelets ovate, twelve-flowtred ; florets imbricated, de- prcfled ; awn§ divaricated." Dr. Smith. Root, annual. Stem, a foot high, fimple, fmooth, ilriated, leafy. Leaves and flieaths pubefcent, with a very fhort deflexed down. Panicle with few flowers. Petluncles, fimple, comprefied, thickening upwards. Spikelets, very large, ovate, fwellinn-, poliflied, clofely imbricated. Calyx unequal, nerved, awn- lefs. Coral, outer glume but httle larger than the calyx, many-nerved, bipartite at the fummit; awns awl-fliaped, rugged, the length of the glumes ; inner glume much lefs, ciliated with a few diflaiit brillle^. Seed, elliptic, adhwing- to the corolla, villous at the fumnit. Native of France, Germany, Siberia, &c. Its claim to be admitted into the Brltifli Flora reils entirely on the authority of Hudfon, who probably millook for it fome variety of B. f.-calimis. 9. B. jjponlcus, Willd. " Panicle, fpreading, branched ; fpikelets oblong, fmooth; awns divaricated." Thunb. Root, annual. A native of Japan. 10. B. ii^Jus, Willd. " Panicle, ereft, branched ; fpikelets ovate, with about three flowers ; glumes bifid, fetaceous ; awn divaricated." Thunb. Spikelets, fmall, fmooth. Glume, terminated bv two awl-fliaped points of nearly its own length, ylzvn joint- ed, reflexed. 11. B. pur^ans, Linn. "Panicle noddini^, curled ; leaves naked on both fides; fheaths hairy ; glumes villous." Root, perennial. Stem, a foot and half higlj. fl;rong. Leaves, the breadth of a reed, keeled, green. Sheaths with reverfcd hairs. Spikelets, from eight to four- teen, flowered, oblong. Gathered in Canada by Kalin. iz. B. cathartieus, Willd. " Panicle, fpreading, ereft, nearlv fimple ; fpikelets, broadly lanceolate, flriated, rough ; awn's fhort, flrait." Vahl, /{o&/, perennial, fcaly. Sheaths nzVzA. 3 C ■ Spikdeli, B R O Splif.'itt, broader than thofe of the preccdirg, acute, native of Cliili, whofe iiihiibitants life a dctnaimi ot its B R O A ing, modtj frnipk ; fiorets lanceolate, ribbed, furrowed, leavei root downy." Ui'. Smith. Root annu.il, finall; fibres capillary. Stem « a uurffauve. I t. D. Ms W«. La M.rtk, 111. " Pani- a foot a.id half high, lla.dcr, ilriated, leafy »" the top Lcai-,, 'I, LS; fp.kcU-ts, ovate, f.nooth ; plumes furnilhcd «ith fprcading, flat, rather flacad, narrow, (harp.ni nbbed, rough hr'-ad membranaceous auricle.." Kafvc of Mor.t.Vide9. at the cd>;.s. Shcadu cyhudnc. ribbed, wuh (oh deflextd hairt, Commerfon. i+. U. //i««.". Reich. " Panicle, erett ; fpikclcts, roundilh, awl Ihaptd, naked, nearly awnlcfs." Pol- hch. Root, perennial, extremely creeping. Slim, a loot and half high, Uiiatcd, fmooth. I.e.ivrt broad, acummate. fmooth. dark green; mid-rib whitilli, rough. Panicle, at lirft cl»fe and upright, afterwards widely fprcading, and i.odding a little at the top. PeJicelh levcral together. lower ones terv long, upper ones very fhort, often quite limple. SpiLhii containing from feven to ten florets. Clumei of tbt eJyx unequal, lanceolate, concave, blunt. fmooth. grcenifti." wiih broad, liivery, thin, membrana- ceouD edges ; larger glume with /:? large, flendcr, fpreading, rough. Sp'd-elds lanceolate, pendulous, browniih green, afterward* daik purple, from fix to eight-flowered. Cnlyx-glumes very unequal, the larger one angular, ribbed. Corol-glumes with feven or nine nerves, the two near the edge the greateft, furrowed, and a little downy between the ribs: the inner ghnne piAiiiated with ditlant briftles. Styles growing la- terally out of the germen. A native of uncultivated places in Englaud and other parts of Europe. i9.B.a/-i;cn/i'j, Linn. (Eng. Bot. 920. Knap. 82.) ♦' Panicle fpreading ; peduncles branched ; fpikelets lanceolate, about eight-flowered ; flo- rets elliptical, imbricated, deprefled, fmootliilh." Dr. Smith. RurA annual, fmall. SL'm two or th.ree teet high, leafy, ilri- ated, fmootii. Leaves Ilriated, a little downy on each fide, rough at the edges. Sheaths thickly clothed with foft hairs pointing downwards. Stipule very fiiort. Panicle rather ereft, many-flov\'ered ; branches whorled, fpreading, rough. Spihe- /f/j acute ; at firil ercft, afterwards drooping; rer-;rk3ble for a glofl"y appearance, fcarcely obfervable in otli-.- homi. Calyx-glumes very unequal, acute, ribbed, membrai us at the edge. Glumes of the corolla, the outer one n . .t the keel, membranaceous at the edge ; inner one fmali-. with- out nerves, obtufe, peftinated at the edge. Seed viluuis at the fummit. A native of England, and other parts of Eu- rope, fometimes in corn fields, but as frequently in cultivated places. 20. B. fpicttli tenuata, Knapp. (PI. 81.) " Pa- nicle branched and drooping ; branches fupporting one or feveral fpikelets ; fpikelets acutely lanceolate ; florets fmooth." Alhcd to the preceding. Stem from one to three fceth high. In its more luxuriant Hate, branches very long ; upright when young, flexile and pendent in maturity. Spite- lets about eight-flowered. Calyx fmooth, four-nbbed, fer- rated on tlie keel. Corolla fmooth, but with fome Imall fpincs on the back. When the panicle firft rifes from the fheath- ing of the upper leaf, the lower ftage of branches is gene- rally, though not univerfally, fupported by two caducous bracles, perhaps peculiar to this ipecies. Found by Mr. Knapp fparingly at Seaton, on the coall; of Durham. 21. 'El. geniculatus, Linn. Man. " Panicle eicd ; florets diftant ; peduncles angular ; ftem procumbent at the knot." Root annual. Stems fcarcely four inches high, decumbent to the lad knot. Panicle fpreading. Pedicells not at all attenuated, but comprefftd, obfcurely ihrce-fided, but with only two fharp angles, rough. Spiielets oblong, four-flowered. Florets rough, fcarcely downy. j^-U'n ftrait, the length of the flo- ret. Native of Portugal. 22. B. /i.'(7c;-i/m, Linn. "Panicle drooping ; fpikelets linear." Root annual, or at moft bi- ennial. Stems about a foot high, after flowering lying on the ground. Leaves narrow, flat, pubefcent on the lower fide, white villofe on the upper, ciliate towards the bafe ; lower {heaths villous. Peduncles capillary. Spiielets about five-flow- ered, y^wa llrait, very (lender, the length of the glume. Native of the continent of Europe, on walls and dry hills. 23- B. giganteus, Linn. Jrigofus, La Marck, lUuil. (Curtis Faf. 5. PI. 7. Knap, 87.) "Panicle drooping, branched, with about four florets in the fpikelet." Knap. Root perennial. Stem from four to feven feet high, fmooth and fhining, ftri- ated, leafy. Leaves rather ereft, acuminate, a foot long, broad, flat, ribbed, rough on both fides and at the edges ; ftieaths long, ilriated, perfcftly fmooth. Stipule fliort, clafp- ing the ftem, purphfh. Pi/r/iV/e elongated, branched, many, flowered, the rachis and branches rough. Spiielets alternate, ovate- B R O ovate-lanceolate, fmooth, drooping. Calyx-glumet unequal, acuminate, fmooth, keeled ; the inner one broad, or with three ribs. Outer glume of the corolla fmooth, ovate-lanceo- late, fcarcely keekd, with five ribs at the fummit ; a'wn terminal, two or three times longer than the i^oret, capil- lary; white, fometimes a little bent : inner glume the length and nearly the breadth of the other, its edge rough, but not ciliated. Dr. Smith, who on that account places it under the genus feftuca. Mr. Kuapp fays the inner valve of the corolla is minutely frinj^ed, and in his figure, the awn is de- cidedly dorfjl, but neither of thefe particulars is confirmed by our fpecimcns gathered in Yorkfhire. We have, ncvcr- thelefs, continvitd it among the bromi, induced, rather by the general habit of the plant, than by any other confidera- tion. A native of woods and moift hedges in the temperate parts of Europe. 24. B.rulicns, Linn. " Panicle fafcicu- fated, fpiktlctci nearly feffile, villous, awrs ereft." The fco- parius of Linnxus is fufpefted by La Marek, and determined by Cavanilles, to be only a variety. Root annual. Stem from feven to ten inches high, a little bent at its lower knots. Leaves fmooth, fliort, and llriated. Sp'dehts fomctimcs fmooth, fometimes green, often blood-red, but generally paler : awns fometimes upright, fometimes diviricated on the fame plant. Native of Spain. 25. B. rigenj, Linn. Mant. " Panicle fpiked ; fpikelets nearly feffile, ereft, downy, with about four florets." Stems fix or feven inches high, leafy. Leaves ribbed, (lightly hairy on the upper fur- face ; (heaths covering the whole culm. SpHelets fcattered, tenacious. Aivns nearly ereft, the length of the fpikelet. A native of Portugal, Vandcl. 26. B. tr'ijlorus, Linn. " Pa- nicle fpreading, with about three flowers." Stem near two feet high. Leaves with fliort hairs. Panicle fix or feven inches long. Splhelets oblong, pointed. La Marck. Native of Germany and Denmark. 27. B. Jiandrus, Curtis ; ma- dritenfis, Linnsiis ; muralis, Hudfon, 2d Ed. ciliafus, lit Ed. dilatatus, I.,a Marck ; (Curtis Flor. Lond. Fafc. I. PI. 9. Eng. Bot. ioo6. Knap. 83.) " Panicle upright, fpreading, fcarcely fubdivided ; florets lanceolate, ribbed ; furrowed with only two ftamens." Dr. Smith. /?5(3/ annual. Stems a foot and half high, ereft, ftiif, (lender, (triatcd, fmooth. Leaves often entirely fmooth ; (heaths ribbed, a little keeled, generally fmooth, but fometimes with hairs pointing downward. Stipule (hort. Panicle fcarcely three inches long, ereft. Spikelets linear-lanceolate, ereft, rough, often brownilh. Florets diandrous, (lightly ribbed, the two principal ribs (landing peculiarly clofe to each other. Found by Dr. Withering in Portugal, and by fir Jofeph Banks at the foot of St. Vincent's rock near Briftol. It is probably the fame plant with the B. rigidus of Willdenow, who does not appear to have known that the madritenfis of Linra:u3 is diandrous. 28. B. JUpioidcs, Linn. Mant. ; incrajfatus. La Marck. Encyc. Method. " Panicle ereft, ovate-pyrami- dal, fpikelets fmooth, about four-flowered, pedicells flatten- ed, and enlarged above." La Marck. Root annual. Stem fix or feven inches high, (lender. Leaves narrow, fmooth. Panicle upright, rather clofe, oblong. Spikelets fmooth, greenifli, or tinged with purple violet. Florets three or four, each fupported by a pedicell, broader and flat towards the top. Jliuns ftrait and perfeftly terminal. A native of Italy and Spain ; defcribed by La Marck from a living plant. 2y. B. ramofus, Linn. " Stem much branched ; fpikelets felTile ; leaves involute-fubulate." Root perennial, creeping, hard, pointed, producing at di(Fertnt intervals tufts of leaves and items. Stems a foot and half high, (lender, fmooth, leafy ; throwing out toward the bottom (hort, alternate, generally barren branches. Leaves (horc, glaucous, rolltd up. Spikelets from three to five, from eight to ten-flowered ; awns ihort, B R O terminal, rcfembllng thofe of B. piiwatui. La Marck. On the (hores of the Levant and Poringal. 30. B. pinnalus, Linn. " Spike fimple, eret\, two-rowed; fpikelets feffile, roundi(h ; awns (horter than the glume : leaves almoll naked." Dr. Smith. Root perennial, a little creeping. Stem a foot and a half, or two feci high, ereft, fimple, round, leafy, very fmooth, l^raight, and rigid, fcarcely tapering. Leaves fomewhat ereft, lanceolate, acuminate, rather rigid, (Iriated, nerved, rough, often naked, rarely hairy on tiie upper furface. Sheaths fmooth and poliflied, (Dr. Smith,) generally ha:ry (La Marck and Knapp, with whom our own Ipecimcns agree.) Stipule fliort, obtufe, ciliated. Spikelets from fix to ten, downy, often curved. Calyx-glumes rather elliptical, fomewhat awred, many-.nervcd. Florets twelve or more, clofely imbncated, neried, and hairy, chiefly towards the fummit ; awn terminal, fiiortcr than tlie glume, fome- times very fliort, rough ; inner g'.ume cili.itcd with great brilUes. Native cf a dry calcareous foil in many parts of Europe. In England, not uncommon in Yorkfliire, Ox- ford(hiro, and Kent. ,51. B. fylvnficus, I'oilich ; gracilis, Weigel and Willdenow. " Spike fimple, drooping, leaning one way ; fpikelets ielfile, roundifli ; awn longer than the glum.e ; leaves hairy." R:iot fibrous, tufted, perennial. Stems two feet high, round, leafy, tapering, very ile-iider, and a little drooping in the upper part. Aivrafj fpreading, flat, pointed, a little rigid, rough, ribbed, more or lefs hairy, bright green. S'leaths ttraiglit, clofe, hairy. Stipule fliort, blunt, torn. Spike fimple, drooping, zig-zag. Spikelets fix or feven, alternate, fef- file, cylindrical, linear-lanceolate, generally downy. Glumes of the calyx unequal, with fliort awns. Florets from fix to nine, itti- bricated, in the upper part (Irongly ribbed and rough ; awn terminal, rough, generally much longer tl.an the glume : inner glume fringetl like the preceding ; fuppofed by fome to be only a variety of Vt. pinnala ; but they cannot be con- founded by any one who is acquainted with their native lia- bits and places of growth. Frequent in copfes and thickets, efpecially in a gravelly foil. ,^2. B. crijlatus, Linn. " Spike- lets imbricated in two rows, feffile, depreflcd." Root peren- nial. Stem about half a foot high, downy, leafy, lower (heaths villous. Spikelets about 30, downy, four-flowertd. ji B i, able B R O »ble repairs. Bromyard contains 243 hoi.fes, and 08? in- habitants. It has a fmall weekly m.rkct on Tuefdays, and lour annual fairs. It is 1 ,■■ milfs W. from London. «KON, a town in France, in the department of the Eure and Lone, and thief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Chateaudun, 2} leagues N. W. of Chateaudm. ; the place contains 191S, and the canton 10.611 inhabitants; liKONCHANT, ,n /ArMry, a ter.-n ufcd In- the French hera ds to denote the l.tuation of any bcall, when placed on 4 ttcl,» u„.. r . «hvre much wet .nd h"at nrev!il f ^°'"',"' °^. '""""ta.ns. " Qyis tumidum guttur miratur in Alpibus .'" The French name, goitre, or gou^trt, is evidently a cor- niption of the Latin word gultm; the throat ; and although M. Louis has mamtained, that the brouchoccle and the goitre ought not to be milbken for each other ; thefe two names are now fo univprfally applied to a fiinllar affetlion, that it would be vain to attempt any correftion of the fuppofed error. Vide Encyclopedic, Art. Goetn; compofcd by M Louis. In another place he fays again, » II ne faut pas coiitondie, comn:e on fait affez communement, la bronchocele avec uiie autre tumeur du cou qu'on nomme gol/rc." Art, BronchoeeL; ibid. He would confine the term broncliocele to an hernia of tlie wind-pipe, which, in his opinion, may be cured by compreffing the tumour with a fuitable banda/e and culhion. ° Upon the diforder which conftitutcs the fubjeft of the prelcnt aiticle, we know not any author who has written fo amply and expcnmentally as M. Fodere, who had many opportunities of obferving the bronchocele in all its ftajjes, w.ierc It prevailed as an endemic difeafe. This affeaion more frequently attacks females than males, children than adults, and rela.'^ed or ddicate conftitutions than thofe which are rigid and vigorous ; but it will fome- tmits ailedl perfons of apparently good conftitutions, and of either lex, on their going to rcfide in the low vallies beneatK the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Apennines, &c. where it h endemial and hereditary. Scrofula and rickets feem to make the greatcll ravages among people who are liable to bron- chocele : but M. Fodere is polkive that the latter difeafe, ne- yerthelcfs, differs materially trom the two former ; and that the^.,7r. IS mircly a local complaint of the neck, unattend- ed wita the leaft danger, except it occafion violent mechani- cal preffure by the enormous bulk of the fwellinn-. X\i^ chap^ V. § 19, to 24. Traite du Goitre et du Crctmifme. . .-^^.V^mote phyiical caufes which have been affm-ned for this difeafe are various and unfatisfaftory : viz. the drink- ing of hard, cold, or fnow-water ; the ufe of alimentary iubilances not fufficently nutritious ; the repullion of fome cutaneous dUorder ; the abufe of vinous or fpirituous li- quors, S:c. I lieones, which have been founded on any of thefe fuppofed caufes are too hypothetical, and are contra- wiMK f^ "''"""""^ ^f^^' befides which, the bronchocele a linking degree, as fevcral writers have fufficiently proved. 1 he difeafe, however, is known to predominate moft in coun- ries affefted by great humidity of the atmofphere, joined m inifh^ ':.' ''"' '' " '"S-ents in the fpring-time. and di- mmiihesm the autumn ; it is kfs prevalent in a ^oJd and wa'rnuh ' it f" '"V"?/ '"^ °^ '^^"^P^'"^ ^^ -"derate warmth. It ,s even faid to be influenced in its pro<.rcfs. wherever It IS endemial, in exad proportion to the degree eftabSjl "V'^^Kr ^^ '^' ''ygromrter. Thefe fafts^arc el abhilied by the obfervat.on of Mcffrs. Fodere and Villars after numerous and varied experiments. has bee'n nff '' 7"'^' ^"^"'"^'^ '" '^= explanation which eafe or rf K ''^^P^'^'^g/he proximate eaufe of this dif- ea e or the phenomena of which it confifts. The thyroid been afcertaS^^'; M '■ ^''' '^' "^" °^ "'^ ^^roid gland that ,t thereby becomes expanded, or tumefied ; that^its fe! cretory B R O eretory duAs arc lUus obftrufted ; and that broncliocelt; con- fills altogether in this laxity or atonic ftate of the organ. But, fiirt'ly, a'.l this is hypothetical ; for, tven fuppofing the imbibition of moilt air to take place (which, however, re- mains to be proved), would it not be received into the ab- forbent veffcls, and tranfmitted to the thoracic duft ? And, why (hnuld it b^' imagined, that the thyroid gland imbibes the moilt atniofphcrical air, more than other parts of the body vvhic!\ are equally expofed ? Upon the whole, we fee no reafon for adopting the above opinion, however refpedtably it has been fupported ; and we do not feel competent to ofier any explanation ourlelvcs of the proximate caufe of this difeafe. Perhaps fome light will be thrown on the inqniry, when we are better informed as to the economy and natural ufe of the thyroid gland ; but, for the prefent, we are without Jd/ti, or luitable analogies, to afford a legitimate conclufion. We proceed, therefore, to the means whic.i have been employed for the prevention and cure of this complaint ; a fiibjeft on which much has been faid and written, although not to the entire fatisfaC\ion of praftitioners or patients in general. As to preventive meafurcs, they mull chiefly confift of fuch as tend to meliorate the foil and air of thofe places wherein the bronchoccle is endemial. If it be a fadi, that marlhy lands, an humid atmofphere, deep and woody vales, fur- rounded by lofty hills, which intercept the falubrious breezes, are among the phyfical caufes of tliis difeafe, the prevention mull partly depend upon the removal or avoidance of fuch caufes ; and tliis fhould be efpeciallv attended to by perfons who are naturally of a delicate or loft fibre, and are there- fore predifpofed to debilitating complaints. The curative means are either medical or furgical. The internal remedies, which have acquired the greatell reputa- tion, are burnt fponge, foap, fulphurated kali, prepared natron, and artificial foda-water. It has been advifcd to exhibit a dofe of ealomel and neutral falts once a week, during the ufe of the other medicines; likewife to keep the reck warm ; to refide in a di-y, pure atmofphere ; and to fwallow the above-named remedies very flowly, which is par- ticularly infilled on if the patient take thefe medicines in a folid form. Authors have alfo allei.;ed, that benefit is fome- times derived from the external application of mercurial oint- m'Cnt, bliftering plaller, foap liniment, camphorated oil, dry friftions, moderate conipreffion, and electrical fparks. But of all thefe means, the burnt fponge, made into lozenges, has received the higlieft encomiums. For our own part, we have been difappointed in our expeflations from thefe lo- zenges; although many pradlitioncrs confider them as almoft infallible, if properly adminiftered and perfevered in. The following is the formula recommended by Mr. Ring : Take of Burnt fponge, two ounces ; Powdered gum Arabic, two drams ; Powdered cinnamon, half a dram ; Simple fyrup, enough to form the whole into a mafs, which is to be divided into forty-eight troches. Care mull be taken that no more fyrup be ufed, than is abfo- lutely necelTary to make the dry ingredients properly cohere ; for which reafon, it mud be added flowly, and the mafs mull be well beaten. The lozenges are to be dried before a fire, on a plate which has been (lightly oiled, to prevent them from nicking ; and they mull be kept in a bottle or gallipot, tied over with a bladder. One of thefe tablets is to be exhibited three times a day, for a confiderable time. Some praftitioners, indeed, have given fo much as fix or eight drams of the burnt fponge daily, without any inconvenience ; and, too often, without any benefit to their patients. It would be deferving the at- B R O tcntion of furgcoiis, to afcertain, if poflible, the caufe of this diverfity in their fuccefs ; and whether the nature of the a(le(Slion, in the cafes faid to have been curedby tlieufeof the fponge, does not elTeutially differ from thofe in which this remedy has been taken largely to no good poi-pofe. Dr. Ilerreiifchwand, of I'erne, thinking that the burnt fponge has a tendency to injure the lloniacli, and ])roduce a Icucorrhosa, advifes that it Ihould not be calcined, but em- l)loyed in decoAion ; and this, he fays, id equally efficacious. Whereas, M. Fodcrc prefers it to be only half-burnt, and mixed with honey and canella alba ; of which the bulk of a large nut is to be taken three tinies a day, for feveral week:.. This kill author tells us, he has feen an extremely large fwelling of the neck difpcrfed by the daily ufe of thirty grains of the fu'])hate of potafh, dilfolved in a pint of water: and he confidcrs the cure as more eafily cfledled, by requiting the patient to take a cathartic evi-ry week, during the whole time of tlie medicinal courfe ; by keeping the neck very warmly covered ; by fwallowing the burnt fponge, S:c. infen- fibly, or holding it a confiderable while in the mouth ; bv beginning the remedy at the decline of the moon ; and by changing the air to a dry or open fituation, which, indeed, he regards as indifpenfably necclfary. The fuccefs will alfo much depend on the jjalient's being young, and othcrwife healthy ; but if the fwehiiig be of a Icirrhous or indurated nature, there is very little hope of relief, except by a manual operation, fuch as Cornelius Cel- fus long ago recommended. However, the extirpation (if the tumour can hardly be undertaken, unlefs it be detaclicd, encyfted, and feated at the fore-part of the neck. The fwelling being fituated in the vicinity of fo many im- portant organs, will deter a furgeon from hallily propofing its entire excifion : befides, there are cafes related, in which, the mere opening of the cyll has effcdled a cure ; and, in thefe cafes, the contents were either evacuated at once, or gradually lelTened by fuppuration. When there is an evident fluctuation of matter, a feton drawn through the tumour might perhaps be advantageous ; or, as Cellus and others have fuggelled, the application of a caullic might be par- tially ufetul : but, if the life of a patient be not endangered by this difeale, it would be prudent to avoid fuch irritating means. Although the ulcer which remains after tlie ufe of a caullic will fometimes be exceedingly dillrefling and diffi- cult to heal, we are not of opinion, with Mr. Benjamin Bell, that it ever " degenerates into a cancer." We ought not to conclude this article without alluding to a celebrated remedy, prepared and fold at Coventr)-, for the cure of bronchocele. It is generally fuppofed to be lefs efficacious than burnt fponge alone, and to confift of equal parts of fponge, cork, and pumice Hone, calcined ; which is formed into a bolus, with fugar or fyrup, to be laid under the tongue every night. Mr. Proffer, who publillied an account of the bronchocele and its treatment in 1771, recommends the following powders, in preference to the Coventry medicine : i^ Cinnab. Antimon. opt. levig. 3j. Milleped. pp. & pulv. Spong. calcin. 3a gr. xv. m. f. pulvis. One of thefe is to be taken an hour or two before break- faft, for two or three weeks ; and after the interval of about a fortnight, they are to be again renewed ; and three of the following pills are to be taken at bed-time, during the fecond couife of the powders : R Pil. Mercurial, ph. nov. J 15. F. Pil. N° 48. squales. The dofe is to be adjufted to the age and conftitutiot* of the patient, who (hould be prepared for thij courfe by two or B R O OT time prfv^nis purgfs, and avoid taking colJ. If tlicfe nieani be ufcd for about a month or fix weeks, without any citernil application, Mr. ProfTcr bus no doubt of fuccefs. However, tlie patient fliould be under twenty-five years of age. At tbi. ape tlie cure is uncertain ; but at a n-ore ad- >ar.ced period of life it is much more improbable, and Icldom or ever fucceeds. Mr. Gooch, in his " Medical Obferva- uons" mentions an nqu.-ouj bkonciiocele ; and fo docs Mr. Davies in the Med. and Phyf. Joisrnal, N^ 71, Jan. 1S05. BRONCHORST, Pi:ti:r, in Bk<;rap!'y, a painter of pcifpec^iveandhillory, was boni in 1 ^8S at Delft, where he Uarr.cd the art of paintinjr. His fiibjcds were v;cws of an- cient and modem churches which he executed with Rreat fuccefs. In the council chamber at Delft aic his " Judjr- merit of Solomon," and " Clirilt driving the moncy-cliarigrrs out of the temple ;" dcfcribed a; pcrfonnances in which the architednre is eltpant, and the figures carefully finiflied. Hedicdin iCfii. Pilkington. Bronchop.st, John-Van, a painter of hillot7 ard land- Rape, was born at Utrecht in i6oT,\ and as he dilcovtr- ei an extraordinary genius before he was 11 years of age, he was placed under the direftion of John Vtrburg. He wa-. aftci wards fur fome time afilJlant to Peter Mattys, a p;iii.t fit to the fhape of the fore-part of the neck, and fa'.ltr.rj be- hind with draps and a buckle. To prevent any foreign lub- dance fiom getting through the orifice of the canula into the trachea, it may be covered with a piece of fine gau/e, which (liould previoufly be wttted, that the dud may not penetrate through it, but dick to the outfide. When the caufe which gave rife to the operation hai been removed, and the patient can again breathe through his moutti, the tube is withdrawn, and the orifice healed up like any other wound ot the windpipe; in doing whicli great caution (hould be uled, led any thing fliould get irlo the trachea, which might pioduce dangerous confcciUfncet. MelTrs. Chojjart and Default propofc, that the ir,cifioii into the trachea ihould be made between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and through the ligamentum ciio-thyroi- deum ; which, however, we cannot recommer.d, on account of the far greater fenfibi!ity and irritability of the larynx, whereby the moll violent fymptoms, threatening immedhde (udocatiim, might be excited. When this operation becomes necelTary, on account of anv foreign fubdance lodging in the trachea, it may be per- formed in the toUowing manner. The i;itegumcnts arc fird divided as above defciibcd ; and a longitudinal incifion is made at the anterior part of the tracliea, from above, downwards, through three or more of the cartilaginov.s lings. An affidaiit then draws afunder the fides of the wounded trachea with ^ blunt hook, upon which the ope- rator introduces a crooked forceps, with which, he carefully feeks for, and extratls the lortigii body. In this cafe, it is alfo indllpcnfably neceiTary, that the himorrhagc from the external wound fhould be entirely ftopped before any incifion is made into the trachea, as otheiwife a very violent cough would be excited. If an extraneous lubdance Ihonld dick in the larynx, it might perhaps be dangerous, (as lomc have advifed), to cut the thyroid cartilage longitudinally, firce this operation would excite very violent coughing ; and might likewife be fuperfluous, if it were poffible to lay hold of tlie foreign fubitance with a crooked forceps, introduced through an incifion made at the ufual place, below the cricoid cartilage. BRONCHUS, in Avatotin; properly denotes the lower part of the ajpcra arterla, dividing into bronchije, or branches. In which lenfe bronchus dands contradillinguidied fio;n larynx. The name bronchus is alfo extended to the whole afpcra arterla, or trachea. Bronchus alfo denotes a perfon affll^-ied with a bron- choctle, or tumour of the throat, called by Uipina guttu- roj'us. 5 BRON- B R O BRONCOLI, Thomas, in Biography, a Neapolitan pliy fician, who publilhcd in 16:1, 410. " Do populaii honibili et pctlilciitiGutturisct nnnexaium Partium An'eaioncNeapolin ct totum fere Rcgnum vcxante, Confilium." Tliis is an early accoiiiit of i\\<: fcarliilina anginofa, which fcems not to have nude its appearance in this country until about the middle of the lad century, when Dr. Jalin Fothergill publiilied an accurate account of the difcal'e, with the method he had found moft fucccfsful in treatinp; it. He is very car:;e(l in advifing his brethren to be careful in diltinguidiing it from tlie common quinfy, as it requires a mode of treatment very oppofite to that difeafc. The fairlatina angtnofa has of late years become one of the mod frequent, as well as mod in- iedious and dangerous epidemics that vifit this country. BRONE, in Geography, a river of SwilTcrland in the V.iliiis. which joins the Rhone near Sion. BRON'GUS, in Anc'unt Geography, a river of Mafia, which, according to Herodotus, difcharged itfclf into the Ider. I'lRONI, or Brosno, in Geography, a town of Italy in the Milanefe, where the French were defeated by the Imperialids in 170J ; 10 miles S.W. of Pavia. N. lat. 41" 50'. E.long. 10° o'. BRONITZA, a village of Ruflia, feated on the Mafta, within 20 miles of the Novogorod. In this village an ex- cellent caviare is prepared of the roe extracted from large quantities of fifh cauijht in the Mada. At the didance of about 2 miles is an infulatcd well of faud and clay, of a cir- cular form, the lower parts of which are thickly drewed with detached pieces of red and grey granite. This emi- nence was remarkable in the times of idolatry for an oracular temple, the fite of which is now occupied by a brick white- waflied church. BRONNIKOO, a town of Siberia, on the Irkutfch, 2S miles N. ofToboUlc. BRONTES, in Eulomohgy, a fpecies of Papilio ( Pleb. Urb.) of a fmall fize, that inhabits Africa. The wings are fubcaudated, above and beneath fufcous, with a band on the fird pair, and margin of the fecond fnowy white. Fabricius. Obf. In Spec. Inf. of that writer it is defcribed under the fpecific name of j^nnus. Brontes, is alfo the name of Papilio Paniscus, in fome German writers. BRONTEUM, in Antlquhy, that part of the theatre un- derneath its floor, wherein brazen veflcls, full of Hones and other materials, to imitate the noife of thunder, were kept. Potter. Arch. Grsc. lib. ii. cap. 8. BRONTI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sicily, iS miles W. of Taormina, BRONTIjli, among Nalurahjls, a kind of figured dones, commonly hemilpherical, and divided by five pointed zones. The word is formed from /?fo»T», thunder ; alluding to the popular tradition, that thofe dones fall in thunder fliowers : ivhence they are alfo denominated tlninder-dones, fomttimes polar-dones, fairy-doncs, and alfo omhr'td, by naturalids. Some take the brontlie for the petrified diells of the echinus Jtatagus, or brifcus, of Aridotle. Dr. Woodward rather iuppofes tiicm to have been formed, and received their diape, in the diell ot the echinus fpalagus ; on which footing they are alfo ranked in the number of echinites. Dr. Plott eonteds both. Bronti.^ are fometimes alfo ufed in England for a kind cf figured dones, fhaped like arrow-heads, lefs properly called Br.LEM SITES, and popularly //i«H(/fr-io//j. Dr. Woodward takes not thefe for natural dones, but fuppofes them to have been fartiioned thus by art, to fervc as weapons before the invention of iron. B R O Some alfo give tlie denomination brontia to the B^ra- CHiTES and Chelonites. BRONTOLOGY, books containing the dodrine of thunder, and of the prcfages drawn therefrom. See Thun- der. BRONZE, Bron-7.0, Italian^ a mixed metal for calling datues and other onianicnts ; Vafari fays, the Egyptians mixed two-thirds of brafs and one of copper. Pliny I. 34. c. 10. fays, one-tenth of lead, and one-twentieth, of filver (liould be added to the brafs, and the mixture of thefe three, he calls Grecian; among the moderns two-thirds of copper and one of brafs are found to be a good mixture. The an- cients formed mod indruments ot brafs, which the moderns make of iron and deel ; Homer dcfcnbes mod of the arms in his poems, ofTenfive and defenfive, as brazen ; he calls the Greeks by the general epithet of brafs-coated ; and feldom mentions deel ; mod of the arms and indruments found in Hcrculaneum, Pompeia, Stabea, SiC. were of brafs or bronze, whether agricultural, mechanical, mathematical, architedural, or culinary ; the remains of very few iron in- druments having been difcovercd, and a complete fet of furgical indruments of bronze, found in Pompeia, fliew the great prevalence of this metal among the ancients. Bronze, cajling, is performed in the following manner: the figure or pattern to be call in bronze, mud have a mould made on it in a mixtureofplader of Paris and brick-Jud, not more than one-thirdof the former,and two-thirds of the latter; the mould (hould be fufEciently thick for ftrength, accord- ing to its fize ; in its joints httle channels fl ould be cut from different parts of the internal hollow tending upwards, to give vent to the air, which the metal will force out, as it runs into the mould. When the mould is made, a thin layer of clay diould be neatly and fmoothly fpread over the infidc, the fame thicknefs the bronze is intended to be ; then the mould mud be clofed, and the hollow within the layer of clay filled with two-thirds of brick-dud, and one third of plaider mixed with water ; this will make the core ; and if the figure to be cad (liould be large, before the plader and brick-dud are poured into the mould which is to form the core, drong bars ot iron forming a ilvcleton of fupport for the metal figure, when cad, mud be laid in the mould, and round this the core mud be cad ; when this is done, the mould mud be opened again, and the layer of clay taken out; the mould and core mud then be thoroughly dried and even burned with charcoal or lighted draw, for if the lead par- ticle of wet or damp remains, the cad will be blou'ii to pieces, and the perfons engaged in the work will mod likely be maimed or killed by the difperfion and force of the b.ot metal. After they are perfeflly dried, the core fliould be laid in the mould again and fupported in its place by diort bars of bronze, which run through the mould into the core ; the mould may now be clofed and bound round with bars of iron, drong in proportion to the fize of the work ; the mould diould then he laid in a fituation for cadiiig, and well fup- ported with dry materials, as fand, dones, &c.: great care mud be taken that thefe alfo are dry, to avoid fatal conf^- quences. A channel mud be continued from the refervoh" of metal to the mouth of the mould, with a futficient flant or inclination for the liquid bronze to run eafily ; it is a necef- fary caution that no perfon (liould engage in bronze-cading without the alTillance of experienced workmen, on account of the danger attending it. Many particulars relating to this article may be found in Pliny's Natural Hidory ; in the Life of Benvenuto Cellini, and Val'ari's IJves, in the chap- ter upon bronze-cading. The form of the furnace for this purpofe, as well as the manner of running the metal, are ihe fame as employed iu calling bells. i Bronze, B R O Bronze, in Painting, denotes a colour prepared by the colourmen of Paris, in ini't uion of bronze. There are two forts of it, the red and the yellow, or golden : the latter, the yellow, is made iolely of the fineft nnd brighteft copper- dull that can be had ; and in the former there is only added a fmall quantity of red ochre, well pulverifed. They arc both applied with varnifh, and, to prevent its turning greenidi, the work is dried over a chaffing-dilh, as foon as bronzed. BRONZERIUS, John-Jerom, in Biography, was born of wealthy parents, in a fmall town in the Venetian territory, in 1577. After making great progrefs in the iludy of the belles lettrcs, philofophy, and aftronomy, he was fent to Padua, where he was initiated into the knowledge of medicine and anatomy, and in 1597, was made doftor. He now went to Venice, where he praftifed medicine to the time of liis death, in l6jO. His publications are, " De innato ca- lido, et naturali fpiritu, in quo pro veritatc rci Galeni doftrina defenditur," 1626, 4to.; " Difpntatio de Princi- patu Hepatisex Anatome Lampttrae," Patav. 410. Though from dilTedling the liver of this animal he was fatistied the blood did not acquire its red colour there, yet he did not chufe to oppofe the doftrine of Galen. His obfervation, however, was probably not loft, but led the way to a mere complete difcovery of the faA, by fubfequent anatomifts. " De Principio Effeftivo Semini Infito." Haller. Bib. Anat. BRONZES. Thus Antiquarians denominate figures of men or beafls, urns, and every piece of fculpture, which the ancients made of the above metal. Statues, bufts, &c. cafl; of this metal, are called by this name, whether they be originals or copies. BRONZING is the art of imitating bronze. SeeBRONZE, in Painting. BRONZING, in Biography. See Allori. Bronzino, Agnolo, a painter of hiftory and portraits, was born at Florence, in ijii, and became the difciple of Puntormo, with whom he continued for feveral years, and whofe ftyle he acquired to fuch a degree that the paintings of one and of the other could not be readily diftiuguilTied. His extraordinary abilities are fufficiently evinced in all his performances. Among otbers, at Florence, a " Nativity" is mentioned as incomparable ; and alfo a " Venus," embracirjg Cupid, attended on one fide by mirthful loves, and on the other by jealoufy, fraud, and other paffions, alle- " gorically reprcfented. The compofition and finiihing in both thefe are highly extolled. As his mafter, Puntormo, died before he had finiftied the chapel of St. Lorenzo, at Florence, the duke appointed Bronzino to complete it. Bronzino alfo dillinguifhed himfclf in the painting of por- traits ; particularly thofe of Andrea Doria, Dante, Boccacc, and Petrarch, and of all the illuttrious perfons of the houfe of Medici. His works at Florence, Pcfaro, and Pifa, bear lafting teftimony to his merit ; nor was he lefs refpefted and eilcemed for his amiable qualities than for his profeffional • talerits. His rallc of deiljin was grand ; his pencil neat, but free ; his colouring rcftnibled that of Puntormo ; and in his draperies he imitated the manner of Michael Angclo liuona- roti. He died in 1580. Pilkington. BRONZOLO, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the country of Tyrol, feated on the Adige ; 5 miles S. of Bolzano. BROOD, the young of fifli and fowls. The word is derived from the Saxon Ireclan, to breed ; which alludes XaBfvui, to be big nvlth young. The word is alfo ufed for a fet of any young. In which Icnfe we fay, a brood VOL.V. B R O of vipers, a brood of oyfters. A brood of pheafants is more properly called an eye. Phil. Tranf. N" 369. Brood of fea-filh is fpawned, and lies in dill waters, where it may have reft to receive nouriflunent, and grow to perfec- tion. And here it is often deftroy^d by weirs, draw-nets, and nets with canva-s or like engines in the bottoms of them; in harbours, havens, and creeks. — Every weir near the main fea takes, in twelve hours, fometimes five bufiiels, fojr.c- times ten, fometimes twenty or thirty. For the preventing hereof, by 3 Jac. I. cap. t2. it is enaded, that none Ihall credt a weir, or weirs, along the fca-lhorc, or in any haven, or creek, er within five miles of the mouth of any havui or creek, or fti;ill willingly deftroy the fpawn or fry of fifn, on pain of io\. to be divided betwixt the king and the profe- cutor. Neither fliall any one filh in any of the faid places, with any net of a lefs me(h than three inches and a half be- twixt knot and knot (except for the taking fmoulds in Nor- folk only), or with a canvas net, or other engine, whereby the fpawn or fry of filh may be deftroyed ; on pain to forfeit the faid engine or net, and los. in money, to be divided be- twixt the poor of the p.uifii and the profccntor. Brood, or Brood co??;^, called by the French couvain, is that part of the comb of a bee-hive, which contains in its cells the future progeny of the hive, in the three different ttates of eggs, worms, and nymphs. See Bee, and Oueen- bee. . ^ BROODING, the aft of a hen, or other bird, fitting on a number of eggs, to keep them warm, till they hatch, or produce young ones. See Hatching. BROOK, a hctle river or fmall current of water. A brook is fometimes diftinguifhed from a river by the latter flowing continually, and the former only occafionally. BROOKE, Sir Robert, in Biography, an eminent lawyer of the l6th century, was born at Claverly, in Shropfhire, educated at Oxford, and from thence removed to the Mid- dle-Temple. In 1^52, he was called to be ferjeant at law ; and in ijjj, appointed lord chief juftice of the common pleas ; about which time he was knighted. He died in 1558, leaving behind him the reputation of great flcill in his profcflion, and of integrity in the exercife of it, both at the bar and on the bench. His works ate " An Abrijjgment, containing an Abftrad of the Year-books, till the time of Queen Mary;" " Certain Cafes adjudged in the times of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and queen Maiy, from the 6th of Henry VIII. to the 4th of queen Mary," and " Read- ing on the Statute of Limitations, made 5 2d Henry VIII, cap. 2." Brooke, Henry, an ingenious author in polite liters, ture, was the fon of a clergyman, and born in Ireland in 1706. Having commenced his education under Dr. Sheri- dan, and profecuted it in Dublin college, he removed to the Temple ; where his lively genius and agreeable temper con- ciliated the cfteem and attachment of many friends. After his return to Ireland, he privately married his coufin, an amiable young lady, at a very early age, of whom he was appointed guardian, and lived for fome time in domeftic re- tirement ; but hisincreafing family obliged him to exert his abilities for their fupport. With this view he came over to London, and, as it is faid, under the eye of Pope, w^rote his philofophical poem of " Univerfal Beauty," in i";^-. He returned again to Ireland, and engaged in the praftice of the law ; but his predominant defire of acqiiirinc; diftinfiion iti poetry and elegant literature induced him again to viiit Lon- don, where he produced a tragedy, entitled " GuftavusVafa," and containing fentiments of liberty fo ft VDngly exprefTed, that government prohibited its public exhibition at the tlieatr, s. This oppofition excited an enthufiailic ardour among his 3 C friends B R O fnfnJs and party, at the head of whom was Frederick prince of Wales; and' the play was publilhed by fubfciiption in 1 7 jy, much more to his advantage than if it had been afted. Warmly attached to iiis royal highnefs, Brooke took a houfe at Twickenham, near Mr. Pope's, and fent for his wife, who was propofcd by the prince as wct-nurfe to a child, ot whom the pnncefs was then pregnant. But his expences exceeding his income, he was prevailtd upon by his wife to part with his houfe, to difmifs his fervants, and to retire to privacy in his native country. His attachment to the miifcs, however, conti;iued ; and in >745 his tragedy, «ntitled •' The Earl of VVellmoreland," was aftcd at Dublin; and in the fame year he publiflied his " Farmer's Letters," which were addreffed to the people of Ireland, and dcligned to promote the principles of liberty and patriotifm. At this time he was patronized by the carl of Clieftcrfield, then the lord-lieutenant, and appointed barrack-mafler. As a poet he afterwards diilingu(hed himfelf by three pieces, com- municated to the public in Moore's " Fables for the Female Sex," 1747. His piece, entitled " The Female Seducers," has been peculiarly admired, not only for tendcrncfs and pathos, as well as fublime poetry, but for the devotional fpirit which always charafterized the author. Difappointed in his views of farther advancement, he retired into the co'.intry, in company with an only brother ; where they reared together iheir numerous families, with mutual har- mony and affection. His intervals of leifure were employed in writing dramatic pieces and novels, the former of which he hoped to have introduced on the London llage. But though Mr. Garrick would at one time have engaged him as a writer ; his propofals were not duly regarded by Mr. Brooke, who flattered himfelf with more encouraging pro- fpeds, and they were, therefore, sever renewed. His tragedy of the " Earl of Eflex," however, which had been aAed at Dublin, in 1749, was alfo performed at Drury- lane in 1760 : but as to his other tragedies and comedies, it does not appear whether they were exhibited in any theatre. In 1762 he publifhed a treatife in 8vo. entitled " The Trial of the Roman Catholics," favourable to that clafs of Irifh fubjeds ; and in 1766, his novel, called "The Fool of Quality," which attradlcd confiderable attention, though its general plan was wild and incoherent, and the latter volumes were ftrongly tinftured with methodifm, in which the religious fervour of his mind at length terminated. Ge- reroHS and fympathifing in his difpofition, and dcftitute of economy, he was reduced to the neceffity of firft mortgaging, and, at length, of felling his patrimony ; in confequence of which he relided for fome years in a rented houfe at Kildare, which he afterwards quitted for a far.-n near his former habi- tation. The affliftion of lofing his wife, after an union of nearly 50 years, and alfo of a favourite child, depreiTtd his fpirits and deranged his underftanding to fucb a degree as to terminate in almoft total imbecility. His novel, entitled " Juliet Grenville," pvibliQied in 1774, indicated ftill more fenfibly than the lafl volumes of the Fool of Quality, the decline of his faculties. His two poems, viz. " Redemjj- tion," and the " Fox chace," are among his later works, and little known or read. He died in Oftober 178J, leaving only two furvivors of his feventeen children. His dramatic and other works (the novels excepted) were printed in 4 vols. 8vo. 17S0. Life prefixed to his works. Gen. Biog. Brooke, Francis, thedaughter of a clergyman, whofe name was Moore, and the wife of the Rev. John Brooke, of Norfolk, was diftinguifhed both by her hterary talents and the gentlenefs and fuavity of her manners. Her death, which happened at Sleaford, in Lincolnlhire, Sept. 2(;th B R O 17S9, was occafioned by a fpafmodio complaint. Her firft literary performance was a periodical work, entitled " The Old Maid," continued from November 15th, 1 755, until July 17^6, and publifhed in one volume iimo. In the latter year (he publifhed " Virginia," a tragedy, with odes, palbrals, and tranfiations, 8vo. In 1763, (lie pubhfhed her novel, entitled " The Hiflory of Lady Julia Mandeville," which was read with general approbation, although not without a wifli that the cataftrophe had been lefs melancholy. In the fame year fhe alfo publifhed " Letters from Juhet Lady Catcfby to her Friend Lady Henrietta Campley," l2mo.; a tranflation from the French. She foon afterwards accompanied her hufband, who was chaplain of the garrifoH at Quebec, to Canada ; and there witneffed thofe romantic fcenes that are fo admirably dcfcribed in her " Hilloi7 of Emily Montague," 4 vols. i2mo. 1769. lu the following year appeared " Memoirs of the Marquis cf St. Forlaix," 4 vols. i2mo. Soon after her return from Canada, fhe formed an intimate acquaintance with Mrs. Yates, and had, as fome have faid, a fhare with her in the Opera-houfe. As Mr. Garrick had rejcfted her tirft play, which was the tragedy of Virginia, fhe made a fecond attempt to obtaia his favour, but without fuccefs. This conduft, on the part of the manager, excited her refentmcnt, which fhe ex^ prefTed witli a feverity, afterwards lamented and retrafted, in a novel, entitled " The Excurfion," and pubhflied ia 2 vols. i2mo. 1777. Her " Siege of Sinope," was afted at Covent-Garden, in 1781, and met with temporary ap- probation, probably from the fupport that was given to it by the theatrical talents of Mr. Henderfon and Mrs. Yates; but her moil popular performance was " Rolina," prefented to Mr. Harris, the manager of Covent-Garden, and afted at that theatre in 1782. Her laft work was " Marian," which appeared in 1788, and was afted with fome fuccefs, though it was much inferior to her Rofina. She was alfo the tranflatorof the " Abbe Millot's Elements of the Hif- tory of England, from the Invafion of the Romans to the Reign of George IL" in 4 vols. l2mo. Biog. Dift. BROOKFIELD, in Geography^ one of the moll ancient, wealthy, and populous towns of Worcetler county, in the ftate of MalTachufetts, fituate in the fouth-weftern part of the county, and containing 3100 inhabitant? ; 64 miles W. of Boflon, on the pofl road leading from Bofton to New York, and 27 miles W. of Worceller. Its Indian name was " Quaboag."' In the vicinity of this town are iron ore, and large quantities of Hone, which yield copperas. It was fet- tled by people from Ipfwich, in 16'^ o, and incorporated in J673. — Alfo, a townfhip in Orange county, Vermont, in- cluding 4.21 inhabitants ; 81 miles northerly from Benning- ton— Alfo, a townfhip of Lincoln county, in the dillrift of Maine, 14 miles above Norridgewalk, on Kennebeck river; formerly called " Seven Mile Brook." — Alfo, a town ia Montgomery county. New York ; 160 inhabitants of which are electors by the ftate cenfus of 1796. — Alfo, a townfhip in Fairfield county, Connecticut; 6 miles N.N.E. from Dan- bury. BROOKHAVEN, a townfliip in Suffolk county, Long- ifland. New York, containing 3224 inhabitants, of whom S2J are flaves, and by the ftate cenfus of 1796, 535 eleftors. The town includes about 40 houfes, together with an cpif- copalian and a prefbyterian church; 60 miles E. of New York. BROOKLIME, in Botany. See Veronica Becc-4- BUNGA. BROOKLYNjin Geography, ii.-p\ezS?m\. town of America, inNorfolkcountyandftateofMaffachufetts, containingabout 60 or 70 families ; fituate between Cambridge and Roxbury, and feparated from Boftor, on the call by a narrow bay, w-hicli B R O B R O xvliicK fets up foiuh from Charles river, and forms a pcniu- fula of Boilon. This town fiippHts Bofton witli vegetables, and it is the place whither perfons of fortune retire from public life. — Alfo, a towndiip in King's county. New York, on the weft end of Long ifland, containing 160,9 inbabitants, of whom 405 are flaves, and 2 2 4are eleftors, by the ftatecenfus of 1796. In this place are a prefbytcrian church, a Dutch reformed church, a powder magazine, and fonie elegant houfes lying chiefly in one ftrect. It is feparated from New York by Eaft river, which is nearly a mile broad ; and forms an agreeable objetl from the city. — Alio, a townftilp in Wyndham county, Connefticut, about 20 miles N. of Nor- wich. BROOM, in Botany. See Genista and Spartium. Broom, African. See Aspalathus. Broom, Butchers. See Ruscus Aculeatus. 3koom ■JJo'u.'er, in Heralilry, the denomination of an order, jnllituted by St. Louis king of France, in the year 12.24, on occafion of the coronation of his queen Margaret, eldell daughter of Raymond Berengarius, count of Provence. The habit of the knights was a cloak of white damafl-c, with a violet-coloured hood. The collar was a gold chain of broom-flowers, enamelled proper, interlaced with lozenges of gold and flower-de-lis, pendent therefrom, a crofs flory, with this infcription " Exaltat Humiles ;" the founder accounting the broom the fymbol of humility. Their num- ber was at the fovereign's pleafure, and this order continued till the death of king Charles V . Broom-^^//, in Entomology. See Galls of the Broom. BaoOM-Zoi-A, or lake, in Geography, an extenfive fait- water lake, or arm of the fea, on the north-weft fide of the county of Rofs in Scotland, famous for its excellent herrings. On this lake is the village of Ullapool. 'Stf.oovi-rape, in Botany. See Orobanche. Broom alfo denotes a well known houfehold befom, or im- plement wherewith to fweep away dirt, dufl;, and the like : thus we fay, a birch-broom, a hair-broom, a rufti-broom, a heath-broom. The primitive kind of brooms, from whence the denomination is given to all the reft, was made of the genlfla, or wild broom, growing on commons. BROOME,William, inBlography, a native of"Chefiiire, was educated upon the foundation at Eton, but failing of a vacancy in a fcholarfhip at King's college, though he was captain of the fchool for a whole year, he was fuperannuated, and fent to St. John's college by th« affiftance of friends, where he obtained a fmall exhibition. He appeared in the -world at an early period as a tranflator of the Iliads into profe, in conjunftion with Ozell and Oldifworth, a tranfla- tion, which, though now forgotten, was, in Toland's opi- nion, fuperior to that of Pope. After his introduftion to Mr. Pope, he was employed by him to make extracts from Euftathius for the notes to the tranflation of the Iliad ; and in Pope's Mifcellanies, many of his early pieces were inferted. When the fuccefs of the Iliad gave encouragement to a ver- Jion of the Odyffey, Pope called Fenton and Broome to his affiftance ; taking half the work upon himfeif, and afliigning the other half to his coadjutors, four books being allotted to Tenton, and eight to Broome. To the lot of Broome fell the 2d, 6th, 8th, nth, 12th, i6th, i8th, and23d; toge- ther with all the notes. The ftipulated pecuniary recom- pence of Broome was 500!. together with copies amounting to the value of about lool. more. Fenton, it is faid, was to receive jool. for his four books. This difproportionate f«Twp, which properly fignifies a perfon who draws vi-atcr in the B R O the fame well ; *;.»;, in Gitck, figiiifylng w^//, and J{*t|.», , ccnpanv of people, who have a right to draw water out of the fame well.— The word, it is fa.d, came o"K'"'a'.'>' from the citv Argos, where there were oidy a fevv wells dil- tributed in certain quarters of the city, to which thole ot the fame iicishbouihood alone repaired. By the civil law, brothers and fillers Hand in the fecond degree of conlaiiguinity ; by the canon law, they are lu the firit degree. By the Mofaic law, the brother of a man who died without ilTue, was obliged to marry the widow of the deceafed. Deuter. xxv. 7. See Lkvirate. The ancients applied the term brother indifferently to al- moll all who Hood related in the collateral line, as uncles and nephews, coulin-germans, &c.— This we learn not only from a great many palTages in the Old Tellamcnt, but alio from profane authors : Cicero, in his Philippic?, fays, " An- tonina was both wife and tiller of Mark Antony ; becaule fhe was daughter of his brother C. Antoniils." And as to coulins, TuUius Hollihus, in Dionyfuis HalicarnafTus, calls the Horatii and Curatii, brothers ; becaufe they were filitrs' children. The language of the Je'vs, bidiop Pearfon obferves, in- cluded in the name of brethren not only the ftria relation of fraternity, but alfo the larger of conl'anguinity. We are brethren, fays Abraham to Lot, Gen. xiii. 8. whereas Lot vras only his nephew. — So Jacob told Rachel that he was her father's brother, Gen. xxix. 12. whereas he was only her father's nephew. — This confideration has been urged with good advantage againft the Anlidicomarianites, who, fromthe mention made of the "brethren of Jefus,"( John ii. 12. Matth. xii. 46.) have impugned the perpetual virginity of the mother of Chrill, for which, however, there feeras to be no fufficient foundation. Among us, it is cullomary for kings to give the title ♦' brother" to each other ; the unftion in coronation being efteemed to create a kind of " brotherhood." Nor is the cullom modern : Menander mentions a letter of Cofroes, king of Perfia, to the emperor Jullinian, beginning thus : Cofroes, king of kings, &c. to the emperor Jullinian " my brother." Kings now alfo give the fame appellation to the eleftore of the empire ; and the hke was given, by the king of France, to the king of Sardinia, while only duke of Sa- voy. In the civil law, brothers, fralres, in the plural, fome- times comprehend lifters : zs Lucius and Titia, fralres ; tres fralres, Titius, Msvius, is" Seta. Brothers, fojler, thofe which fucked the fame nurfe. The French call them " fratres du lait," or brothers by milk ; which is moft properly ufed in refpeft of a perfon who fucked a nurfe at the fame time with the nurfe's own child. Brothers, German, Fratres Germanl. See German- Brother was alfo ufed, in MUUk ylge IVriters, for a comes, or governor of a province. Brother is applied, in a lefs proper fenfe, to denote a perfon of the fame profeffion. In which fenfe, judges, bi- ihops, priells, &c. call each other brothers. Brother in Chr'ijl, frater in Chrtflo, the fame with fpi- rilucil Ir-jibcr, a perfon admitted into a monallic fociety or fi-atcrnily. Broth E,E. is more particularly ufed to denote the relation between monks of the fame convent: as brother Zachary, brother Bonaventure, &c. In Cnglifh, we moreufually fay, friar Zachary, &c. from the French woid//vrf, brother. This appellation is borrowed from the primitive Chrif- tians, who all called each other " brothers :" but it is prin- B R O clpally ufed for fuch of the religious as are not priefia ; thole in orders are generally honoured with the title of fathers, f aires, peres ; whereas the reft are only fimply bro- thers. The monks of St. Dominic are particularly called /ir^afA- ing brothers, or friars predicants : thofe of St. Francis, minor brothers ; thofe of charity, ignorant brothers, &c. Confcript brothers, fratres confcripli, denote laymen and others entered iu the catalogue of the brothers of a monallery, or rather poffeffed of the fraternity thereof. Outer brother, frater exterior, fometimes denotes a lay-brother. Strange brother, frater adveniens, a hod or guell belonging to another monaf- tery. Foreign brother, frater externus, either a monk, prieft, or canon of fome other monallery, to whom the prayers of the fociety are granted. Mature brother, frater maturus, one diftinguidied by his age, gravity, or probity, above the reft. Brothers, fpiritua!, denote laymen admitted into a mo- naftic fraternity. The name was alfo given to thofe other, wife called mature brothers, and fometimes alfo to a fort of adopted brothers, or perfons who commenced a kind of bro- therhood, with the ceremony of breaking bread together, in the church before the prieft. Brother, lay, frater laicus, or converfus. See Lay Brother. Brother, given, frater donatus, among the Carthufians, denotes a young perfon drefted in minim cloth, and wearing a hat, vvhofe office is to ferve in the houfe, anfwering to what in other orders is called an offered brother, frater ob- lalus. Brother is alfo an appellation more peculiarly given to certain orders of religious : thus the Brothers of St. /Ilexis, in the Low Countries, were an order of perfons who attended on thofe who lay dying, and took care of the burial of the dead. Brothers of Ave Maria. See Servites. Brothers of Charity, a fort of religious Hofpitallers, founded about the year 1297, fince denominated A7/f/;nj. They took the third order of St. Francis, and the fcapulary, making three ufual vows, but without begging. Brothers of Charity, alfo denote an order of Hofpital- lers ftiU fubfifting in Romifli countries, whofe bufinefs is to attend the fick poor, and minifter to them both fpiritual and temporal fuccour. They are all laymen, except a few priefts, for adminiftering the facrament to the fick in their hofpitals. The Brothers of Charity ufually cultivate botany, pharmacy, furgery, and chemiftry, which they praftife with fuccefs. They were firft founded at Granada, by St. John de Dieu ; and a fecond eftablifhment was made at Madrid, in the year 1553 : tlie order was confirmed by Gregory XIIL in 1572. Gregory XIV. forbad them to take holy orders : but by leave of Paul V. in 1609 a fevT of the brothers might be ad- mitted to orders. In 1619 they were exempted from the jurifdidion of the bilhop. Thofe of Spain are feparated from the reft, and they, as w^U as the brothers -of .France, Germany, Poland, and Italy, have their diftinft generals, who reiide at Rome. They were firft introduced into France by Mary of Medicis, in 1601, and have ilnce built a fine hofpital in the Fauxbourg St. Germain. Brothers of Charity of St. Hippolytus, a religious congre- gation 6rft fet on foot by Alvarez, a citizen of Mexico, in 1585, who aiTociated with him feveral other pious perfons to attend on the fick, and foanded an hofpital without the walls of that city ; which being approved of by the pope, and the number of hke hofpitals incieaiing, a congregation v/as formed under the title of " The Charity of St. Hippo. 4 lytus," B R O B R O lytus," becaufe the firft hofpital had been dedicated to that faint, on wliofe fea(l-day the city firft fell into the hands of the Chrillians. Clement VIII. in 1594, granted them all the privileges of the Brothers of the Charity of St. John de Dieu. Broth TiRs of Death, a denomination ufually given to the religious of the order of St. Paul, the firft hermit. They are called " Brothers of Death, "yja/rw a morte, on account of the figure of a death's head, which they were always to have with them, in order to keep perpetually in their minds the thoughts of death. This order, by its cou- ftitutions, made in 1620, does not feem to have been cfta- bhfhed long before pope Paul V. Lewis XIII. in 1621, permitted tliem to fettle in France. It was probably fup- prefTed by pope Urban VIII. Brothers of Pei.iUnce, or of the Penitence of fcfus Chnfl, a name given at Thouloufe to the religious of the third order of St. Francis; called alfo Beguhn : and to a fra- ternity of Penitents held in the chapel of the church of the third order, under the direction of the Beguini. See B E G u I N s . Brothers, PyeJ, frntres pit, a denomination given to all monks, wiiofe habit was partly white, partly black ; they were otherwife called Agaches. Brothers of St. Gregory the lihim'inalor, a religious order eftabhflu'd in Armenia, in the fourteenth century, which being much reduced and decayed by the conquefts of the - Turks and Perfians, was, in i j j6, united to the order of St. Dominic. Brothers, "Joyful, fratres gaudentes, in Italy, denote the knights of the order of the Virgin Mary, firft inftituted at Bologna in 1261, for whom a rule was prefcribed by pope Urban IV. Brothers, poor, in the Charter-houfe, a denomination given to decayed gentlemen, to the number of eighty, who are fubfifted with diet,cloathing, and lodging on the eftablifh- ment. The poor brothers are to be gentlemen by defcent, re- duced to poverty, or decayed merchants, foldiers, or officers of the king's houfehold. The conditions of admiffion are that they have no eftate for life worth 200I. nor coming in, •v'ns y moclis, 24I. per annum ; and that they be fifty years old, unlets they have been maimed in the public fcrvice ; in which cafe, the age of forty fuflices. They wear a livery. gown within doors. Br.others, White, the name of a feft which appeared in Ruffia towards the beginning of the fourteenth century ; fo called from their white cloaks, on which was a St. Andrew's crofs of a green colour. See Brethren. Brothers of Arms, an appellation given to thofe who contraft a kind of fraternity in war, obliging themfelves to the mutual fervice and affiftance of each other. In the mili- tary orders, the knights are alfo called brothers. — In the order of Malta, there is a particular clafs, who are called " ferving brothers ;" confifting of fuch as cannot give proof of their nobility. In Latin they are denominated yra//-f.r dientes. Brothers ly adopti:n. See Adoption. Two brothers who have only the fame father, are called fratres confnnguinei ; and thofe who are only defcended from the fame mother, frtitres uterini. Brothers of the Crofs. See FlagellAntes. Brothers of the rofy crofs. See Rosvcrusians. Brothers, y^uocn,_/ra;»'<'j conjurati. See Fratres. Brothers, in Alchemy, lame, or maimed, iitnote the imper- feft metals, which are to be t-ured of their lamenefs by the pel feft elixir ; I. e. are to be purified and feparated from their drofs, &c. by the philofopher's Hone. Brothers, in Geography, iflands in the Indian fea, on tlic north fide of the entrance into the ftraits of Malacca. N. lat. 7° iS'. E. long. 78° 10', to 78" 15'. Brothers, Seven, iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 3° 24'. E. long. 60° 21;'. Brothers, Three, iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 5° 45'. E. long. 62° 25'.— Alfo, iflands in the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 10° 32'. E. long. 107° 59'.— Alfo, iflands in the fame fea. S. lat. 5° 20'. E. long. 117° jo'. The moft northerly, which is about 5 or 6 leagues fomewhat foutherly from Thumb flioal, is called by the Dutch " North Brwlher." Between thefe and Celebes, lies Tonakekc ifland, which is larger than any of them. — Alfo, three remarkable hills ou the eaft coaft of New Holland, whicii may be feen 14 or J 6 leagues off at fea. S. hit. j 1° 40'. W. long. 207° 10'. Brothers, Tiuo, lie on the eaft coaft of New Holland, oft" cape Manifold ; one of them is low and flat, and the other high and round ; near the fliore is a third ifland. — Alfo two iflands of New Zealand, near queen Charlotte's found. BROTHERHOOD. Sec Fraternity. Brotherhood of God, in the Middle Ages, a denomina- tion given to an aifociation formed for reftraining and abo- lilhiug the right and exercife of private war. I'he people, eager to obtain relief from the fuffcrings that were thus oc- cafioncd, among other expedients, had recourfe to a pre- tended revelation. Towards the end of the 12th century, a carpenter in Guienne gave out, that JeTus Chrirt, together with the blefled Virgin, had appeared to him, and having commanded him to exhort mankind to peace, had given him, as a proof of his mifiion, an image of the Virgin holding her fon in her arms, with this iiifcription : " Lamb of God, who takeft away the fins of the world, give us peace." This low fanatic addrefled himfelf to an ignorant age, prone to credit what was marvellous. He was received as an infpired mef- fenger of God. Many prelates and barons aflembled at Puy, and took an oath, not only to make peace with all their own enemies, but to attack fuch as refufed to lay down their arms, and to be reconciled to their enemies. Thus they formed the above-mentioned afibciation. But the influence of this fuperftitious terror or devotion was not of long con- tinuance. BROTHERTON, in Geography, an Indian village of North America, adjoining New Stockbridge in the ftate of New York, inhabited by about 150 Indians, who migrated from different parts of Conneflicut, under the care of the Rev. Mr. Occom. Thefe Indians receive an annuity of 2160 dol- lars, which fum is partly appropriated to the purpofe of main- taining a fchool, and partly to compenfate a fnperintendant for tranfading their bufinefs, and difpofing the remainder of their money for their benefit. BROTIER, Gabriel, Aljbe, in Biography, a diftin- guiflied fcholar, and member of the French Academy of Belles Letties, was born at Tonnay in the Nivernois, in 1723, and educated in the Jefuits' college of Louis-le-Grand, of which he was for leveral years librarian. Accuftomed through life to write notes in die margins of all the books which he read, and diftinguiflied alfo by a retentive memory and fingular penetration, he had thus coUcfted materials for feveral volumes; and as he applied to ftudy for 10 or j 2 hours a day, he had acquired an immenfe fund and variety of knowledge. With the exception of the mathematics, his knowledge comprehended every branch of fcience, natural hiftory, chemiftry, and even medicine. It wa.i his cuftom every year to read Hippocrates, and the books of Solomon, in the original languages ; for thefe, he faid, were the belt remedies for all bodily and mental difcafes. But he was principally B R O principallv .levoted to the bell«lettr«: ami l.ad «cqmrcd an accuse acquaintance with all the dead hn.guages, parti- cularly the I.a-.in, and with moll of the modern la..gua>,'esol Europe. He was alfo well verfed in ancient and modern hiftory, chronolofo-, coins, medals, infcr.pt.ons, and the ufaResof antiquity: and he had colkaed a great mafs of materials for a new hiftory of France, winch he was pre- Tcnted from undertaking. On the diiTolinion ot the order of Jefuits, he found a pleafant afyhim in the houie ot M. de la Tour, an eminent printer, and in this retreat he fpent the lall I'-' years of his life. Here he pMblilhtd his edition of «• Tacitus," enriched with notes ai.d learned difTertations, and fupplements ; and alfo a new edition of " Pliny the Naturalill," to whicli he lias added notes and illullrations, being merely a concife abridi,'ment of what he had prepared w-ith a view of correaiiig and enlarging the edition of Har- douin. and of givinsr an hiftorical account of all thenew dif- coveriesmade fmce^he be.rinningof the iSth century. His other works of inferior importance were a beautiful edition of •' Plixdrus ;" an edition of Rapin's poem, " De Hortis," to which he fubjoined a " Hillory of Gardens," written in Latin with great elegance, and abounding in the moft beauti- ful imagery. Befi Its a lively imagination, Brotier pofTeffed a found a-id difcrimiiiating judgment, and an elegant tafte. His conceptions were clear, and his mode of communicating knowledge pcrfpicuous. From the abbe Fonttnay's further delineati^m of his c!iar?.ftcr, we (hall fclccl tlie following par- ticulars. " Flumble and unaO'iiming, and of fuch delicate modellv as caufcd him to blj(h when'tlie lead encomium was patTed upon him ; good-tempered, plain in his manners, and giving himfclf up to fociety with the fmiles and fimpli- city of a child ; his converfation was engaging, and always inftruelive when it turned on fubjcfts of literature and fcience. Widely differing in this refptd from thofe men of letters, who, if we may be allowed the exprcffi n, are mifers of their knowledge, and feem to hoard it up for themfelves, or that they may make an olltntatious difplay of it in fome publication, the abbe Brotier anfwtrtd with great readinefs the queftion? of every perfun who applied to him for informa- tion, and inftrnaed thofe around him with the utmoft affa- bility and condcfcenfion." " That intimate friendlhip which united me to the abbe Brotier," fays Fontenay, " gratitude for the fcrvices he did me, his talents, and his virtues, will always endear his memory to me ; and I may juftly fay with the Roman poet : " Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit, Nuill flebilior quam mihi." This accon pliflied and elegant fcholar died at Paris, Feb. 12th 1789, at the age of 67. The foliowiiig is a lift of the abbe Brotiei's works, as given in La France Liteiaire, by J. S. Erfch, publifhed at Hamburgh in 1797, and cited in Aikin's General Biogra- phy : " Exainen de I'Apologie de M. I'Abbe de Prades," I753> ^^'^ ' " Conclufiones ex univcrfa Theologia," 1754, 4to. ; " Traite des monnoies Romaines, Grecques, et Hebr. comparees avec l-.s monnoies de France, pour I'intelligence de I'Ecriture Sainte ct de tons les auteurs Grecs ct Ro- mains," 1760, 410. " " ProfpcAus d'une edit. Lat. de Ta^ cite, en 5 vols, 4to.," 1761 ; "C. Corn. Taciti Opera, recog- novit, emend, fuppl. explcvit, notis, diiTert. tabulis geogr. ilhiftravit," 1771. 4 vols. 4to. ; " Supplementa, lib. 7. 10 Annal. Taciti," 175';, ^>vo. ; " CI. viri de la Caille vita," 176^, 4to. ; " C. Plinii Hiftoria naturahs," 1779, 6 vols. i2mo. ; " Renati Rapini Hortonim, lib. iv. et cult'Jia hor- teitfis, hiftoriam hortorum addiclit," 177S, 8vo. ; " Phxdri Fabidarum, lib. v. cum notis et fuppl. accefs. Parallela J. de I3 Fontaine Fabidse," 1785, izmo. A. C. Brotier, the ab- B R O be'a nephew, who was arretted in February 1797, as being the chief of a confpiracy, publiftied, in 1790, " Paroles me- moiabhs recueillits par Gabr. Brotier," i2mo. BROTO, in Geography, a town of Spain in AiTagon ; 6 leagues from Jaca. BROUAGE, a maritime town of France, in the depart- ment of the lower Charcnte, 2 leagues S.W. o"" Rochefort ; it confills of ^ or 6 ftreets, which terminate in a large- fqnarc, and is famous for its falt-works. N. lat. 43" 50'. W. long. 1" o'. BROUCA, a town of Sicily, on the fouth fide of the gulf of Catania, and 5 leagues S. of it. N. lat. 37'' 25'. E. long i.i°,30- BROUCK. SccBrucg. BROUGH, or Brough under Stainmor, a fmall town of Weftmoreland, in England, confifts chiefly of one long ftreet, and is feated on the great road between York and Carlifle. The furrounding country, though bleak and naked, contains fome good foil. Here the long chain of mountains, which bound the callern fide of Weftmoreland, is interrupted by another range of hills, which croffes it from the eaft to the weft. A charter was obtained for a market and fair in the time of Edward III. ; but the greater mar- kets at Kirkly Stephen and Appleby have entirely fuper- feded this at Brough. Here are the remains of a caftle, which bears marks of great antiquity ; and its keep is called in old records, " Ca:far's Tower." Antiq'iaries are agreed in placing the Roman llation," Verteris,"at this place; and this appears extremely probable from the various Roman coins, &c. that have been found here, from the charafter of the caftrametation, and its diftance from the ftations "La- vatris" (Bowes), and " Voreda" (Old Penrith). The remains of the caftle occupy an eminence, which rifes rather abruptly on the north and weft from a plain ; and on the fouth and eaft, where not fo fteep, it is additionally fortified with a ditch and vallum. Soon after the Norman conqueft, this was a place of meeting and confultation w ith fome of the borderers, who confpired againft the conqueror. Near Brough is a large cotton-fpinning manufaftory, be- longing to John Carlton, efq. who has a beautiful feat near the town called Hillbeck hall. Brough has three fairs an- nually ; one of which, in September, is noted in the north of England for the great quantity of cattle, horfes, &c. which are brought to it. This town is 261 miles N.W. from London ; and contains 1 1 7 houfes, with 694 inhabitants. Hoiifman's Topograph. Defcript. of Cumberland, &c. 8vo. BROUGHTON, Hugh, in Biography, a learned di- vine, was born in 1549 at Oldbury, in StaiFordfhire. Of his early education nothing is now known ; but it is faid by the biographers of Bernard Gilpin, that he was met by this excellent perfon in his journey to Oxford, whither he was travelhng on foot foi" the purpofe of becoming a fcholar there, and taken to his own fchool at Houghton, whence he was fent to Cambridge. At that univerfity he became one of the fellows of Chrift's College, and here he fo diftin- guiftied himfelf by his application and proficiency, and par- ticularly by his knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew lan- guages, as to attracl the notice and obtain the patronage of the earl of Huntingdon, who encouraged and alfifted him in his ftudies. From the univerfity he removed to London, and there became a celebiated preacher. His mode of preaching, according to Dr. Lightfoot, W3s to fcleCl two parallel texts, one from the Old Teftament, and the other from the New, and to difcourfe upon them in their mutual connediion ; in- dulging many fanciful and over-ftrained interpretations. Notwithftanding his popularity as a preacher, he purfued his ftudies without intcimifiion ; and he is faid to have fre- quently B R O quentiy fpent t6 hours out of tlie 24 at his books. In icSfJ, he publiflied a work, the refiilt of much previous la- bour, entitled, " The Confent of Scriptures ;" which is a kind of Scripture chronology and genealogies. In this work he zealouily maintains the incorruptiiels of the facred text, both of the Old and New Tellament ; and he contends, that the original toncrue of Adam and Eve continued un- clianged till the Babylonilh captivity, that the charaders :ti-.d points are the fame with thofe written by God on the W^o tables, and that tlie facred tongues were changed in the lime of the prophet Daniel ; but tliat the fcnfe of the ori- ginal tongue is prefcrved by tlie LXX. and the New Tefta- nient. Tlie chief of the Maforites, according to this writer, was Ezra; and they have kept the letters ^and words with £uch care, that none of them can ptri(h. This work, which excited great attention, was warmly oppofed by Dr. Rey- nolds of Oxford ; and the author thought the controvtrrfy of fuch importance, that he wiihed to have it fettled by pub- lic authority. For explaining his doftrine, Mr. Brouglitoa inflituted weekly kaures in London ; and they were con- dufted for fome time at St. Paul's, with the perminion of the queen and council, on condition of his returning the names, abodes, and occupations of all his auditors ; but by the oppofition of the bidiops, this indulgence was dilcon- tinued, and he was obliged to deliver his ledures in private rooms engaged for the purpufe in different parts of the town. Such was the extravagance of his attachment to the Hebrew language, that, having taught the fon of a friend to read antffpeak it at the age of 7 or 8 years, he rigoroudy pro- Viibited his talking even to his mother in Enghfli. In 1589 he went to Germany, and refided for fome time at Frank- fort, where he held a long difpute in the Jewifh fynagogue with a rabbi concerning the truth of the Chriftian religion. But in his various "difputations with the Jews, and alio with the papifts, he paid no great regard to the rules of prudence and pollttnefs. After 'his return to England, in 1 591, he publidicd " An Explication of the Article of Chriil's De- fcent to Hell," maintaining with great learning that the word hades no where, either among the Greeks, or in the Scriptures, properly denoted hell, or a place of torment, but only the place of fouls, the (lite e f the dead, or the invifible world. This opinion, though now generally received, was, upon his tinl avowal of it, violently oppofed, and particularly by archbifhop Whitgift and bilhop Bilfon. During a gi^eat part of queen Elizabeth's reign he palTed much of his time abroad ; converfmg with learned men, and propagating his pe- culiar opinion*. To the archbifliop of Menlz, who treated him with particular diftinftion, he dedicated his trannationof the Hebrew prophets into Greek ; and it has been faid, though not with great probability of truth, that he wa8 offered a cardinal's hat, if he conformed to the church of Rome. On the fubjetl: of Chrift's defcent, he addrcffed an epiftle in Greek to the Genevans, which was printed at Mentz in 1601 ; and in this epillle he reproved that church for its unbecoming heat and violence with regard to fome points, and fpoke with great feverity of the celebrated Beza, to whom he alio addrefTed fome rude letters, giving to the "Jefuit Serrarius, to whom he fent copies, full permiiTion to Bublifh them. In 1607, the new tranllation of the bible tvas begun ; and it was thought furprizing, that Broughton had noconcern in it : but his peculiar notions, and the diflike of the epifcopal bench, prevented his being employed. Find- ing no encouragement at home, he removed again to the continent, and became for fome time preacher to the Eng- lilh at Middleburg in Zealand. But when his health began to decline, he determined to return to England, and to die in his own country. Accordingly he embarked in Novem- ber 161 1 ; and in the following year he lodged in thehoufe Vol. V. B R O of a friend at Tottenham High Crofs, where he died ot 4 pulmonary confuniptiou in Atiguft, 1612. His funeral vva-! attended by a great concourfe of friends ; and his reimnu were interred in St. A"tholin's church-yard. As a feholar, and controveriial divine, Mr. Broughton was felf-opinioii- atcd, choleric, rude, and dogmatical ; but for the heinous charge of ingratitude to his full friend and patron, Beinaid Gilpin, againll whom he is faid to have inecnfed the bifiiop of Durham, there feems- to be no fufficient foundation. His works are for the moll part printed together in one large folio volume, at London, in 1662, with this fnigular title, " The Works of the great Albionean Divine, renowned in every nationfor greatflciU in Salem's and Athens' tongue, and familiar acquaintance with all rabbinical learning, Mr.Hugh^ Broughtoi'."' Dr. Lightfoot, addicled to Ihiiilar kind of literature, highly extols them ; but they are now forgotten. During his life, Broughton was not only a fubjed of angiy controverfy, but of ridiv-ule ; an inllance of which occuri in Ben Johnfon's " Alcliymift." But this contcmptuons reflexion was more than counterbalanced by an elegy, poi- fefhng great poetical beauties, written by an obfcure au- thor, called " VV. Primroes," and annexed to his works. In this elegy, theology is pf-rfonitied, and reprefented as la- menting the lofs ot him. What he fays of him as a linguifi, is as follows : « ^Vho, tuneful as the filver-pinion'd fwan, Canaan's rich language in perfection fang," «' He knew the Greek, plenteous in words and kuie. The Chaldee wife, the Arabic profound. The Latin pleafmg with its eloquence, The braving Spanifh with its lofty found. The Tufcan grave with many a laurel crown'd, The lifping French, that fits a lady vain, The German, hke the people, rough and plain. The Enghlh, full and rich, his native country's drain." Biog. Brit, Broughton, Thomas, a learned epifcopalian divine, and one of the firll writers in the Biograpliia Britannica* was born in London, July 5, 1 704, educated at Eton, and removed to Cambridge about the year 1722, where he entered himfelf of Gouville and Caius college. At fchool he had dillinguidied himfelf by the acutenefs of his genius, and the ftudioufnefs of his dilpofition ; and at the univeifuy he diredled his chief attention to the modern languages, and to the mathematics, which he ftudied under the famous profeffor Saunderfon. In 17:7, he took both deacon's and priell's orders, and left the univerfity, to fupply the curacy of Offley in Hertfordihire. In 17,39, he was prefented lo the reftory of Stepington or Stibington in the county of Huntingdon ; and loon after he was chofen reader to the Temple, and thus introduced to an acquaintance with bi(hop Sherlock, who, in 1744, preferred him to the valuable vicarage of Bedminller, near Briftol, together with the annexed chapels of St. Mary RedcIifT, St. Thomas, and Abbot's Leigh. Upon receiving this prefeutation he re- moved to Brillol, where he married a wife, by whom he had feven children, of whom fix furvived him. He rehdcd on his living till his death, which happened Dec. 21ft 1774; and his remains were interred in the church of St. Mary Redcliff. Mr. Broughton, during his refidence in Lon,(Jort, afToci- ated with the principal literary men of his time, and as he was a great lover ot rnulic, he was intrbduced to the ac- quaintance of Mr. Handel, whom he lurnifhed with the words for many of his compohtions. In his public charafter he united moderation of temper with a zealous attachment to the chriftian caufe ; and in his private life, his difpofition was mild, chearful, and liberal, and he devftted his time and j D attjntio* B R O attention to \ht intercfti and liappincfs of liis faxily. Fro.-n the lime of liis ciuit!:!!/ t''<^ uiiivcrlity till he was coiifidcr- aWy 3'Uaticrd in life, he cii-ja^cd i>i a variety of publica- turns of which the followinq; liil is taken froiii a paper in his o.vn haiul-M-iitiii^^ : " Chrilliairty ('.itliiiA from rhc Re- ligion of N.itiire, i:i ^lirce ])arts, in aiifwer to Clirillfaiiity at oUI as the Creation ;" " 'IVanlhtion of Voltaire's Temple of TaHe ;" " Preface to liis Father's Letters to a Roman Catholic;" " Alteration of Uorrel on the F.piiUes and Onfpcl-i, fn.m a P.inilli to aTrotcilant Book," 2 vols. Svo. ; " Part of the new Edition of Bayl-'i Dictionary in Englilh, corrtcled, with a Tranflatinn of the Latin, and other (Quotations;" " Jarvis'3 Don (Quixote, the Lnnc;iiage thorouj;hly altered and conxfted, and the poetical parts new tr^ndatcd ;" Tranflation of the mottoes of tlie Spertator, r.tinrdian, and Freeholder ;" " Original Poems and Tranf- lations bv John Dr)-den efq., now full colkfted and pub- liftied together, 2 vols. ;" " Tranditions of the quotations in Addifon'j Travels, by him left untranflatcd ;" " the firft a-d third Ohnthiacs, and the four Philippics of Demof- thenrs (bv feveral hands), revifcd and corrected, with a new Trandation of the frcond Olinthiac, the Oration de Pace, and that de Cherfonefo, to which are added all the Arguments of Libanins, and felect notes from Uipia'r," Svo. ; " Lives in the Diog. Brit. ;" " The Bifhops of Lon- don and Winchefter on the Sacrament, compared ;" Her- cules, a mufical Drama ;" " Bibliothtca hiilorico-facra, an hillorical Didionary of all Religions from the Creation of the World to the prtfent time," 1756, 2 vols, folio ; " A Defence of the com.nonly received Doftrine of the human Soul ;" and " A Profpcft of I'uturity, in 4 DilFertations, with a preliminary Difcourfe of the natural and moral evidence of a future State." He alfo left ui manufcript " A fhort View of the Principles upon which Chrilliau Churches require of their refpective Clergy, Subl'cription to eUablillied Articles of Religion," whicii was compol'ed not long before his death. From feveral fugitive pieces found in manufcript among his papers, and two unfinirtied tragedies written at the age of 17, it is interred that he pofleflTcd no inconfiderablc talents for poetry. Biog. Brit. Brouchtoh Ijlun;/, in Gi'0';rnphy, an ifland of America, lying at the month of Alata-nalia river in Gtnrgi;', which belonged to the late Henry La.'.rens, efq. The loulh chan- nel, after its feparation from the north, defcends gently, winding by M'Intolh and Broughton iflands, in its way to the ocean through St. Simon's found. BaouKiiusiuj, in Biogm/jhy. See Broeckhutsk. Brooncker, or Brounkkr, Vv'^illiam, lord vifcount of Callle Lyons in Ireland, and firft prcfident of the Royal Society after its incorporation, was the fon of fir William Brounker, made vifcount in 1645, ^"^ '^°''" about the year 1620. At an early period he manifefted a genius for thofe haathemaiical fciences, in which he afterwards excelled. The place and coarfe of his education are not known ; but in June, 1646, he was created doftor of phyfic at Oxford ; and in 1657 and l^^.S, he corrcfponded on mathe- matical fubjefts with Dr. John Wallis, who publifhed his ktters in the " Commerciuni cpiftolicum," printed at Ox- ford in I' Letters to the French Clergy in favour of the Reformed Religion," 1685. About this time he was appointed one of the deputies from the principal refugees in Swiflerland, for engaging the protellant powers to intcrell themftlves in favour of the French reformed that were difperfed through Europe. At Berlin, he compofed, by defire of the eleftor of Bran- denburg, his " Letters from the Protellants in France to all other Protellants." From Berlin he went to Holland, and had feveral conferences v.ith the prince of Orange and penfioner Fagel. Afterwards returning to SwifTerland, he printed " Letters to the Roman Catholics;" and, with a view to the more efitftual diftribution of them in France, he ventured, in 1C89, to vifit that country. On his arrival in the Cevennes, he accepted the office of minifter to a- congregation of protellants, which alTembled on the top of a high mountain, and, notwithftanding the various profccu- tions with which he encountered, he continued the exercife of his minillcrial funftioiis in thefe parts for 4 years. In 169S, he returned to Laufanne, and from thence removed to Holland, where he printed " A fummary Relation of the Wonders wrought by God in the Cevennes and Lower Languedoc, B R O B R O L.angMedoc, for the confolation and iiiftriiftion of \\\i defolated Church," to which his enemies would naturally afcribe the cliaraftcr of fanaticifm. He alfo piiblidied a volume of fermons, and received from the States of Holland a pcnfion, as a miniller. Towards the clofe of the year 1695, he again vifited France, travelling through mod of its provinces and employing his pen in various writings. During the negotiation for the peace of Ryfwick, he ex- erted himfelf in exciting the jiiotcllant powei's to treat for the rc-eftablifliment of the French reformed churches. Failing of fucccfs in this objeft, he made another tour through France, and, after encountering a variety of hazards, he was at length apprehended at Oleron in September, 1698, and carried for trial to Montpellier. Having been convifted of preaching in defiance of the royal ediif\, and of having held correfpoiidence with tiie enemies af the ilate, he was condemned to be broken alive upon the wheel, and he endured the execution of this dreadful fcntence with all the firmnefs appropriate to his charafter. His eloquence and zeal were univerfally acknowledged, and by his own party he was regarded as a martyr. The States of Hol- land did honour to his memory, by adding 600 florins, as a penfion to his widow, to the 400 which had been allowed to himfelf. Nouv. Dia Hilt. BROUVELIEURES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vofgcs, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri£l of St. Die ; one league N. of Bruycres. The place contains 414, and the canton 3574 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends ijo kiliomstres and 10 communes. BROUWER, in Biography. See Brauwer. BROUZET, Nicholas, was born in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, where he took his degree of doftor in medicine, in the year lyjC, whence he went to Paris, and was admitted correfponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and foon after was made phyfician to the hofpital at Fontainbleau. He publifhed in 1754, " Eflai furi'Education medicinaledesEnfans, et fur leurs Maladies;" a popular work, by which he obtained much credit. In his chapter on Generation, he follows the fyftem of Buffon, and fuppofes the organized particles to attraft each other, as tiie particles of fait do in forming cryllals. He alfo contends for the power of the imagination of pregnant women, in marking and deforming the fcetus ; but though there are thele, and other bltmifhes, the work contains many ufeful practical rules for the manage- ment of infants, and for the cure of their difeafcs. It was tranflated into Englifh and published in J^ondou, in 17 5j, Haller Bib. Chir. Eloy. Did. Hill. BROW-fln/Ztr, the firtt branch of the horn of a hart or buck, Ihooting out from tlie beam, or main horn, next the head. Hnow-pofl, in Carpentry, a beam which goes acrofs or averthwart a building. BROWALLA Hei^e, or Browei.la heath, in Geo- jfraphy, a plain of Sweden in the province of Smaland, lying about two Swedifh miles from ^V'exio, and famous for being the place where the Danes were totally routed by the heroine Blenda, who commanded the Smaland wonun, in the defence of their huftjands, who were engaged in another expedition. As a recompence of their bravery, the women of Smaland were honoured with extraordi- nary privileges, and wore a kind of martial head-drefs ; and they have ilill an equal (hare of inheritance with the men- BROWALLIA, in Botany, (named by I^innsus in honour of Browallius, bifliop of Abo, who defended the fexual fyftem againft. Seiorcfheck). Linn. pen. 773. Reich. 834. Schreh. 1036. Jufl". 123. Gxrt. 304. PI. 5;. WiilJ. 1 175. La Marck. PL ^55. Clafs, (H.'/ynamia nngiofprrmia. Nat, Ord. Lur'tJi — Scroph\iltti(C JniF. Gen. Char. (-V. perianth one-leafed, tubular, fnort, five-toothed, pennanent ; teitli rather unequal. Cor. monopetalous, funucl.ninped ; t!.he cylindric, as long again as the calyx ; border flat, (ivc cleft ; fegmeinc rounded, emarginate, the upper onr a little larger than the reft, and conftituting theuppcrlip. ■^.-.jj'?. filaments four, included in the tube ; the two longeft with larger anthers, vhich clofe the throat of the corolla. Antliers fimple, incurved, converging; the inner ones twin, the outer ones openii.g at the top with a fmall hole. P'ljl. germ ovate, retufc ; ftyle thread-fliaped, the length of the tube of the corolla ; iligma thick, four-lobcd Perir. capfule ovate, obtnfe, clotlicd with the calyx, two-celled, niany-feeded, two-valved ; valves bifid at tlie top ; parti- tion fiat, thin, parallel to the valves, and fcparating from the fides of the capfule a."; it advances to maturity, vlienec I.,innxus judged it to be one-celled. (Ga:rt. and JufT. ) Seeds numerous, fmalL EfT. Ch. l'[i!. five-toolhcd, Ccr. border five-cleft, nearly- equal, fpreading ; throat clofcd by the two larger anthers. Sp. I. B. der his plate, at which time Dryden was preftnted with another of tool. Brown died in 1704, and was interred in the cloiller of Wellniinller abbey, near the remains of Mrs. Behn, with whom he had been intimate. His works, con- fiding of dialogues, cflTays, declamations, fatires, letters from the dead to the hving, traiiflalior.s &c. were printed in 4 vols. iimo. in 1707. They are not deftitute of learn- ing, and abound with humour, which is julliy charged with want of delicacy. Biog. Dift. Brown, Moses, vicar of Olney, Berks, and chaplain of Mordcn college, was born in 1703, and was i riginally a pen cutter. In 1723, he publiflied two dramatic pieces, called " Polidus, or drllreffed Love," a tra;^-edy, and " All bedevilled," a farce, both aftcd at a private theatre in St. Alban's ilreet. On the inllitution of the Gentleman's Ma- gazine, he became a contributor to it ; and obtained fome of the prizes, offered by Mr. Cave, for the beil poems ; and, in 1739, he pnblillicd a volume of poems in 8vo., and, in 1749, " Sunday Thoughts," a poem, i2mo. In 17,56, he publiflied " Percy Lodge," a dcfcriptive poem ; he alfo edited " Wahon's complete Angler;" and, in 1773, re- publifhed his " Pifcatory Eclogues." He alfo trandated Zimmermann, and was the author of fome fermons. He died Sept. 13th, 1787. Biog. Did. Brown, John, a clergyman of the church of England, and an ingenious writer, was born in 1715 at Rothbury, in Northumbeiland, and educated, tirit at Wigton, and after- wards at St. John's college, Cambridge, where he acquired great reputation. Upon his quitting the univerfity in 17,55, he took orders, and firll fettled as minor canon and lefturer in the city of Carlifle. In 1739, he took his degree of mafter of arts at Cambridge ; and in the year of the rebel- lion 1745, he dillmguirtied himfelf by his zeal for govern- ment, and by the intrepidity with which he entered as a volunteer at the fiege of Carlifle. In the following year, he preached, on occafion of the trial of fome of the rebels, two admirable difeourfcs on the conneftion between religious truth and civil liberty, and between fuperftition, tyranny, irreligion, and licentioufnefs ; and his avowed attachment to the principles of whiggifni recOTnmended him to ttr? patronage of Dr. Ofbaldelton, bilhop of Cavlillc, who ob- tained for him a living in "Weiln-ioreland. About this time, his talents for correct and elegant vcrtilication were evinced, iu a poem on " Honour," iiiferibed to lord Lonfdale, and in an " Isd'ay on Satire," addveflVd to Dr. Warburton, and pielixtd to this eminent critic's edition of Pope's works. 'I'he friendlhip ot Warburton was foon followed by that of I/Ir. Ralph Allen of Prior-Park, who entertained Mr. Brown ?t his houfe, and oflered him pecuniary affiltance. During his vifit at Prior Park, he preached two fermoiis at the ab- bey-church of B.ith ; one of which, expofing the mifchiefs of immoderate gaming, is faid to have induced the magif- tratet to illue an order for the fiippicfTion of the public gam- ing tables. In 1751, he pubhihcd a work which maybe Hill re;':ardcd as one of his moll capital produi^tionb : viz. *' Ed'ays on the CharaA/rillics of the earl of Shafl(bury," (.Mmprdicnding one " On Ridiculf, coulidered as a Tell of Truth ;" another, " On the Motives to Virtue, and the Ne- ccITity of religious Principle ;" and a third, " On revealed Rshgion and Ctniftianity." Thefe tlfays are written with elegance and fpirit, and, at the fame time, with candour and politenefs. They were of courfe much read, and frA quently re-pnhlifhed, fo that a litth edition of them appear^fc in 1764. In 1755, Mr. Biown was honoured with the title of doflor of divinity at Cambridge ; and, in the fame year, he ventured to appear before the public under the new charafter of a dramatic writer. With the afTillance of Mr. Garrick, his tragedy of " BarbarofTa" was exliibited on the ftage with advantage ; and this v\as fuccctded in the enfuing year by " Athellhin." Both thefe performances were publifhed without his name. The next publication wliich we fhall mention, forms a kind of Ten in the author's life; it appeared in 1757, and was entitled " An Eftimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times." This work was publifhed at a time, when the fpirits of the people were extremely deprcfTed by fome uiiprofperous events that had occurred at the commence- ment, and during the progrefs of the war, in which the na- tion was engaged ; and it was defigned to fhew, that a vain, luxurious, and felfilh effeminacy, in the higher ranks of life, marked the charafter of the age, and to point out the caufes and the effefts of this ere:ninacy. The " Ellimate," adapted to the circumllances and difpofition of the people, at the time when it appeared, was read with avidity, and feven editions of it were called for, in little more than a year. It did not pafs, however, unnoticed ; it was attack- ed in a variety of publications ; but the moll effectual reply to it was, as Voltaire obferves, that the Englifh, from that period, began to beat their enemies in every quarter of the globe. In 175S, Dr. Brown publifhed a fecond volume of. the " Ellimate," and afterwards, "An explanatory De- fence of the Eftimate, by way of Appendix ;" but thecir- cumftances of the country were changed, and the public atcention drooped, fo that thefe pieces, though well written, were much lefs popular. Befides, the vanity and fuperior confidence of the author, which had not e.O:aped notice in his firft publication, became now more confpicuous, and dif- guiled even many of his admirers ; nor could the avowal of the integrity of his intentions, and the greater modclly with which he vindicated himfelf, in the " Explanatory De- fence," avail to remove the prejudices that had been con- ceived againft him. Dr. Brown manifefled an irritability of temper, and a propenlity to quarrel with his friends and pa- trons, which prevented him from obtaining thofe ccclefiafti- cal preferments, to which his literary reputation entitled him ; fo that the vicarage of St. Nicholas, in Newcaftle upon BROW I^J. iipi>:i Tynf, w itli ll.r office of oi.e of tlic king's chaplains in crJiiiarv, coiidiluted the final (cm of liis church promo- lijns. 'to 176 J, lit piibliihcd " An a.lJ!tioii;.l Dialogue of the DcaJ, between IVi ides ana Colnio," uliich wasfuppof- eJ to be a \indicati.)a »f Mr. I'itt's politicsl condua agamll fonic udcxioiK of lord LMtclton : and tliis was followed in i;6.;, b) '-'I'lie Cure of Saul, a facrcd Ode," which was fct to iiiufic, and performed as an ora'orio j and by an in- genious and cle^rani pcrfoiniancc, entitled " A Diflertation on the IMV, Union, and Power, the Pro^ re (lions, Sipara- lioni, and Corruptions of Poetry and Mufic." This diiFcr- tation, thouj;h ingenious and critical, advanced fanciful principles, and r.unifciled a (:ei;ice of credulity, with re- fptCt to the fiippofed eficd ot cerlziu pubhc iiillitutlon:i among the ancients, which gave rife to a variety "f jtric- tures. In 1764, Dr. Brown lietached from his '• Dillerta- aion" the fuhllancc of that part which related to poetry, ami ■i)ub!ilh<.d it f.-pu-atcly in ^n oftavo treatifc, entitled " The Hillory of the Rife and PiOjjrefs of Poetry through its le- vcral Sp -cies ;" and, in the fame year, he publlfhcda volume of " Sermons" being chicliy a collection of thofe which )iad b.fore been printed lingly. Of th>: new are thnfe ex- cclle;it difcourfcs on education, in which the author has fcraiifwenibly refuted fomc of the po'.itionsof Rouffcau in his "niilius, and other fpeculatills, and fatisfaftorily evinced the iieceffity and importance of forming the minds of children to early habits of piety and virtue. The author's attention was a^ain dircded towards politics, and in I76-;, appeared bis '■'Thoughts on civil Liberty, Licentioufnefs, and Fac- tion," containing cenfurcs on thofe perfons, who, at that time, oppofed the meafures of adniiniilration, and clohng with a piefcribcd code of education. As he propofed that this code fliould be adopted and enforced by government, it pRiduced the animadverfions of Dr. Pritllley, in his " Effay on the Courfe of a liberal Education, for civil and ?.£tive Life." The author's difcourfcs on education in general, were followed by a ftrmon " On the Female character and education," to which is aiuiexed an appendix, in which he ftates, in a very liberal maniKr, the moral and political prin- ciples which flionld be inculcated on the attention of young perfons; and, in his opinion, thefe are fuch as are evidently founded on the precepts of chrillianity, and the laws of freedom. He proceeds further to difcufs the quelUon, " whether there be any opinions or principles which ought not to be tolerated (or fulTercd to be taught) in a well-or- dered, free community ?" and to this qutllion, he replies, that, in his judgment, there are many opinions or prin- ciples, tending evidently to the dellruftion o! focitty or free- dom, and which, therefore, ought not to be tolerated in fuch a community. Accordingly, he alleges inftances in the three principal kinds, religious, moral, and political, taken from Mr. Locke, and fi:ppnrted by his authority. In 1766, ap- peared Dr. Brown's lail publication, which was " A Letter to the Rev. Dr. Lowth, occafioned by his late Letter to the right Rev. Author of the divine Legation of Mofes," and repelling iiifiiuitions, uiijulUy fuppofed to have been aimed at his moral character, on account of his adulation and de- fence of Dr. Warbntton. Bel'ides the works already men- tioned. Dr. Brown publiflied a " Poem on Liberty," and fome anonymous pamphlets. He had alfo announced an intention of publilhing " Principles of Chrillian Legifla- tion ;" but his defign was fruftrated by his death. In his will, however, he gave orders, among other particulars re- Idting to the arrangement and publication of his works, that this treatifc fhoidd be finilhed ; but this part of his will was never executed. _At the lime when Dr. Brown's difcourfcs on education were publillied, Dr. Dnniarefq had been invited to reftde in lUiffu, and was employed by the emprefs in fuggefting regulations for the ellablirtiment and conduct of feveral fehools, which (he was about to ercdt in various parts of her dominions. On this occalion, a correfpondeiice was pro- pofed by a lady of England, between him and Dr. Brown, who entered laigcly into the fubjct\, /ketched the outhne of a grand fclieme of education, and alfo of legiflation, for the Rufiian empire, and voluntarily offered to remove to RulTia for the purpofc of aiding in the execution of it. Dr. Du- marefq. after fome previous deliberation and conference with Monf. .Mullcr, his affociate, on the bufinefs, tranflated Dr. Brown's paper into Fiench, and prefented it to M. de Pa- nin, who laid it before the emprefs. She was impreffcd by the communication ; and Dr. Dumarefq was commiflion^d to invite Dr. Brown to the Rullian court. He accepted the invitation ; and received a remittance of loool. which the emprefs had ordered towards defraying the expences of his journey. The length of the journey, the changes of climate, and various other circumltances alarmed his friends, who obferved, that his conllitution was enfeebled by re- peated attacks of the gout : and tiiey diCTuaded him from the undertaking, which, after various preparations, he at length determined to renounce. As he had received only 200I. of the money that had been ordered, and returned above one half of it, after dedufting the expences which he had un- avoidably incurred ; his honour and integrity in the whole tranfadion were unimpeachable ; more efpecially as he con- tinued to tranfmit to the emprefs fuch obfervations as might ferve to facilitate the execution of her plans, and lender them effectual to the purpofc for which they were adopted. This negotiation agitated the fpirits of Dr. Brown ; and its iiTue, in which, however, he thought it prudent to acqui- efce, difappointed and mortified him. The pride of his temper, and the fenfe he entertained of his own importance, contributed, in no fmall degree, to that dejeClion of mind, which, concurring with a conilitutional tendency to infa- nity, led him to put an end to his life with a razor, Sept. 2jd, 1766, in the 5 lit year of his age. Biog. Brit. Brown, Sir William, M.D. of a refpectable family in the county of Norfolk,, was born in the year 1692. His father, who was a phyfician, iirll infpired him with a talle for the lludy of medicine. In 1707, when he was only ij; years of age, he was admitted of Peterhoufe in Cam' bridge ; and having paffed through the preliminary degrees, he was in 1721 admitted dottor in medicine. Of the re- fpedl he retained for liia alma inatcr, and of his fondncfs for literature, he gave evidence, by leaving to the univerlity of Cambridge a fnm of money, the interell of which he direfted to be laid out every year, in furniniing three gold medals, to be given to the three moil fuccefsful candidates in Greek, and Latin poetry. Of the books left lum by his father, he fays, he kept for his pocket companions, Bleau's Greek Tcllament, Hippocrates's Aphorifms, and an Elzevir's Horace ; " from the firll to draw divinity, from the fecond phyflc, and from the lad good fenfe antl vivacity." Soon after leaving college, he went to Lynn in Norfolk, where he praclifed phylic nearly thirty years, ^nd as it appears, with reputation and profit ; for ("peaking of his leaving that town, to come to London, he fays, " The manly age and inclination, with conformable (Indies, I diligently applied to the practice of phylic, in the country ; where, as that age advifeth, I fought riches and friendfhips. But being at length fatiated with friends, whom truth, not flattery, had procured ; fatiated with riches which Galen, not fortune, had prefented ; I reforted to this college (of phyficiaos) where I might addiCl myfelf totally to the Icrvice of honour." This BROW N. Tins vva5 about the year f;fiO, Hi did not, liowtver, de- cline praftice when lie came to I^undoii, goinp; whtrcvtr he was ffiit for ; but as he was a liumoiirlll, ami had many riiig\i- larities in Iiisdrtis, manners, and fonvcrfation, he never beeamt very popularasa phylicianin tliis^lace. 'I'hisdid notprevtiit iiis receiving all the honours the college could bellow npon !iim. They gratilied his vanity, his ruling padion, by cltcting hlin prefident two fueccctling years. It was the culloni, Sir Wil- liam tells u?, in his farewell oration, " to coritiniie the pre- fident, an entire Inftrnin, five years. 15ut two year's, he adds, more than fatisfy me ; that each of the t lefts may, in his turn, hold the feeptre ol prudence, no tenure plcafiug longer than a year." Ho felt, however, this deviation from tht-ir cuftom, and the college probably loft a legacy ; but they were obliged to pafs him by, as his fingularitics had aitra, the bill for eftablilhing the king's fupremacy over the church of Ireland. During the progrefs of tl>e reformation, when Henry began to fupprefs the monalleries in England and Ireland, archbifhop Browne completed the defign which he had formed of removing all fuperllitious relics and images out of the two cathedrals of St. Patrick's and the Holy Trinity, in Dublin, and out of the other churches in his diocefe ; and he placed, in their room, the creed, the Lord's prayer, and the ten commandments, in gold letter.'!. In 1541, the king converted the priory of the Holy Trinity into a cathedral cliurch, confiding of a dean and chapter; and the archbidiop, three years after, founded in it three prebends, from which time it has been denomi- nated Chriil-Church. The order of king Edward VI. for introducing into all the churches of Ireland the Englidi Hturgy, and the Bible in the vulgar tongue, though warmly Vol. V. oppofed by the popilh party, was readily received by arch- bifliop lirowne; and on the Eafter day following, the liturgy was read at Chrift-Cluirch in the prcfence of the mayor and bailiffs of the city, and the lord deputy St. Leger; on which occalion the archbidiop preached a fcrmon agaii.ft keeping the fcriptures in the Latin tongue, and agaiiiil the wordiip of images. This fermon is annexed to the arcli- bifliop's life. When Dowdall, the primate, was deprived ol this dignity, on account of his oppofition to the royal order, it was conferred in Odober, 15^1, on avchbilhop Browne ; but upon the acccfiion of queen Mary, he alfo was deprived both of the primacy and aichbiihopiic in i c;^4, under pretence that he was married ; but in reality, becaufe he had been zealous in promoting the reformation. He died al)out the year 1556, leaving behind him the character of a faitliful lubjcit, a zealous promoter of religion, and 3 pat- tern of nieckneis, checrfulncfs, and benevolence. Biog. Brit. Browne, William, an Englidi poet, was born atTavif- tock in Devonlhire, in 1590, and admitted into Exeter col- lege, Oxford, about the beginning of the reign of king James I. Having made very conliderable proficiency in cladical learning and polite literature, he left the college, and removed to the Inner Temple, London, where he de- voted himfelf to the inufes, and probably paid little attention to the rtudy of the law. In 161. j, he piibliflied the llrd part of his " Britannia's Paftorals," fol. ; a great part of which he feenis to have written before he had attained his 20th year. In the following year he publiflicd " 'i'hc Shepiicrd's Pipe, in Seven Eclogues," 8vo. ; and in 1616, tlie fecond part of his " Britannia's Paftorals," which were well received, and gained him great reputation. He alfo wrote the " Inner Temple Mafque," and fome other fmall poems, which are included in the edition of his works pub- lidied by Mr. Davies in 1772, in three fmall volumes. In his Paftorals there is much poetical imagery, and fonietimes beautiful defcription, and his verfification is often very har- monious ; but though he knew how to move the heart by ftrokes of genuine nature and palfion, his writings abound with point and conceit, and other frivolous ornaments, which indicate a vitiated tafte ; with a fertile imagination and a vigorous mind, his judgment was perverted by thofe Italian iiiodel.i, which it was the fadiion of his time to imitate. His defcriptions, though pidurefque, are extravagant ; his con- ception?, though ftrong, have marks of deformity ; and his language never flows in a ibain of continued purity. He could not plan with precifion and delicacy, and was unable to join correftnefs with fpirit. Such is the account gives of his writings by an anonymous critic. In J 624, he re- turned to his college ; became tutor to that earl of Car- narvon, who was killed at the battle of Newbury, and who is highly extolled by Clarendon ; was created M. A. in that year ; and was llylcd in the univerfity-regiftcr " Vir omni humanalittratura et bonarum artium cognitione inftruflus." He was afterwards taken into the family of the carl of Pem- broke : and, as Wood fays, ♦' got wealth, and purchafed an ellate." Towards the clofe of his life, he is fuppofed to have retired into his own country, and to have died there about the year i6^j. Biog. Brit. Browne, i'/V Thomas, more known now as an antiquary, than as a doftor of phyfick, was born in the paridi of St. Michael, in Cheapfide, the njth of November, 160^. Being left by his father, who died when he was young, an ample fortune, he was fciit to Winchcllcr fchool, and having palled through the ufiial exercifes there in I'^a ;, he was admitted a gentleman commoner in Pumbroke college, Ox- ford. In 1627, he took his degree of bachelor, and three years after of mafter of arts. During this time, bcfidesapply- : E ing B R O ,„jr w-ith afTni-iitv to clafilc.ll literutore, in whicli i>c made iTcat progrefs, he liad altcnd.ci to the lUidy of n.cc'.icine, which he prattifed for » Iniall time at Oxford. Witli a *iew of improvii.;r himfilf in that art, he ikteniiincd on \ tilting the I'chooU on '.he coiilineiit ; but he wtiu tirll to Irtlsml, where his mothrr then w;is with litr hulbaiid, fir I'hnmas Dutton, who held a puft in that kingdom. With him he travelled over the greatcH part of Inland ; and iiavinp coileffed what might he gnlliered there, in furtlitr- ar.ce of liis dclijn. he went to I'lance, and fpcnt fome time lit Montp:l)ier.'^ He then vifited PaJiia, and thence pro- ceeded to Lcydcn, wh re he continued, until he took his degree of dodlor in medicine. This w\.s about the year 1633. In 1634, he came to London, and foon rendered his name }':moo», by the publication of his " Rcligio Medici ;" a work of deep refledkion, and evidently the fruit of much lludy and attention. It waa no fooner publilhtd, we are told, tlian it excited the attention of the world, by tlie novelty of paradoxes the dignity of fentimcut, the quick flicccni >n of imagci, the multitude of abllrufe allulions, the fubtltty of dil'quilition, and the ftrength of language with which it was written. He begins with declaring liimfelf a Chriftian, though he has been clalTed among the free- thinkers. WTiatever might be his inconliltency on fome points, he favoured the notion of guardian angels, allowed the reality of apparitions, and of diabolical illufions ; and atfiims fro:n his own knowledge, the certainty of witchcraft. This latter opinion is laid to have had no fmall influence in occafioning the condemnation of fome unhappy victims, the execution of whom was one of the lateft inilance.'! of the kind that difgrace the Englilb annals. His natural dif- pofition, however, was avcrfe from feverity and intolerance; he declares himfclf to be an enemy to pcrfecution, and he was alm.->ft tempted by his beilevolence, to doubt of the eternity of future ptinidiments, and the abfolute condemna- tion of virtuous heathens. His fentiments were thofe of philanthropy, and he inclined to a favourable opinion of mankind in general. In his moral compofitions, however, he feems to have been more influenced by vanity, than by a real defireof improvingmankind. SirKenelm Digby publiihedob- fcrvationsuponthe" Religio Medici," which arc now generally fiound up withthe work. The remarksare acute and ingenious, but what feems mod wonderful is, that it coft the writer only twenty-four hoursin procuring, reading,and making his anno- tations on the book. It was foon after tranflated into Latin by Mr. Merryweather, a gentleman of Cambridge, and from his verfion it was again iranllated into Italian, German, Dutch, and French. An edition of the Latin vtrGon was publifhed at Stralburgh, with large notes by L. Nicolaus Moltfarius. The peculiarities of this book laifed the author, as is ufual, Dr. Johnfou obferves, many admirers, and many enemies ; it was only, however, profcfTedly anfwercd, by one writer, Alexander Rofs, in a work, entitled " Me- dicus Medicatus," which was never much noticed. In i6jy, he was incorporated in the univeifity of Oxford, ar;d then went and fettled at Norwich, where he was much rcfortcd to, and attained high reputation, Anthony Wood "^ays, for his (kill in his profcffioii, which, in a few years, procured his admiflion as honorary member of the Royal College of Phyficians in London. In j6-).i, he married Mrs. Dorothy Micham, a lady of a good family in Norfolk, and of great perfonal as well as mental endowments. Thcfe excellent qualities of the lady did not free him from the farcafrns of the wits who remembered the Dr. had exprefied a wilh, in his famed works, that procreation or population might go on without the cohabitation of the fcxes ; whicli he called •• the fooLftiefl. thing a wife man did." The doftor and his B R O lady, however, lived together in great harmony for mrr*^ tlia'n forty years, and left a fon, who was educated to medi- cine, and three daughters. In 1646, he publifted his trea- t'fe on vulgar errors, " Pleudodoxia Epidemica." In this he combats, with great learning and ingenuity, numerous notions or opinions on natural and other objcfts, which had obtained general credit, not only arrong the common peo- ple, but among phyficians and other literary perfons. The work is, of courfc, mifccllaneous, and occupies as many chapters as there arc errors he wilhed to reform ; but as it is ill general circulation, and has been freqviently reprinted, it is unnecefTary to fay more of it, than that it added con- lideiably to the fame the author had obtained by his former work. In this work, however, he oppofed the Co.iernicau fyftem of aftronomy, and contended for the immobility of the earth. In i6;i, he was iiiiiglited by king Charles IJ. in his paffage through Norwich, and with particular marks of clleem. He had before, viz. in 1658, publilhed " Hydrio- taphia, or Difcourfe on LTni-burial, together vi'ith the Gar- den of Cyru';, or the Quincunxial Lozenge, or Net-work Plantation of the Ancients, &c." In ttiefe he treats. Dr. Johnfon fays, with his ufual learning, on the funeral rites of the ancient nations ; exhibits their various treatment of the dead ; and examines the fubllanccs found in his Norfolcian urns. There is not, perhaps, any one of his works which bet- ter exemplifies his reading or memory. It is fcarcely to be imagined how many particulars he has amafled together, in a treatife which feems to have been occafionally written ; and for which, therefore, no materials could have been pre- vioufly collected. This is the laft work our author pub- liflied ; but he continued to live efteemed for his virtues, as well asfor hisliteraiy attainments, until he had completed his 77th year, when he was feized with an afFehy., lies on the foutli fide of Nonfuch harbour, near the call end of the iilaivd of Antigua in tlie \Veft Indies. Bkown's Point, the north-weft point of the peninfula called IJland Ma^ee, in the county of Antrim, Ltlnud, at the entrance into Loch-Larne. N. lat. ■;4''^i'. \V. long. 5° 41'. Huddiirt. — Alfo, a cape at the foiithern extremity of the idand of Tobago, in the W^ell Indies. N. lat. i i." 10'. W. long. 60° 40'. Brown's Sound, lies on the north-wed coaft of North America. N. lat. 55° 18'. \V. long. i.;2°2o'. The lands on the call fide of this found are tolerably level ; but on the well are mountains, which life above the clouds, and exhibit in winter a dreary afpe£t. The land abounds with various forts of pines ; the animals in its vicinity are deer, wolves, fea-ottei", and feals ; tlie fifh are falnion, holibnt, and a fpecies of cod, ice. In iiimmer, ducks, brants, fliags, &c. are plentiful. BROWN.'EA, in Bol.my (named from Dr. Patrick Browne, author of the hillory of Jamaica.) Lin. gen. S ; '. Reich. 898. Schreb. 1115. Julf. 566. Jacq. Amer. 566. WiUd. 1272. Lamarck. Bofc. Clafs, nionailtlphia ende- candria (datrndriii, Schr.) Nat. Ord. Loinentacf,f — Lcgumi- iiojle. Jufl. Nat. Char. Calyx double ; outer one-leaved, co- nical, with two unequal ftgnients ; inner longer, one-leaved, funnel-lhapcd, with five divifions. Cor. petals five ; claws long, inferted within the tube of the inner calyx ; borders ovate, obtufe. Stam. filaments ten or eleven, awl-rtiaped, alternately (horter, attached to the tube of the inner calyx, and united near the bottom ; anthers oblong. P}/}. germ oblong, pointed, pedicelled, adhering to the tube of the inner calyx ; ityle awl-fliaped ; Itigma blunt. Pericarp, legume oblong, comprefTcd, bilocular, narrowed about the partition ; partition membranaceous. Seeds foli- tary, ovate, compreifed, rather rugged, involved in fungous fibres. LIT. Char. Calyx double, outer bifid, inner quinquefid. Cor. five-petalled. Obf. Linnaeus, Jacquin, &c. have confidered the calyx as fingle, and the corolla double ; but from a careful conll- deration of Lamarck's figure of the coccinea, we have been induced to adopt the ideas of Jufiieu, and the other FrencU' botauills. Sp. 1. B. coccinea. Linn. (Jac. Amer. PI. 121. Lamarck PI. 575. N° I.) " Stamens the length of the corolla; pe- duncles fomewhat aggregate ; branches fmooth." Willd. A fhrub from eight to ten feet high, branched. Leaves ab- ruptly winged ; leaflets in two or three pairs, ovate-lanceo- late, fliarply pointed, very entire, fmooth, on fhortell pe- tioles. Flowers lateral, large, fcarlet, pendent, from fix to ten together, on very fliort nearly united peduncles. Sln- mens ten. A native of rocky woods, m South America. 2. B. grandicepj (Jacq. Colleft. ,3. PI. 22. La Marck Illnll. PI- 57.5- No. 2 ?). " Stamens the length of the corolla ; flowei-s capitate-fpiked ; branches downy." Willd. FoIioLs net-veined. Floivers fcarlet, in a fpike Iwe inches long and four broad. A native of mountainous woods in South America. 3. B. Rofa de Man'.e (Bergius in Philof. Tranf. vol.63. PL 8. p. 174. La Marck Illull. PI. 575. \\o. 3.) " Stamens twice as long as the corolh: ; (lower-; in heads." Willd. A tree. Branches fwelling into fcattered knobs. Branchlets, or common petioles, generally alternate, round, fmooth, rugged at the bafe, fpreading. Lea-ves leathery, about 15 R O about iVf.-d iiichti long, ovate-oblonjj, very- entire, narrow- ing abruptly toivaitlj the end, fniootli on both fides, with ftiori Detioirt J the loiver ones j;radii:iilv diminilhing ; the lottcll oviite, a httic hcart-lliapid at the bafc. Flnzveis col- leClid imo a head or fatcicle, furrouiided by a leafy invo- lucre ; 1 -aflrts or brakes ovate, rallier fliarp-poinlcd, fonn.-- what inmitiraiiaccons, concave, finoiUh, about two inches lonp, red, iin. hiding one and fometimes two or three flowers, decidnons ; the outer onfs rounded, the inner fmaller, and gradually becoiniirjj linear. FUnmtnIs coiiftanlly eleven. Ga- thered at I'orto Bello in America, by a Mr. Pike, and feiit to Bergiiis. It dors not appear that eillicr of the three fpecieshas been cidtivated in Euiope J\Y.it\v\ \ .\ /•ju-l/fara. Willd. .See Palovi A. BROWNHEl.D, in Gn!;rahhy, a fiiiall fettlement in York countv, and dillri>'\ of ^Iail1e, in North Amirica ; which, toijether with Suncook, contains 2<^o inhabitants ; fo called in 1 79 1 by captain Gray in honour of Sam. Brown, cfq. of licirton. HkOWNISTS, in Ecclrf.ifical Hiftory, a religions fefl, which fpriing out of the Purit.ins, towards the clofe of the 16th century, and derived their appellation from Robert Brown. The revolt of Brown, already mentioned under his article, was far from being followed with the diifohition of the feft. On the contrai-y it daily increafcd ; infomuch that fir Walter Raleigh, in a fpecch, delivered in the houfe of commons, in 159:, computes no Icfs than twenty thouland followers of it. The occtlion of the fepaiation of the Brownifts was not any fault tlicy found with the faith, but only with the dif- cipline and form of government of the other churches in England. They equally charged corruption on the epifco- pal form, and on that of the prefbyterians, by confillories, clafTes, and fynods ; jior would they join with any other rcfoiTTied church, becaufe they were not afTured of the fanc- tily and regeneration of the members that compofed it, and on account of the toleration of finners, with whom they maintained it an impiety to communicate. They condemned the folemn celebration of marriages in the church, and the life of the ring in marriage, as making it a facramental fign, which encouraged the popifh herefy, that matrimony is a facrament ; and maintained, that matrimony being a political contradl, the confirmation thereof ought to come from the civil msgiftrate. They would not allow any children to be baptized, whofe parents were not members of the church, or of fuch as did not take fufficient care of the education of thofe baptized before. They rejefted all forms of prayer ; and held, that the Lord's prayer was not to be recited as a prayer ; being only given for a rule, or model, whereon all our prayers are to be formed. They held, that the evil life of rhe miniftr)' deftroyed the efficacy of the facraments ; and they olijciScd againft bells in churches, becaufe, as they pretended, they were confecrated ts the fervice of idolatry. They urged alfo many other objections againft the forms and ceremonies of the eflabliftied church, which are recapitulated ill a fmall 410. pannphkt, pnblilhcd at Middleburgh in 1 ^99, on occafion of a contioverfy between Francis Johnfon, a Brownift, and H. Jacob, about fome of the tenets of the Brownilis, a::d entitled " A Defence of the Churches and Miniflery of England, againft the Reafons and Objeftions of Mailler Francis Johnfon, and others of the Separation, commonly called Brownilis ; in two treatifes, publiflied ffpecially for the benefit of thofe in thefe parts of the Low Countries." The form of church government which they eftablidied was democratkal. When a church was to be gathered, fuch a& dcfircd to be members of it made a confefiion of it ; and B R O fiffned a covenant, by which they obliged themfelves to walk together in the order of the gofpel. The whole power of admitting and excluding members, with the decifion of all controverlies, was lodged in the brotherhood. Their church- officers were cholen from among themfelves, for preaching the word, and taking care ot the poor, and feparated to thiir feveral offices by failing, prayer, and impofiiion of hands of fome of the bretiuen. But they did not allow the prielUiood to be any diftinft order, or to give any inde- lible chai-acter. As the vote of the brotherhood made a man a miiiifter, and gave him authority to preach the word, and admiiiiller the facraments among them ; fo the fame power could difchargc him from bis office, and reduce him to a mere layman again. And as they maintained the bounds of a church to be no greater than whnt miglit accommodate thofe who could meet together in one place, and join in one communion ; fo the power of thefe ofiiccrs was pr^fcribed within the fame limits. The minifter or pallor oi one church could not adminifter the Ijord's fupper to another, nor baptize the children of any but thofe of his own fociety. Any lay-brother was allowed the li- berty of giving a word of exhortation to the people ; and it was ufual for fome of them, after fermon, to aik queftions, and reafou upon the dotlrines that had been preached. In a word, every church on the " Brownifts" model, is a body corporate, having full power to do every thing which the good of the lociety requires, without being accountable to any claffis, fynod, convocation, or other jurifdic^ion what- ever. It has been faid, particularly by Dr. Fulke, that if we compare the principles of the Brownifts with thofe of the ancient DonatilU (which fee), vi'e (hall find them to be the fame ; and that Brown derived them from the Puritans and Separatists. Brown, it is faid, was preceded by Bolton, and followed by Barrow, a man of ingenuity and learning, but, like many others of his fed, of a warm fpirit, who was condemned and executed, at the inftigation of the bilhops, very much to the dilgrace of the reign of queen Elizabeth. Indeed the laws were executed with great feve- rity on the Brownifts ; their books were prohibited by queen Elizabeth, and their perfons imprifoned, and many of them were hanged. The ecclefiaftical commiffion, and the ftar- chamber, in fine, diftrefltd them to fuch a degree, that they refolved to quit their country. Accordingly, many families retired, and fettled at Amfterdam, where they formed a church, and chofe Mr. Johnfon for their pallor ; and after him, Mi-. Ainfworth, author of the learned com- mentary on the Pentateuch. This church, notwithilanding its uihappy inteftine divifions, flouriftied under a fucceffion of paftors for above 100 years. Other Brownifts ereifled churches after their own model, at Anihcim, Middleburgh, Lcyden, and otherplaces. See Ainsworth. The next perfoii that appeared as an aftive fupporter of Brownifm was Robin- fon, wlio fomewhat foftened the dogmas of Brown, and endea- voured to unite the difcordant mem'bers of his fed. For fome time the followers of Robinfon ileered a middle courfe be- tween the Brownifts and the church of England, calling them- felves " Semi-Separatifts ;" but at length they proceeded far- ther than the Brownifts themfelves. Tlie Brownifts, though ranged under diff'erent leaders, generally retained the name of their founder for feveral years after his death ; for in the civil war in 1640, &c. we read of a mob of 2000 Brownifts, who entered St. Paul's church in London, when the high- commifiion court was fitting, and making a great tumult, cried out "No Biftiops," "No High Commfffion," &c. : and m 1642, king Charles, in a fpecch made at the head of his forces on their march towards Shrewfhury, mentions the Brownifts, and by a ilrange kind of junaion connefts them and B R O and the Anabaptills with Jthe'ijls. In the following year lie propofes to the parliament to frime a good bill for the better prefervation of the book of common prayer from the fcorn and violence of BrownilU, Anabaptifls, and other feftaries. At length, however, the appellation of Brovvnifts was changed into that of Independents, a denomination af- fiimcd by thofe, who adopted many of their tenets, and conformed to their difcipline. At the prcfent enlightened period, when the principles of toleration are underllood and inculcated, and a liberal fpirit pervades all ranks of the com- jTiunity, the feverity with whicli the Brownills were treated, will find no advocates ; nor will any one attempt to jnftify or palliate their errors and mifcnnduft. Their rigid and nar- row fentiments in point of difcipline ; their denying the church of England to be a true church ; their maintain- ing that her government was lb wholly Popiih and Anti- chriilian, as to render all her ordinances and facrameuts in- valid ; ard iheir not only renouncing communion with her, but with all other reformed churches, excepting iuch as fhould be of their own model, are fuffieient proofs that they did not come behind tlieir ptrfecutors in bigotry. Nor is it unlikely, but that if they had rifen to power, they would have exercifed it in a very unjnilifiable manner. Neal's Hif- tory of the Puritans, vol. i. p. 231 — 260 — i(>i — j86 — 436. 4to. Neal's Hilf. of New Eng. tom.i. cap. 1. p. 58. Ro- binfon, Apologia julla, &c. Browniltarum et Barrowiftarum, i2mo. 1619. Biog. V>x\x.. AxU Robert Bronun. See Inde- pendents. BROWNSEA Island, in Geography, an ifland within the harbour of Poole, in England, containing about 800 acres of land, where the Danes landed in 1015. BROWNSTOWN Head, a cape on the fouth-coaft of Ireland, which is the eaftern point of Tramore bay, on the narrow channel of Rineftark. N. Lit. 52° 7'. W. long. 7° 7'. BROWNSVILLE, or Red Stone Old Fort, a flou- rifhing poft-townof America, in the county of Fayette, and ftate of Pennfylvania, on the fouth-caftern bank of Monon- gahela river, between Dunlap and Red-Stone creeks, and next to Pitlfburg : the moll confiderable town in the weft- crn part of the ftate. The town is regularly laid out, and countains about 100 houfes, an Epifeopalian and Roman catholic church, a brewery, and a dillilkrv. It is connefted with Bridge-port, a fmall village on the oppofite fide of Dunlap creek, by a bridge 260 feet long. Within a few miles of the town are 4 Friends' meeting-houles, and 24 grift, faw, oil, and fulling mills. The trade and emigration to Kentucky afford a lucrative employment to boat builders ; 100 boats of 20 tons each being buiic here annually. Byrd's fort formerly flood here, on the foulh fide of the mouth of Red-Stone creek, in N. lat. 39° 58'. W. long. 81° 12' 30"; 37 miles S. from Pitlfburg ; 13 S. by E. from Wathington ; and ;4i W. from Philadelphia. BROWS, or Eye-brows, are two hairy arches above the orbits of the eyes, bunching out by means of fome fat under the fliin in this place. That end next the nofe is called the head, caput, the other the tail, cauda, of the eye-brow. The ufe of the eye-brow is partly to break the rays of light defcending from above, that they may not dart too ilrongly into the eyes ; and partly to be a icreen to the eyes from fweat, diift, or other matters defcending from the fore-head. BROWSE, the tops of the branches of trees, whereon bealls feed. This is fomctimes alfo called brouce, and brut- tie ; probably from the French I/rout, which hgniliesthe fame. Browse more properly denotes the food which deer find in young copfes, continually fpringing anew. B R O I'rowsk, i,r///s of, or Brov^-sinij irajfs, a denomina- tion inehiding all of the fallow kind, as the deer, roc-buck, rupicapra, &c. V>Kci\rsK--!voor/, the fame with fpray or brufhwood. BROWTING, Broiiler, among the French Gardeners, fignifies breaking ofTtiic tips of the (lender branches of trees, when too long in proportion to their ftrength. BROYE, in Geography, a river of Swifferland, which rifes in the canton of Friburg, traverfcs lake Moral, and ifluing from tlience, and winding through a mailhy plan), difcharwts ilfelf into the lake of Ni-ufchalel. BROYLE, a harbour, cape, and fetllement on the ead fide of the idand of Newfoundland; 15 mdes N.E. from the ftttlemcnt of Aquaforl, and 50 S.W. from St. John, thecaphal. N. lat. 47" 7'. W. long. 52° 36'. BROZZO, a town of Italy, in the priiicipaliLy of Pied- mont, 25 miles N. of Turin. BR.SESKIE, Brsestz, or Brzksk. See Braesk. BRSEST, a town of Poland, and capital of a piilatinate of that name, ii> the province of Cajavia ; 80 miles W.N. W. of Warfaw. It is fituated in a maidiy plani, and furround- ed with a wall, rampart, ar.d moat. N. lat. 52"^!'. E. long. 19" 35'. BRUA, a river of Iceland, flowing from the fouth to the north, BRUANT, in Ornithulugy. See Emberiza Citri- NELLA. Bruant de Pljle dc Bourbon. See Emberiza Borbo- NICA. BRUARIA Turbaria. Sec Turbary. BKUCjEUS, Henry, in Biography, fon of Gerard, one of the magiflrates of Aloft, in Flanders, was born in that city, in the year 153 i. Having paffed through the ufual fchool-education, in x\ hich he diftinguifhed himfelf, he was fent to Rome, where he taught the mathematics for fome years ; then turning his mind to the ftudy of medicine, he went to Boulogne, and having completed his ftudics, and taken his degree of doffor, he travelled, for his further im- provement, over a great part of France. At Paris, he was introduced to the acquaintance of Adrian Turneby and Peter Ramus. Returning to Aloft, he was made phyfjcian and principal magillrate of the city. As he had become a con- vert to Luthernnifm, he readily accepted the invitation of John Albert, duke of Mecklenburgh, to fettle at Roftock, where he might with fafcty profefs his religion. He was here appointed profeffor in mathematics, and foon became popular alfo as a phyfician. After reiiding here 35 years, he was feized with apoplexy, of which he died, December 31ft, 1593. His works are, " Propofitioncs de Morbo Gal- ileo," 4to. 1569. He recommends beginning the cure with the decoftion of guiacum ; that not fucceeding, to have re- courfe to mercurial inunftions. " De Scorbuto Propofi- tiones, de quibus pubhce difputandum eft," Roftoch. 1589, and again 1591, 8vo. They are printed with Eugalenus, " Liber Obfervationum de Scorbuto," Lipfix, 1614, &c. He attributes the origin of the difeafe to feeding on dried and faked meat, and to living in a cold and damp atmo- fphere. " Epiftolas de variis Rebus et Argumentis medicis, cum Smetii Mifcellaneis, Francof. 8vo. 161 1. Kaller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Dia. Hift. BRUCC'A, in Geography, a town of Italy ,_ in the king- dom of Naples, and Principatro Cilra ; ij miles W. of Po- licaftro. BRUCE, James, in Biography, was among the moft celebrated of our modern travellers ; and it appears at pre- fent, as if the general credit of his narrative would furvive thofe prejudices, under which it has long laboured from the flip- r. B R O fiippofcd improbability of certain faclt altogether repugnant to European hubits and opinions. He «■»•* born at KinnairJ houfe, near I'alkirk, in Scot- land, in the year 1730. His dcfccnt was ancient and ho- nonrable ; on tlie female fide, to hi3 ow n intxprcfiibic grati- fication, connefting itfelf even with royalty. He was edu- cated at Harrow, where his proficiency is faid to have been highly creditable to his talents. He was afterwards re- moved to the univerfity of Edniburgh, where he became a law (Indent. Circnmllancec, not necefl'ary to the ehitidation of his public charader, occafioncd him to alter his views, and enter into partnerdiip with a wine-merchant in London, whofc daughter he married. His wife died in Icfs than a twelvemonth, when he went abroad, and did not return, till recalled by the death of his father. The tllate of Kinnaird devolved to him, and he now began to entertain thoughts of appearing in public life. The firll overtures of political cm- :iloyment ended in difappoiutment to the adventurer : but lord Halifax procured him the confulfliip at Algiers ; a fitu- ation which, he hoped, would facilitate the projeft he already entertained, of penetrating the interior of Africa. He went to Algiers in 176;, where he lUidied the oriental languages with much diligence. He likewife prepared himfcU for his great expedition by what may comparatively be confidered as /romt-travelsiof which he never publilhed any account, through Afia Minor, the iflands of Rhodes and Cyprus, and other contiguous countiies. Some of his drawings on this expe- dition are in the king's library at Kew. 1'he ollentatious traveller has charaderized this prefeut as '• the moll magnifi- cent ever made in that line by a fubjcft to his fovereign." He feems, indeed, to have had very jufl ideas of his fove- reign's dignity, as well as very high ones of his own ; for, when the bey of Cairo delired to fee him, and, after a long converfation, ordered him a purfe of fcquins, covered with fruit and flowers, Mr. Bruce accepted of one orange only, but pofitivclv refufed the money. The bey requefted to know the reafon. "' I am," faid Mr. Bruce, " an Englifli- man, and the ftrvant of the greatelt king in Europe : it is not tl»c cuftom of my country to receive pecuniary gratui- ties from foreign princes without the approbation of our fo- »creign." The bey, being himfelf a fovereign, was far from being difpleafed with the elevated fentinient of the cxcufe. It was in June, 1768, that he commenced his great jour- ney to the fources of the Nile. He failed to Alexandria, and thence proceeded to Cairo, which he left in December of the fame year, embarking on the Nile, and navigating as far as Sycne. He palfed through Arabia Deferta and Arabia Felix, making various excurfions into the latter country. His embarkation on the Red fea took place in 1769, and in September he arrived at a fmall ifland on the fionticrs of Abyflinia. In November he gained an entrance into the kingdom, and arrived at Gondar, the capital, in 1770. The limits of this article will not allow us to enter on his ad- ventures, multifarious and oftentimes extraordinary as they were. For a topographical and hiftorical account of Abyf- finia, we mud refer to that head in the prefent work. In November, I 770, he arrived at the fources of the Nile. A confiderable degree of fofpicion has been thrown on his whole narration by the triumph with which he congratulates him- felf on having made a difcovery that had eluded all prior refearch, when it is now generally underftood that the Por- tugucfe Jefuits had been at thofe very fountains before him. If he was acquainted with that fad, his vanity in that in- ftance certainly triumphed over his veracity ; but it does not feem neceffarily to follow, that the whole mud be treated as a romance. After all, though the interell of every jour. B R O ney (liould be pointed by fome determinate objcft, the reader will probably be much more engaged by the detail of circum- ftances, and the delineation of manners and cullom*, than in a dry controverfv, wiiethcr or not the traveller did really dif- cover the forrccs of the Nile. In tliis point of view, tra- velling may be compared with fporting ; the exercife is of much more value than the game. On his return to Gondar, he found AbyfTinia in a ftate of civil war. He engaged on the part of the reigning prince, whofe favour vva.s attended with the inconveni- ence of a politive refufal to part with him. The plea of ill health, however, procured his releafe, and he was permitted to fet out in the beginning of 1772. The dillrefs to which he was reduced in this journey was extreme. His camels all peridied ; and he was obliged to abandon his drawings, papers, and inilruments, which however he afterwards re- trieved. He arrived at Cairo with much difficulty, and the lofs of nearly all his retinue. He pafTed fome time with JjufFon in France, and returned to England in 177,;. He retired to Kinnaird for the recovery of his health, and for a long time negledled the gratification of public curiofity. His time was occupied by the circumftances attending a fe- cond marriage, the improvement of the walle lands on his paternal ellate, and the formation of a mufeum, enriched with Araliic and AbyfTinian manufcripts, and various curio- fities both natural and artificial. His work appeared in 1790, in >; volumes 4to. It was eagerly read; but an air of vanity and arrogance pervading the Ityle, lecms to have infpired the public with a difpolition to fevere criticifm and incredulity, whidi the confirmation of many fads by fubfe- quent travellers has already in fome meafure checked. Mr. Bruce died in April, 1794, in conftqnence ot a fall in con- dufting fome company down flairs, which at the time did not threaten fuch fatal confequences. Mr. Bruce's figure was above the common fize; his limbs athletic, but well-proportioned ; his complexion fanguinc ; his countenance manly and good-tempered ; and his manners eafy and polite. The whole outward man was fuch as to announce a charaftcr well calculated to contend with the many difficulties and trying occafions, which fo extraordinary a journey could rot but have thrown in his way. His inter- nal charaders, the features of his underftanding and difpo- fition, feem in a great meafure to have correfponded with tlicfe outward lineaments. As a country gentleman, tiiough not without a tindure of haughtinefs, he exhibited the ele- gance of a man of fafliion, and the hofpitality of a Briton. Bruce's IJlanil, in Geography, an illand in the Red ica, on the coaft of Abyflinia. N. lat. 23° 42'. E. long. 35° 50'. The fouth of it is high and rocky, and the north low and terminating in a (loping bank. Bruce gave it his own name. Bruce Hill, a confiderable mountain in the fouth-wcllern part of the county of Cavan, in Ireland, from which the liver Erne takes its rife ; 1 1 miles S.S.W. of Cavan. BRUCEA, in Botany, (in honour of James Bruce, who brought the feeds into England from Abyffinia). Schreb. l.';o8. Jufl". 375. La Marck. Bofc. CMs, dlacia lelran- dria. fiat. Ord. Terditilace^. JufT. Gen. Char, i . Barren flowers. Ca/. perianth four-ckft, flat, villous; fegments lanceolate, acute, fpreading. Cor. petals four, lanceolate, acute, ciliate, fpreading, fcarcely larger than the calyx. Nefl. placed on the receptacle, flat, four-lobcd ; the lobes obfoletely emarginate, oppofite to the petals. S/atii. fila- ments four, upright, (hoit, oppofite to the fegments of the calyx, inferted on the receptacle between the lobes of the nedary. ylnthers roundilh. 2. Fertile flowers. Cal. and Cor. as in the former. Nea. the inner margin of the receptacle thickened, four-lobed ; lobes emarginate. Slam. B R U B R U Sfam. filaments four, infcrted into the receptacle on the outfide of the divifions of the neftary, thread-fliaptd, thicker towards the fumnilt, rather (harp, a little (horter than the petaU ; anthers none. PI//- germs four, inperior, ovate, conipixfled on the inner fide ; llyles avvl-fliaped, reflexed, in- cnnilKiit on the germens ; iligmas fliarp. Pcv'icarfi unknown (Sehrcb.); capfnles four (L'Heretier). 6'r'ti/j- iiiigle. Efll-n. Char. Cal. four-cleft. Cor. four-petalled. Peric. four, one-feeded. Species. B.ferru^inea, L'Heretier; antiJyfcnterica, Bruce. (Bruce, V.6y. L'Heretier, PI. lo. La Marek, PI. 8jo.) A fhrub of tlie middling fize. Stan upright. Branches few, alternate, fprcading, ftraiglit, leafy at tiie fiunniit, v.'ith bruad fears below left by the fallen leaves. Leaivs crowded, crowning the extremity of the branch ; lower ones pendent, a foot long, unequally pinnated, on round, tomcntufe, ru- fous petioles. Lcojlets eleven or thirteen, on ihoit petioles, oblong-ovate, entire, acuminate, veined, villous, iijijlfs of flowers axillary, linear, tomentofe, nearly as long as the leaves. Floivcrs on the common peduncle wliorled in fliort fpikclcts or bunches, of an herbaceous colour tinged with red or ruffet. The male plant began to flower in the ftove of the Paris botanic garden, in May and June, 17S0 or 1781, when it was between two and three feet high. The female plant lias flowered in the royal garden at Kew, whv:re it was intro- duced in 1775. The root is ufed in Abylhiiia as a fpecific in the dyfentery. It is a plain, fimple bitter, without any refinous or aromatic tallc. Obf. The figure in Bruce's Travels is monoecious. BRUCH, or Broich, in GnograJiLy, a figniory of Ger- many, in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy oi Berg, about 4 leagues in circuit, deriving i:s name from a callle, 4 miles E. of Duifburg. BRUCH, a town of France, in the depa'-tment of the Lot and Garonne, and dillrict oi Nerac; 5 miles N. N. E. of Nerac. BRUCHHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wellphalia, and county of Hova ; ^ mllcs W. of Hoya. BRUCHIUM, in Jiirlent Geography. See Alexan- dria. BRUCHSAL, in Geography, a pretty fmall town of Ger- many, in the circle of tlic Upper Rhine, and bifliopric of Spire, feated on the Salza ; where the billiop has a liandfome palace, and an arfenal ; 1 1 miles S. E. of Spire, and 5 miles S. E. of Philipfburg. Li its vicinity is a very large falt- work ; and the furro\inding country has many fpaci- ous forefts, which, however, are intcrfedled by Icveral well cultivated vales. Theff; woods, the timber of which is carried to Holland by the Rliine, conilitute the principal revenue of the courts of Spire and Carlirugh. BRUCHUS, in Entonwlogy, a genus of Coleopterous infects, witli filiform antennx, equal filiform feelers, and acuminated lip. Gmel. 'Phe fptcies of this genus are pifi, umbeliataium, robiiiiie, gibbufus, fcabrofus, clathratus, ca- cao, undatus, theobrumatis, marginalis, caiiahs, bipundtatus, varius, gleditfchite, fpiiiofus, bafiris, rufipes, granarius, cifti, abdominalis, feminarius, maculatus, mimoiic, fcrraticoinis, peftinicornis ; which fee rclpettively — B. abdominalis is a native of Lidia. It is black: abdomen cinereous, and without fpots ; anterior legs teftaccous. Fabricius. BRUCIOLI, Antony, in Biography, an Italian writer, was born at Florence, about the clofe of the 13th century ; and having engaged in the confpiracy againll cardinal Julio de Medici, he was obhged to feek refuge in France, whence he returned on the expulfion of the Medici family in ij;27 ; but being fufpeded of hcrefy, on account of the freedom Vol. V. with which lie fpoke of monks and piiei^s, he lift Florence in 1529, and repaired to Venice, where, in 1552, he pub- lilhed his Italian verfion of the Bible, which was dedicated to Francis I., king ot France. This veifion was accom- panied with an ample commentary in 7 volumes folio ; con- taining fome Itridures, which excited a fufpicion, that the author had imbibed fome of the principles of the refoimers. Although he pretended that he had traiiflated dirertly fioni the originals, father Simon demoniirated tliat he had little knowledge ot the Hebrew, and tliat he iiad generally iifcd the Latin verfion of Pagninus. His work was condemned by the Catholics, but a])provcd and encouraged by the Re- formers ; feveral editions of it were printed, the lad of which is that of Venice in 1546-4S, 3 vols, folio. Brucioli lived at Venice, without moleilation ; and employed hinifelf in a variety of literary works. Befides Italian traiiflations of Pliny's natural hiilory, and of feveral pieces of Arillotle and Cicero, and editions, with notes, of Petrarch and Boccacio, he "pubhfhed a folio volume of " Dialogues." Aretinc writing to him in 1542, fays, " Are you not fatisfied with having compofed more volumes than you are years old ; and with having fpread your name through the whole world I" He was iiill living in 1554. Nouv. Did. Hift. Gen. Biog. BRUCK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and principality of Culmbach, feated on the Rednitz. Bruck, or Brugg, a town of Gennany, jn the arch- duchy of Aullria, fituate on the river Leyta. In the en- virons ot this town afparagus grows fpontaneouHy without culture. It is diftant 25 miles E. from Baden, and 20 E. S. E. from Vienna. Bruck, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upucr Saxony, and deflorate of Saxony; 10 miles S.W. of Potzdaui. Bruck, or Pruck, a town of Ciermany, in the circle of Bavaria and Uff er I'alatinate ;. iS miles N.N. E. of Ratif- bon. Sec Pruck. BRUCKENAU, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rliine, and bifliopric of Fulda ; 14 miles S. of Fulda. BRUCKER, John-James, in Biography, a learned Lu- theran clergyman, was born Jan. 2i, 1696, at Auglburg, and educated at Jena, where, in 17 18, he took his degree of mailer of arts. In 1720 he returned to the pkce of his nativity; in 1724 he became retlor at Kafbeueren ; and in 1731, he was chofen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. At Augfburg he was afterwards pallor of St.- Ulric's church, and fenior minifter ; and died there in 1770. Among his works are the following, viz. " Tcntamen In-, trodudlionis in Hilloriam Doftrinx de Ideis," Jena, 1719, 4to.; " MeditatioTies phiiofophic^s de falfa virtute exemplo Alexandri magiii ilUiftrata," Ibid. 1720, 4to.; " HiHoria Philofophica Dodrin^ de Ideis," Augfb. 1723, 8vo.; " De Vita et Scriptis CI. Etringeri," Ibid. 1724, 8vo.; " Otium Viiidelicum, five Meletematum Hillorico-pliilorophicorum Triga," Ibid. 1721, 8vo.; " Hilluria Vitx Adoiphoruni Occoiuim," Lipf. 1734, 4to.; " DifTertatio iLpiltoi. de Vita Hier. Wolfii," Ibid. 17.59, 4to.; " De Hoefchelii Meritis in Rem Literariam," Ibid. 1739, 4to.; " Inllitutiones Hif- torix Philofophicx^" Ibid. 1727, Svo. and 175'^, 4to. But the moll important work, to wliich he owes his chief reputa- tion, is his " liiftoria Critica Pnilofophiie," pnblifhed at Lcipfic bet ween tiie years i 742 and i 744, in four large voliinies 4to. and re-printed at the fame place in 1767, with large im- provements and additions, in 6 vols. 4to. To Dr. Enfield the Englilh reader is indebted for an excellent abridged tranfla- tion of this co.mprchenfive and learned work, pubhlhed in 3 F I79'> U R U r79lt in 2vol». 410. I:i this inrtrnftive work the autlior comprilcs the hillor)- of philofophy iiiidcr tlircc pcrioch : the /irjl, commencing from the earlieft times, and extending to the dccliiie of the Roman empire, compieliends the liar- banc and the Grecian philofopliy ; x.\\e feccintl, from the de- cline of the k<)man repubhc to the revival of letters, com prchend:, the philulophy of the Rnn.ans, the oriental philo- fophy, that vi the Jews, that of the Saracens or Arabians, and that of the CKrillians: and the //jW period, from the revival of lettcrj to the beginning of the 18th century, in- cludes attempts to reilore and correct the Sedarian pb'lo- foph), attempts to introduce new mcthodo of pliilofophifing, and attempts to improve philofopliy in the true Eclettic method. IIRI'CKL.WV, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the ci'tle of I'ppcr Saxony, and county of Reus ; S miles W. N \V. ofGreitz. BK.UCKM.VN', F:;ancis-Ernest, in B'io<;raphy, was born at Htlmlladt, in Ky-;, and, having completed his lludics, was created dodor in medicine, at the univerlity there, in the year 1721. As his talle inclined him to bo- t.iny\ he travelled over Bohemia, Aultria, and a great part of Germany, examining and colleftiiig plants indigenous to ihole countries, and other natural productions. In return for his communications to the Academia Nat. Curiof. and of Berlin; he was made corrcfponding member of thofe focie- ties. Having tinilhed his travels, he fettled at Brunfwick, where lie continued in requcll to the time of his deatli, March 2iil, 1753. When youna;, and before be bad taken the dtgree of doctor, he publillied, " Specimen Bo- tanicuni, cxhibens fnngos fubterrancos, vulgo tubcra tens dictos," Helmlt. 17:0, 4to. with engravings. He con- lidertd the black fpots on the bark as feeds. In 1727, " Opufcula Medico botanica," 4to. Brunl'wick. In this he treats of the ircdical qualities of various vegetable pro- ductions, among others of cofTee, the ufe of which he con- demns. " Epillola; Itinerarix," containing his obfervations on vegetable and other natural produdions, coUeded during his travels. The epiftles are 300 in number, the lirft cen- tury was pubhdied in 1742; the Uvo lalt in 1749, 4(0. rhey contain a great body of ufeful information. The ■titles of a few of the epilUes follow, for the reft, or fnch of them as are moll curious, confult Nailer's Bib. Butan. " l)e Ttr cllricole, feu Phallo ;" " De Alga Saccharifcra;" '• Animadverliunes in Pifonis et Boetii Libros ;" " De Mufcis nordum defcriptis ;" " De Melone Aquiformi ;" *' De S'.;.api tuberos, radice infantem reftrentc ;" " De Ufu Com c's Sambuci in Hydrope," &c. &c. Haller. Bib. Lot. and Chirurg. Eloy. Did. Hid. • ^^^^'-/^OBEL.in G«^^/-^/,!y., a town of Germany, in the circle ,f iht- Upper Rhine, and county of Hanau Munzen- berg ; 2 r?;i!es N. of Hanau. BRUCl'ERII, in yln.-icnt Geography, a people of Ger- many, phxed by mod geographers next to the Frilii, be- tween the Amiha, now the Ems, and the lake Flevus, now the zCuyder Zee. They were powerful and warlike; but betore the time when Tacitus wrote, (fee Germ. 07 ) that IS, betore Trajan's fecond confulHiip, thev had been ex>ir- patedbv their neighbours, who had confpi.'ed againil them - and tncir place was occupied by the Charnavi and Aruri- vani. 1 hey were conquered by Drufus in a naval fight, on occafion of his tirft German campaign ; again by Tibe- nus .n the 4th year of the Chriftian a.ra ; and afterwards, - •■ An^v V'-' ^^ Germanicus. In the year 69 they .)Oin*d Civihs in his attack upon the Romans. Towards the commencement of the 4th century, Conltantine, having palTed the ilhme, entered their countrj' and laid it walie with fire B R U and fword. Their villages were burnt, their cattle flaiig!;. tcred, their men and women malTacred, and tho.e that efcapcd the fword, and were made prifoners, met w i!i a ftill more ciu' 1 fate. As he judged them incapable of ever per- formi"g any really ufeful fervice, on account of their per- lidy and invincible ferocity, they were condemned to the fame puniihment as the kings cf tiie Franks, whom he had vanquifhcd, and delivered to wild beafts, whofe favage dif. polition thcv imitated. BRUDUS, Emanuel, in Biography, fon of the phyfi. cian Dionyfius, of Paris, pradifed medicine for fome years in England. lie publifhed, in 1544, at Venice, '• De Ration.- Vitlus in fingulis Febribus ad Anglos," 8vo It is a thick and bulky volume, and has been°feveral times re printed, once by Gefner, in 1555. He appears to have' read the old Greek and Arabian writers with attention and to have drawn his doftrine principally fro.^l r!,em Too flender a diet (hould not be given to the Eugluh in fever, but care (bouid be taken to keep up the ftrengt!- cf the patients. This fliould be done in all fevers, of which he defcr.bes the different ftages, with the treatmeat in each He IS every whei-e prolix, but fome good pradicai rules nay be deduced. " Dialogus circa quafdam Qiieftiones in Me- dicma," 4to. without date. Haller. Bib. Med I.nS^';!? '^P^ r ^'°3'-fPh> a town of Upper Guelder- land : 10 miles S. E. of Veiiioo. BRUEHL, Walter, or Bp.aijt, in B'wgrahhv a Ger man phyhcian, pubi-nied in 1579, Antw^ fol.^ " Prlxis Me'- dica, Theonca et Empinca, familiariffima, in qua morbo- rum mtcrnorum cognitio, et curatio traditur " Th? work, though little noticed now, was in much eftimat^on as appears by its having paded through eight editions, 'the laft pruned at Venice in 1602, Svo. It is dedicated ti the earl of Huntington, wnich makes it probable the author had been in this country. Haller. Bib. Med. Pratf. Eloy Did, BRUEL in G.o^/-^/^v,a town of Germany, in the circle N. K^rsSn?"^ '^"^^^ °^ ^l^^^l..^.r,., t. mile: BauEL, i?ri.././, orBrugl, a town of Germany, i„ the circle of the Lower Rhme, and eleftorate of Cologn • 6 miles S. ot Cologn. ° ' BRUE'RE, a town of France, in the deoartment of the Cher, and diftrid of St. Amand, feated on the Cher i ' league N. W. of St. Amand. ' ^ ^ BRUEYS, DAyiD-AuGUSTiN, in Biography, a Fren-h }"l '"'''' ,''?'■" °^ " P>-oteftant family, ft a4 in 16,0 and educated for the bar; btit his inclination tfco'nt ovSal theology led h.m to abandon the profeiTion of an advoca e and in 16S3, he publiihed an anfwer to bilhop S et.^ expofition of tlie dodrine of the church. The bfflioD how ever, cnnverted him to the catholic faith; and aSe h d bm-ied hj. wife, he entered into the eccleliaftical ft t e and diftinguifted himfelf as the champion of popery again t In- neu, Levant, and other proteilant divines.^ Of fh fine' my of his conveifion his fubfequent condud afforded fom^ giound of fnfpic.on ; as he diverted his attention from theo! logy and devoted it to dramatic fubjeds. Accordin Jv K. compofed feveral pieces for the ftagi, fomeofvSlre written in conjundion with his fne°nd Palaprat. Of tTefe the mort celeorated are the comedy of "l^Crr^A f, (the Grumbler), which Voltaire piSers to ^ Uh"! St pieces of Mohere, and a revived ancient piece failed Pidtf °At^''"'"/"''T"'^'^'^ f°^ ns hu'mou/ou fiS gc7c;ntteV;°rd'rt:^^'^h'; Afr '-'rf ^^-^ .n our own timel" relat.'rto th\"aate'\7rel^:"ir£ Gevennes, B R U Cevennes. The Abb6 Brueys, as lie was ufually flylcd, died at Moiitpelli<.'r in 1723. His dramatic works were col- lefted into 3 vols, in 17.55. Noiiv. Diet. Hill. I'Rl'FF, in Geography, a finall poll and market town of Ireland, in the county of Limerick ; fituate on the road from Cork to Limerick ; 12 miles S. of the latter city, and lofi n-.'e? S.W.of Dublin. BRUFFIER, La, a town of France, in the department of tii-j vendee, and dillrift of Montaigu; ij leagues E.N.E. of M ntaiaju. KRUGD, in Ichthyology, See Squalls Maximus, great Jhark. BRUGES, John of, \n Biography. See Eyck. Bruges, in Geography, a town ol France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Pyrenees, and dillriiil ot Pan ; 4 leagues S. of Pan. Bruges, once a commercial, flouriihinjT, and populous city of the Aullrian Netherlands, and a bilhop's fee, and now, fince the French revolution, the capital ot a diftrift, in the department ot the Lys, which is divided into five parts; the'firtl part containing, according to Tuifeau's ilatillical view oc France, 9508 inhabitants, the canton 14,444, and its territory comprehending 207-^ kiliometres, and five com- munes : tlie lecond part includes 7049, and its canton 13,022 inhabitants ; its territory comprehends 70 kiliometres, and 4 communes : the third part contains 755,;, and the canton 13,896 inhabitants ; its territory includes loj kilio- metres, and 7 communes : the fourth part contains 6796, and its canton 14,320 inhabitants ; its territory compre- hends 107! kiliometres, and 1 1 communes : and the fifth part contains 2821, and its canton 11,974 inhabitants ; '^^ territory includes 147-5 kiliometres, ^'"^ 12 communes. Ac- cording to this llatemcnt the population of Bruges amounts to 3J,70Dpcrfons ; but others, by a more m jderate compu tation, elHmate the number at 2 3,003. Bruges is about a league and a half in circumference ; is advantageoufly fituatcd for commerce, about 8 miles from the fea ; and communi- cates, by means of navigable canals, with Ghent, Ollend, Nieuport, Fiirnes, Damme, Sluys, &c. As the adjacent country is nearly level, the water about it has no perceptible current ; but it is eafily changed in half an hour's time, by opening the fluices, and difcharging it into the fea. Ac- cordnig to Giiiccardiiu, this city was firll founded about the year 760; and took its name from a bridge called " Brug- ilock," in its vicinity, between O'idembourg and Radem- bourg or Ardemboiirg, vvhich are two maritime towns, faid to have had confiderable comm ice in this country, till they were ruined by tlie Danes or Normans. Out of the ruins of Oudembourg was built the original town or caltle of Bruges. In the ijth and 14th centuries, Bruges was the greatell emporium in all Europe. Navigation was then fo imperfect, that a voyage between the Baltic and the Medi- terranean could not be performed in one fummcr ; and, therefore, it became neceffary to ellabliih a magazine or rtorehoufe about midway between the commercal cities in the North and thofe in Italy. Bruges was feletted as the moll convenient ftation ; and this choice of courfe intro- duced vail wealth into the Low Countries. Bruges was at once the llaple for Englifh wool ; for the woollen and hiicn manufaftures of the Netherlands ; for the naval llores, and other bulky commodities of the North ; and for the Indian commodities, as well as domeftic productions, imported by the Italian Hates. The extent of its commerce in Indian goods, with Venice alone, appears from one fatt. In the year Ji3, five Venetian galealles laden with Indian commo- dities arrived at Bruges, in order to difpole ot their cargoes at the fair, Thefe galeaffes were veflels of confiderable bur- B R U den. The citizens of Bruges, enriched by Its commffce, difphyed in their drefs, their buildin^^s, and lluir mode of living, fucli magnificence as even to mortify the pride and c.Kcite the envy of royalty. To this purpofe we may men- tion a ilngii! ir inllnnce. In 1301, Joanna of Navarre, the wife o; Philip le Bi.', king of France, havin;,; been fome days ir. Bnigis, was fo much Ifruck with the grandeur and wealth of that city, and pirtieularly with the fplendid ap- pea ance of the wives of the citizens, lh.it (he was moved (lays Guiccardiiii, Demerit, de Paefi Bafii, p. 40S,) by fe- male envy to exclaim with indignation, " I thought that t had been the only queen here, but I find there are many hundred more." However, in the year i4S7,lhis city, be- come rich and alfo inlolent, in confequence of its txteiifive commerce, liad the audacity to ftize on Maxiniilian, king of the Romans, and to kill tome of his minillers in hiaprefcnce. This violent infnit brought about its ruin ; for the emperor Frederick, fatli.r of Maximilian, took occafiou to block up Sluys, its proper haven, by the alEllance of Anf.verp and Amilerdam, whic!. had been for fome time envious of its engroffing the whole trade of the Low Countries ; upon which the commerce removed from Bruges to Dort, and from thence foon a'ter to Antwerp. According to Thu- anus ar 1 Gnicc=irdini, it removed direflly to Antwerp, which foon vied with Bruges in opulence and fplcndonr. " Till this time (fays bifliop Huet, in his " Memoirs of the Dutch trade,") there was fcarce a nation in Europe, how incon- fiderable foever, tliat had not their proper mercantile maga- zine or ftore-houfe at Bruges, and a company or factory tliere refiding ; as the En^lifli, French, bcotS", Callihans/- Portuguefe, thofe of Arragon, Catalonia, Bifcay, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Lucca, Milan, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and all the Hanfe towns." The penfionary, De V/it, in his " Intereft ..f Holland," accounts in a fomewhat different manner for the lofs of its commerce, which Bruges futlained. He fays, that the fiflurics ar.d mau',:ff;elurcs of the Netherlands increafed more and more, together with the traffic by fea to BruRes, which tailed till the year 1482, when Flanders had wars with the archduke Maximilian, about the guardiandiip of his fon and his dominions, which continued for ten years. In the mean time, Sluys, the fea-port of Bruges, being mod difturbcd, thofe of Ant- werp and Amfterdam, in order to draw the trade to, their own cities, afliiled the archduke in his unbridled tyranny and barbarous dellruftion of that country, and thereby re- gained his favour, and attained their own ends. Notwith- (landing the decline of its commerce, Bruges, having a com- munication with the fea from Ollend, by means of a navi- gable canal, is Hill a place of confiderable trade; and has various manufadtures of broad fays, baize, and other wool- lens. Bruges was formerly in the diocefe of Tfiurnay ; but ia 1559, it was crefted into a biihopric, by Philip It. king of Spain, fiibjeft to the aichbifhop of Malines. In 14JO, Phi- lip the good, duke of Burgundy, inllituted at Bruges llie order of the golden fleece". The parts about the city which belong to this order are called " Franc of Bruges," and contain 37 villages, and accordingly enjoy certain imrr-.nui- ties. The llreets of Bruges, which are about 2G0 in num- ber, are fpacious, and the houfes, though old, well built ; it has ftven gates, and fix grand markets ; but, having neither fountain nor river, the city is fnpplied with water from the rivers Lys and Scheldt, conveyed from Ghent by means of pipes. The pruicipal buildings are the tov.'n- houfe, built in the Gothic manner, and fituate in the large fquare called the Burg, the halls, the mint, &c. At tiie end of the fquare, called the grand market, is a fine lleeple, ;^ F 2 fup- B R U fupported by four pillaij, which is one of the moft beautiful of the kind in Europe, 5^3 fteps ui height, and furiiifhed with bells and chimes, which play a different tune every quarter of an lionr. On the fide of the great fquare is an edifice ferving as a magazine for cloth, built over a canal, and fo fuUained by pillais.that fmall vtflcls may pnfs under it, in order to crofs the city from tlie canal of Olleiid to that of Ghent. The fquare in which the Wednefday's market is kept, contains feveral walks between rows of trees, and a new guard-houfe in the middle. At Bruges there are feveral fiuc thiirches. The cathedral is dedicated to St. Donat, but tlie church of Notre Dame is the mod beautiful, and its (leeple fcrves as a fea mark for the (hips that are coming to Olleiid ; within it arc two tombs of gilt copper, of ex- Iraordinary magnificence, and the rich vellments of Thomas a Becket, adorned with precious ftoncs. In the high altar in the cathedral is a pidure by Segers, viz. " The Adora- tion of the Magi," which is confidered by fir jofhua Rey- nolds as one of the bell of that painter's works ; and in the farritly is a picture by Jean Van Eyck, of the " Virgin and Cliild, with St. George, and the other faints." Befides the cathedral and two collegiate churches, there are five parifh churches, 14 chapels, and 12 convents for men and women. Bruges has aifo feveral alms-houfes and fchools, and it is dillinguiflied by the provifion which it affords for widows and orphans. There are Hill remaining 17 palaces or houfes, that were the ancient habitations of fo many con- fuls of trade. The magiilracy of Bruges is compofed of two burgo-maftcrs, 1 2 echevins, 1 2 counfellors, 6 penfionaries, and twogrtffiers. This city, which is but indifferently forti- fied, was unfuccefsfully bombarded by the Dutch, July 4, 1704; in 170'; it fubmitted to the allies, after the bat- tle of Ramilies ; in 170S it was invelled by the French and obliged to furrcndcr; in 1709 the allies re-entered it, by virtue of a capitulation figned on the capture of Ghent, Dec. .50, 1709; and on the 24th of July, 1794, the magillrates opened the gates to the French troops, and figned a formal fubmiffion to the French republic. Bruges in Smiles E. of Oftend, 24 N. W. of Ghent, and 46 W. of Antwerp. N. lat. 51° 15'. E. long. 3° 15'. BRUGG, or Bruck, a town of Swilferland, in the can- ton of Argow, feattd on the river Aar. It formerly be- longed to the counts of Hapfburg, of the houfe of Aullria ; tlie inhabitants embraced the proteftant religion in 1529. N. lat. 47° 23'. E. long. 8° 5'. BRUGGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and bifhopric of HildcdK-im, on the eall fide of th« lieine ; 4 leagues S.W. from Hildedieim. Bruocen, or Bruci, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wellphaha, and duchy of Juliers, on the Schwalm ; 6 miles N. E. of Rurerru)nd. On the 2d of March, 1793, ^ battle was fought near this town, between the Pruffians, un- der the command of prince Fredtrick of Brunfwick, and the French, in which the latter were defeated, with the lofs of l3.->0 killed and 700 prifouers. BRUGHAN, a river of North Wales, which runs into the Severn, about 2 miles above JLlanydlos, in the county of Montgomery. BRUGIIAT, a town of France, in the department of the Allier, and dillrid of Gannat ; 2^ leagues E. of Gan- iiat. BRUGNETTO, a town of Genoa, fituate at the foot of the Apennines ; the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Genoa ; 35 miles E. S. E. of Genoa. BRUGUIERA, in Bolanj, (named in honour of Bru- gierc, the well-known Frencli botanill,) a new genus, formed by La Marck, for a plant plactd by Linnzus in the genus B R U Rhizophora, to which it is clofely allied, tut -differs in having a polygonous fruit. La Marck Illuft. PI. 397. Bofc. Clafs, doiltcanJiin monogynia. Nat. Ord. Holeraces. Caprifolia, Juff. Gen. Char. Cal. one-leaved, open, per- manent ; fegments ten or twelve, linear, acuminate, keeled without, channelled within, a little flefliy. Cor. petals ten or twelve, oblong, bifid at the fummit, pointed, folded together lengthways fo as to appear in fome degree bivalved, ciliated, villous at the bafe, (horter than the fegments of tli-; calyx and alternating with tliem. Shmi. from twenty to twenty-two ; filaments attached by pairs to the bafe of each petal, and enclofed within its fold ; anthers upright, oblong. Pifl. germ inferior, ilyle triangular ; lligmas three. Fruit, confiding at firlt of a capfule, which is femi-inferior, ter- minated by the permanent fl.yle, one-celled, one-feeded, formed in fome degree out of the calyx : but when the feed contained in the capfule is come to maturity, its fummit is prolonged into a nearly cyhndrical body, a little angular, furrowed, with a blunt point, vfi-y fmooth and (liining, and from four or five inches to a foot long. This appearance is no other than the germination of tlie feed ; and the prolongation is the radicle of the embryo plant, which having by its weight detached the feed from the capfule, fixes itfelf in the mud, into which it has fallen perpendicularly, in confequence of the capfule's having changed its original upright for a pendent pofit'on. This mode of germination is common alfo to all the fpecies of the true Rhizophora. Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, divided into ten or twelve fegraento ; petals ten or twelve, doubled, bearing the ilamens ; ftamens from twenty to twenty-two. Style, one ; capfule one-feeded. Spec. B. gymnorhiza, " Leaves ovate-lanceolate, root above ground." Linn. ; a fpecific character formed to dillinguifh it from the different fpecies of Rhizophora. A tree about ten or twelve feet high. Trunk commonly crooked, covered with a thick, brown, rugged, cracked bark. Branches very numerous, extending in all directions, the lower ones throwing out naked flexible (hoots, which ftrike into the earth, and, like the fig-tree of Bengal, produce new trunks, fo that it is often difficult to determine the parent flock ; the whole forming by the intermixture of the branches an impenetrable thicket. Leaves oppofite, de- cuffate, ovate, acuminate, fmooth, very entire, on iTiort petioles. Flowers folitary, axillary or lateral, greenilh yel- low, pendent. A native of the banks of falt-water rivers, and on the fea-(liore in the Eaft Indies. See Ray. Hilt. Plant, and Savigny in Encyclopedic Methodique, under Palctuvier. BRUGUIERE, John, in Biography, a phyfician of Montpellier, founded a college for the maintenance and inlbuclion of two young men, to be brought up to the praclice of medieine, and dying without children in 1452, he le.'t 800 ecus d'or, to purchafe a piece of land, the rent of which was to be appropriated to the fupport of his i;i(titution, to which he alio left his library. Aflruc. Mem. pour fervir a I'Hill de la faculte de Med. de Montp. Bruguiere, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the department ot the Tarn, and ctiief place of a canton, in the dillrid of Cadres, li league S. of Cadres; the place contains 3929, and the canton 6S96 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 137^ kiliometres and 7 communes. Bruguieres, a town of France, in the deparment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the didrift of Touloufe ; 3 leagues N. of Touloufe. BRUHESIUS, Peter, or Peter van Bruhezen, in Biography, a phyfician of Brabant, born the eatly pait of the B R U B R U the rfith century, was fo much efteemed as to be made phyfician to Eleonora of Aiillria, filler to the emperor Charles V., while flie was refident in the Low Countries. He afterwards fettled in Brugc?, and was appointed pcn- lioiiary phyfician to that city. The time of his deatii is not known, but his memory was honoured by an cpitapli, written in 157 if by the poet Nicolaius, who Iptaku highly of his profefiional abilities. He pubhflied, " De I'licrmarum Aqnisgranenfuim Viiibus, Caufa, et legitimo Ufu, EpilloI.E duK," i-j/Joand 1555. Antwerp, i2mo. " De Ratione incdendi Morbi Articnlaris, 1592, in Henry Garret's Confilia Variorum de Artlnitide." " De Ufu et Ratione Cauteriorum," in the fame colieflion. He was a believer in judicial aftrology, and publilhed " An Alma- nac," at Bruges, in which he fcts down the prceife times, or circnmltance", und'.r which bleeding, purging, and other opcratio;is might be fatcly undergone. Eloy Diet. Hill. BRUHIER, John James, born at Beauvais, tlit end of the 17th ccntmy, Itudied medicine at Au^rcrs, where he was admitted to the degree of doflor ; he afterwards fettled in Paris, and acquired confidcrable reputation by his practice, and by his writnigs. He d;ed Oftober 24th, J'JJ'/>. In 17J3, he publlilied a tranllatiou ot Dcventer's Treatife on Midwifery, under the title of " Obfervations fur le Manuel des Accouchmens," 4to. Paris, and afterwards feveral of Hoft'inan's works; his " Medicus Politicus," i2mo. " Medicina rationalis," in 9 volumes, his treatiie on fevers, 3 vols. l2mo. " Le Caprices d'Imagiuation," &c. But the works by whicli he is moll; known, were his warnings againll burying perfons fuppjfed to be dead, too early, " Dif- fertation fur I'lnctrtltude desSignes dc la Mort, et I'Abus des Enterrcmens, et Embaumeraens pr;ecipites." Paris J 742. He was at the pams of colleAing hillories of perfons who had revived, after being fuppofed to be dead, fonie of whom had been buried. Bodies ought not to be interred, he fays, until putrefaftion has commenced. " Memoire fur la NeceiTite d'un Rseglement general an Sujet des Enttrre- mens," 1745. No one (liould be buried until the fourth day from their dying. " Addition aux memoires," &c. adding to the number of exampks of perfons who had been buried alive, or had revived alter being interred. Tliefe works have paflcd through numtrous editions, and have been tranllated into every modern European language, and have doubtlefs been the means of prelerving many lives. M. de la Surinitre, on his being received into the Royal Academy at Angers, read a copy ol verfes he had coiij- pofed on the fubjecl, beginning Bruhier, ton inimortcl ouvrage, Ouvre les yeux a bieii dcs gens, Sur I'abiis, la ciucl ufage, D'tuterrtr les niorts, tout vivans, &c. Haller Bib. Chirui-g. Eloy. Did. Hill. BRUHL, a town of France, in the department of the Roer, and chief place of a canton, in tliediilrift of Cologne. The place contains 1932, and the canton 14,976 inhabi- tants ; and the territory includes 31 communes. BRUJA, Buff, in Ornithology. See Lanius Mada- GASCARIKNSIS, Gmtl. BRUIN, John de, in Biography, profeffor of natural philofophy and mathematics at Utrecht, was born at Gorcum in 1620 ; and having purfueda courle of philofophy at Leyden, and prolecuted his ftudies at Bois-le-Duc, and Utrecht, he removed to I^eyden, where he taught mathe- matics. He afterwards became profeffor at Lhrecht, anil befides his official duties, made dilfeftions in private and read lefturesoii Grotius's treatife, " De Jure Belli et Pacis." He was diiliiiguilhcd by his attachment to experimental 6 philofophy and by his obfervations in artronomy. As an author, he publilhed differtations, " De Vi Altrice," " De Corpnrum Gravitate et Levitate," " De Cognilione Dei naturali," " De Lucis Caufa et Ongine." &c. He alio maintained the Cartefian hypothclis in a difputc with Ifaac Vollius, and wrote an apology firll againll a divine named Vogelfaiig. In 1655, he married the filler of the wife of Daniel Elzevir, the famous bookftUcr of Aiullerdam, and died in 1675. Bruin, John ni:, born at AmIUrdam in 16S1, was early initiated into the knowledge of furgery ; but in tjoo, de- termining to confine himfelf to the pratlice of midwifei-)-, he entered as a pupil to Roger Roonliuyfeu, to learn of hiiu the art of delivery in cafes of difficulty, by means of an inllrumeut he had invented, and which obtained the name of Roonhnyfen's lever. Aided with this inftrument, he was cnabL'd to relieve and bring down the head of a foctu-i, that was firmly fixed in the pelvis, without injury to the mother, or the child. As this iiillrument, and the manner of nfing it, were kept fecret by Roonhuyfen, De Bruin paid a llipnlated price lor obtaining the knowledge of it ; and became fo (Ivilful in ullrg it, that he was confultcd in all cafes of diflicuhy. On his death, which happened January 23d, 1753, the fecret vias purchafed by De Vif- ehcr, and Van de Pool, phyficians at Amllerdam, and through them coinmunicalcd to the world. Eloy Ditl. Hilt. BRUISE, \n Surgery. See Contusion . BRUISER, in Mahawcs, the name of a concave too! ufed lor grinding and polillling the fpccula of telefcopes. It is made of brafs, about a quarter of an inch thick, and hammered as near to the gage as poffible. It is tinned on the convex fide, and made equally broad at bottom and top. This ftrves to reduce the figure of the hones, when it ij too convex, and to rub down any gritty matter that hap- pens to be mixed with the putty, before the fpeculum is applied to the polillier. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. parti. art. ii'). and Smith's Optics, book iii. chap. 2. BRUISING, in Pharmacy, fignifies the operation of breaking or pounding a thing coarfely, or by halves ; fre- quently pradlifed on roots, woods, and other hard bodies, to make them yield their juice or virtue more freely than they would do whole. BRUIT, Fr., Noise. The editors of the New French Encyclopedic, as well as Roufleau, have honoured this Iworn foe to nnific, and perfecutor oi refined cars, with a long article. Roufleau defines noife in general to be every motion of the air which llrikes the tympanum, and is per- ceptible by the auricular organ ; but, in nnific, noife is op. poled to found, and extends to every lenfation of the ear whicli is not fmiorous and appreciable. To explain the dif- ference mufically, we may luppofe that every muiical found is accompanied by its harmonies, and tliat noife having no luch coincident vibrations, has no determined tone or type in the harmonical fyftem. Noife may, perliapf, be of the fame nature as found, but being produced by violence, and the aggregate of a confufed multitude of different founds heard at once, they mutnally countera6\ the undulations of each other. All elallic bodies fcem fonorous in proportion as their matter is homogeneous, as the degree of cohefion is more equal throughout, and its body not divided into nu- merous imall matles, which being of difierent folidity, con- fequently give birth to waning fiiunds. Why Ihould not noife produce found, fincc it can excite it ? For every vio- lent noife makes the firings of a harpfichord found, nor, in- deed, any fingle (irings as a mufical tone does, but the whole iiillrumt.nl at ouce ; becaufe no one finds its unifon or harmo» B R U • hirrnenirs. Again, why (hould not noifc give die fenfation of/jti;id, fiiicc with found noils is produced? Put down alfthe keys of a harpficord or piano-fone at once, and a ftnUtioii of nothing but noife will be the confcq'Jcnce, and its efftCt will continue iso longer than that of any other noife. Wliv Ihould not noifc be found, lince a mufical llring forced, or a pipe over-blown, is only noile, any more than a voice which fcreanis with all its inijht, or a tni-at btil heard in the btlfry ? Becaiife it is impoffible to dilcriuiinate one found from another ; though the lone of the fame bell at a diilancc is cjfily afccrtained, iis would the fcrcaming voice if fofttncd a:id rendered tuneable. llul it inay be alki-d, whence comes tliis great change of noife into found. It is from the diininilhod violence of the vibrations, which had caufid fi) in.iny aliquot parts to found at once that the total became mere noife. For the aliquot parts in vibration are not only the half, the third part, the fourth, and all I'.w confequenecs, but the fevcnth part, the ninth, the hui:Jrea;h, a:.d (liU more; alt which have the fame cfFtf^ as tl'.e putting dcwn all the keys at once, the bell in the belfry, and the voice of a fertamer ; and thus found itfclf becomes noile, and noile found. A coarfe, confulcd, and uifTunant mufx, is contcmptuoudy called noife ; as a bad opea ill performed is fald to produce a great noife,but no tffcil." Thus far the citizen of Geneva, with his ufiuil force and in- genuity, has defcribed noife. A palfage is given from " La Poelique de la Mullque," of M. De la Cepide, in fupport of Roufleau's doArine, which in this inftance feems to want no fupport. MtflVs. Ginguene and Framtrie have taken up the fubjeft after M. De la Cepide, merely to expand an;l amplify Roul- feau's arguments, without fortifying them by any additional matter, except in ccniuring the augmentation of force in an orcheftra by facbuts, cymbals, double drums, and tromboni, which producing nothing but noifc themftlves, prevent us from hearing ev»ry thing that deferves the name of mufic. Inftrumcnts of ])Crculiion may be of ufe in the open air to mark the ileps of an army on its marcli, and the icreaming and clamour of the reil during battle, to drown the cries of the wounded and groans of the dying ; but in an inclofcd tlieatre or concert-room, they only torture delicate ears, and change into punilhment the plcafurcs of fenfibility. BRUKA, or Bruko, in Genrraphy, a town of Africa, on the fouth coail of the river Gambia; 160 milts from the fc3. BRUKSAL, an ifland of Africa, near the mouth of the river Senegal. BRULE, or Brullos, Cape, lies on the coaft of Egypt; II kagues W.N. W. northerly from Damietta, or the an- cient Pelufium — Alfo, a cape on the coaft of Cape Breton, in North America, near the gulf of St. Lawrence, feparat- ing the bay of Moricnne from the bay of Mirav. BRULON, a town of France, in the department of the •Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of La Heche; 3 leagues N. of Sable. The town contains 1.510, and the canton 10,994 inhabitants; the territory includes aoo kiliometres, and 16 communes. BRUMALIA, or Bromalia, a feaft of Bacchus, cele- brated among the ancient Romans, during the fpace of thirty days ; commencing on the 24th of November, and endino- the 26lh of December. Some fay this feaft was celebrated twrice a year, viz. on the 12th of the calends of March, and 00 the 18th of the calends of September. The word comes from bruma, the day of the winter fol- fticc; in regard of the time when the feait was held : though others daive it from Brumus, or Bromlus, names of Bac- ehua. B R U The bnimalia were inflituted by Romulus, who tifed, durin" this time, to entertain the fenate. During this ftafl indications were taken of the felicity of the remaining part of winter. Tlie Bnimalia were alfo called Hkmalia. BRUMALIS, in Ornilhology, a fpecies of Emberiza that inhabits the Tyrolefe country, called by Latham the Brumal Bunting. Scopoli thus defcribes this little bird : body beneath, tlie front, and region of the eyes citron co- lour: hind head and neck cinereous.— Obf. The back is yellow brown, vent citron, thighs whitifli, quill feathers brown, having the e«terior margin citron. BRUALATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Phal^^eka [domelra) the wings of which are ycllowifh, with a black ftreak, and a paler one behind. The female is apterous, or without wings, and fpotttd witli black. Linn. Found on apple-trees. BRUMATH, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rliine, and chief place of a can- ton, in the diftrict of Strafburg, 3 leagues N. of Strafburg. The town contains 2671, and the canton 12,951 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 1825 kiliometres, and 21 com- munes. BRUMEL, Anthony, the moft ancient contrapuntid of the French fchool of whofe compofitions we have been able to find any remains, was contemporary with Jiifquin, and fcholar of Okenheim ; and though he is not likely to be inquired after by the prefent age, he was fo refpeded in his day, that his name {hould not be configned to the gulph of oblivion while a veftige of his works remains ; and ftveral Hill fubfift in Glarcanus, and the Mufeum cclleflion. The fame of the great niulicians of antiquity is fo eftablifhed in books, that, though not a fmgle relic of their works has been extant thefe two thoufand years, their names and re- nown are ftill held in veneration by mankind. BRUMOY, Peter, in Biography, a celebrated French writer, of the order cf the Jefuits, was born at Rouen in 16SS, commenced his noviciate at Paris in lyo^, and finidied his iludies at Caen. Having been for fome time employed in teaching rhetoric in difitrciit parts of the country, he took the vows of his order at Paris in 1722, and undertook the education of the prince de Talmont. He engaged for fe- veral years in the Journal de Trevoux, but in confequence of publithing father Margat's hiilory of Tamerlane, he was exiled from Paris. On his return he continued his " Hif- tory of the Gallican Church ;" but having nearly finifhed the 1 2th volume, he was taken off by a paralytic ilroke in 1742, leaving behind hinr the charaiter of an amiable man and an elleemed writer. The work from which he acquired the greatell reputation was his " Theatre des Grecs," in 3 vols. 4to. ; containing profe trar.flations and analyfes of the principal Greek tragedies, w;th differtations on the Greek theatre, f;c. The author, whofe erudition and tafte are much efteemed by the bed judges, has been cenfured by fome writers for manifelling too ftrong a bias towards the an- cients, and Voltaire in particular is difpleafed for his not hav- ving allowed the fuperiority of the French theatre above the Greek. Brumoy pubhihed likewife, in 1741, a collection of his own pieces, in 4 vols. i2mo, confiding of Latin poems, founded upon the model of Lucretius, epiftles, and dramatic pieces, tragic, comic, and padoral. His poem on the " Paffions" has been much extolled for the elevation of its fentiments, and its poetic beauties. The difcriminating ex- cellence of his tragedies confids in the delineation of the tender paffions. The " Revolutions of Spain," begun by father Orleans, were finilhcd by Brumoy. Nouv. Didt. Hid. BRUN, Charles Le, an eminent French painter, was the B R tr of the name of ' f ° ;' 'j^^^ ''^f ^-^ nius, fo that at the age '?f'::"JaS ok coals from the' fire for drawing figures of four yars ne tooi ^^^^^ ^ ,j on the floor, ^"^ at \he^'S^;;,\\la„d under the inRruc- portra,t °f -^g-^t' ftomme'd by his rapid progrefs. V°" ^,. h nJfent bv the chancellor Segu,er to Italy, In "^f ^\"''' 'T ',, boarding in the houle of the v-here he continued 6 5 "'^' J^^^™ f^j ■„„ the works exaftly as to deccne loe received into the Gobehn manuf;aaory,fo. the tape >y ^^^__^ ^^^_ loagmgs, "'^^ "^ ".7 "•■;., .ug^cther under his direftion, ZL promotion of the fine arts u. Trance and to^e pe Sliar f .".>«--,f ,iTf^, t ^^r^c^pld ':tJ. particular v,ew to kska^^^^ ,,d allegory, in the p-^,^al^f:Sk.V^;^-ev..^ nt 'ro"L ?:" " Sr'u. »"!."» ^ u™,, of him for his gallery Thus flattered ^.^ .^^ ^^^^^ ;t^'\ircS;yo.„d.Les»„,ww.™^ B R U faidonhis departure, « that death «-a5 taking a great thorn ou?of his foot;" an expreffion which indicated want of becorninP fenfibility, and which occafioned the unfounded reporTthat he had procured poifon to be admin.llered to hi, '"The diftinguidiing merits of Le Brun as a painter are greatnefs of c'oncephon, good ordonnance -P-ff'-' -j elevation : but he is cenfnred for too much of the l.encl flute a d ^ff^-a«'i-' « -^"» °f ^•^"'^>' '"i'" """:f ' 'oft Sraperies, and deficiency of colouring. Am-g he rn^l cllimable of his performances we may reckon the Bat te* of Alexander," 'the merit of .whicl^^as been more confpi- cuous by the excellent engravings of Girard Audran. the ' Penitent Magdalen" mulh admired, the " Carrying of the croi^ " the '■ Crucifixion," and " St. John in the lake of Pat- n o "Hisdefignshave been copied by many cap.talengravo: Td he hn^felf etched for his amufement fev.rul plates, m a ibXtrvianifean^gthehandofthemalU which are the " Tour times of the day ' and an IntaU kneeling upon the crofs," from his own defigns As a writer, he is known for two works : one " Un 1 In fio™;," and another " On the Paffions," which latter Er fupjiied various models for drawing. D'ArgenvilU. Gen Dift. Pilkinoton. Strutt. „. , . , Brun, Pete. Le, a learnedecclefiafticalwnter, was born at Brignole, in Provence, in 1661, became a P™'^"' ; or.tor?,andwasengagedfor ,3 yearsm giving ledures, at the ? mina'; of St. Magloire, at Paris, on .he ^=';P.'">-'„'--- " cils andecclefiallicalhiftory. In 169^ he publ fli.d ' Let- ; to prove the illufion of Philofophers on the p.vining R.,d." afterwards pubUOied under the tit e of Cutica H llory of the Supeillitious Praftices which have fedtu:ed th Vid.ar and embarralTed the Learned, with the Method and P,iii^ip!es for difcriminating the uattirai from the fuper- n tu-al Effeas," three vols i^mo. m which the author ad- mits the reality of diabolical iUni ons in his attempt to give Tnatural explanation of fraudulent deceptions. He alfi wrote " An hiftorical and dodrinal Treatife on theatrical Snrfticles" i^mo. in which he maintains their uiila*fn!- ne'fst a Chviaian. At the requed of the Abbe Bignon, he pubhflied an elaborate w.n-k on - Liturgies, m 4 volb. 8vo' the firft of which appeared in .716, and three others i, i-,6 The opinions which he advanced on the confc- cratio; of the mafs, involved him in a conlroverfy, during the profecution of which his life was terminated by a difoi- d r u, the breaft, in January, 17^9- ^s ^ "ter he wa profound and methodical, with a clear and fimp! 1 yk • and his piety was equal to his erudition. Nouv. Did. "'brun', or B.owNE, Cape, in G..^r./^J', lies in the N N E point of the entrance into the giv-at road of i oulon, on the coaft of France, in the Mediterranean. BRUNCA, La, a fea-port town on the weft co ft of the ifland of Sicily, at the entrance of the gulf of Catama, 16 miles I'outh of Catania. BRUNDISI or Brx-tnbisium. See Brindisi. BRUNELLA, in Botany. See Prunella. _ BRUNELLESCHI, Philip, in Dtograpby, an emment Italian architea, was born at Florence in 137? ; and in early life Iwving a tafte for mathematics and mechanics, and a de- fi e o leanr fculpture, he became acquainted -''h D°"atelh, a riilncr artilt in this department, and a^^^^Pf""^^ '"" ^° p » ;,, nrder to furvev the monuments of architeauve and f^Tp u'lr 1^ ^at ca -1. Here Bruncllefchi emph^yed his whok t'me, with indefatigable affiduity, in making drawing ^ nk no-meaRires of all the famous relics of antiquity; SIS cl^^^u^ed a defign of eilablifl.ng hi, iame,.l,y B R U tTfitorum Seriem sc Sylvam, Methodo .nedendi ac Furmulis Remediornm pix- fcribendis accomu.odatum," Bal. I<'J30, Hvo. The wor.'i has been many times re-publi'l.ed ; and in l63o, with notes, by Gerard Biafius. Hall. Bib. Med. Elov. Dift. Hilt.' Brunn, in Geography, a town of Gernnny, in the arch- duchy of Aullria, 4 miles W. of Horn. — Alfo, a tovrn of the fame ai-chdnchy, 8 miles W. of Ebenfunh. Bronn, or Briun, a city and royal borough, the (c- cond town m rank, and the firft in commerce, of iMoravia, the capital of a circle of the fame name, fituated at the con- flux of the rivers Schwartfchaw ar-d Surtnwa. Altliough this city is not large, It is well-built and populous ; the num- ber of inhabitanti. being eilimatid at iS,coj. It has confi- derable manufactures of cloth, velvets, and phifli. The diets of the Hate are held here, alternitely with OlmuU'. It is defended'by a ftrong fortrefs called " Spilberg," eree'i- ' cd on an eminence near the town, at the foot of which fland f.vo cloillevs of nu".s, and an hofpital of the knights of 3 G Malta. " B R U Milt?. The PrufTmns lakl (le^e to this fortrefs in i;+j, hilt were obliged to ab?.mlon tlie enterprifc. In the town are fix cloilters, the bilhop's palace, a collegiate church, and a college of Jefiiits. The cloiller of Augulline hennits is famous for an image of the vi-gin Mary, pivtended to have been made by St. Luke, and a foundation for young ladies. 13runn is dillaiit about 32 miles S.W. of Ol iitz, ti', a province in the northern part of Nova Scotia, according to the divjlion of 17S4, the other retaining the original name, lies on the north well of tlie bay of Fundy, and is bounded on the fouth by the ncilh (hores of this bay, and by the river Miffiquadi to its fource, and from tlij-iice by a due eaft line to Verte bay, and on the well •by a line running due north from the main fource of St. Croix river, in PalTamaquoddy, to the high lands, which ■iJivide the llreams that fall into the river St. Laivrence, and the bay of Fundy ; and from thence by the fcuthern boun- •dary of the colony of Qjicbec, until it touches the fea-fliore at the weftern extremity of the bay of Chaleur ; then fol- lowing the cnnvfe of tlic fealhore to the bay of Verte, in the llraits of Norlliumberland, until it meets the termination of the eaftern line, produced from tiie fov.rce of the Mifliqualh already mentioned, including all the iflands within the faid limits. The towns of this provincje are the capital Frederick- town, featcd about 90 miles from the ffiHuiry of the river .St. John, St. Ann's alraoll oppohte 10 it, St. Andrew's .and St. John's. In 1784, another town, n<:ar the mouth of the river St. John, was eredkd, under the appellation of New Brunfwick, into the metropolis of the province fo called. There are fomc other fettlcments near the bay of Fiindy, ■with a fort called Howe. A tribe of favages, called the Marechites, inhabits this province, and they are eftiniated at J40 fighting men. It has two conliderable bays, feveral lakes, among which the grand lake is 50 miles long and about 9 broad ; ar.d it.mc have pr.-tend 'd, that they have a kind of jargo:', bv which they can make a mntnal co;niniuiieation of their fenlinientu; and Porphyry relates, that Tirclias and Apolloniui Tyanrcua underllood this langnajje. There is at leall a luiiilitudc of fpeech in brutes ; for they know each other by their voices, and have their ligns whireby they cx- prefs anger, joy, and other pafTior.s. Tims, a dog afraiiks in one llrain, fawns in another, howls in another, and cries when beaten in another. To ii';, indeed, their fp«cch, if it r.iay be fo called, appears rude and inarticulate ; but perhaps ours, though underllood by them, is the fame in their ears. Dut if the voice of brutes be unintelligible to us, does not the fame hold of the language of our own hind, till we have b;eti inllructtd in it ? And the language of foreigners, what is it but a confijfed unmeaning heap of founds ? Laughter, as the fign of mirth and joy, has been thought peculiar to men ; and yet we fee fomewhat refenibling it in brutes, fig- nified by the motion of their ears, eyes, mouth, and tongues. Dr. Hartley (fee his Obfervatiins on Man, p. 2?9-) has inveftigated the intelleftual faculties of brutes, and applied his theory of vibrations and afTociation in accounting for the inferiority of brutes to mankind, with regard to intelleftual capacities. He afcribcs the difference fubfiiling between them to the following circnmllances, which he has taken occafvon to illuftratc on the principles of his theory. The firll of thefe is the fmall proportionate fize of their brains, whence brutes have a fr.r lefs variety of ideas and intelleftual affections than men. The tecond caufc of this c-iffcrence is the imperfedion of the matter of their brains, whereby it is lefs fitted for retaining a large number of miniatures, and combining tjiem by afTociation, than man's. The third caufe istlieir want of words, and fuch like fymbols ; fourthly, the inftindfivc powers which they bring into the world with them, or which rife up from internal caufes, a* they advance towards adult age, is anotli-er caufe of this difference ; and, fifthly, it is partly outing to the difference l>etween the ex- tenial imprefiions made on the brute creation, and on man- kind. This ingenious writer fuppofes, with Des Cartes, that all the motions of brutes arc condufted by mere mechanifm ; yet he does not fuppofe them to be deftitute of perception ; but that they have this in a manner analogous to that which takes place in us ; and that it is fubjedfed to the fame me- chanical laws as the motions. He adds, that it ought always to be remembered, in fpeaking on this lubjeft, that brutes have more reafon than they can Ihow, from their want of words, from our inattention, and from our ignorance of the import of thofe fymbols, which they do ule in giving inti- mations to one another, and to us. " As brutes," fays Dr. Prieftley (Difquifitions on Matter and Spirit, p. 238, &c.) " have the fame external fcnfes that wc have, th.ey have, of courfe, all the fame inlets to ideas that we have ; and though, on account of their wanting a fuificient quantity of brain, perhaps chiefly, the combination and afTociation of their ideas cannot be fo complex as ours, and therefore they cannot make fo great a progrefs in iutel- ledual improvements, they mutt neceffarily have, m kind, cicK-y faculty that we are pofTefTed of. Alfo, fince they evi- dently have memory, pafEons, will, and judgment too, as their aftions demonflrate, they mull, of courfe, have the B R U faculty that wc call ahjlradkn, as well as the reft ; though, not having the ufe of words, they c;!:mi(« communicate thtir ideas to us. 'I'hey mull, at leall, have a natural capacity for what is called iihjiradion ; it being nothing more than a par^ ticular cafe of the nl}''K'uilion of uieits, of which, in general, they are certainly pnlhfTed as ucU as ourfelves. Eefides, if dogs had no general or ablfraft ideas, but only fuch as were appropriated to particular iniUvidmil ohjrcls, they could neve? be taught to diltingnilh a man as fuch, a /j/j/v as fuch, or a/rtr/r/V/ff as fiich, (Xc. But their af;-jA/,y, tia, or Brutium, the name of the country where it was pro- a town of Spain in Bectica, (ituate between the river Bcctis, cured. I'lin. N. H. 1. xv. c. 7. and the country of the Tyritani or Tu:ditani. Steph. BRUTIAN Fori T, in /Inru'ril Geo^jrnjily, now called Byz. La Sila, an extenfive forc-ft of Brutium or Calabria, which BRIJTON, or BREw^o^^, in Geograpkf^ is a pleafant, covered a furfacc of zco miles in circumference ; and from well-built market-town in Somerfetfliire, England, fituated which Hicro, king of Syracufc, and after him the Romans, i i ; miles W. from London, and 12 S. from I'Vome, at tlie drew their mails and other timber for fhipping. The fame wellern extremity of the forcll of Selwood, and takes its forell is ttill covered with large woods of pines or firs ; but name from the river Brew or Brue, wliich rifing in that foreft, from thefe cxtenfive woods little benefit is derived, except pafTes through the town in its way to Glaflonbury. The in turpentine and fuel. _ furrounding fcenery is extremely interelling : the vales are BRUTIUM, one of the two peninfulas of that part of meadows, tlie declivities orchards, and the eminences fliecp- Italy, anciently known by the name of Magna Grxcia, walks. Tlic manor was once the property of Sir Maurice which extended to the (traits that feparated Sicily from Berkeley, whofe younger fon John, as a reward for his fer- Italy ; the other peninfula being called Calabria. Part of vices to the royal caufe, was created by Charles II. lord it towards the north is now diflinguilhed by the appellation Berkeley of Stratton. The title became extinft in 17-:', of Calabria Citra, and the more foutherly part is denominated and the manor is now in the pofTcfrion of fir Richard C olt Calabria Ultra. It was inhabited by the Brutii, who were Hoare, bart. of Stourhead in WiUniire. On this fite was flaves of Lucania, that had revolted from their mafters, anciently an abbey, founded by St. Algar, earl of Corn- taken up arms, and rendered themfelves independent. Some wall. The town confids principally of five (Ircets, in the derive their name from a Lucanian term, denoting " Rebels:" center of which is the market place, where, till lately, ftood hut others with greater probability fetk the etymology of a curious old hexagonal market crofs, fupported by fix pii- thcir name in the nature and produdious of their foil, lars at the angles, and a larger one in the center. The roof Accordingly, as moft of their trees were refinous, they find confided wholly of the ribs of arches, which diverged from in the oriental term " Brata," or, as the Syrians write it pillar to pillar, and were finely ornamented with fcuipturc. " Bruta," the origin of the appellation Brutii. Calabria, This edifice was eighteen feet high, the top flat, and encom- it is likewife alleged, has a finiilar derivation from " Calab," pafTed with a (lone balludrade: it was built, as Leland in- fignifying pitch or refin. Their principal rivers were, on forms us, by John Ely, the lad abbot of Brewton. The the wed, Lamatis and Metaurus, and on the call, C*cinus, market is on Saturday. In the High-ftreet is a markct- Targines, Neoethur and Gratis. Their chief towns, in the houfe, built by a fubfcription of the farmers who frequented weft, from north to fouth, were Pandofia, Conventia, Hippo- this market, upon land given them for that purpofe by nium, and Rhegiuin ; and, on the eaft, from fouth to north, Hugh Saxcy, efq. who, from a low dation, wa^ advanced to Locri, Scylacium, Croton, Petilia, and Rofcianum. - The the pott of auditor to queen Elizabeth. He died in i6zo, " Brutium promontorium" was that promontory fince called polfedeJ of feveral manors and eftjtes in the counties of " Cabo de SciVio." Somerfet and Gloucefter ; which, iu conformity to his in- BRUTO, JoHN-MiCHAFL, in A'd^ra/i/^v, a polite Italian tention, were fettled iu i6j8 on twelve gentlemui of the fcholar, was born at Venice about the year 1515 ; and in county for the er.'ftion and endowment of an hoipital here the courfe of his vagrant life, he redded for fome time at for the maintenance of old men, women, and boys. The Padua, afterwards vifited Florence, I..ucca, and other Italian number now fupported are eight men, ten women, and cities, palfed forae years at Lyons in France, and travelled twelve boys ; the latter are boarded, educated, and appreii- into England and Spain. In 1574 he accepted an invita- tlced ; and the ageri are comfortably provided for. The tion from Stephen Battori, prince of Tranfylvania, by whom annual income belonging to this charity is about ; 500I. he was employed in writing the Lidory of that country ; In the court of the h(-fpital is a datue of the founder,"with and after his advancement to the crown of Poland, accom- this infcription : — " Hugh Saxcy, cfq. founds r of this liof- panied him to Cracow. On the death of this prince, he fpital, auditor to queen Ehzabeth, and king James." There removed to Vienna, and became hilloriographer to the cm- is alfo a free-fchool in the town, inditulcd by king Ed- 3 H 3 ward BRUTUS. ward VI. md endowed hy bi(hop Fifijames, and his brother Cr Ji)hn, loiil chief jiiftice. Bruton conlills of 333 houiVs, containing 1651 inhabitants, the gi eater part of whom are employed in aKriciihiirc : for though Lthind tells us, that in his time " Brcwton was much occupied with making of clothe," yit at prefcnt the only manufafture is a little hofury, and liik reeling, at the latter of wliich three or four hundred younjj pcrfons are employed. The church, dedi- cated to St. Mary, is a large ftrufture, and has two qua- drangular towers, one occupying the well end, and the other riling from one fide of the north aile. The latter fecms to have been the original tower, but the former is the handfomeft. The interior of the church is well ornamented, and contains a great number of monuments. Collinfon's Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, vol. i. 4to. Maton'iTour through the Wedtrn Counties, vol. ii. Svo. BRUrUS, or Brute, in Bk^rnphy, the lirft king of Britain, according to the fabulous relation of JefTry or Geoffrey of Monmouth. See Britain. Brutus, Lucius Junius, the founder of the Roman republic, was the foil of Marcus Junius, a wealthy patri- cian, who had married the daughter of Tarquin the Proud, with whom terminated the race of kings at Rome. The father and brother of Brutus were affafliuated by order of this tyrant at the beginning of his reign ; and Brutus him- felf efeaped by feigning idiotifm, whence it is faid the name of " Brutus" was dctived. Under this charafter he was admitted into the royal palace, brought up with the king's fons, and regarded merely as the objeft of their diverlion. On occafion of a plague which broke out at Rome, Tar- quin fent his fons to confult the oracle of Delphi as to the caufe and cure of the contagion ; and Brutus alfo was or- dered to accompany them for their amufement. The princes prepared magnificent prefents for Apollo ; but their compa- nion is faid to have offered to the god an elder ftick, en- dofing a rod of gold, and ferving as an emblem of himfelf. It is further reported, that when the princes made an en- quiry, whith of them fliould be king of Rome, the oracle replied, that the government (honld be refcrved for him who fliould firft kifs his mother ; and that they, interpreting this anfwer literally, agreed to kifs their mother at the fame time, and to reign jointly. But Brutus, interpreting the refponfe of the oracle allegorically, fell down upon the earth, after his return to Italy, and kilTtd it, as the common mother of all mankind. Whatever may be thought of this llory, it is certain, that the tragical death of Lucretia (feeLucRE- tia) roufed the dormant and difguifed fpirit of Brutus; and that, having fnatched the poignard out of her bofom, he vowed vengeance on the aggrefTors, and excited her re- lations to concur with him in retaliating on Tarquin and his family the difhonour (he had fuffered, and the lamenta- ble event in which it had terminated. Accordingly they all bound themfelves by a folemn oath to execute their purpofe, and agreed to follow the counfel and example of Brutus, who feemed now, by a kind of extraordinary infpiratiou, to Lave recovered his faculties, and to pofiefs talents, which had hitherto been concealed, fit for condufting their delibe- rations, and fecuring their profperous ilfue. The gates \y»re immediately (hut, the fenate was aflembled, and a pub- lie decree was propofed and carried for banifhing the king, annihilating the royal form of government, and eftablifhing a commonwcahh. Brutus, and Collatinus, the hufband of Lucretia, were elefted as the firft chief raagiftrates of the ftate, under the denomination of " confuls ;" an important change in the conftitution of the Roman government, which took place in the year of Rome 245, B. C. 509. This change, fo haftily concerted and accompljftved, although it had obtained the concurrence of the ftnate, and of the people, excited an alarm amongft tliofe v»ho were attached to the old conftitution, and particularly among the young nobility, who were zealous partizans of the dethroned and expelled fovereign. In the number of the malcontents, were the two fons of Brutus, and three nephews of Collatinus. Tlicfe were adive in the confpiracy formed agalnft the new government ; and they concurred with others in binding themfelves by a very folemn oath to murder the confuls, and to re-eftablifti monarchy. Wiiilft they were concerting mea- fures fortius purpofe, the plot was ditelofed by a flave to P. Valerius, a patriotic Iciiator, and orders were iffued for apprehending them. When the fons of Brutus, venerated by the people as their deliverer, appeared before the con- fular tribunal, the attendant multitude was fei/.ed with a general panic ; and as foon as they were convldcd of the crime alleged againft them, the lenators, in a kind of confiifed murmur, exprefTed their anxiety and wilhes, by uttering the words, " Banifh them ! banilli them I" Colla- tinus wept, and the (lern patriot Valerius was iilent. But the father, facrilioing private feelings to the public good, and apprized of the neceflity of fupprefTing rebellion by an awful example of punifhment, with a fteady countenance, and firm tone of voice, gave orders to the liftors to execute the law on his fons. The diftrefs cf the affembied niulti- tudc on this folemn occalion was fuch as no words can de- fcribe ; mournful looks and fecret groans pleaded for pity ; and when the conful feemed to pay no regard to their an- xiety and tears, they loudly remonftrated, and exclaimed with one voice, " We give them back to their country, and to their family." Neither the intercelTions of the people, nor the fuppliant cries of the criminals, could alter the fixed purpofe of Brutus, who witneiRd the execution of the fentenee ; and having feen them ftripped, beaten with rods, and beheaded, retired from the tribunal, to indulge, without doubt, thofe parental feelings which the neceffity of the times had induced him to dlfgulfe and reftrain. Of his conduft on this occalion very different fentiments have been entertained. Whilft feme have extolled, others have condemned it. But to the judgment of fobcr reafon, it exhibits a noble example of the triumph of public virtue over private affeftions ; and the difplay ot it required that fterniiefs of temper, and thofe peculiar ideas of the extent of parental authority, which leem to have charafterized this ancient Roman. Coliatiuuo was more flexible ; and he wilhed to fpaie his nephews, and to fupprcfs the evidence which the Have Vindicius had adduced againft them. The zeal of Valerius was roufed ; and whilft the people were tumultuous, Brutus returned, and having again afcended the tribunal, jullified his own condutl, but referred the fate of ths other criminals to the decifion of the people, who concurred in condemning them, and ordering them for exe- cution. Collatinus, however, accufcd by Brutus for his weaknefs, and want of patriotlfm, was obliged to renounce his authority, and to retire to Lavinium, where he lived privately to an advanced age. Upon his removal, Brutus, in order to obviate every fufpicion that it was his intention to govern fingly, convoked the people by centuries in the Campus Martins, for the eleftion of a new conful ; and Valerius, afterwards known by the name of " Poplicola," whofe meritorious conduft in the difclofure of the confpi- racy has been already mentioned, was chofen to fupply the vacancy. Some difference occurs in the relation of thefe events by Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, Livy, and Plutarch ; but they all agree in the principal fadl, refpefting the con- duft of Brutus towards his fons. During the confulate of Brutus and Valerius, Tarquin and his partizans made fome vigorous BRUTUS. vigorous efTcrts for regaining tlie throne of Rome ; and, joined by the Veientcs, the avowed enemies of the Romans, they advanced towards the city. But they were met by the confuls at the head of the Roman forces ; the com- mand of the horfe being afTumed by Brutus, and that of the infantry by Valerius ; the horfe of the enemy, com- manded by Arunx, one of Tarquin's fons, came forward to the charge ; and as the hollile armies approached each other, Arunx difcovered Brutus, attended by his liftors ; and inflamed with rcfentmcnt, he exchiimed, " There is the enemy of my family, the ufurper of my father's throne." He then immediately advanced to a perfonal encounter, and Brutus flew to meet him. Aftiiatcd by paflion, more than by cool courage, thcfe two champions, negleding the means of perfonal defence, transfixed each other with their fptars, and at the fame inllant fell dead from their horfes. This happened in the year B. C. 509. The conflifl, thus com- menced, terminated in a viftory on the part of the Romans ; and, as foon as it w-as decided, Valerius buried his colleague Brutus with great pomp, and gave Rome the firft example of thofe funeral orations, which it was afterwards cuftoniary to pronounce in commendation of their great men. The Roman matrons diftinguiflied themfelves on this occafion ; for, regarding Brutus as the avenger of the honour of their fcx, they mourned for him a whole year ; and his ilatue was afterwards erefted in the capitol, with a naked fword in his hand. The Romans venerated his memory, as that of the fecond founder of their city, who had reftored liberty to their country, cemented it by the blood of his own fons, and died in defending it againfl: an ufurper ; and they con- fidered him as having undergone more hardfliips and dangers in eftablifliing the commonwealth, than Romulus had done in firft founding the kingdom. Virgil has nobly flcetched Lis hifl:ory and praife in the following lines : " Confulis imperium hie primus fxvafque fecures Accipiet : natofque pater, nova bella moventes, Ad pcenam pulchra pro libertate vocabit. Infelix ! utcumque ferent ea fadla minores ; Vincit amor patriae, laudumque immenfa cupido." TEn. VI, 820. •• He firft fliall hold the conful's fway, and wield The dreaded axes ; he, a Roman hre, For thee, fair Liberty ! his rebel fons Shall doom to public death. Unhappy man ! Howe'er pofterity the deed may judge, His country's love, and boundlefs thirll of praife, Sliall quell the father." Dionvf. Halic. lib. iv. and v. Livy, lib. i. and ii. Plut. in Poplicol. apud Op. T. i. p. 97, &c. Brutus, Marcus J lnius, an illultrious Roman, derived his name and dtfecnt, as fome have faid, as well as his fpirit, from L. J. Brutus, the fubjeft of the preceding article. Cicero records this line of his defcent, both in his fpeeches and writings, as a fad, which was not doubted by any ; and he often fpcaks of tlie " image of old Brutus," which Mar- cus kept in his houfe among thofe of his anceftors ; and Atticus, who was peculiarly curious in the antiquities of the Roman families, drew up Brutus's genealogy for him ; and deduced his fuccelTion from that ancient hero, in a direttline, through all the intermediate ages from father to fon. Plu- tarch alfo, on the authority of Pofidonius the philofopher, was of the fame opinion. Other ancient writers, however, and par- ticularly Dionyfius of HalicarnafTus, allege feveral arguments againll this defcent, which feem to be very plaufible ; and they fay that the family of the patriot was extindt in the execution of his two fons. However this be, M. J. Brutus was the fon of a fcnator of the fame name, who belong«d to the party of Marius, and who was piu to death for his feve-- rities by Pompey at tlie An-render of Mntin*. His mother was Servilia, the filler of Cato, who Jifgraced herfelf by her connexion with C:efar, which gave rife to the opinion that Brutus was his natural foil. But as he was born in the con- fuKhip of L.Cornelius Cinna III. and Cu. Papirius Carbo I. A.XJ. 668, he was no more than 15 vears younger than Casfar himfelf; and this circiimflance fully confutes the vulgar llory of his being commonly believed to be Ca;far's fon. As Brutus loft his father, when he was young, the care of his education devolved on his uncle Cato : under whofe direftion it was condufted on that liberal plan which prevailed among Romans of diftindlion, after their conneftion with Greece. He ftudied the language and philofophy of that country ; and he acquired, by means of his natural ta- lents and fedulous apphcation, a diftinguiHied reputation for eloquence. At the bur and in private aflemblieb hij rhetorical powers were exercifed ; he pleaded feveral caufes of great im- portance, and he was allowed to be the moft eloquent and learned of all the young men of rank and family at the period in which he lived. ' His manner of fpeaking was correft, elegant, and judicious ; though he wanted that force and copioufnefs whicli are required in a confunimate orator. But he was principally delighted with the ftudy of philofo- phy, in which, though he profefl'ed himfelf a difciple of the moderate feft of the old academy, he neverthelcfs, from a certain pride and gravity of temper, and from a deference to the example of Cato, affefted the feverity of the Stoic. His difpofition, however, which was mild, gentle, and com- panionate, was incompatible with this fyftem ; and he was often conftrained, by the tendernefs of his nature, to confute the rigour of his principles. On the doftrines of the phi- lofophy which he had adopted, he wrote fome treatifcs, and he transfufed both the language and fentiments of his feci into Latin. His accomplilhments as a fcholar and an orator are fufficiently attefted by Cicero, who has done hira the honour of introducing him as one of his fpeakers in his dialogue " De Claris Oratoribus," and addrelTed to him his treatife entitled " Orator." Attached to Cato from his youth, he imbibed, under his difcipline, an ardent love of liberty and virtue ; and having accompanied him in his ex- pedition to Cyprus, where he was employed by his uncle, after the unhappy end of its king, Ptolemy, in fecuring the royal treafures for the public. This commifiton he executed to the fatisfaftion cf his uncle ; and by marrying his daughter Portia, he formed a clofer alliance with this vene- rable patriot, and was led to make him the model of his public conduft. Accordingly, after his example, when the civil war broke out between Cn;iar and Pompey, he joined the party of the latter ; although he had rcafon to refent his conduct for the murder of his father; and Ca;far's familiarity with Ills mother induced him to manifeft a partiality in favour of her fon. At the battle of Pharfalia, in which Brutus was engaged on the fide of Pompey, Ccefar gave fpecial orders to, find out and preferve him unhurt ; and after this battle, which terminated the republic, he furrendered himfelf to Csfar, who rejoiced in his fafety, and immediately received him into favour, teftifying his regard for him by pardoning his friend Caffius at his intercefllon. Carfar entrufted him with the government of Cifalpine Gaul, and afterwards no- minated him praetor of Rome, Notwithftarding the grati- tude and refpeft he was thus induced to entertain for Cxfar, he was alarmed by his ufurped dominion, and a view of the degraded ftate into which his country was reduced by the violation of the laws and conftitution, excited a difguft which no favours could compenfate. At the fame time, Caffius, who had married his filler, was affiduoua in endea- •vQuring BRUTUS. vo^1l^^g to kindle the flsmc of pntiiotifin in lis brcnft. He caiil'cd '.he name of his l\i;>p.>kd nnccllor, Jiiiiiiis lirutus, to be louiivlca in liib can ; and Kd liim to bi-lii-vo that the Ro;Tnns cxprded his airmniiii^ the hereditary oITkc of rtf- cuinjj tiKin fro n a tyrant. Thi-l.: arguments at lengtli pre- va:l-d, a d Urutuj agrnd to talte the lead in a coiifpiracy againft Cxiar's life, H's cliarafttr inducid ftvcral other cniintnt citi/ciii to join in tlie dclign ; and ihey rcfolvcd to execute it oh the ides of Marcir ( March ly) A. U. 710, B. C. 44. It it faid, that when C-.tfar faw hii beh)ved Brutus annonjT the confpirators, with his dagc;er diawn againll him, he delifted from any farther klfdcfence, wrapped his h- aJ in his mantle, and furrcndercJ himftlf to hii fate. Averfe from needkfs cfTufion of blood, Brntus, by inipoliiic forbearance, p.'rnutted Antony to cfcape ; and by rcadinefs to acq^icice in the reading of Cafar's "iH. a"d ^Y the pompous loleninities of his funeral, he furnlihed Antony with a pretc. ice for exciting in the minds of the people a reverence for Iiis memory, and a dtttllation againll his iiuirderers ; in confequence of which he and ins party were obliged to fecure their lives by retiring from Rome to An- lium. Afterwards, when Odavianus joined Antony, and they concuired in atTnining the fovereiirii power, he and his faithful Portia quittul Italy, and fct fail for Athens. Here, at convLiiieni intervals, he renewed the prolecution of his philofophieal (ludics ; » hihl at the fame time he fecretly ])repared for war, and fent si meircnger to Macedonia, to en- gage t'ne Roinani of that province in the party ot the rtpnb- lie, and to facilitate his admiffion into it as gov rnor for the fcnjte. Having obtained a complete fnpply of men, arms, and money, he marched into Macedonia ; and gaii;ed pof- feffion of the army, and of tlie pcifon, of Caius, the brother of Antony, who had been deputed to feize Dyrrachium and Apolloiiia. When Ortavianus became fole mafter of Rome, he pro- ceeded to the condemnation of all who had been concerned in the muider of his adopted father; and the names of Brutus and Caflius were inferted, much to the regret and grief of the people, in the bloody roll of profcription. They, however, were at this time in the command of powtT- ful armies, which fpeedily formed a junftion at Smyrna. Having performed fome feparate fervices in the fubjugation of thofe maritime powers, the Rhodians and Lydians, they met again at Sardis ; and determined to diredl their march to the ftiaits of Hellefpont, in order to pafs over into Europe, for the purpofe of oppofing the progrefsof Antony and Oc- tavianus, who had now arrived at Macedon. It was in the courfe of this march that the frightful apparition, recorded by Plutarch and other hiftorians, prefented itielf to Brutus, and which, under the appellation of his evil genius, an- nounced another vifit to him at Philippi. Caffias afcribcs this phenomenon to the ilUifion of a troubled imagination, under the influence of anxiety and bodily fatigue ; and if it be any thing more than an idle fabrication, to this caufe it may he reafonahly attributed. On the plains of Philippi the two hollile armies alTembled for the decifion of the inte- relling conteil. Brutus and Cafiius having fettled their plan of condudl, if the iffue of this conflitl flionld prove unfa- vourable, they prepared for aftion. In the firft battle lirutus defeated Odavianus, but in the ardour of the con- ted he left Cafiius unfupportcd, and thus occalioned his de- feat and deatd. This event he grievoufly deplored, and fticdding many tears over the body of his friend, bewailed the lofs of him under the honourable appellation of " the lad of the Romans." He had now the fole command of a numerous and mutinous army ; which compelled him to rifle another engagement, having firft put to death all the flaves whom he had made prifoners, and having promifcd t» hid foldiers, in cafe of vidlory, the pillage of Theflalouica and I,aced;cmon. In the feeond battle the wing wliich he commanded routed that of Oftavianus, wliillt Antony de- feated the other committed to the coiiduCl oi Calnub's lieu- ttn.uit. But, inrtead of puriuing this advant:i(;e by follow- ing the fugitives, this experienced general ava'led liimfelt of it by turning round on the rear of Brutus, and entirely breaking and difperfiiig his troops. Brutus having efcaped being made prifoner by the heroic friendfliip of I^icilius, who furrendered himielf under the name of Brutus, and who was generouflv faved by Antony after the difcovery of the fraud, fled with a few friends to a retired valley, where he fpent an anxious night. With the returning dawn, he per- ceived that he was furroundcd by the enemy, and conjured fome of his domedies to put an end to his lit'e. Upon their refufal, he dirmilfcd them with a requed that they would provide for their own fatety ; and he then renewed his ap- plication to Strato, an Epirote, and his former fellow ilu- dent ; but Strato perfided in iiis denial, till Brutn^ called upon a flave to perform the fatal office. Upon this the ger.erous Greek exclaimed, " Forbid it. Cods, that it lliould ever be faid, that Brutus died by the hand of a flave for want of a friend !" and covering his face with his left hand, prefented with his right his fword, upon which Bru- tus threw hinifelf with fuch violence that it pierced through his body, and he indantly expired. Thus periflied, in the 4;d year of his age, according to Cicero, but in the 37th according toVclLins Paterculus, one of the mod irreproach- able charafters in Roman hidorv ; according to Blair'a table, A.U. 712, B.C. 42. To his generofity, humanity, uprightnefs, and well- principled virtue, public and private, writers of all parties have borne teftimony ; and thofe who have condemned the aft of affafllnating Cirfar, have aferibed it, on the part of Brutus, to patriotic motives. Indeed, Antony himfelf did him the judice to fay, that he " was the only one of the con- fpiracy who entered into it out of principle ; that the reft, from private malice, rofe up againft the man, he alone againd the tyrant." No man in public lite feems to have fet up virtue more fincerely as the objetl of his venerajioii and i)urluit than Brutus ; and it does not, therefore, feem probable, that, according to the leport of fome writers, his lad fpeech fliouldbe a confeffion of error in having followed an einpty name. " His memory," fays one of his biographers, •' WHS chcridied and honoured as long as a fpark of Roman fpirit furvived the lofs of conditutional freedom ; and the names of Brutus and liberty are to this day iufeparably aflfociated." His body was treated with refpedl by Antony ; but the vmdiflive Oiiavianus caufed the head to be cut off, in order to expofe it at the feet of Caefar's ftatue. But his dedinalion was defeated, as it was thrown over-board in a ftorm. The remains were honourably burnt by order of Antony, and the adies fent in an urn to Servilia. Plutarch's Brutus, apud Op. t. i. p. 984. Middleton's Life of Cicero, vol. li. p. 226. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xi. and xii. Bkutus, in Entumology, a fpecies of Papilio (F.q. Achiv.) The wings are white with a black border ; on the lower pair beneath, a fufcous band. This inhabits Africa ; it is a large and rare infeft. Cramer defcribes a variety of it under the name of Merope. Brutus, in Geography, a military towndiip of America, in New York, through which runs the river Seneca, and where it receives the waters of Owafco lake, pafling from the fouth-ead through the town of Aurelius and Scipio. It lies 1 1 miles N. E. from the north end of Cayuaga lake, and ly S.S.E. from lake Ontario. BRUTZ, B R U B R Y ■nRUTZ, a town of France, in the department of the Jlle and Vilaine, and didritt of Reduu, I leagues louth of RL-nnes. BRUX. Sec Most. IMvlJVE, or Bug A, an ifland in the hay of Dengal, near the moutli of the river Ava, about 8 leagues long and 3 brond. N. lat. 16° 11;'. K. long, y;" ,:!7'. BRUYERE, JoNU Db I.a, in Blos'-aphy, a French vriter of reputation, was burn, in 1640, in the Ifle of I'raiice, and, at a proper age, recommended by BuiFiiet to iiilhudl the duke of Burgundy in hillory. The refidue of his hfe was paffed at court, where he maintained the cha- rafter of a u-.aii of letters ; philoh)piiieal and unambitious in liis temper, as well as poHte and iina(rei"ted in liis man- iiers, unitini/ the gaiety and iocial dilpolition of the well bred gentleman with the lUuiious habits of tlie fcholar. In l6y^ he was admitted into the French Academy ; and, in l6v6, a fit of apoplexy terminated his lift. His work entitled " Charafters of Theophrartus, tranflated from the Greek, with the Charatlcrs or Manners of this Age," was tirll pub'.ilhcd in 16S7, and has been feveral times re- pri::ted. In this work, of which Male/.ieux predifted that " it would gain many readers a)id many enemies," the author has had tlie honour of participating witii Moliere in the correction of more folHes and indecorums than ptrhaps any other morahll, ancient or modern. The pencil with vhich he pidurcd modern charaiters and manners ii llrong but delicate ; his liyle nervous but abrupt, occafionally cbfcure, and affcfttdly fententious. The maxims of Pub- lius Syrus are almolt wholly tranfplanted into his works. Keys were made of his charadters, for the court, the capital, and the provinces ; and his book, by means of its fucctfs, produced many imitations. The bell editions of the " Cha- tafters" are thofe of Amflerdam in 1741, and of Paris in I 750 and 1765. The author's " Dialogues on Quielifm" were arranged for publication by M. Du Pin, and printed in 1609. Nonv. Di6L Hill. BRUYE'RES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the ilillridl of Epinal, and 1 I miles E. of it. The town con- tains 191 1 and the canton 12,435 inhabitants : the territory includes 210 kiliometres, and 32 communes. Bruyeres Sous Laon, a town of France in the de- partment of the Aifne, and diltridl ol Laon, i league S.S.E. of I.aon. BRUYN, Cornelius Le, in Biography, a traveller and painter, was born at the Hague, and having com- menced his travels through Mufcovy, Perfia, the Levant, aiid the Eall Indies, in 1674, completed them in i/cS. His " Voyage to the Levant" was publiflied at Amfterdam in 1714, folio, and his " Travels to Mufcovy, Perfia, &c." in 1718, in 2 vols. fol. ; an edition much eiletmed for the beauty of its plates, hut exceeded in value by that of Rouen in 1725, in 5 vols. 4to. ou account of the corredlions and notes of the Abbe Banier. As a traveller, Bruyn is curious and inllruftive, but his llyle is inelegant and his fails fome- times inaccurate. No\iv. Dift. Hid. BRUYNSWICK, in Geography, a plantation of Ame- rica, in Ulfter countv. New York. BRUYS, Peter De, in Biography. See Pstrobrus- SIANS. BRUZEN de la MARTINIERE, Antony-Au nusTiN, an induftrious compiler, was born at Dieppe, in 1666, and educted at Paris, under the cart of his uncle, the celebrated Richard Simon. In 1709 he was employed, by the duke of Mecklenburgh, in rtfeaiches into the hillory of that duchy, and afterwards attached to the duke of Parma, and to the king of the Two Sitiliis, who appointed him his lccret;iry with a haudfome lalary. Upon hist relirc- mcnt to the H;igue, he completed \m " Ntw Gcogr.iphical Di^lioiiary," wjiidi was didicattd to the king of Spain, and reconipeiiftd In- the title conferred upon him by tlnii monarch, of his firll geographer. After a life of ilujy and labour, as well as of focial intcrcouifc and pleafure, i'uiicd to his friendly difpolii ion and [>olitc mamurs, he died at the Hague in 1749. His reading was exit iifive, and he wrote with judgment, facility, and generally with elegance. Hn favourite iludies were geography, hillon-, and polite litera- ture. The moll valuable of hi, luimtrou.s woiks are " The great Gtogr;iphical, Hillorieal, and Ciiixal DiClionary," lovoli. fol. Hague, i;>6 to 1730, and Pa:is, 1768, 6 vols, fol. ; " PufTcndorif's Introduction to the Hillory of Eu- rope, greatly au>imenf.d and corredled," of which the lail edition is that of the Hague, in ii vols, umo; " Geo- graphical and Hillorieal Treatifcs to facilitate the Know- ledge of the Holy Scriptures, by various celebrated Authors, Huet, Lc Grand, C.^lmet, Han'ouin, &c." z vols. i2mo. J 730; and " Scleft Letters of M. Simon," with a life of the author and curious notes, Ap.ill. 4 vols. i2mo. Nouv. D\a.. Hill. BRYA, in Botany, (Browne Jam.) See Amerimnum Ebenus. _ BRYAN, in Geography, a county of America, in Geor- gia, adjoining Chatham county on the wed and fouth. wefl. BRYANT, Jacob, \x\ Biography, the fon of a Cuflom- houfeoflicerat Plymouth, was, fortiie honour of Devonfhire, born there ; though he has been reprcfented by fome as a native of Kent, from tht circumftaiice of his father's being transferred to that county wliilll himfelf was a child. Placed upon the foundation of Eton college he was early dillinguilhed for claflical attainments ; and the high reputa- tion with which he entered King's ferved as an incentive to his future exertions. Succeeding at the ordinary period to a fcllowilup in that college, he continued its ornament till nearly the end of the ceritury, and the boall of both in- llitutions to the clofe of his life. Having devoted himfelf early to habitual ftudy, he perfevered with but few inter- ruptions ; and thefe arc to be confidered as referring rather to a change of fubjefl, than a breaking off from his "ordinary purfuits ; for, during his fecietarylhip to the duke of Marlborough and the Board cf Ordinance, he availed him- felf of the opportunities which his employments atl'orded for rendering his knowledge in modern tatties fubfervient to that of the ancients. As he attended the father iu the capacity of fecretary during his military commands, fo he accompanied the Ion to the feat of the Mufes ; and, in the ofBce of private iuRruitor, fuperintended the lludies while at Eton of the prefent duke of Marlborough, as well as thofc of his brother I>oid Charles. Devoting himfelf to a life of literature, his diligence was unremitted in his fa- vomitc purfuit, ai.d the effeds of it were confecrated to the bed purpofes of learning and religion. The firll work which he formally pnblifhed was " Ob- fervations and Enquiries relating to various parts of antient Hillory, containing DifTerta. ions on the Wind Euroclydon, and on the Ifland Melitc ; together with an Account of Egypt in its moll er.rly State, and of the Shepherd Kings, I -67." Thofe wi.o knew Mr. Bryant formed confiderable expedlatious from t.is acknowledged reputation, when this volume was announced ; nor were they difappointed on its appearance. The opinion entertained oi his learning was coulirmed by it, and the ingenuity difplayed in it acquired him confiderable commendation. Hig B R Y His next communicalioii to the public, and tlie work on •wliicli liis chai-a'-^tr as a (clioljr imill ultiinately rell, was liis " Ke.v SylU-m, or Analyfis of Ancient Mythology ; wherein an Attempt is made to divcll Tradition of Fable, and to redjcc Truth to its original Purity." Of tliis pub- lication the f.rjl and ylr^j/j^y volumes canic forth together, in 1774, and "tlic ih'trd followed two years after. It being hi? profefTed dehgn to prefent a hillory of the Babylonians, Clialdjcans, Ejjyplians, Canaanites, Hclladians, lonians, Lclci;es, Dorians, Pelafgi, and other ancient nations, his rcfcarehts for this purpoi'e were not only of necefllty recon- dite, but in many inllanees uncertain ; but to facilitate his paflage through the mii^hty labyrinth which led to his primary object, he not only availed himfelf of the fcattered fragments of ancient hillory wherever he could find them, but alio of a variety of etymological aids ; for beinp: pcrfuadcd that the human race were the offspring of one ttock, and con- ceiving thence that their language in the beginning was one, this favourite notion was excmplitied by him in the invefti- gation of radical terms, and applying thefe as collateral aids. Confidering that his knowledge of the Oriental dia- lers was very confined, it is to be lamented that upon I'ome occafions he has indulged too freely to fancy ; yet thus much mull be confefled, that his defefts in this kind of learning form a llrong plea in his favour ; for if, without underrtanding thefe languages, he has fuccecded in tracing oiit fomany radicals as his table of them exhibits, and more efpeeially if he has been right in explaining thtm, it will follow that his explanations mull be founded on truth, and therefore are not chiniencal. In oppofuion, however, to them, Mr. Bryant experienced fome fcvere and petulant attacks : firll, from a learned Dvitchman, in a Latin review of hi work ; and fhortly after from the late Mr. Richardfon, ■who was privately affillcd by Sir William Jones; a circum- ftance which there is reafon to think Mr. Bryant never knew. To their ftritlures Mr. Bryant replied in an anonymous pamphlet, of which he printed a few copies for the perufal of his friends, but never profefTcdly publifhed. It is hoped, however, that, in the next edition of his Mythology this tracl will be added, as it is among the bell of his works. Amongft other parts of the Mythology which were at- tacked with afperity, that which relates to the Apamean medal was fevercly affailcd. Mr. Bryant defended himfelf in a feparate publication (which alfo fhould be fubjoined to the new edition) ; and though what he offered on the fub- jec\ was lightly treated by fome, who highly appreciated their knowledge of medals, yet the opinion of profeffor Eckhel, the firll medalill of his age, has decided on the cont'overfy in favour of Mr. Brv-ant. Whatever may be the merit, in the opinion of the learned, of Mr. Bryant's Neto Syjlem at large, no ptrfon can pofiibly diCpute, that a very uncommon llore of learning is percep- tible through the whole ; that it abounds with great origi- nality of conception, much perfpicacious elucidation, and t'le mod happy explanations on topics of the higheft import- ance : in a word, that it ftands forw;vrd amongft the firft works of its age. About this time the Vindiciae Flavians, a traft on the much difputed teilimony of Jofephus to Chnft, was printed, and a few copies fent to a b*okfeller in either jmiverfity ; but as the pamphlet appeared without the name of its author, and no attention was (hewed it, Mr. Bryant recalled them, and fatisfied himfelf with dillributing the copies thus returned amongtl a few particular friends. The new light, however, which Mr. Bryant threw upon the fubjed, and the acutenefs with which t'ae difficulties 6 B R Y attending it were difcuffed, foon caufed the Vindicia; to be known, and at length to be publiflied with his name. Dr. I'rielUcy having, by his llatement of the doArine of philofophical necefhty in a lefs exceptionable point of view tha'i that in which it had been heretofore feen, attradled at- tention to the fubjcci, Mr. Bryant was alarmed at the per- nicious tendency, as he conceived, of the doftrine ; and with the dtlign of checking its advancement, addrefied the Doclor on the fubjetl. But whatever imprefiion this addrcfs might have produced on other readers, it certainly left his antagonill unconvinced ; which, however, was not the cafe in a former inllance, for Dr. Pnellley liberally conftfftd that, in relpecl to the teilimony of Jolephus concerning our S:iviour, Mr. Bryant had made limi completely a convert. The poems attributed to Rowley having been publiHied by Mr. Tyrwhitt, Mr. Bryant's attention was next drawn to them. From the communications of his friend Dr. Glynn, and his own enquiries at Brillol, Mr. Bryant hav- ing acfjuired fuch information as convinced him, that thev had their foundation in reality, and were not entirely of Chatterton's fabrication, embarked in the contell ; but though he failed to produce conviftion in feveral particulars, his book difcovers confiderable talent, as well as much knowledge of Englilh antiquities and literature, and abounds with arguments which cannot be repelled. The hypothefis of Mr. Bryant in reference to the original language was always kept in view by him, and as refearches were extended on all fides to obtain elucidations, the lan- guage of the giplies engaged his attention ; accordingly the collections which he made from it, were publilhed in the Archseologia, vol, vii. His next production, but which ftill remains unpublifhed, was an illuftration in Latin of gems in the pofTeffion of the duke of Marlborough, engraved for his Grace by Baito- lozzi. Of this magnificent work Mr. Bryant's obfervations formed the text of the firll volume, that of the fecond was written by Dr. Cole, prebendary of Wcllminfter. The friendibip which fublifted between Mr. Bryant and the family of his patron, prompted him on all occafions to fubferve their wilhes, and to this difpofition are the pubhc indebted for hisTreatife on theAuthenticityof the Scriptures and the Truth of the Chrillian Religion, which was written to gratify the dowager lady Pembroke, and is an excellent book for popular inllrutlion. In two years after (for the treatife juft mentioned ap- peared in 1792) the world vi-ere obliged by a large volume, entitled " Obfervations upon the Plagues infiicled upon the Egyptians ; in which is (hewn the Peculiarity of thofe Judgments, and their Correfpondence with the Rites and Idolatry of that People ; with a Prefatory Difcourfe can- cerning the Grecian Colonics from Egypt." This is cer- tainly to be reckoned amongft Mr. Bryant's bell perform- ances, and as fuch will be itudioudy read. Profeffor Dalzcl having communicated to the Royal So- ciety of Edinburgh, and afterwards publilhed in a feparate volume, M. le Chevalier's " Defcription of the Plain of Troy," Mr. Bryant, who many years before had not only confidered, but written his fentiments on the Trojan war, firft publilhed his obfervations on M. Ic Chevalier's treatife, and afterwards a differtation concerning the war itfelf, and the expedition of the Grecians as dcfcribed by Homer ; with the view of (hewing that no fuch expedition was ever undertaken, and that no fuch city in Phrygia exifted. [The elegant treatife of Mr. Wood on the genius and writings of Homer, were edited, for his deceafed friend, by Mr. Bryant.] The B R Y The clamour excited by tlicfe pamphlets almotl exceeded belief. The author was attacked in all companies without mercy, and even by men from the prcfs, wlio fliould have thought more fobcrly, for having indulged fo cxceffivo a fcepticifm, as could not, in its moll dirttl efTccts, but be pernicious to the caule of divine revelation. Such cenfurcs, however, when duly weighed, could be difgractful only to their authors, \^hore want of temper, or of judgment, ren- dered them unable to difciiminate. Amongll Mr. Uryaiit's pri[icipal opponents were Mr. Gil- bert Wakctiuld, Mr. Morrit, and Dr. Vincent : but though the champions fur the war Itrenuoudy alfailed their antago- nill, fevcral of Mr. Bryant's objedlions remain as yet un- anfvvercd. In the following year Mr. Bryant fubmittcd to the puWic a work of a dilicrent kind and charadler, under the title of " The Sentiments of Philo Judsus concerning the AOrOi", or Word of God, together with large Extrafts from his Writings, compared with the Scriptures in many other par- ticular and tflential Doflrines of the Chriiliau Religion." But, learned and curious ns this treatife unquellionably is, it appears to have intertlled the general re.ider Icfs perhaps than any of his other produftions. In addition to thofe al- ready noticed may be added his " Obfcrvations on famous controverted Paflagcs in JulHn Martyr and Jofephus," and a pamplet addreiTcd tr. Mr. Melmoth, written with lefs tem- per than miglit have been wiflitd. Mr. Bryant clofed his labours with a qiiarto volume of DifTertations on the pro- phecy of Balaam ; the (landing ftill of the fun in the time of Jolliua ; the jaw bone of the afs with which Sampfon flew the Philillines ; and the hillory of Jonah and the whale : fubjefts in themfelvt; exceedingly curious, and treated with much ingenuity ; but thefe tratts upon them having been written above thirty years before, Mr. Br)'ant in reviling fo altered, as, through a deleft of memory, to render the re- marks in one part inconfiftent with thofe in another, which materially diminifhed the value of the whole. Other writings to a conliderable extent ftill remain in the hands of his executor, who is faid to have fubmitted them for publication to a competent judgment. In forming a general eftimate of Mr. Bryant's literary charafter, it will be found that, as aclaflical Icholar, he had few equals ; his acquaintance with hiftory and the topics of general information was of very uncommon extent, but from the want of Oriental literature and the ftrifter fcienccs he yielded too often to the impulfes of a vigorous fancy. It will, notwithllanding, be found from repeated perufals of his writings, that he defervedly ranks amongll the foremoll of his age ; and from having confecrated his great talents and acquil'itions to the fervice of religion, will be ever en- -titled to the veneration of mankind. In his perfon Mr. Bryant was lower and more delicately formed than men in general, and confequently lefs capable of ftrong exercifc ; but, in eaily lite he bad great agility, par- ticularly in fwimming, a circumltance which enabled him to fave Dr. Barnard, afterward head mailer of Eton, when drownin.";. In his ordinary habits of life he was remarkable for his temperance, and though his lime and ifudies were principally devoted to literature, and the purfuit of truth, yet his converfation with thofe he received and converfed with was nncommnnly fpritely, as he never failed to mix enter- taining anecdote with inllruftion. In his perfon he was particularly neat, and in his deportment courteous. His liberality wa? often conlpicuous, and the fpirit of religion diffufed itfelt through all his aftions. As few comparatively live fo long, inftances of fuch exemplaiy merit can but rarely be found. Elcded trom Eton to King's, in i73'», Vol.. V. B R Y he proceeded bachelor of art." in 1740; in 1744, took the degree of mailer, and died, after a long relidence, at Cy- penham, near Windfor, on the 14th of November, 1804, of a mortilication in his leg, occafioned by a hurt from the tilting of a chair in reaching down a book from its flielf. At his own drfne, Mr. Br) ant was interred in his parifh church, beneath the feat he there occupied. BRYAN T'S Coite, in dogrnphy, lies on the ead coaft of Newloundland, half a league vS.W. from Harbour Grace, and two and a half leagues to the fouth-weil of Spanifh bay, in which there is good fifhing for boats. Bkvant's /./V/, a foulh-ead branch of Green river, th« mouth of which is about 2}' miles E. of Craig's fort, and 10 E. of Sulphur fpring, in Mercer'.s county, Kentucky. BRYANTHUS, in Botany (Gmcl. Sib.) See Andro- M E n .'V bryantha. BllYE, John Theodori; di;, in Biography, excelled in the art of deligniiig and engraving. He was a native of Liege, but rcfidtu chieily at Franckfort, where he carried on a confiderable com.merce in prints. His talle was formed on the works ot Scbald Beham. He feldom ufcd the point, but worked almoft wholly with the graver. His (lyle of engraving was neat and free, excellently adapted to fmall fubjedts, comprehending many figures ; fuch as funeral pa- rades, proctfiions, &c. His drawing was very correft ; his heads fpirited and exprcffive, and the other extreinities of his figures well marked. His back-grounds, though flight, are admirsbly touched. He died March 27, 1598. His great works were the plates for the full four volumes of Boidard's Roman Antiquities ; the plates for illuflrating the Manners and Cuftoms of the Vitginians, copied by Pi- cart in his Religious Ceremonies of all Nations ; the p'atcs to the I^atin Narrative of the Cruelties of the Spaniards in America, publilhed in ijqH, and his " Defcriptio India: Orientalis et Occidentalis," 5 vols. fol. 1598; and among other detached prints his " Procefiion for the Funeral of Sir Philip Sidney," engraved at London, 1578. Strutt. BRYENNIUS, Nicephorus, was a native of Oreltia in Macedonia, and married the princefs Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius Comnenus, who raifed him to the rank of Cxfar, but declined announcing him as his fucccflbr in prejudice of his own Ign. After the death of Alexius, the emprcfs Irene and her daughter Anna at. tempted to elevate Bryennius to the empire, but he refuled to concur in the plot. Having been feat, in n 57, to be- fiege Antioch, he fell lick, and returning to Conftantinople died in that city. His hillory of the reigns of Ifaac Com- nenus and of the three fucceeding emperors, was comprifed in four books, and publiflied with a Latin tranflation, by the jefuit PoulTines at Paris in 1661, to w-hich the annota- tions of Du Cange were annexed in 1670. Bryennius, Mani.'el, the lall writer on mufic in the Greek language that has come to our knowledge. He flourifhed under t!ie elder Palxologus, about the year J 3:0 ; and it is probable that he was a defeendant of the houle of Brienne, an ancient French family, that went into Greece during the Crufadcs, at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury. Fabric. Bib. Gr. Du Cange. Fam. Byzant. The work is divided into three books, all which are con- fined to harmonics : the lirll is a kind of commentary on Euclid ; and the feeoiid and third little more than explana- tions of the doftrines of Ptolemy. Meibomius had promifed a Latin trandation of this work, but dying before it was finilhed. Dr. Wallis performed the talk, and it now conllitutes a part of the third volume of his works, publiflied at Oxford in •; vols fol. id'jQ- That the Greek nuilic had undergone many alterations J I ' fmce B R Y fincc the ancient troatifcs which are come down tn us were written, is orrtain from the ciiange and iucrtafe of its vota- b'jlary. Brvcnniiis (lib, iii. fcft. J ) has given as names of intervals, a Ml of barbarous terms nnt to bo found in any prtceJiji" writer within our knowledge : and in the Greek gloffary of l)u Cmi^e. and the Abate Maitini's papers on the prefcnt mnfii: of Greece, a great number occurs that is not to be found either in writers of hicrh antiquity, or in Br)-ennius : as hb iii. (t.&, 4. the words "H^jo?, and ■xX^yio;, appear for I'jnus and ohliqiius ; and T^^rr:;, ii-Xrifsc, Tfixo,-, Tf- Ti^ro,-, are ufed to dillir.guilh the modes or tones; a proof klnt he was a naodcrn Greek. Padre Martiyi is of opinion that tliefe termi were fird introduced in church niufic, to exehide the Taiwan title? of Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, &c. The technical language of the Greeks has always been copiou--, and in mulic perhaps its feeming redundance is more confpicuous than in any other art or icience. But in other arts and fcienccs words are rcprefentatives of things cxillini; ; whereas, in denominating the tones and inflexions of voice, wliich, to reali/.e, require new creation, there tan be no correfpondence between t!ie type and fubltance. The colours, the fora-.s, and objefls wliich a painter wilhes to reprefent, are in nature; and the poet, in all the ebullitions of wild enth\ifiafm and fervid imagination, defcribes what he has fcsn and felt, or what ;/ to be leen and felt, and for which common language mull fupp'y him with fymbols. But it has never entered the thoughts of man to give names to all the mi- nute fhades of colour between black and white, or to the gra- dations by which li/ht is propagated between the time of total darknefs and the fun's meridian. And yer, in a fcale of founds, from the lowcll mufical tone inthehuman voice to the highelt, where oftaves are not reprefented by fimilar figns and ap- pellatives, the names and charaflers mull be numerous. The lines and clefs of the European mnfic have certainly freed it from many perplexities with which it was embar- raffed, even in the artlefs times of Canto Fermo. BRYGI, in ylnaciit Geography, inhabitants of Thrace, who were fubdued by the Macedonians, and ferved under Xerxes, when he invaded Greece. BRYGMUS, in Medicine, a grinding or gnalhing of the t *eth ; a fymptom common in epilepfy, and fome other convulfive diforders : from ^^vx^j to fnap, or guafh, with the teeth. BRYONIA, in Botany, (iSjii-jia, Diofcorides ; from /Sj uu, germino, puUulo, expreffive of the vigorous and rapid growth of its annual Hems from the perennial root.) Lin. gen. 1005. Reich. 1194. Schreb. 1480. Gxrtntr 551. Jufiieu 594. VentenalS vol. iii. 51 1. Clafs, moncecia fyn- genefta. Pentandrij, Smkh. Nat. Ord. ^wfartoacc.? Linn. Scjuff. Gen. char. Male flowers. Cal. Perianth one leaf- ed, campanulate, five-toothed ; teeth oval-(haped. Cor. five, parted, campanulate, fallencd to the calyx ; divifions ovate. Stam. Filaments three, very fhort, two bearing each two anthers, and the third with only one. Female flowers. Cj.'. Perianth as in the males, fuperior, deciduous. Cor. as in the males. Pi^. Germ, inferior. Style trifid, the length of the expanding corolla ; ftigmas emarginate, patu- lous. Pcric. Berry fubglobular, fmooth. Seeds, nut nume- rous, fixul to the coal, fiibovate. Sclireb. Not mure than fix, inclofed in their proper cells. Ga;rt. Species, 1. B. a/ta. Linn. " with black berries, and the inward fubllance of the root of a pale box colour ; leaves palmate, callous-fcabrous on both fides." This fpecics, though mentioned by many of the old botanills, does not feem to be much known fince the time of Linnrcus. La Marck obftrvcs that he knows nothing of it, and feems to fp'.ak with fome degree of doubt with refpeft to its esill- B R Y ence. In this, however, he is certainly wroit^ ; it mud have been known to Linnxus. Bofc fays that it is a truly diiliiift fpccies, but gives no defeription. It appears to be confined to the north of Europe, and not to be hiund in England or r ranee, for though Plukenet fpeaks of it as not unfrequent about Cambridge, he was probably millakcn; it had not been obfervcd by Ray, nor has it been found fince in that neighbourhood by I'l-ofelTor Martyn, nor in an^ other part of Great Britain. 2. B. dioica. Jacq. Ault. t. 199. Hall. Hclv. 574. AIllou. Ped. 4.';j. PoUich. pal. 915. Ray hill. 659. Syn. 261. Huds. Ang. 437. Smith Flor. Brit. .59S. Eng. Bot. 4^9. " Berries red ; root ycllowifli white within ; leaves palmate, callous-lcabrous on both fides ; flowers dioicous." Root large, flelhy, white. Stems annual, fcandtnt, angular, rough, leafy, fomewhat branched, very long. Leaves alternate, petioled, palmate, five-lobed, angular, rough on both fides, with minute cal- lous points. Stipules none. Tendrils folitary, fi nple, ac- companying the petioles. Peduncles axillary, fomewhat umbellate with few flowers. Corolla white, elegantly- marked with green veins. Anthers connate by pairs with an odd one. /V/awf«/j- all a little united at the bafe. Ber- ries globular, fcarlet, fmooth. Seeds fix, elliptic, fpotted. The leaves in autumn have the fmell of mu(k. Smith. The roots have been artificially made to afl'ume a human fhape, and lliewii to the common people as roots of the celebrated mandrake, Atropa Mandragora, to which many fanciful virtues have been attributed. For this purpofe the earth is removed round the root of a thriving young plant, fo as not to dillurb the lower fibres, and a mould, fuch as is ufed for plaller figures, is made fall with wires to receive the growing woody part of the root ; the earth is then replaced, and in the courfe of a f.immer a root of the required fliape is pro- duced. 3. B. palmcita, Linn. " Leaves palmate, fmooth, five- parted, repand-ferrate." Root perennial. Berries yellowifh, globular, rather large. Native of Ceylon. Introduced into England in 1778, by Meflrs. Gordon and Grsfer. 4. B. lacininfa, Linn. Gasrt. tab. 88, fig. 2, copied by La Marck. pi. 796, fig. 2. " Leaves palmate ; divifions lan- ceolate, ferrated, petioles muricate." Root perennial. Leaves cordate, palmate, rough above, roughilh beneath on the rib and nerves. Petioles almoll prickly ; not pedun- cles as it Hands in the Mantlffa, as copied by Reichard, and tranfiated without a comment by La Marck. Corolla ycWow, hairy, or tomentous within, fmooth without. Germ fmooth. Fruit feflile, of the fizeof a cherry, marked with fix milk-white lines. Berry flelhy, three-celled, the pulp in each cell cafily fe- parable fromit,gelatinous-membranaceous, two-celled, green. Seeds fix, one in each cell of the pulp. La Marck defcribes a plant cultivated in the Royal garden at Paris, which he fuppofss to be the NehoemeLa of the Hortus Malabaricus, and not fpecifieally dillinct from the laciniofa of Linnrens, though LiniiDEus has cancelled the reference to it as a fyno- nym in the Mantiffa, after having admitted it in the Species. Plantarum. Tlic plant in the French garden has deeply pal mated _//TOo/Zi leaves, but the petioles, as well as the polle- rior nerves, are armed with almolt thorny prickles. 5. B. Afri- ciiria. Linn. Hcrm. Parad. 107. tab. loS. Gaertner, 2, tab. R3, copied by La Marck, PI. 796. fig. j. " Leaves palmate, five-parted, Imooth on both fides; divifions pinnatifid." Upper leaves five-parted, [cabrous at the edge ; divifions pinnatifid, almoll linear, acute. Berries^ folitary, roundilli, beaked, obtufely angular, yellow. Linn. Rind of the berty flelhy, rather thick, orange-coloured on the outfide ; pulp, membranaceouii-rpongy, cafily feparablc from the rind, re- gularly divided into fix, fometimes only four cells. Seeds one in each cell, ovate-globular, compreffed at the fides, and B R Y R R Y and efpfcially towards tlie navel, to a fliarp edge, witli very minute, wliitiAi briftles or fcales lyini^ clofc to their furface. Gsrt. La Marck dclcribes a plant, cultivated at Paris, which he takes to be the fame, in which tiie leaves are roughifh beneath. 6. B. cretka. IJnn. " Leaves palmate, rough with callous points on their upper furface." Root long, not fo large as B. diolcn, running deep into the ground. Stems (lender, rough, furnilhcd with tendrils. Leaves di- vided like thofe of ihe coniiTion fort, but Icfs, ilreaked or fpotted with white. FIo'ilhts axillary, pale, llrcakcd, on long pendant peduncles. Berr'us fuiall, femi-globular, di- vided at top into two parts, red, generally containing only two feeds. Miller, and I^a Marck. Native of Candia, whence the feeds were fent to C. Bauhin. Cultivated by Miller, before 1779. 7. B. lonanevfts. Mil.; futfolui, La Marck. Dill. Elth.tab. 50. fig. 58. La Maick, PI. 796. i. " Leaves femi-palmate, five-parted, with obtufe fegments, hairy." Root -jinA Jl ems like thofe of the common bryony. Leaves refembling thofe of the common fig, but fmaller ; narrower and fmaller at the ends of the branches, hairy, and . very rounh, upper furface deep green, lower whilirti. Na- tive of Buenos Ayres. Cultivated in the Elcham garden, about 1726. Mil. 8. B. •variegala. Miller. " Leaves pal- mate, with lanceolate fegments, fpotted on the upper, fmooth on the under fide ; fruit ovate, fcattered." 9. B. ^randis. Lin. Mant. " Iiis five-cornered, hifpid. Tendrils fimple. Leaves blunt, unequally toothed, a little curled at the edge; petioles hifpid. Peduncles many; axillary (hort. Cal^K bell-fhaped, five-toothed. Corollas fmall, very like thofe of melothria, yellow. It has altogether the itature of melotltria, but the whole plant is hiipid and rugged, and has the llamens of bryony. A native of the Eall Indies found by Dr. Kre- nig, and introduced into England in 1781, by vSir Jofeph Banks, bart. La Marck def'cribes a plant under the fame Ipccific name, which he thinks nearly allied to the precedi.ig, with a doubt whether it be \.\\e feohrella of the yoiinger Lin. mus. It differs from Martyn's plant in having its berries perfeftly fmooth ; a circumftance which the younger Liu- nxus iias left undetermined. La Marck's dcleription was rviade from a dried fpeclmen. i ;. Y>.J'cabra. Linn. fil. 42^. " Leaves cordate, angular, toothed, callous-pointed above. villous llnderncaili, feabrous on both fides. Tendrils fimple. Berries globular, fmooth." Found at the cape by Thun- berg and Mafion, and introduced into England in 177}. La Marck docs not notice this fpecies, unltls it be his fea- brellit. 14. B. H.if.'(7. La Marck. " Lower leaves Cordate- ro'.indifh, very entire ; upper ones deeply three-lobed ; lobes obtufe." Allied to B. AjVicana, but much fmalKr, and with leaves lefs deeply cut. Stems (lender, a liitle villctis, fcarcely more than a foot and a half high. Leaves alternate- potioled, green, fmooth above, feabrous, with callous ])oiiits beneath. Native of Africa. Dtfcribcd from a living plant without flowers in the Koyal garden at Paris. 11;. B. /Ih/- Jinica. La Marck. " Lea\es large, cordate, toothed ; up- per ones lobed-angular ; petioles :uid peduncles very villous." Stem fix or eight feet high, villous, efpecially near the top. Leaves foft, almoll fmooth, deep green above, a little glau- cous beneath ; the lower ones cordate and toothed, the up- per ones with four or five angular, unequal lobes. Flowers yellovvifh, axillary, in pairs ; peduncles fimple, flioi t. Co- rolla five-parted, fpreading, veined. A native of Africa. Dcfcribed from a living plant in the Royal garden at Paris. 16. B. jlmericana. La Marck. " Leaves large, cordate, thrce-lobcd ; berries oval, with two or three feeds." Rcot tender, white, a little bitter. Stems long, angular, twining, jointed, with a leaf, a tendril, and a flower at each joint. L.eaves petioled, a little rough, with a few rather fpinous teeth, and refcmbling thofe of the common fig. Flowers pedunculate, with five divifions, greenifii without, white within. Berries oval, about the fize of an olive, red. Seeds two or three, bedded in a fpongy pulp. Plumier's MSS. A native of the Antilles. 1 7. B. Japoniea. Thunb. " Leaves cordate, undivided, and angular, toothed, unarmcd-hifpid." Lobes of the leaves angular, fliarp, with very minute hairs on the upper furface, pale underneath, dotted with fcales, an inch long. It creeps on walls. Native of Japan. 18. B. raeemnfa. Miller. Plum. pi. 83. t. 97. " Leaves cor- date, three-lobed, the upper ones ovate and fomewhat rug- ged ; flowers in racemes ; berries nodding, oval." A native of Jamaica. 19. B. verrucofa. Ait. Hort. Kew. 5. 385. " Leaves cordate, angled ; the upper furface and the veins underneath callous -feabrous; the callofities remote ; tendrils fimple; berries globular." 20. ]i. laleiro/a. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 384. " Leaves fubtrilobate, hairy, drawn to a point at the bafe." This and the foregoing were obferved by MafTon in the Canary iflanJs, and introduced here in 1 779. The latter is eafily diftinguiflied from its congenere by the leaves not being in the leajl cordate at the bafe, but decurrent along the petioles. 2 i . B. amplexicaulss. La Marck. " Stem angular, fmooth ; leaves flat, cordate, fubangular, embracing the Rem ; berries folitarv, acuminate." Stems flender, feandent ; leaves alternate, cordate, fiightly angular, fmooth on both fides, dotted above, glaucous below, on fhort pe- tioles ; the upper fometimi s divided iatn ftraight diverging lobes. Floii'irs fmall, axillary, folitary, pedunclcd. Germ fliarp-pointed at the fummit. Berry flefny, acuminate, very fmooth, nearly the (^-.'.s of a hazel nut. A native of the Ea(l Ir.die:;, communicated by M. Sonncrat, and defcribed from a dried fpecimen. ^2. Yi.brjlata. Martyn. Lour. Co- chinch. 594. " Leaves hattate, edged with little teeth, fmooth ; peduncles many-flowered." Stem herbaceous, flender, fcandent, cirrhofc. Flo'ivers androgynous, white, axillary. Calyx none. Corolla tubular, with a five-patted, upright border. Filaments placed at the bottom of the co- rolla, with three alternate, wartcd glands. Berr^ ovate, acute, fmall, red, oue-ccUcd ; containing a few ovate, arilled feeds. Native of China about Canton. 23. B. triloba. Martyn. " Leaves three lobed, five-nerved ; ftipiiles round- 3 I ifli^ B R Y Stem flinibby, fcr- irt,, concave; peduncles one-floivered. ' Si<-m Ji^rM grooved. clitnb=..^' by trif.d tc-ndrlls. /,«;.'.-/ cord.te rat.-renai.d, fmootl. on both Tides. Sl,/'u!,s fonnlc. /-W/ andro^'vnons, wtute, axilbry, lolitary i^.^rry ovate, (harp- ill,, fmoolh. yello.v, an inch and half lo„g, fuvj-celled, n>anv-leeded. Native of Cochinchina. 24. B. C..-/-.-.-/--^- n.«A'. M^rtyn. LS- " i-''^«, .f^''-^"''- nered, rouRh ; berries three-celled, ten-cornered. 6/m l.crbaceoiu; four-;n-ooved, branchinfc, fcandent, cu'rhole. /.fjw cordate, toothed, alternate, petioled. //j rye/van- drotn-noir. white, large, axilUry, fulitary, on lonR pedun- cles. 6Vv.v one-l.afed ; the tube at bottom cyhndncal, :it top ovate," dilated; border five-ckft with linear fe(rmaus. Corolla almr-ll wheel-lhaped, fixed to the mouth of the ca yx ; fegments ovate-oblon^. FihimenU placed on the middle ot the tube of the calvx. yiniha- o;ie, large, oblonR-ovate, placed on the tlute filaments ::. form of a tnpod. Gi-rmm. ferior, ovate-oblong, grooved. Sly!^ filitorni, (liorter than the tube. Sti-.mi oblong, three-cornered, tnfid at the lip. Berry ovate, fliarpilh at both «nd-;, red, fmooth. Seeds ovate-oblong, comprefl'cd, fmooth. Profefior Martyn ob- fervcs, that it differs from the other bryonies, but mud re- main here, unlefs it be made to conlUtute a new genus. Propagation and Culture. The exotic fpecies require the proteaion of the bark or dry ftove, according to the tempe- rature of their native climate. They are propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed, and tranfplanted into pots filled with light frea. earth. Several of them will endure the open air in fummer, but in winter mull be flickered, and fhould then have little water. Thev generally flower in July, and ir, fa- vourable fummers will ripen their feeds. Thofe which are annual mull be fown on a hot-bed early in the fpnng, and, when about three inches higli, tranfplanted into fniall pots ; afterwards Hiifttd into larger pots, and placed in the bark- ftove, where their branches may be trained to the wall, or againft an efpalier, that they may have fun and air, without which tliey will not produce fruit. When full of fruit, they make a pretty variety in the ftove. Miller. Medical and Ecmomical Ufes. The frelb root of the com- mon bryony, taken up in the beginning of fpring, abounds with a thin milky juice, which may be coUeftcd, for two or three days fuccefiivelv, by baring the root of its earth, cut- ting the top trail fverfely, and forming a cavity in the niiddle to receive it. Both the root in fubdance, and the juice, have a difagreeable fmell and a naufeous, bitter, biting tafte : applied for fome timv to the flcnr/«/a, and Rajania hajiala. Bryonia alha. (Sloane Jam.) See Cissv sJIeyoiJcs, asi- il.i, el Irifoliata. Bryonia ji'igru (Sloane Jam.) See Tournefortia w- /;;/;■•/. Bryonia (Dal. Pharm.) See Convolvulus Jalapa. Bryonia (C. Bauh.) See Tamus. Bryonia, in C'jtchology, a fptcies of Strombus, about feven inches in length, fufcous, variegated with wliite and blue in clouds. This fliell i.s fpecilically defcribed as being of a conic form, with a mucronate, eight-dentatcd lip, and knotty fpire. Defcribed by Lider. This fhell is extremely rare. Gmelin is in doubt whether it belongs to the Strombus genus. Native place unknown. BRYONIiE SiMiLis (Pluk.) in Botany. See Dios- COREA •viHoJa. BRYONIOIDES (Dill. Elth.) See Sieves angiilala. Bryonioides (Pluk.) Sec Cissvs acida, BRYUM, (from 0/vii, germ.ino, puUulo) firft ufed as a generic name by DiUenius in his catalogue of plants in the neighbourhood of Gieffen, printed at Frankfort on the Mayne in 17 17, introduced by him into his edition of Ray's Synoplis 1724, and finally illudrated with full defcriptions and figures of all the then known fpecies in his admirable Hilkoiy of Mofl^es, publifhed at Oxford 1 741. It was given to a family of modes diilinguidied by the following charaftcrs. Stems generally ereft, and little if at all branched. Peduncles either terminal, or fpringing diieftly from the ftemlefs root ; and when apparently lateral proceeding from the termination of the lad year's dem, not furrounded at its bafc, like hypnum, with a peri- chfetium or fcaly involucrum, but having inllead of it an ob- long knob or tubercle. Capfules when young covered with a fmooth calyptra. It was taken up by Linnsus in his Flora Lapponica and Genera Plantarum, both publidied in 1737, and continued in all his fubfequent works, with no material change of the original generic charafler. Dillcnius enumerates eighty-one fpecies in his Hidoria Mufcorum, fixty-one of which appear as Engllfh plants in the third edition of Ray's Synoplis ; but in the Species Planlanim the number is reduced to thirty-two, many of Dllleiiius's fpecies being confidered only as varieties, and thofe wliich appear to be dioicous being removed by Linnaeus to Mnium. The twelfth edition of the Sydema Naturos has only thirty- one, the B. capillare of the Species Plantarum being alfo removed to Triiiiura. The number has fiuce been greatly increafed, fo that Dr. Withering in the third edition of his Botanical Arrangement reckons ninety-two Britifli fpecies. Hedwig, in his new fyftem of moffes which is generally received in Germany, and is beginning to make its way in England through the powerful influence of Dr. Smith and Mr. Dawfon Turner, has contrafted the genus didin- guiP.ied by this name within much narrower limits, taking •- . out B R Y U M. out of it liii Gymnoflomiim, An!ftana;ium, Kiicalypta, Leerfia, Grimmin, V/eilTi.i, Trichoilomuin, l)idym()(lfuk curved, opake, with a very contracled apophyfis. Lid convex, with a fhort point, red ; fiinge outer flioit, ferru- ginous ; inner reticulated, twice as long as the outer. f>. B. cylindriciim, Dicks. Tab. II. f. 4. "Stem fimple; leaves lanceolate-linear, ferrated towards the top ; capfule rather ereil cylindrical." Stem fcarcely lialf an iiicli high, ereift. Leaves of a pleafant green colour, ereft but fprcading, acute, keeled, one-nei-ved. Fniit-Jlalk crefl, terminal, an inch long, red. Capfute pale brown, fniall, (lender, with ail obconic apophyfis of its own magnitude, fringe pale. 7. B. carnciim, Linn. (B. delicatulum Hed. Mnium carntum Hoff.) Dill. Tab. 50. f. 69. "Stem generally fimple; leaves lanceolate acute, keeled ; capfule obovate, pendulous, leaves lanceolate, acute, very entire, reticulated, placed cbtufe." .S/f/nj- growing in thick tufts, ereft, fhort, o!"ten ' '' ' " fimple, moll leafy at their fummits. Leaves pale green, gloflfy, lanceolate, acute, keeled, one-nerved, tipped with a fenulate point. Fruit-Jlall terminal, folitary, ereft, fome- times two inches long, gloffy, tawny purple, paler upwards. Capfule, pendulous, obtufe, a little attenuated or elongate at the bafe, rufty-coloured, not glofiy. I^iil convex, with a (hort, blunt point. Outer fringe yiA\ov/\R\ ; inner varioufly laciniated. Perennial. 3. B. aureum, gold thread-mofs, (Mnium pyriforme, Linn.) Dillen. tab. 50. f. 60. Eng. Bot. .5 89. " Stem ptrfeftly fimple ; leaves fetaceous, upper rather remote from each other ; capfule pendulous, top- (haped." Stems not half an inch high, in tufts, ereft, red. Leaves alternate, pale green, pellucid, reticulated, very entire, one-nerved. Fruitflalhs terminal, folitary, half an inch long, a little zigzag, of a pale rofe colour. Capfule pendulous, flefh-coloared, opake ; lid conic, fiiort, obtufe ; fringe outer, rufty brown ; inner, yellowifh, toothed in a double feries. 8. B. alpinum, Linn. Mant. Dill. Tab. ijo. f. 64. " Stem branched, ereft ; leaves ovate-lauceolate, acute, imbricated ; capfule oblong, pendulous." Stems in tufts, one or two inches high ; branches ereft, lllfF, round, ones very long ; capfule pendulous, pearfliaped, fuddenly acute. Leaves imbricated denfely on all fides, beautifully contrafted about the middle." Stems v\ tufts, ereft, fimple half an inch high, filiform. Leaves pale yellowifh green, capillary, loofe, keeled, very entire ; upper ones very long, fprcading in form of a liar. Flowers terminal. Fruit-flalks folitary, ereft, an inch long, capillary, of a gold colour, gloffy, fomewhat waved. Capfule gold coloured, highly gloffy, pendulous, pearfliaped, rather blunt, attenuated from the bafe to the middle; lid rather conic, (liort, fomewhat pointed ; calyptra awlfhaped, white. Fringe yellow without ; white within, teeth in a double feries. Annual. 3. B. elon- gatum, Dicks. Fafc. a. 8. (Pohlia Hed. Mnium Pohlia HofF. ) " Stem generally fimple ; leaves linear-lanceolate, thickened at the edge. Capfule rather nodding, cylindrical, elongate at the bafe." Stem ereft, (hort, fimple, but at length a little branched. Leaves deep green, fprcading, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, acute, onc-nervcd, very entire, curled when dry. Fruitflalhs an inch and a half long, folitary, nearly ereft, purple, yellow near the top. Capfule a little nodding but not pendulous, cylindrical, curved, brown, a little contiadled at its orifice, lengthened at its bafe into an obconical apophyfis of nearly its own length ; lid conical, acute, fhort ; fringe outer very fhort, brown ; inner white, toothed in a fingle feries. Perennial. Obs. Dillenius confounded this fpecies with nutans. 4. B. trichaJes, long, capillary, thread-mofs, Linn. (Milium uliginofum, With. Meefia uliginofa, Hed.) Dill. Tab. 49. f. 58, " Stem generally fimple; leaves linear, obtufe; capfule obovate, incurved, fomewhat nodding ; fruit-ftalk very long." Stems in tufts, fcarcely an inch high, fomctimes much (hotter, variegated with green and purple, gloffy, very entire, pellucid, often with a very red nerve, when diy prefftd clofe to the ftern. Fruitflalhs lateral, folitary, an inch long, red, ftraight, rifing higher than the ftern. Capfules obovate-cyhndrical, red when ripe; lid hemifpherical, um- honate ; fringe white or rofe coloured. 9. B. aefpititium, Linn. (Mnium cxfpititium With. Relh. Abb.) Dill. Tab. 50. f. 66. except the variety F. G. leffer matted thread- mofs. " Stem branched at the bafe, matted, leaves ovate- lanceolate, flat, ending in a hair ; capfule obovate, pen- dulous." Steras forming a denfe tuft, branched from the bafe ; branches trilinear, fimple, fprcading, leafy, obtufe. Leaves of a pleafant green, very entire, one-nerved, the upper one larger, fpreading in form of a liar. Fruitflalhs from the bafe of the branches, about an inch and a half long, capillary, ereft, purple at the bafe, green at the top. Lid convex, umbonatc, fringe yellow, teeth acumi- nate. 10. B. hicolor, Dicks. Fafc. 4. 16. Dill. Tab. i;o. f. 66. F. G. " Stem very fhort, branched at the bafe ; leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; capfule ovate, obtufe, pendulous." Stems fcattercd, with long fufcous roots. Leaves yellov.'ifli green, fmail, fprcading, fiat, very entire, a little pointed but not ending in a hair. Fruitflalhs from the bafe of the branches, hall an inch long, ereft, very red, gloffy. Capfule rather large, thick, red at the bafe, fulvous at the top, often entirely blood red ; lid hemifpherical, umbonate, gloffy, fulvous or fearlet ; fringe nearly refem- bling that of B. carneum. 1 1. B. argenteum, Linn. (Mnium argent. Hoff.) filvery thread-mofs. " Stem branched at the bafe. B R Y U M. hx. lulo inj^e/i'anieui of Gniclin. It (hould be further added, that the Virginian owl is con- fidertd by Bufi'on to be a mere variety of the fpecies lulo ; the two birds differing only in the pofition of the ear-hke tufts of feathers on the head. AVe mufl allow, that it ad- mits a doubt whether the Virginian o.vl be in reality a di- iliiicl fpecies from bulo, or not. Bubo, in Surgery, is a term derived fiom the Greek Bb-^xi, iiiguen, which among the ancients had various fignifi- cations ; viz. the inguinal region cr groin ; an inflammation and fwelling of the abforbent glands in the groin ; aa in- flamed or fuppurating gland at the bend of the elbow, or under the arnij)it ; a phlegmonous tumour behind the ear, in the neck, or in fome other external part of the body, ac- companied with febrile fymptoms, &c. Vide Defiiiit. Me- dicar. Gorrh^i, ct CEconom. Hippocr. Fajii, Art. /Sobo/V. As the remote caufes and confequences of buboes arc va- rious, fo there have been numerous p:itholog!cal diftinftions introduced ; many of which, however, are of but little im- portance to the pradlical furgeon : for example, lenign bubo, malignant bubo, pcjl'dcntial bubo, fympatbelic bubo, zenereal bubo, ferofulous bubo, variolous bubo, fcirrhous bubo, ery- Jipelatous bubo, edematous bubo, pllegmunous bubo, idiopathic bubo, eorifcutive bubo, &c. &c. 'I'he principal indications of cure arc not fo much governed by the luppofed cliarafter and name of the local dilorder, as by the nature and tendency of its remote caufe ; which being deteded and removed, will very fcldom leave any doubt as to the choice we (hould make of topical remedies. To defcribc all the poffible caufes, fymptoms, concomitants, and fecondary effects of buboes, in whatever part of the body they may arife, with their va- rious modes of treatment, would be to write a large volume. BUB Our prefent bufinefs will be, to give only a fhort account of the principal di.ignoillc figns of buboes, and their chirurgi- cal management in ordinary cafes. Buboes are dillinguilhed from other tumours by one or more of llie foliowing circumllaaces : 1. By their vfual fit nation. 'I'hey are only to be found in the courfe of the "lymphatic veifels ; i. e. chiefly along the iiMier fides of the leg and thigh, afccnding to the groin ; alfo upon the under furtacc of the arms, going towards the ax- illx ; or, upon either fide of the neck, and underneath the lower jaw. 2. By ihcir form andfruclure. Thcfe glands are ufuiUy roundiih or oblong : at the beginning of the inHamn.ation, and for foxe time after, they are hard, or but flightly com- preflible; ihev are moveable among the cellular membrane, by which they are fuirounded ; they have very little fi i.fibility oa being touched, until the inflammation advances confidtrcibly j they are not, at fiiil, attended with rednefs, or dilcoloura- tion of the fupi.rincnmbent fli;?OT, the gri:in, or a tumour to which that part is liable, and which it was fuppofed to cure). I..in;i.. gen. 3-,o. Reich. 3S0. Schreb. 482. Willden. 546. G-^rt. 12. Tab. 23. fig. 2. La Marck, PI. 194. JufT. 221. Ventenat vol. iii. p. 19. Clafs and ordev peatam/ria cl'igynia. Nat. Ord. umbellatit, Linn. umbelUfcrie, JufF. Gen. Char. Cal. Umbe! imivn-fal, of about ten rays, the middle ones fliorter; partial, of from fifteen to twenty rays. Involucre univcrj'al, of five leaves or more. Leaves lanceo- late-acuminate, fpreading, equal, much fhorter than the umbel, permanent ; partial with rather more leaves, of the fame fhape, as long as the partial umbel. Perianth proper, fcarccly vilible. Flowers all fertile, forming an uniform umbel.^ Cnr. petals five, lanceolate, inflccled. Stam. fila- ments five, fimple, as long as the petals ; ar.thers fimple. Pill. germ ovate, inferior; (lyles two, briflle-fhapcd, permanent, Icarctly the length of the corol, fpreading and reflefled ; lligmas obtule. Pericarp, none ; fruit dividing into two, crowned. Seeds two, ovate, fiat on one Cde, convex on the other, filiated. Efl'. Char. Fruit ovate, ftriated. Species, j. B. maccdonicuin, Macedonian parfley. Linn. Hort. Clif. 95. Biackwel, Tab. :;82. G»rt. Iruft. i. ic2. Apium Mactdonicum. Bauh. Pm. i .■;4. Tourn. 305. Ray. hill. 46J. N"" 4. Petrofclinum Macedonicum, Lob. Ic. 708. Dod. Pcmpt. 697. Ger. 864. 2. f. i. cmac. iOl6. f. 2. Park. 924. I. " Leaflets rhomb-ovate, deeply toothed ; teeth acuminate ; umbels very numerous ; feeds rough with- liairs." Biennial in its native climate, but in England it ftldom flowers till the third or fourth year, and then dies. Stent a foot and a half, or two feet high, cylindrical, with numerous pubefcent, whitifh branches. Leaves fmooih, pale green, refembling thofe of parfley, but with pubefcei.t petioles; thofe. froa» the root gfowmg almoft hoiizontally,. fpreading BUB BUB fproading near tho furface of the ground. Umleh tsrmiiiat- iiig, the llcm and branches fmjll, whilifli ; peduncles and leaves of the involucre pubefccnt. Miller and La Marck. S(fJ: o\-ate-acnminate, of a bay-brown colour ; convex, llii- ated their whole lengtii witli five elevated lines, and befet with hoary hairs, on one lide ; flat or flightly concave on the other. Native of Greece and Barbary. Its feeds have e plcafanl aromatic talle and fmell, and are eileemed diure- tic, emmenagogue, and c:irniiiiaiive. They are an ingredi- ent ill Theri. ca. 2. B. Gulbamim. Lovage-leaved Biibon, Linn. Hort. Clif. 96. Jacquin. hort. 3- 2i. tab. 36. Berg, cap. 77. Woodville Med. Bot. v. i. tab. 12. Oreofclinum, Afric. Touni. ,519. Anifum Africanum Pluk. Phyt. tab. It. fu:. 2. Morif. hill. 3. p. 297. Ferula Kay. Sup. 2j2. " Lcatletj ovate-wcdge-lhaped, acute, finely ferrated ; um- bels few ; feeds fmooth ; (lem Ihi-ubby, glaucous." An evergreen fiirub from ei^ht to ten feet high. Stem cylindri- cal, jointed, fmooth, covered with a glaucous exudation, which comes off when handled ; towards the bottom, woody and naked ; towards the top, fending off leaves and branches. Z/Jiv/ alternate, bipiniiate, fmooth, of a pale green colour, inclining to glaucous. Umbels terminal from the ftem, and pendant branches ; leaflets of the general involucrum, about tivelve, lanceolate, membranous, and bent downwards ; of the partial one fix, fpreading. Flowers fmall, greenilh yel- low. Seeds fmooth, marked with three elevated lines, without a membranous wing. Native of the Cape of Good Hope : cultivated by Gerard in 1596. It is from this plant, tlial the drug called galbanum is faid by Linnoeus to be obtained. Linmus afferts this on the authority of Plu- kenet, and has been followed by the London, Edinburgh, and other medical colleges. But Herman, who was an in- telligent phyfician, and praftifed many years in the Ea!t In- dies, and at the Cape of Good Hope, is of opinion, that the infpifTated juice of feveral kindred plants is brought to Europe, and vended under the fame name. Galbanum is com.-nonly imported from Turkey and the Eaft Indies, in large, foftidi, duflile, pale-coloured maffcs, wliich by age acquire a bro\vni(h-yeIlow appearance : thefe are intermixed with dilHnCl white grumes or tears, which are accounted the bell part of the mafs ; but the feparate hard tears are externally of a ferruginous colour, and always preferred to the mafs itfelf. It has a ilrong unpleafant fmell, and a warm bittcrifh acrid tafte. Like other gummy refins, it unites with water by trituration into a milky liquor, but does not perfeftly dilFolve in water, vinegar, or wine. Rec- tified fpirit takes up a greater quantity, but not the whole. A mixture of two parts of reflified fpirit, and one of water, di/Tolves all but the impurities. Medically confidered, it may be laid to hold a middle rank between afafxtida and ammoniac : but it is much lefs fetid than the former, and is therefore accounted 1: fs aiitifpafmodic, nor is it fuppofed to have expectorant powers equal to thofe of the latter ; it has the credit, however, of being more ufeful in hyllerical diforders, and of promoting and corredling various fecre- tions and uterine evacuations. It has been applied exter. rally to expedite the fuppuration of inflammatoryandindolent tumours, and as a warm Simulating plafter. It is an ingre- dient ill the pilulx e gummi, the emplaftrum llthargyri cum giimmi, of the London pharm. and in the empl. ad clavos pedum of the Edin. Miller, La Marck, and Woodville. 3. B. Uvigalum. Hort. Kew. r. p. 352. " Leaflets lanceo- late, very obtuftly and obfoktely crenate ; feeds fmooth ; ilem (hrubby." A native of the Cape ; introduced into England by Mr. Maflon, 1774. 4. H. gummifenim. Linn. Sp-C. Ferula Africana galbanifera folio myrrhidis Comm. Lort. 2. p. 115. t. jS, " Leaflets galhed, acuminate; the lower ones broader ; feeds fmooth ; ftem (hrubby," nearly allied to B. galbanum. A native of the Cape, cultivated by- Miller in 1731. 5- B. ri^iJ'ws. Linn. Hort. Clif. 95. (Fe- rula durior Bocc. muf. 1. p. S4. t. 76. Bar. rar. t. 77). •' Leaflets linear." A low perennial plant with the habit of a fmall ferula. Stem about a foot and a h;l;" high, cylin- drical, Ibiated, but little branched. Lo-wer haves large, tripiniiate ; leaflets linear, Itiff, andfliort. F/ozuers ycUow, in loofe umbels. A native of Sicily. I'rcp.ig.iu-m and Cu'.liire. — B. vtacedonicnm is propagated by feeds, Town in light fandy earth, either early in the autumn, or in April : if the feafon prove hot and dry, the ground fliould be fhaded in the middle of the day, and frequently watered. In the beginning of Odober, the plants (lioiild be tranfpla:!ted into a warm dry border, and a few of them put into pots to be (hcltered under a frame, in cafe the win- ter be fevere. The feeds of gaibanum and guinmiferum fliould be fown in pots filled with liglit loamy earth, as foon as they arrive. If it be in autumn, they fliould be kept during the winter in a bed of tanners' bark, where the heat is gone. In fpring, the plants will come up, and in April, fliould be carefully tranfphnted into frcfii pots filled with the fame kind of earth. After having remained in the bark till they have taken root, they fliould be gradually enured to the open air, and may be placed in June with other ex- otic plants in a fheltered fituation. In winter, they niuft be kept in a green-houfe, where they fliould have but little water. Miller's Didl. BuBON, in /Indent Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Caballia, over agaiull Caria. This city, according to Pliny, (1. v. c. 27.) was fituatcd in the vicinity of Great Cibyra, and had, with this and two other cities, formed a league, offenfive and defenfive, called the "league of the four cities." When the pvxtor Murena, in the year of Rome 670, dif- membeied the Hate of Cibyra, the town of Bubon was an- nexed to I>ycia. According to Steph. Byz, this town, and alfo that of " Balbufu," derived their names from the pirates who founded them. BUBONIUM,in Bclany, Tabern. See Inula Salicina. BUBONIUS, Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a figured ftone, in fliape refenibling an owl's head, of a flinty fubllance, black within and cineritious without ; it xvas thus denominated by Dr. Plott, having not before been named by naturalifls. Plott's Oxford, ch.v. J. 45. BUBONOCELE, in Surgery, is a tumour in the groin, formed by the protrufion of the intefl;i;ies, or omentum, through the openings defigned for the pafTage of the fperma- tic cord, in the male, and the round ligament in the female. It appears firfl; in the groin, at an aperture, fituatcd mid- way between the fymphyfis pubis and fuperior fpinoiis pro- cefs of the ilium, and which may be properly called the fuperior abdominal ring, and then pafling obliquely down- wards and inwards, it emerges at the inferior abdominal ring in the tendon of the external oblique mufcle, and appears within the fcrotum. Whilft placed in the groin, furgeons ufually call it the inguinr.l hernia, and when it has extended into the fcrotum, it is termed fcrotal hernia. The protruded parts are contained in a fac formed by the perito- nxum ; and whilft the tumour remains in the groin, it is placed under the tendon of the external oblique mufcle ; but when it defcends into the fcrotum, it is covered, both by a fafcia given ofi" by the external oblique mufcle, and by the cremafter. The fpermatic cord ufually pafles behind the fac, through its whole courfe, but it has been found in fome inftances divided by it, and in others, pafling before the tu- mour. The epigaltric artery is placed near the mouth of the fac, fometimes on the inner, but moft frequently on its 8 outer BUB outer fide. This Iiernia may be diftingliirticd from other difeafes of the fcrotum, with which it is hablc to be con- founded, by the following maiks : I. By its dilating under coughing. 2. By its difappear- ing in the recumbent, and re-appearing in the ereft poftiirts. 3. By the gradual progrcfs of the difeafc from the groin to the fcrotum. 4. From its feel, which is irregular, and doughy, where omentum is csntained, but elallic and regular, if it contains inteftine ; and where the intcftines return into the cavity of the abdomen, it recedes with a guggling uoife. The Inguinal hernia is more frequent on the right, than on the left fuie, probably, becaufe our ftrongell exertions are made on that fide ; and the inguinal hernia in the male is more frequent than any other fpecies, on account of the magnitude of the abdominal rings. This hernia exills in the three following dates: I. Reducible, where the parts can be returned into the cavity of the abdomen. 2. Irreducible, when they cannot be returned. 3. Strangulated, when they are inflamLd and obllruded by the eftcfts c)f prcifure. In the reducible (late, a lUcl trufs niuft be applied, the pad of which fliould pnfs upon the upper abdominal aper- ture ; for tlie objeft in wearing it is to clofe the communi- cation between the hernial fac, and the abdomen, by adhe- fion, which can only be effeftcd bv the prefTure being applied upon the mouth of the fac. Trulfes are faulty in this re- fpeft, being made to prefs upon the pubis, inllead of mid- vay between the pubis and fpinous procefs of the ilium. A double trufs is required if there are two hcrnix ; the con- ftruflion ef which differs from the others, in having two pads inilead of one. When irreducible, it grows to an enormous fize, the fcro- tum often becomes difeafcd, and the perfon is always liable to accidents. It is therefore ncceffary that fonne means fiiould be adopted to prevent its increafe. If it is an omen- tal hernia, a Iteel trufs may be fafely worn, which will pre- vent any further prutrufion ; but if it is inteftinal, a bag trufs (liould be applied, which ought to lace on its forepart, and thus, by prefcrving a conftant prcffure upon the part, any increafe of the tumour is prevented, and even its fize will gradually diminidi. The ilrangulated (late is produced by the prefTure, either of the abdominal rin^;", of the mouth of the hernial fac, of the edges of the aperture furrounding the mouth of the fac, or by a cord formed by adhtfion within the fac, which be- comes entwined around the inteftine. Whatever is the caufe, it becomes necefiary to liberate the part from prefTure, or the perfon cannot long fur- vive. For this purpofe, it is proper to put the patient in a fnpiiif pofituin, with the budy a little bent, and the thighs raif d to a right angle with the fpine, lo as to relax the rings through which t' e hernia has pafTcd. The furgeon then embracing the lower part of the tumour wth his right hand, and applying the fingers of the other oppofite the orifice of the fa^-, lineads the fwellinu into the cavity of the abdomen. If this pl=in, after a trial of a quarter of an hour, does not fiicceed, the patient fiicjuld be bled copioufly, and put m a warm bath, and when faint from the operation of brth thcle caufe^, aiiothtr attempt to return the tumour is to be made. If this io unluccefsful, a tobacco cly'.ler compofed of halt a drachm of tobacco, infufed in a pint of boiling water, is to be injefled, and after fome minutes (hould be repeated, if the firft has produced but htilc effedl in exciting naufta and fainting, .'\nother, and often fiiccefstul mode of atteinpt- iDg the rcdu^ioo, is by the apphcatiok of ice enclofcd iu a BUB bladder, and JaiJ on the part; but if the abdomen is fore upon prefTure,. no time fliould be loft in any of thefc trials, but an operation to liberate the bowels fliould be immedi- ately performed, in tlie following manner : the pntient is to be placed on a table three feet fix inches in height, the body to be horizontal, and the legs hanging from the knees over the table, and the furgeon, Handing between them, makes an incifion from the upper part of the tumour through the fldn, and then fncctfiTively and cautioufly, through the fafcia and cremalKr niufcle, and this expofc's the furface of the hernial i'ac. This being pinched up between the fingers, is to be opened by a very fmall incifion, and a direflor ueiiif introduced, the fac is to be cut to within an inch of the ab- dominal ring, in the oblique miifcle to its lower part. The iiitefline or omentum is thus e.. 196. La Marck, Bofc.) Clafs and order polyadelphia tlotUeandna, Nat. Ord. co- lummfert, Linn. Malvaceae Jufl". Gen. Char. Cal. -perianth three-leaved ; leaves ovate, concave, acute, refltcled, deciduous ; two a little larger. Cor. Petals five, concave or hollowed, in the Oiape of a pouch at their bafc, lengthened at their fummit into a long bitid awn, infertcd into the nectary at the bafe. Neffary a bell-niapcd pitcher, divided into five equal, lanceolate, (harp, minute, upright fegments, fpreading a little at the tip. SuTn. Filaments five, filiform, upright, bent outwards at the lip, outwardly fattened to the neftary, and alternate with its fegments, trifid at the tip ; anthers three on each filament, two at the tip on each fide, the third a little lower, each placed on one of the divifions of the filament ; the cells margined. Pi/l. germ fiiperior, roundilli, hifpid ; ftyle fili- form, about the length of the ilamens ; ftigma fimple, bearded, but net divided. Pericaif, capfule, (Drupe, La Marck) fubglobular, woody, muricated all round with club-fiiapcd tubercles, punched with a tenfold feries of fmall tranfverfe hcles, five-celled, valvelefs, not opening ; parti- tions woody-fibrous ; ctlis covered on the infide with a thin membrane. SfcJs numerous, angular, ahnoft reniform, at- tached in a double row in each cell to the common central receptacle. Obf. Juffieu, Ventenat, La Marck and Bofc. call the five fegments of the neftary, barren filaments, and dcfcribe its lower part as a tube formed by the union of all their ten fila- ments. Schreber fays, that the capfule is terminated by a five-rayed leafy ilar ; but there is no appearance of fuch an appendage in La Marck's figure, nor is it mentioned by any other author. According to Svvartz, the rind is perforated like a fieve, referring, doubtlefs, to Schreber's ten-fold feries of lit'le tranfverfe hoks, improperly tranflated by Mr. Martyn, dots, through which, we prtfume, the ripe feeds efcape ; and, if we rightly underllaud Schreber's rather ob- fcurc defcrption, tlicie is one for each feed. EIT. Char. Perianth three-leaved. Petals five, lengthened into a bifid awn. Anlhen three on each filament. St'igma fim- ple. Capfule muricate, perforated with holes, five-celled, .valvelefs. Species, B. Gua'^uma, elm-leaved Bubroma, or ballard cedar. (Theobroma Guazuma, Linn. hort. Chff. 379. &c. Reicl.ard, Swartz obi. 291. Brown Jam. 306. 1.) La Marck, PI. 6.37. A tree forty or fifty feet high. Trunk nearly the fize of a man's body, covered with a dark-brown, furrowed bark. Branches extending nearly horizontally ; fmaller ones leafy, tomtntofe. Leaves alternate, ovate, acu- niinale, a little heart-diaped, obtulely and unequally ferrated, gloffy, brigiit green oa their upper, and pale on their under BUG fiirfacc, with a ftrong midrib, and feveral tranfverfe veins ; P'tioles toinentofe, a little thicker than the leaf; ftipules linear-awl. fhaped, approximating to the branches. Racemes corymbofe, axillary. Flowers fmall, pale yellovt' ; awn piirplidi. A native of the Eall and Weft Indies. In the Weil Indies it is planted in rows to make a fhndy walk. For this purpofe, it is pollarded at the rainy fcafon, when nine or ten feet high ; within a month of which opcr-ation, it is covered with foliage, and forms a head more than fix feet in diameter. -As it is liable to fuffcr by the wind, its upper 'tranches are lopped every five or fix years. Cattle arc fed on its leaves and fruit in dry feafons, when other forage is fcarce. Its feeds are very mucilaginous, but agreeable to the palate. The wood is light and eafily wrought, and is employed in coach panncls. A decoction of the inner bark is very glutinous, and very like that of the elm. It is faid to be excellent in the elephantiafk, a diforder to which the negroes are much ful jetl. Propagation and Ciilliire.— This tree was cultivated in England by Mr. Miller, in 1739. La Marck's defcription was formed from a living plant which flowered in the Hove of the royal garden at Paris, about 1788. The feeds mull be fown in a hot bed in the fpring, and when the plants are fit to be removed, (hould be put into fcparate pots, and treated in the fame way as the coffee- tree. BUBRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of Morbihan, and diftritl of Lorient, 10 miles N.N.E. of Hennebond. BUC, George, in Biography, an Englifli antiquarian, was the defcendant of an ancient family, and was born in Lincolnlhire towards the clofe of the i6th century. In the reign of James I. he was made one of the gentlemen of his Majelly's privy chamber, and knighted. The work by which he was chiefly dillinguiihed was his " L,ife and Reign of Richard III. in five books," in which he takes great pains to vindicate that prince's character. But in this attempt he evinces more zeal than judgment, and his work is a pedantic, rhetorical panegyric, rather than a judicious and impartial hiftoi-y. It is printed in bifliop Kennet's col- leftion of the Enghfh Hiilorians, London 1706 and 1719. He was alfo the author of " The Third L^niverfitie of Eng- land ; or, a Treatife of the Foundations of all the Colleges, ancient Schools of Privilege, and of Ploufes of Learning and Liberal Arts, within and about the mod famous Citie of London, &:c." written in 1712, with a view of fhewing that all the arts and fciencts are taught in the metropolis, and annexed to the edition of Stow's Chronicle by E. Howes, London, 1651. He compofcd like wife a treatife of " The Art of Revels." Camden reprcfents him as a perfon of excellent learning, and acknowledges obligations to him. Biog. Brit. BUC A, in Conchology, av old name for bucciiium. BucA, in Ancient Geograp>hy, a town of Italy, in the country of the Frentani, fituiite on the fca-coaft. BUCANECEPHALUM, in Botany. Piuk. See S.ir- RACEN1.1. BUCAO, in Oinilhology, a name given in the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of fcreech-owl, wh'ch is the fize of a peacock. It is very common in thofe iflands, but wholly- unknown to us. It is a very beautiful bird, but makes a hidtous noifein the night. BUCARDITES, or Bucardita, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by many authors to a (lone in fome degree re- fembling the figure of an ox's heart. It is ufually of the fubllance of the coarfer Hones, and is no other than a quanti- ty of the matter of fuch Hone received while moiil into the cavity of a large coclile, and thence afluming the figure of "5 the BUG the infide of that (hell, the depreffion of the head of the cockle, whtMc tlie canio or hinge of this fhell is, makes a long and large dent in the fi)rnn;d niafs, uhicli gives it a heart -like (hape. Plott mentions a hriuinlitcs, which he found at Stpetford in StafTordfliire, which weighed twenty pounds, tliough broken half way, curioully reticulated, with a white fpar-coloured llouc. Nat. Hill. Oxf. chap. v. § ur- BUCARDIUM, in Conchak-ry, with old authors, a name applied to the bull's heart chama, Chcitna cor ii{ \.\n- noEUS ', and, in a more general fenle, as a generic title for all the corjifurmes, or heart ftells in the chama, the vciws, and the area genera. Bucanlc of the French, comprehends the fnbcordiform (hells of the genus Cardium. BUCARELLI, in Geography, a large bay on the North- weft coaft of America, difcovcred by Don Juan de Ayaia, a Spanifli navigator, in i 775. It was named " Tiie entrance of Bucarelli," by Don de la Bodega and Don Manrelle, in honour of friar Don Antliony Maria Bucarelli, of Urfna, viceroy of Mexico, and was vihted again in 1771}, by two frigates under the command of Don Ignace Arteaga and Don de la Bodega, in 1779. Tlie entrance of this bay is fituated, according to the determinations of La I'croult in 17S6, in about i^f^)^' i >;' W. long, from Paris, and accord- ing to the obfervations made by Capt. Cook in 177S, of thecoalls near this entrance, very nearly 227° E. long, from Greenwich, or I3';i° W. from Paris, and in N. lat. 55° 11'. Tlie Spanifh commandant caufed a complete furvcy to be made of this gulf, which runs upwards of eight leagues inland, contains fcvcral large iflands, and prelents in its circumference 11 fine harbours, where fliips may anchor with fafety. Maurelle fays, that he does not know a fingle port in all Europe that could be preferred to that of Santa Cruz, which was the name they gave to the port at which their frigates anchored, and which is fituated at the entrance of the gulf on its eaft coalt. Maurelle met with but few habitation; in his expedition; feeing only one village, fituate at the top of a fteep mountain, which could only be afcended by a fliglit of fteps, or ratlier wooden ladder, whence, if the foot flipped, one niuft fall down the precipice. For an ac- count of the inhabitants, &c. Set Qkoh Sound. BlICAROS. See Alcarrazas. BUCCA Ffrrea, in ^o/a«y. Mich. See Ruppia. BUCCALES ^/ti«(/i//<«, \n Ana! amy, the mucous glands of the mouth, which are fituated beneath the membrane wliich lines the check. See Mouth. BUCCANEERS, or Bucaneers, a term frequent in the Well Indies, properly ufed for a kind of lavages, who prepare their meat on a grate, or hurdle, made of Brafil- wood, placed in the fmoke, at a good height from the fire, and called iiicean. ^Vhence, alfo, the little lodges, railed for the preparation of their food, are called iuccaiisf and the adlion of drefllng it huccanhig. Meat bucLaned is laid to have an excellent tafte, the ver- niil colour of a rofe, and a charming fniell ; all wiiicli it re- tains many months. Oexemelia, i^rom whom we Iiave this, adds, that the neighbouring people fend their fick hither ; that, by eating their buccaned meat, they may be re- covered. The origin of the word is referred to the people of the Caribbee illands, who ufed to cut their prifoners of war in pieces, and lay them on hurdles with fire underneath, which tluy call buccatiin^, i.e. roalllng and fmoaklng together: hence our buccaneers took both their name, and theircullom; with this difference, that what the former did to men, thcle did to animals caught in hunting. The Spaniards, Savary tells us, called the buccaneers in Vol. V. BUG their territories mc/.jrWi, that is, HHrrj ; and moa^^fM, that is, htinltrs ; the Kuglidi call theirs, coppling tackle, the largefl trading vcfTels generally were obliged to ftrike. In cafes of extreme necelTity, they attacked the fh^ps of every nation ; but thofe belonging to Spain were a2ai!ed as the principal objefts of their piracy. They thought, that the cruelties, which the Spaniards had exercifed on th<; na- tives of the new world, furnilhcd a fufficient apology for any violence that could be committed againlt them ; nor did they ever embark on any expedition witl-.out publicly praying to Heaven for fuccefi, nor return loaded with booty without folemnly returning thanks to God for their good fortune. Tills booty was originally carried to the illand of Tortuga, the common rendezvous of the buccaneers, and at firft their only place of fafety ; but afterwards the French went to fome of the ports of Hifpaniola, where they had eftablilhed themfelves in defiance of the Spaniards, and the Englifh to thufe of Jamaica, where they could difpofe of their prizes to greater advantage, and lay out their money more to their own fatisfaftion, either in bufincfs or in pleafure. Before the di(lribut:on of the fpoil, each adventurer, holding up his hand, protefted that he had fecreted no part of what he had taken ; and if any one was conviitled of perjury, which ftU dom occurred, he was puniflicd by being expelled the com- munity, and by being left, at the firil opportunity, on fome defcrt idand, as a wretch unworthy to live in fociety, even among the dcllroyers of their fpecies. Alter havhin- provided for the fick, the wounded, and ths maimed, and alter having fettled their refpeCllve Ihares, and dillributed fuch as belonged to thole who had no relations or friends, in charity to the poor, and to churches ; they indulged in all kinds of licentioulnefs. When they were af.ced, why they diffipated fo heedleDly and rapidly the fpoil which they collefted with fo much perfonal danger ? they replied, " Expofed as we are to a varivty of perils, our lives are totally different from thofe of other men. Why fliould we, who are alive to-day, and run the hazard of being dead to-morrow, think oi hoarding ? Studious only of enjoying the prefcnt hour, we never think of that which is to come." The fliips that faih;d from Europe to America feldom tempt- ed the avidity of the firft buccaneers, as the merchandize they carried could not readily have been fold in the Wefl Indies in thofe early times. But they eagerly watched the Spanifh veffels on their reiurn to Europe, when they were known to be laden with treafure. They commonly followed the galleons and flota, tranfporting the produce of the mines of Mexico and Peru as far as the channel of Bahama ; and if any fliip was accidentally feparated from the fleet, theyi inftantly befet her, and Ihe feldom efcaped. And they even ventured to attack fevcral (liips at once, which were com- monly iuncndered, when they came to clofe quarters ; for the Spaniards confidered them as demons, and trembled at their approach. The Spaniards, indeed, who found them- felves a continual prey to thefe furious ravagers, were almoft reduced to defpair ; they leflened the number of their (hips, and the colonics gave up their conneflions with one another. The buccaneers were thu'; emboldened; and inftead of con- fining themfelves to. thofe invafions of the Spanifli fettle- ments, which had for their objecl a fupply of provificas, they determined, more efpccialiy as their opportunities o£ makng captures by fea were dimlnilhed, to procure by land that wealth which they could not obtain on the ocean. Ac- cordingly, they formed themfelves into large bodies, and phnKiercd many of the richeft and ilrohgeft towns in the I'Jew World. Maracaybo, Campeaehy, Vera Cniz, Porto Bello, and Carthagena, on this fide Crf the continent, and Qiiayaquil, Panama, and many other places on the coafts of the South Sea, feverely fuffcred from their depredations. In a word, the buccaneers, the moll extraordinarv affocia- tion of men that ever appeared on the face of the globe, but whole duration was tranfiiory, fiibjefted to their arms, with- out a regular fyftem of government, without laws, without any permanent lubordination, and even without revenue, cities and callles, which had baffled the utmoft eiforts of.na- tloual force ; and if conqueft, not plunder, had been their ob- jefl,. they mlg!it have made themfelves mafters of all Spaaifti America. .\raong tlic buccaneers,, who firft acquired difiindiot! in , this BUCCANEERS. this mode of plundering, was Montbnvs, a gentleman of L.anguedoc, who conceived from his youth a violent anti- pathy to the Spaniards, on account of the enormities they had committed in the conqueft of the New World, and who, determining on retaliation, embarked about the middle of the 17th century, on board a French fliip for the Weil In- dies, in order to join thcfe enemies of Spain. An enthiifi- afm which originated in humanity, at length became tlie fonrce of tlie moll unfcelinsf barbarity ; for fo much did the Spaniards fuffer from the fury of this enthufiaft, that he ac- quired the name of the " Exterminator." Michael de 13afco and Francis Lolonois were alfo greatly renewed for their exploits both bv fca and land. The mod important enterprize, in which thefe leaders, with eight vcd'-ls and 6C0 afTociates, engaged, was that of the gulf of Venezuela. This gulf runs up into the land for about 50 leagues, and communicates, by a narrow (Irait, with tlie lake of Mara- caybo. They began (A. D. 1^67,) with ftorming and taking the calUe, called " l^a B^rra," which defended this flrait, and putting to death the garrifon, conlllling of 2 ijo men ; and they tl\en advanced to the city of Maracaybo, built on the weftern coail of the lal'. Dodon. gal. See Delphi. NIUM Confolida. Buccinum, in Conchology, a genus of univalves, defcribed by Linniusas having the Ihell fpiral and gibbous ; the aper- ture ovate, terminating in a (hort canal inclining to the right, with a retufe tail or beak ; and the pillar lip expanded. Animal inhabitiog the (hell a limax. LinnSEUs comprehends a vail number of fpecies in hiii genus buccinum, which, for the fake of methodical uni- formity and perfpicuily, he places under feveral dillinit fe£^iemj ; a mode of arrangement in which he ha* beca clofely followed by his editor, Gmelin, in tlie lall edition of included in this fcc^ion ; namely, echinophorun'i, plicatum, cornutum, rufum, tuberofiim, fl:immeum, teiticulus, deculTa- tum, areola, tigrinum, undulalum, cicatricofura, tefTcUatum, pemiatum, maculofum, bilineatum, gibbum, \entricofum, llrigofum, rngofum, ponderofuin, reciirvirodrnm, trifafcia- tum, ftnegalicum, ochroleucum, ilriatum, caffis, llrigatura, tyrrhennm, and abbreviatum. Cajjldea unguiculata. Shells of this family have the pollerior part of the lip prickly on the outfide, but in other refptds refemble thofe of the la(l fedtion ; the fpecies arc crinaceus, glaucnm, vibex, teflulatum, nodulofum, llmbrid, papillofum, and ghins. Callofa. Thefe (hells have the pillar lip dilated and thickened. The fpecies of this tribe are few ; namely, arcularia, pullus, gibbofulum, miitabile, and neriteum. Delrila, in which the pillar lip has the appearance of beind turjritum. y^lngulala, angulated, and not included in the foregoing feftions. Undofum, affinc, tranquebaricum, vedicolor, cruentatum, fulcatum, rumpfii, bezoar, gracile, undatum, ciliatum, viridulum, carinatum, folutum, tsnia, lineatum, maclovicnft.folionim, tcxtunn,lbigofum,anglicum,porcatum, IxvitTimum, igiieiim, pUimatum, lyratiim, clatlnalum, reticu- latiini, nivtum, fcalare, injicum nodulofum, pifcatorium, S. mauritii, armillatum, plicatulum, vilgatum, ftolatum, iianum, exile, chalys, verrucofum, alatum, nigro-piintlatum, tiitiJum, livigatum, lamtllofum, fcutalatum, haufloriuni, ventricofum, tclludineum, catanhacla, tahitenfe, and larael- latum. Tiinil.i, fmooth and Tubulate. The fpecies of this kind are maculatum, crenulatum, heclicum, viUatum, ftigilatum, duplicatum, lanceatum, dimid'atum, muiinum, tigrinum, acus, fuccinftum, commaculatum, haflatum, aciculatum, phallus, flumineum, afperum, muricinuni, tuberculatum, punftiilatum, acicula, fafciolatum, niveum, mucronatum, digitelliis, obIiqu\im, chalybcum, fluviatile, radiatum, lividum, edeiitula, pugio, canaliculatum, variofum, cufpidatum, cine- reum, virginicum, proximatum, moiiile, cingulatum, and -geminiim. The definition of the genus buccinum, as laid down by Linnxns, is liable to objeiftion in fcvcral tefpefts. It includes a number of fiioils fo very diffimilar in general form, and am- biguous in their mod etfential character, that we cannot tafily reconcile ourfelvesto retain the whole within the limits -of a finglegenus. But we are ftill peifuadoj that all the fpecies which can conveniently be comprifed under either of the fub- n-iich in fuShinity or lofty flights of ihe imngliialion, as in fpkr.ilmir of diction, and harmony «id variety of virlification. He wrote in alnoll every fpecies of compofition. His " Pfalms" are in ahnoit all kinds of mtafure, and fome of them exquilitely bcautifni. In trajjedy, he is charged with w:i!it of elevation, and with familiarity of (Ivie approacliing to tiie comic. Hi^ d'daftic poem" On the Sphere," is elegant but unequal. His odes, epijjrams, Hitires, eulogies, and mifeellaiieoiis peces, p-ilTi-fs nieiit of x-nrious kinds, not without many dcttfts. They (htw, however, extreme faeility in the ufc of lan>juage, and an inexliaiillible vein of poetical exprtffion." As a pott, fajs Mr. James Crawford, he imitr.ttd Virgil in heroics, Ovid in elegiacs, Lucretius in philofcphy, Seneca in tragedies, Martial in epigrams, Horace and Juvenal in fatires. As an hiftorian, he is faid to have combined the brevity of Sal! nil with the elegance and perfpiculty of Livy. He has been cliarged, however, with an inclination to fable in his narra- tive, and with an undue attachment to the party with which lie was connefled. Of his dialogue " De Jure Rcgni," it has been faid, that, notwithftanding fome objcftionable ftn- timenls and invcftivcs, it contains rational principles of government ; that it difplays uncommon acutencfs and ex- tent of knowledge ; and that it was cilcnlated to enforce found maxims of civil policy, at a period in which they were little underftood. Of his " Scots Hillory," written in his old age, archbifhop Spotfwood fays, it was written with fuch ji^dgment and eloquence, that no country can (hew a better ; thouglihe add?, that Buchanan isju'Uy blamed forfiding with the factions of the time. Tlie celcb^-attd Thuanus obferves, that although, according to the genius of his nation, he fometimcs inveighs againll crowned heads with feverity, yet this work is written with fo much purity, fpirit, and judg- ment, that it does not appear to be the pioduftion of a man who had palTcd all his days in the dult of a fchool, but of one who had been all his life-time coiiverfant in the moll important affairs of Hate. Of Buclianan's hiftory, Dr. Ro- bertfon fays, (Hift. of Scotland, vol. i. p. 5, 8vo'.) that " if his accuracy and impartiality had been, in any degree, equal to the elegance of his tf.fle, and to the purity and vigour of his ftyle, his hillory might be plsced on a level with the moll adtnired compnfitions of the ancients. But, inllead of rejefling the improbable tales of the chronicle writers, he was at the utmoll pains to adorn them ; and hath clothed, with all the beauties and graces of fiftion, thofe legends, which formerly had only its wildnefs and extravagance." Thefe two works, as Mr. Mackenzie informs us, were con- demned in Scotland by adl of parliament. " The hsppy genius of Buchanan," fays the celebrated hi^orian juil cited (Hill, of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 302.), " equally formed to ex- cel in profe and in verfe, more various, more original, and more elegant, than that of almoft any other modern who writes in Latin, reflefts, with regard to this particular, the greatcft lullre on his country." Of his different works many editions have fcparately appeared ; and a complete coUeftion of them was publilhed at Edinburgh, in 17 14, in 2 vols. fol. and reprinted at Leyden, in 1725, in 2 vols. 4to. Biog. Brit. To the memory of this truly great man an obelilk lOO feet high was eredlcd by fubfcription, in 17S8, at Killearr, the place of his nativity, dcfigncd by Mr. J. Craig, nephew to the celebrated poet *rhomfon. BUCHAN-NESS, in Geography, the eaflernmoft h«ad- knd in Scotland. N. lat. 57'' 30'. W. long. 1° 46'. BUCHARIA, BuKHARiA, or Bokhara, an cxtcnfive fgion ol Alia, lying oetween ine river jjuuu i^ mc ncu, and the dt fert of Cobi and other dtfei ts bordering on China, to the ea!l. It is fuppofcd to derive its name from the city of Bokhara (which fee) near the Jihon or ancient Oxus, which was tlie emporium of the commerce carried on by the Europeans in that q'lartcr; and afterwards extended to the adjninintr country, beyond it. Bokhar, or Bnkhar, as Ahul ;h izi Khan Informs us, was a Mun^l or Mogul word, importing a " learned man ;" and as all thofe who formerly \vi;Tied to be inilrufled in the languages and fciencf-s went, for that pui pofe, into Bukharla, the name was originally grven to it by the Moguls, who conquered this country in tiie time of Ge'iighis Khan. This exlenfivc rtgion is divided into two parts, called Great and Little Burharia, correfponding to the fouthcrn diltrii^s of the two ancient Scythias, which were fenarated by tlie ridge of mountains denominated the " Imau's," and called by Sherefcddin the " Karangoutac" mount;.ins. BucHARiA; Gnat, is that extenfive and important region of Independent Tartary, which comprehends part of the Touran or Turau of the ancient PerP.ans, and was chiefly known to the Greeks and Romans by the names of Sogdiana and Badlriana ; the former being the Arab " Maweral- niihar," or country beyond the river, i.e. the Jihon or Oxus, and correfponding to " Tranfoxana," the name anciently given to thofe provinces which lay beyond this river ; while Baflriana corrcfponds with Balk, and accordingly belongs to Iran, and not to Touran. Major Rennell cautions us againll confounding, as fome geographers have done, the modern Bncharia with the ancient Baftria. Bucharia, he fays, is fituated beyond the Oxus or Jihon, and is the country aw- cijntly named " Sogdiana," from " Sogd" the valley, a beautiful valley in which Samarcand (anciently Maracanda) is fituated : wliereas Baftria or Baftriana lay on the fouth of the Oxus, and comprehended the prefcnt provinces of Balk and Gaur, and probably part of Korafan. Great Bucharia extends more than 700 Britifh miles in length from north to fouth, by a medial breadth, if Fergana be included, of about 350 ; thus rather exceeding Great Britain in fize, but much inferior to the counti'y named Little Bucharia. On the north it is bounded by the mountains of Argun and Kara Tau ; on the weft by a defert, the river Amu, and otlier deferts, which divide it from Kharafm and Khorafan ; and on the fouth, if it be extended lo as to in- clude Balk, by the mountains of Gaur or Paropamifus, and the Hindooh Koh ; and on the eafl by the chain of Belur. According to thefe boundaries, it is fituated between about .^5° and 43'^ N. lat. aud between about 60° and 70° E. long. The original population of this country was Se-ythian ; and the natives. are ftill denomin?ted by the fame Tartaric name of " Tadjiks," which the barbarous viftors afCgned to the Perfians. The Perl'ian monarchs were often engaged in wars with thofe of Touran, or the Scythians on this fide and beyond the Imaus, whofe queen, Thomyris, is faid to have (1 lin Cyrus in battle. After the progrefs of Alexander as far as Cogcnd on the river Sihon (or ancient Jaxartcs), this countiy became better known, being probably the furtheft limit of his courfe towards the north. When Genghis Khan died, A. D. 1227, he bequeathed Great Bu- charia to his fecond fon Jagatay Khan, and it took the name of Jaghatay or Zagatay in honour of its new proprietor : which name it retained as long as the Khans dtfccnded from him reigned in thefe parts. But in 149S, fultan Babur, a de- fcendant ofTimur, was expelled wish hisMongulsfrom Great Bucharia ; and the Tartarian viftors, called Ufbeks, eftablifhed a powerful monarchy in the country. Succeflive Khans held the fceptre from 1498 to n'ijS ; and fcon after this period 6 the BUG the extfnfive and fertile country of Bucliaria feems to liave b'.-cii divided i'.itofevei-al governments, under nunuroiis Khans. All the great towns, both of Great and Little Bucliaria, froai the borders of Kliarafni as far 33 China, are inhabited by tl'.e Bnkhars, or del'cendants of the ancient iJoffefTors, ealhd [iy the Tartars, Tadjiks, l^hcfearc well made and very fair, allowar.ce being made for the climate ; they have generally larcje, black, a)id lively eyes ; their countenances are open, tlu ir nofes aquiline, theirhair black, and tlicir beards bufliy. 'I'he women are generally tall, and \vtll-(]iaped, with fine conipl'. xions, and very beautiful features. Both nv n and women wear calico flnfts and drawers ; over which ihe nun wear a veil of qinlted iilk, or calico, reacliing to the mid-leg, and tied about the middle with a lilk-ciape girdle or falli. In winter they are covered with a long cloth gown, faced and liu'd with fur. The head is co ered with a round cloth bonnet, having a large fur border; and fonie wear turbans. Their boots refenible the Perfian buflcins, and they poifcfs a Angular art of preparing horfe-hides for t! is ufe. The women wear long gowns that are fnll and loofe ; their hair hangs in trcITeS, and is adorned with pearls and other jewels. Tlieir bonnets are finall, flat, and coloured. The Bucharians are a commercial people; and their caravans travel through the whole continent of Afia, and traffic with Ruflia, Thibet, China, India, and Perfia. Ruffia contains feveral colonies of Bucharians, who are fettled in many large towns of the fouthern provinces, and maintain a conftant communication with the merchants of their own country. The»r principal marts are Tonifl<, Kiacla, and Orenburg, which is the moil confitlerable. Their caravans are expofed to pillage from the Kirgufe Tartars, through whofe country they are obliged to pafs. Their exports are gold and filver, chiefly in Perfian coins and Indian rupees, gold-duft found in the fand of the rivers of Bucharia, precious Rones, particularly rubies, lapis lazuli, fpun and raw cotton, cotton Ruffs in great abundance, both Indian and Bncharian, half-filks, unprepared nitre, native fal-ammoniac, lamb-flcins, raw filk in fmall quantities, rhubarb, and large droves of flieep and horfes, wliich arc bought for fale by the Kirghufe Tartars. Pallas fays, that above 6o,coo Iheep and io,coo horfes are yearly fold at Orenburg. The Bucharians receive in return cloth, leather, beads, and trinkets, hardware, indigo, cochineal, S:c. The Bucharians never bear arms ; but on this account tliey are deipiled by the Tartais, as a cowardly and weak people. The Jagatay Tartars, who are the defcendants of the Tar- tars who lirll poffeffed this region, are now compriftd under the general name of Uft>eks. The LiRieks are commonly reputed the moR civilized of all the Mohammedan Tartars, although, like the rell, they arc great robbers. Both men and women are clothed, like the Perfians, as low as their boots ; and the chiefs wear plumes of wh.ite heron feathers on their turbans. Their moR delicious diflies confiR of " pilla.v," which is rice Rewed in broth, and horfe-flclh. Their common drink is kumifs and arak, both made of mare's milk. Their language is a mixture of the Turkilh, Perfian, and Mongolim tongues. Their arms coiifiR of the fabre, dart, lance, and bow, of a larger lize than ordinary, which they manage with much Rrength and dexterity. For fome time paR they have ufed mnikets. When they go to war, many of their cavalry wear coais of mail, and a little buckler for defence. They value themfelves on being the moft robuR and valiant of all the Tartars ; and even their women, who lurpafs the other 'J'artars in beauty, are not averfe from warfare, but will fometimes attend their liuRiands to tlie field. Although many of thefe inhabitants of Bu- charia refide io huts in the lummer, yet in winter they in- Jiabit the towns and villages. The religion of the Ufbeks B U C and Bucharians is tli« MaJiometan of the Sonni feQ ; ard the government of the Khans is dcfpotic. The amounl t{ their popul.ition is not precifely afcertained ; but it is jjro- bable that upon an emergency an army of loo.oco men might be mnftered. We liave no accurate ftatement of the revenue of thefe fertile provinces ; but it is not improbable that the revenue of Great Bucharia is at leaR equal to that of Khorafan, which, by Mr. Hanway's r.ccount, is eqnal to half a million ilerlir.g annually. The climate in general appears to be excellent ; the heat even of the foiitliein pro- vinces being tempered by the high mountains capped wiiH peipetual fnow ; and the proximity of the Sibeiian defcrta and the lolty Alps, renders the fun much more tempciatc than that of other countries, fuch as Spain, Greece, and Afiatic Tuikey in the f.ime parallel. Tlic face of the country prelenta a great variety ; but though there are numerous rivers, hills, and mountains, there fccnis to be a deficiency of wood. Near the rivers the foil is proiludtive, fo that the grafs feimetimes exceeds a man's height ; and in fome parts confiderable induRry is flicwn in the cultivation of rice and other grain. In the haiids of any other perfons be- fides thefe of the Tartars, this country might rival any- European region. There is not a more floui ifliing or a more delightful country, fays a famotis Arabian geographer, than this, efpecially the diRrid of Bokhara. From the ancient caRle of this city a fcene of luxuriant and beautiful verduie prefents itfelf c-n every fide of the country ; fo that tlie fpeclator would imagine the green of the earth aiid the azure of the heavens were united ; and as there arc green fields in every quarter, fo there are villas inteifperfed among the green fields. In all Khorafan a d Maweralnahar there are not any people more long-lived than thofe of Bokhara. The rivers and lakes of this country are numerous and confiderable in fizc ; and its mountains are lofty and extcnfive. For the principal rivers, fee Am t', SocD, Morgab, Kisile-Daria» Dehash, &c. ; and for the principal range of mountains, fee Belur. The cities in Great Bucharia generally give name to the provinces, or receive their appellation from them. In the north is the province of Fergana, the capital of which is Andeg?n. The other chief provinces are the weRtrn part of Shafli, and a diRiiift called by M. d'Anville Ofuiflma, from a town of the fame name, and by Ebn Haukal, Sc- truflitah. The moR fertile province is Sogd ; and next to this are Vafli, Kotlan, and Kilan. The Alpine region that fepaiates this country from Little Bueharia, is Belur ; and the moR fouthern provinces aie Tokareflan and Gaur. The chief city of Great Bucharia is Samarcand, and vying with this for dignity is Bokhara. Sie each of thefe articles rcfpcftivcly. Sec alfo Palk, Zciuf, Badakshan, Ter.meb, Sec. Bucharia, LitlU, is fo called, not becaufe it is more limited in extent than Great Bucharia, being in reality much larger ; but bccanle it is inferior to it as to the number and importance of its cities, the quality of its fiiil, and the amount of its populatior\ This country correfpondu to the " Scythia extra Imaum" of the ancients, and to the " Serica" of Ptolemy, The Scythians beyond the Imaus are def:ribed by this geographer as rcRrldled to a confined Rrip of tenitoiy o\\ the euRern fide of the Imaus, and divided by an imaginary line from the Seres, who were undoubtedly the people of Little Bitcharia. But i-s ancient knowledge here terminated, it is probable that the Scythians beyond the Imaus not only held the eaf- tern ridges of thefe mountains, as a barbarous race con- tinues to do without moleRing the induRiy of the d'R.Tnt plains, but that ihey were diffufed along the ridge of 3 M r. Alak, BUG A!ak, unci the wide region cnllcd Gctt, extending ns far as ll r mountains of Bogdo, till they were expelled or fiibdiied by more numerous or powerful nations from the call. But M it is now allowed by all geographers that the range called lielur Tag reprefents the Imaiis, and that tliis range runs from north t.i foiith, forming the ealUm bonndary of Great Bnthaiia, it will be evident from Ptolemy's dtfcrip- tion and maps that " Sirica" can be no other con: try but Little Riicharia, always podcffcd by an i::tel!igent and indullrious race of men j not only the ridge of Imaus, but the remarkable courfe of two confiderablc rivers towards the nortli-eall, while all his other Aliatic Ihcams have very ditftrent diref^ions, fnfficienlly indicate I-ittle B'.icharia, in which the rivers corrcfpond with Ptolemy's delineation ; the Oechardcs being probably the Oraiikalh of modern maps, or perhaps the river of Yarcand ; while his Bautilns may be the nver of Koten, or that of Karia. The know- ledge of Ptolemy does not appear to have extended eallward fnrther than 80" from Greenwich ; and, therefore, few comparifons can be inlHtutcd between the modern names and fituations and thofe of Ptolemy. M. D'Anville fuppofes that the mountains of Annabi are thofe of Altai ; whereas tliev are thofe of Alak, called by fome Mufart, on the north of Little Bucharia. The mountains on the fouth correfpond with thofe of Mns Tag, or the mountains of Ice on the north of Thibet. To the fouth alfo lies the fandy defert of Gobi, of unafcertained extent, but fuppofed by fome to reach weftward as far as the northern fnowy mountains of Thibet already mentioned. The fouthern part of Little Bucharla contains fcveral large provinces, as Koten and Karia or Kereja, fo called from their capital cities ; and the intelhgent Strahlenberg has denominated Koten a kingdom, and has infertcd feveral names of rivers and towns. On the eaft Little Bucharia is bounded by deferts and provinces of Mongolia, and particularly by the province of Hami or Chamiel belonging to China. The iveftem and northern parts of this country are more accu- rately known by means of various accounts, and by the maps of D'Anville and Iflcnicff. To the north is the Alak mountain, and beyond it Soongaria, and in the weft the Bclur Tag, which ftparates it from Great Bucharia. In Rcnnell's map, however, the weftern bou::dary is that ridge of the ancient Imaus, denominated by Sherefeddin the Kai-angoutac mountains, and between this and the Belur ridge is Baltillan or Little Thibet. The chief rivers of Little Bucharia arc the Bulanghir, probably the Polonkir of the Jefuitic maps, flowing into the lake Lock-nor, the Chaidu and Yarcand Darija iffuing from it, and fupplying feveral branches as the Koten, Orankafh, &c., and the Kareja proceeding from a lake in the defert of Sultus. The principal towns are Cafhgar, Yarcand, Akfu, Chialilh, Turfan, Koten, and Karia, which fee refpeftivcly. Inde- pendently of the regions to the north, the extent of Little Bucharia, from the confines of Hami to the mountains of Behir, is more than 1000 Britifh miles ; and the breadth, from the mountains of Thibet to thofe of Alak, more than ^00. It is of courfe comprehended between 36'' and 43° N. lat., and about 72° and 87'' E. long. As the land is much elevated and abounding in mountains, the climate is cold ; and, in contiadiAion to the ufual courfe of nature, the fouthern part bordering on the Alps of Thibet is colder than the northern, which is protcAed by the lower ridge of Alak. Among its hills are feveral fertile plains; but the population is not extenfive. Between the cities in this country there are no villages; and in travelling a whole day from one to another, there is not a houfe of entertain- ment to be found. Tiora Du Hulde's atlas it may be BUG deduced that the Contailh, or Great Khan, could raife 20,000 men from this province, taking one man from 10 families ; and hence the number of families would be 200,000, which would yield a population of one million. The in- habitants, who ate for the moft part defcendants of Bu- charians, with a great mixture of Tartars or Turcomans, and a few Kalmnks, are generally fwarthy and black -haired, although fome of them are very fair, handfomc, and well made. They are faid to be polite and benevolent ; and their language is probably that called the Zagathian or Turkilh, which has fupplanted their native tongue. The drefs of the men refemblcs that of the Tartars, reaching no lower than the calf of the leg, and bound with girdles like thofe of the Poles. The garments of the females are of the fame kind, commonly quilted with cotton ; and they wear long ear-rings, twift their hair in Ireffes, lengthened by decorated ribbands and taflcls of filk and filver, fo as to hang down to their heels. Their necklaces are ornamented with pearls, fmall pieces of coin, and feveral gilded or filvered baubles. Some of them tinge their nails with henna. Perfons of both fexes wear trowfers, with light boots ©f RufTia leather, and occafionally high-hecltd flippers. The head- drefs refembles that of the Turks. Married women are diftinguifhed from thofe that are fingle by a long piece of linen worn under their bonnets, which is folded round the aeck and tied in a knot behind, fo that one end of it hangs down to the waift. Both fexes carry about them prayers written by their priefts, and kept in a fmall purfe, under the form of relics. Their houfes are commonly of ftone, well built, and decorated with fome articles of china. When they go to fleep, they throw off every garment ; they are cleanly in the preparation and ufe of their food, which is ufually minced-meat, and their general drink is tea, which they prepare with milk, fait, and butter. At their meals they ufe neither chairs nor tables, knives nor forks, but lit eroded-legged on the ground, and when the meat is ferved up ready cut, they take it up with their fingers or wooden ladles. Their wives are purchafed, fo that a perfon who has many daughters is accounted rich. The ceremonies of marriage differ little from thofe of other Mahometans, and polygamy, though regarded among the Bucharians as a kind of fin, is generally praftifed. Their children are named on the third day after birth, and circumcifed on the 7th, 8th, or 9th day. In ficknefs the mullah or pried has great influence ; and when a perfon dies, he lays a koran on his breaft, and recites fome prayers, after which the body is interred in fome pleafant wood and inclofed with a hedge or pallifade. Their money confifts of copper kopeiks, weighing nearly one-third of an ounce ; and in pafiiiig filver or gold, they weigh it, like the Chinefe. The prevailing religion is the Mahometan ; and the Kal- muks or Eluths allow unlimited toleration. The govern, ment, before the Chinefe took poffeffion of the country, was lirft of all adminiftcred by a Khan, and afterwards by the contaifli of the Kalmuks, who appointed inferior ma- giilratcs. The foil of Bucharia is in many parts of it fertile and produftive, and yields various kinds of fruits, and particularly wine. It is alfo rich in mines of gold and filver, but neither the natives nor Kalmuks are fufficiently fkilful to work them ; and out of the torrents, which flow from the mountains when the fnow mehs, they colledt gold-duft, which they carry to India, China, and Siberia. Precious flones and diamonds are alfo found in this country, and the fouthern mountains near Thibet furnifh mufk. As the drefg is chiefly cotton, the plant probably abounds in this coun- try ; though from their proximity to China the Seres might cafily have tranfmitted filk to ancient Europe. Pallas fpeaking BUG BUG fpeaking of Bucharia, but probably meaning Great Bucha- ria, mentions raw filk as a produft of the country, very fine lamb-fliins, the liair of camels, and an excellent rhuliarb, which latter article grows in the fouth-eaft part of Little Bucharia. In more ancient times. Little Bucharia, as we have al- ready cbftrved, was the country of the Seres ; but it feems to have been but little known before the timeof Geiighiu Khan, upon whofe death this country, as well as Great Bucharia, became the portion of his fon Jagatay, or Zagathai, and was occafionally called by his name, but more generally known by the appellation of Cafhgar. It was then confidered as a part of Moguliftan, or Mongolia ; and the northern provinces be- longed to the country of Gete. It had a fucceflion of Khans, feparate from Great Bucharia, till about the beginning of the 14th century. From that time it feems to have been go- verned by a fucceflion of the defcendants of Timur, till the year i68j, when it was fubdued by the Eluths, or Kalmuks. To them it remained fubjeft, till at a recent period it was conquered by the Chinefe. In 1759, Kiang Long, or Chin Lung, completely vanquifhed thefe people ; and thus annexed an extenfive territory to hio dominions. BUCHAU, a free imperial town ot Germany, in the circle of Swabia, feated on the Feder lake ; 24 miles S.W. of Ulm. N. lat. 48* 6'. E. long. 9° j;'. BuCHAU, a fmall country of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, comprehending the eilate of the abbey of Fulda, of which Fulda is the capital. BUCHEN, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleftorate of Mentz ; 22 miles E. of Heidelberg. BUCHENBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and territory of the abbey of Kempten ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Kempten. BUCHERl, a town of Italy, in the valley of Noto ; 3 miles N.E. of Monte- Roflb. BUCHHOLZ, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; 2j miles S.S.E. of Berlin. — Alfo, a fmall mine-town of Ger- many, in the circle of Erzgtbirg, having a feat and voice at the Land-diets. At this place confiderable quantities of lace are made. BUCHIGLIERA, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra ; II miles W.N.W. of Umbriatico. BUCHLOE, or Buchlake, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and bilhopric of Augfburg ; 18 miles S.S.W. of Augfburg. BUCHNER, Andrew Eli as, in Biography, phyfician and aulic counfellor to the king of Pruflia, and profefTor of medicine, firft at Erfurt, and afterwards at Hall in Saxony, publlftied, in 1 755, in 4to. ; " Hilloria Academix Naturs Curioforum," of which he was feveral years prefident ; " Fundamenta Matcrix Medicx, Simplicium Hiftoriam, Vi- res et Prasparata exKibentia," Hall, 1754, 8vo. ; " Sylla- bus Materias Medicas felcftioris, cum defignatione pon- deris, &c." Hall, 1 "i^^, 8vo. He was alfo author of feve- ral ingenious dilTertations publifhed in the Mifcell. Nat. Cu- riof. and of a number of diifcrtations, or inaugural thefes, on botanical fubjefts. Among thefe, Haller particularly notices the " Dilputatio de genuinis viribus Tabaci, ex ejus principiis conftitutivis demonftratis ; et de genuinis Opii effeftibus in Corpore Humano ;" each of them containing feveral ingenious experiments made on animals, with the view of afceitaining the properties of thofe drugs ; alfo a method of inilrufting deaf perfons. He died in the year 1769. Hall. Bib. Bot. BucHNER., J. Gottfried, of whom we have no biogra- phical memoirs, has left fome curious and ufeful works in botany, of which the following are the titles ; " DifTerta- tioues Epiflolicaede Memorabilibus Voigtiardiae ; I. De ar- borc una no£le virente, et florcm fim\ilque frycSus, tempore hiemah proferente ; 2. De arboribus et planlis infolito tempore florentibus ; 3. De arbore qunvis aftate binis vi- cibus, et flores et fruftus protrudcnte ; 4. Ue arboribus diverfi generis fruilus in uno ftipitc profercnlibus ; ^. De frumcntia fpicis prolifcris, aliifque plantls monftrofis ; 6. De aloe Americana majori, aliifque plantis exoticis Voigt. florentibus ;" 410. 1743. The remainder of bis writings, confifting of diflertations on fimilar fubjeils, is publidud in the fecond, fourth, fifth, and fevcnth volumes of the Mifcd. Nat. Curiof. Haller. Bib. Botan. BUCHNERA, in Botany (in honour of A. E. Buchuer, a German naturalill). Linn. gen. 772. Reich. 833. Schreb. Jo;5. Willd. 1174. Gxrt.323. JulT. 100. Clafs and order, didynamia angiofpeniiia, Nat. Ord. Perfonatx, Linn. ; Pcdi- culares, Juff. Gen. Char. CaJyx of one leaf, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. monopetalous ; tube rather long, bored ; border fiat, fhort, five-cleft, nearly regular. Stam. four, very fiiort j. anthers oblong, obtufe. Pijl. germ ovate-oblong ; ilyle thread-fhaped, the length of the tube ; ftigma obtufe. Per'ic. capfule acuminate, two-celled, many-feedtd, opening at the top in two divifions ; partition contrary. Seed: angular ; re- ceptacle faftened to the middle of the partition. EfT. Char. Cal. five-toothed. Cor. funnel-lhaped ; border five cleft, nearly equal. Stam. four unequal. Capf. two- celled ; partition fimple, contrary to the valves. Seedt nu- merous, fmall. Geert. Sp. I. 6. Americana^ Linn. Syft. Nat. " Leaves toothed, lanceolate, three-nerved." Stem fcarcely branched. Sp'the with flowers remote from each other. Stamens, two in the throat of the corolla ; two in the middle of the tube. Tlie plant grows black with drying. Native of Virginia and Canada. 2. B. elongata, Willd. " Leaves nearly linear- lanceolate, entire ; calyx a little hairy, longer than the cap- fule." Swartz. A native of Jamaica, Vera Cruz, and Gui- ana. 3. B cernua, Linn. Mant. " Leaves cuneate, five- toothed, fmooth ; flowers fpiked ; ftem fhrubby." Stem half a foot high, regularly branched, a little jointed by the fears of the leaves, purpUfh. Leaves oppofite, often tcrnate, feffile, with two acute ferratures on each fide the tip, even. Spikes terminal, folitary, oblong. Flowers feflilc, ereft, with a linear acute brafle fhorter than the calyx, and two fliorter lateral briRles. Calyx tubular, oblong, femiquinque- fid, equal ; fcgments connedled by a membrane. Carol. white ; tube filiform, twice as long as the calyx, recurved ; border flat, five-cleft ; fegments fubovate. Anlb. below the jaw ; ftigma inclofed, reflex, rather thick. On mountains at the cape of Good Hope. 4. B. cunetfolia, Linn. Supp. " Leaves wedge-fhaped, fmooth, feven-toothed at the tip." Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 5. B. cordifalia, Linn. Supp. " Stem four-cornered ; leaves op- pofite, heart-fliaped, three-nerved, ferrated ; racemes termi- nal, approaching to fpikea." Referred to this genus by the younger Linnseus, though very difl:erent in habit, and more rcfeniblijig a vervain, on the authority of Koenig, who found it about Taiijour. 6. ^. grandijlora, Linn. Supp. " Scabrous j leaves oppofite, feflilc, oblong, entire ; pe- duncles axillary, one-flowered, two-leaved ; calyx funncl- fliaped." A very beautiful plant. Stem ereft, fmooth, very fimple. /y^am'/ five-nerved. Peduncles to\v3L\&t\\c fummit of the ftem, folitary, (horter than the leaves, with two oppofite linear-fubulate braftes about the middle. Crt/j'x five-toothed, long, but fhorter by half than the tube of the corolla, wiiich gradually BUG j;ni<'ii»!'y ri'larprci, intc a largf. flat boi J.T, with fivi; roil'.iJtd l.>hfs. Olf. Tlie younger Li-'nieus, not having fcen llie f''U't, Mjar not Ci.rt3ir of the ^oniis, efoccially as it has fiir'ift rJciiblaiicf to the ^rrari/iat, aii<<, li'cc them, becomes en- tinly b!a' k -r dryii'j. Native of South America. Miitis. 7. B. eihh[>i.n, Linn. Mant. •' Leaves three-toothed ; flowers ptJunclal ; ftcm rather fhriibby." 5.Vm half a foot hi 'h, tnnch branch -H. I.ea^:s oppofite, fefTile, lanceolate, abocH tht fizc >if rhofe a^ pil-i^omim aviculnrf, generally with I tooth on each fide near the tip. Floru.Ts toward the top of the brsnchts, late'al, oppofite ; peduncles one- flowered, lonjcr tinn t'e le'ivfs, crift. Cnljx monophylloiis, five- ta. euphrafioJrs, Willd. " Leaves linear, very entire, fcabrous with hairs; fegments of the corolla linear, obtufe." Vahl. Rcfembles euphrafa longfnra. Stem acutely four cornered, branch(d; branches oppofite, higher than the (>cm, preffcd clofe to it, and almoll imbricated. Leaves (hort, cppofite and remote below, alternate and crowded above. Calyx ftfille, axillary, about the length of the leaves. Tube of the corolla villous ; fegments linear. Vahl. Native of the Ead Indies. 12. B. gr/nerioldes, Willd. "Leaves oblong, dilated, prclfed clofe to the ftem, fqnamifonn ; tube of the corolla curved." Slem half a foot high, branched at the bafe, at firft fight appearing naked. Leaves very minute. Flaiuers felTile, axillary, longer than the leaf, fur- nifhcd on each fide with a linear, obtufe braae, ciliated at the margin. Ca/j.x five-cleft ; fegments lanceolate, ciliated. Corolla nearly of euphrafa kn:{ifr,ra ; tube fmooth ; feg- ments of the border oblong. 6V//»/f oblong, obtufe, bilo- cular. Willdenow, from a dried fpecimen. " Native of the Eaft Indies. ly B. plnnalfcla. Linn. Snppl. "Leaves pinnatifid, fmooth." Found at the cape of Good Hope by Thunberg. Olf. La Marck is inclined to think that luch- nera manuka, and erinus, are properly only one gemis. They differ from hebenfreilia aud/ela-o in having a two-cellcd, po- lyfpermous capfule. BUG BurHNF.RA hum'ftifa (FoiUcal). Sec PjROwAtLtA, where, on Fordcal's authority, it is placed by La Mirck, and fiid to have a one-celled capfule ; but Vnhl, on the other hand, afcribes to it a bilocular capfule with a partition oppofite to the valves, very like that of luchnera afatica, from which plant, he fays, it d'ff.TS only in its prollrate (lem and obo- vnte leaves. ' It does not appear, that either La M^rck «r Willdenow had feen a fpecimen. BUCllODZ, Pf.tkr Joskph. in Biography, a phyfician, who rofc by his merit to the firll rank, in eminence, in liis profefTion, was born at Mentz, about the year 17J6. After receiving a liberal claffical education, in which he is faid ta have mule a more than ordinary proficiency, he was feiit to Pont-a-Mouffbn, and was admitted to the degree of dof^.or in medicine at the univerfity there, in 1759. Being foon diftingiiiflud for fuperior abilities and induflry, he was in fiiccelfion made phyfician to Stanidaus, king of Pobnd, to the duke of Lorraine, &c. and teacher or dcmonilrator in botany to the Royal College of Phyficians at Nancy. He was alfo alTociated as foreign member to moft of the medical and philofopliical academies on the continent, to which he from time to time communicated his obfervations. His works are numerous, all on botanical fiibjefts. The titles of a few of them follow : " Difcours fur la Botanique,'' Paris, 1760. " Traite hiftorique des Plantes qui croifTeut dans la Lorraine, et les trois eveches," Nancy, 8vo. from 1763 to 1769, 9 vols. The work was abruptly broken off incomplete. He was afTifted in forming it, by the papers and the Hortus Siccus of his father-in-law, Marquet, to which he made large additions. The firft volume contains difcourfes on botany, with explications of the fyftems of Tournefort and of Linnaeus ; the fecond, purging ; the third, peftoral ; the fourth, fternutatory ; the fifth, emme- nagcgue ; the fixth, plants exciting perfpiration. In each volume are engravings of the moft remarkable plants in each clafs, with occafional experiments to afcertain their proper- ties. " Medicine rurale et pratique," Paris, 1768, i2mo. containing ufeful information, and enabling the poor to ftle(ft proper remedies for their complaints. " Secrets de la Na- ture et de I'Art pour les Alimens, la Medicine, la Veteri- naire, avec un Traite fur les Plantes qui peuvent fervir a la Triiiture, &c." Paris, 1769, i2mo. 4 vols. " Diflionaire raifonne des Plantes et des Arbuftes de France," Paris, 17701 4 t""i- For the titles of the remainder of his works, fee Haller. Bib. Botan. BUCHOLTZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wcllphalia, and county of Vertlen : 18 miles E.N.E. of Verden. BUCHOREST. See Bucharest. BUCHORN, an imperial town of Germany, in the circle of Sw:ibla, feated on the north fie of the lake of Condance. The inhabitants are Lutherans. Here are warehoufes for goods configned to it for the palTage of the lake. It is diftant 13 miles E. from Conltance. N. lat. 47° 41'. E. long. 9° co'. BUCHOV, a town of Hurkgary ; 2 miles W. of Bo- lefko. r.XTCHOW. See Buck. BUCHWALD, BALTHA7AR, John, in Biography, a German phyfician, publifhed, in 1720, " Specimen 'Me- dico-prailicum Botanicum," 4to Hafnise, containing the defcriptions and accounts of the medical properties of many of the common plants, with dried fpecimens of the plants affixed to the leaves. " De Diabetis Curatione, prx- primis per Rharbarbarum, 4to i7',7," alio " Vifci Ana- Ivfis, cjufque in diverlis Morbi* Ufus, 4:0 17 ■Jl." Haller. Bib. Botan. -^ BUCHY, BUG EUCHY, in Geography, a town of France, in the do- psHinent of the Lower Seine, and chief phice of a canton, in thediArift of Rouen, 4^ leagues N.E. of it. The town contains 67,, and the canton 9060 inhabitants; the ttrri- ti>ry compichends 162' kiliometres and 3c communes. BUCIDA, in Botany (originally called by Brown, Bu- ceras, ox-horned, but changed by JLinnxus into Bucida, without afllgning a reafon). Linn. Sp. PI. Reich. 601. Schreb. 75S. Willd. 881. Juflieu 75. Clafs and order de- cnndria nonogynia. Nut. ord. Holoracct Linn, EUagm JiiIT. Gen. char. CaL Perianth oneleafed, pitcher-fhaped, ohfolctely five-tootlicd, fuperior, permanent. Cor. none. Stam filaments ten, capillary, longer than the calyx and inferted into its bafe. Aalhir upright, heart-fhapcd. P'ljl. germ inferior, ovate; ftylc the length of the ftamens : fllgma obtufe. Peric. berry dry, ovate, one ctlled, crowned with thecjilyx. Seed one, ovate. ElTent. char. Ca!. tine toothed, fuperior. Cor. berry one-fecded. Spec. I. B. Buceras. Olive bark tree, Linn. Brown Jam. t. 23. f. I. Sloane Jam. t. 189. f. j. La Marck, pi. 356. " Spikes'elongate; leaves vprdge-fliaptd, fmooth." V .\\\\lStem. a tree, thirty feet high, about one in diameter. Branches diva- ricate, or flcxuofe, roundifh, fmooth, and even. Leaves only at the divarications and fnmmits of the branches, crowded together, petiolcd, obovate or ridgc-fhaped, obtufe, very en- tire, veined, fmooth, near two inches long. Spiles, or ratlier fpike-like racemes numerous, fimple, peduncled, axillary near the ends of the branches, about the length of the leaves. Floiuers fmall, ycUowifli, alternate, fclfile, hoary without, tomcntofe within. The llyle or upper part of the germ, efpecially at the extremity of the raceme is fometimes extended to the length of an inch or more, and curved fome- what in the form of a bull's horn ; whence Linnaeus and other authors have obferved its affinity to rhizophora. De- fcribed by La Marck from a dried fpecimen. A native of the Weft- Indies and South America. In Jamaica it is called black olive ; in AnliguR, French oak ; and in the French iflands, Grignon. Its bark is ufed for tanning leather : and its wood is excellent for chefts of djawers and other kinds of cabinet-makers' work, as it is feldom at- tacked by worms, z. B. capitata. Willd. " Flowers with capitate fpikes ; leaves ridge-(haped, ciliated." Valil. BUCINO, in Geography, a town of Naples; 6 miles W.N.W. ofCangiano. BUCIOCHE, in Commerce, a fort of woollen cloth manufaAured at Provence in France, which the French fhips carry to Alexandria and Cairo. BUCK, in Zoology, a male horned bead of venery or chace, whofe female is denominated a doe. A buck the firlt year is called a Jwwn, the fecond a pricket, the third a fore!, the fourth afore, the fifth zluch of the fir/} head, and the fixth z great buck. See Deer and Hunting. Buck is alfo applied to the males of the hare and rabbit kind. Hares commonly go to buck in January, February, and March, and fometimes all the warm months ; fometimes they feek the buck feven or eight m:les from the place where they lit. The buck rabbit is faid to kill all the young he can come at ; on wljich account the doe is careful to hide her offspring in fome remote corner, out of his way. The doe coney goes to buck as foon as (he has kindled. She cannot fuckle her young till fhe has been with the b'lck. When he has bucked, he ufualty fails backward, and lies as in a trance h&lf dead, at which time he is eafily taken. BUG Buck, or "Busk, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Beltz, 24 miles S.S.E. of Bcltz. Buck, or Bucho%, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and old mark of Brandenburg, 23 miles N.W. of It. BUCK-Z'i'.^in, in Botany, a corruption of bogbean, one of the Engli/lt names of menyanlhej Irifcliala, derived from the place of its growth, and from a (light rcfcmblancc of its leaflets to thofe of the common c\iltivated bean. Buck ifland, in Geography, one of the fmaller Virgin ifles in the Well Indies, fituate on the coaft of St. Thomas, ill St. James's paffage. N, iat. 18° J5'. W. long. 6.3° jo'. BuCK-n;<^, in Botany, is ufed by feme for the maft or fruit of the beech tree. ViucY-fkins. See Skins. BvcK-Jiad, in our y/ncient Law Books, a toil wherein to take deer. By an ancient tlatute, no pcrfon is allowed to keep a buck flail, who has not a park of his own. Stat. jy. Hen. VII. BUCKEBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wcftphaha, and county of Schauenburg, fur- rounded with walls, and having a callle, where the tribunal of juftice is held. It contains one church, two colleges, and a houfe of orphans ; 3 miks eaft of Minden. BUCKEGBERG, a bailliage of the canton of Soleare in Swifi'erland, on the eaft tide of the Aar ; its average an- nual value is 166I. ; the inhabitants of this bailhage profefs the reformed rehgion, and in ecclefiallical affairs they are under the protedlion of Bern. They take the oath of fidelity every third year to the government of Soleuie : but if aggrieved in their religious ellablifhment, have recourfe to Bern. The fenate of Bern nominates to the vacant bene- fices, but the priells are under the neccfiity of obtaining the confirmation of the chapter of Soleure. Bern alfo enjoys fupreme jurifdiftion in criminal affairs. If a criminal is ar- relled for any capital offence, he is tried by the bailiff of Buckegberg and the jury of the bailliage ; but if condemned to death, he is delivered for execution to Bern, provided that republic difcharges the expence of the trial. Soleure enjoys all the other rights of fovereignty. N. Iat. 47 " 9'. E. long. 7° 20'. BUCKEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft- phalia and county of Hoya ; 2 miles S. of Hoya. BUCKENHAM, or New Buckenham, a fmall town in the county of Norfolk, England, is feated on the river Warency. It obtains the appellation of New, to dillinguifli it from aaother place of the fame name, which is more an- cient, and is called Old Buckenham. Both thcfe places have been of fome note, but both have greatly declined. Henry I. created this a dillind parifh, and William d' Albany built a handfome church here. At Buckenham was for- merly a fplcndid caftle, the fite of which was fubfequently occupied by a priory. The lords of the manor are butlers at the coronation of our kings. Here are two annual fairs, but the market has been difcontinued. The parifh contains 125 houfes and 664 inhabitants. Blomefield's Hiilory of Norfolk. BUCKET, in Hydraulics, a kind of veffel or recipient chiefly of ufe for the raifing or conveyance of water from Wells, and other places. The word is formed from the French bacquet, a pail or tub. In an army, buckets are carried with the artillery, in the fire-workers [lores. Town buckets, for extinguifliing fires, are made of thick leather, ftrongly foaked and boiled. One method of raifing water, defcribed by hydraulic writers, is by the means of a chain of buckets. Bucket,. BUG BUCKHAVEN, in G.-isrxford and the Thames is fuppofed to be covered with that wood. On Wavendon heath (now the property of the dake of Bedford) feveral flourifhing plantations of Scotch firs have been made iince its inclofure, about the year 1778. In the coppices on Whaddon chace are numbers of fine oak and afh trees. The chief mannfaClures are thufe of paper and lace. The latter affords employment for nearly all the lower clafs of females in the county. The principal rivers are the Oufe and the Thame. The Oufe enters Biickinghamfhire on the wcftern fide, pafTcs Water Stratford, and flows in a devious courfe to Bucking, ham ! thence winding to the north through a rich tracl of meadcnv land, purf -.ts its way to Stony Stratford, Newport- Pagnell, and OIney ; fnon afterwards, turning fuddcnly to the eatl, it leaves the county near Brayfield. The Thame rifes near the borders of the county in Hertfordfhire, and flowing through the vale of Aylefbury from cad to wed, receives the waters of feveral fmaller dreams, and enters Ox- fordihire near the town of Thame. The intsrchange of traffic has been nuuh facilitated of late years by the Grand Junction canal, which enters this county near Woolvcrton, and running eaftward, goes within a mile of Newport- Pag- *~ ncll ; thence, flowing to the fouth,. it paffes Fenny Stratford, Stoke Hammond, Linflade, and Ivinghoe, into Hertford- (liire, near Bulbourne. From a branch of the canal at Old Stratford, a cut has been made to Buckingham, and another from Bulbourne to Wendover. Buckinghamlhire is in the diocefe of Lincoln, with the exception of fix paridies belonging to the fee of Canterbury, and four to the diocefe of London. It fends fourteen mem- bers to parliament ; viz. two for the connty, two for Buck- ingham, two for Aylefbury, two for High Wycombe, two for Amerlliam, two for Wendover, and two for Great Mar- low. It pays twelve parts of the land tax, provides th« 3 N , militia BUG jnilitia wth 5^0 men, and is in the Norfolk cliciiit. Ceiitral View of ihe Agriculture of the County of I3uck- UUCKr.AND, a townlhip of America, in Hampnure county, and (late of M.ilFachufctts, containing 71S inhabit- ants; 120 miles wtrt from Norton. DUCKI-E, in Matters of Trade, a little met:.l!iiic ma- chine, wlurehy to retain and keep fall certain parts of the hab't, as well as of the harnefs of horfes, &c. "l-hf word is formed from tiic French boiidc, and that, according to Cnffeneuve, from the barbarous Latii! pliifcula, whieh fignificd the fame. According to Mennge, from hu,:ul(i, the an/a, or handle of a buckler. The buckle is a part of modern drefs, correfponding to \.\\c fihula, among the ancients. Buckles are of divers forts, as (hoe and garter buckles ; fonie round, others fquarc, or oval, or cut, each of which have thtirrtfpedlve artificers by wh(.)m they are made. The hkt may.be laid of the great variety of buckles belong- i.ig to the pack and hackney faddhs. hvCK.\.i, girth, among Sii<'Lrs, is a four fquare hoed, with a tongue, which is made fteady, by going through a hole of leather, and fafientd with narrow thongs. BUCKLER, a piece of defenfive armour, uftd by the ancients to fcrcen their bodies from the blows of their enemies. The word comes from the barbarous Latin hucularium ; o( iucuJa, the umbo or middle point of this weapon, which had ufually a head or mouth, reprefented prominent thereon. The buckler is the fame with what we otherwife call fliield or target ; and by the one or the other we indifferently render what among the ancients were denominated clypeus, j'cutum, and parma ; though the three latter were diiltrcnt from each other. The Jhitum was an oblong (hield, with an iron bofs or umbo projefting from the middle ; 4 feet long and Zjhroad, made of wood, joined together with fmall plates of iron, and wholly covered with a bull's hide. The clypeus was a round (hield of a fmallcr fize. The parma was a round buckler, made of wood, and covered with leather. The buckler of Achilles is defcribed in Homer, that of .^neas in Virgil, that of Hercules in Htfiod : Ajax's buckler was lined with fcven bulk' hides. The buckler among the Greeks, called AtrTrij, was fome- times compofed of wicker- work, and fometimes of the wood of fig, willow, beech, or poplar; but moll commonly of hides, which were doubled into folds, ?.nd fortified with pieces of metal. In the middle of the buckler was a bofs, upon which was fixed another prominence. A thong of leather, and fometimes a rod of metal, re;!C>.ed zcrofs the buckler, and fervcd for hanging it on the (lioulders. Some- times It was held by little rings ; and it had afterwards a handle, ci.mpofed chiefiy of fn all iron bars crofTmg each other, in the form of the letter X. When the wars were ended, and the bucklers fnfpended in the temples of the gods, they took off the handles, that they might become unfit for immediate ufe. Little bells were fometimes hung upon bucklers to llrike terror into the enemy. They were often adorned with var'ous figures of beaAs and birds, of the eeleilial bodies, ar.d of the works of nature. The bucklers of the Argivis feem to have been longer than tiie reft, and to have covered the whole body. Their form w as ufually round. Phil. Tranf. N" 241, p. 206. See Shield. See •Ifo Armor, and Arms. The ancients were particularly fulicltous to preferve their backkrs in f ght ; it being h ghly iiifan.ouj, and even penal, BUG to return witliout them. It was on their bucklers that they cairied olT the bodies of their {lain, cfpecially thofe of dilliixtion. The Spaniards (liU retain the fword and buckkr in their night-walks. Bucklers, on medals, are either ufcd to fignify public iwwr, rendered to the gods for the fjfety of a prince ; or that he is efteemcd the defender and protcdtor of his people. — Thefe were particularly called votive bucklers, and were hung at altars, &c. Buckler, in Heraldry. See Shield. Buckler of a cnjh, denotes a moveable head, whereby to comprefs the contents of it. In this feiife we fay, a buckler of pilchards. Buckler Mujlard, in Botany. See Biscutella ami Clypi OLA JontlAiifpi, BUCKOVINA", in Geography, a part of the ancient pro- vince of'Dacia, became fubjeft to Auftria in 1777, and was annexed to Gahtz, vulgarly denominated Galicia. It con- tains no town of any confeqnence ; but Czernowitz is reckoned the principal. Hocck eftimates the number of in- habitants at ijO.ODo; they fpcak Polifli and German ; and their religion is the Roman Catholic. The ann'ual revenue is reckoned at 400,000 florins. BUCKKAH, a town of Hindoftan, in the Soubah of Oude ; iS miles N.W. of Goorackpour. — Alfo, a town of Hindoftan, in the country of Bahar ; 25 miles north oi Patna. BUCKRAM, a thick fort of linen or hempen cloth, ftiffened with gum or glue, ufed in the linings of cloths, to fuftain and make them keep their form. Of buckram are alfo made wrappers for covering cloth and other commodities, in order to preferve them from being- foiled, and their colours from fading. Buckram is fold wholefale by the dozen of fmail pieces, each about four ells long, and of breadth correfponding to the piece from whicll they are cut. BUCKS, in Geography, a county of Pennfylvania, irt America, lying S. W. (rom Philadelphia, fcparated from Jerfey by the river Delaware on the fouth-eall and north- eaft, and having Northampton county on the north-welf. It contains 25,401 inhabitants, including 114 flaves. Bucks is a well cultivated county, containing 41 1,90c acres of landy and comprehends 27 townrtiips, the chief of which is New- town. It abounds with lime-llone, and in fome places iroa and lead ore. At the north end of the county is a remark- able hill called Haycock, fituate in a townlhip of the fame name. This hill is 15 miles in circumference, with a gradual afcent, and commands from its fummit a very delightful profpect. The waters of Tohickon creek wafti it on all fides except the weft. Bucks Hc.rlour, a bay of the Atlantic, on the fouth coall of the diilrift of Maine, in America. N. lat. 44° 42'. W. long. 6.J° 34'. BUCK SHORN, in Botany. See Plantago Corona- pus. BUCKSTOWN, in Geography, a town of America, in Hancock county, and diftridt of Maine, on the call fide of Penobfcot river, containing 316 inhabitants, 260 miles N.E. from Bollon. BUCKTHORN, in Botany. See Rhamnus. Buckthorn, fea. See Hippophs; rhanmoides. BUCKTOWN, in Geography, a town of America, in Dorchefter cnunty, Maryland, lituate between Blackwater and Tranfquacking creeks, 12 miles from their mouths at Eiflting bay, and 8| miles S.E.,from Cambridge. — Alfo, a ^ towoihip B U C townfTilp !n Cumberland county, and diftria of Maine, ncav Portland, containins 453 inhabitants. BUCK-WHEAT, ui Botany. See Polygonum/ix'- Buck-wheat, in jjgncuhure, is a fort of gram much cultivated in the field in fomediHrids. It is earneftly recom- mended to farmers bv Mr. Young, in his excellent Caknaav of Huftandvy, as being yet only known by name m nmeteen pariRies out of twentv throughout the kingdom, it pol- feffes as mnny excellencies to good farmers, he luppoies, as any other forts of grain or pulfe thnt are employed m culti- vation ; having the property of r nehorating the land, as well as that of preparing it fo: wheat or any other crop. It is equally valuable with barley, and where known fells at nearly the fame price ; and, befid.s its utility in fattemng fome forts of animals, is the bell of all crops for fowing grafs feeds with, as it affords then: ihe fame flrelter as barley or oats, without depriving them of their necefTary inpport. The time of fowing it has likewife an advantage m attording a full opportunity for getting the foil inte a proper condi- tion. And there is fcarcely one fourth of the Cipence oi a barley crop incurred in the feed. , r r It is faid by fome to thrive well on any foil, even thofe ot the pooreft kinds s and that in moR of the ar;;ble diftnds it is fown on the inferior forts of land, as when cultivated on the richer kinds, it is found to run too much to 'I'-aw- Mr. Bannifter, however, obferves, in his Synoplis ot Hul- bandry, that it delights in land which has been reduced into good order bv tillage, and has hkewife partaken liberally ot fhe dung-cart, for which rcafon it often fucceeds a crop oi turnips ; and there is this advantage attending the cultivation of It, that as, from the tender nature of the plant, it re- quires to be fown late, it may follow a crop of turnips that has been fed off at a time when it would be highly impru- dent to fow the ground with barley. Mr. Young confiders this as a vei7 profitable crop on all forts of land; except the very heavy kinds, that require late fowing, and where barlev cannot be put in at a fufficiently early period ; as he fufpefts there are not many foils on which a buck-wheat crop fown in May will not be "^ore va- luable than one of barley fown at the lame time, though it is the common praftice in many dillrifts to put that crop in at fo late a feafon. The lands intended for this grain fhould undergo a proper tillage in April, fo as to render them fine and perfeftly clean from weeds; efpecially where grafs-feeds are to be fown '"The'proper time for fowing buck-wheat, Mr. Banniller obferves, is in May, « when there is no longer any danger to be apprehended from the frofts ; for fo tender is this ve- getable at its firil appearance, as to be unable at an earlier period to withftand the vernal cold ; and tlie fl.ghteft froll, ill their infant ftnte, would infallibly cut off the young (lioots; and, as from this ci.cumftance it mud be fown at a fea on when drv weather may be expefted, the crop does on that account 'not unfrequently mi'.carry." And Mr. Young af- ferts that it often fucceeds well, when put into the ground in June, and even the beginning of July, which is conl.dered as an advantage in a crop that prepares the land tor '"'^But the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry reniarks that " being fown late, the harvell hkewife tails out veiy backward, by which the greacer part of the crop is often devou-ed by the hoirs in the IkW ; as this grain f^l^|""^ n- pens nil towards M.chaehna., when the other corn itubbles have been lon^ ooen. Add to this, the injury hkely to acm^e from rain, which may be expeaed to fall m great abundancs BUG at this feafon, fo that the haulm, being extremely fuc«>l«it, does in the moft kindly harveft require a great deal of held room : but in a wet autumn it is a very difficult matter to get the crop home in good order; and in fucli ycnis he has known the fwarths of buck-wheat lying abroad tliroughout the gicatcll part of November." Hence there is evidently great hazard in this grain, not only from its being expofcdls the ravages of the hogs, when cultivated in open tields, as before mentioned, but from the {liedding ol the feed ; cir- cumllances which will caufe the returns to be very trifling when threfhcd. To this may be added the inferior value of the ftraw, chaff, &c. when compared with an oat or barley crop." The proportion of feed which is necclTary, muft vary m fome meafure according to the nature of the land ; but, in general, a bnfliel to the acre is fully fufilccnt. It fliould be well harrowed in with a light lliort-tined harrow. This grain generally, as has been fcen, bears a price equal to that of barley, and is ufed for fattening of fwiiic, poulLp'; and other domellic animals. " In its external form," Mr. Banniiler fays, " it bears not the fmalleft refembhnce t« wheat ; and 'the method of culture, and the progrefs of its growth, are totally different from that grain : but, when ground, it produces a white flour, whence it may probably have gained the appellation. In Hertfordflure and Buck- inghamfliire, it is a common mode of huibandry to fow tur- nip feed with buck-wheat; but the Kentilh farmers ufually fow their wocld or weld on their buck-wheat lands ; and as the feeds of either covet a light bed, and both of them re- quire to be fown late, the woold generally fucceeds well when raifcd among buck-wheat ; and fometimes buck-wheat, turnips, and woold are crowded togetiier on one feafon.' This is, however, a pradice by no means to be generally adopted. , . The proper quantity of tliis gram, according to this writer, " to fow on an acre, is half a bulhel ; and inch is ths uncertaiht) of the return, that five quarters have been pro- duced from an acre in fome years, while m others not lo much as five bufhels." .... " The green haulm of buck-wheat has a pecuhar inebriating effeft on fvvine. He has feen hogs, which have fed heartily on it, come home in fuch a flate of intcJxication, as to be unable to walk without reeling." This fort of grain is likewife, he fays, fometimes " iown on ftiff land?, for the purpofe of ploughing in the llalks as a manure. On fallows, where the land has a clayey bottom, this method may be purfucd to advantage ; but it is to be noted, that the ground fliould be in pretty good heart, fo as to throw out a large burthen of haulm, otherwife no benefit can accrue from this mode of hulbardry." At the ftirring of the fallow in May, in this mode of culture, the ieed fliould be fown pretty thick ; and when the llaUs have ar- rived to their full growth, they fliould be laid flat with the roller, and afterwards turned in with the plough ; and when the around has continued in this Hate till towards Mithael- mas, by which time the ftalks of the buck-wheat will be rotted, the feed furrows for the fucceedmg crop ftiou d be be- eun. " This method of ploughing-in the green ilalks ot buck-wheat contributes, it is obferved, much toward the melioration of iV.ff foils, and difpofes them to work more kindly than they would otherwife have done, by overcoming that adhefion, which is the greatell evil that attend? this faecies ot land." „,,,,, ,-r The author of the " New Farmer's Calendar," who aJures us that he fpeaks from much aftual experience, fays, that " the invariable relult has fliewn its inferiority to every other yraui, but fuperionty over other vegetable food, namely b'"- ' ^ J ]s; 2 carrots. BUG and the like, it; In the ftate of heibage, but it is from Hobfon's convinced him. carrota, potatoes, :^^l, ': X^.ruiJ:'ha;c c;nv.nced him. Its fitnOs for pUielunz into the land is undoubted on accoanl bo h of » btdk and fucculcnce. The juke of u, however, .s watery, and ar c.^uj;h from nutntious. Hogs, he has found from num ruu trials, fatten neither fo fall w.th n, nor >s the fl^fl. vhicU has been fatted upon corn. He has " ■ rkmg horles no t;cl;Tina^"q::;intities ground, .^h hard-working ho both draught and faddle, but the difference "f P"" b) raeans compenfated for its inferiority to oats and beans ; and Ss it i.d not always agree with them as he fomet.mes fa cied .t had a kind of ilupefy.ng effcd. In nutnmcnt however, he confeiTes, that .t is fupenor to carrots for working-horfes. He tried it with a llock of feveral hundred head ofpouUry ; and u was in the fan.e degree 'nf-^no^f S in the fattenu,g ar.d laying Hock. He does not 1>"^ that .t U very highly prized even in the d.l dlery." In fine, he concludes, that " buck-wheat is valuable upon land ha will crow nothing elfe, and where it is produced with fmall ex- t.r.'-e ; and that when ready, its beft application is to the market." The experience of other praitical farmers, ho BUG almoll every fpecies of weeds ; an excellency peculiar to this crop. The method of plougliing buck under, and the after- management of buck-fallows, are nearly as for wheat. The harvcil-proccfs is hke that of barley, as is that of its far- mery and inana;^ement ; except that the ftraw being fit for litter only, and the grain being wanted for the fattening of pigs in autumn and the beginning of winter, it is frequently threlhed out immediately after harveft, before the live Hock are taken into the farm-yard." Mr. Mofely of Suffolk cultivated this crop after tares, finding it highly advantageous as a preparation for wheat, by preferving the land, after that crop had been removed, from the diiVipating effefts of the fun till t'ae period of the wheat being fown. This is a combination of crops by which much is effefted in the opinion of Mr. Young ; " a coat of m.anure is gained at no expence, the year carried through from Michaelmas to Michaelmas, and three crop;, put in on three ploughings, viz. tares, buck-wheat, and wheat." It is not, he fays, eafy to form a more complete fyftem. It is recommended in the firll volume of the Annals of Agriculture, in feeding liorfes, to try the efficacy of buck wheat mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, either in the whole, ever, grain m CO d w- affords a more frvrurable opiiiion oTthe utiUty of this or broken in a mill ; as a bufhel of it, which goes further anoros a uiu't "• " r ^j^^^ ^^^ budiels of oats, even with beans, mixed with at It has been faid, the fame writer further obferves. that leaft four times as much bran, will be full feed for any horfe this era nbein. black cannot be difcoloured by wet ; which a week, and much lefs hay will do. It is alo further re- bv^no means% pradical remark, fince its d.fcolour confil^s marked that in fattening hogs eight bufhels of buck-wheat the b^s of its fine black ; befide which, the grain feels meal .vill go as far as twelve bufhels of barley-meal In the tnc lois oi . . , , , ^j^^ ^^j^^ ^^ feeding of poultry and pigeons it is likewife highly ufeful oot. To thofe and advantageous, as they eat it with great avidity, and ds thrive well upon it. "or BUCOLICA, is ufed by fome for the art of managing, feeding, and breeding cattle. BUCOLICS, in Atident Poetry, PaJloraU ; a kind of poems relating to fliepherds and their flocks. The word is derived from /?*>;, and xoaov, cibus, meal ; hence BiiJioXiu, to old and damp, to the great injury of the fam „iv the only ufe for the haulm is under foe who expect to get money by buck-wheat, he recommenc early fowing, and even to allow it the manure neceliary U a following wheat crop ; he fhould think, by fuch manage- ment, five, perhaps ten quarters might be obtained from an acre of good land, which would remain in excellent order tor wheat. This neceflanly fuppofes land in no want of late forins-tillasie. In this cafe, Ihould a fufpiclon be entertained feed cattle, and /Sax-o^o;, luhdcus, a herd/man. K .o o . . V ..„ 1 i.„ ;*. ,^;.rl,i- hio fKinVc Piiu'ol-r" nnctrv is tVip moil anrietit of h11 t of the crop running too much to haulm, it might, he thinks, be advantageoufly rowed and hoed. In the " Rural Economy of Norfolk," Mr. Marfhall re- marks, that " buck-wheat is propagated as grain, and as a manure ; and that, as the main intention of its propagation, whether as a crop or as a melioration of the foil, is the lame, namely, the cleanfing of foul land, it may be convenient to keep the two objefls in nearly the fame point of view. With refped to fpecies there is only one ; this grain having not yet, he beheves, run into any varieties fufficieiuly Rriking to have ditlinguidiing names appropriated to them. It is fown almofl indil'crimiuattly on all fpecies of foils ; he, however, thinks that light poor land has the preference ; it is, fays he, to this fpecies of foil that buck feems moll efpecially adapted. It likewife fucceeds every fpecies of crop ; the ftate of the foil as to foulnefs ar.d poverty being generally more attended to than either the nature of the foil or the crop it bore laft. The foil procefs depends upon the Hate of the land, and the intention jointly ; if the foil be tolerably clean, and the buck be intended to be ploughed under as manure, it is fown on one ploughing ; but, in ge- neral, the ground is broken, as for barley or peas, to for- ward the fallow, and fecnre the crop. The feed-proccfs is the fame for both intentions ; except- ing that, for a crop, the feed is fown firft, namely, immedi- ately after barley-feed ; and that intended to be ploughed under is fown as foon afterwards as the ground is in a ftate fit to receive the feed. It is univerfally fown above-furrow. The quantity of feed, Cx pecks to two bufhels an acre. Bucol-c poetry is the moil ancient of all the kinds of poe- try ; and is fuppofcd to have had its origin in Sicily, amidfl the mirth and diverfions of the fliepherds ; and to have been infpired by love and idlenefs : by degrees, their rural gal- lantries were brought under rules, and became an art. The concerns of the flocks, the beauties of nature, and the plea- fures of a country life, were their principal fubjetls. Mof- chus, Bion, and Theocritus, were the mofl agreeable among the ancient bucolic poets. Fontenelle obferves, that Theocritus's ftyle is fometimes a httle too bucolic. Some authors attribute the invention of bucolic poetry to a fhepherd called Daphnis ; and others to Bucolins, fon of Laomedon : but this appears all fidlion. Some afcnbe the invention of bucolic poetry to the herdf- men of Laconia, who, not being able to hold the cullom- ary feafl of virgins in honour of Diana Caryatis, by reafon of the war with'Xerxes, iuflituttd /3fa/.o?.i2i7^oi, or bucolic exercifes, in lieu thereof. Hence alfo the origin of a fort of poetical champions, called [5t;>.oXix^crA, by the Latins ludiones, who went about the country, contending for the prizes frequently propofed for the conquerors in this kind of combat ; of which rank Daphnis was the moll dillinguiflied. They not only re- hearfed their verfes, but played on a kind oijijlula, or pipe, called yjn'H.v. Seal. Poet. lib. i. cap. 4. Pott. Arch. Hb. ii. cap. 20. Hift. Acad. Infer, torn. iii. p. 123, & iji, ice. Bucolic poetry is by fome called AJlral'u; as being fuppofed to have firll commenced among the ancient herdfmen i.i rid- ing a fort of waggons called ajirabes. It is ufually divided The growth of buck is fo rapid as to outllrip and fmolher into moiwprofopium, or monologue, wherein only a fingle per- 7 ion BUG fon fpeak"<, and 4mcrl>icum, or dialogue, wlierein are feveral interlocutors. Bucolics, fays Voffius, bear fome refcmblance to corned)', as they are both pidlures and imitations of ordinary life ; bnt with this difference, that comedy reprcfents the manners of the inhabitants of cities ; wiicreas bucolics exhibit rural oc- cupation's. Sometimes this kind of poetry has aflion, and fometimcs only narration, and it is fometimes compofed of both. The hexameter verfe is the moll proper for bucolics in the Greek and Latin languages. Theocrltus's Idyllia, and Virgil's Eclogues, are the chief of the ancient bucolics now extant. The tirll modern Latin bucolics are thofe of Petrarch, about 12 in number, written about the year 1.350. Their number multiplied fo foon, that a colleftion of 38 modern bucolic poets in Latin was printed at Bafd in 1546. Thefe writers judged this in- direft and difguifed mode of dialogue, conliiting of fimple charafters which fpoke freely and plainly, the moll fafe and convenient vehicle for abufnig the corruptions of the church. The eclogues of Mantuan, which appeared about the year 1400, were the model of Alexander Barklay (fee Barclay), and became fo popular, that Mantuan acquired the eftimation of a claffic, and was taught in fchools. But although Bark- lay copies Mantuan, the recent and feparate publication in England of Virgil's bucolics, by Wynkyn de Worde, might partly fuggtfl the idea of this new kind of poetry. See Wharton's Hift. of Eng. Poetry, vol.ii. p. 256. BUCORTA, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the fea near Pagliapoli, in Calabria Ultra. BUCQUET, John-Baptiste, Michel, in Biography, was born at Paris, February the i8th, 1746. After pafiing through the ufual fchool education, in the courfe of which he had eminently diftinguilhed himfclf, he was fent by his father to be inftrudted in jurifprudence ; but his difpofition leading him to the ftudy of natural philofophy, he foon quitted the law, and applied himfelf with zeal to acquire a knowledge of anatomy, botany, chemiilry, and mineralogy, attending the lectures of the mod celebrated mafters, and with fuch affiduity, that he was foon qualified to become a teacher. His firll courfe was on mineralogy and chemiilry conjointly. Thefe he treated in a familiar manner ; and as he had made himfelf perfeftly acquainted with the fubjefts of his leflure, and had a peculiar facility in communicating the knowledge he had acquired, he foon became a popular teacher. This procured him the intimacy of the celebrated Lavoifier, with whom he went through a feries of experiments, to afcertain the properties of heat ; they alfo analyfed a variety of mi- nerals, at that time but little known. To enable his pupils the more tafily to profit by his leftures, he pubhfhed an " In- troduttion to the Analyfis of the Vegetable Kingdom." He alfo fent to the Royal Academy accounts of various chemi- cal experiments, which were publiflied with their memoirs. He had now acquired fomuch reputation, that on the death of M. Bourdclin, he was admitted a member of this aca- demy. He had before, viz. in the year 1776, become a member of a fociety, inllituted at Paris, for the improve- ment of medicine. To this fociety he fent the account of a procefs for making opium tranfparent ; for making lapis caufticus; and a memoir on the adtion of volatile alkali in the deliquium, caufed by carbonic acid. By thefe various la- bours, purfued with ardour and intenfenefs, he had now, though a young man, fo impaired his health, as to render him incapable of performing his duties without having re- courfe to powerful ftimulants, which, while they gave a mo- mentary vigour, ftill farther fapped his conftitution. But as he was married, and had feveral children, for whom he had made but flender provifion, he determined to perfevere. BUD He has been known, his biographer fays, to take two pints of scther and an hundred grains of opium in a day. In this "■ay, fomething fimihir to that pradifed by John Brown of Edinburgh, he paffed the latter months of his life. His lad memoir, read to the academy was on inflammable air, and the means of rendering the hydrogen gas of mailhes as pure as that obtained during the folntlon of metals. He died on the 24th of January, 1780, tfcaping, by this early and premature dilfolution, the keen and bitter pang he mull have felt at feeing his fiicml Lavoifier hurried to the guillo- tine, an event which took place, to the regret of all lovers of fcience, a few years after. Gen. Biog. BUCRETIUS, Daniel, a phyfician of eminence of Bruflcls, was initiated into the knowledge of anatomy and medicine under Spigelius, who, a little before his death, entrullcd him with his papers, containing his fyftem of ana- tomy, with directions to publifli them. This ofRce Bucre; tms performed with diligence, fupplying fuch parts as were not completed, partly from his own obfcrvations and labour, and partly from the plates of Julius Caperius. Having completed this work, which was publidied in royal folio, at Padua, in 1626, he went to Paris, and attended for fome months the diffcclions of Riolan. Riolan complaining to him, that Spigelius had introduced into his work many ob- fcrvations, taken from his books, without making any ac- knowledgement from whence he had received them, Bucre- tius confelfed he had done it, to do honour to his mailer. Sometime after he retired into a monallery, where he died of a dyfcntery, about the year 1630. Douglas. Bibliog. Anat. BUCTON, in Anatomy, a word ufed by Severinus, and fome others, as a name for that part of \.h.e pudendum mul'iebre commonly called the Hymen. BUCY LE Long, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne, and diltria of Soiflbns, i league N. E. from it. BUCZ A, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Brzefc, 90 miles E. of Brzefc. BUD, in Botany, in its flrift and moll ufual acceptation, as an Englilh word, denotes the protuberances which appear in the axils of the leaves of trees and Ihrubs, and fometimcs when there is an excefs of vegetative power, on the trunks themfelves, unaccompanied by a leaf; and which contain the rudiments either of feparate leaves and flowers, or of both together, on an elongated receptacle, which gradually {hoots out into a young branch. 13ut, as a fcientific term, it is convenient to include in it all the means employed by nature for the renewal of plants, without the intervention of ferti- lized feeds. A bud, taken in this extenfive fenfe, is featcd either on the afcending caudex, or on the defcending caudex, or on a tuberous radicle. On the afcending caudex, it is cither a gem, or a cauline bulb : on the defcending caudex, it is either a root bulb or a turio : on the tuberous radicle, it is ufually called an eye. See thofe words. Bud, in Vegetable Anatomy. The tranfpiration of the leaves, during their expofure to the hght and heat, deter- mines the courfe of the juices of the vegetable powerfully towards their points of attachment. The tubes, which convey the fap, elaborate it ; the cambium is gradually formed, and depolited around the bafe of the leaves : it there gives birth to new tubes, which obeying the im- pulfe communicated to them, elongate towards the bark, and penetrate it. As the fpring is the feafon mod favour, able to the produftion of new parts, it is then that we firll perceive what is called the eye of the bud, within the axilla of the leaves, or that angle formed between their bafe and the branch. la the courfe of tlie fumnx-r, the eys- enlarges. BUD «,lare«. .rJbrcomesabud: it contuu.cs to increafe di r ng ^1 au ;-.«. a„a in the w.n.cr f.lls into a Ibte of to, pui.ty ; n the traa.nc fori..-, however, it rev.ves, and expA»d» into a £ r or l\fecln? bn.nch. which acquires foud.ty m the fommer, and becomes cloathed with leaves or HowerB. rr/period required for the evoU.uon of the bud. .s fuhieA to vary: U is fometimes retarded for hve years; rmher times accidental caufes accelerate th.s procefs Thus, .if the leaves, ^u.eh accompany the buds, happen to nenf;!. their developement is lo much more rapid, that thtle buds produce branches fullaming leaves and flowers in au- tumn. which.Jn the ordinary courle of ve^-etanon. would not apoear before the enfuing fprn.g Ih.fe untimely productions, however, are dellroyed by the hr.l fro^- The bud3 of the fame tree are not a',1 developed in the lame time, fome bein^r more expofed than others to the adtion of ai- and h-ht. In general, thofe f.tuated at the extremity of the branches are the f.ril to unfold themfelves. The pofuion and figure of the buds are peculiar .n each trenns and often even ferve to charaaerize the fpec.es oi plants. A knowledge of thefe diftindions is found vuy ufeful by thofe wh- rear trees in nurfenes. Bonnet arranged buds into five orders, according to their nofition upon the branch. In the firll they occur alternately as in the filLcrd tree. U the fccond, they anle oppoUte to each other as on the olh. The third mode of arrangement ii when the buds furround the branches in a ring; the example of this which Mr. Bonnet quotes, is the pome- ^ranatc ; but all the young branches of this tree have the buds placed oppofite. The fourth poiition of the buds is, where they form, with refped to each other, quincunxes, and, when taken together, compofe a fpiral figure, which furrounds the branches in the manner of a cork-lcrew. This takes place in vmny fruil-lrees, but more efpecially in the Mum-lrec. In the fifth order are thofe trees which have t!ie leaves furrounding the branches in a double fpire, as they appear in the pine. The true buds of the pines do not, however, grow in the axillae of the leaves, but ou the extre- mity of the branches. In the trees with oppofite bnds, the extremity ot the branches are ufua'.ly furnilhed with three buds, the one in the middle being much the largell ; and when the buds are placed alternately, the branch is commonly ttrminattd by a lingle bud. The direftion of the buds is different in different Ipecies ; fometimes they (land out fo much from the branch, that they form with it almoll a right angle, as may be feen in the' A7.injmui Europaus,t\\z buds at the extremity of the branches are hid clofe, as thofe of the cornel-tree ; whilil thofe on the other parts of the branch are diredcd outwards. There are numerous other peculiarities in the form and appearance of the buds, which, although ufeful for the gardener to know, it would be tedious to enumerate in this place. No annual plant can, with propriety, be confidercd as poffeffing buds ; thefe parts being intended lo furvive the winter, and contain tlie rudiments of the branches and flowers, which are to be developed ou the return of the feafon of vegetation. The true hud ought not, theiefore, to be confounded with thofe Imall cones found in the axilla: of herbaceous plants, and which are converted into branches in a few days. The lilaceous plants, and other monocotyle- dons with bulbous roots, do not produce buds in the axi41a of their leaves : the bulbs of thefe vegetables perform all the functions of buds, and kave, therefore, very properly been ranked as fuch, ard called by fome v/nUvi/uhterranemi! buJs, Although we acknowledge the fimilitude of thefe two parts to each other in the fulleft extent, we prefer giving the defcriptiou of bulbs under their proper name. See Bulb. Befides the varieties of buds wh ch ferve to diflinguilh different genera, and fometimes the fpecies of plants, there are other peculiarities wliith characterize the nature and offices of different buds upon the fame tree: fome buds being intended to devclope the leaves and branches ; others to contain only the parts of fructification ; and others again give origin to both leaves and flowers. Thofe of the firil kind are called the leaf liids, or bud: tc'sth lu'jod s the fecond, the jloiver or fruit-buds ; and the lall arc termed the mrxt cudf. The cultivators of fruit trees are careful to difcriminate the different kinds of buds, as a guLie in the various operations of grafting, pruning, &c. The leafbuds, compared with the others, are (lender, long, and pointed ; the fruit-bnds are thick, fhort, and round ; and thofe of a mixt natu-e, have an intermediate form, being neither fo pointed as the one, nor fo round as the other. In a great number of trees, the flower buds are fituated upon the extremity of the little raniificatit ns, calkd fruit- branches. See Branches. Fig g. o{ Plate \l. in Vegtta' ble Anatomy, reprclentsa fruit. bud oi tht pear-tree, fuftained bv one of thefe lit tie branches ;a the branch ; i the bud ; and on the neighbouring branch upon which this one grove's, is feen a wood-bud, indicated by c. In thi! peach-tree, and many others of the fame familv, the wood and fruit-buds arife together from the fame branch : this is flicwn by_/ff. lo. of Plate II. in Vegetable Analomy : a is a fliort portion of a branch of the peach-tree, on which are placed three budi ; b, b, the two external bv:d3 contain the flowers &c. the intermediate one is the wood-bud. When the male and female flowers are fituated upon different parts of the fame plant, or upon feparate in- dividuals, it is proper to dilliuguifli the flower-buds into two kinds ; as in many fpecies, the buds, which furnifh the catkins, are very unlike thofe which produce the fruits : thus, in the •walnut-tree, the fruits owe their origin to the buds placed along th-e length of the branches, whilil the catkins proceed from other buds fo very fmall that they are hardly perceptible, and which are fituated at the fide of thole which furnifh the fruits. The buds of almoll every vegetable which is congenial to a northern climate, are cloathed with a number of fcales, and a cotton-like fubftanoe. The fcales arc laid upon each other in an imbricated manner, or like the tiles of a houfe. Thofe fituated moll externally are llrong, hard, and dry, and generally of a brown colour, but the fcales which are covtreJ by others arc more pliant, tender, and fucculent ; and the nearer they approach to the centre of the bud, they acquire more of the herbaceous texture of young leaves ; the internal fcales are ulually of a pale green or white colour. The fcales are very generally lined with a downy or cotton-like lubltance. This becomes dry and coloured upon the external fcales ; but where it is fliielded from the action of the air, it remains foft and white, not unlike the downy furface of fatiu. The form of each fcale is that of a fpoon or fhallow oval cup, with one extremity more thin and pointed than the other. The furfaces of the fcales are ufually befmeared with a vifcid matter, of a gum refinous nature ; this becomes involved in the down, and forms a P'.rfeft barrier to the tranln ifiion of air or moifture to the internal parts of the bud ; and not unfrequently the refinous matter is fo abundant, that it exudes upon the external furlace of the bud, giving it all the appearance of being coated BUD. coated witTi vaniiili, as may be obfcrvcd on ihe buds of the horff -chef nut, the tacamahaca, &c. if thofe b'lds, wliich have their fuperficics imbued by a refiiwiLis fubftance, be renioved from their fituation, and if the furface which unites them to the branch be covered with wax, tlicv may be fuffered to he in water for leveral months, without experiencing any aheration ; nay, it is ftated by Mirbel, that this exptriment has been prolonged for fomc years, without the Ica'l injury to tlie buds. On nrofecuting the difllclioii of the bud to its centre, we difcover either the rudiments of the future branch, or the parts of the fruitification in extreme miniature. In the wood buds, the embryo of tlie branch confills of fome fucculcut filaments, or iinperfcclly formed leaves, folded to:-cther and fupported upon a tender footdalk, very fimilar to the plumule of the trunk contained in the grain ; and in the fruit-buds, the parts conijiofing the flower can be dif- cerned at a very early period, although in a very foft and half organized Hate. Both the rudiments of the branch and flower undergo a continual, though fecret developtmcnt, dur'ng their exiH- ence in the bud ; which has been afcertained by diffeftions of the buds, inllituted a; diffi-rent periods of their growth. The little plumule of the branch can be difcovercd as foon as the bud is fairly formed, and continues gradually to acquire more perfeft organization, until it burils from its nidus in the fuil feafon of vegetation. The rudiments of the bloffoms of \\\'i peavtree are to be feen in the month of January, in a group of eight or ten flowers, attached by filaments to a common peduncle. In th^ midft of thefe little flowers there are feveral miriute, thin leaves, of various forms, and of a pale green colour, which Duhauiel conceives are defijrned to perform the fame offices, with rcfpeft to the embryo flower, that the feminal leaves anfwer in the feed. The (lamina may be obferved, at this period, within the flowers, but as yet ahnoft tranfparent. The petals are hardly difcernible, and the piftils cannot be deteiled. In the month of March the tops of the ifamina are red ; the petals, alchough fmall, may be clearly perceived, and even the pipins maybe diftinguillied ; they are white, and each nourilhed by a particular filament : it is probable, that the pipins, and all the elTential parts of the fruftificalion, are coeval with the bud itlclf, although their foftnefs and tranf- parency prevent their bfing diftmguifhed : fo juft was the obfcrvation of Grew, that the flowers of the Ipring were formed in the preceding year. The ftruiiture of th« wood and flower buds is exemplified in PLitc H. in Vegetable /Inatomy. Fig. ii. exhibits the ex- ternal appearance of the bud of the horfe-chefnut , which is feleAed for the fake of its great fize. The fcales are feen laid over each other, like the tiles of a houfe ; their more pointed extremities being turned upwards, and all their edges in clofe contadl, as the bud appears in winter. At the bafc of the bud may be feen fome projefting ruga:, and immediately beneath thefe the imprefGons left from the attachment of the former leaves. Fig. 12. (hows a longi- tudinal fcftion ol the fame bud ; a, the brown fcales which form the external invelopes ; i, the tender fcales fituated more internally, and becoming more thin, pliant, and folded, the nearer they are to the centre ; c, the imperfeflly-formed leaves of the young branch comprefled together, and involvt-d by tlie white down or cotton-like fubftance \d, the bark of the branch which fuftains the bud ; e, the ligneous portion of it ; /, its pith. Fig. 13. reprefents a bud of the horfi-- chef nut, dcfpoiled of its fcaies in order to bring into view the fcetal branch, which has its parts feparated a little, and cleaned from the down which invelopes them, that they may be more diflinftly obferved. Th? marks appearlrij* beneatli the plumule, point out the attachments of the fcaies, which have been removed. The fourteeth. fifteenth, fixtcenth, and feventeenth figures in Plate II. in VcgctaUe Anatomy, are intended to explain the ftirufture of the fruit-bud. Fig. 14. is the fruit-bud of the j«i'(7,:/j-//vf, divided longitudinally, and confiderably mag- nified ; a, a, indicate the imbricated fcales which compofe the external invelope of the bud ; b, b, refer to the cut edge of the calyx of the flower, which, in the embryo ftate, forms a complete cell, inclofing the parts of frutlification ; c, c, are the (lamina, almoft; pellucid ; d, the pillil. Fig. i ^J. exhibits one of the fcales abftrafted from its fituation, and highly magnilied ; it appears entirely covered by villous procelTcs. Fig. 16. fliews the flower bud of ihe peach-tree, a little larger than the natural fize, as it appears when divelled of its fcalv coverings ; a, is the calyx, with its edges applied to each other, lo as to form a perfcCl cy(l. Fig. 17. is the fame calyx drawn a little larger, and with its leaflets feparatc from each other, and lurned back to expofc the flamina ; and in the piilil within the calyx may aifo be feen the rudiments of the petals. The buds of i\\s pine differ in many refpefls from thofe of other trees. According to Mr. Tichudi, who has dcfcribed thefe buds, they are place 1 always on the extremity of the branches; they are commonly numerous, the bud, which is at the extremity, being fuccccdcd by others much fmaller than itfelf ; they are all contained in one membranous flieath, formed of many cylindrical pieces, adjufted the one to the other, and accompanying the devdopement of the bud. When it firft appears it is about two fingers in length ; it then continues to extend, foon becomes large, and the lit- tle leaves, which have been hitherto fealcd up, unfuh! them- felves, and the branch comes forth. It is poffiblc to difcover, a long time before the buds are matured, thofe which are to appear upon the extremity of the bi anch. It is difficult to decide with certainty what are the parts of the branch from which the buds, in the firll inftance, are derived. When tlie bud makes it appearance, it is fo imper- fei^ly organized, that it fearcely admits of difl'cA'on, or of being dillinguiflied into thole parts which it is ultimately to exhibit. Accordmgly, we find, that anaton.ifts have held very different opinions upon this fubjedf. Pontedera con- ceived that the rudiments of the buds were. lodged in the wood alone. Duhamel fuppofed that all the parts of the branch were continued into the bud ; the internal part of the baik being prolonged to form the fcales, and the bark of the plumule ; the hgneous fibres giving rife to thofe of the embryo branch, and the pith being extended into the interior of the different parts of the bud. On the contrary, Hill and others affert, that the buds are formed exchiCvtly by the parenchyma. The fcales ot' the bud. however, appear to be leaves which have never arrived at maturity : tins is the opinion of Mirbel, which he illullrates with much inge- nuity ; he fuppolcs that the leaves, which afterwards appear as the fcales of the bud, arc rendered abortive, by the abate- ment in the circulation of the fap, which takes place on the approach of winter ; for, if the motion of the f'p were to be either totally fufpended, or not inipcdrd at all, no fcales would form, which is exaftly what may be obferved in a few trees which inhabit cold countries, and in moft plants that are natives of hot climates. If, alfo, the top of a tree be cut off before the evolution of the buds, thofe which are after- wards developed are unfurnifhcd with fcales. Around the bafe of the bud there ii always a degree of tumefaction of the branch, which is calUd a burr; this is formed at the eruption of the bud, and enlarges in all direc- tions, BUD tions, before the fcalw fall, and the parts contained in the bud arc unfolded. The Imrr is fuppolcd to anfwer two very important purpofcs ; with refpcil to the bud, the lirll is to fupply the place of the leaves, by coUcAiiig a greater por- tion of the fap around the root of the bud, and thus lup- portiiig it during its hybernation, and yielding, during the fcafon''of interrupted vegetation, a degree of provifional nouriftimcnt to the embryo branch or flower, whicli is necef- fary for the frcrel devclopement they are known to expe- rience. The other ufe of the burr appears to be to feparate the fcales of the bud from each othtr previous to the ex- panfion of the (hoot ; this is accompli(h(.d by the enlarge- ment of the burr on the return of fpring. It is evident, the flightcft feparatlon of the fcales, at their origin, ir.uft caufe a confiderablc one of their unattached edges ; without the alTiHance d.-rivid from the growth of the burr, it fecms quite impofTible that the tender plurr.ule of the branch or the embryo fljw'cr (hould ever be able to force afunder the hard and unyielding feales that encafe them, more cfpecially in thofe inihnces where the feales are agglutinated to each other by the gum-refinous matter. In fome experiments which were undertaken by Senebiei" ■upon the buds of the chcfnul, applt, and pfar trees, he found, thalbydeprivingtheflower-budsof their feales andlittle leaves, he did not intermpt the evolution of the flower, nor prevent their going on to produce fruits. Senebier accounts for the flowers furviving the privation of their feales, by fuppofing that the burr in fome degree might fupply their place. The mod extraordinary ciicumftances in the hiftorj' of buds, are the cor.verfion of flower-buds inta wood-buds, and that of wood-buds into flower-buds. The former is related as being efl^tCted by Mariotte in this manner : he depiived, in the latter part of the month of Auguft, a rofe-tree of its branches and all its leaves, and fuffered to remain only the buds, which ought to produce flowers the eiifuing fpring ; thefe buds continued to grow, but when the period of their devclopement arrived, inllead of furnilhing flowers they put forth leaves and branches. The convcrfion of the wood-buds into thofe bearing fruit is accomplilhcd by a variety of means, praiStifed by common gardeners. Thus, if the upper part of a branch be cut away, the buds near the extremity of the remaining ftem, from ac- quiring a greater proportional fupply of nutriment, will pro- duce leaves and wood, which might otherwife have been flowering-buds ; and, on the contrary, if a vigorous branch of a wall-tree; which was txpefttd to bear only leaf-buds, be bent down to the horizon, or lovvtr, it will bear flower-buds, with weaker It-af-buds. On this circumftance chiefly depends the management of wall-fruit trees, and of cfpaliers. For the purpofe of converting leaf-buds into flowerbuds it has been alfo recommended to bind fome of the mofl; vigorous flioots with flrong wire, and even fome of the large roots. Some gardeners fcore the bark in a fpiral direction, or cut off an entire cylinder of the bark, three or four inches long, and replace it with a proper bandage. The bud appears to fulfil ntarly the fame purpofes in the vegetable economy as the fttd. It contains the embryo of the branch or of the flower, and fliiclds it from the operation of the air, the light, and moiflure, and the viciflTiiudes of tem- perature until it is enabled to withftand thtfc influences Ly a full cxercife of the functions of vegetalde life. By this means the ii-ternal parts of the bud are capable of gradually, though invifibly, developing themfelves, like the plautule of the feed, independently of the vegetable from which they have jlrawn their exigence. The bud alfo, like the grain, admits of removal from its original connexions ; of having its adions fufpended for an indefinite peiiod, and afterwards of having BUD them renewed at pleafurc ; of deriving, by tranfplautation or engrafting, its fuftenance from dilTerent fources ; and, laftly, on being laid in the earth, of producing an interior plant in a finiilar manner as the feed, when placed in the fame circum- (lanccs. As the feeds arc the oviparous progeny of vege- tables, the buds may be confidered as the viviparous oR"spring. Tiiey appear to differ chiefly in this circumllance, that the feeds always refiilt from a fcxual congrefs, and partake of the properties of both parents ; whereas the buds proceed di- reilly from one parent, to which their produdtions after- wards bear a perf^ft refemblaucc. Bt;D is ufed, in Country Language, for a weaned calf of the firft year ; fo called, becaiife the horns are then in the bud. BUDA, in Gengraphy, called by the Germans OJfcn, the ancient metropolis of Hungary, is leated on an eminence on the wefl: fide of the Danube, and is connefted with Pefl:h, fituate on the oppofite fide of the river, by a bridge of boats about |ths of a mile in length, and confifting of 6j large pontoons. The old city is feattd on a plain extending itfelf from the fuburbs of New Buda to the fpace that lies between the Pilis m(Hintairi3 and the Danube, and was formerly called " Sicambria." But this is now a wretched place, and affords nothing remarkable befidcs the ruins of an old aqucduft, built either by the Rbmans or Hungarians. A wide fubteraneous paffage has been difcovered, with which tlie Turks feem to have been well acquainted, and which leads from this place to the citadel of Buda. New Buda is a royal free town. It was formerly the capital of the king- dom ; and, in its conneftion with Ptfth, the largeft ar:d fmeft of all the Hungarian towns, and tlie refidcnce of the kings. The houfes are moftly conftruftcd of fq'iare ftone ; but fince the Turks took poffeffion of it, they fuffered the finell build- ings to fink into decay. The lower part of the city, called the " Jews town," extends like fuburbs from the upper city to the Danube. The hi^lier town occupies the accli- vity of a mountain, and is fortified with walls and towers. The caftle, feated on an eminence towards the eaft fide, com- mands the greateft part of it, is cncompaffed by a deep moat, and is defended by an old-fa(hiontd tower, to which fome new fortifications have been added. One fuburb is enclofcd with hedges. The mod fumptuous of its prefent fl:ru£tures are the caravanferas, mofques, bridges, and baths. The chief public and private buildings are in Pefth, and within the fortrefs ; the royal palace in particular is a large and ftate'y edifice. The form of Pefth is quadrangular ; and it has.befides the royal palace, a military- hofpital, with feveral churches and convents. At a little dift:;nce from it is a field, in which many diets have been held, and where the flates of Hungary formerly met on horfcback, and in arms, to eledl their king. Among the decayed buildings of Buda, the church of the Afcenfion of the Virgin Mary is the principal, near which the Jefuits have an academical college and femi- nary. The Carmelite nuns have a convent, and the Fran- cifcans have churches. Both Catholics and Calvinifts are allowed the free exercife of their rehgion ; and the Jews have a fynagogue near the caftle garden. But the mod famous edifices of Buda are its baths ; of which there are two furts, the upper or Trinity baths, and thofe of Mufta- pha. who was governor of the place, and built them with ftone, covering them with lead. Some of thefe waters are of fuch moderate temperature, that they may be ufed in their natural ftate either for drinking or bathing ; but others are fo hot, that they muft be mixed with cold water, or conveyed to cool in other baths, before they can be ufed. The adjacent country is fertile, though not well cultivated ; and affords good red wine and excellent melons. Thi» B U. D This city was the rcfidence of the Hungarian monarchs, till i: was taken by the Turks, under the fiiltan Solyman, in 1526 ; but though they were difpoflVflcd of it the next year by Ferdinand, archduke of Aullria, they recos-ercd it again in 1529. Althougli it was afterwards frequently be- licged, it continued under the dominion of the Turks till the year 16S6, when it was befiegcd and taken, after an obfti- nate refiftance and grca't flaua;hter, by the duke of Lorrain. From this time it has remained under the dominion of the houfe of Aullria. In 1784, the feat of the provincial go- vernment, and the public ofiices, weie reftored from Pref- burg to Buda; and, therefore, this city, joined with Pefth, may ftill be regarded as the capital of Hungary. The po- pulation of Buda is ellimated at 20,000 ; but if Pefth be included, it may be computed at 34,000. Dr. Townfon, (Travels in Hungary, 4to. 1796.) flates it at 38,000. The univerfity of Buda, as we are informed by this traveller, pof- felFcs an income of about 20,ocol. llerling, of which only ^oools. are applied towards paying the falaries of the profef- fors. Befidcs the ufual cliairs which exill in every univer- fity, there are thofe of natural hillory, botany, and econo- my. The inftruments for natural philofophy, and the mo- dels of machines are good ; and the nuifenm of natural hif- tory, which contains the collection of the late profelTor Fil- ler, befides that of the univerfity, may be ranked among the ftne colletlions of Europe. Buda is dillant i 25 miles E.S.E. from Vienna, and 15° N. N.W. from Belgrade. N. lat. 47^30'. E. long. 19° 10'. Buda, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna ; 80 miles E. of Wilna. BUDjEUS, William, in Biography, one of the moll learned men of the 15th century, and a defccndant of an ancient and honourable family, was born at Paris, in 1467 ; and having paffed through the grammar fchools at Paris, and having fpent three years at Orleans, in the ftudy of the law, to little or no pnrpole, he conceived a difgufi: at the preva- lent barbariim of literature, and devoted himfelf wholly to youthful pleafurcs. At length, however, he was feized v.itli an ardent pafiion for literary purfuits, which induced him to abandon every amufcment, and to dedicate his whole time and attention to ftudy, fo that lie fcarcely allowed himfelf the necefiaiy intervals for his meals and reit. By means of unwearied afiiduitv, firft without any affillance, whence he called himfelf tt.\fl'jjj.y.^-n;, and o4-i//x8»;;-, i. e. pij'-l aught , and late-ldvght, and afterwards with the advantage ot inlirutlions from Hermonymus, whom he retained at a large falary, and from Lafcarisin Greek, and James de Fevre in mathematics, he acquired fingular reputation as a fcholar, and particularly for an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek languages. He had reafon, however, to regret that want of early prac- tice, which is adapted to form eale and elegance of language; and hence his ftyle, both in French and Latin, though ilrong and lofty, was harfh and perple.Ked. His firtl lite- rary performances were tranflations of fome treatiles of Plu- tarch ; and, in 1508, he publifiied " Notes on the Pan- defts." But his principal reputation among the learned was owing to his treatife " De AfTe," which contributed in a veiy eminent degree to facilitate the ftudy of the ancient coins, weights, and meafures. The fame which he thus ellablifiied excited envy among his contemporaries ; and Erafmus, though he acknowledged his merit, became jta- lous of him, fo that a difagreement took place between thefe two dillinguiflied perfons, which prevented Budaeus's citing Erafm\is in his works. By avoiding the topics which might occafion a fufpicion of his faith, he precluded thofe objections to the revival of learning, to which the interelled and the ignorant were at that time difpoUd to recur. Upon Vol, V. BUD his firtl introduflion to the French court, he was emploj'ed by Lewis XII. in two embalfies to Italy, and appointed the king's fecretary ; and in the reign of Francis I., who dif- tinguifiied himfelf by his patronage of learned perfons, he obtained the place of mafter of requcfts, tog^'lher with the office of librarian and fecretary to the king; and was deput- ed on an embafiy to Leo X. He was alfo chofen provoft of the mercliants of Paris. At his fuggeilion, in concurrence with that of Du Bellay, Francis founded the Royal College, for giving inftruftion in the languages and fciences. Dur- ing-his progrefs with the king in Normandy, in 1540, he was feized with a fever, and this terminated in his death, after liis return to Paris, in the 7jd year of his age. His funeral was performed, in conformity to his exprels orders, privately, and by night ; and this circumftance gave his enemies occafion to charge him with having adopted the fen- timents of the reformers, though he had explicitly, and even acrimonioudy, condemned them in fome of his publications. He had alfo occafionally declaimed with vehemence againft the court of Rome, and the corruptions of the clergy. The iul'picii>n, however, was confirmed by the removal of his widow to Geneva, where fne, and two of his fons, avowed thcmlelves proteftants. Of his charafter it is faid, that it was fair and honourable ; though Bayle obferves concerning him, that he was more feared than beloved in the republic of letters ; and that in his difputes with Erafmus he was the leaft moderate of the two. His works were coUeftcd and printed at Bafil, in 1557, in 4 vols. fol. Befides the treatifcs already mentioned, he wrote " Commentaries on the Greek and Latin Languages;" and a " Treatife on the Inftruftion of a Prince," dedicated to Francis I. Gen. Dii^l. BUDARIN, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Tartary, in the government of Caucaius, on the weft fide of the Ural; 36 miles S..S.W. of Uralll^. BUDAWUN, a town of Hindoftan, in the country of Malwa ; 240 milts S. of Delhi, and 132 N. E.of Ougcin. BUDAYEON, a town of Hindoftan, in the country of Oude ; 24 miles S. W. of Bereilly, and 70 N. E. of Agra. BUDDyEUS, John-Francis, \a Biography, a learned and dil'gent profcflbr and writer, was born at Antlam, in Pomerania, in 1667 ; and after having acquired a large fund of learning in the languages, as well as in philofophy and divinity, he firft gave private leftures at Jena, and in 1(^92, was appointed profcfibr of Greek and Latin at Coburg. From thence, he was removed by the invitation of Frede- ric, eleftor of Brandenburg, to the chair of moral and po- litical profefi"or in his newly founded univerfity of Halle. After continuing in this ftation 12 years, he re-affumed the profeflbrfiiip of theology at Jena, where he died, in 1729. Befides the diligent difcharge of his profeffional duties, he maintained an extenfive correfpondence, and wrote many works. Of thefe tlie principal are, " Elemcnta Philofophix practica?, inftrumentalis et theoreticae," 3 vols. Svo., which ferved for a long time as a text-book in the Protcf- tant German Univerfities : "A Syftem of Theology," 2 vols. 4to. mucli efteemed by the Lutlierans : " The great - German Hiftoiical Diclionary," 2 vols. fol. ; " A Treatife on Athcifm and Superltition," 8vo., tranflatcdinto French ; and " Mifctllanea Sacra," 3 vols. 4to. Nouv. Did. Hift. BUDDEKANO, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in the country of Agimcre, feated on the river Pudder ; 87 miles W. of Oudipour, and 100 N. of Amedabad. N. lat. 24° E. Ic 50. BUDDENBORG, a to.vn of Germany, in the circle of Wcllphalia, and county of Marck ; 2 miles N. W. of Lu- nen. LUDDESDALE. See Botesbale. 5 O BUD- I BUD BUDDING, ill G.irdtrning, is B motliod of propagation, praAifid for various forts of trees, but pariicuhirly thufc of flic fruit k!nds. It is tlic only method wliish can be had rccouric to witii ccrtuinty, for continuing ai:d multiplying tlic approved varieties of many forts of fruit and otlier trees ; as althonph their feeds readily grow, and become trees, not one out ol a hundred, fo railal, produces any thing like the oiiginal ; and but very few that are pood. But trees or ituckt railed in this ni;!nntr, or bi.int; budded with the pro- ,)ir fort's, the bnds produce invariably the fame kind of tree, ruit, llovvtr, ^;c. continuing unulterably the fanie aftcr- wa-ds. This mode of propagation is particularly ufcful for peiches, nectarines, and apricots, which fuccctd better by budding than piafting ; and are ufually worked upon plum flocks, raifed from ieed, and fonietimcs, from thole raifed from fuckers, layer?, and cuttings. Thcfe forts of trees arc often likewilc budded ni)o;i Uocks raifed from the kernels of thefe kinds of fruit ; they are, however, more ilrona and durable, in general, when grafted upon plum (locks. Plum and cherry trees are alfo often prop'igated by budding, as well as grafting ; the fecond fort is, however, generally the moft profpcrous by the latter method, as being more apt to gum and go off by budding. Thefe diiftrtnt trees being of the fame genus, grow upon ftocks of each other, but much the beft upon their own (locks, as plum upon plum, and cherry upon cherry (locks. Apples a!id pears may like wife be propagated by the buddinif method, as well as by grafting ; but as they grow freely by grafting, which is the moll eafy and expeditious, they are more commonly increafed in that method. In (hort, mod kinds of fruit trees, as well as others, that are capable of being propagated by grafting, alfo fucceed by budding ; grafting is, however, more adapted to fDme forts, and bud- ding to others. Various forts of forell and flowering trees, decu'nouR as well as evergreen, may l:kewife be propa- gated by budding, which is a ceitain method to continue particular vari< tiei;, fuch as many of the variegated leaved kinds, as the variegated holhes, and many other forts. The budding in almoll all forts, is performed on youjig trees raifed from feed, fntkcrs, layers, &c. which, when raifed purpofely for budding and grafting upon, are called (locks, and which, after becuniing about lialf an inch thick in the bottoms of the (Urns, or a little more or lefs, according to circ'imdanccs, are of a proper fize for the purpofe, though It may be perfoimtd upon (locks from the fize of a goofe q.ull to an inch or more, being modly done upon (locks or trees o( the fame genus. The docks for this ufe, are commonly, as has been ob- ferved, raiftd from feed, as the kernels or dones of thefe different fo-ts of fruit, &c. fown in autumn or fpring in beds in the ..urlery an inch or two deep, which, when a year or two old, Ihould be tranfplanted into nurfery rows, two feet afunder, and fifteen or eighteen inches didant in the rows, to dand for budding upon, keeping them to one dem, and luffering their tops to run up entire ; when of two or three years growth, or about the fize of the little finger at bot- tom, or a little more, they are as has been feen of due fize for budding upon. Stocks raifed from fuckers ariiing from the roots of the trees of thefe different forts, layers, and cuttings of them, are alfo made ufe of; but they are not fo good for the purpofe. Budding may likewife be performed occafionally upon trees that already bear fruit, when in- tended to change the forts, or have different forts on the lame tree, or to renew any particular branch of a tree • the operation being performed on the young (hoots of the year. or of one or two years' growth only. CUD The mod proper feafon for performing the operation of budding, is from about the middle of June, until the middle or latter end of Augud ; fome, however, b( gin to bud in June, but the buds mferted fo early are apt to dioot in the (ame year, and thefe not having time to harden, arc liable to Le killed in winter. Tlie buds for this ufe ftiould in general be taken only from the young dioots of the year, a1 thofe of the fime fummer's growth, which mud be cut from the trees of the forts intended to be propagated, always choof- ing them from healthy thriving trees ; and if fruit trees from fuch as bear the lined fruit of their refpedive kinds and varieties. A quantity of the bed moderately ftrong youne flioots diould be cut each day as they are wanted -and at they are gathered, the leaves cut off, but not quite clofe rcferving about a quarter of an inch of their foot-dalks' trimming off alfo the foft unripened top end of each cut' ting, covering them from the fun and ai,-, and taking then! out as wanted. As each cutting furnidics many budf, thev are to be cut off about an inch and a half loner, one at a time, as they are inferted in the docks. Thofe in the mid die part of the cutting are preferable to tliofe towards each end, theugh in cafes of fcarcity of cuttings, every one of them may be ufed. One bud only is in general inferted in each dock ; fome, however, place two on each fide oppo- lite each other. ' " The mod proper height to bud docks varies according to the intention but from about three or four inches to fix eet or more Irom the ground is pradtifed. To have dwarf trees for walls and efpahers, &c. they mud be budded from within about three to fix inches from the bottom, that thev mayfird funnfh branches near the ground: for half ftan. dards, at the height of three or four feet ; and for full dan. dards, at from about (ive to fix or feven feet hi^h • the itocks being trained accordingly. " ' The neceffary implements "and materials for this purpofe. are a fmall budding knife for preparing the docks andTuds for infeition, having a flat thin haft to open the bark of the docks m order to admit the buds; and a quantity of new bafs dnngs well moiftened, to tie them with ^ In performing the operation of budding, the head of the dock IS not to be cut off, as ingrafting, but the bud in! ferted into the fide, the head rema^lnmg entire till the fprin " afterwards and then cut off. A fmo^'oth part on the^(^.df of the docks at the proper height, rather on the north ( de! away from the fun fliould be chofen ; and then with the knife an horizontal cut made acrols the rind, and from the middle of that cut, a flit downwards about two incL in (^ofk h " ATn.'^' ^^"" T' being careful led the dock be wounded. Then having cut off the leaf from he bud, leaving the foot-dalk remaining, make a crofs cut about half an inch below the eye, and^;ith the kn/e flit off the bud with part of the wood to it, fomewhat in he form was^Uke^w tl°th K''^K^ ''■'' P^^' °f '^^ ^JdJh-cl «as taken with the bud, being careful, that the eve of the bud be left w:th It as all thof?buds which lofe the r ets i^ dripping fliould be thrown away as ^ood for no^hinV then having gently raifed the bark of fhe flock whJth; crofs incfion was made with the flat haft of the knife clear the -d b i„ i„ ,,^ buf ichry\ft;o"io!:rf: the flit ; and after having exaftly fitted the bud to the (fock taken i BUD BUD taken ; tliofc whicli appear ftinvelldd and black bciiip; dead, but fiich as remain frcdi and plump are joined ; and at this time, loofen the bauduge, which, it not done in time, is apt to pinch the Hock, and greatly injure, if not dclhoy the bud. The March fdl'owing, cut off the Itock about three inches above the bud. Hoping it that the wot may p:ifs ofi, and not enter into the llock. To the part of the ftoek which is left, fome fiften the flioot which proceeds from the bud, to prevent the danger of its being blown out, but this mull contimie no longer than one year; after which, it murt be cut off clofe above the bud, that the llock may be covered by it. Some advife it to be cut dole ut lirll, which is probably the bctl praftice. But though it is the ordinary praftice to dived the bud of that part of the wood which was taken from the (hoot with it, yet in many forts of tender trees, it is better to prefer ve a little wood to the buds, without which they often mif- cariy. The not obterving this, lias occafioned feme to ima- gine, that fome forts of trees are not to be propngattd by budding, which, if performed in this method, might have fucceeded. Where this has been done, the whole efi'ort of the ilocks being diredtcd co the infertcd buds, they foon pufli foith ftrongly, one (lioot from each ; many flioots alfo arife from the (locks, but thefe mull be conllantly rubbed off as often as they appear, that all the power of tliK (locks may be collefted for the vigorous growth of the bud (hoots, which now commence trees ; and which, by the end of the fummer, will, in fome forts, be advanced three or four feet in height. In the autumn or fpring follovi-ing, the young trees may be tranfplanted into the places where they are to remain, or remain longer in the nurfcry, according to the purpofe for which they are deiigned. In trees that are de- signed for fruit on walls, efpahers, or as dwarfs, the firll (hoots from the buds (hould, in the fpring after they are pro- duced, be headed down to four or live eyes to force out fome (hoots near the bottom ; but if defigned for half or full ilandards, and budded at proper heights, the lirft (hoots of the buds may either be (hortcned as above, to four or five eyes to provide lateral branches near the top of the (lem, to form a fpreading head, or be fuffered to grow up in height, and branch out in their natural way, by which they will form more ereft heads of loftier growth. Such full or half Ilandards as are defigned for walls, and were budded high on the (locks, mud alio necelfarily have the fird (hoots headed down in the fpring following, to force out lateral (hoots to furnilh the allotted fpace of walling ; and on the other liand, where trees are defigned for any fort of dandards, and budded low on the docks, the firll (hoots of the buds (hould be tramed up for dems to a proper height before they are (lopped, and then topped to throw out flioots to form heads of the dcfired heights. See Inoculation. BUDDLE, ill Mineralogy, a name given by the Englilh dre(ri;rs of the orts of metals, to a fort of frame made to receive the ore after its fird feparation from its groffclt foul- nefs. The ore is fird beaten to powder in wooden troughs, through which there runs a continual dream of water, which carries away fuch of it as is fine enough to pafs a grating, which is placed at one end of the trough ; this falls into a long fquare receiver of wood, called the launder : the hea- viell and pnreft of the ore falling at the head of the laun- der, is taken out feparately, and requires little n-,ore care or trouble ; but the other part, which i'preads over the middle and lower end of the launder, h thrown into the buddle, whioh is a long fquare frame of boards, about four feet deep, fix long, and three wide ; in this there (lands a man bare- footed, with a trampling (liovel in his hand, to call up the ore about an inch thick, upon a fquare board placed before him as high as his middle; this is termed the buddleheud ; and the man dcxterouHy, with one edge of his (hovel, cuts and divides it longwife, in refned of himfelf, about half an inch afunder, in thefe little cuts; the water coming gently from the edge of an upper plain board, carries away the filth and lighter part of tlie prepared ore firll, and then the metalline part i.iunediatcly after; all falling down in the huddle, where, with his bare (ect, he (Irokts it and fmooths it, that the water and ot'ner heterogeneous matter may the iooner pals oft from it. AVhcn the buddle by this means becomes full, the ore is taken out ; that at the head part, beiiig the fiuelt and pyreft, is taken out fcparate from the red, as from the launder. The red is again ttamplod in the fame buddle ; but the head, or, as it is called, the forehead, of thii buddle, and of the launder, are mixed together, and carried to another buddle, and trampled as at fird. The foreheads of this lad buddle, that is, that part of tlie ore which has fallen at the head, is carried to what they call a drawiiig buddle, whole difference from the red is only this, that it has no tye, but only a plain (loping board, on which it is once more wallied with the trainpling fiiovel. Tin-ore, when it is taken from this, is called black tin, aud this is found to be completely ready for the blowing-houfe. Phil. Tranf. N° 09. See Drrjfmg of Ore. BUDDLEA, in Botany (in honour of Adam Buddie, an eminent Englidi botanid at the latter end of the 17th cen- tury, whole Herbarium is now dcpofited in the Britifh Mufcum) Lin. gen. 140. Reich. 146. Schieb. 184. \yilld. 220. Girt. 275. Juir. 118. La Marck. Illuf. 182. Clals and order, tetrandr'ia monogynia. Nat. o.d. S:rophuLr/u ]vi'X. Perfotiatic YexM. Gen. char. Cal. Perianth very fmall, four-deft, acute, eieft, permanent. Cor. one-pctalled, bell or funnel-fiiaped, four-cleft, erecft, longer than the calyx, fegments ovate or obtufe. Starn. Filaments four, very fiiort, inferted below the divifions of the corolla : anthers very (hort, fimple. Pijl. Germ fuperior, ovate : digma obtufe or bifid. 6'aiy; ovate, two-furrowed, tv/o-celled, two-valved (each finally dividing into two, Ju(r. partition double, parallel to the valves. Gart.) Ed'en. char. Cal. four-cleft. Cor. four-cleft. Stam, from the divifions. Cap/, two-celled, two-funowid, many- feeded. Species I. B. amerieana. Linn. Brown. Jam. 144. Sloan. Jam. 139. Hid. z. p. 29. T. 173. f. 1. « Leaves ovate, fcrratcd ; fpikes panicltd, terminal." La Marck. A (hrub, nine or ten feet high. Branches tomentofe. Leaves oppofite, acute, narrowing at their bafe into the petiole, green above, whitidi beneath. Floiuers yellow, fmal', bell, (haped, (eflile on the common peduncles. Lam. A native of the Wed Indies, fent to Sir Hans Sloane from Jamaica by Dr. Houdoun in 17JO. 3. Yi. occidenlalis. Linn. Pluk. t. 210. f. I. is referred toby Linnasus, but La Marck thinks that that figure does not exprefs any fpecies of this genus. Giert. t. 4^. f. 7. Lam. Illull. PI. Cig. f. 1. «< Leaves lanceolate, acuminate, flightly ferrated ; fpikes interrupted, fomewhat panicltd." Lam. It differs from the precedino- in having longer, narrower, and lefs ferrated leaves, white flowers, and interrupted fpikes. Lam. Swartz doubts whe- ther it be more than a variety. Miller, in addition to the didinftions mentioned by La Marck, fays that it has long, narrow, fpear-fliaped leaves between the (pikes; whereas thofe of the former fpecies are naked. Sent to Mr. Miller from Carthagena by Dr. Houdoun. j. B. hetordcjefolia Lam. illult. " Leaves ovate-oblong, flightly fcoUoped, 3 O 2 much BUD much wrinkled ; fpikfs InternipreJ, panicled." Leaves pe- tlotJ. obtufc. Jof. Juif. Kjtive of Smith America. 4. B. tbyr- JJMj. Lam. llhil. " Ltavti laiiccolatc-lineiir, fcrrattd, I'cf- lilc; raceme fpikciikc, terminal." /.e,rj«£rcft, tomtiitofe bc- lioalli. Cjiniiitr. N.uiveof Moiitc Video. Ci.H.virsaliU Lir.n. Jiin. Siipp. Thunb. ProJ. 30. " Leaves linear-oblong, ob- lufe, entire, or obfturtly toHtlied; branches (lender, erccl ; ra- cemes tt rininal. Habit of Hyflop. Branches and leaves hoarj', with a fill; down. Linn. Jun. Leaves like thofe of lavender ; the upper ones growing gtadiially fmaller. Lam. Found by Tliunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 6. 'Q.falicina. Lam. lllull. " Leaves oblong lanceolate, a little toothed, petioled, white, with down hencatli ; fpikes (lender, terminal." Native of India, fpccitic eharader formed from a fpecimcn without flowers in the Herbarium of JulTieu. It is probably the fame as the 15. fahcifolia of WMIdenow taken up from Vahl witii tlie following fpcciiic character. " Leaves lanceolate, I'rrrated outwards, tomeiitofe beneath ; racemes terminal ; j)edi;eU maiiy-flov.Lred j flowers nodding." 7. V>. -volubi- .•/, L^m. III. " Ler.ves linear, acute, vei7 entire; (lem twini.i^ ; cymes axillary, downy-ferruginous." Found by Commcrfon in the Ifle of Bourbon. 8. B. gloLofa. Hort. Kew. V. 1. p. I'fi. Lnm. Willd. (B. capitatata, Jac. ic. rar. 2. p. 532. Palquin. Feuill. peruv. 2. p. 71. tab. 38.) " Leaves lanceolate, (harp-poiiitcd, fcolloped, downy be- neath ; heads globofe." Larn. A branched, ever-green fhrub, from eight to ten feet high- Leaves about five inches long, finely fcolloped at their edges, narrowed at the bafc, oppo(ite, connate, reticulated with veins like thofe of the common fage. /'/corr-r fmall, bell-fliaped, yellow, of a pleafing fmell, on a common globular receptacle. HeaiU of flowers peduncled, axillary and terminal. A native of Chili, introduced into England by MefT. Kennedy and Lee in 1774. 9. B. madagiifcanenfs. La Marck, tab. 69. (ig. 3. \Villd. " Leaves lanceolate, entire, petioled, tomentofe be- neath ; (Towers in terminal racemes." Leaves oppoGte, en- tire. Racemes compound. Flowers feveral together, en common peduncles, which gradually din.inidi in length, t.ll the flowers become ftfTile near the top of the raceme. Cahx fhort. Corolla funnel-lhapcd. A native of Madagafcar, found by Sonnerat, and deferibcd by Lamarck from a dried fpecimcn in the Herbarium of Commerfon. 10. Vy.falvifi- lij. Hort. Kew. Lam. Willd. (Lantana_/^/i'j/o&;, Linn.) " Leaves ovate-lanceolate, fcolloped, wrinkled, nearly fif- file; racemes compound." La Marck. A ftrub five or fix feet high. Branches tomentofe, four-cornered. Leaves op- pofite, fometimes ternate, fharp-pointed, wrinkled and reti- culated like thofe of fage, a little tomentofe. Stipules fub- ovate, in pairs. Racemes terminal, and axillary on the upper part of the branches. Flotvcrs in finall, tomentofe, oppo- jlte, peduncled fafcicles or corymbs, with biacles at their bafc, and at the bafe of the common peduncles. Calyx very Ihort. Corolla tubular, flender, pale purple, covered with a mealy down, tube three times longer than the calyx ; border with very (hort divifions. A native of the Cape of Good Hope; cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1760. The fruit was un- known to Linnaeus ; and does not appear to have been feen by any fucceeding botanift, not having been broughttoperfeiiiou in any of the Engli(h or French gardens. La Marck was induced to place it in this genus by the fimilarity of its ii'awers to thofe of B. raadagafcarienfis. 11. B. diverfifo- lla. Willd. (B. indica. Lam.) " Leaves ovate, entire, petioled ; corymbs axillary, very (hort, clothed with a fer- ruginous down." A (hrub. Leaves oppofite, on fliort pe- tioles, a little tomentofe, and ferruginous on their lower fur- face. Floiuers from fix to nine ; in fmall, oppofite corymbs^ lliorter than the leaves. Calyx tomentofe, very (hort, and BUD almoll truncate. Corolla tubular, tomentofe on the outfidc-, (lender. Style the length of the corolla. Fruit unknown. A native of Java, communicated by M. Sonncrat, and de- feribcd by I>a Marck from a dried fpccimtn. 12. B. in- compia. Linn. jun. Supplement. Willd. J..a Marck Dift. but omitted in the fubfequent illuftrations. " Leaves fafci- cuhited, ovate, hoaiy ; branches zig-zag, ftiflf; racemes ter- minal." Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 13. B. afiat'ica. iViartyirs fJiUer. Lour. Coch. " Leavea lanceolate-linear, wrinkled, finooth, fpikes full." Stem fuf- fruticofe, three feet high, with afcciiding branches. Leaves long, not interrupted. Calyx with awl-lliaped, upright feg. meuts. Corolla with rounded divifions. Style equal to the (lamcns. Stigma longidi, bifid- Native of Cochin-china. 14. B- tovM/^. Martyn's Miller. Lour. Coch. "Leave* ternate, acuminate ; peduncles one-flowered." Stem fufFru- ticofc, two feet high, upright, round, branched. Leaf.ets lanceolate, ferrated. Flower white, axillary. Segments of the calyx converging. Nedary hairy. Siigma bifid. Native of Cochin-china. Propagation and culture. The americana, occidentalis, globofa, and falvifolia, are the only fpecies which have hitherto been cultivated in Europe. The americana and occidentalis miifl: be raifed from feed feiit in their capfules from their native country, which fliould be fowed in fmall pots, and very lightly covered with rich, hght earth. The pots (hould be plunged into a moderate hot-bed, and gently watered every third or fourth day. Lf the feeds are frelh and good, and fown in the fpriiig, the plants will come up in about fix weeks, and may generally be tranfplanted ii> about two months after. They (hould then be planted fcparately in fimilar pots and earth, (haded from the fuu, and occafionally watered. After they have taken root, they fiiould have freih air every day, according to the warmth of the feafon, and be moderately fupplied with water. About the middle of Auguft it will be proper to (liift them into larger pots, and to turn over the tan in the bed, that the heat may be renewed.. In tlie ainumn they mud be removed into the (love, where they mufl: conilautly remain plunged in the taji-bed. In the winter they (liould have little water^ and nuift be kept warm ;. but in fummer they (hould have frt(h air, and be frequently fprinklcd all over with water. They will flower about the fourth year from the feeds. The globofa and lalvifolia may be propagated by cuttinn-a on an old hot-bed in July, covered with a bell-glafs, and fliaded from the fun. In a mor:th they may be planted ii> pots ; and when they have taken frefh root, (hould be re- moved to a (heltered fituation till the winter, when they mufl: be preferved in the confervatory, or dry ftove. The globofa will flower well, and hve through a mild winter out of doors in a warm (heltered border. BUDDLING of calamine, denotes the operation of cleanfing it from filth, by wafliing and picking it, prepara- tory to the baking it in the oven. Phil. Tranf. N" 108. p. 675. See Calamine. BuDaLixG-nV/?', a fmall, fliallow veiTcl, like the bafons of a pair of fcales, for the wafliing of ores of metals by the- hand. BUDDRA, in Geography, a river of the peninfula of India, which rifes in the Myfore country, and joinino- the Toom near the county of Hooiy-Onore forms the Toom- buddra river. BUDDRINANT, or Badrenaut, a town of Thibet, on the eaft fide of the river Ahkraundi-a, or Aluknundra' N. lat. 33°. E. long. 80° 20'. BUDDS Valley, a place in the county of Morris, and ftate of New Jerfey, in America, fituats on tlie head waters of Rariton. BUDE BUD BUDE rh^r and haven, lis on the north coaft of Corn- ..all, about S.S.W. and S.^W. from Hartland pomt, on the "BUMArorBuDACUM, in Ma:^,:t G^^..^.^. a town of Matn.fia Alfo, a town of Afia ^pnor ,n Pl'rvg'a. btcp . S. Bu^.a was one of the appellat.ons gu-en to M.ne. • BUDEL [Ridwg^r], in Zoology, the water-dog: (Can.s) ''Bu'^DELicH, in Olograph, a town of Germany, in .heSe of tl" Lower Rhme, and eleftorate of Treves ; '^ tt French arrangement, ^" .^I'^^^^^J^:^ Sarre- and chief place of a canton, in the dilfridt of Treves , I ,^'ile E of Treves; the town contains .95. ^nd the canton 6<6o inhabitants ; and the territory comprehends 24 cormunes. N. lat. 49" 5^'- E- long. 0^ 55'- BIJDERICH. Sec Burich. • , r BUDESHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleftorate of Meutz ; one mile L. oi ^'bUDETIN, a town of Hungary ; 16 miles E. N. E. of Boledco. „ J, , RTinaF \n Laiu. See BovCHE of coiirl. ?ro?W. are fmall barrels well hooped, with only one head, the other end having nailed on it a piece of lea- ther to draw together upon ilrings, hke a purle. Budge-barrels are ufed for carrying powder along wit 1 a ,L,t^r- as being Icfs dangerous, and alfo eafier than ^ZZ They a'f alfo ufel upon batteries of mortars, '^'S^^'^^rlc, ini?:V./^v, the relation and friend of Addifon, and an ingenious writer, was the fun of Sert B^idgell, D. D. of St. Thomas near Exeter, and 1 ,n about the year 1685 . He was educated as a gen- Ue^; 1 'conin';one?:t'chnftchich College. Oxford, and af .erwards entered at the Inner Temple, London, with a i wo the profcffion of the law. But an mchnat.on to nklfure, and^alfo to polite literature, diverted bis attention Ln i dies appropriate to the bar; and in 17;°. he ac- \ A Addil'on to Ireland, as one ot his clerks. By XSn'-t "i-fo- of tafte'a.d fafliion, and cultivating a acmu^ntance with the beft writers, ancient and modein, he acquired the accompUn.ments oi the gentleman and fcho- a/ But though he was diainguifhed by a lively imag.na- S; ten cious memory, genteel addrcfs and graceful elo^ cu on his confnmmate vanity depretiated his other alents ad became a prominent feature of his charaaer through 1 e hI firft exhibition as an author was in the Spefta or ; and the papers maiked X in the i.ril feven volumes are atui- andtnepapc ,^ ^^^^ ^^ ,_^^g ^^^^ thol conTaed by Iddifon and Budgell. . Dr. Johnfon, how ver, fays that his papers were either written by Addi- fon o fa much improved by him, as to be rendered in a S^a;u h^s own; and, it is obferved, that their llyle re- ?^ , T Tl tt of Addifon. The humorous and admned epi- fembles that °j ^JJ J"j^^^^ „f„,„ ,f„,bed .0 Budgell, ?r faid to'^-e Sn'the co^pof.tio'n of Add.fon. About us ttee, Budgell wrote f.veial epigrams and fongs, which ole Kr wkh Addifon's fmcere attachment to him, recom- nSed hTm to general notice and efteem. But, notw. h- ft.^a.iKr Ts literary connections and engagements and nis ftandnig ^15''";^ ^^ encumberei indeed with debts, ^"5Ta year le was unremitting in his attention to the duties <;f hi ofHie m the prefac? to the Guardian, he is n ffented as having a concern in that work, in connea.cn ''•^K Addifon and fir Richard Steele ; but his papers are with Addi on ana i.r publifted a tran.lation not now di criminated. lni/i4> "."^ F'"^',, „, , „ ,, To^the Greek, of " The Characters o. Theophraftus, BUD which was commended by Addifon, and -I'ich appears .0 have been executed with ingenimy and '"■''••.f "«:^,.^;';, '' year, he was advanced .0 tl^^ '^ffi'-"" °V''", ^ , icel f the lord lieutenant, chhf fecretary to 1 he lo d„ .1 '."'"^ "' .eland, and deputy clerk of '^c council in thakniigdm To thefe was added the honour of a feat "yhc I '(h parli..- ,U, wherehedilln.guiihed lumWf^as ^ Ipcak. W a wnere ne uuui.{;umii.u ' ,1 j :,i, ,v,„ the rebellion broke out in .7.5. l>e -- ^""';^. 'f "'^ ^^^^ charge of tranfporting troops to beothmd, vhich he exe- cuted in a manner equally able and dUinterelted. In the besi.-ni"g of the year 17.7. when Acdifon became fecre- taiy of Itate, he was promoted, under his patronage, to the oOice of accomptant and comptroller geiuralot Ireland. But this tide of profperity took an unfHvour.ble turn foon after this latter appointment, when the duke of Bolton was appointed to the vice-royal.y. When the duke's fecretary ini'lled on quartering upon him a friend, his inUignation wiu roufed; and he attacked both the fecretary and the loid lieutenant in a virulent lampoon, which he pubhnied agamlt the advice and remonftrance of Addifon, and which cauied him to be deprived of his place as accomptant Upon hi. return to England, he determined m oppofit.on to t c counfel of his bed friends, to pubhfli his cafe, and, by this fecond aft of indifcretion, he incrcafed the refenlmeut of his enemie.-. By a popular pamphlet written m 17 1 9, ^f'f the famous peerage bill, he incenfed the earl of Sunoerlard and, at this timef the death of Ado. on, his fteady friend and faithful counfellor, terminated all his expeftations from the court. His circumftances, however, were eafy and af- fluent, and he might have lived with dignity and independ- ence. But deluded by the infatuation ot the fatal year 17-.0, he embarked in the South Sea fclieme, and loit 20 oool. Having taken an aftive part m the concerns and debates of the company, and publifned pamphlets on the occafion, that were well received, he attracted the noUce of the duke of Portland, who had been a fufferer in this bi.b- b'le as well as himfelf ; and he was taken iinder his ipecial patronage, with the promife of accompanying him as his ic- cretary To Jamaica, of which ifland he was appomteu gov-er- nor. But the implacable reftntmcnc of the court ^frullrated his expeaations, for the duke was exprefsly foroidden to take him out as his fecretary. Tliis cruel treatment irritated his temper; and with a. view of giving importance to hi3 oppofition, he fpent nearly 5000I. in various tmfuccefJul efforts for obtainrog a feat in parliament ; and he was aided by the duchcfi-dowager of Marlborough in 1727 wih the film of icool.for tins purpofe. His attempts failed ; his affairs of courfe became deranged ; and he involved un.felf m a variety of quarrels and law-fuits, winch entailed upoi. him diftreffes that difgraced and embittered the clofe ot hr, hfe In I7r. I'e P'-'-blill-'^d an hilloneal work, entitua- " Memoirs of the Life and Charafter of the late Earl ot Orrery, and of the Family of the Boyles," which, whatever valuable information it may contain, does not bear the clia- raaer of impartiality. It is needlefs to mention his other publications, which, though well received, are i.ow for- gotten, or to add that he contributed feveral papers to the " Craftfman," and that he eftablilhed a weekly pamphlet called the " Bee," which had no long duration. His repu- tation was funk very low : and a civcumttance accurred which totally ruined it. On the death of Dr. Matthew Tindall, the author of " Chriihanity as old as the Crea- tion," in the pubhcation of which he was thought to have had fome concern ; a bequeff to Budgell of 21C0I. ^VV'^^^f in his will. This legacy, fo difproportionate to 1 indall s circumltances, fo injurious to his nephew, the Kev. Nicho- las Tiiidcill, the tranllalor of Rapin, and fo contrary to hi» ^ known BUD known iiitentioiu and coiiduft, furprlft J tliofc who heard oF it, and fxcittd a lulpicion of uiilair doalinjir, very reproach- ful to I3udmlh The will was coiUelUd and fct afide. To this tranladioii, Pope, who has introduced BudgcU into the Dunciad, and fatirized him in fevcral parts of his works, evidently alludes in one of his epilUcs : " La UndgcU char(fe low Grub-ftrect on my quill, And write whate'cr he pleafc e!;ccpt my will." At length, this unfortunate man, unable to (Irn^jrle any longer witii his embarniU'cd circumftanccs and iiuUlible dif- crace, adopted the refolnlion, llrcngtlicned by llic pride of his temper, and his diflj-^-lief of revelation, to put an end to his life; and, on May 4th, 1737, he took a boat ai Sunier- fet llairs, and having- ordered the waterm;in to (lioot the bridge, he threw himfclf overboard, with flones in his pockets, and immediately funk. He had prcvioufly at- tempted to perfuade a natural daughter to Ihare his fate ; but (he, preferring a continued life to this fliocking mode of terminating it, became afterv\-ards an a(3refs at Drury Lane theatre. On the bureau of Budgcil was found a flip of pa- per, on which were written thefc words: " What Cato did, and Addifon approv'd, Cannot be wrong." But this charge againft Addifon is wholly groundlefs ; for he attempted to obviate the ill efl'cas that might be fiip- pofed to arifc from Cato's example by a dying difapprobatiou ol his own conduft. Biog. Brit. BUDGERONS, m Gtogmphy. See Boeseroons. BUDGEROWS, in Sc-a Language, the denomination given to travelhng boats, or pleafure barges, ufed by the Eu- ropeans, as well as by the principal natives, in Bengal. On the outfide, they are coiillruftcd like the Burs ; but with- in, they are much better adapted for convenience. The fpacc from the middle to the ftern is occupied by one or two apartments, having windows on the fides, and from fix to fcven feet high ; and fome of them 14 feet wide : the ftern- moft of them is tlie bed room. Tliefe budgerows are of various fizes ; from 25 to 60 feet in length, and longer. They are rowed by a number of men, from 6 to 20, with oars, which are long poles, to the end of which a little oval board is nailed, in lieu of a leaf, and which do not llrike the water crofs-ways, but obliquely backwards. They are fleered by a large paddle or oar, extending 10 feet from the ftern ; and forwards ftands a mad, upon which is hoifted a fquarc fad, when they go before the wind ; and they have hkewife a top-mall with a fquare top-fail for fine weather. When they have a fide wind, thev drive down athwart the ilream, not having a keel or timbjr enough under water, as they are flat bottomed, and draw fcarcely a foot, or a foot and a half of water. Some of them draw from four to five feet. The EngliOi gentlemen in Bengal have much im- proved the budgerows, by introducing a broad flat floor, Iquare fterns, and broad bows. They are thus rendered much fafer, fail near, and keep their wind ; and there is no danger attending their takmg the ground. Bcfides, they are adapted for car^'ing more fail. The motion acquired by the oars of a large budgerow hardly exceeds eight miles a day at ordinary times. A gentleman iu his budgerow is ufua ly attended by a '< pulwah" for the accommodation of the kitchen, and a Imall boat, called a " paunchway " for conveying him eitlier on ihore, or on board, as it often hap. pens that the budgerow cannot come clofe to the place where ne wilhcs to land, or to embark. BUDHA, in Mythology. See Boodh. -«1., ^"^^^^u "■■ ""»"AGHS, in Ichthyology, a provin- wial name given by the Infl, to a large fort of trout that is BUD found chiefly in the vaft waters, Lough Neagh, in Ireland. Thefe are fomttimes taken of thirty pounds weight each. Tiie budhurs appear to be nothing more than the common trout, Salmo Fario, that have attained to this vail fize, of which we have inllanccs in other waters befides that of Lough Neagh. A trout, to the full as large as the budhurs arc in common, namely of twenty four pounds weight, was captured very lately in the river Thames nearHampton. Don. Brit. Fifli. BUDIN, or BuDYN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia in the circle of Sclilan ; eight miles N. of Schlan, BUDINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and county of Ifcmburg ; 10 miles E. N. E. of Frankfort on the Mayiie. BUD INI, probably the Eudeni of Ptolemy, in ylncient Gfography, a people placed by Herodotus in European Scy- thia, adjoining to the Sauiomates. Thefe people were very numerous, and remarkable for their red hair and blue eyes Their food was flefli and milk. Herodotus fays, that their principal city was Gelone, built in a wood, where temples were confecrated to the gods of Greece, and in whicii were celebrated triennial fealls in honour of Bacchus. The in- habitants of this city were of Greek origin, and their lan- guage vvas a mixture of Greek and Scythian. Of thefe Budiiii the Scythians demanded fuccour for oopofing the army of Darius. BUDINUM, or BuDiNus, the ancient name of a mountain of European Sarmatia. Ptolemy. BUDISSEN, in Geography. See Bautzen. BUDLANIOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podolia ; 36 miles N. W. of Kaminiec. BUDNiEANS, in Ecchjlaftkd Hijlory, 3 feft of Polifl, Unitanans, fo called from the name of their leader, Simon BuduEus. They not only denied all kind of religious wor- fliip to Jefus Chrift, but afferted, that he was not begottea by any extraordinary aft of divine power ; being born, like other men, in a natural way. Budnsus, after having' pro- ^lyted a great number of perfons in Lithuania and Ruffian Poland, was depofed from his miniflerial funftions in the year 1 584, and publicly excommunicated, with all his dif- ciples ; but afterwards abandoning his pecuhar fentiments he was readmitted to the communion of the Socinian fed' Crelhus afcribes the origin of the above opinion to Adam Neufer. Mofli. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. 525. BUDOA or BuDUA, in Geography, a fortified fea-Bort Tr P^'™"-^. f"bj^a to the Venetians ; the fee of a b.fhop fuffragan of Antivari. It is feated between the gull of Cat.aro and the town of Dulcigno, on the coaft of f^.r'^'xT f ""' ""f^ccefsfully befieged by the Turks in i6b6. N. lat. 42° 12'. E. long. 19° 22'. BUD RIO, a fmall town of Italy in the Bolognefe, the v.cmity of which produces large quantities ot fine hJmD '°^^^f^^n^''T\ ^■'^' -^'^ ^-' E- long, tr^/y! BUDRUN, a fortified town of Afiatic Turkey, in tl,; fhel^^fotsS-o "^^^^'^ ^" -^*^' -'^ ^•'-^°-- pnS^sS'iiiti^-of^^^^Sfe^rCdr n,inated Sinto. The feft of ^Bu'dfdo wa^ impo ^ torn Hindollan and is luppoled to be the fame wkl that of Budha or Boodh, reported to have been born in Get on about 1000 years before the birth of Chrift p^^ffin; through China and Corea, it has been mingled with foS rke^foulf b:..;T'^^ f/'^'^ -etempffchofis'r'eS wici^ea lou s being fuppofed to migrate nto the bodies nf BUDTm""^^^^ ""'^^^S""*^ ^ ^- P-gation '^ °^ . BUDUN, IS the name of one of the Ceylonefe g-od, • !,» .3 fuppofed to have arnved at fupremacy! Tf^ Steffi,: tranfmi- B U E tranfmigration, from the lowed (late of an inftcfl, through the various fpccies of living animals. 1'hcre have been three dc-iiies of this name, each of which is fiippodd to reign as long as a bird removes a hill of fand, half a mile high, and fix miles round, by a fingle grain in a thoufand years. See Sakradawf.ndra : fee alfo Boodh. BUDWEIS, or BuDEOowiCE, in Gc'o^^mphy, a royal and well fortified city of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin, i'eated on the river Moldaw, enjoying the Haple-rights of fait, and having in its vicinity inincs of gold and filvcr ; and, rs it is faid, pearls, which are fifhed for in the river Mol- daw. It was erefttd into a bifhopric by the emperor, in l-y-. The king of Prufli; laid fiege to it with 8000 men, under general Naff;iu in 1744, and took it; but did not long retain it; 66 miles S. of Prague. N. lat. 42° 15'. E. long. i4'=' 19'. BUDWIZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Znayra ; 84 miles S. E. of Prague. BUDZADGEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Njtolia ; 40 miles N. E. of Ifnick. BUDZIAC Tarlary. See Bessarabia. BUDZIENICZE, or Budz.enice, a town of Litliua- nia, in the palatinate of Minlk ; ^6 miles W. of Rohaczow. N. lat. 52° 40'. E. long. 28" 20'. BUECH, a river of France, which runs into the Du- rance, near Sifteron, in the department of the Lower Alps. BUEIB, a town or vilLige of Egypt, calkd the " Straits," feated on a mountain in the road of the pilgrims ; 30 miles N. E. of Cairo. BuEiB, called the " Narrows," a town or village of Upper Egypt, feated on the welt fide of the Nile ; ?2 miles S. E. of Afna or Efneh. BUELA, a town of Perfia, in the province of KorafTan ; about 313 miles N. W. of Herat. N. lat. 37° 40'. E. long. 'bUENAYRE. See Bonaire. BUENA-VISTA. See Bonavista. BUENE-VENTURA. See BONAVENTURE. BUENOS Ayres, fo called on account of the peculiar falubrity of its climate, a Spanilh territory or vice-royalty of South America, eftablilhed as fuch in 1776, is reckoned by Ulloa the fifth bi(hopric belonging to the audience of Charcas. This name comprehends the whole country from the eaftern and fouthern coaft of that part of America, to Cordova and Tucuman on the weft, to Paraguay on the north, and on the fouth to the fea and the Terra Magella- uica or Patagonia, the vertex of that triangular point of land which forms South America. This country is watered by the great river La Plata, firft difcovercd in 15 15, by Juan Diaz de Solis, who, with his two attendants, was maffacred by the natives; and partly fubducd, in 1526, by Sebaftian Gabot. Buenos Ayres abounds with horned cattle and wild horfes, which find a (helter from the heat of the fun, and an ample fupply of food in the immcnfe plain, called by the Spaniards " Pampas," which commences about 20 miles from the capital, and extends 100 miles wellward to the foot of the mountains, and about 500 miles fouthward towards Chili. This plain is wholly covered with very high grafs, and is for the moft part uninhabited and dcftitute of trees. From the travels of Helms we learn, that the largell tamed ox is fold for one piaftre, or about 3s. 6d., and that a good horfe may be purchafcd for two piatlres. The hides of thefe animals conftitute a principal article of trade in this country. The rivers and fea fupply all kinds of fifli ; the country abounds with game ; and fruits of every quarter of the globe grow here in the utmoft perfeftion ; fo that with regard to the falubrity of the air and the various «njoyraenls ^ U E of life, a finer country cannot be imagined. Although the climate is htaUliy and plealant, there is a great difference in the feafons. In the fuiiinRr the air is ferine, and the exccfiive heat of the fun is moderated by breezes which blow every morning. In the winter ftorms often occur, with rain and dreadful lightning and thunder. The capital of this country is Buenos Ayres, and within its government are three other cities, viz. Santa Fe, Las Corientes, and Monte-video. Bt.'ENos Ayres, NiieJ!ra Stnoni ik, the capital of the country of the fame name, and of tlie kingdom of La Plata, was founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1531;, vi'ho was at that time governor, on a fpot called Cape Biane-o, on the fonth fide of Rio de la Plata, adjoining to a fmall river ; from which the plain on which it Itauds, afceiids gently. Soon after its firll ellahliiliment, it was abandoned ; but rebuilt in 1582, and eretted into a bifliopric in 1620. It is faid to contain about 4000 lioufes, and from 24to3Cthoufand inhabitants, who are chiefly Spaniards and native Americans. It is well fortified and defended by a numerous artillery. Al- though the breadth of this city, like other towns fituated on rivers, isnotproportionaltoits length, itsllreetsaretlraightand of a proper width. The principal fquare is very large, and built near the fmall river ; and in the front of it is a caftle, where the governor conilaiitly refides. The houfes, which were formerly conftruded with mud-walls, thatched with ftraw, and very low, are now much improved ; fome being built with chalk, and others with brick, moft of them tiled, and having one ftory befides the ground floor. The cathedral, which is the parifh church for the greater number of the inhabitants, is a fpacious and elegant ftrufture ; and the chapter is compofed of the bifliop, dean, archdeacon, and two canons. At the farther end of the city is another church appropriated to the Indians. Here are alfo feveral convents, and a royal chapej in the caftle where the governor refides. This is the great refort of the merchants of Europe and Peru, who traverfe the country from hence by Cordova and Tucuman to Potofi ; and for the accommodation of travellers there is an uninterrupted poll-road, with poft- horfes and proper relays of horfes and carriages acrofs the continent to Peru. No regular fleet comes to this place ; the whole intercourfe with Europe being carried on by 2 or 3 regifter fliips. The returns are chiefly gold and filver. of ChiH and Peru, fugar, and hides. I'he contraband trade, however, has been found the moft advantageous ; and this has been principally carried on by the Portugucle, who keep magazines for that purpofc in thofe parts of Brazil which lie neareft to this country. The moft valuable commodities are brought here to be exchanged for European goods ; fuch as the Vicugna wool from Peru, copper from Coquimbo, gold from Chili, and iilvtr from Potofi. From Corientes and Paraguay are conveyed hither tobacco, fugar, cotton, thread, yellow wax, and cotton cloth ; and from Paraguay, the herb fo called and fo highly valued for tea, which is drank, every where in South America by the higher clafles, and which fupplies a branch of trade, amounting, as it is faid, to a million of pieces of eight annually, wholly paid in goods, as no money is allowed to pafs here. The commerce between Peru and Beunos Ayres is chiefly for cattle and. mules, to an immenfc value. This city is fituated about 77 leagues from Cape Santa Maria, which lies on the north coatl near the entrance of the river de la Plata ; and its little river not having water iufBcitnt for fliips of burden to come up to it, they anchor in one of the two bays on the fame coaft. That fartheft to the eallward is called Maldo- nado, 9 leagues from the above cape, and the other named Monte-video from a mountain near it, and diftant 20 leagues from the faid cape. The navigation to the city is dangerous. foe- B U F for w.int of depth of water, and on account of flioali nitks in the rivtr. and the frequent rccunence of lie als and lorms. It IS. therefore, i.fual to anchor every night, and to have the lhi,,'i way founded by a p^ot. Within^) leagues of the town, the goods arc removed on board fomehght veflel ; and wait for their cargoes, whilll they are refitting at Icunado dc Barragan, fitnated 7 or 8 leagues bclon'. b. lat. 34 35 ■0\ W.long. ';S".3i' 'V'- , . , r .. BUENTO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom ot Mo- nomntapa. BUl-'ETAGE, lufeta{wm, or bufdarui, a duty paid to the lord for the dvinking," or rather felling of wine in taverns. The word is formed from biivela^e, or biivelene, of the French holrc, to t'rini. Du-Cange GlotT. Lat. torn. i. BUFF, in Commerce, a fort of leather prepared from the niif-/im ; anciently much ufed among the mihtary men for a kind of coats or doublets ; and llill retained by lome of our grenadiers, as well as the French gc;i d'nrmes, on account of its exceeding thicknefi and firmnefs. It is alfo ufed for waill -belts, pouches, kc. Buff-flipon his works. In 1771 his cftate was treded into a cornte ; and thus the decoration of rank, to which he was by no means indifferent, was annexed to the fuperior dignity he had acquired as one of the moft didinguidied members of the republic of letters. Before we give an account of his works, we (liall mention a few particulars relating to his peifon and charadler. His figure was noble and manly, and his countenance, even in ad- vanced age, and notvvithllanding excruciating pains, which deprived him of lleep fometimes for 16 fucceffive nights, was calm and placid, and exhibited traces of fingnlar intelligence. Vanity, however, which feemed to have been his predominant paiTion, extended even to his perfon and to all its exterior ornaments. He was particularly fond of having his hair neatly dreffed, and for this purpofe lie employed the frifcur, in old age, twice or thrice a day. To his drefs he was peculiarly attentive ; and took pleafnre in appearing on Sundays before the peafantry of Montbard in laced clothes. At table he indulged in indelicate and licentious pleafantries, and he was fond of hearing every goffiping tale which his attendants could relate. In his general intercourfe with females he was as lax and unguarded as in his converfation. During the life of his wife, he was chargeable with frequent infidelities ; and he proceeded to the very unwarrantable ex- treme of debauching young women, and even of employing means to procure abortion. His confidence, in the latter period of his life, was almoft wholly engrolTcd by a made- moifelle Bleffeau, who lived with him for many years. His vanity betrayed itielf on a variety of oceafions in relation to his literary performances. Thefe were often the fubjedts of his difcourfe, and even of hisconmiendation. When he was recommending tlie perufal of capital works in every depart- ment of tafte and fcience, he added, with fingular nrefump- tiou and felf-confidencc ; " Capital works are fcarce ; I know but five great geniufes ; — Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montefquieu, and my/il/'." He was in the habit of reciting to th.ofc wlio vifited him whole pages of his compofitions, for he feemed to know tliem almoft all by heart ; but not- withrtanding his vanity, lie lillened to objeflions, entered into a difcuffiin of them, and furrendcred his own opinion to that of others, when his judgment was convinced. He cxprcfl'ed himfelf with rapture concerning the pleafnres accruing from ftudy ; and he declared his preference of the writings to the converfations of learned men, which almoft always difap- pointed !iim ; and therefore he voluntarily feclnded himfelf from fociety with fuch, and in company was fond of triCing. He maintained, however, an extcnfive correfpondcnce with J P fevcr.1l B U F V O N, ffvtral pcrfons of rank and emineBce ; aaJ particularly with prince lluirv of Prufiia, and with the late einprc''s of RulTia, who ably criticlfcd fome of his opinions, and favoured with great yc'al ii> her dominions his refearchcs in natural hillory. Of his literary vanity he Rave evidence even to^vards the clofe of life ; allej;i;ig that he feared not death, and that the hope cfimmortalleirown was the moll powerful of death-bed con- folations. He took, great pains in forming the ilyle of his wiitinijs ; and as compolition was to him a diffieult tan<, lie repeatedly rcvifcd his works Wore he pubhihcd them. Such was liis attention to (lyle, that he could nut bear the Itaft. deviation from accuracy and propriety in the nfe of language. " The llylc," faid he, " is the man ; our poets have no ftvle ; they are coerced by the rules of metre, which makes flavcs of tiiem." To this circumllance it was owing that he abandoned poetry which he attempted in his youth, and reflriaed himfelf to profe. " Two things," fays he, " form llylc, invention and expreffion. Invention dependson patience; contemplate your fubjcft long ; it will gradually unroll and an- fold till a fort of clcftric fpark convulies for a moment the brain, and fprt ads down to the very heart a glow of irritation. Then arc come the luxuries of genius, the true hours for produAion and compolition — hours fo delightful, that I have fpcnt 12 and 14 fucceflively at my writing-deflc, and ftill been in a ftatc of pltafure. It is for this gratification, yet more than for glory, that I have toiled. Glory comes if it can, and moltly does come. This pleafure is greater if you confult no books ; I have never confulted authors, till I had nothing left to fay of my own." Such was his regard to fame, that he dcftroyed every paper which he thought ufelefs or unfinifhed ; and thus prefervcd his reputation from being roaflacrcd by pofthumous publications. Of the free fentiments which he had imbibed with regard to religion, his works afford ample evidence. They fuf- ficiently indicate his attachment to the fyftemof materialifm. " Religion," faid he to one who was reading to him verfes on the immortality of the foul, " would be a noble prefent, if all that were true." Notwithilanding the licentioufnefs of his religious opinions, as well as of his moral conduft, he coijformed to the external rituals of religion, adding, as fome will fay, hypocrify to his impiety ; when he was at Montbard, he received the annual communion in his feignorial chapel, attended high mafs every Sunday, and dillributed a louis weekly among different defcriptions of pious beggars. " There mud," he faid, " be a religion for the multitude ; and we fhould avoid giving offence." " I have always," he added, in converfation with a friend, " named the Creator ; but it is only putting, mentally, in its place, the energy of nature, which refults from the two great laws of attraftion and impulfe. When the Sorbonne plagued me, I gave all the fatisfadion which they folicitcd ; it was a form which I defpifed, but men are filly enough to be fo fatisfied. For the fame reafon, when I fall dangeroufly ill, I fliall not hefitate to fend for the facraments. This is due to the public reli- gion. Thofe who aft otherwife are madmen." Thus, as he boafts, he avoided (liaring the mifchievous attacks which Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, and others had made upon religion, whilft, by the avowal of fuch licentious fentiments in converfation, and by the opinions circulated in his writings, he was perpetually fapping its foundations, and counterafting every obligation of truth and integrity. But let us divert our attention from the principles and charafter of Buffon, which have been fufRciently dereloped, and which no refleft- ing perfon can contemplate without difguft, to his works. In this view of him he appears with much greater advantage. His firft publication was a tranflation from the Englilh of " Hales's Vegetable Statics," in 1735 ; which was followed in 1740 by a tranflation from the Latin of " Newton's Fluxions." His «' Theory of the Earth" was firft pub- lifhed in 1/44, which was included in his moft ccmprthen- five celebrated work entitled " Natural Hiftory, general and particular," which commenced in 1749, and at its comple- tion in 1767 extended to 15 vols. 410. or 31 vols. i:mo. Supplements were afterwards added, amounting to ft;veral more volumes. In the anatomical part the author was ai jed bv M. d'Aubenton ; but in all the other parts Buffon him- felf difplays his learning, genius, and eloquence, and he alfo indulges his fancy, in exploring and delineating the whole economy of nature. He begins with a theory of the earth, which, as well as the other planets, he fiippofes to have been originallv a mafs of liquefied matter, dafhed out of the body of the ftin by tlie viokiit illapfe of a comet. He then covers it with ocean, from which he forms ftrata by dcpofition, and mountains by the flux and reflux of the tide. Subterraneous fires, eruptions, and earthquakes, produce other changes ; and the world we now inhabit is but the ruins of a former world, for a more particular account and examination of his theory, fee Earth and Planets. In his account of the population of the earth with living creatures, he invefti- gates the analogies between vegetable and animal life ; and in explaining the myftery of animal generation, he allows ample range to his imagination in a variety of hypothcfes and conjeftures. He co'ceives certain " living organic mole- cules," of the fame nature with organized beings, to exift equally in animal and vegetable matter ; and thefe, in the procefs of nutrition, to be received into •' internal moulds," of which animal and vegetable bodies are foitned, where they are affimilated into the fame fubftance as the parts to which they are tranfmitted, and thus nourifli them. When this nutritive matter fuperabounds, it is detached from all parts of the body, and depofited in a fluid form in one or more refer- voirs. This conftitutes a prolific matter, wliich is ready for producing a new animal or vegetable, of the fame fpecies, when it meets with a proper matrix. The fuppofed feminal animalcule are only thefe organic particles, which are fimilar in toth fexes, but mull unite in order to produce a new ani- mal by the procefs of generation. See Genekation. Buffoii's natural hiftory of animals commences with that of man ; whom he traces from the cradle to the grave, through the developemer.t and maturation of his bodily organs and mental powers, the nature and operation of his fenfes, and the feveral varieties of his fpecies, introducing and intermixing in the refearch many curious difcuflions. He then invefti- gates and unfolds the nature of brute animals in general ; and marks the diftinftion between them and men, by denying them a foul, and a memory, properly fo called, and making all their aftions to fpring from external impreffions. The clafs of quadrupeds occupies the whole remainder of this firft work. To his hiftory of quadrupeds he added, in 1776, a fupplemcntary volume, which, befides an ingenious differta- tion on mules, contains the hiftoi'y and figures of feveral new animals, and valuable additions to moft of thole defcribed in the original pubhcation. Difdaining the arrangements of fyftematic naturalifts, he has rejefted all the received princi- ples of claffification, and has thrown his fubjefts into groups, laxly formed from general points of refemblancc. Not con- tent with deviating from eftablilhed modes of diftribution, he ridicules the authors of fyftematic arrangements, and particu- larly the late ingenious and indefatigable Linnaeus, whofe zeal and labours in inveftigating and clailing natural objefts entitle him to the higheft applaufe. It is hardly neceffary to remark, that he has adapted his ftyle to the particular fubjefts of his difcuflion. Whilft the mere enumeration of fads, ordefcriptionsof the figure, dimenfions, and colourofani- mals. B U F F O N. ina)'i, aJmit of no otlicr ornament than that of perfpicuity ; topics of philofophy and argnment require a higher and more lignrative cxprelTion ; and addrcfTes to the pafTions and liner fcehngs of men, allow full fcope to the exercife of genius and of tafte. Of thefe different fpecies of writing, the works of Buffon afford nume- rous examples. It has been obfcrved, however, that his ftvle occafianally riies above the level of his fnbjeft ; and this is particularly the cafe, when he is painting in glowing colours the manners and habits of the lion, the horfe, the elephant, and others of his favourite fuhjctts. By the in- dulgence of this palTion for high painting, he has been be- trayed into a deviat'on from tlie limits of limple truth, and has been led to wander into the regions of fancy. In parti- cular and minute obfervation he excels, and by his in- defatigable rcicarches he has made a very copious addition to the treafure of authenticated fads. In fume cafes he has been milled by an undue attachment to theory, as well as by the ambition of dillinguinied eloquence. " On various to- pics," fays a judicious biograplier, " he had formed gene- ral theorems, which he was inchned to fnpport againll ex- ceptions by denying or neglefting the inllances produced on the other fide. Faither, he not unfrequently gives the mere inferences from his opinions as if they were known and tried fafts ; thus dangerouily confounding hypothefis with that experience which is the only true bafis of all natural knowledge. He often attributes more to the operation of certain caufes, fnch as change of climate, domeftication, and the like, than fober reafon can warrant; and even, accord- ing to the tenor of his argument, fometimes afcribes oppo- fite effefts to the very lame ca\ife. Thcfe blemi(hes mate- rially leffen the confidence with which his work can be ufed as authority, and later inquirers are contmually detefting errors in his llatements. Yet the great mafs of matter will probably always remain unimpeachcd ; and certainly no writer has ever done fo much to render natural hillory en- tertaining, and to elevate its rank among the objefts on which the human intelleft is employed. In one point, however, he will by many be thought to have derogated from the true dignity and value of his fubjed. He is every where the enemy of the doctrine of final caufes, and fublli- tutes, to a deligning and benevolent author, the fortuitous operations of a certain unconfcious " Nature," which as often exhibits examples of blunder and defctt, as of (Ivilful and happy contrivance." " Studioudy to overlook fo beau- tiful a part of the economy of things, as the adaptation of means to ends, is furely as mconfillcnt with the philofophical as the religious fpirit," which may, poffibly, in fome in- llances, have betrayed him into error. This " fault is ag- gravated in Buffon by the pleafure he occafionally takes in declaiming upon the defetts of nature, in a llraiu which would feem to impute malignity of intention to the Author of being, and which he appears to have derived from the fiiallow pliilofophy of his predeceffor Pliny. The moral reader of Buffon will likewife be frequently offended with the groffnefs of his defcriptitii!/, ai btiiiir an inhabitant of that part (if tde worl J. It is fjxfcilically dilliii^iiiilKd by liaviiiR tlie cire bliii; ; loj;s yellow ; body above dark biowii, beneath reddifti-buff ; eye bnv.va yellow ; tail fafciatcd with pale, and Julkv brown. Gmel. 5cc. Length i.f this bird two tett. HUrrOON, a droll, or nnimic, who diverts the public by his pleafanti-ics and follies. Mcnai>e, after Salniafuis, derives the word from liiifo ; a name jriveii to ihofe who ap- peared on the Roman theatre with their cheeks blown up ; that, receiving blows thereon, they might make the greater noife, and fa the people a laughing. Others, as Rhodi- ginus, make the origin of bnfl'oonery more venerable ; deriv- ing it from a feall inllituted in Attica, by K. Eridtheus, called BUPHONiA. BulToo'is are the fame with what we otha-wife find deno- minated fcurre, geliifnini, mimilo-^i, mmijleU'i, gol'utrili, jocula- torett bfc. whofe chief Irene is laid at the tables of great men. Gallienns never fat down to meat without a fecond table of buffoons by him. Tdlemont alfo renders panto- mimes by bufl'oons ; in which ftnfe he obferves, the (hews of the buffoons were taken away by Domitian, reftored by Nerva, and finally aboliOied by Trajan. Crevier's Hilt, of the Emperors, vol. vii. p. 45. BUFFY COAT, or fize of the blood, in Midldne. See Blood, appearances of. BUFO, in Entomology, a fpeciesof Bombyx, that inhabits Germany. The wings are yellowifh, with a broad brown band, and yellow fpots. Fabr. Bt;FO, a fpecies of Curculio, that inhabits Siberia. The colour is Kifeous ; wing-cafes (lightly reticulated, with a -white (Iripc in the middle. Fabr. BuFO, in Zoology, the fpecific name of the common toad, rana bufo of Linnxus, and other Latin writers. Gmelin adopts the concife defcription of the Linnsan Fauna Suecica, " corpore lurido fufcoque," for this fpecies. But, befides the body of the toad being lurid and fufcons, the back is marked with tubercles, which ought likewlfe to be dillnidlly noticed in its fpecific charafter. The defcription given of it by Rocfel is not amifs, " Bufo terrellris, dorfo tuberculis exafperato, oculis rubris." Hill. Ran. Authors make three or four varieties of the common toad. The var. /9 of Gmelin, is lufo calamlta of Laurenti ; the back of this kind is olivaceous with an unequal, clear, yellowifli- red, band down each fide, y, another variety, Laurenti defcribes under the name of bufo virldis, the body being marked with confluent green fpots, and warts : thole warts which rife within the area of the green fpots are of the fame colour, while the reft, which are fituatcd in the fpaces be- tween them, are red, upon a bicoloured ground. J. bufo objletricans of Laurenti is diftinguifhed by being of a fmaller fize than either of the preceding. In A£t. Parif. 1741, this lad variety is dtfcribed under the title of hfo lerrcjlris minor. Independently of thefe, which may be confidered as permanent varieties of the common toad, it (hoiild be ob- fcrved, that different individuals exhibit a great diverfity in their general colours, markings, the lize of the dorlal tuber- cles, and other particulars. The olivaceous hues with darker variations prevail moft commonly. In the early part of fum- jner they are fometimes found with the Ihoulders and limbs "marked with reddidi fpots, and the under parts of the limbs and body tinged with yellow. The toad, fays an ingenious writer, is the mod deformed and hideous of all animals : the body is broaJ, the back flat, arid covered with a pimply dulky hide, the belly large, fwaggi.i^, and fwelling out, the legs (hort, and its pace laboured aiid crawling ; its retreat gloomy and filthy : in &ort, its ger.eral appearance is fuch as to (Irike one with I B U F difgufl and horror. Yet it is faid by thofc who have refolii- tion to view it with attention, that its eyes are fine ; to this it lei ins that Shakfpeare allude?, when he makes his Juliet reinark, " Some fay the lark and loathed toad change eyes," a< if they would have been jitter bellowed on fo charming a ion 'ller, than on this raucous animal. Pennant. The eyes are unco i.nionly beautiful, being furroundcd by a reddilh gold coloured iris, and the pupil, when in a llatc of contrac- tioM, appearing tranfverfe. Rana bufo and its varieties appear to be confined exclu- fively to the European continent. It inhabits woods, gar- dens, fields, and damp Ihady places, and frequently makes its way into cellars, or any obfcure receffes in which it may oc- cafionally conceal itfelf ; and where it may find a fupply of food, or a fecurity from too great a degree of cold. In the early part of fpring, like others of this genus, it retires to the waters, where it continues during the breeding feafon, and depofits its ova or fpawn in the form of double neck- lace-like chains or firings, of beautifully tranfparent gluten, and of the length of three or four feet, in each of which are difpofed the ova in a continued double feries through- out the wliole length, having the appearance of fo many fmall jet-black globules or beads. Thefe globules are, in reality, no other than the tadpoles, or larvx convoluted into a globular form, and waiting for the period of their evolu- tion, or hatching, which takes place in the fpace of about fourteen or fifteen days, when they break from the furround- ing gluten, and, like the tadpoles of frogs, fwim about in the water, and are noutiflied by various animalcules, gluten, leaves of aquatic plants, &c. When thefe have arrived at their full growth, the legs are formed, the tail gradually becomes obliterated, and the animals leave the water, and betake themfelves to the furface of the ground. This ge- nerally happens early in the autumn. The time of their propagation is very early in the fpring ; at which feafon the females are feen crawling about op- preffed by the males, who continue on them for hours, and adhere fo fall as to tear the lliin from the parts to which they flick. The number of females appears to be greatly difpro- portionate to that of the males iu general. It is afferted by Mr. Arlcott, a gentleman of Devonfliire, who favoured Mr. Pennant with a circumftantial account of a favourite toad kept for nearly forty years in his houfe, and a curfory hillory oi the toads, that he has commonly known thirty males to one female : twelve or fourteen of the former he has feen clinging round a fingle female at one time. But this is even far lefs remarkable than the obfervation of the late Mr. John Hunter, who affured Mr. Pennant, that dur- ing his refidence at Belleifle, he had diffcfted forae huiidreds of toads, and yet never met with a fingle female amongit them. That the female toad receives the obfletrical affiflance of the male on I'ome occafions is a faft eflablifhed on the bed authority. Mr. Demours, in particular, has given a full and accurate account of fuch a circumftance in the Memoirs, of the French Academy, that deferves attention. It has been more than once repeated by later writers, but cannot ilill, with propriety, be omitted in this place. The memoir is thus tranflated by Dr. Templeman : " In the evening of one of the long days in fummer, Mr. Demours, being in the king's garden, perceived two toads coupled together at the edge of an hole, which was formed, in part, by a great done at the top. " Curiofity drew him to fee what was the occafion of the motions he obferved, when two f;.£ts, equally new, furprifed him. The fird was the extreme difficulty the female had in laying her eggs, infomuch that fhe did not fcein B U F fecm capable of being delivered of them without fome alli- ance. The fccond was, that the male was mounted on the back of the female, and exerted all his ilrenglh with his hii.Jcr feet in pulling out the eggs, whilft his fore feet em- braced her brcalh " In order to apprehend the manner of his working in the uchvery of the female, the reader mull obferve that the paws cf thefe animals, as well thofe of the foic-feet, as of the hinder, are divided into feveral toes which can perform the office of lin;^crs. " It mull be remarked, likewifo, tliat the I'cjgs of this fpecies of toads are included each in a membranous coat that is very firm, in which is contained the embryo : and that thtfe eggs, which are oblong, and about two lines in length, being faflcmd one to another by a Ihort, but very llrong cord, form a kind of chaplct, the beads of which are dillant from each other about the half of their length. It i; by drawing this cord with his paw, that the male performs the funftions of a midwife, and acquits himfelf in it witii a dexterity that one would not expedt from fo lumpilh an animal. " The prcfence of the obferver did not a little difcompofe the male : for fome time lie flopped fhort, and threw on the curious hnpirtmcnt a fixed look that marked liis difquietnefs and fear ; but he foon returned to his work with more pre- cipitation than before, and a moment after he appeared un- determined whether he fhould continue it or not. The fe- male Hkewife difcovered her uneafinefs at the fight of the ilranger, by motions that inttrrnpted fomctimes the male in his operation. At length, whether the filence and (leady pollure of the fpeflator had difllpated their fear, or tliat the cafe was urgent, the male refumed his work with the lame vigour, and fuccefsfully performed his funftion." The hideous appearance of the toad, Mr. Pennant remarks, is fuch as to have rendered it in all ages an obji.it of hirror, and the origin of mod tremendous inventions. .(Elian makes its venom fo potent, that, bafiiillc-like, it conveyed deatii by its very look and breath ; but Juvenal is content with making the Roman ladies who were weary of their hufbands, form a potion from its entrails, in order to get rid of the good man : «' Occurrit matrona potens, quae molle calenum Porreflura viro mifcet fitiente rnbetam." Sat. I. This opinion begat others of a more dreadful nature ; for in after- times fuperilition gave it preternatural powers, and made it a principal ingredient in the incantations of nofturnal hags : " Toad that under the cold (lone Days and nights ha*;, thirty-one, Swelter'd venom deeping got, Boil thou, firll i' th' charmed pot." Shakfpcare. But thefe, and other fimilar fables of its venomous pro- perties, Mr. Pennant obferves in another place, have been long fince exploded. The notion of its being a poifonous animal, he conceives to have arifen from its exceffive defor- mity, joined to the faculty it has of ernitting a juice from its pimples, and a duflcy liquid from its hind-parts. That it pofTctfes any noxious qualities, this writer was unable to bring forward proofs in the fmalleft degree fatisfaftory, though \ve have heard many ftrange relations on that point. On the contrary, he knew feveral of his friends who have taken them into their naked hands, and held llum long, without receiving the leall injury. It is well known that quacks have eaten them, and have befides fqueezed their juices into a glafs and drank them with impunity. We may alfo fay, that thefe reptiles are a common food to many BUT animals, Aich as buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers, duck.?, and fnakcs, neither of which, Mr. Pennant concludes, would touch them were they in any degree noxious. It appears, however, from the experiments of Laurcnti, that_ although the toad does not poflel's any poifonous pro- perties, it is not perfedly innoxious to the fmaller tribe of animals. He found that fmall lizards, on biting the com- mon toad, were for fome time difordercd and paralytic, and even appeared dead, tliough tiiey completely recovered after- wards, lie alio obferved, that dogs, on fcizing a toad, and carrying it for f.ime little time in their mouth, will appear to be alieCttd with a very flight fwelling of the lips, accom- panied by an increafed evacuation of faliva ; the mere cfh <£t of the .lightly acrimonious fluid wiiich tlictoad, on irritation, exudes from its flcin, and whicli Ictms at leafl to be pre duc- tive of no d.mgtrous fymptoms in fuch animals as happen to tafte or fwallow it. For a further account of this creature, fee the articlts Toad, and Rana. BUFONIA, ill Botany, faid by Dr. Smith, in Encrhfli Botany, to have liLcn fo namid by Liima:us after the cele- brated Count Buft'on at the inlligation of Sauvaj^e. but with the invidious addition of the trivial name tenuifolia, to ex- prefs the Jlendeniefs of that great zoologill's claim to a botanical honour, and with tl.e malicious omiflion of one/" in the generic name ; whence it fecms rather to be dnivid from the I-atin word Bufo which fignilies a toad. Ventenat adlualiy adopts this etymology, and lays the name was given it on account of its ijrowing in marjhy places. Dr. WTther- ing feems to have entertained the fame idea when he called it toad-grafs. Gsertntr, Schreber, Profcffor Martyn, and Dr. Smith have added the other/; but we have preferred the orig nal fptlliiig of Linnsus, which lias been followed by molt other authors. Linn. Reiehard i8o. VViUd. 260. Gaert. i;4j. Juff. p. jco. Vent. vol. iii. p. 238. - Clafs and order, telramliia (llgytila. Nat. ord. Caryobhyl- hj'., Jufs. Vent. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth four-ltavcd, ere£l, permanent : leaflets awl-(haped, keeled, membranaceous at the margin. Car. petals four, oval, eridl, equal, fliorter than the calyx. Slam, filaments four, equal, the length of the germ. An- thers twin. Pijl. germ ovate, compreffed : flyles two, the length of the flamens : Hignia fimple. PovV.'capfule oval, comprefild, one celled, two-valved. Sm/slwo, oval, com.- preii'ed with a fwtlhng, convex on one lide. EfT. Char. Ca/yx four-ltaved : />i7u/.f four: cojyfiih ow- celled, two-valved, with two feeds. Obf. It is fometimes deficient ia the number of its flamens. Species. I. B. ieiiuifulia. Linn. Sanvage Monf. 141, Ger. Prov. 400. Villars Dauph. 650. Hudfon H. Aug. 72. With. cd. 3. V. ii. p. 305. Smith H. Brit. v. i. p. 191. Ga;rt. Tab. lay. f. i. La Marck PI. 87. f. i. bad. Eng. hot. 13 13. " Stem panicled ; flowers lateral and terminal; calyx firiated." La Marck lllufh annual. Stems one or more, fix or eight inches high, ficnder, ercft, branched, round, leafy, fmooth. Leaves ereft, oppofite, awl-fhapcd, three ribbed connate, with a broad fhcathiiig bafe. Floivers white, peduncled, forming a fpikelike pani- cle. Calyx-Ienves, lanceolate, with a white edge. Germrn fupenor ; yv/ii fliort, dillant ; Jlinmas capitate, i'trt/i large and rough. A native of tlry fituations in Spain and tiie fouthern provinces of France, which invalidates Veiuenat's reafon for deriving the generic name from bufo, a toad. Its chief claim to a place in the Hnglifli Flora refls on the au- thority of Plukenet, wlio has certainly figured it, and af- ferts that it was found by the fea-fidc near Bcfton in Lin- colnfhire. On this ground Ray, who had feen it near MoiupcUier, BUG Moiiljicllicr, but not in England, admitted it into the Iccoiid edition of his Synopfis. Dillfniiis, in tiie tliird edi- tion, lavs It wai found alfo by Doody, on Hounflow heath ; but it has not fince been difcovered in either of thole places. -. B. pfiennis. La Marck Ilhif. Pi. Sy. f. 2. '• Stems branched and bearing flowers near the top ; calyx leaves fcariofe at the edge" perennial. Peduncles longer than in the preceding fpccies, forming a panicle ivitho\it the ap- pearance of a fpike. Frequent in dry llony places in Auvergne. BUFONIS, in Zoalo!;^, a fpecies of ascaris found in the intelUnca of the toad. The body of this kind is fili- form, and the tail rounded. It is viviparous. Goe's.t. Ut;roNis, a fpecies of t/f.nia, or tape worm, that in- fefts the intellines of the toad. The anterior part is roundilTi, behind fihform : head continued obtufe : joints invefted with a thin membrane, cylindrical, and oblong; margin Hlvcry. Cmcl. It is Tsenia difpar. of Goexe. Obf. The colour is white, and opake. Length of the worm fix inclies. BUFO.VITA, in Natural Hi/lory, the roADpne. This is a fodil that has been received not only among the Iill of native (lones by the generality of authors, but even has held a place among the gems, and is ilill worn in rings by fome people: it is, however, as much an extraneous foflil, as any animal remaining of that kind. There has been a ftror.g opinion in the world, that it was found in the head of an old toad ; and that this animal voided it at the mouth, on being put on a red cloth. The general colour of the bufonita is a deep, dufky brown ; but it varies greatly in this refpeft in feveral fpeci- mens, fomeof which are quite black, others of an extremely pale, fimple brown, a cheftnut colour, liver colour, black, grey, or whitirti. The bufonitac are ufually found immerfed in beds of ftone ; and fo little doubt is there of what they have originally been, I'iz. the petrified teeth of the lupus p'tfcis, or wolf filh, that part of the jaw of the fi(h has fometimes been found, with the teeth petrified in it. See Grondeur. The bufoii!t:e are faid to be cordial and aftringcnt : many other fanciful virtues are afcribed to them, which the prelent praflice has rejeAed. Dr. Kramer fays, pulv'ts bufonum, when applied by way of poultice, with barley-flour and urine, is an excellent re- medy for ripening peililential buboes, but that it has no fuch effi.A in venereal, or any other thin peililential bu- boes. BUG, in Entomology. See Cimkx. Bug, in Geography, a river of Poland, which rifes in Red Ruflia, and after a winding courfe through the centre of the kingdom, joins the Villula between Plocfko and VVarfaw. Bu G-ca/erpjl/ar, in Entomology, a name given by Bonnet to a fmall kind of caterpillar, which fmells exaftly like a bug. This is not the only fpecies which yields a fenfible fmell, for there is another which, at the time of the change into the chryfalis liate, emits a very pleafant rofc-like fcent ; and their cafes, which are made of earth and filk, retain that fmell for a long time after, even for feveral years. Many other infefts in this llate are known to have a peculiar fcent. See Larva. BUGA marble, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the Spaniards to a fpecies of black marble, called by our arti- ficers the Namur-marble, and known among the ancient Romans by the name of marmor Luculleum. It is common 1.T many parts of Europe, and is ufed by the Spaniards in 6 B IT G medicine as well as in building; the powder of it being faid to bean excellent ilvptic, apjjIitiJ to frefli wounds. BUGALET, in Sea-hm^mig^, a fm;dl veffel with two mails, ufed on the coall of Britanny. The foremall is very (liort ; and on each mall is carried a fqujre fail, and fome- times a top-fail over the main fail. Thefe veffcls have a bowfprit, aiid fot one or two jibs. BUGARONIE, Cape, in Geography, W^s on the coaft of Africa, in tlie Mediterranean, bL-tween Bugia bay on the Well, and Cape Ferra on the ealt. BUGEAT, a town of France, in the department nf the Conczc, and chief place of a canton in the dillrid of llfTcl ; the town contains 629, and the canton 601 1 inhabi- tants : the territory comprehends 507^ kiliometres and 12 communes. BUGEE, in Zoology, a fort of monkey mentioned by Ray in his Synopfis of quaclru;j';ds. He tells us it is an Indian animal, ar.d very rare even in India ; that it is about the fize of tlie beavei-, and much of the fame colour, but its tail and claws are wholly of the monkey kind. The fpecies meant by Ray is altogether uncertain. BUGELUGEY, the name of a large fpecies of lizard, called by Clufius, and fome other authors, Lacertus indicus. This is Lacerta Ame'i'va of Gmelin. See Ameiva. BUGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and middle mark of Brandenburg, 10 miles W. of Frankfort on the Oder. BUGENHAGEN, or Bugenhagius, John, in Bio- graphy, a learned proteftant divine, was born at Woliin in Pomcrania, in 14S5. From being a Catholic prieft and a violent oppofer of Luther's doftrines on their firft promul- gation, he became a convert and zealous propagator of them in the north of Germany. At Wittenberg, where he was niinifter, he was in high efteem both for his learning and moderation ; and his reputation induced Chriftiem III. king of Denmark, to invite hira for the purpofe of fettling the reformation in that kingdom. In this arduous taflc he gave great fatisfaftion. He died at Wittenberg in 1558. Of his various works the moll worthy of notice are, " Commen- taries on tlie Holy Scriptures," in feveral volumes, 8vo. a " Harmony of the Evangelills," and a " Hillory of Pome- rania." Nouv. Dift. Hift. Mofiieim, E. H. vol. iv. p. 304. BUGEY, in Geography, a province or fmall dillridl of France, before the revolution, bordered on the eaft by Savoy, on the fouth by Dauphiny, on the weft by Breffe, and on the north by Franche Comte, and dependant on the government of Burgundy. It is about 20 leagues long, and 12 broad. Its capital is Belley. Before the time of Brennus, the Bugey, the traft of land denominated Gex, and part of Breffe, formed a dillind country; which is termed by Polybius the " Celtic Delta," in allufion to its triangular form. M. Peter I. I. Bacon-Tacon m his " Re- cherches fur les Origines Celtiques, &c." Paris, 1799, traces the primitive hillory of Bugey to the firll ages of the world, and thinks that its mountains retain their original form ; being a continuation of mount Jura, which i& itfelf clofely conneaed with the Alps, He alfo endeavoure to prove, that the worlhip of Ifis was, from time immemorial, eftablidied in the Bugey ; and that the topographical nomen- clature of the county is ftill in a manner entirely " Ifiac." He is inclined, likewife, to fuppofe, that the inhabitants of this dillnft, 60c years before our a;ra, accompanied Bellov- efus, from the firft part of whofe name is derived Belley, on his memorable expedition into Italy, where he founded the cities of Cremona, Vicenza, Aquiltja, Pavia, Mantua. &c. rrom various concurring circuraftances this author BUG alfo concludes, that the Rhodians, about 300 years before Clirill, founded a colony on the Biij^cy, and on the au- thority of Phny and Eufebius, he affumes that they gave their name to the river Rhone. He farther fuggefts, from fome names that occur in Biigey, that fome intercourfe for- merly fubfilled between this country and England ; and tliat the Gauls peopled our ifland, and founded the cities of London and Dover. BUGGANZ, Baka-Banva, or Bukanetz, a royal, free, and mine town of Hungary, in the Bath dillrift, formerly fambus for its gold and fdver mines, but now fub- filling by tillage. It was facked and burnt by the Turks in 1664 ; J 2 miles W. of Gran. BUGGARD, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Funen, 16 miles W. of Odenfc, or Ottenfee. BUGGENHAGH, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of cypri- Nus, dillinguifhed, according to Bloch, by having nineteen rays in the anal fin. The length of this fifh is about twelve or fourteen inches : the body is of a blackifh colour above : comprelTed on the fides, and filvery fcales large : flelh white. This fort 13 fo«nd in the lakes of Germany and Sweden. BUGGERS, Bulgarii, anciently fignified a kind of he- retics, otherwife called Pater'mi, Cathari, and /llbigenfes. The word is formed of the French Bbugres, which figni- fied the fame, and that from Bougr'ta or Bulgaria, the coun- try where they chiefly appeared. The Buggers are mentioned by Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry HI. under the name of Bugares. Circa dies autem illos invaluil hitrelica pravitas eorum qui vulgariter di- cuntur Paterini tf Bugares, de quorum erroribus malo tacere qiiam loqui. BuGGKR, or BuGGERER, Came afterwards to be ufed for a Sodomite ; it being one of the imputations laid, right or wrong, on the Bulgarian heretics, that they taught, or at lead praftifed, this abominable crime. Cafen. Orig. p. 27. Menag. Orig. p. 114. Trev. Dift. Univ. torn. i. p. 1149. voc. Bougre. Du-Cange, Gloff. Lat. tom. i. p. C37. voc. Bulgari. Bugger, Bu/garius, is alfo a denomination given to ufurers, a vice to which the fame heretics are faid to have been much adifted. Du-Cange, GlolT. Lat. tom. i. P- 6j7. BUGGERY, in our Laws, fignifies the crime of fodomy ; It is faid to have been introduced into England by the Lom- bards, by whom it is ufually fiippofed to have been borrowed from ihe Bougres, or Bulgarians. Sir Edward Coke defines buggery, carnalis copula contra naiuram, et hoc per cunfufioncm fpecierum (viz. by a man's or woman's coupling with a brute bead) velfexuum, by a man's having to do with a man, or a woman with a woman. The dehcacy of the Englifh law treats this crime, in its very indiftments, as not fit to be named, " peccatum illudhor- ribile, inter Chrijlianos non nomiitandum." Rot. Pail. jo. Edw. III. n. 58. A fimilar taciturnity was obferved by the edidl of Conftantius and Conftans. Cod. 9. 9.31. This crime the voice of naturs and of reafon, and the ex- prefs law ot God (Lev. xx. 13. 15.) determine to be capital. Of this we have a fignal inllance long before the Jevvifh dif- penfation, in the deltrudlion of two cities by fire from hea- ven ; fo that this is an univerfal, not merely a provincial precept. Our ancient law in fome degree imitated this pu- nilhment, by commanding fuch mifcreants to be burnt to death (Brit. c. p.) ; though Fleta (1. i.e. 37.) fays/ they fhould be buried alive ; either of which punifhments was indifferently ufed for this crime among the ancient Goths. Stieni. de jure Goth. 1. 3. c. 2. But now the general pu- BUG nilhment of all felonies is the fame, namely by hanging : and this oflcnce (being in the times of popery only fiibjtil to ccclefiailical cenfures) was made felony without benefit of clergy by ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 6. revived and confirmed by 5 Eliz. c. 17. And the rule of law is, that if both are arrived at years of difcretion, agcutes et corifcniiniles pari pana pkdantur. 3 Inft. 59. If the perfon on wiioni it is committed be a boy under the age of difcretion (generally reckoned at fourteen), it is then felony only in the agent. All perfons prefent, aiding and abetting in this crime, are principals ; and the llatutcs make it felony generally. There may be acecflaries before and after the faft ; but they are not, like principals, excluded from benefit of clergy, i Hale's Hill. P. C. 670. In every indiftment for this offence, there muft be the words, '■^ rem hahuil vencream et carnaliter cognovit. Sec." By the articles of the navy (art. 29. flat. 22 Geo. II. c. 3j.), this crime, committed by any perfon in the fleet, is punilhed with death by the fentence of a court- martial. Buggery is ufually excepted out of our afts of general pardon. This " crime againfl nature,'' fays judge Blackftone (vol.iv. p. 21 j.), ouglit to be ilriflly and impar- tially proved, and then as ftritUy and impartially punidied. But it is an offence of fo dark a nature, fo eafily charged, and the negative fo difficult to be proved, that the accufa- tion fliould be clearly made out ; for, if falfe, it deferves a punifiiment inferior only to that of the crime itfelf. Threats of charging perfons with this crime, or aftual accufations, are methods to which the profligate frequently recur for the purpofe of extorting money, which is an aft of felony. BUGGESSES, in Geography. See BoNi, and BouGl- NESE. BUGIA, or BoujEiAH, a large fea-port town of Afri- ca, in the kingdom of Algiers, and province of Contlan- tina. It is built upon the ruins of a large city, the fup- pofcd Saldse of Strabo, conftrufted by the Romans at the foot of a high mountain that looks towards the north-eafl : a great part of the walls runs up to the fummit of the mountain, where is a caftle that commands the place, befidcs two others at the bottom, built for a fecurity to the port. It is one of the garrifoned towns of the kingdom, where three fuffrahs continually refide ; but though the garrifon confifts of from two to three hundred men, it is not fufficient to overawe and prevent the depredations of the Kabyles, who difturb the town on every market-day, and are guilty of unfufferable rapine and barbarity. The town is watered by a large river, called by Marmol and Dapper, " Huet el Quibir," or the '• great river," which is fuppoftd to be the " Nafava" of Ptolemy, as it difcharges itfelf into the fea a little to the eaftward, after having received a great number of rivulets. The harbour, called by Strabo the port of Sarda, or rather Salda, is formed by a narrow neck of land, that runs out into the fea ; a great part of which was for- merly faced with hewn ftone. Over this was condufted an aquaeduft for fupplying the port with water, by difcharg- ing it into large bafons ; but the well, aquseduft, and bafons are deftrayed : and the tomb of Seedy Bufgrte, one of the tutelar faints of the place, is the only thing remaining worth notice. Bugia is a populous place ; and the inhabitants carry on a coiifiderablc trade in plough-fliares, mattocks, and fuch utcnfils, which they inanufafture of the iron fupplicd by the adjacent mines. The Kabyles likewife furnilh every market with great quantities of oil, wax, and dried figs, which are (hipped off for the Levant, and fometimesfor Eu- rope. They alfo fupply foap and timber fit for building. N. lat. 36° 35'. E. long. 5° 20'. BUGIE, a fea.port town of Egypt, on the well coaft of the Red fea, nearly oppofite to Sidon, the port town of Mecca» BUG Mfcca, ind a1)00t J7 leagues weft of it. N. lat. 2i' rj'. E. ImiJJ. -yS" 40'. BUGINVILLiEA, in Bolany (named by Commcrfon in honour of Roupainvillc, the celebrated French circumna- vigator). Willd. 767. Jnff. 91. Clafs and ordtT, oflWWa tnono^niii. ^3\.. orA. Nydiigints, Jufl. Gcn. Char. Lnlyx none. Cord, tubular, a little fwelling at the bafc, and contraftcd about the middle, permanent, four-toothed. Filaments eight, inferted on the receptacle (horttr than the corolla. Gcimen fuperior, oblong. Per'uarj> one- fcfded. Species, V>.fpiaabilis, I.a Marck, lUtift. PI. 2y+. A beau- tiful evergreen flirub. Sitm armed with recurved prickles placed a little above the axils of the leaves. Leaves alter- nate, petiolcd, roundidi-ovatc, acuminate, very entire, veined. Panicle terminal ; peduntlrs thne-flowered. Flo-wer inferted on the midrib of a nnindilh brafle, rL-fenibling a Kaf, and Linger than the flower, fciittd on the c<'mmoii pe- duncle, and adhcrinc: to the bottom of the corolla. A na- tive of Brazil dcfcribtd and figured from a dried fpecimcn fcft hv Commcrfon. nUGLANEH, in Ceo^mphy. See Baglasa. BUGLAS. f,:e IjJunrloj-'Ht.c.t.oYs. BUGLE, in Lolany. See AjuGA. Bugle, among Sfiorlfmen, formed probably from the Saxon kiigen, to bend, denotes a hunting-horn. In Heraldry, the hugle-horn is generally borne ftringed and garniflied j which circumllance mull be mentioned in the bla/.on. Bi'ci.F, is alfo ufed for a (liining bead of black glafs. BUGLIO, in Geo;;rapl>y, a town of SwifTerland, in the Valttline. N. lat. 46''. E. long, ^f 40'. BUGLOSS, in B'lany. Sec Anchusa. Bug LOSS, common blue -jiprrs. See Echium Tulgnrc. liuCLOSs, cou'jlips. Sec PuLMONARiA officinalis. Bug LOSS, ivild vipers. See Echium Italicum. B u g L o s s , fmall 'wild vipers. SeeAsPERUGO pmcumbens . BuGLOSS, yi-.t. See PuLMONARiA maritiiiia. BUGLOSSA, Bnmf. "1 BuGLOSSA //S&/;. Trajr. y rag. BuCLOSSA lon^ipilia. Cord. ( SccAnchusA officinalis. J)' GLOSSA vulgaris. Ger. Em, BuGLOSSA iirbana. Cord. See Borago rfficinalis. ]iv GLOSS A fylve/lris minor. Ray. Ger. Em. See Ly- COPSis arvenjis. BUGLOSSUM, a genus inftituted by Toiu-nefort, the fpeciis of which have been dillrbuted by Linn^us and his followers among the genera lilhofpermiim, anchufa, and ly- copfis. It has been rcviv.d by Gairtner with the follow- ing effential character : " Calyx five-parted ; corolla fun- nel Ihap^d, orifice clofed with arched fcales ; ilamens five ; llyle one ; nuts four, one-celled, perforated at the bafe." BuGLOSSUM orientate Jlore luleo. Tourn. See Litho- sftRMUM orientale. BuGLOssuM Samium frutefcens. Tourn. See Litho- f p E R M u M friilictfum. Bug LOS SUM Ckium arvcnfe. Tourn. See Lithosper- MUM lemiijlorum . BuGLOssuM Germanicum. Fuchf. "7 p a it r> ,■ I a ■ ■ ( See Anchusa cffi- DVGOSSVM Jylve/tre niajus nigrum. > . ,. -" Bauh. I in. J '"""• BoGLOssuM Crelicum. Boerh. See AsCHUSA angujli- BvcLOiSVM an:;ii/lifolinm minus, Bauh. Pin. Morif. See A N c H u s A an^ujli folia. BuGLOssu'i foliis litt^uiformilus. Hal. excl. Syn. See .'\nchusa Italica. BUG "Riiz^-Oiswi pfrcniu magisjii/i'uum. Morii. See Anchu- SA Ilalica. . -n y -n- c A BvaLOS^ivM angiijli/olium mq/us. iiauh. 1 in. 6te An- onus A Iliilica. ?,\] GLOi&v t.\ vuig.ire majiis. Bauh. liitt. See Anchusa I: alien. BuCLOSsuM Lujilanicuin. Tourn. See Anchusa undw BuGLOssuM laiifolium fempervireru. Bauh. Pin. Mor. See A N c H trs A fcmperi'irens . BuGLo.qsuM, Fuchf. See Boraoo o/^WW;.-. BuGLOssuM laiifolium, borrago, Bauh. Pin. See Bo- rago officinalis. hv3i.o:,svM J\!-je/Ire, caulibiis frocumbcruibus. Bauh. Pin. See A s p F. R u C O procumbcns. Buglossum procumbens. Morif. See Lycopsis 'ucfi- caria. B\j Gl.0S!.v yi Jylve/Irc majus. Bauh. Pin. SeeLvcoPSis pulla. B 0 G-LOSiv t.\ ai!n:iiim f>umi!e. Morif. See Lycopsis tj- ricgala. "\},v CLQS%v yi fylvejlre miims. Bauh. Fin. See Lycopsis arvenfis. Buglossum Africanum. Pluk. See Echium fruti^ cofinn. Bv Ghossv M lamigirio/vm. Rumph. See Tournefortia argentca. Buglossum eclioides. Lob. See Picris echioides. Buglossum iutoreum. Rumph. See Sc^evola lobelia. Buglossum orientals angujlifolium, Jlore parvo cicrulco. Tourn. is quoted by Linnscus for his lycopfts orienlalis, a fpe- cies which he feenis to have formed for it : as he gives no other fynonym, and had probably never feen the plant. Willdenow refers it to his anchiifa parviflora, a new fpccies introduced by himfelf, and defcribed from a dried fpecimen, with no fynonym but this of Tournefort ; and very incon- fiflently infcrts alfo the lycopfis orientalis of Linmus, and the fame fynonym, without a comment. The plant of Liu- nxus is defcribed with ovate leaves, that of Willdenow with linear ones ; in other refpcfts there is no inconiiftence in the fpecific charafters. EUGLOSSUS, in Ichthyology, one of the names of the common fole, pleiironedcs J'vlea, which fee. BUGNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Pyrenees, and dillridt of Orthes, i league N.E. of Navarreins. BUGUE, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift of Sar- lat, 4 leagues S.W. of Montignac. The town contains 2475, ''"'i ''^^ canton 81 19 inhabitants; the territory in- cludes TQyi kiliometres, and 12 communes. BUGULA, m Botany. See Ajuga, andCLEONlA. Bugula orientalis •villofa. Tourn. See AjUG.\ orienlalis, BvGvi..\ altina maxima. Tourn. 7 o a i.- ■n r v • T) L f See Ajuga awtna. iivGVLAjolw maxima. Bcerh. J Hv GUh A folis amrulofss. Hall. 7 n a r -p ,0- > See AivGA geneven/.s. Bugula monlana. Riv. j j a ./ Bugula. Dod. 7 o A ■D n -i-r Tj I r tjee AivGAreptans. iiVGVL A Jliigilifera. Hal. J j " i' V>VGVLA foliis iinis linearibus. Hal.7 See AjuGA chamn- Bugula chamccpites. Scop. J pitys. Bugula odurata lujitanica. Corn. Morif. See Cleg- nia lujitanica. BUGULM, or BuGULMiNSK, in Geography, a town and diftrift of Ruffia, in the government of Ufa, le:ited on the Bugulm, a rivulet that falls into the Ik ; 112 miles W. of Ufa. BUGURUSLANK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment B U I ment of Ufa, featod on the Kind j 14S mllc« W.S.W. of Ufa. BUGUTCHANI, a town of Slbciia, 168 miles E. of Eiiiloiil<. BUHEL, or Buhl, a town of Germany, in tlie circle of Swabia, and margraviate of Baden, 6 miles S.W. of Ba- den-B>iden. / BUHLITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up- per Saxony and Farther Pomerania. BUI, a town of Ruflia, in a diflricl of the fame name, pel taininp to the government of Koltroma, feated on the river Koliroma, at its jiinftion with the river Vara. Bui, a river of RufTia, which joins the Kama near Mu- levo. BUIE, a ftrong town of lllria, belonging to the ftates of Venice, the refidence of a governor ; 9 miles S. of Capo d'Iftria. BUILDING, Art of. The art of building is, perhaps, the moll ancient of all arts ; clothing is rejeft(:d or difpenfed with by fome favages, and in fome favoured climates the arts of procuring food are rendered almoft uiuieccifary by the un- folicited bounty of nature ; but we are acquainted with no people that do not form dwellings, places ot (helter and fecu- rity during the night, of alfembly to the family, and ftore- houfes of the property, however trifling, that none are with- out. It is not even confined to man ; birds, beails, and in- feftshave their architefture ; but their modes, infpired by inllinft, are invariable as the operations of nature; to man alone is given the principle of improvement. The forms and methods of building depend effentially on the nature of the materials furiildied by the country, and the ftate of fociety among its inhabitants ; and, accordingly, nations very remote in fituation, and dillant in time, have re- fembled one another in thefe particulars. Vitruvius relates that the Colchians, in the kingdom of Pontus, where they abound in forefts, fix trees in the earth clofe together in ranks to the right and left, leaving as much fpaee between them as the length of the trees will permit ; upon the ends others are laid tranfverfely, which enclofe the fpace for habi- tation in the middle ; then at the top the four angles are braced together with alternate beams, and the roof is alfo formed by beams laid acrofs from the extreme angles gra- dually converging, and rifing from the four fides to the mid- dle point at the top, and then covered over with boughs and loam. The interlhces which remain in the walls, on account of the coarfenefs of the materials, are ftopped with chips and loam. The reader will obferve how accurately this paffage defcribes the log-houfes of the American back- fettlers. On the other hand, the Piirygians (continues Vitruvius) who inhabit a champaign country, dellitute of timber, feleft little natural hills, excavate them in the middle, dig an entrance, and widen the fpace within as much as the nature of the place will permit ; above they fix ftakes in a pyramidal form, and cover them with reeds or draw, heaping thereon great piles of earth. This kind of covering renders them very warm in winter and cool in furamer. The habi- tations of the Phrygians thus defcribtd, appear to refemble very nearly the fubterraneous dweUings of the Samoyedes and Grcenlanders. The kind of cabin, however, moft frequently found among barbarous nations, is of a conical fhape, formed by branches of trees interlacing one another, and meeting in a point at the fummit, their exterior furface being covered with reeds, or leaves, or clay. Such are the vvigwams of the North American Indians, and the kraals of the Hottentots and Caffrees. But to proceed to civilized nations. The edifices of the Egyptians, which are regarded as the earliell monuments of Vol. V. B U I wrnujfht ftonf, are alfo the moft diftinguidted in that method. The immense quarrita of Egypt probably infpired the talle, as they furniflied the material's, while the periodical overflows of the Nile facilitated their tranfport. Thus favoured by- nature, the energetic irduiliy of the ancient Egyptians de- lighted in every thing wonderful and gigantic ; the pyramids, immortf.l as the country, proud tombs which have long out- lived the memory of the mighty kings whofe aflies they contain ; granite temples, extenfive as towns, and laboured as cabinets, temples which enclofe in their courts, crfupport ujjon their roofs villages of the modern inhabitants ; mile long avenues of fphinxes, colofl"al flatvies, and obdiflts. The art of building, among the Egyptians, was reduced to the iimpleft principles ; unacquainted with arches, the doorways and other openings were covered with folid lintels, and the temples roofed with maffy flabs, the walls, columns, and en- tablatures were formed of ftoncs of the largell fize, perfeftly ' vyroiight, and laid in horizontal courles, without cement or ligatures ; tlie walls were of tnormous thicknefs, and generally diminifliing upwards, with a regular flope, in the manner of fortifications. The paflige within the great jiyramid is roofed in a lingular manner with courfesof Hones projcfting over one another, hke inverted dtps, till they meet at the fummit ; thus flicwing a method of celling with (lone which may be regarded as intermediate between the ufe of lintels and of arches. Some of the tombs alfo prcfent examples of vaults hollowed in the folid rock, and of niches. So far, and, according to our prefent information, no farther did the Egyptians proceed towards the difcovery of arches. But we expeft with impatience the account to be publifhed by the National Inftitute of France, when accurate meafure- ments, correft drawings, and minute refearch, conduced under all the advantages of leifure and protedlion, will re- place the hafty flcetchesand imperfeft remarks of individuals, who, though deferving of applaufe and gratitude for having done fo much, under circumllances of danger and difcourage- ment, have left Hill more to be defired. The fize of the mafles of ilone employed in thefe conftruclions is altogether allnnifliing, and dlfplays mechanical fl fqiiare containing 100 fuperficial feet). The regulations for. thefe are, cap. 3 and 4, that all the external walls fliall be built, at the foundation, of the thicknefs of two bricks and a half, or i\\ inches, thence to dimiuilh gradually 2^ inche» BUILDING. i:: hcl.cj on each fiJc to the top of the footing, which is to be an pine incl.es liigb. and two inclies btlow the furface of the wall ,avin^ or flooring of the cdh.r ilory ; thence, the wall is to ' e carried up two bricks, or i]h inches in thicknels to the under fide of the one pair of Hairs floor, and thence, w the thicknefs of one brick and a half, or 13 inches np to tl'C under fide of the plate under the roof or iJUUer ; and thence, .he parapet is to be built in the thicknefs of one brick, or 8-' inches, with the exception of fuch parts of the wall as Jhall be wholly of Hone, which may be of the tluckncls ot J 4 indies below the ground floor, and nine inches above. The p.irlv tcnl/s of ilie fame buildings are to be built at the .foundation three bricks and a half, or two feet fix inches and a half in thicknels ; thence to dimhudi gradually 4! incnes on each fide to the top of the fooling, which mull be one foot hi>;h, and iwoinch ,^ b, low the cellar floor; thence, the wall is to be built in the ihickntfs of two bricks and a half, or one fo.irn. Mil. Icon. See IlIA BCLBOCODIUM. BULBOUS roots, in Gardening, are fuch roots as are compofcd of bulbs, and which differ effentially from the tu- B U L herous roots, which confift of an entire folid f!e(hy fubdance. Under this head are comprehended fomc efcnlent plants, fuch as garlick, onions, leaks, fhallots, S:c. and a numerous train of flowerv plants, moftly herbaceous perennials, pro- ducing beautiful flowers, many of them being hardy enough to fucceed in beds and borders in the open ground, a/id others in the (love or greenhoufe. The principal of the flowery ttibe belong to the following genera : the amaryliis, including the Guerniey lily, bella-donna lily, Jacobea lily, &c. ; nare'ifus, or daffodil, including jonquils, hyacinths, tulip, fritularia, and crown imperial I'llium, or common lily, including maitagons ; orniihogalum, or ftar of Beth- lehem ; galanthus, or the fnow-drop ; leucojum, or great fnow-drop ; fc'illa, or fea onion ; eolckicum, or meadow faf- fron ; alhuca, or baftard ftar of Bethlehem ; mufcaria, or mulk and grape hyacinth ; Iris, the bulbous and perfian ; haevianthus, or blood flower; allium, or moly; crocus, in- cluding fpring and autumn kinds ; biilhocodium, and pancra- tium, or fea daffodil. The different fpecics and varieties of which are feen under their refpeftive genera. Bulbous roots may in fait be faid to be annual or bien- nial, as the fame individual root lalls for a certain time only, in fome, not more than a year after having attained a flower- ing lla'ik ; in others, longer, as previous to their diffo!ution, they afford from their fiSes a fupply of fuckers or offsets to perpetuate the refpcclive kinds, fo that at the end of many years, what is (lill often conlidered as the fame individual root, is in reality another. All bulbous rooted plants re- new their leaves and flov/er ftems annually ; and their prin- cipal feafons for flowering are at different tim.cs during the fpring and fummer months, fome producing their flowers at one time, and their leaves at another, as in fome fpccies of amarvllis and colchicum ; others produce their flowers and leaves together, as in the hyacinth, tulip, narciffcis ; and the leaves and flower ftems of all the forts perifli annually at a certain period after flowering, after which time, the root becomes in a ftatc of maturity in refpeft to its growth for a few wet- ks, in which new fibres are prepared for the future plant. This is the proper time to remove the roots, either to ftparate the offsets for propagation for plantiiig the roots in frelh prepared earth, or for removing thtm to any other part of the garden or other ground. And, likewile, ior preferving the bulbs out of ground for autumn and fpnng planting, when the beds or borders can be more conve- niently prepared for their reception ; for moft forts taken up at this period mnv be kept out of ground feveral months ; or if occafion require, fome forts admit of being kept out of the ground from the time of the flowers and leaves de- caying, until the following fpring, as is often praftifed when intended tor fpring planting, to obtain a longer fuc- ceflion of blooms by fucceeding the autumn plantation. Bulbous roots m.ay, however, remain fevcra! years iipre- moved, and when greatly increafed by offsets be onlv taken up at the proper period to ftparate the increafed progeny, and replanted again ss may be receffary. It is, however, particularly nectffary to take up all the choice kinds of bul- bous roots annually to feparate the offsets for increafe, as well cs to prepare the earth of the beds and borders afrefli, to promote the beauty and merit of the fucceeding year's bloom, efpecially for the curious tulips, hyaci:iths, narcif- fuffes, &c. The more inferior forts of bulbous loots (houid alfo be removed every other, or as often as their offsets are confiderably increafed in number, which, if permitted to re- main fo long as to increafe into large bui ches, cramp each other in growth, and produce fmall ill uouriflied flowers of little beauty. All the bulbous roots which have been taken up at the above B U L B U L above period in fummcr, ftionld be cliiefly planted, wliore pradlicable, again in the foUouiiip; autumn, about Oclober or November, as tliey flower mucii ftrongcr than when kept out of the ground till the fpring fcafon. Tlic Rev. Mr. Marfliali, in liis work on gardening, how- ever, direrts that autumn flowering bulbs, when their leaves are decayed, fliould be taken up in May, and that none of the kinds remain too long without bcnig taken up, as they are liable to be cramped and confined in their growth, and ofcourfe decline in their beauty. It is recommended as the beft praif^ice with flowering bulbs, to plant the fpring kinds in the beginning of the au- tumn, as in the latter end of Stptember, or beginning of the following month ; and tliofe of the fummer flowering forts in OAobcr, or the fuccetding month ; and thofe of the autumn blow in the latter part of July, or in the follow- ing month ; too early and too late planting being equally to be avoidt^d, as when put in too foon, they are hable to be im- paired by being too forward when the winter and early fpring proves fevere, and wh.en delayed too long they are apt previoufly to exhauft thenifeives by forming new root fibres. Bulbous roots of the laminated kinds,, fuch as lilies, flioufd not be kept out of the foil longer than fix or eight weeks ; the fummer flowering forts being ftt at feparate periods in the autumn, and in the beginning of the year be- fore the latter end of February, fo as to produce a proper fucccfTion of flowers. With others of the fame nat-nre, this method is alfo com- mon, but they fliould have dry iandy foils in order to Hand the winter without rotting, where there happens to be much wet, fucceeded by fevere trolls. In thele cafes, the protec- tion of mats and the haulm of peas may often be found ufe- ful. When bulbous roots have remained in the ground longer tlian the proper period, fo as to have fl:ruck out new roots, they fliould always be removed with bulbs of earth, as where this is not attended to, they grow weak. On this account, the exaft period for removal fliould be attended to with great care. ITie offsets of bidbous roots (hould in general be put into the ground a ccnfiderable time before the periods of planting out the full fizcd roots : thofe from laminated bulbs nioftly requiring to be immediately planted. The foil moll adapted to the growth of bulbous roots, in genera], is that of a fandy loam where there is no ilagna- tion of moillure below ; many forts of thefe roots are not however very difficult in this refpeft, provided there be not an over proportion of moillure. The ground for them (hould be prepared by digging it to the depth of fix, eight, or ten inches, or more, reducing it well in the operation. After this has been done, it fliould remain a week or ten days before they are put in to become perfeftly fettled. In regard to the difpofal of thefe roots in planting, it is generally for the more large and curious forts in beds a little rounded, of three or four feet in width according to circum- llanccs; or in patches in the common borders, for the fmaller kinds, in clufters of three, four, or five together, according to their growth. With the large forts, fuch as the white orange lilies, crown imperial, &c. one in a place is fuffi- cient. The roots of fancy flowering bulbs when planted in beds, are ufually put in rows, eight or more inches apart, and from five to leven inches dillant, in proportion to their growth. Some prefer lefs room ; but where a (Irong blow is required, thefe diftances are not too great. Hyacinths fhould in general have the fpace of feven or eight inches, and tulips eight or nine, though it is often the practice to allow the former not more than five or fix inches. The depths of fitting roots of the bulbous kinds, are, in general, according to their fi/.cs or growths, as three or four inchei from their upper parts. ]?ut fomc forts, as the crown im- perial, and crocus, will rife from a confiderablc depth, as fix inches or more, and others from flilt greater, which has induced fomc perfons to plant them to f'.ich depths as are fiiPieient to prevent their being injured by digging over the furface ground; but in thefe cafes, ihcy mull be liable to rot in wet feafon;. Different methods are employed in planting bulboui roots, as thofe of putting them in by the dibble, and in drills drav.n by a hoe. The latter is in general to be pre- ferred, as thty arc apt to lie hollow in dibbling, while bj placing them in a drill, they may be gently prcffcd into the foil, and be perfcftly covered up. When they are fet in the bed;;, the bell method is to draw off the mould to a fuf- ficient depth to one fide, leaving the furface perfcftly level, watering it a little in dry fealons, and then forming it into proper fquares, placing a bulb in the middle of each, cover- ing them with the mould drawn off, fo as to leave thi. bulb* in an upiight pofition. After the bulbs have bctn put into earth, if the weather continue very dry, a little water fliould be fprinkled over the beds or other places, to forward their vegetation, and prevent their rotting. Some protec- tion is neceffary in raifing the more curious forts of thefe roots, as before they appear during the winter, the beds fhould be fliehered from too much wet, in order to guard againll the eftlds of froll. And when they firft; prefent thenilelves above the ground, they fl'.ould have the protec- tion of an awning of cloth, mats, or other contrivances, in the nights when the weather is fevere ; but they fliould not remain on in the day time, when it is tolerable. Some fort of covering of the fame fort is alfo neceffary when they are in blow to fliield them from the fun and rain, and continue them much longer in a perfeft Hate of flowering. There is a method of getting fpring flowering bulbs for- ward, which is by fetting them in pots or glaffcs for the purpofe, in warm rooms, or in moderate hot beds, as by thele means, they flower in winter. The hyacinth and nar- ciffus, as well as ieveral others, may be managed in this way with facility. Thefe fliould be placed in pots of light d:y fandy earth in autumn, as about the beginning of OSobcr, water being cccafionally given. They may likewife be put into glaffes at the fame period, and occafionally every three or four weeks, till the latter end of February, in order to have them flower in fucccffion. In this method the bottom of the bulbs (hould be jull immerged in the water, which fliould be renewed once a week, or oftencr, fo as to keep it conllantly up to the bottom of the bulbs. Soft water is the befl; for this pnrpofe. The blow isfaid, by Mr. Marfliali, to be conliderably llrengthencd, by diflolving a portion ofnitre> about the fize of a pta, in the water each time it is changed.- Befides the raifing of flowers from root-bulbs in thefe modes there are fome produced from little bulbs, forced oa the fides of the top parts of the fttms, as in the bulbiferous lily. Thefe fliould be taken off about Augull, and after being dried a little in the fun, planted out in rows in the nurfeiy in the fame manner as the offsets. By thefe means the various bulbous-rooted plants may be continued ; but, in order to produce new varieties, recourfe mull be had to feed, which (hould be carefully faved, when fully ripened, from the beft and moft curious flowets ; and which, after having been hardened a little in the fun, (houlJ be fown in boxes of light rich earth, fetting them in (hekered funny fituations, but not under covers. This is ufually done about the latter end of Auguft, or beginning of the following month, the feeds of hyacinths, tulips, and other large forts, being covered to the depth of nearly an inch. A little B V L li:tlf water flioulJ be occafionnlly given, when tlic f;afon is dry, to keep tlie foil moill, but not \va. Tlie feeds may be profcc'kcd till they come up by u little covcr-iig of fomc kind of IliMwy innteriai. Other fouiiigs may be made in Lurch, or t!i^ following morth, the boxes being brought ii:lo fouthern expofures, where there is only the morning fuii, towards M.iy. Tiie young fetdliug plants (hould be jroteded in fevere and frully weather, and where there is ij-.uch rain, by means of mats, hoops, and reed hurdles, or other contrivarces, to break off the north-call wi-.ds. 'i he young plants fliould likewife be kept properly thinned out, and perfectly free from weeds ; and when the (Icius decay. a little mould fliould be put upon them to the thicknefs of |}alf an inch. In the following fummer when the leaves de- cay, as about Augu'.l, they Ihould be planted out into nur- sery beds at the diftance of two or three inches, according to the kinds. Some forts, as the hyacinth and tulip, le- guire to be re:novcd from this into another nurfery bed, as (oon as their tops decline, and fet at )ix inches dillance ; or it is probably a better praClice to thin them out to this dif- tance in the firll beds. After thi^ they are to be managed as blowing plants. Thele foru of roots of plants blow at different lenjths of time after being raifed ; lome in the following year, and others not till feveral years afterwards, as will be exphined under the culture of each of the different forts. The bulbous rooted plants conftitute fnme of the mod lliowy and ornamtr.tal flowers of the beds, clumps, and borders of the garden and pleafure ground, affording conli- derable variety from their bUnving at different periods during the early fpring, fummer, and autumnal feafons. BUL.CARD, in Iihthyolo^^y, a name under which Willaghby defcribes Blenn'ms pholis, the fmooth Blenny ; a fifli found on the Cornifh and other coafls. BULCKAU, or BuLKA, in Gcogri'ply, a town of Germany, in the arch-duchy of Audria, feated on a river of t''.e fame name, which runs into the Taya, 4 miles W. of Laab ; the town is diHant one mile W. from Schrattentaal. BULDAT, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 20 miles E. of Baidad. BULDURUISKOI, a town of Siberia; 133 miles E.S.E. of Kcrtchinflc. BULEPHORUS, in the court of the eaftern empe- rors, was the fame officer wichyj/mm^ rci ration alis. BULEUT7E, in the cities of Greece and Alia, were the fame wit'; \.\\c decunoiics at Rome. Calv. Lex. Jur. p. 128. See Decurio. The word has been fometimes alfo ufed to aenoicfi-iifit'irs. See StNATOR. BULEUTERIA, 'linXrfi,;^ix, in Girdan Jntijni/y, ipuh- lic halls at Athens, where companies of tradefmen affembled to deliberate on commercial concerns. Trade was much encouraged in this city : and if any one ridiculed it, he was liable to an adion of llander. Solon himftlf was engaged in merchandize ; the founder of the city Maifiiia was a mer- chant ; Thales, and Hippocrates the mathematician, traded; and Plato fold oil in Egypt. Under the Roman empire, the fenate, or general council of Grecian cities, was called Bule" from BaXri, co.-i/i/ium : its members were denomi- naied " Buleuts," and the place where it met at Syracufc, " Buleuterium." BULUNCH'S Harbour, in Geo^raphs', lies on the north- weft coaft of North America, in N. lat. 46° O' 5o". W. long. 123° 7' 30". -T J 0 BULGANAC, a river on the fouth-weft coail of the Crimea, in the Black Sea, falling into the fca in N. lat. 44° j8'. E. long. 34° 30'. B U L Bl'LGAR, a mountain of AJiatic Turkey, in the pvo- vinco of Carannnia ; 30 miles S. of Cogni. BULGARIA, Grf.at, the name given by fome geo- graphers to a province of Alia, in Ruffian Tartary, fituated btvond the Volga, on the b-anks of the rivers Kama, Bic- laia, and Samara, but now incorporated into the dominions of Ruffla, and forming part of the government of Caucafus. Ita ancient capital was Bulgar, Beloger, Belgard, or Bor- gard, which lay 30 verfts below the mouth of the Kama, and 5 from the Volga ; but according to other accounts the Volgi flowed by the town. Borgard was firll ravaged by the Tartars i;i 11,34, and in ijco entirely dellroyed by the Ruffians. See Bulgarians. Bulgaria, Lltth, a province of European Turkey, bounded on the north by the Danube and Walachia, on the eafl by the Black fea, on the fouth by Mount Hsmus, which feparated it from Romania and Macedonia, and on the weft by Servia. It was formerly called the Lower Myfia, but derives its prefent name from the Bulgarians, by whom it was occupied. Its extent is about 280 miles in length and 180 in breadth. The country in general is mountainous, but the pbins and valleys, waftied by the Danube and rivers that flow into it, are rich and fertile, and produce corn and wine in great abundance. Its ancient capital was Ternowa, but its kings principally relided at Nicopoli ; but its prefent capital is Sophia. It now forms a part of the Ottoman empire. The inhabitants are moftly Chriftians of the Greek church, ignorant and fuperllitions, having one patriarch and three archbilliops, fubjeft to the avithority of the patriarch of Conftantinople. Tliey are in- termixed, however, with Turkifli Mahometans and Jews. Their language is the Sclavonic, (which fee,) but in pro- nunciation differing little from the Servian. The country is divided by the Turks into four Sangiakftiips, viz. thofe of Bidin or Widin, Sardic comprehending Sophia, Nicopoli, and Siliftria. The prefent inhabitants, though defcended from anceftors who dillinguifllcd themfelves by their martial achievements, are occupied in graziery, agriculture, and handicrafts. This country is famous for a gate, con- ftrufted by the emperor Trajan in the hills fouth of Sophia, among fteep rocks and precipices almoft inaccelTible, in com- memoration of his having marched with his army along a road formed by binifclf through places that were before impervious. It confills of two ftone pillars, with an arch over them, reprefenting a gate ; but is now in a iniiti'ated and ruinous condition. BULGARIANS, or BolGARtAns, in Ancient Hi/lory, a tribe of Sclavonians, who are fuppofed to have inhabited Afiatic Scjthia and the countries lying north of the Caf- pian fea, near the Volga, whence it is faid they obtained the name Volgari, which was changed into Bulgari ; and ihence their conntry was denominated Volgaria and Bulga- ria. Others, however, rejeft this etymology, alleging that the Volga was anciently called Raa, or, in Arabic, Idel ; and deduce the appellation of Bulgarians either from their famous and large city Belgard, or from the denomina- tion of Bilirians which they affumed. The Bulgarian;-., after having extended their borders along the Don and the Yaik, about the Volga and the Kama, carried on a great trade to Pcrfia, Bucharia, India, Greece, and even to Italy and France, by the Euxinc. They alfo traded con- fiderably with the Ruffians, and, by their inllrnmentality, with the northern nations. Bulgaria was therefore, in for- mer times, the emporium of the European and Afiatic com- merce. The Bulgarian empire fell afterv.ards under the dominion of the Tartars, and when the Ruffians conquered the B U L B U L the Tartars, became fubjeft to Ruflia- Their country was rich and extenfive ; its borders extended along the Volga, from the mouth of the Oka downwards to the Khoalifles, or Nether-Bulgarians, where they had their peculiar fovereigns; and the Avcsor Votiaks, along the Kama, were under their fuprcmacy. It is not known how far it reached weftward, and en the Don : however, the 'i'fcheremiffes and Tfchu- yafches were fubjeft to tlicni. Their language was the Sarmatic. The ruins of large towns and Hone buildings are evidences of their opulence, tlitir civilization, and their induftry ; and the coins that are dug out of the earth, with Arabic and Indian infcriptions, demonftrate their extenfive commerce. It was not till the reign of Zeno, about the 3'enr 485, that they began to be heard of and dreaded by the Ro- mans. Ennodius, the molt ancient writer who mentions them, informs us, in the panegyric which he compcfed on Theodoric, king of the Oltrogoths, that they were a war- like and numerous nation, enured to the toils of war, ever ready to prefer death to (lavery, and never known to have been put to flight, till they engaged this hero. From Afiatic Scythia and other countries which they occupied, they advanced, in quell of a more fertile country, to the Tanais, and from thence, in the reign of Zeno, to the banks of the Danube, under the conduct of their king or leader Bladinus. Having palFed this river, they made an irruption into Thrace, with a view of fettling in that coun- tiy ; but they were oppofed by Theodoric, the Ollrogoth, at that time general of the Roman troops in that province, and compelled to repafs the Danube. In 41^9, they made a fuccefsful irruption into Thrace and committed dreadful ravages, and defeated the army of the emperor Analiafius, commanded by Arillus, which was fent to refill them. Three years after this expedition they again invaded Thrace, and carried off an immenfe booty, of which they plundered the province. In 539, the 13th year of the emperor Juftinian, they made an incurfion over the Danube into Moefia, defeated the Roman troops, and were retreating with their fpoils and captives, after having dellroyed with fire and fword what they could not remove, when they were attacked by Jullinian's army under the command of an expeiienced officer, and obliged to furrender their booty and to fave themfclves by flight. However, in the following year they again entered Thrace, which they phmdered and laid wafte ; but they were routed with great fiaughtcr, and the lofs of many prifoners. For thefe viftories the emperor alTumed the appellation of " Bulgaricus," which appears on his coins. Hillory gives no account of them till the reign of Conllantine III. or V. (Blair) furnamed Pugonatus, which commenced in the year 668. In his time they pafied the Danube, and entering the Roman territories, committed great devatlations in the provinces bordering on that river. They were feebly op. pofed by the powerful army of Conftanline, and left at full " liberty to ravage the open country at pleafure. At length, in 678, Conftantine agreed to pay them an annual penlion, on condition of their not infefting the Roman territories, and joining his forces againll all other barbarians, wherever he required their afiiftance. About this time fome of them fettled in the dukedom of Benevento. It is faid that Conllantine allowed them to fettle in Lower Moefia, to which they gave the name of Bulgaria, which this province Hill retains. Other writers, however, fuppofe that they had fettled there feveral years before the reign of Conftantine. In 687 Juftinian II. refufing to ac- quiefee in the treaty ftipnlated with theiti by his lather, in. vajed their country, and reduced thtm to great diftrefs ; but the Bulgarians, animated by defpair, determined to VOL.V, make a laft effort in defence of their libcrtiei ; and fallinff imexpeCleJly upon the emperor's army, put it to flight» and obliged him to confirm his father's treaty. In 713 they made an irruption into Thrace and advanced to the gate? of Conftantinoplc, and after having ravaged the country, returned home, with an immenfe booty, unmo- Iclled. When Conllantine Copronymus, in the Qlh year of his rtign, A.D. 749, ordered forts tn be built on the borders of the provinces, adjoining the country of th; Bulgarians, they remonllrated ; but tlieir ambaffadors were difmifTed with a difdainful anfwer. Upon this the iiicenfcd Bulga- rians made a fuddcn irruption into the Roman territories, and having laid wafte the country, returned home loaded with booty. The emperor collecting his forces marched againft them in perfon ; but whilll he was laying wafte their country, they took advantage of attacking him in a narrow pafs, obliged him to fly, andpurfued him with great flaughter to the gates of Couftantinople. In the years 763 and 775 the Bulgarians fuffered great ii'jury in tlieir conflicts with the Romans ; but upon the ace -(uon of Leo IV. A.D. 775, he concluded a peace with their king, whofc daughter Irene he had married ; but his fon and fucceffor Conftantine Porphyrogenitus, in the I zth year of his reign, A.D. 791, deluded by fome aftrologers, attacked the Bul- garians, and was totally defeated. The Bulgarians renewed their irruption into the Roman provinces in the reign of Nicephorus ; and the emperor retaliated by marching with a large army into their country and ravaging it with fire and fword. The ambafladors of the Bulgariajis, who were fent to him to fue for peace and to requed his leaving their country, were treated with fcorn ; upon which their king Crumus, adtuated by defpair and the third of revenge, began with fortifying all the paflfes through which the emperor was to retire, and then proceeded to attack the Roman camp. This he forced, flew the emperor, and cut off al- moft his whole army. The favage conqueror ordered the head of Nicephorus to be ftrock off, and after having ex- pofed it to public view, he inclofed the flcuU in filver, and ufed it in all grand entertainments inftead of a cup. In 8ii Michael I. afcended the throne, and a peace was concluded between the Romans and Bulgarians ; but it was of very fhort duration. Crumus, offended by the treacherous efcape of fome Roman prifoners, levied a confiderable army, entered the Roman territories, and aflifted by an Arabian in the ufe of military engines, reduced feveral fortified places, and ravaged the whole country. Among other cities which he reduced, he made himfelf mafter of Mefem- bria, in the vicinity of Mount Hasmus, and put the garrifon to the fword. The emperor prepared for an engagement, and the two armies met in the neighbourhood of Couft.anti- nople. After a furious conflict of doubtful ifl'ue, the Ro- mans were utterly defeated ; and Michael retired to a mo- naftery, and i-efigned the purple to Leo V. A.D. 813. The Bulgarians wantonly triumphing in their fuccef?, refufed to liften to any pacific overiures; and a fccond en- gagement took place, in which the Romans, after an ob- ftinate refiftance, were routed. But whilll the Bulgarian* were bufily engaged in plundering the Roman camp, Leo renewed the fight and ohtaintJ a complete vi<5torv.- The Bulgarians I'emaincd for five years in a ftate of tranquillity ; but at length, in the year S77, they took occafion to re-enter the Roman territories, and in their ufual manner to ravage them with fire and fword. A battle enfued, and the Roman army was routed. The prifoners were led by the viftor in triumph round his camp, and having caufed their nofcs to be cut off, he fent them, thus defaced, to Conftantinopk. After fubfequent advantages gained oa S the B U L the part of the Dulparians, and repeated defeats and fccere loITcs rjllaincd bv llie Komans, Adriaiiople was iKfitged :;3d taUtn, A. 1). 9-'2 ; ard prepaiatior.s were made Or befi-j^ing Coiiftaiiliiuiple. But, before the clofe of llie fol- lowi.g year, a.i interview took place btlwecn Simeon the king of the Bnlj^aii-iiis, and Romanus the eallcrn emperor, and" a peace was concluded bct«-<:tn them. In the year 070 l';e Ruin or RofTi, who inhabited the prefcnt Podoha, invaded Bulgaria and ravaged the cour.try ; but havmg m- veiled Adrianople with a powerful army of more than 3c8,:co men, they were defeated ard cut to pieces by a body of 1 2,oco Romauj. I'he Btilgariaus fuhmittcd to Zimifcer, their deliverer ; but upon his death, A. D. i;;^, they revolted from tlie Romans and renewed tlitir ufual ra. vages of their provinces. After a long and doubtful llnig- gU between the Bjlgarians and the emperor Biilil, he at kill pievailed, and, in the 44th year of his reign, A. D. iCiS, reduced Buljaria into ihe form of a Roman p-ovmee. Fiom this time t1:e'BuIgarians remained in fubj .-flion to the emperors of ConllantinooL-, whom th.-y powerfully affilled both agai:.ft the Latins and the Turks, and were, on that account, al- lowed to chufe a king of their own nation, who neverthe- Icfs owned himfclf a 'vaffal of the empire. The Bulgarians, l-.owtver, revolted again in the reign of If.ac Angelus, A.D. 11S6. In 127^, Stephen, the fourth ki;itg of Hingary, having vanquidied the prince of Bulgaria and cut his whole army in pieces, obliged the BulgaHans to acknowledge him as their fovcreign. Vv -th the affiaaiice of the Greek emperors they fhook off the Hungarian yoke ; but allLmpting, in l ^6g, to recover Adrianople, which had bee« taken by the Turks, they were totally defeated by Amurath I. ; and Bajazet, who fixceeded Amurath, made an abfolute couqueit of the whole country in Ijn^ ;i:id reduced it to a province of the Turkldi empire, in which Hate it has continued ever fincc. Anc. Un. Hi!L vol. xvii. Gibbon's liift. Decl. and Fall of the Roman Emp. vol. vii, ix, x, xi. BULGARIAN L^i/^^ua^e, the fame with the Scla- TONMC, which fte. BULGNEVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, m the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton in the diiliici of Neufchateau, .5? leagues fouth of it. The town contains 9^5, and the canton lO.aSj inhabitants. The territory comprehends 262 i kiliometres and 27 com- munes. . . BULIA, orBuLis, in jliideM Geography, a maritime town of Greece, in the Plioeide, lituate towards the gulf of Corinth, near the frontiers of Bccotia. It had two tem- ples, ovc of Bacchus and another of Diana ; the ilatues of which were formed ot wood. BULIMIA, in JlLificine, a term fignifying excelTiie hunger, from fey, a particle denoting cxcefs, and Xi/zi;, hu"ger. It is alfo called fames canina, f^imes lupina, dog's appetite, wolf's appetite, &c. This fymptom occurs in cafes where the food is not retained long c-.'ough i-.i the rtomach to be digelled, as in cafes of habitual vomiting, and in lieutery ; alfo where the aliment, duly prepared or coii- cofted in the llomach, is neverthclcfs but I'eantily conveyed into the circulation, as in the cafe of worms, and obllructiou of the mefenteric glands ; and it is faid that this fymptom occurs where much acidity is prefent in the alimentary canal. Sauvages, with his ufual fecundity, has enumerated fcven different fpecies of bulimy ; but in moll of the inllauces which he has mentioned, it is rather to be regarded as a concomitant of other diford^rs, than as a dillindl and fpecific affettion. Ruyfeh gives an inllance of this complaint, which was conoetfied sviih a dilatation of the pylorus, in B U L confrquence of which the food (lipped through the llomach into the inn ftines, before there wa^* time fordigelHon to take place ; and it is recorded by Lieutand, that upon opening the body of a patient who had died of a difordtr, in which a voracious appetite was a leading fymptom, he difojvered a preternatu:al termination of the dudus chokdochus in the llomach. In this cafe the bile effufed into tlie ftomach feems to have kept up a conilant irritation in that organ, and to have Simulated tlie llomach to exptl the ingella be- fore they could be duly afted upon by the principal agent in the work of digTilion, the gallric fluid. From thefe obfervalions it is evident that the plan of treatment mull be varitd, according to the diverlity of the morbid conditions with which it is conuccled. Ttins, when it rs the confequeuce of an immediate rejtct'on of the food by vomiting, the irritability of the llomach Hiculd be coun- tcrafted by mild gelatinous food, by opiates, tonics, &c. aided by ftimv.lant ep'thems, and other topical applications. At the fame time nutritive enemata ftiould be injefted into the intelUnes. In like manner, when it is the confiqntnce of the food pafFing off too rapidly by (lool (as in lieutery), the remedies adapted to that condition of the body fhould be reforted to. (See Lientery.) If it proceed from worms, calomel, jalap, cowitch, and other anthelmintics, fhould be prefcribed ; if from mefenteric obllruition, rhubarb, neutral falts, and afterwards chalybeatts ; and, laltly, when it arifcs from acidity in the llomach and inteftines, bitters and ab- foibents fliould be given. After this view of the various caufes of bulimy, and of the treatment as adapted to each of tliofe caufcs, we fhall proceed to notice fome remarkable aud well-authenticated inllances of this affetlion. In 1700 there lived at Stanton, feven miles from Bury, a labouring man of middle age, who for many days together had fuch au inordinate appetite that he would eat up an ordinary leg of veal, roalled, at a meal. He would eat fow-thilUes, and various other herbs, as greedily as cattle are wont to do ; and all he could get was little enough to fatisfy his hunger. He voided feveral long worms. This cafe is related by Dr. Burroughs, in the 2 2d vol. of the Phil. Tranf. Two other cafes are recorded iu the 43d vol. of the fame Tranfaftions, one by Dr. Mortimer, the other by Dr. Cookfon. The fubjefts of this affeflion were in both inftances boys. The firil of them was 12 years old, and lived at Blade Barnfley, in Yorklhire. His appetite was fo ravenous, that if he was not fupplied with- food when he craved it, he would gnaw the very flefh off his own bones. When awake he was conllantly dcvouriiig. Nothing paffcd his ilymach ; it was always thrown up again. In the fpace of fix days he devoured 3S4 lbs. of liquid and folid food. The other boy was 10 years old, and had been ftized with a fever about ij months before, which continued for a fortnight, and was followed by conilant vomitings. As in the former cafe, fo in this, the food was no fooner fwallowed than thrown up again. In the fpace of fix days this boy devoured 371 lbs. of meat and drink, befides I lb. 10 oz. of fait. After more than a twelvemonth from the firll attack, he died greatly emaciated. In the third vol. of the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London, is inferted the hillory of a cafe of bulimy, ac- companied with vomiting, wherein 379 lbs. of meat and drink were fwallowed in the fpace of fix days, yet the patient loft flefh rapidly. A cure was cffefted by giving food boiled down to a jelly, frequently, and in fmall quantities. In this form the food was retained, and the body being duly fupplied with nourifliment, the llomach and rell of the fyllem reco- vered their proper tone and energy. But the moll extra- ordinary inftance of bulimy which perhaps ever occwred, i» B U L tliat recovJeJ in the third vol. of the Medical and PFiyfical J(nirnal, C(;nimunii:att.d by Ur. Johiifun, commiflioiKT of iicic and woinidtd Icanitn, to Dr. Blanc, formerly pliyfician to the navy. The fubjeft was a Polidi fulditr, named Charles Doniery, in the fervicc of the French, on board of the Hoe'he frigate, which was captured by the fqiiadron under the command of fir J. BorhUe Warren, off Ireland, in 1799. He was 21 years ot age, and Hated that his father and brothers had been remarkable for their voracious appe- tites. His began when he was 13 years of age. He would devour raw and even live cats, rats, and dojrs, befides bul- lock's liver, tallow-candles, and the entrails of animal". One day (viz. S:-ptenibcr 7th, 1799) an experiment was made of how much this man could eat in one day. This experi- ment was made in the prefeiice of tlie before-mentioned Dr. Johnfon, adiniral Chiid, and Mr. Folder, agent for priloners at Liverpool, and fcveral other gentlemen. He had brtakfaded at four o'clock in the morning on 4 lbs. of raw cow's udder; at half pall nine o'clock there were fet before him 5 lbs. of raw beef and 12 tallow candles of i lb. r.eii>ht, together with 1 bottle of porter ; thcfe he finifhed by half pall ten o'clock. At one o'clock there were put before him 5 lbs. more of beef, 1 lb. of candles, and 3 bottles of porter. He was then locked up in the room, and fentries were placed at the windows to prevent his throwing away any of his provifions. At two o'clock he had nearly fmillied the whole of the candles, and great part of the beef; but without having had any evacuations by vomiting, (tool, or urine ; his Ikin was cool, pulfe regular, and fpirits good. At a quarter pall fix he had devoured the whole, and de- clared he could have eat more ; but the prifoners on the outfide having told him that experiments were making upon bim, he began to be alarmed. Moreover, theday was hot, and he had net had his ufual exercife in the yard. The whole of what he confumed in the courfe of one day amounted to Raw cow's udder • . - 4 lbs. Raw beef - - - 10 Candles - - - 2 16 lbs. Befidcs 5 bottles of porter. The eagernefs with wldch this man attacked his beef when bis llomach was not gorged, refemblcd the voracity of a hungry wolf; he would tear off large pieces with his teeth, roll them about his mouth, and then gulp them down. When his throat became dry from continued exercife, he would lubricate it by llripping the grcafe off a candle be- tween his teeth ; arid then, wrapping up the wick like a ball, would fend it after the other part at a fw.'.lknv. He could make fhift to dine on immenfc quantities of raw potatoes or turnips, but by choice would never talle bread or vegetables. He was in every refpeft healthy, 6 feet 3 inches high, of a pale complexion, grey eyes, long brown hair, well made but thin, his countenance rather pleafant, and he was good- tempered. His evacuation by the bowels was by no means proportioned to the quantity of food he devoured, and even did not exceed that of other men ; but his perfpirations were profufe, not only when in bed, but alfo v. hen up and eating. To the profufenefs of this evacuation. Dr. Johnfon, and the other medical gentlemen, have afcribed the rapid diiTipation of the ingella, and his incelfant craving for fr.elh fupplies of food. It does not appear that he had worms. BULINUS H.s;M.iSTOMus, in Conchology. See Turbo H^EMASTOMUS. BULITAGA, in Geography, a range of mountains which B U L fcparatcs the empir* of llufha from Perfia. N. lat. 48* 39 1051". K.long._;2"i4'lo73°i4'. BULITHOS, liil-is boiiiiiij, a caleulii;; or Hone found in the gall-bladder, kidneys, or urinary bl.idder of oxen. Inllanccs hereof arc given by Bronull, the .\cademy Na- tnrx Cuiipolnted nuific-profefTor to Grelham college. And ihougli unable to compofc and read his lec- tures in Latin, according to the founder's oiiginal intention, fuch was his favour with the queen and the public, that the executors of fir Thomas Grefliam, by xhe orilhiaix^s, bearing date I j^;7, difpenled with his knowledge of the Latin lan- guage, and ordered " The folemn mullc ledure to be read twice every week, in manner following, viz. the theoretique part for one half hour, or thereabouts ; and the. pradique, by concert of voice or inllruments, for the reil of the hour : whereof the firll ledure //?%«/Ua, a drop, or bubble : or, according to others, from the Greek, (Sa:.»i, comic'i! : according to Pezron, from the Celtic huil, or bill, a bubble. We meet with four kinds of thefe luHi or bull.!;; golden, filver, waxen, and leaden ; all in ule among the emperors and kings of the middle and barbarous ages. In fome, tlie imprcfiion is made on the folid metal itielf ; in others o;i wax ; and only enclofcd in a metalline box, or cafe. Sealing with metals is an illuilrious privilege, belonging only to princes, though ailumed alio by prelates, ;is princes of the church. The doges of Veuice durll not arrogate this honour, till leave was given them by pope -Alexander III. about the year 1170, to feal their diplomata with lead. The hull \i the third kind of apodulical refcript, and the moll in ufe, both in affairs of juHice and of grace. It is written on parchment; by which it is dillinguiflied from a brief, or {\mr,\i Jignnlnre, which is on paper. A bull is properly a fignatnre enlarged : what the latter comprehends in a few words, the former dilates and amplifies. If the bulls be letters of grace, the lead is hung on fiiken threads ; if they be letters of jnftice, and executory, the lead is hung by a hempen cord. Thev are all written in an old round Gothic letter. The bull, in the form wherein it is to be difpatched, is divided into five parts; viz. the narrative of the (aft ; tlie conception ; the claufe ; the date ; and the fahitation, in which the pope takes on himfelf the quality ot " fervant of the fervants of God," prv.is feri'ofum Del. Properly Ipeaking, it is the feal or pendant lead alone that is the bull : it being that which gives it both the title and authority. The feal prcfents, on one fide, the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul ; on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. By bnlU, jubilees arc granted : without them no bidiops in the Romilh church are allowed to be confccrated. In Spain, bulls are required for all kinds of benefices ; but in France, &c. fimple fignaturcs are fufficient ; excepting for biflioprics, abbeys, dignitaries, and priories conventual. According to the laws of the Roman chancery, no benefitf, exceeding twenty-four ducats per annum, (liould be con- fe-rred without bulls: but the French would never fubmit to this rule, except for fuch benefices as are taxed in the apollolical ciiamber : for the rell, they referve the right of diflembling the value, expreffing it in general terms: Ciijiis Ji* tin forfan aii'iexorum fra^us i\ diicntorum auri de cam.ra, fectindum communem ejlimalioncm, falorem aiinuum non exce- diint. The bulls brought into France were limited and mode- rated by the laws and cuftoms of the land, before thev were regillered ; nor was any thing admitted till it had been well examined, and found to contain nothing contrary to the liberties of the Gallican church ; thofc words, pn/J^rio viotii, in a bull, were fufficient to make the whole be reiefled in France. Nor do the Spaniards admit the papal bulls impli- citly ; but, having been examined by the king's council, if there appear any reafon for not executing them, notice thereof is given to the pope by a fupplication ; and the bull, by this means, remains without effeft : and the like method of proceeding with the court of Rome is obferved by mod of the other courts of Europe, in the papal com- munion. To fulminate bulls, is to make pnblication thereof, by one of the three commiflioners to whom they are direfttd ; whether he be the bilhop or oiScial. This publication is fometimes oppofed ; but when it is, the fault is not charged on the pope who ifTued the bull; but an appeal is brought to BULL. to liim ajainS tlie perfon who is fuppoftd to make it ;. tlni3 the fault i fealing it up with, his own feal, and giving it, thus covered, to the chamberlain, to be prcferved, that no bulls may be fcal-d with it in the mean time. Thefe decrees of the pnpe are often mentioned in our flatutes, as 2^ Edw. III. uS Hen. VIII. c. l6. ; i and 2 Ph. and M. c. 8. ; and 13 Eliz. o. 2. Tlicy were formerly ufed, and of force in this count ry ; but by flat. 28 Hen. VI II. c. 16. all bulls, ^-;c. obtaiuti.'. fiom the biihnp of Rome are void; and by 1 ; Eliz. c. 2. (fee alfo 2j Eliz. c. I.) the procuring, publiflJng, or ufing of any of them is high treafon. Bull, goIJtn, is a denomination peculiarly given to an ordinance, or ftatute, made by the emperor Charles IV. in IJ56, faid to have been drawn up by that celebrated lawyer, Bartoli, and ilill reputed the magna charla. or fundamental law of the empire. It was compoicd and publiflitd at a diet convoked by the emperor at Nuremberg ; and is thus called from a golden feal fixed to it, fnch as were ufed by the em- perors of C, about the year7;3-. But others find inllanees of them as early as Svlveltcr, Leo. I. and Gregory the Great. The later popes,' belides their own names, llrikc the figures of St. Peter and St. Paul on their bulls ; a pradlice lirlf introduced by pope Pafchal II. ^ ^ Bulls, waxen, arc faid to have been Crtl brought into England by the Normans. They were in frequent ufe among the Greek emperors, who thus fealed letters to their wives, mothers, and fons. Of thefe there were two forts, one red, the other green. Du-Cange, Gloff. Lat. torn. i. & Gloff. Grxc. Montfaucon, Palrcolog. lib. vi. I'uLL of Phalaris, or Perillus, a brazen bull made by Perillus the Athenian, to flatter the cruelty of Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, for the purpofe of tormenting cri- minals. It was formed in the fiiape of that quadiuped;. and when perfons were inclofcd in it, fire was applied, and their cries are faid to have rel'emhlcd the roaring of a bull.. Perillus is faid to have been the liill who fuffcr^d in it, for having extorted too great a reeompence for the conilrutlion- of it. Phalaris himfclf was puuilhed by the people of Agri- gentum for his cruelty, by being put to death, as fome fay, ia his own bull. When Hannibal took the city, this bull,, air.ong olh.er treafnrcs and valuable curio'.ilies, was fent to Carthage; but it was afterwards rtllored to the Agrigen- tines by Scipio, when he took Carthage, in the third Punic war. Cic. 1. iv. in Vctrem. c. 33. Bull, in Geography, a large rock in the Atlantic ocean^ abiiut three miles W. of Durfev ifland, on thecoad of the county of Kerry, Ireland. N. lat. 51'^ ^;>,'. W. long. 10° 9'. Bull, a rock near the weft point of the iHand of Ragh- lin, in the North channel, about feven miles N.W. of Fiirhead, in the county of Antrim, Ireland. N.lat. 55° jo'. W.long. 6° to'. Bull, North and Sou'Ji, two banks of fand in the bay of. Dublin, Ireland, between which lies the fmall fand bank, called the bar. There are buoys to mark thefe banks, but notwithltanding every improvement of the harbour, sxii. every precaution, they fometimes occalion fliipwrecks. Bull, in Rural Economy, an animal of much importance to the Hock farmer. For the purpofes of the breeder the head of the bull (hould, according to Mr,_ Culley, " be ra- ther long, and the muzzle fine; his eyes lively and promi- nent, his ears long and tluo, his boriu white; his neck, riling. B U L nfin(^ with a gentle curve from the fliouWers, and Tmall and fine wtierc it joins the head ; his fhouldors moderately broad lit the top, joining full to his chine, or crops and chetl back- waids, and to the neck-vein forwards; his bofom open, brtall broad, and projefting well before liis legs, his arms or fore thighs mufciilar, and tapering to his knee ; his legs ilraight, clean, and very tine-boned ; his chine and cheft lo full as to leave no hollows behind the fhouldcrs, the plates ftroiig, to keep his belly from finking below the level of Iiis bread ; his back or loin broad, ihaight, and flat, his ribs lifing one above another in fuch a manner, that the laft rib may be rather the higheft, leaving only a fmall fpace to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcafe ; his hips flionld be wide placed, round or globular, and a little higher tlinn the back, the quarters from the hip to the rump long ; and inlL ad of being fquarc, as recom- mended by fome, they fliould taper gradually from the hips backwards, and the turls or pott-bones not in tlie lead pro- tuberant ; rumps clufe to tiie tail, the tail broad, well haired, and fet on fo high as to be in the fame horizontal line with his back." Tiiisis an animal chiefly kept for the purpofe of propagation, though he is capable of being fubj-ded to the yoke ; but tiiere is no certainty of his working quietly ; and the ufe he may make of Lis prodigious llrength rtiould conflantly be guarded againll. Bulls arc for the moll part naturally imlradlable, ftubborn, and fierce; and frequently in the bulling feafon abloluttly furious and uncontrollable ; how- ever, by caftration, they may be rendered perfectly tame and quiet, without the lead diminution of their ilrength. 'They alfo often grow larger, more heavy and unwieldy, and become more adapted to labour, as well as more tradable, by this operation. See Ox and Cattle. The difpofition of thefe animals is, however, (hewn to depend greatly upon the manner in which they are reared by the praftice of Mr. Bakewell, who had all his bulls fo tame and gentle, that they could be managed with the grcatell facility. Among the /Incu-nls, thofe who triumphed, facrificed a bull, w'.ien they arrived at the capitol. Bulls were offered to Apollo and Neptune. It was held a crime to facrifice them to Jupiter, though we do not want in fiances of that praftice. Bulls were ranked by the Romans in the number of mili- tary rewards. Bull, African, in Natural Hiflory, afmallwild bull, com- mon in that part of the world, and fuppofed to be the true biibalus of the ancients. See Bubalus. Bull's Hood, frelh drawn, is faid to be a powerful poi- fon, as coagulating in the ftomach. This is related on the authority of Pliny, xxviii. 9. and xi. 38. and many perfons among the ancients, fuch as jEfon, Midas, Hannibal, and Thcmillocles, are faid to have been poifoned by it. But the faft has been quellioned by fome, and denied by others. See Apollodorns, lib. I. cap. 27. Strabo, lib. i. p. 106. I'lutarch in Flaminio ; and Valer. Maxim, vol. vi. ext. 3. Bull's ^(i//, is an intenfc bitter, more pungent and acri- monious than that of any other animal ; whence it is fome- times ufed to dellroy worms. Bull, bannal, denotes a bull kept by a lord, who has a right to demand all his tenants to bring their cows to be ferved by him. ■_BuiL, /nv, according to Du-Cange, fignifies the fame ■v'llh bannal lull. Hence /auW liberi liberlas ; which, how- ever, fiiould rather feem to denote a privilege of keeping a bull independent of the lord. ■ BuiLs, tuild. The wild bulls, now fo numerous on the B U L continent of America, are faid to have fprung from one bull and fevcn cows, which were carried thither by fome of the firll conquerors. In the ifland of Hifpaniola, the French buccaneers pur- fue bulls with dogs, and kill them with fire arms. See BuCCANEFRS. At Buenos Ayres, the Spanifli toradors chafe them on horfeback, armed with a long lanoe, at the end of which is a half-moon of fharp fled. Having drav. ii a number of the horned kind together, they let the cows efcape, but dexlroufly take the bulls with their half-moons on the hind-legs, by wiiich, difabling them from flight, they are eafily difpatched. BuLL-ifl;/;«;'. Sec Baiting. V>vi.\.-Ji^hlhig, a fport or exercife much in vogue among^ the Spaniards and Poi tuguefe, confifling in a kind of com- bat of a cavalier or torador againft a wild bull, either on foot or on horfeback, by riding at him with a lance. The Spa- niards have buU-fightf, i. e. feafts, attended with fliews, in honour of St. John, the Virgin Mary, &c. This fport the Spaniards received from the Moors, among whom it was celebrated with great eclat. Some think, that the Moors might have received the cuftom from the Romans, and they from the Greeks. Dr. Plott is of opinion, that the Tcupo- xcfistJ-iKv Jijucfai amongft the Theflalians, who firfl inflituted this game, and of whom Julius Cxfar learned and brought it to Rome, were the origin both ot the Spanifh and Portu- guefe bull-fighting, and of the Englifh bull-running. Nat, Hill. StafF. chap. X. § 76. The praftice was prohibited by pope Pius V. under pain of excommunication, incurred ipfo fado. But fucceeding popeshave granted feveralmitigationsinbehalfof the toradors. Mr. Gibbon, in his " Hillory of the Dechne and Fall of the Roman Empire," (vol. xii. p. 421.) has extrafted from Muratori (Script. Rer. Italic, tom. 12.) an account of a buU-feafl, which was celebrated in 13^2, after the fafhion of the Moors and Spaniards, in the Cohfoeum at Rome. The nobles were invited by a general proclamation, com- municated as far as Rimini and Ravenna, to exeiciie their flcill and courage in this perilous adventure. The Roman ladies were marfhalled in three fquadions, and feated in three balconies, which were lined on this occafion with fcar- let cloth. When the company was coUefted and arranged, the lots of the champions were drawn by an old and refpeft- able citizen ; and they defcended into the arena, or pit, to encounter the wild bulls with a fingle fpear. Am.idtl the crowd, the annalill has felefted the names, colours, and de- vices, of 20 of the mofl confpicuous knights. Several of the names are the mofl illuflrious of Rome and the ecclcfi. aflical flate ; the colours were adapted to their tafle and li- tuation ; and the devices are expreflive of hope or defpair, and breathe the fpirit of gallantry and arms; the combats of the amphitheatre were dangerous and bloody. Every champion fucceflively encountered a wild bull ; and the vic- tory may be afcribed to the quadrupeds, fince no more than eleven were left on the field, with the lofs of nine wounded, and eighteen killed on the fide of their adverfaries. Some of the nobleft, famihes might mourn, but the pomp of the funerals in the churches of St. John Latcran, and Maria Maggiore, afforded a fecond holiday to the people. Similar combats with bulls in the amphitheatres, have been jaflly regarded as a ftriking feature of Spanifh and Portugnefe manners. Some have fuppofed that thefe fpec- tacles, by rendering bloodflied famihar to the people, tend to deaden fenfibihty, and to make the national charafter ferocious and brutal. Others think, that they ferve as an antidote to timidity, and as a means of cherifhing refolution and valour. But theories of this kind are not juflified by fafts. B U L B U L fafts. Modern Italy, k is faid, has no gladiators, but nu- ni'Tous afrafiiiis ; wluTt-as anciiiit Rome iind fcarcdy one aflafTin, but whole armies of gladiators. As far as it re- fpcrts the national cnaraiter, it fctnis to be of little mo- ment, whether bidis be killed by biitcliers or by champions ; and it is well known, that lueh fpe6taclcs have little or no influence on the difpofition, becaufe they are attended by people of all ages and itatlons, and yet tliey neither give energy to the feeble, and baldnefs to the timid, nor make any alteration in the niildntfs of their manners. The bull- figi\ts of Spain and Portiioal attrad a crowd of fpetkators, and yield very confiderable fums of money to thofe who un- dertake and conduct them, of which part is appropriated to tlie pin-pofe of defraying the txpence of horfes and bulls, and of paying the hire of the toradors ; and part is applied to the fupport of religious and eleemofynary eftablilluiients. Thefe entertainments have formed one of the chief funds of the hofpital at Madrid. The bulls that are felefkd for thefe eombats are of a pec\diar breed, and the connoilTeurs can rea- dily dillinguifli by a view of them where they have been bred. The arena, where thefe (liows are exhibited, is a kind of circus furroundcd by ranges of feats, one above another ; and the highellof them is covered. The lower part of the edifice is oc- cupied by boxes. At Valladohd, which has no circus appro- priate to thefe lights, the principal fquare is converted into a theatre, and the balconies of the adjoining houfesare made to projeft in fuch a manner as to accommodate the numerous fpeftators who aflemble on thefe occafions. The fpeftacle commences bv a kind of procefiion around the fquare, in which the combatants appear both on horftback and on foot ; and they are preceded by two alguazils on horfeback, who are deputed to obtain of the prelident of the (liow an order for its commencement. Upon a certain fignal, the animal appears ; and the officers of juilice by hallily with- drawing, give notice to the fpedlators that their cruel paf- tims is about to begin. The bull is received, on his ap- pearance, with loud fliouts ; and the conteft is begun by the " picadors," who arc mounted on horfes and dreffed in the an- cient Spanifli mode, each of them being armed with a long lance. To the honour of this part of the combat, which requires ftrength, courage, and dexterity, feveral perfons of rank occafionallv afpire. When the bull darts upon thefe combatants, wi'hout any previous irritation, his courage is applauded ; and if in fpite of the pointed weapon which re- fills his afiault, he returns to tlie charge, the fliouts of the fpeflators are redoubled, and their joy feems to tranfport them into enthullafm ;' but if the bull is timid, and avoids his perfecutors, he is hooted at and hiffed by the fpeftators, and infulted with reproaches and blows by thofe who are near him. If thefe modes of provocation are infufficient to roufe his ferocity, large dogs are let looie upon him, which feize him in a furious manner by the neck and ears ; and which he totTes into the air, fo that they fall to the ground flunncd, and fometimes mangled. At length, however, the combat is renewed, and the animal, overcome by his afTail- ants, perifhcs ignobly. If the animal manifells fpirit and iiercenefs, the picadors pierce him with their lances ; and thus irritated, he furioully attacks the horfe which carries the combatant, rips up his fides, and overturns him and his ri- der. The picadors thus difmounted and endangered, are relieved by other combatants on foot, called " Chulos ;" who divert the animal's attention by fhaking pieces of dif- ferently coloured cloth before him; thefe the provoked animal purfues; and they efcaps merely by their agility. Some- times they are under a neceflity of throwing thcmfelves over a barrier that cnclofes the arena. When this barrier is fingle, the bull purfuing the chulo, fometimes jumps over Vol. V. it, and caufes great conllernation among the fpeflatow on the lower benches, fo that in tlieir precipitance for ef- caping, they fiidtr as much as they might have done from the fury of the animal, who, however, becomes incapable of this kind of purfuit. The pxador, when elTedtually relieved, mounts his horfe, or if the firll horfe be killed or become unfit for fervicc, procnrci another, and renews the combat. When the picadors have fufliciently tormented the bull, they withdraw, and leave him to the irritation of the combatants on foot. Thefe latter, denominated " banderil- leros," go before the animal ; and when he aims at tliem, they plunge into his neck darts, called " banderillas," with hooked points, and ornamented with fmall dreamers of co- loured paper. The fury of the bull is now redoubled ; he roars and tolTes his head, and aggravates by the violence of his motion, the pain occafioned by his wounds : and in this fituation, the agility of his adverfaries is fignally difplayed. The danger that threatens them alarms the fpeiSators ; but accuRomtd to this kind of combat, they fecure themfelves by their addrefs and dexterity. When the vigour of the bull is almoft cxhaufled, and he is bathed with blood, and the people are anxious to witnefs the combnt of another vic- tim, the prefident of the entertainment iflues the fignal of death, which is proclaimed by the found of trumpets. The " matador" then advances ; and holding a dagger in one hand, he waves before his adverfary with the other hand a kind of flag. They both flop and gaze at one another; and the fpeftators are again amufed for fome time by the impetuofity of the bull, and the agility of the matadoi-. The affembled obfervers witnefs this fcene in profound fi- lence : and the niatador coolly difpatches the furious animal by a blow, where the fpinal marrow joins the head. The death is bloodlefs and inftantaneous, and dcferves imi- tation, as humanity would with to fave pain to the animals (laughtered for food. When the animal falls, a thoufand voices proclaim with loud fliouts the triumph of the con- queror. If the blow is not decifive, and the bull furvivcs, murmurs fucceed applaufe, and the matador is regarded only as an unikilful butcher. When the tragedy termi- nates, three mules ornamented with bells and dreamers ap- pear, and the bull is dragged by means of a rope tied rousd his horns from the arena. Sometimes the bull is pierced in various parts with lances, to wiiich fquibs are faftened, which being fet on fire, the maddened animal Hands pawing the ground while he draws in and exhales vo- lumes of fmoke. Sometimes an American is introduced, who, after the manner of hunting the wild bull in hib own counti-y, throws a rope round the horns, and entangling him as in a net, then kills him with perfeft fafety. On each of the days fet apart for thefe entertainments, fix are thus facrificed in the morning, and 12 in the after- noon : at leaft this is the cafe at Madrid. The three lalt belong exchifively to the matador, who, unaided by the pi- cadors, exerts his ingenuity to diverfify the pleafure of the fpedators. The Spanilh government are not infiiiliblc pf the moral and political inconveniences arifing from this fpe- cies of frenzy. So far from encouraging, they difcounte- nance it ; whilft it would be dangerous precipitately to abo- li(h it. The court itfelf formerly reckoned it among the number of its feftivals, which occurred at certain periods. The theatre of them' was the "Plaza-Mayer," and they were honoured with the prefeiice of the king and royal fa- mily ; and his guards prcfided there in good order. His halberdiers formed the interior circle of the fcene ; and their long weapons, held out in a dcfenfive pofturc, were the only barrier which they oppofed againft. the dangerous caprices of the bull. Thefe enteitainments, which by way of ex- 3 T ccllence B U '. eellcnce were called " Ficftas Rcales," are now become ver)' rare. Charlis III. who cndiavoiired to polilh the na- tion, and to dircifl the public attention to ufefiil objefts, wai very dcfirous of fiipprelTiMg a talle from which inconve- niences fpraiig; : but he was too wife to employ violent means for this purpofe. He, however, confined the number of buli-figlits to thofe, the profits of which were applied to fome charitable inllitutions, with a defign of fubllituting to ihefe other funds afterwards. Bull-fights being thus ren- dered lefs frequent, will, perhaps, gradually lole their at- traction, until more favourable circumllances allow the en- tire abolition of them. BvuL-ninnin^, denotes a feudal cuftom obtaining in the honour of Tudbury in Stafford(hire, where ancietitly, on the day of the Affumption of our lady, a bull was turned loufe by the lord to the minllrels, who, if they could catch him before he palTed the river Dove, were to have him for their own, or, in lieu thereof, to receive each forty pence ; in conCderation of which cuUom, they pay twenty pence yearly to the faid lord. Plot. Nat. Hilt. Staff. Bull and boar. — By the cuftom of fome places, the par- fon is obhged to keep a bull and boar for the ufe of his pn- ridiioners, in confidcration of his having tithes of calves and pigs, &c. I Rol. Abr. 559. 4 Mod. 241. BuLL-comfor, in Enlomology. See Scarac/Eus Tvph.ieus. BuLL-^sff, in Zoology, a kind of mallifF upon a fmaller fcalc ; with a fomewhat flatter fnout and a greater ferocity of afpeft. The bull-dog is remarkable for the undaunted and lavage pertinacity with which he provokes and conti- nues the fight ; and when he has fixed iiis hite, is with much difficulty difeniragtd from his antagoniil. This is the dog employed in the barbarous divcrfion of bull-bailing. See Canis. Bull's eye, in Aftronnmy. See Aldebaran. Bull's eye, in Meteorology, a little dark cloud, reddidi in the middle, chiefly appearing about the Cape of Good Hope ; thus denominatird by tlie Portuguefe, who, on the appearance of it, inltantly take down tlieir fails, as know- ing that a terrible florm of thunder, lightning, and whirl- wind, is at hand. Bull's eye, in Sea language, denotes a fort of fmall oval block without (heaves, made of hard wood. It is turned in a lathe, has a groove round the outfide, and an oval hole gouged through the middle. Thefe blocks are ufed inftead of blocks and iron thimbles ; but, indeed, they are very fel- dom ufed at all. BuLL-/f«<:/?, in Ornithology. See LoxiA Pyrrhula. BuLL-/>-«if, in Zoology. See Rana Catesbeiana, and OCELLATA. BuLL-iay river, in Geography, lies to the eaft of Port Royal, or Kingfton harbour, in Jamaica, between Cane ri- ver and Four-mile wood. Bull and cow, rocks near the fouth coall of Newfound- land. N. lat. 46° 55'. W. long. 53° 42'. Bull Sand, lies about a league S. W. from the Spurn point, or eaftern entrance of the Humber, on the coall of Yorkfhire, between which and the point is a fine channel of ten or eleven fathoms. Bull's harbour and i/land, or Sewee bay, lies on the coaft of South Carolina, in North America, to the fouth-weft from cape Carteret. The entrance of the harbour, which is within the ifland, is at the N. E. end of it, having a fmall idand within that : between them is a paflage, in N. lat. 32° 56'. and W. long. 78° 24'. Bull-Am^, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, on the north fide of Dmgle bay in the county of Berry, near three miles S.E. of Diaglc. W. Long. 10° 4'. N. lat. Jj° 6'. B U L BoLL-/;iW, in Ichthyology, is a trivial Englifh name ap- plied moil commonly to that fmall kind of li!h which we dif- tinguifli farther by the name ot r'mer-luU-htad, [Collitt Gobio Linn.). Another fiih of the fame genus, cottus cataphractus is called - the anned-hull-head ; this lalt lives in the lea. BuLL-/ro«.', an Englilli name for a fifli of the falmon kind caught in many of the rivers of England ; it is alfo called the fcurf. .See Salmo Trutta. BuLL-r///Zi, in Botanv. See SciRTV s^fuilans. BITLLA, in Antiquit^j, a golden ornament, of a globular figure, and generally luppofcd to ha-'e been hollow within, wherein was contained fome amulet, to ferve as a prefervative from witchcraft and envy, hung about the neck by thofe who triumphed among tlie Romans ; and alfo by the chil- dren of the patricians, and even ingenui, as a badge of their hereditary nobility and freedom, by which they might be animated to behave themfelves in a manner worthy of their birth. Authors are divided in their opinions about the form of this ornament, which the Sabine women, in acknowledge- ment of thjt increafe of wealth and power for which Rome was indebted to them, were allowed to hang about the necks of their children. Plutarch (in Romul.) fays, that they refcmbled the little bubbles which are fornied by the drops of rain, when they fall upon running water. Hence it has been inferred, that they were hollow and light ; others think that they were half globes, flat on one fide, and globular on the other. Some have luppofed, that they were originally made in the (hape of a heart, in order to- prompt their wearers to the aequifition of wifdom ; and others fay, they were round, with the figure of a heart engraved on them. The form, in procefs of time, is faid to have varied from a complete circle to that of a fegment. Such was the (hape of the golden bulla lately found at Mancheller ; and as this had no aperture by which an amulet could be introduced, Mr. Whitaker (Hill. Man- cheller, vol. i. p. 79) concludes, that they were not hollow; and he fuppofes, that they were intended at firll rather as amulets than as ornaments ; alleging that they were fre- quently imprefTed with the figure of the fexual parts. As to their origin, it has been affirmed by fome, that they were firfl introduced by Romulus, and that he gave one of them to TuUus Hoftilius, the firfl child bora of the rape of the Sabines. Others afcribe the introduftion of them to Tarquin the elder, who gave a bulla to his fon, at the age of 14, together with the praetexta, becaufe he had killed an enemy ; and hence it was afterwards affumed by other patricians. But Macrobius fays, that Tarquin extended the right of wearing this ornament to all the children of the patricians ; and that accordingly he began with his own. The bulla was not allowed to the children of flaves, or even of lilcrti, who, in lieu thereof, wore a leather collar round the neck, much after the manner of the purple firing to which the bulla was hung. But the great vellal, and the Roman ladies, wore a bulla ; the former by way of diflinftion, the latter as a piece of drefs. We may add, that bullae were fometimes allowed to (latues ; whence the phrafe, " ftatuas buUata;." M. Lepidus, having killed an enemy, and faved a citizen, even when a boy, had a " bullated" ftatue erefted to him in the Capitol, in memory of the exploit. The Roman youth laid afide the bulla, together with the " prxtexta," and confecrated it to the Lares, when they arrived at their lifteenth year ; as appears from the fatyrift : ♦' Cum primum pavido cuflos mihi purpura ceflit, Bullaque fucciodi^ Laribus donata pependit." Perf. B U L B U L Peif. Sat. V. vcv. 20. Hift. Acad. Infer, torn. ii. Valer. Mhx. lib. ill. cap. 1. Cic. in Verr. I. 5S. Macrob. Sat. 1. 6. Bum. A was alfa a denomination given to divtrs other metalline ornain.'cits mace after the form of bullic. In which fenfo, bullx fecm to include all golden and lil- ver ornaments of a roiindifli form, whether worn on the habits of men, the trappings of horfes. or the like. Such were thofe decorations nfed by the ancients on their belts and doors. Virgil, fpeaking of Pallas's belt or girdle, " Notis fulfcrunt cingula biillis Pallantis pncri." .flineid. lib. xii. ver. 942. The bulla- of doors were a kiiid of large-headed nails fallcntd on the doors of the rich, and kept bright with great care. Tiie doors of temples were fometimes adorned with golden bullje. Tilt bulla: worn by foldiers on their belts, and alfo on the doors of hoiifes, &:c. have been conlidered by ionie, not merely as ornaments, but as a kind of amulets, and intended as prefcrvatives from dileafes and dangers, as well as incentives to glory. Bulla alfo denoted a table hunir up in the public courts, tp ditlinguilli which days wcvt; f 11// i, and which itfjljli ; an- fwering in fome mcafure to our calendar. Bulla, in Conchulo^y, the name of a genus of fliells the charafter of vvliich is thus defined : animal a limax ; fliell univalve, convoluted, and unarmed ; mouth, or aperture, fomewhat Itraiteneci, oblong, longitudinal, and at the bafe very entire ; pillar-lip oblique, and fniooth. The fpecies of this genus are ovum, volva, biroftris, ipelta, verrucofa, gibbofa, naucuni, apcrla, hydatis, ampulla, lignaria, phyhs, amplullra, Ileus, rapa, canaliculata, co- noidea, fontinalis, hypnorum, turrita, gelatinofa, terebellum, cypraea, virginea, fafciata, ilrigata, llriatula, exarata, bi- fafciata, ambigua, zebra, achaima, liyahna, ovata, ferrugi- iiofa, velum, veiica, cylindrica, oliva, voluta, dominicenfis, purpurea, fprtta, folida, ftercufpulieum, fcabra, akcra, fo- luta, truncata, and carnea, which fee rtfpcftively. Bulla, in Zoology, a fpecies of Cyclidium, of an or- bicular form and tranfparent. Miill. Bulla is alio a fpecies of Volvox, the form of which is fomewhat oval. Marl'nnere. Bv i.L.\ Fe/utina, oi MiiUeri, in Coitchology. See Helix HELIOTOIDEA. Bulla regia, or Bullai-ia of Ptolemy, in yl/icicnt Geo- graphy, a free town of Africa, on the route from Carthage to Hippona, between Siniittu and Novas Aquilinx. Anton. Itin. BULLACE Tree, in Botjuy. See Prunus Irjithia. BULLil{,UM, in yfitcient Geography, a town of the Silures in Britain, placed by Camden at Buallt or Builth in Brecknockfhire, by Baxter at Caerphilly, and by Horfley at or near Ulk in Munmouthfliire : thus uncertain is its fituation. BULLAN-Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft coaft of Ireland between the northern part of the Ifle of Achil and the main land of the county of Mayo. BULLANSPOUR, a town of Hi'ndoftan, in the hilly country of Cahlore, feated near the river Setlege, i r^C) miles E. of Lahore, and about N. 26*^ E. 60 geographical miles from Sirhind. N. lat. 31° .51'. E. long. 76° 40'. BULLA R II, in the court of Rome, the makers or drawers of bulls or conllitutions. See Bull. BULLARY, Bullarium, a colleftion of papal bulls. We have extant divtrs kinds of buUaries ; fome containing only the bull-.; of particular popes; fuch are the bullaries of Innocent XI 1. and Clement XI. Others contain the bull* granted to particular communities ; fuch ii the buUary of the 0.710 0.671 0.657 0.645 0.613 0.60? 0 ;(54 0.570I0.561 0.556 0.550 0.532 0.52-, 0.521 0.517 0.512I0.507 0.505 0.498 N. B. The upper horizontal column fhews the number of bullets to a pound ; the fecond, their diameters ; the third, tlie diameters of thole of 10, 11, 12, &c. and the fourth, thofe of 20, 21, 22, &c. and the laft thofe of 30, 31, 32, &c. The government allows eleven bullets in the pound for the proof of mufl ^'- . ^ BULLIMONY, or Bollimonc, denotes a mixture ol feveral forts of grain, as oats, peafe, and vetches, called alCo ma/Jin, or nwng-corn. BULLINGF.R, Henry, in Biography, a Svvifs re- former, was born in 1504 at Bremgarten, on the borders of the canton of Zurich ; and educated at Emmeiick in the duchy of Cleves, whither he was fent by his father at the age of 12 years, and where he was fupported for three years by the alms he procured for finging from door to door, jiaviu'' been accnllomed to the mortification and liardlhips attendant on this mode of fubfiftence, he entertainwl thoughts ■ of entering among the Carthulians. Cut diverted from this refolution bv the admoniLions of his elder brother, he re- Biovcd to Cologn at the age of 1 5 years, and devoted him- fclf to the ftudy of the fehool-philofopliy, and of claffical literature. About this time his attention was directed to the writings of Melandliou, and other reformers, the peru- fal of which produced a diflike of the doftrines of the Ro.iiilh church, though he did not yet feparate from it. Having finidicd liis iUidics at Cologn in 132;, he returned to his father's houfe, and in the following year he was in- vitcd by the abbot of I.a Chapelle, near Zurich, to be a teacher in his convent, into which the reformation of Zuin- glius was introduced in 1J26, principally by his inftruftion. Attachincr himfelt to this reformer, he accompanied him to the conference held at Berne in 1J28; and he afterwards fettled as reformed pallor at his native place. In 1531, after the viAory obtained by the catholic cantons over the proteftants, he was obliged to retire to Zurich, where he fucceeded Zuiiiolius, who had loft his life in the battle. In this fituation he applied with afhduity to his minillerial labours and his ftndies, and edified his church by his writings as well as by his fermons. When Bucer attempted to re- concile the Lutherans and Zuinglians, by introducing a kind of middle doftrine with regard to the eucharill, he counterafted his efforts ; and he was appointed by the Swifs churches in 1545 to reply to the harlh cenfures, which were publifhed by Luther agaiuft their doftrine refpctling the iacrament. In 1 1549 he concurred with Calvin in drawing up a formulary, expreffing the conformity of belief which fuhfilled between the churches of Zurich and Geneva, and intended, on the part of- Calvin, for obviating any fufpicions that he inclined to the opinion of Luther with refpeft to the facrament. In the fame year he urged many reafons againfl: renewing the fublidiary treaty between the protef- tant S'.vifs and Henry II. king of France, and by his in- fiuer.cc the propofal for this purpofe was rejected. Among other arguments, he urged upon their conlideration, " that it was not lawful for perfons to hire them.felves, in order to kill thofe who had done them no wrong ;" a pofition, which, however confonant to the principles and fpirit of chriftianity, many profeffed believers have too frequently dif- regarded. BuUinger afforded kind afGftance to the Englifh divines who fled into Swifferland from the pcrfecution of queen Mary ; and he drew up a confutation of the pope's bull that excommunicated queen EUzabeth, which has been trai dated into Enghfh. He alfo perfuaded the magiftrates of Zurich to ere6t a new college in 1538 ; and he prevailed irith them to ellabljfh a fchool, on the fcite of an old nun- nery, in which 15 youths were taught and maintained, free ai expence. la 15 ji he wrote a book, the purport of B II L which was to (hew, that the council of Trent had no other dtfign than to opprefs the profeffors of found religion ; and, therefore, that the cantons fliould pay no regard to the invi- tations of the pope, which folicited their lending deputies to that counciL In i 561 he commenced a controverfy with Brcntius concerning the ubiquity of the body of Chrill, zealoully maintained by the one, and as vehemently oppofed by Bullinger, which continued till his death, that liappen-.d on the 17th of September, 157 j. Befides a great number of printed works, amounting to ten volumes, he leit fevural pieces in nianufcript. Although BuUinger had been once married, and had eleven children, he was blamed for not taking another wife, when he became a widower at the age of fixty ; fuch was the importance annexed by the iirfl re- formers to the connubial ftate, efpecially with regard to miniliers, as it afforded a manifcfl proof of their renuncia- tion of popery. Gen. Diet. BULLION, denotes gold or filver in the mafs or billet, tefore it is coined. 9 Ed. III. ft. ii. c. 2. The word is apparently formed from the French billon, a mafs of go'.d or iilver below ftandard, which Du-Cangc de- rives farther from bdla, as being aurum aut argcntum in mq/fam feu b'lllam, i. e. baculum conjlatum. The term is applied to thefe metals, either when fmelted from the ore, and not perfeftly refined, or when fo refined, and melted down in bars, or ingots, or any unwrought body of a certain degree of finenefs. In order to render gold and filver fit forufe, it is ncceflary to reduce and harden them by an alloy of fome bafer metal : and the quantity of this alloy is afcertained by the legiflative regulations of different coun- tries, fo that the proportion of the one to the other may conftitute the ftandard filver of fuch countries. Accord- ing to the laws of England all forts of wrought plate Ihuuld be made in conformity to the legal ftandard : and the prices of ftandard gold and filver, regulate the value of the bul- lion, confifting of ingots, bars, duft, or foreign fpecie ; con- fequenlly, in order to afccrtain the value of bullion, it is firft affayed. See Assay. Sec alfo Gold and Silver. Sdver bullion is fometimes alfo denominated plate. Silver and gold, whether coined or uncoined (though ufed for a common meafure of other things), are no lefs a com- modity than wine, tobacco, or cloth ; and may, in many cafes, be exported as much to national advantage as any other commodity. In all great commercial countries a good deal of bullion is alternately imported and exported for the purpofes of fo- reign trade. This bullion, as it circulates among fuch coun- tries in the fame manner as the national coin circulates in every particular country, may be confidered as the money of the great mercantile republic. Whilft the national coin receives its movement and diredtion from the commodities cir- culated within the preciniSts of each particular countr)-, the money of the mercantile republic derives its mo\ements from thofe that are circulated between different countries. Both are employed in facilitating exchanges, the one between different individuals of the fame, the other between thofe of different nations. However, the importation of gold and filver is not the principal, much lefs the fole benefit which a nation derives from its foreign trade. It is, indeed, part of the bufinefs of foreign commerce to fupply countries which have no mines with the gold and filver that are wanted in them : but this is, comparatively, a very infignificant object ; nor is it by the importation of gold and filvtr, that the dif. covery of America has enriched Europe. But by opening a new and inexhauftible market to all the commodities of Europe, it gave occafion to new divifions of labour and improvements of art, which, in the narrow circle of the an. cient B U L cient commerce, could never have taken place for want of a market to take off the greater part of tlitir produce. Gold and filver, according to Mr. Locke, are llie mod folid and iiibflantial part of tlie moveable wealtli of a nation ; and to mnltiply thefe metals llionld, he thinks, on that ac- count, be th- great objcil of its political economy. Conn- tries that have political connet^ions with foreign nations, and that are obliged to carry on foreign wars, and to main- tain fleets and armies in dillant countries, and to fnbfidi/e foreign princes, are under a neceffity of fending money in fome form or other, abroad ; and therefore it has been faid, tliat in time of peace it fhonld endeavour to accumulate gold and fdver, that when occafion requires, it may pofftfs the means of carrying on foreign wars. Upon thefe popular jjrinciples, all the difl'erent nations of Europe have ihidied, tliough to httle purpofe, every poffible means of accumulat- ing gold and filver in their refpcdive countries. Spain and Purtngal, the proprietors of the principal mines which fup- v\y Europe with thofe metals, liave either prohibited the exportation of them under the fevcrcft penalties, orfubjefted it to a confiderable duty. The like prohibition leems an- cieiitly to have made a part of the policy of moll other European nations. But when thofe countries became com- ;nercial, the merchants found this prohibition extremely in- convenient, and reniunftrated agairll it, as hurtful to trade. I'hey reprefented, fi;ft, tiiat the exportation of gohi and iilver. in order to purchafe foreign goods, did not always diminifh the quantity of tliofe metals in the kingdom, but might frequently increafe that quantity; becaufc thefe fo- reign goods, if not conlumed in the country, might be re- exported, and fold in foreign countries for a profit, which would bring back vv-ith increafe the treafure originally fent out for the purchafe of them. They, moreover, reprefented tliat this prohibition could not hinder the exportation of gold and filver, which, on account of the fmallnefs of their bulk in proportion to their value, could eafily be fmnggled abroad. Thefe arguments produced the wilhed-for eff.-tt ; and the prohibition of exporting gold and filver was ref- trifted in France and England to the coin of thefe refpcflive countries. The exportation of foreign coin and bullion was made free, and the firll law for this purpofe in England was paflcd in i66j. In Holland, and in fome other places, this 'iberty was extended even to the coin of the country. A coun- try that has no mines of its own, mull undoubtedly draw its gold and filver from foreign countries ; and, on account of their fmall bulk and great value, they are as eafily tranfported as obtained. When the quantity of gold and filver im- ported into any country exceeds the effeftual demand, no vigilance of government can prevent their exportation. All the fanguinary laws of Spain and Portugal are not fufficient for keeping their gold and illver at home. As they are eafily tranfported from places where they abound, to thofe where they are wanted, their price does not admit of the fame fluftuation with that of many other commodities, that are not fo conveniently and fpeedily removed. The changes which take place in their value are generally (low, gradual, and uniform. Inftcad-of accumulating gold and filver, with a view to the' augmentation of the real wealth of the country. Dr. Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 157.) recommends their being confidered, under whatever form they exift, as utenfils ; and increafing the ufe for them, by increafing the coufumable commodities, which are to be circulated, managed, and prepared by means of them, as the mod effectual and moll certain method of increafing their quantity, which will ever keep pace with the ufe to which they are applied ; and beyond this, no law can ever prevent their being immediately B U L fent out of the country. He adds, that it is not always neceC fary to accumulate gold and filver, in order to enable a country to carry on foreign wars, and to maintain fleets and armies iit dillant countries. Elects and armies are maintained, not with gold and filver, but with confumable goods : and the nation, which, from the annual produce of its domellic indullry, from the annual revenue arifing out of its lands, labour, and confumable llock, has wherewithal to purchafe thofe con- fumuble goods in dillant countries, can maintain foreign wars there. See Coin and Money. Bullion is alfo ufcd for the place where the king's cx- cliange is kept : or where gold and filver are brought in the lump to be tried or exchanged. BULLIT's Lick, in Cography, a falt-fpring lying in Salt river, in Kentucky, America, and giving name to the river. It is diftant 20 miles from the rapids of the Ohio, near Saltfburgh, and is the fined fpring that was worked in • the county. BULLOCH-MORE, a rocky flioal, about a quarter of a mile long from eatt to weft, which lies above a mile W. of St. John's point, in the mouth of Killibeg's harbour in the vvell of Ireland : the Itall water in it is fix feet. MKcn/.ie. BULI^OCK, in Rural Economy, the male of the cattle kind of animals, after being caftr.ited. It is the fame with ox. Animals of this kind are generally termed bullocks from two to five, fix, or more years old. The author of the " Synopfis of Hufbandry" has ob- ferved, tliat in bullocks " a fiiooth coat and healthy coun- tenance are proofs of their kindly difpofition, and that they will not deceive the buyer in the future progrcfs ; whereas, a drooping countenance, a lank belly, and a ftaring coat, may be confidered as unfavourable circumltances, and cer- tain indubitable figns, either that fuch beafts are unhealthy, or by nature unthrifty and unprofitable." Belides thefe, much depends on the form and conftruftion of the animal: " a clofe well-fet bnllock, with a large dewlap, llout legs, deep cheft, broad buttocks, and thick flank, will rarely de- ceive the purchafer ; whereas thofe of a contrary (liape, loole-jointcd, long-legged, with a prominent back-bone, great length of body, fliarp buttocks, and a belly tucked up, though to appearance larger than the firft. mentioned, are not likely to pay fo well for their meat, and will be found much lighter in the fcale from thefe dcfefts." Eattening bullocks, it is obferved, " require to be fod- dered with hay in the fe verity of the winter months, and for this feafon it is always a prudent mcafure, where it can be done, to lay in for mowing a certain portion of marfh or other good grafs land, that there may be no want of fodder in the winter and fpring of the year ; for it is in March and Apiil, if thofe months turn out to be unpropitious, that ftock of every kind is more apt to fuffer than in the depth of winter ; and when young bullocks become much reduced in fle(h at that feafon, it is a very difficult t.iflc to raife tl.em, and they will continue during the procefs of their fattening, to betray marks of the check they met with in their youth, fo as never to arrive at the weight when fattened, that they would have done if they had not been fuffered to pitch in the early ftagc of their life." Good water is likcwife a very eflential requifite in feeding horned cattle ; and fuch graziers will never find their account in fetting about this bufinefs, whofe grounds do not abound with a continual and plentiful fuppiy of it ; nor will the beads thrive on dry lands, though the grafs fhonld be in the largeft abundance, for bullocks require a large quantity of water to dilute their victuals, and delight in ilie fuminer time to chew the cud in pools or rivulets, where they may enjoy a 6 cool B U L cool rctrtat, and with alternate vibrations of tlic tail defend themfclves from tiie troublefome attacks of flies, gnata, and otiier iiifcfts. The period when beef generally fetches the beft price is towards the month of March ; hence, thofe who arc fortunate enough to have any fat bealls in the fpring, are certain to make a good market of them, efpc- cially in years in which the crops of turnips turn out defi- cient ; as when there are large growths of this root, vaft. numbers of horned cattle are fattened on them in Norfolk, and the adjoining counties, and thefe are often brought to Smithficld in fuch herds as to caufe a confiderable reduc- tion in the market. Befides the method of fattening bullocks on grafs lands, there are feveral others in the wolds of Kent and SufTcx, where the land is the moft fertile of any in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, and where the meadows produce a grafs of the moft rich and niitritio\i3 quality, and in an abundance equal to the ftrcngth of the pallure, where the ponds and rivulets yield a continual fupply of wholefome and refrelhing drink, and where the hay, when well fecured, pofFelTcs a virture anfwtrable to the green herbage : on thefe feeding lands the gra/,icr finds his account in ilocking his fami with bullocks of the largeft fize, either from the ifle of Anglefca, or from Ynrklhire, StalTordfliire, or other places remarkable for breeding the moft weighty beafts. Thefe bullocks have generally been worked for fome years, a prac- tice which not only i'erves to render them tradable and docile, whence they he more quiet in the feeding paftures, but which rcnde-.'S fuch beafts much more expeditious in getting into flefli, than thofe which have not been accuftomed to the yoke. Thefe bullociii having been raifed into good condition by means of the grafs witlioul doors, are, at the approach of winter, taken into the houfc, where they are kept in feparate ilalis, and tended with a conftant fupply of this highly nutritious fodder, the intriufic goodnefs of which is often alone fufficient to complete the bulinefs, and render the oxen fit for the butcher. But in order to accelerate the progrefs, troughs are fet before them, which are con- llantly filled with ground beans, oats, &c. as likewife with oil-cake reduced into fmall pieces. This latter fubftance, though apparently not calculated to plcafe the palate of a graminivorous animal, tfpecially fo nice a feeder as a bullock, is coveted by them with fuch avidity, that, after they have been a few weeks accuftomed to the tafte of it, they q\iit any other provender to feaft on this diet, fo that a very fmall portion of hay will be required when the beafts begin to feed heartily on the cake. But it is to be obferved that water is of the utmoft conftqnence, and therefore fhould be liberally given them during the time that they are feeding on the cake, at which time they require a more copi- ous fupply of liquid than when they are confined to any other diet. Tluis provided with a due fupply of hay, oil-cake, and water, the beafts make a quick progrefs in their fatten- ing, and if in pretty good heart when ftiut up, will be ready for the butcher at the time when beef is moft likely to ad- vance in price in the markets. It is neceflaiy to remark, that in the feeding of bullocks fither on hay, corn, oil-cake, or a mixture of each, thtir feeds fhould be given them frequently, and in fmall propor- tions at a time, for, if the fattening beafts are fuficrcd to blow on any part of their food, they can never more be brought to eat of the fame again, until compelled by hunper, a fenfation which they ought never to be allowed to feel. 'J'his ftiows the great neccillty of a conftant attendance on thefe animals, in order that their food may be given in due proportions, their water often changed, and their litter iUl! kept frcfh and clean under them, forof all brute animals, B U L a bullock is the moft'dainty in the choice of his food; whence, Mr. Bannifter fuppofes, " he has probably obtaiiied the appellation of neat, a term perpetually ufed to difcrimi- nate tliefe cattle." It is ftated by the fame writer that " when fed with oil- cake, each beaft will require eight cakes per day, which are to be broken into pieces, of wliich one cake will form about four. Many people divide the cake by means of a large mortar and weighty peftle ; but there is a far eafier and more expeditious method of performing this work, which is, by holding the cake for a few minutes before the fire, which renders it, from a very hard fubftance, pliable and tender, fo that it may be broken with the utmoft facility between the fingers to any fi/.e that may be thought neceffary, though it will be prudent not to break any more at one time than may be fuppofed wanting for the expenditure of the current day, that the beafts may enjoy their provender every day frefti out of the loft. And here a hint is offered in refpedl to preferring the cake, which is, that it be laid in a dry, clean loft, where it may be kept free from any extraneous mixture, but to be particularly careful that neither wet nor dampnefs be admitted to come in contadl with it, which would cer- tainly occafion it to be mouldy, and render it totally unfit for ufe : this caution feems the more neceffary, as the cakes are generally purchafed in the fummer months, when the price is at the loweft, and kept for half a year or longer be- fore they are ufed, in which time it is evident that either a drip in the thatch or tiling, or a dampnefs in the walls, or the flooring of the ftied or vvarehoufe wherein they are ftowed, may bring no fmall detriment to the cakes ; and thus the owner fuffers a heavy lofs in the firft expence, and is utterly difappointed in his future views." Moreover " when bul- locks are fattened on turoips and hay, they require only a fmall allowance of water, as the moifture of the turnips in a great meafure fupplies the place of other liquid. They may either be turned into the field, and fed with a daily portion, by dividing the clofe with hurdles in like manner as is pradtifed for flieep, or the turnips may be brought home and given to them in a yard or other inclofure ; or, laftly, the beaft may be tied up in ftalls, as was diredled for the cake-fed bullocks. Of thefe three methods, the laft feems to be the moft eligible, as by this means the beaft will lie mueh more at his eafe, and having his eyes detached from every objeA but his food will fatten more kindly, and with greater expedition, than when fufTered to enjoy a wider range. The fecond method of bringing the turnips into a yard, and fuffering the beafts to eat them there, is much preferable to that of penning the bullocks in the field, where they will probably not ieldom make their way into the ftanding turnips, and be expofcd to the inclemency of the weather ; from both which circumftances much time will be loft in their fattening. Befides, they will be lefs under the infpeftion of the owner, and therefore liable to various accidents, w hich might eitherbe pre- vented or remedied when the other method ot feeding is pur- fued. The dung, likewife, will be totally loft when the bul- locks are fed in the field ; and this is a matter of great import- ance to a farmer, and the valuable addition which the muck from the ox ftalls makes to the contents of the yard, being replete with the dung and ftale of the beafts, may well com- penfate for the extra-attendance required on this occafion." Turnips for fattening bullocks ftjould be of the largeft fize, and, when brought out ot the field into the yard, be divcfted of their tops, and of the dirt which adheres to them. The tops and fmall turnips may be thrown to the cows and lean beafts, and the large roots, after having been thus cleaufed, be divided into three or four pieces, and flung into the trough before the fatting beafts, obferving not to give B U L give too large a quantity at one time ; and if any of the laft ferving (houid cafually remain in the troiiglis when the bait- ing time comes round, thcfc muft be removed for a frc(h fupply. The hay too, which is allowed to thefe bealls, either when fed with turnips, or on oil-cake, fhould be the fweeteft that can be got, and be apportioned out to them in fmall quantities. Turnips arc more palatable, and likcwife more nutritious, when given to the bcafts drawn frefli out of the field ; but to guard againft the contingency of a froft, or of incelfant rains, the firft of which would render this bufniefs imptadicable, and the other inconvenient ; it feems a very judicious method to provide a Hock of turnips in dry open weather, that they may be in readinefs at tliofe times when they cannot be procured frefli carted out of the field. Thefe, when divelled of tlieir leaves and top roots, and cleanfed from dirt, may be piled up in a covered flird, where no moiilurecan penetrate, and, in this manner, main- tain their goodnefs for fome length of time. When bullocks are at firft fliut up to fatten on turnips, care (hould be taken that this food be given in moderation, and with a proper allowance of hay ; otherwife, the fvveet- nefs of the turnip may tempt the beaft to feed fo vora- cioufly, as to occafion too great a fullnefs in the maw, which is called ho-ving, or lloixjing, an accident which fre- quently happens to ruminant animals, when taken from dry meat or natural grafs to turnips, clover, or other fucculent forts of food. See Hoten. Sometimes accidents happen to bullocks, when feeding on turnips, from pieces flipping into the throat and (licking there. To prevent fuffocation, which would frequently be the confequence in fuch cafes, the outfide of the gullet fliould be rubbed down with a Hick in order to force the piece down into the ftomach ; or, fliould that fail, a turned Hick, or piece of cane formed fo as to make a kind of pro- bang may be introduced into the throat, and the turnip by that means be removed. See Stall-feeding. By fome, the black, red, and brindled bullocks are con- fidered as mod hardy, and better difpofed to fatten than thofe of other colours. See Cattle and Live stock. Bullock's eye, in Arch'iteSure. See Eye. BuLLOCKyZif(/f, in Rural Economy, the houfes in which bullocks are kept while feeding. In the conftruclion of thefe buildings, attention fliould always be had to their being well aired, to the facihty of feeding and cleaning the animals in them, and to their being kept dry and clean by their hav- ing fuitable drains and conveniences for urine and dung. In the rural economy of Norfolk, Mr. Mardiall remarks, that a bullock-houfe there, confifts of a centre building, thirty- fix feet lon;^, nineteen feet wide, and about eleven feet high to the eaves, with a pair of wide folding doors at each end, and a lean-to on each fide, the whole length of the build- ing, and eleven feet wide. The centre buildmg is the tur- nip-houfe; the lean-toes, flieds for the bullocks, which ftand with their heads toward, or rather in the turnip-honfe, from which they are parted by a range of mangers only ; having the full freedom of breathing in its fpacious area. By open- ing the doors at each end, a fnfficient degree of air and coolnefs may be given in clofe weather, while, behind, the eaves of the flieds are brought down to within five feet of the ground, and are boarded with rough boards, ejicept an opening at each ei'd for the bullocks to creep in at, to prevent too great a coldnefs in fevere weather, thus preferv. ing a due temperature. The flied of thefe dimenfions, thus conftrufted, holds twenty bullocks, ten on each fide, faftened by the neck, with chains, fwivels and rings playing freely upon pofts feven feet high. At each comer of the tur- Vol. V. B U L nip-ho'.:re, is a triangular bin for containing the topped and tailed turnips, or other provifions. In autumn, it is farther obfcrved, the entire building is fometimes ufed as a temporary barn for buck-wheat, ptas, &c. and in fummer the centre part is an excellent waggon, ftitd : had the doors been made a foot and a half highn, it is fuggclled that it would have been an admirable rvluge for loads of com or hay in a fliowery harvcft. The main build- ing is covered with reed, tlie lean-toes with tiles. And in the rural economy of Gloucefterfliire, the fame writer re- marks, that each bullock has a houfo and a yard to himfelf, in which he goes loofe, occupying them by turns, as appe- tite or amufemcnt direfts him, having a manger and a drink- jnp trough to go to at plcafure ; of courfe, he eats when he is hungry, and drink,; wlun he is thirlly. He is alfoat liberty to rub or to lick himfelf, as well as to keep his body in a proper degree of temperature as to heat and cold. Theory, fays Mr. Marfnall, could not readily fuggeft more rational principles. Tlie conllrudlion of thefe, however, vaiies in the minu- tia. The water trough, for inftance, is fometimes placed by the manger in the hovel or flied, fometimes in the open pen. Other lefs noticeable variations may likewife be fccn in different buildings. But the plan and dmieiifions, which at prefcnt feem to Itand higheft in eftecm, and on which fe- veral ereiftions of this nature have been made within the laft fif- teen or twenty years, are the following : 'I'he building fifteen to fifteen feet and a half wide within, and of a length propor- tioned to the number of ftalls required : the height of the plates five feet to fix feet four inches, fupported on the fide to the north or eaft by clofe wailing : on that to the fouth or welt by pofts, fet on ftone pedeftals : the gables walling : the covenng plain tiles on a fingle pitch-roof: againft the back wall is a gang way, three and a half to four feet wide, formed by a length of mangers, three feet to three and a half feet wide, from out to out, at the top narrowing to about fifteen inches within at the bottom : the perpendicular depth fourteen or fifteen inches ; the height of the top rail from the ground, about two feet nine inches : the materiali two inch plank, ftayed and fupported by pofts and crofs pieces, and ftiffened by ftrong top-rails : the dimenfions of the area of the covered ftalls, about eight feet three inches fquare j of the open pens the fame. The partitions between the ftalls are of broad nails, paffing from the outer pillars to fimilar pofts, rifing on the inner or ftall fide ot the manger, and fteadied at the top by (lender beams, reaching acrofs the building, each (lall, or each partition, having a beam and a pair of principals. The par- titions of the pens are gates, reaching from the pillars to the boundary wall ; and likewife from pillar to pillar. AVheu they are fixed in that fituation, each bullock has his ftall and his little yard. When in this, each is fliut up in his ftall, the yards form a lane, or driftway, for taking in or turning out any individual. The boundai^ wall of the pens is about four feet high, coped with blocks of copper-drofs. On the outer fide of it is a receptacle of manure ; on the in- ner, a range of water troughs, with a channel of communi- cation for the convcnicncy of filling them. The materialt of the troughs, are ftone ; of the channel, gutter-bricks, co- vered with flabs. Thefe ftone troughs, which are about fourteen inches by two feet fix inches within, have a conve- niency in their conftruftion, which is entitled to notice ; in- ftead of the fides and ends being all of them pecked down to an angle, fquare with the bottom, one of the ends is left bevelling, floping, making a very obtufe angle with the bot- . tom. This fimple vaaation renders them eafy to be cleaned, either \vith the (hovel or the broom. jU The B U L The floor is paved with hard burnt bricks, laid edgewife in mortar, being formed with a fteep dcfccnt from the wall to a channel, from tiiree to four feet from it, and with a gentle fall from the iranger to the fame channel, which be- comes the general drain for rain water and urine. At one end of the pens is a pump (where a natural rill cannot be had) for fupplyiiig the troughs of water ; and, at the other, a llacit of Hubble for litter, which is ufvd in the Ihll only, the yard being left uiilittered. At one ?nd of the building is a cakehoulc, at th; other the rick-yard ; with a door at each end of the gnng way to receive the hay and the cake. In fomc inllanccs, he has feen a double range of ftalls on this plan, the area between them being the common recep- tacle for the dung. Wlien a number of Halls, as twenty or thirty, are required, tiicir ari-angcment brings them within a convenient compafs, and the two ranges, with a proper afpeft, biicome Iheltcr to each other. Befide thefe loofe flails, there are others built nearly on the fame plan, but wiiliout gates, and on a foraewhat fmaller fcale, in which the cattle are fallcned to the manger, or the partition pofts, with a long chain, which gives them liberty to rub and lick thcmfelves, and move about in their (lalln. In this cafe, a water-trough is generally placed at the end of every fccond partition, level with the manger, with a general pipe of communication to fill them, each trough fupplying two bul- locks. This plan, he obferves, leffens the cxpence in fome degree, and prevents the bullocks from fouling their mangers. In the Cotfwold hills, he remarks, that each bul- lock has difierent troughs, a fmall one for corn, a larger one for hay, with a wa;er-trough, which runs the whole length of the (hed, and is covered by a board, each bullock having a hole to drink at. There are various other con- ilruAions of (hcds for this ufe, which will be more particu- larly defcribed under their proper heads. See Cattle- sheds, and Feeding-houses. BuLi.0CK-/?a//r, the parts that are partitioned off in the (beds, in which the bullocks (land to eat their food. They Ihould always be made fufficiently roomy. See Cattle- sheds. Bullock, in Geography, a new county of the ftate of Georgia in America. Bullock's /o/rt/ and neci, lie on the eaftern fide of Pro- ▼idence river, in the ftate of Rhode ifland. BULLS, hay of, lies on the north of Cadiz in Spain, within Rota point, and affords a fine ihelter from the N.W. to the N.E. winds ; about N.N.W. from Cadiz-bay. Bulls, bay of, or Baboul bay, a noted bay on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland ifland, about fix leagues to the fouth of St. John's harbour. It has 14 fathoms of water, and is very fafe, being land- locked. The only danger depends upon a rock, 20 yards from Bread-and-Cheefe point, and another with nine feet watei; off Magotty cave. N. lat. 47° 20'. AV. long. 52° 20'. — Another bay of the fame name lies on the weft fide of Trinity bay, running fo far weft, that it is fcarcely three miles over land from the head or bottom of it to the bay of Placcntia. BULLSKIN, a townftiip of Fayette county in Pennfyl- vania. BULLULLOS, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, four leagues from Lucena. BULLY, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine ; fix leagues N. of Rouen. BuLLv-/r<'<', in Botany. See AcyRAs and Bumelia. BULMAN, in Geography, a rock or (hoal on the fouth coaft of Ireland, on which there is never lefs water than four feet. It lies near Hangman's point on the caft fide of B U L the entry into Kinfale harbour, and mud be carefully guarded agjinft by thofe who enter that port. N. lat. 51° 40'. W.^long. %° 28'. BULM MoNOu, a county of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea. BULONGA ijland, lies off the mouth of Aracan river, on the eaft fide of the bay of Bengal. BULSEDI, a town of Arabia, in the county of Yemen, 22 miles S. E. of Loheia. BULTEAU, Lewis, in Biography, a learned and pious French author, was born at Roueii in 1615, and fucceedcd his uncle as king's fccretary, which office he occupied for 14 years, till he withdrew from it to ftudy and religious re- treat. Having entered as a lay-brother among the Benedic- tines of St. Maur, he pafTed the remainder of his days at the abbey of St. Germain des Prcz, near Paris. His principal woiks were "An Effay on the monaftic Hiftory of the Eaft," 1680, 8vo. dcfcribing the manners, &c. of the Csnobiles, and proving that monaftic inilitutions are not fo modern as has been fuppofed. " Abridgment of the Hiftory of the Order of St. Benedict, as far as the loth century, 1684," 2 vols. 4to. " TranCation of the Dialogues of Gregory the Great," with Notes, 1689, i;mo. His modefty would not allow his annexinn- his name to his works ; his ftyle was formed on the model of the writers of the Port Royal ; and his knowledge of languages was very extenfive. He died of an apoplexy in 1603. Nouv. Dift. Hift. BULTEL, derived from the barbarous Latin hultelhis, or bultellum, a fearce, or boulter, denotes the bran or refufe of meal after drtfling. Bultel alfo denotes a bag wherein meal is dreffed, called alfo a btill.r, or rather boulter. See Bolters. BULTER.Jo/Z.. See Bolting-Jo/A. Bulters, are ftrong lines, five hundred feet long, with fixty hooks, eight feet afunder, and baited with pilchards or mackerel, which are ufed on the coaft of Cornwall in the fifliery of congers. They are fuuk to the ground by a ftone faftened to them ; and foraetimes fuch a number of thefe are tied together as to reach a. mile. BULWARK, Propugr.aculum, in the yincient Fortification, amounts to much the fame with baition in the modern. See Bastion, and alfo Rampart. BULWER, John, in Biography. This writer, who lived in London, and was in repute in his time for his ftill in teaching deaf and dumb perfons, and others, to communicate their thoughts, by motions of their fingers and hands, is now- only known by his works, which are fufficiently fin. penfagona Swartz. " Leaves lanceolate, acuminate, fhining ; peduncles axillary ; drupes pentagonal." Native of the Well Indies. 11. ^. rohmdtfol'w. Swartz* '• Leaves roundifh, ma gined, veined, leathery, fmooth on both fides." Native of Jamaica. 12. Y). cuneata. "Leaves wedge-obovate." Native of Jamaica. Fruit of this and the preceding unknown. BUMICILLI, a feft of Mahometans in Africa, faid to be great forcercrs : they fight aeainft the devil, as they fay ; and frequently run about covered with blood and bruifes, in a great fright : they fometimes counterfeit combats with him at noon-day, and in the prcfence of numbers of people, for the fpace of two or three ho'.ns, with darts, javelins, fci- mitars, &c. laying defperately about them, till they fall down on the ground oppreffed with blows ; after refting 3 moment, they recover their fpirits, and walk off. What their rule, is, is not well known ; but they are faid to be an order of religious. 3 U 2 BUMP. BUN Bl'MPKIN or BooMKiN, in Sfa Language, a (hoit boom or bar of timber, projeamg from each bow ot a fhip, to extend one edge of the forefail to windward ; for winch pur- pofc there is a large block fixed to its outer end, through which tlie rope is paffcd that is falK-ned to the lower corner of the fail to windward, called the tad ; and this being drawn tight down brings the corner of the fail clofe to the block, which being performed, the tack is faid to be aboarij. The bumkin is fecured bv a ftrong rope, which confines it down- ward to the (hip's bo'w, to counterad the drain it bears from the forcfail above dragging it upwards. BUN, tiie drv Ihilk of hemp, llripped of its rind. BUNCH, a clufter or affemblage of certain things, as of grapes. BvNCH alfo denotes a tumor, or protuberance, natural or prttcrnatui-al, either on an animal or a vegetable body. — The bunch growing about the graft of a plant is a fort oi callus formed by the extravafated fap. Bvscii of CiimL'. See Camels. Bunch, in Sur^q.'ry, denotes an elevation of the back, arif- ing from an exterior luxation of the iviicir.e thereof. 1 he cure is begun by keeping emollients a long time on the verU-- bn, whereby to loofen theligamtnts, andfiniHiedby wearing an iron boddicc, which comprfffing the ■vertdrs, by degrees drive them back to lUeir natural fituation. Bunches in horfcs, called alf» hiols, iuarts,VL'aA wfAVjaie dife«fes arifing from foul meat, bruifes, hard labour, or the like ; whereby the blood becoming putrefied and foul, oc- cafions fuch excrefcenccs. BUNCHED cods, among FLrijls, are thofc which (land out. and wherein the feed is hidged. Bunched roots, thofe round roots which have knobs or knots in them. See Bulb and Root. BU NCR ANA, v.: Geography, a fmall poll town of the county of Donegal, Ireland, fituated on Lough Swilly, in the peninfula of IniHiowen. It is 1 2 miles N.W. of London- derry, and 124 N.W. of Dublin. BUXCOMB, the largeft and mod v.-eftein county of North Carolina, and fuppofcd to he the moft mountainous in the United States. It lies in Morgan dillridl, and is bounded W. by the ftate of TennefTee, and S. by that of South Carohna. The Blue ridge pafTes through this county, and gives rife to many large rivers, as Catabaw, Weteree, Bread river, and Pacolet. BUND.\MIR, a central river of Perfia, which palTes between Scliiraz and Iftakar, or the celebrated ruins of Per- fepolis, and is fuppofed to be an ancient Araxes, which fee. This famous river flows into a fait lake called Baktagan. Between this rive^and the Kuren, a b;anch of the mountains of Elwtnd extends S.E. See Elwe.sd. EUNDE, a Kwn of Germany, in \\ c circle of Weftpha- lia, county of Ravenfberg and prefifturate of Limberg. At this place a confideiable trade i.s carried on in yarn and coarfe linen, and near it is a medicinal fprifig, difcovered in BUNDEH, 3 ridge of mountains in Hindoftan, which runs parallel to the Godavery river on the fouth, but at a confideraMe ditlance fro.^n it. BUNDELx-\, or BnNDf.LCUNP, a territory of Hindoflan, hiiK"- on the fouth-well lide of the Jumnah, and feparated from it by a nriTow trad of low country. It is inhabited by a tribe of Rijpoots, who are deemed inferior to their brethren of Agimere. Bundelcund is furrounded by the dominions of Oude, Benares, and the Mahrattas, and was formerly fubjtft to a rajah named liindooput ; but it is now chiefly divided among his foa? , or their delccidants. It BUN is a mountainous trad of more than 100 miles fquare, and con- tains (he celebrated diamond mines of Punna or Puma (probably the PanafTa of Ptolemy), together with fomc ftrong foVtrefTes, the principal of which is Callinger. It is fubjed to the depredations of the Mahrattas, and has of late years been attempted by Madajee Sindia, who failing to make hiuii'clf mailer of the principal fortrefles, abandoned the open country. The ancient limits of Bundelcund were much more extenfive than the prefent ; extending much further towards the Nerbuddah river. Chatterpour is reckoned the capital. Where the foil is not ftrong, it pro- duces all forts of fruits, but neither rice nor fugar. Cottoa trees are abundant, and a fpecies of tree from which is gathered a black nut. The territories of Adjidfing are contiguous to Bundelcund, on the weft ; to the Mahrattas, on the fouth and fouth- vveft ; and to the Benares territory, on the eaft. Their whole extent.iiicludingfometributaryZemindarsonchefouth- eaft, may be about equal to Bundelcund ; and hke that, fubjed to the occafional depredations of the Mahrattas. Its capital is Rewah or Rooah, which fee. Rtnnell'? Mem. Introd. BUNDERKOLE, a town of Hindoftan, in the diftrid of Kilhtcwar, feated between the two branches that form the Chunaub river, near the foot ot the Imaus or Hinimaleh mountains. N. lat. 33° 40'. E. long. 74° 58'. BUNDLE, a colledion of things wrapped up and bound togetner. A bundle of paper confifts of 40 quires ; a bundle of Hamburgh yarn contains 20 ikeins ; and of ba&et rods, the bai:d is 3 feet. BUNDLES, in Laiv, denote a fort of records of the chan- cery, lying in the office of the Rolls, in which are con- tained the files of bills and ar.fwers ; of hab. cor. cum caufd ; ctrtioraris ; att?.chments. Sic. ; fcire faaas's ; certificates of ftatute ilaple ; extents and liberates ; fuperfiJais's ; bails on fpecial pardons ; bills from the Exchequer of the names of (heriffs ; letters patent furrendered ; and deeds cancelled; iiiquifitions ; privy-feals for grants ; bills figned by the king; warrants of efcheators ; cuttomers, &c. BUNDURAL, in Geography, a diftrid of Hindoftan, adjoining to the Imaus or Himmaleh mountains, in N. lat. about 33° and E. long, about 75° ,30'. BUNEL, Peter, in Biography, an elegant fcholar of diftinguiihed eminence, was born at Touloufe in 1499, and educated at Paris. Unable to procure a fubfillence at home, he went to Padua, and afterwards to Venice, where he was entertained in the houle of Lazarus du Baif, the French ambafiador, and where he ftudied the Greek and Hcbrevv' languages ; of Latin he was before fo complete a niafter, that he wrote it with fuch purity as to have been deemed the founder of the Ciceronian fed which prevailed fo much among the Italian fcholars. With George de Selve, bif.iop of Lavaur, who fucceeded du Baif at Venice, he retired to Lavaur, and upon his death, returned to Touloufe, where he was refcued from indigence, and pa- tronized by MelTrs. de Faur. He accompanied the fon of ore of thefe in the capacity of tutor on a tour to Italy, and at Turin, was carried off by a fever in his 47th year. His reputation for literary tafte and for a philofophical con- tentment of mind was eminently diftinguiihed. In early life he feems to have incurred the fufpicion of herefy, by mani- fefting an inclination to the opinions of the refoi-mers ; but he was rej^ded by Calvin, becaufe he feemed to have had too favourable fentiments of the Pelagian dodrines. A colledion of his Latin letters, written with peculiar purity of ftyle, and containing much curious matter, was printed by Stepheas in 155 1, and afterwards reprinted at BUN at Touloufe. Tlie capitoiils of Toiiioufe liave placed liis bull in their town-lmll among otlur ornaments of tlieir city. Gen. Uia. Bun EL, Jacop, a painter of liillory, was born at Blois in 3558, and became tlie difeiple of Frederick Zucchero. He was in high reputation as a painter both at Rome and at Paris ; and in the church of the Auguftines, in the latter cit)', he painted a " Defcent of the Holy Gholl," vvliich was preferred by that excellent judge, Nicolo PonfTm, to all the paintings in that city. Pilkington. BUNG, the ilopple of a calk, barrel, or the like. The bung is a wooden pl'Jg, fcrving to Hop the hole left in the top of a Vclfel to be liiltd by. It anfwers to what, among the ancient.^, was called cp'^jlonimm, and in the middle digeJ'igUhis, the J'eal of a vcjjj, beeanlc in thole days it was ufuaily fealed. After tunning new wine, or cyder, the bung is ufuaily left open for fome time, that whtn the liquor comes to work, there may be vent for the froth or Icuni, and that the hoops may not be in danger of being burll by the violence of the fermentation. Yet, in feme cafes, they leave v\incs to ferment, without giving them vent by tlie bung, in order to render them more brillc and fpirituoub : in which cafe, it is neccflary the vefTel be hooped with iron, and other precau- tions taken that the bung may not fly. BUNGAY, in Geography, a town of Suffolk, England, is built on the banks of the river Waveney, which divides this county from Norfolk, and is navigable for barges from Yarmouth on the coaft. This place is memorable for a dreadful fire which, in 1688, confumed nearly the whole of the town, and deftroyed property to the amount of 29,8901. The town, however, revived after this deplorable event, and its houfes, S:c. were re-ere£ted in an improved and more convenient ftyle. The town confifts of two pariflies, and has two handfome churches. That, dedicated to St. Mary, is a large ftruclure, with a lofty fleeple. Between the two churches are the ruins of a Benediftine nunnery which was founded in the time of Henry II. Here are alfo the remains of a very ifrong caftle, which appears to have been built by the Bygods, earls of Norfolk. In the time of the barons' wars, this place was flrongly fortified by Hugh Bygod, who is faid to have publicly defied the king, but he was obliged to compound with Henry II., by a fum of money, and hoftages, to fave It from a fiege, and demolition by that monarch. The carl afterwards efpoufed the caufe of Richard, Henry's fon, againft his father; when the king feized this, and the callle of Framlinghp.m. The callle was demohflied in the reign of Henry III., but in the 10th of Edward the firll Roger Bygod obtained a licence to embattle his manfion which V as built on the fite of the caillc. The inhabitants of Bungay have the privilege of a very extenlive common in the vicinity of the town. Here are a weekly market on Thurfday, and two fairs annually. It is ic6 miles N.E. of London, and contains 187 houfes, and 903 inhabitants in Trinity pavifh, and 305 houfes, with 1446 inhabitants, belonging to that of St. Mary. BUNGO. See Bongo. Bunco, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of Loango. BUNGURY, a town of Hindoftan i.V Lahore, feated near the river Rauvee. N. l?.t. 32^ 30'. E. long. 74° 58'. BUNGUSH, a diltriit of Cabul, fituate to the fouth of the Cov/ river and eaft of the Sinde, terminating on both. N. lat. about 33° and E. long, about 70°. BUNIALU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in ths province of Natolia ; 28 raiks W. of Caftair.oni. BUN BUNIAS, in Bolar.y, (the rame of a plant with a root i.kea turnip, m Diofcoridts and Plinv, from /9ci.,o-- a hill), Lmn. gen. 52.% Schreb. 1070. Willd. 1217. Ji'lf. 241. Vent. vol. iii. p. I 14. Ga;it. S28. Clafs and order, Mraaynommfdicuhfa, Schreb. Wiild. and Smith. SUinuoj'a Lmn. Nat. OA. S^jufjle Linn. Crucifcra. JufF. and Vent. Gen. Char. C^l. perianth four-leaved ; leaves ovate- oblong, fpreading, deciduous. Cor. fonr-pctalled,' cruci- form ; petals obovate ; claws f.ttenuated, trtd. Slam, fix, the length of the calyx, two oppofite ones a little Ihorter than the others ; antiiers ereCt. biiid at the bafe. Pi/}. germ oblong ; Higma obtufc. A7;V/<.' irrtgular, ovate-oblongj lom^cwhat tuiir-lidcd, not opening, deciduous. Eir. Char. Silicle deciduous, four-fided, with unequal acute angles, not opening. Dr. Smith. Spec. I. B. coniuta, Linn. (Myagrum cornutum. Lam. Pugioninm cornutum, Giert. Willd. and Vent.) " Silicies with two fpreading horns, fpinous at the bafc," Linn. /,ra-j."x tongue-Hiaped, very entire, glaucous, without veins, halt embracing the item. Racemes terminal ; very loolc in a Hate ot maturity, with wide-fpreading peduncles. Flowers fmall, not larger than tliofc of Draba verna. Felah narrow, very entire, acuminate, white, a little longer than the calyx. Gern^ fomewhat hifpid, two-celled. Silkle membranous, lenliculariy-comprtned, tranfverfely oval ; furr.ilhed at each extremity with a long, comprefl'ed, fword-rtiaped procefs arodue the appearance of two wide-fpreading horns ; reticulated on each fide 'with veins; fomewhat tranfparent between the veins, and armed with four pair of weak divaricated fpints proceeding from the veins. Celts naturally two, placed by the fide of each other and feparatcd by a thin partition ; but, in the mature fruit, one is conftantly obliterated. .JW linglc, ovate oblong, compreflTcd, incloftd in an aril. Gacrt. Tab. 142./^. cj. NaUve of the Levant and of the dcfeit of the Calmncks near the Cafpian fea. 2- V,.fpmofa, Linn. Mant. 96. (Myagrum fpinofum Lam.) " Racemes fpinefcent." Gasrt. Tab. 141. f. 2. Root zn- nual. Stems a foot high, ered, branching, fubdividtd, round, ilender, very fmooth, green. Leaves ovate-oblong, blunt, fomewhat angular, fmooth, petioled. Racemes ereB., ftifF, rigid, terminating with compound fpincs, and a few feffile flowers. Calyx oblong, clofed. Petals lanceolate, pale violet. Germ heart-fliaped. Style cylindrical, the length of the germ, permanent. Stigma thickilh. Silicle a fpungy drupe, hea. t-fliaped, turgid, fmooth, and even terminated by the pyramidal, permanent llyle ; rind thick, fliell two-celled, hexangular, two oppofite angles broader. Seeds folitary, roundifh, Linn, and Gxrt. Native of the Levant. 3. B. Erucago, Linn. (Erucago fcgetum, Tourn. Myagrum Erucago, Lam.) Jaeq. Auft. Tab. .540. Gcert. Tab. 142. f. 2. " Sihcks four-angled, beaked ; angles two-creftcd; lower haves lyrtlhaped; lobes oppofite, tri- angular," La Marck. Root annual. Stems numerous, a foot and half high, (lender, fpreading, rough with a very flioit pile. Radical leaves rather ilraight, with toothed lobes, foon withering. Stem leaves imzW, lanceolate, toothed, and dillant. Flowers yellov*', peduncled, in loofe, terminal racemes. Silick a quadrangular drupe with a rough furface, narrowed in the middle, term.inated by the lung llyle, and divided at its angles into two very prominent, toothed crells. Rind fpongy-membranous, thin, whitilh. Shell bony, four-celled ; cells in pairs, one over the other, all fertile. Seeds roundifh, plano-convex, rufefcent. La Marck and Gsert. Abundant in corn fields, in the fouthern parts of France. 4. B. afpcra, Willd. " Sihcles four-angled, all BUN bU the leaves lanceolate." Roit annual. Sf:m near a foot high, fomeiviiat branching, rough with miiuite prickles. I.aiutr haves invrrfcly lanceolate, upper ones lanceolate, » httls toothed; with a few while, forked and trifid hairs. F/o'.Lrrt ycUow, in raccircs. Calyx fomewhat ventritofe, convtrging. SiHcks vcit fhort, muricate, crelled wuh tour oppofite Icrnted :uig'.ts; and tenninattd by a pyramidal, capitate ftyle,' the L-"r.;^ah of the filicle. Retz. Obs. 3 p. 31. Native cotintrv unknown. 5. B. oricntalis, Linn. (Crambc orientalis, Tourn. Myagrum orient. La Marck,) GxTt. Tab. 142. " Siliclcs ovate, gibbus, warty; lower leaves runcinat'e-lyreniapcd, upper ones hinceoUtc," WiiiJ. Root perennial. Sirms herbaceous, upwards of tw^o feet high, branched. Floivcrs yellow, in long, terminating racemes. Silicle drupaceo'is, roimdifh or ovate oblong, gib- bous, warty, ending in a fhort ll\!e. Rir.d iungom, ftrav.'- coloured. Shill bony, of the (hape of the filicle, fmooth without ; with two cells ont above the other, the upper one, in fuch filicles as are rouiKlifli, gentrraily obliterated. Setrh roundilTi, rufefcent. Miller and Ga;rtner. Gathered by Tourne.fbrt in the Levant, and by Gmelin in Siberia. 6. B. cochlearkide^ , Wi'ld. " Silicl'es ovate, bluntifh, fome- what wrinkled ; radical leaves oblong, ftem-lcaves arrow- (haped, embracing the ftem." Root annual ; 3 native of Trance, Italy, Hungary, &c. 7. B. talarkn, WiUd. (Vella tenuilTima, Pallas It. torn. 5. PI. 6. French Tiai flation.) " Silicles globular, fomcwhiit hexagonal, with long beaks ; leaves lanceolate, blunt, petiolcd." Root annual. Stem ereft, branching, half a foot high. Lcitvcs very entire ; hifpid, attenuated into a petiole at the bafe. Flowers white, in filiform racemes. Silicles fix-furrowed, crowned with the thick, cylindrical, permanent ilyle, two-celled, not opening. 8. B. Myagroides, Linn. Mant. 96. (Cakile inyagroides. Vent.) La Marck Ulufl;. Tab. 554- _/5"^. I.? " Silicles two-edged, two-jointed, a little fwelling above ; leaves pinnate, with refieiled finufcs." R/iOt annual. Stem ftraight, two feet high, even, irregularly branched. Lower leaves pinnate or bipiiniate, rather broad, not fl>;(hy, deep green, with oblong, toothed divifions or pirfnas ; the upper ones very fimilar, but narrow and linear ; all with reflected finufes. Rjcemes terminal, long, ftraight. Flowers nearly felBle. Calyx oblong, clofed. Petals very entire, pale, purple. Anthers yellow. Style fword-fhaped. Silicle fub- cylindrical, rigid, approximating to the rachis ; on a fliort peduncle ; lower joint cylindrical, two-valved, generally with only one feed, th; valves marked with a fingle ftreak ; upper joint, con^preffcd, obfcurely two-edged, generally with only one feed, blunt, with a protuberant auricle on each fide. Linn. A native of Siberia, g. B. tegyptiaca, Linn. Syft. Nat. tom. 3. p. 231. (Myagrum verrucofum, La Marck) Girt. Tab. 142. copied by La Marck in Illuft. ■PI. 553. fig. 3. " Silicles four-angled, rugged with warts on all fidcs ; leaves runcinate." Root annual. Stem a foot high, branched, hifpid below, fmoother above. Leaves runcinate, fomewhat toothed, even ; with a few hairs beneath on the petioles. Racemes folitary, terminal, long. Flowers pedicelled. Calyx yellowifh, fpreading. Petals dark yellow, obovatc, obtufe, fpreading, with ereft claws. Stamens yellow, dillant. Germ, ovate, four angled, green. Style none : Jligma capitate, yellow. Silicle drupa- ceous, fmall, ovate, four angled : the two narrower fides rugged with warts ; the two broader marked with a double, longitudinal, elevated ftreak, which is crenulate, or (lightly tubercied : rind very thin, membranaceous : ftiell bony, muricate, two celled ; cells placed fide by fide. Seeds foli- tar)', ovate, convex on one fide, flat on the other, rufefcent. Linn, and Csrt. A native of Egypt. 10. B. hakarica. 8 BUN Lmn. Mant 429 (Myagrum b:'l. La l.Iarck) Jacq. hort. Tab. 144. Govan ilh'ft. tab. 20. " Silicles hilpid ; leaves pinnate ; folioles fomewhat tootlied." Root annual. Stem a f. ot high, much branching, fpreadinjr, angular, fmooth, i-frtiw petioled ; pinnte lanceolate, finuate, obtufe, fmooth. Peduncles in racemes, very long, ereft : pedicels fhorter than tiie flowers. Calyx clofed, fmooth, lanceolate, con- cave, teftaceous. Corolla yellow ; petals oblong, obtufe, the length of the calyx. Silicles globular, echinated on every fide with dcnfe, weak fpines, and terminated by an awl-fliaped, ftilfbeak, longer than the filicle. A native of Major.:a and Minorca. Ji. B. pro/lrata. Wild. Desf. All. tab. ijO. " Silicles one-feeded, toothed :* leaves pinnati- fid ; fcgments linuatc." Stems numerous, proftrate, pu- befcent from the root. Leaves pubefcert, deeply pinna- tifid ; fegments obtufe, toothed. Flowers white. Silicles roundifh, compreffed, terminated by tlie permanent flylc, pubefcent. A native of the far.dy foil in the 'northern part of Africa. 12 B. Caiile Linn. HuJfon, Vv'ithering, Smith. (Cakile maritima Tourn. La Marck, Vent. Willd. C;-.ki!e Serapiiinis Lob. Gaert.) Eng. Bot. PI. 2j i. La Marck Il- luft. PI. 554, fig. 2. Gffirt. Tab. 141. " Silicles ovate, two-edged, fmooth, onc-feeded ; leaves flefhy." Smith. Root annual, flender, v/oody, running deep into the fand. Stem round, much branched, woody, divided from the bafe int.- widely divaricated, zig-zag, twifted branches. Leeroes alternate, thick and fuccnient, rather glaucous, fmooth, more or lefs deeply pinnatifid and toothed ; their fegments all obtufe. Flowers pale purple in denfe, terminal corymbi, which afterwards grow out into ipikes. Calyx gibbous at the bafe. Silicle fmooth, oblong, acuminate, obfoleteiy four-angled, but fo comprefTcd as to make two oppofite edges very prominent, two jointed, feparating at thejoints: the upper joint largeft, deeply emarginate at the bafe, fpnngy, conftantly fertile, o-.e celled, not opening fpon- taneoiifly, but eafily feparated.into two valves at the promi- nent angles : the lower joint fmaller, fomewhat top-lTiaped, fometimes perfeftly folid, and fometimes furnifhed with a cell, which is either barren or contains a fingle feed ; but a fertile lower joint is very rare, and never occurred to the obfervation of Gsrtner. Miller, Gasrt. and Smith. An inhabitant of the fea-coafts of Europe, Afia, Africa, and America. Willdenow defcribcs the variety /3 of Vahl, which he conjeftures to be Ifatis Egyptiaca of Linnaeus, as a fecond fpecies of his genus Cakiie, under the trivial name of Egypfaca. It. d:ifers chiefly in having larger leaves, longer peJunclef, and a feed always in each cell ; but it feenis t ) be only a variety of the common fpecies. Obf. This genus, like feveral others of the fame natural family, is very perplexed and obfcure, and differently treated by different authors. Linna:us, at firft, formed it of fuch fpecies as have rough or mnricated filiques or filicles, in- cluding the Erucago of Tournefort, and framed its generic character accordingly : but afterwards, without changino- the character, admitted the Cakile of Tournefort, which has not rough or muricated filicles, and which in his Hortus ChfTortianus and Flora Suecica, he had placed under Ra- phanus. La Marck has aboliflied it entirely, keeping Ca- kile diftinft, and placing the other fpecies under Myagrum, which, he fays, forms with them a very natural genus, con- fifting of fpecies with filicles, in fome refpctts fo different from each other, thai, if not united under one very general charafter, they muft conftitnte neariy as many genera as fpecies. Juffieu, inftead of uniting it with Myagrum, is rather inclined to divide it into three, Bunias, Erucago, Cakile. Gasrtner makes its cffential charafter depend on a drupaceous filicle, adding that thofe who are delighted with BUN BUN with a multitude of genci-a, may divide it according to the internal ftriidture of the dnip;-, and the feeds into Bunias, Loelia, and Erucago. In confeqiience of this tftablifhed principle, he has not only reftored the genus Cakile of Toiiinefort, but Ims alfo introduced a neW one for the Eii- nias cornuta of Linn-eiis, under the generic name Pugio- nium, hompuglo a dagger, fuggelled by the (hapeof thefiiigu- larprocefles from the lihcle. Willdeiiow and Ventenat have admitted the tliree genera, and the latter has alfo again made Erucago a diftinft genus. In this diverfity of opi- nion, we have thought it bell to keep the Linnxan genus entire, only adopting the efientiil chara&er given by Dr. Smith in his Flora Britannica, which appears to be equally comprchenfive of the proper fpecies and exclufive of others. Bun 1 AS Synaca, of Gxrtner and Willdcnow. See Anastatica Syriaca. La Marck fays that it has the fruit of his iMyagrum, and confequcntly cannot belong to tiie genus Anaftatica. Gm-rtner, when his plates were engraved, followed the arrangement of Linncsiis, but, when he wrote the defcriptions, had difcovered that the filicle is properly a drupe, though the rind is fo thin as to be fcarcely difcerni- ble, and that, therefore, it belongs to his genus Bunias. BuNiAS, Gerard. -See Brassica i\''i;/«j-. BUNIUM, (fuppofed, like Bunias, to be derived from jSouvoi, a hill, as is faid, from its affedling high fituations, but that being neither its peculiar nor univerfal character, it is probably fo called from the form of its root^ Earth- nut, Kipper-nut, Pig-nut, or Hawk-nut. Linn. gen. 33J. Schrcb. 46S. Willden. 53;. Juff. 223, Vent. vol. iii. 3c. Gsert. 807. Bulbocaftaiium Tourn. Clafs and order, pentandrla digytiia. Nat. Ord. UmhcUata: Linn. Uinhel- lijerx Juff. Gen. char. Umbel umverfal manifold, with rays fewer than twenty : partial, very (hort, crowded. Irfuolucre uni- verfal fliort, of many linear leaves, fometimes not more than three, or only one, and after the flowers are opened, often entirely wanting : partial fetaceous, the length of the par- tial umbel. Perianf/j proper (carcely apparent. Coral uni- verfal uni^ovm. Florets all fertile. Cor. proper of five in- flex-cordate, equal petals. Stam. filaments five, (horter than the corolla, fimple : anthers fimple. Pi/l. germ ob- long, inferior : ilyles two, reflexed ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. none : fruit ovate, fplitting in two. Seeds two, ovate, convex on one fide, flat on the other. Linn, five ftriated, the fpaces between the ftreaks flightly wrinkled. Gsrt. Eifen. Char. Cor. Uniform. Umbel crowded. Fruit ovate. Sp. I. V>. Bulbocaflanum. Linn. (B. minus. Gouan.) La Marck, 111. 197. " Involucre many-leaved : Item ftraightand leafy at the bafe." Dr. Smith. " Leaves uniform, involucre many-leaved." Willd. " Fruit fomewhat cylindrical, thicker at the apex ; ftyles reflexed, deciduous." Gouan. Root perennial, tuberous, rouudifti. Stem round, alternately branched, leafy, ftriated, fmooth. I.ea-ves tripinnate : fegments linear, of ten trifid. Umbels terminal, ereft. Partial umbels clofe, white. Involucre three times fhorter than the rays. Dr. Smith. Common on the Continent ; rare in England ; found by Martyn in the time of Dillenius, near Hornfey wood, and by Mr. William Wood, lately in Kenfington gardens. 2. B. Jlexuofum, Stokes in Withering and Dr. Smith. (B. majus. Gouan and Will- denow.) " Involucre of three leaves or lefs ; ftem naked, tapering, and zig-zag at the bafe." Dr. Smith. " Stem leaves very narrow, involucre none." Willd. " Fruit ovate, acuminate J ftyles permanent." Gouan. Root tu- berous, roundifli. Stem elongated tinder the cnrth, tapering, zig-zag, white ; about a foot and a half high, creft, branched, leafy, ftriated, fmooth. Radical leaves on long petioles, tripinnate; (Vgments linear, pinnatifid and gaflied ; ftem leaves nearly fcffile, tritcrnate, finely divided ; flieath ftiort, grooved, fmooth, the edge membranous and whitifh. Umbels feveral ; univerfal rays from feven to twelve, partial about twelve. Invnhirre umverfal and partial various ; in Yorkfliire fpecimcns, the univcrial involucre mofl cjmmonly confiftsof one or two lanceolate leaves, with three coloured ribs, proceeding from a projeaing ring which furrounds the bafe of the umbel ; partial one of from one to three leaves, ex- aflly refemblingthofeof tlieuniverfal involucreand proceeding from a fimilar ring. Styles vvliite according to Curtis, but in our fpecimens they are purple, with globular ftigmas. A native of heaths, dry paftures, and woods, in almoft every part of England. Linnjeus confounded thefe two fpecies, but, as Dr. Smith obferves, appeals to have drawn his de- fcription from the Bulbocaftanum, the majus of old authors. They knew only one fpecies, which muft have been the flexuofum ; but Magnol, his contemporary, mentions both in his index of plants growing about Montpelier, and adds that he found them to be fpccilically different by cultivating them in his garden. Johnfon, in his edition of Gerard, diftinguiflied them, and Dillenius was rather inclined to think them diftinft ; though Profeffor John Martyn, on whofe authority he admitted the mtijus of the old botanills as a Britilh plant, fufpctted that the difference was owing to the roots growing nearer than ufual to the furface of the ground. Gouan, who cuUivated them during eight years, is furprized that they have not been diftinguiflied long fince, and gives fpecific differences which, however, do not fatisfy the prefent- profeffor Thomas Martvn. I3ut Dr. Stokes and Dr. Smith have, we apprehend, now deter- mined the queftion. The tuberous roots of both fpecies, on account of their fweetifh tafte, have long been a favou- rite efciilcnt with boys, and when boiled or roafted are faid to be little inferior to cheftnuts. Ray recommends them when feafontd with pepper as a nourifliing, ftimulating, food ; and the old empirics attributed medical virtues to them, which have long fince been exploded. Gouan and Willdenow have pervcrfely given the fpecific name majus to the minus of the old authors. 3. B. aromaticum, Linn. Mant. 218, " partial involucres of three leaves." Root annual, and as Bofc obferves, probably not tuberous. Stcfn ereft, even, alternately branched. Leaves refembling thofe of Carum Car\ii, fuper-decompound. Umbel of ten or twelve rays on a long, ftriated peduncle. Partial umbels fhort. Univerfal involucre of about fix, fhort, awl-fliap:d leaves. Partial involucres of about three leaves, the length of the little umbel. Corolla white. Petals equal, inflex-cordate. Seeds ovate, minute, yielding an aromatic odour, fimilar ta Marjoram. A native of Crete and Syria. BuNiuM. Sauvaee, Monf. See Sison vcrticil.'atum. BUNIUS, Dalech. J. Bauh. See ^Ethusa Bunius. BuNius, Rumph. and Burm. See Stilago Bunius, now difcovered to be the male of jintidefma alexiteria. BUNKER'S Hill, in Geogrnph. See Breed's Hill. BUNKLE'S Manuscript, in 'Biblical Hijlory, a mo. dern MS. of the four Gofpels, noted in Mill Bu, and 70 in the firft part of Weftein's New Teftament. When this MS. was collated by Mill, it was the property of Mr. Bunkle of London ; but at prefent it is preferved in the Univerfity library of Cambridge. Whether it was written a fhort time before or a fliort time after the invention of printing, which laft is afferted by Wetftein, in oppofition to Mill, is a matter of little importance. It is fuppofed to have BUN have been written by George of Sparta, cmbalTy to England by Pope Sxtus IV. i.. U/O- who was fent on an It has not the ancient K.faxa.x. but the "J'Jli';'-" ,^';"P''^7' ^f Jt "re found in our printed bibles. M.chachs's Int. to the ' ' " ' ii. and iii. of Hindollan, which New Tcllament byMarfli, vol BUNNASS, in Gfosrafhy, a river runs into the Jcflul; 25 miles S. E. of Oud.pour. BUNNICK., John Van, in B,or;raphy, a pauiter ot hil- lory and po.tra.t, was born at Utrecht .n 16,54, and under the inllruAion of Herman Sachtlevcn, bcca.oe a conhder- able artift. Having for feme time affociated with (-.erartl Hoet in the exercife of his art, he deterrr-ined to improve himfclf at Rome ; and there became acquainted with Carlo Maratti, and Abraham Genoeis, Irom whofe wor!vS ai.cl converfali6n he derived f-reat benefit. Intending to return liome. he was detained by the duke of Modena, who en- jraKcd his fer^ice by the grant of an honourable peplion, and ictained him in his court fc.r eight years. He d.figned well, difpofed his figures with elegance and propriety, and wai correcl in his outline. He died in i 727.. His brother and difciple, Jacob Fan Bunwk, became an excellent mafter, and diftinguillied hm.lelf by panning battles. His fubjcas were difTcrrent from thofe ot his bro- ther, but in the manner of his handling and colounng, he refembled him entirely. He died in 1725. Pilkmgton. BUNNOO, or Banou, in Geography, a town oi Cabul, fituate between the mountains of Sindia Baftch, which he fouth of Paifliawur and the river Cophencs, or Cow river, or the great river of Bungudi, which is formed by the waters o? Ghizni and Gurdaiz, and paffing by Nughz and Bunnoo, difchargcs itfelf into the Indus or Siode, at Dem- kotc. N. lat. jj-*. E.long. 70' 20'. , j u BUKNUEL, a town of Spain in Navarre, feated on the Ebro ; 7 leagues from Tudela. BUNOLA, a fmall town in the ifland of Majorca. BUNOWEN, a vilUge on the coaft ofConnemara, in the wellern part of the county of Galway, Ireland, which gives name to a bay, in which fmall veflels may ride in the lum- mer time, or in moderate weather, the ground holding well, and the water from 2 to i\ fathoms. N. lat. 53° 24'. W. long. 10° 8'. BUNRATTY, a barony in the county of Clare, Ireland, which derives its name from the old caftle of Bunratty, or Bonratti, which was built near the month of the fmall river Gearna, that flows into the Shannon, and was confidered a fortrcfs of great ftrength and importance. It was built by Thomas de Clare in 1277 for the proteaion of the Enghfh fttllcis ; and was afterwards the occafional refidence of the earls of Thomond. Being taken polTeffion of by the adhe- rents of the parhament in 1646, it was befieged by the Iiifli under lord Muflierry, and held out fix weeks. It is about 8 miles weft from Limericlc. Hollinlhead. BUNT of a fail, in Sea Language, is the middle part of it, formed into a kind of bag, or pouch, that it may catch and receive the more wind. The bunt is chiefly ufed in topfails, the foremoft leech of which is cut with a neck ; for courfes are for the moft part cut fquare, or at leaft with a fmall allowance for bunt or compafs, which is the middle part of the foot of fuch fails. They fay, the hunt holds much leeward •wind ; that is, it hangs too much to leeward. Seamen all agree, that a bellying or hunting fail carries a veffel fader to the windward than a ftraight or faft fail : the contrary of which is afTerted by Dr. Hooke, who has a dif- courfe to fliew the preference of ftraight to bunting fails. Vide Hooke's Pofthum. Works, p. 563, feq. Bvur-lines, are fmall hnes made fad to the bottom of the BUN fquare fails, in the middle part of the bolt-rope to a cren- gle ; and fo are reeved through a fmall block, feized to the vard : their ufe is to trice up the bunt of the fail, for the better furling it up. BuNT-/;/J<-i-/e.'A, is the lining fewed up the fail, in the diieftion of the bunt-line, to prevent the fails being chaftd. BUNTINE, a t!iin woollen llufl", of which the colours and fignals of a fliip are ufually made. BUNTING, ill Orni/hology, the Englifh name of the birds of the Emberiza genus. See Embf.riza.^ — Bunting is the name applied in common to Emberiza Miliaria. BUNTINGFORD, in Geography, a fmall maiket-tovvn in the county of Hertford, England. It Hands on the banks of the river Rib, near the fpot where the Romnn road called Enning ftreet, crofTed it. Edward the third, in the 21ft vear of his reign, granted to this town, the privilege of a yearly market, and a fair. In the 41ft year of his reign he further endowed it with a nveelly market on Saturdays, and a fair in June. This town is only a chapelry to Lay- tton, where the church is fitnated, but the inhabitants are accommodated with a neat and commodious chapel, which wasfiniflied in 1626. Here are a free-fchool, an alms houfe, and other charities. The prefent market day is Monday ; but the markets are very i: confiderable. Buntlngford is 31 miles north from London, and with the remainder of the parifli, contains i6i houfcs, and 799 inhabitants. Magna Britannia, vol. ii. 973. BUNTSPECHT, in Ornithology ; Frifch has the greater woodpecker, pictis major, under this name. — Kleiner Bunt- fpecht is the lefler fpotted woodpecker, picus minor, in the fame author. BUNTZLAU, or Bunzet., in Latin Bolejlavia, in Geo- graphy, a town of Silefia, in a circle of the fame name, and in the principality of Jauer. It is feated in a fertile coun- try, on the Bober; and exports great quantities of its beau- tiful brown earthen ware. It was formerly noted for the rich mines in its vicinity, and the Silcfian bards have cele- brated the limpid and falubrious waters of the qucck-brunn or quick-fpring that lies near it. N. lat. 51° la'. E. long. 15° 50'. Buntzlau, /lit, an ancient town of Bohemia, in the cir- cle of Boleflaw, founded by Wratidaus in 915, but reduced by the troubles of the 15th and i6th centuries to an incon- fiderable place. It is feated on the Elbe, 8 miles S. S. W. of Benatek or Benatky. Buntzlau, jfung, a town of Bohemia, and capital of the circle of Boleflaw, built in 973 by Boleflaw the younger, and ranked in 1600 among the royal boroughs by the em- peror Rudolph. It is feated on the Ifer, 28 miles N.N.E. of Prague. BUNYAN, John, in Biography, a very popular writer among perfons of a particular defcription, fprung from an obfcure origin, being the fon of a tinker, and was born at Elftow near Bedford, in 1628. His parents gave him an education fuitable to their condition, and taught him to read and write ; but his conveifation and conduft in early life were remarkably vicious and profang, though not without fome checks, which indicated very ftrong religious impref- fions. In procefs of time thefe impreflions, revived and cheriflied by the converfation of fome pious women, with whom he accidentally aflbciated, terminated in a thorough reformation, fo that he became as much dillinguifliedfor his piety as he had once been for his profligacy. For feveral years he followed his father's occupation, and in the exer- cife of it travelled about the country, particularly id the neighbourhood of Bedford. He enhlled as a foldier in the parliament army, and at the fiege of Lcicefter in 1645, ''^'s 7 life BUN B U O life was fingularly preferved by his confenting to give tip Viis place as fentinel to a comrade, wtiofe head was taken off by a miidict ball. At the time of his marriagje, his poverty was fuch, that neither he nor his wife poffefTcd fo much as a di(h or a fpoon ; but (lie had, what he deemed of ^renter vahie, " the Plain Man's Path-way to Heaven," and " Tiie Practice of Piety." which he was accnftonied to read with her, and vviiich afforded him fingiilar fatisfa^^ion and ad- vantajje. Of the fincerity of his converfion he had exhi- bited fnch evidence, that he was admitted in i6j5 a mem- ber of a Baptill congregation at Bedford ; and lie was fo regular an attendant on meeti-gs htld for religions piir. pofes, that, foon after the relloration, he was convided of affociating with others in unlawful affemhlics and conventi- cles, fentenced to perpetual bani(hment, fait afterwards committed to prifon, where he fupportcd himfelf and family, during a confinement of twelve years and a half, by making tagged laces, and where he employed part of his time in preaching to and praying with his fellow- prifoners. His library at this time coiififted only of the Bible, and the Book of Martyrs ; and ytt he compofed many of his works, and, particularly, his " Pilgrim's Progrefs," whilft he re- mained in prifon. In the lall year of his confinement, fnch was the eRimation in which his talents and charafter were lield, that he was unanimoufly chofen pallor of the congrega- tion at Bedford. After his enlargement, for which he was in- debted to the companionate interference of Dr. Barlow, bilhop of Lincoln, he travelled into feveral parts of Eng- land, for the purpofe of vifiting and confirming perfons of the fame profeffion ; whence he obtained the appellation of *' Bldiop Bunyan." Upon the publication of king James II. 's declaration for liberty of confcicnce, Bunyan was ena- bled, by the voluntary contributions of his friends, to build a meeting-honfe at Bedford, where he conftantly preached to very large congregations. He ali'o frequently villted London, and preached there among the non-conformifts ; but in one of thefe vifits he was feized with a fever, and died at his lodgings on Snow -hill, Augufl; the 31 ft, ]688, aged 60. His remains were interred in the burying ground belonging to the diffenters in Bunhill Fields. His religious fentiments were thofe of the mod rigid Calvinifts, to which he was zealoufly attached ; his piety, though blended with fome degree of enthufialm, was fincere and uniform ; and his moral conduft, after the period of his converfion, was not only irreproachable, but exemplary, though his zeal expofed both his principles and charafter to many unfounded re- proaches and calumnies. As he never enjoyed the advan- tages of a liberal education, his public performances, as a preacher, and his writings, as an author, indicate very ex- traordinary talents. In his preaching, he fpoke with con- fiderable fluency, though not w-ithout fome hefitation ; and his minifterial labours were countenanced by the learned Dr. John Owen, who occaiionally attended his fcrmons. Of his numerous works the moil celebrated, both for its compofi- tion and popularity, is his " Pilgrim's Progrefs." This work, which has paffed through more than fifty editions, and which has been tranflatcd into various languages, has been admired and applauded by fome of the befl judges ; and there are few perfons who have not read it, whatever may be their opinion of the theological f>fteni on which it is founded, and of the terrific ideas which it is adapted to excite in the minds of the young. The allegory is well condufted and fuftained ; the charafters that are introduced are juftly drawn ; it abounds with lively defcription, and maEifeils the exuberance of invention. Lord Kaimes, fpeaking in his " Sketches of the Hiiloty of Man,'" (vol. i.J of this work, and " Robinfon Crufoc," the great favourites VOL.V. 5 of the vulgar, Tays, that " they are compofed in a flyle enlivened, like that of Homer, by a piopcr mixture of the dramatic and narrative:" and Bunyau's genius, difplayed in this performance, has been, perhaps, extravagantly extolled by other writers, among whom wc may icckoti Mr. danger, Mr. Merrick, and Dr. Roberls, to wliofe fentiments greet deference is due. Many of Mr. Bunyau's other v.-orks are of the allegorical or parabolical kind ; and though not eqvially pojjular with the " Pilgrim's Progrefs," are much read by a certain clafs of perfons. The moll confiderablc of thefe is the " Holy War, made by Rhaddai upon Dia- bolus." One of the iv.oft intcreding of his Works is " Grace abounding to the chief of Sinners," contair.iu'r a;i account of his own life. All his works were eollefled toge- ther in 2 vols, folio, I^ondon, 173^, I7.>7: and a new edi- tion, more complete than any of the preceding, with cop- per-plates, and a recommendatory preface, by Mr. George Whitfield, was publiflied in 2 vols, folio, in 1767. Biog. Brit. BUOMMATTEI, Bi;nedict, an eaily Italian gramma- rian, was born at Florer.ce in 1581, and having entered into the priellhood, difcharged the duties of his fuin'lion, and purfued literary (tudirs at Rome and Padua, and chiefly in his native city. He was a nvitiber of feveral academics, and particularly of thofe of Delia Crufci and the Apatilli, wlicre he recited leftures and difcourfes, many of wiueh have been publiflied. But he is principally known by his two books " (Jil the Tufcau Language," being the firft work that deferves the title of a grammar of the Italian language, and ilill popular and highly efleemcd. Buommattei died at Florence in ifi.17. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. BUON, in Gengrnphy, a town of the kingdom of Naples, and Principato Ultra ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Beneveufo. BUONACCORDO, a fmall ftringed n.-ulical iiillrument, refembling a fpinet, ufed by children to learn to play on, be- caufc of the fliortnefs of their fingers. The word is Italian, and properly denotes a hapfl- chord. BUONACCORSr, Philip, iti B'ngraphy, an elegant modern Latin writer, was born of a noble family at S. Gi- mignano, in Tufcany, in 1437, and refidiiig at Rome in his youth, he was one of the founders of the Roman academy, according to the cuftom of which he affumcd the name of " Callimaco," adding to it " Efperiente," in allufion to the viciditudes of his life. Being fufpefted by pope Paul II. of a concern in a confpiracy againft his life, he was under a ne- ccffily of fecuring himfelf by flight ; and having wandered through Greece, Egypt, Cyprus, Rhodes, and other iflands in the Archipelago, Thrace, and Macedonia, he at length took refuge in Poland ; where he was introduced to kinjj Cifimir, who made him tutor to his fon Albert, and his own fccretary. He alfo employed him in feveral cmbaffies. After the death of Cafimir, he was entrufted by Albert, his fuc- ceffor, with tlie condudt of all the affairs of his court and kingdom ; and though thefe marks of dilliiidtion excited the envy of Albert's courtier.":, and many attempts were made to ruin him, he retained his fovereign's favour till his death, which happened at Cracow, in 1496. Caliimaco, for fucli was the name by which he isdiftinguifhed as a writer, wrote in 3 books the life of Ladiflaus, brother ard p'edcceffor of Calimir, with an account of the battle of Varna, in which he was killed. He alfo compofed a life of Attila, and a fmall treatife on the attempts of the Venetians to excite the Tartars and Pcrfians againft the Turks. Thefe pieces, with fume orations and letters, have been publiflied together, and paffed through feveral editions. The ftyle in which they are written is elegant and forcible ; and in the opinion of Paul 3 X Giovjo, B U O Giovio, no hiftoiinn fince Taciius lias equalled BiionaccoiTi. Many unpiiblifhfd works are prcfcrvtd i\\ the Vatican, and otiicr libraries. Tirabofclii. Gen. Bio;;. Bl'ONACCCRSI. Sec PlERINO DEL VaGA. BUONAMICI, Castkuccio, was born at Lucca in 1710, and iKivini; tiitertd into tlie ccclc-fMilical ftate, fought advancement at Romt ; but being dif.ippoiutcd in his views, he affumed a military charafler, and eiin;aged in the fcrvice of the king of the two Sicilies. He llill, however, indulged histafte for the purfuit.s of literature. His priiicijjal works area relation ia l.alln of the war of Vilktii in 174J, between the Audrians and Neapolitans, printed in 17.16, under the title of" De Rebus ad Wlitras gcftis Cnmnieutarius," 4to. ; for which work hr was recompenftd with a penlion by the kin^ of Naples, a id the rank of commlflary-general of Artillery: and •« De Btllo Italico Commciuaiii," 4to. in ;^ books, l7i;o, 1751 ; co!itainin;r the hlllory of the war i\ Italy, for which he w as honoured by the duke of Parma with the title of count. ' Thefe hidories, equally admired for ac- curacy of detail, and piu-ity of Latin, have been feveral times re-prinied. The author's treatife " De Scientia Militari," remains unpubliHied. He died at Lucca, in 1761. Nouv. Dia. Hill. BuoNAMici, Lazzari, was born at Baflano in 1479, and educated in the univerfity of Padua, where he gained fuch reputation, that Poniponazzi, his tutor in philofophy, fometimei applied to him for the explanation of a palTage in Arillotle. From Bologna, where he wa"! employed in the inllruftion of the young perfons of the Campeggi family, he removed to Rome, and became profeffbr of the belles lettres in the college of Sapienza. Li 1527, when the city was fackcd, he loll his library, writings, and all liis effefts, and with difliculty faved his life. At Padua he occupied the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence, to which he was invited in ijjO, and in this fituation, where he was highly refpcfted, and where he had a great concourfe of lludents, he remained, notwithilanding feveral applicat'ons made for removing him br'univeifities and fovcreign princes, till his death, which happened in 1552. He was borne to his grave on the fliouldcrs of his Rudents. His vriilings, conlifting of letters, prefaces, and Latin poems, are few, but they are fufficient to eftablifli his character as an elegant writer. Notwith- Aanding his profefiioiuil reputation, he diffipated much of his time in the ir.tercourfes of fociety and in play, to which he was lo much addicted, that he fomttimes devoted whole nights to it. His dread of crilicifm might alfo prevent his appearing before the public as an auihor. A colkdlion of his poems was printed for the liril time at Venice in 1572. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. BUONAMICO, of Cristophano, called Bufjal- ■MACCo, wasa Florentine painter, born in the year 1262, and a pupilof Andrea Tafi. He was an arliii of great merit, and by Boccaccio celebrated for his wit and humour (vide II Deca- mcronc); and Fraiico Sacchetti in his " Tre Cento Novelle," relates a (lory of him when he was a boy, which (hews the early bias of his mind ; and as it pourtrays the charnfler of the man, it may not be without its i.itcreft. Andrea Tafi \«as a painter of great induftry, and ufed to r;fe before it was light to purf'jc his avocation, conlldtring the gain more than the ho;;our of his profefTion. Early riling, unfortu- nately, had no charms for his fchohir, and therefore he devifcd a fchemeto make liim lie in bed till daylight. At. the hour Tafi was about to rife, having previoufly provided liimfelf with thirty black beetles, and on their backs faftcned fniall pieces of wax taper, he lit them up, and fent them one by one, through a hole in the dnor, into his mafter's bed room; making a procillion of moving light myllerioufly uniiitcUi- B U O giblc J vvMich fo alarmed the old man, tliat he prayed and recommended h's foul to mercy, and hid iiis face u;ider the bed clothes. In the morning he teld Buonamico he had feen ten tluiufand devils, and that his thoughts were fo difturbcd he could not rife to purfue his proftfrion,, On the fucceed- ing ni'.jht, Buonamico diniinilhed the number of the beetle; ; but the repetition produced tiie i'ame effefl, and fo frightened his mafler, that he determined to remove, being perfuadcd the houfe was haunted by evil fpirits. Buonainico then fent to the parilh priell that he might adminifter comfort. The pried came and foothed his mind : and Buonamico availed liiniftlf of the opportunity to make his obftrvat'ons on the probable caufe of this perplexing event. He obtervcd that he h'J. always heard devils w,-re great enemies to God ; and confequently they mull be [0 to all painters, as their praiSice was to paint faints and angels as perfedl as pofTiblc, and en- deavour to improve mankind, by fhewing through all the ci;cumflanccs of human life the happiuefs of heaven and the tornicnts of he!! ; btfides, whenever fiends were rcprefcnted, they were made as hideous as the painters' imagination could fugged : and as it was well known that devils had more power by night than by day, they pl.iyed him this trick to ke.'p him in bed, that he might not interfere with their re- gion of darknefs : by fuch obiervations, which the prieft thought very plaulible, the old man was perfuadcd that it would be proper to lie in btd till daylight. After a few- months, however, as the devils grew fainter in his recollec- tion. Tail's indurtry returned ; but as they had played their part fo wr.ll, Buonamico recurred to his former expedient, which produced an effeft not lefs frightful and imprtflive. Priefts were again fent for to reftore h'm to tranquillity, who agreeing with Buonamico in ihc probable caufe ot this Itrange appearance, he determined to paint no more by candle light; and this (lory was fo generally circulated and believed, that all the painters in Florence were afterwards afraid to paint at night. Among the firft v^'orks of Buffalmacco, were a feries of religious piftures reprefenting the life of Chrill, painted in a church at Faenza, and otlier fubjefts from the Old and New Teftament ; among which the maffacre of the Inno- cents is particularly mentioned by Vafari, where defpair and terror, agony and diftrefs were forcibly exprtfTed. Of this work nothing now remains, except th.-: original dra'-vings be in exillence, which the fame author defcribcs to have been preferved in his time. He alfo painted in the cloifters o£ the abbey of Septimus, feveral hiftorical fubjefts relating to St. James, to whom the church was dedicated ; and on the ceiling he painted the four evangcliils. He painted alfo many hiftorical piilures on the outlide of this buildings which were well compofed, and executed with fkiil. In thefe piclures he employed fait in the purple ufed for the fliade tint of the fledi, whicli fo corroded and dell roved all the other colours, that, in Vafari's time, nothing remained but tiie purple ; wliich premature decay this author at firil attributed to dampnefs, but, upon minute infpeftion, found' it was owing to the fait that was employed. For the monaftery of the Carthufi'ans at Florence he painted upon panel two pidtures in dillemper; and for the church of San Giovanni feveral, which were dellroyed when the vi-alls were beaten down in the war of 1529. He exe- cuted other works at Cortona and Pcruggia, Afcefe and Arezzo, and painted feveral pifturesin the church of St. Pe- tronio in Bologna. In the cathedral of Sienna is a Mofaic pavement, made from his drawings ; which at tliis day 'u a fpecimen of his abilities in defign and compofition, very honourable to his re- putation. Some of his lateil vv«rks were executed at Pifa, for B U O for the ai)bey churcli of St. Paul, taken from the Old and New Teflamont ; and in one of thefe, reprefenting Noali's drk, he introduced his own portrait, which is the only por- trait known of iiim, and is tlie fame Vafaii introduced into the fccond edition of his " Lives of the Painters." 15uffalmacco enjoyed confiderable reputation, nor was the age wanting in aflotding him opportunity to e.xcrt hi.-; ta- lents ; yet, from the f )I!owing anecdote, he appears occafion- ally to have worked at a very low price. Vafari hai re- co-ded, that he painted a whole length tigure of St. Chriilo- pher, J 2 braccia in heiglit, nearly 33 feet, for 8 florins; and this fad is prefcrvcd ior the fake of a whimfical circumllance that attended the execution of it. The pit^lure was ordered by a countryman, and was to occupy a wall in a church at Florence ; when BiiffalmQcco went to paint, he founii the wall only 9 braccia in height : that his employer, therefore, might h.Tve his meafure, he painted St. Chrillopher lying upon his back ; but unfortunately even in this pofitlon, the wall did not admit of his whole length ; he then turned up the legs perpendicular to the body, which was fo exceedingly ri'diculous, that when the countryman came to fee his faint, he flew into a violent pafiion, and demanded his money, de- daring that he was both cheated and infulted, but the painttr infilled that he had executed the commiilion with the llricleft iideiity, and therefore could neither agree with him, nor comply with his requrft : upon which tl;e countryman brought an aftion againft him, and in the refult was not more fnccefsfid. This prope-fity to make meri-y with life, made Buffal- nacco regavdkfs of the means by which its decline is fup. ported ; and at the advanced age of 7S years he died in ex- treme poverty and diftrefs, fupported in his lall illntfs by the charity of an hofpilal, and buried by the company of the Mifericordia. Vafari has written his life ia 1 3 quarto pages, containing little more than general commendation and whimfical anecdotes connecled with the cxcrcife of his profcfiion. BUONAROTI. See Anctlo. BUON-CONVENTO, m Geography. See Boncon- TEVTO. BUONHABITACULO, a town of Naples; Smiles N. of Policailro. BUONTALENTI, Btrnardo, called Girandolf, in Biography., a painter of hiltory and portrait in miniature, acquired correiSnefs of dellgn, and the knowledge of colour- ing, from Salvati, Bronziiio, and Vafari, and the art of miniature-painting fixim Julio Clovio. His works were much admired for the beauty of the colouring, and for a certain dignity of cxpreflion in his Madonnas, as well as in his portraits. Befides his merit as a painter, he was much approved as a ftatuary and an architect. He was born at Florence in 1547, and died hi r6o.S. Pilkington. BUONVICINO, in Geugraphy, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra ; 1 1 miles S. E. of Scalea. BUOY, a fmall idand on the ealt coalt of Newfoundland, between Feiryland head and harbour. See Broyle. Buoy, in Sea Language, a body floating in water, to fliew either the fitnation of a (hip's anchor, or a danger, as fands, flioals, 5ic. that it may be avoided. Buoys are of various forms, and conllrudcd of bnnyant materials, as wood, cork, &c. The names of the principal kinds of buoys are can, C(i/h, or cable, inin, and -woaJeit buoys. A can-ltiijy is made in form of a cone. This kind is particularly employed in pointing out the extrcioities or fides ef any dangerous bank, land, ixc. A buoy for tliis purpoie is, therefore, large, that it may be feen at fome coiiiiderable dillance, »iiJ is fallcned to au anthur, funk in a proper fitvia- B U P tion, to point out the danger. "When there are fe»era! buojs on the fame find or rtioal, they are generally painted of different colours, to prevent millake, as black, white and red ; this lall colour is that which is bed peiceived, for a white buoy is not cafily obferved in broken water, and in many cafes a black pointed buoy is very indillinct. In goiii{j through a narrow channel, in place 01 having buoys on one fide only, there arc fometiiiKS buoys on one lide and beacons on the other; but as thefe lall arc n;ore eafily broke dowH by the violence of the waves, buoys may, tlierefoie, be placed on each lide; and to prevent niidake, thofe on ihc one fide flioiild be can-bur ys, and cafli-buoys on the other fide. For this pu'pofe it has been propofed, in going in to all ports, U) have can-buoyson the llarboard hand, and caflv-bnoys placed on the larboard hand ; which varieties, experience has fhewn, may be perceived at a confiderable dillance. For the ean-buoy, in confequcnce of its broad heavy end, fwims chiefly on its fide ; while the cafic-biioy, being much narrower and lighter at its upper cud, Iwims more upright, and liigl-.er out of the water. C.ajh-luoys are any common cadvs iifed for buoys. When calks are employed to float, or buoy up the cable in different places to prevent it from being injured by rocks, &c. at the bottom, they are called calk-buoys. Nun-buoys are in form of the middle frufhim of two cones, abutting upon a common bafe, being calks, which are large in the middle, and tapering greatly towards each end. IVooden-buoys are folid pieces of timber, being in form either of a cylinder, or nun-buoy. They are furniflied with one or tv.-o holes, in which to fix a (hnrt piece of rope, whole two ends being fpliced together, make a fort of circle or ring called TxJInp. Thefe feveral buoys are reprefented in the Plales ofjl/rps. Buoy rope, the rope that conntcls the buoy with the anchor. The length of this rope fluiuld be vtry little tnoic than equal to the d-pth of the water where the anchor is to lie, that the buoy may thereby float, as nearly as pofTi- ble, immediately above the anchor, and confcquently point out its fituaticn. The buoy rope is ufeful in weighing the anchor, either by mians of a boat, or when the cable is broke or run out ; and, therefore, it fliould always be of a fnfficient Ihtngtli for this purpofe, otherwife the anchor may be loll. See Piatt of flips. Buoy, Slmgs of the, the ropes which are fallered about it, and by which it is hung. They are curioufly fpliced round the buoy, fomewhat refembling the braces of a drum. Buoy, to flrcain the, is to let it fall from the (hip's fide into the water. This is always done before the anchor is let go, that it may not be retarded by the buoy rope, in its del'cent to the bottom. Buoy of the A'ure, is fituated about N. E. from Sheernefs fort, on the N. W. point of the iflc of Shcppcy, the eaft entrance into Chatham river, or the Medway ; and it is at the extreme point of a fand, which runs E. N. E. from the iilaniJ of Grain, or weft entrance of the Medway. BUOYANT, denotes a thing floating, or apt to float. BUPALUS, in Biugnjphy, a ctkhratcd feulptor, de- fcended from a line of anccilois of the faire profefnon, was a native of Chios, and flourifhed in the 6cth olyr.ipiad, or 540 years B.C. His bi other Aihenls was a!fo of the fame prufcffioii. They worked only in the «'hite marble of the ille of Paros, and executed feveral ftatucs at Kom.\ They were contemporaries with Hippotiax, a poet of a de- formed aud vontenaptible figure, whom, for theii- diverfioii, 3X2 ihcy B U P B U P tli^T reprf fcnted under a ridiculous foi-m. The pott re- v.i.efd l.imfaf hv writiniT a-ainll them a Iharp latirc, which, asfom: fay. caufcd ihem to l..ng th.mfcK-es But Puny omcr, jyn^.rj.u ,^.,,^.~^ r fns oi lie contvan-. that after Hipponax had taken his //* Lmn. C^rj™^;/./-* Julf. r^lcng.. !'.'v made icvcral very fine llalues, and particu- ^-" ^'- ^"^ -"""-- ■ larlv one of .. D-'na at Chios, which was plactd al a great i..\ .,:4hib;t<.-a a frowning countena;ice to thofe who and a pkafant me to thofe that departed. Faufa- c..>o.p. .,55-^dl.9-'---3S-P-7^'--l/V^'^™) mentions Bi.pihis as a good artU^tea as well as Iculptor. BUPARIA, in ^/./oWoy, a fpecics of Pimelia ot the wMVTcJ kind ; bUck, and glabrous ; thorax lunatec ; jaws Urn" g, toothed, and as long as the head. Gnitl Obf. This is drfcribcd by Forftcr under the name of 1 e- NEHRIO BvPAKius. It inliab'ti Spain. liUPARITl, \\\ Botany, Rhced. Mai. See Hibiscus height, entered, nias (1. iv Gart. I00i5. Vent. vol. ii. 521. (Afterifcus and Arte, roides, Tourncf.) La Maick lUull. Pi. 682. Clafs and order, fyigcmfia polys^amia fuperfua. Nat, Ord. Cotnpo- Gen. char. CiiL common, imbricated with a double or triple feries of fcales, in fome fpccies all equaland Ihorter BUPHAGA, in Ornilhology, a peinis in the order PiC.T., of whieh only a lingle fpcciei'has been hitlisrto difcovcred ; and which, being a native of Africa, has received the name of Africana. The generic definition confitts lu hav- ing the bill ftraight, and fomewhat quadrangular ; mandibles pibbous, entire, and more gibbous on the outlide. Legs formed for walking. Liunxus and BritTon have given this bird the name of Buphaga, and BiifTon that of Pic-bceiif, from whence the epithet"of beef-eater is derived. French authors of the pre- fent day write it Picjue Ba-uf. All thefe names refer to a peculiarity of the African Buphaga, which fometimes alights upon the backs of the cattle, and picks holes in them, in order to get at the larvx of the oejlrl, or gad-flies, dcpofited by thofe tormenting creatures in the flelh, direftly below the fkin than the rav of the flower ; in otliers, the outer feries longer and exceeding the ray. Cor. compound, radiate ; florets of the difc numerous, fur.ncl-fliaptd, with a five.pattcd rather fpreading border ; of the ray more than ten, ligulate, fpreading, three-toothed. Stam. fibmcnts l.ve, capillary, very lliort ; anthers cylindrical, united into a tube. Pi/}. of the difc. Germ ovate, comprtfTed ; ftyle thread-fliiiped, the length of the Itamens ; iligma, thickilh, either fimple orbilid. Of the ray, germ ancipilal ; ftyle thrtad-lhaped ; lliTmas two, oblong. P,ric. common, the calyx unchanged. Seeds of lie difc oblong ; of the ray comprefTed. with fliarp edges ; both crowned c'lther with a toothed, or galhed, and ahnoll leafy ma'gin. Receptacle chaffy, convex. E(r. cli'ar. Receptacle chaffy. Seeds crowned with a toothed or gafhed margin ; with Iharp edges, particularly in the ray. Species l. B. fiutefcens Linn. " Leaves oppofite, lan- ceolate ; petioles two-toothed ; ftem ihrubby." A fmali r.uub about four feet hi^'h. Stem ilraight, jointed. Bark greyiOi. Brancheshwfixy. ifi^^)^J oppofite, oblong, broader towards their fiimmit, nr.iTowed into a petiole towards their bafe, connate hke thofe of Lychnis, glaucous ; covered with a very clofe, flioi t down, and marked with three longitudinal nerves. Flowers yellow, terminal, fohtary, pcduncled, CaJyX'fcalcs oval, a little tomentous. Semiflorefs rather broad, flioit, and to;thed. Ciin/f terminated by a fharp point. La Marck, from a iivii.i; pi-nt. A .rative of tlie The fpccies jifr'tcana is between eight and nine inches in AVeft-Indies and Virginia. Cultivated in the royal gard-n length. The prevaihng colour of the plumage above is at Hampton Court in 1^99. t^.'&. Peruv^nnum. La Marck brown ; beneath, and alfo the rump, yellowifli Bill fcarcely ail inch in length. Tail cuneated, and confilling of pointed featiiers. Legs and claws black. BUPHAGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar- cadia, fituate in the wellern part of it, fouth of Telphufa. It derived its name from that of the hero B"phagus, the fon of Japetus and Thornax, who was flain on the moun- tain Pholoe, for daring to offer infult to Diana. Paufanias, 1. viii. c. 17. p. 618. Ed. Kuhnii. BUl'H.AGUS, a river of Arcadia, which took its rife near Br.phagium, and difchargcd itfelf in the river Alpheus. Paufanias. BUPHONIA, from (Jh,-, o.v, -inA^p-j'iri, Jlaushter,\n An- tiquity, an Atlienian feall or ceremony, denominated from a bullock (lain therein with quaint formahties. The buphonia was properly a part or appendage of the ceremony of diipolia. For the origin of the buphonia we are told it was forbid- den by the laws of Attica to kill an ox : but it once hap- pened, at the feall of the diipolia, that an ox eat the corn, others fay the cakes, which had been dreffed for the facri- fice. Thaulon the priefl, enraged at this, prefently killed him, and fled for it. On which the Athenians, fearing the rcfcntment of ih- gods, and feigning themfelves ignorai t who had committed the faft, brought the bloojy axe befo-'j the judges, v/here it was fokmuly arraigned, tried, found guilty, and condemned. And, in memory of this event, a feail was inftituted under the denomination of buphonia. In which it was ftill cullomary for the pried to fly, and judgment to be given about the (laughter of the ox. BUPHTHALMUM, in Botany, (from 0ou;, bull, and »$e»A/*05, eye) Linn. gen. 97;. Schreb. 1331. Juff, 186. Encyc. " Leaves linear-lanceolate, filky, obleurely toothed about the middle ; item flirubby." Sinilar to tiie preceding but fmaller, and of a more filvery appearance. Leaves nar- rower, and without teeth at tiieir bafe. Flowers yellow, terminal, I'oiitary. Cj/yx-fcales ovate ; femiflorets fcarcely extending beyond the calyx. La Marck, from a living plant. Found by Dombey in Peru. 3. B. arborefcens. Dill. Elt. Tab. 38. fig. 43. Plum. fp. tab. 106. f. 2. " Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, without teeth, thick, orten." La Marck. An ever-green fhrub. Stems two or three feet high. Leaves oppofite, connate, lanceolate, narrowed at their bafe, very entire, entirely green and gloffy. Flowers yellow, terminal, folitary ; femiflorets fhort ; calyx-fcales, large and fmooth. La Marck, from a living plant. 4. B. repens Linn. Hon. Clif. 44 (Verbelina mutica fpec. plant, i but not Chryfanthemum humile of Plumier) " Leaves oppo- fite, felTile, three-lobcd ; fteaj creeping." Stem jointed, producing at its joints fmall fibrous roots, and 11;raight, leafy, flower-bearing branches. Leaves oppii; e, fefTile, broad toward their fummit, irregularly toothed, with three fharp-pointed lobes. Flowers yellow, folitary, terminal. La Marck. Native of South America. 5. B. durum Linn. " Leaves alternate, lanceolate, very entire ; Ite.-n fcinewhat fhrubby." Root perennial. Stem a little woody, branched near the top. Leaves alternate, oblong, entire, narrowed at their bafe, a little broader towards the fummit, and ter- minated by a fliort point. Flowers Iciniinal, lolitary. CalyxA<:?isKi rather large. La Marck. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 6. B. fericeum. Linn. Jan. Sup. " Leaves oppofite, crowded, fpatulace ohlong, filky ; calyx-fcalesbriltle-fliaped, (haggy ; fl.em wood)." Branches thick, woody, covered with the marks of former leave?. Leaves B U P Ltaves on the fmaller branclus, veiT entire, clothed with a white, clofe, and very (ott pile. Floiucrs terminal, large, yellow. Lonver ui'.yx-Jcaks longer, linear, Linn, jun, Caihered by Maflon in the ifland of Teneriffe. 7. B. fj)C- c'ijjijfimum Linn. fiTant. " Leaves alternate, embracing the Hem, ovate, mktil. ferrated, foniewhat ciliate ; item one- tlowered." Rooi perennial, fpindk-fliapcd. Sten, too feet high, fmooth, and even, marked wills very fine white lines. Leiives alternate, acute, fomevvhal lieart-lhaped, compaft, reticulated with vein'. ; petioles dilated at the bafe, fonie- what membrairaccous. Calyx common imbricated with ob- tufe, ovate, iarg. leaflets. Florets of the ray folded, two or three-tootlied, yellow ; of the difc four-parted, ercft, pedicellcd. Stamens of the difc four, brown, without a germ. Germ of the ray ovate. Seed of the difc none ; of the ray ovate, membranaceous. ./?fi-^^/(?c/fhemilpherical. Zoega, quoted by Linnjeus. Linrixus places this fpecies under Buphthal.niu.n, but doubts whether it is not rather a Silphium. From Zu^ga's defcription it clearly belongs to the order polvgamia nLCeflaria. A native of the mountains about Brixen in the Tirol. 8. H. granrlijionim. Linn. La Marck. lUull. PI. O82. fig. i. " Leaves alternate, lanceolate, fomewhat toothed, fmooth; calyxes naked, Hem iK-rbaceous." Root perennial. Stans nuiierous, growing in tufts, gene- rally fimple, about a foot and a half high. Leaves alter- nate, linear-lancet;late, (harp-pointed, imooth, fllghtly toothed. F/oiuers yellow, large, about two inches in dia- meter, terminal Cn/yx rather fhort ; compofed of two rows of rarrow pointed leaflets. La Marck, from a living plant. 9. B. f/ilicifolhim Linn. (Gsrt. Tab. 169. f. 1. copied by La Marck 111. PI. 682.) " Leaves altt-rnate, lanceolate, fome- what ferrated, pubefcent, calyxes naked : Hem herbaceous." Root perennial. Stem a foot and a half high, llraight, cy- lindrical, pubefcent, reddilh, divided at its fummit into two or three fhort branches. Leaves tnhrzcmg the ftem. Flowers large, yellow, terminal, folitary, femiflorets very narrow. La Marck, from a dried fpecimen. Receptacle ([\g\il\y con- vex ; chaft' the length of the calyx, broader ipwards, keeled, toothed, the keel extended into a (hort, flexible arm. Seeds of the difc fmaller, oblong, narrow, three or four-cornered, a little compreflcd, llraight ; of the ray, larger, incurved, three-fided, drawn out at the fides into a kind of wing : in both, truncate at the top, and crowned with a toothed rim. The rim of the feeds of the difc is fomctimes fo deeply gartied, as to appear compofed ot feveral chaffy briftle-fliapcd leaflets. Gxrt. A native of the South of France, Auftiia, Switzerland, Lufatia, allied to the pre- ceding, to which Gouan joins it, but differs in being abund- antly pubefcent, and having narrower femiflorets. 10. B. helianthoides Linn. (G. Herelier. flirp. nov. Tab. 45. Heli- anthus Icevis. Linn. fpec. 127S. Siiphium Solidaginoidcs. Linn. fpec. ijoz. Rudbeckia oppohtifolia. Linn. ipec. 1280.) " Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated, triply- nerved ; calyxes leafy ; Item herbaceous." Root perennial, ivhitifh, branched, fragrant. Stems feveral, two yards high, upright, branched at the top, naked at the bafe, round, the thicknefs of a quill, of a fea-green colour : branches oppofite, ftiff like the flem. Leaves remote, acumi- nate, ferrated about the middle, decurrent, veined, a"d wrinkled, fiat, rechning, four inches long, two and a half broad. Petioles fpreading, embracing the flem with a kind of ring, round on one fide, cbanncHed on the other, edged at the top by the leaf running along them. Flowers termi- nating, yellow, from two to three inches broad ; peduncles commonly three, accompanying the upperm.oll leaves, Itifl, very long, one-flowered, obfcurely angular, thickened at the top, fiftulouo, fometimes with one or two linear (hai'p braftes. Common calyx concave, fpreauing, pubefcent ; fcales B U P lanceolate, acute, a little ferrated ; thofe of the inner row fpreading, and rcflcxcd at the tip ; thofe of the outer row few, twice the IcrFth of the other, and a little hanging'" down. Florets in t'u' dilc numerous, with a fliarp, revolute border ; in the ray about twelve, lanceolate, retule, two- furrowed above, two-nerved btneath, fpreading very wide, twice or three timc^- the lengdi of the calyx. Genu in the dilc oblong, four-cornoed and truncate; in the ray three- cornered. Seedt without any pappus or d' wn, except the rim, which is fcarcely thickened. Receptacle conical ; chaff membranaceous, linear, acute, rhanuelled-concave. Thia plant has the generic charafter el hnphthahnum, the calyx of filphinm or rudheckia, and th; habit of helianthus. Hence it has inadverlentiy been given by I.i-.ina-us under four different names. L' Heretier, A native nf tyorth Ame- rica, whence it was fent by Cutefliy to the brta-.iie garden' at Chcllea, but is /aid by Fcrfler to be foiMui wild every where vithin ti'e tropics. La Marck dtfcrihcs a plant un- der the fame fpecific name, brought from Soi:t:i America, cultivated in the royal garden at Paris, which docs not cor- refpond with the above defciipt!on, and with feme doubt whether it be that intended by LirnKus. Its ferns are her- baceous feeble, not much more than a foot high, growing in loole tufts. Its leaves petioled, generally oppofite, ovate, a little pointed, obtufely dentate, green, alnioll fmooth, and fcarcely an inch broad. Flowers yellow, rather fmali, folitary, peduneled and terminal. Calyx of two rows of oblong fcales, thofe in one row not longer than thofe in the other. The juice of the plant is a little cauft:ic. 11. B. fpinofm, Linn. (La Marck, PI. 6S1. Jg. 2). " Calyius acutely-leaved ; leaves alternate, lanceolate, embracing the flem, very entire ; fl;em herbaceous." Root annual. S/em a foot and half high, ftiff", hairy, with two or three alter- nate branches at the top. R'^ol-leaves long, fpreading, broader and almoll obtufe at their fummit, narrowed at their bafe. Stem-leaves lanceolate, hairy. External calyx-leaves very long, three-nerved, ending in a fpine, fpread open im- mediately under the flower like the points of a flar. Flowers yellow, folitary, terminal ; femiflorets very narrow. La^ Marck, from a living plant. A native of Languedoc, Spaiti, and Italy. 12. B. aqiiaticiim, Linn. (Gart. Tab. 169. co- pied in La Marck, Illuft. PL C82. /ff. 4. ) "Calyxes obtuftly- leaved, fefTile, axillary ; leaves alternate, oblong, obtufe ; ftem herbaceous." Root animal, white, fibrous. Stem about a foot High, much branched, c-ilindrical, pubefcent. L.eaves alternate, Itffile, .oblong, obtufe, hairy. Flowers yellow, rather fmall ; fome fcffile and axillary, others terminating ; femi-florets broader and fliorter than thofe of the preceding Ipecies. Outer calyx leaves obtule, foft, forming a kind of involucre to the flower. La Marck, from a living plant; Calyx leafy at the bafe. Seeds compretfed, bay-coloured, hifpid, with whitilb briftles, nearly uniform ; thofe of the difc fmaller, ovate, acuminate downwards ; thofe of the ray larger, triangular- wedge- (hapcd, much comprcffed at the fidts, and almofl winged ; both of them crowned with a many-leaved pappus, the leaflets of which are mtmbrana- ceous, acuminate, ciliate-toothed, half the length of the feed. Gafrt. A native of the fouth of France, Portugal, and the Ifle of Candia. ij. B. maritimum, Linn. (La Marck, PI. 682.^^. 5.) " Calyxes obtufely leafy, pedun- eled ; leaves alternate, fpatula-fhaped ; ftem herlaccous." Root perennial. Stems numerous, fix or feven inches higlv, hairy, branched. Leaves long, obtufe, very narrow at their bafe, hairy. Flowers yellow, rather large, folitary, termi- nal. External calyx leaves refembling thofe of the flem. Native of Sicily and the fouthcrn parts of France. La Marck. 14. B. oleracciwi, Martyn's Miller. " Calycine leaflets acute, connedkd laterally ; leaves oppofite, lanceo- late. B U P hte, curved ba-k." St.m hi-rbaceoiis, two ffct IiIhK up- right, rouiiJ, vvliiiiih, fmootl!, braiitlicd. Leaves lincar- hnccolntc, ii:icqiially toollud, f:noolh, juicy, thick, alh- cgloiircd. /'Yow.r large, folitary. Cn.'yx hcinifplierical, wi'.h (harp LaflL-ls, coiiiicdtd by a lateral nu-mbranc. Difc of t!ic corclld Hat, with vvllow florets ; ray widt-, fpreadiiir. Willi rr.atiy white, trilid florets. ReccpltiJe flatlilh, with very fmnU chaft'; crown of the feeds margined. Slisma in the fiorets of the dilc limple. Lour. Cochin. It is an od.)roui plant, and cultivated in the gardens of China as a pot-herb. Forllcr in l'"K>r. au:lral. names two other fpecics; B. uiiiftirum, found in Norfolk IHand ; a::d V>. jincumbcns, found in the Friendly Iflands. Obf. JufTi-.u do'jbts whether the frutefccnt fpecies, with oppofite leaves, flijuld be place-d in the fame genus wiih thofe that arc heibaeeous and have alternate leaves. And Gxrtner is of opinion, that if the leed in all the Allerif.i of Tournefort, be i».>t merely margined, but leafy, they ought to form a feparate genus. Pnpagalhn andCukur:. The firlt tuo Ipccies can be pro- pagated in this country, only by cuttings, which (li.uld be tak^n off in July when the plants have for fonie time been expofed to the open air ; planted in fmall pots filled with light loamy earth, ar.d plunged into a hot-bed of a very gentle warmth ; fliadcd from the heat of the fun, and occa- fionally refrtfhed with a fmall quantity of water. In about fix weeks they may be gradually enured to the open air, and foon after fliould be iranfplanted into frefli pots: when they have taken root, they may remain in a flicltertd fituation, till the middle of October, and fliould then be removed into the erccnhoufe. The firil fort is hardier than the other. The feeds of ffltnj'um and aqUal'iciim may be fown on open borders, either in the beginning of April or, which is better, in Autumn, and will require no other oaie. The m.nllimum is eafily propagated by (lips during the fummer fcafon, and requires the lame treatment as the firll and fecond, but will tiirive better in a comrron frame, ■fcrcened from froit, than in a green-lioufe. Thtjhlicij'cilium, irand'iflorum, and hilhmthoiclcs, may be propagated by part- ing the root? towards the end of Oftober. BuPHTHALMUM canarii'iife leucanthemvm, Pluk. See Chrysanthemum fruttfcens. Bl'phthalmum lanugimfum, C. Bauli. See Anacv- CLUS •vakniinus. BuPHTHALMUM cotultt fnlio, and Jlore luteo, 2. 3. C. Bauh. ; Icnuifolium, J. Bauh. ; creticum, Breyn. ; alterum pi- ns, Dalch. ; Jiore purpurnfcenle. Cam. ; and narhouciije, CEus. See Anthkmis valenliim. BuPHTHALMUM, Linn. Hort. Cllf. 414. Flor. S'.'.ec. 69S. ttlpinum tr'iumf. See Anthfmis t'lnilnr'ia. BuPHTHALMUM, Linu. Hort. Cllf. 415. See Amellus lychnitis . BuPHTHALMUM, Linn. Sp. PI. Ed. 2. See Oedera prolifcra. BuPHTHALMUM h'lyfutum. Brown lam. 321. See Sl'_- PHIUM trilobatum. BUPLEURARLA., in Entomology, a fpecies of Pha- LENA. (Geometra.) The wingi are dentated, green, with a white llreak, and a fmaller one of the lame colour ; mar- gin dotted with brown. Fabr. This inhabits Europe. Knoeh defcribes it under the name of Phalitna ftjquiftria'.a. BUPLEilRiFOLIA, in Botany, Pluk. See Corvm- B I u M frabrum. BUPLEURIOIDES, Walth. See Phyllis nobla. EUPLEURUM, (from p.',-jr, and vX^i/fw, bovis colla, the rib or fide of an ox, alluding, as explained by profcflor Martyn, to a fuppofed ill quality of burlting kine that feed B U P »ipon it : but this explanation is better fuited to the elyma- l.;oy of /SsTpjiri;, ''from /3i.5 and TrfnSa!, to inflame, a name giCen by the Greeks, not only to an iufeift of the cantharis kind, but alfo to a plant noxious to cattle, which has been fuppofed to be the fame with the bupleurum of Nicander, Plinv, and othei- ancient writer?. Ventenat, with greater probability, is of opinion, that the name bupleurum alludes to the ftiffnefs, (roideur) of the leaves of fevcral fpecies of this genus. The fame deiivation was intimated long ago by I)odona:us, who, fpeaking of the probable identity of the plant, now called bupleurum, with the ancient one, fays, " nee peflime quadrare nomenelaturae et etFigiaturae vi- detur : foliis namque longis — mult's ftriis lirilve rigidirt, quail coilas in fuliis fingulis efBgiantibus, et lateium modo iiiclufis, ut de heptaplcuro loquitur Plinius.)" Liun. gen. 32S. Schr. 460. GaDi-t. 114. JulT. 324. Willd. 525. Gen. Ch. Cal. Umbel univerfal, with fewer than ten rays ; partial with fcarcely ten, ereft-expanding. Irroolucrc univerfal, either of many leaves, or of from three to live, or none ; partial of feveral broad leaves, either dillinit, or all united at the bottom ; perianth proper, obfolete. Cor. uni- verfal, uniform ; florets all fertile, proper, petals five, invo- lute, entire, very fliort. Slam, five, fimple, anthers round- ifli. P'ljl. Germ inferior. Slyhs two, rcflexcd, fmall ; pg. mas veiy fir.all. Perk. none. Fruit roundilh, compreffcd, fplitting in two. S^eds two, ovate-oblong, convex on one fide, flat on the other. Ohf. In mod of the fpecies, the partial involucres are fpecious, often longer than the co- rolla. Effcn. Char. Leaves of the partial involucre broad, fpread- ing. Fruit ovate, gibbous, fmall, not crowned at the top. Spec. * Herbaceous. 1. B. rotundifoHuin, Linn. Hudf. III. With. 267. Smith 124. (Perfoliata C. Bauh. &c.) Gaert. Tab. 22. f. 7. La Marck, Ilkft. PI. 1S9. Eng. Bot. 99. Thorough-wax. " l^niverfal involucres none ; leaves perfoliate." Linn. Root annual, fmall and fibrous ; whule plant rigid and fmooth. Stem erect, alternately branched, round, leafy, perfoliate. Leaves alternate, ovate, acute, very entire, fomewhat glaucous, nerved. Umbels ax- illary and terminal, folitary, on long peduncles, fix or feven- rayed, entirt-ly deftitute of an univerfal involucre ; little umbels of about eight flowers ; partial involucres of five, ovate, acute, unequal leaves, longer than the flower. Flowers yellow, on (liort peduncles. Dr. Smith, and La Marck. Fruit fmall, ovate, llrialed, gibbous, black. Seeds ovate-oblong, gibbous, terminated at the top by a very narrow, reddifh-brown difc ; marked on the convex fide with thirte-en elevated, linear ftrije or llreaks ; on the flat fide with a fimp'e furrow. Gxrt. It derives its Englifh name from its perfoliate leaves, or as profcflor Martyn ac- curately exprefles it, from the fingular circun, fiance o: the flalk waxl/.rr or growing through the leaf, by which it may be diftingunhid from all our ot-her indigenous plants. Like the ianicle, it has the reputation of being a vulnerary ; but this, iays Dr. Smith, (Eng. Bot.) is a quality which no medicine car. have, any otUerwife than as a tonie, flrength- euing the conflitution ; nor can any external application be ipecitically healing or confo'.idating, or be ufeful in any other way than as a'defence from the air. La Marck fpcakg of it as an allringent, and fays that it is ufed as a cataplafm in umbilical ruptures : but in this cafe, its operation can be only mechanical. A native of moft parts of Europe, chiefly on a calcareous foil, but not very coT.mon in England. Marlyn intimates, that it is peculiar to the fouthern coun- ties, and fays, that he has never obferved it, e.xccpt among wheat. We have occafionally found it in the neiglibour- hood of Leeds, but always among beans. 2. B. jielLnum, * Linn. I B U P Linn. (Toiim. 310. Ital. Helv. 77. Tab. t8.) " Leaves of the partial involucres united ; Uiiivtvfal involucre ot three leaves." Ry't perennial. Stem about a foot high, rcuind, almoll rnkcci, often fnnplc. Rool-lci^vcs very long, fniooth and erafs-likc. Univcrfal umttl loofe, of hve or fix rays. i'-.V :;\t,' invi.'iicre ii( one, two, or thice lanreolate l; aves. / 'iidl iir:oIucre of one leal, (liglitly cut at the edge into I- ht or nine f-gnKnt?, fniTounding tlu flowers in tlie foim or a cup, or bafin. La Marble .nnd Marlyn. A native of the Alps of Switzerland, a d Dauphine, introduced iiuo EngUi-.d in 1775 by Dr. Pitcairn and Dr. Futhergill. 3. Vi. pctrsum, Linn. andVVilid. " Partial involucres united ; univerial involucre of five leaves." L'nn. "Little invo- lucres of about five united leaves ; univerfal involucre of five leaves ; (Icm-leavts hcart-ftiaped-lanceohite, embracing the ileni ; radical leaves linear." Willd. Radical leaves hnrar, feffilc. Z,<-,;t)i-j- of the univerfal involucre five, cqunl, rather broad ; of the partial involucres five, united as far as the middle. Linn. A native of the Alps of Switzerland. Ac- cording to Villars this is only a variety of the preceding. 4. B. gramir.ifo'him., Willd. (B. pttrn:urn, Jacq. Collec. I. p. 209. Icon. rar. i. t. ^6. ViU. dili>h. 2. p. 576. t. 14. AUion. Auit. p. 44. La Marck, Flor. Franc. 990. 10. Encyc. vol. i. 517. Martyn in Miller; defcription but not the fpccific chavafter nor all the fynonyms. Sedum pe- tnEum bupleuri folio, Pon. bald. 247. B. alpinum, Scguier Veron. 2. p. 1^. j. p. 221.) " Root-leaves long, very nar- row, grafs-Lkc ; partial involucres di(lin£\, general one of about five leaves." La Marck. Root perennial, long, thick toward the lop. R'jot leai-es numerous, five or fix irches long. St.'m about C'ght inches high, round, fimple and Icaflefs. or having a fingle branch near the top, with one leaf at the bafe, and an umbel of flowers at the end, fmallcr than that which terminates the ftem. Umhel looie, of fix or fcvcn rays. Univerjlil involucre of three or five leaves; partial invohicre of five, fix or feven fmall, lanceolate, nerved, very diftinft leaves. A native of the mountains of Dau- phiny, Provence, and Switzerland. 5. B. an^ulofum, Linn. (B. ranunculoides & La Marck.) " Partial involucre five- leaved, orbiculate, general involucre three-leaved, ovate ; leaves embracing the Item, heart-fliaptd-lancco'.ate." Nearly allied to B. ftellatum, but the leaves of the partial involucre are always diftincl : it varies in having its leaves very narrow and Ibiated, or lanceolate, and not llriated. Linn. The former variety is a native of Switzerland, the latter, of the Pyrenees. 6. '^. pyrenaieum, Willd. (B. pyrenoeuin, Gouan and La Marck.) " Partial involucres roundii}], emarginate, united ; univerfal three-leaved, cut at the bafe ; leaves lan- ceolate, heart-ili,iptd, embracing the ftem." Willd. It differs from B. angulofum in having much broader, lanceo- late, acute leaves, the radical ones narrowed at the bafe ; and in the rays of the umbel being (horter and fewer ; as well as in the peculiar fhape of the general and partial invo- lucres expreffed in the fpccific charadler : from B. ftellatum which it refcmbles in habit, in its broader leaves, tliofe of the ftem being more numerous and heart-ftiaped at the bafe ; and in the number of the divifions ol' the partial involucres. Willd. A native of the Pyrenees. 7. B. hngifulium, Linn. ♦' Partial involucres five- leaved, ovate ; g::neral one of about five leaves ; leaves embracing the ftem." Root perennial. Rool-hifues narrowed into a petiole at their bafe, and broad towards their fummit. Stem-leaves ovate, acuminate. Um- tel terminal, compofed of from fix to nine rays. It refcmbles B. rotnndifolium, but differs in its perennial root and longer leaves. Native of mountains in Germany, Switzerland, &c. S. B./a/fa/um, Linn. Harc's-ear. " Partial involucres live-ltaved, acute j general, commonly five-leaved ; B U P leaves lancpoi.ife ; ftem z'gzag." Root perennial. Stem upright, about a foot high, flcnder, round, flightly zig- z.'g, much branched, f<;nKti[nes tinged with purple. Leaves frequently fic'-.lc-fliapcd ; thofc next the root narrowed at their bafe into petioles, ovate-lanceolate, bright green, fmooth, a 1 tile nerved ; the others alnio^ linear. Univerfal umbel loofe, fuiail, terminal, of about feven rays ; partial, ol ten or twelve. Univerfal involucre of from two to five, very unequal, lanceolate, ftiarp leaves ; partial, of five lanceolate, regul.ir leaves, the length of tlie partial umbel. A native of di7 rocky foil in the fouth of Europe. It has the charafler of being a vulnerary and ftbrifu-^ze. La Marck and Martyn. 9. B. caricifolium, Willd. (B. gramineum, Viilars ) " Partial involucres, five-leaved, fharppointcd ; univerfal one-leaved, lanceolate; leaves linear, attenuated at the bafe." Root perennial. Radical leaves very long, acute ; Jlan-leaves, the lower ones a little attenuated, the reft feffile. Umhel of five or fix unequal rays longer than the involucre. Partial involucre five-leaved, lanceolate, fliarp- pointed. Willd. from a dried fpecimen. A natiw of the fouth of France and Switzerland. 10. B. odonlides, Linn. " Pait'al involucres, five-leaved, acute ; univerfal, three-leaved; the central floret higher; branches divari- cated." Linn. " Both involucres five-leaved, ftellate ; leaflets lanceolate, three-nerved ; rays of the umbel very unequal." La Marck. Root annual. Sxem from three to eight inches high, fomewhat angular, much branched. Leaves linear-lanceolate, narrow, fniooth, fefiile. Involucres awned, concealing the umbels. La Marck and Martyn. Seeds only a quarter the fize of thofe of B. rotundifolium, not ilriated, either flightly wrinkled or entirely plain, ovate- cylindrical, brown or blackifh. Gtertner. A native of the fouth of Europe. 1 1. Yi.femicompofitum, Linn. " Umbels both compound and fimple." Root annual. Stem fix inches high, furnifhtd from its bafe with alternate, rather divari- cated branches. Leaves oblong, narrowed into petioles at their bafe, broad and obtufe at their fummit, and eniling in a particular fmali point. Simple umbels peduncled ; compound, almoft feffile. Allied to the preceding, but differing from it conft..ntly in fuch remarkable charafters, that it ought to be regarded as more than a variety. La Marck. A native of the fouth of Europe. 12. B. ranun- culoides, Linn. " Partial involucres, five-leaved, longer ; univerfal, three-leaved ; ftem-leaves lanceolate." Root pe- rennial, creeping. Stem about eight inches high, fimple. Z.M^l« grafs-like, ftiff. Umbel wntc^wA. Univerfal involucre ovate, acute, ihort ; partial, equal, obovate, acute. Partial vmhels fmall, the length of the involucre. La Marck follows Haller in uniting tills fpecies with the angulofum. Gouan adds the petrceuni, to which Villars objects as far as the fedum petriEum bupleuri folio, gatiiered by Pona'on Mount Baldo is concerned, the gramiinfolium of Vake and this- diftionary ; but Villars himfelf fufpefls that the angulofum, and his graminium, which is Willdenow-'s and our caricifo- lium, may be only varieties of ranunculoides. A native of Switzerland and the Pyrenees. 13.8. rigidum, Linn. " Stem dichotomou,^, almoil naked ; involucres very fmall, acute." Linn» " Stem much branched, panicled, almoil naked; lower leaves pctioled, neived, rigid; umbels gene- rally of three rays." La Marck. Root perennial. Stem flender, nearly two feet high. T^o'iccr leaves lanceolate- elliptic, vvith ftrong white nerves ; upper-leaves very fmall and diftant. Umbels terminal, of two, three, or four rays. Univerfal involucre of three awl-ftiaped, very fhort leaves j partial, of five. Linn, and I>a Marck.- A native of the fouth of France. 14. B. temiiffimum, Linn. " Slender thorough-wax, or Icafl hare's-ear. (Eng, Bat. 47iS,.) " Umbels B. pe- iing nted (hort alternate bmnchrs. Leav.-s alternntc. lanceolate, nnrro^v, I'Heret. btirp. nov. (arborefcens Jacq. Ic. Rar. 2. taj.. >'i. "hcndcr, lliff, fmoolh, crcft, with fcveral peduncle. 3 1. B cer.late, narr at tiic bHfe. Uvihels axillary, llv three flowtred Dr. vSmith. Tenni pointed, ».....-, — r a . , • i iilv fefliic, loliiary, generally three flowtred ; mvoUicres entire, taponng neailv feflile, lolij . _ awl-lhaped, loiijicr than die flower,^. Ur ,.,/;« 'umW/co,r.30Uad, of from three to five rays; with a Kcneral involue're of from th.-ee to five fiiort, pointed leaves ; laUrjl, frnple, and extremely fmall. La Marck. Haller remarks that tho umbels can fcarcely be faid to be really compound. FnnI fmall, ovate-oblong, tranf- vcrf;ly ihicker, rounded on each fide, fomewhat emargi- nate. Seeds pent.-.ironal-prilmatic. marked on the convex tide with three acute-arigied and difta-t ribs-, the intervals obliqu'.im Vahl. Symb. gibraltericuni. La Marck Encyc.) " Leaves lanceolate, attenuated on both fides, very entire, feffile. Willd. " Leaves lanceolate, coriaceous, oblique." Hort. Kew. Root perennial. Stems from three to four feet high, uprifjht, fparingly brai cied, round, annulated with the fears left by the fallen leaves. Branches alternate, uprio-bt, marked with lines, fiftuloiis. Leaves alternate, approximating, long, acuminnte, a little coriaceous, half embracing the ftem, with a fiiarp, reflexed point, and one whitilh nerve, glaucous, permanent, five inches lo.ig and near an inch broad. Umleh of about fifteen rays, alternate ; A lif'e wrinkled of a'pale or aih colour. A native of on a common peduncle termnnating each branch, with a few Cermanv, F.arce, Italy, and England. It is found plen- leaves on its lower part, a foot and a half long, and not tifiiUy in fait wattr ditches on the coafts of Norfolk, Suffex, half the thicknefs of the branch from which it fprings. &c an! as is afTcrted by Hiidfon, more fparingly inland, Umveifal involucre of about eigiit, oblong, acuminate, about Cambridge and Huntingdon; but profelTor Martyn flightly convex, reflexed leaves ; partial, five-leaved, fmaller, obfcrves tliat it has probably been overlooked in mr.ny other ovate. Seeds oblong, rounded on one lidc with five wings, ulaccs • beint- a plci.t of little appearmce a:td almoU loft flat on the other. The whole plant is very fragrant when among' the grafs. 15. B. ^iWc.^, vTilld. " Stem ertd, , rubbed. La Marck and Martyn from I'Herelier. A native h'-anched ; leaves linear ; univerfal involucres of about four of Spain near Gibraltar ; found by MafTon, and introduced unequal leaves, (V.orter -than the umbel ; partial i:ivol:icres in 1784. 12. B. frulicefcens, Linn. " Leaves linear ; five-kaved." /ira/ perennial. J?a.'//V,// /iviwi linear, broader involucres univerfal and partial." An under fiirub, about a at the bafe. Univerfnl involucre of three or four leaves, foot and a half high. Sle7n woody, divided into feveral two larger tlian the other?. A native of Croatia, Carniol.-i, knotty, twilled ramifications, with flendcr, herbaceous twigs. and mount Baldo. 16. B. Gerardi, Murray SylK 274. (B. -junceum, Mscnch. Roth. PoHich. junccum and La Marck.) Gcr. Prov. 2,J,;. Tab. 9. good. " Stem er;d, much branched; leaves linear, acnminate ; univerfal involncre fivc-leavcd ; partial, five-leaved, lincar-a-Al-iliaped, longer tlian the umbel." Rjof annual. S->.m foTi fix to nine inches high, (lender, fmooth, with llraight filiform branches. Leaves linear, grafs-like, clafping the ilem, ending in a ■very fliort poi'it, -Kiarked with thite fine nerves. Umleh on long peduncles, bteral and terminating. Univerfal in- -volucre four or five leaved, linear, awl lliapcd, very unequal ; partial, four or five-leaved, rmear-fetaceons, unequal, longer than the flowers. Flowers nearly feffile. Seeds oblong, ilriated, appearing as if cut off at the tip. A native of Vroveiice and Auftria. jy. "Q. junceum, Linn. /3 La Marck. " Stem eretj, panicled ; leaves linear ; univerfal involucre three-ieavcd ; pai tial, fivc-'taved." liasi annual. Stfm leaflets refcmbling thofe of parfley ; the others longer, •from two -to three feet high, ftraight, round, hollow within, flender, fililcrm, angular, divided half way down into three ■branched in the upper part. Umbels fmall; lateral on.-s filiform fegments, the middle one the longtU, and each firrple, of one or two flowers : terminating ones compound, terminated by a very fmall point. In fumnner the former of two or three fhort rays, {/niverful involucre of two or kind fall olv. La Marck. Univerfal involucre of many ■t'lree lcr.it?, awl-diaped and unequal ; partial, of about four awl-fiiaped, ihrivcHing leaves, connected at th? bafe ; partial, linear-avl. (Imped leaves. A native of the fouth of France, of five leaves. Umbels fome fimple, o;hers compound. Linn, of Swil/er!a.id, Germany, and Italy. 18. B. nudum, A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Aitoii. Ktw. " Stem branched, without leaves ; root-leaves Pro ja^alion aj:d Culture. The biipleururrs in general are ■decompound, plain, gaihed ; involucres univerfal and partial cultivated only in botanic gardenf. The feeds ihould be lanccobte-oblong.'" i^TO/ perennial. A native of the cape fown in autumn, where the plants are dcficned to remain, of Good ikipe. Introduced in lyjS, by Dr. P. RuJel. for they are ir.jured by tranfplanting. 'i'he fruticofsim, * JShrtdhy. called by our gardeners flirubby Ethiopian Hartwort, will 1-9. B. fru'.icofum, Linn. "Leaves lanceolate- obovate, thrive in the open air, and is propagated by cuttings planted very entire, fcli'ile." Wiild. ■" Rather obtufe." La in pots filled with frelh loamy earth, and ihcltered in winter Marck. An ever-green fti.uh, four or five feet high. Stems under a hot-bed fra ne ; they will take root in fpring, fhould Leaves alternate, linear, glaucous. Umbels fmall, of from three to five rays. Univerfal involucre of three, /hort, poiirted leaves. La Marck. A native of Spain. 23. B. fpinofim, Linn. jun. Supp. " Old branches of the panicle naked, thorny ; leaves Uncar." Root perennial. Stem low, irregular, with divaricated brandies. Leaves acuminate, three-nerved. Univerfal umbel terminal, generally of three rays, which change into fpines after the fruitification is completed; partial, of fiv-e rays. Involucres of very fmall leaves, equal in number to the rays. Linn. Jun. and La Marck. A native of Spain. 24. B. difforme, Linn. " Spring leaves decompourd, flat, gafhed ; funimer leaves filiform, angular, trifid." Stem from five to fix feet high, ftraight, a little twilled, branched. In winter, and the beginning of fpring, it bears two forts of leaves ; the fird fmall, petiuled, compofed of three, flat, trifid, gafhed ftra';;h*, branched, buihy ; bark of the trunk -greyilh, of the branches, brown or purpliih. Leaves alternate, oval- oblong, rather obtufe, with a very fm-ill point, coriaceous, Smooth, of a glaucous, colour. Umbels tcrKiinal. A native be placed in a fli.idy fituation in fummer, and'wilf not be fit to traufplaiit till the autumn. The fruticefcens may be treated in liie fame manner, but is not fo hardy. The difforme may alii) be propagated by cuttings, which readily take I B U P BUR tak?" root if planted in April, in pots filled witli lijrlit cartli, iiiid jjlu\'ged inro a moderate hot b^-d. 7'lity (hoiild afterwards be eniucd to the open air by degrees, be trai:fplanted into I'tparatf pots, placed with other exotics in a flicltv-red fttua- tion till autumn, and then removed into the green-houfe or dry ilove. If propagated from feeds, they fhoiild be f )wn in autumn, flieltered under a frame in winter, removed to a very gentle hot-bed in fprinp^, and finally treated like th-jfe raifed from cutting?. The fpinofnm, nudum and coriaceum may aU be propagated by cuttings, and treated as the difforme. They will probably hear the open air in mild fcafons, but are not yet fuflicieiitly common to run that hazard. Martyn's Miller. Bi'PLEUROM v'lUofum. Linn. Sp. PI. and Syft. Nat. See H IP. II- AS Depi'.iip.'rala. BUrORTHMUS, in /indent Geography, a mountain at tlie extremity of the peninfula formed by the Argolide, fouth-ealt of Peloponnefns. Upon this mountain were two temples, one of Ceres and Profcrpine, and another of Mi- nerva. Paufanias. r/JPRASlUM. a town of Achaia, at a fmall diftance rovth of the river Peiicus and of the town of Elis, which gave name to a fruitful country in which it was fituated. It did not exift in the time of Strabo. — Alfo, a river of Pelo- ponnefns, in the country of Elis. Steph. Byz. BUPRESTIS, in Entomology, a genus of coleopterous infefts, dillinguiflied in a peculiar manner for the uncommon brilliancy and highly metallic fplcndour of their colours, which emulate the fined and moil beautifully polifiied me- tals. The infefts of this kind have the antennas ferrated, and as long as the thorax ; feelers four, which are alfo fili- form, with the lad joint obtufe, or truncated ; head partly retrafted within the thorax. Linnsus, Fabricius and Gmelin defcribe the following fpe- cies : unidentata, bicolor, gigantea, vittata, failuofa, punfta- tiffima, bfrolinenfis, corrufca, decora, lurida, obfcura. pundla- ta, fafciala, rauca, ftriata, ritulans, oftognttata, ignita, linea- ta, ocellata, aerofa, maculata, maculnfa, ilricla, Iterniconiis, chi-yfis, violacea, aegypatica, mariana, farinofa, fulminans, cyanipes, oiodclla, blanda, aurata, tripHnftata, elegans, chry- folligma, dorlata, imprefla, ornata, taeniata, cayer.nenfis, cy- lindrica, fcabra, trochilus, decaftigma, rullica, canaliculata, acuminata, plebeja, tranqucbarica, lugubris, cariofa, undata, auflriaca, fibirica, fplendens, fufca, auriJenta, tenebrionis, fafcicularis, variolaris, onopordi, hirta, rubi, deaurata, niti- dula, Ixta, falicis, cyanea, difcoidea, bimaculata, quadrima- culata, novem-maculata, trillis, aenea, cuprea, nobilis, barba- rica, umbellatarum, quadripnnftata, cruciata, manca, pyg- mxa, minuta, meditabunda, viridis, biguttata, atra, clata, ruficollis, ftiliva, linearis, granulans, deprcffa, calcarata, fuli- ginofa, iivEmorrhoidalis, quercus, hirfuta, ii-maculata, fex- maculata, varicoruis, acuta, nxvia, piiSa, inaurata, tatarica, virginica, nana, marginata, nigra, rofacea, ungarica, nebu- lofa, brnttia, llephanelli, rugofa, and coccinea, which fee refpeftivcl)'. A monographia of the bupreflis tribe is expefied from the pen cf Dr. Schrciber of Vienna, which, in all probabihty, will contain a greater inunber of fpecies than thofc enume- rated above. Several entirely new fpecies are alfo defcribed by Mr. Donovan in his recent elucidation of the entomolo- gical produclions of New Holland ; the moll remarkable of which are buprellis grandis, macularia, limbata, futuralis, guttata, and feveral varieties of variabilis, and imperiatis, the iall of which is mentioned by Fabricius. Syll. Eleuth. Some writers affirm that the larvae of the buprcftes live in the folid wood, or in the trunks of decayed trees ; but this is rather imcertain, lince they do not appear to be exaftly VyL.V. known !n that (late. The conjeflure is, however, plaufible, the perfedl inftfls being almoll conftantly found up(;n trees, or plants, and ilowers. Few fpecies of this beautiful tribe of inlefts are found in Europe; the largell and moll brilliant of thofe hitherto difcovertd, arc from the Brafils, and other hot climates. BUPRESTOIDES, a fpecies of Attflabus (Spon- dylis), the colour of which is black; (litUs nervous ; thorax fonvvvhat globular. Guitl. Fabr. &c. Dtfcribcd as Bu- prefl'ts aler by Linn. Cerambyx maxillofus, &c. Degetr.Sca- raba?ns, S;c. Frifch. BuPRESTOiDES, a fpecics of Carabus, of a black co- lour; antenna; and feelers ferruginous; legs piccous. Inha- bits the fouth of Europe. Gmel. &c. BUQJJOIjin Geography, a towm of France, in the depart- ment of the Straits of Calais, and diflritl of Arras ; 5 miles W. of Bapaume. N. lat. 50° 12'. E. long. 2° 40'. V>\]K Paijlcy, in Botany. See Caucalis. "RvK-iueeti. See Sparcanium. BURA, in yfncLnt Geography, a town of the Peloponne- fns, feated on the ridge of a mountain, weft of the river Crathis. It futfered much from an earthquake in the year 3 7j B.C. Paufanias mentions feveral fine ftatues of this city ; and particularly thofe of Ceres, Venus, Bacchus, and Lucina. Venus had a temple, in which was placed her marble ftatue, made by Euclid, an Athenian ftatuary. Bur a. in Geography, one of the fmaller Orkney idanda, between Pomona and Ronaldflia. BURACO tJe felta, in Ichthyology, the name of a fi(h caught on the fliores of the Brafils, and more ufually known among authors by its Brafilian name, G\jx\%\-eoara. BURAGRACt, in Geography, a river on the coaft of Barbary, which rifes in mount Atlas and falls into the At- lantic ocean at the town of Sallee. BU RAMOS, an idolatrous people of Africa, in Nigritia, on the borders of the river St. Domingo. Their country extends to the mouth of the Rio-Grande. BURANELLO, in Biography. See Galuppi. BURATTI, or Bur ATS, in Geography, the name of a barbarous and idolatrous nation, "which occupies part of Si- beria. They arc called Braijhi by the Ruffians, and among themfelves Barga Buratt. About the time of the Mongo- lian monarchy, or perhaps at an earlier period, they feem to have taken refuge in the wild mountainous region on the north Jide of the Baikal, which they dill inhabit. The Ruffians found this nation in Siberia, when they conquered that country ; and from the year 1^144 they have peaceably fubmitted to the Ruffian fupremacy. The whole Burat nation is at prefent, in confequence of the border treaty, under the dominion of Ruffia, and comprifes numerous heathenilh people in the government of Irkutfl<, where it in- habits the region from the Yenifley, along the Mongole- Chinefe boiders, on the Angara, Tungiiflia, and the upper Lena, about the fouthern Baikal, on the Sclenga, the Ar- goon, and its rivers. Several years ago this government was computed to contain ,52,000 tributary Burats ; but their prefent number is probably four times as large. They are divided into a great number of tribes, called " Kolbondas,"' which are ftibdividtd into cads, or " Aimaks," and each Aimak is compofed of a certain number of " Chottons," cr villages, containing 10 or 20 families. Tlie olded of the Chottons governs it, and fix of thefe Chottons are fubjeft to a " Schulcn^a," or judge, chofcn from among their chiefs, and confirmed in his office by the governor of the province. Twenty-four Scliulengas form a tribe or Kolbonda, which is commanded by a common chief, felefted from among the families of their ancient princes. It is his province to watch 3 Y th« BUR BUR ,h. obfcrvan«ofthe laws. ,o decide difpute., to dimlnifi. ov the arms of the dey ar,.ck on both f.dcs, worth half an augment the tribes, and to airciiiblc and command the pro- afp>.r. . r „„ „, Te ;„ . .) ;„l, p nTo> of recruits, which are fnrnilhcd by the nation ift DURBER, an Efiypt.an p.ece of money. It s a thick CTf war. till .Ly a.e united to the main body of the piece of copper abo.t as broad as a h.pence ; twelve of armv. Catharine II. with a view of annexing dignity to the fe make a ni^rf;«f there. . „ re ■ JlTs'^hief, gave orders that he fhonM wear a girdle orna- BURDIDA, .n Mc.ent Geo^raphy,^ a town of Spam, mented with filver. on which is ir.fcrihed the name of the --^,,„t,^-,. :. ,.,.l:..i.... .\.. v„„\,(^ r..^. ^f ^adu . ir.fcrihed the name of the between Ti.da and Turoqua. Anton. I in. .tt has become proud of this BURBOT, in Ichlhyolosy, the Engh(h name of ga 1 nmrk. of his flavery. Ac- lola, a fini common in the i rent, and fome few other call he commands ; and the Bnrat decoration, though it is merely a nmrk ot his llavery cor ^Y ^^e marriage of prince William I. with Anne hcirefs to Maximilian count of Egmond ; 5 leagues N. of Bois-le-Duc, and 6 S. E. of Utrecht. With- out the town is a good caftle, walled and furrounded by a double moat. N. lat. 52°. E. long. 5'^ 22'. BuREN, a town of Swifllrland, in that diftrift of the canton of Berne, called the Upper Argow, feated on the eaft fide of the Aar, over which it has a bridge ; 9 miles S. W. of Soleuri". N. lat. 47° 6'. E. long. 7" ii'. BURETRAS, the name of a village of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia. BURETTE, Pierre-Jean, in ^/o^ra/y^y, born at Paris in 1665, was the fon of a furgeon, who, not being very prof- perous in his praftice, had recourfe for his fupport to mufic, which he had learned of his mother, an excellent performer on the liarp and harpfichord. He firft performed, profef- fionally, at Lyons, and afterwards went to Paris and played on the harp to Louis XIV., who was much pleafed with his performance. His fon, Peter- John, was fo fickly and feeble during in- fancy, that he paflld almoft his whole youth in amufing him- fel on the fpinet, and in the lUidy of mulic ; but he had lo ftroiig a paflion for this iallrumtnt that he had fcarctly ar- rived at his ninth year when he was heard at court, accom- pained by his father on the harp. Two years after, the king heard him again, when he performed a duet with his father on the harp ; and at eleven years of age, he aflilled him in giving lefloiis to his fcholars. It is not generally known that the learned academician, Burette, who had written fo copioiidy on the fubjeft of ancient mufic, was fo well acquainted with the modern ; which muft have rendered his opinions more valid, and given weight to his reafoning on mulical fubjeCts in general, which a mere man of letters ftldom obtains. His talle for mufic, however, did not cxtingHiili his panTion for other fciences. He taught hi.nfelf Latm and Greek with little affiftance from others ; and the lludy of thcfe languages inchntd him to medical inquiries. At cightrcn years oW he attended tor the firll time the public fchools, went through a courfe of BUR philofophy, and took Icffons in the fchools of medicine. And even during this time he learned Hebrew, Syriac, Ara. bic, Italian, Spanifh, German, and Enghlh, fufficiently to undcvftaiid them in books. He was at length admitted of the faculty at Pari?, and pradtifed with rrput.nion duripg thirty three years, havin;^ for his difciplcs almuft all his brethren who have fince en- joyed the highelt reputation in that capital. Ill 170J;, he was received into the Academic de Belles Lettres ; and in 1706, he had a confidcrable (hare in the ' publication of the ' Journal des Sijavaiis," at which he labound more than thirty years. In 17 18, he had an ap- pointrwcnt in the Bibliutfaeque du Roi. The public are obliged to the abbe Fraguier for the learned difltitation which M. Burette produced on the mufic of the ancients. This learned abbe, fuppofing that the Greeks applied the fame fcnfe to the word harmony, as is given to it by the mcCerns, and that, confequently, they knew counterpoint, or mulic in parts, Burrctte proved that 'la was miliaken, and that the ancients meant no more by the term harmony, than wt do by proprrtioii. He derr.o.iftrattd, that the Greeks piaCtilcd no other fimultaneous ccnfonances than iinifons and ottaves. This learned and indefatigable inquirer after the mufic of the ancient Greeks, was Icizcd. in 1745, with a paralytic affection, and after languifliing during the wh^dc year 1746, he died in 1747, at 82. His library, confillnig of 15,000 volumes, was compofed of the moll curious and well-chofcn books that could be procured in all languages. He has fupplied the memoirs of the Acad, des Infcr'p. et Belles Lcttrts with difiertations on the dancing of the an- cients, on play or gaming, on fiiigle combat, and on horfe- racing. He enriched tliefe memoirs with a trandation of Plutarch's treatife on mulic, with notes and remarks, which are diiperfed through many volumes of the memoirs of that learned fociety. And this writer muft be allowed, on every fuhjedl concerning ancient mufic, the merit of great dili- gence and learning ; but he does not feem always to have been poffeflcd of an equal fhare of fagacity, or with courage fufiicient to confels himfelf unable to explain inexplicable paffages in his author. He never fees a ditficulty ; he ex- plains all. Hence, amidft great erudition, and knowledge of antiquity, there are a thoufand unintelligible explanations in his notes upon Plutarch. " En ecrivant," laid Fontenelle, " j'ai toiijours tache dc m'entendre." — An admirable rule t which every writer ought to adopt. Thus much is faid, not with a view to dtprechte the merit of M. Burette, to whom almoft all late writers on mufic have h;id great obligations, and whofe labours have been of lingular fe rvice to ourfelves, among the reft ; but to ftiew how few authors are to be always foUuwcd implicitly, or read without precaution. But though we have frequently dif- fered from him, we have adopted his opinion when we thought it well founded ; and there has been no fubfequent writer on ancient mufic, who has not frequently availed himfelf of his labours. BURFORD, in Geography, an ancient town of Oxford- fliiie, in England, is fuppoled by fome writers to be one of the oldeft towns of the Mercian kingdom. It is remarkable in the page of hillory, and in the annals of fporting. Near this tov.-n was the fcene of that decifive engagement between the Weft Saxons and Merciai s, which liberated the former from the tyranny of the latter. In the year 752, a pitched battle was fought here between Culhrcd, king of Welfex, and Ethelbald, king of Meicia, " two princes of high fpirit and ambitious fchemes." The coi;flia was violent, and th- latter monarch was compelled to fly for fafety ; yet, dur- ing the engagement, the banner of Mercia, a golden dragon, was BUR BUR was ffized and torn by Edelhun. T!ie ftene of this conflicfl a riirnl nature. A homii-h (fee Borough) ir. iifiially dif- is ftill pointed out by the name of a field a little well ward of tiiiguiihed from other towns by t}ie riglit of lending members the town called Battle-edge; and the memory of the event is to parliament ; and where the right of tleftion is by biirgajre preferved by an annual procefTion on the eve of Midfiimmer tenure, that alone is a proof of the antiquity of the borough. day. At the concKifion of the fevtnth century, an ecclelialH- Tenure in bu'-gage, tlierefure, or burgage tenure, is where cal fynod was held here to determine the time when Ealler houfes, or lands which were formerly the fcite of honfes, in fhould be held. It was then decreed that Aldhelm, abbot of an ancient borough, are held by fome lord in common focage, Malmfbury, Hiould announce to the Bi itifh church a Hated by a certain ellablifhed rent. The free focage, in which and proper period for the celebration of this feltival in future, thefe tenements are held, feems to be plainly a remnant of The hoife-races of Burfoid are frequent, and much trc- Saxon liberty ; and this may account for the great vaiiety qucntcd by the ftudents from Oxford, and the neighbouring of cudoms, affefting many of thefe tenements fo held in gentry, &c. Here are manufaitories for duffels and for ancient burgage ; the principal and molt remarkable of rugs. The town is feated iu a low, narrow valley on the which is that called Vtot-cwcu-Eiiglifb ; which fee. There banks of the river Windrufh. The high grounds are moftly are a'lo other fptcial culloms in ddterent burgage tenures ; appropriatedtocorn.inconfequenceof which, the markets at as in fome, that the wife Ihall be endowed of all her huf- this place and at Whitney are abundantly fupphed with that band's tenements (Litt. § i6i5.), and not of the third part nectflary article. The church is a fpacious and intcrelling only, as at the common law: and in others, that a man pile of building ; difplaying fome curious fpecimens of an- might difpofe of his tenements by will (Litt. § lOy.), which cient eccefiallical architetture. Its vveftern door is formed in general was not permitted after the coiiqueft, till the with a femicircular arch, ornamented with birds' heads, &c. reign of Henry VIII ; though in the Saxon times it was and the fouth porch difplays a highly decorated exterior, allowable. A pregnant proof, fays judge Blackllone (Com. vol. ii. p. 84.), that thefe l.berties of focage tenure were fragments of Saxon liberty. Burgage is fometimcs ufed to denote the rent, or quit- rent paid to the chief lord for the houles and tenements in a Near this town is an ancient manor-houfe, which was a reli- gious foundation belonging to the abbey of Keynlham in Somerfetlliire. This belongs to John Leuthal, efq. a de- fcendant from the famous Ip'. aker to the long parliament. Barford had a charter from Henry II. and is governed by town or borough two bailiffs, burgeffes, &c. It is diftant 72 miles N. W. Burgage JWe, Burgagium liherum, denotes a tenure, from I^ondon, contains 304 houfes, and 1516 inhabitants, whereby the tenants, after having paid their rent to the fu- Hereare a market on Saturdays, and two annual fairs. Plotl's periov lord, were exempted from the fervice. Hiftoiy of Oxfordlhire. Magna Britannia, vol. iv. 4to. BUIIGANILT, iu Jn/wury, a ftetl-cap formerly worn BuRFoRD Saddle. See Saddle. BURG. See BoRG. Burg, a bailiwick and caftle of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Rcufs ; 4 miles S. W. of Schleitz. — Alfo, a town iu the circle of Lower Saxonv, and by ioldiers in battle. It lias alfo been ufed iu armorial bear- ings. BLTRGAS, in Geography. See Bergase. BURGAU, a town and callle in a margraviate of the fame name, in Anllrian Svvabia, feated on the river Mindel; duchy of Magdeburg, feated on "the liile, iu which arc 5 leagues N. of Augfbur!'-. woollen maiiUtadures ; 14 miles N. E. of Magdeburg. — Burgau, a conliderable village of Germany, in the circle Alfo, a town of the United Netherlands, in the county of of Upper Saxony, and pnncipahty of Eilenaeh ; j miles S. Zutphen, feated on the Old Ilfel, between Aiiholt and of lena. Deutikem. N. lat. 52°. E. loug^. 6° 12'. Burgau, \a Natural Hljlory, the name of a large fpe- BuRG, or BouRG, a town of Germany, in the circle of cies of Top-(hell or Troehus. It is very beautifully lined Weftphalia, and duchy of Berg, feated on the Wippe ; 6 with a coat, of the nature of the mother of pearl ; and the milts S. of Solingen. artificers take this out, to ufe under the name of mother of Yivt.G-Bcrnhcim, Mark, a town of Germany, in the pearl, though fome call it after the name of the foell they circle of Fianconia, and principality of Culrabach ; 14 take it from, hurgaudmc. Some other fhetls, however, ap- miles N. N. W. of Anfpach. pear pearly, when divefted of their external covering. 'QvKG-Lcngcnfeld, a town oF Germany, in the circle of Among the modern French, Burgau is a trivial name for Bavaria, and ptuicipahcy of Neuburg, on the Nab; 15 feveral different kinds of (hells of the Tu rbo genus. mi!es N. of Rnufbu. _ ^ BURGAUDINE, the name given by the French arti- lSvv.c-Sche:d!iugen, au ancient fortified town, but now a frcers to what we call mother of pearl. In their works, chuich-vilh.ge of Germany, in the circle of Thuringia ; 3 they do not ufe the common nacre fliell for thi^-, but the miles S. E. of Nebra. lining of the American bergau. Hence fome call the mother 'S>\Jv.G.Sch'walbjch, a town of Germany, in the circle of of pearl lurgaulme, and others the burgaiid'ine mother of the Upper Rliiue, and coimty of Naffau-Saarbruck, and m pearl, a prefect urate of the fame name. BURGDORF, in Geography, a tov/n of SwifTcrland, in Y>[2^QrYi-upon the Jam's, a place lying at a fmall diftance the canton of Berne, and chief place ol a bailiwick, feated weft of Carlifle, in the county of Cumberland, and remark- on the river Emme; about a league from the town are ful- able for the monument erected there in honour of Edward I. phureous fountains and baths, which are faid to be beneficial who died tliere in 1307, on his return from a fuccefsful es- in paralytic and nervous complaints ; 8 miles N. E. of Berne, pedition agamft the Scots. and 12 S. S. E. of Soleure. N. lat. 47"" 2'. E. long. BU KG AGE, in Latxi, a tenure proper to boroughs and 7° 39'. town^, whereby the inhabitants hold their lands and tene- Burgdorf, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower ments of the king, or other lord, at a certain yearly rate. Saxony, and principality of Luiieburg-Zcll, feated on the This tenure is defcribed by Glauvil (1. vii. c. 3.), and is Aue : it is walled and moated, and has a callle ; 14 miles exprefsly faid by Littleton (§ 1O2.) to be but tenure in E. N. E. of Hanover, and 9 S. of Zell. focage. It is indeed only a kind of town focage ; as com- BURGE-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the de- mon focage, by which other lands are holden, is ufually of partnaent of the Alher, and chief place of a canton, in the 3 ■ dillncl BUR riiArift of Moulin'. The town contains I-.U-' »nd the canton lc,l04 in!;nbit»nts : the territory includes 342^ kilio- Ilirtre<, aniA 10 communes. UU ROE-M AS'l'KR of Greenland, in OmUkolo^y. See Prockllaria Glacialis. The fame name is piven by Ri*V to the wajjil gull, lams nxv'tus ; it is alfo cwUcd Bvirgo- tnailer, and liurgermcilK-r. In Mirtiu's Spit7.b. Larut g/.iueu'.lh.: Rlaucoits Rull, is terme.l Uurgermeiller. lU'RGlilN, m Gco^niphy, a toi'n of li;rypt, on the \n<<\ fide of the Kile; 17 miles N. of Achmounain. BURGEL, a town of Girmany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and mar;;raviate of Mcilicn, feated on the Sala ; 6 miles S. E. of Uornburjr. Bi'RCEL, Bir^e!, or Miul-Burr;el, a very ancient town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, snd principality of Culmhach, fented on a high mountain near the river ; 13 miles N. N.W. of Anfpach. BURGEO, a fmall idand near the fouth coaft of New- foundland ; J2 leagues N.W. of Miquelon. N. lat. 47° 20'. W. lone. 57" 5o'. BU RGEON, in Botany, as the term is uftd by Englifli gar- deners, is only another name for a gem or bud. The French botanilh dillmgullh three ftages of its growth, by three dif- ferent names. At its firil appearance in fpring it is an eye, ;- 2 cecd BUR Cfed tlf»*n) wiihout dAnjcr of railing a riot, rorit, or iin- Inwfnl afTcmblv, in order to proted and defend liis hoiifL- ; which lie is not pernjittcJ to do i.i any other cafe, i H»l. P- ^- 547- The definition of a burglar, as given by Sr Edward Coke (; liifl. 65) is, " he that by nij^ht bieak>th and enttreth int''" a Tiaiifion-houfe, with inter.t to commit a felony." In this definition, fays Judge lM;ick(lore (Comment, vol. iv. p. 12 i) there are four things to be coiifidered ; the timi; tiie flc.'t, the n. VI tier, and the /'n/«i.'. 1. Th.etim! muilbeby night, and not by day ; for in the day-time there is no burglary. In confidering what is reckoned night, the day was anciently accounted to begin at fun-rifing and to end immediately upon fun-fet : but the better opini.'n fcems to be, that if there be daylight or twilight lufficient, begun or left, for difceining a man's face, it is no burglary. 3 InIL 63. i Hal. P. C. 350. I Hawk. P. C. 101. B'Jt this does not extend to moon-light: for then many midnight burglaries would go nnpunifhed ; and bcfides, the malignity of the olTcnce docs not fo properly arife from its being done in the dark, as at the dead of night ; when the whole creation, except beafts of prey, is at relt ; when fleep has difarnied the owner, and rendered his caftle dcfencelefs. 2. As to the phrr. It muft be by the definition a manfion-houft ; and, therefore, in order to account for the reafon why breaking open a church is burglary, as it un- doubtedly is. Sir Edward Coke quaintly obferves, that it is " domus manfionalis Dei." But it is not neceffary that it (liould in all cafis be a manfion houfe ; for it may be commit- ted by breaking the gates or walls of a town in the night. Accordingly Spclmaii defines burglary to be " Nofturna diruptio alicujus habitaculi, vel ecclefix, etiam muiorum portarumvc burgi, ad feloniam perpetiandam." No diilant barn, warehoufe, or the like, has the fame privileges as a mjr.fion or dwelling-houfe, nor is regarded as a man's caftle of defence : nor is a breaking open of houfes in which no man refides, and which, therefore, for the time being are not maulion-hoiifes, attended with the fame circumftances of midnight terror. A houfe, however, in which a man fometimes refides, and which the owner hath only left for a fliort feafon, animo revst ismli, is the objeft of a burglai-j', though no one be in it at the time when the faft is commit- ted. I Hal. P. C. j66. Foft. 77. If a barn, ftable, or warehoufe be parcel of the manfion -houfe, and within the fame common fi:nce, though not under the fame roof, or contiguous, a burglary may be committed in it ; for the capital houfe protects and privileges all its branches and appurtenants, if within the curtilage or homeftall. i Hal. P. C. 55^1. I Hawk. P. C. 104. A chamber in a college or an inn of court, where each inhabitant has a diftinft property, is, to all other pnrpofrs as well as to this, the manfion-houfe of the owner, i Hal. P. C. 5^6. A room, or lodging, in any private houfe, is alfo the manfion for the time being of the lodger ; if the owner doth not hlmfelf dwell in the houfe, or if lie and the lodger enter by different out- ward doors. But, if the owner himfelf lies in the houfe, and hath only one outward door at which he and his lodger enter, fuch lodgers feem only to be inmates, and all their apartments to be parcel of the one dwelling-houfe of the owner. Kel. 84. i Hal. P. C. 556. Thus alfo the houfe of a corporation, inhabited in feparate apartments by the officers of the body corporate, is the manfion-houfe of the .corporation, and not of the refpeftive officers. Fofter, 38, 39. If I hire a (liop, parcel of another man's houfe, and ■work or trade in it, but never lie there, it is no dwelling- houfe, nor can burglary be committed in it ; but if I or my BUR forvant, ufually or often lodge in the Hiop at night, it then becoT.es a manfion-hov.fe and the objeft of burgbry. If tlir fliop-keeper fleep in any part of the building, however dilliiiift thit part is from the fliop, it may be alleged to be his manli ,n-houfc ; provided the owner docs not fleep under the fame roof alfo. Leach's Hawk. P. C. I. c. 3S. ^ 16. By 13 Geo. III. c. 38. burglary in the workfhops of the pi ite glafs manufaftory, with intent to fteal the ftock or utenlils, is declared to be fingle felony, and piinifhed with tranfportation for feven years. No burgkry can be com- mitted in a tent or booth, erefted in a market or fair, though the owner may lodge in it. I Hawk. P. C. IC4 ; but by Stat. 5 and 6 Ed. VI. c. 9. clergy is taken from this offence. 3. As to the manner of committing 'oiirglary ; there mud be both a breaking and an entry to complete this offence. But they need not be done at once : for, if a hole be broken one night, and the fame breakers enter the next night through the fame, they are burglars, i Hal. P. C. 531. There muft in general be an aflnal breaking, fo that it may be regarded as a fubftantial and forcible irruption. Such are breaking, or taking out the glafs of, or otherwife opening, a window, and taking out goods ; picking a lock, or opening it with a key; and lifting up the latch of a door, or loofinT any other faftenings which the owner has provided. But if a perfon leaves his doors or windows of his houfe open, and a man enters by them, or with a hook or by any* other means draws out feme of the goods of the owner, it is no burglary ; but if, having entered, he afterwards unlocks an inner or chamber door, or if he comes down a chimney, he* is deemed a burglar. If a perfon enters by the open door of a houfe, and breaks open a cheft and fteals goods, this is no burglary by the common law, becaufe the cheft i? no part of the houfe ; though this is felony ouftcd of clergy by Stat. 3 W. and M. c. 9 ; but if one break open a cup-board or counter, fixed to a houfe, it is burglary, i Hal. P. C. 5J2, 553, 554. I Hawk. P. C. 102. So alfo to knock at the door, and upon its being open to rufh in with a fe- lonious intent ; or under pretence of taking lodgings, to fall upon the landlord and rob him ; or to procure a con- ftable to gain admittance, in order to fearch {or traitors, and then to bind the conftab'e and rob the houfe ; are all deemed burglarious ails, aggravated by the evalions that attend any of them. 1 Hawk. P. C. 102. And alfo, if a ftrvant opens and enters his raafter's chamber-door with a felonious defign; or if any other perfon lodging in the fame houfe, or in a public inn, opens and enters another's door with fuch evil intent ; it is burglary. Nay, if a fer- vant confpires with a robber, and lets him into the houfe by night, this is burglary in both (Stra. 8S1. i.Hal. P. C. 553. I Hawk. P. C. lOj) ; for the fervant is doing an un- lawful aft, and the opportunity afforded him of doing it with greater eafe rather aggravates than extenuates the guilt. As for the entry, any the leaft degree of it, with any part of the body, or with an inftrument held in the hand, is fufKcient ; as, to ftep over the threfhold, to put a hand or a hook in at a window to draw out goods, or a piftol to demand one's money, are all of them burglarious entries.- i Hal. P. C. 535. 1 Hawk. P. C. 103. Foft. 108. When feveral come with a defign to commit burg- lary, and one does it while the rell watch near the houfe, the aft of one is, by interpretation, the aft of all of them. The entry may be before the bieaking as well as after; for by Statute 12 Ann. c. 7. if a perfon enters into the dwelling-houfe of another, without breaking in, either by day or by night, with intent to commit Llonv, or being in fuch houfe, ftiall commit any felony ; and ihall in the right BUR BUR right break out of the fame, this is declared to be burglary, altiiou"h before this aft dilTerent opinions were held con- cerning it ; Lord Bacon (Klem. 65) holdini:; the affirmative, and Sir Matthew Hale (i Hal.'P. C. 554) tiie negative. But it is ur.iverfally agiced, that there nui!l be both a breaking, either in fad or by implication, and alfo an entry, in order to complete the burglary. 4. As to the ir:tf!it : it is clear, that fuch breaking and entry mull be with a felonious intent, otherwifc it is only a trefpafs. And it is the fame, whether fuch intention Ije aftually carried into execution, or o!ily dcmondrated by fjme attempt or overt aft, of which the jury is to judge. And therefore fuc:h a breach and entry of a houfe as has been before defcribed, by night, with intent to commit u robbery, a murder, a rape, or any other felony, are burg- lary ; whether the crime be aftually perpetrated or not. K.jr does it make any difference, vvlittlier the oflcnce were felony at common law, or only created fuch by Statute. I Hawk. P. C. loj. , Burglary, as above defcribed, is a felony at common law, but within tha benefit of clergy. The Statutes, however, of I Edw. VI. c. 12. and 18 Eli/, c. 7. take away clergy from the principals, and ttiat of 3 and 4 W and M. c. 9. from all abettors and accefTarits belore the faft. And, in like manner, the laws of Athens, which punilhed no fimple theft with death, made burglary a capital crime. Pott. Antiq. b. I. c. 26. For encouraging the profecution of offenders, it is enafted by Statute lo and 11 W. 111. c. 23, that any perfon who (liall convift a burglar (hall be exempted from pari(h and ward offices, where the offence was committed. To this, the (latutes 5 Ann. c. 31. and 6 Geo. I. c. 23. have fuperadded a reward of 4^1. And if an accomplice, being out of prifon, fliall convift two or more offenders, he is entitled to a pardon of the felonies enumerated in the aft. Moreover, the llatutes 2j Geo. II. c. 36, 27 Geo. II. c. 5, and 18 Geo. III. c. 19, provide, that the charges of profecuting and convifting a burglar (liall be paid by the treafurer of the county where the burg- lary was committed, to the profecutor and poor witnefl'es. The Statute 10 Geo. III. c. 48, provides, for preventing the frequent commiffion of bnrglarie?, that buyers or re- ceivers of ilolen jewels, gold, or filver plate, where the ftealing fh:dl have been accompanied by burglary (or rob- bery), may be tried and tranfported for 14 years, before the conviftion of the principal. And the Statute 23 Geo. III. c. SS. enafts, that any perfon apprehended, having upon him any pick-lock key, &c. or other implement, with in- tent to commit a burglary, Ihall be deemed a rogue and a vagabond, within Statute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. BURGLE, an article of diet of univerfal life in the eaft- eru cookery. It confifls of wheat, prepared by lirll foften- ing the grain in hot water, and then breaking and unhulking it by means of a hand-mill ; it is afterwards dried in the fun, and thus preferved for ufe. This food is fometimes, like rice, made into a " pilaw" (which fee) ; but more com- monly, being beat up with minced meat, fuet, and fpicerics, is formed into large balls, and either boiled or fried. RuffcU's Aleppo, v,.l. i. p. 1 17. BURGLEN, in Geography, a lordfhip of Swifferland, which had formerly its own counts, afterwards barons, to both of whom it gave title, but purchafed, in 1J79, by the town of St. Gall. To this lordfliip belongs a parochial village and feat of the fame name, once forming a town, but laid in afhes by the Appenzellers and the town of St. Gall. BURGO DE O3MA, a fmall town of Spain, in Old Callile, feated on a fmall river that foon after runs into the VOL.V, Duero, near the town of Ofma ; 40 miles S. E. of Burgos. BURGO Sand, lies on the larboard fide of the channel at the eritiaiice into I^ivcrpool, which fee. BURGOMASTER 0/ Cncnhml, in Ornithology. Sec BuRGE-W;/^C/-. BL'RGOO, or Bi'RGouT, a fcafaring difli, made of whole oatmeal, or groats, boiled in water, till they burft ; then mi.xed with butter. It is made in Scotland and in Wales, by mixing oatmeal and water, and boiling it into a moderate coiifiilence. It is a cheap and lliengthe-.iingj diet. Burgoo, otherwife called liibloHy, is held by Cockbuni very proper to correft that thicknefsof humours andcollive- ncfs to which the other diet of failors much d:rpore3 them. Yet the burgoo viftualhng is the lead liked of all their provifions, becaufe of the fcanty allowance of butter to it. The fame author thinks it might be worth the conjideration of thole to whom the care of the feamen is committed, to contrive to render this food more agreeable to them. BURGOS, in Geography, a large old city of Spain, the capital of Old Cailile, and of a province of the fame name, forming a kind of feinicircle round a hill, on which is a calUe, and extending itfelf along the plain to the fmall rapid river of Arlan^on, or Arlai z 1, over which it has a bridge, and along the bank of which is a handfome paved walk. It is the fee of an aiehbiHiop, erefted in 1574. 'Ih.- cily is irregular, moll of its (treets being narrow and crooked, and its houfcs high. It has, however, many fine fquares adorned with fountains and llatues, public buildings, and noblemen's houfes ; and prcfer.ts, at a dillance, by its nume- rous lleeples and edifices, and particularly the epifcopal pa- lace, fituate witliout the town, a pleafing view. Tlie cathe- dral is one of the moll beautiful and bell preferved Gothic llruftures in Spain ; and the cliapel, belonging to the con- vent of the Auguftincs, is magnificent, and famous for its crucilix, to which extraordinary devotion is paid. Bega, one of its fuburbs, has many convents and hofpitals ; and, among others, a very large one for pilgrims. One of the nunneries is faid to contain I i;o nuns, moll of them being of noble extraftion ; and the royal hofpital is richly endowed. This city was built in the 9th or loth century, on the ruins of the ancient Auca. Its fituation, as it is furrounded by mountains, renders the air extremely cold for nine months in the year, and for the other three months very hot. The in- habitants of Burgos are faid to fpeak the bell Caftilian, or purell Spanifh, of any in the kingdom. N. lat. 42° 17'. W. long. 3^42'. BURGSTADT, or Burgstadtel, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and lordfliip of Sehonberg, in which are fome fluff-maniifaftures ; 3 miles E. of Penig. BURGSTALL, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Auilria, feated on the river Erlaph ; 12 miles S. E. of Ips. BURGUETTA, or Elburquetta, a town of Spain, in Navarre, fituate in the valley of Ronceval, where the rear- guard of Charlemagne, on his return to Spain, was defeated by the Saracens, and Roland, his nephew, flain, in the year 778 : 8 leagues E.N.E. of Pampeluna. BURGUI, a town of Spain, in Navarre, feated on the Efca. BURGUILLER, a town of Spain in Andalufia, 3 leagues from Seville. BURGUNDI AN Cross, in Heraldry. Knights of this order wcreinftituted on St. Mary Magdalen's day, in ijjj, 3Z by BUR by Charli's V. tmpfror of Germany and king of Spain, after he had rellocid >liillc:ifl'ts, king of Tunis, who was driven out of his kingdom by the noted pirate BarbarofTa. The emperor being dtlirous to gain tile love of all thofc who had valiantly littnalifcd tlifinfclvis in that war, did, as a reward for thtir fcrvices, confer on them this honour of knighthood, on the day he made iiis public entry into Tunis ; having on tiie coat he wore in batilc, embroidered with a Burgundian crofs, to which was added a llccl ilriking fparks of fire out of a flint, with tliis infcrlption, Barb.vria, which badge was pcndnnt from a gold collar. BURGUxVDIANS, Burgundionts, \n Hi/lory, were a warlike and numerous people, who, upon the decline of the Roman empire, obtained a permanent feat and dominion in the provinces of Gaul. According to Ammianus Marcel- linus (1: 28.), and Orofius (I. 7. c. 19.), they were originally t^efcended from the Romans. The latter writer fays, that Drufus, Nero, a:id his brother Tiberius, the adopted fons of Cxfar Auguftii?, having fubdued the interior parts of Ger- many, left fcveral camps in t'-f. country, and part of their army to keep the neighbouring people in fubjection : from the Roman foldiers, who were on this cccafion left to guard the Roman camps, are defcended the Burgundians. The calUes and ftrong holds, built for the defence of a country, arc called by the Germans " burgts;" and hence the Ro- mans, who guarded them, and their defcendants, were named " Burgundians." As they embraced the Catholic faith, the ecckfiaftics, whofe fpiritual jurifdidtion they acknow- ledged, have defcribed them as mild and tradable in their difpofition ; for in the countries where they fettled, they treated the natives, not as ftrangers whom they had fubdued, but as Chrillian brethren. Pliny the elder (l.iv. c. 16.) fuppofes them to be a German nation, defcended from the Vindili, fuppofed to be the fame people v.ith the Vandals. Valefius (Rer. Franc, p. 48.) diftinguilhes the Burgundians of Germany from thofe of the fame name, who dwelt more to the caft, on the banks of the Danube. The Burgundians of Germany were fometimes in alliance, and fometimes at war, with the empire ; and they are reprefented by contem- porary writers as inferior in bravery to the other Germans, and as dwelling in caftles and fortified places, whereas the other German nations fcorned any fence befides their arms. See Socrat. Hilt. Ecclcf. 1. vii. c.30. Moil of them were mechanics, and, before they fettled in Gaul, reforted in great numbers to that country, to earn a fubfiftenceby their refpedive profeffions. As to their form of government, they were divided into feveral tribes, each of which had its Tcfpcftive chief ot king, whofe authority was fo far from being hereditary, that it was not continued during life. If the events of the war accufcd the courage or conduft of the king or general, called " Hendinos," he was immediately depofed ; and the injuftice of his fubjefts made him refpon- fible for the fertility of the earth, and the regularity of the feafons, which feemed to fall more properly within the facer- dotal department. The perfon of the prieft, denominated •' Sinillus," was facred, and his dignity perpetual. The kings of the Burgundians did not think themfelves degraded by ferving in the Roman armies, by executing fome of the chief offices of the empire, and by receiving, from the em- perors, fuch dignities as they ufually conferred upon their fubjefts. To the Burgundians is afcribed the firll intro- duction into Gaul of legal duels, or duels ordered by the magiftrates or judges, eftabliihed in order to difcover, from the event, the truth of contelled fafts. Gundebald is faid to have been the firll who eftablifhed by law this maxim, that the bed champion is the bed man, and ought to be be- lieved ; a ma:iin), indeed, which has often proved fatal to BUR innocence. This unjnft and fanguinary law was fonnally iffucd at Lyons, the 27th of June, Ab.enus being confuJ, that is, in 501. In the hillory of the Burgundians nothing particularly wor- thy of notice occurs till the year 271;, the firll of the emperor Tacitus's reign, when, in coTijuntlion with other barbarians, they crofTcd the Rhine, overran all Gaul, and made their^ felves mailers of more than 70 cities in that country. But they were foon after defeated, and compelled to fue for peace, by Probus, the fucccffor of Tacitus. In 287 they made another irruption into Gaul, together with the Ale- manni ; but were defeated by Maximian. See Alem a: with the Heruli, the Huns, and the Franks, entered Belgjc Gaul, committing dreadful ravages viherever they came ; though, upon their firll fettling in Gaul, they had promifed to affill the Romans, and ferve in their armies as fubjefts of the empire. Aetius, having defeated their army, reduced them to the necefTity of fuirg for peace, which, however, was of no long continuance. About this time they embraced Chrillianity. Having continued on the banks of the Rhine till the year 438, they were-removed by Aetius to the pre- fent duchy ot Savoy. During their refidence here, they made themfelves mailers of feveral cities and places in Gaul; fuch as Lyons, Die, Vienne, Auvergne, &c. Before the year 490, the Burgundians were mailers of the whole of Lugdunenfis Prima, flyled by Sidonius Germania Lugdu- nenfis ; and in the years 514 and 5 28, it appears, from the afts of the councils of Agde and Epaune, that thev were mailers of above 28 cities ; and, among others, of Lyons, Vienne, Befangon, and Embrun. In the year 490, Gundo- bald, or Gondebaud, condudled them into Italy, where they committed unparalleled ravages in Liguria. At this time the kingdom of the Burgundians was defined by the courfe of the rivers Saone and Rhone, and extended from the foreil of Vofges to the Alps and the fca of Marfeilles. Gondebaud, who died in 509, was fucceeded by his fon Sigifmund, who difpatched an account of his acceffion to the emperor Ana- ftafius at Conilantinople, and acknowledged himfelf a fubjeft of the empire. Sigifmund, by the inhuman affaflination of his fon Sigeric, though he has acquired the honours of a faint and martyr, greatly irritated tlie Oflrogoths and their king Theodoric, and occalioned a war between the Franks and Burgundians. In a battle that took place A. D. 523, Sigiimund was defeated and taken prifoner ; and afterwards put to death, being buried alive in a deep well at Orleans ; and the greater part of the country fnbmitted to the Franks. The Burgundians, however, foon revolted, and proclaimed Gondemar, brother of Sigifmund, their kmg, who, after a fevere conflidt with the Franks, concluded a peace with them, on condition that they fhould reftore to him all the countries which they had feized durijig the war. This peace lafled 8 years; but in 532 a war broke out between thefe two nations ; and Childebert and Clotharius, entering the BUR BUR the tenltoiies of the Biirgundiana, laid ficgc to Augufto- (iiinum, now Aiitun, and oblij^ed Gondemar to fave liimfclf bv flight, and made thenifclvt-s mailers of his kingdom, whicli agreed to ferve in their wars, and to pay them an annual tribute. But they continued, by agreement with their coiHjuerors, to be governed by tticir own laws ; till tlie kings of France poirefTcd tiiemftlvcs lucccflivcly of tl reign of Louis-le-Deboiinaire. Anc. Un. Hill, vol.17, 'late: but the duchy of Burgundy, part of the late govern Gibbon's Hill. Decl. and Fall of the Roman Empire, ment of Burgundy, was never comprehended within the vol. iv, V, vi. kingdom of Burgundy Cis-Jurana, or in that of Burgundy BuRGUNDiANS, the denomination of a political party, Trans-Jurana. It formed a dilliucl (late, which continued which, together with the Armagnacs, divided the whole fubjeft to the kings of France. In the partition which took kingdom of France, about the commencement of the 15th place in 843 between the fons of Louis-le-Debonnaire, little befidcs Switzerland, the Valaie, the Genevefe and Chab- lais. The third kingdom was that of Aries, founded in 9 JO, by the rt-union of the kingdoms of Prjvcncc and Burgundy 'IVan.s-Jurana, in favour of Rodolphut U., who was before king ofjiurgundy Trans-Jurana only. The lis centurv. Sec Armagnac. BURGUNDY, in Geography, derives its name from the BuRGUNDiANS (fee the preceding article), and, before the revolution, was a very conliderable province of France ; bounded on tlie eall by Franche-Comtc, on the fouth by Lyonnoist, on the well by Bourbonnois and Nivernois, Ciiailes-le-Chauve had the part of the kingdom which was fituated to the well of the Saone ; and it was governed by dukts. But the power of tliefe dukes gradually advanced to fuch a height, that one of them, named Rodolphus, in the time of Charles the Simple, was tleilcd king of France. This duchy palTed afterwards to Hugh the Great, duke of France, and on the north by Champagne. The government or who proved a troublefomc neighbour to Rodolph ; and his province of Burgundy contained, befides the duchy of the fon, Hugh Capet, feated himfelf and family on the throne fame name, La Breffe, of which le Bugcy and le Vali omcy of France. His fon aiid fucceflbr, Robert, h.avinn- inherited form a part, and the county of Gex. Its extent from north Burgundy, gave it to Henry, his eldell fon, who fucceed- to fouth is about 60 French leagues, and from weft to eall ing to the throne of France, affigned it in 1032 to Robert I., about .50 leagues. Burgundy is divided lengthways by a his younger fon, who was the head of the firll dncal race of chain of mountains, extending from Dijon to Lyons; the eailern part of the province is an immenfe rich plain, which terminates in the mountains of Franche-Comte and Savoy, and which is watered by the Saone and other rivers that flow into it ; the other part of the province is mountainous, and in many places dry and uncultivated. The principal rivers that water it, befides the Saone, are the Seine, the Arman- 9on, the Yonne, the Serain, the Ouche, the Deune, which runs into the Saone near Verdun, the Arroux, the Bour- bonince, the Rhone, the Loire, and the Doubs. The Burgundy. This fubhlled for 330 years, and became ex- tinft in 136 1 in the perfon of Philip I., who died without ilTue. King John, being fon to a princefs of Burgundy, in 1361 united this duchy with the crown, and in 1563 con- ferred it on his fon Philip the Bold, in whom the fecond ducal line commenced. With his great grandfon Charles the Warlike, who lofl: his life before Nancy in 1477, the fecond line terminated. Although he left a daughter, Mary, who married Maximilian, archduke of Aullria, and John, prince of Burgundy, count of Nevers and Rethc:l,who did not mineral waters of this duchy are thofe of Apoigni near die till 149 1 ; Lewis XI. felzcd upon the duchy, and united Seignelay, Premeau near Nuits, Vevelay, Sainte-Reinc, and it to his crown, whicli has llnce retained it, notwithlbinding Bourbon-l'Ancy. The province is fertile in various kinds the repeated claims and endeavours of the houfe of Aullria of grain and fruit, tobacco, hemp, and flax ; and among its to recover it. The various polftfTions of the dukes of Bur- wines, which are excellent, we may reckon thofe of Nuits, gundy rendered them the moll conliderable powerjn Eu- Beaime, Dijon, VoUenay, Pomard, Chaflagne, Meurfault, rope; and in 1433 a decree of Bayle afTign.-d to Philip the Vofne, Savignc, Mercy, Chambolle, Givri, Mercurey, Good the firfl; rank after kings, and named him the firll Romance, la Tache, Richebourg, iSaint-Gcorge, and Cham- duke of the Chrillian world. The dukes of Burgundy were berlin. The mountains furnifli excellent pafture for cattle the firll ancient peers of France. At the king's corona- and horfes. Its mines afford ores of various metals, particii- tion they bore the crown, and girded on him the fword. larly iron, different forts of Hones, marble, granite, and alio Burgundy, Circle of, a circle of the German empire, coal, and ochre for dyeing. Its forells fupply abundance of made a part of it in 1512 under the emperor Maximilian. wood. It has alfo various manufadlures of iron, wool, linen, It took its name from the province of Burgundy, now dif- and cotton. Its corn, wine, iron, wood, wool, and cattle, membered from the empire, and belonging to France, and furnifli the principal articles of commerce. The dillri£l of has long fince ceaftd to be reckoned among the circles of Brcfle has fubterraneous lakes ; and the cave of Arcy, as the empire. It was formerly under the direClorfliip and Well as the fait fpiing of Vezelay, are worthy of notice, fovereignty of the king of Spain, and comprchend.d not The principal towns of Burgundy are Dijon, the capital, only Higher Burgundy, or Franche Comtc, but likewife Beaune, Chatillon-fur-Seine, Auxerre, Antun, Clialon, the 17 provinces of the Low Countries, which in the rt;gB Magon, Bourg, Bellcy, Gex, &c. Since the revolution, of Charles V. were received as members of the empire. Burgundy is dillributtd into the departments of the Yonne, Burgundy Pitch, fee Pitch. Cote d'Or, the Saone and Loire, and the Ain. Burgundy Pilch, plaller of. See Plaster. The ancient kingdom of Burgundy formed three pro- ^^^^GW AKH, Burg-wartJus. or Bur"i.vartHum,\n Miil- vinces in the 5th and loth centuries. The firft was that of ill- ylgc Writers, the fame with Bu lwark. The name is Provence, whicii fome authors have called the kingdom of alio extended to the town, and even the country about fuch Burgundy Cis-Jurana, in reference to mount Jura, now a fortrefs. It ia formed from the Teutonic bur", loiun and called Mont St. Claud. This was ellablillied in S55, in ward, cu/loJy, keeping. favour of Charles, third fon of the emperor Lothario I., BURHANPOUR, in Geography, a city of Hindoftan and comprehended Provence, properly fo called- i.e. the and capital of the Candeifli cou try, and at oe period, of country cemtained between the Dura-ce, the Alps, tiie Me- the Deccan alio. It is a fine flour'lhinr rjtv, and is fituated diterranean,and the Rhone, togethcrwith the duchy of Lyons, in the midll of a delightful country. This was one of the The fecond was formed in bbl8 on the other fide of mou t earliell conqiitltsin the Deccan ; and ii is now in the hai:ds Jura, and called Burgundy Trans-Juiana. It comprehended ot the Poonah, or welUrn Ma.irattao, About 20 miles to 3 Z 2 the BURIAL. the N.E. of it is a ver)- ftronp^ fortrefs, named Afeer, or Afeti^ur. It has a confuierable trade in fmi: cottons, white and paintfd, plain, and mixed with gold and filvc-r, for vtils, (havvls, handkerchiefs, &c. ; 135 miles N. of Auningaljad, and 6:5 S. of Deliii. N. lat. 21° i./. E. long. 76^ 22'. BuRHANPOiiR, a town of Hindoftan, in the county of Bengal i 10 miles S. of Moorlhedabad, and ico miles N. of Calcutta. BURIAH, a river of Hindollan, which ntns into the JuTinah, 20 irilcs S. of Delhi. BURIAL. The aA of interring a deccafcd petfon. Of l!ic viirious modes of bnrial winch have prevailed in the world, it was Cicero's opinion, (De Leg. ii. 22.) that inhumation was the oldcll : and the records of hiltory un- doubtedly cormborate th.e notion. Burning, and inclofing the remains in nrns, were perhaps never found expeditnt, till national animolities h.id given rife to inhuman treatment of the dead. The common confent of mankind, from the beginning of time to the profent moment, has concurred in the propriety and decency of interment : it is a natural aft infpircd by humanity ; a practice, which has been continually ubferved by enemico in time of war ; and but rarely denied in any country, but to thofc who have violated either the laws of God or nature. The duty of fepukure, and inftances of the difcharge of it, continually occur in Scripture. David palTcs high encomiums on the men of Jabez-Gilead who refcued the bones of their king and prince from the enemy's walls, and committed them to their family vault. (2 Sam. ii. 5.) It is part of the praife of Tob't that he went about burying his murdered countrymen, at the hazard of his life. And Jeremiah threatens it as the greateft of punifhments, that tlie wicked fhould be deprived of burial, and left on a dunghill: (Jrr. viii. 2.) or as it is emphati- cally cxprefTed, buried witli the burial of an afs. Herodo- tus tells us, (Euterpe, xc.) th.it in Egypt, if either a native or a foreigner was loinid either dellroyed by a crocodile, or drowned in the water, the city nearelt which the body was difcovertd was obliged to embalm it, and pay it every re- fpeftful attention, and afterwards di-polit it in fome confe- crated place. Ifxus brings it as a proof that Cleon was not the fon of Aftyphylus, becanfe he neither buried him, nor performed his fiincrcd exequies. (Orat. de Hereditate Afty- phyh.) A law of Athens compelled the bmial of a dead body found by accident, and pronounced the refufer im- pious. Servius on Virgil (jEn. vi. 176.) fays, writers on moral duties place the duty of interrmg the dead among- the lirlh It was profanation for a pvieft to look on a dead body, but the height of impiety to leave it unburicd. The Athenians carried their attention to the dead beyond the grave ; and Solon, by an exprefs law, forbad any refleftions on their charaftcr. On this law Plutarch thus comments : *' Piety fliould induce us to reverence the dead ; juftice fliould prevent us from intermeddling with the affairs of thofe who no longer txill ; and policy fhould lead us to prevent the perpetuity of enmity." (Solon, p. 89. E.) Demoilhenes extends the caution Hill further: not even any provocation from furvivors of the family fhould urge us to any refleftions on the dead ; (In Leptonein, p. 298.) and every citizen was at liberty to bring an aflion againll the abufive party. (Ul- pian in loc. Demofthcnes in Bosotos. p. 58S. Suidas.) The Cynics, however, feem to have regarded burial with con- tempt ; and Pliny (H. N. l.vii.) ranks concern about it amongd the wcaknclTes peculiar to man. Among the carliell inhabitants of the world, neither the modes nor the appropriate place of burai can now be afccr- laioed. Nor does it feem that the latter, even in the middle 8 periods of Jevvifh hidory, was always particularly deteri mined. Eor we fuid they had graves and fepulchres both in the town and country, in fields, upon the highways, in gar- dens, in their own houfes, and upon mountains : though the general cullom feems to have been, that the dead fliould be interred without the city. They appear in many cafes alfo to have thought it a misfortune not to be buried with their fathers. In Gcntfis (xv. if,.) when the affliftiou of Abraham's pollerity was foretold, it was proniifed that he fhould go to his fathers bi peace, and be lurieJ in a goo:/ clj age. He afterwards pleads mofl pathetically with the fons of Hcth (xxiii. 3 — ij) for the purchafe of a burial place for Sarah. It was in the cave of the field of M.iclipiluh ; and it afterwards received the bodies of himfelf, of Ifaac, and of Jacob. fofcpli's body, having been embalmed, and put into a cotBn, m Egypt, was brought away by the Ifraehtes when they quitted the country, and buried in a plot of ground in Shcchem, which Jacob had purchaledof the fons of Hamor (Gen. 1. 25. Jofh. xxiv. 32.) Mofes was fecretly buried in a valley in the land of Moab, (Deut. xxxiv. 6.) and no man knew of his fepulchre. Eleazar, the fon of Aaron, was buried on a hill. (Jofli. xxiv. 35.) Joab, in his own houl'e in the wildernefs. (i Kings ii. 34.) ManafTch and Amon, in the garden of Uz/a ; (2 Kings xxi. 18. 26.) and Reho- boam, Afa, Jehofaphat, Joram, Amaziah, Azariah, Jotham and Ahaz, in the city of David, with their fathers. " Joalh, too, was buried in the city ol David," but not in the iepul- chres of the kings. (2 Chron. xxiv. 25.) From the profane writers of antiquity we learn the prac- tice among other nations : and not only from their authority, but from daily obfervation, we find the high raifed Tumulus continued a mark of refpeft amongft the living, and a iignal honour amongft the dead in every age of which we have any record. Barroivs are the moft ancient fepulchral monu- ments in the world : a.nd their contents are as various as the different people that occupied the globe, or the different cir- cumflanees by which they were dillinguifhed. The pyra- mids of Egypt are but barrows of a more folid material : and the church-yard hillock of the prefcnt day is but a relic of their univerfal prevalence. Homer is very particu- lar in defcribing the barrow of Patroclus. It was fir'.l marked out with a circle ; the foundations were then laid round tlie very fpot where the funeral pile was ftill uncoolcd, and the earth thrown up over them. Xtyavlf; d* ':o tm^a, TOa^iv xiov. II. -4^. 26.) See B.4RR0W. With the Egyptians, and the ancient Greeks, (fee Plato,. Minoe propc fin), ptrfons were occafionally buried^ as we have already mentioned in the cafe of Joab, in their own . houfcs : while in other inftances hills and rocks were not only receptacles for the ancient inhabitants of Greece, Sicily and Aha, but of the Perjians, and, to this day, of the Chi- ntfe. The general praftice of burial, however, among the ancient Perfians, is thus related by Herodotus, (Clio, cxl.) •♦ I will BURIAL. " I will not affirm it to be true, that tliefe never arc inter- red till tome bird or dog has uifcovtred a propenfity to piey on them. This, however, is unquelHonably certain of tlicr Magi, who publicly obferve this ciillom. The Pcrlians (iril evciofe the dead body in wax, and afterwards place it in the ground." The cuilom to which Herodotus litre par- ticularly alludes as the exciufivc privilege of the Magi, was afterwards iniverfally adopted : and, in part, Hill continues. The place of burial of the Gncbres, at the dillance of half a Iea;;ue from Ifpahan, is a round tower made of free ftone : it is 35 feet hic;h, and 90 in diameter, without gate, or any kind of entrance ; they afcend it by a ladder. In the midll of the tower is a kind of trench, into which the bones are thrown. The bodies are ranged alone; the wall in tluir pro- per cloaths, upon a fmall couch, with bottles of wine, and viduals. The ravens which fiil tlie ca-nietery, devour them. (Chardin's Travels.) An csaft model of this curious towtr is preferved in the Britifli Mufeum. Among the Egyptians, the body having been embalmed by perfons legally appouUed to the exercife of the profel- fion, was returned to the relations, who enclofcd it in a cafe of wood made to refemble an human ligure, and placed it againft the wall in the repofitory of their dead. (Herod. Euterpe. Ixxxvi.) The cuftom of burning the dead, to which we have already alluded, is, however, of higher antiquity than we may at tirft fuppofe. Saul was burnt at Jabelh, and his bones after- wards buried ; and Ala was burnt in the bed whieh he had made for himfelf, filled with fiveet odours, and divers kinds of fpices ; but the practice exifled, we are aflured, neither in Perfia nor Egypt : the Perfians thought it profane to feed a divinity with human carcafcs ; and tlje Egyptians ablior- red it on another account, being fully ptrfuaded that fire was a voracious animal, which devoured whatever it could feize ; and when faturated, finally expired with what it had confumed. The Egyptians alio held it unlawfid to expt^fe the bodies of the dead to animals ; for which reafon they embalmed them, fearing left after interment, they might become the prey of worms. (Herod. Tii.ilia. xvi.) In Perfia, too, at the time Herodotus wrote, the cuftom of burying alive was comm.on : and he was told that Ameftris, the wife of Xerxes, when ftie was of an advanced age, com- manded fourteen Perfian children of illuftrious birth to be interred alive in honour of t!ie deity whom they fuppofed to txift under the earth. (Polymnia, cxiv.) Of the ancient Ethiopian praftice we have a more minute defcription, related on the tradition of Cambyfes' fpies. •' After all the moifturc is extracted from the body, by the Egyptian, or fome other procefs, they cover it totally with a kind of plaifter, which they decorate with various colours, and make it convey as near a refemblance as may be of the peifon of the deceafed. They then inclofe it in a hollow pillar of cryftal, which is dug up in great abundance, and of a kind that is eafily w orked. The deceafed is very con- fpicuous through the cryftal, has no difagreeable fmell, nor any thing elfe that is ofFenfive. This coffin the ncarcft rela» tions keep for a twelvemonth in their houles, offering before it different kinds of victims, and the firft-fruits of their lands. Thefe are after.vards removed, and fet up round the city." The funeral cerLmonials attending the Scythian kings were ftill more fingular. They were embalmed, and after- wards tranfported through the different provinces of their kingdom, till they were at laft brought to the Gerlhi, in the remoteft parts of Scythia. Here the corpfe was placed upon a coucli, (round which, at different diltances, were fixed daggers ; and upon the whole, pieces of wood covired with. branches of willow) in a trench, nigh the fpot where the Boryftlunes begins to be navigable. In fome ollur parts of tliis trench one of the concubines of the deceafed, who had been previoiidy ftrangled, together with iiis baker, cook, groom, moll confidential firvants, liorfcs, and choictft ef- fects, were buried ; and a mound as high as pofiible raifed above the whole. ( Htrod. Melpomene, Ixxii.) Witii regard, however, to tlic Scythians in general, the praftice was more- finiple. When any one died, the neighbours placed the body on a carriage, and carried it about to the dillVrent ac- quaintance of the deceafed ; thefe prepared fome entertain- ment for tlu/fe who accompanied the corpfe ; placing before the body t!ie fame as before the left. Private perfons, after being tliu."! carried about for the fjjace of forty days, were buried. But the Scythians did not all of them obferve the fame cuftoms with relpcft to tluir funerals : there wert fomt who fulpended the dead bodies from a tree, and in that Hate left them to putrefy. " Of what confequence," fays Plu- tarch, " is it to Theodoras, whether he rots in tlie earth, or upon it .' Such with the Scythians is the moft honour- able funeral." The cuftom is alfo mentioned by Silius Ita- licus : " At gente in Scythica fuffixa cadavera trmcis, Lenta dies fepelit, putri liquentia tube." The African Nomades obferved the fame ceremonies with the Greeks, but the Nafamonfs buried their deceafed in a fitting nttiltirle ; and were particularly careful, as any one ap- proached his end, to prevent his expiring in a reclined pof- ture. (Herod. Melpomene, cxc.) Erom the anecdotes of burial which have already been detailed, it (hould feem, that both among the Jews and Heathens, the place of interment was ufually without the city. Such, alfo, was the cafe with the Athenians, tlie Smyrnasans, the Sicyonians, the Coiinthians, and the Syra- cufans. The examples of Numa and Scrvius Tulhis prove, thai the Pvomans depofited their dead without the city before the introduction of the twelve tables; and it was a fpecial privilege granted by the fenate to particular perfons, that they ftiould be buried vi'ithin the walls; (Cic.de Leg. ii. 23.) and the Jews, at leaft in the latter days of their exiftence as a nation, as we learn from the inftances of Lazarus, (John xi. 38.) the widow's fon at Nain, (Lukevii. ij.) and the dead that were raifed at the crucifixion, .(Matt, xxvii. ^3.) obferved the lame place of burial. I'he hacedannwmn: , however, buried within it. It had been a notion univerfally prevalent, that the touch of a dead body conveyed pollu- tion ; and Lycurgus, the legiQatorof Sparta, was ambitious to remove the prejudice, tie not only introduced the cuf- tom of burial within the city, but ercfled monuments near the temples, that the youth might be trained from their infancy to the view of luch objects, nor fnudder at the fpec- tacle of death. The ancient Greeks and Romans were ftrongly perfuaded that their fouls could not be admitted into the Elyfian fields, till their bodies were committed to the earth: and if it happened that they never obtained the rites of burial, tiiey were fuppofed to remain in a wandering Hate, excluded from the li"Ppy manfions, for the term of 100 years. For this reafon it was confidered as a. duty incumbent upon all tra- vellers who (hould meet with a drad bcdy in their way, to caft dull or mould upon it three times ; and of thefe three handfuls, one, at leall, was caft upon the head. Of thofe who were allowed the rites of burial, fome were dillinguiftied by particular circumliances of difgrace attend- ing their interment : [Hrfons killed by lightning were buried- apait by themlclvcs, being thought odious to the gods ; (fee Plin. ii. j4.) thole who walled their patrimony, forfeited the right BURIAL. ri"ht of being buried in llie fepulcliresof their fathers : and ll^jfe who were guilty of felf-miirdcr, were privately depo- liicd in the ground, without the accuftomed foiemnities. The /Ithcnlm law mentioned by iEiian, (vii. 19.) obliged them to place t!ie body to the welt. This was the origuial pofition i.f the Athenians, as Solon fllewed in defence of his countrymen's claims to Sa'ainis ; for on opening the graves in that ifland, he proved that the Athenians in it were f» buried in a regular manner ; but the Megarcnfian invaders at random, and jud as it happened. I.acrtius (Solone) fays, the Athenians, and the fclioliall on Thucy- dides, all the Greeks, lay buried toward the call ; that is, as Kuhnius on jClian, (loc. cit.) properly explains it, with their faces looking to the cart, and their heads to the weft. This praftice among ChrilUans has been fuppofed to have a reference to the general refurredion. The motive for it among the Heathens has not been afllgned. The Athenian praftlce, however, with regard to thofe who died in the defence of their country, was at once fo patriotic and affcftionate, that it cannot but deferve parti- cular attention. It affords an elevated idea of that poliflied people. About three days before the funeral, the bones of the llain were placed in a tent raifed on purpofe, fo that every perfon might have an opportunity to frequent them, and pay the laft tribute of a tear. All forts of odoriferous herbs and flowers were ilrewed around the tent ; and each man brought fome in his hand, that he might conlccrate them to the manes of his favourite friend. On the fourth day a coffin of cyprefs vs'as fent from every tribe, to carry oft the bones of tlieir own members. After which went an empty covered hearfe, in memoi-)- of thofe who could not be found. The proceffion was canied on with a pecu- liar decency of forrow, whilll great numbers of inhabitants, both ftrangers and citizens, affilled in the train of mourners. The parents of the dcceaftd attended at the fepulchre to weep. No eye could refrain from tears : and the melan- choly dillrefs which appeared in the faces of all aUke, fcemed but a true copy of the fentiments of all. The bones were accompanied in this manner to the public place of burial, fituated in a plcafant foot without the city, called Cerami- cuj, and committed to the ground. The monument ereded to the valour of thefe citizens was adorned with pillars, tro- phies, and infcriptions, fuch as were ufual about the tombs of the moll honourable perfons, and the ceremony con- cluded with one fpeech in praife of them all ; the main fcope of which was, to animate the living with refolution, by commending the courage of the dead ; to infufe a fpirit of patriotifm into the minds of their fellow citizens, by celebrating the principle of aftion which incites the vahant to battle. (Thucyd.) The ccramicus was the place where the flain in battle were always buried, except thofe who fell at Marathon, whofe dillinguiflicd merit entitled them to a monument upon the fpot. Among the Romans, inhumation, we find, was preferred by Nunia, the Cornelian family, and Cains Maruis ; but both Virgil and Ovid fptakof burning as the practice before the loundation of Rome ; tlie former (A.n. xi. 20H.) in the inllance of Pallas; the latter (Faft. iv. 85,3.) in that of Remus. Plutarch fays, Numa forbad it in his own cafe; and the law of the Twelve Tables forbad burning as well as burial within the city, Tacituk (Ann. xvi. 6.) fays, Poppara's corpfe was not burned aecording to the Roman falhii n. It IS a mil.ipprcheiilion of Capitolinus's words to fuppofe Antonin'i.s prohibited it. Macrobiiis (vii. 7.) wlio Jived under Theodufiui the younger, Ipcaks of it as left off in his time. (See Mr. Gouijh's Sepulchral Mon. of Great Britain.) The drapery of the dead among the Romans was the logn, which was white in all cafes except in that of the poor, who had it black. The magiibates and military men were wrapt in their pui pie robes of honour, or logit pretcxtutit, or other precious garments of various colours. Perfons of rank and fortune were buried in their oflicial habits. Mark Anthony gave his own robe to cover the body of Brutus. By the laws of the Twelve Tables crowns were allowed to be worn on thefe occafions by thole who had merited them, and garlands and flowers were cad on the body as it pafied. The funerals of great men were conduced at the public ex- pence. But the bodies of tlie Roman flaves were thrown to rot in holes dug perpendicularly, called ^a/;Va//. (Phil. Tranf. N° 265.) Having thus traced the conformity and occafional varia. tion of praiStice among the more ancient nations in the article of fepulture, it may be worth while to deduce its hiftory in England. Both cremation and fimple interment were druidical and ancient Britifli falhions. The latter rite, however, was obferved with the wild addition of whatever was of ufe in this life, under the notion that it would be wanted by the deceafed in the world below ; and in confirmation of this, arms and many fingular things, of unknown ufe, are to this day difcovered beneath the places of ancient fepiiltuie. (Pennant's Tour in Wales, p. 381.) Barrows were their oldelf tombs. Beneath fome we find urns ; beneath others flvv.\KL of the cnic'ifix, Sepullurn cruafixi, denoted a re- prcfentation of the burial of Chrifl, anciently performed annually in churches on the day of the Parafccue. Du- Cange. Burials, in computations of mortality, denote deaths, and Hand oppofed to births. In this fenfe, we have cfti- matcs of the burials in Brandenburg, in Frankfort, Bredaw, &c. Phil. Tranf. N"' 261, 22c. and 176. By a ftatute under king CharKs II. a regiftcr is to be kept in every parifli, of all perfons buried within the fan-e, or at the comn'.on burial-places thereof. Stat. -^^ Car. II. c. 3. lScc Mortality. Burial is alfo ufcd for the inclofing of vegetable or ini- Kcral bodies in the ground, for divers purpofes. Lord Ba- con gives divers experiments of burying fruits, &c. for pre- fervation and condcnfation, and to give nounflr.r.ent to their refpeflive trees. Works, tcnn. iii. p. 80. Some commend burials in the eartli, others in wheat, to feafon timber when firll; felled, and to make it of moie dur- able ufe. Chemifts fomelimcs bury their cements. The Chinefe are faid to bury their porcelain, to give it the greater teauty. BURIANA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the territory of -Sienna, near the lake of Caftiglione ; 16 miles S. of Montieri. BURIAS, or Burin, one of the Manillas or Philippine Iflands, fouth of Luzon, about five miles in compafs, inha- bited by a few tributary Indians, who are comprifed in the parilh of Mafbate, which is another larger ifland fouth of it, and not far diftant from Ticao. N. lat. 12° 30'. E. long. 122° o'. BURICH. SeeBuDERicH. BuRiCH, is alfo a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and margraviate of Baden-Durlach : five miles from Philipfburg. BURIDAN, John, in Biography, a celebrated fchool- man of the T4th century, was a native of Bethune, and be- came profcfTor in the univeifity of Paris, and, as fonie fay, regent in 1320./ Aventine relates, that be was a difeiplc of Ocknm, and being attac'ricd to the feft of the Nominals, was obliged by the prevalence of that of the Reaiills to quit Paris, and to remove to Germany, where he founded the univerfity of Vienna. He wrote " Commentaries on Arif- totle's Logic, E'i-ics, and Metaphyfics ;'" but he has been principally rema e on account of the fophifm or argu- ment, conTionI; ' d '' Buridan's Afs." This feems to have been introd-.'iid For the purpofe of illudiating the doc- trine of tliat necefiu) of yielding to impiclTions of the fenfes under which b-^nils are placed, and in which they are fup- pofcd to d'T-r from inrin, who poffefTes free-will, or an in- ternal fclf-.'ctcrmining power. With this view, Buridan feigned an ii;;ngry afs, placed between two meafures of oats, in fuch a manner, that each made exaftly the fame impref- iion on hit; fenfes ; in which cafe, for want of a power of chufing one rather than another, he mull; die of hunger. The term " B.:ridiin's Afs," has been fince proverbially iiftd to denote c fTiculty and hefitation in determining between two objefls. Gen. Dift. Vol. V- BURIE, in Geography, a town cf France, in the Lower Charente, and chief phire of a canton, in the dilliict of Saintes; the place contains 1510, and the canton 10,288 inhabitants; the territory comprehends i;;^ kiliomclies, and 1 1 communes. BURIGNY, N. Levesque de, in Bkgrnphy, an efli- mable man of letters, was born at Rheims in 1691, and de- voting himftif to literary purfuits, acquired iiniverfal refjieft for the mildnefc; and fmiplicity of hii cl.are£\er. lie was a member of the Parifian academy of belies lettrcs ; and pro- longed his life, with the cxtrcife of his facuhics, to his 94tii year. His vrorks are " A Treatife on the Authority of the Popes," 1720, 4 vols. i2mo. •' Hiftory of Pagan Philofophy," 1724, I2mo., and 1754; '< General Hidory of Sicily," 1745, 2 vols. 4»o. : "A Tranflation of Por- phyiy on Abftinence from ritfli," ,1747, i2mo. ; " Iii (lory of the Ptcvolutions of Conflartinopl'e," 1750, 3 vols. i:mo. ; "TheLifeof Grotius," 1754. 2 vols. l2mo.; "of Erafmus," 1757_, 4 vols. i2mo. ; " of BcfTuet," 1761, umo. ; " of Cardinal du Perron," 1768, umo. ; all in French. His works, which in their general chnradler are correal, hut dif- fufe and languid, arc efteemed as valuable colledions of au- thentic .fafts. Nouv. Dia. Hift. BURIS, in Surgery, a name given by Avicenna, and fome other old aiithors, to a fcirrhous hernia, caufed by a hard ab/ctfs. BURKA, in Geography, lies in the idand of Angra, in the gulf of Ballbra, and has a fpacious harbour, with plenty of water. See ANGRA-/^a;;y. BURKE, Edmund, in BlogrnpI>y, was born in Dubhn, on the firll of January, 1730. His lather was an attorney of the Proteiiaiit perfuafion. The fon was placed, during the early part of his education, under the care of Abraham Shackleton, a Qiiaker fchoolmafter of conliderable merit, for whom his illullrious pupil entertained fo large a fliate of affeftion through life, as never to omit paying him an an- nual vifit of gratitude and refpefl, during a period of forty years. From Ballytore near Carlow, the refidence of Shac- kleton, Mr. Burke was removed, at the age of fixtecn, to Trinity College, Dublin. It is underftood that lie was more attentive to the inflruflions of his country fchool-maf- ter, from whom he early derived much of his multifarious knowledge, than to the more rigular difcipline of tuition, inllituted by the univerfity. He gained no prize ; but he obtained hij fcholardilp, during the fecond year of his refi- fidence, which proves him at leall not to have been deficient in claffical attainments ; for of fuch are that h jnour and emo- lument the reward. He was contemporary with Goldfmith ; but it does not appear that any friendlhip commenced be- tween thefe two great men, till after the poem of the " Tra- veller" had ellablifhed Goldfmith's reputation. There is no foundation whatever for the opinion, that Burke was bred a Catholic ; and it feems, now generallv agreed, that he did not fiiiilh his ftudiesat St. Omer's. He was a candi- date for the profefroifiiip of logic at Glafgow, but was too late ill his application. On this difappoiiitment, he repaired to London in 1 749, after having ta-ien his bachelor's degree, and entered himlelf a member of the Temple, with a view of being called to the bar. I At this time, the narrownefs of his finances reduced him to the necefhty of writing for the periudical papers ; to v/Hich, he contributed effays on literary and political topics : but though the fphere in which he moved was not that of plea- lure and falhion, he procured an introduilion to the cele- brated Mrs. WofHngton, the aftrefs, in whofe fociety he pafTcd many of his Icifnrc hours. The feverity with which he applied himfelf both to cor.ipofition and iludv, having 4 A confi- BURKE. con wli nficl.nblv afTeafd his hcakli, Dr. Nugent was called in, lo removed him from the inadequate accommodations ot the Temple to ihe comforts of his own houfe. The atten- tion of the family, and the particilar kindnefs of Mils Nii-rent led to a matrimonial connexion, in which Mr. BurTcc's expedations of domcilic happinefs wert fully an- ' Mr ' Burke's firll acknowledged publication was, " A Vindicaiion of natural Society ; or a View of the Miferies and Evils arifing to Mankind, from every Sp.-cies of artih- cial Society," written in imitation of lord Bohi-.gbrokc, for the puniofe of attacking ironically that writer's philo'.o- It did not the purjioL. phy, and expofing its injurious confequences. meet witli the reception which has fmce been thought lo have been ju'llv duo to its merit as a compofition. He was not however difcnii-aged by this failure from publifhing his " EH'av on the Sublime and Beautiful," which had been compofcd prior to the " Vindication," but referved for the advantage of making a fir.1 appearance under cover of a well-known and admired charafter. Both thefe works came out in 1 756. Though ihere was no name to the " Inquiry," the firll edition was fold within the year, and a fecond publi:|ied in 1757, with an " Introduftory Dilcourfe concerning Talte." The applaufe which attended this performance was not tem- porary, nor the conntaions conftq-.icrit on it without pcr- •manei'it advantage. It procured him relief from his pecuni- ary embarraifments, and an eafy introcKiclion to the circles of the firll rank and abilities. Among the firil who fought his acquaintance, were Dr. Johnfon and fir Jolhua Rey- nolds, to whom lie has been fuppofcd to have furnilhed the compofition of tlie " Difcourfe to the Royal Academy." Much has been faid on the fubjea ; but there feems no rca- fon for depriving the late illuftriou? prefidcnt of the fame at- tached to an excellent writer, as well as an original and ac- compli Ihcd artift. It was Mr. Burke's intention to have controverted the theories of Berke'ey and Hume : he then thought of rival- ling the hilloric labours of the latter in " Memoirs of his own Times ;" for this purpofe, he had made himfelf mafter of Englith hiltory, efpecially fince the revqlation ; and the projeft ended 'in the eilaMidiment of Do-^.fley's " Annual Regiftcr," a very valuable work, of which he had the principal dircftion from 175S to 1789. In 1761, he accompanied " Single-fpeech Hamilton" to Ireland. This latter gentleman made one very excellent fpeech in the Englifh, and one more in the Irilli houfe of commons ; and Mr. Burke has been faid to have been the compofcr of both thefe fpeechts, but probably with as little reafon as in the cafe of fir Joihua's difcourfes. On Mr. Burke's return from Ireland, with a penfion of socl. per annum, it was no longer rcceiTary to write for periodical puldications. He, however, contributed occafionally to the «' Public Advertifer," where the excellence of his writings introduced him to the notice of the marquis of Rocking- ham, while Mrs. Woffington recommended him to the duke of Ncwcaftle. He accordingly became private Itcretary to the marquis, at the inftance of Mr. Fitzherbcrt, and mem- ber fi.r Wendover on lord Verney's interell, and thus com- menced his political career. In February 171^4, was founded that club, which after- wards became diltinguilhcd by the title of the Literary Club. Sir Jodiua Reynolds was the firft propofcr, and Johnfon ac- ceded to the plan, in the hope of enlarging his circle, and recovering the opportunites for converfation, which he had loll by the diffolution of the meeting in Ivy-Lane. The original members of the literary club were, befides t'nc twj founders, Mr. Burke, Dr. Nugent, Mr. Beauclerk, Mr. Langton, Mr. Chamier, fir John Hawkins, and Goldfmith. They met at the Turk's Head, in Gerard ftreet, Soho, on every Monday evening through the year. Abnut the time of Mr. Burke's entrance on public life, men's minds were equally agitated by the meafures of go- vernment refpefting Mr. Wilkes, and the growing difcon- tents in America. Of the two parties in oppofition, that of Mr. Pitt having infilled on very peremptory conditions, refpefting court favourites and fccret advifcrs, the duke of NewcalUe, of whofe party, on account of his age and in- firmities, the marquis of Rockingham was confidered as the leader, clofed with the terms on which a new adminillration was propofed. Mr. Burke now, with a facility to which he was too prone, feceded from his old friendihip v/ith Mr. Hamilton ; but he is faid, at the fame time, to have re- finned the penfion procured through that gentleman's in- terell. From this time he became a profeil'ed party-man ; a bondage to which he was in fome meafure compelled, by laving himfelf under pecuniary obligations to the marquis of Rockingham. The nature and extent of the favour he re- ceived have been varioufly reprefented ; but it is certain, that a confiderable part, if not the whole of the purchafe money for his villa at Beaconsfield, of which he now took poficffion, was promifed either as a loan or a gift by the marquis. On hie entrance into parliament, he took infinite pains to q'lalify himfelf for the difcharge cf his new duty. Among other fources of improvement, he difdained neither the writ- ings of the fathers, the fubtleties of the fchool divines, the perufbl of precedents and records, nor the oratorical con- tells of the Robin-Hood fociety. His principal opponent at the I', obin Hood was a baker, of whom Goldfmith faid, that " Nature intended him to have prefidcd in the court of chancery." He procured liis feat in 1765, and his firft fpeech was on the llamp aft. It attrafted the notice, and obtained the applaufe of Mr. Pitt : Mr. Burke was princi- pally confulted by the Rockingham adminitlration on the affairs of America, and the middle courfe was adopted in conformity with his advice. The wesknefs of the party, and the feeblencfs of their policy, foon brought the miriiltry to a clofe ; and its dilTolution was hallened bv Mr Burke's projeft of a Canadian conflitution, which lord Northingtoa condemned in the moll angry and contemptuous language. Mr. Pitt then made his own terms, as he thought, with the court. Mr. Burke had fcarcely time to defend the conduft of his friends in piint, before their fucceflors refigntd, and the parliament was difknved. Mr. Burke was re-eiefted for Wendover, the Grafton miniftry came into power, and Mr.. Burke was the principal orator of oppofition. He was ad- verfe to the expulfion of Wilkes, and made an able fpeech to prove his fubfequent eligibility, though he difliked the general charafter of the m.an. About this time, the letters of Junius began to appear ; and on this occafion, the public have not loll fight of their propenfity to attribute all able, compofition to Mr. Burke. There feems to be not the lead foundation for fuppofing him to have been their au- thor. He, however, gave his opinions and principles at confiderable length, in his " Thoughts on the Caufes of the prefent Difcontents," The leading features of this pam- phlet were, a pointed inveftive againll inner cabinets and fecrct influence, and a pifture of what a houfe of commons ought to be. Thofe who feek in this work for proofs of political apollacy in later life, will not find the evidence fo decifive as they exptft. The remedies propofed were not thofe of democracy, but of a fellow-feeling to be eftablifhed between the ariilocracy and the people. As a proof that the BURKE. the views of the author did not even then rife up to the tx- pedations of the wliig-party in general, he was attacked by Mrs. Macaulay, as well as by the friends of the court. While I>)rd North was mmifter, the inipctaofity of fyfte- matic oppofition fcenis to have carried Mr. Burke's vindica- tion of freedom fmtlier tlian was compatible with that fond- tiefs tor ancient edablilhments, which always exilled in his mind, and became fo much llronger in the latter part of life. He took a dillinguifhed part in the debates on the liberty of the prefs. iJuring the whole of the American war, he niiiformly oppofed the miniller with -/^al and ability, and defended the people with warmth and energy. His habits during this period were thofe of fobrietv and literary indullry, as well as of parliamentary vigilance and exertion. It is to the credit of both parties that political d fferenccs made no breach between Burke and Johnfon. Tlie latter, on taking leave of his boll at Beaconsfield, wimed him all the fuccefs on hjs cauvafs at Brillol, which " could poiribly be wiflied him by an honed man." Tlie famous Brillol election took place in 17"4, when Burke and Cruger, an Ameiican merchant, turned out lord- Clare and Mr. Brickdale, the former reprtfentatives. So little afiiilance did Mr. Burke derive from Mr. Cniger's eloquence on the hullings, that the condant and only fpccch of the latter was, " I fay ditto to Mr. Burke I I lay ditto to Mr. Burke!" It would exceed the limits of this article to detail Mr. Burke's controverfy with Dean Tucker, or the part which he took on every great political quellion. It is necrilary, however, to mention, that on the queftion of parliamentary reform, the Rockingliam branch of oppotition oppofed the meafure ; and the duke of Richmond, lords Shelburne, Chat- ham, and Camden, Mr. Dunning, and Mr. Fox defended it. The leading features of Mr. Burke's political conduft, while pay-mader general in the Rockingham and Fox ad- miuiftration, was the adoption of the plan for economical reform, which had been rc-jeftecl by the houfe of commons in 17S0. It however underwent feveral modifications. Tlie political convulfions which cnfned on lord Rockingham's death, are well remembered. The coalition, and the India bill were fuggerted and puflied forward with much ardour by Mr. Burke, and principally, if not entirely, produced that decline of popularity, which both himfelf and his friends experienced. The event in which Mr. Burke dood mod prominent be- fore the public, in the interval between the formation of Mr. Pitt's niinidry, and the French revolution, was the im- peachment of Mr. Haftings. His fpeeches on this occadon were among the mod fplendid triumphs of his eloquence, though not am.ong the mod folid attedations of his judg- ment. They were marked by intemperance and exaggera- tion, apparently produced rather by the ambition of rival- ling Tully in his eloquent and claitical abufe, than ariiing from a fober examination of fafls, or a iciious conviction of guilt. The charges of avarice and malice have never been adequately fupported, and can only be mentioned to be de- nied in grave and impartial biography. Mr. Burke had never been remarkable for an even temper in the diicufTion of political qucdions : his irritability in- creafed with his years, and his conducl became intemperate and violent. He injured the caufe, imd incurred the dif- pleafure of his alTociates on the quedion of the regency, and burd afunder all the ties of friendfhip, as well as political connctlion, on the breaking out of the French revolution. That event, together with the conduft and opinions of Mr. Burke relating to it, is fo recent, that it will be liifficient barely to cnumsrate his publications on the fuijeA, with the fingle obfervalion, that he fccms from this time forward to have cheriditd his arillocratical principles into the moll inveterate bigotry, and to have negatived in turn every maxim of praclical freedom, which he had formerly en- forced. .Still, however, it is to be hoped, that his mtafuri s, as a public man, m;iy candidly he auiibuted to impituohty of character, and duiilihty of imagination, rather than lo any worfe motives. The celebrated " Rtflexions" were pnbiifhed in Oilobcr 1790, which were iird aufwered by Dr. l-'riellley, in vindica- tion of his friend Dr. Price, and afterwards by Tho"-.as Paine in his " Rights of Man." The next pubhcation of Mr. Burke was his " .Secot;d Letter to a Member of the National Affembly ;" and the third, his " Appeal from the new to the old Vv^higs," in conlequence of t)ie publication from the whig club, declar- ing Mr. Fox to have maiiitaiueJ the pure doctrines of Eng- lidi vvhiggifm. In J7(;i, Mackintofli's " Vindici:B Gallicx" appeared, and Mr. Burke's principal publications afterwards were, his " Letter to Lord Fitzwilham," and "'i'houghts on a regi- cide Peace." Oil the clofe of Mr. Hadings's trial, Mr. Burke retired from parliament ; but his domellic comfort was irretrievably impaired, and his life probably fhortcned by the death of his fon, in the year 1794. The father furvived three years, which were principally employed in ads and fchemes of be- nevolence to the French emigrants and their families. He retained his faculties in perfedtion to the lad, and died without bodily druggie, or difcompofure of mind, on the 8th of July, 1797. The qualities of Mr. Burke's mind will be bed exempli- fied by a few of his opinions on literary fubjidls. Virgil and Lucretius were his favourite Latin poets. He preferred the fatires and epillles of Horace to the odes. He edccmed the Greek hidorians and orators more highly than the Latin. The delineation of ancient manners and characters in Homer delighted him ; and he read the Odydey more frequently th;;n the Iliad. Among the dramatic writers, he gave the pre- ference to Euripides over Sophocles. The modern authors with whom he was moll pleafed, were Bacon, Shakfpear, Addifon, Le Sage, and Fielding. He thought Richardfou far inferior to the latter: he did not like Swift, and had a very poor opinion of Gay ; particularly of his " Beggar's Opera." He paid much attention to farming, and difplayed tadc in his improvements at Beaconsfield. He was one of the mod fuccefstul gentlemen farmers, and condaiitly fupplicd his family in town from the produce ot his own ellate. He was particularly hofpilable, and indulged iu the pleafures of the table, but never to exccfs. He was liberal to comnioii beggars ; and afcribed the ordinary principle of difcouraging them, rather to avarice than policy. As a fpeaker, Mr. Burke was charaflerifed by a fuper- fluity of ideas and iuiagrs, often too abundant to he applied with propriety, or ftlefted and arranged with judgment. Early in lite, he w.is remarkably careful of his language, and rtvifed his fpeeches with attention. I-attcrly, he be- came blameably duTufe and extravagant, though his inge- nuity never failed. He was particularly ambitious of ex- cellence in the manngemeiiit of his voice and acflion ; yet, after all, the former was but harlh, and the latter forcible, but drained. His " Eday on the .Sublime and Beautiful" has placed him in the highell clafs of writers on fubjeiEls of tade and criticifm ; nor can his whole charafter be fummed up with fo niQch drength, concilcnefs, and truth, as in the mcmor- 4 A 2 able BUR sSle \vori1s of Jol.r.fon : " Burke is ouc, wiili vliom, if you «t.-<: to :i,k<: ili^-ltcr from a Ihjwcr m.Jcr a gate way, you wniil'J fay you had been in coi:ipany wi.li the moft cxtraor- din; rv r.ian vni; had ever feeii." UlTRKF, in Oeograpliy, a county of America, in Morgan dillrirt, Horth Carolina, containincr 81 iS inliabitants, of whom 595 are (laves. Its capital is Morjian-town. BuiiKE is alfo a county in the lower i!i;!ria of Georgia, coiitainin.;; 9467 inhf.bil'aits, of whom 515 are (laves. Its chief towns are Louifville and Waynefbororgh. BuRKF is alfo a townfliip of Caledonia coviiity, in the ftate of Vermont ; dillant IJ4 miles N. E. from Ben- nington. _ BURKEN, a town of Germ?.ny, in the circle oi the J.owcr Rhine and cledlorate of Mentz ; 27 milcS E. of Hcidelbrrp. BURKERSDORF, a royal town, with a citadel, of Aullria, in the circle below the forcd of Viciuia, lying on the rivul'.t of Wien. BURKH.A.USEN, a well-built town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Bavaria, feated on the Salza, with a caflle on a hill, the capital of a regency, and having 4 churches, and a Jtfuits' college ; 26 miles N.N.W.of Saltz- burg. BURKHEIM, or Purkheim, a town of Germany, in the circle cf Bavaria, and duchy of Ncuburg; 7 miles W.S.W. of Ncuburg. BURKI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiov. N.lat. 4^=' 50'. E. long. 3 i" 6'. BURKITT, William, in B!ojraJ>fy, was born at Hitciiam in Northamptonlhire in 1650, and, after a previous grammatical education, was admitted, at the age of 14 years, into Pembroke-hall in the univeriity of Can.bridge. Upon taking his degree, he quitted the uiiivcrfity, and became chaplain in a gentleman's family. His firft fetllement, after his ordination by bifiiop Reynolds, was at Milden in SufTolk, where he continued to officiate for 21 years, tirll as curate, and afterwards as reftor, and where he was much eileen^ed as a plain, p.aclical, affeftionate preacher. In 1692 he ex- changed this Htuation for the vicarage of Dedham in ElTex, where he died in 1703. His charatler was diftin^uifhed for piety and charity. He was aftive in making colleftions for the relief of the French proteftants in 1687, &c. and in pro- curing the fettkment of a worthy minifter in Carolina : and by his lall will he provided for the accommodation of a Icfturer at Dcdham. He has been principally known as a writer by his " Commentary on the New Tcliament." BUR'KUNSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Bamberg, feated on the White-Mayn. BURLAMAQUI, Johs-James, in Biogmph, an emi- nent civilian, was defcended of a noble family, originally from Lucca, and born at Geneva in 1694; wljcre he be- came honorary profeffor of jurifprudence in 1720. After travelling into France, Holland, and England, he com- menced the exercife of his funiiions, and rendered his fcl o^l famous and flourifhing. One of his pupils was prince Frederic of HcfTe-CalFel, who, in 1734, took him to hisrefideiice, and detained him there for fome time. Upon his return to Ge. neva, he furrendcred his profefForfhip ; and in 1740 entered mto the grand council ; and, as a member of this jlluftrious body, he continued to ferve his fellow-citizens till his death, in 1750. As a writer, he was diftinguifned lefs by his origAiaiity than by his clear and accurate method of detailing and iUuftrating the principles of others ; among whom are Grolius, Puffcndorf, and Barbeyrac. His works are, " Principles of Natural Law," 410. Geneva, 1747, often BUR reprinted, tranilated into various languages, and long uftd ?.£ a text-book in the univeriity of Cambridge ; and " Political Law," 4to. Gen. 1751 ; a pcl'ihumous work, compiled from the notes of his pupils. Burhmaqui was much clleemed ia private life ; and reipeii^ed as a lover of the fine arts, and a patron of artifts. He h;id a valuable Coiieftion of pictures and prints; and a nitdal of him was executed by Diiffier m a llyle of fnperior excellency. Nouv. Dift. Hill. EURLATS, in Geography, a town of France, in the- department of the Tarn, and ditlrift of Cadres, 4 miles ealt of it. B U RL A W, or B V R L A \r, lurhitua, in MiMe ^ge IVrttcrs, denotes country laws, or the laws concerning country afTairs^ DuCang-e. See Bve-Law. BURLEIGH, in Biography. See Cecil. BURLESQUE, a jocole kind of poetry, chiefly ufed in the way of drollery, either to excite laughter merely, or to provoke derifion and ridicule. Of the former kind is "Vir- gil travellie," which degrades a grave lubjeft, by a certain colouring, fo as to be rifible ; and of the latter, the " Lutrin" of Boiltau, which lays hold of a low and trifling incident to expofe the luxury, indolence, and litigious temper of a fet of monks. This kind of burletque produces effeCl by ele- vating the iUle far above the fubjeft, and yet affefting to conlider it as of the utmoft dignity and importance. In abur^ kfque poem, fuch as the Lutrin, the Difpenfary, and Hudi- bras, machinery may be employed with greater advantage than in any other fpccies of poetry ; and the more extravagant the machinery in a ludicrous poem, the greater is the enter- tainment which it aftords. " Burlefque," fays Mr. Shenllonc,.. (Works, vol.ii. p. 182. 3d edit.) "may, perhaps, be divided into fuch as turns chiefly upon the thought, and fuch as de- pends more upon the expreffion ; or we may add a third kind, confining in thoughts ridiculoudy dreflfed in language much above or below their dignity. The Splendid Shilling of Mr. Philips, and the Hudibias of Butler are the molt obvious inftances. Butler, however, depended much upon the ludicrous effeft of his double rhymes." Dr. Johnfon, in his li;e of Butler (Lives of the Poets), after obferving, that " burlefque confiils in adifproportion between the ftyle and the fentiments, or between the adventitious fcntiments and the fundamental fubjeft," adds, that this, " hke all bodies compounded of heterogeneous parts, contains in it a principle of corruption. All difproportion is unnatural : and from what is unnatural, we can derive only the pleafure which novelty produces. We admire it a while as a ftiange thing ; but, when it is no longer ftrange, we perceive its de- formity. It is a kind of artifice, which by frequent repetition detefls itfclf ; and the reader, learning in time what he is to expeft, lays down his book, as the fpeftator turns away from, a fecond exhibition of thofe tricks, of which the only ufe is to fliew that they can be played." F. VavaflTor maintains, in his book " De Ludicra Dic- tione," that burlefque was abfolutely unknown to the an- cients; againltthe opinion of fome others, that one Rainto- vius, in the time of Ptolemy Lagus, turned the ferious fub- jefts of tragedy into ridicule ; which, perhaps, is a better plea for the antiquity of farce than of burlefque. The Italians feem to have the juftell claim to the invention of burlefque. The firft author in this kind was Bernia ; he was followed by Lalli, Caporalli, &c. From Italy it paffed into France, and became there fo much thf; mode, that in 1649 appeared a book under the title of "The Paffion of our Saviour, in Burlefque Verfe." Thence it came into England ; but the good fenfe of the Englifli never adapted nor owned it, notwithllanding one or two have ex- celled in it. BURLETT.A, BUR BUR BURLETTA, Ital. from hurhn-e, to jcft, be jocular, de- ride, turn tu ridicule, in Altific. It is extraordinary that tiic term burlttta, fa common in fpeaking of comic operas, appears in no mulical diilionary. Comic operas began by an hitiTmczzo, a fiiigle aft or fccne, as an ad tune between any two acts of a drama. See Opera Buffa. BURLING 0/C/9//J. See Cloth. Burling Iron, an inllrument nfed by the manufafturers of cloth, and borne in the; arms of tlic company of weavers at E.stter. BuRLixcs' Rods, in Geojm/'fjy, lie on the coad of Portu- gal, 14 leasrues about N. N. \\'. from cape llocque, com- monly called the rock of Lilhon, and 18 k-agues S. W. from cape Montage. Behind the Bnrlings are a ^noA road and anchorage, under the great i(l.i:ul before t!ie Htrmitage, and 10 fathoms water. N. lat. 29^ -o- ^^' l""o' 9° .37'. BURLINGTON. See Bridlington. Burlington, a county of America, in New Jcrfey, ex- tending acrofs from the Atlantic ocean on the S. E. to Delaware river, and part of Huntingdon county on the N. W., ill length about 60 miles. A great part of it is barren ; but about three-eighths of it are under cultivation, generally level, and well-watered. It has 1^,095 inhabit- ants, including 227 flaves. — Alfo, a city, the capital of the above county, under the government of a mayor, aldermen, and common council. The extent of the townlhip is 3 miles along the Delaware, and a mile back ; being about iS miles N. E. of Pliiladelphia, and ll from Trenton. The ifland, ■which is the moll; populous part, is about a mile each way ; and includes about j6o houlcs, and 1000 white and 140 black inhabitants, of the lall fome few being flaves. The ftreets are cpmmodioufly fpacious, and mollly ornamented with rows of trees. The town is oppoiite to Brillol in Pennfylvania, where the river is about a mile wide. Under the (belter of Mittinicunk and Burlington iflands is a fafe harbour, conveniently adapted for trade, but too near to Philadelphia to allow of much foreign commerce. Burling- ton was firlt fettled in 1677, and has an academy and a frce- fchool. Mittinicunk ifland belongs to the latter, and yields a vearly profit of iSol. This lown has a place of worlhip for the Friends, who are the moll numerous, and another tor the Epifcopalians. It has two market-houfes, a work-houfe, and the bell gaol in the (late. Here are likewife a nail ma- nufattory, and an excellent dillillerv. N. lat. 40° tl'. W. long. 74°. Burlington, a townfliip of Ameriea, in Olfego county. New York, divided by an acl of the legiflalure in i 797 into two towns. — Alfo, a pleafant towndiip, the chief in Chit- tenden county, Vermont, fituste on the fouth fide of Onion river, on the eailbank of lake Cham plain, and containing 332 inhabitants. The governor and patrons of the college of Vermont have fclefted this healthy and agreeable fituation for a feminary, conilituted for the education of young per- fons of all denominations. Burlington is 22 miles dillant northerly from Vergennes, 122 from Bennington, and 332 from the city of New York. N.lat. 44° jo'. Burlington, or Oumcjkea Bay, lies on the eaft (ide of lake Champlain, about 34 miles N. by E. from Crown point, 69 S. E. from lake St. Francis in St. Lawrence river, and 70 foutherly from St. John's. N.lat. 44" 22'. BURLO, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft- phalia, and biftiopric of Muniler ; 4 miles N. N. W. of Borchen. BURMAH. See Birman Empire. BURMANN, Francis, in Biography, a famous theo- logical profeflbr, was born in 1628 at Leyden, where he re- ceived his education ; and after having for fome time oHiciated as minirter at Hanau, and as agent of the eol!c;,-e at his native place, he was invited to the chair of theology at Utrecht. In this llation he dillinguilhed himlelf by his Icftures and writings. He died in 1679. His publication, are " Commentaries on the Pentateuch and Hillorical Books of the Old Tedament," written in Dutch, and printed at dilferent ' times : " An Abridgment of Tic o- logy," 2 vols. 4to. in Latin ; " Exercitaltones Acade- miccc," 2 V(,ls. 4to., and fome controvcilial piiccf. Morcri. Gen. Bio J. BuRMANM, PiTER, an cmi'icnt philologid, w.is the fon of the preceding, and born in 1068 at Utrecht, where he w.t.; educated, and where he attended the leisures of the leariiol Giasvius. Devoti:ig himfelf to the profrfii:)n of the law, he lUidicd for fome time at Leyden, and in his 2cih year took the degree of doctor of laws. Having gained reputation in the exercife of his profcllion, he was, in 1696, apjiointed profefFor of eloquence and hillory in his native city, and afterwardii of Greek and politics. From this time lie de- voted himftif wholly to literature, and became one of the moll laborious commentator'; and editors of tr.e age. He pubhfhed, with his own notes and thole of othtr critics, Vtllfius Paterculus, Q^intilian, Vakrius Flaccus, Virgil, Ovid, Suetonius, Liican, Phxdrus, and Petronius, a,nd alfo a colkdion of the minor Latin poets, in 2 vols. 4to. He alfo wrote a treatife " On tlie Taxes of the Romans," edited ftveral learned works, with prefaces and notes, and was the author of various difieitations, difcourfes, and pieces of Latin poetry. As a com:r.entator, he was dillinguilh- ed more by his indudry and erudition than-for his geniirs and talle ; and though he is deficient in the elucid;nion of ob- feure and difficult pafTagcs, he has accumulated a mafs of- materials from which other grammarians and critics may de- rive great advantage. He was twice rcftor of the univeriUy, and thrice private fecretary to the academical fenate ; av'd to his other honours was added the profefloi lliip of the hillory of the United Scatts. He died in 1741. Moren. Gen. Biog. BuRMANN, John, M. D. of a noble and wealthy fr.mily, and of no mean literary acquirements, employed much labour ard e>:pence in editing various botanical works particularly tliofe giving accounts of plants procured from the Indies. In 1 736. he publifntdan edition of Weinman's Herbal, to which he added feveral plates with African plants. His iiext publication, in which he had the affidance of Linrxus, then a young man, was the " Thefauru.^ Zeylanicus, exhibens Plantas in Infula Zcylana nafcentes, Iconibtis illudratus," 410. J 73 7, taken from various travellers, with ne-,vdt;fcrip;ior;S and plates. The following year he was appointed profs ffor to the botanical garden at Amfterdam, and foon after pub- hflitd " Rariarum Africanacum Plantarum, Decades De- cern," 4to. principally from Witfen and Vanderilell, to which, however, he made feveral additions. He tranllated Rumphius's great work into Latin, which he enriched with valuable notes, and pubiifhcd under the title of " Evcrhardi Rumphli Herbarium Amboinenfe, continens plantas in ca, et adjacentibus Infulis repertas." Hi; l?.lt labour was pro- curing engravings to be executed, from the drawings of American plants left by Plumier, to which he added delcriptions, with the modern, and former names. His fon, BuRMANN, Nicolas Lawrence, following the fteps of his father, took his degree as doftor of medicine at Leyden, in 1759, and pubhlhed, for his inaugnnd thefis, •' Specimen Botanicum de Geraniis," 4to. In 176S, at Amilerdam, " Flora Jndica, accedit fcries Zoophytorum Jndicorum, iiec I ron BUR BUR run pri)droinu3 Florx Cappciifio." Ilallcr. Bib. Botan. Eloy. Dirt. Hilt. Gi-n. Biog. IJURMANNI.A, ill livlany (in honour of Juliii Burmann M.D. proftlTorof b"tany at Amiltrdam, author ol Thcfaunis Ziylaiiiciis, &c.). Linn. y)"]. Schrcb. '542. Willd. 606. JufT. ^o. Clafs and order, hrxandria mono^ynia. Nat. Ord. eimrhirix Linn. Brrru/in Ju(r. Gtn. Cli. Cal. perianth long, one-kaved, pr'fniat'C, co- loured, with three longitucliiial, intinbraiiaceous angles ; the mouth trifid, fcall. ('or. petals llircc, ovate, oblong, placed in the mouth of the calyx, very minute. S.'am, hia:nento fix, very fliort ; anthers in the mouth of the calyx, placed two by two, feparated by a rellexed joint. Pl/I. germ fuperior, evlindrical, half the lenj;lh iil the calyx ; llyle thrcad-fiiaptd, the lengtli of the corolla ; ilignias three, obtufe, coi:cave. Piric. capfnle covered by the calyx, cylindrical, three- cornered, three-Celled, three valvcd, opening at the angles. ^V.-A numerous, very fmnll. LIT. Ch. C\i/. prifmatic, coloured, trifid ; angles mem- branaceous. Pilah three. Capjulcs three-celled, ilraight. Cecils minute. Ob. La Marck dcfcribes the calyx as having its border divided into fix fegments, the three inner ones fmall, with the ihape of petals. JulTicu, in conformity with the prin- ciples of his fyll«ra, with refpeft to all monocotyledinous plants, had before adopted the fame idea. He llylcs it a very fingular gaius, allied to no other, except perhaps to Hypoxis. Spicies, I. B. tUJlicba Linn. (La Marck. Illuft. PI. 22-;.) " Spike double." Root perennial, fibrous, fmall. Stem fix or feven inches high, upright, firaight, fimple. Root leaves eight or nine, grals-like. Stan leaves (hort, acuminate, al- ternate, flieathing. Spites divaricated. Flowers on (liort peduncles, in a fingle row on the upper fide of each fpike, ereSl, blucifli, permanent ; braites awl-fliaped. I^a Marck, Native of Ceylon in watery places. 2. B. hiflora. " Flowers two." Linn. Smaller than the preceding. Root llrong and fibrous. Stem naked, almoll capillary. Root leaves very ftraight. Flowers one or two at the fummit of the Jlem, purple. A native of mai flies in Virginia. La Marck. Both thefe fpecies were cultivated by Mr. Miller, in 1768, but they are difficult to preferve in gardens, for as they will not thrive when planted in dry giound, they mull be planted in pots plunged in troughs of water, fo as to cover the fnrface of the mould about three inches. The troughs in which the firft fort is planted mu!f be conllantly kept in a warm (love. The other fliould be placed in a green houfe i[i winter, but in fummer may be expofcd to the open air. With this management they will fonietimes bear floweis. Martyu's Miller. BURMANNLINA, in E„tomolo^^y, a fpecies of Pha- L.T-NA (Tortrix) of a large fi/.e. This inhabits Surinam. The wings arc pale, with four black collal fpots on the an- terior pair. Gi:!el. &c. BUllN, m Surgery, is a lefian of the animal body, occa- fioned by the application of heat in a folid form. It differs from a scald, only inafmuch as the latter is produced by the application of heat in a fluid form. The confequcnces of a burn are m.ore or Icfs ferious, in proportion to the extent and depth to which the ignited fubltance produces its effefts. An exteufive burn in an irritable perfon will fomitimes occafion death, although the fubjacent pans be not deeply injured ; and a deep burn, of fmall extent, may likeivife prove fatal, according to the ftrudurc or importance of the part alFedfed. The firll cffccT,s of a burn are to caufe pain and infi.am- mation ; prcfently afterwards, the exhalent arteries, being excited to aftion, will clfufe a quantity of ferum under the fliin, and raife the cuticle like a bliiler : if the burning adts deeply, it will kill a!:d dccompofe the fubjacent flefli, fo as at length to produce an efchar. In treating burns, we muft attend to the exifting fymp- toms. If the Ikin remains whole, and the accident be re- cent, ve fliould immediately have rccnurfe to very cold ap- plications, with the view of difcuffing inflammation and abating pain. For this pnrpofe, ice-water, I'me-water, a fuKition of acttated ccrufie, or Goulard's extraft of lead, properly diluted, may be uled with great freedom. Spiri- tuous applications which produce cold on evaporating, have been recommended with the fame intention. I'he common people, with good realon, advifc maQied potatoes, or tur- nips, to be applied cold, as a poultice. But the above means are only proper in the beginning, and w'lere tlie ficin is not removed, fo as to leave an excoriated or raw furfacc. In conjiniSion with thefe antiphlogiltic remedies, we may abate pain and procure reft by the liberal exhibition of opium ; at the Lwvx time interpofing laxative medicines, and enjoining abfolutc rtpofe to the injured part. The plan, however, mull be fomcwhat dillerent in cafes of deep and dcftrnclive burns, where fuppuration, ulcera- tion, or mortification, are likely to enfue. In the fecond ftage or degree of burns, where the mifchief has penetrated rather deeply, but not below the common integuments, it is ufuai to apply to the part a dnfiing of foft ointment, which will not irritate or produce pain ; fuch as the fperma-ceti ointment, faturnine cerate, elder ointment, or equal quantities of oil and lime-water fliaken together, and applied feveral times a day. The antiphlo- giliic regimen fliould alio be oblerved, if the inflammatory fymptoms run high. But, when the nalure of the cafe is very ferious, and there is room to expeft a gangrenous or floughing ulcera- tion, in coufequence of the burn being very cxtenfive, we mull be cautious not to pufli the antiphlogiflic treatment too far; nay, it may even be altogether uiiappropriate, and a ftimulatiug or tonic conrfe of remedies may be proper. Mr. Edward Keutilh, of Newcallle, who has had much pradlice among the workmen in the coal mines, where ex- plofioiis often occur, is of opinion that pure alcohol or oil of turpentine is the beft local application at the begin- ning, and a cordial diet to fupport the patient's llrength. Our own experience jullifies that gentleman's plan, and efpecially in very deep burns, where floughing proves inevi- table. We fometimes, however, have found it neccfiary to mix equal parts of olive, or linfeed oil with the turpentine, to prevent its giving unfiifferable pain. It is fcarccly requifite to add, tliat in the event of gun- powder, or any other extraneous fubftance, being forced into the burned part, it fhould be gently waflicd away or removed with all pofTible care. If great tenfion arife in the part, we fhould cccafionally employ warm emollient cata- plafms and anodyne fomentations. When the vitality of a member has been totally deftroyed, fb that its ufc is irre- coverable, we may be com.pelled to amputate the limb. See MoxA, Caustic, Cautery, Heat, Scald, and Amputation. 'Stvv.n-builng, or Beating, in Jlgr'uulture, the operatien of cutting or paring off the furface of turf, and reducing it to afhcs by rfieans of fire. It is principally employed as 3 method of bringing into cultivation fuch waftc and other lands as contain much coarfe grafs, or other vegetable pro- duftions on the furface. Where this is not the cafe, it can fcldom probably be made ufe of to fo much advantage. It BURNET. h in fome diftrlfts termed Burn-ieat'wg ; nnd alfo DciiJJ.'i- rin^, from Devonfhire, a county in wliivjli it has bctii long praftifc-d. Sec Par ING and Burn INC. Burn, /jtnit. See Cardialgia. BURNET, Gilbert, \\\ Bio^rnphy, an eminent F.nglilh prelate and writer, was born at E(linhiirj;li in 164,5. His father was the defccndant of an ancient family in the fhire of Aberdeen, educated fur tlie bar, eftecmtd for jun, has fixed tiie proteilant relif;ion in this I oi>"trv, KS lonjj as a:iy r^ii^i.m remains aisorg us ; and the II li-'i wrircr calls him the Kngiilh Euftbius. An in- ■ Hcnned about this tiinc which led to an interview hilueen Dr. Kiirnet and ihc earl of Rochefttr, whofe cha- lacTer ai a perfon of wit and profligacy is well known. Having been rcc;i:cred to vilit the unhappy female with whom the earl had liad a cri.rtiual connexion, in a dangerous i'lnef;-., lie treated her in a manner which rendered this lord dcfirouf of forming an acquaintance with him. Accordingly alarmed by his fituation and profpefts in the clofing fcene of life, he invited and encounigcd the vifits of Dr. Burnet, and (he rcf;ilt of many conferences that pafled between them on r,':-ious fubjeAs was the earl's converfion to the Chrif- tiu . ::i'th, and his iincen: repentance. Of their mutual intcr^ourfc, a;;d the eft.'fts produced by it, we have an ititcrclling relation, in an " xiccount of the Life and Death of the earl of Rojhefter," publifiud by Dr. Burnet in 1680; a very popular work, which was perufcd with great fatisfac- tivU by all th.e frienJs of religion. Of this book, Dr. John- fonray3(Piefaces, &c. to the Works of the Poets, vol. iV.) that it ou;;lit to bs read by the " critic for its eloquence, tlie philol'-.pher for its arguments, and the iaint for its piety." During the alarm of the popifli plot. Dr. Burnet w.is frequently confulted by king Charles concerning the ftate of the nation, and allured tofupport the court intereft by the offer of the bifiiopric of Chichefter, which he rc- fufed ; but he availed himfelf of an inducement which attendance at t!ie deatii-bed ot Mr5. Roberts, one of the kind's niillrefles, fuggeded, for writing a letter to his Majefty, in which he nfed great freedom in reprehending the vices ar^d errors both of his private life and public adminif- iration. When the king had perufed it twice he threv/ it into the fire, and fpoke of the writer with difpleafure. Dr. Burnet at this time recommended moderate raeafures ; and iiidead of the exchifion of the Duke of York, he propofed the fchcme of a prince regent; and yet he maintained a ileady adherence to his friends, nor did any profpeft of pre- ferment ind'ice him to abandon them. The fpeech delivered by lord R'.iflcl on the fcaftuld, is faid to have been penned by Dr. Burnet. In iCiiz he publKhed iiis " Life of St Matthew Hale," and his « Hiftory of the Rights of Princes in difpofing of Ecclefiaftical Benefices and Church Land..," togrther with an " Anfwer" to the animadveifions of an anonymous writer on the latter performance. In the following year, perceiving the llorm that was gathering, he retired to Pjris, where he was well received ; and at this time appeared his •' Tranflntion and Examination of a Let- f^r, written by the laft general Alfembly of the Clergy of France to the Proteftants inviting them to return to their Communion, .&c." and alfo his " Tranllation of Sir Tho- mas More's Utopia," with a preface concerning the nature of tranflations. In 16S4, he was fo much the obj^ict of court-refentmcnt, that he was difcharjed from the office of leciurer U St. Clement's by the king's mandate to the reiSor; and, by an order tranfmittcd from the lord-keeper North to Sir Harbottle Grimtton, MaRcrof the Rolls, for. bidden to low ^' king James he left the kingdom, and lived in .. very retired maTiner at Paris, that lie might incur no fufpicion of being L>ii):i:i 10 oir riaroottie (jnmlton, Mallcrot the Kolls, tor- Mddento pre;-.ch any mere at the Rolls chapel. In the tol- owing year he publiHied hi,s " I,ife of Dr. William Btdell, Jifhop of Kilmure, in Ireland." Ui,.,n the acedlion of concerned in any confpiracies in favour of the duke of Mon- mouth ; and fiom Paris he travelled into Italy, and was agreeably received both at Rome and Geneva. At the latterplace he re :ron(l rated againil the fubfcr^plionsto thefor- mulary, comraonlycalled " Confenfus," a cori^nt of doftrine that was impofed upon thofe who were admittt I into orders ; and fucceedtd in releafirg the clergy of Gen; a from fuch fnbfcriptions. After a tour I'^rough the foutV^; ;n parts of France, Italy, Switzerland, a' d many parts ci ■Germany, of which he has given an accoui t in his " Tra\ b" pub» liHied in 1687, (in which year alio, appeared his '= Tranfla- tion of Laflantius, concerning the .leath of the perfecutors,") he was invited to the Hague by tie Prince and Princefs of Orange, and had a great (ha -• n the councils relating to England. However, to gratify 'iing James, and in com- pliance w-ith an earneft requeft toMimunicated bv his ambaf- fador at the Hague, he was :.ifm:fred from the court, though he fliil retained his inluei'ce. This exprefllou of royal difpleafure was followed by a profecution for high treafon, inftitutcd agaii>ft him bo;h in S^'otl-md and England; and as the States rc-i ■ " to deliver him up at the demand of the Engliih cor , . u figns were formed for feizing his perfon, and even I '• foying him. About thio time Dr. Burnet mariied >. lar/ Scott, a Dutch lady of large fortune, noble (■■ tr.u.ion, from a branch of the family of Buccleugh in Scolland, and very diftinguifh- ing acconiphflimcnts. In the whole condnft of the revolution in 168*3, Dr. Burnet took a very aftive par' ; and having notified the projeft at an early pcri.id to the houfe of Hanover, he ac- companied the prince of Orange in his expedition to Eng- land, as his chapla n : upon his landing near Exeter, he drew up the affociation for purfuing the ends of the prince's declaration ; and as foon as king William was advanced to the throne, his attachment and fervices were recompenfed by promotion to the fee of Salifbury, to which he was con- fecrated in 1689. Having taken his feat in the houfe of lords, he recommended moderate meafures with regard to the clergy who fcrupled to take the oaths, and a toleration of the Proteftant diffenters : and upon occafion of fettling the f'.iccellion of the crown, he was appointed by the king to propofe in parliament the duchefs (afterwards eleftrefs) of Brunfwick, as next in fuccefTion after the princefs of Denmark and her itfue. He was thus engaged in an epifto- lary correfpondence with princefs Sophia, which lafted till her death. In this year, he addreffed to the clergy of his diocefe a " Pafloral Letter," concerning the oaths of alle- giance and fupremacy to king William and queen Mary, in which he grounded the title of their majcfties to the crown upon the right of " conquefl ;" and in fo doing, he gave fuch offence to feveral members of parliament, that they pro- cured an order for burning the book by the hands of the common executioner. A fimilar offence was committed by Cliarles Blount efq. (See Blount), and it incurred tlie fame cenfure and ignominy. As foon as the bifliop was re- leafed from his parliamentary duty, he withdrew to his di- ocefe, and applied with exemplary diligence to his epifcopal functions, which l;e performed in a manner that engaged univerfd refpeci and efteem. Befides being indefatigable in f reaching, lecturing, catechifing, confirming, and examin- ing for holy onhrs, he inftituted at Salifhu'ry a fmall iiur- fery of ten If udents in divinity, to each of whom he allowed a falary of 30I. a year. But when he found that this infti- tution gave offence, and was confidercd as a kind of tacit cenfure upon tlie method of education at the univerfities, he laid it afide. In 1692, he publilhed his treatife, entitled " The Pafloral Care," illuftrating and enforcing the duties of BURNET. of the clergy : and in tlie following year, " Four Difcourft-s to the Cl'rt;y of Ills Diocefe," on the "Truth of the Cluif- tian Religion," the " Divinity and Death of Chrill," the " Infaliibihty and Authority of the Church," and the " Obligation to continue in the Communion of the Churcli." In i6(;4, he preached the funeral fermon of archbifliop Tillotfon, and vindicated his memory from the attacks of his enemies ; and, in the follovvinjr year, he wrote in the higheft l\rain of eulogy, an " Elfiy on tiie Charafter of Qiieen Mary, on occafion of her death." Having loft his wife in 1698, he foon fupplied the lofs by a marriage with Mrs. Berkley, whom he entrufted v.ilh the care of his children, and who feems to have been well qualilied for under- taking this charge, as (lie was a lady of Jiftinguidied bene- volence and piety. Her treatife, entitled, " A Method of Devotion, or Rules for holy and devout Living, 5cc." was publilhcd in S%'0. and well received. In the fame year, biihop Burnet was appointed preceptor to his highnefs the duke of Gloucefter, and he took great pains in the condiiiil of his education till his death. In 1 699, he publifhed hij " Expofilion of the 39 Articles of the Church of Eng- land," which, notwithllanding the cenfure paiTed upon it by the lower houfe of convocation, and feveral private at- tacks, has been reckoned a learned and judicious perform- ance. It was undertaken at the requeft of queen Mary, revifed and correfted by archbifhop Tillotfon, and pernfed and approved before publication, by the archbifhops Ttni- fon and Sharp, and the bifliops Stillingfleet, Patrick, Lloyd, Williams, and More. Bifliop Burnet had the ho- nour of firft projefting the fcheme for the augmentation of poor livings, which was fauftioned in i 704 by aCt of parlia- ment. See Augmentation. During the remaining years of his life, he was employed in the compofition and publi- cation of feveral treatifes appropriate to his profelTion, among which, we may reckon a coUeAion of " Sermons," and " Pamphlets," 3 vols. 4to. 1706; an " Expofition of the Church Catcchifm," 1710; and "Sermons on feveral Oc- cafions," with an " EITay towards a new Book of Homi- lies," and a " Preface," containing a judicious and elabo- rate defence of the revolution. He was alfo the author of a great variety of pieces, fome of which were publithed du- ring his Hfe, and others after his death. A catalogue of his works, drawn up by Dr. Flexman, is annexed to the later editions of his " Hiftory of his own Time." To this catalogue, fome few publications have been added in the laft edition of the " Biographia Britannica ;" and particu- larly " Thoughts on Education," printed at London in 1761, from an original MS., drawn up when the author was not quite 25 years of age, and containing a variety of obfervations which indicate much knowledge and refleflion. The clofe of his life, which was terminated by a pleuritic fever on the 17th of March, 1715, was fuitable to the charafter which he had uniformly maintained, and mani- fefted that tranquillity and firmnefs, which his rehgious prin- ciples were adiipted to produce and juftify. His remains were depofited in the parifli church of St. James's, Clerken- well. By his lall will he left orders, that the " Hiftory of his own Time" (hould not be printed till fix years after hi.; death, and then faithfully, without adding, fupprefTuig, or altering it in any particular. Accordingly, the firft vo- lume was printed at London in 1723, and the fecond in 1734, with an " Acciuiut of the Author's Life" annexed to it, in folio, by his fon, Thomas Burnet efq. This work has given rife to a great number of ftriftures, and various fentiments have been entertained concerning it. At its firft appearance, a general clamour was excited againll it among the lories and high church-men ; and many other perfons Vol. V. were offendid by the freedom with which particular ch.nrac- ters were diawn, and partieul.ir f;ifts repref'iitcd. The wits too combuicd to cxpofe it to ridicule. The real merit of this hillory fiems to be very candidly and imp.Trtlaliy ?.p- prctiatcd in the laft edition of liie " Biographia J'lilannica." Allowing for the errors and inaccuracies common to the hiftorians of that period, for fome inftaucis of party preju- dice and credulity, and for that dlfpofition to look on the dark fide of a charafter, and to exaggerate the failings and faults of public men, which in fome cafes may have given a bias to the author's judgment ; admitting his integrity, and his dtfire to ftalc the truth of fafts according to the btft of his knowledge ; and lecollefting that when he appeals to the teftimony of others, he hontftly refers us to his authori- ties, and that feveral of the fafts which occur in his hiftory, and wliieh were at firft difcredited or confidercd as dubious, have, fince his time, been proved to be true ; this hiilory may l)e Regarded as containing, upon the whole, a faithful a:id interefting reprcfentation of times and manners. " In fhort, it is written with a fpirit of integrity and liberty that cannot fail of rccomn-endiug it to a judicious reader ; and there are few hillories in our language which v ill be found to convey more folid and ufeful information. Accordingly, notwithllanding the various attacks to which it hath been cxi:ofee experienced thefe tfletts of combnftion, were generally much addicUd to the drinking of extremely flrong fpirituous liqum le to it in their hfe-time ; ercfted themfelves piles for the purpofe, to loofen tluir fouls from confinement. Calanvis, who followed Alexander out of India, finding him- fcU indifpofcd, obtained that prince's leave to prevent the growth of his dificmper, by committing Inmfelf to the flames ; and Hercules, before his rtceptiou into heaven, was purified from the dregs of earth by the fame means. Q^iin- til. Declam. x. Potter, ubi fupra. Pliny afTuris us, that binning i\'a3 brought into ufe among the Romans, on occafion of the cruel ufage svhich tlie bodies of the dead Romans underwent in enemies' countries. But this mull only be underllood in regard ot the common ufage; fince \vc find mention of burning as practifed by fome even in the earliell ages of Rome : Nunia forbad his own body to be burned, comn?.aiiding it to be laid entire in a Hone cot- fin, which (lievvs that the practice of burning was not then unknown at Rome. Urider the emperors, as we learn from Tacitus (Annal. xvi. g.), it became almotl univerfai. In fome cafes burning was exprefsly forbid, and looked upon as the highcrll impiety. Thus infants who died before the breedmg of teeth, were entombed unburnt, in the ground, in a particular place fet apart for this ufe, called y«|-n-;-»ni-/a- rium. The like was praftifed with regard to thofe who had been ftruck dead witli lightning, who were never to be burnt again, but buried in the fpot where they fell, called lidaihil, which fee. Some fay, that burning was denied to fuicides as a pu- nifhnient. The manner of burning among the Romans was not un- like that of the Greeks : the corpfe being brought without the city, if they dcfigned to burn it, was carried diretlly to the place appointed for that purpole ; which, by the law of the twelve tables, was without the city : (Cic. de Leg. ii. 2j.) according to the cultom of other nations, as the Jews, (Matt, xxvii. 53. John, xix. 20 and 41.), the Athe- nians, (Cic. Fam. iv. 12. Liv. xxxi. 24.), and others, (Cic. Flacc. xxxi. Tufc. v. 23. Plut. in Arat. Strabo, 1.x.) If this place joined to the fepulchre, it was called hujliim, if fep?rate from it, ujlrina : the body, when brought thither, was laid on the rogus, a pile of wood prepared to burn it on, built in (hape of an altar, but of different height, accord- ing to the quality of the deceafed ; and at the diftance of 60 feet from any houfe. The wood ufed was commonly from fuch trees as contained moil pitch or rofin ; and if any other were ufed, they fplit it for the more eafy catching fire : round the pile they fet cyprefs trees, probably to hinder the noifonie fmell of the corpfe. The body was not placed on the bare pile, but on the couch or bed on which it lay. The eyes of the dcccafed were opened, (Pliu. ii. 37.) to which Virgil is thought to allude, jEn. iv. 214. This done, the next of blood performed the ceremony of lighting the pile, which they did with a torch, turning the face all the while the other way, as if it were done with reluftance. During the ceremony, more efpecially at the funeral of an illuftrious commander or emperor, decurfions round the pile were performed, with enfigns inverted, and games were cele- brated ; after which, when the fire was extinguillied, and the embers loaked with wine, came the ojfihg'iurr., or gather- ing the bones and afhes ; alfo wadiing and arointing them, and repofiting them in urns ; which were common to both the Greeks and Romans. Tibull. lib. i. Eleg. i. Virg. iEu. lib. VI. Kennet and Potter, lib. cit. It is commonly fuppofed the practice of burning ceafcd at Rome under the empire of the Antojiines. BUR The practice, prevalent among the Hindoos, and of which fome rare inllauees Hill occur, of widows burning themfelves on the funeral piles of their deceafed hrilbands, has been al- ready mentioned ; (fee alfo the article Brachmans). Mr. Cokbrooke, in a pnper " on the duties of a faithful Hindoo widow," publiflied in the 4th volume of the Afiatic Rcfear- ches, has eoUeded, from the ancient Sancrit books all the par- ticulars that may ferve to elucidate this extraordinary ritual. " Having fird bathed, the widow. drefT^d in two clean gar- ments, and holding fome ciifa grafs, fips water from the pahn of her hand. Bearmg cufa and ida, orfefamum, on her hand, (lie looks towards tlie call or north, while the Brahmana utters the myllic word Om. Bowuig to Ntrayaua, flie next declares : " On this month, fo named in fuch a pacjha, on inch a w/j;, I (naming herfelf and her family), that I may meet Arumlhali, and refide in Siuarga ; that the years of my Hay may be numerous as the hairs on the human body ; that I may enjoy with my hulband the felicity of heaven, and fanclify my pateruid ai:d maternal progenitors, and the anceltry of my hiilband's father ; that lauded by the jlj'fa- rcifcs, I may be happy wilh my lord, through the reigns of 14 Iiulras ; that expiation be ii^ade for my hufb.ind's of- fences, whether he has k-ilhd a Brahmana, broken the ties of gratitude, or murdered his friend : thus 1 afceud my hufhand's burning pile. I call on you, ye guardians of the eight regions of .the world! Sun and moon! Air, fire, xther, earth, and water ! My own foul ! Yama L Day, night, and twilight ! And thou, confcience, bear witnefs : I follow my hufhand's corpfe on the funeral pile !" Having repeated the above declaration, called the Saricalpa, flic walks thrice round the pile ; and the Brahmana utters the follow, ing Mantras : " Om ! Ltt thefe women, not to be widowed good wives, adorned with collyrium, holding cla- rified butter, confign themfelves to the. fire. Immortal, not childlefs, nor hnfbandlefs, excellent, let them pafs into fire, whofe original element is water." From the Rigveda: " Om ! Let thefe wives, pure, beautiful, commit themfelves to the fire with their hufbaud's corpfe," A pjuranka niuntra. With this benediction, and uttering the myllic Nama Namah, file afcends the flaming pile. While the prefcribed ceremonies are performed by the widow, the fon, or other near kinfman, of the deceafed, applies the firft torch with the forms dircfted for the funeral lites in the Gnhya (extrafts or compilations from the facred buoks) ; by which his tribe is governed. The lall rites in this tragic fccne, as we may call it, but not fo deemed by thofe who praftife them, are as follow : " Adorned with all jewels, decked v.-ith minium and other cuflomary ornaments, with the box of minium in lier hand, having made/i/)/i/ or adoration to the Devalas, thus reflefting that this life is nought ; my lord and majlcr tn me ivat all : — fhe walks round the burning pile; fhe bellows jewels on the Brahmanas, comforts her relations, and (Tiews her friends the attentions of civility ; while calling the fun and elements to witnefs, file diftributes ?«;;)/;/m at plealurc ; and having re- peated ihtj'a?icatpa, proceeds into the llamcs; there embracing the corpfe, flie abandons lierfelf to the fire, calling Satya ! Satya ! Salya ! The by-danders throw butter and vood on the pile, which is reckoned an a£l tranfcendently merito- rious, and even thofe who join in the piocefTion are rewarded in heaven for every ftep of their march. Such liberal im- munities are a proof, fays Mr. Colebrooke, that burning could never be a frequent prailice in the call. The facrifice above defcribcd is not ablolutely enjoined ; but it is recommended by all the allurements which en- thufiafm can invent. There are, however, fome cafes of exemption. If the widow has an infant child ; or if flie is pregnant : and, among certain calls, if the hufband dies in a dillant BUR diflant coiintr)', tlie ceremony is iiiterdifled. But if the woimn declines liurnim^, tor (he is allowed the alteniiitive, (he mull thenceforth hve a life of the mod rifrid aurtciity, and dtvote heifelf wiiolly to a<^s of piety and mortification. Uut tliou^h the alurnative he allowed, tlie Hindoo Icjriilators have (l>e\vn thenfelves difpoifd to encourage widows to burn tlietnfelves with their hufoind's corpft. Mr. C.wnphcl!, during; his Hay at Tanjorc, was a fpeftator of this horrid ceremony ; performed by a young widow, not more thin 16 years of a<.re. He has minutely dtfcribed all the circuni'.tances attendin;' it ; for an account of which we refer the reader to his " Journey over Land to India," 4to. 1795. BuasiNC aHv:, among the Romans, a punidiment m- flidtd on dcfeiters, betrayers of the public councils, incen- diaries, coiners, and even Chrillians : it was called cremalio. The J,.-ws had two ways of burning ; one called burning of the bod<-, performed with wood and faggots; the other, burning of the foul, combujiio aiiim.t, performed by pouring Ccalding-hot had down their throat!. The prieft's daughter, who couimitttd whoredom, he that lay with his own daugh- ter, or grand-daughter, or his mothcrin-law, were burnt alive. Phil. Tranf. N'' 2jo. Godw. Mofcs & Aaron, lib. v. cap. 7. Burning, UJlio, in Cbcm'ijlry, is diftinguifhed from cal- cining ; as the former is performed in clofe veffels, and ter- minates in charring, or reducing the body to a blacknefs ; whereas the latter turns them white, being performed in the open air. It alfo difters from roading, toJI'w, as, in burning, the fire is applied in contaft with the body; in roafting, at a diftance from it. Burning, or Brenning, in owr Ancient Cujloms, denotes an infeftious local difeafe, obtained by intercourfe with the kwd women who were kept in the public ftews. Sec Stews. Mr. William Beckett, a furgeon of great learning in this branch of hillory, has left us a curious account of the hrenmng, which was publilhed in a letter to Dr. James Douglals, A. D. 17 18. Mr. Beckett has certainly failed in proving the antiquity of lues vencra or fyphilis ; but the information contained in his letter is too much to our prcfent purpofe to be wholly omitted. We (hall, however, refume this in- veftigation when we defcribe the origin of the venereal difeafe ; intending, in the article before us, to give only an extraft from Mr. Beckett's interelling letter ; viz. " I (hall begin with the firft degree of this difeafe, and prove, from authentic evidences, it was anciently called the brenning or burning ; and that this word has been fucceffivcly continued for many hundreds of years, to fignify the fame difeafe we now call a clap ; and that it was not difcontinued till that appellation firft began to have its rife. The moft likely method to accomplilh my defign, will be firlt to exa- mine thofc records that relate to the (lews which were by au- thority allowed to be kept on the Bank-Side in Southwark, under the jurifdiftion of the bifliop of Winchefter, and which were fupprefled the J7th of Hen. VIII. For it is impofiible but, if there were any fuch diftemper in being at that time, it muft be pretty common among thofe lewd women who had a licence for entertaining their paramours, notwithlland- ingany rules or orders which might be eftabhihed to prevent its inereafe : but if we (hall find that there were orders cila- blifhed to prevent the fpreading of fuch a difeafe, that per- fons might be fecure from any contagious malady after their cntertaioment at thofe houfes, (which were anciently 18 in number, but in the reign of Hen. VII. reduced to 12), we may then fecurely depend upon it, that it was the frequency of the difeafe that put thofc who liad the authority under a BUR neccfTity of making fuch rules and orders. For the fame powers, who granted a liberty for keeping open fuch lewd houfes, mull find it their intereft to fecure, as much as pof- fible, all perfons from receiving any injury there ; left the fre<|uency of fuch misfortunes (liould deter others from fre- quenting them, and fo the original defign of their inllitution ceafe ; from the entire finking of the revenues. Now I find that, as early as the year 1 162, divers conftitutions relating to the lordfliip of Winchefter, (being alio confirmed by the king), were to be kept for ever, according to the old cultoms that had been time out ot mind. Among which thcfe were fome, viz. I. No ftew-holdcr to take more for a woman's chamber in the week than i4d. 2. Not to keep open his doors upon holy day 3. 3. No fingle woman to be kept againft her will, that would leave her fin. 4. No fingle woman to take money to lie with any man, except flic lie with him all night till the morning. 5. No ftew- holder to keep any woman that hath the perilous infirmity of burning. Thefe and many more orders were to be ftriftly obferved, or the offenders to be fevercly punilhed. Novv' we are affured, there is no other difeafe that can be communicated by carnal converfation with women, but that which is venereal, by reafon that only is contagious ; and it is evident the burning was certainly fo : for, had it been nothing elfe but fome fimple ulceration, heat, or inflammation, there would have been no contagion ; and that affefting only the woman, could not be communicated by any vene- real congrefs, and fo not infer a neceffity of her being com- prehended under the reftraining article. Thefe orders likewife prove the difeafe was much more ancient than the date above mentioned ; becaufe they were only a renewal of fuch as had been before eftablidied time out of mind. " But to confirm this farther, 1 find that in the cuftody of the bilhop of Winchefter, whofe palace was fituated on the Bank-fide, near the ftews, was a book written upon vellum, the title of which runs thus : " Here begynne the ordinances, rules, and cuftoms, as well for the falvation of mannes life, as for to afchew many mifchiefs and incon- venients that daily be lik there for to fall out, to be right- fully kept, and due execution of them to be done unto any perfon within the fame." One of the articles begins thus: " De his qui cuftodiunt mulieres habentes nephandam in(ir- mitatem." It goes on, item, " That no llew-holder keep noo woman wythin his houfe, that hath any ficknefs of brenning, but that (he be put out upon the peyne of makeit a fine unto the lord of a hundred (hillings." This is taken from the original manufcript, which was preferved in the bifhop's court, fuppofed to be written about the year 1430. From thefe orders we may obferve the frequency of the diftemper at that time ; which, with other inconveniences, was dayly like there for to fall out : and the greatnefs of the penalty, as the value of money then was, that is laid on it, proves it was no trifling or infignificant thing. " But the bare proof of there having been anciently fuch a difeafe as was called the burning, may be thought to be in- fufficient, unlefs we were perfeftly affured what it was, and how it was in thofe times defcribed : I (hall therefore do it from an unqueftionable authority, which is that of John Arden, efq. ; who was one of the furgeons to king Richard II. and likewife to king Henry IV. In a curious manufcript of his upon vellum, he defines it to be, a certain inward heat and excoriation of the urethra ; which defcrip- tion gives us a perfect idea of what we now call a clap ; for frequent diflieftions of thofe who laboured under that difeafe have made it evident, that their urethra is excoriated by the virulency of the matter they receive from the infefted woman ; and this excoriation or ulceration is not confined to the 2 ojliola BUR cjTioLi or niovulis of the glamhiltc mucofn, as has been lately tlioii;^ht, but may equally alike atlaclc any part of the urethra not beyond tiic reach o' the impellctl malignant mat- ter. The heat bs fore deferibed, whieli thefe perfons are icnfible of, as well now as foim-rly, is a coiifequent of tlie excor'ated nrcthra ; for tlie falts contaijied in the nrinc muft ncctilarily prick and irritate the ncrvons fibrili^c, and excite a heat in thole parts of the nnthra which are divt lied of its :iatiiral membrane ; which heat will always- be obfervcd to be more or lef-^, as the falts are diluted with a greater or lefs ciu:intlty of urine ; a tiling I have often obferved in perfons who have laboured under this infirmity in liot weather, when the perlpirable matter being thrown off in greater qmntities, the lalts bear a greater proportion to the quan- tity of urine, and thereby n^ake its dileharge at that time fo much the more painful and troablefome. " Thus we lee this very early and plain defcription of this dileafe among us to be entirely conformable to the lateft and mofl exact anatomical difcoverie?. Here is no tone of the ttfticles depraved, according to Trajanus Petronius ; no exulceration of i\\e parnjlatu:, according to Rondeletius ; no ulceration of the leminal vt-flels, according to Platerus ; no feat of the difeafe in the -ueficulic fcm'inaks, or projlntu, according to Bartholin ; nor in thofe parts and the tellicles at the fame time, according to our countryman Wharton, and others, who have falftly fixed the feat of this difeafe, and whofe notions, in this refpcft, are now juftly exploded ; but a fmgle and true defcription of it, and its fituation, about ijO years before any of thofe gentlemen obliged the world with their learned labours. " Having, I hope, fufTiciently made it appear, the burning was a d'.feaie very early among us, and given the defcription of it, I ihali proceed to fay fomething of th.e ancient method that was made ule of to cure it. We are not to expecl the meafures our prcdeceffors in thofe early times made ufe of (hould be calculated for the removing any malignity in the mafs of blood, or other juices, according to the praClice ii) venereal cafes at tins time ; becaufe they looked upon the d'.feafe to be entirely local, and the whole of the cure to depend upon the removal of the fymptoms. Hence it was tliey recommended fuch remedies as were accommodated to the taking off the inward heat of the part, and cure the excoriations or ulcerations of the urethra. The proccfs for tlie accomphfliing of this, I fliall fet down from the before- nr.entiontd John Arden, who wrote about the year 1380. His words are as follow ; " Contra incendium. Item con- tra incendiunn virgx virilis interius ex calore & cxcoriatione, tlat talis fyringa (i.e.- inje&io) lenitiva. Accipe lac mulieris mafcclum nutricntis, & parum zucarium, oleum violx & ptifana:, quibns commixtis per fyringam infuudatur, & fi piiuiclis admifcueris lac amigdalarnm melior crit medicina." There is r.o doubt b'.it this remedy, being ufed to our pa- tients at this time, vould infallibly take off the inward heat of the part, and cure the excoriations or ulcerations of the urtthra, by which means what iflued from thence would be entirely ftopt ; and this was all they expeiffcd from their niedicints, for as much as they were entirely unacquainted with the nature of the diftemper ; and did not in the leaft imagine, but if the fymptoms that firft attacked the part were removed, the patient was entirely cured. " I fliall now, as a farther confirmation of what I have advanced, proceed to prove, that by iWnJin-iitiirig or biiniiiig is meant the venereal difeafe, by demonflrating that fucceed- ing hiftorians, phyfical and chirurgical writers, and others, have all along with us in England ufed the very fame word to iignify the venereal malady. In an old manufcript I have, written about the year iJ90, is a receipt for " breii- VOL. V. BUR ning of the pynty!, yat men clcpe ye apegalk ;" gslle bein^ an old Ent^lifli word for a running fore. They wlio know the etymology of tlic word up 011, cannot be ignorant of this. And in another manufcript, written about 5c years after, is a receipt for burning in that part by a woman.' Simon Fifli, a zealous promoter of the reformation, in the reign of Hen. VIII. in liis fupplication of beggars, prtfented to iIil- king, in 1530, fays as follows : " Thefe be thev," fpeak- ing of the Romifli priells, " that corrupt the whole gene- ration of mankind in your realm ; that catch the pockes of one woman and bear them to another; i!;at be burnt with one woman and bear it to another ; tliat catch the lepry of one woman and bear it unto another." But to make this mat- ter flill more evident, I am to obferve, that Andrew Boord, M. D. and Roniidi pricft, in the fame reign, in a book he wrote, entitled " The Breviaiy of Health," printed in 1 '■^^6, fpeaks very particularly of this fort of burning; one of his chapters begins thus : " The 19th chapter doth (lu-w of burning of an harlot ;" where his notion of communicating the burning is very particular. He adds, that if a man be burnt with an harlot, and do meddle with another woman within a day, he (hall burn her : and as an immediate re- medy againll the burning, he recommends the wafliing the pudenda two or three times with white wine, or elfe with lack and water ; but if the matter have continued long, to go to an expert furgeon for help. Li his Sad chapter, lie fpeaks of two forts of burning, the one by fire, and the other by a woman, through carnal copulation, and refer* the perfon that is burnt of a hnilot to another chapter of his for advice, " yf he get a dorfer or two," fo called from its protuberancy or. bunching out : for I find about that time the word bubo was moltly made ufe of to fignify that fort of fwelling which ufually happens in pcftilential dif- eafes. " From hence it appears, the burning by its confequents, was venereal, fince every day's experie::ce makes it evident, that the ill treatment of the firft fymptoms of the difeafe, either by aflringent medicines, or the removing tlum by cooling and healing the excoriated parts, will g'cnerally be attended with fuch fvvellings in the groin, which we rarely obferve to happen from any other caufe whatfoever. " I fliall give a few more inftances of this dileafe being called the biiniing, and conclude. In a manufcript I have of the vocation of John Bale to the biflioprick of OlFory in Ireland, written by himfelf, he fpeaks of Dr. Hugh Weilon, who was dean of Windfor, in 1556, but deprived by cardinal Pole for adultery, as follows, " At this day is lecherous " Weftou, who is more pracftiltd in the art of brech-burn- " ing than all the whores of the flews." And again, fpcaking of the fame perfon, he fays, " He not long ago " brent a beggar in St. Botolph's parifli." The fame author fays of him clfewhere, " He had been fore bitten with a Wincheller goofe, and was not yet healed thereof ;" which was a common phrafe for the pox at that time, be- caufe the flews were under the the jurifdidion of the bifliop of Wincheller. Mich. Wood, in his cpilUe before Stephen Gardiner's oration, " De vera Obedientia," printed at Rhoan, 155 J, gives another evidence of the burning. And William BuUein, a phyfician in the reign of queen Elizabeth, in a book he publilhed, called " The Bulwark of Defence, &c." printed in 1562, bringing in Sicknefs demanding of Health what he fliould do with a difeafe called the " French Pockes," Health anfwers, " He would not that any fhould " fifhe for this difeafe, or to be bold when he is bitten, to " thynke thereby to be helped, bvt rather to efchcwe the " caufe of thys iulirmity, and filthy rotten burning of " harlots." 4C la BURNING-GLASS. In the Sloankm library, N° 4CJ 7, is another letter, (bound up in folio, with a great manv different MSS.) from Mr. Wilham Btckttt to fir Han Sloanc, dated F^l . 4th 17!^; w'lerein the principal fafts mentioned in the letter to Dr. Doiiglafs are recited. But wc found nothing befidcs which is worthy of notice, except the followini;; remark : *' This triiining or burning, (being, upon the difnfe of thefe " words, calltd gonorrhoea), is what we now call the clap : " which word 1 take to be of a modern iifage ; for, in all " my enquiries, I cannot find it was ever dcfigned to fignity " the fame thing it does now, before the reigu of " Charles I." BcRxiNG, in I^ait: See Arson, Branding, Trhason, l«^C. Burning of diaminds, is nfcd among the jewellers for put- ting the DIAMONDS into a fiercs fire, in order to divell them of a yellow or brown colour. Burn iNG en the forehead, Front'u inujllo, was anciently the penalty of a calumniator. In the middle age, we find fre- quent inllances of /'Kr;,»«j in the cheek ; a punilhmcnt allotted to bondmen, or villains guilty of theft. BuRMNG-^'yi'. See Bush. BuRM.SG ,fA//j, or luniing-mlrror, a machine whereby the fun's rays are coUeiled into a point ; and by that means their force and cffcft extremely heightened, fo as to burn objefts placed therein. Burcing-glaffes are of two kinds : the firfl convex, called letilet caitjl'icit ; which tranfmit the rays of light, and in their paifage refract, or incline them towards the axis ; having the property of Icnfes, and acting according to the laws of refraction. Tiie fecond, which are the more ufual, are concave ; very improperly called burning-glafles, being ufually made of metal : thefe refle6\ the rays of light, and, in that reflection, incline them to a point in their axis ; having the properties of fpecula or mirrors ; and acting according to the laws of refleftion. See Mirror and Reflection. The fii-ft, or convex kind, authors fuppofe to have been unknown to the ancients ; but the latter they are gene- rally allowed to have been acquainted with. Their mag- nifying power is taken notice of both by Seneca and Pliny ; and their burning power is mentioned in a treatife of Optics, afcribed to EucHd, theorem 91. It is probable that the Romans had a method of lighting their facrcd fire by means of reflecting concave _/^f<:u/a. But Porta, and many others, fuppofe, that the burning mirrors of the ancients were made of metal, in the form of a feftion of a parabola, having the vertex cut off'; it being the well-known property of this curve to reflect all rays that fall upon it parallel to the axis into the_ focus. Hiftorians tell us, that Archimedes, by means o,' reflefting mirrors, burnt a whole fleet ; and though the effeft related be very improbable, yet it fufficiently proves, that fuch things were then known. The machines then ufed, nobody doubts, were metalhc and concave, and had their focus by reflexion: it being agreed, that the ancients were unacquainted with the refrafted foci of convex glafles. Yet M. de la Hire has difcovered even thefe in the Clouds of Ariftophanes ; where Strepfiades tells Socrates of an expedient he had to pay his debts, by means of a round tranfparent ftone or glafs, ufed in lighting of fires, by which he intended to melt the bond; which in thofe days was written on wax. The glafs here ufed to light the fire, and melt the wax, M. de la Hire obferves, could not be concave; fince a refleiled/ocw coming from below upwards, would have been exceedingly improper for that purpofe : and the old fcholiaft of Ariftophanes confirms the fentiment. Phny makes mention of globes of glafs and cryftal, which being expofed to the fun, burnt the clothes and flefh on people's' backs; and LaCtantius adds, that a glafs fphere, full of water, and held in the fun, hghted the fi-e even in the coldelt weather; which incontelUbly proves the efTedls of convex glafles. Indeed, there is feme difficulty i^ conceiving how they (hould know fuch j/lafTes bnrnt, without knowing th;y magnified ; which it is granted they did not, till towards the clofe of the thirteenth centuiy, when fpeflacles were thought of. For as to thofe palTages in Plautus, which feem to intimate the knowledge of fpcttacles, M. de Is Hire obferves, they do not prove any fuch thing : and he folvcs this, by obferving, that their 'burning glaifes being fphere=, either fo'id, or full of water, their/o./ would be one fourth of their diameter dillant fiom them : if then their diameter were fiippofed half a foot, which is the moll we can allow, an objedt mufl; be pt the diftance of an incli and an half, in order to its being perceived magnified : thofe at greater diltances do not appear greater, but only more confuted, through the glafs than oat of it. It is no wonder, therefore, the magnifying property of convex glafles was unknown, and their burning one known ; it is more" wonderful there fliould be 300 years between the invention of fpcCtacles and telefcopes. Every concave mirror, or fpeculum, collefts the rays dif- perfcd though its whole concavity, after reflexion, into a point or focus ; and is therefore a burning mirror. Hence, as the focus is there where the rays are the mod clolely contracted, if it be a f'egment of a large fphere, its breadth mufl; not fubtend an arch above eighteen degrees : if if it be a fegment of a fmaller fphere, its breadth may be thirty degrees ; which is verified by experiment. As the furface of a mirror, which is a fegment of a larger fphere, receives more rays than another of a lefs, if the latitude of each fubtend an arch of eighteen degrees ; or even more or lefs, provided it be equal ; the effeds of the greater mirror will be greater than thofe of the lefs. And, as \.h& focus is contained between the fourth and fifth parts of the diameter, mirrors thgt are fegments of greater fpheres burn at a greater dillance than thofe which are feg- ments of a fmaller. Since, laftly, the burning depends on the union of the rays, and the union of the rays on the concave fpherical figure ; it is no wonder, that even wooden mirrors, gilt, or thofe prepared of alabafter, &c. covered with gold ; nay, even that thofe made of paper, and covered with ftraw, ftiould be found to burn. Among the ancients, the burning mirrors of Archime- des and Proclus are eminent ; by one of which, the Roman (hips befieging Syracufe, under the command of Marcellus, according to the relation of Zonaras, Tzetzes, Galen, Euftathius, Anthemius, &c. and by the other, the navy of Vitalian befieging Byzantium, according to the fame Zonaras, were burnt to aflies. Many have queftioned the faft recorded by feveral hif- torians concerning the furprifing effeas of Archimedes's burning mirrors ; and they have principally urged the im- poffibihty of producing fuch effefts by means of concave fpecula, the focal dift;ance of which muft have been much too fmall for the purpofe. Des Cartes, particularlv, difcredited the ftory, as fabulous, on this account ; but Kircher made many experiments with a view of vindicating its credibility. Apprehending that the concave fpecula of the ancients were fedions of a parabola, he began with combining feveral of this figure ; but, failing of fuccefs in this way, he tried the eff^eCt of a number of plane mirrors ; and with five mirrors of the fame fize, placed in a frame, he contrived to throv? the rays BURNING-GLASS. r.Av? reflected from tticm to tlic fame place, at thediftance of Tiuire than a hundred feet ; and hy their means he produced 1mc1> a dei^ne (if heat, as led him to conclude that, by in- crcalr.ig their number, he could have fct fire to iiifianimable iiiblbnces at a greater diUance. He likewife made a voy- aTo to Syracufc, in company with his pupil Scliottus, in order 10 examine the place of the fuppofed tranfaftion ; and they ■were both of opinion that the galleys of Maretllus could not b;ive been more than thirty paces from Archmiedes. M. BiifTon, thovigh ignorant of the particular ttdimonits of sueient writers, rel.itive to the invention of Archimrdcs, and (jf the attempts of Kirchor above mentioned, has more lately, liv a fimilai- contrivance, fufficiently eviixed the praiticability ot the operation. Dr. Wolfe, in the vear 1768, after having given an ac- count of fome parabolic mirrors, conftiufted by M. Hoe- fen of Drefden, offers a conjefture, that thofc of Archi:ncde9 might be of this kind, fince it is not difficult to dticribe in parabola, whofe parair.eter is 230o feet ; and that rays re- flcftcd from fuch a fpecuhim might be received by a lens, after haviiig been brought to a focus, and tranlmitted pa- rallel to any diftance : but he was not apprized, that Kepler and Decluiles had fhewn, that no rays could be conveyed parallel to one another, except thofe which procc'dc'd from the fame points in the fun's dilk. Dutens du Miroir Ardent d'Archimede. Paris, 175J. Pliil. Tranf. vol. xlviii. p. 621, &c. Ibid. vol. lix, p. 8. Am.ong the moderns, the mofl remarkable bunn'ng .mirrors are thofe of Magine, twenty inches in diameter ; of Septala of Milan, which was near three feet and a half in diameter, and which burnt at the diftance of fifteen or lixteen pacta ; of Villette, and Tfchirnhaufen, the new complex one of M. Butfon, that of Trudaine, and that ot Parker. Villette, a French artift at Lyons, made a large mirror, which was bought by Tavtrnier, and prefented to the king of Pcrlia; a fccond, bought by the king of Denmark ; a third, prefented by the French king to the Royal Academy ; a fourth has been in England, where it was publicly ex- pofed. — The effeds of this mirror, as found by Dr. Harris and Dr. Defaguliers, are, that a filver fixpence is melted in j" and I; a halfpenny ot king George I. in 16", and running with a hole in 34". Tin melts in 3", call iron in 16"; ilate in 3''; a foffile ibcU calcines in 7"; a piece of Pompey's Pillar in Alexandria vitrifies in the bhick part in 50", in the white in 154" ; copper ore in S"; bone calcines in 4", and vitrifies iu 33". An emerald melts into a fubftance like a turquois Itoiie ; a diamond weighnig four grains, lofes 5 of its weight ; the albedos vitrihes ; as all other bodies will do, if kept long enough in ihe/ucus; but when once vitrified, the mirror can produce no farther t ffeft. — This mirror is forty-feven inches wide; and is ground to a iphere of feventy- fix inches radius ; fothat its focus is about thirty-eight inches from the vertfx. Its fubftance is a compofition of tin, cop- per, and tin-glafs. Phil. Tranf. vol iv. p. 198. M. Tfchirnhaufen's rcfleciling mirror deferves next to be mentioned. The following things are noted of it in the Afta Eruditorum, for i^sj, p. r^2. I. Green wood takes fire inftantaneoufly, fo that a ilrong wind cannot extinguifli it. 2. Water boils immediately, and ecfgs in it are prefcntly edible. 3. A mixture of tin and lead, three inches thick, drops prciently, and iron or Heel-plate becomes red hot pre- fently, and a little after burns into holes. 4. Things not capable of melting, as ftones, bricks, 6<.c. become foon red hot, Uke iron. 5. Slate becomes fiill white, then a black glafs. 6. Tiles arc converted into a yellow glafs, and fhells into a blackifh yellow one. 7. A pumice-ftone emitted from a volcauo, melts into white glafs ; and, 8. A piece of crucible alfo vitrifies in eight luiniilci. 9. lioiies arctoori turned into an opaque glafs, and earth into a black one. It is made of copper, and its fubftance is not above double the thickntfs of the back of a knife : this was about 4;'; French feet in dia- meter, and it burnt at the diftance of twelve fctt. Every lens, whether convex, plano-convex, or convexo- convex, colleds the fun's rays, difpcrfed over its convexity, into a point by rcfraclion ; and is therefore a burning glals. The moll confiderable of this kind known, is that made by M. de Tfchirnlnufcn : the diameters of his Icnfes are three and four feet ; the focus at the diftance of twelve feet, and its diameter an inch and a half. To make the focus morr vivid, the rays are coU.-Aed a fecond tim.e by a fecond len* pnrallel to the fird ; and fituited in th.at place where the diameter of the cone of rays formed by the tirll lens is cqnal to tli;: diameter of the fecond ; fo that it receives thtm all ; and the focus from an inch and a half, is contradled into tlv: fpace of eight lines, and its force increafed prouortionably. ',•- was purchafed by the duke of Orleans, who prefented it to the French Academy. Its weight was 160 pounds. Its efferts, among others, as related in the Aiila Erudil. LipliiE, are, that it lights hard woods, even moillcned with water, into a (lame, iiiftantly ; that water, in a iittlc vcdel, begins to boil prefently ; all metals are melted ; brick, puniice-ftone, delft warts, and the ad^eftos done, are turned into glafs; fulphur, pitch. Sec. melted under water: the afhes of vegetables, woods, and other matters, tranfmuted into glafs ; in a word, every thing applied to its focus, is either melted, turned into calx, or into fmoke ; and the colours of jewels, and all other bodies, metals alone excepted, are changed by it. He obferves, that it fucceeds bed, whfin the matter applied is laid on a hard charcoal, well burnt. Though the force of the folar rays be here found fo Ihipendous, yet the rays of the full moon, coUefted by the fame burning glafs, do not exhibit the lead increafe of heat. Wolfius tells us, that an artid of Drefden made burning mirrors of wood, bigger than thofe of M. Tfchirnhaufen or Villette, which had effefts at lead equal to any of them. — Traberus teaches how to make burning mirrors of leaf gold, viz. by turning a concave, laying its infide equally with pitch, and covering that with fquare pieces of the gold, two or three fingers broad, faftening them on, if need be, by fire. He adds, that very large mirrors may be made, of thirty, forty, or more concave pieces, artfully joined in a turned wooden dilh or fcuttle ; the edefls of Vv'hich will not be much lefa than if the fnrface was continuous Zahnius adds farther, that Newman, an engineer at Vienna, in 1699, made a mirror of pafte-board, covered withinfide with draw glued to it ; by which all kinds of metals, &c. were readily melted. Sir Ifaac Newton's burning miiTor confided of feven con- (55ve glades, each of which was eleven inches and a half in diameter, and fo ditpofed as to have one common focus: fis of them were placed round the fev.-nth and contiguous to it, in fuch a manner as to form the fegment of a fphere, whofe fubtenfe is about thirty-four inches and a half ; the focu» is about twenty-two inches and a half diftant, and about aii inch in diameter. This fpecuhun vitrified biick or tile m one fecond, and in about lialf a minute melted gold. M. Zeiher, not long fince, made fome improvement of this in. drument ; and formed panes of plain glafs into the neceifarj' degree of curvature, by heating them fo hot on a di(h made of metal, that they could all adume the fame form. M, Buffon has conftruftcd furnaces lor converting plain into concave mirrors ; the mirrors are expofed to a degree of heat fufficicnt to foften the glafs, in coiifequence of which it conforms itfelf to the fpherical figure of the mould on which it is placed. This method is fubjcfl to many diiScultiea and 4 C I aw!. BURNING-GLASS. accident? j however, out of twenty-four mirrois treated thus, M. U'lir.ii pituTved three; two of which arc thirty fcven inches in diameter, and the other forty-lls inches. The la!l was tiii-foikd, and prefcnttd to the French king ; and is reprcfented bv tlie maker, as tlic mod powerful buriimg mirror in Europe, and yet the moon's hglit refleacd from this concave fpcciiUim, on a thermometer placed in the focus, produced no fenfible dilatation of the included fluid. M. Buffon has alio made attempts for conarufting convex lenfes of great p»wer, by fixing two of the above mentioned concave glalfcs together, and liUing the cavity between them with water : one of the glaflcs broke in the trial ; but others have fincc undertaken to conftruft thefe water knfes. He has likcwife fuggefted another improvement in the conftruflion of burning' glalTes, confiding in a contrivance for diminifhnig the thicknefs of the middlcor central part of the lens from three inches to one inch ; whereby be propofes to prevent the diminution of light occafioned by its paffing through the middle part of a lens of large diameter, and fhoit focus, wh c'l mull be proportionably thick in that part. This new kind of lens is compofed of three parts ground to the fame radius, or of two circular zones, or ba:ids, furrounding a central or middle part. He computes that the heat in the focus of a lens of this kind, three feet in diameter, will be about four times greater than that produced by any burning glafi yet known. But the moll confiderable improvement which M. Buf- fon lias introduced into the optical apparatus is his ma- chine, confilling of a number of mirrors ; whereby he feems to have revived ihe fecret of Archimedes, and to have vindicated the credit of hiftory in this point. In the year 1747 he condructcd a machine, with a hundred and forty plane mirrors, each about four inches long, and three broad ; thefe are fixed at about a quarter of an inch diftance frqm each other, upon a large wooden frame of about fix feet fquare. Each of them has three moveable fcrews, which are fo contrived, that the mirror can be inclined to any angle, and in any direftion that meets the fun ; and by this means, the folar image of each mirror is made to coincide with all the reft. The experiment was firft tried with twenty-four mirrors, which readily fet on fire a combullible matter, prepared of pitch and tow, and laid on a deal board, at the diftance of fixty-fix French feet. He then farther purfued the attempt, and put together a kind of polyhedron, confifting of 168 pieces of plane look- ing glafs, each being fix inches fquare ; and by means of this fomc boards of beech-wood were fet on fire, at the diftance of a hundred and fifty feet, in the month of March, and a filver plate was melted at the diftance of fixty feet. This machine, befide other advantages, may be eafily moved, fo as to burn downwards or horizontally ; and it burns either in its diftant focus, or in any nearer interval, which our common burning-glafTes cannot do, becaufe their focus is wholly fixed and determined. This machine, in the next ftage of its improvement, contained three hundred and fixty plane mirrors, each eight inches long, and fix broad, mounted on a frame eight feet high, and feven feet broad. With twelve of thefe mirrors, liglit combuftible matters were kindled at the diftance of twenty feet ; at the fame diftance, A large tin veficl was melted with forty-five of them, and a thin piece of filver with a hundred and fe- venteen. When the whole machine was employed, all the metals and metallic minerals were melted at the dif- tance of twenty-five, and even of forty feet. Wood was kindled in a clear fliy, at the diftance of two hundred and ten feet. The focus, at the diftance of fifty feet, is about fevea inches broad ; and at the diftance of two 3 hundred and forty feet, it b'comes t>vo feet in diimeter. Mr. Buffon afterivards con.ftruflcd a machine, which con- tained four hundred mirrois, each half a foot fquare, with which he couid melt lead and tin at the diftance of a hundred a d tortv f.-et. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. x. p. 194. Sec. M. de B:!:Ton H'ftoire Na'urelle, &c. Supplem. vol. i. Montucla, Hilloire'dts M'.thcmaliques, vol. i. p. 333. There is no folid lubilance that refifts the efficacy of mo- dern burning-glafTes. Mclfrs. Macquer and Ban-rc have fucceeded in melting fmall portions of vlatin^a, by means of a concave glafs, twenty two inches in diameter, and of twenty-eight incites focus ; though this metal is not fufible by the ftrongeft fires that can be excited in furnaces, or fuftained by any chemical apparatus. Yet it was long ago obferved by the Acad.'mi!;ians del Cimento, tliat fpirit of wine could not be fired by any burning glafs whicii they ufed ; and notwithllanding the great improvement which thefe optical inftruments have fince received, M. Nolltt has not been able, by the moft powerful burning mirrors, to fet fire to any inflammable liquors whatever. The principle upon which M. Trudaine conftrufted his burning lens was that of combining two circular fegments of glafs fpheres, and applying them with their concave fides to- wards each other, fo a? to form a lenticular Cavity of four feet in diameter. The cavity was filled with fplrits of wine ; of which it contained 140 French pints. The focus of pa- rallel rays in this inftrument was 10 feet 10 inches and one line dillant from the centre of the glafs ; and origimllv con- tradled to a circle of about eight lines in diameter, by the in- terpofition of a fecond and fmaller lens of folid glafs. The maker prefented it to the Royal Academy of Sciences, but it vi'as foon afterwards accidentally broken. The ex- peuce of its conftruclion is faid to have amounted to loool. fterling ; and yet its powers were not very great ; for, ac- cording to Mr. Magellan, it required 20 minutes for coagu- lating the particles of platina, which Mr. Parker's lens could do in lefs than a tenth piirt of the time. This feems indeed to be the moft powerful burning lens that has yet been conftrniled. Mr. Parker, of Fleet-ftreet, London, was induced, at an expence of upwards of 700!., to contrive and at length to complete a large tranfparent lens, that would ferve the purpofe of fufing and vitrifying fuch fubftances as refift the fires of ordinary furnaces, and more efpccially of applying heat in vacuo, and in other circum- ftances in which it cannot be applied by any other means. After direfting his attention for feveral years to this objeft, and performing a great variety of experiments "in'^he profe- cution of it, he at laft fucceeded in the couftruftion of a lens, of flint glafs, three feet in diameter, which, when fixed in its frame, expofes a furface two feet Si inches in the clear ; without any other material imperfection befides a disfigurement of one of the edges by a piece of the fcoria of the mould, which unfortunately found its way into its fubftance. This lens was double convex, both fides of which were a portion of a fphere of 18 feet radius. From the papers and drawings, with which the ingenious inventor has obligingly furnilhed us, we are able to give the follow- ing accurate account of this lens, illuftrated'by appropriate engravings. The elevation of this lens is exhibited in P/ate II. Optics, fg. I. The large lens is A, whofe diameter in the frame is 3 feet, and in the clear 2 feet 8| inches; its thicknefs at the centre is 3^ inches ; its focal diftance-e feet S inches ; and the diameter of the burning focus I inch ; its weight was 212 pounds. B is a fecond lens, whofe diameter in the frame is 16 inches, and which fliews in the clear 13 inches ; the thicknefs in the centre is l| inch ; length of tlie focus 29 inches, and its diameter | of an inch ; its BURNING-GLASS. its weigSt 21 poTinds. Wlien the two ahove lenfcs are compounded tojrcther, the leii'fth of tli« focus is 5 feet 3 Indies, and it-i diameter half an inch. C is a truncated co:ie, conpof^d of 12 ribs of wood, at the larger end of which is lix-jd the prreat hns A, and at :he fmallcr extremity the lelTer k-ns B ; near the fmaller end is alfo fixed a rack, D, padl.ig throUj^h the pilFar L, moveable bv a pinion turning in the faid pillar, by means of the handle E, and thus giving a verticil motion to the machine. F is a bar of wood, fixed between the two lower ribs of the cone at G ; having, within a chafed mortife in which it moves, an appa- r.itn,;, H, with the iron plate 1, fixed to it ; and as this part tnrns on a focket, K, a method is thus obtained of placing the matter under experiment fo as that it may be ailed upon by the focal rays in the nioH direft and powerful manner. L L is a llrong mahogany frame, moving on caftors, M M, and immediately under the table, N, are three fri£lion wheels, by which the machine moves horizon- tally. O is a ftrong iron bow, in which the lens and the cone hang. hi Jig. 2. a fck^ion of the large Itns is feen : it, the large lens, marked A in the former figure ; i // h the frame which contains the lens ; c the finall lens, marked B in the pre- ceding figure; (It/ is the frame wliich contains this lens; f e \i the ti .■ cated cone, marked C in the otiicr figure ; yi is the bar, on which the apparatus, marked F in the former figure, moves ; ^ is the iron plate, denoted by 1 in the faid figure ; h the cone of rays, formed by the refraftion of the great lens a, and falling on the lens c ; and / is the Gor.c of rays formed by the refraftion of the lens c. In J:^r. ^. i exhibits the front view of the great lens;/ the frame containing the large lens ; and m- the llrong iron bow in which the lens hangs. It is difficult to form an accurate elliinate of the burning power of this lens ; inafmuch as it is next to impoffible to difcover what (liould be dedntted for the lofs of power, in confequence of the impediments that the glafs of which it was made mull occafion, as well as the four refleftions (i. e. two reiletlions on the i;iimcrfion, and two more on the emerfion of the rays of heat), by way of diminution ; but ■vve v.ill endeavour to appreciate it after making a full allowance for thefe dcduftious, which mud ueceffanly refult from every means of concentrating the folar rsys, and which mull be confidered to be as the friction of an engine, of which nature they really partake. The folar lays received on a circular fnrface of 2 feet 8| inches, when concentrated within the diameter uf one inch, will be io56.25times its intenfity, or this number of times greater than the heat of the fun as felt on the fnrface of the earth. We will fuppofe that as the heat of the air, in ordinary fummer, weather, is 63°, and in fultry weather is 75°, the average of v/hich is 70°, and that we take this degree as the average effeft, the accumulated power of the lens, on the fuppofition of an equal effedl over the whole furface of the focus, will be equal to 73938^. It muft be recollefled by thofe who have had an oppor- tunity of examining the effttls of this lens, that the external part of the focal light was lefs intenfe than that part which was near the centre of it ; or, rather, that the effett was very much accumulated in the centre : but as it is poffible that the refraftion of the light and of the caloric fluid may not take place in the fame angles, we think it fafeft to confider it as ef an uniform effedl, and after dedufting one-fourth part thereof as a compenfation, there remains 55454°, as the ex- preffion of its power. As the application of the fecond lens reduced the diame- ter of the focus to half an inch, the effed, without allowing for the rcduiflion of its power, would be equal to 221811')'', but dedudlmg one-fourth for the fecond trai.fmiflion, lliere remains \66y)z^ as the exprdTiin ol its power. Suppofing that the rays of the fun emanated from a point, the focus of the lens would alfo be a point ; for the rays traiifmitted through one edge of the lens would ipcet thofe tranfmilted through the other edge, fo that the focus would be without parts, or a mathematical point ; but as the fun is known to meafure ,ji' 32" during the apogee, and 32' jS' during the perig-e, the focus mull nectfTarily be 0.7105 partj of an inch diameter at Midfummer-, and o.-j94at Chrillmas. The length of the luminous axis at Midfummer muft, from the fame caufe, be 3.428 inches, and, at the oppofite period, 3-557 ; becaufe the dimcnfion of the focus is arflual.y de- pendent on the apparent diameter of the fun, the ftmi-dia- meter being to be added to incrtafe the mtafure < f the con- verging rays on each of ihc oppofite fides, the tangent of which is the femi-diameter of the focus: and by the fame means the length of the axis is difcovered, addiirg to and fubtradling from the converging angle, by which means the points at which they meet on the axis ai'e difcovered. Thefe two points dilclofe the commencement of the luminous ap- pearance thereon. The variation between the above calculated diameter of the focus and what it really was, points out the errors in the inllrument, which mull aiife from one of two caufes, or fr-on» both, viz. that the axis of the two fides are not corncident, or that they ar-e not oppofite to each other ; (hould the dif- . ference have been occafioned by either, the focus would have been eUiptical ; but as tliis was not afcerfiined, it can only be faid that a very fm.nll deviation in each would have occafioned tiiis enlai-gcment of the focns ; and pofilMy they mighi: have adled in contrary ways, which would have made it nearly circular. But as this lens was exported many years ago, we are not able to determine whether the focus (Idted to have been one inch diameter was afccrtained by its burniiio- lifecl, or by the diameter of the focal rays : it by the diameter of the rays, the enlargement thereof mufl have refulted from the above caufes ; but if from its burning power, it tends rather to elLnblilh the theory of Dr. Her-fchell, that the rays of caloric arc lefs refrangible than thofe of light, and that the true burning focus lies rather beyond the apparent focus. We are far from thinking the above llatcment an extrava- gant fuppofition, when it is recoUeaed, that all the experi- ments on which we ground our opinion were made with a total cxpofure of the fubllances to the acftion of the circum- ambient air ; and hae turnings of iron. The fcoria appears to have been me'Kd in much lefs time than the turnings, a refult that might have been expefted to have been direttly the reverfe ; but fome allowance mull be made for the probable difference in the effefls or iKteniities of the folar rays at the periods at which the experiments were matle. Calx of iron from vitriolic acid, precipitated by mild fixed alkali, weighing 5 grains before expofure, weighed afterwards 5^ grains ; which indicates an increafe of weight by an abforption of phlogillnn. Regulus of zinc began alinoll inftantly to flow, and wa* nearly evaporated ; the remains were magnetic. Regulus of cobalt was completely evaporated in ^57". Regnkis of bifmuth was nearly evaporated when expofed on a charcoal reil ; but on black lead it began to fufe in 2", and very foon after pafTed into a ftate of complete tnfion ; it loll only half a grain in weight from an expofure of 180" ; on a boneafh rell it fufed in 3", and in iSo" it was reduced to 7s grains. Regulus of antimony : 3^ grains were fnfed in 3'' on charcoal, and after 195" there remained only 11 grains; but when expofed on a charcoal rell for the fame time, there remained afterwards zS grains, which fliewed a mag- netic aflfeflion. Fine kearlh from the cannon foundery cv .^orated very faft during 120", and in 30" more the remainder began to flow into globules, which, on being cold, were attracted by the magnet. This experiment of ilfelf fupports the claim of this inftrument to a vaft fuperiority over the heat of any furnace hitheito known. Cryftal pebble of North America : 5 grains cxpofed con- traded in 15", pcrfedlly glazed in 135", tbuUefced in Ijo', and when taken out appeared femi-diaphanous, of a flatc colour. Several of the femi-cryftaUine fubftances, expofed to the focal heat, exhibited fymptoms of fufion : fuch as the agate, oriental flint, cornelian, and jalper ; but as the probability is that tliefe fubftances were not capable of complete vitrifica- tion, it is enough that they were rendered externally of a glaffy form. Garnet completely fufed on black lead in 1:0", loft •J of a grain, became darker in colour, and was attrafted by the magnet. Ten cut garnets taken from a bracelet, began to run the one into the other, in a few feconds, and at lall formed into one globular garnet. The clay ufed by Mr. Wedgwood to make his pvro- metric left, run in a few feconds mto a white enamel. .Seven other kinds of clay fent by Mr. Wedgwood were all vitrified. Several experiments were made on limeftone, fome of which were vitrified, but all of which were agglutinated ; it is, however, fufpeftcd that fome extraneous fubftance muft have been intermixed. A globule produced from one of the fpecimens, on being put into the mouth, flew into a thoufand pieces, occafioned, it is prefumed, by the raoif- ture. Stalaftites Zeolithus fpatofus : 9 grains took a globular form in 60"; in 148" the globule began to get clear ; in 155" was perfeAly tranfparcnt, and as it grew cold di- minifhed in tranfparency, and at lall refoKed itfelf into a beautiful red ; on being cut by a lapidaiy, it was found to be fo hard as to ferve as a diamond to write on glafs. Several fpecimens of lavas, and other volcanic produc- tions, were expofed to the focus of the lens, all of which yielded to its power. This furnace of nature, the volcano, is fuppofed to be hotter than any furnace conftrufted by the art BURNING-GLASS. »rt of mar, and a? none of tlicfe fiibftanccs have been found ptrfeftly vitrilkd, the concliifiun is, that the volcano mull cxcfcd thtin in its powtr. The following obftivation madt by major Gardner, lie ap- plies to all the experiments made by him during a period of many months; we will ufc his own words : " That no fub'lance can rcma-'n any length of time in its focns luitufed or unvitrified, nnlefs it be externally white or diaphanous; but in a number of inllaiiccs even thefe properties do not prevent their beinjr fuled or vitrified : when they do, it appears, in the firlt ca(e, tliat the rays were in ])a't re- fiefted (perhaps before they came in contaft with the in- tcnftly white fubilance) ; and from this circumftance the fnn's rays are prevented from exerting their full power upon them." Some experiments were made in the year 1802, with Mr. Parker's lens, with the view of alcertaining whether the moon communicated any heat to the earth, in common with the reflected light ironi which we derive fo much ad- Fantage. This ex'periment was attended by fir Jofeph Banks, with feveral members of the Royal Society, together with Dr. Crawford, who provided the moll lenfible thermome- ters ; but after applying them to the luminous focus, fo far from a perceptible increale of heat, it was thought there was perceived rather a diminution thereof; but this fufpioion did not lead them to a fair ii.velligation of the futl. Since this period fonie experiments have been made that evince the power of comniun'cating cold by rcfledlion ; but as this faft has not yet been explauied confillcntly with the prefent received theory, we (hall content ourfelves with taking notice of the experiment made by M. Pidct. Two concave mirrors being placed at the dillancc of lo^ feet from each other, a very delicate air thermometer »vas put into one of the foci, and a glafs matrafs full of fnow in the other. The thermometer funk feveral degrees, and rofe again when the matrafs was removed. When nitric acid was poured upon the fnow (which increafcd the cold) the thermometer funk 5° or 6° lower. Here cold feems to have been emitted by the fnow, and reflefted by the mirrors to the thermometer, which it is thought could not happen unlefs cold were a fubilance. It has been found that upon an admixture of equal quantities of fnow, which is always at 32°, and of water heated to 172°, the relult is that the compound only retains the lowell heat of 32^, fo that i.^o" of heat or caloric difappears. Much has been faid refpefting the point or degree at which the thermometer fhonld indicate the prefcnce of heat. The experiments of Dr. Crawford feem to place it at 1268" below the prefent o. Mr. Kirwan places it at 1048°. MelTrs. Lavoifier and La Place at 27;6° ; and by a mixture of four parts of fulphuvic acid with three pints of water, it feems that it Ihould be placed at 5803'' below o. Experiments of this kind may be made ad injirii/itm, and in time it may poflibly be afcertained that cold is a real fub- ilance ; but for the purpofe of getting an anfwer to the prefent queflion, we will accommodate the fcale of Fah- renheit, by adding 1 08'^ thereto fo as to make the o cor- refpond with the caloric imbibed by fnow or ice before it can melt. The average temperature of the air, mentioned under the article Burning Gltifs, of 70° will be now con- fidered as 178 of the new fcale. The fuperficies of fpherical bodies are to each other as the fquares of their refpedlive diameters. The diameter of the moon is confidered to be 2180 miles, and its mean dillance from the earth 240,000 ; from which it follows, on the fuppofitioii that all the folar rays received by the moon 6 were refleiSed back, and that the earth was abfoluttfy without heat, that the cftcCi of this rtflcdtion would be found to be .00,367 of a degree (for 240.COOX2': 178':; 2 180' : .00J67) ; which multiplied into 1051^.25, and this fum iiicreafed four times for the incrcafed power of tht fe- cund lens, would give 15.51234° as the heat of the focus ; 92.2S766" below the prefent O, or 124.28766° bilow ttic treeziiig point. This dinertation is interilling in another point of view, for this calculation afcertaiiis tli^t the light afforded by the moon, when compared with that by tlie fun, abtlrafting all imptdimeiits in both cafes, is only as I to 4848c. A fubfi ription was prcpolcd for raifing the fum of- 700 guineas, towards indcninitying the charges of the inventor, and retaining the very curious and ulcful machine above delcnbed in our own country ; but from the failure of the fubfcription, and feme oilier concurring circumllances, Mr. Parker was induced to difpofe of it to capt. Mack- intofli, who acccmpanicd lord Macartney in the tmbafly to that country ; and it wr.s left, much to the regiet of philofo- phers in Europe, at Pikin ; where it remains in the hand? ol perfons, who moll probably know neither its value nor ufe. Burning of Heath, in Agricuhure, a prailice employed in fome dill rifts for clearing ground covertd with this fub- ilance, in order to procure grafs and herbage for cattle. The moll proper time for this biifmefs is towards the latter end of the lummer, when the plants are withered: care (hould be taken that the fire extends no farther than is in- tended, by clearing away all the grafs, and other dry vege- table matters, on the fide which is to be prefervcd from the flames, to a diilance futhcient to prevent all communication; the grafs and other lubllances which are cut down, bein^ fpread upon the part intended to be burnt, may ferve for kindling the fire after they are become dry, and in a Hate fit for combuftion. For this operation a fair calm day fliould likewife be cho- fen ; when, by kindling the fire on the fide the wind blows- from, the danger of its fpreading too cxtenfively is more- fully guarded againll. If, however, notwithllanding thefc- precautiors it Ihould fpread to places intended to be pre- ferved, and where there is no water, the moll effeftual way of Hopping the progrefs of it is to dig a trench ; as, by throwing up the earth on the fide where the fire is, the grafs is covered and the flames thereby hindered from extending- farther. Burning of Lime, the procefs of converting hard or- llrong calcareous iubllauces into lime by means of fire. See Burning of Straw, a wafteful difiipating praftice em- ployed in fome dillrifts tor the purpofe of converting it inttx alhes for manuring land. It is obferved by Mr. Young, in. the Report of Lincolnfliire, that " the moll fingular praftice he ever met with 111 manuring fubfills on the Wolds ; it is that of fpreading dry Hraw on the land and burning it. At lord Yarborough's, he fays, he tirll heard of this cullom. His lordlhip's tenant, Mr. Richardfon, a very good and in- telligcnt farmer, gave him the account, having long prattifed it with fuccefs. The quantity is about five tons an acre. At Great Lumber hefraiv-iurnt a piece in the middle of a field preparing for turnips, and on each fide of it manured with ten loads an acre of yard-dung, and the burned part was vifibly fuperior in the crop. In another piece the fame comparative trial was made, in 1796, for turnips ; and now, in 1797, the barley is equally fuperioK On another farm he bad at Wold-Newton he did it for turnips, then barley, and laid. BUR laid w=th fainfoin ; and the burnt ftraw was better in all thofe crops than yard-duii'^. Burning gorfe in this manner return! threat crops; but the expencc is too high. He is clearly ot" opinion, that it is the warnnth from the fire that lias the eTea, and not the aflies ; for the quantity is nothing, and would blow away at one blaft. It is proper to obfr-rve, fays he, that they do not value llraw ufed in feeding cattle at mire than 4s. or j8. a ton. Mr. Mnllis of Lumber is of the fam-- opinion, and thinks four tons are enough ; and never kne«r that fill for turnips. Th s llraw burning hulbandry the reporter found again at BcleHay. Mr. LloyJ, who, he fhonid ohfervc, is an excellent fuMicr, thinks that it takes fix tons per acre, which will lall longer in its effeft, and be-.t the dung which that llraw would -nake, and in general lall lor., 'er than common du-gi".g. Keeping much cattle, he cannot pradife it, but highly approves it. In difcourfe at Horn-calile ordinary on burning llraw, the practice, he fays, was much reprobated ; yet an inllancc was produced that fecm^d to make in favour of it. Mr. Elmhurll, of Hazlcthorp, burnt twelve acres of cole-feed draw on eight acres of the twelve, and the effed was very great, and feen even for twenty years. He fowed wheat on it, four bufhels an acre, and had five quarters : the four acres upon which flothing was burnt, much llie better land, yet the crops on the burnt part were by that mode equal to the reft. But in another fimilar experiment for turnips, Mr. Rancliff ob- lerved, the refult and the efFcft lafted only for_ one crop. Mr. Kirkhara, who was in company, gave it as his opinion, that, as cattle would not eat Hubble, it might be bcuclicial to colled and ftack that, and, before turnip fowing, burn it. The reverend Mr. Allington of Swinap has burnt on the land for turnips, the long-ftraw dung from the furface of the farm yard, and has had better turnips there than where the dung was laid. This has been the cafe in two experiments he has made." On llifFadhefive foils it is pro- bable fomc advantage may be produced by the aftion of the fire in this mode, but in other cafes it mull be a waftcfnl practice. The nature of the land on which thefe trials were made is not, however, mentioned. " About TathwcU," the reporter adds, " there is nO burning llraw upon land ; Mr. Clough, Mr. Hyde, and Mr. Pearfon, fcouted the idea of fuch a thing being common. It has, however, been tried there, for Mr. Oldham of Elk- ington did it, after ploughing for turnips, with long llraw from the yard, and he fu^-cfeded well for the moft part." Burning of Land. See Paring and Burning. Burning of nuta's, ufth tnetalloruin, is either performed by fire, or by corroGve falts ; which latter is alfo denominated C/EMFNTATION. The iirll preparation of moft ores is by uftion, or burning, ■whereby to difpofe them for fufion. This is ufually per- formed by txpofing them, without addition, to a naked fire; fometimcs fixed alkalis and abforbents are added, to hinder the avolation of the metalline particles. Some hold burning in the Hone or glebe moft advantageous ; others burning in the meal. Phil. Tranf. N^ 109. The bafer metals, tin and lead, may be b'lrnt like plants to allies. For gold and filver, the cafe is otherwife. Burning mountains. See Volcano, Earthc^uake, Mountain, &c. See alfo ^Etna, Hecla, Vesuvius, 8cc. The ancients dcfcribe a meteor under the denomination of turning buckler, clypeus aniens. Plin. H ft. Nat. lib. ii. cap. 34. Mem. Acad. Infer, torn. vi. p. 95. Travellers into Italy defcribe a burning t'pot of ground at Firenzuola, in the Apennines, out of which a crackling £ame continually arifes, yet without any cleft for it to iffue BUR out at. MafFei fuppofes the fttams which the place yields, to be a kind of native phofphorus aniens, which take fire on their coming ir. contact with tlie a r. Burning, ammg Painters. — Seveml of the painters' co- lours require burning, to fit them for ufe, as lamp-black, um- ber, ivory, &c. The burning, or rather drying, of lamp-black, is perform- ed by fettiiig a over the tire in an iron ladle, or crucible, till 110 fmoke arifes from it. To burn umber, they put it in large lumps into a n.iked fire, where it is left till thoroughly red-hot. Ivr.ry mull be burnt, to make a black, in two crucibles, luted, covered with coals. Burning, in Enamel Pahillng. See Enamelling. Burning is alfo an operation in Pharmacy. Simples arc frequently burnt in earthen-veflels, either to reduce them to afties, as in the preparation of vegetable falts, or in order to dry them, that they may be more commodioufly pulverized, as is pratlifed in reijard of hartlhorn, &c. 'Bv RS IS O p/.'ofpborus. See Phosphorus. BvKnisG plant. See Euphorbia. livfLSiKofpring, in Natural Hijlory. See Spring. Burning ■z.one, m Geography. See Torrid zone. BURNISHED gold oyjilver, denotes thofe m«tals laid on any work or leaves, and afterwards pafTed over v/ith a burnilher to heighten their luftre. BURNISHER. See Burnishing. BURNISHING, the operation of giving an uniform and brilliant furface to a variety of fubftances by Iriclion, with a polifhed hard inftrument ufually called a burnifher. The modes of pohture in ufe amongll artifans may, per- haps, be all reduced to four: — the aiperities of a rough furface may be removed by cutting off the protuberances, aa \n planing; by abrading them, as \a filing and polijliing ; by obtundinif them with the hammer, as in planifoing ; and by accomplilbing the fame purpofe in the manner now under our confi deration. It w ill be readily perceived, that the two latter operations can only be performed on fuch fubftances as poflefs a certain degree of malleability or duftility ; thofe whxh are brittle, as glafs or hardened Heel, will neceftarily be incapable of be- ing burnifhed. To fpeak of all the defcrlptions of artifans who ufe this procefs would be to enumerate alinoft the whole of thofe who work on metals. The inllruments with which it is per- formed are alfo as various as the furfaces to be fubjefted to their action : we fliall therefore only fpeak of fuch as are ufed for plane furfaces. The burnilher in this cafe is gene- rally a piece of very hard fteel three or four inches long, and about one eighth of an inch thick, with a fomewhat convex edge, not much unhke that of the fteel which is commonly ufed for ftrikiiig fire, all the angles of it being fmoothly rounded off, fo that the longitudinal feClion of the part to be applied to the fubjeft is a femi-elhpfe of great eccentricity, the edge of which is nearly femi-cylindrical. It is applied in different ways according to the nature and extent of its ufe in the workftiop. The manufafturers of ornaments for ftoves, who ufe a great number of burnifhed plates of foft fteel, frequently infert it into the lower extremity of a wooden pole, which is fufpended over the work-bench, from one end of a ftrong wooden Ipring fixed horizontallj' in a frame attached to the ceiling, and prcfling downwards ; fo that the workman has only to pafs it backwards and for- wards horizontally at right angles to its own plane, over the furface of the plate, its preffure being produced, or, at leaft, affifted by the adlion of the fpring. Some workers in metal apply the burniftier by attaching it to the underfide of a lever, which has a handle at one end, and is hooked at the other BUR other uito a fixed ftaple ; others fix it obliquely into one end of a llaff, the other tnd of which is curved like a fcythe, and paOes over the right fliouldcrof the workman, who is by this means enabled to exert a confiderable degree of pvefTure; and others again merely infcit it into a handle, or a fliort bar wilii a handle al each end, and apply it in the fame man- ner as a common rafp or file, or in fonie inftances as if fiiad- iug with a black lead-pencil. In whichever of thefe modes the burnilher is apphed, the dircAion of its motion fliould be always retlilinear, parallel to itfelf, and at right angles with the edge of the inilrumcnt. There is alfo another method of applying the burnidier, which is by keepinc^ the inftrument itfelf at reft, whilft the I furface, fubj^fled to its aftion, is turned in a lathe. The I procefs is thus conduced by the bra/.ier, ironmonger's founder, pcwterer, and indeed all the artifans who employ that engine. There are two precautions neceflary to be obferved in this operation ; the one is to keep the feniicylindrical edge of the inilrumcnt as highly polilhed as poffible by frequently touching it on a piece of buff leather, rubbed with finely prepared crocus nmrtis, and the other to keep the furface to be burnilhed conftautly lubricated during the friftion, with •fome liquid of a fmooth confillence, fuch as milk, oil, or a folution of foap, the latter of which feems to be the fitteft, and moft generally approved of for this purpofe. If tins be neglefted the furface is apt to ripple up before the inftru- ment, and the ridges thus produced being laminated, by the continuance of the fiiclion, into very thin flakes or fcales, the work becomes defaced by dark coloured fpots and ftreaks, which are frequently iridefcent like thofc on the wings of a butterfly, and the procefs confequently fails. Bookbinders burnifli the edges of their books by rubbing them with a dog's tooth. Gold and filver are burnifhed with a wolf's tooth, a dog's tooth, or the blood ftone, or by trlpoli, a piece of white wood, emery, and the like. Deer are faid to hurn'tjh their heads, when rubbing off a white downy flcin from their horns againft a tree, they thruft them, as is faid, into a reddifti earth, to give them a new colour and hiftrc. BURNLEY, in Geography, a market town of Lanca- fhire, in England, is feated on a peninfnia of land between the rivers Calder and Brown, which unite their ftreams a little north of the town. Its advantageous fituTition on thefe ftrcanis has oceafioned fevcral mannfaftories to be eftabhflied here. Amongft thefe are fome cotton machines, fulling mills, corn mills, and a mill for grindmg dyers' wood. The church of tliis place, a large handfome ftrutlure, is imder Whalley, and though only a curacy is confidercd a very valuable living. Som.e lead mines have been difco- vered in the vicinity of the town, and various Roman coins liave been found. Burnley is a great thoroughfare. The coun- try around it abounds with pit-coal, and great quantities of free-ftone, flag-ftone and flate, are obtained from quarries in this neighbourhood. Here are a grammar fchool, and two diffcnting mecting-houfes ; a market on Mondays, and five annual fairs. In the vicinity of the town is a very fine feat, lately belonging to Charles Townley, efq. who had amafftd the fined and moft valuable colleftion of ancient fculptnre in this country. Burnley is 2 u miles N. of London ; and it contains 687 houfes, and ,5305 inhabitants. Whitaker's Hillory of Whalley, See. 410. BURNOOSE, an article of drefs among the Arab Bedowcens and Kabylts, in Barbary ; correfpunding to our cloak, and worn by them over their hjles. This forms a confiderable branch of tlieir woollen mannfaiRory. It is wove in one piece, and refemblcs in its (hape the garment of Vol. V. BUR the little god TeLTphorus, being flraight about tlie neck, with a cape, or Hippocrates' llceve (for a cover to the head), and wide below like a cloak. Some of them are likcw'le fringed round the bottom, like Parthenafpa's and Trajan's garment upon the baffo relievos of Conttantine's arch. Tlie burnoofe, witliout the cape, feems to anfwcr to the Roman pallium ; and with it to liie bardocucullus, re r* ferred to by Martial, 1. xiv. 178. " Gallia Santonico veftit te larJociieulIo." BURNS, Robert, in Biography, was the fon of a far- mer near the town of Ayr, the capital of Ayrfliirc, in Scotland, where he was born on the 29th of January, 1759. The family had all of them been' farmers in the north of Scotland, but the misfortunes of the poet's father had oc- eafioned him to accept the fituation of gardener to a gentle- man of fmall fortune in the neighbourhood of Ayr, in which employment he continued for the firft fix or fcveii years of the poet's life. The father was a man of obfcr- vation and experience, as well as of ftrift integrity, and wiflied to keep his children more under his own eye, thaa was confiftent with the fervice in which he was engaged. For this purpofe, he ventured on a fmall farm on his maf- ter's eftate, and joined with fome others of his neighbours to provide a fchoolmafter for their children. Robert Burns was principally diftinguiflied at thefe early years, by a re- tentive memory, a ftubbornnefs of difpofition, frequently attendant on genius, and an enthufiaftic piety. At the age of ten or eleven, he was not only well grounded in Englifli grammar, but fomewhat more than ufual of a cri- tical fcholar. He was principally indebted to a credulous and ignorant old woman in the family, for furniflning hira with thofe legendary and fupernatural tales, which feed a poetical imagination with its richell repaft. The firft re- gular compoiitions in which he took pleafure were. The Vifion of Mirza, and a hymn of Addifon, which came within the compafs of his fchool ftudies. The Life of Hannibal, and the Hiftory of Sir William Wallace were the firft books he read as a volunteer, and they gave him more pleafure than any he read afterwards. Nor was polemical divinity without its attratlions, but he foon raifed the cry of herefy againft himfelf, and it pnrfued him through life. He gained at this time a flight knowledge of French, and received afterwards fome leffons in practical mathematics ; but his ftudies were rendered irregular by tlie neceflity of hard labour, owing to the advanced age of his father, and the ill fnccefs of his farm. Robert was the eldeft of feven children, and a very dexterous ploughman. But his father's mafter died, and they fell into the hands of a faftor, againft; whofe infolence and rapacity they had to contend, till the fixtcenth year of the poet, who now began firft to excrcifc his functions as fuch, in confcquence of his firft amorous attachment to his har'vcfl partner of fourteen. Soon aft"-- wards his father removed to a larger farm, on which the family fubfifted comfortably for four years ; wlicn tiiey be- came embarrafted by litigation with their landlord, and William Burns was only faved from a prifon by tl'.e inter- vention of a mortal difeafe. During thefe four years, liis readingwasconfined to Salmon's and Guthrie's Geographical Grammars, the Speftator, Pope's Works, fome of Shal^- fpeare's Flays, Tull and Dickfon ou Agricnlturo, the Pan- theon, Locke's Eflay on the Human U.^derttanding, Stack- hoiife's Hiftory of the Bible, Juftice's Britifli Gardener's Direftory, Boyle's Leftnrcs, Allan ]^dmfay's Works, Taylor's Scripture Doftrine of Original Sin, A feltft Col- ledt?on of Engliftr Songs, which he carried with him when he drove his csrt, and Hervey's Meditations. He was very awkward iii his pcrfon and manner, a diladvantage which 4 D lie B U It he fouglit to remedy by attending a country dancing-mafter, in oppolitioii to his father's diredl negative. This produced 30 unfortunate difagrecment between them, to which he at- tributed in a great meafure the fubfequent diffipation of his habits. Thus did his life pafs till his twenty-third year ; bodily labour was his employment, and a fucceflion of love adven- tures his amufemtnt. Tlie bias of his mind was ilrength- cned by the addition of Trillram Shandy and The Man of Feeling to his library. He now engaged with a flax-drefler in a neighbouring town ; but the Ihop took fire, while the partners were caroufing, and the poet was left without a iixpence. After his father's death, he joined his fccond brother in a farm, but without fuccefs. During this period, he formed a conneftion with a young woman, the confe- quences of which induced him to give her an acknowledg- ment of private marriage. Her parents, however, finding his fituation fo defperate, prevailed with her to relinquilh it. He was driven to the verge of niin, and threatened with a goal, when he engaged to go to Jamaica. But as his com- pofitions had become popular in the neighbourhood, he re- folvcd to publilh his poems before he quilted his native coun- try. The firft edition, in 1786, produced him nearly twenty puundi for the expences of his voyage ; he had taken the lail farewcl of his friends, when a letter from Dr. Blacklock, advilinj a fecond edition, canied liim to Edinburgh, and opened at once new prolptfts to his poetical ambition, and new temptations to thofe fenfual propenfities, which depraved his genius, and fhed a pernicious influence over his future life. His genius and talents introduced him into the circles both of rank and literature ; and his powers of converfation are faid to have incrtaTed theapplaiife btftovved on his writ- ings. ProRITor Dugald Stewart ohlerves, in a letter to Dr. Currie, " tliat all the faculties of his mind were equally vigor- ous ; and his predileftion for postry was rather the relult of his own enthufiailic and impalTioned temper, than of a genius exclufivtly adiipted to that fpecies of compol'ition. TroRi iiis converfation I lliould have pronounced him I'ltted to excel m whatever w;ilk of ambition he had chofen." He had gained five hundred pounds by the fale of his poems, with pan of wliich he entered on the farm of Eliif- land, on the banks of the river Nith, fix miles above Dum- fries, in the year i;S8. He had previoufly been placed on the lift of candidates for the office of exeifeman ; and un- fortunately for his health and his morals, he afterwards ob- tained the appointment. Before he hired the farm, he had become the hnfband of the young woman mentioned above, who had been turned out of doors by her father. He was now become a parent in his turn ; in the fuccefs of his un- dtrtak'ng the happincfs of his f imily was involved, and he determined, after pondiring ferioufly on the pall, to aban- don the lociety and dilnpalion of which he had been en- amoured. It is greatly to be regretted that he found it fo. much eafjer to form than to execute his projtft of reformation. At the end of the year 1791, he found it neceffary to rel'i^n his farm into his landlord's hands, and remove to a fmail houfe at Dumfies. Here he was betrayed into an appro- bation of the French revolution, more ardent than was con- fillent with the opinions of )iis fiiperiors. He was therefore fubJeAedto the animadverfion of the board, but retained his lituation by promiling more guarded belraviour, on the in- tervention of a friend. " Among the inhabitants of Dum- fnes," fays Dr. Currie, " there were never wanting peifons to fhare his focial pleafures ; to lead or accompany him to the tavern ; to partake in the wildell falhcs of his wit, to witnefs the ftrength and degradation of his genius." Thus BUR bcfet where he was mod vulnerable, it is a fiibjeft of greater forrow than furprife, that he (hould have fallen into thofe irregularities, which terminated his fliort career in July 1 796, in the thirty-eighth year of his age. Yet, lowered as was his charafter, and peniicious as were his habits to his corporeal frame, he retained his vigour of mind and imagi- nation to the lail, and never, in his greateft diltrefics, lolk fight of honour in his pecuniary tranfaftions, or bartered his independence to fupply his ueceffities. With refpeft to his focial charafter, it is exaflly fixed by ■ the lively remark of a Scotch lady, that no man's converfa- tion ever carried her fo completely off her feet as that of Burns. The charafter of his poetical compofitions is ftrongly marked with the imprefilon of his birth and ftation. He toolo no pains either to elevate his imagery, or polifh his dialeft. He adopted the fimplicity of nature for his guide, and re- ■ frefhed himfelf at the llream of native fenfibility, in his weary - pilgrimage through an obfcure and unhappy life. He is always interefting, but never fplendid. His fcenery is drawn on the fpot, and his ch iraflers and incidents bear the ilanip of biographical and hiftorical truth, ratlier than of poetical fiftion. His humour is nch, his pathos is natural, and he fometimes rifes to the i'ublime : but his fuperiority is moil decifively eftablilhed in the defcriptive. His poetical charaftec cannot be better concluded than in the wordsof Dr. Currie. " To d.termiae the comparative merit of Burns would be no eafy talk. Many perfons, afterwards diilinguillicd iu literature, have been born in as humble a fitnation of life; , but it would be difficult to find any other who, wliile- earniug his fubfillence by daily labour, has written verfes which have atlrafted and retained univerfal attention, and which are likely to give tlie author a permanent and diflin- guifhcd place among the followers of the mufes. If he is- deficient in grace, he is dillinguifhed for eafe, as well as en. ergy ; and thefe are indications of the higher order of genius. The father of epic poetry exhib'ts one of his heroes as ex- celling' in lli-ength, another in fwiftiiels ; to form his perfcfl. warrior, thefe attributes are combined. Every fpecies of intelleftual Itiperiority admits perhaps of a fimilar arrange- ment. One writer excels in force, another in eale ; he is fuperior to both, in whom both thefe q^^ialities are united. The force of Burns lay in the powers of his underllanding^ and in the fenfibility of his heart ; and thefe will be found to in&jfe the living principle into all the works of genius which feem dellined to immortality. His fenfibility had an uncommon range. He was alive to every Ip-.cits of emotion. He is one of the few poets that can be mentioned, who have at once excelled in humour, in tendernefs, and in fublimity ; a praiie unknown to the ancients, and which in modern times is only due to Ariuilo, to Shakfpeare, and perhaps to Voltaire. To compare the writings of the Sc.ttifh peafani: with the works of thefe giants in literature, might a -pear prefumptuous ; yet it may be afferted, that he has difpiayed the foot of Hercules. How near he might have approached them by proper culture, vvitfi lengthened years, and under happier aufpices, i- is not for us" to calculate. But while we ru:i over the melancholy ilory of his life, it is impoffible not to heave a figh at the afperity of his fortune ; and as we furvey the records of his mi.id, it is eafy to fee, that out of fuch materials have been reared the faireil and moll honour- able monuments of genius." In his corrcfpondencc there are much good fenfe, and an admirable turn of exp.effion. The late Dr. Robertfoii thought Burns's piofe equal to his poetical compofitions ; and the public in general are nearly of the fame opinion. Hls critical powers were giore matured, and his talle more correct BUR BUR correft tlian can at all be accounttd foi' by liis opportunities ; and the circumllancc mull be al'ciibed to the happy tempera- ment of a mind, which could by fympatliy afTimilate itltlf to that Itate of rclinemcnt and cultivation, ufually tlie rcfult of icholaftic iiillruAion, or the elegant purluits of polite life. On the whole, the charaiSler of Burns is equally interelling, as a noble fpecinicn of untutored natiu'e, forcing itftlf to a level with the iiiglier and more favoured clalTes of its fpecies ; and inllrntlive as a warning, that the advantages of the conflict, however fuccefsful, ?.re irretrievably loll, unlefs difcretion is called in to fccure and perpetuate the trophies won by ge- nius. Perfons of keen Itnfibility arc cxpofed to peculiar dangers ; and poets are perhaps of all others the defcription of men, \t'ho coiitribute moll to the refmed pleafurcs of fociety, and are leall fuccefsftd in appropriating to themfelves their own individual (hare ot perfonal happincfs or public elleem. Their occupations are calculated to increafe the pectdiarities, rather tlian to llreiigthen the governing powers of their minds ; their feniibility is indulged at the expence of their peace, and the pride of genius is foothed by a contempt ■otthe ordinary rules, which reilrain the paffions of common men. To cauies like cheie mull we attribute, and on fuch grounds of palliation mull we excufe, the morbid melan- choly, the fceptical propenfitits, and the intemperate habits of Burns. When thefe are forgotten, or only remembered through the favourable medium of candid biography, his poems, with all the difadvantages of an obfcure dialetl, will be recited by his rullic couritrymen, as long as the fim- plicity of their feelings remains unfophillicated, and read ■with admiration by the critic, as long as the laws of poetry and criticifm are fuffered to accord with the diftates -X)f nature. BURNT, in fpeaking of medicines, imports as much as imperfeftly calcined. See Calcination. Burnt bodies are generally dry and aftringent. The other medicinal qualities belonging to bodies are frequently ■dtftroyed, at leall impaired, by the burning. BuRNT-CV<7v, in Airricuhure, fuch clay as has undergone a procefs of calcination by means of fire. In this procefs, it is fuppoftxl by Dr. Darwin that oxygen is combined in large proportions either with tlie clay itfclf or the metallic pnrticies which it may contain, and on this account probably becomes nfctul as a manure. This bufinefs may be accom- plilhed by means of clamps or kilns, or fimply by piling up heaps of clay loofely together, with a littly dry brudi-wood, or other fimilar combuflible materials in the middle of them to which the fire may be applied. In this way much ma- nure may be eafily procured, where the materials abound. Calcined clay, as a manure, is probably moll proper for clofe compadt foils, as it opens and renders them more porous, and thereby difpofes fuch lands to part with their vegetable nourilliinent more readily. It IS alio fuppofcd, by the author we have jufl mentioned, that calcined clay, as itexills in foft bricks, has a power of d'.'compofing marine fait, as he once obferved in a cellar, whtre beef had been long falttd on one fide of a nine-inch ".vail, the wooden falting-tub for' which was attached to it ; a great cfflorelcence having appeared on the other fide of the wall, which he believed to be foflile alkah, or natron. If ^this idea bejull, fays he, the foft bricks from old buildings, or clays fo far purpofcly burnt, may in this manner be ftrviceable to vegetation, by feparating the fofiile alkali from the fca-falt, wallied from decompofing animal and •vegetable fubftances, which, by converting carbon into an hcpar carbonis, as lime is fnppofed to do, might render it Soluble in water, and capab.'e of being abforbed by the lymphatic vcffels of the rot>ts of plants. And, continues he, if clay, calcined to a certain degree, and thus united witW oxygen, poirelftd the power of decompofing niarme fait, there is rcafon to believe, when it is more (lowly united with oxygen by its expofure to the atmofphere by the fpadc or plough, that it may polTcfs the fame property, and that this may have given rife to the very contiadirtory reporli concerning the ufe of fea-falt in agriculture, as it may pro- bably be of great advantage to clayey foils, but perhaps not fo to other foils. Sec Ci-ay. BuRNT-^/-«/n, a vegetable difeafe frequently met with in the ears of grain, but which is probably not yet well under- (lood ; the charafterillic marks of which, according to luine, are, that the jilants which produce burnt cars are llrong and vigorous; that the infefted ears are not at firll dilliuguini- able from thofe that are healthy ; but, when they arc pad their bloom, they appear of a deep green colour, ap. proaching to blue ; they afterwards become whitilh, and arc then eafily known. " As this change of colour is eflTtdled by the iun, when a number of white cars have been fuddcnly perceived in looking over a wheat field, the fun's heat has been often thought to caufe tliis diilemper, or a fog pre- ceding that heat. And though all the ears produced from one grain are commonly infeded, yet found ears are met with on plants that have produced others which were infefted. Some ears l-.ave even been obferved, part of which only were vitiated ; and, finally, fome grains enclofing partly a white flour, the remainder black dull." It ha.s been farther remarked, that, in burnt ears, the chair, or outward coat, is commonly found, with this fingle difference, that, when the ears are nearly ripe, it appears more withered and dry than in the healthy ears. The hulk, which immediately enclofed the grain is not dellroyed, but has confillcnce enough for the grain to preferve nearly its natural form, with a whitifli look ; and the burnt grain* are fhorter, rounder, and hghter, than fuch as are unin- fefted ; they are fometimes larger and fometimes fmaller. The furrow which runs the length of a grain of wheat is fometimes totally effaced, at others vifible : the piftils at the extremity of the grains arc dried up, but the bud of a burnt grain is not vifible. Till the blooming feafon, there is very little difference between the difeafed grains and thofe which are healthy ; they are only a little more fwelled: but, in the blooming feafon, the infeiSed ears affume a bluifh colour ; the chaff is more or lefs fpeckled with fmall white fpots : the grains are of a deeper green, and larger than in the natural (late, and, as long as they preferve that colour, they adhere (Irongly to the chaff. The diflemper, it is faid, has often attacked very young ears, while yet enclofed in the flieath. The (lamina on the fides of the grain are then dried up and fickly ; the embryo in part takes the deep green colour above-mentioned ; the infefted ears have not the confidence of thofe that are healthy. In the fame proportion as the diilemper advances, the chaff becomes dry and whitifh. The grains have fome degree of firmncfs. On opening them, which may eafily be done with the nail, there appears an iinftuous, dark-brown, (linking fubllance. The dull of burnt grain has alfo fome cohcfion or tenacity. By others it is, however, fnppofed to originate from infedls ; in which view we have the following remedies propofed on the authoiity of experiment in the feventh volume of the Bath papers. The trials were made in the middle of a twenty-acre clofe, the refidue of which was fown with the fame kind of wheat, and treated in the fame mode as Nos. I. and II. and wns equally ^s clean, and the crops have been fo ever fince. "^I'he writer's mode of medicating his wheat was as in No. II. ♦' No, I. Sowed five drills with Mr. Cooky's machine, 4D .i witk BUR with wheat treated agreeable to Mr. Middlcton's re- cfipt. , • I ij •* No. H. Sowed five drills with wlicat wetted with old uiiiie, three quarts to a biilhel, and turned about with a (hove! till all the urine was imbibed, then plenty of quick- liint lifted over it, and turned over and over with a (hovel, and left in a htap till the next mornind. " No. III. Sowed five drills \vith wheat fteeped two hoOrs in a llrons^ lye, made of wood-alhcs and lime, and laid on the barn floor to dry. " Ko. IV. Sowed with five drills of the fame kind of wheat." Tiic refuk was as follows : «' Nos. I. and II. Scarce a burnt ear to be found in them. " No. III. About a twentieth part burnt. " No. IV. Near a fourth burnt. " No. V. Picked ten pood corns out of an ear, the re- mainder were burnt ; planted them in the garden ; fix only vefctated, which produced fcventy-two ears, one root of which only was biirnt ; confcquently the opinion that the good corns in a burnt ear produce burnts again is fallacious, otherwile the whole mull have been burnt." The above experiments feem to prove, fays the writer, that " wetting wheat with old urine, and drying it with lime, is a preventative ;" and he conceives that an infeft, by depofitmg its egg, eggs, or feed, on the corn, when growing, is the caufe of lurnls. Suppofing this to be the cafe, " the wetting the corn v.iih brine, urine, or ftrong lye, would of courfe deilroy fume uf the eggs or feed, or even an animalcule, and the lime, by its corrofive quality, annihilate the remainder ;" but " fhoiild any of the eggs, &c. remain on the corn animable, there may be here and there a burnt in the crop." But, " if on the other hand the infeft Ihuuld depofit its egg, eggs, or feed, in the earth, it is poflible the brine, urine, and lime, wherewith the corn is as it were coated when fowed, may be unpleafing to the delicate tafte of the little animal, and prevent its wounding the tubes of the plant." Farther and more accurate expe- riments are, however, ftill wanting to fully elucidate and afcertain the nature and bell modes of preventing this vege- table malady. See Smut. Burnt ijlund, in Geography, anifland in Chriftmas Sound, at the fouthem extremity of South America. — Alfo, an idand near the fouthcrn coaft of Newfoundland ; 15 miles E.S.E. from Cape Ray. N. lat. 47° 30'. W. long. 58° 50'. Burnt [[lands, a duller of iflands in the Indian ocean, fituate on the coaft of Malabar, W.N.W. from Goa. N. lat. 13" 50'. E. long. 73° 30'. Burnt //anrf. A planet is faid to be burnt, comluflus, when it is in conjuftion, or nearly fo, with the fun. Thus Saturn is faid to be burnt when not above five degrees dillant from the fun ; Jupiter when fix, &c. Planets in this fituation are fuppofed by aftrologers to be much weakened or enf-'ebled in their influences. Burnt way, combvjla via, among jljlrologers, that part of the zodiac from the beginning of Libra to the middle of Scorpio ; or, according to others, from the middle of Libra to the end of Scorpio, comprehending 45 degrees ; a fpace fuppofed very unfortunate, and in which the planets are much enfeebled in their virtues, efpecialiy the moon. Vital. Lex. Math. p. 118. Burnt wine. See Wine. Burnt-coat ijland, in Geography. See Penobscot lay. BURNTISLAND, or Brunt-island, is a parilh, and royal burgb, and fea-port town in Fifefhire,, Scot- BUR land. Mr. Pennant defcribes it as "the bed harbour ot the coaft, formed by a rocky ific, eked out with piers." Thii harbour, though capacious, and of great depth, at high tides, is dry at low water. The town is fituated on the banks of the Frith of Forth, upon a peninfula which is fcreened Or> the north, by an amphi'.heatrical range of liilis. It is nearly oppofite to Leiili, from which it is diilant fix miles, and about nine miles N.W. from Edinburgh. From the remains of fortified walls, and entrenchments, it appears that this place has been garrifoned, and was probably firil fortified by the French, when allied to the queen rege:it during- the troubles of 1560. Cromwell befieged it during iiis ufurpa- tion, and forced the inhabitants to capitulate, though not without certain conditions which ultimately poved advan* tageous to the town ; for, among othcrftipulation.s, he agreed to repair the ftreets and harbour, and build the quay. In I -I";, the town was furprifed and taken by the rebels, who boldly oppofed aU refillance, and paifed part of their troops from this place over to the oppofite (hore. Before the union, the trade of Burntiiland was very confiderable, and confilled principally in the exportation of com and malt to England, but this trade has declined for many years, and it is not till very lately that the town has felt the benefit of its revival. At prefent here are a fugar-houfe, a vitriol work, and a dillillery, befides fiiip building which is carried on to fome extent. The town is governed by 21 perfons who are denominated, and divided into 14 guild counfeilors, 3 of whom are bailiffs, and 7 trade counfeilors. The parilh and environs of BurntiflanJ are diverfified with mountain and plain. To the weft ward of the town the fhore is rocky, and on the eaft it is fandy. The rocks conftitute a good defence to the harbour, and at the fam« time furnilh fufficient fea-weed to make 12 or i ^ tons of kelp annually. Within thefe are fome productive oyfter- beds, and other (hell fiih frequent the recefTes. " The hills in the neighbourhood of the town exhibit many appearances of volcanic fire; one is extremely like an extinguidied volcano, the crater being converted into a lake on the top of the hill, fimilar to thofe obfcrved by the abbe Spallan- zani." (See his Travels in the Two Sicilies). On the north fide of this hill are feveral bafaltic columns, and near the fummit are the remains of an encampment, called Agricola''s Camp. The population of this parilh in iSoi was IC30. W. long. 3° rj. N. lat. 56° 8'. Pennant's Tour in Scot- land. Gazetteer of Scotland. BURNTWOOD. See Brentwood. BuRNTWOOD river, a river of North America, which flows from Burntwood lake through Split lake into port Nelfon river, and there difcharges itfelf into Hudfon bay. The lake is in N. lat. 55° 3'. W. long. 98^ 40'. BURONZO, a town of Italy ; in the country of Ver- celh, 12 miles N.W. of Vercelli. BUROW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, aud principahty of Anhalt Zerbft ; 2, miles W. of Cofwick. BURR, the round knob of a horn next the deer's head. Burr denotes a hollow triangular chilTcl, ufed to clear the corners of mortiffes. BuRi, in 5;/fl«jr. See Bud. Burr, in Geography, a fmall rocky ifland, with fome fmaller rocks often covered by the water in its neighbour- hood on the eaftern coaft of the county of Down, Ireland, a little to the north of which is tolerable anchorao-e. It is nine Irifli miles fouth of Donaghadee, and as many north of the entrance into Strangfard lough. N. lat, 54- ;S' W long. 5" 19'. . * Burr, I B TT K BoRR in HcrMry, means a broad rinp of iron bejiind M,e nlac mad for^hc hand on the tillu,g fp.ar, «dHch Crt bro. gi>t to the reft when the tilter charges h,s fpear to fecure it. i t> „ Y,VKK-pump. See BiLDGE and Pump. BuKR-n-.rf, in Botany. See Sparc an .UM. ^lA^fcnS^.S'^^rge and fertile n,ounta,n of ^ t^Uron^oTthe-Shetland ifland. of Scotland, f.taated on the weftern coaft of the mam land. N. lat. 54 ^^ • ^■ ^° BURRAMPOOTER, or as it is called by the people of Afam, Burra^poot, a large river of Aha -^J^^'--^'^^ tributary itream of the Ganges, derives its name J,om a sSit'word, Brahma.pooter, .hieh fign.hes th^ b- of Brahma," and became known to us, as a capital uver, in cSquence of the furvey made of it by major Renntll, n I °6 ' He found it to be rather larger than the Ganges^ and h t its courfe previous to its entering Bengal wa, f.om the ealt, although all former accounts rcprefented it as proce 'dig from the north. This noble nver has its fourc. Tthe oppofite fide of the fame mountains that give nfe to the Ganges, and firll takes its courfe eaftward, or direaly oppolte'to that of the Ganges, though the coun; try of Tlnbet, where it s named " banpoo o Zj^l"' S"d furre'nt tfigh Thibet it wa(hes the border of the territory of LalTa, and then deviating from an eaft to a foutS courfe, it approaches within 220 miles of ^unan he wefternmofl povince of China. Hence it turns fuddenly to the weft through Afam, where it probably change its name'being there called Burrampoot, and -'--•« Bengalon ^he north-eaft. After its entry into Bengal, it makes a ch^uit round the weftern point of the Garrow mountains; and then, altering its courfe to fouth, it meets the Gange aboi 40 miles from the fea. After the "ve-- Megna has Men into the Burrampooter, it commumca es is name, thouKl a much fmaller river to the other, dunng the reft of ts courfe A fmgular circumftance, lately difcovered, attend th courfes o'f the Ganges and Burrampooter w.t^^ refoea to each other. IfTuing from oppofite fides of the fame Hdge of mountains, they dired their -fp^^'ve courfes towards oppofite quarters, till they are more than 1200 miksafunde^r" and afterwards meet in one point near the fea, afir each haVperformed a winding courfe of more t^ ^000 mnes The Burrampooter, during a courfe of 400 m ftream which is regularly from 4 to 5 ™.les w.Ue ; and whTch, The frefttnefs'of its water excepted, might pafs fovan Trm of the fea. In attempting to convey an adequate idea of h^grandem-of this magnLentobjea, major R^^^^^^^^^^ the poetical language of Thomfon, m his Seaions . '^ <( . Scarce the mule Dares ftretch her wing o'er this enormous mafs Of rufliing water ; to whofe dread expanle. Continuous depth, and wond'rous length of courfe, T'irm'altin^tmg'for the fingular breadth of the Mina." 'led to luppofe, "that d.e Ganges once joined 1 S the Ifiamuty'i.ow does near F™gy ^^aza^ nd tha their ioint waters fcooped out its prefe it bed. i tie preient • A/?n of thefe two mighty rivers below Luckipour, pro- Ct a bt; of l::^.iirk w^ter.-hardly to be equalled BUR intheoldhemifphere; and, perhaps, not «",^''^'!, ''" ^^'^ new. It now forms a gulf inter pcrfed ""t""and., foa 0 of which rival, in fize and fertility, our Ifle of Wight. The water at ordinary times .s hardly brackiilwt the ex- tremitie. of thefe ..lands ; and, i.. the ran.y f« "';';'• J^ (or at leaft the furf.ce of it) is perfeaiy f..lh to t'^^^ '«»"« of many leagues from the fl.ore. F.,ran account ol the bore inthcMegna, feeBoRE. I^^nnell's Memoir BURRAS./,V, an inftrument ufed by goU.ii... hs, con- fifting of a copper box with a fpovit, having teeth hke a law , fometimes alfo ufed by furgeons for the apphcat.on of Cer- tain folid medicines by infpcrhon. BURREL:/?,., in Entomology. See Wr.ngle-tail. BUR REN, in Ceo^mphy, a barony .n the northern part oflhecouuty of Clare, Ireland. It is ve.-y mom.ta.i.ous, and Com well's forces which were fent to harrals the mhab • tants for refufing to pay '^°"t"butions comp u.ned hat ,t had neither wood, water, nor ea.th, 'V«^'^ '"" , " ""f; d,own, or bury a man. Such, however, .s the ^;- '™- « of the pafturage, interfperfed a.nong the --o^ks /hat tjife feemingly harden hills fupport a great number of cattle, and verv large flocks of fliecp. r BURRISAKANE, a port town of the cojnty ot Tipperary, Ireland,. 79 I"fl^ '^•''« ^"W- f™"^ P"*^''"' , BURRISHOOLE, a v.Uage and parjO. of the co.mty of Mayo, Ireland, fituated near the mouth of a Imall nver of the fame name, which falls into Newport or Ck'^v M, about two m.les north of the town of Newport. It «as once of fufhcient importance to give name to the ba.'ony it I in ; and even to the bay alfo. There ft.U remains ome part of a monafterv founded here by -je "f ^^^^ ^^^'^l^^ Bourke or Burgho of the branch called M'Wilham Oughte . The barony is very mountainous, and ent.iely dell.tute of wood, bfit the foil in the valhcs, which is -% --/ loam, is pretty good for tillage, m which it is alm..ft cxcla S employed^ The barony include, the large ifiand ot AchiU, and a great number of other .Hands. BURROCK, a fmall wear or dam, where wheels are laid in a river for the taking of fiih. Dnppn's BURROS-IN-OSSORY, a poft town of the Qtieen s county, Ireland, near the confines of Tipperary, 5J Iriltl mile^ S.W. of Dublin. . , ,„ r BURROSILEAGH, a poil town of the county ot Tipuerary, Ireland, 77 Infli miks S.W. from Dubhn. BURROUGH. See Borough. BuRRouGH, Edward, \v. Biography, one "f '^'^^ ,^"''^J^ preachers among the (Ti.akers, was born "f P^",^"' I ^^^j,? 'f ing to the eitabUfted church, at or near Kendal, in ^^e.t- „.frland, about the year 1634. I" ear y W«; \^ J^ j ; tinguinied by his pi^ty and virtue, as well as b/ th« "^'-■'J- nefs of his ,-elolut.on, an^ the coui'teoufnefs of h s ten.per Anxious for the purity of religious worlhip, he adopted m his twelfth year, that of the Preftyterians, becaufe he con- ceived It to be moll conformable to the fcnptures. At the age of 17, he attended the preaching of George Fox; and though at firft he confided in his own ability to lefu e th^ doarines which were taught by this zealous P'-oP^gf "J °f the tenets and praakes of the Quakers, he was profelytcd by conferences with Inm, and became an ardent part.lan. of this fec-t This feeond change of his rel.g.ous opinions incenfed his parent, to fuch a degree, that they turned h.m out of door; ; and to this hardlhip he fubm.tted without repining. A the age of 20, he accompanied his intimate f fend, Francis Howgill, to London, where he emb.-aeed every opportunity that offe.ed itklf, o addreffing affemb hes of people; and fuch were his natural eloquence and the fer- vour of his zeal, that he fucceeded ,n gaming profelytes. His fuccefs, however, excited the interference of the mag.U BUR trates, and, in tlie year irtj4, he was committed to-pnfon. liut he was foon releafcd, and vifited Ireland, where ht re- mained more than fix months ; and during his refidence in that country, he pubiilhed a book, entitled " Tiic Trnnipet of the Lord founded out of Zion, which founds forth the controverfy of the Lord of Holls ;" in which he expofes the vices of various ranks of fociety, and particularly accufes Cromwell for fuffering opprcdion to be praftiftd in his name. This work was followed in 1657 by fcvcral private letters addreffcd to the protcAor, containing admonitions againft pride, and rcmonllrances againll the perftcutions of liio brethren. Cromwell, it is faid, difclainicd in reply any difpofition to perfecute. On the accefTion of Richard Cromwell, he renewed his remonftrances to him and his council, and in terms fufliciently explicit, predicted the in- llability of the new government. In 1659 he made a vifit to Dunkirk, for the pnrpofe of difputing in the convents and monalleries, and of attempting to convert their inhabi- tants. This attempt was perilous, and ferved only to excite horror and averfion. Upon his return to England, his zeal was kindled by the news of the bloody perfecutions of the ■Qiiakers by the Preflntcrians of New England : and imme- diately after the relloration of Charles II., he obtained ac- cefs to him, and fo far fucceeded in rcprcfenting the dif- trcflcd ftate of his brethren in America, as to procure a mandamus, and the appointment of Nicholas Shattock, a 'Qiiaker, baniflied from New England on pain of death, to carry it out to the colony. Notwithilanding the laudable interference of Charles on this occafion, a periccutiou againft the Friends commenced in 1662 in his own metropolis, which he adopted no means of preventing. Burrough was at this time at Briftol ; but as foon as he received the intelli- gence, he determined to confront the ftorm in London, though in parting with his friends he had intimated an ap- preiienfion, that his own life would be the facrifice. Soon after his arrival he preached at a meeting-houfe of the fo- ciety, and was committed to Newgate ; and refufmg to pay the fine impofed upon him at the enfuing fefTions, he was remanded to prifon, where, with 130 other perfons con- fined on the fame account, he remained about eight months. At lengl^h, he fell a facrifice to the fever that carried off many of his companions, and expired on the 14th of Febru- ary [662-5, in his 28th year. During his ilhiefs, his mind retained its ufual vigour, and he derived confolation from •the conviction, that he had palTed his life in performing tlie will of his maker. Againft his enemies he retained no ani- mofity, but prayed by name for Richard Brown, the alder- man who had committed him. His chanrdler, notvvith- ftanding the enthufiafm of the new feft to which he was at- tached, appears to have been truly tftimable; and his efforts for rcftraining the fpirit of perfccution, redound much to his honour. His woijcs were numerous ; and they were colledtcd in 1672 in one volume, fmall folio- Gen. •Biog. HvRKOVGH-Juci, in Zoology, a common Englifh name for the T.IDORNA. BuRROUGHs's Mtuhine, in Mechanks, a machine for .grinding and pol-fhing glalTcs, invei;ttd by Mr. Burroughs of Southwark, for which the Society of Arts gave him a premium of 70I. This machine confiftsof a cog-wheelA, Pl.H.Opiks.fg.j,. I a feet in diameter, carrying 72 cogs; which turn a truiidle- >iead B, one foot .our inches in diameter, and furniflied with eight rounds; and alfo an horizontal fpur-wheel C, of 12 cogs, and one foot eight inches in diameter. The trundle- head Bi^rns a fpur-wheel D often cogs, and two feet eight inches in diameter. This fpur-wheel iias two cranks, a, b. BUR in its (haft ; one of which a gives motion to a wooden fram?, c, about .54 niches long and 19 broad. On the under fi Ic of tliis fnme are faftentd by fciews twelve pieces of polidi d metal, each five inches and a half long, and three broad, covered with leather ; and underneath thcfe polifhers, a glafs plate cemented in another frame is placed on the bench d, and po'.ilhed with tripoli by the motion given to the upper frame by the crank a. The nuts of the fcrews which faften the polifliers to the upper frame are not fcrewed clofe to the wood, in order to give the frame room to play ; by which contrivance the perpendicular rife of the crank is avoided, and the motion of the polifhers always parallel and equal. The under frame may be moved by the hand in any direc- tion without Hopping the machine ; by which means the plate, when larger than the poli(hing frame can cover in its motion, will be equally polifhed in every part. ■ The other crank, b, gives motion to two other polifhers marked h, 0, which have an alternate motion by the bend- ing of the crank ; they move upon the fame plate, and have an equal number of polifliers as that already defcribed. The fame crank alfo gives motion to a contrivance repre- fented at e for polifliing fpcctacle-glaffes. It confdls of two fegments of the fame ipherc ; one concave and the other con- vex. On the latter the glafles are cemented ; and poliflied by the former, which is moved by the crank b. The con- vex fegnient may be moved round by the hand withoi* flopping the machine, fo that all tlie glafles on its fuperficies will be equally polifned. The other fpur wheel C, by means of a crank in its fhaft, gives motion to another frame g, employed in grinding the glafs-plates. The rod /;, extended from the crank y to the frame g, is faftened to the latter by means of a pivot, irj order to admit of a rotatory motion, as well as that given it by the crank in a longitudinal S, 1772, 1776. Tiiis tf- fay "'as alfo printed ftparately in 4to., 177,). He alio pubUrtiod, without his name, a few anecdotes and obfcrva- tions relating to OUver Cromwell and his family, ferving to rtftify feveral errors concerning him ; piibliflud by Nicoi. Comm. Papadopoli, in his " Hilloria Gymnafii Patavini," 17,(^3, 4to. He died Nov. 5, 1782., BURROWS, holes in a warren, ferving as a covert for rabbits, &c. A coney's coming out of her burrow is called bolting. To catch coneys, tliey (omctimes lay purfs-nets ov«r the bur- rows, then put in a terrier clofe muzzled, which making the creature bolt, file is caught in th: net. BURRUN-^Hrtiff;-, in Hyiory, the denomination of a fifth or adventitious clafs of Hindoos, dillinft from, and fubordinate to the four regular caits or clafl'es into which they are ditlributed, and iuppofed to be the ofri;pring of an unlawful union between perfons of different calls. Thefe are molHy dealers in petty articles of retail trade. This ad- ventitious cad is not mentioned by European authori; ; and they ft em to confider the members of this call as belonging to the SooDER. Prelace to the code of Gentoo laws, p. 46 and yg. SeeCAsr. BURS, in Niivh^a/ion, are boats fo called in Bengal, which are nfed tor inland navigation on tl:e Gauge;, and are very lightly builfof thin deals, without cither keel or lide- timbera. The edges of the planks are falteued together with ilaples, and the fcaips are flopped up witli mofs, and payed with greafe. Their largelf breadth is about one third of their whf^le length from the Hern, where they run up with a bend : they are very fharp forwards, and are not very high above the water. Although they are of different lizes, they are all of the lame (hape and conftruftion ; and fome of them can load fifty thouland pounds weight of merchandize, and more. They a-e provided with a f;ugle mall, which has a large fquare fail ; and as they take in a great quantity of water from tlic fides and bottoms, the crew are compelled to employ fome perfons continually in baling. They are ufed for the carriage of cotton, and other bulky materials, the weight of which cannot beai any proportion to their fize. In common with all the other boats of the country, their bottoms are nearly flat ;. and indeed, it would he impraftica- ble on the Ganges to employ velfels formed tor drawing a)iy confidcrable quantity of water, as the navigation is rendered extremely dangerous from the continual (hifting of the fands. BURSA, Burfc, originally fignilies a purfe. Bursa is more particularly uled, in Middle Jige IFrlters, for a little college or hall in an univeriity, for the refidence of lludents, called lurfales, or burjarn. Bursa, Burfe, or Boui-Je, in the French univerfities, fllll denotes a foundation for the maintenance of poor fiholars in their lludies. The nomination of burfes is in the hands of the patrons and founflers thereof. The burfes of colleges are not bene- fices, but mere places affigned to certain countries and per- fons. A burfe becomes vacant by the burfer's being pro- moted to a cure, as being incompatible. Bursa, or Prusa, in Geography, a beautiful town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province ot Natolia, fituate at the northern foot of mount Olympus, and well watered by fprings. The Jews have four iynagognes, the Creeks three churches, and a metropolitan : the Armenians have likewifc a church, and an archbifhop. The Berelline is a fpacious cditice, well built and tlUed with v/arehoufei and fhops, in BUR which are orpofed to falc all kinds of merchandizes, brought hither from the Levant, belides the btautifn! carpets, (ilk fluffs, velvet, &c. niauufa»auied in the city itfelf. Tli# Bi- fhynian filk, which is the finell in Turkey, is moniy manu- fadured here, beiides confidcrable quantities brought from Perils, which, though lefs fine, is wrought by the Frufiaii workmen, who are allowed to be the bell in Turkey for weaving hangings, tapeflry, carpets, and fuch articles, which are in great requell, and carried from hence into all parts of Europe. The commerce of this place is much in- creaftd by the caravans that pafs through it from Aleppo and Smyrna to Conftantinople, and alfo to Ifpahan. This city was built by Prufias, king of Bithynia, after whom it was called Prufa or Prulia. In the year 947, it was taken and difmantled by Seifeddulat, an Arabian prince of the race of Hamadan ; but foon afterreconqueredand fortified by the Greek?, who polfclfed it from that time till the year 1 556, when Orchan, the fon of Othman II., the emperor of the Turks, reduced it and made it the feat of his empire. From the conquell of Prufa, authors have dated the true aera of the Ottoiian empire. About a league from the town are fome celebrated warm baths, on the road to which are feen the tombs of feveral fultans, and chapels of marble and jafper. By Tournefort's computation of families, the number of inhabitants has been ellimated at 6o, 000. N. lat. 40° /.■ E. long. 28° 15'. Bursa, in Zoolor;y, a fpecies of Alcvonium, called in common the fea-purle. This is fomewhat globular, pnlpous, and green. Gmtl. Pallas delciibcs it as being fubglobu- lar, hollow, very green and foft, or pnlpous, and thickly covered with tranfparent papilhc. The alcyonium bui fa inhabits the fea coafls of Europe ; it is coriaceous, and about the fize of a middling apple. 'I'he fpecies is termed by Ray, &e. burfa marina: Aurantia marina, C. Bauh. Aurantium marinuin, Marf. lull. mar. &c. Bursa mucofa, in Anatomy, is an apparatus for facilitat- ing the motion of mufcles and tendons upon thefe parts on which they are defigned to glide backwards and forwards. Tliey are alfo round between other parts which have a fi- niil^r Hiding motion on each other ; as for inllance, between tl'.e joint of the fliouldcr and the acromion. The apparatus confills of a bag, one furface of which is clofely conneded to the mufcle, and the other to the fubja- cent parts. In flrufture it refembles the burfs or capfules of joints, as iu them there is fecreted into its cavity a flippery fluid like the fynovia. When a mufcle or tendon moves freely and frequently upon a bone, the furface of the latter is rendered more fniooth by a thin crull of cartilage being formed upon it ; and this ciicumllance further increafcs the fimilitude of thefe contrivances to joints. An inflance ot this may be obferved on the upper part of the os calcis upon whicii the tendo Achillis glides. Thefe burfae will be- noticed in the dtfcription of the individual mufcles to which they belong. Dr. Monro has publiflicd a detailed account ot the builx to which the reader is referred, ViV«.sA pqftoris, xix Botany, alp'imi, rofca, lutca, Mor. See D R A B a aizoiiles , Bursa alpina, hirfuta. C. Bauh. See Draba hiita. Bursa major, loculo oblougo. C. Bauh. and J. Bauh. See Draba mura/ls. Bursa minor, loculo oblongo. C. Bauh. See Draba •venia. Bursa. Fucks. "i EvKsA major, folio fmuato, C. Bauh. ( See Thlaspp Bursa major, folio nou finuato, C. B. ( Burfa pajloris. Bursa media. C. JB, J, BURS.1 BUR Bursa minor. Dod. 1 Bursa ptinor, foliis incifiJ. C. Bauh. f See T^btris Bursa /i.ir'j'rt, folio glabro fpiffo. J. Bauh. (nuJicau/is. Bursa mir.Una, Lob. J Bursa orinitaris, Toiirn. See Bunias cormila. BURSALI, in Giogiaphy, a coimtry of Africa, in Ne- grolaiul, fitiiattd on the lide'of the river Gambia; about 12 Itagnes in length. BuRs.iiis nvifciilus, in /Inalomy, a name given by Cow- per and others to a mufcle of the lliigti, culled alfo marfupi- alit by the fame authors. It is the obturator ir.terniis of Window and Albinus, and is defcribtd by Vefalius under the name of rfaimiis lertiits movinllum, and by SpigcHus un- der l!iat of circuma;^entium tcrtius, or obliiralor intn-nus. BURS AM. revocatio per, in the Norman Laius, n a right bclongini; to the next akin, to redeem or purchafe back, within a" year after fale, a fee or tenement alienated by his kinfman, on paying the price it had been fold at. Du- Cangc. BURSAR or Burser, Iwfanus, is ufed in Middle Age Writers for a treafuier or cafh-keepcr. In this fenfe we meet with burlars of colleges. Conven- tual burfars were officers in monafteries, who were to deliver up their account yearly on the day after Michaelmas. The word is formed froin the Latin hirfa ; whence alfo the Englilh word purfe : and hence the like officer, who in a college is called burfar, in a (hip is called purser. Bursars or Uursers, in Univerjilics, alfo denote thofe who enjoy certain benefices left for defraying the expences of the education of young men of promifnig parts, and fmall fortune. Aftions brought for the efiefls of a college, are entered in the name of the principals and burfars. See Bursa. BURSARIA, Burfary, in Middle Jge Writers, denotes the place of receiving and paying money and rents by the burfars, or officers of account, in religious houfes. See Bursa and Bursar. BuRSARiA, in Botany. Cavanilles. Icon. Plant. 350. Clafs and order, pentandria mono<^yma. Gen. Ch. Cal. very fmall, deeply divided into five ftgments. Cor. Petals five, linear. Stam. five. Piji- germ, fnperior, ftyle (liort, ftigma fimple. Peric. capfule heart-thaped, cnmprefTed, one-celled, opening into two parts, each with two valves, and two horn;. Seeds two. Sp. Bur/aria Spiiiofa ; a fhrub. Leaves dXternzte, ridge- fliaped, obtufe, emarginate.on {hort petioles. Spines axillary, very long. I'loii'ers reddilh in axillary racemes. A native of New Holland. BuRSARiA, in Entomology, a {pedes of Aphis, found on the black poplar, in the hollow excrefcences which it forms in the leaves. Bur SARI A, in Zoology,^ fpeciesof sertularia, defcribcd by Ellis, as an inhabitant of the Britifh coalls. The denticles are oppofite, coniprefftd, faftigiate, branched, and dichoto- mous ; called the Shepherd's Purl'e coraUine in Englilh. BURSCHEIDT, in Geography, -i town iu Germany, in the bifhopric of Cologn, near Aixla-Chapelie, with a Cillertian abbey, the abbi-fs of which lias a feat in the diet. bUR.SE, in Mailers of Commerce, denotes a public edifice for the aflTembly and iutercourfe of merchants and traders ; and is ufed in the fame fenfe with the more modern appella- tion of ExcHANGK. In the times of the Romans, there were p;ihlic places for the meeting of mercha-.its in moil tradi.ig citic- of the empire : that built at Rome in the 259th year afttr its foundition, under the confnlate of Appius Claudius, and Publms Strvihus, was denominated the "College of Merchants," of which fome remains are ftiU ^ U R vifible, and known by the modern Romans, tinder flte tiamc " Loggia." The Hans towns, after the example of tha Romans, gave the name of Colleges to their burfes. The firft place of this kind to which the name burfe was given, Gnicciardini alfures us, was at Bruges ; and it took its denomination from a hotel adjoinhig to it, built by a lord of the family de la Bourfe, whofe arms, which arc three purfes, are ftill found on the crowning over the portal of the lioufe. Catcl's account' is fomewhat different, viz. that the merchants of Bruges bought a houfe or apartment to meet in, at which was the fign of thepurfe. From this city the name was afterwards transferred to the like places in others, as in Antwerp, Amltevdam, Bergen in Norway, and London. Burse of merchants, Bourfe dcs marchands, denotes a court or jurifdidlion eftabhlhcd in feveral trading cities of France, for the taking cognizance, at the firll inllance, of all difputes arifing between merchants, bankers, negociants, and the Hke, and from which no appeals he but to the parliament. The burfe is a kind of confular junfdiftion, the judges whereof are alfo denominated priors and confds. The burfe of merchants at Tholoufe was eftablifhed by Heni-y II. in 1549, after the manner of the judges confer- vators of the privileges of the fairs at Lyons. The chief officers are a prior and two confuls, chofen yearly, and em- powered to choofe and affuciate, to the number of fixty, feveral merchants to aifill them in the dccifion of differences. Thefe are called judges sonfeillers de la relenue. The burfe of Rouen, or as it is commonly called, the convention of Rouen, is of fome years later (landing than that of Tho- loufe, having only been erefted in 1566. The lateit of the confular burfes is that of Marfeilles, eftablifhed by Louis XIV. in 1691 ; whofe jurifdiilion extends through feveral of the neighbouring dioccfes. BURSEEAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoftau, in the Malwa country, 90 miles E. of Ougein. BURSERA, in Botany, (in honour of loachim Burfer, thedifciple of Cafpar Bauhin, whofe Herbarium, confifting of thirty volumes, is now at Upfal,) Linn. gen. 440. Schreb. 1608. Juff. 372. Vent. vol. 3. 448. Clafs and order, bexandria monogynia Linn. Polygamia Diacia Schreb. Nat. Ord. Terebintaces Juff. Gen. Ch. Ca/.fmall, caducous, one-leaved, with three or five divifions. Cor. Petals, three or five, ovate or lanceolate, a little longer than the calyx, and alternating with its divi- fions. Stamens, fix, eight, or ten : filaments ftraight, fhorter than the petals : anthers ovate or oblong. Pijh germ, fupe- rior, ovate, obtufely three or five cornered : ftyle very fliort : ftigma capitate, obtufe. Peric. capfule one-celled with three fucculent valves, /-mn. on the authority of Jacquin. Berry coriaceous, ovate, three-cornered ; containing under a flefliy pulpy fubftance generally one, but fometimes two, three, or even five ovate, compreffed nuts; convex and even on one fide, angular and uneven on the other, enclofing a kernel. The natural number is more than one, but the reft are gene- rally abortive. La Marck, Effen. Ch. Pericarp, a coriaceous drupaceous berry, eon- tainnig from one to five nuts, angular on one fide, and convex on the other. La Marck. Obf. La Marck obferves, that as the fruit contains a true ftone with a kernel within it; and as, moreover, it is inclofed 111 a pulpy fubllance, and with a flelhy flcin, it cannot be con- iidered as a capfule : but in oppofition to this opinion given in the Encyclopedia, we may rem.ark that, if his figure, (Illuft.) becorred, it opens w'ith three v.ilvcs ; a charaftcr not compatible with the definition either of a berry or a drupe. Authors differ much in their defcription of the frudification. Schreber plages it in the clafs Polygamia, but doubts whether BUR BUR ■whether it docs not properly belong to dLuia, tlie anthers in the piftiliferous plants appL-arins; to he ftcrile. Sp. I. U. XHiniii/Jlra, Linn. (Tercbinthiis, Comni. Brown. Sloan. Catefb. Piilacia, Linn. Sp. PI. Ed. i.) La Marck lUiill. pi. 236. Jamaica hirch tree. " Racemes a.xillary, flowers white." La Marck. A large and lofty tree. Trnnk upright, fmooth, round, covered with a fmooth, thin, brown or greyifli epidermis, peeling off in Ihreds like ttie European birch. Leaves, deciduous, alternate, unequally winged ; leaflets three,flve,fevcn,and fomctimi-snincoppoiite, petiolcd, ovate,acute, entire, fmooth on bolli fides, a little (hining beneath, about an inch and half or two inches broad, three inches long, a little heart-ftiapcd at their bafe. F/owc'rs, finall, without fmcll, in compound axillary racemes, near the fummit of the branches. Fruit, the (ize of a hazel nut, grecniih, tinged with purple when ripe, rtlinous, odorous. La Marck. From the interior bark exudes a clear, glutinous balfamic juice, which fmells like turpentine, and foon thickens in the air, into the form of a gum. The bark of the root is thought to be the Sima-ronba of the fbops, which is an effedtual remedy in bloody fluxes. La Marck fuppofes that the Terebinthus of Catefoywithlanceolateleaves, aujabluidi-violetfruit, is cither a diilinift fpecies, or at leaft a well-mai ked variety. A native of the Weft Indies. 2. 'Q. paniculalci. La Marck. " Racemes panicled, terminal; flowers purple." Com. Herb, Ic. and MSS. A larje tree. iJ/'flMc/jfj- below the leaves rough with tubercles and fears. Lr.ives alternate, unequally winged : leaflets five or feven, ovate-acuminate, entire, fmooth, petioled, with nerves flightly projefting beneath. F/oiuers fmall, nu- merous in panicled, terminal racemes about fix inches long. Calyx fmall, one-leaved, three-lobed. Petals three, longer than the calyx, broad at their bafe, obtufe at their fummit, with a fmall fcarcely difcernible point. Stamens fix : fila- ments half the length of the petals, nearly connivent : anthers, brown, oblong, with three furrows. In many flowers, Commerfon could not obferve any appearance of a pillil, but in others there was a very obtufe lligma in the centre of a kind of receptacle flattened above, and fomcwhat five-cornered. It produces a refinous juice like the preceding. A native of the lile de France. 3. B. obtujifol'ia. La Marck. (Marignia. Comm.) "Racemes panicled, fubterminal ; leaflets obtufe." A large tree, very refinous. Leaves al- ternate, fcattered, unequally winged ; leaflets five or feven, and fometimes nine, ovate-oblong, obtufe, thickifli, coria- ceous, fmooth on both fides, even and fhining above, petioled, oppofite, an inch and half broad, three inches long. Flowers fmall, very numerous, whitifli : racemes much branched. Calyx very fmall, with five divifions. Petals five, ovate-lanceolate, expanding, nearly twice the length of the calyx, and attached between its divifions. Stamens ten : filaments very fliort; anthers fmall, round, yellowifli. Germ. round ; lligma almoft feffde. Fruit, a drupaceous coriaceous berry, about the fize of a hazel-nut ; pulp rather thick, gelatinous, and reddifli : nuts from one to five, rather thick, convex on one fide, angular on the other. A native of the Ifle of Fiance. , BURSE RIA, La:fl. See Verbena Lappulacea. BURSLEM, in Geography, a village of Stafl"ordihire, in England, famous for its pottery, three miles N. of New- callic under Line. BURSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of the I^ower Rhine, and eleitorate of Mentz ; two miles E. of Miltenberg. BURSTEN, a perfon ruptured, called by phyficians her- n'lofus ; in middle age wrkers, pondero/us. See Hernia. BURTHEN. See Burden. BURTON, William, in Sloprap'y, a (kiUal topo- VOL. V. grapher, and antiquary, was born of n good family at Lindley in Leicelleilliire, in 1571;; and educated at Bra/.en-Nofe college in tlie univerfity of Oxford. When he left college, he entered for the llndy of the law in the 'I'cmple, and in due time was called to the bar. ]5ut as his fortune was tafy, and his health delicate, he declined purfuing his profefTion, and retired into the country, where he devoted liimfelf to the ftudy of antiquities, and became eminent in this depart- ment. His defcription of Lcicellcrfhirc, piiblifhcd in 1622, in a fmall folio, and republiflied by William Wittingham of l^ynn, in 1777, was one of the earliefl. county hillories, hav- ing been preceded by only four others ; and from this circum- ftancc it derives its chief reputation. The fl.yle of it is loofc and the digreffions are numerous. After having been much injured by the civil wars, he died at his feat of Fulde, in Stafi"ordfliire, in 11^45; and left behind him feveral MSS. coUeiSions of arms, monuments, and other matters of anti- quity. His fon, whom he named Caffibilan, publiflicd a tranflation in verfe of Martial's epigrams. Another IVUliam Burton was born in London, and edu- cducated at Qiieen's college, Oxford ; and after having been Greek leflurer in Glouceflcr Hall, was conlliained by indi- gence to leave the univerfity in 1630. He afierwarda became mafter of the free grammar fchool at Kingfton upon Thames, which ofRcc he refigned two years before his death in 1657. Befides his principal work, which was "A Commentary on Antoninus his Itinerary, S:c." illuftrated with a cliorogiaphical map of the feveral flations," Lond. 1658, folio, he wrote, in Latin, a hiflory of the Perfic lan- guage and other works, enumerated by Wood in his Athenac. His great-grandfather is faid to have expired with excefs of joy upon being informed of the death of Queen Mary. Biog. Brit. Burton, Robert, brother of the antiquary, IVilUam, was born at Lindley, in 1576, and educated at Brazen- nofe and Chrill-chnrch colleges, in the univerfity of Ox- ford. He retained two preferments in the church, viz. the vicarage of St. Thomas in Oxford, and the reftory of Segrave in Leicefterfliire, till his death in 1639. ^^^ '^^^s much adifted toaftrology, and is faid to have predifled the time of his own death. With the characler of a general fcholar and hard fludent, well verfed in the pedantic litera- ture of the times, he combined great integrity and benevo- lence. But his temper was of an humorous and melancholic caft, which gave a fingular kind of oddity to his conduft. In order to reUeve his melancholy, he diverted himfclf by hftening to the ribaldry of the bargemen, which feldom fahed t) occafion vehement burlls of laughter. At other times he was one of the moll facetious companions in the Univerfity. His famous book, entitled the " Anatomy of Melancholy," was compofed with a view of foothing his peculiar difpofition ; and confills chiefly of cxtradls from aneieiit authors, illuflratinsj the canfes, effefts, and cure oF that morbid affeftion. The author's own reflcftions are few ; but tliey are original, ingenious, and ilriking. To the bookfeller, this work, printed fitft in 4to and afterwards frequently in folio, was very profitable. After it had been long neglefted and almoll forgotten, it attrafted notice in confcquence of an ingenious ellay by Dr. Fen-icr of Man- cheiter, who detefted among the plagiarifms of Sterne, various paflages copied verbatim from Burton. The au- thor died in 1639 ; and the following infcription, written by himfelf, was put upon his monument in Chrill-chiirch : " Paucis notus, paucioribus ignotus, hie jacet Demo- critus junior, cui vitam dedit ct mortem melancholia." Biog. Brit. Burton, John, a learned divine of the laft century, was 4 E born BUR horn in t6<)6, at Wcmbwonh, in Devondiire, and admitted a fcliolar of Corpus Chrifti college at Oxford in 171.51 of which he at length became a tutor. In the excrcife of this office, he devoted himftlf with fingular alTiduity and zciii to the improvement of "his pupils ; and he exerted )\imfelf in a variety of ways for ttie advancement of learning. Btfides the attention which he paid to academical difci- pline, he improved the mode of difcufTmg philofophical qucftions in the fchoots, and had the honour of introducing the Ihidy of Locke, andothermodcrnphilofophers, in connec- tion with Arillotle. He alfo took great pains in promoting clalTical literature, by frequent Icfturcs both in the Greek and Latin languages; and he extended the utility of the univerfity prefs for the aid and encouragement of literary undertakings. In 1733 he was elefted a fellow of Eton college ; and about the fame time was prefented to the vicarage of Maple-Dcrham, in Oxfordlliire. On this occa- fion he was induced, by motives of fympatliy and com- pallion, to marry the widow of his predeceflor in that living, with the charge of three infant daughters that were left dellitute ; and though he thus formed a connexion which, according to the maxims of the world, would be condemned as imprudent, he found in the event that the choice of a perfon who pofFeffed every qualification for fixing his attachment, except money, contributed to his future happinef?. In this retired flation of a country cler- gyman, he continued for feveral years ; occupying himfelf in literary purfuits, and in the improvement of his houfe and grounds, not lefs for the benefit of his fucccflors than for his own amufement. After the death of his wife in 1748, an event which deeply affefted him, and which he much lamented, he chiefly refided on his fellowfhip at Eton ; where his fituation was ftich in^every refpefl as fuited his ftudious and literary difpofition. In 1753 he took his degree of doftor in divinity ; and continued to ap- pear occalionally both as a writer and a preacher, much elleemed by the higher and lower clafTcs of his own order, with whom he had frequent and free intercourfe, and alio by the common people, with whom he alTociatcd in the moft condefccnding and affable manner. His leifure hours he amufed by poetical extrciks. Towards the clofc of his life he was attacked with a fever, which impaired his in- tellcfts, and fliattered his decaying frame ; but at intervals he feemed to recover the powers both of his body and mind. On the evening of Sunday, the day before his death, he dif- courfed according to his ufual manner, with more than ufual perfpicuity and elegance, on fome theological fubjefl; and after a very ferene flecp, he gently departed tliis life on the following day, Februai-y the nth, 1771, and was buried at the entrance of the inner chapel at Eton. The works of Dr. Burton are chiefly collected in two volumes of Sermons, which are much laboured, of a confiderable length, and containing a great variety of matter ; an oftavo volume of theological differtations, entitled " Opufcula Mifcellanea Theologies ;" and another of " Opufcula Mifcellanea Metrico-profaica ;" comprehending a variety of pieces in Greek and Latin, with two or three copies of Englifli verfes. In one of thefe pieces, entitled " Com- mtntariolus Thorns Seeker, Archiep. Cantuar. memoriffi facer," Dr. Burton indulged himfelf in fome feverity of animadverfion againll the "diflfcnters, on account of their luppofed oppofiliou to the fettlement of a bifhop in Ame- rica, which induced Dr. Furneaux in his letters to Mr. Juftice Blackftoue, to vindicate that body of men againll the charge brought agaiiift them. Dr. Burton was alfo the author of fome other publications befides thofe contained in the volumes above-mentioned. In i744 he piiblilhed at BUR Oxford, in large Svo. " The Genuinenefs of Lord Claren- don's Hillory of the Rebellion, printed at Oxfoid, vindi- cated," in wliich he fully refutes the (lander that had been advanced by Oldmixon, in his Critical Hiftory of England. In 175S, appeared his " Diflertatio et Notje Critics fpec- tantes ad Tragldias quafdam Graecas, editas in Pentalogia." The publication of the five fckdl tragedies, which conllitute the " Pentalogia," had been recommended to him by a pupil of promifiug talents, Jofeph Bingham, who had printed alnioll the whole text and notes, when in 1756 he vfas cut off by a premature death. Dr. Burton has added a preface, differ- tations, and additional notes. This work has been reprinted at the Clarendon prefs, and is much efteemed as a book for iludents in Greek. In 1766, Dr. Burton publifhcd a dif. courfe, entitled, " Papiils and Pharifees compared, or Papills the corrupters of Chriilianity," occafioned by Philips's hfe of Cardinal Pole. About the fame time he alfo delivered a fet of fcrmons, ftill in MS. ; the def'gn of which was to refute the articles of the Council of Trent. He is alfo un- derftood to have been the author, under the name of Phile- leutherus Londinenfis, of " The Remarks on Dr. King's Speech before the Univerfity of Oxford, at the dedication of Dr. Radcliff's library, on the 13th of April, 1749 ;" to which Dr. King replied in his " Eloginm famss inferviens Jacci Etonenfis, or Gigautis ; or, the Praifes of Jack of Eton, commonly called Jack the Giant ; collefted into Enghfh metre, afler'the manner of Thomas Sternhold, John Hopkins, John Burton, and others. To which is added, a DilTertation on the Bunonian Style, by a Mailer of Arts." But the moft fevere attack on Dr. Burton's llyle, as affefted and pe- dantic, was that of Churchill in one of his poems, (works, vol. iii. p. 124,) who has exercifed all the uncandid feverity of his pen to expofe it to ridicule. However, prejudice cannot deny, that Dr. Burton was " an able divine, a found fcholar, and an excellent academic ; and that he fet an ufeful example to univerfity-men, whether as fellows, tutors, officers, or editors. In fliort, his abilities, virtues, and learn- ing were fuch as juftly entitle him to have his name tranf- mitted with honour to pofterity." Biog. Brit. Burton, John, the fcholar of Keeble, a harpfichord player, with a powerful hand, and much enthufiafm in his art ; but having in his youth exercifed his hand more than his head, he was not a deep or correft contrapuntifl. He had, however, in his pieces and manner of playing them a flyle of his own, to which, from his having been one of the firft harpfichord players in our country, who attempted ex- preffion and light and fhade, he excited an intcreft and atten- tion,which would nowperhapsbe much moredifficult to obtain. Travelling into Italy, with Mr. Beckford, at the time when the Mall'aria raged, he became a vi£lim, about 1779, to the imprudence of pafTmg from Rome to Naples on the verge of the Pontine marfhes, in fpite of the admonitions of the native inhabitants. Burton, or Burton in Kendal, in Geography, a fmall market-town on the borders of Lancafhire, in the county of Weftmoreland. Here are fome good houfes and two large inns, fituated on the great turnpike road. It derives fome advantages from travellers ; and from the canal, lately brought here, by which a commercial communication isopened with the rivers Dee, Merfey, Trent, Derwent, Humber, Se- vern, &c. Here are a fmall market on Tuefdays, and one fan- annually. It is 25 1 miles N.W. from London, and con- tains 1 28 houfes, and 548 inhabitants. Houfman's Topo- graphical Defcription of Cumberland, &c. 8vo. 1800. Bv KToti-upo/i-Trent, is an ancient and large market-town of StafFordfhire, England. It is fituated in a pleafant and fertile valley on the banks of the river Trent, which fepa- ratcs BUR BUR rates this part of tlie county from Derbyfliire. This town has lone; been cclebiatcd for its ale breweries ami itialt-hoiifcs. Tiie Burton ale is a beverage in high repute at mofl of the large towns of England, and is exported to diflerent places on the continent. It is commonly of a thick and glutinous quality, of a fwcctifh tafte, and a fmall fjuantity produces inebriation with thofe perfons not accudomed to it (vide Ale). Among the manufaftures of this place are hats, which are made in large quantities for the army, navy, &c. ; fcrews, fpades, and other iron utenfils, arc alfo made here ; as are fome tammies and woollen cloths. Three extenfive cotton manufaftories are eilabliflied in the vicinity of the town ; and about half a mile diftant, on an illand, is a confiderable forge, for converting bloom and fcrap iron into bars. The river Trent has long been made navigable from Gainfborough to this town for boats of large burthen. The Burton boat company are proprietors of this navigation, and of many boats on the grand trunk canal. I'his palTcs parallel with the town, and at about one mile dillance com- municates with the Trent. Burton, in the time of Leland, had "one parifh church, a Aapcl at the bridge end," and was noted for its marble and alabatter works. Here is a long bridge of j6 arches, which croiTes the Trent, and was, according to Mr. Gough, " built in the time of Henry II., or earlier." The parilh church, built in 1722, adjoins the abbey, which was founded by Wul- fric Spot, in 1004, for Benediftines. Some of its ancient walls remain, but are altered and fitted up as the manor houfe. Its abbot had a large piece of hilly ground, about one mile from the abbey, which he called Sinai. This ilill bears the name of Sinai park. Burton was formerly ornamented with a caftle, which, Mr. Gough fays, was built by one of the Ferrars' family, in the time of the Conqueror. Here are a free-fchool, two alms-houfes, and a town-hall, the latter of which was built, in 1772, by the earl of Uxbridge, who is lord of the manor, and holds his courts-lect. Sec. in this ftruiSure. The town has, within a few years, been greatly improved by the paving and lighting of its ftrcets. It has a large market on Thurfdays, and four fairs annually, one of which continues for five days, and is noted for its large (hevi- of horfes. Burton is 1 25 miles N.W. from London, and contains 738 houfes, with ^678 inhabitants, the greater part of whom are engaged in trade and manufaftures. Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia, vol.ii. Shaw's Hiflory of Staffordfliire. Burton, a fmall tovvn.Tiip of America, in Grafton county. New Hampflure, incorporated in 1766, and containing 141 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip in the Britifh province of New Brunfwick, Ctuated in Sunbury county, on the river St. John. Burton, in Sea Language, a fmall tackle confiding of two fingle blocks, and a rope pafling through them, until it becomes three or four-fold. It is employed in loading or difcharging goods, as bales, callcs, SiC. and in removing the anchors, or any weighty body, on deck, in fetting up the top-maft. nrrrr'mcT Sec. BURUGERD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak-Agemi ; 92 miles S.E. of Amadan. BURULUK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Voronetz ; y6 miles S.W. of Voronetz. BURUN, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Romania ; 50 miles E. of Emboli. BURUNNIUTAPCHARA, a cape in the Cafpian Tea, I I2miles S. of Guritv. N. lat. 52° -^o'. £. long. 6j° 14'. BURWAH, a town of Hindollan, in the country of Bahar; 15J miles S. of Patna. N. lat. 23° 10'. E. long. 84-30'. BURY, is fometimes ufed to denote the hole or den of fome animal under ground. See Burrow. In which fenfe we fay the bury of a mole, a tortoife, or the like. The gryllotaipa, or mole cricket, digs itfclf a bury with its fore-fcct, which are made broad and llrong for that purpofe. Naturalifts fpeak of a kind of urchins in the ifland of Maraguan, which have two entries to their buries, one towards the north, the other to the fouth, which they open and fliut alternately, as the wind happens to lie. Bury, in Geography, a market town of Lancafliire, Eng- land, is fcated in a fine valley on the banks of the river Irwcl!, at th;' diftance of 195 miles N.W. from London, and 9 miles N. of Mancheller. Situated in the midil of a great manufafturing dillrift, mod of its houfes and inhabitants arc appropriated to and engaged in the cotton works. Leland mentions Bury as being only a poor market-town in his time, hut it has now acquired confiderable wealth and com- mercial importance ; which has partly arii'en from the laud- able exeitions of fir Robert Petlc bart., who, having a feat at Chamber-hall in this neighbourhood, has ellablilhcd and promoted fome large manufaftories for calico printing, &c. The principal of thefe works, under the firm of Peele and Co. are fituated on the fide of the Irwell, from which they have large i-cfervoirs of water. The cotton manufaftories, which are now fo very flourifii- ing in this diilriiS, appear to have been brought here from Bolton in Vorkfiiire. Since their eilabliiliment at Bury, they have been greatly facilitated and promoted by means of various fcientific and mechanical contrivances, which fir Robert Peele has encouraged. Among the inventions that have been brought forward under his patronage, is one called the wheel, or flying fliuttlc, which was fird made by Mr. Robert Kay. This engine is calculated to make feveral cards at once. It draightens the wire out of the ring, cuts it into lengths, ftaples it, crooks it into teeth, pricks the lioles in the leather, puts the teeth in, rov/ after row, and performs the whole with a fingle operation of the machine, in an expeditious manner, by one ptrfon turning a fliaft. The parifii of Bury is large, and divided into fix townlliips, and has four chapels of eafe, befides a modern handfomc church in the town. The prefbyterians, independents, and methodifts have alfo places of worfhip. Here is a handfome free-fchool, well endowed, and provided with two maders ; alfo a charity fchool for boys and girls. About one half of the town is leafehold, under the earl of Derby, and the re- mainder is glebe belonging to the reftory. The living, in the gift of that earl, is rendered very valuable from the fol- lowing circumdance : an aft of parliament pafTcd in 1764, empowering the redor, for the time being, to grant building leafes for 99 years, renewable at any intervening period, on an agreement between the parties. The relative population of Bury, and its prefent extent, may be cilimatcd from comparing the accounts of each in 7773 and iSoi. In the former period there were 463 houfes and 2090 inhabitants, and at the latter, according to the report of the houfe of commons, 1384 houfes and 7072 inhabitants. According to tradition there were two cadles in and near this town. Indeed, its name prirtly confirms this ; and at the wed end of the town is a field called Cajlle croft, where foundation walls have been dug up. At CajVe Jlcads in Walmflty was an encampment ; and near it is an eminence called Cadle-hill. Aikin's Defcription of the Country round Manchcder, 410. 1795. Bury St. Edmiiiuls, is a large, populous, and ancient borough town in tlie A)unty of Sufi'olk, England, and 4E 3 feated BUR ftated on tlif fi.^e of a hill, whith flopts gently to the river Larkf. Tilts placi.- obtained -ts prtft-nt naiiie and pri-cipal importance fro n the relics of king Edmund, who bci.ig barbannidy nuitdtred by the Danes at Hoxncin this county, was proclaimed a royal mariyr, and his fhr-nr became an ob- jeit of great veneration in the time of Britifli monachifm. Though a monaUcry had been prtvioufly fuiindcd here by Sigebert, king of the End Angles, yet it docs not appear that this monarch's tllablifhincnt excited any notoriety, or altratled many inliabitants. The abbey founded here in honour of St. Ednniad, was raifed by Ayllwin, about the year<;oj, but was afterwards augmented by additional en- dowments, and enlarged in buildings. Nearly the whole was, however, dcdroyed by Sweyn king of Denmark, whofe fon Canute rebuilt the abbey, and rellored the town to its former importance. Previous to this event, it appears that the town was known by the name of Beodrichworth. Canute offered up his crown at the flirine of St. Edmund, as did many other Englilh kings, his fuccefTors. The church and monaftery appear to have been rebuilt in the year )o:o, and the former was confecrated on St. Luke's day, A.D. 1032, by Agelnothus, archbifliop of Canterbury. From this period it grew into great repute, and feveral monarchs, with many eminent perfons, were defirous of being interred in this holy place. During the profpenty of the abbey, it was environed with a ftrong wall and ditch, and there was an hofpital, or religious houfe, at every gate of the town. Among thefe the abbey-gate, or entrance to the abbot's palace, is the principal ftruCture remaining ; and this is an interefting relic of architeftural antiquity. It was ercfled in the reign of Richard II. about the year 1377, and at pre- fent is in a good ftate of prcfervation. Its weftern front is adorned with feveral niches and carvings in tabernacle work. Sec. Another of thefe llruftures, called Church-gate, or the portal, is remaining, and formerly led to the grand con- ventual church. It now ferves as a tower to vSt. James's church, and is fnpported on two femicircular arches, which admit of a free jiaffage for carnages. The town of Bury St. Edmunds, with its fuburbs, extends from north to fouth, about l| mile, and in breadth i^ mile. It is divided into five wards, and contains 34 ftreets, which are well paved, andinterfeft each other at nearly right angles. While the abbey was ftanding, there were three churches ■within its precinfts, befides the one belonging to the monaf- tery. That dedicated to St. Margaret is now made ufe of, with confiderable alterations, as the (hire-hall, where the county aflizts are held. The two other churches " are defervedly eftecmcd for t'leir exaft and beautiful fymmetry, their large and elegant windows, neat pillars, and noble roofs." In the church of St. Mary, it appears that Mary Tudor, third daughter of Henry VII., and wife of Lewis XII., king ot France, was interred. After the de- ceafe of the latter monarch, flie married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and died in his life time at Wefthorpe in this county. Bury has, at different times, been the feat of the EngKfh fovereign, and the place of affembling his parliamcr.ts. King Edward I. and Edward II. had mints here; and Stow fays that here was alfo a mint in king John's time. Among the other public buildings and ellablilhments of the town, are the guildhall, the wool-halls, the gaol, the bridewell, the theatre, the market-crofs, the butchery, and new (hambles, the fubfcription-rooms, the free grammar fchool, and four meeting-houfes. Bury has the privilege of three annual fairs, one of which ufually contir.ues for three wetks. Here are alfo two BUS weekly markets on WedneiHays and Saturdays. In l/^S. the niiiiiher of inhabifai ts ni this town was 5,819, and in iSoi, they appear to have increafed to 7,635. Thmiuh tha pu'iulation has thus evidently greatly increafed, yet at fome former periods ai.mv inhabitants have been fwept away by the ph'ie. Sic. Mr. N''hols, in his Hillory of Leictilcr- fhir' , ilat'S that icoo periods died of the plague in Bury in 1 257, and in 1638 upwards of 600 perfons died of this drcad- fii' '"alamity. bury was firft privile'^ed to fend members to parl'ament by king James 1. •■■ ho incorporated it in the fourth year of his reign ; and by two other charters in the fixth and twelfth years of his reign. The right of elettion is veiled in the aldermen, burgefies, and common-councilmen, amounting to 37. Giliingwater's liillorical and Defcriptive Account of St. Edmund's Bury, time. 1804. BURYING a/ive. was, among the Romans, the punifii- ment of a vellal (fee Vestal), for the violation of her vow of chafti'.y. After being tried and f?ntenccd by the ponti- fices, this punifl'.meiU was inflicled and accompanied \^lthi funeral folemnities in a place called the " Campus Scele- ratus," near the Porta Coilina ; and her paramour was fcourged to death in the Forum. Tne unhappy priellefs was let down, on this occaiion, into a deep pit, with bread, water, milk, oil, a lamp burning, and a bed on which to lie ; but this was mere fliow, for the moment (he was at the bottom, they began to call in the earth upon htr, till the pit wasfillediip. Mem. Acad. Infer, t. iii. p. 27S. This mode of punilhment is faid to have been firll devifed by Tarquinius Prifcus. Dionyf. iii. 67. Lord Bacon mentions inllancei of the refurreftion of lome perfons who had been buried alive. Of this number was the famous Duns Scotu?. See Duns. For the places and different modes of burying, fee Burial. BURZANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Ultra; to miles E.N.E. of Bova. BURZET, a town of France, in the department of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton in the dittrift of I'Argentiere. The place contains 2670, and the canton- 4945, inhabitants; the territory comprehends no kilio- mctres anti 4 communes. BUS, C.tSAR DE, in Biography, the founder of the Fathers of the Chriftian doclrine, was born at Cavaillon in 1544, and after purfnirig, for fome time, a licentinus courfe, became fenfible of his mifcondi.tt, entered into the church, and was appointed canon of a cathedral. Adopting a rigorous mode of living, and didingnidied by his zeal in in- ftrufting the ignorant, and exhorting finners to repentance, he formed a new inftitutioii for teaching the principles of the- Chriftian religion. See Fathers of the ChnJUan doa/ine. De Bus loll his fight fome years before his deatii, which happened at Avignon in 1607. To him is alfo afcribed the eftablilhment of the Ursulines in France. He publiflied a let of " Familiar Inftruilions on the Chriftian Dodrine," written in a fimple ftyle, and ftill read by pious perfons.. Nouv. Dift. Hnl. Molheim. Ecclef. vol. iv. BUSANCY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne, and diftrict of Soiffons ; 4 miles S. of Soiffons. BUSARD, in Ornithology. See Moor Buzz.ard. BUSBEC, or BoESBEc, Augher-Ghislen, in Latin Bii/bequius, in Biography, a celebrated traveller and ambaf- fador, was the natural Ion of GhiOcn, lord of Boefbec, a village on the Lys, and born at Commines, in Flanders,' in 1522. Having been legitimated by a refcript of the empe- ror Charles V., he purfued Li; ftudies with great diligence ■3 and BUS BUS arid fucctfsi in fome of tlie moft celebrated iinivcrfities of E\iropc. He accompanied tlie ambafTador of Ferdinand, kin? of the Romans, to England, and was prcfent at the marriage of Philip and Mary ; and was appointed by this fovereign, when he became emperor, as his ambafFador to fuhan Solyman II. During his feven years' refidence in the Turki'b dominionu, he acquainted himlelf with various par- ticulars relating to the natural and political hillory of the country, and coUefltd a great number of MSS. and infciip- tions, together with drawings of plants and animals, which ferved, on his return, to form a narrative, written in Latin, and ab, imding with valuable information. He was after- terwards entrnfted with the education of the fons of Ma.^!- milian II., and m 1570, conducted this emperor's daughter to France, on ncafion of her marriage with king Charles IX. After the death of Cliarles, he continued in that country as miniller for the queen-dowager, and alfo for the emperor Rodolph, till the year 15^2. Havino; obtained permifTi m to take a journey into :he Low Countries, he was affaulted in Normandy by a party of foldiers bel mging to the gar- rifon of Ivouen, and tlic treatment he luffered produced a degree of irritation, which terminated in a fever that proved fatal to liim at the lioufe of a lady near Ronen, in i '592. He was a man of exLcnfive litcaturc, and mafter of feven lan- guages. The firft copy of tlie famous ' Monumentum Ancyranum", which he cauled to be tranfcribtd at Ancyra, was brought by him into Europe. Bcfides his " Travels in the Eaft," he wrote " Letters from France to the Emperor Rodolph," which exhibit an interelting picfture of the French court at that period. An edition of all his works was publidied by Elzevir at Lcyden in 1O3J, and at Am- ilerdam m 1C60, in 4to. Gen. Diet. BUSBY, Richard, an eminent (chool-mafter, was born at' Lntton, in Lir.coln'hire, in 1606, educated at Weltniin- fler fchool as a king's feholar, and eletled ftudent of Chrilt- church, in 1624. At college he was ellcemed a great mailer of the Greek and Latin languages, and a complete orator. Having taken orders,-he was admitted, in 16J9, to the prebend and rc-ttory of Cudworth, in the church of Wells, ; and in 1640, he was appointed mailer of Weilmin- fter fchool, which ofRce he held with fingnlar reputation for 5^ years. His talents for this arduous office have been greatly extolled ; though it does not now appear what was his peculiar and difcriminatin^ excellence. It has been faid that he pofTelTed a fingular fagacity in dlfcoveiing the ap- propriate genius of his pupils, and that he fo much approved an early maiifeftation of wit in his fcholars, as to pardon the imprudent ex.ercife of it, when he himfelf was its objeft. Perhaps, his pre-eminence to others who have occupied fimilar llations might have principally confilled in the firm- nefs and vigour of his mind, and in that kind of uniform and fyftematic difcipline, attended with a conliderable degree of feverity, which commanded awe and maintained order. With a reference to this trait of his charai'ler, lir Roger de Goverley (fee Spectator, N° .^29.) is made to exclaim, at the view of his effigies, " Dr. Bufby ; a great man ! he whipped rnv grandfather ; a very great man !" Pope alfo gives us a lively defcription of a mailer belonging to the Bufbeian clafs, or of the " Genius of the public Schools," in the fol- lowing appropriate lines : " When lo ! a fpedlre rofc, whofe Index-hand Held forth the virtue ot the dreadful wand ; His beaver'd brow a birchen garland wears, Dropping with infant's blood, and mother's tears. O'er every vein a fiiudd'ring horror runs : Eton and WiiUon ihake through all their fons. All flefli is humbled ; WcftminRer's bold race Shrink, and confcfs the genius of the place ; The pale boy-tenator yet tingling llands. And holds his breeches clul'e with both his hands." Dnnciad, B. iv. Dr. Bufby, however, though his fame has defcciidtd to us as that of a ftricl and fevere difciplinarian, was not an ill- natured man ; but the feverity which he cxeroifed, and which has alniofl become proverbial, ftems to have been the refult of habit and fyllem. It has, indeed, been animad- verted upon with difapprobation by fome modern writers, not only as unjuftiliable, but as tending to the extreme of cruelty. Somewhat to this purpofe is the rtfliftion of Mr. Knox, in his eflay on parental indulgence (Effays, vol. ii. p. 344.) who fays, " Inhumanity even in a Bufby cannot admit of palliation." As a man of learning. Dr. Bufby is known by feveral books, fuch as Latin and Greek gram- mars, and editions of the fatircs of Juvenal aid Peilius, and of the epigrams of Martial, adapted to the ufe of his fchool, and evincing his flcill and accuracy as a grammarian. After the refloration, he was made a prebendary of Wcftminller, as well as trtafurer and canon-rtfidentiary of the church of Wells ; and in the fame year he alfo took his degree of doftor in divinity. To the church and monarchy he was zealoufly attached, and he infufed fimilar principles and fpirit into the minds of his pupils, among whom were feveral who occupied fome of the highell offices in the llate. Several inllanccs of his private and public charity are recorded. Having, by a courfe of temperance, notwithltanding tlie fatigues of his public llation, attained to the advanced age of 89, he died in 1695, and was buried in Wcftminller abbey, where a monument, with an ample, laudatory infcription, was creiflcd to his memory. Biog. Brit. BUSCA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the province of Coni ; 7 miles W. of Coni. BUSCHE, Herman Von Dem, in Latin BuJJnus, ia Biography, a dillingnilhed feholar, who contributed to the revival of literature, and the improvement of talk- in Ger- many, was the defcendant of a noble family in Wellphalia, and born at the callle of Saffenborg in the bilhopric of Minden, in 1468. After a previous courfe of Ihidy im- proved by travels through Italy, France, and Germany, and various attempts to excite among his own countrymen a talle for pure Latinity, he eftablilhed a fchool at Cologne ; but here his refidence was madeuneafy to him by the monks, fo that in 150C he removed to Leipfic. The ecclefiallics, however, whofe Latin llyle he condemned, and which he wiflied and laboured to reform, counterafted his cfftirts of improvement, and he was under a neceffity of often changing his abode. At Cologne, whither he returned after his tra- vels in Germany and the Low Countries, lie publilhed " Pemptades Decimationum Plautinarum," and a " Com- mentary on Claudian de Ilaptu Proferpinrc." The clergy again molefted him in this city, as he had given them frelli occafion of offence by aiding Ulric Von Hetton in com- pofiiig the celebrated " Epifloia Ohfcur;)rum Viroruni," ia which the monallic Latin of that period is the fnbjcdl of ridicule. From Cologne, he removed to Wel'el, where, as reftor of the Latin fchool, he read the works of Luther, Melanflhon, and Pomeranus, which had been juR publifhed. From Wefel, he went to Wittenberg ; and, at the recom- mendation of Luther and others, the landgrave of Heffe ap- pointed him profclfor of hillory at Marpurg, where he pub- lifhed " A Treatife on the Authority of the Word of God." About this time he embraced the doClrints of Luther, and married iu the year 1527. Towards the clofc of his life, he BUS lie had an unhappy quarrel with tlie anabaptlfts at Miinfler, which a'Titated a coiiftitution, already enfeebled by years, to fiich a degree, as to oecalion his death, in 15^4. His prin- cipal works are " Cunimeiitar. in Donatum ;" " Annot. in Siliuni Italiciim ;" " Comment, in primum lib. Martialis ;" " Scholia in ./Eneid ;" " x\nnot. ad Juvenal ;" " Epijjram. malum, libri iii. ;" " Comment, in Satyr. Perfii," Paris, 1644. He alfo publillied many Latin poems. According to the account given of his writings by llrafmus, they are nervous, lively, and animated, and difplay great acutenefs of judgment ; and his ftyle is faid to approach nearer to that of Qiiintilian than to that of Cicero. Gen. Biog. MJSCHETTO, D.^ Dulichio, a celebrated Grcckar- chiteft, was a native of the ifle of Dulicliio, and employed, in 1016, by the republic of Pifa, in building and ornamenting their dome or cathedral church ; which he enriched with many marble columns, and which has ever fince been reckoned one of the moil fumptuous edifices in Italy. He died at Pifa, where was erected a monument to his memory, bearing an infcription which intimates his extraordinary knowledge of the mechanic powers. His difciples were numerous, and he is regarded as the principal founder of the fcience of archi- teduie in modern Italy. Fclibien, Vies des Archit. BUSCHING, Anthony-Frederick, a well-known geographer, was born at Stadthagen, a town of Germany, in 17^4, and inftrudled for feveral years by Hauber, after- wards pallor of a German congregation at Copenhagen, in the Greek, Chaldaic, and Syrian languages, and alfo in aftronomy, algebra, and other branches of the mathematics. In 1744, he entered as a theological Undent at Halle, where he derived fingular benefit from the patronage of the cele- brated pn.feflor S. J. Baumgarten ; and in 1746, he pub- lifhed his firft work, which was " An Introduftion to the Epillle of Paul to the Philippians," with a preface by his patron. At tlie clofe of his academical (Indies he began his e.xegLtical leftures on Ifaiah, which were followed by thofe on the New Tellaraent. In 174S, he was invited to'fuper- intend the education of the eldell fon of count Lynar, at Kollrilz ; where he was alfo employed in revifing a Ger- man edition of Vitringa on Ifaiiih, and where he commenced an extenfive correfpondence with perfoiis of eminence in the literary world. In the following year he accompanied count Lynar to Pcterfburgh ; and in the courfe of his jour- ney thither he formed the plan of a new geography, with a view of fupplyiiig the imperfedlions of Hubner's and Hager's woiks on this fubjeft. After encouBtering fome difficulties and difcouragements in the progrefs of his undertaking, he determined to devote his whole time to it ; and releafing him- felf from his engagements as tutor, repaired, in 1752, to Copenhagen, where he enjoyed peculiar advantages for the -completion of his work. During his reCdence in this city, he condufted a monthly pubhcation, in which he gave an account of the ilate of the arts and fciences in Denmark. In 1754, he removed to Germany, and at Halle wrote a dif- fertation, entitled " Vindicix Septentrionis," announcino- alfo his intention to commence a courfe of leftures on the conftitution of the principal ftates of Europe ; but he was diverted from profecuting this plan by an invitation to the ollice of extraordinary profelTor of philofophy at Gottin- gen, with a falary of 200 rix-dollars to enable him to finiih his geography. Accordingly, he accepted the invitation, and having fettled at Gottingen, in 1754, he married in the ioUowing year a literary lady, feveral of whofe poetical pieces he had previoufly publithed. This lady had been eletled an honorary member of the German fociety at Gottingen, and had alfo been named imperial poetefs laureat by Haber- Iciii, pro-redor of the univerllty of Helmftadt. In the BUS profpea of a vacancy in the chair of theological profefTor in the univcrfity of Gottingen by the death of Moflieim, Bufching was advifedhy his friends, in 175^, to offer Inmfelf as a candidate ; but as he had conceived a diflike to the theology of the fchools, he thought it moft honourable to announce his fentiments to the public, before he undertook the office of theological profeifor. Accordingly, on occa- fion of his applying to the theological faculty of Got;ino-en for the degree of doftor, he delivered to them, in MS., ''his " Epitome theologia: e folis facris Uteris concinnats. et ab omnibus rebus & verbis fcholafticis purgata," which he afterwards printed ; and, after fome oppofition, he obtained the degree. This diifertation was afterwards reprinted with additions ; and as it contained fome points of dodrine that were thought exceptionable, he was accufed of heterodoxy and ordered by a refcript, i/fued in 1757, to forbear publifli! ing any thing on the fubjcd of theology, till it had been lubmitted to the mfpedion of the privy-council of Hanover • and he was alfo commanded to abftain from giving theolo- gical ledures, particularly on difputed fubjeds. He remon. ilrated agamft this treatment, and in a letter toMunckhaufen the Hanoverian miniller, he expreifed his purpofe in the foU lowing declaration : " If your excellency Hiould make me chancellor of the univerfity, with a falary of a thoufand dol- lars, on condition of my teaching nothing but the ufual theology of the fchools, I would refpedfully refufe your offer." At this time Bufching had a lalary of 400 dollars at Gottingen, belides pecuniary prefents from the mmifter, and fome privileges, which enabled him to expedite his great geographical works. In i 759, he was appointed public pro- tdior ot philofophy, and the firft part of his geography had already gone tiirough three editions. He was now at leifure to profecute it ; and, that he might not be interrupted, he dechned accepting feveral advantageous offers. On the fub- je£t of education he had publiHied a treatife, compiled from his ledures at Gottingen, which very much contributed to his reputation. In 1761, he undertook the office of paftor to a Lutlieran congregation at Peterfburgh ; and here he founaed a fchool on a large fcale for the benefit both of boys and girls. I o this fchool he paid particular attention ; and m 176J, it had rifen to fuch reputation, that it con- tained upwards of 3C0 fcholars of various nations and feds • and Catharine II. granted to it, by the recommendation of field-marflial count Munich, feveral privileges. But on oc- cafion of a difpute between Bufching and his congregation refpeding this new inftitution, he abandoned the diredion ot It, and detennined to return to Germany ; though the emprefs Cathanne was very defirous of retaining him in Kuliia. Among other connedions which he formed during his refidence at Peterfburgh, he contraded an inti- macy with Muller, the celebrated hiftorian and traveller • and from the information he thus obtained with regard to Ruflia, he was enabled to publifh his " Hiftorical Maga- zine. The place which he feleded for his refidence, w?th a view to the profecution of his literary labours, was Altona : ri r^'°"u"""^' '^''''""■■g ^°"'^" advantageous propofals made to induce his return to Gottingen, and refolving never to accept a penfion, till the year 1766, when he w^as appointed duedor of a gymnaf.um at Berlin. In this capital he was treated with great refped ; and befides the employment of fuperintending the feminary committed to his carel he en- he different claffes in the Latin and French languac^es, na- vhich : ''f ''" 'u^y °' "''S'""' the fine ''arts" &c'; wheh were favourably received by the public. His incef- lant apphcation, however, impaired his health, and brought on a pulmonary complaint with which he was afflided for ■^ feveral BUS feveral years, and which terminated his iifcfiil life, in 179.5, after he had been director of the gymnaliiim at Bcrhn for 26 vears. He was buried in liib garden at mid-night, with- out pomp or ceremony, according to his own dclire exprcflcd ii\ his will. In his own delineation of his charavfler, he ac- knowledges, that though he was candid and open-hearted, aiTable, ready to iiffill others, and of a compaiTionatc dif- pofition, he had behaved with harflinefs to many perfons, and on various occalions. lie expreffes his conlidence in the Supreme Being, his firm faith in the Saviour of the world, and his fatisfaftion with the difpcnlations of providence. His temper, he fays, was warm, and occafionally irritable ; and his firmncfs had fometimes adumed the appearance of , obftinacy ; and his quicknefs had betrayed him occafionally into precipitation. " I am moderate," fays he, " in all things ; contented with little, and matter of my appetites. In my iiitercourfe with the world I expeft too much from myfelf ; I am therefore often diflatisfied with my own con- duft ; and on that account wiftt to confine my intercourfe within a very narrow circle, and to (hun fociety. I am free from pride, but not void of ambition, though I often ftrng- gle with this paflion, and on refleftion endeavour to fupprefs it. I am fo much attached to labour, that it fcems to me a requifite to life, and that my inipulfe to it is greater than to any fenfual pleafure whatever." Bufciiing was a ready writer, fo that his literary produc- tions amounted to more than a hundred, confifting of elementary books, relating to fchools and education, and fuch as were theological, hiftorico-geographical, and bio- graphical. Although his works poflcfs confidcrable merit, they abound with repetitions, and his ftyle is diffufe and inelegant. But the department in which he principally excelled u'as that of geography. His " Geography" com- prehending Europe and the Ruffian part of Afia, contains a variety of interefting and ufeful information ; and was pubUflied after the year 1754, at different periods, in fingle volumes, of which eight editions were publiflied during the . life of the author. His " Magazine for Modern Hillory and Geography" was comprifed in 21 parts, 410. and pub- liflied between the years 1767 and 17S8 : and his " Weekly Account of new Maps" appeared in detached parts, during an interval of is years, from 1773 to 1787. Gen. Biog. BUSCHOFF, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Courland ; 8 miles S. of Seelburg. BUSCHWEILER, a town of France, in a diltricl of the fame name, in the department of the Lower Rhine, formerly Alface. BUSE, in Onutholog'f. See Falco Buteo. . BUSELAPHUS Cajl, in Zoology. See Antilope BUBALIS. BUSENTO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the fea, near Policallro. BUSEY, a town of the ifland of St. Domingo, fituale near Port-au-Prince, and having a fort. BUSH, a tuft or aflemblage of boughs or branches. Bush alfo denotes a coronated frame of wood hung out as a fign at taverns. It takes the denomination from hence, that, anciently, figns where wine was fold were Itijloes chiefly of ivy, cyprefs, or the like plants, which keep their verdure long. And hence the Enghlh proverb " Good wine needs no biijlj." _ Bush, in Geography, the name of a river in Ireland, vi-hich after taking a winding courfe through the northern part of the county of Antrim, falls into the north channel about a mile well of the Giant's Caufeway. BusH-/ocun. See Harford. Vtv n\-harrow, in /Igriai/iure, an implement conftituted BUS of any fort of bufhy wood, interwoven in a kind of frame conliding of three or more crofs bars, fixed into two end- pieces ill fuch a manner as to be wider behind than before, and very rough and brulhy underneath. To the extremities of the frame before are generally attached two wheels, about eight or twelve inches in diameter, upon which it moves ; fometimes, however, wheels are not employed, but the whole rough furfacc is applied to, and dragged on the ground. See Harrow. HvsH-harrvwing, the operation of harrowing with an inftrument of the kind defcribcd above. It is chiefly necef- fary on grafs-land, or fuch as has been long in the ilate of pafturc, for the pnrpofe of removing the worm-cads and of breaking down and reducing the lumps and clods of the manures that may have been applied, and thereby rendering them more capable of being wadied into the ground, or, in fome meafure, for removing the moffy matter that may have formed on the furfaccs of fuch lands. A rather dry time (liould be chofen for the performing of the bufmefs, in order that thefe fubdances may be in a more pulverizable date, and of courfe more readily broken down and applied to the roots of the grafs plants. It fliould never be attempted when there is fuch a degree of moiilure as to produce clogginefs. HvsH-velch, a plant of the vetch kind, wliich may pro- bably be cultivated to advantage by the farmer, where lucerne and other plants of a limilar nature cannot be grown. It is obferved by Mr. Swayne, in the third volume of the letters and papers of the Bath Society, that " its root is perennial, fibrous, and branching ; the ftalks many, fome of them iTiooting immediately upwards, others creeping juft under the furfacc of the ground, and emerging, fome near to, and others at a confidcrable didance from the parent dock. The fmall oval leaves are conneftcd together by a mid-rib, with a tendril at the extremity ; the flowers are in drape hke thofe of the common vetch, of a reddidi purple colour; the fird that blodbm ufually come in pairs, after- wards to the number of four at a joint ; the pods are much fiiorter than thofe of the common vetch, larger in propor- tion to their length, and flatter, and are of a black colour when ripe ; the feeds are fmaller than thofe of the cultivated fpecies, fome fpeckled, others of a clay colour." Being a perennial plant, it fhould feem, he thinks, " to be a very- proper kind to intermix with grafs feeds for layino- down land intended for pafture ; and that it is as judly entitled to this epithet as any herbaceous plant whatever, having ob- ferved a patch of it growing in one particular fpot of his orchard for 14 or 15 years pad. It is not only a perennial, but an evergreen ; it dioots the earlied in the fpring of any plant eaten by cattle with which he is acquainted, vegetates late in autumn, and continues green through the winter though the weather be very fevere ; add to this, that cattle are remarkably fond of it." See Vicia. Thefe peculiarities fliould make it particularly valuable to the farmer as a green food for flieep in the winter and fpring, when food of that denomination is fo e.xcecdingly fcarce. The fame writer has likewife obferved, that, " tlie chief rcafon which has hitherto prevented its cultivation has been the very great difliculty of procuring good feed in any quantity. The pods," he finds, " do not ripen altogether ; but as foon almod as they are ripe, they burft with great eladicity, and fcatter the feeds around ; and after the feeds have been procured, fcarce one-third part of them will vcge- tate, owing," as he fuppofes, " to an internal defect, occa- fioned by certain infeds making them the nefts and food for their young," I;.- BUS It appears from tliis author's account alio, that a crop of this kind of vctcli " may be cut three or four times, and in fome cafe3 even fo early as the beginning of March ;" a circumlkance of much importance to fuch farmers m have a large (lock of cattle. In his trials with this plant, cut in this wav, a plat of good lliffilli loamy land, of twenty-five fqnare yards, produced, 111 cutting, 1 61b. green, fuppofed 4lb. dry. 2d do. 1.50 do. would have weighed 21-4 dry. 3d do. 62 do. would have weighed 14 dry. 4th do. 76^ do. would have weighed 12^ dry. Total I^r green. .r- dry. An acre, therefore, fays lie, reckoning 4840 fquare yards to it, in the fame circumllances, would have produced the total amount uf Tuns cwt. qrs. lb. 24 11 3 5 gi-een- 4 9 ;5 15 dry-fodder. And it is further added, that " at the time the firft cutting was made there was fcarce a green blade of grafs to be feen ; and that the feafon, till after the third cutting, was as unfavourable to vegetation as perhaps any, in the memory ofm.an." It is faid to fuccced bed: on foils of the clayey kind ; but from the ftems riling fo clofcly together there is danger, in moill feafons, of their rotting at the root. See Vetch. Bush, burning, in Scripture Hiftory, denotes that bulh in which God manifcfted himfelf to Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, as he was feeding the flocks of his father-in- law, by the fchechinah or fymbol of his prefence in a flame of fire. Exod. chap. iii. The emblem of the burning-bulh is ufed as the feal of the church of Scotland, with this motto : " Tho' burning, is never confumed." BusH-/;W, among Bird-Calchers, denotes an arm or bough of a bufhy-tree, full of thick and long, yet fmooth and ftraight twigs, daubed over with bird-hme, and placed on fome hedge where birds frequent, ufed efpecially for the taking of pheafants and fieldfares. See Bird-//W. BUSHEER, or Abusch>ehhr, in Geography, the ca- pital of an independent (late of Arabia of the fame name, near the Perfian gulph, pofftfling a commodious harbour, in which fliips can approach clofe to the houfes. This cir- cumftance induced Nadir Sliah to ftation a fleet here. Since that time, this city has been better known, and become more confiderahle. It is at prefent the fca-port town of Schiras ; and the Englilli, the only European nation who continue to trade with Perfia, have a factory in this place. Tiie Arabs inhibiting the diihict of Abui'ch- sehhr are not of the tribe of Houle, who pofTcfs all the ports on the whole coafl from Bender Abbas to Cape Berdiftan. Among them arc three eminent families ; the two firft of which have been, from time immemorial, fettled in this country. The third, named " Matarifch," came lately from Oman, where they were employed in hfliuig, entered into alhance with the other two, and found means to ufurp the fovercign authority, w-hich they have now held for feveral years. The prefent fchcich of this farrily poflcffcs likcwife the ifle of Bahrein, by which he is enaUltd to main- tain fome fhipping, and he has alio confiderable domains in KermcTir. By abandoning the Sunnites, becoming a Shiite, and marrying a Perfian lady, he had rendered himitlf odious to his fubjefts and neighbours ; and his children are no longer reckoned among the Arabian nobihty. Abu-fchaehhr lies fonth from Bender- Rigk, which fee. BUSHEL, a meafure of capacity for things dry ; as grains, pulfe, dry fruits, &c. containing four pecks, or ^ight gallons, or one eighth of a quarter. BUS Du-Cantrc derives the word from litjfellus, bujlclhis, or lif. felliis, a diminutive of bu-z., or luza, ufed in the corrupt Latin for the fame thing : others derive it from hujfulus, an urn, wherein lots were call ; which fecmsto be a corruption from buxulus, IhiffiUus appears to have been firft ufed for a liquid mea- fure "of wine, equal to eight gallons. " OJo I'thrs Juciunt giiloncm viui, ifj oclo galones -vini faciunt buflcUum London, quit ejl oUava pars quarhrii." The word was foon after tranf- ferred to the dry meafure of corn of the fame quan- tity.— " Poniiui 080 librarum frumenti facit buffellum, de qaibus oclo conjljlit quarlcrium." By 12 Hen. VII. cap. j. a burtielis to contain eight gal- lons of wheat : the gallon, eight pounds of wheat, troy- weight ; the pound, twelve ounces troy- weight ; the ounce, twenty -fterlings ;and the ilerling, thirty-two grains, or corns of wheat growing in the midft of the ear. This ftandard bufliel is kept in the Exchequer ; when, be- ing filled with common fpring water, and the water meafured before the houfe of commons in 1696, in a regular pa- rallelepiped, it was found to contain 2145.6 folid inches; and the faid water, being weighed, amounted to 1 131 ounces and 14 penny weights troy. Greaves, Orig. of Weights, p. 35. By aft of parliament made in April 1697, it was deter- mined, that every round bufhel with a plain and even bottom, being made 18-5 inches wide throughout, and S inches deep, Ihould be efteemed a legal " Winch;ller bulhel," according to the ftandard in his majefty's exchequer. A vtflel thus made will contain 2150.42 cubic inches; and confequently the corn gallon contains only 268|. cubic inches. Ward's Mathematics, p. j6. Befides the ftandard or legal bufliel, we have feveral local buflicls, of different dimenfion? in different places. At Abingdon and Ar.dover, a bufliel contains nine gallons; at Appleby and Penrith a bufhel of peafe, rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons; of barley, big, malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A bufhel contains at Carlifle, 24 gallons ; at Chefter, a buflicl of wheat, rye, &c. con- tains,5 2 gallons, and of oats 40; at Dorchefter, a bufliel of malt and oats contains 10 gallons; at Faln-outh, the bufhel of ftricken coals is 16 gallons, of other things 20, and ufually 2 1 gallons ; at Kingllon upon Thames, the bufhel contains eight and a half, at Newbury, 9 ; at Wy- comb and Reading, eight and three fourths ; at Stamford, 16 gallons. Houghton. Colleft. torn. i. n. 46. p. 42. At Paris, by the old meafures, the bufhel was divided into two half bulhels ; the half bufhel into two quarts ; the quart into two half quarts ; the half quart into two litrons ; and the litron into two half litrons. By a fentence of the pro- voft of the merchants of Paris, the bufliel vvas to be eight inches two lines and an half high, and ten inches in diameter; the quart four inches nine lines high, and fix inches nine lines wide ; the half quart four inches three lines high, and five inches diameter ; the litron three inches and an half high, and three inches ten lines in diameter. — Three hufhels made a nr.inot, fix a mine, twelve a feptier, and an hundred and forty-four a mnid. In other parts of France, the bufhel varied : fourteen one eighth bufliels of Amboife and Tours made the Paris fep- tier. Twenty bufluls of Avignon made three Paris fep- t'ers. Twenty bafliels of Blois made one Paris feptier. Two bufliels of Bourdeaux made one Paris feptier. Thirty- two bufhcls of Rochel made nineteen Paris feptiers. 'Oats were meafnied in a double proportion to other grains; fo that twtnty-four bufhels of oats made a feptier, and 248 a raaid. The bulhtl of cats was divided into four pi- cotins, BUS cotins, tlie picotln into two lialf quarts, or four litrona. For lalt iour biiihels made one niinot, and fix a feptier. For coals (.lt;Iit bufhels made one minot, fixtccii a mine, and jJoanuiiJ. For lime, three bnllitls made a minot, and forty-eight minots a miiid. See Measure a'.id Wkight. By ,51 G. III. c. 30. the bufliel by which a'l corn (hnli be mcafurcd and computed for the purpofes of this act, fliall be the \\'inclieiler bulliel, and a quaiter fliall be deemed to confift of S bufliels : and the jnllices of each county, and the mayor of fucii cities and towns as arc counties of themfelves, or enjoy exempt jurifjidlions, and from v\hieli returns are by tills a£l directed to be made, (hall caufe a ilandard Wincheltcr bu(hcl to be provided and kept ; and all meafures fliall be computed by the (bicken and not by the lieaped budiel : and where coin fliall be fold by weight, 57lbs. avoirdupoiie of wheat fnall be deemed equal to one Winchefter buflicl ; and 5.';lbs. of rye; -i-^lbs. of barley ; 42lbj. of beer or bigg, and .^Slbs. of oats ; and further, 56lbs. of wheat-meal, 43lbs. of wheat-flour, ^s.ill''' of 'ye- iTieal, 481b3. of barley-meal, 4! lbs. of beer or bigg meal, and 22lbs. of oat-meal, fliall be deemed equal to every fueh bufliel of corn unground. And for the more eafy meafuring ground corn in facks, the proper officer may make choice of and weigh two facks out of any number not exceeding twenty, and fo in proportion ; and thereby compute the quantity of the whole. And the infpeftor of corn returns • fcall make a companion between the Wincheller meafure and that commonly ufed in the city or town for which he is infpeAor ; and within one month after his appointmei.t, fhall caufe a ilatement in writing of fuch comparifon to be hung up in fome confpicuous place in the market and town- hall of fuch city and town ; and fliall renew the fame if defaced, and fhall return a copy thereof, to the receiver of corn returns. BUSHING. SeeCoAKis-G. BUSHMILLS, in Geography, a fmall town of the county of Antrim, and province of UlUer, in Ireland, where there is a bridge over the river Bulh. In the bed of the river, near the bridge, are ranges of bafaltic columns, fimilar to thofe of the Giant's-caufeway ; and alfo on the fummit of an adjoining mountain. In the neighbourhood is the ruin of the caliie of Dunluce, which is lituated in a fingular manner on an ifolated abrupt rock, perforated by the waves; which have formed under it a very fpacious cavern. The only approach to this caftle is along a narrow wall, built fomewhat like a bridge ; which circumftance muil have ren- dered it almoft impregnable before the invention of artillery. Buflimills is 120 miles north of Dublin, and about 6 miles call of Coleraine. Hamilton's Antrim. BlISHWICK, a fmall but pleafant town of America, in King's county, Long Ifland, New York. The inhabi- tants, 540 in number, are chiefly of Dutch extraftion ; and of thefe 9g are eleftors. BUSHY Run, a north-eaft branch of .Sewickly creek, near the head of which is General Boquct's field. The creek runs fouth-eatlerly into Youghiogtny river, 30 miles S. E. from Pittfbuig, in Pennfylvania. BUSIR, or BousiR, anciently Bufirts, the name of four different towns or villages of Egypt, viz. one on the well fide of the Nile, at a fraall dillauce from the pyramids, and iS miles S. W. of Cairo. N. lat. 29^ 56'. E. long. 31° 6'. — Alfo, another on the well fide of the Nile, 7 miles N.W. of Achmounain or Hetflimunein. N. lat. 28*^ 10'. E. long. ^0° 44'. See BusiRis. — A third near the wefleru banks of the Nile, 12 miles S. W. of Atlich. — A fourth in the Delta, on the wellern fide of the call branch of the Nile ; Vol. V. BUS about 5 mlljs S. of Semeniiud, mentioned by Herodotui (I, ii. c. 59.). See BusiRi*. BUSlRlS, in Entomology, a fpecics of Papilio, (Hefp. Urb. ) with oblong entire wings of a black colour ; on the anterior pair two yellow fpots and dots; pollcrior ones with ayellowdifl<. This is a native of India. Donov. Inf. Ind. BusiRis, in /■Indent Geography, a city of Lower Egypt, • now BusiR, ou the Bufiritic branch of the Nile, and capital of the Bulirltio nome in the Delta ; faiJ to have b(-e;i bulc by Bufiris, 'a cruel tyrant, who was flain by Hercules ; but Strabo(Gtog. vol. ii. p. 1154) denies the exillence of fuch a perfon. Ifis h;id a (lately temple eredled to her in tin's city, fome ruins of which are faid to be (lill remaining. The Buliris of the Thcbais, the fecond Biifiris mentioned in the preceding article (B us ir), having revolted from the Romans, was dcllrovod by Dioclefian in his expedition againd Egypt, A. D. 296. BusiRis, in Hiflory, the name of feveral kings, who, according to Diodorus Siculus (I. i. c. J 7.) reigned in Egypt ; one of whom is faid to have built the magnificent and power- ful city to which the Greeks gave the name of Thebes. He acknowledges, however, that the barbarity of a certain Bu- firis was fabulous ; and that the fable was grounded ou a cuftom prailifcd in Egypt, of lacrilicing all the red-hair;d people they met with, mod of whom were Ibaiigcrs, as the natives of the country were fcarely ever of this colour, to the manes of Ofirls : Bufiris fignif)ing, in the Egyptian tongue, the fepulchre of Ofiris. \':rgil laiiks the bar- barity of this tyrant among the fiftlons of the poets. Virgil, however, has been cenfured for applying the epithet " In- laudati" to Diilnis (CJeorg. 1. iii. v. j.); as it dots not fuf- (iciently exprefs the terror which the cruelty of fuch a monfter tended to excite Aulas Gellius (1. ii. c. 6.) haiS endeavour- ed to vindicate Virgil's ufe of this term, as implying a tacit condemnation and dttellation of the chaiaftcr of Bufiris, becaufe a perfon uho, in all things, and at all times, remains unpraifed, " illaudatus," mull be the worft and the mod wicked oi wretches; and if "laudare" be confulcred as fignify- ing, in old Latin, to name, " illaudatus" being the lame as " illaudabilis" implies, in Virgil's ufe of it, that Bufiris did not dcferve to have his name repeated. Bayle, dilTatisfied with thefe apologies for the Roman poet, fuggefts that this verfe is one of thofe in which poets are forced, upon ac- count of the length or (hortncfs of fyllabks (the different feet)to employ ufelefs words, mere expletives, or even fuch as prejudice the fenfe. Although Ifocrates made a panegy- ric on the tyrant Bufiris, Bayle fuggells that he only in- tended to ceiifure the impertinent panegyric of Polycrates, a teacher of oratory in the ifland of Cyprus, who had writ- ten the elogium of Bufiris, and the acculation of Socrates. Melanchthon, from his refearches(inChron.lib. ii.) concludes, that Bufiris was probably the Pharaoh who occafioned the dedruilion of the children ol the llraelites. Orofius places him 77^ years before the foundation of Rome ; and, accord- ing to E.ifebius, he was contemporary with Jofliua, about 700 years before Romulus built Rome. Gen. Di£l. BUSITIS, in Ceogniphy, a diltrift of Arabia Deferta, faid to have derived its name from Bus or Bu/., Nahor'a fcco.ad fon, and to have lieen the country of Elihu, the fourth interlocutor in the hillory of Job ; called by the LXX. BUZETES. BUSK, a town of the duchy of Courland ; iS miles S. S.W. of Mittaw. BUSKIN, Cothurnus, an article of drefs, fomewhat in the manner of a boot, covering the foot and mid-leg, and tied beneath the knee : very rich and fine, and ufed princi- pally OB the ftage bv the aclor;. in tragedy. 4 F The BUS The h\\lk'-i\ is faid to have been firll introduced by ^fchy- liK : It was of a quadiangtilar form, and mi-rlit be worn ui- diffrently on eillier leg. Its fok was made fo thick, as, by means of it, men of ordinary Ibture mi^ht be raifid to the pitch and ckvation of the heroes tliey perfonated : in which it was dilUnguilhed from the foclc, worn in comedy ; which was a low, popular (hoe. By aid of this appendage, the lla- ture of the liajjic aclors was frequently increafed to four cu- bits, or about" fix Enirhdi feet and half an inch, the height of Hercules and the moll ancient heroes. The bu(l),-, ki'ihr of cattle. The French call a place frt apart cither for the flaughter of cattle, or cxpofing their fle(h to fale, a butchery, Imiche- rU. The Englilh diftinguiih, caUing the latter z JleJ1.>-Jlmm- B U T lie, or ixarht, the former a Jlaujljier-hoitfe. — Nero: built a noble edifice of this kind at Rome : on which oceafioii was llruck that medal, wiiofe reverfe is a building fnpport- ed by columns, and entered by a perron of four lUps ; the legend, mac. avg. s. c. Macellum Augiijli Senatus C'/iftilto. \.\\ London, the fiU'nifliing of the markets with butcher's meat is cantoned into feveral offices. We have carcafsbut- cliers, who kill the meat in great quantities, and fell it out to another fott called retail butchers, difperftd in all ont- parts, villages, and tov.-ns, near the city. There are befidcs, covv-jobbers, or faleftnen, who buy and fell cattle, afting betivecn the butchers and the breeders, or feeders. Some- thing like this alfo obtains at Paris. The company of butchers was not incorporated until the third year ot king James I. when they were made a corpo- ration by the name of mafter, wardens, and commonalty of the art and myftery of butchers ; yet the fraternity is an- cient. Their arms are azure, two axes faltier-wife argent, between three boars' heads couped, attired or, a boar's head gules, between tv o garljes vert. See Company. Tliere are fome good laws made for the better regulation of butchers, and for preventing the abufes committed by them. By flat. 2 and 3 Edw. VI. i >;. revived, continued, and confirmed by flat. 22 and ?3 Car. H. c. 19. now expired, butchers (and others) confplring to fell their viftuals at cer- tain prices are liable to lol. penalty, or 20 days' imprifon- ment, with merely bread and water, for the firll offence ; 20I. or the pillory, for the fecond offence; and 40I. or pil- lory, and the lofs of an ear, and infamy, for the third of- fence : the offence to be tried by the leffions or leet. By flat. 4 Hen. VH. c. j. no butcher (hall flay any beafl with- in any walled town, except Berwick and Cai-lifle, on pain of forfeiting for every ox izd., for every cow or other beall Sd. By the ordinance for bakers, butchers, &c. butchers felling fvvine's flefli mealltd, or dead of the murrain, or that buy flefh of jews, and fell the fame to Chrilliaus, for the firll time fliall be grievoufly amerced, the fecond time fuffer the pillory, the third time be imprlfoned and fined, and the fourth time forfwear the town. By ftat. 3 C. I. c. I. butchers are not to kill or fell meat on Sundays, on the penalty of forfeiting 6s. Sd., one third to the informer, and two thirds to the poor. By i Jac. I. c. 22. and 9 Ann. c. 11. regulations are made as to the wa- tering and gafliing of bides, and penalties annexed to the violation of them ; and alfo to the felling of putixfied or rot- ten hides ; and alfo by the faid flat. I Jac. I. no batcher fhall be a tanner or currier. See Cattle, ForestallinGj and Victuals. BuTCHER-Z'/n/, in Ornithology. See Lanius. BuTCHER'.f broom, in Botany. See Ruscus aculeatus. Butcher'j ijland, in Geography, a fmall ifland of the EafL Indies, about two miles long and one broad, dillant about three miles from Bombay, and deriving its name from the cattle that are kept there for the ufe of that fettlement. It has a fmall fort. BUTE, an ifland in the Frith of Clyde, fituated a little to the weil of Renfrewfliii-e, and a little fouth of Argyle- fhire. The name at Jilferent periods has been varioufly written, as Bole, Both., Bathe, and Boote, and is denominated Botis by the anonymous geographer of Ravenna. This iOand was from " very early times part of the patrimony of the Stuarts ; large poffcfTions of it were granted to fir John Stuart, fon of Robert II., by bis beloved miftrefs Elizabeth Moi-e ; and it has continued in the fame family to the prefent f.me." Bute ifle occupies an area of ground meafuring on an average r-bout i8 miles in length, by 4 in breadth, and containing about 2o,ccc acres, and 4000 inhabitants. The 2 northern BUT nortVitrn parts of it ar* rocky and harren, but its foutlu-rn parts are mollly incloftd, well cultivated, and fertile. The whole is divided into two [jariflits, in one of which is tlie roval burg of Rotb:fii\<, which is the principal town of the ifland and of the Ihire. The coall is rocky, and iiidentid with fevcral finall harbours, from wl.ich are annually Fitted out a number of buircs for the herring-fifliery. This is the principal trade of the ifland, and has been promoted even at the expence of agriculture. The climate, as nlual in fmall iilands, is neceflarily damp. Its produce is barky, oats, and potatoes; turnips with artificial grallcs have been lately C-iltivat^d. Indeed, from the example and recommendation of the marquis of Bute, who is the principal proprietor of the illaud, and derives his title from it, the lyllem of agri- culture purfued here is far before moll of the norlhcrn counties, and fuch as is calculated to obtain the greatefc produce from the lands. The fame nobleman lias alfo diredtd the fiHiermeu and farmers to be dillinft, and each to attend to his refpeiflive purfuit. The farms are mollly fmall, as few exceed the rent of lixty pounds a year, but the medium is about twenty-five. Arabic land was let, when Mr. Pennant villted the ifland, at nine or ten fliillings an acre, and the price of labourers was eight pence a dav. Rents were molUy paid in money, and the rent-roll of the ifland was about 4000I. a year. The government of Bute is managed by a deputy -llieriff, who is always refident, and determines moft petty aftions ; but criminal aClions are carried to Inverary, where the judges of the court of jufticiary meet twice a year. The marquis of Bute is admiral of the county, by commilTion from his nnjefty, and not at all dependent on the lord high admiral of Scotland. He has, therefore, full powers, cither in himfclf, or by de- puty, to judge a;id decide on all crimes of murder, piracy, &c. Among the remains of antiquity is part of a Druidical circle at Langal chorid. At Kin-garth are the ruins of a church, of which two cemeteries remain. One of thefe was excluhvely appropriated to the interment of females, becaufe, obferves Mr. Pennant, " in old limes certain women being employed to carry a quantity of holy earth, brought from Rome, loft fome by the way, and fo incurred this penalty for their negligence, that of being buried fcparate from the other fcx." Near this place is a circular inclofure called the Devil's Cauldron ; it is made of Hones piled together without mortar, but trimmed in the infide in a fmooth and regular manner. The walls are about feven feet in height, and ten feet in thicknefs. The area is thirty ftet in diameter, and the entrance gradually narrows, from the ontfide of the wall inwards. Near Rothefay are the remains of an ancient cajlle, with a fort, barracks, and drawbridge, which was formerly the refidcnce of the kings of Scotland. See Rothesay. Bute, a county or ftiire of Scotland, comprehending the above illand, with thofe of Arran, the two Cumbrays, and Inchmarnock. This county, with that ol Caithnefs, combine to fend one member to pjihament alternately. See Pen- nant's Tour in Scotland, vol. ii. Sinclair's StatilUcal Ac- count of Scotland. BUTE A, in Bolciny (in honour of the late earl of Bute, a munificent patron of botanical fcience). Willd. 1,^23. Rox- burgh. Corom. i. p. 22. Clafs and order, diadelphia dccaii- dria. Nat. Ord. Papii'wnaccic Linn. — Legumtnofcf Juff. Efi'. Ch. Cal. fubbilabiate. Cor. ftandard very long, lan- ceolate. Legume comprelfed, membranaceous, with one feed at the fummit. Willd. Species, 1. Y>. frondoja. Roxb. Corom. i.tab. 21, (Plafo, Rheede. Mai. 6. tab. 16, 17. Arbor filiquofa trifolia indica, Ray Hift. 1721. Erythriiia raonofperma, La Marck Eucyc, BUT tom. Ii. p. 391.) «' Little branches pubefccnt ; leaflets roimdifh, emarginate." Willd. An evergreen tree. Sum about fifteen feet high; outer bark, cinereous, dry, brittle, clothed with a dark red cuticle; inner bark foft, but thick, from which, when cut, exudes a gummy blood-red juice, of a fweetilh talle. Leaves alternate, petioled, growing by threes, about ten inches long ; leaflets about four inchc3 lor;i;, even above, tranfverfcly nerved beneath, reticulated be- tween the nerves ; the terminal leaflet at right angles with the other two, wedge-fliaped at its bafe ; the lati ril leaves larger on the exterior iide than on the interior, w ilh (liort and thick petioles. Floiuers red, rather huge, in racemes on alternate, or fcattered, fomcwhat tomcntous, peduncles. Ctilyx (hort, five-toothcd. Wings of the corolla a little fhorter than the llandard ; keel fliorter than the wings. Legumes elliptic-oblong, pubefccnt, from four to five inches long, and near nvo inches broad. Rav from Rheede, and I>a Marck from a dried fpecimen, communicated by Jufiieu. A native of the Eail Indies, on the coalls of Malabar and Coromandel. Obf. JiifHeu informed La Marck that fiom this tree in procured the gum lac of commerce; and in faft there are found here and there, on tlie branches of moft of the fpccl- mens in his Herbarium, refinous lumps which greatly rcfem- b!e that fubllance. Thefe lumps are much divided, and not in entire mafles, like thofe of gum or refin which proceed from various trees ; fo that they do not appear to be the in- fpifl'ated juice mentioned by Rheede, but, agreeably to the common opinion with relpcft to gum lac, may be elaborated by a fpecics of ants, fomcwhat in the fame manner as bees form their wax, and difchargcd on the fame tree from which the crude juice was obtained. 2. V>. fiipcr-la. Roxb. Corom. i. t;ib. 2i. " Little branches fmooth ; leaflets attenuated at the bale, roundifii, obtnfe." Willd. Very fimilar to the preceding, but differs in the particulars mentioned in the fpecific charaacr, and in having leaves three times as large, the leaflets being a foot long. A native of the coaft of Coromandel. Dr. Roxburgh has defcribed thefe two fpecics in the third volume of the Afiatic Refearches, p. 469, 8vo. The firll is the Maduga of the Gentnos. The juice above-mentioned hardens into a ruby-coloured brittle aftringent gum, fnon lofing its beautiful colour when cxpofed to the air ; entirely foliible in water, and alfo in a great meafure in fpiiits. In- fulions of the flowers dye cotton cloth, previoufly impreg- nated with a folution of alum, or alum and tartar, of a moft beautiful bright yellow. The fecond fpecics is the Tida maduga of the Gentoos. This alfo yields a red gum from its bark, and its flowers afford the fame beautiful yellow dye and pigment. BUTEO, in Onnlhohgy, the fpecics of Fai co we call the common buzzard in this country. It has the cere and legs yellow ; the body brown, and the belly pale, with brown fpots. This is rather larger than a kite in the body ; its length about 20 inches. BUTEONIS, in Zoology, a fpecics of Echinorhyn- CHus, of a very clear white colour, with the veficl s or the tail bluifh and lentiform. Gneze. Length of t .is kind two inches and a quarter. Infclls the intcftiiies of the buzzard. BiiTEONis, a fpecies of Ascaris, that inferts the in- teftines of the buzzard, Falco liileo, but of which no p.-r- ticular defcription has been hitherto given. Gocze, Gii.el. &c. BuTEONis, is alfo a fpecies of Cucollanus, fimnd ia the inteftines of the fame bird, of which we have no defcrip. tioii. BUTHRO- B U T BITTIIROTUM, BuTRlNTO, in ^narnt Geogiuphy, a maritime town of Epirm, meiitioned by Virgil, Strabo, and Pliny, wlio rcprf fiiils it as a Roman colony. It was (eated on a river, calltd Xanlliiis, in Thtfprotin, over againil Cor- cyra, as Butrinto is at prcfcnt oppolitc to Corfu. Cxfar gives it this pofitimi ; and Virgil fays that ^neas landed tlu-ie, a;'d was alloiiillicd to find a Trojan who reigned l-.ere, and who wa'! Helenus the fon of Priam. This king liHe- ndly fiipplied the wants of jEncas, and gave him ufeful advice with rt-fpeft to his navig;ati(in. BUTHROTUS, a river of Italy, in the country of the Bnitims. Chivior. BUTHURUS, a town of Africa in Libya Interior, and near the fonrce of the river Bagrada. Ptolemy. Bl'THYSIA, 0Jiv7i(A, in Aniiquity, a faciifice of the greateft kind: fuch were the hecatombs. See Sacrifice and Hecatomb. The Greeks frequently prefixed the particle /Jy, lu, to words, to denote tilings of extraordinary magnitude, as al- ludinjj to the bigncfs of oxen. BUTI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, feated on tiie Arno ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Leghorn. The mountains of Pifa form near this place a deep narrow hollow, called the valley of Buti, bounded by the fides of the mountains, which are covered with pine, chefnut, and olive-trees. In the bottom is a fmooth ground, cut by an impetuous torrent ; and in the lowed part of it is lltuated the land of Buti, in two divilions, the higher, called the " caftle," and the lower, " the town." It is continually cxpofed to a cold, moift air, except during feme days in fummer ; it is often covered with a thick cloud, and fubjeft to fudden changes of weather, particulaily to heavy rains; owing to its being below the high mountains of Pifa, and near to the lake of Bicntiiui, which fee. BUTIGA, is an inflammation of the whole face, otherwife called ^^iitla rofacca. BU'lTS, in Ancient Geography and Mythology. See EUTCS. BUTLASS, in Geography. See Puddar. BUTLER, or BoTij-ER, an officer whole chief charge is over the cellar and liquors. Sec ARCH-Biil/er. HvTLEKS, iuticu/ari:, among the Normans, denoted wine- tafters, appointed to examine liquors, and fee that they were right and legal. Butler of France, buticularius Francipted vigorous meafures for difarming the papills and maintaining public tranquillity ; and though he did not tfcape ca- lumny, the king determined to hipport him again'l all at- tempts for removing him, and declared with an oath, " that while the duke of Ormond lived, he fliould never be put out of that government." He was defirous, indeed, of calling a parliament in Ireland for fettling affairs, but to this meafure the kin.g would not give his confent. In 1682, when he came over to England to acquaint the king with the Rate of his government, he was advanced to the dig- nity of an Englifli dukedom ; but n-.jtwithllanding this mark of royal favour, he had given fiich oflence by his impor- tunity with refpedl to an Iriih i)arliainent, that immediately on his return he was apprili.d of an intention to remove him. Upon the accelTion of James, the duke caufed him to be pro- claimed, and foon after rtligntd his office and came over to England. Although the duke's principles did not fuit the projefts of the new reign, he was tr.-atcd with refpcft by the king, and received from him the honour of a vifit whilil he wa'j confined to his chamber with the gout. He died at King!(on-hall, in Durfetliire, Julvilll, 1688, in the 78th year of his age, and was buried in Wellminiler-abbey. " The charadler of th> duke of Ormond was that of a high-fpirited and liberal nobleman, upright in his inten- tions and fteady to his pohtical principles, which were thofe of monarchy with large prerogatives, but not beyond the law. He was a Heady friend to the church of Eng- land, and had in his family feveral men of learning who attained to eminence, among whom were Dr. Hough, the excellent BUTLER. ercellfnt hifliop of Worcofter, and the very ingenious Dr. Dmict of the Charter houfc. From a low tlioiigh honour- able beginning, he arrived at great rank and profperitv, a-id left a minieroiis progeny, of wliich he lived to fee the third generation. He was aftive and well verfcd in bufi- nefs ; a;id hij talenti, though not of the firil clafs, enabled him to apivar with reputation in fcvcral difficult conjunc- tures." IViOg. Drit. Gen. Bio^. BuTLtR, Joseph, an eminent prelate of the Englifh church, was born at Waiitavje in Berkihire, in 1692, and was inten-ied bv his father for the miiii;lry among proteftant dilfenters of the prelbvterian denomination. With this view, after hriving finilhcd his grammatical education at his n.itiv'e place, he was fent to a difienting academy, kept by Mr. Simiiel Jones, firft at Glouceller and afterwards at Tewklbury. Of his application and proficiency as a theological Ihidcnt, he exhibited a fignal evidence in two letter3°addrelTcd to Dr. Clarke, and containing a ftatement of doubts that had occurred to him concerning the con- clufivenefs of fome arguments i[i the Doftor's " Demonftra- tion of the Being and Attributes of God." The i'wH of thefe letters, dated Nov. 4, 17 13, difplayed a fagacity and depth of thought which excited the particular notice of Dr. Clarke. Encouraged by this condefcenfion, Mr. But- ler adJrefled the dodor again upon the fame fubjetl ; and received an anfwer. The whole correfpondenee, which comprifed three other letters, was annexed to the celebrated treatife above-mentioned, and retained in all the fubfequent e;iitions. The correfpondenee was fecretly condufted by Mr. Seeker, the friend and fellow-pupil of Mr. Butler ; and procured for him, as foon as he became known, tlie fricnddiip of Dr. Clarke. Wliilll he was engaged in the profccution of his lludies at Tewklbury, he entered into an examination of the principles of nonconformity ; and the refult of his inquiry was a refolution of conforming to the ellabli(hed church. His father was at firft difTatisfied with his purpofe, and attempted to divert him from it: but, finding tiiat his foil's refolution was fixed, he confented to his removal to Oxford, where he was admitted a com- moner of Oriel college in 17 14. Here he formed an inti- mate friendfliip with Mr. Edward Talbot, fecond fon of bifliop Talbot, and to this circumftance he owed all his future preferments in the church. Having taken orders foon after his admilTion at Oxford, he was recommended, in 171S, by Mr. Talbot and Dr. Clarke to Sir Jofeph Jekvll, who appointed him preacher at the Rolls chapel. In this fituatlon he continued till the year 1726, when he p::bliflied, in one volume oftavo, " Fifteen Sermons preached at that Chapel." Tliefe fermons ellabliflitd his charafter as an acute and folid rcafoner ; and as they are rather deep difquifitions, than popular difcourfes, adapted folcly to a learned and attentive audience, the author thought proper to make an apology for their abllrufentfs in a preface to a fecond edition, revifed and improved in 1729; in which preface he has alfo abridged and illullrated the principles laid down in his fermons. The llyle of thefe compofitions 13 dclhtute of that eafe and perfpicuity, which might juftly liave been delired, but which Buller was never able fuUy to attain. His friend Seeker is faid to have taken pains in rendering ni.ive familiar the language both of thefe difcnirfts and of his other works. By t!ie judicious reader, nof.vithlkanding thefe defetls, they have been always held in high ell'mation. Under the patronage of Dr. Talbot, then bifhop of Durham, to wliom Butler was recommended by his fon on his death-bed, he was prefented, firlt, viz. in 17.12, to the re&ory of Houghton near Darlington, and afttrward", vi/. in 1725, to that of Stanhope in the fame diocefe. At thin latter place, Mr. Butler, having rcfigned the Rolls chapel in 1726, refidtd during feven years, diligently difcharglng the duties of a good parifli priell. The fituation, however, was too retired and folitary for a pcrfou of his gloomy difpofitiou ; and his friend Mr. Seeker, who was appi ifcd of this circ.imllance, was anxious to draw him out of folitude into a more active and confpi- cuous fcene. With this view he took the liberty of men- tioning him to queen Caroline; who, apprehending that he was dead, alked archlnlhop Blackbunie, if this v.zi not the fail: 10 which the archbidiop replied, " No, madam, but he is buried." By the recommendation of Mr. Seeker, the lord chancellor Talbot nominated hi.ti his chaplain ; and Mr. Butler accepting the nomination, came up to London by way of Oxford, in 17 Ji, and was created dodor of laws. The chancellor alfo gave him a prebend in the church of Rochcfler, and it was ftipnlated tliat he fliould continue to refide half the year at Stanhope. In 1736, he was appointed clerk of the clofet to queen Caroline, and in the fame year, he publifaed his celebrated work, entitled " The Analogy of Religion, natural and revealed, to the Conllitulion and Courfe of Nature." The firll edition of this work, which for depth and originality of thought and reafoning, is one of the moil mallcrly performances that ever appeared in the world, was publilhed in 17,;6 in 4to : the fubfequent editions have been in Svo., and the laft by Dr. Halifax, bifhop of Glou- celler, was publilhed in 1788. The foundation of the mode of reafoning purfued in this treatife had been laid by the author in his fermons, and particularly in the lall of them " On the Ignorance of Man." For a general account of it ; fee the article Analogy. To the " Analogy" are annexed two Dilfertations ; one on Perfonal Identity, and another on the Nature of Virtue. Whilll queen Caroline lived, Dr. Butler attended her for two hours every evening ; and by her urgent recommendation to the king, he was raifed in the year following that of her death, vi/.. in 17J1S, to the fee of Briftol, and in 1740, to the deanry of St. Paul's in London, upon which he refigned his rich living of Stanhope. Bcfides attention to the various duties of his diocefe and deanry, hilltop Butler preached fevcral fermons in the metropolis on particular occafions, which were printed, and which have fince been annexed to the later editions of the fermons at the Rolls chapel. In 1746, he fucceeded Dr. Egerton, bilhop of Hereford, as clerk of the clofet to the king; and in 1750, he was tranflated to the fee of Durham. At his primary vifitation in 1751, he delivered a charge to his clergy of which the principal fubjeft was "External Religion." In recom- mending on this occafion the utility of outward forms and inftitutions, towards fixing and preferving in the minds of men a fenfe of devotion and duty, he was thought by feveral pcrfons to have fpoken too favourably of pagan and popifli ceremonies, and to have countenanced, in a certain degree, the caufe of fuperltition. He had alfo put up a plain marble crofs in his chapel at Briftol. The charge was animadverted upon by an able and fpirited writer in I7j2, in a pamphlet entitled, " A Serious Enquiry into the Ule and Importance of external ReVgion, &c." The circum- flance of the crofs at his chapel, and the offence taken by fome perfons at this charge, might poffibly have given rife to the calumny which was advanced, almoll 15 years after his death, in an obfcure and anonymous pamphlet, entitled " The Root of Proteftant Errors examined ;" and which charged him with having died in the communion of the church of Rome. The charge is abfurd and groundlefs, and hardly defervcs refutatiou. It is fufSeieutly expofed in bifhop BUTLER. biHiop Portcus's life of arcliljidiop Seeker; and tlie cha- rafter of the worthy prelate has been more amply vinilicattd by Dr. Halifax, then birtiop of Gloiictller, in a prefiice to the fecond edition of hio charjje, printtd in 17S6, con- taining an account of* the charaCler and writings of the author. .Soon after liis removal to his new bifliopric, the health of bifhop Butler began vifibly to decline ; and having made ineffectual trial of the waters at Brillol, lie removed to Bath, where he died on the ifith of Ju!ie, 1752. His remains were interred in the cathedral at Brillol, whtre a moiiumcnt, with an infcription, is ereRed to his-memorv. For bifliop Butler's intellcftual charafter, it will be fufficient to refer to his invaluable writings. Of his piety we may obfene, that it was fincere and fervent, but perhaps inclin- ing too much to the gloomy and afcetic extreme. His benevolence was ardent and diffufive. During his refidence on the fee of Brillol he expended in the repairs and im- provement of the epifeopal palace the fum of 4000I., which exceeded the whole amount of his receipts from that fee. His bentfaftions were numerous and liberal. He maintained the hofpitality and dignity of his diocefe with fpirit, ftrtting apart three days in the week for the entertainment of the principal gentry of t!ie county, and cor.defcending to invite the poorcft of his clergy to his table, and to vifit them in their parifhes. At his i!e<-eafe it is faid that he ordered all his MSS. to be bvirnt, witlioiit unfolding the covers of any of them. Biog. Brit. Halifax's Preface. Bi;tler, Samuel, a celebrated poet of the i^tlicen- tury, was born at Strenfliam, iu Worcefterfhire, as fome fay, in i6oo, and accoidin.v to others, in 1612. Having laid the foundation of grammar-learning in the free-fchool at Worctller, he was fent to Cambridee, where he retided, without being matriculated in that Univtrfity, for 6 or 7 years. Upon his return to !):s native county, he lived as cleric with an emintnt juftice of the peace, in vvhofe eafy and reputable fervice lie had leifure for applying to his favourite ftudies, hiflory and poetry, and alfo for amufing himfeif with mufic and painting. Under the patronage of Eliza- beth, coimtels of Kent, he had acccfs to a valuable library, and the opportunity of frequent intercourfe with the great Mr. Selden, who employed him in writing foreign letters, and tranflating for him. He alfo lived for fome time with fir Samuel Lake, a gentleman of an eminent family in Bed- forddiire, and a famous commander under Oliver Cromwell. About this time he wrote bis celebrated burlefque poem, entitled " Hudibras," under which cbarafltr, as it is ge- nerally fuppofcd, he intended to ridicule fir Samuel. After the reftoration, Butler was made fecretary to Richard earl of Carberry, lord prefident of Wales, and by him appointed fteward of Ludlow cattle, when the court was revived there; about which time he married Mrs. Herbert, a lady of good family and fome fortune. The firft part of his " Hudibras" was printed in 1663, and it was introduced to the notice of the court by the " Mecxnas" of that age, the earl of Dor- fet ; and vet, though it was highly extolled bv the prevailiag party, both in church and Hate, and much admired, as well as frequently cited, by the king, the author received no other re- compencebefides praife and barren promifes, and was fuffered to pafs his days in an obfcure and neglefted condition. The only boon which was conferred upon him by the king (and even this grant is difputed) was a donation, exempt from of- fice fees, of 300I. which he honourably devoted to the dif- charge of his debts ; but the profeffions of regard and fervice made to him by lord chancellor Clarendon, and by the duke of Buckingham, were futile and inefficient. RcfpcAed for his integrity and beloved for his focial qualities by his few in- timate friends, he died in lOSo, and was buried in the Vol. V. church -yard of St. Paul's, Covent-garden,at the cxpcnre of his friend Mr. Longueville of the Temple ; and, in 1721, a monument was erefted to his memory among the poett in Weltminller abbey, by alderman Barber, the printer. The infcription fancitions the common opinion of his povcity by the following words: " Ne cui vivo deerant fere omnia deeflet ctiam mortuo tumulus :" r. e. left he who, when liv- ing, wanted almott every thing, fhould, when dead, want alfo a tomb. A monument has fince been ercfled, by private fubfcrip- tioii, in the portico of the church, luar which he was buried, bearing the poet's buft, taken from that in Wcllminller abbey ; and on a ftone beiuath the mcdidlion are infcribed the following lines, contributed by Mr. O'BiTan : " A few plain men, to pomp and pride unknown. O'er a poor bard have raifed this humble ftone, Whofe wants alone his genius could furpafs, ViClim of zeal ! the matchlefs Hudibras ! What ! tho' fair freedom fuffered in his page ! Reader ! forgive the author — for the age — How few, alas, difdain to cringe and cant. When 'tis the mode to play the fycophant ! But oh ! let all be taught from Butler's fate, Who hope to make their fortune by the great. That wit and pride are always dangerous things. And little faith is due to courts and kings." His poem, entitled " Hudibras" is one of the moft ori- ginal works, with regard both to its ftyle and matter, that was ever written. It is of the burklque kind, being ufually ftyled a " mock-heroic," or " mock-epic," and much re- fembles Homer's " Margites," which, according to Arif- tole, bore the fame relation to comedy, that the Iliad and Odyffey do to tragedy. The hint of it was fuggefted by the inimitable Don Q^uixote ; and it was intended as a general fatire on thofe times of anarchy and confufion, during which the poet lived, and its leading aim was to expofe by ridicule the religious and poHtical principles of the Puritans, as they appeared after the civil war which overthrev.' church and ftate in the reign of Charles I. Of this poem there are three parts, which were printed feparately ; but the itory was left unfinifhed. The diction and verlilication arc often grofsly familiar and negligent, though, upon the whole, they add to the humorous effcifl ; and it is juftly remarked by Dr. Johnfon, in oppfuion to the judgment of Mr. Dryden, that thcheroic ft yle and meafure would not have been better adapt- ed to the author's purpofe. The frequent double rhymes, introduced by the author, although they are often very imperfc<3, fecm to give a kind of comic tone to the whole, and to improve the wit by combining the moft incongruous ideas. Butler, befides the talent which he poffeffed of in- terefting and amufing the reader by odd and whimfical no- tions and affociations, was well acquainted with human life. To this purpofe Dr. Johnfon (Lives of the Poets) obferves, that " he had watched with great diligence the operations of human nature, and traced the tffefts of opinion, humour, intereft, and paffion. From fuch remarks proceeded that great number of fententious diftichs which have paffcd into converfation, and arc added as proverbial axioms to the ge- neral flock of praftical knowledge." Of the numerous edi- tions of this poem, the moft valuable is that of Dr. Zachary Grey, publillied in 1744, with copious annotations, and a preface, in 2 volumes, Svo. The fingular popularity of this poem produced feveral unfuccefsful imitations of it, and fome vain attempts to tranflate parts of it into Latin. But it it not eafy, or perhaps polTible, to transfer the humorous turn of the phrafe, for which this performance is diftinguifhed, into any foreign language. The undertaking, however dif- 4 G ficult, BUT ficult, was aUcmptctl in a French trannation of HiuUbras, in 3 vols. I ;mi). willi notts, by 'I'owEiley, junior, eft), of Towiiley in Lancjniirc. A colUftion of pitcts,, under the titleof "Tlie Fo'.llujmoiisWorksof Mr.Samuel Butler,"\vas publilhed after his death, in ,j vols, iimo.; but moft of thcfe arc falfely aferibcd to liiin, and none of tlitm arc of much valne. However, in 1759, there appeared a more refpe^- able pphhcalion, entitled " Genuine Remains in Profe and VcriV of Mr. Bntl.-r, from the original MSS. formerly in the poffcffion of W. l.on-ueville, efq." 2 vols. 8vo. The editor was Mr. Thyer of the Maneheller library, who has cllabliihed the authenticity of thefe pieces, and accompanied them with notes. Tl'.e poetical part contains a fatire on the Royal So- citty ; and the profe conlills of " Characleis," drawn with much force and humour, and " Thouglits" on various fub- jcfts. Biog. Brit. Bi;TLER,CHARLEs,Magd. Coll. Oxford, Mailer of Arts, pnblilhed, in 4to. 1636, the principles of mufic in fmging and ftttinjj, with the twofold ufe thereof, ecclefiallical and civil. Thii trad, wliich is dedicated to Charles I. ftems to have been the only theoretical or didattic work, pnbliflicd on the fubjeft of m'ufic, during his reign. The author ap- pears to have been a learned and ingenious man. He had prcvioufly publilhed " The Principles of Grammar," in which he had propofed a new and more fimple orthography for our language, of which Dr. Johnfon has given an ac- count in the grammar prefixed to his dictionary. The Sax- on and new charafters he ufcs, in order to explode fuch let- ters as arc redundant, or of uncertain powers, render this mufical trad fomewhat difficult to perufe. It is, however, better digetled, more comprened, and replete with ufcful information, than any work of the kind that appeared for more than a century after Morley's " Introdufiion." The quotations are perhaps too numerous, and the difplay of mu- fical erudition may be thought to border on pedantry ; yet, allowing thefe to be ccnfurable, the book contains more knowledge, in a fmall compafs, than any other of the kind, in our language. Butler, * » *, an eminent harpfichord matter, who dnrnig many years had a conllant and numerous fucceffion of feholars. He fucceeded Kecble in playing the organ at Ranelagh ; was organill of St. Ann's church, Soho ; and afterwards of St. Margaret's, Wcllminller ; he played the harpfichord at Hickfurd's fuhfcription concert, and at fre- quent b"r.efits there and elfcwhere. He was a correft but not a brilliant or learned performer ; and feems never to have attempted compofition. Travelling to Naples, about the year 1775> ^" place his fon under Piccini, after that important bufinefs was done, in returning to Rome, through the Pon- tine marlhcs, he was feized by the mall' aria, hke poor Bur- ton, and died on the road. Butler, William, born at Ipfwich, about the year '53')' ^^^ educated at Clare-hall, in Cambridge, where fettling and praflifing medicine, he became one of the moil popular pliyficians in his time, and was frequently fent for, in cafts of difficulty, to dillant parts of the country. Sir Theodore Mayerne gives an account of a cure performed by him, in a violent defluxion on the face ; and Wood quotes a cafe, in his account of Francis Prefliam, efq. in which he pronounced a patient to have taken poifon, from the charge produced on a piece of gold he had dire&ed him to hold in his n onth ; probably, lays Aikin, it was a preparation of mercury that had been fwallowed. Dr. Wittie, in his preface to his " Tranflation of Primerofe's Vulgar Errors," fayR, he was in fuch repute, that many cmp'rics, after his death, fold preparations under his name, which were much fought for. He appears to have been a BUT humourid, from various (lories current concerning him ; and, perhaps, like Dr. RadcliflV, he owed much of his fame and fortune to that difpofition. In the year 161 j he was c?lled in to attend prince Henry, with fir Theodore Mayerne. He pronounced the fever to be a pellilence, and gave little hopes of his recovery. Five years after, viz. January -.:9th 1617, he died in the Sjd year of his age, and was buried in St. Mary's church, Cambridge. He left no writings, but the following elegant infcription was placed on his tomb : " Gulielmus Eutlerus, Clarcncis quondam focius, medi- coruni omnium quos prxfens ;Etns vidit facile princcps, hoc fub marmore fecuudum Chrilli adventum expeftat ; et mo- numentum hoc privata pietas llatuit, quod dcbuit publica. Abi viator, ct, ad tuos reverfus, narrate vidifTc locum in quo fah.is jacet." BuTLKR, William, was born at a town in Derbyfhire, in the year 1726. After the ufual fchool education, he went to Edinburgh, and in 1 761 took the degree of Doftor in Medicine, and published for his inaugural thefis, " Dif- fertatio Medica et Chirurgica de Arteriotomia," Svo. He then returned to Derby, where he praftifed medicine for about ten years, when he crmic and fettled in London. In 1773 he publifhed a treatife on the kink-cough, the name he gives to the tufTis convulliva, or whooping-cough. Iii the cure he relied principally on the efficacy of theextraftum cicuts, which he confidered as a fpecific in the complaint. Two years after, he gave an account of the puerperal fever, as it appeared in Derbyfliire and fome of the adjacent coun- ties, Svo. ; and in 1794, a treatife on the difeafe commonly- called angina pefto'is. This difeafe was firll defcribed by Dr. Heberden. His account of it is publifhed in the fecond volume of " Medical Tranfaflioiis," by the Royal College of Phyficians. Dr. Butler had no doubt of its being a gouty affeftion, and calls it the diaphragmatic gout, and thinks it generally curable. In the fit he gives opium with aromatics. For the cure he recommends pills with aloes and foap, to keep the body foluble. Thefe with temperance, he fays, will ufually fucceed in putting an end to the complaint. While he was at Edinburgh, where lie appears to have re- fided about feven years, he publifhed " A Method of Cure for the Stone, chiefly by Injtflions," i imo. 1754, and " Diflertatio de Frigore quatenus Morboium Caufa," Svo. 1757. He died at his houfe in Lower Groivenor-ftreet, Mai ch Jill, 1805. European Mag. Bvyler's a/f. See Ale. Butler's bdy, in Gengraphy, lies on the north fide of an ifland, in the flraits of Magellan ; it is fmall and furrounded with rocks. S. lat. ^Ji° 3;'. W. long. 74° 9'. Butler's 77»nf, a medicinal preparation of which the an- cient chemills relate wonders. See Boyle's Works, Abr. vol. i. p. ^^. The inventor, from whom it takes its name, was a Scotch- man, in great favour with king James I. and is faid to have done wonders with it, not only in the fpeedy cure of the moll dangerous diflempers, but in the making of gold out of lead and quickfilver. The preparation of this ftone is given by Morley, Colled. Cliym. Leyd. cap. 375. Butler's totim, in Geography, a town of North America,- cn the weft fide of the head-waters of the Ohio. BUTLERAGE, or Prisage, in Political Economy, a very ancient hereditary duty belonging to the crown, which is confiderably older than the cuftoms, being taken notice of in the great roll of the exchequer, 8 Ric. I. iliU extant. I'rifage was a right of taking two tons of wine from every fliip (Englifh or foreign) importing into England twenty tons or more ; one before and one behind the mail ; which 2 by BUT BUT \,Y a charter of Edward I. calkd " Charta Mercatoria," (31 Edw. I. c. 1 & 2. 27Ed\v. III. c. 26,) was exchanged into a duty of 2s. for every ton imported by merchaiit- ftrangtrs, and called btit!ern'^e, becaiile it was paid to the kintr's bntler. See Customs. BUTMENTS, in ArchitdJure, thofe fupportcrs or props, on or againll which the feet of arches reil. Butments of arches arc the fame with buttrtffcs. They anfiver to what tiie Romans caliy"MW;'iv/ ; the French, cukes and luted. Tlie word comes from the French bouter, to abut or ter- minate on any thing ; or rather from buler, to prop. The name butmeiit is alfo given to little places taken out of the y.rd, or the ground plot of a honfe, for butteries, fculleries, &c. BuTMF.NTS, or Abutmemts of a bridge, denote the two mafTives at the end of a bridge, whereby the two ex- treme arches are fuftained and joined with the (hore on either fide. The butments of bridges next the banks fliould be built more firm and foiid, as ferving to fuftain the whole fe- ries of arches, and hinder them from fpreading. See Bkidge. BUTNERIA, in Botany, Duh. See Calvcanthus Jlovidus. BUTOA, in Ane'ient Geography^ an ifland placed by Plinv among thofe of Crete, between Opliiufla and Arados. BUrOMUS, in Botany, {^ovlofj-of, from P'.v; ox, and ttjjLiiji to cut ; a name given by Theophraftus to an aquatic plant, on account of its being greedily cropt by oxen, or as others think, with lefs probability, bccaufe the (harp edges of its ftem wound their tongues and lips. Hefychius defines it, ^uxoi' (5ova^ dEcoij.iyo'j rpo^Mv oiov ^ofTtjv, a plant given to oxen for food like grafs : and Suidas, (fmcifioy vxfairXnTtot xa^xf^u orip e;SiK(ri 01 /so?;, a plant allied to the reed eaten by oxen. Cafpar. Bauhine fnppofes it to be his juncus flori- dus, the plant before us, to which Linnaeus has fince given the ancient name ; others, the fparganium ramofum of Lin- nsus; and others, a fpecics of iris.) Linn. gen. ^oj, Schreb. 693. WiUd. 804. Gxrt. 86. Juff. 46. Vent. vol. 2. 158. Clafs ajid order, enneamlna hexagynia. Nat. crd. tripetalo'idciit, Linn, jfiinci, JnflT. Alifmoiileie, Vent. Gen. Cti. Cal. Involucre fimple, three-leaved, fliort. Cor. Petals fix, romidifh, concave, withering ; three outer ones alternate, fmaller, more acute. Slain. Filaments nine, awl- Ihaped ; anthers bilamellate. Pj/l. germs fix, oblong, acu- minate, ending in ftyles ; ftigmas fimple. Perie. Capfules fix, oblong, gradually attenuated, erett, one-valved, open- ing on the inner fide. Seeds numerous, oblong-cylindrical, obtufe at both ends, fixed to the infide of the capfule. Efl". Ch. Cal. none. Petals fix. Capfules fix, many- feeded. Species. B. umbellalus. Flowering rufli, or water gladiole. Gcert. Tab. 19. f. 3. La Marck, lUuft. PI. ,524. Curt. Flor. Lond. i. 29. Eng. Bot. 651. (Juncus floridus, Matth. Camer, J. Bauh. C. Bauh. Ray. Park. Rudb. Gladiolus aquatilis. Dod. Gerard. Johns.) Root perennial, horizontal, tuberous. Leaves all radical, linear, triangular, very entire, fmootli, flat in the upper part, acute, near three feet long, ereft. Seapus folitary, fimple, round, taller than the leavee. i7;«/W terminal, fimple, many-flowered. In-vo- lucre of three membranaceous, pointed leaflets. Peduneles brafteate at the bafe. Flowers varioudy fliaded with rofe- colour, purple and white. Stamens Ipreading, equal, placed in a regular circle on the receptacle ; filaments white ; an- thers red. Germs keeled, red. Styles fliort ; fl:igmas emar- ginate. A native of watery ditches and ponds in many parts of Europe, and a favourite of the Britiflt botanill, on ac- count of its being the only indigenous plant of its clafs. BUTONES, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Strabo in Germany, and faid to be fubdued by Marobo- duus. BUTONICA, in Botany, Rumph. La Marck, and Bofc. See BARRlKGTONIA_/^Cf(/3/(7. BuTONiCA, Runiph. See Eugenia (jcw/anftt/a, and /-a- ccmofa. BUTORIUS, in OmUhology, a name by which fome have culled tlie common bittern, Ardea steluaris. BUTOW, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the cir- cle of Upper Saxony, and Further Pomcrania, 39 miles N. E. of New Stettin. BUTRINTO, anciently Buthrotum, a fea port town of Albania, in a gulf to whicli it gives name, in the canal of Corfu, the fee of a Greek bilhop, fuffragan of Janina. It belongs to the Venetians ; 56 miles W. S. W. of Delfino. N. lat. ,;9° 45'. E. long. 20^ 40'. BUTRIUM, orBuTRio, in ylneicnl Geography, a town of Italy, in the country of the Cenomani, according to Ptolemy, and placed by M. d'An^ille north of Ravenna. BUTSKOPF, (Marten) in Zoology, fynonymous with buts-kooper. BUTTS-KOPPER, (Egedc). .See Delphinus orca. BUTT, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied to fncli ridges or portions of arable land as run out fliort at the fidc» or other parts of fields. Butt, in our Ancient Cujloms, d ;notes a place erefted for archers to flioot at, and in which a mark or white was fixed. Butt, in Commerce, is ufcd for a veflel, or meafure of wine, containing two hogflieads, cr 126 gallons. — Other- wife called PIPE. A butt of currants is from fifteen to twenty-two hundred weight. Butt, in Ship-huilding, the end of a plank, or fl;riflly fpeaking, that end of a pla'.k which was nearell the root of the tree. Each end of a plank is fecurely bolted to a frame or timber, to prevent its rifing from the bottom or fide of the fliip, which, in that cafe, would be faid to have fprung or ftarted a butt. At fea this is very dangerous, and difli- cult to get fecured if the plank is under water. Butt alfo Cgnifies the ground or largefl end of all timbers. Butts, or Backs, a denomination given to that fort of tanned leather, which is prepared from the flouteft and hea- viefl; ox hides, and chiefly uied for the foles of Ihoes. For the procefs of preparing it, fee Tanning. BUTTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, fitu- ate between the two Syrtes, N. of Tege. Ptolemy. BUTTELSTETT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and principality of Weimar ; five miles N. of Weimar. BUTTEN, a town of Arabia, 28 miles E. of Chamir. BUTTER, in Rural Economy, a fat undluous fubftance prepared from milk by the procefs of churning. It is a matter naturally diflributed through the whole lubftance of the milk in very i'mall particles, which are interpofcd be- twixt the cafeous and ferous parts, amongft w hlch it is fuf- pended by a flight adhefion, but without being diflblved. It is in the fame ilate in which oil is, in emnlfions : hence the vvliitenefs of both ; and hence, by rell, th^ oily parts feparate from both thcfe liquors to the furface, and form a cream. When butter is in the ftate of cream, its proper oily parts are not yet fufliciently concentrated to form an huuiogenrous mafs. While feparated by the interpofitiori of a large qnantity of ferous particles, the butter cannot be completely formed ; but by prefung out thefe hetcrogeneons parts by means of continued percuflion, by the well known 4 G 2 operation BUTTER. optr>tion of chuniiiig, it then becomes an uniform foft mafs. Mcffrs. Parmnitier and Deycux, in a memoir on milk, (Mt-m. qui a rcmpurte le premier prix, &c. Paris, 1791)1 inllitiitcd fcveral experiments to afct-rtain whctlur butler rcaliy cxifts in the cream, and is merely feparated by agita- tion, or by the acl of ch'irning, or whether this proccis ef- fcftuates a chemical change. They incline to the latter opinion ; bccaufe they found that the feparation of the par- ticles of butter could not be produced in any other manner ; cream lift in tlic milk yields fat cheefe, but not butter. The oily parts do not rife into butter by cxpofure of cream to heat, nor by boiling it. The application of acids by fe- parating the chcefy matter blended with the cream, inllead of facilitating, retards the fermentation of butter. Half an ounce of oil was mixed with four ounces of cream ; this was gently agitated and expofcd to moderate heat ; part of the oil fwam on the furface, without uniting with the buttery particles in the cream ; the other part rendered the fermen- tation of butter more difficult, and its confidence fofter. Thus, whether folvcnts were applied to attach the buttery or cheefy particles of the cream, agitation was ilill necef- iaxy, and the change into butter was rendered more diffi- cult. Different methods are employed in obtaining and prepar- ing this fubftance from milk as well as in managing and pre- fcrving it for ufe. See Dairying. Butter, ll^hey, an inferior fort of butter made from whey in cxtenlive cheefe dairies. It is prepared in different methods in different dairy-diftrifts. See Dairying. Bi;tter, Hijlory of. The word butler is formed from /3aTu- {«», a compound of /Sa;, co'w, and lufo;, cheefe ; q. d. coiv's- ehiefe. Some authors, from a regard to this etymon, affeft to write the word buttyr and hiUyr. This is the etymology idopted by the Grecian and Roman authors. Cheefe was knoM'n to them at a much earlier period than butter : and it is therefore poflible, that, at firll, they might have confider- ed the latter as a kind of cheefe, fince it appears that xf^o; once fignified any kind of coagulated fubllance. But to the fird fyilable of the word, it has been objefted, that the Greeks ufed the milk of fheep and goats much earlier than cow's milk ; and, for this reafon, lome have conjedlured, that this fird fyilable was added, agreeably to the cuftom of the Greeks, in order to magnify the objcA, or to exprefs a fupcrior kind of cheefe. Varro, dc Re Ruftica, II. 5. p. 274. Vigerus, de praecipuis Graeca; Diftionis Idiotifmis, Lugd. Bot. 1684. p. 40. Others liave fuppofed, that tlis name $>fiv^m is not originally Greek, but that it might have been introduced into Greece from fome foreign country, toge- ther with the theory which it expreifes. Accordingly, the term has been thought to be of Scythian extraftion. Butter, though commonly ufed at prefent in mod parts of Europe, was not known, or very imperfcftly known to the ancients. The ancient trandators of the Hebrew writers, however, feem to have thought, that they found it mentioned in fcripturc, (Bochart Hierozoicon, II. 41;. p. 47i-) Accordingly, they have referred to the following palfages: Gen. xviii. 8. Deuteron. xxxii. 14. Judges v. 25. 2 Sam. xvii. 29. Job xx. 17. xxix. 6. Prov. xxx. 33. Ifaiah vii. 15. 22. But biblical critics agree, that 1 he word riNJ2n> chameah, fignifies milk or cream, or four thick milk ; and fome of them who doubt or deny the early ufe of butter among the E;iftern nations, will not allow that It denotes butter. SeeMiehatl's Suppl. ad. Lexic. Heb. pars. I. p. S07. The word, it is faid, plainly alludes to fomethmg that is liquid ; and it appears, that 'chameah was ulcd ior walhing the feet, that it was drauk, and that it 8 had the power of producing intoxication ; and it Is known, that m.ire's milk, when four, will produce the like effeft. It is further faid, that we may conceive of dreams of milk, but not dreams of butter. The error has been afcribed to the LXX interpreters who have tranflated the Hebrew term by the word /3hti/^o», boitlyron. Thefe tranflators who lived 200 years after Hippocrates, and who refided in Egypt, might, as Michaelis fuggells, have been acquainted with butter, or have heard of it ; but it is highly probable, that they meant cream, and not our ufual butter. Accord- ing to the common tranflation, indeed, it may be concluded, that the padage in Proverbs, ch. xxx, dcfcnbes the piepa- tion of butter by diaking or beating ; but the original words ^'^pl y ,'2> chaleb metz, fignify fqueeziug or preinng, friaio iriu/^enlis educit lac ; fo that milking and not making is fup- pofed to be alluded to in this padage. It was late before the Greeks appear to have had any notion of butter. Ho- mer, Theocritus, Euripides, and the other poets, make no mention of it : and yet they frequently fpeak of milk and cheefe ; nor does Arillotle, who has coUedled feveral cu- rious particulars relating to the other two, fay any thing of butter. At fird, indeed, he gives milk only two compo- nent parts, the watery and the cafeoiis ; and he remarks afterwards, for the fird time, and in a place where it would be little expefted, (Hid. Anim. iii. 20. p. jS8.) that in milk there is alfo a fat fubdance, which, under certain cir- cnmdances, is like oil. Herodotus is the mod ancient wri- ter, who, in his account of the Scythians, (1. iv. 2.) particularly defcribes the procefs ufed among them for making butter ; and this circumdance affords a prcfump- tion, that butter was not then in tife among the Greeks, and that they mud have acquired it from the Scythians. The word Btitv^ot firft occurs in Hippocrates, (De Morbis, 1. iv. ed. 1^95. fol. 5. p. 67.) who was almod contem- porary with Herodotus, as both of them flouridied in the 5th century before Chrid. " The Scythians," fays Hippocrates, "pour the milk of their mares into wooden vedels, and (liiike it violently ; this caufes it to foam, and the fat part, whic.i is light, rifing to the furface, becomes what is called butter, (0 /Sstujov KaXtacri.) The heavy and thick part, which is below, being kneaded and perfcftly prepared, is, after it has been dried, known by the name of " hippace." The whey or fcrum remains in the middle." In this padage the author fpeaks very diltinftly of butter, cheefe and whey. Butter is often mentioned by Hippocrates, and he prefcribes it externally as a medicine under the appel- lation Tix.mm, pilerlon, which feems to have been in earlier ufe among the Greeks than the term /St/Iujov, or butter. In the time of Galen this term p'derion, which the Greeks ^eem to have borrowed from the Phr)'gian=, had ceafed to be in afe ; and It is not to be found in Hefychius, Suidas, or Fohux. The poet Anaxandrides, who lived foon after Hippocrates, (fee Fab. Bib, Gnec. i. 666, 740.) defcribing the weddii g of Iphicrates, who married the daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace, and the Thracian entertainment given on that oc- cafion, fays, that the Thraciansatc butter, which the Greeks at that time confidered as a wonderful kind of food. Athe- nsei, Deipiiof. 1. iv. p. iji, and Cafaubon. Anlmadv. in Athen. 1. iv. c. 3. p. 248. Strabo, in three paflages (viz. l.j.vol.i. p. 233. 1. XV. vol. ii. p. 1031. and 1. xvii. vol. ii. p. 1176.) refers to butter. In the former, he fays, that the Lulitanians ufed butter indead of oil; and in the la'l he mentions the fame circumdance refpeding the ^Ethiopians, who, as Ludolfus informs us, (Hid. vEtiuop. l.iv. 4. i j.) were acquainted with butter; and in the third Strtbo re- lates, that elephants, when wounded, drank this liquid in order to make the darts fall from tlicir bodies. The geuuine- nefs BUTTER. nefs of this latter pafTage is doubted, as Ariftotle, Pliny, and fucli as are now ufed ; he fays it was covered, arid that in the jEllaii fay that thtfe animals iifrd oil for this purpofe. jEliiiii, lid there were holes. Whether Tacil us by " lac cortrttum," indeed, (lib. xiii. c. 7.) fays, tliat the Indians anointed the (Do Moribus Gcrmanoriim, cap. 2j.), which, accoiding to wonnds of their elephants with butter. Phiiarch, (Adverfns h;in, was the moll common food of the Germans, meant Cololeni, apjd Op. t. ii. p. iioy. ed Xyland.) informs ns, checfe or butter, is not eafily determined, that a Spartan lady paid a villt to Berenice, the wife of From what has been above fiid it appears, that butter is Deiotarus, and that the one fmelltd fo much of ointment, not a Grecian, much lefs a lloman, invention ; but that the and the other of butter, that neither of them could endure Greeks were made acquainted with it by the LSevthiann, the the other. Diofcorides, about the year .j 3 B.C. (Mat. 1'hracians, and the Phrygians, and the Romans by the peo- Mcd. ii. Si. p. 107.), fays, that good butter was prepared pie of Germany. It appears alfo, that when they had from the fattcll milk, fuch as that of fhecp or goats, by learned the art of making it, they employed it only as an fliaking- it in a vefTel till the fat was feparated ; and he af- ointment in their baths, and particularly in medicine. Colu- cribes the fame ertefts to it, when applied externally, as thofe mella, (1. vi. i z. p. 5S2.) and not Pliny, is, as VofTius thinks, produced by our butter at prefent. Diofcorides is the firll the lirR Latin writer, who makes life of the word " bntyrum." writer who obferves, that frclh butter might be melted and Pliny (I. xxviii. c. 19.) recommends it mixed with honey to poured over pulfe and vegetables inllead of oil, and that it bt rubbed on children's gum?, in order to eafe the pain of might be employed in paltry in lieu of other fat fubllances. teething, and alfo for ulcers in the mouth. The Romans, From him alio we learn, that a kind of foot was prepared in geiieral, feem to have ufed butter for anointing the bodies from butter, for external applications, and that it was ufed of their children to render them pliable ; and we arc told by in curing inflammation of the eyes and other diforders. For Sidonius Apollinaris (carm. 12.) that the ancient Burgun- this purpofe the butter was put into a lamp, and, when con- dinns befmeared their hair with it. Clemens Altxandrinus fumed, the lamp was again filled, till the defired quantity of (Pxdag. i. p. 107.), informs us, that the ancient Chriftians foot was collefted in a vefTel placed over it. Galen, who of Egypt burnt butter in the lamps at their altars inllead of dillinguidies and confirms in a more accurate manner the oil ; and the Abylflnians have retained a fomewhat finiilar healing virtues of butter, obferves, that cow's milk products praftice. It is certain, from the above detail, that butter the fattcft butter ; that butter made frcmi fheep's or goats' was ufed neither by the Greeks nor Romans in cookery, or milk is lefs rich ; and that alTes' milk yields the poorell but- the preparation of food. It is never mentioned by Galea tcr. He exprelfes his allonilhment that Diofcorides Ihould and others, as a food, though they have fpokcn of it as ap- fay, that butter was made from the milk of fheep and goats ; plicable to other purpofes. No notice is taken of it by he alTures us, that he had feen it made from cow's milk, and Apicius ; nor is any thing faid of it in that refpeft by that he believes it had thence acquired its name. De Sim- the authors who treat on agriculture, though they have plic. Med. Facuk. 1. X. p. i^i.td. Bafil ii. p 134. "But- given particular information concerning milk, cheefe, and ter," fays he clfewhere (De Aliment. Facult. iii. cap. 15. oil. Indeed, the ancients had ufually accullomed themfelves p. 54. cd. Bafil. iv. p. 340 ) may be Vf-ry properly employed to the ufe of good oil ; and butter in later times has been for ointments ; and when leather is befmeared with it, the very little employed in Italy, Spain, Portncal, and the fame purpofe is anfwtred as when it is rubbed over with oil. fouthern parts of France, where it has been fold in the fliops In cold countries, which do not produce oil, butter is ufed of apothecaries for medicinal purpofes. In warm countries it in the baths ; and that it is a real fat may be readily per- has been found difficult to prcferve it for any length of time, celved by its catching fire when poured over burning coals. In the Roman churches it was anciently allowed, during From the circumllances above recited we may infer, that Chrillmas time, to ufe butter inllead of oil, on account of butter mull have been very little known to, or ufed by, the the great confumption of it in other ways. Accordingly, in Greeks and the Romans in the time of Galen, who wrote the cathedral of Rouen, there is a tower called the " butter- at Rome and lived at the end of the fecond century of the tower," tour dii leurre, becaufe George d'Amboife, arch- Chriftian Kra. bifhop of Rouen, in 1500, finding the oil fail in his diocefe The Roman writers, who give an account of the ancient during Lent, permitted the ufe of butter, on condition that Germans, relate, that they livtd principally on milk. Some each inhabitant (hould pay fix deniers for the liberty, with fay, that they ufed cheefe, whilll others affirm that they which fum this tower was erefted. There are other butter- were unacquainted with the method of preparing it. Strabo, towers at Notre Dame, Bourgcs, &c. (lib. iv. vol. i. p. 305), fpcaking of the ancient Britons, fays. From the account of the method of making butter tranf- that fome of them were to igr.orant, that though they had mittcd to us by the ancients, we have reafon to fuppofe, abundance of milk, they did not uiiderfland the art of making that they were not acquainted with the art of making it fo a cheefe ; but by his mode ot exprefliou he intimates, that compaft and firm as that of more modern times ; but it they were not all equally unacquainted with this art. Pliny, feeuis to have been in an oily, or almoft liquid ftate. Butter on the other hand, fays, (N. H. lib. xxviii. c. 9. § 35.) that is fpuken of as fomewhat fluid. The moderns cut, knead, the barbarous nations not only made cheefe, but butter, and fprcad butter ; but the ancients poured it out like oil • which they ufed as a moll plcafant kind of food, and that it and it is reprefentcd by the Greek tranflators uf the fcrip- diftinguifhed the rich from the poor; and to them he aferibes turc as flowing in ilreams. On this account the butter of the invention of it. By " barbarous nations," this nuthor the ancients would not be long kept or eafily tranfported ; mud commonly means the Germans and Britons, becaufe they and the ufe of it muft have been very limited. Sec Beck- were not thoroughly fubjcfted to the Roman government, manii's Hift. of Inventions, vol. ii. nor intlrudcd in the Roman arts. He obferves, that butter In diiTerent ages and nations various proceffes have been was commonly made from tlie cow, the tnttell from the (heep, ufed for making butter. In Barbary, the effeCl of the and thnt it was alfo made from goats' milk ; that in co'd operation, which we call " churning," is produced by put- weather the milk was warmed, but that m (umnur this ting the cream into a goat's fkin turned inlide out, which the precaution was not ntceffary. The vcficl employed for Arabs lui'peiid in their tents, ai.d then prefs to and fro in making it fcems, from his dcfcription, to have rcfcmbkd one uuiforai direftioii. Li this way they quickly occalion the BUT T E R. »1if necclTirv reparation of the ur.auoiis and wheyey parts, commons, and heatlis of England, produce excellent butter, Shaw'- Trivcls p 168. Dr. Chandkr (Traveli in Greece, under proper mana.) larimr's Obfervations, vol.ii!. p. 172. In Bengal, butter is eafily made by the (light turning ct a Hick in milk ; and when they would make butter pafs for Irtlh when it h old and rank, they melt it and pour upou it four curdly milk; fome hours after which they Rram it through a cloth for fale. For an account of other procefici, relatiiTg to the making, curing, and prtfcrving of butter ; fee Dairying e d from that mucilage, before it be covered and packed for keeping. In order to prepare butter for a diftant vuyage in warm climates, it (hould be put into a vefiel of a proper iliape, which fliould be immerfed into another containing water. Let the water be gradually heated, till the butter be thorougldy melted j in that ilate let it continue for feme time, and be allowed to fettle ; the mucilaginous part will fall entirely to the bottom, and the pure oil will fvvim at top. Butter, in Commerce. The trade of butter is very con- perfettly tranfparent, while hot : but when it cools, it be. fiderable. The butter made in the county of Effex, and comes opaque, afliimes a colour fomewhat paler than the wtll known under the name of E55ping butter, is that which original butter, before it was melted, and a firmer confiftence, is moll highly elleemed in London and its vicinity. This ap- more nearly refembling that of tallow ;_ and conicquently it pellation, in the more relliidrd ufe of it, is applied to that pell^ . - - - r J • butter which is made from the milk of cows that feed cur- ing the fummer months in Epping-forcll, where the leaves and (hrubby plants contribyte to improve its flavour. For the methoO of making this butter, fee Dairying. It is will better refill tl'.e heat of a warm climate than common butter. When this refined butter is become a little ftiff, and while it is ftill fomewhat foft, the pure part (hould be lepa- ratedfrom the dregs, then faked, and packed up in the fame way with other butter ; this will reta:n the fait better, and made up for market iiriong rolls, weighing a pound each ; keep much longer fwcet, in hot climates, than if it had been and in the county of Somerfet the fame kind of butter is cured in its original Hate. This refined butter may be pre- diflied hi half-pounds for fale, rubbing fait round the infide fervcd by adding to it, after it has been purified, a certain of the difli, fo as to make it in the working appear handfome. pr r)portion of fine honey ; mixing them well, fo that they In many parts of the kingdom they colour their butter in may thoroughly incorporate. This mixture has a pleafant winter; but by fueh means they do not enhance its good- tallc, and fpread on biead, is ufeful for coughs and colds. nefs. It rarely happens that the farmers in or near Epping It will keep for years, without manifefting the fmalleil ten- ufeany colour, and if they do, it is very innocent. They dency to rancidity ; and of courfe, butter might be thi.s pre- procure fome found carrots, the juice of which they prefs ferved in long voyages, without fpoiling. Dr. Anderfoa through a (\i:\i:, and mix with the cream when it enters the fuggclls, that one ounce of honey might be fufBcient to pre- churn, which makes it appear like IVIay butter: nor do ferve 16 ounces of butter. they at any time ufe much fait, though a little is abfolutely By 36 Geo. III. c. 86. the 13 & 14 C. II. c. 26. and necedary. The Cambridgefhire fait butter is held in the fomuchof4W. c. 7. as difcharges perfons from the effeft. highell elleem, and is made nearly after the fame method as of any part of 13 & 14 C. II. for preventing frauds in the that of Epping ; and, by walhing and working the lalt from fellers of butter, after the fador or buyer hath contrafted for it, the cheefemongers in London often fell it, at a high the fame, are repealed ; and new regulations are made re- price, for frefii butter. It is depofited, when made, in fpefting the packing, weight aud fale of butter, which are as wooden tubs or firkins, each containing 56 pounds, which follows : — every cooper or other perfon, who Ihall make are expofed to the air for two or three weeks, and often any velfel for the packing of butter, (hall make the fame of walhed ; but the moll ready method of feafoning them is good and well-feafoned timber, light and not leaky, and fhall by the ufe of uiiHaked lime, or a large quantity of fait and groove in the heads and bottoms thereof: and every fuch water well boiled, with which they flioidd be fcrubbed feve- velfel (liall be a tub, firkin, or half-firkin, and no other, ral times, and afterwards thrown into cold water, where they capable of containing the feveral quantities of butter herein- fliould remain three or four days, till they are wanted, after mentioned ; viz. every tub fhall weigh of itfelf, includ- They (hould then be fcrubbed as before, and well rinfed ing the top and bottom, not lefs than 1 1 lb. nor more than with cold water; but before they receive the butter, care 1 ^Ib. avoirdupois weight, and neither fuch top nor bottom mull be taken to rub every part of the infide of the firkin fliall be more than | ths of an inch thick in any part thereof, with fait. Then, if the butter be properly made and per- and Ihall be capable of containing 841b. of butter, and not ftilly fweet, it may be gently prefl'ed into the firkin ; but it kfs ; every firkin ihall weigh of itUlf, including the top and mull be well faked when it is made up, and tlie fait (hould bottom, not lefs than 71b. nor more than i ilb. and neither the be equally dillributed through the whole mafs, and a good top nor bottom Ihall be more than Aths of an inch thick in handful of it be fpread on the top of the firkin ; after which any part, and fhall be capable of containing not kfs than i;61b. the head {hould be immediately put on. They purfue - of butter : and every half-firkin fliall weigh of itfelf, includ- nearly the fame method in Suffolk and in Yorklliiie ; nor is ing the top and bottom, not lefs than 41b. nor more than 61b. thebuttermadeinthofe countries much inferior to that made and neither the top nor bcttom (hall be more than -itlis of in Cambridgelhire ; indeed, it is often fold in London for an inch thick in any part, and Ihall be capable of containing 'Cambridge butter. Uttoxcterin Sla(Tord(hire has been long not lefs than 281b. of butter, on pain of forfeiting by t'le a market famous for good butter, with which the London cooper or other pcifon making the fame, los. for every fvch cheefemongers are fupplied. It is bought by the pot, of veflfel. The maker (hall brand on the oiitfide of the botU m a long, cyhndncal form, weighing 14 pounds. The moun- with an iron, his name at full length in permanent and legible jams of Waks, the highlands of Scotland, and the moors, letters, together with the exaft weight or tare thereof, ou the Uke BUTTER. 'ike penalty. And by .jS Geo. III. c. 75. every maker fliall mark in like manner his place of abo^le, or tiwellir.g, after his name, on the fame penj'ty. By,;6 Go. III. c. 86. every dairy-man, or f'.-Her of bntter, or perfon picking butter for i^ale, fliall pnck it in fiich vefTtls, properly foaked and feafoned, branding his name afttr fuch leafoning on the bottom within, and on tlie top without ; and alfo on tht out- fide of the top, and on the bonge or body thertof, ttie true weight or tare of fnch empty VLiTtl fo fcafoned, and his name on the bodv, acrofs two different Haves ; and he fliall dif- tinflly and at full length, imprint his name npon the top of the bntter in fiuh vtifel when tilled ; on pain of forfeiting 5 1. for every fiicli offence : the qnantitics to be packed, fhall be, exclufively of the tare of the vcffel, in every tub not Icfs than S4lb. ; tirkin 561b. and half firkin 281b. of good and merchantable butter ; and no bntter wh'ch is old or corrupt, fhall be mixed or packed up into any fiich veffcl, with that which is new churned ; nor fhall any whey butter be packed or mixed with that which is made of cream ; and no bntter fliali be faked with great fait, but with tine fmall fait, ar.d not intermixed with more than is needful for its prefcrvatiou, on pain of forfeiting 5 1. Any fraud with regard to the vcffel or butter, marks or ftaves, &c. fhall render the perfon concerned in it liable to a forfeiture of 30 1. for every fnch offence. Faftors buying or felling bntter in vcffcls nut le- gally marked according to the afts, fhall forfeit 20 s. for every fuch offence : and cheefemongers and otlier dealers in bntter, having in their poffefiion any vcffel containing butter for iale, not externally marked, fliall forfeit 10 s. for every fuch offence : and they are required to deliver the full quan- tity, or be liable to an attion for recovery of fatisfaftion with colts : nor fhall they repack butter for fale, on pain of for- feiting 5 1. for every tub, firkin, or half tirkin fo repacked. Foreign butter, however, may be repacked in fuch veflcls, the name of the original feller being erafed, and the name of the perfon felling being marked with an iron brand, in words at length, together with the words, " foreign butter," upon the body of every fuch vcffel : counterfeiting, or forging marks fubjetls to a penalty of 40 1. All penalties above J 1. are to be recovered in the courts at Wellminfter ; and thofe not exceeding 5 1. may be determined by one juilice, and levied by diltrefs and fale of the olTender's goods, for the ufe of the informer ; or for want of fufficicnt dillrefs, the offender may be committed to the gaol or houfe of correfiion, without bail, for a time not exceeding 3 calendar months, nor lefs than 28 days. Every information or profecution mull be commenced, within four months after the offence committed. The llatute 4 W. c. 7. regulates the fhipping of bntter and cheefe for London ; the perfon fhipping fhall receive for his pains 2 s. 6d. for every load ; and if he fliall make default, he fhall forfeit on conviflion before one juftice; for every firkin of butter 10 s. and for every weigh of cheefe '',s. half to the poor, and half to the informer, to be levied by the conflable by diftrefs and fale. He fhall keep a book of entry, for receiving and fhipping the goods, under the penalty of 2s. 6d. for every firkin of butter, &c. The mailer of a fhip refufing to take in butter or cheefe, before he is full laden, fhall forfeit tor every firkin of butter _5 s. and for every weigh of cheefe 2 s. 6 d. This aft does not extend to any warehoufe in Chelliire or Lancailiire. In the aft of 8 Geo. c. 27. there are fpecial direftions. concern- ing the fale of butter in the C'ty of York ; and in 17 Geo. II. e. S. concerning the fame in New Malton. Butter, in its reference to dirt and mcJicine, may be re- garded as refembling in its fenftble qualities, and in confe- tiuence of a chemical analyfis, the expreffcd and unftuoiis oils of vegetables, and animal fats. Butter, by dlftilla- tion in the water bath, gives out a port'on of watery fluid, that cither remained i.iterpofcd lict.vien its parts from the firil, or wa^ taken up during the waflii^ig which it undiigoes in the pruccfs of making. A fhongcr heat, caref\illy ma- naged, expels tirft a llropg acid of a penetrati ig Imell, which is followed by a concrete coloured oil, poffeffmg the lame odnir. Very little coal remains: tlie acid appears to be of the fame nature as that dillingnifhed by the name of the acid of fat ; and it may be alio obtained from butter by means of lime or an alkali. See Fat and Oil. Bntter, like the other mild and fat oils, is liable to a change called " Rancidity ;" and it becomes rancid fooner than moft other fat oils, probably on account of the water, which may favour the developcment of its acid. Wafliing with t .s now gone to falCs it bVbruU<.ht to a whitcnefs. Helmont calls it decay. The ru.r.s, which are l.tuated on a precp.ce above Butter, M'>)!< fomc repute among g wuun.ls CVjincy aflhms it is no better than pin mnsyifry of graft. lard. re o Naturabfts fpcak of (bowers and dews of butter, bee BuTTER.mW, in Rural Econr.mu the milk which is left after (he butter has been feparated by means of churnn.g or other procelfes. In fome dillricls this fort of milk is cither fold to the poor, or made ufe of by the farmer's fervants. But in large dairies it is mo ll frequently employed as a food for hogs. the rivtr Owbeg, have a very piCturefque appearance. The poet Spencer lived in this neighbi)urhood. Diilance S.W. from Dublin ijoi miles, and 21 miles N. by W. frona Cork. BUTTER FELDE, a town of Gerir.any, in the circle of Upper .Saxony, and New Mark of Brandenburg ; 5 mdes N. of Barwalde. BUTTERFIELD, a fettlement of Ame.lca, in Cum- berland countv, and dillrift of Maine, containing 189 inha- bitants, and lying about 4J miles N. from Falmouth, on nnd in moillenin'e the bran which is given to the poultry in Cafco bay ; having Butterfieid-fl.p on the north, and Buck- the farm-vard. See Dairying „ r • i Butter-milk is commonly procured from milk after it ha'! been kept fome time, and has become more or lefs acid ; but it mav be procured from any recent milk, and in this cafe, it is not acid, and only diifcrs from entire milk by the ab- fmce of its oily parts. In this ftate it is ilill tolerably noiiri milk, .. -- --- ...-.,, , advanta-re than either the entire milk, or the watery parts it in a''more aci.i Ihte. It is, however, in this laft ftate, town on the foutli. BUTTERFISH, in Idlhyohgy, a fmall fpecies of the Bi.ENNios genus, called fpccitically by W!A\.\x'AV&i gunnellus , and tlie ffotled hlenny : it is diftinguidied by the name of hutterfjh by the inhabitants on fevtral of the Englifh coalls, Donov. Brit. Fidies. See Blennius gunnellus. BUTTERFLY, mEntomohgy. See Papilio. Butter-fly, yrt/yr/an, m Botany. See Orchis. BuTrERri,Y_^j?), in Ichthyology, an Englilh name of the ocellatcd bknnv, Blennius ocelhiris, a fifn found in the-Me- iihing ; and' being often more eafily digefted than entire , it has been employed in phthifical cafes with greater nta-re than either the entire milk, or the watery parts of n „i a''more ackUhte. It is, however in this laft ftate. , ,)■ nr n- * k i ■ 1 that it is nioft commoniv employed ; and it is highly ufeful diterranean fea ; and which is dillmgnifhed by having a large ill all caf's whrre the rcfiigerant powers of milk are required, black occllar fpot in the anterior part of the durfal fin, whence As the longcr'it has been kept it feems to have its acidity this fifti is fuppofed to bear a fanciful rcfcmblance to the ,„ .... . ngcr i_ increafcd, fo it proves more powerfully refrigerant. Some have im?gincd, that in certain cafes it might be dangerous, but unlelt when drank in very large quantity, or when the bodv is very watm. Dr. Cullen fays, that he has not per- ceived its bad eftcds -, and in the laft cafe, it is probable that cold water would have been equally injurious. With rcfpeft to the acid of butter milk, or other acid ftates of the watery part of milk, it is worth obferving^ that fuch acid dots not increafe the acefccncy of the ftomach, or occafion the flatulency that recent vegetable acids and acefcents com- monly do ; and therefore it is more fafcly than thefe em- ployed by dyfpeptic pcrfons. Cullen, Mat. Med. vol. i. BLTTER-iumf, or littern, in Ornithology, fellaris. Butter lur, in Botany hylrida. See Aroea wing of a butterfly. BUTTERHILL, in Geography, a high round hill of America, on the wtil bank of Hudfon ri.er, at the northern entrance of the High-lands. BUTTERIS, \n Farriery. See Buttress. BUTTERMERE, in Geography, a village of Cumber- land, in England, is feated in a part of the country which bas been frequently admired and defcribrd by topogiaphers and toiirifts. The majeftic mountains, and tranfparent lakes cf this dillricl, prefeiit thofc wild but delightful features of landfcape, which cannot fail to awaken fcnfations of pleafure and delight. The village has nothing peculiar to excite no- tice, but the water or lake, which gives name to the place, is particularly beautiful. It occupies an area of about one mile and a half in length, by half a mile in breadth. Its See TussiLAGO petafiles and weftern ftiorc is hemmed in by a range of rugged mountains, rifing abruptly from the margin of the water. Thefe an"ume BuTTF.R-ru*. See Ranunculus nrnx. a dark and heavy afpeft, and are known to the fhephcrds, BuTTER7rtjj. See 'iAro\CAC,a falcata. who are almoft the only perfons that trace their craggy BcTTER-nu/, a fruit in New England, whofe kernel yields fteeps, by the names of Hay-cock, High-crag, High-ftile, a great quantity of fweet oil. and Red-p'ke. The eaftern ftiores rife more gently, are par- BvTTtR-'U'^r/. See Pingujcula. tially wooded, and admit of cultivation at a fliort diftance from BvTTER, Butyruin, is alto ufed to cxprefs feveral chemi- the lake; the north end is ikirtcd by the verdant vale of cal fubllances — Aslutter of antimony, of arsenic, of ben, Buttermere, and the foufhern extremity is bounded by Ho- of bismuth, of CACAO, of flax, of SATURN, ofTiN, of niftcr-crag, which fomis an abrupt termination to a chain of WAi, &c. oil account of their form of confiftence refembUng mountains. From this fteep, numerous torrents are con- that of butter. tinually pouring down their foaming waters into the lake : Butter of flone, a kind of mineral drug found on the one of thefe cataracts falls between four and five hundred bigUeft mountains, and hardcft rneks of Siberia, being drawn yards. The river which furnifties the principal fupply of by the fun's heat, in the way of tranfudalion, from the dry water to the lake, flows through Gatefgarth-dale, which is fubllance of the ftoiies themfclves, and adhering to the fur- defcribed by Mr. Gilpin as a moil lingular and tremendous face thereof like a fort of calx, which having received its full fcene. It winds flowly and folemnly in one large feement ; coftion, is fcraped off by the inhabitants under the name of being a narrow concave valley, the fides of which arc almofl: tamine mafia. The Rufiians afcribe many virtues to it. It perpendicular, and compofed of a broken craggy rock. The is much ufcd for the dyftntery and venereal difeafcs ; but its river which runs thxough this valley, is as wUd as the valley itfelf, BUT ittVlf. It lias no bankf, but tlie frap;ir.eiit3 of rocks, no l)cd but a chaniitl conipofcd of rock ilrata, among which the water fcrcts it; courfe. The middle of the valley is adorned, as thefe valleys in fnmc parts are, by a craggy hill; on the top of whicii (lands thu fragment of a rock, that look'!, in Onian's language, like thi; Jloiie of poiver, the rude d- ity of dclolation, to which the Icene is fatrcd. Giljiin's Toi'r to the Lakes, S;c. BUTTERY. — Officers in the king's buttery are a gen- tleman, yeoman, and three grooms of the Ijuttcry. The but- tery among us is ufually placed near the tf liar ; being com- monly the i-oom next the top of the cellar Hairs. BUTTHARD, in Gngruphy, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Wurzburg. BUTTING, imbotarc-, in MiiUlle ^fc Writers, is ufed for tunning of wine, or putting it into butts. BvTr\tiG-/>i// a white marble bafon, from the original fpring, through a narrow grit-ftone channel. This well is regarded as one of the feven wonders of the Peak ; chiefly from the circum- ftance that both hot and cold fpring water may be obtained within twelve inches of each other, from a double pump, fituated on the oppofiie fide of the building to that which contains the bafon. The principal ornament of Buxton is its Crcfcent, a magnificent range of building, which was erefted B U X ereflcd by the duke of Devonrtiire wltliin the lad twenty years, from thedoCign and under tlic fiiperintciidaiice of Mr. Carr, the architeft. It confilU of three ftorics ; the lowtll rulHc, foiming a beautiful colonnade, which extends the whole lenejth of front, and is feven feet wide within the pillars and eleven feet high. The divifions between the windows above, are formed by Ionic pilafters, wliicli extend can elegant balullrade that ilcirts the whole front, the fpan of which is 257 feet. Tlic Crefcent is built with grit-llone obtained near the fpot, and faced with line free-ftonc, pro- cured from a quarry ab--ut two miles dillant. Near the back of the Crelcent are ihejinl/ks, an cxtenlive pile, which was alio con^lruded at the charge of his grace of Devon- fliire, who is faid to have expended i ;o,oool. in completing the whole. The poor who rtfort to Buxton, on bringing acertifijate from the minifter of their parifli, and medical attendant, vouching for their being proper objefts of cha- rity, are admitted to partake of thi' benefit of a fund formed by col.ev!!^.ing one (hiUmg from every vifitor who Itays here more than a day. Thu is appropriated to the purchaft of necelTary medicines, and fupplyiiig fjurteen indigent per- fons with fix fliillings weekly for one month ; they are alfo perr.iited to bathe gratis. Buxton feafon generally com- mences in June, and concludes in OAober. In thefe months affemblies are held three days in the week, and a fmall theatre is opened on the other three days. Buxton contains about 100 houfes, chiefly of (lone; the inhabitants, generally refident, are about 400. The vilitors in the bathing feafon are uncertain, but are eftimated at 700 annually, who are the principal fupport of the inhabitants. Several ihops for the ma.iuiaclure and fale of ornaments of fluor fpar and alaballer are eftablilhed in this village. The place where the cryllals, denomiiiated Buxton diamonds, are found, is about two miles louth-weil from the village: it is a walle uneven piece of land, feveral acres in extent, and called the Diamond Hill. Between one and two miles wcftward of Buxton, in the vaft mafs of lime-ftone, which ranges in this part of the county, is a fiffure, or cavern, called Poole's Hole, from an ancient tradition, that an outlaw, named Poole, once made it his relidence. Tiiis beiuT confidered a great natural curiofity, we (hall be rather particular in our defcription of it. Nothing grand a-n pidturefque marks the entrance into this cavity, neither does its interior prefent any of tiie magnilicenje which fo eminently diilinguilhes the Peak cavern at CalHeton. It opens with a c:evice fo low and contratled that the curious vifitant is obliged to proceed with caution in a Hooping pofture nearly twenty-tive yards, when the paffage widens into a fpacious vacuity, from whofe roof depends a quantity of ilalaftite, produced by the droppings of water impregnated with calcareous matter. Part of this fubHance adheres to the roof, and gradually foruiS thofe pendant fpiral maffes called i\aladites, or (lo- cally) ivaler-icicles ; another portion drops with the water to the ground, and attaching itfelf to the floor is there de- pofited, and becomes the Jlalagmite, a lumpy mafs of the fame matter. One of the former, of immenfe fize, called the Flitch of Bacon, occurs about the middle of the cavern, which here becomes very narrow ; but, after a ftioit fpace, fpreads again to a greater width, and continues large and lofty, till we reach another furprilingly large mafs of itahic- tite, to which the name of Alary Qiieen of Scots' Pillar is attached, from the tradition of that queen having vilited this cavern and advanced thus far into its receffes. As this pillar cannot be paffed without forne difficulty, few people venture beyond it ; and, indeed, the remaining part of the cavern offers few objefts to repay the fatigue of exploring B U X It. The money given by vifitants is di\ided among ten aged women who refide here, asul aft as guides by the per- miffion of the duke of Devonlhire, to whom the ground belongs. The extent of the cavern docs not exceed three hundred yards. The ilone in this neighbourhood, though of feveral kinds, is mollly applied to the making of lime, many hun- dred tons of which are here burnt annually. The workmen and their families, like the Troglodytes of old, refide in Ciives ; for any other name would be ill-adapted to defcribe their habitations, which are feooped out of the hillocks or fmall mounts, formed with the refufe of the lime-kilns. The crull of thefe heaps of rubbifli having been confoli- dated by time and the weather, is now impervious to the rain; and being left of fufficient tiiieknefs, forms a fubftan- tial roof. Each habitation contains two or three rooms ; but few have any other light than is admitted through the chimney and door-way. About three miles from Buxton and two from Clinpel-in the- Frith, in a pafture field, is a natural curiofity, called " The Marvel Stones," of which Mr. Brav gives a particular defcription in his Tour through Derbyfliirc, and to which probably Dr. Stukcly alluded, when he mentions having heard of what appeared to liim a druidical work near Hope. Near the northern extremity of an eminence called Comle- J\Ii,fs, three miles from Buxton, are fome ancient military works, confiding of two deep trenches, which run parallel to each other to an extent of about two hundred yards. Buxton is fituated i6j miles N.W. from London. War- ner's Northern Tour, vol. i. Pilkington's View of the prefent State of Derby rttire, 2 vols. 8vo. 17S9. Buxton Water. The native warm fprings that have given fo much celebrity to tliis town are very numerous, and affoid a great abundance of water for every purpofe both of bathing and domellic fupply. Buxton water is perfectly clear and colourlefs, entirely void of fmell and tai'ce, nor has it any quality, befides its temperature, which diilinguiflies it from the purcft of the numerous fprings with which all mountainous countries ulually abound. The heat is very uniformly Sa'' in all feafons and circumllances, taken in the (lone refervoir which firll receives it, and hence, though to the touch this water is pofitively cold, or rather cool, it is entitled to be confi- dered as a warm fpring, being uniformly of a much higher temperature than common fprings. In St. Anne's well, the original and principal refervoir, a quantity of thin fleam is conitantly given out from the water which hovers over its furface and contributes to keep up the heat during the bathing. Along with the water, which rifes up through the crevices of the floor of the well, a coiifiderable number of air-bubbles are conftantly feen to rife at the fame time, and palling through the water break at its furface. Thefe may readily be collected by immerfing a bottle and funnel full of water in an inverted pofition and intercepting them in their paffagc upwards. Dr. Pearfon was the firft chemift who afc5:rtained the nature of this gas, and he found it to conCll almoft entirely of azotic gas mixed with a fmall portion of atmofpherical air, and not carbonic acid gas as had been conjedtured by preceding obfervers. A fmall portion of the fame gas alfo is found in combination with tlic water, which is readily fcparable by boiling. The water then yields about a fixty-fourth part of its bulk of this air. The analyfis of the water exhibits a few faline fubdances, but in very minute proportion and pcrfeftly infignhicant ; for, in fadt, it is by its purity and warmth that this natural fpriiig is didinguilhcd. By Dr. Pearfon's experimcius a gailou B U X j^ollon oF tht water yielded on evaporation only \<{ giains of rcriJimm, o( which l-J grain was clliiiiatcd tu be muriat of foda. ih to he fnlpliat of lime, and loi to be caibonat of lime liflil in folution by a flifibt excefs of carbonic acid. The watir of Button is employed larj^dy both for ex- ternal and internal ufe. Its nnifiormity of temperature and the great abundance of the fupply give to Buxton uncom- mon advanta.«;ts as a tepid bath. A flij,'!:! (hock of cold is flit on the lirll immerlion, which is immediately fuccetded ■by a very agreeable jrlow over the whole body ; and it is to be obfervcd that thti (hnck is fo (light, owing to the fmall d-flerence between the hat of the water and that of the body, as to be borne without inconvenience by very delicate and irritable habits, in whom the rougher operation of the cold balh or immei(ion in the fea often occafions per- manent head-ach, licknefs, languor, catarrh, and other in- conveniences. There is not, however, the leaft reafon to fuppofe any thing peculiar, or any occult falutary qualities in tlie Buxton bath, more thmi in any other pure water heated to 82° and confined in a (tone refervoir fo as to retain the fame tempe- rature during the whole time of bathing. Therefore all the regulations and medical direftions for its ufe may be entirely referred to the article Bathing. Buxton water is alfo taken internally by invalids, and many important virtues have been attributed to it, thus ufcd. That it contains nothing deleterious may be fafely pronounced, both from the evidence of chemical aqalyfis, and (what is more to the point) from the well-known faft that moll of the water ufed at the principal hotels for making tea and other common purpoles is derived from the fame fource. Therefore, whatever ftrefs may be laid on its fuppofed inflammatory tendency in certain cafes, it cannot be doubted but that to the reft of the world it is a pure, falutary, innocent beverage. Like other warm pure waters it is highly advantageous in many painful complaints of the kidnies and bladder and urinary palTages ; like them it powerfully relieves many of the ir.oft dillrefGng dyfpeptic fymptoms, and like them it fhews no decided aftion on the bowels, its ufe being fome- times attended with diarrhoea, fometimes with the oppofite ftate, which laft generally demands the alTiftance of aftive purgatives. The cafes for which Buxton is reforted to are moftly chronic, fuch as gout, rheumatifm, derangement of the biliary and digeftive organs, difeafes of the urinary pa{rages, and the like, and it is no fmall additional recommendation to the invalid to be abundantly furnirtied with every thing that can contribute to convenience, comfort, and amufe- ment. Buxton, in Geo'^rtiphy, a townlhip of America, in the county of York and diftrift of Maine, feated on Saco river ; 16 miles north-wefterly from Pepperel-borough, at the mouth of the river, and 118 miles N.E. from Bofton ; con- taining I ';64 inhabitants. BUXTORF, John, in Biography, an eminent Hebrew fcholar, was born at Camen in Weftphalia, in 1564. As to his religious perfuafion, he was a Calvinift ; and having fettled at Balil, he was appointed by the magiftrates pro- fefTor of the Hebrew and Chaldee languages, which he taught with great reputation till his death in 1629. In order to perfeft himfclf in thefe languages, he obtained the alTift- ance of many learned Jews, and thus acquired a predileftion in favour of rabbinical learning. His works, in the depart- ment of hterature to which he was devoted, wete numerous, learned, and ufeful. Thefe are as follow ; viz. " Lexicon Chaldaicum, Thalmudicum, et Rabbinicura," Bafil. fol. B U X lfi5g; ft finall " Hebrew and Chaldaic Difllonni^," cotTi- pofed of words from the Bible only, lamo. ; " Tiiefaurus Lingua; Hebraica;," 3 vols. 8vo. ; a fmall " Hebrew Grammar," much efteemed ; the Leyden edition of which was revifed by Leufdtn ; a large " Hebrew Bible, with the Rnbbinical and Chaldaic Paraphrafes, the MafTora, Tibe- rias, &c." 4 vols. fol. Bafil. 161 S and 1619 : " Syna- goge Judaica," a collcftion of JcwiOi modes and ceremo- nies, intended to cxpofe the Jews, but abounding too much with puerilities intermixed with a niafs of learning ; " Infti- tutio Epillolaris Hebraica," a collection of Hebrew letters ; " Concordantiae Hebraicse," 8vo. 1(^.52 ; " Bibliotheca Rabbinica," with a trcatife " De Abbreviaturis Hebras- orum." Nouv. Dicl. Hift. By XT OK F, JoHN,fonof the preceding, was born at Bafil in I c^()(), and directing his attention to ftudies fimilar to thofe of his father, he became profcfTor of the oriental languages in his native city. Belides trann:itions of fome of the rabbinical writings, fuch as the Moreh Nevochim of Mai- monidcs, and the book called Cofri, he publi(hed " A Chaldaic and Syriac Lexicon," 4to. 1621; and having adopted his father's fentiments with regard to the Hebrew vowel points, he defended them againft Liidovicus Capellus in a book entitled, " Tradtatus de Punftorum Vocalium et Accentnum in Libris Veteris Tcftamenti Htbraicis Oritfine, Antiquitateet Authoritate," Bnfil, 1648; and afterwards in a more confiderable work, entitled, " Anti-critica, feu Vindicias Veritatis Hebraicx adverfus Ludovici Capelli Criticam, quam vocat Sacram," Bafil, 1653. He publifhed likewife " Dif- fertations on the Old and New Teltament ;" " Exercita- tiones Philologicocriticae ;" " Florilegium Hebraicura ;" and other works. He died at Bafil in 1664. There were two other Btixtorfs, yohn-fames and John, fucceffively profelTors in the fame chair at Bafil, and both writers on fubjefts of literature. In general, the fchool of the Buxtorfs has been reproacheci, notvvithllanding its ac- knowledged learning, with too great predilection tor the rabbinical dodtrines ; and their decifions with regard to the authority of the Hebrew points have been gr?.dyally lofing ground, and have now comparatively few advocates, after having been very prevalent through Germany and other Pro- teftant countries, Nouv. Diet Hilt. BUXUS, in Botany, box (a corruption of Tru-o,-, the Greek name in Theophraltus for the fame plant, fo called Jia 70 ■7!vx.mi T« f:/^«, on account of the denfity of its wood). Linn, gen. 101;^ Schreb. 1420. JulT. 3S8. Vent. 3. 491. Ga:it. 630. Clafs and order, monac'm tslrandr'm. Nat. ord. Tricocca, Linn. Euphorhite, Juff. and Vent. * Male flowers prominent from the buds. Gen. Ch. Cal. perianth three-leaved ; leaves roundi{h, obtufe, concave, fpreading. Cor. petals two, roundifh, concave, fimilar to thofe of the calyx but larger. Stam, filaments four, awl- fliaped, ereft, expanding, rather longer than the calyx ; an- thers erect, twin. P'ljl. rudiment of a germ without ftyle or iligma. * Female flowers from the fame bud generally fingle, fur- rounded by eight or ten males. Cal. perianth 'four-leaved, fimilar to thofe of the male. Cor. petals three, fimilar to thofe of the male. Pljl. germ roundi(h, obtufely three-cor- nered ; ftyles three, fhort, permanent ; ftigmas obtufe, hif- pid. Linn. Peric. capfule globular, very fmooth, gloflfy, coriaceous, three-grained, before it opens three-beaked, three-valvcd ; valves two-horned ; grains of a paper-like fub- ftance, two-valved, opening elaftically. Seeds two in each cell, ovate, attenuated upwards, triangularly comprelTed, obliquely- truncate at the fummit, fomewhat fpongy, fmooth. Gasrt. Eff. Ch. Male. Cal. three-leaved ; petals two, rudiment 6 ^ . of B U X of a germ. Female. C;;/. four-leaved. P<7. tliree ; flyles three ; capfiile three-beaked, three-celled ; feeds two in each cell. Species, I. B. haharica, I^a Murck. " A tree; leaves oblong-ovate, an inch and half lonff ; (lamens very long." Branches llraight, four-cornered. Leaves oppofite, on (liort decurrent petioles, entire, fuiooth, (hining, coriaceous. Flowers in large bunches ; anthers linear. A native of Majorca, 5:c. Cultivated in the royal garden in Paris, but is tender, and docs not endure fcvcre Irods. 2. B. arhorcfcens (Sempervirens, Linn.}. " Leaves ovate-oblong, attenuated towards the fiimmit ; anthers ovate ; Hem arborefcent." La Marck. A (liriibby tree, from twelve to fixteen feet high. Stem twilled, branched. Leaves oppofite, pern-.anent, very entire, emarginate, fiiiiiing, often reddilh in winter. Flo'u.'crs in fmall or moderate b\inehes ; filaments not more than the fixth of an inch long. There is a variety with narrow leaves which, as well as the ne.tt fptcies, is laid by Miller to be fpecificallv diftinft. Its wood is of a clofe grain, very hard and heavy, and on that account is much ufed by the turner, engraver, carver, matheinatieal iidlmiTient maker, comb, and pipe, or (lute maker, and a variety ot other artizans. A na- tive of mod parts of Eu-ope, from Britain fonthward. It is found abundantly in the louth of France, iSavoy, and Italy, and in the temperate parts ;if Afia and America. In England it has given name to Box-hill in Surrey, Boxwell in Glouceilerfliire, and Boxley in Kent, all which are men- tioned by R?.y as producing it ; but on account of the value of the wood, the quantity is now much d niin.flied. Mr. Woodward has more recently obferved it on the chalk hills near Dunllable. 3. 'Q.fuJf'rKt'icnjh, dwarf box. " Leaves fmall, obovate ; Item a low under ihrub." La Marck agrees with Miller in treating this as a dillinft fpecies, though nearly related to the preceding. When fuffered to grow freely, it never rifes to a greater height than about three feet, and grows in thick, m\ich branclied tufts. Its leaves alio are fmall, and rather ovate or roundiflioval, with a white line on their back, more ftrongly marked than in the preceding fpecies. It grows wild in many parts of France, by the road fides, about villages, and in itony walle places. It is fingular that it does not flower when cultivated in Eng- land, and was never feen in that (late by Mr. Miller, though encouraged to grow many years in the greatell luxuriance. La Marck does not mention this circumllance, nor, indeed, can it be fuppofed to be thus barren in France, where it is faid to be truly indigenous. 4. B. myrlifolia, myrtle-leaved box. " Leaves fmall, oblong, rather narrow ; ftem a low under (hrub." La Marck. It refembles the preceding in its fize, but dilFers both in habit and foliage, not forming a thick tuft or bu(h, but having an elongated ftem like a tree, with open branches ; its leaves are rather narrow, with fcarcely any appearance of a white line on their furface. A fmall branch in flower, communicated to La Marck, had no female flowers. Native place not known. Encyc. Me- thodique. Box was formerly employed as a medicine in various difeafes, but in Ray's time was grown into difufe on account of its off^enlive fmell ; and before his time even its medical virtues began to be called in quedion. Dr. Withering, however, has recently recommended it ; obferving, that an empyreumatic oil diftilled from its fhavings is often ufed as a topical application for the piles ; that it frequently relieves the tooth-ach, and hai been given internally in epilepfies, and that the powdered leaves dellroy worms. Propagation and Culture. Tile arborefcent box was much admired by our ance.dors on account of its heng eafily clipped into the fliape of animals, and other fantalbc appear- ances. It was in equal requeft with the Romans for the feme purpofe. The younger Pliny, in particular, gives a Vol. V. BUY florid dcfcription of the pleafure grounds at one of his country feats, in which, among other curious devices, the letters of his own name, and of other words, were ordeiiy ex- prefTed in rows of (horn box. Thefe extravagancies have now given way to a juller talle in ornamental gardening ; but box i,s llill cultivated in our nurferies as a biautifnl evergreen ; and. left to its natural growth, is a pleafing addition to the (hrubbery. It has the additional recommendntion of thriving under the ihickell fliade, aid is ;,ble to withlland the ftvereft weather of our climate. The dwarf box n ufed to divide the beds from the walks of flower-gardens ; and thou|?h it has been condemned as affording flielter for noxious infecls, tlie fame objedlion will lie, in fome degree, againft every other kind of vegetable bordering ; but fuppoliiig it to be peculiarly liable to this inconvenience, the evil isconfiderably counterbalanced by its clofentfs and durabilitv. It may be propagated by cuttings, layers, and feed. The cuttings fliould be planted, about the time of t!ie autumnal rains, at the diftance of four inches from each other; they flunild be a foot bug, and rather more than half of the length (hould he covered by the foil. A flip of the lail year's growth, (hipped from the wood, is an excellent fet. The cuttings or (lips may (land thric years, and (liould then be tranfplanted into the nurfery in moid weather, any time between Angufl: and April. The layers fliould be earthed between Michael- mas and March. This, as profelFor Martyn obfervcs, is one of its natural methods of propagation, for when it breaks dowii by its own weight, or by a fall of fnow, it fends out fibres foon after it has come into contadl with the ground. The feed fliould be fowii, as foon as it is ripe, on a light loam or fand in a Iliady border, and reguiaily watered. Some will come up the next fpriug, but fomc will lie in the ground till the next fcafon. They fnould then have the fame treatment as the cuttings. This is faid to be the only method in which large trees can be raifed. The bed time for removing the tree is Odobcr. Martyn's Miller. BUXY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Saone and I.,oiie, and chief place of a canton in the dirtrift of Chalons-fur-Saone, and 8 mdes S.W. of it. The place contains j6o2, and the canton 14,085, inhabit- ants; the territory includes 277^ kiliometres and Jl com- munes. BUY Dr; Morn AS, Claude, in Biography, was born at Lyons and died at Paris i-i I7,S3. He is priucipdUy known as the author of an inflruftive and ufcfnl Atlas of Geo- graphy and Hiftory, Paiis, 17(^2 and 1770, 4 vols. 410. He alfo publiflied a Colmography, on the fame plan, in 1770. Buy, in Geography. See Bius. BUYING, the act of making a purchafc, or of acquiring the property of a thing for a certain price. Buying dands oppofed to felling, and difl'ers from bor. rowing or hiring, as in the former the property of the thing is alienated for perpetuity, which in the latter is not. By the civil law, perfons are allowed to buy hope, ^3, are alfo afcribed to him. Mr. Byrom, having taken both his degrees in arts, was chofen fellow of his collea^e in 1714, and by the fweetnefs of his temper and the fobriety of his mnn- ners. recc.nmended himfeli to th.e particular notice of Dr. Bentley, the mailer. His fellowlhip however terminated in 1716, on account of his not having entered into holy orders; aud leavincr college, he went abroad and rcfided for fome time at Montpellier for the recovery of his health. In France he became acquainted with Father Malebranche's Search alter Truth, and fome pieces of Mad. Antoinette Bourignon; and he returned homeprepoffelfed in favour of the vilionary philofophy of the former, and the enthufiadic ex- travagance of the latter : indeed, towards the clofe of his life it he feenis, by fome of his poems, to have been attached to the myfticifm of Jacob Boehmen. Whilll he was deliberating what courfe of life to purfue, his mind became more unfet- tled in confequence of his pafilon for an amiable coufin, who encouraged his addreffes, and whom at length he married againft the confent of her parents. This connexion involved him in difficulties; and as he obtained no nlTiftance from her father, who was in affluent circumftances, he was reduced to the necelTity of feeking fupport by teaching (hort hand, ac- cording to a new method which he had invented at Cam- bridge. He began at Maacheftcr, and leaving his wife with her relations at that place, he removed to London, where he profecuted his inllruftions in that art, deriving from them for feveral years a competent fubfiftence. In this art he was a competitor with Wellon, who challenged him to a trial of flcill. In this conteft he gained a decifive viflory; and in confequence of it, he was encouraged by a great number of pupils, fevera! of whom were perfons of rat.k and quality; and he occafionally read a lefture upon the liiftory and utility of (hort hand, which, being interfperfcd with various ftrokes of wit that were natural to him, was very entertain- ing. His winter months were devoted to this employment in London, and he fpent the fummer feafon with his family at Mancheller. In March 1724, he was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society. At length the family ellate at Kerfal devolved upon him by the death of his elder brother, with- out iffue. By this acceffion of fortune he was enabled to enjoy, without thofe interruptions which his former employ- ment had occafioned, the conjugal felicity to which his own difpofition was adapted, and to which the faitiiful and af- feftionate attachment of his wife very eminently contributed. During the latter part of his life, he almoft wholly devoted himfelf to the compofition of various pieces in verfe, fome of which are witty and humorous; and others, the moft nimie- rous, are on ferious fubjeils. He was fo accullomed to the language of poetry, that his difltrtations on learned and critical quellions were written in verfe. Thcfe were colleft- cd in September, I773» and printed at Mancheller in two volumes, i:mo. Mr. Byrom clofed an innocent and in- offeufive life with refignation and cheerfulnefs at Mancheller in September, 1763, in the 7 2d year of his age. Some time before his death, he is faid to have committed feveral of his lighter pieces to the flames; and thefe were of fuch a nature that they deferve the charatter expreffed in a dillich of Ovid, adopted as the motto of Mr. Waller's works: " Non ego motdaci dillrinxi carmine quemquam;. Nulla venenato ell htera mixta joco." By the great truths of Chriftianity his mind had been fo much imprelTed in his eaily years, that he derived his chief pleafure from employing his pen on religious fubjcdtu. Mr. B Y S Pe(rge,(Arclicol,vol.v. p. 1 2,— j 2) has thus delineated his cha. rafter: " Mv late worthy frimd, Mr. Byrom, ivh'ife memory I (hall always rcvcrc, was undoubtedly a man of part4 anU learn- ing,bi:t richer too fond fometimesof :, pan-iox. Am.in,;ll his othc r qnalifieatons, he had a particnla-- knack at verfilkation, and has accordingly delivered l.is fentin-.cnts on thi.s lubjeft (viz. the Hillory of St. G.orgc) as well as on all others, in a metrical garb , for, I prefumc, we can fcarcciy call it a po- etieal one." Biog. But. BYRON'S lay, in Geography, lies on the north-call coaft of Labrador. Byron's ijlaiul, a low flat idand in the Pacific ocean.about 21 miles in length. S. lat. i" 18'. E. long. 171°. Bvron's /?r<2/V, a narrow fea which feparatcs New Ire- land from New Hanover. BYRRHUS, in Entomology,^ ^txiws, of coleopterous in- fefts having the antennae clavatcd and the club perfoliatcd: palpi, or feelers equal and fomewhat clavated ; and both the jaw and lip bifid. The fpecics of this genus are giga«. pilula, atcr, dorfalis, varius, a:neus nitidus, fafciatus, and virefcens. BYSCHlZ, in Ccogiaphy, a town in Bohemia in the circle of Boleflavv : 6 miles E. of Melnik. BYSSUS, in Bokiny, fl^ua-o; Gr. faid by Julius Pollux to be a fpecies of flax, brought from India into Egypt : but Paufanias and Philollratus defcrlhe it as the produce of a tree, fuppofed by Dillenius to be the now well known woolly fubllance in which the feeds of golTypium, or the cotton tree, arc enveloped. Dillenius feems to be the firll among the moderns who revived the name and applied it to a tribe of plants till then cither neglefted or confounded with the fungi and lichens. It appeared in his edition of Ray's Synopfis, 1724, and afterwards more fully in his Hifloria Mufcorum, 1741; but had in the mean time been adopted by Micheli in his Nova Genera, 1 729.) Linn. gen. 1208. Schreb. i<57,3. Juff. 6. Clafs and order, cryp!ogamia algit. Nat. ord. y?/j.fcrva, confiftinff of threads, nor of any perceptible do«-ny matter, but merely ofatlun green lanvna. L.,nia:us i„ his Flora Lapponnica, puMilhed thirteen years af.evaards, notices a green iarinaceous Bylfus intermingled with water, which Dillenius.inhisIIilloria Mulconim.qnotes as a.ynonym of hi>ir.cenpapcrByirns,obferving that this plant alio at i:rll confiilsi.fa powdery matterwhich afterwards unites iif.lf into a membranaceous fd,ftance,and wh.n dry becomes white; it is the aq.aiic membranaceous Bydus of tiie Flora Lappoiuoa, vhicl. Linna;-..s himfelf in the Species Plantarum makes a variety of B. flos aqux. Weir, in his Cryptogamia, alfcrts that It is not a real plant, but only unorganiied vegetable matter, produced by the diffolution of putretied p ants. L Withering, on the other hand, believed that it will prove conferva ; for obferving a pond in the ftate of flowering, as the country people term it.he examined fome of the water, but tl.e pirfcles floating in it were fo minute, that even with the al- fillance of a very good mitrofcope he could not fatisfy liim- fclf as to their figure or llrufture. Two or three weeks later in the fpring, he found threads not jointed nor braiichLd, filher ftra-ght or coiled up like a cork-lcrcw. Some of tins water kept m a glaD jar, after two or three weeks more, let its conteiits fuhfide, and then it began to appear 1 ke a con- ferva. The threads foon became much larger and affumed a jo-ntcd appearance. La Marck defcribes it fr-im adual obfervaiion as confiiling of (liort, feathered, extremely tine threads, forming a foft green cruft on the fui face of the water. -;- B. canrellata Linn. " Threads exactly and uni- verfally latticed." Ledcin. Micro, tab. 72. Found in frefli A.ll waters, fvvimmiug like a kind of mucor or mould of a ydlowilh green colour. i,.V>. phofphorca. Linn. "Downy, o! a violet colour, and growing on rotten wood." Dill. tab. i. fig. 6. Conlillin r at tiril of very fine fiiort upright down ; afterwards prelTed'clofe to the wood, cloathiiig it like a thin membrane or crull, taking a deeper violet colour. 5. B. iiiktiKa Linn. " Filamentou? ; green: filaments branched." Dill. tab. I. fig. 14. Found on trees, rocks, and the lur- face of the ground in fhudy phtces, which it covers with a very fine fhort filky down, like velvet, of a beautiful green colour. 6. B. aurea Linn. " Filar.ents fimple or branched, clofely malted together, powdery, orange-coloured." Dr. Smith, Dill. tab. 1. fig. 16. Eng. Bot. ill. Fibres very fine, thick-fet, crcft. Found on calcareous rocks and banks, particularly in Derbyfiiire, and fometimes on damp limeftone buildings. ' It often nmforn-ily covers a fpace of many inches in diameter, and looks like a fine p'ece of orange-coloured cloth or velvet, but the furface is fometimes more tulted and broken, and it frcqu-ntly grows in a llracrgling manner, fcat- tered over moffes. It life? its beauti'ul goklen colour in five or fix weeks after it is gathered, and then becoinee of a permanent grccnilh grey. Dr. Smith. 7. B. n'l^ra Find. " Filiimeits branched, matted, powdery, black." Dr. Smith. Dili. 1. 18. Eng. Bot. 70 !. Fiift fent to Dillenuis by Dr. Riciiardfon from the well riding of Yorkihire. It has fiiice been often found on Ihady overhanging rocks in the atpir.e pans of England, Scotlan ', and Wales. It forms patches of various fizes, perfectly black, and may eafiiy be fcraped from the ftone. W;:en g-rthcred, it llrongly refenibles a piece ot felt fcraped from a hat, both in texture and colour. It confi'.ls of a mat of firic, fo^t, but ela'.tic, branched fiiam.nts, .often covered with an equally bl.iek, f loty powder, which is probably the feed, thou^ih it has not been obkrvcdto be pro. duccd at any particular ftrafon exclufively. Dr. Smith. 8.B. purpurea, Lijfir.foo: ; (Rubra Huds. 2d. eo.) " Filaments cr-.ct, fimp!: or brancheii, p trplifh." Dr. Smith. Eng. Bot. 19a. Fila.nents Uarccly longer than the brtadth of a hair, ikick-fet, ill broad nnilorm patches. When much moillened B Y S thcfe filaments become clotted together in cluftcrs, and in ' that moill ilate exhale a kind of f^veet fceiit, agreeing iu thi, refpeCt with the BylTus lolithus of Linnaeus, which is how- ever really a cru'.laceous lichen. Dr. Smith. Found by the Rev. Hugh Davies on the micaceous rocks of Anglefea, and by Mr. i.ightfoot on the bafe of Abbot Mackinnon's tomb in Ycomb-kill. 9. B. fnl-ua Hudfon. " Filaments branched, tawny." Dill. tab. i . fig. 17. Filaments longer, more rigid and more loofely difpofcd than thcfe- of B. .Tiuei, It retains its colour when dry. On putrid wood. lu. B. barhala Huds. (B. aurar.t'iuca La Murck, fui-va Vv'.th.) " Filaments upright, branched, bundled, with a.mual inter- ruptions, tawny, with fmooth, Iwellcd, deeper-coloured tips." Dr. Smith. Dill. tab. I. fig. ly. With. Bot. Ar. tab. iS. fig. 5. Eng. Bot. 701. It forms perenn-al, thick, tawny-coloured tufts, from one to two inch.es high. The growth of each year is marked by a fwelling and a daiker col 'Ur in each principal filament or fttP.i. Young piaiits confitt of a fi.pple filament, regularly and btsutiUi'iy fea- thered at the funimit. In fine fpecimens fent by the ri_;ht honriurable Lady Elizabeth N'oel to Dr. Withcrin;; and Dr. Smith, the fwelled tips were rem^irkably confuicuous. and, as her ladyfhip vvith great probability iuppofed, contained the fruftification. Thefe tips are fmooth, femi-traiifpirent, and of a rich laff on colour. In Dr. Withering s fpecimens, when examined in the microfcope, they were oblervtd to be filled with granules, and to be h-fpid with brillk-fhiped tubes, pointing upwards. In Dr. Smith's Iprcimens, which he conJeCf nres were in a lels advanced I'ate, they had not the fume appearance. On moift rotten wood. II. B. candiJst Huds. " Filaments much branched : branches fafciculated, white." Dill, in Ray's Syn. tab. 23. as it grew on an old beam in a cellar. D'll. Hill. tab. i. A. on an oak leaf; B. on the Hal! rotten fole of an 'Id flioe. From a biondilh, muci- laginous, villous bafe, fpiiig various flender branches, fpread- ing more in breadth than in height, ckgantly divided and fnbdivided,and ending iometimes in numerous capillary fibres, but generally in furfaces a little expanded witliout any de- terminate number or figure. Subilancc pure white, li'. id, or yellowifli, prefied clofe to the fubflance on which it ijrows. Dill. 12. 3. cryp/nrum Linn. "Capillary, perennial, afh- colourcd, adhcruig llrong to the rock on which it grows." Dill. I. 20. Filaments very tender, fott, grcenilh a(h- coloured, an inch long, loofely dilpofed, fo firmly attached as to be fcarcely pulled off by the fingers. Linn. Filaments fimple, dull white, brittle, diverging in a croiided manner fiom a centre, an inch and half long, and the thicknefs of a human ha'r. Dill. BYSSUS, or Byssum, a fine fort of thready matter produced in Ind a, Egypt, and about Elis in Achaia, of which the richdl apparel was anc-.ently made, efpecially that wore by the pricfls both Jewilh and Egyptian. In reality, the ancituts feein to have applied the name indifferently to any kind of n, alter th.Tt wa» Ipun and wove finer than woo! : fo that it is probable thrrc were divers forts of byfT'is. It is certain, that Arillotie gave the name bylfus to the hair or filken threads of the pinna marina ; whether it were on account of its relenblance to the byfTus or which cLths were made, or whether it were that this was the true bylfus itfelf. What countenances this latter opinion is, that the byffns of the pinna manna may be fpun, and coiifequently there is little doubt but tliHt in ages when filk was fcarce, it might be ufed in the cloaths of great men. Add, that this by flfus, though grofsly fpun, appears much finer and more beautiful than wool, anxi comes no; much (lloit of filk. Stockings and other fuch maniifaciurcs are ftill made of it, which would be more valuable if filk were lef» B Y S Icfs common. To fpiii this byiTiis, they leave It fome days ill a cclhir to moilUn and grow loft : after this thty comb it to get out the impurities, and, lalUy, fpiii it as they do I'llit. Golner, Hill. Anim. 1. 4. c. 6. Acad, des Sc. Ann. 1712, M. p. 204: otiiers tliiiik that the byirus figni- fies a kind of very line flax, vvliich grew in Egypt or J'.ida;a. Bochart, Phaleg. l.iii. c. 4. Others again are of opinion that it is cotton, or a mixture of li'ieh and cotton. Tlie prohabihty of its being cotton is llreiigtliciied by the de- fcripiion given of the byfTiis by Poilnx, which cannot be iipplied to any th'ng but cotton. This writer fays (1. vii. c. 17), that this material came from a kind of nut which grew in Egypt, and alfo in India ; that they opened the nut, txt'-afted this fubllance, fpun it, and wove it for garments. Philollratus (de Vit. ApoUon. 1. ii. c. 10) dcferibcs it much in the lame manner. Thefe cliaraiSeriftics agree very well with ciitton. Arrian, Ttrtulli.in, and Mela, concur in re- prefenting the garments worn by the Indians as confifling of flax or wool, which was produced by the trees. It is found in a kind of brown nut, which grows on a fmall flirub. Befides it feems evident from the analogy of languages, that the word ufed by Mofes in defcribing Jo- feph's garment (Gen. xli. 42.) mull mean cotton. This is the opinion of fome ot the moll learned interpreters and commentators. We learn farther from profane authors, that robes of cotton were very ancient in Egvpt, and that they were worn only by perfons of the greatclt diftinclion. Phn. H. N. 1. xix. § 2. It is no lefs certain that robes of linen were alfo ufed in very ancient times ; and it appears from the tcftimony of Mofes, that flax was cultivated in Egypt from time immemorial. Exod. ix 31. D;ut. xxii. 1 1. Hence fome have fuppofed that the ancient byflfus was either a very fine fort of cotton, or a mixture of linen and cotton. Forfler " de Byflo Antiquorum." Lond. 1776, 8vo. This ingenious writer, in an elaborate dilfertation on the fubjcdl, cites a variety of paffagcs from ancient authors, from which he concludes that the byfTus was a kind of flax, if it may be fo called, which was obtained from plants and trees in India, Arabia, and Egypt, denominated by the barbarians " Goffipion," and correfpondmg to the modern cotton. He adds, that the ancients were acquainted with two fpecies of cotton trees, the " bom- bax" and " golTypium," both belonging to the Linnsan clafs of moiuiilflphia polyandria. The byflus of which Pliny fpeaks (1. xix. c. i.) and which he extols for its foftnefs and whitenels, was the KoflTypium, or white cotton ; and that of which Philoltratui ipcaks (ubi fnpia), the colour of which was red, (paiof T^i/Juv, was obtained from " bombax." Ofbcck, in his " Travels" (vol. I. p. 38J) informs us, that the true flax was unknown in India and in Egypt, and yet in both thefe countries the fame veeetahles were culti- vated and the fame arts praftifcd. We olten read, how- ever, of flax (limim) in works pertaining to the Egyptians, as compofing the vcftrres of the priefts and others, particu- cularly when they celebrated the myfteries ot Ifis. What this fubllance was is explained by Pliny, when he fays that garments of cotton v>'ere much valued by the Egyptian priells, " Veftes inde (Xylinae) facerdotibns gratilfimse." The " velles xylinse" were fynommous with the " vclles byffinEE." Moreover, Plutarch (in Ifide and Herodotus, 1. ii. c. 86) inform us, that the religion of the Egyptians enjoined their wrapping up dead bodies in (lulls v oven with byffus. That this byffus was our cotton is evident from the authorities to which Mr R. Foller refers ; and it may be alio inferred from the fillets which were bound round their mummies. Authors ufually dillingullh two forts of byffue, that of Elis, and that of Judea, which vi as the fineft. Of this latter were the prielUy ornaments made. Bon- B Y S frcrius notes, that tlirrc mull have been two forts of byfTus-, one finer than the ordinary, by reafon there ae two Hebruw words uled in Jjcriptuie to denote byfl'iis, one of which is always ufed in fpeaking of the habit of the priefU, and the other of that of the I.,evites. See Luke Kvi. 19. Byssus montmus. See Amianthus. B^ S TRICZA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Volhynia; So'm.'es N. E. of Lucko. BYSTROPOGON, in Botany, (from /?•.->;, ohturo. and n-ayw, burha ; the mouth being clofed by a fort of beard.) THe-rit. Sert. Angl. t. iz, 2.;. JulT. 449. Vent. 2.3,^4. Willd. no I. Bofc Noiiveau Did. Clafs and order, Jiilynatma gymnnfpermia. Nat. Ord. Fertici/Lla, Linn. La- bhilie, JulT. Gen. CIl. Cal. one-leafed, generally with five awns, clofed by a beard at the opening. Cor. one-pttalled, ringent ; upper lip biiid ; lower thiee-lobed ; middle lobe the largeft. Suim. filaments four, dillant:, anthers incumbent. Pijl. genu fnp-,-rior, four-parted ; llyle awl-fliaped ; lligma fim- pie or bifid. Peric. none. Calyx clofed with a beard, and containing the feeds. SccJs four. Eli. Ctiar. Cal. bearded. Cor.upper lipbifid ; lower three- lobcd. Stamens didant. Species. 1. B.f>ec1iiiatum,\'li<:vh. [nepda pedinata, Linn.) " Panicles compaft ; flowers direftcd one way; leaves ovate."' Root perennial. Stem five or fix feet high, four-cornered, even ; branches in pairs ; each pair at right angles with the next, fcarccly fraiirant. Leaves petioled, heart-fliaped, veined, naked, ferrated. Spikes terminal, interrupted, fcarcely foliaceous, in pednncled whorls. BraSes brilUe-fhaped, nu- merous, the length of the flowers. Calyx five-parted, brillle-fliaped. Corolla yellow, fcarcely the length of the calyx ; border five-cleft ; four fegments equal, acute, fpread- ing; the fifth, or lip purplilh, rather round. (Such is the delcription of the corolla in AVilldenow, with which that of profeffor Martyn in Miller agrees ; but if any regard is to be paid to the effential generic charafter, two of the equal fegments conftitute the upper lip, and the other two, with- the intermediate larger fegment, belong to the lower lip.) Style purplifli. Stigma Ample. A native of Jamaica and Peru. 2. B. Jidjfolium, I'Herit. "Panicles very loofc ; peduncles in whorls, filiform ; leaves heart-lhaped." A native of Peru ; difcovered by Dombey. ,5. B. fuaveoL-ns, I'Herit. (Ballota/uaveolens, Linn. Melijfa yumaicana, Pluk. tab.Jo6. f. j. Spicata, Plum. tab. 16.;. f. 1. Mentajlrum maxi,rum, Sloane, tab. 102. f. 2. Mcfofpherum hirfutum, Browne^ tab. 18. f. 3.) " Peduncles axillary, folitary ; calyxes trun- cate, awncd ; leaves heart-fliaped." Root annual. Stem upright, fiirubby at the bottom, bi-anched, hiriute. Leaver oppofite, roundifli, crenatc, nerved, villous ; petioles long, {lender, lax. Peduncles axillary, three or five-flowered. Flowers approximating, blue ; calyx ten-llreaked, villous, vifcid ; teeth awned, upright, villous ; tube of the corolla narrower at the bafe ; filaments, from the bottom of the tube, (landing up above the opening of tiie corolla, pubef- ceit ; anthers blackilh. Gfrm ovate ; ftyle fhorter than the ttamens ; (ligma liniple, blunt. Seeds two, feldom four, naked, ovate, black, (lightly comprelTed. A native of South America and the Well Indies. It is called by the Portu- guefe er-va cidreira, from its fmelling like a citron ; in Ja- maica, fpikenard, from its pleafant fmell. It is one of the moil grateful cephalics and alexipharmics ; and may be uled in diforders ot the nerves a id vifcera, whe'-e fiich warm me- dicines are required. Martyn from Swartz, Sloane, and Browne. 4. B. /i/umo/um, I'Hent. {Mentha plumofa, l^wn. Sup.) " Panicles dichotomous ; calyxes feathered ; leaves ovate, fomewhat ferrated, tomentofe beneath." Panicles terminal aod axillary, fcveral times dichotomous, deriving a round B Y Z Tound form from tluir divaricated, little branches, liairy. Calyxes flat, iUllatc ; rays awl-ftaped, very hairy, fprcadm?;. Corolla fmall ; receptacle villous. A native of tlie Canary Idands, where it was found by Maflbn. 5. H. oni;aiiifolwm, THtrit. " Panicles dichotomous ; calyxes feathered ; ienvcs ovate, very entire, vcrv white beneath." Fonnd alfo by Maffon. Tills, and the preceding, to which it is nearly allied, conned the firl't ihree fpecies with the two fucceeding, I'Herit. 6. B. Cdiianenfc, I'Herit. [jMaitha Canar'niijis, Linn. Sp. PI. Pink. t. 307. f. i. Heltiylrophim, Cauar. Comm. Hort. t. rtj.) '•Peduncles dichotomous; Bowers capitate ; le.ives ovate, crenate, rather villous beneatl'." Root perennial. Stem woody, three or four feet high, much branched. Leaves on long petioles, hairy, and aili-colouied on their under fide. PeJunclcs lateral, pretty long, each fullaiiiing four roundifli heads, dividing by pairs, and fpread- ing from each other. Floifcrs white. A native of the Canary Iflands and Madeira. It was cultivated in 17 14, by the duchefs of Beaufort, and has been called by the Englifh gardeners yi/a(/<;ra yI/ij/r;/<-«OH. 7. B./K«; t>i» 7ro^^», a ciry of Thrace, fituated in a promontory nearly of a trian- gular form. The obtufe point of the unequal triangle, which reprefento the figure of Conftantinople in its prefent extent, advances towards the eaft, and the fhores of Afia, meeting and repelling the waves of the Thracian Bofphorus. The northern fide of the city is bounded by the harbour ; and the fouthern is waftied by the Propontis, or fca of Marmara. The bafis of the triangle is oppofed to the weft, and terminates the continent of Europe. On the point of the promontory flood the citadel. The walls of the city were built of large fquare ilones, fo jointed as apparently to form only a fingle block ; they were much loftier on the land's fide than towards the water, being naturally defended by the waves, and in fome places by the rocks, on which they were built, and which projcCl into the fea. This city, befidcs a gymnafuim, and Icveral kinds of public edifices, pofleffed all the conveniencies which a rich and numerous people were able to procure. They affembled in a forum, ipacious enough to contain a fmall army ranged in order of battle : and there they confirmed or rejefted the decrees of their fenate. The territory of Byzantium produced abund- ance of grain and fruits ; but it was expolcd to the frequent incurfions of the Thracians, who inhabited the adj< ..ling villages. The harbour fupplied a vaft quantity of fi'h in autumn, when they dcfcended from the Euxine into the lower feas, and alfo iu the fpring, on their return to the Pontus. This fifhery, and the curing of the fifh, furni.'hed large B Y Z L Y Z large funis to the revenues of the city, x^-hich was cmwdL-d alfi) with merchants, and fupportcd by an active and flourifhing commerce. Its port, (heltcred on every fide from tempells, attracted thither the villels of all the Grecian nations; and iis fituation at the head of the Ihait enabled it to Hop, or fubjeCl to heavy duties, the foreign mereliants wlio traded in tlie Euxinc, and to fin-nilli the nations who drew from it their fnbi'iHence. Hence arofe the conftant endeavonrs of the Athenians and L.acediEmonians to engage this city in their iiiterells. Byzantinm was founded, according to Eiifebius (in Chron.) about the third year ot the 30th olympiad, while Tulkis Hoftilius reigned at Rome. But Diadorus Siculus (1. v.) aflerts, that the foundations of this city were laid in the time of the Argonauts, about 1263 years before Chrill, by one Byzas, who then reigned in the neighbouring country, and from whofe name the city was called Byzantii'.m. This Byzas, if we may credit Eullathius (in Dionyf. v, 804.) arrived in Thrace a little before the Argonauts came into thofe feas, and fettled thtre with a colony ot Megarcans. Others fav, that the navigator Byzas, who was ftyled the fon of Neptune, founded tlie city 6^6 years before the Chrillian a:ra : and tliat his followers were drawn from Argosand Megara. .See Scaliger Animadv. ad Eufeb. p. 81. Du-Cange Conllantinopolis, 1. i. p. i. cap. 15, 16. Some an- cient medals of Byzantium, which have rcachedour times, bear the name and head of Byzas, with the prow of a fliip on the rcvcrfe, probably of that (hip which brought him into Thrace. Velleius Paterculus (1. ii. c. J 5.) alcribes the glory of founding this great metropolis to the Miltlians ; and Amnii- anus Marcellinus (1. xxii. c. 8.) to the inhabitants of Attica. Juftiri (1. ix. c. i.) fays, that it was built by Panlanias king of Lacedaemon ; but in this he mull have been mif- taken, fmce it is certain, that Paufanias, the commander of the Lacedicmonian fleet, took it (about the year B. C. 476.) from the Pafians, who had made themfelvcs mailers of it before the king of LaccdcEmou had ever been in Alia. (Tbucyd. 1. iii. Herodot. 1. iv.) Paufanias might pro- bably have rebuilt and fortified it, whilft he continued in poflreffion of it, and carried on a fecrct conlpiracy with the Perfians. It underwent many revolutions, having been fometimes fubjeft to the Perfians, fomctimes to the Lactdaemonians, and alfo to the Athenians, who took poirclfiou of it about the year B. C. 407. About the year 340 B. C. Philip of Macedon laid fiege to this city ; but was compelled to raife it, and to retreat, by Phocion, the Athenian general. Its iltualion was jullly confidtred by the ancients as the moll pleafant, and alio the moll convenient, for trade, of any in the world; and it is therefore no wonder, that the poffeflTion of it fiionld be an objeCl. of various and fucceflive conteils. After many vicif- fitudcs, Velpafian, A. D. 71, reduced Greece, which Nero liad declared free, and likewife Lycia, Rhodes, Byzantium, Samos, Thrvice, and Cilioia, to Reman provinces, alleging, that they were no longer capable of liberty, fince they only made ufe of it to undo thcmltlves by their intelline divilions. Ill the ccntcil between Niger and the empei-or Severus, the former placed a numerous garrifon in Byzantium, and the latter iniUad of purluing his enemy and belleging him in this Itrong city, detached a large body of troops 10 Cyzicus, near wiiicli a battle enfued between them and the numerous army of .^mdi'^mus, v. isich terminated in a deftat of this feneral, and ubhgcd Niger to quit Byzantinm, A. D. 194. Ipon this Severus iiivclted the place abandoned by hij enemy, and commenced a fiege, which laltcd three years. The bloody battle of Illus decided thia conteil ; and the head of Niger was fent by Sevirus to his army, encamped before Byzantium, and exhibited to tl'.c befitgij on the Vol. V. point of a fpear ; and from Byzantium it was fent to Romf, as the token and ticiphy of Severus's viftory. Such v.-crc the llrcngth of this city, its advantageous fituation for defence, and the obllinacy of the befieged, tlrat it was not lubducd witliout many aflaults and many faliiot, which render the capture of it one of the mofl extraordinary events in mihtaiy hiilory. On the fide of the fi.a it was guarded by a harbour into which tlie current let witli fiicli violence, tliat thofe who attempteil to approach the city in this way were obliged to pals under its walls. Although the walls were not high, the fea itfelf, and its rocks, were a fufficicnt barrier. On the land lidc, care had been taken to fortify it with high and thick walls, built of iiewn llonc? fattened together with cramps of iron ; and the whole circuit was (lank'.d with towers built in Inch manner and al fiich diilances, that they defended one another. Before and during the fu'gc, the liyzantinea had provided themfelvcs with various machines of war, fomc of whitli hurled large beams and Hones upon the bcfiegers on their approach, and others threw at them fliowers of darts and fmaller Hones to a greater dillance. Strong iron hooks taflcned to chair.s were funk at the foot of the wall and dragged up what- ever they laid hold of. Thefe machines were moltly coii- llruCted by one Prilcus, a Bithynian, and a famous en- gineer; who, after the furrender of the place, was fentenced to death by the generals of Severus, but obtained his pardon of the emptror, in the profpeft of deriving from his talents future fervices. The entrance of the harbour of Byzantium was barred by a chain, and upon tlie piers, which advanced on each fide into the fca, were built towers for preventing the approach of an enemy. This harbour contained Joa fmall velTels, moll of which were armtd with pointed prows of iron ; and fonie of them had two rudders, one at each end of the fliip, and a double complement of men ; by which means they could at a moment's warning, and without tacking about, either advance upon the enemy or fall back, as occafion required. Dion Caflius informs us, that the By- zantines fuccefsfuUy p'aftifed a llratagtm for taking fome of the enemy's fiiips, whilll they lay at anchor at fome dillance from the fhore. They employed diveis, who, fwimming under water, cut the cable, and drove into the body of the fliip a ilrong nail fallencd to a rope, the other end of which was in one ot their own VL-ffcls. This lall, being put in motion, dragged the otlicr alter it, and it thus appeared to move without oars or wind. As the befieged loll many of their fhips, they built others of tlie timber of their lioufes, and the wo.men cut oil their hair m order to furiiifh material* for ropes. When their fupply of darts and common Hones failed, they made ufe of the Hones of the walls of their tlieatrcs, which they demohfhed ; nor did they fpare the Hatucs, even of brafs, which adorned their city. Such was their dillrcfs by famine, that they were reduced to the nccelilty of foaking thongs of leather, in order to derive fomc nouriflimeiit from them, and at length of devouring one another. In this fituation of extreme indigence and milery, fome of the moH robull and vigorous took advantage of a Itorm to embark on board of their (hipa and to feek a fupply of food for their fellow citizens, or to pcrifh in the attempt. Having overloaded ti.eir Ihips, the Romaos attacked them in their reti'rn ; and either overlet or funk them all, fo that not a tingle veilel elcapcd. The Byzan- tines, thus deprived of their only hope, opened their gates to the bcfiegers, and lurreiulered at dilcreliou. The con- querors Ihowed them no mercy ; but maffacred all tlie foldiers, mngiHrates, and commanders ; and by order of the emperor, who exulted with his foldiers on the capture of the city, the ellates of its inhabitants were confifcated; the city was deprived of its privileges and even of its title of city, 4 K and B Y Z anJ wa? reduced to the coadition of a mere village ; fo tliat it was fubjet^cd tO(rctlicr with its territory to the jurif.hdion of tiie Pcriiitliiaiis who iiifi.lciuly abuYtd their porttr. Its fortifications were totally difmantltd ; and thus Severus dcpiivcd liie empire of one of its Ihonircil bul- w.irks, which kept all Thrace in awe, and commanded Alia and the Euxine fea. " I faw it," fays Dion Caffius, " in fucli a Hate of ruin and defolation as woiild have made any one tlii ik it hazovius wrote 3 volumes of the lives of the popes and . ^reat number of other works, v.hich are com'ple^te y fu'k nto oblivion. Having quitted the Vatican, he retired to ge Don^nican convent of Minerva, and died here in 16,7! c. CThe tliird letter, or fecond confonant of the alpha- bet, has two founds, one hTce /, as in the word call ; ' and the other hke s, as in Citfur. It has the former found before a, o, u, and a confonant ; and t!\e latter before f, i, and J'. It might be omitted, fays Dr. Johnfon, in the language without lofs, iince one of its founds might be fup- plied by s, and the other by k, but that it preferves to the eye the etymology of words, Rsfan' hom fades, captive from caplhnis. C, having no determinate found, according to Englilh orthography, never ends a word. C is formed, ac- cording to Scaliger, from the x. of the Greeks, by retrench- ing the Hem or upright line ; though others derive it from the 3 of the Hebrews, which has in effeft the fame form ; allowing only for this, that the Hebrews, reading back- wards, and the Latins, &c. forwards, each have turned the Liter their own way. However, the C not being the fame as to found with the Hebrew caph ; and it being certain the Romans did not borrow their letters immediately from the Hebrews, or other Orientals, but from the Greeks ; the de- rivation from the Greek x is the more probable. Add, that F. Montfaucon, in his Palaeographia, gives us fome forms of 'he Greek k, which come very near that of our C ; this, for inftance, C : and Sjidas calls the C, the Roman kappa. The fecond found of C refembles that of the Greek S ; and many inftances occur of ancient infcriptions, in which £ has the fame form with our C. Grutcr, vol. i. p- /I. vol. iii. p. I020. All grammarians agree, that the Romans pronounced their Q^ like our C, and their C like our K. F. Mabillnn adds, that Charles the Great was the firft who wrote his name with a C ; whereas all his predeceffors of the fame name wrote it with a K : and the fame difFtrenct is obferved in their coins. In Latin MSS. the C is often fubllituted for Q, as cofiiUe for quolhlie. Sec. and the ufe of C for K was very common among the Latins. By the negligence of copyifts C is o ftcnput in the room of P in ancient MSS. ; on fome ancient medals of Sicily, particularly thofeof Gela, C occupies the place of r, as cEAninN for TEAOIUN : and the Romans for a long time retained it in the room of G. C was alfo a iiun-.eral letter among the JRoinans, fignify- ing an hundred ; according to tlie verfe, , " Non plus quam centum C litera ftrtur habere." Some add, tliat a dalh over it, made it fignify an hundred thoufand. CC denoted 200,000, and CCC 300,000, Sic. In the Falli and Calendars C denoted the day on which it was allowed to affemble the Comitia. C is alfo an abbreviature. In proper names, C was ufed for Caius ; as C. Casfar, &c. Their lawyers nfed it hnglc for (Jot/ice or Coiifule, and double, CC. for Confulilus. On fome marbles a C revcrfcd, Q, denoted Cam. C was alfo ufed in their courts, as a letter of condcmna- C A A tion, and (lood for cotnkmno ; in oppofition to A, whicU fignified ah/olvo. On this account the letter C was called " Litera triilis." Cicero pro Milone, c. 6. C, in Miific, is the name of the fecond fpace in the bafc, the third I pace in the treble, and of every line on which the tenor or C clef is placed. In the guido fcalc or gammut, the C in the fecond fpace in thebafe is called C fa-ut ; its oflave above, on the fixtli line, C fol-fa-ut, as is the C in the third fpace in the treble, its oftave. C fometimes, in Ital. Mufc, (lands for canto, as C i, canto primo. It Pands likewife, when placed at the clef» for common time, and, with a line through it, thus A" , for cut time, or a quicker kind of movement. In mufic of the 15th and l6th centuries, in fpecifying the time or moods, as tluy were then called, when triple time, which then was ftyled perfed, and common time imperfeS, the laws of prolation were very complicated and difRcult to comprehend. An (^, or complete circle, implied perfeft time, when, without apoint, a long C3 was equal to three breves ; a breve to three femi-breves, &c. and a C, or fcmi- circle, implied imperfect or binary time, which Morley calls " prolation of the lefs." See Moons, Prolatiom, and Time-table. When at the clef a concealed canon, {canonc chiufo,) had two different marks for time placed over each other, it implied, that one of the parts fung the notes as they were written, and the other doubled all their lengths, the upper part lead* off the canon. C B, when placed in a fcore over the viola, or tenor part, implies Col Biijfo, with the bale. The French regard ut as the reprefentative of C, the firll note of their gammnt ; but Guido, the Italian, and the Eng- lilh always look upon G on the firll line in the bafe, as the firll note in the gammut, or fcale of mufic. See Hexa- CHORD, Propriety, and Solmisation. In Gregorian notes on a HafF of three hues only, C implies the tenor or C clef. C. Alhum, in Rntomolngy. See C. Album. C. Aiireum. See C. Alireum. CA A-APIA, in Botany, the Brazilian name for the Dor- Jlema Brnjilurjls cf La Marck, lird defcribed by Marggrarc and Pifo, and fince found by Commerfon, both in Brazil and Magellan. CAAB, or Cab Ben Zohair, in Biography, an eminent Arabian poet, was at firR a Jcwifli rabbin ; and when Ma- homet made war on the tribes which had embraced Judaifm, wrote fome fevcre fatirical verfcs againil him. But, on Ma- iiomet'afubfequent fuccefs, he was profclyted, and prefentcd 4 K .• hio« C A A him with a copy of verfes in Ins praife ; upon vvl.icl. be w.vs pardnnod and received into favonr Tlic importor confcn-ed on him the honour of l>is mantle which was altcr^vnrds jiur- rcat price by the cahph Moavias from Ins luirf. U. have had a larfi;e fliare in ttie compofition of Henii-a, on chaftd at a V, Caab i'! faid L. the Koran. He died in the firll year of the 62:. D'Herbehit. , , r-M, CAAB-\, a fciuare ftone edihce in the temple ot Mecca, fuppofed to have b:-e:. t«'.ilt by Ahraliam and his fou Kh- ma-l • being tlie part principally reverenced bv the Mahome- tans, and to which they always direil themfelves m prayir. See KFBtA. , , , , . . The wor.l i» Arabic, caala, and caaUi, a denomination which fome will have «'»'■" 1° «''"=* building, on account of its height, which fur{)afl"e3 that of the otlKr buildings in Mecca; but others, with more probability, derive the name from the quadrangular form of this ilru(51urc. ... r This edifice is indifpuiably fo ancient, that its orifrmal nle and the name of its builder are loft in a cloud of idie tradi- tions. The Mahometans afHrm, that it is almoft coeval with the world, and thev pretend, that Adam, after his cxpul- fion from paradife,' fvipp' cated divine pcrmifTion to creft a building like what he had fccn there, called " Beit al Ma- inar," or the frequented houfe, and " Al Dorah," towards .which he might direft his prayers, and which he might com- pafs, as the' angels do the celellial one. Upon which God let down a rcprcfentation of that lioufe in curtains of light, and fet in Mecca, perpendicularly under its original, ordcr- C A A pretend, that it was one of the prec!( 113 (lones of Pcirndife, and that it fell down to the earth with Ad.im, and being taken up again, or otherwife prcfervcd at the deluge, tlie an-s contaiired in it from Adam; and alfeit, that whilll the (iill man was in Paradife, the angel Rafiel brought him a book from heaven, which contained the doftrincs of heavenly wifdoiii ; and that wlitu Adam received this book, angels came down from heaven to learn its contents, but that he rcfufed to admit them to the knowk-dge of facrcd things, cntrulled to him- ielf alone; that, after the fall, this book was taken back into heaven ; that, after many prayers and tears, God rc- flored it to Adam ; and that it pafi'cd from Adam to Seth. The Jewifli fables further relate, that the book being loft, and the niylleries contained in it almoll forgotten, in ilie de- generate age preceding the flood, they were reftored, by fpeclal revelation, to Abraham, who tranfniittid them to writing in the book " Jezirah ;" and that the revelation was renewed to Mofes, who received a traditionary and myflical, as well as a written and preceptive, law frotn God, Accordingly, the Jews believe, that God gave to Mofcs on mount Sinai, not only the law, but alfo the explication of that law ; and that Mofes, after his coming down, retiring to his tent, rehearfed to Aaron both the one and the other. When he had done, Aaron Handing on the right hand, his fons, Eleazar and Ithamar, were introduced to a fecond re- hearfal : this being over, the feventy elders that compofed the fanhedrim were admitted ; and lallly, the people, as many as pleafed : to all of whom Mofes agaiii repeated both the law and explanation, as he received them from God. So that Aaron heard it four times, his fons thrice, the elders twice, and the people once. Now, of tlie two things which Mofes taught them, the laws and the explanation, only the full were committed to writing ; which is what we have in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers : as to the fecond, or the explication of thofe laws, they were contented to iinprefs it well in their memory, to teach it their chil- dren ; they to theirs, &c. Hence, the fiift part they call liniplv the law, or the written law; the fecond, the oral law, or cabbala. Such is the original notion of the cabbala. The cabbala being again loll anu'dll the calamities of the Babylonifli captivltv, was once more revealed to Eidras ; and it is faid to have been pref.-rvcd in Egypt, and tranfmitted to poftcrity through the nandsof Siineou ben Setach, Elkanah,. Akibha, Simeon ben Joehai, and others. The only warrant- able inference from thefe accounts, which bear tiie obvious marks of fiilion, is, that thecabbalillic doilrine obtained early. credit among the Jews as a part of their facrcd tradition, and was tranfmitted, under this notion, by the Jews in Egypt to their brethren in Palciline. Under the fanclion of ancient names, many fiftitious writings w»re produced, which greatly cotuributed to the fpreading of this niyltical fyflem. Ainong theft were " Sepher Hajjpeliah," or the book of wonders; " Sepher Hakkaneh," or the book of the pen; and " Sepher Habbahir," or the book of light. The lirll unfolds many doctrines faid to have been delivered by Elias to the rabbi El- kanah; the fecond contains myftical commentaries on the di- vine commands ; and the third illullrates the moll fublimt- myfteries. Among the profound dodors, who, bclidcs the lludy of tradition, cultivated with great indultry the cabba- lillic pliilofophy, the mod celebrated ptrfons aie the rabbis Akibha, who lived foon after the deftnidti-in of Jerufahra (See Akibha ;) and Sinieou ben Joehai, w!io Huunflied in the fecond century (See S1MF.0N ben Jochaij. To the. former is afcribed the book, entitled " Jizirah," concerning the creation ; and to the iauer, the book " Sohar," or brightncfs ; and thele are the prine pal foir^es, from which we derive our knowledge of the cabbala. From the third century to the tenth, fev>- traces of the cabbaliilic pliilofophy occur CAB occur in the vvrilingsof the Jews. The probable veafon is, that thefe mylleries, which dilTor materially from the ancient doarine of llie Jcwi(h church, w.re entrullcd only to the initiated, under a folemn oath of fecrecy ; and therefore lew pcrfons would venture to commit ilicm to wntmg. Books that were written would be lludiouny concealed from piib- lic infpeaion, and their enigmatical language would be a feal upon their meaning, which could not be broken by the vul- var hand of an uninitiated Jew. Befidcs, the Jews were for many centuries deeply involved in conlroverfies concerning their traditionary laws, and if llicy were polTeffcd of Tal- mudical erudition, they thought ihcmfclvos fufTiciently learn- ed : not to add, that the whole nation was oppreffed and haraffed bv perfeculion. That this fyllem of the cabbaliftic pliilofophy, which we may confider as the acroamatic, efotcric, or concealed doc- trine of the Jews, by way of contradillinftion from the ex- oteric or popular doClrine, was not of Hebrew origm, we may conclude with a very great degree of probability, from the total diflimilaritv of its abdrufe and myfteiious doarines, to the fimple principles of religion taught in the Mofaic law ; and that it was borrowed from the Egyptian fchools will fufficienlly appear from a compaiifon of its tenets with thofe of the oriental and Alexandrian pliilofophy. (See Alex- andrian.) Many writers have, indeed, imagined that they have found in the cabbahilic dogmas, a near refcmblance of the doarines of Chriftianity, and they have thought, that the fundamental principles of this myftical fyftcm were de- rived from divine revelation. This opinion, however, may be traced up to a prejudice which originated with the Jews, and palTed from them to the Chriftian fathers, by which they were led to afcribe all Pagan wifdom to an Hebrew origin; a notion which very probably took its rife in Egypt, when Pagan tenets firft crept in aminig the Jews. Philo, Jofephus, and other learned Jews, in order to flatter their own vanity, and that of their countrymen, induftrioufly propagated this opinion ; and the more learned fathers of the Chrillian church who entertained a high opinion of the Platonic philofophy, haftily adopted it, from an imagination that if they comld trace back the moll valuable doarines of Paganifm to a 4^ebrew origin, this could not fail to recommend the Jewifh and Chriftian religions to the attention of the Gentile philo- fophers. Many learned moderns, relying implicitly upon thefe authorities, have maintained the fame opinion, and have thence been inclined to credit the report of the divine origi- nal of the Jevv-ilh cabbala. But the opinion is unfounded ; and the cabbaii'.lic fyllem is cITentially inconfiftent with the pure doarine of divine revehition. The true ftate of the cafe feems to be, that the Jews, like otlitr oriental nations, from the mod remote period, had fecret doarines or mylle- ries. During the prophetic ages, thefe, probably, confided in a fimple explination of thofe divine truths, which the pro- phets delivered under the veil of emblems. After this period, when the feas of the EITencs and Therapeutx were formed in E^ypt, foreign tenets and inditutions were borrowed from the Egyptians and Greeks, and, in the form of allegorical interpretations of the law, were admitted into the Jewilh mylleries. Tliefe innovations chiefly confided in certain dogmas concerning God and divine things, at this time re- ceived in the Egyptian fchools, particularly at Alexandria, where the Platonic and Pythagorean doariiits on thefe fub- jeas had been blended with the oriental philofophy. The Jewifh myfteries thus enlarged by the acceffion of Pagan dogmas, were conveyed from Egypt to Palelline, at the time when the Pharifees, who had been driven into Egypt under Hyrcanus, returned, with many other Jews, into their own country. From this time the cabbalillic mylleries continued CAB to be taught in the Jcwifli fchools ; but, at length, they were adulterated by a mixture of Peripatetic doarines, and other tenets, which fprang up in the middle age. Thefe myfte- ries were not, probably, reduced to any fyllematlc forms in writing, till after the difperfion of the Jews, when, in con- fequence of their national calamities, they became apprchen- five that thofe facred treafures would-be corrupted, or loft. In preceding periods, the cabbalidic doarines underwent various corruptions, particularly from the prevalence of the Arillotelian philofophy. The fimilarity or rather the coin- cidence, of tlie cabbalidic, Alexandrian, and oriental philo- fophy, will be fufficiently evinced by briefly dating the com- mon tenets in which thefe different fyftems agreed; they areas follow : " All things are derived by emanation from one principle : and this principle is God. From him a fubftaii- tial power immediately proceeds, which is the image of God, and the fource of all fubfequent emanations. This fccond principle fends forth, by the energy of emanation, other na- tures, which are more or lefs perfecl, according to their dif- ferent degrees of dldance, in the fcale of emanation, from the firll fourcr of exidence, and which conftitute different worlds or orders of being, all united to the eternal power from which they proceed. Matter is nothing more than the mod remote effea of the emanative energy of the Deity. The material world receives its form from the immediate agency of powers far beneath the firft fource of being. Evil is the neceflary effea of the imperfection of matter. Human fouls arc diftant emanations from Deity, and after they are libe- rated from their material vehicles, will return, through va- rious ftages of purification, to the fountain whence they firll proceeded." From this brief view it appears, that the cab- balidic fyllem, which is the offspring of the other two, is a fanatical kind of philofophy, originating in defea of judg- ment and eccentricity of imagination, and tending to pro- duce a wild and pernicious enthufiafm. For a fuller account of the tenets of the Jewifti cabbala, we refer to Brucker's Hid. of Phllof. by Enfield, vol. ii. chap. ill. Dr. Burnet examines into the merits of the feveral parts of the cabbala, which he finds to be without rational foun- dation, and not conducing to any real knowledge. But he conjeaures, that the moll ancient cabbala, before it was confounded and defiled with fables, might contain fome- thing of the original of things, and their gradations ; par- ticnlarly, that, before the creation, all things had their being in God ; that from him they flowed as emanations ; that they will all flow back again into him, when they are dedroyed ; and that there will fucceed other emanations and regenerations, and other dedruaions and abforptions to all eternity, as they had been from all eternity ; that nothing is produced out of nothing ; and that the things produced ne- ver return to nothing, but always have their fubfidence in God. Burn. Archasol. lib. i. cap. 7. Phil. Tranf. N" 201. p. 800. Among the explications of the law, which, are furnidied by the cabbala, and which, in reality, are little elfe but the feveral interpretations and decifions of the Rabbins on the laws of Mofes, fome are mydical ; confiding of odd abdrufe fignifications given to a word, or even to the letters whereof it is compofed : whence, by diflerent combinations, they draw meanings from Scripture, very different from thofe it feems naturally to import. The art of interpreting Scrip- ture after this manner is called more particularly cabbala : and it is in this lad fcnfe the word is more ordinarily ufed among us. This cabbala, called alfo artificial cabbala (to didinguifli it from the firtl kind, or fimple tradition), is di- vided into three forts. The fird, called ganatrla, confids in taking letters as figures, or arithmetical numbers, and explaining CAB CAB explaining each word by the arithmetical value of the k'tters whereof it is coinpofed ; whicii is done various ways. The fecond is called notarkon ; and conCids either in taking each letter of a word tor an entire diftion, or in making one en- tire diftion oiii of the initial letters of many. The third kirid, called th:mntnh, q. d. changing, confiils in changing and tranfpcfing the letters of a word ; which is done various virays. The generality of Jew* prefer the cabbala to the Sci ip- ture ; comparing the former to tiie fparkling lullre of a pre- cio\is (lone, and the latter to the fainter glimmering of a candle. The cabbala only differs from maforah, as the latter de- notes the fcience of reading the Scripture, the former of in- terpreting it. Both are fuppofcd to have been handed down from generation to generation by oral tridition only, till at length the readings were fixed by the vowels and accents, as tlie interpretations were by the tiiaforiih and ^t-mara. Prideaux Conn. p. i. lib. v. p. 506. The cabbala hitherto fpoken of may be called fpeculative cabbala ; in oppofition to the following, which may be called praflical cabbala. Cabbala is alio applied to the ufe, or rather abnfe, which vifionaries and enthufiafts make of Scripture, for dif- covering futurity, by the lludy and confideration of the combination of certain vvordf, letters, and numbers, in the Sacred Writings. All the words,, terms, magic figures, numbers, letters, charms, &c. ufed in the Jcwilh magic, as alfo in the hermet'cal fcience, are compriled under this fpecies of cabbala, which profertes to teach the art of curing difeafes, and performing other wonders, by means of cer- tain arrangements of facred letttrs and words. But it is only the Chriftians that call it by this name, on account of the refemblance this art bears to the explications of the Jewilh cabbala : for the Jews never ufe the word cabbala in any fuch fenfc, but ever with the utmoft refpeA and venera- tion. It is not, however, the magic of the Jews alone whicli we call cabbala, but the word is alfo ufed for any kind of magic. CABBALIC art, 'Ars caballica, is ufed by fome writers for ars palieftrica, or the art of wreftling. CALBALISTIC art. See Cabbala, and Cabba- LISTS. CABBALISTS, a feft among the Jews, who follow and praftife the cabbala, or interpret Scripture according to the rules of the literal cabbala, ahL ve laid down. The Jews are divided into two general fefts ; the Cara- ites, who refufe to receive either tradition, or the Talmud, or any thing but the pure text of Scripture : and the Rab- biuifts or Tahnudifts, who, befide this, receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the Talmud. Thefe latter are again divided into two other fefls ; pure Rabbinifts, who explain the Scripture in its natural fenfe, by grammar, hillory, and tradition ; and Cabbalills, who, to difcover hidden myftical fenfes, which they fuppofe God to have couched therein, make ufe of the cabbala, and the myftical rules and methods above mentioned. There are vifionaries among the jews, who believe that Jefu3 Chrid wrought his miracles by virtue of the myfteries of the cabbala. Some learned men are of opinion, that Pythagoras and Plato ler.rned the cabbaliftic art of the Jews in Egypt ; and fancy they fee evident footfl^ps thereof in their philofophy : others, 011 the contrary, k.j, it was the philofophy of Pythagoras and Plato that firft furnidied the Jews with their cabbala. Be this as it will, it is certain, that in the firll ages of the church, mod of the heretics gave into the vain notions of the cabbala : particularly the Vol. V. GnoHics, Valentinians, and Bafilidians. Jieucc arofe the a-ofoi^xi, and the multitude of talifmans, wherewith the ca- binets of the virtuofi were ttocked. See a particular account of the cabbalidic art, as pradlifed not only by Jews, but by Heathens and Chriftians, in B.ifnage's Hill, of the Jews, book iii. chap. 10 — 18. CABBIN. See Casin. CABBY ijlmu!, in Geosra/>/.<- , lies N. of Holyhead idaiid on the coaft of Wales, about tv.o miles from the north point of tliat ifland. CABE, a river of Spain, which uniting with the Velezar, runs into the Miuho, a little to the well of Orenfe in Galicia. CABECA, or Cauessf., in Commerce ; the Portuguefe who carry on the trade of filks in tiie Ea(l Indies, diftinguilh tliem by the names of cabcca, and larillo ; tliat is to fay, head and belly. The cobeja filks are tlie fineft ; the larilla being from fifteen to twenlyj^i/- cail. inferior to them. The Indian workmen endeavour to mix them together ; for which reafon the more experienced European mercliants, who carry on that trade, take care to open the bales, and to examine the flcins. The Dutch diftiiiguilli two forts, viz. the ordi- nary cabefle, and the " cabtfie de mora." Cabe^a lie Vide, in Geography, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo, with a llrong caftle. N. lat. 39°. W. long. 60° 43'. CABEgA, La, in Zoology, a fnake of South America in Panama, there called the double-headed fnake, from an imagination that it has a head at each extremity, and that from the bite of each it conveys a poifon equal in aftivity to that of the coral or rattle-fnake. Its ufual length is faid to be about half a yard, refembling in figure an earth-woi'in. Its diameter is about fix or eight lines, and its head different from the heads of other fnakes, being of the fame dimenfions with its body. The creature, however, has only ome head, which, as it refembles a tail, has occafioned the notion that it has two heads. Its motion is very How, and its colour variegated with fpots of a paler tint. CABECAS, Las, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Andalufia, containing feveral ruins that indicate its having been formerly a large place ; 4 leagues S. of Seville. Cabecas Rulias, a town of Spain, in the country of Seville, on the confines of Portugal ; 40 miles N. W. of Seville. Cabecas, a town of the ifland of Cuba; ijo miles S.W. of Havanna. CABECON, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, featcd on a mountain, v.ith a fort on the river Pifuerga ; 3 leagues N.N.E. from Valladolid. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Afturia ^ iS miles W.S.W. of St. Andre. CABEGO, a river of Portugal, which runs into the Lima, 7 miles above Ponte de Lima. CABEL, or Kabel, Adrian Vander, in Biography, a painter of landfcape, fea-ports, and cattle, was born at Ryfwick, in 16^1, and became a difciple of John Van Goyen, under whofe inftruftion and example he made a rapid progrefs in his profeffi m, and by whom his name was changed from Vander Touw to Vander Cabeh He copied nature and defigned every objeft before he infertcd any in his compofitions. Ilis tafte in dtfigning animals and figures was formed after that of Calliglione ; and in landicape his model was the llyle of Salvator Rofa. His manner is great, and much after the gout of the Italian fchool. The touchings of his trees are excellent ; hij figures and animals are very correft, and marked with fpirit. 4 M Althougk CAB Although his difftrent picliircs have iiiieqiial merit, they arc all dillinRuiftud by the freedom of his Imncl, and tlie fine touch of liis pencil. In his coloming he was folicitous to imitate the Caracci and Mola ; but the beauty of his defign and compofiiion is often injured by too daik and deep tone of colouring. His etchings, of which fome few re- n-.ain, are performed in a flight, free ilyle. He died in 1695. Pilkington and Strr.tt. CABELLIO Carnnim, CavaiHon, in ylncieiit Geo^r(i['by, a town of Gallia Naibonnenfis. This was a Roman colony in the time of the triumvir I.epidus, 42 years before the Chriftian ira. With regard to the conftrue'lion of the triumphal arch of Cavaillon it is conjeftured, tl.at as i'ompi.y had gi-nntcd the two banks of the Rhone to the inliabilsnts of Marfeilles, the town of Cavaillon, upon tl)e Durance and near the Rhone, belonged to ihvm. This monununt was accordingrly eredcd to commnnorate the exjiloKS of Pompey and the Roman armies. The medals of this city were bronze, gold, av.d lilver. CABEJ.LO/>«r/, in Geo[;raphy, lies on the north coall of the Spanifli main, in N". lat. 10° 31'. AV. long. 6;° 31'- CABELON, lies on the coafl of Coromandel mi India, 7 miles from Conimore N. by E. and 5 leagues from Madras or fort St. George. To the fouth of Cabclon are the 7 Pagodas, by which the coaR is known. C.ABENDA, or Cabinda, a fea-port town of Africa, in the kingdom of Angoy or Gov on the coaft of Loango, is fituate on the mouth of the river of the fame name, about 5 leagues N. of Cape Palmerino. The bay lies very com- modious for trade, wooding, and watering on the fea-flioie. Some parts of the adjacent ground are flat and marfliy ; but it gradually afcends about 3 miles within land and forms a ridge of hills, on the afctnt of which is a town, where a dock of wood is always kept for the fupply of foreign flups. The town of Cabenda is feated on the round point of the bay, looking towards the weft, and the Englifh faftory on the fouth-weft of the road, at fome diftance, N. E. from the town. The Portuguefe, Dutch, and ether Europeans come to this port for water and provifions. The houfes, or rather huts, are built of dirt and reeds. The country rour.d the bay is moftly barren, and the people very lazy. They breed no cattle except fome hogs, but they have plenty of poultry-. The wild beafts are fo nu- merous in the woods that they dcftroy all of the tame kind. Civet-cats and parrots are numerous. The coaft abounds with oyfters ; and the natives fifli both on the beach and in the bay with drag-nets, having long canes that are fixed at equal diftances, inftead of corks, to (hew when any fiih is caught. Thefe nets are made of a peculiar root, which, being beaten, becomes flexible Hke hemp. S. lat. 6". E. long. 12° 5'. CABERASA, in ylnctenl Geography, a town of ACa, in Media. Ptolemy. CABES, or Gabes, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis, fituate on a river near a gulf of the fame name. N. lat. .33° 40'. E. long. 10° ^5'. CABESA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 55 miles N. of St. Jago. CABESTA Gaita. See Cat's Head. CABESTAN, or Cabestaing, William De, in Biography, a famous Provencal poet of the 13th century, mentioned by Petrarch, who pafled the firft years of his life in the caftle of tlie lord of Cabeftan ; and being ena- moured of a lady belonging to the houfe of Baux, wrote verfes in her praife, which were popular. The lady, in order to fccure his inviolable attachment, adminiftercd to CAB him an herb by way of philtre, which deranged his under- ftanding. He was recovered by an antidote, whieli con- verted his love into haired. In his attendance on Tricline Carbonal, the wife of Raimond de Seillans, he ingratiated himfclf with her to fiich a degr:-e as to excite the jealoufy of her hufljand, who privately killed hiiri and barbaroufly tore out his heart. Tins he caufed to be drelh-d, and ferved up to his wife in a diHi. After (he had partaken of it, (lie was told what (lie had eaten, and died of grief. This event occurred about tlie year 1215. Moreri. CABESTEKRE, in Geography, a name given in the An- tilles iflnnds, to that part of the ifland which looks towards the eaft, and which is always refreflied by the trade-winds, blowing from the north to tlie taft-fouth-eaft. The oppofite part is called " Bafl'c-terre," being lower and lefs expofed to the wind, and of courfe hotter: here the fea is lefs agitated than in the Cabefterres, and it is conf^ quently better adapted to the anchorage and loading of veifcls. Cabesterre, or Le Marigot, a town of the ifland of Guadaloupe on the eaft coaft. N. lat. 16° 10'. W. long. 61" 44'. CABESTES, lies near La Vera Cruz, on the S. W. coaft of Campcachy bay in the guU of Mexico. CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola in Africa, joining to Oacco on the north, and to Lubalo on the fouth, and having the Coanza on the north-catt, and Rimba on the fouth-weft. It is populous, and well ftored with cattle and other provifions ; and it has a mine of iron on a mountain, called the " Iron mountain," whlcii fup- plies the Portuguefe with gr-at quantities of that metal, forged by the natives into a great variety of warlike and other ufeful implements. Tiie inhabitants are plentifully furnifhed with water by the Rio Longo, and other fmaller rivulets and lakes. "^Fheir trees are of a large fize, and the bark being flaftied with a knife yields an odoriferous refin, refembling wax in colour and confiftency, and reckoned very medicinal. The avenue to the royal palace is decorated by a number of palm-trees that are very large and beautiful. CABIAI, of BufFon, in Zoology, the thick-nofed Tapir of Pennant, the Sus Hydrochreris of LinnKus, and CaviA Capybara of Pallas, &c. which fee. CABIDOS, in Commerce. See Cavidos. CABIGIAK, oi-Capehak, in Modern Hijlory, a tribe of Oriental Turks. Their origin is thus related. A female belonging to the ?rmv of Oghuz-Khan was delivered in the hollow of a tree to which (he entered ; and the infant waa adopted by Oghuz, and called " Cabigiak" or the bark of wood, from the manner of his birth. In procefs of time his pofterity became numerous and extended themfelves to the north of the Cafpian fea. They have retained the appella- tion of their anceftor, and their country is denominated in Perfia and in Tuikiflr " Defcht Kiptchiak." From this country proceeded tlie armies which firft ravaged the domi- nions poffteffed in Perfia by the Moguls ; and they were the firft troops which Bajazet the firft fultan of the Turks oppofed to Tamerlan : but inftead of fighting again ft Ta- merlan, they took a part with him and united with the Tartars, whom they regarded as their brethren of one and the fame origm. D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. CABILAH, a tribe of independent and vagabond Arabs, under the conduft of a chief. Some Arabian writers reckon 80 of thefe tribes. D'Herbelot. CABILIAU, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome au- thors have called the common cod-fifli, the morhua and afellus major of other writers. CABILLEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Courland ; 10 miles E. of Goldingen. CABIN, CAB CABIN, orCABHiM, is loinctimcs uftd for the huts or cottages of favagcs, and other poor people. The habit;'.tioiis of the Indians in Virginia are cabins, about nine or ten feet high, whicii are made after this manner: they fix poles into tiie gronnd, and bring the tops of tliem one within another, and fo tie lliein together; the oiithde of thefe piJes they line wiih bark, to defend them from the injuries of the weather, but they leave a hole in the top, right in the middle of the cabin, for liie fmoke to go out ; round the infide of their cabins they liave banks of earth ca(l up, which ierve iniiead of {lools and beds. Phil. Tranf. N^ 126. Cabin, a room or apartment in a fliip, where any of the officers ufnally refide. There are many of thefe in a hrge fliip ; the principal of which is defigned for the captain, or conuiiander. In (liips of the line, this chamber is furniflied with an open gallery in the fliip's Hern, as alfo a little gallery on each quarter. The apartments in which the inferior officers or common failors deep and mefs, are tifually called b'lrlhs, which fee. The bed-places built up for the failors at the (hip's fide in merchantmen, are alfo called cabins. The word comes from the French cahane, Spanifh cabana, or \\.-dX\2M ccpaima, a ll'.lle Jlraiu hut; and that from the Greek y.xTra-vii, ajlall or mnngcr. C.\B\n J>oinf, in Geogrnphy, a fmall pod-town of America, in Surry county, Virgmia, fituate on Upper Chipoak creek, 26 milts E.S.E. of Peterlburg, 87 Irom Portfmouth, and ,;29 S.SAV. of Philadelphia. CABINET, or Caeeini;t, the m'lft retired place in the fined apartinent of a building ; let apart for wntijig, ftudy- iiig, or preferving any tiling very precious. A complete apartment confids of a hall, anti-chamber, chamber, and cabinet ; with a gallery on one lide. Cabinet is fomctimes particulary ufed for a place at the end of a gallery, wherein are preferved the paintings of the bed maders, conveniently ranged, and acco.iipanied with buds, and figures of marble and bronze, with other curio- fities. In this fenfe, cabinet amounts to the fame with what is called by Vitruvius, pmecothcca. Sometimes there are feveral rooms dedined for this ufe, which are all together called cabinet, or gallery. Cabinet alfo denotes a kind of buffet or died of drawers, partly for the prefervation of things of value, and partly as a decoration of a chamber, gallery, or other apartment. Thefe cabinets are made of oak or of chefnut, of inlaid work or japan, of ebony and of other fcarce wood. In the repofitory of the Royal Society is a Chincfe cabi- net, filled with the indruments and fimples ufed by the fur- geons of that country. The mod remarkable are ihofe which are contrived for fcratching, picking, and tickling the ears, in which the Chinefe take great pleafure. Phil. Tranf. N° 246. p. .590, feq. Cabinet, in Garaeiiing, is a little infulated building in manner of a fummer-houfe, built in !ome agreeable form, and open on all fides ; ferving as a place of retirement, and to take the fredi air under cover. According to Miller, a cabinet is a kind of falcon, placed at the end or in the middle of a long arbour. It differs from an arbour, which is long, in form of a gal- lery, and arched over head ; whereas the cabinet is either fquare, circular, or in cants, making a kind of ialoon. Cabin rr, m Natural Hiflory. This term is applied with fome latitude to any fmall or fcleft collection of natural cu- riofities, without regarding whether the articles it comprifes be contained within a cabinet or not. Thus, for indance, it is not unfrcquent with us to fpeak of cabinets of animals, cabinets of CAB birds, of hdies, rtptiK s, and other fimilar articles, as a mode of cxprelTing fuch an allcmblage of natural hidoi-)' as may not be of fufllcicnt importance to dcferve tl^c epithet of a mufeum. The word cabinet in its iifiial acceptati.Jii with tlie naturalid is not, therefore, confined folely to t!ie boxes, prefs, or cheft of drawers, in which articles of cuiiofity are contained, but implies at once both the repofitory itfelf, and the articles arranged in it. So much depends upon the fancy, tafte, or judgment of the collector in the formation, or, as it is fomctimes deno- minated, building, cabinets for the reception of articles of this defcription, that no explicit dircftioi.s can be given for this purpole with propriety. , The mod material obje£l to be confidercd is the compaftnefs of the drawers and cheft, ac- cording to the fize of the articles to be depofitLd in them, in order to comprife as much as convenient within the fmaileit compafs in which they can lie without injury to each other, and at the fame time be feeii and cxamimd with eafe. Cabinets of foilils, fliells, and corals have the drawers fometimes divided for this purpofe into fmall compartments, by means of an inner frame work, that lets into the bottom of the drawer; but trays of various fizes made either of card or padeboard have a much neater appearance, and are preferred by many as being more commodious, and more eafily (hifted from one part of the drawer to anotlier, as the addition of new acquifitions in any particular tribe or genus may require. Nothing can be more defirable than to have the cabinets well made, that the drawers may flidc with per- feft eafe in their proper reccffes in the prefs. The drawers flionld fit fo clofe, when fhut up, as to preclude the entrance of dull of any kind. The cabinet itfelf fliould be alfo placed in a dry fituation, as there are few articles of natural hillory that are not afi^edled in a greater or lefs degree by an excefj of damp, or even heat. The condru£lion of an entomological cabinet depends lefs on the tafte of the colleftor, in the prcfent day, than the preceding, except fo far as relates to the elegance or exter- nal embelliniment of the cabinet, or the excellence of the workmanfliip. The drawers are uniformly made diallow, the bottom of each is lined with cork, and the top is cover- ed with glafs, through which the infeft may be feen with- out being expofed to the air, or accidents that would arifc from their being touched by the incautious fpeftator. Cabinets for infefts are built of various fizes, from tliofc which contain ten or a dozen drawers to others that include above an hundred. They are ufually of mahogany, but it is immaterial whether be they made of mahogany or wainfcoi ; fome have them of cedar, but feldora of deal, or any other wood of a foft texture. The drawers may be from fifteen to thirty inches in length, the fame, or nearly the fame in breadth, and about two or three inches in depth. The cork with which the bottoms are lined mull be chofen as free from cracks and holes as pofftble ; it fhould be alfo glued into the drawers to prevent its warping, and be filed or cut very level ; ai.d after this the irregularities on the furface of the cork Ihould be rubbed down with pumice-done, till the whole is rendered perfeftly fmooth, before the paper is palled over it. The paper fliould be of a fine fmooth and even grain, but neither very dout, nor highly ftid'ened with fize, left it fliould turn the points of the pins, when placing the infefts in the drawers. The top of every drawer mud be covered with a plate of glafs, to prevent the admiflTion of duft or air. This plate is ufually fitted into a frame of the fame fize as the drawer, and is made either to Aide in a groove, or let in on a rabbet ; the latter contrivance is much the beft, becaufe in fliding the glafs along the groove, if any of tb; pins happen to ftand fo high as to touch the frame-work, 4 M 2 tte CAB thf infefls will be injured hy the jerk, or, as more frequent- Iv happens in this cafe, be broken to pieces. On the contrary, when the frame falls in upon a rabbet, it is of no confequenee whether the edge of the frame links into the drawer below the level of the heads of the pms on which tl.e infefts are placed or not ; it is only neceffary to obfcrve, that the glafs does not prtfs upon the pins, fince it is the glals only that can come in coiitadl with them. inftead of cork for the purpofe of lining the bottom ot the drawers for infeds, it was cnftomary among old collectors to cover the bottom of them with a thin coat or layer ot pilch, or green wax. over which the paper was fomeumes laid, and upon this the infeds were (luck. 1 he difadvan- taceof this method, although recommended by recent au- thority, is evident, when we confider how liab e both the pitch and wax are to be affefteJ by the Hate of the weather. An eminent colkclor, the late iMr.Tunftal, had the whole of his infeds difpofed on green wax, each infeft being placed on a fm:.ll tablet of it, and the tablets afterwards affixed with a fma'l portion of melted wax to the bottom ot the drawers. This cabinet was once removed to a (hort dillance in the country, during the winter feafon, when, notwithftanding the precaution of fattening the tablets in this manner to the bottom of the drawers, fome of them fnapped afunder with the cold, ar.d rolling about among rfie relt oc- cafioned the lofs of many valuable infeds. In another in- ftance a celebrated colUaion of infeds, ftuck on wax in a fimilar manner, that had been prcfentcd to a great public mufeum, was indifcreetly expofed to the heat of a bnft hre, with a defign of warming the wax, that the pins might be more eafily withdrawn, for the purpofe of removing the in- fers to another cabinet ; but, fad mifchance ! the wax melt- ing in a much fhorter time than was expefted, almoft every infeCl in the cabinet funk into the fluid mafs, and was de- ftroyed. Accidents of this kind may operate as a caution to others, and prove, at leall, the fuperior advantage of lining the bottoms of the drawers with cork inftead of wax. Every crevice in the drawers for infefts (hould be care- fully clofed up. Indeed the entomologlft, duly attentive to the prefcrvation of his infefts, will conceive no pains nor cxpence ill bellowed in having his cabinet fo well conftrufted as to render it impoffible for the air or duft to penetrate. A fmall recefs fliould be alfo made along the inner edge, or fide of the drawer, for the admiffion of a quantity of cam- phor, about one fourth part of an ounce of which in each drawer will prcfcrve the infefts contained in the drawer from the depredations of mites, or any other fmall infefts, for years. It is an erroneous fuppofition, which many people entertain, that infedls cannot be preferved ; for it may be fafely affirmed from experience, that if they are placed in a clofe cabinet, as before direfted, and the drawers occafional- ly replenilhed with frelh camphor every fecond or third year, or at mod every year, infefts are not more perithable than almoll any other defcription of natural objefts. They may be preferved in this manner without injury or diminution of beauty for ten, twenty, or thirty years ; we have feen in- fefts that have been collefted at a period more remote Hill, and which fcarcely manifcfted any fymptom of decay. Some naturalifts prefer cajeput oil for fcenting the drawers to deftroy the mites, and other deilruftive vermin, ■with which the infefts would othcrwifc, in time, become infefted. Muflc is another powerful antidote and preferva- tive; and again, the ufe of bitter aloes is ilrongly recom- mended ; but upon the whole, we are, for our own part, fo fully fatisiied of the efficacy of camphor, that we fhould always confider it preferable for this purpofe to any other prefervativc. It has been thought neccflaiy by fome, that Q CAB the cork, with which the drawers are lined, fhould be well impregnated with a folution of corrofive fublimate mercury, in a faturatcd folution of crude fal-ammoniac in water, (an ounce of which will be fufficient to difTolve twenty fcniples of the fublimate). This may be tried, fince it has been Ilrongly advifed, although we believe the precaution need- lefs. Mr. Driiry adopted another plan : he pounded a quan- tity of crude verdegrcafe with common bees wax, and fpread a thin layer of it between the bottom and the cork, in thofe drawers which were defigned for the reception of his more delicate infefts. We are, however, of opinion, that a folution of alum in water, waflied either over the cork or paper of the drawer, would anfwerthe fame purpofe, and be attend- ed with lefs trouble. See article Entomology. Cabinet of Medals. See Mkdals. Cabinet is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the more felcft and fecret councils of a prince or adminidration : thus we fay, the fecrets, the intrigues of a cabinet. To avoid the inconve- niences of a numerous council, the policy of Italy and praftice of France have introduced cabinet councils ; a re- medy worfe than the difeafe. King Charles 1. is charged \s\\\\ firft cftablilhing this ufage in England. Belides his privy council, that prince erefted a kind of cabinet council, or junto, under the denomination of a council of ftate ; compnfed of archbifhop Laud, the earl of Strafford, and lord Collington, with the fecretaries of ilate. Yet fome pretend to find the fubftance of a cabinet council of much greater antiquity, and even allowed by parliament, who an- ciently fettled a quorum of perfons moil confided in, without whofe prefence no arduous matter was to be determined; giving them power to aft without confulting the reft of the council. As long fince as the 2Sth of Henry III. a char- ter paffed in affirmance of the ancient rights of the king- dom ; which provided that four great men, chofen by com- mon confent, w'ao were to be conlervators of the kingdom, among other things, fhould fee to the difpofing of monies given by parliament, and appropriated to particular ufes ; and parliaments were to be fummoned as they fhould advife. But even of thefe four, any two made a quorum ; and ge- nerally the chief jullice of England and chancellor were of the number of the confervators. Math. Par. 2S Henry III, In the firtl of Hen. VI. the parliament provides, that the quorum for the privy council be fix or four at leall ; and that in all weighty confiderations, the dukes of Bedford and Glouceller, the king's uncles, (hould be prefent ; which feems to be erefting a cabinet by law. CABIRA, afterwards called DiafpoUs, and fince Scbaflo- polis, in /Indent Geography, a town ot Pontus, fuuth-eafl of Amafia, upon the river Iris. Mithridates built a palace in this city, where he had alio a fifh-pond, and in its vicinity parks for chace, and, according to Strabo, mines. This city became memorable for the defeat of Mithridates by Lu- culLis. When Pompey took poffeffion of it, he gave it the name of " Diofpolis," and the queen Pythodoris, widow of Polemon, named king of Pontus by Antony, called it " Sebafte," or " Seballopolis," i. e. the city of Au- guflus, in honour of that prince. CABIRI, in ylntiquify, certain deities worlhipped more efpecially by the Samothracians, and in the ifle of Imbros, and fome other parts of Greece. Thefe Cabiri were originally Syrians or Phoenicians ; and we are chiefly indebted to the fragment of Sanchoniathon, recorded by Eufebius in his " Prsparatio Evangelica," for the information, fcav^ty and dubious as it is, which has been tranfmittcd concerning them. From him we karn, that they were the Jons of Sydyc, and the fame with the Diof- curi, Corybantes, and Samothraces ; that they firll difco. vered CAB vered the art of building fhips ; that from the time of Cronus (Saturn) tlielr dcTceiidants navigated the fea on rafts or veflVls of their own conftruftion ; and that tliey landed on mount Cafius, where they confccrated a temple. It is alfo related, that Cronus gave the city of Berytus to Neptune and the Cabiri. Sanchoniathon further fays, that thefe fons of Sydyc were eight in number; but he mentions only one of them by name, viz. Afclepius, who was furnamed ElFnui- Xi\is,{rorr.^^^,Saman,i\gn\i\\nglhe eighth. He wa.-i the god of health, and rcilorer of lite. Bocliart fuppofcs, that this Sydyc was Jupiter : Cumberland in his " Sanconiatho's Phe- nician Hiftory," (p. 173, &c.) maintains, that he was Shem, tlie fon of Noah; Shuckford fuppofes, (Connection, &c. vol. i. p. 213.) that he was Mizraim, the fon of Hani, (Gen.x. 6.) or Menes, who fettled in Egypt about the 15th year of Nimrod, A. M. 1772, according to him, or 2188 B.C. according to Blair's Tables. According to Pau- fanias (1. ix. p-75t.) the original Cabiritic divinitv was Prometheus. The learned Bryant (Analyfis of Anc. Myth, vol. ii. p. 460.) concurs with thofe who are of opinion, that Sydyc, or Sadie, was the patriarch Noah, and that the name by which he is called, or Sadie, corrcfponds to the cha- rafter given of him in the book of Gencfis, ch. vi. 9. He wasp'~[\,', Sadie, a juft man and perfctl: in his generation. All fcicuce, and every ufeful art were attributed to him ; and through his fons they were traiifmitted to pofterity. He fup • pofes that the Cabiri were the fame with the Curetes, Cory- bantes, Telchines, and the Idaei Daflyli of Crete. How- ever, in treating of them, great confufion lias arifen from not confidering that both the deity and prieft were com- prehended under the fame title. Hence it has happened, that the appellation of Cabiri has been ufcd by the ancients indifferently, to fignify the gods in wliofe honour certain myfteries were inftituted, the inftitutors of thefe mylleries, and the principal hierophants who officiated in them. From the account that has been already given from Sanchoni- athon of the origin of the Cabirian deities, it is reafon- able to imagine, that they were perfons eminently diftin- guifhed for their exploits, and for the invention of arts ufe- ful to mankind ; and that on this account they were dei- fied by the Phcenicians ; and we may eafily conceive, that the navigators who firll pafled from Phoenicia in- to Greece introduced there the worfliip which they had rendered to the Cabiri, as the inventors of navigation. To this purpofe Diodorus Siculus very jullly obferves, (lib.i. p. 14.) that the Greeks worfliipped for their Gods fome heroes and great men, that had formerly been famous in Egvpt, whofe lives, or at leaft fhort memoirs of them, had beeri written at firfl in a plain and fimple manner ; but fuc- ceeding writers embelliflied the accounts given of them, by intermixing with them various fiftions. Diodorus afcribes to the Cabiri the invention of fire, and the art of manufac- turing iron. Hence it is, that on n medal of Gordian, and another of Furia Sabiua Trarquillina, both ftruck at Carrhse, where the Cabiri. were wo- (hipped, we find the fi- gure of a Cabirus on a column, holding a hammer in his right hand. For the fame reafor, Herodotus (1. iii. ) ob- ferves, they were reprefented like Vulcan. We need Bot wonder, if we confider the variou.'^ ufeful arts that were af- cribed to thefe deified perfons, thai they (honld be fo gene- rally honoured. The Phoenicians, Syrians, Egyptians, Greeks, C) priots, Phrygians, Etrufcans, Latins, Carlliagi- sans, and almoll all the ancient Pagan,-;, manifefted the moll profound veneration for the Cabiric myfteries. The name by which they are called denotes the high eftimation in which they were held ; for, iiiftcad of deriving it, as fome have done, from the nymph Cabira, or from mount Cabirus CAB- in Phrygia, its etymology may more probably be fought in the Hebrew, or Phoenician language, in which, the word "Ca- bir" denotes great and powerful : and, accordingly, they are defcribed by Caffius Hermina (fee Macrob. Sat. 1. iii. c. 4. p. 376.) as y the great, beneficent, and powerful Gods." We have already iibfervtd, that the honours they re- ceived feem to have originated with the Phoenicians, and by their navigators the worfliip of ihcfe deities was intro- duced into the iHand of Samothracc, where they landed before they ppffed over to the continent. At Memphis, ii< Egypt, they had a famous temple, which was held fo fa- cred, according to Herodotus, (1. iii. c. 37.), that no pcr- lon, excepting the priells, was fuffcrcd to enter within its walls. In fcveral cities of Syria the worfliip of thefe dei- ties prevailed. At Cabira in Pontus, they had one of the mod magnificent temples in the world. In Phrygia alfo, and Cilicia, there are evident traces of the fame kind of worfhip. The Cabiritic rites were alfo praftifed at Imbros and Lem- nos ; and they prevailed likewife in Greece, and particu- larly at Theba, in Boeotia : and as their chief province re- lated to the fea and fliipping, they were more efpecially implored by mariners for fucccfs in their voyages. When the worfliip of the Cabiri was introduced from Phoenicia, or Egypt, into Greece, it underwent various modifications and changes, as the Greeks were too proud to acknow- ledge themfelves indebted, even for their fupcrllition, to llrangers. Accordingly, they altered the names of their gods, and difguifcd their origin. By fome of the Greek writers, they are reprefented as the fons of Jupiter and Cal- liope ; by others, as the fons of Jupiter and Eledra, or of Jupiter and Leda. Some refer Jupiter himfelf, and Bac- chus, to the clafs of Cabiri ; and others fay they were the fons of the Sun and Minerva : others pretend that their mother was the nymph Cabira, the daughter of Proteus, and their father, Vulcan ; and it is thought, that one of their fons is reprefented on the medals of Tlicfl'alonica, un- der the name of CABEIPOC, holding in one hand a ham- mer, fuch as Vulcan is reprefented with on the ancient monuments, and drefled, like him, with a cap on the head. The worfliip of Vulcan and his fons was eftablifhed in Egypt, in the ifles of Lemnos, and in other places, where, they were honoured under the name of Cabiri, for havino- invented corn and the manufafture of it. As for particular names which the Greeks gave to the Cabiri, thof<; which moll frequently occur are Callor and Pollux, the fons of Jupiter and Leda. Thefe Grecian Gods were reprefented as Cabirian deities on fome of the Greek medals of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Thefe were alfo known by the names of Jafion and Dardanus, the fons of Jupiter and Eleftra ; and alfo by thofe of Alcon and Eurimcdon, the fons of Vulcan and Cabira, to whom is afcribed a fon called Camillus, or Cadmillus, i. e. Mercury. According to Ci- cero, three others, called Tritopacreus, Eubuleus, and Dio- njfius, were the fons of Jupiter and Proferpirc. Mnafcae, a Phceniciari author, has, according to Jofephus, mentioned three others; viz. Axieros, faid by fome to be Certs, and by others Jupiter; Axiocherfa, or'Proferpine ; and Axio- cherfos, or Pluto. The nature of the myfteries of the Cabiri, and the rites of which they confifted, are not afcertained.. They were difclofed oidy to the initiated, and penalties were annexed to the crime of divulging them. The myfteries of Ccres-Ca. biria in Boeotia were the fame with thofe of the Cabiri in baniothrace: and it has been faid by Clemens Alexandrinus, in fpeaking of the worfliip of thefe deities among the Etruf- cans, that they were kept fecrct under a penalty, on ac- count of the iufamy that attended thera. The Pelafgi, Sa,. mothracicas,. C. A B motliracianj, »nd others, ctlchiatcd tlK-m in tlie niglit, and, as it is related, with great indecency ; and to this cir- ciiniiUncc it is owing, tliat they have- tranfmitted no written account of them to pollerity. The " phallus" is faid to have been one of their fymbols in the Cabirian myfleries of Samothrace. M. dc St. Cr, ix in hii " Memoirs concern- ing the facred Religion of ancient Nations," (Paris, 17S4), f'sg^eds, that the origin of the nfe of this fv!!iboI was as foUows. Cadinilhis, the youngell of the Cnbiri, liaying been killed by two of his brothers, who cut ois chitUh, which denotes tlic fame. CABO, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, in Nigri- tia, fitnate to the louth of the Rio Grande, and near the fource of the Cafamanka, about I ^o leagues from its mouth. Little is known concerning it; but fume vi:yagcrs afTert that the king is rich and powerful, and that in time of peace lie keeps 7coomen well armed, in order to comm-,'iid due refpeft from liis neighbours. Cabo Corfa, or Cape-Coajl, a cr.pe and faflory of Africa, on the Gold coaft. N. lat. r," \i>' . W. long. 2° 8'. Caio (Je CriiT:,, a bold point of land on the foutli fide of the idand of Cuba. N. lat. 19° 57'. \\ . long. 78" 28'. Cabo ds St. yuan, tiie north-eafttrnrr.oit point of the ifland of Porto Rico. N. lat. 18° 30'. CABOCHED, Caboshed, or Cabosskd, formed from the obfolete French caboche, from caput., head, in He- raldry, is where the head of a beall is cut off behind the ears, !)y a feftion parallel to the face ; or by a perpendicu- lar feflion : in contradiftinclion to couped, which is done by a horizontal line ; bcfides that it is farther from the cars than cahoffing. The head in this cafe is placed full-faced, or affrontee, fo that no part of the neck is vilible. This bearing is bv fonie called TnwLed. CABOCHON, in Conchology, the name given by Ar- genville to the Linnsean Patella equestris; which fee. CABOCLES, in M'jdern Hi/lory, a name given in the Weil Indies by the Poituguefe to thofc produced between Americans and Negroes. CABOLITjE, in Ancient Geography, a people of AHa, placed by Ptolemy in Paropaniifus. CABOMBA, in Botany. See Nectris. CABOT, Sebastian, in Ijio:;rap/}y, an eminent navi- gator, the fon of a Venetian pilot dirtiiiguifhtd by his ilvill in the fame art, and often refident in Enghind, was born at Biiilol about the year 1477, and inftrudttd by his father in thofe branches of mnthcmatical fcicnce which were ne- ceffary for forming a (kilfnl ftaman. Before he had attained the age of 1 7 years, he made mar.y trips to fca ; thus adding an acquaintance with the prafti-al part of navigation to the knowledge of its theory. In Ins tirft voyage of any im- portance, he accompanied his father for tlie difcovtry of unknown lands, and particularly for exploring a north-well p.flage to the Eall Indies. John Cabot, encouraged in this attempt by the dllcoveries of Columbus, who returned from his lirft expedition in 1493, obtained, in 1405, letters patent trom king Henry VII. empowering him and his three fons to dlfcover, concjucr, and lettle lands then ur.known, in recompence of whicli they were to be inverted with many privileges. The king, however, referved to himfelf one- fifth part of the neat profits, and reftrifled them to return from tiieir voyage into the port of Briftol. Accordingly in the following year he prcocreJ for his expedition, and VOL.V, C A B ohtauied tlic king's pcrmlfil-n to take up fix flu'ps of 2I33 tons buiden and iindir, in any iiarbour of the realm, and to engage a fufficie-nt number (if manners. His majcfty was at the expenceof fitting one flilp at Briftol, ai.d'thc mer. chants of that city ar.d of London added three or four fmall vtdcls, freighted with fuiiablc commodities. With this fleet John Cabot and his fon Seballian fet fail in the Spring of 149-, n::d pnrfucd th-.ir courfe till the 24lh of June, when they difcovritd the ifland of " Baccalaos," fo called from the lllh wliich lliey found iji great abundance on its coall, but now known by the name of Newfoundland. Another adjoining illi-nd they called St. John, probably from the Saint's day on wliich it was difcovered. On this ifiand, as tliey fuppofed it to be, which was the fonth-weft part of Newfoundland, they found inhabitants who were cloathed with the il a town of France, in the de- out Cabot's fquadron, wire unwilling to comply with thefe partment of Calvados, and dilfria of Caen, ten miles N. of it. requifitions, and chofe to furrendir their rights to the crown C ABRA, a town of Spain in Anddlufia, fitiiatc at the foot of Callile. But the king delayed the necelfary preparations of a mountain, near the fource of a river of the fame name, fo long, that Cabot, who had been five years employed in containing,btfides a church and fix convents, a college for the this expedition, and who was tired with waiting tor ne- lludy of philofophy and divinity ; ac^nii^les S.E. of Cordova. celfary fupplics, determined to return home. Accordingly he embarked his men and effcfts on board the largell of his fliips, leaving the reft behind him; and arrived at the Spanifh court in the fpring of the year i ^.;i. In the mean while prejudices had been excited againll him, on account of the rigour with which he had treated the Spanifh muti- neers, and becaufe he had not proceeded to the Moluccas ; fo that his reception was not favourable. However, he re- Cabra, an inconfiderable town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beira ; 20 miles E. S.E. of Vifeu. Cabra, or Kabra, a town of Africa in the kingdom of Tombuctoo, fituate on the river Guin, or Neel Abecd, weft of the ifland linbala or Guinbala, and about 12 miles S. of Tombucloo, of which it is the port. It is a large town without walls and a place of great trade. The inhabitants are faid to be fubjefttodifeafesthatare attributed to theheteroge- taincd his place, and continued in the fervice of Spain for neous qualities of theirfood, whichis uluallya farrago of milk, many years; till at length, for reafons with which we are fifli, flelli, butter, oil, and wine. Here rcfides a judge, not acquainted, he refolved to return to England. This who is appointed by the king for deciding all controverfies. took place towards the latter end of the reign of Heniy N. lat. 16= 24'. E. long. 1° 30'. Vni. at which time he refidcd at Briftol. In the com- CABRAL, or Cabrera, Pedro Alvarez, in A'ojr^ mencement of the following reign he was introduced firft to phy, a Portuguefe navigator, who commanded the fecond the protcftor, lord Somerfet, and by him to king Edward fleet fitted out in 1500 for the Eaft Indies by Emanuel, king VI. who took great pleafure in his converfation, and granted of Portugal. Anxious to avoid the coaft of Africa in the him, in 1549, a penfion of 166I. 13s. 4d. a year; an an- courfe of his voyage, he (lood out far to fea, and after a. iiuity which was allowed him, according to Hakluyt, as month's failing, was driven by a tempcft on the (hore of aa grand pilot of England. From this time he was highly unknown country-, which proved to be that part of South favoured by the king, and confulttd upon all commercial America, now called Brafil. Having landed at Santa Cruz matters. In May 1^52, the king granted a licence, together on the 24th of April, 1 500, he took poffeffion of the whole with letters of fafe conduft, to fuch perfons as were willing country for the crown of Portugal. (SeeBRASiL.) From to embark on board three fhips, deftined for exploring a this new coaft he proceeded to Sofala in Africa, whither paffage by the north to the Eaft Indies. The enterprife he arrived after having loft fix of his thirteen fhips ; and was undertaken by the advice and recommendation of from thence he failed to Calicut, where he obtained leave Cabot, then governor of the company of Merchant-adven- of the fovereign, or zamorin, to form a commercial eftablifli- turers ; and he furnifhed necefl'ary directions, which ment. Some time after there occurred a jealoufy between evinced both his wifdom and integrity. For his trou- him and the inhabitants, which produced hoftilities, in the ble and charge in this bufinefs, his Majefty prefcnted him courfe of which Cabral burnt fcveral (hips in the port, and with a gratuity of 200I. This expedition was entrufted battered the town, fo that the zamorin was at length obliged to the command of Sir Hugh WiUoughby, and it produced to acquiefce in the terms that were propofed. He afterwards the difcovery of the important trade to Archangel, which went to Cananor, where he made a treaty with the prince; Tee. Cabot was alfo appointed by royal charter governor and in 1501 he returned to Portugal with a rich cargo. He for Ufe of the Ruffia company, in whofe concerns he took a publifhed an account of this voyage, printed in an Italian Tcry aftive part ; and in 1555 letters patent were ifllied by tranflation by Ramufio at Venice. Having gained reputa- tion CAB CAB lion ijy liis dlfcovcrics and exploits, he died in his own conn- try. Nouv. Dirt. Hill. Cabr.\l, ill Gt'j_^riip/'y, a town of Spain, in the tenitory of Cordova ; ;; miles N.\V\ ot Lucena. CABRE, a town oi the ifland of Cuba ; 30 miles S. of Spiiitn Santo. CABRELLA, a town of Portuiral, in the province of Ellrcmadura ; ~-^ leagues E.S.E. of Setnval. CABRERA, Lat. Cuprar'm, a fmallilland in the Mediter- ranean, deriving its name from the nnmber of goats upon it. It is moantainon<; and defert ; no part being inhabited ex- cept its port, which is large and faft, and the entrance of which, oppotite to Majorca, is defended by a callle and a fniitU j^Mrrifon. Under the wed end of the ifland there is a good road. Criminals are baniflied into this idaiid ; ^^ leagues S. from Majorca. — Alfo, a fmail ifland near the north coaft of the illand of Sardinia, N. lat. 41° 15', E. ■long. 9° 2'/'. — Alfo, another ifland, named likewifc Capraa, lying about E.N.E. trom Cape Corfe, on the north point of Coriica, nearly N. from the well end of the Elbe Ifland.— Alfo, anotlier ifland E. of the ifland Sapicnza, at the S.W. point of the Morea — Alfo, another ifland in the gulf of Venice, not far from the coall of Italy, and nearly north from moimt St.Angclo, or the gulf of Varennes. CABRERA ifland, lies on the fouth coall of Candia ifland, S. of the Archipelago iflands, about twelve leagues E.N.E. from the ifland of Goza. On theeaft of it is a fair Lay, in which is a good road ; and another to the well. CABRERES, a town ot France, in the department of the Lot, and dillricl of Cahors; I J miles E.N.E. of it. CAB RES, llha lU, or Goat ifland, a fmall ifland belong- ing to Africa, near the coaft of Guinea, at a fmall dillancc from tile ifland of St. Thomas. It is mountainous and co- vered with lemon-trees. CABRETA, Ciipe, lies on the coaft of Spain, e, leagues •E. from the ifland TarifTa, and the wellcrnmoll point of the great bay of Gibraltar. GABRIEL, a river of Spain which runs into the Xucar, foon after it enters Valencia. CABRIERES, a town of France, in the county of Ve- naiflin, the inhabitants of which were ordered to be mafia- C.-\BRON, capi; in Geography, the north-caft point of Prelquc ille de Samana, in the ifland of St. Domingo, 2S leagues S.E. by V.. from old cape Francois. N. lat. jy" 35'. W. long. 6.S° 40'. CABRUSI, in the Wnl'mgs of the Ariclailr, a word fre- quently ufed to txprefs Cyprian, or coming from the illand ot Cyprus. The ancient Greeks had almoll all their vitri- ols and vitriolic minerals from this ifland ; they therefore fomctimes called thtle cabrufi, without any addition. It h very probable that our word copperas, the common name of green vitriol, is a falle pronunciation of this word cabrufi. CABiriA, a Weft Indian fpecics of hemp, produced in the province of Panama, from a plant fomewhat like the chardon or iris ; when ripe, they lay it to ileep in water, and after drying it again, beat it with wooden mallets till nothing but the hemp remains, which they afterwards fpin, and make thread and ropes of it j the former of which is fo hard and tough, that with it they faw iron, by fittinor it on a box, and laying a little fine fand over the metal as the work proceeds. CABUL, Cadulistan, or Zabulistan, in Ger,graph\, a country of Afia,on the limits of Hindoftan, and welt of the Indus, which was formerly a province of Pcrlia, afterwards annexed to the Mogul empire, and comprehended again under the Perflan monarchy in 17.59, by Nadir Shah. It is bounded on the north by Kuttore or Caferillan, and the Hindoo-Kho mountains, which latter feparate Cabul from Balk and Badakflian ; on the weft by the fame mountains and Candaliar, on the fouth by Moultan and Lahore, and on the eall by Calhmere. This Soubah, under the Mogul em- perors, comprehended the whole fpace between the Indus and the mountains of Hindoo-Kho, being indimenfions 150 cofles (each cofs being about \-^^ ftatute mile,) according to theAyin Acbaree; andthisisitsgreateft extent ; for loocoflTes aie given for itsbreadth between Kunabagh, fituate 1 1 royal coflcs S.W.of Ghizni.andChuganfcraiatthe weftern extremi- ty of Caferiftan. Cabul is conlinedon thenorth bythe continu- ation ofHindoo-Kho ; andonthenorth-eaftby Caferiftan. To- wards the fouth, or the quarter of Bungufli, its e.xtent is not afcertained : but as its greatell breadth is included within the fpace between Kurrabagh and Chuganferai, we may con- cred by an arret of parliament in 1545, under the pretext of elude that it cannot extend far beyond the river of Nughx. ' ''^ "^ "^ " We have an ample defcription of Cabul in the Ayin Acba- ree; from which, as well as from every other account, it ap- pears to be a country much diverfified by mountains cover- ed with eternal fnow, hills of a moderate height and eafy afccnt, rich plains and ftately forcfts ; and thefe enlivened by innumerable ftreams of water. It produces every article nec<.iiary to human life, together with the moft delicate fruits and flowers. In the Ayin Acbaree Cabul is reckoned a part of the foubah of Caflimere; but it has been fince, with great propriety, regarded as a foubah of itfelf. Cabul, with re- fpecl to its natural geography, is divided into two parts, fc- parated by a ridge of very high mountains, ufually covered with fnow, which runs from weft to eaft from the neighbour- hood of Ghizni to that of Deenkyte on the Indus, belovr Attock. The tra£t lymg to the north of this ridge is named Lumghan, or the Lumghanat ; and that on the fouth Bun- gufh, or the Bungufliat ; each having one or more confidera- ble rivers interfctting their whole length, and difcharging themlelves into the Indus. Each tradl has alfo its proper roads, and itspafles over the Indus, from the diilridlsof Cabul, Canda- liar, and Ghizni, refpettively : but the northern, orLumghanat road, is that in common iife, either to Periia or to Samarcand, notwithftanding its circuitous nature, as it refpefts the former of thefe countries ; for it is both the eaficft and the fafeft. Cabul, as well as Candahar, together with fome diilrids 4 N 2 oa religion ; 3 leagues N. of Cavaillon CABRILLA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Pkrca, found in the Mediterranean fea, the body of which is marked with four longitudinal fanguineons bands. Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr. CAB RITA iJlLind, in Geography, See Capri A. CABROL, Bartholomew, in Biography, a native of Languedoc, received his education in anatomy and furgery, at Montpellier. Returning to his own country, in i^,yi, he was appointed furgeon to the hofpital of St. Andrew, in that city. In I'JJO he was invited by the Univerlity of Montpellier to take the office of demonftrator in anato- mv; an office he filled with credit feveral years. In i •;94 he publifliedan anatomical treatife, under the title of" Alphabet Anatomique," at Tournon, 4t6. reprinted at Geneva in )^i02, and afterwards tranflated into Latin, with the title of " Alphabeton Anatomicum," id eft, " Anatomes Elcnchus accuratiffimus, omnes humani corporis partes, ca qua fecari folent methodo dellneans, accefl'ere ofteologia, obfervationcf- que medicis ac chirurgis perutiles, 1604, Geneva." In this form it has been frequently reprinted; and is valuable, Hal- ler fays, for the number of curious and iiftful obfervalions contained in it. It is inferted in a colleftion of treatifes, enti- tled, " Collegium Anatomicum clariffimorum trium viro- rum, Jalfolini, Seveiini et Cabrolii. Douglas Bibliog. Haller, Bib. Chir. Eloy. Dia. Hift CAB on the fal of the Indus, are comprifcl within the exten- five dominions of Tiniiii- S!iah Aliditila, (iifinilly Itylcd king of Candah;ir,) which extend wcllw/rd to the nei;;hbotir- hoinl of the city of Terfhilli; incl'idinij generally Cdbiil, Candahar, P;ii(h3wiir, Ghi/.ni, Gaiir, S-'ill;m or SiKiilaii, and Korafan. This tratt is at le^ll 8oo Britifli rr.iles in lensjth, from (.aft to well, and its breadth, though iinafcertaintd, docs not bear any propuilion to its length, it docs not dlffir much from the incl comprifcd within the ancient kini^dom of Gli'zni. TimurSliah'i Indian lubjefls are chit-ny Afghans; the rell, Perfians and TartaTS of almoll every denomination. His government is faid to be mild and equitable, with fome degree of relaxation as to military diicipline ; which, in a go- vernment purely mihtary, forebodes diifolution. Rennell's Memoir. Cabijl, a city of Afia in the above province, is the pre- lent capital of the fueccfTor of Timur Siiah, and fituated on a river of the fame name, near the foot of the Indian Cau- caftis, or Hindoo Kho ; and the proximity of this ridge oc- cafions the moft rapid changes in the temperature of the at- mofphcre. Its fituation is fpoken of in terms of rapture by the Indian hillorians ; it being no lefs romantic than pleafant ; er.joying a wholcfome air, and having within its reach the friiitsand other produds both of the temp-rate and the torrid zones. In a pohtieal light, it is coniidci-ed m the gate of India towards Tartary; as Candahar ho'.ds the fame place with refpeft to Perlia. Mr. Forller, in his " Journey from Bengal to England," dcfcribes Cahul as a walled city, about li mile in circumference, and leated on the eaftern fide of a range of two united hiils, generally the figure of a fcmicircle. The fortification, which is of a fimple conftruc- tion, with fcarcely a ditch, and the houfes built of rough Hones, clay, and unburned bricks, exhibit a mean appearance, and arc ill Anted to the grandeur that might have been fup- pofed to fubfill in the "capital of a great empire. But the Afghans, he fays, are a rude and unlettered p.ople, and their chiefs have little propcnfity to the refinements of life, which indeed their country is ill adapted to gratify. From the Indus to the wellern limit of this extenfive territory, there is an invariable deficiency of _ wood; inforanch, that the lower clafs of people in the northern quarter fuffer as much, perhaps, from the want of fuel in the winter feafon, as thofe of other countries would do from a fcarcity of provifions. This quarter of Afganiftan, p-jfTcfling but few Indian pro- du^lions, receives fugars and cotton cloths.chiefly from Pclh- awur, whither it fends iron, leather, and tobacco. To Can- dahar it exports iron, leather, and lamp-oil, whence the re- turns are made in fundry manufaftures of Perfia and Europe, with a large fupply of excellent melons. The Tartar.i of Bucliaria bring to Cahul the horfes of Turkettan, furs, and bides ; the latter rtfembling thofe in Europe called Bulgar; the amount of which is applied to the purchafe of indigo, and other commodities of InJia. The adfacent parts of Ufbeck Tartary, of which Balk is the capital, hold a kind of dependency on Timur Shah. The Afghans arc the indigenous poITelfors of a traft of tt)untry, which ftrctchcs from the mountains of Tartary to certain parts of the gulf of Carabay and Perfia; and from the Indus to the confines of Perfia. The inhabitants of this wide domain have no written charafter, and fpeak a Ian- guage peculiar to themfelves. They are a robull, hardy race of men, and being generally addicted to a ftate of predatory warfare, thtirmannerslargely partake of a barbarous infolence, and they avow a fixed contempt for the occt-.patioi>s of civil life. See Afghans. Ahmed Abdalla, fird king of Candahar, was originally the ehict of -an Afghan tribe, conquered by Nadir' Shah, on CAB whofc death IiC fuddcnly appeared among liis former fuhj-(£ls and foon crefted a coiifidcrjble kingdom in the eallern part of Perfij, including moll of the Indian provinces ceded by the Mo.nd to Kadir. Ke edablilhed his capital at Culnil. Ahmed died abont the year 1773, and was fuccceded by Timur, who contiiu'.ed to refidc at Cabul ; but the monar. chy has been ilyled that of Candahar from 3 centrj proiince. The fucceffor of Timur was Zemaun, wh,-) probably (I ill ruh.s this extenfive connt-y. Cabul is fituated ia N. lat> 54° z' E. long. 68° 34'- ' Cabul, a river of the above-mentioned piovince, has alfo the proper name of Kameh or Kamah from t!ie vicinity of Jalalabad, 60 or 70 miles below the city of Cabul down to Paifiiawur. At Jalalab?.d it is navigable fc.rj.ilchs, or rafts of a particular conftrudion; and as no embarkations in hollow veffelsarein ufe, we may infer that the navigation isinterrupted by rapids, for the water of the Kamah is fufficicnt to carry boats. The Cabul, after receiving, the rivers ofEiJore, Pen- jekorch, Chendoul, and Sewad, joins the Indus at .Attock. CABURE, in QmUljology, the Brafilian name of the great eared owl of that country, Strix Brasiliana of recent authors. The Caboure of Wilhighby is the fame bird. CABU.R.NS, in Sealanguagt, denote fmali lines made of fpun yarn, wherewith to bind cables, feize tackles, and the like. CABUSEIBA, in Botany. See Myroxylon Pcru- V I A N U M . CABYBARA, in Zoology, an animal of the Cavsa genus, dillinguifiied fpeclfically by having no tail ; fore feet- three toed, and palmated. Schrcber. This animal grows to the length of about two feet and an half; the head is oblong ; fnout narrow ; noftrlls black and roundilh ; upper lip cleft ; whifliers black ; eyes large % cars fhort, ereft, naked, and black. It inhabits the eaftcra parts of South America, where it frequents fenny woods near large rivers ; fwims and dives well ; feeds on filli and vegetables, the former of which it catches in the night j bnngs forth one young at a time. This is the thick nofed tapir of Pennant. CABYLA, or Calvbe, in Ancient Geography, a final! town of Thrace. CABYLES,ir. Moilem Btjlory, the Mooriili mountaineers ol Algiers (See Algiers), are partly the immediate def- cendants ot the molt ancient inhabiUnts of the country, and in this refpea frequently denominated Brebers or Ber- bers (See Brebes); and partly the mixed progeny of the aborigines and of the nations who in former times invaded the country and fettled in it ; but all of them have always been and lldl are dillingui(h,d from the other inhabitants of the country by their language, love of freedom, and rude- nnpohilied manners. The Cabyles arc divided into dillina tribes, many of which are free and independent, and do not acknow edge the fuperiority of Algiers ; efpecially thofe who inhabit the inacceffiblc ridges of mountains. The neighbouring tribes are often united by friendly alliance, without fubjefting themfelves to a common head. Others live in a continual ftate of contention and feud with their neighbours, the chief caufes of which are the fhfidelity and elopement of their wives. They are, in general, well- grown robuft, meagre, and of a fun-burnt red, and often bl.ncki(h-yellow complexion, and have black or dark-brown nair. 1 heir external appearance is rendered ftill more uncouth by dirt and tattered clothes. They commonly dwell in ftraw-huts ; though ftone-houfes occafionally occur in their " daferas," or villages. Their number decreafes. and t.ieir love of hberty gradually declines. The inhabi- * taa.u C A C C A C tants of tlie hinlitd: p.irt? "f the mountain?, Iiowcver, dill afT^it their indepeiideiice, an.i dcfeiid their liberty with mid MKited valour agaiiiil ev:.-ry hoi'lik- attiick. Thtir courage, conciirriiijf with a perfctl k-iowl.dgt; of the coDiitiy, faves thtm frv>ni the fiiperior force ot their eiiemifs, as the Alge- riiits have, within a late period, frtqiitntly experienced. The oovernment, therefore, endeavours to maintain a good underilaiiding and frienddiip, where force is inefieclnal, and often yields even to unrcafonable demands. Thus the Cabvles of Coiico are treated with great len'ty ; for the fituation of their country is favourable, and they can affiiniblo a ilrong army ; and they carry gre.u quantities of oil and foap for fale to Alj;iers. The cafe is the fame with refpett to the Cabyles who inhabit the fca-coall about Eugia, Bona, and Tabarca. Among the Cabyles, who acknowledge no common chief, thofe of the greattll age arc particularly honoured ; and only their priefls, or " Mara- buts," enj.iv the general confidr-nce of the tribes, and have under the cloak of religion acquned great power and anlho- rity, which in fore inflances have become hereditary. Thefe then aft in the capai;ity of heads of the tribes, form treaties of peace, fend ainbafTadors, and are by others, and even by the Turks, confidcrcd as the chiefs of the nation. In the vicinity of the ftpulehre of a deceafed Marabut, or faint, is generally the habitation of the Marabut of the tribe, who, by means of a flag hoilled on a pole erefted upnn the edifice, gives the ufual fignal when the time of prayer arrives. Frorn the lame place fignals are made, on the appr ach of t!ie enemy, to the Cabyles, to alTcmble them at the appointed place of rendezvous. The language of the Cabyles, like that uf the Moors, is a dialetl of the Arabic. It deviate;, however, fo much from the latter, that in many places Moors and Cabyles are not able to underlland one another. CABYNE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Indian ocean, fouth of Bruton ; and near the ifland called Hage- diflen or l^izard-ifland. CACABELOS, a fmall town of Spain in Leon, feated in a valley between high mountains ; 40 miles N. W. of Leon. C.-\CABOGA,. in Zoology, the name of an American ferpent, by fome accounted the fame with the Tarciboia, or black water fnake of that part of the world ; but by others defcribed as being of a yellow colour, living about houfes, and doing great mifchief among poultry, although its bite is not fatal to mankind. This is an ambiguous fpecies. CACACA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of F>z, taken by the Moors from the Spaniards in 15J4, is defended by a Ilrong fort on a rock ; 16 miles S. of Mehlla. CACAGUALES, a town of North America, in the country of Mexico, and province of Tlafcala. C AC ALIA, in Botany, {J^x>ca^ia, Diofcorides.) Cluf. C. Bauh. ig;. Tourncf. CI. 12. gen. 10. Tab. 25S. Ray Method. Plant. 34. Hill. 391. Linn. gen. 93J, who in his earlier works called the genus Klcinia, but afterwards adopted the name taken up by Clufiiis, Jcc. though dubious of its identity v/itb the plant of Diofcorides and Fliuy. Reich. lolj. Schreb. 1260. Gs;rt. 963. Tab. 166. Jufl". 17^. Vent. 2. 510. La Marck. PI. 673. Clafs and order, fyiige- nefui polygatnia itqualis. Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidcn:. Linn. Corymhijeree, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. common, fimple, oblong, fomewhat caly- cled at the bafe, cylindric ; fcales five to ten, or more, equal, lanceolate- linear, forming a tube, with a few (hort ones incumbent on t!ie bale. Cor, compound, tubular; florets herraaphvodite, uniform ; border four or five-cleft, eiv^, gradually lc(Tening into the tub?. Slant- filaments five, very fliort, capillary; anthers cylindric, tnbulir. P'ljl. germ oblong ; Kyle threa^il-diaped, the length of the (lamens ; lligmas two, oblong, rcvolute. Peru, tiie permanent calyx. Seech lolitary, narrow-ovate ; down capillary. Rcecp. naked, flat, dotted. EIT. Ch. Cal. cylindric, oblong, fomeuhat ca'.ycled at the bafe. Obf. Linnsus in his Species Plant, and Syll. Nat. ad- mitted fome plants into this genus, which in opp ilition to his own generic character are wilh~ut the fliart fcales at the bafe of the calyx. Thefe aie now placed under a dillinft genus, for which Linnoeus's O'iginal name Kleinia has been revived. La Marck in Encyc. and profcn\>r Martyn in his edition of Miller, (lill, however, adhere to the arrangement of LinnjEus. The latter has inconfillently retained the original generic charaftcr, which the former has altered fo as to adapt it to all his fpecies. Species. • Stems JJiruhly, I. C penelu!a, Willd. Forflc. delcrip. 14'. " Stem and branches flefliy, leaflcfs, fcaly ; peduncles one-flowered," Vahl. Symb. ^. p. 90. Perennial. Stem about three feet high, branched, trilid towards the fummit. Seales fcattcred, fpiral-wile, rather crowded, about half an inch long, lanceo- latc-awlfliaped, ycllowifli, rigid, pungent, prelTed clofe to the branches. Peduncles from the fummits of the branches, folitary, (Iraight, about feven inches long, with a few linear, fmall, remote fcales. Calyx many-leaved, containing many florets. Corolla purple. 2. C. cylhulnca, I^a Marck. " Stem weak ; leaves flender, cylindric, flelhy, with a few hairs at their axils." Perennial. Stem a foot and a lialf high. Branches flender, cylindric, fmooth, leafy. Leaves feattered, cylindric, two inches long, pale green. A native of Africa, cultivated in the royal garden at Paris. 3. C. carnofa, Willd. " Leaves roundifli, flefliy, incurved ; pedun- cles terminal, one-flowered, naked." Ait. Hort. Kew. 5. p. 156. Perennial. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. 4. C.ficoides, Linn. Sp. PI. (Kieinia Hort. Clif.) " Leaves comprefied, flefliy." Perennial. Stems feven or eight feet higli, Miller; (about two feet; La Marck), woody at bottom, foft and fucculent upwards, irregularly branched. Leaves fcattered, thick, tapering, fucculent, a little curved, a little compreflfed in a direftion perpendicular to the hori- zon ; the upper ones covered with a very glaucous meal refembling that on fome kinds of plum. Flo'wers yellowifli white, at the extremities of the branches ; in a loofe, branched coi-ymb. Stigma dark purple. Miller and La Marck. A native of Africa. 5. C. repens, Linn. Mant. no. " Leaves deprefled, flelhy." Perennial. It differs from the lall in having a creeping root; and leaves not compreflcd but concave on their upper fur- face. Native of the Cape of Good Htjpe. The leaves and upper part of the branches of thefe two are pickled by the French with thtir meal on, and elleemed not inferior to rocic fampliire. 6. C. ciincifol'ia. Linn. Mant. no. "Leaves wedge-fliaped, flefliy." Perennial. Smaller than the two preceding. Leaves Icattered, glaucous, veinlcD, flat above, and fomewhat convex underneath. A native of the Cape. Cultivated iu the Uplal garden. Linnxus, though he could not make it flower, judged it to be a Cacalia, not a Cotyletlon, on account of its leaves not being oppofite. 7. C. articulala, Linn. Sup. 3J4. Thunberg prod. 142. I'Herit. fl;irp. tab. 8j. (laeiniata Jacq. ic. rar. tab. ifiS. runcinata La Marck?) " Stem decumbent, jointed ; loiver leaves haf- tate, upper lyrate." Linn. jun. " Leaves flelhy, flat; leaf- lets three-lobed :" Willd. " Leaves petiolcd, flat, haflate- runcinate, flifliy, glaucous;" La Marck. Perennial. Siemt three C A C A L I A, lliret feet high, upiiglit but weak, round, flcfliy, marked with hnc» of a docpor green, branching ; young branches jiiintcd. /.<-/ii'!-/ fcatttrcd, generally pinnate ; pinnules ob- long, tootli-galhed or entire, the end one largell. Jacquin. rmnatiful or hallate, but more frequently ternate-pinnatifid; the fegments lanceolate, fpreading very much, the two low- ell dilliiict ; the finnfes rounded. L'Herit. Runcinatc, or fomctimes fimply hallate, fituatid towards the fiimmit of the branches and llem. Flowers white, or (lightly tinged with red, in a loofe corymb; peduncles long. La Marck. Obf. According to Jacquin, as quoted by ProfefTor Martyn, tlie calvx is without incumbent fcales at the bafe, which would make it a Kleinia; but Willdtnow, who had acccfs to a living plant, continues it under cacalia. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. S. C papilLiris, Linn. Sp. PI. (Kleinia Hort. Clif. Cacalianthcmum Dill, elth.) "Stem befet with trun- cated, pctiolary fpines; leaves lanceolate, plain." Perennial. Stem about three feet high, cyhndric, befet on all fides with apparently truncated tubercles, which arc the permanent pe- tioles of fallen leaves. Leaves three or four inches long, nearly cylindric, with a longitudinal furrow, glaucous-green, fcattcred about the fnmmits of the branches. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. y. C. KLiiiij, Linn. Spec. Plant. .( Kleinia, Hiil.Ciiff. jiyj. Calcalianthenium Dill,elth.)" Stem compound ; fears of the petioles obfoletc, leaves lanceolate, flat; flowers corymbole." Stem thick, flelhy, cyhndric, branched, fmooth ; the fears of the fallen leaves a little pro- tuberant; branches fmaller at their infcrtion and feemingly jointed. LciiViS four or five inches long, flelliy, pointed, flightly furrowed on their upper furface, growing in tufts, at the fummit.s ot the branches. Peduncles feveral, in the cen- tre of the tuft of leaves, each fupporting a corymb of oblong, pale-carnation coloured flowers. LaMarck./^fffjft/,jf/f narrow, Iprinkled with obfolete papillx, naked, fmooth. Seeds ob- long, nearly cyhndric, fmooth, rufcfcent ; down longer than the calyx, of a filky whiteness; rays capillary, very minutely denticulated. A native of the Canary Idands. By fome gardeners it has been called cabbage tree, from the refem- blance of its llalks to thofe of cabbage ; by others, carna- tion tree from the fliape of the leaves and colour of the flowers. Miller, lo. C. 0(/»;-(7, Willd. " Leaves lanceolate, flat; flowers umbellate." Vahl. Symb. 3. p. 90. Perennial. Stem erect, branched, fcarred, with three white, elevated lines proceeding from each fear upwards and downwards. Leaves at the iummils of the younger branches, fcfllle, fcattered, thick, fmooth. Peduncles fix or feven, ereCl, forming an umbel from the fnmmits of the branches, andfurniflied at their bafe with a few lanceolate fcales. Calyx cyliiidric, five- leaved, fmooth, with two linear leaves at its bafe. Vahl. Found by Forlkal on the mountains of Arabia Felix. 1 1. C. Anteuphorhhim, Linn. Spec. Plant. 11 68. (Kleinia, Hort. Clif. AntCuphorbiuin, Bauh. Pin. ,587. Dod. pempt. J78. Lob. ic. 2. p. 26. Moris. Hilt. 3. p. 345. tab. 3;. fig. 10. Dill. elth. 63. tab. <,i^. f. 2,3.) "Leaves ovate- oblong, flat, with a triple line 'at the bafe of the petioles." Perennial. Stems feveral, three or four feet high, cylindric, as large as a man's finger, irregularly branched. Leaves fuc- tulent, pale green. It was formeriy elleemcd a fpecific againll the poifonous cffeft of euphorbium. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. It has been cultivated in Euro- pean gardens fince 1370, but it very rarely flowers. The flower figured by Dillenius was produced in the garden of Mr. Blaithwait at Dirham in Glouccfterfliire. 12. C. rlglda, Willd. " Leaves ovate, obtufe, flat." Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 13. C. arbufculd, Willd. " Leaves lanceolate, flat, fmooth." Thunb. Prod. 142. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 14. C. lomrntofa, Linn. Sup. 35;. "Leaves fcfllle, lanceolate, toothed, tomentous beneath." Perennial. Found by Thun- berg at the Cape of Good Hope. 15. C. nfclepiadea, Linn. Sup. ^^1. " Stem tomentofe ; haves petiolcd, ovate-lan- ceolate, entire, very fmooth above, tomentofe beneath, re- volute at the edge, panicles terminal." Perennial. Stems upright, flraight. Leaves oppofite, fpreading at the bafe, and gradually drawn to a point, veined, the confillence of a bay leaf ; petioles roundifli, tomentofe. Panicles fmall, crowded. Calyx with few flowers ; the fcales at its bale rather large, it has the habit of an afclepias. Found by Mutis in South America. 16. C. appendiculata,lJmn.S\\Y>^ " Stem tomentofe ; leaves ovate-heart -fliaped, acute, angular, tomentofe beneath ; petioles with leafy appendages." Peren- nial. Stem angular, hoary. Leaves higher than the llem, on long petioles, a little angular, nerved, veined ; appen- dages three pair of very fmall, oppofite, entire, petiolcd leaf- lets ; the largell pair lituated the farther from the leaf. Pedicles furniihed with a bracle. Flowers yellow. Found by MalTon in watery places of the ifland of TenerifF. Ano- ther plant was found by him on the mountains of the fame ifland which he judged to be a ditlinct Ipecies, butthcyounger Linnaens thought it only a variety with a very Imooth llem, and leaves cordate-oblong, a little toothed, and not angular. 17. C. reticulata, Willd. " Leaves heart-fhaped, roundilh, embracing the ilem, toothed ; flowers corymbofe." Vahl Symb. iii. 91. Perennial. Stem branched ; branches from the nerves of the dccurrent leaves, angular, fmooth, thicken- ed at the joints under the kaves. Leaves refembling thofe of borhonia crenata, alternate, about an inch long, fmooth, reticulated with veins ; teeth, as well as the edges of the reflexed leaves, thickened ; nerves of a blood colour at the bafe. Corymb fomewhat falligiate ; peduncles and pedi- cels fmooth, with a fmall leaf at the bafe of the pedxels. Calyx fimple, fmooth ; leaflets twelve, linear, lanceolate, equal. Down fimple, the length of the calyx, Vahl. 18. C. procumbcns. Martyn's Miller, ( Rumph. Amb. t. 103. f. 2.) " Stem iomewhat flirubby, procumbent ; leaves ovate-lan- ceolate, flightly ferrated, flefhy ; racemes elongated, inter- rupted." Lour. Cochinch. 485. Perennial. Stems nine feet high, procumbent, round, equal, fmooth, fucculent, branched. Leaves bright green, fmooth, alternate, petiolcd. Calyx cyhndric, even. Florets gold-coloured, few, long, with the fegments of the border erctt. A native of China and Co- chinchina, where it is ufed as a pot-heiix. ** Stems herbaceous-. J9. C. acaiiUs, Linn. Sup. 353. " Leaves femicolumnar ; fcapes one-flowered." Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 20. C. lutea. Miller. " Leaves five-parted, acute, glaucous beneath ; flowers terminal, on very long peduncles." ScaJ>e about eight inches high, terminated by fix or eight yellow flowers, form- ing almoli an umbel. I^eaves cut into five or fix long, acute fegments'almoll to the midrib ; fegments acutely cut in two or tluee places. A native of St. Helena, whence it was fent to Mr. Miller. 21. C. radicals, Linn. Sup. 354. " Stem creeping, taking root ; kaves round-ovate, flelhy." Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. Cape of Good Hope. 2Z. CfemJiervirensiWAld. (Seinperviva, Vovik. and La Marck.) " Stem ereft ; leaves flelhy, lanceolate, obtufe ; peduncles generally tv\-o, terminal, one-flowered." Perennial. Stem fcarcely a foot high. Leaves crowded together at the bafe of the ftem, fcfllle, two inches long, fmooth, fliining, flat, keeled beneath. Peduncles llraight, fmooth, fprinkled with white dots, befet with linear fcattered fcales. Calyx red, or ucariy violet, with thirteen teeth and thirteen furrows. Florets near fixty. A native of Arabia Felix, on mountains. 23- C A C A L I A. 25. C. fonchifoliii, Linn. Sp. PI. 1169. (KIcinIa, Flor. Zeyl. Mnel Schari, Rheed. Semdo miiilenifpdlarim, Pluk. Anialtli. 192. t. 444. f. I. Chotulnllii zeyhmilka, Burin. Zeyl. 61. Soricl.'iis amli'iiucrijis, Rlimplu Anib. J. p. zjj. t. 103. Tdgo- Una, Ptt. Gaz. t. So. f. ij.) " Leaves cnnbraeliiff the item, toothed ; lower ones lyrc-fhaped ; upper lanceolate, arrow- fhapcd." Willd. ./?«';/ annual. Stem {lender, a little branched, about a foot and halt" hisfh, round, and fprinlcied with a few hairs. Leaves alternate, with a few hairs, ef])eciallv on the rib. Floivcrs terminal, about the llze of thole of common groundfrl, cylindric. Pi Cacalia Coraifolia and Laurifolia, Lin. Sup. See MiKANIA. Cacalia foliis auriculatis, &c. Burman. Zeyl. 5;, t. 21. See Eupatorium Zeylanicum. Cacalia foliis rotiindioribus, Morif. j, 94. See Eupa- T o n 1 u M Rotundifolium. CACALLE, C A C CACALIiE, in Entomology, a fpeciee of Chrysomela that inliabits Auftria : the colour is grccnirti, with a longi- tudinal ihcak on the wing-cafes and future blue : wings red. Herblh CACALIANTHEMUM, in Botany, Dill. Ekh. See Cacalia Papillaris and C. Kleinia. CACALLA, or Cazalla, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the country of Seville, famous for its wine ; 40 miles N. of Seville. CACALOTL, in Onnlholo^y, the Brafilian name of the CoRvus VARius of BrifTon, a variety of our common raven, according to Fernaiirl's Hiftory of New Spain, &c. CACALOTOTL. Ray dcfcribes the lefFer ani of mo- dern writers, Crotophaga ani of Gmehn, under this name. CACAMO. See Acamantis. CACAO, in Bviany. See Theobroma and Choco- late. The cacao nuts are ufed by the Indians as money ; 150 of the nuts being ellimated at much the fame value with a Spanidi ryal. Cacao affinis. Sloane. See Randia mitis. Cacao, in Entomology, a fpecies of Bruchus, found among the feeds of the Theobroma. The body is fufcous with grifeons fpots. Fabricius, &c. CACAOTETE, in Natural Hijory, the name by which the Brafilians call the Belemnites, which is very common with them as well as with us. CACAPEHON, in Geography, a river of Virginia, which runs about 70 miles north-eaftcrly along the wellern fide of north ridge, and difchargcs itfelf into Potowmack river, 30 miles N. from Fredericks-town. CACARA, in Botany, Rumph. See Dolichos un- guiailattis and pniricns. CACASTOL, in Ornithology, the name given by Buf- fdn to the Mexican flare, Sturnus Mexicanus, a bird of a blue colour varied with black. Ray calls it Caxcaxtotatl, and Briffon Cofinga Mexicana. CACATOCHA of Falent, in Ichthyology. See Cory- PH«NA TENTADACTYLA. The fifli Called by the fame writer Cacatoch a Babintang is the Ch^^todon Argus of Brunniche, a fpecies diftinguilhed by having eleven dorfal fpines, the body marked with many black dots, and the tail entire. CACATORY/fw/-, a denomination given by Sylvius to an intermittent fever, accompanied with a fevere loofenefs, and fometimes gripes. CACATUA, in Ornithology, fynonymous ivith Kakatoc, and Cockatoo. BrifTon calls the leffer white Cockatoo, Psittacus sulthureus of Gmel. Cacatua luteo-crijlata. His cacatua minor is the red vented cockatoo of Brown ; and the cacatua rubro-criftata, the greater red-crcfled cockatoo of Latham, S:c. CACAVATE, in Botany, a name given to the cacao (Theobroma Linn.) in the general hillory of plants pub- lifhed at Lyons, 15S7. CACCARI, in Geography, a town of Naples, and pro- vince of Calabria Citra ; 10 miles W. of Umbriatico. CACCAVONE, a town of Naples, in the country of Mohfe : 9 miles N. of Molife. CACCIA, a fmall diftria of the ifland of Gorfica. See Algeri. Caccia, Ital. Chasse, Fr. a mufical term for a i/»»/;'n^- piece. Cornoda caccia, a hunting horn, commoaly called a French horn. Alia caccia, in the hunting ityle. See Chace. CACCINI, GiuLio Romano, in Biography, one of the firft cultivators oi recitative during the latter end of the i6th Vol. V. C A C century at Florence. He is faid, by Gio Battifta Doni, to have been a young, elegant, and f^piritcd finger, accuf- tomcd to attend the meetings of a fociety of learned noLIc- inen and gcnlhnien at Florence ; the meti hers of which fo- ciety were nuitli difpleafed with the little rcfpeCl that was paid to lyric poetiy by tlie compofers of that time, who thought of nothing but fugues, canons, and crowded harmony, which being totally devoid of melody, rendered the words that were fet in this manner wholly unintelligible ; as the mufic was all in chorufcs, fiigalo, where every part was finging different words at the fame time. Thefe gentlemen wifhed to dif- cover fome kind of fimple melody that would tune decla- mation, admit of harmony occafionally, and approach at nearly as pofTiblc to the declamation of the ancients ; which they were fure was in mufical intervals, as it was accompa- nied by inflrumcnts. Tibi£ pares et impares. " Caccini being feized with a paflion for this kind of mufic, ftudied it with great diligence, compollng and fing- mg to a fingle inftrument, which was generally the Theorbo lute, played by Bardillo, who happened then to be at Florence. In imitation therefore of Galilei, but in a more beautiful and pleafing flyle, Caccini fet many canzonets and fonnets, written by excellent poets, and r.ot by fucli wretched fcriblers (rimatori a do'z.^tina) as were ufually em- ployed before, and are flill frequently the favourites of mu- ficians ; fo that he may be faid to have been the firll to fee this error, and to difcovcr that the art of counterpoint will not alone complete the education of a nmfician, as is gene- rall)^ imagined. And he afterwards confefTed, in a difcourfc prefixed to his works, that the converfations held at Count del Vernio's were of more ufe to him, than thirty years lludy and exercife of his art. Here he like wife claims the merit of having firft publiflred fongs for a fingle voice, which, indeed, had the greateft fuccefs. And it mufl be confefTed, that we owe to him, in a great meafure, the new and graceful manner of finging, which at that time fpread itfelf all over Italy ; for he compofed a great number of airs which he taught to innumerable fcholars, and among the rell to his daughter, who became a famous finger, and dill continues very excellent in that faculty. " In the recitative ftyle, however, Caccini had a formi- dable rival in Jacopo Peri, a Florentine, who was not only a good compofer, but a famous finger, and performer on keyed iiiftrumcnts, having been taught by Chriflopher Malvezzi ; and applying with great diligence and enthufiafni to this kind of finging, fucceeded wonderfully, and met wiili univerfal applaufe. " The firll poem fet in this new manner was Dafne, a pafloral written by Rimiccini, and fet by Jacopo Pen and Caccini, in a manner which charmed the whole city." See Recitative and Opera. Various experiments in dramatic mufic were made at the houfes of the nobility of Florence, previous to the exhibi- tion of the firft ferious opera, which was the Euridice, written by Rinuccini, and chiefly fet by Jacopo Peri, for the royal nuptials of Mary of Medicis with Henry IV. of France, in 1600. Though the mufic of this drama went under the name of Peri, who performed a part in it hiinfelf, yet he confeiles in his preface that Giulio Caccini, " whofe great merit was known to the whole world," com- pofed fome parts of it, and taught the fingers. Caccini himfelf afterwards fet the entire drama of Euridice to mufic infAlo Rapprefentativa, and publifhed it at Florenre. Speci- mens of his mufical recitation are given in Bnrnty's General Hiftory of Mufic, vol. IV. fo that there can be no doubt but that Caccini was one of the firft founders of the mufical drama or Opera, whence all the improvements in fetting 4 O words, C A C C A C rords.in fmjnng, and in producing inllrumental effeas by a mon in large cities of thofe eaftern climes. On account, .ell repulated orchellra for thefc bit 200 years, may be however, ol the materials witn which its edifices are con- ftniAed, it is nibjea to frequent and dreadful conflagrations. ), in Ornithology, one of the fynonymous names As a preventive of the defolating cffcdtj of thtfe calamities, iuffoii didinguillies the long-billed rain cuckow, every houfe is furnilhed with a low building of brick, in won well reg deduced. CACCO, bv which Bu - ^ - —- j, ^ • ^ .,.,,.... ■ - r C'ucuLus vuTULA of Omt/irt, Sec. fo'-m of an oven, in which the inhabitants depofit, on occa. CACELLA, in Gfogmphy, a fea-port town of Portugal, fions of any alarm, their mod valuable property. The go- in the province of Algarva, on the fouth-coaft, about S vernment likewife obliges every family to keep a cittern. miles W. from the mouch of the Guadiana. N. lat. 37° y'. W. long. 6""' 40'. CACERA dell' Pag AN I, a town of Naples, in the pro- vince of Capltanata ; I ; miles S. of Troia. CACERES, atownof Afia, in the ifland of Lu^on or Manilla, founded by the fecond governor and proprietor of thefo idands, D. Francis de Sande, and conlifting of In- dian huts and fome convents, well built. It is the refidence of a bilhop, under whom are the provinces of Colilaya, Ca- niarines, and Ifalon. N. lat. 1+° ij'. E. long. 124° 40'. Caceres, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftrema- dura, feated on the Sabor, and well known for its fine wool: 20 miles W. of Truxillo. Caceres, a town of North America, in Mexico, anddif- tria of Tlafcala ; 70 miles N. W. of Vera Cruz. CACHACHRON Hrad, the fouth point of Dominica idand in the Weft Indies, and nearly N. from the north end of Martinico. CACHALES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece in the Phocide, which wafhed the walls of Tithoreus, ac- cording to Paufanlas. CACHALOT, orCACHELOT, in Zoology. See Phy- SETER MaCROCEPHALUS. CACHAN, or Kashan, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irac, which carries on an extenfive trade in filk, fluffs, b'Ocades, and fine earthen ware, inhabited by Chriftians and Guebres ; 50 miles N. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 34° 10'. E.long. 50° 2'. CACHAO, Chaco, Checo, or Kesho, one of the eight provinces of Tonquin, feated in the central part of the kingdom, and encompaffed by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and fome parts of the country are mountainous ; it abounds with a variety of trees, and particularly that which yields the varnidi. The filk nianufaaure is carried on in this province more than in any of the others. It takes its name from its capital, which is the metropolis of the whole king- dom ; though Dampier reckons it as, in other refpefts, hardly comparable to a Chinefe city of the third rank, hav- ing, however, a confiderablc population, which principally depends on the crowds of neighbouring villagers who refcrt to it at particular times, and efpecially on market-days, with their various commodities. Thefe perfons are allowed to have their lialls in different parts of the city, for the con always full of water, on the top of the houfe, together with a long pole and bucket for throwing water upon the houfe. The chief palace of the chowa, or king, is fituated in the centre of the city, and furrounded with a flroiig wall, en- clofing within its circuit a great number of apartments, two (lories high ; thofe of tlie chowa and his wives are embellifh- ed with a variety of carving and gilding after the Indian man- ner, and are finely varnifhed. In the outward court arc a great number of fumptuous ftables for the king's elephants and horfes ; the inner courts are inacceffible, not only to ftrangers, but even to the king's fubjeas, the members of the privy council and the minifters of Hate excepted. This enclofure, which is of a va(l circumference, is faced with brick within and wi'.Iiout, and the whole ilruaure is termi- nated by fpacious gardens. The king is a kind of prifoner in this palace, and his authority is exercifcd by an officer, whofe family have long tranfmitted the executive power in hereditary fucceffion. The arfenal is a large building, well flored with warlike ammunition and artillery. It Hands an the banks of the river Song-koy, and on that branch of it which Dampier calls Donibea, reprefented by him as the deeped and wjdeft of the two. The Englifh faaory-houfe is fituated on the no'th fide of the city, fronting the river. It is a low edifice, with a fpacious dining-room in the centre, and on each fide are the apartments of the merchants, fac- tors, and fervants. At each end of the building are fmall houfes for other ufcs, which form two wings, with the fquare in the middle, and parallel with the river, near the bank of which flands a flag flaff, on which they commonly difplay the Englifh colours on Sundays, and all other re- markable days. Adjoining to this houfe, on the fouth fide, is the Danifli faaory, wliich is neither fo large nor fo con- venient. On the fame fide of the river runs a long dike, with its timber and flones ilrongly cemented together, which prevents the river, during the time of their heavy rains, from overflowing the city. This river difcmbogues itielf into the gnlf of Tonquin. Dr. Halley, in the philofophical Tranf- aaions, has given an account of the furprifing tides in this bay; each flux being of 12 hours duration, and its reflux the fame, fo that there occurs but one high-water in 24 hours. Cachao, or Kefho, is the only city in the whole kingdom, and is faid to confift of about 20,000 houfea. N. lat. 22° ic'. E. long. 105° 31'. SeeToNQUiN. CACHA R, a rich but mountainous territory of the king- do.-n of Ava, lying north-well of Munnipoora, fubjea to Its capital is Cof- venience of the difpofal of their wares. The town itfelf, thoughitistheconllantrefiJenceof theTonquinefemonarchs, the independent fovereignty of a rajah. has neither walls nor fortifications ; and if we except the pore. r>ya! palace and the arfenal, has little elfe worthy of notice. CACHASS/E, in ytncieni Geography, a people of Scy- The (Ireets are neither regular nor handfome ; fome of them, thia, placed by Ptolemy on this fide of Imaus, between the indeed, are airy and wide, but tlie reft are narrow, and all Norofli and the Afpafii. of them are paved : the houfes are low and mean, conllrua- CACHE, or, as it is called in China, Cayas, and in many ed of wood and clay, and not above one flory high. The ^^rtsoflniiia, Cas, Ca/oe,CaJ!e,avid Ciffie, in Commerce,a{ma\l magazines and warchoufes belonging to foreigners are the copper coin, equal in value to a litde more than a French only edifices built of brick. In various parts of the city denier. there are, even in dry weather, ditches of ftagnated water CACHEF, or Cacheef, in the Turljjb Affairs, the go- and ftinking mud, which are very offenfive to llrangers ; and . vernor of a city, town, or even a province of Egypt. yet, upon the whole, its airy fituation, and fcrcne air, ren- The title cachef is alfo given to the captains or command- derit healthy and pleafant to the natives ; fo that it is f-ldom, ers of little flying armies, intended to keep the Arabs in tf ever, vifited with thofe pellilential difeafes that are com- obedience. Egypt C A C Egypt is divided by the Turks into thirty-nine cachef- iccls, or governments. CACHEMIRE, in Geography. See Cashmere. CACHEO, a town of Negroland in Afriea, featcd on the river St. Domingo, or Cacheo, and belonging to the Por- tugucfe, who have three forts, and carry on a great trade there in flaves and wax. N. lat. 12° j;'. W. h)ng. 16° 20'. Tlie river divides into feveral large branches before it falls into the ocean. CACHET, Christopher, mB'iography, born at Neiif- chateau in Lorraine, tiie 26th of November 1572, received the rudiments of his education among the Jefnits. To im- prove himlelf further, he vifittd the principal ftates of Italy, hut purpofing to pradife medicine, he fi>;ed his refidence at Padua, and after finiOiing his (Indies there, he fettled at Nancy, where he arrived at the highcft honours in his pro- felTion, being phyfician and aulic counfellor to four of his fovereigns, as appears by his epitaph, under his portrait, in the houfe of the Cordeliers at Nancy, where he was buried Sept. JO, 1624. Ut erat bono publico natus, Lucem hteris, nomcn libris, laud'in fuis, Patrice gloriam, famam fibi, Principibus fxpe fahitem pepcrit. Sereninimis ducibus Carolo jtio. Henrico 2do. Francifco 2do. Carole 4to. Archiater et confdiarius. He was author of feveral works : " Controverfia: Theoricos Prafticae, in primam Aphorifmorum Hippocratis Seilio- nem. Opus in duas partes divifum, Philofopliis ac Medi- cis perutile et pcrjucundum. In quo quscumque ad Ve- nsefedlionem, Purgationem, et Vidtus Rationcm perti- nent, enodantur, &c." Tulli Leucorum, 161 2, Svo. " Pan- dora Bacchica furens, Medicis Armis oppugnata ;" Tulli, 1614, i2mo. " Apologia dogmatica in Heruietici cujufdam anonymi fcriptum de curatione Calculi, in qua Chymi- carum Ineptiarum vanicas exploditur ;" Tull. 1615, Svo. " Vrai etaifure Prefervatif dela Petite Veroleel Rougeole;" 1617, Svo. The only art here taught is to keep children carefully from all infecied places. Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Dia. Hift. CACHETUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in the kingdom of Pontns, near the town of Heraclea, accord- ing to Diodorus Siculus. CACHEXIA, a term applied by the older writers in Med'tc'im, to denote thofe conditions of the body, from what- ever caufes they may arife, in which the funftions are im- perfeclly performed, and the complexion unhealthy. It is derived from xaxn,-, lad, and ifi'--, haUi. The cachectic Rate of the conilit'.ition was fuppofed to depend upon an acrimo- ny, or fome other morbid change in tlie fluids of the body ; and this feems to have been chiefly inferred from the change of complexion. Hence Van Swieten obferves, that " expert phyficians always examine carefully into the appearance of the fliin, in thole parts where the integuments are thin, and the veiTels he expofed, when they wi(h to know the condi- tion of the blood and humours." } 1170. Thefe hypo- thefes, however, are now confidered as unfounded. But upon whatever circumftances the cachedlic flate depends, it is obvious, that it occurs in all inftances of flow convalef- cence from acute and chronic difeafes in general, and ac- companies all lingering affeiflions of the vifcera and other parts ; and therefore that it is efTentially different in its na- ture in different inftances. Hence it is itnpofTible to give a general hiftory of it, as of a fpecific difeafe ; or to enumerate the remedies which may be fnccefsfully employed for its cure. V/here it is merely a debility, confequent on forae C A C fevcre difeafe, moderate cxercife, a light nutritious diet, and tonic medicines are indicated. But where it is a con- comitant of fome organic afTeflion, the nature of that muft determine the nature of the remedy to be adeptcd. In the more accurate language of the prefent day, this vague and indefinite term is feldom employed. But it has been ufed with great propriety by Sauvages and Cullen to denote a particular clafs of difeafes, in their rcfpeftive fyf- terns of nofology ; including thofe complaints in which the general habit is affeded, and a change of coinplcxioii, with emaciation or morbid enlargement, are chara£lerifl.ic fymp- toms. Such are dropfy, jaundice, rickets, &c. CACHIBONA, or Clyde, in Geography, a river of the ifland of Dominica, which runs into the lea on the eaft coaft, a little to the north of Halifax bay. CACHICAME, in Zoology, Buffon's name of the Pig- headed Armad'tUo ; Dafyptis no-veincindus of I-.inni\is. CACHIMAYO, ni Geography, a large river of South America, in Peru, which falls into the ocean within 2 leagues of I^a Plata. CACHIQITE Toiver and Bay, are fitnated on the coa!t of Barbary, m the Mediterranean, nearly W. from Algiers 6 or 7 leagues. CACHOLONG, in Mineralogy. See Chalcedony. CACHOPS Sands, \nGeDgraphy,dire tworemarkable banks, ■which contradt the channel of the mouth of the Tagus, at its influx into the fea, below Lifbon. CACHORRODOMATO, in Zoology, the rame by which the Portuguefe in America call the Taiibi ; a crea- ture faid to refenible the OpoflTum in many refpeds, and by fome fufpedted to be the male of that creature. CACHRUS, ill Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, {Pleif Jus) with entire yellowifh wings, and a common fnfcous border fpotted with white. Fa'br. &c. This inhabits South America. CACHRYS, in Botany, nsc^fv?, Gr. The word is ufed in various fenfes by different authors, and has been the oc- cafion of great perplexity to the grammarians and commen- tators. In Theophraftus (lib. iii. cap. 7.) it feems to de- note the catkins of the oak, wallnut, pine, &c. by other writers it is ufed, fometimes for the root, fometimes for the feed of the plant to which modern botanifts have given the fame name, and fometimes for the plant itfelf. It alfo figni- fied the feeds of roailed barley ; and fome have fuppofed that the plant derived its name from the refemblance of its feeds to thofe of barley. (See the notes on Theophraftus by Con- ftantine and Bodeus a Stapel, p. 139, 140.) Tournef. Inil. p. ,325. P/j/c 127. Raii Melh. Plant. 47. Linn. gen. ^4^. Schrcb. 474. A¥illd. 538. Gxn. 808. PI. 140. JufT. p. 223. Vent. vol. iii. p. 2'). Libanotis Cachryophorus, Raii Hift. Plant, p. 424. ChCs and order, pen/andria digj- nia. ' riat. ord. Umbellat.t, Linn. Umbcllifer.e, JufT. Gen. Ch. Cal. univcrfal and partial umbels manifold : univerfal and partial involucres, many-leaved, linear-lanceo- late : perianth proper, fcarcely difcernible. Cor. flowers all uniform : petals five, lanceolate, almoft upright, equal, flat- tifh. Slam, filaments five, fimple, the length of the corolla: anthers fimple. P//?. germ top-(haptd, inferior : fiyles two, inferior, the length of the corolla. Peric. fruit fomewhat egg-fliaped, obtufe, very large, fplitting in two. Seeds Iw/o, very large, very convex on one fide, flat on the other; of a fungous or fpungy fubftance, each enclofing a fohtary ovate- oblong kernel. EfT. Ch. fruit fomewhat egg-(haped, with a thick inteo-u- njent of a fpungy fubftance. Sp. I. C. odonlalgica, Linn. Sup. iSr. Pallas It. vol. iii. p. 270. t. g. f. I, 2, j. Vol. V. p. io5. PI 4. French tranflation. Gaert. vol. ii. p. 274. PL 140. f. j. " Ra- 4 O 2 dical C A C A'wA lesvfs twice pinnate, white with clown : flem naked : feeds pcrfc<;lly plain." Rod p.ienniai, very lona:, ^'^"'■^ ^"^ aromatie, piodiicinc; when chewed an abundance of faliva in the month, and on th.it account employed as a cure for the tooth-ache. Pinnules of the radical leaves ternatc, the leaf- lets eleijantly incurved upward?. Sle:ti finiple, flreakcd, from nine to twenty one inches high, panicled at top witli \imbclUd branches forming a kind of thyrfe ; naked, with the exceptioi^ of a (lipule-like leaf at the origin of each branch, cut nearly half way down into three or four feg- ments, and a pair of (hort lanceolate leaves a little above the middle of each branch. Fio-.ucn yellow. Gartner obfervcs, that the llrnfturc and polition of the cotyledon of the feed is very fuigular, being leafy, elliptic, divaricated downward and coliatcral, nearly as in menifpernium, except that both are in- cluded in one cell of the albumen. Found abundantly by Pal- las in the arid deferts, between the Volga and the Jaick. 2. C. Morl/oni, Willd. Allion. Anft. p. 2J. Morif. Umb. 63. PI. 3. f. 1. C. lasvigata. La Marck Encyc. i. p. 2^6. " Leaves fuper-dccompound, brilUe-fliaped, cut into many fegments : feeds plain, fmooth." Vahl. Symb. 3. p. 49. Ryit perennial, long, thick as a man's arm, white. Sum two or three feet high, ftriated, fmooth. Ri/ot-leaViJ large, finely cut ; the lad fegments briftle-diaped and (hort : upper leaves of the (lem oppofite. Flowers yel- low. SeaL white, fmooth, not furrowed. La Marck quotes the libaninis of Gouan as a fynonym of this fpecies ; but Gouan defcribes the feeds of his plant as furrowed. Pro- felTor Martyn obfcrves, that the libanotis of Gouan feems to be a different fpecics from that of Linnzus. A native of Spain, Italy, and the fouth of France. 3. C. Libanotis, Linn. Sp. PI. Morif. Hift. 3. p. 267. S. g. PL i. fig, 6. Umb. PI. J. f. J. Libanotis ferulx folio, fcmine angulofo. Bauh. Pin. J 58. " Leaves twice pinnate; leaflets acute, much divided; feeds furrowed, fmooth." i?ow perennial, large, white, branched, aromatic. 5'/cot tliick, round, fmooth, finely ftriated, leafy, branched, about two feet high. Leaves large, green, almolt as finely cut as the preceding. Flowers yellow. The whole plant has an aromatic, fweet fmell, and is eftecmed carminative, aftringent, and anti-ifteric. A na- tive of Italy, the fouth of France, and the coaft of Barbary. 4. C.ficula, Linn, Sp. PI. Morifon. Hift. j. p. 267. S. 9. PI. I. f. 3. Umb. PI. 3. f. 2. " Leaves many times di- vided; lea.lcts linear, acute : feeds furrowed, hifpid." Root perennial, large, long, branched. Stem two or three feet high, thick, round, ftriated, fmooth, branched. Radical- leaves a little refembling thole of Peucedanum, large, a little rough to the touch : their common petiole imperfeiflly cy- lindric, ftriated- F/oTUirrj yellow. Sceils deeply channelled, angular, remarkably rough. ■;. C. tiiurica, Willd. " Leaves twice pinnate ; leaflets linear, acute ; feeds furrowed, tu- btrcltd." Leaves as in the preceding, but narrower. In- volucre univcrfal, none; partial ot eight or ten linear leaflets. Flowers dioicous. Seeds three times lefs than thofe of the pre- ceding, furrowed, thickly fet with large, globular, often red- difti tubercles. Willdenow, from a dried fpecimen. A native of Taurisand Siberia, 6. C. cretica, Willd. La Marck En- eye. J. p. 257. "Leaves twice pinnate; leaflets lanceo- late, ferrated ; feeds furrowed, rough." Root perennial. .9.'™; two feet and a half high, chatmelled ; leaflets refembling thofe of Angelica Sylveftris. Seeds ovate-pointed, blackifli, channelled, rough with ftiff hairs, and furnilhed with a re- markably fungous integument. A native of Candia. 7- C fanacifotta,Wi\\A. Vahl. Symb. i. 2j. Martyn's Miller. (C. paftfnacea, LaMark Encyc. C. ficula, Morif. Hift. 3, p. ^6/. Sec. 9. PI. I. f. 4. Panax ficuliiiti, Boccone. Sec. i. Pi. I.) " Radical- leaves pinnate, ovate-obtufe, fomewhat C A C lobcd ; feeds hirfute." Root perennial. Stem four or five feet higli, almoft naked; branches alternate. Radueil-lvaiies large, unequally winged with five or three leaflets, elliptic, obtiife ; crenulatcd, and fometimes lobed, pubefcent, a little harfli to tlie touch, of a greyifti green colour : leaflets at the fummit of eaeii leaf, decurrent on the petiole. Flowers white. Involucres of from fix to nine leaves. Germs cover- ed witli white hairs. La Marck. Seeds a little fpungy. Vahl. A native of Sicily, Spain, and Barbary. Cachrvs Orleiitalis, Tournef. Cor. 23. Travels, 2. p. 121. PI. See LAsi;RPiTiUMy>rtt//7/r/)«. Cachrys, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio [Hefperia Fabr.) that inhabits Cayenne. The wings are entire, yel- lowifli, with a common brown border fpotted with white. Fabr. &c. CACHU, Cachou, or Catechu. See Catechu. CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine highly celebrated among the Chinefe and Indians, and made of feveral aro- matic ingredients, the perfumes, medicinal earth, and pre- cious ftones: they make the whole into a ftiff pafte, and form out of it feveral figures according to their fancy, which are dried for ufe ; thefe are principally ufed in the Eaft Indies, but are fometimes brought over to Portugal. In China, the principal perfons ufually carry a fniall piece in their mouths, which is a "continued cordial, and gives their breath a VC17 fweet fmell. It is a highly valuable medicine alfo, in all nervous complaints, and is eftecmed a prolonger of life, and a provocative to venery, the two great intentions of moft of the medicines in ufe in the Eaft. CACHYMIA, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by Paracclius for an imperfedl metalline ore, as he expreffes it, an immature metalline body, which is neither a faline fubftance nor a metal. The cachymis may be divided into fulphureous, as mar- cafite ; mercurial, as arfenic or orpiment ; and faline, as all talcs. CACIDARI, in ^Indent Geography, a people of Scythia, on this fide of Imaus, according to Pliny. CACIQLIES, in Hi/lory, a denomination anciently given in America to governors of provinces and generals of armies. It was alio appropriated to the fovereigns of the five great kingdoms into which the ifland of Hifpaniola was divided when the Spaniards firft vifited it, and alfo to the fovereigns of the principalities or kingdoms in the other iflands. Their power over the fubjedl, which was hereditaiy, was abfolute, and they were regarded with almoft idolatrous veneration. Befides thefe, there were alfo fubordinate chieftains, or princes, who were tributaries to the fovereign of each diftrift. They feem to have fomewhat refembled the ancient barons or feudatories of Europe ; holding their poftefllons by the tenure of fervice. Oviedo (lib. iii. c. 4. ) relates, that they were under the obligation of perfonally attending the fove- reign, both in peace and war, whenever they were fo com- manded. We have already obferved, that the dignity of the Cacique was hereditary : but if Martyr is to be credited, the law of fucceffion among them was different from that of all other people ; for he obferves (P. Martyr, dccad. iii. lib. 9.) that the Caciques bequeathed the fupreme authority to the children of their fifters, according to feniority, and difin- herited their own offspring ; being certain, as he further ob- ierves, that, by this policy, they prefervcd the blood-royal, which might not happen to be the cafe in advancing any of the children of their numerous wives. The account of Oviedo, however, is more probable ; he remarks (lib. v. c. 3.) that one of the wives of each Cacique was particularly diftinguiflied above the reft, and appears to have been con- J fidered C A C C A C fidered by the people as the reigning- queen, and that her children, according to the priority ofbirtli, fuccceded to the fatlier's honours ; but, in default of ifTue by the favourite princefs, the fillers of the Cacique, if no brothers furvived, took phicc of the Cacique's own children by his other wives. Tlie principal Cacique was diftinguiflied by regal ornamenfi, and numerous attendants, ^^'hcn he travelled through his dominions, he was coniinonly borne on men's Oioulders ; and he was held in fucli veneration, that if he ordered any of liis fubjefts to call tnemfelves headlong from a high rock, to drown themfelves in the fca, merely at his own fovercign pleafure, he was obeyed without a murmur ; oppofition to tlie fupreme authority being coiifidered not only as unavail- ing, but as impious. Their veneration extended even be- yond death ; for when a Cacique died, his body was em- bowelled, and dried in an oven, moderately heated, fo that the bones and even the &in were preferved entire. The corpfe was then placed in a cave with his ancellors ; and thus they intended to render, not the name alone, but the perfons alio, of their worthies immortal. If a Cacique died in battle, and the body could not be recovered, they com- pofed fongs in his pra'Te, which they taught to their chil- dren, and thefe fongs formed a branch of thofe folcmnilics which were called " Arietoes," confilling of hymns and public dances, accompanied with mufical inflruments made of fhells, and a fort of drum, the found of which was ht-ard at a great diftance. Martyr relates (Decad.iii. lib. 9.) that on the death of a Cacique, the moll beloved of his wives was immolated at his funeral. But Oviedo (lib. v. c. j.) denies that this cuftom was general among them. CACOBjE, in jiiiciait Geography, a people placed by Ptolemy in India, on this fide of the Ganges. CACOCHYMIA, from ^.km,-, bail, and x"i^">i ;«'''t', or humour, a word formerly employed by medical writers to denote a f'lppofed morbid condition of the fluids of the living body. CACODES, in the ^indent IVrkers of Medicine, a name given to feveral kinds of matter difcharged from the human body, which had an ill fmtll. The offenfive matter voided fometimes by vomit has this name, as alio that evacuated by flool, and the difcharge of foul ulcers. CACOETHES, or Cacoethia. See Malignant. CACONGO, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, on the coall of Loango, fituate between three confiderable ports, much frequented by foreigners ; viz. Loango, Cabinda, and Cacongo. The territory is in general flat, the air is more falubrious than that of Congo or Angola, and the foil alfo more fertile, on account of its frequent fhowers, and its black mould, which, in the other adjacent kingdoms, is either chalky or fandy. The inhabitants are likewife more civi- lized, though not lefs fuperllitioudy addifted to the fame heathenifh rites, than tiieir neighbours. They bear the cha- racter of a treacherous, fraudulent, turbulent, and cowardly race ; but they are much employed in traffic with the Euro- peans, and efpecially the Dutch, from whom they purchafe a great variety of European goods, as coarfe cloths, knit caps, hatchets, and other iron tools, linen, and other com- modities, which they exchange for (laves at Congo, Angola, and other African Hates. This country is governed by its own hereditary princes, but under the protedlion of the kings of Loango, to whom they were formerly vaflals, though they have fince fhaken off the yoke. The chief town is of the fame name, and it is fituated in S. lat. 4'^ 45'. E. long. Cacongo, one of the chief rivers of the above kingdom, the others being the Kaja and the Cabinda. It runs 4 leagues S. of the Kaja, and 7 to the N. of the Cabinda, and is faid to be navigable by boats of lo tons burden. This river runs through alinoil the whole length of the king- dom from call to wed, and after a courfe of about 80 or 9Q miles, falls into the fca, new the town of Cacongo. About 4 miles from its mouth is the town, or rather village of Mc- Kmba. where the fea makes a kind of femicircular bay, which affords a convenient road for the vcfTtls ihnt traffic thither, the whole coaft between the Cacongo and Zaire being extremely dangerous and full of rorks and fhe^vcs. 1'hc lands on each fide are fertile and delightful, and abound with elephants' teeth, which the Membates, who arc fituated on the other fide of the Zaire fetch and carry to the port of Pinda, where the rovtug\iefe, or any other Europeans, buy and cxpaus. This able botanift has fallen into a llight abfujdity in calling an order which con- tains only the genus Cailus, Cafloidtx ; which in fad is only faying that Cadus is like itfelf. CACTl.'S, (xixTo;, Gr. the name of a plant dcfcribcJ firft by Thcophraflus, and afterwards by Diofcorides, Athe- rxus, and Pliny. Theophrallus, whom the fueceeding writers have nearly copied, fpeaks of it as a plant not in- digenous in Greece, and peculiar to Sicily, producing from the root feveral creeping Items, with a broad and prickly leaf, which, when ftripped of their bark, are eaten either frefli or pickled ; with an upright ftem bcfides, which he fays is called pternix, and is eaten frefli but not pickled ; and having a prickly pericarp, called afculia, which is like- wife eatable when feparated from the down of the feeds, and rcfembles the head of a palm. Moft of the earlier modern botanills, fupported by the authority of Athensus, fuppofe it to be the fame plant which the Greeks called xivv^px, and the Romans Cardui:s, the Cynara fcolymus of Linnajus, or common artichoke ; but Bodasus a Stapel ftrongly infills, that it muft be another plant not afcertained by modern botanifts. See his Notes on Theophraftus, p. 627— 629, where he has correfted the corrupt texts of Theophrallus and Athenxus, by comparing them with each other, and with the Latin of Pliny. What are called by Theophraftus creepmg Hems, are probably nothing more than the ftrong midrib of the broad prickly leaves). Linn. gen. 615. Schreb. 838. Willdcn. 966. G2:rt.799. JuflT. p.311. Vent, vol.3. 291. Clafs and order, kofcnilria 7jionogjnia. Nat. ord. Suc- cuIenU Linn. Caai Jnlf. Cacloldis Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. fuperior, imbricated, tubular, deciduous. Cor. petals numerous, difpofed in feveral ranks ; the outer ones Ihoiter, the inner rather larger. Stam. filaments nume- rous, inferted into the calyx ; anthers oblong. Pm. unlia, readily llrikcs root without, though it is greatly forwarded by fuch aflillance. They all require the earth to be occafionally moiftcned a little. In the fummer fcafon. tliey likewife often require water, but it mull not be given in large quantities, left it rot them ; and in winter, it fliould be proportioned to the warmth of the (love; as, if the air be kept very warm, tliey require to be often refredicd with a very little to prevent the branches flirinkiiig ; but if kept in only a moderate degree of warmth, little is necef- fary. The heat in which they thrive bed is that marked temperate on botanical thermometers, as when kept too warm in winter, it canfes their flioots to be very weak and tender. The forts which are inclinable to grow upright fhould have their branches fupported with (lakes, to prevent their being broken down with their ov.n wcijjht. Plants of this fort are moftly expofed to the open air in the fummer feafon ; but they thrive much better when continued in the floves, provided they have free air ; as when fet abroad, the rains much dimini(h their beauty, retard their growth, and prevent their producing flowers and fruit in fuch plenty, as when conllantly kept protefted in the houfe. Cactus, in Natural Hi/lory, a fpecies of MaJrepura, with compreffed, divergent, dichotomous, branches, carina- ted at the margin, and fides contiguoufly ftellated, found only ill a foflil ftate. Forfk. Fn. Arab. C.A.CULE, in the Materia Medica, a name given by Aviccnna, Serapio, and all the other Arabian writers, to the cardamon feeds. They di(lingui(h two kinds of this fruit, a larger and a fmaller. Tne larger is the grain of paradife, and the fmaller the common cardamom feed of thefe times. They alfo called the cardamoms in general by the name heil, and diftinguifhed the fmall kind, now principally in ufe, by the word hilbanc, which after-writers corrupted into bilbave and hilbua, or hdhua. CACULO, in Geography, a fmall town of Africa, near the river Faleme, on its eaftern bank. N. lat. 13° 56'. W. long. 10° 20'. CACU3, in Entomology, a fpecies of Sphinx, with black, indented wings, marked with three pale approximate ftreaks : poflerior pair black ftriated with black. Cramer, &c. Inhabits Surinam. Cacvs, in Fabul'jus H'ljlory and Mythology, the fon of Vulcan, reprefented by Virgil a= a monller, half man and half fatyr, and of an enormous height, difcharging from his mouth (Ireams of flame. The fable reports that Her- cules, after the defeat of Geryon, condufted his herd along the banks of the Tiber, and whilft they were feeding fell allecp. In the mean while Cacus Hole a-^ay eight cows, and, in order to efcape deteftion, drew them back- wards by their tails into his den on moimt Aventine. When Hercules determined to quit thefe paftures, the low- ing of thofe bulls which remained wae anfwered by that of the cows which Cacus had Itolen, and thus the theft was difcovered. Hercules ran with great fury towards the cavern ; but found its entrance clofed by a large rock, which was fufpendid by chains of iron forged by Vulcan. However, he removed the rock and found his way into the den amidft the flames and fmoke vomited by the monfter, feized him by the throat, and ftrangled him. In memory of this vittory, the inhabitants of mount Aventine obferved a yearly felUval in honour of Hercules. The Latin poets have emulated one another in celebrating this defeat of Cacus. The den of Cacus, fays Bryant (Analyfis of An- CAD cient Mythology, Vol. II. p. 22), was properly Ca-chus, the cavern or temple of Chus ; from which the potts and later hidorla.is have formed a (Irange perfonage, whom they reprefented as a fiiephcrd, and the fon of Vulcan. There certainly, he fays, itood a temple of old upon the Aventine mountain in Latium, which was the terror of the neigh- bourhood. The cruelties of the pricfts, and their conti- nual depredations, may be inferred from the hiftory of Cacus. Virgil (.£n. lib. viii. v. 190, &c.) makes Evander defcribe the place to .ffineas, though it is fuppofed in h's time to have been in ruins. Livy (lib. i. c. 7.) mentions Cacus as a fliepherd, and a perfon of great llrength and violence. He is alfo mentioned by Plutarch (in Amatorio, vol. ii. p. 762) as vomiting fire and flames from his mouth. As in temples of this fort there were both priefls and prieflcfTes, we read of a Cacus and a Caca. The latter was fuppofed to have been a goddcfs who was made a deity for having betrayed her brother to Hercules. Laftantius de Falfa Religione, apud Inftitut. lib. i. c. 20. The learned Bryant adds, that, under the charafters of Caca and Cacus, we have a hiilory of Cacufian pricfts, who feem to have been a fet of people devoted to rapine and murder. CACUTHIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of India^ which, according to Arrian, difcharged itfelf into the Ganges. CACYPARIS, ariver of Sicily, on the eaftern coaft, be- tween Syracufe and Helorum. CACYRON, a town placed by Ptolemy in the interior part of Sicily. The inhabitants are called by Phny Cacyrini. CADA Watfr, a river of Scotland, which runs into Loch Fine ; 9 miles S. W. of Inverary. CADABA, in Botany. La Marck Encyc. Forfk. ./Egypt. 68. (Straeniia, Willd. 365. Vahl. Sym. I. p. 20.) Clafs and oxier, gynandria pentandrla Forfl<. Pentandria mO' nogynia Willd. Vahl. Nat. ord. Capparides, JulT. Gen. Ch. Calyx tour-leaved, fpreading, deciduous. Cor. petals four or none ; claws filiform, the length of the calyx, fituated on the receptacle of the calyx, two on each fide ; borders lanceolate, waved. Ne3. tubular-ligulate, fituated between the upper divifion of the calyx and the receptacle of the fruftification. Stam. filaments five or four, inlerted on the peduncle of the germ ; anthers upright. PiJ}. germ fuperior, cylindric, pedicelled ; llyle none; ftigma fimple. Peric. capfule pedicelled, c}hndric, one-celled, two-valvtd ; valves revolute. Seeds numerous, kidney-(haped, difpofed in three rows in a kind of pulp. E(T. Ch. Calyx four leaved. Nectary ligulate. Capfule pedicrlled, pulpy. Obf. It refembles capparis in its pulpy capfules, and cleome in its flowers. Its gynandrous llamens and tubular ligulate neftary diftinguifh it from the former, and its fruit from the latter. Vahl and Willdenow call the pericarp a berry ; JufEeu confiders it as a filique. La Marck ftiles it both a filique and a capfule within the compafs of a few lines . Its valvular ftrudlure is inconfiftent with the effential charac- ter of a berry ; and the fituation of its feeds does not corref- pond with the definition of a fihque : it is therefore properly a capfule. We have preferred Forfkal's original generic name to that afterwards adopted by Vahl. If there be no ftrong reafon to the contrary, the right of priority (hould always be refpefted. Sp. I. C. indicay La Marck, (Cleome fruticofa : Linn. Sp. PI. Burm. Ind. 140. tab. 46. f. 3, Strasmia tetrandra. Willd.) " Leaves oblong egg-ftiaped, fmooth ; flowers te- trandrous." A flirub. Stem cylindric, branched. Lea-vet entire, alternate, petioled, fometimes obtufe and fometimcs rather pointed, an inch long, and four or five lines bread; petioles (licrt. Flowers whitifti, peduncled j in ftiort, fimple, termi. CAD tcrminatinf; racemes. Pulice/ of the fruflification about an inc'i long, mak'iig an obtul'e an;^lc with the peduncle of tlie flowor. Cup/uli- pulpy, which determines it to be a cadaba, not a ckome. A native of the Eaft Indies, whence Son- iierat fcut fpecimcns of the flowers and fruit to La Marek. 2. C. rdundyfol'iii, Foril<. " I^eaves circuhir, fmooth," A middle- fr/.cd tree. Leaves alternate, flat, rather thick, fometimts flightly ftnuate, and often emarginate, petiole half the length of the leaf. Flotvers ereft, in terminating raceme?, without petals ; nectary gieenifii ; the ligulate part ovate, flr.t, red abuve and yellow beneath. Stamens infcrted on the lower part of the pedicel of the germ. Fnii/ two inches long, cylindric, fwelling out in knobs, fmooth, green : valves red within. Seee/s black, in a dry reddifh pulp. A native of Arabia. 3. C Jarinofa, Foi lie. " Leaves egg- fhaptd, oblong, mealy." A fhrub. Braiiehes round ; covered, like the leaves, with a mealy down. Leaves alter- nate, obtufe, entire, flat, half an inch long. Flowers pc- dunclcd, in terminating racemes; petals waved; neftarjr white ; llamen inferted a little below the middle of the pe- dicel of the germ. A native of Arabia. 4. Cghiiu'.ulofa, Forflt. " Branches, leaves, calyx, and piftil glandular, vil- lous." A flirub. Branches round, as well as all the other parts of the plant covered with glandular hairs. Leaves half an inch long, petioled, alternate, roundifti, entire, rough to the touch. Flowers nodding, from four to fix, in a ter- minating raceme ; capfule half an inch long, very hairy. A native of Arabia. CAD AH ALSO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, furrounded with pleafant gardens and woods ; 6 miles N. of Efcalona. CADALEN, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift of Gail- lac ; a leagues S. E. of it. The town contains 1,627, ^^^ the canton 4,709 inhabitants; the territory includes 155 kiliometres, and 7 communes. CADAN, or Kadan, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saaz, feated on the Eger, and founded in 821 ; 10 miles E. of Saaz. N. lat- 50° 20'. E. long. 13° 34'. CADAON, a river of Portugal, which forms the har- bour of Setuval. CADARA, in ^ne'ient Geography, a town of Arabia Fehx, on the Perfian gulf. — Alfo, a large peninfula of the Red Sea, on the fouthern coall of Arabia, which formed an extenfive bav, crofled by Ptolemy Philadclphus in 12 days and nights. Pliny. CADARl, or Kadari, a feft of Mahometans, who aflert free-will, attribute the aftionsof men to men alone, not to any fecret power determining the will; and deny all ab- folute decrees, and predeftination. The author of this feft was Mabed ben Kalcd Al Gihoni, who fnffered martyrdom for it. The word comes from the Arabic, "lip, cailara, power. Ben Ann calls theCadarians, the Magi, or Mani- chees of the Muflulmen. This name is given by fome to the Motazalites, though they difclaim it, and give it to the Jabarians, who likewife rejeft it as an infamous appellation, becaufe Mahomet is faid to have declared the Kadarians to be the Magians of his followers. CADAVAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Traz-os-Montes; 13 miles S.S.W. of Mirandella. '—Alfo, a town of Portugal, in the province of Ellrema- dura, including a dillrift of eight parifties, and about 350 inhabitants v 19 miles S.E. of Peniche. CADAVAYLLO River, is about 3 leagues N.N.E. from the fand off the mouth of Lima river, on the coall of Peru in South America. CADAVERUM, m Entomology, a fpecies of AcARUs, CAD having the body fomcwhat bilobate, and the poflirior part funiiliied with four bridles, whitli arclon/er than the b( dy« Schranck. Found in the carcafes of iiifetls. CAD-\UM Castra, in ylneienl Geography, f place of Africa, in Maiuitania C:efariei:fis, on the coall fr- m Cala to Rufiicurrum. Antonin. Itin. CA-DE', or Chi ADA, in Geography. Sec League oj God'j houfe. Cade, a cag, caflv, or barrel ; ufed in the book of rates for a determinate number of fome forts of fifl).^ — Thus a cade of herrings is a vtflcl containing the quantity of five hundred herrings, and of fprats one thoufand. Anciently the cade of herrings appears to have contained fix liimdrtd filh, reckoning fix feore to the hundred. Cade lay, in Geography, lies on the foulh-well fide of tiie ifiand of Antigua, in the Well Indies, and a little to the north weft from Carlifie bay on the fouth of the ifiand. Cade's Infurreaion, in Eiigl'ijl} Hijlory, a formidable in- furreflion, which took place in Kent in 1.150, and which was fo called from the artful and bold adventmer, John Cade, by whom it was headtd. Cade having colledltd a confiderable number of the common people, by fpecious proniifes of reforming all abufes, whence he obtained the natne of John Amend all, marched towards London, and encamped on Blackheath. From hence two addrelTes were fent by the infurgents to the king and council, art- fully profcfTnig the greateft attachment to the perfon and government of the king, and requefting the redrels of griev- ances, together with the puniflunent of evil counfellors, who had oppreffed the people at home, and occanoned the lofs of the king's dotninions abroad, and that the king would govern by the advice of the dukes of York, Exeter, Buck- mgham, and Norfolk, and the well-affefted barons of the kingdom. Thefe addreffcs, which had m.arked out for de- ftruClion certain members of the council, were rejefted, and it was refolved to fubdue the infurgents by force. For this purpofe, an army of 15,000 men was ordered to march againft the infurgents ; and a detachment overtook and en- gaged them near Seven-oaks, but was defeated. Cade and his followers, elited by this viflory, returned to their for- mer ftation on Blackheath ; and as the afpeft of afi"airs was now become ferious and alarming, lenient mealures were adopted, and the archbifliop of Canterbury and the duke of i3uckingham were deputed to treat with the rebels. In the conference that enfued. Cade behaved with decency and firmnefs, but refufed to lay dov^m his arms, till the re- quifilions in his addrtfs were granted. After the return of the mtflengers, the court retired to Kenilworth caftle, and the tower of London was gairil'oned. Cade advanced to Southwark, and was at length admitted into London. Having feized and beheaded lord Say and Seale, late high treafurer of England, and his fon-in-law fir James Cromer, flieriff of Kent, they proceeded to pillage the city ; but they were foon driven out of it, and failing in their attempts to repoffefs it, they agreed to a Hiort truce. A proclama- tion was iffued from the tower, which announced a pardon under the great feal to all who immediately dtpai ted to their own homes ; and this proclamation produced fneh an ef- feft, that in a few hours the army, lately fo formidable, difappeared. Cade, finding that he was thus fuddtnly aban- doned, put his booty on board a barge, and fent it to Ro- chefter, and proceeded by land with a .''cw attendants ; ,but being denied admittance into Q^uceborough calUe, hi: difmiffed all hi- followers, and put on a difguiie. A procla- mation was immediately publifhed, oficring a reward of 1000 marks to any who brought him in, dead oralive. He was difcovcred luiking in a garden at Hothficld, in Suiftx, by CAD b)- Alexander Eden, a gentleman of Kent, and, making fome relilhnco, was killed, and his body was brought to London. Tims ended an infurreaion, which, under a leader of higlicr rank and greater honour, might have pro- duced a revolution. Cade Litmb, in Rural Economy, a young lamb brought up in the houfe wholly by the hand. Where the ewe dies foon after lambing, the young lamb may be prcferved and brought up in this way. Cade, oil of, (huile de Cade, Fr. ) is an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, thinner than tar, and obtained along w^ith it in the dilliilationofpine wood. It appears to be very fimilar to what is called in this country fpirit oi tar. See Turpentine. Cade's /w'n/, in Gcj^rnphy, lies at the north weft end of the ifland of Nevis, in 'the Weft Indies, and is the neareft cape to Major's bay, at the fouth-eaft end of the idand of St. Cliriftopher's, or St. Kitt's. CAHE-zuorm, in Entomology, a name given by fome au- thors to the larvaj of the phrj-ganex, which are found in ditches, and ufed as bait for fifti. See Phryganea. CADEL-AUANACU, in Botany, Rheed.mal. a. p.6l. t. 7.1;. Rai. hift. 167. 1S55. Sup. 112. 666 See Croton tiglium. ' CADELI, Rheed.mal. See Achyrantwes n^..fra, CADELIUM, Rumph. Amb. See Phaseolus Max. CADEMOSTO, orCADAMUsn, Lewis, or properly Alvise DA CA De Mosto, in Biography, a celebrated Venetian navigator, was born about the year 1432 ; and hanng made feveral voyages in the Mediterranean, he left Venice in 145+. and being accidentally driven by a ftorm on the coaft of Portugal, he was employed by the infant don Henry in a voyage of difcovei7. A caravel was fitted out and laden, chiefly at the expence of De Mofto, who em- barked in March 145'; with Vincenzo Diaz, to whom the command of the veffel was entrufted, and proceeded to the coaft of Africa. Being joined at fea by two other veffels, they failed to fome diftance beyond Cape Verd ; but the crews, through fear of the negroes, refufing to proceed further, they were under a necefllty of returning to Portu- gal. In the following year, Cademofto, accompanied by Ufomare, a Genoefe, undertook a fecond voyage with three (liips towards the fame parts ; and having pafTed cape Bl'inco, they were driven by a ftorm on Cape Verd iflands, which had not yet been difcovered. From hence, they proceeded as far as the mouth of the river St. Domingo. Cademoft", after his return to Portugal, piibliflied, in 1464, an account of his voyage, which is valuable, as it contains the carlitft relation extant of the Portugutfe navigations on the African coatt, and of the gold trade of Tombut, and its principal branches. This work was firft publifhed at Vicenza in 1507; it was afterwards tranflated into Latin and French, and inferted by Grinxus in his coUedlion enti- tled " Novus Orbis," and by Ramufio in his colleftion of voyages, and fince in feveral others. The author refided fome years at Lagos in general efteem. He returned to Venice in 1464, and after this period we have no further ac- count of him. Nouv. Dift. Hift. CADENA, in Aticimt Geography, a town of Afia Mi- nor, in liithynia. CADENAC, in Geography, an ancient town of France, in the department of the Lot, by which river it is furround- ed, feated on a fteep rock, which, having never fubmitted to the Engliftt in their various invafions and conquefts, was invcfted with peculiar privileges; 28 miles E.N.E. of Cahors. CADENCE, in Mufic, denotes a kind of clofe, or reft, either at the end of a fong, or fome of its parts, into which . it is divided as into members, or periods. CAD The word feems a m<-taphor drawn from the dancing- fchool, where it properly iignifies a paufe, or falK from motion to reft. A cadence is properly when the ],- irts fall, and terminate on a chord, or no'e, the ear feeming naturally to expeft it. Regularly it is to be made on the final or dominant, though fometimes alfo on the mediant or middle chord of a note. Cadences in finging anfwer nearly to points or ftops in difcourfe. They are refts contrived to favour the weak- nefs of the performers, as well as Ire hearers, of a mufical compofition. Men »re not able tc fuftain their attention, or their voice, beyond the fpace oi two meafurcs ; even in this fliort interval we perceive the long to fall, and tend rapidly to a paufe, or reft : the notes which introduce thefe paufes, are called cadences, on the proper condiitling and exprcHing of which a great part of the mufician's flcill depends. The chief cadence or clofe is the key itfelf, in which the bafs muft always conclude ; the next in dignity is the fifth above; then, if the key-note is made fliaip, a cadence \ may be made on the fecond of the key ; after which (by t means of a fliarp fifth) on the fixth ; and by a iharp fecond on the third of a key ; after v/hich, returning to the original key and fubjeft, when the hearer is reminded of both, by means of a flat feventh, there may be a clofe in the fourth of the key ; after which, with a fliarp feventh, the piece may terminate by a final cadence or clofe in the original key. See Close, Modulation. In all thefe cadences, a major key is underftood. For cadences in a minor key, fee Counterpoint. Dr. Pepufch's definition of cadences in mufic is, perhaps, the moft fliort, clear, and comprehenfive, to be found in any elementary book. " Cadences in mufic are the fame as ftops in fpeaking or writing ; that is to fay, they are endings or terminations either of a part or of the whole piece of mufic, as ftops arc of a part or of the whole fpeech. For which reafon they are diftinguiflied into full cadences and middle cadences ; thefe laft are like commas and femicolons, after which more is expefted to follow, they not making fo full a ftop as the others ; whereas after a full cadence we are fenfible that we are come to a conclufion." Treatife on Harmony, p. 4. • This author's arrangement of the modulation in the key of C as the reprefentative of all major keys, differs fomewhat from the prefent praftice. It is however that of the greateft mafters of the early part of the laft century. 12 3 4 5^ C, G, E, A, F, c, which include all the concords to the key note. In a long piece of mufic, however, he allows a tranfient modulation into D minor, as a fixth cadence. But Dr. Pepufch's modulation into E differs totally from that of the fecular compofers of more modern times. It is, in faft, no more than a femi-cadence on the fifth of the key of A minor, with a fliarp third ; nor is the fcale any thing more than that fpecies of oftave affigned by moft writers on ancient mufic to the Dorian mode. See Mode, and Ancient Music. It begins and ends in E without flat or fliarp; EF G A BC D e. Dr. Pepufch fays, that " from the peculiarity of its modulation, whatever is compofcd in this mode or key is fo folemn, and it feems fo much appropriated to church mufic, that it is called by the Italians tuono di chiefa. From the contemplation of this fcale, the fieur Blainville, in 1751, fancied, or wifhcd others to fancy, that he had difcovered a new cadence, or key, diff"erent from the major and minor, the fecond being minor, and the feventh major. See Dift. de Roufieau, art. Mode. The refolution of a difcord. according to RouflTeau, is a kind C A C CAD kind of cadence. " And, as all harmonic plirafc^ are necef- farily coiintdcd by difcords, txprefled or und;.rllood, it follows, that all mufic may he faid to confill of a fiiccelTion of cadences." The ir^k de Po.'-/iiTf fcems to favour this idea ; as everv other found carries adifcord. See Rfgli; ; words formed of double confot-ants ; andtlilions: e.g. •' Ergo xgre rallris terram rimantur." Georg. III. 5 ;4- Lightnefs a id fwiftnefs are expreffed by daftyles : e. g. " Mox acre lapfa qiiieto Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet al:is." iEn. V. 2li5. Heavinefs, on the other hand, requires fpondecs : e.g. *' lUi inter fcfe magna vi brachia toUunt In numerum, verfantque tenaci forcipe ferrum." Georg. IV. 174. In other cadences, words placed at the end have a pecu- liar force or grace ; e. g. " Vox quoque per lucos Tulgo exaudita filentes Ingcns." Georg. I. 476. See Order, Junctuie, and Number. Cadence, in Reading, denotes the falling or lowering of the Voice below the key note at the clofe of every period. They key-note, in fpeaking, is that tone or found with which the modulation commences, and it is generally continued through every complete fentence or period ; and to this the occafional inflexions of the voice, either above or below it, may be fuppofed to refer. Of courfe the tones that fall a little lower than the key at the clofe of a fentence or period, are called cadences ; and they are fomctimes diftinguiflied into two kinds, under the ap- propriate epithets of _^^nyfcrtn/ and ornammtal ; the former ierve to mark the fenfe and the latter to decorate the mo- dulation. In many extenfive and long periods, the full fenfe of which is long fufpended, and where the final words are not .^ry important, the cadence is a kind of notice of their termination, diftinft from the paufe, which, befidcs the ornamental variety it afford5, is a very neceffary and ufeful article in perfpiciious elocution. As this cadence naturally accompanies the termination of every entire fenfe, it onay fometimes fall before the femicolon, but more generally before the colon, as well as the period ; for thefe marks are often found to terminate a complete fenfe; and in fuch cafes the relation of that which follows to that which preceded, is fignified to the mind by the relative fhortnefs of the Hop, and the mode of introducing the additional matter. See Modi;lation, Pause, and Punctuation. CADENCED. An air or melody in mufic is faid to be well cadenced, when the rhythm is good, the accents well placed, and the paffagcs well phrafed. See Rhythm, Ac- cent, and Phrase. CADENCY, in Heraldry, the (late or quality of a cadet. Nifbet has an effay on the additional figures and marks of cadency. See Diminution. CA-DENE, in Commerce, one of the forts of carpets which the Europeans import from the Levant, by way of Smyrna. They are the worft fort, and are commonly fold by the piece from one to two piaftres per carpet. CADENET, in Geography, a town of France in the CAD department of Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton in the dilhld of Apt, near the Durance, thrte leagues S. of Apt. The town contains 20/51, and the canton bitiii inhabitants: the territory comprehends 260 kiliometres and 9 communes. N. lat. 43^ 40'. E. long, ^-i" 30'. CADENbO, or Cadenio, one of the Laccadive iflands in the Indian lea. N. lat. 11° 50'. E. long. 72^ 3:''. CADENZ A yH^j^/Va.in the //a//i37;A^///7c,isnLd when apart inllead of afcending or defcending the proper interval, to form a cadence, proceeds by foine other interval. For iu- (lance, when the bafs, inftead of rifing a fourth or falling a fifth, afcends only by a tone, or fcmitone-major. Ex. Ex. "M^ f-' -f— FHt=^ ^'frr^ 1- —^ LJ -z ix^--" 1 [Ijpi GA Thus, in Ex. I. where the bafs, inftead of proceedinnr to C, the key-note, after G, goes to A. Thus alfo, in Ex. 2. after E, the car would naturally expeft to hear A the key- note: but this is avoided, and F put in its place. The interrupted and difappointed cadences in recitative are innumerable: being governed by the dialogiie ; in which a full and formal clofe from the chord of the fifth to the key- note feldom occurs, except in the laft bar of the recitation preceding an air. CADEQUIA, in Geography, a Tea-port town of Spain in Catalonia, 5 miles N. E. of Rofas. CADER, a town of Afia, in the Arabian Irak, on the Tigris; 100 miles S. of Bagdad. CADER-IDRIS, the Chair of Idris, a lofty moun- tain near Dolgellau in Merionethlhire, North Wales, in height the fecond of the principality, is fo called from a tradition of its having been a fortrefs belonging to Idris, who is fuppof- ed to have been a prince of thefe parts in ancient times. It is alfo faid that Idris was a famous poet, aftronomer, and philofopher, and that the fummit of Cader-Idris was his fa- vourite feat and obfervatory. Mr. Rowland in his " Mona Antiqua," (p. 84.) fays, that the ancients decyphered af- tronomy by the name of Edris; a name attributed to Enoch, whom they took to be the founder of aftronomy ; whence he derives Cader-Idris ; and he adds that not far off there is another place, called " Cerrig-Brudyn," i. e. the aftrono- mer's ftones or circle. Accordingly the former of thefe places may have been the refidence, and the latter the obfer- vatory of thofe druids in the Ifle of Anglefey, who applied particularly to the ftudy of aftronomy. This mountain rifes on the fea-fhore, clofe upon the north, ern fide of the eftuary of the fmall river Difynwy, about a mile from Towyn. It proceeds with almoft a continual afcent, firft northwards for about 3 miles, then for 10 miles further it runs E.N.E. giving out for its fummit a branch nearly 5 miles long, in a fouth-wefterly direftion, pa- rallel to the main ridge. It is very fteep and craggy on eveiy fide, but the fouthern defcent, efpecially to the border of Talyllyn lake, is the moll precipitous, being nearly per- pendicular. The breadth bears but a fmall proportion to itr length; a line paflingalongits bafe and interfedtingthefiin>mit, would fcarcely equal 4^ miles ; and in the other parts u is a mere ridge, whofe bafe hardly ever exceeds i mile in breadth. Its peak, called " Pen-yGac'.er," is faid by Pennant (Snow- donia, p. 98.) to be 2850 feet above Do'ghellau. Cader Idris is the commencement of a chain of primitive moun» tains, extending in the N. N. Eafterly direftion, and includ- ing the Arrans and the Arennigs. It is much more lofty and craggy than the Dates and fecundary mountains, whith fiir- round CAD rouii'l it, and confids of filiccous pnvpliyiy, and filiccons fchiltofi-- porphyry, both in mafs and iiittrfeClcd by veins of <,iiart7., argillaceous porphyry in mafs, and granitill of Kir- wan ill mafs, compofcd of quartz and fchorl. Here are foniid alio fi:vcral rocks, cont.iininjr the component parts of quartz and porphyry, with fo great a proportion of white and firoak-coloured greafy -looking quartz as almoll to con- ceal the other ingredients. In fevcral fp-.-cimcns the felfpar, liaving been decompofed, has fallen out and given the quartz a porous appearance, which accounts for the porous lava faid by feme travellers to have been found here. There arc no mines in Cider-ldris, or the neighbourhood. At the loot of this mountain is a fmall lake, called " Llyn-y-Gaiier;" above the exterior ridge is another deep and clear lake, kept conftantly full by the numerous tributary torrents that fall down the furrouuding rocks: and at a (till higher elevation, is a fccoiid lake, cltar as glals, and overlooked by deep cliffs fo as to refemble the crater of a volcano, accurately rcprc- fented in Wilfon's excellrnt view of Cader-Idris. Some tra- vellers have mentioned their having found lava and other vol- canic produftious here: but Mr. Aikin and his companion-;, who alcended this mountain, could difeover nothing of this kind; nor did the water of the lake appear to differ in any refpeft from the p.ircft rock-«ater, though it was repeatedly tried with the moft delicate chemical telfs. A clear, loud, and diftinft echo repeats every fliout that is made near this lake. On the fummit of the mountain is a fmall plain, with two rocky heads of nearly equal height, one looking to the north, the other to the fouth. In the former dirtilion Snowdon and its dependen- cies fliut up the fcene ; on the well was feen the whole curve of the bay of Cardigan, bounded at a vaft diftance by the Caernarvon mountains, and nearer, difhing its white break- ers againft the rocky coaft of Merioneth. The fouthern horizon was bounded by Phiilimmon, and on the eall the eye glanced over the lake of D.ila, the two Arennig moun- tains, the two Arrans, the long chain of the Bervvyn moun- tains, to the Breiddyn hills on the confines of Shropfliire; and dimly in the dillant horizon, was beheld the Wrekin, rifing alone from the plain of Salop. On the oppofite fide of the mountain, by which thefe travellers defcended, they found another beautiful mountain lake, whofe cold clear waters difcharge their fuperabundance in a full ttream down the fide of the mountain. All thefe waters abound with trout, and in fome is found the Gwyniad, a fifli peculiar to rocky alpine lakes. Following the courfe of the ilreaiii, they came on the edge of the cragjjy cliffs that overlook Talyllyn lake; and after a long and difficult dcfcent they Hrrived on the borders of Talyllyn, where they entered the Dolghellau road. The plants which they found were lobelia dortmanna, in all the lakes, efpecially in Llyn-y-gader; fax- ifraga hypnoides; S. nivalis; lycopodium iclago ; L. clava. turn ; feftuca vivipara ; vaccinium vitis-idara ; gnapl'.aliuni di- oicum ; pteris crifpa ; narthecium offifragum ; pinguicula vulgaris; fedum rupeftre ; S. telephium, &c. Beneath Tyrrau Mawr, one of the points of Cader-Idris, and on the right are fome remains of ch\-.';s of upright Hones, with many earns, and ieveral nmcm-binoii, of rude, upright columns. At a fmall diltanee beyond thtfe, near the river Krogennan, are the remains of " Llys Bradwen," or the pa- lace of Ednawain, chief of one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales, about the reign of Gruffydi^l "P Cynan, meafuring nearly 30 yards fquare: having an entrance 7 feet wide, with a large upright ftone on each fide as a door-cafe : the walls are rude and uncemented. Aikiii's Tour. 8vo. 1797. Evans's Cambrian Itinerary. 8vo. t8oi. CADEROUSSE, a town of France, in the country of Venaiflin ; i league W. of Orange. Vol. V. CAD C.\DES, in ylnc'uKt Geography. Sec Kadtsh. CADESIA, a town of Perfia, in the province of the' Babylonian or Chaldean Irak, on the verge of the Defert, (n leagues from Bagdad, and 2 ftations, or 15 parafangs, from Cufa. It became famous among the Arabs for the do- feat of the Perfians, in the battle fought in the 15th year of the Ilegira, (A.D. 6j6.) under the caliphate of Oinav, by Saad, Ion of Abuvacaz, general of the Arabs, againft Ruf- tam, furnanicd Ferokhzad, general of Jczdcgcrd, the lall ki ig of Perfia, of the dynady of Chofroes, or of the Safani- de:. The army of the Moflems confided of ,?o,ooo men ; but that of the Perfians was much more numerous. The combat laded three days, and the feveral periods of it were didmgiiifhed by their peculiar appellations : the fird, frjm the fealonable appearance of (^000 of the Syrian brethren, was denominated the day oi/ituour. The day of rnr.aijwn expreircd the dlforder of one, or, pirhnps, of both, of the contending aimies. The third, a noflurnal tumult, re- ceived the whiiiifical name of the night of Icriing, from the dilcordant clamours whicli were compared to the inarticulate founds of the ficrced animals. The miniingof the fuecccd- iiig day determined the fate of Perfia ; and a fcafonable whirl- wind drove a cloud of dud againll the faces of the unbelievers. The cLmgor of arms was re-echoed to the tert of Rudam, who was gently reclining in a cool and tranquil fliaJe, amidll the baggage of his camp, and the train of nnile;, that were laden with gold and iilver. On the found of danger he darted from his couch ; but he was overtaken in his flight by a valiant Arab, who caught him by the foot, druck off his head, hoidcd it on a lance, and indantly returning to the field of battle, carried daughter and difmay among the thicked ranks of the Perfians. This battle has been juftly delcribed by the epithets of obdinate and atrocious ; and the Saracens acknowledge a lofs of 7500 men. The ftandard of the Perfian monarchy was overthrown and cajitured in the field ; vvhich dandard was a leathern apron of a blackfmith, who, in ancient times, had arifen the deliverer of Perfia ; but this badge of heroic poverty was difguifcd, and almod con- cealed by a pi ofufion of precious gems. After this victory, the wealthy province of Irak, or Ad'yiia, fnbmittcd to the caliph ; and hiscoiiqueds were firmly edablidicd by the fpeedy founda- tion of Bufiora, a place which ever commands the trade and navigation of the Perfians. D'Hcrbelot. Bib. Orient. Gibbon's Hid. vol. ix. p. 3(^7, &;c. CADET, the younger brother of a family : a term na- turalized in our language from the French. In Paris, among the citizens, the cadets have an equal portion with the elded ; in other places the cldeil has all. According to the cuftom of Spain, one of the cadets, in great families, takes the mother's name. Cadkt alfo denotes a young gcntleman-foldier, who, to attain to fome knowledge in the art of war, and in expecta- tion of preferment, choofes to carry arins as a private man in a company of foot. Cadet diders from volunteer, as the former takes pay, though only that of a private man, whereas the latter fervei without pay. In 1CS2, the king of France edablidicd companies of ca- dtts, wherein the young gentry were trained up to war, and taught the arts and exercifes belonging thereto, as riding, fencing, mathematics, &c. Cadet, Claude, in Biography, one of the phyficiana to Lewis XIV. was born at a village near Troyes, in 1695. Applying diligently to the dudy of medicine and furgery, at the age of 2 i, he was fcnt to Paris, and admitted among the attending furgcons at the Hotel Dieii, where he pro- fited fo well by the opportunities which offered for informa. tion, that in 1724, he was admitted of St. Corae, and at. 4 Ci^ rained CAD tained to confiderable eminence in his profcffion. He died at Paris, F..b. 10, 1745. His only work is, " Obferva- tions fur Ics Maladies fcorbutiques," Pans, 1742, i2mo. which was republifhcd, two vears after, with additions. His two fons, Lewis Claude, and Anthony Alexis, who w-ere both brought up to the praaice of medicine, diflinguifhcd themfelves by their publications on the fubjeds of chymillry a.,d pharmacy, of which the following are moll known: «' -Vnalvfv. Chymique d'une Eau Mineralc nouvclkmcnt de- couvcue a PafTy," i7o7. i^mo.; - Reponfe a plufieurs Obfcrvatious de M. Baume fur I'iEther V.triohque, fur le Mereure precipite per fe, fur la Redudion dc Cl.aux, de Cuivre, ct d'Etain a travers Ls Charbon?," Pans, 1775, 4to • bcfidts numerous communications to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, and Curiof. Nat.; of both which Lewis Claude was member. Eloy. Did. HilL CADETES, in indent Gcosraphy, a people of Gaul, towards the maritime parts of Armorica. C^far. CADEUMA, a town of Ethiopia, near Egypt. Pliny. CADGE, a round frame of wood on which falconers carry their hawks when they expofe them to fale. CADGOLLS, in Geography, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of Rofs ; 6 miles S.E. of Tain. CADI, among the Turks and Saracens, denotes an ordi- nary jud{,'e, who decides in all civil controverfics within the diilrid of a town or city, though fubjecl to appeals to fu- perior judges. The word is Arabic Hp o'' H^p. q- ^-S'ldgi, formed ot 'in, to judge. D'Herbelot writes it cadhi. 'The term cadi, ufed abfo!utely, denotes the judge of a fmalkr town or village who judges, without appeal, all litigious affairs, not only of the muflulmans, but even thofe of the Jews and Chriilians ; thofe of cities being called mol- hu, or moulds, fornetimes mouli-cadies, or great cadies. The place of a cadi, or of a molla, is frequently occupied by a lieutenant, called na;i, who judges, like them, without ap- peal ; he is a muderis, who runs the career of magiftracy, and IS generally appointed cadi the following year, and feiit to another poll. The cadis remain in this rank, and obtain no othtr advancement befides that of a tribunal, more extenfive, and, confequcntly, more lucrative. They, neverthclefs, be- come moUas of an inferior rank ; fuch are thofe of Bagdad, Philopopolis, &c. ;but thty cannot become cadihfchers, muf- tis, &c. imlefs they enter the grand mofqiie of So'.iman I. and continue their lludies. The^ribunal of juilice is denomi- nated malkama, or meleme. We find numerous comp'aints of the avarice, extortion, and iniquity of the Tuikilh cadis ; all juilice is here venal ; the people bribe the cadis ; the cadis bribe the moulas ; the moulas tl-.e cadilcfchers ; and the cadilefchers the mufti. It is ufually vain to appeal, even if an appeal were al- lowed, from the fentenc'e of the cadi ; fince the affair is never hcard,ancw, but judgment is paffed on the cafe, as dated by the cadi. Tlie tribunal, whence thefe cadis ilTue their decifions, is fometimes at their own houfes ; but never at any place which correfponds with the idea annexed to fo folcmn an employment. In an empty mean apartment, the cadi is fcated on a mat or wretched carpet ; and on each fide of him are his clerks and fome dnmcftics. The door is open to every body ; the parties appear ; and there, withoi:t in- terpreters, advocates, or attornies, each pleads his own caufe. Squatted on the ground, they (late the fads, difpute, arid reply again in their turns, fometimes the debates aie violent; but the cries of the clerks, and the ftaff of the cadi, foon reftore order and filence. Gravely fmoking his pipe, and twilling the end of his beard round his finger, this judge lillens, interrogates, and concludes by pronouncing a fen- tence without appeal, which at moft. allows but two mo;uhs CAD delay. The parties are never very v^ell fatisfied ; they retire, however, with refpcft, and pay a fee, eftimated at one- tenth of the litigated property, without murmuring at tlie decifion, as it is invariably direfted by the " infallible Ko- i ran." Venality, indeed, is fo barefaced, and fo impudent, that the parties may bargain for their caufe with the cadi, as they would for any common commodity. Corruption is habitual and general ; nor is it likely to be othcrwife in cir- cumflances, where integrity may be ruinous, and injuftice lucrative ; where each cadi, deciding without appeal, fears neither a revifion of his fentence, nor punifhment for his par- tiality ; and where, in fliort, the want of clear and precife laws afford a thoufand ways of avoiding the fliame of an evident injullice, by opening the crooked paths of commen- taries and interpretations. The cadis, nevertlieltfs, are often caihiered, and punilhcd for notorious injuftice with the baf- tonade and mulifls ; but the law forbids them to be put to death. Conftantinople has had cadis ever fince the year 1390, when Bajazet I. obliged John Palscologus, err'peror of the Greeks, to receive cadis into the city, to judge all ■■ controverfies happening between the Greeks and tlie Turks fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis are alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Moors, cadi is the denomination of their higher order of priefts, or doc- - tors, anfwering to the rabbins among the Jews. Cadi, in Ancient Geography, a town of Myfia, according to Steph. Byz ; biit Strabo places it in Phrygia. CADIA, in Botany, (the Arabic name of the plant,) Forllc. Arab. 90. Vitman Summa Plant, torn. iii. p. 141. L'Heret. Mag. Encyc. tom. v. p. 20. Vent. vol. iii. 374. (Panciatica, Hort. Pan. 1793. p--9- Spaendoncea, Def- font. Dec Pliilof. V. 56. p. 260.) Clafs and order, decan- dr'ta monogynia. Nat. Ord. Leguminofa, Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. bell-fhaped, five-cleft. Cor. petals five, rarely fix or fevea, inverfcly hea-t-fhaped, eqnal. Slam. filaments ten, rarely more, awl-iliaped, a little curved, gib- bous at their bafe, the length of the corolla, ranged in a circle near the petals ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pijf. germ pediccUed; ffyle fimple. Perk. Ifgume linear, compreffed, bent at the end, membranous, many-feeded. Seeds oblong, Ihin'ng. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft ; petals equal, inverfely heart- fliaped ; legume many-feeded. S^.C purpurea, P^xt. Hort. Kew-. 5.492. Pice. Hort. Pan 9, with a coloured figure. A ilirub. Stem about three feet high ; branches and petioles pubefcent. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnate ; leaflets numerous, fometimes oppofite, fometim.es al- ternate, linear, retufe, the nerve commonly ending in a little point ; ftipules brillle-fhaped, caducous. Floivers the co- lour of a peach-bloffom, without fcent ; racemes few-flower- ed, axillary, pendant, fliorter than the leaves. Legume Icfs than a fpan in length. Seeds eight or ten. A native of Arabia. CADIANG, a kind of lentiles in Batavia, and the ad- jacent country, which makes a confiderable part of the food of the common people. Dr. Hawkfworth's Account of the Voyage to the South Seas, vol. iii. p. 733. CADTAPATAM Point, in Geography, lies on the coaft of Malabar, in the Eaft Indies, near the extremity of the peninfula of India, to the weft of Cape Comorin. Poolytopu village is lituated on the fea-coaft, E. N. E. 4 geographical miles from this point. N. lat. 8° 9' 18". E. long. 77" 26' 35". CADIAR, a town of Spain in Grenada; 28 miles S. E. of Grenada. CADIERE, La, a town of France, in the department of the Var, and d'.ftrift of Toulon ; 3 leagues N. W. of it. CADILESCHER, Cadi-lesker., or Kadilesker, a capital CAD CAD capital officer of juftice among the Turks, anfwering to a cliief-jiiftice among us. Tlie word comej from the Arabic Lttdi, judge, tlic par- ticle nl, and nfchar, army ; as being at their firll inltitutiou chiefly judges of the foldiery ; of whofe caufes they have !lill the lole cognizance. D'Herbelot writes the name cadi- hjhar, or cndhi-ajher. It is faid that this authority was originally confined to the foldiery ; but th:-it at prcfent it extends itfelf to the deter- mination of ail kinds of law fuits ; yet, nevcrthelefs, fubjecl to appeals. At Conftantinople there are two cadilefehers, who fuper- intend the concerns of the Ottoman empire; one of Roma- nia, or of Turkey in Europe, and the other of Natolia, or of Turkeyin Alia. They were formerly the judges of mili- tary men, the former for European Turkey, and th; latter for the Aliatic countries, when the Sultan commnndcd them jn perfon. The cadilefcher of Romania was tlien charged to decide on the affairs of the MufTulmans, and the other on thofe of the tributary fubjefts. For fome time pad, the former has the pre eminence over the latter, and determines alone all the caufes carried to his tribunal, by the fole will and at the requeft of the plaintiffs. The tribunud of the cadilefcher of Natolia has been a long time fupprcfied as . ufelefs. They both afTill at the divan of the grand vifir, hear and difcufs the bufniefs brought before them ; after which the cadilefcher of Romania alone pronounces the fen- tence. The mufti prefents annually a lill to the fultan for the nomination of two cadilelchers, of the ftambol effcndi, of the mollas of Mecca and of Medina, of thnfe of Burfa, Adrianople, Cairo, and Damafcus, as well as of thofe of Je- rufalem, Aleppo, Smyrna, I^arifla, Salonica, Scutari, Ga- lata, and Aijup, which is one of the fuburbs of Conftanti- nople. It is.commonly according to the rank of feniority that the choice is made, when favour does not advance fome pro- teiSed perfon, or the Ion of fome great man. When cholen, the cadilefehers remain in place only a year ; but the cadilef- cher of Natolia generally fucceeds that of Romania, and the former has before pafted through the fame rank. To thtm it belongs to appoint all the fimple cadis of the empire ; ;uid this circumftance renders their place, in a country where every thing is venal, very lucrative, independently of the appanages which they poflcfs. The cadilelchcr of Romania appoints the cadis of Turkey in Europe, and that of Nato- lia appoints thofe of Aha and Egypt. Subordinate to them is the llambol-effendi, molla, or judge of the capital. See Stambol-effendi. The cadilefehers are fometimes ad- vanced to the rank of nmft'i (which fee) ; but according to the tlfabliftied order, he muft be cholen from am.oiig the cadilefehers of Romania, and thofe who have occupied that employment. Thofe who afpire to the office of cadileleher mutt pafs through a previous courfe of education. For this purpofe there are attached to the imperial mofques of Con- ftantinople, Burfa, and Adrianople, )).adrcj]ts, or colleges, to which young people are fent, from all parts of the em- pire, to he inftruded in the law of tiie prophet, in religious, civi', and criminal jurifprudence, and to learn all the opinions and all the fubtleties of thj commentators on the Koran. They then undergo various examinations, and when they are thought to be well informed, the rank of muderls or pro- fcftbr is affigued to them. Thefe coUcijes w-re founded by different fultans. The firft was eilabliflied at Nica:a, in the year 13 ;o, by Orkhan. They enjoy a con fiderable revenue, and provide for the fupport of 2 or j thoufand fcholars. The muderls, who are not willing to follow the career of profefTor and obtain the eminent rank of molla, iolicit of the cadilefehers the place of cadi, which is ealily granted them for a pecuniary confideration. The muderis, who arc am- bitious of obtaining the moll important places, fiich as thofe of molla, cadilefcher, and mufti, pafs, after fit (h examina- tions, to the mofque of Soliman I. and wait till their turn, their merit, or their interell procures for them an appoint- ment. Eight of them, under the appellation of makhrcdji- , are appointed every year mollas, or judges, of the towns of Jerufakm, Aleppo, Smyrna, Larifla, Salonica, Scutari, Galata, and Aijnp. Four, among the latter, are afterwards named to the cities of Burfa, Adriaiiople, Cairo, and Da- mafcus, and the following year two of thefe become moUai of Mecca and of Medina ; from among thefe lall is taken the ftamholefTeiidi. Thus, fuccellivcly in their turn, they ar- rive at the place of cadilefcher, and even of mufti. But the muderis, before they can attain to this diftinftion, mull either be proteiSed, or manifell ardent zeal for religion, diftinguilh- ed talents, great application to iludy, and very auttere manners. The mollas, cadilefehers, and others who are not employed, and who are waiting for t)Hices, have appanages or benefices, called " Arpaliks." Several obtain inferior tribunals, where they place naibs, who difcharge their func- tions, and to whom tiiey grant only a part of the income. Tonrnefort (Voyage Lev. torn. ii. lett. 14.) erroneoufly afierts, that, at Conllantinople, a perfon could appeal from the fentencc of a cadi ; whereas Europeans only enjoy that privilege, when the fum in litigation exceeds 4000 alpres, or nearly the value of 66 livres, Uippofing the piailre at two livres. In all the towns of Turkey, the molla, the cadi, and the naib, judge without appeal ; they condemn to fines, to corporal punilhment, or to death, without allowing to the delinquent, or perfon aecufed, the power of having recourfe to another tribunal. Pocoke, Egypt, p. 170. Volncy's Travels m Egypt and Syria, vol. ii. p. 389, &c. Olivier's Travels in the Ottoman Empire, S:c. p. 172, &c. CADILLAC, or Cadilhac, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton in the diflrid of Bourdeaux, feated on the banks of the Garonne, and containing a line cattle, with a collegiate church ; Ji leagues S. S. E. of Bourdeaux. The place contains 1326, and the canton 11,200, inhabitants; and the territory includes 97^ kiliometres and 16 communes. N. lat. 44° 37'. W.long. 0° 15'. _ CADITES, ail appellation given by Plott to a kind of figiHcd ttone, refembling a cadus or barrel. The cadites fvr-cUs in the n;iddle, and goes tapering to both ends, being divided lengtliwife, with fuch equidittant lineaments, as are ufually made by the ftaves of a barrel, but without hoops, nor yet hollow. CADIZ, in Geography, called Gades by the Romans, by the Phoenicians Gadir or Gaddir, i. c. a hedge or fenced place, and by fome of the ancients Tartejhs ; a fca-port city of Spain, leated on a promontory in the extremity of a pe- ninlula, and joined to the ifle of Leon by a caufeway. Towards the eatt it is waihed by the gentle waves of a well- proteftcd road ; but towards the weft it is open and expofed to the fury of the ^eean. Both the harbour and bay of Cadiz are fecnre and fpaeious ; the entrance being defended by fort Matnrgordo, and by fort Puntal Itanding oppofite to it on a point of that neck of land on which Cadiz is built. The entrance into the harbour betwixt thefe forts and the points on which they Itaud, is reckoned to be about joo fathoms uide. During the time of ebb, a confiderable part of the harbour, is dry. The oiitei and furthtrmoft bay, which begins between La Rota and San Sebaftiau, both of which are fortified, and extends to Puerto dc Santa Maria, is divided into two parts by the rocks of J^os Pueros and Diamante. Ou the fouvh fide Cadiz it iaacccflible on ac 4 Q. 2 count CAD count of t!>c tiigh and fttep Ihon- ; on the north fide alfo thir acctfs is dangtrous, by rcafoii of many fand-banks and rocks which lie under the water; and though the foiith-well iide admits of landim', it is dtfendtd by fort Santa Catalina, or St.Catliarine. Oil tlie S.S.W. point isaiidge of rocks, part of which, at full fta, is covered with water; the onter- muft of theft is a fmall ifland, on which arc a guard and light-houfe, with v.vo chapels, and alfo fort San Seballiun. The cily, therefore, is fufceptible of attack only at the narrowell port of the neck of land lying betwixt it and the S.E. part cf the iiland of Leon ; and on this fide it is alio fortilitd. The bed view of C^diz and its environs is that which may be had from the fignal tower ; and hence you look immedi- ately dnwn upon the houfes, whofe flat roofs, covered with a white cement, exhibit a fingnlarbut very pleafing appearance. Toward,; the well, you command the ccean, witli numerous v'.nils, leaviu.j or entering the harbour; and on the land fide, you difcover the four interelling fca-port towns of Rota, Santa Maria, Puerto Real, and Caraca, with the illc of Jxon, and the conneding cauftway ; whilll a rich country, veri^ing towards the fetting fun, bounds the diibmt profptd. The (beets of Cadiz are narrow, and yet vvcll-paved and clean. The moll beautiful part of the city looks towards the Puerto dc Santa Maria, where the houfes are lofty, built of white frcellone, brought from thence acrofs the bay, and ornamented with pai::ted balconies. In front they have a wide parade, well gravelled, planted with trees, and commu- nicating witli the fea-road, where the merchantmen and (hips of war tind flielter. Two confiderable fqiares, one for the market, the other called Plaza de San Antonio, with the Calle-ancha, or Broad-llrect, joining to it by way of mall, contribute both to ornament and health ; and as the whole city is nearly encympatTid by a rampart, this forms an ele- vated, airy, and delightful promenade, much frequented in the evenings. A fmall part towards t!ie weft is bordered by five rows of elms, forming four avenues, adorned with elegant feats, and conftituting the Alameda. Along the ramparts is alfo a row of houfes; and the fliaded parts towards the fouth ferve for the lower clalTes to take their fitfta, and enjoy the luxury of the fea-breeze. The inhabitants of Cadiz fupply the want of other promenades by parties of plcafure in the environs of the city. With this view they go out in carriages eiti.tr to Puerto de Santa Maria, where are fine avenues and gardens, or to Chielana, near the ide de Leon, which is almoft entirely covered with country houfes, and eommnnds a very fine view of the bay, the tov/n, and the fea. Although the extent of Cadiz is very limited, yet its houfes are crowded together and are vtry lofty, fo that the population is ellimated at between 75 and So,oco. (Fifeher's Travels in Spain.) Townfend (Journey th.rough Spain, in 1786 and 17B7), reckons them at no more than 65987 ; but he fays, that about 10 years fince, they were compuied at ^5,000, bcfides about 20,000 people who entered daily from the fea and from the adjacent country. The mod diftin- guifhed buildings are the two cathedrals, the ancient and the new ; the former is chiefly remarkable for fome good piftures, and for its treafures, confifting of gems, filver candlefticks, and lamps, numerous and bulky ; three cuftodias, one of ■which, conftrufted of the fineft filver, weighs 51 arrobas, or more than half a ton ; and another confifts moftly of folid gold. The new cathedral is a huge pile, with large and Jofty domes, and many well-proportioned j-.illars ; but upon the whole heavy and difgufting. Near the cathedral is the Plaza de Toros, appropriated to thebuU-fealls, built entirely cf wood. At a fmall diftance are the obfervatory, ill pro- tided with inltruments, and the academy for painting, fculp- CAD ture, and archite£lure. In the convents are fome few good piftures. Of ttie three hofpitals, one, called the Royal or Military Hoipital, is defigncd for foldiers, and accommodates 80 iludents, who are maintained and educated at the king's cxpence. It has a good botanical garden, and a theatre for dilTeviions, furnifhed with lubjrCls from among the patients. The other two, one let apart for women, and the other for men, are dillinguiflied for their neatnefs. Befides thefe hofpitals for the fick, Cadiz has a retreat for 47 v\idows, founded by a Turkey merchant, who died in IJ^6.. But the moll interelling ellablillunent in this city, and the bell condutted of its kind in Spain, is the hotpicio, or general . workhoufe. It accommodates (at an average of the year 1787) 855 paupers of every nation, age, and fex ; who are cither pall labour, or iullruiled and employed in ufeful arts; and encouraged in proportion to the amount of their labour. The heat of the climate at Cadiz is moderated by the fea- breeze ; fo that even in fummer it enjoys a happy tempera- ture, and few places are more healthy ; but it becomes more iiittnfe whenever the folano or fouth-eall wind prevails. Tiiis pafTes to them over the fcorching plains of Africa j and fuch is its cffecl, that all the paffions are inflamed, and during its prevalence, the inhabitants, who are moll irritable, commit every fpecies of excefs. This city abounds with almoll all theneceffaries and luxuries of life. Its fruits are cheap, and its moll remarkable wines are flierry and pacaretti, both of which are procured from Xeres and its vicinity. But they are much dillreflld for want of frelh water, which they are obliged to fetch fiom Puerto de Santa Maria ; and their ice, which is ufed for cooling it, is brought from Sierra, at the dillance of 13 leagues. For domellic pur- poles, fuch as vv-alliing, &c. they collect their water in I'ubterra- neoui cillerns, but being fnbjecl to walle by evaporation, it is procured with difficulty, and confumcd with great economy. For preventing a fcarcity of corn, and in ordtr to enfure a profit by the I'ale of it, the city has eilabl-dicd a public granary, from which the bakers are fupplicd at a given price; and, according to that, the magillrates regulate the allize of bread. The theatre at Cadiz is large, elegant, and commo- dious; the principal aftors are Italians; and the inhabitants are chiefly attr^tted to it by the comiedies called Saynctes, and the whimfical dances denominated Voleros. In Lent, wliilll the moll pohlhed orators confine themfelves to churches, other preachers harangue the multitude in the niarktt-place, with a vehemence of voice and gcfture luited to their congregations. Among the Francilcans, when the penitential lermon is finiflicd, the lights are cxtinguilhcd, and inllantly fcourges are applied. When the market- place is not occupied by orators, the fcribts take pofFelfion of it with their benches, at which they fit with pen, mk, and paper, to write and read letters of all forts, and to execute every kind of deed. In the year 1720, the commerce, which lor two centuries had proved a fource of wealth to Seville, was tranllated to Cadiz ; and from that period its merchants have carried on a very confiderable itrade, which, however, has ebbed and flowed, according to incidental cir- cumftances. Indeed, this port has been the emporium of conmerce to the Well Indies and America. Townfend informs us, that its whole trade employs about one thoufand velFels, of which nearly one-tenth is Spanilli. In 1784 the value of exports to America amounted, in Spanilh and foreign produce, to 3,6^1,443 pounds ilerling ; and the value of imports in money and jewels was 8,->97,i64!. and in merchandife 2,990,7571. The articles of merchandife are cochineal, indigo, cacao, fugar, hides, Vicuna wool, cotton, copper, tin, tobacco, diifereiit kinds of wood, &c. which are diilributed CAD didributed info difTerent countries. Among the forei^^n niercliant? of a)l nations are many Germans, from Hamlnirg, Bohemia, and Auj^fburg. Tlie former conllitute the ciafs called Hanfeatics, and according to ancient convention enjoy conlidcrable privileges. To foreigners indeed Cadiz is mnch iiidcbt--d for various means of literary intercoiirfe and im- provement, as well as for the wealth refulting from an ex- tended commerce. The maiuifadtures of Cadiz arc princi- pally rellric^ed to ribbons and linen ; and feveval perfons are employed in knotting fdk, and marking llockings received from Nifmes, and intended to be Ihipped for the American fettlements. The molt intertfting branch of induftry in the environs of Cadi/, is the maiuifaAme of fait ; prmliiced by the numerous falt-pools of the illeof Leon, with little labour or expence, becaiife the fun and air quickly caufe the water to evaporate, and leave the fait cryllailizcd. Cadiz is the fee of a bilhop, fnfFragan of Seville. The old GndJ'ir was built by the Tyrians ; from them it was traiislerred to tlie Carthaginians ; and after^vards it fell under the dominion of tlie Roman's. It was recovered from the Moots in 1260. In 1596 Cadiz was taken and plun- dered by the Englifh ; and an unlucccfsful attempt was ajain made for feizing it in i^oz. During the late and preteiit war it has been held by the Englilli, at different periods, in a (fate of blockade. In lome of the old Spanilli chronicle.s, this city is denominated Calis, and hence Englifh feainen ufually call it Cain. The tide runs here N.E. and S.W. ; and it is high water at fpring tides at half pall four o'clock. N. lat. 36° 3 I' 7". W. long. 6'' 1 1' 50". Cadiz, a town on the north coall of the iflanc of Cuba, in a bay of the famr name, about 1 6). miles E. ol Havaniiah, and 50 N. of Spiritu Santo. N. lat. 2,3 ' 2'. W. long. 79° 55'. A river of this name runs into the lea, 10 miles E. from the town of Cadiz. CADIZADELITES, a fe6t among the Muffulmcn, re- fcmbling tlic anciei t Stoics, who avoid all ftafting and di verlion, and afi" Ct an uncommon gravity in all they do or fay. Thofe of them wdio inhabit the frontiers of Hungary, &c. agree in manv tilings with the Chrilfians, and drink wine even in the tali of tfie R.imazan. They read the Sclavonic tranflation of the Bible, as well as the Alcoran. Mahomet, according to them, is the Holy Giioll, which defcendtd on the apolUcs at the feaft of Pentecoft . CADLOCK, in ,So//r«V SeeSlNAPis. CADMA, in Entumuiu^ , a fpeeies of Papilio found in America. The wings arc indented, fulvous ; diik of the pofterior pair beneath white, wjth two occllated fpots, the pupil of which is double and blue. Drury, &c. Cadma, in rural Economy, a term applied to the finallell of the pigs which a fow has at one farrowing, and which is commonly much leis than any of the others in the fame litter. CADMEAN Letters, the ancient Greek or Ionic cha- ratters, fuch as they were fiill brought by Cadmus from Phoenicia ; whence Herodotus alfo calls them Phanician letters. SccCadmus. According to fome writers, Cadmus was not the inventor nor even the importer of Greek letters, but only the mo- deller and reformer tliereof ; and it was hence they acquired the appellation Cadm^an, or Phanician letters : whereas be- fore that time they had been called Pelafgian letters. See Letter and Writing. CADMIA, in Chemijlry. This term is entirely obfo- lete ; as, however, it is of frequent occurrence in the writ- ings of the older chemills, it may be proper to explain its meaning. Cadmia, according to Pliny, (Hift. I>iat. lib. CAD xxxiv. ch. xxii. ) was the common name given to that earthy fnbdnnce which was employed by the Cyprian anirts in the manufa('ture of brafs : hence it is plain that it contained zinc, and was probably no olhcr than the calamine of the moderns. The fame word is alfo applied by the above- mentioned author to the metallic foot or adics which coU lefled in tlie chimneys of the brafs founderies. It was an article of conliderable life in the Roman pharmacopoca, and three varieties of it were dillinguifhed by feparate names: that cal ed Capnitis refembled alhes, was the hghtell and bell efleemed, and was depofited at the farthell extremity ol the chimney ; the second kind, named B'jtryitts, depended in clufters from the centr-at and lower part of the ciumney, and was in higli elleem for diforders of the eyes ; the third variety, calKd Plicitit, was a metallic fcoria adhering to the lides of the furnace, and was irlcd for wounds and cutaneous eru|)tions ; its cnlour was cither blue, or black, and, no doubr, contained a conliderable quantity of copper. Succeeding chemills injudicioufly ranked as foffll cadmia not only calamine, but the arfenical and bifmuihic cobalt ore, and under the term Cadmia fornacum iricluded all the kinds of metallic fnbliniatcs that are depofited in the chimneys of fiiieking houfes, whether of cupper, brafs, lead, tin, &c. CADMUS, q. d. a man from the eajl, in fabulous Hijiory, is reported to bt a native of Sidon in Phcenieia, Ion of Age- nor, king of that country, and brother of Europa. Hav- ing been fent by his father's order in quell of his filler Eu- roi)a, wdio had been tranfportcd by Jupiter to the Ifle of Crete, and being farbidden to return without her, he wan- dered for a long time to little pui-pofe, and at length, dcf- p.iiriiig of fuccefs, he fettled at Tanagra upon the rivei If- memcs in the Grecian province of Bceotia. He afterwards built Thebes, and laid the foundation of his new kingdom. The f.iole, however, fays, that the walls of the city were raifed by the harmony of Ampliion's lyre, and that he only ereded a citadel to wiiicli was given his own name, and merely laid the foundation of Thebes. When the city was iinifhed, he married Hcrmione, or Harmonia, the daurhttr of Mars and Venus ; and his nuptials were graced with the prcfence of all the gods and goddeffes, J'.ino excepted, each of whom conferred fome gift upon the bride. His kingdom is faid to have been very flourifhing, and in the progrefs of his reign he was much beloved and refpeCled by his subjefts; though the anger of Juno, who eiivitd his felicity, occafion- ed rrxany misturtuncs, which haralTed and grieved him be- fore its termination. By his wife Harmonia, he had a fon named Pnlydorirs, who fucceedtd him in the fovcreignty of Thebes, by whom it wa'i transferred to his fon Labdacus, the father of Laius, to whom it defcended, and who was the hufband of Jocalla, the mother of CEdipus. He had alfo four daughters, viz. Ino, who threv/ herfelf into the fea together with her children; Agave, wliofe fon Pen- theus was torn in pieces by tlie Bacchantes, for profaning the rites of Bacchus; Autonoe, the mother of Atlseon ; and Semele, the mnther of Bacchus by Jupiter, who after- waiels (lew her with his thunderbiilt. After having expe- rienced many diflr-cfiing vicifiitudes, Cadmus is faid to have re- tired with his wife Harmonia to the coaft of Illyria, wdiere they were both changed into ferpents, or as fome interpret the fable, where they degenerated from their prillnie civility into barbarians. The fable alfo reports, that he fought with a mighty dragon, whofe teeth he afterwards llrewed on the ground, and from them was produced an army of men, whi) fought again II one another, till they were all killed except five: whence a dearly bought virftory obtain- ed the appellation of " Vidoria Cad.iiea." Some fay that 6 he CAD lie wa3 driven from ll\o llirono of Thebes by his grandfon Pciithtus ; and that having commanded the Enclielae who were at war with the lUyrians, he fubdutd the latter, and fiirrendertd the gowrnnient to his fon Illyrius, who was born afttr his retreat to this country. To Cadmus, Greece ii fuppofcd ti> liave been indebted for the firll introdudllon of letters ; which are faid to have been of Phoenician origin, and 1") in nun;ber. Four otturs were afterwards adilcd by Palamedcs, and fonr by Simonides. He is alfo faid to have been the tiril who eftablillud fchools, and who tauglit the Ciicclans trade and navigation ; and the ep:thct Cadmtan, given to brafs, is afcribed to him. bccaufe he was the in- ventor of it, and bccaufe he firft introduced the ufe of it into thofe parts. Wherever he came he alfo introduced the rchgion of his country, whicli confifted in the worfhip of D;oMuUis, and in the rites denominated by the later Greeks the Dionullaca. They fecm to have been much the fame with the Cabiritic mylleries, which Cadmus is faid to have eftabliflied in Samothracia. Tiie arrival of Cadmus in Greece is placed by Dr. Blair about 149 J years B. C. and his death, at the age of 112 years, is faid to have happened in the year 1432 B.C. The arrival of Cadmus, and the foundation of Thebes, are dated in the Arundelian marbles the 64th year of the Attic xra, 1519 B. C. But Sir Ilaac Newton, and thofe who adopt his chrono- logy, allow Cadmus to have flourillied but 1045 years be- fore the Chri'.lian a;ra. Sir Ifaac imagines, that the emi- gration of the Phcenicians and Syrians was occalioned by the conqucfts of David. " Thefe people," fays he, (Chron. p. i;.) "fleeing from Zidon and from David, came, under the condticl of Cadmus, and other captains, into Afia Minor, Crete, Greece, and Lybia, and introduced letters, mufic, poetry, metals ami their fabrication, and other arts, fciences, and cudoms of the Phccnicians. This happened about 140 years before the Trojan war. It was about the i6th ■year of David's reign that Cadmus fled from Zidon. At his firft coming into Greece, he failed to Rhodes, and thence to Samothrace, an ifland near Thrace, on the north lide of Lemnos, and there married Harmonia, the fiftcr of J.ifius and Dard?.nu3, which gave occafion to the Samo- thracian myfteries." Bochart has, with great ingenuity and learning, attempt- ed to folve the enigmas, under which the hiftory of Cadmus is reprefented. He fuppofes, that Cadmus was a fugitive Canaanite, who fled from the face of Jofhua ; and that he was fo called from being a Cadmonite, which is a family nientiimed by Mofes. Gen. xv.9. Thefe Cadmonites were the fame with the Hivites, and were called Cadmanim, or Eaftcrlings, bccaufe they inhabited mount Hermon, the moft eaftern part of Canaan ; and Bochart fuppofes, that Harmonia derived her name from that of this mountain. The fable of Cadmus and Harmonia being transformed into fcrpents he afcribes to their having retained the common name of Hivites, which in the Syriac fignifies ferpejits. He explains the reft of the fable, concerning the teeth of the dragon, whicfc were fown, and the armed men which fprung from them, upoTi the fame principle. The learned Bryant (Anal. Anc. Mythol. vol. ii. 158.) diflents from Bochart in a varitty of particulars. Indeed, he controverts tlie exirtence of fuch a pcrfon as Cadmus, and fuggefts feve- ral objeftions againft the account given by Herodotus and others of the Cadmians having brought letters from Phceni- cia into Greece. See Letters. The rites of Bacchus, he fays, could not have been brought by Cadmus into Greece, if Bacchus was his defcendant, or the fon of his daughter Semele. It is faid, that Cadmus was a Phceni- cian ; but Diodorus Siculus (lib.i. p. 20.) fpeaks of him as CAD an Egyptian, and a native of Thebais. Pherecydes Synn alfo reprefents him as an Egyptian ; and by others he is faid to have been the fon of Antiope, the daughter of Belus, and confequently of Babylonifti extraftion. It was from the fame part of the world that the myfteries, in which Cadmus was fo well fl.ila and glulinof.i. C.tciLiA, the general nams underwhich fevcral creati;res have been dclciibed by old writer,-. Lacerta clia'.cides is cnlled Csciha mnjorby them ; Anguis fragilis of the Liniiann Fit. Sure, is named by dinerent wuitcrs Cxciha vulgaris, Ca;- ciha Gcfiieri, and Cxciiia tvphliis. Alc.rovaiii'.us, R.iv. See. Cscilia niac'jlata of Catelby is the Aiig.iis ventrulis of Gmelin, &c. C.iECiLiA Castra, in ^indent Ce~srr.ph\, pi"obablv the C.tciLi&N A of Anti)n:ne, now Caccres, a place of Spain in Ij'jfitania. according to I'liny and PtoL'mv. CffiCILIANA, in Botany, a name iifed by Pliny and fome other authors for the lutfati, or androf.nmm. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2. C.'ECIIjIUS Statius, in Biography, a L^tin comic poet, the contemporary and coTipani^n of Eniiins, was a iiatKe of Iniubrian Ganl, or, as fjnie fav, df Milan, and lived at Rome in a fcrvilc condiciau about the, vear 177 D. C. As a writer of comedy he was eminent, thouJ-h Ci- cero finds fault with his Latiuity. Some fr.ignicnts of his works are coUtAed by Robert Stepher.s, and pnblilhcd in t'le "Corpus Poetarum," Lond. 1714. Nouv. DiOl, Kid. CjECIMACUL.A., in Er.!o!!ichgy, a fpecies of Pha- l.^na (Njatta), with dentated grey w-ings, two black points at the bafe, and two cinrrtous ilreaks. Fnbr. CjECINA, ni ^nc'nnl Geography, a river of Italy, in Etruria. C^ECINUM, a town of Itily in Brutium, watered b) the river Csecinus. C/ECUM, in Anatomy. SeeCcECUM. C./ECUS, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber, diiflcy-red, having its fcales marked with a white fpot. CiECUTlENS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Apis, hrown, with a fmooth ferruginous abdomen, fpotted on both fides with black. Fabricius. Found in the gardens of Lcipfic. C-iEDIUS, in Anclait Geography, a rivtr of Sardinia. Ptolemy. CiELATURA, or Ccelatura, the art of engraving on metals, ftones, woods, or the like, with inilrunients of I'eel, diamond, &c. Sec Sculpture. CjELEBS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex [Roliin- datus), brownifli grey, with three points on the fcutelhim, :ind the apc.\ v.'lowifli. Fabricius. Found in New Hol- land. C^ELESTIANS, the followers of C.cleftins, a monk, who flourifiied under the empire of Arcaduis, about the year +Ov anJ taught much the ianie doctrines as Pelagius. The native country ot Cxlellius is not certainly known ; iome fay it was Ireland ; others, Scotland ; and others fay thnt he was a native of Campania in itaiy. This, however, is certain, that lie was delcei.ded of an ilhiftrious fanvly, and iliat, after having applied for fome tinv; to the ihidy of the law, he retired from the world ar.d embraced the monalHo life. He accompanied Pelagius into Sicily in 40S or 401J, and afterwards, in 411, into Africa ; from thence he went to Alia, Rhodes, and the neighbouring iflands, diffeminating the doftrines of Pelagius, fo that thofe who embraced them de- rived from him the appellation of Csleftians. Having been conllrained to leave Conllantinople in tiie year 416, he re- : irned to Rome in the following year, and ingratiated him- l^lf with pope Zofimus, and obtained a letter in his favour to the African bilhops. In ^.iS, however, he was banidied from Rome by virtue of a law enadled by the emperor Ho- norius againll the Pelagians ; but he afterwards returned, and was again ordered to depart from Italy. Accordingly Vol. V. C 2E M he repaired to Conllantinople, where for fome time he met with a mo'e favourable reception. At length, about the year 4^1, a memorial was prcfented againll iiim and his ac- complices, by Marius Mercator, to tlie empeior Theodofiui, and they were ordered to depart from the city. Of his fub- fequtnt hi!U>ry, aid the termination of his life, the ancients have furnilhcd r,o records. Cave, Hiil. Lat, t, I, p- jSj. See Pflacia,ss. C.'ELESTINE. SteCELESTlNE. CTELES tin I, in Anc'un! Geography, a people of Italy, in Unibria. CVELESTINUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Curco- Lio ; ca:ruleo'is, with the antennx and legs fanguineous. I'O'.ind in Germany. CjELETiE, in jircienl G.-cgrnphy, a people of Thrace, feparated by the Hcbrus. Some ot them lived near mount Himus, and others near mount Rhodope. CjELIA, an epifcopalcitv of Afiica, in Numidia. Cilia. orC.VLiuM, a town of Italy in Apulia. Cj'ELINA, a town of Italy on a river of the fame name. CiELIUS Mo»:ed toge- ther in any velTel over the fire, and afterwards kept for \ife. Tliis adlieres well, is lefs brittle than rcfin, and infulatts as well. A ftrong casment for fnch purpofes may be made by melting one pound of refin over a flow fire, and adding to it as much plaftcr of Paris, as is ncceflincwliat fukle-lliapttt, petioicd : primordial leaves lubrd." St'ip! round, brown ; comii;on peduncle or riichis round, briwM, fmootli, cloM.rattd at the tip, leaflets, bul- bifeioiis, routing; partial peduncles green, (iatteneJ, fome- limes winged ; pinnules alternate, 0:1 fliort petioles, in- verl-;ly eK;;-niau.d, one-nervtd ; fruftifying, lliglitly Ikkle- fliapcd, ol'ten toothed at the tip, even, tlic npper ones ufu- ally C'jiifliient ; all dnllfs the grandeur of Rome, for it \\as originally built by the Roman princes, and adorned with flatcly edifices; a gigantic tower, numercns baths, ruins of a tempk, and a theatre, the walls of which arc pai-iiy ftandiiio-. Here we ftl.l fee, both within and without the walls, fubterraneoiis buildings, aquedud\s, and vaulted ca- verns, and lloves fo excellently contrived, as to convey their heat through feeret and iniperciptible pores," &:c. In con- firmation of the monlt's aeeount, various antiquities difco- vercd at different periods bear ample tellimony. Earthen veffels of curious woikmannup, telTelated pavements, phiala, brafs tibula, Roman bricks infcribed " jL'g. II. Aug. ;" an altar to the emperor Aurelius Antoninus; another to Jupiter, under tiie appellation of IDolichenius, as the patron of iron mines ; another, as fuppofed, to the goddefs Allra^a : and many other votive altars, monuments, ilatues, infcrip- tions, and Roman coins from C^far to Valenlinian inclulive ; with moil of the intermediate emperois. In fcveral places the walh are ftill vifible, but fcarcely fufficient to point out the original extent of the city. While the name of the parilli, Llangnttock juxca CaerUon, feems to favour the opinion that the old city was welUvard of the prefent town, perhaps moll of the buildings on that fide were extra rrosnia, and formed fubuibs, as appears from the direc- tion of the wellern wall. Several bagnios and fudatories have been found, with pillars formed of circular bricks, net unhke thofe ufed by Palladio in fome of the public llru&urts at Venice. North of the town is a high mount of earth, called the Keep, faid to have had formerly a ftrong tov.'er on its fummit ; and a variety of llonts lyini< at its baft flrengthen the affertion. It was probably a Roman editiee. On a rifing ground, about half a mile dillant, is a large fqnare encampment, and fevcn fmaller ones are in the vicinity. Cacrleon appears, on a fuperficial view, to occupy a flat pofition ; but in reality, that portion of the piefent town, which is inclofed by the Roman walls, is placed on a gentle rife, conneiied at one extremity with the lower part of the eminence, on which the encampment of the Lodge is Ctuated. This rife Ihelves on the weft and fonth fuics to- wards the U(k, and on the eail towari^s the Avon LKvyd, and feems to have formed a tongue of land, wliich, before the draining of the meadows, was probably a kiiid of penin- fula. Hence, the fortrefs, from its pofition on a rife between two rivers, and almod furrounded with marfhy ground, was a place of couuderable ilrcngth, and well adapted to become the piimary ftation of the Romans in Britannia Sccunca. The atra in which this Roman fortrcfs was built, cannot be preciiely afcertained ; but Hordcy fuppofes, that the Ro- mans rii It fettled here in the reign of Antoninus Pius. It is mentioned in Autonint's Itinerary ; and the numerous coins of the early emperors, which have been difcovered here, feem to confirm this opinion. The walls, however, appear to have been conllruftcd under the lower empire. According to Richard of Ci'eaceli-tr, Cacrleon was a Roman colony, and the primary llation in the country of the Silures. In a field clofe to the banks of the U(k, and near the foulh-wefl Cde of the wall, is an oval concavity, mcafur- C A E '"S T4 ysrdi by C\, and 6 in depth. Tlr.- ntttives call it " Arthur's rouiid table ;" but it is, without douljt, the fite of a Roman amphitheatre. Within the memory of many perfons now living. Hone feats were difcovered on opening the fides of the concavity ;' and in J 706 a figure of Diana, with hertrelTesaiid crefccnt, moulded in alaballer, was found in this place. When the Britons had fubmitted to the Roman power, Caerleon, under the aufpices of Antoninus, became the feat of learning and devotion. Three Chriltian cliurthes were quickly ertfted ; one accompanied by an order of nuns, an- other by a houle of regular Cillercian canons, and a third was lionourtd with the m.tropolitan fee of Wales; and, according to the annals of the church, Dubiicius, the great opponent of the Pelagian lierefy, was the full arclibidiop. The remains of the monailery may b; traced in an old houfc, and the qua- drangle round which the different buildings were arranged is (liU vitible. This city was the birth-place of the great Amphibalus, tutor to the martyr St. .'\lban, and the burial- place of St. Julius a;.d St. Aaron, who prenchcd the gofpel here, and fulfeied martyrdom under '.he perfecuting reign of the fanguinary Dloclefian. After that period, Caeilcon in- creafed in learning, piety, and confequence. When the Saxons invaded this country, the univeifiiy was in fi:ch a flourilhing cemdition, as to contain, among n-nmerous other iludents, two hundred philofophers well fkdltd in gtographv and allronomy. (Vid. A. Ellebcnlis.) Near the river are the ruins of a caflle, probably ereifed about the time of the Norman invafion, on the fite of a Brliilh fortrefs. We du not, however, hear of it till I 171, when Henry took the town, d'fpolicning Jorwerthap-Owen, lord of Gwent. In 117;, after a noble Hand, it was retaken by Owen, and given up to the Welfli in exchange for the prifoiiers. After fcveral fieges, it was retained by I.,lcwclyn-ap-Jorwerth, and hi^ defcendants, till the time of Edward I. Vide Powcl's- HiHory of Wales. The prtfent town confills of two or three fniall fl reels, and many of the lioufts are in a Hate of dilapidation. The mod decent building is a charitv-fchool, for maintaining and edu- cating ,30 boys and 20 girls, till they attain the age of 14,, when they are apprenticed with a bounty of feven pounds to- the former, and four to the latter. Tliey are clothed in a drefs of blue cioth, with a badge of white, containing thg initials C. W. aduding to the founder, who, as appears from an infciiptlon on the building, was Charles Williams efq. a native of the town. Tiiefpirit of the place feems in unifoi» with its appearance ; being chiefly inhabited by a poor indo- lent let of people ; alike unaffeflcd by the greatnefs of ihj pall, as inattentive to the advantages of their prefent con- djt.on. The town confilts of 14S haufes, contains about 660 inhabitants ; has a weekly market en Tueftlay ; and i» fituated 14G rriles W. from London. Evans's Tour tlirougli South Wales, Svo. lS04.. Coxe's Hiliorical Tour in Moii- mouthfliire, 4to. 1801. CAERM.ARTHEN is the county town of Caermar- thenOiire, South V,'alts. It is large, populous, and toler- ably well built ; the llreets arc fpacious, but fomc of theni ileep and irregular, and many ot the lioufes good ; they are generally whitened, and the chimnles are conilrufted of red brick, which prefent an uiipleafant glare to the eye. Among thepublic buildings are a handfome church at the endof Prior- flreet, and a new elegant county-hall built of free-Hone, with colonnades of the Ionic tirder ; the upper part of which- is for the tranfadion of public bufinefs, and the under is ufed as a covere-d maiket. Situated upon a fmjll elevation, on a fine navigable river, in the midll of a fruitful vale, and having no Iowa of note iu its vicinity ; its markets are larg? a.id C A E antl well fiippllcJ ; provifions in general are dieap, and fifh exceedingly rtafonable. A conliderable irnn foundery and tin-plate manufadory turnirti employment to a number of hand's. The fmclting lioui'cs for Lad ore, dug in the north- ern part of the county, belonging to lord Cawdor, are now flint up. Here are a fmall port and quay for coading veflels, principally to Brillol and London. The tide rifea at the bridije from eight to twelve feet ; but, owing to the flial- lowi in t'lc bed of the river below, veiVols of much burthen find a difficulty in coming up to the quay. Since the de- cline of the trade at Kidwelly, that of Caermarthen has in- creafed ; and with fpint and property much more might be done. Here is a rope-walk ; and a few vctFcls are built for fale. Adjoining Lammas- llreit are the walls of a priory of Fratres Grifci : this was a cell in thecullody of the abbey of St. Augulliue at Briltol. In Priory-ilreet the (hell of aii- otlier religi.ius houfe is llill (landing, which was appropri- ated to Black Friars, or canons of St. Augulhne, and founded btfore the year 1 148. The entrance into the court is bv a bold gateway, over which are the arms of the founder. The principal apartments are llill dillingniiliable, ard the tracery of fomc of the wind.iws almoll entire. Gy- raldus mentions it as being, in his time, furroundcd with brick walls ; fome remains of which, towards the river, are llill extant. This town is famous for having given birth to Merlin Ambrofe, the reputed magician, of whom many fa- bulous (lories have been related. Sclden cenfidcrs Merlin or Merdhin (whence Caerfyrddin) as having derived his name from the town ; but the general opinion is, that Caer- Mtrdin, or Merlin's town, was fo called from Merlin's being found there. Not far from the town is a hill, called Mer- lin's Hill, near the brow of which is a rock, known by the name of Mtrliu's Chair, in which, it is faid, that famous prophet ufed to fit, when he uttered his prophecies. Ca- ermarthen lays claim to Roman origin. It was the Mari- duniim of Antoninus, and long the feat of the South- Wallian princes, where they held their great national coun- cils, or occalional parliaments. Nor is it lefs confpicuous on the fubfcquent page of hidory. It was elleemed of fo much importance as to become an enviable objeft with every hollile party, and repeatedly facked, pillaged, and burnt, by both friends and enemies. By whom it was fortified, and its caftle built, there are no authentic documents to (how ; nor do we hear much of it, tdl the asra of difficulty and conflift to the Welfh, occafioned by the unjullifiable invafion and unprecedented cruelty of the Anglo-Normans. On the acceffion of Henry I. to the throne, Wales became a new theatre for the difplay of iniquity ; and the oppreffive meafures and alienations of property, which before were chiefly confined to the borders, were extended to the in- terior: ill confequence of which the royal relidence was re- moved to Dinevor, and Caermarthen was rendered a llrong fortified poll. In 11 16 we find it in the hands of the Eng- lifh, held for the king by Owen ap Caradoc. But Gryf- fydd ap Rys, who well knew the importance of this place, fent fpies to furvey the works and afcertain their ftrength : having received a favourable account, he fuddenly marched at night, rufhed on the town, and by a coup de main took pod'Aitm. The governor was killed, the garrifon fled; and Gryffydd, having burnt the place, and difmantled the caftle, relumed with his fpoils to his refidence at Strata Tywy. It was again laid in afhes, in 1137, by Owen Gwynedd ; re- built and fortified by Gilbert earl of Clare ; about the year 1 143 ; taken by Cadell Con of Gryffydd ap Rys ; and again in podeffiun of the Enghih under WiUiani Tubcrville, who, when it was befieged by Rhys in J 158, dellroyed the bridge, at that time of wood, for its better fecurity and de- C A E fence. Though Rhys was unfuccefsful at th"s time, he took and defpoiled it in 1195, after quelling ihe unnatural rebellion of his fons. In the reign of John, I-15, it was taken; and the callle was rafed in 1222 by Llewelyn, who, taking advantage of the abfence of the earl of Pem- broke, the governor, took this lortrefs and Cardigan, putting the garrifons to the fword. Wc iind it foon afterwards in the poffefrion of the EngliAi, when the hm<- carl of Pem- broke, having confederated wit!' the Wcllh, blockaded it ineOtftnally for three months. The remains of this import- ant fortrcfs are iliU vifible on a rocky eminence : additions have been lattly made, and it is now ufcd as the conn'y gaul. When this territory was erected into a principality by the crown of England, the chancery and exchequer courts wtre held here. Caermartlien was created a borough town, 3S Henry VIJI. with the privilege of returning one member to parliament. It contains 945 houfes, and 5548 inhabitants , has two weekly markets, SVcdncfday and Sa- turday ; confiderable trade, but no internal manufaClure ; and is fituated 226 miles W. from London. Evans's Tour througli South Wales, Svo. 1804. CAERMARTHENSHIRE is one of the fouthem counties of Wales, bounded on the north by Caidigandiire, on the eaft by Brccknockfliiie, on the well by Pcmbroke- (hiie, and on the foutli by Glamorganfliire and part of the fea. Its extent from eaft to well is above fortv-fivc miles, and only about twenty in the longeft diameter from north to foiith. The general furface of this traft of country is hilly, which in the northern and eallern parts rife into mountains. As in mod hilly territories, the vallits are chiefly narrow, and well watered with mountain llreams, which in ftormy weather ru(h down in torrents. Among the vales that of the Tovy or Tavvy is the principal : this croffts the whole of the county, and in fome places is above two miles in breadth, and abounds with beauties. The principal rivers are the Tovy, the Taw, the Cothy, the Dulas, and Gwilly : the former has its fource among the Cardiganftiire mountains, and after its entrance into this county, at the northern boundary, is reinforced by a con- tinual fucceffion of thofe numerous ftreams which give beauty and fertility to the landfcape. Before the Tovy reaches Caermarthen it receives the Cothy and Gwilly ; the Cowen brings with it the Towa and Carkenny ; and the Taw re- ceives the Morlas and Cair. The climate and foil of this county are much celebrated, though the lands are not found favourable to wheat. Bar- ley ard oats are the moll profitable crops, and great quan- tities of the latter are annually exported to Briftol. Black cattle and horfes are bred in abundance on the hills, and are the chiel article of traffic in the neighbourirg fairs. Wood, though ft ill plentiful, has fuffcred great defalcation of late years. The county abounds with limellone, and coal is ob- tained in many parts of it. Iron-works, tin-works, and lead mines, alfo abound, which, combining with the local advantages, and with a fupply of butter, (tone-coal, bark, and oak timber, render the export trade very confiderable. Caermarthenlhire is divided into fix hundreds, and includes fix market-towns, and eighty-feven parifhes, which are within the diocefe of St. David's and province of Canter- bury. It returns two members to the imperial parliament, one for the county, and one for the principal town. Some vcltigcs of Roman roads, and other monuments of remote antiquity, are remaining vifible in this county. Near Whit- land is a circ'e of upright llones ; and between the rivers Cowen and Towa is a remarkable barrow, which enclofed a kiftvaen. At Whitland is an encampment fuppofed to be Romaa from the Roman coins that have bccB found within its vallum. C A E C A E vallum. The ruins of feveral caftles are ftlll (landing in dif- ferent parts of the county. Malkin's " Scenery, Antiqui- ties, and Biography of South Wales," 4to. 1804. Evans's «' Tour tlirough South Wales," 8vo. 1804. Barber's " Tour tliroughout South Wales," Svo. 1803. CAERNARVON, the principal town of Caernarvon- (hire, is juftly the boidl of North Wales, for its fituation, buildings, harbour, &c. ; but above all, for the grandeur of its once magnificent caftle. It is fituated on the eaftern bank of the river Mcnai, the ftrait that divides the ifle of Anglefea from the otiier parts of Wales. This was tlie an- cient Segonthim, mentioned by Antoninus ; it was a Roman ftation in the time of Conllantine ; and Matthew Paris fays, the body of Conftantinus, the father of that emperor, was found buried here, A. D. J 283. The fite of the old city ii about a mile diftant, by the road to which from Pwllheli it is interfcfted. The remains of a Roman road are (liU vifible from this place to Dinorwig. It lies on the eallern banks of the Seiont. Some remains of the walls are ilill to be fcen, the cement of which appears as hard as the ftone it- felf. A fingle ftone remains here, with thefe letters S. V. C. probably for Segontium Urbs Conllantini ; Plelen, or her hulband Conllantme, having built it. It was defended by a fort, erefted on the lleep weftern bank of the Seiont, where it forms a curve, about four hundred yards from the prefent town. The walls are about twelve feet high, and about eighty yards fquare, with circular parallel holes run- ning the whole length. Where the facings are dilapidated, the pecuharity of Roman mafonry is eafily difcoverable. This town, alter the departure of the Romans from the ifland, was occupied by the Britons, and by them denomi- nated Cacr-ar-fon, i. e. a ftrong hold oppofite Mona, which ■with the iafertion of n for harmony, made Caernarfon. Gyraldus mentions it as a confiderable place in i ijS ; and a charter, dated 1221, ifTued by Llewelyn the Great, proves that it did not receive this name from king Edward. At a very early period it was the feat of the Bvitifli priitces. Ro- deric refided here in 7 50 ; and by a pollerior Roderic the royal refidcnce was removed to Aberfraw in Anglefea. Out of the ruins of the ancient town arofe the prefent, which by a charter of king Edward I. was made a free borough, go- verned by a mayor, who is pro tempore deputy-governor of the caftle, one alderman, and two baiHffs ; there are alfo a town-clerk and two ferjeants at mace. The town fends one member to parliament, who is returned by the joint fuffrage of Conway, Pwllheli, Ncfyn, and Crickaeth ; and the right of voting extends to every perfon ref:dent in thefe places. An extraordinary privilege was granted to Caernarvon, that no burgefs could be convifled of any crime, committed be- tween tlie Conwy and the Dovy, but by a jury of his townf- men. The town was originally contained within its prefent walls, but the fuburbs are become c;f greater extent than the town : the llrcets are at right angles correfponding with the four gates ; the houfes are well built, and the ilreets clean, but, as in all other ancient towns, n;.rrow and confined. It is become a place of fafhionable refort, during the fummer feafon ; the eh^jant hot and cold baths, ertfted by the earl of Uxbridge, having added greatly to its celebrity. On the outfide of [he walls is a broad and pleafant terrace walk -along the fide of the Menai, extending Irom the quay to the north end of the w;:lls, which is .i fafhionable promenade in fine evenings. Caernarvon is in the parilh of Llan-Beblic, and the chu'-ch is fituated about half a mile from the town. It contains nothing remakabk, except a marble monument, ■with two recumbent figures of fir William and lady Griffith of Penrhyn, who died in the year 1587. The fervicc is al- ways performed here in the Welfti language. There is an Englifh fervice every Sunday morning and afternoon, in the chapel of cafe to this church, fituated on the north-welt corner of the town : the former is generally very well at- tended. The entrance to the port of Caernarvon is rather danger- ous, from the cxtcnfive fand-banks near ; but the harbour i« capacious, and vcffcls offix or feven hundred tons ride in fc- curity ; and tiie quay i.s peculiarly convenient, as large vef- fels can come dole to it, and deliver and lake in their car- goes. The trade has of late years been increafing, though at prefent it confifts more of exports than imports. .Slates, &c. are fent to Liverpool, Brilloi, and London ; copper ore from Llanberis and Paris Mountain to Swanfca ; flan- nels, web.<, (lockings, and an ochre found in Anglefea. to America and the Well Indies. The imports conlift chiefly of Iri(h cloth, fine wool, hides, tallow, and grocery goods, for the ufe of the interior. There is a weekly market on .Saturday. The county affizes are occafionally held here ; and the room over the eaftern gateway, formerly ufed as a cnllom-houfe, is converted into the fclTions-lioufe, where all the county bufinefs is tranfafted. This was done, as an in- fcription in front informs us, by the munificence of fir Wil- liam Wyime, and his nephew Thomas Wynne efq. A. D. 1767. A new cuftom-houfe is creeled within the walls on _ the Menai, much more convenient for the commerce. The port is fubjeft in its cuftoms to the comptroller of Beau- maris. Caernarvon is diftant from London 244 miles N. W. CAERNARVON is alfo a townlhip of America, iu the county ol Lancafter and ftate of Peiinfylvania. Caernarvon Cajlle is the moil magnificent fortrefs in North Wales. It is well fituated for natural ftrength ; one fide bounded by the Mcnai, another bv the ^lluary of Seiont, a third by a creek of the Menai, and the fourth ifolatcd by art. The fite was admirably calculated for a ftrong poll, and could not fail to ftrike a prince of military talents, like Edward, as a proper place to ereft a curb for his newly conquered, and confequently dilfatisfied, fubjefts. As the conqueror of the country, there is great reafon for fuppofing that monarch to be the founder of the prefent edifice, (per- haps on the ruins of one more ancient,) to check the fpirit of infuneftion that might arife in Snowdonia, as he did on the Deiibighftiire fide by the caftles of Conway and Rhud- dlan. The obfervation of Mr. Barrington feems well founded, that the plans of the Wcllh cafths, ereited by Edward I. were borrowed from the Afiatic fortreffes which that prince had feen in tlie Holy Land, becaufe they appear precifcly fimilar to many copied and inferted in the valuable trafts of Le Brun. After the conqueft was nearly com- pleted, in 1282, the caftle was begun; and in little more than a year this immenfc building was finilhed. For ftiU further to fubdue the haughty people, already mortified by a foreign yoke, he impofed on them the hateful taflc of forging chains for their country, and putting the lait fatal hand to its independence. The peafantry were compelled to perform the required labour, and their chieftains to defray the expence incurred. It is built of a mixture of lime and grit-ftonc : fome of the materials were furnilhed by the ruins of the old town, and fome were brought from Vacnol. It forms a bold and ftriking objed, and the (hell is nearly en- tire. The entrance into the caftle is grand, between two mafl"y towers ; in front of which, over the gateway, is placed a ftatue of the royal founder, with a dagger in his hand, in a menacing pofture. This was defended by four portcullifes. The lorm of the caftle, inclofing an area of about three acres, is oblong : the towers are elegant, fome pentagonal, fome hexagonal, and others oAagonal ; two of thefe are pre-eminent : and of thefe, the eagle tower, fo called C A E cs'l.-J ram a f-cure of that hird pbced ?t tlif top i? pc c -liariv biaiitiJul, tliee I'niall anyiilar turrets liiuing irom it. A niagniCicent ap-rtmciil is nu'Wii in this tower, uhcrc, by the «'ell kr.own artifice of Cdward I. his qiif< n Elca.ior was df'.iveied of her fon Ed.vard, the Hrll pnnte of Wales, April ^5, i2'^4. The walls of the cajrle tower are ten tect thick, ajid tho"'£ of the fortrefs in general cieht. A gallery ru.is all round, with freqiieul opniing.^ for the difchavge of arrows on the btliegers. A Ihort time after the ercdion ot th-c:illle, the (Ireh^th and importance of it were to be tried. A ueiieral infnntaic n was excited in d.lferent parts of Wales, ill 1204, on occiifiiMi of a fiibfidy levied on tl.e new fubjeCts. M.idoc, an illegitimate fon of the nnfortniiate Llcweiyn, llvl iij himl'elf prince, put himfclf at the head of the infur- creiits of North Wales, and proceeded to Caernarvon, which was crowded witli people attending aii animal fair. The vnarmed multitude were barbaroudy flanghtcrcd, the town reduced 10 aihes, and the callk taken. In 1404 this fort- refs wasbl.ckaded by Owen Glyndwr's adherents, but was fo b'.ively defeided fur the king, that the belugers, hnding llicir efforts fruitlefs, thought proper to retire. In 1 6^4 ihe town was taken by captain Swanlev, a parliamentarian, who pillaged it of the ilorcs, arms, and ammunition, mak- ing four hilndred prifoners : the royalilh afterwards difpof- Ififed him. While lord Byron was governor, it was befieged bv general Mvtlon in 1646, ant;.er inbordinate hills. This county is very irregularly Ihaped, and is bounded by the fea on the well and louth, the llraitsof the Menai, which fepaiate it from Angkica, to the nortii, and the counties of Merioneth and Denbigh to the tail. 'I'his area of country nieafurcs about forty miles from north to fouth, and twenty from tall to well. It is divided into feven hundreds, which are again fubdividtd into iVvei.lv-one piriilics. Ihe principal places in the coniitv are the city of Bangor, the town of Caernarvon, and the town of Conway. According to the popula- tion reports, publifhed by the houfe of commons, the whole diilritl contains S433 houfcs, and 41521 inha- bitants, of whom moll are employed in agriculture and minirg. All the niountains in this county, as well as fome of the low grounds on the v\eileru fide, are commons ; the former arc chiefly dcpallured by Iheep, and the lattei by black cat- tle. It is a cullom among the farmers to meet annually, and determine what number of fheep each Hiall fend to the rr.uuntains; yet in fpite of any argument, the pallurage is generally overllocked. It is common with fome pcrlons to it 11 this privilege at 4d. per head for the fcafon, which is commonly from May, when the fliccp are driven up, until Michaeliiia<, vkhcn they are brought down. In uioft lit- C A E fcriptions of this county, it is ilated, that tlie families j^n up and wholly live on the mountains in the fummer feafon, to attend their flocks, to make cheefe, &c. but this is de- nied bv Mr. Kay in his " General View of the Agricultuie of the County," who fays, that no fuch cuil-om prevails. The wethers only -are fent up, and the ewes are always kept in the low grounds with their laxb,'. When the l.ittcr aie - vi-eaned, the ewes are milked for about two rnoiuhs ; ami the product of thefe is mixed with the cows' milk for making of cheele. The cMuortation of fl.itcs is the principal trade from this county. Thefe are Ihipped in large quantities trom Caer- narvon ; and it is calculated by Mr. Kay, that above ^■;,oool. worth are annually fent from this part of the coun- try. Wocl is alfo ail objecl of confiderable importance to the farmers and peafantry, many of whom are employed in manufadluring it into cloths, flannels, &lc. Of the rivers in Cucrnarvonniire, the Conway is the prin- cipal. This bounds the eaftern fide of the county, and is" navigable for about 12 miles from the fea up into the inte- rior of the country. Increafed by various mountain tor- rents, it fometimts fwells itfclf into a vaft cxpanfe, ai.d in the early part of its courfe ftirms iome grand cafcades. Many of the rivers of tiiis county cither pioceed from, or form in their courfe, lakes of various fizes. Thefe are chiefly in the declivities of the mountaiiis, and mod of them are abundantly ilocked witli fifli, among which, the char, and the gwyniad. are very prevalent. The mod confiderable mountains are Snowdon and Pen- maen-Mawr. The former is eftimatcd to meafure 3451^, or, according toother llatements, ;j 568 and 3600, feet above the level of the lea at Caernarvon Qj.iay. It is conncdted with a chain of other hills ranging tlirough the county in a di- redlion from N. E. to N. W., extending from Aberconway to the fea, at Aberdaron. The rocks compofing the higher part of this chain, are principally porphyry, granite, and granitel of Kirwan ; the lecondary rocks are chiefly horn- blende, fchiller-fpar, toadllone, fchi'.lus-nica, fchi!hi«-clay, mixtures of qu;ut/., feld-fpar, and mica, with argillaceous fchillus in all its varieties. On the wefl;ern fide are a num. ber of bafaltic columns on a bed of horntloiie, or chertz ; and large coarfe cryilals, cubic pyrites, and various mineral bodies are found in the fifliires. In the fchillofe rocks arc feveral (late quarries ; and great quantities of Hones are cut, and annuaUy fent hence to London, Dublin, &c. Maiiv rare and curious plants are found on thefe mountains, and oil the borders of the lakes. The whole of the county was formerly known by the name of Snowdon, and a great part of it is Hill dillinguiihed by the appellation of Snowdonia. The mountains between Conivay and Can-narvon feem em- buiohicd in one another, and from the Aiiglelea fliore are fcen to rile, range after range, in three gradations. The lower valleys and bafes are genera'ly very fertile and tempe. rate, and confequeully are chofcn as the fceiies of habitation and cultivation. The fecoiid range affords fome paituraoe and fuel, fuch as long grafs, peat, and furze. The highe'.t ridge is nearly divefted of vegetation, and partakes of the temperature of the fiigld zone. Snow remains here nearly three quarters of the year ; and is often found at the latter end of June. The Icenery of Caernarvonfliire is peculiarly grand, ro- mantic, and piitnrtlque. Its narrow glens, expanded lakes, roaring cafcades, and " tempeft-torn rocks," confpire to ren- der it eminently attraftive to the painter, whilll its ininera- logieal and botanical pn-dudions are equally enticing to the mineraloJill and to the botanifl. Fur further particular* relating to the hiilory and antiquities of particular plai.es in this C iE R C iE R tliia county, fee under the heads Bangor, Conway, Caer- narvon, &c. This county returns two members to parli- ament. It 13 in the dioctfe o( Bangor, and province of Canterbury. Kay's " View of tlie Agricnltnre of North Wales." A Sketch of the Hillory of Caernarvonfliire. Evans's Tour tlirougli North Wales. Aikin's Journal of a Tour tlirongh North Wales. CAERSWS, at prefent a fmall hamlet, fituated on the Severn, above New Town, in Montgomerylhire, North Wales, b\it formerly a town of confulerablc antiquity, and probably a Roman ftation, as is inferred from the fine hewn ftones for building, and feveral bricks common in Ro- man cities or places poneffed by the Romans when in Bri- tain. It had alfo a caftle and a church, and the form of three camps is llill difcernihle in its vicinity. The Roman joad, or caufeway, called .Sarn-Sws, runs here towaido Meifod, and may be traced to the banks of the Tynnvy, ■near Llyfin. CjERULATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Phal;f.na, {Geomeira) with obfcurely green wings, banded with Ijrovvn, and two cseruleous bands. Fabricius. C^ERULEA, a fpeciesof Chrysomela, of a blue colour with violaceous thorax. Geoffroy. Inhabits France. C^rulea, a fpecies of Necydalis, ca:ruleous, with the hinder thighs clavated and arcuated. Fabricius. CcRULEA, in a fpecies of Cicindela, of a fliining blue colour, with the mouth white. Inhabits the great fandy deferts of Siberia. Pallas. C-CRULEA, a fpecies of Pimelia, [SepliTium), cserulef cent, with a roundilh thorax, and ftriated elytrx. Fabri- cius. CjBrulea, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Coryph^ena, wholly csrnleoijs. Bloch. Found in the American ocean, clothed with large fcales, compreffed, and above convex. C/erulha, in Onihh'jlogy, a fpecies of Ardea, called by Latham the blue heron, and blue bittern of Catcfby. The back of the head is crefted ; colour of the body blue. Brif- fon calls it cancrophagus caeruleus. It is the black and blue gaulding of Ray and Sloane. There are fevtral diftindl varieties of this bird, one of vhich is blue, with the head and collar of a rufous brown colour ; and another has the blue of the body tinged with green, with the chin and throat white. Inhabits America. C^rulea, the fpecies of Alcedo called by Latham the white-coJlared kings filher ; ifpida indica torquata of BrilTon. This bird is of a blue colour, beneath rufous, with the eye brows and collar white. Length feven inches. Inhabits India. C;erulea, a fpecies of Procellaria, bluifli cinereous, 'leneath white, with the beak and legs cinereous ; the blue petrel of Latham. C^rulea, a beautiful bird of the Certhia, or creeper, ^enus from Cayenne. The prevaihng colour of the plu- mage is blue, with the band acrofs the eyes, chin, \ving5, ind tall, black. Gmelin, &c. Cy'ERULEA, a fpecies of CoLUMBA, coeruleous ; the beak, legs, and covers of the wings, red ; the blue pigeon of La- tham, and the tlacapoilotl of Ray. Found in New Spain. C.tRULEA, the fpecies of Muscicapa, called by La- tham the azure fly-catcher, cseruleous ; with a black fpot on the occiput and bread ; the abdomen and vent bluilh- white, and the feathers of the wings and tail bluifh-black. Found in the Philippine Ifles. C.tRULEA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Nereis, fmooth and caerulefcent. Fabricius. CjERULEOCEPHALA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cantharis, (Ala/achius), dclcribed by Thunberg. The Vol. V. thorax is red, emarginate ; wing-cafes fufcous ; anterior part of the head red ; polUrior biue-black. Inhabits Eu- rope. C^ERULEocrriiALA, a fpecies of Bombyx, common in various parts of Europe, and in England known by the tri- vial nalue of the figure-of-eigh.t moth. The wings are grcy- ifh, varied with brown, with a large double irregular whitifli fpot. Linn. &c. The larva feeds on apple and on other fruit trees. C.ERULEOCEPHALA, iu Ornithology, a fpecies of Alcedo, or kings-fifher, found in the illand of Madagafcar. The prevailing colour is blue above, beneath rufous ; throat white ; quill-feathers blackilh. The length of this bird is four inches, and it has the bill and legs of a red colour. Bulfon calls it martin-pechcur a tete blcue, and petit martin-pecheur du Senegal. It is the blue headed kings-filher of Latham. C^RULEOCEPHALUS, m Entomology, a fpecies oF CuRCULio, violet coloured, with the thorax and elytra; tef- taceous. Found in Saxony. C«RULEocEPHALus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of PsiT- TACVS, ca:ruleous, with the belly, rump, and tail green, crown yellow, and feathers of the wings and tail red ; the red and blue parrot of Willughby and Latham. Found in Guiana. CiERULESCENS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Can- cer, abundant in the feas between the tropics. The colour is bluilh ; thorax fmooth ; beak advanced, fubulate, and furniflied with two teeth. Fabricius. A crab of a fmall fize. — Alfo, a ipecics of Crvptocephalus [Cijlela), black, with the ftriated elytra; csrulefcent. Found in Barbary. C/ERULESCENS, 3 fpecies of Cerambyx {Snperila) that inhabits Germany. The thorax is unarmed, cylindrical, white-blue ; three hues on the thorax and fcutcl pale. Scopoli Schranck, &c. Cj^rulescens, a fpecies of Chrysomela [Altim) of a greenifh blue colour, and very glofly ; thorax fmooth ; antennas and legs rufous ; pollerior thighs black. Degeer. C^rulescens, a fpecies of Carabus, of a blackilh blue colour, with the bafe of the antennae I'cd. Fabricius. Inhabits Europe. C/erulescens, a fpecies of Necydalis, with a round- ifh thorax, and crerulcous fub-opake body. Fabr. C.erulescens, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Anas, called by Latham and other Englifh writers the Blue-winged- GoosE. This kind inhabits North America ; the colour is fufcous, beneath white ; wiiig-coverts and pollerior part of the back bluifti. Briffon calls it anfer fylvellris freti Hudfonis ; Bulfon, I'oie des Efquimaux. Obf. The bill and legs are red ; crown yellowifli, rell of the head, with the collar, white ; ftioulders and tail waved with white and grey. C.'erulescens, a fpeciesof Rallus, light-red, beneath bluilh, the beak and legs red, the vent white, with black tranfverfe ftriae on the abdomen ; the blue-necked rail of Latham. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. C/erulescens, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber, found in South America and India, fmooth, cairulefcent, and an acuminated lead-coloured head. C/liRULEUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex, dcfcnbed by Linnasus in his Fauna Sutcica as being entirely of a blue colour and without fpots. C^.ruleus, an European fpecies of Carabus, def- cribed by Miiller. The colour is black, with cyaneous wing-cafes ; anteiinx, feeler?, and legs fulvous. C;eruleus, a fpecies ot Rhinomacer, cxrulefcent, with the bafe of the antennx and legs y.'Uow. 4 S Qx.z.vi.t\ji, C A E Ctruiev", a fpccies of ScaraBiEus, oblong and wholly cyaneoiio. Found in Siberia. C.tRULEus, a fpecii;8 of Cucajus, black, with a f'llcatcd tliorax, ftriatcd cmrulcous clytr^E, and red abdo- men. Fabr. Found in Germany. — Alfo, a fpccics of Crvptocephauvs, azure, with brown anlenns. Found in the iqulnoilial part of Africa. CjtRL'LEi's, in Oriiil/joloxi', a fpccies of Cuculus, with a roundilh tail and blue body. The beak, legs, and claw:, are black ; the remiges and tail are green and violet. Found in Madjjafcar. This is the blue cuckow of Latham, and taitfon of UnfTon. C.t:rulei;s. the name of a fniall fpecies of Parus, called in England the blue-titmouff. The quill-fea- thers of this bird arc bhiifh ; primaries whitifli at the outer margin; front white; crown blue. I. inn. Fn. Siicc. This kiinl inhabits Europe. Its length '\i about four inches, frcq.ients gardens, and does coufiderable damage by bruiling the yoting buds in qucft of infefts, on which it feeds C/ERULEi's, a fpccics of Orioius, black or cinereous, with the head, wings, and tail cxruleous. This is the Xan- thornus caeruleus of Briffon, the fmall blue jay of Ray, and blue oriole of Latham. The beak is n.d. C^Ri'LEus, a fpecies of Ramphastos, csruleous with a mixture of cinereous ; the blue toucan of Latham ; found in New Spain. C.tRuLEUs, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber, found in America, caerultfcent, with the fcalcs white on one fide, and beneath white. CyERULEi;s is alfo a name given by Solinus to the " great Indian wor.Ti," defcribed by Pliny and others as inhabiting the Gangei. It is conceived with much probability that all the accounts we have of this monllrous animal are only falfe dcfcriptions of the crocodile. CAERWENT, in Cco^^mphy, a village of Monmouth- {hirc, England, about 4 miles from Chepftow, in the road to Newport, was a place of great importance in the Roman times, and is diftinguifhed m the Itinerary of Antoninus by the name of Venta Silurum. This ilation was found, Lke many Roman military works, with a fortification, afTuming in ground plan the parallelogramic fhape, with the corners a little rounded. Such figures were called terriata caflra. Each corner nearly corrcfponded with the four cardinal points. At the fonth-well fide are three pentagonal baftions ; from wiiich circumllance fome writers have inferred that the town was founded under the lower empire, as flanking projeAions were not in ufc before that period. Other authors refer the building of the walls to the Saxons, but from the mode of coullrufting them, the fize and quality of the bricks, and other evidences, this feems very improbable. The circuit of the rampart, nearly a mile in extent, may ftiU be traced, and in moft places is furrounded by a deep fofs. The prtftnt walls are about nine feet in tnicknefs at the top, and twelve feet at the bafe. The inclofed area is laid out in fields, and orchards ; and a few cottages, with the church, parfonage, &c. oc- cupy the fite of Roman manfions and Roman temples. Foundations of thefe, proje&ing above the level, and concealed under green hillocks, rife in many places, and columns, tefielatcd pavements, and coins, are continually difcovered in ploughing and digging. A cunous tefielated pavement was difcovered about 40 years ago, and preferved under a fhed conllructed for that purpofe. It is feven yards long and fix broad, within a border of variegated ftones ; it contains three rows of three circular and fpiral figures, not unlike tbofe in many of our Turkey carpets, but C A E formed oi tcffelx of various colours, neatly put together. Some have fuppofed, that the exploits of Arthur were performed ?X this place; and that when this was totally deilroyed, they .were transferred through ignorance or flattery to the other Cacrwent or Winchefter, at a time when it was one of the moft important cities of the iiland. N'enta Sihirum, afterwards Caer Gwent, is fuppofed to have poffeiTcd I'ufficient confequence to give name to the county of Monmouth, and tliofe parts of Herefordfliire and Glou- cefterlhire, whichlong retained theappclla'.ion of Gwcnt-Land. In a MS. of Llandatf, Caer-Gwent is mentioned as a plac^ dedicated to learning, and far famed for its academy, which a difciple of St. Germanus governed witli great commen- dation. Evans's Tour through South Wales, Svo. 1804. Barber's Tour throughout South Wales, 8vo. 1803. Caerwent, or Caer-Gwent, q. d. 'whhe city, is alfo a name given by the fir!l Celtic fettlers in South Britain to the prcfent city of Winchellcr, on account of the chalky cliffs that eiicompaffed it. Under this appellation it has been recognized by the moll ancient writers, domellic and foreign, who have recorded the early (late of Britain. It was then no more than a coUeftion of long cabins, built of mud, covered with reed and flieltercd by the large fpreading bows of the contiguous forell, and furrounded with a rampart and ditch for protcftion from the affault of neigh- bouring tribes. The adjoining fields were devoted to the fattening of flocks and herds, on the flefh and milk of which the inhabitants fubfiiled, before they were acquainted with the luxury of bread, and whilft they were aveifc from the labours of tillage. It was afterwards occupied by tha Btlgas, who praftifed agriculture, and raifed corn for the purpofe of making both bread and beer, made checfe of their milk, and wore mar.ufaftured cloathing inflead of the raw hides with which their predeceflbrs were covered... When they took poflcnion of it, it was called " Venta Belgaruni." In 516, it was taken and almoft totally demolifhed by Cerdic the Saxon commander ; and after- wards denominated " Wintancealler," or Winchefter, whicli name exprefTes its former importance as a Roman ilation.. Miller's" Hift. of Winchefter, voL i. p. 6. See Win- chester. CAERWYS, a fmall town of Flintlhire, North Wales,, appears to have been a Roman ilation, and alfo a place of judicature, or the eifteddfod of the ancient Britons. The ' town now confifts of four fpacious ftreets, eroding each other at right angles. Several Roman coins, and an infcribed ftone have been found here. In the vicinity of the town are many tumuli ; but Caerwys is principally celebrated for its eifteddfod, where the felTions of bards and niinftrcis were held for many centuries. Judges wera appointed, and bards of acknowledged merit, and minftrels. were admitted as competitors for the prize of fame. The judges were nominated by a commiffion from the provin- cial prince, till after the conqcft of Wales by Edward I.,, when the Englifli monarchs fandlioned this eifteddfod, as an inftitution calculated to foften the manners of a fierce and warlike people. Previous to this, we find that Gruffydd ap Cynon, contenjporary with king John, enafted that no pei'fon ftiould follow the profeflion of a bard, or minftrel, who was not regularly admitted by the eifteddfod, which was alternately held at the three royal refidences, of Ca- erwys, Aberfraw, and Mathravel. In 156S, a commilTioii: was granted by queen Elizabeth, for holding an eifteddfod at this place, when 55 degrees were conferred on the molt eminent candidates; 17 in vocal, and 38 in inftrumental mufic. From this period the eifteddfod was negleded, tilt 179S, when a meeting was aiTcmbled by a public notice from. C JE S from the Gwyncddigion, or Vciulotian Soi:Icly iuHituted in London for tlit encouragement of Weldi littiMfurp. On ill is occiifioii the town hall was prepared for the reception of a niiiT.eroiis and rcfpe£table con.pany. Twenty bards, eighteen vocal ptrfoiiiicrs, and twelve harpers, affembled lure, and each exhibited Ipccimen? of his refpedlive pro- fdfioii and talents. The prcient town confifts of 162 houfes, contains 77,; inhabitants, has a fniall weekly market on Tuefdav, and is 212 nvlea N. W, from London. Evans's "Cambrian Itinerary," Svo. 1S02. CvESALPlNlA, ill BnUny, (named by Plumier in liorour of Cicfalpinus, chief phyhcian to pope Clement Vin.) Linn. Gen. 515, 516. Schreb. 701, 703. Willd. S15. Jnir. 349. Vent. 376, 377. Gxrt. 442, 467. Clafs and order, cLcanclna monogjnia. Nat. ord. Lomcntaceee, Linn. Legntmnojir , Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. pttianth of one leaf with five divifions ; tube fhoit ; fegments oblong, deciduous, the lowed longer than tlie rell, ilightly vaulted. Cor. petals five, inferttd into the tliroat of the calyeine tube, unequal. Stam. filaments ten or five, infertcd into the throat of the calyV, thread-fliaped, woolly or hairy at the bafe, declining ; anthers oblong, de- {iimbent. Pi/?, germ fuperior, hnear-oblong, comprtfTed, attenuated at the bafe ; ilyle thread-lliaped, lligma blunt. Pdric. legume oblong, compreffed, one, two, or many- Celled. Seeds rather egg-(haped, compretfed, flat. ElT. Ch. Calyx with five divifions ; the loweft fegaient longer and (lightly vaulted. Stamens woolly or hairy at the bafe. Petals five. Legume compreffed. Obf. Thefe charaflers are fo drawH up as to include Tournefort's Poinciana which has been admitted as a feparate genus by Linnxus, Jufiieu, Ventenat, Gxrtner, La Marck, Bofc, and Poiret, the fucceffor of I^a Marck in the bota- nical part of Encyc. Methodique ; but as, according to La Marck, Poinciana differs from Cxfalpinia chiefly in the great length of its flamcns, and the deep divifions of its calyx, the two genera have been incorporated by proftflbr Martyn and Willdenow. Sp. I. C. brafdtenfts, brafil-wood or brafiletto, Linn. Sp. Willd. Brown Jam. 227. " Stem and leaves without prickles." Linn. " Without prickles ; leaflets ovate-ob- long ; rachis pubefcent ; calyx downy ; ilamens fliorter than the corolla." Swartz. Obferv. 166. This is faid by Linnxus and Miller to be the tree which furnifhes the brafil-wood, fo well known in commerce and the arts. Eut La Marck, who has entirely omitted this fpecics, alferts that the true brafil-wood is the next fpecies which does not occur in any of the works of Linnjeiis ; and it is worthy of notice that Mr. Miller, in direA oppofition to the fpecific charafter of Linnaeus, defcribcs his C. brafilienfis as armed with recurved prickles, correfponding with the defcriptions of the brafil-wood given by tiie older botanills, all of which are quoted by La Marck as fynonyms of his C. echinata. The fynonym of Brown is however an original authority for the exiftence of a fpecics without prickles ; and on this account we have followed Willdenow in admit- ting the brafilienfis of Linnsus as well as the echinata of La Marck. 2. C. echinata. La Marck, Willden. Pfendo-fan- talum rubrum, five Arbor Brafilia : Bauh. Pin. JpJ. Rai Hift. I7j6. Acacia Gluriufa Spinis armata, cujus Lignum Brafiha dittum Tinftoria ; Pluk. Aim. r^. Ibira Pitanga, Marg. Pifon. " Stem and branches prickly ; leaflets egg-flaaped, obtufe ; Icgumens echinated." A large tree. Branches long and fpreading. Leaves alternate, •twice-winged ; leaflets rcfembling the leaves of box. Flowers in fimple racemes, variegated with yellow and red, fweet- j"cented. Legumes dark-bvown, (ibloiig, compreffed, befet with fmall points. Seeds reddifli brown, fmooth. The c ^ s interior wood is of a red colour, and is covered with f» thick an 'alburnum, that of fo vail a tree only a very fmall part is fit for the ufe of the dyer. It cannot be ufed without alum and tartar, and produces only a fugitive colour, lioiled in b.xr, wine, or vinegar, with the addi- tion of alum, it makes a red ink. By the means of acids it becomes a kind of carmine ; and, with different modes of treatment, is the bafis of various pigments. It takes a good polilh, is very hard and dry, crackles in the fire, and burns with very little fmoke. A native of FernambucLO and other parts of liralil. j. C. hahamerjis. La Marck. (Pfeudo-fantalum crocenm, Sloane, Jam. Hift. 2. p. 184. Caie(b. Car. 2. p. 51. t. 51.) " Branches prickly; leaflets inveifcly egg-lhaped, cmarginate ; flowers white." A flirub or fmall tree. Branches and common petioles armed with fiiort, fcattered pnckles, which are turned upwards. Leaves twice-winged ; leaflets fmooth on both fides ; pale beneath, and of a delicate green above ; having, at their bafe, and at the bafe of each pinnule, from two to four Imall, ftraight prickles. Flowers whitifli, in ftraight racemes. Legumes oblong, pointed, pedunclcd, comprefl'ed. Seeds fmall, roundifli. La Marck obferves. that on account of tlie prickly branches, it cannot be re- ferred to the brafilienfis of Linnxut;, under which that a\i- thor quotes the fynonyms of Sloane and Cattlby, A na- tive ot Baharua 2w\ Jamaica, whence it is brought to Eu- rope for the ufe of the dyer. Large quantities of it were formerly cut down in fome of the Bahama iflands, but it ii now nearly extirpated. 4. C. veftcaria, Linn. (Colutaa Vera-crucio, Pluk. tab. 16-;. Senna fpuria fabinx odore, Sloan. Jam. Hill. 2. p. 50. t. 181. f. 2, 3. Rai. dend. iii. No. iS.) " Stem prickly; leaves inverfely egg-fliaped ; racemes fpiked, flowers yellow. La Marck. " Leaves in- verfely heart-fliaped, roundifli." Linn. A tree. Stem about fifteen feet high, nearly the thicknefs of a man's thigh, rather crooked, covered with an even, whitifli bark, Branches crooked, prickly. Leaves alternate, twice-winged ; leaflets obtufe, a httle emarginate, thofe at the fummit of the wing a little larger than the refl; ; with a few hooked prickles at the bafe of each pair of leaflets, and each pair of wings. Flowers yellow in feveral diftinft fpikes. Legumes oval, nearly obtufe, blackifti, furrowed. Seeds two or three. La Marck. Legume without valves, nearly filled with a fpungy fubfl.ance ; two celled, with a fingle feed in each cell. Gasrtner, 442. tab. 144. Obf. ProfeiTor Martyn and Willdenow quote Poinciana bijuga of Linnaeus, as a fyno- nym of this fpecies, and fuppofe that it has inadvertently- been defcribed twice, under different names, and placed in diftinft genera. Poiret, who retains the genus Poinciana, though, as he himfelf acknowledges, without fufficient rea- fon, takes no notice of bijuga, and therefore feems to be of the fame opinion ; but in that cafe he ought to have no- ticed the omifllon, as his predeceflor La Marck, when he wrote the article Ctefalpinia vcficaria, had certainly no idea that the Poinciana bijuga is the fame plant. Martyn and Willdenow prefer the trivial name bijuga, and give the fol- lowing fpecific character, " Prickly ; leaves doubly pin- nate with two pairs of obcordate leaflets ; thev and the ca- lyxes fmooth ; ftamens equalling the corolla." A native of the Well Indies. 5. C. crijta. Linn. Sp. PI. C. poly, phylla aculeis horrida, Plum. gen. 26. t. 68. " Prickly ; leaflets oval ; racemes fimple ; calyx fmooth ; petals egg- fliaped, fliorter than the calyx ; ftamens longer than the calyx." A fmall tree, or rather flirub, about four feet high. BarL rather thick, afh-rolound without, red with- in. Wood folid, heavy, eafily cleft, of a red colour, with a white alburnum. Trunk divided near its fu.xmit into feveral branches, nearly the fi7e of a n:an's arm ; and armed 4. S a with" C iE S with nnnr.eroiiE, fcattertil, fhort, hooked, ftrong, blackifli prickles, each fituatcJ on a tubercle. Leaves alternate ; fcafltts fmoo-.h, of 3 pleafant green colour. Flciuers pale preen or whitilh, with only five llamens, in uprif^hv ra- cemes foi-ming a pyramid. La M.irck, from Plumier's MSS. A native of tlie Antille?, where it is called bralil- Ictto, from tlie rcfemblance of its wood to that of brafil. 6. €./)■>/>""• Linn. Sp. PI. Roxb. Corom. I. p. 17. t. 16. GirtVtab. 144. f. I. La Marck lllull. PI. ,;S5. fig- i- (Ligno brafiliaiio fimile, Bauli. Pin. 393. Rai, Hiit. 1737. Lignum Sappan, Ruinph. Amb. 4. p. 56. t. 21. Tliam pangam, Rlieed. Mai. 6. p.' .3- t. 3.) " Prickly ; leaflets oblong, not equilateral, obtufe, a little emarginate." A fniall tree. TrimL from ten to fifteen feet high. Leaves large, twice-winged ; pinnules from twelve to fifteen ; leaf- lets numerous, crowded, fmooth, finely Ihiated, obliquely trun'-ate at the bafe. Fhnucrs yellow, fweet-fcentrd, in racemes. Legume fomewhat woody, tliick, (hort, fomewhat rhomboidal, 'beaked, and one-celled, two-valved. Seeds about four, large, ovate-oblong, fmooth. A native of the -Ealt Indies, Siam, the MoUucca Iflands, and Japan. Its wood is ufed for cabinet work ; and, being very durable in fea water, is excellent for trenails in fhip-bnilding : when 1x)iled in water, it yields a blackilh colour, which, with the addition of alum, becomes red, and is much ufed for dyeing woollens and cottons of a beautiful red colour. 6. C. mimy/ioic/es, Wiild. La Marck. P!. ,535. f. 2. (Kal-tod- da-waddi, Rheed. Mai. ,6. p. I';, t. 8. ftlimofa malabarica, Rai. Hid. 1740.) " Stem, petioles, and peduncles prickly; leaflets, oblong, obtufe, fmall ; legumes woolly." A flirub about four feet high. Leaves twice-winged, refembling thofe of feveral fpecies of acacia, fenfitivc, with two or three large prickles at the bafe of each wing. Flowers large, yellow, in a long raceme ; petals unequal, rather longer than the ftamens. Legumes containing one or two feeds. A native of Malabar, communicated to La Marck by Son- nerat. 7. C. pulcherrlma, Barbadocs flower fence, or Spanifh carnation, Willd. Martyn. (Poinciana pulcherri- ma, Linn. Sp. PI. Reich. La Marck PI. 23 i- Bofc. Nouv. Ditl. PI. M. 26. Poiret Encyc. Meth. v. 5. p. 447. Brown Jam. p. 225. Jacq. Americ. 122. Tourn. Inih 619. t. 391. Crifta pavonis, Breyn. Prod. 2. p. 37. Cent. 61. t. 22. Rai. Hift. p. 991. Erythroxylon ind. Herm. Prod. 333. Senna fpuria flore ex luteo Si. rubro, Sloane Jam. 2. p. 49. Acacia orientalis, Plukn. Al. 5. Tfietti mandaru, Rheed. Mai. 6. I. t. I.) " Prickly ; leaflets oblong-oval, emarginate, fmooth ; calyx fmooth ; corymbs fimple ; petals fringed ; llannns very long." A Ihrub about twelve feet high, with a grey, fmooth bark. Branches fpreading, armed at each knot with two fhort, ftrong, crooked fpines. Leaves alternate, twice winged ; leaflets from five to ten pairs, a little narrowed at the bafe, fmaller on the upper leaves ; emitting, when bruifed, a llrong odour like favin ; with one gland at the bafe, and another on the upper pait of the common petiole, and two fmall fliarp joints a little above the bafe of the partial pe- tiole. Flowers in a terminal, loofe corymb, fometimes ap- proaching to an umbel ; on fimple, fmooth peduncles, two or three inches long ; leaves of the calyx egg-fliaped, con- cave, deciduous ; petals beautii'ully variegated with red and yellow ; ftamens at leaf! three times as long as the petals. Legume oblong, comprefied, coriaceous, many-celled, two- ▼alved ; partitions rather thick, compofed of rigid briftles, thickly matted together. Seeds one in each cell, ovate- quadrangular, thick, flat on both fides, fmooth, a little polilhed, of a chefnut colour. A native of the Eaft. and "Weft Indies. In Barbadocs it is planted in hedges, and nakc» a bcautifiil fence. Id Jamaica its leaves are ufed as a purgative, infteaJ of fenna. All its parts are thought to be powerful cmmenagogues, and are frequently ufed fur that pnr;-jfc by the negroes. Its wood is faid to afford a. good dye. 8. C. elata, Willd. (Poinciana elata, Liiin« Sp. PI. Fotflcal Flor. -Sl.iypt. ^6.) " Unarmed ; leaflet* linear, obtufe with a point; corymbs compound; calyxes coriaceous, downy ; petals fringed : ftamens very long." A fl.rub or fmali tree. Branches pubefcent. Leaves alter- nate, twice-winged ; leaflets in about twenty pairs, minute^ al.noll fmooth. Flowers in terminal corymbs, on liort, ftiff"» thick, alternate peduncles ; leaves of the calyx united at their bafe, lanceolate, pubefcent, a little reflexed. Legume ainioft fmooth, often deprelfed between the feeds, (harp at each end.. A native of the Eall Indies. 9. C. coriaria, Willd. (Poin- ciana coriaria, Jacq. i\mer. 123. t. 175. f. 136. Siliqua arboris Guatapana:, Breyn. Cent. p. 58. f . 5 ) " Unarmed ; leaflets linear, obtufe; racemes panicled ; calyxes fm oth ; ftamens twice as long as the corolla." A Ihrub from twelve to fifteen feet high, much branched, with dark-culoured fpotted bark. Leaves alternate, twice-winged ; leaflets fmall, - fmooth, about three lines long. Flowers fmall, yellow, in a terminal, dole, fpikelike raceme, on fhort, fimple, pedun- cles, with little fmell. Legumes elongated, obtufe, ftiort, a.- little bent, fpongy. A native of Curacoa and Cartha-jena ; in fait marflies. The Spaniards and natives ufe the ripe pods for tanning leather, and cal! them libidibi. Propagation and Culture. As all the fpecies are natives of warm chmates, they are cultivated in Europe only as orna- mental plants ; and though none of them have hitherto flowered in our ftoves, the elegance of their foliage, and the Angularity of their habit, give them a dilbnguifhed place in coUeftions of exotic plants. They can be raifed only from feeds fent in the pod from their native country, and after- wards fteeped in water till they are fwollen, and their enve- lope a little- foftened ; but if kept dry, will preferve their vegetative power feveral years. The feeds, when taken from the water, muft be fown in pots filled with a mixture of common mould and bog-carlh, in nearly equal proportions, and plunged into a hot bed of tanner's baik, kept at a moderate warm.th. The plants, if iown at the end of March or beginning of April, will appear in the courfe of May or June, and when they are three or four inches high, ftiould be tranfplanled fingly into feparate pots, with a larger proportion ot good mould. In autumn they muft be removed from the hot-bed into the ftove, and durmg the firll winter muft be carefully preferved from cold, humidity, and infetts, and furniflied with frelh air in the day-time, when the weather is favourable. They fucceed better in a light, than a ftrong argillaceous earth. C.CSALPINI.4, Fl. Zeyl. 157. See Guillandina Bonduc. CjESALPINOIDES. See Gleditschia Triacanthos. CiESALPINUS, Andrew, in Biography, born at Arczzo in Tufcsny, in the early part of the i6th century, was educated under Luke Ghines, direftor of the publicr garden at Pifa, whence he appears to have taken his tafte for botany, which he cultivated with affiduity and fuccefs. But he became ftill more eminent for his fliill in anatomy and medicine, and for his intimate acquaintance with the works of Ariftotle, v.'hofe philofophy he explained and de- fended, in his " Queftionnm Peripateticarum Libri Qiiin- que," againft the doftrines of Galen, then generally fol- lowed. This was publifhed at Venice in 1571, 4to. After taking his degree of doftor, he was made profeftbr in medi- cine and anatomy in the univerlity at Pifa, and continued ia that office feveral years, until invited to Rome, and made firft phyfician and archiater to pope Clement VIII. , He died at Rome, aged 84 years, in 1603. His works are numerous, and give eq^ual proofs of genius and learning. "De C ^ S A R. « De Plaiitis I.ibri xvi," Florent. i.'Sj, 4to. He com- pares ttie fteds of plants to the ef^e;s of animals ; the feed ferviiig, he faj's, to defend and nourifh the germ until it has talccn root in the eavth. He alio formed a fyllem of ar- ranijement, dividing the plants into clafTes, from the fruftili- cat-'on ; but as there are no ei;gravings, or delineations of the plarits, and he only gave the trivial n?mes, the work is of little value at this time. He left a hortiis ficcus of 760 plants, which is fnid to be now in being. His fpeculations in anatomy are ftill more ingenious. He dcfcribes very clearly the circulation of the blood through the heart, and was acquainted with the ufes of the valves. Douglas think.;* him entitled to equal praife with Harvey, who only com- pleted what he had nearly achieved. He clearly, Douglas fays, defcribta the contratlinn and dilatation of the heart, which is ihewn from the following paffage from his fourth book, " OueiUonum Ptripateticaruni." " V'afornm in cor de- fnientium quiidam intromittunt contentam in ipfis fubilan- tiam, ut vena cava in dextro ventriculo, et arteiia venalis in finiflro ; qusdam educunt, ut arteria aorta in fuiillro ventri- culo, et vena arteiialis in dextro ; omnibus autem membra- nulae funt appolitx et officio delegate ut olcnla intromitten- tium non cducant et educentium non intromittant. contingit corde contrahente, feu arterias dilatari, et dilatente conilruigi ; dum enim dila'atur cor, claudi vult orilicia educeiitium, ut ex corde non influat tunc fubflatitia in arterias, contrahente autem fe, iufluere dehifccntlbus mtmbranis." The pulfe, he thinks, depends on an effervefcence of the blood in the heart. His works on the praAice of medicine have alfo their portion of merit. " Qj.ieftionum Mcdicarum Libri ii.;" " De Facultatibus M;dicamentorum Libri duo," Venct. 1593, 4to. Bleeding can only be advantageoufly ufed in the beginning of fever. In putrid fever the cure is to com- mence with clearing the flomach and bowels. " Speculum Artis Medicx HippocraticK, e.xliibens dignofcendos curan- dofque morbos, in quo multa vifuntur, qiix a prajclariflimis niedicis intaifla relida erant," Lion. 1601-2-3, 3 ^ol. Svo. treating of the Materia Medica, fevers, lues venerea, Sec. in which difeafe he very much extols the ufe of guiacirm. Douglas. Bib. Anat. Specimen. Haller. Bib. Bot. Med. et Anat. CjESAR, in Roman yintiqu'ity, was a long time ufed for the heir intended, or prefumptive, of the empire ; as king of the Romans is now ufed for that of the German empire. The Csfars were a kind of adjunfts or alTociates of the empire, parUc'ipes Impern. They wore the imperial mantle, purple, and diadem, and walked with other marks of the Sovereign dignity : they were created, hke the emperors, by putting on the purple robe. The dignity of Caefar remained the fecond of the em- pire, till Alexius Commenus made Nicephorus Meliffcnus Csfur by contraft, and it being neceffary to confer fome higher dignity on his own brother Ifaacius, he created him Seballocrator, with the precedency over Meliffenus, ordering that in all acclamations, 8:c. Ifaacius Sebaftocrator fhould be named the fecond, and Meliffcnus Cafar the third. The title took its rife from the cognomen, or furname of the lirft emperor, C. Julius Csefar, which, by a decree of the fenate, all the fuccecding emperors were to bear. Under his fuccelfor, the appellation Augullus being appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to tint prince, the title Csfar was given to the fecond perfon in the empire, though it lliil continued alfo to be given to the firft, and hence the difference between Cxfar ufed fimply, and Caefar with the addition of Imperator Augullus. Athors are divided as to tJie origin of the word Csfar, the cognomen of the Gens Julia. The more common opinion is, that the word Ciefar comes <} cxfo malris tilcro ; btcaufe liis mother's womb was cut open to give him birth. If this opinion be true, (lie mufl have furvivcd the opera- tion ; for we are told by Tacitus (Dialog, de Oral. 28.) that fhc took care of his education, and by Suetonius (in Cxi. c 26.), that (lie died when her fon was in the war againll the Gauls. It is alfo known that (he was alive when he was married to Ponapeia. It has been alleged, however, that the words of Pliny (H. N. lib. vii. c. 9.), upon which this opinion is founded, have been erroncoufly applied to Cxfar the Didator ; wheteas he meant only to cxprefs, that the firll perfon who was furnamed Csfar had derived his name from this cireumllance. Some pretend that the lauicl crown on medals is never given to Citlars, but only to Auguili ; which is overthrown by a medallion of Maximus : not to mention another medal of the lower empire, w herein Crifpus Ca:l'ar is crowned with laurel. See August. Card. Norrisobicrves,that the years of the Crefars were fre- quently marked on their mrdals ; of which we have inffancta on the medals of Conftantine, Chlorns, and divers others, whole years are expreffed on their coins, though they were never more than Casfars. C/ESAR, Caius Julius, in Biography, the diftator of Rome and founder of its imperial conllitntion, was a de- fceudant of the Julian family, which boafted its derivation from Venus by jEneas, the fon of Anchifes, to whom fa- bulous hillory afcribes the origin of the Roman ftate. See iENEAS. From the loth year of the fecond Punic war, A. U. C. 546, till the time of Caius Julius Cxfar, the em- peror's father, fome of the family of the Ccefars enjoyed public offices in the commonwealth. The father of Csefar died luddcnly in early life, after having occupied the ftation of pijetor : his mother's name was Aurelia ; and his aunt. Julia was the wife of the celebrated Caius Marius. He was born at Rome, on the 12th day of the month Quintilis, af- terwards called July, A.U.C. 654, B.C. 100; and though he loll his father in his 1 6th year, his connexions were fuch as to favour his introduftion into life in a manner fuitable to his talents. In his youth he was betrothed to Coffutia, a rich heirefs ; but in his 17th year he broke this engagement, and married Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cornelius Cinna j and at this time he was invefted with the dignity oi Jlamen e/ia/is. When Sylla fucceeded in overthrowing the Mariai» party, to which Cxfar owed his advancement, he was urged' by this powerful didator to divorce the daughter of his ene- my ; but Csfar, refilling the injunttion, was deprived of the prieftly office, as well as of his own patrimony and his wife's portion, and fubjefted to a decree of profcriptiou. This decree, however, was afterwards reverfed, by the in- terceffion of the Veftal virgins and fome diftinguifhed pcrfons of his own family ; although in granting their petition Sylla admonidied them, that they would repent of their interfer- ence, as he forefaw in Casfar many Mariufes. Cxfar, alarmed at his jealoufy, retired from Rome, and after a (hort interval withdrew to the court of Nicomedes, king of Bithy- nia, where his conduft gaveoccafion to fome fufpicions of an infamous nature. At the fiege of Mitylene, in which he was employed by Thernnus, who was at this time prxtor of Afia, he ditlinguifhed himfelf by his military valour, and obtained from his general the honourable recompence of a civic crown. Having ferved for a (hort time in Cilicia, un- der Servilius Ifauricus, the death of Sylla made way for his . return to Rome ; where, declining to concur in the ambi- tious defigns of Lepidus, he devoted himfelf to the ftudy and praftice of eloq^uence. The mal-adrainillrationof Dola.. bellay c jr. F, A K. Iirfle, wlioV.aJ been prxtor of Macedon, and who find been honoured with the confulatc and a triumph, afforded him an opportunity of jjaining diftinguilhed reputation anicnjj the bell orators of his age, although the defence of llortciifius and Cotta, the two mod ccK'brated pleaders of Rome, pre- vented his fiicccfs. As at this time he dots not feem to liave formed, or at leall to Inve matured, thofe ambitions defijjns whicli led him to prefer the career of war ar.d poli- tics to that of an orator, he cnib.irked for Rhodes, witli a view of gaining improvement in the art of eloquence from the iiillruclious of Apollonius ?.IoIon, one of the mod emi- nent rhetoricians of that period. In his pafTdge thither, he was captured by fome pirates who infclled thofc feas ; and during his confinement he cxliibiled thofe peculiar and extra- ordinary talents, which were afterwards exemplified in the progrefs of his life. His captors demanded 20 talents for his ranfom, hut he informed them that they were not duly apprized of tht importance < f tlieir prifoner, and engap;ed to pay them f^o ; and whilll liis domellics were deputed to raifc the rtipu!ated fum in the neii;hbouring cities, he re- mained in cullody, accompanied onlv by one friend and two attendants, and amufed hlnifilf with reciting to his barbarous auditors, whom he treated with contempt, fome orations and verfes which he compofcd for the occafion ; and often, between jeft and earnctl, threat; ned them with future tokens of his difplcafure, if thty dillurbed his repofc. Haviig been furnilhed with the promifed ranfom by the inhabitants of Miletus, he obtained his liberty, and in that city fitted out fome (hips, with which he puifued and captured the pirates ; and, having conveyed them to Pergamus, he there infiicicd upon them the pnnifliment of crucifixion, with which he had threatened them. Pie then proceeded to Rhodes, and pur- fued his (Indies. Dniiiig his refidence in this city, he took occafion to pafs over to the continent, and though he had no commifiion, to raife troops, and with this force to check the progrefs of Mithridates, who was making depredations on the provinces in alliance with the Romans, and to pre- ferve thofe cities, which were ready to revolt, Ready in their allegiance. At this time he was only 24 years of age, and yet condufted this expedition with a prudence and bravery which would have done honour to the veterans in military fervice. On his return to Rome, the chief objeft of his policy was to ingratiate himfclf with the people, and thus to fecure his advancement to thofc public offices, which would ferve him in the accompli(hment of the purpofes of his am- bition. Acordingly he concurred with Cicero in promoting the Manilian law, and in thus fccuring the favour of Pom- pey. In the feveral offices of tribune, qnxftor, and sdile, be contrived by his general conduft, and by his unbounded liberality, to attach to hinifelf the affeif^ions of the people. He teftiticd his rcfpcdl in a variety of inilances to the Ma- rian party, although by fo doing he incurred the cenfure of the ariftocracy, who charged him with meditating defign^ againft the government. He alfo obtained the confiilate for 1.. Julius Cxfar, one of his own family, who, together with his colleague C. Marcus Figulus, under Casfar's dircflion and influence, condemned many of the partifans of Svlla either to banifliment or to death. Catiline, however, was fpared ; and Csefar is even fufpefted to have concurred in his confpiracy. When this confpiracy was fupprelTed, and the fenate deliberated on the puni{hment to be inflifted on thofe that were concerned in it, he delivered an artful fpeech in pi-aife of clemency, and his oration, which is dill extant, and whxh, as a compofition, has been much admired, made an impre(rion on the a(rembly, which the fevere eloquence of Cato was hardly fnfficient to counteraft. Ciefar gave a fiBgle vote againft the death of the confpirators ; and his in- tcr.feivnce in their favour excited fiich indignation that he cfcaped with his life by the feafoiiable interpolition of Ci- cero, wliofe tedimony contributed to his judification, not- wilhlianding the charges alleged againd him of his coiiceru in the plot. During the progrefs of this conteft, Ciefar in- dulged ill the Hcentious gratifications of intemperance and gillaiitry ; and Servilia, the fider of Cato, avowed her paf- fion?te attachment to him, and he was fuppofcd to be tlie real father of her fon Marcui Brutus. See Brutus. The fuccefs of C;efar, in his competition for the office of chief pontiff, againd two of t!ie chief perfons of the republic, (erved to augment the jraloufy enteitaii:ed of him by the Scnatorian party. Notwithdanding the licentioufnefs of his own life, his pride would not allow him to lubmit to the fuf- picion of domeftic dilhonour ; and therefore, upon the dif- covery of an intrigue between his wife Pompeia, whom he had married after the death of Cornelia, and P. Clodius, (fee Bona Dea), he indantly procured a divorce, though he did not fucceed fo far as to fnbdantiate the charge ; al- leging in vindication of his conduA, " Caefar's wife mud not be even fufpcfted." At this time he was ferving the office of proetor, upon the expiration of which he prepared for aduming the government of Farther Spain, comprehend- ing Lufitaiiia and Bcetica, which fell to his lot : but his creditors would have prevented his lucceediiig to his new province, if Craffus had not fatistied their demands. In his journey, he paded tlirough a milerable village on the Alps ; and when one of his companions jocularly inquired, " whether there could be any contentions for po\\erand dig- nity in fuch a place ?" Cxfar, in token of his ruling paffion, replied, " I proted that I had rather be the fird man hete, than the feeond in Rome." His rapacious difpofition, like that of other Roman governors, was manifeded on fome oc- cafions no Itfs fignally than his ambition. He confidered his government as affording the oppoitunity and means of enriching himfelf : and, therefore, availing himfelf of pre- texts for difputes, he marched into provinces unfubdued by the Roman arms, for the purpofe of plunder ; and brought back to Rome, in the following year, a fura fufficient for difcharging his debts, though they are faid to have amounted to i,6oo,oool. derling. Having palfed through the fubordinate offices of the date, the next objeft of his ambition was the confulatc. In order to the attainment of this dignity, it was nectlTary for him to conneft himfelf with one of the two parties that divided the power of the date, that of Pompey or that of CralTus. In this dilemma, he determined on reconciling the two rivals ; and accordingly he propofed a triumvirate, in which the whole power of the liate (hould be lodged, and this was the fird triumvirate edabliilied at Rom;. See Triumvirate. By this artful expedient Ca:lar by raeansof the intered of Pompey and CralTus, fecured his flection to the confuldiip. A. U.C. 694. B. C. 60. Cato alone forefaw the confequences of this alliance, and oppofed the elec'irn; ex- claiming, that Rome had lod her liberty ; but his opinio - was difregarded till it was too late to follow his prudent coui ^el. The only advantage which he and his party obtained was Ire eleftion of Bibulus as Csfar's colleague ; and for this pur- pofe they were under a ncceffity of counterafting Caefar's intered in favour of another candidate, by outbidding him in the piirchafe of votes. As foou as Csefar entered upon his office, he confirmed all the a£ls of Pompey, and pro- ceeded to ufe all his endeavours for conciliating the af- feAions of the people. With this view he propofed an Agra- i^ian law for the divifion of certain lands in Campania amoncr Inch of the poor citizens as had three or more children . b'jt the fenators, though they approved the ad, withheld i their I C iE S A R. thtir affent, till at length it was pafled by tlie people, and the fenatora vveit conlhaiiied to fanition it by ttieir alTcnt ; infomucli tliat it was jocoftrly faid, that, iiillead of dating any traiifaftion of this year in the uf'jal mode, dnrii g the confiddiip of Csfar and Bibuliis, it would be more proper to infert " the confiillhip of Cxfar and Jnlius." Tliis vic- tory over the fenate and Bibulus made Cxfar abfoiute in Rome ; and having fecured both the people and knights, he governed with an uncontro\ilablc fway. As Cicero exclaimed againll the trinmvirate, and thus provoked the vtfentment of this body, they refolved upon his ruin, and with this view they promoted Clodius to the tribunefliip, which proved eventually the caufe of his ba- nifhment. The marriage of Casfar's daughter Julia witii Fompey, fcrved to ftrengthcn the connexion between thefe two great men ; and by marrying Calpurnia, daughter of Li. Calpurnius Pifo, the conful of the preceding year, he attached him to his caufe. He alfo contrived by his influence on the fenate and peo- ple, together with the alTillance of Pompey and Craii'u?, to procure the government of Tranfalpine and Cifalpine Gaul, contrary to all law, for five years, with the command of four legions. Having thus eftablilhed his intereft at Rome, Cajfar found it neceffary, in the year B. C. 58, to haften to Gaul, the province which was the fcene of thofe mihtary exploits, by which he acquired a degree of reputation and influence, that ferved in the progrefs of his career to fubjugate his country. The Helvetians, having abandoned their coun- try, and burnt their towns and houfes, were preparing to enter Gaul by way of Geneva. Caefar, therefore, by forced marches, reached the banks of the Rhone in eight days, and having refufed the Helvetians the hberty they folicited of pafling through the country of the Allobroges, prepared, by procuring frefh fupplies of troops from Italy, to defend himfelf againft the effefts of their refentnient. According- ly, whilll they were embaralTed in pafiing the Arar, (now Saone), he fell upon them and totally defeated them. Upon their again rallying near Bibradle, the capital of the jEdui, and purfuing him in his retreat, a bloody battle enfued, which terminated, notwithftanding the valour and obfti- nacy of the Helvetians, in their total overthrow ; fo that they were obliged, after the lofs of their baggage and many prifoners, to fupplicate his clemency ; and to acquiefce in the obligation which he impoftd upon them, of laying down their arms, giving hollages, and returning to their own country. This vidlory was fo complete, tiiat Cafar received congratulations from all parts of the country, and the jEdui, in particular, implored his proteftion againll Arioviftus, king of the Germans, whom he drove back from the frontiers of Gaul to his own territories. Having fucceeded in this entcrprife, he put his troops into winter- quarters, and croffing the Alps, returned into Cifalpine Gaul, in order to concert meafures for the operations of the next year. In the mean while all the nations of Bel- gium confederated againll the Roman republic, and furnilh- ed ample employment for his military exertions in the courfo of the fecond year of his government. Tlie fame of his exploits in diffolving tlieir confederacy, and fubduing them feparately, extended beyond the Rhine, and induced feve- ral remote nations to fend ambaffadors to him, with offers of fubmilfion. Having difpatched his troops into winter- quarters, he repafled the Alps, and fpenl the winter in In- fubria. By thefe conquells, Caefar eflaced the remembrance of Pompey's viftorics in the Eaft, and by the prodigious fums, which he acquired in Gaul, chiefly by plundering the temples gf their treafures; he incrcaftd the number of his friends in Icaly. The fignal fncceffes of this bloody campaign were honoured at Rome with a fupplical'ro, or re- ligious thankfgiving of the unprecedented interval of fi fteen days; and Poinpuy bcc.:me jealous of a rrnownth.tfi.em- ed likely to eclipfe liis own. In the third year ot liis ad- minillraiion in Gaul, Cxfar, whilll he was in Ill;rirum, a part of his province, received information that the W-jieti, tlie ancient inhabitants of Vagnes, in Brilaimy, together with fome other neighbouring nations, were UN.king prepa- rations for war; upon which he fittid cut a fleet, tntrulted the command of it to Brutus, who engaged tiiat of the ene- my, and gained a complete viiilory. The Ventti fubmrtted ; but Ctcfar put their chief men to death, and fold the rcll for flavcs. Craffus alfo, his lieutenant, reduced the whole of Aquitaine. After fome other fuccefsful expeditions, Csefar rcpaflfed the Alps, according to liis iifual cullom, and refided for fomemontiis in Cilalpine Gaul, whence he dirt tied the oper- ations of his party at Rome, and excited Clodius to commit atrocious afts of violence. He likewife concurred with Pompey and Craflfus, who afpircd to the confulate, and ordered) his agents to fi)are no expence in purchafing the fuffrages of the tribes, fo that tl>'-fe two chiefs were una- nimoufly chofcn. In the year B. C. 55, Ca'far renewed his military expioits in Gaul ; and having driven back fome ' German tribes, which had eroded the Rhine with a defign of fettling in Belgium ; and having paffed the Rhine, laid wallc the country of the Sicambri, and fpread a general alarm through the parts adjacent, he returned into Gaul, refolving to pafs over into Britain, and to punifli its inha- bitants for furnifhing the Gauls with continual fupphes againil the Roman.s. Accordingly he fitted out a fleet, crofTed the channel, and difperfed the natives wh.o op- pofed his landing. This expedition, however, though the fenate decreed him a fupphcation of twenty days in honour of it, was merely preparatory to that of the following year, in which he collctted 800 vcfTeis, and embarked with 5 le- gions, and 2000 horfe, which landed without oppohtion on the Kentifli coall, at the place of his former defcent. His progrels was for fome time interrupted by a Itorm which damaged his fleet, and required his drawing his fortes to- wards the fea-coail. But having repaired his (hattered fhips, and properly fecnred tliem, he put his troops again in motion, and advanced, notwithftanding the oppofition with which he had to encounter, as far as Cowey, near Walton, where he crofled ..the Tliames, although the enemy occu- pied the oppofite bank, and had driven fliarp flakes in the only part of the river that was fordable. The Britons fled, in conilernation ; and Caflivelaunus, finding all his eflTortS- of refinance ineffeftual, fubmitted to Cxfar, who conde- fcended to give him peace ; after having exafted a great number of hollages, and inipofcd a certain tribute to be an- nually paid to the Roman people. Having thus fettled the affairs of Britain, he marched back to the fea-fide, where he embarked his troops and hollages, and arrived in fafety. at the continent. On his return to Gaul, he found the country grievoufly diftrcfl'td by a famine, whicli obliged' him to difperfe his troops into different quarters for their more commodious fubfillence. The natives took tliis oc- cafion of attacking them in their winter flations ; but Cx-. far by his Angular aftivity quelled the infurre£lion, and' after the moll difficult and glorious campaign of any he had: made in Gaul, parted the winter in this country. The death of Julia during Cxfar's expedition into Britairj diffolved the alliance that had fubfilled between him and Pompey, and hallened the revolution which was now ap- proaching. Pompey, however, was not thoroughly ap-- priledi C iE S A R. prifcJ of Csrfai's dt^gns, and ilifpritchcd to iiim two le- gions in order to rccrnit llie lotTts which he had fullaihcd. The two next campaigns in Gaul fiiraill);:d Cxfar with ki- celTant employment, and by c.impltting tlie work which he had already begun, he reduced the whole country to the (late of a Roman province, and cxtinguiOied every fpark of its ind-pendence. The war in Gaul lalled till the year B. C. 51 ; and it lias been computed that, during his fevcral campaigns there, Cwfar took 800 cities or towns, fubdued joo nations, and detlroycd by the fword a million of men ; " titles fuflicient to place him high on the lill of conquerors !" The crifis of the Roman Hate was now fpeedily approaching. The power of Pompey was fupreme in the Vcnate, and as CratTus was dead, and his interell was altogether detached from that of Cxlar, he adopted various meafures for morlitying his rival. The enemies of Cilar were advanced to the chief offices of the ftate ; the legions that had been fent to him were withdrawn ; and his rtqueft of continuing longer in his government was rejefted. Cx'far, however, poffcffcd the affedtions of the people, and to him the bell troops of the ftate were zealoudy attached. With 8 moderation, therefore, real or affefttd, from which no danger could enfue, he propoRd to difband his army, if Pompey adopted the fame mcafure. F)nt PompLy, being lefs feared by the conilitutinnal party than Casfar, was fup- ported by it in his refufal to acquicfce in any terms of accommodation. The former was continued in his go- vernment of Spain, whilll the like indulgence was refuftd to the latter, who, having marched with a fmgle legion acrofs the Alps to Ravenna, in order to wait the event, was informed that the fenate had ilTued a decree announcing him an enemy of the repv.blic if he did not give up his com- mand within a limited time. Three tribunes in Cosfar's interell, who had proteiled againll this decree, were driven with violence out of the fenate-houfe ; and had fled to Caefar's camp in the difguife of /laves, where their prefence inflamed the minds of the foldicrs. In the mean time the fatal decree was iffued at Rome, which required the confuls, the pro-conful Pompey, and the confular magiftrates, to .provide for the public fafety : which, in effctt, was a de- claration of war. It was in the year B. C. 50 that thefe im- portant events took place, and that the civil war commenced. Two powerful parties were now taking up arms ; both pre- tended to have nothing in view but the defence of their common laws and hberty ; whilft their chiefs aimed only at eftablilhing their own power on the ruins of that liberty ■which they aifefted to defend. Pompey's party had on their fidethe forms of the conftitution ; he was acknowledged as the general of the common-wealth, and the whole fenate, with the confuls, followed his cnfigns. On the other hand, Cajfar fecmed to have the more equitable caufe, and the people, with their tribunes, took part with him. The poet Lucan, who was of Pornpey's party, without abfo- lutely deciding the queilion between thofe two rivals, feems to give the advantage to Cxfar, when he fays, that Cxfar, could not bear a fuperior, nor Pompey an equal. " Nee quenquamjam ferre potell, Caefarve priorem, Pompeiufve parem." Phavf. I. 125. Caefar, as foon as he received the hoftile decree, confiding in the attachment of his foldicrs, refolved to begin the war. Accordingly he marched to the Rubicon, a fmall ftream that feparated Cifalpine Gaul from Italy. On the banks of this river h? for fome time paufed and deliberated ; but at Imgth, crying out " the die is call," threw him- fclf int 1 the dream. Having pafled this river, he became the avowed foe of his country ; and therefore " this palfiige of the Rubicon" has been proverbially uftd to fignify a defperate decifion. Having feized the neighbouring town of Ariminum, he ordered his main army in Gaul to haftcn to him, and augmented his forces by new recruits in Cifalpine Gaul. In his march he took pulfeilion of Corfuiium, in which many fenators had fought an afylum, and whilil he triumphed in his conqueft, he manifefted his moderation by granting them their lives and liberty. By this well-timed acl of clemency he ferved his caufe alnioll as much as by the power of his arms, Rome was in the utr.ioU confterna- tion. The people and all the fenators were alarmed ; and de- termined, as they had no fufficient force with which to defend themfelves, to retire to Capua. After the reduftion of Corfuiium, Pompey withdrew from Capua to Brundu- fium, whither he was followed by Cxfar. From thence he withdrew, whilll his purfuer was invcHing the place and fliutting it up by a mole, to Dyrrachiuni: and by his flight furrendered the whole of Italy to his rival. Whilll the lieutenants of Ciefar were deputed to take polTcflion of Sicily and Sardinia, Ca:far himfelf advanced to Rome. On his appr attempt, the temerity of which has incurred cenfure. Dif- guifed like a flave he embarked on board a iiflierman's bark for the purpofe of crofling over into Italy ; the veffel, however, after ftruggling with contrary winds, was obliged to return, notwithftanding the earnellnefs with which Cxfar urged the crew to rifqne the dangers of the voyage. It was on this occafion that he is faid to have difcovered himfelf to the terrified mafter, and to bid him difmifs his fears, as " he carried Caefar and his fortune." This exploit is related by Plutarch, and poetically defcribed by Lucan ; but Cxfar himfelf takes no notice of it in his Commentaries. Having received the expefled fuccours of Antony, he followed Pompey to Dyrrachium, and determined to invefl 1 the town, together with Pompey's camp. In this fiege his I troops encountered a variety of hardfhips, which, however, their attachment to their leader induced them to endure with heroic patience. Pompey, reduced to the want of forage, and difdaining to be cooped up by his enemy in fuch a nook of land, determined to break through the barrier, and at length fucceeded. Cxfar, mortified by his efcape, retired to Macedonia, whither Pompey followed him ; and on the plains of Pharfaha the great contell between thefe two commanders was decided, B.C. 48. The army 6 of c jr. S A R. of Porr-pcy wa<; totally rented : anri C.tfar equally (iilliri- broke out in his favojrite ten;!) IcTJon, which aTor.Ied occi- p-uilhed hir.iUlt by his valour and conduct in liic brittle, fiou for a difplay ol Ins ciilliiijTuiltKil i i tiiis as ii curMmaiidcr, rind by his majjinnimity a:d clemency after the victory. Having iuinin iiu-d th^r.i to the Campus Martius, with no ii;dif mfTtd the R man citiz -ns who were made prifoners ; other ;irirs belid.s their fwurds, liC nqulred llieni to ftaie ;:id binned, without perufing them, tlie lettcs which were the (jrou'ids of th_-ir coinplaints. Aher Ionic paufe, otc?.- iiita'iied in Pmipey's cabinet. AOiduoiis and ailive in lioncd by the awe of his prcfe.icc, tliey bei;nn tumultuo ifly iirfniniT the advaiitisfe he I13 f tlnn p;ained, he left tlie lo demand their dfchargc, aid the rewards to which they ;:;insofPharfa!ia on the third day after the battle, and with i :< cavalry purfu.d Ponipty. Crofiincr into Aiia, a:id rc- .\ivini^ on liis pafiacre the lubniiffion of a fupeii.ir fleet of j'onipey which he fell in with, he hallened to Rhodes, and embarked for Egypt. At Alexandria he was informed of Pompcy's murder ; and the head of his rival, wrapped up in a veil, was prcl'ciitcd to fold'urs, tiicy made a frelh tender of tlieir ftrvice-s, and lup him as a token of his final luccefs. He turned his eyes from plicated the hor: 4 T people. C JE S A R. however, a variety of talents, wliicli rendered him capable of attaining to dillingiii(hed excellence in any piirfuits, to which he chofe to devote his time and attention. In the department of oratory, if he imd rellrifted himfelf to this ohjeft, he might have rivalled Cicero ; and his knowledge of ol'hcr branches of littratnrc and fcience enabled him to publidi works on grammar, aftronomy, religious polity, liif- tory, and poetry. But of his writings, none are extant be- fidts fome " Epilllcs" prtferved among thofe of Cicero^ and his " Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars." The latter is reckoned a model of the plam llyle, and ii highly valuable as a repuiitory of faiSs, and as a directory in tlie ufe of the Latin language. Afmius PoUio, at a pe- riod when the events which it records were recent, queftioncd its accuracy and veracity ; and it is not improbable that the writer might have accommodated the detail of fafts to the advancement of his own reputation. We have various edi- tion;; of this popular work, the bed of which are the " Va- riorum," by Elzevir, i66i ; " Grtevius's," Amil. 1697 ; "Davis's," Camb. 1727; "Clarke's," fol. Lond. 1712;- " Oudendorp's," L. Bat. 1737 ; " Barbou's," Paris, 1755, In the exercife of his talents, Ca:far poflcfTed fuch verfa- tility of application, and fuch a facility of direcling his at- tention to different fubjefts, that he is faid to have diAated difpatches to three fecretaries at once. But whatever ex- cellence he might pofTefs as an orator or general fcholar, his ruling paffion was " ambition ;" and to the gratification of this he devoted, in the niaturer years of his life, all his men- tal and corporeal faculties. The influence of this paffioa marked and difcriminated his character ; and whilft it ex- hibits him to view as a fuccefsful warrior and ufeful legifla- tor, poflcffing many qualities, and performing many iervices, which entitle him to admiration and refpedl, it throws a ftiade over his moft ilKillrious talents and aftions, anJ ex- cites an abhorrence of ufurpation and tyranny. " Without pretending to palliate the excefTes of his youth, or to jullify the fchemes of his ambition, he was," fays one of his bio- graphers, " one of the moft accomplifhed hemes that ever lived. With the moft fhining talents for war and legiOation^ he poffeffed a liberality of fpirit, an elegance of tafle and manners, a generofity tjf heart, a greatnefs of mind, and an humanity of difpofition, which diftinguiflied hirn from all the other great meu of that republic, who were generally cruel, ferocious, and implacable." " Julius Cxfar," as the fame writer proceeds, " is accufed of having overthrown the hberties of his country. But what liberty did it enjoy before he appeared on the ftage, while Rome was defolated by the civil butcheries of Marius and Sylla ? and what li- berty did fhe retrieve, when Caefar, the fuppofcd obftacIe> was removed ? The truth is, the Romans were become fo- profligate, vicious, and venal, and fuch univerfal corruptiorj His death was amply revenged, and his memory was of morals prevailed, that they neither defer\'ed to enjoy, nor honoured among the tutelary deities of his country ; as he were they capable of relirtiing, the bltflings of genuine li- left no direct hneage, his adopted heir was the grandfon of his berty ; and Cxfar was the only perfon, when living, who filler Juha. See Augustus. could reftore peace, order, and fecurity, give confillency to The perfon of Czfar was tall, (lender, and fair, and his their government, and ftability to their empire." " He countenance was fenfible and exprcfilve. To the delicacy of was born," fays another writer, " to command mankind, if his form his firft charadter, which was that of a man of great qualities were alone fufficient, and fuperior to right, pleafu re and gallantry, feems to have been better adapted Had his birth or a regular eleflion placed him on the throne» than his later occupation as a warrior. To this purpofe Ci- he would have been an example to be imitated by all fove- cero fays of him, " I difcovered in all his enterprifes, and in reigns. But his private conduft would be a very bad mo- llis whole conduft, a plan continually purfued for raifing del ; his whole life being a continued fcene of rapine and hmifclf to the tyranny. But when I faw him fo foft in his extortion, luxury, and profufion, and a devotednefs to all drefs and manner of living, with effeminate geftures, and kinds of fcandalous debaucheries." Sueton. Cffif. Plutarch^ his hair in fuch nice order, I could not beheve that fuch a C. Caefar, oper. t. i. p. 707, &c. Cafar's Comment. Anc. man was capable of forming and executing the defign of Un. Hill. vol. xi. Rolhn's Rom. Hift. vols. viii. ix. fubverting the Roman comracnweallh." But he poflefTed, C.-esar., in Entsme/ogj, a fpecies of Musca, defcnbed by prople. He pleafed the latter by difmiffing liis guards, re- ftoring tl;e llatnes of their former favourite, Pompey, and treating them with (liows and largeflcs ; and he fecured the aliachmcnt of the nobles, by the multiplication of offices of dignity and profit. However, he oOended the fenators, by increaling their number from 500 to Qco, and by admit- ting feveral pcifons of low origin to tliis hononrable clafs. Tlie Romans, who entertaiiK-d an inveterate prejudice againll the name of iin^, were further offended by Antony's ofler- ing to Cxfar a royal diadem ; for thougli he refufed the gift, he was fufptftcd of being privy to the defign. See AsTOS'V. It has been fiiggelled, iirdeed, that as C.efar had formed extravagant fchemes of conqucfl, compreiiendr ing an expedition againil the Parthiaiia, Hyrcanians, Scy- thians, and Germans, and was emulous of imitating the ex- ploits of Alexander, he and his friends had imagined that the title of king would be ferviceable to him in the execu- tion of thefe grand and extcnfive deligns, and command re- verence among remote and barbarous nations. This and a variety of other circimi (lance's contributed to excite envy, jealoulv, and refentment in the minds of leveral of the firft men of Rome ; and to concur, with forae remains of an at- tachment to liberty, in producing a confpiracy againft Cx- far's life. Cifar himfelf was warned of it by his friends ; intimations had been circulated, for fome time, of the perfons concerned in it, and of the time of its execution : and lo fully poflcffcd of the reality of the danger was Calpurnia, Csfar's wife, that (he earncftly urged him not to quit his houfe on the ides of March, the day appointed for the meeting of the fe- nate. In compliance with her intreaties, he determined to re- main at home. But Decimus Brutus reprefenting to him the importance of the matters which were to be propoftd in the fenatc, diverted his purpofe, and they fet out together. In tlieir way thither, a perfon named Artemidorus put. into Czefar's hand a paper, containing a difcovery of the whole plot ; but though he was defired to read it, he was prevented by the crowd which furrounded him. On his arrival in the hall of the fenate, a number of the confpirators befet him, under the pretext of uniting their fupplications with thofe of Metellus Cimber, on behalf of his baniflied brother : at this inllant Cimber gave the fignal, by taking hold of his robe, and pulling it from his fhouldeis, upon which Cafca ftabbed him in the neck. The enraged Caflius wounded him deeply in the head ; and many others concurred in ftabbing him on all fides. I'lU Brutus appeared, he is faid to have rcfiilcd his affaffins ; but upon the (ight of the dagger aimed at him by Brutus, he exclaimed, " What ! my Ion Brutus too !" and covering his face with his robe, fell, pierced with 2 ; wounds, at the pedeftal of Pompey's (latue. Such was the cataftrophe that terminated Caefar's career, in the 56tk year of his age, March J 5th, A. U. C. 710. B. C. 44 c ;e s LiiiTia:us as being of a (hining green, with black legs. This is a common Eiuopeaii infed. C.-ESAR /lttgiij}a, in yinchiit Gcogmphy, a town of Hither Spain, feated on'the river Iberus, formerly called Salduba, and which afterwards became a colony. Augultiis gave it to the veteran foldiei-s of his army, after the war of the Can- tabri, whence it obtained its name, the epithet of immunis, and the right of coining money ; now Sarci^cjfa. CjESAREA, a name given to feveral ancient cities. There were two cities in Paleftine of this name, viz. 6V- f.-.i-a-Pame or Cicfiirea-P h'llipp;, and Cirfarcn-Slratoiiis. The former was built by Philip the tetrarch, fon of Htrod the Great, and made the place of his relidence, as it was con- veniently fituated between Itur^a and Trachonitis. Luke, iii. I. He built it, fays Jofephus, (Antiq. 1. iS. c. -;. 1. 20. c.S.) at Paneas, by the fprings of Jordan, and called it Csfarea-Philippi, and Nerudiada in honour of Nero. It was feated at the fprings of Jordan the I^efi, not far from Libanus, in the Midland Phoenicia, fays Ptolemy, and was a Decapolitan city called Ca:farea-Panias, or Snb-Panio, from the name of the mountain Panius, mentioned by Jo- fephus and Eufebius, under which it lies. It is mentioned Matth.xvi. 13. Mark, viii. 27. and was firft called Lais or Laftiem, Jodi. xviii. 7 ; and when fubdued by the Danites, Dan, ib. v. 29. The latter, Ctefarea-Stratonis, or the town of Strato, was the metropolis of Paleftine, after its re-union to the Roman empire, and the feat of the Roman proconfuL As it was a mart-town, with a very incommo- dious haven, Herod the Great built on the fite of it a large city, with many ftately marble buildings, a theatre of [lone, a capacious amphitheatre, and an admirable haven, with marble edilices and towers. Herod alfo conftruded, on an eminence, a beautiful and magnificent temple of Auguftus, and placed there acolofial ftatue of this prince, on the model of the llatue of Jupiter Olympius ; and a ftatue of the city of Rome, equal to that of Juno at Argos. Herod, accord- ing to Jofephus, called the port Sebaile, and the city Cs- farea, in honour of Csefar Auguftus, which he annexed to the province of Syria. He alfo eftabliftied quinquennial games, and diftributcd a great number of prizes at the firft celebration of them, A.U.C. 743. The city was after- wards given to Agrippa, the grandfon of Herod the Great, by the emperor Claudius. Judaa and the city of Cacfarea were re-united to the Roman empire, at the death of king Agrippa, A.D. 44; nor were they fep?.r-ated till the inva- ficn of the Arabs, in the 7th century. Cxfarea was fitu- ated between Doron and Joppa, 35 miles from Jerufalem, and was inhabited partly by the Jews, who had their fchoals there, but chiefly by the Greeks or Syrians, betwixt whom there were feuds concerning equal privileges ; fo that the Csfareans killed a great number of Jews, when Floras was procurator of Judcea. In this city Peter converted Cornelius and his kinfmen. Afts, x. Here lived Philip the evan- gclift, Atts, xxi. S ; and here Paul defended himfelf againft the Jews, and their orator TertuUus. Afts, xxiv. CyTSARrA, in more ancient times called Mazaca, and af- terwards Eufebia, and denominated Csfarea by Tiberius, in honour of Auguftus, was the metropolis of Cappadocia, and the refidence of its kings. It continued in a flourifliing ftate under* the Greek emperors. When it was btfipged by Sapor, king of Perfia, about A. D. 260, it was fuppofcd to contain 400,000 inhabitants. At this time Demofthenes commanded in the place ; and when the city was be- trayed by the perfidy of a phyfician, he cut his way through the Perfians, who had been ordered to exert their utmoft diligence for taking him alive, whilft many of his fellow-eitr- 2en3 were involved in a general maftacre. Sapor is accrjfed c ^ s of treating his prifoners witir wanton and unrelenting cruelty. Deep valhes were filled with the (lain ; and crowds of pri- foners were driven to water like hearts, and many ptnflied for want of food. Zonaras, 1. xii. p. 6^0. After the reign of Hcratlius, when the empire was divided into different military departments, Cappadocia, together with Caifarca, its capital, which l.ad furi-cnder-ed to the Saracens, wai comprized in the department of Armenia ; but it was, at a period not afcertained in hiftory, ruined by an earthquake. In the 13th century, it was rebuilt about J of a league more to the north than the old city, by a fullan of the Selgiorrcide race. It is now called Kaifavieh and Kefaiia, and is a city of fume note. It is the ftage of all the caravans of the eaft, which here difperfe themfcKes to their refpcc- tive cities. The bazars ai-e handfome and well ftored, and the inhabitants in a conliderable degree poliflicd. It was the fee of St. Bafil, and its aichbifliop holds the firft rank among the prelates who are under the patriarch of Conftanti- nople. C.tsAREA, is alfo a town of Armenia Minor. — Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, accoi'ding to Ptolemy, who places it between the river Rhyndacus and Mount Olympus, near the fea. — Alfo, a large and famous town of Africa, in Mauritania, which was formerly a r-oyal city, and had a magnificent port on the Mediterranean. It gave the appellation Csfarienfis to one of the diftrifts into which Claudius divided Mauritania, and it was anciently cal- led Jol. It was the refidence of king Juba, who enlarged and embelliftied it, and called it Ca;farea in honour of Au- guftus. Claudius made it a Roman colony. It has been ruined for many ages. It was reduced to afhes A. D. 37.5, by Firmus, who affumcd the title of king among the Moors, but vvho was made to fubmit by Theodofius, fent to Africa by Valenti.nian. When it was juft recovering it- fclf, it fell under the power of the Vandals, who burnt it. After the deftniflion of the Vandal government in Af- rica, it remained in a tranquil ftate for more than a cen- tury under the Greek emperors. This city was encom- paffcd by mountains to the fouth, eaft, and weft, and Pro- ccpius fays, that there was no accefs to it but by the fea. According to Mela, it was fituated at the confluence of the rivers Mrilucha and Ampfaga. Sanfon, and other geographers, place Julia Casfaiea at Tnifs or Tennis ; but Shaw, (Travels, Sec. p. 18.) adduces feveral arguments to pr-ove, that it is the prefent Shcrshell, which fee C;r the deatii of the woman, as was pradH'id, he fays, on the bitlh of Julius Ca:far. '• Si auteni contiiigeret nmlitrcm ipfam efle niortiiam ; et fiifpicavcrii quod fietni (.(T. t vivus ; quia vctat lex i-e^'ia iniilierem pregnautem humari, quoufqne iatus »ixerit i tenendo mulieris os, tt malricain aptitani, ut vo- lunt ina!':ms, aperiatur mulicr fccundam lonpitndincm, cum raforio, in latere fmillro ; q'aia pars ilia ell magis libera quani dextra propter hcpar ; ct dijfilis intcrpolitis extra- liant fietuni. Ita enim extractns fun Julius C:j:far ; ut in jrcllis Itgitur Rornanoium." vide Cap. de extractionc foetus. Vigo, who was born towards the ci;d of the Ijth century, in the fli;>rt chapter he gives on difficnlt birtli, takes no no- tice of this mode of delivery ; and Pare, who greally im- proved the praftict of midivifery, thinks the operation only a'lowable on woTnen who die inidchvcred. He had heard, he fays, not without aftoniiliment, of women who had been more tlum once fubjeded to the czfareaii lodion, it not being prafticable to deliver them by any other means; but he confidered the operation as mnch too dangerous to be adopted, " c-jEterum non pofTuni fatis mirari eos qui fibi vifas mulieres affirmant, quibus non femcl novacula abd'^men cnm fubjcdo utiro rclcinum fit ad foctnni, nnnqnam alioqui proditurnm, extrahendcm. Id enim, falva maue, fieri poife mihi perfuaderc-nuiiquam potni," S:c. " De Homiiiis Gene- ratione," cap. 31. l»iit RoufTct, who was contemporary with Pare, having coUetied accounts of a number ot cafes in which the operation was faid to liave been fucccfsful'y performed, publiftied in 1,581, 8vo. " Traite nonveau de i'Hyfterotomotokie, ou Eiifantement cefarien, qui elf I'ex- traflion dc I'enfant par inci-Hon laterale du ventre ct de la matrice de la femme grolfe, ne ponvent autrement accou- cher ; et ce fans prejudicier a la vie de Pun ct de I'autrt, iii cmpecher la fecondae naturclle par aprts." But though Rouflet fpeaks with gre^it co;ifidence of the fafcty of tiie operation, and is v arm in its recommendation, it dots not appeal- that he had ever feen it ptrfornnd, or t!;at more than one of the fix perfons, v\liofe cafes are related by him, were known to him. The book, however, foon became popular, and being lome years aft-.r, viz. 111 1601, tiauf- lated i'.no l^atin by Cafpar Bauhine, witii additional cafes and obfervations, it was quickly circulaltd over Europe. From that time, the operation began to acqu re a certain degree of vogut-, and to be rtfortcd to in cales of extreme difficulty, particularly on the continent, w here it is faid to liave been not unfrequently performed with complete fucccfs. Not fo in this coimtry. In five cafes in which it has been performed at Edinburgh, three of the children were ex- tracted through tiie aperture alive, but the women all died. In England, where the operation has been performed ten times, one of the women only recovered. Tiiis gives little encouiagement for repeating the trials here. But as this almoll uniform faialicy may be in part attributed to the extremely debilitated Hate of the women, who had been in labour feveral days before the operati.jn was determined on, it has been obferved, and with apparent reafon, that if it had beeiv performed earlier, before the llrength ot the wo- men had been exhaulled, and a fcveriih indifpolition induced, or before tne bladder and other foft pans had been injured by dillenfion and prcfTure, a more favourable termination might have been expeded ; as to that cireumftance, viz. a more fpeedy, or prompt determination, may be attributed CMS the fnper'or fnccefs with which the operation has been ptiforned on the continent. Having given this fketch of the hiflory of the Ca;fartan fedion, it remair'S to (late the canfcs renderiig it nrcclLiry, a:;d to defcribe the manner of peiformifg the (.peration. Whenever any infurmouniable impediment ex ids, ren- der'ng it impradicable to biiii'.; the cliild through the na- tural paffagc, recoup fc mull be liad to the ca farean fedion,. or the woman, and child, mud inevitably perifli. The mod common impediment is, luch a deformed and altered (hape of the bones conltituting the pelvis, as to leave too Imall a fpace for admitting the fingers of the ac- coucheur to pafs between them ; difabling him from intro- ducing and dirvding the ncceffary indrumtnts for opening" and Icffening the head, or other part of the child tiial may happen to prcfent, or lie over the orifice of the uterus. Abroad, particularly in France, the cacfarean feftion has been performed where no fiich imptrliment exided, or, at the lead, not to the degree that would be required in this country; as is evident, by the accounts publiflied of wo- men, who after being fubjeded to the operation, have borne living children by the natural palfage, which could not hap- pen, if the pelvis was confiderably didortcd, or mifltapcn. Cafes requiring the csefarean fedion, are very rare in this country ; that is, there are very few women wlmfe pelves are fo didorted as not to allow a paiFaije for the fingers of the accoucheur to condud the recedary indruments for opening the head of the fcEtus fufficiently to allow its con- tents to be iqneezed out, and its bones to coll.ipfe fo far as to allow the operator to fix a hook or crotchet, witti which it may tie gradually diawn down, and extrafttd. Through how very narrow a fpace this may be done, we have a remarkable indance related in Dr. Ofborne's " Trea- tife on Laborious Parturition." Authors mention other caufes of impediment to the b'rth of the child, as coalefcence of the os uteri, or of the fides of the vagira ; or large tumours filling up that paffage ; but thefe may be all removed by operations much eafier and Icfs hazardous than the carfarean fedion. Whenever on repeated examination of a woman in labour, the accoucheur finds the pelvis didorted to the degree def- cribed above, he fliould apprife the hufband of the danger- ous date of the woman, and defire the afiidance of one or two of the mod experienced perfons in tiie prnfrflion, and if on a confuUation it diould appear that it is impcffible to bring the child by the natural paffage, the hufbind (hould be made acquainted with the nature of the impediment, and informed there remains no hope of prele'ving the life of the woman and child, but by opening tlie abdomen of the wo- man, and extrading the child through the wound. At the fame time acquainting him, that the operation, though ha- zardou";, is not neceffarily fatal, many women who fubmit- ted to it having recovered. That the hope o"" a favourable termination depends on its being performed early, before fever comes on, or any material injury ij done to the uterus or neighbouring parts. If the hufband (liould be fatisfied of the neceffity of the operation, the woman (hould then be apprifed of her fitua- tion, in the mod cautious manner, and having obtained lier confent, a glyiler is to be thrown up to evacuate the contents of the bowels, and the bladder emptied through a catheter, and a few drops of the tindurc of opium ^vcn to quirt pain as much as poffible,. prior to the operation, the manner of performing which, is thus defcribeel by Mr. Thompfon, late furgeon to the London Hofpital. "Me- dical Obfervations and Inquiries," vol.4. P- ^J^- An JIL S C iE S An :-iicirioii ib ti> be made or. l!ic I'ght or left fiJc of tlie nai'el, wliclicvtr happens to be mioH p .mi' c; t, fix iiicljts ill !cii;;tli ; tlie miildk' of the incifi in to be about hvtl with the navel, from which it Ihoiild be dillant a hand's lirradth, ^nll cut tliroiigh tht (lf the piocnratur Cu-fiiris, to «liom bo- Lniged the keepiiiij vi the (ileal accounts, and taking pof- f fiion of effects devolving or tfcheatnig to the emperor. Tntfe were alio called calholieiani. From the appellation i'.j-farmnuj ionie deduce the modern word fcrgeant. See Sergeant. C^SARODUNUM, in Jnchnl Geography, a town of Gau!, ailigned by Ptolemy to tiie TuroiieS ; now Tours, winch fee. CjESAROMAGUS, a town of Gaul, v/hich, accord- ing to Ptolemy, was the capital of the Bellovaci ; now Beauvais, which fee.--Alf-, a I'ation in tlie 5th route of Antonine, 28 miles from London ; the pofitioii of which cannot now be exaftly afeertaiiicd ; but by the dillance from London, and the direction of this route, it is fuppofed to have been at, or near, Chelmsford. C/tSENA, Cesena, a town of Italy, in Gallia Cifpa- dana, on thi^ ii.'e of llie Eridanus, with rcfpeCt to Rome, according to Strabo and Pliny. CjESIA Sylva, the Caslian foreft, was part of the" H'jr- cynian, placed by Cluveriu", paitly in the duchy of Clevcs, and partly in Wcllplialia, bttvveen Welel and Koefold. Germaniciis traverfed this forcif in his march to attack tlie Marii, whom lie found in a defencelefs Hate, and attacked with great flaughter, A. 1). 15. Tacitus. C/ESIAS, o;" KaiHia,-, 111 71'/f/c'(/r(//cyfv> denotes the north- eaft or N. E. by E. wind ; called in the Mediterranean, •wtilo Graco, or Cnco levaiUe. Pliny calls this wind Hellefpon- tias, as blowing from the Hcllelpont. See Euroclydon. CiiSTUS, or Cestus, a large leathern gantlet, or glove, made of Itraps ot leather, and plated with brafs, lead, or iron, withinlide, ufed in the combats, or exercifcs of the anciint athlets, to llrengthen the hands of the combat- ants, and to add violence to their blows. It was called tnjlus, a caiLnilo, from cieJo, to Jhike, or Icat. The caellus originally conlilttd •! many thongs of leather, or raw hides of bulls, wound about the hand and arm up to the elbow, and feenis to have been iuvcultd, as well fur a fafe-^uard fo tliofe parts that wfre mofl cxpofcd in tliS lirlf iury of the c-ijibat, as f.iran ofTenlive weapon ; though, when it was lined wiih platei. ot lead or iron, as it fomelimeS was, according to Vjrgil, (iEi. v.) it fctms to have been inte. dcd chiefly for the latter purpofe It is obfcrvable, however, that the Greek potts, wiio have given us a defcrip- tioii of thccxilus, liavc not mentioned plates of lead or iron. J5y thus binding up the liands of the combatants with thongs of leather, they might alfo dtfign to prevent their laying hold of each other, or with their fingers and nails ripping npen the belly ; a circumilancc, wh'cli occurred in- the Nemican games, and which gave occafion for bringing the llraps ot the cjeftus over the fingers, and taftening them upon the wrill ; whereas, be tore this accident, they were tied in the palm, or hollow of the hand. See Paufanias, 1; v.;i. c. 40. This auliio' applif* the epithet jixi>,i;^o;, or foft, to the ancient cxilus, probably, becaiife it was compofed of raw hides. But it is not unlikely, that as the Grecians began to refine upon the gymnailic cxeicifes, and the fci- ence of the alhlctiE became a kind of profeflion, the cxllus^ flunild fiom tune to time receive fevcral additions : and, that at length, it (liould be improved by the Romans, who de- lighted in bloody fpeflacLs, into that t riible weapon de- fcribed by Virgil. This conjcdlure will account lor the difference obiei\able between that in Virgil, and thofc de- fenbed by the Greek pocis. The combat of the c;c(lu»- was very ancient, and is faid to have been invented by Amyciis, king of the Bebrycians, who v\as contemporary with tlie Argonauts, as we are informed by Clemens of Alexandria, Stromal. I. It was revived in the 2^;d olym- piad, B. C fSS. But we are informed by PluVarcii, (in- Alex.) that Alexander never admitted either the cxitus or the pancratium among ihofe games which lie exhibited duri:ig his war in Aha. Lycingu.s alfo banifiied thefc cx- crciles troin Sparta, becaufe he would not allow the people to aceuliom tiiemi.lv; s to yield the victory to tlicfe with' whom they contended, not even in fport. BefideSj the combatants in the cueftus louglit after, and cheri;) td corpu.- lence, or polyiarcia, (fleit-incls) as the Greeks called it, as a fort of covering and dcience of their bones and m.ufcles againll blows and buffets ; but this mode of life was impro- per for a foldier ; fiu', as Epaminondas obferved to a fat fel- low, whom lor his bulii he turned out of the army, it would require three or four fhiclds to cover and defend a belly that hindered a 11 an from feeing his own knee. However, it was prailifed by the heroes of the Iliad, and it was one ot the games exiabiled by jEiieas in honour o£'. his father Aixhilcs; and Amycus valued l.imfclf fo much upon his fupcriority in this combat, as to compel all llran- gers who touched upon his coall, to take up the ca'tus, and make trial of his llrcngth and Ik II in the ufe of this rude mllrumeiit ot death. See VV'eii's ditLrtation oil the. Olympic games, prefixed to his " Odes of Pindar, &c." vol. ill. § ;o. CiESULIA, in Botany, WiUd. 14''.;. Rox. Cor. 1. p. 64. Clals and wacv, Jyngiii.Jid fqua.a. Eff. Cli. Receptacle ciiahy ; cliall involving the feeds. Down none. Calyx of three leaves. Sp. I . C. axiiluris. " Leaves lanceolate, narro-.ved at the bafe, (errated, alternate. Perennial. Stem heibaccoii3> creeping; br.iiicl.es afcendlng. Ftotucrs axillary, klTiJe, iolitary. Calyx fpreadir.g ; lealKts egg-fliaped, veined, many- flowered. A native ot the Eall fiielies. 2. C. nidi- cans. " Leaves lanceolate, I'arro'Vcd at the fnmmit', very entire, oppufite." Perennial. Slcvd creeping, taking root at the krots. Brunches afcendlng, from half a toot to a loot long. Leaves on iliori petioles ; fomctiiues, but rarely,.- 3 with . C JET C A F witli on< or Iwo teeth. Flowers, as well as the general lia- bit of tlie plant, fimilar to the preceding. A native of Guinea. CtSURA, in /Indent Poetry, is when, in the fcanning of a verfe, a word is divided, fo that one part feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from tlie rell ; e. gr. Ment'i I ;•;' no \ 7i : mm | quiim men | docia profunt. Where the fyllabics r't. It, ijiiam, and men arc arfures. Or, it denotes a certain and agreeable divifion of liie words, between tlie feet of a verfe ; whereby the lall fyllable of a word becomes the firll of a foot : as in Arma virumqiie cano, Tro]x qui primus ah oris. Where the lyllables no and j£ are injures. CtsuRA, a cut, a Jcparaiion, a breathing-place, in Vocal Muftc. The Germans have applied this poetical term to miilic, with no great analogy, and the French are trying hard to naturalize and adopt it. In the fiipplement to the fol. edit, of the Encycl. M. Caftillon has given it an article which in the new 410. Encycl. Methodique, M. Framery has analyfed, and controverted in an able manner. The firff mufical diftionary in which the term occurs, is that of Walther, which, though a fmall oftavo volume only, contains more definitions, explanations, biographical and hilforical articles, than all the diftionaries that have been publithcd fince I7,p, when it firft appeared in German. Nothing in Englifh expreffes fo well wliat the Germans and French mean to inforce by the term csfura in mufic, as the word phrafeology, which fee. In vocal mufic, the meafure of the verfe determines the phrafeology of the melody. In inflru- mental mufic, a fymmetry of phrafe, to a certain degree, feems neceffary, where either grace or energy is required. As to fubjedl, the firft two or three bars give the general eaft and charaAer to the whole movement. This is more obvious in Haydn's bed fymphonies, fometimes even through a feeming wildnefs and freedom of fancy. If you k)fe the firll idea in the treble, you find it in the bafe, or fubordinate parts, as too much fymmetry in the upper part is apt to degenerate into monotony and dulncfs. An even number of bars, and csefurx at equal diftanccs, however, feldom fail to intereft and imprefs the hearer. Metaftafio's meafures have fuggefted to compofers, and rendered necef- fary, a greater variety of air, than the epic poetry of Italy, or any other country poffeffed before. Grace is often ob- tained by a fucceffion of daftyles and regular refting places. V6 folcando iin mar criidele Si ufca SI dice I'amico dove. — See Phrase, Cadknce, Rest, real or ur.derftood. The cxfura might have its ufe in mufic if well confidered and framed into rules ; but we pretend not to invent new rules or laws in the arts, fo much as to explain thofe al- ready in ufe, and ellablilhed by good authority and fuccefs- ful examples. CssL'RE, in1:he Modern Poetry, denotes a reft or paufe towards the middle of a long Alexandrine verfe j by which the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the verfe as it were divided into two hemiftichs. See Pause. CjETERIS paribus, a Latin term, in frequent ufe among mathematical, and phyfical writers. The words literally fignify, other things being equal; which expreffes pretty nearly their meaning as a term. Thus, we fay, the heavier the bullet, cateris paribus, the greater the range; i. e. by how much the bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece, and the quantity and ftrength of the powder, be the fame, by fo much will the utmoft range or diftance of a piece of ordnance be greater. Thus alfo, in a phyfical way, we fay, the velocity and quantity of blood circulating in a given time, through any fcflion of an artery, will, ctleris paribus, be according to its diameter, and neaniefs to, or diftance from the heart. CfETOBRIX, in /Indent Geography. See CetobriGA. CAETSE, ill Geography, an liland in the Adriatic, or Venetian Sea, which affords anchorage for fiiipping. CAFARA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alen- tejo ; 1 2 miles E. of Moura. C A FA RO, in Biography, a Neapolitan compofer of great abilities, of the old fchool, perhaps the bell, in the ecclcfi- aftical ttyle, after Leo. He was living in 1774; and at that time was thought by many the beft compoier for the church in Naples. His ilyle was nervous, yet not rude. In his ecclefiaftical produtlions (fays a French writer, before the revolution,) he proved that there is a llyle for religious rites capable of interefting a devout audience, and redoubling fervour, inftead of diverting their attention trom facred concerns. CAFARTUTHA, in /Indent Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia ; placed in the Nubian geography, between Dara and Alchabur. CAFER, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex, found in Africa, and defcribed by Tliunberg. This infeA is of a black colour, with a white band on the thorax : ferruginous wing-cafes, and four white fpots. See Caifer. ' Caker, a fpecies of Scarab.cus, green, with the mar- gin of the thorax and elytriE fpotted with white. Fabri- cius. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. Cafe«, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Merops, with grey plumage, a yellow fpot near the anus, and very long tail. This is the grey bee-eater of Ethiopia. Cafer, a fpecies of Picus, brown above, beneath grape- coloured, dotted with black, the under part of the wings and the fhaftsof the wing-feathers, and thofe of the tail vermilion- coloured. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. Gnielin. CAFERISTAN, in Geography. See Kuttore. CAFFA, in Commerce, cotton cloths painted with feveral colours, and of divers defigns ; they are mar.ufadlured in the Eaft Indies, and fold at Bengal. The length and breadth are not the fame in all pieces. Caffa, or Kaffa, in Geography, the ancient and modern Theodofta, a fea-port town of Crim Tartary, now called Taurida, is fituated on the fouth-ealt fide of the peninfula, and forms a harbour of the Euxine, or Black Sta. It was formerly the capital of the Crimea ; and the Tartars diftin- guilhed it by the name of Half Conftantinople. The Ge- noefe, when they attempted to acquire an independent trade with the Eaft Indies, took poffcffion of it about A.D. 1226, maintained it for more than 200 years, and rendered it the feat of an extenfive and flourilhing commerce. They adorned the port, ftrengthened and augmented the fortifications, and embellifticd the city with many ftately edifices, the ruins of which are vifible even at this day. Having the dominion of the Black Sea, and thus moft commodioudy ftationed for trade, they were furnifljed with the means of expenditure by the riches accruing from their commerce. But in the year 147/; they were deprived of this port by Mohammed the Great, after they had bafely afiiftcd in bringing the Turks into Europe, and in reducing Conftantinople, agaiuft all the rules of true policy, as well as ditlates of religion. After the Genoefe were difpoffeifcd of the dominion of Caffa, they ftill carried on, for a long time, as merchants, a very lucra- tive commerce with the inhabitants, who, by way of the Cafpian Sea, found means to conduft a confiderable trade in fpices, drugs, cotton, filk, and other Indian commodities. At length the Turks became jealous of the intercourfe of the Genoefe in thcfe parts, and abfolutely excluded them, as well as all other nations, irom trading to, or even fo much as C A F CAT as pnteriiijj info, the Black Sea. This txclufion, however, did not immediately terminate the commerce between Caffa and Genoa ; for the Tartars were fo well apprifcd of the advantag''3 derived from this commerce, that they profecuted it for fome time in their own vefTcIs ; and cariied the fpices, and other Indian goods, which they received by caravans from Alhacan, and which had been brought tliithcr from the oppollte lide of tlie Cafpian Sea, to Genoa ; but the Tinks foon put an end to tliis kind of intercourfe, and thus fecured thenilelves from the tears of feeing a Chriilian ilect in thofe fcas, at leall from Italy. Neverthclcfs, Caffa, iiot- withllandincr all the difadvantages refulting from its fiibjcc- tioii to the TurUifh government, continued to be a place of confiderable trade. Sir John Chardin, who vifited it, A.D. id;' J, relates, that during his rtlidtuce of 40 days there, he faw more than 400 lliips lading in and out of this port. He oblerved alfo fcveral remains of Gcnocfe magnificence. In 1774, Catherine II. obtained for Ruffia the pofTelTion of the flraits of Caffa, together with lome other local and commer- cial advantages; and by the convention of 17S;, the whole penlnfui.'i of the Crimea was added to the Ruffian dominions, under tlie name of the province of Taurida, and the Turks having finally ceded their prctcniions to the emprefs, flie de- ^(larcd this a free port in her newly acquired territories, under the appellation of Tticodofia. Caffa was formerly one of the belt built and richefl. places of its fizc in Europe. It Hands at the foot of a fmall hill upon the fca-fliorc ; the buildings extending north and fouth, with long walls ftrctch- ing on both fides down to the fea ; fo that from the port which is large, fafe, and commodious, it exhibits a very agreeable appearance. On the fouth lide is a callle, which ufed to be the refidence of the Turkilli bafhaw. The num- ber of houfes have been elliniated at 5-^oo or 6000, and the inhabitants have been computed at 20,000. According to M. Peyffonnel, (Commerce de la Mer Noire, torn. i. p. 15.) the number of inhabitants amounts to 80, coo. The bay is capable of containing fcveral hundred merchant Ihips ; and the inhabitants are the richelt, and drive the moft extenfive trade in the Black Sea. Tlie produftions of Crim Tartai-y, exported from Caffa and the other towns of the peninfula reforted to by the Greek and Armenian merchants, confifl chiefly in corn, w'v.e, wool, fine black and grey lamb-flcins, and fait. The imports are fine and coarfe linens, printed cottons, nankeen. Ruffian leather, tine cloths, velvets, taffeties, furs, ropes, paper, falted filh, and caviare, tobacco leaves, copper and tin, hardware, gold and (ilver thread, beads, and corals, earthen wares, a coarfe fort of porcelain, and glafs ware, &c. N. lat. 45° 10'. E. long. 35" 20'. CAit A, Jlralts of, the ancient Cimmerian Bofphorus, are the narrow pallage, or found, which forms the communica- tion between the Black Sea to the fouth, and the fea of Azof to the north. Near the northern entrance of thcfe itraits are the fortretTes of Kertfch and Ycnikale, which command the pafTage. They take their name from the port of Caffa. N. lat. 45° iS'. E. long. 35-" 45'. SeeBosPHO- F.us and Azof. Cakfa, a province or kingdom of Abyflinia, adjoining to the kingdom of Narea, and lituatc to the fouth of it. It is wholly mountainous, without any level ground. It is faid to be governed by a feparate prince, and to have been con- verted to Chrillianity in the time of Melee Segued, fome time after the convcrfion of Narea. The inhabitants of thefe lofty mountains are not fo dark in their complexion as Nea- politans or Sicilians. It has been faid, that fiiow has been obferved to lie on the mountains of Caffa, as well as on the bigh ridges called Dyre and Tegla ; but the fad is dif-- 6 credited by Bruce ; Travels, vol. ii. p. j 13. About N. lat. H". and E. long. 35°. See Narea. CAFFABA. SccKaffaba. CAFl'ACA, Keffe-kil, in Mineralogy, or earth of Kaf- fa, (corruptly called CafTaca) is a very fine grained white tenacious clayey marl, dug in the Crimea, and formerly fhip- ped from the port of Kafla to Conltantinople, in larye quan- titles for the ufc of the Turkilh women. Being mixed up with water to the confiflencc of thick cream, it was rubbed by hand among the hair, which, when wathed again with wuter, was thus rendered perfectly clean and of a filky fmoothnefs. I'or this purpofe it was greatly preferable to foap, which, though it cleans the hair, is apt to difcolour it, and render it harlh and brittlt. When the Crimea was conquered by the Ruffians, this branch of commerce was flopped, and is not likely to be refumed, Conflantinopic being now fupplied with a white clay from Afia Minor, which is equally good with the earth of Kaffa. Pallas's Travels in the Crimea, vol. ii. CAFFA REl.Ll, (Gaetano Majorano, tfct/oj was one of the greatell fingers that Italy ever produced. He came to England in lyjS', the year after Farinelli's depar- ture. He fung in two of Handel's operas, Furamotul, and Ahjjandro Severo. But though he afterwards acquired fuch celebrity on the continent, he was not in high favour here. For though Farinelli, the kill year of his performance in this country, had been negleded, no fucceffor would be lif- tened to of inferior fame, or indeed talents ; for Caffarelli was never in voice or in good humotir, all the time he was in England. The feeds of caprice with which nature feems to have furnlflied him, began early in life to fpring up, and in his riper years, and fame, grew to an amazing height : Many traits of his charadler were current in Italy, long af- ter he had quitted the llage. When Gizziello firfl fung at Rome, his performance fo far enchanted every hearer, that it became the general fub- jeft of converfation, which not only contributed to fpread liis fame through that city, but to extend it to the moil remote parts of Italy ; it is natural to fuppofe that the ac- count of this new mufical phenomenon fooii reached Naples, . and equally natural to imagine that it was not heard with indifference in a place where fo powerful a propenfity to mufical pleafure prevails. Caffarelli, at this time in the ze- nith of his reputation, was fo far piqued by curiofity, per- haps by Jealoufy, that he took an opportunity, the firil time he could be fpared from the opera at Naples, to ride poft all night, in order to hear that at Rome. He entered the pit, muffled up in a pelllcc, or fur-gown, unknown by any. one there ; and after he had heard Gizziello fing a fong, \\ons of the Stockholm .-\eadcmv for I 779, and Maf- fon in t'\c ^6th volume of the Tranfaclioiis of the Royal Soe fly of L.Midon. By tticle writers ihis animal is dcf.rib- ed as bcinj) about five feet au'l a h;ilf in height, and tar fu- ,p-ri.'r in ftrei'gth ai.d fiirccncfs to the European oxen, whicu renders it a dangerous crtati.re. it encounters men, horfes, snd ritber cxen ■with lerocily, ti-nmpl'ii7 and cnifh- ing them to dealh with its feet, a^id is fo Iwift thai m run- ning up hll it is not eafiiy overlak n by a horfe. 'I'iiis fpecies ndiabits the ir li nor parts of Africa, rortli of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is iourd in Lr^t herds in the more defcrt patts, retiiiug by day into the thick fo- rells, and appearing chk-fiy towards the evening and morn- ing. It io aflirmed ol tliis creature, that it «il! often lliip off the fi^in of Inch animal-? as if kills, by licking them witn its roi-'h tongue, as recorded by lome aucient ■Bulhors of the Biioti. The fl:in is exciifivcly llrong, and is on this account in high ellimation with the crlonills at the Cape, for its fnperijr cxceilcncc in nukini; harne!'es, and other ufeful articles, in which the droiigctl and moil duiable kir.d of le;ither is nqnired. The l.'ody of the Cape Ox is of a black or darkifn colour, and the face is covered with long harfli hair : the horns arc thick and bhck, and lie fljt upon the head, diverging {o widely, that the tips of the two lioins are fomitimes five feet nfunder: the ears are pendulous, and not uiifrequeutly a fo.it long : tail fliort, tufted, and bh'.ck at the tip. Tae flelh is coarfe, and has the flavour of venilon. CAFFETANS, are long veds of gold or fiiver brocade, flowered l^ith filk, which are preftntcd by the grand figniar and the vifier, to tbofe to whom they give audience : by the grand fi-Tnior befure, and by the vifier after audience. The calfttrins of the attendants are more ordiuary. CAFFiLA, a company of merehai.ts or travellers, or both together, who join company, in order to g;o evith more fecunty through the domiuiuns of the Great Mogul ; and through other countric-v on the continent of the Eall Indies. In P-iTia, the calEla differs from a caraviin ; as the former properly belongs to fome fovereign, or to feme powerful company in Europe ; whereas, ihe latter coiififts of a com- pany of particular merchants, each of whom trades on his own account. There are alfo fuch cafnlas, which crofs fome parts of the defcrts of Africa, particularly what is called the fea of fand, which lies between Irlorocco, and the kingdoms of Tombut and Gago. This i, a journey of four hundred leagues, and takes up two months in going, a-'d as many in coming back ; the caffila travelling only by night, becaufe of the excelfive heat of the countr;-. The chief merchandize they bring back confifts iu gold- dull. The caffila is properly what Is called caravan in the do- niinions ol the grand fignior, and in other parts of the Eall. See Caravan. On the coaft of Gnzerat, or Cambaya, it fignifies a finall fleet of merchant fhps. CAFFRA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Aris, that in- habits til'- Cape of Good Hope. Fabricius dcicnbes it as being hirlule, black, with the poftcrior part of the thorax, and anterior part of the abelomen, yellow. Caffra, in Orn'uLoloi^y, a fpecies of Certhia, of a fnf- cous colour, with the breafl and abdomen pale, and the m d He tail feathers longell. Inhabits the C.ipe of Good H..pe. CAIFRARIA, or la'd of the Caffhrs, or Kaffers, m Geography, an undefined diftrift in the I'Uth-callerii p^irt of ,-\tnca; deriving its na ■ e from the Cafres, Caffers or K fT'jrs, who inhabit it. The app-Jlation is d.rued from the Arabic word Ciifir, which figrifies an IrJiJel, and is ap. pb d by the A'abs, as .1 term of reproach, to all thofe who do not profefs the Mahometan religion. The Fortui^nefe taki-g the name in a tj'.ore- gr-neral fcnfe, have denomin .ted all thole aauons of Atnca Ctijfres, who have, or feem 10 have C A G hare no knowledge of a deity. Geographers liave riot ;igrccd in afTi^iiing tlie boundaries of tliat country in the foutliern part of Africa, to which tlie appellation of Caffra- ria has been appropriated. Jjy fume, the name has been applied to the whole countiy that commcncts at Cape Ne- gro ; extending from thence fouth-eafterly to the Cape of Good Hope, thence, north-eall to the river Del Spiritu Sanfto, which feparates it on the north-eall from Monomo- tapa ; reaching on the north, ahnoll to the equator, where it borders on the kingdom of Makoko ; and bounded on the north-weft by Congo, or Lower Guinea, and the king- dom of Benguela. Accordingly, they have divided this ex- teiifive country into the kingdom of Mataman, the country of the Hottentots, Terra de Natal, and Terra dos Fumos. Others have divided Caifraria into two parts, viz. CaftVaria Proper, and the country of the Hottentots. The inhabi- tants of Caffraria Proper are generally taller than the Hot- tentots, more robi:ft, fierce, and warlike, and yet their maniters are as inoffenfive. Their figure is more graceful, their countenances are not fo narrow, nor their cheeks fo prominent as thofe of the Hottentots ; neither have they the broad flat faces and tliick lips of the inhabitants of Mo- zambique. If it were not for their colour, many of their females would be deemed beautiful even by the Europeans. They tattoo themfelves very much, and wear their hair frizzled. In hot weather they are naked ; but in winter they throw a " kros" of calPs or ox's (Icin over their fhoul- ders, which reaches to the ground. Their huts are larger and more regular than thofe of the Hottentots ; their frames are conftrudled of wood, and they are plaftered within and without with a mixture of cow's dung and clay. The women form vefiels of clay, and weave bafl.h. Smitii's Kerry. Cahir., a fmall idand in the Atlantic ocean, on the well coall of the county of Mavo, Ireland, a little fouth of the entrance into Clcv' bay. N. lat. Sj° 44'- W. long. 9- 53'. CAHIRCONRr.E, a h^gh mountam, fouth of Tralee, i:i the cninty of Kerry, Ireland, the name of which is fup- pofed to fig.iify t/ji Jorlrefi of k'mg Cm. Oa the top of it IS a ciicle of niaffy llones", laid one on the other, in the man- ner of a Danilh iDtrenchmeut, feveral of them bting from eight to ten cubical feet, but all very rude. Different opinions have been entertained refpeflin^ this and other ancient monuments of the fame kind. Some fuppofe them to be of eaftcrii origin, and defigned forrcligion.s purpofes in honour of the fun ; whilll others nuiutani tliat they are of uorthcrn origin, and were monuments of lome great adion perfonned near the place, or perhaps a fepulchral trophy raifed over fome eminent perfon. Mr. Pinktrton, in his account of Stone henge, fuppofes them to have been intro- duced by the Bd^iC or Goths, whom he conliders as the Irifh Flrbolgi. Thefe people ufed them, he fays, as circles of judgment, or folemn places where courts were held, of all kinds and dignities, from the national council down to the baronial court, or that of a common pr.iprietor of land, fur adjulling difpules between his vUljiii and flaves. According to this account they are of greater antiquity than the Danes, though ufed by this people. The common people, unable to conceive how human Ibength could p.ifiibly raife ftones of fuch a prodigious wtiglit to the liimmit of a llcep moun- tain above 2000 feet high, get over the difficulty by fiippof- ing it to have been the work and labour of a giant. See Stone-hf.nge. Smith's Kerry. CoUeflanea Hibernica. Ledwich's Antiquities. Pinkertou's Geography. C.\HLLO, in IchthyrAogy, a name given by fome old writers to the tifh they alfo called lupus marinus, or wolf-filh, anarhichas lupus of Linmus. C.^HOKIA, ill Geography, a fettlement in the nortli- weflern territory of America, north of Kaflcaflvias, which fee. CAHORS, a confiderable town of France, before the revolution the capital of Q_uei"cy, and lee of a bifhnp, now the principal place of adillr.C^ in the department of the Lot, fituate in a vale between mountains on the bank of the river l_ot. One part of the town feems to lean agaiuft the fteep fide of a mountain; the other is feattd in a fmall plain, watered by the meaiiJering llream of the river, and finely cultivated, with its corn-fields, gardens, and fruit-trees, particularly the almond. The town is irregularly built, artd its (Ireets are narrow. The cathedral church is diftinguifhed by its large cupola, which mull in part have been an ancient Roman work : the remains alfo of a Roman amphitheatre and aque- duft are feen in this place. The number of inhabitants in the north and fouth diftrifts of the town is 11,728, in the north canton 10,162, and in the fouth 8,981 ; the territory comprehends i^i^ kiliometres and 10 communes. The lands round the town are very fertile ; and the wine of this place has high reputation, and is exported from Bourdeau.'c as an article of commerce. It is produced by dwarf or ground vines, on fteep mountains, and holds a high rank among the red wines of France. This town is fortified and furrounded with thick walls ; but it was taken by affault by Henry IV. in ijjSo, when mortars are faid to have been firft »fed, N-lat. 44° 27'. E.long. 1° (>'. C A 1 C.\HUS.\C, Louis DE, in Biography, was borrf at Montauban, and having tinilhed his lludics at 'I'ouloufe, was admitted an advocate. On his return to Montauban, be obtained the poft of fecretary of the intendance. He after- wards removed to Paris, ar.d became ftcrctary to the count de Clermont, and after attending him in the campaign of 1745, he devoted himfelf to literature, and particularly to- dramatic compofitions. He died at Paris in June i759' His temper was retllefs, lively, and arrogant ; and his fenli- bility with regard to his reputation was fo acute, that it is faid to have produced a degree of derangement, which pro- bably fiiortened his days. His publications were " Grigri," a romance, l2mo. ; "The Hillory of the Dance, ancient and modern," 3 vols. l2mo; " Pharamond," written in j; ;6, and the tragedy of the " Earl of \Varvvick ;" two comedies, viz. " Zeneide," and the " Algerine;" the " Feftivities of Polyhymnia," and of " Hymen," " Zais,"' " Nais," " Zoroaiier," the "Birth of Ofiris," and " Ana- creon," all operas ; befides the " Loves of Tempe," which is alfo afcribed to him. Biog. Dift. Cahusac, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lot and Garonne, and diilrift of Lauzun, and 5 miles E.N.E. from it. CAHUZ ACy!;r Ferre, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Tarn, and diftridl of Gaillac, and 2 leagues N. of it. CAHYS, in Commerce, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in fome parts of Spain, particularly at Seville and Cadiz. It is near a bnfhcl of our meafure. CAI, in Zoology. The Linnaan Simia Midas is de- fcribed under this name by Ray in his Hiitory of Q^uadru- peds. CAJA, in Entomology, the fpecies of Phaljen.4, known in England by the name of the garden tiger moth. The anterior wings are whitifh, with large fulcous fpots ; pof- terior pair red with black fpots. Donov. Brit. hij. Caja, in Geography, a river ot Portugal, which runs into the Guadiana, 7 miles E. of Elvas. Caia, in Ornithology. Buffon gives this name to the HOODED Parrot, Psittacus pileatus. Caia, in the Turkijh Military Orders, an officer ferving in the poft of a deputy or lleward, and afting for the body of the janizaries. CAI AC, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Irak ; 64 miles W.S.W. of Ifpahan. CAJ.^NA, or Cajaneborg, a town of Sweden in a lehn or dillriil of the fame name, and capital of Eall Both- nia, feated on a lake near the borders of Lapland, and al- iiiofl furrounded by the river Pyha, which forms a tremen- dous cataraft in the neighbourhood. The diltrift of v.-hich it is a part is about 60 leagues long and 16 broad. It was granted as a barony, in 1650, to Peter Brahc, under the title of the fief of Cajana. N. lat. 64° 13' 30". E. long. 15° -5°' 47"- CAIANI, in Ecclejiajlical Antiquity, a fort of heretics, thus denominated from one Caianus of Alexandria, their leader, otherwife denominated Aphthartodocetj^. The fame name is fometimes alfo given to the fe£t of Cai- nians or Cainites. CAIAON, in Geography, a kingdom of the ifland of Java. CAIAPHAS, in Scripture Hiftory, the high prieft of the Jews, at the time of our Saviour's crucifixion. He fucceeded Simon, the fon of Camithus, A. M. 4029, and after pofTeffing this dignity nine years, till the year A. M. 40J85 was depofed by Vitellius, governor of Syria, and the C A K rhe dignity devolved upon Jonathan, the fon of Ananiis. [t appi;ars that Caiaphas was high priift all the time tli.it Pilate was in Jiidea. Som.' have thought, that the phiafc, being his^h-pritll that fame year" (John, xi. 49.) implies, that St. John fuppoied the high priclUiood was annual. And on this account, they have been difpofed to cliargc him with a great miftaice ; for Pontius Pilnte was governor of Jiu';«a 10 years, and C^laphas was put into the pncft- hood by Valerius Gratus, the prcdcccffor of Pilate, and continued in it, tdl after Pilate's removal. But the phrafe " that year," as it (hould have been rendered, and not " th.it fame year," denotes no more than " at that time." St. John, therefore, merely fays, that Caiaphas was hii^h- priell at that time. It is added, that " being highprii.ll that year he prophefied." By prophcfying we may nnder- , {land his declaring the event; which it was in a peculiar 'rnanner the office of the prieit to do, when he was inquired jof, or when God was inquired of by him, concerning any I important matter under deliberation. Lardner's works, I vol. i. p. .587, &c. C.'VJARE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the j diftriCl of Figcac ; 5 J leagues E. of Cahois. The town ■ contains 197J and the canton 8,126 inhabitants: the ter- ritory includes 207^ hiliomelres and 14 communes. CAIATUS, in Botany, (Rnmph. amb. iv. 64, t. 24). Dee /EsCHYNOMFNE itidica. CAIAZACOS, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 40 miles W.S.W. of 15ayamo. ' CAjAZZO, a town of Naples, in the country of La- vora, the fee of a billiop, fufFragan of Capua, 8 miles N.E. of it. CAIC, Caique, Caica, in Sea-language, is ufed to de- mte the lldif, or floop, belonging to a galley. The CotFacks give the fame name, eaic, to a fmall kind ■01 bark ufcd in the navigation of the Black fea. It is equipped with forty or fifty men, all foidiers ; their employ- ment is a kind ot piracy. The Turks have alio a fort of Caics, which fome rerjder by llremcs. The Caics, or Caiq'.ies, that navigate the fea of Marmora, are generally manned by two or three rowers ; and they are inceffantly employed in croffing the harbour, and proceeding with celcritv to all the villages of the Bofphorus, to Scutari, to Prince's idands, and to every place in the environs. Thefe caiques are long narrow boats, extremely light, equipped with one, two, or three pairs of oars, feldom with four. They carry one or two, and even three fails, which are fet only in fair weather, or wlien the wind is not too ftrong. They are not provided with ballatl, and are fo buoyant that a fomewlkat Itiff breeze would overfet them, if the boatman did not take care to let go the (heet on the fmalleft danger, and to throw t!ie boat up in the wind by fhifting the helm. Thefe caiques are fo numerous, and they divide the water with fuch Telocity, that in fome cafes the utmoit ili are manned by 28 boftangees, drtlfed in white, the boftan- £ee-bachi being the cock.fwaij), or ileerfman. The caiciue C A J of the grand vifiir has 12 pairs of oars ; tliofc of the prin. cipal oilicers of the Porte, and of the ambaffadors of foreign powers, have feven pairs each. In thefe large caiques one man is required for each oar ; while ihofe of private perfolij are fufficiently nariow for a fmgle man to make ufe of two oars at a time. When the fultan in fummer vifits his different palaces on the Black fea, his caique is diftinguifhcd by a beautiful criinfon awning, fprcad towards tiie (Tern : and he i. preceded and followed by a number of others, in which are his principal officers. CAICANDROS, or Ciicandrus, in /tnacnt Geogra- phy, an idrind of the Perfian gnlt, 400 lladla dilbnt from Cdtxa, and bv^^forc a place named Ilan, according to the journal of the navigation of Nearchus. It is mentioned alfo by Arrian, It was a fmall place and uninhabited. CAICINUS, a river of Italy in Brutium, near the Epi- zephyrian Locrians. It was near this river that the Atlic- nians invaded the territory of the Locrians. CAICO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 25 miles S. E.of Bayamo. CAICOS, or Cavos, a duller of fmall iflands or rocks,- called /.;//A' and Crcii/ Ca I cos, lying between St. Domin- go, and the Bahama iflands. N. lat. 21" 14' to 22° 23', W. long. 71° 40' to 71*^ 50'i CAICUS, \\\ Entomology, a fpecles of Sphinx that in- habits Surinam. The wings are fnfcous : poflerior pair rufous ilreaked with black : abdomen cinereous with black rings. Caicus, in ^Indent Geography, a friiall river of Afia Minor, in Myfia, winch pafl'ed near the frontiers of Lydia, and uniting with other flreams, difcharged itfclf into the fea near Elxa ; fuppofed to be the prefent Cirmajli. CAIDBEIA, in Boiai^', (Forlk. jEgyp.) Se skoehlea. CAJELI, or CagEly, in Geography, a bay at the northeaft end of the ifland of Bouro, where the Dutch have a fortrefs. CAJELIE, a countiy of Celebes in India, lying on tlic wellei n fliore of the ifland, towards the north, between Mandhar Mamoedje and Sinlenfe, which is the I'outhernmoft place belonging to the government of Temate. By the treaty of Boni, this country was ceded to the king of Ter- rate ; but the government at Batavia afterwards iffued orders that it fhould be confidered as belonging to the g.>4 vernment of Macalfer. It formerly yielded much cocoa-nut- oil ; but fi'.ice the year 1730, it has been fo much ravaged, firll by the internal diflenfions between their own noblco, and afterwards by the Mandharefe, that all the cocoa-nuC trees were felled ; and the land lies now almofl uncultivated ■ and defert, and is fubjeft, for the greatcll p:>rt, to the Mandtiarefe. CAJEPUT Oil, Oleum Volatile Melaleuca. This cf- fential oil is prepared from the dried leaves of the Mela- leuca Leucoilenilron, a tree which grows abundantly in many of the Molucca iflands. The oil is brought over in confiderable quantity from Amboyna, Batavia, and other Dutch fettlenients. Cajeputoil is a very limpid fluid with a flight green tinge, lighter than water, of a verv penetrating and peculiar fmell fomewhat refembling a mixture of ether and camphor, to- tally evaporable in a moderate temperature when expofed to air, very inflammable and burning without leaving any re.» fidue. In chemical quahties it refembles the other ejfuuial Oils. To the tatle it is highly acrid and ftitnulating, and it appears to polTels valuable medicinal properties as a general ■ ihraulant • .^gyp.) See For- C A J ftiniuhiil and anlifpafniodic. Hence it is warmly recom- mended in flatuleni colic, paralyfis, chorea, hooping cough, and convulfivc diforders in general. The dofe is from one to fix drops. It is alfoof confiderable nfeexttnially applied for the relief of tootli-acli, rheumatic pains, fprains, and the like. Tliis oil was firft introduced into the Amflerdam Pharmacopoeia about the year ip6, and is retained in the lall edition of that of Edinburgh. Infefts have a great averfion from this oil, the vapour of which appears to intoxicate and kill them. A peculiar property of cajcp'.it, in which it excels other eflential oils, is, that it is a perfect folvent o( c.ioutrhoiic, from which a per- fect drying varnidi may be madt in the manner defcnbed under that article. CAIET, OrCAVET, PCTER ViCTOR PaLMA, in AV ^rapky, was born in i',-^, of pnor Proteftaat parents, at 'Montrichard in Touraine ; and after purfuing his theologi- cal lludies at Geneva, became a domelUc in tlic houfe of Calvin, and afterwards a minilter. However, he left his churcli to follow the court, and was appointed chaplain to Catharine, liiler of Henry 1\'. ; but being addifted to al- chemy, he was calumniated as a magician, and charged with publilhing a book in favour of the ellablifliment of public Hews ; and depofed from his miniilerial funftion by a fynod. Thus difgraccd, he abjured Proteftantifm, in 1595, and was ccu'diaily received by tiie Roman Catholics, among whom he was ordained pricft at the college of Na- varre, and made dodlor in theology, and appointed royal pro- fclfor of Hebrew. His zeal, aj a new convert, led him to attack the fed he had abandoned in feveral controveifial writings, and in a difpntation with Du Moulin. But his principal reputa'.ion was founded on his hillorical compila- tion?. In 1 598 he publifhed a relation of the recent war between the Turks and Hungarians ; and, in 1605, his " Septenai7 Chronology," from the peace of Vervins, in 1^98, to 1604, to which he afterwards added the hiftory pf the nine years' war, terminated at this peace, in his " No- vennary Chronology," printed in 1608. He alfo wrote two works in Latin ; one intitled, " Concilium pium de componendo Rcligionis Diffidio," and the other, " In- UruClions in the four principal Oriental Languages." He died in 1610. Gen. Did. CAJETA, in Entomology, the name under which Cra- mer figures the Gmehnian Noctua fullonica, which fee. CAJETA, in Aiuutil Geography, a fea port town of Italy in Latium, now Gxta. CAJETAN, Cardinal, in Biography, fo called from the place of his nativity, Cajeta, (his proper name being Thomas da Via,) was born in lafii-), and entered into the order of Dominicans, among whom he was diftinguiflied for the acutcnefs of his underftanding and his learning. The chapter of his order conferred upon him the degree of doftor in 1494; and after having taught philofophy at Rome and at Paris, he was chofen general of his order in 1508, and railed to the dignity of cardinal in 1517, by Leo X. In the following year he was deputed as legate to the emperor, for promoting the war againil the Turks and oppofing the Lutheran hercfy. At this time he held three conferences with Luther at Auglburg, in tlie conduil of which he behaved in a manner fo imprudent and imperious as to give offence at the court of Rome. Inilead of recurring to argument, he ufed tiie mere language of autho- rity, and in aii overbearing tone infilled on the reformer's giving up his opinions and fubmitting refpeftfully to the iudgment of the Roman pontiff. Luther's temper could not brook fuch treatment, and of courfe the breach was C A I widened by thefe conferences. Pope Adrian VI. fcnt him at his legate to Hungary, and upon his return he was promoted to the fee of his native city. When Rome was lacked in 1527, he fell into the hands of the foldiers, by whom he was treated with great indignity, and they infifted on a large fum for his ranfom. He clofed his lite at Rome, where he was afriduoully employed in the ftudy of the Scriptures, in I ^34. His earlier works were " Commentaries upon Arif- totle," and upon the " Summa Theologiae" of Aquinas, lu his " Traftatus de Comparatione Authoritatis Papx et Concilii," he alleges many frivolous and groundlefs argu- ments in favour of the abfolute authority of the popes as fucccfl'ors to St. Peter. His theological treatifes difcufs the molt important tenets of tr.e Roman Catholic religion ; and in his illuftration of the doflrine of indulgences he main- tains that they avail on'y as an abfolution from the penance* enjoined by the church, but that their benefits extend to fouls departed merely in the way of fuffrage or interceflion. With rtfpeft to indulgences he contended, in his conference with Luther, that " one drop of Chrifl's blood being fufii- cient to redeem the whole human race, the remaining quan- tity that was (hed in the garden and upon the crofs, was left as a legacy to the church, to be a trcafure from whence indulgences were to be draw'n and adminiftercd by the Ro- man pontiffs." Cajetan's moll confiderable work is his " Commentary upon the Scriptures," comprehending the Old and New Teftament, except the Son^ of Solomon, the Prophets, and the book of Revelation. In this performance, he re- flrieted himfelf to the literal fenfe of the words of Scripture in the original languages, without regarding the expofitions of the fathers. Ignorant of the Hebrew, he employed a Jew and a Chriftiau to furnifh him with the exaft import of the words according to the letter and grammar, without troubling themfelves to give a fenfe of their own when no fenfe appeared. In the New Teftament he chiefly followed the verlion of Erafmus. By deferting the vulgar Latin tran- flation, and difregarding the fathers, he incurred the cenfure of fome of his own communion ; and, in 1544, the uuiverfity of Paris iffued a decree, condemning his work, as contain- ing falfe, impious, and even heretical proportions. Some more candid Cathohcs have vindicated him, though he is juftly charged with too fcrupuloufly adhering to the literal verfiou of the rabbins. Many editions of his works have appeared. Thofe on the Scriptures were printed at Lyons, in 1639, in 5 vols. fol. Dupin's E. H. l6th century, Molheim's E. H. vol. iv. CAI-FONG, in Geography. See Kai-fong. CAILAR, a town of France, in the department of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Lo- deve. The town contains 722, and the canton 3127 in- habitants : the territory comprehends 255 kiliometres, and 8 communes. CAILHAU, a town of France, in the department of the Aude, and diftridt of Limoux ; 35 leagues S. W. of CarealTonne. CAILLE, Nicholas Lewis de la, in Biography, an eminent mathematician and philofopher, was born at Rumigny, in the diocefe of Rheinis, March the 15th, 1713. The amufements of his father, after withdrawing from the army, in mathematical and mechanical philofophy, led the fon, at an early period, to form an attachment to mechanics. Haying left fchool in 1729, he profecuted his lludies at Paris, an-d applied particularly to theology, in the college of Navarre, with an intention of becoming an ecclefiaflic. But his inclination to aftronomy diverted his purpofe ; and, by the friendfhip of tRe celebrated CalTmi, to whcm he was introduced, 'ft * C A I .! reduced, lie olitalned an appointment in the obfervatory ; ,i.i iinJcr the iiillniiilion of tiiis excellent patron, iiis natural ^ciiius liad favourable opportunities for cultivation and cx- ercife, and he acquired the reputation of an able aflronomer. In 1739 he was conncfted with M. CafTnii de Thury, in verifying; the meridian through the whole extent of France; and in the fame year he was appointed profeffor of Mathe- matics in the college of Mazarine. In 1741 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and from this year to 1763 in- Llufive, he enriched every volume of tlie memoirs with fomc valuable paper. He alfo publiilied, at diderent periods, fume uleful trcatifes on geometry, allronomy, mechanics, and :iptics. He alfo computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon, from the commencement of the Cliriilian xra, which were printed in the work intitled , " L'Art de verifier les Dates, &c." Paris, 1750, 4to. He alfo compiled a volume of " Aftronomical Ephemerides," for 10 years, from 1745 to 1755; another from 17J5 to 1765; and a third, from 1765 to 1775. His excellent work, intitled, " Aftronomiaj Fundamenta, noviflimis Solis et Stellarum Obfervationibus ftabilita ; " was publifhed at Paris in 1759 ; and in 1760 ap- peared his corrcft folar tables, under the title of " Tabulx folates, qiias e noviflimis fuis obfervationibus deduxit," N. L. de la Caille. Having completed a feries of feven years' obfervations in the obfervatory at the Mazarine college, he formed a pro- eft, which vi'as approved by the French conrt, ofobferving :he fouthcrn ftars at the Cape of Good Hope; and pro- :eeded upon this expedition in 1750. In the fpace of two years he obferved the places of about 10,000 liars in the fouthern hemifphere, invifible in our latitude ; and deter- Tiined feveral other important elements, fuch as the parallaxes jf the fun and moon, and fome of the planets, the obliquity )f the ecliptic, the quantities of refraftion, &c. Previous ;o his return he engaged in the arduous attempt of eilimat- ng the dimenfions of the earth by meafurement, at the onthern parallels, as other aftronomers had done near the ;quator, and in northern latitudes, with a view of deciding whether the former correfponded with the latter. The re- "ults of his labours were fatisfaftory ; for having determined a liftance of 4108 14 feet from a place called " Klip-Fontyn" :o the "Cape," by means of a bafe of 3SS02 feet, three limes aftually meafured, he difcovered an unknown fecret jf nature, vi/. that the radii of the parallels in fouth latitude ire not of the fame length with thofe of the correfponding parallels in north latitude. He found that a degree on the Tieridian in 32° S. lat. contains ,^42222 Paris feet. In con- formity to orders from the court of Verfailles, he alfo de- :ermincd the fituation of the' Ides of France and Bourbon. During his abode at the Cape he likewife made fome curious neteorological obfervations ; and he particularly obferved, ;han vvhen the fouth-eall wind blows, which is often the ;afe, the ftars appear larger and feem to dance; that the •noon has an undulating tremor; and that the planets have I fort of beardlike comets. Upon his return to France, after an abfence of 4 years, le replied to fome ftriftures, publifhed by the celebrated Euler, relating to the meridian : he afterwards fettled the refults of the comparifon of his own obfervations, refpefting the parallaxes, with thofe of other aftronomers. Accord- ingly, he fixed that of the fun at 9-^,", that of the moon at 56' 56", that of Mars, in his oppofition, at j6", and that if Venus at j8". He alfo fettled the laws, by which aftro- nomical refraftions are varied by the different denfity or ra- rity of the air, by heat or cold, and by drynefs or moifture. And he was one of the firft promoters of the lunar obferva- tions for determining the longitude at fea. In confcquence C A I of the reputation which he had thus acquired and eftabllfhed, he was elcded a member of moft of the academies and foci- cties in F.urope : as London, Bologna, Peterfburg, Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. Independently of his own publications, he edited the me- moirs of Father Feuillee, at the Canaries; the journal of the voyage of M. de Chazelle, to the Levant; the maiuifcript coUe-ftiou of obfervations of William, Landgrave of HefTe, and Bouguer's trcatife on the gradation of light. Although he was attacked in 1 760 with a fevere fit of the gout, the energy of his mind was unimpaired: fo that befides purfuing his courfe of ftudies, he fkctchcd out the plan of a new and large work, propofed to be " The Hiftory of Aftrononiy through all Ages, with a Comparifon of the ancient and modern Obfervations, and the Coullruftion and Ufe of the Inftruments employed in working them." In the year 1761 his conftitution gradually declined, without interrupting his ftudies, in which he perfevcred to the laft : and they only terminated with his life, March 21ft, 1762. Mem. of the Paris Academy for 1762. Caillf,, in Ornithology, among the French, fynonymonS with the Englifti word quail, as for example, ca'iUe de la Lou'ifiane of Buffon, the Lonifiane quail of Latham ; caille de la Chine of Buffon, the Chinefe quail of Edwards; caille ds I'ljle de Lugon of Sonncrat, the Luzonian quail of Latham, &c. CAILLERE, LA, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vendee; 4^ leagues N. E. of Lucon. CAILLOT, in Biography, a moft pleafing, and almofl the only pleafing, thcatiical French finger, to the natives of other countries, that France has produced. He continued, during many years, the favourite aftor and finger of the comic opera at Paris. His voice, which he could make a bafe, tenor, or counter-tenor at pleafure, was fueet and flexible. He was an excellent aftor, and, in all rcfpefts, a moft interefting, entertaining, and admirable performer. He firft appeared in the part of Colas, in Ninette a la Cour, in 1760. CAILLY, in Geography, a town in France, in the de- partment of the Lower Seine, and diftrift of Rouen ; 35 leagues N.N.E. of Rouen. CAILO, a fmall ifland in the gulph of Perfia, 80 leagues W. of Ormus. CAIMACAN, or Caim.\cam, a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to that of lieutenant, or vicar, among us. The word is compofcd of the two Arabic words. Cairn viiichiim, q. d. he who holds the place, or difcharges the funBions of another. There are ufually two caimacans : one refides at Conftan- tinople, who is the governor thereof: the other attends the grand vifir, in quality of his lieutenant. Sometimes there are three caimacans : one conftantly attending the grand fignior, another the grand vit'r, and a third conftantly at Conflantinople, who examines affairs of policy, and regulates them in great meafure. The caimacan that attends the vifir, only officiates when at a diftance from the grand fignior ; his funftion ceafing, when the vifir is with the fultan. The caimacan of the vifir is his fecretary of ftate, and the firft miniller of his council. The caimacan is properly the fub- ftitute of the grand vifir, appointed by the fultan, when tlie former is obliged to abfent himfelf in order to take command of the army. The caimacan difcharges his funftions, is in- vefted with the fame authority, enjoys the fame rights, but not the fame revenues ; his falary is fixed, and the emolu- ments of the place belong to the vifir, to whom the caimacan renders an account of them. It is generally a pacha or baftia«" C A 1 b;»(}inw wjtli liiree tails wlio is nppointi.cl to this eminent place. CAT^rAN, ill Gcor;niphy. See Cayman. CAIMENI. See Kammeni and Hiera. CAIN, ''p, derived from njp> '° acquire, and denoting arqiiyilion or pojfjfion, in Scnpluif Hijhry, the cldeft fon of the progenitor-sol the luiman race, Adam and Eve, was born towards the end of the firll year of the world, B. C. 400 j. TVom the concife hiflory of Cain that occurs in Genelis, tli.iv. \vc learn, that he devoted himfclf to luifbandry, and his brother Abel to the keeping of (heep ; that when they brought their refpcdive offerings to God, that of Abel was accepted, and that of Cain rejected ; that this preference en- raged Cain, exciting in his mind jcaloufy and envy of his brother ; and that the indulgence of thefe wicked pafhons at length tcrmmated in the murder of his brother. As a pu- nilhment of this atrocious crime, God condemned him to be a fugitive and vagabond on earth, and to till an ungrateful foil, which (hould not recompenfe his labour with tlie plenty and increafe he had before experienced. Neverthelefs he fet a mark upon him, or gave him a fign, that none might take away his life in his wanderings. Many ridiculous conjeftures have been made both by Jews and Chriftiaus concerning this mark. Some have fuppofcd that God fligniatifed him with a lirandin his forehead, to denote his being accurfcd ; others, that he had a wild afpeck and bloody eyes, which rolled in a horrid manner. The fathers, in general, apprehend, that he had a continual trembling of the body, fo that he could hardly get his food to his mouth ; and this opinion is fa- voured by the LXX, which render " a fugitive and a vagabond" rsvo;* kki Tf^/xx-v, lamenting and tremb'ing. Others fay, that wherever he went the earth Hiook under him ; and others again intimate, that he had a horn growing out of his forehead, to warn people to avoid him ; and others have in- dulged him with the fign of the crofs. Le Clerc imagines, that God ordered him to wear fome diftinguiOiing garment, perhaps of fome glaring colour, as a mark or fign upon him for his prefervation. To thefe fanciful conjcftures we may add a more probable opinion of Dr. Shuckford (Conn, voj.i. p. 8.), who renders the words niH* XZV^ ^\^\i ('pS ♦' God gave to Cain a fign," or token, probably by fome apparent miracle, that he would providentially prote(Sl him ; fo that none that met him (hould kill him. In this fenfe the word mji is ufed, when the rainbow is called the m}<{ oth, that is, the fign, or token, of the covenant which God made with Noah, afTuring him that he would drown the world no more. (Gen. ix. 12 — 17.) See alfo Judg. vi. 17. Pfalm, Ixxxvi. 17. Dr. Geddes (Crit. Rem. vol. i. p. 59.) tranflates the words above cited, " and the Lord gave a token of fecurity to Cain ;" and he obferves, that the original cannot admit of the common interpretation, as there is not a fingle paffagc in the Bible where p['^ fignifies a tnark or brand fet on one. It always denotes a Jign, a token, a ivonHerful event ; but never a mari. And although CTJJ^ fignifies to J>lace or fet, it has often a meaning like that of TJ^J ; and /^^^< Dil" '^ ^^■■'^ equivalent to jn' HMi^ ^"d fuch is its fignification wherever it is connedlcj with the word J^^J{. Pf. Ixxiv. 4. Ixxviii. 4;. cv. 27. If. Ixvi. 19. Cain at length fettled with his wif° and family in the land of N'^d, on the eall of Eden, where he built a city, calling it after the name of his fon, Enoch. But Jofephus fays (Ant. l.i. c. 2.) that iiidead of being reformed by the punifhment in- flifted on him, he became more wicked and violent, and headed a band of thieves, whom he taught to acquire riches by oppreffion and robbery. He is faid to have corrupted and chniged the finiplicity and honefty of the world, and to Have invented weights and meafures. He was alfo the firft C Al who fet bounds to the fields, and who built and fortified* city. CAINAN, the fon of Enos, was born A. M. 325, B C. 3679, Enos being 90 years of age. Gen. v. 9. At the age of 70 he begat Mahaleel, and died at the age of 910 years, A. M. 1235, B. C. 2769. Caivan was alfo thefonof Arphaxad, and father of Salah, whofe name does not occur either in the Samaritan or Hebrew text, nor in any of the ancient verfions of Gen. xi. 12, &c. except the LXX ; and hence it has been generally deemed an interpolation. The name, however, oct:urs in the genea- logy of Chrifl, Luke iii. 36, between Snlali and Arphaxad. Dr. Jackfon, in the firll volume of his " Chronohigical Antiquities," labours hard to fliew, that the reading of the LXX is the true original reading, and that it Hood in the I original copies till after the Chrillian a:ra. It muft be ac- ' knowledged, that it is not eafy to determine by what means it could have got into the Septuagint verfion, if it had not been found in their Hebrew copv ; and it is certain, that it muft have been In the copy ufed by St. Luke in forming his genealogy of Chrill. It is not eafy to conceive, how fuch an interpolation could have been made, or for what purpofe; whereas its having been dropt out of the Hebrew text may be readily accounted for. On the other hand, the confor- mitv of tlie Samaritan with the Hebrew copies, the filence of Jofephus and Philo, and its omilFion in the chronological computations of Julius Africanus, Eulcbius, and Tlieophilus, are urged as cogent proofs tliat the pafTage was not in the original copies of the Septuagint ; and Grotius even ilfferts, that it was not to be found there before the 4th century. But it may be afleed, how csme it to be iiilcrted ? To which it is replied, that it was foifted into St. Luke's gofpel by fome carelefs copyift from ver. 37, where it rightly occurs; and this interpolation, being tranfcribed by other copyiftsi got imperceptibly into almoft all the exemplars ; and, on thefe exemplars, the copies of the I^XX were next interpo- lated, in order to make them agree with the evangelift. This indeed, though not an impoflTible, is certainly a ftrange, rapid, and almoft incredible procefs. For we find this fame interpolated Cainan in the Syriac, Vulgate, Arabic, and Ethiopic verfions. Upon the whole there is reafon for in- clining to the opinion, that the comma in queftion flood originally in the Septuagint verfion, and that Luke drew his genealogy from that verfion. After all, it is a point, in its conneAion with Biblical criticifm, of no great moment, as the defign of the evangelift was only to prefent us with the genealogy of Chrift in its afcent to Adam, which is equally clear, whether we reckon Salah as the immediate dcfcendaut of Arphaxad, or whether we confider him as his grandfon by Cainan. We muft not, however, omit to mention, that the comma is wanting in three of Holmes's MSS. in the Coptic (which indeed has Cainan, but makes him one of the fons of Shem, and places him after Aram), and Armenian, edited copies, and in one Arab. MS. Nor was it read by Theo- philus ; nor by Jerom in his Heb. Qiieftions ; where he ex- prefsly fays, " Ari haxad genuit Sala." CAINAS, in Ancient Gi-cj/vi/i/iv, a navigable river of Afia, which difcharged itfelf into the Ganges; mentioned both by Pliny and Arrian. CAINITES, or Cainians, in Ecclefiajikal Hiflory, a feft of ancient Gnoftics, that fprung up towards the clofe of the fecond century, and paid extraordinary honours to thofe perfons rcprefented in Scripture as the worft of man- kind ; fo called from Cain, whom they efteemed their patri- arch, and the chief objeft of their veneration. They held that Cain, Efau, Core, Dathan, and Abiram, and thofe of Sodom, were born of a moft eminent celeftial virtue ; that 6 Abel, C A I C A I Abel, on die contrary, was born of a virtue much Icfs em- neiit : to Cain, and others of tlie fame order, wlio, according to tlieni, had a niij^lity knowledge of all tilings, tliey afl'o- ciated Judas, whom tliey held in fo much clbcem, tliat ihey had a book among- them called the gofpel of fndas. S. Epiphanius, ulio ieems to have borrowed his account from Irenxus, relates, and at the fame time refutes, their errors. Irenasus and Epiphanius concur in their accounts of tlie ^rofs errors and atrocious wickednefs of thefe people. Dr. Lardner, however, difputes tiie credibility of their relation. The wickednefs afcribed to them, he fays, is incredihle ; as it is not eafy to conceive, that any number of pei foils calling themfelves Ghriftians fliould honour Cain, Core, and Judas, and all who lie under juft condemnation in the fcriptures, both of the Old and New Teftament, for the moft notorious wickednefs ; and befides, the account is inconfiftent with itfelf ; for it is not poffible that men ftiould be extremely wicked in principle and practice, and at the fame time be concerned about the falvation that is by the crofs of Clirift, and honour Judas for his love of truth, and folicitude for the falvation of the world and the general good. Moreover, the rife of this denomination of Cainites may be accounted for another way, without making a particular feft. It might arife from the Sethians, thofe who called themfelves by that name, and extolled their anceftor. Seth could not well avoid declaiming againft Cain ; and they might fometimes fay of thofe in a different courfe of life from themfelves, that they afted as if they were the children of Cain, who was of the evil one ; and feemed to flicw themfelves kindred of Core, and Dathan, and even Judas himfelf. From this circumftance, or mode of fpeaking, fome perfons, who were difpofed to multiply herefies, took occalion, or by millake were led to talk of a feft under the denomination of Cainites. Lardner's Works, vol. ix. p.456. See Sethians. CAINITO, in Botany (Plum. Gen. 10. k. 69.). See C H R Y S O S P H Y L L U -M Cainito. CAINON, Kaivov, the wfw court, in Ant'iqu'tty, a civil court of juftice at Athens, fometimes called TapiSurov /xotov, which took cognizance of trifling matters, not exceeding in value one drachm. The judges in this court were the eleven uiagiftrates. See Athens. CAINS, in the idand ofCandia, denote Greeks revolted, and retired to the Venetians, either at Suda or Spina Longa; who, in time of war, burn, pillage, and commit all manner of cruelties on their ancient brethren under the Turks. When a Cain, or falfe brother, is taken, there is no mercy for him ; they either impale him, or put him to the ganche. CAINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Not. Imp. CAJORI, in Geography, an ifland near the mouth of the Ganges, at the bottom of the bay of Bengal, on the weft fide of the river. CAJOU, Cashew, orCAssu. See Anacardium. CAIPHA, Caiapha, or Hepha, in Ancient Geography, a town at the foot of Mount Carmel, to the north, on the gulf of Ptolemais; its ancient name was Sycaminos, or Por- phyreon. It was feparated from Acco, or Ptolemais, by a large and beautiful harbour. The diitance from Acco to Caiapha, or Capha, by fea, is not above 15 miles; but it is twice as much by land. CAIRA, in Geography, a river of South America, which runs into the Oronoko, or Orinoco. N. iat. 7° 16'. W. long. 6-;^ i'. CAIRINA, in Ornithology, the Mufcovy duck. Anas MoscHATA, according to fome authors. CAIRN. SeeCARN. CAIRNEY, in Geography^ a town of Scotland, in Aber- JcenHiIre, into wliich the linen manufaflure lias lately been introduced, and where it is likely to flourilh ; 8 miles W. of Aberdeen. CAIRNGORM, a mountain in the Highlands of Scot- land, and north-eall jiart ot the county of Inverary, 4060 feet high, called alio the Blue Mountain, v/hich is clothed with ahnoft perpetual fnow, and which is remarkable for quartz of dittererit colours, chiefly the fmoaky kind, well known to lapidaries. CAIRO, Francesco, called Cavalie're del Cairo, in Biography, a painter of hillory and portrait, was born at Milan, ill J /;9S, and inftrufted in his art by Morazzone, wliofe (lyle he for (onie time imitated; but in confequence of purfuing his iUidics at Rome, he altered his manner, and evinced his improvement by compoiing with judgment, dc- figning in an elevated llyle, and giving correftncfp, grace, and harmony to his compofitions. In the Venetian fchool, he farther acquired a ftrong and lively manner of colouring, and a talent of execution which has occafioned fome of his pictures, particularly his portraits, to be afcribed to Titian, and Paolo Veronefe. He i? faid to have adopted three manners of painting, the Milanele, Roman, and V-netian ; and by this variety he obtained extenfive employment and applaufe. At the court of the duke of Savoy, ViAor Ama- deus I., whither he was invited, he was honoured with a penfion, and with the order of knighthood. His " The- ref?.," at Venice, is much admired for its colouring and ex- preffion ; and his picture in the chapel of the Chartreus, at Pavia, reprefenting the Virgin, St. Catherine of Siena, and another faint, is excellently defigned,and beautifully colour- ed in a ftyle refembling that of Rubens. This artill died in 1674. Pilkington. Cairo, or Grand Cairo, in Geography, the chief city of Egypt, and reckoned the fecond capital of the Eaft, and the metropolis of Africa, is feated on the eaft of the Nile, and diftant from it about one quarter of a league ; but con- neAed with it by the fuburbs, called Mifr, or Mafr el At- tike, and Bulak, or Boulac, which fee. This city was founded in the year .558 of the Hegira, A. D. 968, by Jauhar, or Giavhar, general of Moaz, the firft caliph of the race of the Fathimites. Having fubjugated Egypt, he built this town for the accommodation of his viftoriou* foldiers, and a palace for the refidence of the em.peror. Four years after Moaz himfelf removed from Barbary to this place, completed the building of the city, and eftablifli- ed the empire of the Fathimites. As the foundation of the city was laid at the iullant when the planet Mars paffed the meridian, and this planet was denominated by the Ara- bian aftronomers Caher, q. d. viftorious, it obtained from this circumftance the appellation El Caherah, Kaherah, or Kaliira. This new city was ercfted near Old Cairo, former- ly called Mafr, and now Fojlat, which fee ; and farther from the Nile, which rendered its iituation lefs advantageous for trade. When the French, under king Lufignau, had ex- tended their conquefts in Syria, and carried their viftorious arms even into Egypt, they proceeded, in the year of the Hegira 564, A. D. 1168, to Belbeis, and having taken it by ilorm, they advanced towards Grand Cairo, which they alfo captured. Schaouar, king of Egypt, fearing left Follat fliould alfo fall into their hands, fet fire to it ; and the inha. bitants, being thus reduced to the ncceffity of abandoning it» took refuge in the new town, which affumed the name of " Mafr," "or " Mifr," attached to the capital of Egypt. Salah Eddin, or Saladin, being nominated governor of Egypt, in the year 564 of the Hegira, facccfsfully reCftcd the Franks, almoll entirely expelled from the caftcni coun- tries, and eftabhfiied in Egypt, of which he acquired the 4 X Ibyereignty,. CAIRO. foverrignty, the dynallv of the Aioubites. In the year jjya of the Hr^'lra, A. D! 1 176, he built the walls that en- compafi Gniiid Cairo, and the callie fituated on Mount Mo- kattam. It is faid to be about 29,,500 cubits (3 leagues) in circumference ; I5 league from north to fnitli, or, ac- ■cordin^ to Brownc's'eftimate, about .3j;oo yards, and f of a league from eall to weft. To the fouth-eaft and eaft of Grand C^.iro is a ridge, called Mokattam, of the txtcnfive chain, which runs along the courfe of the Nile to Upper Egypt, fometimes receding and leaving a plain about a league broad, and at other places oppollng its barrier to the flrcam. This mountain is totally withovit verdure, and pre- fents nothing to the eye but a dry fand and Hones calci;ied by the fun, wliich of courfe refleft a fulFocating heat upon the town, whenever the northerly wind does not blow. To the north of the city a plain extends to the Dtlta, which it re- femblcs in foil and produftions. Immediately under the mountain is the. caftle, now incapable of defence, though elleemed of great Arength, before the invention of artillery. As it is commanded by the neighbouring mountain, it could rot fuftrtin a battery from thence for two hours. It is more than a quarter of a league in circumference : and the acctfs to it is by two very lleep padages, cut out of the rock on which it Hands, which lead to two gates, cntruftcd to the guard of A(f;>bs (no longer exifting) and Jati'/.aries. The former occupied the lower part of the fortrefs, and the others, the part called tlic citadel. The interior of the callie con- tains the palace of the fultans of Kgypt, almoft buried un- der their ruins. In one of the halls of thefe ruined build- ings, exhibiting only fonie (liattered remains of their ancient magnificence, is fabricated the rich carpeting, or embroi- dered cloth, which the Emir Hagg. or bey, who is prince of the caravan, carries every year to Mecca, for the purpofe of covering the Caaba. The pacha's apartments in the caftle are jnean and incommodious ; the audience-hall, where tiie divan is held three times a week, is a long room ftained with the blood of the beys, malfacrcd by order of the Porte. At the extremity of the place called " Cora Mii'idan," is the mint (the only one for Egypt), where they coin in gold mah- b6b3, and half-mabiibs, the Cril being worth about 5 (hil- lings each ; and in copper wa!hed with filverthe fmall coins worth about a half-penny, called in Turkidi " paras," in Arabic " diwani," " fuddha," or " maidi ;" and by Eu- ropean writers, " afpcrs," and " medines." On one llde is the name of the reigning fnltan, and on the reverfe " Mifr," and the date. The fcquins are worth about 6s. 3d. Englifli, and are made of the gold-dull brought from Abyfiinia, which furniilies annually upwards of four millions. One of the moft curious monuments in the caftle is the " Well of Jofeph," hewn out of the rock, which, according to Pococke, was funk about 700 years ago by a vifir, called Jofeph, by order of fultan Mahommed, fon of Calaoun. The Egyptians afcribe it to Salah Eddin. It is hardly ne- eeffary to obferve, that fabulous tradition attributes it to Jofeph the patriarch, whofe palace this caftle is faid to have been. The well is 280 feet deep, and 42 in circumference. A ftair-cafe of gentle defcent winds round it. Within this •well, at a confidcrable depth, is an efplanade with a bafon ; where oxen turn the wheel that raifes the water from the bottom of the lower well ; other oxen, placed above, raife it from this refervoir by the fame mechanifm. The water proceeds from the Nile, and, as it fdters through a fand im- pregnated with fait and nitre, it is brackilh. From the fa- loon of the palace of Salah Eddin, fituate in the quarter of the Janizaries, and exifting only in ruins, the view extends OTer an immenfe horizon, including the whole extent of Grand Cairo, a multitude of laofques and uiinarcts, the river, and on the fide of Eoulac, a rich country covered with hzr- vefts, and interfperled with groves of diite-trces. Mafr- Eo!lat appears to the fouth-wcft, and the plains of the Said, or Upper Egypt, whin overflowed by the Nile, pre- fcnt to view diffevenl hamlets, built on eminences, now con- verted into ifland?. The landfcape is terminated by the py- ramids, which, like the tops of mountains, lofc themfelvcs in the clouds. This caftle commands the town, wUicli forms an immenfe crefcent around it. The ftre^ts of tliis famous city are narrow, crooked, and nnpaved, interfered here and there with large vacancies, which become lakes during the increafe of tlie Nile, and are gardens during the nil of llie year. In the month of September they are palTable by boats ; but in April they are covered with flowers and ver- dure. The narrownefs of the ftreets, however, affords pro- tection from the fierce effulgence ol the meridian fun. The " Chalige, " Khalig," or canal, which traverfcs Grand Cairo from north to fouth, and which is opened evei-y year with great folemnify, takes its rife near Mafr d Attike, or Foftat, fills the lakes of the city, and lofis it- felf four leagues beyond it, in the " Birqiie" (large piece of water,) of the pilgrims of Mecca. Mr. Shaw calls this the canal of Trajan. Pococke, and other modern writers, afcribe the conftruftion of it to this emptror ; and it has been, commonly denominated " Amnis Trajanus." Matrifi fay* it was built by the emperor Adrian, Elmacin, cited by Savary, fays, that this grand projedl was executed by Aiu- rou, who, having announced the capture of Alexandria to Omar, received hi^ inftrudlions to cut a khalig, by which the produce of Egypt might be tranfported mto the fea of Cnlzoum (or Red Sea), and from thence to the port of Me- dina. It was called " the river of the prince of the faith- ful ;" and boats, pafTmg from Foftat, conveyed the commo- dities of Egypt into the Red Sea. Through the neghgence of fucceeding caliphs it has been choked up, fo that it no longer conveys its waters to the Red Sea. By opening this, important communication with the Red Sea, a project which engaged the attention of Bonjparte during his ihort abode in Egypt, Grand Cairo would again become the richcft^ and moft commercial capital in the world. For a. further account of it, fee Can. 41,. At different feafuns of the year, this canal, in its paiTage through Cairo, afTumes various afpefls ; but its moft permanent charadler is that of a dung-hill, or public receptacle for all kinds of offal. Be- fore the rife of the Nile, it is cleaned, and becomes a ftreet ; it is then filled by the increafe of the river, nnd exhibits the appearance of a canal covered with boats. Tl.e kites fhriek. wildly over this canal ; and the city is infcftcd with its ufual herds of dogs ; while the tunle-covcs, unmolcfted by niea or chilJrcn, breed m the hotifes, building their nefts under the projecting beams. The principal ftreet of Cairo runs parallel to the " Cha- lige." And on this canal are all the houfes of the Europeans, notwithftanding the ftench that proceeds from it, and that is faid to produce the peftilence, to which, however, that order of men is leaft fubject. Within the walls of Grand Cairo are more than 303 mofques, moft cf which have fe- veral minarets, or high fteeples, of a very light architec- ture, and furroundcd with galleries. Thefe elevated ftruc- tures give to the city an agreeable variety, which would othcrwife appear too uniform, on account of the fiatnefs of the roofs, all of them being in the form of terraces: and they feem, alfo, to accommodate the public criers, who call the people to prayers at the hours prefcribed by the Maho- metan law. About Soo voices may be heard at the fame inftant in every quarter of the town, reminding the people of the feafons of devotion. Foiiv CAIRO. Your or five of t'le mofques at Cairo far exceti] ll:c reft in iplcndour. One of the moll iri;i;riijrKent is calLd " lama cl Az-her ;" it is ornamtnted with pillars of inarblf, and IVr- fian carpet-", and has attaclied to it immenfe property. A flieich, being an ccclcfiaftio of the higheil order, prefidcs over the tftablinimcnt, which alfo fupports a numlier of pcrfons didini^nilhcd for their profound ()^ems, and fome ufefiil drugs : from Surat, and other neighbouring parts of India are ob- tained mudins, and various articles of cotton manufafture ; from Cevlon, fpices ; and fliawls from Cartimire. A few flaves are brought from Abylfmia by the way of Jidda and Mecca. Carav.\ns pading to and from Seiniaar, Darfur, and Fezzan, bring Haves, gold-duit, ivory, horns of the rhinoceros, olbich fcatlicrs, gum, and drugs. See Cara- van. From Tunis and Tripoli are brought oil, red caps, for which Tunis is famous, and line flannel ; from Syria ar- rive cotton, filk, foap, tobacco, and glafs beads; from Conrtantinople they obtain white flaves, male and female, and all kinds of brafs, copper, and iron manufactures. Nu- merous negro flaves pafs from Cairo to the more northern Mahometan countries. " Two powerful caufcs," fays Volney, " have contri- buted to render Cairo the feat of an extenfive commerce : the firll of which is, that all the commodities coufumcd in Egypt are coUcftcd within the walls of that city ; and all the'perfons of property, that is, the Mamlukes and law- yers, are alFeniblcd there, and draw thither their whole re- venues, without making any return to the country from which they receive: them. The fecond is the fituation, ■which makes this city a centre of circulation, while, by the Red Sea, it corrtfponds with Arabia and India ; by the Kile, with Abyfiinia and the interior parts of Africa ; and by the Mediterranean, with Europe and the empire of Tur- key. Every year, a caravan from AbyfTinia arrives at Ca- iro, and brings from looo to 1200 black flaves, as alfo ele- phants' teeth, gold duft, oftrich feathers, gums, paiTots, and monkeys; while another, deflined for Mecca, leaves the extremities of Morocco, and receiving pilgrims, even from the river of Senegal, coafts along the Mediterranean, coUtding thofe of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, and arrives by the defert at Alexandria, confifting of not lefs than three or four tlioufand camels. From thence it proceeds to Cairo, where it joins the caravan of Egypt. They then jointly fet out for Mecca, whence they return one hundred days after." — " The lading of thefe caravans confifts in In- dia fluffs, fhawls, gums, pearls, perfumes, and the coffee of Yemen." " The fame commodities arrive by another route at Suez, to which port the foutherly winds bring, in May, 26 or 28 fail of velTcls from Djedda." " Small cara- vans alfo arrive from time to time from Damafcus, with fdk and cotton Huffs, oils, and dried fruits." Befides, " there are always fome veffels in the road of Damietta, unloading hogfheads of tobacco from Latakia, the coufumption of which in Egypt is enormous. Thefe veffels take rice in ex- change, whiift others arrive fuccefGvely at Alexandria, bringing clothing, arms, furs, palfen.;e!S, and wrought fdk, from Conllantinople. Veffels come hkewife from Marfeilles, Leghorn, and Venice, with cloths, cochineal, Lyons' (luffs and laces, grocery, paper, iron, had, Venetian fequins, and German dollars. All thefe articles conveyed by lea to Ro- fetta in barks called " djerm," are firll landed there, then reimbarked on. the Nile, and fent to Cairo." From this account, it appears, that we need not hefitate to admit the report of the com mifiioner general of the cufloms, who af- ferted, that in 1783, Cairo had traded to the amount of near 150 millions of livres, or fix miUions 250 thoufand pounds fttrling. Among the manufaftures arc fugar, of a bad quality, fal ammoniac, which is very good, glafs lamps, lalt-pctre, coatfe gun-powder, red and yellowleathev,a'.Knincnclotli,madeof the fine Egyptian flax. Tht only manufafture in any degree of perfedtion is filk (luff ; but the workmanfliip is lefs highly iiuidied, and the price much greater than in Europe. Theic mercerv, their hardware, their gun and pidol barrels are all imported from foreisjn countries. It is difficult to find at: Cairo one watchmaker who has fliill enough to repair a watch, and he too is an European. Jewellers, indeed, are more common here than at Smyrna and Aleppo ; but they know not how properly to mount the fimplell rofe. For the mode of hatching eggs at Cairo without incubation, fee Hatching. Tlie government of Cairo, and of Egypt in general, is vefted in one of the 24 beys (fee Bey): and the chief judicial autho- rity in the city is delegated to a " MuUa," who is annually- appointed from Conftantinople ; but his jnrifdiftion is prin- cipally diretled to cafes of doubt and difficulty. There are, befides this officer, " Cadis" in all the diilrifts, which, in this great city, amount to more than 300. There are alfo " Imams," or prieils of the four fefts, each having the di- reilion of the adherents of his feft. The revenue of the cadis arifes from a tenth of the value of the thing litigated. See Cadi. In Cairo every trade or profefiion has its Iheich or leader, who has great authority over the eft of the clafs to which he belongs ; and this circumftance much contributes to the good order of the city. The gates alfo, which are at the end of every ftreet, impede the progrefs, and render diffi- cult the efcape of ill-intentioned perfuns. Notwithftanding thtfe forms of government and fubordination, Cairo affords no fecurity either for life or for property ; and, therefore, the ftranger on his arrival is ftruck with the univerfal ap- pearance of fqualid wretchednefs. Indeed, he often meets with horfemen richly clad ; but this difplay of luxury only renders the contraft of indigence the more fliocking. Every thing that he fees or hears, reminds him that he is in the country of flavery and tyranny. The chief fubjefts of con- verfation are inteftine diffenfions, the public milery, pecuni- ary extortions, baftinadoes, and murders. " The blood of men," fays Volney, " is (litd hke that of the vilell animals. Juftice herfelf puts to death without formality. The offi- cer of the night in his rounds, and the officer of the day in his circuit, judge, condemn, and execute in the twinkling of an eye, without appeal. Executioners attend them, and, on the firft fignal, the head of the unhappy viftim falls into the leathern bag, in which it is received, for fear of foiling the place." — " Without any other reafon than the avarice of a powerful chief, or the information of an enemy, a man is fummoned before fome bey, on fufpicion of having money. A fum is demanded of him, and if lie denies that he poffeffes it, he is thrown on his back, and receives 2 or 3 hundred blows on the foles of his feet, nay, fometimes is put to death." To the north-eaft of Cairo are gardens, and large houfes, to which perfons of rank and opulence occafionally retreat ; and the Mamlukes alfo perform their military evolutions, and exercife their liorfes, in an open fpace appropriate to this purpofe. The ground under the mountains to the call is filled with tombs. The gates of Cairo are numerous ; but the moft remarkable are two at the northern extremity of the city, called " Bab-el-Nafr," and " Bab-el-Fitufch," which prefent a fplendid difplay of Saracenian architefture. N. lat. 30° 2' 44". E. long. '31° 18' 16". Cairo by the mean of feveral accounts is about ^9 geographical miles W. of Suez, equal to 1° 8' of longitude ; and accordingly, Ca- iro fliould Hand at 31° 20' of longitude. Savary's Egypt, vol. i. Volney's Travels, vol. i. Soiniini's Travels. Browne's Travels in Africa. See Egypt, CAIROAN, C A I CAIROAN, or Kair-wan, the Finis /lu^vjt'i of tbe Itinerary, a walLd city of Africa, in t!ie ancient Bizacium, nr modern Li ij;Join of Tunis, inferior in trade and in rmmVi'- ■ of inhahit.ints only to Tunis, is fituatctl in a fandy barren p'ain, 8 kagiRS W. of Sufa, and about tbc fanne ■ii'.lancc S.W. of Hcrkla. In this city and its vicinity are ■cral fragments of ancient archittfture. Its prefmt name . ms to be fynonymons with " Caravan," and might ori- a!ly denote the phice where the Arabs had their principal ,tioii in conquering this part of Africa. It is faid to have i jn founded for this purpofe, and colonized by Akbah, ti-.- Hucba, in the 50th year of tlie Hegira, A.D. <}~:>. Notwiiiillanding the inconveniences of its lituation, which renders it necefi'ary to obtain vegetable food from a great diitancc, and to colleft a precarious fupply of rain-water in cillerns or refervoirs, Akbah encompafled it with a wall, enclofmga circumference of j6oo paces ; and in the fpace of five years, the governor's palace was furrounded with a fuf- ficient number of private habitations ; a fpacious inofque was fupported by 500 columns of granite, porphyry, and Numidian marble ; and Cairoan became the feat of learning, as well as of empire. Under the government of Ibrahim Ben Aglab, from whom was derived the dynally of the Aglabites, in the year 184 of the Hegira, A.D. 800, its buildings and inhabitants were very confiderably augmented; and its inland iituation, 12 miles weft ward of the fea, pro- tefted it from the Greek and Sicilian fleets. In the year of the Hegira, 9^6, A.D. 1549, it hud its own fovereign, who was an Arab ; but he was defpoiled of part of his do- minions by Dragat, who commanded in the city of Tri- poli for Soliman II. emperor of the Turks. N. hit. 35° 3'j'. E. long. 10° 13'. CAISIOMU, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 50 miles E.S.E. of Villa del Principe. CAISSON, in Archiuaure, The praftice of building in cainbns is a method fometimes adopted in laying the foun- dation of bridges in very deep or rapid rivers. Thefe are large hollow vcflels framed of llrong timbers, and made wa- ter-tight, which being launched and floated to a proper pofition in the river where the ground has been previoufly excavated and levelled, are there funk. The piers of the bridge are then built within them, and carried up above, or nearly to the level of the water, when the fides of the caifl'on are detached from the bottom, and removed ; the bottom, compofed of a ilrong grating of timber remaining, and ferving for a foundation to the pier. The mod confiderable work, which has come to our knowledge, where caiffbns have been ufed, is in the building of Wellminfter-bridge ; of thefe, therefore, a particular ac- count may be acceptable. Each of the caiflbns contained 150 loads of fir timber, and was of more tonnage than a man of war of 40 guns ; their fize was nearly So feet from point to point, and jO feet in breadth ; the fides, which were 10 feet in height, were formed of timbers laid hori- zontally over one another, pinned with oak trunnels, and framed together at all the corners, except the falient angles, where they were fecured by proper iron-work, which being unfcrewed would permit the fides of the caiffon, had it been found neceflary, to divide into two parts. Thefe fides were planked acrofs the timbers infide and outfide with 3-inch planks, in a vertical pofition. The tliicknefs of the fides was 18 inches at bottom, and ijj inches at top; and in order to (Irengthen them the more, every angle, except the two points, had three oaken knee timbers properly bolted and fecured. Thefe fides when finiihed were fallened to the bottom or grating, by 28 pieces of timber on the out- fide, and 18 within, called ftiaps^ about S inches broad, C A I and about 3 inches thick, reaching and lapping over the t0])S of the fides ; the lower part o? thefe llraps were dove- tailed to the outer curb of the grating, and kept in their places by iron wedges. The purpofe of thefe itraps and wedges was that when the pier was built up fntliciently high above low-water-mark, to render the caldon no longer nt- ceffary for the mafons to work in ; the wedges being drawn up gave liberty to clear the ilraps from the mortices, in confequcnce of which the fides rofe by their own buoyancy, leaving the gi-ating. under the foundation of the pier. The preilure of the water upon the fides of the cailTon was refilled by means of a ground timber or ribbon, 14 inches wide, and 7 inclus thick, pinned upon the upper row of timbers of the grating ; and the top of the fides was fecured by a fufficient number of beams laid acrofs, which alfo ferved to fupport a floor on which the labourers ftood to hoift the ftonei out of the lighters, and to lower them into the caifTon. The caiilbn was alfo provided with a lluice to admit the water. The method of working was as follows : A pit being dug and levelled in the proper fituation for the pier of the fame Ihape as the caiffon, and about five feet wider all round ; the caiffon was brouu^ht to its pofition, a few of the lower courfes of the pier built in it, and funk once or twice to prove the level of the found.itlon ; then being finally fixed, the mafons worked in the ufnal methods of tide work. About two hours before low water, the fluice of the caiffon, kept open till then, lell the water, flowing to the height of many more feet on the outfide than the infide, fhould float the caiflon and all the ftone work out ot its true place, was flint down, and the water pumped low enough, without waiting for the lovvell ebb of the tide, for the mafons to fet and cramp the itone-work of the inccced- ing courfes. Then when the tide had rifen to a confiderable height, the fluice was opened again, and the water ad- mitted ; and as the caiffon was purpofely built but 16 feet high to fave uftlefs expence, the high tides flowed fome feet above the fides, but without any damage or inconvenience to the works. In this manner the work proceeded till the pier rofe to the furface of the caiffon, when the fides w-ere floated away to ferve the fame purpofe at another pier. (Labclye's Defcription of Wellminller-bridge.) Caisson, in the Military Art, is iometimes ufed for a chefl; ; and in particular for a bomb-chell. The caiffon is confidered as a fuperficial mine, or fourncaii. Caisson is alfo a covered waggon to carry bicad, or am- munition. CAISTOR, in Gcosraphy. See Castor. CAISTRUS, in Ancient Geography, Kaijlcr, a fmall rivet* of Afia Minor in Ionia, formed by the union of two branches, which had their fources in mount Tmolus, and flowing by the fouth-weft, watered Metropohs or Ephefus, near which it difcharged itfelf into the fea. It is called at prefent by the Turks " Kitchik Meinder," or the Little Meander. Virgil refers to it, " Jam varias pelagi volucres, et qux Afia circum Dulcibus in flagnis rimantur prata Cayltri." Georg. 1. I. CAITAIA, in Zoology, the name under which Marc- graave noUces Jlmia J'ciuren of Gmelin. CAITHNESS, in Gcogniphy, fometimes denominated the fhire of Wick, is the moll northerly county of Scotland. Its S. W. border unites with the county of Sutlierlaid, and the remainder is wafhed by the waters of the Pcntland-frith,. and the German Ocean. Thrs dlUntt, includes an area of about ,55 miles from N. to S. by 22 miles from eait to weft. Mr. Pennant dtfcribe? the country as a large morafs inter- fperfed C A I fpfvfcl witli fon.e fniitfiil patclirs which produce barley mid oats. The coail is rocky, and abounds \yith bays and picir.oiitorics. The principal of thcfc arc, Sandlido head, pointing to the opening of Ptntland-frith ; Orcas, or Hol- born»hcad, ar.d l3unnit-h^ad, both pointing northward to tbo tilth. Soribiller-bay is a good harbour for (hipping. There arc two other finaJlcr bays, named from the conligu- mis plaees, Rice and Thnrfo. The only ifland aniieXrd to ihis cou:ity is Stroma, which is fituatcd in the Pentland- frith ; the property of which was formerly claimed by the earls of Orkrty, but was afterwaids attached to Caithnefs. The caufe of this rcverfion is faid to have refulttd from a cu- rious experiment. Tlie tarls of Oikney and Caithnefs con- tendtd for the property of this ifland, it being fitoated about midway between their refpeftive dillridts. Inllead of reforting to the fwovd in this difpnte, they mutually agreed to abide by the ifi'ue of a more inolVenlive trial. As ▼enomous anmials would not live in the Oikntys, fome vere conveyed to Stroma, and finding that they continued to thrive iti the ifland, it was determined that it naturally belonged to Caithr.efs, and was adjudg-'-d to that earldom accordingly. This county is well watered, and contains a few birch plantations ; but the foil and the climate are un- favourable to the growth of timber. At f.inie parts of the coaft, the fea is generally very impetuous, being continually agitated by violent counter tides, currenls, and vortices. Fi(h are caught in great abundance, but fiom the above named caufes, and the Wint of convenient harbours, the proprietors do not derive much advantage fro n exportation. The rocks round the fliore are perforated into numerous caves, which are frequented by an abundance of feals. Many of thefe are dcllroyed by the inhabitants. Eagles, hawks, and a vaft quantity of fea-fowl frequent thefe rocks. Caithnefs is well peopled with a race of hardy, athletic inhabitants, whoft chief employ, and fonrce of livelihood are fifliiiig, and breeding flieep and black cattle. Of the lat- ter it haibeen recorded, that from looo to 2coo head have fceen fent from this county in one year. In bad fcafons, the farmers mollly kill and fait them for home confumption and for exportation. Great numbers of fv.ine are alfo reared here, but accoiding to the opinion of Dr. Morifon, (Sir John Sinclair's Statiftical Account, viii. 150.) "the damage they do in the winter to the grafs and corn lands, as they are al- lowed to roam at large, far exceeds any advantage that can accrue from them." Thefe animals are rather peculiar in charafter and fpecies : they are fliort, high-backed, long- brillled, (liarp, (lender, and long nofed, have high ereiSl ears, and are very wild in afpeft. Barns and granaries are unknown to this county ; the corn is thrafhed cut and pre- ferved in the chaff in byhes, which are (lacks in the fhape of bee-hives, and thatched quite round. Much falmon is taken in the rivers'of this county, particularly at Caflle-hill, Dunet, Wick, and Thurfo. At the lall place there was " a miraculous draught taken within the memory of man ; not lefs than j -,00 being caught at one tide." (Pennant's Tour in Scotli;.nd, i. 202.) Caithnefs is divided into ten parilhes, and contains one royal borough, Wick, and the town of Thurfo. It fends a member to Parliament alter- nately writh the county of Bute. The principal landholders are the carl of Caithnefs, Sir Jnhn Sinclair, bart. Sir Ben- jamin Dunbar, and Sinclair, efq. all of whom pofTefs feats in the county. Many monuments of antiquity are ftill remaining in Caithnefs, moft of which are of a military nature. Of the more ancient kind are the Cairns, Duns, and Tumuli ; which are fcattered over many parts of the county. Some ruins of caftles are ftill left at Caftle-Sin- clair, Girmengo, Auchnavern, Dirlet, and Lochmore. In C A ! mineralogy, Caithnefs poirefTes forr.c articles of valiir, ai txcellent frce-llone and lime (lone ; alfo, copper, lead and iron ores. At the K. E. point of Caithnefs is Duii(by-head, the mo'l extreme northern promontory of Britain. At thi» place the breadth of the frith does not exceed twiilve miles, and is the moll ufual ferry or |>a(rage to the 0/ kncy Iflaudp. In the forells of Moravius and Bcrridal-;, are abundance of red deer, roe-bucks, &c. and the county abounds witli groufe, heathcocks, plover, harts, and mod other game. Birds of a peculiar fpecies, called Snow-fleets, frequent this county, in large flights, about the middle of February, and di'part in April. They are about the lize of a iuarrow, and efteemed very delicious in flavour. The laft private war in Scotland was occafiontd by a difpute rclaliiig to this county. Pennant's Tcur in Scotla.id. Sir Jolin Sinclair'* Statiftical Account of Scotland. CAIUS, Pope, in Biography, fucceeded Eutychianus in the pontilicate A. D. 28,5, and held it tiil A . D. 296. The church of Rome reckons him among her martyrs ; but hif- tory informs us, that, having coiictaled himfelf under the perfecution of Dloclefian, he died in peace A. D. 296. To him is afcribed a decree that biil'.ops (liould pafs through the feven inferior orders of the church before they aiTumed the epifcopal office. Bower. Caius, or Gaiue, eu ecckfiaftical hiflorian, who flou« rifhed, accordirg to Cave, about the year 2 10. Photius fays, " that he was ordained biflicp of the nations," i. e. as fome have interpreted the phrale, that he was ordained to preach the gofpel to infidel countries, without the allotment of any particular diocefe. Fabricius reads, inft^adof "nations," Athens ; and accordingly fuppofes, tliat, having been at fiift a prefbyter of the church ot Rome, he was afterwards made bilhop of Athens. It has been afferted by many writers, but upon d fputable authority, that he was a difciple of .Ircna:us. Three or four books are afcribtd to Caius, viz. *' A dialogue or difputation with Proculus or Proclus," a- follower of Montanus ; " Of the Univerfe ;" the " La- byrinth ;" and a treat'fe againft the " Herefy of Artemon." ' Some fragments of thefe works are ftill extant. The firlf, however, is, in Dr. Lnrdner's opinion, the only piece juilly afcribed to him. In his dialogue are fome palTages that indicate the author's refpeft for tlie ancient fcnptures gene- rally received by Chrilliap.s ; though he feems to have thought, the epittle to the Hebrewj was not written by St. Paul, and that the book of the Revelation was not genu- ine, but probably an inipoflure of Cerinthus. Cave, H. L. T. i. p. ICG. Lardmr's Works, vol. ii. p. 3/1, <5:c. Caius, Bernard, born at Venice towards the end of the i6th century, where he received his education, pub- hfhed, iu 1606, "De Veficantium U(u." He entirely rejcft* bh.fters in all acute difeafes, as adding greatly to the malady by irritating the fyftem. He alfo publifiied in iC)o8, " Dc Alimentis, quas cuique natura; conveniunt, de Vohiptate, Sapore, Frigida Potione, Viribus Salis Nitriad refrigeran- dum," 4to, republifhed in 1610. Haller Bib. Med. Caius, Kave, or Key, John, an ingenious and learned phyfician, was born at Norwich, Oftober 6th, 15 10. After paffiiig through the ufual fehool education at Norv.-ich, he was admitted a ftudent in Gonvil Hall in Cambridge, Sept. izth, JJ29, and having dii'inguithed himfelf by his profi- ciency iu hterature, he was made fellow of that community in 1533. His third for knowledge, and his defire of per- fefting himfelf in the different branches of medicine, deter- mined him to vifit the Continent, and to pafs fome time at Padua, then famed for the celebrity of its profelTors, par- ticularly in that branch of fcience. He here ftudied under John Baptifta Montanus, having Vefalius for hi« fellow flu- dent. i C A K C A L if:nt. His prngvefs here in Greek and Latin, as well as in t.ic knowledge of anatomy and nxdicine, equalled tlie pro- ii.ilos of li'S early years ; as was evinced by his tranflations ;.;id commentaries on various parts of the works of Hijipo- i rates, Galen, Scribonius La^is, 5cc. corrtfling the errors 4 1 the tranfcrihers, anL^ the fame by their gold-diift. The finaller calabaflies are alfo frequently uled by thefc people as a mea- fure, by which they fell thefe precious commodities to the Europeans. CALABASH-^a)', in Geography, lies on the S.W. fide of the iiland of Jamaica, between Flint bay on the eafl, and Swift's river on the weft, and affords good anchorage. CALABER, QtMNTUS, in Bhgraphy, a Greek poet, fuppofed to have flouridied under the emperor Anallafius I, about the year 491, and to have derived his name from Ca- labria, tliough he relided chiefly at Smyrna. He is known as the author of a poem, confilling of 14 books, on the " Paralipomena" of Homer, or the events of the Trojan war, not reliited by that poet, and commended for its ele- gant verfification. It was difcovercd by cardinal BeCfarion, 6 in C A L Jn a monadciy near Otranto in Apulia. T«o of the books, dcfcnbiiig tlie capture of Troy, were piihliihcd feparately by Ncaiider, in his «' Opus Aureum," Leipf. 1577. Edi- tions of the wliolc have been given at Hanau, 8vo. 1604; and by Paw at Leydcn, 8vo. 1754. Voff. de Toct. Gra;c. CALABEZA, in Geoviphy, a town of South Ame- rica, in Terra Firma, on Oronooko river. CALABITE, a fmall ifland of the Eaft Indian ocean, being one of the Philippines, between Miudcro and I^iiban. CALABRIA, in /Indent Geography, a name fuppofcd to have been received from the oriental " calab," or pitch, on account of the refin obtained from the pines of this coun- try, and correfponding to that i)art of Italy more generally denominated " Mcdapia," and the prefent Calabria. CALABRIA, in Geograpl.ty, a co'intry of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, divided into Calabria Citra, and Cala- bria Ultra, or Hither and Farther Calabria. The former is bounded on the north by Bafilicata, on the eaft by the gulf of Taranto, on the fouth by Calabria Ultra, and on the well by the Mediterranean, and a fmall part of Princi- pato Citra. Swinburne ellimatcs its extent at 1,605,463 moggie, (five moggie being equal to four Englifli acres) and the number of inhabitants at 315,330. It abounds in excellent fruits, corn, wine, oil, hemp, cotton, flax, faf- fron, honey, fait, wool, fdk, and manna. It has fome mines of gold and (ilver, lead and iron, together with ful- phur, alabafter, and rock-cryftal. Hogs and (heep are nu- merous. Its coafts are defended by towers. Its principal towns are Cozenza, Paola or Paula, Bifignano, CafTano, Scalea, Cariati, RoiTano, Umbriatico, Strongoli, Caren- za, Martorano, and Amantea. Its chief rivers are the Co- chile, Crate, Lao, Celano, Trionto, Aquanile, and Bato. Calabria Ultra is bounded on the north by Calabria Citra, and on the eaft, weft, and fouth, by the Mediterranean fea. The produftions are nearly the fame with thofe of Calabria Citra. The extent, according to Swinburne, comprehends 1,901,878 moggie ; and the number of its inhabitants is 460,592. The principal towns are Catanzaro, Cotrone, St. Severina, Ifola, Taverna, Nicaftro, Belcaftro, St. Eu- femia, Squillacc, Tropea, Nicotera, Mileto, Oppido, Gerace, Rcggio, and Bova. The chief rivers are the Alii, Angitola, Tacina, Ala-o, Alice, Amato, Metauro, and Metramo. In Calabria all the oxen are white, large, and long-horned, except thofe of the red breed, which have been introduced from Sicily by the princes of Cariati and Gerace. The buf- faloes are black ; and moft of the goats, fheep, and hogs are of that hue. The laft fpecies have no hair, but their hides are as fleek as thofe of elephants. In fome parts of this country dormice are accounted delicate game, as they were in ancient Rome, where they were kept in warrens, and fatted for the tables of the moft refined epiciues. They are fmoked out of their nefts in hollow trees, and caught with fharp hooks. Their Ilh, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea ; 3.S miles W. of Corinth. CALABRITO, a town of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra. CA LA BUR A, in Botnny, (Pluk.) See Muntikgia. CALACHERIN, in Geography, a town of Pcrfia, ia the province of Irak ; I2j milea W. of Aniadan. Vol. V. C A i, C.\LACINE, or CAi.AciirNP, in y)rui-nt Gfcj;i/ij>liy, a province or dillrift of AfFyria, bounded on the north by the mountains of Armenia and Arrapachitis, on the weft by the Tigris, on the eaft by the l.ycns, and on the fonth by Adiabene. It contained the following cities, viz. Marde, Calafli, BefFara, and Refin. CALACTA, a maritime town, feated on the nortlieri* coaft of Sicily. Ptolemy. CAl.ADE, in the Maiirge, a defrcnt or fltipe in a riding- ground, by which to bring a horfe to bend his haunches, and form his Hop, with the aids of the calves of the legs, bridle, and cavefon, fcafonably given. The caliule is alfo called, by the French, laji. They faf to ride or gallop down the cc.tade. CALADIUM, in Jloldny, a name given by Rumphiui to a plant which Linnxus afterwards called Arnm efculeii- tum. Ventenat has feparated it from Anun ; and tmitinf it with the ovatnm, the fagjttifolinm and arborefcens of I-inna:ns, and the bicolorum of Aiton, with two others lefs known, has formed a new genus under the original name given it by Rum[)hius, with the following general chara(f^er. Spaihe fvTclling, foUKd in its lower part. SpnJlx or anient ftiorter than the f|)alhe, fimple, ftraight, cylindric, with the male (lowers on the upper part, and female on the lower. ytiilhcrs feftile, difpofed in a fpiral form, with twelve furrows full of pollen in molecules agglutinated together, and ter- minated at the lop by a flat furface in the fliape of a lozenge, which is fi>rinkled with ftiining dots, and crenulatcd at its bcirdtr. Germs numerous, otbicular, concave. Stigma fcf- file, umhilicate; full of a vifcous liqnoc. The fpace bctwee» the ftamens and piftils occupied by four rows of oblong, olnnfe, elevated glands. Fruit fimilar to that of Arum. Its clfential charafter, iccording to Ventenat, is founded on the fituation and ftrndure of the anther.i, and even of thft pollen itfelf, on the direclion and form of the glands, and oa the umbilicated ftigmas. Sec Arum. CALArUNUM, in /Incieul Geography, a town of Spain, afligned by Ptolemy to the " Callaici Brxcarii" in the Tar- ragonenfis, and fituate, according to M. d'Anville, to the north-weft of Aqua; Flavise. CAL/EI, iflands of the Indian ocean, placed by Arria» at the mouth of the Perfic gulf. CALyENUS, a fountain of Afia Minor in Lycia. Steph. By/.. CALAF, m Botany, ^ ,^^,^^,^,^_ ^^. , ,,;, {,,,^ ^^j, f,lli„g „po„ their knees, fupplicated his palled, excepe < ^^^^j ^.^^^^^ ^_ ^ ^^^^^^ ^,^^jj._ j^ j^ ^^^^^ ;,, ^^^.^^^ (-^ moving, as to melt the fpedators into moat ana ^ ^ > . , fnadous and handfome tears. The queen enforced their interceffion, and implored a regular ^^''t '•b''''^'^^^^"^;;; ;^j^,.^bl clean and well paved ; and obtained their lives. Having thus fucceeded, (he con- andTia's feve.al churches and monafteries. Its harbour, form- dueled them into her own apartment entertained them ho- ^d bv a fmall rivulet, is too much obftruded by fand to ad- nourably, and difmifTed them with prefents. Edward, liavang ea Dy__a ..■ a ^^ , ^^ „„^,„„n merchant Ihips, except taken poirefiion of the city, tound it neceliar)- to turn out auav't'erminates in two long wooden moles, which extend the place, and conferred the government of it upon Des f th f^a Calais is a trading town, and in tmie of peace Termes, who was loon after made a marlhal of I ranee. By reyula?- pak'ets for the mail fail from and to England ; and the treaty at Chateau Cambrefis, it was agreed, that Calais •ther pafTa^e boats form a conftant intercourfe between this (hould, after the expiration of 8 years, be reftored to Eng- 1 and Dover from which it is diftant 22 miles S.E. land ; and, at the expiration ot that term, queen Elizabeth Some have funpofed that an ifthmus formerly joined Calais difpatched fome troops to recover it; but the furrender was d Dover • and that the rupture of it was occafioned by refufed, becaufe, five years before, the Enghfh had taken an earthquake, and has been gradually widened by tides Havre,_ and violated the terms of the treaty In the year and currents. Calais communicates by means of canals with 1596, it was taken by the Spaniards, under the condua of — • ■ • - the archduke Albert, but was reftored two years after by the peace of Vervins. In 1694, it was bombarded by the Englilh, under fir Cloudefly Shovel, but without fuftaining much damage. Calais is dillant 7 leagues from the South- Foreland, and 40 from Dunnofe ; 5 poils S.W. from Dun- kirk, and 34-1 N. from Paris. N. lat. 50'^ 5;' 31". E. long. 1° 50' 56". High water 11° 30'. Calais, St. a town of France, and principal place of a diftria in the department of the Sarthe ; 6 leagues E.N.E. of Chateau du Loir. The place contains 3,630, and the can- ton 13,749, inhabitants; the territory comprehends 307^ kiliometres and 14 communes. N. lat. 47° 56'. E. long. o"" 39'- Calais, a townftiip of Caledonia county, and ftate of Vermont, in America ; 105 miles n§rth-eafterly of Benning- ton ; cnntainiKg 45 inhabitants. CALAMA, in jlr.cient Geography, Gelma, or Kalma, an cpifcopal town of Africa, in Numidia ; fituate to the fouth- weil of Hippo-regius. St. Auguftine mentions a difturb- ance that happened in this place, A.D. 40S, or 409 ; and From thefe laws it appears that the city was governed by that foon fucceeded a law enaaed by Honorius in 407, or its own ma^ifti-ates ekaed by the citizens, antl by a bailiff 408, exprefsly prohibiting the folemnities of the Gentiles, appointed by the count. Among its privileges we find Calama, the name of a village of Afia, in Carmania, or that, if a woman offered to take, as her huftjand, a man Gedrofia, according to Arrian. condemned to death for theft, flie might demand and obtain Calama, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province his pardon. In 1347, Calais was taken by Edward III. of of Calabria Uhra ; 6 miles N. E. of Reggio. England, after having been reduced to extreme diftrefs by CALAMiE, or Calames, in yZ/ic/Vn/ Gc'Ofra/i/?'^, a burgh famine. Edward, having been detained under it; walls for of Pcloponnefua, in Melfenia, feated on the river Aris, and eleven montSs by the obiiinatc refiftance of its defenders, mentioned by Polybius and Paufanias. CALAMA- St. Omer's, Gravelines, Dunkirk, &c About the clofe of the 12th centniy, Calais was only a fifhing village; but from the fnccefs of its inhabitants in the herring filhery, it foon acquired fo much importance as to attraa the notice, and excite the rapacity ot the church ; for in the year 1180, we find that pope Alexander lil. granted the tithe of all the herrings there taken to the abbey of St. Bertin, recorded for its immenfe wealth, tor the luxurious and diffolute lives of its monks, and for the worthleffuefs of its abbot. The honeft fiftiermen, not readily comorehending the pope's right to give away then- property, declared that they would foouer decimate the monks than fuffer their herrings to be decimated. They were, however, reduced to obedience by the count ot Flanders, who was then their regent, as guardian to Ida, countefs of Boulogne. Its walls and caftle were built in the year 1228 by Philip count of Boulogne, brother of Lewis VIII. ; but its municipal laws and prWileges are fup- pofed to have been granted by the countefs Ida, and her fourth huftjand, Rcnand de Dammartin, in the year 1191. C A L CALAMAGROSTIS, in Botany, (Trag. ic. Dalech. Hill.) See Triglochin palujlre. Linnasus has given it as a trivial name to a fpecies of Agrollis, and alfo to one of Arundo. Dr. Withering has madi.- it a generic appcllatioH for fuch fpecies of Arundo as have only one floret in a calyx: but, as Dr. Smith juftly obftrves, (l'"lor. Brit. vol. i. p. 14";.) the very natural genus arundo ought not to be broken merely on account of a difference in the number of florets, and, if that were n-ct the cafe, the term calamagrolUs is not admiffi- ble, as a generic name, on the ellabliflied principles of the Linnxan Nomenclature. CALAMANCO, in Commerce, a woollen n.ufF manufac- tured in Brabant and in Flanders, particularly at Antwerp, Lille, Tournay, Turcoin, Roubaix, and Lannoy. It is commonly woven wholly of wool ; there are fome, however, wherein the warp is mixed with filk, and others with goat's hair. There are calamancos of all colours, and diverfely wrought. Some are quite plain, others have broad ilripes adorned with flowers ; forae with plain broad llripes ; fome with narrow llripes ; and others watered. This has been alfo no inconfiderable branch of the woollen manufac- ture in England, both for home wear and exportation ; but of late it has declined. CALAMRACUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in Magna Gra;cia, between Petitia, and the niarfh of Lucania. CALAMARIA, mBotan, (Dillon. Mufc.) See Isoe- TES lacuftris. CALAMARIiE, one of the natural orders of Linnsus, nearly allied to the graffes, and having commonly the fame kind of leaves, but difl'ering from them in not having a two- ralved glume. The calamariss have a culm which is gene- rally triquetrous, rarely cylindrical, often leaflefs, or bearing only a few leaves. The leaves are generally more rigid and rough, and the flowers are often difpofed in an imbricated manner. The genera enumerated in the Syllema Naturx are, bobartia, (but the genus is now abolirtied ; fee Bobartia,) fcirpus, cyperus, eriophorus, carex, and fchsnus ; with a doubt, whether flagallaria, j uncus, and fcheuchzcria fliould not be added. In the pofthumous leftures of Linnxus, as publiflied by Gifeke, they ftand thus : fparganium, typha, criophorum, fcirpus, carex, fcleria, cyperus, fchaenus, ref- tio, gahnia, kyUingia, fuirena. The genus fcleria is added by Gifeke. CALAMARIUS, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber, having 140 abdominal plates, and 22 caudal fcales. Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr. This kind inhabits America : general colour livid with linear brown ftreaks and dots : beneath teffellated with brown. CAIjAMATA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea, feated on the river Spinazza ; taken by the Venetians in 1685, but fince retaken, together with the reft: of the Morea, by the Turks ; 13 miles W. of Mifitra. CALAMBA, or Calambac, in Commerce, a kind of wood brought from China, ufually fold under the denomina- tion oi lignum aloes, or agallochum. Sir Phil. Vernatti makes calambac and lignum aloes fyno- tiymous. Others feem to diftinguifli, rellraining calamba v/ood to the bell fort of aloes wood, growing chiefly in Ma- lacca, and Sumatra ; and much ufed in India for making of beads and crucifixes. Phil. Tranf. N"^ 43. p. 86,'. CALAMENTHA, or Calamintha, in Ancient Geo- graphy, a town of Africa, in Libya, belonging to the Phoe- nicians. CALAMIANES, in Geography, a clufter of iflands in the Indian Sea, among thofe called the " Philippine Illands," C A L fituate at a fmall diftance from the nortlu'rn cape of Para, gua, and weft from Manilla, and giving name to a province or government. Tiiey art reckoned twelve in number, v. .'i:ch are all fmall, and inhabited by peaceable Indians, who pay tribute. Tiie chief produft of their mountain'! is wax, which llu-y gatiier twice in the year. The rocks over the fea afford fome of the elleemcd birds' iicfts, and on the coafti are fine pearls. CALAMIDES, a clufter of iflands, amounting to about feventccn, fituate in the Indian Ocean, 14 or 15 leagues S. W. of Luban, and forming a province; the larg'.il of which is ParaiTua, which fee. CALAMIFEROHS, in Botany, a denomination given by fome to thofc otherwife called culmiferous plants. CALAMINA, in Ancient Geography,' z. lake of .Afia, in Lydia ; in which, according to Phny, were floating iflands, which, during the Mithridatic war, ferved as a place of re- fuge for the Roman citizens. CALAMINE, or I-APis Calaminaris, is an ore of Zinc, which fee. The lapis calaminaris, calcined, powdered, and fifted, forms a heavy brownifli-yellow powder, which when mixed with wax and oil forms the " ceratum lapidis ca- laminaris," (ceratum epuloticum of the old difpenfaries,) the moft commonly ufed of all the fimple unr. The tliree inner leaflets of the calyx have the ap» peaiance of petals, and it is not eafy to determine why they were not confidered as fueh by L'nnaius. The divifioii of the llyle and the three Iligmas make it probable that thefe are naturally the nidimeuts of three germs, but two of them generally prove abortive. Jaflieu obferves that this genus forms the connecting link between the palms and the graflfcs, having the flower of tlie former a;id the habit of the latter. The fago palm fo nearly rcfemhlts calamus iu its parts of frndtification that it fcarcely feems a dillindl genus. The only difference between them, according to Gxrtner, is that the flowers of the former are monoicous, and of the 1. 1- ter hermaphrodite ; and that the embryo of the former is on the fide, and of the latter at the bafe of the feed. As the flowers, at leall of one fpecies of Calamus, are now aU lowed to be monoicous, the former difference vaniflies ; and whether the latter alone be a fiifficient generic dlflinc- tion, may juftly be doubted in the prefent impcrfedt itate of our knowledge. Linnnsus makes only one fpecies, but mentions eight va- rieties, all taken up from Rumphius, who calls them Pal- mijunci from their fimiiarity to the palms in their fruftifica- tiou, and to the iunci, or rufhes, in their flexibility. Lou- rciro has dift.ingui(hed and dtfcribed fix fpecies. Willdenow has enumerated eight, at the fame tmie acknowledging that he cannot identify the tcipionum, amarum, and dioicum o£ Loureiro. Poiret has extended them to twelve, from the delcriptions of different authors, but without being abfo- lutely certain that his fynonyms are in all cafes cxaC^. As he is the latell writer on the lubjeft, we fliall take him for our guide. Sp. I. C petrous, Lonr. (Rotang. Willd. var. and Linn. Arundo zeylanica fpinofiffima : Burm. zeyl. 36. Flor. 46S. Tfieru-tfiefel : Rheed Mai. v, 12. p. 12, t. 64.. Palmijuncus calapparius: Rumph. Amb. v. 5. p. 97, t.51.) " Stem thick, fet with prickes ; prickles ereft ; fpadix creft." Willd. Stems more than a hundred feet high, and at leaft the thicknefs of a man's arm : internodes cylindrical, unequal, furrowed, fpotted, about a foot long, downy towards th« fummit. Leaves, or fronds, in terminating tufts, alternate, winged ; leaflets fword-fliaped, long, tlraight, befet witK numerous, (Iraight, long, very fharp prickles. Spadix nearly ftraight, moderately branched. Calyx with fix divifions. Berry rather egg-(liaped, acuminate. A native of the Eaft Indies and Cochinchina, where it is ufed for making long pikes. The inner part of the young flioots, llripped of the bark, is eaten either boiled or roafted on the hearth. The fruit is pleafantly acid. 2. C. rudentum. Lour. (C. rotang var. y Linn. Palmijuncns albus: Rumph. t. 5J.) "Prickles of the item reflexed ; fpadix divaricated, ftraight." Willd. Stems very tough, not more than an inch thick, but rifin T by the means of trees, and palling frorrv one tree to another, fom.etimes to the length of more than five hundred feet; intfrnodcs nearly equal, round, a foot and a half long. Leaves, long, winged, reflexed ; commoiv petiole lengthened into a naked, pendant, prickly fiU- m.ent ; leaflefs, fhort, flraight, acuminated, downy, ter- minated by a long briftle. Spadixes, large, fpreading out in a loofe panicle. Flowers, numerous, nearly fcffile. Ber- ries, very fmall. It is one of the moll common fpecies, and is ufed inltead of ropes to bind untarne elephants, to draw heavy loads, and to make cables for (hips, j C. fcipionunif walking cane, rattan. L:'Ur. (Kututfiurel: Rheede. Arundo rotang dicf a : pifim mant. 188, La Maick iilufl. pi. 770. f. 1.) "Internodes of the item, very long, awl-(haptd, Aiiping 3 C A L ftiiiing; prickles recurved, fpadix tliick, with ftiort branches". Poiret. Sli-ms fmooth, glofTy, marked wilh dark fpots : jiitcrnodcs three ftet lon^j, or niorL-, unequal, l.ea-ocs, winged; leaflets, fword ihaped, acuminate ; armed, as wtli as the petioles, with (hort, recurvt-d, prickles. FIniucrs, few, but ratlier crowded ou the brandies of tlie fp:idlx. Berry, glo- bular, of a moderate fize, and a clear yellow colour. Seed, one, globular. It grows abundantly on both fides of the ftraits of Malacca, whence it ia exported into China and Eu- rope ; and on aceount of its Iom't internodes and glolfy fur- face, has been lonf; preferred for walking canes. 4. C. iw- n/.r. Lour. (Palmijuncus verus : Rumph. t. 54, rotang var. 5. Linn.) " Prickles of the Rem horizontal; fpadix ere ft ; three of the leaflets of the calyx very loni;," Willd. Stem, fmgle and not, as in other fp^cies, fcveral from the fame root ; more than a hundred feet high, and about the thick- nefs of a man's finger ; very flexible, ard of a ycllowilh brown' colour: internodes very long, almoft equal. I.eai^ei Ion?, winged ; leaflets ovate lanceolate, three-nerved. Spmlixes racemed. Spdlhes oblong, prickly. The three interior leaflets of the calyx wlutifli, havin^T the appearance of pe- tals. B.~rry rather large, brown : common in forells in the Eall Indies. Its ftem cut into thongs, is ufed to make ca- bles and other ropes, cane chairs, and many kinds of, houf- hold furniture. Jj. C. fecund'ijlorus. Beanvois, t. 9, 10. " Leaves, vinged, flexible, reflexed, gibbous at the bafe, cultrate at the margin ; leaflets prickly at the bafe." A flirub. Lsavei, long, winged, without leaflets at their fum- mits, but armed with feveral pairs of large prickles ; oppo- fite, almoit triangular witliout, flat, or a little concave ■within ; leaflets prieiily at their edges. Cnly.t, with three (hort exterior divifions in the form of feales ; the three inner ones longer. Sth^ma, capitate, almoll trifid. Berry, nearly globular. A native of Africa, in the kingdom of Keniii. By the means of the prickles on the edges of its leaflets, it firmly attache* itfelf to other plants ; and its own leaves, which hang down to the ground, are fo clofely entangled together, that each flirub forms an impenetrable bufh, which affords a fure defence to the fmaller animals agaiuft their numerous enemies. M. Beauvois has fecn the nells of tlie termites in the kingdom of Benia fo compleatly covered by thefe (hriibs, as fcarcely to leave a paflage for the fmallell bird. 6. C. eimarus. Lour. " Prickles crowded, fliort ; leafl^ets linear; fpaJixcs remote; fpathes partial." Skeins, about the thickncls ol a finger, abuut fixty feet h'gh, hard- irt), even, pale-coloured ; internodes long, lound, al.-uoll equal. A native of Cocliinchina. It is ufed for the fame purpofes as the preceding, and is more durable, 7. C. e/raco, Willd. (rotang var. &, Linn. Pahnijiuicus Draco, Rumph. t. 58. f. I.) " Prickles of the ftem prcfTcd clofe to it ; of the leaves fprtading ; fpadix tred." Willd. InUrnoifes from two to three feet long, of the thicknefs of a Jiiiger, unequal. Leiijlets alternate, linear, acuminate, narrowed at their bafe, bcfct with a few hairs. Spitdix branched into fmall, flnort racemes. Berries egg-fliaped, about the fi/e of a hazel nut, terminated by a blunt point. Seedonc, fmooth, oval. From this fpecies is obtained the gum, coinmoidy called Dragor's bio d. 8. C. 'I'grr, Willd. (v;ir. /3, Linn. Palmijuncus niger, Rumph. t. 2J.) " Prickles of ti";e Hem and of the leaves horizontal ; fpadix compafl, peiuUilous," Willd. Stems thick, armed wi;li prickles, which enter tafily into the fkin and then break off. Leaves very long, alternate, winged ; lealetn alternate, ftraight, narrowed al- moft into a petiole at their bale, acuminate. Spadix^s ax- illary, in tnft(d racemes. Berries, globular, Icarcely the Cze of a fmall pea. A native of the Eaft Indies. Its lUms do not ealjly fplit, and are fo irregular in their Ibape, that 8 C A L they are not of the fame ufc as feveral of the other fpeci<»» 9. C. tiimina/ls. Willd. (rotangvar. 1, L'lin. Palmijuncus vi- niinalis Rumph. t. '■,5.) " Prickles of the IKm fpreading ; of the leaves, diftaiit, reflexed : fpadix nodding :" Willd. Stems, about the thicknefs of a goofc-quill : interiiodrs, about a foot long on the lower part, fliortcr near the fiimmit» where they are armed with (liai^dit, horizontal, rery fine prickles. Leaves alternate, diilart, winged; j-tiolei lengthened beyond the leaflets; leaflet.", flia'glit, long, acu- minate, armed with reflexed prickles. Spndixes axillary, branched in rather fpreading laecmcs. Fkzucrs pcduncled, almoll oppolite. Bmiis very fmall. A native of moilk torcfls in J.iva and the Celebes Iflands. Its fleinsanfwcr the piirpoles of ozier, and divided into (lireds, make feveral kinds ol hourtiold furniture. 10. C. cqmjhis. Willd. (ro- tang, var. ^ Linn. P.;lmijnncus equeflrin, Riiniph. t. •';6. and t. ,^7. f. I.) " Prickles of the Item ereft, fpre'ading ;' of the leaves hooked : leaflets elliptic: fpadix erecl." Willd. Stems flender, very fupple : inurnodes fliort, eqi!..l, fmooth, furniflied near their fiimmit with alternate, winged leaves ; L^eafiits, alternate, from eight to ten inches long : pctioiet extended beyond the leaflets, but prickly to the end. Bir' ries round, about the fize of a pea. A native of humid, rocky places, in the ifland of Amboina. It is in general ule in the Eall Indies as a riding cane. -ii. C. dioiciis. Lour. " Stem very flender; leaves and prickles flioiter; flowers dioicous." Nearly allied to the two preceding. It may pofPibly be only a variety of one of them : or it per* haps is an iiirermediate fpecies. Stems fl'.'iidcr, fcarce-lv the thiekncfs of a goofe-qiiill, twenty feet high, very flexible' and regular, p.ile and gloffy ; internodes a foot hnig; leaves winged. Ca/yx with fix unequal divifions ; the three inner ones refcmbling petals, white, ovate-lanceolate, ilriated. A native of Cochinchina, on the banks of rivers. 12. C. ^(dMca, Willd. Gaert. Tab. 139. f. i. Lam. PI. 77:. fg. 2. copied from Gartner. ( C. rotang. v.ir. >i, Linii ; Zalacca,, feu rotang zalak, Rumph. t. 57. f. .•. Fruftus Baly infiilx-' pyriformis, J. Bai h. Hilt. p. 401, with a figure.) ■' Prickles fpreading; fpadix radical, " Willd. Sttm, none. Lctives, in a tutt.from the crown uf the root, from ten to twelve feet long, winged; leafle.s long, aenniin:,tt ; petioles ilrong, ftta'ght, fpreading, prickly. Sparlixes racemed, nearly ra- dical. Berries rather large, top-Qiaped, of an ifrtgnlar form from their preflure againft each other ; rind thin, pa- pery ; feales foir.ewhat cartilaginous; the upper ones ered, linear; the reft prefl"ed dole, imbricated downward ; marked with a raifcd line along the middle, and a little re- flexed at the tip, fo as to make the berry rough to the touch. Seeds three, fixed to the bottom of the berry, two genendly abortive, nearly globular, with a fmall umbilical fungous, thick, rather lieart-flir.pcd lobe affixed to them below. Gxrt. Fruit raliier larger than a pear, of a [dcaf.uit acid fliivour, v.liich has been compared to that of the pine- apple. They arc eaten either raw or pickled, and are a gc-. neral fea-ftore. A native of Java, and other parts of the Eaft Indies. This fpecies has the habit of a palm, and con- netlsthe others with the Sago Palm. See Saci'S. CvLAMU.s, in ylncunl Geography, a place fitiiated on the Thracian Bofphoius, which is faid to have taken its name from the quantity of rofes which grew there. Calav.vs iiroiii»lieus,\n Bo/any. SeeAcoRus Caleimus. Calamus aiicupatorius, or calamus JlruHus, among Futulcrty fig ni fie 8 a bird call. Calamus iiuiicus pelrifaHus, in the Natural Mi/lory of ths Anctents, a r.ime given to a fubllance found often in the foffite kingdo.-n i.fually of about three inches long, half an inch bruad, and one tiiird ot an inch thick, and covered all ovtr C A L •ver its furfacf with large round figures in form of radiated ftars within. This very much refcirbled in external appear- ance the root of our common calumiis aromaliciis of the (hops turned into Hone, and feems to have been vulgarly luppoftJ to be that fubllance petrified. The more accuiate among the early writers, however, have by no means countenanced fo wild a conjedlure ; and Theophraftus, though he records the fubllance under that name, as it had no other in his time, yet joins it to the corals, which, he fays, grow in the fca, and are vegetables ; and adds, that thole and this fub- ftance are properly the fubllance of another treatife, not of a hiHory of Hones. This author's placing it among the corals is perfedlly right, fmce the fpecimens of it now found are plainly no other than corals of the llcUated kinds, which have been long buried in the earth. CAL.tMi's odoialus, Mathioli, in Botany. See Andro- POGON tiardus, CALAyiv s pa/oralis, in Majc, the {liepherd's pipe; an ancient niulical inftrume.it, the origin of the Hute ; at firft, made of a flraw or reed ; avena and calamus. It fhould feem as if the /xo»»u?.o;, monolos, with holes to produce dif- ferent tones, mull have been fuggclled by the fyrinx, or Pan's pipe, an inllrument in which pipes of different lengths, of one tone each, without ventiges, produced the fcale by moving them over the lips ; but afterwards it was difcovercd, (as it is faid, by Minerva,) that one fingle pipe, perforated, would funiifh as great a variety of founds, and more conve- niently, than all the pipes of ihejfv/a Panis. Flutes were improved and multiplied, almoll to infinity. See PI. of an- cient mufical inltruments, and Hill. vol..i. pp. 408, and 412. According to Horace, the flute had undergone various changes and improvements from its firft invention : Tibia non, ut nunc, orichalco vincT:a, tubasque j?£mula ; fed tenuis fimplexque, foramine pauco, Afpirare.- A. P. 20:. See Flute. C\L. \tAV s fcriptorius, properly denotes a reed or ru(h to write with, anfwering to the ufe of the ancient ftylus and modern pen. The ancient Egyptian calamus was a fort of arundo aqiiatka growing plentifully about Memphis, and on the banks of the Nile ; whence it was alfo called calamus Mcmphiticiis, Niloihus, &c. Calamus Jl-nptonus, in Anatomy, is a dilatation of the fourth ventricle of the brain ; fo called from its figure, which refembles that of a quill. See Brain. Calamus alfo denotes a fort of meafure othcrwife called canna, cane, or reed. CALAMY, Edmund, in Biography, an eminent divine among the Englifh Nonconformills of the 17th century, was born in London in the year 1600, and educated at Pem- broke Hall in the univerfity of Cambridge ; where he took his degrees of bachelor of arts, and bachelor of divinity, but on account of his hollility to the Arminian party, he was prevented from obtaining a fellowlhip in that fociety, to which his Handing, talents, and literary acquirements en- titled him. His lludious difncfition and religious charafter, however, recommended him to Dr. Felton, bifhop of Ely, who made him his domellic chaplain, and gave him the vi- carage of Swaffham prior in his neighbourhood. In this fituation, he ftudied at the rate of 16 hours a day, and acquired that large fund of folid and ufeful learning, which enabled him to difcharge, with great ability, the feveral of- fices which he afterwards occupied. After the death of the bilhop in 1626, he was chofen one of the lefturers at Bury St. Edmund's, and rtfigned his vicarage. During his 10 years' refidence in this place, he dillinguifhed himfelf for the moll part as a llridl conformift ; bi>t when biftiop C A L Wren's articles, and the reading of the book of Sport* were enforced, he avowed his diffent, made a public apo- logy for his conduft from the pulpit, and, from this time, was regarded as an undifguifed and aftive nonconformift. Being much in favour with the earl of Effex, he was pre- fented by his lordfliip with the rectory of Rochford in Effex, which, though a valuable preferment, was, on account of the infalubrity of its fituation, the occafion of permanent injury to his conftitution. In 1639, he was chofen minifter of St. Mary-, Aldermanbury, and removed to London, where he took an atlive part in the controverfy concerning church-government, which was then agitated. In 1640, he eniragedwith other writers in the compofition of the famous book, entitled " Smcfly miiuus," from the initials of the names of thofe that were concerned in it ; viz. Stephen Marlhall, Ed- mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and William Spurllow. This treatife, though written with a confiderable degree of afperity, has been confidered, not only by the Nonconformiih, but by Dr. Wilkins, bilhop of Cheller, as a capital work againll epifcopacy. Calamy himfelf fays of it, that it gave the firft deadly blow to this fyftem of church government. In 1641, Mr. Calamy was appointed by the houfe of lords a member of the fub-com- mittee, which ineffeftually attempted to accommodate the differences that fubfifted with regard to religion. And he afterwards diftinguidied himfelf, bv his learning and mode- ration, in the aftembly of divines. He was alfo at this time one of the moll eminent preachers in the city of London, and held in high eftimation, particularly by the Prefbyterian party. With this party he concurred in oppofition to the Independents and Seftaries, and in ttftifying his difappro- bation of the violent meafures that brought on the king's death, an event which he ardently deprecated. During the ufurpation of Cromwell, he withdrew from all public con- cerns ; but he boldly oppofed the projeft of his fingle go- vernment, which he undertook to prove to be both unlaw- ful and impradlicable. As foon as a favourable opportunity occurred, he was aftive in promoting the reftoration of Charles II. ; and he was one of the divines delegated to compliment the king in Holland on the occafion. In 1660, he was appointed one of his majefty's chaplains ; and he was offered the bifhopric of Litchfield and Coventry, which, af- ter previous deliberation, he declined accepting. As foon as the aft of uniformity was paffed, he confcientioufly dif- continued his pubhc fermons in the church, and preached his farewel fermon at Aldermanbury, Auguft 15, 1662, He joined feveral of his brethren, however, in a petition ta. the king for liberty to retain their public funftions, and on the occafion made a long and moving fpeech ; but this laft effort for toleration proved ineffeftual. After he had ceafed to officiate in the church, he attended its public fervice ; at one time, viz. December 28, 1662, when the appointed preacher did not appear, he was urged by fome of the prin- cipal parifhioners to take his place ; but taking occafion to fpeak with freedom concerning the parifti, and the fituation to which he was then reduced, he was arrefted by the lord mayor's warrant, and committed to Newgate. Doubts, however, occurred as to the legality of his confinement; and the hardfhip of his cafe being duly confidered, he was li- berated in a few days by the king's order. After the fire of London, he was driven over its ruins in a coach on his way to Enfield ; and the fight fo much affefted him, that he died within two months afterwards, Oftober 29, i666. Mr. Calamy was well acquainted with the fubjefts appro- priate to his profeflion ; as a preacher, he was plain and praftical ; and he boldly avowed his fentiments on all ne- ceflary occafions. Several of his fermons, delivered on par- ticular C A L ticiilar occafions, were printed feparatcly ; and a fct of five Itrnions, enllllcd " Tlie godly Man's Ark, or a City of re- fuge in the Day of Dillrcfs," was pnblilhcd in 1683, izmo, and became a very popular book in tliofe times. Biog. Brit. Cal.imy, Benjamin, a divine of tlie church of England, of the 17th century, was the fon of the preceding by a fe- cond wife, and having received the rudiments of education at St. Paul's fchool, he completed his courfe at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow, and an eminent tutor. In 1677, he was chofen niiniller of St. Mar^^ Aldermanbury, and foon after appointed one of his majelly's chaplains in ordinary ; and in 16S0, he took, his degree of doctor in divinity. The attention of the public was very much engaged by " A Dilcourfe about a fcrupu- lous Confcicnce," which lie publiihcd ni 1683. It was de- dicated to fir George JefTeries, afterwards the chancellor of notorious memory, whom he compliments as his friend and patron. This difcourle, which was deligned to fliew the crime and danger of feparatiiig from the ellablifhed church on the pretext of a tender confeience, and which inculcates the notion, that " fuch wayward, (Ivittifli confciences, as doubt of and fufpeft the rights of the crown, ought to be well bridled and rellrained," was much decried by one party, and extolled by the other. Mr. Thomas de Laune, a Non- conformill fchool-mafter, publilhed a warm reply to this difcourfe, for which, and fome other intemperate publica- tions, he was committed to Newgate, and fentenced to pay a fine, which he was unable to difcharge ; fo that the event proved fatal to himfelf, his wife, and children. It is al- ledged, however, in vindication of Dr. Calamy, that he ex- ■ erted himfelf in favour of this antagoniil ; and that though he avowed himfelf a ftrenuous advocate for the principle of religious intolerance, and was unfortunate in the feleClion of his patron, he was far from poffening the fpirit of a pcr- fecutor : and it is further faid, that his opinions on this topic underwent fome change before his death. In confe- quence of the high ellimation in which he was held by the bed men of all parties in the city of London, he obtained in 16S3 the vicaiage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, and in 16S5, a prebend in the cathedral church of St. Paul. Towards the clofe of the year 1685, his health declined in confe- quence, as it is faid, of the calamitous ftate of pubhc af- fairs, by which he was deeply impreffed, and he died of a pleuritic complaint in January, 1686. He was diftinguiilied by his zealous attachment to the government and church oT England ; and at the fame time refpcfted and elleemed for his piety and charity, by pcrfons of diflerent denominatior.s. As a preacher, he was much npplauded : and lome of his pofthumous fermons, publifhed by his brother, have been frequently reprinted, and are at this day read and admired. Biog. Brit. Calamy, Edmund, an eminent diffenting divine, was grand-fon of the firil Edmund Calamy, by a father of the fame name, and born in London, in 1671. After a previ- ous courfe of education in fome private and public ichools, he was placed under the tuition of Mr. Samuel Cradock, by whom he was inftrufted in logic, metaphyfics, and natural philofophy. In i6S3, he removed to the Univerfity of Utrecht, where he diftinguifiied himfelf by his proficiency in philofophy and law, under De Vries, Vandcr Muydeii, aiid Grsevius, fome of the moft learned profeffors in their refpettive departments at that period. In thefe feveral ftages of education, Mr. Calamy recommended himfelf to his tutors by the diligence of his application, and to all his aiFociates by the fweetnefs of his temper, and the urbanity of his manners. Having declined the offer of a profeffor- fhip in the college of Edinburgh, he returned from PIol- C A L land to England, and fpent fome time at Oxford, without becoming a member of the univerfity, availing himfelf of the patronage and counfel of Dr. Pocoek, and Dr. Kdwari Bernard, and alfo of the inllruttive convcifation of Mr. Henry Dodwell. Determining to devote himfelf to the pra- Rdion of divinity, he direfted his courfe of lludies to this objeft ; and having deliberately invelUgated the grounds of the controverfy iietween the ellabliflied church and the Se- parates, lie refolved to conneA himfelf with the latter ; and in i^^ijz, he commenceil the regular txercife ofhisminif- try at a uieeting-houfe in Blackfryars, Loudon. In 1694, he was ordained ; and this was the full inllanee of the kind that was performed among the didenters, after thepalTnig of the ae\ ot uniformity : and in 1 70J, he was chofen pillor of a large and refpcctable congregation in Weftminller. To the . diffenters he performed an acceptable fervice, by puhliOiing " Baxter's Hillory of his Life and Times," wliicli he after- wards abridged, annexing an account of many of the ejected miuillers, and an apology for their non-conformity. Bax- ter's hillory terminated with the year 1684; but Calumy's continuation extended to the year 1691 ; and was publilhed in 1702, 8vo. A new edition of this work was publifhed in 171 5, in 2 volumes Svo.; in which the hillory oftheNon- conformiils is continued through the reign of king William and queen Anne, to the time of pafTing the oceaiional bill. The lirll edition of this work was, as we may reafonably imagine, very differently received by perfons of different parties and opinions ; and it occafioned a controverfy of lome extent and continuance, which, however, was carried on with a greater degree of candour and moderation thaa moft controverfies of a liniilar kind. In Scotland, which Mr. Calamy vilited iniyop, lie was received with llnguhr rcfpeft; and each of the three Univerfities of Aberdeen, Glafgow, and Edinburgh, prefented him with the degree of doftor in divinity. In 17 18, he wrote a vindication of his grand- father, and feveral other worthy perfons againll the reflec- tions of Archdeacon Eachard, in his Hillory of England. About this time the queftion of fubfcription to the firtl ar- ticle ot the Church of England, relating to the Trinity, began to be agitated among the diffenters ; Dr. Calamy, however, remained neutral, and he has incurred reproach among the prefent race of diffenting clergy, for not having joined thofe 73 miuillers who carried it againft 69 for the Bible, in oppofi- tion to human formularies. As to'the belief of the doftrine he was decidedly orthodox, which was alfo the cafe with feveral others ; and he publiflied a fet of fermons in defence of it, which was dedicated and prefented to the king, and for which he received from his majelly a gratuity of 50I. and likewife the thanks of feveral dignitaries of the church. In 1727, he completed his great dtfign of prtferving the hillory of minifters, &c. ejected and iilenced, after the re- (loration, in a work intitled, " A Continuation of the Ac- count of the Miuillers, Ledturers, Mailers, and Fellows of Colleges, and Schoolmailers, who were ejeeled and filenced after the Reilora'.ien in 1660, by, or before the A&. of Uniformity, Lc." 2 vols. Lond. 1727. This is a work of laudable indullry and labour, and contains a valuable col- le£lion of memoirs, which would have been otherwife loft. In 1775, the rev. Mr. Samuel Palmer of Hackney pub- lifhed in two large volumes 8vo. under the title of '• Non- conformills' Memorial, "an abridgement, with corrections, ad- ditions, and new anecdutt.':, of Dr. Calamy's 4 volumes, con- cerning the ejected and filenced minifters; and a new edi- tion of this work, with improvements, has been lately reprint- ed. Dr. Calamy diftinguiftied himfelf by otiier learned and . ufeful writings, confilling chiefly of fermons and controverfial pamphlets. Of his publications, bcfides thofe already notic- 7 cd, C A L ed, wt may mention his " Ii.fpiration of tlieHoly Writings of tlic Ol.i iiiid New Teiiament, in 1 4 Sermons ;" and " His De- fence of modcMte Nonconformity," in.; parts. Tiie introduc- tion to one of thefe traas, rcprefentiiig the true tlate of tlic contioverfy between the Church and the Dilfenters, was lo much approved by Mr. Locke, thit lie fent a meffage to our jiuthor informing him, that he thought it fuch a defence of nonconformity as could not be anfwcred ; and that, in ad- hering to the' principles thus kid down, he had no occalion to be afraid of any antagonift. After an honourable courfe of profelTional fcrv'ices for whicii he was much ellecmed.and after fudaining a charafter which was much refpefted, not only among dVlTentcrs, but alfo among the moderate mem- bcrs of the ellablilhed church, both clergy and laity, with many of whom he lived in great intimacy ; he clofcd his life June ;, 17:2, in the 60th year of his age. In his fu- neral fermori by Mr. Mayo, his charader is ver)' jullly de- lineated, as " a perfon of found judgment, extenfive learn- ing, fincere piety, of a candid and benevolent temper, and ver^- moderate with regard to differences in points of reli- gion." Biog. Brit. CALANDA, in Gengriiphy, a town of Spain m Arra- goii, on the river Guadaloupe ; 3 le?giies W. S. W. of AU ianitz. CAL-i^NDRA, in Ornllholozy, a bird of the Alauda, or lark ''enus, called by fome the calandre lark, and which appears to be a general inhabitant of Sardinia, Italy, the South of France, Syria, Ruffia, and Taitary, and alfo of America. This is tlie calandra of old authors. Briffon calh it alauda major (. calsndra : it is the calandra of the arctic zoology, of Aldrovandus, Willughby, and Edwards, ard groffe alouctte ou calandre of BufFon. The length of this bird is about fevcn inches and a quarter. It builds its neff on the ground : finga finely, and imitates the notes of -other birds extremely well. It is fpecifically diftinguiflitd "by having the firft exterior tail feather on each fide white on the outer web ; fecond and third tipt with white : pec- toral band brown. Gmel. &c. Oif. The bill and legs are pale grey : body above varied with brown and grey : chin white : throat with a white crefcent, and beneath that a whitilh band fpotted with black : belly white : quill fea- thers duiky edged with white ; the leffer ones tipt with ivhite : tail black. CALANDRE, in h'.ilural Hiftory, a name given by the Trench writers to an infecl that does Tail mifchiefin granar- ies. It is properly of the fcarab clafs. The female lays a confidcrable number of eggs, and the increafs of thefe creatures would be very great, but nature has lo ordered it, that while in the egg ftate, and even while in that of the worm, they are fubjeft to be eaten by mites ; thefe little vermin are always very plentiful in gra- naries, and they detlroy the far greater number of thefe larger animals. CALANDRO, in Geogrnl>hy, a town of Afiatic Tur- key, in the province of Caramania ; 100 miles S. of Cogni. CALANGAY, in Natural Hifiory, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a fpecics of parrot very common there ; it is all over white, and has a creft of white feathers on its head; it is of the Cze of a pigeon, and is ^afily kept tame, and learnt to talk. It is called alfo in fome of the Philippines catalua and abacay. CALANNAS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the county of Seville, near the river Odicl ; 40 miles N. W. of Seville. C.'VLANTIGAS, an idand of the Eaft Indian ocean, jiot far from Lingen, which fee. CALANUS, in Biography, a bracbmaA or Indian phi- C A L lofophcr, who followed Alexander the Great, in his expe- dition to India. Having pafTed 83 years without ficknefs, a fit of the colic made hmi impatient of life, and he rcfolv- ed to render his exit as oftentatious as pofliblc. Accord- ingly, having obtained permifl'ion of Alexander to burn himfclf, a funeral pile was ereClcd and llrcwed with per- fumes ; and the whole army was arranged round it in battle array : upon which, Calanus, magnificently drclTcd, afcend- ed the pile with a compofed air, and faw the flame applied witliout emotion. Whtn he was aflced if he had any mef- fage to Alexander, he only replied, " I ihall foon fee him again at Babylon ;" which declaration fome have interpret- ed as prcfignificative of his death ;ii that city ; and the lad words he uttered were, " Hapoy hour of departure from life, in which, after the mortal body is confumtd, the foul fiiall go forth into light." This event took place on the frontiers of Sufiana, B. C.325. See Alexandeh. CALAO, in Ornithology., fynonymous with the modern 'L's.V.n Bitceros, and /I'sn/i/// of the Englilh. Petiver called the Philippine hornbill (Buorrih Linn.) Calao, and fince that period, the French have adopted the expreflion as a generical name for the other fpeciesof the fame tribe. Thus, Buffon has calao d'Abyflinie, calao d'Afriqucj calao de Ma- labar, calao a cafque rond, calao a btc rouge de Senegal, &c. all which refer to the correfponding lynonyms, Abyf- finian hornbill, African hornbill, Malabar hornbill. Helmet horubill, red-billed hornbill, &c. CALAON, in ^Indent Geography, a river of Afia Mi- nor, in Ionia, near the town of Colophon. CALAPADA, ill Geography, a cape on the north fide of the ifle of Candia, to die eaft of cape Meleche, and about one-fourth part of the length of the ifland from the weil end. CALAPIS, in Ancient Geography, a colony of Afia Mi- nor, in Bithynia ; eltablifhed, according to Stiabo, by the inhabitants of Heraciea. CALAPIZZATI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra ; eight miles N.W. of Ca- riati. CALAPPA, in Botany, Rumph. See Cocos nudfera. Calappa, \n Entomology, a fpccies of Cancer that in- habits Anurica. The thorax is crenulatcd, with the pof- terior angles dilated, and very entire ; hand-claws creikd. Fabiicius. CALASCIO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo LTltra ; eight miles E. of Aquila. C.-\LASCIONE, a muficnl inflrument much in ufe by ftrolhng and Itrect Muficians throughout the kingdom of Naples. It is a fpccies of guitar, with only two Urings, tuned 5th to each other. It has a very long neck, which i> fretted. See 1 ret. The Turks have an iiirtrument of the like kind, with three ilrings, called in Arabic, dambura. Sometimes the Ilrings are ftruck with a pleftrum, and fomC- times with a quiIl. See Plectrum. The tone is rough and coarfe ; the neck is fometimea fix feet long. The frets amount to 15 or 16. But the Neapolitans have a fmaller fort called calafdoncina. See Muf. PI. of mod. iiiitr. CAI.,ASH, or Calesh, a fmall light kind of chariot, or chair, with very low wheels, ul'ed chiefly for taking the air in parks and gardens. The word is French, caleche, which Menage derives from the Latin, carrus, carri, carifcus, carri/ca, carrefca, calejca, caleche. The calafh is for the mod part richly decorated, and open on all fides, for the conveniency of the air, and prof, pctt ; or at moll enclofed with light mantlet* of waxed cloth, to be opened or Ihut at pieafure. In C A L Tn the Pliilofopliical Tranfaftions, we liave a dtfci'Iption of a new fort of calafli going on two wlittis, not hung on traces, ytt eafier than tlic common coaches ; having tliis farther advantage, that whereas a common coach will over- turn if one wheel goes on a furface a foot and a half higher than th.it of the other, this will admit of a diflerencc pf three feet and one third, without danger of overturn- ing. Add that it would turn over and over, that is, after bemg turned fo as that the fpokes are pai-alkl to the horizon, and one wheel fiat over the head of him that rides in it, and the otlier flat under him, it will turn once more, by which the wheels are placed in Jlnlii quo, ■Vvithinit any diforder to the horfe, orrider. N^ 172. p. 102S. CALASIO, Marius de, in B'to^^raphy, a Francifcan, profeflbrof Hebrew at Rome, and autlior ot a " Cor.cordance of the Hebrew Words in the Bible," in four volnmts folio, printed at Rome in i6ji, and at London in 1747- This Concordance has been highly approved both by proteftants and papilU ; and conlaiiis, befides the Hebrew words oc- curring in the Bible, the Latin verfion, and, in the mar- gin, the variations between the LXX verfion, and the Vul- gate. Belidts, at the beginning of every article, there is a kind of dictionary, which gives the lignification of each Hebrew word ; and it furniflies an opportunity of comparing it with other oriental languages, -yia. the Syriac, Arabic, «nd Chaldee. CALASIRn, in Ancient Geography, the denomination of a people, who, according to Herod<;tus, formed a clafs of E'^yptians. amounting in number to 2 jO,co; perfons, de- voted, from father to fon. to the proftflion of arms, without being attached to agriculture, or to any art. The kings of Egypt had always o.ie thoufand of them among their guards. CALASIRIS, or Calassis, in Antiqu'Uy, a linen tunic worn by the Phoenician, ^^yptian, Roman, and other prierts. We alfo lind mention of the calafiris as worn by the foldiers and by women. In which lall ftnfe, it fctms to have been a knot in the women's gown, whereby it was drawn about the neck. CALASTRI, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in the Carnatic ; 15 geographical miles E.N. E. from Tripetty, and 61 from Arc.^t : but major Rennell has fome doubts concerning the accuracy of its pofition. CALATABELLOTA, formerly the Crimifus, a river of Sicily, wiih the waters of which the inhabitants overflow their beautiful rice grounds : and alfo a town of Sicily in the valley of Mazara ; fix miles S.E. of Sciacca. CALATA-i-lMI, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara ; 19 miles E.S.E. of Trapani. It is built on a ridge between two vallies, and its inhabitants are ellimated at 10,000. Calata-girone, or Calagirone, a royal city of Sicily, in the Val di Note, fituate about 20 miles from the fca, on the fumiriit of a very high inlulated hill, embo- fomed in thick groves of cypreffes, and containing about 17,000 inhabitants, who live by agriculture and the manu- faflure of potters-ware. The road to it, though paved, is very deep, and difficult of paflage for any animal except a mule or an afs. The inhabitants of this city are deemed the politeft people in the ifland, and many of them live in a very elegant llyle. The natives have an idea that this city is very ancient, and that it figured as a republic among the Sicilians, during the zenith of Grecian glory, under the name of inland Gela or Gelone. The Saracens fortified it, but the Gcnoefe wrcfted it from them ; however, their force was dwindled into a fhadow when the Normans arrived. Earl Roger avaikd himfelf> on many occafions, of the trufty va- VOL, V. r A L lour of the Calata^eronofe, and rewarded them liberally with ellatcs, which are ilill in their pofleflion, and render the cor- poration one of the richclk in Sicily. De Non fay^, this city, in which ancient coins arc ilill found, mull have bten the " Ilybla-hxrea" of antiipiity. .Swinburne's Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. Dc Non's Travels in Africa, &c. p. 292. Calata-misstta, a town of Sicily, in tiie valley of Ma. zara ; 37 miles E.N.E. of Girgenti. Calata-sciuelta, a mean town of Sicily, in the Val di Noto, built on the point of a rock, about three miles from Callro-Giovani. CALATAIUD, a city of Spain, in Arragon, fuuatcd at the foot of a hill, at the conflux of the Xalon and X'loca, defended by a calUe placed upon a rock. It contains i } pariflies, and 15 convents ; 37 miles S.W. of SaragOiTa. N. lat. 41° 22'. W. long. 2" 9'. CALATHE, in Ancienl Gtogrtiphy, Galata, an ifland of the Mediterranean, on the coall of Africa. See Galata. CALATHIAN Violet. See Gentiana Pncumo- nanlhc, CALATHIFORMIS, a term in Botany, denoting bowl- fliaped, or hemifpherical and concave. CALATHION, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Peloponnefus, in Meflenia, fituate to tlie call of Gcrtnia : on which was a temple dedicated to Calathca, with a grotto having a very narrow entrance. CALATHUA, or Calathusa, a town of Arabia Dc- ferta. Ptolemy. CALATHUS, in Antiquity, a kind of hand-baflvet made of light wood, or ruflies ; ufd by the women fometimes to gather flower.s, but chiefly after the example of Minerva to put their work in. The figure of the calathus, as repre- fented on ancient monuments, is narrow at the bottom, and widening upwaid.s like that of a top. I liny compares it to that of a niy. Hill. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 5. The calathus, or woik-baflv. iii^ ..cc ilioii. VVheii the Moors propolt^d to attack tlie little cit')- Cal;itrava, the Tcmpl'is, wlio hcKl it, liinendcicd it up to the ki;i^, on a fiupicion of their inability to defend it ; upon thisf Diejro Vi.lafqi;ev!, a Cillerci;ui monk, but a inaii of quality, perfnaded Raymond, abbot of Fitero, a moiKilUrv of Clllereians, to beg Culatrava of the king. He obtained it ; and Raymond and Diego put ihemfelves in it; being followid by a great mnnbtr of pcojile who joined them out of zeal, for the defence of Calatrava. The Moors abandoning the ciitcrprife, many of thole who came to the defence of the city, entered the order of the Ciileixians ; and that under a habit more lit for military than monaliic exercife. Accordingly, they be^an to make excurfions on the Moors ; and this was the rife of the order of Cala- trava. The firft grand mailer was Gracias ; under whofe go- vernment the order was approved by Alexander III. in 1164, and coniirmid by Innocent III. in 119S. In 1489, Ferdinand and Il'abella, with the coiifent of pope Innocent VIII, reunited the grand mallerdiip of Calatrava to the Spanilh crown : fo that the kings of Spain are now become perpetual admiiiiibators, or grand mafters of this order. The badge of the order is a crofs fl^-ury gules, which is worn at the ftomach pendant to a ribbon. Their rule and habit were originally thofe of the CiHer- cians, but their drefs was a little fliorttned, on account of their exercifes : and in procefs of time they were permitted a fecnlar habit. The piefent habit of ceremony of the or- der is a mantle of white hlk tied with a cordon and taffels, like thole of the garter: and on tiie left arm, a crofs fleury embroidered gults. Mariana obferves, that this noble iiillitution has gradually degenerated : the comroande. ries, which were formerly the reward of military merit, bein"- frequently bellowed on minions and favourites. The order is laid to have at prtfcnt 34 commandcrics, and eight priories, which produce an annual revenue of j2o,o0J du- cats. As the order of St. James is di;tinguinied by the epithet of the rich, and that of Alcantara is llyled the noble, this of Calatrava is entitled the gallant. Aiphonfus IX. having recovered Alcantara from the Moors, ill the year 12 12, committed tlie cullody and de- fence thereof, (irll to the knights of Calatrava ; and two years afterwards to the kniglvts of the Pear-tree, or of St. Julian, another military order inllituted at Pereiro, in 1156, under the proteAion of Feidinand II. knig of L»on, and ralitied as a religious order under the title of St. Beiiedift, by pope Alexander III. in 1177, at the rcqueft of Gomez Fcriiande.'., the firll prior or grand mailer ; upon which, they changed their name, and affumed the denomination of the kniglits of Alcantara. The king of Spa'a is fovercign of this order, which is in high ellimation in that kingdom: the mantle worn by the knights of this order is of red filk, with a liar of five points embroidered in filver on the left breall. The badge is a crofs fleury of gold, enamelled vert, and worn at the llomach witli a broad ribbon. The religious order of Calatrava for ladies was inllituted by Don Gonzalez Yaniies in 1219. The badge of the or- der is the fame as that worn by the knights of Calatrava, only embroidered on the front of the ladies' habits. CALATUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain, in the country of the Brigantes, according to Ptolemy. It is placed by Horfley at Appleby, and by Baxter at Kirkby- thore in Wellmoreland. But both the name, and the rela- tive fituatiou aiTigned to it by Ptokmyj might incline us to C A L I place it in or near the Galatcrium Nemus, now the forefl; of Gaiters in Yorkfhire. In the itinerary of Aiitonire, it is denominated Galacum, and placed 47 miles from Bremeto- nacis. CALAU, in Gco^^raphy, a town of Lnfatia, which carrfes on a large trade in wool ; 15 miles N.W. of Cotbus. Cai,au-Cf.se, a town of Egypt; li miles S. of Abu Girge. CALAVON, a river of France, which runs into the Durance, about 8 mil:s W. of Cavaillon. CAhAURES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in Phrygia, whicii ran, according to Livy, between Cibyra a:id Mandropolis. CALAURIA, one of the Greek idanda in the Argolic bav, lituate, according to Strabo, in the bay of Hermione, over againft Troezen, a maritime city of Argia, from whicli it wa.^ dillanl four furlongs, being itielf 30 in compafs. It was fam; us for a temple coniecrated to Neptune, and air afylum. DemolUienes was an exile in this ifland, and was bu- ried in the temple, after having poifoned himfelf, becaufe he- would not furrender to the order of Antipater. In the time of Paufanias, the inhabitants and llrangers paid great relpeft to the memory of this illulliious orator. This idand was alfo denominated Irene, Anthedonia, Hypereia, and PolTidonia; however, Pliny diftingnillies Irene from Calauria. Ancient tradition reports, that Latona gave this idand to Neptune- in exchange for that of Delos, whence the proverb, •' Pro Dtlio Calauria." A fort of litharge, denominated " Ca- lauritis," was brought to the Greeks from this ifland, and applied by them to medical purpofes. Calauria, a town of Sicily, mentioned by Plutarch. CALAUWE, in Geography, an inhabited idand of the- Indian Ocean, near Saleyer, (which fee), and belonging ta it. It is chiefly inhabited, as v/ell as Bonarette in its vici- nity, bv Bruginefe. CALBARI, or Calabar, the name of two rivers, a* well as of a dillridl in Africa, eall of Cape Formofa. See Calabar. CALBARIA, a province of Africa, arijoining to Rio Real, or Koyal River, called alio Calabar; deriving its name from that river, which, though broad, is too (hallow to be navigated by (hips of burden. Ntar the coall, on the- wed bank of it, is a toun called by the Dutch, Wyndorp, and by the negroes, from the great quantity of wine, Toke ; two branches fprcad to the ea(l and welt from the river^ whofe courfe runs conftantiy north. In the weft branch i* a road, three or four leagues long, for trading veffels ; and the tow-n Calbaria is fituated on the north fide of this arm, and it is a place of great trade with the Dutch, enclofed with pallifadoes, watered on the fouth by the river, and de- fended on the north by a boggy w-ood. On the fouth of this rivulet is an iiland of an oval figure, at a diftance from the continent, from which it is divided only by a (liallow cana!, the land low and covered with woods. About 12 leagues weftvvard of Calbaria, lies Belli, governed by one captain ; and 20 leagues above the mouth is an arm of Rio Real, running eall-north-eaft, and many other rivers are near the banks. The province of Krike, bordering on the weft of Moco, lies about 20 miles from the coaft ; on the back of Rio Real, fouthward of Moco, towards tlie coafl, is the province of Bani, whofe chief town is Culeba, the principal of this country, which extends wetlward from the river Calbaria, as far as Sangma, and has ten under officers. The cannibal negroes, inhabitants of the eaftern banks of Calba- ria, circumcife the women that are marriageable, eat only the dain, and fell the prifoners of war at Calbaria. The canoes ufed by the Calbarian negroes are pointed at both endS) C A L en;i;, ^o feet li-.ncr a"cl fix lir.iad, with a F.rffpl.ice in tlic centre Uir d.tfung vicliials, and planks acrufs for rowcis. Nciir eai-h rower han^s a qiiixcr of arrnvs, in cafe of an at- tack : tlit'lc natioiis living in continual war. The canoes carry So perfons ; the (laves only are expofcd to t!ie damps of the air, the maflers being (lieltered in the night by reed mats fpread upon poles, and Hxe'i in the form of tents. At the ea!l end of Loitoniba river, called by the Portu- guefe R'o do Santo Don;ingo, which is three leagues from the month of Rio Real, is a l^i^e town inhabited by ne- gro traders, who tri'fSc in (laves, which thev bring honi didant countries." Next to Loitoniba is Old Ca'baria, or Calborg river. The interjacent coinitryus unprovided with water: the coaft; from Rio Real to ancient Calborg is 24 leagues in extent, n^irth-novth-call. See Calab.ir. CALBE, a town ol Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Magdeburg, on the Saal ; 20 miles S. of Magdeburg. Calbe, or Kalbe, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Si'xony, and old mark of Brandenburg ; 8 miles fro.r. Gardv'ebin. CALBEKGA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Hydrabad, furmtily a large city, and the Hated relidencc of the ki:igs of the Deccan ; but now lef-i pi>pnlous, fince it ctafcd to be the fcal o'' royalty ; Sj miles W. of Hyr'ra- bad, and r :o E. of Vifutpour. N. lat. 17° 25'. E. long. 77" 2:/- CALBIS, a town of E -ypt, 3 niles N. of Rofetta. Calbis, in Anc'uiit Gtofrjp/jy, a river of Afia Minor, in the Donde, accordmg 10 Ptolemy, and in Caria, according to Pomp.)nius Mela. Pl'ny calls it Indu'', and fsys that it fprung from th- mouiitai s of C byra, and that it received in its courfe Co rivers, and more than 100 torrents. Its month was in the north-weft part of the gulf of Glaucus, W. of the promontory of Pedalium. CALBONGA'-^, in Geo^ra/Jjy, the inhabitants of a conn'ry in Africa. v.hic!i hes near the Source of the river Rio d) R^y, or the Kmg'? River, and borders on Blafra, at a d llai ce Tom the coaft. They are deleri!>ed as a wickid, deceitfid, a d yi:tphy. SeffCAlT.APA. CALCAGIUM, \»"Mii!.lU /■t;e l^'iilns, a tai: or con- tribution paid by the neighbouring inhabitants towards ihc making or repairing of a ci minon c.uiftwav. CALCAGNINI. Cr.1.10, in nio<(n,j\'y. a learnrJ Fta- lian, was probably tiic illeg'tir.iatc fon of the apoft heal Prothonotary at Ferrara, and born in l,i;79. Having borne ai ms, after t!>e completion of his (Indies, under llie empero- Maximilian, and pope Julius II., he was employed in varloui enibafiles, and h.mourable cominifli- ns. On li is return from_ Huugaiy, wiiiiherhe accompiniid cardinal Mijipolitod'Ellc in 1 5 18, he was made profeffor ot belles-lettr ■; in the uni- verfity of Ferrara, v.hicli (;tricc lie held till his death in 1 5+'' He war. diftinguiflud by his promotion of the Acs- demy, '■ Degli Elcvati," in tiuit tirj- ; ai.d by the liberul donation of iiis valuable library, and colkdtion of mathe- matical inilrumeiits to the Francifcaiis of Ferrara, on con- dition of their pvefervir.g them for public life. lie wrote much both in profe and verfe. His profe works were col- lected by Frobenius at Bafil in I '44. Among thole that rel.'.te to antiquities arc, the 3 books, " QniTlioiuun l^pifto- licrirum," aiid his trcatifes, " l)e Rebus Asgypliacis," " 1); Re Nautica," and " Dc Talorum, Tenerarinn, tt Calculo- rum Ludis." Others relate to philofophy, morals, and politics. Before Copernicus pubi'flied his fyl'.em, l.e wrote a book to prove, " Q^iiod Ca;Ium ftat, Terra inoveatur." Erafmns highly applaudo th;E author; though others con- demn liis (lyle as laboured and overwhelmed with quotation. His poetical (lyle was more eileti.ied. Three books of his Latin poems were publifiied at Venice in 155J, with thofc of Pigna and Ariofto. Tu-abofchi. CALCANEUM, or Calcankuc, in Jlnatcmy, the fame as calx, OS calcis, calear, or the heel bone. It lies under the allragalus, to which it is arlieulated by gingiimus ; behind it is a large pnitnbcrance, whi h makes the iicel, and into which ihc tendo achillis is in- feited. CALCANTHUM, in Minrmlvgy. Sec Vitriol. CALCAR, in Anatomy^ the fame with calcaseijm. Calcar, or Kelkar, John, in Biography, a painter of hiftory and portrait, was born at Calcar m 1499. and he rxcelhd fo much as a diiciple of Titi.in, that leveral of hij defigns and paintings have been afcribed even by Goltzius to tiiis eminent mailer. Kandrart afSrms, that he rifo imi- tated the wotks of Raphael fo exattly, that fome of his pro- duftions have been eftecmcd to be Raphael's own. His " Nativity," whiih was a much admired compufition, and which cxiiibited the light proceeding from the infant, was in the poffefTion of Rubens ; and after bis death purchafid by Sandrart, and fold to the emperor Ferdinand, by wlioni it was very highly pii/.td. Calcar dtfigned ail the heads for the works of Vafari, and the anatomical figures in thofc of V.falius. He died in 1546. Pilkinglon's Diflionary by Fnfeli. Calcar, in Botany, a conic projeftion from fome part of a floAer refembling a cock's-lpur. Tropzohim, the naf- tuitium or, Indian crcfs of the gardeners, is an inftance of a calcar.->te or fpun-ed calyx ; delphinium, or larkfpur, of a calcarate corolla; and orchis of a calcarate neiflaiy. Calcar, in Conchology, a fpecics of Tuk bo, the Ihcll of which is fomcwhat imperforated and deprcfled ; whoils fcabrous : fpiiies above comprtflcd and hollow. Linn, &c. This is the Calcar of Rumpfius and Argenville. Chemnitz gives fcveral diftinft varieties of this fhell from India, the South Seas, and the Mediterranean. Calcar, a fpecics of Navtilus, found in the Adri- atic Sea, and dcfcribed by Plancus among his microfcoplc 4 Z 2 Hielis C A L f\\t]h. It is diflinguiflud fpecifically by the :ipcitui-c being of a linear form, and having the joints of the whorls elevated. Thio is a niimitc (hell of an opake white colour, and has been found on the fliore of Sluppy ifland. Calcar, ill Enlomolf.gy, a fpecies of Curcui.io, the co- lour of which is black: thighs with a finglc tooth: antenns a-;d feet tcllaceouf. I'abricius. This is a fmall infcft, and inhabits Germany. Calcar, \\\ Geography, a town of Germany, in the cncie f>f Wtftphalia, and duchy of Cleves, about 5 miles from the Rhine. It contains two convents and two churches, one for Roman Catholics, and one for Proteftants, and all other fefts are tolerated; 5 miles S.E. of Clevts. N. lat. 5i°47'- E-lo"K- ."i^''- ^ , „ Calcar, in G'a/s-nuiiiii^', is the name of a fm;ill oven, or reverberatory furnace, in which the lirll calcination of fand and fait of pot-afhcs is made, for the turning them into what they call frit. CALCAIIATA, in Entomolngy, a fpecies of 1'juprestis that inhabiis Germany. The wing-cafes are bidentated, nnd fomewhat ftriated : fliLinks of the middle pair of legs toothed : body coppery. Scliall. Herbil gives this the name of Bupreilis aruginofa. Obf. This is of a fmall fize, with four (Irias on the vviniT.cafes, and a fingle black blue hue on the thorax. cfALCARATUS, an European fpecies of Cerambyx, oFa violaceous-black colour, with rufous thighs, the poilerior ones denlated. Scop. Ann. Hill. Calcaratus, a tpecies of Cimex, of a fufcous colour, with the abdomen fanguineous above, and the poilerior thighs fix-toothed. Fabncius. InhabitsTlurope. CALCAREOUS, fomething that partakes of the na- ture and qualities of calx, or lime. Calcareous atmenls. See Cements calcareous. Calcareous Mr//i. See Lime. Calcareous earth, in jigriculture, a fort of earth in which calcareous matter abounds. Earths of this kind have the following properties in common : — They become friable when burnt in the fire, and afterwards fall into a fine white powder, v\-hich is promoted, if after being burnt, they be thrown into water, by which a Itrong heat ariles, and a par- tial folntion takes place. They cannot be melted by them- felves into glafs in a clofe fire ; but when burnt, they aug- ment the caufticity of pot-afhes, and they are diffolved in acids with effervefcence. This earth is found pure, in the form of a powder, in fome places, and called by chimilfs lac luna. It is of a white colour, and is met with in fome moory fituations, at the bottoms of lakes, and in the fiifures of free-llone quarries, in fome of the midland diftrifts. In fome countries, as Sweden, the colour varies to red and yel- low. This is fuppofcd to be lime-done walhed from the rocks, and pulverized by the motion of the water. It is, however, found in quantities too fmall to admit of ,any applications to agricultural purpofes. It is frequently met with in a friable or compaft Hate in the form of chalk. The white chalk is the pureli, yet it contains, according to lord Dundonald, a little filiceous, and about two f>er cent, of ar- gillaceous earth. There is more £xcd air in chalk than in any other calcareous earth, generally about (orty per cent. It is alfo feen in a hard or indurated ftate in lime-ftone ; and united with the fulphuric or vitriolic acid, in the form of gypfum, felenite, or what is generally termed plaller of Paris. It is hkcwife combined with clay in the form of marl. See Lime-stone, Gypsum, and Marl. It is maintained by lord Dundonald, in his treatife on the "ConncftioB of Agriculture with Chcmiftry," "that it con- ftitutes not only the furface, or foil, but likewifc the under C A L \ .1. flratum of many countries to a very great depth ; and that I under this general name of calcareous matter are included 'i chalk, marble, lime-ftone, coral, fhells, &c. The three firll i mentioned are frequently mixed with iron, and v\ith difftrent proportions of the fimple earths, hut are confidtred as caU ■ careous when the proportion of that earth predominates. This material is capable of abforbing, and of rctaining^ III niliire, though in a confiderably lefs degree than clay. By the adlioii of the fire it becomes hme, and returns again to the Itate of chalk or calcareous matter, by expofure to the air or atmofphere." And it is Hated by Dr. Fordyce, in his " Elements of Agriculture and Vegetation," thau when combined with gas or fixed air it is termed ii.i/J, but that when free from it, AncauJUc; that calcareous earth, when mixed with clay, gives a greater friablh'ty to it than fand decs ; that it unites with fulphur, forming hcpar ful- phur'is ; and with animal and vegetable fubftances, forming a foap. It prevents putrefaftion. It attraCls acid.s more ftrongly than volatile alkali or magnefia. If it be expofed to \ the air, it attrafls from it the fixable air, and reverts to the ftate it was in before it was burnt. Mild calcareous ■ earth forwards putrefaftion. It is foluble in water, and when reduced to the Hate of a powder, and spplied to a foil, it is apt to be waflied through it. Cauftic volatile alkali will not precipitate calcareous earth, if diffolved in an acid ; but fixed vegetable alkali will. This dilHnguilTies it from the other earth?. Vitriolic acid will not didolve it, fo as to form a clear folution ; and if this acid be added to a folution of it in any other, it will make a precipitation. It is fuggefttd by the author of Phytologia, that one great ufe of calcareous earth confifts " in its uniting with the carbon of the foil in its pure or cauflic ftate, or with that of the vegetable or animal recrements, during fome part of the proceis of putrefaftion ; and thus rendering it foluble in water, by forming an hepar carbonu. fomewhat like an hepar fiiiphiiih produced by lime and fulphur, by which procefs, it is fuppofed, the carbon is rendered capable of being ab- forbed by the lafteal veffels of vegetable roots. The black liquor which flows from dunghills is, it is thought, probably a liuiJ of this kind; but the author fpeaks hypothetically, as he has nut verified it by experiment ; and the carbon may- be fimply fupported in tlie water by mucilage, like the coffee drank at our tea tables; or may be converted into an hepar carbon'ts by its union with the fixed alkali of the decaying vegetable matter, or by the volatile alkali vifhich accompanies fome ftages ot putrefadlion." And a fecond mode by which, it is believed to affift the purpofe of vegetation " is by its union with carbonic acid, and rendering it thus foluble in water in its fluid ftate, inftead of its being expanded into a gas; and thus a great quantity of carbon may be drank up. by vegetable abforbent veflcls. In the prattice newly in- vented of watering lands by driving ftreams over them for many weeks together, it has been faid, that water from fprings is generally more eifeftual, in promoting vegetation, than that from rivers ; which, though it may in part be owing to the azotic gas, or nitrogen, contained in fome fprings, as thofe of Buxton and of Bath, according to the analyfis of Dr. Prieftley, and of Dr. Pearfon, yet it is fup- pofed to be principally owing to the calcareous earth, which abounds in all fprings, which pafs over marly foils, or through calcareous ftrata ; and which does not exift in rivers, as the falts wafhed into rivers from the foil all feem to de- compofe each other, except the marine fait, and fome mag- nefian fait which are earned down into the ocean. The calcareous earth likewife, which is wafhed into rivers, enters into new combinations, as into gypfum, or perhaps into fi- liceous fand, and fubfides." And » ftill farther mode in which C A L C A L wliich calcareous earth may promote vog'etatioii is, it is con- ceived, " by its containing plii-fpliorus, v.-liich by its union ■R'itli it may be converted into an hcpar, and thus rendcrid fokible in water without its becoming an acid, by t!ic addi- tion of oxygen. Piiofphorns, it is fnppofcd, is probably as neeeiiary an ingredient in vegetable as in animal bodies; ivliich appears by the phofphorio hght vilible on rotten wood dur- ing fome ftagcs ot putrcfadion ; in which, it is fuppofed, llie phofphorus is fct at lib.i ty Irom the calcareous earth, or from the fixed alkali, or Irom the carbon of the decompofiiig wood, and acquires oxygtn from the atmofplicre ; and both warmth and hght are emitted during t'.'.cir union. But phof- phorus may, perhaps, more frequently exift in the form of pholphoric acid in vegetables, and may thus be readilv unit- ed with their calcareous caith, and may be feparated from its acid, by the carbon of the vegetable during calcination, and alfo during putrefaClion, which may be confidered as a flow combulhon. The exiftence of a folution of phofphoric acid and calcareous earth in the vefTtls of animals is proved by the an::ual rer.ovation of the Ihells of crab-filh, and by the fabrication of the egg-ihells in f-male birds ; and is oc- cafionally fecreted, where it cements the wounds made on fnail fliells ; or where it joins the prefent year's growth of a fnail (tiell to the part where a membranous cover had been attached for the protection of the animal during its Hate of hybernation ; and lallly, it is further evident from the growth of the bones cf quadrupeds, and from the depofition af callus to join them when they have been broken." It is therefore contended, that " many arguments may be ad- duced to fliow, that calcareous earth, cither alone, or in fome of the dates of combination, mentioned above, may contribute to the nourifhiuent and fupport of both animalsand vegetables. Flrft,becaufe calcareous earth conftitutes a con- fiderable part of them, and muft ot courfe be either received from without, or formed by theiri, or both ; and fccondly, becaufe from tiie analogy of all organic life, whatever has compofed a part of a vegetable or animal, may again, after its chemical iolution, become a part of another vegetable or animal ; iuch, it is oblerved, is the tranlmigration of matter. See Lime and Manure. Calcareous manures, are all fuch as abound in calcare- ous matter. Chalk, po'.mded lime-ftone, lime, calcareous marl, (hells, and various other fubltances of a hmilar kind are of this defcription. They are found particularly beneficial on all the lliffer forts of foil when made ule of in due pro- portions. Calcareous foils, fuch as are conftitutcd of this fort of material in a large proportion. From their dry and friable nature, foils of this nature are in general well fuited to the grov"th of moll forts of grain, as well as fome plants of the artificial grafs kind, fuch as clover, faint-foin, &c. See Soil. CALCAREOUS_^t!;-. See LiME-STONE. CALCARIA, in Ancient Geography, thought by fome to be Calijfane, a city of Gallia Narbonnenfis, upon the Au- relian way, weft of Aquae Sextia;. Calcaria, a town of Ancient Britain, 9 miles from Eburacum and zo miles from Cambodunum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, placed by fome at Tadcailer, by others at Newton-kyme. CALCAYLARES, in Geography, a jurifdiftion of Soutn America, in the country of Peru, fitnate between Cufco and the fea, and commencing 4 leagues weft of the city of Cufco. The air in this jurifdidtion excels that of all the other provinces, and accordingly it produces an ex- uberance of all kinds of grain and fruits. In the hotteft parts called " Lares" were formerly very large plantations of fugar canes, but for v.ant of hands to cultivate them, they arc now fo diminilhtd, tliat iiidcad of 60 or 80,000 arobas wliich they aniuially produced, tiity are now re- duced to lefs than 30 ; but the fugar is of iuch an txcellcnt kind, that without any other preparation ihan that ol the coinitr)', it is equal both in colour and hardncfs to the re- fined fugar of Europe. This diminution of its fugar has greatly leffened the principal branch of its commerce. ' CALCEARIUM, or Cai.ciarh m, in Antiquity, a- donative, or largcfs bcflowcd on the Roman foldurs for buying (hoes. In the monallerics, cnhearhim denoted the daily fervice of cleaning the (lioes of the religious. CALCEDONIANS, a denomination given by Copt writers to the Melchites, on account of their adherence to the council of Calccdon. Sec Cothti, Monophv- SITES, &c. CALCEDONTUS is a term ufed by the jewellers for a dcfeft in fome precious Hones , when, in turning them,, they find wliite fpots, or ilains, like thofe of the caked 'ny, or chalcedony. This defeft is frequent in granates and rubies. The lapidaries ufually remedy it by hollowing the bottom of the Hone. CALCEDONY. See Chalcedony. CALCENA, in Geography, a town of Spain in Arra- gon ; 1 4 miles S. of Tarragona. Calcena, a term ufed by fome medicinal writers to denote a morbid tartareous humour in the body. CALCEOLARIA, in Botany, (from Cal'ceolus, a little flipper.) Slippcrwort. Linn. Mant. 171. Reich. ,^2. Schreb. 3y. Willd. 51. Gsrt. 374. La Marck lUuf. 36. JulT. p. 120. Vent. vol. ii. p. 297. Clafs and order, dinnJria mo- nogyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Corydales ; Linn.? Scrophularie, Juir. Rkinanthoidcs, Vent. Gen. ch. Cal. one-leafed, with foiu", equal, fpreading divi- fiops ; permanent. Cor. monopetaluus, bilabiate, inverted: upper lip very fmall, contrafledly globular; lower lip large, inflated, concave, flipper-fliaped, gaping before. Stain, fila- ments two, very fliort, within the upper lip ; anthers in- cumbent, two-lobcd. Pift. germ fnpcrior, roundifh ;■ ftyle very fhort ; ftigma rather obtufe. Peric. capfulc foir.ewhat conic, two-furrowed, two-celled, two-valved. Seeds numerous, egg-(haped. Eff. ch. 6V/)'.v with four equal divifions. Coro//a ringent ; lower lip inflated, concave. Capfiile two celled. Sp. I. Cphmata. Linn. Mant. 1 71. Ad. Stock. 1770. t. 8. Feuil. Peruv. 3. 12. t.7. Curt. Mag. t. 41. Garrt. tab. 62. f. 4. Lam. Illuft. PI. 15. f. 2. " Leaves winged." Annual. Stem erert, two feet high, round, branched, pubefcent, flightly fwelling at the knots. Leaves oppofite, without lUpules, brittle, pubefcent, foft, fpreading, longer than the intcrnodcs, unequally winged, ot a delicate green co- lour ; leaflets nearly oppofite or alternate, fometimes, as reprefented in Curtis's figure, fo united as to make the leaf only pinnatifid ; fometimes, as in a fpecimcn now before us, from a plant raifed by R. A. Salifbury, efq. completely fe- parate, bluntly ferrated, narrowed at their bafe, and fre- quently decurrent on the common pe-tiole. Flowers yellow, axillary and termina'ing. Cnpfule thin, fweilcd at the bafe, and diminifliing to a pyramidal top, deeply furrowed ; ma- ture valves bilid at the tip ; partition contmry to the valves. Seeds fmall, pale, ma'ked with about fix longitudinal, cre- nulated furrou-s. A native of Pern : introduced into Eng- laid in 177, by fir Jofeph Banks, Dart. 2. C. integri/olia, Willd. Smith icon. ined. I. p. ,3. C. falvix folio, Fenill. Peru. 3. t. 7. C. ferrata. Lam. " Leaves lanceolate, wrinkled, fer- rated ; flowers in terminal paniclrs." Smith. Root fibrous. Stem branched, round, two or three feet high. Leaves op- pofite, feffile, bright green above, pubefcent and pale be- ivcath.. C. A 1, fifatli. /'Vowrr/ yellow, pi-ihinclt^tl. A native of Pcni artd Cli'li. ;■ C. eviilii, Smilh icon, iiieil. i. t. .5. C. clicho- toma, I.n Marck. C. irlegrifolia. Limi. Siipp. ? " Slcm brfiiiciitrd ; leaves e.ijg.fliapctl. fcollopeJ." Stivtli. PiiliU'- cxiit in ail its paits". i'^o^/ aiiininl, iihioiis. Siem (Irndcr, iiHiiul, dichotomoiis, fcveii or eiglit iiuh:^s liij.^ii. Lcaixs lir.all, oppolitc; upper oiics fiffile, nci'.miiiate ; lower oiies •jiflioled ami radier obtufc. Fn-xcrs fmall. yellow, 011 tiiii- p'c peilMnclfS, :!xillary anJ tcniiinstiii};. Found, in Pei 11 by i>ombcv. It (lowered in the royal gard^fu at Paris in ijSi. 4. C. p^rfoliata, Linn. Sup. Mvitis. Amer. v. j. t. 3. Smilh non. ined. I. t. 4. " Leaves perfoliate, arrow-foaprd, downv on both fides." Smith. A liandfon-.e plant, very different in its appearance from all the otncr.fp.cicj. Sum about a foot and half high, rour:d, pubefc.-nt, branclud. 'I,eav!S oppofue, triangular, or ahnolt anow-lbip-d, irrt- cnlaHy toothed, woolly and vvliile beneath. Fkwerj ytl- I0.V, large, in bundles at the tops of the branches, on iin'i)le or branched peduncles. GtilyK lar,';e. BtacUs rcfrmblinj; the le.Tves, but egj-liaotd and fefille, not perfoliate. Found inKew Granada by Miuis, and in Peru by Jufc^h Juflim. 5. C. crcncln, Willd. -La Ma;ck. " Leaves felF.le, oblong, ae<:te, fcoUoped ; flowers in cymes terminating the Items and branches." Stem about two feet high, downy. Leaves oppofite, almoft embracing tiie ftem, refembHng thofe of Rhinanthus crifta galli, green above, downy and p-de be- neath. Found in Pcrn of ratio, whic'.i It nii'll unqueftionahly is. And by applying the ele- ments of geonietiy to this confideration of it, he has ex- tended the geometrical analyiis indefinitely farther than any one before him, eitlier among the ancients or moderns, as far as we are able to difcov.-r, has carried it. That he formed the defign of applying geometry to ratios under this conception of them, as magnitudesyj/;^ftt(;-;j, cayable of all the poflible degrees of increafe and dccreale, though they know no divtrfity of dimenfion in refpeft of kuid. being ho- mogeneous, and differing not in kind, but only in degree, and atlually made fuch an application of it when he could not have been above eighteen or twenty years of age, is evi- dent from his own performances. For in a fhort introduc- tion to a paper read before the Royal Society of London, the 6th of March, 1777, and publillied in tlieir tranfaclions, which is entitled, " The general Mathematical Laws, that regulate and extend Proportion univerfally ; or a Method of comparing Magnitudes of any kind together, in all the poffible Degrees of Increafe and Decreafe," he makes ufe of the follovving words : " The doflrine of propoition laid down by Euclid and the application of it given by him in his elements, form the bafis of almoll all the geometrical reafoniug made ufe of by mathematicians both ancient and modern. But the reafon- iug of geometers with regard to proportional magnitudes have fcldom been carried beyond the triplicate ralio, which is the proportion that fimilar fohds have to one another, when relerred to their homologous linear dimenfions. This boundary however comprehends but a very limited propor- tion of univerfal companion, and almoil vanidies into no- thing when referred to that endlefs variety of relations, which mud neceflarilv take place between geometrical mag- nitudes in the infinite poffible degrees of increafe and de- creafe. The firft of thete takes in but a very contrafted field of geometrical comparifon ; whereas the lall extends it indefinitely. Within the narrow compafs of the firll, the ancient geometers performed wonders ; and their labours have been pulhed ftill farther by the ingenuity and indefa- tigable induftry of the moderns. But no author, that L have been able to meet with, gives the leaft hint or in- formation with regard to any general method of ex. prefling geometrically, when any two magnitudes of the fame kind are given, what degree of augmentation or 6 diminution CALCULUS. dimimition any one of tViefe magnitudes mud undergo, in oi-der to have to the other ;iny nmltiphcate or fuhmul- tipHcate ratio of thefe magnitudes in tlieir given Itate ; or any fuch ratio of tliem, as is denoted by fraftions or fiirds ; or (co fpeak ftili more generally) a ratio, which has to the ratio of the firll-nTrntioned of tliefe magnitudes, to the other the ratio of any two magnitudes whatever, of the fame but of any kind. Neither have I been able to find, that any other author lia-i (liewn geometrically, in a general way, ji when any number of r^/ioj- are to be comp'.ninded or de- compounded with a given ratio, how much either of the magnitudes in tlie given rati'j is to be augmented or dimi- nifhed, in order to have to the other a ratio, wliich is equal to the given ratio, compounded or decompounded with the other ratios. To invclbgate all thefe geometrically, and to i fix general laws in relation to them, is the objeft of this paper ; which, as it treats of a fubjcft as ujw as it is general, . I flatter myfelf will not prove unacce[)table to this learned focicty. It would be altogether fuperfluous for me to men- tion the great advantages that mull neced'arilv accrue to ma- thematics in general, from an accurate invelligation of this fubjeft, fince its influence extends more or lefs to every branch of abflraft fcience, when any data can be alcertain- ed for reafoning from. I (liall in a fubfequent paper take an opportunity of fiicvving, how from the theorems after- 1 wards delivered in this, a method of realoning with fniite magnitudes geometrically may be derived without any con- fjderation of motion or velocity, applicable to every pur- pofe, to which fl ixions have been applied." He then de- fines magnitude to be " that wir.cli admits of increafe or decreafe," and quantity to be " the degree of magnitude," obferving, that " by magnitude he means, befide cxtenfion, every thing which admits of more or lefs, or what can be increafedordiminilhed, fuch as n7//oj-, velocities, powers, &c. In a fliort performance of his, printed in Latin, in 1776, entitled " Leges Metaphyfiert, feu Principia Mathematica, iqus: Omnia fere ad Ma2;nitndmum Rationcs, Rationumque iRelationes fpedlautia univerfahter gubernant et indefinite proferunt," he givcs the fame metaphyfical definitions of magnitude and quantity, with a declaration of what he means by magnitude, viz. " Magnitudo eft id, quod augeri vel diminui potefl." " Qiiantitas ell gradus magnitudlnis." , " Per magnituduRm, prxterextenfionem, omnia, qua; au- geri vel diminui poiTunt, ficut ratioues, velocitates, vires, &c. intelligo." And in his Unlverfal Comparifon itfelf he fays, " When r fpeak of magnitude, I mean to be underftood as taking it in its general, abftrafted, unlimited, and metaphyfical accep- tation, viz. to be whi\tcver adujits of mure or lefs, of increafe or decreafe;. and by quantity I mean the degree of magni- tude." And to prevent any mifconception of his meaning or intention, in regard to his mode of expreffing magnitudes geometrically, and connefting tliem together by means of the cudomary figns, he makes ufe of the following woids : — " When I mention the ium of magniti;des, or fpeak of them as additive or fubtraftive, I only mean that they are to be taken with or from other magnitudes of the fame kind. The figns plus and minus are only intended to denote fuch aggregates and difTcrcnces, or to coiuieft magnitudes to- gether in thefe relations, and by no means to convey any numerical ideas in the following theorems or formula;, or to imply in themfclves any fort of myllery, or even inean- ing, independent of the magnitudes thus connedkd. By . C-D ^ A-B . A-BV , , , , A. — 7::—' A. — TT— ' A.- — :?; — ' Sit. I mean a fourth prO' portioual to D, C-D, and A; a fourth proportional to B, A-B, and A ; a fourlli proportional to B, A — B, and , A-B ^' — jT — ' &c. rtfpci'tively. I am obliged to have rc- courfe to fuch eX])refrions in the formulx, which ought not on any account to be confidered as algebraic, as it is impof- lible to cxprefj them by means of geometrical fehemcs or hguies in fuch a way, as to be fufficienlly or clearly under- ilood." As both the differential and flnxionary calculi are immc- duitely, and with the greateil facility derivable from this calculus wlien the exprelfions in it are fuppofed to become numerical, or the llandard of comparifon to be I, or arith- metical unity, and in forms too alcogether unexceptionable, and as it is itfelf chiefly derived from the ill and 5th formu- Ix in theorem 5 of the univerfal comparifon, it is perhaps nectfl^ny to prove the trutli of thefe formuke, by means of wliat is delivered in the paper firil herein above-mentioned, that was read before the Royal Society of Loud n in 1777, in which, among other things, it is demonllrated geometri- cally, that if n be any whole or integral number whatfo- ever, and A and B be any two homogeneous magnitudes^ A-B . n-i «_2 . A-B'-' ^ + - A.- A, + &c. to A A-B B ' I 1 '" ]i has to B, fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to B, as is expreffed by the number n. Now if in this geome- trical expreffion for A, we fubflitute its equal B-}-A— B // — — — - " n — 1 we get the following exprelTion : B -\ A — B-|- -• • B + ■ »— I 2 n-2 A-B B^ -1- &c. to A^n? hav- B'-" ing alfo to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to B as is ex- preffed by the number h. This expreffion may alfo be eafily derived geometrically by means of Kuchd's elements, in the manner purfued by i\'Ir, Glcnie in thnt paper. For let MN, NO, and OP be ea^h equal to, or reprefent B, and let NR reprefent A. Let OP, NR be drawn perpendicularly to VO, or otherwife, if in the fame angle j and let the redlangles or parallelograms MR, NP be compleatcd. Let LNI be a fourth proportional to OP, MN, and NR-OP, and lef the rctlangle or paralleiograin LQ^be compleated. Then (14. E. 6.) LT is equal to TR, and fince MT h equal to Tcj^by conlhuftion, LM is equal to QR, or A-B, a-d LN to A or B -f A-B. And lince by {13. E. 6.) MR has to NP the ratio compounded of the ratios Z R A I H A-B lA—t! + aTITI' B. A-B B or A-B A-B A-B Q. D VOL.V, B B V K M F 5A N B O of CALCULUS. ofMN to NO and NR to OP, tlic magnitude LN, wliicU B-B-A to B, as is exprelTed by the number ». And, a, 1 has to B the ratio compounded of the ratio of A to B. a"d Q^^ may be equal to any magnitude C, of the fame kind Ij"^ the ratio of cqu.ility B to B is cxprcffcd by B + A-B. .,.,,„ ^ n n n-l C n n- > n 1„ hkc manner if PI, RY be parallel to VO and KY to w.th A and B, B- -• C + - -^ B ~ 'l ~r ' NR, and KLbe a fourth proportional to Ol , (lj<, and * _ Q> Q. LN. or to B, A-B, and B + A-B, it will be equal to _, +-&C. . . to ± — — - has to B fuch a multiplicate y s " B' ' -T 77 ^ A — li| gji^j j-j^ ^^.-^11 j,g equal to B + -. ratio of B — C to B as is eKprcfitd by the number n. A — U 1 77— I . , , , , .—^, That B+--A-B + ? . fL_^l + Sec. Sec - -~' ■ A-B) q ? -? B A-B+ r -T -JT' , Again, if VK be a fourth pixjportional to OP, OR, and has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of B + - • A-B + |l KN, or to B. A-B, and B + -• A-B + -• —j-' f , Czi . fluH' + &c. &c. to B as is exprcfTcd by ' A — BV . .„ , 1 . A P J. , A — Bi 1 the number n is thus (hewn, I.'t B + D be equal to B 4- , It uill be equal to l\ — L> + 2. — - — ' t ^ _!L, ^ L .A^+ L.'SHl. dzii^^ + &c. &c. C. and J —^ ' and VN will of courfe be equal to B + J. A-B ^^^.^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^j^^^. ^^^ ^.^^j^ ^j. ^^^^ ^^^ homogeneous mag. B +3' rt-B.' + A-B ^^^^^^ ^ 3 .X^B + i.l-' • ritudes whatever). Then B + - ■ D + "- ■ "—1 • B B' I I 2 112 A-Bi- . -2. lU.. dZz. A-Bl _ Wherefore the tt + : ' "T" * T" ' »' +^'^•'"7:7:1 has to B (by — B~ I2jB' Kizju U wliat is above demonftrated) fuch a multiplicate ratio of B + magnitude of the fame kind with A and B, which has to B D to B, as is txpreffed by tlie , umber ti. Now if the termj the triplicate ratio of A to B, or, which comes to the lame j^ ^^,j^;^.^ A-B is found in the value of D be multiplied by thing, the ratio, that arifes by compounding the triplicate ^^ ratio of A to B, with the ratio of equality B to B, is geo- 1 . [he co-efficient of D we get — • A-B for the fecond 5 3 3-1 . * .9 metrically exprtlTcd by B + -• A — B + - • — —' term of the exprefTion, (in terms of n, r, g, and A — B). And "" A — n ^ A — Bi" ^ 1 — I 1-- A — bli , , . r ,, , , iftheterm, in which . is found in the valae of D, tZ _' J--'- •- •■ • Anduniverfallybythc B b ^ I 2 3 ^' , . . . r , , T, >' rt — S be multiplied by - • the co-efScient of D, and the term, fame geometrical realoaing it isfound that B -f - ■ -fi- - d ^ i n n-l A^Bl' n ti—i n-2 A-B*' in which Z£l is found in the value of — , be multipli. + v~ B" + :' "■~T"-B~ + ^ ^^^ p, TT^Bi" , „r , , • ,• • r A . ed by the co-efficient of --» thefe taken together j^j._ to fl _' has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to •' i 2 B ° B, or of B + A^ to B, as is exprefTed by the number «. »'!» g'^e "« y ' ^^ * ^^^ f"'" ^^^ ^^''^^ t^™- And And as A — B may be equal to any magnitude C of the fame kind with A and B the expreffion B -f ■^- C + ^ • ''V ^1'"' proceeding we get B -f ^ • D -f 1 • ^' -- is a magnitude of the fame kind with C and B, that has to ■ 2L • A — B 4- — • "''~^ • A — B| , g^^ ^^^ B fuch a multiplicate ratio of B -}- C to B as is exprefTed q q 2q B by the number n. whatever be the ratio of r to 7. The foregoing exprefl-.ons are obtained geome^ically p^.^^;,-^,! j„ ^^^ ^^^^ manner is it proved that the ratio B- Awhen A is greater than B. But it A be lets than B, and be reprefented by EN or FN, we have FM equal to "Z. • B— A -f- "- • 21lU • B— A|' _ ^ &(.. : B is B — A, and by proceeding in an exaftly fimilar manner we q f ^? B get the geometrical expreffion B — -. B — A -f — • * a multiple by n of the ratio B — - ' B— A + -• B^A^' _ ^:lzJ.!L-_^ EIl' + ^c. ...to± cui • lEl^'- -f &c. = b. B » * J B' 27 B g"3^i This then being premifed, it can be generally, and at the ■ for the magnitude of the fame kind with A and B, ;. ^ B'~' fame time very briefly proved, that B-f- - 'A — B+-" that has to fi fuch a multtplicate ratio of A to B, or of ? ? IT-? CALCULUS. r-q A-F' , r r-q r^tq A-B]' . . ■ — rr + - • • i • —5-— + &C. J? B 72? 37 ^ has to B fiich a ratio, as has to the ralio of B + A — B to B, or of A to B, the ratio of r to g, be the ratio of r to ^ what it may, by taking any multiples whatfoever of thefe ratio* and the fame nuiltiplts of r and g. For the fake of perfpi- cuity let thefe m:igiiitudes, and their multiples, ftand in the following manner : The magnitudes. ift r jd g 3d. B + - • B-B + - ■ 7 7 -7 A-B" + &c. : B Their multiples. Of the ift nr Of the id rtj 3d. BH- — •A-1J + -• 7 _ 7 =::i:2.A-Br+8,e..B :? B 27 B "'' A "5 "'■ nr — g A— ^" *ecedent B + — • A-B + — • 1- • fi — Tl + 7 7 2y B kc. is greater than B + m I K=^y + &c, to A-B")" • A-B + - fince . . . nr nr ni — q m »i — I • &c. 2? - n- '"9 '"? ""7 — 7 5 V *re then rclpcMively greater than — ' — * 7-' i'-^- r or than -' &;:. indthe ratio B-f --A — B + — ' • — j; — Q 7 ^7 •" + &c. : B is, of courfe, a greater ratio of greater ihequali- m X "* m—i A — B|' ty than the ratio B-f— ■ A — B+ - • • — g— -f &c. :Bis. And it is no Icfs evident that, if nr be lefs than „ nr , - nr nr — q A— wj /no, tlie antecedent B + — • A— B-f - • — • 9 7 2q B -f &c. is Ufs than the anttcedent B -f — • A — B -f — 2 ' ~ir" are then refpcftively lefs than - nr nr m — g + «C. Cnoc ...-'— • !' 7 7 ^7 mq mg _ mg — g 7 7 m m S:c. or than . . . =7 r 2 J and the ratio B -f— -A — B -f — nr ni — < '9 A-W' — jj — + &c. : B is then, of courfe, a lcf» ratio of greater inequality than the ratio B -f A-B-f - I m — I 1 A-Bl" B + &c. Here then are four magnitudes, and any equimultiples be- ing taken of the ill and 3d, and alfo any equimultiples be- ing taken of the id and 4th, it is proved that, if the multiple of the ill be equal to the multiple of the id, the multiple of the 3! IS alfo equal to the multiple of the 4tli ; if greater, greater; and if 1 is, lei's. Wherefore (5. Def. E. J.) the magnitudes thcmfclvcs are proportional, or the ratio B -f Tj + L.'-JZl . ^pl' ^ &c. : B is to the ?_ ^7 B B as r : 7 whatever be the ralio of r B -f A -• A- 7 ratio to g. Hiving thus fully explained the doftrine of proportion, on which this calculus is grounded, we will brielly illullrate Mr. Gleiur's derivation of it from the fame, and then ihew, with how much cafe and lac lity both the difTcrcntial and fluxionary calculi may be derived from the fame fuurcc, and in a manner too altogether unexcep'ioiiablc. U tor R and Q^we lubllilute r and g in the ill and 5th formula;, in the ,d theorem of liis Uiuveiftl Companion, '■-7 '' ' they become rtfpeflivcly A -f >;- 7 27 A^By B' B A-h\ B' ' -f &c. and B -f + - 9 r-9 -7 7 2? 9 • A -B + f A~n' ^ r-g • !:^ -A. 37 7 27 -f &c. the J7 B' lall of which is immediately derived from the firfl, by fub- liiuiting tor A in it, where it Hands unconncded with B by the lign minus, B -f A — B, which is equal 10 A, and is the very magnitude, which wc have juft prov, d to have to B a ritio, whicli has to the ratio of B -f A — IV: E or of A to B the ratio of r : q, even when r ha-; to g the ratio of any two h ■'mogepeoas magnitudes whatfoever. Mr. G'.enie, however, takes the ill of thefe two formulae, and fuppufcs A-f N to be in the firit place fuhllituted in it every where tor A. By this ful)ftitution he gets A-f N-f A— '' + N ■ A-f .^( . r— for the magnitude, which has to B the duplicate r.itio of A-fN to B, exceeding the magnitude A-f A ■ 5-» which, has to B the duplicate ratio of „ . 2AN-fN' , ,., A to 0, by — ■ • In like manner he gets the ex- B 5 A » ceft CALCULUS. cefs of tlic maci:iituJc, which has to B the triplicate ratio of A + Nto B above the magnitude, which has to B the triplicate rati.) of A to B, equal to the geometrical exprcf- fion 3A^N+;AN'+N\ B= AnJ he thus finds, in general, that the excefs of the magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A + N to B the ratio of r to q, (when r has to q any given ratio whatever,) above the migiMtiide, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A to B, the fsnie ratio of r to 7 is geometrically ex- prefieJ by - • A^T" " N + r-q_ -1 A-r • N' + Zq rj-zq 37 B— '■—5? A— ^ • N' + &c. r—i B q Piecifely in the fame manner he makes it appear, that the excefs of the magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A to B the ratio of r to q, above the magni- tude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of ,A — N to B the ratio of." to q is geometrically exprcfled by T-n '—-'I AT- • N- 2? N' + -'/ r-jr iq B , r— ?'/ N^ H &c. r— £ But if A + N and A — N ftand to A in relations nearer to that of equality than by any given or affigned magnitudes of the fame kind, each of thefe general expreffions becomes 1- a'^^-n • Thus he calls the antecedental of the ■•— 7 B — magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A to B the ratio of r to q. n • Now if N, the antecedental of A, be denoted by A or A (for the notation does not at all alter the cafe) the an- r — q N - • A- r — q -tecedental- B ? ■ becomes B" — ? or - . ___ ' A and has to A or A the ratio of q '^^. B V4. &c. it gives ^3 a"" a B v/^ 5/3 — I n A^ A V4 • A \/^-i <• B V3— ' A B' &c. refpcc- tively, and fo on. Mr. Glcnie then makes ufe of the lad of thefc two formii- Ie, which is the 5th of theorem 3d, to come at the fame coiiclullons. By it, when A Hands to B in a relation nearer to that of equality than by any given or afligned magnitude of the fame kind, the excefs of the magnitude, (which hag to B fuch a ratio as has to the ratio of A to B the ratio of rtoy), above B is generally exprefTed by- -A-B or ? by - . A or by - . A, fmce in this relation of (A to B), n A — B may be denoted by A or A ; which cxprefTion is al- ways as the meafure or quantity of the ratio, that the faid formula has to B, whatever be the relation of A to B. For in the fimple, duplicate, triplicate ratios, &c. it gives A, 2A, 3A, &c. and in the fubduplicate, fubtriplicate ratios, &c. A, A^ &c. or A A 3 &c. But if the ratio of A to A or - ' A to A, which denotes the relation be- 1 twcen the quantities of the ratios, that the magnitude ex- prefTed by this formula and A have refpeftively to B, be compounded with the ratio of thefe magnitudes themfelves, when A has to B any ratio whatever, or with that of r r A.q r Aq • • — — — to A we get the ratio - • —-—7 A to A . A, which ' — q ° g J — q B— B~7 '— ? r A ? is equal to the ratio of " • ^, ^ B^~ to B the ratio of the Af antecedentals of and A as found above. '— ? B — It is certainly worthy of remark, that the antecedental of any fuch magnitude as ^ is a fourth proportional to B T — q B — the ftandard of comparifon, the magnitude itfelf, and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio, which it has to the llandard B. Thus a fourth proportional to B, A, and • « ^ • A Js A or A the antecedental of A.; a. fourth pro. A portional CALCULUS. poftloTial to B, A>, and ^^ -'"^ j^ 2A. A . and a fourth BAB A?" 1 proportional to B, _ and A y A B ? Alfo I : A' 2 A A B .A zA . A ; and i And it is cafily (hewn, from the principles he ha« laid V^ V A^ ■ ^E down, that the antecedental of — — ■ „ " v V-B V-B ^ D~B~ ^"ir V ,VM + MV\ B /VM + MV\ I tT, / or — r^ X \ r, J or that the antece- A^' ^B Av A' : : J^- 3A' .A. A ' By means of the firfl formula in theorem i of his I'liiver- fal Compaiifon, which cxprcfTes the rtiagnitiide, that has to B fuch a ratio, as arifts by compounding any number of ratios C to D, E to F, &:c. with the ratio of A to B, he ,fA,C ^ AC + CAor determines the antecedental ot — ~- to be -:- dtntal of - 's _ x B"-i B"' (±i+^). For. tf M denote B the magnitude of the ratio A : B to the ftandard of com. parifon B, "v M will be the magnitude of the ratio of A" A" A" — to B. But -— : B : : the antecedental of -rr i lJ=-i B-i Bi--» a a the antecedental of i; M (■uM+M'u). Wherefore the antc- AC + C A, and that of ^;,^;.^ to be ^^.E . , . A-j . A" / cedental oi — u — x ( tM + Mtx A" B— ^ °' Bv-i ^ D D.F + DF AE . C ^ CE . A „,. ACE + AEC + CEA ■, and D F D F D F fo on, fuppofing the confequents D, F, &c. of the ratios to be invariable. And it is obftrvable, that the anteceden- AC jgl (jf is equal to a fourth proportional to B, the mag- A C iiitude ' itfelf, and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B, together v/ith a fourth proportional A C to D, the magnitude -=- and the antecedental of the maffnitude of the ratio of C to D ; that the antecedental of A c^ V ACE is eaual to a fourth propottional to B, ^^^ and D F. E) F the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B, ACE together with a fourth proportional to D, ' and the an'ecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of C to D, to- ACE gether with a fourth proportional to F, ■ ' and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of E to F ; and fo on. He makes ufe of the firft formula in Theorem 2, Univer- fal Compavifon, which expreffes the magnitude, tliat has to B fuch a ratio, as arifes by decompounding any number of ratios C to D, E to F, &c. with the ratio of A to B to de- ^ , . AD, ADF , r c termine the antecedental ot _— ' and lo on tor any number of ratios. , 7 , And here it is alfo obfervable, that the antecedental of AD CDA-ADC or CDA-ADC . , , ,, „ •^■^ or "^ 14 equal to tlie T" c- c^ ^ excefs of a fourth proportional to B, __, and the an- tecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B above a fourth proportional to D, — -, and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of C to D ; and fo on. /i.M-f-Mf^, . The antecedents and their autecedentals will therefore (land thus, B being the llandard of comparifon. Antecedent. Antecedental. a-^b; A or A a 2AA 2AA ■b-°^-b- A I 2NA , . or 2AH — — (puttmg N forA-B), or, &c. A a a a A' or A.-^.B - 2AA or 2BA + 2NA, or &c. A3 ^ A- B'°''^-F A= ■A'or A.g.B' jA'A 3AA , 3ANA J , or ^-^ + ^-7- or 3A+ B' B B' 6NA . 3N'A B i- ^-gT > °'^ &c. A? ^nd in 3 _£tJ eneral 3 '^jj B» 3A'A, or jBAA+jANA, or 3BA 4-6BNA+3N'A, or &c. /■■ A y .A j.bT" a ;AA r r-lq ANA ryB "^ 7; ■ ~ ' B'. a I r r-ln r-%q AN'A , „ ^ -.—L.^. ___ +&c. 1 9 '1 B' a n >A f r-q NA r or — + -.^.__4-_. q q q a q q 2q B' .or fee. &c. Antecedent. CALCULUS. AC AC - ACE dT ' ACE - And fo on. AD C BA PA" B" B+A+C DA" Anteccditely httle elements. He fays, indeed, that the expreffion, isfinitL-ly I'f.th nuigmtude, impUes a contradiftion, fmce what has magnitude cannot be infinitely httle. , , , r e Wc (hall noiv (hew, with what facility both thele other cakuh may be derived from the fame principles. The general geometrical expreffions, from '-e ratio A^-: l to the faid ftandard I ; and that - . A. * A is a fourth proportional to i , A', and - the fluxion of the magnitude of the ratio A '' : i to the fame ftandard 1 , If, therefore, we make ufe of w, y, z, &c. itifttad of the variable magnitudes A. C, E, &c. in the antecedental cat*. cuius as delivered by its inve' tor, the integrals and their differentials will ftand as follou s ; vhich the A ■? anteccdental of beeome was derived, Inte X jral. Differential. Jx X' 2xdx x' jxVx x' rxr- ufx r x'" xy xy '•-•7 - . » ^ y' ilx+dy X- X {vJm-]-mflh-^ putting m for the magni tude of the ratio of * to i , &c. &c. .^c. &c. &c. &c. B And the fluents and their fluxions will {land in the fol- lowing manner. -■>? Fluent. !1? 2'. jS'.x=4-, &c. (2) Write, therefore, in feries (1), for ir, t", t' — v, the values refulting from (2) ; co Icct the terms afftfted with the fame power of X ; and it will ealily appear that the coefficient of X", or A", is fuch as we have flated it to be. In this method is comprehended, as is evident, the form for the developement oi a polynomial raifed to any power i which CALCULUS. whi by and icKwas iirl giwii t""' vvitlioiit fatisfaftory demonftration, De M.)ivit, ill tlie 'IVar.fadions of the Royal Society, .•cllanca Analytica," p.S-. The above Mil form of M. Arbog;ift has many advantages ; it exhibits compcndiouny the law of tlie coctTicitnts by means of the fymbol D ; and, whe-n the operations indicated arc to be adually pcrformtd, the coefficients eafily rtfalt in tcnns of the polynomial quantities. The formula tor the funftion, being general, maiiifeftly fcrvcs for the developemcnt of expreffions, inch as ta +;3.v +yx- +, Sic, fin. (* +(3" +>;.- +, .^c.) &C. After having exhibited the general form for (p (a + 0.x -j- yx'- -\-, &c.) M. Aibogall. (liews how from one term to de- duce the next fuccetdnig, and likewife how to calculate any term whatever of the developemcnt, indepcr.dently of all the others. The length and intncacy of the calculations render it impoflible for us to give details c f thefe methods. In the latter part of the firll article, the autliorapplies his method of derivation to afiign the fum of the powers of the root& of an equation, in terms of the coefficients of the equa- tion ; and the formula which he deduces is remarkable for the finiplicity of the law by which the coefficients are ex- prefled. Vandcrmonde (Memoirs of the Academy, fyi, p. 373.), Euler (Comms. F.it. 15 vol.). La Grange (Memoirs of Berlin, 17O8), and Waring (IVLeditationes Algebraici?, p. ].), having given general formula tor the fum of the powers of the roots of an equation, M. Arbogall compares his own with the demoudration of thofe, and (liews how they follow from it. Whoever v.ill take the trouble of examining thofe feveral formula will find them not only lefs fimply ex- prelTctl than that of the prefent author, but lefs evidently and lefs rigoroufly dcmonltrated. The author proceeds to the developement of funftious of two or more polyn(;m]als, arranged according to the powers of the fame letter. Suppote tiie feries a + ix -\- ex' +, &c. and a +iS.v + yx~- +, etc. &c. are to be multiplied to- gether ; then the prod.ft is "'"' jT ^' |- v +, Sec. or making b = 'D. a, c = Be', a, &c. /3 = D. a, y = Dc'. a, &c. the coefficients of the terms aftefted with x, x', x^- &c. will be (a. D. a + D. a. a), [a. D, ' a. -{- D. a D. a -\- Dr\ a. «), or D {a. a), Y)r' (a a), and the coefficient of the term aifctted with X" will be D.-", {a a), wh'ch may ealily be developed. Hence the form for the produft of any number of feries, arranged according to the powers of x, may be determined. In four feries, for iiitlaiice, of which the firft terms are fl, a', a", a'", the origin of the derivations will be aa', a", a'" ; and tlie coefficient o; the term affedled with x", will be Dc {aa'd'a'"). In the developement of the produft of any two funftions whatever of polynomials, for inllancc, of (? (a + bx +, &c.) and if (a -\-0x-\-iLC.), the coefficient of the term affefted with X" will be Y)c'. (?a. 'Pa); which, by foregoing methods, may be eafily developed. — Since — and A— i are equivalent ex- A preffions, by the foregoing methods, fraftions fuch.as bx + ex' +, &c. r — — — -, r — ■ T-T may be ^x -i-yx' +, &c.' (^— .v)'" ia—xy. (A— x)', &c. ' converted into feries of the form A -j-Bx + Cx'+ Dx' + &c. M. Arbogaft, having applied his method to fuch fractions as have been already mentioned, ffievvs how to deduce the form for the developement of

: -j- —7—1 , . 1 '^ ' dx dx ax' fo that the dcvclopemcnt of/(.v + /-') takes this foim, dx 1.2. dx the celebrated theorem of Taylor. Cai-Cvlus, dijfn-ent'io-diJfcrcntmU is a method of differ- encinir diflcrt-ntial quantities. As the fign of a differential is the letter c/ prefixed to the quantity, fo that dx is the dif- ferential of .V, that of a differential of dx is ddx, and the differential of fl'(/» is ^i-/(/A-, &c. ; fimihir to firft, fecond, and third, &c. fluxions, x, x, x, &c. : thus we have degrees of differentials. The differential of an ordinary quantity is a differential of the firft order or degree, as dx : that of the lecond degree is ddx, Sic. The rules for differentials are the fame with tiiofe for fluxions. See Fluxions. Calculus exponcntialis, is a method of differencing ex- ponential quantities, or of finding and fumming up the dif- ferentials or moments of exponential quantities ; or at leaft bringing them to geometrical conltruftions. By exponential quantity, is here underftood a power, whofe exponent is variable ; v. g. a'', .v'', a}", x'J, S:c. where the exponent .vdoes not denote the fame in all the points of a cuive, but in fome flands for 2, in others for 3, in others for 5, Sic. To dijfarence an exponential quantity : there is nothing re- quired but to reduce the exponential qualities to logarithmic «>nes ; which done, the differencing is managed as in loga- rithmic quantities Thus, fuppofc the differential of the exponential quality .f7 required, let Then will j/.\-=:.'a , vdx dz lxdy + - 2 V d V That is, s,7/.i:. by fimihir methods, advanced to the foKition of more difficidt pro- blems, than tliat vvliich inveftigated the relation of circles to one another ; fuch as the relations between the furfaccs and folid contents of the cylinder and fphere, the qnadra- ture of the parabola, and the proportion of fpirals. M. La Croix then proceeds in his hillory of the diff.rential calculus, as connccled with the fevcral difcoveries made by Cavalleri, Roberval, Dcfcartes, Fcrniat, Hn^^ens, Gregory de St. Vincent, Pafcal, Wallis, Barrow, Leibnitz, and Newton. Sec Fluxions. M. la Croix's treatife confills of two parts : the firfl part gives an account of the diiierential calculus; and the fubject of the fecond part is the integral calculus. This part begins with the integration ol functions of one variable quantity ; and the author has furnilhcd various for- niuLi: for integrating rational and irrational functions, loga- rithmic ai d exponential functions, circular funflions, &c. and he then applies the integral calculus to the quadrature and rcililication of curves, to the quadrature of curve fur- faces, and to the content of the iolids comprehended by them. He fubjoins an expoiltion of the methods which Euler employed in his rcfearches concerning curves that arc quadrable, reftifiable, &c. His next objetl is the integra- tion of differential equations of two variable quantities ; and in reference to this he has collefted all that has been written on this intricate fubjecl. Accordingly this chapter of his work contains methods for feparating the variable quantities in differential equations of the firft older ; for invelligating a faftor proper to render a differential equation of the firll order integrable ; for integrating differential equations of the firll order; in which the differential quantities pafs the full: degree ; for obtaining particu'ar folutions of differential equations of the firll order ; for rcfolving by appvo:;imation, duTerential equations of the firil order ; for conltnitling, geometrically, differential equations of the firft order ; for integrating differential equations of the Iccond order by means of transformations ; for invelligating a faflor proper to render differential equations of the fccond order inte- grable ; for rcfolving, by approximation, diiTerential equa- tions of the fecond order ; and for integrating differential equations of orders fuperior to the lecond. The fubjeft of the next chapter is the integration of fractions containnig two, or a g! eater nu-mbcr of variable quantities. The fifth and laft chapter treats of the method of variations. The calculus of variations originated from certain pro- blems concerning the maxima and minima of quantities having been propofed by John Bernouilli, to the mathe- maticians of Europe. Such a problem was that in which it was required to find, of all curves paffing through two fixed points, and fituatcd in the fame vertical plane, that one down which a body would delcend fiom the higheft to the lowcfl point in the lealt time poflible. 'i'he firll geome- tricians, remarkir.g that nothing was obtained by putting the differential of the time, , — -=0, found that they could obtain a folution by making the time a minimum for two fuccefTwe demerits of the curve ; thus, if x, x', x" were three v'')' the differer-lial of which being taken, and put =e, gave a refulling equation V = i idant quantity ; and confequcntly proved the curve to be a cy- cloid.—Euler, with far greater analytical knowledge thaiv John Bernouilli, next treated thefe problems in a general manner, in his tracl intitled, " Metliodtis invcnimdi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudcntes ; five folutio pioblematis ifoperiinetici latiflimo fenfu accepti." M. La Grange afterwaid gave greater generality to this calculus.by making variable not only y, rly", ,t'y, &c. but x. The explanation of M. L:i Croix affords a clear idea of the calculus of va: i.itions : " Suppofe (fays he) the variable quantities at firfl coi- ncfted together by an equation, or by any other depend- ence, to change by reafon of the form of the cqnatio:i, or of the relation that refults fio.m the dependence cftablifhed between them ceafing to be the fame; this circumftance c.innot be exprefied in a more general manner, than by re- garding the increments of x and y, as abloluttly indepen- dent of each other ; fince, in eifefl, this liypothefis, not defignating any particular relation between x and y, com- prehends all. It follows thence, that the calculus of vari- ations can only be employed for exprelTions, to which the diflerential calculus lias already been applied ; and it difi'crs from tlie la!l only by the independence which it fuppofes between the variable quantities, which before were confi- dered as connedtd by conilant relations. Tlie following example will illuftrate this, notion. The expreflioir — , Wv which belongs to the fubtangent of a curve, rcprefents a determinate fnnftion of x, when y is confidertd as a funtlion whofe compofition in terms of.-.- is known : and if this lall changes, the firft changes alfo. There will be, perhaps, fome difficulty in conceiving how we can fubmit to calculation the variability of a function whicli is only the abflratl depend- ence in which feveral quanlitles are with regard to each other: but this di'.Hculty i;^, removed, by confidcring that the connetllon between the quantities 5' and a- changes, if the firft be made to vary independently of tiic fecond. Tir.is, in the example before us, if we fuppofe .v to remain the fame, and y and J to change, the rehition between .v and y mufl ncceflarily have changed alfo, fince thefe quantities 'h are the mimediatc confequences of that relation : -7 , in the >/* latide^, ^nd generated hke them ; and fo hke fugar-plums in the whole , that It IS a common jeft at Ro.r-e to deceive the unex- perienced by ferving them up at deferts. Calculus, urinary. See Urinary calculi. CALCUTTA, in Geography, a city of Hindooflan, and capital of Bengal, and of all the Britifh poffefTions in India, IS htuated on the river Hoogly, the weftern arm of the Cjranges, atthediftanceofabout J oo miles from the fea - and the river is navigable up to the town, for the largcft ihips that .^l ,„ ^^^ "'^'^'^^ '^ P'^'^'^^ '" N. lat. 22° 3 3'. E Jong. ^8' 27' 4_5". It is comparatively a modern city, having been built towards the clofe of the 17th century on the fite of the village called Govindpour. The Englifh fadory ob- tamed leave to remove hither from Hoogly in the year ,68a (fee BrNCAL), when Mr. Channock was agent in Benoal ■ and who fixed upon this fpot for the Bntilh emporium though from feveral circumllances it was at that time the moft unhealthy he could have chofen. For 3 miles to the north-eaft there was a falt-water lake, that overflowed in the months of September and October; and in the two follow- ing months, when thofe floods withdrew, prodigious quan- tuies of fift, were left dry, the putrefaSion of which was luppofed to affed the air; and this, together with the fetid putrid exhalations from the ooze and flime, conveyed by the north-eaft wind to Fort WUliam, occafioned a yearly morta- lity. CALCUTTA. lity. During the rapid increnfe of tliis town, difeafcs were fatal to thoulands, and particvdarly, according to the ttfti- mon-"- of Dr. Liiid, among fuch as liad lately arrivtd from Europe. Hamilton mentions an inllancc, from Iiis own knovvled:;e, of 400 luivials in fix months, at a period when all the Englirti relldcnt here did not cxcctd i:co. Bcfidcs, when tliis Ipot was cliofen, cvt-rv man was allowed to build as bell Anted his cnnvenicnce and tafte, without regard to the difpofition of the \Thole ; and, th^rrefore, the different houfes bore no refeinblance to one another either in their pofition or archittCture. From this fmall and unproniiling beginning, Calcutta is now become a large, populous, and in nianv refptfts, an elegant city. Tiic quarter inhabited by tlie Englifli IS compofed entirely of brick, buildings, many of which appear more like palaces than private houfes ; and though they add much to the beauty of the place, they would have a mucii better ellvft if tlie flreets wtre laid out with greater iymmetry and order: but the rell of the citv, and, indeed, much the greater part of it, confills of houfes like thofe of the other Indian cities ; all of which are con- ftrufled on the fame plun, witii very narrow, confined, and crooked flreets, in which are interfptrfed an incredible uum- lier of refervoirs and ponds, and a great many gardens. Some few llretts are pavul with brick. Tlie houfes are varioudy built ; fome with brick, others with mud, and a Hill greater proportion with bamboos and mats ; and thefe different kinds of edifices, being intermixed with one another, form a motley appearance. Thofe of the latter kind are invariably of one flory, and covered with thatch. The brick houfes ftldom exceed two floors, and have flat terraced roofs. The two former claffes far outnumber the lull, which are often fo thinly fcattered, that iires, wliich frequently haopcn, do not fometimes meet with the obllrui:lion of a fingle brick houfe through a whole ftreet. The flruflure of tlie European houfes ferves to fecnre them from fire ; as o-ily a fmall por- tion of wood enters into the materials, for the partition- walls, as well as the flat roofs, are clptfly conll runted of brick and mortar, which laft article, under the denomination of " Chnnam," the natives have brought to great perfec- tion. The buildings of the place exti-nd full ;; miles along the river, a' d about half as much in breadth from it. Within the lalt 30 or 40 years, Calcutta is wonderfully im- proved, both in appearance and in the falubrity of its air ; for by draining the llreets and tilling up the ponds, they have removed a vail furface of llagnant water, the exhalations of which were particularly injurious. The local fuuation of Calcutta, as we have already obferved, is not fortunate ; for it has fome extenfive muddy lakes, and a vail forell clofc to ir. More dill remains to be done before Calcutta can merit the chai adler of a healthy town. In the middle of the city a large open place has been left, in which there is a fpacious tank or refervoir, covering upwards of 25 acres of ground. It was dug hy order of the government, to provide the in- habitants of Calcutta with water ; as in the dry feafou the water of the Ganges becomes brackifh by the influx of the tide, while that in the tank is very fweet and pleafant. The number of fpiings which it contains prcfcrves the water always nearly at the fame level. It is railed round, nor is any perfon fullered to wafh iu it ; but all are at liberty to take as much water from it as they like. Near this tank is a handfome obelilk, ere.aii ware-rooms ; but they are comm.only neither of the f.rit faflilon nor bilt qua- lity. Their houfe-rent is another caufe of their under fel- ling the Europeans. The (liops of the natives^ though bet- ter than their houlc:., are mean and difagrceable ; and from, their fitnation in the common ba/.nrs, are much cheaper' than the larger and more fplendid rooms in which the Bri- tifh merchants cxpofe their wares. Houfe-rent and fervants'' wages are the moll expenlive parts of the char.;es of lioufe- keeping in Calcutta. The common articles of provifion are much cheaper than in Europe; but houfe-rent till lately, has been a very exorbitant charge. Only a few viars- ago, a houfe fufficient to accommodate a genteel family- could not be procured under 6oo or 800 pounds a-year ;. and many even let at a larger fiim. The number of fer- vants neceffary in a private family, to perfons relident in this country, exceeds all belief. This is an evil which admits of no remedy as long as the fuperlHtion of the natives fhall deter them from performing fervice beyond one fpecific kind of work. The wages vary according to the diflerent flations they occupy, from 4 rupees per month to 20. Th; laiary of fervants, added to the houle-rent, and the incident- al charges of a family, will enl'.anee its expirnditure to 3, 4, and 5 thonfand rupees a-year, according to its number. The maintenance and education of the children belonging to Europeans in India have, on account of their increaling number, become objefts of great importance. With a view to thefe objefts, fcveral perfons have done honour to them- felves and to their country, by cftablifliing fehools for the relief of the orphan children of the military fervants of the. company. Two inllitutions have been formed for this pur- pofe : one for the children of officers, and th.e other for thofe of private foldiers. Each is provided with teachers of both fexes, qualified to inlhiift the children in fuch branches of knowledge and indullry as feem to be adapted' to their rank and profpefts in fociety. The fund for the fiipport of thefe inilitutions is fupplied bv a fixed contribu- • tion raifed from the military, or by the doii;itions of the benevolent. Befides the two inftituticnis already mentioned,, there are feven or eight others for the education of boys ; and nearly an cqu.al number for girls. Bchdes thefe found- ations, there are fome others of inferior cote, equally laudable, ellabiifhed by the mutiillcence of the inhabitants- of Calcutta. A ficc-iVhool, which provides for the educa- tion of nearly ;oo children, under the management of the veflry, is, in part, fupported by voluntary contributions only. Two lacks of rupees were originally devoted to the education of the children of the poor. The intcrcll of that fum continues to be applied for that purpofe. Another fchool, equally n\unerous, has been added to this upon a fund raifed merely by cafual benefaftions. An oratorio has- lately been performed annually to aid its funds, which pro- mifes a confiderable fupply of revenue. To thefe inilitu- tions, fo creditable to tlie humanity and benevolence of the inhabitants of Calcutta, the native hofpital mull be added. I'his inllitution is alfo fupported by voluntary contribution,, and was formed for the relief of natives, who, from acci- dent or difeale, might need medical aid. A very expenfive ellablilhment for the education of the junior fervants of the company has lately been inlHluted ; but as it is for bnfinefs, and not for education, that thefe gentlcmeu are lent to ludia,. C A L India, tlicvtiiity cf this mcafure lins been qiiefiioned, and tlie cxpcHcf of it miift liave been enormous. In(lni£lion, in tht native dialei^t, is, in (lencial, the only rcquifite to qua- hfy them for the exeicife of tiicir (h:ty, and this they liave Ivitherto received from " Moonfiiecs" at the leifnie hours tliat are not employed in their different vocations. Accord- ingly the court of diredors have abolifhed this college ; and they are at this time forming an cftablifhment at home vhich is likely, under proper condndl, to anfwer the pur- pofe at a nnich lefs expence. Notwith Handing the perfetlion to which the medical art lias arrived by long experience, and its happy cfTeft in prc- fcrving the hves of mimv Europeans ; and the knowledge that has been acquired with relpeol to the fevers and the whole train of bilious complaints that are incidental to ihe ■country, and with refpecl to ibe moll efficacious mode of treating them; the climate of India proves a feverc trial to every European couftitution. Many fall facrifices to its firft attacks ; many more linger on in a Hate of increafing dibilitv, and painful difeafe ; and otherr, who for years con- tinue to combat its influence, apprtheiidmg that the conflift mull terminate fatally, are glad to retreat to Europe, there 10 eke out, or to luifband the remains of life. A fallow and livid complexion is fo univcrfal in Bengal, that wh n you behold a lace of the rofeate hue, yoa may venture to pronounce that its owner is newly arrived. Even in tTie ordinary health of perfons not fuppofcd to be materially in- jured by the climate, they are capable of little exertion or fatigue; and in the hot feal'on of hardly any at all. It is not uncommon to find, at that period, all the officers of a battalion, except perhaps one or two, incapable of doing duty ; and this without any extraordinary or alarming com- plaint. The fair fex are almoft equally liable with the men to fuffer by the climate. Their regularity is often more ■uniform, and their e.'ipofure to the weather lefs frequent ; yet there is hardly a tingle female complexion in Bengal that retains the bloom of health. Formerly female adven- turers in India were few ; but highly fuccefsful. Embol- dened by their fiiecefs, and encouraged by their example, fuch numbers have em.barked in this Ipcculation, as threaten to defeat its purpofe. The irregularities of our government, which formerly afforded an opportunity to fome of rapidly .eccumulating wealth, and enabled them to marry, are now •in 3 great meafure done away. Few comparatively find themfelves in circiimfcances that invite to matrimonial en- gagements ; and on this account a number of nntortunate females are feen wandering for years in a fingle and uncon- n;£led ftate. Some are annually found to abandon the for- lorn hope, and return to Europe, after ttie lofs of beauty, too frequently their only property. Having mentioned the " black hole" at Calcutta, which is become proverbial among F.ngliflimcnfora place of infufferable 'torment, we (hall now recite lome further paniculars concern- ing the tragic event to which we have referrtd. When Sur ajaliDowlah in 1756 reduced Calcutta, the EngliHi prifoners to the number of 146, of whom Mr. Hohvell was one, were coulined in the bln.ck hole prifon. It was about eight .o'clock v.'hen thcfe 146 unhappy perfons, exhauftcd by con- tinual aftion and fatigue, were thus crammed together into a dungeon about eighteen feet fqnar.€, in a clofe fultry night in Bengal; (hut up to the eaft and fouth, the only quarters from whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by a w 111 and d ;or tc the north ; open only to the well by two windows, ftrongly barred with iron, from which they could receive fcarce any circulation of fredi air. They had been but few minutes confined before every one fell into a peifpiration fo profufe, that no idea can be C A L fermeJ ofit. This brought on a raging thirR, which in- crcyCed in proportion as the body whs drained of its moif- turc. Various expedients were thouglit of to give more room and air. Every man was dripped, and every hat put in motion : they feveral times fat do«n on their hams ; but at each time feveral of the poor creatures fell, and were in- Ilantly fuffocatcd or trod to death. Before nine o'clock eveiy man's third grew intolerable, and refpiration d'fBeuIt. Efforts were again made to force the door ; but (liU in vain. Many infults were ufed to the guards, to provoke them to fire in upon the prifoners, who grew outrageous, and many delirious. " Water, water," became the gtueral cry. Some watef was brought : but theie fiii-.plies, like fprinkling water on fire, only ferved to raifc and feed the flames. The confufion became general, and horrid from tiie cries and ravings for water; and fome were trampled to death. This fcene of mifery proved enter- tainment to the brutal wretches without, who fiipplicd them with water, that they might have the fatisfaftioii of i'ceing them fight for it, as they phrafed it ; and held up lights to the bars, that they might lofe no part of the inhuman di- verfion. Before eleven o'clock, mod of the gentlemen were dead, and one third of the whole. Third grew intolerable : but Mr. Holwe'l kept his ir.outh moid by fucking the perfpira- tion out of his diirt-fleeves, and catching the drops as they fell, like heavy rain, from his head and face. By half an hour after eleven, moll of the living were in an outrageous de- lirium. They found that water heightened their uneafi- neffes; and " Air, air," was the general cry. Every infult that could be devifed againd the guard, all the opprobrious names that the viceroy and his officers could be loaded with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon them. Every man had eager hopes of meeting the firll Ihot. Then a general prayer to heaven, to iiaften the approach of the flames to the right and left of them, and put a period to their mifery. Some expired on others ; while a deam arofe as well from the living as the dead, which was very offenfive. About two in the morning, they crowded fo much to the windows, that many d'ed llanding, unable to fall by the throng and equal preffure round. When the dav broke, the dench arifing from the dead bodies was infufterable. At that jundture, tlie Sonbah, who had received an account of the havoc death had made among them, fent one of his of- ficers to inquire if the chief furvivcd. Mr. HoKvell was fliown to him ; a:;d near fix, an order came for their releafe. Thus they had remained in this mftrnal prifon from eight at night until fix in the morning, when the poor remains of 146 fouls, being only 23, came out alive ; but moll of them in a high putrid fever. The dead bodies were dragged out of the hole by the foldiers, and thrown promifcuoudy into the ditch of an unfinldied ravelin, which was afterwards filled with earth. See Bengal. Rennell's Memoirs, Pinker- ton's Geog. vol. ii. Tennant's Indian Recreations, vol. i. CALL) A, or Caldum, m ihe y^ncient Diet, denotes hot water, ufed much among the Romans, anciently, as a drink, partly for pleafiire, and partly lor health. The word is formed from calia'us, hot ; aqua being under- dood ; calda, q. d. cal'ida aqua. Lipfius, Cadalio, Mercurialis, Barcius, and Freindie- mius, have treated largely ik potu calds, or cald'i. Aft. Erud. Lipf. CALDAO, in Geography, a river of Portugal, which runs into the fea, at Setuval. CALDARA, Antonio, in Biography, and Mufical Hjjlory, was a native of Venice, a great harmonift and com- C A L pofer of the old fcliool, and exticmcly voluminous both for tlieclniich and the ilage. His firll opera, yfr^ine, was com- pofed for liis n;itive cily, in i68g, and alitr fuinifliing dif- ferent parts of Italy w itii 12 operas and oratorios, in 1714, he uent to Vie-nna, where he was appointed i'tcond Macllro tii Capclla, uidcr Fouchs, to the Imptrial court, and where liis grave ftyle of writing pleafed the emperor Charles VI. fo much, that he hardly ever employed any other compofcr of facrcd or fvcular nuific than Caldara, till aftir his d<- ceaft in 1736. So that he not only fet moll of Apoftolo Zino's operas for the firll time, but 13 of his oratorios ; and uas the (iril compofer of Metartafio's operas and oratorios, during the firll fix or feven years of iiis rcfidcnce at Vienna. The malTes and motets that we hare fcen of his compofi- tion, are admirable ; a gravity of Jlyle, a purity of har- mony, learning, ficility, and correftuefs in the textme of the parts, are m;uiifeft in them all; but with his fecular mu- f:e, wc are little acejuainted ; Metallafio, in his letters, fecms to complain of his want of invention, talle, and elegance, m letting his dramas ; and he firll let leven of his belt pro- dudlions for the. Imperial theatre. Metsftafio began his Imperial laureatfliip at Vienna in 17 -Ji, by writing an oratorio, Sjrit' ^'EJttui in Ciihhirio." His firll operatherewas"AdriaTioin8vria;" the fecond, "Demetrio;" tben"01impi;)de,""L'Ar:lod'Amore,""LeGrazic,""De- moteonte,"" LaCitmcnza diTito," "Ciroriconofcinto,"and "Zenobia." All thefe kvere ftt to niufic by Culdara ; but there mull have been fome material deficiency ol ilyle or inven- tion, which prevented this mufic from penetrating into the rell of Eurnpc ; for thefe admirable dramas were never heard of till ihey had been fet by other compofers. CALDAilADI Caravaggio, Polidoro. See Po- ■LIDORO. CALDARIA Judkiurla, the method of trial, or purga- t'lan by boiling water. See Ordeal. CALDARIUM, in ihe yfndent Bn/is, denoted a brazen vcflel or cillern, placed in the hypocaulUim, full of hot water, to be drawn thence into the pi/ciria, or bath, to give it the neceffary degree of heat. In this feufe, the caldarluin flood contradillinguifltcd from the Up'ular'mm ar^d/rigiclarit/m. Caldarium alio denoted the Hove, or fudatory, being a clofe vsulted room, wherein by hot dry fucries, without wa- ter, people were brought to ;i profufe fweat. In which fenfc, cahlarium was the fame with what was Gther«'ife denominated vapo: arium, fiidatorium, and lacoinum ; in the Greek baths, hypocaujhtm, i/Voxxu-o>. Caldarium £s, denotes PoT-injtal. CALDAS, in Geography, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province of Ellremadura, a league from Obidos, and j 3 miles E. of Peniche ; much frequented for its fulphurcous waters. The town is built in an irregular quadrangulaC form, and the houfes are fmall, generally coufilling merely of a ground- floor, and only a few of them iiavc windows. To this place the rich merchants and principal nobility of Lifbon refort twice a year, w'z. in May and September. Over the warm fpring is a fpacious and handfome bathing- houfe, and adjoining to it an hofpital for poor patients. Be- Cdes the fprings ufcd for drinking, three others fupply four baths : and the united water from all the fprings turns a mill near the bathing houfe. Caldas de Rcy, a town of Spain, in Gallicia, 20 miles fouth of Santiago. CALDER, a town of Mid-lothian in Scotland, is fitu» ■ated in a pieafant country, at the dillance of j 2 miles weft of Ediuburgh. Here are two annual fairs, and a weekly market; but a» there are no manufactories, the population Vol- V. C A L is but fmall. In 179:, it amounted to 562 inhabitants. A fliort dil'ancc well of the town, is Calder-houfc, the feat of lord Torphichcn. This manfion is memorable in th« ec- clefiallical liillory of Scotland, as the place where the Sa- crament was firll adminiflcrcd after the reformation. The ceremony was performed by John Knox, the celebrated re- former ; a portrait of whom is preferved in the houfe. Calder, a river of England, which runs into the Aire, about two miles N. of Pontefraft in Yorklhire. It is navi- gable to Halifax. Alfo a river, which runs into the llibble, three miles S. of Cliiheroe in I^ancafliirc. Caldir Water, a river of Scotland, which runs into the Clyde, about five miles above Glafgow. CAI.DERA, a fea-port of South America, in the coun- try of Chili, on the copft of the Pacific Ocean, two leagues N.E. by E. from the lee of an ifland at the mouth of the river Copiapo. S, lat. 27". \V. long. 7". CAEDERINI, DoMiTio, in Biography, an eminent philologill, was born about the year I44f', at Torri, in the territory of Verona, and at the age of 24 years, he was in- vited, in confequence of the recommendation of cardinal Beflarion, by pope Paul II. to the proiefTorfliip of belles lettres at Rome. In this oflice !;e continued, under Six- tu6 IV. and died in I478, in the flower of his age. All his fcholars attended him to bis grave in ii\ourning. He was much diflinguifhed by the afiiduity of his literary labouis, and printed commentaries upon Martial, Juverial, Virgd, Ovid, Statius, andPropertius, and feveral others of the Latin poets : he alfo publiflicd a tranflation of the two firll books of Pau- fanias, into Latin. He, mor<.'over, cultivated jurifprudcnce, philofophy, and mathematics, and exercifed himfelf fuccefs- fully in Latin poetry. He is reckoned one of the literary wonders of his age. Tirabofchi. CALDERINO, in Geography, a place of Italy, in the Veronefc, celebrated for its baths, called " the baths of Ve- rona." CALDERO, a remarkahle moimtain in the gulf of Ve- nice, which is a guide at fea for the harbour Rovignoi which fee. Caldero, Cape., lies on the north coall of South America, W. of Otchier bay, and about 12 leagues E. by S. from the Caracas fort, called the White Cape. It lies nearly S. or a little wellv.-ard from the weft end of Margarita Ifland, on the coall of the Spanifh main. CALDERON, df. la Bana, Dom. Pedro, m Biogra- phy, a celebrated Spanifli dramatic writer, flourifhed about the year 1640, and after having borne arms, and fullained the rank of a knight of the order of St. James, became an ecelefialtic, and a priell and canon of Toledo. Turni'-g his attention to the theatre, he -acquired the reputation of the moll copious and efteemed writer for the llage, in Spain, and was fometimes denominated the Spanifh Shakfpeare. The fertility of his invention, and the tafte of his age and country, rendered him incorrcft in the obfervance of the rules of the dranria, and very unequal in his ftyle and com- pofition. His characters are unnatural, and his diftion in- flated. His chief excellence confifted in the contrivance of plots, which are full of bufinefs, and abound in intricacies happily relolved in the catallrophe. Moft of his works were collected and publifhcd at Madrid, in nine vols. 4to. 16S9; the three firft containing his comedies, and the fix laft, a number of dramatic pieces on religious fubjefts, hke the Old Mylleries, under the title of " Autos Sacramen- tales." His fcanty knowledge of hiflory has betrayed him into feveral blunders. Nouv. Ditt. Hift. Caldf.ron, in Geography, lies on the coaft of Coroman- del, in India, fix leagues N. from Tranquebar. .5C C A I. CALDERSBURG, a townfliip of Oilean& coont^s in iilcs ^S^ of Conncfticiit river. tl.c iUu of Vermont, Amcnca, about Jjl miles. N.E. from C A L it ; and it is certain, that it made a great imprtffion m Eiiglaiidi and was very much admirtd by all avowed Piiri-' tans, ar.d by fucii as were well-wifhers to their opinions. Tlie modern dilTciiters, however, would not concur in many of the airthor"* fentiments ; nor would they contend for the " Jus Diviniwi" of Prefbyteriariifjn. Soon after tlie publi- cation of this work, Mr. Calderwood return;, 160B. Thus did he commence that rcfitlance to the meafures of the king and epilcopal party, which uniformly direded and influenced his future conduft. Accordingly, he did not affitl at the general afTembly held at Glafgow, June S, 1610, in which lord Dunbar, the liigh-treafurer of Scotland, prefided as commiftioner ; and it appears from his writings, that he regarded all the traiifr aaioiis of this aiTembly as null and void. He alfo excepted ^ ^, ,7,1 r 1 ^, - , againft the proceedings of another general afltmbly held hlhed, under the title of " 1 ne true Hiitory of the Church in 1^16, at Aberdeen. When a parliament was held by of Scotland," pnnted in 1618, which comes down to the the king in the following year at Edinburgh, and the clergy death cf king James. Although the perufal of this workj met, at the fame time, in one of the churche?, in order to on account both of its fpirit andftyle, cannot be agreeable. confer with the bifhops, thus contriving an afTembly which was intendrd to rcfeinble the Engliih convocation ; Mr. C.dderwood, though he attende.-l, publicly declared, that he did not confider any fuch meetings as refembling a convoca- tion : and when he v/as informed that a bill was depending to empower the king, with the advice of the archbilhop, bilhops, and fuch a number of the minillry as his majelly might think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters decent for the external policy of the church, not repugnant to the word of God ; and that fnch conchifions fliould have the force of ecclefiaftical laws; he concurred, with other mi- nifters,. in a formal proteft againft the meakire, for reafons which were fubjoined. This protell was prefented ; and though the clerk-regifter refufed to read it before the ftates in parliament, it had its effeft ; for although the bill had the coiifent of parliament, yet the king thought fit to fct it afide, and foon after called a gencial aiTembly at St. An- drew's. In confeqnence of this protelt, Mr. Calderwood was fummoned before the high-commiffion court at St. An- drew's, on the charge of mutinous and feditious behaviour. The king was prefent, and examined him in perfon ; but Calderwood defended himfelf with fuch fpirit and prefence of m nd, p;rfillingin hisrefulal to acknowledge that he had been guilty of any crime, that he was firft committed to prifoii ; and then fentenced, by the privy council, to banifh himfelf out of the king's dominions, and not to return with- out licence. All his efforts for mitigating this fentence proving incffeftual, he retired to Holland, where he fteadily maintained his former principles, and in 1623, publiflied his famous book, entitled " Altare Damafcenum, feu Ecclefia Anglican! Pohtia, Ecclefise Scoticanx obtrufa, a Forma- hfta quodam dchneata, illuftrata £t cxaminata." This work contains a clofe and ri|^orous examination of the polity of be (heltered from all and the reprcfentations contaiaed in it mull have acquiied a ftrong tinge from party ; it has, neverthelefs, been always regarded as a fource of much authentic information. How much longer the author furvived is not known ; but it feems probable, from his mentioning the death of Robert Bruce, which happened in l6jl, that he lived pretty far in the reign of Charles 1. ; and we find that he was minifter of Pencaitli-land, near Edinburgh, in i6j8. Biog. Bnt. CALDONAZZO, in Geography, a lake of Germany, in the county of Tyrol ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Trent. CALDRON, a large kitchen utenfil, cornmonly made of copper; having a moveable iron handle, whereby to hang it on the chimney-hook^ The word is formed from the French chaudron, or rather the Latin caldarium. Caldrons, boiling in, caldariis decoquert, is a capital punilhment fpoken of in the middle age writers, decreed to divers forts of criminals, but chiefly to debafers of the colnj One of the torments inflicted on the ancient Chriftian martyrs was boihng in caldrons of water, oil, &c. CALDUBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy inBstica, in theterritorv of the Turdetanij CALDUENDO, in Geography, a town of Spain in the province of Guipufcoa ; 8 leagues eaft of Vittoria^ CALDY, a fmall ifland in the gr^at bay of Carmarthen,, in South Wales ; on its weft fide, at S.S.E. from Tenby, forming an inner limit on that fide to the bay, though it ftretches out circuitoufiy to St. Gouan's point. It is about 3 miles from Tenby, and 5 leagues almpft weft from Wormf- head, and has upon it a white tower appearing at a diftance white fail, and fcrving to (hew where the land ps may anchor on every fide of this ifland, and hke Shi • u IT 1 n. u 1 J ■ L J • L- ,- , ' ■ winds. N. lat. ';i°3j'. W. long, c" in. the En^hlh church under vanous heads, m which the on- CALE, or Kale, ,n Botary. See Brass. CA, Borecole, |rin and aiithonty ot epilcopacy, and all the other points of and Crambe. difference, between that and the Prefbytcrian churches, are iiifcuffed King James is faid to have exprefled a high opi- GALEA, in* Botany, °Linn. gen." Q+'iV'Schreb. 127-7. luonoflhiiwork, though he was estremely difpleafed with WiUd. 1466, Juff. p. i8j. G«rt. 975. Giafs and order ■ fyngeneji^ Cale, in Scripture Geography. See Calah. C A L C A L ynS^-n/'fi.i poh^flmm '^q^aUs. Nat. ord. Compofux oppofih/olu, Jown underneath j ftem (liriiby ; branches ifowny." Willd. Lnn^ 6Vv'«i;/Ir the defeat of the Mollcms. Being afterwards converted, he Somewhat panicled ; calyxes lltort ; feeds naked ; leaves -ovate-lanceolate, petiolated." Stem fhrubby, branched. , Leaves oppofite, Flo-:vers yellow. A native of Jamaica. i Wiildenow fufpe6ls that it does not differ from Bidens fcan- ' Jens of Linna:us. This and the preceding were cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1768. 5. C. lohata, halbert-weed, Willd. ■ Gi-ert. Tab. 174. fig. 5. (Conyza lobata ; fp. pi. Conyza m-borefcens, Pium. Spec. 9. ic. 96. Santolina ereda fub- '' hirfuta floribus comofis, Brown Jam. 315. 2. Virga aurea major,five Doria ; Sloane Jam. 125. Hif. i. 260, tab. 152. i fig. 4) " Corymbs clofe ; leaves alternate ; upper ones ' ovate-lanceolate ; lower ones halbcrt-lhaped, finiiate-ler- rated." Swartz. Perennial, Stern four or live feet high, leafv, branched. Flotvers yellow. Sloane. Receptacle ra- ■ iher convex ; fcales fimilar to tliofe of the calyx. Seeds Imall, oblong, fmooth ; down fimple, a little toothed, (horter than the fcales of the receptacle, but equal in length ' to the flower, caducous. Gasrt. Brown fpeaks of it as an ' excellent bitter, and fays that a fpirituous infufion of the tops is kept in moll plantations, and adminifteved as an ac , tive flomachic. Introduced into England by Dr. Houflon became a principal champion in the impollor's caufe, and .before 1733. 6. C. pinifolia, W'tWd. Martyn. Forft. prod, obtained from Mahomet the honourable title of " one of the '288. "Flowers fomewhat umbellate, terminating, clofe; fwords of God." Tiiis title was co'.iferrcd upon him in con- keaves nearly fmooth, alternate, linear, revolute at the mar- fequence of the battle of Muta, A.D. 6jo, in which, after gin ; flem flirubby ; branches pubefcent," Willd. Perennial, the fali of three fucccfiive commanders of the Modems, he gi , . - . Peduncles diort, one flowered. A native of New Zealand. 7. C. leptophylla, Willd. Martyn. Forft. Prod. 287. « Flowers fomewhat umbellate, t;;rminating ; leaves growing by fours, fpreading, linear, obtufe, revolute at the margin. affumed the flandard, and by his valour withftood and re- puifed the fupcrior numbers of tlie Chrillians. Upon theac- ceffion of Abubeker, he was deputed with a fmall army to counteraft the revolt of fevcral Arabian tribes, whom he com- 5 C i pictci/ C A L C A L the r f completed diis bloody tragedy, which has afTorded a flriking- fuhK-ft b'Jth to liiftory and poi.nry,he returned to Damafcus witli tlie fume fecrecy and fpeed. On the accelfion of Omar, who fuccecded Abiibekcr in | the caliphate, Caled was rcmovtd from the command ; and "■f.'iil a-iii tcrmnatcd Wn txpJditloti by the capture of it was again transferred to the more gentle and conciliatory v,-.trs. aud the extiiiAion of the Abu Obcidaii. The army expreffcd their difTatisfaftion with 'ihftanding th rjbdi:;(!. IT* afltrwarJj obtained o more importatit ■iijr Mofcilanu. who fcl! in tiic battle, Dilotttri were coitipcllid to embrace • lahomct. In his fubftquciit invatioii uf t province of Babylon, he was eminently i'k 0 ty Hir-i ne.uthc- Euphrates, aud t! ■ i.n, which took its uame from that capital. From ! ..c he^^iJ fammoncd into Syria to fuppurt the Mol- lem» unJcr the command of Abu Obcida;.', v.-ho 1-ad met with foeral checks from the Greeks ; and being appouittd lo fuperfcdi! that /eneral. h- foon changed the alpcA of jffiTi. HavinjC re'cued the detachment that bcfieged Bof- tr.i, he iincllcJ thio place, and, aided by treacliery, took it. To the inhabitants who futd for quarter, he fliewcd himfelf uimfuilly merciful, and rellraiued the carnage wiiich they were fufltrin,:. On his arrival before pauiafcus, he vau- Quiihed by bis pcrfonal valour two Chritlian commanders, and on their rcfufal to embrace idamifm, put them to death in cold blood. Having coUedcd a powerful body of Moflemsat Aizaadin, in the ye\r 6;j, he totally difcomliced \Verdan, the general of Heraclius, and dcllroytd the great- ell part of hia army. During the progrcfs of the fiege of Damafcus, many exploits of valour were performed by both partiei ; at length, however, the fiege having been prolonged o days, the inhabitants fought refuge in the mild and this change ; but Caied, notwiihftanding the charatteriftic ferocity of his temper, fubmitted to ic with magnanimity ; and having caufed Omar to be proclaimed caliph at Damaf. cus, refi'Tned his command without hefitation, declaring- hi» rcadinefs to fervc tiie Miiffulmau qaufe in any poll whiclii it (hould pleale the head of the rc'i^i'iu to affgn him. Soon' afterwards his adtivity and enterpiue v.-rre of fignal fervice in relieving a party of the Mofleins, who bftdincautioully nioiched to plunder a famous monallery in the neij'hbour- hood of Abyla, and wlio were furroundtd by a iruch fu-- perior force. Caled himf^lf had been relieved in fimilar eir.- cumllances of danger, on a recocnoitering party, by a de-- tachment fent by Abu Obeidah. Under thlb chief Ca- kd fcrved in Syria and Mefopo;ai'ii^, and he aKvays dif» tin.;uiflied hlmfclf in fcalons of peculiar difficulty and peril. Of his fnbfrquent exploits the moll eminent was the vidloryj obtained by him in the battle of Ycrmuk, A. D. .'556 ; onl which interefiing occalion the public voice, and the raodelly.- of Abu Obeidah reftored tiis command to him, who was* Btncrous difpo'.ilion of Abu Obeiduh from the fury of ellcemed the moll deferving of the Moflern^. The combat' Caled, and lUpulated to furrender the place on moderate terms. In the mean while Caled interpofed, prevented the execution of the treaty, aud with lavage ferocity, put to the fword all that came i:i his way ; and meeting with Abu Obcidah, who was peaceably entering the city, a con- ttll enfued ; ok* infilling on the right of the fword, and the other urging tlie facrednefs of a capitulation. Caltd in the iffuc yielded to the pleas of mercy and true policy ; and the fword was Iheathed, on condilion ot admitting to tribute and toleration of religion thofe inhabitants who chofe to continue in the city. The adherents of Thomas, however, who had fought under his banner in the defence of the city, embraced the alternative of poverty and exile. Accordingly in an adjacent meadow they formed an encampment of priells and laymen, of foldicrs aud citizens, of women and children; and being allowed to take with them their moll precious moveables, and arms neceffary for their defence, they pre- pared to abandon their native homes. Caled, whufe inflex- ible foul was not touched by the fpetlacle of their diilrefs, hallencd and incoiimoded their departure; and ilernly declar- ed, th.it altera refpite of three days, they might be purfued and treated as the enemies of the Moflems. Unfated with blood and vengeance, and further urged by the intreaties of Jonas, a noble Damafcene, whufe betrothed fpoufe had accom- panied the fugitives, Caled at the head of 4000 horfe, in the difguife of Chrillian Arabs, undertook the purfuit. Ac- cordingly he traced their march acrofs the mountains of Libanus, encountering incredible hardfliips, to the vicinity of Laodicca, and in a pleafant valley where they had pitched their tents, rufhed on the promifcuous multitude, infufli- cienlly provided with arms, and already vanquilhed by for- row and fatigue. In conftquence of this furious onfet and was obllinute and bloody ; 4030 of the Muflcms were bu- ried in the fisld of battle ; and the (1-iill of the Armenian-" archers enabled 70D to boall that they had loft an eye in that meritorious fervice. The Syrian veterans acknowl.-dgedi that it was the hardeft and moll doubtful of the days which- they had feeu ; but it was likewife the moll decifive.. Many thoufands of the Greeks and Syrians fell by the- fwords of the Arabs ; many were flaughtered, after the de- feat, in the woods and mountains ; many, by miftakin^ the fords, were drowned in the waters of the Yermuk ; and however the lofs may be magnified, it was undoubtedly very great. Abu Obeidah, in his letter to the caliph. Hates ■ the number killed to have been ( jo,coo, and the prifoners at 40,000. This computation exceeds all belief. Such was the fuccefs of the Saracens, that the Greek army durll no- longer appear in the field ; and the conquell of Jerufaletn was the fpeedy relult. In 6jS, Caltd took Aleppo, and' he carried his vitlorious arms beyond the Euphrat-..-. He furvived about three years the pcftiience of 659, which prov-' ed fatal to many MufTulman chiefs ; but no account remains of the time or manner of his death. His tomb is fliewn in the neighbourhood of Emefa. The valour of this cham- pion was fupported by fanaticifm ; for as long as he wore a cap, which had been blefled by Mahomet, he deemed himfelf invulnerable. Mod. Un. Hid. vol. i. Gibbon's- Hill. vol. ix. CALEDON, in Geography, a fmall town of Ireland, in the county of Tyrone, and province of Ulller, near the river Blaekwater, 70 Irifn miles N. by E. from Dublin. CALEDONIA, in Ancient Geography, an appellation by which that part of Great Britain now called Scotland was formerly dillinguiflied. See Scotland. The etj-mology of md|fcr,m.uate fiaughter, the Arabs emjoyed the fatisfadion this name, as well as the precife boundaries of the countfy to of believing, tiiat not a Chritlian of either fex efcaped the edge of their fcymctars ; and all the rich fpoils of the viftims fell into the hands of the conquerors. In the tumult of the battle Jonas found the object of his purfuit ; but her re- ientment was inflamed by the la!l aft of his perfidy ; and as Eudocia llrugglcd in his hateful embraces, Ihe llruck a datr ._ I. I. r-'-ll i_i ... .. .. b which it h.is been applied, have been varioufly afligned. According to Camden, the appellation of Caledonia is de- rived from the Celtic or Britilh /-a.Wor ca/ed, hard ; whence- Caledonii, fignifying a peopls, harc/y, imci'vtlifcd, and rujlic. Buchanan derives it from the old Scottilh word, caUen, de- ™,r .„ l..r V.' ,r. Pill 1 . .j' ,• :.>^ noUug 8 ha'/.k-trec. Others fSee Preface to OfTian's Poems, ^ut , o i!r,'i,,^«l H^ . ' °" ''"^°"^''»". vol.ii.p.4.) compound iu of the two Britifi words caU about i jo mtle, mto the Romn temtory ; a,m having a„d dun, which f.gnify the GauU or Britons of the moun- tains,. I C A L E D O N I ^\. tains. Accoidini^Iy it is faid, tliaf tliis was a very proper name for tlie rea! Caledonians of Badtnocli, Braidalbin, and the adjacent trails, which are the moll nionntainoiis parts ot Scotland, and nit very unfiiitable to the other nations, to whom it was gii-en by the Roman autiiors. Others again affirm, that Gael-.hch is the only appellation, wiiich the Scoto, who fpeak. the Gaelic language, know for their own divilion of Britain : And Gad-cloch is a com- pound of Gael or Gael, the firft colony of the ancient Cauls who tranfmigrated into Britain, and iloch, a diftrift or divi- fion of a country. The Romans, by tranfpofing the letter / in Gael, and fofttning into a Latin termination the ch of doch, formed tl\e well known name of Caledonia. The ancient Caledonia comprehended all that conn try which lay. to the north of the rivers Forth and Clvde; or, as others flate its boundaries, from the wall of Severus, conneiiling the call coall near Tii-.emouth with the Sohvay Firtb, at Boulnefs, on the well conft, to the northern (liorc. The Calcdonii of Ptolemy poficffed that extenfive traft of coun- try which reached from the L.clannonian bay, or Loch fenn, on the weft, to the clUiary of Vara or Firth of Tavmr on the call coaif, and included Badenoch, Braidalbin, the in- land parts of the Ihires of Murray, Banff, Aberdeen, and Perth. The Greek and Roman hiftorians and poets, who flourilhcd in the firif, fecond, and third centuries, when they have occalion to mention the affairs of Britain, give the ge- neral name of Caledonii to all the Britilh nations without the limits of the Roman pro\inci-, and that of Caledonia to their countiy. The rcafon of this might be, that the Galedonii were the moll powerful or warlike of thofc na- tions, and maintained fome kind of fuperiority over the rell, who were contented to fight und^r their conduft againll their common enemies, the Romans and provincial Britons. Hence the name of the Caledonii, from being the proper name of one nation, became the common denomination of many. Caledonia feems to have been unknown to the Romans till Agricola entered it with his army, in his third campaign, A. D. 80. Marching from fouth-well towards the north- eall, he traverfed the territories of feveral Britilh tribes, and penetrated to the river Tay, without oppofition. The Ca- ledonii feemed to have retired, hoping to recover in the winter, after the retreat of their enemies, what they had loll in the lummer. But Agricola difappointed their expec- tations by employing the remainder of the fcalon in build- ing forts in the mnft convenient fituatio s for keeping pof- iclilon of the country. As foon as thefe forts were Hmlhcd and llored with provifions, he put his army into them for their winter-quarters, that his troops might be every where at hand to check the attempts of the natives to fhake off the yoke. Tacitus does not inform us, whether Agricola fpent this winter in Caledonia, or in the more fouthern parts of Britain. See Ai.;kicola. When Adrian arrived in Britain A. D. 121, he aftivcly employed himf..lf in ftj;i!in-.; the frontiers of the Roman polielTions againlt the iiicurfjons of enemies. With this view he erected his famous rampart or wall, as the boundary of the Roman province, from the mouth of the river Tine on the call, to the Sohvay firth on the well, near the track where Agricola had built his firll chain of forts. See Ad- run. Under the reign of Antoninus Pius, A.D. ij8, I^ollius Urbicus was governor of Britain ; and in order to fecure the peace of the Roman province in this illand, it was found necefiary to enlarge its hmits. Accordingly LoUius Urbicus defeated the Mceatx in feveral engagements, and recovered the country as far as the illhmus between the firths of Forth and Clyde. In ^rder to fecure his con- 6 quefl, and to keep the Caledonians at a greater diflancc, Urbicus, by direction of the emperor, raifcd another iliong- rampart, in imitation of that of Adrian, between thofe two friths, along the line of forts which had been conllnifted there by Agricola. This rampart, with its ditch and forts, was intended for the iitmoll boundary of the Roman empire in Britain. In the year i8o, the Cale- donians, having broke through the wall of Antoninus, and being joined by the Mccita:, invaded the Roman province. To repel this invafion, the government of Britain was be- llowed upon Ulpius Matccllus, who, having full reftorcj the dilcipline of the Roman tioops,lcd ihem againft the ene- my, and defeated them in feveral battles. During the con- tell which took place on the accelTion of Septimus Sevcrus to the imperial throne, Britain became a fcene of great con- fufion, A. D. 198. The Ma:at?e and Caledonians, obftrv- ing the defencclefs (late of the Roman province, made in- curfions into it, and fprtad defolation in their progrefs. When Lupus was deputed by Severus to repeal thefe in- vaders, he found himfe'.f unable to accomplidi this objeclby force, and therefore bribed the plunderers to retire, by pur- chafing their prifoners with a fum of money. Their iiicur- fions, however, were renewed with greater violence for fe- veral years ; and it was found necellary for Severus him- felf to vifit Britain in ptrfon. The news of his arrival, A. D. 207. alarmed the Moeatx and Caledonians, and in- duced tliem to fend ambaffadors to promife fubmiffion, and fue for peace. Severus, however, difmiffed tice ambaffadors without any fatisfatlory anfwer, and advanced northward at the head of a very large army. When he had paflcd the wal! of Adrian, he encountered many difficnltiis and dangers. His army was haraffed with continual ficirmifhes, anddicoyed into many ambuOies ; and in his progrefs, he was obliged to employ one part of his army in cutting down woods, drain- ing lakes and marflies, making roads, and calling bridges over rivers, whilll the other part defended the labourers from the enemy. In this expedition Severus loll no fewer than 10,000 men, thongii he fought no battle, and faw no enemies in a body- At length he penetrated into the very heart of Ca- ledonia, and llriick fnch terror into its inhabitants, that they renewed their lupplications for peace, which was at lad granted them, on condition of rtlinquifliing a part of their country, and delivering up their arms. Having concluded a peace with the Caledonians, and conduced his army back into the northern parts of the Roman pro- vince, he employed his troops for about two years in conflrudling his famous wall. Towards the dilaftrons decline of liis life, A. D. 210, the Moeata: and Cale- donians took advantage of his wcaknefs and the dillrac- tion of his family, and renewed the war in hopifs of recovering that part of their country which they had been obliged to refigr. The aged emperor, who had retired to York, be- come pecvidi by his complicated fuderings, was enraged by the news of this revolt, and ilTued orders for exterminating thefe two nations, without fparing the very infants in their mothers' wombs. Tiie execution of thefe cruel orders was prevented by the emperor's death. His eldell fon Caiacalla, as foon as he heard of his father's death, concluded a peace with the Mccatae and Caledonians, and foon after left Britain. When the emperor Severus invaded Caledonia, A.D. 20', we are told (Xiphilin. ex Dio Nicxo in Sever.) " that the Moeatx and Caledonians (who polTcircd all the illand beyond the well of Adrian), inhabited barren uncultivated mountains, and defert marlhy plains ; that they had neither walls, lioufcs, nor cultiv.ated lands ; but lived on the miik and flelh of their flocks and herds, on what they got by plunder, or caught by CALEDONIA. Having been tr.oi v of the Plfts have been extingiiirr.ed by tlieir fucccfsfifl ir country to the rivals ; and the Scots, after maintatniiig for ages the dignity R ,...„, ,hu i..J„lhio>,s people, in the conrfe of the third of an independent kingdo^r,, have rndtiphed by an equal ;, bu ve . ow^s «L fta.lons. conllrnaed high- and voluntary un.o,r^ the honours of the Enghlh name, la- x:a's «t dol'n wood., drained marlhes. and introduced citus V.t. Agr.c. Crmcpl D.fTertations on the Or,g,n, An- a^iiculturc into the country between the \va ..f wl.ich are very Itvil, fertile, and fit for by huntinp.sr.don the fruits of their trees." o'jUi^cd by Severus to furrender part of their < td.ui.h the Romans never formed any large or lalling efta 1 I,,! -.'tnt to the north of the wall bttween the Forth and I .., yet many of t'lem, and of the provincial Britons, re- t , >; into Caledonia at different linas, and on various occa- lioiis. particularly about the end of the third century, m order to cfcapc from the Diocl liaii perfecution. It is, therefore, highly probable, that thtfe refugees inftrucled the people among whom they fettled, not only in their re- iigion, but alfo in their arts, particularly agriculture. The callcni coafts of Caledonia were remarkably fit for cultria- Us. many parts tiquitics, &c. of the Cakdoniars, by Dr. J. Macpherfon. ir tiUatr.-. Al- Lond. 1768. 410. J. Macpheifon's Introd. to the HiU. of Great Britain and Ireland, Lond. 1773. 4to. Henry's Hill. vol. i. and ii. Gibbon's Hift. vol. iv. See Attacotti, Highlanders, Picts, and Scotland. Caledonia, a town in the country above defcribcd ; which, Eccording to Buchanan, gave name to the country, the people, and adjacent ocean. CALiDONiA5)'foa,alargeforeftinthefamecountry,covered with lofty trees, and affording (heltei to wild a' d fierce beads. Caledonia, in Geography, a fca-port fettlcment, on the north-well fide of the iilhmus of Darien, near the gulf of Mexico, foiuided in 169S, by feme Scots families ; but tion, andthePias, who inhabited thcfe coafts, were very r .. —r n r j /- .1 early acquainted with agriculture, which they undoubtedly which, by the influence of tne Eaft India Company, they learned from the Romans, or the provincial Britons. The were obliged^to abandon, in the yesr I 700. N. lat. 9 30. name which was given to the Caledonians on the eaft, by W. long. 77° j6'. . ^ . thofe of the weft, was " Cruitnich," which fignifies wheat Caledoni.'., a county of Vermont, in America, contain- er corn cakes ; a proof that they were hufbandmen, and ex- ing 24 townftiips, and having to the S.E. Connefticut river ; pr.filng the contempt or envy of the carnivorous hlglilander. to the N.W. Orleans and Chittenden counties; to the N.E. There 15 alfo realon to believe, that the Caledonians of the Elfexcounty ; and to the S. W. Orange-county, of which, weft, who, in the fourth century, began to be called till of late, it formed a part " Scots," denoting, in the Celtic language, wanderers or vagrants, though they were of a more relUefs and wander- ing difpofition than thofe of the eaft, and their country was more mountainous, and not fo fit for cultivation, were not altogether ignorant of agriculture at this period. The vi- cinity of the Hebrides, profufel) fcattered along the weft- Caledonia, iYfw, a large illand of AuftralaGa, in the Southern Pacific Ocean, extending from 19° 37' to 22" ^o', S. lat. ; and from 16. J° 37° to 167° 14', E. long. Its itngth fi\,:n north-weft to fouth-eall: is ab'ut 80 leagues ; but its greateft breadth does not exceed JO leagues. It waB dilcoveied by captain Cook, in 1774. He explored the rn coaft of Scotland, tempted the curiofity of thefe weftern noith-wefttrn part of this ifland, and fays that this diftridl Caledonians or Scots, and improved their (kill; and they was called " Balade ;" but D'Entrecailea'JX, who corn- acquired, by flow degrees, the art, or rather the habit, of manded the expedition fitted out by the Conftituent Af- managing their boats in a temptftuous fta, and of fleering fembly of France in fcarch of La Peroufe, in 1791 — 1794, their nodurnal courfe by the light of the well-known ftars. vifited its fouth-weftern coaft. The reefs by which this The ancient Caledonians, and other Britons, educated in part is bounded, are generally from 25 to .?o,oco toiles from the midft of arms, and accuftomcd from their infancy to hear the land ; and it is rendered ftill more dangerous by the nothing admired or cekbrated but valiant deeds in war, fouth-weft winds that blow in that quarter. Many moutr- looked upon e%'ery profeflion but that of arms as dilhonour- tainous iflands and detached rocks ftretch from N.N.E. to able ; and every employment but war as unworthy of a man E.N.E. and render this extremity of the ifland more dan- uffpirit. To fuch an extravagant height did they carry gerous than the fouthern part. Some of thefe iflands are thefe abfurd and pernicious notions of honour, that they feveral hundred toifes in extent ; they are very numerour, imagined that thofe who followed any other employment, and encircled with reefs. Thefe iflands fecm to be a conti- e.xcept tliat of arms, not oiily lived defpifed, and died unla- nuation of the mountains of the large ifland ; their bafes be- mcntcd ; but that their fouls, after death, hovered in the ing covered by the fea, and their fummits rifing above it, lower regions, among fens and marflies, and never mounted and forming fo many little iflands. The gradual diminution the winds, nor mingled with the fouls of warriors in the airy of the height of thefe mountains affords reafon to fnppofe, balls. Dio and Herodian fcem to intimate, that the Mce- that in thefe feas, flioals extending to a nreat dillance con- a!i andCaledonians were naked in the beginning of the third tribute to augment the dangers of navigation. The ret fs century, v.-hen they were invaded by the emperor Severus. that abound in the vicinity of this ifland, are coral rocks. But thcfe authors probably meant no more than that thefe the well-known work of polypi. The land of New Caledo- people were very imperfeClly clothed, or alinoft naked ; and nia, which is low towards it's fouthern extremity, rifes into they ufe expreflions which admit of this interpretatiou. As mountains of moderate elevation, in a foutheaft or north- the Romani never conquered the Caledonians, or northern weft direction, inclining towards the north. Hills, almoft Britons, they cannot be fuppofed to have made any material deftitute of vegetation, rife like an amphitheatre towards change m their language ; which is ftill fpoken by their the principal chain of mountains, and appear to be at leaft potterity, in the highlands, and weftern iflands of Scotland, 900 toifes in perpendicular height, and direded towards the wiiTilefs variation from the original Celtic (if we maybe- north-weft. D'Entrecafteaux and his companions of. lievc fome of tlie beft judges m thefe matters,) than in any fervcd three ranges of mountains of different degrees of ek- other part of Europe. ,..,,. nation, and hollows apparently formed by the fall of the As earl) as the reign of Conftantine, the inhabitants of rains, which were continued to the fiimmits of the moft an.l .Scot,"" Z7 ^r,^"^^,Tr' T? ^''" '"J";i°f the mountains. Behind thefe high mountains they faw about we ha e obfcrved .t . if ' ^ ', T" P"^'^"^^ '^ %?'°=° '°''^^^ ^^•'""" '^' '^'"^' "^ich feemed to tower above we ha^e "bfer.ed, the weftern ; and the latter, the eaftem all the reft, and to be at leaft 1200 toifes in perpendicular divfion of that country. The power, and alznoft the me- elevation. From the middle of one of thefe mvi^s or hoi! lows CALEDONIA. Taws ilTticd a torrent, wljicli appeared at a confidersWe dif- taii'^c white with its foaniiiip; waters ; and trcts arc found growing in the bottoms of tlie ravines with which the hills are furrowed. Thefe torrents are mimeroiis, and, in fome places, form fine calcades ; and they ferve alfo to fertilize the plains and valleys that arc ir.terfpcrlcd among the barren mountains, and which exhibit traces of culture and popula- tion. The foil of the plains is a fandy black mould : the fides of the hills are yellow clay with mica ; and the higher pares confill of quartz and mica, tinged red, or orange, with iron. Garnets are alfo found in petro-hlex, and in feveral places white tianfparent quartz,' with layers of gold, co- loured mica, blended with Icrpentine, hornblende, talc, and garnets. New Caledonia differs from all the other iflands yet difcovered in the Soutli Sea, by being entirely dellitute of volcanic productions. Every part of the coait fcems to be inhabited ; and the plantations in the plains are cultivated with much liibour. On the fides of the mountains fmall walls are raifed above one another to prevent the rolling down of the ground which was cultivated. But as the country is for the moft part rocicy and barren, the inhabit- ants chiclly fubfift on roots and filh. Some of them eat the earth called lleatite, which they probably make choice of to allay their liunger, becaufe it is foft and crumbles, and is eafy of digellion. They alfo boil, and eat a fpecies of fpiders, which are found in the woods. Like many other favages, they feed on the fledi of thtfir enemies, which they previ- oufly broil on a fire of charcoal. This horrible prattice of eating human flelh is confirmed by feveral fads recited by CEntrecafteau.x ; notwithftanding the favourable accounts given of thefe iilanders by captain Cook and Dr. Forller. They preferred water to wine or brandy; and in drinking it, inclined their heads at about two feet dittance above the fur- face of the water, and then threw it up againll their faces with iheir hands, opening their mouths very wide, and catch- ing as much as they could.. The bread-fruit and cocoa-nut are fcarce, and obtained with difficultv ; although in fome of the interior vallies there are confidcrable plantations of thefe, as wtU as of bana- nas, Caribbte cabbages (arum efculentum), yams, fugar- canes, S:c. but the ifland funiillics feveral new plants, birds, and tithes. The natives feem to be altogether unacquainted with goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, as they had not any name by which to dillinguifh them. The inhabitants a^e Rout and tall, fome of them meafuring fix feet four inches, and generally well proportioned ; thtir features mild ; their hair black and woolly ; but many, who feemed to be dellrous of having the appearance of long hair, faftencd to their own locks two or three triffes, made with the leaves, of fome plants of the grafs kind, and covered with the hair of the Vampyre bat, which hung down to the middle of their backs. Some of them cropped their hair ftiort, and ufcd a kind of comb, formed of a number of llicks of hard wood, generally about 20, which ihey fallencd together at one end, and parallel to, and nearly one tenth of an inch from one another ; and thefe combs they always wore in their hair, on one fide of the head ; on their heads they wore a kind of concave, cylindrical black cap, made of llrong pa- per, which they feemed to conlider as an ornahient, and which, it was fuppofed,. was worn only by the chiefs and warriors. The cullom of pulling out their beards by the root is very general, although fome of them let their beards grow. Their Ikin is nearly of as deep a black as that of the inhabitants of Diemeu's Cape, whom they very much refemble in the call of their countenance. Thefe iilanders are wholly naked, except that they wo e round the middle pieces of coarfe ftuff, made of bark, or large leaves of trees. In fome c.ifts, pieces of this kind of cloth were fartoncd by a (Iring rnind the neck, and to this llring were liung Imall round beads of a pale green (lone. 'I'hiy were not dellitute ot coarfe garments made of matting, but ihev never fccmcd to ufe them except in thiir canoes, ar'd when unemployed. The women in this ifland fetmcd to be in a fiibordinate and fcrvile Hate, and employed themfclves in v.-rious kinds of labour. Their colour is generally a dark th-fnut, or a mahogany brown ; their llature is middle-li/.ed, rather taU, and their whole fonii llout and clumfy. They had no other garment befides a kind of fringe, made of the filaments of the bark of trees, which ferved them as a girdle and paflVd feveral times round the waift. Their character of cliallity is fuperior to that of the females in the other ides of the Pacific : nor did any inllance occur of their permitting any indecent familiarity witli an European during capt. Cook's !lay at the illand. But the account of their cliallity given by D'Entrecalleauxisnot fomuch to their irputalion. The lower lobe of the ears, both of malts and females, perforated with a very large hole, hung down to their fliouldcis ; and into thefe holes fome introduced leaves of trees, others a piece of wood, in order to llrctch them bigger. Several had this lobe jagged ; probably from having been torn either in battle, or in running through the woods. Thtir general ornaments are earrings of tortoifc-fhcUs, necklaces, or amulets, made both of fliells and Hones, and feme of twilUd threads, fuf- pcnded from which they ufually carried at the end of a ilrirg a fmall piece of human bone, or hard (lone, indilTerently carved ; and bracelets made of large (hells, which they wear above the elbows. By the account of C';ok and Fovtlcr, the Caledonians are reprtfeiitcd as different from the other natives of the South Sea illands, with regard to their honefty and the inoffenlivencfs of their difpoiition and manners. This account is not confirmed by D'Entrecalltanx. He faT3>. that whilft they allied for (luffs and iron in exchange for their cffefts, they foon gave evidence of their being audacious thieves; and he mentions feveral indances of the fcrociouf- nefs of their difpcfitions, fuch as their feeding on the flefli of children, &c. Of their being cannibals thtre is no doubt ; and they are furnilhed with an indrumcnt, made of (lone, with (harp edges, for cutting up the limbs of their enemies, which they divide among them after a battle. Their houfts or huts are circular, formed in the fiiape of bee-hives, about If toife in height, and as-imich in breadth, clofe and fmokv, as there is no paffage for the fmoke but through the door. Some of thefe huts are fcattcred at the didance of thtce or four hundred paces from each other, and overlhadowid by a few cocoa-trees. Some of them are fiirround,d by pali- fadts I i yard high, and 3 ! feet from the borders of the hut, with a narrow walk before the door. The door, about a yard high and half a yard wide, is foinctimes clofed by a piece of the limb of a cocoa tree, tlie leafy branches of which are interlaced. Of thefe doors fome I. ad two. polls, at the upper extremity of which a man's luad was rudely carved. The lower part of thefe huts is crtded perpendi- cularly to the height of a yard, and then tapered off in a pretty regular cone, and terminated by the upper end of a pod, fixed in the centre of the floor. The frame of the hut confiils of poles, bearing againd the upper end of the pod, which rifes from the midiiie of the floor, and is near three inches in diameter at the bottom. A few pieces of \\ood bent to an arch, render thefe little habitations fufljciently llrong. They arc covered with draw to the thicknefs of two or three inches ; and the door, on which the natives are pcrfedly (hcltered from the weather, is f, read with mats. Within the hut on one fide is a board, fallcucd with cordo In an horizontal.polltion, about a yard from ihc ground, an 4 wliicli . t. A L viJiicli ihey Jcpof.t any tliiiip; out of th^ way. The iiiulqr.;- tof». huivci-iT, arc I'o troublcfonit; iii thefc huts, t!iat they arc obligcJ to li^ht lirts to drive them away when they po It. (Ircp ; and as there is no \cnt for the fmokc, except at the door, thev mull be extremely incunuiioded by it. Near fome of thefe dwtihiigs are little hillocks of earth, 12 or 14 inches hi,"!, with a very open trellis in the middle, of the heifrht of two or three yards, tailed by the natives " Nboiict," which arc the graves in which they bury their dc?.d. Thofe in which their tliie!'>, fl.iin in battle, ait interred, are decorated Willi fpe;irb, daits, paddles, &c. lluck upright in the ground about them. Their canoes are made of two trees, hollowed out. having a raifcd gunnel about two inches hii;h, and clofed at each end with a bulk-head of the fame height ; fo that the whole icfembles a long fquare trough abuut three feet fhorter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus fitted are faftencd to each other about three feet afunder, by means of crofs-fpars, which project about a foot over each fide, and form a platform. Their mail is fixed at an equal diftancc from the two canoes, and towards the fore- part of the plalf.irm, by which they are joined together. On the platform they have a fiie-iiearth, and generally a tire burning. They arc navigated by one or two latteen fa'ls, extended to a fniall latteen yard, the end of which is fixed in a notch or hole in the deck. Each canoe h.as a large itone, fatleiied to a long rope, which ferves as an anchor. Thefe canois, however, are not fo fltilfully conltruitcd as thofe of the Triendly iflands, to which they are much inferior in point of failing. As the Caledonians arc a warlike people, they are fumifhed with a variety of ofTenfive weapons, as clubs, fpears, darts, a-ul flings for throwing Hones. Moft of thefe illanders are armed with fpears and clubs, and carry at their v.-aifl a little bag full of iloncs, cut into an oval fi.ape, which they throw with llings. Their clubs arc of different forms ; and, as well as their darts and fpears, are curioufly carved, neatly conl\ru6ted, and highly poli(hcd. Their javelins, vvhich are commonly i'-, feet long, are not more than 2-| inclies in C'rcumfcrtnce at the middle. They are peculiarly dextrous in their mode of throwing them, and of accelerating thii," motion. For this purpofe they employ a very elallic cord, made of the covering of the cocoa-nut and fith-ll^in, one extremity of which dicy fix to the end of the fore- finger, and the other which terminates in a foit of round button, is twilled round the end of the dart, but in fuch a manner as to quit its hold as foon as that weapon is thrown into the air. It is fomewhat furprifing that they are unac- quainted with the ufe of bows and arrows. Their language is different from thai of the Friendly illands, though fomeof their terms rcfcmble thofe ufed by the inhabitants of the othrr ifjands. D'Er.trccadtaux has annexed a vocabulary of tlicir language. Their vocal mufic, however agreeable to thcmfclves, is hsrili and difcordant to the ears of Euro- peans. The only mufical inllrument, which they feem to poffefs, is a kind of whiflle, formed of a little polifhed piece of broivn wood about two inches long, ihaped fomewhat like a bell, fufpend^d with a rope fixed at the imall end ; it has two holes near the bafe, and another near the infertion of the rope, all which communicate with one another ; by blowing in the uppermoft, a finill found, like vvhiftling, is produced. Thefe iflanders let lefs value on nails and hatchets than any other inhabitants of the South fea iflands. They appeared, however, to be acquainted \nth iron, for they had a term for txprelTmg it ; but as they ufed hard ftoncs for purpofts to winch iron inllrumtaits might be ap- plied, this metal was lefs important to them than to fome of the other iflanders. The variation of the needle in this iflaad was y° 30' towards the call. The mercury in the C A L barometer never rofe above 28 inches,"; lines, and a-ioths, and never fell btlow 28 inches, i line, and 4-1 otbs. Not- wi'.hflanding the excefTive heat which the Fitnch voyagers felt on the coall, Reaumur's thermometer never exceeded 31;°, and on bnard never rofe above 21°. The tides were rot obfervabie above once a day ; the flood taking place at half pall fix, and the waters, rifing in perpendicular height, 4 feet 7 inches. Of the government and religion of the Caledonians nothing is known. Labillardicrc's Voyng»; in fearch of La Pcroufe. CALEDONICA, in OmUhoIory, a fpccics of Ardea, called by Latham the Caledonian night heron, from its bc- inc a native of New Caledonia. The general colour of the plumage is ferruginous, and benepth white : crcft on the hind head of three leathers ; frontlet black ; eye-brow.s white. Obf. Thij bird is .''.n inhabitant of various pails of the Aullralafian region; i.s well as New Caledonia. Its length is 23, iiichcs ; bill black ; area of the eyes green ; legs yellow. CALEFACIENTIA, in Bledir'we, are thofe fubllances which, when taken internally, increafe the tempeiatnre of the body, or produce a fenfation of local or general warmth. In the language of the prefent day, they are denominated cordials or (timulants. They may produce a fenfation of warmth by their immediate impreflion on the nerves, without any adual increafe of temperature ; but they alfo tend to accelerate the circulation, aird therefore to augment the aftual heat. For it has been afcertained that the animal temperature is generated by the chemical changes which take place in the blood in the courfe of circulation, in con- fequence of the abforption and evolution of different gaf ous fluids. Whenever, therefore, the rapidity of the circulation at large is increafcd by general fiimulants ; or the vefTcls of any particular part are, by a local ftimulus, excited to greater aiRion, and tranfmit a Lrger proportion of blood ; the evolu- tion of heat will necefTarily be augmented ; there will be a fenfation of warmth in the general fyftem, or in the particular parts refpeftivcly. See .Stimulant and Cardiac. CALEFACTION, denotes the production of heat in a body by the aftion of fire ; or the impuife which the parti- cles of a hot body imprefs c 1 other bodies around it. The word is particularly ufed in pharmacy ; where cale- faflion is dilHuguiihed from cotlion : the firli being applied where the thing is only heated, without boiling. CAIjETTA, or Callelia, in Geography, a fifhing vi!- lage of Catalonia in Spain, 4 leagues from Matara. Its population confills of 886 perfons, and it employs near 50 fifhing-bouts. CALEMUT. See Salamame. CALENBERG, a principality of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, which takes its name from an ancient caftle, now in ruins, fituated on the Leine, about 1 1 miles S. from Hanover. Calenberg is divided into two parts by a portion of the principality of Wolfeributtel ; of which the northern part is furrounded by the principality of Luneburg, the dioccfe of Hildeflieiin, the principality of Wolfenbuttlc, the counties of Pyrmont, Lippe, Scliauenberg, and Hoya, and the principality of Muiden ; and the fouth part by the principalities of Wolfenbuttle and Grubenhagen, and the territories of Eichsfeld and Lower Heffe. This principality cofillitutes a part of the duchy of Brunfwick, and is chiefly formed of counties, lordfliips, and ecclefiailical ftates. The country is in fome parts mountainous, in fome marfhy, and in others fandy, but generally fertile ; producing wheat, rye, bariey, oats, lentils, peas, beans, vetches, buck-wheat, ex- cellent garden-ftuff, tobacco, hops, ikx, and plenty of good fruit. CALENDAR. fiuit. It has llkewife forctts of oak, hcccli, alder, pine, birch, &c. which afford timber for the building of fliips and houfes, and all'o wood for fuel and other ufes. It alfo fupplies large breeds of horfes, black cattle, and fliccp, together with venifon and I'lth. In fevcral places are mail- pits, quarries of fiee-llone, and mill-iloncs, with brick-kilns, turf and coal-pits, rich iron ore, and fait fprings. It has alfo numerous manufndories of woollen and linen, cotton and filk, oil-fkins and carpets, leather and paper, and ftonc ware, both for home confuniptioii and for exportation. Its fo- reign trade is greatly facilitated by means of the Wefer, and the country where the Leine lias been rendered navigable. In this principality are 19 cities, the principal of vvliich are Hanover and Gottingen, 1 7 market-towns, 210 L\itheran parochial churches, 5 Calvinillic, 6 Catholic, 2 Lutheran abbie«, one Catholic monadery, 5 Lutheran convents for ladies, and 24,170 taxable hearths. Several of the cities pofl'efs both the civil and criminal jurifdiftion, but in thtfc appeals lie from the magillraie to the upper courts of juflice. The other cities are entirely dependent on the bailiwick. The flates of the country are compofed of the prelates and nobility, which are divided into three depart- ments: viz. thofe of Hanover, Gottingen, and Hameln, with the department of Lavenau. Thefe Hates have their fyndic and other officers, but of the nobility of each depart- ment two provincial deputies are elefled. This principality has a vote both ifi the imperial college of princes and the diets of Lower Saxony. Its matricular afreffment is 22f horfe and 140 foot ; or 686 florinr. All the rivers in this principality difcharge themfelves either into the Leine or the Wefer. The bailiwick of Caletiberg is 4 German miles in length, and 3 broad, extending as far as Hanover. The culture of grain and flax is the principal occupation of the inhabitants. In the whole bailiwick are one town, viz. Gehrden, and 60 villages. CALENDAR, Calendarium, or Kalendar, a dif- tribution of time, accommodated to the ufea of life ; or a table, or almanac, containing the order of days, weeks, months, feafts, &c. happening throughout the year. See Almanac, Timi:, Month, Year, Sic. It is called ca- lendar from the word calemlj:, anciently wrote in large cha- rafters at the head of each month. See Calends. The days in calendars were originally divided into oflo- ades, or eighths; but afterwards, in imitation of the Jews, into hebdotiiades, or fevenths ; which cuftom, Scaliger ubferves, was not introduced among the Romans till after the time of Theodofius. There are divers calendars, according to the different forms of the year, and diftribvitions of time, eftablifhed in different countries. Hence the Roman, the Jewifti, the Perfian, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c. calendars. The ancient Roman calendar is given by Ricciolus, Stru- vius, Danet, and others ; by which we lee the order and number of the Roman ho!y-diys, and workdays. The three Cliriftian calendars are given by Wolfius in his Elements of Chronology. The Jewiih calendar was fixed by rabbi Hillel, about the year j6o, from which time the days of their year may be reduced to thofe of the Julian calendar. Calendar, the Roman, owed its origin to Romulus ; but it has undergone various reformations fince his tiine. That legillator dillributed time into feveral periods, for tlie ufe of the people under his command: but as he was much better verfed in matters of war than of aftronomy, he only divided the year into ten months, making it begin in the fpring, on the iirll of March : imagining the fun made his. courfe Vol. V. through all the feafons in three hundicd and four days. According to Plutarch, (in Nunia,) llirfc months had no certain or equal number of days, fome confifting of 10, feme of 35, and lome of more. I5ut Macrobius informs us, (Sa- turn. 1. i. c. 12.) that Rcnnihu fettled the numbir of dayj V ith greater equality, alhitling to March, May, Quintili.-, and Oiflober, 31 days; and to April, June, Sextilis, .Sep- tember, November, and December, ",0; making iiji in all 304 days. l"rom a paffagc in Plutarch, (ubi fupra,) it ap- pears, that two intercalary months were added to every year ; for he fays, that the Latinn, not underftanding the diifcrence between the folar and luiiar ycaio, neverthelcfs provided, that the year fl.ould contain ,'?6o days. But thefe intercalary months were not infeited in the caler.dar. To thefe no names were affixed until the fucceeding leign. The calendar of Romulus was reformed by Numa, who, at firll, intended to make a crmplcte lunar year of 354 days. With this view, he added 50 days to the 304, which had been divided into 10 months. From every one of the months of 30 days, he borrowed one day, which he added to the 50 already mentioned : of thefe 56 days he compofed two months, calling the one Januaiy, and the other Eebru. ary. Not long afterwards, he added one day to January ; and thus made his year to confill of 355 days ; adding one odd day more than he ought to have done, merely out of fuperflition, to make the number fortunate. However, he would not allow more than 28 days for .February ; and, therefore, that month was always accounted unlucky. Moreover, he transferred the beginning of the year from March to January, reckoning March the fecond, April the third, S:c. ; placing February in the end of the calendar. (Ovid. Fall. 1. ii. v. 47.) In order to adjull the lunar year to the folar, he added 90 days in eight ye:irs ; becaufe the latter is 1 15: days greater than the former, and 115X8 = 90. Of thefe 90 days, four months were compofed, confiRing of 22 and 2,3 days alternately ; and one was intercaLttd every two years ; i. e. to the fecond year 22 days were addi.d ; to the fourth 2.3 days; to the fixth 22 days ; and to the eighth 23 days ; in all 90 days. The intercalary month formed of thele days was called " Mercedinus," or " Mercedonius," from the Latin word " merces," fign fying wages, pro- bably, becaufe this time was appointi-d for the payment of workmen and domeftics ; and it was inferted after the 23d of February ; and the remaining five days of that month were lubjonitd. By thefe intertalati:.ns, the quantity of the year became too great ; and the excefs in eight years amounted to 8'' l"" zrj' ^6" nearly. To cut oil" this excefs, it was propofed, in every third odlcnnial period, that is, from 16 to 24 years, to infert not 90, but 66 days, or three mouths of 22 days, a quantity llill too great by 4'' 28' 20"; but fufficiently accurate for all the purpofes of common life. The year of Numa admitted of no alteraTioii until the year B. C. 452, when the decemviri changed tlie order of the months, reckoning January the firft, February the fceond, March the third, &;c. This arrangement has never been dillurbed. However, the intercalations above mentiontd being ill obfcrved by the pontiffs, to whom Numa committed the care of them, occafioncJ great diforders in the coiillitu;ion of the year, which Julius Cxfar, with the advice and af- fiftance of Sofigcnes, a celebrated mathematician of Alex- andria in Egypt, undertook lo rcflify, A. U. C. 708. B.C. 46. He found that the months had confiderably r-ceded from the feafons to which tlity had been adjufted by Numa, and that the difpcnfation of time in the calemlar could never be fettled on any fure footing, without having regard to the annual courfe of the fun. In order to bring forward the 5 D months CALENDAR. months to their propfr plae«, he took into the acfo.mt 90 dayi which had been !ort by the former method of reckon- ing, and formed a year of I <, months, or 445 dnys, which, on account of its quantity and dcfign, has been called " ihe »far of confufion." Thi'i year termuiated, and the Julian year c-nnmenced on the I ft day of Jiinury, D. C. 46. Froni this epoch, the civil year and months were regulated by the eourfe of the fun. The year of Numa being ic days (]6, in order to comprehend the odd fix honr;:. Accordingly, he ordained, that an intercalary day (hoidd be added every fourth year, to the 2 ;d of Frbruary ; that is, the 24th day, or fixth of the calends of March, was to be twice reckoned ; and hence this year was called Bifrx- tile, which fee. It is alfo ftyled " Leap-year," from its leaping a day more that year, than in sf common year. Hence it appears, that the Roman, called alfo the Julian Calcnilar, from ito reformer Julius, is difpofed into quadri- ennial f)eriod- ; of which the firll three years, which he called communes or common, coniill of 365 days ; and the fourth bljftxtlle. The rrgidations which Julius Cifar had e(labli(hed were mifapplied by thofe who had the direftion of the calendar. They intercalated every third, inllead of every fourth year ; fo that, in the interval of 36 years, three days more than the due number were inlerttd. This error, how^ever, was foon perceived. For the correflion of it, Auguftus ordained, that the intercal itions (hould be omitted in the following years ; viz. in the 41ft, 4;th, and ^f/th of the Julian sra. This form of the year, thus correfted, was adopted in Italy, and in fevcral other provinces of the Roman empire. By fome nations, the lunar year was retained, and the days and months were reckoned by the eourfe of the moon. Modern chronologers have ufed the Julian year, bcin^j a mcafure of time extremely fimple, and fufficiently accurate : and to this rtandard they refer all events that have happened from the beginning of the world. The Julian year, however, though admirably adapted to common ufe, was dill iniperfeft : for as the time in which the fun performs his annual revolution is not exaftly 365 days fix hours, but 36^ days five hours, 48 minutes, and 5^ feconds, the civil year mud therefore have exceeded the 'olar year by 11 minutes, 14^ feconds; which, in the fpace of about 130 years, amounted to a whole day ; and, confe- quently, in 47450, years the beginning of the year would have advanced forwards through ail the feafoiis ; and in half this ii.terval of time, the fnmmer folflice according to the calendar, would hdve fallen in the midll of winter, and the earth have been covered with froft, when the bloom of TCgetation was expcftcd. It cannot be imagined that Sa- figenes was totally unacquainted wltli this error : thou<>-h he probably thought it much fmaller than it is, and therefore pegledted it. Among the firll of thofe who difcovcred the iroperfeftions of the Julian calendar, were the venerable Bede, about the year 730, Johannes de Saero Bofco, about 113 J, and Friar Bacon, about 1255. Thefe great men had obferved, that the true equinox "preceded the civil one by about a day in ijo years. Sofigenes, in the reign of Julius Cifar, had obferved the vernal equinox on the :5th day of March. At the council of Nice, held in 325, it was fixed on the 2ift of March ; and from that time to the year I j8j, when the next reformation was effeded, the error, 3 ?c •iccnmulated by this means, amomited to about 10 ityt i fo that the vernsl equinox was now found to happen on the 1 Ith of Mirch, inftcad of the 2 1 ft, as it ought to hav« done, if the Julian account had agreed with the eourfe of the fun. Thisconftaiit anticipation of the equinox, which, in the cmrfe of more than a thoufaiid years, had become too confiderablc not to be noticid, was fiift rtprcfented to the council, of Conftance and Latran by two cardittals, Petnis ah AUiaco, and Cufa, who (bowed the eaufe of the error, and the means of correAing it. In the year 1474. pope Sixtus IV. being convinced of the ntceflity of a refor- mation, fent for Regiomontaniis, a cehbrattd mathema. ticiati of that period, to Rome, and prefentcd him to the archbifliopric of Ratilbon, in order to engage him in thi» undertaking. But a premature death prevcntinjSf his aflift- ance, and no one being thought worthy to be hij fucceffor, the projert was, for that time, fufpcndtd. Although the nccefiity of fonie alteration was acknowledged, it was after the lapfe of ico years that pope Gregory XIII. had the honour of accomplifhing what feveral preceding pontiffs and councils had attempted in vain. He invited to Rome a con- fiderable number of mathematicians and aftrcnomers, em- ployed 13 years in the examination of their fevcral formulae, and, finally, gave the preference to the plan propofed by Atoifius and Antoninus Lilius, two brothers of Verona. He tranfmittcd copies of this plan, A. D. Xj77» to all ca- tholic itates, academies, &c. A council of the moft learned prelates was convened bf the pope, and the fubjeA being finally fettled, a brief was publifhtd in the month of March, A D. 158;, by which the tife of the ancient calendar was entirely abrogated, and the new one fubftituted in its ttead, called, from the pope's name, the GRECORiikN Calendar, or New Stvle. The firft objcft of the reformers was to correft the errors of the former method of reckoning, and to make the length of the year agree more exaftly with the eourfe of the fun. For fhis purpofc it was agreed, that the 10 days which had been gained by the old account, fhould ba taken from the month of Oftoher of the year then cur- rent, and the equinox brought back to the 21ft of March, as it had been fettled by the council of Nice. And, in order to prevent the future recurrence of a nmilar variation, it was ordered, that, inftead of making every hundredth year a bifiextile, as was the cafe in the former method, every four-hundredth year only fhould be confidertd as a biffextile, and the reft be reckoned as common years. The length of the folar year, and the time of the vernal equinox, were by thefe means very accurately fettled ; for as a day was gain- ed by the former method of reckoning, in every interval of 130 years, this was nearly equivalent to a gain of three days m every interval of 400 years ; and, confequt ntly, by mak- ing the years 1700, 1800, and 1900, to be comnwin years, iiilterd of leap-years, the error arifing from the odd time would be properly corrected. The great diffitalty, how- ever, confifted -n making the lunar year agree with the folar one, and in fett'ing the true time for the obfervance of Eafter and other moveable feafts, whieh had been fubjett to no fixed rule. It had been ordered by the Council of Nice, that Eafter (hould be celebrated upon the firft Sua- day, after the firft full moon, following the vernal equinox. And in order to the due obfervance of this rule, it became necefiary to know the days when the full moons would hap- pen, in the eourfe of every year. But this knowledge wa» not eafily obtained ; for the period of Mtton, which made J9 years exaftly equal to 235 lunations, or revolution* of the moonj was found to be too long by about one hour and thirty-two minutes ; and, confequently, after j6 of thefe period* CALENDAR. periods, the true pliafcs of tlic moon would precede thofe fliewn by the calendar, by more lljan a whole day. At the time when the Gregorian Calendar was full introduced, the error thus occafioned amounted to four days ; and if the old method of computation had continued, the ca- lendar, in time, would have announced the full moon at the time of the change, and Eader would have been celebrated at a period direftly oppofite to that ellablilhed by the church. It was nccelfary, therefore, to dtvife fom^ mtttiod for correfting thefe errors; and Lilins was fo fortunate as to difcover, that the 19 years or cycle of Mctoji had a parti- cular property, which woidd render it fubfervieiit to the purpofcs required. The new and full moons, which, ac- cording to Meton, were imagined to iiappen at the fame time precifely as they had occurred 19 years before, were ufu- ally indicated in the following manner : they obferved on what day of each calendar month the new moon fell in each year of this period, and againll thofe days thty placed the number anfwcring to that year, reckoning from I to IQ, through all the years of the cycle. Thefe numbers were called " Primes," or, " Golden Numbers" (which fee) ; but as I^ilins found thum to be erroneous and inronvtnicnt, he rcjefted them from his fyllem, and made ufe of others, call- ed " Epatts," in their lUad. See 1". pact. Thefe epafts, being placed againll the days of the month in the caLndar, on which the new moons fell in each year, would have an- fwered the fame purpole with the gulden numbers ; and if the Metonic cycle had been complete, the form would have required no alteration : but this is not the cafe, for after about 16 of thefe periods, or 300 years, the new moons arriving fooner by 24 hours, would happen on the preced- ing day ; and, therefore the epafts anfwering to thofe new moons ought to be augmented by unity. For, fuppofing that the fecond year of the lunar cycle had 11 for theepadf, then, becaufe the new moon, in the preceding year, arrived 11 days before the end of December, after 300 years, the fame new moon, of the firll year of the cycle, would arrive 12 days before the end of the year , and, coufequently, the fecond year ought now to have 12 for the epaft. This number 12, therefore, will be the index of the new moons in that fecond year ; and it is eafy to perceive, that all the new moons which happen fooner by a day will take place upon the day preceding that which in the former period was marked 11. After 500 years more, the epafl will be 13, which will be a day ftill preceding tliat in the latter period : and the fame will happen with all the other epafts of the cycle. It was this kind of analyfis that fug- gefted to Lihus the idea of placing the epa£lo in their natural order againlt the days of the new moons in every year, for the firft 300 years ; and after that period, to pkce them in the order i, 11, 23, 4. '5. 26, ;. iS, 19, 10, &c. inftcad of the former one j and fo on. This arfangcment was fimple and ingenious ; but the omiffion of 3 days in every 400 years was a circumllance that occafioned fomc embarrafTment. Thefe years having a day lefs than in the Julian account, the new moons would happen a day later, and, coufequently, the epaft, at the end of the year, mull be diminilhed accordingly. l!ut as this order is only interrupted once in 100 years, I.ilius ima- gined, that by fubtrafting unity from each of the epacls belonging to thofe new moons, they might be made to ferve for the fubfequent century. And as there are only 30 poffible feries of thefe numbers, it was fuffieient to fhew by a table, what feiies belonged 10 every century, by which the times of thenew moons might be readily difcovered. When pope Gregory had refornoed the calendar in the man- ner above Hated, he ordered all the ecclefiaftics undsr his jurif- diflion to conform to this nfw mctliod of reckoning, and ex- horted tiie Chriftian princes to adopt it in their ilom^'iions. Accordingly it was immediately introduced into all catholic countries. Ju .Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, it was re- ceived dn the fame day as at Rome ; but it was not admitted in France until the month of December, when the lOth was reckoned the 20th day, according to letlrrs patent of king Henry III. dated the 3d nf Noveiuber preceding. The ca- tholic flates in Germany adopted the Gregorian calendar, A.D. ijy.,'. But the protcllant dates at that timenfufed it. The reformed religion was in its infancy ; the zeal ofitspro- fidors was violent, andtheiroppofition to thtpopc unbounded. Whatevci- bore the appearance of his authority was rejected as an luiwarrantablc •-jicroaehmcnt upon their newly -acquir- ed liberties ; and though the propriety of the alteration was acknowledged, it was condemned on account of its origi- nating with a party fo extremely obnoxious to them, llenee arofe a difl'erence of 10 days between the methods of reckomng afterwards ufed in Catholic and Proteftant countries. When a bifftxtilc was fupprelfcd, the difference amounted to n days. This difference between the old and new llyle, as the Julian and Gregorian accounts are generally called, occafioned great confulion in the commercial affairs of the diffc-rrnt Itatei of Europe ; liiid therefore the Gregorian ilyle was, at length, generally received. 'I'he Protellant (late* in Germany reformed their c.ilendar in Feb. A. D. i;oo. The new llyle was introduced into Deimiark about the fame time; and into Svveden, March 175,-. In Great Britain the inconvenience arifuig from thefe two modes of reckoning was much felt, and feveral attempts were made to introduce tlie reformed calendar. But papular prejudices were for a long time too obllinate to be eauly overcome. The mathema- ticians, indeed, more influenced by fcientific confiderations than by cavils about points of religion, inceffantly urged the neceflity of fome corredion, and propofed various me- thods of effefting it, which might be adopted without in- flaming the minds of the multitude. Among others it was propofed, that an adi fhould be paffed, declaring that there (bould be no leap-year for 40 years to come, by which means, the 10 days that had been gained by the old ac- count would have been imperceptibly loll, and the old flyle reduced to the new, without any fenfible variation in the fixed times of feafts and other obfervances. A pro- pofal of this kind was fent to Dr. VVallis, profeffor of geo- metry at Oxford, for his opinion ; but the doctor, with a degree of prejudice altogether inconfiffent with his exten- five erudition, obferved, that the propofal was fpecious enough in appearance ; but that the hand of Joab might be perceived iu it. He imagined it to have originated with the papills ; and though he acknowledged the propriety of it, he was afraid of its being adopted, lell it fliould open the door to further encroachments. But though all propo- fals were at that time rcjeded, thofe who wilhed for a re- formation Hill renewed their applications ; and in 1752, an act of parliament, after much debate, was obtained for this purpofe. As 170 years had elapfed fince the Gregorian alteration took place, the old ftyle had confequeiilly gained above a day more upon the courfe of the fun than it had at that time : it was therefore enafted, that, inftcad of cancel- ling 10 days, as the Pope had done, 1 1 days (hould be left out of the month of September ; and, accordingly, on the 2d day of that month, the old (lyle ceafed, and the next day, inllead of being the third, was called the 14th. Sec Style. By the lame aft, the beginning of the year was changed from the .£5th of March to the ill of January. Ruffia is the only civilized Hate of Europe that now retains the old ftyle. 5 D Z CALEKDAKi CALENDAR. , %!!.in Chrfian, is ihat whfrcin the '''^•» "^ • Iterm^iicd by the Icfcrd A, V>, C, D, t-. >■ O. bv .rrins of tlu- fol...- cycl. ; and the nov h'hI tnll ._, moun.. crp--c..ily th. pafcl.al f.,11 ..mon, wth tl.c f.all o* + Eiair, and the other moveable fcalh (K-pc"d"'g ihtreon, by 60749 ma.is of £;<.ld<-a numbers rightly d.fpof.d through the ^^^^y CAt.tt»PA« tSi? week arc Y. C, bv irrins + JJ13 3.8' 1441 4067 J4;^' 067' 98J + 9447 i288' 1242/ ediiiK' article. See alfo CyCLF. Julian year. Sec the preco and GMn NoMBER. CalEndA!1, Gregorian, is that ivhich, by incans of f pafts, ri'htly difpofed through the feveral months, determi::es the nov and full moons, and the time of Eafter, with the moveable fcalls depending t+iercon, in the Gregorian year. Tile Gregorian calendar, therefore, differs from the Julian, both in the form of the year, and in that epafts are lubtli- tuted in lieu of golden numbers ; for the ufe and difpohtion whereof, fee Epact. Though the Gregorian, calendar be preferable to the Ju- lian, y'^it is not without its defers (perhaps, as Tycho Brahe and Cadini imagine, it is impoffible ever to bring the thing to a perfcd juftncfs). For, tirft, the Gregorian in- tercalation does not hinder but that the equinox fometimes fuccceds the 2 ill of March, as far as the 2jd ; and fome- times anticipates it, falling on the 19th ; and the full moon, which falls on the 20th of March, is fometimes the pafchal ; yet not fo accounted by the Gregorians. On the other hand, the Gregorians account the full moon of the 2 2d of Maxell the paichal ; which yet, falling before the equinox, is not pafchal. In the firll cafe, therefore, Eafter is cele- brated in an irregular month ; in the latter, there are two Eallers in the fame ecclefnftical year. In like manner, the cyclical computation being founded on mean full moons, which yet may precede or follow the true ones by fome hours, the pafchal full moon may fall on Saturday, which is yet referred by the cycle to Sunday ; whence, in the firll cafe, Ealler is celebrated eight days later than it fhould be ; in the other, it is celebrated on the very day of the full •moon, with the Jews and Qu^artodeciman heretics, contrary to the decree of the council of Nice. Masftlin, Vieta, Sca- Tiger, Calvifius, and other mathematicians, fliew other faults in the Gregorian calendar, arifing from the negligence and inadvertency of the authors. Clavius, to whom the conduft of this bufinefs was af- 172S00 , . , , 1 • 1 , — ^ — ^— ; that IS, one dav ought to be intercalated 41851 ■ ^ in the fpace of 4 years, or rather 4 days in 17 years, or 8 days in 33 years, &c. If 41,851 days were intercalated in 172,800 years, there would be no error. The ligns + and the _ indicate, that the number of intercalary days above wliicli they aie placed is too great or too fmall. Every fucceedlng number is more accurate than that which goes before. As this method of interpolation is different from that now in ufe, it is obvious that the Gregorian calendar muft be correfted after a certain period of years. The cor- rection, however, will be iuconfiderable for many ages, as it will amount only to a day and a half, which is to be fup- prtfled in the fpace of jodo years. Calendar, reformed, or correSed, is that which, fetting afide all apparatus of golden numbers, epafts, and domini- cal letters, retrenches 1 1 days from the calendar, and deter- mines the equinox, with the pafchal full moon, and the moveable fealls depending thereon, by aftronomical compu- tation, according to the Rudolphine tables of Kepler, agree- ably to the firll council of Nice. The perfon who projsfted this plan was Erhard Weigel. Upon the death of Weigel in 1699, the projeft was fub- mitted by the diet to the confideration of Sturmius, pro- fefTor of mathematics at Altdorff; Hamberger, profefTor at Jena; pnd Meyer, proftfTor at Ratifbon. In confequence of their report, this calendar was introduced among the proteftant ftates of Germany, in the year 1700, when 11 days were at once thrown out of the month of February ; fo that in 1700, February had but 18 days; by this means the correfted ftyle agrees with the Gregorian. This alte- ration in the form of the year they admitted for a time, in expeclation that the real quantity of the tropical year being at length more accurately determined by obfcrvation, the Romanills would agree with them on fome more convenient intercalation. Calendar, Frenchox Republican. Soon after the govern- ment was changed in France, it was decreed on the 2d of figned, after the death of Lilrjs, compofed in j6oj a large January 1792, that this vear (hould be denominated the work m vindication of it, and fuccef^fully co;nbated its ad- f^^yrth of liberty on their' coins, and in their afts. A.fter verfaries. Deftds, it is acknowledged, are to be found in ^j^g jj^ath of Louis XVI. in 1793, it was determined that this calendar; but the reformers deferve praife for what ~ . - _ . thev aftually did, in an undertaking which does not admit of perfection. Dr. Playfair, in his " Syllem of Chrono- logy," p. 19, obferves, that the method of intercalation ufcd in the Gregorian calendar is not the molt accurate. Ninety- feven days, or 100-3, ^'^ inferted in the fpace of four cen- turies. This fiippofes the tropical year to confiil of 365'', 5'', 49', 12". On this fnppofition, the interpolation would be exafl, and the error would fcarctly exceed one day in 268, ceo years. But the reformers of the calendar made ufe of the Copcrnican year of ..;65', 5\ 49', 20''. Inftead, therefore, of inferting 97 days in 400 years, they ought to have added, at proper intervals, 41 days in 169 years, or 90 days in 371 years, or 131 in 540 years, &c. Recent obfervations have determined the quantity of the tropical year to be l6^\ 5\ 48', 45!". Admitting this to be the true quantity of it, the intercalations ought to be made as follows ; •+■ — -f — + -J_ + + + 4 '7 > 3.3 128 54.^ 673 801 929 1057 I 4 8 3' •-^2 r03' '99' ^^5' 256- this year (liould be called the firll of the republic, and this fuggclled the idea of a republican calendar. Accordingly, on the 1 2th of January, 1793, the deputy Romme, preii- dent of the committee of public inllruAion under the con- vention, applied to the Academy of Sciences for a comraif- fion to deliberate on this fubjcft ; but M. de la Lande pro- tefted againll the change of the calendar. He was obligedj however, to acquiefcc, and to prepare a new calendar. After the example of the Egyptians, he preferred 12 equal months, with five intercalary days, and he adapted their denominations to the climate of Paris, which Fabre d'Eg- lantine exprefTed by the following terms, viz. Vendemiaire, or vintage month ; Brumaire, or foggy month ; Frimmrr, or fleety month ; Nivofe, or fnowy month ; PhrSioJe, or rainy month ; Fenlofe, or windy month ; Germinal, or bud- ding month ; Floreal, or flowery month ; Prairial, or mea- dow month ; Meffidor, or harveft month ; Thermidor, or hot month ; and Fruaidor, or fruit month. The firft month begins September 23 ; the fecond, Odober 23 ; the third, November 22 ; the fourth, December 23 ; the fifth, Ja- nuary 21 ; the Cxth, February 20; the feventh, March 22; the CALENDAR. the citjStli, April Jli thf fiintli, Mny Jij the teiHh, Jdiie 20; the tlevcntli, July 20, and tlic twclfib, Auj^ult ig ; making ill all jfiy days. The rcninii>v.ig five days ate call.-d the complementary days ; of wliich the firll is the iSth oJ Septeinbtr; the feeond. the 19th ; the lliird, the 20th ; the fourth, the 2i(l ; and the fifth, the 22d of Sep- tember, beinc; the la(l dny of the I'^reiich year. The hvft decree was illiied the '^th of 0>f^obcr 1703 ; and it was followed by another on the 24th of November, or the ij.th of Fiiinaire, in the fecond yesr of the republic, fc tlliiijr the commencement and organization of the year, and the names of the days and niontlis. The decree of the nalioiuil conven- tion comprehends four articles, viz. That the French sera fhould be leckontd froin the foundation of the republic, S'-ptembcr 22, 171,2. of the vu'gar sra, on the day when the fun arrived at the trne autumnal equinox, in his en- trance iiito the fitjn Libra, at y'' 18' 3-'" in the morning, ac- cording to the obfervatory at Paris : that the vulgar year fliould be abclifhed in all civil concerns : that each year lliould commence at midniglit with the day on which the true autumnal equinox falls, according to the obfervatory at Paris : and that the firll year of the French republic had aftually commenced at midnight of the 22d of September, 1792, and terminated at midnight, between the 2 ill and J2d of September, 1793. The decree for adopting a rule of intercalation, in order to preferve the feafons at the fame epochas of the year, comprifes the following four articles: viz. that the fourth year of the republican asra (liould be the lirll textile; that it fhould receive a fixth complementary day ; and that it fiiould terminate the firll franciade : that the fextile, or leap years, fhould iucceed one another every four years, and mark the end of each franciade : that the four following fecular years in fucccHion fliould be excepted from the lad article ; namely, the firll, fecond, and third fe- cular years 100, 2C0, 300, which fliould be common ; and that the fourth fhould be fextile : and that this fliould be the cafe every four centuries until the 40th, which fliould clofe with a common year, the year 4000. In this new calendar or almanac, the months confifl of 30 days each, and are divided into three decades. The days of each decade are known by the names of Prlmidi, DuoJi, TriJi, Qjiartidi, S^iiritidi, Sc'xlidi, Seplidi, Oclodi, No- nodi, and Dt'cadi. The day, which begins at midnight, is diftributed into ten parts, and thtfe are decimally divided and fubdivided. To the five fupernumerary days in com- rr.on years, and fix in leap years, was applied the abiurd appcl lation of Sam Ctilott'tdts, borrowed from a term of reproach {Sans Culoilc), which had been originally beftowed on the repubhcan party, on account of the meannefs of their rank and fortune ; but which the fame party afterwards attempted to render honourable and popular ; and this appellation alfo ferves to diftinguifh the leap years. TABLKS for •educing the Date* of the new FreiicH Ct,' leiidar to the Dates of the Origorian Calendar, TABLE \. Of the tiriu French Culnidnr comparai ilh thf Gregorian Ciil.nJarfor ^O y.ars ; that ii,from iu02 to i^a-. Ve..i.- ufllit CummtncenRiitoi lilt rrenciiVv.ii-. Rt- Gregorian Ye:ir. Fnnciadfc I^uIjjc. A iBlli^iaiWVa Y.jr. Xil. Amu nii.il .S^JIiiee. U 1S02-03 4 s l8c2 23 7h I J 10" a 12 1803 04 b I 180J 24 I 3 59 m 1,5 1 804.0 J 2 IV 1 804 b 2', 7 52 48 m 14 1805-06 3 .•805 23 0 41 37 a I.) rSc6-C7 4 s iSo-5 -3 6 30 26 a 16 ibo7-oSb I 1807 -^4 0 19 15 m 17 1808 eg ■'t i8c8 b ■^3 6 • 8 4 ni 18 iSoy-io .809 ■=3 II 56 53 m 19 1810-11 4 1810 :j .5 4.' 42 a 20 iRii.i2b 5 s 1811 23 11 34 33 a t 21 18J2-13 I 1812 b ^3 5 23 20 m 22 1813-14 ■> ^ '8.3 ^3 1 1 12 9 m 33 1814-1.5 3 " 18,4 23 5 0 .38 a 24 iSi5-itb 4 s .8.5 23 10 49 47 a 2.5 1816-17 1 1816b 23 4 38 36 m 26 27 1817-18 1818-19 2 3"' 1S17 1818 ^3 ^3 10 4 27 25 m 1614 a .iS i8i9-2ob 4 s 1819 23 10 53a 29 1820 21 1 1820 b ^3 3 53 52 m ,)0 1821-22 i8j2-23 r ^"i 1821 1822 ^3 23 9 3 4i 41 m 3' 3J a i823-24b 4 s .82J 23 9 20 19 a J3 1S24.25 I i8'4b 23 3 98m 34 1825.26 2 . IX .825 23 8 53 57 m iS 1826-27 3 1826 23 2 42 46 a J6 i827-2Sb 4 5 1827 23 8 ' 3' 3S a 37 1828-29 1 1828 b 23 2 20 24 m 38 1829.30 2 1 8 29 23 8 9 ij m 39 1830.3. 1830 ^3 58 2 a 40 i8ji-32b 4 s i8j. 23 46 51 a 41 i8j2-33 I 1832 b 23 35 40 m 42 1833-34 2 . VI 1833 23 24 29 m 43 1834-35 3 1834 23 13 i8 a 44 i83S-o6b 4 s •835 23 27a 45 1836.37 I 1836 b 23 0 50 56 ni 46 1837.38 2 .. Xll 1837 23 6 39 45 "> 47 J83S-39 3 iSj8 23 0 28 ,,-4 a 48 1839-40 b 4 s t839 23 6 17 2,3 a 49 1840-41 I iS4ob;2j 0 6 12 m 51 1841-42 1842.43 2 ... , , XIll f 1841 1842 23 23 5 1 1 4? 50 m b fignifies h'ljfixtih, or leap-year — i fextile, or French leap- year — c common year of 365 days — m morning — a afternoon. The French decree does not determine the proper rule for fixing the leap-year : the neceflity for determining this rule will happen in [811. The moil convenient method appears to be the common one, when after 7 Franciades of 4 years, a Franciade of 5 years occurs : according to this regulation, the ah and 13111 Franciades are of y years each. The Bureau des Longitudes will doubtlefs afctrtain this point with more accuracy. TABLE n. CALENDAR. , -1 ^ U 1 ^ rl , * # * O J2 _< "^ . c £ s f 1 eQ S- 1 I E rt •u c 1 1 •J ' ' I--CO o Q • c -^ 11 -5 '5 3 5 1/ 0 E ill Jl 1 < -^ C\ o ^ ^ fi c 1 -= ^, i" .5 5 0 ._ 5 0 s 1 1 -00, "i" ♦ » * t« s 75 •"5 is 0 J3 ■^ 1 1 S >^ 1 1 tin . 0 « A '5 ■^ ■S z « ■* K J> o - — IS rl •a u 1 0 0 C\CO J « « ♦ 11 1 ■—1 0\ 0 - 1 4-1 u CO -1 10 -f- e_ It ^' -.11—-.— t _c » » * >- 1 1 u y f _L' * 1 M « w S H 00 ! ^ te-4 I ' 0 " M *-* E V 3 < -1- "-1 N ■-■ N -1 ^) ^ ^ ■3 -^ '-'-'•* -*-. w * •- # » 1, ? -o E ^ ■^ . . 5; !•' 1 o 1:3 ^- V >^ ^" 0 - N -C V -c 13 '^ « N N '-1 "n E 0 •a -1 c 5 6 s p 6 c 1 0 -a -u 0 1 J r,-. |sj w 2 I March * 22 — ♦ 23 — * c >^ % 2 ' I ^2 -< ^ a. -a 1) 1 S 1 1 J •^ u 0\ 0 ~ — M N It 3 E "5 — 0 3 0 - - 2 >^ t3 0 9 "3 1 1 I •a St £ 1 1 a O .-. N N M M c o i U i a. C u < M « 0 ^ 1 ill o •£ 5 *< % L» ' ' (0 f> 0 c i| Q -< N N a. CO 1 rz c re Z 2 ^ i Jl I c .3 0 4< 3 1" ^ M N i-J bo 6 I— 1 1 ^ u - « ^ - 1 .1. V t— < s ■s 1 1 1^ * ►—1 w Z U ^ 1 1 t^ O ri r^ -J. < A ^ ' ' N (-1 M g 3J « H; 0 e 2 .5 i J3 = _c E u -* ^ E , , «-* 1 1 E l "^ IX ' 1, — *j I < t^ - X CO » » M ri N - i ri fn -^ N N M Calendar, PerJIan, k founded on the Perfian a»ra, called " ^ ezdegerd," or " Jezdegerd," which derives its name from the lail king of the race of SafTanians, or cth dynafty that reigned in Perfia. Some fuppofe the ancient Perfian sera to have been eftabliaied by Gcmfhid, one of the Pifh- dadian kings, about Soo B. C. On the day when the fun entered Anes, he is faid to have made his pubhc entry into Perfepohs, which he had juft finifhed, and to have ordained the ^ra to commence from that time, in honour of the lun, and in commemoration of the building of his capital city. He divided the year into 12 months of jo days each ; to the lalt ot which 5 fupplementary days were added. But no atten- tion was bellowed on the odd quarter of a dav, till allrono mcrs, in the reign of Yezdegerd, obferving that'the beginning of the year had moved in a retrograde dirtdion from Aries to 1 ilces, correfted this error, and appointed one month to be inferted at the end of every 120 years, and the intercalaiy month of ;o days reftoied the integrity of the folar year, Z- u" '■^';"™f"°" "f tl"; calendar a new ira was produced, which IS (hll adopted in many parts of Perfia. All, however do not agree in the epocha of its commencement. Some refer the date of it to the beginning of Yezdegerd's leign. which they phu:e on the i6th of June, ,n the luh vear of Beigh and Herbelot (Bib. Ontnt.) Others compute from the time of his defeat by the Arabs at Cadefia, A. U 6-6 Some few reckon from his death, A. D. 65, or 6^-2, among whom are Alfraganius, Scaliger, &c. The bell modein chronologers have adopted the firil of thefe opinions, which IS molt conformable to the tellmiony of the eallern writers In vindication of which it may be obfervtd, that Yezdeccvd had lived as a private perfon, as his father had always done, till the Perhans, underllanding how jutt a title he had to the kingdom, fet him upon the throne. The Arabs fay, this was done with the confent of their calfph, who therefore re- garded liim as his tributary, reckoning the kingdom of Perfia among the rell of his dominions from th^s time, and confi- dering the fubfequent reduction of that country not as a TTf ', v"' 'r "'^'•^/""i''" °f "'at part of his empire which had been fevered from it by a rebel. This is plaiiily the caufe why the commencement of this tera is and ought to be fi^'ed at tl^ acceffion of Yezdegerd. The years of this aera are Naboffarean ; for each year confifts of ,^6< days, or 12 months of 30 days each, with the addition Jf c inter- calary days to the month Aban, or to the end of the yt3r» Befides this form of the year, Perfian aftonomers ufe the Oelalaeaii year, fo called on account of the title " Gelaled- din, which was conferred on Malekfchah, fultan of Kho- ITI / '"'/''^^' P""«, A. D. 1074, afi-embled the moft celebrated aftronomers of his time, in order to reform the calendar, which he found impeifeft, to afcertain the vernal tqmnox for ailronomical purpofes, and for the regul.-.tion of their folemn fel ival " Neuruz," or new-day, and^o chan " the order of the months, under the idea of reltoring the iTfTu ' "i"' ""'^ ^ft-'noniical. He fixed the begin- ning of both on the t4th of March, the feafon of the equi- A il ;.-■. 't"*' u' ^"'"■^!"« t° Zacuti, a Jewilh author, hiteic;i °'^; • '^' '""'f^'"" °f the civil y«r, befides five ™s not o "' ' ''"' '^"^ ' ^f'"«'"'^'> the intercalation nearly of .h f '■''"""^'" y^^'^. ^^s of the fame form! and tconfift H r '?',.'^"'""'^ "'"'' "^^'""'^^ tropical year ; for « confifted of 36.^ ,>- 45' J3-. F,„^ „,^f i\;Jan r.for- agreemcn: among different writers with regard to the feafon, and C A L an J dsyf wlicn ffverat fcftivats were to be celebrated, which it would be cliffinilt to reconcile, Playfair'* Chronology, p, 55. Sec Epocha and Yfar. Calendar, fon/7ru(3'er." Tlie laft nine are all natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 16. C. pumila, W^illd. Thunb. " Leaves orbiculate, to tlied ; pe- tioles ciliated; feape with one flower." Willd. Perennial. Leaves half an inch long. Petioles twice as long as the leaf. /■Vower refembling that of tlie common daify, but four timet fmaller. Seeds oblong, incurved. A native of New Zea- land. ] 7. C. magellanica, Willd. (C. pumila /?. Forft, Com- ment. Goett. 9. p. 40. After nudicaulis. Lam. encyc. 1.305. Illuft. tab. 6S1. fig. 4.) " Leaves wedge-fliaped, toothed near the end ; fcape with one flower." Perennial, Root thread-fiiapcd, creeping. Leaves narrowed at the bafe into a petiole, not ciliated. Scape furniflied with one or two thread ftiaped brafti..s. A native of the 11 raits of Magellan. j8. C. gramiw/olia, Linn. Sp. PI. (C. africana furrefta. Pink. mant. 35. tab. 370. fig. 7. Caltha nfricana foliis croci, Boerh. I..ugd. 1. p. 113. Dimorphothcca, Vail, aft. 1720. p. 280. Bellis africana foliis angnliis, Comm. hort. 2. p. 67. tab. 34.) " Leaves linear, nearly entire ; ftem almoft naked." Perennial. 5/«n dividing near the root into feveral tufted heads with long grafl"y IcaVts coming out on every fide without order. Peduncles one-flowered, axil- lary, about nine inches long. Florets of the di/h purple ; of the ray purple without, pure white within. It is in the a little muricated ; leaves oblong-fpatula-fliaped, downy on greatell beauty in April and May, but continues to flower both fides." Willd. Annual. Whole plant white with down. Flowers yellow. A native of Morocco and Portu- gal on the fca coaft. 7. C. pluvlalis, Linn. Sp. PI. (Caltha africana, Morif. tab. .5. fig. 8. Tourn. Inft. 499.) " Leaves lanceolate, toothed in a iiuuated manner ; ftem leafy ; pe- duncles thread -fliaped." Annual. Stenis declining, from fix to eight inches long ; upper part very flender. Flowers fingle, terminating ; diflc purple ; ray of a violet colour on the outfide, and a pure white within, opening when the fun ftiines, and ftiutting in cloudy weather and in the evening. Seeds of the dijh roundifli, heart-fliaped, comprefied, furrounded with a fwclhng rim of a pale ftraw colour : of the ray ob- long, inverfely pyramidal, three or lour-cornered, muricated with tubercles on the fides and angles. Ga;rt. Tab. 168. fig. 4. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1726. 8. C. hybrida, Linn. Sp. PI. (Caltha africana femine majore, oblongo : Breyn. tab. 14. fig. 2. Cardifpermum af. pubefcens : Aft. Parif. 1724. .■;9. tab. 2.) " Leaves oblong-lanceolate, toothed ; ftem leafy ; peduncles thickened at the top." Annual. Leaves much loncer than thofe of C. phivialis and broader at the end. Flowers fmaller, but of the fame colour. Miller. Seeds of the dijk alfo fioiilar, but a little larger, elliptic heart-fliaped, Vol. V. late in the autumn. A native of the Cape, vvlience it was brought to Holland in i6yS. It has been long in the Eng- lifli gardens, but is not fo common as it deferves. Miller. 19. C. Tragus, Willdcn. Ait. hort. Kew. 5.371. Jacq. hort. Schsenb. 2. p. 14. tab. 15;. "Leaves linear, fome- what toothed, muricated with fmall points beneath ; feeds nearly orbiculate ; ftem fomewhat Ihrubby." Perennial. Leaves alternate. Ray of the corolla large, purple without, white within. 20. C. oppoftifol'ia, Willd. Ait. hort. Kew. " Leaves oppofite, linear, entire, fomewhat fitfliy, fmooth." Perennial. 21. C. glahrntu, Willd. Thunb. " Leaves clhp- tic, entire, fmooth ; Item flirnbby, ereft." Perennial. 22. Q. friitie'ifa, Linn. Sp. PI. " I..eaves inverfely egg-fliaped, fomewhat toothed ; ftem flirubby, decumbent." Perennial. Stem feven or eight feel high, flender, and requiring fup port ; branches numerous, hartging downwards. Leaves on (hort petioles of a fliining green colour on their upper fnrface. Flowers terminating the branches on fliort naked ptdnncles. Seeds heart-fliaped, flat. Sent to Mr. Miller by Dr. \'aii Royen about J "'9. 2.3. C. arborefcens, Willd. Jacq. ic. rar. 3. tab. 59O. (C. rigida, Ait. Maityn. C. afpcra, Thunb.) " Leaves oblong, toothed, rugged ; feeds nearly orbiculate; ftem flirnbby, panicled." Perennial. Flowerj. ? 1". vellow, C A 1. vellow. cr«a ; in fruit nodding. Rlins of tlie feeds femior- biculate " ^4. C. muricaia, Willd. Thunb. « Leaves ob- long, ntp-id with papillary tubercles ; the lower ones toothed, upiKr ones entire ; Hem Ihrubby." Perennial. 2> C <-««.'rtM, Willd. Tl.unb. " Leaves wedgc-(haped, fleniy, toothed." Perennial. The laft eight arc all natives of the Cane of Good Hope. „ , , r , r r I'rota'-alkii unci Culture— \ he feeds of the arvenfis, fanc- ta ohicinalis, pluviahs, hvbrida, and nudicaulis, fliould be fown in the fining, and wil', afterwards fow tliemfelves without fartlur" trouble. The lall three iliould not be trani- plan'ed. The graminifolia does not often produce good feeds in Europe, but is eafily propagated by Hips taken off from t!<.e head, in the fame manner as is prafliltd for thrift. Thev may be planted any time in fummcr, in pots hllcd with'lit^ht frcfli tailh, and plunged in a moderate hot-bed, or placed in the common earth under a melon frame, and occafionally, but not plentifully watered. When they have taken' root, they flioiild be trar.fplanted and kept during the fummcr' in the open air, and in a flwdy fitualion. In winter they require protettlon from froll and heat, but do not thrive in artificial heat. Tiie fruticofa is alfo eafdy propa- gated by cuttings in light poor earth, and mu!l be treated m the fame manner as the graminifolia. Miller. Calk\i>it'-a, in Ornithology, a foecies of Motacilla that inhabits North America, the Jiuliy croivned ivren of Latham, roitelet nibis of BufFon, and calendula pcnfilvanica of Bviffon. The colour is greeni(h-a(li ; crown with a ruby, (fon.climes deep yellow) line ; abdomen and wings beneath ycllowifli. GmcL &c. This is a fniall bird. The female has no ruby line on the crown, but has a fearltt lunule moft. commonly on the nape, which is not obfcrvable in the mele. Calendula, in Zoology, according to Gmelin, a fort of Hydra, called by Hughes in his '• Natural Hiftoiy of Bar- badoes," the animal flower. Authors are divided in opinion as to the- genus to which this animal-flowtr ought to be re- ferred. Gmelin exprcffes a doubt of its being truly of the hvdra kind, although he places it in that genus. Ellis con- fiders it as an actinia ; and later writers entertaining the fame idea, it Hands at prefcnt as ai'.ima cnhiidula. Notwithftand- ing this, we have, however, no hefitation in believing it to be neither of the genus hydra, nor aShila, but a fpecics of tulular'ia. This we mud prefume from its ar.alogy to the tubularia magnifica, and Inrr.e other accurately detined fpe- cies of that genus. The original firnre of this animal is that which appears in the " Natural Hiilory of Barbadoes" by Hughes. Ellis and Sulander have a figure of it in their ■work on zoophytes, but which is copied from the above mentioned publication, as is alfo the deicription that accom- panies it. We mull' therefore have rccourfe to the account given of it by Hughes, ar. being the bell to be obtained at prefent of this curious animal. This writer defcribcs it as having the appearance of tine radiated flowers, of a pale ycllov.-, or bright ftraw colour, ilightly tinged with green ; each furroundcd by a circular border of thick-fet petals about the fizc of, and much refembling, thofe of a finglc garden marigold; except that the whole of this feeming flower is narrower at the difcus, or fetting on of the K-aves (petals) than any flower of that kind. Mr. tlughcs obftrves, that thefe animals, on being dillurbed, fink into holts ; he alfo remarked four dark coloured threads, fomewhat like the legs of a l"p-d, r, rife out from the centre of what he calls the fliwtr, with a quick fpontaneous motion from one fide to the other of the circular border of leaves (petals) ; and thefe in reality, he fays, were fo many arms or feelers, clofing together in imitation of a forceps, as if they had C A L hemmed in llveir prey, which the yellow border foon fur-- rounded, and clofed to feciire. He attempted to pluck one of thefe from the rock to which tliey were afiixed, but never conld effett his dcCgn, for as loon as his fingers canie within two or three inches of it, the animal would immedi- ately contraft its border of tentacula, and fhnnk back into the hole of the rock ; but if left undiHiirbed for about four minutes, it would come gradually into fight, expanding, though at firft very cautionfly, its petals or tentacula, till it would at length appear again as before, like a flower in full bloffom. As often as his hand came within a certain diftance of it, the animal would again recoil from his approach ia the fame manner. He alfo tried the fame experiment by attempting to touch it with his cane, and a fmall fiender rod, but the effedt produced was the fame. Ellis calls this the fea marigold, from its nearrefemblnncc, when the tentacula are expanded, to the flower of die com- mon marigold. It may be fpecilically defined in the words of Gmelin : ftcm f.Tmewhat turbinated : dilk furroundcd by petal-flinped tentacula, or rays. CAI^ENS, in Entomology, a Siberian fpecies of Chrv- srs of a large fize, dclcribed by labricius. The prevailing colour is gloffy blue ; abdomen golden ; tail flue and armed with four teeth. ObJ'. The legs and tip of the autennie are fufcous. Calebs, a fpecies of Cimlx found in India. Thelicad, thorax, and v\'ing-cafes are black, with a fulvous fcute!. Gronovius, &c. CALENTES, in Logic, a fort of fyllogifmin the fourth, commonly called Galenical, figure, wherein the major pro- pofition is iiniverfal and affirmative ; and the fecond or mi- nor, as well as the conclulion, univerfal and negative. This is intimated by the letters it is compoftd of, where the A fignilics an univerfal aflirmative, and the two E's as many univerfal negatives. E. gr. CA Efcry aJllSion in this tt'orhl is only for a time, LEN No iiff.iction, which is only for a time, ought to dif- t:irb us, TES No ajpiclion ought to dijlurb us, ivhich happens ia this -jiorld. The Ariftotelians not allowing the fonrth figure of fyllo- gifms, turned this word into celantes, and make it only an indirect mood of the firll figure. CALENTIUS, Elisius, in Biography, an ingenious writer both m profe and verfe, was born in Apulia, and be- came preceptor to prince Frederick, the fon of Ferdii.-and I. king of Naples, whom he endeavoured to infpire with fcntiments of jullice and humanity, congenial to his own. He was an enemy to capital puniAiments, and propofed va- rious fubllitutcs for them in elifl'erent cafes. He was much addifted to agriculture, and praftifed it with flcill. Al- though his circumfl;ances were narrow, he lived on terms of inti.-nate fricndlhip with the moll eminent fcholars of his time, and was a member of the Neapolitan academy. He was the author of feveral works, both in profe and verfe, which were printed in 1503, about the time of his death; the principal of thefe was his poem on the " Battle of the Fr<:>gs and Mice," imitated from Homer. He declined writuig the hiilory of the war carried on by Charles the Bold atjainfl the Swifs, alleging, that it was not fafe to fptak ill of princes, and that an honeft man ought not to pu'blilli falfehoods. CALiiNTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, on the other fide of the Ebrus. Pliny fays, that bricks were made in this place of an earth refcmbling piimice-ltone, which would not fink in water. 8 CALEN- J.lcafes of fcamci in hot chmatcs ; and th.- accoinus wliicl, Anville rugj;cas that tlu-y ,,mhably occupied the dioc- f.-' of lave been traniniitted to us, leave the caufe of this haihici- " Caux." The promontorv " Oilaonim " was fitu- 1 • 1 lation in fonie obfcunty According to Dr. Stubbs, who Lyon.,cnfis Secunda, at the' mouth of the Seine • now'call,^ las briefly related two CHles, which occni led diirinjr a voynfre " Cape Canx." '■"u™ C A L CALENTURE, from aihre, to be hot, in Medicine, a fpC- cies of difeafe, formerly faid to be common to feamen dnriiiT their voyapres in tropical climate?, and to be eharaaerifed by a peculiar delirium, in which the patient imagined lliat he fiiw green fields and groves in the fea, and was defirous of leap- ing over-board in order to walk in them. This affedion is not mentioned by recent authors, who have written on the dilcafes of feamen in hot climates; and the accounts which \ nat has to Jamaica, it was a traniient delirium, independent of fe- ver, and produced by fordes in the Itomach and bowels, and was therclore quickly removed by an emetic. (Philofoph.' Tranfaft. N^ -^C.) Oiher writers defcribc the calenture as a febrile difeafe, attended with a furious delirium, infoniueh, that fix men cojld fcarcely reilrain the patient from leaping into the fea : and bleeding and other evacuations are faid to be the proper remedies by thele authors. (Shaw's Practice. Allen's Synopfif.) In conftqu^T.ce of thefe difTcrcnt ac- counts of the dilorder, Sauvages has defcribed two genera of the calenture ; one of which he claffis with the fimple hal- lucinations, under the title of Piiraphi-ofyne Cahntiira ; and the other he conliders as a fp.'cics of Purcnilis, or inflamma- tion of the brain. (Nofolog. Method. Clafs iii. Ord. :. and Clafs viii. Ord. 3.) It is probable that the difeafe in all in- ilances depended uj o 1 fome degree of inflammation in the head, excited by t'x heat of a vertical fun ; and the inllinc- tive feelings, which, in many cafes of febrile delirium, prompt the patient to plunge into cold water, to relieve his fufferings from inordinate heat, may poffibly have been mif- taken for a conception, that the fea was a plain or an orange grove. CALEPIMO, or D.i Calepio, Ambkose, in Bhvrraphy, a celebrated grammarian, defcended from the counts of Ca- ns C A L It was celebrated for its wine, called " Calenum." In rums are difcerned a theatre and amphitheatre. Calks, m Girogrti/>/jy. Sec Cadiz. CAI.ETTE, or Caletk-s, in /tndcu Grc^rnphy, a peo- ple placed by Ciefar, an.l alfo by Strabo, in' lldgie (;=„! • but Auguttus comprifcs them in Celtic Gaul, or Gallii( l.yonnenhs ; their cliief town was " Jnliobona." CALETURE, in C,,^;-^//^. Sec Caltura Cai.eti.ri, Irs alfo on the coad of Coromandcl, north- caflcrly from Pullicat or Palliakatc. CALK.one of the fmaller Orkney iflands. about one mile to tlie north of Eda. Alfo, another fmall ifland of the fame groupe, about a mile north of Elata. Calk, a rock near the cnall of Ireland, about half a mile from the fonth-well end of Dnrfey ifle in the county of Cork, at the entrance into Bantry bay. N. lat. ci'' -^i' W. long. 10" 6'. ■ -• J • C.M.V oj Man, a fmall ifland in the Irifli fea, near the fonth-well coall of the Ifle of Man, N. lat. ';4° i' W lo"g-4°43'- . J • • Calf SonnJ, lies on the coaft of Sweden, four league. fouth irom Maclflraiid, and as much north from VVmeo —and. It abounds with dangerous rocks. Calf, in Rural F.coiwmy, the young of the cattle kind of animals. Calves are diliinguinud, according to the dif ference of fex, into male and female, mlull and cciu, U'hj, or y/« calves. There are conliderable didercnces in the manage- ment of thefe animals in different dillriih of the kingdom both m the rearing and fattening; the advantages of whicll Ihll remain to be decided by the tell of experiment. Calves, ;?,aW«^«/.Iti; by this piaaice that the farmer lepio, was born at Bergamo about the year 143 ^. Me entered is to raife his cattle ilock ; it fiiould, of courfe, be attended into the convent of Augudins in his native place, and to with a great degree of care. Where he is anxiojis to chiefly devoted himfelf to the lludy of languages. His have a good cow Hock, the bell cow calves fliould be care- «' Vocabulary of the Latin Tongue" became fo famous, fully felefted from fuch cows as are the mod tradable af- that books of a fimilar nature w'ere long familiarly termed ford the bed milk, are the mod hardy, and bed fuited to " C:i!epines." After many additions and improvements by '' - 'i- r., ,■ r , .• . Pafferat, Lacerda,Chifflet, and others, this wor.k, iirll printed in I'io^, has become a polvglott diftionary, of which the bed editions are that of Chifflet at I^yons in j68i, 2 vols. fiol. and a later one by Eacciolati of Padua. Calcpino be- came blind before his death, which happened in 1511. Nouv. Dia. Hid. CALEPIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ber- gamafco. CALERES, in Moihrn Ilijlory, the denomination of a kind of banditti in India, who inhabit the thick forcds of Tundeman, between Taiijore and Madura. They are dif- tiu"-uiflied from other Indians by their ferocious alpeft and manners, as \\'cll as by the dingy colour of their flvin, which is covered with dud, and feldom waflied. Their common arms are long pikes, cudgels, and fabres. They are faid to madacre all who fall into their hands, and particularly Eu- ropeans. CALERZANO, in Geography, a town of Corfica ; fix miles S. E. of Calvi. CAI^ES, in yliicieiU Geography, a fmall river of Bithynia, the date of the farm ; aftet wards rearing them with the moft careful attention to the nature and quantity of food, as well as other circumdancc;. 'i'liere can be little doubt but that the bed and mod na- tural mode of rearing the young of this, as well as mod other kinds of animals, is, that of allowmg them to fuck their dam« at lead for fome lenglli of time after they are brought foith. The ufual methojd in Yorkdiiie is, however, that of giving them milk to drink, there being few inllances where they are allowed to fuck. For tlic fird two or three weeks, they modly get milk warm from the cow ; but for the next two or three weeks, half the new milk is withdrawn, and ikimmcd milk fubftituted in its dead : and at the end of that period of time, the new milk is wholly withdrawn ; they are then fed on fldmmcd milk alone, or fometimes mixed witk water, till they arc able to fupport themfelves by eating grafs. or other food of that, or other forts which are pro- vided for them. But in Chefhire, the practice is to allow the calves to fuck for the fird three weeks. Tliey are then ted on warm green whey, or fcalded whey and biitter-milk mixed; with the between the Ela;us on the welt, and the Lycus on the tad, green whey, water is frequently mixed, and cither oat.meal fouth-ead of Heraclea. The exporium at its mouth, men- or wheat and bean-floiir added. A quart of meal or flour is iioned by Arrian, is called by Marcian of Heraclea, Caleps. thought fufficient to mix with forty or fifty quarts of liquid. Cales, Calvi, a town of Italy, in Campania, upon the Oat-meal gruel and butter-milk, with an addition of ikimmcd 'Vppian way, S. E. of Theanum, and N. \V. of Caiinia. jtiilk, are alfo ufcd for the fame parpofc. Some one of 5E2 C A L thcfc prepared kinds of food is given night and morning for a few weeks after the calves are put on that diet, but after- wards, onlv once a day, till they are three months old or more, and 'become perfeaiy llrong. The calves in Gioucefterfhire are not allowed to luck: :,bove two or three days ; they are then fed on (lommed milk, which is previoufly heated over the hrc. \\ hen they arrive at fuch an age as to be able to eat a htlle, they are al- lowed fplit beans or oats, and cut hay, water being mixed with the milk at the time of giving it. And tlie method prac^ifed in Suffex differs materially horn any of tliefe. It is common, in that dillnfl, to allow the calves either to fuck for ten or twelve weeks, or to wean them at the end of three or four, and to give them a liberal allowance of Ikimmed milk for iix or eight weeks longer when nec.ffary. The Suffolk farmers adopt the pradice of letting the calves fuck the cows a month, fix weeks, or more, coarfe pollard and oats being then given in mixture with ikimmed milk and water : fome nice green hay being conllantly placed before them, till the period of their being turned out into the paftures. In this method, carrots would probably fupply the place of the oats, and greatly leffen the cxpence. The method purfued by the farmers in Scotland for rearing calves fecms well adapted to the purpofe : they are two. The firll is, by giving them a pailful, containing about a gallon, of milk, warm from the teat of the cow, morning and evening, for eight or ten weeks. The fecond, which is certainly the moft agreeable to nature, and therefore to be preferred to any other that can be adopted, is, to allow the calf to fuck its dam, as is fometimes done in the county of Suffex, and fome other dillrifts, as in fome parts of Lan- cafhirc. The Norfolk hufbandmen permit their early calves to fuck twice in the day for about a fortnight, and afterwards to have the pail in tiie fame manner for an equal length of time ; then once a day for a month or more, according to cireumftances ; turnips, cut hay. Sec. being placed in the mangers before them, at the time. Wlicre it is the cuftom to rear calves with ilcim-milk, it (hould always be boiled, and fnffered to Hand until it cools to the temperature of that firft given by the cow, or in a trifling degree more warm, and in that ftate be given to the calf. Milk is frequently given to calves when warmed only ; but that method will not fucceed fo well as boiling it. If the milk be given over-cold, it will caufe the calf to fivit or purge. When this is the cafe, put two or three fpoonfuls of rennet in the milk, and it will foon flop the ioofenefs. If, on the contrary, the calf is bound, bacon- broth is a very good and fafe thing to put into the milk. One gallon, or rather more, of milk per day will keep a calf well till it be thirteen weeks old. A calf may then be fupported without milk, by giving it hay, and a little wheat bran, once a day, with about a pint of oats. The oats will be found of great fervice, as foon as the calf is capable of eating them, in promoting its growth. The bran and oats {hould be given about mid-day : the milk in equal portions, at eight o'clock in the morning, and four in the afternoon. But whatever hours are chofcn to fet apart for feeding the calf, it is bell to adhere to the particular times, as regula- rity is of more confequence than is generally fuppofed. If the calf goes but an hour or two beyond its ufual time of ieeding, it wiU find itfelf uneafy, and pine for food. It is always to be confidered, that calves, reared in this manner, are to be enticed to eat hay, or fome other fimilar material, as early as poffible ; and the belt way of doing this, C A L is, to give them the fweeteft hay in your poffeffion, and but little at a time. Turnips or potatoes are very good food, as foon as they can eat them ; and they are bell cut fmall, and mixed with the hay, oats, bran, and fuch articles, at the time of their being given. It may be obfcrved, that it is not abfolutely necefiary to give milk to calves after they are one month old ; and to weau them gradually, two quarts of milk, with the addi- tion uf linfeed boiled in water to make a gruel, and given together, will anfwer the purpofe, until, by diminifl ing the milk gradually, the calf will foon do entirely without. Hay- tea will anfwer the purpofe, with the like addition ot two quarts of milk, but is i:ot fo nutritious as linfeed. It is a good method of making this, to put fuch a proportion of hay as will be necefiary into a tub, then to pour on a fufRcient quantity of boiling water, covering up the veflcl, and letting the water remain long enough to extraft the virtues of the hay. When bacon or pork is boiled, it is alfo a good way to preferve the hquor or broth, and mix it with milk for the calves. In fummer, calves may fometimes be reared on whey only. But when reared in winter, they mud be fed with hay ; and clover-hay is probably the bell of any foit for this ufe. Calves may alfo be raifed v^'ith porridge of different kinds, without any mixture of milk at all. It has been fuggelled to be fometimes a good convenier.t plan, to bring up calves under a iort of fofter mother ; ai> old cow, with a tolerable Hock of milk, will fuckle two calves, or more, cither turned off with her, or at home, keeping them in good condition, until they are old enouglL to ihift for t.henilclves : they ought to fuck the firll of theii: mother's milk, for two or three days, although many are weaned without ever being fuffered to fuck at all. Calves, whether rearing or fattening, fiiould always f'.ick before milking, the cow being milked afterwards, as the firll and thinnell of the milk is fufficiently rich for them. Old milk often fcours very youi:g calve:s ; but the cffctk generally goes off without any ill confequence. Skimmrd milk and fecond flour are fometimes made ufe of. The large, fliort- horned breed of calves mollly confume daily, at three meals, three quarters of a pound of flour each, boiled up in fliimmed milk or other liquid. The proper degree ot warmth for the flvimmed milk, on which calves are weaned, is a little above that frefh from the cow. In the Rural Economy of Norfolk, it is remarked, by Mr. Marlhall, that fome farmers bring up all the year round, rearing every calf they have dropped. Others rear in winter only, fattening their fummer calves for the pea-markets ; or at a difl;ance from them for the butcher. Norfolk farmers, in general, begin early in winter to rear their calves, fome fo early as Michaelmas ; in comm.on, if their cows come in be- fore Chriflmas, not only as being fully aware of the advan- tage of rearing early, but in order that they may rear as many of their own calves as poffible, drove calves being al- ways hazardous, and fomttin^es fcarce. No dillindlion is m.ade as to fex ; males and females are equally objefts of rearing, and are both occafionally fubjcil to caftration, it being a prevailing cuftom to fpay all heifers intended to be fatted at three years old, but fuch as are intended to be finifhed at two years old are, it is believed, pretty generally left " open," as are, of couife, fuch as are intended for the dairy. There are two reafons for this praiflice ; they are prevented from taking the bull too early, and thereby fruftrating the main intention ; and by this precaution may be more quiet, and are kept from roving at the time of fattening. This C A L This may be one rcnfon wliy fpaycd licifcrs are tlioiiglit to fatten more kindly at three years old, and to be better fledied than open heifers. Tlie method of treatment de- pends, in fome meafure, on the time of rearing ; the winter calves require more milk than the later-dropt ones. " Here the general treatment of a calf dropt at Chrillmas may be faid to be this ; fueks twice a day the firft fortnight, lias the pail twice a day for the next month or fix weeks, and once a day for a nionth or fix weeks longer, with hay in a rack and turnips in a manger, and fometimes with oats and beans among the turnips, which lafl, after a calf has taken freely to them, ferve as both meat and drink. In this confills the chief peculiarity of the Norfolk method of rearing calves, which may be faid to be with milk and tur- nips ; the laft a Ipecies of food, which, in every other part of the kingdom is, it is believed, entirely neglefted or un- tliought of. As foon as the weather gets warm enough, the calves are turned out in the day among the fattening bullocks, or on to a patch of turnips, or upon a piece of wheat, or a forward grafs-piecc, and houfed again at night, until the days growing long and the nights warm, and the clover and darnel have rifen to a full bite, when they are turned out altogether, and continue to have the firft bite of every thing which is good and palatable to them throughout the fummer. This may be called the general treatment of calves dropt at Chriftmas ; but the management of no two farmers is exaflly the fame." Calves, 'weaning of. The moft fuitable feafon for this bufinefs is the early part of the fpring, as fuch calves as are weaned at a late period feldom attain any great fize. The beft means of accomplifliing this is by gradually taking them from the cow, and afterwards diminifiimg the quantity and quality of the milk, or other liquid with which ihey are fed, until they become capable of being fupported on grafs alone, or with fome fort of cut food. The method of management in thcfe cafes is thus ftated by the author of the " Synopfis of Hufbandry ;" " having a cow li-iited to the purpofe which drops a calf, let it be lucklcd in the ufual mode, till it hath completed the third week of its age ; when, inftead of turning it to the cow, it is to be fuckled by thrufting its head into a pail of new milk, and the finger of the perfon who diretts the bufinefs is to fupply the place of a teat. At firft the calf may be rather awkward at fuckmg the finger, but this will loon become familiar, and after a while a lock of hay may be fubftituted for the teat ; and as the calf advances in age it will tuck the milk out of the pail without any affillance. The milk fliould at firft be given, as obferved before, free of adulteration ; but, at the end of the firft month, a little milk pottage may be added to each ferving. This method fhould be continued till the calf is twelve or fourteen weeks old, lowering the milk pottage by degrees, till at length it will be brought to fimple water only. At the feafun when the calf is thus weaned from the teat, it ought to be turned abroad in the day-time into a fmall clofe or orchard near the yard, where there is a good bite of grafs, which may be expcfted at the time of the year when the weaning calves are of this age ; and as there will generally be more than one calf weaned in a feafon, they will each be company for the other, and become in a (hort time reconciled to their fituation. It is to be obferved, that this pafture fhould be at fome diftance from that whereon the dams are turned, and that there be neither ponds nor ditches, nor any annoyance which might endanger the hves of thefe youthful animals ; and in order to habituate them-ftill more to their pafture, the milk-pottage fhould be carried clean to them at each of their feeding hours. For the firft month or fix weeks the calves ought every night to be brought out of the c A r. meadow and lodged in the pens; but, aftirthis time, they may be left in the pafture as well in the night feafon as in the day, and at this time their food may be lowered by de- grees, till, as was before obferved, it be at length reduced to fimple water only, for when the calves get to the age of tivelveor fourteen weeks, they will no longer require the aid ot this fnfteiiancc, but will be able to fatisfy their appetite-! by grafs. Care, however, mull be taken throughout the fummer, that they be frequently (hifted from one pafture to another, in order that they may be kept up in good flefh, and enabled to grow away with the utmoft celerity. At Michaelmas, or foon after, the calves (liould be taken into the yaid; and if they were allowed the indulgence of a fmall clofe to thcmfelves, it would be ftill better. And here their tafte muft be gratified with the beft and fwecteft hay that can be procured, with an outlet on a dry pafture, where in fine open weather they may be fuffered to enjoy them- felves ; and it would redound greatly to their welfare, if, on the approach cf winter, a fhed was to be crtfted for them to repofe in during the night, and for flielter in tempcftuous days. So effential are warmth and good living to young animals of every denomination, that the care which has been taken of them in their early days will be manifcll in every ftate of their future growth. Nor is there any ftock which will pay better for this cautious management in their youth than thofe of t!ie cow kind: for if they are ftinted in their feed, or carelefsly attended whilft in their growing ftate,_ they will never arrive to that fize wliich they would other- wile have done, and confequently the lofs will be perpetually felt by the farmer who attempts to raife milch kine of his own breed, without giving them a due attendance in the firft year. When the calves have atttained their firft year, they are called ^/r//, or yearlings; and though at this time they may be able to mix with the herd, yet he thinks it would be moft prudent, if not attended with too great an inconvenience, to fuffcr them to remain in a pafture by them.felves. But if this cannot be done, let them be turned out with the dry ftoek, and not permitted to run w ith the cows, as this mi"ht probably be the occafion of ti'.eir tiiking bull ; a meafure v\'hich Ihouldat thistime be cautioufly guarded aTainft, as fuch buds which propagate at tliis early age will receive a check in their growth on this account ; and if, during the fucceed- ing whiter, they were to be managed as before du tded, he is of opinion that their future growth would be found to pay ample intereft for the fodder that is now given them ; only this is to be obferved, that as their Itrength is now con- fiderably augmented, a lefs valuable fodder may fuffice, and good pea-ftraw may well fupply the place of hay. Such farmers who have low ruftiy meadows, where there is fre- quently a length of /;■;/ in the winter, may in this fecond year turn the calves into them, and here thev will meet with plenty of nourifiiing food, wliilft the weatlier is fair and open. At two years old the heifer may be fuffered to take bull ; but. it would in his opinion be ftill better for the cow, and more to the intereft of the farmer, if he were to wait a year longer ere the bufinefs be completed." From the great fcarcity of milk, various fubftitutes liave been propofed for the early periods of weaning, fome of which feem well calculated for the ufe they are deligned. The method propofed by the duke of Northumberland ig to take one gallon of fleimmcd milk, and to about a pint 'of it add half an ounce of common treacle, ftirring it until it is well mixed ; then to take one ounce of linlccd-oil cake finely pulverized, and with the hand let it fall gradually in very fmall quantities into the milk, ftirring it in the mean time with a fpoon or ladle, until it be thoroughly incorpo- rated; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk. C A L milk, nnJ ibc whok- be made nearly ns warm as new milk wlicn it is firll taken l.om the co«-, aiul in that Itate it is t.t for ule. The quantity of oil-cake powder may, from lirae to tin-.e, be increafed, as occaf.on may require, and as the calf becomes inured to the llavoi.r of it. But Mr. Crook's method is to make a ieily of one quart of llnfecd, boiled ten mn utes in r.x quarts of water, wliieii jelly is afterwards mixed witli a fmall quantity of the bell hay-tea ; on this he rears many calves viihont milk. Mr. Donaldfoii obfcrves, that calves when diopt dining ihc erafs-f^afon (hould be put into fomc fmall homc-clofe of fwetl rich pailnre, after they arc eight or ten days o,a, not only for the fake of excrcife, but alio tliat they may the fooncr take to the eating of grafs. When they happen to be dropt durinjr winter, or before the return of the grafs- feafon, a little iliort foft hay, Ihaw, or fiiced turnips, Ihould be laid in the trough or llall before them. By means of lin- fced made into a jelly by boiling in water, calves have been weaned without any milk at all, in the tri:\Is of Mr. Crook. The author of Prae^ical Agrieulturc fuggells that potatoe meal has been found to be ul'eful in this intention, "as it mixes well with milk, water, or weak bnith, and is highly nutritious." Male calves that arc intended to be kept (honid conltantly be callrated or evu at an early period, as in the fiift week cr fortnight, the danger being eoufiderably Icfs when done early. Cai.ves, /«■///■«:: of. In this pradice the produce of the cavt can in many iituations be brought to great advantage ; as in the vicinity of large towns. The method moll com- monly employed in fattening calves, is to allow them to fuek ; as by this method the objecl is probably not only fooner, but more efFcflually attained than by any other means. The period which is'necefiary for fattening calves mud be difTer- ent, according to circumllances, but it is generally Irom feven to nine weeks; however, in the dairy dilliicls, where milk is confidertd a valuable article, fearcely half that time is allowed. There is another method, wh ch is to give them the milk to drink ; and when that is done, it is given them morning and evening warm from the cow, and the quantity increafed according to their age and ftrength. In whatever way they mav be managed, they fhonld be kept in pens in a clofe well aired houfe, and well littered. The author of the Synopfis of Hulbandry obferves, •' that as it is nectffary that the calves (lionld lie always quiet, in order that they may indulge in flcep at tliofe times when they are not employed in fucking ; it feems proper that the cow-houfe Ihould be fituated in the moft retired part of the yard, and that the pens Ihould be kept as dark as poffi'.ile. But notwithllariding this caution, the calves fhould by no means be fuffered to lie too hot in the fummer time, which would be apt to induce a ficknefs amongll them. To adni't, therefore, an occafional draught of frelh aii, kt a window be cut in eAch pen, with (butters adapted to the fame, and let thcfe windows be opened whenever the clofenefs of the at- mofphcre indiea.tes it to be neced'ary. In the fummer fea- fon they (hould rarely, if ever, be cloftly (lint, and when it is • required, the (Iream of air may be increafed by opening the cowhoufe door at the oppofite end of the building. Each calf (liould have a collar round his neck, to diretl him in his fnckling, but (liould never be fallened up in the pen. It is iiecctTary that the pens be conllantly well littered with the cleaned wheat draw, a proportion of which (liould be thrown in to them every day ; cleanUnefs being a moft effential article in the fattening of every animal, and not more necelfary to any than the calf, which, but for this precaution, would in a ihort time demonftrate the ill effeds of lying on his accu- C A L mtilatcd dung, whicK of all other ariimals is the mod offen- five, and of a quality highly feptic. Still as the calves are veancd, they are to be taken into the pens, and fuckled on their own dams, which at fnil will yield a far greater quan- tity of milk than is neceflary for their offspring, fo that another calf may be fuckled thereon ; or the cow may be milked, and the cream be referved for butter, or applied to any other ufe tliat the owner may think proper. As the calf increafes in. fize it will require a larger quantity of milk ; but wliiiil they are young, one good cow will yield a noble fnpply for two calves ; and when the produce is demanded for one calf, another new milch cow (l-.ould be provided, and thefe two cows will abundantly fupp!y the three calves with milk till the oldell is fit for the butcher; after which, if neceffary, a frcdi fixkler maybe bought in, and the bufinefs be carried on progrefiively by keeping the houfe conllantly fupplicd with calve;;, fo that the whole milk may be fucked ; as the different branches of the fatted calf and the dairy can- not be fo conveniently united." " For many of the foulhei n parts of the kingdom. Smith- field market is the moft convenient place to apply for fuck- lers, fo as to be on a certainty of prcicurlng them, this being the general receptacle where the milk-men vend their calvei) ; and thefe liaving been bred from the larger btafFord- (liire or Holdtrnefs covvs, do generally turn out to good account for the fuckler, fuch large boned -calves, v\hen fattened, arifing to a weight much more confiderable than the ordinary produce of the country dairy-men ; and as to the fuperior quantity of milk required in fattening the larger breed of calves, this is amply recompeiifed by the greater increafe of weight. The only hazard attending this Smithfield bargain is, the accident which may happen to the creature on the road, if the drift has been of any length; for, befides the cow-men above-mentioned, many fucklcrs are fent to this market from the vale of Aykibury, and thefe lometimes meet with accidents, either from the lengthened journey, or want of milk. From the former, the quiet of the pens generally recovers them, and the ill confequences of inanition may be obviated by llinting the creature to a (liort allowance for a few mfals, till the caufc is removed. With thcfe precautious, it will, he believes, very rarely be found that any fatal conlequences fucceed either of thefe evils. However it fometimes happens that, in fpite of all our care, the fuckler dies in confequeuce of imprudent management in the vender ; but as thefe acci- dents are not frequent, they ought not to deter the farmer from replenilh.iiig his pen by the I^ondon markets, where his vicinity to the metropolis will allow of the praftice. " Young calves," he fays, "when permitted to fuck their fill, are often feized with a lax or fcouring. To prevent which, the calves for the firit fortnight or three w-eeks may be dinted in their allowance; at the fame time due regard (hould be taken that they do not pine or decreafe in flefli for want of milk. But after this age, they (hould be al- lowed to fuck as long as they choofe, and every means ought to be made ufe of to increafe their appetite, and render them more eager after their food. Chalk may be given for this purpofe, as well as for giving to the fle(b a delicate whitenefs. Salt fprinkled in the troughs will hke- wile acl as a ftimulus to the appetite ; befides which, it is a common practice with fome people to cram their calves with balls compounded of flour, pounded chalk, and milk, with the addition of a fmall quantity of common gin. Of thefe they give two, about the fize of a walnut, once a day, or oftener, to each calf. Thefe balls being very nutritious, in fome degree, fupply the place of milk, and at the fame time the fprituous mixture operates on the creature as a fopo- ri.^ic ; C A L rific ; and tlnis, by compofiricr tlicm to /Ie*p, inereafes their tlirpofitiuii to fatten. But where miik can be had in fiif- ficieiu abundance, it is never worth while to have recourfe to tlufe faftitioiis aids. 'When the demands cf the calf, however, are beyond tlie ability of the cow, theft balls come feafonably to their relief. In order that the calves may be provided with fufficient ilore of milk, the pallures fliould ftill be charged, whenever the cows are found to be delicient in this particular ; and in the winter time, fnch food as is of a fuecnlent nature, as fjrains, turnips, fee. fhould be always at hand to fupply the want of grafs : and thcfe, with a due allowance of the fivestell: hay, fliould be their coullant aliment during the time that the cows are confined to the yard. " The prices of fuckling calves vary according to the gooduefs of the young animal, and the time of year wherein the purchafe is made. In general, fucklers fetch tlie largell price in fummer, whtu veal fells the cheapcll ; and the realon of this ariles from the fmaller number to bo met v\i(h at that time than in the fpring. A good fuckler in Lon- don can feldom be bought for less than ^cs., and is often fold for 25s. or 30s. The bulinefs of fuckling was formerly reckoned to turn out to good advantage, when each calf throughout its fattening brought a profit to tlie farmer of three Ihillings a week ; but now ( 1 799) fo confiderably have provifions of every kind been advanced in price within thefe few years, tl:e prolU on the article of fuckling is much greater. '• When calves are flaughtered at fix weeks or two months old, the veal is feldom of a gooil colour; nei- ther has the flefh of thefe yoimg calves a tafte equal to that where the animal has been iuftered to live a few weeks longer. To attain both the ends of cdour and liavonr it is necelTary that the calves fhould be maintained with plenty of milk, and regulated under fach management as before direfted, till they arrive to the age of tight or ten weeks, according to the feafon of the year, the more or Icf's kindly llate of the calf, the particular demand of the markets, or other eventual circumftances. In the funimcr feafon, it may be proper to difpofe of them at an earlier period than in the winter; not only on account of their growing away with greater celerity in warm weather, but likewife becaufe of the increafed demand for fmall veal, which is then mofl faleable. During the la(f three or four weeks, blood fhould frequently be drawn from the calf, which will be a likely means towards rendering the veal of a colour delicately white ; a circumffance fo much attended to by the butcher, that he will commonly depreciate fuch calves, which from the appearance of their eyes are likely to die blnck, as they term it, though in other rcfpefts not to be defpifed. " Such calves as are fuckled on their own dams will, ge- nerally fpeaking, fatten in a fhorter time than thofe which are afterwards bought in to fupply their places. The iirll obvious reafon for this difference in their favour is their not having been removed from the places where they were firft dropped, and having always continued to fuck the milk of their parent animal, wiiieh muft in all reafon be fuppc fed of a more nutritious qiialty tj them than that of any other cow. Secoi.dly, tlie cow having i ^\, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, iS, 24, 2^, ,52, 36, or 42 ; the figures nearell the bevil edge anfwcring to the lliort lines in the fcale, and tliofe behind them to the longer ftrokes. This fcale is conftructcd on the folh:iwing geometrical theorem, Vol. V. 4 C A L \iz. that the weights of fjiiiercs are as the ciibei of th.ii diameters. On the lower part of the circular iicad of the f,\ce A is a feale of divifions marked bores nf \;m:s ; for the life of which, the legs of the calhners are Hipped acrofs each other, till the Heel points touch the concave furfiTe of the gun in its grenteft breadih ; then the bevil edge F of the face \\ will cut a divifion in the fcale ihewing tlic diameter of the boie in inches and tenths. Within t!ic feales of Jliol and bore diameters on the circu- lar part of A, are divifions marked /i^um.'r/v ; the inner figures i, |i, ,^, 54., 8, J2, iS, 26, .56, conefpond to the lorgeft lines ; and the figures i, 2, 4, 6, 9, 16, 24, 3:, 42, to tlie (liort ftrokes. When the bore of a gun is taken between the points of the callipers, the bevil edge F will either cut or be near one of thefe divifions, and (hew tht weight of iron (hot proper for that gun. On the upper half of the circular head of the face A arc three concentric fcales of degrees ; the outer feale confiftiiig ot iSo degrees numbered from right to hft, 10, 20, &c. the middle numbered the contrary way, and the outer feale beginninfi; at the middle with o, and numbered on each fide to (,o degrees. Thefe fcales ferve to take the quantity of an angle, either entering or faliant. For an entering, oi- internal angle, apply the legs of the callipers fo that its out- ward edges coincide with the legs of the given angle, the degree cut by the bevil edge F in the outer fcale fliews the mcafure of the angle fought: for a faliant, or external angle, (lip the legs of the callipers acrofs each other, fo that their outward edges may coincide with the legs forn.ing the angle, and tlie degree marked on tlie middle Rvle by the bcvil edge E will fliew the meafnre of the angle required. The inner fcale will ferve to determine the elevation of can- non and mortars, or of any oblique plane. Let one end of a thread be fixed into the notch on the plate B, and any weight tied to the other end : apply the ftraight fide of the plate A to the fide of the body wliofe inclination is fought, hold it in this pofition, and move the plate B, till the thread falls upon the line near the centre maiked Per[>. Then will the bevil edge F cut the degrees on the inner fcale, fliewing the inclination of that body to the hori2oii. On the face C near the point of the callipers is a little table fliewing the proportion of troy ami avoirdupoife weights, by which one kind of weight may be caiily reduc- ed into another. Near the extreme of the face D of the callipers, are two tables fliewing the proportion between the pounds weight ot Eondon and Paris, and alfo between the lengths of the loot meafure of England and France. Near the extreme on the face A is a table containing four rules of the circle and fphere ; and geometrical figures with numbers annexed to them : the firlt is a circle includ- ing the proportion in round numbers of the diameter to its circumferenec ; the fecond is a circle infcribed in a fquare, and a fquare within that circle, and another circle in the inner fqnarc : the numbers, 28, :2, above this figU'e, exhibit the piopoition of the outward fquare to the area of the inleribed ciicle ; and the numbers 14, 1 i, below it, fliew the proportion between the area of the infcribed fqnarc 'and the area of its infcribed circle. The third is a cube infciib-.d in a fphete ; and the number S9J flicws that a cube of iron, infcribed in a fphere of J 2 inches in diameter, weighs 8yV. The fourth is a fphere in a cube, and the number 24;, expren"es the weight in pounds of a fphere inrcribed in a cube whofe fize is 12 inches : the fifth reprefciUs a cylinder and cone of one foot diameter and height : the luimlx r in the cylinder (hews, that an iron cylinder of that dianietf r 5 F a::d C A L mbcr i:r.5 in the and height wnphs jC+.^lb. and the number '-'-.^ "> /!< cone cxprelTe. the wci^lu of a cone, th. a.ameter of who bafe i. 12 inches, and of the fame l.e.-rht : the hxth hgme (hews that an iron cube, whofe f.Jc .s 12 inches, weighs 46+ lb. and that a fquare pyramid of iron, whofe bale is a fquarc foot and hfight 12 inches, we.^hs lS^j\h. i he .UMubers which have been hitherto fixed to the four laft li rures were not llriaiv true ; and therefore they liave been co\reaed in the ti,-.,re here referred to ; and by thefe he fiRures on any inlliument of this kind Ihould be conedcd ' On t'he leg R of the caUipers, is a table {hewing the weights of a cubic inch or foot of various bodies in i^ounds avoirdupoilt. , „ , ,i- On the face D of the circular head of the callipers is a table contained between five concentric fegments ot nngs : the inner one marked Gum fliews the nature of the gun, or the weight of ball it carrie, and blood drawn from the offerer's own body, arc looked upon as proper oblations to the goddcfs Chandica, Cfcc. Tiie following injunftion after- wards occurs: when the facrifice of lions, of tygers, or of the human fpecies is rcqueded, let the three firft clafTes aCt thus : having formed the image of the lion, tyger, or hu- man (hapc, with butter, pallry, or barley meal, let them facrifice the fame as if a livi:ig vidirn, the axe being firft invoked by the text " Nomo ;" tliat text is as follows : "Call! Call! O horrid-toothed goddcfs : eat, cut, dellioy all the malignant : cut with this axe ; bind, bind, fcize, feize ; drink blood, tear, tear: fecure, lecure ; falutations to Cah !" Among other exceptions, with regard to human 3 C A L victims, thnfe that are unwilling are exprefsly prohibited; Afiatic Refearches, vol. v. p. 371, &c. CALI-CALic, in OrnUhology, the Madagafcar Shrike, Litmus Madagajcartcnfis, Hands under this name in Buffon's Natural Hiftory of Birds. CALICO, in Gc-o^'raphy, a river of European Turkey, which runs into the gulf of Salomki ; 14 miles S.W. of Saloiiiki. CALICOULAN, Coylan, or Q_uilon, a Dutch fac- tory on the weftern coall of Malabar, ab ut 14 geographical miles to the N.N.W. or N.W. of Anjcngo, or Anjenga, placed by major Reunell in N. lat. 8° 39'. E. long.yd" 40'. CALICULA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in the Tarragoneiifis, and affigned to the Turduli.— Alfo, another town of Spain, which Ptolemy- places in the territory of the Turdetani. CALICUT, in Geography, a country of Afia, and a very exttnfive Ihite on the coalt of Malabar. Its chief affumed the title of king of kings. The lafl of thefe princes, called Sarana Parimal, having embraced Mahomctariifm, retired to end his days at Mecca, aiid dividing his dominions between the princes of his own blood, rcfeived, as it is faid, a fpace of 12 leagues for one of theie princes, or a favourite page, who was to have the title of Samorin, and to whom the others were to render homage. The Samorin built a city on the fpot whence Parimal took his departure, and called it " Ca- licut." He who afterwards governed Calicut, inhabited a palace of Hone, and annexed fome appearance of grandeur to his court. In former times, the inhabitants of this diftriiSt had feveral ftrange cuftoms, fome of which are flill retained. Accordingly it is faid, that the Samorin's wife nuift be firft enjoyed, for three nights if he pleafes, by the high prieit. The nobles permit the other priells to take the fame li- berty ; but the lower people are debarred from this honour. A woman may marry a number of hufbands ; each of whom has her by turns for ten days or more, as they agree among themfclvcs ; and during that time he provides for hsr all neceffaries. When file proves pregnant, (lie names the father of the child, who, after it is wcaned, takes care of its education. The " Nai of Calicut form a band of nobles, whofe only profeiTicn is that of arms. Thefe men, though of an olive colour, are comely and handfome ; they are tall and hardy, very valiant, and dextrous in the ufe of their weapons. They lengthen their cars to fuch an extent, that they hang down on their fiioulders, and (omttimes lower. Thefe N:^.ires are allowed only one wife, but the women of rank may have as many hufba:;d3 as they chufe, whom they regard as (laves lubjeittd to their beauty. Wo- men of interior condition fupply the defeft of the privilege appropriated to ladies of rank, by indifcrirainate commerce with llrangers, fiom which their hu(bands cannot rellridl them. The mothers prollitute their daughters even before they arrive at a proper age. The " Naircs," or nobles of Calicut feem to be of a different race from the burgcfTcs; for the latter, both males and feraalts, are of a fmaller fta- ture, and are worfe fliaped, and more uj^ly. Among the " Naires" there are fome men, as well as women, whofe legs are as thick as tlie body of an ordiuai-y man. This defor- mity is not the elFecl of difeafc, but commences from their birth. The (kin of thefe legs is hard and rough like a wart ; and, neverthelefs, the perfons aflfeded with it are nimble and adive. This race of men with thick legs, has not multiplied greatly ; either among the " Naires," or the other Indians. However, they appear in other places, and efpecially in Ceylon, where they are faid to be of the race of St. Thomas. Du Buffon's Nat. Hill. vol. lii. p. 99, Eng. Ed. The people of this country have no pens, ink, or paper ; C A L paper; but wriii with a hoJkin on flags that j^row by the iides of liie rivers, which arc fo llrong as lo be durable for tnany years. The diilridil called Cahcut is about 63 miles long, aiid neaily a;; m;iiiy broad. The air is fahibrious, though it has many woods, rivers, and marflies ; the foil is fertile, but it does not produce much grain ; it is fiibj-.tl to inundations from the fuddcn dcfccnt of the mountain-rivers ; and the fea alio has made fuch ravages on the coaft as to oblige the Samorin to transfer his rcfidence from Calicut to Pmiiany. Along the fea coalt, the land is low and fandy, and produces a number of cocoa-trtes. The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms of a good quality. The country alio fnpplics timber for building, white and yellow fanders, cafiia lignca and fillula, nux vomica, and coccuhis indicus. The forells abound with parrots and monkeys, and various forts of game: they have plenty of fi(h, and their mountains yield iron. The Samorin is faiJ to be able to raile an army of 100,000 men. Calicut, the capital of the country above defcribed, is fituate on the coad of Malabar. This city is remarkable for being the firll Indian port vifited by European fliipping. Vafco de Gania, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and purfuing his navigation along the fouth-eall of Africa, arrived at the city of Mehnda ; and condudted by the pilots of this civilized and commercial city, he failed acrols the Indian Ocean, and landed at Calicut, on the 226 of May 149S. This was at that time the molt flourifliing place on the Malabar cnall. The Samorin, or monarch ofihe coun- try, aftoniflied at this unexpetled vifn of an unknown peo- ple, whofe afpeft, arms, and manners, bore no refemblance to any of the nations accullomed to frequent his harbours, and who arrived in his dominions by a route hitherto deemed imprafticable, received them, at firft, with that fond admi- ration which is often excited by novelty. But in a (hort time, as if he had been infplred with forefight of all the ca- lamities now approaching India by this fatal communication opened with the inhabitants of Europe, he formed various fchemes to cut off Gama and his followers. But from every danger to which he was cxpofed, either by the open attacks, or fecret machinations of the Indians, the Portuguefe admi- ral extricated himfelf with fingular prudence and intrepidity, and at laft failed from Calicut with his (hips loaded, not only with the commodities peculiar to that coaft, but with many of the rich produftions of the eaftem part of India. Calicut, though much fallen iu its confequence, is fti'.l a large town, containing about five or fix hundred honfes, built of wood, or bricks baked in the fun, in the midll of which are beautiful gardens. Thus circumftanced, it is three leagues m circumference, including a large village or fuburb, inhabited by fifhermen. It is governed by a viceroy, but wants a re- n-ular police ; and its commerce, which is Ihll not inconfi- derable, on account of a convenient river by which tenk- wood is brought down from the neighbouring mountains, is much oppreffed by burdenfome duties, generally farmed by Mahometans. The coall is low, and affords no fhelter, and the only acccfs to it is in fniall flat-bottomed boats. But though it has no harbour, it affords to the flilps that vifit it good riding in the open fea, at the diliance of three leagues from the (horc The Englilh fattory, which for- merly fubfilbcd in this place, is removed to Ttilicherry. N. lat. ii° 18'. E. long. 76° 4'. CALIDRIS, in Oniilhohgy,a fpecies of Scolopax that inhabits Europe and America, and well known in this coun- try by the name of rcd-(hank. The bill is llraight and red ; legs fcarlet ; fecondary qnill feathers white. Kramer. This is the totanus of Crillbn, fcolopax totanus of the Fauna Su- ccica, rotbien of Frifch, &c. C A L Olf. A variety of this fpecies is found in China, the body of which is grey above, and beneath white ; lower part of the neck, and (ide of the breall, fpotted with blackifh ; rump and tail barred with black and white. Latham, &c. Calidris, a fpecies of Trinca, the bill and legs of which are blaekitli ; body beneath olivaceous ; rump vari- egated. Gmel. This is the duflcy fandpiper of Latham ; calidris of BrifTou ; rufticola fylvatica of Gefncr and Al- drovandus ; and maubeche of BufToii. Inhabits the mari- time parts of France and Germany. Length uiiie inches and an half. Calidris, a fpecies of Motacilla, called by Latham the hang-ueft warbler ; and American nightingale of Ed- wards. The plumage is grcenifh-brown above ; beneath, fulvous ; ocular line, and another beneath it, black. Gmel. This is ficednla Jamaiccnfis major of BrilTon ; and grand fiqnier de la Jamaiqne of liufion. This bud is of the fize of a robin, and builds a hanging neft; it inhabits Jamaica, and is fnppoftd to be the watchy picket, Spanilh nightingale, or American hang-ncll of Sloane. Calidris nigra, tiie name under which Aldrovandui defcribcs Tringa gamhctia, the red legged horfeman of Albin, and gambet of other Englifh writers. Calidris ,fW/Jvj of Briffon is the Gmelinian Tringa ^r;'- fen; and CALiDRis^r//^a m.-nsr of the fame author : Trin- ga arcnnna of Gmelin. Briffon alfo defcribcs tringa nasvia of Gmelin under the name of calidris nsvia. Calidris bel- lonii of Aldrovandns is fcolopax calidris of Kramer, &c. Calidris, a fpecies of Charadrius, called in Eng- land the fandeiling or curwiliet. The bill and legs of this bird are black ; lores and rump greyifh ; body beneath white, without fpots. Georg. It inhabits the fandy coaftt of England and North America. Length eight inches. Ohf. There is a variety of this fpecies in which the front, and body beneath is cinereous white. CALIDUCTS, from calor, heat, and duco, I lead ; a kind of pipes, or canals, difpofed along the walls ofhoufes and apartments ; ufed by the ancients for the conveyance of heat to feveral remote parts of the houfe, from one common furnace. The ancient calidufts feem both for thrift and ufe prefer- able to the German (loves ; and might even challenge the advantage over our own fafliion, were it not that the verr fight of a fire adds fomething of luftre to a room. CALIDUS, m Entomology, a fpecies ofCiMEx of the middle fize, found in Africa. The colour above is fufcous ; beneath, teftaccous, with black antennx. Fabricius. Calies, in Gtograpiiy, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and New Mark of Braidenburg, chiefly inhabited by weavers of woollen cloth ; 16 miles E. of Rfetz. CALIFORNIA, a traft of country, formerly thought to be an ifland, but now afccrtained to be a peninfula, on the wellern coaft of North America, bounded on the north by the continent, with which it is connefted, on the call by the province of New Mexico and the gulf of California, or the Vermilion St a, which feparates it towards the fonthein part from the continent, and on the fouth and weft by the great Pacific Ocean. This peninfula termiiiatts on the fonth at Cape Lucar or Lucas, in N. lat. ;2'' lo', and W. long. 110°, and extends northward to limits that have not been precifrly afccrtained. Some have fixed its northern extremity at Cape St. Sibaftian, in N. lat. 45" 50'; whilft, others have extended it lo 46^, and have made its length 6oD leagues, and its breadth at different places, 10, 20, 30, and 40 leagues. North Californin, indeed, of which the moft northern fcttlcmeiit is San Franccfco, iu N. lat. j;' 5 F 2 5^'. CALIFORNIA. fV, has no otiitr boiiiui:*, acLOiJinf; t" '''^ ftatiment of La I'croufe, founded on l!ie opinion of the govtinoi of Won- tcrrev, than ihofc of America ilfclf. the latitude of 43^, a ftcond cape or point, to whicli he- j;ave tlie name of Capo Blanco, and that the navigable in- kt or larj^c river which he difcovered is near this cape, and tliat it is a Urait which leads to a great city, named " Qui- 11 .1 - 1 • /-^i nicnt m perfon _ , ;iad encountering every knid ot danger, he at lengtn, \'./.. in 1 !;)<), difcovered this pfniiiful.i, and furvcyed the greater i.ari'uf the g'df w'nich feparatts it from New Mexico. During a long period, however, this country was fo little frequented, that even its form was unknown, and in moll charts it wasreprefented as an ifljnd, and not as a peninlula. In I54<'. Me:ido<;a, viceroy of fJrxico, difpatched Fnm- cifco Marion to fenrch towards the well for the pretended llrait of Aniai. ; but he advanced no higher than the lati- tude of v;6", and made no difcovery. Tiiis fame projeft was renewed in 1542, hy Rodrigncs de CabriUo : but this whole expedition ferved oidy to explore a cape in the lati- tude of 41^ Jo', which was denominated Capo Mendocino, in honour of the Mexican viceroy. In J5;8, fir Francis Drake found, thai in the latitude of 48'', there exifted lands and men ; and after having recoiinoitercd the coaft through an extent of 220 leagues, which terminatts in 37°, he called the country which he had difcovered '« New Al- bion," and took poiTeffi in of it in the name of Elizabeth, queen of England. In the latitude of ;8° 30', he difco- vered the harbour where he made fome (lay, and which has prefei-ved his name. From an account of Drake's voyage, publiihed in a trcatife entitled " The World encompaffed by Fletcher," London, 16^3, 4to. it appears, that he gave to the country which he difcovered the name of " New Al- bion," for two reafons; firll, bccaufe from the nature of the rocks and Ihoals with which the coaft. is fldrted, it pre- fents the fame afpeft as that of England ; and fecondly, becaufe it was reafouable and jull, that this land, till then unknown, (hould bear the name of the country of the firll navigator who landed there. In 1592, a Greek of the iOand of Cephaloivia, Juan de Fuca, in the fervice of Spain, difcovered towards the 48th parallel, a large (Irait by which he pretended to have reached the Atlantic Ocean. Fuca's Ilrait, or inlet, has been found again in our days ; but the communication of the two oceans is neither better proved, Eor more probable, and might perhaps exift only in his ac- count. Sec Fuca's Strait. In i^'Jj, a galleon was fent to make difcoveries on the fhore of California ; but tliL- vef- as he did not make a particular fearch for this inlet, no conclufion can be drawn from his account againll its exift- ence. Moll of the geographical and hydrographical charts place Aguilar's inlet or liver to the fouthward of Capo Blanco; but Tomas Lopez, in liis general chart of Ame- rica, pubhflied in 177:!, lays it down 20 leagues to the northward of that cape, in the latitude of 44°, with this fim- ple indication, " Rio que con-e a I'oefle," river that runs to the weil ; and he makes no mention of the great city Quivira. In 1640, admiral Cartolomeo de Fuente, or lie-. Fonte, is faiJ to have difcovered, towards the parallel of i;,5°, the archipelago of San Lazaro, the river of Los Reyes, fome great lakes, &c. and an eafy pafTage of com- munication between the Great Ocean and the North At- lantic Ocean. This difcovery, inierttd in an account, the authenticity of lich been contcfted, and in whii truth is blended with falfehood, has been confirmed by mo- dern navi.iMtors, as to what regards the archipelago of S;\:i Lazaro, and perhaps an interior lea ; but ilie communica- tion of the two oceans is not better eflablilhed than that which had been opened by Juan de Fuca. About the mid- dle of the lall century, Jofcph Nicolas de Liile, and Phi- lippe Buache, publifhed learned differtations and ingenious fyllems for the purpofe of reconciling the difcoveries of De Fuente on the N. W. coaft of America with what is kriowu befides of that northern part of the new continent. Other geographers and learned perfons have confiaered the ac- count of De Fuente as counterfeit and apocryphal ; and among the latter is Dr. Reinhold Forfter, who, with hio fon George Forfter, accompanied captain Cook \\\ his fe- cond voyage, and to whom vvc are indebted for an excellent " Hiftorj' of the Voyages and Difcoveries, made in the North." M. de la Peroufe alfo exprelTes hi-, thorough dif- belief of the narrative afcribed to admiral le Futiite, and of the reahty of any difcoveries in the contefted channel of San Lazaro, or St. Lazarus. Mr. Mdet Mureau, on the con- trary, acknowledges himfelf one of the ftrongeft partifars for the exiftence of a north-weft pafTage. Indeed, when we confider, that fince the queftion firft arofe concerning a north- fel was unfortunately loft in Port des los Reyes. In 1602, weft pafTage from Europe into the Pacific Ocean, many fci- the Spa'iilh admiral, Sebaftian Vifcaino, or Bifcaino, was entific and capable men have been conftantly on the watch, charged by count de Monterrey, viceroy of New Spain, to and eager to purfue the inquiry, it is not at all probable that explore, to the north of California, a harbour that might afford an afylum to the galleons on their return from Ma- nilla : he difcovered a commodious one, fafe and well fitu- ated, in the latitude of ,^6° 40', to which he gave the name of the viceroy Monterrey, and which is fince become the principal fettlemtnt of the Spaniards on the N. W. coaft. It is afterted, that a fmall veffel belonging to his fquadron, commanded by Martin de Aguilar, found between 40 and 44 degrees, the mouth of a great river which bears his name on the geographical maps. It is added, that, having fuc- cecded in doubling cape Mendocino, which, till then, had only been perceived, he difcovered on the ijth of January 1603, 30 leagues more to the northward than this cape, in fuch voyages as are related by Mureau, if really made, Ihould not have been fully verified ; and that there fhould remain no other traces of them than a kind of vague tradi- tion. During almoft a whole century, if we except the con- tefted voyage of De Fuente, the weft coaft of North Ame- rica was not vifited by any of the nations by which it was conquered, or by any of thofe which have been fince called thither by the allurements of commerce. But a'thouglx Spain made no maritime expedition, fhe did not neglett to pufh by land her difcoveries towards the north ; and the ex- curfions which (lie planned and ordered, st different periods, led to a difcovery, to the caftward of California, of the rich CALIFORNIA. ricli provincej of Sonora and Cinaloa-, which fee. In 1/184, the marquis de la Lagiiria, \iceroy of Mexico, difpatchcd two fliips with a lenijcr, to m^ke difcovtries of the lake of California, cf which he brought back but an indiflireut ac- count ; lliough he was among the full who afcertained its bL'ing joined to the continent of America, and contiguous to that of Afia. It is faid, .however, that we owe to fa- ther Caino, a German jc-fuilv the abfolate certainty that California is a pcninfula, joining to the continent of New Mexico, and the more northern parts of South America. He hndtd on the former from the ifland of Sumatra, and palled to the latter without crofTmcr any other water than the river Azal, into wliich the Rio Colorado falls, in about the 35th degree of north latitude. Dr. Robert fon obfervcs, tl'iat the uncertainty of geograplicrs with refped to this pijir.t is remarkable, as Cortes feemed to have' furveyed its coall wU!i great accuracy. The archbi(hop of Toledo has publifiii-d from the original, in the polVefiion of the mar- cjuis del Vallc, the defcendant of Cortes, a map drawn in jj-'^i, by tiie pilot Domingo Caflillo, in which California is laid down as a peninfula, llretcliing out nearly in the fame direclion which is now given to it in the bell maps, and the point where Rio Colorado enters the guH is marked with precifion.- Towards the clofe of the ijth century, the jefuits, who had great merit in exploring llie ueglecled province of California, and in civilizing its rude inhabitants, imperceptibly acquired a don>iniop. over it as complete as thar vvluch they pofTcired in their millions in Paraguay, and they laboured to introduce into it the fame policy, and to govern the natives by the fame maxims. In order to pre- vent the court of Spain from conceiving any jdaloufy of their defigns and operations, they feein itudionlly to have depreciated the country, by reprefenting the climate as fo difagreeable and infalubrious, and the foil as fo barren, that nothing but a zealous defire of converting the natives could have induced them to fettle there. Several public-fpirited citizens endeavoured to undeceive their fovereigns, and to give them a better view of California; but without effeiR;. At length, on the expuHlon of the Jefuits from the Spani.1i dominions, the court of Madrid, as prone at that jundnre fo fufped the purity of the order's intentions, as formerly to confide in them with implicit trufl, appointed don Jofeph Galvez, whole abilities afterwards raifcd him to the hiijh rank of miniller for the Indies, to vifit that peninlula. His account of the country was favourable ; he found the pearl- filhery on its coafts to be valuable, and difcovered mines of gold of a very promifing appearance. From its vicinity to Cinaloa and Sonora, it is probable, that if the population of thelc provinces (hould increafe to the degree that may reafonably be expcSed, California may, by degrees, receive from them fuch a recruit of inhabitants, as to be no longer reckoned among the defolate and ufelcfs diftrifts of the Spa- nilh empire. To this intcll'gent miniller, Spain is indebted for a new dillribution of government m its American pro- vinces, and for feveral important alterations in the ftate of their police and revenue, as well as a general reformation of the tribunals of juftice in America. Since the limits of the viceroyalty of New Spain have been confiderably circum- fcnbed, four of its moll remote provinces, viz. Sonora, Ci- naloa, California, and New Navarre, have been formed iuto a feparate government ; and in time, the beneficial eil'cds of this arrangement may be vei^ confiderable. Under the im- mediate infpeftion of a governor, to whom thefe rich pro- vinces are fpecially committed, they mull rife into importance and profpcrity : and in common with many otiier dillric^s of America, long deprelfed by the latigui>r and feeblentfs na- tural to provinces which eompofe the extremities of an over-grown empire, they may be animated with vigour and aftivity, wlien brouglit fo near the feat of power as lo feel its invigoratin,: influence. It \vas not till the year 1 74 I, that Becring and Tcliirikow, in the lervice of Rulfia, difcovered the nortii-well coall of Ame- rica; the former, towards the ySth parallel ; the latter, towiirdi the j6th. Sir.cethat period, the difcovcries of the Rudhns have extended from the parallel of ';6° to the moll north- ern part of the well coall ; and they have comprifed, in t'le lurveys which they have made of it, the peninfula of Alalka, and tlie long cliain of the Aleutinn illands, both bclongiiig to tlie continent of America. After a period of }6^ years of lethargy, the fpirit of dif- covery, and the talle for expeditions to die north, revived among the Spaniards. Accordingly, in l-'t), veflds were dilpatched from tlie port of San Bias, under the command of donVinceiiteVila,in order to cliabliHi a prefidioat the harbour of San Die-go, in N. lat. ,Xj° 40', ofTthe illhmus of California; and another at that of Monterrey in N. lat. ;6^ 3S' 2-^' ; but this expedition r.ffoided no difcovery ; liowcver, after a whole year of refearches and fatigue, theS'paniards fuccctded m lind- ing again tlie harbour of .\Ionterrcy, the latitude of which had been indicated to them by Vifcaino in 1602. Difeoveries iu higher latitudes were fufpended at this time ; bfcav.fe an ob- jeiil of greater importance, and for the accompiifhmcnt of which, Don Joftpli Galvtz had been commiifioned from Spain, occupied the whole attentio-i, and ail the elforls of government. In 1775, a fecond expedition, imdcr the di- redlion of Don Jtnn de Ayala, and of his pilot Don Fran, cifco Antonio Maurelle, 'effe-cled the difcovery of fome cape-s and of fome bays and harbours between the 47th and 57tli parallels. This voyage made known the iiarbonr of Trinidad in N. lat. 41° 7' ; Cape Mefari, in 45° 50' ; Cape St. Augullin, in 53°; port Bucarelli, in 5-5° 17'; mount San Jacinto, and Cape del Engano, in 57° 2'; Guadalupa bay. in ';7° 11', in its north part; the harbour of Los Re- nitdioi, in 57° 18'; and fir Francis Drake's harbour of Francifco, in 38° iS'. A third and a fourth voyage i:i 1778 and 1779, made no additional difcovcrv ; and the fc- fond merely afforded the alfurance tluu the Ruffians had formed fixed fcttlements on feveral points of the Irgh lati- tudes. But, as far back as ]77y, while the Spaniards wrre employed in a minute furvey of their port Bucarelli (fee Bif- CiRiiiLi), liie firll of navigal^irs, as he is delcrvedly deno- minated by M. Fleurieu, Captain Cook, carried his talent.s, experience, and information, towards tlie r.orth-wefl coa'.l of America; and Europe owes to his laboiious refearches the firll certain knowledge that llie has had of the well pait of the new world. He made the land on the 7ih of M;:.-c!i 177S, in the latitude of 44''. Tiiwarted by the winds, he could only diiUnguidi a few capes or points of land, called Cape Gregory, Cape Perpetiia, and Cape FouKveallier : tlie ft. II of the three, or Cape Grejrory, which lie places in 43° 10', appears to be Aguila.-'s C.po' Blanco, fo called by him in 160,3. He loll the land again till he reached it ili 48°, where he perceived, at a diilancc, in 48° 1 5', a cape which he named Cape Flattery. At length, after long llruggHng with advcrfe winds, he ran in tor the land, in the latitude of 49° j6', and anchored in a bay which he (iril called King George's Sound, and known among the inha- bitants of the country by the name of " Nootka." This Nootka Spain claimed in 1790, as an integial part of her American dominions. Having examined a tew points above the J6lh parallel, he difcovered, in 60°, Prince William's Sound, and Cook's river ; and having rounded the penin- (ula ofAlafica, he vifited fome of the' Aleutian illands (fee Aleutian), and thence advancing to the highell Ijtitndes whiuh CALIFORNIA. I • tSc ice pfrrilts n:iv!gators to reach, tie blended liii . uic3 with thole which the Riiifians had made fincc t le v.-ur 1-4^ Cjok's voyage made known lo Kn^lnnd the iiew and valuable articKs which thofe lands offered ti) her commerce ; it fljewed the pnllihllltv of livalhi.g th. KuUians in the fur trade, and of (hiring with them the great profits that mav be obtained in barter with the empire ot China, by nia. The ij mifilanj of the dopartmcnt of Loretto are, San Vinccnte, S. Domingo, E! Rofarlo, S. Fernainkz, S. Francef'jo de Borgia, S. Gertrude. S. Ignacio, La Gua- dalupe, Santa Rofalia, La Conception, S. Joftf, S.Fran, cefoo Xavier, Loretto, S. Jofef dc Cabo Lncar, and To- dos los Sanftos. About 409 Indian converts, coUeiSed round thcle 15 parithes, are the only fruit of the long .he ikin; of animus, ...ieh .e the treajures of the ^. of ^P^I^^'^^^^tj^rjaS'd:;,:'^:^^':^^^- on^ r ;:: i^rr-allll^^^f a ':tirlr:o^^^^^^ oneSpani,bv,n.ge. Inded the climate is uLahliyandti,^ uit t II iwv. w '^ ,, ■ L ■r„u.rf<, thrniiohnut the province of Sonora, whicn lorms ihe boundary ot the VL-r- cDcratmns embrace the two hemilpntres tnrongnnui mc j^ , , ,, ic ■ .. ./ ,, , XTe circumference of the globe." In I7S6, La Pcroufe m.'ion fea to the weftward, and (_ ahforn.a to the northward, d.reaed hio conrfe towards the N.W. coail of America, and is much more attraft.ve to the Spaniards, who trnd mere a made the land on Beering's mount St. Elias, in the latitr.de fertile foil, and abundance of irines ; which are, 111 their of 60° ; he ranged along the lands of the coutinent for an eilimat.on_, more important objectsthan the pearl fifnery of extent ' Monterre of 470 letenes from that parallel to the harbour of the pininfula, which requires a confid^rable number of laves rrev, and particularly applied himfcif to the examina- who can dive, and whom u is difficult to procu.x-. \ "North _; ,l,;,f,. parts of the coalt from which captain Cook had CaUh.rma, notwithftanding its great d'^^^'ce frc^i Mexico, been repelled by contr.iry winds ; he dikoveicd a tine liar- bour in N. iat. 58' 57', which lie called " Port des Fran^ais," (which fee); and in the courfe of hi» furveys, which were tion of appei-is to combine much greater advantages. For an aC' count of its prefidins, fee New Albion. The Francifcans ellablulied their firll niiffion here in 17 70 : and they have now ten, comorchending 5143 converted Indians. The piety of the Spaniards has kept up the prefidios at a gr'eat cxpence, apparently from no other motive than that of Of Monterrev, and the adjacent country. La Pcroufe has converting and civihzing the Indians of thefe countries. But - ■' , . ■ . .11. 1 r ^ ^ from later difcoveries, a new branch of commerce may pro- both minute and accurate, he verified and confirmed fome of the difcoveries of 1775, which the Spaniards had fcarcely indicated. given a particular account, of which we (liall avail ourfelve; jundcr tint article. This is the place of refidence of the go 'vernor of the two California;, the northern and fouthern, or the New and Old. Tliis government is fubordinate to the vice-royalty of Mexico ; and La Pt-roufe informs us, that it extends to more than Soo leagues in circumference, for the maintenance of which 282 foldiers of cavalry are found fufficient. Thefe garrifon five fmall forts, and furnilli de- tachments of four or five men to each of the 25 miffions, or parilhes, into which the provinces of Old and New Califor- s cure to Spain more folid advantages than the richcft mines of Mexico ; and the falubrity of the air, the fertility of the foil, and the abundance of furs, for which they have a cer- tain market in China, give to th'S part of Amerioa the mod important advantages over Old Cahrornia, whofe unwhole- fomencfs and fterility cannot be compenlated by a few pearls collected from the bottom of the fea. Before the Spaniards fettled in this country, the Indians of California only cultivated a little maize, and almoft en- divided. Thtfe fmall guards fiiffice to keep in fub- tirely fubfifted on filhing and hunting. No country abounds jeftion about 50,000 wandering Indians, who often change their refidence according to the fithing and hunting feafons, and who are fpread over this vaft extent of the American continent. Of thefe, about 10,000 have embraced Chrilli- anity. Thefe Indians are generally little and feeble, and evince no figns of that love of independence and liberty, which chara6\erifes the northern nations, to whofe arts and induftry they are flrangers. Their complexion very nearly rtfembles that of thofe negroes, whofe hair is not woolly : that of this nation is long, and very ftrong, and they cut it four or five inches from the roots. Several of tliem have more with all forts of tirti and game. Haies, rabbits, and (lags, are very common ; otters and fea-wolves abound to- wards the north ; and in winter they kill a great number of bears, foxes, wolves, and wild cats. The coppices and plains are full of fmall, crclled partridg^-s, which flock to- gether in covies of ^ or 400 : they are fat and well fla- voured ; and the trees afford lodgment to a vaft variety of birds and fowl. As to the fertility of the foil in the coun- try adjoining to the prefidio of Monterrey, it exceeds con- ception. The harvefts of maize, barley, wheat, and peas, can only be compared to thofe of Chili ; and the average beards, while others, according to the miflionaries, never produce of corn is from 70 to 80 fold. Fruit trees are iii- had any ; thongh this is a point not decided in the country itfclf. The governor, wlio had travelled innch in the in- terior part of the country, and h^d lived with the favages during 15 years, affured La Pcroufe that thofe who had no beard, had extrafted it with bivalve ilitUs, ufed as pincers. The prefidcnt of the miffions, however, who had refided a? long in California, maintained the contrary-. Thefe In- dians arc very expert in the ufe of the bow, but they rarely pull the bow till they creep within 15 paces ot their prey. In hunting, they crawl on the ground, with flags' heads fixed on their own, and thus approach a herd of flags, till being within reach of them, they kill them %vith their ar- rows. Loretto is the only prefidio or military fort of Old therto fcarce ; but the climate is well adapted to them, be- ing nearly that of the foutherhmoft provinces of France. The cold is never more fevere, r.nd the heats of fummer are much more moderate, in confeqiience of the perpetual mills, which fecundate the earth with coiiftant moifture. Tlie fo- rcfls contain the pme-apple fir, c'yprefs, ever-green oak, and weflcrn plane-tree. La Pcroufe pays a tribute of fingular refpcft to the monks of this prefidio ; and contrafls their difpofition and condutf, very much to their advantage, againft thofe of the moiks of Chili. The huts of the. Indian villages, in both Ca'ifornias, are the moft miferable that can be conceived. Their form is circular, and fix feet in diameter by four feet high. Some California, on the eaflern co.ill of that peninfula. Its gar- flakes about the fize of the arm being fixed in the ground, rifon confifls of 5^. cavalry men, tmd furnilhes detachments and brought together in an arch at top, compofe their to the If, foliowmg miffions, of which the funftions are frame, and eight or ten trulTes of ilraw, badly arranged performed by the Dominican monks, who have fucceeded upon thefe flakes, defend the inhabitants more or Icfs fiom the Jcfuits and Francifcan'. Thefe lafl, however, remain the rain and wind. The Indians adhere to this nwde ot cou- m undifturbcd pofi'cITion of the ten mifiions of New Califor- ftruding their habitations, nolwithftanding the exhortations of CALIFORNIA. cf the miffionnnes, allet^ing;, tlint they love tlic open air, and that th -y can ealily ict fire to tlicir htmres wlicii they arc too miu-h a'Mioyed l>y Il,-as, to which vermin tlicy arc liib- jeft, and then rebuild them in an hour or two. Bclider, thefe habiiations arc molt fuitable to thole indtpenJcnt In- dians who are perpetually chaniring their abode. Tlie co- lonr of ihefe Indians, the houle of the monks, their ma- gazines built of brick and plailleted, the threlhing floor on whieli they tread out thtir corn, the cattle, the liorfts, and, in fliort, eveiy thing prefented the appearance of a planta- tion in St. Domingo, or any other colony. The men and women are alfimbled by tile found of a bell, and a monk leadsthem to work, to church, and to all their employments. The monks are the temporal, as well as fpiritual Inperior.-s, and the whole produce of the eanh is committed to their mnna'^ement. The day is divided into feven hours of work, ' and two of pi'ayer ; but four or five on Sundays and feail- days, which are wholly devoted to reft and religion.^ wor- fliip. Corporal punilhments are inflifted on the Indians of both fexes, who negleft their pious exercifes ; and many crimes, which in Europe are referred to divine jullice, are puniflied with chains or the ftocks. As foon as a new con- vert is baptized, he is under the obligation of a perpetual vow; and if he defert the religious fociety, and return to his relations, he is lummoned three times to come back ; and if he refufe, a party of foldiers is fent by the authority of the governor, to force him away from his family, and eondutt him to the niiffions, where he is condemned to re- ceive a certain number of lafhes. The Indians, like the mif- fionaries, rife with the fun, and then go to prayer and to mafs. During this time, barley-meal is boiled in a cauldron, and the mefs, which the Indians call " atole," and which they much like, is feafoned neither with butter nor fait. This r^'pail; occupies about three-quarters of an hour, after which, all goto their refpciflive occupations, under the iupeiintend- :ince of one or two monks. The employnient ol the v/o- men, bclldes that of conducting their honlehoid affairs, is the management of their children, and the mailing and grind- ing of their grain ; they alio fpin tlitir wool, and manufac- ture fome coarfe ftulTs. At noon the bells ring for dinner, and the Indians partake of a mefs fimilar to that ot their breakfaft, called " poufTole," except that it is thicker, and contains, befides the corn and mai/,e, peas and beans. From two o'clock they return to work till four or five, and clofe the dav with prayers, and with another mefs of atole. The di'.lributio I of thefe mefies is faithfully made ; and the Icaft dilhoneiy is pimilh-d by the lalh, which is ordered by In- dian mao;iIirates, called " Cacieiues." The pumfliment in- fiifted on the vvomea is private ; but that of the men is public, that it may ferve as an example. Tlieir rewards confift in fmall dillributions of grain ; and on fealldays, their m.efs is beef, which many eat raw. Such is their honelly, that no example occurs of their robbing one another, though they have no other door than a trnfs of ftraw laid acrofs the en'rauce wlieii the whole fa- mily is ablent. The men in thele miffions have facriiiced mo e to Chriftiaiiity than the women; tor to them poly- gamy was allowed, and it was even the en Horn to marry all the fillers of a fani'ly. The inoidts make thcmlelves the Tuardia'.'.s of female virtue ; for, about an hour after iiippcr, they lock up all thofe wh< fe hufbanda are abfent, as Well as all girls above nine years old, and place them utider the cart of matr ins durin ; the day ; but all thefe pfcautions arc in fome cafes infuffieint. The conv. rted Indians retain all tlieir ancient culloms, that are not forbidden by their new religion ; the fame Iiuls, the fame games, and the fame drcircs. The richeft wear a cloak of ottcr-Iliui, coveiiug tlie I:iiiis, and rencliing below the middle : others wear only a p'ece of cloth to co^er their n.ikediicfs, aiul a lillle cloak of rabbit fkin, covering the (houltlcrs, airj uacliing lo the loins, and tied with a pack-thread under t.'ie chin. The women's drefi* conlills of a cl- ak of Hag's- Jkin badly tanned. Young girls, under nine years old, have only a girdle round the loi'is, and the boys are wholly naked. The hair of both men and women is cut four or live inches from the roots. The Indians of the " Rancherias," or villages of indepen- dent Indinns, having no iron iittnfils, perform this opera- tion witl) fire-brands, and jiaint iheir bod'c; red, which tlicy change into black when in mourning. They retain an affctlionate remetnbrance of their deccafed friends, and are cafily melted into tears by the mention of tlicm : ncvcrthc- lefs, children fcarcely know their own father, bccanfc they defert his hut as foon as they are able to provide for tliem- felves ; but they are more durably attachetl to their mother, who brines them up with care and tendcrnef>. The old men of the Ranchtrias, who are no longer able to hunt, live at the joint expence of the whole village, and are treated with general lefpeft. Their arms are the bow and arrow, pointed curioufly with a flint. Tlitfe Indians neither eat their prifoiieri, nor their enemies killed in war ; al- though when they have conquered, and put to death fome chiefs, and very brave men in the field of battle, they eat fome morfels of their bodies, thus doing homage to their valour, and apprehending that futh food would increafc their courage. They are accullomed, like the Canadians, to take oft the fcalp of the vanquillied, and to tear out their eyes, wliich they have the art of preferving from cor- ruption ; and it is their piaAice to burn their dead, and to depolit their aflies in a moral. The mixed government ex- ercifed in the millions of California is, with regard to the Indians, a real theocracy ; for they are taught to believe that their fuperiors hold an immediate and conllant inter- courfe with God, and that they bring him down each day upon the altar. Und.r favour of this opinion, the fathers live in the midft of the villages in perfcft fecurity, nor do they Ihut their doors during the night. Murder is very uncommon even among the independent tribes, and is pu- nilhed only by general contempt ; but if a man falls under the united attack of feveral aifailants, he is fuppofed to have dcfervcd his fate, as he had drawn upon him fo many enemies. M- la Peroufe obfervcs, that the fenfe of talle is that which thefe people moll delight in gratifying ; and the word " Miilich," which in their language fignifies a good man, likewife denotes favoury food. Among other peculiarities of thefe people is their gaming ; Ufs remark- able for the ingenuity of their games than for the nature of the flakes. Among the Indians of the iniflinn.s, the com- mon ftake is beads ; but among the independent Indians, the favours cf their women are the prizes. New Califor- nia, we are to'.d, cannot yet reckon a fingle lettler, not- W'thlianding its fertility; except a few foldiers who arc married to Indian womeir. La Peroufe obfervcs, that the admiuillration of the villages converted to Chriflianity would be more favourable to population, if property and a certain degree of liberty fornied its bafis. However, fince the ellabhfli:vent of the ten dilTeient miffions of North Caiifon ia. the holy fathcishave baptized 7,01 Indians of both I' :< s, and have buried only .i.jSS. Almoll all the Francilean minionarien are Europeans, and they have a col- lege and monallerv at Mexico, whofe guardian is, in Ame- rica, ihe general ul his order; and this houle has its fuperior in Europe. The fea-ottcr fln of Tiberius, and \vhon he determined to dil- ernce, ho rtfo!v;-d to advance his obfcqiiioiis grandlon ; and havinf silovved hi-n to afTiimc the " toga vinlis," he in- vellcfhim with the di'^aitv of pontiff, and mtirtiated to the fcnate hi= dtHgn of appointinii h'm his ruccefTor to the em- pire Tiberius, however, well knew the natural ferociimr- ueh of his terripsr; bnt he hoped that his paffion for mudc aod dmwn-', and the dcbauchtry to which he was aod dec', w -uld b: the means of foftenin.r his favage difpofition. His hopes indeed were dehifive ; and he tliereforc angiired the injuries he would comn.it, and called him a public pell, tliat lived to plague him and mankind. To this purpofe he de- feribed hin° as " a fcrpent that would be fatal to the Ro- mans, and a Phaeton that would fet fire to the ur.iverfe." In a convtrlation about Sylla, when young Caius ridiculed his characler, Tiberius, wliofe natural penetration ltd him into a thorough acquaintance with his charafter, obferved to him ; " You will have all Sylla's vices, and not one of his virtues." And, on another occal'ion, when he had his two gi-andfons before him, he embrjiced Gemellus, with te:irs in his eyes, and faid to Caius, whofe countenance manifellcd difpleafurc, " You will flay him, and another fhall flay you." Tiie firll wife of Caius was Claudia, the daughter of Marcus Silanus, a fenaior of diftind^ion ; but his debauchery in liis yout'.i was fuch, that he w:is dcteitcd by his grandmother Antonia. in fcandalous familiarities with his own filter Dru- filla. UjV'.n the death of Claudia, he intrigued with Ennia, the wife of Macro the pratorian prefeft, who concurred in this infamous bufinefs, and, in confequence of it, aflifted him by his infl-ieice in fccuring the fucccffion. Although Tibe- rius, notwithllanding his declared intention, hefitated about the appointment of a fuceeflbr, iufomuch that he is faid by will to have joined with Caius his other graudfou Tiberius Gemellus, as co-heir ; Caius was acknowledged and pro- claimed emperor immediately on the death of his grandfather by the Prretorian guards, and Macro was fent to the fenate with Tiberius's will in order to have it annulled. In order to accomplifh this purpofe, he vcprefented, on the part of Caius, that Tiberius was not found in his underftanding wlien he made it, and that this plainly appeared by his ap- pointing a child to govern them, who was not yet old enough to fit among them. The feiiators who hated Tiberius thought ihefe reafons fufficient, and accordingly fet afide the will. This event happened A. U. C. 790, A.D. 37. The fequel of this reign was marked with a variety of tranfac- tions, which indicated abfolute infanity. At its commence- ment, indeed, it was the occafion of univerfal joy and con- gratulation ; Co that in three months after the accclTion of Caius to the empire, no lefs than 160,000 viflims were facrificed in thankfgiving to the gods ; and nothing was I'een for feveral months but feafting and rejoicing through the whole extent of the Roman empire. Caius began his reign by feveral popular atls, which fetmed to encourage thefe high expcftations. He profeffed great refpeiil for the fe- nate« rtleafed ail that had been imprifoned by the orders of Tiberius, recalled all e>iiles, abolifhcd for the time to come all accufations pf high treafon, and put a flop to all proceed- ings that had already began. He pretended to burn all papers relating to charges of this kind, left by Tiberius; but in the iffiie it appeared, that, v.-hiUl he preferved the ori- ginals, he burnt only copies. He alfo difplayed a pious and atltc^ionate rcfpeft to the memory of all his deceafed rela- tions, and treated thofe who furvived with every token of honour. He uifchar^ed all the legacies that bad been be- 5 C A L qneathed bf Tiberius and Livia ; and exhibitrd his genero- fity, as it was called, in largeflVs to the people, and in pub!'c fpeftacles which were conduced with extraordinary fplcn- dour and magnificence. He even aiTecied a regard for liberty, by relloring to the people the right of eledion to certain offices of which Tiberius had deprived thcra, and by allowing the works of feveral patriotic writers to be freely circulated ; and \vii\\ a pretended zeal for morals, he bar.iflied all t!ie minifters of the infamous debaucheries of his prcde- ctffi'i-. This condufi; was in a high degree gratifying to the people ; and a dancjerousillntfs, with which the emperor was attacked at this period, caufed general alarm and proc^uctd txpreflions of concern and wiflies for his recovery. As foon as he was reflored to his ufual health, his coiiduei appeared to be quite changed, and to mark a characler the m- ft de- praved and deteftable. The firfl aft by which he difcovercd his natural ferocity was the death of the young and incffen- live Gemellus ; and this was foon fucceeded by that of his father-in-law Silanus, and of his benelaflors Macro and his v.-ife. Many fer.ators and perfons of dillindiou were alfo facrillced to his political jealoufy ; and others became vic- tims either to the mere wantonntfs of fport, or his innate love of crueltv. Of his. incefluous paiTion he gave proof by marrying his fi.ler DrufiUa, on occafion of whofe dri.th he abandoned himfelf to the phrenzy of grief. As an iulhince of his inianity, wc may mention his claim of divine honours, together with his inftitution of priefts and creftion of tem- ples for the worfliip of his own divin:ty ; whilll he hurled defiance again'.l Jupiter. Similar to this and m.ore extravpj. gant in degree was the h"nour he paid to his horfe " Incf- tatus ;" for which he eredted a palace, afligned domellics, and a public table, a-.d cordlniCied a marble liable and ivory rack, giving him gilt barley and wine out of a golden cup, and fwearing bv his health and fortune ; and, bcfidcs, he is faid to have dcfigned him for conful. He married and re- pudiated feveral wives, and at lc!:gth his attachment was per- manently fixed to Ciefonia, who, without youth and beauty, and although fhe had been the mutlKr of three children by another huiband, contrived to engage h>6 affcftion by a cor- refponding difiolutenefs of manners. Notwithllanding innu- m.erable enormities, which rendered him the jufl ohjcft of de- teftation, and for which the only plea t C A I. 'C-ccdfcl, he employed bis men in cuttinpr Jowii trees for eredl- iiijT tr. pliics on acccnint of his figr.al vifiory. After his return lie opprifTfJ the province of Gaul with enormous exift'ons and confii'cations, in order to fill his cxh.au'led treafury. In a prctciided expedition afjainft Britain, he inarched his whole army to the coafl oppofite to the id ind, and having advanced in a ma^riiificcn;: jjalley to a fniall dillance from the fliore, he fuddenly returned and or;'ercd a fignal of battle to be given ; after which the foldiers, who were allonilhed at this farce, were directed to fill their helmets wi'Ai cockle-fliclls ; and the whole ended in a trifling donative to the viftorious troops. This folly was fucceedcd by a very ferious dcfign of cruelty, which was that of mafla- cring or at kail ot decimating all the legions of the German army, which had mutinied, in his infancy, againft his father Gtrmgnicus ; but the legionarico, fufpefting his intention, txiok up their arms ; and the favage fled hnllily to Rome, and wreaked his vengeance on the pallive fenate. His na- tural ferocity was exafperated by the difcovery of a plot, which had been formed againft him, for which many perfons ■fnfVi.red death, and his fillers were banifncd and defpoiled of their property. At length he feems to have refolved upon the death of the whole fenate and principal knights ; buf his deligns were rendered abortive by the refcntnient of ■Caflius Chorea, tribune of a pratorian cohort, whom the emperor had made the fiibjedt of his indecent jeiis and raillery ; accordingly he determined to difpatch the monfter, and to make an cflort for the reftoration of a free govern- ment. Availing hlmfelf of the concurrence of fome perfons of fuperior rank, who had been infuked and inj'ired by the emperor, a confpiracy was formed, of w hich Chxrea was the principal agent. The games annually ex'iibited in January to the hono'.ir of Augullus were chofcn for the feafon of execution. While the empen.r was paffing from the theatre to the palace, in a gallery leading to the baths, •Chaerea gave him a wound in the neck. The other co"- fpirators then rudied on, and with redoubled blows dif- patc!.ed the moniler, in whofe defence no perfon appeared. His mangled body remained on the fpot till night, when his wife, or his friend, king Agrippa, caufcd it, halt burnt, to be depohted in the earth. In order completely to tinifh the ■ race of the tyrant, Chierea deputed an officer to put to death his wife Cxfonis, and his infant daughter, who was faid to relcmble her father in ferocity. An uuiverfal hatred of the tyrant manif.-lled itfelf immediately after his death. His ilatues were demoliflied, his afls abrogated, and his memory as much as poifible extinguifhtd. After a reign of three years and ten months, A. D. 41, Caligula perilhed, and left behind him a charafler univerfally detefted. It is faid that his form, countenance, gefture. and manners, exhibited traces that were fhocking ard portentous. DelHtute of natural talents and education, he merely applied with fome degree of di'igence to the lludy of elocution ; but his chief attention was direfted to the arts of nuifrc, dancing, gladiatorial ext r- cifes, and public fpeilrcles. He was capricious and mutable to a degree hordfiring on madncfs ; and was conltant only in preferving fome form of vice or extravagance. Seneca ob- ferves of him, " that he feem.s to have been brought ferlh by nature for the expr-fs purpcfe of (hewing how much niif- chief could be tffeiled by the greateft depravity, fnpported by the highell power." Sueton. Dio. Cailius. Crevier. Gen. Diog.- CALIGUS A5.CTUS, in Entcmohgy, the name by which Mdilen diftinguiflies the fpecies of IMonoculus, 9ISC1NUS. The Caligi of this writer cor.fi'l ot thofe Mo- nacnli which have the eyes inarginal, tvvo fctaccous ant«nn«, aad from eight to ten legs. C A L CAI.ILAVA, orTAYAL'As, in Grr^mthy, a proviuie of the i(la:d .Li:i:i>n or Manilla in ih.e ]'.j;l 1ikI:c5, odj inivjr to liiilayan and Cairnrines, aid rxtelldmg to Capt Uondci, and up the country to Manban, on the oppofite coall of the ifland. It is larger than Bniayaii and is more po- pulous. CALIMERE, Punt or C.cfc. See Calymehb Pc'mt. CALIMNA. SeeCALMiMA. CALIMUS. See Callimus. CAI^IN, thi; name of a fort of mixed rr.etal, feeraingly compofed of lead and tin. It is piepared by the Cliinefii; and they make feveral ulrnfils of it, :,8 tea-car-nilUrs, coffee- pots, and the like. In fome jihic.s alfo they co»er thtir houfes with it a-; we do with l.ad. CALINACRON, in /Incitiit Cco^ral^lvt a promontory of Bithynia, at a fmall dillancc from the 'i'l.racian Bof])!io- rus ; called alfo Mclarna. CALIMDA, or Calypva, a maritin-e town of Aii.i Minor, in Caria ; feated on a fmall navigable rivir tit fome diilance from the fea. It gave name to mountains liluate on the N. W. of the town. CALINDQi.A, a to.vii of Macedonia, in Mygdoria. Alfo, a town of India, on thisfiJe of the Ganges. Pto- lemy. CALINEA, in ^o.'jrj'. (Aublet, JnlT.) Set Do 11 o- C.VRPUS. C.^LINGiE, in ytncknt Geogrnf'hy, a people of India, on the fouth-eall coall, on this lide of the Ganges, men- tioned by Pliny, and pertaining to t!ie Brachmans. Calince Gangariil/s, a people of India, difierent fiom the former, on this fide of the Ganges, whole capita! was rartl-.alis. Plinv. CAIJNGAPATAM, in Gca^raf-hy, a town of Hin- dooilan, in the circar of Cicacole, 1 1 miles li. N.K. of Cica- cole. N. lat. jS-" iS'. E. long. ^4° 20'. CALINGII, in Ana^nt Geography, a people of Arabia Felix, whofc capital was Mariaba. Pliny. CALINGON, Sfgogora or Ponta de Pnlmeiras, a pro- montory of India, on this fide of the Ganges, S.W. of the moil wefterly trouth of the Ganges, on the confines of the country of the Calir.gse. Ph"y places it at 61^ milts from the mouth of the Ganges. CALINI, or CALLYNUDni, in Geogrtiphy, a river o£ Hindooftan, which joins the Ganges near Canoge. CALINTPAXA, in ^Indent Geography, a toivn of In..- dia, on this fide of the Ganges, mentioned by Pliny, and probably the fame with Canoge, which fee. CALJONG-Cakpanv, in Geography, a town of llis idar.d of Borneo. CALIORDI, in yhiciait Geography, a people of the Tauric Cherlonefus. Pliny. CAI.IPH, or Khalif, denotes a fuccefTor of Maho- met, veiled with fovereign dignity and abfol\:te atithofitv, in the fpiritual as well as temporal errpire ereclid by that le- giditor. The word is originally Arabic, " khalifah ;'' which properly figiiifies a fuccedor or vicar. The caliphs amoiig the Mahometans bear a near affinity to the popes amorn- the Chrilliani who profefs the catholic religion. After the death of Mahomet, who left no direilious concerning a fuccedor, or at Irall none but which were known to liis wives, who were in the intereff of Omai, v,-rv warm de- bates arofe between the Mohajcrin and th.e Anfars about the right of elecling a khalif. The former claimed that right I'rom their having attended Mahocret in his flight to Medina, and from having declared themfelves in his favour before any of the other Arabs joined him ; but the latter 5G \ fov.nd.J C A L fpunJul ihor claims on ihtii- liaviiip; fiippoitcJ 1 they captured the city of Baudad. At the end of the firft century of the hegira, about A. D. 718, the caliphs were the molt potent and abfolute mo- narchs of the globe. Their prerogative was not circum- fcribcd, either in right or in faft, by the power of the nobles, the freedom of the commons, the privileges of the church, the votes of a fenate, or the memory of a free con- (litufion. The regal zv.d facerdotal charafters were united in thefe Ciiccefibis of Mahomet ; and the Koran was the rule of their aflions. They were the fupreme j'ldges and inter- preters of that bock held to be divine. They reigned by the right of conqueft over the nations of the eaft, to whom the name of liberty was unknown, aiid who were accuftom- ed to applaud in tlieir tyrants the afts of violence and fe* verity that were exercifed at their own expencc. Under the lail of the Ommiades, tlie Arabian- empire extended 200 days' journey from eaft to weft, from the confines of Tartary and India to the Ihores of the Atlantic Ocean. And if we retrench the fleeve of the robe, as the l<)"g and narrow province of Africa was ftyled by their writers, the folid and compaft dominion from Fargana to Aden, from Tarfus to Surat, will fpread on every fide to the nieafurc of 4 or 1^ months of the march of a caravan. Under the reign of the Ommiades, the ftudies of the Modems were confined to the interpretation of the Koran, and the elo- quence and poetry of their native tongue. But the caliphs of the race of Abaflldes, after their civil and domeftic wars, encouraged literature and fcience. See Alihamon and Almansor. After the period of the deftrudlion of the cah'phate by the capture of Bagdad, there were perfons who claimed the caliphate, under a pretence of belonging to the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the fultans of Egypt paid great refpeft at Cairo, as the true fuccedbrs of Maho- met ; but this honour was merely titular, and the rights they claimed were only acknowledged in the province of rehgion ; and though they bore the title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs fubjefts, and dependents of the Sultans, In the year of the hegira 361, A. D 971, a kind of cali- phate was ereftcd by the Fatimites in Africa and Egyptj and lafted till Saladin fuppreffed it by order of Noureddin, fultan of Syria. There was alfo a caliphate in Africa and Spain, which commenced under the reign of Jofef. Hifto- rians alfo fpeak of a caliphate in Yemen or Arabia Felix, eftabli;hed by fome princes of the race of the A'uubites, or Jobites. The emperors of Morocco aflume the title of " grand cherifs" and pretend to be the true caliphs, or fuc- ceffors of Mahomet, though under another name. Since tha C A L tlie JcHni'^ion of the calipliate, tlie Maliometan princes have a pnrticiilai- cfTicer appointee! in tlitir nfpeolive donii- rions, who fullains the lacred authnrity ot caliph. In Turkey he is denominated Mufti, and in Perlla Sadie. One of the principal I'unttions nf the cahph, in quality of Imam or chitf pr'cft of the MufTulman rclifjio;!, was tliat of bef»innin;T the public prayers eveiy Friday in the chief mofque, and of dtliverinp- the hhothbah, which wa? a kind of fcrmiin. In later times they had deputies or alTillants who performed the fecond fervice ; but the firll was aKvavs ap- propriated to the caliph in perfon. He was alfo obliged to conduct the pilgrims to Mecca, and to inarch at the head of the armies of his empire. The cali])h3 alfo grant- ed letters-pater.t of invelliture, as wcU as fworjs, llandards, robes, &c. to the Maliometan princes, wlio, though they had thrown off the yoke of the caliphate, ncverthclefs held of it as vafTaU. The caliphs ufually went to the mofques mounted on ifnules ; and the fultans Se'giucides, although mailers of Eacjdad, held their I'irrups, and led their muh-s by the bri- dles for fomc diftance on toot, til! fuch time as they received intimations fri>m the caliphs to mount on horfe-back. At one ,of the windows of the caliph's palace, there always hung a piece of black velvet, 20 cubits long, which reached to the ground, and was called the " caliph's fleeve ;" and the grandees of his court never failed to kifs it with great refptdl every day. The honours pSi.^to the caliphs were cxctflive, and produced in them a degree of pride, of which they did not c.-afe to exhibit tokens, even when their autho- rity liad declined and was reduced to its lowcfl ftate of de- gradation. )n the period of their power, they afFeifted very extraordinary magnificence- and fplendour. Abultaragius re- lates, that tlie caliph Motazem had 700 women in his fe- raglio, and 3C0 eunuchs to guard them. But this fplendour was much diminilhtd, and, indeed, almoft annihilated during the reign of the Bouides in Perfia, who ftripped them of every thing, depriving them of their vifirs, and allowing them to retain no officer of higher rank than a fe- cretary to take care ot their afiairs. At lergth, aud parti- cularly under the reign of Radi Billah, the 20th caliph of the Abafliks, A.D. 934, the territories of the Mjhometan empire were 10 dilmembcred and divided, that this caliph was reduced to the fole dignity of tlie caliphate, and the poffeffion of the city of Bagdad. But Baffora, Vafllth, and Ahouaz, were under the dominion of the Bouides. They occupied the whole of Perfia ; the Hamadanites reigned in Moful and Mefcpotamia ; Akfchid was mafter of Egypt and Syria ; the Fatimites poffelTcd Africa ; the Ommiadcs governed Spain ; the Samanides had Khorafau ; the Car- mathii were in peaceable poOeflion of Aiabia Felix and Ara- bia Petrsa ; and the caliphs paid them tribute for the fe- curity of the pilgrims of Mecca : and, moreover, the Dile- mites were the foverei^ns of Georgia and Tabnftan. Such was the ftate of the caliphate in the 325th year of the hegira, A. D. 936. After the Bouides made themfelves mafters of Bagdad, they were reduced to the mere exercife of the funftions of the mofque ; and thcfe princes advanced or dethroned them at their pleafure. At length, thj period of their total overthrow by the Tartars, under the caliphate of Motazem, arrived, as we have already related ; and their temporal power became exiinft. Herbelot, Bib. Or. Gib- bon's Hift. vols. ix. X. xi. Mod. Un. Hift. vols. i. ii. iii. CALIPOS, or Calipus, in Ancient Geogrpphy , Sadao, a river of Lufitania, which rofe to the fouth 01 the moun- tains on the northern boundary of Cuneus, and running northwards, watered the town of Salaria, and then tuiuing to the weft, difcharged itfclf into the fea. C A L CA-LIPPIA, an i.linj of the /Ejeaii Sea. Antonin. Marit. Itin. CWl.l PPIC ^fr/W, in Chronology, 3 fetits of fevcitty- fix year-i, perpetually recurring ; winch tlapfcd, the n, id- die of tlie liew and full moons, as its inventor Cahppus, an Athenian, imagined, retuins the fame day of tlic folar year. Melon, a hundred years before, had inventi'd tlie period, or cycle, of nineteen years (fee Meloiiic Cycle) ; affuming the quantity of the folar year 36^^'' 6'' 18' 56'' 50^ 31* 34' ; and the 1 inar month 29" i.;'' 45' 47" 26' 48* 30* : but Ca- lippus, cunfidcring that the Metonic quantity of ifcc foI.Tr year was not exaiit, multiplied Mcton's period by four, and thence arofe a period of p6 years, called the Calippic. At the end of this term it was necedary to ittreiich u day : fo that his period was compofcd of four of thofc of Mcton, three of v/hich coufillcd of ''1940 days each, and one of 6939 da)s. For this purpofe, it was fullieitnt to change in the revolution of four periods one of the months from 30 to 29 days, 'i he efleCl of this correction was to retard the anti- cipation of the new moons for more than 300 years, and at the fame time to render the whole period more corrclpondtnt to the motion of the fun. The Calippic period, thcivfore, or the interval of four Metonic or lunar cycles, dixinifiud by a day, contains 2;r759 days ; and finee the lunar cycle contains 2 ;^ liiiiations, and the Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains 940 lunations, ce-nfillmg of about 2 77j3 days 18' 8'; and 76 revolutions of the fun cornpofe a film of about 27..7JS days 10'' 4'. Th.e Calippic period be^an in the thiid year of the I I2tli olympiad, or the 4jS4th of the Julian peril, d, B. C. '^^o, the 7th yearof the i(A\\ Metonic cycle. It is demoiiftrated, however, that the Calippic pe- riod itfelf is not accurate ; that it does not bring the new and full moons precifcly to their places: 8'' 3' ^2" 60'", being the exccfs of 940 lunations above 76 folar years ; but brings them too late, by a whole day, in 225 years. This period was adopted by ailronomers, and is frequently mentioned by Ptolemy. It cori-efponds to our lunar cycle, combined with onr Julian years, 76 of which form the Ca- lippic period ; and the anticipation of the moon is the fame in both. This anticipation, together with that of the equi- noxes, gave rife to the reformation of the calendar, A. D. 1582. See CALENDAR. The ancients were not iinapprized of the defect of the palippic period : at leall, it did i-ot ef- cape the penetrating fagacity of Hipparchus, who under- took to correfl it. His obfervations led him to perceive, that the folar and lunar years were fomewhat lefs than Ca- lippus had fuppofed them to be ; and purluing his calcula- tion, which he conceived to be fufficicntly exadl with regard to the moon, but more erroneous with relpett to the fun, he found that the anticipation of the one and of the other was about a day in four periods. FIc therefore quadrupled the cycle of Calippus, and retrenched from it the day which he had found m cxcefs during four revolutions. This new period had the advantage of correfpondiug more exactly with the motion of the moon, which was not retarded more than half an hour in 304 years. But it anticipated the mo- tion of the fun about a day and a quarter, whitii was an er- ror only eq'ial to that of Calippus in a double interval. However, this invention fnared the fate of many others, no Icfs ufcful and ahke neglefted. The Grecians, accultomed to the cycles of Meton and of Calippus, dilregarded that ot ' Hipparchus, although it was more pcrltcl. CALISIA, in yincient dography, a town placed by Ptolemy in the callern part of (jcrmany, and fuppofed by Cluvier to be Kalilcli in Poland. CALISPERMUM, in Botany, (K»io,-, beautiful, and C-Tr,-.U51, C A I. C A L «^i;iis, feed.) Biifc. Nouv. did. Luiiiviio, Coc!)iii. Clsfs and order, ptt^nilii:! rw-w^ynta. G-ii. C!i. C(ily:< with tivo equal divilions, permanent. C'.n!. Petals fivf , 'ovate, coiicavc. Slnriais live. P'l/}. gfrm lupcrior ; ityle one, ftijj'nn thick. Peiic. Btny nearly round, one-celled, maiiy-feedcJ. ElT. Ch. CoroiU tivc-pctalleJ. Ecrry or.cci.llcd, many- R-ed:d. Sp'cics. Califpcrmum fcnmleiis. A climbing fhnib. Leaves alternate, ovate, lanceolate, fcolloptd, fmooth. I'lo-iarrt white, ill nearly terminal racemes. A native of Coehincliina. Wc fiifpccl, but not having Dr. Siniih's work at hand, have not the means of afctrtaiiiin^j, that Lou- rciro's plant is the billardiera fcandens of our excellent coun- tryman (inured by him in h\s plants of New Holland, and ad'jptcd by Willdeiiow. As that article has not been in- fcrtcd in our work in its proper place, we fliall fupply the emillidn by giving it here. Billardiera fcandens, Willdvii. 440. Smith New Hoi. i. p. I. Tab. 1. Pih^ls five, alttrnatiiiir with the leaflets of the calyx. NeHary none. Sihma fimple. Berry fuperior, many fceded. Peil^nrks foiitary, one-flo«cred. Lenses f imewhat hairy. If the plants nioiild turn ont to be d ff^r- «nt, they oupht certainly to be referred to the faxe genus, and then the trivial name which we have ventured to give to Lourciro's plant mult be altered. CALISSjE, in j^ncieni Geography, a people of India on the other fi !c of tlie Ganges. Pliny. C-'^LISTA, in Fnbiilous U'ljloiy, the daughter of Ly- caon, king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of Diana. U-ing beloved by Jiiuitcr, he alTumcd the form of the god- dcfs of thaility, and thus debauched her : but whilft (he was bathing with her patronefs, her dii'grace was revcal-jd, and the incenfed deity converted her and the fon with whom fl>e was pregnant into bear:- ; upon which Jupiter, as t.'ie fable reports, compaffijnating her fuflering?, took them up hi'othe heavens, and made them the con llellations Urfa Ma- jor, and Urfa Minor. CALISTE, in Conchohny, a fpecies of Vemus, the flicU of which is befet with acute tranfv.-rfe llrise, becominn- mem- branaceous in front ; anterior Hope fliort, and the pollerior aperture inconfpicuous. Gmel. Schroet. &c. Inhabits the Red S.a. CALITjE, in ylncieiil Geography, a people of Africa in interior Libya. Pliny. CALTTOOR, in Geography. See Caltura. CALIUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, placed by Ptolemy on this fide of the Ganges. C.ALIX. See Calyx and Chalice. CALIXTINS, in Ecclefuijlkal IT: (lory, a name given to thole among the Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Calixlus, a celebrated Lutheran divine, who was born near Slcfwick in Holilein, in Ij86; and having ft,,- died at mod of the protellant fchools in Germany, was made profenorof theologv at Helmlladt in 1614, where he died in 1656 He was diftinguhhed by his zeal for forming an union between the Romilh, Lutheran, and Reformed cliurches ; or, at leaft, for joining them in the bonds of mu- tual forbearance and charity. Cali.Ktus was the firll pcrfon that reduced tl,eo!(,gy into a reenlar fvftem, and gave it a tnily fcient.t.c and philofophical form. ' As he had imbibed thefpintof the Anllotelian fchool, he arranged the fub- ftancc of Chr|ft,anity according to the method of the Stairi. ntc ; and divided the whole fcience of divinity into three alio the hrft who feparated the objcds of faith from the du- *.e8 of asorahty, and exhibited the UtVr under the form of an independent fcience. Thefe innovations rendered him the objeft of much cenfure and oppofition. In his attempt to reunite the ftveral bodies of Chrifti:!"s, and to compre- licnd the different churches in one profcdion of rdio-ion, he was a principal promoter of that tyftem, which was called fyncretifm. See Svncretists. The controverfy which was thus occafioned, fublifted hng after his death ; and though he feemcd, in his efforts for comprchenfion, to give advantage to the Romiili church, no one attacked its ty- ranny and corruption with grea'er vigour. He was the au- thor of many works, which it is now needkfs to enumerate". Moflieim, Eccl. Hill. vol. v. The Callxtins are ellecmed a kind of SEt.ii-PELAGiANS. Calixtins alfo denote a fe£l in Bohemia, derived from the Huflites, in the fifteenth centu-y, A.D. 14.20, who afferted the ufe of the cup as effential to the eucharift. And hence their name ; which is formed from the Latin caKx, a cup. The Cali.^ttins are not ranked by Romanifls in th? li!l of heretics, fince in the main they flill adhered to the doclriuc of Rome. The reformation they aimed at .terminated in the four !oi!owing articles. J. That the word of God lliould be explained to the peo- ple in a plain and perfpicuous manner, without the mixture of fuperftitious comments or inventions. 3. That the facra- ment of the Lord's fupper iliouid be adminiftertd in both kinds. 3. That the clergy, inilead of employing all their attention and zeal in the acquilition of riches and power, fhould turn their thoughts to objefts more fuitable to their profcffiou, and be ambitious of hving and aSing as became the fuccelTors of the holy apoftles. 4. That traafgrdTions or a more heinous kind, or "mortal fins," fh.ould be pu- nilhed in a manner fuitable to their enormity. In the two great failions of Calixtins and Taborites, into which the multitude was divided, there were fome fubordinate feds, who differed in feveral other points. Modieim, Eccl. Hill. vol. iii. See TAno?.iTEs. CALIXTUS, George. See Calixtins. CALI YUG, in the Ajlromnif of the Hindoos, a period of time, the commencement of which forms an epoch, in which the planets were fuppofed to have been ia a line of mean conjundion, in the beginning of Aries. The Caly yug IS fuppofed to have begun 3102 years before the com- mencenaent of the Chriltian xra, or 3,01 years before the year of Chril's birth ; or at the inilant of midnight, bc- t^veen Thurfdaythe 17th, and Friday the iSth of Febru- ary, U.S. m the year of th-; Julian period 1612, when the planets w-ere fuppofed to have had this afpeft on the meri- dian of Lanka, about 75° 50' E. of Greenwich : and the epoch founded on us coTnmencemeut appears to have been hxed on by Varaha, the reputed author of the Sury£ Sid- dhSnta, and fome other Jrlindu adronomers fince his time • tor tnough the planets were not then aftualiy in a line of mean conju.ft.on, yet, the differences between their re- ipedtive poutioiis, and that which was aliumed, when di- vided among the years expired from that epoch to the time derable difference between the mean annual motions, and hofc vvhich It woula be necelTary to affume, fo as to lj,eriu, Lir.n- ^ra./rvf Jufl". and Ventcnat. Gen. ch. Cu/. fpathe or.e-leaved, acuminate, fpreading, permanent ; fpadix fimple, ereft, covered witii fruaifica- tions. Coi: none. Stam. cither placed above or intermingled with the piftils ; anthers fefille, limple, truncate. PiJ. germ roundifh obtufe ; llyle fimple, very fliort ; lligma acute; with feveral permanent, comprelfed, trimcate ligaments in- termixed with the germs. Piric. berry tttrago-.ially .globu- lar, one-celled (many celled, G.tit.) ; feeds from fix to twelve, ereft, cylindrical, obtufe at both end?. EiJ. Ch. Spathe fpreading, fpndix covered with florets ; corolla none. Berries many-lceded. Sp. 1. C. xthiopicii, Linn. Sp, Ga;itner, Tab. 84. fig. 2. La Marck, PI. 739, fig. 2. (.Vruin iEthiopicum ; Comm. hort. I. p. 95. Tab. 50. Arum Africannm ; Tourncf. 159. Rai. Sup. 576.) " Leaves arrow-heartniapcd ; fpp.the cowled; ftaraens pl.u-ed above the pillils." Pcrcnrial. Red thick, flefliy, witii a brown Ikin, and (Irong, flediy fibres. Leaves in chillers fiom the root, eight or nine inches long, ofalhining green, ending in a (harp point, which turns backward:* on petioles more than a foot long ; furrowed, and Hieathing at their bafe. Scape longer than the leaves, round, herbaceous, fmooth, green. Spathe white, a little flefliy, twilled at ti:e bottom, but fpread open at the top, fuddenly contradting, and ending in a point. Spadix cvluidrical, ycl- lowilh, about half the length of the fpathe. Stamens above, pifiils below fct I'o rlofely together that they arc not eafily dn'lingiiifiied. 5ffA ronndii'h, dark brown, fmooth, having on the inner fide a protuberant, comprttred eye extending from the umbilical aperture to the top of the feed. Miller, La Marck, and Gsrtner. A native of the Cape of Good H-.pe, fent to Comnielin in 1687, and cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1731. It flowers from January to May. 2. c! palujlris, Linn. Sp. PI. Flor. dan. Tab. 4:2. (Dracuneu- lus palullris. Bauh. pin. 195. D. aquatilis. Dod. pempt. Z?j\. Rai. Hill. 1210. Barrel, ic. 57.^. Anguina aqi.ati- ca, Lob. ic. 600.) " Leaves heart-fliaped ; fpathe flat ; flamens and piftils intermingled with each other." Perennial! Root creeping, from fix to eight inches long, fixing itfelf to tne earth by capillary fibres from its knots, and throwing out leaves and fcapts at din"ercnt dillances. Leaves peti- ol-d, acuminate, green, fmooth, alternately embracing the ft.m. Stipidcs two, bluntifli-egg-tliaped at the bafe of the petioles. Scape round, thick, fiicculent, fmooth, bright green. Spathe roundilh-egg-flinped, rolled up at the end into a bluntiib fpine, yellowifhgreen below, white and fmooth above. Spadix cgg-fhapcd, obtufe. Stamens white. Bnriii C A L Btrr'iet fmall, four or five-cornered, or round, wrinkled about the edge, fmooth, ftd't, flat at the top, crowned with a (hort llyie.' S.eJs from lix to i.ine, foTnetimi.-s only fiom one to tiiree, in a vifcid mucilage. A native of marfiies in Holland, Germany, and the whole north of Europe. Its roots are very acrid ; but Linnxus informs us, that the Laplanders extrad from tlieni a fccnla of which they make bread, j. C. crkiitalis, Linn. Sp. PI. (Anim Carfaami, Rauw. itin. 115. A. minus orientale, NIor. Hid. j. 544. Rai. Slip. 5S0.) " Leaves tgg-fliaped." Peicnnial. Pdi- oU] long. Si-iip; about fix inches high ; Jloiver white. A uativcofthc munntaini about Aleppo. This fpccies reds entirely on the authority of Rauwolf ; and, tlioiigh admitted by Linnxus into his Species Plantarum, docs not .appear in the latl edition of his Syftema Naturie, and has fnice been rcjcclcd by mod of the editorsof the Syllema Vegetabilium. 4. C. o:cuba, Mjityn's Miller. Loureiro Cochnich. 533. " Leaves lieart-egT-fhaped ; fpathe fpiral ; fpadix with an- thers and filaments intermiiigltd at the bottom ; anthers only at the top." Perennial. About a foot high, with fcarccly any Halk. Leaves rrany, fmooth, diffufcd; with long chan- lullcd petioles, dihitcd at the bafc, embracing the inner ones. Spathe long, concealing the flowers even in their ftate of maturity. Spidix oblong. Stt^ma concave, trilid, felTlle. B:rry three-lobed, thvec-celled, yellow, containing many feeds. A native of Cothinchina in moid places. PropngrXion and Culltire. Tiie ^thiopica propagates very fad by offsets, which Hiould be taken off about the end of Augnrt, and each planted i'eparatcly in a pot filled with kitchen-garden earth. Tiiey may be kept in the open air till winter, and then fliould be removed under cover. The plant will live in the opm air in mild winters, without any cover, in a warm border and dry foil ; and may always be preferved with a little dielter from hard froft. The paludris mud be planted in an artificial bog, or the mud of a pond, or tub fet in water. Miller. Call. \-Su/uri^', in Geogivphy, a town and capital of the ifland of Bouton, in the Indian fea, feated about a mile from the coad, on an eminence fnrrounded with co- coa-nut trees. It has a bad liarbonr with a rocky bottom. The inhabitants are Maiiometans, and fpeak the Malay language. CALLABASH-BAY, See Calabash. CALLAC, a town of France in the department of the North Coads, and chief place of a canton in the didrift: of Guingamp ; ,;i Kaguis N. of Rodrenau. The place con- tains 1,543, and the canton 10,5 32 inhabitants ; the ten i- tory incl'ides 327; kiliometres, ar.d 9 communes. CALLAC.-\LLliS, a nvcr of Chili which falls into the South S;a at Baldi\ia. C.ALLAF, or Calaf, in fiato/y. (Alpin.) See Salix .^GVPTIACA. CALL.^H, or Gei.lah, \n Geography, a town of Af- rica, in the country of /Mgier-, 50 miles S. of Bona Alfo, a town of Africa, in the country uf Aliriers ; ? i miles W. buef. _ CALL AH, El, a town of Africa, in the weftern pro- vince of Algiers, Tiemfan or Tremeccn, fituate ^ leagues to the N. E. of Mafcar, and 40 miles E of Oran, on an eminence, as the .Arabic name imports, and in the midd of other mountains, which form part of Mount Atlas. It is larger than Mafcar, but a dirty ill-contrived town, without drams, pavement, or caufeways.' It is the greated market of this country for carpets and b'nrnoofes. There are feveral vil- lages of the fame nature, and ahke fituate round about it, all of .vliich are profitably employed in the fame woollen manu- fact jrcs. llie Turks have here a fmall gartifon and citadel ; 7 C A L and, fromfome few large dones and pieces of marble of ancient workmandiip, we may inter that it was formerly a city of the Romans; perhaps the " GitUii," or " Apfar," of Ptolemy. CALL.AICI, or Call;eci, in Anc'unI Geography, a people of Spain, who inhabited the north-wtdern part of the country. Their name ftcms to have been formed from " Calle," which was that of one of their ports. Tliere were feveral dilTerent people comprehended under this deno- mination ; fuch as the Bracari; Cxlerini, Gravii, Simici, Querquerni, Artabri, and others. Ptolemy divides them into the " Callaici Bracarii," and " Callaici Lucenfes." The former extended thcmfclves from the Durius to the Minius ; and the latter from the Miuius to Allures. Their principal rivers were the Uia, Minius, and Durius ; and their chief towns were Brigantium, Adrobicum, Lncus Augudi, Iria Flavia, Tyde, Bracara Augufla, Calle, and AqucB r'lavls. CALLAN, a mountain in the county of Clare, Ireland^ near the Wedcrn Ocean, remarkable for a large (lone oi" monument, fuppofed to have an infcnption in the Ogham or Ogum characters. An account of it may be found m the id vol. of the Tranfaftions of the Royal Irifii Acadeny, and in the 7th volume of the Archceologia ; and iome re- marks on it in Ledwich's Iridi Antiquities. CALLAN0RE,orKuLLANORt,a town of Hindoodan, in the county of Lahore, feated on the Rauvee, about E. 30° N. from Lahore, or dillant f-jm it jj common coffes. N. lat. 32° 30'. E. long. 74° 40'. CALLAO, a fea-port town of Spanidi South America, in Peru, feated on a river of the fame name near the Pa- cific Ocean, and ferving as a port to the city of Lima, from which it is didant about 5 miles. The harbour of Callao is the larged, mod beautiful, mod convenient, and moil fecurc in the South Sea ; and the Spanifli government has, at differcrt periods, expended large fums in improving and ftrengthening it. The largcfl velfels may lie with perfcft fafety in the road of this port, as the water is very deep, without rocks, and always tranquil. Two iflands, named St. Lawrence and Callao, and the peninfula which nearly reaches them, defend vedels, from the fouth wind ; and though the road is open to the north and north-north-well, thefe winds fo fcldom blow here, or with fuch inconfiderable force, that no danger is apprehended. The ifland of St. Law- rence breaks off the lea from the S. W. to the S. E. In this port every neccffary commodity which vefTels need, may be procured. The fmall river that conies down from Lima, and difcharges itfclfinto the fea under the walls of Callao, furnidies plenty of good water; and a mole, on which cranes are treSed, makes it eafy for fiiips to load and unload. The town, which the Spaniards' have confijered as almoft impregnable, was, before the calamity, which it fntfeied by an earthquake, fortified by h^flions and fome batteries, which have never been thoroughly repaired ; and it is de- fended by a garrifon. There are two fauxbourgs inhabited by Indians. The trade of Callao is confiderable, in confe- qnence ot its convenience as a port, and its vicinity to Liina, which fee. This place, as well as the adjacent country, has frequently fuffered much from earthquakes. The mod dread- ful earthquake, however, feems to have been that which commenced in 1746, and continued at intervals till 1747. On this occafion the port of Callao was totally fubmerfcd ; nothing remained except a piece of the wall of the fort of Santa Cruz, as a memorial of this terrible devadation. Of 23 fhips and veffels, great and fmall, which were then in the harbour, 19 were wholly funk, and the other four were carried by the force of the waves to a great didance up the country. Of the number of inhabitants, amounting to about 400^ C A L 4030, 200 only cfcaped ; and 22 of thefe were prefcrved by means of tl;e above-mentioned fragment of a wail. Since tliat time Callao has been rebuilt upon the fame plan, but a httle farther from the fea. t). lat. 12° i' 5j". W. long. Callao, as it is called by its inhabitants, but more ge- nerally known to Europeans under the name of Campello, is an illand which lies oppolite to, and about 8 miles to the eallward of, the inoiith of a conliderable river on the coall of Cochin-china, on the banks of which is fituated the town of Fairfoo, a place of fome note, not far from t!ie harbour of Turon. The bearing of the hi<;hefl peak of Callao from this harbour is about S. E. at the dillance of ^o miles. The extreme points of the iflar.d lie in N. lat. 35'^ 53'. and 15° 57'. The greatcd length is from N. W. to S. E. about 5 miles, and the mean breadth 2 miles. The only inhabited part is on the S. W. coaft, on a flip of ground rifing gently to the eall, and contained between the bottom of a femilunar bay, and the mountains on each fide of it. Thefe mountains, at a diftance, appear like two dillinft iflands. The fonthern mountain is the higheft, and is abont i 500 feet. The lower grounds contain about 200 acres. This imall but enchanting fpot is beautifully diverfi- fied with neat houfes, temples, clumps of trees, fmall hil- locks fwcUing from the plain, and richly decorated with fhrubbery and trees of various kinds ; among which the elegant areca, rifing like a Corinthian column, is eminently confpicuous. A rill of clear water, oozing from the moun tains, is carried along the upper ridges of the vale, whence it is occi'fionally conveyed through fluices, for the purpofe of watering the rice grounds, and for which it fee '.;s to be amply fuHicient. The houfes, in general, were clean and decent : a few were built with ftone, and covered with tiles. One, probably the manfion of the chief perfon of the idand, was inclofed by a Itone wall, and the accels to it was through a gate- way between two Hone pillars. The houfe was di- vided into a number of apartments, arranged with talle and convenience. This building ftcod at the head of the prin- cipal village, confifting of about jo habitations built of wood, chiefly the bamboo. Behind the village, and on the fide of the hill, was a cave, acccffible only by one path through a range of rocks ; and within the cave, near its mouth, was a fmall temple, commanding a view of the whole vale. Several other temples were difperfed over the plain, all of which were open in front, with a colonnade before them of round wooden pillars, painted red and varnilhed. The number of houfes on the idand fearcely exceeded 60. Behind every houfe, not immediately in the principal village, were inclolures of fiigar-canes, tobacco, and other vege- tables, growing in great luxuriance. The mountains were covered with verdure, and feemed well calculated for rearing goats, of which the idand produced a few. Befide the principal bay, there were feveral fandy inlets, in any of wfhich boats might eafily land ; but a communication be ■ tween them by land is very difficult, if not impraflicable, on account of the fteep and rugged ridges which feparate them from each other. Hence it appears that very flight works, and an cflablifhment of a few men would be fufficient for the defence of the ifland ; a great part of its coaft being impregnably fortified by nature. The depth of water in the bay and road is fuflieicnt for fhips of any burden, and it affords perfeft Ihelter from every wind except the S. W. to which quarter it was dircAly open. The French, it is faid, aware of the infecunty of trad- ing to Tung-quin and Cochin china without fome in- dependent fettlement, had formerly in contemplation to purchafe the fmall iflaud of Callao, lying a few miles to the Vol. V. C A L fouthward of Turon. But the want of (licltcr in the S. W. fnonfoon would loon induce them, if they were once in pof- fcfiion ol Callao, to fcek for a further fettlement near it, upon the main-find of Cochin-china. I^mbafly to Chins, vol. i C.-\LLARIAS, by fome call, d a///,,/ callnnm, in Ich- thyology, a filh of the truttaceous kind, called by Aldrovan- diiA lirirti mnriiiii, and by Rondel.liiis and G-lner^j^'^c/j. It ulually grows to about a foot in length, and is i;i (liape fomcthing flattilh ; it is covered with (mall feales, and is of a grtyifli colour, but fomewhat purple on the head ; its tail is roundilh, not forked; it is a very will tailed fid), and is cr-.mmon in the Mediterranean, and bi ought to market at Rome, Venice, &c. CALLAS, in /Indent Geography, a river of Greece, in the id.md of Euboea. Callas, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Var, and chief place of a canton in the diltridl of Draguignan, if league N. E. of it. The place con- tains 2,108, and the canton 8,186 inhabitants; the terri- tory comprehends 272i kiliometrts, and 7 communes. CALLATII, and Callantii, in Ancienl Geography, a people of India, who have the cuftom, according to Ilero- dotus, of eating their parents. CALLATIS, Calatis, or Calantra, a town featcd on the wellcrn coaft of the Euxine fea, fouth of the mouth of the Iftcr, and ,500 ftadia diftant from Tomi. Sec Calatis. CALLE, John Francis, in Biography, a French ma- thematician, was born on the 25th of October 1744, at Verfailles, where he received a good education, and acquired an early tafte for the mathematics. In 1768 he came to Paris, where he had an opportuiiity of being more thorough- ly inllrufted. In 1774 he fornud fome diftinguifiied pupils for the fchodl of engineers, where the examin: tions were flrift, and admiiiion difficult to he obtained. In 1779 he gained the prize propofed by the Society of Arts at Geneva, for efcapements. In J7S.3 he completed his edition of " Gardiner's Tables of Logai-ithms," which were exceed- ingly convenient, of great utility, and very correft ; and which poflefled advantages above all the others. In lySS he was appointed profeflbr of hydrography at Vannes, after- wards at Dunkirk; and in 1792 he returned to Paris, ai,d was for a few years profeflbr da ingfniairs geogniphes at the depot of war. This place having been fuppreflcd, he con- tinued to teach in Paris, where he was always coniideied as one of the beft mathematical mafters to whom pupils could apply. In 179J he publidied the new ftereotype edition of the " Tables of Logarithms," confiderably enlarged with loga- rithmictables of the fines, accordingto the newdeclmal divifioii of the circle. Thefe are the firft which ever appeared. To- wards the end of 1 797 he prefented to the National Inftitute the plan of a new telegraph and a telegraphic language, ac- companied with a diefionary of i 2,ooc French words adapted to it by a combination worthy of fo able a mathematician. Thefe labours had injured his health ; he had been a long time afthmatic, and, notwithftanding his condition, he pub- lifhed, that year, an excellent memoir on finding the longi- tude at fea, under the modcft title of " A Supplement to the Trigonometry and Navigation of Bezout." He died on the 14th of November 1798, leaving behind him a daughter, born at Vannes In I 793. According to a tradi- tion in the family, he was defccnded from Dcfcartes. La- lande's Hift. Allron. for 1798. Calle, in yliicient Geography, Por'.o, a town of Hifpa- iiia Citerior, to the fouth, ocar the mouth of the river IJu- rius, on the frontiers of Lufitania. This town, at firft a fmall port, became afterwards confiderable among the CaU 5 H laici, C A L Jsici. to whc.1.. it iH..njrcth:-rs of turkeys, which are bought up here to be fent to Brillol. The liberties of the town include 3660 acres of rich ground, with a lime-ftone bottom, of which 1400 acres oniy are produftive. The crops of wheat grown here are ■very fine. A common of 1500 acres formerly belonged to the town's people, which has been rtduccd by encroach' GAL ment! to about half the number, and the enclofui^ of t^c reft on a j ill p'an wovild be of great ufe. Indeed a relideni; and improving landlord might render this town very flourifh- ing. Though the adjoining country is fertile and populous^, the whole diltricl of Callen, with five adjoining parifhes, arc united under one redfor, who refides near Callen, the old church of which is in good prcfervation. Thefe iix parifhes contain 41 proteftant families, mod of which live in the town. There are the ruins of an abbey, and three caftles, with fome veiliges of walls, which are laid to have been de- ilroyed by Cromwell. There is alfo a moat, the perpendi- cular height of which is 40 feet, and the flat fumni't i j8 feet by 72. A curious charter given to this town by William earl Marefchal, may be feen in Coxc's hiilory of Ireland ; the privileges conferred by which, though faid to be of all kinds which it became burgcfTcs to poffcfs, and the granter to he- flow, were lefs than chofe now_ enjoyed by the meanefl fub- jeft of the United Kingdoms. Some other particulars might be coUetted from Tighe's Account of Kilkenny, and the old hillories, if it were neceffary. Callen is on the road from Dublin to Cork, being 65-5 Irilli miles, S. W. fronj the capital. N. lat. 52" 32'. W. long. 7° 34'. Cali.en, the name of a river in the county of Armagh, in Ireland, near which the city of Armagh ib iituated, and whicii flows through a remarkably fertile country. It joins- tlie Blackwater near Moy. CALLENBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle or Upper Saxony, and lordthip of Schanburg ; 4 miles N. E. of Zwickau. — Alfo, a chain of mountains of Germany, commencing about 5 miles from Vienna, and traverfing the- duchy of Stiria. CALLENDER, in Geography, a tc-wn of Scotland, in the county of Perth, feated on the river Teith ; 1 1 miles N. W. of Stirling, and ^o W. S. W. of Perth. CALLENDER,in Manufadures. See Calender. CALLET, in Anc'unt Geography, a town of- Spain, in Bostica, and in thejiirifoiclion of Aihgi, according to Phny. CALLEVA Atrebatum, a town of Britain, in the country of the Atrebat'ii, placed, in Antonine's Itinerary, in- his feventh route from Regnum to Londiniuin, between Venta Bclgarum and Pontibus, 21 miles from the former, and at the fame diltance from the latter. Dr. Stukley places it at Farnham. ; and Mr. Horfley at Silchefter. CALLIjE, a town of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia. Pau- fanias. CALLIAGH-CRUM, in Geography, a rock near Bin- wvhead, in the county of Mayo, in Ireland. N. lat. 54° 21', W. long. 9° 3.5'. CALLIAN, a town of France, in the department of the Var ; 10 miles N. E. of Draguignan. Callian, or Gall'inn, a river of IlindooRan, the mouth of which is on the fide of the found, formed by Bombay, Salfette, and the neighbcurin-g fliores of the continent, op- pofite to the fcnt of Tannah. The ruins of Callian, noticed by Fryer, are probably thofe of the Calliana of the Peiiplus. Mar. Eryth. CALLIANEE, a town of Hlndooltan, in the country of Dowlatabad. It is large and populous, confiding of one long ftreet filled with fliops ; the houfes are conftnifted of rofe-wood, and covered with thatch ; 65 miles W. of Ecder, and85 E. of Vifiapour. N. lat. 17° 45'. E. long. 76° 54'. CALLIAQUA, a town and harbour at the S. W. end of the ifland of St. Vincent, in the Wed Indies. The har. bour is the bed in the ifland, and draws thither mod of the inhabitants and the greateft part of the trade. CALLIBER, or CALLiptR. See Caliber. CALLL C A L CALLIBLEPHARA, hom Ky.x\o-, leauiy, and^/.i?*- ^fr,i, eyc-litl, in the Med'umal U'riliiigs of the Ancients, a name given to certain compofitions intemlfd to make the eye-h'ds beautiful ; and as the eye-hds are fubjtft to be dtlormedi'everal ways, there were feveral dKFeyent forts of thefc niedicint-s. CALLIBOGIE Sound, in Gcosr.,phy, hes to theN.E. from the nearell entrance into Savannah river, in the ilate of Georgia, in North America, behind Hilton-head illand. The latitude there is J2° 4' N. W. long. Si° 12'. GALLIC A, in AridentGeography,nlown of Afia, in Blthy- ria, placed by Pto'emy at fume dillance from the Eiixine Sea. CALLICARIA, a promontory of India, on this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy. CALLICARIS, a town of India on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy. CALLICARPA, in Botany, (fo named from its beau- tiful fruit.) Linn. gen. 13 'J. Sclircb. 1 7 ■;. AVllld. 209. La Marck, 111. 183. Gsit. 5SS. JuH". p. "lo;. Vent. v. ii. p. J 18. Clafs and Order, tetranilrin nwnogynia. Nat. Ord. Diimofa, I^inn. Viliccs, Juti". Pyienacce, Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. perianth one leaved, bcll-fliapcd, foiir- clcft, or four-toothed. Cor. of one petal, tubular, (hort ; border four cleft, obtufe. Slum, lilaments four, longer than the corolla ; anthers egg-fliaped. Pij], germ luptricr, roundifh ; flyle thread-fliaped ; iligma thlckilh, obtufe. Peric. btrry globular, fmooth. Seeds four, oblong, rather comprelTed, callous. liir. Ch. Calyx four-cleft ; corolla four-cleft ; berry four- feeded. Sp. I. C. amerlcann, Linn. Sp. Grert. Tab. 94. fig. 5. La Marck IlluiL PI, 69. f. i. (Johnfonia, Miller; fphondy- lococcos, Mitch, eph. nat. cur. 8. 20S. Burehardia, Du- ham. arb. i. iii. Tab. 44. Pluk. aim. Tab. 136. iig. ,5. CateAi. Car. 2. Tab. 47. Gron. virg. 1.5S.) " Leaves egg- Ihaped, acute, ferrated, rather downy beneath; berries glo mcrated." Lam. A (hrub fom three to fix feet high. Branches round, or a little comprtfTcd, pubcfcent, and fome- what cottony near the fummit. Leaves oppofite, petioled, green above, but downy on the nerves, and entirely covered with a fhort, whitifli down beneath, from four to five inches long, ?.nd two inches broad. Floivcrs fmall, reddifh, or purple, in fmall, axillary, branched, oppofite corymbs Icarcely longer than the petioles, with downy peduncles. Berry fuperior, the fize of a fmall pea, globular, pulpy ; at foil red, afterwards deep purple ; one-ceiled. Lam. and Gaert. A native of Carolina, and profeffor Martyn fays, alfo of Cochinchina, but quotes no authority. The feeds were fent to Miller by Cateftiy, in 1724; and the plants raifed from them flouriflied in the open air till the fevere froll of 1740, when moft of them perilhed. They are calily raifed from feeds on a moderate hoi-bed ; but as the young plants are tender, they (liould be placed under a frame before the firfl autumnal frofts, and fliould be kept fiieltered during the winter, having frefli air whenever the weather is mild. The following fpriiig they fhnuld be tranfplanted into frtfli pots or into the nurfery bed in a warm fituation ; in three or four years they wdl have acquired llrength enough to live in the open air through the winter ; but in fevere frolls the furface of the ground about their roots flionld be covered with old tan, and tlieir top.s protedted by ftraw or forn. Miller. 2. C. cana, Willd. (C. tomentofa, La Marck, En- cyc. i. 556.) "Leaves ovate-kinceolate, ferrated, very white, with down underneath ; berries fmall, dillinft." A fiirub very diilin6t from the preceding, but fo much rcfem- bhng it, that La Marck found it difhcnlt to form a fatisfac- tory fpccific charafter. Ftoivrrs fmaller, but more nume- rous, and in loofer corymbs. Stamens twice as long as Uie CAL corolla. A native of the Eafl; Indie?, communlcateJ to I,i Marck by Sonnerat. 3. C. /<;/;<;/,;, Willd. La Marck, Illuft. (C. tomentofa, Murray, Syft. Veget. p. 15;. Gmcl. p. 246. Gxrt. Tab. 94. f. ^. C. foliis intcgerrimis Iaiiati». Mart. 331. Tomcx tomentofa, Linn. So. PI. p. 172. i, Ivinn. ^|>. Burm. Ziyi. 26. ind. Arbor malabarica. Ilia difta. Cornuti.i corymbofa. La Marck, Encyc. vol. i. p. .i;4.) " Lcivcs egg-fliapeJ, entire, downy, underneath ; fmaller braiichea, petioles and pedtnclcs woolly." Lam. Brav.chci obtufely four-angled, /.^•.nrx oppofite, large, petioled, acu- minate, green, and a little wrinkled above, rtfembling thofc of viburnum lailtana, but more pointed. Flonuers fmail, white, with a tinge of red, in fliort axillary and terminating co- rymbs. Corol.'ii fcareely a line long ; caly.\ very woolly ; obfcurely four-toothed, fpreading. Berries fmall, b! ickifli, half bedded in the permanent calyx. A native cf the Eaft Indies, communicated to La Marck by Sonnerat. 4. C. mncrophylla, Willd. Vahl. Syrr.b. p. ij. Tab. 5,7. " Leaves lanceolate-elliptical, fcollopcd, attenuated, wrinkled above, white, with down undenicath ; branches downy." Perennial. A native of the Ealt Indies. 5. C fernighua, Willd. Martyn. Swartz, prod. J I. " Leaves broad-bncco- late, kirattd, rather rugged underneath : cymes terminating, and axillaiy." Perennial. A native of Jamaica. 6. C reti- culata, Willd. Martyn, Swartz, 31. " Leaves elliptic-lan- ceolate, a little ferrated, «rinkltd, white, with down under- neath." Perennial. A native of Jamaica. 7.C./onj,'//o//rt,Willd. I..a Marck, PI. 69. fig. 2. " Leaves long, lanceolate, a little toothed, green on both fides ; corymbs, or rather panicles, fmall, axillary." Perennial. Leaves feven or eij;ht inches long, an inch ar.d a half broad, ojipofitc, pttioicd, acuminate, thin, nearly fmooth, except when \oung. Calyx (hort, but flightly four-toothed ; llamens twice the length of the corolla. Style as long as the Itamens ; ftigma truti- cate. A native of Malacca, communicated by Soi:ncrat. a. C. integri/olia, Willd. Jacq. am. 15. Tab. 173. fig. 7. " Leaves egg-fiiaped, acme, very entire, a little downy un- derneath ; racemes denfe, axillary and terminating ; tube of the corolla four times longer than the calyx." PercnniaL A native of w. ods abi>ut Carthagena, in South America. 9. C. I'lllufa, Willd. Vahl. Symb. j. p. 14. " Leaves ob- long-egg-(haptd, very entire, reticulated beneath with downy veins ; racemes axillary ; pedicles many-flowtred." Perennial. It differs from all the other fpeeics in its long peduncles, not dichotomoufiy branched, jo. C. ;('/>^n/Vc;, Willd. Thunb. iap. 60. " Leaves oblong, acuminate, ferrated in the mid- dle, fmooth." Stem flirnbby, ereft, fmooth ; branches op- pofite, louud, fmooth, purple, divaricated. Leaves oppo- lite, on (hort petioles, green above, pale underneath, nerved, two infhes long. Floii'ers white, axillary, panicled, very fmall, panicle trichotomous, fupva-dcconipound, fome- what faltigiate ; brafles linear; peduncles half an inch long, with very fliort pedicles ; filaments inferted into the germ, very (liort ; anthers oblong ; germ fuperior ; flyle awl-fhapcd, fhorter than the corolla ; (ligma fimple, acute. Anativeof Japan. 1 i . C. vmhellala, Martyn's ftliller. Lour. Cochinch. 70. " Leaves between top and egg-fhaped, fmooth, alter- nate ; umbels fefiile." A middle fized tree with afcending branches. /,.«iv.f quite entire, rcflcxcd at the edge. Floiv- ers fmall, in five-flowered umbels, almoll at the end of the branches; calyx bluntly four-clett ; corolla bell-fliaped, wiih a fliort tube ; llamens and Iligma felTilc. Av7;v fltfhy, round- ifh, fmall. A native of Cochinchina in woods. J2. C. Iri- lo'ia, Martyn's Miller, Loiireiro, Coch. "o. " Stem climb- ing ; leaves thrcc-lobed ; p..-duiK-le3 dichotomous." A long branching fnrub, climbing by bifid tendrils. Leaves ferrated, fmooth, on long petiolen. Fh^trers axillary, pale. Berry 5 H 2 round. CALLICOCCA. rouniil'h. A native of Coclu'iichiiia and China. 13. C. pjiihuLij, La Marck, Encyc. " Leaves ohlong, lanceolate, very entire, downy un.ltrncath ; flowers very niimeroiis, in tcriiiinating pa'ilclcs." Branches woody, flightly four-an- L'lcd ; two ot the oppofite fides larger than the others, cloth- ed with a fnort down ntnr the fimmiit. Leaves oppofite, pe- tiolcd, fmooth, and wrinkled above, downy, and white un- derneath, three or four inches long, fix or feveii lines broad. FL'-i'trs fmall ; calyx lliort, downy ; corolla a little larger than the calyx ; (lan.ens a little longer than the corolla ; genn fupeiior ; llyle very (hbrt ; bratUs very fmall, ftraight, pointed, one at each divilion of the peduncles. A native of Africa, about the Cape of Good Hope. Communicated by Sonnerat. As La Marck is unacquainted with the fruit, he docs not abfoliiiely pronounce it a callicarpa, but obTerves, that if its fiiiit be not a four-fecded berry, it will probably proves budltia. In the Ilhiftrations of genera, publiflied afterwards, he cxpreflcs a doubt whether it be not fcoparia arborea of the Suppltmentum Planlaium ; but in that cafe, the leaves mull be aliernaie, and not oppofite, as he has de- fcribed them. CALLICHORUM, or Calmchorus, \n ylnc'ient Geo- gr,iphy, a river of Afia Minor ; placed by M. D'Anville in the eaftcrn part of Bitliynia, with a northern courfe into the Euxine Sea, to tiie eafl of T-Iernclea, among theCauconcs. CALLICHTHYS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Silurus, diftinguifiied by having the fecond dorfal fin one-rayed, a double row of fcales on the fides, beards four. Linn. Gro- rov. &c. Plecortomus cirri.=; 4 longis of Seba. This filli in- habits fmall running dreams in Europe, and it is affirmed, that when thefc are dried up, they crawl acrofs meadows in fearch of water. CALLICOCCA, in Botany, Sehreb. 316. Brotero, Linn. Tranf. v. vi. p. 137. (Ccphaeli-S, Willd.j^Jy. Tagopomea L;m. lUull. 412. I'l. i52.)Clafs and order, per.tamlria mono- gynia. Nat. ord. Rul/iaccie, Jufl'. Gen. Ch. Cal. Involucre of one or more leaves, inclofing numerous fcfiilc flowers on a chaffy receptacle ; perianth five-toothed, fuperior. Cor. monopctalous ; tube cylindri- cal, fwelling upwards ; border five parted, fpreading. Stam. filaments five or four, capillary ; anthers oblong, erefl. Pl/l. germinferior ; ftylc capillary, bifid ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Berry angular or wrinkled, onc-celkd. Sia's two, flat on one fide, convex on the other, angular. En. Ch. Flowers in heads, involucred. Corolla tubular. Berry angular below, or wrinkled, two-feeded. Receptacle cliaffy, nearly allied to morinda. Sp. I. (Cephaelis -violacea, Swartz prod. 45. 9. ind. occ. '• ?• 4.>9- Tapo;.romea violacea : Aubl. Guian. i. p. 157. Tab. 63.) "Heads globular, terminal; involucres five- leaved ; leaves oblong, fmooth." Willd. Leaves ner»ed. Flowers and fruit of a violet colour. A native of Guiana and the Welt Indies. 2. C. tomentofa, (Cephaelis, Vahl. cclog. I. p. 19. Tapogomea Aubl. Guian. 1. p. 160. Tab. 60.) " Heads globidar in terminal corymbs ; involucre two-leiyed ; leaves oblong, pubefccnt." Willd. Leaflets of the involucre large, heart-lhaped, acuminate, ofapurp- plifh violet colour. A native of woods in Guiana and the Ifland of Trinidad. 3. C. punicea, (Cephaelis gl-fberrima, Vahl. cclog. I. p. 19.) « Heads terminal, ered ; involu- cres two-leaved ; leaves lanceolate-elliptical, fmooth and glofly on both fides." Branches roundifli, perfeftly fmooth, of a pale purple colour. Leaves oppofite, petioled, nar- rowed at the bafe and the fummit, acute, perfeftly entire, nearly veinlefs above, flightly veined underneath. Stipules tubular, fliort, entire. Peduncle four inches long, ftiff, tcr- minal between two litil;: branches, a little thicker than the lateral branches, angular, purple. .^f.T^/the fize of a wall- nut. Involucre large, hearteg-^-fliaped, fcarlet, fcarcely veined. Outward chaffy leaflets larger than the others, ob- long. Vahl. A native of Jamaica. 4. C. data, (Cephae- lis Swartz.) " Heads globular, terminal ; peduncles i Ion- gated ; involucre two-leaved ; leaves fmooth." Such is ihe fpecific cliarader given by Swartz, and copied by WilKle- now ; but it certainly dors not give a luffi>iently dilliril difference from the preceding;-. A na'ive of the iiigh moun- tains in Jamaica. 5. C. axilLiris, S-.vartz. " Heads axil- lary, feilile." A native of St. Kitts. 6. C. purpurea, (Tapogomta purpurea, Aubl. Guian. t. 6j. p. 3.) " Heads terminal, naked ; leaves oblong, coloured, pubcfcent un- derneath ; item ci-eeping, downy." Willd. Leaves with a white line above, and a reddifh pubefcencc underneath. A native of woods in Guiana. 7. C. alba, ( apogomea, Aubl. Tab. 64. fig. 4.) " Heads terminal, naked ; kavcs egg-fiiaped, pubtlcent underneath ; item crtrping, fmooth." Willd. A native of woods in Guiana. 8. C. ■^lalra, (Ta- pogomea, Aubl. Tab. 63.) " Heads terminal, nakvd ; leaves oblong, fmoolh ; ftenis ertCt ; l.ttle branehes pubef- cent." Willd. Heads of the flowers hirfute. Aub!. A native of Guiana. 9. C. carapichen, (Cephaelis involucr.ita, Willd. Cr4rapichea guianenfis, Aubl. Tab. 64. Tapogo- mea, Lam. Illuft. PL 152. f. 3.) "Heads terminal, glo- bular ; involucre foui'-leaved, unequal : leaves oblong, acu- minate." A flirub five or fix feet high. Stem cylindrical, knotty, branched. /,cat;fj oppofite, petioled, entire, finooth. Stipules intra.f^oliaceouj, lanceolate, acuminate, with two fmall glands at their bafe. Fiwwers imaW, white; peduncle curved ; ftamens exferted ; two leaves of the involucre very- long, lanceolate. Fruit an angular, two-celled, two-valved capiule, with a fingle feed in each cell. Lam. A native of Guiana. The trivial name involucrata, given by Willde- now, is grofsly improper in a genus in which mult of the Ipecies are involucred. 10. C. even, (Ceph.iclis tetra-idra, Willd. Evea guianenfis Aub. Tab. ^.}. La Marck. Illiill. 154. PI. 59. Encyc. z. 3y9.) " Heads axillnry, gleibnlar, peduncled ; involucre four-leaved ; flowers tetrandr us." Willd. A flirub feven or eight feet high, branched from the bottom. Branches oppofite, knotty, fuur-cornered. /.<'J^'« oppofite, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, fnio;)th, even, on ihort petioles. 5'/;^u/f.rintrafoliaceous, fliort, pointed, caducous. Heads of Jloiuers oppofite, fituated rather above the axils of the leaves. Leaves of the involucre oval, paint- ed ; the two outward ones larger. Scaly lecifi.ts fix or feven, between the involucre and the flowers. Fruit unknown. A native of Guiana. As there is another tetrandr-ous fpe- cies we have changed the trivial name. 1 1. C. patubea, (Cephaelis fcffilifiora, Willd. Patabea coccinea, Aubl. Tab. 43. La Marck. Illuft. 173. PI. 65. Poii-et. Encyc. j. 52.) " Heads terminal, globular, feffile, naked ; flowers tetian- drous." Willd. A flirub four or five feet high. Branches compound, oppofite, knotty. Leaves oppofite, entire, fmooth, acuminate. Stipules intrafoliaceous, awl-fh.iped, rather large. • Heads of the fio-jjers terminal, fituated in tlie axils of the upper pair of leaves ; corolla red ; filaments Ihort. Fruit unknown. A native of Guiana. We have changed the trivial name of this as well as of the two pre- ceding, and for a fimilar reafon. 13. C. ipecacuanha, Iji-o- tero, Liun. Tranf. vol. vi. Tab. 2. (Ipecacuanha fufca, P;f. Braf. p. 101. It. Marg. Braf. p. 17.) •' Stem afeend ng, fomewhat fhrubby,-farmtn'ous ; leaves ovate-laiiceo'.ite, a lit- tle pubcfcent underneatli ; llipides deeply laciiiiated ; head terminal, peduncled ; involucre four-leaved, leafl.ts a little heart-fliaped ; corolla five-cleft ; chaffy braftes large." Root limple Of a liuk branched, rouadifh, moll freqientlv uer- 1 f e..d vuiarj C A L L I C O C C A. pendiciikr; fonietimes, but rarely, /liirhtly oblique; from two to four inches long, or more ; flcndcr upwards, tlic thickntfs and form of the ilem ; two or three lines thick below, irregularly bent, brown without ; divided into nu- merous prominent, unequal, fomewhat wrinkled rings ; of an acrid, bitter tade, but foarcely any fmell ; when dry the bark is thick, hard, brittle, brown without, white within, of a gummy relinous nature, incloling a fmall, woody, white, nearly inlipid, mucilaginous fibre, from which it is eafily feparatcd into numerous rings, which are fuiooth at their edges. Sum fomewhat Hirubby, firll procumbent, then ercd, fometimes cretpi:.g at the bafc, round, about the thickiicfs of a common quill ; fniooth and without leaves - below, brown, and knotty with the fears of fallen leaves, the intern>,des upwards gradually decreafing in length ; near the top pnbefcent, green, lca'"y ; for a year or two fimple ; then throwing out a few leaflets, rather crooked, knotty runners, taking root irregularly at the knots, and producing one or two new Hems about half a foot from each other. Leaves from four to eight near the funviiit of the ftem, op- pofite, fpreading, three or four inches long, one or two broad, perfeftly entire ; deep green above and befprinkled with roughifh points, fmooth, or rarely befct with a few fcattered hairs ; und-rneath pale green, and fomewhat pu- befcent ; with a ratlier elevated rib, and alternate, nearly parallel, lateral veins curved at the end ; petioles (hort, channelled, a little hairy. Stipules two, extrafoHaceous, prefled clofe to the ftem, deeply cut into awl-fliaped divi- fions, nightly adhering to the petioles, about equal to them in length, and with them Ihcathmg the ftem, ftirivelling. Flowers aggregate in a folitary head, pcduncled, terminal, and a little drooping ; peduncle round, pubefcent, about half an inch long ; florets felTile, from fifteen to twenty- four, fcparated by chafi"y leaflets or brades ; braftes the length of the involucrnm and florets, pubefcent, very entire, feffile, green, varying in form, fometimes longifli- egg fliaped, fometimes rather obtufely lanceolate, and fometimes, but rarely, in fize and tigure refembling the leaflets of the involucre. Involucre lonr-leafed ; leaflets a little heart ftiaped, acute, entire, almoft lelfile, flightly waved, hairy ; the two outer ones largeft, and all a little longer than the florets. Calyx, perianth, fuperior, permanent, mem- branous, white, v^ery (hort, with five blunt teeth. Corolla monopetalous ; tube cylindrical, long, a little fwelling up- wards, woolly about the throat ; border Ihortcr than the tube ; with five egg-iliaped, acute, recurved fegments. Stamens, filaments five, capillary, ftiort, inferted on the upper part of the tube ; anthers oblong, linear, treft, proje>lting beyond the top of the tube. Piftil, germ egg-fiiaped, not angular ; llyle ihread-lhaped, the length of the tube, fur- rouuded at the bafe with a ftiort, neftnnferous rim ; (ligmas two, oblo' g, rather thick, blunt, the length of the anthers. Pericarp, berry one-celled, with two feeds, roundifll, neither furrowed nor angular, crowned with the calyx, purpliftx red, foft, and finally becoming wrinkled and black. Thofe wh-ch fall before they are ripe, when they grow dry, have a fin 'te fu'TOW on each fide, occa'.ioned by the fcparation of the feeds, as they lie with their flat fides towards each other. Seeils two, elliptical, fmooth, a little twilled ; flat on one fide, with a longitudinal, fomewhat elevated hue run- nine dowu the middle ; convex on the other, with a furrow near the apex. A native of moift woods in Pernambucco, and otl er provinces of Brazil, flowering from November to March, and ripening its berries in May. Defcribed by Fe- lix Avcilar lirolero, profefibr of botany at Coimbra, with the afliit.mce of obfervations made in Brazil on living plants, by BtrnarJ Gomes, a refidenc medical botauift. It is called ipecacuanha by the natives in fome parts of Brazil ; poaia d.) matto by th()fe of the fouthern provinces ; and cipo by others, which is the name often given it by the I'ortuguefe f ttLrs. Though tlie root of this pkint has been known in Europe about 1 jo years, and has been in general ufe as a valuable medicine nearly as long; and though figures of it were early pubhihrd by I'ilo and Margiaavc, modern botanills have known little of its botanical cliaraflcrs, and were long ui • able to determine the genus to which it ought to be re- ferred. Linnxus, in a paper publiflied in the third volume of " Amenitales Acadeniicx," gave it as a trivial name to a fpecies of Euphorbia, a native of Virginia and Carolina, the root of which is there iifcd as an emetic; but this was foon dilcovered not to be the real ipecacuan'i,;. In his fe- coud MantilTa, he gave the fame trivial name to a fpecies of Viola, a native of Brazil, the root of which he fuppoled to be the white ipecacuanha of the ftiops. Decandollc, in a paper publiftied in the " Bulletin des Sciences par la So- ciete Pliilomatique," and rcpublifti^d entire in the " Nou- vcau Diftionaire d'Hilloire Naturelle," fays, there are three fpecies of Viola which produce the white ipecacuanha : the calceolaria of the fpecies Plaiitarum, a native of Guiana and the Antilles; the ipecacuanha of the Mantiffa, and ihe parvi^ora of the Supplementum Plantarum, both natives of Brazil. The roots of thefe, and efpecially the Lift, are fometimes mingled in commerce with the true or brown ipecacuanha ; but they area fraudulent adulteration, and do not polTefs its atfive properties. They may be dillinguinied by their co- lour ; but moft certainly by the fize of the v.uody part, which in thefe is always confiderably thicker than the bark; whereas, in the true ipecacuanha, it is much lefs ; and, as defcribed by Brctero, is only a fibre (filum). The roots of fome fpecies of Al'clepias, Cynanchum, Dorftcnia, and Ruellia, have likewife received the name of ipecacuanha, on account of their poffefTing fome of the fame qualities ; but in this there is no deception, as they have been houeftly called falfe or fpurious ipecacuanhas. Some time before the year i;Si, Mutis, then travelling in South America, fent to the younger Linnaeus a defcrip- tion formed from a fpecimen in full flower, which the go- vernor of the province of Giroiig had received from Can- naverale on the river Magdalena, and which an empiric of the country, to whom it was ftiewn by Mutis, pofitively afferted to be the genuine ipecacuanha, having frequently gathered it in the neighbourhood of Simites, where it grows wild in great abundance, and whence it is regularly fliipped at Mompoxia, as an aiticle of commerce for Europe. From this defcription, Linnaeus judgeel it to be a fpecies of Pfy- chotria, a genus formed by his father for two or three plants that arc natives of the Eaft and Weft Indies, and publiftied it as fuch in t!ie " ^^upplementum Plantarum ;" at the fame time cxprefTing a doubt whether it were really the ipecacuanha of Pifo and Margraave ; but alfo adding, that, from its refemblance to their figures, he was rather in- clined to believe it the fame. In the year 1793, Dr. Woodville was favoured by fir Jofeph Banks with a fpecimen preferred in fpirits, which had been fent from Brazil. A drawing taken from it was engraved and publiftied in his Medical Botany. It was without a flower, but as its root was entire, there was no doubt of its being the real plant. Its gtnus, however, ftill remained in a ftate of uncertainty ; for Dr. Woodville was of opinion that he could not " implicitly follow the authority on which Mutis received the information." The lovers of na- tural hillorvare, therefore, highly obliged to profeffor Brotero for his fatisfadtory monograph on the fubjcd, read at a meeting C A 1. C A L da will then entirely rcTl on in tter be called, braft;- as precedent gor?, Plychotria differs heads on a common his pfychotria err.e- laiTy- receptacle ; but cle, with a braftc tu : that the fpecit,, .» defcriplions, there appear one or uvo^irponanV, and'a few properly a callicocca. \Ve fliall therefore add 14. C. n>.. nSer dir^renets; but there is fo great a general refem- i^n (pfycotna eme Uca L>nn. jun. 6up. PI p 14+.) blaivc" as to make it evident that they are very nearly al- " Heads naked, peduncled, few-flowered ; leaves lanceo- Ued to' each other, and to render it probable that they be- long to the fame natural genus, and poffefs the fame quah- ties in perhaps an equal degree. In the defcriptiou given bv Mutis, there is no mention of an involucre ; and the braftes which feparate the fiorcU are faid to be fo fmall as to be fcarccly difcernible. I late, fmooth ; ftipules entire, awl-diaped ; corolla 5ve-ckfL ; chaffy braftea very fmall." A native of Brazil. All the known fpecies are perennial. We have followed Schrcber and WillJenow with little hefitation in uniting the tapogomea, pntabea, and evea c.f The Aublet, though La Marck has kept them feparate. A dif- Hrft affeds the enus as it has hitherto' been charafterized ference merely in number cannot warrant the conftruftion of a new genus. Of the carapichea we have much doubt, on account of the important difference in the fruit. La Marck made it a diflind genus in the alphabetical part of the En- cyclopedic, but has figured it as a fpecies of his tapogomea zontal- in that of Croteio, they are deeply laciniated, and in the Illuftrations, which muft be confidered as hislateft prefltd'clofe to the ftem. In the former, the flowers are decifion onthe fubjeft. Nor can tlie genus of patabea and liated to be axillary, and to have only from two to five by all authors; and as we, in conformity with them, have given it above. The other is only a fpccific difference ; but we fuppofe it will be acknowledged to be a (Irongly marked The ftipuls in Mutis's plant are awl-(haped and hori- illary, flowers, which are not defcrlbed as forming a head : but a fimple infpedion of Brotero's figure will make it manifefl. that they may be called either terminal or axillary with nearly equal propriety ; and their number may be a variable circumllance depending on foil and fituation ; or, if conllant, may be introduced with advantage into the fpecitic charadler. In all other refpeds, they are fo much alike that the defcription of one will ferve for the other. The credit of the Braillian empiric, which feems to have fuffered in the eftimation of a regular European phyfieian, by that degrad- ing appellation, is therefore eftablifhed. The ilipules of Sir Jof. Banks's plant, as figured by Dr. Woodville, agree in ftiape with thofe defcribed by Mutis, and are llrikingly differ- ent from thofe figured by Brolero ; the root alfo of the for- mer is more knotted and irregular in its furface. It may then, we apprehend, be fairly concluded, that there are at lead two diftinft fpecies ; and nothing forbids their being placed under the fame genus, as nature certainly diftates, but the want of an involucre in that defcribed by Mutis. The prefence or abfence of an involucre is, however, a cir- cumilance which ought not to enter into the effential part of a generic charaftcr. The genus Cornus might be cited a« a familiar cafe in point ; but calHcocca itfelf, as it ^(^.u• ally now ftands in authors, is a fufficient inftance. For though Schreber, La Marck, and Willdenow, all agree in af- cribing to it an involucre, as an effential charafter, Seine evea be abfolutely fixed, till we become acquainted with, their fruit. CALLICOE, in ManufaPurcSy'S. fpecies of cotton cloth, originally imported from the Eaff Indies, from the kingdom of Calicut, on the coaft of Malabar, whence the name Cal- licoe is derived. The term is now generally applied to cotton cloths of Englifh manufafture, and comprehends many varieties of finenefs and texture. Englifh callicoes were lirft manufac- tured at Blackburn in Lancafiiire, about 50 years ago, and have Gnce become one of the leading articles of national in- dullry, affording employment in the various details of fpinning, weaving, bleaching, dying, &c. to a confidcrable portion of the population of that county. See Cotton Manufactures. Callicoe-Printing. See Printing. CALLiCOLONA, in Annent Geography, a hill of Afia Minor, in the Troade, and in the vicinity of Simois, accord- to Homer. It is mentioned by Strabo. CALLICRATES of Tyre, in Biography, an hiRorian who flouriftied under Aurehan, and wrote his life ; but he is faid to have dwelt too much in trifling incid. nt?. Vc pif- cu£ fl:yles him the moll learned of all the Greek hillcrians of his time. Callicrates, an Athenian architeft and fculptor, who lived about 472 years before Chrifl:. He is faid to have en- graved fome of Homer's vcrfes on a grain of millet, and to ber inconfillently adds, in a note, that it is in fome cafes have made an ivory chariot which might be concealed under without one, and of Willdenow's 12 fpecies, four are ex- the wing of a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the mem- prefsly faid, to have naked heads or to be dcllitute of an bers were diftind. jElian, however, jullly cenfures him for involucre. Whether La Marck includes in his tapogomea employing his talents in performances fo trivial and ufelefs, any fpecies of a fimilar defcription we cannot determine, as and yet lo difficult. ' the alphabetical part of the Encyclopedic is not fo far ad- CALLICRATIDAS, a Lacedxmonian general, who vanccd ; and though he has figured it in his Illuftrations, fucceeded Lyfander in the command of the Athenian fleet. and given what he thought its effential charafter in the fy- He was eminently diftinguiflied not only for hii valour and noptic table, at the head of the clafs, the enumeration of military fl ciniiamoB colour, ftriated and fplit near the edges, fpread*. ing. C A L inr on wcl. Me, fo as to conceal the nnt. When the root i( cut acrofs thee txudej from it cop.oufly a clear gum, xvhich has the properties of giim tragacanth. lnt.,;kd in water it fuelU and is changed into a fwectifli muciUge, xvhich docs rot foo.1 grow dn- ; and if expofcd to heat. ferments in a f.-w days and acquires a vinous flavour. Found by Pallas iii the fandy dtfarls between the Volga and the laick. It was at firil thought by h'm to be a new genus ; hut afterwards recolleaing the genus calligonum of Linnaeus, he fell into the cppofite error, and fuppofcd it to be the fame fptcies with the Armenian plant found by Tournefort. The voiinjrrr Linn^us alio took it for a new genus, and in honour of Vullas called it pallafia. I'hey both attribute to It not a one-kafcd, calyx, but a five-petallcd corolla. It is called rynfcjl-i by the inhabitants of the country between the Volga, the laick, and the Cafpian Sea ; and torluk by the Kahiinck and Kirkilian Tartars, who make tobacco pipes of its long intcrnodes. L'lleritier and Pallas. Thefe three fpecies are fo limilar to each other in their general habit and llruaurc, that their fpecific difference can be taken only from the fruit. 4. C. a/ficrum, Martyn's Miller. Lour. Cochin. " Leaves cgg-fliaped, rough ; racemes fub- divided ; fruit double." Swm flirubby, climbing, but with- out tendrils, long, branched. Leaves entire, alternate. Flowen white, in terminating racemes. Calyx five-ltafed, green, tipped with red ; leaves roundiih , concave, fpread- ing. Corolla commonly none, but fometimes there are four, round, concave, fpreading petals. Sligma feffile, blunt, deeply two-paited. Stamens numerous on the receptacle. Fruil, a berry, fometimes Angle, fometimes double, one- celled, with many feeds. A native of Cochinchina in woods. We have placed it here rather than omit it, but from its fruit and general habit, it does not appear to be a calligo- num ; nor ought a variable circumftance :o form part of the fpecitic character. CALLIGRAPHUS, anciently denoted a copyift, or fcrivener, who tranfcribed fair, and at length, what the no- taries had taken down in notes or minutes. The word is compounded of kxXXo;, leauly, and '/pa^n, / lurite. The minutes of aiits, &c. were always taken in a kind of cypher, or fhort-hand ; fuch as the notes of Tyro in Gruter : by which means the notaries, as the Latins called them, or the eTi,u!w>fa^9i and Ta;^u>fa?oi, as the Greeks called them, were enabled to keep pace with a fpeaker, orperfon who diftated. Thefe notes, being undcrdood by few, were copied over fair, and at length, by pcifons who had a good hand, for fale, &c. and thefe were called calligraphi ; a name frequently met with in the ancient writers. In the Pal^ographia of Mont- faucon (lib. i. c. 8.), we have a catalogue of all the known calligraphi. CALLIGRAPHY, the art of fair writing. Callicrates is faid to have written an elegant diftich on a fefamum feed. Junius fpeaks of a perfon, as very extraor- dinary, who wrote the apoftles creed, and beginning of St. John's G ifpel, in the compafs of a farthing. What would he have laid of our famous Peter Bale, who in 1575 wrote the Lord's prayer, creed, ten commandments, and two (hort prayers in Latin, with his own name, motto, day of the month, year of the Lord, and reign of the queen, in the compafs of a fnigle penny, inchafed in a ring and bordure of gold, and covered with a cryllal, all fo accurately wrought, as to be very legible ? CALLII, in yincient Geography, a promontory of Africa, in Marmarica ; and alfo a village fituate towards the north- eaft of this promontoiy. Ptolemy. CALLIMACHU'S, in Biography, a celebrated architeft, painter, and fculptor of Corinth, flourilhed about the year C A L B. C. '(40. To him is afcribed the invention cf the Coriu. thian order. See Abacus. He alfo m:ide a golden lamp for the temple of Minerva at Athens, which he furniihed with a wick of afbellos, that it might burn without wafting, Callimachus acquired the name of x2>-.i^o-t!XW)> from being unalile to pleafc himftlf by his works. Callimachus, a celebrated poet, grammarian, and critic, was a native of Cyrene in Libya, flourifhed in the reigns of Ptolemy Pluladelphus and Ptolemy Euergctes, bei.ig one of the keepers of the Alexandrian library, and died about the year 244 B. C. He wss the fon of Battus and Mefatme, whence Ovid denominates him " Battiades." Strabo (lib.xvii.) informs us, that he claimed dtfcent from king Battus, who was the founder of Cyrene. He was a difciple of Hcrmocrates the grammarian, and excelled no lefs as a critic than a poet. Before he was recommended to the favour of Ptolemy Philadelphus, he taught fchool at Alex- andria, and had the honour of educating Apollonius, the author of the Argonautics. His poetical compolitions were chiefly (hort pieces, as hymns, elegies, and epigrams ; and when it w^as objefted to him by his enemies that his Mufe could not undertake any conliderable work, he made ufe in reply of the faying which has become proverbial " A great book is a great evil." His powers, however, were manifefted by two works of greater extent, entitled " He- cate," and " Aitia." The charafteiiftics of thofe poems of Callimachus, which have reached our times, are elegance and polifh, and choice of expreflions ; and thefe correfpond to the charafter given of him as a poet by Ovid (Amor, eleg. 15. lib. i.) : " Battiades toto femper cantabitur orbe ; Qu^amvis ingenio non valet, arte valet." " The drains of Battus' fon ftiall ne'er depart ; If not in genius, he excels in art." Quinftilian, in his " Inftitutiones Oratoriae" (!.x. c.i. ), applauds CaUiiuachus as the prince of elegiac poets, among the Greeks. Mad. Dacier, in the preface to her edition of his poems, fays, that, among the writings of ancient Greece, there is nothing more elegant and pohte than thefe compo- fitions of our author. To the fame purpofe her father, Tanaquil Faber, in his " Abrege des Vies des Poetes Grecs," declares, that Calhrnachus's manner of writing is neat and llrong ; and that Catullus and Propertius fre- quently imitate him, and fometimes tranflatehim. Accord- ingly the " Coma Berenices" of the former is a tranflation from Calhmachus. Of the various editions of this writer we may mention Mad. Dacier's, 4to. Paris, 1674; Bentley's, 8vo. London, 1741; Graevius's, 8vo. Utrecht, 1697; Er- nefti's, 8vo. L. Bat. 1761 : Loefner's, 8vo. Lipf. 1774. We have a tranflation of the works of Callimachus into Englirti verfe, with notes, &c. by Dr. Tytler, 4to. Lond. 1793. Gen.Dia. QALLIMUS, in Phyfiohgy, a ftony fubftance found in the cavity of the aetites, or eagle ftone. The word is alfo written calimus, and in fome copies of Pliny calaimis; which latter reading Salmafius receives. The callimus fills the hollow of the ostites, much as the yolk does the white of an egg. The geodes, inftead of a caUimus, or folid ftone, have a loofe, fandy, chalky, or earthy fubftance, and the enhydri a liquid fubftance. CALLINGER, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Bundelcund ; 72 miles W. S.W. of Alia- habad. CALLINGTON, is an ancient fma'l borough town of Cornwall, England. Itsfiiuation islow,ihefiirroundingcouii- try bleakand barren, andits houfes are moilly fm;,- oro;. From this etymology it Ins been inferred that Calliope is the fymbol of rhetoric aiid elo- quence; but Euliathius (II. A. v. i.) alTerts that flic wan the emblem of heroic poetry, the moll noble and moft aw- cie!:t fpecies of poetry. As to her fine voice, flic pofie;Ted thip talent in common with her other filters. Upon the me- dals of the Pomponian family, (he is dcligned by a licad crowned with laurel, with a roll or volume from which firings are fufpendid, in the field of the medal. CALLIPiEDIA, the art of getting or breeding fine and beautiful children. The word io formed from K%\i>;,fair, and wxi;, puer, either boy or girl. We find divers rule* and pra<:ilice3 relating to this art, in ancient and modern writers. The Jews are faid to have been fo felicitous about tlie beauty of their children, that care was taken to have fome very beautiful child (fuch as was Jochanan, the difciple of Judah, author of the Mifchna) placed at the door of the public baths, that the women at going out, being (Iruck with his appearance, and retaining the idea, might all have children as fine as he. The Chinefe toke great care of their breeding women, to prevent uncouth objects of any kind from linking their imagination : and muficians arc employed at night to entertain them with agreeable fongs and odes, fetting forth the duties and comforts of a conjugal and do- mellic life, that the infant may receive before its birth good imurefiions, and come forth not only well-formed in body, but fuitably difpoled in mind. Callipsedia, neverthelef.;, fetms to have been firll ercfted into a jull art by Claude Qiullet de Chinon, a French ab- bot, who, under the fiftitious name of Calvidus I^xtus, hat pnblilhed a fine Latin poem, in four books, under the title of Callipxdia, feu de pulchrx prolis halenJjt ratione ; whereii* are contained all the precepts of the art. Paris, 1656, Svo. & Lond. 1708, Svo. It was trandated into EnghlTi verfi; by Mr. Rowe. CALLIPHAE, in Mythology, one of tl»e lonides. CALLIPIA, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Ephe- fus fo called by Pliny, and denominated " Alitea" by Pau- fanias. CALLIPIDJE, a people of Scythia near the Palus- Miotis. According to Herodotus they were a colony of Greeks, cftablillied in Scythia. Pomponius Melaaffigns them the fpace that lay between the Axiaces and Hypanis or Bogus. CALLIPOLIS, denoting beautiful eily, a name givca to feveral towns, on account of the peculiar advantages of their fituation or (Irufture. Thus, Calllpolis was the name of a city on the Cherfonefus of Thrace, near the Hellel- pont, and oppolite to Lampfacus. See Gallipoli. — Alfo, a town of Sicily, on the eallerii coait, north of Catana and of the river Acis. — Alfo, a town of Caria.- Alfo, a town of Magna Grxcia, at the extremity of a pcninfula in the country of the Salentins, in thegnlf of Tarento — Alfo, a town of Peloponnefus. — Alfo, a town of Greece in JExoWi, feparated from Naupafla by a high mountain, called " Co- rax." Alfo, a town ef Afia, towards Galatia and Armenia. 5 I —Alio, C A L _Alfo, a town of Spain, near the MediterranMn fea, be- tv»efn mount Sallus ana Tarracona. , » , C\IL1RH0E, formed of xaXs;, beauttful, and {sw, /o /:,»..■ a 'fountain of Greece at the Rate of Calydon, m \Atolia— Alfo afount:un of Attica, called " Lnneacrunos, from its O fpringa or channels— Alfo, a lake of Afia in Me- lopoumia, near which was feated the city of Antioch.— Alfo, a mineral fountain of Palelline, before the town of that rame, and the fortrefs Machsrus, according to Il^iiy-- AUo, a town of Arabia, i:icUided in the territory of Moab, fituatc near the Afphaltite bke, and famous for its warm l..ith8. According to Jofcphus, Herod the Great, m his lull illncfs, was conveyed hither.^ Ptolemy places it on the call of Jordan and of the Dead Sea. CALLIRRKOE, in Entomology, a Fabiician fpecies ot C A L neftary ; anther operciilated, two-lobed. P'lfl. germ iuferioft twiftcd, thrcad-rtiaped : (lyleand (ligma none, unlefs we con- iider as fuch a furrow which palfes from the ftamen to the germ. Fruit generally abortive. Root a linear bulb. Stem thick, furrowed. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, entire, flrt ■ ated, thick, hard, flieathing. Floivers white, in long, later- al, drooping, fimple racemes. Bofc. Nouv. Dift. Callista, in Ancient Geography, a name formerly given to an ifland of the Grecian Archipelago, afterwards called Tbera, and now Santorin, which fee. CALLISTHENES, in Biography, a Greek philofopher and hillorian, was a native of Olynthus, and a difciple and kinfmaii of Arillotle. By the influence of this philofopher he vfas appointed to attend Alexander in his expedition to the eaft ; but his free fpivit and republican fentiments, to- ith a confiderabie degree of feif-importance, and of H PiPii.io,(i><;«.Cmm mid Alcxandjr. lie compofc-d many other liiftorical works, whicli arc not now extant. The moll confidei-able was, a " Hirtory of Greece," com- prehendiiig 30 years from the peace of Antalcitlas. He alfowrotea " Hillory of tlie TmjanWar." A " Periplus," " Perfics," " Macedonics," " Thracics," and " Metamor- phofts," are' alfo afcrilicd {o a writer of hii name. His " Apophtliepms" are alfo mentioned ; among which was a faying formerly famous in the fclioo!.-. — " that human life is governed by fortune, not by wifdom." Arrian, ubi fiipTa. rliitaicli ill Alex, apnd oper. t. i. p. 691;, &c. Quintus 'Ciirtiiis. Jullin. Voff. Hill. Grarc. I'abr. Bib. Grxc. Gen. 13iog. ^ CALLISTIA, KyMM-ri:'., in A-i/ijii!t^, a I.ediian fcflival, wlierein the women jirelentcd thcniftlveo in Juno's leinple, nd the prize was afii^ncd to the faired. The word is formed from x.x'.r.o,-, beauty, q. d. beauty's rewards. The like contell of beauty was held at the fef- tival of Ceres Eleuiinia, among the Parrhafians, firft fct on foot by Cypfelus, whofe wife Hcrodice was honoured with the firft prize. Another obtained among the b'.lians, wlierc the contefl; was among the men, the moll beautiful of whom was prcfented with a fnit of armour, whirh lie canfecrated to Minerva, to whofe temple he walked in procefiion, adorned with ribbons, and crowned with a myrtle garland. Pott. Arch. Grace, lib. ii. cap. 20. CALLISTRATIA, in An-nnl Geography, -i. town of Alia in G«latia, according to Ptolemy ; but it rather belonged to Paphiagonia. It was fituated on the coall of the Euiiine fca, S. E. of the promontory of Cerambis, and S. of that of Zephyrium. CALLISTRATUS, in Biography, an Athenian orator who flourifhed about the year B.C. ,340. After having acquired great reputation and authority in the government of his country, he fhared the fate of others of a fimilar de- fcription, and was baniilied. He is probably the fame per- fon that is mentioned by Demoflhenes (Orat. adv. Polycltm.) who was banifhed to Methone in Mefopotamia, and whom the Athenians had twice condemned to death. Tiie fuccefs of his pleading in a public canfe of importance, which Demofthenes attended in his youth, and the glory acquired by it, induced this yotmg difciple of Plato to abandon the ftudy of philofophy, and to devote him/'elf entirely to that of oratory. Callitlratus is faid to have maniftfted great ab- horrence when, under a ftntence of exile, fome perfon ex- prefl'ed a wilh, that the Athenians might foon be obliged to. rtlloi'c the exiles. Similar to this was the conduft cf Ru- tilius, who retorted againft one who propofed to' comfort him by reprcfenting to him, that a war would foon break out, which would occafion all the cxilts to return ; " What have I done to thee, tliat thou Ihouldll vvilh me a return worfe than my baniihiiient ? I chufe rather that my country fhould blufli at my banifhment, than mourn at my return." Plut. in Demoiilien. apud opera, t. i. p. 847. Se- neca de Benef. 1. vi. c. 37. Gen. Di£l. CALLISTUS, JoHAXNES Andronicus, a learned Greek philofopher, was a native of Tiunaloiiica, and fettled at Conftantinople, where he was a prot'elTor of the Peripa- tetic philofophy, and acquired a high reputation for learn- ing. Upon the capture cf this city in 1453, he fled with many others into Italy, and tixing liis firft rcfidence at Rome, taught the Greek language and read letlures upon Arillotlc's philofophy. From hence, for want of due encouragement, he removed to Florence, where he had a vail concourfe of difciples. After fpending feveral years in Italy, he clpfed his life in France. Callillus was one of thofe learned Greeks to whom we arc indebted for the introduftion of learning C A L Info tlif wed. Some Greek MSS. bcarinjr his nnme ire dill extant; and particularly one in the royal libraiy at Paris, entitled, " A Monody upon the Miferics of Con- dantinople." Some philofopliical and moijy, the name under which the green ape of the Englifli writers {S'imia fab^a of Schrtber Saeugth) isdefcribcd by Bufibn. CALLITRICHUM, m Botany. (J. Bauh. Morif. Ray.) See M li 1, 1 s s A pyreiuiica. CALLITRICHUS, In Zoology, fynonymous with Cal- LiTRiCHK, a fort of monkey of a yellowifli green colour, wilh black flattifli face, called by Pennant the green monkey. This is the animal named Jiwia /abra by.'Hchrebcr. See SiMiA Sab.iea. CALLITRIX, in Zoology, Simia callitrix magnitudine magnorum cynocephaloiuni, Alpin. Aeg. Sec Simia SlLENUS. 5 I I CALLIX- ot C A L CALLIXEME, i" Botany (La Marck, JutT.) See "c^I'LixTU-S, or Callistus, I., popf, in Bhgraphy, frcccdcd Zcuhvnrusin theytar2I9. Soa e have laid that »,;bu>k a church to ihc memory- of the V.rgm Mary vvh>ch i, no* k.«jwn bv tht name of Santa Mana m Tranftevcie, or St Maiy beyond the Tiber : but it is more certain that he inclufeJ a large piece of ground in the Appian way as a burving.pbce for the Chr.lHan.. The ftory of h.s martyr. dom. with its attcwJart circumftances of cruelty, is noi very probable, a. Alexander Sevenis was tolerant and la- ,om»ble to the Chrillians. He died m 223. Bower s HUl. of the Popes, vol. 1. , t r r Caluixtus II., pope, was Guy of Burgundy, the fon ot William the Gr<.at, count of Rurgundy, and nearly related ,0 the emperor Henry. Before his ek-aion to the papacy he was archbilhop of Vienne ; and on the death of Gdafius atClucni, in 11 19, he was unanimoudy chofen to lucceed him by all the cardinals, except thofe who were of the em- peror's partv, who adhered to the anti-pope Maurice bur- din, or Gregory VIII. This was a happy choice both for the church and Hate. Soon after his eleftion, Callixtus held a council at Rhcims, in which the emperor, who re- fufid to renounce the right of invcftitiire, was folemnly ex- communicated. From lllRims the pope repaired to Gi- fora in Normandy, in order, by means of an interview with Henry, ki-.g of Enj-Und, to mediate a reconciliation be- tween him and Louis king of France ; but his conciliatory efT.irts were inefftaual. , , . From Normandy he palTed over into Italy, and havmg obtained fome forces from the Norman princes in Apulia, he btfieeed his rival Burdin, who had retired to Sutri, took him prifoner, and thus terminated the fcliifm. Earneftly dcfiroua of peace with the emperor, he fent legates into Gormanv, and a peace was concluded at a general diet held at Wortiis, in 112 2. The emperor was allowed the right of receiving an oath of allegiance from bilhops and abbots eleft, and of conferring on them the regalia, for which they were to do him homage ; whilft he confentcd to furrender the ceremony of invelliture by the ring and crofier, which was regarded as an emblem of the conveyance of fpiritual autho- rity. The articles of agreement, fettled by the pope and emperor, wcie approved by the general council held at La- teran in the following year, and remain ilill in force. After a pontificate of nearly fix years, this pope died in U24, and left a great charafter for moderation and liberality, and a ilria obfervance of the canons. Thirty-fix letters of this pope are prefervcd ; and other works in MS. on the miracles of fainta, &c. are attributed to him. Bower, vol. vi. Moftieim, Eccl. Hid. vol. iii. Callixtus III., pope, was advanced to the pontifical chair in 145 1, at the age of 76 years. His name was Al- phonfo Borgia ; he was defcended of an ancient family, and born at Xativa, in Spain. Before his clctlion he was fe- cretaiy to Alphonfo king of Arragon, and employed in terminating the fchifm occafioned by the anti-pope Cle- ment VIII.; and for this fervice he was preferred by pope Martin to the fee of Valencia. Immediately after his ele- vation to the papacy, he exerted himfelf in reftraining the progrefs of the 'iSirks under fultan Mahomet II., who had taken Conftantinople, and threatened all Chriftendom. For this purpofe he fitted out a fmall fleet, which retook fome of the iflands of the Archipelago; and by means of a cru- fadc, which he caufcd to be preached throughout Europe, he raifcd a conrderable army, which was committed to the rdnducl of. the famous Hunniades. Notwithdanding a vic- tory obtained at Belgrade in 1456, which obliged JIahomet C A L to raife the fiege of that city, and the remembrance of which the pope immortalized by ordering the feflival of the " Transfiguration of Chrill" to be religioufly obferved throughout all the wellern world, the Turkifh army pro- ceeded in its conquefts. The pope's attention was foon occu- pied by other concerns. Having ambitious defigns in favour of his nephew, whom he had created duke of Spoleto, he quar- relled with his former patron the king of Arragon, and re- fufed to grant to his natural fon Ferdinand the invelliture of the kin-^rdom of Naples. On the dcceaie of Alphonfo, he daclared openly againft Ferdinand, and would have kindled a civil war in the kingdom, if his death, which happened in 145S, had not ptevented it. Callixtus is reprefented by contemporary writers as a man of abilities, of great addrefs and experience, and one of the bell canonills ot his time : but like other popes, he was betrayed into improper conduft by nepotifm. His only literary remains are fome epiftles and bulls. Bower, vol. vii. Mofheim, vol. iii. CALLO, in Geography, a plain in the jurifdiflion of Qiiito, South America, fo called from a palace of th^ Yncas, which hears this appellation, and the ruins of which are ftill feen at the extremity of the plain running northward from Latacunga. See Q^ito. CALhO-forl, lies on the coaft of Chili, in the fouth Pacific Ocean, four leagues N. from Solango ifland. S. lat. 1° 10'. W. long. 80° 9'. CALLONIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Si- cily, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, thought to be the fame with the Caulonia of Steph. Byz. CALLONITIS, in Geography, a country of Afia, in Affyria, on the confines of Media, near mount Zagnis. CALLOO, a fortiefs of the Netherlands, on the Scheldt, where the Dutch were defeated by the Spaniards in 1638 ; five mi!«3 W. of Antwerp. N. lat. 51° 15'. E. long. 4° 10'. CALLOSA, in Eniorttohgy, a fpecies of Apis of a fhining black-blue colour, witli a white lip, and callous dot of the fame on each fide of the thorax, before the wins^s. This is an infedl of fmall fize, and inhabits Italy. Fa- briciue. CALLOSITY, in Surgery. See Callus. CALLOSUM corpus, in Anatomy, denotes a whitifb, liard fubftance, joining the two hemifpheres of the brain, and appearing when the two hemifpheres are drawn back. See Brain. CALLOT, James, in Biography, a celebrated draughtf- man and engraver, was defcended from a noble family, and born at Nancy in Lorraine, in 1593. His paflion for the arts was fo ftrong, and difcoveied itfclf at fo early a period of his life, that at the age of 12 years, he fecretly left his father's houfe, and determined to feek improvement in Italy. But being deilitute of money, he joined a company of Bo- hemians (or of llrolling gypfies), with whom he travelled as far as Florence. Here he was taken notice of by an officer of the grand duke, and placed for inllrudlion under Remi- gio Canta Gallina, who was both a painter and engraver. When he left Gallina, he purfued his journey to Rome ; but meeting with fome merchants from Nancy, who knew him, they took him back to his family. Soon after he mads a fecond elopement, and from Turin he was brought home by his brother. At length, his father finding that his incli- nation for the arts was invincible, acquiefced in his indulg- ence of it, and fent him to Rome; where he afBduoufly applied to drawing, under Giulio Parigii. Being defirous of acquiring a facility in handling the graver, he put him- felf under the inftruftion of Philip ThomafTin, and having made confidcra^le, jroproyement, he afterwards went to Flo. rencej C A L rtnce, -where he was employed, and particularly encouraged by the great duke Cofmo 11. At this city lie firll Ingan to etch, and he executed fcveral i'mall fubjcfls with great fuccefs. Upon the death of the duiorc to liis country, to rcprcfent any thing that (liouU ap- pear to their difgrace. When a courtcfan mfifted on his gratifying the king's wiflics, and enforced the reqiiifition with a menace, that he fhould be compelled to obey, he boldly replied, " I will fooner difablc my right hand, tlinn be conftrained to do any thing contrary to my honour." Tiie king was pleafed with this magnanimous reply, and offered him a penfion of 3000 livres if he would attach him- felf to his ftrvice. C^liot gratefully rcfufed the offer, pre- ferring the love of his country to the amaffing of a for- tune. This artift engraved in feveral ftytes; the firft of which was an imitation of his mailer Canta Gallina. He after- wards worked altogether with the gravtr ; but without fuc- cefs. His next llylc was the mixture of the point and the graver, with coarfe broad hatchings in the (hadows. But his bed manner is that, which appears to have been executed with the greateft freedom, by which he has expreffed, as we may fay, with a linglc ifroke, variety of charafter, and cor- refirefs of defign. He is faid to have been the firll who ufed hard varnilh in etching, which has b;en found much fupcrior to that which was before adopted. The fertility of invention, and the vail variety, found in the works of this excellent artill, are ailonilhing. It could hardly have been fuppoftd poffible to combine lo great a number of figures together as he has done, and to vary the attitudes, without forced contrail, fo that all of them, whether fingle figures or groups, may be eafily dillinguilhcd from each other, even in the niaifes of (hadow ; more efpecially when it is con- lidered, that they are often exceedingly minute. On a curfory view of fome of his moll admired pieces, the whole appears confufed and without harmony ; but a careful exa- mination difcovers the richnefs, the beauty, the taflc, and the judgment which are bellowed on the dilpofition of the figures, the management of the groups, and the variety and propriety of the attitude. The works of this mailer are very numerous and various. In reprefcntation of all the varieties of human life, from beggars and peafants to knights and nobles, he excelled ; charafterifing all with the niceft touches of nature. Of his fubjctls many are of the mod painful and fhocking kind, fuch as pubhc executions, the miferies of war, and the like ; many are grotefque and fan- ciful, and exhibit a Ihong imagination. The number of Callot's works is faid to amount to 1500 prints. His etchings are moll elleemed, and colltdions of them are deemed very valuable. Strutt enumerates the following prints; viz. " The Murder of the Innocents," of which that engraved at Florence is the moll rare ; a fine im- prtllJon of it being found with dilSculty ; — " The Marriage C A L of Cana in Galilee," from Paolo Veioncfe ;— " The Paffion of Chrill," the firll impriffioiis of which are very feartc ; — " St. John in the Ifland of Palma ;" — " The Teniptatioa of St. Anthony ;"_" The Punifliments." exhibiting the exccuticm of feveral criminals ; and — " The Miferies of War;"— "The great Fair of Florence ;"—" The little Fair," othcrwifc called " The Players at BentI," one of the fcarcell of Callot's prints ;— " The Tilting, or the New- Street at Nancy ;" — " The Garden of Na->cy ;"— " View of the Pont Ncuf ;"— " View of the Louvre ;" and " Four Landfcapts." Callot was very regular in his mode of living, and exadl in his religious (.bfervanccs. Felibicn. Strutt. CALLOUS, in Surgery, denotes indurated or hardened. See C.\LLUs. Callous r^s, ova ca/lo/a, the longcrand better fort, fup- pofed to contain male chicks ; having a deiifcr white, and richer flavour than the reft. Sec Egg. CALLULO, in Geoi^raphf, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Uiarbekir ; 60 milts N.W. of Rabba. CALLUNBORG, or Kalluneorg, a town ot Den- mark ; 60 milts W. of Copenhagen. CALLUS, in Stir^^ery, is a preternatural liardnefs or in- duration of any flefliy part of the body ; and, not unfrc- quently, this^ term is' applied to the fiibdance by which fradtured bones arc fpontancouily united to ca<;h other. Ii» this latter fenfe, we fay " the callus has not formed ;" i. e. the bony union is incomplete: " the calliu ia exuberant ^" i. e. the offific matter is very abundant. A callofity, or preternatural hardntfs of the (kin take* place either from external fnaion (as in the formation of Corns), or from an internal caufe, which probably confid* in a morbid adion of the exhaltnt arteries. In the hard and- thickened (late of the Ikin which conflitutcs the difcafc named a Corn (which fee), there is found to be an accumu- lation of dry cuticular fubllance, in numerous layers, fome- what rcfembhng an onion. The lamina of horny cuticle which forms on the hands and feet of hard-working people^ is entirely devoid of fenfation, and may thaefore be fcraped or cut with impunity. Mr. Leewenhoek examining the callus formed on the Irandi and feet, obferved that it was a fubftaiice compofcd of feveral layers of particles fo loofcly connedlcd, that it was a wonder they could hang together ; on putting .1 piece of this into fair water, after it had (lood a confiderabie time to deep, he found that the particles of which it was compokd, would tafily feparate from one another with a little touch of a quill, and thefe feparated particles pur into a drop of water, and examined before the microfcope, were found to be all of the fame regular diape, which war- like that of a weaver's fliuttle, being broad in the middle and pointed at each end, with a line in the middle like thofe upon the uppcrmod, or outfide Ikins of fruits, or of our bodies, but generally irregular. Thefe pieces were thick in proportion to their fize ; and when they are put into water, and feparated again, they naturally form a great number of other particles, all of which are of the fame regular figure with the original piece. Phil. Tranf. N-'j/.j. p. 160. By this we fee the reafon of the incrcafe of thickncfs of- the ll to caufe a moderate degree of inflamnnation. Several furgcons, on findinij that a frafturcd bone would not unite, have made an incifion down to the bone, and fawn off a portion of it, or rafped it with a rouj^h file, in order to excite the vcffels to action ; in fomc of thefe cafes the ofTilic proctf? has been revived, and a union has taken place, but generally this experiment has failed, as the growth of bone is more flow and difficult to produce than the regeneration of loft parts, on accoimt of their difference in ftrufture. CALLYCHTHIS. See Callicthys. CALLYDIUM, in jincient Geography, a ftrong cattle of Afia Minor, feated on one of the fummits of mount Olym- pus in Phrygia. CALLYONIMUS, in Botany. (Gef. Hor.) See Con- TALL ARIA majalit. .CALLYSIND, in Geography, a river of Hindoollan, which rnns into the Chumbul, in the circar of Kotta. CALM, in Sea Language, that ftate of the air and water when there is no wind ilirnrig. A calm is more terrible to a fcafaring man than a llorm, if he has a ftrong (hip and fea- room enough ; for under the line exccirivc heat fometimcs produces fuch dead calms, that fhips are obliged to Hay two or three months without benig able to llir one way or other. Two oppofite winds will fomctimes make a calm. This is frequently obfervcd in the gulf of Mexico, at no great diftance from the fhorc, where fome gull or land wind will fo poife the general cafterly wind, as to produce a perfeci calm. Calms are never fo great in the ocean as in the Mediter- ranean, by reafon the flux and reflux of the former keep the water in a continual agitation, even where there is no wind ; whereas there being no tides in the latter, the calm C A L is fomctimes fo dead, that the face of the water is a« clesr aj a looking-glafs ; but fuch calms are almoft conftant prefages of an approaching ftorm. Oti the coafts about Smyrna, a long calm is reputed a prognoflic of an earth- quake. When a (hip is ciofe under t^e Ice of another, the wind- ward vcfl'el is faid to becahn the leeward. — A fiiip is alfo faid to be becalmed when near the land, which keeps the wind from it. It is iwt uncommon for the vefTels to be calmed or be- calmed, as the failors txprcfs it, in the road of the conftant Levantine winds, in places where they ride near the laud. Thus between the two capes of Cartooche toward the main, and cape Antonio in Cuba, the fea is nanow, and t'riere is often a calm produced by .fome gull of a land-wind, tl'at poifes the Levantine wind, and renders the whole perfeftly ilill for two or three dsys. In this cafe, the current that runs here is of uie to the vifFcls, if it fets right; when it fet,s eaiieily, a fhrp wiil have a paffage in three or four days to the Havannah ; but if othervvife, it is often a Fortnight or three weeks fail ; the lliip being embayed in the gulf of Mexico. When the weather is pcrfeftly calm, no wind at all ftirring, the faflors try which way the current lets by means of a boat which they fend out, and which will nde at anchor, though there is no bottoin to be found, as regularly and well as if fa.lened by the ilrongeil anchor to the bottom. The method is this: they row the boat to a little dittance from the fliip, and then throw over their plummet, which is about forty pounds weight ; they let this fink to about two hundred fathom ; and then, though it never reaches the bottom, the boat will turn head againfl the current, and ride as firmly as can be. Calm Latitude!, are fituated in the Atlantic ocean, be- tween the tropic of Cancer, and the latitude of 29° N. ; or they denote the fpace that lies between tlie trade and variable winds, becaufe it is frequently fubjeft to calm.s of long duration. Calm Point, in Geography, lies on the N.W. coad of North America, within Briftol bay, on the north fide. CAI^MAR, a lea-port town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland or Smoland, near the Baltic Sea, feparated from the ifle of Ocland by a (Irait, about feven miles broad in the narrovveft part, and flrongly fortified by walls, ditches, a cattle, and redoubts. It is about a mile in circumference, and contains 450 houfes. The ftreets crofs each other at right angles. The inhabitants carry on a fmall trade, ex- porting chiefly planks, alum, and hemp, and poficfs, be- fides fmall craft, about 70 veffcls, from 100 to 300 tons bnrthen. Near thv- town is the cattle, Sanding on an emi- nence, and the only remains of its ancient niagnilicence. The building hssbeen conftrufted at different intervals, and exhibits a motley mixture of Gothic and Grecian architec- ture. Over one of the doors is an infcription, John III. 1568. But part of the manfion mutt be much older, as the apartment in which the deputies of the three kingdoms, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, ufed to affem.ble for the eleftion of their common fovereign ttill fubfitts : it is C4 feet long and 30 broad. This palace, once the refidence of the celebrated Margaret, and remarkable in the hitlory of this countiy, is converted into a dittiilery. Calmar is celebrated for the union, which took place in it, in 1397, ^'"''^ which ftipulated, that the fame monarch fliould rule over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and be chofen by the deputies from the ftates of the three kingdoms aflemblcd at Calmar. Dur- ing the whole period in which thefe regulations fubfitted, Sweden wiis a tributary kingdom to the fovercigus of Den- mark ; t| C A L mark; the union was uphtld by the vigour and abilities of Maixarct ; but undei- her weak and unwarhkc fiiccefTors, it entailed on Sweden all the hoiTors of foreign invafion and in- teftine difcord. From this (late of alternaTe opprefTion and anarchy, it was rcfcucd by the valour and prudence of Guf- tavus Vafa, on whom the gratitude of the Swedes conferred the dominion of the country which he had delivered : they renounced, in his favour, the right of tleiling their kint;s, and declared the crown hereditary in his male ifTue, A.D. 1546. See Sweden. N. lat. 56° 4o'3o". E. long. 16° 21'4J"- CALMET, Don Augustin, in Biography, a cele- brated commentator on the Bible, was bom near Commcrci, in Lorraine, in 1672, and became a Benedidine of the con- gregation of St. Vannes, in i6y8. Having pafTcd through the ufual courfe of philofophy and theology, he was em- ployed in teaching them to the younger part of the commu- nity, till in 1704. he fettled as fub-prior in the abbey of Munfter, in Alface, where he prelided over an academy of R or 10 monks devoted to the ftudy of the Scriptures. There he compofed his commentaries on the Scriptures, pabliflied in French from 1707 to 1716. In 1718 he was appointed to the abbacy of St. J^eopold in Nancy ; and in ryzS he was eltfted abbot of Senones. The title of a bifliop in paruLus was ottered him, but he dechned accepting it. After a courfe of literary labour, in which he difplayed great erudition and induftry, though not always equal tafte and judgment, he died, highly efteemed, in l"]'^"]- His principal works are, " A Literal Commentary on all the Books of the Old and New Teftament," 23 vols. 410. re- printed in 26 vols. 4to. and 9 vols, folio ; and abridged by Rondet, in 14 vols. 4to. " The Differtationsand Prefaces of thefe Commentaries, printed feparately, with ignewDifTcr- tations," 3 vols. 4to.; " The Hiftory of the Old and New Teftament," 2 vols. 4to.; reprinted in 4 vols. 410., and 7 vols. l2mo.; "Hiftorical, critical, and chronological Hif- tory of the Bible, with Figures," 4 vols, folio.; in which the matter of the commentaries is reduced to alphabetical order, in the form, and under the title of a diftionary, publilhed in 1730, in 4 vols, folio. Although the author's commentaries did not efcape cenfure, and were treated by father Simon with a confiderable degree of afperity and contempt, yet, being dillinguilhed by moderation and ex- emption from polemical dilputes, they were perufed by Proteftarts as well as Roman Catholics ; the work became very popular; and within a few years after its publication, there were feveral editions of it in French, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanifh, Englifli, and other languages ; and it is ftill con- fidered as a' tlandard work. It has been much and de- fervedly valued on account of many excellent elucidations which it contains of difficult pafTages in the Holy Scrip- tures, beautiful delineations of Oriental manners, and lively, entertainipg hiRories txtrafted from authors little known even among the learned. A new and valuable edition of it with confiderable retrenchments and additions, and a new fet of plates, under the dir. Clion of Mr. C. Taylor, appeared in London in 1797, &c. The additions form a feparate volume under the title of " Fragments," with a great variety of appropriate and weH executed engravings. Other works of Calmet are '" EcclefialUcal and civil Hiftory of Lorraine," 3 vols, foho, reprinted in 5 vols.; " Catalogue of Writers of Lorraine, folio ; " Univerfal Hiftory, facred and pro- fane," 15 vols. 4to.; " Diftertations on tlie Apparitions of Angel?, Demons, and Spirits, and on the Vampiers, and Ghofts of Hungaiy," a fmall coUedion of reveries ; and " Literal, Hiftorical, and Moial Commentary on the Rule ef St. Benedift," 2 vols. 4to. containing much curious in- 3 C A L formation an ancient cuftoms. Calmet dcferves notice alfo as a writer on Hebrew mufic in his commentary on the pfalnis : as a fmall volume, intitled " Trefor d'Antiquitez," compiled from his facred writings, not only concerning the mulic of the Hebrews, but ancient /nufic in geiicr.il, with repivfcntations of mufical inllruments, was publiflied at Am- fterdam, in 1722. Ancient mufic, in general, is almoft become an unprofita- ble and hopelefs ftudy ; but that of the Hebrews, the mod ancient of all. is now included within the confines of con- jcdlure ; and Don Calmet's coiijeiftures are, perhaps, as probable as thofc of any one of the numerous authors »vlio have written on the jjfalms, and cxcrcifcd their fagacity and lugcniiity in expounding and defining what fomc have long fince thought involved in cimmcrian darknefs. However, Kirchcr, Merfiennus, and Don Calmet, have thought other- wife ; but whether they have taught their readers to fee in the dark, as foinc animals are fupp fed to do, we are unable to fay. C.'\LMENDA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, not far from Braga. CALMIN.A.. See Calamo. CALMINERA, Cape, lies on thecoaft of Coromandel. in N. lat. 10° 15. E. long. 79° 40'. a few leagues S. of Negapatnam. CALMINT, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne ; 7 leagues S.S.E. from Touloufe. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Avcironj. 2^ leagues S. of Rhodes. CALMUCS. See Kalmucs. CAI^N, East and West, two toxvnfhips of Cheftcr county, Pennfylvania, in North America. CALNE, a market and borough town of Wiltfhire, in England, is fituated on the banks of the Marlen river. This ancient borough was endowed with peculiar privileges, previous to the Roman conqueft, and according to the domefday-book it never yielded or paid taxes, " fo that it is not known how many hides are therein." The kings of the Weft Saxons had a palace here ; and from the names of Caftle ftreet and Caltle-field, it is generally imagined that a caftle reared its maftive walls in the neighbourhood of the town. Here was alfo an hofpital of black canons, dedi- cated to St. John, and valued, at the diftohition, at 2I. 2s. 8d. per annum. Calre is an ancient borough by prefeription, and fends two members to paiHamtnt, who are cledted by fifteen voters ; the firft return was made in the reign of Ed- ward I. The corporation confifts of two guild ftewards, who are chofen annually, and an unlimited numlier of bur- gefles. Previous to February 25, 1723, the privilege of eleftion was veiled in all the inhc^bitants having right of common ; but it was then determined, that the power of choofing members rcfided with the ancient burgefles only ; and that the right of returning members was in the guild ftewards. The manor, prebend, and parfonage ot C.ilne, are held by leafes for feveral lives, from the dean, chapter, and trcafurerof Sarum. In the reign of Edward the mar- tyr, a great fynod or convocation was held liere, at the in- ftigation of Dunftan, archbilhop of Canterbury, to deter- mine the controvcrfy between the monks and fecular priefts, which had commenced in the fynods at Wincheftcr, and Catlege, in Cambridgeftiire. From the importance of the queftion, the principal nobility, as well as the bifliops and fcculars, attended. During the debate, while biftiop Beornhelm was pleading for the priefts, the timbers of the aftembly room gave way, and the ftniiture fell to the ground j molt of the fcculars were buried beneath the ruins; but C A L b'jt the r«t of Diinrtan, prefiJcut of the fyiioJ, and cliitf sul»oC3le for tlie monks, alone Hood firm. Thisi tircum- ftancf , ill that atje of fupcrllition, was conllnied into an intcrpofillon of Henveii in their favour; but fubfoquciit vvnUTj have afl"i;;iicd a more natural leafon, and have not hcfitatcd to afTertl that Dunftan had cauftd the beams to be f.i«-n afundcr, taking care that his own feat ihould remain fixed. This aceounl fecms, from the fanguinary difpofition of Dunftan. to be moll probable. Calne has, of late years, j^eatly increafid in fize and population; it contains 781 lioufes, and i-6-; inliabitants, moll of whom are employed in the manufacture of broad cloth, fergts, and other articles of the clotlii:'g bnfinefs. Here arc three meeting-houfcs for Prcroytcrians, Anahaptifts, and Quakers. The church is a l.irge ftruaure, dedicated to St. Miirl;, with a handfome •fquarc tower at the north-tall end. The town is plentifully •fiipplicd willi water from two llreams, one ilhiing from the Pint of the hills near the village of Cal lion, the other from Chcrill ; thcfc rivul.ts unite, and run through the centre of the town, givinjr mnti'.n to many fulling aid jrrill-mills. A {■reefchool was founded here by John Benlley, elJq. of Rich- mond in Surrey ; who, by his will, dated September 2 ), j6'J3, Rave certain lands, called I'lickctt's I'ieldi?, adjoin- ing to Lincoln's [nn, then worth about ysol. for its erec- tion and maintenance for ever. By the donations of fir Francis Bridgman, knt. certain exhibitions are ellablilhtd at ■Qiiccn's Co!le;;c, Oxford, for the benefit of boys born in the county of Wilts, and educated in this free-fchool. " The ma'ler to keep a regular grammar fehool, and teach feven bovsthe Latin and Greek tongues, and othcrwife qualify them for the Univerlity." About three miles call of Calne, on the fide of the Lon- don ro.id, is a monument, which attra6ls not only the notice of all travellers on this road, hut alfo the obfervation of peo- ple over the north part of Wilts, and many parts of the ad- joining counties. This is the figure of a large White HoRSi, that was formed by paring off the turf from the fide of the chalk-hill ; the horfe is reprefented in a trotting pofition, and executed with a pretty corrcift outline ; it was cut at the expence of Dr. AUfup, of Calne, about twenty- iivc years ago, and mcafurcs from the head to the tail about 1.5- feet. About two miles weft of the town is Bowood, the feat of the marquis of Lanfdown. The houfc is a large, commodi- ous, but irregular llrufture, and contains fonie fine piclures, among which is a valuable coUeftion of portraits of eminent eharatlers. The park and pleafuie grounds are extenfive, and diveifitd with much beautiful fcenery. A diilinguidicd feature, and ornament of thcfe grounds, is a large lake, which winding beneath fome fine hanging woods, conftitutes an interellini; ohjeft ; at the head of this lake is a fiiigu- larly pi'hirefquc cafcade, which, though wholly artificial, is jullly -admired for its approximation to the irregularities of nature. CALNEH, in Scripture Geography, a city in the land •f Shinaar, br.ih by Nimrod, and at one time the feat of his empire (Gen. x. 10.); fuppoftd to be the Chalno or Calno ot IfaJah, (ch. x. 9.) and the Channch or Cannch of Ezekicl, (ch. xxvii. 23.) Tliefe prophets join it with Ha- ran, Eden, Affyria, and Cliilmad, whicli traded with Tyre ; and hence it is inferred, that it mull have been fituattd in Mefopolamia. It is faid by the Chaldce interpreters, and alt) by Eufebins and jtrom, to be tlie fame with Ctefiphon, which was feated on the Tigris, about three miles dillant from Scleucia, and for fomc time the capital of the Par- thians. Thi; opinion is confirmed by the name Chalonitis, tvhJcfltly derived from Chaluc or Chalno, which was given C A L by the Greeks to the country about Ctefiphon. Wells's Geog. of the Old Tcftament, vol. i. p. 229. CALOBRA, in Geography, the mod confidcrable har- bour in the ifland of Majorca, both for its fecuie entrance, and the fine country that furrounds it ; as well as for the fprings of frefli water that are near it. CALODENDRUM, la Botany, {Ky.\ou beautiful, J=.Jjw, atree.) Schreb. gen. 384. Thunb. gen. 41. Willd. 437, Juir. 427. Clafs and order, pentatidria monogyma. Nat. ord. incerts fedis, JufT. Gen. Ch. Cfi/. periantti one-leafed, permanent, five-part- ed ; fegments egg-(hap(.d, acute, befet with ftrong hairs on the outiide ; the edges fliglitly revohite. Cor. petals five, lanceolate, obtufe, fprcading, charmelled, keeled, waved, pu- befcent, three times the length of the calyx : ncdlaries five, fixed to tlie receptacle within the petals, and fhapcd like them, linear-lanceolate, awl-ftiaped at the tip, terminated bv a gland, fmooth, filvery-glandular, narrower than the peta's, but of the fame length. 5/<;m. filaments five, equal, the length of the corolla, one of them generally baiTen : anthers egg-heart-fnaped, furrowed, fixed longitudinally to the filaments. Pift- germ pedicelled, capitate, befet with fiiarp poir.ts, fuperior: (lyle fixed to one fide of the germ, thread-fiiaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma fimple ob- tufe. Peric. capfale pcduiicled, egg-(haped, bluntly five, angled, befet with ilrong points, five-furrowed, five-celled, fivc-valved. Seeds in pairs, fomewhat triangular, convex on the back, fmooth. EIT. Ch. C(j/)'K five parted. Petals five. Neftaries five. Capfale five-celled, five-angled. The corolla, neftary, and ftamens, all vary in the number of their parts, which are fometimes four, generally five, and very rarely fix ; fo that in fa£l the capfule alone forms the effcntial charadler. Sp. C. capenfe, Thunb. Diff. p. 43. La Marck in Joum. Hift. Nat. pi. 3. (Diclamnus capenfis, Linn. Supp. Vahl. Symb. 3. p. 58.) A tree. Branches oppofite, or three toge- ther. Leaves oppofite, petioled, egg-lhaped, entire, ever- green. Flowers in terminal panicles, on oppofite, one- flowered peduncles. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. La Marck, in the Journal d'Hilloire Naturtlle, has noticed its near affinity to diftamnii«, under which genus the young- er Linnxus and Vahl have placed it. CALOGERL K^^oys^oi, or Caloyers, monks, or reli- gious, in Greece, both male and female ; inhabiting parti- cularly mount Athos, but diffcminated alfo throughout all tlie churches of the Eall. They follow the rule of St. Bafil, and make vows like ti.e wellern religious. Tourne- fort fays, the females are moft of them only a more mode- rate fort of Magdalens, who, as they grow old. mske a vow to praftife thofe virtues they had much negltfted in their youth ; and retire into convents to lead a life fomewhat left fcandalous than before, under the eyes of a fuperior or he- gtimeniffa, who is far from being too fevcre. Amongft thefe monks, whatever their name imports, it is not uncommon, fays Sonnini, (Travels in Greece, p. 228.) to meet with young boys, from to to 12 years old, clothed in their habit, which confifts of a plain, long, black gown, confined by a girdle. Thcfe friars, he fays, are very dirty, and very ugly, from the habit which they contrail of ne- glefting their exterior, and of taking care neither of their beard nor hair. Their characSer, he adds, is formed of hy- pocrify, haughty and grofs ignorance, meannefs and treach- ery ; though they wi(h to be reckoned to poflefs great knowledge, and a reputation for fanftity, in order to fecure from the people attention and refpedl. Their vows are obe- dience, chaftity, and abllinence. The firft and laft of thefe vows C A L tov.'S are obfervcd with fufllcient cxad^ncfs ; but the fc- cond is more generally difrtgarded ; and fonie of tlicm are accufcd of a degree of brutality, in the infiinge- ment of laws wliich nature, more powerful than all the iu- ftitutions of convents, difavows. The Caloycrs, in foinc places, are divided into Csnobites, Anachorites, and Afcc- tics, or hermits ; the hfe of which lad is the moll fevcre and reclufe. The Turks alfo ufe the word Caloyers for their dervifes, or religious mufTulmen. See DtRvis. CALOGERIZA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Bulgaria ; 64 miles E. of Sofia. CALOGERO, St. a town of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara ; 24 miles E. of Mazara, and 2 N. E. of Sacca or Sciacca. — Alfo, a mountain of Sicily, one of the highell in the ifland, next to iEtna, cu the fummit of which is a rcfi- dence of hermits. CALOGURO, St. a cape on the eaft coaft of Sicily ; 9 miles E. of Lentini. CALOIERA, a fmall Greek ifland in the Archipelago ; 5 leagues fouth of Andros. CALOITIAM, in Zoology, a fpecies of Trichoda of a broadifh oblong fhape, with Hiining horns on the anterior part. Mill. Hijl. Venn. This kind is found in water where- in vegetables have been infufed. It is flat, obtufe at both ends, with a black fpot and a few bridles near the poilerior extremity. CALOMEL, in Pharmacy. See Mercury. CALONE, in j^ncieiit Geography, a place of Germany, on the route from Lugdunum Batavorum, to Argentora- tum, between Gelduba and Vetera. Itin. Anton. Ccllari- ns places it at Kalen-Hafen ; but M. d'Anville refers it to a paffage of the arm of the river Kelnet or Kendel. It was near the Rhine in Germanica Secunda, S.E. of Colonia Trajana. CALONERY Point, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coall of the ifland of St. Vincent ; one mile S. of Young Point. CALONI, a town of European Turkey, in the ifland of Metelin, in a gulf to which it gives name, in which are two Greek convents. CALONNEA, in Botany. (Buchoz.) See Gal.\rdi.\. CALONOSOS, in ^Indent Geography, a mountain of Arabia, at the entrance of the Perfic gulf. Arrian. CALOO Sand, lies on the coall of Holland, between the Bodkil to the fouthward, and the call Gat channel to the northward. CALOPHYLLUM, in Botany, (xkAo-: heaut'iful ; ^k'.'.ov, a leaf.) Linn. gen. 658. Schreb. fjSy. Willd. 1026. Ga-rt. 2\z. Juff. 258. Lam. Illult. PI. .\y). (Calaba, Plum. gen. 18. La Marck, Encyc. vol. i. p. 552. Bofc. Nouv. Diet, vol. iv. p. 99.) Clafs and orAer, polyandr'ia monogynia, Linn. Polygamia monacia, Schreb. Nat. ord. Guttiferx, JiilT. Gen. Ch. Cal, four, tv\'0 or one-leafed; leaves roundifli, concave, coloured, deciduous, fomttimes wanting. Cnr. petals four, roundifli, concave, fpreading. Stani. filaments numerous, thread-fliaped, fhort ; aiithtrs oblong, ereiff. PU}. germ fuperior.roundilh; llyle thrcjid-disped, the length of the ilamens, or none. Per/V. drupe globular, flefliy. Seed; nut globular, rather acuminate, large. Eff. Ch. Cor. four-pctalled. Cal. four-leaved, coloured. Drupe globular. Sp. I. C. inophyllum, Linn. Sp. PI. Gxrt. Tab. ^ 5. fig. I. La Marck, PI. 4^7. (Ponna or ponna-maoam, Rheed. mal. 4. Tab. jS. Rai. liiil. 1,125. Bintangor maritima, Rumph. amb. 2. Tab. 71. Arborindica, mali niedicne am- plioribus foliis, Pluk. aim. 41. Tab. 147. hg- i- Iwoph\l- VOL. V. CAL lum, Burm. Ley. 1.10, Tai». rto. /9. C. calnba, Jnrqiiin, Anicr. 267. Tab. 16^.) " Leaves iuvcrfeiy cgg-lhaptd, ob- tufe ; fruit fjihtrical, yellowifli." Lam. A large tree. Triint thick, covered with a blackifli, cracked, alinoll fcily bark , and fupporting a vail umbrageoui liiad. J'oiing linirchii quadrangular. Leaves four or five inches long, and neaily three inches broad, oppufile, obtufe, fometinKS cmarginalc, entire, fmootli on both lides, fhming, coriaceous, on (hort petioles, and remarkable for the numerous, extremely fine, lateral, parallel nerves, which Burman fancied to lefeiiible the fibres of a mnfele diflefted longitudinally, and thence called the tree inophyllum. Flowers while, fragrant, growing on the fmall branches in fliort, oppofite, axillary racemes, or ra- ther, if La Marck's figure be accurate, umbels ; fome with only ftamens mixed with the others in the fame raceme or umbel. Fruit very refinous or oily ; k,;rnel at firft fwcet, afterwards bitter. La Marck obfervts, that the calaba of Jacquin can fcarccly be called a variety, differing only in be- ing rather fmaller in all its parts, and, as Jacquin fnlpcded, having none of the peculiar charadteis of the next fpecies, to which it has been erroncoufly united by Linnius. When the bark is wounded, there exudes a vifcous, ycUowilh fluid, which thickens and hardens in the air, and is the refin im- ported by the French from Madagafear, and the Ifle de France, under the name of Tacamaqne. It is alfo called green balfam, or balfam of the Virgin Mary, and is ufed at a vulnerary. According to Dutour (Nouv. Did.), that which is produced by the Weft Indian variety is of a deeper green colour. A native of the Eaft and Weft Indies, and of the Society Ifles, and New Caledonia. 2. C. calaba, Linn. Sp. PI. (Tsjerou-ponna, Rheed, Mal. 4. p. 81. Tab. 59. Rai. Hift. 1537.) " Leaves egg-(haped ; fruit inverfely egg-ftiaped, very red." Leaves only half as large as thofe of the preceding fpecies, more finely veined, not in- verfely egg-fhaped. Fruit a little elongated, refembling that of the cornus mas, or cornelian cherry. It is taten by the natives, and an oil is exprefled from the kernel, which ferves for lamps. A native of the Eaft Indies. ^ C. acu- minatum. La Marck, Enc. (Bintangor fylveflri?, Rumph. Amb. 2. p. 26. Tab. 72 :) " Leaves oblorg-egg-fliaped, acute ; fruit cgg-fliaped, acuminate." It differs from the two preceding in the fliape of llie fruit, and of its leaves, which are alio lefs fnioolh, tiud kfs finely veined. A iiati\c of Java, and the Moliu-ea lil^ds. CALnpnvLLUM_/&.'«\f tripeJi:!ili:s, Brown, Jam. 2 JJ. Sec G R 1 A s cauhifiorit. Calophylli;m nagnjfarmm, Durm. ind. 121. See Mesua ferrea. CALOPIN,\CO, in Geography, a fmall river of Naples, in Farther Calabria. CALOPUS, in Euivnology, a genus of Coleoptera, having filiform antenna; ; feelers four, ths anterior pair cla- vated, and thofe behi.-.d tihiorm ; thor?.x gibbous ; wing- cafes linear. This is one of the new Fabrician genera, including three fpecies of the Linnxan cerambyce.';, ierraticornis, hifpicor- nis, and pvgmxus, whicli fee reipeCtivtly. CAI.,OR, \n /JncienI Geography, Cahre, a river of Italy, in Samninni, which rofe ip the n-.ountains of the Hirpini, pafled Beneventum, and difcharged ilfelf into the Vultui- nus. — Alfo, a river of Italy, i:» the country of the Pietn- tini, probably between Tanager and Sihirun. CALORIC, a name originally given by the authors of the new French Chemical Nomenclature, to that fubllance by whofe influence the phenomena of heat arc produced, and which had before been diftinguilhcd by the terms igr.eout JIuiJ, matter oj' heat, and other analogous denominations. 1 K There CALORIC. 'VhtTt »re pwlijps fov fubjefts refpeftinj? winch a more remarkablt vcrfmility of general opinion has been evuiced, then wiih rcrard to the cxillence or non-exillcnce ol this pnaciple. Arc the ph) fical cffeas of heat productd by the ooeration of a material 6M fui ge'i^ris, or .s heal men.y an iffcclion of matter, confilUng in internal vibrations and col- lii"u3iis of its particles, or in fome other mode of corpnlcu- hradion of which wc arc ignorant ;— and is there confe- qucntly no fucli thing as caloric ? . , ,,r Zcno, it appears conceived that heat was material. We have a curiuiu dillettatioij on this fubjea in Cicero's book, •' Dc N'jluii Deorum," conlilling of a dialogue between an epicunan, a Diatonic, and a lloic, iLfpcding the Supreme Power, which the latter fuppoles to rttide principally in the fun ; and it is remarkable that the autiior has made him fpeak of the materiality and nature of heat very nearly as we do at the prefcnt day. " Thai i.tat is combined with water," he fays, " its liquefadion itfelf fuflicieiitly proves, nor can it either freeze or congeal into fnow or hoar-froft without I'ulfering that heat to efcape." * * * * " Even the air, however cold it may be, is by no means devoid of heat ; indeed it is combined with a great deal of heat ;" and more to this clfctt. This indeed appears to have been the mod gen-rr'l notion rcfpefting this part of the fubjeft till about ti-' time of Lord Chancellor Bacon, who in his treatifc " De Forma Calidj" confiders heat as the effed of an inteftine motion or mutual coUifion of the particles of the body heated ; an expanfive undulatory motion in the minute particles of the body, by which they tend witli fome rapidity towards the tircuinference, and at the fame time incline a little up- wards ;" which idea was alfo with fome modification adopt- ed by Defcartes, Newton, Boyle, and the other mechanical philofophers of that and the fucceeding age. The tliemills, however, whofe opinions, at leall, pofTefs that degree of au- thority whicli arifcs from their being moil ufed to the ob- fervation of the effefts of this agent, feem to have ftill re- tained a ftrong notion of the materiality of heat, which, in confcquencc of our improvement in chemical fcicnce, again became general, ad continued fo till the experiments of Count Rumford, which appeared to ihew that it was im- ponderable and capable of being produced ad infinitum, from a finite quantity of matter, again threw fome doubt on this qucllion. It is kiiown that when water freezes, a portion of heat is given out by it during the congelation, which is fo confi- dcrable, that if we were to conceive it to be tranfmitted to »nd imbibed by an equal quantity of water at the tempera- ture of 32° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the latter would be heated no lefs than 140°, or to 172°. If, therefore, heat v.erc a ponderable fubftance, it might be imagined that 4 given quantity of water would become lighter when frozen in a velRl hermetically fealed. Count Rumford accordingly made this experiment with great care by the help of a ba- lance of extreme accuracy ; but the refult was, that the ice produced appeared to be of precifcly the fame weight as the water had originally been of at the temperature of 61°, viz. 4214.28 grains ; from which he infers, that all attempts to difcover any effcfl of heat on the apparent weights of bodies will be fruitlcfs. The other deduGion, of the poffibility of producing an inexhauftible fupply of heat from a given quantity of mat- ter, was made from the following experiment. The Count eaufed a cylinder of brafs to be turned yi inches in diameter, and 9.8 inches long, which was bored like a cannon with a calibre 3.7 inches in diameter, and 7.2 deep, fo that the bottom was a. 6 inches m Uiickncfs. The hoUow cylindtr 6 contained 385 J cubic inches of brafs, and weighed 113.T3 lbs. avoirdupoife. By means of the engine ufed for boring cannon in the arfenal of Munich, a blunt borer or fl.it-piece of hardened fteel, 4 inches long, 0.63 inch thick and .5f inches wide, was kept with one of its extremities, whofe area was about 2^ fquare inches, prtffed againft the bottom of this hollow cylinder on the infide with a force of about loooo lbs. avoirdupoife, whilft the latter was turned about its axis with a velocity of 32 revolutions in a minute. The cylinder was in one experiment covered on the ontfide with a coating of thick flannel to prevent the accefs of heat from the atmofphere ; in another the borer was made to work through a collar of leathers fo as to prevent the accefs of air alio to the inttrior of the bore ; in a third, the whole cylinder was immerfed in water, the borer ftiU working through a collar of leathers fo as to prevent its accefs to the interior of the bore ; in a fourth, the collar of leathers was removed, and the water had accefs to the bottom of the in- terior of the cylinder where the friction took place. The refult was, that in all thefe cafes heat was generated by the fridion in fufKcient quantity to caufe about 264 lbs. of ice- cold water to boil in two hours and a half, or at about the fame rate as that at which it would have been producLd by '; large wax candles ; the capacity of the brafs for heat, or .ts power of producing it by friftion,did not appear to be diminiihcd, and it feemed as if this generation of heat would have gone on for ever if the friilion had been continued ; the fource was inexhauftible. Now, as any thing which an inlulated body or fyllem of bodies can continue to fupply without limitation cannot pofTibly be a material fubllance, the Count's inference is, that heat is not of this defcription^ but that it mull be an cfTcil ariling from fome fpecies of corpufcular adtion amongll the conllituent particles of the body. We will confLfs, however, that we conceive neither of thefe experiments nor any other with which we are at pre- fect acquauited to be conclulive in favour of the immateri- ality of caloric. Omitting the queftion, whether gravitation is effential to matter, we may obferve that there may be an indefinite feries of material fubllances, each a million of times rarer than the preceding, of which, though the weight of the heavieft be imperceptible by our nicefl balances, the lightell may Hill be ponderable. Any inftruments which we at prefent poflefs would fcarcely enable us to deteft the weight of a fluid which was only a thoufand times lighter than atmofpheric air. The other experiment affords an argument againft the ma- teriality of this principle, to which it is perhaps fomewHat more difficult to give a dillinftand decifive anfwer ; and yet, notwithllanding the precautions which were taken, it is by no means demonftrative, that the heat which was evolved was not derived ab cxtero, for there is no abfurdity in fuppofing, that a body may be receiving caloric in one ftate or at one part of it, and giving it out in another. We have an in- llance of the fimultaneous attraftion and emifGon of a fubtle fluid, the materiality of which is admitted by every one, in the cafe of an excited eleilric, which at the fame time re- ceives the fluid from the rubber, and communicates it to the conductor. In Count Rumford's experiment we mull recoUetl, that the whole apparatus was immerfed in a great bath of caloric, the atmofphere. With regard to this part of our fubjeft, we ought alfo not to omit, that in another experiment of the fame author, heat luas found to be communicated through aTorrkelUan vacuunu Now it is manifeft, that in fuch a vacuum there could be no- thing to communicate or propagate motion. Heat therefore muft be material : the conelufion is almoil phyitcally certain. Without CALORIC. Witliont further iiifidliiT, liowevcr, tliat we can conclu- fivtly (lemonlti-ate the cxilknce ol caloric, it at leall appears upon tlie whole, that, in the prcfciit itate of our knowledge, we ought rather to confuier it as a material fubllanee, be. caiifc of the two theories, that whieh fiippofes it to be fo is infinitely the mod intelligible, the molt agreeable to the ana- logy of nature, and the leaft exceptionable ; and we fliall accordingly regard it as an elallic fluid fui generis, capable of pervading with various degrees of facility, all tile folid bodies with which we are acquauued, and of being imbibed and retained by them in different proportions according to their refptftive degrees of fpeciiic atlradion or capacity for it. See Capacity. It will eafily be conceived that from the eladicity and power of pervading other fuhilances, wliicli we have attri- buted to this fluid, it mull necelTarily follow, that whenever a bcdy is by any means charged with a larger quantity of it than is proportional to its niafs and capacity, wlien com- pared with th'jfe of other bodies in its vicinity, the fnrplus will be communicated to thofe other bodies, until the denlit v of the fluid in every body in the fyllem becomes equal ; in like manner as a quantity of air thrown into one of a num- ber of vefTels com iiunicating with each other will pafs from it to the others, uritil it becomes diftributedamongll the whole of them in proportion to their refpeftive capacities, or till it becomes of equal denfity in all of them. This (late of den- fity or comprtflion of the caloric, contained in a body, cou- ilitutes what is called its temperature ; fee this article. The celerity and facility with which this fluid pervades different fubflancesare however extremely various, as maybe (hewn by the following experiment. Take a fmall cyhndri- cal earthen or wooden veffel, between three and four inches ill diameter, and infert into it, through holes drilled in its bottom for that purpofe, feveral wires, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, and lix or feven inches long, of equal fize in every refpedl, but of different metals, as i;oId, filver, copper, iron, brafs, and zinc ; and alfo two fmall rods, one of glafs and the other of wood, of equal dimenfions with the wires, fo that they may each of them project about half an inch on the infide of the veffel, the reft of them being on the out- fide, and forming a kind of (land for it. Dip a portion of the inferior extremities of thefe wires and rods into melted wax, fo that they may become equally coated with it. When the wax has cooled, fill the vcflel with a heated fluid, as boiling water or melted lead, and obferve the intervals be- tween the time of filling it and the melting of the wax, which intervals will indicate the relative condufting power of the fubftances. Dr. Ingenhoufz tried this experiment, though in a fomewhat different manner, with wires ot filver, copper, gold, tin, iron. Heel, and lead, whole condutling powers he conceived to be in the order in which we have enumerated them, though he found fome differences in the rtfults, except with regard to the filver and lead, of which the former always appeared to be the bell, and the latter the woril conduftor. In the experiment which we have de- fcribed it will be found, that the condufting powers of glafs and wood are almoll infinitely fmaller than thofe of any of the metals which are the bell condnftors known. Fluids of every kind are almoll peifeft non-conduftors ; and light fpongy fubftances, or fuch as contain fluid?; in their inter- iijces, conduft heat with great flownefs and difficulty. This difference in the condufting powers of various fub- ftances is the fource of many praftical convcniencies and in- conveniencies. The cellular texture of organized fubftances enables them x.6 withftand the cfTefts of change of tempera- ture in the atmofphere, by refifting the pan"age of this fluid, and the wooden handle of a tea-pot, and the cloth made ule of lor handling hot iron?, arc familiar cT.amples of the ccar.o. ' mical application of this property. An iron door to a fur- naee will bend hot before the furnace itftlf, if of any earthy compofition, is heated in any confiderable degree. Large iron b.-ir8 or cylinders are made to paf« from the lire for the purpofe of communicating heat to tliofc ovens which arc conHrufted at the fide of kitchen-ranges, and a poker put into a low fire improves it by promoting a fimilar coTimuni- cation amongft the dilTerent portions of the fuel through which it pafles. We will, in the next place, confider very fhortly the cfTefts anlliig from the condcnfation or rarefaflion of this fluid in bodies. I'.y the former their tempci-ature is elevated, or they are heated ; by the latter it ii< deprcffed, or they become cooled. In our inveltigation of the moft univerfal operations of nature we generally find that the more immediate inflru- ments employed fur the produclion of the cffefts which wc perceive are two counterafting powers, by whofe co-opera- tion and mutual counterpolfe the ncccfl'ary equilibrium is preferved, and the purjiofcs of their creation cll'cfted with greater regularity than would probably refult from the em- ployment of a fingle agent. Thus, gravity is, as we know, counterafted by inertia, that tendency whieh all bodies have to continue in a ftatc of reftilinear motion, when once tliey are thrown into it by the impulfe of force. The cffefts of cohefion, a no lefs univerfal principle than gravity, are in like manner reftrained and modified by the agency of caloric ; and, as without inertia all the celellial bodies would be drawn together into fome one part of extendcc'! fpace, fo, without heat all the matter iu the univerfe would become a congealed and concrete mafs ; and fluidity, organization, ve- getation, and life could have no exiftcncc. SohJs become firft expanded, and then liquified by its influerce, and liquid) affume the aeriform ftate. It is cfl'entiai to the idea of a folid body, that it fliould in a certain degree refill both com- preffion and dilatation, that is, that its particles fliould repel each other when brought nearer together, and attraft each other when farther feparated within cctain limits, and it is incontrovertible, that they can only remain in a quiefcent ftate by the equilibrium of thefe oppofitc forces. The lat- ter of thefe cunftitutcs cohefion, and the exiftence of the former is, perhaps, attributable to the fubllanee of whieh we are now fpeaking. Be this as it may, it i} at leall a faft, that the repulfive energies of thefe corpufcles are increafcd, and the fphete of aftion enlarged by its mfluence, for the body becomes expanded ; that is, this equilibrium no longer takes place, unltfs its moleculas are removed farther from each other than when it was at a lower temperature. Elevate its temperature ftill farther, and the body fules; that is, the attraftive power of its particles becomes annihilated or wholly counterafted, and they are only kept together like a quantity of fliot by the aftiun of gravity, operating inde- pendently on each. Incrcafe Uill the aftion of heat on the body, anal.ly Ucomc a concirtf, if wo could deprive it of aU or the greater part of its heat. Wc have theretuie ar- rired at i very diftiiiAive and appropniitc dcrimtion of ca- loric ; that it is that fubllaiicc or afTeftion of matter which M the caufiT of fluidity iii all or the greater part of the bodies which we met with in that llatc. Several writers on this f.ibjea appear to us to have involved il in no inconfiderable degree of obfcurity, by an luiwairant- able dillinaion between hlent and frei or fenfible caloric. There feems to be no fiich dilUnftion in nature : caloric is alwavs fenfible and never latent. The proportion of it in any body is aUvays fnfficlently indicated either by its tempe- rature or its llate with regard to the counterpoifc of thole attradive and icpnlfive powers of which we have been fpeak- m^, and no change can take place in that proportion with- ou'l its occafioninjj a conconiitant change in one or the other of tliefc alTedions. Wc have thus traced the outlines of that part of the doc- trine of heat which relates to the cxiltence of this fluid, and which we conceived to beUnig to the prefcnt article ; fuller details of the edeas of this powerful agent, and the other parts of the theory conncdtd with thern, will be found un- dcr Heat, and the other articles to which we have already referred. CALORIMETER. See IIfat. CALOTE.S, in Z-j-Aosy, a fpccies of Lacerta, with a round long tail, and the'fore part of the back, and hinder part of the head deiitated. Gmelin. This is the iguana ca- lotcs of I.aur. Aniph. Its body is caruleous, with acute fcalcs beneath, and lanceolated fpines on the back. Found in Afia, particularly in the ifland of Ceylon. CALOTO, in Geography, a town and department be- longing to the jurifdidion of Popayan in South America. The extent of this department is confidcrable ; it is alfo rich, and abounds in the produAs of the earth ; the foil being fer- tile, and the country every where inlerfperfed with farms. But of all the parts in thisjurifdiaion, it is the mod fubjeft to tempefts of thunder and lightning. This has brought into vogue " Caloto bells," which are ufed under a per- fuafion that they have a fpecial virtue againll lightning ; and of which we have the following account. The town of Ca- loto, the territory of which contains a great number of In- dians, of a nation called " Pae/.es," was formerly very large ; but ihefe Indians, fuddenly aiTaulting it, forced their way into it, fet fire to the houfes, and maftacred the inhabitants. Among the (lain, was the prieft of the paridi, who was the particular objca of their rage, bccaufe he expofed the folly and wicktdnefs of their idolatry, and the turpitude of their vices ; nor did the bell of the church efcape tlieir rancour, as by its found it reminded them of the hours for receiving re- ligious inllrudtion. After many fruitlefs endeavours to break it, they determined to bury it under ground, that they might not any more be reminded of ihtir duty, and abridged of their liberty. On the news of their revolt, the Spaniards, in the neighbourhood of Caloto, took arms, and having avenged themlelves of the infurgcnts in a battle, they rebuilt the town, and having taken up the bell, placed it in the fteeplc of the nc^v church ; fince which event, the in- habitants, to thtir great aftonithment and joy, obferved, that when a tempell appeared to be blowing in the air, the tolling of the bell difpcrfcd it. The news of this imagined miracle induc'?d many perfons to folicit pieces of it to make clappers for little bells, in order to enjoy the benefit of its virtue, which, in a country peculiarly fuhjeft to tempefts, was deemed highly advantageous. To this ciicumftance C A L Caloto owes its reputation for bells. Adams's Voyage to South America by Juan and Ulloa, vol. i. p. 342. CALOTTE, a cap, or coif of hair, fattin, or other ftuft"; ufcd firft for neccfllty, but now become an ecclefiaf- tical ornament in France, It was firll worn by cardinal Richlieu : the red calotte is a badge of a cardinal. Calotte, in ArchiteBurc, a round cavity, or depredure in form of a cup, or cap, lathed and plaillered, ufcd to diminiOi the rife, or elevation of a chapel, cabinet, alcove, &c. which, without fuch an expedient, would be too high for other parts of the pile. CALOUDE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the fouliah of Dowlatabad ; four miles W. of Carballa, and 210 N.W. of Hydrabad. CALOVIUS, AnRMfAM, in Biography, a Lutheran divine, was born in 1612, at Morungen, in the duchy of Brunfwick, and became doaor in theology at Rollock, in i6j7, and theological profeffor in that Univeriity. In 164.3, he was made reftorof the college at Dantzick : and in 1650, profeffor of theology at Wittenberg. He was the moll ri- gid divine of his party, and dillinguiflied himfelf on a variety of occafions by his dil'putes with the reformed miniftcrs, and particularly with Calixtus, c^f whom an account is given under the article Calixtins. Such was the part he took in this controverfy, that thofe who cnlilled under his banner were denominated " Calovians." He exercifed the office of fuperintcndant-general of the Lutheran churches, and con- tinued his controverfial warfare till his death in j686. His work; were numerous ; they were chiefly polemical, and are now iorgotten. Moreri. Molbeim, E. H. vol. v. CALF, in Mineralogy, a black quarry ftone of Dublin, a fpecies of bafalt, found in large maffes, of a bluifli black, or caik-greyini blue colour, varioufly interfefted with veins, of white calcareous fpar, and often invefted with the fame. In the direftion of its ftrata it calily fplits into large flags. Sp. gr. from 2.646 to 2.70. It effervefces with mineral acids ; and at 130° melts into a black compaa glafs ; contains 50 per cent, mild calx, the remainder being Clex, argil, and iion. This mineral feems to be the calcareous trap of La- fius, Hartz. ijo. Kirwan's El. of Min. vol. i. p. 233. CALPAS, in ylncient Geography, a river of Afia Minor in Bithynia, at a fraall diftance W. of Sangarius. Strabo and Ptolemy, Calpas, orCALPE, a fea-port of Afia Minor, in the Euxine fea, between Heraclea, and Byzantium in Bithynia. CALPE, a mountain of Spain, in that part of Boetica which is now called Andalufia, oppnfite to that in Africa which bore the name of Abyla, and one of thofe which were called the " Columns of Hercules." At the foot of this mountain, towards the fea, (lands Gibraltar. Calpe is (lyled by Strabo a famous ancient Spanifli fea-port ; whereas, Pliny, Ptolemy, Mela, and others, only call it a mountain : whence the learned Bochatt and Cafaubon have thought, that the Calpe of Strabo was inferted, by the miftake of fome tranfcriber, for Carteia. But it has been inferred by fome learned perfons, from an infcription on a medal, with thele letters, C. L Calpe, and «' Colonia Julia Calpe," that Strabo's text is correft ; and they further allege, that Oaavius overtook Csefar near the city of Calpia, which is the fame with Calpe. We may therefore conclude, either that there were feveral cities fituate at the mouth of the ftrait, on account of its advantageous fituation, oneof which- was called Calpe, or Calpia ; or elfe that the Carteia, which was fituate near the promontory of Calpe, had like wife takea that name from it. Calpe, in Grecian Antiquity, a race performed by marcs, which C A L which conditLited one of the Olympic games. This race was inllituted in the yjfl Olympiad, am), to;;cther with the ♦' Apene," abohdicd in the 84tli. In tliis race, the riders were accullomed, like the AnabntK, to lc;ip from tlie backs of tlie mares towards tlie lall ftapje or period of tlie courfe , and laying hoid of the bridles, they linilhed the race in that manner. Weft's Pindar, vol. iii. p. 143. CALPENTEEN, in Gcop-aphy, an ifland in the Indian fea, near the weft coaft of the illand of Ceylon, about 40 miles long and fix broad. N. lat. S°. E. long. 79° r^o'. — Alfo, a town of Ceylon, oppolite to this idand. N. i,it. 8" I j'. E. long. 79" 50'. Pcrclval, in his " Account of the Ifland of Ceylon," (p. 107.) informs us, that a company or two of Malays is flationed here, and that when he left the ifland, it was commanded by a Dutch officer, who had en- tered into the Englidi fervlce, and who received this ap- pointment from governor North. This, he adds, is one of the bell places on the whole ifland for game ; and between this and Putallom, at a fmall diftance, the coaft is remark- able for its falt-pans, which are formed by an arm of the fea which overflows part of the country between thefe two places. The Dutch manufaftured, on this part of the ifland, a large quantity of fait, which they confidered as very im- portant to their interefts, and the moll formidable weapon which it was in their power to employ againfl the native king, who could not procure any fait but by their means. Since the Englifli took pofleflion of the ifland, this manu- fafture has been almoft whofly neglefted. It is capable, however, of being rendered very profitable, as it is tlie only one of the kind on this fide of the ifland, and the moil con veniently fituated for fupplymg the king of Candy's domi- nions CALPENY, one of the Laccadive iflands, in the Indian Sea. N. lat. 10° /;'. E. long. 7.3° 29'. CALPOLALPAN, a mountain in New Mexico, which abounds with quarries of jafper and marble of dilTtrent co- lours. CALPRENDE, Gautier de Costks, in Biography, a refpcdlable writer of romances, was born in the dioceie of Cahors, and educated at Tonloufe. In i'^3J, he entered into the regiment of guards at Paris, obtained a penfion from the queen, and beeame gentleman in ordinary of the king's bed'chambcr. The firft pieces by which he made himfelf known as a writer, were compofed for the theatre, and his " Mithridates" appeared in 1635. -^^ ^^^^> I'ow- ever, chiefly diltinguiflied by his romances, in the compo- fition of which he has the nv-rit of invention. Thefe were his " CafTandra," '• Cleopatra," and " Pharamond," each confifting of 10 or [2 large volumes in 8vo., which by their novelty, and the variety of adventures contained In them, at- trafted attention for fome time, but gradually funk by their prolixity into oblivion. He alfo wrote tragedies, the befl; of which is his " Earl of Eflex," from which Boyer copied fome fcenes in his tragedy of the fame title. His charafter was refpe(fiable, and he was employed in fome foreign nego- tiations. His death was occafioned by an accident in Au- guft 166;. Nouv. Dia. Hid. CALPURNIAN Law, in Roman ylntlquky , a law pro- pofed by L. Calpurnins Pifo, tribune of the people, in the beginning of the third Punic war, during the confulfliip of L. Marcius Cenforinus, and M. Manilius, A. U. 604 ; and ■wifely defigncd to reftrain the avarice and injuftice of the Roman magiftrates, by which the fl.ates, whom the gover- nors of provinces had opprefled and plundered, were autho- rized to apply to the judges for reftitution of what had been unj'iftly taken from them : hence called " de pecuniis repe- tundis." In confeqijence of this law, the tribune Calpurnius CAT, protably acqniied the honourable finnamc of " I'rugi," (ir lioncrt man. CALPITRNI.ANA, in /tnaent Geography, a town of Spain, placid by Ptolemy in Bccticu, in the ttriitory of the TniJ\ili, and mentioned in the Itincrarv of Aniouiiie. CALPURN'IUS, or Calphurnius.Titis, in A'/V grnphy, a Latin Sicih-.n poet, who lived about the latter part ot the third century, under the emperors Ci'rus, C'ari- luis, and I\';inier'ar.n3. Seven of his ecloguis are t.vtaiil ; tin: firll ot wliich was compofed on tlie acceliioii of the emperor Carus, in which we may perufe, with plcafure and contempt, thecflufions of congratulation and flattery. Two fliepherds, avoidi: g tlie noontide heat, retire into t!ie cave of I'auniis. On a fpreadlng beach they dlfcover fome recent chara/7.SeeCAi.ATAGiR0NK. CALTARO, a town of Dalmatia, in the republic of Ragufa ; 24 miles N. of Ragiifa. CALTHA, in Botany, (luppofed to be derived from xaXxOo;, a baflict, alluding to the fliapcof the flower.) Linn. gen. 70.J. Schieb. 957. Willd. 1090. Ga;rt. 6yi. Jufl". 2,34. (Populago, Toiirn.) Clafs and orii^r, polyaudria poly- gynia. Nat. ord. Mtihiftli'pi^, Linn. Ranunciilaccs, JulT. Gen. Ch. Cdl. none. Cnrul. Petals five or more, egg- ftiaped, flat, fpreading, deciduous. Slam. Filaments nume- rous, thread-fliaped, ihorter than the corolla ; anthers ertft, obtnfe, comprtifed. Fiji, germs fuperior, from four to fif- teen or fixteen, ereil, oblong, comprcifed ; ftyle none, ftig- mas fimple. Peric. Capfules fhort, acuminate, fpreading, opening at the upper or inner future. Seiih numerous, ob- long, cgg-fhaped, fmooth, affixed to the upper future in a double row. Efl". Char. Calyx none. Pitals five or more. NcHarUs none. Capfula feveral, many-feed«d. " Sp. I. 444046 c: A f. r-,b.4.% idg.'aot. '■,06. Ho.-. Da... 66S. Ox.t. lab. , kS Lam. 111. PI. ^o6. Marfli marigold, or meatiow-bowts ; , , Voiklhirc. valcr-blobs. " Sum oca ; fiowcrs ycl- ' ,«• l.irtre." Poirel in Kncvc. i?30/ perennial, fibrous. Vv„, a loot nil J half high, hollow, a little branched, leafy, roiiiidiOi, furrowed. /.Mi'" between heart and Icidncy- Ihaped, aciiltlv fcollopal, veined, fmooth, of a deep dim- m" K'«" ; root-leaves on long, luiUow, femi-cyhndncal pcuoles, fometinies cntirt ; the others alternate, and nearly fellile UtifiiltJ brown, membranous, withering, l/oivers h. all their parts of a golden hue, axillary, folitary, on iim- pie peduncles ; the inner row of filaments with broad an- thers ; the outer twice as long, cljb-fhaped, with coiti- preQed anthers. The young buds are pickled as a fubftitute for cipcrs, wliich they greatly rcfca.ble in form, and ac- cording to Dr. Smith, perhaps equal in merit ; for both are acrid, and onlv rendered eatable by the acid pickle. The true caper biids are eafdy dittinguinied by their fimple (Term. There is a double variety frequent in gardens ; but The flower in its fingle form is larger, and, as Dr. Smith fuftly obferves, to the admirer of genuine nature, much more btautiful. Its only advantage is that it is more du- rable. The juice of the petals, boiled with alum, flams paper yellow. A native of England and of all the northern pans of Europe, Afia, and America. 2. C. tiatdns, Willd. Foiret in Encyc. vol. v. p. 568. Gmel. Sibir. 4. p. 192. Tab. S2. " Stem procumbent, floating ; flowers fmallcr, white, red at the edge." Foiret. It agrees in general habit with the preceding fpecies, but is lefs in all its parts. .C/7/>- J'lilet triangular. Perennial. Found by Gmelin and Pallas in Siberia. .Caltha a/^wfl, Tabem.ic.3j6. Sec Arnica montona. Caltha, Burin. Zeyl. Tab. 22, fig. i. See Verbesina caltndulacea. Caltha nfuinalis. Scop. ; arvenfis, C. Bauh. ; minima, J. Bauh. See Calendula arvenfis. Caltha vulgaris, C. Bauh. See Calendula ojfumalis. Caltha mjW/;md, Tourn. intt. 499. See Calendula incana. C ii-T H K afr'tcana Jlore extus ferru{ineo, Morif. hid. j. Tab. 3. fig. 8. See Calendvla pluvialis. Caltha /emine majore obhn^o, Breyn. Tab. 14. fig. 2. See C A L E N D c L A hybrida. Cm.t » h fimine piano cordato, Boerhav. Lugd, See Ca- lendula nudisaidLs. Caltha J'ollis croci anguji'ts, Boerhav. Lugd. See Ca- lendula griiminiJlHa. CALTH.£, in Entomology, the fpecies of Chermes that feeds on the flowers of the caltha palullris, whence its name. Linn. Fn. Siiec. Obf. The antenna: are black at the tip ; thorax rufous with three black curves; wings white with ycllowirti veins, and a brown dot. CALTHELLA, a fpecies of Phal/ena, in the Ti- nea family, the anterior wings of which arc entirely golden ; and the head ferruginous. L'.nn. Fn. Suec. Frequent in Europe, on the flowers of caltha palullris. Its fize is fmall. This IS tinea rufimctalla of the Vienna catalogue. CALTIORISSA, in /Indent Geography, a town of Afia, in Lcfler Armenia, according to Ptolemy, marked in the Itinerary of Antonine on the route between Nicopolis and Satala. CALTROP, or Calthrop, in Military Language, an inftrumcnt with four iron points, each three or four inches long, difpofed triangularwife ; fo that there are always three points bearing on the earth, the fourth being in the C A I, air. Several of thefe, fixed in the ground, or llirown irita breaches where the cavalry is to pafs, flick into the Ixife* feet and cmbarrafs thtin. An iiillrument of this kind with three iron fpikes is ufed in Siberia, &c. in hunting the wolf. CALTROPS, in Botany. SeeTRiBULVS. Caltrops, -water. See Trapa. CALTURA, in Geography, a fortrefs of the iflaiid of Ceylon, at the mouth of a river, which is one of the larg- cft branches of the Muliwaddy, and is here about a mile broad. It wafhes two fides of the fort which commands it, and is navigable by boats to the fea. The eminence on which the fSit Hands overhangs the river, and commands an extenfive and moll pifturefque profpeft. This fort from its fituation is capable of being rendered a very llrong poll. The commanding officer prefides in the court of juftice, and de- termines all difputes among the peafants. The fca, the ef- planade, and the village on the outfide of the fort, as well as the beautiful furrounding country, render Caltuia a very delightful fecne. Some trails of cinnamon are fcattered up and down in the vicinity of it : and a little way foutii of it is the termination of that fertile di(lri£l of Columbo which contains fo great a proportion of the wealth of Ceylon. About 10 miles from Caltura is a temple of " Buddou," built on a flat fpace, cut out of a fmall hill. It is a fmali fquare building, conftrudled of brick, with a Hoping tiled roof, and a gallery furrounding it. In an apartment of this temple, the image of the deity, about 12 feet long, lay re- clining on his fide, with his right hand under his head : the place was illuminated with lamps, and flowers in abundance were fpread around. The walls were daubed with flreaks of red, black, and white paint ; and on them were marked fome Cinglefe charafters. Near the temple were a few huts for the prieils. The country about Caltura abounds with game, and certain native manufaftures are carried on to a confiderable extent arou'd it. A great quantity of arrack is made from the groves of cocoa trees, which extend fe- veral miles in every diredlion, forming from Columbo to Caltura, and fevcral miles beyond it, one continued grove. Here is alfo a large plantation of fugar-canes, and a diftiU lery of rum is carried on by fome Dutchmen, who refide in the village and neighbourhood ; but this rum is much in- ferior in quahty to that of the Well Indies. Six miles on- ward from Caltura lies " Barbareen," a fmall village, with a fort of harbour lormed by a projection of land where the ri» ver runs into the fea. This is almoll the only place where the high furf and rocky fliore on this coaft allow (hip-boats of European conllruftion to land. At Barbareen there is a confiderable manufaClory of cordage and cables from the cocoa-tree. Large quantities are fent from hence to Co- lumbo and Point de Gallc, to fupply the veffels which trade to thefe ports. A few miles further hes " Bentot," only- remarkable for producing the bell oyfters on the illand, and almoll the only fpecies ufed on the iiland as food. Caltura is dillant about 28 miles fiom Columbo. N. lat. 6^ 34'. E. long. 79° 50'. Percival's Ceylon. See Columbo and Point de Galle. CALVA Serpentis DiADEMA, in Tejlaceology, one of the fynonyms of Chiton Punctatus, £p]}. Nat. Cur. &c. Sec Punctatus. CALVADOS, in Geography, a ridge of rocks, near the coaft of France, 12 miles in length. N. lat. 49° 22'. W. long. 0° 51' to 0° 32'. Calvados, one of the five departments fo called from the long ridge of rocks above-mentioned, formed of Normandy and the north part of Perche. It is bounded on the nortli by the Channel ; on the eall by the department of Eure ; «n I C A L on the fouth by that of Ornc, and part of the department of the Channel, which alfo bounds it on the well. It ex- tends from the mouth of the Seine eaftt-rly, to the river Vire wefterly, about 50 miles, and ^o milts from north to fouth: its fuperl'icies is about 1,1 17,643 fquare acres, or 570,427 heftares : its population confills of about 484,212 perfons ; and it is divided into fi\ communal diftricts. Its capital is Caen. CALVARIA, or Calva, the fcalp, or upper part of the head ; fo called from its growing bald firfl. See Bald- ness. Tlie external parts of the calva are the fynciput, oc- ciput, vertex, and temples ; all inveiled with the hair, and the common integuments of the body. The calvaria in adults confifts of eight bones, one of the foreiiead, another of the occiput, two of the fynciput, two of the temples, and two others common alfo to the upper jaw, viz. the cuneiforme ■awA fpon^iofum. CALVART, Denis, in Biography, a painter of hif- tory and landlcape, was born at Antwerp in 1555. He began with painting landfcapes; but as he wifhcd to adorn them with human figures, he determined to feek improve- ment for this purpofe in Italy. In his way to Rome he {lopped at Bologna, vvb ire he became the difciple of Piof- C A L pero Fontana. Durino; his refidence in this city, !ie applied with diligence to the lYudy of his art, and copied the works of Correggio and Parmigiano. He then accompanied Lo- renzo Sabattini to Rome ; and perfected hiinfelf m defign, perfpedive, architefture and anatomy. From Rome he re- turned to Bologna, wlicrc he opened an academy, whicli was much frequented, and which produced, bcfides a num- ber of other e.\ctllcnt artills, GuiJo, Albano, and Do- menichino. He lived with his pupils on terms of eafy fami- liarity, and took great pains in improving them ; though his characlcr was degraded by padioii and avarice. His own works were fimple in their delign, correflly drawn, well difpofed, coloured in a grand llyle, and touched with freedom and elegance ; but they are not altogether frcff from a Gothic air, which lie brought from his own country. His principal performances are at Rome and Bologna ; in the latter place there is a fine pitture, rcprefenling two hermits, which is correftly defigned, beautifully coloured, and delicately pencilled ; and in tlie Pembroke collection at Wilton, there is a nativity painted by this mailer. Some of his works have been engraved. Calvart died at Bologna in 1619. D'Argenville. Pilkingto'i. BND OF VOL, V. Jfrahsn and rreftun, N««-£tKCt Sijuarc. LIST OF -PLATES, Vol. V. Part TI. AGRICULTURE, Plate VI. ARCHITECTURE, Plate IX. ■ , Plate X. , Plate XXXVIII. , Plate XLIII. , Plate LXIII. , Plate LXXIII. , Plate LXXV. , Plate LXXVIIL BARK BEDS AND PITS, Plate I. CHEMISTRT, Plate IX. | , Plate XX. INDIAN MUSICAL INSTRUMEATS, Plate I. ORNITHOLOGY, Plate III. , Plate IV. f I 4 IHl University of California ^™» SOUTHERN REGipi^lAL LIBRARY FACItrTY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles CA900-!4 uo Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. AE R25 1819 1«R1 D 000 342 596